University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Social Stratification In A Selected Community

(USC Thesis Other)

Social Stratification In A Selected Community

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Content This dissertation h ss b ssn
microfilmed exactly as received ® 7-17 ,6 85
MELHORN, Jacob Jack, 1921-
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN A SELECTED
COMMUNITY.
U niversity of Southern California, Ph.D,, 1967
Sociology, general
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
C op yrigh t (c) by
JA C O B JA C K M ELH O R N
1968
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN A SELECTED COMMUNITY
by
J a c o b J a c k M elhorn
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( S o c io lo g y )
J u n e 1967
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of hiSi....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
J&GQk..Ia£k.M£lhaxjx
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Dtan
Date Junea..1.967
COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
P age
LIST OF T A B L E S ....................................................................................................... l v
LIST OF IL L U S T R A T IO N S ................................................................................. v i
C hapter
I . THE P R O B L E M ....................................................................................... 1
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m
O p e r a t i o n a l D e f i n i t i o n s
I m p o r ta n c e o f t h e S tu d y
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e S tu d y
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...................................................... 8
C o n c e p t u a l W r i t i n g s
E m p i r i c a l S t u d i e s
Summary
I I I . THE METHODS USED IN THE S T U D Y ...................................... 45
T ech n iq u es
The F i e l d R e s e a r c h
Summary
IV . CITRUS C I T Y ....................................................................................... 59
G e o g r a p h i c a l F e a t u r e s
E c o l o g i c a l F e a t u r e s
P o p u l a t i o n
S o c i a l H i s t o r y
Summary
V. CONCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL CLASS IN CITRUS CITY . . 82
B a c k g ro u n d F a c t o r s
C o n c e p t io n s o f S o c i a l C l a s s
Summary
V I. STRATIFICATION IN CITRUS C I T Y ...................................... 107
A s s o c i a t l o n a l P a t t e r n s and S o c i a l C l a s s
Summary
i i
C h a p te r P age
V I I . SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . 163
The C o n c e p ts
The M ethods and T e c h n iq u e s
The E m p i r i c a l F i n d i n g s
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................... 175
APPENDICES................................................................ ■............................................. 197
APPENDIX A. THE CHURCH OF THE B R E T H R E N ........................ 199
APPENDIX B. THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR
CITRUS C I T Y ................................................................ 208
APPENDIX C. THE TWO-FACTOR INDEX OF
SOCIAL POSITION ...................................................... 2 l4
APPENDIX D. A LISTING OF THE FRIENDS AND
ASSOCIATES IN CLASSES AS
CHOSEN BY M A LES...................................................... 224
i l l
LIST OF TABLES
T a b le P age
1. P o p u l a t i o n G row th i n C i t r u s C i t y . . . . . . . 68
2. R a c i a l and N a t i o n a l C o m p o sitio n
o f C i t r u s C i t y , i 9 6 0 ........................................................... 70
3 . A C om parison o f t h e Age C o m p o sitio n
o f C i t r u s C i t y f o r 1940 and i 9 6 0 ,
and t h e Age C o m p o s itio n o f th e
U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r i 9 6 0 ...................................................... 71
4 . Number o f Y e a rs R e s p o n d e n ts Had
L iv e d a t P r e s e n t A d d re s s a s
Compared w i t h L a s s w e l l ’ s S tu d y ................................ 83
5 . Number o f Y e a r s R e s p o n d e n ts Had
L iv e d i n C i t r u s C i t y A r e a ........................................... 85
6 . A C om parison o f t h e Y e a rs o f S c h o o lin g
C o m p leted f o r R e s p o n d e n ts ,
C i t r u s C i t y C e n s u s , and
t h e U .S . C e n s u s ...................................................................... 87
7 . C o m parison o f P e r C e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n
o f F a m i l i e s , by Incom e f o r 1959
I n C i t r u s C i t y and th e U . S .............................................. 88
8 . A C o m parison o f Em ployed P e r s o n s by M ajor
O c c u p a tio n Group f o r C i t y S am ple, C i t r u s
C i t y C e n su s, and t h e U .S . C e n s u s ........................... 90
9 . A C o m parison o f t h e P e r C e n t o f E m ployees
I n t h e L a b o r F o rc e by I n d u s t r y f o r
C i t y S am ple, C i t r u s C i t y C e n su s,
and t h e U .S . C e n s u s ........................................................... 91
10. A C om p ariso n o f t h i s S tu d y w i t h th e
L a s s w e ll S tu d y on t h e Number o f
S o c i a l C l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y ................................ 93
11. S e l f - R a t i n g I n t h e S o c i a l C l a s s S ystem
o f C i t r u s C i t y ........................................................................... 95
1 2 . Terms Used by R e s p o n d e n ts to D e s c r ib e
t h e i r S o c i a l C l a B S ..................................................................... 102
I v
T a b le P age
13. Means f o r IS P C l a s s e s I n S e l e c t e d
C a t e g o r i e s ...................................................................................... 108
14. S e l f - R a t i n g s on t h e S o c i a l C l a s s S c a le by
IS P C a t e g o r i e s ........................................................................... 120
15. Terms U sed by R e s p o n d e n ts t o D e s c r ib e
t h e i r S o c i a l C l a s s a s C a t e g o r i z e d
by IS P C a t e g o r i e s ............................................... 121
1 6 . A C om p ariso n o f t h e Y e a r s o f S c h o o lin g
C o m p leted f o r R e s p o n d e n ts a s
C a t e g o r i z e d by I S P ................................................................ 123
17 . A C o m parison o f Em ployed P e r s o n s by
M ajor O c c u p a tio n Group a s
C a t e g o r i z e d by I S P ................................................................ 125
18 . A C om parison o f t h e P e r C en t o f
E m plo yees i n t h e L ab o r F o rc e
by I n d u s t r y a s C a t e g o r i z e d by I S P ...................... 127
19. A C om p ariso n by P e r C ent o f th e
P r i n c i p a l S o u rc e o f Incom e f o r
M ales a s C a t e g o r i z e d by I S P ...................................... 129
2 0 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f M em b ersh ips p e r F a m ily
i n F orm al O r g a n i z a t i o n s by IS P . . . . . . . 133
21 . A C om parison by P e r C ent o f t h e C hurch
A f f i l i a t i o n a s C a t e g o r i z e d by I S P ...................... 136
22. C h o ice o f C l o s e s t F r i e n d s o r C l o s e s t
A s s o c i a t e s i n E s t i m a t e d C l a s s e s by IS P , . . 150
2 3 . P e r s o n s Named to E ach S o c i a l C l a s s by
C i t r u s C i t y R e s p o n d e n ts i n P e r C ent . . . . 157
v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
F i g u r e Page
1. Age and Sex C o m p o s itio n o f C i t r u s C i t y - -
I 960 ............................................................................................................ 73
2. S o c i a l C l a s s A s s o c i a t i o n a l P a t t e r n s
i n th e C i t r u s C i t y S a m p l e ........................................................147
3 . C h o ic e o f A s s o c i a t e s by C l a s s I . ....................................152
v i
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
D u rin g t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s much h a s b e e n w r i t t e n
i n t h e f i e l d o f s o c i o l o g y a b o u t c l a s s , s t a t u s , a n d s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e c o n c e p t s h a v e b e e n d i s
c u s s e d fro m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , a s i n
t h e s t u d y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l s y s t e m s , a n d fro m t h e p o i n t o f
v ie w o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o r , a s i n t h e s t u d y o f B o c i a l i n t e r
a c t i o n and s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , s o c i a l
c l a s s e s may b e v ie w e d fro m a s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c
t i v e , a p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a c u l t u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e , an
a s s o c i a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d a d e m o g r a p h ic p e r s p e c t i v e .
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d i s c o v e r ( l ) t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e c r i t e r i a by m eans o f w h ic h s o c i a l c l a s s p l a c e
m en t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o p e r s o n s , ( 2 ) t h e d e g r e e o f c o n s i s t e n c y
i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n h e l d b y t h e
v a r i o u s m em bers o f a c o m m u n ity , a n d ( 3 ) t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p an d
a s s o c i a t i o n e x i s t i n g b e tw e e n t h e a s s i g n e d s o c i a l s t a t u s o f
a p e r s o n a n d some o f h i s g e n e r a l l y known o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s , s u c h a s h i s o c c u p a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , a n d r e s i d e n
t i a l a r e a .
1
2
O p e r a t i o n a l D e f i n i t i o n s
I n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , s o c i a l s t a t u s i s d e f i n e d a s
t h e p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a p e r s o n , a s o c i a l g r o u p , o r
a c a t e g o r y o f p e r s o n s t o o t h e r s . 1 The r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l b e
p e r c e i v e d w i t h r e g a r d t o a p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e , n o rm , o r o t h e r
r e f e r e n t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e f e r e n t i s n o t a lw a y s made e x p l i c i t .
The " o t h e r s " t o whom t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s p e r c e i v e d a r e u s u
a l l y s p e c i f i c o t h e r s , e v e n th o u g h t h e l i m i t e d a s s o c i a t i o n s
o f t h e p e r c e i v e r may l e a d him t o t h i n k he i s u s i n g some
g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e g r o u p . As a f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s
c o n c e p t , a n u m b e r o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a r e s u b m i t t e d :
1 . I t m u s t b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e a r e many p a r
t i c u l a r s t a t u s e s o r m u l t i p l e s t a t u s e s , b u t t h r o u g h o u t t h i s
s t u d y s o c i a l s t a t u s w i l l r e f e r t o a p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n t
w h ic h may b e o n l y o n e o f an i n d e f i n i t e n u m b er o f s t a t u s e s
I n v o l v i n g a p e r s o n , g r o u p , o r c a t e g o r y .
2
2 . S t a t u s e s may b e e i t h e r n o m in a l o r o r d e r e d .
O r d e r e d s t a t u s e s a r e t h o s e w h ic h I n d i c a t e a q u a n t i f i e d r e
f e r e n t ; e i t h e r I m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y , t h e r e i s r e f e r e n c e
t o s u p e r i o r o r I n f e r i o r , o r t h e i r c o m p a r a t i v e c a t e g o r i e s .
N o m in a l s t a t u s e s a r e n o t r a n k e d o r o r d e r e d e v e n t h o u g h t h e y
h a v e d e f i n i t e r e f e r e n t s . T h ey r e f e r t o c a t e g o r i e s I n a n o n -
q u a n t l t a t i v e m a n n e r .
1Thomas E . L a s s w e l l , C l a s s a n d S t r a t u m : An I n t r o d u c
t i o n t o C o n c e p t s a n d R e s e a r c h ( B o s t o n : H o u g h to n M i f f l i n C o . ,
1 9 6 5 ) , P . 4 3 .
2I b i d . , p . 4 4 .
3 . S o c i a l s t a t u s e s a r e s i t u a t i o n a l ; i . e . , t h e
s t a t u s o f a p e r s o n o f t e n v a r i e s w i t h c h a n g e s i n a c t u a l o r
p o t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s , e v e n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e same r e f e r
e n t .
4 . S t a t u s J u d g m e n ts can b e e x p e c t e d t o be a s c o n
s i s t e n t a s o t h e r c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a ; t h e d e g r e e o f u n i f o r m
's
i t y c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o v a r y . - '
A s o c i a l c l a s s i s o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d i n t h i s
s t u d y a s a c a t e g o r y o f com m unity m em bers t o whom c e r t a i n
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a t t r i b u t e d b y
o t h e r p e r s o n s i n t h e c o m m u n ity . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e
g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e fo rm o f c l a s s s t e r e o t y p e s .
A s t e r e o t y p e i s d e f i n e d a s an im a g e o r i d e a a b o u t
c l a s s e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p s , o r o b j e c t s w h ic h a r e " p e r
c e i v e d , " i . e . , r e s u l t i n g n o t fro m f r e s h a p p r a i s a l s o f e a c h
p h e n o m en o n , b u t fro m r o u t i n i z e d h a b i t B o f Ju d g m e n t a n d e x -
h
p e c t a t i o n . The p r e s e n c e o f c e r t a i n k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s
t h o u g h t to i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l l o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s i n t h a t p a t t e r n . A s t e r e o t y p e i s a b e l i e f w h ic h i s
n o t h e l d a s a h y p o t h e s i s b u t t r e s s e d b y e v i d e n c e b u t i s
• ^ I b id . , p . 6 7 .
J u l i u s G o u ld an d W i l l i a m L, K olb ( e d . ) , A D i c t i o n a r y
o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s (New Y o rk : The Free P r e s s o f G l e n c o e ,
1 9 6 4 ) , p . 6 9 4 .
^Emory S. B o g a r d u s , " S t e r e o t y p e s v s . S o c i o - t y p e s . "
S o c i o l o g y a n d S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIV ( M a r c h - A p r i l , 1 9 5 0)»
2 6 6 - 2 9 1 .
4
r a t h e r m is ta k e n i n w hole o r i n p a r t f o r an e s t a b l i s h e d
f a c t
Some q u a l i t i e s o f s o c i a l c l a s s a s d e f i n e d h e r e i n
a r e a s f o l l o w s :
1. C l a s s s t e r e o t y p e s I n c l u d e e x p e c te d b e h a v i o r s o f
c l a s s c o n s t i t u e n t s , a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r s o f o t h e r s to w a rd
o r i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f c l a s s c o n s t i t u e n t s , and r e s i d u a l
v a l u e s , c a p a b i l i t i e s , o r o t h e r q u a l i t i e s o f c l a s s c o n s t i t u
e n t s .
2 . C l a s s s t e r e o t y p e s may be p e r c e i v e d by a n y o n e .
3. C l a s s e s a r e u s u a l l y c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n a h i e r a r -
c h i a l a r r a n g e m e n t .
4 . C l a s s e s a r e v e r t i c a l l y d i s c o n t i n u o u s .
5 . The a s s o c i a t i o n o f p e r s o n s w i t h c l a s s s t e r e o
t y p e s i s b a s e d on i n d i v i d u a l o p i n i o n s , t h u s ,
6 . I t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e c l a s s s t a t u s o f an i n
d i v i d u a l to be c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
7 . The c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a c l a s s n e ed n o t be l n t e r -
7
a c t i o n a l w i t h one a n o t h e r .
S o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , a s u s e d I n t h i s s t u d y , i s
d e f i n e d a s any i d e a l c o n s t r u c t o f a s o c i e t y w h ic h d i s t i n
g u i s h e s c a t e g o r i e s o f p e r s o n s a s r e l a t i v e l y I n f e r i o r and
/r
G ould and K o lb , l o c . c i t .
^Thomas E ly L a s s w e l l , " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n I n a
S e l e c t e d Community" ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r t
m ent o f S o c i o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a ) , p . 5*
5
s u p e r i o r to one a n o t h e r .
I m p o r ta n c e o f t h e S tu d y
The phenom ena o f s o c i a l c la s B a r e a p a r t o f s o c i a l
l i f e and s o c i o l o g i s t s a r e on p r o p e r g ro u n d when t h e y i n
q u i r e i n t o t h e a r e a o f s o c i a l c l a s s . However, i t i s e v i
d e n t t h a t a d e f i n i t i v e c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l c l a s s i n t h e U n i t e d
StaJtes- to d a y n e e d s to be f o r m u l a t e d and s h o u ld be b a s e d on
a c a r e f u l s t u d y o f t h e e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t h av e
b e e n made i n t h i s a r e a , w i t h some t h o u g h t f u l r e f l e c t i o n on
how t h e y r e l a t e to e x i s t i n g s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s . A ls o ,
a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f r e f e r e n t s h a v e b e e n u s e d i n s t u d i e s o f
s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and some o f t h e s e a r e a s f o l l o w s :
am ount o f in co m e, c a s t e , s o c i a l c l a s s , r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a ,
i n f l u e n c e , ty p e o r c o n d i t i o n o f h o u s i n g , w e a l t h , i n t e l l i
g e n c e , y e a r s o f f o rm a l e d u c a t i o n , r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n ,
o c c u p a t i o n , m o ra l o r e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,
r a c e o r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n , p r e s t i g e , and t a s t e . Some d o u b ts
e x i s t a s to w h e th e r t h e c h o se n r e f e r e n t s a r e known to a l l
m embers o f t h e com m unity who i d e n t i f y t h e i r p o s s e s s o r s w ith
a s p e c i f i c s t a t u s o r c l a s s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e I m p o r t a n t to
d e t e r m i n e t h e b a s i s upon w hich c l a s s t r e a t m e n t s and b e h a v
i o r s a r e p r e s c r i b e d b y th o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e I n them .
6
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e S tu d y
The r e m a in d e r o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n was o r g a n i z e d
a lo n g th e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s .
C h a p te r I I , "R eview o f th e L i t e r a t u r e , " d i s c u s s e s
t h e c o n c e p t u a l w r i t i n g s and e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s o f s o c i a l
c l a s B , s o c i a l s t a t u s , and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . I t a l s o
i n c l u d e s t h e w o rk in g h y p o t h e s e s u s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f C i t r u s
C i t y .
C h a p te r I I I , "The M ethods Used I n t h e S t u d y , " d e
s c r i b e s th e t e c h n i q u e s , sa m p le , f i e l d r e s e a r c h , and g e n e r a l
m eth o d s em ployed i n t h e s t u d y .
C h a p te r IV, " C i t r u s C i t y , " c o n s i s t s o f a d e s c r i p
t i o n o f th e com m unity s e l e c t e d f o r t h e e m p i r i c a l s t u d y , t h e
p o p u l a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e s o c i a l b a c k g ro u n d o f
t h e I n h a b i t a n t s .
C h a p te r V, " C o n c e p tio n s o f S o c i a l C l a s s I n C i t r u s
C i t y , " d i s c u s s e s th e c o n c e p t i o n s o f s o c i a l c l a s s h e l d by
t h e r e s i d e n t s o f th e com m unity, w h ich i n c l u d e d : th e p a t t e r n s
o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , t h e num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s , th e
te rm s u s e d to d e s c r i b e s o c i a l c l a s s e s , b a c k g r o u n d f a c t o r s ,
and num erous c o m p a ris o n s b e tw e e n t h i s s tu d y and L a B s w e l l 's
s t u d y .
C h a p te r V I, " S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n C i t r u s C i t y , " d e
s c r i b e s t h e r e s e a r c h and f i n d i n g s o f a s t r a t i f i e d random
sam p le o f p e r s o n s In t h e com m unity a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r a s
s i g n e d s t a t u s r a n k s and a s s o c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r .
C h a p t e r V I I , "Summary and S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r
R e s e a r c h , " r e v i e w s t h e c o n c e p t s , t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d m e th o d s ,
t h e e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s , and s u g g e s t s some a r e a s f o r f u r t h e r
r e s e a r c h .
The B i b l i o g r a p h y l i s t s some o f th e m o st i m p o r t a n t
s t u d i e s i n c l a s s an d s t r a t u m w h ic h a r e r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .
The A p p e n d ic e s c o n t a i n a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f t h e
C h u rc h o f t h e B r e t h r e n , t h e i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e , t h e tw o -
f a c t o r i n d e x o f s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , an d s o c i a l c l a s s d a t a .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE
The s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s
may h e d i v i d e d i n t o w orks w h ic h a r e l a r g e l y c o n c e p t u a l an d
t h o s e w hich a r e l a r g e l y e m p i r i c a l . I n g e n e r a l , t h e c o n c e p
t u a l s t u d i e s c o n s i s t o f s p e c u l a t i v e s y s te m s w h ich h a v e n o t
b e en v e r i f i e d by r e p e a t e d c o n t r o l l e d o b s e r v a t i o n . The em
p i r i c a l s t u d i e s , on th e o t h e r h a n d , h a v e b e e n c o m p r is e d o f
r e p o r t s o f d i r e c t l y o b s e r v e d phenom ena b u t o f t e n l a c k a
d e m o n s tr a b le r e l a t i o n s h i p to any w i d e ly a c c e p t e d t h e o r e t i
c a l fram ew o rk .
The c o n c e p t u a l w r i t i n g s h a v e b e e n r e v ie w e d s e p a
r a t e l y from th e e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s . The f o r m e r h a v e b e en
a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e c o n c e p ts o f s t a t u s , c l a s s , and
s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e l a t t e r h av e b e e n a r r a n g e d
a c c o r d i n g to th e n a t u r e o f t h e p ro b le m u n d e r s t u d y .
C o n c e p tu a l W r i t i n g s
C o n c e p t u a l l y o r i e n t e d s t u d i e s h av e d e f i n e d s o c i a l
s t a t u s a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) a f u n c t i o n o f p r e s t i g e o r e s te e m ,
( 2 ) a b y - p r o d u c t o f econom ic b e h a v i o r , ( 3 ) a c a t e g o r y o f
B o c ia l p r i v i l e g e s and o b l i g a t i o n s , (4) an Im p u te d a t t i t u d e ,
8
9
and ( 5 ) a g e n e r a l l y g r a d i e n t , r a n k , p o s i t i o n , o r s t a n d i n g . 1
Some a u t h o r s d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n t y p e s o f s t a t u s a s W eber
h a s done i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f " C l a s s S t a t u s " and " S o c i a l
S t a t u s . " W hile o t h e r s p r e s e n t a u n i q u e d e f i n i t i o n o f
s t a t u s and d e a l w i t h r e l a t e d c o n c e p t s and o t h e r t e r m s ,
" S t a t u s , " " S t a t i o n , " " O f f i c e , " and " P o s i t i o n " a s D a v is ^ h a s
d e f i n e d them , h a v e e a c h b e e n c a l l e d " S t a t u s " o r " S o c i a l
S t a t u s " by a t l e a s t one o f t h e o t h e r w r i t e r s whose w orks
have b e e n r e v i e w e d .
I n some i n s t a n c e s , s t a t u s h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
s u b s t a n t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i n o t h e r I n s t a n c e s w ith
im p u te d a t t i t u d e s . F o r e x a m p le , W eber d e f i n e s c l a s s s t a t u s
a s " t h e t y p i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a g iv e n s t a t e o f (a) p r o
v i s i o n w i t h g o o d s , (b) e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s , and (c ) s u b j e c
t i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n o r f r u s t r a t i o n w i l l be p o s s e s s e d by an
A t y p i c a l exam ple o f e a c h o f t h e c o n c e p t s r e v ie w e d
may be fo u n d i n th e f o l l o w i n g : Max W eber, The T h eo ry o f
S o c i a l and Econom ic O r g a n i z a t i o n , t r a n s . b y A. M. H e n d erso n
and T a l c o t t P a r s o n s (New Y ork: O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 9 4 7 ) ; R a lp h L i n t o n , The S tu d y o f Man: An I n t r o d u c t i o n
(New Y ork: D. A p p l e to n - C e n tu r y C o ., I n c . , 1 9 3 7 ); G eorge A.
L u n d b e rg , F o u n d a t i o n s o f S o c i o lo g y (New Y ork: The M a cm illa n
C o ., 1939)1 K in g s le y D a v is , "A C o n c e p tu a l A n a l y s i s o f S t r a t
i f i c a t i o n , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , V I I ( J u n e , 1 9 4 2 ),
3 0 9 -3 2 1 ] E. T. M i l l e r , S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s and S t r u c t u r e s : A
S tu d y i n P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o lo g y (New Y ork: H a r p e r 8s B r o s . ,
1 9 4 7 )] A l f r e d McClung Lee and O s c a r W e sle y , " S o c i a l S t a t u s , "
D i c t i o n a r y o f S o c i o l o g y , e d . H enry P r a t t F a i r c h i l d (New
Y ork: P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 1 9 4 4 ); N e ls A n d e rs o n , " S t a t u s , "
i b i d . ; and Edw ard B yron R e u t e r , Handbook o f S o c i o lo g y (New
Y o rk : The D ryden P r e s s , 19 4l ) .
S j e b e r , o p . c l t . , p p . 4 2 4 , 4 2 8 .
^ D a v is , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 0 9- 3 1 0.
10
I n d i v i d u a l o r a g r o u p , w h i l e L u ndb erg s a y s : "The s o c i e t a l
p o s i t i o n o f s t a t u s o f an yone i n a s i t u a t i o n i s , t h e n , m e re ly
th e s t a t i c a s p e c t o f h i s b e h a v i o r [ f u n c t i o n ] i n t h a t s i t u a
t i o n , o r more e s p e c i a l l y , th e g r o u p 's a p p r a i s a l o f t h a t
f u n c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o th e s t a n d a r d s w hich a r e a c c e p t e d by
t h e g ro u p ." '*
8 7 8
D a v is , H i l l e r , and L i n t o n , p r e s e n t t h e c o n c e p t
q
o f s t a t u s a s a r a n k o r p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y . L un dberg^ d e
f i n e s i t a s a c o n d i t i o n to be r a n k e d .
Prom t h e l i t e r a t u r e n itfe d t o t h i s p o i n t , i t can be
s e e n t h a t t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t on t h e m eaning o f
t h e te r m " s o c i a l s t a t u s . "
The c o n c e p t u a l w o rk s w hich have c o n c e rn e d th e m s e lv e s
w i t h t h e m eaning o f " s o c i a l c l a s s " d e m o n s tr a te a s i m i l a r
l a c k o f a g re e m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t to a num ber o f fu n d a m e n ta l
e l e m e n t s .
\ f e b e r , o p . c i t . , p . 4 2 4 .
^ L u n d b e rg , o p . c i t . , p . 312.
D a v is , l o c . c i t .
^ H i l l e r , o p . c i t . , p . 330.
o
L i n t o n , o p . c i t . , p . 113*
^ L u n d b e rg , l o c . c i t .
10C f. T h o r s t e i n V e b le n , The T h eo ry o f t h e L e i s u r e
C l a s s : An Econom ic S tu d y o f I n s t i t u t i o n s (New Y ork: V an
g u a rd P r e s s , 1 9 2 3 ); F. S t u a r t C h a p in , "TTlass S t r u c t u r e , "
D i c t i o n a r y o f S o c i o l o g y ; W illia m C e c i l H e a d r i c k , " S o c i a l
C l a s s , " i b i d . ; W eber, o p . c i t . ; H. H. G e r th and C. W rig h t
M i l l s ( e d . ) , From Max W eber: E s s a y s i n S o c io lo g y (New Y ork:
11
The f i r s t e le m e n t I s c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e o r g a n i z a
t i o n a l n a t u r e o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s . T h ese c l a s s e s a r e c o n
c e i v e d a s i n t e r a c t i v e u n i t s , p r o v i d i n g a fram ew ork f o r com
m unal a c t i o n . A ls o , t h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d a s d e s c r i p t i v e c a t e
g o r i c a l u n i t s w hich p r o v i d e no d e f i n e d m o tiv e s f o r g ro u p
a c t i o n s to w a rd o t h e r c l a s s e s o r c o n s t i t u e n t s o f c l a s s e s . " ^
The se c o n d e le m e n t i s t h e te m p o r a l d u r a t i o n o f s o
c i a l c l a s s e s o r i n d i v i d u a l c l a s s a s s i g n m e n t s . They a r e
v a r i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d a s s t a b l e , c o m p a r a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t,
p e r s i s t e n t , o r p e r m i s s i v e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e m o b i l i t y .
The t h i r d e le m e n t d e a l s w i t h t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s o f
c l a s s b o u n d a r i e s . C l a s s e s a r e t h o u g h t o f a s r i g o r o u s l y d i s
t i n g u i s h e d s t r a t a , s e p a r a t e d by some d e g r e e o f s o c i a l d i s
t a n c e a s d i s c r e t e s t r a t a i n j u x t a p o s i t i o n a lo n g a c o n tin u u m ,
and a s c o n s t i t u e n c i e s o f d e v i a n t s from t y p o l o g i c a l i d e a l s ,
O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 6 ); H i l l e r , o p . c i t . ; T a l c o t t
P a r s o n s , E s s a y s i n S o c i o l o g i c a l T h eo ry P u re and A p p lie d
( G le n c o e , 1 1 1 .: The F r e e P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 9 ) ; C h a r l e s H. C o o le y ,
R. C. A n g e l l , and L. J . C a r r , I n t r o d u c t o r y S o c io lo g y (New
Y ork: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1 9 3 3) > A. W. K o r n h o u s e r,
" A n a l y s i s o f C l a s s S t r u c t u r e o f C o n te m p o ra ry A m erican S o c i
e t y , " I n d u s t r i a l C o n f l i c t , e d . G eorge W. H artm ann and T heo
d o re Newcomb (New Y o rk : The Condon C o ., 1 9 3 9) ; T. H. Mar
s h a l l , " S o c i a l C la s s - - A P r e l i m i n a r y A n a l y s i s , " The S o c i o l o g
i c a l R e v ie w , XXVI ( J a n u a r y , 193^)> 5 5 -7 0 ; G eorge S im pson ,
" C l a s s A n a l y s i s : What C l a s s I s N o t ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l
R e v ie w , IV (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 9) > 8 2 7- 8 3 5; M ilto n M. G ordon,
" S o c i a l C l a s s i n A m erican S o c i o l o g y , A m erican J o u r n a l o f
S o c i o l o g y , LV (N ovem ber, 19^9 ) > 2 5 2- 268'] C. W rig h t M i l l s ,
W hite C o l l a r : The A m erican M idd le C l a s s e s (New Y ork: O xford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 1); P a u l M om bert, ""C lass," E n c y c lo p a e
d i a o f t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , I I I ( 193^ e d . ) , 5 3 1- 5 3 6; and
C e c i l C. N o r th , " S o c i a l C l a s s e s , " S o c i a l C o n t r o l , e d .
J o s e p h S. R oucek (New Y o rk : D. Van N o s tr a n d C o ., I n c . , 19^7)*
■ ^ L a s s w e ll, " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . ," p p . 1 1 -1 3 .
12
so t h a t t h e f o c u s i s upon t h e p o i n t s o f a c c u m u l a t i o n r a t h e r
t h a n upon t h e p o i n t s o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y .
The f o u r t h e le m e n t i s c o m p ris e d o f t h e b a s e s f o r
c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s . Some o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a fo u n d
i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e w e re : k i n s h i p , o c c u p a t i o n a l , e c o n o m ic ,
o r s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a t t r i b u t e s ; e q u a l i t y o r s i m i l a r i t y o f
s t a t u s , s t a n d i n g , r a n k , o r s o c i a l l e v e l ; e v a l u a t i o n o f l i f e
c h a n c e s , s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s ; and t r e a t m e n t .
The f i n a l e le m e n t c o n s i s t s o f t h e c l a s s a s s i g n m e n t s .
P o u r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s w ere fo u n d : ( l ) c l a s s i s
r e s i d u a l w i t h i n t h e p e r s o n and i s o b s e r v e d and i n t e r p r e t e d
b y h i s f e l l o w s , ( 2 ) c l a s s m em bership i s g a i n e d t h r o u g h a c
c e p t a n c e by e x i s t i n g c l a s s m em bers, and may b e l o s t th r o u g h
t h e i r d i s a p p r o v a l . P e r s o n s m u st be a d m i t t e d to m em bership
b y a l l b u t t h e l o w e s t c l a s s , w h ic h i s c o m p r is e d o f i n d i v i d
u a l s who a r e n o t a c c e p t a b l e to any o f t h e s u p e r i o r c l a s s e s ,
( 3 ) c l a s s i s r e c o g n i z e d o r a s s i g n e d e x t e r n a l l y , b u t m u st be
c o n f ir m e d b y th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s a c c e p t a n c e o f h i s c l a s s a s
s ig n m e n t, (4) c l a s s i s r e s i d u a l w i t h i n t h e p e r s o n and i s
i n t e r p r e t e d to him by h i s f e l l o w s .
More a g re e m e n t was fo u n d i n t h e m eaning o f s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t h a n was fo u n d i n s o c i a l s t a t u s o r s o c i a l
c l a s s . A lth o u g h w r i t e r s d i s a g r e e d a s to t h e a c c o m p l i s h
m en ts o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , a s w e l l a s to t h e m anner i n
w h ich i t i s a c h i e v e d , i t was g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s an i d e a l c o n s t r u c t o f a s o c i e t y w h ich
d i s t i n g u i s h e s a num ber o f c a t e g o r i e s o f p e r s o n s a s r e l a -
12
t i v e l y s u p e r i o r and i n f e r i o r to one a n o t h e r .
E m p i r i c a l S t u d i e s
E m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s o f s o c i a l c l a s s and s o c i a l s t r a t i
f i c a t i o n may be g ro u p e d i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s . F i r s t , n o rm a
t i v e - a m e l i o r a t i v e s t u d i e s w h ich h a v e a t t e m p t e d to r e l a t e
c l a s s and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s t o s o c i a l p r o b le m s w i t h
t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e o f a m e l i o r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s .
S e c o n d , e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , w h ich a s s o c i a t e s o c i a l
c l a s s and s o c i a l s t a t u s w i t h t h e s p a t i a l and te m p o r a l d i s
t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , i n s t i t u t i o n s , s e r v i c e s , and
r e s o u r c e s o f th e com m unity. T hese f i r s t two c a t e g o r i e s
assum e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s and e n d e a v o r to e s
t a b l i s h a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n c l a s s m em bership an d o t h e r
s o c i a l o r n a t u r a l phenom ena.
The t h i r d and f o u r t h c a t e g o r i e s a r e f o c u s e d more
d i r e c t l y on i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l and f u n c t i o n a l
a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l c l a s s and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . The
t h i r d c a t e g o r y , w h ic h draw s h e a v i l y upon t h e m ethod d e -
F o r e x a m p le , s e e P i t i r i m S o r o k i n , S o c i a l M o b i l i t y
(New Y ork: H a r p e r & B r o s . , 1 9 2 7 ); P a r s o n , o p . c i t . ; H a rry
E lm er B a r n e s and O reen M. R u e d i, The A m erican Way o f L i f e :
An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e S tu d y o f C o n tem p o rary S o c i e t y (New
Y o rk : P r e n t i c e H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 5 0 ): M i l l s , o p . c i t . j D a v i s ,
o p . c i t . ; F a i r c h i l d , o p . c i t . ; and Hans S p e i e r , " S o c i a l
S t r a t i f i c a t i o n In t h e U rban C om m unity," A m erican S o c i o l o g i
c a l R eview , I ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 6 ), 1 9 3 -2 0 2 .
14
v e lo p e d by s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , I s com posed o f s t u d i e s
o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n itie s . The
f o u r t h c a t e g o r y c o n s i s t s o f g e n e r a l s t u d i e s o r i e n t e d to w a rd
t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p r i n c i p l e s o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a p p l y i n g to
e x te n d e d B o c ia l g r o u p s s u c h a s n a t i o n a l g r o u p s , o r even
c i v i l i z a t i o n s .
N o r m a t i v e - a m e l i o r a t i v e s t u d i e s o f s o c i a l c l a s s a r e
e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c te d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
C h ica g o and C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y b e f o r e 1915. T hese s t u d i e s
c o n s i s t o f t h e d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s and
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e d e s c r i b e d c o n d i t i o n s w ith s o c i a l o r
econo m ic d a t a , a c c o m p a n ie d by s p e c u l a t i o n a s to t h e c a u s a
t i v e n a t u r e o f one o r t h e o t h e r .
An e x h a u s t i v e r e p o r t o f s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s begun i n
London i n 1 8 9 2 , s u g g e s t e d t e c h n i q u e s by w h ich s o c i a l phenom
e n a m ig h t be B tu d ie d a f t e r th e m anner o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i -
1*3
e n c e s ; t h a t i s , by th e q u a n t i t a t i v e l o g i c o f m a t h e m a ti c s .
T h ro u g h t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a r e l a t i n g to i n
come, h o u s i n g , em ploym ent, c h u rc h m em b ersh ip , and s i m i l a r
s u b s t a n t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p e r s o n s , i t became p o s s i b l e
t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n th e "good" l i f e o f a p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s
and t h e "bad" l i f e o f an u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s . The a s s o c i
a t i o n and modes o f l i f e w i t h q u a n t i t i e s o f p o p u l a t i o n i n t r o -
■ ^ C h a rle s B o o th , e t a l . , L i f e and L ab o r o f t h e P e o p le
i n London (New Y ork: The M a cm illa n C o ., 1 9 0 3 ), f i r s t s e r i e s ,
P o v e r t y , 4 v o lu m e s; s e c o n d s e r i e s , I n d u s t r y , 5 v o lu m e s;
t h i r d s e r i e s , R e l i g i o u s I n f l u e n c e , 7 v o lu m e s.
15
d u c ed a p e r s p e c t i v e o f p o v e r t y and d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n w hich may
h a v e e s c a p e d e a r l i e r s t u d e n t s . S o c i o l o g i s t s becam e c o n
c e r n e d w i t h th e " p ro b le m s " o f s o c i e t y , w i t h c o r r u p t i o n and
g r a f t , p o v e r t y an d d e p e n d e n c y , and v iew ed w i t h a la r m t h e r e
s u l t i n g v i c e s g e n e r a t e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l l e v e l s o f l i v i n g
i n C h icag o and o t h e r c i t i e s .
Out o f th e c o n c e rn f o r th e " p ro b le m s " o f s o c i e t y
came th e s o c i a l s u r v e y w hich was an i n v e n t o r y o f t h e a s s e t s
and l i a b i l i t i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n itie s o r sub-com m u ni
t i e s . By l o o s e l y i d e n t i f y i n g a " k in d o f p e o p le " w i t h a
mode o f l i f e , a b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e e m p i r i c a l s t u d y o f s o c i a l
14
c l a s s and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d .
The e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a r e e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e w orks
o f G a lp in and Z o rb a u g h . G a lp in p u b l i s h e d a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r
t a t i o n i n w hich he r e p o r t e d t h e f u n c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f com
m u n ity and i n te r c o m m u n ity r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s e x p r e s s e d i n th e
15
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e m a jo r s e r v i c e a g e n c i e s . ^ U sin g a g e o -
14
A num ber o f d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s w ere w r i t t e n i n
t h i s a r e a , among them C h a r l e s J . B u s h n e l l , " S o c i a l A s p e c ts
o f th e C h icag o S to c k Y a r d s , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y ,
V I I (S e p te m b e r, 1901 t o M arch, 1902, I n c . ) , 1 4 5 -1 7 0 , 2 8 9 -
300, 4 3 3 -4 7 4 j 6 8 7 -7 0 2 ; Jo h n M. G i l l e t t e , C u l t u r e A g e n c ie s
o f a T y p i c a l M a n u f a c tu r in g G roup; S o u th C h ica g o (C h ic a g o ;
U n i v e r s i t y o f C h icag o P r e s s , 1 9 0 1 ); Jam es M ieke1 W i l l i a m s ,
An A m erican Town ( W a t e r v i l l e , New Y o rk : R. W. W i l l i a m s ,
1 9 0 6 ); W arren W ils o n , Q uaker H i l l : A S o c i o l o g i c a l S tu d y
(New Y o rk : The C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 190771 and N e w e ll
L e ro y Sim s, "A H o o s ie r V i l l a g e , " S t u d i e s i n H i s t o r y , E co n o -
m ic s and P u b l i c Law, XLVI (New Y ork: C olu m bia U n i v e r s i t y ,
1912).
^ C h a r l e s J . G a l p in , The S o c i a l Anatomy o f an A g r i c u l
t u r a l Community, R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n No. 34 (M ad ison : A g ric u T -
t u r a l E x p e rim e n t S t a t i o n o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W is c o n s in ,
May, 1915)* 34 p p .
1 6
g r a p h i c b a s e , he d e te r m i n e d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n s o f
i n f l u e n c e f o r t h e v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s , a s t h e y r e a c h e d o u t from
t h e v i l l a g e c e n t e r s t o t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a s . In a d d i t i o n ,
he a n a l y z e d t h e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l s y m b i o s i s c a r d o g r a p h l c a l l y .
G a l p i n ' s w ork p r o v i d e d new t e c h n i q u e s f o r a n a l y z i n g
s o c i a l c l a s s and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . The m o st i m p o r t a n t
work on s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n to be b a s e d p r i n c i p a l l y on
t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s was Z o r b a u g h 's , The G old C o a s t and th e
Slum , a c o m p a ris o n o f two c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r g e n t a r e a s o f
C h ic a g o . S i m i l a r e c o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s h a v e b e e n u s e d by
17
l a t e r s t u d i e s ; su c h a s , W a r n e r 's S o c i a l C l a s s i n A m e ric a .
The t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s , p r i m a r i l y
t h a t o f s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , i s c o m p ris e d o f s t u d i e s d e
s c r i p t i v e o f s o c i a l c l a s s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
p r o c e s s e s , and s o c i a l l i f e I n g e n e r a l i n a p a r t i c u l a r com
m u n it y . The m ethod c o n s i s t s o f an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e
c o n s t i t u e n c i e s and l i m i t s o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n a s e l e c t e d
com m unity, w i t h a s u b s e q u e n t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e b e h a v i o r s ,
p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and p o s s e s s i o n s o f t h o s e c o n s t i t u
e n c i e s .
O u t s t a n d i n g among t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s i s th e
^ H a r v e y W. Z o rb a u g h , The Gold C o a s t and th e Slum
(C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o P r e s s , 1 9 2 9 ), 287 pp .
17
1W. L lo y d W a rn e r, M a rc h ia M eeker, and K en neth E e l l s ,
S o c i a l C l a s s i n A m e ric a: A Manual o f P r o c e d u r e f o r th e M eas-
u r e m e n t o f S o c i a l S t a t u s (New Y ork: H a r p e r & B r o s . ,
1 9 5 0 ), 274 p p .
18
w ork o f t h e L y nds, M id d le to w n , c o m p le te d I n 1925, and
IQ
M iddletow n I n T r a n s i t i o n c o m p le te d I n 1937. The Lynds
g a t h e r e d t h e i r d a t a f i r s t - h a n d , u s i n g I n t e r v i e w and p a r t i c i -
p a n t - o b s e r v e r t e c h n i q u e s . A lth o u g h t h e I n i t i a l sc o p e o f
t h e s t u d y was b r o a d , th e Lynds ad d ed a n o t h e r d im e n s io n to
i t by r e t u r n i n g t o M id d leto w n an d r e s t u d y i n g t h e same p r o b
lem s a t a l a t e r d a t e . The b a s i c p r o b le m s d e a l t w i t h i n Mid
d le to w n w ere a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e
m e n ts and b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s o f a t y p i c a l A m eri
can com m unity, ( 2 ) t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y i n su c h a
c om m unity, and ( 3 ) th e n a t u r e o f c u l t u r a l c h an g e i n su c h a
c o m m u n ity .
The Lynds d e v e lo p e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e w ere a num
b e r o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r h o r i z o n t a l l e v e l s o f s t r a t i f i c a
t i o n . The p r o c e s s o f m a i n t a i n i n g o r a c h i e v i n g a s o c i a l
l e v e l b y a r e s i d e n t i n v o l v e d h i s a d o p t i o n o f , o r a d h e r e n c e
t o , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d a m e n i t i e s o f t h a t l e v e l . A c h ie v e
m ent o f a h i g h l e v e l was e n v y a b le b e c a u s e i t g av e an i n
d i v i d u a l s o c i a l p r e f e r m e n t and p o w e r.
A n o th e r i m p o r t a n t s t u d y i n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e
g o r y was A l b e r t B l u m e n t h a l 1s , A S o c i o l o g i c a l S tu d y o f a
lfi
R o b e r t Lynd and H e len Lynd, M id d le to w n , A S tu d y i n
C o n te m p o ra ry A m erican C u l t u r e (New Y o rk : H a r c o u r t , B ra c e
a n d C o ., 1 9 1 9 ) , 550 p p .
IQ
^ R o b e rt Lynd and H elen Lynd, M id d leto w n i n T r a n s i
t i o n : A S tu d y i n C u l t u r a l C o n f l i c t s (New Y ork: H a r c o u r t ,
B ra c e and C o ., 1 9 3 7 ), 6o4 PP.
18
S m a ll Town. ^ " M i n e v i l l e , " a town o f 1 ,^ 1 0 i n h a b i t a n t s , l o
c a t e d i n t h e Rocky M o u n ta in s , f o r t y - f i v e m i l e s w e s t o f th e
c o n t i n e n t a l d i v i d e , was s t u d i e d to d i s c o v e r t h e t r a i t s com
mon to a l l ( s m a l l tow ns) w h ich h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d i n com
mon p a r l a n c e by t h e te r m T 's m a l l- t o w n s t u f f . " B lu m e n ta l r e c
o g n i z e d t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , b u t c o n c lu d e d
t h a t i t was so i n f o r m a l , u n s t a b l e , and i n t a n g i b l e a s a lm o s t
t o d e f y a c c u r a t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
A n o th e r s t u d y i n t h i s c a t e g o r y was D o l l a r d ' s , C a s te
21
and C l a s s i n a S o u t h e r n Town, i n w h ic h i n t e r v i e w and c a s e
s t u d y t e c h n i q u e s w ere e m p lo y e d . I n t h i s s t u d y t h e a u t h o r
was more c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e im p a c t o f t h e c a s t e - c l a s s r e
l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e N egro p e r s o n a l i t y t h a n he was on t h e s t u d y
o f c l a s s s t r u c t u r e p e r s e . I t I s n o te w o r t h y t h a t t h e em
p h a s i s i n t h i s an d many s u b s e q u e n t s o c i a l c l a s s and s t r a t i
f i c a t i o n s t u d i e s was on s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g y r a t h e r th a n on
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a s was th e c a s e w i t h e a r l i e r s t u d i e s .
One o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t s t u d i e s i n t h e c a t e g o r y
o f s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y was a s o c i o m e t r i c s t u d y o f a V erm ont
v i l l a g e w hich d e l i n e a t e d l i n e s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n i n a g ro u p
22
o r com m unity a s r e p o r t e d by G eorge A. L u n d b e rg . " A t t r a c -
20
A l b e r t B l u m e n t h a l , A S o c i o l o g i c a l S tu d y o f a S m a ll
Town (C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o 7 1 9 3 2), 416 pp .
21
Jo h n D o l l a r d , C a s te and C l a s s i n a S o u th e r n Town
(New H aven: Y a le U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , T9WTY7~502~p^.
22
G eorge A. L u n d b e rg , " A t t r a c t i o n P a t t e r n s i n a V i l
l a g e , " So d o m e t r y , I ( A p r i l , 1938) > 375-419*
19 -
t l o n P a t t e r n s i n a V i l l a g e , " c o n d u c te d i n t h e f a l l o f 193&*
a s a r e s u l t o f a h o u s e - t o - h o u s e c a n v a s s , a s k e d p e o p le to
name t h e i r f r i e n d s o r c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s a n d , so m e tim e s , t h e i r
e n e m ie s o r n o n - a s s o c i a t e s . T hese d a t a u s u a l l y showed t h a t
i n a g i v e n g r o u p a few p e r s o n s r e c e i v e m ost o f t h e f r i e n d
s h i p c h o i c e s , w h i l e some o t h e r p e r s o n s r e c e i v e few c h o i c e s
o r none a t a l l . J
I n t h i s s t u d y t h e f o l l o w i n g se v e n i n d i c e s , c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e members o f e a c h c o n s t e l l a
t i o n w ere d e t e r m i n e d :
1. S o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s a c c o r d i n g to t h e C h ap in s c a l e .
2. C u l t u r a l c o n t e n t o f p e r i o d i c a l s t a k e n , a c c o r d i n g
to th e M organ-L eahy s c a l e .
3. O c c u p a tio n s o f h u s b a n d s i n t h e c a s e o f G oodenough-
A n d erso n g r o u p i n g ,
4 . R e l a t i o n s h i p by b l o o d o r m a r r i a g e (up to an d
I n c l u d i n g f i r s t c o u s i n ) .
5. C hurch m em b ersh ip .
6 . C lub m em b ersh ip .
24
7 . G e o g ra p h ic l o c a t i o n .
A summary o f t h e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s w hich a p p e a r to
b e w a r r a n t e d from an a n a l y s i s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e a s f o l l o w s :
( l ) t h e r e i s a te n d e n c y f o r c h o i c e s o f f r i e n d s to c l u s t e r In
“ ^ G e o r g e A. L u nd berg and Mary S t e e l e , " A t t r a c t i o n
P a t t e r n s i n a V i l l a g e , " e d . R o b e r t W. O 'B r i e n , e t a l . ,
R e a d in g s I n G e n e r a l S o c io lo g y (B o s to n : H oughton M i f f l i n C o .,
1 9 b 4 ) , p p . 2 9 7 -3 0 4 .
oh
I b i d . , p . 2 98.
20
t h e c l a s s e s n e a r e s t t o t h a t o f t h e c h o o s e r , b u t skew ed I n
t h i s m e d ia n g r o u p t o w a r d t h e s i d e o f r i s i n g s c o r e s , ( 2 ) r e l
a t i v e s c a n n o t b e s a i d t o d o m in a te t h e g r o u p i n g s i n t h i s v i l
l a g e , ( 3 ) c h u r c h m e m b e rs h ip i n a common c h u r c h i s o n e o f t h e
c l e a r e s t f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e g r o u p i n g s , a n d h i g h
p e r c e n t a g e o f c h u r c h m e m b e rs h ip i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
25
s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s .
A n o t h e r s t u d y i n t h e s o c i a l - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e
g o r y w as made b y A n d e r s o n ; We A m e r ic a n s : A S tu d y o f C le v a g e
26
i n an A m e ric a n C i t y . T h i s was a r e s u l t o f a s t u d y made
u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e E u g e n i c s S u r v e y o f V e rm o n t. H er
s t u d y o f B u r l i n g t o n , V e rm o n t, w as b e g u n w i t h i n f o r m a l d i s
c u s s i o n s w i t h l e a d e r s o f t h e s e v e r a l e t h n i c g r o u p s i n t h e
c o m m u n ity . On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s a q u e s t i o n n a i r e
was p r e p a r e d a n d p r e s e n t e d t o 45 9 w o r k i n g - c l a s s an d b u s i
n e s s - c l a s s p e r s o n s a s J u d g e d fro m a b i o g r a p h i c a l s u r v e y o f
4 ,4 7 7 h o u s e h o l d s . 27 The p e r s o n s t o b e i n t e r v i e w e d w e re s e
l e c t e d so a s t o h a v e a f a i r s a m p li n g fro m e v e r y p a r t o f t h e
c i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e g r e a t e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e c h o s e n w e re
fro m t h o s e s e c t i o n s o f t h e c i t y i n w h ic h e a c h e t h n i c g r o u p
h a d t h e l a r g e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . B a s i c a l l y , t h i s w as t h e
2 5I b i d . , p . 3 0 3 .
E l i n L. A n d e r s o n , We A m e ric a n s ; A S tu d y o f C le v a g e
i n an A m e ric a n C i t y ( C a m b rid g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
19 3b ) , 2b6 p p .
2 7I b l d . , p p . 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 .
21
t e c h n i q u e o f s t r a t i f i e d s a m p li n g ; and I t w as t h e u s e o f t h i s
t e c h n i q u e t h a t becam e h e r m ain c o n t r i b u t i o n t o f u t u r e commu
n i t y s t u d i e s .
A m a j o r f e a t u r e o f H o r t e n s e P o w d e rm a k e r' s book.,
pQ
A f t e r F re e d o m , was t h e e x p r e s s e d a s s u m p t io n o f a f i x e d
num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n a c om m u nity. She p o s t u l a t e d
t h a t t h e r e w ere t h r e e s o c i a l c l a s s e s : u p p e r , m id d l e , and
l o w e r . The g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n and r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s
u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e s i m i l a r to t h o s e u s e d by Do H a r d i n
C a s t e and C l a s s i n a S o u t h e r n Town.
I n c l u d e d i n t h e s o c i a l - a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y o f
t h i s c h a p t e r i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o st w i d e l y known m u l t i p l e -
f a c t o r i n d e x o f s o c i a l c l a s s d e v e l o p e d by W. L lo y d W arn er
an d v a r i o u s a s s o c i a t e s w h ich i s r e p o r t e d i n t h e Y ankee C i t y
2Q
S e r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Volume I . ^ T h is s t u d y c o n s i s t s o f
a d e t a i l e d r e p o r t on t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f N e w b u ry p o rt, M a ss a
c h u s e t t s . F o r t h i s s t u d y , W arn er d i v i d e d t h e com m unity
i n t o s i x s o c i a l c l a s s e s : u p p e r - u p p e r , l o w e r - u p p e r , u p p e r -
m i d d l e , l o w e r - m i d d l e , u p p e r - l o w e r , and l o w e r - l o w e r .
To d e t e r m i n e t h e c l a s s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e c i t i z e n s ,
W arn er u s e d t h e d e v i c e o f E v a l u a t e d P a r t i c i p a t i o n ( E P ) .
pQ
H o r t e n s e P o w derm ak er, A f t e r Freedom : A C u l t u r a l
S tu d y i n t h e Deep S o u th (New Y o rk : The V i k i n g P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 )»
408 p p .
