Close
About
FAQ
Home
Collections
Login
USC Login
Register
0
Selected
Invert selection
Deselect all
Deselect all
Click here to refresh results
Click here to refresh results
USC
/
Digital Library
/
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
/
A Study Of The Effects Of Generalized Expectancies Upon Accuracy Of Interpersonal Perception
(USC Thesis Other)
A Study Of The Effects Of Generalized Expectancies Upon Accuracy Of Interpersonal Perception
PDF
Download
Share
Open document
Flip pages
Contact Us
Contact Us
Copy asset link
Request this asset
Transcript (if available)
Content
This dissertation has been microiilmed exactly as received 6 7 -8 0 1 7 NEWMAN, Leonard, 1920- A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF GENERALIZED EX PECTANCIES UPON ACCURACY OF INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION. University of Southern California, Ph,D., 1967 Psychology, clinical University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF GENERALIZED EXPECTANCIES UPON ACCURACY OF INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION by Leonard Newman A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Psychology) February 1967 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LO S ANGELES, C A LIFOR N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .......... JL.e.anar.d.Hg.wma»........... under the direction of his..„.Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Z f t e Z S x g .... Dean Date February... 1 . 9 . 6 7.......... MITTEE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is impossible to express the extent of one's indebtedness to others for their many kinds of help in the conception, design, execution and completion of this study. The assistance offered and given represents far more than technical advice or the meeting of academic requirements. It reflects the kind of support and criticism which has made this investigation a rewarding personal as well as professional experience. To Professor Herman Harvey, chairman of my disser tation committee, goes my deep appreciation for his encour agement of broad, creative approaches to human problems, his insistence upon standards of excellence in performance and his unstinting sharing of time and specialized know ledge to help shape a rough idea into workable form while, at the same time insisting that the concepts and final product remain uniquely my own. To Professors Jacobs and Lasswell whose interest and incisive comments at critical points of this study were invaluable, go my warm thanks. The execution of this study was greatly facilitated by the generous support of Dean John Dahl of the School of Education at California State College at Los Angeles, and of my-colleagues in the Departments of Guidance, Special Education and Administration at the College. Special ap preciation is due Professors Dorothy Perkins, Robert G. Hadley, Raymond Hillis and Ron Waller of the Rehabilitation Counseling faculty, as well as the many kindnesses of our secretary, Mrs. Betty Smith. Professor Don Price of the Broadcast Service Center at the College provided generously of the Center's techni cal staff and facilities in the conduct of this study. This investigation was greatly aided by the support of Dr. Benjamin A. Siegel, Chief Psychologist at Camarillo State Hospital and of the staff of the Psychology and Re search Departments, particularly Drs. Douglas Schiebel, Victor Goertzel, William Wells, Shlomo Kreitzer and Milton Wolpin. Of these and of the many psychologists who volun teered to participate in this study, and to the graduate students who gave their time to the project, special men tion must be made. Finally, to the one who helped make it all possible, may I thank my wife, friend and colleague, Phyllis Macy Newman. November, 1966. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................... ii LIST OF TABLES.............. viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS............................... xi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . i The Helpfulness of Psychotherapy ........ 1 The Necessity of Psychotherapists to the Therapeutic process ..................... 3 II. PERSONALITY THEORY AND THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC ENCOUNTER ............................... 11 Cognitive Dissonance Theory .............. 11 Expectancy Theory ......................... 12 Generalized Expectancy Theory ............. 14 Cognitive Controls and Perception ........ 14 Rotter's Social Learning Theory .......... 16 Two Kinds of Expectancies................. 17 Early Application of Expectancy Theory to Psychotherapy .......................... 18 Specific Expectancies as Functions of Situations and Instructions ............. 20 Present Status of the Generalized Expec tancy Construct 26 ; Internal-External Position and Control of the Environment......................... 2 8 i iv Chapter Page Internal-External Position and Control Over Personal Habits................... 29 Internal-External Position and Control by Others.................................. 30 Internal-External Position and Ability to Influence Others ....................... 32 The Internal-External Hypothesis and Interpersonal Perception .............. 34 Experimental Hypotheses ................... 39 III. METHOD...................................... 41 Experimental Strategy ..................... 41 Subjects................................. 43 Preliminary Studies of Reliability and Range of Response to the I-E Scale ... 44 Instruments............................... 47 Procedure................................. 54 Preparation of Video Tapes .............. 59 Presentation of Video Tapes to Judges ... 63 Statistical Treatment ..................... 67 IV. RESULTS...................................... 71 Evaluation of Correlation Between LGI and W TL......................... ............ 71 Correlation Between I-E Variable and Other Subject Variables ....................... 74 Test of the First Hypotheses.......... . 82 Tests of Hypotheses II, III and IV .... 95 ; Summary.................................... 101, v Chapter Page V. DISCUSSION.............................. 107 Implications for Research in Psychotherapy 112 Summary.............................. 118 REFERENCES.......... 124 APPENDIXES A. DISTRIBUTION OF I-E SCALE SCORES FOR 8 8 GRADUATE STUDENTS ..................... 136 B. DISTRIBUTION OF I-E SCALE SCORES FOR . 51 PSYCHOLOGISTS ....................... 138 C. STATEMENT TO STUDENT VOLUNTEERS OF PURPOSE OF STUDY.............................. 140 D. LETTER FROM DEAN OF SCHOOL OF EDUCATION . . 14 2 E. ROTTER I-E CONTROL SCALE (SOCIAL REACTION INVENTORY)............................ 144 F. LIFE GOALS INVENTORY................... 149 G. WAYS TO LIVE DOCUMENT .......... 154 H. PERSONAL DATA SH E E T ...................... 157 I. EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PSYCHOTHERAPY QUESTIONNAIRE ........................... 159 J. TELEVISION SCRIPT USED BY ACTOR-COUNSELOR IN INTERVIEWS WITH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL THERAPISTS ..................... 172 K. RECOGNITION QUESTIONNAIRE (RQ) ....... 176 L. CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 13 WAYS TO LIVE ' AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 8 8 GRADUATE STUDENTS . 178 M. CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 13 WAYS TO LIVE AND 12 VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS .... 180 vi Page N. CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 5 WAYS TO LIVE FACTOR SCORES AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS.............. 18 2 0. CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 5 WAYS TO LIVE FACTOR SCORES AND 12 VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS ................... . 18 4 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Test-Retest Reliabilities and Ranges of Scores on I-E Scale by Graduate Student and Psychologist Groups ....................... 46 2. Order of Presentation of Video Tapes .......... 65 3. Correlations Between Value-Factors of the Ways to Live Document and Life Goals Inventory . 72 4. Correlation Matrix of 9 Subject Variables of Graduate Students ......................... 75 5. Correlations Between Sex, Age, Social Class and I-E Scores and 5 Factors of the Ways to Live Document........................... 7 7 6. Correlations Between Sex, Age, Social Class and I-E Scores and 4 Combined Need Factors of the Life Goals Inventory.............. 77 7. Correlations Between Sex, Age, Social Class and I-E Scores and 12 Value-Factors of the Life Goals Inventory 7 8 8. Correlations Between Sex, Age, Social Class and I-E Scores and 13 Ways to Live........ 78 9. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 12 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 12 Value Factors--Internal Versus External Subjects.................................... 8 2 10. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 4 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 4 Combined Need Factors--Internal Versus External Subjects ......................... 83 11. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 13 Mixed Factorial Design. Ways to Live Document-- 13 Ways Raw Scores--Internal Versus External Subjects ......................... 85 viii Table Page 12. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 5 Mixed Factorial Design. Ways to Live Document-- 5 Factors--Internal Versus External Subjects.................................... 87 13. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 12 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 12 Value Factors--Internal Versus External Subjects.................................... 90 14. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 4 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 4 Combined Need Factors--Internal Versus External Subjects ......................... 91 15. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 13 Mixed Factorial Design. Ways to Live Document-- 13 Ways Raw Scores-- Internal Versus External Subjects ......................... 93 16. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 5 Mixed Factorial Design. Ways to Live Document-- 5 Factors--Internal Versus External Subjects 94 17. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 12 Value Factors--D Scores--Internal Versus External Subjects ................... 96 18. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 4 Combined Need Factors--D Scores-- Internal Versus External Subjects ........ 97 19. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial Design. Ways to Live Document-- 5 Factors--D Scores--Internal Versus External Subjects.............. 98 20. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial_Design. Ways to Live Document-- 13 Ways--D Scores--Internal Verus External Subjects.................................... 99 21. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 12 Value Factors--D Scores--Internal Versus External Subjects ................... 102 ix Table Page 22. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial Design. Life Goals Inventory-- 4 Combined Need Factors--D Scores-- Internal Versus External Subjects .......... 103 23. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial Design. Ways to Live Document-" 5 Factors--D Scores--Internal Versus External Subjects ......................... 104 24. Analysis of Variance: Type I--2 x 2 Mixed Factorial_Design. Ways to Live Document-- 13 Ways--D Scores--Internal Versus External Subjects................................. 105 25. Self-Ratings of Social Class Position of Graduate Students by Internal-External Group...................................... 108 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Distribution of Scores of Subjects on I-E Scale................................... 88 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The original impetus for this study can be summa rized by asking two questions prompted by the increasing body of self-critical research (Colby, 1964; London, 1964; Luborsky § Strupp, 1962) by clinical psychologists about the value of their professional activities. These ques tions are: "Is psychotherapy helpful to patients?" and "Are psychotherapists essential to the psychotherapeutic process?" The Helpfulness of Psychotherapy In perusing the literature on this question one .first notes the lack of agreement among therapists about the criteria for success in treatment (Mowrer, 1965) . De spite this ambiguity regarding outcome and the divergent and often mutually exclusive criteria used by proponents of different "schools" of psychotherapy to measure patient im provement, success rates of 60 per cent to 70 per cent are almost uniformly reported by all. Only Wolpe (1964) claims a rate of "cure" as high as 91 per cent. These findings might be accepted as better than chance were it not for the fact that the rate of sponta- 1 2 neous remission of psychopathology among hospitalized pa tients approximates the "success" rates of treated patients (Eysenck, 1952) . One might assume that this general rate of improvement is related to the therapeutic milieu of the mental hospital, but two independent studies of outpatients by Dymond (1954) and Goldstein (1960) revealed that when patients are placed on waiting lists, they tend to improve at the same rate as do matched groups of patients under going treatment. Haugen, Dixon and Dickel (1960) report much the same equivocal findings in the psychiatric literature: G. P. Denker reported in an article in the New York State Journal of Medicine (October 1, 1946) an in vestigation of 500 persons diagnosed as having neuroses who were not treated by psychiatrists. Within two years of onset 71 per cent were much improved or recovered. If we assume that psycho neuroses not treated by a psychiatrist run their course unaltered, this might be considered as pos sibly being close to the natural rate. However, a tabulation by Kenneth Appel and others, reported in the Proceedings of the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Diseases (1953) indicates that after long terms of psychotherapy about the same percentage (67 per cent) of the 4,131 cases collected were much improved or well. This statis tical material is so poor that there is little point here in indicating its obvious deficiencies. Unfortunately, no other information we have on this specific item we have is any better. We have at present no acceptable data to indicate that psychotherapy, as ordinarily administered, has any effect on the course or duration of the illness, [italics' added] although it should not be muchmore difficult to evaluate this than it has been, for example, to check on the various treatments that have been suggested for multiple sclerosis. (pp. vii-viii) Studies by Frank, Nash, Stove and Xmber (1963) , Lorr, McNair and Weinstein (1963), and Gliedman, Stove, Frank, Nash and Imber (1958) all focused upon the effects of administering a placebo as compared to short-term psy chotherapy and a tranquilizer. The Frank report, which in volved a follow-up study of 109 psychiatric outpatients two to three years after treatment, revealed that immediate and long-term improvement was experienced by patients, either as a result of simply going to the clinic before the place bo was administered or from placebo administration alone without psychotherapy. The other two reports found a pla cebo to be as effective in reducing patient anxiety and discomfort as were the two forms of treatment. The Necessity of Psychotherapists to the Therapeutic Process Even if it were assumed that psychotherapy, however specified, is at least as effective as other forms of treatment for profoundly disturbed persons, there has been no, clear demonstration that its success depends upon the presence of a specially trained practitioner of the psycho therapeutic arts. Mowrer (1964) has carefully documented the existence of more than 400 separate organizations, some with memberships of many thousands, which provide partici- . pants with some form of aid for problems which fall within the broad domain of mental disorder. The primary form of ; "treatment" provided by these self-help associations takes the form of "leaderless" group therapy. The apparent suc cess of such groups as Alcoholics Anonymous (1962) and Synanon (Yablonsky 6 Diderich, 1965) are cases in point where professional intervention has proven to be less ef fective than lay efforts. These sobering findings have suggested to some that therapeutic success is merely a special instance of the "Hawthorne effect" (Roethlisberger, 1941). For example, Hathaway (1948) has stated, "Almost any form of attention given to a patient's problems, whether skilled and upon good theoretical basis, or unskilled and poorly conceived, is likely to result in improvement" (p. 230). Frank, Gliedman, Imber, Stove and Nash (1959) comment that "any form of activity by a person culturally defined as healer may activate a patient's belief that he is being helped" (p. 967). In examining the prognostic aspects of treatment of schizophrenics, Brody and Redlich (1962) observe, "A signi ficant factor in increasing the chances for recovery is a clinic, or an interested person, even in the absence of formal psychotherapy" (p. 43). Support for this point of view is given by Beck, Kantor, and Gelineau (1963) who re port that when undergraduates spent one hour per week with chronic patients whose base rate of discharge was 3 per cent, 31 per cent of the 120 patients involved were dis charged during the period of the study, 1954-1961. Barron and Leary (1955) comparing wait-list pa tients with patients in therapy, found no difference in rates of improvement between the two groups. They con cluded, however, that it was inappropriate to call the waiting list patients "untreated," and point to the fact that in all instances applicants for treatment had been seen one or more times at intake, for psychological evalua tion, and one or more additional interviews before a deci sion was made to accept them for service. The authors termed the attention given these applicants "non-specific therapy" and suggested that the time spent prior to formal acceptance for treatment may, in fact, have been the most therapeutic experience of all. Despite differences in theory, strategy and thera peutic tactics, all approaches to treatment agree upon one imperative as an irreducible requirement for the situation to be classified as psychotherapy: the presence of two or more persons and some kind of interpersonal transaction be tween them extending over time. The closeness of the rela tionship may vary; the therapist and patient may assume differing amounts of activity; the content of the verbal or non-verbal interchange may be quite different from thera pist to therapist. However, some observable interaction takes place, the purpose of which is to ameliorate a prob lem in living for one or more of the participants. The duration of treatment may vary from Wolpe's (1962) average of 10 to 15 sessions, the Rogerians' 20 to 40 interviews and the psychoanalysts' 200 to 400 or more hours. The underlying assumption here is that some type of interpersonal relationship germinates and comes to flower as a result of these extended contacts, which presumably leads to improvement on the part of that member of the therapeutic dyad labeled "patient." However, Matarazzo (1965) points out that most psy chotherapeutic relationships terminate prior to the 10th interview. Supporting his observation are similar statis tics about duration of treatment of outpatients in public mental hygiene clinics in the several states. The U.S. Public Health Service report (October, 1963) of data on outpatient psychiatric clinics for the year ending June 30, 1962 indicates the following median numbers of sessions per patient by state: California 4.98 Illinois 4.42 Iowa 5 .13 New York 4.20 Ohio 4.57 Pennsylvania 4.58 Texas 6.62 According to the California Department of Mental Hygiene (1962), out of a total of 9,627 discharged out patients 4,589 or 47.6 per cent were considered treated, while 5,038 or 52.4 per cent were in the "untreated cate gory. The median number of interviews reported for "treated" cases was 10 and for "untreated" cases was 3. These interviews may have been with the patient or his col laterals. The median number of interviews received varied from clinic to clinic, and in general the larger medians were associated with clinics treating children. The Cali fornia report lists separately the figures for emergency i — service rendered through state-aided clinics, indicating that "the vast majority of emergency service outpatients are discharged after only one visit." The report goes on to state that "less then 1 per cent of these patients are considered to have been treated, although they may have re ceived valuable services." These services are described as follows: "The 'untreated' patients were admitted, evalu ated and/or received brief professional services not to be considered to be definitive, mutually agreed upon treat ment" [italics added]. The similarity between the profes sional contacts of these "untreated" patients with Barron and Leary's (1955) "wait-list" group in a private outpa tient clinic is obvious, and one is led to wonder about the adequacy of statistical methods of reporting the value of services to patients. In view of these comparisons doubts might be raised regarding the New York State report (1964) that for the year ending March 31, 1961, 30.7 per cent withdrew prior to treatment and 29.6 per cent withdrew after treatment had been initiated in outpatient clinics. It is possible that therapeutic services had already been provided in the opin ions of a significant portion of those who chose to termi nate . From these data a number of conclusions can be drawn: 1. More patients terminate treatment than remain until therapy is satisfactorily concluded according to pro fessional opinion. 2. In most cases the duration of treatment does not meet the suggested minimums proposed by any prevalent theory of psychotherapy. 3. Valuable services are rendered to patients often in the course of a single professional contact, but such contact appears to be perceived by the practitioner as therapeutic first aid rather than as an integral part of a treatment process. 4. In view of the preponderance of discharges of "untreated" over treated patients with no report of large numbers of these patients re-applying for service, there may exist some major discrepancies between what many pa tients see as their needs and how therapists see them. These differences may be in relation to the immediate prob lem which brought them to the therapist or they may repre sent a more general divergence in value orientation. It is conceivable that therapist and patient may be attending to quite different aspects of the therapeutic situation with the result that "improvement," "reduction of fears and anx ieties," "insight," "increased capacity for problem solving," or whatever occurs, is a purely serendipitous affair. The first question posed at the beginning of this chapter might, then, be answered in the affirmative without resort to specifying the active ingredients which make the therapeutic encounter a beneficial one. If there are few empirical guides to assist the therapist in determining and utilizing the elements of therapy in meaningful ways, then the second question may not be answerable until re search within the clinical environment is pursued more vigorously. In view of the consistency of the data presented above concerning the relatively brief duration of most psy chotherapeutic encounters, there appears to be strong em pirical support for the notion that the factor, or combina tion of factors, which contribute most to behavioral „ 10 change, are encountered close to, if not at the very onset of treatment. It seems, important, therefore, to attempt to relate some conceptual models from the arsenal of per sonality theory to this data in the hope of securing a better fit between theory and practice. CHAPTER II PERSONALITY THEORY AND THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC ENCOUNTER Three conceptual approaches appear to offer consid erable explanatory value in relation to the initial phase of the psychotherapeutic experience. Cognitive Dissonance Theory This theory assumes a drive toward cognitive bal ance as the primary motivator in human decision-making. According to Festinger (1957, 1964), a behavior can be di vided into two parts, a pre-decision and a post-decision period. In the pre-decision period individuals objectively evaluate the elements of a problem about which they must make a decision. After it is made and the individual acts, if the results are not in agreement with his expectations an uncomfortable, dissonant reaction occurs, which the in dividual then attempts to reduce by bringing his cogni tions, beliefs, attitudes, etc., into agreement with the new situation. Applying this model to the psychotherapeutic 11 12 process, the pre-decision period is conceived of as that time during which the individual is deciding whether or not to apply for professional assistance. Once the decision is taken and formal contact is made with-the clinic, he then proceeds to reorganize his self-perceptions about the dif ficulties which prompted his decision. In one sense the fact that he has made a decision about seeking help may feed back an increased sense of strength in his capacity to solve his problems. It would be predicted from this that such individuals would experience a dramatic reduction in personal discomfort even prior to the first visit to the therapist and that short-term treatment would be maximally effective. Expectancy Theory ^ This type of theory includes a number of concep tions among which the notions of Janis (1958a, 1958b) are at variance with cognitive dissonance theory. Janis has examined the concept of psychological stress in situations involving actual physical danger to individuals. In con trast to Festinger's ideas about the objective assessment of a situation, Janis proposes, and offers evidence to sup port his contention, that in the post-decision period the individual's subjective pre-decision expectancies about the results