2^W. L lo y d W a rn e r and P a u l S. L u n t, The S o c i a l L i f e
o f a Modern Community (New H aven: Y a le U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 9 4 1 ) , 460 p p .
22
The b a s i c p r e m is e o f t h e EP t e c h n i q u e i s t h a t th e members
o f a com m unity a r e aw are o f t h e r e l a t i v e s o c i a l c l a s s r a n k
i n g s o f t h e i r f e l l o w c i t i z e n s and t h a t t h i s a w a r e n e s s may
b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o an a c t u a l s o r t i n g o f com m unity members
•an
i n t o s i x s o c i a l c l a s s e s p r o v i d e d . The EP t e c h n i q u e c o n
s i s t s o f s i x d e v i c e s f o r r a t i n g an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s o c i a l
c l a s s p o s i t i o n : ( l ) r a t i n g s by m a tc h e d a g r e e m e n ts , ( 2 )
r a t i n g by s y m b o lic p l a c e m e n t , ( 3 ) r a t i n g by s t a t u s r e p u t a
t i o n , (4) r a t i n g by c o m p a r is o n , ( 5 ) r a t i n g by s im p le a s s i g n
m ent to a c l a s s , and (6 ) r a t i n g b y i n s t i t u t i o n a l member
s h i p .-^1
Once a com m unity h a s b e en d i v i d e d i n t o s o c i a l
c l a s s e s , i t i s f a i r l y s im p le to d e te r m i n e d e m o g ra p h ic c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h c l a s s . W a r n e r 's In d e x o f S t a t u s C h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s (ISC ) i n v o l v e s th e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f f o u r su c h
d e m o g ra p h ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The f o u r f a c t o r s i n c o r p o r a t e d
i n t o t h e ISC a r e : o c c u p a t i o n , s o u r c e o f in co m e, ty p e o f
h o u s i n g , and l o c a t i o n o f r e s i d e n c e . W ith in e a c h c a t e g o r y
th e v a r i o u s q u a l i t i e s a p p l i c a b l e to any I n d i v i d u a l w ere a s
s i g n e d se v e n s c o r e s i n n u m e r i c a l s e q u e n c e . T h is s c o r e I s
m u l t i p l i e d by a c o n s t a n t " w e ig h t" f a c t o r to I n d i c a t e t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f th e a t t r i b u t e s I n t h a t c a t e g o r y I n d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e u l t i m a t e t o t a l , add ed to t h e s i m i l a r l y d e r i v e d p r o d u c t s
^ W a r n e r , M eeker, and E e l l s , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 6 -3 9 .
31I b i d . , p p . 3 7 -3 9 .
23
fro m t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s , and a t o t a l s t a t u s s c o r e I s o b
t a i n e d . T h is s c o r e I s c a l l e d t h e I n d e x o f S t a t u s C h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s . S ix i n t e r v a l s a lo n g t h e c o n tin u u m o f p o s s i b l e
s c o r e s d e t e r m i n e th e c l a s s p la c e m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t : u p p e r -
u p p e r , l o w e r - u p p e r , u p p e r - m i d d l e , l o w e r - m i d d l e , u p p e r - l o w e r ,
^2
and l o w e r - l o w e r .
I n i t i a l l y , W arn er a l s o i n c l u d e d t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f
e d u c a t i o n , am ount o f in c o m e , and e t h n i c g ro u p i n th e compu
t a t i o n o f t h e ISC , b u t t h e y w ere fo u n d to c o r r e l a t e so
h i g h l y w i t h t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s t h a t t h e y w ere e l i m i n a t e d
a s u n n e c e s s a r y . The ISC s c o r e - i n t e r v a l s d e f i n e t h e l i m i t s
o f t h e s i x s o c i a l c l a s s e s . By I m p l i c a t i o n , i t f u r n i s h e s an
o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n , o r more p r e c i s e l y s t a t e d , a s e t o f
d e f i n i t i o n s , o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
W a r n e r 's s t u d i e s h av e s e r v e d to c r e a t e a v i g o r o u s
I n t e r e s t i n t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f s o c i a l c l a s s . They
h a v e c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to a w ide v a r i e t y o f p ro b le m s f o r
s t u d y i n t h e f i e l d s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , com m unity r e
s e a r c h , s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y , and s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y .
The work o f Useem, T a n g e n t, and Useem, ’' S t r a t i f i c a
t i o n i n a P r a i r i e Town, " 33 i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s o c i a l - a n t h r o
p o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y . The a u t h o r s d e te r m i n e t h e two e x tre m e
s o c i a l s t r a t a o f a farm t r a d e c e n t e r i n S o u th D ak o ta by
32 I b i d . , p p . 1 2 1 , 1 3 8 .
33Jo h n Useem, P i e r r e T a n g e n t, and R u th Useem, " S t r a t
i f i c a t i o n i n a P r a i r i e Town," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview ,
V I I ( J u n e , 1 9 ^ 2 ), 3 3 1 -3 ^ 2 .
24
■ all oc
m eans o f a m ethod u s e d e a r l i e r by L u n d b e rg J and S c h u l e r - ’-'
w h ich em ployed t h e t e c h n i q u e o f r a n k i n g f a m i l y h e a d s i n th e
com m unity b y t e n i n d e p e n d e n t " j u d g e s . " A f t e r t h e member
s h i p o f t h e c l a s s - g r o u p s was d e t e r m i n e d , th e r e m a in d e r o f
t h e s tu d y c o n t r a s t e d th e c o m m u n ity 's f o lk w a y s , m o re s, a t t i
t u d e s , and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d b e h a v i o r .
A lso i n t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y i s W e s t 's s t u d y o f
P l a i n v i l l e , U.S.A. H e r e c o g n i z e d two b r o a d c l a s s e s , e a c h
c o m p r i s i n g a b o u t h a l f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , b u t d i v i d e d t h e lo w e r
c l a s s i n t o t h r e e l e v e l s . He d e s i g n a t e d s i x c r i t e r i a w hich
f u n c t i o n e d i n t h i s s m a ll m id w e s te rn a g r i c u l t u r a l com m unity.
H ow ever, W est d i d n o t a n sw e r a d e q u a t e l y t h e same q u e s t i o n
r a i s e d i n W a r n e r 's s t u d i e s a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t a p e r s o n
h a s a s i n g l e p e c u l i a r c l a s s s t a t u s . T h e s i x o b j e c t i v e
c r i t e r i a and t h e In d e x o f S t a t u s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s im p ly t h a t
h e d o e s a c c e p t t h i s p o s i t i o n .
H o l l i n g s h e a d , i n E lm to w n 's Y o u t h , d e f i n e d s o c i a l
-^ G e o rg e L u n d b e rg , "M easurem ent o f S o c io -e c o n o m ic
S t a t u s , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , V ( O c to b e r , 1 9 4 0 ),
2 9 - 3 9 .
3^E d g ar A. S c h u l e r , " S o c i a l and Econom ic S t a t u s i n a
L o u i s i a n a H i l l s C om m unity," R u r a l S o c i o l o g y , V, p p . 6 9 - 8 5 .
3^Jam es W est, P l a i n v i l l e , U .S .A . (New Y ork: C olum bia
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 ), 238 p p .
3 7I b i d . , p . 118.
3®August B. H o l l i n g s h e a d , E lm to w n 's Y o u th : The Im p a c t
o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s on A d o l e s c e n t s (New Y ork: Jo h n W ile y &
S o n s , I n c . , 1 9 4 9 ), 460 p p ,
25
o p e r a t i o n a l l y f o r h i s s t u d y a s w h a t e v e r h i s t h i r t y - o n e r a t
e r s c o n s i d e r e d to be c l a s s i n m aking t h e i r r a t i n g s . He d e
fe n d e d t h i s on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e r a t i n g s ,
a l t h o u g h th e sam ple was s e l e c t i v e an d w here t h e r a t i n g s
"30
w ere i n c o n s i s t e n t , th e c a s e s w ere d i s c a r d e d . ^ W arn er u s e d
th e E v a l u a t i o n o f P a r t i c i p a t i o n t e c h n i q u e to d i v i d e t h e com
m u n ity i n t o s o c i a l c l a s s e s ; H o l l i n g s h e a d u s e d a s y s te m i n
v o l v i n g r a t e r s . S in c e b o t h r e s e a r c h e r s u s e d f i v e s o c i a l
c l a s s e s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o com pare t h e c l a s s p l a c e m e n t o f
134 f a m i l i e s i n v o l v e d i n b o t h s t u d i e s . H o l l i n g s h e a d c o n
c l u d e d " t h e a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e s t u d i e s was so h i g h t h a t
i t s h o u ld be c l e a r t h a t th e two s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
a s u s e d by i n d e p e n d e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s p ro d u c e d a v a l i d and
r e l i a b l e in d e x o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e sam ple s t u d i e s . " ^ ' 1 '
H o l l i n g s h e a d d e l i n e a t e d f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n Elm -
town b e c a u s e m o st o f h i s r a t e r s d e s c r i b e d f i v e c l a s s e s . The
r a t e r s c h o se n by H o l l i n g s h e a d w ere a l l " l o n g - t i m e r e s i d e n t s "
o f E lm tow n. W h ile t h i s c h o ic e was made i n an e f f o r t to s e
c u r e p e r s o n s m ost l i k e l y to be f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s t r a t i f i c a
t i o n p a t t e r n , i t a l s o m ig h t h a v e i n t r o d u c e d a c o n s e r v a t i v e
b i a s .
A f t e r t h e Elmtown s t u d y , H o l l i n g s h e a d and M eyers
39I b l d . , p p . 4 0 - 4 1 .
^ ° W a rn e r, M eeker, and E e l l s , o p . c i t ., p p . 3 6 - 3 9 .
4l .
H o l l i n g s h e a d , o p . c i t ., p. 41.
c o n d u c te d a s t u d y o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and p s y c h i a t r i c
ho
d i s o r d e r s i n New H aven, C o n n e c t i c u t . F o r t h i s s t u d y th e y
d e v e lo p e d an In d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n ( I S P ) . In a d d i t i o n to
th e t h r e e - f a c t o r IS P t e c h n i q u e , H o l l i n g s h e a d and Myers a l s o
d e v e lo p e d a t w o - f a c t o r I S P . The t w o - f a c t o r t e c h n i q u e u s e s
t h e same e d u c a t i o n a l and o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e s a s t h e t h r e e -
f a c t o r t e c h n i q u e , b u t t h e r e s i d e n t i a l f a c t o r i s o m i t t e d . I t
was fo u n d i n t h e New Haven s t u d y t h a t th e c o r r e l a t i o n b e
tw een th e t w o - f a c t o r in d e x and t h e t h r e e - f a c t o r in d e x i s
. 9 6 8 , so h i g h t h a t i t a c t u a l l y r a i s e s a q u e s t i o n a s to
w h e t h e r t h e a d d i t i o n a l e f f o r t r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n p la c e m e n t
on a l l t h r e e s c a l e s i s r e w a r d e d by i n c r e a s e d a c c u r a c y . -*
E l l i s , L an e , and O le s e n d e v i s e d an I n d e x o f C l a s s
P o s i t i o n (ICP) f o r e s t i m a t i n g "an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o s i t i o n i n
t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . Although t h i s in d e x was d e v e lo p e d
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r u s e on a c o l l e g e cam pus, i t may a l s o h av e
a d v a n t a g e s f o r more g e n e r a l u s e .
U n d e r l y i n g t h e ICP p r o c e d u r e a r e two m a jo r a ssu m p
t i o n s . The f i r s t i s t h a t s o c i a l s t a t u s , o r c l a s s p o s i t i o n ,
ho
Jerom e K. M yers and B e r tr a m H. R o b e r t s , F a m ily and
C l a s s D ynam ics i n M e n ta l I l l n e s s (New Y ork: Jo h n W iley &
SoirB7~T959Tr-PpT_T 4 ^ :257- "aIso ~ A u g u st B. H o l l i n g s h e a d and
F r e d r i c k C. R e d l i c h , S o c i a l C l a s s and M e n ta l I l l n e s s (New
Y o rk : Jo h n W ile y & Son’ s , 1958) .
^ H o l l i n g s h e a d , o p . c i t ., p. 3 7.
44
R o b e r t A. E l l i s , W. C la y to n L an e, and V i r g i n i a
O l e s e n , "The I n d e x o f C l a s s P o s i t i o n : An Im p ro v ed I n t e r c o m
m u n ity M easure o f S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l
R e v ie w , XXVIII ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 3 ) , 2 7 1 -2 7 7 .
27
i s a p e r c e p t u a l phenomenon b a s e d on th e m u tu a l e v a l u a t i o n s
p e o p l e make o f o ne a n o t h e r ' s s o c i a l I m p o r ta n c e i n t h e commu
n i t y o r s o c i e t y . The c u e s f o r t h e s e e v a l u a t i o n s a r e p r o
v i d e d by t h e s y m b o lic m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d ,
g r o u p - s h a r e d s t y l e o f l i f e . O c c u p a tio n i s u s e f u l a s a
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n d i c a t o r , b u t i t s i n v a r i a b i l i t y i n th e i n
d i v i d u a l c a s e m u st be o f f s e t by some a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s e n
s i t i v e t o many o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o th e
o v e r a l l s o c i a l s t a t u s a p e r s o n i s a c c o r d e d . The se c o n d a s
s u m p tio n i s t h e m e r i t o f r e l y i n g on c l a s s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s
a means f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e r e s p o n d e n t 's own d e f i n i t i o n o f
h i s s t a t u s s i t u a t i o n , w hich s h o u ld m i r r o r t h e s t a t u s a s -
k
s i g n e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l by th e l a r g e r com m unity o r s o c i e t y . ^
A n o th e r s t u d y i n th e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y i s
hf)
"H o u sin g a s an In d e x o f S o c i a l C l a s s " by Raymond Mack.
He s t a t e s t h a t "One b a s i c a s s u m p tio n s h o u l d be c i t e d : t h a t
an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e
a t t i t u d e s o f h i s f e l l o w s . "^7 The in d e x was c o n s t r u c t e d a s a
m eans o f a r b i t r a r i l y d i v i d i n g t h e r e s i d e n t s o f Summit i n t o
a g iv e n num ber o f g r o u p s . The d w e l l i n g s w ere d i v i d e d i n t o
t h r e e g r o u p s l a b e l l e d I , I I , and I I I , w hich w ere to c o r r e s
pon d w i t h t h e l a y m a n 's u s e o f t h e te r m s u p p e r c l a s s , m id d le
^ L a s s w e l l , C l a s s and S t r a tu m . . . , p . 91*
^ R a y m o n d W. Mack, "H o u sin g a s an In d e x o f S o c i a l
C l a s s , " S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXIX (May, 1 9 6 1 ) , 3 9 1 -3 9 6 .
47I b i d ., p. 391.
48
c l a s s , and lo w e r c l a s s .
I n t h i s s t u d y by Mack, q u e s t i o n s can be r a i s e d a b o u t
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e t i t l e , t h e o v e r a l l c o n s i s t e n c y ,
th e s e l e c t i o n o f r a t e r s and t h e m ethod o f i d e n t i f y i n g p e r
s o n s w i t h t h e s t r a t a . I n d e f e n s e o f M a c k 's s t u d y , L a s s w e ll
m akes th e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t :
Most o f th e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d a b o u t t e c h n i q u e s m ig h t be
e l i m i n a t e d by r e p l a c i n g them w i t h o t h e r s w hich h a v e
b e e n t r i e d and fo u n d s u c c e s s f u l . I f a s u b s e q u e n t s e r i e s
o f s t u d i e s s h o u ld p r o v e t h e h y p o t h e s i s b y Mack t o be
e m p i r i c a l l y s u p p o r t e d , i t w ould a c h i e v e t h e same r e s u l t s
a s W a r n e r 's much more com plex I . S . C . I t s h o u l d b e
p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f M a c k 's h y p o t h e s i s
w ould n o t mean t h a t s o c i a l c l a s s i s d e te r m i n e d by h o u s
i n g , b u t t h a t i t i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h h o u s i n g . ^9
A n o th e r e m p i r i c a l s t u d y o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f
a p a r t i c u l a r com m unity was done by L e n s k i I n D a n i e l s o n ,
SO
C o n n e c t i c u t . L e n s k i i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
’’S o c i a l c l a s s e s e x i s t a s d i s c r e t e , p e r c e i v e d g r o u p s I n t h e
com m unity o f D a n i e l s o n , and t h e r e f o r e a l l 'w e l l - i n f o r m e d '
members o f t h e com m unity a r e aw are o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f su c h
g r o u p s , and a r e a l s o aw are o f t h e m em b ersh ip l i m i t s o f su c h
g r o u p s . ”^'1 ' The a s s ig n m e n t o f p r e s t i g e to com m unity members
^ L a s s w e l l , " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . , " p p . 3 7 -3 8 .
A lso n o t e t h e u n p u b l i s h e d s c a l e s now b e i n g u s e d a t t h e U n i
v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a by B e r t Y a m a sa k i, and by
M a u ric e D. Van A r s d o l , J r .
-■^Gerhard E. L e n s k i , "A m erican S o c i a l C l a s s e s : S t a t i s
t i c a l S t r a t a o r S o c i a l G ro u p s? " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l -
o g y , L V III (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 0 ), 1 3 9 -1 4 4 .
51I b i d ., p. 141.
29
i n t h i s s t u d y was done b y t w e n t y - f o u r c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d
r a t e r s . E ach was a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e w h ic h o f 150 D a n i e l s o n
f a m i l i e s he knew* and t h e n to r a t e t h o s e he knew " a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e i r s t a n d i n g i n t h e community. A h i g h d e g r e e o f
a g r e e m e n t was fo u n d w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p r e s t i g e h i e r a r c h y ,
an d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n w e a l t h and p r e s
t i g e was fo u n d to b e 0 . 7 7 . ^
G e n e r a l l y l a c k i n g i n t h e s t u d i e s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y
i s t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a p r e c i s e a n d c o n s i s t e n t d e f i n i t i o n
o f s o c i a l c l a s s . I n e f f e c t , L e n s k i q u e s t i o n s t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f an y u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e d e f i n i t i o n . A w id e v a r i e t y
o f a p p r o a c h e s h a s b e e n u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h i s u n d e f i n e d phenom enon. Some b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
h a v e b e e n a v o id e d by many o f t h e w r i t e r s , a l t h o u g h t h e y seem
to b e f u n d a m e n ta l t o any c o n c e p t o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . Most
o f t h e i s s u e s and q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h i s c a t e g o r y a r e a l s o
a p p l i c a b l e to t h e f o u r t h c a t e g o r y o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .
F o r t h e m o st p a r t , t h e f o u r t h c a t e g o r y o f e m p i r i c a l
s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t e r r i t o r i a l
d i v i s i o n s l a r g e r th a n a s i n g l e com m unity h a v e b e e n t h o s e
w h ic h h a v e s o u g h t t o c o r r e l a t e s o c i a l s t a t u s o r c l a s s w i t h
g r a d i e n t s o f some s i n g l e f a c t o r o r a minimum num ber o f f a c
t o r s . The few s t u d i e s w h ic h d e p a r t fro m t h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n
♦"have b e e n o f a c r i t i c a l n a t u r e and m ig h t be c l a s s e d a s s e c
o n d a r y m a t e r i a l r a t h e r th a n p r i m a r y e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .
52 I b i d . , p . 143. 53 I b l d . , p . 1 4 4 .
30
H ow ever, a few o f t h e s e w i l l be r e v ie w e d a s t h e y t e n d to
s e r v e a s a i d s to th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e v a l u a t i o n o f th e
work done i n t h e p r i m a r y e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .
A p i o n e e r i n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l s t u d y o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
i s C h a p in . He d e v e lo p e d a m u ch -u sed s c a l e to s e r v e a s an
in d e x o f s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n , u s i n g a s an o b j e c t i v e b a s i s
t h e i t e m s fo u n d i n e v e r y - d a y u s e i n t h e f a m i ly l i v i n g room .
He o b t a i n e d c l a s s r a t i n g s o f s i x t y - s e v e n Negro f a m i l i e s i n
M in n e a p o lis from t h e i r a c q u a i n t a n c e s , and c o r r e l a t e d them
w i t h i n an i n v e n t o r y o f l i v i n g room e q u ip m e n t, i n c l u d i n g o r
d e r l i n e s s , c l e a n l i n e s s , c o n d i t i o n o f r e p a i r , and " g e n e r a l
good t a s t e " o f t h e e q u ip m e n t and t h e r o o m / The C hapin
s c a l e was f i r s t d e v e lo p e d i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 ' s , and was r e
v i s e d and e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t e d a g a i n i n S t . P a u l i n 1926.
C lyde W h ite f o l lo w e d w i t h an a t t e m p t to s t a n d a r d i z e th e
s c a l e i n I n d i a n a p o l i s , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e fo rm b e in g p u b
l i s h e d i n 1930. L a t e r i t was a n a l y z e d by L o u is G uttm an,
who p ro n o u n c e d i t v a l i d and a d e q u a te a s a s c a l i n g I n s t r u
ct C .
m en t, ^ a l t h o u g h he recom m ended c e r t a i n c h a n g e s i n th e
w e i g h t s a s s i g n e d p a r t i a l s c o r e s .
S h o r t l y a f t e r C h ap in had beg un work on t h e l i v i n g
room s c a l e , a n o t h e r s t u d y a p p e a r e d b a s e d on t h e same g e n e r a l
k2 i
P. S t u a r t C h a p in , S c a le f o r R a t i n g L iv i n g Room
E q u ip m e n t, C i r c u l a r No. 3 ( I n s t i t u t e o f C h i ld W e lf a r e )
( M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e s o ta , J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 0 ).
■ ^L ouis G uttm an , "A Review o f C h a p i n 's S o c i a l S t a t u s
S c a l e , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , V I I I ( J u n e , 1 9 ^ 3)>
3 6 2 - 3 6 9 .
31
a s s u m p t io n , a l t h o u g h t h e e le m e n t i n v e s t i g a t e d was o c c u p a t i o n
r a t h e r th a n s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . T h is s t u d y , made by G eorge
S. C o u n ts i n 1925, h a d 450 s t u d e n t s and t e a c h e r s r a n k f o r t y -
f i v e o c c u p a t i o n s . The o c c u p a t i o n s w ere r a n k e d by t h e r e
s p o n d e n t s on t h e b a s i s o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s ' o p i n i o n s o f t h e
s o c i a l s t a t u s Im p u te d t o t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s r a t h e r
t h a n to s p e c i f i c p e r s o n s e n g ag e d i n t h o s e o c c u p a t i o n s .
57
A n o th e r o c c u p a t i o n s c a l e was d e v e lo p e d by S m ith .
I n t h i s s c a l e , a sam ple o f 345 K ansas s t u d e n t s r a n k e d 100
o c c u p a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r ’’p r e s t i g e s t a t u s . " T hese
an d s i m i l a r s t u d i e s t e n d to s u p p o r t one a n o t h e r g e n e r a l l y ,
and to show t h a t t h e r e a r e w i d e ly h e l d s t e r e o t y p e s a b o u t
t h e p r e s t i g e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s .
A w i d e ly u s e d o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e i s t h a t d e v e lo p e d
by A lb a M. E dw ards f o r th e B u re au o f t h e C e n s u s . The
1933 v e r s i o n o f t h e E d w a r d s ’ c a t e g o r i e s a r e a s f o l l o w s :
( l ) p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n s , ( 2 ) p r o p r i e t o r s , m a n a g e rs , and
o f f i c i a l s , ( 3 ) c l e r k s and k i n d r e d w o r k e r s , (4) s k i l l e d
w o r k e r s an d fo re m e n , ( 5 ) s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , and (6 ) un~
-^ G e o rg e S. C o u n ts , "The S o c i a l S t a t u s o f O ccu p a
t i o n s : A P ro b lem i n V o c a t i o n a l G u i d a n c e ," S c h o o l R e v ie w ,
XXXIII ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 2 5 ), 1 6 -2 7 .
-^M apheus S m ith , "An E m p i r i c a l S c a le o f P r e s t i g e
S t a t u s o f O c c u p a t i o n s , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , V I I I
( A p r i l , 1 9 4 3 ), 1 8 5 -1 9 2 .
-^ A lb a M. E d w ard s, "A S o c i a l Econom ic G ro u p in g o f th e
G a i n f u l W o rk ers i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " J o u r n a l o f t h e A m eri-
can S t a t i s t i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , XXVIII (D ecem ber, 1933), 37Y-
_ F _
32
59
s k i l l e d w o r k e r s . A lth o u g h h e i n t e n d e d t o d e v e l o p a s e t
o f m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s whose c o n s t i t
u e n t p o p u l a t i o n s w ould b e c o m p r is e d o f p e r s o n s w i t h d i s t i n c t ,
s t a n d a r d s o f l i f e , b o t h e c o n o m i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y , t h e r e i s
fin
c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t t h a t s u c h i s e v e n p o s s i b l e . A n d e rso n
an d D a v id so n c o n c l u d e d t h a t " E d w a r d s ’ c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c a n n o t
be r e g a r d e d a s a c o m p l e t e l y r e l i a b l e v e r t i c a l o c c u p a t i o n a l
fi 1
s c a l e . " H ow ever, b e f o r e t h e E dw ard s c a t e g o r i e s a r e d i s
m i s s e d , i t m u st b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e y h a v e s e r v e d t h e
n e c e s s a r y fram e w o rk f o r g a t h e r i n g a n d c o l l a t i n g d a t a r e l a t e d
to o c c u p a t i o n s on su c h a l a r g e s c a l e t h a t t h e y a r e a lm o s t
c e r t a i n to r e m a in more o r l e s s B ta n d a r d f o r many d e c a d e s .
Among t h e m ore r e c e n t s t u d i e s o f o c c u p a t i o n a n d s o
c i a l c l a s s i s t h e s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f R i c h a r d
6 2
C e n t e r s . He a t t e m p t e d t o r e l a t e o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s w i t h
g r a d a t i o n s o f c o n s e r v a t i v e - r a d i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n and a t t h e
same tim e t o e s t a b l i s h a p a t t e r n o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r a t i f i c a
t i o n . The c a t e g o r i e s , i n o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n , a r e : ( l )
L a rg e B u s i n e s s , (2) P r o f e s s i o n a l , ( 3 ) S m a ll B u s i n e s s , (4)
-^Lasswell, C l a s s an d S t r a t u m . . . , p . 4 3 7 .
^ ° C f . T h e o d o re C aplow , The S o c i o l o g y o f Work (M in n e
a p o l i s : U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e s o ta P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 4 2 - 4 8 .
fi T
H. Dewey A n d e rso n and P e r c y E. D a v id s o n , O ccu p a
t i o n a l T re n d s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( S t a n f o r d , C a l i f . :
S t a n f o r d ” U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 940 }, p . 4 l .
62
R i c h a r d C e n t e r s , The P s y c h o lo g y o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s :
A S tu d y o f C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s t P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y :
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1949)* 244 p p .
W h ite C o l l a r , (5) S k i l l e d M a n u al, (6 ) S e m i - s k i l l e d M a n u al,
(7 ) U n s k i l l e d M a n u al, ( 8 ) Farm Owners an d M a n a g e rs, a n d (9)
Farm T e n a n ts an d L a b o r e r s .
I n a l a t e r a r t i c l e , C e n t e r s p r o v i d e d t h e b a s i s f o r
a m a jo r c r i t i c i s m o f h i s b o o k . He fo u n d t h a t when " l a b o r i n g
c l a s s " was s u b s t i t u t e d f o r " w o rk in g c l a s s " t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
w as c h a n g e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . By u s i n g c o n t r o l a n d e x p e r i m e n
t a l g r o u p s h e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t m ore p e r s o n s c h o s e " m id d le
c l a s s " when c o n t r a s t e d w i t h " l a b o r i n g c l a s s " t h a n w i t h
" w o rk in g c l a s s .
One o f t h e b e s t- k n o w n o f t h e o r d e r e d s c a l e s i s t h a t
64
p r o d u c e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l O p in io n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r . The
s c a l e was d e r i v e d fro m a b o u t 2 ,9 0 0 r a t i n g s o f e a c h o f a b o u t
n i n e t y o c c u p a t i o n s . The r a t i n g s w ere made b y men and women
o f d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y , d i f f e r e n t s i z e s o f
c o m m u n i ti e s , d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s , an d d i f f e r e n t e d u c a
t i o n a l an d o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l s . The r e s p o n d e n t s r a t e d e a c h
o f t h e n i n e t y o c c u p a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to h i s own p e r s o n a l
o p i n i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l s t a n d i n g o f a p e r s o n e n g a g e d I n t h a t
o c c u p a t i o n . A f i v e - p o i n t s c a l e was p r o v i d e d w i t h th e r a t -
^ R i c h a r d C e n t e r s , "N om in al V a r i a t i o n a n d C l a s s I d e n
t i f i c a t i o n : The W orking an d t h e L a b o r in g C l a s s e s , " J o u r n a l
o f A b norm al and S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , XLV ( A p r i l , 195071 1 9 5 -
21 5.
fll
N a t i o n a l O p in io n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , " J o b s a n d O c c u p a
t i o n s : A P o p u l a r E v a l u a t i o n , " O p in io n News, IX ( S e p te m b e r 1,
1 9 4 7 ) , 3 -1 3 J R o b e r t W. H odge, P a u l M. S i e g e l , an d P e t e r H.
R o s s i , " O c c u p a t i o n a l P r e s t i g e I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 1 9 2 5 -
6 3 , " A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , LXX (N ovem ber, 1 9 6 4 ) ,
286- 302.
t i n g s o f : ( l ) e x c e l l e n t s t a n d i n g , ( 2 ) good s t a n d i n g , ( 3 )
a v e r a g e s t a n d i n g , (4) somewhat b e lo w a v e r a g e s t a n d i n g , ( 5 )
p o o r s t a n d i n g , an d (X) I d o n ' t know w here to p l a c e t h a t
6 s
o n e . The r e s p o n s e s to e a c h o c c u p a t i o n w ere s c o r e d r e
s p e c t i v e l y 100, 8 0 , 6 0 , 4 0 , an d 20. X r e s p o n s e s w ere
c o u n te d b u t n o t a s s i g n e d an y v a l u e and n o t com puted i n th e
s c o r e . L a s s w e ll c o m p ares th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f p r e s t i g e r a t
i n g s f o r 1947 and 1963 o f t h i s s c a l e w h ich h a s f r e q u e n t l y
66
b e e n c a l l e d th e N o r t h - H a t t s c a l e .
I n r e v i e w i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e NORC e f f o r t to
s c a l e o c c u p a t i o n s , H a t t q u e s t i o n e d w h e th e r t h e s c a l e c o n -
67
s t i t u t e d a s i n g l e c o n tin u u m . He d o u b te d t h a t 1 1 su c h d i s
s i m i l a r o c c u p a t i o n s a s ' a i r l i n e p i l o t , ' ' a r t i s t who p a i n t s
p i c t u r e s , ' 'o w n e r o f a f a c t o r y e m p lo y in g a b o u t 100 p e o p l e '
68
and ' s o c i o l o g i s t ' " w ere a c t u a l l y b e in g e v a l u a t e d w i t h r e
s p e c t to t h e same c o n tin u u m b y th e r e s p o n d e n t s . U s in g th e
G uttm an s c a l i n g t e c h n i q u e 8 ^ on t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s u b s a m p le s o f
t h e NORC i t e m s , H a t t a r r i v e d a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e
s p o n d e n t s w ere a c t u a l l y u s i n g n o t one b u t s e v e r a l r a n k i n g
^ L a s s w e l l , C l a s s and S t r a t u m . . . , p p . 4 2 8 -4 3 2 .
8 ^ P a u l K. H a t t , " O c c u p a tio n and S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a
t i o n , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , LV ( A p r i l , 1 9 5 0 ),
5 3 3 -5 4 3 .
6 8 I b l d . , p . 5 3 9 .
d e v i c e w hich e n a b l e s c o m p a r is o n s o f t h e o r d e r i n g
s y s te m s u s e d by i n d i v i d u a l r a t e r s .
35
s y s te m s . T h u s, he u n d e r t o o k r e s e a r c h on t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
" a l t h o u g h t h e f u l l s e r i e s d e e s n o t s c a l e , t h e r e a r e s u b -
70
g r o u p i n g s w h ich do s c a l e . " From t h i s r e s e a r c h h e d e
v e lo p e d t h e i d e a o f " p a r a l l e l l a d d e r s " w hich he c a l l e d
" s i t u s e s . " E i g h t s i t u s e s w ere i d e n t i f i e d : p o l i t i c a l , p r o
f e s s i o n a l , b u s i n e s s , r e c r e a t i o n and a e s t h e t i c s , a g r i c u l t u r e ,
m anual w o rk , m i l i t a r y , and s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s . S t a t u s e s
w i t h i n a s i t u s c o u ld be c o m p ared , b u t c o m p a r is o n s a c r o s s
s i t u s l i n e s w ere c o n f u s e d . The d e f i n i t i o n o f a u n i t o f
m e a su re o f o c c u p a t i o n p e r se a p p e a r s to b e i m p r o b a b le a t
t h i s t im e .
A somewhat d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e f o r a r r i v i n g a t th e
g e n e r a l s t a t u s o f p e r s o n s whose c u s to m a r y p l a c e o f r e s i
d e n c e i s i n a p r e s c r i b e d a r e a h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d b y Shevky
71
and h i s a s s o c i a t e s . They u s e d t h r e e i n d e x e s to d e v e lo p
an u r b a n t y p o l o g y , b u t o n ly one i s u s e d h e r e ; i . e . , s o c i a l
r a n k . Shevky d e f i n e s s o c i a l r a n k a s " t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l
s t a n d i n g o f p e r s o n s o r g r o u p s i n a s y s te m o f s o c i a l p o s i
t i o n s ." ^ 2 B u t he s t a t e s t h a t s o c i a l r a n k d o e s n o t mean
s o c i a l c l a s s . The ty p e o f g e n e r a l s t a t u s i n v o l v e d i s t h a t
^ ° H a t t , o p . c i t ., p. 539.
^ E s h r e f Shevky and M a rily n W i l l i a m s , The S o c i a l
A re a s o f Los A n g e le s : A n a l y s i s and T y p o lo g y ( B e r k e l e y :
U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ); E s h r e f Shevky and
W e n d e ll B e l l , S o c i a l A rea A n a l y s i s : T h e o ry , I l l u s t r a t i v e
A p p l i c a t i o n , and C o m p u ta tio n a l P r o c e d u r e s ( S t a n f o r d , C a l i f . :
S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955)•
7 P
Shevky and W i l l i a m s , o p . c i t ., p. 37.
36
w h ich m ig h t be i n f e r r e d from a l o c a l i t y r e f e r e n c e , Buch a s
i s i n f e r r e d i n C h ica g o from r e f e r e n c e s t o r e s i d e n c e i n th e
" n e a r n o r t h s i d e , " o r " s o u t h s i d e " ; o r i n New Y ork fro m
r e f e r e n c e s t o " t h e B r o n x ," o r " t h e V i l l a g e .
S h e v k y 's s o c i a l r a n k in d e x i s b a s e d on t h r e e s t a t u s
c o n t i n u a : o c c u p a t i o n . In co m e, an d e d u c a t i o n . B u t i n s t e a d
o f l o c a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s on t h e s e c o n t i n u a , c e n s u s t r a c t s
a r e r a t e d on t h e s c a l e s . A c e n s u s t r a c t i s a r e l a t i v e l y
s m a l l , boun ded a r e a f o r w h ich C ensus d a t a a r e o b t a i n a b l e .
T here w ere a b o u t 570 c e n s u s t r a c t s i n Los A n g e le s i n t h e
1940 c e n s u s , from w h ich t h e Shevky a n d W il l ia m s s t u d y was
d r a w n .
The t h r e e s c a l e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g s o c i a l r a n k w ere
a p p l i e d a s f o l l o w s : o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l was d e r i v e d from
t h e num ber o f c r a f t s m e n , o p e r a t i v e s , and l a b o r e r s i n e a c h
t r a c t ; e d u c a t i o n was m e a su re d by t h e num ber o f p e r s o n s ag ed
t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s o r more who h a d c o m p le te d g r a d e s c h o o l ;
incom e was i n f e r r e d from t h e a v e r a g e r e n t p e r c a p i t a .
T hese t h r e e f a c t o r s w ere t h e n a v e r a g e d to p ro d u c e t h e i n -
74
d ex o f s o c i a l r a n k .
The S h e v k y - B e ll a p p r o a c h r e p r e s e n t s an e x tre m e i n
t h e u s e o f d e m o g ra p h ic m a t e r i a l to o b t a i n an in d e x o f g e n -
^ C f . H. L a u re n c e R o s s , "The L o c a l Community: A S u r
vey A p p r o a c h ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , XXVII ( F e b r u
a r y , 1 9 6 2 ) , 7 5 -B 4 .
^ I b i d . , p p . 6 8 - 6 9 .
37
e r a l B t a t u s , and Van A r s d o l and o t h e r s h a v e q u e s t i o n e d i t s
u t i l i t y . 75
M erton re m in d s u s t h a t a t any g i v e n tim e e a c h p e r
son h a s a s t a t u s - s e t . 7^ A s t a t u s s e t i s c o m p ris e d o f b o t h
t h e o r d e r e d and th e n o m in a l s t a t u s e s o f t h e p e r s o n . A l
th o u g h no s t u d y h a s a t t e m p t e d to sum m arize a l l t h e s t a t u s e s
o f any i n d i v i d u a l , t h e r e h a v e b e e n a num ber w h ich f o c u s e d
on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e s e v e r a l s t a t u s e s o f i n d i v i d
u a l s . T h ese s t u d i e s h a v e c a l l e d t h e phenom enon t h e y w ere
i n v e s t i g a t i n g a s s t a t u s c o n s i s t e n c y , s t a t u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n ,
s t a t u s c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , and s t a t u s c o n g r u e n c y .
I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s to d a y t h e r e a r e many p e r s o n s
w i t h i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n s t a t u s . T h ro u g h
o u t m ost o f t h e w o rld h ig h s t a t u s i n one s o c i a l l y v a lu e d
c o n tin u u m I m p l i e d h i g h s t a t u s I n m ost o t h e r s o c i a l l y v a lu e d
c o n t i n u a j a p e r s o n w i t h low s t a t u s on one c o n tin u u m w ould
77
be l i k e l y t o h a v e low s t a t u s on a l l o t h e r s . '
L e n s k i h a s d e v e lo p e d a t e c h n i q u e f o r c o m p a rin g t h e
r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f a p e r s o n on s e v e r a l c o n t i n u a . He
c a l l s t h e te n d e n c y f o r t h e v a r i o u s s t a t u s e s o f a p e r s o n t o
5M a u ric e D. Van A r s d o l , J r . , S a n to F. C a m i l l e r i , and
C a lv i n F. Schm id, "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e U t i l i t y o f U rban
T y p o lo g y ," P a c i f i c S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , IV ( S p r i n g , 1 9 6 1 ) ,
2 6 - 3 2 .
R o b e r t K. M e rto n , S o c i a l T h eo ry and S o c i a l S t r u c
t u r e ( G le n c o e , 1 1 1 .: The F re e P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 3 6 9 -3 7 0 .
77L a s s w e l l , C l a s s and S t r a tu m . . . , p . 9 3 .
be c a t e g o r i z e d i n a b o u t t h e same r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n on s e v e r -
rjQ
a l d i f f e r e n t s t a t u s c o n t i n u a " s t a t u s c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n . "
H igh s t a t u s c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o c c u r s when a p e r s o n ' s s t a t u s e s
on s e v e r a l c o n t i n u a a r e n e a r l y th e sam e; low s t a t u s c r y s t a l
l i z a t i o n o c c u r s when t h e y a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t on d i f f e r e n t
c o n t i n u a .
l e n s k i u s e d in co m e, o c c u p a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , and
e t h n i c s t a t u s e s f o r c o m p a r is o n . He a s s i g n e d r a t i n g s on
e a c h s c a l e to e a c h p e r s o n i n h i s s t u d y . He th e n d e te r m i n e d
t h e e x t e n t o f s t a t u s c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n by c o m p a rin g t h e s u b
j e c t s ' r a t i n g s on e a c h o f t h e f o u r t r a i t s t o s e e i f th e y
w e re s i m i l a r o r d i s s i m i l a r . By c o m p a rin g s t a t u s c r y s t a l l i
z a t i o n r e s p o n s e s to a q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n c e r n i n g v o t i n g h a b
i t s and l i b e r a l t e n d e n c i e s he d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s t a t u s
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n he s t u d i e d was r e l a t e d
to p o l i t i c a l s e n t i m e n t s . I n a l a t e r s t u d y , he showed t h a t
c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f th e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s w ere r e -
79
l a t e d to s t a t u s c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n . ' ^
S t a t u s c o n g ru e n c y was u s e d by Adams i n s m a l l g ro u p
r e s e a r c h i n two w ays: ( 1 ) g ro u p c o n g ru e n c y was d e s c r i b e d
a s t h e " c o n d i t i o n i n w hich i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e g ro u p
s t a n d i n e x a c t l y t h e same r a n k o r d e r i n a l l e f f e c t i v e s t a t u s
^ G e r h a r d E. L e n s k i, " S t a t u s C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n : A Non-
V e r t i c a l D im en sion o f S o c i a l S t a t u s , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l
R e v ie w , XIX ( A u g u s t, 1 9 5 4 ), 4 0 5 -4 1 3 .
" ^ G e r h a r d E. L e n s k i, " S o c i a l P a r t i c i p a t i o n and S t a t u s
C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XXI (A u g u s t,
1 9 5 6 ) , 4 5 8 - 4 6 4 .
39
h i e r a r c h i e s i n t h e g r o u p " ; w h ile ( 2 ) " i n d i v i d u a l s t a t u s c o n
g r u e n c y e x i s t s when an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s r a n k i n one s t a t u s h i e r
a r c h y c o i n c i d e s e x a c t l y w i t h h i s r a n k i n a l l o t h e r s i g n i f i -
ftn
c a n t s t a t u s h i e r a r c h i e s . " Adams fo u n d s t a t u s c o n g ru e n c y
to be c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and g ro u p p e r
fo rm a n c e .
Summary
The a r e a o f s o c i a l c l a s s and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
a t p r e s e n t a p p e a r s t o be i n a s t a t e o f c o n c e p t u a l c o n f u s i o n .
Some s o c i o l o g i s t s i n s i s t t h a t s o c i a l c l a s s i s i n d i s t i n g u i s h
a b l e from s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ; some i n s i s t t h a t s o c i a l
c l a s s i s r e a l and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s a f i c t i o n ;
o t h e r s i n s i s t t h a t s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s r e a l and s o c i a l
c l a s s 1 b a f i c t i o n ; and o t h e r s i n s i s t t h a t n e i t h e r s o c i a l
c l a s s n o r s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n h a s any r e a l r e f e r e n t .
The f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h w hich h av e
b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e g e n e r a l a r e a o f com m unity s t r u c t u r e ,
I n c l u d i n g s o c i a l c l a s s , s o c i a l s t a t u s , and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i
c a t i o n h a v e a l l c la im e d to s e r v e a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p u r
p o s e w i t h i n t h e b r o a d f i e l d s o f s o c i a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l r e
s e a r c h . W ith o n l y a few e x c e p t i o n s , t h e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h
i n t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s h a s assum ed t h e e x i s t e n c e o f d i s c r e t e
s o c i a l c l a s s e s . The n o r m a tiv e and e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s c o n -
Qq
S t u a r t Adams, " S t a t u s C o n g ru en cy a s a V a r i a b l e i n
S m a ll Group P e r f o r m a n c e ," S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXXII ( O c to b e r ,
1 9 5 3 ), 17.
40
t r a s t e d t h e modes o f l i v i n g , a t t i t u d e s , and b e h a v i o r o f t h e
c l a s s e s o f t h e i r c h o o s i n g . S t u d i e s o f p a r t i c u l a r communi
t i e s a l s o f o l lo w e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e w ere a f i x e d num ber
o f d i s c r e t e s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n e v e r y com m unity, and t h a t i t
was t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o d e te r m i n e t h e num
b e r o f t h e s e c l a s s e s and to a s s i g n e a c h member o f t h e commu
n i t y t o one o f th em . The g e n e r a l s t u d i e s o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n
h a v e a l s o assum ed t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s p e c i f i c num ber o f
s o c i a l c l a s s e s , an d h a v e s o u g h t to c o r r e l a t e c l a s s member
s h i p w i t h one o r more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f com m unity m em bers.
I n t h e f i r s t two c a t e g o r i e s , t h e c r i t e r i a f o r c l a s s
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ere d e te r m i n e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r s . I n t h e
l a t t e r two c a t e g o r i e s , t h e scheme o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n was
c h o s e n by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s and an e f f o r t was made to d e
t e r m in e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s o b j e c t i v e l y .
S o c i a l s t a t u s e s a r e a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s o f p e r s o n s
w h ich a r e p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h t h e s e n s i n g o f s y m b o ls. The
c e n t e r o f p e r c e p t i o n i s t h e p e r c e i v e r , w h e t h e r i t i n v o l v e s
a s u b j e c t i v e e s t i m a t e o f o n e ’s own s t a t u s o r an o b j e c t i v e
e s t i m a t e o f a n o t h e r ' s . E q u iv a le n c e c a t e g o r i e s o f s t a t u s e s
may be n o m in a l o r o r d e r e d . I n th e f o r m e r , t h e r e i s no
r e l e v a n t s e q u e n c e o f c a t e g o r i e s ; i n t h e l a t t e r , b o t h s e
q u e n c e a n d d i r e c t i o n a r e e i t h e r e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t . S t a
t u s e s may be c a t e g o r i z e d a c c o r d i n g to a m e t r i c s c a l e when
t h e r e i s an a p p r o p r i a t e u n i t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e i r e v a l u a
t i o n . H ow ever, t h e y n e ed n o t be m e t r i c a l l y s c a l e d to h av e
41
a c o n s e n s u a l o r d e r ; i . e . , a g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t on t h e s c a l i n g
8 l
o f c a s e s .
" G e n e r a l s t a t u s " may be v iew ed a s a c o m b in a tio n o f
o t h e r s t a t u s e s o r a s a u n iq u e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . The
l a t t e r may b e t h o u g h t o f e i t h e r a s " s o c i a l r e p u t e " o r a s a
p e r s o n a l i t y q u a l i t y w hich may o r may n o t b e s o c i a l l y w e l l
known, b u t w h ich t h e p o s s e s s o r r e c o g n i z e s .
A v a r i e t y o f i n d e x e s o f g e n e r a l s t a t u s h a v e b e en
d e v e l o p e d , among w h ich t h e m o st w i d e ly u s e d a r e W a r n e r f s
In d e x o f S t a t u s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (ISC) and H o l l i n g s h e a d 1s
In d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n (ISP).
The e x t e n t to w h ich a p e r s o n ' s s p e c i f i c s t a t u s e s
a r e o f a c o n s i s t e n t l e v e l h a s b e en c a l l e d s t a t u s c r y s t a l
l i z a t i o n by L e n s k i and s t a t u s c o n g ru e n c y by Adams. I t
s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e two m e a s u re s a r e n o t d e s i g n e d to
i n d i c a t e t h e s u b j e c t ' s g e n e r a l s t a t u s . I n f a c t , b o t h a r e
b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p tio n t h a t one n eed n o t h a v e a u n i f o r m
g e n e r a l s t a t u s .
The m o st r e c e n t , w e l l o r g a n i z e d , and i n c i s i v e t r e a t
m ent o f c o n c e p t s and r e s e a r c h on s o c i a l c l a s s e s and s t r a t i -
82
f i c a t i o n was w r i t t e n by Thomas E. L a s s w e l l . He l i s t s
some o f t h e more r e c e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f " s o c i a l c l a s s " a s
f o l l o w s :83 ( 1 ) t h e " s i n g l e s t r u c t u r e " c o n c e p t , ( 2 ) t h e
ft 1
L a s s w e l l , C l a s s and S t r a tu m . . . , p . 95.
82 I b i d . , 497 PP. 83I b l d . . p p . 5 3 -6 5 .
42
p l u r a l s t r u c t u r e c o n c e p t , ( 3 ) t h e c o n t i n u u m c o n c e p t , (4 )
t h e c l a s s b o u n d a r y c o n c e p t , ( 5 ) t h e i n t e r e s t - g r o u p c o n c e p t ,
a n d (6 ) t h e I n t e r a c t i o n a l c o n c e p t .
The c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l s t a t u s h a s come i n t o I t s own
I n c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o l o g y . I t h a s b e e n made o p e r a t i o n a l I n
m any d i f f e r e n t w ays b y d i f f e r e n t s c h o l a r s . A c c o r d i n g t o
84
L a s s w e l l , some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h t h e c o n c e p t
a p p e a r s t o h a v e g e n e r a l l y a r e :
1 . S o c i a l s t a t u s e s may b e s e e n a s n o m in a l o r a s
o r d e r e d .
2 . S o c i a l s t a t u s i s a n a b s t r a c t q u a l i t y . I t i s n o t
w h o le im a g e s o f p e r s o n s b u t r a t h e r i m a g e s o f some
p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i t y o f p e r s o n s .
3 . S o c i a l s t a t u s i s c o m p a r a t i v e . I t i m p l i c i t l y o r
e x p l i c i t l y d e s i g n a t e s a r e f e r e n t , a n d t h e i m a g e ( s )
i n q u e s t i o n i s ( a r e ) l i k e n e d t o o r c o n t r a s t e d w i t h
o t h e r im a g e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e sam e r e f e r e n t .
4 . S o c i a l s t a t u s e s a r e s i t u a t i o n a l . The s t a t u s o f a
p e r s o n o f t e n v a r i e s w i t h c h a n g e s i n a c t u a l o r p o
t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s , e v e n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e same
r e f e r e n t .
5 . S t a t u s j u d g m e n t s c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o be a s c o n s i s
t e n t a s o t h e r c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a ; t h e d e g r e e o f
u n i f o r m i t y c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o v a r y .
8 ^ I b i d . , p p . 6 6 - 6 7 .
6 . " G e n e r a l s t a t u s , " I f I t e x i s t s a t a l l , I s a c t u a l l y
a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s on a u n i q u e , u n l d l m e n s l o n a l
c o n t i n u u m .
7 . " S t a t u s g r o u p s " a r e e v a n e s c e n t I n e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s ,
a l t h o u g h r e f e r e n c e I s o f t e n made t o th em i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e . " S t a t u s c a t e g o r i e s " p r o v i d e a c o n c e p t
t h a t i s m ore e a s i l y u s e d f o r e m p i r i c a l s t u d y .
A t l e a s t s e v e n d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f s o c i a l o r
g a n i z a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r s o c i a l s t r a t i
f i c a t i o n a r e t o b e f o u n d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o l o g i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e . A t o n e e x t r e m e , s o c i a l c l a s s i s a h y p o t h e t i c a l
c o n s t r u c t w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f s u r p l u s m e a n in g ; a t
t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , i t i s d e f i n e d away i n t o a l e s s e r c o n c e p t
o f q u e s t i o n a b l e v a l i d i t y i n f r a g m e n t a r y r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s .
From a r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g t h e
p r e v i o u s s t u d y o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y , t h e w o r k
i n g h y p o t h e s e s f o r t h i s s t u d y may b e s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s :
1 . I n a g i v e n g r o u p a few p e r s o n s r e c e i v e m o s t o f
t h e f r i e n d s h i p c h o i c e s , w h i l e some o t h e r p e r s o n s r e c e i v e
few c h o i c e s o r n o n e a t a l l . The m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c h o s e n a r e
r e g a r d e d a s l e a d e r s a n d t h o s e who r e c e i v e no c h o i c e s h a v e
l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e o v e r o t h e r s .
2 . T h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n f r i e n d s h i p
g r o u p i n g a n d s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s i n t h e c o m m u n ity .
3 . S o c i a l s t a t u s i s r e l a t e d t o c h u r c h m e m b e r s h ip .
44
4 . S o c i a l s t a t u s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b r e a d t h o f a c
q u a i n t a n c e i n t h e com m unity.
5 . T h e re i s some a g re e m e n t on t h e te rm s u s e d by
t h e c i t i z e n s o f a com m unity to ju d g e t h e s o c i a l c l a s s o f
t h e i r f e l l o w s , b u t t h i s i s n o t a u n i f o r m s e t o f c l e a r l y d e
f i n e d c r i t e r i a .
6 . C l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e made w i t h d e c r e a s i n g
p r e c i s i o n a s B o c ia l p o s i t i o n becom es lo w e r, b u t t h e r e i s
no g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d num ber o f B o c ia l s t r a t a w i t h i n a
co m m u n ity .
7 . The members o f a com m unity a r e a b l e to r e a c h
g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t on th e r e l a t i v e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f a s i z e
a b l e num ber o f t h e i r f e l l o w s .