of his decision tend to be fulfilled. Thus when 13 three groups of patients for surgery were asked about the amount of discomfort they anticipated following their oper ations, the findings were that "the most extreme forms of emotional disturbance appeared to be concentrated in those patients who, before the operation, had shown either an ex ceptionally low degree or an exceptionally high degree of anticipatory fear" (Janis, 1958a, p. 217). With reference to expectancies about psychotherapy, Frank (1959) has proposed that the greater the degree of patient discomfort, the greater will be his expectation of therapeutic relief. Two studies, one by Lipkin (1954), re garding clients' feelings and expectancies about client- centered therapy, and one by Goldstein and Shipman (1961) focusing upon client expectancies about the initial psycho therapeutic interview, supported Frank's hypothesis. Both the cognitive dissonance theory and the two kinds of expectancy theory discussed above deal with as pects of intrapersonal functioning of individuals indepen dent of their interpersonal relationships. Both suggest that cognitive or emotional responses are already in motion prior to actual contact with a therapist. Both assume that factors relating to the actual or perceived degree of per sonal distress are major determinants of the therapeutic outcome. Festinger's approach emphasizes the effects of the changes in the psychological field upon subsequent 14 changes in an individual's cognitions of his relationships to those field forces. Janis and^Frank emphasize the im portance of specific, immediate internal stresses upon in dividuals' expectations about reduction of discomfort. Generalized Expectancy Theory This theory, put forth by Rotter (1954; Rotter, Seeraan § Liverant, 1962) deals with the individual's more pervasive beliefs about the locus of control over rein forcements. The emphasis is upon the effects of the inter action of learned expectations of success or failure be tween the participants in an interpersonal encounter. The scope of Rotter's theory encompasses both situational or field-produced expectancies, as well as the effects of sub ject variables. The following discussion is largely based upon Rotter's social learning theory and related concepts derived from cognitive theories of personality. Cognitive Controls and Perception In recent years considerable research has been re ported about those behaviors which lack the characteristics ordinarily ascribed to drive or need states (Klein, 1954, 1958; Klein, Spence, Holt § Gourevich, 1958; Witkin, 1954, 1962; Gardner, Holzman, Klein, Linton § Spence, 1959). The notion of cognitive style has been proposed to describe an individual's typical strategies of perceiving, remem 15 bering and thinking. Klein (1958) has proposed that the behavior patterns arising from an individual’s cognitive attitudes do not appear to be committed to a search for particular forms of satisfaction. His ideas have much in common with what Gordon Allport (1935) referred to as ”in- strumental attitudes” since they involve not so much the object or goals of behavior (e.g., "drive satisfaction”), as the how, his methods of achieving his goals. These relatively stable patterns of control are viewed by Klein as contributing to drive activity in a sec ondary way by modulating, facilitating or inhibiting the effects of a temporarily active drive upon behavior (Klein, 1954). They represent strategies of reality contact which are the outcomes of a person's long and repeated efforts to deal effectively with classes of situations typically en countered en route to drive satisfaction. Klein proposes that while immediate drives may bend cognitive behavior, there are limits to this plasticity, limits imposed in part by the objects with which a person has to deal, in part by the repertoire of abilities and skills he possesses, and in part by the cognitive attitudes called into play by the adaptive problems confronting him. These cognitive attitudes are conceived of as rather narrow part-processes or subordinate behaviors, subsumed under the more general notion of cognitive control. These controls 16 are generalized dispositions to respond in characteristic ways to new situations. Gardner et_ ad. (1959) describe cognitive controls as "slow-changing, developmentally sta bilized structures" which are predictably operative "de spite the shifts in situational and behavioral contexts typical of cognitive activity from moment to moment." Functionally, they are viewed as "the individual's means of programming the properties, relations, and constraints of events and objects in such a way as to provide an adap tively adequate resolution of the intentions which brought him into an encounter with reality" (p. 6). A number of such cognitive controls combine into an individual's cogni- tive style. It is within the context of the cognitive style approach that Rotter’s social learning theory pro vides some systematic constructs. Rotter's Social Learning Theory Rotter's original statement of his theory (1954) utilizes three basic constructs: behavior potential, ex pectancy and reinforcement value, defined as follows: Behavior potential refers to the "potentiality of any behavior's occurring in any given situation or situa tions as calculated in relation to any single reinforcement or set of reinforcements." The theory is thus concerned with the prediction of behavioral choices. Given any set of alternative behaviors, the behavior with the highest 17 behavior potential would be the one which would actually occur. Expectancy is "the probability held by an individ ual that a particular reinforcement will occur as a function of a specific behavior on his part in a specific situation or situations. Expectancy is independent of the value or importance of the reinforcement." The emphasis here is upon the subjective probability associated with the individual's perception of the meaning of events, rather than with the objective, actuarial probability proposed by theorists such as Brunswik (1951). Reinforcement value refers to "the degree of prefer ence for any reinforcement to occur if the possibilities of their occurring were all equal." The way in which an indi vidual categorizes any given situation will determine for him which behaviors have the greatest probabilities of lead ing to reward. It would follow also, that changes in an in dividual's perception of the situation could lead to marked changes in expectancy as well as in reinforcement value. Two Kinds of Expectancies Rotter distinguishes between two kinds of expectan cies: 1. Specific expectancies, which are judgments re garding the outcomes of behavior in specific situations. 2. Generalized expectancies, which are systematic 18 attitudes or beliefs regarding the nature of the causal re lationship between one’s own behavior and its consequences. According to his theory the two, in combination, act to de termine choice behavior as well as the reinforcement value of a situation. He argues, further, that expectancies gen eralize from specific situations to a series of situations which are perceived as related. Consequently a generalized expectancy for a class of related events has functional properties and can be identified as a personality variable. Rotter's notion is not incompatible with Harlow's (1959) concept of learning sets. Both theorists are con cerned with the process of "learning to learn" rather than with the discrete elements which make up the content of any specific situation. Stemming from Krechevsky.'s (1932, 1938) early work on hypothesis behavior in animals, this point of view represents a non-continuity approach to learning which has come to be generally accepted by cognitive learning theorists. Briefly its major formulation regards learning as "the acquisition of knowledge about the learning situa tion, or of expectancies developed through experience with the environment" (Kimble, 1961). Early Application of Expectancy Theory to Psychotherapy Even as he was developing his theory, Rotter of fered some applications of his concepts to the therapeutic 19 setting. Although he refers to generalized expectancies as having an important bearing upon therapeutic planning, the impression derived from this aspect of personality function is that therapy should be concerned with extinguishing them. His concept of a generalized expectancy seems much closer to the concept of behavioral rigidity, and appears to be viewed as a negative attribute of the personality. He cites a number of studies (Good, 1952; Castaneda, 1952; Lasko, 1952) as demonstrating the principle "that ex pectancies change more readily when based upon fewer previ ous experiences" (Rotter, 1954, p. 356). This requires im mediate and overt reinforcement by the therapist that the patient's action in coming for help will, in fact, be pro ductive for him. The aim of the therapist in the early stages of treatment, as Rotter saw it at that time, was to reinforce specific expectancies of relief upon the pa tient's part. Concentrating for the most part upon the thera pist's role, Rotter believed that treatment would be facili tated by explicit reiteration of therapist expectancies. He introduced the idea of "successive structuring" as an integral part of therapy. By structuring we are referring to the discus sion about the therapy that takes place between the therapist and the patient. It is a discussion that is concerned with the purposes and goals of the therapy (both specific and general), the plans 20 of the therapist, the respective roles and re sponsibilities of the patient and the therapist, and the attitudes both have toward the therapy at any time. It is not something that takes place during the first or second therapy hour and then is finished, but something that takes place continually throughout the entire .course of therapy. (1954, pp. 351-352) Although the approach suggested by early social learning theory differed from brief psychotherapeutic tech niques derived from psychoanalytic concepts in its emphasis upon the active role of the therapist, his direct reinforce ment of patient behavior, a concentration upon reality prob lems, the reduction of ambiguity and the exclusion of sub liminal factors, it appeared to make little direct use of the generalized expectancy variable. It was only as a re sult of additional studies of human learning based upon Rotter's theoretical propositions that the independent role of generalized expectancies was clarified. Interestingly enough, the experimental route taken was through the study of specific expectancies. Specific Expectancies as Functions of . Situations and Instructions From Rotter's definiton of expectancy, it can be predicted that the learning curve for a task will vary in relation to whether the learner perceives his reward as either dependent or independent of his efforts. In cultur ally-defined terms, reward that is related to effort is 21 viewed as a skill condition, while the lack of such rela tionship is a chance condition. The independent variable in such a situation is the experimental instructions. Phares (1955, 1957) conducted some of the earliest studies of the effects of situational variables upon ex pectancy changes, predicting that expectancies for future reinforcement would show greater changes following rein forcement in a skill situation than in a chance situation. He hypothesized that in a skill situation reinforcement is based upon performance, and subjects will utilize past per formance as a basis for future expectancies. In a chance situation, however, where reinforcements are not perceived as being under subjects' control, they are thus prevented from utilizing past performance to the same degree. He employed four groups of female college students to test his predictions, designing two experimental tasks, one involving matching colors, the second involving match ing the lengths of lines. The first group received the color task structured as chance first, and the line match ing task second, structured as skill. The second group received the same tasks and instructions, but in reversed order. The third group was given the line task structured chance first, and the color task structured as skill sec ond. The fourth group received the same tasks and instruc tions as the third group, but in reversed order. 22 Thirteen trials were given each subject on each task, and all received the same pattern of.fixed partial reinforcement (right or wrong). The measure of expectancy was the number of chips a subject would bet on his proba bility of being correct on the succeeding trial. Phares' major hypothesis was confirmed. Increments and decrements following success and failure respectively, were significantly greater under skill conditions than un der chance conditions. Reinforcement under skill condi tions had a greater effect upon raising or lowering expec tancies for future reinforcement. Under chance conditions Phares reported an inter esting phenomenon which has come to be called the "gambler's fallacy." This is the finding that there was a trend of marginal significance for expectancies to increase under failure conditions and to decrease under success condi tions. This is the opposite of what classical theories of reinforcement would predict, namely that non-reinforcement of behavior should lead to extinction, while reinforcement should produce an increase in response strength. In terms, however, of Rotter's hypothesis about the differential ef fects of reinforcement when it is perceived as contingent or non-contingent upon an individual's behavior, these findings could be interpreted to mean that subjects, under chance conditions, believing that the correctness of their 23 guesses had no relationship to the outcome, were either re sponding in some random way in their betting, or that some undefined intervening variable not related to the specific situation was systematically influencing their choices. Pursuing this line of reasoning, James (1957) pro posed that a basic dimension by which learning situations can be categorized is the extent to which reinforcements are perceived as either internally or externally controlled. He defined an internal control situation as one which is perceived as providing reinforcements as a result of the individual's skill. An external control situation is one in which chance factors decide whether or not the individ ual is reinforced. His study was divided into two parts. In the first part all subjects were given the same line matching task, but instructions were varied so as to produce either an in ternal or an external categorization of the situation. He employed four groups of college students, two of whom re ceived the following internal control instructions: Although the discriminations required here are at a difficult level, we have found that some people are highly skilled at this and are able to get consistently high scores. The results depend en tirely upon your ability. Do as well as you can and we will see if you have some skill at this. The other two groups received these external con- trol instructions: 24 Although the discriminations required here are at a level which makes it entirely a matter of chance, some people are lucky and get high scores. The re sults depend entirely upon guessing. Do as well as you can and we will see if you are lucky at this. James' findings were similar to the differences ob tained by Phares between skill and chance groups in the ac quisition of expectancies. He found significantly greater generalization of expectancies from one task to another un der skill instructions than under chance instructions. The second part of his study attempted to test the hypothesis that the extent to which individuals generally perceive situations as either internally or externally con trolled is a measurable personality characteristic. For this purpose he devised a questionnaire which did differen tiate between subjects who were primarily believers in ex ternal control of situations. However he was unable to re late subjects' generalized expectancies for chance deter mination of events, as measured by this instrument, to their performance on the experimental tasks in the first part of his study. A subsequent study by James and Rotter (1958) ex amined the effects of skill versus chance instructions under conditions of partial and 100 per cent reinforcement upon extinction of verbal expectancies. Again chance and skill groups were found to differ significantly in number of trials to extinction. This study also confirmed Phares1 25 earlier finding that resistance to extinction of expectan cies was greater with 100 per cent reinforcement than with partial reinforcement, under skill conditions. Another study by Phares (1962) of perceptual thresholds for shock- associated stimuli in chance and skill situations, found that recognition thresholds for shock-associated nonsense syllables dropped significantly more under skill instruc tions than under chance instructions. This was interpreted as indicating increased "perceptual vigilance" (Solley § Murphy, 1960) of subjects under conditions where escape from noxious stimuli was under their control. The fact that thresholds for non-shock associated syllables also dropped under these same conditions suggested the operation of gen eralization factors. Other studies (Rotter, Liverant § Growne, 1961; _ Bennion, 1961; Blackman, 1962) yielded relatively clear-cut findings: when a subject perceives a task as experimenter- controlled, or dependent upon chance or luck, then past ex perience is relied upon less. Consequently he tends to learn less, to pay less attention to environmental cues, and to perceive such cues less accurately than when he per ceives a situation as being within his control. One possible implication of these findings for ex perimental psychology in general is that in studies uti lizing human subjects which are contingent upon conditions 26 of experimenter control, the results obtained may be con taminated by a chance-behavior response set. Since curves of acquisition, generalization, extinction and spontaneous recovery appear to differ under chance and non-chance con ditions, theoretical notions derived in the main from ex perimenter-controlled research may need reexamination. Present Status of the Generalized Expectancy Construct The place of the concept of a subject variable ex ercising a measurable influence upon behavior but indepen dent of the specific situational contexts within which it acts, was more fully explicated in a recent theoretical article [Rotter, Seeman § Liverant, 1962). In this article social learning theory was extended to include a generalized expectancy of belief in internal versus external control of reinforcements. Essentially this construct was proposed to account for the contribution of the individual to the com plex of situational and task variables which are presumed to determine choice behavior. In this version of the theory individuals are seen as acquiring generalized dispositions regarding their abil ity to deal effectively with new situations. These learned expectancies refer to subj ective evaluations by individuals about whether most events and situations which impinge upon them can be understood and made subject to their control 27 (internal control), or whether forces exterior to their control (chance, luck, fate, magic) determine the outcome of events (external control). To measure this variable the Rotter Internal-Exter nal Control Scale [hereafter referred to as the I-E Scale] was developed, based upon earlier scales of Phares and James. A complete description of the instrument along with a comprehensive review of most of the extant studies in which it was employed, has recently appeared (Rotter, 1966). Since the I-E Scale was developed within the boundaries of a specific theory, the test author has endeavored to present evidence from a number of independent sources to substan tiate the construct validity, discriminant validity, factor stability, internal consistency and retest reliability of the scale. Nine separate reports measuring some or all of these attributes are summarized by Rotter: Item analysis and factor analysis show reasonably high internal consistency for an additive scale. Test-retest reliability is satisfactory and the scale correlates satisfactorily with other methods of assessing the same variable such as question naire, Likert scale, interview assessments and ratings from a story completion technique. Dis criminant validity is indicated by the low rela tionships with such variables as intelligence, social desirability and political liberalness. (1966, p. 25) While the I-E Scale appears to show promise as an independent measure of an important personality variable, the fact that fewer than 20 studies are reported in the 28 literature, and most of them employed college student sam ples, suggests that more extensive sampling across a wider range of conditions is still necessary to support the con struct validity of the instrument. Of particular relevance to the present study is the absence of investigations of the influence of the Internal-External variable on the therapist-patient relationship. Perhaps the most relevant studies of the construct validity of the I-E Scale reported to date concern reports of how individuals who differ on the Internal-External di mension, differ in their beliefs about (a) the possibility of exercising effective control over their environment in important life situations; (b) the possibility of exercising control over personal habits and inappropriate behavior; (c) accessibility to influence by others; and (d) ability to influence others. Internal-External Position and Control of the Environment Gore and Rotter (1963) obtaind signed commitments from students at a southern Negro college regarding civil rights’ activities they would engage in during vacation. Students who pledged themselves to take part in a march on the state capitol or to join a freedom riders' group were significantly more internal than were those who were only willing to participate in a limited way or were disinclined 29 to participate at all. One important aspect of this study was its strong face validity, in that commitment for action actually carried with it the overt expectation of perfor mance in a vital area of the subjects' lives. The investi gators concluded that since all respondents must have had high involvement in the integration issue, their willing ness or reluctance to take active steps to change this en vironmental factor, must have been related to their own generalized expectancies about whether or not their behav ior could effect any meaningful change in the prejudice which surrounded them. Another study by Strickland (1963) investigated internal-external differences between activists in a Negro civil rights movement in another state and a matched group of Negro non-activists. The activist group was found to be significantly more internal than the non-activists. Internal-External Position and Control over Personal Habits Two studies are reported here involving differences on the Internal-External continuum and control of cigarette smoking. In the first, an exploratory study, Straits and Secrest (1963) found that, among college students, non- smokers are significantly more internal than are smokers. James, Woodruff and Werner (1965) replicated the first study as part of a more extensive investigation. This was 30 undertaken one week after the release of the Surgeon Gen eral's Report (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1964) regarding the relationship between smoking and health, and consequently they presumed that subjects' responses were obtained under strong and significant envi ronmental influences outside of the laboratory. They found that (a) both male and female smokers are more externally controlled than are non-smokers; (b) smokers who were con vinced by evidence in the report had lower external control scores than those who were not convinced; and (c) among males, those who stopped smoking following the report were more internally oriented than those who continued smoking. Internal-External Position and Control by Others With regard to the relationship between the Inter nal-External variable and concepts of independence, sug gestibility and conformity, social learning theory would predict that internals should be more resistive than exter nals to manipulation by others, providing they are aware of such manipulation, since awareness would be perceived as depriving them of some of their control of the environment. On the other hand, externals who perceive such attempts at manipulation as expected from the environment, would be less resistant. 