CHAPTER I I I
THE METHODS USED IN THE STUDY
Some kn o w led g e o f t h e m e th o d s and t e c h n i q u e s t h a t
h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r th e s t u d y o f s o c i a l c l a s s and s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n h a v e b e e n a c q u i r e d from t h e s u r v e y o f l i t e r
a t u r e . A d d i t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n accum u
l a t e d a b o u t t h e s o c i a l s e t t i n g o f C i t r u s C i t y . A p r e v i o u s
B tudy done by L a s s w e l l h a s p r o v i d e d e x c e l l e n t i n s i g h t s I n t o
t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f C i t r u s C ity .'''
Two p h a s e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t w ere p l a n n e d :
f i r s t , to s t u d y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i n C i t r u s
C i t y and t h e m ean in g o f s o c i a l c l a s s t o i t s r e s i d e n t s ;
s e c o n d , t o s t r a t i f y a random sa m p le o f p e r s o n s I n t h e commu
n i t y a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r a s s i g n e d s t a t u s r a n k s and a s s o c i a -
t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r .
T e c h n iq u e s
On th e b a s i s o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s i t was assum ed t h a t
s o c i a l c l a s s h ad a b o u t t h e same m e a n in g s t o t h e p e o p le o f
C i t r u s C i t y , o r f o l lo w e d s i m i l a r s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s , a s
"''L assw ell, " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . , " 227 PP.
45
46
h a d b e e n r e p o r t e d i n s t u d i e s o f o t h e r c o m m u n itie s .
The c h o i c e o f t e c h n i q u e s was e x p l o r e d . T h e re was
no known a c c e s s to p e r s o n a l d o c u m e n ts s u c h a s l e t t e r s ,
d i a r i e s , o r a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s o f r e s i d e n t s . A m a i l q u e s t i o n
n a i r e w o u ld h a v e p r o v i d e d no o p p o r t u n i t y to e s t a b l i s h r a p
p o r t w i t h t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a n d no a s s u r a n c e o f o b t a i n i n g a
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e s p o n s e . The e f f e c t o f g i v i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
i n w r i t i n g to an unknown c o r r e s p o n d e n t- c o u l d h a v e p r o d u c e d
a n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n and r e d u c e d t h e num ber o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
w h ic h w ere r e t u r n e d .
2
The p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , m ig h t
r i s k b i a s a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r v i e w e r s , b u t i t a f f o r d e d t h e o p
p o r t u n i t y to e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t , t o o b s e r v e t h e s e q u e n c e i n
w h ic h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n was p r e s e n t e d , t o e n c o u r a g e t h e i n
t e r v i e w e e i f he s h o u l d b e r e t i c e n t , an d t o g a t h e r a d d i t i o n a l
i n f o r m a t i o n fro m t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a f t e r t h e s c h e d u l e had
b e e n c o m p l e t e d . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w
becam e t h e d e s i g n a t e d t e c h n i q u e f o r t h e s t u d y .
The n e x t p r o b le m was t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u
m ent t o b e u s e d f o r o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . The f o c u s e d i n
t e r v i e w a s d e s c r i b e d b y M erto n an d K e n d a l l ^ was s e l e c t e d
2
T h re e c o l l e g e s e n i o r s , m a j o r i n g i n s o c i o l o g y , w ere
t r a i n e d t o c o n d u c t t h e i n t e r v i e w s . T h is p r o c e d u r e was f o l
low ed t o m in im iz e an i n t e r v i e w i n g b i a s , b e c a u s e t h e w r i t e r
o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n was a r e s i d e n t and was w e l l known i n
C i t r u s C i t y .
^ R o b e r t K. M erton an d P a t r i c i a L. K e n d a l l , "The
F o c u se d I n t e r v i e w , " A m e ric an J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , LI (May,
1 9 4 6 ) , 5 4 1 -5 5 7 .
47
s i n c e I t m in im iz e d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f b o t h t h e i n f o r m a l ,
u n s c h e d u l e d i n t e r v i e w s and t h e r i g o r o u s l y e x a c t q u e s t i o n
n a i r e s .
ii
The work o f S e w e ll was c o n s u l t e d and t h e q u e s t i o n s
u s e d by L a s s w e ll ^ w ere h e a v i l y r e l i e d up on i n d r a f t i n g a
t e n t a t i v e i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e . I n an e f f o r t to m in im iz e any
f e e l i n g s on t h e p a r t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w e e t h a t h i s p e r s o n a l
l i f e was b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e am ount o f b i o g r a p h i c d a t a
was l i m i t e d to s e v e r a l b a s i c q u e s t i o n s . N o n -e m o tio n a l q u e s
t i o n s w ere p l a c e d a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s c h e d u l e to e n
c o u ra g e t h e s u b j e c t to t a l k a b o u t t h o s e i t e m s o f w h ic h he
was r e a s o n a b l y c e r t a i n , and to e n d e a v o r to m a i n t a i n su c h
r a p p o r t a s m ig h t be e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t o r y
c o n v e r s a t i o n . T hese q u e s t i o n s w e re :
1. How lo n g h av e you l i v e d a t t h i s a d d r e s s ?
2. How lo n g h av e you l i v e d In t h e C i t r u s C i t y a r e a ?
3. How much f o rm a l e d u c a t i o n h a v e you c o m p le te d ?
4 . When d i d you g r a d u a t e fro m h ig h s c h o o l ?
5. How o l d a r e y o u r c h i l d r e n ?
Then f o l lo w e d a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t o t h e r b a c k
g ro u n d f a c t o r s , and f i n a l l y q u e s t i o n s a b o u t c l o s e s t f r i e n d s
and a s s o c i a t e s , num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y ,
^ W illia m H. S e w e ll, " F i e l d T e c h n iq u e s I n S o c i a l P s y
c h o l o g i c a l S tu d y i n a R u r a l Com m unity," A m erican S o c i o l o g i
c a l R eview , X I I (D ecem ber, 1949 ) j 7 l 8 - 7 2 o .
^ L a s s w e l l , o p . c i t ., p p . 9 1 - 9 2 .
48
names o f p e r s o n s i n e a c h c l a s s , d e s c r i p t i v e te rm s f o r e a c h
c l a s s , and a s e l f - r a t i n g i n t h e c l a s s s y s te m .
A f t e r a t r i a l r u n , and m in o r c o r r e c t i o n s , th e s c h e d
u l e p r o v e d t o b e a s u i t a b l e I n s t r u m e n t f o r o b t a i n i n g th e d e
s i r e d d a t a .
The n e x t p ro b le m was to d e te r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
sa m p le . Some s t u d i e B h a d c o n d u c te d a s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s
w i t h p e r s o n s lo n g e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e com m unity, o r assum ed
to b e w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a l a r g e num ber o f community mem
b e r s . T h is a p p ro a c h haB th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n c l u d i n g p e r
s o n s whose lo n g r e s i d e n c e i n th e com m unity g ave them a p a t
t e r n o f s o c i a l c o n t a c t s t h a t f u r n i s h e d s y m p a th ie s g ro w in g
o u t o f lo n g f r i e n d s h i p s and b i a s e s c r e a t e d by t h e d u r a t i o n
and i n t e n s i t i e s o f t h o s e f r i e n d s h i p s .
The n a t u r e o f t h i s s tu d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e new er
r e s i d e n t s o f t h e com m unity a s w e l l a s t h e l e s s a r t i c u l a t e
h a v e a p a r t i n t h e i n t e r a c t i v e n e tw o rk o f com m unity r e l a
t i o n s . T hus, i t seem ed a d v i s a b l e t o d e v i s e a t e c h n i q u e f o r
o b t a i n i n g d a t a from i n t e r v i e w e e s s e l e c t e d i n su c h a way
t h a t t h e y w ould be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e e n t i r e com m unity,
w i t h no s p e c i a l w e ig h t o r p r e f e r e n c e g iv e n to t h e l o n g - ti m e
r e s i d e n t s
A s t r a t i f i e d sam p le o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n m ig h t be u s e d
t o s e l e c t p e r s o n s who p o s s e s s e d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f aB
^Cf, L a s s w e l l , o p . c l t ., p. 93*
49
many c a t e g o r i e s a s p o s s i b l e w h ic h m ig h t be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n C i t r u s C i t y . T h is t e c h n i q u e d e
p e n d s upon th e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e v a r i o u s q u a l i t i e s t h a t
a r e c a t e g o r i z e d . R e g a r d l e s s o f th e l o g i c a l J u s t i f i c a t i o n o f
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s . , t h e r e e x i s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t some
o f t h e q u a l i t i e s m o st d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith know ledge o f
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s m ig h t be unknown o r assum ed t o be
u n i m p o r t a n t .
I f a s i n g l e - f a c t o r c r i t e r i o n f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f
a u n i v e r s e i s u s e d , an a d e q u a te num ber o f random c a s e s w i l l
r e f l e c t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s to any q u e s t i o n f o r
t h e u n i v e r s e fro m w h ic h t h e c a s e s w ere d raw n. One c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n to be s t u d i e d was c e r t a i n l y u n i
v e r s a l ; i . e . , r e s i d e n c e i n C i t r u s C i t y .
I t was d e c i d e d t o c o n d u c t i n t e r v i e w s w i t h f a m i l i e s
r e s i d i n g a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s w i t h i n an o r d e r e d p a t t e r n o f
c i t y r e s i d e n c e s . The a r r a n g e m e n t o f C i t r u s C i t y s t r e e t s on
a r e g u l a r l y - s p a c e d r e c t a n g u l a r p a t t e r n p r o v i d e d a r e l a t i v e l y
s im p le way o f s e l e c t i n g d w e l l i n g u n i t s i n a s y s t e m a t i c man
n e r . A copy o f th e C i ty E x i s t i n g Land U ses map was o b
t a i n e d , and i t was fo u n d t h a t t h e l o t s on e a c h b l o c k w ere
e n u m e ra te d i n s e q u e n c e , a l t h o u g h th e a r r a n g e m e n ts v a r i e d i n
d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f th e c i t y , d e p e n d in g upon t h e p l a c e
m ent o f a l l e y s and t h e s t r e e t s c h o sen f o r f r o n t a g e . The
map was d i v i d e d i n t o z o n e s b a s e d on t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s i z e s
o f t h e l o t s w i t h i n e a c h zone and t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f b l o c k s
50
c o n t a i n i n g l o t s o f t h e same s i z e . E v e ry b l o c k o f t h e c i t y
was i n c l u d e d i n one o f t h e z o n e s . T h u s, by b e g i n n i n g i n
any c o r n e r o f any z o n e , t h e l o t s w i t h i n t h e zone c o u ld be
c o u n te d i n a s y s t e m a t i c n u m e r i c a l s e q u e n c e w i t h o u t b e i n g
7
d i s c o n t i n u o u s a t any p o i n t .
The f i n a l p ro b le m t o b e s o l v e d was t h e s i z e o f th e
s a m p le . H o l l i n g s h e a d h a d d e v e l o p e d t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t
t e r n f o r a com m unity o f 6 ,2 0 0 on t h e b a s i s o f t h e r a t i n g o f
t h i r t y f a m i l i e s by t w e n t y - f i v e j u d g e s , and h ad c h e c k e d i t
Q
w i t h t h e r a t i n g o f tw e n ty f a m i l i e s b y tw e lv e j u d g e s .
W h e e le r e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n f o r a commu
n i t y o f 3>300 on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d from s i x t e e n i n t e r -
q
v i e w e e s . L e n s k i s e l e c t e d t w e n t y - f o u r i n f o r m a n t s i n s e a r c h
o f a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n i n a c i t y o f 6 , 0 0 0 . 1(^ L a s s w e l l
d e c i d e d to i n t e r v i e w f i f t y - s i x c a s e s i n h i s s t u d y o f C i t r u s
C i t y . H is r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s num ber o f c a s e s was a s f o l
low s :
The s t u d i e s r e v i e w e d h a d r e p o r t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f fro m
two to s i x s t r a t a i n t h e c o m m u n itie s i n v e s t i g a t e d . By
f o r e c a s t i n g t h a t t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n f o r C i t r u s
^ I b i d . , p . 9 5 .
o
A u g u st B. H o l l i n g s h e a d , E lm to w n f s Y o u th ; The Im p a c t
o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s on A d o l e s c e n t s (New Y ork: Jo h n W ile y &
"Sons, 19^9) * PP. 2 9 - 3 1 .
^Wayne W h e e le r, S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n a P l a i n s
Community ( M i n n e a p o l i s , M in n .: Wayne W h e e le r , 1 9 ^ 9 ) j P . 31*
■ ^ G erh a rd E . L e n s k i, "A m erican S o c i a l C l a s s e s : S t a
t i s t i c a l S t r a t a o r S o c i a l G ro u p s? " A m erican J o u r n a l o f
S o c i o l o g y , L V III (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 0 ), l 4 l .
51
C i t y w ould n o t b e c o m p r is e d o f more t h a n e i g h t d i s t i n c t
l e v e l s , I t was c a l c u l a t e d t h a t a c c u r a c y w ould n o t be i n
c r e a s e d by t h e u s e o f a sam p le o f r e q u i r e d v a r i a t i o n o f
l e s s th a n tw e lv e and o n e - h a l f p e r c e n t (one c l a s s i n t e r
v a l i n th e c a s e o f e i g h t p o s s i b l e c l a s s e s ) . I n o r d e r
to be n i n e t y p e r c e n t s u r e t h a t th e p r o p o r t i o n s d i d n o t
d i f f e r by more th a n tw e lv e p e r c e n t from t h e a c t u a l
s i t u a t i o n , f o r t y - s e v e n c a s e s w ould b e n e e d e d i n th e
sa m p le , a c c o r d i n g to W ormser and S e l l t i z . H
S h o u ld more th a n e i g h t l e v e l s b e f o u n d , t h e s i z e o f t h e
sam ple w ould h a v e to b e i n c r e a s e d . To f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e
p o s s i b l e e r r o r due to c h a n c e , an a d d i t i o n a l n i n e c a s e s
w ere a d d e d , m aking a t o t a l o f f i f t y - s i x c a s e s to be
i n t e r v i e w e d .1 2
S in c e L a s s w e l l i n t e r v i e w e d f i f t y - s i x c a s e s o u t o f a
p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 ,2 0 0 , th e s i z e o f t h e sam ple
f o r t h i s s t u d y was i n c r e a s e d t o one h u n d r e d and n i n e t y - f o u r
c a s e s o u t o f a p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 ,3 0 0 p e r s o n s .
T h is was done to f u r t h e r r e d u c e p o s s i b l e e r r o r due to
c h a n c e . T h is sam p le i n c l u d e d a b o u t 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f th e
a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n i n C i t r u s C i t y .
A f t e r th e s i z e o f t h e sam ple had b e e n d e te r m i n e d
t h e r e m a in in g t a s k was th e s e l e c t i o n o f s p e c i f i c d w e l l i n g s
to be u s e d i n t h e s a m p le . The num ber o f r e s i d e n c e s i n e a c h
zone was co m p u ted , and a p r o p o r t i o n a l num ber o f i n t e r v i e w s
a s s i g n e d . The r e s i d e n c e s s e l e c t e d i n e a c h zone w ere d e t e r -
^ L a s s w e l l , o p . c i t ., p p . 9 6 - 9 7 .
12
M argot H aas W ormser and C l a i r e S e l l t i z , How to Con
d u c t a Community S e l f - S u r v e y o f C i v i l R i g h t s (New Y ork:
A s s o c i a t i o n P r e s s , 1 9 5 1)* P • 197. The t a b l e B p r o v i d e d by
W ormser and S e l l t i z w ere com puted from f o r m u la s d e v i s e d by
S. S. W ilk s and r e p o r t e d i n h i s " C o n f id e n c e L i m i t s and C r i t
i c a l D i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n P e r c e n t a g e s , " P u b l i c O p in io n Q u ar
t e r l y , IV ( J u n e , 1 9 4 0 ), 3 3 2 -3 3 8 .
m ined by t h e u s e o f a t a b l e o f random numbers., so t h a t e v e r y
d w e l l i n g i n e a c h zone had an e q u a l c h a n c e o f b e in g i n c l u d e d
i n t h e sa m p le .
A f t e r t h e a d d r e s s e s h a d b e e n p l o t t e d on t h e b a s e
map., t h e r e was s t i l l t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a h o u se w ould be
u n o c c u p i e d . I t was a r b i t r a r i l y d e c i d e d to t a k e t h e n e x t o c
c u p ie d d w e l l i n g i n n u m e r i c a l s e q u e n c e o f l o t s s h o u ld t h i s
s i t u a t i o n o c c u r .
The F i e l d R e s e a r c h
The q u e s t i o n o f com m unity a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e s t u d y
h a d t o b e e xam ined b e c a u s e t h e d a t a w ere to be o b t a i n e d by
m eans o f p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s . S i n c e C i t r u s C i t y i s l o c a t e d
n e a r s e v e r a l c o l l e g e s , i t h ad b e e n s u r v e y e d by s t u d e n t s and
o t h e r s f o r v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s I n t h e r e c e n t p a s t and t h e
c i t i z e n s seem ed to be g e n e r a l l y s y m p a th e ti c to w a rd c o o p e r a t
in g I n a c a d e m ic r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s .
The M ayor, C i t y M anager, C i t y C l e r k , and P o l i c e De
p a r t m e n t o f C i t r u s C i t y w ere I n f o rm e d o f t h e s t u d y and a l l
o f f e r e d t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e and c o o p e r a t i o n . The names o f t h e
I n t e r v i e w e r s w ere g i v e n to t h e C i t y o f f i c e r s t o a v o id any
q u e s t i o n s o r m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . E ach I n t e r v i e w e r c a r r i e d a
l e t t e r o f I n t r o d u c t i o n from t h e M ayor, w h ich s u g g e s t e d t h a t
t h e i n t e r v i e w e e g i v e a few m in u te s o f tim e so t h a t I n f o r m a
t i o n c o u ld be o b t a i n e d a b o u t t h e com m unity. The r e s p o n d e n t
was a s s u r e d t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w ould be k e p t anonymous a s
53
h i s name was n o t n e e d e d f o r t h e s u r v e y . W ith t h e c o m p le tio n
o f t h e s e p r e p a r a t i o n s , I n t e r v i e w i n g was b e g u n .
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h I n t e r v i e w , i t was e x p l a i n e d
t h a t t h e I n f o r m a t i o n s o u g h t was t o be u s e d I n a Btudy o f
C i t r u s C i t y . I n o r d e r to do t h i s t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f a
l a r g e num ber o f p e o p le was n e c e s s a r y . A n sw erin g th e q u e s
t i o n s f r a n k l y and c a r e f u l l y w ould h e l p to make i t a good
s t u d y . I t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e had shown t h a t
some p e o p le h e s i t a t e to a n sw e r q u e s t i o n s I f t h e y n e e d to
r e v e a l t h e i r i d e n t i t y ] t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w ere i n
form ed t h a t no names w ould b e a t t a c h e d to t h e i n t e r v i e w s .
N e a r ly a l l o f t h e I n t e r v i e w e e s a c c e p t e d t h i s a p p ro a c h w i t h
o u t a d v e r s e comment and many showed a m ild I n t e r e s t I n th e
s c h e d u l e .
Only two c a s e s r e s u l t e d In r e f u s a l s . The n e x t
d w e l l i n g i n s e q u e n c e was i n t e r v i e w e d , w i t h o u t o t h e r w i s e
a l t e r i n g t h e p l a n o f s a m p lin g .
A l l th e I n t e r v i e w s w ere c o m p le te d b e tw e e n J a n u a r y
2, 19 6 5 , and Ju n e 3 0 , 1 9 6 5 . Many o f t h e I n t e r v i e w s w ere
o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e e v e n in g h o u r s and on t h e w e e k - e n d s .
The se c o n d o b j e c t i v e to be a c h i e v e d by m eans o f
e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h was to s t r a t i f y a random sam ple o f p e r
so n s i n t h e com m unity a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r a s s i g n e d s t a t u s
r a n k s and a s s o c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r . To accom
p l i s h t h i s g o a l th e same random Bample o f one h u n d r e d and
n i n e t y - f o u r p e r s o n s was u s e d a s In t h e s t u d y o f t h e n a t u r e
54
o f c l a s s s t r u c t u r e I n C i t r u s C i t y a n d t h e m eaning o f s o c i a l
c l a s s to i t s r e s i d e n t s .
L a s s w e l l , i n an e f f o r t to overcom e th e d i f f i c u l
t i e s p r e s e n t e d b y e i t h e r a r b i t r a r y o r random s e l e c t i o n o f
p e r s o n s was made by c h o o s in g names o f f a m i l i e s from t h e l i s t
o f n o m in e e s p r o v i d e d b y th e f i r s t s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s .
Prom t h e m a s t e r l i s t o f f o u r h u n d r e d and t e n nam es, a s t r a t
i f i c a t i o n by f a m i l i e s was o b t a i n e d by p l a c i n g t h e names o f
a l l p e r s o n s w i t h t h e same surnam e l i v i n g a t one a d d r e s s on
one c a r d . By a p r o c e s s o f e l i m i n a t i o n o f c a r d s f o r t y - n i n e
f a m i l y c a r d s em e rg ed , and t h e s e becam e t h e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d
f o r t h e se c o n d s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s . The j u d g e s w ere c h o se n
by t h e same t e c h n i q u e a s was u s e d f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f r e
s p o n d e n t s i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s o f i n t e r v i e w s .
I n t h i s s t u d y th e t w o - f a c t o r In d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i -
t i o n (IS P ) was s e l e c t e d f o r d i v i d i n g t h e com m unity i n t o
s o c i a l c l a s s e s b e c a u s e i t i s v e r y u s e f u l when p e r s o n s from
d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n itie s a r e b e in g c o m p ared , o r f o r c o m m u n itie s
w h ere i t i s i m p o s s i b l e o r i n c o n v e n i e n t to d i v i d e t h e s o c i a l
a r e a s i n t o s i x c a t e g o r i e s , o r f o r u s e f o r h i g h l y m o b ile p e r
s o n s whose r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a f r e q u e n t l y c h a n g e s o r whose
p r e s e n t r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a i s u n l i k e l y to be "n o rm a l" f o r
them ( a s i n t h e c a s e o f young u n m a r r i e d p e r s o n s , o r young
■ ^ L a s s w e ll, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 9 -1 3 1 .
lii
See A ppen dix C f o r a c o m p le te d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
t w o - f a c t o r I n d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n and t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l
s c a l e .
55
c h i l d l e s s c o u p l e s who h a v e n o t y e t ' ' s e t t l e d ” r e s i d e n t i -
a l l y ) . ' 1 '^ F u r t h e r , I t was fo u n d I n th e New Haven s t u d y t h a t
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e t w o - f a c t o r In d e x and t h e t h r e e -
f a c t o r I n d e x I s . 9 6 8 , so h i g h t h a t I t r a i s e s a q u e s t i o n a s
t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l e f f o r t r e q u i r e d o f t h e t h r e e - f a c t o r s c a l e .
The a v e r a g e d e v i a t i o n fro m t h e mean r a t i n g i n t h e Elmtown
s t u d y r a n g e d fro m .0 4 t o .4 7 , w h ich s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o r
r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e two I S P ' s i s g r e a t e r by a c o n s i d e r a b l e
am ount th a n t h e a g r e e m e n t among r a t e r s .
The o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e u s e d i n t h e I n d e x S o c i a l Po
s i t i o n r a n k s p r o f e s s i o n s i n t o d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s and b u s i
n e s s e s by t h e i r s i z e and v a l u e . E ach o f t h e s e v e n p o s i
t i o n s on t h e s c a l e a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) e x e c u
tiv e s an d p r o p r i e t o r s o f l a r g e c o n c e r n s and m a jo r p r o f e s
s i o n a l s , ( 2 ) m a n a g e rs and p r o p r i e t o r s o f m e d iu m -s iz e d b u s i
n e s s e s and l e s s e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s , ( 3 ) a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n
n e l o f l a r g e c o n c e r n s , o w n e rs o f s m a ll i n d e p e n d e n t b u s i
n e s s e s , an d s e m i - p r o f e s s i o n a l s , (4 ) o w n e rs o f l i t t l e b u s i
n e s s e s , c l e r i c a l an d s a l e s w o r k e r s , and t e c h n i c i a n s , ( 5 )
s k i l l e d m an ual w o r k e r s , (6 ) s e m i - s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , and ma
c h i n e o p e r a t o r s , and ( 7 ) u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s .
The o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e i s p r e m is e d upon t h e a ssu m p
t i o n t h a t o c c u p a t i o n s h a v e d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s a t t a c h e d t o them
■ ^ L a s s w e ll, C l a s s and S t r a tu m , . . , p . 8 9 .
1
H o l l i n g s h e a d , o p . c i t . , p . 29.
by th e members o f o u r s o c i e t y . The h i e r a r c h y r a n g e s from
t h e low e v a l u a t i o n o f u n s k i l l e d p h y s i c a l l a b o r to w a rd th e
more p r e s t i g e f u l u s e o f s k i l l , th r o u g h t h e c r e a t i v e t a l e n t s ,
i d e a s , and t h e m anagem ent o f men. The r a n k i n g o f o c c u p a
t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t some men e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l o v e r
t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l p u r s u i t s o f o t h e r men. N o rm a lly , a p e r s o n
who p o s s e s s e s h i g h l y t r a i n e d s k i l l s h a s c o n t r o l o v e r s e v e r a l
o t h e r p e o p l e . T h is i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n a h i g h l y d e v e lo p e d
fo rm by an e x e c u t i v e i n a l a r g e b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e who may
be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g th o u s a n d s o f em-
17
p l o y e e s . '
The e d u c a t i o n a l s c a l e u s e d i n th e I n d e x o f S o c i a l
P o s i t i o n was d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e n p o s i t i o n s ; ( l ) g r a d u a t e
p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , (2 ) s t a n d a r d c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y
g r a d u a t i o n , ( 3 ) p a r t i a l c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g , (4) h i g h s c h o o l
g r a d u a t i o n , ( 5 ) p a r t i a l h i g h s c h o o l , (6) j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l ,
and (7) l e s s th a n se v e n y e a r s o f s c h o o l . The e d u c a t i o n a l
s c a l e i s p r e m is e d upon th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t men an d women
who p o s s e s s s i m i l a r e d u c a t i o n s w i l l t e n d t o h a v e s i m i l a r
t a s t e s and sim ila r a t t i t u d e s , and they w i l l alBo tend to
1 R
e x h i b i t s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s .
A s o c i a l c l a s s s c o r e can b e com puted f o r an I n
d i v i d u a l i f h i s o c c u p a t i o n , and t h e num ber o f y e a r s o f
"^ Je ro m e K. M yers and B e r tr a m H. R o b e r t s , F a m ily and
C l a s s i n M e n tal I l l n e s s (New Y ork: Jo h n W iley & SonB,
1 9 5 9 ), P . 4 0 .
l 8I b id ., p. 41.
57
s c h o o l c o m p le te d , a r e known. E ach o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i s g i v e n
a s c a l e s c o r e w hich i s m u l t i p l i e d b y a f a c t o r w e ig h t d e t e r
m ined by a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n . The f a c t o r w e i g h t s a r e
s e v e n f o r o c c u p a t i o n , and f o u r f o r e d u c a t i o n . The t w o - f a c
t o r s c o r e s a r e summed and t h e r e s u l t a n t s c o r e i s t a k e n a s
an in d e x o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e co m m u n ity ’ s
s o c i a l c l a s s s y s te m .
By u s i n g t h e t w o - f a c t o r In d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n ,
th e one h u n d r e d and n i n e t y - f o u r r e s p o n d e n t s ( n i n e t y - s e v e n
c o u p l e s ) w ere d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s e s a s f o l l o w s :
c l a s s I , t e n p e r s o n s ; c l a s s I I , t h i r t y p e r s o n s ; c l a s s I I I ,
s i x t y - e i g h t p e r s o n s ; c l a s s IV, f o r t y - t w o p e r s o n s , and c l a s s
V, f o r t y - f o u r p e r s o n s .
Summary
An a r e a sam ple o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f C i t r u s C i t y was
p r e p a r e d , and one h u n d re d and n i n e t y - f o u r p e r s o n s w ere r a n
domly s e l e c t e d to be I n t e r v i e w e d a c c o r d i n g to a f o c u s e d i n
t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e . The f i r s t o b j e c t i v e o f th e s t u d y was t o
o b t a i n a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n s o f s o c i a l c l a s s
h e l d by t h e r e s i d e n t s o f th e com m unity, to d e t e r m i n e th e
p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t h a t e x i s t e d , t o e s t i m a t e
th e num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s , to s e c u r e s e l f - r a t i n g s In t h e
s o c i a l c l a s s s y s te m , and to d i s c o v e r t h e te r m s u s e d to d e
s c r i b e s o c i a l c l a s s e s In C i t r u s C i t y .
The se c o n d o b j e c t i v e o f t h e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h was
t o s t r a t i f y t h e ra n d o m ly s e l e c t e d sam ple o f p e r s o n s i n t h e
com m unity a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r a s s i g n e d s t a t u s r a n k s and a B B o -
c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r . The t w o - f a c t o r I n d e x o f
S o c i a l P o s i t i o n was s e l e c t e d f o r d i v i d i n g th e com m unity
i n t o s o c i a l c l a s s c a t e g o r i e s . The o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e u s e d
i n t h e IS P r a n g e d p r o f e s s i o n s and b u s i n e s s i n t o se v e n d i f
f e r e n t g r o u p s . The e d u c a t i o n a l s c a l e u s e d i n t h e IS P was
d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e n p o s i t i o n s . A s o c i a l c l a s s s c o r e was com
p u t e d f o r e a c h s u b j e c t on t h e b a s i s o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n and
e d u c a t i o n , and t h u s , t h e one h u n d re d and n i n e t y - f o u r r e
s p o n d e n t s w ere d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s c a t e g o r i e s .
CHAPTER IV
CITRUS CITY
The com m unity c h o se n f o r s tu d y h a s b e en c a l l e d
C i t r u s C i t y , ' 1 ' w hich I s a f i c t i t i o u s name. I t I s a c i t y o f
a b o u t 8 ,3 0 0 p e r s o n s , l o c a t e d i n t h e v a l l e y b e lo w t h e S i e r r a
Madre r a n g e i n S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a . The d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n
t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n w ere g a t h e r e d b e tw e e n J a n u a r y 2, 1 9 6 5>
and Ju n e 3 0 , 1965.
C i t r u s C i t y i s an I n d i v i d u a l com m unity J u s t a s i t s
r e s i d e n t s a r e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s . The i n h a b i t a n t s ' a b i l i t y
to l i v e t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t o v e r t c o n f l i c t , t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e
o f t h e g e n e r a l m o ra l and c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , and t h e i r a b i l
i t y to c o m m u n i c a t e ,a l l g i v e e v id e n c e o f a s t r a i n to w a rd
c u l t u r a l h o m o g e n e ity i n A m erican s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . To
t h i s e x t e n t , C i t r u s C i t y i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e s m a ll c i t y
i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
To f a c i l i t a t e a c o m p a ris o n o f C i t r u s C i t y w i t h o t h e r
c o m m u n itie s , r e f e r e n c e h a s b e e n made to i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l ,
e c o l o g i c a l , and d e m o g ra p h ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a s w e l l a s to
i t s s o c i a l h i s t o r y .
^ L a s s w e l l , " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . , " p . 5 2 .
59
6o
The B ize o f C i t r u s C i t y i n d i c a t e d t h a t a sam p le o f
i t s r e s i d e n t s w ould b e aw are o f t h e r e l a t i v e com m unity s t a
t u s e s o f a s u f f i c i e n t l y w id e v a r i e t y o f p e r s o n s to make an
e m p i r i c a l s t u d y f e a s i b l e . The com m unity i s a b o u t e i g h t y
y e a r s o l d w hich a l l o w s t h e r e s i d e n t s t o i d e n t i f y some o f t h e
e a r l y f a m i l i e s , and a l s o t o p r o v i d e some s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y .
T h e re i s a l a r g e e t h n i c g ro u p i n t h e c i t y w h ich c o m p r is e s
a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
C i t r u s C i t y p r o v i d e d a h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d w i t h
few g a p s and a minimum o f u n fo u n d e d l e g e n d s . I t s g e o g r a p h
i c a l c o m p a c tn e s s and c o m m e rc ia l u n i t y a r e f a v o r a b l e f a c t o r s
i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a com m unity c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
G e o g r a p h i c a l F e a t u r e s
The g e n e r a l s l o p e o f t h e c i t y i s g r a d u a l from
n o r t h - e a s t to s o u t h w e s t . The e l e v a t i o n o f t h e g ro u n d s u r
f a c e v a r i e s from 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t a t t h e s o u t h e r l y c i t y l i m i t s to
■ 0
a b o u t 1 ,1 5 0 f e e t a t t h e m ain b o u l e v a r d . The e l e v a t i o n a t
2
t h e e x tre m e n o r t h b o u n d a ry I s 1 ,7 0 0 f e e t .
The s o i l s o v e r l y i n g t h e a r e a o f th e c i t y a r e o f th e
H a n fo rd and Y olo s e r i e s and c o n t a i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f
s t o n y , sa n d y loam to s i l t y c l a y loam . I n some a r e a s t h e r e
a r e a l s o adobe s o i l s .
The c l i m a t e i s m ild t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r , w i t h th e
mean t e m p e r a t u r e f o r J a n u a r y b e i n g f i f t y d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t ,
o
[ C i t r u s C i t y ] I n d u s t r i a l S u r v e y , p . 15.
6 1
and f o r J u l y th e mean t e m p e r a t u r e was s e v e n t y - s e v e n and s i x -
t e n t h s d e g r e e s . The a v e r a g e a n n u a l r a i n f a l l i s a b o u t e i g h
t e e n in c h e B , f a l l i n g on an a v e r a g e o f f o r t y - t w o d a y s . The
a v e r a g e h u m id i t y a t 1:00 p.m . was f o r t y and e i g h t - t e n t h s
f o r i 9 6 0 . 3
A m a jo r fre e w a y makes C i t r u s C i t y r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e
from b o t h th e e a s t and t h e w e s t . On t h i s f r e e w a y . C i t r u s
C i t y i s t h i r t y m i l e s and t h i r t y m in u te s from th e downtown
m e t r o p o l i s . A long th e n o r t h e r l y b o u n d a ry o f t h e c i t y t h e r e
i s a t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l high w ay o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r ta n c e i n
t h e n a t i o n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s te m . The c i t y i s s e r v e d by
two r a i l r o a d s , one t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l and t h e o t h e r a l o c a l
b r a n c h o f a t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l r a i l r o a d . Most l o c a l p a s s e n g e r
t r a f f i c i s c a r r i e d by th e one c o m m e rc ia l b u s l i n e w h ic h f u r
n i s h e s h o u r l y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o th e m e t r o p o l i s and to th e
n e a r b y i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r d u r i n g t h e d a y l i g h t h o u r s .
L o c a te d i n th e s o u t h e r l y p a r t o f t h e c i t y , a d j a c e n t
t o t h e m a jo r i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , i s a c o u n ty o p e r a t e d
a i r p o r t . I t h a s one runw ay w h ich i s 4 ,7 7 5 f e e t i n l e n g t h .
The f i e l d i s open t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s and h a s l i g h t s , r a d i o ,
em e rg en c y f i r e e q u ip m e n t, c o n t r o l to w e r , and a c a f e i n t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u i l d i n g . M a in te n a n c e f a c i l i t i e s i n c l u d e
tie - d o w n a r e a , h a n g a r s p a c e , and c o m p le te g a s o l i n e i n s t a l
l a t i o n . P u l l m a in te n a n c e i s f u r n i s h e d f o r a l l p l a n e s i n -
3I b id ., p. 16.
62
e l u d i n g e n g in e r e p a i r , i n s t a l l a t i o n , a i r fram e o v e r h a u l , and
4
r a d i o and i n s t r u m e n t r e p a i r .
C i t r u s C i t y i s s e r v e d by t h e G e n e r a l T e le p h o n e Com
p a n y w i t h i t s c e n t r a l o f f i c e i n a n e a r b y c i t y . The e l e c t r i
c a l pow er i s p r o v i d e d by t h e S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a E d is o n Com
p a n y . The c i t y owns and o p e r a t e s i t s own w a t e r u t i l i t y b u t
h a s s t a n d b y s e r v i c e w i t h t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n W a te r D i s t r i c t .
Gas i s p r o v i d e d by t h e S o u th e r n C o u n t ie s Gas Company.
The c i t y i s l o c a t e d i n t h e s p e c i a l t y - c r o p a r e a a s
d e f i n e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a rtm e n t o f Commerce.-^ The
g r e a t e s t num ber o f fa rm s grow o r a n g e s and le m o n s. N e a r ly
a l l th e g r o v e o w n e rs b e lo n g to one o f t h e l o c a l p r o d u c e r
c o o p e r a t i v e s .
The s m a ll s i z e and p r o x i m i t y o f th e fa rm s p e r m i t
t h e i r o w n e rs t o e n j o y m o st o f t h e c o m f o r t s o f u r b a n l i f e .
C l o s e l y - s p a c e d , p a v e d r o a d s a r e s t a n d a r d , w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y ,
p i p e d - i n w a t e r , and t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e a v a i l a b l e t o a l l
f a r m s .
E c o l o g i c a l F e a t u r e s
C i t r u s C i t y p a s s e d a b a s i c o r d i n a n c e i n 1939. The
z o n in g map and o r d i n a n c e c l e a r l y r e f l e c t an a w a r e n e s s o f
c o m m e rc ia l, i n d u s t r i a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , and r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v
i t i e s , b u t t h e y a r e a l s o c o n c e rn e d w i t h fre e d o m from c ro w d
i n g , fre e d o m from e x c e s s i v e n o i s e and n u i s a n c e s , and o t h e r
4 c;
I b i d . , p p . 5 - 6 . ^ L a s s w e l l , o p . c i t . , p . 55 .
63
p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s , su c h a s good s t r e e t l i g h t i n g , a t r e e
p l a n t i n g p r o g r a m , a m u n i c i p a l swimming p o o l , and g r e e n b e l t .
The c o m m e rc ia l a r e a s i n c l u d e a num ber o f r e t a i l
s t o r e s , w h o l e s a l e s t o r e s , a b a n k , s e v e r a l g a s o l i n e s t a t i o n s ,
p o s t o f f i c e , p r o f e s s i o n a l o f f i c e s , a s m a l l s h o p p in g c e n t e r ,
a p r i v a t e c o l l e g e , and s e r v i c e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s su c h a s
c l e a n e r s , b a r b e r s , b e a u t y s h o p s , b a k e r y , an d s e v e r a l r e s
t a u r a n t s . The b u s i n e s s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s on t h e s o u t h s i d e o f
T o r r e s Avenue a r e m a in ly M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n , a l t h o u g h t h e
p a t r o n s a r e n o t e x c l u s i v e l y M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n .
The c o m m e rc ia l r e c r e a t i o n I n c l u d e s a d r i v e - i n t h e a
t e r , g o l f c o u r s e , swimming p o o l , an d p u b l i c p a r k s . The
c i t y d o e s n o t h a v e b o w l i n g , p o o l h a l l s , d a n c e h a l l s , c a b a
r e t s , o r c o m m e rc ia l g y m asiu m s.
The c i v i c a r e a i n C i t r u s C i t y i n c l u d e s t h e C i t y H a l l
w h ic h was b u i l t i n 1939* and e n l a r g e d i n 1 9 5 8 . T h is b u i l d
i n g h o u s e s t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e s , and b o t h t h e p o l i c e
and f i r e d e p a r t m e n t s . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e a r e f o u r c i t y
p a r k s , a p l a y g r o u n d , a m u n i c i p a l y a r d , t h e m u n i c i p a l w a t e r
p l a n t , and l a n d f o r c a p i t a l im p ro v e m e n ts . A lso s e r v i n g t h e
com m unity a r e t h r e e gram m ar s c h o o l s , one J u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l ,
t h e U n ion H igh S c h o o l, tw e lv e c h u r c h e s , s e v e n y o u th o r g a n l -
7
z a t i o n s , an d e l e v e n a d u l t c l u b s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
6 C f. i b i d . , p . 56 .
^ " [ C itr u s C i t y ] Chamber o f Commerce G u id e , p p . 6 - 1 7 .
64
The h o u s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y may b e d i v i d e d i n t o new
( l e B s t h a n tw e n ty y e a r s o l d ) and o l d ( t w e n t y o r m ore y e a r s
o l d ) . The new h o u s e s may be t r e a t e d a s a hom ogeneous g ro u p
i n many r e s p e c t s . They a r e c o m p r is e d o f p o s t - W o r l d War I I
c o n s t r u c t i o n r a n g i n g i n o r i g i n a l s e l l i n g p r i c e fro m $6 ,0 0 0
to $ 1 6 ,0 0 0 . The o l d houseB may b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e
g r o u p s : ( l ) d e t e r i o r a t e d — i n n e e d o f p a i n t , r o o f i n g , g l a z
i n g , m a s o n ry , p l a s t e r , o r f o u n d a t i o n w ork t o su c h a d e g r e e
a s t o b e c l e a r l y v i s i b l e fro m t h e s t r e e t , ( 2 ) a v e r a g e - - s h o w
i n g no e v i d e n c e o f a n e e d o f m a jo r r e p a i r s a s v ie w e d from
t h e s t r e e t , m o d e s t homes o f fro m f o u r t o s e v e n ro o m s, ( 3 )
a b o v e a v e r a g e - - h o u s e s i n n o t i c e a b l y good r e p a i r , i n c l u d i n g
l a r g e v e r y w e l l k e p t homes and s m a l l e r h o u s e s t h a t h a v e b e e n
r e m o d e le d t o com ply w i t h c u r r e n t t r e n d s i n a r c h i t e c t u r e .
L a s s w e l l u s e d t e n a r e a s w i t h i n w h ic h t h e t y p e s o f
o
h o u s e s d e s c r i b e d abo v e w ere l o c a t e d . A re a I , M exican
Town, I s c o m p r is e d o f h o u s e s r a n g i n g fro m u n p a i n t e d s h a c k s
o f v e r t i c a l b o a r d s to d e t e r i o r a t e d o l d e r h o u s e s o f s i x
room s w i t h p lu m b in g , e l e c t r i c i t y , s c r e e n s , and f i r e p r o o f
r o o f i n g . The l o t s a r e t w e n t y - f i v e f e e t I n w i d t h i n c o n
t r a s t t o t h e f i f t y , e i g h t y , o n e - h u n d r e d , an d o n e - h u n d r e d
a n d t w e n t y - f i v e f o o t l o t s I n o t h e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s .
A re a I I , E s t r e l l a H e i g h t s , i s c o m p r is e d o f h o u s e s
w h ic h h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d s i n c e W orld War I I , and o r i g i n -
Q
L a s s w e l l , o p . c l t . , p p . 5 9 - 6 7 .
65
a l l y c o s t from $ 6 ,0 0 0 t o $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 . The h o u s e s on F o u r t h and
F i f t h S t r e e t s a r e s l i g h t l y s u p e r i o r i n g e n e r a l t o t h e
h o u s e s on T h i r d S t r e e t . Many o f th e h o u s e s on T h ir d S t r e e t
a r e o c c u p i e d b y p e r s o n s o f M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n d e s c e n t .
A re a I I I , Wandt P a r k , i s c o m p ris e d o f h o u s e s w h ich
a r e l a r g e , w e l l - k e p t , and i n e x c e l l e n t r e p a i r . They h av e
fro m s i x to t e n room s and e a c h h a s i t s i n d i v i d u a l g a r a g e .
A re a IV , N o rth C i t r u s , i s c o m p ris e d o f h o u s e s w hich
h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s a v e r a g e o l d e r hom es. N e a r ly a l l th e
h o u s e s a r e o f fra m e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h a few o f them b e in g
o f s t u c c o c o n s t r u c t i o n . The o c c u p a n t s r a n g e o c c u p a t i o n a l l y
from c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r s i n one s e c t i o n to u n s k i l l e d l a b o r
e r s i n a n o t h e r .
A rea V, C o l le g e V iew , I s c o m p ris e d o f p o s t w a r
h o u s e s c o s t i n g fro m $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 t o $ 1 3 ,0 0 0 . Most o f them w ere
b u i l t by one f i r m , w i t h t h e f l o o r p l a n r e p e a t e d a t r e g u l a r
i n t e r v a l s . A l l o f t h e h o u s e s a r e o f f i v e to s e v e n roo m s,
and m o st o f th e i n h a b i t a n t s a r e w h i t e - c o l l a r w o rk e r s who
came t o C i t r u s C i ty a f t e r W orld War I I .
A re a V I, C i v i c - C o m m e r c i a l - I n d u s t r i a l , i s a n o n - r e s i -
d e n t l a l z o n e , b u t t h e r e a r e t h r e e s i n g l e - f a m i l y r e s i d e n c e s ,
an a p a r t m e n t h o u s e , a d o r m i t o r y f o r M exican n a t i o n a l s , some
f l a t s o v e r a s t o r e b u i l d i n g and two d u p le x d w e l l i n g s .
A re a V I I , W a sh in g to n S c h o o l, I s c o m p ris e d o f t h e
h o u s e s w h ich f a c e t h e g r o u n d s o f W ash in g to n Grammar S c h o o l.
Most o f t h e h o u s e s h a v e f i v e o r s i x room s and w ere b u i l t
66
p r i o r to 1930. They a r e w e l l - k e p t and many h av e b e en r e
m o d e le d . The r e s i d e n t s a r e p r i m a r i l y w h i t e - c o l l a r w o r k e r s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a few s k i l l e d l a b o r e r s l i v i n g i n t h e
a r e a .
A re a V I I I , E a s t S econd S t r e e t , c o n s i s t s o f h o u s e s
t h a t a r e o l d e r d e t e r i o r a t e d hom es. Most o f them a r e t h r e e ,
f o u r , and f i v e room s i n s i z e and a l l a r e o f fram e c o n s t r u c
t i o n . Most o f t h e r e s i d e n t s a r e e i t h e r l a b o r e r s o r " p e n
s i o n e r s . " A num ber o f t h e o c c u p a n t s a r e o f M ex ica n -A m erica n
o r i g i n .
A re a IX, E a s t T h i r d S t r e e t , i s c o m p r is e d o f o l d e r
a b o v e - a v e r a g e h o u s in g a b o u t midway b e tw e e n t h e W ash in g to n
S c h o o l a r e a and t h e Wandt P a r k a r e a i n s i z e and c o s t . The
m a j o r i t y o f th e h o u s e s c o n s i s t o f s i x to e i g h t ro o m s, and
t h e y a r e w e l l k e p t .
A re a X, E a s t C i t r u s , i s c o m p r is e d o f p o s t w a r c o n
s t r u c t i o n and r a n g e I n v a lu e from $7*000 to $ 1 8 ,0 0 0 , w i t h
t h e h o u s e s In t h e n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n b e i n g t h e l e a s t e x p e n s i v e .
Most o f them h av e b e tw ee n s e v e n to t e n ro o m s. O c c u p a t io n
a l l y , th e i n h a b i t a n t s r a n g e from s k i l l e d w o rk e r s to p r o f e s
s i o n a l p e r s o n s .
q
As L a s s w e ll^ h a s p o i n t e d o u t , i t may be g e n e r a l l y
s t a t e d t h a t th e new h o u s in g i n C i t r u s C i t y h a s b e e n a lm o s t
e x c l u s i v e l y o c c u p i e d by n ew com ers, w h i l e t h e m ost d e t e r i o
r a t e d h o u s in g a r e a s f u r n i s h homes f o r t h e f a m i l i e s who h av e
9I b i d . , P. 70.
67
l i v e d i n town t h e l o n g e s t . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e M exican f a m i
l i e s t h i s may be t h e r e s u l t o f a r e l u c t a n c e to move, how
e v e r , t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e f o r t h e E a s t S eco nd S t r e e t r e s i
d e n t s .
P o p u l a t i o n
The c e n s u s f o r e a c h d e c a d e , and f o r 1 9 6 5 j h a s shown
an i n c r e a s e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f C i t r u s C i t y . I t h a s b e e n
Bhown i n T a b le 1 t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t I n c r e a s e s o c c u r r e d i n
t h e f i r s t t h r e e d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a l t h o u g h
a d e f i n i t e i n c r e a s e can be n o t e d s i n c e 1950. D u rin g t h e
d e c a d e o f 1 9 3 0 -1 9 4 0 , t h e r a t e o f I n c r e a s e d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y .
I f t h e r a t e o f i n c r e a s e f o r 19 6 0 -1 9 6 5 c o n t i n u e s to 1970,
t h e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e f o r th iB d e c a d e w i l l be
a b o u t th e same a s th e p r e v i o u s d e c a d e . The G e n e r a l P la n o f
C i t r u s C i t y a s a p p ro v e d and a d o p te d by t h e C i t y C o u n c il on
F e b r u a r y 18, 1 9 6 3 , p r o p o s e d a p o t e n t i a l o f 4 7 ,0 0 0 p o p u l a
t i o n . 10
The r e m a in i n g t a b l e s d e a l w i t h t h e c o m p o s it i o n o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n i 9 6 0 . I t s h o u ld be u n d e r s c o r e d t h a t t h e s e
d a t a a r e a p p l i c a b l e p r i m a r i l y to t h e o l d e r a r e a s o f t h e
c i t y , and c a n n o t be a c c e p t e d a s v a l i d f o r t h e n ew er h o u s i n g
a r e a s .
10 [ C i t r u s C i t y ] G e n e r a l P l a n , F e b r u a r y 18, 1 9 6 3 *
p . 21.
68
TABLE 1
POPULATION GROWTH IN CITRUS CITY
Y e a r P o p u l a t i o n
N et
I n c r e a s e
P e r C ent
I n c r e a s e
1910 954
1920 1 ,6 9 8 744 78
1930 2 ,8 6 0 1 ,1 6 2 68
19^0 3 ,0 9 2 232 8
1950 4 ,1 9 8 1 ,1 0 6 36
I 960 6 ,5 1 6 2 ,3 1 8 55
1965
8 ,3 4 2 1 ,8 2 6 28
69
T a b le 2 shows t h e r a c i a l and n a t i o n a l c o m p o s it i o n o f
C i t r u s C i t y a s co m p a red w i t h t h e c o m p o s it i o n o f t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s f o r i 9 6 0 . Some s t r i k i n g a s p e c t s o f t h i s c o m p a r is o n
a r e t h e h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f w h i t e and f o r e i g n - b o r n w h i t e p e r
s o n s , an d t h e low p e r c e n t a g e o f N e g r o e s . The p e r c e n t o f
" O t h e r R a c e s " i s a b o u t t h e same f o r C i t r u s C i t y a s f o r t h e
U .S . The f o r e i g n - b o r n w h i t e p e r s o n s e n u m e r a te d a r e M exi
c a n s , c o n s t i t u t i n g a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n
p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e co m m unity .
W h ile C i t r u s C i t y a p p e a r s t o b e a t y p i c a l c i t y I n
t h a t a b o u t n i n e t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f I t s p o p u l a t i o n i s w h i t e ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c e n s u s , c e r t a i n l o c a l c o n c e p t i o n s t e n d t o
o f f s e t t h e p r e s e n c e o f w h a t m ig h t a p p e a r s t a t i s t i c a l l y to
be an u n u s u a l h o m o g e n e ity . W h ereas e t h n i c d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
w i t h i n t h e com m unity d o e s e x i s t b e tw e e n M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s
an d n o n - M e x ic a n s , t h e f e d e r a l c e n s u s d o e s n o t e n u m e r a te
t h i s s i z e a b l e g r o u p s e p a r a t e l y . E s t i m a t e s o f t h e M e x ic a n -
A m e rlc a n p o p u l a t i o n w ere o b t a i n e d fro m t h e C i t y C l e r k , who
p l a c e d t h e f i g u r e f o r 1965 a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 7 5 0 .
T a b le 3 shows a c o m p a r is o n o f th e age c o m p o s i t i o n o f
C i t r u s C i t y f o r 1 9 4 0 , ^ i 9 6 0 , a n d f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s I n
i 9 6 0 . The m o st n o t i c e a b l e p o i n t o f t h i s c o m p a r is o n i s t h e
h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f p e r s o n s i n t h e "65 and o v e r " b r a c k e t , and
t h i s g ro u p I s u s u a l l y d e p e n d e n t e c o n o m i c a l l y .
■ ^ L a s s w e ll, o p . c l t . , p . 75-
70
TABLE 2
RACIAL AND NATIONAL COMPOSITION OP CITRUS CITY, I 960
R ace an d
N a t i o n a l i t y - Number
C i t r u s C i t y
P e r C e n t
The U .S .