31 To test this hypothesis, Green, Lotsof and James (1964) employing an Asch-type conformity design (Asch, 1956) , found externals to be more passive as well as more conforming than internals. Crowne and Liverant (1963) em ployed the same experimental model under two separate con ditions using college students as subjects. The first con dition was a typical minority-of-on_e-against-a-majority situation, while in the second condition subjects were given a sum of money and asked to bet on each of their judgments. Under Condition 1 there were no differences be tween internals and externals in amount of yielding. Under Condition 2, however, internals yielded significantly less than did externals. They also bet more on themselves when going against the majority than did externals on their in dependent trials. These latter findings suggest an additional differ ence between internals and externals in connection with the conformity situation, to wit, if the internally oriented individual perceives that it is to his advantage to con form, he may do so consciously without yielding any of his control. Only where he conceives conformity as clearly to his disadvantage will he resist such pressures. This may be an indication of a greater freedom pf psychological movement on the part of the internal person. To test the relationship between level of awareness 32 and conditionability of internal versus external subjects, Strickland (1962) used a verbal conditioning paradigm. On the basis of a post - experiment interview she divided her subjects into two groups, one consisting of those who re ported being aware, and one made up of those who were un aware of the reinforcement contingency. She further di vided the aware group into two categories, those who con ditioned and those who did not condition. She found signi ficant differences in internal-external position between those who were aware and conditioned and those who were aware and did not. The latter group contained considerably more internals than externals. Internal-External Position and Ability to Influence Others' Most studies reported to date have dealt with ex perimenter attempts to influence the behavior of subjects. A more significant test of the generality of the internal- external hypothesis would involve the ability of subjects who differ on this dimension to influence others. Phares (1965) reports such an experiment. Using female college students he obtained their I-E Scale scores and divided them at the median into an In ternal and an External group. He then had these two groups act as experimenters to attempt to change the attitudes of other students. To do this he had another group of stu- 33 dents complete an attitude questionnaire relating to cur rent campus affairs. These students were then divided into three groups, one which internal student-experimenters attempted to influence, on which external student-experi menters attempted to influence, and a control group which merely filled out the questionnaire a second time. His hy pothesis that internal student-experimenters would be able to induce significantly greater changes on their subjects' responses to the questionnaires than would external student- experimenters was confirmed. The control group showed changes equal to those of the subjects of the external stu dent-experimenters . In summary, the studies reported here provide ex perimental support for the concept of a personality vari able of belief in internal versus external control of rein forcement. Not only do individuals differentiate situations as internally or externally determined, but they also dif fer in their personal evaluations of the internal or exter nal attributes of the same situation. The evidence gath ered to date is rather consistent in support of Rotter's contention that the individual who has a strong belief that he can control his own destiny is likely to (a) be more alert to those aspects of the environment which provide useful information for his future be havior, (b) take steps to improve his environmental condition (c) place greater value on skill or achievement reinforcements, and be generally more 34 concerned with his ability, particularly his failures, and (d) be resistive to subtle attempts to influence him. (1966, p. 25) The Internal-External Hypothesis and Interpersonal Perception The relevance of the generalized expectancy concept to a more precise understanding of interpersonal behavior in general, and its application to that special kind of person-to-person encounter termed psychotherapy has yet to be explored. The study presented here is a first attempt to investigate this subject variable within that context. With the exception of the Phares (1965) study re ported above, none of the investigations using the Internal- External hypothesis dealt with the interactional effects of the I-E variable between persons. However, that study, too, did not concern itself with the possible feedback potential of the subjects' expectancies upon the two groups of stu dent- investigators . There appear to be a number of in triguing possibilities involved when one extends the gener alized expectancy construct into the area of person-percep- tion. Interpersonal perception is concerned with the evaluations which one person makes of another and with the influence of social and subject variables upon these evalu ations (Fiedler, 1958) . A number of pertinent attributes are associated with this area: 35 1. Interpersonal perception occurs "whenever the perceiver regards the object as having a potential of rep resentation and intentionality" (Tagiuri, 1958). The in ferences we make about others--their attitudes, intentions and values--have their sources in our own belief systems as well as in those of the individual we are judging. In addition, the conditions under which people meet and the matrix of roles and needs which brought about the meeting constitute a mutually-shared psychological field which con tributes to the judging process. Both the perceiver and the object of his perception presumably exercise an active effect upon the perceptions of the other. An additional source of variation, then, exists in human intercourse which involves a double interaction between the needs, goals and values of two individuals. 2. Interpersonal communication generally occurs within fairly well-structured situations and usually for specific purposes. A major object of any meeting, then is to assess accurately the information obtained that is per tinent to the purposes of social interaction (Jones § Thibault, 1958). 3. Although it is generally agreed that individ uals differ in the ways in which they obtain, process and use information, in the study of interpersonal perception there has been a concentration upon field variables, role 36 expectancies and overt belief systems (Rokeach, 1960; Triandis, 1960). In his comprehensive study of subject variables related to therapist-patient expectancies in psychotherapy, Goldstein (1962) describes a wide range of situation-produced behaviors of individuals, all of which fall into the category of specific expectancies. While it is important to take account of the power ful influence of environmental and situational variables, for the purposes of this study both theoretical and experi mental attention is given to those learned styles of per ceiving new situations which individuals bring with them. The following proposals, based on the theory and experi mental results obtained thus far, seem logical extensions of the generalized expectancy hypothesis to interpersonal perception, and specifically, to the psychotherapeutic re lationship . 1. Most interpersonal situations possess three kinds of attributes which contribute to the interaction between individuals: a. The field, or demand characteristics of the setting in which the transaction occurs (i.e., a hospital, school, prison, office, private home, etc.). b. Expectancies which are specific to the pur pose of the meeting, the goals of the participants, their role expectation, amount of stress or comfort as well as overt attitudes and values. c. Generalized expectancies brought by each person to the encounter concerning his beliefs about his ability, through his own efforts, to gain some reward from the situation. They represent each person's characteristic mode of "tuning in" on events, his built-in set of hypo theses about his power to bend situations to his require ments, or to be bent by more powerful and unpredictable forces. 2. Both specific and generalized expectancies are intercommunicated by participants and the two may not ne cessarily be congruent. For example two persons may share the belief that external events and situations exert greater control over questions of war or peace than do in dividuals. On the specific action level, one person will decline to concern himself with such matters, while the other will consider it essential to his value system to ex press his personal concern in some appropriate manner. In a like way, two individuals may hold opposite beliefs about internal versus external control on the generalized level, while sharing similar views regarding the democratic pro cess, civil rights, and so forth. 3. Where systematic beliefs on the generalized or specific level are markedly incongruent, there may occur: a. Communication of ambiguous, unclear and 38 contradictory information from one person to another, and b. T.he apprehension of such information in equally ambiguous ways by the recipient. 4. Believers in Internal control have been found to be more sensitive to environmental cues, more active in making use of them, more flexible and more responsive to others. Therefore, it is predicted that: a. There should be a greater congruence be tween their generalized and specific attitudes and beliefs. b. Internals should communicate more effec tively to others. c. Their ideas and intentions should be appre hended more accurately by others. d. There should be a maximum of sensitivity, empathy, or accuracy of perception in an interpersonal sit uation when both participants are high in Internal orienta tion . 5. Believers in External control have been found to rely less upon past experience, to pay less attention to environmental cues, to be less active, less sensitive and less willing to take risks than are Internals. Therefore, it is predicted that: a. There should be a greater discrepancy be tween their expressed and covert beliefs and attitudes than is true of Internals. 39 b. Externals should communicate less clearly and less consistently to others. c. Their communications should be apprehended less accurately by others. d. Accuracy of communication should be most impaired between two individuals who are both high in Exter nal orientation. Experimental Hypotheses To test the predictions made about the effects up on interpersonal behavior of differences in generalized expectancies, the following hypotheses were proposed: Hypothesis I examines the predictions that Internal- External differences will be reflected in differences in belief systems. It states: Subjects who differ in their beliefs in internal versus external control of reinforce ments differ in their patterns of value-orientations. Hypothesis II examines the predictions concerning differences in clarity of communication between Internals and Externals. It states: Internal subjects are more accurate than External subjects in their perception of the value-orientations of both Internal and External psycho therapists . Hypothesis III examines the predictions concerning differences in clarity of reception of the communications of Internal and External therapists. It states: The value-orientations of Internal psychotherapists are more accurately perceived by both Internal and External subjects than are the value-orientations of External psychothera pists. Hypothesis IV examines the possibility of an inter action effect based upon similarity of both generalized and specific expectancies which might affect accuracy of per ception. It states: The combined effects of similarity of I-E position and of value-orientations will result in In ternal subjects perceiving Internal psychotherapists more accurately than do External subjects, and in External sub jects perceiving External psychotherapists more accurately than do Internal subjects. CHAPTER III METHOD Experimental Strategy In devising a research strategy to investigate the effects of belief in internal versus external control it seemed important to choose: 1. A situation possessing strong face validity so that the experimental condition would be as close to a critical aspect of the subjects' life experiences as pos sible . 2. A task possessing high motivational value in that the purpose of the study would be perceived as congru ent to the needs of the subjects and of intrinsic personal interest. 3. A strategic time aspect, so that the effects of situational variables might be minimized, thus permitting relatively free operation of the generalized expectancy variable. 4. An experimental condition which would require subjects' responses to be immediate, rather than retrospec tive . To meet these requirements, two professional groups 41 42 which have a complementary relationship to each other in the therapeutic process, one which provides treatment and the other which generates referrals to the first, were uti lized. Among the professions which are important sources of referral to psychotherapists are special educators and school personnel workers. According to expectancy theory the elements of a successful referral are no more random than are those of the educator - student or therapist-patient interaction. Indeed two studies report a high level of agreement between psychotherapists and teachers in their perceptions of what constitutes a good professional rela tionship. Fiedler (1950), employing a Q-sort method, found a high level of agreement between therapists and non-thera- posts in their conceptions of the "ideal" therapeutic rela tionship. Soper and Combs (1962) extended Fiedler's Q-sort technique to teachers, substituting "teacher" for "thera pist" and "student" for "patient." They found that teach ers' ratings of an "ideal" teacher-student relationship correlated significantly (.809) with Fiedler's therapist- patient relationship. It would be consistent with these findings to hypothesize that the referral process involves a complex double-decision by the school personnel worker. Acting as both motivator and agent for his student, he makes two simultaneous decisions: 1. That the therapist is skilled, competent and responsive to the problems of his student. 2. That both the therapist and his prospective patient possess personal qualities which will facilitate treatment. In doing so it is predicted that he generalizes from his own expectancies to those of both student and psy chotherapist. If his perceptions of both parties are ac curate, then presumably, therapy will be more effective. The experiment described below was designed to evaluate the accuracy of interpersonal perception of a group of student personnel workers. Subj ects The subjects studied were drawn from graduate stu dents in the School of Education of California State Col lege at Los Angeles. All were candidates for the master's degree or for advanced credentials, and most were actively engaged in school personnel work or special education. Those who were not employed were taking practicums in coun seling, school psychology or special education. They were obtained from an available pool of 240 students, members of advanced professional seminars, in the following manner: 44 1. Active support for this study was first obtained from the Dean of the School of Education, and then from the chairmen and faculties of the departments of Guidance, Spe cial Education and School Administration. 2. Each seminar leader was contacted individually for permission to use volunteers from his class as well as a portion of one seminar meeting during which the study would be conducted. Since previous commitments made it im possible for the members of three seminars to participate, 12 seminars with a total of 195 students comprised the ac tual group from which volunteers were secured. One hundred ten students participated in the initial phase of the study, with 88 completing the experimental portion as well. The results which are reported in Chapter III are based upon the 88 complete protocols. Preliminary Studies of Reliability and Range of Response to the I-E Scale' The reported studies employing the I-E Scale, though promising, had been confined to high school and college undergraduates, prison inmates and adolescent members of correctional institutions and a group of Peace Corps volun teers. No studies with graduate student samples or with professional groups have appeared. Since the reliabilities reported were only moderately high, ranging from .49 to .83, it was deemed advisable to make an additional determination 45 of scale reliability with these populations. The following procedures were employed to evaluate (1) the reliability, and (2) the range of response of both graduate student and psychotherapist groups to the I-E Scale. 1. Test-retest reliability and range of graduate student responses to the I-E Scale. From the total pool of 240 graduate students described above, 60 names were drawn whose code numbers were obtained from a table of random numbers. I-E Scales were mailed to these students with a request that they assist in assessing a new "Social Reac tion Inventory." A second mailing was sent to them two weeks later. 2. Reliability study of therapist group. Fifty- two Ph.D. psychologists from the metropolitan Los Angeles area who were actively engaged in clinical work, teaching and private practice were contacted at the same time and asked to complete the I-E Scale, disguised in the same man ner as the form sent to the students. A comparison of the results obtained from both groups is reported in Table 1. The obtained coefficients of reliability were found to be sufficiently large to justify the use of the I-E Scale with these populations. The ranges of scores and their distribution showed that the instrument is sensitive to differences along the dimension under study within these homogeneous samples. (See Appendixes A and B.) However, 46 TABLE 1 TEST-RETEST RELIABILITIES AND RANGES OF SCORES ON I-E SCALE BY GRADUATE STUDENT AND PSYCHOLOGIST GROUPS Graduate Students Psychologists N Males F emales Total 44 16 60 43 9 52 Method Mail Mail Interval Two weeks Two weeks No. Returned Males F emales Total 30 12 42 43 8 51 Per cent Returned 70 98 rtt Males F emales Total . 81 . 85 . 83 . 85* . 96* . 93* Range Males F emales Total 0 to 19 0 to 13 0 to 19 0 to 19 2 to 8 0 to 19 Means (Males only) Test Retest 6. 73 7. 20 6. 63 SD (Males only) Test Retest 3. 79 4. 07 4. 41 * r^ estimates obtained employing Guilford's (1965) proce dure for estimating the reliability coefficient of one sample from the known rL J _ of another, tt 47 because of the concentration of scores of the female psy chologists at the Internal end of the scale, it was decided to use only male psychologists in the experimental condi tion of this study. Table 1, therefore, reports separate means and standard deviations of male psychologists and compares them with male graduate students. As anticipated, both distributions are positively skewed in an Internal direction, which is consistent with Rotter's (1966) reports of studies with college samples. Instruments 1. The instrument used to measure the criterion variable was the Rotter Internal-External Control Scale [referred to in this study as the I-E Scale]. This is a 29-item forced-choice questionnaire designed to rate re sponses along a continuum from belief in Internal control of reinforcement, to its polar opposite, belief in External control (luck, chance, fate, etc.). Scored in an "external" direction, high scorers are defined as Externals, low scorers as Internals. The scale has a range of 24 points and yields scores from 0 to 23. Six filler items are not scored. One major internal- external factor has been iden tified through two independent analyses. 2. In keeping with the concern of this study to explore the impact of expectancies upon behavior, a search was conducted for measures which dealt with aspects of 48 preferential behavior as they related to oneself, to others and to the environment (Rokeach, 1960; Adorno, Frenkel- Brunswik, Levinson § Sanford, 1950; Morris, 1956; Buhler, 1962, 1964; Smith, 1963; Dean, 1961, 1962; Rotter et al., 1962; Kassarjian, 1962, 1963; Elmore, 1965). Two question naires were selected, both measuring what Morris (1956) re fers to as "conceived values." This type of value is de fined by him as preferential behavior directed by anticipa tion or foresight of the results of such behavior. The instruments employed as measures of dependent response are: a. The Ways to Live Document, short sentence form (O’Donovan § Robbins, 1963). This questionnaire is composed of 13 descriptive paragraphs depicting different kinds of life patterns, which the subject is asked to rate along a seven-point scale ranging from "I like it very much" to "I dislike it very much." Morris carried out a factor analysis of the origi nal instrument, obtaining five major patterns of value- orientation. The form employed in this study was developed in part in response to criticism by Rokeach (1960) that subjects' scores, were contaminated by a "response-to-com- plex paragraphs" set. The experimental form used here is not only shorter and less complex, but its difficulty-level has been lowered (O’Donovan, 1960) to permit its use with subjects who have only sixth grade reading comprehension. 49 O'Donovan reports (1964) that the factor structure of this form with a college student population, appears to be the same as the original form. The five factors identified are labeled: A. Social restraint and self-control B. Enjoyment and progress in action C. Withdrawal and self-sufficiency D. Receptivity and sympathetic concern E. Self-indulgence (or sensuous enjoyment) The Life Goals Inventory (Buhler 8 Coleman, 1964). This was originally an 86-item "Questionnaire of Goals and Fulfillments" which is rated by the subject along a five-point descriptive scale ranging from "Essential" to "Reject." The analysis of responses obtained is based upon the 12 value-factors derived from studies of college stu dents, which are then combined into four main patterns of value-orientation corresponding to Buhler's (1962) postu lated four basic tendencies. Each tendency, or combined need-factor, is comprised of three value-factors as de scribed below: I. Need Satisfaction A. Necessities of life; pleasure B. Love and family C. Sex satisfaction II. Self-Limiting Adaptation 50 D. Accept limitations; caution E. Submissiveness F. Avoidance of hardship III. Creative Expansion G. Self-development H. Leadership, fame, power I. Role in public life IV. Upholding the Internal Order J. Moral values K. Social values L. Having success The form of the test used here consisted of 76 of the original 86 items which the test authors had found to contribute to the 12 value-factor scores. The 10 omitted items had no significant loadings on any of them. Because their content seemed appropriate to the theoretical approach of this study, and previous research had defined a stable factor structure for each measure with similar populations to those employed here, the WTL and LGI were included in the experimental battery. 3. In order to clarify the extent to which the Internal-External variable was independent of other subject variables, a Personal Data Sheet (PDS) was constructed to obtain data which seemed relevant to the investigation. They are identified below. 51 Age and sex. Horner (1965) had found significant age and sex differences associated with the value-orienta- tion scores of undergraduates on both the WTL and LGI. It seemed relevant, therefore, to assess the effects of these variables within a graduate student sample upon (a) value- orientation scores, and (b) their relationship to the Inter nal-External variable. Marital status. A study by O'Donovan, Morris and Eiduson (1960) is relevant to this variable. They obtained Ways to Live scores from outpatients of a psychiatric clin ic and compared them with the scores of spouses and close relatives. They concluded that patients and non-patients differed in degree of commitment rather than in kind of value-orientation. Patients tended to express a more ambig uous and less-defined pattern of value-attitudes, and more of their scores fell in the middle of the scale. Social class. Class position has usually been an inert variable in studies involving college students, be cause major factors of the indices used are education and occupation (Hollingshead § Redlich, 1958; Warner, Meeker § Eells, 1960; Myers § Roberts, 1959; Lasswell, 1965). Since the subjects of this study were graduate students and most were already in professional positions, it seemed distinctly important to find a method of social stratification which 52 would be sensitive to intra-group differences. To solve this problem two techniques were employed: first, following the procedure of Ellis, Lane and Olesen (1963), subjects were given the task of self-assessment of their families' social class position. On the PDS they were asked to respond to the question: In which of these four major social classes would you say your family belongs: Middle_____, Lower_____ , Working____, Upper_____? The following question then asked: If you place your family in the Middle social class, would you say your family belongs to the: Upper- Middle_____, Middle-Middle_____, or Lower-Middle_____ social class? Their responses enabled them to differentiate their self perceptions of class position along a six-point scale. The second technique also involved self-perception and is dealt with in the next section. Social mobility. Bloombaum (1964) argues that the direction of one's social mobility is an important factor in determining self-perception of one's status in society. From the standpoint of expectancy theory an individual who is socially mobile may hold different beliefs about his ability to control his social rewards from one who sees him self as socially immobile. Further, the person who is down wardly mobile may have different expectations from one who is upwardly mobile. Social mobility was therefore included 5 3 as a variable of interest, with the focus placed upon inter- generational mobility (Lasswell, 1965). To obtain data on this dimension, each subject was asked to indicate his fa ther's occupation on the PDS, and then given the following question: Would you say that your own social class position, as compared to your father's is: the same_____ , higher , or lower ? By separating the mobility dimension from the status dimen sion, by requiring a self-perceptual procedure, and in con sideration of the highly striving behavior characteristic of many members of the educational professions (Roe, 1956), it was believed that some significant relationships would be found. Familiarity and stereotype effects. Gage and Cron- bach (1955) have demonstrated that both familiarity and stereotype effects are important variables in interpersonal perception. Since the academic preparation and professional activities of the subjects of this study include training in psychological theories and techniques as well as contact with psychologists, it was possible that amount of contact of either a professional or personal nature with psycho therapists would exert some measurable influence upon their responses. Several questions on the PDS sought to tap these areas. One inquired about subjects' professional experi ence; others queried subjects' actual contact with thera 54 pists for purposes of referral, and also whether subjects had ever sought personal counseling or therapy themselves. Procedure This investigation was conducted in two phases, the first phase devoted to securing subjects and collecting data relating to them, and the second phase concerned with securing subjects’ responses to the experimental tasks. The steps involved in each phase are detailed below. Phase I 1. The investigator met with each seminar group for approximately 15 minutes, read a prepared statement concerning the objectives of the study (see Appendix C) and invited their voluntary participation. 