P e r C e n t
W h ite 6 , 4 4 8 9 8 .9 6 8 8 . 6
N egro 19 0 . 2 9 1 0 .5
O t h e r R a c e s
49 0 . 7 5 0 . 9
T o t a l 6 ,5 1 6 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
N a t i v e W h ite 5 ,9 4 4 9 1 . 2 2
9 4 . 3
N a t i v e P a r e n t a g e ( 4 ,7 7 8 ) ( 8 0 . 3 8 ) ( 8 3 . 4 )
F o r e i g n an d M ixed
P a r e n t a g e
( 1 , 1 6 6 ) ( 1 9 . 6 2 ) ( 1 6 . 6 )
F o r e i g n - b o r n W h ite 572 8 . 7 8
5 . 7
T o t a l 6 ,5 1 6 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
71
TABLE 3
A COMPARISON OF THE AGE COMPOSITION OF CITRUS CITY
FOR 1 9 ^ 0 AND I 9 6 0 , AND THE AGE COMPOSITION
OF THE UNITED STATES FOR i 960
Age P e r C e n t P e r C e n t P e r C e n t
( y e a r s ) N u m b er f o r i 9 6 0 f o r 19 4 0 f o r U . S .
U n d e r 5 6 3 8 11 10 12
5 - 1 9
1 , 9 1 4
29 29 27
2 0 - 4 4 1 , 9 9 4
31 35 31
4 5 - 6 4 1 , 0 6 1 16
17
20
6 5 a n d o v e r 8 6 4
13 9
10
T o t a l 6 , 5 1 6 100 100 100
72
F i g u r e 1, on th e f o l l o w i n g p a g e , i s a p o p u l a t i o n
p y ra m id f o r C i t r u s C i t y , a s o f i 9 6 0 , show ing t h e age and
se x c o m p o s itio n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . The m o st n o t i c e a b l e
a s p e c t i s t h e l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f p e r s o n s s i x t y - f i v e y e a r s
o f age and o l d e r i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h is t r e n d i s
m ore p r o n o u n c e d i n t h i s s t u d y th a n i t was i n t h e L a s s w e ll
12
s t u d y .
S o c ia l H istory
The e a r l i e s t c i v i l i z e d r e s i d e n t s o f t h e a r e a t h a t
was to become C i t r u s C i t y w ere r a n c h e r o s o f S p a n i s h d e s c e n t
who a r r i v e d from M exico. Of t h e s e , th e T o r r e s f a m i l y i s
th e o l d e s t , h a v in g r e c e i v e d t h e la n d on w hich C i t r u s C i ty
now s t a n d s a s a g r a n t from t h e g o v e r n o r o f A l t a C a l i f o r n i a
i n 1 8 3 7 , when t h e t e r r i t o r y was s t i l l a p a r t o f M exico.
A lth o u g h th e f i r s t l a b o r e r s on t h e R ancho w ere C a l i f o r n i a
I n d i a n s n a t i v e t o t h e a r e a , t h e y w ere r e p l a c e d i n a few
d e c a d e s by m i g r a n t s from M exico.
I n t h e m e a n tim e , th e f o r t u n e s o f t h e r a n c h e r o s
grew and t h e y becam e t h e g e n t e de r a z o n o f t h e s e c t i o n . The
r a n c h e r o s w ere e x t r e m e l y s t a t u s - c o n s c i o u s and th e y lo o k e d
down upon t h e M ex ica n s and I n d i a n s . I n t e r m a r r i a g e b e tw e e n
th e S p a n is h f a m i l i e s and e i t h e r t h e M exicans o r I n d i a n s
w ould h a v e b e e n a d i s g r a c e . When t h e A m erican c o n q u e s t
cam e, t h e r a n c h e r o s a l l i e d t h e m s e lv e s w i t h t h e i r A m erican
12I b i d . , p. 77.
73
Male Female
75 and over
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
4o-44
35-39
30-54
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4
300 200 100 100 200 3 0 0
F igu re 1 .—Age and Sex Com position o f C itru s C ity— i 9 6 0 .
74
b u s i n e s s a s s o c i a t e s and f r i e n d s w i t h o u t c o n c e rn f o r th e
M exican g o v e rn m e n t.
By 1880, t h e C a l i f o r n i o s who l i v e d i n and n e a r t h e
l i t t l e s e t t l e m e n t t h a t was t o becom e C i t r u s C i ty fo u n d
t h e m s e lv e s w e l l o u tn u m b e re d by r a n c h e r s and b u s in e s s m e n
from t h e e a s t . The r e a l e s t a t e boom w h ich sw ep t t h r o u g h
m o st o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a a t t h i s p e r i o d h a d i t s e f f e c t s
on C i t r u s C i t y . A f t e r a few b r i e f y e a r s o f r a p i d d e v e l o p
m en t, t h e p r o m o te r s l e f t a s q u i c k l y a s t h e y had come, f o r
t h e r e was no s u s t a i n i n g i n d u s t r y i n t h e a r e a . The c u l t i v a
t i o n o f c i t r u s f r u i t h ad n o t b e g u n , s i n c e t h e r e was no a d e
q u a t e s u p p ly o f w a t e r .
Some o f the in v e s to r s were determined to salvage
what they could from what threatened to become a ghost town.
While seeking p o s s ib le buyers, they thought o f the id ea o f
promoting CitruB C ity as a haven fo r a r e lig i o u s group. The
r a ilr o a d which served the c i t y , eq u a lly anxious to p r o te c t
i t s Investm ent, lo ca ted some members o f the German B a p tist
Brethren who were w illi n g to a ct in the ca p a city o f c o lo n
iz e r s .
C itrus City was a d v e rtise d among the Brethren as a
colony for th e ir r e u n i f i c a t i o n . 1^ By 18 9 1 , s ix m in iste r s
^ T h e f o u n d e r s o f t h e C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n w ere i n
f l u e n c e d by o t h e r C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s i n t h e i r a g e , by two
g r e a t m ovem ents a r i s i n g d u r i n g t h e R e f o r m a ti o n - - A n a b a p t i s m
and P i e t i s m , and by t h e r e s u l t s o f an i n t e n s i v e s e a r c h o f
t h e S c r i p t u r e s f o r t h e t e a c h i n g s and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e e a r l y
c h u r c h .
75
and a b o u t s i x t y members o f t h e c h u rc h h ad a r r i v e d . From
t h a t tim e u n t i l t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s th e y c o n t i n u e d to a r r i v e i n s u b
s t a n t i a l n u m b e rs. The C i t r u s C i t y C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n
becam e more th a n t w ic e a s l a r g e a s any o t h e r C hurch o f t h e
B r e t h r e n w e st o f K a n s a s . A more c o m p le te d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e s e p e o p le and t h e i r b e l i e f s w i l l be fo u n d i n A p pendix A.
T h ere h a v e b e en t h r e e g r e a t i n f l u x e s o f p o p u l a t i o n
i n t o S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a s i n c e 1880. T h ese m i g r a t i o n s h av e
b e en p a r a l l e l e d i n C i t r u s C i t y , b u t w ith some i n d i v i d u a l
v a r i a t i o n s . I n C i t r u s C i t y t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e h a s
b e e n f a i r l y p e r s i s t e n t , b u t t h e c h a n g e s h a v e b e e n more
m ark ed by th e p e o p le t h a n t h e num bers who came t o t h e com
m u n ity .
The p e o p le who s e t t l e d i n C i t r u s C i t y a f t e r 1880
w ere l o o k i n g f o r homes more t h a n e m p lo y m en t. F o r th e m ost
p a r t , t h e y w ere w e a l t h y p e o p l e , b u t n o t i n th e s e n s e i n
w hich w e a l t h h a s e x i s t e d i n some o t h e r S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a
c i t i e s . Many o f t h e s e p e o p le came to r e t i r e , o r to " t a k e
i t e a s y , " r a t h e r th a n to a c c u m u la te l a r g e f o r t u n e s o r b u i l d
e m p i r e s . Most o f them came from t h e m id w e s t, a few from
t h e e a s t , b u t n e a r l y a l l o f them w ere comm onplace p e o p le
14
w i t h a p r e d o m i n a n t l y r u r a l b a c k g r o u n d . They r e a d th e
B i b l e i n t h e e v e n i n g s , v i s i t e d w i t h f r i e n d s o f t e n , f i l l e d
t h e i r m a n t l e s and m a r b l e - t o p p e d t a b l e s w i t h c o u n t l e s s p h o t o
g r a p h s o f r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s , and b a t h e d w e e k ly . They
"^L as s w e l l , o p . c i t . , p . 8 0 .
76
a t e s u p p e r b e f o r e d a r k , w en t to b ed e a r l y , and r e s t e d
q u i e t l y on t h e S a b b a th . The women w ere i n d u s t r i o u s seam
s t r e s s e s , s p o t l e s s h o u s e k e e p e r s , s u p e rb c o o k s , and w e l l -
known f o r t h e i r German d e l i c a c i e s .
The M e x ic a n s, who l i v e d a c r o s s t h e t r a c k s , came to
f u r n i s h c h e a p l a b o r f o r th e o r a n g e and lemon g ro v e o w n e rs .
V e ry few o f them w ere h i r e d f o r d o m e s tic w ork b e c a u s e m ost
o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s w ere u n a c c u s to m e d to h a v in g h o u s e h o ld
s e r v a n t s . The M ex icans who d i d n o t work i n t h e g r o v e s w ere
em p loy ed b y th e p a c k i n g h o u s e s ; t h u s , many o f them n e v e r
l e a r n e d t o s p e a k E n g l i s h v e ry w e l l . What t h e y d i d i n t h e i r
l e i s u r e h o u r s was u s u a l l y o f l i t t l e c o n c e rn to t h e i r n o n -
M exican e m p lo y e rs and t h e i r f a m i l i e s .
A bout 1920, when t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l a u to m o b i le t r a v e l
i n c r e a s e d , t h e se c o n d m i g r a t i o n from t h e e a s t e r n s t a t e s was
on i t s way w e s t . T hese p e o p le w ere coming f o r em plo ym ent,
and m ost o f them w ere a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s who b r o u g h t t h e i r
f a m i l i e s . As t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n i n a g r i c u l t u r e e x -
115
p a n d e d , th e num ber o f w o r k e r s m u l t i p l i e d .
I n 1935, th e a v e r a g e f a r m - l a b o r f a m i ly i n C a l i f o r n i a
h a d a com bined incom e o f $ 2 9 8 , b u t t h e m i g r a n t w o r k e r s c o n
t i n u e d t o p o u r i n t o th e s t a t e . More th a n te n th o u s a n d o f
t h e s e w o r k e r s e n t e r e d C a l i f o r n i a e a c h month i n 1938.
15I b i d . , p . 8 2 .
l 6 I b i d .
77
The t h i r d m i g r a t i o n fro m t h e e a s t came w i t h t h e w ar
e f f o r t . S e rv ic e m e n w ere l o c a t e d i n S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a
b a s e s and th e y had t o b e manned w i t h a p e rm a n e n t s t a f f .
S h i p y a r d s and a i r p l a n e f a c t o r i e s n e e d e d w o r k e r s . The h e a v y
i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e c i t i e s n e a r C i t r u s C i t y w ere aw ard ed l a r g e
g o v e rn m e n t c o n t r a c t s and n e e d e d more w o r k e r s i m m e d ia te l y .
The r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s a l s o n e e d e d more w o r k e r s . I n 1945
l e bb t h a n two h u n d r e d p e r s o n s h a d m i g r a t e d to C i t r u s C i t y
s i n c e 1940. However., b e tw e e n 1946 and 1950 t h e p o p u l a t i o n
17
i n c r e a s e d by a t h o u s a n d .
T h is t h i r d ty p e o f m i g r a t i o n from t h e e a s t e r n
s t a t e s c o n s i s t e d o f p e r s o n s who w ere e m b a rk in g upon l i f e
r a t h e r th a n r e t i r i n g fro m I t . They a r e " t h e new p e o p le " i n
t h e new h o u s e s who seem s t r a n g e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n " o u r" a f
f a i r s . "Y et t h e y d o n ’t seem t o w a n t to make f r i e n d s , " one
o f t h e women from an e a r l i e r m i g r a t i o n s a i d " f o r t h e y l i v e
18
o f f t o t h e m s e lv e s and n e v e r s p e a k to you on t h e s t r e e t . "
Many h a v e n o i s y c h i l d r e n and t e l e v i s i o n s e t s . Many o f th e
women smoke, “p l a y b r i d g e , and on w eekends t h e y and t h e i r
f a m i l i e s go to t h e m o u n ta in s , th e d e s e r t , o r down to th e
b e a c h . Many homes h av e d e e p - f r e e z e r s , a u t o m a t i c w a s h e r s
and d r y e r s , and b u i l t - i n e q u ip m e n t I n t h e k i t c h e n s . The
m o st r e c e n t newcom ers h a v e o r n a m e n ta l h o r t i c u l t u r e I n t h e i r
hom es, and t h e y a r d s a r e n i c e l y l a n d s c a p e d .
17I b l d . , p. 8 3. l 8I b i d . , p. 84.
78
Most o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y p r a c t i c e s a g a i n s t th e
M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s h a v e b e e n a m e l i o r a t e d s i n c e 1945* a l t h o u g h
th e s t a t u s o f t h e g ro u p a s a w hole h a s re m a in e d low . L a s s -
w e l l p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t was th e o p i n i o n o f a num ber o f t h e
n o n -M e x ica n r e s i d e n t s t h a t t h e more " p r o g r e s s i v e " members
o f t h i s e t h n i c g ro u p h ad b e e n a b l e to r a i s e t h e i r s t a t u s a s
M exican s by s p e a k in g E n g l i s h on t h e s t r e e t , moving o u t o f
t h e o l d "M exican Town" i n t o an a d j a c e n t new t r a c t w i t h good
h o u s i n g , " g o in g on" i n s c h o o l and c o l l e g e , a t t e n d i n g a p r o -
t e s t a n t m i s s i o n f o r M ex ica n s r a t h e r th a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
C a t h o l i c c h u r c h , and s e e k i n g o t h e r v a l u e s g e n e r a l l y th o u g h t
19
t o c o n s t i t u t e a t t e m p t s t o e m u la te t h e n o n -M e x ic a n s . ^ Even
some o f t h e m ost l i b e r a l r e s i d e n t s w ere fo u n d to t h i n k i n
te r m s o f " t h e M exican com m unity" a s a d i s t i n c t s u b c u l t u r e
o f t h e t o t a l com m unity. H ow ever, i n more r e c e n t y e a r s an
i n c r e a s i n g num ber o f M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s have b e e n a c t i v e i n
s e r v i c e c l u b s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , Chamber o f Commerce, c i t y
c o m m issio n s and c o m m itte e s , and two w ere e l e c t e d to th e C i ty
C o u n c i l . A few y e a r s ago one was s e l e c t e d a s "The C i t i z e n
o f th e Y e a r" and t h i s aw ard was p r e s e n t e d t o him a t th e
A nnual Chamber o f Commerce B a n q u e t.
C i t r u s C i t y i s p l a n n i n g f o r t h e f u t u r e , and th e
20
M a y o r's l e t t e r o f F e b r u a r y 18, 19 6 3 , i n d i c a t e s t h i s t r e n d .
19I b i d . , pp. 84-85.
on
[C itrus C ity] General P lan, o p . c i t ., p . 2.
79
To t h e C i t i z e n s o f [ C i t r u s C i t y ] :
Y o u r C i t y C o u n c i l i s p l e a s e d t o p r e s e n t t h i s r e p o r t
w h ic h i n c l u d e s a l l m aps a n d a sum m ary o f t h e e x p l a n a
t o r y t e x t o f t h e G e n e r a l P l a n a d o p t e d b y t h e C i t y P l a n
n i n g C o m m issio n a n d t h e C i t y C o u n c i l . The c o m p l e t e
t e x t i s on f i l e i n t h e C i t y H a l l .
The G e n e r a l P l a n w as p r e p a r e d b y t h e C i t y P l a n n i n g
C o m m issio n a n d i s t o s e r v e a s a g u i d e f o r t h e f u t u r e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f o u r c i t y . C i t r u s C i t y w i l l c o n t i n u e
t o gro w a n d i t i s e x p e c t e d t h e P l a n w i l l p r o v i d e d i
r e c t i o n t o t h i s g r o w t h a n d p r e v e n t many c o s t l y m i s
t a k e s . Many c i t i z e n s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f p u b l i c
a g e n c i e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n s h e l d d u r i n g
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e P l a n a n d t h e C i t y C o u n c i l a p
p r e c i a t e s t h e many f i n e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e w o r k .
The P l a n i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h o r o u g h s t u d y o f a l l known
c o n d i t i o n s a n d t r e n d s t h a t c o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e
a r e a . The G e n e r a l P l a n , h o w e v e r , i s c o n s i d e r e d f l e x
i b l e a n d c a p a b l e o f a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e e v e n t o f some
u n f o r e s e e n c h a n g e o f c o n d i t i o n o r f a c t .
R e s p e c t f u l l y ,
[ J o h n M i l l e r ] M ayor
21
The G e n e r a l P l a n i n d i c a t e d t h a t C i t r u s C i t y h a s
t h e i n g r e d i e n t s t o d e v e l o p t o a l a r g e r c o m m u n ity o f u n u s u a l
c h a r a c t e r . The v a s t a c r e a g e s o f p u b l i c l y ow ned l a n d s i n
p r o c e s s o f b e i n g d e v e l o p e d f o r r e c r e a t i o n p u r p o s e s p r o v i d e
a n u n u s u a l o p e n s p a c e s e t t i n g f o r t h e c i t y . The p r e s e n t
a n d f u t u r e c o l l e g e s , w i t h t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , w i l l a t t r a c t
f u t u r e f a m i l i e s o f h i g h e r c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m ic l e v e l s .
The i n t e r e s t i n g l a n d n o r t h o f t h e c i t y w i t h i t s t o p o g r a p h i c
p r o b l e m s i s a p p e a l i n g t o t h e b e t t e r d e v e l o p e r who p r o d u c e s
t h e h i g h e r t y p e r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . The p r o b l e m s o f
21I b i d . , p. 5 .
80
t o p o g r a p h y an d f l o o d c o n t r o l p r a c t i c a l l y demand n o n - s t e r e o
ty p e s o l u t i o n s when d e v e l o p i n g l a n d . C i t r u s C i t y f u r t h e r
h a s p r o s p e c t s o f a b r o a d econom ic b a s e i n i t s p o t e n t i a l l y
f i n e i n d u s t r i a l d i s t r i c t s .
The a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f a f u t u r e C i t r u s C i t y w i t h a
c o n t i n u i n g d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e
a r e a i s o n l y a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f i t s c y c l e o f r a p i d g r o w th .
I n t e r e s t i n g c i t i e s w i t h c u r v e d , t r e e - l i n e d s t r e e t s and t h e
a p p e a r a n c e o f s p a c i o u s , w e l l m a i n t a i n e d homes and o t h e r
b u i l d i n g s a r e n o t a c c i d e n t s . I t r e q u i r e s a d e t e r m i n a t i o n
t h a t th e c i t y wantB to h a v e c h a r a c t e r and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f s t a n d a r d s t h a t w i l l a t t r a c t f u t u r e r e s i d e n t s who d e s i r e
t h e same h ig h s t a n d a r d s .
The s t a n d a r d s f o r a g ro w in g c i t y can m ost e a s i l y b e
s t a t e d i n a G e n e r a l P la n and I n t h e im p le m e n tin g o r d i n a n c e s
a s t h e Z o nin g O r d in a n c e , S u b d i v i s i o n O rd in a n c e and s i m i l a r
r e g u l a t i o n s . The G e n e r a l P la n I s c o n c e rn e d p r i m a r i l y w ith
22
th e b r o a d e r fram ew ork o f th e f u t u r e c i t y .
Summary
T h is c h a p t e r h a s u n d e r t a k e n to d e s c r i b e t h e m a jo r
g e o g r a p h i c a l , e c o l o g i c a l , d e m o g ra p h ic , and h i s t o r i c a l c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c s o f C i t r u s C i t y to p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r an u n d e r
s t a n d i n g o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s i n t h e com m unity.
The c i t y c h o se n f o r t h e s t u d y had a p o p u l a t i o n o f
22Ibid.
81
a p p roxim ately 8 ,3 0 0 p e r s o n s , lo c a te d about t h i r t y m ile s
from the P a c i f i c c o a s t In Southern C a l i f o r n i a , I t s sub
t r o p i c a l c lim a te p ro v id ed th e n e c e s s a r y g e o g r a p h ic a l f e a
t u r e s f o r the r a i s i n g o f c i t r u s f r u i t , the p r i n c i p a l in d u s
t r y in the a re a .
About o n e -fo u r th o f the p o p u la tio n was o f M exican-
American d e s c e n t and th ere was no o th e r r e c o g n iz e d e t h n ic
group o f any s i z e in th e community. The m a jo r ity o f the
M exicans were C a t h o lic s , w hereas the non-M exicans were
n e a r ly a l l p r o t e s t a n t s , the l a r g e s t group o f t h e s e b ein g
members o f the Church o f th e B r eth ren .
Some d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h ou sin g
were used fo r i d e n t i f y i n g ten r e s i d e n t i a l a re a s in C itr u s
C it y . The new h ou sin g has been o ccu p ied l a r g e l y by new
com ers, w h ile the o ld e r h o u sin g a rea s have been o cc u p ie d
by th o se who have l i v e d in town the l o n g e s t .
There are four g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f p eo p le w ith
some r e s t r i c t e d communication along in te r - g r o u p l i n e s .
They are ( l ) the hom eseekers o f 1880-1930 a ^d t h e i r d e
sc e n d a n ts , (2) the d is p la c e d a g r i c u l t u r a l w orkers, (3) the
homeseekerB o f 19^5-1965* and (*0 the M exican-A m ericans.
A ls o , ou t o f communication in the f u l l se n se w ith any o f
th e s e grou p s, are a few rem aining ran ch eros o f Spanish
d e s c e n t .
C itr u s C ity o f today i s c o n tin u in g to plan a la r g e r
community o f u n u su al c h a r a c te r w ith h igh sta n d a rd s.
CHAPTER V
CONCEPTIONS OP SOCIAL CLASS IN CITRUS CITY
I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n some k n o w le d g e o f t h e c o n c e p
t i o n s o f s o c i a l c l a s s i n C i t r u s C i t y , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i n t h e c i t y a n d t h e m e a n in g o f s o c i a l c l a s s
t o i t s r e s i d e n t s waB s t u d i e d . An a r e a s a m p le o f t h e p o p u l a
t i o n w as r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d a n d i n t e r v i e w e d . A d d i t i o n a l
b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n w as o b t a i n e d fro m L a s s w e l l ’ s s t u d y
w h ic h p r o v i d e d e x c e l l e n t i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f
C i t r u s C i t y . 1
B a c k g r o u n d F a c t o r s
I n T a b l e 4 , t h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n , "How
l o n g h a v e you l i v e d a t t h i s a d d r e s s ? " h a v e b e e n t a b u l a t e d
2
a n d a r e c o m p a re d w i t h t h e r e s p o n s e s I n L a s s w e l l ' s s t u d y .
B o th s t u d i e s show t h a t t h e m e d ia n o f 5 . 0 y e a r s f o r t h e
t o t a l s a m p le I n d i c a t e s t h a t h a l f o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f
C i t r u s C i t y h a d l i v e d a t t h e i r p r e s e n t a d d r e s s f o r f i v e o r
f e w e r y e a r s . The mean o f 1 4 .9 1 y e a r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e
a v e r a g e n u m b er o f y e a r s i n p r e s e n t h o u s i n g w as a l m o s t t h r e e
1L a s s w e l l , " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . , " 227 p p .
2I b l d . , p. 101.
82
83
TABLE 4
NUMBER OF YEARS RESPONDENTS HAD LIVED AT PRESENT ADDRESS
AS COMPARED WITH LASSWELL'S STUDY
Y e a r s Number P e r C e n t
L a s s w e l l 1
Number
s S t u d y — 1952
P e r C e n t
0 - 5
100
5 1 .5
28 5 0 .0
6 -1 0 42
2 1 . T 7 1 2 .5
1 1 -1 9 36
1 8 .6 6 11.0
2 0 -2 9
14 7 . 2
7 1 2 .5
30 and o v e r 2 1 .0 8 1 4 .0
T o t a l 194 10 0.0 56 1 00 .0
M edian: 5 y e a n s M edian: 5 y e a r s
Mean: 1 4 .9 1 y e a r s Mean: 1 1 .38 y e a r s
84
tim es the median f ig u r e . T his -would tend to i n d i c a t e th a t,
w h ile h a l f o f the p o p u la tio n had changed r e s id e n c e w ith in
the p a s t f i v e y e a r s , thoBe who had not moved w ith in th a t
p er io d had occu p ied t h e i r p r e s e n t d w e llin g s fo r a r e l a t i v e l y
long tim e. An i n t e r e s t i n g comparison i s th a t in t h i s stu d y ,
9 .2 p er cen t o f the p erso n s had l i v e d tw enty or more y ea rs
a t the same a d d r ess, whereas in the L a ssw e ll study t h i s was
2 6 .5 per c e n t.
The nu m ber o f y e a r s t h a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s h a d l i v e d
i n t h e C i t r u s C i t y a r e a i s shown i n T a b le 5 . I n c o m p a r in g
t h i s t a b l e w i t h T a b le 4 , i t a p p e a r s t h a t a l a r g e num b er o f
t h e s u b j e c t s l i v e d i n t h e a r e a f o r a l o n g t i m e , e v e n th o u g h
t h e y may n o t h a v e l i v e d a t t h e same a d d r e s s w h e re t h e y a r e
now r e s i d i n g . The d i v e r g e n c e o f t h e mean (3 9 * 1 2 ) fro m t h e
m e d ia n (17 y e a r s ) a g a i n I n d i c a t e s t h a t t h o s e p e r s o n s who
h a d l i v e d i n t h e a r e a f o r m ore t h a n t e n y e a r s h a d p r o b a b l y
l i v e d t h e r e f o r a r e l a t i v e l y lo n g t i m e .
L a s s w e l l d i s c o v e r e d i n h i s s t u d y t h a t t h i r t y - o n e
( f i f t y - f i v e p e r c e n t ) o f t h e f i f t y - s i x f a m i l i e s i n t e r v i e w e d
h a d n o t c h a n g e d d w e l l i n g s s i n c e t h e y e a r o f t h e i r a r r i v a l
i n C i t r u s C i t y . O f t h e f a m i l i e s who h a d l i v e d i n t h e c i t y
f o r s i x o r m ore y e a r s , o n l y f o u r ( e l e v e n p e r c e n t ) h a d
c h a n g e d d w e l l i n g s i n t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s . L a s s w e l l c o n j e c
t u r e s t h a t t h e s e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t e d a n um b er o f h y p o t h e s e s ,
among th em ( l ) t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t s o f s m a l l to w n s c h a n g e
r e s i d e n c e l e s s f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h o s e i n m ore h i g h l y u r b a n -
TABLE 5
NUMBER OF YEARS RESPONDENTS HAD LIVED IN
CITRUS CITY AREA
Y e a rs Number P e r C ent
0 - 5 39
2 0 .1
0
i—i
1
V O
28 1 4 .4
11 -1 9
4 l
1 —I
1— t
CM
2 0 -2 9 36
18.6
30 a n d o v e r 50 2 5 .8
T o t a l 194
100.0
M edian: 17 y e a r s
Mean: 3 9 .1 2 y e a r s
86
i z e d a r e a s , a n d ( 2 ) t h a t v e r t i c a l m o b i l i t y i s n o t a s l i k e l y
to be a c c o m p a n ie d b y a c h an g e i n r e s i d e n c e i n a s m a ll town
a s i t i s i n a l a r g e r u r b a n c e n t e r . 3
T a b le 6 showB a c o m p a ris o n o f t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f
t h e y e a r s o f s c h o o l c o m p le te d f o r t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h i s
s t u d y , t h e C i t r u s C i t y i 960 c e n s u s , and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
i 960 c e n s u s . T h is t a b l e d i s p l a y s a f a i r am ount o f s i m i l a r
i t y i n th e p e r c e n t a g e s f o r y e a r s o f s c h o o l c o m p le te d i n a l l
c a t e g o r i e s e x c e p t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l . T h is d i f f e r e n c e may
b e p a r t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o th e l a r g e num ber o f C i t r u s C o l
l e g e p e r s o n n e l r e s i d i n g i n t h e c i t y , and t h a t t h e d a t a i n
t h i s s t u d y a r e f i v e y e a r s more r e c e n t t h a n t h e c e n s u s d a t a .
T a b le 7 co m p a res t h e p e r c e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a m i l y
in co m es f o r 1959 i n C i t r u s C i t y and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by
u s i n g c e n s u s d a t a . The C i t r u s C i t y f a m i l y in co m es a r e s i m i
l a r to t h o s e o f t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n e x c e p t f o r t h o s e i n
comes o v e r $ 7 ,0 0 0 . T h is d i f f e r e n c e i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n
th e h i g h e r m edian incom e o f $ 6 ,0 1 3 f o r C i t r u s C i ty a s com
p a r e d w ith $ 5 ,4 1 7 f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Incom e f i g u r e s
w ere n o t r e q u e s t e d i n t h i s s t u d y a s i t was c o n s i d e r e d u n
w is e to r e q u e s t t h i s p e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a s i t m ig h t h a v e
an a d v e r s e a f f e c t on t h e i n t e r v i e w and b i a s th e r e s p o n s e s .
A ls o , I f t h e incom e I n f o r m a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d i n t h i s way I t
i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be u n r e l i a b l e .
3I b l d ., p. 104.
87
TABLE 6
A COMPARISON OP THE YEARS OP SCHOOLING COMPLETED FOR
RESPONDENTS, CITRUS CITY CENSUS,
AND THE U .S . CENSUS
Y e a r s o f S c h o o l
C i t y
Sam ple
N=194
C i t r u s
C i t y
N = 3 ^ 7 7
The U .S .
C ensus
i 960
C o m p leted P e r C ent P e r C ent P e r C en t
No S c h o o l Y e a r s C om pleted 2.06
4 .8 7
2 .2 9
E le m e n t a r y : 1 to 4 y e a r s 2 .5 8 5 .9 8 6 .0 6
5 to 7 y e a r s 5 .6 7
9 .9 8
1 3 .8 5
8 y e a r s
1 0 .3 1 1 6 .5 7
1 7 .5 4
H igh S c h o o l: 1 to 3 y e a r s 1 8 .5 6 19 .8 2 19.21
4 y e a r s
2 4 .7 5 1 9 .7 5 2 4 .5 9
C o l l e g e : 1 to 3 y e a r s 1 7 .5 2 11.10
8 .7 9
4 y e a r s o r more
> 1 8 .5 5 1 1 .9 3 7 .6 7
T o t a l 100.00 100.00 100.00
M edian S c h o o l Y e a rs
^ C o m p le te d
12.0
1 0 .9 1 0 .5
88
COMPARISON OF PER CENT
FOR 1959 IN
TABLE 7
DISTRIBUTION OF FAMILIES,
CITRUS CITY AND THE U .S .
BY INCOME
C i t r u s C i t y The U .S .
F a m ily Incom e C en su s
C en sus
U nder $ 1 ,0 0 0 3 .8
5 .1
$ 1 ,0 0 0 t o $ 1 ,9 9 9
4 . 3 8 . 3
$ 2 ,0 0 0 t o $ 2 ,9 9 9 8 . 9 9 . 3
$ 3 ,0 0 0 t o $ 3 ,9 9 9 8 .7
1 0 .1
$ 4 ,0 0 0 t o $ 4 ,9 9 9 1 1 .1
1 1.7
$ 5 ,0 0 0 to $ 5 ,9 9 9 1 3 .0 1 3 .2
$6 ,0 0 0 to $6 ,9 9 9 1 4 .7
11.0
$7 ,0 0 0 to $9 ,9 9 9 2 1 .3 19.1
$ 10,000 a n d o v e r 1 4 .2 1 2 .2
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 100.0
Median Income $6 , 013.00 $ 5 ,4 1 7 .0 0
89
T a b le 8 c o m p a re s t h e p e r c e n t o f em p loy ed p e r s o n s by
o c c u p a t i o n g ro u p f o r t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y , th e
C i t r u s C i t y i 960 c e n s u s , an d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i 960 c e n s u s .
T h is c o m p a ris o n shows c o n s i d e r a b l e o c c u p a t i o n a l s i m i l a r i t i e s
i n a l l g r o u p i n g s e x c e p t t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l , t e c h n i c a l , and
k i n d r e d w o r k e r s , w h ich was l a r g e r ; and th e o p e r a t i v e s and
k i n d r e d w o r k e r s g r o u p i n g , w h ich was s m a l l e r . I n c o m p a ris o n
w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l c e n s u s t h e C i t r u s C i t y sa m p le c o n t a i n e d
more p r o f e s s i o n a l , c l e r i c a l , and s e r v i c e , b u t fe w e r f a r m e r s ,
m a n a g e r s , and o p e r a t i v e s .
A n o th e r c o m p a ris o n r e v e a l s t h a t i n t h i s s t u d y 30*0
p e r c e n t o f t h e em p loy ed p e r s o n s by m a jo r o c c u p a t i o n g ro u p
w ere women, w i t h 3 7 .5 p e r c e n t I n th e C i t r u s C i t y c e n s u s
and 3 3 .3 p e r c e n t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c e n s u s .
T a b le 9 c o m p ares t h e p e r c e n t o f e m p lo y e e s I n th e
l a b o r f o r c e b y i n d u s t r y f o r th e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h i s s t u d y ,
t h e C i t r u s C i t y i 960 c e n s u s , and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i 960
c e n s u s . T h is c o m p a r is o n I n d i c a t e s a s i m i l a r i t y b e tw e e n t h e
sam p le and t h e C i t r u s C i t y c e n s u s i n a l l i n d u s t r i e s b u t n o n
d u r a b l e g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r i n g , and w h o l e s a l e and r e t a i l t r a d e .
S in c e t h e b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t i n t h e c i t y I s s m a ll I t d o e s n o t
p r o v i d e many r e t a i l j o b s , and w h o l e s a l e t r a d e I s even more
l i m i t e d . As was p o i n t e d o u t p r e v i o u s l y , a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n
o f p e r s o n s a r e e n g a g e d I n p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s . I n g e n e r
a l , t h e sam p le c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n e x c e p t
90
TABLE 8
A COMPARISON OF EMPLOYED PERSONS BY M AJOR OCCUPATION GROUP
FOR CITY SAMPLE, CITRUS CITY CENSUS, AND THE U.S. CENSUS
C ity
Sample
N=122
C itrus
City
N=2, 388
The U.S.
Census
I 960
Major Occupation Group Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent
P r o fe s s io n a l, te c h n ic a l,
and kindred workers
2 6 .2 1 8 .5 10.6
Farmers and farm managers 2 .4
0 . 7
6 .0
Managers, o f f i c i a l s , and
p r o p r ie to r s, e x c . farm
6 . 5
5 . 2
1 3 .3
C le r ic a l and kindred
workers
1 2 .3 11.0
7 .0
S a les workers 8 . 2 6 . 1 6 .0
Craftsmen, foremen, and
kindred workers
1 4 .8
1 0 .9
1 8.6
Operatives and kindred
workers
1 1 .5
1 7.8
1 9 .3
P rivate household workers 0 . 0 2 .4 1 .0
Service workers, except
p r iv a te household
1 0 .7
1 4 .2 6 . 4
Farm lab orers and foremen 0 .0
3 . 2
3 .8
Laborers, except farm
and mine
7 .4
7 . 9
8 .0
Occupation not reported 0 . 0 2 .1 0 . 0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
91
TABLE 9
A COMPARISON OF THE PER CENT OF EMPLOYEES IN THE LABOR FORCE
BY INDUSTRY FOR CITY SAMPLE, CITRUS CITY
CENSUS, AND THE U.S. CENSUS
C ity
Sample
N=108
C itrus
C ity
N = 2 ,337
The U.S.
Census
I 960
Labor Force by Industry Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent
A g ric u ltu re , fo r e s tr y ,
and f i s h e r i e s
3 .7 5 .3
9 .6
Mining 0 . 0 0 . 2 1 .2
Contract co n stru ctio n 8 . 4
7 . 1
4 . 2
Durable goods manufacturing 1 4 .8
1 7 .9 1 5 .9
Nondurable goods manufac
turing
1 6 .7 4 . 3
1 2 .3
Transportation, communica
t io n s , and other public
u t i l i t i e s
4 .6 4 . 2
6 . 7
Wholesale and r e t a i l trade 4 .6 1 8 .2
1 9 .1
Finance, in suran ce, and
r e a l e s ta t e
6 . 5
2 .8
4 . 5
B u sin ess and rep a ir s e r v ic e s
0 . 9 1 .9
Personal s e r v ic e s 1 7 .6
6 . 7
Entertainment and r e c r e a
t io n a l s e r v ic e s
0 . 0
0 . 3
> 1 2 .4
P r o fe ssio n a l and r e la te d
s e r v ic e s
2 1 .3
2 8 .2
*
Public adm in istration
0 . 9 2 .9
1 4 .1
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
92
fo r con tract co n stru ctio n , w h o le s a le -r e t a il trade, m is c e l
laneous s e r v ic e s , and public a d m in istra tio n .
Conceptions o f S o c ia l C lass
In order to gain some concept o f the s o c ia l c la s s
system in C itrus City the su b jec ts were asked, "How many so
c i a l c l a s s e s do you think there are in C itrus City?" The
responses to t h is q uestion are l i s t e d by percentages in
Table 10, and they are compared with the responses to a
4
sim ila r question used in L a s sw e ll's study. In the Lass-
w e ll study, twelve respondents reported that they were un
able to d escrib e a c la s s stru ctu re in C itrus C ity. Forty-
three respondents o u tlin e d some pattern o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,
Including four who r e p lie d th at there were no s o c ia l c la s s e s
a t a l l . The number o f c l a s s e s i d e n t i f i e d ranged from two to
seven, with ten persons id e n tify in g two c l a s s e s , s ix r e
spondents Id e n tify in g three c l a s s e s , six id e n tify in g four
c l a s s e s , seven I d e n tify in g f i v e , e ig h t id e n tify in g s ix , and
two Id e n tify in g seven c l a s s e s .
Table 10 i s included only for comparative purposes
sin ce the number o f cases In the Lasswell study does not
warrant a s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t o f s ig n if ic a n c e for the two
s t u d i e s .
The in terv ie w ees were asked to In d ica te on a sc a le
lin e o f ten p o in ts, where they would place them selves in
4
I b id ., p. 109.
93
TABLE 10
A COMPARISON OP THIS STUDY WITH THE LASSWELL STUDY
ON THE NUM3ER OF SOCIAL CLASSES IN CITRUS CITY
S o c i a l C l a s s e s
T h is S tu d y
N=194
L a s s w e l l
N=43
P e r C ent P e r C en t
No c l a s s e s
7 . 7 9 . 3
1 2 .6 0 . 0
2
1 3 . ^ 2 3 .3
3 4 4 .9 1 3 .9
4 1 2 .4
1 3 .9
5
6 . 2 1 6 .3
6 4 .1 18.6
7 o r more 1.0
4 . 7
No a n sw e r
7 . 7
0 . 0
T o t a l 100.0 100.0
94
te r m s o f s o c i a l c l a s s . Number "o n e" s t o o d f o r t h e h i g h e s t
s o c i a l c l a s s and num ber " t e n " f o r t h e lo w e s t s o c i a l c l a s s .
E x c e p t f o r b o t h e n d s o f t h e s c a l e , t h e s e l f - r a t i n g s f e l l
I n t o a n o rm a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T a b le 11 shows how t h e r e s p o n d
e n t s r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s I n t h e s o c i a l c l a s s s y s te m o f C i t r u s
C i t y .
The r e s p o n s e s to t h e q u e s t i o n o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e s o
c i a l c l a s s s y s te m i n C i t r u s C i t y w ere s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e
c o r d e d i n t h e L a s s w e l l s t u d y . I l l u s t r a t i v e a b s t r a c t s from
a few o f t h e i n t e r v i e w s h a v e b e e n I n c l u d e d . One o f th e
i n t e r v i e w e e s l i v e d I n an o l d e r d e t e r i o r a t e d h o u s e I n C i t r u s
C i t y f o r t h i r t y - t h r e e y e a r s , and i n h e r p r e s e n t home f o r
tw e lv e y e a r s :
I g u e s s I fd sa y t h e r e w ere t h r e e c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e .
F i r s t t h e r e a r e t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e tow n, l i k e Ju d s o n
Harms a n d F r a n k Todd. The Todds have b e e n h e r e a long
t i m e . I d o n ’ t t h i n k to o much o f F ra n k Todd, r e a l l y ,
b u t he I s from one o f t h e o l d f a m i l i e s . H e 's a w fu l
young to be [In an i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c o f f i c e ] , J u d s o n
Harms i s a [ p r o f e s s i o n a l man] who j u s t a b o u t r u n s t h i s
town to s u i t h i s t a s t e .
Then t h e r e ' s o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , l i k e D ick Quade o r a l l
t h e Q uades. H is b r o t h e r J a y f i t s I n t h e r e t o o . T h e y 'r e
s t e a d y f o l k s . Oh, I f o r g o t a b o u t Mr, Q u in n --A . R.
Q u in n , t h a t i s . He w ou ld be one o f t h e l e a d e r s . M o s tly
p e o p l e fro m t h e o l d f a m i l i e s a r e . The Q uades a r e an o l d
f a m i l y t o o , and t h e y own some p r o p e r t y , b u t D ic k h a s a l
ways c l e r k e d I n t h e s t o r e f o r t h e Z w e y b r u c k 's . You
o u g h t to t a l k t o Mr. R i c h a r d s o n o v e r on T h i r d S t r e e t .
He c o u ld t e l l you more a b o u t C i t r u s C i t y th a n a n y o n e .
T hen, down a t t h e b o tto m , t h e r e ' s t h i e v e s a n d p e o
p l e l i k e t h a t . I d o n ' t know who any o f them a r e and I
w o u l d n 't w an t t o know. J u s t a s many w h i t e k i d s and
b o y s g e t I n t o m ea n n ess a s M e x ic a n s. T h e i r m o th e rs work
a l l day i n t h e p a c k in g h o u s e and th e y go a r o u n d d o in g
d i r t y w ork a l l o v e r tow n. L ik e th e F i e l d s e s on E a s t
T h ir d S t r e e t . So many o f t h a t k in d o f p e o p le a r e O k ie s
and A r k i e s from A r k a n s a s . They a r e p l e n t y low down.
95
TABLE 11
SELF-RATING IN THE SOCIAL CLASS SYSTEM OF CITRUS CITY
S o c i a l C l a s s e s Number P e r Cent
1
5
2.6
2 6
3 .1
3 23 1 1 .9
4
32
16.5
5 73
3 7 .6
6 28 14 .4
7 13 6 .7
8 2 1.0
9
1
0 .5
10
3
1.6
No s e l f - r a t i n g 8 4 .1
T o ta l
19^
100.0
96
You o u g h t t o l o o k a t t h e way t h e y k e e p t h e i r y a r d s .
P e o p l e l i k e t h a t seem t o d r a w f l i e s i n t h e y a r d . T hen
t h e y go o u t a n d s t e a l t h i n g s , t h e k i d s d o . N o t h i n g t o
a m o u n t t o a n y t h i n g , b u t j u s t t o b e m ean a n d low down
a n d s n e a k y . T h ey d o n ' t do a n y t h i n g , i t se e m s l i k e , b u t
w h a t i s d i r t y . 5
A n o t h e r i n t e r v i e w e e came t o C i t r u s C i t y f i v e y e a r s
b e f o r e w i t h h e r h u s b a n d t o r e t i r e among p e o p l e o f t h e i r r e
l i g i o u s f a i t h . S he d e s c r i b e d s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n t h e f o l l o w
i n g w ay:
I w o u ld s a y t h a t a l l o f t h e p e o p l e t h a t l i v e i n
C i t r u s C i t y a r e e i t h e r u p p e r c l a s s o r m i d d l e c l a s s . I
d o n ' t t h i n k t h a t t h e r e a r e a n y low c l a s s p e o p l e i n t h i s
to w n . T h a t ' s o n e r e a s o n t h a t I came h e r e t o r e t i r e .
F o r t h e u p p e r c l a s s t h e r e a r e t h e F e l s e n t h a l s , who
a r e g r e a t l e a d e r s i n t h e to w n , a l l o f th e m . T hey l i v e
r i g h t n e x t d o o r t o m e. M rs. L y o n s i s M rs . F e l s e n t h a l ' s
s i s t e r , b u t s h e i s n o t n e a r l y t h e s o c i a l l e a d e r t h a t
M rs. F e l s e n t h a l i s . T h e i r f a t h e r w as a B r e t h r e n m i n i s
t e r f o r y e a r s .
Then f o r t h e m i d d l e c l a s s , I w o u ld s a y t h e V o g t s
who l i v e r i g h t a c r o s s t h e s t r e e t . He i s a c a r p e n t e r a n d
s h e u s e d t o [ h o l d an u n c e r t i f i c a t e d a c a d e m ic p o s i t i o n ] .
T hey a r e q u i e t p e o p l e who d o n ' t h a v e many s o c i a l a c t i v i
t i e s b u t t h e y know p l e n t y a n d J u s t a r e n ' t t a l k a t i v e .
I f y o u t a l k e d t o t h o s e two women [M rs. V o g t a n d M rs.
F e l s e n t h a l ] y o u ' d s e e i n a m i n u t e w h a t I m ea n . N ot t h a t
y o u c o u l d n ' t h a v e f i n e f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h b o t h o f th e m ,
l i k e I d o . T h e y 'r e j u s t v e r y d i f f e r e n t . E v e r y o n e
know s t h a t M rs . F e l s e n t h a l i s t h e s o c i a l l e a d e r o f t h e
t o w n .
And t h a t ' s a l l t h e c l a s s e s t h e r e a r e . T h e r e a r e
no low c l a s s p e o p l e i n C i t r u s C i t y a n d i t ' s s o m e t h i n g
t o b e p r o u d o f . °
The f o l l o w i n g i n t e r v i e w w as w i t h a c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r
who h a d b e e n t e a c h i n g a t C i t r u s C o l l e g e f o r s i x y e a r s , a n d
l i v i n g i n t h e same o l d e r a v e r a g e home f o r t h e p a s t f i v e
y e a r s . H is com m ents w e re a s f o l l o w s :
5I b i d . , p . 111. 6 I b i d . , p. 112.
97
This i s where many Brethren come to r e t i r e , and i t
makes i t a l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t to d escrib e the c l a s s system
o f the t o t a l community. Many o f those who come here to
r e t i r e are prominent f ig u r e s — n a tio n a lly prominent,
som etim es--w ithin the church, but not so much in the
community. Money makes some p eople, but not a l l o f
them.
The "four hundred" as you might c a l l i t , i s prob
ably a t the top s o c i a l l y - - t h e y have money and beach and
mountain houses, and they g iv e a l o t o f p a r t ie s . Jud
son Harms i s one o f them, and Dr. Anderson, Dr. Weide,
and the Zewybrucks.
The c o lle g e and church group d on 't have the money
or the trimmings or the high s o c ia l l i f e , but I 'd say
they have a good deal more p r e s t ig e . T. C. Pyle i s
one o f the lead ers in t h is c l a s s , along with Aaron
Fecht. In f a c t , the whole Pecht fam ily could q u a lify
fo r t h is c l a s s . Then Mrs. V olnagel i s one o f t h is
group, too.
There’s a middle c l a s s made up o f old s e t t l e r s ,
who j u s t seem to enjoy l i f e . They l i v e q u ie tly and go
to church r e g u la r ly , and everybody knows them and l i k e s
them, but they ju s t d on't have any p r e s tig e p a r tic u
la r l y .
Then there are the Okies and A rk ies. They have
t h e ir own church h ere. I t ' s a Southern B a p tis t Church.
Some people d on't lik e them, but I think th e y 'r e a l l
r ig h t . They d on 't have anything, but they had enough
ambition to b u ild a very n ic e l i t t l e church--and l e t me
t e l l you not a businessman in town put a dime Into I t .
They're not ever represented at the union [church]
m eetings. I d on 't think t h e ir p astor has ever been i n
v ite d to Join the m in is t e r ia l a s s o c ia tio n in town.
At the bottom are the lower or n o n -a s s o c ia tiv e peo
p le . They d on't belong to any church. They seem to be
s e lf - c e n t e r e d , don't even mix with each o th e r. Some o f
them are factory workers in X____________ . They Just
come here to l i v e and enjoy the p lea sa n t community that
o th ers have made, but they d o n 't take a share in the
p leasu re o f working to g eth er to make I t that w a y .'
Another Interview ee had liv e d in C itru s C ity for
ten y ea r s, although he had moved Into one o f the new homes
with h is fam ily f iv e years ago. He described s o c ia l c l a s s e s
as follow s:
7I b i d ., pp. 113-114.
98
The people who are considered to be the top c la s s
in t h i s town are a snobbish, c liq u is h l o t . They don't
know who you are and they d on 't care who you are. As
fa r as th e y 'r e concerned nobody e l s e l i v e s in t h is
town t h a t 's worth knowing. I'm ta lk in g about Judson
Harms and that crowd.
Then th e r e 's a r e l i g i o u s bunch. They're a l o t o f
se lf-im p o r ta n t old busy b o d ie s. One old biddy h o lle r e d
a t my w ife for smoking in the car downtown. They're
always so sure everybody's going to h e l l i f i t looks
lik e th e y 'r e enjoying them selves. As far as th e y 'r e
concerned, i f you d o n 't belong to the Brethren Church
you're p f f t . They r a is e d a b ig s tin k about the square
dancing a t the Legion hut.
Then t h e r e 's a middle c la s s o f average people lik e
us--som e o f them make p r e tty good money--and we don't
hurt anybody and mind our own b u sin e ss and try to g et
some enjoyment out o f l i f e .
At the bottom i s a lower c l a s s . You see them down
around Second S t r e e t . I saw a d ir ty l i t t l e g i r l down
there yesterd ay in a d ress that was too short and no
u n d er clo th e s. Her mother waB r ig h t in the back yard
where she could see her and she d id n 't even care.
There's always a house f u l l o f d ir ty k id s . They're a l l
Okies and A r k ie s --d ir ty as can be and always s t e a lin g
th in g s. One o f t h e ir k id s s t o l e my b oy's b ic y c le and
I knew Just where i t had gone. I walked r ig h t down
on Second S tr e e t , and sure enough, there i t was, s i t
tin g r ig h t out on the porch. I Just walked r ig h t up
and took i t back w ithout saying anything to anybody.
I knew they were looking through the windows but they
d id n 't dare to come o u t.
I d on 't think that the people in C itrus City have
much to do with what c la s s a person belongs to . I
think th e y 're th at way when they g et h ere. E ith er they
or t h e ir fa m ilie s belonged to th a t c la s s long b efore
they ever came h ere, and they Just stay th at way.°
Another in te r v ie w was with a woman who appeared to
be in her la t e t h i r t i e s who had liv e d in C itrus C ity for
tw e n ty -six y ea r s. Her home was one o f the o ld e r average
d w e llin g s, but i t had Just been remodeled e x t e n s iv e ly . Her
o b servation s about s o c ia l c la s s e s were as fe llo w s:
8I b i d . , p. 114.
99
Our fam ily has been here a long, long tim e. Of
course we know a l l o f the important people In town very
w e ll. I 'd rath er not name anyone as being a sso c ia te d
w ith a p a r tic u la r c l a s s i f I thought i t would r e f l e c t
on them In any way.
Of course I wouldn't mind t e l l i n g you who the le a d
ing fa m ilie s are. They d is t in g u is h them selves through
th e ir p a r t ic ip a t io n in church a c t i v i t i e s . They are c u l
tured, w ell-ed u ca ted p eop le. They are the lea d ers in
c i v i c a f f a i r s . The Grishams, Prank Todd, the Reverend
Mr. S teb b in s, Mr. V e tte r , and Dr. Jahraus are c e r t a in ly
prominent and b r i l l i a n t p eople. And, o f course, Judson
Harms and Dr. Anderson are two o f the f i n e s t gentlemen
in town. They have Btrength o f character and great
stamina and f o r c e fu ln e s s . Both o f them are p e r f e c tly
charming.
Then there i s another group that iB c e r t a in ly made
up o f fin e p eop le, but they lack the stren g th and the
d r iv e -- n o t th at there I s anything In the world wrong
with them, and I wouldn't have you think for a minute
that I ’m c r i t i c i z i n g them In any way a t a l l . They are
ju s t not q u ite as sp a rk lin g . They have very p leasan t
ways and ev ery th in g , but you d on 't think o f them as
o u tsta n d in g . They j u s t a r e n ’t as a c t iv e . Chauncey and
C urtis Wehrle belong in t h i s group, and the F ich ten -
walds and the Marion W illiam s fam ily. A ctu a lly they
a s s o c ia t e w ith the o th ers that I mentioned, but they
are u s u a lly in the background. C ertain ly no one would
think th at they a r e n 't j u s t as n ice as the o th e r s.