2. One hundred thirty-nine packets of test mate rials, stamped and returned-addressed, were immediately given out to those who volunteered, with the request that they be completed at home and returned as quickly as pos sible. The packets contained: a. A letter from the Dean of the School of Education urging their participation in the study (see Appendix D). b. A copy of the statement read to each seminar (see Appendix C). i c. A memorandum of instructions for completing! 55 the questionnaires. d. One Internal-External Control Scale with answer sheet (see Appendix E)• e. One Life Goals Inventory with answer sheet (see Appendix F). f. One Ways to Live Document with answer sheet (see Appendix G). g. One Personal Data Sheet (see Appendix H). h. A postcard to be self-addressed by subjects and which the investigator later returned to them, giving the exact date, time and place for their participation in the second phase of the study. In preparation for Phase II of this study, LGI1s and WTL1s were sent to six psychologists who had previously completed the I-E Scale. Three of them were at the Inter nal end of the Scale, and three were at the External end. From these six, two volunteers were secured who partici pated in the experimental condition. Their roles are fully described in the next section. Phase II This part of the study was conducted approximately one month after the completion of Phase I. It consisted of an experimental situation that was a simulated interprofes sional encounter. In keeping with the expressed purpose of 56 this study, subjects were asked to act as judges of two video tapes, each a dialogue between a school counselor and a psychotherapist. The setting was the therapist’s office, the time of contact was the first actual encounter between the two principals, and the announced purpose of the meeting was (1) to enable both parties to become better acquainted, and (2) to obtain an exchange of views regarding the kinds of student problems the counselor dealt with and the thera pist's reactions to them. The object of the dialogues was to enable each therapist, who stood at opposite poles of the Internal-Ex ternal continuum, freely and spontaneously to express his own beliefs and value-attitudes within the contexts of the kinds of expectancies he holds about the therapeutic situa tion. The dialogues were not intended to be a general dis cussion of the therapists' theoretical positions nor of their techniques. A standardized script was used by the person acting as counselor in both interviews, and was developed in the following way: 1. Drawing upon the literature about expectations in psychotherapy (Frank, 1958; Garfield 8 Wolpin, 1963; Goldstein, 1962; Heine 8 Trosman, 1960; Lorr, 1965; Overall 8 Aronson, 1963; Strupp 8 Williams, 1960; Strupp, Wallach 8 Wogan, 1964; Sundland 8 Barker, 1962) an Expectations 57 about Psychotherapy Questionnaire was developed, consisting of 54 multiple-choice statements. (See Appendix G) 2. Three psychologists, members of the group which had participated in the reliability study and whose I-E Scale scores were at or near the mean of the distribution, served as judges. Each was given two copies of the ques tionnaire with these instructions: Your task is to score two separate forms of this questionnaire as you would judge two therapists might respond who subscribe to the two different belief systems described below. You are asked not to respond as you believe, but only as you would judge that therapists who are at the two ends of the dimension of belief in internal versus external control of reinforcements would respond. Explicit criteria for making the judgments were furnished, derived from the research literature concerning the I-E Scale. 3. Nine of the 54 statements on the questionnaire were differentiated by four or more judges' responses as being clearly Internal or External in orientation. The in terview script (see Appendix H) was based upon these judged differences as well, as upon questions about which there was an equally high level of judged agreement between the two orientations. Some of the areas of concern dealt with: a. The "expert" role and.level of responsi bility of a therapist. b. The extent to which the patient is expected to participate. 58 c. The advisability of permitting the expres sion of strong affect as a part of treatment. d. The goals of therapy. e. Attitudes about the relationship between what transpires in therapy and in the outside world. f. Beliefs about the effectiveness of therapy. g. Beliefs about the capacity of individuals to change or to help themselves. The specific content of the script questions in quired about the therapist’s attitudes toward: a. Typical kinds of school-centered problems (discipline, failure, aggressiveness). b. Student problems relating to racial, ethnic or minority status. c. The severity of problems (suicidal gestures, addictions, physical abuse). d. Chronic or endogenous problems (e.g., men tal retardation). e. Irreversible or terminal problems (e.g., treating a child with leukemia, or one who has been acci dentally blinded or disfigured). The intent of the script was to pose the questions in such a way that'the therapists would be required to commit themselves on a value level in responding. In addi tion an opportunity was provided for the therapist to talk 59 about his own feelings of success and failure in treatment. At the conclusion of the interview he was asked to sum up for himself any central or core beliefs which he had found essential to his own personal and- professional life and which he might want to pass on to others. Preparation of Video Tapes 1. Choice of therapists. Two of the six psycholo gists who had filled out the LG1 and WTL agreed to serve as the "on-camera" therapists. They were approximately equal in age, education and professional experience. In addition, the investigator attempted, subjectively, to employ thera pists who were fairly well matched in appearance, manner, dress and speech. Both were experienced in treating children but were not practicing in areas which brought them into contact with school personnel workers. (An independent check of this aspect of the familiarity variable, which is described below, revealed that only one subject was able to identify one of the therapists.) Dr. A, the Internal therapist, came from those whose I-E Scale scores were below the first quartile. Dr. B, the External therapist, came from those whose scores were above the third quartile. Neither therapist had ex perience in the production of a television sequence; 60 neither was acquainted with the other, nor was there any contact between them prior to or during the shooting of the two dialogues. 2. Choice of counselor. The individual chosen to act the role of school personnel worker was professionally- naive, psychologically-unsophisticated and not personally acquainted with either therapists or subjects. In order to heighten the contrast further, a female was used to play this part. The decision to use an actor for this role was dictated by two reasons pertinent to the research design: a. Since the counselor was to read a prepared script, it was important to use someone who would not in advertently interpose her own professional ideas into the dialogue or alter the sequence of questions. b. Since the purpose of the dialogues was to elicit the maximum amount of response from the therapists, the use of an actor would guarantee a passive counselor and force the therapists to play a central, active role. Both therapists were informed at the time the video tapes were made that an actor was playing the counselor's role, and that they would not be able to question her for clarification of any question asked. They would have to rely upon their own ingenuity in answering questions, and they were given freedom to rephrase questions and otherwise to respond in ways which each believed would be more con- 61 sistent with his own point of view. 3. Technical aspects of video tape production. Both dialogues were produced in the television studio of the Broadcast Service Center at California State College at Los Angeles. The equipment employed included: 1 TK-15 Vidicon TV camera 1 RCA TRT-IB Broadcast Video Tape Recorder 2 Reels of 3M 2" video tape 1 RCA BK6 lavaliere microphone contained in a RCA BC3 Audio Console Flat lighting was employed with 1 spotlight di rected on the therapist's face, 1 backlight, 1 floodlight and 1 scoop. A tight cyclorama of neutral gray formed the back ground. Props used consisted of a desk, executive chair, telephone, ash tray, stationery and pencils casually ar ranged on the desk. In both video tapes only the therapist appeared, but the voice of the "counselor" was also heard. In order to achieve maximum impact the sequences were planned to create a stimulus situation into which each judge could project himself as if he were seated across the desk from the ther apist. To obtain this effect the following techniques were employed: 62 a. A single camera was used, placed straight- on to the therapist and in fixed position approximately 10 feet from him. The lens was pedestalled-down to an eye- level position. b. A Berthiot zoom lens was used in shooting. It was set so that at its widest setting (50mm) the upper portion of the therapist's body and the desk top were vis ible. This provided the judges with an impression of the therapist's gestures, facial expression, posture and other non-verbal mannerisms. c. The actor-counselor was seated next to the camera, with her head at the same level and only a few inches away from the lens. A spotlight was directed on her face in order to center the therapist's attention there. When the therapist looked directly at her while she was speaking, a subjective impression that he was looking di rectly into the judges' eyes was obtained. d. In order to enhance eye-contact between therapists and judges, the cameraman was given the follow ing instructions: (1) Zoom in to an extreme close-up (100mm) of the therapist's face when the counselor asks a question. (2) Zoom out slowly to a close-up (75mm) position when the therapist begins to reply. (3) After about 30 seconds retract still further to the widest (50mm) position and hold until he stops talking. Then quickly zoom in again to an extreme close-up. 63 In this way the facial expression of the therapist could be closely observed while he was the stimulus target. When, however, he began to respond, then the judges were able to obtain a more complete impression of verbal and non verbal behavior. At the very end of each tape an extreme close-up of the therapist's face was shot as the counselor thanked him. Both sequences were produced on successive after noons several days prior to their presentation to the sub jects. Neither therapist was aware of the content of the script, but each knew the purposes to which they would be put. In keeping with the experimental requirement of spon taneity, both dialogues were produced in a single, uncut session, with no rehearsals or revisions. The video tape of Dr. A's interview ran 41'50", while Dr. B's interview ran 34'50". Presentation of Video Tapes to Judges The video tapes were presented in the Peace Corps Classroom in the Broadcast Service Center, which was equipped with closed-circuit television facilities. In or der to secure maximum attendance and at times when their seminars usually met, eight sessions were scheduled during the late afternoon and early evening from April 18 through April 21, 1966. Each session took approximately one and three-quarter hours, and was proctored by an individual who 64 was not known to the judges nor aware of the purpose of the study. The investigator was not present during the experi mental sessions, but did appear at their completion to ex plain briefly the purpose of the study. In order to control for position effect, the order of presentation of the tapes was systematically varied, as shown in Table 2. Of the 88 subjects who appeared for the experimental sessions (representing 80 per cent of the 110 who had returned test packets), 50 (57 per cent) attended the earlier sessions, while 38 (43 per cent) participated in the later ones. When number of subjects attending ac cording to order of presentation was examined, it was found that 39 (44 per cent) viewed presentation order A-B, while 49 (56 per cent) viewed presentation order B-A. Materials. Each subject received an envelope upon entering the test session containing two LGI1s and two WTL1s, a Recognition Questionnaire (RQ) (see Appendix I) designed to enquire whether, and to what extent either ther apist was known to the group and an envelope which could be self-addressed and left with the proctor if the individual wished to receive a summary of the results of the study when completed. In addition, approximately 10 per cent of the subjects, one-half of whom were at either pole of the I-E continuum, had an Impression Summary included, which 65 TABLE 2 ORDER OF PRESENTATION OF VIDEO TAPES 4:30 p. m. 7:30 p. m. April 18 A-B B-A April 19 B-A A-B April 20 A-B B-A April 21 B-A A-B 66 asked that they state briefly their impressions of the major differences in outlook between the two therapists. They were asked to support their opinions as clearly as they could recall, with three or four statements by each thera pist, which they believed most sharply revealed those dif ferences. It was hoped in this way to obtain information concerning the accuracy of recall of extreme Internal and External subjects. However, as it developed, these results were not sufficiently complete to warrant a summary statis tical evaluation, and consequently, are not reported in this study. Instructions. At each session the proctor read the following statement: What really goes on in psychotherapy? How often do counselors and other student per sonnel workers wish they had a better understanding of what the therapist actually does, what he be lieves to be important, and what his goals are in treatment. The more you know about what may occur in ther apy, the better able will you be to communicate this to a student and his parents. Appropriate referral often is a major factor in success in treatment. The discussions you are about to witness attempt to get directly at the kinds of information you would like to have about any therapist. They con sist of two spontaneous dialogues, in each of which the same counselor has a frank and open discussion with two different psychotherapists about their be liefs, their opinions and approaches to treatment. The two therapists whom you are about to see in action, Dr. A and Dr. B, are both experienced, highly trained and successful in their practices. Their points of view are representative of many therapists you will meet professionally, but they do not repre- 67 sent any particular "school” of psychotherapy. Any one of you might be sitting across the desk from these therapists and asking the same questions the counselor asks here. The therapists' answers are unrehearsed, and we trust that they will contri bute to a mutual understanding between both profes sional groups. After presentation of the first video tape, the sub jects were told: You are to fill out each answer sheet [of the LGI and WTL] as you think Dr. _ would answer them. As soon as this task was completed the second video tape was run and the subjects were again asked to predict the responses of the second psychotherapist on both instru ments. All subjects were asked to fill out the RQ, and those who had Impression Summaries were asked t.o complete them before leaving. Instructions were reversed at alter nate sessions when the order of presentation was reversed. Statistical Treatment This study was designed to measure one aspect of interpersonal perception which has been variously labeled "empathy," "social sensitivity," "insight," "diagnostic competence" and "accuracy of social perception" (Gage § Cronbach, 1955) . The independent variable, conceptualized as a per sonality factor, was defined operationally by scores of subjects on the I-E Scale. Following the procedure of the test's author, the distribution of scores was dichotomized 68 as close to the median as possible. ,This produced two groups, identified as: Internal (All subjects with scores from 0 to 7) N = 49. 2. External (All subjects with scores from 8 to 19) N = 39. The dependent variables were subject's scores on the LGI and WTL. Each instrument yielded two separate sets of scores, as follows: WTL: a. Raw scores on each of the 13 Ways b. Scores on the 5 WTL factors LGI: a. Scores on the 12 value-factors b. Scores on the 4 combined need factors It was assumed that the most powerful sets of dependent measures would be the 5 WTL factor scores and the 12 value- factors of the LGI. Three statistical procedures were employed to eval uate the data obtained. 1. A correlation matrix was obtained of scores of subjects on the 9 subject variables of the PDS and I-E Scale, 18 response variables from the WTL, and 16 response variables from the LGI. The analysis was performed by means of the WD C0RR computer program and was processed at Western Data Processing Center, University of California at Los Angeles. The 44-variable matrix was then studied to 69 assess the relationships between (a) the I-E variable and the other 8 subject variables; (b) the four sets of depen dent variables; and (c) the 9 subject variables and the 44 dependent variables. 2. Four separate tests were made of the first hy pothesis which states that Internals will have significantly different patterns of value-orientation from Externals. Each of the four sets of dependent measures from the LGI and WTL were analyzed, employing a Type I, mixed factorial design (Lindquist, 1953). 3. The second, third and fourth hypotheses which predicted significant differences in accuracy of interper sonal perception between Internals and Externals, were tested in the following way: a. The four sets of obtained dependent scores were transformed into D scores (Cronbach, 1953) which rep resent the distance, or similarity between the perceptions of two persons. The D, which has been independently devel oped by Osgood and Suci (1952) , and Cattell (1949), is applicable to any study which compares descriptions of, statements about, or actions by two individuals (Cronbach, 1958). This statistic is characterized as dyadic and global. A dyadic unit is defined (Sears, 1951) as "one that describes the combined actions of two or more persons." 70 By global is meant that a number of scores obtained by or about a person are combined into a single index. The D score is such an index and is obtained by means of the formula: D = y / L (Xx Xn)Z In commenting upon the use of this type of statis tic in studying the accuracy of perception, Gage and Cron bach (1955) state: Some tentative substantive conclusions have begun to emerge, revealing what goes on when one person perceives another. Is the Judge's perception ac tually determined in any one-to-one fashion by cues he receives from the Other? Or is the reaction to the Other more "global?" Results with the kinds of data that have been collected to this point strongly suggest that the latter alternative is closer to the truth. Various global dispositions of the judge appear to account for much of the variance in accuracy scores. (p. 419-20) In this study D scores were obtained by taking the differences between actual scores of the two therapists, Dr. A and Dr. B, and their predicted scores by subjects. Each difference score was then squared, each set of squared difference scores was then summed, and the square root was extracted, yielding the D statistic. b. Four separate Type I, 2 x 2 mixed factorial analyses of variance (Lindquist, 1953) of the D scores were then performed, and the significance of the obtained F ratios determined. CHAPTER IV RESULTS Evaluation of Correlation Between LGI and WTL Prior to evaluating the experimental hypotheses, the extent to which the two value-orientation instruments correlated with each other was determined. Since there were two sets of scores obtained from subjects' responses to each instrument it was possible to make the following comparisons: 1. Between the 13 Ways to Live (raw scores) and the 4 LGI combined need factors. 2. Between the 5 factor scores on the WTL and the 4 LGI combined need factors. 3. Between the 13 Ways to Live (raw scores) and the 12 LGI value-factors. 4. Between the 5 factor scores on the WTL and the 12 LGI value-factors. The results of these comparisons show a high degree of congruence between the two instruments. Table 3 illus trates the amount of agreement between the 5 factor scores of the WTL and the 12 value-factors of the LGI, revealing 71 TABLE 3 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN VALUE-FACTORS OF THE WAYS TO LIVE DOCUMENT AND LIFE GOALS INVENTORY (N = 88) Ways to Live Document Factor Description Factor A Social restraint and _ self-control D E B Enjoyment and G progress in action J K C G C Withdrawal and H s elf - sufficiency I L Life Goals Inventory Description r £ Accept limitations; . 231 . 05 caution Submissiveness . 474 . 01 Self-development . 252 . 05 Moral values . 267 . 05 Social values . 355 . 01 Sex satisfaction -.279 . 01 Self-development -, 356 . 01 Leadership, fame, -. 315 . 01 power Role in public life -. 363 . 01 Having success -.430 , 01 TABLE 3 (Cont. ) Ways to Live Document Life Goals Inventory Factor Description Factor Description r E B Love and family 266 .05 C Sex satisfaction 330 . 01 D Accept limitations; . 240 . 05 D Receptivity and sympathetic G caution Self-development 311 . 01 concern H Leadership, fame, 346 . 01 I power Role in public life 281 . 01 L Having success 347 . 01 B Love and family . 225 . 05 C Sex satisfaction . 360 . 01 F Avoidance of . 243 . 05 E Self-indulgence (or sensuous enjoyment) H hardship Leadership, fame, . 223 . 05 I power Role in public life . 275 . 01 L Having success . 328 . 01 74 that only WTL factor A has no significant covariant on the LGI. However, when LGI factors A, B, and C are combined into need factor I, and compared with the 13 Ways to Live scores, Way 4, which is one component of WTL factor A, is found to be significant. The four correlation matrices are found in Appendixes J, K, L and M. While agreement between these two instruments is not perfect, they appear to be tapping related kinds of re sponses from the population of subjects employed in this study beyond chance levels. Correlation between I-E Variable and Other Subject Variables The extent of the relationship between the I-E variable and the eight subject variables deemed pertinent to this study is presented in Table 4 below. (In this and all the following tables, decimals are eliminated for pur poses of clarity.) The results show that there are significant rela tionships between (1) I-E scores and sex, (2) I-E scores and age, and (3) I-E scores and social class. Briefly the findings reveal that within this subject group males are more external than females, younger subjects are more in ternal than older subjects, and that individuals who per ceive themselves as lower in social class standing are more internal in orientation. 75 TABLE 4 CORRELATION MATRIX OF 9 SUBJECT VARIABLES OF GRADUATE STUDENTS (N = 88) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 -447** 260 * -402** 224* 171 156 219* 341* 2 193 306** -046 -096 -079 452** -242* 3 -153 082 189 047 288** 173 4 -259* -120 - 161 001 -308** 5 -117 -069 088 183 6 468** 097 123 7 269* 118 8 137 9 * = significant at or beyond . 05 level. ** = significant at or beyond .01 level. Key: 1 = sex; 2 = age; 3 = marital status; 4 = social class; 5 = social mobility; 6 = personal therapy vs. no personal therapy; 7 = professional contact vs. no professional contact; 8 = amount of professional experience; 9 = I-E scale score. 76 Since these three subject variables appear to covary with the I-E variable, the correlation matrix was examined in order to determine the extent to which they were contributing to the relationship between the I-E vari able and the four sets of scores on the WTL and LG I. Table 5 reveals significant relationships between all four vari ables and factor A of the WTL, but non-significant relation ships betwen them and the other four factors. Table 6 compares the four subject variables with the 4 combined need factors of the LGI with the finding that the only relationship attaining statistical signifi cance is between age and factor III (Creative Expansion), and this relationship is negative. Table 7 compares the four subject variables with the 12 value-factors of the LGI with the expected finding that age correlates significantly with factors H and I, two of the three scores which comprise combined need factor III. Both correlation coefficients are negative in sign. Table 8 compares the four subject variables with the raw scores of the 13 Ways to Live, obtaining only one significant relationship, between sex and Way 13. The negative sign of the coefficient indicates that female sub jects prefer this rather passive way to live. The following conclusions are drawn from examina tion of the correlation matrices: 77 TABLE 5 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN AGE, SEX, SOCIAL CLASS AND I-E SCORES AND 5 FACTORS OF THE WAYS TO LIVE DOCUMENT A B Factor C D E Sex 692** 067 -031 -004 126 Age -3 63** -006 125 -016 -127 Social Class _414** 105 -111 -089 098 I-E Score 402** -112 058 -051 -145 ** = significant at or beyond . 