Then there are middle c la s s p eop le. I d on't think
I would want to mention any o f th e ir names. Most o f
them are ju s t as honest and earn est as you would want
anyone to be. They are ju s t people who don't q u ite
know how to do th in g s. Lots o f them come to church,
some d o n 't. You wouldn't want to think o f your c h i l
dren marrying them, somehow. You'd f e e l lik e you'd
f a i l e d i f they did . And y e t you c a n 't o b je c t to them
dating In that group. They lack im agin ation . Most o f
them c a n 't think beyond a s a la r ie d p o s it io n . I f you
must know, E sther Traudt i s one o f th ese persons. I
f e e l t e r r ib le fo r having to ld you. I wish you would
erase th a t. PromiBe me you won't t e l l anyone.
Then there are some people that could be c a lle d
d e f i n i t e l y u n d e sira b le. They scream a t one another and
use bad language r ig h t out In pu b lic sometimes. They
are always squabbling among the members o f t h e ir fam ily.
They have no i n t e r e s t in anything c o n stru c tiv e and do
nothing for the community. They have a low standard o f
liv in g because they ju s t d on't care. They c a n 't take
proper care o f the th in gs they do_ have.
100
No, I w a s n 't I n c l u d i n g th e M exicans i n any o f t h e s e
g r o u p s . I h a d n ' t e v en t h o u g h t o f them , t o be f r a n k .
They p r e f e r t o l i v e a p a r t from t h e com m unity. They
h a v e a low s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g , t o o . I su p p o s e you c o u ld
d i v i d e them i n t o S p a n i s h and M e x ic a n s. The S p a n is h fam
i l i e s , l i k e th e J i m i n e z f a m i l y and th e Z am oras, d o n ' t
w an t t o be M e x ic a n s . Then t h e r e a r e j u s t p l a i n M ex ican s
t h a t d o n ' t even p r e t e n d to b e S p a n i s h , l i k e t h e H e rn a n
d e z f a m i l y , t h e V e l a s q u e z , a n d t h e V a sq u e z . Some o f
them do v e ry w e l l o u t a t E s t r e l l a [High S c h o o l ] , b u t
a f t e r t h e y g r a d u a t e t h e y go b a c k to b e i n g , w e l l , J u s t
M e x ic a n s .
The new er p e o p le i n town a r e no d i f f e r e n t from th e
o l d e r r e s i d e n t s . They a r e u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d when t h e y
a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n b e i n g a c c e p t e d , a l t h o u g h some p e o p le
d o n ' t t h i n k s o . 9
The f i v e i n t e r v i e w s sum m arized abov e w ere a l l w ith
n o n -M e x ica n p e r s o n s . The f i n a l i n t e r v i e w r e p o r t e d was w ith
a woman o f M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n d e s c e n t who h ad l i v e d i n C i t r u s
C i t y f o r t h i r t y - o n e y e a r s . She l i v e d i n a f o u r - r o o m h o u se
i n M exican Town w i t h h e r h u s b a n d and two s c h o o l - a g e d a u g h
t e r s . H er comments a b o u t s o c i a l c l a s s e s w ere a s f o l l o w s :
R e l i g i o n i s a p r e v a i l i n g f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g s o
c i a l c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y . T h ere i s an e s p e c i a l l y
g r e a t am ount o f r e l i g i o u s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n among t h e n o n -
M exican p o p u l a t i o n o f C i t r u s C i t y . Most C a t h o l i c s a r e
a s c e t i c s , so i t i s to be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e r e w ould be
l e s s c l a s s f e e l i n g among my p e o p l e . How ever, t h e r e a r e
v e r y few C a t h o l i c s among th e n o n -M e x ica n p o p u l a t i o n and
h e n c e th e s t a t u s l a d d e r i s more d i s t i n c t . Even s o , t h e
n o n -M e x ica n C a t h o l i c s do n o t go t o c h u rc h h e r e [ i n M exi
can Town], b u t r a t h e r go to X_____________ to a t t e n d mass
and for c o n fe s s io n . They do not r e a lly con sid er them
s e lv e s as a part o f t h i s p a r ish , and n e ith e r does the
p r ie B t .
The o t h e r s [ n o n - C a t h o l i c , n o n -M e x ic a n ] may b e s e p a
r a t e d i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s : u p p e r , m id d le , and l o w e r . In
t h e u p p e r c l a s s , t h e r e a r e t h e g re e d y m o n e y - s e e k e r s .
Then, a l s o , b u t c o n s i d e r e d b e n e a t h them by t h e g r e e d y
o n e s , a r e t h e s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and p r o f e s s o r s . They a r e
s l m p a t l c o and a r e t r u l y f i n e p e o p le a l t h o u g h t h e y h av e
9I b l d . , pp. 115- 116.
io a
no w is h to d i s p l a y t h e i r pow er and do n o t h av e w e a l t h .
Then b e n e a t h t h e s e , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s t h e y th em
s e l v e s w ould n o t a g r e e t o i t , a r e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
o f f i c i a l s . The o f f i c i a l s and t h e m o n e y - s e e k e r s t o g e t h e r
a r e s n o b s , and do n o t c a r e much f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e
p o o r o r th e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d o n e s .
H ow ever, I have a l r e a d y named t h r e e c l a s s e s o f p e r
so n s and t h e r e i s y e t a n o t h e r . T hese a r e t h e l a b o r e r s
and f r u i t g r o w e r s . They a r e n o t i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e , b u t
th e y a r e n o t s l m p a t l c o e i t h e r .
I f one h a s a l a r g e in c o m e , h i s e d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e
m en ts a r e o f no i m p o r t a n c e , and i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r one
t o h o l d a h i g h p o s i t i o n even th o u g h h i s e d u c a t i o n a l
b a c k g ro u n d may n o t f a v o r su c h a p o s i t i o n .
I c a n n o t s a y who t h e p e o p le who o c c u p y t h e s e s t a
t u s e s i n t h e town a r e , b u t you c an e a s i l y se e who I
mean f o r you know them a s w e l l a s I . You know who th e
g r e e d y a r e , and th e o f f i c i a l s , and t h e t e a c h e r s , even
th o u g h you may n o t know th e l a b o r e r s f o r t h e i r names
a r e o f l i t t l e c o n s e q u e n c e .
As f o r t h e M exican p o p u l a t i o n , t h e r e a r e u n d o u b t e d l y
b ad e le m e n t s i n th e com m unity. T h e re i s an u n d e r l y i n g
f a c t o r w hich c o n t r i b u t e s t o s u c h b e h a v i o r ; n a m e ly , r e
s e n tm e n t f o r law and o r d e r . F o r t h e r e s t o f u s , we a r e
c o n t e n t and do n o t s e e k r e t r i b u t i o n . I h a v e no v o i c e
o r v o t e , y e t I am a l a w - a b i d i n g c i t i z e n . I h a v e n e v e r
b e e n i n a p o s i t i o n to r e q u e s t a i d from t h e f e d e r a l g o v
e rn m e n t, b u t I h av e o f t e n s a c r i f i c e d my s o c i a l p o s i t i o n
to g e t b y . I now a i d t h e Red C r o s s and o t h e r c h a r i t a b l e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Ab f a r a s.m y n e i g h b o r s a r e c o n c e r n e d ,
t h e y a r e a l l f i n e p e o p l e . 0
The i n t e r v i e w e e s w ere a s k e d , " I n t h i n k i n g o f y o u r
s e l f i n a s o c i a l c l a s s s e t t i n g , w hat s p e c i a l w o rd s w ould you
u s e i n d e s c r i b i n g y o u r s o c i a l c l a s s ? " The r e s p o n s e s to t h i s
q u e s t i o n a r e shown i n T a b le 12. T h ree o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s
m e n tio n e d by f o u r t e e n i n f o r m a n t s w ere a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e c o n o
m ic s t a t u s : p o o r , n o t p o o r , and w e a l t h , money o r in c o m e .
S ix r e s p o n d e n t s l i s t e d t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s w hich a r e n e c e s s a r
i l y d e p e n d e n t upon econom ic s t a t u s : c h u rc h m em b ersh ip , l e a d
e r s h i p , and num ber o f c h i l d r e n . F i f t y - s i x p e r s o n s s u g g e s t e d
1QI b i d ., pp. 117-118.
102
TABLE 12
TERM S USED BY RESPONDENTS TO DESCRIBE THEIR SOCIAL CLASS
Times
Term U^ed Mentioned Per Cent
Above a v e r a g e
3
1 .2 4
A d e q u a te
9
3 .7 2
A m b itio u s 1 o . 4 i
A verag e 21 8 .6 8
C hurch m em b ersh ip 4
1,65
C o m fo r ta b le 21 8 .6 8
Common p e o p le 2
0 .8 3
E d u c a ti o n
7 2 .8 9
Good 6 2 .4 8
Good C h r i s t i a n 1 0 .4 1
Happy 4 1 .65
H ard work 2 O.83
Home ty p e 2
O.83
L e a d e r s h i p 1 0 . 4 l
Low c l a s s
5 2 .0 7
L o w e r-m id d le c l a s s 8
3 .3 1
M id dle c l a s s
79 3 2 .6 5
Not p o o r 6 2 .4 8
Number o f c h i l d r e n 1 0 .4 1
P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n com m unity 1 0 .4 1
P o o r
3
1 .2 4
P r o f e s s i o n a l
7 2 .8 9
S o c i a b i l i t y 1 0 . 4 l
U p p er c l a s s 6 2 .4 8
U p p e r -m id d le c l a s s 10 4 .1 3
V o c a tio n o r c a r e e r 1 0 .4 1
W e a lth , money, o r incom e
5 2 .0 7
W hite c o l l a r 2 O.83
W orking c l a s s 6 2 .4 8
D on’ t know
17
7 .0 2
T o ta l 242 100.00
103
q u a l i t i e s which are u s u a lly considered to be in t e n t io n a lly
achieved by t h e ir p o s s e s s o r s , such as: adequateness, ambi
tio n , com fortablen ess, ed u cation, happin ess, goodness, a
good C h r istia n , hard work, a home type, p a r tic ip a tio n in
community a f f a i r s , s o c i a b i l i t y , and v o ca tio n . One hundred
and fo r ty -n in e respondents d escribed t h e ir s o c ia l c l a s s in
the fo llo w in g terms: above average, average, common p eop le,
low c l a s s , lower-m iddle c l a s s , middle c l a s s , p r o f e s s io n a l
claBB, upper c l a s s , upper-middle c l a s s , white c o l la r c l a s s ,
and working c l a s s .
In LaBSwell'B study1^ a sim ila r q u estio n was asked,
"How do you think people g e t in to th ese cla sses? " He found
three c r i t e r i a mentioned by informants a s s o c ia te d with econ
omic sta tu s: fin a n c ia l independence, u n fa ir ta x e s, and
w ealth or money. On the other hand, a ltru ism , church a c
t i v i t y , church membership, p a r t ic ip a t io n in community p r o j
e c t s , good c i t iz e n s h ip , le a d e rsh ip , lodge membership, mind
t h e ir own b u sin e ss, moral r ig h te o u sn e ss, p r e s t ig e , rep u ta
t io n , s o c i a b i l i t y , and s o c ie t y a c t i v l t i e s - - f a c t o r s not
n e c e s s a r ily dependent upon economic sta tu s--w e r e mentioned
th ir ty -o n e tim es. Twenty-two persons l i s t e d q u a l i t i e s over
which a su b ject had l i t t l e or no c o n tr o l, such as fam ily or
b ir t h , length o f r e sid e n c e , p lace o f b ir th , and church mem
b e rsh ip . T h irty -th ree respondents suggested q u a l i t i e s which
1]T b i d . , p. 122.
104
are u s u a lly considered to be in t e n t io n a lly achieved by th e ir
p o s s e s s o r s , such as: a ltru ism , am bition, church a c t i v i t y ,
p a r t ic ip a t io n in community a f f a i r s , education, good c i t i z e n
sh ip , mind t h e ir own b u sin e ss, moral r ig h te o u sn e ss, repu ta
t io n , s o c i a b i l i t y , s o c ie t y a c t i v i t i e s , v o ca tio n , and hard
work.
L assw ell drew the fo llo w in g co n clu sio n s on the c r i
t e r i a for s o c i a l c l a s s assignment in C itrus City:
I t may be concluded from the v a r ie ty and d is t r ib u
tio n o f the suggested c r i t e r i a th at there i s no general
agreement among the r e s id e n ts o f C itrus C ity as to the
fa c to r s re sp o n sib le fo r c l a s s placement o f in d iv id u a ls .
Some o f the r e p l i e s in d ic a te d that c l a s s was a product
o f p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t ic s or a t t r ib u t e s , o th ers
th a t i t was a s s o c ia te d with b eh a v io rs, and a few that
i t r e s u lte d from s o c ia l treatm en ts. I t i s p o s s ib le
th at a l l th ese elem ents are p resen t in the c l a s s s t e r e o
types r e g a r d le s s o f which element an informant con sid ers
as c a u s a l--th u s a c l a s s stereo ty p e may be thought o f as
c o n s is t in g o f a mental p ic tu r e o f what a person i s ,
what he d o es, and how o th e rs behave toward him.
The s it u a tio n w ith in which personal q u a l i t i e s , b e
h a v io rs and treatm ents are judged are a lso evaluated by
h is fe llo w c i t i z e n s along a continuum o f importance.
Certain s it u a t io n s may be thought o f as e s p e c ia ll y r e
la te d to c la s s placement, or e s p e c ia ll y s i g n i f i c a n t as
determ iners o f c l a s s . Leisure time p u r s u its , t a s t e s in
food and d r e s s, ta b le manners, r e lig i o u s b eh aviors, b e
h avior toward fam ily members, and oth er such areas o f
a c t i v i t y may suggest a wide v a r ie ty o f s it u a tio n s in
which the members o f stereotyp ed c l a s s e s are expected to
behave or to be tr e a te d . As an in c r e a sin g amount o f
Importance i s assigned to an area o f a c t i v i t y by any
e v a lu a to r , the lik e lih o o d o f a more rigorou s d e lim ita
tio n o f accep tab le behavior and treatm ents on h is part
becomes g r e a te r .
The persons in terview ed in C itru s C ity gave e v i
dence that they h eld such ste r e o ty p e s I n d iv id u a lly , but
there was l i t t l e In d ica tio n that the elem ents which made
up the ste r e o ty p e s c o n sis te d o f g e n e r a lly agreed upon
s p e c i f i c b eh a v io rs, treatm ents, or c h a r a c t e r is t ic s .
Furthermore, there was ample evidence th at the number o f
105
c l a s s ste r e o ty p e s h eld by d i f f e r e n t members o f the com
munity varied c o n s id e r a b ly .12
The m o st f r e q u e n t l y u s e d te r m s t o d e s c r i b e s o c i a l
c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y i n c l u d e d m id d le c l a s s , a v e r a g e ,
l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s , an d u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s . T hese f o u r
te r m s c o m p r is e d 4 8 .8 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e s . I n a d d i
t i o n , t h e m id d le r a n g e o f s e l f - r a t i n g s , s o c i a l c l a s s e s f i v e
and s i x , c o m p r is e d 5 2 .1 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l r a t i n g s .
Thus, the d e s c r ip t iv e terms fo r s o c i a l c l a s s and the s e l f -
r a tin g s d isp la y ed c o n sid era b le agreement. In s p it e o f the
f a c t th a t th ere was a v a r ie t y o f terms to d esc rib e s o c i a l
c l a s s e s in C itru s C ity , g en er a l consensus was ev id e n t fo r
the middle c l a s s .
Summary
An area sample o f the p o p u la tio n o f C itru s C ity was
prepared, and one hundred and n in e ty -fo u r persons were ran
domly s e le c t e d to be in te rv ie w ed according to a focused i n
terv iew sch ed u le. The purpose o f the in te r v ie w s was to ob
ta in a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f the con cep tion s o f s o c i a l c l a s s
held by the r e s id e n ts o f the community, to determine the
p a tte r n s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n th at e x i s t e d , to estim a te
the number o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s , to secure s e l f - r a t i n g s in the
s o c i a l c l a s s system , and to d isc o v e r the terms used to d e
s c r ib e s o c i a l c l a s s e s In C itru s C ity . The background f a c
to r s Included: the number o f y ea rs respondents liv e d at
12I b i d . , pp. 124-125.
106
p r e s e n t addreBS, number o f y e a r s l i v e d i n th e C it r u s C ity
a r e a , number o f y e a r s o f s c h o o li n g c o m p le te d , range o f
fa m ily in com e, number o f em ployed p e r s o n s by m ajor o c c u p a
t i o n g r o u p s , number o f em p lo y ee s in th e la b o r f o r c e by i n
d u s t r y , s e v e r a l i l l u s t r a t i v e i n t e r v i e w a b s t r a c t s , and num
e r o u s co m p a riso n s b etw een L a s s w e l l ' s stu d y and t h i s stu d y
o f C it r u s C i t y .
The n u m b e r o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e
r e s p o n d e n t s r a n g e d f r o m n o n e t o e i g h t , w i t h 4 4 . 9 p e r c e n t
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e t h r e e s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s
C i t y .
T he m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t e r m s t o d e s c r i b e s o c i a l
c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y i n c l u d e d m i d d l e c l a s s , a v e r a g e ,
l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s , a n d u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s , a n d t h e s e
t e r m s c o m p r i s e d 4 8 . 8 p e r c e n t o f a l l t h e r e s p o n s e s . T he
m i d d l e r a n g e o f s e l f - r a t i n g s i n c l u d e d c l a s s e s f i v e a n d s i x ,
a n d t h e s e c o m p r i s e d 5 2 , 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l r a t i n g s .
The agreem ent betw een d e s c r i p t i v e term s f o r s o c i a l c l a s s e s
and s e l f - r a t i n g s i n d i c a t e d g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s f o r th e m id d le
c l a s s in C it r u s C it y .
CHAPTER VI
STRATIFICATION IN CITRUS CITY
The second o b je c tiv e to be achieved by means o f em
p i r i c a l research was to s t r a t i f y a random sample o f persons
in the community according to th e ir assigned s ta tu s ranks
and a s s o c ia t io n a l p a tter n s o f behavior. To accomplish t h is
g o a l the same random sample o f one hundred and n in e ty -fo u r
persons was used as in the study o f the nature o f c l a s s
str u c tu r e in C itru s C ity and the meaning o f s o c ia l c l a s s to
i t s r e s id e n ts . The tw o -fa cto r Index o f S o c ia l P o sitio n
(ISP) was s e le c te d for d iv id in g the community in to f iv e
s o c i a l c l a s s c a te g o r ie s .
Table 13 shows the means (X) o f the f iv e ISP c la s s e s
fo r the fo llo w in g c a te g o r ie s : age o f the s u b je c ts , years o f
education completed, number o f c h ild re n , number o f years
liv e d at the p resen t address, number o f years liv e d in the
C itru s C ity area, number o f s o c ia l c l a s s e s , and the s o c ia l
c l a s s s e l f - r a t i n g .
Age i s u s u a lly considered an important c r it e r io n
fo r a ssig n in g persons to s o c ia l c a te g o r ie s , sin ce i t i s
prim arily defined s o c i a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y . 1 However, the
^Lasswell, C lass and Stratum . . . , p. 8.
107
108
TABLE 13
MEANS FOR IS P CLASSES IN SELECTED CATEGORIES
T f o r IS P C a t e g o r i e s
C a te g o ry I I I I I I IV V
Age o f s u b j e c t s
4 9 .3
4 1 . 2 3 9 .4
4 7 .3
5 5 .2
Y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n
c o m p le te d
1 7 .1
1 6 .3 1 2 .8
1 0 .9
7 .4
Number o f c h i l d r e n
3 .^
2 .1
2 .9
2 .6
3 .7
Y e a rs l i v e d a t
p r e s e n t a d d r e s s
5 .2
6 . 5
9 . 2
7 . 9 9 .3
Y e a r s l i v e d i n
C i t r u s C i t y a r e a
1 6 .2 1 7 .6
1 4 .9
1 7 .2
3 0 .7
Number o f s o c i a l
c l a s s e s i n c i t y
4 .6
3 .3 3 .1
2 .8 2 .4
S o c i a l c l a s s s e l f -
r a t i n g
3 .6 4 . 5
4 .6
5 .1
5 .4
Number i n e a c h
IS P c a t e g o r y
10 30 68 42 44
109
a g e o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s p e r s e d i d n o t se e m t o show a n y s i g
n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e o l d e r a n a d u l t i s ,
t h e f e w e r y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n h e i s l i k e l y t o h a v e com -
2
p l e t e d . When a g e a n d y e a r s o f s c h o o l c o m p l e t e d a r e com
p a r e d , a r e l a t i o n s h i p a p p e a r s f o r c l a s s e s I I I , IV , a n d V,
b u t n o t f o r c l a s s e s I a n d I I . C l a s s I h a d t h e m o s t y e a r s
o f s c h o o l c o m p l e t e d , b u t I t d i d n o t h a v e t h e y o u n g e s t a v e r
a g e a g e o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
T h i s d i s c r e p a n c y may b e d u e i n p a r t t o t h e s m a l l n u m b e r o f
p e r s o n s a s s i g n e d t o c l a s s I .
The a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n r a n g e d f r o m a low o f
2 . 1 f o r c l a s s I I , t o a h i g h o f 3 . 7 f o r c l a s s V. E x c e p t f o r
c l a s s I , a n d s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n f o r c l a s s I I , t h e r e w as an i n
c r e a s e I n t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n f r o m c l a s s I I t o
c l a s s V.
I n a p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r I t w as o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e me
d i a n o f 5 . 0 y e a r s f o r t h e t o t a l s a m p le I n d i c a t e d t h a t h a l f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f C i t r u s C i t y h a s l i v e d i n t h e i r p r e s e n t
h o u B in g f o r f i v e o r f e w e r y e a r s . The m ean o f 1 4 . 9 y e a r s
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f y e a r s a t t h e p r e s e n t
a d d r e s s w as a l m o s t t h r e e t i m e s t h e m e d ia n f i g u r e . T h i s
w o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t , w h i l e h a l f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d c h a n g e d
r e s i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s , t h o s e who h a d n o t
m oved w i t h i n t h a t p e r i o d h a d o c c u p i e d t h e i r p r e s e n t d w e l l i n g
2I b i d . , p . 416.
110
f o r a r e l a t i v e l y lo n g tim e . I n r e l a t i n g t h i s to th e s o c i a l
c l a s s e s , T ab le 13 shows t h a t t h e num ber o f y e a r s l i v e d a t
th e p r e s e n t a d d r e s s r a n g e d from a low o f 5 .2 f o r c l a s s I ,
to a h ig h o f 9 . 3 y e a r s f o r c l a s s V. T h is w ould te n d to i n
d i c a t e more m o b i l i t y f o r c l a s s e s I and I I , and l e s s m o b i l i t y
f o r c l a s s e s I I I , IV, and V.
In com paring th e number o f y e a r s l i v e d a t p r e s e n t
a d d r e s s w ith t h e number o f y e a r s th e r e s p o n d e n t s l i v e d in
th e C i t r u s C i ty a r e a , th e m ost n o t i c e a b l e I n c r e a s e a p p e a re d
i n c l a s s V, and s m a l l e s t I n c r e a s e a p p e a re d In c l a s s I I I .
I n th e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r i t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e m edian
num ber o f y e a r s th e s u b j e c t s had l i v e d i n t h e c i t y a r e a was
17.0 y e a r s , and th e mean was 39.1 y e a r s .
The f i r s t s t e p to w a rd s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o c c u r s
when a p e r s o n g r a s p s t h e i d e a t h a t he I s c a t e g o r i c a l l y d i f
f e r e n t from some o t h e r p e r s o n . As c o n c e p t u a l i z e d c a t e g o
r i e s I n c r e a s e , and a s c o n s e n s u s a r i s e s w i t h r e s p e c t to d i f
f e r e n t i a l r o l e - e x p e c t a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f p e r
so n s I n v a r i o u s k in d s o f s i t u a t i o n s , s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
comes i n t o e x i s t e n c e . Where t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
t h e r e can be no s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . In o r d e r to r e l a t e to
a p e rs o n o r an o b j e c t , one m ust f i r s t a t t a c h a m eaning to
t h a t p e rs o n o r o b j e c t ; and p r e r e q u i s i t e to m eaning i s d i s
c r i m i n a t i o n . I f an i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from
o t h e r I n d i v i d u a l s , he h a s no m eaning a s a p e r s o n and one
I l l
■ 3
cannot r e la t e to him as a person.-*
Every s o c ie t y has w ithin I t s c u ltu r a l b e l i e f s and
behaviors some p a ttern s o f s o c ia l d is t in c t i o n which are a l
most u n iv e r s a lly b e lie v e d to be im portant, even though they
may have no s p e c ia l le g a l fo rm a liza tio n . A s p e c ia l meaning
or f e e l in g i s o fte n attached to c a te g o r ie s such as s p in
s t e r s , i l l e g i t i m a t e c h ild r e n , mothers, b ig a m ists, c a p it a l-
4
i s t s , and many o th e r s .
Meaning r e fe r s to the r e la t io n o f an o b je c t, symbol,
or o th e r stim ulus to o n e's present concepts in an acceptab le
way. Meaning i s not only p erson al, as there a lso can be
shared meanings, based on common concepts and on the p re
se n ta tio n o f common concepts and on the p resen ta tio n o f com
mon s t im u li. Thus, the g rea ter the I n t e n s it y , frequency,
d uration , and p r io r it y o f in te r a c tio n among persons, the
more common concepts expected, and the more common concepts
among persons, the g re a te r lik e lih o o d that they w i l l e x p e r i-
ence shared meanings upon r e c e iv in g the same stim u lu s.
Perhaps the most c ite d referen ce on the d i f f e r e n t i a l
meanings o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s that part o f Deep South which
re p o r ts the d e sc r ip tio n o f the s o c ia l c la s s system as made
by persons in each o f the s ix c la s s e s d e lin e a ted in that
M is s is s ip p i town. Davis and the Gardners comment that:
While members o f a l l c la s s groups recognize c la s s e s
above and below them, or both, the g re a te r the s o c ia l
3I b i d . , p. 117. ^ I b id ., p. 120. 5Ibid_.
112
d i s t a n c e from t h e o t h e r c l a s s e s t h e l e s s c l e a r l y a r e
f i n e d i s t i n c t i o n s made. A lth o u g h an i n d i v i d u a l r e c o g
n i z e s m o st c l e a r l y th e e x i s t e n c e o f g r o u p s im m e d ia te ly
above and b e lo w h i s own, he i s u s u a l l y n o t aw are o f th e
s o c i a l d i s t a n c e a c t u a l l y m a i n t a i n e d b e tw e e n h i s own and
t h e s e a d j a c e n t g r o u p s . T h u s, i n a l l c a s e s e x c e p t t h a t
o f members o f t h e u p p e r - l o w e r c la s B t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e e s
o n l y a minimum o f s o c i a l d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n h i s c l a s s and
th e a d j a c e n t c l a s s e s . . . . A lm ost a l l o t h e r c l a s s d i
v i s i o n s , h o w e v e r, a r e v i s u a l i z e d a s d e f i n i t e l i n e s o f
c l e a v a g e i n t h e s o c i e t y w i t h a l a r g e am ount o f s o c i a l
d i s t a n c e b e tw e e n them .
I n g e n e r a l , t o o , I n d i v i d u a l s v i s u a l i z e c l a s s g r o u p s
above them l e s s c l e a r l y t h a n t h o s e below them ; th e y
t e n d t o m in im iz e t h e s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s b e tw e e n
t h e m s e lv e s and t h o s e a b o v e . . . . I n v iew o f t h i s s i t u
a t i o n i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e two
u p p e r s t r a t a make t h e f i n e s t g r a d a t i o n s i n th e s t r a t i
f i c a t i o n o f t h e w hole s o c i e t y and t h a t c l a s s d i s t i n c ~
t l o n s a r e made w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p r e c i s i o n a s s o c i a l p o
s i t i o n becom es lo w e r " [ I t a l i c s m in e . J
N ot o n l y doeB th e p e r s p e c t i v e on s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a
t i o n v a r y f o r d i f f e r e n t c l a s s l e v e l s , b u t t h e b a s e s o f
c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h e s o c i e t y a r e v a r i o u s l y i n t e r
p r e t e d by th e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s . P e o p le te n d to a g r e e
a s t o w here p e o p le a r e b u t n o t upon why th e y a r e t h e r e .
The i d e n t i t y o f a s o c i a l c l a s s d o e s n o t d e p e n d on
u n i f o r m i t y i n a n y o n e o r tw o, o r a d o z e n , s p e c i f i c k i n d s
o f b e h a v i o r b u t on a com plex p a t t e r n o r n e tw o rk o f i n
t e r r e l a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a t t i t u d e s . Among th e
members o f any one c l a s s , t h e r e i s no s t r i c t u n i f o r m i t y
I n any s p e c i f i c ty p e o f b e h a v i o r b u t r a t h e r a r a n g e and
a "m odal a v e r a g e . One f i n d s a r a n g e I n in co m e, o c c u
p a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l , and t y p e s o f s o c i a l p a r t i c i
p a t i o n . The " I d e a l t y p e " may b e d e f i n e d , h o w e v e r, f o r
any g i v e n c l a s s - - t h e c l a s s c o n f l g u r a t i o n - - f r o m w h ich
any g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l may v a r y I n one o r more p a r t i c u
l a r s .6
D a v is and th e G a rd n e r s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c l a s s d i s
t i n c t i o n s a r e made w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p r e c i s i o n a s s o c i a l p o s i
t i o n becom es lo w e r. T h is g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i s s u p p o r t e d by
A l l i s o n D a v is , B u r l e i g h B. G a r d n e r and Mary R.
G a r d n e r , Deep S o u th ; A S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l S tu d y o f
C a s t e and C l a s s (C h ic a g o : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h icag o P r e s s ,
1 9 5 1 ) , PP. 7 1 - 7 3 .
113
t h e r e s p o n s e s to t h e q u e s t i o n on t h e num ber o f s o c i a l
c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y . The d e c r e a s i n g m eans f o r e a c h
c l a s s a r e : I , 4 . 6 ; I I , 3 . 3 ; I I I , 3 . I ; IV, 2 . 8 ; and V, 2 . 4 .
T h is i s s u p p o r t e d f u r t h e r by t h e f a c t t h a t no one i n c l a s s I
i n d i c a t e d t h e a b s e n c e o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s ; w h e r e a s , t h e r e was
o n e r e s p o n s e i n c l a s s I I , t h r e e r e s p o n s e s i n c l a s s I I I ,
f i v e r e s p o n s e s i n c l a s s IV , and s i x r e s p o n s e s i n c l a s s V.
A ls o , a l l I n f o r m a n t s i n c l a s s e s I and I I re s p o n d e d t o t h i s
q u e s t i o n , b u t i n c l a s s I I I two p e r s o n s d i d n o t r e s p o n d , i n
c l a s s IV f i v e p e r s o n s , and i n c l a s s V e i g h t p e rs o n B .
P e o p le t e n d to s i m p l i f y t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e
w o r ld by r e l a t i n g s e n s o r y r e c e p t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s ,
e v e n t s , and p r o c e s s e s to a b s t r a c t and more g e n e r a l s c h e m a ta
and c a t e g o r i e s . When d e a l i n g w i t h p e r s o n s , t h e c a t e g o r i e s
u s e d i n th e p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s may t a k e t h e form o f s t e r e o
t y p e s . S t e r e o t y p e s c o m p ris e a p a r t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
b e c a u s e th e y a r e c o g n i t i v e sc h e m a ta o f t h e s o c i a l and p h y s
i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p e o p l e . Thus t h e y i n c o r p o r a t e
r o l e s , s t a t u s e s , c o m p a ris o n w i t h o t h e r s , and a l l k i n d s o f
ju d g m e n ts a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f and a b o u t th e c a t e g o r i z e d
7
s u b j e c t s . 1
C a t e g o r i z i n g , s t e r e o t y p i n g , and t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f
s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s a l l te n d t o make th e e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i a l
c l a s s e s f e a s i b l e i n human s o c i e t y . They e n a b l e p e r s o n s to
7
'L a s s w e l l , o p . c l t . , p p . 1 5 0 -1 5 1 .
114
d e a l w i t h v a s t num bers o f o t h e r s w i t h o u t know ing them p e r
s o n a l l y . ®
I n 1947* R ic h a r d C e n te r s r e p o r t e d th e f i n d i n g s o f a
bo d y o f r e s e a r c h o r i e n t e d a s a d e f e n s e o f w hat he te rm e d t h e
" i n t e r e s t - g r o u p t h e o r y o f c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . " ^ Sum m arily
s t a t e d , h i s t h e o r y e m b o d ies two r e l a t e d h y p o t h e s e s , th e
f i r s t p r o p o s i n g t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l ' s o b j e c t i v e s t a t u s c a u s e s
him to h o l d c e r t a i n econom ic and p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s , and
t h e s e c o n d t h a t s i m i l a r s t a t u s , and t h e r e s u l t a n t a t t i t u d i -
n a l s i m i l a r i t y , c a u s e c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S t r a t i f i c a t i o n
he c o n s i d e r s o b j e c t i v e , b a s e d on t h e econom ic p r o c e s s and
r e s u l t i n g i n o b j e c t i v e l y m e a s u r a b le s t a t u s e s and r o l e s .
How ever, s o c i a l c l a s s i s more th a n th e r e s u l t o f su c h a
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s te m , and n o t a l l s t r a t a o f t h i s k i n d a r e
s o c i a l c l a s s e s . C e n t e r s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t " C l a s s e s a r e p s y
c h o - s o c i a l g r o u p i n g s , so m e th in g t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y s u b j e c
t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , d e p e n d e n t upon c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( i . e . ,
a f e e l i n g o f g ro u p m e m b e rs h ip ), and c l a s s l i n e s o f c l e a v a g e
may o r may n o t c o n fo rm to w h at seem to s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s to
be l o g i c a l l i n e s o f c l e a v a g e I n th e o b j e c t i v e o r s t r a t i f i c a
t i o n s e n s e . " I n s h o r t , " C l a s s a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from s t r a t u m
can w e l l be r e g a r d e d a s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomenon I n th e
8I b i d . , p. 151.
^ R ic h a r d C e n t e r s , The P s y c h o lo g y o f S o c i a l C l a s s e s ;
A S tu d y o f C l a s s C o n s c io u s n e s s ( P r i n c e t o n , N. J . : P r i n c e t o n
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 ), PP. 2 8 -2 9 .
115
f u l l e s t s e n s e o f t h e te r m . T h a t iB , a m a n 's c l a s s i s a p a r t
o f h i s e g o , a f e e l i n g on h i s p a r t o f b e l o n g i n g n e s s to some
t h i n g ; an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h so m e th in g l a r g e r t h a n h im -
s e l f . 1,10
A c a u t i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C e n t e r s ' d a t a w ould
s u g g e s t t h a t b o t h c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s and i d e o l o g y t e n d to
be c o n s e q u e n t s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e s e q u e n c e
o f c a u s a t i o n b e tw e e n c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s and i d e o l o g y i s
n o t c l e a r . As a f i n a l t e s t o f th e v a l i d i t y o f h i s n o t i o n
t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s was a t t h e r o o t o f c l a s s c o n s c i o u s
n e s s and i d e o l o g y , C e n t e r s c o r r e l a t e d t h o s e v a r i a b l e s w ith
s e v e r a l o t h e r p o s s i b l e d e t e r m i n a n t s . The o n l y one t h a t
seem ed t o h a v e any r e l a t i o n s h i p i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f o c c u p a t i o n
was e d u c a t i o n .'1 '1
S in c e C e n t e r s ' w ork, s e v e r a l o t h e r s t u d i e s h av e b e en
made w hich add to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s u b t l e t i e s o f
12
c l a s s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . K ahl and D a v is , i n t h e i r s t u d y o f
C a m b rid g e, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , fo u n d t h a t a h a r d c o r e o f th e
b u s i n e s s an d p r o f e s s i o n a l p l u s some o f t h e w h i t e - c o l l a r
p e r s o n s c a l l e d th e m s e lv e s m id d le c l a s s , no m a t t e r how th e
q u e s t i o n was a s k e d . A lso a h a r d c o r e o f m anual w o r k e r s
10I b i d . , p . 2 7 .
11J o s e p h A. K a h l, The A m erican C l a s s S t r u c t u r e (New
Y o rk : R i n e h a r t 8r C o. , I n c . , 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 1 6 0 -1 6 7 .
12J o s e p h A. K ahl and Jam es A. D a v is , "A C om p ariso n o f
I n d e x e s o f S o c io -E c o n o m ic S t a t u s , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l
R e v ie w , XX ( J u n e , 1 9 5 5 ), 3 1 7 -3 2 5 .
116
c l a s s i f i e d th e m s e lv e s i n t h e w o rk in g c l a s s , r e g a r d l e s s o f
th e form o f th e q u e s t i o n . Two i n t e r m e d i a t e g r o u p s w ere n o t
s u r e o f t h e m s e l v e s . One c o n s i s t e d o f some l o w - l e v e l w h i t e -
c o l l a r p e o p le and some m anual w o r k e r s ; th e y so m etim es saw
t h e m s e l v e s a s m id d l e , so m e tim es a s w o rk in g c l a s s . The o t h e r
i n t e r m e d i a t e g ro u p c o n s i s t e d o f t h e p e o p le who a r e t h e l e a s t
c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s ; t h e y s a i d t h e r e was no c l a s s s y s t e m - - b u t on
s e c o n d t h o u g h t , i f th e y had t o c h o o s e , th e y w ould t e n d t o
w ard w o rk in g c l a s s . ^
More r e c e n t l y , H aer co m pared f i v e I n d e x e s o f s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e , one b e i n g C e n t e r s ’ c l a s s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n q u e s t i o n .
The o t h e r f o u r u s e d w ere W a r n e r 's ISC, an o p e n -e n d e d i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n q u e s t i o n , and th e o b j e c t i v e m e a s u re s o f o c c u p a t i o n
and e d u c a t i o n . He c o n c lu d e d t h a t
T hese f i n d i n g s seem t o b e a r o u t t h e c o n t e n t i o n s t h a t
th e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s te m o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s b e s t
p e r c e i v e d a s an i m p r e c i s e o r d e r i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s ,
b a s e d on a num ber o f r e l a t e d c o m p o n e n ts, o n l y g e n e r a l l y
and l o o s e l y r e l a t e d to n um erous a s p e c t s o f an i n d i v i d
u a l ' s l i f e a c t i v i t y , r a t h e r t h a n a s m a ll num ber o f s u
p e rim p o s e d s t r a t a d i f f e r i n g i n te r m s o f th e o b j e c t i v e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s and a s p i r a
t i o n s o f t h e members o f e a c h s t r a t u m . 14
C a se , w o rk in g w i t h t h e W ash in g to n P u b l i c O p in io n
L a b o r a t o r y , r e p o r t e d a s t u d y i n w hich he u s e d C e n t e r s '
q u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h a t M t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f no d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
■ ^K ahl, The A m erican C l a s s S t r u c t u r e , p . 170.
■^John L. H a e r, " P r e d i c t i v e U t i l i t y o f F iv e I n d i c e s
o f S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w ,
XXII ( O c to b e r , 1 9 5 7 ), 546.
117
f i n d i n g s o f t h e two s t u d i e s , i n te rm s o f o c c u p a t i o n and s o
c i a l c l a s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h th e c o m p a ra b le p o l i t i c o -
eco nom ic o p i n i o n s , may be a c c e p t e d . " '1 '^
The v a r i o u s s e t s o f d a t a c o n c e r n i n g s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n o r c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e tw e e n
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and i d e o l o g y , do n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y f i t t o
g e t h e r . H ow ever, K ahl s u g g e s t s t h a t any i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r
c e p t i o n o f h i m s e l f i n a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o r d e r i s a c o m b in a
t i o n o f ( l ) h i s a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s i n a w ide v a r i e t y o f
c o n t e x t s i n h i s many m em bership g r o u p s , and ( 2 ) h i s v e r b a l
t h e o r i e s a b o u t s o c i e t y , w h ic h a r e u s u a l l y vagu e and some
w h a t c o n t r a d i c t o r y com m on-sense n o t i o n s t h a t h av e f i l t e r e d
down from t h e t h e o r i z i n g o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s and p r o p a g a n
d i s t s . ' 1 '^ More r e c e n t l y , L a n d e c k e r 1^ h a s l i s t e d t h r e e d i f
f e r e n t phenom ena w h ich e v o lv e d u n d e r t h e c o n c e p t o f c l a s s
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The f i r s t i s " c l a s s s t a t u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , "
an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an d know led ge o f h i s
p o s i t i o n s i n a p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s . The se c o n d i s t h e a s p e c t
o f " c l a s s s t r u c t u r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , " t h e ty p e o f c o n s c i o u s
n e s s t h a t m ig h t be a m ea su re o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a w a r e n e s s
^Herman M. C a se , "An I n d e p e n d e n t T e s t o f th e I n t e r -
e s t - G r o u p T h eo ry o f S o c i a l C l a s s , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l
R e v ie w , XVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 2 ), 7 5 ^ .
l 6 K a h l, o p . c i t . , p . 177.
■^W erner S. L a n d e c k e r , " C la s s C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n and
C l a s s C o n s c i o u s n e s s , " A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XXVIII
( A p r i l , 1 9 6 3 ), 2 1 9 -2 2 9 .
118
o f t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e o f w h ich h e I s a p a r t . The t h i r d I s
" c l a s s i n t e r e s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s / ' a s e r i e s o f b e l i e f s , r a n g i n g
fro m an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s w i t h c l a s s i n
t e r e s t s and a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f d i f f e r e n t
c l a s s e s t o t h e e x tre m e view t h a t c la s B c o n f l i c t i s th e n e c
e s s a r y r e s u l t o f c o n f l i c t i n g c l a s s i n t e r e s t .
S e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s i n t e r t w i n e d w ith a p e r s o n ' s
b a s i c i n t e r p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e c o n c e p t u a l i d e a s he
h a s b e en e x p o s e d t o , and t h e t r a i t s o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t
l e a d him to o r g a n i z e e x p e r i e n c e and i d e a s i n ways c o n g e n i a l
t o h i m s e l f . P r o b a b l y t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e e x p e r i e n c e
he h a s i n t h i s com plex comes from h i s o c c u p a t i o n , even
th o u g h o c c u p a t i o n i s o n ly a p a r t o f t h e t o t a l c o m p le x . H is
i d e o l o g y i s i n p a r t a c o n s e q u e n t o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p e r i
e n c e s , b u t t h e way he i n t e r p r e t s t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s i s i n
f l u e n c e d by h i s i d e o l o g y , and t h a t i n t u r n i s i n f l u e n c e d by
h i s e d u c a t i o n , h i s f a m i l y , and o t h e r b a c k g ro u n d f a c t o r s .
E v e ry man t h u s s e e s a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t c l a s s o r d e r , and
t h e w o rd s he u s e s t o d e s c r i b e h i m s e l f d e p en d on th e p o i n t s
o f r e f e r e n c e he h a s i n h i s own s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n o f th e
c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . The b e s t t h e s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v e r can do
i s t o a b s t r a c t f u n d a m e n ta l s i m i l a r i t i e s i n p e r c e p t i o n among
w id e g r o u p s o f p e o p l e by u s i n g a schem e w hich i m p l i e s b u t
d o e s n o t deny t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n modes o f p e r c e p t i o n . Then
we can a s k e a c h p e r s o n to i n d i c a t e a t w hich l e v e l he u s u a l l y
119
18
p l a c e s h i m s e l f I n te r m s o f o n e o f t h e s e m o d e ls .
The s u b j e c t s I n C i t r u s C i t y w ere a s k e d , "On a s c a l e
l i n e o f t e n p o i n t s , w here w ould you p l a c e y o u r s e l f I n te r m s
o f s o c i a l c l a s s ? Number one s t a n d s f o r t h e h i g h e s t s o c i a l
c l a s s a n d num ber t e n s t a n d s f o r t h e l o w e s t s o c i a l c l a s s . "
T a b le 14 shows th e r e s p o n s e s t o t h i s q u e s t i o n a c c o r d i n g to
t h e f i v e IS P c a t e g o r i e s , and t h e r e s u l t s w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .001 p e r c e n t l e v e l a c c o r d i n g to t h e c h i -
s q u a r e t e s t . The a v e r a g e num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s s e l f - r a t
i n g s w ere a s f o l l o w s : 3 .6 f o r c l a s s I ; 4 . 5 f o r c l a s s I I ;
4 . 6 f o r c l a s s I I I ; 5 .1 f o r c l a s s IV; an d 5 .4 f o r c l a s s V.
T h is d i s p l a y s a d e f i n i t e and c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d from c l a s s I
to c l a s s V, a l t h o u g h th e d i f f e r e n c e was o n l y 1 .8 p o i n t s on
a t e n - p o i n t s c a l e .
I n T a b le 14 t h e i n c r e a s e d s p r e a d o f r e s p o n s e s s h o u ld
b e n o t e d from c l a s s I t h r o u g h c l a s s V. A ls o , a l l b u t c l a s s
I I h ad a t l e a s t one p e r s o n p l a c e h i m s e l f I n t h e h i g h e s t r a t
i n g on t h e s c a l e . Only c l a s s e s IV and V h ad any r e s p o n d e n t s
who p l a c e d t h e m s e lv e s a t " n i n e " o r " t e n " on th e s o c i a l c l a s s
s e l f - r a t i n g s c a l e .
T a b le 15 l i s t s t h e te r m s u s e d by t h e i n f o r m a n t s o f
C i t r u s C i t y to d e s c r i b e t h e s o c i a l c l a s s to w h ich t h e y b e
lo n g e d . The d e s c r i p t i v e te r m s u s e d m ost f r e q u e n t l y by t h o s e
i n c l a s s I w ere p r o f e s s i o n a l , m id d le c l a s s , and u p p e r - m i d d le
c l a s s . The m o st f r e q u e n t l y u s e d te rm s by c l a s s I I w ere m id -
1®Kahl, op. c i t ., pp. 180-181.
120
TABLE l4
SELF-RATINGS ON THE SOCIAL CLASS SCALE BY ISP CATEGORIES
C l a s s
S c a le
ISP C a t e g o r i e s
I I I I I I IV V
1 1 0 2 1 1
2 0 1
3
0 2
3 3 7
6 2
5
4 4 6
13 7
2
5
2 10 32 20
9
6 0
5 9 5 9
7
0 1
3
2
7
8 0 0 0 2 0
9
0 0 0 0 1
10 0 0 0 1 2
No r e s p o n s e 0 0 0 2 6
T o t a l 10
30 68 42 44
X2 = 25 .9 5 S i g n i f i c a n t b eyond t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l
d f = 4 ( c a t e g o r i e s com bined i n t o a 3x 3 t a b l e )
121
TABLE 15
TERMS USED BY RESPONDENTS TO DESCRIBE THEIR SOCIAL CLASS
AS CATEGORIZED BY ISP CATEGORIES
ISP C a t e g o r i e s
Term Used I I I I I I IV V
Above a v e r a g e 0 1 1 1 0
A d e q u a te 0 1
3
2
3
A m b itio n 0 0 1 0 0
A v erag e 1
5
6 6
3
C hurch m em bership 0 1 1 1 1
C o m f o rta b le 0
3 9 3
6
Common p e o p le 0 1 1 0 0
E d u c a ti o n 1 4 1 1 0
Good p e o p le 0 0 0 0 6
Good C h r i s t i a n 0 1 0 0 0
Happy 0 0 2 0 2
H ard work 0 0 0 0 2
Home ty p e 0 0 0 0 2
L e a d e r s h i p 0 0 1 0 0
Low c l a s s 0 0 0 4 1
L o w e r-m id d le c l a s s 0 6 2 0 0
M id d le c l a s s 4 14
39
16 6
Not p o o r 0 0 1
3
2
Number o f c h i l d r e n 0 1 0 0 0
P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n com m unity 1 0 0 0 0
P o o r 0 0 0 1 2
P r o f e s s i o n a l
3 3
1 0 0
S o c i a b i l i t y 0 0 1 0 0
U p p er c l a s s 0 0 4 2 0
U p p e r-m id d le c l a s s 2
3
4 1 0
V o c a tio n o r c a r e e r 1 0 0 0 0
W e a lth , money o r incom e 0 1 1
3
0
W h ite c o l l a r 0 0 2 0 0
W orking c l a s s 0 0
5
0 1
D on' t know 1 0 0 6 10
T o t a l 14
45
86 50 47
122
d i e c l a s s , l o w e r - m i d d le c l a s B , e d u c a t i o n , and a v e r a g e . F o r
c l a s s I I I , t h e m o st u s e d te r m s w ere m id d le c l a s s , c o m f o r t a
b l e , a v e r a g e , w o r k in g c l a s s , u p p e r c l a s s , an d u p p e r - m i d d l e
c l a s s . The d e s c r i p t i v e term B u s e d m o st f r e q u e n t l y i n c l a s s
IV w ere m id d le c l a s s , a v e r a g e , low c l a s s , n o t p o o r , and
m oney. I n c l a s s V t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d te r m s t o d e
s c r i b e o n e ' s own s o c i a l c l a s s i n C i t r u s C i t y w ere g o o d ,
c o m f o r t a b l e , m id d le c l a s s , a v e r a g e , a d e q u a t e , n o t p o o r ,
p o o r , h a p p y , a n d h a r d w o rk .
The m o st commonly u s e d te r m s f o r t h e w h o le sam p le
i n d e s c r i b i n g o n e ' s s o c i a l c l a s s w e re a s f o l l o w s : m id d le
c l a s s , a v e r a g e , c o m f o r t a b l e , u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s , a d e q u a t e ,
l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s , e d u c a t i o n , a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l . T h ese d e
s c r i p t i v e c l a s s te r m s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e u s e d i n o t h e r
s t u d i e s o f t h e s o c i a l c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , and i t m ig h t a l s o b e
s t a t e d t h a t l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n an d c o n s i s t e n c y o f r e s p o n s e
a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r .
S i n c e t h e t w o - f a c t o r I n d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n was
u s e d t o d i v i d e t h e sa m p le I n t o s o c i a l c l a s s e s , t h e c a t e g o
r i e s o f e d u c a t i o n and o c c u p a t i o n a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e I n an
a n a l y s i s o f t h e s o c i a l c l a s s s y s te m o f C i t r u s C i t y . How
e v e r , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e I n c l u d e d a t t h i s p o i n t to h e l p
p r o v i d e c l a r i t y and s p e c i f i c i t y t o t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e tw o -
f a c t o r IS P .
T a b le 16 d i s p l a y s t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f y e a r s o f
s c h o o l i n g c o m p le te d by t h e I n t e r v i e w e e s i n C i t r u s C i t y .