01 level. TABLE 6 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SEX, AGE, SOCIAL CLASS AND I-E SCORES AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY (N = 88) I Factors II III IV Sex 038 079 089 096 Age -122 -055 -315** -162 Social Class 130 110 144 166 I-E Score 058 009 038 027 **= = significant at or beyond . 01 level. TABLE 7 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SEX, AGE, SOCIAL CLASS AND I-E SCORES AND 12-VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY (N = 88) A B C D Factor E F G H I J K L Sex 056 -044 061 -033 055 115 -007 114 185 034 031 161 Age -107 110 -206 -029 007 119 -190 -300** -327** -084 -044 -197 Social Class 069 121 127 007 156 044 190 066 059 201 115 084 I-E Score 079 038 025 -039 -046 062 009 087 021 -016 012 044 ** = significant at or beyond . 01 level. TABLE 8 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SEX, AGE, SOCIAL CLASS AND I-E SCORES AND 13 WAYS TO LIVE (N = 88) Ways. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Sex -067 -030 071 034 052 111 -042 111 -039 -088 064 015 -219* Age 036 162 -086 -011 042 -022 133 -096 047 189 144 082 053 Social Class 014 -065 -018 051 057 067 051 -005 -128 -081 -010 041 037 I-E Score 124 031 -090 -019 -067 -147 -145 -156 023 152 -032 001 -109 * = significant at or beyond . 05 level. 79 1. With the exception of factor A of the WTL, I-E scores do not correlate with the dependent variables under investigation. 2. The I-E variable appears to be independent of the effects of marital status, social mobility, personal therapy, professional contact and amount of professional experience of the subjects. 3. Sex, age and social class are not independent of the I-E variable. However, these three variables appear to have only a chance relationship to 95 out of 102 depen dent variables and three of these variables, which are sig nificantly correlated with age, are not independent of each other. Further, in four of the seven instances where rela tionships between sex, age and social class and dependent variables are significant, I-E coefficients are not. It may be assumed then, that while a significant relationship appears to exist between I-E and these subject variables, their weight does not appear to contribute significantly to the relationship between the I-E variable and the greatest part of the dependent variables. 4. With reference to factor A of the WTL, it seems clear that a strong relationship exists with the I-E vari able. In order to clarify the extent to which the other three variables contributed to the strength of the relation ship, three first-order partial correlations (Guilford, 80 1965) were obtained, measuring: a. Correlation between I-E and WTL (A) with Sex controlled. The resulting coefficient of r = .245 was significant beyond the .05 level of confidence. b. Correlation between I-E and WTL (A) with Age controlled. The resulting coefficient of r = .349 was significant beyond the .01 level of confidence. c. Correlation between I-E and WTL (A) with Social Class controlled. The resulting coefficient of r = .319 was also found to be significant beyond the .01 level of confidence. Since this study is concerned with appraising the independent effects of the I-E variable, the foregoing re sults show that despite the contribution made by each of the other variables to the I-E--WTL (A) relationship, such contribution does not significantly affect that relation ship. Although the I-E variable is not entirely indepen dent of other subject variables, within the range of this study its effects appear to be sufficiently differentiated from those variables to justify placing a high degree of confidence in its effects. This belief is further rein forced by the fact that only one out of 34 correlations with dependent variables was significant, a finding that might occur by chance with such a large number of correla tions . 81 Test of the First Hypothesis The first experimental hypothesis states that sub jects who differ in their beliefs in internal versus exter nal control of reinforcements differ in their patterns of value-orientations. Four separate analyses of variance em ploying a mixed factorial design (Lindquist, 1953) were made to test this hypothesis, in each instance utilizing a different set of dependent variables. In each analysis the same Internal group of 49 subjects, and External group of 39 subjects were compared. Table 9 analyzes the results obtained employing the 12 value-factors of the Life Goals Inventory. The findings are that (1) there ate no significant differences between groups on the 12 factors; (2) there is, however, a signifi cant interaction effect between factors and groups beyond the .01 level of confidence. It is this interaction effect which is predicted by the experimental hypothesis. It may be concluded, then, that the pattern of value-orientations as measured by the 12 value-factors of the Life Goals In ventory is significantly different between Internal and Ex ternal subjects, and therefore supports the first hypo thesis . Table 10 analyzes the results obtained employing the 4 combined need factors of the Life Goals Inventory. The findings are that (1) there are no significant differ- TABLE 9 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 12 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -12 Value F actors--In tern al V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 50. 39 50. 39 . 53 NS Error (b) 86 8, 176. 20 95.07 Total Between Subjects 87 8, 226. 59 Within Subjects Factors 11 153,197.32 13,927.03 1,030. 87 . 01 Factors x Groups Interaction 11 5,590.79 508.25 37. 62 . 01 Error (w) 946 12,783.89 13. 51 Total Within Subjects 968 171, 572. 00 Total 1, 055 179,798,59 co IN) TABLE 10 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE 1— 2 X 4 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -4 Combined Need F actors — Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 156. 68 156. 68 . 55 NS Error (b) 86 24, 447. 25 284.27 Total Between Subjects 87 24,603.93 Within Subjects Factors 3 133, 347. 30 44,449.10 795.30 . 01 Factors x Groups Interactions 3 72. 50 24. 17 .43 NS Error (w) 258 14, 419. 45 55. 89 Total Within Subjects 264 147,839.25 Total 351 172,443.18 co 84 ences between groups on the 4 factors; (2) there is no sig nificant interaction effect between groups and factors. These results are interpreted to mean that, when compari sons are made between Internal and External groups' com bined need factor profiles, they are not found to differ in configuration. These findings do not support the first hy pothesis. It should be noted that in both the foregoing analyses, F ratios significant beyond the .01 level of con fidence were obtained with reference to differences in sub jects' responses to the factors. This is interpreted as supporting the stability of the factor structure of the Life Goals Inventory. Table 11 analyzes the results obtained employing scores on the 13 Ways of the Ways to Live Document. The findings are that (1) an F ratio, significant beyond the .05 level was obtained, indicating the existence of differ ences between Internal and External groups in their re sponse to the 13 Ways; (2) however, no significant inter action effect was obtained. These findings are interpreted to mean that while Internals and Externals do differ on one or more of the 13 Ways, the overall pattern of response is not discriminably different. Since the experimental hypo thesis was concerned with predicting the combined effects of the 13 scores, these findings do not support the first hypothes is. TABLE 11 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I --2 X 13 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Wavs to Live Docum ent- -13 Ways Raw S c o r e s -- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 9. 48 9. 48 4. 00 . 05 Error (b) 86 203. 43 2. 37 Total Between Subjects 87 212.91 Within Subjects Ways 12 1, 21.1. 33 100. 94 40. 06 . 01 Ways x Groups Interaction 12 24. 31 2. 03 . 81 NS Error 1032 2, 597. 05 2. 52 Total Within Subjects 1056 3, 832.69 Total 1143 4,045.60 00 86 Table 12 analyzes the results obtained employing the 5 factors of the Ways to Live Document. The findings are that (1) no significant group differences or interac tion effects were obtained, and the first hypothesis is not supported. Again, as in the case of the two analyses of the LGI scores, signigicant F ratios beyond the .01 level of confidence were obtained with reference to the differ ences within dependent variables of the WTL. This, too, is regarded as support for the independence of the WTL factors. In summary, of the four analyses made, only one supports the first hypothesis. On the basis of these find ings no unequivocal statement can be made concerning dif ferences in value-orientations between Internals and Exter nals . In an attempt to clarify these ambiguous results the distribution of subjects into Internal and External groups was reexamined. The distribution of scores, as seen in Figure 1 is leptokurtic, with approximately one-third of them falling within one half standard deviation from the mean. Since the scoring method involved whole numbers, the most equitable division of the 88 subjects resulted in the arbitrary placement of some into the Internal category. It seemed possible that individuals whose scores lay at or near the mean might not differ in their value-orientation responses. Conceivably those individuals who did not TABLE 12 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 5 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Ways to Live Document- -5 F actors--In tern al V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups Error (b) Total Between Subjects 1 86 87 4. 94 546. 55 551.49 4. 94 6. 36 . 78 NS Within Subjects Factors Factors x Groups Interaction Error (w) Total Within Subjects 4 4 344 352 6,938. 24 45. 84 3,681.52 10,665.60 1, 734. 56 11. 46 10. 70 162 . 10 1. 07 . 01 NS Total 439 11,217.09 F requency 16 . . 15 .. 14 __ 13 .. 1 1 10 .. Scores FIGURE 1 DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES OF SUBJECTS ON I-E SCALE (N = 88) 00 00 89 appreciably differ either in I-E position or in value- orientation, might be obscuring the observation of signifi cant differences on the dependent measures between subjects who occupied more extreme positions at either pole of the I-E dimension. Accordingly, the total N of 88 was divided into three approximately equal segments: 1. An Internal group, composed of all subjects with I-E Scale scores of 0 to 6 inclusive (N = 33). 2. A middle group, composed of all subjects with I-E Scale scores of 7 to 9 inclusive (N = 30). 3. An External group, composed of all subjects with I-E Scale scores of 10 to 19 inclusive (N = 25). The Internal group had a mean of 4.56 and SD of 1.35. The External group had a mean of 12.36 and SD of 2.53. With the middle group excluded, four analyses of variance were performed between these more clearly defined groups to test the first hypothesis. Table 13 employing the 12 value-factors of the Life Goals Inventory, yielded non-significant group and inter action effects. Table 14 employing the 4 combined need factors of the Life Goals Inventory, yielded significant interaction, supporting the experimental hypothesis. Both analyses would appear to support the contention of ortho gonality of factors professed by the authors of the instru ment . TABLE 13 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 12 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- - 12 Value F a cto rs--In tern a l V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 . 20 . 20 . 00 NS Error (b) 56 5, 263. 79 39. 99 Total Between Subjects 57 5, 263. 99 Within Subjects Factors 11 106,550.03 9, 686. 36 693.37 . 01 Factors x Groups Interaction 11 140.10 12. 74 .90 NS Error (w) 616 8, 605.91 13. 97 Total Within Subjects 638 115, 296. 04 Total 695 120,560,03 TABLE 14 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 4 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -4 Combined Need F a c to r s-- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 2. 17 2. 17 . 01 NS Error (b) 56 15, 142. 58 275. 46 Total Between Subjects 57 15, 144. 75 Within Subjects Factors 3 8, 054. 90 2, 684. 97 28. 45 . 01 Factors x Groups Interaction 3 380,137.52 26, 712. 51 283,03 . 01 Error (w) 168 15,855.83 94. 38 Total Within Subjects 174 404,048.25 Total 231 419,193.00 ID t —1 92 Table 15 employing scores on each of the 13 Ways to Live, shows non-significant group and interaction effects. Table 16 employing the 5 factor scores of the Ways to Live Document, also reports non-significant differences between groups as well as non-significant interaction ef fects. Both these tables do show the same stability of factor structure revealed by all the other analyses of vari ance . In summary, when two groups of Internal and External subjects are compared, with subjects whose scores cluster about the mean excluded, only one of four sets of measure ments supports the hypothesis that differences in I-E posi tion will be reflected in corresponding differences in pat terning of value-orientations. With the smaller sample (N = 58) results are not clear enough to justify any but qualified support to the first hypothesis. Further, the fact that with the first groups studied (N = 88) a signifi cant result was obtained through analysis of the 12 value- factors of the LGI, while with the second group comparison, only the results with the LGI1s 4 combined need factors reached significance, suggests that this instrument may be more sensitive to differences in value-orientation than is the Ways to Live Document. TABLE 15 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I--2 X 13 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Ways to Live Docum ent- -13 Ways Raw S c o r e s-- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 4. 60 4. 60 1. 01 NS Error (b) 56 254. 32 4. 54 Total Between Subjects 57 258.92 Within Subjects Ways 12 811.07 67. 59 27. 14 . 01 Ways x Groups Interaction 12 29. 23 2. 44 -98 NS Error (w) 672 1, 670. 78 2. 49 Total Within Subjects 696 2, 511.08 Total 753 2, 770. 00 TABLE 16 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 5 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Ways to Live Docum ent--5 F a cto rs--In tern a l V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Sub jects I vs E Groups Error (b) Total Between Subjects 1 56 57 5. 59 440.81 446. 40 5. 59 7. 87 . 71 NS Within Subjects Factors Factors x Groups Interaction Error (w) Total Within Subjects Total 4 4 224 232 289 4, 441. 28 43. 70 2, 706. 62 7, 191. 60 7, 638. 00 1, 110. 32 10. 93 12. 08 91. 91 . 90 . 01 NS 95 Tests of Hypotheses II, III and IV Hypothesis II states that Internal subjects are more accurate than External subjects in their perception of the value-orientations of both Internal and External psy chotherapists . Hypothesis III states that the value-orientations of Internal psychotherapists are more accurately perceived by both Internal and External subjects, than are the value- orientations of External psychotherapists. Hypothesis IV states that the combined effects of similarity of I-E position and of value-orientations will result in Internal subjects perceiving Internal psychothera pists more accurately than do External subjects, and in Ex ternal subjects perceiving External psychotherapists more accurately than do Internal subjects. To test these hypotheses four 2 x 2 Type I mixed factorial analyses of variance were performed employing four separate sets of D scores, each set representing the distance scores between the actual and the predicted scores of Internal and External psychotherapists by the 88 sub jects in Phase II of this study. Tables 17, 18, 19 and 20 present, the results. Hypothesis II was tested by examination of the Be- tween-Groups F ratio of each of the four analyses. In all cases the results were non-significant. It was concluded, therefore, that Internals are not more accurate in their TABLE 17 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: T Y P E .I--2 X 2 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -12 Value F a c to r s--D Scores Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 9. 58 9. 58 . 18 NS Error (b) 86 4, 521. 35 52. 57 Total Between Subjects 87 4,530. 93 Within Subjects Therapists 1 603. 24 603.24 31. 21 . 01 Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 27. 29 27. 29 1. 41 NS Error (w) 86 1, 662. 80 19. 33 Total Within Subjects 88 2,293. 33 Total 175 6, 824, 26 to CFv TABLE 18 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I --2 X 2 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -4 Combined Need F a c to r s--D S c o r e s -- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups Error (b) Total Between Subjects 1 86 87 2. 83 13, 431.24 13, 434, 07 2. 83 156. 21 02 NS Within Subjects Therapists 1 Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 Error 86 Total Within Subjects 88 Total 175 140. 39 7. 37 14, 046, 72 14, 194. 48 27,628.55 140.39 7. 37 163. 33 86 05 NS NS TABLE 19 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 2 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Ways to Live Docum ent- -5 F a c to r s--D S c o r e s -- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 NS Error (b) 86 885.00 10. 29 Total Between Subjects 87 885.00 Within Subjects Therapists 1 263.00 263.00 28. 68 . 01 Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 NS Error (w) 86 789. 00 9. 17 Total Within Subjects 88 1,052.00 Total 175 1,973.00 t o o o TABLE 20 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 2 MIXED_FACTORIAL DESIGN Ways to Live Docum ent- -13 Ways - -D S c o r e s-- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 88) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 . 01 . 01 . 003 NS Error (b) 86 261.88 3. 05 Total Between Subjects 87 261.89 Within Subjects Therapists 1 8. 55 8. 55 3. 53 NS Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 . 22. . 22 -09 NS Error (w) 86 208.22 2. 42 Total Within Subjects 88 216.99 Total 175 478.88 to' 100 perceptions of the value-orientations of psychotherapists who differ in I-E position, than are Externals. Hypothesis III was tested by examination of the Within Subjects-Therapists F ratio of each of the four analyses with the following results: (1) on the 12 value- factors of the Life Goals Inventory an F ratio significant beyond the .01 level of confidence was obtained; (2) on the 4 combined need factors of the Life Goals Inventory the F ratio was non-significant; (3) on the 5 factors of the Ways to Live Document an F ratio significant beyond the .01 level of significance was obtained; (4) on the 13 Ways to Live of the WTL Document, the obtained F ratio was non-significant. Since significant results were obtained on the most discrim inating sets of factor scores of each instrument, it was concluded that the third experimental hypothesis is sup ported by the findings. Internal psychotherapists appear to be more accurately perceived by both Internal and Exter nal subjects, than are External psychotherapists. Hypothesis IV was tested by examination of the Within Subjects-Therapists x Groups F ratio which measured interaction effects between I-E position and value-orien tations. In all cases the results were non-significant. It was concluded that similarity between subjects and psychotherapists on both the criterion variable and the dependent variables did not appear to enhance their 101 accuracy of perception. Hypothesis IV was not supported. Four additional analyses of variance were also per formed, employing the same method, but utilizing the second group of subjects (N = 58) used in evaluating Hypothesis I. The results are shown in Tables 21, 22, 23 and 24. F ratios examined to test Hypotheses II and IV were found to be non-significant, while the therapist main effect pre dicted by Hypothesis III was supported by significant F ratios beyond the .01 level of confidence on both the 12 value-factors of the LG I and the 5 factors of the WTL. Al though the F ratio testing Hypothesis III was just short of significance on the 13 Ways to Live, a definite trend in that direction was observed not only from the smaller group, but also from responses of the larger and less selective group of 88 subjects. The similarity of the findings with the two groups lends further support to acceptance of ex perimental Hypothesis III. Summary H^: The experimental hypothesis is only partially supported. Within the subject groups observed, and with the techniques and dependent measures employed, clear-cut differences in value-orientation profiles of Internal and External subjects still remain to be established. Hjj: The null hypothesis of no difference in the TABLE 21 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I --2 X 2 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -12 Value F a c to r s--D S c o r e s -- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 15. 13 15. 13 . 34 NS Error (b) 56 2, 907. 01 51. 91 Total Between Subjects 57 2,922,14 Within Subjects - Therapists 1 238. 42 238, 42 10. 28 . 01 Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 33. 21 33. 21 1. 43 NS Error (w) 56 1, 299. 37 23. 20 Total Within Subjects 58 1,571.00 Total 115 4,493. 14 o to TABLE 22 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 2 MIXED FACTORIAL DESIGN Life Goals Inventory- -4 Combined Need F a c to r s--D S c o r e s-- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 13 13. 0 . 08 NS Error (b) 56 8, 617 153. 9 Total Between Subjects 57 8, 630 Within Subjects Therapists 1 64 64. 0 . 29 NS Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 7 7. 0 . 03 NS Error (w) 56 12, 132 216. 6 Total Within Subjects 58 12,203 Total 115 20,833 O TABLE 23 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 2 MIXED_FACTORIAL DESIGN Ways to Live Docum ent- -5 F a c to r s--D S c o r e s-- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 1 1.00 . 1! NS Error (b) 56 497 8. 87 Total Between Subjects 57 • 498 Within Subjects Therapists 1 247 247. 00 22. 50 . 01 Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 4 4. 00 . 36 NS Error (w) 56 627 11. 20 Total Within Subjects 58 878 T otal 115 1, 376 o -p* TABLE 24 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TYPE I - -2 X 2 MIXED_FACTORlAL DESIGN Ways to Live Docum ent- -13 W ays--D S c o r e s-- Internal V ersus External Subjects (N = 58) Source df SS MS F Significance Between Subjects I vs E Groups 1 . 10 . 10 . 03 NS Error (b) 56 166,26 2. 97 Total Between Subjects 57 166, 3 6 Within Subjects Therapists 1 8, 08 8. 08 3. 30 NS Therapists x Groups Interaction 1 . 94 . 94 . 38 NS Error (w) 56 137. 41 2. 45 Total Within Subjects 58 146, 43 Total 115 312,79 a - Oi 106 accuracy of perception by Internal and External subjects of the value-orientations of psychotherapists is accepted. Hjjji The experimental hypothesis that the value- orientations of Internal psychotherapists are more accu rately perceived by both Internal and External subjects, than are the value-orientations of External psychothera pists, is supported. Hjy: The null hypothesis of no interaction effects between Internal-External position and similarity of value- orientations between therapists and subjects is accepted. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION The finding that differences in I-E Scale position were not consistently accompanied by differences in config uration of value-orientations suggests some interesting implications for the helping professions. Concurrent with the trend toward the development of broad, community-based mental health services, there has been some question about whether the value systems of middle-class therapists and lower-class patients might be so divergent that effective professional interaction would not be possible. Although the results of this study are confined to two professional groups and cannot be generalized to a lower-class popula tion, an examination of the lack of uniformity in self perception of social class status within this homogeneous sample, suggests that the notion of a within-profession unity of conceived values may have to be reevaluated. This study showed that, far from being a monolithic group, student personnel workers placed themselves in five social class categories out of a possible six. The com bined scores of both Internal and External subjects are presented below in Table 25. Only the "Lower Class" cate gory was left untenanted by the experimental group. 107 TABLE 25 SELF-RATINGS OF SOCIAL CLASS POSITION OF GRADUATE STUDENTS BY INTERNAL-EXTERNAL GROUP (N = 88) Upper Upper-Middle Social Class Middle-Middle Low e r - Middle Working I 0 19 23 7 0 E 1 9 21 6 2 Total 1 28 44 13 2 109 An evaluation of (1) the observed spread of social class assessment by subjects, (2) the apparently random re lationships between I-E Scale scores and value-orientation scores, and (3) the only partial differentiation in value- attitudes between Internals and Externals,' suggests the possible generalization that, within the American social setting, the overt belief systems of the different social classes may possess more points of congruence than of diver gence. Differences between social classes and ethnic groups in patterns of value-orientations may be primarily in strength of commitment to the same goals, rather than in kinds of goals. Perhaps the most important finding of this study may be summarized as follows: a major ingredient for ef fective communication between psychotherapist and patient is the therapist's position on the Internal-External con tinuum. Effective professional intervention appears to be more closely related to the capacity of the psychotherapist to communicate his belief in the ability of individuals to exercise an important measure of control over their life situations, than to agreement between therapist and patient about specific goals. It appears, then, that the manner in which individ uals cope with problems is related to expectations derived from past experiences of success and failure. Individuals 110 may be said to have learned to expect success or failure, or to use Mowrer's terminology, have become conditioned to hope or to disappointment, almost independent of the speci fic content of the problem-situations which they are re quired to deal with in the present. The therapeutic prob lem, therefore, becomes (a) one of helping the Internal patient reinforce his generally-hopeful expectations of success which may be temporarily reduced during a crisis situation, and (b) one of assisting in the extinction of the External patient's generalized expectations of failure. In either case, the Internal therapist presents himself in such a way that he is perceived as a model whose "success ful" behavior can be imitated by the patient. In regard to the question of professional orienta tion, no attempt was made to relate therapist point of view to I-E position. However an informal appraisal by the ex perimenter based upon his acquaintance with many of the students and a majority of the psychotherapists who contri buted to this study, gave the impression of a wide spread of professional bias ranging from classical psychoanalytic to reciprocal inhibitor. I-E position did not appear to be related to theoretical or technical position. This impres sion tends to be supported by the literature regarding rates of success in treatment by adherents of the different techniques, which rather consistently report success rates Ill of about 70 per cent. One explanation for the seemingly equivalent results might be attributed to a random distri bution of the I-E factor among the different theoretical groups. In a small way this study was able to extend the scope of the I-E Control Scale to a graduate student popula tion, and to obtain reliabilities and a range of scores which supports the studies made by others with undergraduate samples. It should be noted, however, that the distribution of I-E Scale scores was positively skewed and leptokurtic. Future research with a more heterogeneous population may find that the distribution of this variable is more normal, and that clearer differences in value-orientations may, in fact, exist between Internals and Externals. The video tape technique employed here presents opportunities for flexibility in studying ongoing inter personal situations which are not possible with live parti cipants. Greater control, more effective impact of the totality of a dyadic situation, and the ability of the ex perimenter to repeat the presentation with different groups are some of the advantages of television techniques. But accompanying the positive virtues of this method is the possibility that there may also be a heightening of the effect of relevant subject variables which are not within the experimenter's control, such as hair color, vocal in 112 flections, gestures, etc. In employing an actual or simu lated dyadic encounter the risk of this type of error is always present, and may, indeed have contributed to the re sults reported herein. It seems preferable to accept the risk involved, accept positive findings with caution, and plan studies involving a series of such designs, with a variety of techniques, populations and participants, than to abandon this new approach. Implications for Research in Psychotherapy In the introduction to this study statistics re garding the short duration of treatment and the large number of applicants who were left untreated, or were seen only a few times and yet appeared to benefit from professional contact, were reported. Several possible interpretations of this data were considered. The first, from cognitive dissonance theory, suggested that the main therapeutic benefit occured prior to the therapeutic encounter and in dependent of the therapist-patient relationship. Once the individual decided to seek help, a chain of intrapsychic changes occurred which presumably resulted in a reduction in personal dissonance and an increase in his capacity to deal with his difficulties by himself. Under such condi tions, the brief contact with the therapist could be viewed as merely reinforcing his already-improved self-confidence, or simply .as a courtesy visit. 113 An alternate explanation from one variety of ex pectancy theory suggested that the therapeutic agent was the therapeutic situation itself. The fact that a source of help was available, clothed in a system of specific expec tancies regarding the "expert” role of the therapist and re inforced by the popularly-held beliefs that psychotherapy helps people, was viewed as the potent factor in the reduc tion of emotional disturbance. Under these assumptions treatment could vary from verbal to somatic, from placebo to tranquilizer, could involve trained therapists or laymen, run from one hour to many years, could consist merely of the provision of "attention," active involvement or passive listening, and still the patient will report both immediate and sustained relief. Another point of view which is consistent with the one just cited, suggests an added factor, namely, the greater the degree of distress prior to the first visit to the therapist, the greater the expectation of relief. Hence, the more disturbed the patient, the more potent will be the effect of the first contact. The position taken by this investigator is that in addition to the power of the psychological field and the specific expectancies surrounding the participants, a cru cial factor in treatment is their interpersonal relation ship. Within that relationship the mutual sharing of gen 114 eralized expectancies in belief in control over events, self and others may be the active ingredient in promoting therapeutic change. The research presented here points to the primary importance of the therapist in the transmission of those expectancies. It is suggested that research within clinical set tings involving patients and therapists may be most pro ductive in further investigation of the Internal-External variable. For example, it is hypothesized that in treat ment the therapist's position on the I-E Scale will be the variable with the strongest relationship to degree of pa tient improvement. This could be tested by obtaining I-E Scale scores of patients and staff, and then randomizing diagnosis and controlling type of treatment, I-E scores could be systematically varied between therapeutic dyads, as follows: Therapist Patient I I I E E I E E Evaluation of improvement would be based upon pa tient report, therapist report and external criteria such as social or vocational functioning. Another study would vary both I-E position and type 115 of therapy. Again, randomizing diagnosis, four groups of patients within which I-E position had been systematically varied would be compared with four dyads which had been similarly treated. It would be helpful to vary diagnostic category of patient as well, while varying I-E position and controlling type of treatment. Similarly, factors such as massing or spacing of interview time under varying I-E conditions, might yield additional information about the effect of this variable upon treatment. These suggestions for clinical research assume that the patient and therapist I-E positions will remain rela tively invariant throughout the course of treatment. But since social learning theory assumes that these generalized expectancies are learned, they should be responsive to the general laws of learning and hence subject to modification. It is true that they have been found to be more resistant to extinction than most other kinds of learned behavior, and have thus acquired the status of subject variables, but it is assumed that this resistance is due to continuous reinforcement from sources which are not yet clearly iden tified. It would be a logical extension of the I-E construct to propose that to some degree the External patient has ac quired an expectancy to fail as far as his power to alter inappropriate and self-defeating behavior is concerned. 116 This behavior may range from mild and fairly-well defined and encapsulated problems such as anxiety in test-taking situations, difficulties in controlling one's weight or eliminating the use of tobacco, to severe problems of ad diction, and finally, to frankly psychotic reactions. In some cases the therapeutic problem may require modification of the patient's generalized expectancies in a more posi tive direction in order for him to be able to learn more appropriate ways of functioning. The following therapeutic proposals are offered as possible means of changing I-E ex pectancies : There are three phases in this treatment program: 1. Disinhibition of overlearned External expec tancies . 2. Simultaneous communication of Internal expec tancies by the therapist and other models. 3. Displacement of inappropriate habits by more adequate and adaptive behavior through a reeducative process. The following techniques are suggested, based upon the assumption that an intensification and concentration of effort will be necessary to disrupt generalized expectan cies: a. The therapeutic situation should be a group experience, involving one or more therapists, each with an identified Internal orientation. b. Therapy will be of the direct confrontation type, with concentration on therapist-patient interaction during treatment. c. This interaction should be intensified in a variety of ways, such as (1) reducing external noise; (2) employing a neutral background, but having the therapist dressed in vivid clothes; (3) massing the therapy time to a full day or more; (4) permitting no breaks, except for basic needs and sleep; (5) eating meals together during therapy; (6) maintaining constant eye contact, and insist ing upon verbal participation of patients; (7) video taping the session, and at critical junctures, immediately playing back the scene to the patients; (8) encouraging expressions of intense feeling by the patient. The reeducative portions of this treatment process would occur after the intensified treatment sessions and would involve the detailed planning and beginnings of exe cution of a program of daily living, employing the same group but with sessions spaced and of shorter duration and with the use of a comparison technique of early and present behavior, employing the video tapes for this purpose, but with the aim of reinforcing the present adaptive behavior. Essentially this program is predicated upon the notion that emotional abreaction is a necessary pre-condi 118 tion to changing an individual's cognitive style. Freud had originally observed that effective treatment involved an "abreaction of the affects" attached to specific trau matic episodes in the past and which were presumed to be impeding mature, adaptive behavior in the present. The approach employed here demands emotional discharge that is related to the present and is not tied to any single "first cause" or primal experience. Rather, it is presumed to reflect the patient's present, ongoing despair over his existence, and about his capacity to give it some direction and meaning. However, the planning, rehearsal and execution of new behavior and the reinforcement of each partial success is an essential and often neglected aspect of therapy. Unless behavior is both extinguished and displaced the possibility of the spontaneous recovery of the earlier maladaptive style of life is ever-present. Summary This study of interpersonal perception measured the effects of a personality variable, conceptualized as a gen eralized expectancy regarding one's belief about the locus of control over reinforcements, upon the accuracy with which the value-orientations of others are judged. An ef fort was made to evaluate the contribution of the Internal- 119 External control variable as part of the subject's cogni tive style, and to quantify its relationship to the depen dent measures employed, independent of both the demand characteristics of the experimental situation and the ex perimental tasks. Rotter's I-E Scale yielded the criterion scores . The area of professional interest examined was the initiating phase of psychotherapy. The experimental situa tion consisted of simulated encounters between a school personnel worker and two psychotherapists, presented to subjects by means of two standardized video tapes. Follow ing presentation of each tape, subjects were asked to pre dict the value-orientations of each therapist. The instru ments used to obtain the dependent responses were two ques tionnaires, the Buhler-Coleman Life Goals Inventory, and the Morris-0'Donovan Ways to Live Document. Each instru ment yielded two sets of scores which were then subjected to profile analysis. In contrast to field theories which concentrate upon the specific expectancies generated by the interper sonal situation itself, and which tend to treat the person alities of the participants as relatively undifferentiated wholes, it was hypothesized that subjects who occupied different positions on the dimension of belief in Internal versus External control would differ (a) in the patterning 120 of their value-orientations, and (b) in the accuracy of perception of the value-orientations of others. It was further hypothesized (c) that the perceptual targets, the psychotherapists, would differ in the accuracy with which their value-orientations are perceived by others, and that a significant amount of the variance accounting for dif ferences in accuracy scores could be attributed to their I-E Scale positions. Finally, (d) an interaction effect between I-E position and similarity of value-orientations was posited, such that Internal subjects would perceive Internal psychotherapists more accurately than would Exter nal subjects, and conversely, External subjects would per ceive External psychotherapists more accurately than would Internal subjects. The subjects consisted of 88 advanced graduate stu dents in school personnel work, administration and special education, volunteers from an available pool of 240 cur rently in residence in the School of Education in Califor nia State College at Los Angeles during the Spring semester of 1966. The psychotherapists were two doctorally-trained clinical psychologists, members of a group of 43 males who volunteered to participate in the study. An effort was made to employ two members of the therapist group who were similar in respect to most relevant personal attributes, but who fell into the first and fourth quartiles of their 121 group on the I-E Scale. Appropriate controls were insti tuted for familiarity, stereotype bias and experimenter bias . The first hypothesis examined the relationship be tween I-E Scale position and value-orientations of the subjects, with the findings of only partial support to the experimental prediction of differences in patterning based upon I-E Scale scores. The second hypothesis of greater accuracy of perception by Internal subjects over External subjects was not supported. The third hypothesis, however, was confirmed by the findings that Internal therapists were perceived more accurately than were External therapists by both Internal and External subjects on both value-orienta- tion instruments. The fourth hypothesis of a heightened accuracy of perception due to an interaction effect based upon similarity of both I-E position and value-orientations, was not supported by the results. Two major conclusions are suggested by the results: 1. The self-perceptions of professionals concern ing their social-class status are not as similar as might be expected, and within the sample studied, ranged from upper class to working class. This finding suggests that the social distance between professional and lower-class patient may be much closer than is generally supposed. Put in another context, it is possible that the value-orienta- 122 tions of social classes on the American scene may be shared to a far greater extent than is usually believed. The dif ferences which exist may be in strength of commitment rather than in type of value. 2. The generalized expectancy by the psychothera pist of belief in control over reinforcements appears to be the most crucial variable in determining the accuracy with which his value-orientations are perceived by others. Gen eralizing this finding to the psychotherapeutic situation, it is possible that success in treatment may, to a consid erable extent, be attributed to the communication by the therapist to the patient of an expectation about the abil ity of people to control important aspects of their lives. In this sense the therapist serves as a model whose outlook and behavior may be identified with and imitated by the patient. R E F E R E N C E S 123 REFERENCES Adorno, T.W., Frenkel-Brunswik, Else, Levinson, D.J., and Sanford, R.N. The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper, 1950. Alcoholics anonymous comes of age: a brief history of A.A. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 1957. Allport, G.W. Personality: a psychological interpretation. New York: Holt, 1937. Asch, S.E. Studies of independence and conformity. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychol. Monogr. , 1956, 70_, no. 9 (whole no. 416). Barron, F. and Leary, T. Changes in psychoneurotic patients with and without psychotherapy. J. consult. Psychol., 1955, 19_, 239-245. Beck, J.C., Kantor, D. and Gelineau, V.A. Follow up study of chronic psychotic patients "treated" by college case-aide volunteers. Amer. J. Psychiat., 1963, 120, 269-271. Bennion, R.C. Task, trial by trial score variability of internal versus external control of reinforcement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State Univ., 1961. Blackman, S. Some factors affecting the perception of events as chance determined. J. Psychol., 1962, 54, 197-202. Bloombaum, N. The mobility dimension in status consistency. Sociol. soc. Res. , 1964, 48^, 340-347. Brody, E.B. and Redlich, F.C. Psychotherapy with schizo phrenics . New York: International Universities Press, 1952. Brunswik, E. The probability point of view. In Marx, M.H. (Ed.) Psychological theory. New York: Macmillan, 1951. 124 125 Buhler, Charlotte. Values in psychotherapy. Glencoe: Free Press, 1962. Buhler, Charlotte. Aiding the patient to find his identity and the values consonant with it. Unpublished paper presented at A.P.A. symposium, 1964(a). Buhler, Charlotte and Coleman, W. Life goals inventory manual. Unpublished manuscript, 1964(b). California Department of Mental Hygiene. State-local men tal health services annual review (year ending June 30, 1962). Sacramento: December, 1962. Castenada, A. A systematic investigation of the concept expectancy as conceived within Rotter's social learn ing theory of personality. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1952. Cattell, R.B. r^ and other coefficients of pattern simi larity. Psychometrika, 1949, 14, 279-298. Colby, K.M. Psychotherapeutic processes. In Farnsworth, P.R., McNemar, Olga, and McNemar, Q. (eds.) Annual review of psychology. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1964, 347-370. Cronbach, L.J. Correlations between persons as a research tool. In Mowrer, O.H. (Ed.), Psychotherapy, theory and research. New York: Ronald^ 19 53, 376-389. Cronbach, L.J. Proposals leading to analytic treatment of social perception scores. In Tagiuri, R. and Petrullo L. (eds.) Person perception and interpersonal be- havior. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 19 58 , 31T3- 379. Crowne, D.P. and Liverant, S. Conformity under varying conditions of personal commitment. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol. , 1963, 66, 547-555. Dean, D.G. Alienation: its meaning and measurement. Amer. sociol. Rev. , 1961, 26_, 753-758 . Dean, D.G. Anomie: a comparison of a catholic and a protestant sample. Sociometry, 1962, 25_, 209-212. Dymond, Rosalind F. Adjustment changes over therapy from self-sorts. In Rogers, C.R. and Dymond, Rosalind E., 126 Psychotherapy and personality change. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1954^, 76-84. Ellis, R.A., Lane, W.C. and Olesen, Virginia. The index of class position: an improved intercommunity measure of stratification. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1963, 28, 271- 277. Elmore, T.M. The development of a scale to measure psychol ogical anomie and its implications for counseling psychology. Unpublished paper delivered at A.P.A. symposium, 1965. Eysenck, H.J. The effects of psychotherapy: an evaluation. J. consult. Psychol., 1952, 1^6, 319-324. Festinger, L. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson, 1957. Festinger, L. Conflict, decision, and dissonance. Stan ford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1964. Fiedler, F.E. The concept of an ideal therapeutic rela tionship. J. consult. Psychol., 1950, 1_4, 39-45. Fiedler, F.E. Interpersonal perception and group effec tiveness. In Tagiuri, R. and Petrullo, L. Person perception and interpersonal behavior. StanfordT Stanford Univ. Press, 1958, 243-257. Frank, J.D. The dynamics of the psychotherapeutic rela tionship. Psychiatry, 1959, 22^ 17-39. Frank, J.D. Some effects of expectancy and influence in psychotherapy. In Masserman, J.H. and Moreno, J.L. (eds.) Progress in psychotherapy. Vol. 3. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1958, 27-43. Frank, J.D., Gliedman, L.H., Imber, S.D., Stove, A.R. and Nash, E.H., Jr. Patients' expectancies and relearning as factors determining improvement in psychotherapy. Amer. J. Psychiat., 1959, 115, 961-968. Frank, J.D., Nash, E.H., Jr., Stove, A.R., and Imber, S.D. Immediate and long-term symptomatic course of psychi atric outpatients. Amer. J. Psychiat., 1963, 120, 429-439. 127 Gage, N.L. and Cronbach, L.J. Conceptual and methodologi cal problems in interpersonal perception. Psychol. Rev., 1955, 62, 411-423. Gardner, R.W., Holzman, P.S., Klein, G.S., Linton, Harriet B. and Spence, D.P. Cognitive control: a study of individual consistencies in cognitive behavior. In Klein, G.S. (Ed.) Psychological issues. New York: International Univer. Press, 1959. Garfield, S.L. and Wolpin, M. Expectations regarding psy chotherapy. J. Nerv. ment. dis., 1963, 137, 353-362. Gliedman, L.H., Stove, A.R., Frank, J.D., Nash, E.H., Jr. and Imber, S.D. Reduction of symptoms by pharmacolo gically inert substances and by short-term psycho therapy. A.M.A. arch, neurol. psychiat., 1958, 79, 345-351. Goldstein, A.P. Therapist and client expectation of per sonality change in psychotherapy. J. counsel. Psy chol. , 1960, 7, 180-184. Goldstein, A.P. Therapist-patient expectancies in psycho therapy . New York: Macmillan, 1962. Goldstein, A.P. and Shipman, W.G. Patients' expectancies, symptom reduction and aspects of the initial psycho therapeutic interview. J. clin. Psychol., 1961, 17, 129-133. Good, R.A. The potentiality for changes of an expectancy as a function of the amount of experience. Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1952. Gore, Pearl M. and Rotter, J.B. A personality correlate of social action. J. Pers. , 31, 58-64. Greene, B., Lotsof, E. and James, W.H. Personality char acteristics of conformers and nonconformers. Paper read at Midwestern Psychological Association, St. Louis, May, 1964. Guilford, J.P. Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. Fourth Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965. Harlow, Harry F. Learning set and error factor theory. In Koch, S. (Ed.) Psychology: a study of a science, 128 Vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959, 492-537. Hathaway, S.R. Some considerations relative to non-direc tive counseling as therapy. J. clin. Psychol., 1948, 4, 226-231. Haugen, G.B., Dixon, H.H. and Dickel, H.A. A therapy for anxiety tension reactions. New York: Macmillan, T9’ 60. Heine, R.W. and Trosman, H. Initial expectations of the doctor-patient interaction as a factor in continuance in psychotherapy. Psychiatry, 1960 , 2 5 _ , 275-278. Hollingshead, A.B. and Redlich, F.C. Social class and mental illness. New York: Wiley^ 1958. Horner, Althea J. An investigation of the relationship of value orientation to the adaptive-defensive system of the personality. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univ. of Southern California, 1965. James, W.H. Internal versus external control of reinforce ments as a basic variable in learning theory. Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State Univ., 1957. James, W.H. and Rotter, J.B. Partial and 100 per cent re inforcement under chance and skill conditions. J. exper. Psychol. , 1958, 5_5 , 397-403. James, W.H., Woodruff, A.B. and Werner, W. Effect of in ternal and external control upon changes in smoking behavior. J. Consult. Psychol., 1965, 2_9_, 184-186. Janis, I.L. Psychological stress. New York: Wiley, 1958(a). Janis, I.L. The psychoanalytic interview as an observa tional method. In Lindzey, G. (Ed.) Assessment of human motives. New York: Grove, 1958(b), 149-182. Kassarjian, H.H. and Kassarjian, Waltraud M. Social values associated with Riesman 's inner-other-directed typology. Paper presented at the 1963 meeting of the Western Psychological Association. Kassarjian, Waltraud M. A study of Riesman's theory of social character. Sociometry, 1962, 2 S _ , 213-230. 129 Kimble, G.A. Hilgard and Marquis' conditioning and learning. Second Ed. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1961. Klein, G.S. Need and regulation. In Jones, M.R. (Ed.) Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln: Univ. Nebraska Press, 1954, 224-274. Klein, G.S. Cognitive control and motivation. In Lindzey, G. (Ed.) Assessment of human motives. New York: Grove, 1958, 87-118. Klein, G.S., Spence, D.P., Holt, R.R. and Gourevich, S. Cognition without awareness: I. subliminal influences upon conscious thought. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1958 , 5^7, 255-266. Krechevsky, I. "Hypotheses" in rats. Psychol. Rev., 1932, 52_, 516-532. Krechevsky, I. A study of the continuity-of the problem solving process. Psychol. Rev. , 1938, 45_, 107-133. Lasko, A.A. The development of expectancies under condi tions of patterning and differential reinforcement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State Univ., 1952 . Lasswell, T.E. Class and stratum. An introduction to con cepts and research! Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965. Lindquist, E.G. Design and analysis of experiments in psychology and education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953. Lipkin, S. Clients' feelings and attitudes in relation to the outcome of client-centered therapy. Psychol. Monogr., 1954, 6i8 (Whole no. 372). Liverant, S. and Scodel, A. Internal and external control as determinants of decision-making under conditions of risk. Psychol. Rep., 1960, 7_, 59-67. London, P. The modes and morals of psychotherapy. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1964. Lorr, M. Client perceptions of therapists: a study of the therapeutic relation. J. consult. Psychol., 1965, 29, 146-149. 130 Lorr, M. , McNair, D.M. and Weinstein, G.J. Early effects of chlordizepoxide (librium) used with psychotherapy. J. Psychiat. Res., 1963, 1_, 257-270. Luborsky, L. and Strupp, H.H. Research problems in psycho therapy: a three-year follow-up. In Strupp, H.H. and Luborsky, L. (eds.) Research in psychotherapy, vol. 2. Washington, B.C.: A.P.A., 1962, 308-329. Matarazzo, J.T. Psychotherapeutic processes. In Farns worth, P.R., McNemar, Olga and McNemar, Q. (eds.) Annual review of psychology. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1965, 181-224. Morris, C. Varieties of human value. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1956. Mowrer, O.H. The new group therapy. New York: Van Nostrand, 1964. Mowrer, O.H. Learning theory and behavior therapy. In Wolman, B.B. (ed.) Handbook of clinical psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965, 242-276. Myers, J.K. and Roberts, B.H. Family and class dynamics in mental illness. New York: Wiley, 1959. New York State Department of Mental Hygiene. Annual report of the department of mental hygiene (year ending March 31, 1961). Albany: 1964. O'Donovan, D. The scientific study of human values. Un published manuscript, Univ. of Missouri, 1960(a). O'Donovan, D. The value of valuing. Paper presented at A.P.A. convention, 1960(b). O'Donovan, D. Private communication to A.J. Morrison, Ph.D., 1964. O'Donovan, D., Morris, C. and Eiduson, Bernice. One way of life in relation to psychological health. Paper presented at A.P.A. convention, 1960. O'Donovan, D. and Robbins, R. Experimental short sentence form of Charles Morris' Ways to Live. Unpublished manuscript, Univ. of Missouri, 1963. 131 Osgood, C.E. and Suci, G.J. A measure of relation deter mined by both mean difference and profile information. Psych. Bull., 1952, 49^, 251-262. Overall, B. and Aronson, H. Expectations of psychotherapy in patients of lower socioeconomic class. In Riess- man, F., Cohen, J. and Pearl, A. Mental health of the poor. New York: Free Press, 1964"] 76-87. Phares, E.J. Changes in expectancy in skill and chance situations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State Univ., 1955. Phares, E.J. Expectancy changes in skill and chance situations. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1957, 54, 339- 342. Phares, E.J. Perceptual threshold decrements as a function of skill and chance expectancies. J. Psychol., 1962, 53, 399-407. Phares, E.J. Internal-external control as a determinant of amount of social influence exerted. J. Pers. soc. Psychol. , 1965, 2_, 642-647. Roe, Anne. The psychology of occupations. New York: Wiley, 1956. Roethlisberger, F. Management and morale. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1941. Rokeach, M. The open and closed mind. New York: Basic Books, 1960. Rotter, J.B. Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-hall, 1954. Rotter, J.B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychol. Monogr., 1966, 80^ (Whole no. 609) . Rotter, J.B., Liverant, S. and Crowne, D.P. The growth and extinction of expectancies in chance controlled and skilled tests. J. Psychol., 1961, 5 2 _ , 161-177. Rotter, J.B., Seeman, M. and Liverant, S. Internal versus external control of reinforcement: a major variable in behavior theory. In Washburne, N.F. (Ed.) Deci- sions, values and groups, vol. 2. London: Pergamon Press, 1962, 473-516. 132 Sears, R.R. A theoretical framework for personality and social behavior. Amer. Psychologist, 1951, 9, 476- 483. Smith, M.B. Personal values in the study of lives. In White, R.K. (Ed.) The study of lives. New York: Atherton, 1963, 324-347. Solley, C.M. and Murphy, G. Development of the perceptual world. New York: Basic Books, 1960. Soper, D.W. and Combs, A.W. The helping relationship as seen by teachers and therapists. J. consult. Psychol., 1962, 2_6, 288. Straits, B.C. and Sechrest, L. Further support of some findings about characteristics of smokers and non- smokers. J. consult. Psychol., 1963, 2_7_, 282. Strickland, Bonnie R. The relationship of awareness to verbal conditioning and extinction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State Univ., 1962. Strickland, Bonnie R. The prediction of social action from a dimension of internal-external control. Unpublished manuscript, 1963. Strupp, H.H., Wallach, M.S. and Wogan, M. Psychotherapy experience in retrospect: Questionnaire survey of former patients and their therapists. Psychol. Monogr. , 1964, 7_8 (Whole No. 588). Strupp, H.H. and Williams, Joan V. Some determinants of clinical evaluations of different psychiatrists. A.M.A. arch, gen, psychiat., 1960, 2_, 434-440. Sundland, D.M. and Barker, E.N. The orientations of psycho therapists. J. consult. Psychol., 1962, 26, 201- 212 . Tagiuri, R. Introduction. In Tagiuri, R. and Petrullo, L. (eds.) Person perception and interpersonal behavior. StanforcT: Stanford Univ. Press , 1958 . Triandis, H.C. Cognitive similarity and communication in a dyad. Hum. rel ., 1960, 1_3, 175-183. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Smoking and health: Report of the advisory committee 1.33 to the surgeon general of the public health service. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Prtg. Off., 1964. United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Data on patients of outpatient psychiatric clinics in the United States [year ended June 30, 1962). Washington, D.C.: Public Health Service, Oct. 1963. Warner, W.L., Meeker, Marcia and Eells, K. Social class in America: a manual of procedure for the measurement of social status. New York: Harper, 1960. Witkin, H.A., Lewis, Helen B., Hertzman, M., Machover, Karen, Meissner, Pearl B. and Wagner, S. Personality through perception. New York: Harper, 1954. Witkin, H.A., Dyk, R.B., Paterson, H.F., Goodenough, D.R. and Karp, S.A. Psychological differentiation. New York: Wiley, 1962. Wolpe, J. The experimental foundations of some new psycho therapeutic methods. In Bachrach, A.J. (Ed.) Experi mental foundations of clinical psychology. New York: Basic Books, 1962, 554-575. Wolpe, J. The comparative clinical status of conditioning therapies and psychoanalysis. In Wolpe, J., Satter, A. and Reyna, L.J. The conditioning therapies: the challenge in psychotherapy. New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1964, 5-20. Yablonsky, L. and Diderich, C.E. Tunnel back: Synanon. New York: Macmillan, 1965. A P P E N D I X E S 134 APPENDIX A DISTRIBUTION OF I-E SCALE SCORES FOR 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS 135 APPENDIX A 136 DISTRIBUTION OF I-E SCALE SCORES FOR 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS 1 score £ cum. f cum. per cent 19 1 88 100.00 18 0 87 99 . 00 17 1 87 99.00 16 2 86 98 .03 IS 0 84 95. 24 14 4 84 95.24 13 2 80 90.91 12 3 78 88 . 50 11 3 75 85.47 10 8 72 81.97 9 8 64 72.46- 8 6 56 63.69 7 16 50 56 .82 6 11 34 38 . 61 5 7 23 26.11 4 8 16 18.18 3 3 8 9.09 2 4 5 5.68 1 0 1 1.14 0 1 1 1.14 Mean = 8.19 SD =4.11 APPENDIX B DISTRIBUTION OF I-E SCALE SCORES FOR 51 PSYCHOLOGISTS 137 APPENDIX B 138 DISTRIBUTION OF I-E SCALE SCORES FOR 51 Psychologists I-E score 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Mean = 6.35 SD =4.18 f 1 2 2 1 3 2 7 6 6 3 11 6 3 3 4 cum, f 51 50 50 50 49 49 49 47 45 44 41 39 32 26 20 17 16 10 7 4 cum, per cent 100.00 98 . 04 98.04 98.04 96.08 96 .08 96.08 92 .16 88 . 24 86.28 80 .39 76.47 62.75 50.97 39.22 33.33 31.37 19 .61 13.63 7.84 APPENDIX C STATEMENT TO STUDENT VOLUNTEERS OF PURPOSE OF STUDY 139 ■ ? .) I'lr,™ £3 jud;;<?a o f Vo'o vicuob;to a 3 o f j.oocrv'.i ov.'y v;it-h prvytPotoo;- vpX• : = < ', Thlu .v ill "tak^ o.f-prc.vi.tiwLoly or-o hour,-. Vivo v:i.d-ro*rpsii ’ R ill, bo p.?Toi;.?nty-:! o v er ;:-'in^^d-oir^’ .i.’ i I ■ 'O - ;vvj i.J.o'. :u, i-Kc C.iVL.1 . iv\j.i.dcooi- 0‘ v ..’v.;o-; Ci,'. ■ ■ -o r (bULjuj ii) vb: „ l : ,■ : or.' c-r'-r1 : o f Aj'-ri.,-.. Yv .* '.Is '1 .. . ■ uc l x '. L'-V of ■ .' i- .- ex■ ’ ; ■ ■ T . I V i . s o ; \ ‘ !C X ' o o ; : i ; i s i s ’ . - o r e , V rt ovctf.:* to nuke- i f e.ipy f o r - ; ,..u ;,-j ■ : : iv-Vv i rt the. v i d - ; o V u / e j u d r y . V i i y " i f j U ' - ' r l ; A / ■■•. ■ . . ' A > ’ ■. , r . r o A . < . o e / o . 1.' A a s ‘ c: A-o r i'o F ' r i t., >o ' . < ■ . ,, i ' ' f v i'V - a ’ ‘ " V : . V l ho ; j .ci 'ao tac- rap s A you /Vi . ;■ ;• ’ ■ - c 2 v ar.-"io A > :;3 .- Vhc '/sJiTdn^r g ro u p s who *?e boat:;: e/v o to purtio.\p.xr-;r- b • ; • vo bttft.i scic c U -d b«..;auss o f ih o o f itse .vesui-ruh to t h e i r • . . . t : . o p ro fc n sio rsa l v-orkc You v .l l i f in d s\,u-jy -'aid y o u r ps-ro / i f 'Vr.pe/uotinc* and ra'ovoo/;fivo-_ A Vo I k r u?.p.-«mat30i'. o f fbe p r o je c t f r i l l be giVMi. A t o r you bovu ooii-.plsteo your- jo'rp uni. i f jo it w ifh j a firiiA. KSffiinssry o f th e finding:': w ill b« n-v*jisd ■33 o APPENDIX D LETTER FROM DEAN OF SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 141 C A L I F O R N I A STATE COLLEGE AT LOS ANGELES 51 51 State College Drive, Los Angeles, California 90032 (San Bernardino and Long Beach Freeways Interchange) Telephone 225-1631 (A rea Code 213) March 21, 1966 Dear Graduate Student: Mr. Leonard Newman of our faculty is engaged in a study of communica tion between school personnel, consultants and therapists who function outside the school setting, but whose services are often called upon by the schools. In view of the increasing emphasis upon inter-professional services to students, this study may offer some valuable guidelines for improving the relationships among the several disciplines. I urge that you participate in the study as a learning experience for yourself as well as for the necessary assistance that your own viewpoints and experiences will contribute to it. It is my conviction that the best interests of our students are served when they participate in ongoing research. We encourage such activities as a means of adding to our professional growth as well as creating an atmosphere in which new Ideas, methods and techniques can be developed and critically evaluated. Your participation in the study in question is, of course, voluntary, but ITm certain you will find it a stimulating and worthwhile experience if you choose to take part. Sincerely J^hn A. Dahl, dean School of Education 142 APPENDIX E ROTTER I-E CONTROL SCALE (SOCIAL REACTION INVENTORY) 143 SOCIAL REACTION INVENTORY This is a questionaire to find out the way in which certain Important events in our society affect different people. Each item consists of a pair of alternatives lettered a or b. Please select the one statement of each pair (and only one) which you more strongly believe to be the case as far as you’re concerned. Be sure to select the one you actually believe to be more true rather than the one you think you should choose or the one you would like to be true. This is a measure of personal belief: obviously there are no right or wrong answers. Your answers to the items on this inventory are to be recorded on a separate answer sheet which is loosely inserted in the booklet. Remove THIS ANSWER SHEET NOW. Print your name and any other informa tion requested by the examiner on the answer sheet, then finish read ing these directions. Do not open the booklet until you are told to do so. Please answer these items carefully but do not spend too much time on any one item. Be sure to find an answer for every choice. Find the number of the item on the answer sheet and black-in the space under the number 1 or 2 which you choose as the statement most true. In some instances you may discover that you believe both state ments or neither one. In such cases, be sure to select the one you more strongly believe to be the case as far as you’re concerned. Also try to respond to each item independently when making your choice; do not be influenced by your previous choices. REMEMBER Select that alternative which you personally believe to be more 1. strongly believe that: Children get into trouble because their parents punish them too much. The trouble with most children"days is that their parents are too easy with them. Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly bad luck. People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don’t take enough interest in politics. There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in this world. Unfortunately, an individual’s worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries. The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense. Host ste.rlents don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings, Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken ad vantage of their opportunities, Wo matter how hard you try some people just don’t like you. People vrho can’t get others to like them, don't understand how to get along with others. Heredity plays the major role in determining one’s personality. It is one’s experiences in life which determine what he is like. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen. Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action. In the case of the well prepared student there is rarely if ever such a thing as an unfair test. Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work, that studying is really useless. 2. X more strongly believe that: 11. a. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to do with it. b. Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time. 12. a. The average citizen can have an influence in government deci sions . b. This maxId is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it. 13. a. When I make plans, I an almost certain that I can make them work. b. It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of good or bad fortune anyhow. lA. a. There are certain people who are just no good. b. There is some good in everybody. 15- a. In my case getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck. b. Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flip ping a coin. 16. a. Who gets to be the boss often depends on who was luckjt^^Q&Sh-' 1 to be in the right place first. b. Getting people to do the right thing depends upon ability $ luck has little or nothing to do with it. 17. a. As far as world affairs are concerned, most of us are the victims of forces we can neither understand, nor control. b. By taking an active part in political and social affairs the people can control world events. 18. a. Most people don't realize the extent to which their lives are controlled by accidental happenings. b. There really is no such thing as "luck." 19- a. One should always be willing to admit his mistakes. b. It is usually best to cover up one’s mistakes. 20. a. It is hard to know whether or not a per&baii really likes you. . . b. Hovx many friends you have depends upon how nTtfe a person you are. 146 3- I more strongly believe that: 21. a. In the long run the bad things that happen to us are balanced by the good ones. b, host misfortunes are the result of lack of ability, ignorance, laziness, or all three. 22. a. With enough effort we can wipe out political corruption. b. It is difficult for people to have much control over the things politicians do in office. 23. a. Sometimes I can’t understand how teachers arrive at the grades they give. b. There is a direct connection between how hard I study and the grades I get. 2*K a. A good leader expects people to decide for themselves what they should do. b. A good leader makes it clear to everybody what their jobs are. 25. a. Many times I feel that I have little influence over the things that happen to me. b. It is impossible for me to believe that chance or luck plays an important role in my life. 26. a. People are lonely because they don't try to be friendly. b. There’s not much use in trying too hard to please people* if they like you, they like you. 27. a. There is too much emphasis on athletics in high school, b. Team sports are an excellent way to build character. 28. a. What happens to me is my own doing. b. Sometimes I feel that I don’t have enough control over the direction my life is taking. 29. a. Host of the time I can't understand why politicians behave the way they do. b. In the long run the people are responsible for bad government on a national as well as on a local level. 147 APPENDIX F LIFE GOALS INVENTORY 148 vu J.«vo.' . o v ' C £ ; r > 0 . 2 C<!, 3 - , Os a0ead. , : . . . . y thYngiij, Le eriterpx-j sxrr-. P ; . “ ;&-re b e l i e f : ; , raJ.ua:io 0 - r ! aware,, ur.dor s t , s mi n g, . 6. Be a . .leader idler. I feel qualifiedn 7 - , Se successful-. get. ccne&'&fce regards-. 8„ Satisfy r»y desires arid Impulses0 St Have sex satisfaction*. "0-, *0 - ‘ .area; ' A : , ti ^ t o r i i ' - . - I ' O U I a , 32-. Havr a goad d: L ' . p ”3 i t t o ; T.. . I ’ f,- Be !;-:;].pnu; i c h a r ita b le -, Compete auccessfulTyr, 'jr , Boj.ocg; to g r o u p s„ {'family.,., fr-ien d c f, r r g a ’iii.atior-r. • i a - . . . •.■Inarease".knc.’ > f3edge>-parsue. .interests*. ■ . 7 . 7 - , Have p o v . 7 2 . c y control* jA, De’ j ' j cate myself to causes,. 'ISO Find aclaiouledgemecfpr-arse-. t -0v Be rPoO'j, ceiui v co/if idsr.'t, i.A Have me arepeso; ear,vans.■ . F7eo.sc people.-. be l i l t s dr. I f - : - Give and receive 1 c^i- 149 Gain status# improve ngr positionn }.iS' i:t V 01'cV '' * L - i- ‘ 7 3 r, Be : . j c > j , v j ' . i , f c L r i i * G Save. saich- leisure: time,* •Always, .do the best I can# C cnrtribnte in j chas’O n leave, a j a a r l c : - . b e h i n d . kb0 Stand for .■■fairness and justice« ; Be cautious # conservative c - Assess • 2*7 conscience Explore new. possibilitiesE be • . adventurous* • Have comfort# luxury* A ccom plish th in g s i n I: L. f ’cv. Accept authorities (school#", churchy political) 0 ffester difficulties,, overcome dangers# problems - 3 -• •Live in G c s ' l o i r % bo,. SOo 5io , : > -i f. .* ’ « r , • i ' r dscenc 5 ’-’ -o Co 2 J o £fo 5' 2, x 4 * ■ 5o c» : o $9* 60c 6lo 62o 63c 6! 4o • /'r-* • Ob0 66,, 6?o 68t 6pa //Bv-slnaio - * i i r y - contributions* • . . • Accept ins regulations- ci' law fiiid ordcr^ CO . ' . i ' . r e " * . . C i\ccu.p*j G.eas-aln ana .w 'U Si.'rucv.oi'jcU cN '•Assess • result:: of r a y . .life* • • : IIovo an easy Xifo without problems,, .Strl.vo toward .totalvfuifiXESRt.v Develop bast potentials (solf'»reald.3at:lon§» llave .complete security* ■Be■■sensitive to others9 neods* ' . Submit.-, to- others * • • wishes© Be. aggressive* ■Play role in public life©. • ■ • ■ A v o i d dangers and failures,, . 'Avoid getting ray footings"burto ITsver be unlcindo Keep- to myself and remain uninvolved,> ■ Try to rer.clve r a y problems© Ee highly regarded and elected to offices* Develop myself as a person*-. 151 70* E « 3 : ' . g p . my sc 7. £ to miofortuiiose Z-U Hot n&ko mistakes o 7 ’ 2U Evalvato success addafaiXtu’ Q* - 7 3 , - . 3a honest vrith rayseir and others 7 i i , , ; f e k e . name for ' z&sq%£have ' - f a s x o o 7 3 7 , Determine my ycsls cieariyo 760 .Always hope for the besto APPENDIX G WAYS TO LIVE DOCUMENT 153 ] WAYS TO LIVE Below are described thirteen ways to live which various people have advocated and followed. Mark an "X" on the answer sheet to describe how much you yourself like or dislike each of these ways to live. Do them in order. That is, do not read ahead. It is not a question of what sort of life you now lead, or the kind of life you think would be wise to live In our society, or even the kind of life you think would be good for other peoples but simply the kind of life you personally would like to live. WAY 1: I would use my body's energy in strenuous activity— in sports, in making things, and in doing things. My joy in life would be in overcoming, in dominating, or in conquering some obstacle. Action and adventure cf the moment, not cautious planning or relaxed ease, would make my life worthwhile. Way 2: I would like being alone and having a lot of time to myself. I want to go it alone. I would attempt to control my own life, avoiding dependence on others. There is no point in striving to be outwardly active. I want time for thought. I would look for the center of life within myself. WAY 3: I think the outside world is too big, too cold, too demanding. I feel I would give up the outside world and develop that inner world of ideals and sensitive feelings. Only then will I become truly human and understand the suffering in life, the uselessness of violence. Then I can find satisfaction in my inner self. WAY ii: My life would be a balance of festivity and solitude. I enjoy letting myself go. I don't try to control the world. Life is for fun, not for work. I would be open to people and things, but I would not get too involved. I need to have time for myself and be ready to move on. WAY 5: I would like to build my life on action, adventure and hard work. I feel man's future depends on what he does, not on what he feels or speculates* I recognize the importance of scientific advances. Improvements are necessary if man is to progress. Man should find his goal in the solution of his problems. 154 WAY 6: I would build a life of self-control, directed by my mind and by my high ideals. I recognize the strength of the world and the limits of human power. I feel that although man may perish, he can keep his human dignity by control, reason and independence. WAY 7: I would be content with the social life of my community. I wc€ld enjoy physical and social activity, but always in moderation. I want to live in a planned and orderly fashion. Close friendship with a few people is important; but not easy intimacy with mary. Social changes should be made slowly and carefully. WAY 8: I would act and enjoy life through group participation. I believe that joining with others in work and in play is the way to live. I would not be self-centered. I feel that being alone or by thinking too much, one cuts the roots which bind people together. WAY 9: I would let myself be used by other people and by the ir resistible forces of the universe. I would be secure in my devotion to the good, grateful for the affection and protection this brings me. I would be trusting, humble and faithful, never demanding. I would be a quiet, peaceful, confident instrument of the greater powers. WAY 10: I would not be devoted to any one way of life, but attempt to accent something from all ways. I would combine equal amounts of pleasure, action, and thought in building my life. I feel that if I carry any of these to an extreme something important will be lost. WAY 11: I like simple, carefree, wholesome enjoyment. I seek the easily obtainable pleasures of life: pleasant surroundings, tasty food, the companionship of others, and relaxation. My door would be open to all friends. I feel that driving ambition, lofty idealism, or the search for intense and exciting pleasure are the signs of discontented people. WAY 12: Concern and affection for others comes first in my life. Personal gain or self-satisfaction is of secondary importance. I would avoid being aggressive or imposing upon others. I would not seek power over people or things, but try to base my life on being helpful to others. WAY 13: I would not go looking for the good things in life, but I would be open and receptive to them as they come to me. The good things in life cannot be found in action, or in sensual pleasures, or in intense thinking, or in social activity. Joy and wisdom will come to me when I sit alone under the sky, open and receptive to the voices of nature. APPENDIX H PERSONAL DATA SHEET 156 PERSONAL DATA SHEET The following data is requested so that we may have some identifying information about the participants in this study. Male______ Female ____ Married______ Single______ Age_____________ Birthplace _____ ____________ (to nearest mo.) (city & state) GRE scores: V_______ Q_______ Total______ (If not taken, give expected date of examination_____________ ) Degree or credential objective___________________________ _ (be specific) Are you a: Full-time student______ Part-time student______ Are you presently employed professionally? Yes Ho____ Title_________________________ Total amount of all professional experience - ' ' ______________ _____ As part of your professional duties do you consult with psychotherapists either within or without the school system regarding special problems of any of your students: Frequently Occasionally Never_____ (check one) Have you ever recommended psychotherapy for one of your students because, in your opinion, it seemed necessary to improve his personal or academic adjustment: Frequently Occasionally Never (check one) Have you directly referred a student or his family members to a therapist: Frequently Occasionally Never (check one) Have you ever had personal counseling or psychotherapy: Yes_______ No_______ In which of these four major social classes would you say your own family belongs: Middle______, Lower______, Working_______, Upper (check one) If you place your family in the Middle social class, would you say your family belongs to the: Upper-Middle , Middle-Middle , or Lower-Middle social class, (check one). Father's occupation__________________________________ Would you say that your own social class position, as compared to your father's is: the same____ Higher____ Lower____. APPENDIX I EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PSYCHOTHERAPY QUESTIONNAIRE 158 • Ty QTJE8TI0ITM 4X IU 3 In-?triyyt?■$7’ -f g , ' i . i P , J)K":v:p,o • 1 - b . f j following evies^ionnairs is uasad u;oon a numbar of O'cvA:'.-~ ; : > of patient and therapist o:cpoct ; * .tions about psycho— , ---1 -.- . ■ - . v ' - • ' .-:r . . - , X • ■ . _ - _ V. 1 . , . uii . . . ■ . . I O. .’ . j . : 1 W . . = V -..V*,? O.L .p G O i . - rl P. 0 g .. . . ^ -.,<C C- > . ■ . J \G u .C . .'.W, ■ . i j Cli. G ' . ' W f j G W o , a n d content v-:C the thcrapoutdo e-nccru-itcr'iho giaoa'iionnairs is by no means exbaus tive, nor docs it; reflect any "school" of psychotherapy Your task Is to score two separate norms of this question- nairo as you would pudge two thouapists r,light respond who subscribe to the two different bolref systsss described, belowy Ton. 0 0 .