123
TABLE 16
A COMPARISON OP THE YEARS OP SCHOOLING COMPLETED FOR
RESPONDENTS AS CATEGORIZED BY IS P
Y e a r s o f S c h o o l
C om pleted
P e r Cent o f ISP C a te g o ry
I I I I I I IV V
19 o r more 25.0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
18
1 6 .7 2 3 .3
0 .0 0 . 0 0 .0
17
0 .0 1 6 .7
4 .4 0 .0 0 .0
16
3 3 .3
4 0 ,0
2 .9
4 .8 0 .0
15 1 6 .7 6 .7
1 1 .8 2 .4 0 .0
14 0 .0 1 0 .0 13.2 4 .8 0 .0
13
0 .0
3 .3
1 3 .2 2 .4 0 .0
12 0 .0 0 .0 4 1 .3 3 3 .2 13.6
11
8 .3
0 .0
2 .9 1 4 .3 0 .0
10 0 .0 0 .0 4 .4
9 -5
6 .8
9
0 .0 0 .0 4 .4
9 .5
2 2 .8
8 0 .0 0 .0
1 .5
1 4 .3 2 2 .8
7
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 2 .4
4 .5
6 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
4 .5
5
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 2 .4 6 .8
4 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
2 .3
3
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
4 .5
2 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
2 .3
1 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
0 0 . 0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
9 .1
T o t a l 10 0 .0 10 0.0 1 0 0 .0 10 0.0 100.0
124
The r e s u l t s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c o n tin u u m a r e s i m i l a r to
t h o s e I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r
e d u c a t i o n i s b lm o d a l; I n s t e a d o f f a l l i n g i n t o t h e G a u s s ia n
o r "n o rm a l" c u r v e , i t h a s two m odes, o r p e a k f r e q u e n c i e s . ^
T h ese p e a k s a r e a t e i g h t and tw e lv e y e a rB , show ing t h a t two
norm s h av e b e e n o p e r a t i n g f o r w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a " p r o p e r "
e d u c a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
T a b le 17 shows th e p e r c e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r em
p l o y e d p e r s o n s by m a jo r o c c u p a t i o n g r o u p a s c a t e g o r i z e d by
s o c i a l c l a s s , b a s e d upon t h e t w o - f a c t o r In d e x o f S o c i a l Po
s i t i o n . T h is t a b l e s h o u ld be com pared w i t h T a b le 8 w hich
i n c l u d e s t h e C i t r u s C i t y s a m p le , t h e c i t y c e n s u s f i g u r e s ,
and th e U n i t e d S t a t e s c e n s u s d a t a . As w ould b e e x p e c t e d ,
t h e num ber o f p e r s o n s em plo yed i n any g iv e n o c c u p a t i o n i s
n o t e q u a l t o t h e num ber o f p e r s o n s em ployed i n any o t h e r
s p e c i f i e d o c c u p a t i o n . A lso t h e num ber o f p e r s o n s i n one
o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y i s n o t e q u a l to t h e num ber o f p e r s o n s
i n a n o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y . T hus, t h e r e a r e more
o p e r a t i v e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a n t h e r e a r e p r i v a t e
h o u s e h o ld w o r k e r s , t h e r e a r e m ore c l e r k s th a n f a r m e r s ,
t h e r e a r e more c r a f t s m e n and fo rem e n th a n p r o f e s s i o n a l and
t e c h n i c a l w o r k e r s ; and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r m a le s i s n o t
t h e same a s f o r f e m a l e s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n s
d i f f e r s a l s o by r e g i o n , by r a c e , and by num ber o f y e a r s o f
s c h o o l i n g c o m p le te d .
■ ^ L a s s w e ll, C l a s s and S t r a tu m . . . , p . 7 6 .
125
TAB HE 17
A COMPARISON OP EMPLOYED PERSONS BY MAJOR OCCUPATION
GROUP AS CATEGORIZED BY ISP
M ajor O c c u p a tio n
Group
IS P by P e r C ent
I I I I I I IV V
P r o f e s s i o n a l * t e c h n i c a l *
and k i n d r e d w o r k e r s
8 5 .7 7 2 .9
2 2 .2 0 . 0 0 .0
F a rm e rs and farm
m a n a g e rs
0 . 0
4 . 5
2 . 2 4 .0 0 .0
M anagers* o f f i c i a l s *
p r o p r i e t o r s , e t c .
1 4 .3
4 . 5
1 1 .1 4 .0 0 . 0
C l e r i c a l and k i n d r e d
w o r k e r s
0 . 0
9 . 1
1 7 .8 2 0 .0 0 .0
S a l e s w o r k e r s 0 . 0
4 . 5 1 5 .5
4 .0 4 .4
C ra ftsm e n * fo re m e n , and
k i n d r e d w o r k e r s
0 .0
4 .5
1 7 .8 2 3 .0
8 . 7
O p e r a t i v e s and k i n d r e d
w o r k e rs
0 . 0 0 . 0
6 . 7
2 8 .0 1 7 .4
P r i v a t e h o u s e h o l d
w o r k e r s
0 . 0 0 .0 0 .0 0 . 0 0 .0
S e r v i c e w o rk e rs* e x c e p t
p r i v a t e h o u s e h o ld
0 .0 0 .0
6 . 7
4 .0
3 9 .1
Farm l a b o r e r s and
forem en
0 . 0 0 . 0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0
L a b o r e r s , e x c e p t farm
and m ine
0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 8 .0 3 0 .4
T o ta l 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
126
T a b le 18 c o m p ares t h e p e r c e n t o f C i t r u s C i t y em
p l o y e e s i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e by i n d u s t r y . A l l p e r s o n s i n
c l a s s I w e re e n g a g e d i n p r o f e s s i o n a l and r e l a t e d s e r v i c e s ,
and p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n c l a s s I I , o v e r e i g h t y p e r
c e n t w ere e n g a g e d i n p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s , w i t h t h e few
r e m a in i n g p e r s o n s em ployed i n n o n d u r a b l e g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r in g
and a g r i c u l t u r e . I n c l a s s I I I , s l i g h t l y more t h a n s i x t y -
f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e e m p lo y e e s w ere e n g a g e d i n d u r a b l e go o d s
m a n u f a c t u r i n g , p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s , f i n a n c e - i n s u r a n c e - r e a l
e s t a t e , and n o n d u r a b le g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r i n g . I n c l a s s IV,
s l i g h t l y o v e r e i g h t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e p e r s o n s w ere i n
n o n d u r a b l e g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r i n g , c o n t r a c t c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
d u r a b l e g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r i n g , and p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s . I n
c l a s s V, a b o u t f o r t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w ere
e n g a g e d i n p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s , a b o u t t h i r t y - s i x p e r c e n t I n
m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a b o u t t e n p e r c e n t I n a g r i c u l t u r e , and a b o u t
t e n p e r c e n t i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , c o m m u n ic a tio n , and o t h e r
p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s .
I n th e C i t r u s C i t y sa m p le t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l and r e
l a t e d s e r v i c e s w ere p e r f o r m e d a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y by c l a s s I
and I I . P e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s and t h e m a n u f a c t u r in g o f d u r a b l e
and n o n d u r a b le g o o d s w ere p r o v i d e d m a in ly by c l a s s e s I I , IV,
and V. C o n t r a c t c o n s t r u c t i o n w ork was done l a r g e l y by p e r
s o n s I n c l a s s IV . The d a t a on e m p lo y e e s I n t h e l a b o r f o r c e ,
l i s t e d by I n d u s t r y , s u p p o r t e d t h e I n f o r m a t i o n on em ployed
p e r s o n s by m a jo r o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p i n g s .
127
TABLE 18
A COMPARISON OP THE PER CENT OP EMPLOYEES IN THE LABOR
FORCE BY INDUSTRY AS CATEGORIZED BY ISP
T O Vi /■ > Yt U a a q Vntt- m
ISP by P e r C en t
jL iS L u o i^ r o r c c u y
I n d u s t r y I I I I I I IV V
A g r i c u l t u r e , f o r e s t r y ,
and f i s h e r i e s
0 . 0
5 .9
2 .6 0 .0
9 .1
M ining 0 .0 0 .0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 .0
C o n t r a c t c o n s t r u c t i o n 0 . 0 0 . 0
5 .3
25.0
4 . 5
D u ra b le g o o d s manu
f a c t u r i n g
o
•
o
0 . 0 1 8 .4 2 0 .8 1 8 .2
N o n d u ra b le g o o d s manu
f a c t u r i n g
o
0
o
1 1 .8 1 3 .2 2 9 .2 1 8 .2
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , communi
c a t i o n s and p u b l i c
u t i l i t i e s
0 . 0 0 . 0
7*9
0
•
0
9 .1
W h o le s a le & r e t a i l t r a d e 0 . 0
0
•
0
7 .9 8*3
0
♦
0
F i n a n c e , i n s u r a n c e , and
r e a l e s t a t e
o
•
o
0 . 0 15*8 4 . 2 0 . 0
B u s i n e s s and r e p a i r
s e r v i c e s
0 .0 0 . 0 2 .6 0 . 0 0 . 0
P e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s 0 . 0
0
•
0
1 8 .4
1 2 .5 4 0 .9
E n t e r t a i n m e n t and
r e c r e a t i o n
0 . 0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 . 0
P r o f e s s i o n a l and r e l a t e d
s e r v i c e s
8 5 -7
8 2 .3
7 .9
0 . 0 0 . 0
P u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
1 4 .3
0 . 0 0 .0 0 . 0
0
•
0
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 10 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
128
Of t h e t o t a l Incom e f lo w in g to i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s , a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s i s r e c e i v e d from w ages and
s a l a r i e s . A bout n i n e p e r c e n t i s farm in c o m e . B u s i n e s s
p r o f i t s and p r o f e s s i o n a l f e e s a c c o u n t f o r e l e v e n p e r c e n t .
D i v i d e n d s , r e n t , and i n t e r e s t e a c h a c c o u n t f o r a l i t t l e l e s s
t h a n f o u r p e r c e n t . A n o th e r s i x p e r c e n t r e p r e s e n t s t r a n B -
20
f e r p a y m e n ts . Wages and s a l a r i e s c o n s t i t u t e th e m a jo r
s o u r c e o f incom e f o r t h e b u l k o f t h e u r b a n w o r k e r s i n th e
m id d le o f t h e incom e d i s t r i b u t i o n . O nly a t t h e e x tr e m e s
a r e o t h e r s o u r c e s i m p o r t a n t : t h o s e w i t h in c o m e s u n d e r
$ 2 ,0 0 0 g e t a lm o s t h a l f o f t h e i r money (on t h e a v e r a g e ) from
p u b l i c a i d , w h e re a s i n t h e c a s e o f t h o s e r e c e i v i n g o v e r
$25 ,0 0 0 , more t h a n t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f t h e i r incom e i s from
b u s i n e s s p r o f i t s , p r o f e s s i o n a l f e e s , and r e t u r n on i n v e s t e d
p r o p e r t y .
T a b le 19 c o n t a i n s t h e C i t r u s C i t y m ale r e s p o n d e n t s
m ain s o u r c e s o f in co m e, a c c o r d i n g to s o c i a l c l a s s e s . F o r
t h e t o t a l sa m p le , 59*3 p e r c e n t o f t h e incom e came from
w ages and s a l a r i e s . Farm Incom e am ounted t o o n l y 3*4 p e r
c e n t o f t h e t o t a l in c o m e . B u s i n e s s p r o f i t s and p r o f e s s i o n a l
f e e s a c c o u n te d f o r 1 2 .7 p e r c e n t . D i v i d e n d s , r e n t , and i n
t e r e s t a c c o u n te d f o r o n l y 4 . 3 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l in co m e.
The r e m a in in g 19*3 Per> c e n t o f incom e w ere a c c o u n te d f o r by
s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and p r i v a t e r e t i r e m e n t f u n d s .
20Kahl, op. c i t ., pp. 95- 9 6.
129
TABLE 19
A COMPARISON BY PER CENT OF THE PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF INCOME
FOR MALES AS CATEGORIZED BY ISP
P r i n c i p a l S o u rc e
o f Income
IS P by P e r C ent
I I I I I I IV V
S a l a r y
5 7 .1 5 7 .1 4 5 .9 2 3 .1
16.0
Wages 0 .0 0 .0 2 3 . I 4 6 .1 3 6 .0
Farm incom e 0 .0
1 4 .3
2 .6 0 .0 0 .0
B u s i n e s s p r o f i t s &
p r o f e s s i o n a l f e e s
0 .0
1 4 .3 1 5 .5 3 .9
4 .0
I n t e r e s t and
d i v i d e n d s
1 4 .3 0 .0 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 .0
R e n t 0 . 0 0 .0
7 .7 3 .9
0 . 0
P r i v a t e r e t i r e m e n t
1 4 .3 9 .5
2 .6
1 1 .5
2 4 .0
S o c i a l s e c u r i t y 1 4 .3 4 .8 2 .6
1 1 .5
20.0
T o t a l 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
130
I n c l a s s e s I , I I , and I I I , s a l a r i e s a r e t h e m ain
s o u r c e o f in co m e i n t h e C i t r u s C i t y s a m p le ; b u t i n c l a s s e s
IV an d V, w ages a r e t h e m ain s o u r c e o f In co m e . I n c l a s s V,
s o c i a l s e c u r i t y an d r e t i r e m e n t a c c o u n t f o r f o r t y - f o u r p e r
c e n t o f t h e in c o m e .
The u s e o f l e i s u r e tim e h a s b e e n shown t o be r e
l a t e d t o o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e a s m e a s u r e d b y t h e N o r t h - H a t t
21
s c a l e . I f t h e N o r t h - H a t t c o n tin u u m i s d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e
c a t e g o r i e s o f o c c u p a t i o n s , i t can b e shown t h a t t h e i r p a t -
t e r m s o f l e i s u r e - t i m e a c t i v i t i e s a r e d i f f e r e n t . The h i g h
e s t c a t e g o r y o f p e r s o n s m o st f r e q u e n t l y a t t e n d p l a y s , c o n
c e r t s , l e c t u r e s , m useums, and f r a t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
They p l a y m ore b r i d g e , a t t e n d more c o n v e n t i o n s , e n g a g e i n
m ore com m unity s e r v i c e w o rk , r e a d and s t u d y m o re, e n t e r t a i n
a t home m ore o f t e n , and e v en a t t e n d m o tio n p i c t u r e s more
f r e q u e n t l y t h a n p e r s o n s i n t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s . Members
o f t h e l o w e s t c a t e g o r y , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a tc h t e l e v i s i o n ,
p l a y w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n , f i s h , p l a y p o k e r and o t h e r c a r d
gam es o t h e r t h a n b r i d g e , go d r i v i n g o r r i d i n g i n t h e i r c a r s ,
go t o d r i v e - i n t h e a t r e s , sp e n d tim e i n t a v e r n s , a t t h e zoo,
and a t b a s e b a l l gam es m ore f r e q u e n t l y th a n members o f t h e
o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s . The same s t u d y showed t h a t p e r s o n s i n th e
m id d le c a t e g o r y sp e n d a much l a r g e r p e r c e n t o f t h e i r l e i -
PI
A l f r e d C. C l a r k e , "The Use o f L e i s u r e a n d I t s R e l a
t i o n t o t h e L e v e l s o f O c c u p a t i o n a l P r e s t i g e , " A m e ric an S o
c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , XXI ( J u n e , 1 9 5 6 ), 3 0 1 -3 0 7 .
131
s u r e tim e i n s p e c t a t o r a c t i v i t i e s th a n p e r s o n s i n th e o t h e r
c a t e g o r i e s .
I n C i t r u s C i ty t h e i n f o r m a n t s i n d i c a t e d some o f
t h e i r l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s . The e i g h t m ost f r e q u e n t l e i
s u r e a c t i v i t i e s f o r e a c h c l a s s w ere a s f o l l o w s : c l a s s I —
r e a d i n g , g o l f i n g , se w in g , t e l e v i s i o n , a t t e n d s p o r t i n g
e v e n t s , b e a c h swimming, and b o w lin g ; c l a s s I I - - r e a d l n g ,
se w in g , w o rk in g i n t h e y a r d , c h u r c h a c t i v i t i e s , c lu b m e e t
i n g s , k n i t t i n g , t e l e v i s i o n , and v i s i t i n g ; c l a s s I I I — w o rk in g
i n t h e y a r d , r e a d i n g , se w in g , t e l e v i s i o n , g o l f i n g , b o w lin g ,
t r a v e l i n g , and k n i t t i n g ; c l a s s I V - - t e l e v i s i o n , w o rk in g i n
t h e y a r d , r e a d i n g , b o w lin g , se w in g , swimming, woodwork, and
c h u r c h a c t i v i t i e s ; and c l a s s V --w o rk in g i n th e y a r d , se w in g ,
r e a d i n g , t e l e v i s i o n , w o rk in g on t h e h o u s e , f i s h i n g , c o o k in g ,
and k n i t t i n g . I n g e n e r a l , t h e l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s o f
t h e C i t r u s C i t y r e s p o n d e n t s w ere s i m i l a r t o t h o s e I n th e
N o r t h - H a t t f i v e c a t e g o r y c o n tin u u m .
An even g r e a t e r s i m i l a r i t y i s e v id e n c e d b e tw e e n th e
C i t r u s C i t y s u b j e c t s and t h e N o r t h - H a t t c o n tin u u m when more
l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s a r e i n c l u d e d . I n o r d e r o f f r e q u e n c y ,
some a d d i t i o n a l l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s f o r e a c h s o c i a l
c l a s s a r e l i s t e d : c l a s s I ~ - s t u d y i n g , t e n n i s , b a s e b a l l ,
p h o t o g r a p h y , p l a y i n g m u s ic , b r i d g e , c h u rc h a c t i v i t i e s , and
c o o k in g ; c l a s s I I - - g o l f i n g , p l a y i n g b r i d g e , h o u s e w ork,
v o l l e y b a l l , woodwork, p l a y i n g m u s ic , t e n n i s , a r t w ork, camp
i n g , w a t e r s k i i n g , a t t e n d i n g c o n c e r t s , d a n c i n g , g o in g to
132
m o v ie s , v i s i t i n g , e a t i n g o u t , and p l a y i n g w i t h c h ild re n ,*
c l a s s I V - - f i s h i n g , g o in g t o m o v ie s , p a i n t i n g , w r i t i n g , r e
s t o r i n g a n t i q u e s , p l a y i n g m u s ic , k n i t t i n g , w o rk in g on th e
h o u s e , cam p in g , L i t t l e L eague a c t i v i t i e s , s l e e p i n g , l o a f i n g ,
and p l a y i n g p o o l ; and c l a s s V - - c l e a n i n g t h e h o u s e , g o in g to
m o v ie s , t r a v e l i n g , d a n c i n g , d r i n k i n g b e e r , g o in g to h o r s e
r a c e s , a r t s and c r a f t s , s l e e p i n g , p a i n t i n g , and h a v in g no
l e i s u r e t i m e . The r e s p o n d e n t s i n C i t r u s C i t y l i s t e d n i n e t y -
two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s .
E v e ry s t u d y o f f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n s - - l a r g e g r o u p s
w i t h e x p l i c i t p u r p o s e s and r u l e s o f m e m b e rs h ip --s h o w s t h e
same t r e n d : p e o p le o f h i g h e r p r e s t i g e s t a t u s b e lo n g to
more v o l u n t a r y f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a n p e o p le o f lo w e r
22
s t a t u s , W arner r e p o r t e d t h a t i n J o n e s v i l l e t h e a v e r a g e
m em b ersh ip s p e r f a m i l y i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ere a s f o l
lo w s: u p p e r c l a s s , 3 . 6 ; u p p e r - m i d d l e c la B S , 3 . 5 ; lo w e r-
m id d le c l a s s , 1 .1 ; u p p e r - l o w e r c l a s s , 0 . 9 ; l o w e r - l o w e r
c l a s s , 0 . 7 ; and f o r a l l f a m i l i e s , 1 . 3 . 2^ The p e r c e n t o f
f a m i l i e s b e l o n g i n g t o one o r m ore a s s o c i a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to
t h e above f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s e s w ere a s f o l l o w s : 100 p e r c e n t ,
100 p e r c e n t , 55 p e r c e n t , 50 p e r c e n t , and 30 p e r c e n t .
T a b le 20 shows t h e C i t r u s C i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f mem-
22fCahl, op. c i t ., p. 147.
2^W. L loy d W a rn e r, e t a l . , Dem ocracy i n J o n e s v i l l e :
A S tu d y i n Eq u a l i t y and I n e q u a l i t y (New Y ork: H a r p e r &
B r o s . , 1 94 9)7 p p . 1 3 3 -1 4 2 .
133
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE 20
OF MEMBERSHIPS PER FAMILY
ORGANIZATIONS BY ISP
IN FORMAL
IS P
P e r C e n t B e lo n g in g
t o One o r More
A s s o c i a t i o n s
A v erag e
M em berships
p e r F a m ily
C l a s s I 9 0 .0
3 -9
C l a s s I I 8 6 .7
2 .9
C l a s s I I I 5 0 .0 1 .0
C l a s s IV 4 5 .2
0 .6
C la s 3 V 3 8 .6
0 . 5
A l l f a m i l i e s
__
1 .2
X2 = 2 3 .5 3 d f = 2 S i g n i f i c a n t b ey o n d t h e .001 l e v e l
13^
b e r s h i p s p e r f a m i ly i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s by IS P c a t e g o
r i e s . In c l a s s I , 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e f a m i l i e s b e lo n g e d to
o n e o r more a s s o c i a t i o n s , w h e re a s o n l y 38*6 p e r c e n t o f
c l a s s V b e lo n g e d t o more t h a n one f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n . A lso
t h e a v e r a g e m em bership r a n g e d from 3 .6 f o r c l a s s I t o 0 . 7
f o r c l a s s V. When th e r e s p o n d e n t s I n e a c h c l a s s who d i d n o t
b e lo n g to any f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e com pared w i t h t h o s e
who b e lo n g e d to one o r more o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e c h i - s q u a r e
t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was b ey o n d t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l . T hese r e
s u l t s s u p p o r t t h e f i n d i n g s o f o t h e r s t u d i e s t h a t p e o p le o f
h i g h e r p r e s t i g e s t a t u s b e lo n g to more v o l u n t a r y f o r m a l a s
s o c i a t i o n s t h a n p e o p le o f lo w e r s t a t u s .
I n some s o c i e t i e s , v e ry much t h e same r e l i g i o u s b e
l i e f and a c t i v i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e s a l l th e s o c i a l c l a s s e s . I n
t h e s e s o c i e t i e s r e l i g i o n I s u s u a l l y n o t a sym bol o f s o c i a l
c l a s s p o s i t i o n e x c e p t i n s o f a r a s t h e r e a r e s m a ll v a r i a t i o n s
I n t h e way i n w hich t h e same r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f I s h e l d and
r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y p r a c t i c e d . I n r e l i g i o u s l y hom ogeneous
s o c i e t i e s , t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s may h a v e a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d
c r e e d a l b e l i e f and may be l e s s l i k e l y t h a n t h e lo w e r c l a s s
t o c o n f u s e m agic and r e l i g i o n . I n r e l i g i o u s l y h e t e r o g e n o u s
s o c i e t i e s , h o w e v e r, w h ere d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s and m a rk e d ly
d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s on t h e same r e l i g i o n e x i s t , t h e s e d i f
f e r e n c e s may become a s s o c i a t e d w ith s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n
and become t h e sym bo ls o f s o c i a l c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s . In
A m erican s o c i e t y c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n h a s become to some e x -
135
t e n t a sym bol o f s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n . F o r some p e o p le i n
A m erican s o c i e t y , r e l i g i o n becom es a l l th e more a s o c i a l
c l a s s sym bol b e c a u s e c h u rc h m em bership i s f o r them a s much
a way o f b e lo n g i n g to a c e r t a i n s o c i a l c l a s s g ro u p a s i t i s
a way o f a t t a i n i n g r e l i g i o u s s a l v a t i o n . P e o p le who f e e l
t h i s way may s e l e c t and c h an g e t h e i r c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n i n
te r m s o f th e s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n o f th e c h u rc h g ro u p to
w h ich t h e y b e l o n g . F o r su c h p e o p l e , s o c i a l c l a s s m o b i l i t y
o f t e n l e a d s to c h an ge o f c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n a s a sym bol o f
24
t h e i r new s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n .
T a b le 21 su m m arizes th e c h u rc n a f f i l i a t i o n i n C i t r u s
C i t y by s o c i a l c l a s s e s . F o r t h e t o t a l sa m p le , th e c h u rc h
a f f i l i a t i o n by p e r c e n t i s a s f o l l o w s : C a t h o l i c , 2 5 . 8 ;
C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n , 2 4 .3 ; B a p t i s t C h u rch , 1 5 -0 ; L u th e r a n
C h u rch , 3 . 1 ; C h r i s t i a n C h u rch , 2 . 6 ; M e t h o d is t C h u rc h , 2 .1 ;
B r e t h r e n C h u rc h , 1 .5 ; C hu rch o f C h r i s t , 1 .5 ; P r e s b y t e r i a n
C h u rc h , 1 . 5 ; F o u r - S q u a r e G o sp e l C h u rc h , 1 .0 ; E v a n g e l i c a l
C h u rc h , 0 . 5 ; S e v e n th Day A d v e n t i s t C h u rc h , 0 . 5 ; some o t h e r
c h u r c h , 7 . 7 ; an d do n o t b e lo n g , 1 2 .9 p a r c e n t .
S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s can be o b s e r v e d i n t h e c h u r c h
a f f i l i a t i o n s i n th e s o c i a l c l a s s e s o f C i t r u s C i t y . E i g h t y
p e r c e n t o f c l a s s I and o n l y 2 .3 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s V a r e
a f f i l i a t e d w i t h th e C h urch o f t h e B r e t h r e n . I n c l a s s I , no
24
B e r n a r d B a r b e r , S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n : A C o m p a ra tiv e
A n a l y s i s o f S t r u c t u r e and P r o c e s s (New Y ork: H a r c o u r t ,
B ra c e and C o ., 1 9 5 7 ), p . 155.
136
TABLE 21
A COMPARISON BY PER CENT OF THE CHURCH AFFILIATION
AS CATEGORIZED BY ISP
C hurch A f f i l i a t i o n
ISP C a t e g o r i e s
I I I I I I IV V
B a p t i s t C hurch 2 0 .0
3 .3
1 6 .2 1 9 .0
1 5 .9
B r e t h r e n C hurch
—
3 -3
— —
4 . 5
C a t h o l i c C hurch
—
6 . 7 2 9 .4
1 4 .3 50.0
Church o f C h r i s t
— —
2 .9
2 .4 —
C h r i s t i a n C hurch
—
6 . 7 4 .4 — —
C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n 8 0 .0 6 0 .0 1 7 .6 1 9 .0
2 .3
E v a n g e l i c a l C hurch
—
3 .3
— — —
F o u r - S q u a r e G o sp e l
— —
1 .5
—
2 .3
L u th e r a n C hurch
—
6 . 7 1 .5
—
6 . 8
M e t h o d is t C hurch
— —
2 .9
2 .4
2 .3
P r e s b y t e r i a n C hurch
— —
2 .9
2 .4
—
S e v e n th Day A d v e n t i s t
— —
1 .5
— —
Some o t h e r c h u rc h
— 1 0 .0 4 .4
1 4 .3
6 . 8
Do n o t b e lo n g
— —
1 4 .8 2 6 .2
9 . 1
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
137
one was a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e C a t h o l i c C h u rc h , w h e re a s i n
c l a s s V, 50 p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h i s r e
l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . The B a p t i s t a f f i l i a t i o n by s o c i a l
c l a s s was a b o u t t h e same i n a l l c l a s s e s , e x c e p t i n c l a s s I I
w here t h e p e r c e n t a g e was lo w e r t h a n t h e o t h e r c l a s s e s . The
r e m a in in g c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n p e r c e n t a g e s , a c c o r d i n g to
c l a s s e s , w ere to o s m a ll f o r d e p e n d a b le c o m p a r is o n s .
I n c o m p a rin g t h e C i t r u s C i t y sam ple w i t h t h e s o c i a l
c l a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s f o r t h e U n ite d
S t a t e s , t h e n a t i o n a l sam ple showed 13*1 p e r c e n t In th e
u p p e r c l a s s , 3 0 .7 p e r c e n t i n t h e m id d le c l a s s , and 5 6 .2
?R
p e r c e n t I n th e lo w e r c l a s s . J The C i t r u s C i ty sam ple
showed 5 .2 p e r c e n t I n c l a s s I , 5 0 .5 p e r c e n t I n c l a s s e s I I
and I I I , and 4 4 .3 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s e s IV and V. The n a
t i o n a l sam ple r a n k e d t h e r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s I n t h e f o l l o w i n g
o r d e r : E p i s c o p a l , C o n g r e g a t i o n a l , P r e s b y t e r i a n , J e w i s h , no
p r e f e r e n c e , M e t h o d is t, p r o t e s t a n t ( u n s p e c i f i e d ) , L u th e r a n ,
C h r i s t i a n ( u n s p e c i f i e d o r D i s c i p l e s o f C h r i s t C h u r c h ), p r o t
e s t a n t ( s m a l l e r b o d i e s ) , C a t h o l i c , and B a p t i s t . The C i t r u s
C i t y sa m p le , l i m i t e d by t h e s m a ll number o f p e r s o n s i n some
o f t h e r e l i g i o u s g r o u p i n g s , p a r t i a l l y r a n k e d t h e d e n o m in a
t i o n s I n th e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r : C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n , C h r i s
t i a n , P r e s b y t e r i a n , B a p t i s t , L u th e r a n , M e t h o d i s t , and C a th
o l i c . T hese d a t a s u p p o r t th e p o s i t i o n t h a t c h u rc h a f f i l i a
25I b i d . , p. 157.
138
t i o n by I t s e l f i s n o t an a d e q u a te s y m b o lic I n d i c a t o r o f s o
c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n i n g e n e r a l , b u t th e y may be h e l p f u l i n
a g iv e n com m unity.
The C i t r u s C i t y sam ple i n c l u d e d no N e g ro e s , 2 1 .1
p e r c e n t M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s, and t h e r e m a in in g g ro u p was n o n -
M exican w h i t e s . T h e re w ere no M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s i n th e to p
two c l a s s e s , 1 4 .7 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s I I I , 1 9 .0 p e r c e n t i n
c l a s s IV, and 5?*3 P e r c e n t i n c l a s s V. M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s
c o m p ris e d s l i g h t l y more th a n o n e - f i f t h o f t h e sa m p le , w h ile
o v e r o n e - h a l f o f t h i s e t h n i c g ro u p was i n th e b o tto m s o c i a l
c l a s s .
The r e s p o n d e n t s o f C i t r u s C i t y w ere a s k e d to i n d i
c a t e i f th e y w ere A m erican b o rn o f A m erican b o rn p a r e n t s ,
f o r e i g n b o r n o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s , o r A m erican b o rn o f
f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s . I n c l a s s I , a l l I n t e r v i e w e e s w ere
A m erican b o rn o f A m e ric a n -b o rn p a r e n t s ; i n c l a s s I I , 8 3 .3
p e r c e n t w ere i n t h i s c a t e g o r y ; i n c l a s s I I I , 7 6 .4 p e r c e n t ;
I n c l a s s IV, 8 3 .3 p e r c e n t ; and i n c l a s s V, 4 0 .9 per* c e n t .
No one i n c l a s s e s I and I I was f o r e i g n b o r n o f f o r e i g n - b o r n
p a r e n t s . How ever, In c l a s s I I I t h e r e was 7 . 4 p e r c e n t , I n
c l a s s IV t h e r e was 2 .4 p e r c e n t , and i n c l a s s V t h e r e was
25.0 p e r c e n t o f t h e sam ple w hich was f o r e i g n b o r n o f
f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s . In c l a s s I , no one was A m erican b o rn
o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s , i n c l a s s I I t h e r e was 1 6 .7 p e r
c e n t , i n c l a s s I I I t h e r e was 1 6 .2 p e r c e n t , i n c l a s s IV
139
t h e r e was 1 4 .3 Pe r c e n t , and c l a s s V t h e r e was 3 4 .1 p e r
c e n t . F o r t h e w hole sa m p le , 7 2 .2 p e r c e n t waB A m erican
b o r n o f A m e ric a n - b o r n p a r e n t s , 8 . 7 p e r c e n t was f o r e i g n
b o r n o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s , an d 19*1 p e r c e n t was A m erican
b o r n o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s .
26
As S h l b u t a n i su m m arize d , t h e m anner i n w h ich p e o
p l e a r e t r e a t e d d e p e n d s upon t h e way i n w h ic h t h e y a r e
c l a s s i f i e d and e v a l u a t e d . Men i n t e r a c t i n te r m s o f th e
a s s u m p t io n s t h e y form a b o u t e a c h o t h e r , and e t h n i c s t e r e o
t y p e s a r e among t h e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t s u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e r t e d
a c t i o n . R e c u r r e n t ways o f e v a l u a t i n g e t h n i c c a t e g o r i e s d e
p e n d up o n t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f th e g r o u p s i n a s y s te m
o f s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .
K a h l 's d e l i n e a t i o n o f c l a s s e s a s i d e a l t y p e s c a l l e d
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r e s p e c t a b i l i t y o f home o w n e rs h ip among t h e
l o w e r - m i d d le c l a s s , w i t h i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s t a b i l i t y and
f a m i l y s o l i d a r i t y . He s t a t e s t h a t " l o w e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s p e o
p l e a r e v e r y p ro u d o f t h e i r s m a ll hom esj t h e y s e e k t o buy
th em , sp e n d tw e n ty o r t h i r t y y e a r s p a y in g o f f th e m o r tg a g e ,
and p u t i n many h o u r s o f p e r s o n a l l a b o r to k e e p home and
27
g r o u n d s i n good c o n d i t i o n . "
I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y sa m p le , 1 9 .6 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e
s p o n d e n t s w ere r e n t i n g t h e i r hom es, 4 5 .4 p e r c e n t w ere b u y -
96
Tam otsu S h l b u t a n i and K ian M. Kwan, E t h n i c S t r a t i f i -
c a t l o n : A C o m p a ra tiv e A p p ro ach (New Y ork: The M a c m illa n C o .,
1 9 6 5 7 / PP. 9 5 , 1 1 4 -1 1 5 .
2^Kahl, o p . c i t ., p. 204.
l4o
I n g t h e i r homeB, 3 2 .9 p e r c e n t owned t h e i r hom es, and 2 .1
p e r c e n t had a home p r o v i d e d f o r th em . In s o c i a l c l a s s I ,
e x c l u d i n g th e p e r s o n who h ad h i s home p r o v i d e d , a l l r e s p o n d
e n t s e i t h e r owned o r w ere b u y in g t h e i r hom es. I n c l a s s I I ,
8 6 .7 p e r c e n t owned o r w ere b u y in g t h e i r hom es; i n c l a s s
I I I , 7 3 .5 p e r c e n t owned o r w ere b u y i n g ; i n c l a s s IV, 7 1 .^
owned o r w ere b u y i n g ; and i n c l a s s V, 9 0 .9 p e r c e n t w ere
b u y in g o r owned t h e i r hom es. I t was t h o u g h t t h a t a l a r g e r
p e r c e n t a g e o f c l a s s V t h a n any o t h e r s o c i a l c l a s s , w ould be
r e n t i n g r a t h e r th a n ow ning o r b u y in g t h e i r hom es, b u t t h i s
was n o t w hat a p p e a r e d In t h e C i t r u s C i t y s a m p le . I t may be
assu m ed t h a t t h i s q u e s t i o n was a c c u r a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d by th e
I n t e r v i e w e e s s i n c e a l l a d d r e s s e s i n t h e sam p le w ere c h e c k e d
a s to l e g a l o w n e r s h i p . The l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f home o w n e r
s h i p I n c l a s s V may be r e l a t e d to t h e l e n g t h o f r e s i d e n c e
I n t h e a r e a s i n c e t h e a v e r a g e f o r t h e sam ple was 1 9 -3 y e a r s ,
a s com pared w i t h 3 0 .7 y e a r s f o r c l a s s V.
The a d d r e s s e s o f a l l h o u s e s I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y sam
p l e w ere l o c a t e d on t h e c o u n ty a s s e s s m e n t r o l l s . On th e
b a s i s o f t h e s e a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n s t h e m a rk e t v a l u e o f e a c h
h o u s e was e a s i l y co m p u ted . The a v e r a g e a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n
o f homes i n c l a s s I was $ 1 7 ,5 0 0 , i n c l a s s I I I t was $18,7 91*
i n c l a s s I I I i t was $ 12 , 26 6 , I n c l a s s IV i t was $9*^9^> and
I n c l a s s V t h e a v e r a g e a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n was $ 7 ,9 9 7 . A l
th o u g h th e p r i c e o f a home d o e s n o t c o m p l e t e ly s y m b o liz e i t s
v a l u e , t h e p r i c e i s an i n d i c a t o r o f t h e v a l u e o f th e home.
lb i
A s s o c i a t i o n a l P a t t e r n s an d S o c i a l C l a s s
A common v ie w o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s t h a t p e r s o n s e x
p r e s s t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d on e a n o t h e r n o t
o n l y i n w h at t h e y s a y b u t a l s o i n w h a t t h e y d o . I n t e r a c t i o n
a s an i n d i c a t o r o f s o c i a l c l a s s c o n s i s t s o f t h e a c t u a l p a t
t e r n s o f a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h one a n o t h e r t h r o u g h w h ic h men e x
p r e s s e q u a l i t y , s u p e r i o r i t y , and i n f e r i o r i t y . The a s s u m p
t i o n u n d e r l y i n g t h e u s e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r o f
s o c i a l c l a s s i s t h a t s o c i a l i n t i m a c y i s e x p r e s s i v e o f s o c i a l
e q u a l i t y . The k i n d o f i n t e r c h a n g e o f s e n t i m e n t s and I d e a s
t h a t g o e s on I n I n t i m a t e a s s o c i a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e o n l y among
p e o p l e who know e a c h o t h e r w e l l and who v a l u e e a c h o t h e r
n
e q u a l l y .
H ow ever, one o f t h e m o st o b v i o u s f a c t s I n s o c i a l
l i f e I s t h a t a p e r s o n d o e s n o t a s s o c i a t e e q u a l l y w i t h a l l
p e r s o n s . A s s o c i a t i o n s v a r y I n f r e q u e n c y , d u r a t i o n , p r i o r -
2Q
l t y , and I n t e n s i t y . ^ The e x t e n t t o w h ich o n e i s f r e e t o
a s s o c i a t e w i t h o t h e r p e r s o n s may be d e t e r m i n e d b y a num ber
o f f a c t o r s . T h e re a r e t h e o b v i o u s f a c t o r s o f s p a t i a l p r o x
i m i t y o r d i s t a n c e , f o r m a l s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s ,
o r t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e i n f a n t u p o n t h e f a m i l y f o r s u r
v i v a l . Many l e s s o b v i o u s f a c t o r s a r e p o o r c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
PR
Barber, op. c i t ., pp. 1 2 1 -1 2 2 .
^ E d w i n h . S u t h e r l a n d an d D o n a ld C r e s s e y , P r i n c i p l e s
o f C r im in o lo g y ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L I p p i n c o t t an d C o .,
I 9 6 0 ) , p . 787
142
l a c k o f s h a r e d o r c o m p lem e n ta ry i n t e r e s t s , and e t h n o c e n t r i s m
w h ich d e te r m i n e a s s o c i a t i o n s .
E v e ry one a t t a c h e s g r e a t e r i m p o r ta n c e to some s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s th a n to o t h e r s . Each p e r s o n u n d e r s t a n d s more
r e a d i l y an d r e s p o n d s more a p p r o p r i a t e l y t o s t i m u l i t r a n s
m i t t e d by some g r o u p s o r p e r s o n s t h a n o t h e r s . The g ro u p
w h ich h a s p r i o r i t y e a r l y i n o n e ' s l i f e i s l i k e l y to r e t a i n
an a d v a n ta g e o v e r o t h e r g r o u p s i n i n f l u e n c i n g h im . Communi
c a t i o n i s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d i n su c h a g ro u p b e c a u s e s t i m u
l i and r e s p o n s e s a r e more r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d .
J u s t a s some s o c i a l c o n t a c t s a r e p r e f e r r e d , o t h e r s
a r e e i t h e r a c t i v e l y o r p a s s i v e l y a v o i d e d . P a t t e r n s o f
a v o id a n c e l e a d to p o o r c o m m u n ic a tio n , fe w e r common e x p e r i
e n c e s , and o f t e n to a d e c r e a s e i n s y m p a th e ti c u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
One o f t h e m ost th o r o u g h s t u d i e s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n p a t t e r n s o f a s s o c i a t i o n and m e a s u re s o f th e s o c i a l
s t a t u s o f t h e p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d i n them was done u n d e r th e
d i r e c t i o n o f G eorge L u n d b e r g . A lth o u g h some r e c e n t s t u d
i e s h ave r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e f i n d
i n g s o f t h a t s t u d y , h i s m etho ds and t e c h n i q u e s a r e exem
p l a r y .
L u n d b e rg , i n a p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i m e n t a l a t t e m p t to
d e te r m i n e some o f th e l e s s f o r m a l a s s o c i a t l o n - p a t t e r n s o r
" f r i e n d s h i p s " i n a com m unity, u n d e r t o o k a c o m p le te c a n v a s s
^ G e o r g e A. L u n d b e rg , " A t t r a c t i o n P a t t e r n s i n a V i l
l a g e , " So d o m e t r y , I ( A p r i l , 1938)* 37 5 -4 1 9 -
143
o f a V erm ont v i l l a g e o f a p o p u l a t i o n o f a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 . E v ery
f a m i l y was i n t e r v i e w e d and n i n e t y - f o u r p e r c e n t gave t h e I n
f o r m a t i o n r e q u e s t e d . F i r s t , e a c h f a m i ly was s c o r e d a c c o r d
i n g t o th e C hap in s c a l e o f s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . S econd ,
a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g o c c u p a t i o n , f a m i l y s i z e ,
g e n e r a l h o u s i n g c o n d i t i o n , and k i n d s o f r e a d i n g m a t t e r was
a l s o g a t h e r e d . T h i r d , t h e p e r s o n i n t e r v i e w e d , u s u a l l y th e
h o u s e w i f e , was a s k e d t o name c o n f i d e n t i a l l y h e r b e s t f r i e n d s
i n th e com m unity. The aim was to s e c u r e t h e names s p o n t a n e
o u s l y v o l u n t e e r e d i n r e s p o n s e t o w h at a p p e a r e d t o be a c a s u
a l i n q u i r y a t t h e c l o s e o f an i n t e r v i e w d e a l i n g e n t i r e l y
w i t h o t h e r m a t t e r s . I n o n l y s i x t e e n o u t o f a t o t a l o f tw o-
h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y - t w o f a m i l i e s v i s i t e d d i d th e p e r s o n i n
t e r v i e w e d d e c l i n e to g i v e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n .
L u n d b erg p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h u s s e
c u r e d i s m e r e ly th e v e r b a l t e s t i m o n y o f t h e p e r s o n i n t e r
v ie w e d . They w ould p r o b a b l y n o t i n c l u d e i l l i c t f r i e n d s h i p s
o r o t h e r e m b a r r a s s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The s t u d y s e c u r e d a
h i g h l y d e p e n d a b le a c c o u n t o f th e f r i e n d s h i p s o f th e h o u s e
w iv e s a s th e y w ere w i l l i n g to have t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r know
t h e s e f r i e n d s h i p s to e x i s t i n t h e f a l l o f 1936. T h ere i s
no n e e d o f a ssu m in g a n y t h i n g b eyond th e f a c t t h a t th e
g r o u p i n g s fo u n d r e p r e s e n t t h e i n f o r m a l f r i e n d s h i p a s s o c i a -
t i o n s o f th e p e r s o n i n t e r v i e w e d .
31I b i d . , p. 378.
144
Of t h e tw o - h u n d r e d and f i f t y - s i x p e r s o n s s u c c e s s
f u l l y i n t e r v i e w e d , o n l y t h r e e c a s e s o f c o m p l e t e l y i s o l a t e d
p e r s o n s w ere f o u n d . F o r t y - s i x p e r s o n s g av e o n l y one o t h e r
p e r s o n a s t h e i r f r i e n d , and i n t h i r t e e n o f t h e s e c a s e s t h e
c h o i c e was m u t u a l . At th e o p p o s i t e e x tre m e from th e i s o
l a t e d p e r s o n s was t h e " s t a r " o r t h e p e r s o n who i s t h e o b -
• a p
J e c t o f a l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h o i c e s . - '
L u n d b e rg 33 t e s t e d t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s a s to
w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t te n d e n c y f o r p e o p le to name
a s f r i e n d s p e r s o n s o f s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s h i g h e r th a n
t h e m s e l v e s . One g r o u p , c o n s i s t i n g o f more th a n o n e - t h i r d
o f a l l p e r s o n s i n t h e s t u d y and l o c a t e d i n t h e m id d le o f
t h e s o c io e c o n o m ic d i s t r i b u t i o n , d i r e c t e d 60 p e r c e n t o f
t h e i r c h o i c e s o f f r i e n d s i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f h i g h e r s o c i o
eco nom ic s t a t u s . T h ere i s a te n d e n c y f o r c h o i c e s to c l u s
t e r i n th e c l a s s e s n e a r e s t to t h a t o f t h e c h o o s e r , b u t
skew ed i n t h i s m edian g ro u p to w a rd t h e s i d e o f r i s i n g
s c o r e s .
I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t even i f num bers from w hich
c h o i c e s may be made a r e e q u a l above and b e lo w th e
c h o o s e r s , p e r s o n s o f lo w e r - s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s w ould
be d e l i b e r a t e l y more c o n c e r n e d to a s s o c i a t e th e m s e lv e s
w i t h p e r s o n s o f h i g h e r s t a t u s , a s I n d i c a t e d by t h e b e
h a v i o r o f t h i s m edian g r o u p . 34
32I b i d .
33G eorge A. L u n d b erg and Mary S t e e l e , " A t t r a c t i o n
P a t t e r n s I n a V i l l a g e , " I n R o b e r t W. O 'B r ie n e t a l . , R e ad
i n g s i n G e n e r a l S o c io lo g y (B o s to n : H oughton M i f f l i n C o .,
1 9 b 4 ], p p . 3 0 3 -3 0 4 .
34I b l d . , p . 303.
145
I n L u n d b e r g 's s t u d y , r e l a t i v e s d i d n o t d o m in a te th e
g r o u p i n g s i n t h e v i l l a g e . He n o t e d t h a t i n a num ber o f
c a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y among " i n - l a w s , " t h e r e w ere no c h o i c e s
b e tw e e n th em . T h e re w ere f o u r f a m i l i e s i n t h e v i l l a g e e a c h
w i t h a t l e a s t f o u r i n d e p e n d e n t h o u s e h o l d s and i n one o f
them t h e r e w ere no c h o i c e s b e tw e e n any o f t h e m em bers. He
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e c h o ic e o f r e l a t i v e s was a f a c t o r o f some,
b u t n o t d o m in a t in g , i m p o r ta n c e i n t h e g r o u p i n g o f t h e v i l -
l a g e .
L u n d b e r g 's s t u d y showed t h a t c h u rc h m em b ersh ip i n
a common c h u rc h was one o f t h e c l e a r e s t f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e s e g r o u p i n g s . In t h r e e g r o u p s more t h a n h a l f th e
c o n s t i t u e n t s w ere members o f th e same c h u rc h a l t h o u g h t h a t
c h u r c h h a d l e s s th a n a q u a r t e r o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a s m em bers.
When o n l y t h e i n n e r c i r c l e s w ere c o n s i d e r e d , t h i s te n d e n c y
was i n e v e r y c a s e a c c e n t u a t e d . A lso h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f
c h u r c h m em b ersh ip was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s .
The g r o u p s w i t h low s t a t u s h a d a low p e r c e n t a g e o f c h u rc h
m em bersh ip and v i c e v e r s a . L u n d berg c o n c l u d e s t h a t
I t h a s lo n g b e e n c u s to m a r y t o c h a r t g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g to
t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s . We h av e h e r e t r i e d to c h a r t
a com m unity on t h e b a s i s o f some o f t h e i n t e r - p e r s o n a l
c u r r e n t s t h a t b i n d them t o g e t h e r s o c i o l o g i c a l l y . I t i s
t h r o u g h su c h c h a n n e l s a s t h o s e h e r e c h a r t e d a n d , o f
c o u r s e , a m u l t i t u d e o f o t h e r s , t h a t p e o p le i n f l u e n c e
e a c h o t h e r th r o u g h s u g g e s t i o n o r t h r o u g h more o v e r t
p r e s s u r e s .36
I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y s t u d y th e I n f o r m a n t s w ere a s k e d
35I b id .
36I b id .
146
to l i s t a l l t h e i r c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s by
f i r s t and l a s t nam es. I n t h e g ro u p o f 97 m ale r e s p o n d e n t s
4 0 , o r 4 1 .2 p e r c e n t , named a s a c l o s e f r i e n d o r c l o s e a s
s o c i a t e a p e r s o n who was i n c l u d e d in t h e random sam ple o f
t h e com m unity. I n c l a s s I , a l l f i v e m ale i n t e r v i e w e e s
(100 p e r c e n t ) w ere named; i n c l a s s I I , n in e o u t o f f i f t e e n
( 6 0 .0 p e r c e n t ) w ere named; In c l a s s I I I , t e n o u t o f t h i r t y -
f o u r ( 2 9 .4 p e r c e n t ) w ere named; i n c l a s s IV , s i x o u t o f
t w e n t y - f o u r ( 3 0 .0 p e r c e n t ) w ere named; and i n c l a s s V, t e n
o u t o f tw e n ty - tw o ( 4 5 .5 p e r c e n t ) w ere named a s c l o s e
f r i e n d s o r c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s by o t h e r s I n th e sa m p le .
F i g u r e 2 shows t h e a s s o c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s i n th e
C i t r u s C i t y sam p le by s o c i a l c l a s s . Each p e r s o n I s num bered
and r e p r e s e n t e d by a c i r c l e . He i s p l a c e d i n a colum n a c
c o r d i n g to h i s a s s i g n e d s o c i a l c l a s s . Each a rro w r e p r e s e n t s
a c h o ic e made o r r e c e i v e d a c c o r d i n g to th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e
a rr o w . M utual c h o i c e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by d o u b l e - h e a d e d a r
ro w s . Of a l l t h e p e r s o n s named a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d and c l o s
e s t a s s o c i a t e s , c l a s s I r e c e i v e d 2 7 .7 p e r c e n t o f th e
c h o i c e s I n th e sa m p le ; c l a s s I I r e c e i v e d 2 1 .3 p e r c e n t o f
th e c h o i c e s , c l a s s I I I r e c e i v e d 3 6 .1 p e r c e n t o f t h e
c h o i c e s ; c l a s s IV r e c e i v e d 4 . 2 p e r c e n t o f th e c h o i c e s ; and
c l a s s V r e c e i v e d 1 0 .7 p e r c e n t o f th e c h o i c e s . Those p e r
so n s who r e c e i v e d c h o i c e s may be r a n k e d i n th e f o l l o w i n g
f r e q u e n c y o r d e r : 9 7 , 8 9 , 88, 8 7 , 85* 9 8 , 94 , 93> 8 4 , 80,
4 9 , 20, 14, 86, 6 8 , 52, 4 5 , 3 8 , 2 3 , 12, 11, and 10.
147
C lass I Class I I C lass I I I C lass IV C lass V
0 — “0
20
Jlgur* 2 . — S o cia l C lass A ssooiatlon al Patterns in
the Citrus C ity Stap le.
148
Prom i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w s i t may be
s t a t e d t h a t " b e in g a r e l a t i v e " was i n v o l v e d i n t h e m u tu a l
c h o i c e s o f 9 7 , 9 6 , 9 3 , 14, and t h e s e w ere t h e o n l y c a s e s
known w hich i n c l u d e d r e l a t i v e s .
To t e s t t h e g e n e r a l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p e o p le t e n d to
name a s f r i e n d s p e r s o n s o f h i g h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s t h a n
t h e m s e l v e s , th e c h o i c e s a c c o r d i n g t o s o c i a l c l a s s w ere com
p a r e d . Among t h o s e who h a d c h o s e n someone w i t h i n t h e sam-
p i e , 2 4 .6 p e r c e n t named f r i e n d s w i t h i n t h e i r own s o c i a l
c l a s s , 2 8 .3 p e r c e n t h a d named someone i n a lo w e r s o c i a l
c l a s s , and 4 7 .1 p e r c e n t h a d named f r i e n d s i n a h i g h e r s o
c i a l t h a n t h e m s e l v e s . E x c lu d in g m u tu a l s (w h ich c a n c e l e a c h
o t h e r ) t h e r e a r e i n f a c t o n l y f o u r c h o i c e s , o r 13*3 p e r
c e n t , o f a l l th e c h o i c e s i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f lo w e r s o c i o
econom ic s t a t u s . A lso i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t when m u tu a ls
a r e e x c l u d e d , 4 0 ,0 p e r c e n t o f t h e c h o i c e o f f r i e n d s w ere i n
t h e same s o c i a l c l a s s , and 6 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e c h o i c e s w ere
i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s . T hese d a t a s u p
p o r t th e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t p e o p le t e n d to name a s f r i e n d s and
a s s o c i a t e s t h o s e p e r s o n s who a r e i n a h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s
th a n t h e m s e l v e s .
F i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p e r s o n s i n F i g u r e 2 b e lo n g e d
t o t h e C hu rch o f t h e B r e t h r e n , 2 0 .0 p e r c e n t w ere C a t h o l i c s ,
1 2 .5 p e r c e n t w ere B a p t i s t s , 7 . 5 p e r c e n t b e lo n g e d to th e
C h r i s t i a n C h u rc h , 2 .5 p e r c e n t w ere C hurch o f C h r i s t , 5 .0
p e r c e n t d i d n o t b e lo n g to any c h u r c h , and 2 .5 p e r c e n t b e -
149
lo n g e d to a d e n o m in a tio n w hich was n o t l i B t e d on t h e i n t e r
v iew s c h e d u l e . S in c e o n l y 2 4 .3 p e r c e n t o f t h e p e r s o n s i n
t e r v i e w e d w ere members o f t h e C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n a s
com pared w i t h 6 5 . 2 p e r c e n t who w ere named a s a s s o c i a t e s ,
t h i s m em bership was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p
i n g s a t t h e .0 1 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e (X2 = 7 .8 8 ; d f = l ) .
The t o t a l num ber o f p e r s o n s named a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s
o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s i n t h e C i t r u s C i t y sam ple was 1 , 238 ,
w i t h an a v e r a g e o f 6 . 3 p e r s o n s named by e a c h r e s p o n d e n t .
The a v e r a g e num ber o f p e r s o n s m e n tio n e d was 1 4 .3 by c l a s s I
r e s p o n d e n t s , 8 . 5 by c l a s s I I p e r s o n s , 5*5 by c l a s s I I I r e
s p o n d e n t s , 6 . 6 b y c l a s s IV p e r s o n s , and 4 . 2 by c l a s s V r e
s p o n d e n t s . The to p two c l a s s e s l i s t e d more f r i e n d s an d a s
s o c i a t e s th a n d i d c l a s s e s I I I t o V, and t h e a v e r a g e f o r
c l a s s I was s l i g h t l y more th a n tw ic e t h e a v e r a g e f o r t h e
s a m p l e .
T a b le 22 shows t h e c h o ic e o f c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r
c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s f o r t h e f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n p e r c e n t
a g e s when t h e f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s a r e g iv e n an e s t i m a t e d
-37
c l a s s p o s i t i o n . 1 E ach c l a s s showed a d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e
f o r f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s w i t h i n o n e ’ s own s o c i a l c l a s s .
When th e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t was a p p l i e d to c l a s s and th e c h o ic e
o f f r i e n d s , I t showed t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p was s i g n i f i c a n t
■^The e s t i m a t e d c l a s s p o s i t i o n was b a s e d on t h e a v a i l
a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t e a c h p e r s o n and t h i s was co m puted by
th e H o l l i n g s h e a d t w o - f a c t o r in d e x o f s o c i a l p o s i t i o n w hich
i n c l u d e d t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l and e d u c a t i o n a l s c a l e s .
150
TABUS 22
CHOICE OF CLOSEST FRIENDS OR CLOSEST ASSOCIATES
IN ESTIMATED CLASSES BY ISP
E s t i m a t e d
C l a s s f o r
A s s o c i a t e s
ISP by P e r C en t
I I I I I I IV V
1 3 9 .0 2 2 .0 8 .1 4 .0 1 .4
2
2 7 .1
5 8 .0
1 8 .9
1 2 .8
5 .7
3 2 7 .1
15.0
5 9 .5
2 1 .6
4 . 3
4
3 .4
5 .0
1 1 .5
5 7 .6
2 5 .7
5 3 .^
0 . 0 2 .0 4 .0
6 2 .9
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 10 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
Xs = 289.76 S i g n i f i c a n t b ey o n d t h e .00 1 l e v e l
d f = 4 ( c a t e g o r i e s com bined i n t o a 3x 3 t a b l e )
151
f a r bey o n d th e .0 0 1 l e v e l . The p e r s o n s i n c l a s s e s I I
t h r o u g h IV I n d i c a t e d more c h o i c e s o f f r i e n d s i n a h i g h e r
s o c i a l c l a s s t h a n t h e one i n w h ich t h e y w ere i d e n t i f i e d .
A lth o u g h n o t a s p ro n o u n c e d , t h i s f i n d i n g s u p p o r t s t h o s e o f
th e r e s p o n d e n t s i n th e sam p le who named a s f r i e n d s and a s
s o c i a t e s t h o s e p e r s o n s who w ere i n a h i g h e r c l a s s th a n
t h e m s e l v e s .
F i g u r e 3 , i n t h e fo rm o f a s o c io g ra m , shows th e
c h o i c e s o f c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s f o r c l a s s I
m a l e s . E ach m ale i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a c i r c l e : th e to p number
i s t h e r e s p o n d e n t ’ s num ber, and t h e b o tto m num ber i s h i s
a s s i g n e d s o c i a l c l a s s . Each a rro w r e p r e s e n t s a c h o ic e made
o r r e c e i v e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a r r o w . Mu
t u a l c h o i c e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by d o u b l e - h e a d e d a r r o w s . On
th e p e r i m e t e r a r e th e p e r s o n s , r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e i r num ber,
who f a l l i n t o one o f t h e f i v e e s t i m a t e d s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
T h is f i g u r e c l e a r l y d i s p l a y s t h e f a c t t h a t th e men i n c l a s s
I h a v e a p r e f e r e n c e f o r f r i e n d s who a r e a l s o i n t h e to p s o
c i a l c l a s s . A s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g i s t h a t f i v e p e r s o n s ,
4 l 6 , 5 2 3 , 5 2 9 , 8 2 8 , and 8 8 4 , w ere c h o se n a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s
o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s by more t h a n one member o f c l a s s I .
The o c c u p a t i o n s o f t h e s e f i v e men i n c l u d e a c o l l e g e p r e s i
d e n t , c o l l e g e v i c e p r e s i d e n t , c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t , m e d ic a l
d o c t o r , and a t t o r n e y . The o n l y m u tu a l c h o ic e was t h a t o f
r e l a t i v e s .
« « *
J.
-C hoiM
°r
^0U „Z
153
I n T a b le A - l 3® t h e c l o s e B t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t a s s o
c i a t e s a r e l i s t e d i n c l a s s e s a s c h o se n b y m a le s i n c l a s s I I .
The f i r s t num ber i n e a c h colum n s t a n d s f o r t h e p e r s o n
c h o s e n , and i n t h e same row i t i s f o l lo w e d by a n u m b e r(s)
w h ich r e p r e s e n t s t h e c h o o s e r i n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n . Those i n
c l a s s I I showed a d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e (58 p e r c e n t ) f o r
c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s i n c l a s s I I , f o l lo w e d b y p r e f e r e n c e f o r
c l a s s I p e r s o n s (22 p e r c e n t ) , f o r c l a s s I I I (15 p e r c e n t ) ,
f o r c l a s s IV (5 p e r c e n t ) , and w i t h no one b e i n g c h o se n a s
an a s s o c i a t e i n c l a s s V. T hose p e r s o n s named by more th a n
one i n f o r m a n t a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s i n c l a s s I
i n c l u d e d th e f o l l o w i n g : t h e m i n i s t e r o f t h e l a r g e s t c h u r c h ,
t h e m ayor o f C i t r u s C i t y , a c o l l e g e t e a c h e r , a c o l l e g e p r e s
i d e n t , a c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t , a n d an a t t o r n e y . I n c l a s s
I I t h o s e p e r s o n s m e n tio n e d by more t h a n one i n t e r v i e w e e i n
c l u d e d two p u b l i c s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , and an o w n e r-m a n a g e r o f
a m e d iu m -s iz e d b u s i n e s s . No one was m e n tio n e d more th a n
o n c e i n th e o t h e r c l a s s e s a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r a s s o c i a t e s .
I n T a b le A - 2 t h e c l o s e s t f r i e n d s and c l o s e s t a s
s o c i a t e s a r e l i s t e d i n c l a s s e s a s c h o s e n by m a le s i n c l a s s
I I I . The r e s p o n d e n t s i n c l a s s I I I c h o s e th e l a r g e s t num ber
o f f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s I n t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s o r d e r :
t h r e e , tw o, f o u r , o n e , and f i v e . The o n l y p e r s o n i n c l a s s I
who r e c e i v e d more t h a n one c h o ic e a s a c l o s e f r i e n d by c l a s s
I I I p e r s o n s was a g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e d o c t o r o f l o n g - s t a n d i n g
3^See Appendix D. 39I b id .
154
I n th e com m unity. The o n l y c l a s s I I r e s i d e n t m e n tio n e d more
t h a n o n ce was a fo rm e r s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . The two p e r
s o n s named more th a n once a s a s s o c i a t e s I n c l a s s I I I w ere
an I n s u r a n c e s a le s m a n and a c o u n ty e m p lo y e e . The two men
s e l e c t e d more t h a n o n c e a s f r i e n d s i n c l a s s 4 b y c la B s I I I
s u b j e c t s i n c l u d e d a m an ag er o f a s m a l l i n d e p e n d e n t g r o c e r y
s to r e ., and a p lu m b e r who s p e n d s moBt o f h i s s p a r e t i m e i n
th e l o c a l r e s t a u r a n t s w i t h h i s " b u d d i e s . "
40
T a b le A-3 shows t h e c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t
a s s o c i a t e s a s l i s t e d i n c l a s s e s a s th e y w ere c h o se n by m a le s
i n c l a s s IV . The r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h i s c l a s s c h o s e t h e l a r g
e s t num ber o f f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s
o r d e r : f o u r , t h r e e , tw o , and one and f i v e h a d t h e same num
b e r o f c h o i c e s . The o n l y p e r s o n i n c l a s s I who r e c e i v e d
more th a n one c h o ic e a s a c l o s e f r i e n d by c l a s s IV p e r s o n s
was t h e same m e d ic a l d o c t o r who was s e l e c t e d by p e r s o n s i n
c l a s s I I I . The o n l y c l a s s I I r e s i d e n t m e n tio n e d more th a n
once was t h e o w n e r-m a n a g e r o f a s m a ll d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e I n
C i t r u s C i t y . I n c l a s s IV t h e o n l y p e r s o n m e n tio n e d more
th a n o n ce was t h e same p lu m b e r m e n tio n e d by c l a s s I I I . I n
c l a s s e s I I I and IV no one was m e n tio n e d aB a c l o s e f r i e n d o r
a s s o c i a t e by I n f o r m a n t s o f c l a s s IV .
I n T a b le A-4^1 t h e c l o s e s t f r i e n d s and c l o s e s t a s
s o c i a t e s a r e l i s t e d i n c l a s s e s a s c h o se n by m a le s I n c l a s s
4 l I b id .
155
V. The r e s p o n d e n t s i n c l a s s V c h o se t h e l a r g e s t num ber o f
f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g o r d e r : c l a s s V,
c l a s s IV* c l a s s I I * c l a s s I I I * and c l a s s I . No one was
m e n tio n e d more t h a n o n c e a s a c l o s e a s s o c i a t e i n c l a s s e s
one* two* and f o u r by p e r s o n s i n c l a s s V. The o n l y p e r s o n
t o be named more t h a n o n c e a s a c l o s e f r i e n d i n c l a s s I I I
was an i n f l u e n t i a l p e r s o n In t h e M ex ica n -A m erica n com m unity
i n C i t r u s C i t y and a l s o t h e o w n e r-m a n a g e r o f a d e l i c a t e s s e n
an d p a c k a g e l i q u o r s t o r e . The o n l y p e r s o n i n c l a s s V to
r e c e i v e more t h a n one c h o i c e a s a c l o s e f r i e n d by p e r s o n s
i n c l a s s V was a fo rem an o f a fa rm w ork c re w .
The men i n a l l f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s e s c h o se more c l o s e
f r i e n d s and c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s fro m w i t h i n t h e i r own e s t i
m ated c l a s s t h a n from any o f t h e o t h e r c l a s s e s . However*
I n a l l b u t t h e to p c l a s s * t h o s e I n t h e o t h e r c l a s s e s c h o se
n e x t I n p r e f e r e n c e t h e c l a s s n e a r e s t t h e i r s w h ich was one
s t e p h i g h e r i n c l a s s p o s i t i o n . I n g e n e r a l * t h e r e m a in i n g
c h o i c e s o f f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s a c c o r d i n g to c l a s s e s
f o l lo w e d t h e same p a t t e r n w i t h th e l o w e s t c l a s s e s h a v in g
r e c e i v e d th e l e a s t num ber o f c h o i c e s .
The r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n o f th e p e r s o n s c h o se n
more th a n once a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s
showed t h e f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n : t h e C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n ,
s i x In c l a s s I* t h r e e In c l a s s I I , and one i n c l a s s I I I ;
t h e M e t h o d is t Church* one In claB S I* and one i n c l a s s I I ;
t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u rch , one p e r s o n In c l a s s I I ; t h e B a p t i s t
156
C h u rc h , one i n c l a s s I I I , and one i n c l a s s IV; th e C a t h o l i c
C h u rc h , one i n c l a s s I I I , and one i n c l a s s V; and one p e r s o n
w i t h no c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n was i n c l a s s IV. These d a t a s u p
p o r t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n and s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .
L a s s w e ll c o n c lu d e d i n h i s s t u d y o f C i t r u s C i t y t h a t
" t h e f a m i l i e s l i v i n g i n ' b e t t e r ' r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , t h o s e
h a v in g h i g h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s , and t h o s e t o whom h i g h e r
com m unity s t a t u s was a s s i g n e d w ere more w i d e ly known i n
C i t r u s C i t y th a n w ere t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s w i t h lo w e r
ho
B t a t u s . " T h at c o n c l u s i o n i s p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d by t h i s
s t u d y i n t h a t se v e n p e r s o n s i n c l a s s I , f i v e p e r s o n s i n
c l a s s I I , t h r e e p e r s o n s In c l a s s I I I , two p e r s o n s i n c l a s s
IV , and one p e r s o n i n c l a s s V w ere c h o s e n more th a n o n ce a s
c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s by th e C i t r u s C i t y
s a m p le . A ls o , I t s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t th e a v e r a g e num ber o f
p e r s o n s c h o se n a s f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s by a l l th e i n f o r m
a n t s w ere a s f o l l o w s : f o r c l a s s o n e , 1 2 .8 ; f o r c l a s s tw o,
8 . 3 ; f o r c l a s s t h r e e , 4 . 4 ; f o r c l a s s f o u r , 5*5; and f o r
c l a s s f i v e , 2 .5 p e r s o n s .
The r e s p o n d e n t s i n C i t r u s C i t y w ere a s k e d t o name a
p e r s o n who b e s t f i t e a c h s o c i a l c l a s s t h e y m e n tio n e d .
T a b le 23 shows t h e t a b u l a t e d r e s u l t s o f t h i s q u e s t i o n i n
p e r c e n t a g e s . I n o r d e r to a p p ly th e H o l l i n g s h e a d t w o - f a c t o r
4 P
L a s s w e l l , " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . ," p . 154.
157
TABLE 23
PERSONS NAMED TO EACH SOCIAL CLASS BY CITRUS CITY
RESPONDENTS IN PER CENT
S o c i a l ISP C a te g o r y by P e r C ent
CIe s s 1 — ......-1 — ~ ~- — - — _ _. —
C a te g o r y I I I I I I IV V
I 4 8 .2
2 7 .3 9 . 3
0 .0 0 . 0
I I 3 0 .4
3 3 .3 2 2 .7
4 . 8 0 . 0
I I I 1 7 .8
3 3 .3
4 6 .4
9 .5 8 . 9
IV 3 .6 6 . 1 1 5 .4 6 6 .7
2 0 .0
V 0 .0 0 . 0 6 . 2 1 9 .0
7 1 .1
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 1 0 0 .0
Xs = 1 5 9 .3 5 S i g n i f i c a n t b ey o n d th e .001 l e v e l
d f = 4 ( c a t e g o r i e s com bined i n t o a 3x 3 t a b l e )
158
I n d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n , t h e n e c e s s a r y I n f o r m a t i o n was c o l
l e c t e d f o r e a c h p e r s o n named to a s o c i a l c l a s s . On th e
b a s i s o f t h e s e s c o r e s e a c h named p e r s o n was a s s i g n e d t o h i s
s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n . C l a s s I was t h e o n l y s o c i a l c l a s s
h a v in g a l a r g e enough num ber o f p e r s o n s who w ere m e n tio n e d
two o r more t i m e s i n a c l a s s p l a c e m e n t . T h ere w ere f i f t e e n
men named to c l a s s I who q u a l i f i e d f o r t h a t c l a s s ; t h e r e
w ere f o u r p e r s o n s named to c l a s s I who b e lo n g e d i n c l a s s I I ,
t h e r e w ere f o u r p e r s o n s named t o c l a s s I who s h o u ld have
b e e n p l a c e d i n c l a s s I I I , and t h e r e was no one named to
claB S I who b e lo n g e d i n c l a s s IV and V. The p e r c e n t a g e s
f o r a c c u r a t e c l a s s p l a c e m e n t a r e a s f o l l o w s : c l a s s I , 4 8 .2
p e r c e n t ; c l a s s I I , 33*3 p e r c e n t ; c l a s s I I I , 4 6 .4 p e r c e n t ;
c l a s s IV , 6 6 . 7 p e r c e n t ; and c l a s s V, 7 1 .1 p e r c e n t . C l a s s
I I h a d t h e l e a s t am ount o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e tw e e n c l a s s e s
a s t h e num ber o f p l a c e m e n t s f o r c l a s s e s I I and I I I w ere
I d e n t i c a l . When t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t was a p p l i e d to c l a s s
and t h e m ale c h o ic e o f f r i e n d s , I t showed t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n
s h i p was s i g n i f i c a n t f a r bey o n d t h e .001 l e v e l . T hus,
t h e s e d a t a s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s s e
l e c t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y r e c o g n i z e d th e p r e s e n c e o f s o c i a l
c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y .
The I n f o r m a n t s o f C i t r u s C i t y w ere a s k e d t o l i s t
some o f th e p e r i o d i c a l s w hich t h e y t o o k . O n e -h u n d re d and
t h i r t y - f o u r n e w s p a p e r s w ere t a k e n by t h e n i n e t y - s e v e n f a m i
l i e s , w hich shows t h a t t h e a v e r a g e was 1 .4 p e r f a m i l y . The
159
a v e r a g e num ber o f n e w s p a p e rs p e r f a m i l y was 2 .8 f o r c l a s s I ,
1 .3 f o r c l a s s I I , 1 .5 f o r c l a s s I I I , 1 .4 f o r c l a s s IV , and
0 . 9 f o r c la B s V. The num ber o f p e r i o d i c a l s t a k e n by e a c h
f a m i l y was f i v e h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y - f o u r , and was an a v e r a g e
o f 5 . 9 p e r i o d i c a l s p e r f a m i l y i n t h e C i t r u s C i t y sa m p le .
The a v e r a g e num ber o f p e r i o d i c a l s t a k e n by e a c h f a m i l y i n
t h e s o c i a l c l a s s e s a r e a s f o l l o w s : 1 2 .4 i n c l a s s I ; 1 0 .2 i n
c l a s s I I ; 5 .9 i n c l a s s I I I ; 5 .1 I n c l a s s IV; and 2 . 2 I n
c l a s s V. T hese f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e I s a g r e a t e r
num ber o f n e w s p a p e rs and p e r i o d i c a l s t a k e n by t h e h i g h e r
s o c i a l c l a s s e s t h a n by t h e lo w e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
Summary
G e n e r a l s o c i a l s t a t u s a s a f u n c t i o n o f th e o p i n i o n s
o f members o f a com m unity was e v id e n c e d b y a c o n s i d e r a b l e
num ber o f f a m i l i e s I n C i t r u s C i t y by t h e i r s h a r e d e x p e r i
e n c e s , a s s o c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r , t h e i r a w a r e n e s s
o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s , and t h e i r a b i l i t y to I d e n t i f y p e r s o n s i n
t h e s e c l a s s e s w i t h r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y .
The r e s p o n d e n t s I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y sam p le i n d i c a t e d
a d e f i n i t e t r e n d i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s
I n t h e com m unity, r a n g i n g fro m 4 . 6 f o r c l a s s I , to 2 .4 f o r
c l a s s V. When a s k e d to r a t e t h e m s e lv e s on a s o c i a l c l a s s
s c a l e , t h e a v e r a g e f o r th e to p c la B s was 3*6 , and t h e a v e r
age f o r t h e b o tto m c l a s s was 5*4; and t h e s e d a t a w ere s t a
t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 0 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l . The
160
te r m s e a c h i n f o r m a n t u s e d t o d e s c r i b e hiB s o c i a l c l a s s
showed some a g r e e m e n t b u t t h e l a c k o f p r e c i s i o n and c o n s i s
t e n c y l i m i t e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n s .
The e d u c a t i o n a l and o c c u p a t i o n a l f a c t o r s w ere l i s t e d
f o r g e n e r a l b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y , s i n c e t h e y w ere
u s e d i n t h e t w o - f a c t o r ISP to d e te r m i n e s o c i a l c l a s s a s s i g n
m e n ts .
The p r o p o r t i o n o f C i t r u s C i t y e m p lo y e e s i n th e
l a b o r f o r c e , w i t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s r a t i n g f i r s t i n
c l a s s I and p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s b e in g f i r s t i n c l a s s V, was
i n g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t w i t h t h e s o c i a l c l a s s s t r u c t u r e . A lso
t h e m a jo r s o u r c e o f incom e f o r t h e c i t y sam ple f i t th e g e n
e r a l s o c i a l p a t t e r n w i t h s a l a r i e s a t t h e t o p o f t h e l i s t
f o r c l a s s I , and w ages a t t h e to p f o r c l a s s V. C l a s s V had
t h e l a r g e s t num ber o f p e r s o n s r e t i r e d o r on s o c i a l s e c u r i t y .
The l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e C i t r u s C i t y r e
s p o n d e n t s w ere s i m i l a r to t h o s e i n t h e N o r t h - H a t t f i v e c a t e
g o ry c o n tin u u m , w i t h r e a d i n g b e in g t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t a c
t i v i t y f o r c l a s s I , and w o rk in g i n t h e y a r d th e m ost im p o r
t a n t a c t i v i t y f o r c l a s s V m em bers.
The a v e r a g e f a m i ly m em b ersh ip i n f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n s
was 3 .9 f o r c l a s s I , t o 0 . 5 f o r c l a s s V; w i t h 90 p e r c e n t
o f c l a s s I b e l o n g i n g to one o r more a s s o c i a t i o n s a s com
p a r e d w i t h o n l y 39 p e r c e n t f o r c l a s s V. T h is i t e m was
s i g n i f i c a n t b eyon d t h e .0 0 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l .
161
A s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o c c u r r e d I n t h e c o m p a r i
son o f c h u rc h m em bership i n w h ic h 80 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s I was
a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e C hurch o f t h e B r e t h r e n , a s co m pared w i t h
2 , 3 p e r c e n t f o r c l a s s V. The C a t h o l i c a f f i l i a t i o n v a r i e d
from none i n c l a s s I t o 50 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s V. The B a p t i s t
a f f i l i a t i o n was a b o u t t h e same f o r a l l s o c i a l c l a s s e s e x c e p t
f o r c l a s s I I , w hich was lo w e r t h a n t h e o t h e r f i v e c l a s s e s .
T h e re w ere no M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s i n th e t o p two
c l a s s e s , 15 per* c e n t i n c l a s s I I I , 19 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s IV ,
and 52 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s V. M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s c o m p r is e d
s l i g h t l y more th a n o n e - f i f t h o f th e sa m p le , b u t o v e r o n e -
h a l f o f t h i s e t h n i c g ro u p was i n t h e b o tto m s o c i a l c l a s s .
I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y s a m p le , 72 p e r c e n t was A m erican
b o r n o f A m e ric a n -b o rn p a r e n t s , 9 p e r c e n t was f o r e i g n b o r n
o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s , and 19 p e r c e n t was A m erican b o rn
o f f o r e i g n - b o r n p a r e n t s .
No p a t t e r n was fo u n d i n r e g a r d to s o c i a l c l a s s e s
and w h e th e r t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w ere r e n t i n g , b u y in g , o r owned
t h e i r hom es. The a v e r a g e a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n o f homes r a n g e d
fro m $ 1 7 ,5 0 0 i n c l a s s I , to $7*997 i n c l a s s V.
T h ere was a d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e to name a s c l o s e s t
f r i e n d o r c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e , someone i n t h e same s o c i a l
c l a s s , and th e n e x t p r e f e r e n c e was to name a p e r s o n i n th e
n e x t h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s . When th e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t was a p
p l i e d to t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p i t showed a s i g n i f
i c a n c e bey o n d t h e .001 p e r c e n t l e v e l . I n a d d i t i o n , I t was
162
o b s e r v e d t h a t m em b ersh ip I n th e C hurch o f th e B r e t h r e n was
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h o ic e o f f r i e n d s and s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n
a t t h e .0 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
I t was fo u n d t h a t t h o s e h a v in g h i g h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l
s t a t u s , and t h o s e t o whom h i g h e r com m unity s t a t u s was a s
s i g n e d w ere m ore w i d e ly known i n C i t r u s C i t y th a n w ere t h e i r
c o u n t e r p a r t s w i t h lo w e r s t a t u s . When t h e t w o - f a c t o r ISP
s c o r e s w ere u s e d to com pare t h e p la c e m e n t o f p e r s o n s i n th e
s o c i a l c l a s s s y s te m , a g re e m e n t was e v id e n c e d b ey o n d t h e
.0 0 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .
The a v e r a g e num ber o f n e w s p a p e r s and p e r i o d i c a l s
t a k e n by f a m i l i e s i n C i t r u s C i t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i a l
c l a s s p a t t e r n s .
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The m a t e r i a l i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n may b e sum m arized
a s f o l l o w s : (1) c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d a b o u t t h e b a s i c c o n
c e p t s , (2) a r e v ie w o f t h e b a s i c m eth o d s and t e c h n i q u e s
u s e d , and ( 3 ) t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e e m p i r i c a l s t u d y .
The C o n c e p ts
The c o n c e p ts o f s o c i a l c l a s s , s o c i a l s t a t u s , and
s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w ere fo u n d to be a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s
o f p e r s o n s w hich w ere p e r c e i v e d th r o u g h t h e s e n s i n g o f sym
b o l s . S in c e s o c i o l o g i s t s h a v e n o t r e a c h e d a g re e m e n t on th e
d e f i n i t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s , i t was neceB B ary to
s e l e c t o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s f o r them i n o r d e r to s y s te m
a t i c a l l y s tu d y s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and to i n t e r p r e t th e
f i n d i n g s .
S o c i a l s t a t u s i n t h i s s t u d y was d e f i n e d a s th e p e r
c e i v e d r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a p e r s o n , a s o c i a l g r o u p , o r a c a t e
g o r y o f p e r s o n s to o t h e r s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p was p e r c e i v e d
w i t h r e g a r d to a p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e , norm , o r o t h e r r e f e r e n t ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e f e r e n t was n o t a lw a y s made e x p l i c i t .
163
164
A s o c i a l c l a s s was o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d i n t h i s
s t u d y a s a c a t e g o r y o f com m unity members t o whom c e r t a i n
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a t t r i b u t e d by
o t h e r p e r s o n s i n th e com m unity. T hese c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e
g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r i n t h e fo rm o f c l a s s s t e r e o t y p e s .
A s t e r e o t y p e was d e f i n e d a s an im age o r i d e a a b o u t
c l a s s e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p s , o r o b j e c t s w h ic h w ere " p e r
c e i v e d , " i . e . , r e s u l t i n g n o t from f r e s h a p p r a i s a l s o f e a c h
phenom enon, b u t fro m r o u t i n i z e d h a b i t s o f ju d g m e n t and e x
p e c t a t i o n .
S o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n was d e f i n e d a s any i d e a l
c o n s t r u c t o f a s o c i e t y w h ich d i s t i n g u i s h e s c a t e g o r i e s o f
p e r s o n s a s r e l a t i v e l y i n f e r i o r and s u p e r i o r to one a n o t h e r .
The M ethods an d T e c h n iq u e s
B a s i c a l l y , t h e m etho d o f s t u d y was a s f o l l o w s ; (1)
o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e k ey c o n c e p t s o f t h e s t u d y ,
( 2 ) r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to s o c i a l c l a s s , s o
c i a l s t a t u s , and s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , ( 3 ) s t a t e m e n t o f
h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e f a c t o r s assum ed to be s i g n i f i c a n t
i n th e s t u d y , (4) d e l i m i t a t i o n o f b o u n d a r i e s w i t h i n w hich
to c o n d u c t t h e s t u d y , ( 5 ) i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l s e t
t i n g o f t h e bo un d ed a r e a w i t h r e s p e c t t o f a c t o r s c o n n e c te d
w i t h t h e p ro b le m , (6 ) s e l e c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e t e c h n i q u e s f o r
e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s e s u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s
s p e c i f i e d , (7 ) r e v i e w o f t h e e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s , and (8 )
s t a t e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s and i m p l i c a t i o n f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y .
165
G e o g r a p h i c a l , e c o l o g i c a l , d e m o g r a p h ic , h i s t o r i c a l ,
and s o c i a l s u r v e y w ere u s e d to c o l l e c t t h e d a t a n e c e s s a r y
f o r an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d s o f C i t r u s
C i t y w h ich I s a f i c t i t i o u s name f o r a r e a l co m m un ity.
Two p h a s e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h w ere p l a n n e d a s f o l l o w s :
(1 ) to r e s t u d y '1 ’ t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e i n C i t r u s
C i t y a n d t h e m ean in g o f s o c i a l c l a s s to i t s r e s i d e n t s , and
(2) to s t r a t i f y a ran dom sa m p le o f p e r s o n s i n t h e com m unity
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r a s s i g n e d s t a t u s r a n k s and a s s o c i a t i o n a l
p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r . I n t h e f i r s t p h a s e o f t h e r e s e a r c h i t
was d e c i d e d to em ploy t h e f o c u s e d I n t e r v i e w b e c a u s e i t a f
f o r d e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t , to o b s e r v e t h e
s e q u e n c e i n w h ic h i n f o r m a t i o n was p r e s e n t e d , to e n c o u r a g e
t h e i n t e r v i e w e e i f he w ere r e t i c e n t , and t o g a t h e r a d d i
t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n fro m t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a f t e r t h e s c h e d u l e
h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e d . A f t e r a t r i a l r u n , and m in o r c o r r e c
t i o n s , t h e s c h e d u l e p r o v e d t o b e a s u i t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t f o r
o b t a i n i n g t h e d e s i r e d d a t a .
I t was d e c i d e d to d e v i s e a t e c h n i q u e f o r g a t h e r i n g
d a t a fro m i n f o r m a n t s s e l e c t e d i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e y w ou ld
b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e e n t i r e co m m u n ity . A f t e r t h e s i z e
o f t h e sam p le was s e t a t n i n e t y - s e v e n c o u p l e s , a t o t a l o f
194 i n f o r m a n t s o u t o f a p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 ,3 0 0
p e r s o n s ( 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n ) , t h e num ber
o f r e s i d e n c e s i n e a c h zone was co m p u ted an d a p r o p o r t i o n a l
■^Lassw ell, " S t a t u s S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . . . , " 227 p p .
166
num ber o f i n t e r v i e w s a s s i g n e d . The r e s i d e n c e s s e l e c t e d I n
e a c h zone w ere d e te r m i n e d by t h e u s e o f a t a b l e o f random
n u m b ers, so t h a t e v e r y d w e l l i n g i n e a c h zone h a d an e q u a l
c h a n c e o f b e in g I n c l u d e d i n t h e s a m p le .
Community a c c e p t a n c e f o r t h e s t u d y was o b t a i n e d
fro m th e M ayor, C i t y M anager, C i t y C l e r k , and P o l i c e D e p a r t
m ent o f C i t r u s C i t y . The i n t e r v i e w e r s w ere t r a i n e d t o u s e
e f f e c t i v e I n t e r v i e w i n g t e c h n i q u e s . Only two c a s e s r e s u l t e d
i n r e f u s a l s . The n e x t d w e l l i n g i n se q u e n c e was i n t e r v i e w e d ,
w i t h o u t o t h e r w i s e a l t e r i n g t h e p l a n o f s a m p lin g . A l l th e
i n t e r v i e w s w ere c o m p le te d b e tw e e n J a n u a r y 2, 19&5> an(* J u n e
30 , 1965.
The s e c o n d p h a s e o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t was to
s t r a t i f y th e random sam ple o f p e r s o n s i n t h e com m unity a c
c o r d i n g to t h e i r a s s i g n e d s t a t u s r a n k s and a s s o c i a t i o n a l
p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r . The t w o - f a c t o r I n d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i
t i o n was s e l e c t e d f o r d i v i d i n g th e com m unity i n t o s o c i a l
c l a s s e s . The IS P u s e d an o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e and an e d u c a
t i o n a l s c a l e to com pute a s o c i a l c l a s s s c o r e f o r e a c h m ale
r e s p o n d e n t i n t h e sa m p le . The i t e m s i n v e s t i g a t e d t h a t m ig h t
b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i a l c l a s s e s w ere th e f o l l o w i n g : age
o f th e s u b j e c t s , y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n c o m p le te d , num ber o f
c h i l d r e n , num ber o f y e a r s l i v e d a t t h e p r e s e n t a d d r e s s ,
num ber o f y e a r s l i v e d i n t h e C i t r u s C i t y a r e a , num ber o f
s o c i a l c l a s s e s , s o c i a l c l a s s s e l f - r a t i n g s , d e s c r i p t i v e te rm s
f o r o n e ' s own s o c i a l c l a s s , e m p lo y e e s I n t h e l a b o r f o r c e by
167
I n d u s t r y , m ain s o u r c e o f in co m e, l e i s u r e - t i m e a c t i v i t i e s ,
m em b ersh ip In f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s ,
e t h n i c g ro u p m em b ersh ip , c o u n t r y o f b i r t h , home o w n e r s h ip ,
and num ber o f p e r i o d i c a l s t a k e n i n th e home.
The a s s o c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s I n v e s t i g a t e d I n t h i s
s t u d y i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : l i s t i n g t h e names o f a l l
c l o s e s t f r i e n d s and c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s , c o m p a rin g t h e I n t e r
a c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f f r i e n d s h i p c h o i c e s w i t h i n t h e sa m p le ,
c o m p a rin g t h e c h o i c e o f f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s I n e s t i m a t e d
s o c i a l c l a s s e s w i t h o n e ' s own s o c i a l c l a s s , and b y co m p a r
i n g t h e p e r s o n s named i n t h e com m unity by s o c i a l c l a s s w i t h
t h e i r own s o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n .
The E m p i r i c a l F i n d i n g s
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f th e e m p i r i c a l s t u d y
o f C i t r u s C i t y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e b a s e s f o r a num ber o f a s s e r
t i o n s r e l e v a n t t o t h e s t a t e d h y p o t h e s e s .
1. A few p e r s o n s r e c e i v e d m ost o f t h e f r i e n d s h i p
c h o i c e s , w h i l e some o t h e r p e r s o n s r e c e i v e d few c h o i c e s o r
non e a t a l l . The m ost f r e q u e n t l y c h o se n p e r s o n s w ere r e
g a r d e d a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e to p s o c i a l c l a s s i n t h e communi
t y . I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y sa m p le , 100 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s I was
c h o s e n a s f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s , 6 0 .0 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s I I ,
2 9 .4 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s I I I , 3 0 .0 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s IV , and
4 5 . 5 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s V was named a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d o r
c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e by o t h e r s I n th e s a m p le . P e r s o n s c h o se n
168
more th a n once a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r a s s o c i a t e s w ere se v e n
p e r s o n s i n c l a s s I , f i v e p e r s o n s i n c l a s s I I , t h r e e p e r s o n s
i n c l a s s I I I , two p e r s o n s I n c l a s s IV , and one p e r s o n i n
c l a s s V. The a v e r a g e num ber o f p e r s o n s c h o se n a s c l o s e s t
f r i e n d s and c l o s e s t a s s o c i a t e s by a l l t h e I n f o r m a n t s was a s
f o l l o w s : i n c l a s s I , 1 2 .8 p e r s o n s ; i n c l a s s I I , 8 . 3 p e r s o n s ;
i n c l a s s I I I , 4 . 4 p e r s o n s , i n c l a s s IV , 5*5 p e r s o n s ; and i n
c l a s s V, 2 .5 p e r s o n s . The p e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s c h o s e n two
o r more t im e s b y t h e r e s p o n d e n t s a s c l o s e f r i e n d s and a s s o
c i a t e s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r e s t i m a t e d s o c i a l c l a s s waB a s
f o l l o w s : c l a s s I , 4 l , 4 p e r c e n t ; c l a s s I I , 1 2 .1 p e r c e n t ;
c l a s s I I I , 1 1 .3 p e r c e n t ; c l a s s IV , 9 -5 p e r c e n t ; and c l a s s
V, 1 3 .3 p e r c e n t . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s o c i a l c l a s s and t h e
c h o ic e o f f r i e n d s was s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e .001 p e r c e n t
l e v e l .
2 , T h e re was a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n f r i e n d s h i p
g r o u p i n g s and s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s i n t h e co m m u n ity . Among
t h o s e who had c h o s e n someone w i t h i n t h e s a m p le , 2 4 .6 p e r
c e n t named f r i e n d s w i t h i n t h e i r own s o c i a l c l a s s , 30*0 p e r
c e n t named someone i n a lo w e r s o c i a l c l a s s , 4 7 .5 p e r c e n t
h a d named f r i e n d s I n a h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s t h a n t h e i r own.
When m u tu a ls w ere e x c l u d e d , 31*8 p e r c e n t o f t h e c h o ic e o f
f r i e n d s was I n th e same s o c i a l c l a s s , and 5 4 .6 p e r c e n t o f
t h e c h o i c e s was In t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s ,
and o n l y 13.6 p e r c e n t i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f lo w e r s o c i o e c o n o
m ic s t a t u s .
169
3• S o c i a l s t a t u s and c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n w ere r e
l a t e d . F o r t h e t o t a l sam ple t h e c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n was 2 5 .8
p e r c e n t f o r t h e C a t h o l i c C h u rc h , an d 2 4 .3 pei* c e n t f o r t h e
C h urch o f t h e B r e t h r e n . The C a t h o l i c a f f i l i a t i o n r a n g e d
fro m no one i n c l a s s I , to 50 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s V. The
C h u rch o f t h e B r e t h r e n a f f i l i a t i o n was 80 p e r c e n t f o r
c l a s s I , and d e c r e a s e d t o 2 .3 p e r c e n t f o r c l a s s V. The
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c h u rc h a f f i l i a t i o n and c h o i c e o f f r i e n d s i n
s o c i a l c l a s s e s was a s s o c i a t e d a t t h e .0 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l o f
s i g n i f i c a n c e .
4 . S o c i a l s t a t u s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b r e a d t h o f
a c q u a i n t a n c e s i n t h e co m m u n ity . The p e r c e n t o f m a le s
c h o s e n t h r e e o r more t im e s a s c l o s e s t f r i e n d s o r c l o s e s t
a s s o c i a t e s b y t h e r e s p o n d e n t s , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r e s t i
m a te d s o c i a l c l a s s p l a c e m e n t , was a s f o l l o w s : c l a s s I , 6 8 .4
p e r c e n t ; c l a s s I I , 5 .3 p e r c e n t ; c l a s s I I I , 1 5 .8 p e r c e n t ,
c l a s s IV , n o n e ; c l a s s V, 1 0 .5 p e r c e n t . I n c l a s s I th e
f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s w ere named from t h r e e to f o u r t e e n tim e s
by t h e m ale I n f o r m a n t s a s c l o s e f r i e n d s : 9 0 7 * 4 l 6 , 877*
97* 6 1 0 , 214, 38 7 * 529* 6 0 2 , 6 3 3 , 8 2 8 , 87* 7 5 8 . P r o f e s
s i o n a l p e r s o n s , p r o p r i e t o r s , m a n a g e r s , and o f f i c i a l s w ere
named by a s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r num ber ( 8 5 .2 p e r c e n t ) o f
i n f o r m a n t s t h a n th e s k i l l e d and u n s k i l l e d w o r k e r s .
5. T h ere was n o t a u n i f o r m s e t o f c l e a r l y d e f i n e d
c r i t e r i a by w hich th e c i t i z e n s o f a com m unity i d e n t i f y p e r -
s o n s w i t h s o c i a l c l a s s e s . The I n t e r v i e w e e s m e n tio n e d a
170
t o t a l o f t w e n t y - n i n e c r i t e r i a , w i t h " m id d le c l a s s " b e in g
l i s t e d 3 2 .7 p e r c e n t o f t h e t im e . The m ost u s e d d e s c r i p
t i v e te rm s f o r e a c h s o c i a l c l a s s w ere a s f o l l o w s : c l a s s I - -
p r o f e s s i o n a l , and m id d le c l a s s ; c l a s s I I - - m i d d l e , a v e r a g e ,
e d u c a t i o n a l , lo w e r m id d le , u p p e r m id d l e , and p r o f e s s i o n a l ;
c l a s s I l l - m i d d l e , u p p e r m id d le , c o m f o r t a b l e , a v e r a g e , and
w o rk in g c l a s s ; c l a s s I V - - m i d d l e , a v e r a g e , low c l a s s , and
money; and c l a s s V --g o o d p e o p l e , c o m f o r t a b l e , and a d e q u a t e .
T hu s, t h e r e a p p e a r e d to be no c o n s i s t e n t d e s c r i p t i v e te rm s
f o r a p e r s o n i n a g i v e n s o c i a l c l a s s .
6 . T h e re was no g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d num ber o f s o
c i a l s t r a t a w i t h i n C i t r u s C i t y . H ow ever, c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s
w ere made w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p r e c i s i o n a s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n b e
came l o w e r . The num ber o f s t r a t a r a n g e d from one t o e i g h t ,
w i t h 4 4 . 9 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t i n g t h e p r e s
en c e o f t h r e e s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n C i t r u s C i t y . The d e c r e a s i n g
mean f o r t h e num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s w e re : I , 4 . 6 ; I I ,
3 . 3 ; I I I , 3 . 1 ; IV, 2 . 8 ; and V, 2 . 4 . T h is was s u p p o r t e d f u r
t h e r by th e f a c t t h a t no one i n c l a s s I i n d i c a t e d t h e a b
s e n c e o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s ; w h e r e a s , t h e r e was one su c h r e
sp o n s e i n c l a s s I I , t h r e e I n c l a s s I I I , f i v e i n c l a s s IV ,
and s i x r e s p o n s e s i n c l a s s V.
7 . The i n t e r v i e w e e s o f C i t r u s C i t y w ere a b l e to
r e a c h some a g re e m e n t on t h e r e l a t i v e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f a
s i z e a b l e num ber o f t h e i r f e l l o w s . By a p p l y i n g t h e t w o - f a c
t o r ISP to t h e p e r s o n s named to s o c i a l c l a s s e s by t h e I n -
171
f o r m a n t s , t h e r e s u l t i n g p e r c e n t a g e s f o r a c c u r a t e c l a s s
p la c e m e n t w ere a s f o l l o w s : c l a s s I , 4 8 . 2 p e r c e n t ; c l a s s
II> 33*3 p e r c e n t ; c l a s s IV , 6 6 .7 p e r c e n t ; and c l a s s V,
7 1 . 1 p e r c e n t . T hese d a t a , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e
.0 0 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l , s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e I n t e r
v ie w e e s r e c o g n i z e d and w ere a b l e t o I d e n t i f y s o c i a l c l a s s e s
i n t h e com m unity.
8 . The a v e r a g e s f o r th e r e s p o n d e n t s o f C i t r u s C i t y
i n d i c a t e d a s e l f - r a t i n g s o c i a l c la s B s c a l e c o n tin u u m . The
a v e r a g e num ber o f s o c i a l c l a s s s e l f - r a t i n g s was a s f o l l o w s :
f o r c l a s s I , 3 . 6 ; f o r c l a s s I I , 4 . 5 ; f o r c l a s s I I I , 4 . 6 ;
f o r c l a s s IV , 5*1; and f o r c l a s s V, 5*4. T h is d i s p l a y e d a
d e f i n i t e and c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d from c l a s s I to c l a s s V, a l
th o u g h th e d i f f e r e n c e i s o n l y 1 .8 p o i n t s on a t e n - p o i n t
s c a l e . T hese r e s u l t s w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e
.001 p e r c e n t l e v e l a c c o r d i n g to t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t .
9 . The r e s p o n d e n t s i n C i t r u s C i t y o f h i g h e r p r e s
t i g e s t a t u s b e lo n g e d to more v o l u n t a r y fo r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n s
t h a n p e r s o n s o f lo w e r s t a t u s . In c l a s s I , 90 p e r c e n t o f
t h e f a m i l i e s b e lo n g e d to one o r more a s s o c i a t i o n s , w h e re a s
o n l y 3 8 ,6 p e r c e n t o f c l a s s V b e lo n g e d to more t h a n one
f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n . A ls o , t h e a v e r a g e m em b ersh ip s p e r
f a m ily r a n g e d from 3*6 f o r c l a s s I , to 0 . 7 f o r c l a s s V.
The a s s o c i a t i o n o f s o c i a l c l a s s and f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
m em bership was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .001 l e v e l .
172
10. S o c i a l c l a s s p o s i t i o n and e t h n i c g ro u p member
s h i p w ere r e l a t e d I n t h e C i t r u s C i t y s t u d y . M e x ica n -A m eri
c a n s c o m p ris e d s l i g h t l y more t h a n o n e - f i f t h o f t h e sa m p le ,
w h i l e o v e r o n e - h a l f o f t h i s e t h n i c g ro u p was i n t h e b o tto m
s o c i a l c l a s s . T h ere w ere no M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n s i n t h e to p
two c l a s s e s , 1 4 .7 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s I I I , 1 9 .0 p e r c e n t i n
c l a s s IV, and 5 2 .3 p e r c e n t i n c l a s s V. A ls o , i n c l a s s I ,
a l l i n t e r v i e w e e s w ere A m erican b o rn o f A m e ric a n -b o rn p a r
e n t s ; i n c l a s s I I , 83 .3 p e r c e n t was I n t h i s c a t e g o r y ; i n
c la s B I I I , 7 8 .4 p e r c e n t ; I n c l a s s IV , 83 .3 p e r c e n t ; and
i n c l a s s V, 4 0 .9 p e r c e n t .
11. The a v e r a g e a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n o f homes and s o
c i a l c l a s s w ere a s s o c i a t e d i n C i t r u s C i t y . The a v e r a g e
a s s e s s e d v a l u a t i o n o f homes i n c l a s s I was $ 1 7 * 500 , i n
c l a s s I I I t was $ 1 8 ,7 91* i n c l a s s I I I i t was $ 1 2 ,2 2 6 , i n
c l a s s IV i t was $ 9*494, and I n c l a s s V t h e a v e r a g e a s s e s s e d
v a l u a t i o n o f homes was $ 7*997.
12. The a v e r a g e num ber o f n e w s p a p e rs and p e r i o d i c a l s
t a k e n b y f a m i l i e s i n C i t r u s C i t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s o c i a l
c l a s s p a t t e r n s . The a v e r a g e number o f n e w s p a p e rs t a k e n p e r
f a m i l y was 2 .8 f o r c l a s s I , 1 .3 f o r c l a s s I I , 1 .5 f o r c l a s s
I I I , 1 .4 f o r c l a s s IV , and 0 . 9 f o r c l a s s V. The a v e r a g e
num ber o f p e r i o d i c a l s t a k e n by e a c h f a m i ly w as: I n c l a s s I ,
1 2 .4 ; In c l a s s I I , 1 0 .2 ; i n c l a s s I I I , 5 . 9 ; I n c l a s s IV*
5 . 1 ; and In c l a s s V, 2 . 2 .
173
Some s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h I n s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a r e a s f o l l o w s : ( l ) a d e t a i l e d s tu d y o f th e
d e s c r i p t i v e te r m s u s e d t o I d e n t i f y s o c i a l c l a s s e s w i t h i n
t h e s o c i a l c l a s s s y s te m , I n c l u d i n g s e l f - d e s c r i p t i v e t e r m s ,
(2) more e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h on t h e m ain m ale s o u r c e s o f I n
come, w i t h an a c c u r a t e I n s t r u m e n t f o r o b t a i n i n g and m e a s u r
i n g t h e s e d a t a , (3 ) a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e u s e o f
l e l s u r e - t l m e a c t i v i t i e s , s i m i l a r to t h a t em ployed i n t h e
N o r t h - H a t t c o n tin u u m s c a l e , (4) a d e t a i l e d s t u d y on r e l a
t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n home o w n e r s h ip and s o c i a l c l a s s e s , (5 ) a d
d i t i o n a l s t u d y on p e r s o n s named who b e s t f i t e a c h l i s t e d
s o c i a l c l a s s , a s a s s i g n e d to c l a s s p la c e m e n t by th e tw o-
f a c t o r IS P , and (6) more r e s e a r c h on th e com m unity a p p r o a c h
t o s o c i a l c l a s s e s by s o c i o m e t r i c s t u d y .
A lth o u g h th e f i n d i n g s may be m in im a l, t h e m a jo r p u r
p o s e o f t h i s e m p i r i c a l s t u d y i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d by t h e f o l
lo w in g c o n c l u s i o n :
As w ith a l l s o c i o l o g i c a l w o rk s , i t i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e
hope t h a t i t may a s s i s t i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n s t r u c t s
and r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s w h ich w i l l be u s e f u l i n b u i l d
i n g a t h e o r y o f s o c i e t y t h a t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e em
p i r i c a l w o rld o f human i n t e r a c t i o n .2
p
L a B s w e ll, C l a s s and S t r a tu m . . . , p . 47 2.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
174
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S c h u l e r , E d g a r A. " S o c i a l and Econom ic S t a t u s i n a L o u i s i
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S e w e l l, W il l ia m H. " F i e l d T e c h n iq u e s I n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g i
c a l S tu d y i n a R u r a l C om m unity," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l
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195
S im pson , G e o rg e . " C l a s s A n a l y s i s : What C l a s s I s N o t."
A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , IV (D ecem ber, 1939 ) , 8 2 7 -
Sim s, N e w e ll L e r o y . "A H o o s ie r V i l l a g e , " S t u d i e s i n H i s
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New Y o rk : C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1912.
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S m ith , M apheus. "An E m p i r i c a l S c a le o f P r e s t i g e S t a t u s o f
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( S e p te m b e r - O c to b e r , 1 9 3 5 j * 4 0 - 4 9 .
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192-2 0 2.
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Van A r s d o l , M a u ric e D ., J r . , C a m l l l e r i , S a n to P . , and
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U rban T y p o lo g y ," P a c i f i c S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , IV
( S p r i n g , 1 9 6 1 ) , 25^327
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196
U n p u b lis h e d M a t e r i a l
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l i s h e d d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a rtm e n t o f S o c i o lo g y , Y a le U n i
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s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , 1964.
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t u r e s a s I n d e x e s o f S o c i a l R a n k ." U n p u b lis h e d M a s t e r 's
t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 3 *
O th e r S o u r c e s
[ C i t r u s C i t y ] and Chamber o f Commerce G u i d e .
[ C i t r u s C i t y ] G e n e r a l P l a n . F e b r u a r y 18, 1 9 6 3 .
[ C i t r u s C i t y ] I n d u s t r i a l S u r v e y .
A P P E N D I C E S
197
APPENDIX A
TH E C H U R C H OP THE BRETHREN
1 9 8
APPENDIX A
T H E C H U R C H O F T H E BRETH REN1
The g rea t r e lig io u s d o c tr in e s and p r a c tic e s which arose from th e
R eform ation are shared by many P r o te s ta n ts , in clu d in g th e Church o f th e
B rethren. Brethren d o ctrin e and p r a c tic e must be seen w ith in the
la r g e r co n tex t o f th e C h ristia n f a it h which i s shared by a l l who make
C h rist t h e ir Lord. T his should be kept in mind a s the account about
how th e Church o f th e Brethren came to be i s read . The founders o f th e
Church o f th e B rethren were in flu e n c e d by o th er C h ristia n groups in
t h e ir a g e, by two g rea t movements a r is in g during th e R eform ation—Ana-
baptism and P ie tism , and by the r e s u lt s o f an in te n s iv e search o f th e
S c r ip tu r e s fo r th e te a c h in g s and th e p r a c tic e s o f th e e a r ly church.
In S w itzerlan d th ere arose a R eform ation group o f b e lie v e r s who
were c a lle d A nabaptist or r e b a p tiz e r s by t h e ir enem ies. Through the
study o f the New Testament th ey came to th e c o n v ic tio n th a t a b e lie v e r
must be o ld enough to understand th e meaning o f th e church and d is c ip le -
sh ip b efo r e b ein g b a p tiz e d . Since th e se "Swiss Brethren" had a l l been
b a p tize d a s in fa n ts in th e s ta te ch urches, th ey were now c a lle d r e
b a p tis ts and were punished fo r t h e ir "crim e."
They w ished to retu rn to th e p r a c tic e s o f th e e a r ly C h ristia n
church. T heir purpose was to c a l l to g e th e r a group o f v o lu n ta ry m em
b ers who would be under d is c ip lin e to g iv e a pure w itn e ss in l i f e and
d o c tr in e . They r e je c te d th e id ea begun by C onstantine th a t th e s ta te
had th e r ig h t and th e duty to t e l l a c it iz e n what h is r e lig io u s b e l i e f
should b e . They were a ls o s t r i c t p a c i f i s t s and refu sed to tak e p art in
governm ent. In s p ite o f a l l t h i s , Anabaptism spread r a p id ly .