- 0 ashed net to respond as you believe» but only as you would ?udgo that therapists t-/ho ass at the two ends of the dimension of bqliaf t?\ internal vsrsusp external control of reinfpyav^ents would respond* " - — Hie criteria -employed are derived from Rotter1 1 s social iearnins theory which proposes that a reinforcement acts to strengthen an ejgjeokano>- that a particular behavior or event will be- followed by that reinforcement in the future * Mien a reinforcement is seen as not contingent upon the individual5s own behavior5 then its occurrence will not increase an expectancy oif a behavior—reinforcement sequence as much as when it is scan as contingent* It seems likely then, that depending upon their history of reinforcements, individual9s will differ in the degree to which they attribute reinforcements to their own actions0 A generalised attitude., belie:?,, or expectancy regarding the nature* of the causal relationship between one’s own behavior and its consequences might affect a variety of behavioral choices In a broad band of life situations.-, Such generalized noiae in combination with specific,sitviationaA eScnectlmqlga act'to dot ermine choice behavior along with"''"the ''value of p^cential reinforcementsn D.lRBGTIONS_FOR_SGORinG- QUESTIOITHAIRE B Tour responses should reflect the probable responses of a who holds a h ^ ^ O ? uw^£te^^l^ontrolj^_r^; ^sa-‘ SiJsBSMZS:0 J5,efini:bions Mien a reinforcement is perceived as following some aetiofi of his own but not being entirely contingent upon his action but more- directly the result of luck, chance, , fate,, more powerful others or generally unpredictable natural or social forc&So Seme cmpirically-obseived che.ra.oterisffcs of believers in ci.viTdll ’ laX =e ■ - frtroXs"end.'"^o'n5'©^m6r¥''’p^ss'iV©r”loss iVhic;ifv0" ’'fh’ "ewrirbbiaentai cues, more past—orientedT less optimistic about change f . more dependent upon external support, loss willing to face disagreeable confrontationsp more afraid of fefulr::-e.; feel leas responsible for inappropriate or iaviar* ere more suggestible and more amenable to Ci, K s ’ W 1 ... tv autho j-'j.c}.r a J>5.rsct5.or).s for b o o t I v .^ Questionnai.re X Your reaponaes should reflect the probable responses of a •'■'.■rapist who holds a boll.:'.-if in internal control of rein™ xor0jem0ntet « definitions VJhsn a reinforcement is perceived by an :bo.dividCi2:i, ‘ as'’i'cllo';fing some action of his ownp and when that reinforcement is seen as contingent $ : c ± m & T 5 3 r % npcu his own behavior or upon Ills own relatively”"permanent pars Quality trait s * Some emplrica^.i^-obso^ed chare.ptejrlntlGS^Qf^^beiieyors in^gluter;.mljeon:lp?pl; ihey tend to be more active« , more attentive’ ''to 'environmental cuesP more responsive to the total psychological field? more future~orionted, mors optimistic about the .possibilities of change, more achievement* oriented, mors cababie of influencing others,, study has yet been undertaken of the attitudes of psychotherapists along the intemal-enternal dimension, nor of the relationships between their positions along this continuum end their specific expectancies about the psycho therapeutic situation* Your predictions will be most helpful in exploring this important area* 160 Sr?E C ^A r j^X)TT3 ABOOT., PSYCTIOmSPAPY Please circle only ono choice (lei:ter) for each, question,. In treatment most therapists rely mostly on: a) cirrus and. medicine hi medicine and suggestions O ' \jC — G '.-.^ _ ■ . ■ ' okc t a \jJJ u d) listening to the patient a) listening and talking to the patient Boring each session, the thera-pist spends how much of his time giving advice9 suggestions and directions about what to do? a) ICyS b ! e) 5c;£ d 7G0 e) 9C?S The most important thing the therapist does is to: a) ha.Ip the patient to understand himself better b) help the patient to get some things "off his chest" c) help the patient to use his ovra. resources d) gives drugs and medicines a) give advice9 suggestions and guidance on how to handle problems hotter I-'Ioat of the talk in therapy has to do with the patient5 ss o .) very early life b 'l life Just before the present c) •present life only d / immediate future e) distant future When. the patient talks about things that make him angry„ the therapist thinks that this is: a) very bad jb J bad c/ neither good nor bad d gOO U e) very good What is tanked about during each session is decided: a) by the patient alone h) by the patient, with a little guidance from the therapist e) equally by the patient and the therapist d) mostly by the therapist, with a little guidance from the patient g; by the therapist alone - 2 - Tc With most problems brought to a therapist? emotional factors? aj have boon very important b) have been important c) have played some role d) hare been of little importance o/ have toon of no Importance So In the average session: a) the patient does almost ail the talking the patient does a lot of talking and the therapist does some both patient and therapist talk equally the therapist does most of the talking and the patient does some the therapist does almost all the talking 9o She percentage of therapists who? at one time or another during therapy, feel angry toward their patients is about: 10, The percentage of patients who? at one time or another during therapy, feel angry toward their therapists is about: a) 10$ h) 30$ o) 50$ d) 70$ e) 90$ 11 o The amoxnat of time spent during each visit asking the patient very personal questions is about: a) 10$ of the total time bj 30$ of the total t5.me o) of the total time d) 70$ of the total time e) 90$ of the total time 120 Most patients9 when they feel angry at their therapists during treatments, are encouraged to: a) talk about it immediately bj talk about it after they get over their anger c) continue in treatment when they are not angry c.) keep it to themselves g) go see another therapist 162 13- , The number of things in a patient°s life that a therapist visvjal?_y feels free to ash about ares 8-5 very few h < few o ; more than d ) many e) very many 14« 2?he number of personal problems the average therapist has* in. comparison to the average personp are: a) F;n-fv many fo-jrer .b t ; f s \ ' . c} cscvvu ‘ oils sane d) more; e) many mc-r© 15c -ff a patient comes to understand more about vioy he does things? this will help him: sO very little b) little o) a moderate amount d) much e) very much 16* if a patient's close friends found out that he was receiving psychotherapyr it would bother him: a) hardly at all b) little o) a mederate amount d ) much e) very much 17o Emotional problems are caused by. things such as financial problemsto : a5 a very small extent "o) a small extent c) a moderate extent d) a large extent , e) very large extent 18, Emotional problems are brought about by not being treated right by other people: a) hardly at all b) to a small extent c) to a. moderate extent d) to a largo extent e) to a very large extent I S * - ' " Xr. 35 oh. o . i " b he different things a person might" do v > . * • h is i.-v n, b~Iog j ' . 0/ a iherap.LH ca ?n pro lathy of:. a} very ?ithie help 1 ; little help o) moderate help d) • ■ ; ! ■ : : . h hoi; o’ very mre"i kelp 20 10 a o: ’ -'ith emotional problemy bar: physical symptoms sack. . . . . ' ■ . . . i O ' . emit:■ ■ v oi ^altkino, to e . ' ;> . . , d i V C '’ 'O-'O.V.) I J . \ I 0_p h * l ; ; a.; very little Gy j. ' j pvae c) -Jz-:r..x Sis r n v - . c h as anything might cl) a O';cod deal e) acre than r < nothing 21, : 10 o . 07iOa.ai? s teacher or employer foxmd out he was receiving treatment It would bother h.ims a} vary little o) ‘ Little • 3} a rod crate knonnt d) KT.iOh 3) jry hlUCh 22c . .1 pomon eho is being seer*, by -a- therapist is usually considered, h/ his Orici.end relatives s ' a) t-o he £o;cex"hab upset 'ey t- have emotional problems c) to hare serve re emotional jjroblems &}■ to os soxeewhat peculiar e) ■ to he odd or ! J Gra!sy5 T 2 3 . - J Xf the patient ear_uob easily talk about vhat is bothering hiay the ika-egoist feels that bio chances of being helped ares a) very I'su&ll hi) sr- L ■ . . ! ’ o’ * ' ■ by I ; ; . : : : . - : ' ; great v . . ' . ■ / ■ ; o x , p gr; e . ' i i 24i the. average pen ■ • c o r ; . , s . physical synrebom is often the cause of emc:lionaX probl<v«s:s s by he a '7xry small extant by t o - a small orient o) to a moderate eatent it to a j. a r c , g o orient - o ' to a vo:.p: large extent 164 2! j1'or thi' yeraou til emotional problems„ lack of will power is the ooto-j;:- a) to a very, email or tent 1;^ to a omnll extent cj to a mo ; ;o extent d) to a Vrr■ • ; ■ . ; ex : ; s n • * o ) t o a v :: : y l a r g e e x t e n t 26.. Discurioif.r) of a patient"c sexual life usually occupies about: a) tt' of treatment time .b; 1 Ov^ of treatment time o ) JOY-: of treatment time d) 50$ of I re at ment time e) 9C/S oi treatment time 27c- The patient should tell the therapist very personal matter3o a) agree strongly b) .agree e ) ".iif-./ir agree nor disagree d ’ i df.y;:;.:-roc e} disagree strongly 28., The .average therapist inquires about the feelings a patient has toward him to as a) very small extent b} mnall extent e) moderate extent cl) great extent 0} very great extent 29» Discussion, of a patient' 1 3 angry feelings usually occupies about: a I ‘ lO'y- of treatment time b) gGr of treatment time c) fui of treatment ti-ae cl) 70$ cr£ treatment time - e) 9C$ of treatment time ' 30., The statement"A therapist can read a patient’s mind" is true: a) for nc filings h} for n . feu things o) for a moderate number of things ■\) for ■•■•aey things 0 } for everything 165 J?>j: 1 , 1 , . 1 < ’.o'.V' i vh orr . p”Pblc tic mo/jm reason is rx) !?-i '.yrr/xi iiway b) la:fr" :>redirrry r;1 ) a o i." -iv: i o n o f b o rr c i t y as id e n v i.r o m e n f . a ; ' 1 l-y. • ■ - V .f - ’ b e n I .-'. i J _ j , . . . . C.L ’ < . • ; * - " < . . ‘ v . \ ‘ . J ■ i : 1' ’ i . 1 • . . ‘ ‘ ,0 c a-yout! a) a I,;- ibiri&s "I" . ' ; . 1 both m ihott b) am.". of the thjlna* that bother thon* o ' . - a : vo:-:i :;ar«y oi -he r.rhvyi that bother thani ' j , , j' o v o -1' j < ; > > ch./i/ nor oi’ .her o) - a l l ' . the thin-3 that he chor then X‘ i v t'-t-' ncr : m r ~V '-.cl concern h .b'ocnl ±1 a) ■ : > : ? ’ ' . ■ • - • i h n . - . t the Lin,-re than bother hiiv, n m * ' ^ ' t 1 .. I iJ l l J. . ^ f*‘V* 1 C i . ' . 1 - . ^ t o} a l : : . - v . the iliiir.o that bother bin- rtv a : ; i d things that bothered • in. the p a s - '; dl: clvt - w-.I l yc; vrt.h be I ho r him nor mi abev.i rhings that ; i , : . o up in the lulur-e oj ai-f ■ . ' . v anything that eosiss to rind ,L any therapist v n - i ! I . really ■ rodoret and. hoir AiS t » : O '.- .' < - V ;.\ O I . ; . : : ; ; n vb:i::Ll;Lby that psycho liiarany really effects' paxnci&nont 5j_:, ;r_t i.s; . a) very i - . r n . l i h: eon 11. a) - . v . c i :raio d) pr:;V'; - ■ o ) “ . " e : - - y ; ' : • : ■ > . e ' i Olalo &vigo therapist 'ae.ual.ly starots to give sooie advice, suggaRtiona and gij.idance to the patient by- the,: a ) fj.re-; rfcssion h) fi.cth fission c ; i ierraa , soo- sk ion d) ts;on i l . C ' t l a e-asTSsJ.on o) foolioth session OTo;: -y . . ri'-tl ..i'y a ps-.tiret leels-i c r y ivrall h ; ■ on . . . . . ; . . r - , ;. : ; : v . : < ■ J I : -cv.y Vj} r^ori-;0..v- V .:.o b u t ox — Ab-ZT p e o p l e cut cudiX c 3:a! T' .:s < ’ " '3 ;*oI ? .so.:so" o s i : : v 1,. 0 ! -XU ' :0"€ £ * ■ ; ’ 1 T j , > • . 3 p - c.' CO ' 9 1 £ \y / Tit ' . i I® hi;' 1 ’ ’iJ j u ’.c 1 1 j j»o- :u i t , ; j '<■ _ h~ .tor b:I"-, ooijdlt-'i.o'as o ■/ C‘ I . . 'I- o . • ^ » M o ;; h • r, S . : V v / I K'l- . . : • . r : d 1 - ' 0 A \ " > .**.r ’ ‘ ■ j ‘; ! ; . / v . v ■ - n v : ; i v - ' b b ^ U ' - j / C : • ■ ■ ■■: ' . ... / v. . ■ ■ -I . h..C ' o ' u‘ - l-M< 1 . - . oi ... l:u XUo ; > . Xu ?!i' £ x .io y v o y c L X o J.vsori.Xo'Ci c . 3 i. f- c w .;J c . • ; : : ‘ i . a m u, ' x: , c A , t , !.r'.;r -jy J .y : * * " ■ " . .oer’ x A j ro s .; -tod n . . : ■ ; . j i / : , p dO'rO i - ' ■ ■ £ iic:: icjtio;; ** i ■ ’ oi u.tu.-itly I ’x . i ' ! f , ? I;* = oaI;, . \ r /s C c > .. -p? i,: . :o.'V ,,;r,.:v'; 1 -\i ~ , 'i f : i - . • > £ . i_ p ‘ 0_: T ' - j . ; ’ ■ \<d; br . nv.V o.j auou .d b;3 no-ndr .aXXy X :o •xo.vct, :.n tra& tm euX &} ; ■ : ] !OU-d > - y troc troavrnsj'd: Sxc r.'d.O 'xrb proXXox;; :'.u tlo o rajy Ac- g e t td o p a t J.-:../-!; t o l:Uzn th e ty.orap:> r t . o - J.,-.’ . -roc ~:a\~ ir > V )~ c.!'/ri&r cl} d l t a ~ l oj otroyyi ’ y & ± ~ z - . g ' r . ) i'fc ■ j . ? J . oM c ) ■ : ■ . ! ■ ? If oi ;:o .ivi.LviLe,. and f>3 i.o half resjixoAeihlo reBPch^ ■ v ■ a/ c) rv i om.’ .sidle at all an the tael anaiirBie ;it : L k j prvittv : M i : !. l ;j to ires.t a patlent Ivmt.t: : 3 lie f , o X;r ' • ’ ■ ’ <J ■ ' ' s'-1 . > ioL.;* - ■ ; o nc Mmsa not r :) 11 o v ; : - . , : . o ■ . - . j yi-.y Viaay-r-oo IMiiorxur e : ; r pj anr/Moyvv of a patients ■ emotional ■■■difficulties are us'iiKlly- a nasie cx the thorg.pist" s timso a } a are o & ir cn.tp.y. /j r ■ c'.'-fiVi/S; o' ) aonr-ti.help f i ? . X y sometimes not d) disa£i*s© ©) disagree strongly- Me'; ohan; .la behavior are temporary miesc! the pat l e y : - , d g s . . t i r j Mta the;aMadaiaerital: oaufieii of iiis protleuiiy, ? ; ■ ; ? . ) oironyly h,) c) eovQotaavaD hru.pful5 Esorioiir&es not e.i raop’ Ow o) dleajvre a yrcrougly the avaMc-ity of tr.e therapied ±e probably the main factor in pronopi?\r; : therapeutic change a) 'ap'ree 'Strongly ; - 1 . * ayrae o ) . ' ' ■ ■ ■ ■ sometimes;. helpful’ . , . sometimes not Id) disagree c . ! dibay. t; o strongly at i f . : irr-'ortant to try to rrderatand wh.y the patient*a proolcxnifj hare ‘ h'/ebopeic a' . ' c::v.o stroaglr' :vvvi''; : -VIM- 7 1:11 'tv ; a;/ c) s cllmea hcapfulr soncrimes not d_i disagree a * • d.o; ; . ( py’ i : ' ; r 5 ; y / a r yep V j? ui v .r? « ■ C! ro. « ) C.\: p - p p * ? ' ; P > « P ,r> w y .tb v ' G. p r '- - , rr> IIS1 ! P ii P (0 ir 3 a f r a £ . S o % r < P ! 1Y : ■ ; « T 'j ’ B : H j j. j. -•:• ::V D - ■ ; ' ; ■ W W - h i. r;-:; ■ ' . V PP'Sp § 0; i : i P’ ’ : ' | 3 S -! . f i t ® r a cr o : £ ip P 4 cl- (!) H- u) ..■ O ' ' : y 2 . ; o P-. ...! 4 cv ■P" (D : ,£ v P i - O H o 4 : a ■ E 5 a p; e r ;* . - Cf 'I; « y! p . ..f-. i ■ t‘- 5 t f- • O - '. ‘■ i ■ f f - . " ■ . . . . , P P :p S ,y- » •} W p v ; : ;.C0 :p ;. p ; " r / r .^.. . . . i v p l - 'l ; s:; ■ :.• * ' ■ ; ■ ' . *.J C i-' ' • ■ y:> ; : i.l I V ;P,-.C'p' ' }.'•. ' i i i f o i ’:- ? V j • : T > ' ftv p P ,',y : i~r . e ' . c r “I . o-; . H iS - c o ; . ■ ; : p - : y O P Ipv'p' r .- ‘ O ' Ci' l./ : 0*5 P &.:■■ . :.*« P i - ; ... r ; ' J : .o’ ' ■ ■ ' b ■ : ' . '■ ' VJ - ■ :f n ' p y O ' . ,.<d. i-> . £ . t - v ' o . o ; ■ - ," P a> O ' •• P ' l p j ; , - - j. c '-J f i- P - ■ ? ;m x p , c r P 1 ' a o ■ p ' vp. g: f Y , £ l £ < P . 4 a K c - i - i - i . ? 3 P’ ■ : ■ / t h a a • -- • •* • ; a Cv v*-: i s * : : - p O' OOp:- / E g . ;-: it p . yip- - ; • • • ■ • o' f ; h C D o o £ • f i ) : ..■r; t ■ 'iv - ■ o :,r ;v; V cl* r> w G . 4 4 Epg .a ; S i M w , ET w ■ Q .,© ■ ■ ■ yu \ iil C o i : ! O cv ' W J. ' ■ : b I ;k [ p r ; j c f * . ro • C Y * - ! - i * £ &’ 0 : - b i g -o- (•V C • C C c Co 1 - - v ; ■ U i C 0 S C-i : A J 1 ■ • - • I !-? £ 0 r'Ti ,u - i & 'V S - ; , t ; i - « • ; • • I - 1 * O is V s . s p i s < : ; • ! - • '• •< :: r t • - ■ • : ■ ^ I - * e ,p. . O' c !* , O : : Si: • ’ ^ ^ o •'O c j - ■ ■is l ' : C ? i S ' . ri- : * '•O s '•-r ■ N . ■ O ' i-' O . 0 N .'. ,/_»’ :C>" ,- J " - p - : j ,•* , '-I':'. *0 '" :; • • :»?. • ' ;Q* *1 * . . ’- I t - . ' - ' v* 1?&v: .'n v ':rrb b . .: O ■ ■ .• L J • P i:X 3 ■ ^ ' : P '• c : .' " ■ ■ /r* . ■ z"'. ■ V " V 0 : c?« r*., 0 ' ii-*1 " C y'- ! • OiO P a M -te'; ':.S : f-j P :o d- P' i i ) . o i - ’ O. P ‘ ; J ; ci- c!‘ : p ' c > n ; 5 j O - O ' 1 ' P :c -••'j'! "• . . " V . i ; *V ♦ • ’ i > • » % 7 . . O ; ■ ■ '• O ;- ^ s g ? . < ? . : ■ ! f t : : O ■ -;- v • • - . ■ ' C t T ; ' ■ ■ :ru '.. r.* % - ■ ii) : ■ ■ C 1 5 S' ;.j O 4 ; ( ! ! I S I : . T i : . P ci- i i c i - 69T I APPENDIX J TELEVISION SCRIPT USED BY ACTOR-COUNSELOR IN INTERVIEWS WITH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL THERAPISTS 170 171 APPENDIX J TELEVISION SCRIPT USED BY ACTOR-COUNSELOR IN INTERVIEWS WITH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL THERAPISTS (Counselor is off-camera, seated with her head directly next to the camera lens, about ten feet from the therapist. Only her voice is heard. The sound level is equivalent to that of a normal conversation. Counselor reads the script, question by question. Therapist responds extemporaneously.) INTRODUCTION Good afternoon, doctor. I am Mrs. Smith of the Child Guidance Bureau and it is our custom to meet all new members of our panel of ther apists. You know something about us, and we would like to get to know you personally. We have found that an open ex change of opinion is very helpful to us, and should clear up some questions about how we might work together. 1. I wonder whether you could tell me how you came to be interested in treating children and adolescents. (Therapist responds) 2. Could you explain what you feel are some of your goals in therapy? (Therapist responds) 3. Would you be able to recall one of your most--"success - ful" cases? (Therapist responds) 4. In your own experience is therapy a very long process? (Therapist responds) 5. How soon in treatment do you find that the youngster begins to improve? (Therapist responds) 6. Many of the students in our district are from minority groups. Frankly, do you find any special problems in working with them? 172 (Therapist responds) 7. Is there any one thing you look for in deciding whether to accept a patient? (Therapist responds) 8. Is it necessary for the therapist to like the patient if he is to help him? (Therapist responds) 9. What is your opinion about involving the family in treatment? (Therapist responds) 10. Will you usually try to help the patient with concrete problems such as poor grades, work, family relations, etc.? (Therapist responds) 11. What would you say if we were to ask you to see one of our students who is dying of leukemia, but is still in school? (Therapist responds) 12. In the course of your practice what have you found to be a common problem in treating youngsters? (Therapist responds) 13. How would you feel about treating a youngster who had been physically abused by the father, and the mother did not want the father to know you were seeing the child? (Therapist responds) 14. Is there anything a therapist can do for youngsters who are severely retarded? (Therapist responds) 15. Is the expression of intense feelings toward the ther apist a necessary part of therapy? (Therapist responds) 173 16. I wonder if you could try to sum up what you believe to be the general contribution a therapist makes to his patient? (Therapist responds) APPENDIX K RECOGNITION QUESTIONNAIRE (RQ) 174 HQ m < ■ > ____ __ Ifl Lid you racogniae D r . - A? (Ansv7«r the follovcing only if you answered "Y.®sn above) 2o ilia name is ^ ■ _______ ; ^ 3» Hct/ wall do you know him? a) through professional contacts^ _ ? ’ o) have had class with himj e) by reputation only (check one) Un Would you scy your impression of him now; a) remains the ssutis ^ j b) is slightly different ; c) i3 quite different from your previous impression (chock one),, 5 - . ! Would you say that your impression of him now: a) is more positive b) less positiva^c) about the same as your previous impression (check on®)0 SJ, Mo. _ ic. Lid you recogniza Dr.- B? Yes No (Anovfor the follovdng onljrif you answered , ! Yosu ,?ibove) 2n His name ±3 3o How well do you know him? a) through professional contacts ^ j b) have had class with him ; c) by reputation only (check om)c lio Would you say your impression of him nows a) remains the aamo ; b) in slightly different ; c) is quite different from your previous impression (check o.ne)o 5« Would you say your impression of Mm now: a) is more positive___ $ b) XesB positive 3 c) about the ssma as your previous impressiono 175 APPENDIX L CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 13 WAYS TO LIVE SCORES AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS 176 APPENDIX L CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 13 WAYS TO LIVE SCORES AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE ! LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS ! i t . Ways to Live 1 2 . 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 09 I 150 -184 -176 211* 205 -057 -206 153 -210* 048 072 -140 -299** • o 4» O H f l j & II -010 -036 117 -004 100 374** 310** 241* 150 067 -080 325** -136 & & a > o £ 5 III . 1 50 -255* -121 -043 176 046 -244* 098 -231* ■091 -159 000 -399** ■V IV 027 -157 -016 -087 189 222* -058 147 -059 131 -193 102 -396** ’ * significant at or beyond the *05 level I ' g ' - j f - j significant at or beyond the *01 level APPENDIX M CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 13 WAYS TO LIVE SCORES AND 12 VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS 178 1 2 Value Factors APPENDIX M CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 13 WAYS TO LIVE SCORES AND 12 VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY O F . 88 GRADUATE. STUDENTS Ways to Live 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 A 182 013 -064 198 149 036 -211* 044 -121 006 132 -163 -139 B 056 -210*-188 -128 098 -083 -089 262*-059 068 022 077 -299** C 086 -230*-165 354**193 -181 -148 * •093 -256* 047 026 -215* -251* D -088 105 -112 -090 -029 352**231* 099 307**065 -013 330** 031 E 000 -154 -006 -086 155 370**267* 285**186 - -017 -052 376**-111 F -094 -039 141. 162 119 088 158 143 -129 078 -054 004 -185 G 155 285**155 -133 084 060 -156 086 -115 126 -175 124 -396** H 089 -198 -106 044 182 034 -234* 126 -252* 151 -034 -079 -328** I 116 -118 -006 . 056 222*-011 -260* 022 -260*--094 -160 -123 -226* J -007 -083 066 -203 013 306**083 049 -012 157 -166 160 -274** K -027 -074 041 -123 137 273**011 . .205 200 153 -101 336**-309** L 071 -190 -068 136 288**013 -171 103 -277**021 -149 -194 -309** significant at or Beyond the #05 level significant at or beyond the „01 level APPENDIX N CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 5 WAYS TO LIVE FACTOR SCORES AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS 180 APPENDIX N CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 5 WATS TO LIVE EACTOR SCORES AND 4 COMBINED NEED FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS L G I 0} Q ) Q J > U •H O I —? C J m o -p o m -p f c > s O c d c t i ^ pq I II III IV A -002 -003 020 016 B 090 374** 218* 230* C -217 -059 -413** -326** D -341** 069 -376** -264* E 350** 163 249* 251* significant at or beyond the *05 level ^significant at or beyond the .01 level APPENDIX 0 CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 5 WAYS TO LIVE FACTOR SCORES AND 12 VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 8 8 GRADUATE STUDENTS 182 r APPENDIX 0 CORRELATION MATRIX BETWEEN 5 WATS TO LITE FACTOR SCORES AND 12 VALUE FACTORS OF THE LIFE GOALS INVENTORY OF 88 GRADUATE STUDENTS L G I 12 Value Factors ra © CD *H O Hi O m o -p CD O j o p o 05 FH i r i -002 014 -014 006 004 -013 029 012 000 023 016 -004 -005 158 056 231* 474** 093 252* 153 098 267* 131 -020 -162 -279** 192 -138 -157 -356** -315** -363** -174 -110 -430** *173 -266* -330** 240* 052 -104 -311** -346** -281** -141 -053 -347** 189 225* 360** -073 167 243 162 223* 275** 071) 174 328** ** significant $,t or beyond the *05 level significant at or beyond the *01 level CO j OJ i
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
Conceptually similar
PDF
The Concept Of Sexual Identity In Normals And Transvestites: Its Relationship To The Body-Image, Self-Concept And Parental Identification
PDF
The Effects Of Group Experiences On The Aged
PDF
The Effects Of Making Social Desirability Judgments On Personality Inventory Scores Of Schizophrenics
PDF
The Effect Of Motor Ability Loss On Cognition And Emotion
PDF
Acculturation And Value Change
PDF
The Influence Of The Control Of Personal Set Upon Prediction By Factored Tests Of Temperament And Interest
PDF
Self-Worth, Future Goals, Mood And Time Perception
PDF
Empathy And Social Perception
PDF
The Effects Of Sex, Assigned Therapist Or Peer Role, Topic Intimacy, And Expectations Of Partner Compatibility On Dyadic Communication Patterns
PDF
Intellect After Lobotomy In Schizophrenia: A Factor-Analytic Study
PDF
A Study Of Affective Sets: The Effects Of Family And Non-Family Verbal Contexts On Word-Need Stimuli In A Word Association Experiment With Reference To Pleasant And Emotional Tones Of Associated...
PDF
Relationship Of Achievement Motivation To Perception Of Degree Of Task Difficulty And Estimate Of Performance
PDF
A Study Of The Relationship Of Temperament Variables To The Ability To Make Certain Judgments Of Emotional Behavior
PDF
Conflict And Generalized Conflict In Verbal And Motor Responses
PDF
The role of cues in the arousal of anxiety
PDF
Perceptual Defense And Somatization: A Comparison Of The Perceptual Thresholds Of Obese And Peptic Ulcer Patients
PDF
Intellectual And Cognitive Factors In The Production Of Psychological Stress Reactions
PDF
An Investigation Of The Response To Stress Of Patients Hospitalized For Anxiety State And Peptic Ulcer Patients
PDF
Measuring Thought Process As An Ego Function In Schizophrenic, Mentally Retarded And Normal Adolescents By Means Of The Rorschach
PDF
The Relationship Of Dependency To Verbal Learning Without Awareness
Asset Metadata
Creator
Newman, Leonard
(author)
Core Title
A Study Of The Effects Of Generalized Expectancies Upon Accuracy Of Interpersonal Perception
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Psychology
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, clinical
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Harvey, Herman (
committee chair
), Jacobs, Alfred (
committee member
), Lasswell, Thomas E. (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-126558
Unique identifier
UC11359878
Identifier
6708017.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-126558 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
6708017.pdf
Dmrecord
126558
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Newman, Leonard
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
psychology, clinical