Because o f t h e ir b e l i e f s , th e A n a b a p tists were p ersecu ted s e
v e r e ly in a l l th e European c o u n tr ie s by p erson s in th e Lutheran, Re
form ed, and Roman C a th o lic t r a d it io n s . They were not stamped o u t, how
e v e r , and liv e d on in sm all groups such a s th e M ennonites formed.
Other church groups, such a s th e B a p t is t s , the Quakers, and th e Church
^ S r c e ll V. Lynn ( e d .) , Becoming and B elonging (E lg in , 1 1 1 .:
Church o f th e B rethren, 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 121-210j and from th e Manual o f
Brotherhood O rgan ization and P o lit y (E lg in , 1 1 1 .: Church o f th e B reth -
ren General O ffic e , 19 6 2 ), p . 17.
199
2 0 0
o f th e B rethren, are sa id to " b e in th e A nabaptist h e r ita g e .
A n a b a p tists a ls o in flu e n c e d a la t e r reform movement, P ie tism ,
w hich brought new r e lig io u s l i f e in to th e Lutheran and Reformed
ch urches. P i e t i s t was th e te r n a p p lied to German C h ristia n s who w ished
to read God's Word and p a tte r n t h e ir l i v e s a f t e r i t . Unhappy w ith a
co ld and overform al s t a t e church, th e P i e t i s t s develop ed an a c t iv e ,
warn, and devout church l i f e . PietiB m h as been c a lle d a reform o f l i f e
t o com plete th e e a r lie r reform o f d o c tr in e by Luther and C alvin .
I t was ou t o f a merging o f th e se two stream s o f C h ristia n l i f e —
Anabaptism and P ie tism — th a t th e Church o f th e Brethren came to b e.
The Church o f th e B rethren began w ith th e baptism o f e ig h t
former P i e t i s t s in Germany in 1708. These s e p a r a tis ts had gathered in
a p la c e o f t o le r a t io n , th e t in y W ittg e n stein v i l l a g e o f Schwarzenau.
The e ig h t p eop le who had broken w ith th e extrem e id ea s o f the lo c a l
P i e t i s t s were A lexander and Anna Margaret Mack, Andrew and Joanna
N oth iger B oni, John and Joanna K ipping, George Grebe, and Luke V e tte r .
A lexander Mack (1 6 7 9 -1 7 3 5 )/ though but tw en ty -n in e a t th e tim e
o f th e o r ig in o f th e B reth ren , was accep ted as th e le a d e r o f th e
group and became t h e ir f i r s t servan t o f th e Word. He came from a
w ealth y fa m ily o f m ille r s o f S ch riesh eim , north o f H eid elb erg. Even
though h is fa th e r was a member o f th e town c o u n c il and an e ld e r o f th e
Reformed church, Mack was fo rc ed t o le a v e home because o f h is b e l i e f s .
He and the o th e rs were determ ined to be f u l l y ob ed ien t to th e
commandments o f Jesu s C h rist as found in th e New Testam ent, which th ey
stu d ied d i l i g e n t l y . They were convinced o f th e n e c e s s it y o f g a th erin g
a brotherhood o f d ed ica ted C h ristia n s who would covenant to fo llo w th e
w i l l o f C h rist in a l l th in g s . As a model fo r t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n th ey
looked to th e f i r s t C h r istia n co n g reg a tio n s as d escrib ed in th e B ib le
and in church h i s t o r i e s . T his demanded a break w ith th e s ta t e
ch u rch es.
The la r g e s t con gregation or brotherhood was developed in th e
Schwarzenau a rea . More than two hundred so u ls were counted among
t h e ir numbers. A fte r th e f i r s t baptism (which took p la c e e a r ly in
August o f 1708) th e B rethren were f i l l e d w ith g rea t z e a l to w itn e ss
to t h e ir newly won f a i t h . They b a p tize d many new con verts although
rebaptism was s t i l l l i s t e d as a crime m er itin g th e death p e n a lty under
im p er ia l law .
B rethren le a d e r s , in c lu d in g Mack, tr a v e le d e x te n s iv e ly through
out th e Germanies and in to S w itzerlan d on m issio n a iy Journeys. They
o fte n were thrown in to p riso n fo r t h e ir p reach in g and w itn e ssin g .
In 1719 a majority of the Brethren at Krefeld migrated to
Pennsylvania under the leadership of Peter Becker (1687-1758)• The
Brethren longed for the religiou s freedom and the economic opportunity
201
which America o ffe r e d . They ven t f i r s t to Geiraantown, which had been
founded by a group o f M ennonites and Quakers In 1683. Some s e t t le d
th e r e , but more took lan d fa r th e r w est in what i s now c a lle d L ancaster
County. P eter Becker, a weaver by tr a d e , was chosen as th e f i r s t
m in iste r in America.
In 1720 th e Schwarzenau group under Mack’ s lea d er sh ip l e f t W itt
g e n s te in fo r F r ie sla n d , in The N etherlands; n in e y ears la t e r th ey mi
g ra ted to P en n sylvan ia. O thers fo llo w e d from Germany in th e e a r ly
1 7 3 0 's, le a v in g o n ly a remnant in Europe which la t e r d ied o u t.
Brethren expansion in America fo llo w e d th e g en era l westward
movement o f American s e t t l e r s . One e a r ly stream o f Dunker^ c o lo n is t s
moved from P enn sylvan ia southward up th e Shenandoah V a lley and e sta b
lis h e d stron g co n g reg a tio n s. L ater m igration was d ir e c te d toward
O hio, Ind ian a, I l l i n o i s , Kansas, and then th e f a r W est. Almost always
s e t t l i n g in a g r ic u ltu r a l a re a s, th e e a r ly B rethren seem to have avoided
th e growing towns d e lib e r a te ly . The f i r s t h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th cen
tu ry has sometimes been c a lle d th e " w ild ern ess period" o f B rethren h i s
to r y because o f th e s t r i c t , c o n se r v a tiv e , and withdrawn p a ttern o f
t h e ir l i f e . However, i t was a p eriod o f in te n se growth. As th e B reth
ren m igrated , th ey e s ta b lis h e d co n g reg a tio n s. They met fo r y ea rs in
one a n o th e r's homes fo r w orship b efo re m eetinghouses were e r e c te d .
About I 850 th ere was in c r e a sin g p ressu re from w ith in the
Brotherhood fo r " p rogress." P e r io d ic a ls were begun by in d iv id u a l mem
b ers to a ir th e se v ie w s. The most im portant fig u r e in t h is development
was Henry Kurtz (1796-187*0, a form er Lutheran m in is te r educated in
Germany, who in 1851 e s ta b lis h e d th e G ospel V is it o r , th e d ir e c t fo r e
runner o f our p resen t church p e r io d ic a l, th e G ospel M essenger.
Academies and B ib le sch o o ls were begun, although th e church s t i l l
o f f i c i a l l y discou raged h igh er ed u ca tio n . There was I n te r e s t in Sunday
s c h o o ls , r e v iv a lism , and a g g r e ssiv e evan gelism , and d is s a t is f a c t io n
w ith p la in d r e s s. These changes, str o n g ly championed by some and
g r e a tly condemned by o th e r s, were view ed w ith concern by th e m a jo rity .
The r e s u ltin g f r i c t i o n f i n a l l y le d to a three-w ay grouping in
th e church body. The c o n s e r v a tiv e s , who c a lle d th em selv es th e Old
German B a p tist Brethren (Old O rder), l e f t the. main body in 1881. In
1882, a group rep resen tin g a more li b e r a l p o in t o f view l o s t con fid en ce
in th e m a jo rity ; th ese " P rogressive Brethren" are c a lle d th e Brethren
Church tod ay. A lthough the d iffe r e n c e s betw een th e Church o f th e
Brethren and the Brethren Church are not s ig n if ic a n t ly g r e a t, th e d iv i
s io n co n tin u e s.
The m a jo rity elem ent which became th e Church o f th e Brethren
2
Brethren were o fte n c a lle d Dunkers because o f th e form o f bap
tism th ey p r a c tic e d . "Dunker" and "Tunker" both were used; th ey come
from th e German word "tunken," meaning "to d ip ."
202
moved ahead ra p id ly du rin g th e next decades. Soon i t was ad v o catin g
many o f th e same p r a c tic e s which th e P ro g re ss iv e s had urged e a r l i e r .
E x ten siv e founding o f c o lle g e s , w idespread p u b lic a tio n e f f o r t s , and th e
development o f fo re ig n m issio n s c h a ra c te riz e t h i s p e rio d . Since 1900
th e Church o f th e B reth ren has co n tin u ed to develop.
I f one were to g e n e ra liz e about th e l a s t q u a rte r o f a cen tu ry o f
Conference d e c is io n s , he would be com pelled to d e c la re th a t th e
Church o f th e B reth ren changed i t s stan ce from th e s e p a r a tis t mood
by em bracing th e se rv a n t r o le , t h a t we have become le s s tra n s c e n d -
e n t a l i s t and more tra n s fo r m a tio n is t, th a t th e church h as a lte r e d
i t s em phasis from s im p lic ity in e x te rn a l th in g s in a complex w orld
to sin g le n e ss of purpose which i s in n e r s im p lic ity and our B ro th er
hood has become le s s concerned w ith th e p re s e rv a tio n o f i t s own pe
c u lia r w itn e ss as i t has become more engrossed in advancing th e
work o f Him who made us m in is te r s of H is r e c o n c i l i a t io n .*
The church e x is ts f o r m issio n . I t o rg a n iz e s f o r th e purpose of
p ro v id in g a m in is try to p erso n s in th e name o f C h ris t. There a re sev
e r a l a s p e c ts to t h i s m in is tr y which may be seen more c le a r ly i f we ex
amine b r i e f l y s e v e ra l Greek words which are used in th e New T estam ent.
These Greek words w ill h e lp us to see th a t th e r e were s e v e ra l m in is
t r i e s c a r rie d on by th e e a r ly church which may serve as a guide f o r our
church to d ay .
F i r s t , th e re i s th e "kerygma" (KA-reeg-mah)—th e p ro clam atio n of
th e "good new s," th e g o sp e l, through p re a c h in g . T his i s a sh a rin g o f
th e e s s e n tia l, message o f th e m ighty a c ts of God. On t h i s b a s is th e
church engages in p rea ch in g , evangelism , and o u tre a c h through church
e x te n sio n . See Matthew 1 2 :4 l; 1 C o rin th ia n s 1 :2 1 ; 2 :4 ; 1 5 :4 , T itu s
1 :5 ; QJid Romans 16:25.
Second, th e re i s th e "didache" (dee-dah-KAY)—th e te a c h in g o f
th e body o f knowledge which th e church w ishes to communicate. "Didache"
I s d e riv e d from "kerygma" and i s based upon i t ; i t 1b n o t alw ays pos
s ib le to d is tin g u is h c le a r ly between them. "Didache" c a r r ie s more o f
th e id e a o f continuous I n s tr u c tio n w hile "kerygma" p ro claim s and an
nounces th e good news. The church engages in a program o f C h ris tia n
ed u ca tio n because o f th e em phasis in th e New Testam ent upon te a c h in g
along w ith p re a c h in g . See Mark 1 :2 7 ; John 7 : l 6 ; A cts 2 :4 2 ; 5 :28;
17:19; 2 Timothy 4 :2 .
T h ird , th e re i s "d iak o n ia" (dee-ah-ko-N EE -ah)—th e se rv ic e to
p e rso n s in th e name o f C h ris t. I t i s th e m in is try which one g iv es who
i s c a lle d to se rv ic e by God. See 1 C o rin th ia n s 16:15; R e v elatio n 2 :1 9 ;
ActB 6 :1 ; 12:25.
^From th e ad d ress o f M oderator H arry K. Z e lle r , J r . a t th e Annual
Conference h e ld a t Champaign, I l l i n o i s , in 19^5 *
203
F o u rth , th e re i s th e "k o in o n ia" (koi-no-N E E -ah)—th e fe llo w sh ip
in which p e rso n s sh a re in G od's g race through C h r is t. "K oinonia" sug
g e s ts m utual p a r t i c i p a ti o n on th e p a r t o f a l l b e lie v e r s . I t i s more
th a n fe llo w s h ip in which C h ris tia n s sh are in th e deep th in g s o f l i f e in
view o f t h e i r ex p erien ce in C h r is t. In and th ro u g h t h i s fe llo w s h ip
o th e r m in is tr ie s o f th e church ta k e p la c e , such a s th e p ro clam atio n o f
th e Word o f God, te a c h in g , evangelism , m issio n s, and s e rv ic e to p e rso n s
in need. See A cts 2 :k2; 1 John 1 :3 , It P h ilip p ia n s 1 :5 ; G a la tia n s 2 :9 .
The church soon d isc o v e re d th a t p la n s and o rg a n iz a tio n were nec
e s s a ry in o rd e r t h a t i t m ight be e f f e c tiv e in i t s many m in is tr ie s . In
th e fo llo w in g pages we w i l l c o n sid e r how th e church to d ay i s o rg an iz ed
f o r i t s ta s k .
The b a s ic u n it in th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e Church o f th e B re th re n
i s th e c o n g re g a tio n . Not a l l c o n g re g atio n s o rg a n iz e in th e same manner
to m in is te r to th e needs o f p e rso n s in th e C h ris tia n fe llo w s h ip , com
m unity, and w orld. R e g ard less o f th e p a tte r n o f o rg a n iz a tio n , th e
p r in c ip le s o f u n ity , e f f ic ie n c y , and democracy should be observed a s
th e church seeks to m in is te r to p e rso n s and to honor God. Throughout
i t s h is to r y th e Church o f th e B re th re n h as had a dem ocratic form o f
church governm ent. There has been a d e f i n i te commitment to th e p r i n c i
p le t h a t good id e a s and deep in s ig h ts can come from any member o f th e
c o n g re g a tio n . Any member o f th e church i s f r e e to su g g est changes o r
ask q u e stio n s about any p a r t o f th e c h u rc h 's m in is tr y , b e l i e f , and
p r a c t ic e . To en su re t h i s , a d e f i n i te p ro ced u re has been worked o u t,
w ith many changes, over th e y e a rs .
The b a s ic u n it o f th e c h u rc h 's government i s th e lo c a l church
c o u n c il. I t i s h e re t h a t th e f i n a l a u th o r ity r e s t s f o r making d e c i
sio n s which a f f e c t th e l i f e o f th e ch u rch , d e te rm in in g g e n e ra l p o lic y
n o t o th erw ise d e le g a te d , e le c tin g o f f i c e r s , p la n n in g th e fu tu re d ir e c
t io n o f program in th e church, approving b u d g e t, and making o th e r de
c is io n s o f g e n e ra l concern to th e church. T his and o th e r b u s in e s s i s
conducted in a dem ocratic fa s h io n under th e le a d e rs h ip o f e le c te d o f
f i c e r s .
In th e church c o u n c il a q u e stio n o r su g g e stio n may be p re s e n te d
f o r p o s s ib le tra n s m is s io n to th e e n tir e B rotherhood. I f th e congrega
t io n a g re e s t h a t th e "query" i s w o rth w h ile, i t I s se n t on to th e n ex t
h ig h e s t l e v e l o f church governm ent, th e d i s t r i c t , and u ltim a te ly to
Annual C onference i f th e d i s t r i c t approves i t .
The co n g reg a tio n a p p o in ts a board which i s g iv e n a ssig n e d r e
s p o n s i b i li t i e s and a d m in istr a tiv e power by th e church c o u n c il. Ordi
n a r ily th e board p la n s , s u p e r v is e s , and co o rd in a te s th e work o f th e
church through com m ittees or com m issions, co v erin g such concerns a s
m issio n s and ev a n g elism , C h ristia n ed u c a tio n , m in is tr y , stew ard sh ip ,
m usic and w orsh ip , s e r v ic e and r e l i e f , p rop erty and fin a n c e , and B o cia l
and r e c r e a tio n a l l i f e . T his board i s r e sp o n sib le fo r th e g en er a l o v er
s ig h t o f th e s p ir it u a l w e lfa r e o f th e church and I s r e sp o n sib le f o r
any d is c ip lin e w ith in th e membership which may be n e c e ssa r y .
20b
C ongregations in a given g e o g ra p h ic a l a re a a re grouped in to
u n its known a s d i s t r i c t s f o r th e purpose o f c o o p e ra tiv e endeavors and
C h ris tia n fe llo w s h ip . There i s a d e f in ite tre n d in th e B rotherhood in
th e d ir e c tio n o f m erging many o f th e d i s t r i c t s in to la r g e r u n i ts , th u s
red u cin g th e number o f d i s t r i c t s w ith in th e B rotherhood. The m in is try
and w itn e ss o f c o n g reg atio n s i s v i ta l iz e d and stre n g th e n e d through d is
t r i c t b o a rd s, com m ittees, and s t a f f .
The re g io n e x is ts f o r th e purpose o f prom oting and c o o rd in a tin g
th e work o f th e c o n g reg atio n s and th e d i s t r i c t s and in te r p r e tin g th e
g e n e ra l program o f th e church. The m erging o f th e d i s t r i c t s in to l a r g
e r w orking u n its may le s s e n th e need o f th e re g io n a l s tr u c tu r e in some
s e c tio n s o f th e c o u n try . The re g io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n w ill co n tin u e how
e v e r, in th o se a re a s where th e d i s t r i c t s f e e l i t i s h e lp f u l and fu n c
t i o n a l .
The u ltim a te source o f a u th o r ity in th e Church of th e B reth ren
i s th e Annual C onference. The Conference speaks on m a tte rs of p ro ce
d u re, program , p o lity , and d is c ip lin e .
Each co n g reg atio n i s e n t i t l e d to send d e le g a te s to th e Annual
C onference in p ro p o rtio n to i t s m em bership. These re p re s e n ta tiv e s a re
r e f e r r e d to c o lle c tiv e ly as th e " d e le g a te body" and have v o tin g power.
In a d d itio n , re p r e s e n ta tiv e s a re se n t from th e d i s t r i c t s . They form
what i s known as th e "S tanding Com m ittee." T his group se rv es as an
"upper house" to review b u sin e ss to be p re s e n te d to th e la r g e r d e le g a te
body. I t makes recom m endations f o r th e d is p o s a l o f b u sin e ss m a tte rs .
These su g g e stio n s may o r may n o t be accep ted by th e C onference. The
S tanding Committee merges w ith th e d e le g a te body f o r th e purpose o f
v o tin g on th e church b u s in e s s .
A lthough only o f f i c i a l d e le g a te s and members of th e Standing
Committee may v o te , any member o f th e Church o f th e B reth ren may speak
a t th e Conference to any p o in t o f b u s in e s s . P a rlia m e n ta ry r u le s a re
fo llo w ed to ensure o rd e rly p ro ced u res a t t h i s m eeting; th e p re s id in g
o f f i c i a l i s th e m oderator. He i s th e m oderator f o r a term o f one y e ar
a f t e r having served a s th e m o d e ra to r-e le c t f o r th e p rev io u s y e a r.
When th e denom ination should be re p re se n te d in o th e r m eetings and ac
t i v i t i e s he I s th e o f f i c i a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e .
As m entioned e a r l i e r , th e concern o f any member o f a lo c a l
church may be p re s e n te d to h is lo c a l church c o u n c il f o r p o s s ib le con
s id e r a tio n a t Annual C onference. I f approved by th e c o u n c il and th e
d i s t r i c t , i t i s forw arded as a query to be co n sid ered as an item of
b u sin e ss f o r th e C onference.
"For purpose o f u n ity , e ff ic ie n c y , and economy In g e n e ra l
B rotherhood w ork," says th e Manual o f B rotherhood O rg an izatio n and
P o lity , " th e re Is one g e n e ra l board c a lle d th e G eneral B rotherhood
Board of th e Church of th e B re th re n ."
205
Annual C onference e le c t s tw e n ty -fiv e p e rso n s to serv e on t h i s
Board f o r a term o f o f f ic e o f f iv e y e a rs . Three o f th e s e members a re
chosen from each re g io n w h ile te n a re chosen a t la rg e from th e B ro th e r
hood. The m oderator and th e m o d e ra to r-e le c t o f A nnual C onference serve
a s nonvoting members d u rin g t h e i r term s o f o f f i c e .
T his Board i s concerned w ith th e t o t a l program o f th e B ro th e r
hood, e v a lu a te s i t s program , and d e te rm in e s g e n e ra l p o l ic i e s and bud
g e ts r e la te d to th e v a rio u s com m issions. The members serv e on f iv e
com m issions th ro u g h w hich much o f th e work o f th e Board i s a d m in iste re d .
Each aommission i s composed o f f iv e members. The com m issions a r e th e
F o re ig n M ission Commission, th e M in istry and Home M ission Commission,
th e C h ris tia n E d u catio n Commission, th e B re th re n S e rv ice Commission,
and th e F inance Commission.
The Church o f th e B re th re n i s c u rr e n tly fa c e d w ith th e is s u e o f
th e degree and th e n a tu re o f i t s c o o p e ra tio n w ith o th e r C h ris tia n de
n o m in atio n s. G en erally sp eak in g , B re th re n a re ag reed upon th e d e s ir a
b i l i t y o f c o o p e ra tio n . C ongregations b elo n g to lo c a l c o u n c ils o f
churches vhich a re engaged in c o o p e ra tiv e study and a c tio n in t h e i r
com m unities. B re th re n m in is te rs a re a c tiv e in l o c a l m in iste riu m s in
which m in is te r s o f a l l denom inations p a r t i c i p a t e in stu d y , fe llo w s h ip ,
and c o o p e ra tiv e p la n n in g . Many B re th re n d i s t r i c t s and In d iv id u a ls have
p lay e d a c tiv e r o le s in s t a t e c o u n c ils o f c h u rc h es. When a new congre
g a tio n i s form ed, i t i s done in c o n s u lta tio n w ith o th e r denom inations
a c tiv e in th e a re a .
In 19^1 th e Church o f th e B re th re n jo in e d th e F e d e ra l C ouncil
o f C hurches, now named th e N a tio n a l C o u n cil o f Churches o f C h ris t in
th e U nited S ta te s o f A m erica. In d iv id u a l members o f th e Church o f th e
B re th re n h o ld o f f i c i a l p o s itio n s in th e N a tio n a l C o u n cil. When th e
W orld C ouncil o f Churches was form ed in 19^8 in Amsterdam, H o llan d ,
th e Church of th e B re th re n was re p re s e n te d and became a member. The
church was re p re s e n te d a t E vanston, I l l i n o i s , in 195 * + > and a t New
D e lh i, In d ia , in 1961, and c o n tin u e s to m a in ta in i t s r e la tio n s h ip to
th e World C ouncil w ith re p r e s e n ta tio n a t i t s o f f ic e s in Geneva, S w itz
e rla n d . The B re th re n r e l i e f program h as been c o o rd in a te d w ith th e
refu g e e s e rv ic e s o f t h i s h ig h e s t I n te r n a tio n a l church body w hile a t
th e same tim e r e ta in in g I t s own i d e n t i t y .
The B re th re n a re p a r t i c i p a n ts in and have been in s tru m e n ta l in
form ing v a rio u s a g e n c ie s o f r e l i e f and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n such a s C A RE
(C ooperative f o r American R e lie f E veryw here), CROP (C h ris tia n R u ral
O verseas Program ), C W S (Church World S e rv ic e ), and th e H e ife r P r o je c t.
The church p io n e e re d in th e program o f stu d e n t exchange which I s now
prom oted th rough c o o p e ra tio n w ith o th e r denom inations.
In re c e n t y e a rs th e r e has been g r e a t i n t e r e s t in fin d in g th e
a p p ro p ria te ro le th e Church o f th e B re th re n should p la y in th e ecumen
i c a l movement. The word "ecum enical" means "w orldw ide." T h is movement
i s aimed a t seek in g th e u n ity and th e m issio n God w i l ls f o r a l l C h ris
t i a n s . "That They A ll May Be One" i s th e theme o f t h i s movement. I t
206
began on th e m issio n f i e l d where church r i v a lr ie s were h u rtin g the
C h ristia n w itn e s s . The C h ristia n lo v e spoken o f in th e B ib le was not
e v id e n t in th e com p etition o f some groups fo r c o n v e r ts. Cooperation
and a u n ite d w itn ess became more im portant than in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s
as each denom ination sought to share th e g o s p e l. In America i t became
ev id en t th a t th ere were b rok en n ess, fragm en tation , and much d u p lica
t io n o f e f f o r t . There i s an in crea sed aw areness among a l l C h r istia n s
th a t i t i s the w i l l o f C h rist th a t th e church be one (John 1 7 :2 1 -2 3 ).
The Church o f th e B rethren has shown i t s c le a r adherence to the
p r in c ip le o f C h ristia n co o p era tio n . I t does n ot b e lie v e th a t i t p os
s e s s e s a l l C h ristia n tr u th . I t does f e e l th a t i t s h e r ita g e has given
i t som ething to sh are. I t s a f f i l i a t i o n w ith o th e r denom inations and
a c tiv e coop eration in many p r a c t ic a l programs i s a w itn e ss to t h is be
l i e f .
There i s a d iffe r e n c e o f op in io n as to how C h ristia n u n ity may
b e s t be shown. Some f e e l th a t t h is can b e s t be fu rth ered by a c tu a l
organ ic union w ith denom inations o f s im ila r b e l i e f s and p r a c tic e s .
O thers f e e l th a t u n ity o f s p i r i t should be sought even as denom inations
m ain tain t h e ir sep arate i d e n t i t i e s . Those B rethren ta k in g t h is l a t t e r
p o s it io n f e e l th a t d is t in c t iv e Brethren und erstan d in gs o f th e New T e st
ament— such as r e c o n c ilia t io n , p ea ce, and s e r v ic e — can b e st be shared
w ith th e la r g e r church w ith out organ ic u n ion . I t i s becoming in c r e a s
in g ly ev id en t th a t members o f th e Church o f th e B rethren are becoming
s e n s it iv e to the need fo r u n ity in th e body o f C h r ist. There i s an
in c r e a sin g commitment to C h ristia n coo p era tio n to th e end th a t C h r is t’ s
kingdom may be fu rth ered in our tim e.
APPENDIX B
THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR CITRUS CITY
207
APPENDIX B
THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE FOR CITRUS CITY
W e a re tr y in g to le a r n more about t h i s community. To do t h i s we
need th e c o o p e ra tio n and a s s is ta n c e o f a la rg e number o f p e o p le . You
can h e lp in t h i s stu d y by answ ering th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s a s fra n k ly
and a s c a r e f u lly a s p o s s ib le . E xperience h as shown t h a t some people
h e s i t a t e to answ er q u e stio n s i f th e y need to re v e a l t h e i r i d e n t i ty .
T h e re fo re , no name w i l l be a tta c h e d to t h i s in te rv ie w . P le a s e answ er
a l l q u e s tio n s . I f you cannot give th e e x a c t answ er to a q u e s tio n ,
answ er th e b e s t you can.
1. Note sex: ( l ) Male ; (2) Female_______j
E th n ic group: ( l ) W hite_______; (2) M exican______ j (3) Negro_______ .
2 . When d id you g rad u a te from high school? ______ y e a r.
(C a lc u la te age ______ .)
Ask f o r th e b i r t h d a te i f th e in te rv ie w e e d id n o t g rad u a te from
h ig h sc h o o l.
3. Check th e b la n k which in d ic a te s th e h ig h e s t y e a r o f e d u c a tio n you
com pleted:
G rades: 1_____ 2______ 3_____ ^_____ 5_____ 6_____ 7_____ 8_____ >
High sc h o o l: 9 10_____ 11____ 12 j
C o lle g e: 13 14-_____ 13 16_____ ;
G raduate work: 17 18______ 19
Which o f th e fo llo w in g a p p lie s to you: ( l ) Am erican bo rn o f
American b o ra p a re n ts } (2) F o reig n born o f fo re ig n -b o rn
p a re n ts ; ( 3 ) American born o f fo re ig n -b o rn p a re n ts .
5 . L is t th e names and ages o f your c h ild re n :
Name______________________ Age___ Name_____________________ Age_____
208
209
6 . To what church do you belong?
1 . Assembly o f God
13.
Jew ish
2 . B a p tis t lb. L utheran
3.
B reth ren Church
15.
M ethodist
b. C a th o lic 1 6 . Nazarene
5.
Church of C h rist
17.
P e n te c o s ta l
6 . C h ris tia n 1 8 . P re s b y te ria n
7.
Church o f God
19.
Quaker o r F rie n d s
8 . C h ris tia n S c ie n tis t 2 0 . Seventh Day A d v e n tist
9.
Church o f th e B re th re n 2 1 . U n ita ria n
1 0 . E p isco p a l 2 2 . U nited B reth ren
1 1 . E v a n g e lic a l
23.
Do n o t belong
1 2 . Four-S quare Gospel 2k. Some o th e r church
7 . In what c ity i s th e church you a tte n d lo c a te d ? ______________________
8 . During 1965 what kind o f work were you doing?
(O ccupations such as tru c k d r iv e r , ra n c h e r, law y er, s tu d e n t, house
w ife , e t c . )
9 . During 1965 what kind o f b u sin e ss o r in d u s try were you working in?
( I n d u s tr ie s such as au to f r e i g h t , c i t r u s , c o lle g e , home, e t c . )
10. How long have you liv e d a t t h i s ad d ress?_____________________ (y e a rs)
11. How long have you liv e d in th e C itru s C ity a re a? _____________(y e a rs)
12. P le ase l i s t a l l th e c lu b s, o rg a n iz a tio n s , and a s s o c ia tio n s to
which you belong ( l i s t o n ly th o se which have a s p e c if ic name).
210
13* P le ase l i s t a l l your c lo s e s t frie n d s o r c lo s e s t a s s o c ia te s ( f i r s t
and l a s t nam es).
1^. Would you p le a se l i s t two o r th re e main reaso n s f o r moving to o r
d e c id in g to liv e in C itru s C ity .___________________________________
15. What a re some o f th e th in g s you do In your le is u r e tim e?
16. Where do you p a r tic ip a te in th e se le is u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s ?
17. P le a se l i s t some o f th e p e rio d ic a ls you ta k e :
211
1 8. How many s o c ia l c la s s e s do you th in k th e re a re in C itru s C ity?
(num ber).
19.
P le a se d e sc rib e th e se c la s s e s .
2 0 . P le a se give th e
you m entioned.
name o f a p erso n who b e s t f i t s each s o c ia l c la s s
1 . 6 .
2 .
7.
3.
8 .
k. 9.
5.
1 0 .
2 1 . In th in k in g o f y o u rs e lf in a s o c ia l c la s s s e t ti n g , what s p e c ia l
words would you use in d e sc rib in g your s o c ia l c la s s .
22. On a s c a le lin e o f te n p o in ts , where would you p la c e y o u rs e lf in
term s o f s o c ia l c la s s ? Number 1 sta n d s f o r th e h ig h e s t s o c ia l
c la s s and number 10 sta n d s f o r th e low est s o c ia l c la s s .
■ s— s — i— § — 2— 1 ° ssii.
H ighest Lowest
2 J. Are you re n tin g , buying, o r do you own your p re s e n t home?
( l ) R enting ; (2) Buying ; ( 3 ) Own j (4) Provided^
2k. What were the main so u rces o f your income in 196^?
212
2 5 . What were th e main so u rces o f your m ate1s Income In 1964?
26. L is t any in te r e s tin g o b se rv a tio n s o r comments about th e In te rv ie w :
Record th e ad d ress a f t e r th e In te rv ie w .
2 7 . A ddress:
S tr e e t Number
28. A ssessed v a lu a tio n : _______
S tre e t Name
_(A ssessm ent r o l l s )
APPENDIX C
THE TWO-FACTOR INDEX OF SOCIAL POSITION
213
APPENDIX C
THE TW O-FACTOR INDEX OF SOCIAL POSITION
August B. H ollingshead
Y ale U n iv e rs ity
I . The E ducation F a c to r
The tw o -fa c to r Index o f S o c ia l P o s itio n (ISP) u t i l i z e d educa
t io n and o c cu p a tio n . These f a c to r s a re sc a le d and w eighted in d iv id u
a l l y , and a sin g le score i s o b ta in e d .
The ed u ca tio n sc a le i s based upon th e y e a rs o f school com pleted
by th e head o f th e h ousehold. The s c a le v a lu e s a re a s fo llo w s:
The o c c u p a tio n a l sc a le i s l i s t e d under th e socioeconom ic f a c to r
a tta c h e d on a se p a ra te s h e e t. I t s e f f e c tiv e use i s dependent on th e
p re c is e knowledge of th e head o f th e h o u se h o ld 's o ccu p a tio n . Occupa
t i o n a l p o s itio n has a f a c to r w eight o f 2 and e d u c a tio n a l p o s itio n a
f a c to r of 4. These w eig h ts a re m u ltip lie d by th e sc a le v alu e f o r edu
c a tio n and o ccu p atio n of each in d iv id u a l o r head o f a household. The
c a lc u la te d w eighted score g iv e s th e approxim ate p o s itio n o f th e fam ily
on th e o v e r - a ll s c a le . For exam ple, John Smith i s th e manager o f th e
Safeway S to re ; he com pleted high school and one y e a r o f b u sin e ss c o l
le g e . His score would be a s fo llo w s:
Years o f School Completed S cale Value
P ro fe s s io n a l (M.A.; M .S.; M .E.; M.D.; P h .D .; LL.B.)
F o u r-y e ar c o lle g e g rad u ate (A.B.J B .S .; B.M.)
1 -5 y e a rs c o lle g e (a lso b u sin e ss sc h o o ls)
High School g rad uate
10-11 y e a rs o f sch o o l (p a rt h ig h -sc h o o l)
7-9 y e a rs o f school
Under 7 y e a rs o f school
1
2
3
4
3
6
7
F a c to r
O ccupation
E ducation
S cale Score
5
5
F a c to r Weight
7
4
Score X Weight
21
12
Index o f S o c ia l P o s itio n Score . . . 53
214
215
W hen the Index of Social P osition score Is calculated, the individual
may be str a tifie d either on the continuum of scores or into a "class."
In the case of John Smith, he would be rated a class III on the basis
of the position he occupies on the continuum of scores, and the way the
scores are grouped into cla sses.
The range of Bcores in each class on the two-factor Index
fo llo w s:
Class I.S .P . Scores
I 11 - 17
II 18 - 31
III 32 - 47
IV 48 - 63
V
64 - 77
The various combinations of scale scores for occupation and
education are reproducible in the Guttman sense for there is no overlap
between education-occupation combinations. I f an individual’s educa
tion and occupation are known one can calculate both occupational posi
tion and educational le v e l.
W e have made extensive studies of the r e lia b ility of scoring,
and the v a lid ity of the Index on over one hundred variables in our So
c ia l S tra tifica tio n and Psychiatric Disorders Study. W e have also made
studies of lo ss of precision in using the two-factor Index rather than
the three-factor one of occupation, education, and ecological area of
residence. W e recommend the two-factor one in areas where ecological
maps do not e x is t.
I I. The Socioeconomic Factor
A. Scale Positions
1. Higher Executives, Proprietors of Large Concerns, and
Major Professionals
a. Higher Executives
Bank Presidents; Vice-Presidents
Judge s (Supreme Court s )
Large Businesses, e .g ., Directors
Presidents, Vice-Presidents
A ssistant Vice-Presidents
Executive Secretary
Treasurer
M ilitary, C om m . O fficers, Major and above O fficia ls
of the Executive Branch of Government, Federal,
State, Local, e.g . Mayor; City Manager, City Plan
Director, Internal Revenue Director
Research D irectors, Large Firms
216
t>. Large Proprietors (Value over $100,000)
Brokers
Contractors
Dairy Owners
Lumber Dealers
c . Major Professionals
Accountants (C.P.A.)
Actuaries
Agronomists
Architects
A rtists, Portrait
Astronomers
Auditors
B acteriologists
Chemical Engineers
Chemists
Clergymen (Professionally Trained)
D entists
Economists
Engineers (College Grad.)
Foresters
G eologists
Lawyers
M etallurgists
Physicians
Physicians, Research
Psychologists, Practicing
Symphony Conductor
Teachers, University, College
Veterinarians (Veterinary Surgeons)
2. Business Managers, Proprietors of Medium Sized Businesses,
and Lesser Professionals
a . Business Managers in Large Concerns
Advertising Directors
Branch Managers
Brokerage Salesmen
D istrict Managers
Executive A ssistants
Export Managers, Int. Concern
Farm Managers
Govt. O fficia ls, minor, e .g .,
Internal Revenue Agents
O ffice Managers
Police Chief; Sheriff
Personnel Managers
Postmaster
Production Managers
Sales Engineers
Sales Managers, National Concerns
Store Managers (+$100,000)
Proprietors of Medium Businesses (Value $35*000
$100, 0 0 0)
Advertising Owners ($35*000 - $100,000)
Clothing Store Owners ($35*000 - $100,000)
Contractors ($35 ,000 - $100,000)
Express Company Owners ($35,000 - $100,000)
F ruits, Wholesale ($35*000 - $100,000)
Furniture Business ($35*000 - $100,000)
Jewelers ($35,000 - $100,000)
Labor Relations Consultants
Manufacturer’ s Representatives
Poultry Business ($35*000 - $100,000)
Purchasing Managers
Real Estate Brokers ($35*000 - $100,000)
Rug Business ($35*000 - $100,000)
Store Owners ($35*000 - $100,000)
Theater Owners ($35*000 - $100,000)
Lesser Professionals
Accountants (Not C.P.A.)
Chiropodists
Chiropractors
Correction O fficers
Director of Community House
Engineers (Not College Grad.)
Finance Writers
Health Educators
Librarians
M ilitary, C o m m . O fficers, L ts., Captains
Musicians (Symphony Orchestra)
Nurses
Opticians
Pharmacists
Public Health O fficers (M.P.H.)
Research A ssistants, University (Full-tim e)
Social Workers
Teachers, Elementary and High
Administrative Personnel, Small Independent
Businesses, and Minor Professions
a. Administrative Personnel
Advertising Agents
Chief Clerks
Credit Managers
Insurance Agents
Passenger Agents—R.R.
Private Secretaries
Sales Representatives
Section Heads, Federal, State, and Local
Governmental O fficers
Section Heads, Large Businesses and
Industries
Service Managers
Shop Managers
Store Managers (Chain)
Traffic Managers
b. Small Business Ovners ($6,000 - $35*000)
Art Gallery Garage
Auto Accessories Gas Station
Awnings Glassware
Bakery
Grocery-General
Beauty Shop
Hotel Proprietors
Boatyard In st, of Music
Brokerage, Insurance Jewelry
Car Dealers Machinery, Brokers
Cattle Dealers Manufacturing
Cigarette Machines Monuments
Cleaning Shops Package Store (Liquor)
Clothing Painting Contracting
Coal Businesses
Plumbing
Contracting Businesses Poultry Producers
Convalescent Homes Publicity and Public
Decorating
Relations
Dog Supplies
Real Estate
Dry Goods
Records and Radios
Engraving Business
Restaurant
Feed Roofing Contractor
Finance Co., Local Shoe
Fire Extinguishers Signs
5^ and 10^
Tavern
F lorist Taxi Company
Food Equipment Tire Shop
Food Products Trucking
Foundry
Trucks and Tractors
Funeral Directors Upholstery
219
Furniture Wholesale Outlets
Window Shades
c. Semi-Professionals
Actors and Showmen
ArmyM/Sgt.j Navy, C.P.O.
A rtists
Appraisers (Estimators)
Clergymen (Not profession
a lly trained)
Concern Managers
Deputy Sheriffs
Dispatchers, R.R. Train
Interior Decorators
Interpreters, Court
Laboratory A ssistants
Landscape Planners
Morticians
Oral Hygienists
Photographers
Physio-therapist s
Piano Teachers
Radio, T.V. Announcers
Reporters, Court
Reporters, Newspapers
Surveyors
T itle Searchers
Tool Designers
Travel Agents
Yard Masters, R.R.
d. Farmers
Farm Owners ($20,000 - $35,000)
k. C lerical and Sales Workers, Technicians, and Owners of
L ittle Businesses (Value under $6,000)
a. C lerical and Sales Workers
Bank Clerks and Tellers
B ill Collectors
Bookkeepers
Business Machine Operators
and O ffices
Claims Examiners
C lerical or Stenographic
Conductors, R.R.
Employment Interviewers
Factory Storekeepers
Factory Supervisor
Post O ffice Clerks
Route Managers
Sales Clerks
Shipping Clerks
Supervisors, U tilitie s
and Factories
T oll Station Supervisors
Warehouse Clerks
b . Technicians
Dental Technicians
Draftsmen
Driving Teachers
Expeditor, Factory
Experimental Tester
Instructors, Telephone Co.,
Factory
Inspectors, Weights,
Sanitary
Operators, P.B.X.
Proofreaders
Safety Supervisors
Supervisors of Mainten
ance
Technical A ssistants
Telephone Co., Super
visors
Timekeepers
220
Inspectors, R.R.; Factory
Investigators
Laboratory Technicians
Locomotive Engineers
Owners of L ittle Businesses
Tower Operator, R.R.
Track Dispatchers
W indow Trimmers (Store)
Flower Shop ($3.>000 - $6,000)
Newsstands ($3j000 - $6,000)
Tailor Shop ($3,000 - $6,000)
d. Farmers
Owners ($10,000 - $20,000)
5. Skilled Manual Employees
Auto Body Repairers
Bakers
Barbers
Blacksmiths
Bookbinders
Boilermakers
Brakemen, R.R.
Brewers
Bulldozer Operators
Butchers
Cabinet Makers
Cable Splicers
Carpenters
Casters (Founders)
Cement Finishers
Cheese Makers
Chefs
Compositors
Dlemakers
D iesel Engine Repair and
Maintenance (Trained)
D iesel Shovel Operators
E lectricians
E lectrotypists
Engravers
Exterminators
F itte rs, Gas, Steam
Firemen, City
Firemen, R.R.
Foremen, Construction, Dairy
Gardners, Landscape
(Trained)
Glassblowers
Glaziers
Hair S ty lists
Heat Treaters
H orticulturists
Lineman, U tility
Linoleum Layers (Trained)
Linotype Operators
Lithographers
Locksmiths
Loom Fixers
Maintenance Foreman
In sta ller s, E lectrica l
Appliances
Masons
Masseurs
Mechanics (Trained)
Millwrights
Moulders (Trained)
Painters
Paperhangers
Patrolmen, R.R.
Pattern and Model Makers
Piano Builders
Piano Tuners
Plumbers
Policemen, City
Postmen
Printers
Radio, T.V., Maintenance
Repairmen, H om e Appli
ances
Rope Splicers
Sheetmetal Workers
(Trained)
Shopsmiths
Gunsmiths
Gauge Makers
Teletype Operators
Toolmakers
Track Supervisors, R.R.
Tractor-Trailer Trans.
Typographers
Shoe Repairmen (Trained)
Stationary Engineers
(Licensed)
Small Farmers
Stewards, Club
Switchmen, R.R.
Tailors (Trained)
Upholsters (Trained)
Watchmakers
Weavers
Welders
Yard Supervisors, R.R.
Owners (under $10,000)
Tenants who own farm equipment
Machine Operators and Semi-Skilled Employees
Aides, Hospital
Apprentices, E lectrician s,
Printers, Steam fitters,
Toolmakers
Assembly Line Workers
Bartenders
Bingo Tenders
Bridge Tenders
Building Superintendents
(Custodian)
Bus Drivers
Checkers
Coin Machine F ille r s
Cooks, Short Order
Delivery M en
Dressmakers, Machine
Elevator Operators
Enlisted Men, M ilitary
Services
F ile r s, Benders, Buffers
Foundry Workers
Garage and Gas Station
A ssistants
Greenhouse Workers
Guards, Doorkeepers,
Watchmen
Hairdressers
Housekeepers
Meat Cutters and Packers
Meter Readers
Operators, Factory Machines
O ilers, R.R.
P ractical Nurses
Pressers, Clothing
Pum p Operators
Receivers and Checkers
Roofers
Set-up Men, Factories
Shapers
Signalmen, R.R.
Solderers, Factory
Sprayers, Paint
Steelworkers (not skilled)
Stranders, Wire Machines
Strippers, Rubber Factory
Taxi Drivers
Testers
Timers
Tire Moulders
Trainmen, R.R.
Truck Drivers, General
Waiters-Waitresses
("Better Places")
Weighers
Welders, Spot
Winders, Machine
Wiredrawers, Machine
Wine Bottlers
W ood Workers, Machine
Wrappers, Stores and
Factories
222
Farmers
Smaller tenants who own l i t t l e equipment.
7 . Unskilled Employees
Amusement Park Workers
(Bowling A lleys
Pool Booms)
Ash Removers
Attendants, Parking Lots
Cafeteria Workers
Car Cleaners, R.R.
Car Helpers, R.R.
Carriers, Coal
Countermen
Dairy Workers
Deck Hands
Domestics
Farm Helpers
Fishermen (Clam Diggers)
Freight Handlers
Garbage Collectors
Grave Diggers
Hod Carriers
Hog K illers
Hospital Workers,
Unspecified
H ostlers, R.R.
Farmers
Janitors (Sweepers)
Laborers, Construction
Laborers, Unspecified
Laundry Workers
Messengers
Platform Men, R.R.
Peddlers
Porters
Roofer1s Helpers
Shirt Folders
Shoe Shiners
Sorters, Rag and Salvage
Stagehands
Stevedores
Stock Handlers
Street Cleaners
Unskilled Factory Workers
Truckmen, R.R.
Waitresses—"Hash Houses"
Washers, Cars
Window Cleaners
Woodchoppers
R elief, Public, Private
Unemployed (No Occupation)
Share croppers
APPENDIX D
A LISTING OP THE PRIENDS AND ASSOCIATES
IN CLASSES AS CHOSEN BY MALES
223
TA BLE A -l
A LISTING O F T H E FRIENDS A N D ASSOCIATES IN CLASSES AS C H O SE N B Y M A L E S
IN CLASS I I . A N "F" B E FO R E A N U M B E R IS T H E S Y M B O L FO R F E M A L E
Class 1
87—8 6 , 94
93—18
97—11, 18, 95
242—92
245— 30
252— 30
368— 18
369—18
4oi—l l
4l6—18, 8 6, 92
481—1, 86
491— 18
523—II, 94
529—9k
546—11
599—37
608— 11
622— 20
658— 94
704—95
884— 6 7, 86
911—20
Class 2
20—35
207—67
208—35
228— 30
236— 30
244— 30
266—11
276—30, 95
281— 95
286— 30
305—25
344— 25
346— 67
(2 continued)
364— 30
371—95
376—37
F449— 67
455—25, 95
458— 94
492— 18
494—20
511—95
518— 92
526—95
535—68
548— 67
561—35
564—92
572— 67
583— 68
596— 20
603— 30
605—35
607—37
621— 67
646—1
661—8 6, 9k
664—67
670— 92
685— 1
690— 30
725—95
741— 25
750—1
F787— 67
793—83
822— 20
838— 67
844—68
855—30
856— 30
879— 92
883— 67
(2 continued)
F890—67
892—37
902— 92
909— 68
915—20
Class 3
38—30
89—95
319—18
4l4— 67
439—67
501— 1
645— 67
668— 67
689— 30
820— 67
840—18
860— 1
862— 67
865— 20
Class 4
468—67
683— 67
737—20
798—37
831— 20
Class 5
None
224
225
TA BLE A-2
A LISTING O F T H E FRIENDS A N D A SSO C IA TES IN C L A SSE S
AS C H O S E N B Y M A L E S IN C L A SS III
Class 1
80—88
87—96
93—96
97—85, 8 8, 96
281—5
291*.— 96
568— 96
387— ^0
481—28
828— 89
884—89
907—40, 59
Class 2
95—89
F95—96
215— 96
226— 96
286— 90
287—59
500— 96
565— 96
408— 96
418— 85
427—40
469—59
480—75
492—5
500—40
535—38
607—31
646—90
661— 96
670— 96
685— 90
687— 96
734—89
750—89
780— 90
(2 co n t'd .)
784—5, 90
787— 90
877—85
Class 5
85—77
88—2 8 , 85
89— 85
202— 75
206—49
225—82
224—78
259— 88
255—39
267— 17
268— 78
293—96
295— 28
296—75
317—96
319—72
332—34
339—75
345— 72
551— 82
353—15
557—28
377—2
378— 72
385—33
391—15
393—32
596— 82
405—75
417— 82
422—82
425— 96
425—28
426—82
(5 cont'd.)
450— 7
446— 90
460—2
488—17
499— 33
507—59
512—82
516— 78
519—78
545—96
566— 17
567— 82
581— 8
586— 72
587— 72
588— 72
5 9 3 -1 7
597—38
598—75
610— 72
654—17
651— 96
652— 7
654—15
662—26
69^ — 17
714—15
716— 52
718—15
742— 58
752—53
754—75
760— 8
765— 2
766— 8
767— 8
785— 96
790—26
795—85
812—58, 85
809—17
(5 c o n t'd .)
814—77
821— 5
850— 8
845—82
855— 56
857—3
860—28
895— 15
896— 26
903—17
910—2
926— 88
928—2
Class 4
505—85
365—33
412—51
415— 51
576— 88
657—49
681—51
753—28, 88
759—38, 39
788— 2
789— 72
825—3
874—49
890— 85
898—75
920— 65
931—49
Class 5
14—96
25— 90
522—51
226
T A B L E A-3
A LISTING O F T H E FR IEN D S A N D A SSO C IA TES IN C L A SSE S AS C H O S E N B Y M A L E S
IN C L A SS IV. A N ” F" B E F O R E A N U M B E R IS T H E S Y M B O L F O R F E M A L E
Class 1 (3 cont'd.) (4 co n t'd ,) (4 cont1d.)
291— 21 1 + 21— 66 409—66 826—53
392—41 I + 29— 27 412—64 827— 27
633—66 527— 66
420—91 __ 832—13
88*)— 66 530—21 440—47 833— 81
907- 6 6, 91 552—21 1 + 1 + 3 —12
837—63
586— 66
1 + 71+ — 1 + 7
864—13
610—1 + 7
490— 13
867— 29
Class 2 6I + 3— 12 498— 13 870— 13
759—4 l
515—91
878—64
86—21
816— 63 525—13
888— 29
234— 21 82l+—6
537—29
891— 12
272— 21 83I + — 12
547—13 905— 63
300— 21 850—l+l 551—12
918—71+
1 + 9 7 —91
858— 6
558—9
502—63
917—71+
580— 13
607—61+ 923— 12 5 8 1 )— 13
Class 5
661— 66 *595—58
663— 66 626—41
282—47
685— 66 Class 1 + 628— 29
434—9
765— 66 633— 66 611—47
772—81 12—29 659— 81 619—81
81+ 6—21 211— 12
673—12 925—47
877—6, 66
213—53
699— 63
906— 13
219—53
702—12
921 + — 6 229— 13
717—13
233—13 726—9
21+ 0— 13
729—13
Class 3
257—13 732—43
263—1 + 1
749—9
1 + 9 —55
271—41 751—81
89— 66 279—13
756—74
210— 63
283—13 759—47, 66
220— 12 323—64 768— 81
225— 66
330—13 773—47
2I + 3— 27
337—13
774— 27
275— 76 3I + 2— 91
777—6
292—27
367—13
778—64
332—3I +
370—91 797—29
33I + —21 374—74 799—41
559—15
394—74 807— 13
227
TA B L E A-4
A LISTING O F T H E FRIENDS A N D ASSOCIATES IN CLASSES
AS C H O SE N m M A L E S IN CLASS V
Class 1
80—71
97—14
Class 2
96—14
556—42
655—23
661—23
877—23
Class 5
49—70
610—50, 57, 60
818—46
Class 4
45-44
240—19
323—5
340— 71
354—44
358—19
361— 19
367— 16
406—71
413— 56
432— 71
448—46
(4 co n t'd .)
473—23
486—5
570—14
748—71
755—19
825—46
Class 5
10-
-57.
52--56
247--42
322- -1 0
324--1 0
326-
-57
328- -54
349-
-1 9
383- -16
386- -42
395-
-46
400--62
402--44
452-
-71
465- - 50, 62
466- -70
467-
-57
468--62
476-
-55
508-
-71
514--50
520- -70
549-
-14
612- -56
613-
-6 0
6l4- -56
(5 cont'd.)
615—56
618—50
623— 60
638— 70
644—73
711— 10
712—62
724—42
764—5
774—5
775—5
782—44
794—73
871— 71
875—56
880— 10
899— 19
921—46

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Asset Metadata

Creator Melhorn, Jacob Jack (author)

Core Title Social Stratification In A Selected Community

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee chair), Lefever, David Welty (committee member), Peterson, James A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-577648

Unique identifier UC11359893

Identifier 6717685.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-577648 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6717685.pdf

Dmrecord 577648

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Melhorn, Jacob Jack

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA