University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Preparation Of Teachers Of French And Spanish In Southern California Secondary Schools

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The Preparation Of Teachers Of French And Spanish In Southern California Secondary Schools

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Content T his d isse rta tio n h a s b e e n m icro film ed e x a ctly as re c e iv e d 6 7 — 1 7 ,6 7 2 FRANK LIN, M ayer J o e l, 1 9 1 7 - THE PR EPA R A TIO N OF TEACHERS O F FRENCH AND SPANISH IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SECONDARY SCHOOLS. U n iv e r sity of Southern C a lifo rn ia , P h .D ., 1967 E ducation, te a c h e r train in g University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan > Copyright by Mayer Joel Franklin THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS OF FRENCH AND SPANISH IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SECONDARY SCHOOLS by Mayer Joel Franklin A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) September 1967 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IFO R N IA TH E GRADUATE S C H O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, C A LIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Mayer Joel Franklin under the direction of Dissertation C o m mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y _______ i )t ’ an Date.. . September 2^ 1967 I) ISSIlR'I A'I i( ) X COMMITTJvK //■ Y/tio , / -j Chairman y ■ U ( L d . / TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.................................... iv Chapter I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING................ 1 Introduction The Problem Hypotheses and Basic Assumptions Scope of the Study Definitions of Terms Organization of the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................... 18 Introduction The History of Language Teaching Methodology Related Developments Literature on Teacher Preparation Summary III. PROCEDURE AND DESIGN........................ 155 Background Orientation to the Problem Development of a Preliminary Instrument Evaluation and Refinement of the Instrument Administration of the Questionnaire Analysis of the Data IV. FINDINGS.................................... 163 Introduction General Education Courses Foreign Language Education Approaches to Language Teaching Practice Teaching Relative Importance of Supplementary Experiences ii Chapter Assessment of Teaching Competence Criteria for Measurement of Classroom Skills Comments Summary V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................. Summary Summary of Findings Validity of Hypotheses Conclusions Recommendations Suggestions for Further Study BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES: APPENDIX A. Panel of Language Specialists ........ APPENDIX B. The Questionnaire APPENDIX C. Follow-up Postcard ................... APPENDIX D. MLA Standards for Teacher Qualification APPENDIX E. MLA Standards for Teacher-Education Programs ........................... APPENDIX F. MLA Guidelines for Teacher-Education Programs in Modern Foreign Languages . Page 205 223 253 256 263 265 267 270 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Views of Foreign Language Teachers Concerning the Relative Importance of Various Aspects of the Preparation Needed by Teachers of Foreign Languages ......................... 164 2. Relative Importance of General Education Courses as Judged by Teachers of Foreign Languages................................. 173 3. Relative Importance of Foreign Language Education as Judged by Teachers of Foreign Languages ........ ................... 174 4. Preferences of Foreign Language Teachers Concerning Approaches to Language Teaching . 178 5. Views of Foreign Language Teachers Concerning Suitable Practice Teaching Experience .... 180 6. Relative Importance of Supplementary Experiences as Judged by Foreign Language Teachers............................. 181 7. Views of Foreign Language Teachers Concerning the Assessment of Teaching Competence .... 183 8. Relative Importance of Criteria for the Measurement of Classroom Skills ............ 185 9. Teachers' Comments Concerning Their Most Helpful Teacher-Training Experiences .... 190 10. Teacher-Training Courses That Teachers Felt Could Well Have Been Omitted from Their Own Training......................... 194 11. Teachers' Views Concerning the Most Effective Method of Teaching a Language .............. 196 iv CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING Introduction Since World War II there has been a tremendous growth of interest in the study and teaching of foreign languages. Even before the historic launching of Sputnik by the Russians, leaders in American political and economic life were speaking of the need for international understanding and cooperation. The Army Specialized Training Programs (ASTP) of World War II and the subsequent attention to the development of foreign language teaching had proved that ability to speak foreign languages could be learned and mastered by great numbers of persons. Educa tors in general were beginning to share the views of language teachers that there was a need in our national education picture for the development of competent linguists, persons who could communicate with others in their own language. The development of technology, the conquest of space by the propellor-driven airplane, followed rapidly by the jet, proved that there was indeed 1 2 but one world. The formation of a United Nations Organiza tion, the assumption of a leading role in the protection of democracy by the United Nations in Korea, and by the United States in Viet-Nam, reinforced the one-world concept. The isolationist policy of the United States which had preceded World War II was no longer tenable. New methods of communication, too, which linked the countries of the globe not only by radio, but by rapidly expanding television networks which transmitted programs internationally, brought about a need for more and better- trained linguists. The prosperity of the nation was helped by increasing world trade. Increased wealth and expanded facilities for world travel encouraged millions of Americans to travel, live, and work abroad. High school and college students could not only travel extensively in foreign countries, but could study on foreign campuses of American colleges and universities or receive credit for courses taken in residence during regular or summer sessions in foreign schools. Research by psychologists had shown that children in the early grades could learn to speak a language other than their own with great fluency, and a movement to teach foreign languages in the elementary school (FL£S) gained momentum. California legislators were among the first to recognize the necessity of training young people to master a second language. The Casey Bill (AB 2564), passed in 3 1961 and modified in 1963, provided that language training should begin in California schools in grade six and be continued through grade eight, in addition to the regular programs in the secondary schools. With language training mandatory for almost every school child in grades six through eight, the next logical step was to continue the program through high school, thus increasing secondary enrollments and necessitating new and extended programs in foreign languages. By 1965, 575,355 pupils of a total of 2,689,968 enrolled in public elementary school districts were studying a foreign language. Of this total, 114,7 28 were enrolled in kindergarten through the fifth grade. It is interesting to note that of these 573,355 foreign language enrollees, 543,800, or 94.5 per cent, were study ing Spanish (339:3). These greater enrollments in foreign languages have necessitated greater numbers of foreign language teachers. At the same time, the population explosion in the schools requires ever greater numbers of teachers in all subject areas. As is seen later in this study, there has been a virtual revolution in foreign language teaching since World War II. The lessons of the ASTP were applied to the development of new language programs. New directions for language instruction were furnished by psychologists and linguists. Their findings, applied through the aural-oral 4 method--or, as it is now called more popularly, the audio- lingual method or approach--have become the current doctrine. Audio-visual aids, such as films and filmstrips, have become more popular than before. The development of electronic devices, such as the tape recorder, expanded to the language laboratory, has helped to popularize the language revolution. New tests have been devised to evaluate student performance, and even to rate teaching competence. The United States government, through the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958, as amended in 1964, has aided immeasurably in implementing the teaching of modem foreign languages and in training teachers through language training institutes which have tended to favor an audio-lingual approach, and have trained teachers in such modern techniques as the use of the language laboratory. Furthermore, the NDEA has made advanced audio-visual equip ment available to schools to facilitate the learning of foreign languages by great numbers of students. Other new aids to instruction made possible by modem technology are television and various types of programmed instruction. A 1965 survey of California public schools reports that 8,123 foreign language teachers, of a total of 10,530, have had formal training in the audio-lingual approach (339:1). More than 4,000 teachers have had formal training in the use of the language laboratory. There are now 1,447 5 language laboratories of various types in use in the state (339:1). Twenty-two school districts (18 elementary and 4 unified) reported that the foreign language instruction was done solely by television, while 982 districts are teaching partly by television (339:11). Current requirements for teacher certification in California public schools are among the highest in the United States. The Standard Teaching Credential requires a minimum of the bachelor's degree, with a fifth year (30 semester credits) of college or university post-graduate course work taken at the upper division or graduate level. This includes general education of 45 semester hours in four of the following areas: (1) the Humanities, (2) the Social Sciences, (3) the Natural Sciences, (4) Mathematics, (5) Fine Arts, and (6) Foreign Languages. This must include at least one academic major with a minimum of thirty-six credits, with optional minors with a minimum of twenty credits. In addition, professional preparation must include (1) 120 clock hours of actual teaching in a course in student teaching, or an equivalent in experience in public or private schools of equivalent status in California or elsewhere, and (2) nine semester hours of course work consisting of (a) the sociological or histor ical or philosophical foundations of education, or any combination of these courses, (b) the psychological founda tions of education, and (c) curriculum and instructional 6 procedures and materials used in teaching in secondary schools (338). Approximately one half of the state's foreign language teachers have a major or minor in a foreign language (339:1). According to state regulations, a teacher may teach in his major or minor subject. The Problem Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was (1) to determine standards for the preparation of modern foreign language teachers in the United States through a review of the history and methodology of language teaching; (2) to review the credentialing system for teachers of foreign languages in California to ascertain which of these standards are being applied; and (3) to survey the reactions of California foreign language teachers regarding these standards as they apply to teacher preparation and to the teaching of modern foreign languages. Questions to Be Answered In carrying out the purposes of the investigation, answers were sought to a number of basic questions: 1. What is the attitude of teachers of foreign languages toward the various credentialing requirements in general education? 2. What is their attitude toward the credentialing 7 requirements in professional education? 3. What is their attitude toward the need for a native background in the language? 4. What is their attitude toward the need for training in a second or third language? 3. What is their attitude toward the need for courses in the following areas: (a) grammar and composi tion, (b) literature, (c) phonology and morphology, (d) syntax, (e) culture and civilization, and (f) general linguistics? 6. Which of the following general language courses do teachers believe should be stressed in their preparatory training: (a) psychology of language, (b) applied linguis tics, and (c) phonetics? 7. What is their attitude toward the need for training in the use of audio-visual techniques and elec tronic devices? 8. What is their attitude toward the various modern methods of teaching language: (a) the audio-lingual method, (b) the direct method, (c) the grammar-translation method, (d) the linguistic method, and (e) the eclectic approach? 9. Are teachers generally committed to the need for teaching aural comprehension, conversation, reading and composition? 10. How much time do the teachers believe should 8 be spent in practice teaching? 11. How do they evaluate NDEA language institutes? 12. How do they evaluate the need for pre-service and inservice training? 13. What is their attitude toward membership in general and professional teachers' organizations, and toward attendance at professional conferences? 14. What is their attitude toward the need for residence, education, and travel in the target country? 15. What is their attitude toward the desirability of Peace Corps experience? 16. What is their attitude toward participation in college group activities such as French Club and Spanish Club? 17. What is their attitude toward the use of the MLA Proficiency Test in evaluating teacher achievement? 18. What is their attitude toward the use of college-constructed tests for measuring oral and written achievement of the prospective teacher? 19. Who, in their opinion, should appraise the ability of the student teacher? 20. What is their attitude toward the need for developing in students a mastery of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, in that order? 21. Do they believe it essential to be able to teach composition? 9 22. Do they believe that the teacher should be prepared to (a) relate language to the culture of the country, (b) relate foreign culture to American cultural standards, and (c) present foreign literature as a vehicle for great ideas? 23. Do they believe that the teacher should be able to use the following skills: (a) use classroom audio visual aids, (b) use the language laboratory with skill, (c) correlate language teaching with other subjects, and (d) evaluate student progress and diagnose deficiencies in student performance? 24. How would they improve foreign language teaching from the standpoints of teacher training and methodology? Hypotheses and Basic Assumptions Hypotheses Expectations regarding the possible outcomes of the study included the following hypotheses: 1. Teachers of foreign languages in California secondary schools will generally agree on the value of general education requirements as specified for the teach ing credential. 2. Teachers will generally favor basic courses in professional education as required for the teaching credential. 10 3. Teachers will not agree that a native back ground in the language should be required of the teacher of foreign language(s). 4. Teachers will favor the inclusion of a second language major or a third language minor. 5. Teachers will agree on the need for background courses in the following areas: (a) grammar and composi tion, (b) literature, (c) phonology and morphology, (d) syntax, (e) culture and civilization, and (f) general linguistics. 6. Teachers will favor emphasis on courses in (a) the psychology of language, (b) applied linguistics, and (c) phonetics. 7. Teachers will concur on the necessity for technical training in the use of audio-visual techniques and electronic devices such as the tape recorder. 8. Teachers generally will be committed to the use of the audio-lingual method. 9. Teachers generally will favor use of the grammar-translation method. 10. Teachers will be divided as to the merits of the direct method. 11. Teachers generally will favor use of the linguistic approach. 12. Teachers will be divided as to the merits of the eclectic approach. 11 13. Teachers will favor the teaching of aural comprehension, conversation, reading and composition. 14. Teachers will favor devoting one semester, two-hour sessions, to practice teaching. 15. Teachers will express a high evaluation of NDEA institutes. 16. Teachers generally will agree on the need for pre-service and inservice training. 17. Teachers generally will favor membership in teachers' organizations and attendance at professional conferences. 18. Teachers generally will favor residence, education, and travel in the target country. 19. Teachers will concur that Peace Corps training in the target country is desirable. 20. Teachers will consider participation in such college interest group activities as French Club and Spanish Club to be desirable. 21. Teachers generally will concur that the MLA Proficiency Tests provide valuable measures of language proficiency. 22. Teachers will not agree that their language proficiency is best measured by college-constructed oral and written examinations. 23. Teachers will not agree as to the person who should appraise the teaching ability of the beginning 12 language teacher. 24. Teachers generally will agree that there is a need to develop in students a mastery of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing--in that order. 25. Teachers will not agree that it is essential to be able to teach composition. 26. Teachers will agree that their ability to relate language to the culture of the country, and to relate foreign culture to American cultural standards is essential. 27. Teachers will not concur that the ability to present foreign literature as a vehicle for great ideas is essential. 28. Teachers generally will agree that the ability to use classroom audio-visual aids and the language laboratory is essential. 29. Teachers will not agree on the necessity for correlating foreign language instruction with other subjects. 30. Teachers generally will concur that it is essential that they be able to evaluate student progress and diagnose deficiencies in student performance. Assumptions A number of assumptions were basic to the design of the study: 13 1. All teachers surveyed are qualified to offer professional opinions regarding foreign language teaching in public junior and senior high schools in the State of California. 2. All teachers surveyed are qualified profession ally to evaluate the preparation of foreign language teachers. 3. All participating teachers will answer all questions thoughtfully and in full. Scope of the Study Delimitations In designing the survey aspects of the investiga tion, certain delimitations were found to be desirable. The selection of the sample required the imposition of certain exclusions: (1) College and university teachers were excluded, as were teachers in junior colleges and private schools. (2) All foreign languages except French and Spanish were excluded from consideration. (3) All teachers of foreign languages outside the Southern California area were excluded. "Southern California" was defined as including the membership area covered by the Modern Language Association of Southern California (MLASC), and the Southern California Chapter of the American Association of Teachers of French (AATF). In addition, certain delimitations were Imposed 14 upon the problem itself. Teachers were not questioned regarding their personal backgrounds, age, sex, length of teaching experience, actual course preparation, or teaching assignments. This restriction was imposed externally by the regulations of the Research Division of the Los Angeles City Schools, which does not permit this type of inquiry. A further delimitation was that no individual institution should be investigated in the study. The personal identification of respondents was optional in each case. Limitations The size of the sample (500 teachers of foreign language) precluded the possibility of conducting an in-depth study using interview techniques. No attempt was made to rework the data on the bases of size of school, sex of respondent, or extent of teaching experience. Definitions of Terms Certain terms relating to the methodology of language teaching may be unfamiliar to the reader. Audio-lingual method. Also known as the audio- lingual approach, this method of language teaching is currently the most widely-used method in the secondary schools. Audio-lingual language teaching is also referred to by other terms that reflect its historical development: 15 "aural-oral/1 "new key," and "the modem method," among others. The audio-lingual method is a refinement and modi fication of the direct method, and is based in part on the work of the structural linguists, with the addition of the technology of the language laboratory (29:67). Under this method, the sequence of learning activi ties follows the pattern of listening, speaking, reading and writing, in that order. The spoken language is empha sized first, and drills are conducted exclusively in the language to be learned. Grammar is taught inductively, the emphasis being on fluency in the spoken language (10; 306; 307) . Direct method. Also referred to as "the Army method,” the direct method was used for intensive language and area training during World War II, This method empha sizes the use of native informants to teach the language. Much use is made of gestures, audio-visual aids, and other devices to convey meaning without translating into the native language of the learner (29:67; 3). Grammar-translation method. Also known as the "traditional method," the grammar-translation method was used almost universally prior to World War II, and decreas- ingly thereafter. In the traditional method, emphasis is placed on formal grammar, translation into the language of 16 the learner, and memorization of vocabulary lists (29:67). Linguistic method. Although not recognized gener ally, the term ''linguistic method" is in popular use among foreign language teachers to designate the type of teaching which employs the findings of structural linguists as a rationale for teaching. Chief emphasis here is on analysis of the sounds and structure of the language. According to the proponents of this method, the various stages of learn ing a language include a period of auditory observation during which the ear becomes familiar with new sounds; a period of assimilation of such sounds; a period of imita tion, when the linguistic pattern is repeated again and again; and a period of constant repetition, when "over learning" occurs. After this, the learner can extend his knowledge by analogy (29:113). The eclectic approach. As its name indicates, the eclectic approach allows the teacher to select such elements of all methods as he feels will enable him to reach his teaching goals. Language laboratory. The language laboratory is a general term referring to a combination of electronic devices used to facilitate language instruction. A typical language laboratory is a room equipped with separate sound- insulated booths for each student, in which he uses head 17 sets, a microphone, and a tape recorder and Is able to receive recorded material transmitted from the teacher's console and to record his own oral responses for self- evaluation or for evaluation by the teacher (29:79). Organization of the Study The following arrangement of chapters is used in reporting the results of the study. The first chapter has dealt with the problem and its setting, including the hypotheses and basic assumptions. The second chapter summarizes the results of an extensive review of the related literature. In Chapter III the procedure and design of the study are explained in some detail. The results of the survey of teacher opinion, as analyzed, are presented in Chapter IV. The final chapter summarizes the study and its findings, and offers the conclusions and recommendations derived from these findings. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction From the vast literature on the teaching of modern foreign languages certain areas were selected for special consideration for their contribution to the understanding of the problem undertaken in this study. Curricula in all fields are being revised continually, but language teach ing, especially, is changing so rapidly that language specialists now speak of a "modem language revolution." The coverage of research was designed to furnish a back ground against which the investigator could evaluate the opinions and reactions of teachers concerning the relevancy of their responses to the actual teaching situation, and to provide standards in terms of which the results of this survey could be interpreted. In an effort to develop a fuller understanding of the problem, the literature and research pertaining to the following areas were reviewed: (1) the history of language teaching in the United States, (2) the methodology of 18 19 language teaching, (3) related developments, and (4) teacher preparation. Throughout this review was the central purpose of gaining an Insight into the concepts and ideas which have given direction and impetus to the rapid development of modern language teaching--viewpoints that have influenced the emergence of the newer methodologies and techniques. The renewed national interest in foreign languages was seen in the development of government assistance and in the passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1958. The interest of the profession itself was reflected in the development of the Modern Language Association Foreign Language Program, in new developments brought about by the application of modern psychology to the teaching of languages, in the contributions of scientific linguists, and in the widespread interest in such new methods as the "aural-oral” method which has become known as the "audio- lingual” approach. The creation of new materials and the perfection of their application (first experimentally, and then on a nationwide basis), and the cooperation of text book publishers in making available new texts with coordinated series of teachers' manuals, films, and film strips have added new dimensions to the science and art of language instruction. With the growth of technology came the tape recorder and the language laboratory, new and improved audio-visual aids, television and programmed 20 instruction. The teaching o£ foreign languages was extended downward into the elementary grades with the aid of the Foreign Language in the Elementary School (FXES) Program. Language specialists were in great demand. The program spread to the Peace Corps. Newly-developed tests made possible better evaluation of students as well as teachers. Governmental aid helped to develop the cadres of foreign language supervisors needed to guide and coordinate state-wide programs. An increasing awareness of profes sional standards and responsibilities on the part of professors and teachers, the growth of the AAT's and the Modern Language Association, the proliferation of confer ences and workshops--all contribute support to the conten tion that the teaching of modern foreign languages has entered a new era of importance in the American educational scene. The History of Language Teaching As early as 1900, the study of modern foreign languages was recommended in the Report of the Comnittee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of America, which advocated "a series of monologues by the teacher, interspersed with exchange of questions and answers between instructor and pupil— all in the foreign language" (16:16- 18), and mentioned (but did not espouse the use of) "the natural method" of instruction. This report also 21 maintained, "The general principle holds good that the best teacher of a foreign language Is the person of the same nationality as his pupils who Is thoroughly at home In the language to be taught" (16:32). With the tremendous Increase In hlgh-school popula tion in the United States early in this century, modern languages assumed an unprecedented importance in the curriculum. French and German grew steadily in enrollments and Spanish was added to the courses of study in some schools. World War I, however, brought with it a distrust of all things German--if not a distrust of all things for- eign--and sharp declines in enrollments. Twenty-two states passed laws hostile to foreign-language instruction. Although these laws were eventually reversed by the Supreme Court, the mood that produced them remained, and Americans readily accepted new theories as to what the schools should teach their children (288:42). Secondary schools de emphasized the importance of modern languages, and more and more colleges dropped their language entrance requirements, the result being a circular decline in foreign language instruction at all levels (288:43). A contributing factor was the 1924-1929 investigation known as the "Modern Foreign Language Study," supported by grants from the Carnegie Corporation; this resulted in further weakening the position of foreign languages. The most controversial 22 of the reports, known as the "Coleman Report," concluded that, since most high school students study a foreign language for only two years, emphasis should be placed on reading ability in the language (15). The Stanford Language Arts Investigation, carried out in 1936 under the direction of Kaulfers, Kefauver and Roberts, was a three-year curriculum study that attempted to deal with the whole teaching-learning situation and developed an integrated program with textbooks in foreign languages, English, and social studies. Although good results were obtained, skills were placed as means toward ends, and not as ends in themselves (6:864). In spite of the partial success of this program, progress in language teaching was slow. In addition to difficulties within the teaching profession itself, the two-year limitation to language teaching, the lack of adequate teacher training, and the emphasis on reading at the expense of speaking, there were repeated attacks from school administrators and various educational commissions (288:44), such as the special committee of the American Youth Commission in 1942, and the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association in 1944. The latter suggested in its Education for ALL American Youth that high schools prepare young people for occupations, civic competence, and personal development. Then, if students were interested in a 23 "peripheral” subject such as foreign languages, they could elect it in their free time. In rural areas, correspond ence courses would suffice (288:45). In 1945 the Harvard Report, General Education in a Free Society, recommended a "core" curriculum, but omitted foreign languages (80:4). The Army Specialized Training Program With America's entry into World War II, the national need for personnel able to speak a foreign language led to the establishment of the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP). Although the ASTP also trained specialists in other professions, the designation ASTP has generally been used to designate the Intensive Language Program phase of the larger program. Set up in April 1943, courses in language and area study were offered in fifty- five colleges in all parts of the country. By December of the same year more than 13,000 men were enrolled, all devoting full time to language study in small classes, with modern equipment and well-trained teachers who were often native speakers. Just prior to Pearl Harbor (in October 1941) the United States Army had established a Military Intelligence Service Language School, primarily to teach the Japanese language to military personnel. Indeed, the emphasis was on Japanese until 1946, when the scope of the program was broadened; by 1955, the faculty numbered 200, and 24 24 different languages were being offered (197:332). The first priority was to teach the student to understand the target language and to speak it with both reasonable fluency and accuracy (134:63). The second priority was to teach him to read and write the foreign language without limiting maximum training in the oral-aural skills. All courses were based on the premise that in order to learn to speak a language, it is necessary to speak it, and to speak it within a concentrated period of time. Courses were divided into three separate but mutu ally integrated phases, each serving particular and definite objectives. These were designated the pronuncia tion phase, the structural phase, and the application phase. The Army had developed special texts and recordings that were used throughout the Armed Forces to teach languages. Lindquist (162:289) reported that by March 1944 one million soldiers had learned, as part of their Army experience, a little of one or more foreign languages. Rogers in 1945 warned that . . . learning to speak a language was not an end in itself, but we may adopt from ASTP those employ able techniques which will permit us to get better results in shorter time in the early stages of language teaching. He referred to the Army method as the "teaching of oral- aural skills" (243:45). But the greatest impact of the Army on foreign language teaching was to come from the Intensive Language 25 Program of the Army Specialized Training Program, in which thousands of military personnel were trained in modern foreign languages to meet the needs of the military in fighting the global war. Under the direction of J. Milton Cowan, a new theory of language learning was applied. Influenced by Bloomfield (7, 8), this approach was based on the work of a group of linguists, including Boas and Sapir, who were interested in studying and recording American Indian languages, which possessed unusually difficult phonetic and grammatical systems (3:17). A new method, designated as the "Army Method," and referred to variously as the "New Method," "The Intensive Method," or "intensive language teaching," was developed, according to Angiolillo (3:2). These methods presented a radical departure from traditional foreign language teaching, and were to form the basis for the later audio-lingual approach. Characteristics of the ASTP method were: (1) work ing with native informants, as recommended in Bloch and Trager*s Outline of Linguistic Analysis; (2) the giving of aural-oral training, the chief aim of which was to develop the ability to speak or comprehend, in contrast to the earlier methods of teaching reading as a primary aim; (3) emphasis on speaking before writing and reading; (4) following this sequential order: sentence, word, sound, and stress on the language and pronunciation as demon strated by native speakers; (5) the "mim-mem" (mimicry- 26 memorization) approach, which involved some degree of drill in imitating and memorizing material presented orally by a native informant, or a recording machine; (6) use of gestures and facial expressions; (7) use of situational or environmental vocabulary units; (8) use of dialogue; (9) use of comedie spontanee, which occurs when a person reacts, feels, and expresses himself spontaneously with the charac ters of the fable and other story-telling mediums; (10) use of oral reports and expositions; and (11) compromise between fluency and accuracy (3:76). It is seen that this method involved a change of emphasis from "reading skill," which characterized peacetime foreign language instruction, to the allotment of less time for outside preparation, and stress upon review and repetition. Supplementary aids included three types of phono graph records: (1) commercial recordings; (2) those cut specially by the drillmaster or instructor at a particular unit; (3) so-called "GI" sets of records used in conjunc tion with language manuals and guides; and (4) Office of War Information monitors of foreign broadcasts. Other media employed were recording machines, the mirrorphone, film, radio, and telephone. Recording machines were intended primarily for remedial purposes, so that the trainees might hear themselves as others heard them. In addition, training was accomplished through such extra curricular activities as visits to foreign persons and 27 their surroundings, production of plays and newspapers, and everyday social activities (2:122). Although from one-third to one-quarter of the time was devoted to grammatical analysis and practice, the grammar was presented differently from that of the tradi tional course; it was to be a means to a primary basic end--how might correct foreign usage and rapid learning be best accomplished? Furthermore, grammar was to be kept to the irreducible minimum that spoken language fluency and accuracy required. Grammar study was reserved until some time after direct oral-aural experience in the foreign language (3:130). The Intensive Language Program, although severely criticized by traditionalists, nevertheless led to a new awakening to language teaching problems. It had, in a sense, abolished monolingualism. It led to the devising of a "new grammar'* based on linguistics, with these advan tages : (1) the correspondence of grammar with the facts of language as it is spoken, (2) simplicity, and (3) ease of learning. The use of native informants was accompanied by smaller numbers of students at drill sessions. Many observers saw as one of the fundamental strengths of the ASTP that it established definite goals for language teaching, that is, a definite goal was to be reached by a set time (3:235). One of the major results of this program was the 28 demand that teachers of foreign languages be better pre pared in terms of language fluency, and suggestions were made that examinations be given so that no teacher be certified until he could show a fluent command of the language and pass an examination in aural and oral profi ciency (3:371). It was further suggested that better preparation of teachers meant residence and study abroad (3:372). Research Following World War II Wartime experiences in language teaching exerted an immediate influence on the schools and colleges. A new experiment at Cornell University, financed in part by a Rockefeller Foundation grant (288:88; 44:27), attempted to adapt to college classes the wartime experiences in teach ing languages to members of the armed forces. Similar programs were instituted at the Universities of Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Pittsburgh, Illinois, and Syracuse (3:392). Intensive methods were adapted for use in some high schools: organizationally, secondary schools could do little to revise their courses to fit the Army Method; their adaptations were primarily in methodo logical procedures (3:401). Bovee reported that in December 1947, 225 colleges and 300 secondary schools were experimenting with the Army’s records in language classes (63:389). 29 Lind evaluated the Intensive Language Program in terms of its implications for the undergraduate course of study and concluded that insufficient professional prepara tion rather than defective methodology was the major weak ness of language teachers (161:42). Hoffman reported that the impact of the ASTP Programs in the College of the City of New York was that their books included recordings of dialogues and class work included conversation, which was quite popular (136:343). At the same time, he noted that in a report prepared in August 1948 by a committee for the New York City Public Schools, the idea was propounded that the aim of teaching modern languages in the public schools was four-fold: to teach students to speak, to comprehend, to read and to write (136:349). This was not new, for de Sauze had proposed in his Cleveland Plan in 1917 that total knowledge of a foreign language would include speak ing, reading, writing, and understanding (235:500). This plan was not merely a method for teaching; it was a philos ophy of foreign language study. Although the de Sauzd method, sometimes known as the direct or natural method, was in use in some school systems, its impact was lost in the wake of the Coleman Report, which stressed the reading aim. Dunkel studied the factors of motivation and intelligence in second language learning and concluded that more study was needed in these areas, but also showed that 30 although intelligence was important, it did not necessarily determine success or failure in language learning (21:80). In carrying out the Chicago Investigation of Second Language Teaching (under the auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation) (21:80), Agard and Dunkel investigated the impact of the newer methods in selected colleges and high schools, and reached these conclusions: (1) Few if any students in oral-aural courses are able to attain, in one or two years' time, anything like what could be called "spontaneously fluent speech." (2) Despite the failure of most students to retain the excellent pronunciation observ able in immediate imitation, the majority have a continuing production superior to that of conventional students who are taught to speak by the rules of "how the letters were pronounced" and who had never heard a native speaker. (3) By and large, experimental students failed to under stand that the phonographically recorded utterances of an unfamiliar native speaker, delivering unfamiliar though easy material, are little better than those of a conven tional speaker. (4) Experimental groups do not demonstrate so high a level of reading proficiency at the end of their first year as do conventional students, probably because the oral-aural programs do not pay so much attention to reading. (5) Evidence from the tests indicates that superior reading skills are developed in those programs where reading received the greatest time and emphasis. 31 (6) With few exceptions, language students claim to be more highly motivated by oral-aural than by grammar and reading goals, but as drill-sessions succeed each other with relentless regularity, and as the material becomes more and more difficult to assimilate, many begin to tire or lose interest and fail to apply themselves to the extent the method demands in order to assure continuing success (1:287-294). The investigators urged that because it was unrealistic to think that high school or college programs could yield the time necessary to produce anything like near-native competence in students, it was necessary to re-examine the language requirement and point out the need for greater modesty of claims, for better articulation of the skills, for better tests, for qualified drill instruc tors, for improved use of audio-visual aids and extra curricular activities, and for more precisely planned experiments (73:1066-1067). The Modern Foreign Language Program One of the most important postwar developments was the establishment of the Modern Foreign Language Program. It was in 1952 that Parker (with the support of Rockefeller Foundation funds) assumed leadership of the Modern Foreign Language Program of the Modern Language Association of America. The goal was the strengthening of foreign language teaching at all levels, improving methods and 32 materials for such teaching, and making the public aware of the national interest in foreign languages (127:363). Since then the program has engaged in many activities, studies and surveys of the foreign language situation in the United States, many conferences on various topics, the formulation of policy statements with regard to the improvement of foreign language study and the methods of foreign language teaching. It has sponsored creation of better materials for language teaching, the creation of classroom tests for students and proficiency tests for teachers, and the establishment and maintenance of a materials center and its related publications section (127:365). In 1959 the Program received a contract from the United States Office of Education for twenty-one surveys and studies, one of which was the Selective List of Materials for ten languages. Published in 1962, it was distributed to every foreign language teacher whose name and address were then known. Forty-five thousand copies have been distributed. Shortly after this, the Carnegie Corporation of New York gave a grant to the MLA to estab lish a Materials Center with three purposes: (1) to accumulate a library and demonstration center for all of the materials in the Selective List of Materials. (2) to obtain from the publishers copies of all new teaching materials, and (3) to issue supplements to the Selective List for the various languages. In addition, the Materials 33 Center Is now the repository for a major collection of 2,300 volumes in ten languages (127:366). It also stocks tapes, records, films and filmstrips, and the equipment for using them. One of the MLA's major sources of new materials is the Modern Language Journal (127:366). New Interest in Foreign Languages Even during the war, and especially following World War II, foreign language teachers saw the learning of foreign languages as a way to brotherhood and peace in the world. They saw the value of study not only for skill in the language and for the literary values, but for an under standing of great ideas and other cultures and ways of life. They saw the role of the foreign language teacher as an agent in the process of human understanding (26; 215:5). However, implementation of this high goal was not quickly achieved. The lessons of the ASTP did not make themselves immediately felt. Although there were some experimental programs in the secondary schools and col leges, the teachers did not welcome any drastic changes in traditional methodological pattern. Publishers hesitate to risk new texts until the need for them is well established. However, there was an increased emphasis on the aural-oral approach and the use of audio-visual devices and tech niques. Newmark in 1948 collected scores of articles which evidenced new interest in modern foreign languages, 34 pointing the way to acceptance of newer methodology and higher standards of teacher preparation. Tharp spoke of the current vogue of emphasis on the oral approach (34: 566). Brigadier General Deichelmann wrote of the necessity of language competency for the military (88:429). Tyler pointed out how research into the nature of the learning process affected the teaching of languages (275:272). Earl J. McGrath, U. S. Commissioner of Education, in a momentous speech, "Language Study and World Affairs," stressed the need for more language education. The role that languages would play in the future became a major topic of discussion. Articles appeared in ever-increasing numbers and ranged from teaching methods to foreign languages as an aid to national defense and as a panacea for the world's ills (160:359). Experiments in teaching foreign language in the elementary schools began in El Paso in 1951. In 1951 the nation seemed to awaken to the need for foreign language study. The year 1953 also saw the estab lishment of a separate Department of Foreign Languages of the National Education Association. On March 7, 1953, 900 persons attending the Eighth Annual Conference on Higher Education (sponsored by the Association for Higher Education of the NEA) approved a resolution that increasing provision be made for the study and effective teaching of foreign languages and culture at 35 all levels of American education--elementary, secondary, and higher. On June 27, 1953, delegates from eighteen countries attended at Ceylon a UNESCO Seminar on the Teach ing of Modern Languages whose theme was better interna tional understanding, with the importance of modern languages as the key (50:410). One result of this meeting was a volume on the Teaching of Modern Languages which emphasized the need for high standards of teacher training in modern foreign languages, and also recognized the growth of F1£S in the United States (42). In the spring of 1953, Commissioner McGrath called a national conference on foreign languages in American education to explore ways of introducing foreign languages into the elementary school. The conference was attended by 350 educators from all over the nation (297:3). Colleges that had discontinued language requirements for entrance or for graduation began to reinstate them. The year 1953 also saw the establishment of a separate Department of Foreign Languages of the National Education Association. In 1954 Parker prepared a discussion guide and work paper for citizen consultations sponsored by the United States National Commission for UNESCO, Department of State, entitled The National Interest and Foreign Languages (308). This highly influential book went through several editions. The revised edition, 1957, carried in the Appendix the statement prepared by the Steering Committee of the Foreign 36 Language Program of the MLA on Qualifications for Secondary School Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages (see Appendix D). The growth of interest in the languages continued. In the summer of 1955f 66 colleges and universities were offering summer programs for foreign language teachers, many for teachers of FL£S. New directions in language teaching were described by Mildenberger in 1957, who pointed to the need for more and better qualified teachers (185:347). The first foreign language specialist on the staff of the U. S. Office of Education, Marjorie Johnston, was appointed in 1956 (297:3). In 1958, she edited the booklet, Modern Foreign Languages in the High School, summarizing the results of a 1957 national conference which considered how modern foreign language programs might be redesigned to serve better the national need. It discussed the changing character of foreign language instruction in secondary schools, language laboratories, inservice train ing, and in the appendix contained the 1955 statement of the Qualifications for Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages (300) (see Appendix D). The year 1958 was extremely important for foreign languages; the Congress passed the National Defense and Education Act (PL 864) in order to strengthen the national defense and to encourage and assist in the expansion and improvement of educational programs to meet critical 37 national needs. The three most critical academic areas specified were science, mathematics, and foreign languages (214:15). The influence and importance of the NDEA ate discussed later under a separate heading. Public interest in the study of modern foreign languages was further encouraged by Conant, who recommended in his influential work The American High School Today the desirability of a four-year sequence in foreign languages: that school boards should be ready to offer a third and fourth year of a foreign language, no matter how few students enroll. The main purpose of studying a foreign language is to obtain something approaching a mastery of that language, and by "mastery" is surely meant the ability to read the literature published in the language, and, in the case of a modern language, to converse with reasonable fluency and accuracy with an inhabitant of the country in question (17:69). The NEA Conference on Identification and Education of the Academically Talented, held in Washington, D.C. in February 1958, likewise recommended four years of study for those capable of handling foreign languages. Shortly thereafter, the 1958-1959 Major Project of the National Association of Secondary School Principals* Committee on Curriculum Planning and Development was a new emphasis on the teaching of modern foreign languages in the comprehensive secondary school, with the recommendation that the election of modern foreign language be open to all 38 interested students. The committee further recommended that teachers be able to speak fluently the language they teach, that they develop competency in the functional method of teaching foreign languages, and be able to use or direct the use of audio-visual equipment (187:31). In 1959, the California State Department of Educa tion conducted workshops for school administrators and foreign language personnel to acquaint them with the New Key, with the NDEA providing consultant services to districts that requested them (214:16). A year later they issued a manual recommending use of the audio-lingual method (303). In that same year a United States Office of Education Bulletin described teaching techniques for begin ning classes in schools based on a pre-reading period of aural-oral instruction, using the teaching techniques of mimicry-memorization, dialog practice, pattern drill, and classroom games, before gradual transition to the use of printed materials (305). Birkmaier, in 1961, noted that the audio-lingual approach to foreign language teaching was gaining momentum (61). Johnston, in a well-documented article, wrote a scholarly review of developments in the field of foreign language instruction (143:188-196). In 1961, the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages devoted its report to Modern Language Teaching in School and College (298). Reports of the work ing committees were devoted to the preparation of secondary 39 school teachers (298:25-31) and to the preparation of college teachers (298:33-41) with a view to upgrading the current requirements in undergraduate academic and profes sional preparation and the state certification require ments. Such Northeast Conferences have been held regularly for the past thirteen years. Huebener reviewed the development of the state of modern foreign language teaching for the public and made an impassioned plea for the widespread study of foreign languages in the schools: Why Johnny Should Learn Foreign Languages, 1961 (25). California continued official support of the audio- lingual method with a 1961 Bulletin whose title alone indicated official cognizance of the new methods: Spanish: Listening. Speaking, Reading. Writing. Grades Seven through Twelve (307). This was followed in 1962 by a companion work, French: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing (306). Leavitt in 1961 reviewed the teaching of Spanish in the United States (158) . In December 1961 the NEA Journal devoted a special feature to the teaching of foreign languages (207) . The important Reports of Surveys and Studies in the Teaching of Modern Languages 1959-1961 by the Modern Language Association contained twenty-eight studies undertaken under Title VI, NDEA. Conant noted that a teacher of foreign languages may be called upon to teach his specialty in any grade, and that a good language 40 teacher is able to teach the same language starting at any grade level and to carry the instruction through the twelfth grade. He also remarked that instruction in the foreign languages is in the process of being revolutionized by the so-called oral-aural method, and that revolution was far from complete (18:179). Ochoa and McIntyre wrote in October 1953 of the fact that summer and full-year NDEA Foreign Language Institutes, authorized under Title VIB, were training teachers in the audio-lingual approach, becoming known as the "New Key," and that, in 1963, California had 10 per cent of the NDEA Language Institutes (214:13-16). The College Entrance Examination Board, under the heading of Curricular Changes in the Foreign Languages: 1963 Colloquium on Curricular Change, published a series of articles on modern languages in a changing world, including the contributions of linguistics, the psychological approach to second language learning, the change from the traditional to the modern in language teaching, and con cluded with a section on determining teacher competencies, which suggested higher standards for the profession. In November 1963, the California State Department of Education published a bulletin, Language Instruction: Perspective and Prospectus, setting forth its philosophy on the desira bility of foreign language learning for all students, and the essentials of second language learning in linguistic 41 and psychological terms. This policy statement also stressed streams and levels, giving hints for good articu lation between levels, and between elementary and secondary schools (294). Evidence of increasing interest is seen in a scholarly review by Watts of the history of the teaching of French in the United States (288); a paper by Stern on the relationship of modern linguistics to the teaching of foreign languages (261) ; and a definitive volume by Lado on language teaching and its scientific approach (27). The increasing interest in language on the elemen tary and secondary levels resulted in proportionate increases in offerings and enrollments in the colleges. In 1965, the University of California noted that the Univer sity in its nine campuses was teaching a total of 127 foreign languages, 95 at Los Angeles (including a special program in English as a Second Language) and 85 at Santa Barbara (312). The problems of articulation were so intensified that an all-University Conference was called (313). This problem of articulation is discussed in a 1966 brochure of the California State Department of Education and has resulted In policy recommendations for foreign language articulation in California schools (302). The State Department of Education likewise sponsored a survey of foreign language offerings and enrollments in California 42 public schools in the fall of 1965 (339) . There is no doubt of the continuing interest and support by educators and public of the foreign language program in the schools. The National Defense Education Act One of the greatest forces for the development of modern foreign languages in the United States is the National Defense Education Act. In the six years of NDEA the Office of Education paid to the States $223 million for equipment, materials and minor remodeling, and an addi tional $13.1 million for supervision and administration. Both sums were matched, as required, with at least equal expenditures by state or local funds, and 18 per cent of this vast sum was given to modern foreign languages (292: 277) . One of the most effective facets of the NDEA program was the financing of teacher training institutes. During the first five years there were 301 institutes with a combined enrollment of 15,617, at a cost of $25.9 million. Of these, 276, with enrollments of 15,051, were short-term summer institutes; the rest were for the full academic year (297:85). During the years 1959-1963, of a total of 15,617 teachers trained in eight foreign lan guages, 6,399 were trained in French and 6,275 in Spanish (297:86). In the seven years of the program, about one- 43 third of the secondary school language teachers and a considerable, though much smaller, number of elementary language teachers have participated in Institute training (4:iii) . So that these institutes could be improved, they were evaluated under the authorization of section 611 of the NDEA. Results have been reported consistently in the Modern Language Journal by Mildenberger and Walsh (98; 99; 186; 284). Cioffari evaluated the influence of the insti tutes, pointing out how they had led to the preparation of books on methodology and also the creation of the Glaston bury materials, the basis of the A-LM (audio-lingual materials) texts (78:64). Finocchiaro and Weiss presented the idea of locally-sponsored institutes as alternatives for meeting the demands for foreign language teacher training (101:147-148). Haac studied the relationship of language institutes and applied linguistics, tracing the evolvement of modern texts and materials from these tech niques (122:356-359). Boyer, writing of language insti tutes and their future, suggested the extension of the idea to the training of teachers for FLES, teachers of American children whose mother tongue is not English, for American- born teachers of languages native to them, for refugees and foreign nationals, and for TV. Institutes, he believes, should not accept minimally qualified or non qualified teachers, nor should they accept newly-certified 44 teachers, who should already be well-trained in the new methodology (64:17). Dlekhoff, under a grant from the Carnegie Corporation, made a thorough definitive study of the NDEA and modern foreign languages (297). Under a grant from the U. S. Office of Education, Axelrod headed an Institute Study Project which dealt with the problem of redefining the ends of instruction offered by foreign language departments in colleges of the United States and discovering more adequate curricular means than are used at present to implement those ends (4:1). While this analysis of ends and means for teacher-preparation programs in modern foreign languages was designed primarily for colleges, one of the results promises to be the improvement of secondary teacher preparation. The Contributions of Linguists and Psychologists In the United States linguistics became an integral part of language teaching only at the beginning of World War II. The countries of Western Europe, especially the Scandinavian countries, Germany and France, had a vigorous reform movement in language teaching in the last decades of the nineteenth century, in which linguistic scientists played a very prominent part. Research in phonetics was initiated then and was promoted largely because of its bearing in language teaching. Men such as Sweet, Jespersen, Passy, Rippmann and Palmer had recommended a 45 more oral approach, attention to pronunciation, less translation of disconnected sentences and little transla tion altogether from the mother tongue into the foreign language. In place of these approaches, they advocated more text study and practice in the language, grammar teaching based on observing the language as It is spoken, and learning it within the contexts or patterns that are used rather than in paradigms or in abstract rules (261: 44-45). These ideas were put into practice In America only at the beginning of World War II, when linguistic scien tists were asked to produce methods by which the spoken language could be learned in a minimum of time. Members of the Linguistic Society of America cooperated, and Bloom field and Bloch and Trager (261:46) produced materials for new methods of language learning. They broke with the tradition of grammar-translation and produced the intensive method, which was applied in the Army Specialized Training Program, whose Influence has already been discussed. Other accomplishments of the linguists were the establishment of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, under Fries*s direction. This was concerned with the teaching of English as a second language based on structural linguistics as a tool to analyze spoken and written American English. Lado, Fries's successor as Director of the Institute, developed a theory of language based on a contrastive analysis of the native language of 46 the learner (the language of origin) and the foreign language to be learned (the target language) and elaborated into a coherent theory the common-sense view that the difficulties for the learner can be predicted from the differences between the foreign language and the learner's native language (261:46-47). In his Linguistics Across Cultures„ 1957, he outlined methods of establishing these differences between two languages at the level of phonol- ogy, grammar, and vocabulary and also in terms of cultural differences (28). The new "scientific approach" was given impetus by a text published by Cornelius in 1953 (19), ir, which the techniques of the linguistic scientists were applied. Haugen maintained that the ideas of the Intensive Language Program were not new, but that in it the scientific linguists were given their first chance to apply principles of language learning that had been accepted by all compe tent scholars in the field for half a century or more (130: 243-245). There was a great deal of discussion on the relations of linguistics to language teaching, which Politzer helped to clarify (230:65-68). Delattre insisted that the French teacher should know not only phonology, but contrastive linguistics, dialectic variations, and the history of the language (89). Carroll, in a 1950 report prepared for the Carnegie Corporation, reviewed the rela tionships of linguistics to psychology and the social 47 sciences (13). Politzer and Staubach prepared a teaching manual based on the linguistic orientation (37). Politzer has also written texts on the teaching of French. Brooks outlined the theory and practice of language learning, presenting the linguistic approach and its cultural dimen sions (10). Moulton reviewed the trends in .American and European linguistics (33). Carroll produced an authorita tive review of the research on teaching foreign languages (14). Sacks presented some aspects of the application of linguistics to the teaching of modern foreign languages (245), while Politzer discussed in depth the impact of linguistics on language teaching— past, present and future (227) . Belayev showed how in the Soviet Union there was a reappraisal of the approach to teaching begun in 1958 which led to an investigation of the role of psychology in the determination of the method of teaching foreign languages (5). In 1964, Rivers published what has become a classic for the foreign language teacher--The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher, reviewing the history of modern methods and giving practical hints for their application based on sound psychological principles (39). Carroll reviewed the contributions of psychological theory and educational research to the teaching of foreign languages (73). Hadlich explains the importance of lexical contras tive analysis (123). Belasco edited, for the 1960 summer language institutes, a Manual and Anthology of Applied 48 Linguistics (33:101). Bull, in a recent text, Spanish for Teachers: Applied Linguistics, demonstrates the influence of linguistics on the teaching of modern languages (11). The influence of the linguists has also made itself felt through the texts and materials which have been prepared both by them and through their influence, and by the programs of the NDEA Institutes (4; 297). The Modern Language Association College Language Manual Project com pleted a textbook for college use published as Modern Spanish, which is a shining example of fruitful cooperation between language teachers and structural linguists (33:100; 32) . This new scientific approach to language teaching, as developed through the research of such scholars as Bloomfield, Bloch, Hall, Trager, Jakobson, Smith, Walker, Twaddell, and Cowan has been put into practice in compre hensive civilian language programs of the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University, where language instruc tion is under the direction of descriptive linguists and native speakers (31:58). Methodology 49 Methods, Techniques arid Courses The interest In foreign languages stimulated during World War II had a direct effect on the language teaching profession. Teachers were now aroused not only to the growing recognition of the value of foreign languages but also to the need for new approaches and techniques of teaching. Much more attention was paid to the various means of presenting the language to students, to the different skills needed, and to new approaches. There were increasing contributions to the literature not only by the experts but also by teachers who were experimenting with new methods and materials and reporting on the achieve ments. Sometimes there was violent disagreement, and arguments raged back and forth in the professional jour nals. Sometimes it seemed that there were as many methods as there were teachers reporting. Snow, in 1944, spoke of the "semidirect method," in which classes are conducted in the foreign language with convenient interruptions in the student's native tongue to control his comprehension. Scholz, in 1945, proffered an aural-oral approach ... in line with the "New Trend," to teach French by speaking, reading, and writing. After a half- hour introduction, the medium of conmunication is French only. The teacher repeats a whole sentence; the students repeat; the questioning begins with problems of addition and multiplication and con tinues with dialogues and descriptions of pictures, and discussion of topics of everyday life. Grammar 50 is studied functionally, and the object is to learn the foreign language primarily through the ear. (249:691) Harris, in 1949, noted that the University of Wisconsin had adapted the ASTP ’ ’Intensive Method" to civilian instruction in beginning courses in several languages, and that stu dents in laboratory sessions, when compared with parallel sections in the modified grammar-reading method, rated higher in standard test and oral-aural facility (128:526). Valade, reviewing advances in foreign language teaching in 1951, noted a growing emphasis on conversation and the provision for languages in vocational education, which was then on the rise (277:400). Tyre, answering critics of the conversational approach to language learning, gave ways and means to make conversation more effective in the 1952 classroom (276:59-64). The addition of lectures on art, music, customs, habits, and traditions of the people whose language was being studied was urged by Goggio in 1952 (114:272-273). He hoped that this would lead to peace and good will in international relations. Grew outlined a ten- year sequence in French, which by 1953 had proved its worth in different parts of the country (118:210-215). Caswell, in 1955, supported the position that the development of modern foreign languages in the curriculum was necessary to meet an urgent national need (84:503-510). In the same year, Kaulfers presented criteria for a foreign language program as they relate to pupils' needs and contribute to 51 basic purposes of general education (147:78-82). Coates called for the ’’ streamlining of language teaching, by gaining the cooperation of other school departments, segre gating students according to achievement in language, and reducing oversize guidebook texts" (82:149-153). Smith, recalling the Army’s "secret ability to teach a language," remarked that the students were a highly selected group, and compared the aims of military language teaching with those of the schools. He suggested new approaches: (1) the circular arrangement of seats in the classroom, (2) the use of exchange students and teachers, (3) the use of "visiting professors," and (4) the "multiple teacher approach," in which a class might be taught by several teachers simultaneously--not alternating but work ing together. Citing the unbelievable variety of tools and methods, he concluded that there should be new ways to teach a language with only essential grammar (254:62-68). Myron called for the modernization of methods courses so that modern foreign languages might justify their position in the curriculum (204:161). Thompson, discussing trends in high school language instruction in 1957, wrote that more Americans were traveling and wanting to speak and understand the language of the countries they visit, that elementary school foreign language programs were increasing in number and quality, as were enrollments in secondary school foreign language classes, and that language 52 laboratories were increasing (268:347-348). Johnston (1958) noted the urgency of accelerating the teaching of foreign languages ("in the New Key") (145:163). By 1959, the usual sequence of skills in language learning above the elementary grades was often quoted as (1) aural, (2) oral, (3) reading, and (4) writing. Sisto suggested that the order be changed to (1) aural, (2) oral, (3) writing, and (4) reading, so that the reader should be allowed to see the printed material for a brief time and then be given number three of the sequence-writing, so that written response would come only after oral and aural drill (253:324-327). Referring to McRae's Teaching Spanish in the Grades (1957) and her skills of hearing, imitating, speaking, recombining, recognizing, reading, and continuing the learning of new words by ear and by context to develop independence in aural discrimination, Sisto proposed a slight "hange in terminology and one addition to the sequence: (1) aural, (2) oral, (3) looking, (4) writing, and (5) reading. However, not all language teachers were enthusias tic about the new methods. Trace, in 1959, discussing whether teaching of modern foreign languages with the aid of new electronic devices was more satisfactory than the traditional approach, stated flatly that the 53 . . . current shift to the oral-aural approach is the worst blow that language has been dealt since the building of the Tower of Babel, and that two basic reasons why the new conversational approach threatens the effectiveness of foreign language instruction are (1) that it drives out the human istic values of foreign language teaching, and (2) that it doesn't work. He called for renewed emphasis on the teaching of reading and the devising of a program that would force the student into close and continued contact with a foreign language so that he could acquire a skill in speaking it such as he could never do in the classroom or in the typical "language laboratory" program. One solution, he thought, was to introduce foreign language training into the elementary grades, beginning as early as the fourth grade (271:382- 386). An answer to this frank article was not long in coming. Walsh accused Trace of confusing "approach" with "objectives," stating that the audio-lingual approach is not a goal, but a path to a goal, which is the mastery of the language, inducing its written symbols, and the use of these symbols to record a people’s wisdom, culture and literature, past and present; and that, in order to learn literature, the student must learn the sound structure of the language. In refutation of the attack on the language laboratories, Walsh pointed to the many thriving labora tories at colleges and universities. The critical nature of language learning was attested to by the NDEA, one of whose goals was to strengthen the teaching of languages 54 (282:168-170). Trace, bolstered by the receipt of many letters supporting his stand, replied that it was unfortu nate that the language laboratory could become an "evil thing" (1) wherever it depreciates the importance of read ing and writing, and (2) wherever it is thought to be an effective means of teaching a student to speak a foreign language. Trace deplored the tendency of the oral-aural approach to depreciate the value of the written word, but saw it also as merely one aspect of a major cultural trend which, especially in the United States, is undermining the authority of the written word generally, citing the influ ence of the movies and of television. The general ineffec tiveness of foreign language programs stemmed from the curriculum. Claiming that over 90 per cent of the students who take a foreign language either in high school and college do so for only two years and cannot be given an effective speaking knowledge of the language in that time, Trace recommended that the teacher concentrate on teaching reading in two years. He concluded with the recommenda tions that (1) the high school require four years of foreign language rather than two, (2) that colleges require three years of language for a non-major, (3) that elemen tary school language programs be carefully coordinated with secondary programs, and (4) that special intensive programs in speaking foreign languages be set up for interested students. He suggested urging the establishment of a 55 "Society for the Use of Common Sense in Teaching Foreign Languages" (270:266-269). In a final article, Walsh defended the language laboratory and audio-lingual learn ing, stating that the first task of language learning is to get the student, whatever his age, up to a control of the structure of the foreign language which he has already achieved in his own language before entering the first grade. He agreed with Trace on the need for more time for language study and stated the objective of ten years of foreign language learning, grades three to twelve, which should produce students able to read with understanding and to discuss with fluency in the foreign language matters of literary and cultural significance (287:270-271). Although the colleges had Incorporated many of the workable features of ASTP, i.e., the use of the tape recorder and the language laboratory, Matthews, speaking for the high schools in 1960, felt that Army techniques had little influence on secondary teaching. She saw four prob lems then faced by secondary teachers: (1) installation of language laboratories equipped with sound-proof booths and recording equipment; (2) preparation of high school teach ers to recommend revisions in the foreign language curriculum; (3) correlation of foreign languages with such other high school subjects as Latin, History, and English; and (4) improvement in the field of testing (34:264-267). Suggestions for common sense in the oral approach were made 56 by Siciliano, based on the observation that there was Mat that very moment a Bedlam of Babble in the language class room because texts were being produced with tapes that were not really designed for the oral-aural approach, and teach ers did not know how to use them" (251:3-4). He insisted that no word should be spoken in the classroom by the teacher unless it had first been heard and mastered by the student, or unless, by action or induction, its meaning has been conveyed to him. Referring to a statement by the National Associa tion of Secondary School Principals that it is easy to learn a language, Davison maintained that learning a foreign language outside the foreign environment is a long and demanding task. His provocative article, , f Will the New Key Prove Flat?*' restated the conservative position and claimed that secondary school students do not learn languages most rapidly and easily by aural training, but rather by visual experience. He called for sound peda gogical programs to that end (86:322-323). Duncan made further suggestions for handling intensive reading in the classroom and for the teaching of reading of foreign languages (92:17-19). Klee (1961) detailed practices observed in the United States and abroad for the improve ment of classroom teaching and emphasized understanding, speaking, reading, and writing, in that order (153:207-210). Articles on new teaching techniques and methods 57 became more numerous starting in 1960. Pike spoke of "nucleation," a new principle which transferred the terminology of science to language learning. It is the structure, or crystallization, of learning which enables students who have amassed lists of vocabulary items and extensive rules of grammar, to be able to handle a conver sation (222:291-295). Nucleation is discussed in further detail by Belasco (58:482-491). Mathieu detailed the techniques involved in pattern drills, showing the differ ence between responses from students in individual and in choral responses (175:215-216). Benwell called dialog memorization a nemesis, especially at the college level, and suggested the direct-method approach (59:303-304). The aims of language study, according to Micarelli, are to develop the student's intellectual prowess; teaching of literature is important (182:296). In November 1961 Brisley and others made an extensive survey of good teach ing practices in high school foreign language classes for the Modern Language Association (293). Descriptions and suggestions for other devices and techniques made their appearance in the literature. Inter linear microprint, a new technique to eliminate the vocabu lary section of a reader, with the student using a little magnifier to find the meaning of a word, was proposed by Hazelett (133:307-308). Darrell and Sorenson described the use of culture capsules--self-contained pedagogical units 58 used as parts of class periods (264:350-354). Niess traced the rapid growth of the advanced placement program first developed in 1957 (212:311-318). Mossel, in 1962, reported on his 1960 experience with the CREDIF (Centre de Recherches et d*Etudes pour la Diffusion du Franqais) under the auspices of the Council of Europe. The goal was to learn how to teach French to often highly cultivated foreigners who could not stay in France longer than eight months. Based on the vocabulary in Le Francais fondamental. ler degre. a carefully composed list of about 1,300 words, a course of 150 to 160 hours was developed with accompanying tapes and films, based on the idea that language is primarily spoken language and that it functions in language-use situations; that at the begin ning, it must be presented orally only, with a limited, carefully-selected vocabulary to be mastered, with inten sive pronunciation practiced in small groups. Reading, writing and grammar are to be presented later. A more advanced vocabulary, 2me degrd, is in preparation (199: 321-323). Varasteh, pointing out that the oral method was obviously a reaction against the "grammar grinders" of the classical method, emphasized that time is necessary, as in any other revolution, before the reformers or their followers are able to reach a just compromise and adapt the teaching of grammar to the country's real requirements. He 59 advocated combining eye-training and oral-aural training, using colored chalks and red ink to emphasize grammatical points (49:261-267). Diller, declaring that the linguistic contribution to language learning is the emphasis on the "natural" sequence of listening-speaking-reading-writing, and that the written codification of any language develops from the spoken expression only after a long period of time, gave an accurate definition to the four steps in order to implement them effectively in teaching programs (91:259-260). On the other hand, the importance of the printed word in the audio-visual or audio-lingual method was emphasized by Cioffari (77:312-314). Livingstone explained the need for more grammar in the audio-lingual approach (163:304-307). Beaujour criticized the teaching of "culture" in NDEA Institutes, showing the need for well-developed texts and better qualified instructors in this field. A distinction must be made between listening comprehension and oral expression, according to Ehrmann (94:18-19). Huebener reviewed the history of New York City's rapid adaptation to the new methods. This large system, which had followed the reading aim for two decades, pub lished a new syllabus in 1959, stating that "the immediate objective of foreign language teaching in the schools of New York City should be the practical one of communica tion." But new electronic devices and trends in 60 linguistics demanded a revision, which was being planned when the State of New York published a new course of study in French, with a detailed description of dialogs and pattern drills. The resultant New York City Bulletin followed the new audio-lingual doctrine: (1) the basic aim was to develop direct auditory and reading comprehension; (2) maximum use was to be made of the foreign language, English being used only when absolutely necessary; (3) the sequence of learning was listening, speaking, reading, and writing; (4) the sound system of the language was to be mastered in functional responses before reading and writ ing; (5) grammar was to be learned as structural patterns with a maximum of drill to automatize responses; (6) inten sive ear training made the use of disc and tape recordings absolutely essential; (7) visual aids were used to teach and drill vocabulary and to promote conversation; and (8) the cultural aspect was to be integrated with the linguis tic aspect. Although reading was still considered an important skill, especially for advanced placement pro grams, the official view was that advanced textbooks might be modified and adapted to the new method. Huebener also reported that the new type of New York State Regents examination given in 1962 allowed 70 per cent for reading comprehension, and that New York City students did very well in it. Many schools had language laboratories, and every teacher had a tape recorder to supplement the 61 laboratory work. By 1963, the new program was firmly established, and the audio-lingual approach was gaining favor with teachers and students (139:62-65). In spite of this enthusiastic report at the end of the year, he criti cized the audio-lingual method and suggested modifications in a searching article, "The New Key is Now Off Key" (138: 375-377). Teachers continued to suggest methods for improving the learning situation. Dunkel, studying the period from Erasmus to Comenius, showed that the techniques and prac tices of teaching foreign languages are old, but that In spite of new discoveries, "the road to mastery remains a long and hard one, and teachers and students may as well face the fact" (93:203-210). Meiden proposed a device for teaching pronunciation--the reading of the lesson of the day (181:65-69). Gallant, speaking of "Madness in Methods," suggested that teachers themselves set up their own methods curriculum, and that cooperative planning of a course in methods by students was good (108:243-245). Haac found that teachers studying in NDEA Institutes had trouble with linguistics, because the concepts were difficult to teach and understand; much work was needed. However, special texts that had been prepared showed new directions in this field (122:356-359). Some of these texts are discussed in the section which follows. Hocking, Weisiger, and Hill studied the foreign 62 language speech disorders of native American college students learning foreign languages by the audio-lingual method. These disorders included "word-deafness," other problems of audition, simple articulatory defects, block ages and repetitions characteristic of stuttering, and deviations in vocal quality consistent with the symptoms of speech and hearing disorders, commonly referred to speech and hearing clinics. They constructed tests and used standard tests, but found no conclusive results and found it hard to rate students. The best single predictor of academic success in first-semester German, they found, was the Purdue Grade-Point Index; next in order were high school rank and score on the English orientation test (299:1-37). In January 1964, Hocking, in an optimistic article, "The Decade Ahead," pointed out the challenge to all teach ers that foreign language brought about by new trends in modern language teaching, the developing of three- and four-year sequences in foreign languages, the increase in college-bound students, more comprehensive high schools, and the increase of interest stimulated by the NDEA. He recommended several new approaches to handle the predicted doubled or trebled foreign language enrollments in the high school: (1) large group instruction, as advocated by the Trump Plan; (2) increased use of television or film for direct language teaching; (3) the use of the language 63 laboratory to provide most of the linguistic practice; (4) mechanical books to take charge of much individual recita tion and correction, this to include programmed instruction and the use of teaching machines. He predicted that teach ers would be relieved of much drudgery by programmed learning, the language laboratory, film, and television, and would be permitted to resume their true function as teachers (135:3-6). Politzer (1964) claimed that in its present precisely-ordered form, the pattern practice is probably the most outstanding characteristic of the New Key in language teaching, and indicated limitations and put for ward cautions in the use of the pattern drills (231:24-28). O’Connor presented the concept of the foreign language teacher as "orchestra conductor." Mathieu, revealing that one of the secrets of the New Key teaching was the silent participation of all students, whether called on or not, set forth the steps for teaching good pattern practice (177:20-23). Newmark and Diller presented arguments for preceding speaking practice with listening comprehension and emphasized the "audio" in the audio-lingual approach (211:18-19). Politzer reviewed the macro and micro struc ture of the foreign language curriculum (229:99-102) and presented practical suggestions for the effective use of the structure drill (226:674-680). Cormier recommended the use of the coda as a classroom technique to further total 64 saturation of the target language. The most effective function of the coda, using a drill previously covered, is to reintroduce pattern practice in order to stress one important point in grammar or structure (83:360-362). Grew, in a most helpful article for the classroom teacher, outlined practical hints and suggestions for more effective teaching (119:83-88). Bazan, in a critique of Brooks, Language and Language Learning. Second Edition, pleaded for analysis, research, experimentation and evalua tion as members of the profession sought to evolve a better methodology. Although not advocating a reversal to old procedures, she spoke of the "danger arising from designing a methodology based on a partial, untested approach to certain difficulties in language learning" (56:337-346). Libbish, in a comprehensive volume reviewing ad vances in the teaching of modern languages (1964), prefaced the collection of essays by experts in the field by saying that "what is new is that, for the first time, scientific investigation has been energetically applied to eradicating the errors (of the grammar-translation method) and to substituting in their place a psychological approach linked with linguistic research, and aided by electronic devices" (29:viii). This seems to be a succinct summary of the new approach to language teaching. Huebener introduced his excellent work, How to Teach Foreign Languages Effectively, with a review of the 65 historical development of the audio-lingual approach, and continued with extensive and detailed pedagogical proce dures (24) . Walsh, in February 1965, stressed the fact that we are a long way from our goal in giving every young American the opportunity to master a modern foreign language by the time he finishes school, asked for longer sequences in foreign languages, better FLES specialists, and urged college professors of language and literature to conduct their courses in the foreign language so that students would be inspired to continue language study (286:82-85). The problems of meeting the nationwide challenge to modernize and multiply foreign language teaching and to keep educational progress up to date in a large school system were thoroughly reviewed and discussed by McKinney (172:434-436). Zeldner, while lauding the progress made in foreign language teaching, lamented the fact that, although the national, state and city governments were spending tens of millions of dollars annually, half the students in secondary schools were not studying any foreign language (1966) and suggested solutions to strengthen the United States foreign language program: (1) convince colleges and universities of the importance of requiring for admission at least four years of one foreign language; (2) use money for vacation-travel awards to superior students; (3) set up summer institutes for fourth-year advanced students, or 66 award them a trip to a foreign country; (4) award prizes in the form of reference books or subscriptions to foreign language periodicals to the best fourth-year students; and (5) use federal funds to subsidize tutors for remedial foreign language instruction in every high school (292: 275-280). Texts Teaching methods are influenced by texts and text book makers. The rapid development of the audio-lingual method and of modern language pedagogical procedures is in great part due to the proliferation of texts and text materials. Prior to World War II, most textbooks for the study of modern foreign languages reflected the reading and grammar-translation approach. There were a few exceptions, including the Nouveau Cours Pratique by de Sauze, based on the Cleveland Plan for the Teaching of Modern Languages, first published in 1916, which represented the direct method (20). This was not dissimilar to the principles of the Berlitz Method. It is noteworthy that the Berlitz approach, although successful with adults, had not been widely accepted in the public schools. Thus, when the ASTP Program opened in 1943, few texts stressed listening and speaking. The colleges and universities that offered this training had to use books then on the market, or prepare new materials, often on a day-to-day basis (288:120). 67 Mimeographed materials were often prepared, later to be issued as texts. In 1943 the Intensive Language Program of the American Council of Learned Societies developed twenty- two courses, known as the Spoken Language Series, for use of the U. S. Armed Forces Institute, which were adopted by the Area and Language Section of the ASTP. Denoeu and Hall, in 1944, prepared War Department Manuals which later were issued in an identical edition for the general public. In addition, the students were to have a native speaker, called the "Guide," or set of twenty-four phonograph records, spoken by Denoeu, which reproduced the text and the exercises. Harris and Leveque, in 1946, adapted the intensive method for civilian students in Conversational French for Beginners, followed in 1953 by Basic Conversa tional French, an answer to the demands of teachers whose weekly class time did not exceed four hours. They made available records and magnetic tapes with everything transcribed (288:121). In 1960 they published a second- year text, Intermediate Conversational French, with recordings. These texts were written primarily for college classes, however. As interest grew in the "New Key," as the audio-lingual approach began to be called, special text materials were produced. In 1959-1960, experiments were conducted in the Glastonbury, Connecticut, Public Schools, pursuant to a contract with the U. S. Office of Education 68 under Title VI, NDEA Language Development Program. Materi als were developed to teach foreign languages in the sequence listening-speaking, reading-writing. Instead of the traditional division of language learning into years, the idea of levels was introduced. Thus, certain units might be taught at the junior high level which required longer time to develop, but which, when started at the senior high school level, could be finished in a shorter period of time. The texts were so constructed that learn ing units were set up in terms of levels rather than years. Thus, Level I might necessitate an entire year in junior high school, while the same material might be mastered in one semester by tenth or eleventh graders. Thus learning by levels rather than by years would facilitate articula tion between the junior and senior high school and better application of transfer between schools at the same grade level. In June 1959, four units each in French, German, Russian and Spanish were provided for Summer 1959 Language Institutes and a complete set was furnished to each state education agency for duplication and distribution to local schools as desired. These materials were improved and developed by the staff of the Modern Language Materials Center and published in 1961 by Harcourt, Brace and Company as the A-LM (Audio-Lingual Materials). Level II of A-LM French was published in 1961; Levels III and IV in 1963 and 69 1964. Similar secondary school programs of text and audio materials on four levels, with emphasis throughout on the development of listening and speaking skills, were pub lished for the other languages. They have been adopted by many school systems and represent a significant advance over previous text adaptations. In an attempt to meet the competition and accommodate their standard texts to the new methods, some publishers added tapes and disc recordings, and issued teachers' manuals to up-date these texts. The Pathescope-Berlitz Audio-Visual Language Series appeared at the same time as the first audio-lingual texts, made up of forty lessons with filmstrips filmed in France, recordings of dialogues by native speakers, teacher's guide, and scripts with listening comprehension tests available (288:122). The MLA Selective List of Materials lists and annotates many other coordinated series of texts and materials (320). Other integrated programs include Rosselot's three-year program, Je Parle Francais. made up of 120 film lessons and 120 five-inch tapes, with student's and teacher's manuals. Work done at the research center of the Ecole Normale Superieure at Saint-Cloud, France, resulted in the 1961 Voix et Images de France le Francais par la methode audio-visuelie by Rivenc, Guberina, and others; this was a co-ordinated series of thirty-two film strips of 40-100 frames each, thirty-two five-inch tapes with native French voices, and a textbook, commercially 70 distributed by the Chilton Company (288:122). Much more elaborate is the Hachette series, En France comme si vous y etiez, advertised commercially as "a completely new audio-visual library, equally effective for home use or as ideal supplement to the classroom language curriculum." It includes textbook material, photographs, drawings, glossaries and dictionaries, a text-reference portion, forty LP vinyl records, a 94-page record album, functional drills and exercises, and lyrics to twenty-six original French songs written especially for the library. Collat eral materials of cultural interest include a special edition of Paris-Soir, French newspaper, maps of bus and subway lines in Paris, twenty-six half-hour black-and-white sound films corresponding in format and content to the original TV version, and thirty-nine 13-minute films designed specifically for classroom use. Special texts prepared show the audio-lingual trend. The United States Foreign Service Institute Course, French Basic Course, was printed by the Government Printing Office in 1960. Companion tapes were distributed by the Electronic Teaching Laboratories, Washington, D.C. More directly related to the teaching of languages on the secondary level, however, are new courses which were prepared with the aid of O'Connor. The titles themselves indicate the audio-lingual emphasis: Le Frangais: Ecouter et Parler by Cote, Levy and O'Connor (1962) and Espanol: 71 Entender y Hablar by Lagrone, McHenry and O'Connor (1961). Other materials which reflect the new linguistic influence are the English materials prepared by Lado and Fries, Patterns of English Speech, published by the University of Michigan Press (122:356-359). The Modern Language Association made a significant contribution to the language program through the prepara tion of a cooperative grammar. After a series of confer ences in which many textbook writers took part, a committee of six headed by Bolinger, sat down to work. A structural linguist insured that the final product was in the "New Key." Assisted by twenty-four advisers and several native consultants, the committee, working for a full semester at the University of Texas, produced Modern Spanish, a 496- page text published by Harcourt, Brace in 1960. Each copy of the grammar has in its pocket a record for preliminary pronunciation drill, and records are available for the dialogues given at the beginning of each lesson. Other supplements are a teacher's manual of thirty-two pages; forty-five tapes for the language laboratory which present not only the dialogues but also recordings of all the oral drill patterns in the grammar. Films based upon the dialogues have been developed by the University of Southern California Department of Cinema (158:520-621). Although Modern Spanish was intended primarily for college classes, it may be adapted to high-school use. There are now dozens 72 of texts and text materials reflecting the new audio- lingual approach, prepared for all levels from elementary school through college. New materials seem to be pouring from the presses. There is no doubt that the abundance of adequate text and supplementary materials has greatly advanced the teaching of modern foreign languages. The Language Laboratory One of the most important, though still controver sial, aspects of the teaching of modern foreign languages is the language laboratory. Until the 1930's, the term "phonetics laboratory" rather than "language laboratory" was used, because it combined the scientific study of speech, speech correction, and foreign language instruc tion. As early as 1929, over 200 students a year were taking phonetics courses at Middlebury College which required five hours of class work, one hour a week in the phonetics laboratory, which was equipped with ten booths, each with a record-player, earphones, and a mirror for observing lip movements (164:294-304). According to Hocking, the first person to use the term "language labora tory" was Waltz of Ohio State University (22:13). The laboratory fell into disuse in the 1930's, the heyday of the "reading method." Delattre, in the spring of 1944, experimented with a method that was audio-lingual in all 73 but the name; he called it "aural-oral." In the 1940's laboratories were established at Coe College, the College of the City of New York, the Universities of Princeton and North Carolina, and others (22:13). The United States Army at first used discs rather than audio-visual materials. A real step forward was the mirrorphone, followed by the wire recorder. The greatest progress was made in 1946 with the invention of the magnetic tapes, paper-coated, with particles of iron oxide. A few years later a plastic base replaced the paper, and the way was clear for the remark able development of the tape recorder (22:14-15). The rapid advance in electronics technology and mass production of the tape recorder accelerated the growth of language laboratories, which are essentially a combina tion of a tape recording device plus sound-proof booths, with a monitored control panel. The first language laboratory as it is used today was established by Hayes at Louisiana State University in 1945-46 (22:13-14). However, Koekkoek claims that the first Modern Language Journal description of the use of the language laboratory called specifically by that term was at Wayne State University in 1948. At any rate, the language laboratory and its spread is a post-World War II develop ment which was stimulated by the Army language teaching program during the war (154:4-5). The January 1959 issue of the Modern Language Journal carried a number of articles 74 on this subject. Koekkoek speaks of its advent (46:4-5); Roertgen, of its functional aspects (242:6-10); Pimsleur, of its functions (223:11-15); and Locke, of ideal equipment for the lab (165:16-18). Morton, in 1959, discussed at length the language laboratory as a teaching machine (349). Mustard and Tudisco surveyed 253 language departments in fifty-seven colleges and universities on the instructional use of the labs and found that they were being used prima rily for oral drill, with the student working alone or being supervised by a laboratory assistant (203:332-340). Smith argued against the use of tape recordings in the laboratory, and even went so far as to question the alloca tion of large sums of money for the lab, at a time when teachers were trying to get more money for the basics in education (255:75-77). Giuliano, in 1961, supported this claim that aural-oral proficiency could be obtained without the use of labs (112:171-173). On the other hand, most of the literature favored the use of the laboratory as new methods and techniques were reported. Mathieu presented a brief guide to sound labmanship (173:123-126); a study by Allen at Ohio State University reported that use of the lab gave higher scores in reading, vocabulary and grammar, but no difference in oral performance (46:355-358). Special texts relating to the effective use of the language laboratory began to appear. In 1960, Stack 75 wrote The Language Laboratory and Modern Language Teaching (41); and in 1961, Holton, King, Mathieu and Pond produced a valuable practical guide, Sound Language Teaching: The State of the Art Today (23) . Many other valuable guides continue to be published, directing the teacher in the effective use of this aid to language learning. As articles proliferated, Cioffari cautioned that the language lab did not offer any miraculous solution to language training, but did help to concentrate training on language as language (79:3-9). Newby suggested a modified lab library system, whereby the student would borrow tapes for individual lessons, and thus use the lab as a library, copying the lesson for himself on a two-track tape, and thus keeping down costs (210:267-278). Matluck contested this idea, calling the system impractical and more expen sive than the true library system, and suggested that a good console be obtained for the lab, that entire classes be brought to the lab once or twice a week, and that it be used on a library basis for individual outside work (178: 20-22) . Barrick cited the techniques used at a 1961 Summer Language Institute to provide variety in achieving language laboratory success (55:361-365). Gaudin, emphasizing the fact that by 1962 a school without a language laboratory was like one without a library, gave lab techniques for use in advanced work (109:79-81). Mathieu introduced the use of the pause lever as a key to self-pacing (174:40-43; 76 176:318-321). Charest, in relating the language laboratory to the human element in language teaching, decried the use of the lab for experimentation and research on one's students, and stressed the fact that the most important use of the lab is for additional practice of what is already understood and has been partially practiced in class (75: 268). Moore reported on the success of the language labor atory when used with junior high school classes (198:269- 271). Spencer found that foreign language speaking test scores were not affected significantly by the use of disc or tape recordings (257:207-208). Pirtle described MIRD, a new multiple response device in foreign language learning (224:39-40). Turner suggested a new occupational classifi cation: language laboratory director (272:151-154). Reactions against the electronic gadgetry were voiced occasionally. Zeldner, in 1963, reviewing the history of the audio-lingual method in New York City schools, concluded with an argument for direct teaching, asserting that language laboratories frighten teachers away from the classroom (291:245-253). Kirch, in the same issue of the Modern Language Journal, adds that the language laboratory could not replace the teacher with machines, and discussed its strengths and limitations (152:256-260). The language teaching world was rocked and divided by a report issued in 1963. Keating's A Study of the Effectiveness of Language Laboratories, commonly known as 77 "the Keating Report," was used to prove that language laboratories are not really worthwhile and that expendi tures should not be made for them (149:189). The purpose of the study was to find out whether students who used the laboratory (however defined) were, or were not, superior to those who had no laboratory work. The conclusions were (1) that the laboratory groups are better than non-laboratory groups in speech production; (2) that, as practice in the laboratory continued, speech production diminished; and (3) that intelligent students suffer as a result of the use of the laboratory (149:192). The traditionalists immediately seized upon this report to justify their opposition to the language laboratory and all the new-fangled gadgetry of the audio-lingual approach; the modernists rallied and criti cized the report in a symposium published in the Modern Language Journal in April 1964 (149:189-210). Keating was taken to task for reaching conclusions on the basis of a small sample, and for using tests that were not really designed to measure the audio-lingual skills stressed in the language laboratory, for widely distributing prelim inary results that were misleading, and for his inadequate description of the language laboratory (258:1-7). On the other hand, the "Lorge Report," a New York City investiga tion, was cited for its important conclusions that (1) laboratory students gain just as much traditional skill as those in standard classes plus added ability in the 78 speaking skills, and (2) a well-operated language labora tory can make a positive contribution to the development of graphic and speaking skills of students (149:193-194). The MLA Cooperative FL Tests, which measured the audio-lingual skills based on the new methods, were not yet available (149:210). The Lorge Report pointed up the fact that speaking and listening skills were new objectives of for eign language study and showed how the lab could be used effectively (168:409-419). Green, criticizing the report, cautioned people in reading the results not to jump to conclusions, stating that it was incumbent on laboratory researchers to interpret their findings conservatively and to report all but incontrovertible findings as tentative at best (115:367-369). Lorge replied to this criticism, asserting that the article and findings were justified (167:369-370). Reviewing the controversy on language laboratories, Neidt and Hedlund reported on student reactions to the high school language laboratory. The results suggested that different lab activities may be more effective for teaching different languages at different levels of difficulty; Lorge had found that different language skills are learned at each level of language difficulty. They cautioned that there was a lack of statistical evidence for their conclu sions, and that further research in that area was indicated (208:471-475) . Locke predicted the growing importance of 79 the language laboratory, the use of binaural and stereo sound, and the increased application of programmed instruc tion. He concluded that the student would become more independent of the teacher, and that with greater emphasis on the visual, the teacher would do less "live” presenta tion of factual material, and more advisory and consulta tive work (164:294-304). With some 10,000 laboratories in the nation, and with better results being obtained as teachers develop skills, it would appear that the language laboratory will grow in influence and that it will remain an integral part of audio-lingual language teaching. Audio-Visual Aids In postwar language teaching, the stress on audio visual aids has moved from the purely cultural, informa tional and appreciative to the linguistic phase (137:266- 267). Whereas supplementary materials, generally called realia, were used to teach culture and supply additional experiences for the student, the audio-visual aids today are integrated into the total program of foreign language teaching. Evidence of the importance of such materials is shown by special departments for audio-visual in the professional journals, a good example of which is that edited by Sanchez, in the Modern Language Journal. Radio broadcasts have long been used in the classroom. Huebener reported a successful 1952 New York City Board of Education weekly radio series, "Say It in Spanish" (142:203). Felt, 80 in 1953, suggested the adaptation of radio to language teaching, in recording for classroom use the short-wave broadcasts, in foreign languages, especially those of the "Voice of America" (100:432-438). Rosen, as early as 1957, listed a variety of audio-visual materials available for the audio-lingual method, including films and filmstrips, records and tapes based on texts (244:313-319). It will be noted that this was a few years before texts were issued with co-ordinated tape, records and other audio-visual aids. Decker, in 1958, indicating that a variety of approaches is the sine qua non of high school language teaching, claimed that there is no one method, unless one chooses to call it an "eclectic" method. The teacher should be skillful in varying the course by using audio visual aids. To this end, he should know how to use the 16-millimeter sound projector, the tape recorder, the filmstrip projector, the opaque projector, the slide projector, and the phonograph. He cited many ways of adapting audio-visual techniques to language instruction (87:69-77). Borglum, in 1958, reported on the Modern Language Audio-Visual Project at Wayne State University, a pilot program with the first purpose of producing the materials for an integrated audio-visual course in begin ning French, designed for one year of high school or one semester of college. Materials consisted of a textbook, 1,200 color slides, forty 15-minute tapes, and a voluminous 81 teacher’s guide (62:325-328). Huebener, stressing the value of mechanical devices and urging that they be used more generously for the enrichment and more effective teaching of foreign languages, nevertheless emphasized the fact that nothing can replace the personality of a live teacher (137: 266-267). Previtali showed how the objective of fluency might well be reached by the use of foreign language films (234:171-176). Poka warned teachers in 1962 to beware of some of the latest tapes and audio-visual materials based on old textbooks (225:510-511). Siler suggested the use of French newspapers for accelerated high school classes (252: 412-413). Pond lauded the overhead projector as a language teaching tool (233:30-33). In 1966, Monod-Cassidy, writing about the "new audio-visual student," noted that children must be prepared psychologically to understand the new techniques that the new tools, such as language labora tories and television courses, require (196:15-18). There is little doubt that audio-visual aids and techniques are part of the equipment of the modern language teacher. TV and Programmed Instruction The advances in technology following World War II were rapidly adapted to the teaching of modern foreign languages. Broadcast television showed great promise and was immediately hailed by almost all as a panacea that would revolutionize language teaching. Raymond cited three 82 1952-53 series of TV programs designed to teach foreign language on television: "Spanish is Fun," on WFIL-TV, Philadelphia; WBHM-TV, sponsored by the University of Rochester; and WBEN-TV, produced by New York State Univer sity at Buffalo (238:227-230). Harvey used his experiences in the French language laboratory as a guide to preparing a 13-week series of broadcasts, "French for Travel," over WHAM-TV, University of Rochester. Dialogues developed in the lab were acted out over TV; the audience would practice the dialogues with the students in the televised laboratory scene (129:282-289). Interest in the television medium grew to such an extent that the Modern Language Journal published a conference report in November 1954 on problems of TV teaching such as budgeting, length of series, props and realia, singing, dancing, dramatics, and publicity (190:372-377). This investigator wrote and produced a summer 1955 TV series over KTHE-TV, University of Southern California, entitled "French is Fun." In 1959, Kern discussed the value of television in classroom activity (151:264-265). Nostrand, in the same year, reported on a six-month French course and program, "French for the Family," which was individualized with a "Viewer*s Guide," and aired over KCTS-TV, an educational TV station housed on the campus of the University of Washington (213:387- 388). Wilkins, in a program sponsored by Tulane University and the Ford Foundation, taught Spanish in the Fall 83 semester 1957-58 over Station WYES-TV, an educational TV station in New Orleans (289:393-395). A major development in classroom teaching via television was the MPATI (Midwest Program on Airborne Television), which in 1961 involved 3,000,000 students throughout the nation in 7,500 elementary and secondary schools. Part of this instruction was in French and Spanish (248:50-53, 67-69). Closed-circuit television was used in a laboratory school at Eastern Michigan University, in the Fall of 1960, to help prepare classroom teachers, as reported by Gauerke and Cardew (110:69-70). Elam discussed the advantages and disadvantages of the South Carolina statewide program in 1963, which involved a network of microwave and coaxial cables; part of this program con sisted of 30-minute daily lessons in French carried to 164 high schools (95:2-6). The extent of the development of TV teaching for FLES was revealed in a symposium on TV teach ing papers presented at a 1963 meeting of the Central States Modern Language Teachers Association (273:207-219). Najem detailed the successful program in Wausau, Wisconsin, which combined the resources of the Marathon County University Center, the Correspondence Division of the University of Wisconsin, and the local commercial TV station, WSAU, in presenting a French high school corres pondence course for two and one-half hour periods weekly. The major interest centered in an experimental group at 84 Tripoli High School. This resulted in better aural-oral proficiency by the students, a good experience for the teacher, higher grades and superior classroom performance of the experimental group, with the recommendation that teachers be taught television techniques as part of their institute training (206:313-315). A survey by this inves tigator revealed that television teaching is now being successfully carried on in many areas, over commercial stations, educational TV, and vis closed-circuit television networks in individual school districts or in shared programs. While television teaching has not necessarily been greeted with universal acclaim, it is accepted today as part of the teaching program. The use of the teaching machine and programmed learning is another very recent aspect of modern technology which is rapidly coming to the fore. The source book for information on this subject is by Lumsdaine and Glaser (1960) (30). In 1962, Hanzeli reported twelve projects going on in programmed learning in French (126:587-589). Newmark discussed the system’s approach to help relieve the national teacher shortage and especially the problems of the foreign language instructor in California, using dramatic motion pictures for programmed learning materials (350). Chavy, in revealing a process of automatic transla tion from Russian to English, discussed attitudes to be taken toward automatic translation (76:383-387). Mueller, 85 in 1966, summarized the results of the trial use of a program developed under Title VI, NDEA, showing that a foreign language can be learned using a tape recorder for the programmed learning sequence (201:345-352). With Niedzielski, he successfully used the ALLP (Audio-Lingual Language Program) as a system of programmed instruction in summer 1963, NDEA Language Institutes, at the Universities of Florida and Massachusetts, and in summer 1964, at the University of Massachusetts and at Arcachon, France. These trials established the feasibility of teaching a greater number of students without an increase in staff, with the goal of attaining permanent native-like pronunciation habits (202:92-97). While programmed learning is still in its beginning stages, it shows great promise for applica tions to foreign language learning and teaching. Testing The changed emphasis on the study of modern foreign languages called for better measuring instruments to cover the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It became quite obvious that the old reading- oriented tests were inadequate to measure the new skills. Progress toward this goal was gradual. In 1950, Lado gave a clear idea of what he meant by linguistic science and how it could contribute to language testing, citing his exploration of the use of linguistics techniques and his 86 findings in the tests of English as a foreign language, with implications for foreign language teaching and testing (156:75-82). Brooks in that same year, in answer to teacher criticism of the College Board Achievement Tests in French, stated that teachers must write a concise statement of objectives and methods of teaching French (67:141-148). Schenk reported on Cheydleur's tests for the evaluation of teaching (40) . Walsh, in 1953, presented ways to improve the College Board Reading Tests, noting two new areas of testing: (1) the inclusion of cultural or literary skills, and (2) a direct testing of oral-aural skills, including a discussion of the difficulties of oral-aural testing (283: 19-22) . Buechel opted for quality control in determining language proficiency, comparing the problem with that of quality control in business, and set up rating standards in comprehension, vocabulary, pronunciation, reading ability, syntax, and expression on a 1-5 scale, with an overall rating index on an 0-6 scale, also setting up a student performance record (69:41-47). Mueller and Wiersma, in reporting on a 1960 program of experimentation in Associ ated Colleges of the Midwest, found a relatively high correlation of speaking test scores with grades, and concluded that speaking ability is emphasized in foreign language instruction in colleges and that relative compe tence in speaking is reflected in course grades assigned by instructors (200:353-355). In 1958, Carroll and Sapon 87 published a modern language aptitude test, designed to explore the general ability to learn a foreign language (295). The December 1960 Modern Language Journal carried the announcement that the MLA had contracted with the U. S. Office of Education to produce tests in four skills (listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing) in French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish. The project was headed by Walsh and Brooks, and the tests were produced through the Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. Bree, in 1962, reviewed the development of the College Board Achievement Tests in French, and analyzed the listening and the reading comprehension tests, the mechan ics of the test development and the procedures for constructing tests to measure achievement in line with the current techniques for audio-lingual testing (65:119-124). Just as important as tests to measure student achievement was the development of an adequate instrument to measure the proficiency of teachers and advanced students. As a result of the vigorous campaign of the Modern Language Association Foreign Language Program, begun in 1952, the Steering Committee formulated in 1955 the definitive statement on "Qualifications for Secondary School Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages" (see Appendix D), which was subsequently endorsed for publication by the MLA Executive Council, the Modern Language Committee of the Secondary Education Board, the Committee on Language 88 Program of the American Council of Learned Societies, and the executive boards or councils of fifteen modern language associations and AAT's (American Associations of Teachers of French, German, and other languages). In the spring of 1959 the means to develop nationally standardized qualifi cations tests for teachers of foreign languages were imple mented under a contract between the United States Office of Education (NDEA Title VI) and the Modern Language Associa tion, with Starr as project director. The Qualifications Statement became the guide for the range and spectrum of test batteries. Tests were developed in Listening Compre hension, Speaking, Reading, Writing, Applied Linguistics, Culture, Civilization, and Professional Preparation. Tests were developed in French, German, Italian, Russian and Spanish, covering the seven competencies. These tests are known as the MLA Proficiency Tests for Teachers and Advanced Students. During 1960-1963, a total of 9,858 examinees were tested, with 132,692 tests administered through the Educational Testing Service (259:31-42). By means of these proficiency tests, a new standard was developed by which the competency of teachers could be judged. Evaluation of the results would then lead to improvement of teacher preparation programs. This was a major step for the profession. Related Developments 89 Foreign Languages In the Elementary School The expansion of language offerings in secondary schools was stimulated by the rapid burgeoning of language study in the elementary schools. Foreign languages in the elementary school, or FI£S as it is commonly called, is not really new. Some classes were known to exist in the early 1800*s. Cleveland, Ohio, in 1922, is believed to be the first major school system to start FLES. Los Angeles City Schools began a program in 1942, primarily to bring under standing among ethnic groups; San Diego started in 1945 (344:16-18). However, serious attention to the problem was called for by Earl J. McGrath, U. S. Commissioner of Educa tion, in a 1953 conference on "The Role of Foreign Languages in American Schools," when he proposed that instruction in modern foreign languages be offered in the lower grades of elementary schools, because (1) more Americans should be able to use a foreign language, (2) the best place to reach large numbers of our future citizens is in elementary schools, and (3) languages should be begun in the early grades because children learn then most easily and most precisely (170:115-119). A 1961 policy statement of the Modern Language Association set forth: "We believe that foreign language in the elementary school is an essential part of the long sequence— ten years or more- 90 needed to approach mastery of a second language in school" (159:16-18). Glaude, in 1961, proposed beginning junior high school language study in the seventh and eighth grades rather than in the ninth grade (113:269-274). Andersson, in the following year, outlined a blueprint for foreign languages, with the program to begin ideally in the kinder garten, or in the first grade at the latest. Thus students entering college would have fluency and control of the language, and college degree requirements in languages would be raised in proportion. This program would call for a more efficient teacher-training program (49:116-117). Hayden and Fishman, studying the problem of the impact of exposure to ethnic mother tongues on foreign language teachers in American high schools and colleges, concluded that the "two worlds" of foreign languages do meet, and showed that roughly 19 million, or 11 per cent of the American population, had a non-English mother tongue in 1960. Many of these persons might be used for teachers of foreign languages (131:262-274). An entire issue of the Modern Language Journal, March 1965, was devoted to a symposium on bilingualism and the bilingual child (263). The impact of the FLES idea in California has been noted above; the Casey Bill of 1961 made it mandatory for foreign language instruction to be given in California schools starting no later than the sixth grade (214:13-16). The impact of the FLES program is undoubtedly great; it still 91 needs to be evaluated carefully. There is no doubt, how ever, that secondary enrollments in foreign languages will be increased because of earlier language study, and that the secondary curriculum will be upgraded, with consequent need for better preparation of teachers not only for elemen tary but for secondary teaching as well. Peace Corps The establishment and growth of the Peace Corps has brought the study of foreign languages to the fore on an extended basis. In 1961-1962, there were ninety-one Peace Corps Training Projects, almost all of which involved foreign language instruction (220:169-174). According to Shea, by the end of 1963 there were more than 7,000 Peace Corps volunteers serving in forty-eight countries, and it was estimated that there would be 12,000 in 1964. Approxi mately 40 per cent of the typical Peace Corps program was devoted to language instruction; the average program lasted twelve weeks, with 300 hours devoted to language. Since the Peace Corps administration demands first-quality language instruction, this is another challenge to the profession (250:299-300). Calvert reported on the inten sive training and good results obtained in a typical program at the University of New Mexico (70:319-323). The importance of the language aspect of the Peace Corps was stressed in an entire issue of the Modern Language Journal devoted to the Peace Corps (192). 92 State-Level Foreign Language Supervisors One of the important consequences of Title III of the NDEA, according to McGrath, was not only the acquisi tion of useful hardware, but increased leadership at the state level, and a new spirit of cooperation between colleges and public schools (308:13-14). This increased leadership at the state level is frequently traceable to the person who is variously referred to as state foreign language supervisor, coordinator, or specialist. The position was nonexistent in most states before the enact ment of the NDEA. In 1957 only New York and two other states were providing this service to the foreign language profession (120:91). The NDEA also had much to do with the creation in 1959 of the National Council of State Super visors of Foreign Languages (NCSSFL), whose membership includes also foreign language specialists in the Instruc tional Resources Branch, Office of Education. By 1964, NCSSFL had extended its membership to forty states. Its areas of influence are many. In 1959, the last year for which complete figures are available, there were 2,686,086 public school pupils in foreign language programs, kinder garten to high school. This compares with 528,529 students in all the junior colleges, four-year colleges and univer sities, public and private; there appear to be five times 93 as many students in foreign language at the pre-college levels as in all the institutions of higher learning in America. With regard to sheer numbers, the potential influence of the state language supervisor seems enormous. In addition, state supervisors have been involved with the Modern Language Association and with higher education. Two-thirds of them have been active in NDEA Institutes, many as demonstration teachers, others as guest lecturers, and some as consultants in the planning of institute programs. They have worked closely with the Modern Language Association Language Program Research Center on a number of projects and have collected and tabulated foreign language enrollment data from the elementary and secondary schools of the various states. They have helped to conduct surveys by supplying necessary information (120:92). Between 1958 and 1964, well over 4,000 language laboratories, costing over $15 million, have been installed in the nation's public schools. In addition, hundreds of thousands of reference books, tapes, portable recorders and other types of equipment have been bought for schools with matching funds under Title III of the NDEA. As the legally responsible state official to approve grants for counter part funds available to schools under Title III, most foreign language supervisors are directly involved in the selection and approval of items purchased through NDEA (135:3-6) . 94 The influence of the state foreign language super visor on curriculum is great. Nearly every supervisor edits a news bulletin which brings up-to-date information to teachers and administrators of the state. In addition there are curriculum bulletins and other types of constant communication, written and oral, between the supervisors and foreign language personnel. Another important aspect of the supervisor's work is that of representing the foreign language program to non-language educators, both through their own office and in liaison with the National Education Association Department of Foreign Languages. The supervisor is in a unique position to help co-ordinate the efforts of all groups which are working to improve foreign language instruction, for he has contacts with FLES programs, teacher-training institutions, certifica tion authorities, local school administrators, national testing services, the U. S. Office of Education, the Modern Language Association, and many other agencies and organi zations (120:93). Drawing upon this variety of experiences, the NCSSFL members as a group have attempted to define in a positive way the basic considerations for providing good foreign language instruction in the elementary and second ary schools. Their recommendations, reported in 1965, were used in part in drawing up the questionnaire used in this study (120:93-94). 95 Typical of the work of the supervisors is a report of Green which, in addition to listing techniques for supervisors in the classroom, gives a checklist to evaluate a teacher's competence, especially in connection with the audio-lingual method, as developed by the State of New York. This includes (1) knowledge of the use of the language laboratory; (2) professional activities, such as attendance at NDEA Foreign Language Institutes; (3) membership in the Modern Language Association and other professional associa tions; (4) the reading of professional literature; and (5) the teacher's constant effort to improve his own competency via course work or workshops (116:366-368). Jones takes issue with some of Green's remarks, calling for more academic freedom for the teacher and freedom from "snooper- vision" (146:154-155). It appears that the role of the state foreign language supervisor is becoming increasingly important. Professional Meetings and Conferences The question has often been raised as to why there is not one united voice to speak for the language teaching profession. Although the workings of the professional language organizations are outside the scope of this investigation, reference must be made to the contributions of national and regional organizations in advancing the techniques and 96 methods of teaching modern foreign languages. On the national level there are three professional groupings: (1) the Modern Language Association, (2) the Department of Foreign Languages of the National Education Association, and (3) the National Federation of Foreign Language Teach ers Associations. It is interesting to note that Parker, Mildenberger, and McGrath, who spoke up for the language teachers, were not foreign language specialists (241:94- 102). The Modern Language Association has been most im portant in developing the foreign language program. The work of the AAT's, especially the American Association of Teachers of French, whose journal is the French Review, and that of the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, which publishes Hispania. has helped to advance the profession. In addition to the national organizations already mentioned and to the professional meetings and conferences which they sponsored, the regional conferences and meetings have been important. An idea of their importance can be gained from the fact that the Kentucky Foreign Language Conference has developed during the past sixteen years into such a significant meeting of teachers of languages that it has attracted scholars from all over the world. Another continuing annual meeting of special interest, because it deals with practical problems of the profession, is the Northeast Conference. Since 1954, it has published the 97 informative Reports of the Working Committees (298). There are many other state, regional and national gatherings, conferences, and meetings which continue to contribute to the growth and development of language teachers and the profession. Literature on Teacher Preparation Survey of the Literature The preparation of foreign language teachers has been a constant source of concern for the profession. In a classic volume of the Modern Foreign Language Study, published in 1929, Purin showed that the foreign language teachers, as a class, were poorly equipped both in the fundamentals of their subject and in the theory and techniques provided by practice under supervision. Less than 25 per cent of the modern language teachers enjoyed opportunities beyond the college years, except as were provided by summer sessions. Only a little over 30 per cent of the teachers had ever visited a country where the language they taught was spoken. One-third of the teachers surveyed had not yet had three years of teaching experi ence. At that time, thirty-six states still were issuing "blanket" certificates authorizing the holder to give instruction in any subject in the secondary school curric ulum. Of 777 colleges, 39 per cent of the usable replies showed no organized curriculum to train foreign language 98 teachers. Purin urged that courses in phonetics and in the technique of the teaching of grammar be offered, and that less time be spent in writing and more on reading, in keep ing with the recommendations of the Coleman Report (15). According to Purin, every effort should be made to develop a spontaneous desire for self-expression in the language and therefore composition should be preferred to the translation into English of foreign language texts. Oral and aural training should begin on the first meeting of the class and should be developed consistently throughout the secondary school and college course. There should be special classes for oral practice, with special facilities for such practice. Purin also found widespread neglect of oral training in many colleges; a clear majority of the 541 teachers replying charged this to (1) overlarge classes, (2) too much ground to cover, and (3) lack of speaking ability by the teachers. There was much difference in opinion about courses in literature. It was generally agreed that the history of the language should be part of the first year of college work. Travel and/or study abroad was recommended. As for education courses, a total of fifteen semester hours in education and psychology was deemed adequate, the courses to include the principles of secondary education, educational psychology, the psychology of high school subjects, tests and measurements, observa tion and practice teaching. A further recommendation was 99 that a properly qualified representative of the modern language department should be placed in charge of the training of its prospective teachers: (1) to evaluate the candidates as to their fitness for teaching modern lan guages; (2) to advise them in the proper choice of courses; (3) to give the course in foreign language teaching tech niques and methods; and (4) to be chiefly responsible for recommending the candidates for teaching positions (38). Much of the emphasis on teaching foreign languages was influenced by the fact that much of the teaching was not of modern languages at all. Anderson and Eliassen in 1931 reported that a survey of twenty-three studies involv ing 98,464 teachers over a period of thirteen years showed that there were more teachers of Latin than of all other foreign languages combined; that French had a relatively slow but steady growth since 1890; that German enrollments, which dropped in 1915-1922, had increased 220 per cent from 1922-1928; and that Spanish had decreased in popularity (47:166-172). Colleges were teaching traditional classical literature, emphasizing translation into English; many classes were conducted in English. Bond, in 1937, surveyed California teachers to determine their opinion of specialized courses. Sixty-five teachers of foreign languages of 1,339 who returned the surveys reported that their courses were mostly general. Half of the courses which they rated as useful were in 100 grammar, literature, and general language. Twenty-five listed courses in English and history which proved to be of value; twenty-five listed courses in mathematics and science were rated as having little value. Three-quarters of all teachers who submitted data relative to the value of college courses in foreign languages as they prepared to teach them in high school indicated that advanced under graduate courses were of high importance. Nearly 15 per cent of all teachers felt that graduate courses offered only slight professional help, but superior teachers evidenced less enthusiasm about all undergraduate courses in foreign languages than did all other teachers. All teachers were in agreement that their preparation should include more contact with contemporary economic, social, scientific and recreational affairs and that their college experiences should develop understandings of the social significance and interrelationship of the various elements of human life (9). Pargment declared that, if college teachers were to prepare good secondary teachers, they themselves must be we11-prepared. Writing on the preparation of college teachers, Pargment in 1944 called on the teacher-training institutions to broaden the requirements beyond the mere Ph.D. so as to train college teachers as teachers first and scholars afterwards. He called for a course in methods, supplemented by observation and under supervision. The 101 teacher should have a well-rounded knowledge of the foreign tongue, correct pronunciation and oral command, knowing literature, and being able to relate it to modern times. He must be familiar with the country and its people, so that he can acquaint students with the civilization and culture of the people (219:75-86). He responded sharply to Potthoff, as they quarreled about the amount of preparation to be given to foreign language teachers, and who had called for more teachers to study Latin than modern foreign languages (218:457-462). Tharp, in 1946, reviewed the development of various methods, including the natural or direct method, the read ing method, and Coleman's new type "direct-reading" method. Since the Modern Language Study had been unable to estab lish dependable data on the superiority of any recognized method, he concluded that the crux of the postwar situation was the preparation of teachers, the need for workshops, inservi.ce institutes, summer study, and travel in the coun tries whose languages were being taught (267:413-426). Johnston described a 1943 inservice training program for Spanish teachers, when Spanish was introduced into the elementary schools of Los Angeles. After a symposium for all teachers, principals and supervisors, an instructional guide was prepared, of which 4,500 copies were distributed. Elementary, secondary, and adult education teachers were asked to help. Phonograph records and pictured vocabulary 102 prints were prepared as visual aids for each grade. Teacher institute sessions were held in each section of the city to stimulate interest in Latin-American cultures. Spanish was taught in 301 elementary schools (144:129-130). Engel, decrying the apathetic or negative attitude toward foreign language study in reports issued just after World War II, cited the three charges frequently heard against foreign language teaching: (1) the disparity of lack of standards in the preparation of foreign language teachers; (2) the consequent disappointment in the results of such teaching; and (3) the utterly irrational and waste ful part played by foreign languages in the schools. Engel predicted the growth of foreign languages and the increase in language offerings in the schools, and further suggested the learning of both an active and passive vocabulary in a given language (96:162-167). Peacock, in 1949, told of a gradual lessening of the foreign language requirements in teacher-training institutions, showed the discrepancies between the number of teachers and the demand, and asked the public to demand that teacher-training institutions prepare more foreign language teachers (221:31-35). Freeman, in 1948, called for a new nationwide look at the status of teacher education in modern foreign languages. Describing in clear terms the minimum compe tencies of such teachers, he suggested ways to secure these competencies in high school teachers. He agreed that the 103 conclusions of the Purin report were still valid for 1948. He urged that there should be more study of foreign languages in the high schools. In response to the ques tion, "What is the ideal program for the preparation of a language teacher?" he answered: (1) a thorough training in the pronunciation of the foreign language; (2) acquisition of oral facility in the language should be speeded by conducting all or nearly all of the classes in the foreign language; (3) a complete familiarity with the grammar and syntax of the language, to an advanced stage; (4) a thorough knowledge of the foreign country and its civiliza tion, from all aspects; (5) an ideal course of training to stress the development of ideas, the contributions to a western culture which is also our own, the growth of various interpretations of man and society; (6) an adequate introduction to the special methods and techniques of teaching modern languages, preferably the teacher's major language; and (7) continuing inservice training (106:255- 267) . Freeman called for a Committee on Teacher Recruit ment, Training, and Placement in each of the AAT's and in the National Federation. At its 1948 meeting, the Federa tion voted to appoint such a nationwide cotrsnittee; the AAT's endorsed the action and agreed to cooperate with this committee rather than to establish separate groups. Purin, appointed chairman of the Committee, opened the campaign 104 for a nationwide look at the competencies of foreign language teachers. Asking for cooperation in determining the appropriate minimum standards and presenting them to state legislatures, he persisted in pointing out that the crux of the situation lay in competent and satisfied teachers, happy and economically secure in their chosen profession (237:335-338). Del Toro commented on the arduous task of foreign language teachers, whose preparation is more difficult than that of teachers of other subjects (90:317-318). Fliess listed good ideas for student teachers (103:298-301). An editorial in the April 1950 Modern Language Journal on the basic preparation of the language teacher listed the following: (1) the ability to speak, understand, and write the language; (2) the ability to read the language; (3) the ability to understand the language as spoken by the natives; (4) learning to write the language; and (5) taking courses in literature and related tasks that would bring about world understanding (157:317-318). Angiolillo, in 1951, suggested ways to organize a teacher-training course in modern languages: (1) a limited amount of listening, selected reading, class discussions and projects; (2) perusal of new language texts; and (3) drill experience with mechanical aids. The second semester would include demonstration lessons based in lesson plans, and arrangement for talks by guest speakers (52:248-252). 105 Kaulfers, the next year, speaking of retooling the profes sion in the light of modern research, told teachers of languages that they could take pride in belonging to a field with more documented research and experience to draw on than most other subjects combined. With this in mind, teachers would keep up with research, organize courses of study in terms of graded "consumer values" or "surrender values" in such a way that each unit might serve as an inviting steppingstone to higher levels of achievement and still be worthwhile in itself. He spoke of "class-workshop periods" and urged teachers to cooperate with one another (148:501-522). Esposito, observing the presentations, methods, and techniques of both foreign born and American born teachers of foreign languages in colleges, believed that the ideal college language teacher must be a combina tion of both; added to the requisites of energy, enthusi asm, and patience, he must possess several other essentials (97:93-95). These same qualities may well be applied to the high school teacher. In 1952, Reynolds outlined the eight core units in a methods course for teachers at Texas Technological College: (1) the teaching of foreign languages, general; (2) the psychology of language learning; (3) classroom teaching procedures and techniques; (4) FLES; (5) the materials of instruction; (6) planning; (7) tests and grades; and (8) extra-curricular activities (239:184-185). 106 Despite the great interest of the profession in teacher preparation, there have been few doctoral studies in this area. Lynn, in 1953, studied the professional preparation of secondary school teachers in thirty colleges and univer sities in sixteen north-central states (343). In that same year, Freeman wrote on the improvement of teaching and teacher training, stressing (1) the need for recruiting the best pupils for the teaching profession; (2) the develop ment of better programs of teacher training; (3) the insistence on better training in French civilization; (4) the importance of a period of study in France for every teacher; (5) the need for a better definition of the correct program of training for teachers; and (6) the desirability of a good inservice training period (105:348- 350). Lopez-Morillas called for widening the preparation of Spanish teachers beyond ’ ’scholarship," to include more general education (166:142-143). The deliberations of the UNESCO Seminar resulted in recommendations in 1958 that the preparatory program should include time spent in the foreign country; that centers for curriculum materials in the languages should be set up in the state departments of education or in the universities and colleges which serve certain areas; and that an exchange of publications and teaching materials from one country to the other should be provided without cost 107 (6:880). To determine the most effective practices for self- improvement of senior high school foreign language teach ers, Campbell surveyed language directors, state superin tendents of public instruction, and teachers in forty school systems. He found that they needed to improve in the following respects: (1) ability to speak foreign languages; (2) general cultural background and knowledge of the country whose language they taught; (3) travel, study, and residence abroad for a minimum of one year, residence preferably with a native family; (4) increased contacts outside of school with native speakers of the language; (5) improvement of methodology by placing more emphasis on reading, writing, and grammar; and (6) an organized con tinuous program for self-improvement (12; 71:277-279). Huebener, in a 1935 survey of the professional alertness of 800 foreign language teachers in the junior and senior high schools of New York City, showed that, in comparison to teachers of Spanish, the average teacher of French traveled more, that a greater proportion of these teachers held ancillary licenses (to teach other subjects), wrote more articles, read more foreign publications and professional journals, and that the foreign language teachers were generally well-equipped, active and professionally alert (140:3-6; 141:567-568). Teachers themselves began to encourage the study of 108 modern foreign languages. An outgrowth of the operation of the Texas Plan to encourage the study of foreign languages was submitted to teachers. It included the use of existing machinery and organizations, such as the AAT's, radio programs, bulletins, and lay support (41:89-92). New interest was evidenced in summer language courses; the Modern Language Journal for May 1954 listed thirty-nine American colleges and universities with special summer language schools designed primarily for teachers (41:244- 245) . Purin repeated his monumental survey of 1929 twenty-five years later (236). The study was completed under the auspices of Ohio State University and the results reported by Tharp in 1955. Part I was on the academic preparation of modern language teachers and included data in terms of the semester or quarter system, the number of credit hours in major and minor subjects, the quality of preparation in subject matter courses, general education requirements for prospective language teachers, and requirements in language courses. Schools showed little attempt to evaluate the oral proficiency of teaching candidates. New tendencies were evidenced: (1) a rapid growth in listening-practice laboratories in colleges; (2) some increase in the travel-study projects which took students to foreign countries; and (3) the tendency of language majors to elect minors in the allied subjects of 109 English or social studies, a factor giving strength to teacher preparation (265:279-289). Part II of the Survey elicited 201 usable replies. They indicated that the usual state certification laws required some general professional training apart from special training in the subjects taken as majors or minors. This included general psychology, educational psychology, general methods, history of educa tion, philosophy of education, school administration and management, principles of teaching, principles of guidance, tests and measurements, adolescent psychology, audio-visual education, curriculum, mental hygiene, and health educa tion. Larger schools tended to combine the areas of special professional training, and to give courses on the professional duties, rights and privileges of the teacher. The report ended with the recommendation for summer work shops for teachers to provide a new vitalized approach to the problem of good professional training (266:391-403). Myron, in 1956, told how to modernize methods courses so that foreign languages would be taught so as to justify their position in the curriculum. There should be less emphasis on credits, degrees, and honors to be earned, and more on the command of skills to be acquired. Student teaching would become a scrutinized training in the exer cise of an art, not simply a hurried, haphazard apprentice ship, in classroom drill. Teachers should be administra tive-minded, and keep up to date with syllabi, curricula, 110 and catalogues (204:161-166). So that other teachers would be aware of the hearing-speaking-reading-writing sequence and know that the leadership in language teaching was clarifying the desira ble qualifications of its members, Andersson reported in School and Society on the work of the Steering Committee on Qualifications of Language Teachers (51:41-43). Wagner, discussing the merits of American versus native language instructors (1956), pointed out the relative strengths and weaknesses of both (268:354). Johnston announced three major forward steps rela tive to teacher preparation: (1) Referring to a 1957 circular of the Department of State that each foreign service officer was, within the space of five years, to master two foreign languages, she noted the urgency of accelerating the teaching of foreign languages in the "New Key.” (2) She referred to Brooks, who reported the new Yale University Master of Arts in Teaching Program, and urged that besides a well-balanced education and appropri ate professional training, the modern foreign language teacher must acquire (a) language competency, presupposing achievement of many years’ duration; (b) insight into the theory of language; and (c) special training in classroom procedure. (3) The third achievement was a brave experi ment with new materials and methods, the Modern Language Audio-Visual Project (145:163-166). Ill Azarian warned that a prospective teacher should not undertake the study of more than one language, unless he is proficient in one and can become proficient in the other, and suggested a minor in a field related to the language major in preference to not learning a second language well (1960) (53:5-6). Santuosso called for a sharper definition of what makes a good foreign language teacher. The AAT's should be the first to point out the need for subject matter courses and be in the vanguard of opposition to "methodology" courses. More "know" and less "how" should be their motto. He asked that foreign language teachers be more vocal on specific professional problems (247:151-152). A conference in December 1959 at the annual meeting of the Modern Language Association in Chicago discussed three central questions: (1) How do curricular needs differ for potential secondary-school and college teachers? (2) What liaison can there be between the teachers colleges or schools of education and the liberal arts schools? (3) Who should assume responsibility for checking audio- lingual proficiency? It was concluded that better curric ulum planning had to be preceded by a better recognition of the need of the trainees in relation to the whole educa tional structure, that there were really two different situations: the recognition of the ideal situation and the immediate emergency situation. The latter could be met 112 through the choice of materials of teaching among the vast resources available. Better articulation between high school and college personnel in foreign languages would help the instructor of teaching candidates to be in a better position to determine their language needs. A ques tionnaire would be sent out to reveal the present status of the problem and help channel more directly future aspira tions (348) . Childers reported the results of a survey of teacher education curricula in modern foreign languages in 1961. Included were 959 general and liberal arts colleges, state and private universities, as well as 99 institutions designated as teachers colleges or colleges of education. He found that in regard to practices concerning foreign language methods courses in graduate schools, graduate credit was allowed in 63.1 per cent of the institutions reporting; 83.8 per cent of the replies showed that the course was taught by a modern foreign language member of the graduate faculty; and 76.7 per cent of such courses were open to graduates and undergraduates. In regard to the type of supervisor, 44.5 per cent of the respondents reported that it was done by the high school classroom teacher; 40.7 per cent by the education department's supervisor; and 14.8 per cent by the modern foreign language department's staff member. Audio-lingual compe tency of candidates was tested by 79.5 per cent of the 113 institutions (304:153-164). With the growth of interest in preparing teachers at the elementary and secondary level came a reappraisal of the preparation of college and university language teach ers. Stein, in 1961, reviewing the Ph.D. program in languages, and the emphasis on the scholar-teacher, recom mended that the graduate student should have a teacher preparation course in his first year, teach an elementary course the second year, and be ready in the third year of graduate study to assume responsibility for two undergradu ate sections. This would entail more professional prepara tion for the college and university scholar-teacher (260: 2-4). Stanford University inaugurated a unique program for future language teachers leading to the master's degree and including a year's study abroad. Supported by the Ford Foundation, this course was open to majors in Chinese, Japanese or German beginning in the junior year. This marked a new educational trend to integrated undergraduate and graduate training leading to the Ph.D. degree (104:220- 222). Nachtmann reported a training program at the Univer sity of Illinois, which made the usual conferences in teaching methods auxiliary to a demonstration class taught by a member of the staff, with graduate students taking turns in teaching the class. The course, titled "Teaching of College French: French 405," helped to standardize procedure, tell what skills were to be emphasized, and what 114 techniques were to be used. The need for demonstration was all the more true when the audio-lingual method was empha sized. This observation-class arrangement served to provide a technique for those who need it, to improve techniques for those who needed improvement, and to stand ardize procedure for all (205:11-13). In respect to class, laboratory and credit hours in beginning modern languages, Mayo, in 1962, surveyed fifty colleges and universities. She found (1) that instruction facilities in New York and elsewhere varied for beginning languages; (2) that there was a general tendency (90 per cent) toward longer periods of instruction in beginning courses; (3) that there was no constant ratio between class, laboratory and credit hours; and (4) that laboratory facilities were available in 87.5 per cent of the institutions surveyed, and their use was mandatory in 72.5 per cent of them (180:23-25). Balakian made a three-part survey for the United States Office of Education of certification requirements for modern foreign language teachers in American public schools, 1959-1960. She found that California had the highest official requirements: 36 credit hours in the major, including six graduate hours, and 20 hours in a second foreign language, if offered as a minor. The audio- lingual emphasis depended on the teacher-training institu tions. There was a trend not to increase credit-hour requirements, but in the responsibility for accreditation 115 of applicants from State Certification Boards to the insti tutions of higher education occupied with their training. Many cities had requirements in excess of state require ments (54:20-35). Kolbert and Mastronie (1962) enunciated the continuum concept in modern languages, based on the discus sions of the Modern Language Panel of the greater Pittsburgh region. Recommending that foreign language programs begin in or before the fifth grade, they went on to outline a program for the specialist in languages. In regard to teacher qualifications, they recommended the following: (1) teachers should be encouraged to start language study early; (2) the college should give the teacher knowledge of the language and related culture and civilization; (3) colleges must offer training in modern language methodology; a general course in education is not adequate; (4) colleges should see to it that only those properly equipped be encouraged to become language teach ers; (5) foreigners who teach their native tongue should have adequate knowledge of the educational system, culture, language and teaching methodology of American schools; and (6) the attention of school boards and administrators should be called to the need for cultural exchange between the United States and other countries (155:315-321). Carpenter, noting that more than one-third of American foreign language teachers had by 1963 been afforded the 116 professional training of NDEA foreign language institutes, suggested a source of language teachers for American schools abroad; native teachers should be invited to teach in American classrooms, but there should be definite screening procedures (72:189-191). Andersson, in 1963, called for the cooperation of teacher-training institutions and state departments of education in making a complete revision of procedures for the preparation and certification of teachers, by basing a teaching license on demonstrated proficiency, however this proficiency may have been acquired. He cited the fact that the MLA Proficiency Tests for Teachers and Advanced Stu dents were a reliable measuring instrument that was already in use in six states, and was being seriously considered for use in three others. In New Hampshire, where they were required of all teachers, there was a 100 per cent volun tary response. He alluded to the need to develop objective criteria of a teacher's professional competence. In view of the considerable advances that had been made in the field of modern languages, there were three possible courses for obtaining qualified language teachers: (1) attract increased numbers of teacher candidates into teaching by organizing more flexible teacher-training programs based on proficiency, however acquired; (2) uti lize more than before the large reserve of foreign language speakers in the United States; and (3) develop more 117 extensive teacher exchanges with countries whose languages are taught (48:231-235). An important forward step in standardizing teacher- education programs was made in December 1963 at a confer ence convened for that purpose by the Modern Language Association. A document was drawn up which identified and clarified acceptable standards of preparation for institu tions training elementary and secondary school teachers of modern foreign languages. The criteria dealt with (1) selection of students, (2) the training of the future teacher, (3) his knowledge and skills, (4) the content of an approved training program, (5) additional provisions for travel and study abroad, (6) qualifications of staff per sonnel, (7) certification of the candidate's ability by the institution, and (8) procedures for evaluation of the effectiveness of teaching programs. This document served as the basis for further refinement and clarification (193:308-310) (see Appendix E). Valdman called for a redefinition of the teacher's role and teaching context in foreign language instruction, explaining the contributions of the linguists, analyzing and criticizing the "linguistic" method, which he also called the "intensive" method, evaluating programmed instruction and the language laboratory, and concluding that if foreign language is not to degenerate into the mere imparting of skills, that it must have transcending values. 118 The mere learning of skills is not enough. The teacher must transmit positive attitudes toward language as a cultural phenomenon and provide insights into the language learning process, in order to help develop in our youth "a sense of values, personal, human, social--so that they may become discriminating, free individuals" (278:275-284). A landmark in the field of teacher preparation is the conference report prepared and edited by MacAllister on "The Preparation of College Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages." Known as the "MacAllister Report," this promises to exert a great influence on college teacher- training programs. The conclusions on evaluation are most relevant to this study: (1) that the MLA Proficiency Tests be taken again when the student proposes to begin his teaching career: the proficiency must be measured when it is to be used and not at some time in the past; (2) the teaching profession must move with urgency toward the establishment of national professional standards (as a first step, command of the four language skills should be evaluated by the MLA Proficiency Test for Teachers and Advanced Students before a prospective teacher is entrusted with a college class) ; and (3) that a project be undertaken to arrange for and finance the experimental administration of the MLA Proficiency Test in four language skills, on the largest possible scale, to college majors in the relevant languages at a time near graduation and to graduate 119 students toward the end of one or two years' residence (169:13-14). Twaddell, to whom a draft of the report had been submitted, made certain assumptions about the begin ning language teacher, adding that the teacher needs overt, consciously systematic knowledge of the theoretical bases of modern language teaching methods and their practical applications in teaching materials and classroom proce dures, a mature understanding and more systematic organiza tion of facts about culture; and a demonstrable competence in all foreign language skills (169:14-15). A report of this nature and magnitude could not fail to influence the preparation of teachers in elementary and secondary schools. The provisions of the report relative to under graduate and graduate preparation are applicable to all foreign-language students, majors or minors, and thus are directly related to any study of the preparation of language teachers, on whatever level. Soon after the publication of the MacAllister Report, a seminar for college teachers of French, German and Spanish was held at Indiana University, with MacAllister and Valdman as co-directors. Part of the Indiana Language Program (ILP), a unique ten-year program at Indiana University designed to extend and improve all aspects of foreign language learning in the schools of the state, the seminar brought together junior rank members of French, German, and Spanish departments of the larger universities 120 who were directly concerned with the supervision or organi zation of language instruction to impart to them the new findings of linguistics, psycholinguistics, and psycho metrics. One of the divisions of the instructional program was that of methods of language instruction. A lecture series gave an integrated coverage of important new devel opments in the field. Daily demonstration classes illus trated the application of the latest teaching techniques. The Report of the Seminar, published by Smith, gave wide distribution to the ideas of this project, and made it possible for others to put these ideas into practice. The experience of these leaders, living and studying together, helped to reinforce the standards urged by MacAllister (352) . The idea of short-term summer seminars to insure that teachers be kept up to date was urged by Conant (18:207). McKinney recommended inservice training, and discussed the application to such problems as language and linguistics, psychology and methodology, and the help of the state language supervisor with problems of staffing institutes and workshops. He decried the fact that the vast majority of the language teachers take the master's degree in professional education rather than in language (171:483-486). National interest in teacher preparation grew in 1964, as a result of a document prepared by Paquette and 121 Hemsi for use in five regional conferences sponsored by the Modern Language Association in cooperation with the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Educa tion and Certification. This was based on the MLA State ment of Qualifications of Teachers of Modern Foreign Lan guages (351) (see Appendix D). Walsh made known the re sults of a survey of the academic preparation and teaching experience, the teaching load, and the degree of profes sional involvement of public and private school foreign language teachers. Of those responding, 25.6 per cent had attended a National Defense Language Institute; 39.9 per cent had had summer study aside from institutes; exactly half had traveled in countries whose languages they taught. The national average for participation in other inservice training was 20.5 per cent; 46.3 per cent of the teachers belonged to some foreign language organization; 54.6 per cent attended foreign language conferences; and 68.2 per cent read professional journals. Apparently, California did not participate in this survey (285:352-356). In the fall of 1963, the Modern Language Association initiated a study of the preparation and certification of public school teachers of modern foreign languages, co ordinated and directed by Paquette. The two primary objectives for the study were (1) to bring information on current practices up to date, and (2) to determine how professional activity could best be focused in order to 122 improve teacher preparation and certification. The initial phase to accomplish these objectives consisted of three surveys: (1) undergraduate teacher-training in liberal arts colleges; (2) undergraduate teacher-training in schools and colleges of education; and (3) modern foreign language methods courses in undergraduate teacher-training programs (216 :424). The first survey was answered by the chairmen of 335 foreign language departments in 244 colleges in 47 states and the District of Columbia. As to course require ments in liberal arts colleges, 70 per cent had equal semester hour requirements for majors intending to teach as for majors not intending to teach; 29 per cent indicated that they would not recommend a person who minored in a language to teach it. Department chairmen were asked to indicate which courses were required within and outside the major department. This list was consulted in preparing the questionnaire instrument used in the present survey. As for methods courses, 69 per cent required a methods course for teacher trainees; 29 per cent did not. Insofar as schools of education were concerned, 18 per cent indicated that students could major in a modern foreign language in the school of education, while 76 per cent said they could not. Prospective teachers in 83 per cent of the depart ments participated in practice-teaching programs; 15 per cent had no practice-teaching program; 20 per cent had 123 neither observation nor conducting of language laboratories as specific features of the practice-teaching program. Some practice-teaching programs did not follow a set pattern. In regard to plans for changes In teacher-training, 38 per cent of the chairmen indicated that plans were under active consideration for changes in their teacher-training programs; 52 per cent had no immediate plans for change. Seven types of change were being considered more than others: (1) adding proficiency tests for those planning to teach; (2) developing teacher-training programs within the foreign language departments; (3) developing teacher- training programs in cooperation with the school or college of education; (4) seeking a joint foreign-language- education staff appointment to direct teacher training; (5) adding student-teaching supervised by the foreign language staff; (6) increasing the time allowed for professional preparation; and (7) adding a modern foreign language methods course. The survey concluded with the observation that many liberal arts colleges were keenly aware of their responsibilities in some areas of teacher preparation. It appeared also that considerably more attention could be given to evaluating individual foreign language majors, segments of teacher-training programs, and entire programs. It likewise appeared that there was room for improvement in the co-ordination and supervision of practice-teaching 124 programs to enhance the professional quality of beginning teachers (216:424-431). The second survey in the series on undergraduate teacher-training programs in schools and colleges of educa tion appeared in November 1965. It was difficult to find directories which distinguished clearly between liberal arts colleges and schools or colleges of education. There fore, the directory of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education was consulted. Of its 634 members, 189 had been included in the first survey, and therefore only 445 institutions were contacted, plus 60 schools of education which had been identified in the first survey. Chairmen of departments were asked to supply information on course requirements, practice teaching, and future plans for teacher training. Of 235 chairmen responding, 46 indicated that they had no modern foreign language teacher- training program; of 29 schools of education chairmen responding, 15 reported the same programs as in the first survey. There remained usable responses from 203 depart ment chairmen. As for the use of MLA Proficiency Tests, 82 per cent reported that they did not require proficiency tests in a language taken as a teaching major; 16 per cent indicated the use of various tests, including MLA Profi ciency Tests for Teachers and Advanced Students; others indicated the Graduate Record Examination, the MLA Coopera tive Classroom Tests, the College Entrance Examination 125 Board Achievement Tests, a combination of MLA Proficiency Tests and CEEB Tests, MLA Proficiency Tests and Graduate Record Examinations, and Iowa Placement Tests. Two depart ments did not name the examinations used. The list of specific courses for teacher training was used in developing the survey instrument used in this study. Responses to questions about courses in methods of teaching modern foreign languages indicated that 79.8 per cent of the departments offered a modern foreign language methods course. Of these, only 59.6 per cent required majors to take this course. In 93 per cent of the depart ments the foreign language teacher trainees participated in practice teaching; however, in 10 per cent of the programs there was no specific provision for conducting the language laboratory or observing high school language laboratory procedures. In 5 per cent of the programs no one from the foreign language department or from the education depart ment observed the student teacher. In 43 per cent of the programs, members of both staffs observed the student teachers; only a foreign language specialist observed in 13 per cent of the programs; only an education specialist in 38 per cent. Variations in the pattern for practice teach ing suggested in the questionnaire were reported by 30 per cent of the chairmen as follows: (1) All teacher education candidates in modern foreign languages complete a methods 126 course of eighteen weeks, during which they observe eighteen classes, prepare lesson plans, do demonstration lessons, participate in the laboratory school teaching, operate the language laboratory equipment, and teach five lessons. All language majors and minors spend nine weeks off campus in a public school district in a full-time teaching assignment where they have the full day teaching responsibility for at least four weeks. (2) A teacher- internship program in which the student spends an entire semester in a school assisting the regular teacher for pay, taking education courses during another semester or during a summer session. (3) The use of a specialist to supervise student teaching. (4) An intern program for exceptional students enabling them to do their practice teaching as "regular" staff members adequately supervised by master teachers and paid by the school in which they are teaching. (5) College minors in French are accepted as apprentice teachers. (6) Foreign language student teachers also teach and observe in English or a second foreign language if competent. (7) Student teachers teach full-time for a full quarter, off-campus. (8) Students doing practice teaching use all their holidays to visit junior and senior high school classes in their home towns during their junior and senior years. (9) The student teacher works in a student- teacher center (one of nine high schools linked with the college). (10) Prospective teachers be used as laboratory 127 assistants in the college, running the machines, correcting pronunciation, and carrying on drills. Flans for change in the teacher-training program were reported by 46 per cent of the chairman. Changes Included specific plans for increasing foreign language offerings, the use of proficiency tests, the addition of methods courses, the development of comprehensive teacher- training programs by the entire college, changes intended to provide training for F1ES teachers, and the development of a Master of Arts in Teaching program. Other comments included the encouragement of more study abroad, the crea tion of a Foreign Language Curriculum and Development Center, standardization of pre-service programs for foreign language teachers, and team teaching. It was difficult to note significant differences between the teacher-training programs in schools of education and in colleges of arts and sciences in the same universities. The results of this survey tended to support the conclusions of the previous study. Paquette concluded that the profession needs to focus its attention on the problem of relating theory (the modern foreign language methods course) to practice teaching and the adequate supervision of this teaching. The profession still faces a serious problem in trying to provide adequate information about the competence of future members of the profession to certify ing agents and prospective employers (217:414-421). The 128 results of the third survey, modern foreign language methods courses in undergraduate teacher-training programs, have not yet been published. Kelly, in a 1965 doctoral study of the teaching of Spanish in Indiana public schools, presented a composite picture of the typical teacher of public high school Spanish. Indiana had recently raised the professional requirements for secondary teachers to make them, quantita tively at least, the highest in the nation. A five-year program of preparation included 50 semester hours of liberal education courses, 18 of professional education, 48 semester hours of Spanish if it was the major teaching field, 32 semester hours if a minor. A wide range of con ditions existed. Of 578 public high schools in Indiana in 1963-1964, 25.6 per cent offered no foreign language at all. Only 34.3 per cent of the teachers had a full endorsement to teach Spanish; 20.9 per cent were fully certified in the major; 13.4 per cent permanently certified in the minor. Of the teachers of beginning classes, 57 per cent reported that they used the audio-lingual method. If they had attended NDEA Institutes, they were more likely to use the audio-lingual method. Hallman had reported earlier that 11 per cent of the high schools had a language labora tory; however, 50.6 per cent of the teachers said they had a language laboratory; 16 per cent noted that students had records for home study. Courses taken, as reported in rank 129 order, were: (1) Principles and Problems of Secondary Education, (2) Advanced Spanish Grammar, (3) Educational Psychology, (4) Introduction to the Teaching Profession, (5) Spanish and/or Latin-American Culture and Civilization, and (6) Language Methods Class. Since the new regulations of the Commission on General Education required every commissioned high school to offer a foreign language, Kelly concluded that (1) there was a need for co-ordinated inservice training programs; (2) there was a need for an intensive retraining program for female teachers on return ing from leave; (3) the foreign language institutes of the NDEA were very useful in keeping teachers up to date on teaching methods, as was the Indiana Foreign Language Program; (4) the academic departments bore a greater burden of recruiting and training teachers of Spanish; (5) teach ers needed to immerse themselves in foreign culture; and (6) more teachers should teach Spanish full-time, perhaps teaching part-time in two schools to accomplish this (150:42). Grew's article, "A la recherche d'une Profession Unie," criticized the college teaching idea of leaving first-year classes to teaching assistants, and of the "publish or perish" philosophy. He noted that, although many members of the American Association of Teachers of French were in the elementary and high schools and that the college representatives did not give leadership to the 130 10,000 members, not one editor of the French Review repre sented that group. He suggested that (1) teachers be appointed to professorships who are primarily classroom teachers rather than scholars, whose classes are alive and exciting, who are winning converts in their field and interesting them also in other cultures and civilizations; (2) language departments offer courses in areas other than pure literature for language majors, such as a course for French majors that would examine French contributions to the arts other than her great writers, such as courses given in the foreign language on France's position in today's world and contributions in science and mathematics; and (3) recognition be given at commencement to great classroom teachers, like actors who don't write plays, and virtuosi who do not compose music. If one university would state categorically that it was interested in cultivating excellence in the classroom as well as brilliance in research, teachers would soon enjoy the same esteem as doctors or lawyers or engineers (117:479-482). Heiser proposed a course in methods of teaching a foreign language for teaching assistants at the University of Washington, and offered the following definitions to clarify teaching objectives : Approach -- a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language and the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It states a point of view, a philosophy, 131 an article of faith -- something which one believes but cannot necessarily prove: Method -- an overall plan for the orderly pre sen tatTon~of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural; Technique is implementational -- that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. Techniques depend on the teacher. (342:1) The program, devised for a total of twenty class hours, meeting twice a week on the quarter system, included the following divisions: (1) introduction and definitions, (2) applied linguistics, (3) approaches and methods, (4) testing, (5) classroom techniques, and (6) demonstrations with text (324:1-8). Stone and Robinson described the Teacher-Internship Program established at the School of Education at the University of California at Berkeley. It was based on the principles (1) that the professional preparation of teach ers should be a joint responsibility of the university and the public schools, (2) the university's responsibility for the preparation of teachers should be shared by the academic departments and the education department; (3) theory and practice should be related to each other; (4) multiple programs of teacher education are needed within an institution; and (5) experimental approaches to teacher 132 education are needed. The structure of the program being planned included three phases: (1) the preparation for internship teaching; (2) the year of internship teaching; and (3) the post-internship experience. The proportion of foreign language majors in the program grew from 4 per cent in 1952 to 14 per cent of the total of interns in 1961. The curriculum included (1) professional content (theory to be presented), (2) seminars integrating theory and practice, and (3) classroom experiences for interns. A spiral curriculum was developed around the seminars. Professional content consisted of (1) learning and the learner, (2) the school in American society, (3) growth and development, (4) history and philosophy, and (5) curriculum and instruction. These essential elements of the internship program were designed to influence the regular program: (1) a four-year liberal arts degree program with professional education reserved for the fifth year; (2) integration of theory and practice in a professional curriculum which embodies insti tution and school district cooperation; (3) a team or "package” approach to teaching and supervision throughout the entire professional sequence; (4) a reorganization of professional content along some other basis than compart- mentalization of separate courses taught by separate instructors; and (5) high academic, personal and profes sional standards for admission to and retention in the program (311) . 133 In 1966, Brooks outlined the ideal preparation of foreign language teachers and proposed a new discipline: language instruction, not language learning. The criteria for the selection of candidates included not only good character, fondness for children and adolescents, and evidence of academic achievement, but in addition something of the missionary's altruism and of the amateur actor's exuberance. Prerequisites were (1) an undergraduate major in an appropriate subject area, (2) a recognized and meas ured degree of competence in the four language skills of the target language, and (3) a period of residence in the target culture, either within the foreign country itself or an authentic cultural island. The period of concentration, essentially a graduate program, comprised eight different fields of study: six disciplines relating to the framework and background, techniques and procedures, plus didactics and technology. The six disciplines for a period of concentration included (1) philosophy, (2) philology, (3) literature, (4) psychology, (5) linguistics, and (6) cul tural anthropology. Didactics was divided into two principal sections: one comprising courses appropriate for any candidate preparing for a teaching career, such as the history of education, the philosophy of education, and educational psychology; and a second directly concerned with instruction in the foreign languages and all that related to it, including objectives, course content, 134 materials, classroom dynamics and techniques, tests and measurements, as well as matters pertaining to the profes sional growth and development of the teacher when he enters service. To this must be added technology--experience with the installation and use of technological devices as aids to instruction. Also to be considered as part of the ideal preparation of the language teacher was the qualifying examination (the MLA Proficiency Tests), internship under supervision, and adherence to a code of ethics (68:71-78). Dannerbeck proposed that all elementary and second ary teachers of modern foreign languages be required to take a three-unit methods course at the graduate level after at least one to two years of teaching experience, when they will have gained a new perspective from class room teaching. The course should include topics recommended by the Modern Language Association for undergraduate meth ods courses: (1) the nature of language; (2) applied lin guistics; (3) approaches to teaching modern foreign lan guages; (4) the use and evaluation of teaching materials; (5) the effective use of instructional media; (6) culture and its teaching; (7) research and language teaching; (8) professional orientation; (9) the role of foreign lan guages in general education; (10) on-the-scene observation; and (11) tests and measurements (85:273-274). Reviewing the history of the successful new testing program which took as its starting point the definitions of 135 proficiency and qualifications for modern language teachers formulated by the Steering Committee of the Modern Language Association in 1955 (Appendix D), Politzer cited the need to supplement the existing battery by tests which would measure not the teacher's preparation for teaching languages, but his actual performance in the classroom. This would be accomplished by (1) the use of a currently applied rating scale; (2) the objective measurement of the efficiency of the language teacher in terms of the perform ance of his pupils; (3) the use of the Cooperative Tests of Pupil Achievement as pre-tests as well as post-tests in third-year courses or above, or the construction of specific tests to measure specific audio-lingual curricula and approaches, widely used throughout the United States; and (4) application of the concept of "micro-teaching" to the retraining of foreign language teachers. This would result in the creation of a practice-centered training curriculum (pre-tests, two micro-lessons, and post-test). The author has developed a syllabus for the training or retraining of French teachers which points to a series of 25 five-to-ten-minute micro-lessons (232:251-255). The new ideas in teacher preparation have been quickly adopted and implemented at meetings of language teachers throughout the United States. Typical of the enthusiasm shown for the new methodology is that of the Conference of the California Council of Foreign Language 136 Teachers Associations at San Francisco in 1965 (336:1-7). The preparatory work of the last ten years is bear ing fruit in the enthusiasm and energy of language teachers who are applying the new methodology. Teacher-training institutions are taking new, hard looks at their programs and are planning revisions in order to update these programs to prepare good, efficient teachers of modern foreign languages. Qualifications of Teachers It was in the spring of 1955 that the Steering Committee of the Modern Language Association prepared a list of specific qualifications for secondary school teach ers of modern foreign languages (194:290-298; 195:361-363). This statement was subsequently endorsed for publication by the Modern Language Association Executive Council, the Modern Language Committee of the Secondary Education Board, the Committee on the Language Program of the American Council of Learned Societies, and the executive boards or councils of the leading national and regional associations. It was also given currency among other educators by being published in the Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (309), and in Parker's The National Interest and Foreign Languages (308) (see Appendix D). Those who subscribed to the statement hoped that the teacher of foreign languages would (1) have the personal 137 qualities which would make an effective teacher; (2) have received a well-balanced education, including a knowledge of American culture; and (3) have received the appropriate training in professional education, psychology, and second ary school methods. This document, by now "historic” in the development of foreign language education, attempted to define "superior," "good," and "minimal" qualifications of the foreign language teacher in seven areas: (1) aural understanding; (2) speaking; (3) reading; (4) writing; (5) language analysis (linguistics, applied linguistics); (6) culture; and (7) professional preparation (knowledge of methodology of language teaching). These seven areas have formed the basis for the development of proficiency tests and for criteria for judging the performance of teachers of modern foreign languages. The importance of this document cannot be overestimated. A further policy statement by the Steering Commit tee was on the foreign language degree requirement. Further policy statements have been issued on such topics as FLES, aural-oral emphasis, and teacher preparation, in the form of seminar or conference reports (121:10). The Qualifications Statement was followed up by the Modern Language Association staff with a series of studies and surveys relating to the preparation and certification of modern foreign language teachers. Others followed, conducted by Balakian, 1961 (54:20-35); Childers and others, 1961 (304) ; Serafino, 1961 (304); Walsh, 1964 (284:352-356); and Paquette, 1964 (216:424-431) and 1965 (217:414-421). In December 1955, the Modern Language Association called together 20 college and university department heads to discuss the preparation of teachers of modern foreign language. In their report the conferees stated their intention to undertake a systematic improve ment of their own programs of preparation of foreign language teachers (121:53-54). Dialogues with other educa tors were initiated, and in February 1956 a group of twelve persons advised on steps to be taken to promote more effec tive preparation of modern foreign language teachers (121: 55-56). Recommending the Modern Language Association for issuing the Qualifications Statement, they suggested that (1) methods of certifying teachers should guarantee ade quate preparation by including evidence of proficiency based on performance as well as upon credit hours; and (2) institutions of higher education set up programs to prepare teachers in accordance with the Qualifications Statement. They encouraged the profession to develop guidelines for approving such programs, recommending that certification by states be based upon satisfactory completion of these programs. This advice was accepted in a positive frame of mind by the Modern Language Association, and progress was made accordingly. Freeman, addressing the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of 139 the Council on Cooperation in Teacher Education in 1957, presented the following eight principles of effective teacher preparation: (1) All institutions preparing teach ers for the public secondary schools should define and set up specified programs designed to give future teachers the desired qualifications in their teaching field, to combine the features of a thorough liberal education, adequate training in the candidate’s academic specialization, and work in professional education. (2) Teachers of the major academic subjects in secondary schools and in colleges together with the learned societies in those fields should cooperate with the departments or colleges of education, the state authorities, and professional accrediting agencies to set up criteria for approving such teacher education programs. (3) Certification of a teacher by the state authority should be based upon satisfactory comple tion of such an accredited program together with specific individual recommendation of the candidate by the institu tion. (4) The institution should be responsible for appraising all the qualifications of a candidate--his character and personal qualities--as well as his profi ciency in all aspects of the program, and his readiness to teach, this recommendation to come from both the academic- major department and the education department jointly. (5) Before such official recommendation is made, the institution should be responsible for determining on the 140 basis of definite criteria and suitable tests the actual proficiency of the candidate, apart from the courses followed. The mechanical device of measuring competence by credit hours should be discontinued. Proficiency in any area should be accepted, no matter how acquired, whether by private study or personal experience, when substantiated by the proper means of evaluation. Conversely, recommenda tions should be withheld if subject-matter and teaching competence have not followed upon the accumulation of credit hours, or the acquisition of a degree. (6) Academic teachers and the learned societies are urged to define and state the qualifications of teachers in each field, as the Modern Language Association has done. (7) The program of the required fifth year of study, now becoming more common, should be divided between academic subjects and profes sional education, according to the needs of the student. (8) Required practice teaching should be conducted cooper atively by the education and subject-matter departments. Properly administered and supervised, it should assure preparation of a successful teacher (121:11-12). Guidelines for Teacher Education Programs The task of setting up criteria for approving teacher education programs was undertaken by the Modern Language Association in December 1963, when it invited nine college and high-school language teachers, two testing 141 specialists, a member of James B. Conant's team which studied the education of American teachers (18), three representatives of state education agencies, one profes sional educator, and a representative of the Carnegie Corporation to meet with the MLA staff in a discussion of modern foreign language teacher preparation with a view to developing criteria for teacher-education programs. The conferees issued a statement of Standards for Teacher Edu cation Programs in Modern Foreign Languages (see Appendix F). These criteria were referred to in the formulation of the survey instrument used in the present investigation. This conference also resulted in the appoint ment in the spring of 1964 of an MLA Director of Teacher Preparation. His task was to conduct specific studies of undergraduate teacher education, to advise teacher training institutions and state departments of education, and to direct a series of conferences for the purpose of developing guide lines for teacher-education programs. (121:15) In April 1964, the Modern Foreign Language Teacher Preparation Study of the Modern Language Association was begun. The study, prompted by an MLA-sponsored conference and approved by the MLA Executive Council in 1963, was planned to promote discussion of professional preparation within the foreign language teaching profession and between foreign language specialists and non-specialists. The five regional affiliates of the MLA and other related organiza tions were asked for assistance and cooperation. 142 In order to involve educational administrators responsible for teacher education in the United States, cooperation was sought from the State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification who had aided the American Association for the Advancement of Science in a similar study for science and mathematics. A series of conferences resulted in the issuance of reports and workpapers. At the 1964 annual meeting, members of the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEC) were asked to make comments and suggestions; by 1965 a tentative listing of guidelines for teacher- education programs had been prepared for further study. More than 500 members of the foreign language teaching profession and forty-six members of NASDTEC were involved in discussing and commenting on the guidelines. Drafts were sent to selected participants. After approval by the MLA Foreign Language Program Advisory Committee in 1965, the guidelines were approved by the president of NASDTEC and accorded organizational support. These guidelines are intended for use by colleges and universities in planning and conducting programs to prepare teachers of modern foreign languages, and for agencies that certify or license graduates of such programs. The guidelines do not attempt to specify numbers of hours, nor specific courses, but attempt, rather, to define the nature of the educational process which is 143 likely to attract and train future members of the profes sion. They are intended to be flexible and to permit necessary experimentation and innovation. As interim suggestions, they are designed to evoke reactions, sugges tions, and comments. Their publication, it is hoped, will lead to professional cooperation and action by agencies, institutions, professional educators, and academic special ists . The guidelines propose that (1) the preparation of the American school teacher include (a) general education, (b) academic specialization, and (c) professional educa tion; and (2) the modern foreign language teacher in American schools (a) develop in students a progressive control of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), (b) present the language as essen tial to the foreign culture and show how that culture is similar to and different from that of the United States, (c) present the foreign literature in such a way as to bring the students to understand it and appreciate its value, (d) make judicious selection and use of approaches, methods, techniques, aids, material, and equipment for language teaching, (e) correlate his teaching with that in other areas, and (f) evaluate the progress and diagnose the deficiencies of student performance. The minimal objectives for a teacher education program in modern foreign languages are based on the "good" 144 level of the Qualifications Statement given in Appendix D. Other features of the teacher-education program are found in the guidelines displayed in Appendix F of this study. Exposition of Part D of the Guidelines is set forth in detail in the October 1966 issue of the Modern Language Journal (121:22-41). Three major steps in improving the teacher educa tion program have been the "Qualification Statement" (Appendix D), the Standards for Teacher-Education Programs in Modern Foreign Languages (Appendix E), and the Guide lines for Teacher Education Programs in Modern Foreign Languages (Appendix F). California Certification Requirements Standards for teacher certification throughout the country have generally been given in terms of semester hours. Balakian in 1961 found that no state then required teachers of foreign languages to speak the language they taught j and that requirements in semester hours varied from 12 in Colorado to 36 in California. As for oral compe tency, no state had the machinery to test it. In New York, oral competency was judged by a written test (111:61-63). A 1954 MLA survey showed that only New York, Connecticut, and Washington, D.C. required recommendation for competency on the bases of written and oral tests in the modern language (6:880). 145 The £irst state to make certification possible through examination was Pennsylvania, which in 1961 gave examinations to foreign-born applicants for the purpose of certifying them to teach in its public schools. The screening consisted of a written examination on profes sional preparation and an oral and written examination to determine competence in foreign languages. Certification had to be approved by the State Council on Education. Languages now approved are Spanish, French, German, Italian, Russian, Lithuanian, Polish, Modern Hebrew, and Slovak. The program was expanded in October 1963 to include certification of all modern foreign language teach ers in Pennsylvania (111:63). There does not seem to be any trend toward the use of examinations elsewhere in the nation. Even though the Modern Language Association Profi ciency Test may be used by colleges and universities as part of their testing, and may also be used in California to satisfy a conditional requirement for a credential, the prospective teacher must build a full major or minor before obtaining a clear credential (344). Requirements for credentialing in California have been among the highest in the nation (111:61-63). Service in grades 7-14 has been authorized under the General Secondary Credential. In addition, teachers holding the General Elemen tary Credential in California were authorized to teach in 146 grades K-8. As early as 1906» a fifth year requirement for the General Secondary Credential was added to include a year of graduate study. Georgiades found that the basic rules for certification did not change markedly between 1915 and 1957; they required eight years of high school and college work plus a fifth year of graduate study (341:8). Although California requirements for a teaching certificate, known as a credential, have specified majors and minors, there has been no attempt to specify, outside of semester-hour requirements, the kind of preparation needed within the major or minor fields. That has gener ally been left to the individual teacher-training institu tion which certifies the candidates for the credential. Where candidates applied directly to the State Department of Education, the requirement for teaching was also satis fied in terms of numbers of credits or units in a major or minor field rather than in terms of specified subjects. In 1928, the General Secondary Credential required one major and one minor in subjects recognized by the State Board of Education as majors for graduation from high school. A major was defined as not less than 24 semester hours of college work, at least 12 of which had to be in the upper division. A minor consisted of not less than 12 semester hours, at least six of which had to be upper- division or graduate courses. Requirements included one full year of graduate work of not less than 24 hours, to 147 include six semester hours of work in education. In professional education, 18 semester hours of work were required which must include (1) a course dealing with the aims, scope and desirable outcomes of the secondary school, (2) directed teaching, four semester hours, and (3) such other courses as were recommended and approved by a school of education (341:38). The same liberal arts and professional requirements were in effect from 1935 to 1942 (341:44). The 1935 revised requirements stipulated: (1) possession of a bachelor's degree, (2) one full year of graduate work of not less than 20 hours to include at least six hours in education, (3) a total of 18 semester hours of work in a department of education, and (4) a major of not less than 12 semester hours. During the war years, with the shortage of qualified teachers, many provisional credentials were granted to teachers who failed to fulfill all the require ments. In 1951, the General Secondary Credential called for: (1) a four-year college course with a bachelor's degree, (2) 30 semester hours of graduate work, including six in professional education and six in subject fields generally taught in junior and senior high schools, (3) 40 semester hours of general education, (4) 22 semester hours of professional work in education, including six semester hours of directed teaching, and (5) a major consisting of 36 semester hours, and a minor of 30 hours (341:92). This 148 requirement of 36 hours in a major subject is the highest in the nation (111:61-63). Requirements for a major in foreign language speci fied Latin or a modern foreign language, which included reading and, with the exception of Latin, speaking the language; and additional preparation in the same foreign language to complete the major. A minor could be completed in Latin or a modern foreign language (310:2). Once he obtained a general secondary credential, a teacher was authorized to teach most high school subjects. Typically, a person wishing to become a teacher of Spanish would show that he had a general secondary credential; his transcripts to an employing school official would indicate that his major for degree purposes was Spanish; and it was then the responsibility of the employing school official to determine that the person was indeed qualified to teach the subject for which he was employed. A teacher might legally teach a subject for which he lacked adequate qualification. However, several studies have shown that well over 90 per cent of California teachers who possessed general teaching credentials were indeed teaching in their major or minor areas (345) . School boards often administered written or oral examinations to assure themselves of proficiency or to determine qualifications of teachers before hiring them. Under the Fisher and Rodda Bills, the designation of the credential was changed to Standard Teaching 149 Credential with Specialization in Elementary or Secondary Teaching. The requirements for an elementary credential were raised from four to five years of collegiate work. While the requirements for the secondary credential remained at a bachelor's degree plus 30 graduate units, the professional requirements in education were set as low as 17 semester hours. Formerly the holder of a general secondary credential was authorized to teach any subject except those in special fields, offered in the secondary school. Thus, a person with a minor, or even less prepara tion in a foreign language, could teach a modern foreign language. Under the new regulations, a teacher could teach only in the major or minor fields specified in the creden tial. Although normally the teacher would have a major and at least one minor teaching subject, he could obtain a credential by offering only one major. Semester hours specified for a major were not less than 24 hours of upper- division courses; for a minor, a minimum of 20 semester hours (310 :608-609). P r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n w a s r e d u c e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( 1 ) 1 2 0 c l o c k h o u r s o f a c t u a l t e a c h i n g i n a c o u r s e i n s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g , o r a n e q u i v a l e n t i n s u c c e s s f u l f u l l t i m e t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s o r i n p r i v a t e s c h o o l s o f e q u i v a l e n t s t a t u s i n C a l i f o r n i a o r e l s e w h e r e , a t l e a s t h a l f o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t o b e c o m p l e t e d i n g r a d e s s e v e n t h r o u g h t w e l v e ; a n d ( 2 ) t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l o r t h e 150 historical or philosophical foundations of education or any combination of these courses, (b) the psychological founda tions of education, and (c) curriculum and instructional procedures and materials used in teaching in the secondary schools. These are minimum requirements; many teacher- training institutions have set up their own standards which are often more demanding. As a result of the Casey Bill, there was a demand for more teachers of foreign languages, and in view of the shortage of qualified language teachers, the California State Department of Education in July 1963 added Group 6-- The Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential, sections 6302, 6345, 6346 and 6347 to the California Admin istrative and Education Code, to designate the requirements for the teaching of a modern foreign language, the language to be designated by name. The specific requirements for such credentials were the same as for the standard creden tials for elementary, secondary, or junior college teach ing. For elementary or secondary service, the candidate needed a major or minor in the language designated; for junior college teaching, a major in the language was required. Article 6.1, section 6347, is most important. It authorizes the granting of a conditional credential before September 1, 19 70, valid for two years, to an applicant meeting the following requirements: (1) Compe tence in aural understanding, speaking, reading, and 151 writing the foreign language named in the credential. This competence is to be demonstrated by one of the following procedures: (a) passing an examination covering each of the specific areas of competence in the language, such examination to be one approved by the Modern Foreign Language Association (or by any other organization or institution which might be designated by the Board) for ascertaining competence in those areas of language; and (b) successful completion in an approved institution of course work in the speaking, reading and writing of the language in an amount of not less than 30 semester hours, of which at least 18 are at the upper division or graduate level; (2) a four-year college or university course with a baccalaureate or higher degree from an approved institu tion; and (3) either of the following: (a) three semester hours of course work from an approved institution in methods and materials used in teaching the foreign language, or (b) successful completion of a program of instruction in methods and materials used in teaching the foreign language, provided the program is approved by a county superintendent of schools. This credential author izes the holder to teach the language in kindergarten and in grades one through fourteen, and in classes for adults. The credential is renewable after two years upon verifica tion of six semester hours of remaining required course work, and for another two years upon completion of 12 152 additional semester hours of remaining required course work. No renewal is to be granted after September 1, 1970 (209:29-30). In effect, this makes it possible to recruit many teachers who otherwise would not qualify, but it did serve to lower the standards of teacher preparation. The specification of a course in teaching methods is the first reference to special requirements in foreign language courses. Correspondence and personal interviews with officials of the State Department of Education and of the professional associations failed to reveal any other provision for specifying preparation in foreign languages, other than in terms of required course units (344, 345, 346). Apparently in California, as elsewhere, the specific requirements regarding courses is left to the discretion of the colleges and teacher-training institutions. The work of the Modern Language Association is bearing fruit; standards are beginning to specify that Modern Language Proficiency Tests be applied. This points the way to new standards of teacher competence that can be measured objectively and accurately. Although California requirements are stated in terms of majors and minors and semester hours, it remains to the colleges and teacher-training institutions to specify courses and to determine proficiency standards; their students are not recommended for the credential until they have met a series of rigid criteria. 153 Summary This chapter has reviewed and discussed the litera ture of the history of language teaching since 1900 as it pertains to the problem undertaken for study here. Follow ing an introduction to the pertinent literature, related writings on the following major topics have been reviewed: The Army Specialized Training Program; related research conducted since World War II; the Modern Foreign Language Program; the new interest in foreign languages; programs under the National Defense Education Act; and the contribu tions of linguists and psychologists. Writings on the following aspects of the methodol ogy of foreign language teaching have been discussed: methods, techniques and courses; texts; the language labor atory; audio-visual aids; uses of television and programmed instruction; and testing. Developments related to the background of the problem included such areas as the teach ing of foreign languages in the elementary school; the Peace Corps; state-level foreign language supervision; and professional meetings and conferences. The background literature on teacher preparation has considered the following aspects of the problem: teacher preparation; qualifications of teachers; guidelines for teacher educa tion programs; and California certification requirements. A knowledge of the historical development and of 154 the current situation in language teaching, methodology, related developments, and teacher preparation is essential to an understanding of the problem and its treatment. Chapter III explains the survey design and the procedures followed in carrying out the purposes of the investigation. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE AND DESIGN The procedures followed in carrying out the pur poses of the investigation are explained in the present chapter. Five major phases of the study are delineated herein: (1) background orientation to the problem, (2) development of a preliminary draft of the instrument, (3) evaluation and refinement of the instrument, (4) the survey procedure, and (5) analysis of the data. Background Orientation to the Problem Orientation to the problem consisted of several phases: (1) a review of the literature and research, (2) identification of pertinent areas of inquiry, (3) gathering of viewpoints basic to the formulation of the inquiry design, (4) interviews with language specialists, and (5) synthesis of the findings in terms of the investigator's experience. Review of the Literature and Research In order to ascertain the status of the problem, and to place it in its proper perspective historically and 155 156 In terms of current applications, a search was made of the literature on the history and methodology of modern language teaching, from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present. The results of this review were reported in the preceding chapter. Special emphasis was placed on the teaching of French and Spanish at the second ary level. Identification of Pertinent Areas of Inquiry The search of the literature and examination of results of pertinent research were conducted with the specific purpose of identifying the most important areas of possible inquiry for the investigation. The broad nature of the language-teaching field, and recent develop ments that have involved linguistics, psychology, and other disciplines required careful selection of materials specific to the problem. Gathering of Viewpoints Because language teachers, historically, have been individualistic and have tended to resist efforts to stand ardize methodology and pedagogical practices, an important part of the preliminary phase of the review of literature was the extrapolation of viewpoints concerning the nature, purposes and practices of the teaching of modern foreign languages. 157 Interviews with Language Specialists A more realistic and practical approach to the problem was gained by submitting the viewpoints gleaned from the literature to a select number of specialists In foreign language teaching for their reactions and criti cisms. Their names are listed in Appendix A. Synthesis of Findings as They Relate to the Design of Study The final phase of the review of the literature and research was the synthesis of the findings in terms of the investigator's own experience in foreign language instruc tion. Development of a Preliminary Instrument The procedures followed in the preliminary phases of the investigation, discussed in the preceding para graphs, contributed the information necessary to the formulation of a tentative questionnaire. This consisted of items noted during the course of the search of the literature, with the addition of questions posed by colleagues, and suggestions made by specialists. Tentative items were grouped according to the following headings relating to teacher preparation: (1) general education, (2) foreign language education, (3) supplementary experiences, and (4) assessment of teaching ability. The actual selection of the items was 158 made on the basis of frequency of mention in the litera ture . Evaluation and Refinement of the Instrument It was desired to obtain the assistance of a panel of specialists for the task of evaluating and refining the instrument. Selection of Panel of Specialists It was felt that the specialists consulted during the preparation of the preliminary draft of the question naire were sufficiently familiar with the purposes and design of the study, and with the actual items considered for inclusion in it so that they were qualified to serve further as judges in helping to select the items for final inclusion. Panelists are listed in Appendix A. A preliminary draft of the instrument was submitted either by mail or in person to each of the eighteen lan guage authorities. All eighteen expressed their critical judgments and made suggestions for the improvement of the questionnaire. On the basis of these comments and suggestions, revisions were made in the wording and arrangement of items, and some others were added. The questionnaire was then considered ready for use as a survey instrument. Copies were reproduced by the Xerox process and distributed to teachers of French and Spanish in 159 secondary schools of Southern California. A copy of the final form of the questionnaire is given in Appendix B. Administration of the Questionnaire Selection of the Sample Since the study was limited to teachers of French and Spanish in public secondary schools, an attempt was made to select a group of teachers who would be representa tive of the profession. A random selection of 200 names was chosen from the membership roster of the Southern California Chapter of the American Association of Teachers of French (AATF). A second random selection of 300 names was made from the membership lists of the Modern Language Association of Southern California (MLASC) from those teachers who indicated Spanish as their major language. In this way, no duplications were obtained. Questionnaires were sent via first class mail, with a stamped and self-addressed envelope enclosed, a cover letter indicating the purpose and importance of the study, and a check-off item requesting that those who wished to receive the results of the study might fill in with name and address. A follow-up card was sent out three weeks after the submission of the original questionnaire to those teachers who had not responded. A copy of this card is displayed in Appendix C. 160 Number of Responses Of the 200 questionnaires distributed to members of the AATF, 138, or 69 per cent were returned. Five of this number were from teachers in grades K-6, 15 were from junior college teachers, 9 from teachers in four-year colleges, and 26 from those in private schools— a total of 55, which were rejected as not usable within the delimita tions set up for the study. Remaining were 83 usable questionnaires received from public school teachers of French. Of this total of 83 usable returns from teachers of French, 7 taught French in junior high school, and an addi tional 7 taught both French and Spanish— a total of 14 junior high school teachers; 40 taught French in senior high school, and an additional 21 taught both French and Spanish--a total of 61 high school teachers. Five taught French in both junior and senior high schools, and an additional 3 taught both French and Spanish in junior and senior high school grades— a total of 8 teachers with experience in French and Spanish in junior and senior high school grades. Thus, 83 teachers, in all, were classed as teachers of French. Of the 300 questionnaires sent out to members of the Spanish section of MLASC, 215, or 71.6 per cent, were returned. However, of this number, 3 were returned by the post office as undeliverable, and 3 were returned 161 unanswered. Seven were from teachers in grades K-6, 12 from teachers in junior colleges, and 18 from those in private schools, leaving a total of 172 usable question naires. Of this number, 46 were teaching Spanish in junior high schools, and one was teaching both Spanish and French— a total of 47 junior high school teachers; 85 taught Spanish in high school, and an additional 7 taught both Spanish and French— a total of 92 high school teachers; 21 taught Spanish in both junior and senior high school grades, and an additional 12 taught both Spanish and French— a total of 33 teachers with experience in Spanish and French in both junior and senior high school grades. Many of the French teachers reported that they were teaching languages other than French or Spanish: 10 also taught German; 10 Latin; 6 English; 3 Russian; and 3 Italian. Spanish teachers also reported additional language competencies as follows: 7 also taught Latin; 3 German; 2 English; one English as a second language; and one Russian. Besides assignments in secondary schools, 3 French teachers also taught in junior college on a part- time basis, and one in a four-year college. Three Spanish teachers had additional assignments in junior college, while 5 taught also in a four-year college. In all, therefore, there were 255 usable question naires, of which 83 were from those classified as teachers of French, and 172 from those classified as teachers of 162 Spanish. Analysis of the Data The data were analyzed in two ways: (1) numbers and percentages of answers to all items were tabulated by computerization, and (2) written responses were classified, tabulated, and evaluated by the investigator. For the first process, a program for the Honeywell 800 computer was set up at the Computer Sciences Labora tory, University of Southern California. Percentages of response were obtained for various groupings in each category. Although in this report only data pertaining to certain categories were used (all French teachers at grade levels 7 through 12, all Spanish teachers at grade levels 7 through 12, and a combined total of these two groups), data were also obtained for a number of additional groupings (teachers of French in junior high school, teachers of French in senior high school, teachers of Spanish in junior high school, teachers of Spanish in senior high school, teachers of French and Spanish at each level, teachers of Spanish and French at each level, teachers of French and Spanish in private schools, and teachers of French and Spanish in junior colleges). On the basis of the analysis of the findings, conclusions were derived and recommendations offered. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS Introduction Preliminary inspection of the data, as classified, indicated that teachers' responses were strikingly similar for both types of appraisal requested in the questionnaire: (1) the extent to which listed items had been helpful in the teacher's own preparation, and (2) the relative impor tance of each item for teacher preparation generally. Analysis of both types of responses revealed such close similarity in numbers and percentages between "help fulness” and "importance” ratings that the decision was made to forego detailed comparisons between the two, and to report only the findings pertaining to importance. It can be assumed, therefore, that throughout this presentation of the findings as they pertain to the importance of items a corresponding rating occurred with respect to the helpful ness of the item in the teacher's own preparation. The data for both types of response are summarized without comment or further interpretation in Table 1. 16 3 m I k 0 1 w < \ \ is si H h H « u J 0 9 ' < OH h 2H w § a 3 u a u q < z u h o a OH M 4 U 4 u X b 0 HO H d u 4 8 3 « 8 g g b d 4 3 £ 4 u a 48 4 H d o « *£ b o i i e £ I I (I d 4U 0 H d 0 n Z £ d W l § “ 3 II Z 8 f i 0 d * |l u £ 4 u d 4 4 II fi, H « d f c b W N 8 0 g o m ii g t 1 t t * i lb II vOfrN NOO d U vO (N d 8 d 4 W 0 1 W B * O « 0 d H I H I S 3 < i N N H I o inn Z £ H N d b u ii g a ii o rt N rt < 0 8 8 OiON 0 8 0 NN-0 8 0 d ®rt N H I ® d ® d 8 r» H i d 8 d 0 rt N ul 0 8 d rt N H I H 0 O ' 0 i d m H co a in f\ rtNrt a o in o N H Oss Nrt d d ■0NN8 rl U 1 H > f 0 " 0 I I I N ® n ON 0 0 A l r t I O N I ® H 4 d d i l l 4 d j H d j | 4 ulm C d«o II Id ll(H « «g « « o U Q Z n ® 8 NON H rl O ' 1 0 |\ ® NON rl rd f b Q ® 0 " # 0 i 8 8 0 H N o N m rl H -0 d H II U 4 rl 3 rl d j II 4 H i m g d i o 4 d 4 H 11 g 4 II 0 U Q Z o a a rl 0 1 rl m o n >} n H 4 d r t I I U 4 rl B H d j II 4 U 4 4 II g d 4 o lid «H 4 4 3 4 II 0 U Q Z O ' O ' N N rt rt 0 8 N d 8 > 0 0 d d 1 N rt N H I N co a o n o ® moco ■008 n in h 8 n oi < * i <0 ®N'0 N rt a HlOirtN a o ® n H d d I I 1 1 4 rt 3 rt d £ II 4 W 4 4 il g d 4 o lid 4 1 H 4 4 3 4 II 0 U Q Z I f s H 4 X 0 V ii b b 9 II 3 u > • M « « 8 w 4 n 9 z 4 4 b y « 0 3 b 4 y y H 8 4 W 0 0 H 3 u y « < 4 d rl •M * 0 J J u y 5 g V ) (/) Q £ £ 4 U 4 4 0 H H •H d d fl fl j d b * ■ H < 8 8 y ( J 8 g g i 0 0 H u u < to a ® ® » I 4 d < 0 d d -o n n n n N 4 1 d 1 0 0 0 0 0 U N O N 8 0 8 0 ) 8 8 N O ' 0 H I 8 0 8 d i d d N H I ■ON® ■ J 0 m o o N Hid H I 0 8 d O ' n n h ® N d on ms N 8 ' f Old N d N 8 d N N N Nfl N d ■ 0 O ' 8 O ' (4 N d rt d 0 d N d d 8 N Is 8 N fl d 0 8 N 0 8 8 rt < T N rt-0 O ' N 8 O ' N H I 8 H I 8 i i i H I d d N 8 HldN 0 O l d d N H I rtin-j t i t 8 O ' 8 ■On N 8 N N > 0 d 0 0 r t r t H I N 8 0 d M N H I <t O ' d H ON® d r t 0 d rt 8 0 ® H I rt H I 8 d 8 rt 8 d H I 8 8 d d ■ 0 8 N N 8 d rt rt N n N H I 8 O ' H I O'® 8 N HI® n i n e r t r t d 8O N -0 O d N N 8 8 r t S N H 4 4 1 N 0 0 NN N o n o o n o rt < 0 0 S ® rt O ' < 0 N d 8 0 N d rt * n * 0 rt ®H! 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To accomplish this purpose, the following values ("weights") were assigned to each answer step: "essential" * +3; "desirable" * * +1; and "nonessen tial" • = -3. Those who failed to respond to the question were counted, but were assigned zero weights. In order to be able to evaluate and interpret the total weighted scores, arbitrary cut-off points were estab lished so that items which received weighted scores of 100 or above could be considered to have been judged "impor tant," and those that received weighted scores in excess of 250 could be interpreted as being "essential" in the judg ments of the respondents. At the other extreme those which received negative weighted scores were assumed to be of no real value in the preparation of teachers of foreign languages. Sumraarizations of the relative values which teachers accorded to each item are arranged in rank order in Tables 2 through 8. It will be noted that the findings are reported under the following headings: (1) general education courses; (2) foreign language education, including (a) language emphasis, (b) foreign language courses, (c) general language courses, and (d) technical courses; (3) approaches to language teaching; (4) practice teaching; (5) relative importance of supplementary experiences, 172 Including (a) supplementary professional experiences, and (b) extra-curricular activities; and (6) assessment of teaching competence, including (a) measurement of language proficiency, and (b) appraisal of teaching ability; and (7) measurement of classroom skills. General Education Courses The combined weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the value of general education courses are presented in Table 2. It will be noted that in this rank-order summarization as rated, courses in Educa tional Psychology were considered to be essential to the preparation of language teachers. Also important are Sociology, Philosophy, Philosophy of Education, Government, Principles of Education, English Literature, and American Literature. Considered to be of little value was Anthro pology. Judged to be of no specific value in the prepara tion of language teachers were Economics, History of Educa tion, Physical and Biological Sciences, and Mathematics. Foreign Language Education Majors and Minors The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative value of majors and minors are presented in Table 3. A native background in the 173 TABLE 2 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL EDUCATION COURSES AS JUDGED BY TEACHERS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES Courses in Total Rank General Weighted Order Education Score* Essential:*♦ 1 General Teaching Methods 557 2 Psychology 503 3 History (as Social Science) 468 4 English Literature 421 5 Educational Psychology 408 Important:*♦ 6 Sociology (as a Social Science) 217 7 Philosophy 214 8 Philosophy of Education 197 9 Government (as a Social Science) 189 10 Principles of Education 181 11 English Literature 179 Little value: 12 Anthropology 82 No value: 13 Economics (as a Social Science) - 29 14 History of Education - 45 15 Physical and Biological Sciences -241 16 Mathematics -362 ♦Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the following weights to responses: ’'Essential" ■ +3; "Desirable" ** +1; ,rNonesseotial" - -3; no response “ 0. ♦♦The following interpretations were applied to weighted scores: Above 250 “ essential; 100-250 “ important; 0-100 ■ of little value; and minus scores » of no value. 174 TABLE 3 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION AS JUDGED BY TEACHERS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES Total Rank Language Weighted Order Education Score* LANGUAGE EMPHASIS: 1 Native background in the language 359** 2 A second language major 259 3 A third language minor -157 FOREIGN LANGUAGE OOURSES: 1 Advanced course 715 2 Composition 711 3 Elementary and intermediate 693 4 Culture and Civilization 663 5 Syntax 596 6 Survey of literature 496 7 Contemporary literature 484 8 Phonology and Morphology 372 9 Nineteenth Century Literature 334 10 Philology 289 11 Eighteenth Century Literature 239 12 Seventeenth Century Literature 233 13 Sixteenth Century Literature 212 14 Medieval Literature 131 GENERAL LANGUAGE COURSES: 1 Phonetics 490 2 Applied Linguistics 381 3 Psychology of Language 286 ♦Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the following weights to responses: "Essential" ■ +3; "Desirable" ■ +1; "Nonessential" ■ -3; no response <■ 0. ♦♦Weighted scores were interpreted as follows: Above 250 • essential; 100-250 * important; 0-100 “ of little value; and minus scores ■ of no value to teacher preparation in foreign languages. 175 TABLE 3 (continued) RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OP FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION AS JUDGED BY TEACHERS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES Total Rank Language Education Weighted Order Score TECHNICAL COURSES: L Use of Tape Recorders 584 2 Use of Language Laboratory 479 3 Audio-visual techniques, including film projection 410 4 Use of teaching machines 183 5 Classroom use of radio and television 99 176 language and a second language major were considered to be essential. A third language minor, however, was regarded as nonessential. Foreign Language Courses The weighted reactions of teachers of French and Spanish to the relative values of foreign language courses are presented in Table 3. The following courses listed in the questionnaire were deemed to be essential, in descend ing order of importance: advanced language courses, Composition, elementary and intermediate language courses, Culture and Civilization, Syntax, Survey of Literature, Contemporary Literature, Phonology and Morphology, Nine teenth Century Literature, and Philology. Judged to be important were Eighteenth Century Literature, Seventeenth Century Literature, Sixteenth Century Literature, and Medieval Literature. General Language Courses The relative values assigned by teachers of French and Spanish to general language courses are summarized in Table 3. All three courses listed in the questionnaire were deemed to be essential--Phonetics, Applied Linguis tics, and the Psychology of Language. 177 Technical Courses The viewpoints of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative importance of various technical courses are displayed in Table 3. Considered essential were courses on the use of tape recorders, the use of the language laboratory, and audio-visual techniques (including film projection). The use of teaching machines, and the classroom uses of radio and television were considered important but not essential. Approaches to Language Teaching The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the value of different approaches to language teaching are exhibited in rank order in Table 4. Here it is seen that the audio-lingual method, with its concomitant four aspects of teaching aural comprehension, teaching conversation, teaching reading, and teaching composition (hearing, speaking, reading, and writing) was considered to be essential. The eclectic approach, the direct method, and the linguistic method were rated as important, in that order. The grammar-translation method was deemed to be of no value in this context. 178 TABLE 4 PREFERENCES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS CONCERNING APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Rank Order Approaches to Language Teaching Total Weighted Score* 1 Audio-lingual method 592 ** 2 Teaching aural comprehension 565 3 Teaching conversation 565 4 Teaching reading 529 5 Teaching composition 478 6 Eclectic approach 245 7 Direct method 181 8 Linguistic method 162 9 Grammar translation method -96 ^Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the fol lowing weights: "Essential” ■ +3; "Desirable" ■» +1; "Nonessential" “ -3; no response * 0. **Weighted scores were interpreted as follows: Above 250 “ essential; 100-250 “ important; 0-100 “ of little value; and minus scores “ of no value. Practice Teaching 179 The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative merits of different time periods for practice teaching are displayed in Table 5. A period of practice teaching of one year under a master teacher was considered important in the training of language teachers, followed in descending order by one semester, two hours; one semester, one hour; and one year, one hour. The period of one year, two hours, was rated as of least value. Relative Importance of Supplementary Experiences Supplementary Professional Experiences The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative values of supplementary professional experiences are summarized in rank order as rated in Table 6. Deemed to be essential were the follow ing experiences, listed in descending order: inservice training workshops, pre-service orientation or training, membership in professional language organizations, NDEA Summer Institutes, attendance at professional conferences, and inservice training lectures. Judged to be Important, but not essential, were membership in general teachers* organizations, and NDEA Year Institutes. 180 TABLE 5 VIEWS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS CONCERNING SUITABLE PRACTICE TEACHING EXPERIENCE Rank Order Practice Teaching Experience Total Weighted Score* 1 One year under a master teacher 234** 2 One semester, two hours 219 3 One semester, one hour 157 4 One year, one hour 108 5 One year, two hours 39 *Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the following weights to responses: "Essential" ■ +3; "Desirable" - +1; "Nonessential" ■ -3; no response - 0. **Weighted scores were Interpreted as follows: Above 250 m essential; 100-250 m important; 0-100 ■of little value; and minus scores ■ of no value. TABLE 6 181 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLEMENTARY EXPERIENCES AS JUDGED BY FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS Supplementary Total Rank Educational Weighted Order Experiences Score* SUPPLEMENTARY PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCES: 1 In-service training workshops 415** 2 Pre-service orientation or training 411 3 Membership in professional language organisations 369 4 NDEA summer institutes 302 5 Attendance at professional conferences 264 6 In-service training lectures 260 7 Membership in general teachers' organizations 200 8 NDEA year institutes 127 EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES: 1 Travel 719 2 Residence in the target country 447 3 Education in the target country 237 4 College interest group activities 202 5 Peace Corps training in a country speaking the target language - 89 6 Peace Corps training in the target country -171 ♦Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the following weights: "Essential" ■ +3; "Desirable" ■ +1; "Nonessential" ■ -3; no response ■ 0. ♦♦Weighted scores were interpreted as follows: Above 250 *■ essential; 100-250 • important; 0-100 ■ of little value; and minus scores ■ of no value. 182 Extracurricular Activities The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative values of listed extra curricular activities are presented in rank order as summarized in Table 6. Travel and residence in the target country were considered highly essential. Education in the target country and participation in college interest group activities were deemed important. Rated as of no pertinent value were Peace Corps training in a country speaking the target language or in the target country. Assessment of Teaching Competence Measurement of Language Proficiency The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative values of different techniques of measurement of language proficiency are summarized in Table 7, which reveals that all of the items in the questionnaire were considered to be essential: oral examination by college-constructed tests, MLA Profi ciency Tests, and written examination by college- constructed tests. 183 TABLE 7 VIEWS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS CONCERNING THE ASSESSMENT OF TEACHING COMPETENCE Total Rank Assessment of Weighted Order Teaching Competence Score* METHOD OF MEASURING LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY: 1 Oral examination (college-constructed) 2 Modern Language Association Proficiency Tests 3 Written examination (college-constructed) PERSONS WHO SHOULD APPRAISE TEACHING ABILITY: 1 Training teacher 2 Training Supervisor (school system) 3 Methods teacher 4 Training Supervisor (college) 5 College professors ♦Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the following weights to responses: "Essential" » +3; "Desirable" - +1; "Nonessential1 1 “ -3; no response ■* 0. ★♦Weighted scores were interpreted as follows: Above 250 " essential; 100-250 * important; 0-100 ■ of little value; and minus scores * of no value. 327 ** 288 285 480 364 268 250 43 184 Persons to Perform Appraisals of Teaching Ability The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the person who should appraise teaching ability are presented In Table 7. The training teacher was considered most essential; then the training supervisor In the school system, followed by the methods teacher and the college training supervisor. College professors were rated as not important in the process of appraisal of teaching ability. Criteria for Measurement of Classroom Skills Measurement of Classroom Skills The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the relative importance of various class room skills are summarized in Table 8. All of the skills listed in the questionnaire were judged to be essential, and were rated in the following rank order of importance: (1) develop in students a mastery of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, in that order; (2) teach aural comprehension; (3) teaching conversation; (4) teach reading; (5) relate language to the culture of the country, (6) teach composition; (7) relate foreign culture to American cultural standards; and (8) present foreign literature as a vehicle for great ideas. 185 TABLE 8 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CRITERIA FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF CLASSROOM SKILLS Total Rank Classroom Skills Weighted Order to be Measured Score* TEACHER'S ABILITY TO: 1 Develop in students a mastery of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing the foreign language 679** 2 Teach aural comprehension 649 3 Teach conversation 634 4 Teach reading 589 5 Relate language to the culture of the country 538 6 Teach composition 520 7 Relate foreign culture to American cultural standards 372 8 Present foreign literature as a vehicle tor great ideas 245 RELATED SKILLS TO BE MEASURED: 1 Evaluate the progress and diagnose the deficiencies of student performance 690 2 Use classroom audio-visual aids, including film projectors 550 3 Use the language laboratory skillfully 486 4 Correlate teaching with other subjects 292 *Numerical scores were obtained by assigning the following weights to responses: "Essential" ■ +3; "Desirable" ■ +1; "Nonessential" ■ -3; no response ■ 0. **Weighced scores were interpreted as rollows: Above 2s0 - essential; 100-250 ■ important; 0-100 ■ of little value; minus scores ■ of no value to the preparation of foreign language teachers. 186 Measurement of Related Skills The weighted responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the values of skills related to classroom teaching are presented in Table 8. All of the skills listed in the questionnaire were considered to be essen tial. In rank order of degree of importance as judged, they were: (1) evaluate the progress, and diagnose the deficiencies in student performance; (2) use classroom audio-visual aids (including film projectors); (3) use the language laboratory skillfully; and (4) correlate teaching with other subjects. Comments The foreign language teachers who participated in this survey exhibited great interest and insight into the questions raised in the questionnaire, some of them adding extra pages for explanation and clarification of their viewpoints. Unfortunately the scope of this dissertation does not allow for a full report of opinions and experi ences expressed both throughout the pages of the question naire and in response to the final three questions which sought free and unrestricted answers. 187 Comments Regarding Structured Questionnaire Items Classification of the free responses given to the final item labeled "other” following each section of the questionnaire revealed that in several instances there were clusters of responses. With respect to General Education, 14 teachers specified courses in Linguistics, 12 in Music, 12 in the history and culture of the target country, 7 in Art, 4 in Speech, and 4 in Latin and Greek. Other courses receiving scattered mention were Guidance, Geography, World History, and Religion. Additional courses suggested under the section on Foreign Language Education included Advanced Conversation, Comparative Linguistics, Phonetics, Transformational and Generative Grammar, and the suggestion that all literature courses be taught in the target language. The section on Technical Courses, Approaches to Language Teaching, and Duration of Practice Teaching elicited no comments of importance. Responses to the section on Supplementary Profes sional Experiences were expanded more fully in the free- response section which is reported in the next section of this chapter. The desirable minimum for residence in the target country was specified as one year by 135 respond ents, as six months by 33, and as one summer by 23 of the 188 teachers. Other suggestions ranged from periods of two months to two years. Most of the respondents who specified college interest group activities named French or Spanish Clubs. Other comments ranged from International Club, Alliance Francaise, French or Spanish House and Honor Societies, to speaking with natives in the community and working on such projects as "Project Head Start” and "Project Amigos." To the question regarding Measurement of Language Proficiency, scattered responses ranged from the use of standardized examinations like the National Teacher Examination or district-prepared examinations to less formalized evaluations devised by language specialists or committees of language teachers. The section on Appraisal of Teaching Ability elicited a variety of responses ranging from appraisal by colleagues, department chairmen and language specialists to ratings by students or appraisals in terms of student success. Sections on Measurement of Classroom Skills and on Measurement of Related Skills elicited few comments. Free Responses to Unstructured Questionnaire Items The final page of the questionnaire provided space so that respondents could comment freely and offer criti cisms and suggestions, with the following three guidelines: 189 (a) "What in your own teacher-training was of most help to you?" (b) "What could well have been omitted?" and (c) f , What have you found to be the most effective method of teaching a language?" Answers to these questions were grouped according to content and arranged in rank order according to the frequency with which each point-of-view was mentioned. The results of this summarization are exhibited in Tables 9, 10, and 11. In this way, it was thought, the over-all thinking of teachers of foreign languages throughout the United States could be reflected in some measure by the frequency of mention of various issues. Most helpful teacher-training experiences. As is seen in Table 9, 245 teachers offered remarks concerning the courses and experiences that had been most helpful in their training as teachers. Ranked first in importance was the help they had received from the master-teacher. Next most frequently mentioned was the experience of travel, study and residence in the target country; third was the help received from NDEA Institutes; and fourth the assist ance of consultants. In fifth place was the value of the specific methods class in teaching foreign languages. Language training and actual classroom teaching experience came next, followed by the observation of good teaching and the influence of college language teachers. Other 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 190 TABLE 9 TEACHERS' COMMENTS CONCERNING THEIR MOST HELPFUL TEACHER-TRAINING EXPERIENCES Most Helpful Teacher- Frequency Training Experiences of Mention Training under a master-teacher 37 Practice teaching in general (plus 2 who had had internship experience) 37 Travel, residence and study in the target country 35 NDEA Institutes and consultants 27 Special Methods class 21 Language training, including speaking 16 Classroom teaching (actual teaching experience) 10 Observation of good teachers 9 College language teachers 8 Inservice workshops 7 Linguistics courses 7 Help from school supervisors, department heads and colleagues 6 Native background 4 College supervisor 3 Substitute teaching 3 Courses in Syntax, Phonetics, and Composition 3 Courses in the use of audio-visual aids 3 191 TABLE 9 (continued) TEACHERS1 COMMENTS CONCERNING THEIR MOST HELPFUL TEACHER-TRAINING EXPERIENCES Rank Most Helpful Teacher- Frequency Order Training Experiences of Mention 18 Course in Lesson Planning 3 19 Course in General Methods 2 20 Liberal Arts background 2 21 Student criticism and cooperation 2 Note: In addition, single mentions were made of such experiences as research on special topics, courses in Education, courses in Latin, summer courses, professional organization member ship, work with the Peace Corps, interest and enthusiasm of staff, and "no single thing." 192 valuable aspects of teacher-training included inservice workshops, courses in linguistics, and other college courses, Typical of the comments of teachers concerning the teacher-training experiences that were most helpful to them were the following partial answers, abstracted from their writings: "Of greatest help to me was the close tutelage of the master teacher. He took me into his confi dence as a colleague and with understanding helped me to learn correct techniques.” "I would like to see one semester of Drama included in the teacher-training program. It has been of great help in the oral presentation of daily lessons.” "The greatest help to me was the excellence of my training teacher and his knowledge of the sub ject and of the teaching of it, . . . his ability to impart confidence in me, and in the integrity and warmth of his own personality.” "My teacher-training was in the traditional 'translation of two pages' which I could never use.” "The greatest help to me was a master teacher who insisted on versatility. The most important aspect of teaching is that the pupils learn." "Language classes in which only the target language was spoken; classes on culture, including music, folklore, and dance; a conscientious, out standing master teacher; methods course in teaching a foreign language.” "The greatest help to me was having capable, competent master teachers who really knew the language, conducting classes entirely in the foreign language--kept language alive as it should be. I was fortunate in having a whole year of practice teaching in an average school with master teachers." 193 Training courses that could well have been omitted. The free responses of teachers of French and Spanish regarding the training courses that they thought might well have been omitted from their college preparation are summa rized in Table 10. Teachers' comments were not as numerous on this question as they were on the first and third ques tions, and the majority were concentrated in one area: there were 69 who criticized education courses as being overlapping, repetitious, too theoretical, and not related to language teaching. Thirteen others were so satisfied with their college preparation that they thought that nothing should have been omitted. Six felt that literature courses were unrelated to the teachers' needs, and an equal number rejected the idea of such extended audio-visual training as they had received. Typical comments included the following: "Unfortunately, most of the courses were spread too thin, and hence were repetitive or so general that even the theory was of little practical value. The need for articulation between the School of Education and the foreign language department is great. ... I base this opinion on observation. I have been a training teacher and through other professional activities 1 have had many contacts with foreign language teachers in all parts of the United States." "Courses in Educational Methodology were not taught well; they could have been more useful. College instructors had no experience in the field they were teaching." On the other hand, one teacher remarked: 194 TABLE 10 TEACHER-TRAINING COURSES THAT TEACHERS FELT COULD HELL HAVE BEEN OMITTED FROM THEIR OWN TRAINING Rank Courses That Teachers Frequency Order Felt Were Dispensable of Mention 1 Education courses (overlapping, duplicating, repetitious, not related to language teaching, too theoretical) 69 2 Nothing should have been omitted 13 3 Literature courses unrelated to teacher's needs 6 3 Extended audio-visual training 6 3 General methods classes 4 6 Observation courses 2 6 Supervision by non-language personnel 2 Miscellaneous: Composition course 1 Survey courses 1 Language classes conducted in English 1 Long student-teacher assignment 1 Summer seminar where teachers combine ideas 1 Explanation of graphs and percentages to student teachers \ Methods course mostly in Spanish by French teacher 1 Less theory and more practice 1 195 ’’ Contrary to what I judge to be the prevalent comments, X found my education courses of great benefit." Overemphasis on theory in college courses was criticized in such remarks as: "Audio-visual courses are a waste of time after one semester. What can't be taught in that time is excess. College people are not realistic in their over-evaluation of labs and teaching machines, for getting that the average district has a hard time raising money to replace textbooks, let alone buy and repair expensive equipment." Some of the teachers were pleased with their training. One comment sums up this philosophy: "With my love for languages, culture, and liter ature, X cannot say that anything needs omitting. However, for doing the best job of teaching the language itself, X would say that the use and expe rience of teaching it oneself teaches both the teacher and those whom he is teaching. Naturally, the greatest benefit comes to us who teach. We learn more and better as we go about being teacher- learner." Most effective method of teaching a language. Answers to the question, "What have you found to be the most effective method of teaching a language?" were many and varied, as may be seen in the summary of teachers' reactions presented in Table 11. A plurality of respond ents favored the audio-lingual method, as is seen by the 64 who mentioned this approach and the additional nine who would combine it with other methods and modifications. Xn second rank position was sentiment (expressed by 37 teach ers) in favor of a combination or variety of techniques. 196 TABLE 11 TEACHERS' VIEWS CONCERNING THE MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD OF TEACHING A LANGUAGE Rank Most Effective Method Frequency Order of Teaching a Language of Mention 1 Audio-lingual method 64 2 Combination, variety of techniques 37 3 No one "best method" 23 4 The eclectic method 24 5 Need for grammar 15 6 Audio-lingual method, with others and modifications 9 7 The direct method 5 8 Traditional method 4 9 Need to include culture in course content 3 10 Desire to teach, enthusiasm 3 Others mentioned: Audio-visual-lingual-graphic 1 Language taught as , l connlunication, , 1 Push students to capacity 1 Constant practice 1 Bring "Seventeen" to class 1 Inspire students to learn 1 Teach the "whole language" as you would teach the "whole child" 1 Depends on purpose! Audio-visual for terminal course; grammar-translation for college-bound students 1 197 That there is no one best method was the view of 25 respondents. The eclectic method drew 24 comments, while 15 stressed the need for more grammar training. Other comments, in addition to the nine who favored the audio- lingual method with modifications, stressed the direct method, the traditional method, the need to include culture in the course content, and the fact that one of the most important ingredients for teaching success is the desire to teach and the enthusiasm of the teacher. Typical of the answers is that of a high school teacher of French: "I feel that the audio-lingual method of teach ing is the most effective method. The students enjoy the learning. I had an experimental group one year made up of low average and some M.R.'s. Much to my surprise all of the youngsters learned. It was their desire to write the language also. Games were quite effective with this group." A junior high school teacher of Spanish also wrote with great enthusiasm: "I'm sold on the talk talk talk talk talk method of learning and teaching and I have plenty of stu dents whom I would happily turn loose in the middle of a Spanish-speaking country knowing that they would be understood within the limits of their own level of background. I couldn't have said as much for those whom I taught traditionally, and I'm only sorry I didn't get changed sooner." One teacher amplified on the use of the audio-lingual method: "With the new materials, records, and tapes, I feel that the best method is much oral repetition, much use of transformation drills, and careful explanation of grammar, both in English and in the 198 foreign language, so that drills are completely understandable. Picture description and oral summary work well for me in my advanced classes." Some teachers questioned the listening-speaking-reading- writing sequence: "The audio-lingual method for senior high is good, but not in 'that* order. By senior high time, students are too accustomed to write and in a foreign language they can (if intelligent and willing) read and write at the same time they begin the audio- lingual. In fact, they do a better job. They feel that they have no homework unless they have to read and write." Others felt that there must be some other modifications: "The most effective method is that which con siders ability to speak a language an art and leaves science and analysis to the science and math classes. To learn to speak, the student must practice vocabu lary and structural pattern in oral drills and 'live* conversation. Audio-lingual methodology is the most effective, but only when taught by a com petent person, able to remove the language from the text and apply it--realistically--to the student." Generally, however, the proponents of the audio-lingual method supported it enthusiastically: "After twelve years of teaching, and five of those using the so-called audio-lingual approach, I feel that it is definitely superior to the grammar approach. It seems much slower in progress because of the drill, but the results to be observed in a student who has studied under the approach (after four years) are unbelievably rewarding. Perhaps we shall yet reach our goal of having youngsters graduate from high school who have a second language, therefore a 'second1 soul." Not all teachers, however, reacted favorably to the new methods. One teacher of Spanish was quite outspoken: "The audio-lingual method is killing the beauty of the language. It operates like a machine. My students get tired and bored with this method. 199 I use it very little. I combine it with the tradi tional, the Berlitz, and my own method. Oral expression is emphasized as well as reading and writing. I never use translation in my teaching because it is like looking at tht keys of your type writer when you are learning how to type. I use the language I teach entirely at all levels.1 1 Others commented: "The current stress on the aural-oral method can make teaching a language very difficult, especially in the culturally deprived areas, unless the teacher has many different ideas and approaches for stimula tion and motivation." "I agree with the process of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, but find that we have not received materials which satisfactorily carry forth the process." "The high school student likes conversations but tires quickly after so much drill. It is hard for him to see the importance of pattern practice and he doesn't always study diligently. He finds the second level much more challenging and interesting, although more difficult." "In the beginning classes, first and second year, I think that the language should be as personalized as possible. Many of the materials do not hold the student's interest." Many teachers, although not directly critical of the audio-lingual method, felt that "there can be no one method," but that teaching must be individualized. Typical of their comments were the following: "One method is not the most effective way to teach a language. You must take into account the various goals and abilities of the individual classes and then adapt the best of the various methods to suit the needs of the group you are teaching. Generally speaking, a modification of the audio-lingual method maintains the highest interest and gets the best results." 200 "I have found the 'most effective method* to be secondary to the enthusiasm and open-mindedness of the teacher--a mind open to the best of various techniques "The most effective method of teaching is the one by which most of the class learn. Basically a language teacher must be able to adapt her situation and have a variety of methods or approaches to teaching." "Remember the age level you are teaching. Learn ing in the lower grades is not the same as on the high school level. Many students are treated alike and this leads to poor performance." "The most effective method uses a variety of devices, with a constant change during a 50-minute period, making use of songs, books, motion pictures, charts, and all audio-visual aids, using humor and any outside visitors or AFS students to keep the course interesting and lively." "I believe that the teacher, as well as the student, should have various avenues of method available for his usel There should be flexibility in method, but general long-range purposes in view. The teacher should develop the method that is best suited to his personality and make-up. That which works best for that teacher, in keeping with the soundest linguistic principles, is the most desira ble, and has been the happiest solution." Summary This chapter has reported the results of the ques tionnaire survey of the viewpoints and opinions of teachers of French and Spanish in California. The major findings are summarized as follows. General Education Courses 1. French and Spanish teachers regarded as essen tial to their general educational preparation courses in 201 General Teaching Methods, Psychology, History, English Language, and Educational Psychology. They considered many of the courses in education as overlapping and repetitious. Foreign Language Training 2. Teachers of French and Spanish considered a native background in the language an essential attribute; they also felt that a second language major was essential. 3. They felt that thorough preparation in language was essential, as were courses in composition, culture and civilization, and language. Courses in nineteenth century and contemporary literature were deemed essential, while study of the literature of earlier centuries was consid ered important. 4. General language courses such as Phonetics, Applied Linguistics, and the Psychology of Language were judged to be essential. 5. With respect to technical courses, those con centrating on the use of the tape recorder, the language laboratory, and audio-visual techniques were rated as essential. Courses in the use of teaching machines were considered important; however, of less merit were those devoted to classroom uses of radio and television. Approaches to Language Teaching 6. The audio-lingual approach to language teach ing, with its concomitant four aspects of teaching 202 listening, speaking, reading, and writing, were considered essential, and in that order. Ranking next in importance were the eclectic approach, the direct method, and the linguistic method. The grammar**translation method was thought to be lacking in value. Practice Teaching 7. First preference among listed time-periods which should be devoted to practice teaching was one year of training under a master teacher; next in value was one semester, two hours; third was one semester, one hour. The period of one year, two hours, was rated lowest in value. Supplementary Professional and Extracurricular Experiences 8. Most essential supplementary professional experiences were, in rank order as judged: inservice training workshops, pre-service orientation or training, membership in professional organizations, NDEA Summer Institutes, attendance at professional conferences, and inservice training lectures. Judged to be important were membership in general teachers' organization and NDEA Year Institute. 9. Travel and residence in the target country were rated highest among experiences essential to the preparation of foreign language teachers. Education in 203 the target country and college interest group activities, such as the French and Spanish Clubs, were deemed impor tant. Little consideration was given to Peace Corps experiences. Measurement of Language Proficiency 10. For the measurement of language proficiency, college-constructed oral examinations were rated higher than the MLA Proficiency Tests and college-constructed written tests. 11. The persons best qualified to appraise teach ing ability were thought to be, in rank order, the training teacher, the training supervisor in the school system, the college methods teacher, and the college training super visor. College professors were rated lowest among listed persons qualified to judge teaching ability. Measurement of Classroom Skills 12. Classroom skills that were related to the teaching of the audio-lingual approach were regarded as essential to a teacher's preparation. In addition, the following criteria developed by the profession were rated as essential: the teaching of composition, relating literature to the culture of the country, relating foreign culture to American cultural standards, and presenting foreign literature as a vehicle for great ideas. 13. Related classroom skills judged to be 204 essential were: the ability to evaluate the progress and to diagnose the deficiencies of student performance, classroom use of audio-visual aids, skillful use of the language laboratory, and the ability to correlate teaching with other subjects. The results of the investigation are summarized in the next and final chapter, and conclusions and recommenda tions are derived from them. Consideration is also given to some of the areas of related inquiry that await further research. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The Problem This study sought to (1) determine standards for the preparation of modern foreign language teachers in the United States through a review of the history and method ology of language teaching; (2) review the credentialing system for teachers of foreign languages in California to ascertain the standards that are being applied; and (3) survey the reactions of California foreign language teachers regarding those standards as they apply to teacher preparation and to the teaching of modern foreign languages. Procedure The five major phases of the study encompassed (1) a background orientation to the problem through a review of related literature, (2) development of a questionnaire, (3) evaluation and refinement of the instrument, (4) survey of experiences and viewpoints of teachers of French and 205 206 Spanish in the secondary schools of Southern California, and (5) analysis of the data. Summary of Findings Credentialing of Language Teachers The review of pertinent rules and regulations revealed that the California state requirements for the credentialing of secondary school language teachers were stated in terms of units and degrees, of majors and minors in subject areas, and of professional education course requirements rather than in terms of courses in special language fields. The requirements for majors and minors were left to the colleges, universities, and teacher- training institutions to determine. General Education Courses Questionnaire results revealed that French and Spanish teachers regarded as essential such general educa tion courses as General Teaching Methods, Psychology, History, English Language, and Educational Psychology. They considered many education courses to be overlapping and repetitious. Foreign Language Preparation Respondents generally considered a native back ground in the language to be desirable. They also felt that a second language major was desirable. 207 Respondents felt that thorough preparation in language was essential, as were courses in composition, culture and civilization, and philology. Courses in nineteenth-century and contemporary literature were also deemed essential, while the study of the literature of earlier centuries was considered important. Such general language courses as Phonetics, Applied Linguistics, and the Psychology of Language were judged to be essential. With respect to technical courses, those concen trating on the use of the tape recorder, the language laboratory and audio-visual techniques were considered essential. Courses in the use of teaching machines were considered Important but of less value than those devoted to classroom uses of radio and television. Approaches to Language Teaching The audio-lingual approach to language teaching, with its concomitant emphasis on the four aspects of teaching listening, speaking, reading, and writing, were considered essential, and in that order. Ranking next in order of importance were the eclectic approach, the direct method, and the linguistic method. The grammar-translation method was rated as lacking in value. 208 Practice Teaching First preference among listed time-periods that should be devoted to practice teaching was one year of training under a master teacher; next in value was one semester, two hours; third was one semester, one hour. The period of one year, two hours was rated lowest in value. Supplementary Professional and Extracurricular Experiences Most essential supplementary professional experi ences were, in rank order as judged: inservice training workshops, pre-service orientation or training, membership in professional organizations, NDEA Summer Institutes, attendance at professional conferences, and inservice training lectures. Judged to be important were membership in general teachers' organizations and NDEA Year Institutes. Travel and residence in the target country were rated highest among extracurricular experiences essential to the preparation of foreign language teachers. Education in the target country and college interest group activities (such as French and Spanish clubs) were deemed important. Little consideration was given to Peace Corps experiences. Measurement of Language Proficiency For the measurement of language proficiency, college-constructed oral examinations were rated higher than the MLA Proficiency Tests and college-constructed 209 written tests. The persons best qualified to appraise teaching ability were thought to be, in rank order, the training teacher, the training supervisor in the school system, the college methods teacher, and the college training super visor. College professors were rated lowest among listed persons qualified to judge teaching ability. Classroom skills related to the teaching of the audio-lingual approach were regarded as essential to a teacher's preparation. In addition, the following criteria developed by the profession were deemed essential: ability to teach composition, ability to relate literature to the culture of the country, ability to relate foreign culture to American cultural standards, and ability to present foreign literature as a vehicle for great ideas. Related classroom skills judged to be essential were the ability to evaluate the progress of students and to diagnose their deficiencies in performance; classroom use of audio-visual aids; skilled use of the language laboratory; and the ability to correlate language teaching with other subjects. 210 Validity of Hypotheses At this point it is well to consider the findings as they give support or rejection to the basic hypotheses formulated for the study. Examination of the thirty hypotheses propounded in Chapter I indicates that, for the most part, all were supported by the findings, except for those noted. 1. Support was found for the first hypothesis that predicted that teachers of foreign languages in California secondary schools would generally concur on the value of general education requirements as specified for the teach ing credential. It will be recalled that, while such courses as English Language and Literature, History, Government, Psychology and Philosophy were deemed essential and important, the areas of mathematics, physical and biological sciences, and economics were rated as of little or no specific value in the preparation of foreign language teachers. 2. Teachers generally favored basic courses in professional education as required for the teaching creden tial, as was hypothesized. Although they criticized the repetition and duplication of course content in most education courses, teachers rated as essential Educational Psychology and General Teaching Methods, but rated only as "important” the Principles of Education and the Philosophy 211 of Education. History of Education was deemed of little value. 3. Contrary to expectation, teachers were divided in their evaluations of the desirability of a native back ground in the language. This requirement was considered essential by 7.4 per cent of the respondents, desirable by 48.0 per cent, and nonessential by 38.4 per cent. 4. Teachers favored the inclusion of a second language major, but thought that a third language minor was of no importance. Only in part, therefore, was the fourth hypothesis supported. 5. Teachers were in agreement on the need for background courses in the areas of grammar and composition, literature, phonology and morphology, syntax, culture and civilization, and general linguistics. It was noted that the study of nineteenth and twentieth-century literature was deemed as of much greater importance than the study of literature of the medieval period, and the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which are considered part of the background training of the language teacher for college majors and minors. Teachers favored functional courses in the languages over courses in literature. 6. Teachers gave overwhelming support to emphasis on courses in the psychology of language, applied linguis tics, and phonetics. 7. Teachers were agreed on the necessity of 212 receiving technical training in the use of audio-visual aids and electronic devices such as the tape recorder. However, they showed little interest in teaching machines and in the classroom use of radio and television. Here, again, the hypothesis was supported only in part. S. Teachers generally were committed to the use of the audio-lingual method and to the teaching of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, in that order. 9. Teachers were also divided in their ratings of the merits of the grammar-translation method, only 12.6 rating it as essential, 28.2 per cent as desirable, and 34.5 per cent as nonessential. 10. Teachers' opinions were divided concerning the merits of the direct method, which 26.7 per cent rated as essential, 33.3 per cent rated as desirable, and 14.1 per cent rated as nonessential. 11. Teachers generally favored the linguistic method, 26.3 per cent judging it to be essential, 34.1 per cent to be desirable, and 16.4 per cent to be nonessential. This provided relatively small support to the hypothesis that teachers would favor use of the linguistic method. 12. Although teachers generally favored the eclectic approach (of those surveyed, 34.9 per cent consid ered it essential, 26.7 per cent desirable, and 11.8 per cent nonessential), the hypothesis of a diversity of opinion was upheld by the data. 213 13. Teachers judged the teaching of aural compre hension, conversation, reading and composition to be essential. This is understandable, since these form an integral part of the audio-lingual method which received strong support. 14. Teachers generally favored devoting one semes ter, two-hour sessions, to practice teaching. However, there was even stronger sentiment favoring a practice teaching period of one year under a master teacher. Whereas 29.4 per cent felt that the one semester, two-hour period was essential and 14.4 per cent that it was desir able, 32.2 per cent felt that a period of one year under a master teacher was essential and 22.4 per cent that it was desirable. Therefore, there was only moderate support for the fourteenth hypothesis. 15. Teachers accorded high evaluation to NDEA institutes, rating the Summer NDEA Institutes as essential and the Year NDEA Institutes as important. Their prefer ence for Summer Institutes over Year Institutes is due, no doubt, to the fact that many more teachers have the oppor tunity to take advantage of the former than can attend the year-long training period. 16. In general, teachers considered pre-service and inservice training workshops highly essential, as they did inservice training lectures. 17. Teachers favored membership in professional 214 teachers' organizations and attendance at professional conferences— a not surprising reaction in view of the fact that the teachers surveyed were members of professional language organizations. However, they rated membership in general teachers' organizations far below that in profes sional organizations. 18. Teachers accorded highest rating to residence, education and travel in the target country. The desirable minimum period of residence was specified as one year by a majority of respondents (52.9 per cent) and as six months by 12.9 per cent. 19. Teachers considered Peace Corps training in the target country or in a country speaking the target language as not essential to the professional preparation of foreign language teachers. The hypothesis was not sup ported by the findings. 20. Teachers considered participation in college interest group activities to be highly important aspects of their preparation. 21. Teachers believed that their language profi ciency should be measured by the MLA Proficiency Tests. 22. Contrary to the basic hypothesis, teachers thought that their language proficiency should be measured by means of college-constructed oral and written examina tions, 37.2 per cent of respondents rating college- constructed oral examinations as essential and 41.2 per 215 cent rating them as desirable, while 38.8 per cent rated college-constructed written examinations as essential and 41.2 per cent rated them as desirable. 23. Teachers did not concur regarding the person who should appraise the teaching ability of the beginning language teacher. In order of importance, as judged, the following persons were named as best qualified to perform this task: the training teacher, the training supervisor in the school system, the methods teacher, the training supervisor in the college, and a college professor, 24. Teachers expressed the strong belief that there is a need to develop in students a mastery of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing the target language. 25. Contrary to the hypothesis that teachers would express divergent opinions regarding the importance of teaching composition, teachers believed that it is essen tial to be able to teach composition, 62 per cent rating this ability as essential and 22.8 per cent as desirable. 26. Teachers rated as essential their ability to relate language to the culture of the country, and to relate foreign culture to American cultural standards. 27. In harmony with the hypothesis as stated, teachers did not concur that the ability to present foreign literature as a vehicle for great ideas was essential, only 33.7 per cent rating this ability as essential and 32.6 per 216 cent rating it as desirable. 28. Teachers expressed the strong belief that the ability to use classroom audio-visual aids and to operate the language laboratory were essential skills. 29. Contrary to the stated hypothesis, teachers believed it essential to correlate foreign language instruction with other subjects, 42.0 per cent indicating that this was essential and 40.4 that it was desirable. 30. Teachers were strongly in accord that it is essential to be able to evaluate student progress and diagnose deficiencies in student performance. In summary, it is seen that six of the thirty hypotheses were not supported by the findings, five were supported only in part, while nineteen were fully supported by the evidence. Conclusions The following conclusions were derived from the findings. 1. Teachers of French and Spanish in the secondary schools of Southern California are generally aware of modern practices and techniques in foreign language teach ing, and utilize these methods in the classroom. 2. Teachers generally approve and follow without question the credential requirements in general and 217 professional education and In subject-matter preparation. 3. In general, foreign language teachers continue their professional training beyond the minimum require ments . 4. Teachers as a group approve the audio-lingual approach, and are abandoning the grammar-translation method. They approve of the use of the tape recorder, and the language laboratory. 3. Teachers are not in unison regarding the period that should be devoted to practice teaching. They agree that the training teacher exerts the greatest influence in molding them as teachers. 6. The Modern Language Association and its work are well known to the teachers, for its leadership in the professionalization of modern language teaching. 7. The influence of the ND£A Institutes has been important and beneficial, and has helped to facilitate and popularize the audio-lingual approach. 8. The value of the MLA Proficiency Tests is well recognized by teachers. 9. The Peace Corps has not as yet made an impact upon foreign language teaching. 218 10. Teaching machines and classroom use of radio and television have not won widespread use by teachers. 11. Professional education courses are not consid ered as important by teachers as is subject-matter prepara tion . Recommendations On the basis of the findings and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are proposed. 1. Prospective foreign language teachers should receive counsel early in their college careers regarding the nature of language teaching as a profession, such counseling to include: (a) discussion of the relationship of general and professional education to their subject- matter training; (b) projection of a program of studies followed by plans for travel and/or study abroad, even as early as the freshman year of college; and (c) explanation of the aims and purposes of foreign language methodology. 2. Before actually entering a professional course designed to train foreign language teachers, the under graduate should be afforded the opportunity of working as an unofficial observer with a master teacher in a foreign language classroom. 219 3. The preparation of the foreign language teacher should include technical courses designed to develop compe tence in implementing the audio-lingual approach, specif ically the development of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. 4. Teacher preparation preferably should include the study of a second foreign language, either as major or minor. 3. Increased opportunities should be provided for prospective foreign language teachers to travel and study abroad. A considerable number of scholarships, similar to the Fulbright grants, should be established by private or government agencies to enable beginning teachers to enrich their preparation. 6. Attendance at NDEA institutes should be encour aged and the program expanded. 7. Education departments should review their offerings with a view to eliminating duplication and repetition. 8 . Special courses, seminars, and workshops should be offered specifically for training teachers, either by the cooperating college and university or by the school district. 220 9. For teachers already in service, special atten tion should be given to workshops and inservice training in foreign language methodology. 10. Teachers should be given more information about the programs and services of the Modern Language Associa tion. 11. Teachers should be given more information regarding the nature and activities of the Peace Corps program, especially its foreign language activities. Suggestions for Further Study Further avenues of investigation are suggested as a result of this study, notably in the following areas: 1. Similar studies in other states or using a nationwide sample• 2. The effect of early counseling on retention of foreign language teachers in the profession. 3. The role of the college training supervisor in relation to the student teacher, the training teacher, and the schools. 4. Criteria for measuring the effectiveness of the training teacher. 5. A nationwide study of certification practices on the basis of competence in teaching a foreign language-- however acquired--rather than in terms of units and credit 221 hours. 6 . The relationship of Peace Corps language train ing to the academic preparation of language teachers. 7. The effect of travel and study abroad on student performance. 8 . Techniques for adding variety and motivation to the audio-lingual classroom through innovation and experi mentation . 9. More effective use of the language laboratory as a teaching device. 10. Identification of problems of adapting audio- lingual texts to the grade levels and abilities of students. 11. An experimental study under controlled condi tions of student reactions to the texts and methods used in audio-lingual classrooms. Note : B I B L I O G R A P H Y The following abbreviations are used in this bibliography: FL - Foreign Language(s) MFL - Modern Foreign Language MLA - Modern Language Association of America MLJ - Modern Language Journal NEA - National Education Association FMLA - Publications of the Modern Language Association UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organizations 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books and Parts of Books Agard, Frederick B., and Harold B. Dunkel. An Inves tigation of Second-Language Teaching. New York: Ginn and Co., 1948. 343 pp. Andersson, Theodore. "The Teacher of Modern Foreign Languages." Reprinted from The Education of the Secondary School Teacher. Middletown, Conn.: We s ley an iJni ve r s i t y Pre s s, 1962. Pp. 164-190. Angiolillo, Paul F. Armed Forces' Foreign Language Teaching: Critical Evaluation and Implications. New Yortc: S . F. Vanni, 1947. 440 pp . Axelrod, Joseph. The Education of the Modern Foreign Language Teacher for American Schools. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 1966. 55 pp. Belyayev, B. V. The Psychology of Teaching Foreign Languages. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964. 2^0 ppT Birkmaier, Emma M. "Modern Languages," in Chester W. Harris (ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research. 3rd ed. liew York: The Macmillan Co., 1960. Pp. 861-888. Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1935. 564 pp. _______. An Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages. Baltimore, Md.: Linguistic Society of America, 1942. 16 pp. Bond, Jesse A. Activities and Education of High School Teachers in California. Los Angeles: Suttonhouse, Ltd".’ , 1$3^. 279 pp. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 224 Brooks, Nelson. Language and Language Learning, Theory and PracticeT 2d ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1964. 300 pp. Bull, William E. Spanish for Teachers: Applied Linguistics. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1965. 306' pp. Campbell, Walter H. A Survey and Analysis of the Most Effective Practices for the Self-Improvement of Foreign Language Teachers in Senior High Schools in the United States. Seattle: University of Washington, 1954. 365 pp. Carroll, John B. The Study of Language: A Survey of Linguistics and Related Disciplines in America^ Cambridge: riarvard University tress, 1961. 289 pp. . "Research on Teaching Foreign Languages," in N. L. Gage (ed.), Handbook of Research in Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1963. Pp. 1061-1100. Coleman, Algernon. The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in the United States: A Report Prepared for the Modern Foreign Language Study. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1929. 299 pp. Committee of Twelve. Report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of America"! Boston: D- ] C. Heath and Co., [ 1900] . 9^ pp. Conant, James Bryant. The American High School Today. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co7, Inc., 1959. 140 pp. _______. The Education of American Teachers. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., T963. 275 pp. Cornelius, Edwin T. Language Teaching: A Guide for New York: Thomas lelius, Edwin T. Language leacning Teachers of Foreign Languages. Fiei Y. CroweI1 and CoT, 1953. l68 pp. de Sauze, E. B. The Cleveland Plan for the Teaching of Modern Languages with Special Reference to FrencfT! New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1959. 82 pp. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 225 Dunkel, Harold B. Second-Language Learning. Boston: Ginn and Co., 1948.218 pp. Hocking, Elton. Language Laboratory and Language Learning. Washington, D. C. : Department of^udio- Visual Instruction, NEA, 1964. 210 pp. Holton, James S., Paul E. King, Gustave Mathieu, and Karl S. Pond. Sound Language Teaching: The State of the Art TodaVI New Vork: University I*ub- Ushers, 1961. 249 pp. Huebener, Theodore. How to Teach Foreign Languages Effectively. Rev. ed. New York: New York University Press, 1965. 240 pp. Why Johnny Should Learn Foreign Languages. Philadelphia: Chilton Co., 1961. X42 pp. Kaulfers, Walter V. Modern Languages for Modern Schools. New Yorlcl McGraw-Hill Book Co., Tnc., 1942. 525 pp. Lado, Robert. Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1964. 239 pp. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1957. 141 pp. Libbish, B. (ed.). Advances in the Teaching of Modern Languages. Vol. 1. Wew York: The Macmillan Co., 1965. 175 pp. Lumsdaine, A. A., and Robert Glaser (eds.). Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source- BookT Washington, D.C.: NEA, 19h0. 724 pp. Meras, Edmond A. A Language Teacher*s Guide. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. Z99 pp. Modern Language Association. Modern Spanish: A Project of the Modern Language Association. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1^60. 596 pp. Moulton, William G. "Linguistics and Language Teach ing in the United States," in Christine Mbhrmann (ed.), Trends in European and American Linguis- tics. 195(5-1960. Utrecht: Spectrum, 1961. pp“ te-~Tsr.— 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 226 Newmark, Maxim. Twentieth Century Modern Language Teaching: Sources and Readings. New1 York: The Philosophical Library, l94fJ. 723 pp. Politzer, Robert L. Foreign Language Learning: A Linguistic Introduction^ Englewood cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Nall, Inc., 1965. 155 pp. . Teaching French: An Introduction to Applied linguistics. New York: Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1965. 131pp. _______, and Charles N. Staubauch. Teaching Spanish: A Linguistic Orientation. Boston"* Ginn and Co., 1961. 136 pp. Purin, C. M. The Training of Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1929. 112 pp. Rivers, Wilga M. The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1964. 2T2 pp. Schenck, Ethel A. Studies of Testing and Teaching in Modern Foreign Languages. Madison, Wis.: Dembar JHjbllshlng, Inc., 1952. 72 pp. Stack, Edward M. The Language Laboratory and Modern Language Teaching. New York: Oxford tlfniversity Press, i960. 149 pp. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organizations. The Teaching of Modern Languages. Amsterdam: UNESCO, 1955. 297 pp. Valdman, Albert (ed.). Trends in Language Teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1966. 298 pp. Periodical Articles Agard, Frederick B. "The Cornell Language Program," Hispania, 32:27-34, February 1949. Allen, Edward D. "Education and Re-education of Foreign Language Teachers," MLJ, 48:259-261, May 1964. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. in Allen, Edward D. "The Effects of the Language Labora tory on the Development of Skill in a Foreign Language," MLJ, 44:355-358, December 1960. Anderson, Earl W., and R. H. Eliassen. "Foreign Language Teachers in Public High Schools in the United States." Classical Journal, 27:166-172, De cembe r 1931. Andersson, Theodore. "Do We Want Certified Teachers or Qualified Ones?" MLJ. 47:231-235, October 1963. . "An FL Blueprint in Focus," MLJ, 46:116-117, March 1962. ______ . "The UNESCO Seminar on the Teaching of Modern Languages," School and Society, 77:408-410, June 27, 1953. "Training Tomorrow's Language Teachers," School and Society, 84:41-43, August 4, 1956. Angiolillo, Paul F. "Teacher Training in FLs," French Review, 24:3:248-252, January 1951. Azarian, Garo S. "Major and Minor Fields," MLJ. 44:5-6, January 1960. Balakian, Anna. "Certification Requirements for Modern Foreign Language Teachers in the American Public Schools (1959-1960)," PMLA. 76:2:20-35, May 1961. Barrick, Mae E. "Variety and Language Lab Success," MLJ, 45:361-365, December 1961. Bazan, Beverly Moen. "The Danger of Assumption with out Proof," MLJ, 48:337-346, October 1964. Beaujour, Michael. "Teaching 'Culture' in NDEA Foreign Language," MLJ, 46:308-311, November 1962. Belasco, Simon. "Nucleation and the Audio-Lingual Approach," MLJ, 49:482-491, December 1965. Benwell, Frank Paul. "Dialog Memorization: A Nemesis," MLJ, 45:303-304, November 1961. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 228 Berkmaler, E. "Modern Approaches in the Field of Training Language Teachers in the United States," International Relations Education, 10:4:448-459, m2n--- ; ------------ . "What Are We Doing? Where Are We Going?" NEA Journal. 50:9:16-17, December 1961* Borglum, George. "The Modern Language Audio-Visual Project," MLJ, 42:425-428, November 1958. Bovee, Arthur G. "The Present Day Trend in Modern Language Teaching," MLJ, 33:384-391, May 1949. Boyer, Mildred V. "Language Institutes and Their Future," PMLA. 79:4:2:11-17, September 1964. Bree, G. "College Board French Tests," French Review, 36:119-124, December 1962. Brlckman, William W. "The Educational Expert and Foreign Languages," School and Society, 81:2055: 90-91, March 19, l953"I Brooks, Nelson. "The College Board Achievement Tests in French," French Review, 24:141-148, December 1950. _______. "The Ideal Preparation of Foreign Language Teachers," MLJ, 50:71-78, February 1966. Buechel, Erwin H. "Grades and Ratings in Language Proficiency Examinations," MLJ, 41:41-47, January 1957. Calvert, Laura D. "Notes in the Peace Corps Language Training Program," MLJ, 47:319-323, November 1963. Campbell, Walter. "Self-Improvement for Teachers of Foreign Language," Clearing House, 29:277-299, January 1955. Carpenter, John A. "American Schools Abroad: A Source of Language Teachers," MLJ, 47:189-191, May 1963. Carroll, John B. "The Contributions of Psychological Theory and Educational Research to the Teaching of Foreign Languages," MLJ. 49:273-281, May 1965. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 229 Chaffee, Everett. "Satellite on the Educational Horizon." California Teachers Association Journal, 5 9:4: 9 - i2 , Gcto"Eer"T963:------------------------ Charest, Gerard T. "The Language Laboratory and the Human Element in Language Teaching," MLJ, 46:268, October 1962. Chavy, P. "Traduction Automatique et Enseignement des Langues Etrangferes," French Review. 36:383-387, February 1963. Cioffari, Vincenzo. "The Importance of the Printed Word in the Learning of a Foreign Language," MLJ. 46:312-314, November 1962. ______ . "The Influence of the Language Institute Program--Past, Present, and Future," MLJ. 46:62- 68, February 1962. ______ . "What Can We Expect from the Language Laboratory?" MLJ, 45:3-9, January 1961. Clements, Robert J. "Foreign Languages in Postwar Educational Planning: A Survey of Recent Policy Reports," MLJ. 30:3-9, January 1946. Clowes, Richard M. "We Prepare for 1965," California Teachers Association Journal, 59:4:5-7, October TOST.----------------- Coates, Mary Weld. "Can We Streamline the Teaching of Foreign Languages?" Clearing House, 30:31:149- 153, November 1955. Cormier, Raymond J. "For Audio-Lingual Classes: The Coda," MLJ, 49:360-362, October 1965. Caswell, Hollis L. "Modern Foreign Languages in a Modern Curriculum," French Review, 28:61:503-510, May 1955. Dannerbeck, Francis J. "Towards a Methods Course Requirement at the Graduate Level," MLJ, 50:273- 274, May 1966. Davison, Ned J. "Will the New Key Prove Flat?" MLJ, 44:322-323, November 1960. Decker, Samuel N. "Adapting Audio-Visual Techniques to Language Instruction," MLJ, 42:69-77, February 1958. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 230 Deichelmann, M. K. "The Place of Languages in the National Defense Program," MLJ. 35:421-429, October 1951. Delattre, Pierre. "Sommes-nous Prepares pour 1'enseigneraent de la Langue?" French Review, 33:5:483-490, April 1960. del Toro, Julio. "Language Teachers and Their Preparation," MLJ. 34:317-318, April 1950. Diller, Edward. "The Linguistic Sequence in Learning Foreign Languages," MLJ. 46:259-260, October 1962. Duncan, M. Helen. "Reading a Foreign Language," MLJ. 45:17-19, January 1961. Dunkel, Harold. "Language Teaching in an Old Key," MLJ. 47:203-210, May 1963. Ehrmann, Eliezer L. "Listening Comprehension— In the Teaching of a Foreign Language," MLJ. 47:18-19, January 1963. Elam, Stanley. "Is South Carolina ETV a Worthy Model?" Phi Delta Kappan. 45:1:2-6, October 1963. Engel, E. F. "Shall We Enter the Promised Land?" MLJ. 31:162-167, March 1947. Espositio, Patrick G. "A Problem: Foreign Born or American Born Language Teachers in Our American Colleges," MLJ. 36:93-95, February 1952. "An Evaluation of the 1959 Summer Language Insti tutes," MLJ, 44:59-63, February 1960. "An Evaluation of the 1960 Summer Language Insti tutes," MLJ, 45:105-114, March 1961. Felt, William N. "The Adaptation of Radio to Foreign Language Teaching," French Review, 26:6:432-438, May 1953. Finocchiaro, Mary, and David Weiss. "An Alternative to the NDEA Institute," MLJ, 47:147-148, April 1963. Fishman, Joshua. "The Status and Prospects of Bilingualism in the United States," MLJ, 49:143- 155, March 1965. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109 . 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 231 Fliess, Frank F. "How Can We Try to Create a Satis factory Student-Teacher Program in a Modern Language Field?" MLJ. 34:298-301, April 1950. "Foreign Study for Future Language Teachers," School and Society. 90:220-222, January 13, 1962. Freeman, Stephen A. "The Improvement of Teaching and Teacher Training." French Review, 26:5:348-350, April 1953. _______. "What About the Teacher?" MLJ, 33:255-267, Apri1 1949. _______. "What Constitutes a Well-Trained Modern Language Teacher?" MLJ, 35:293-305, January 1941. Gallant, Clifford J. "Madness in Methods," MLJ, 47:243-245, October 1963. Gaudin, Lois S. "The Language Laboratory and Advanced Work," MLJ, 46:79-81, February 1962. Gauerke, Herbert, and Angelika K. Cardew. "Teacher Training via TV," MLJ, 47:69-70, February 1963. Gillis, William. "State Certification in FLs," MLJ, 45:61-63, February 1961. Giuliano, William. "Aural-Oral Proficiency without Laboratories," MLJ, 45:171-173, April 1961. Glaude, Paul M. "The Establishment of FL (Grades 7 and 8) in Junior High School," MLJ, 45:269-274, October 1961. Goggio, E. "Need of a New Approach to Modern Language Study," MLJ, 36:272-273, October 1952. Green, Jerald R. "Language Laboratory Research: A Critique," MLJ, 49:367-369, October 1965. _____. "Supervision in the Foreign Language Classroom: Guidelines for the Department Chairman," MLJ, 47:366-368, December 1963. Grew, James H. "A la Recherche d'une Profession Unie," MLJ. 49:479-482, December 1965. _______. "A French Course for the Modern World," French Review, 26:4:210-215, January 1953. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 232 Grew, James H. "Toward Better Classroom Teaching," MLJ. 48:83-88, February 1964. Grittner, Frank M. "The Influence of the State Foreign Language Supervisor upon Foreign Language Instruction in America," MLJ. 49:91-94, February 1965. "Guidelines for Teacher Education Programs in Modern Foreign Languages: An Exposition," MLJ. Golden Anniversary Issue, 50:1-103, October 1966. Haac, Oscar A. "Language Institutes and Applied Linguistics," MLJ. 47:356-359, December 1963. Hadlich, Roger L. "Lexical Contrastive Analysis," MLJ. 49:426-429, November 1965. Hallman, C. L. "Operation: Upgrading; New Methods for Preparing Foreign Language Teachers," Clearing House. 40:116-119, October 1965. Hamilton, Charles E. "Preparation of Teachers for California Public Schools," The Journal of Teacher Education, 10:3:358-363^ September 1959. Hanzeli, V. E. "Programmed Learning in French: Work in Progress," French Review, 35:6:587-589, May 1962. Harmon, John T. "The Modern Language Association, Programs and Services," MLJ. 49:363-366, October 1965. Harris, Julian. "Assumptions and Implementations of the 'Intensive Method,'" MLJ, 33:520-527, November 1949. Harvey, Howard G. "From Language Laboratory to Tele vision Studio," MLJ, 38:282-289, October 1954. Haugen, Einar. "Linguistics and the Wartime Program of Language Teaching," MLJ, 39:243-245, May 1955. Hayden, Robert G., and Joshua A. Fishman. "Impact of Exposure to Ethnic Mother Tongues on Foreign Language Teaching in American High Schools and Colleges," MLJ. 48:262-274, May 1964. Hayes, Alfred. "New Directions in Foreign Language Teaching," MLJ, 49:281-293, May 1965. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 233 Hazelett, Richard. "Interlinear Microprint," MLJ, 45:307-308, November 1961. Hempel, Val, and Klaus A. Mueller. "Introduction to the U. S. Army Language School," MLJ. 43:62-65, February 1959. Hocking, Elton. "The Decade Ahead," MLJ, 48:3-6, January 1964. Hoffman, Edward J. "Language Education in the Metro politan Area: Situation and Trends," MLJ. 36:349-353, November 1952. Huebener, Theodore. "Audio-Visual Aids in the High School," MLJ, 43:266-267, October 1959. ^. "The New Key is Now Off-Key," MLJ, 47:375- 377, December 1963. _. "New York City's Foreign Language Program,” MLJ, 47:62-65, February 1963. "The Professional Alertness of Foreign Language Teachers," MLJ, 40:3-6, January 1956. ______ . "Professional Equipment of Teachers of French," French Review, 28:6:567-568, May 1955. "Teaching Spanish by Radio," Hispania, 357203, May 1953. Johnston, Marjorie C. "Foreign Language Instruc tion," Review of Educational Research, 31:2:188- 196, April 1961. ______ . "In-Service Training Program for Spanish Teachers," Hispania, 28:129-130, February 1945. _____. "The Urgency of Accelerating the Teaching of Foreign Languages 'In the New Key,'" MLJ, 42:163-166, April 1958. Jones, John M., Jr. "The Secondary Modem Language Teacher: Puppet or Professional," MLJ, 48:154- 155, March 1964. Kaulfers, Walter V. "Criteria for a Foreign Language Program," Clearing House, 30:2:78-82, October 1955. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 234 Kaulfers, Walter V. "Retooling the Profession in the Light of Modern Research," MLJ, 35:501-522, Novembe r 1951. "The Keating Report--A Symposium," MLJ. 48:189-209, April 1964. Kelly, Vincent P. "The Current Situation in the Teaching of Spanish in Indiana Public Schools," MLJ, 49:421-425, November 1965. Kern, Edith. "Language Learning and Television," MLJ, 43:264-265, October 1959. Kirch, Max S. "The Role of the Language Laboratory," MLJ, 47:256-260, October 1963. Klee, John. "Effective Practices in Secondary Foreign Language Teaching,” MLJ, 45:207-210, May 1961. Koekkoek, Byron J. "The Advent of the Language Laboratory," MLJ, 43:4-5, January 1959. Kolbert, J., and J. A. Mastronie. "A Continuum Concept in Modern Languages," MLJ, 46:315-321, November 1962. Lado, Robert. "Linguistic Science and Language Tests," Language Learning, 3:75-82, July-December 1950. "Language Teachers and Their Preparation," MLJ, 34:317-318, April 1950. Leavitt, Sturgis E. "The Teaching of Spanish in the United States," Hispania, 44:4:591-625, December 1961. Levenson, Stanley. "FLES is a Revolution," California Teachers Association Journal, 59:4:1- 18, October 1963. Lihani, John. "The Cycle of Interest and Indiffer ence in Foreign Languages," MLJ. 39:355-360, Novembe r 1955. Lind, Melva. "Modern Language Learning: The Inten sive Course as Sponsored by the United States Army and Implications for the Undergraduate Course of Study," Genetic Psychology Monographs. 38:3-82, 1948. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 235 Lindquist, Lilly. "Why Study Foreign Languages Answered by Our Armed Forces," MLJ, 28:289-291, March 1944. Livingstone, Leon. "'Organic' vs. 'Functional' Grammar in the Audio-Lingual Approach," MLJ, 46:304-307, November 1962. Locke, William N. "The Future of Language Labora tories," MLJ. 49:294-304, May 1965. _______. "Ideal Language Laboratory Equipment," MLJ, 43:16-18, January 1959. Ldpez-Morillas, Juan. "Training Spanish Teachers for General Education," Hispania, 36:2:142-143, May 1953. Lorge, Sarah. "Comments on 'Language Laboratory Research: A Critique,'" MLJ, 49:369-370, _______. "Language Laboratory Research Studies in New York City High Schools : A Discussion of the Program and the Findings," MLJ, 48:409-419, November 1964. MacAllister, Archibald T. "The Preparation of College Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages," PMLA, 79:2:1-15, May 1964. McGrath, Earl J. "Foreign Language Instruction in American Schools," MLJ, 37:115-119, March 1953. McKinney, James E. "In-Service Training: Ways and Means," MLJ, 48:483-486, December 1964. . "The New Key in a Large School System," MLj, 49:434-436, November 1965. Mathieu, G. "A Brief Guide to Sound Labmanship," MLJ, 44:123-126, March 1960. . "The Case for Tapes without Pauses," MLJ, 49:40-43, January 1965. "Choral Pattern Drills," MLJ, 45:215-216, Ray 1961. _______. "The Pause Lever: Key to Self-Pacing," German Quarterly, 35:318-321, May 1962. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 236 Mathieu, G. "'Pitfalls of Pattern Practice,' An Exegesis." MLJ. 48:20-23, January 1964. Matluck, Joseph H. "Notes on the 'Modified' Lab Library System," MLJ. 47:20-22, January 1963. Matthews, E. Louise. "A New Decade of FL Teaching at the High School Level," French Review. 33:4:224-227, January 1960. Mayo, Helen N. "Class, Laboratory, and Credit Hours in Beginning Modern Languages," MLJ. 47:23-25, January 1963. Meiden, Walter. "A Device for Teaching Pronuncia- tion--The Reading of the Lesson of the Day," MLJ, 47:65-69, February 1963. Micarelli, Charles N. "Aims in Foreign Language Study," MLJ, 45:296, November 1961. 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"The Conversational Approach to Language Learning: An Evaluation and an Answer to Our Critics," MLJ, 36:59-64, February 1952. Valade, W. J. "Values of Foreign Language Teaching," Michigan Education Association Journal, 28:398- 4 0 0, Harch Ittir ------------------- Valdman, Albert. "Toward a Redefinition of Teacher Role and Teaching Context in Foreign Language Instruction," MLJ, 48:275-284, May 1964. Varasteh, M. "Grammar," MLJ, 46:261-267, October 1962. Voigt, Frieda. "The National Teachers' Seminary, A Unique Experience in Teacher Training," MLJ, 4 8 :3 6 1 -3 6 3 , October 1964. Wagner, Rudolph F. "American versus Native Language Instructors," MLJ, 40:35 4, October 1956. Walsh, Donald D. "A Clearer Look at the New Look," MLJ, 44:168-170, April 1960. _______. "The College Board Foreign-Language Tests," MLJ, 37:19-22, January 1953. "NDEA Institutes, Summer 1961: A Survey," H O , 4 8 :2 1 0 -2 1 2 , April 1964. ______ . 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Lafayette, IndPurdue University, 1963. 37 pp. Johnston, Marjorie C. (ed.). Modern Foreign Languages in the High SchooTT Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, 1958. i66 pp. 301. 302. 303. 304. 305. 306. 307. 308. 309. 310. 245 Keating, Raymond F. A Study of the Effectiveness of Language Laboratories. NewYork: Bureau o£ Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univer sity, 1963. 61 pp. Liaison Committee on Foreign Languages. Foreign Language Articulation in California Schools and Colleges: Policy Recommendations of the Liaison Committee on Foreign Language. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1966. 18 pp. Mathieu, Gustave, and James S. Holton. "Suggestions for Teaching Foreign Languages by the Audio- Lingual Method: A Manual for Teachers," Bulletin of the California State Department of Education, 39 :7, July 1960. 27 pp. Modern Language Association of America. Reports of Surveys and Studies in the Teaching oT~Modern Languages, 1^59-1961~ Mew York: The Associa tion, 1962. 326 pp. O'Connor, Patricia. Modern Foreign Languages in High School: Pre-Reading Instruction. Bulletin OE 27060, Mo. 9. Washington, D.C.: United States Office of Education, 1960. 50 pp. O'Rourke, Everett V. (ed.) . "French: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing," Bulletin of the California State Department o£ Education^ 5T:4, October vxz:— r a pf:-------------------- . "Spanish: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing. Grades Seven through Twelve," Bulletin of the California State Department of Education. 30:4, May 1961. 69 pp. * Parker, William Riley. The National Interest and Foreign Languages. 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: Unitea States National Commission for UNESCO, Department of State, September 1961. 159 pp. "Qualifications for Secondary School Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary SchooT Principals, 39 :214:l-4, November 1955. State of California. Education Code. 2 vols, Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1965. 2543 pp. 311. 312. 313. 314. 315. 316. 317. 318. 319 . 320. 246 Stone, J. C., and C, N. Robinson. The Graduate Internship Program in Teacher Education. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965. 99 pp. University of California. Foreign Languages at the University of California^ Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965. 48 pp. Foreign Languages in the University: Prob lems and Prospects. Proceedings of the univer sity of California All-University Foreign Language Conference, October 26-28, 1965, Lake Arrowhead, California, n.d. 53 pp. Waddell, C. W. A Handbook for Student Teachers. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1935. 62 pp. Bibliographies Buros, Oscar K. The Sixth Mental Measurements Year- book. Highland fark, N.J.: The Gryphon fress, m 3 . 1714 pp. Coleman, Algernon. An Analytical Bibliography of Modern Language Teaching. 1927-1932. Cnicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. 296 pp. . An Analytical Bibliography of Modern Language Teaching, 1932-1937. Vol. TV. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938. 561 pp. ______ . An Analytical Bibliography of Modern Language Teaching, 1937-1942. New York: King1s Crown Press, 1949! 549 pp. Nostrand, Howard Lee, et al. Research on Language Teaching: An Annotated Bibliography for 1945-61. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962. 280 pp. Ollmann, Mary J. MLA Selective List of Materials for Use by Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages in Elementary and Secondary Schools. New York: MLA, m n — 162 pp. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325. 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. 332. 247 Powers, F. F. "Selected References on Secondary- School Instruction: II. Foreign Language," School Review, 59:117-119, February 1951. Sanchez, Jose. "Foreign Language Motion Pictures (An Annotated Bibliography)," MLJ, 44:117-185, April 1960. ______ . "Twenty Years of Modern Language Laboratory (An Annotated Bibliography)," MLJ. 43:228-232, May 1959. Tharp, James B. Annotated Bibliographies of Modern Language Methodology for the Years 1^46. I947T 1948. Columbus: Onio State University, T552. 74 pp. ______ . "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1949," MLJ, 35:53-70, January 1951. Van Eenenaam, Eve 13m. "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1950," MLJ, 36:39-50, January 1952. _______. "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Rethodology for 1951," MLJ, 37:85-108, February 1953. ______ . "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1952," MLJ, 38:28-54, January 1954. . "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1953," MLJ, 39:27-50, January 1955. ______ . "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1954," MLJ, 40:83-104, February 1956. ______ . "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1955," MLJ, 41:81-103, February 1957. ______ . "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1956," MLJ, 42:27-43, January 1958. 248 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 340. 341. Van Eenenaam, Evelyn. "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1957," MLJ, 43: 34-49, January 1959. _. "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1958," MLJ, 44:24-42, January 1960. _. "Annotated Bibliography of Modern Language Methodology for 1959," MLJ, 45:24-43, January 1961. Unpublished Materials California Council of Foreign Language Teachers Association. "The Secondary Schools and the Foreign Language Teacher," Proceedings at Conference, San Francisco, November 6-7, 1965. 7 pp. (Mimeographed.) California State Department of Education, Certifica tion Office. "Group 6 . The Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential." Unpublished report (leaflet). July, 1963. 2 pp. California State Department of Education, Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification. "The Standard Teaching Credential with a Specializa tion in Secondary Teaching (Issued for Life)." Unpublished report (leaflet). March, 1966. 2 pp. Dusel, John P. "General Observations on the Results of the Survey of Foreign Language Offerings and Enrollments in California Public Schools, Fall 1965." Sacramento: California State Department of Education, October 15, 1966. 13 pp. (Mimeographed.) Franklin, Mayer J. "A Series of Units and Lesson Plans for the Teaching of First Semester French in High School to Accompany the Text, French for the Modern World." Unpublished Master"1 "! thesis, University of Southern California, July 1954. 65 pp. Georgiades, William. "Development of Requirements for the General Secondary Credential in California, 1935-37." Unpublished Ed.D. 249 342* 343. 344. 345. 346 . - 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, February 1958. 205 pp. Heiser, Mary. "Discussion and Outline of a Course on Methods of Teaching a Foreign Language." Undated report, University of Washington, 1966. 8 pp. Lynn, Edward P. "The Professional Preparation of Secondary School Teachers in Selected North Central Association Colleges and Universities." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1953. Letter from Blair Hurd, Coordinator of Teacher Recruitment, State of California Department of Education, May 13, 1966. Letter from J. Robert Rogers, Senior Certification Analyst, State of California Department of Education, July 1, 1966. Letter from J. Alden Vanderpool, Acting Executive, Teacher Education, California Teachers Associa tion, May 24, 1966. Levy, Leonard. "The Preparation of Community College Teachers." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Texas, 1957. 273 pp. Modern Language Association. "Foreign Language Teacher Training Curricula: A Conference Report," FL Bulletin No. 61, MLA, May 1960. 7 pp. (Mimeographed.) Morton, F. "The Language Laboratory as a Teaching Machine: Notes on the Mechanization of Language Learning," Ann Arbor, August-October 1959. 87 pp. (Mimeographed.) Newmark, Gerald. "A New Design for Teaching Foreign Languages Using Dramatic Motion Pictures and Programmed Learning Materials," System Develop ment Corporation, Santa Monica, California, November 9, 1962. 34 pp. Paquette, F. Andre, and Ethel Hemsi (eds.). "Proposed Standards for Approval of Teacher Education Programs on Foreign Languages." Unpublished materials, issued by MLA, September 1, 1964. 3 pp. 250 352. Smith, George E., Dir. ’ ’ Report of the Seminar for College Teachers of French, German and Spanish. Conducted at Indiana University, June 22 - August 4, 1964." 169 pp. (Mimeographed.) APPENDICES 251 APPENDIX A PANEL OF LANGUAGE SPECIALISTS 252 PANEL OF LANGUAGE SPECIALISTS California Laurel Briscoe, Coordinator of Teacher Training Los Angeles City Schools Dr. Pauline Deuel Professor of Spanish University of Southern California Los Angeles John P. Dusel Acting Coordinator of Foreign Language Programs California State Department of Education Sacramento Dr. Carmelo Gariano - Associate Professor of Foreign Languages San Fernando Valley State College Northridge Morris Glickman Consultant, Foreign Languages Los Angeles City Schools Merrill V. Goudie, Director Division of Secondary Education Los Angeles County Schools Los Angeles Dr. Everett Hesse Professor of Spanish University of Southern California Los Angeles Dr. Arthur J. Knodel Chairman, Department of French University of Southern California Los Angeles Leon Libenson Chairman, Language Department University High School Los Angeles 253 254 PANEL OF LANGUAGE SPECIALISTS (continued) Mary Edna MacIntyre, Consultant San Francisco Board of Education San Francisco Dr. J. Michael Moore Specialist, Foreign Languages Los Angeles City Schools Hilario Pena Supervisor, Foreign Languages Long Beach City Schools Dr. Micheline Sakharoff Instructor, Foreign Languages San Fernando Valley State College Northridge Dr. Leon Schwartz Professor of French California State College at Los Angeles Robert Sherman, Consultant Foreign Languages Los Angeles City Schools William Tucker Supervisor, Foreign Languages Curriculum Division Los Angeles City Schools Robert Wise Coordinator of Teacher Training Los Angeles City Schools For the Modern Language Association of America F. Andre Paquette Director of Teacher Preparation and Testing APPENDIX B THE QUESTIONNAIRE 255 T H E P R E P A R A T I O N O F F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E T E A C H E R S I N T H E S E C O N D A R Y S C H O O L S O F S O U T H E R N C A L I F O R N I A D e a r C o l l e a g u e : Y o u h a v e b e e n re c o a m e n d e d o n e of a g r o u p o f e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r i to h e l p e v a l u a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a n u m b e r o f c r i t e r i a t h a t h a v e to d o w i t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s . T h e e n c l o s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e s e c r i t e r i a . T h i s is p a r t of a d o c t o r a l s t u d y b e i n g c o n d u c t e d at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a o n a p r o b l e m of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o o u r p r o f e s s i o n . 1 w o u l d a p p r e c i a t e It If y o u w o u l d t a k e a f e w m i n u t e s to c h e c k o f f th e i t e m s a n d m a l l t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e b a c k t o m e in t h e e n c l o e e d e n v e l o p e . P l e a s e g i v e y o u r J u d g m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e s o u n d n e s s of e a c h i t e m by c h e c k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s p a c e . T h e n , f e e l f r e e to m a k e c o m e n t i a n d s u g g e s t i o n s . Y o u r o p i n i o n s w i l l be h e l d in s t r i c t c o n f i d e n c e . A l t h o u g h t h e s t u d y c o n c e n t r a t e s on the s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s , p l e a s e r e s p o n d , e v e n if y o u a r e t e a c h i n g in a d i f f e r e n t a r e a . A r e a t a u g h t K - 6_____ 7 - 9_____ 1 0 - 1 2 _____ J u n i o r c o l l e g e _____ 4 - y e a r c o l l e g e _______ L a n g u a g e ( s ) y o u t e a c h F r e n c h __________ S p a n i s h _________ O t h e r ________________________________ T e a c h i n g in a P u b l i c s c h o o l _______________ P r i v a t e __s c h o o l _________________ Q U E S T I O N N A I R E In y o u r e x p e r i - Do y o u con- e n c e , w a s t h i s a i d e r t h i s t o be : 3 a. 1 w O I. G E N E R A L E D U C A T I O N o n. _e c >■» «o — 1 . T h e f o r e 1gn l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r ' s u n d e r g r a d u a t e a n d a- z o z o. & 5- g r a d u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s h o u l d i n c l u d e c o u r se s in: C > C ) ( ) a . E n g 1 i sh L a n g u a g e < ) ( ) ( ) b . E n g l l 6 h Li t e r a t u r e ( > ( > c > c . A m e r ican L i t e r a t u r e S i •- -C c Si M m s i £ C ) ( ) C ) ( ) ( ) < ) o • Z f ( ) ( ) < ) Helpful In your experi ence was this: Do you con s ider Chis t o be : 4) o . a s - d. S o c i a l S c i e n c e s : (1) H i s t o r y (2) G o v e r n m e n t (3) E c o n o m i c s (A) S o c i o l o g y e. M a t h e m a t i c s f. P h y s i c a l a n d B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s g. P s y c h o l o g y h. P h i l o s o p h y i. P r i n c i p l e s o f E d u c a t i o n j. H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n k. P h i l o s o p h y o f E d u c a t i o n 1. E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y n . G e n e r a l T e a c h i n g M e t h o d s n . A n t h r o p o l o g y o. O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) :__________________ C o n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s : t o Ln II. F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E E D U C A T I O N 1. Is It n e c e s s a r y fo r th e f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r to ha ve : ) ( ) a. A n a t i v e b a c k g r o u n d in t h e l a n g u a g e ? ) ( ) b. A s e c o n d l a n g u a g e m a j o r ? ) ( ) c. A t h i r d l a n g u a g e m i n o r ? 2. S h o u l d t h e t e a c h e r h a v e h a d t h e s e l a n g u a g e c o u r s e s ? ) ( ) a. E l e m e n t a r y a n d I n t e r m e d i a t e ) ( ) b . A d v a n c e d ) ( ) c . C o m p o s i t i o n ) ( ) d. M e d i e v a l L i t e r a t u r e ) ( ) e. S u r v e y of L i t e r a t u r e ) ( ) f. 1 6 t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a t u r e ) ( ) g. 1 7 t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a t u r e ) ( ) h. 1 8 t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a t u r e ) ( ) i. 1 9 t h C e n t u r y L i t e r a t u r e ) < ) J. C o n t e m p o r a r y L i t e r a t u r e ) < ) k. P h i l o l o g y ) ( ) 1. P h o n o l o g y a n d M o r p h o l o g y i i Non-euential In your expert- Do you con- ence was this: aider this c o be: w Of ( ) < ) ( ) m . S y n t a x ( ) ( ) c ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n . C u l t u r e a n d C i v i l i z a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g c o n t e m p o r a r y ( ) c ) c ) ( ) ( ) ( ) o . G e n e r a l L i n g u i s t i c s c ) ( ) < ) c ) ( ) ( ) P • O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) : < ) < ) < ) 3. Wh a t t e c h n i c a l c o u r s e s s h o u l d c h e t e a c h e r c a k e ? a. A u d i o - v i s u a l t e c h n i q u e s . I n c l u d i n g f i l m p r o j e c t i o n b. U s e o f t a p e r e c o r d e r s c . U s e o f l a n g u a g e l a b o r a t o r y d. U s e o f t e a c h i n g m a c h i n e s e. C l a s s r o o m u s e of r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n f. O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) : ________________________________________________ W h i c h a p p r o a c h e s to l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d in t h e t r a i n i n g of t e a c h e r s ? a. A u d i o - l i n g u a l m e t h o d b . D i r e c t me t h o d c . C r r t r a n s l a t i o n m e t h o d d. L i n g u i s t i c m e t h o d e. E c l e c t i c a p p r o a c h T e a c h i n g a u r a l c o s p r e h e n s ion T e a c h i n g c o n v e r s a t ion Te a c h i n g r e a d i n g l . T e a c h i n g c o m p o s i t i o n j. O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) : _______________________________________ to t-n OO 5 . H o w a n d m u c h for p r a c t ice h o w l o n g 1 t e a c h i n g s h o u l d t h e t e a c h e r h a v e . ( ) < ) < > a . O n e s e m e s t e r , o n e h o u r ( ) ( ) c ) < ) c ) ( > b . Orte s e m e s t e r , t w o h o u r s ( ) < ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) c . Ont- y e a r , o n e h o u r ( ) < ) c ) ( ) ( ) < ) d . O n e y e a r , t wo h o u r s c ) < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) e . O n e y e a r u n d e r a m a s t e r t e a c h e r c ) ( ) c ) f ) < ) ( ) f . Ot he r ( ) ( ) ( ) 6 . W h a t g e n e r a l l a n g u a g e c o u r s e s s h o u l d be t a k e n ? ( ) ( ) ( ) a . P s y c h o l o g y of La n g u a g e c ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) b . A p p l i e d L i n g u i s t i c s ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < > ( ) c . P h o n e t i c s ( ) ( ) < ) i i i Helpful In your experi ence, we s this: Do you c on- s ider this t o be : g 4 -J O O 4-1 III. S U P P L E M E N T A R Y E X P E R I E N C E S & Wh a t s u p p l e m e n t a r y p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s t h e t e a c h e r h a v e h a d ? s h o u l d a. N D E A y e a r i n s t i t u t e s b. N D E A s u m m e r i n s t i t u t e s c. P r e - s e r v i c e o r i e n t a t i o n o r t r a i n i n g d. I n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g l e c t u r e s e. I n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g w o r k s h o p s f . M e m b e r s h i p In g e n e r a l t e a c h e r s ' o r g a n i s a t i o n s g. M e m b e r s h i p in p r o f e s s i o n a l l a n g u a g e o r g a n i s a t i o n s h. A t t e n d a n c e at p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s i . O t h e r s : 2. D o y o u c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e s to be a s s e t s Co t h e t e a c h e r of f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s ? C ) ( ) ( ) a . R e s i d e n c e in t h e t a r g e t c o u n t r y ? c > c ) c ) (W h a t is a d e s i r a b l e m i n i m u m ?) < > c ) < > b . E d u c a t i o n in t h e t a r g e t c o u n t r y ? < > < ) ( ) c . T r a v e 1? ( - > < ) c ) d . P e a c e C o r p E t r a i n i n g in t a r g e t c o u n t r y ? c > ( ) c > e . p e a c e C o r p s t r a i n i n g in a c o u n t r y s p e a k i n g th e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e ? < > ( ) c ) f . C o l l e g e I n t e r e s t g r o u p a c t i v i t i e s ' ’ ( > ( > ( ) ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y , e . g . , F r e n c h C l u b , S p a n i s h C l u b , or o t h e r ) : ___ __________ ___________________ ro V-n C o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s A S S E S S M E N T O F T E A C H I N G A B I L I T Y i. L a n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y s h o u l d be m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of: ( ) ( ) c ) a . M L A P r o f i c i e n c y T e s t s ( ) c > < > ( ) ( ) ) b . O r a l e x a m i n a t i o n (co 1 l e g e - c o n s t rue t e d ) ( > c ) ( > ( ) ( ) ( ) c . Wr i t t e n e x a m i n a t i o n (col l e g e - c o n s t r u c te d ) ( ) c > c ) d . Ot he r : i v In your experi ence, va s this: Do you con- s ider this to be : 2. A p p r a i s a l of t e a c h i n g a b i l i t y s ^ . u l d be d o n e by: a. C o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r s b . M e t h o d s t e a c h e r c. T r a i n i n g t e a c h e r d. T r a i n i n g s u p e r v i s o r ( c o l l e g e ) e. T r a i n i n g s u p e r v i s o r ( s c h o o l s y s t e m ) f. O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) : ________________________________________ 3 . < > < > < > ( > ( > < ) M e a s u r e m e n t of c l a s s r o o m s k i l l s : s h o u l d be a b l e to: T h e t e a c h e r a. D e v e l o p in s t u d e n t s a m a s t e r y o t t h e f o u r s k i l l s o f l i s t e n i n g , s p e a k i n g , r e a d i n g , a n d w r i t i n g , in t h a t o r d e r b. T e a c h a u r a l c o m p r e h e n s i o n c. T e a c h c o n v e r s a t i o n d. T e a c h r e a d i n g e. T e a c h c o m p o s i t i o n f. R e l a t e l a n g u a g e to the c u l t u r e o f t h e c o u n t r y g. R e l a t e f o r e i g n c u l t u r e to A m e r i c a n c u l t u r a l s t a n d a r d s h. P r e s e n t f o r e i g n l i t e r a t u r e as a v e h i c l e for g r e a t i d e a s i. O t h e r s k i l l s : _____ ___________________________________________________ c ) < ) ( ) ( ) < ) c ) ( ) c ) < ) < ) ( ) < ) ) ( ) ( > ( ) < ) ( > ( ) ( ) ( ) { ) c ) ( ) ro o> < = > M e a s u r e m e n t of r e l a t e d s k i l l s . T h e t e a c h e r s h o u l d h a v e th e a b i l i t y to: ( ) ( ) < ) a . U s e c l a s s r o o m a u d i o - v i s u a l a i d s , I n c l u d i n g f i l m p r o j e c t o r s < ) ( ) ( ) < ) < ) < ) b . U s e Che l a n g u a g e l a b o r a t o r y s k i l l f u l l y c ) < ) < ) c ) ( ) ( ) c . C o r r e l a t e t e a c h i n g w i t h o t h e r s u b j e c t s c ) ( ) < ) ( ) ( ) < ) d . E v a l u a t e t h e p r o g r e s s a n d d i a g n o s e th e d e f i c i e n c i e s of s t u d e n t p e r f o r m a n c e ( ) ( ) ( ) C o m m e n t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s : v T h i s p a g e is fo r y o u r l u r t h e r c o m m e n t s , c r i t i c i s m s , s n d s u g g e s t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , (a) W h a t in y o u r o w n c e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g w a s o f g r e a t e s t h e l p t o y o u ? ( b ) W h a t c o u l d w e l l h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d ? (c ) W h a t h a v e y o u f o u n d to be t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e m e t h o d o f t e a c h i n g a l a n g u a g e ? K 5 CT> If you would like to receive a summary of the results of this study, please plac a check here ______, and give your: S c h o o l A d d r e s s _____________________________________________________________________________ Zip A Doctoral Study University of Southern California D r . Le slie Wilbur, Chairman M a y e r J. F r a n k l i n L a n g u a g e D e p a r t m e n t F a i r f a x H i g h S c h o o l L o s A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a 9 0 0 4 b APPENDIX C FOLLOW-UP POSTCARD 262 FOLLOW-UP POSTCARD June 3, 1966 Dear Colleague: I hope that you received my recent questionnaire on "The Preparation of Secondary Language Teachers in Southern California." I know that time is short, but it will take only ten minutes to answer and return it. If you have mislaid your copy, please phone me collect at 931-0056 and I shall be happy to mail you another. Thank you for your cooperation in a study so important to our profession. Sincerely, Mayer J. Franklin 900 S. Hauser Blvd., Apt. 1-E Los Angeles, Calif. 90036 263 APPENDIX D MLA STANDARDS FOR TEACHER QUALIFICATION 264 265 MLA Qualifications for Teachers of Modern Foreign Languages C O M P E T E N C E S U P E R IO R GOOD U 1NIM A L Listening Comprehension Ability to follow closely and with ease all types of standard speech, such as rapid or group conversation and mechanically transmitted speech. Ability to understand conversa tion of normal tempo, lectures, and news broadcasts. Ability to get the sense of what an educated native says when he is making a special effort to be under stood and when he is speaking on a general and familiar subject. Speaking Ability to speak fluently, approxi mating native speech in vocabu lary, intonation, and pronunciation. Ability to exchange ideas and to be at ease in social situations. Ability to talk with a native with out making glaring mistakes, and with a command of vocabulary and syntax sufficient to express one’s thoughts in conversation at normal speed with reasonably good pronunciation. Ability to read aloud and to talk on prepared topics (e.g., for class room situations) without obvious faltering, and to use the common expressions needed for getting around in the foreign country, speaking with a pronunciation un derstandable to a native. Reading Ability to read almost as easily as in English material of considerable difficulty. Ability to read with immediate comprehension prose and verse of averagedifficulty and mature con tent. Ability to grasp directly (i.e. with out translating) the meaning of simple, non technical prose, except for an occasional word. Writing Ability to write on a variety of sub jects with idiomatic naturalness, ease of expression, and some feeling for the style of the language. Ability to write a simple "free com position"suchasa letter, with clarity and correctness in vocabu lary, idiom, and syntax. Ability to write correctly sentences or paragraphs such as would be de veloped orally for classroom situa tions and to write a simple descrip tion or message without glaring er rors. Applied Linguistics The "good” level of competency with additional knowledge of dc scriptive, comparative, and histori cal linguistics. The "m inimal” level of compe tency with additional knowledge of the development and present characteristics of the language. Ability to apply to language teach ing an understanding of the differ ences in the sound system, forms, and structures of the foreign lan guage and English. Culture and Civilization An enlightened understanding of the foreign people and their culture, such as is achieved through per sonal contact, through travel and residence abroad, through study of systematic descriptions of the for eign culture, and through study of literature and the arts. The “ minimal" level of compe tency with first hand knowledge of some literary masterpieces anti acquaintance with the geography, history, art, social customs, and contemporary civilization of the foreign people. An awareness of language as an es sential element of culture and an understanding of the principal ways in which the foreign culture differs from our own. Professional Preparation A mastery of recognized teaching methods, evidence of breadth ami depth of professional outlook, and the ability to experiment with and evaluate new methods and tech niques. "M inimal" level of competency plus knowledge of the use of spe cialized techniques, such as audio visual aids, and of the relation of language teaching to other areas of the curriculum. Ability to eval uate the professional literature of foreign language teaching. Knowledge of the present day ob jectives of the teaching of foreign languages as communication and an understanding of the methods and techniques for attaining these objectives APPENDIX E MLA STANDARDS FOR TEACHER-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 266 267 Standards for Tcacher-Education Programs in Modern Foreign Languages P repared by a conference convened by the M odern Language Association in D ecem ber 1963, this state m ent is addressed to state departm ents responsible for the certification of teachers and to institutions that prepare elem entary- and secondary-school teachers of m odern foreign languages. Its purpose is to identify an d clarify acceptable standards of preparation. 1. O nly selected students should be adm itted to a teacher-preparation program , and those selected should have qualities of intellect, character, and personality th a t will m ake them effective teachers. 2. T he training of the future teacher® must make him a w ell-educated person w ith a sound knowledge of U nited States culture, the foreign culture and litera ture, and the differences betw een the tw o cultures. It m ust also enable him to: a) U nderstand the foreign language spoken at norm al tem po. b ) Speak the language intelligibly and w ith an adequate com m and of vocabulary and syntax. c) R ead the language w ith im m ediate com pre hension and w ithout translation. d ) W rite the language w ith clarity and reasonable correctness. e) U nderstand the nature of language and of language learning. f) U nderstand the learner and the psychology of learning. g) U nderstand the evolving objectives of educa tion in the U nited States and the place of foreign-language learning in this context. 3. In addition to possessing the requisite knowledge and skills, the language teacher m ust be able to: a) D evelop in his students a progressive control of the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). b) P resent the language as an essential elem ent of the foreign culture and show how this cul ture differs from that of the U nited States. c) Present the foreign literature effectively as a vehicle for great ideas. d ) M ake judicious selection and use of methods, techniques, aids, and equipm ent for language teaching. e) C orrelate his teaching w ith that of other sub jects. f) E valuate the progress and diagnose the defici encies of student perform ance. 4. An approvable program to prepare such a teacher m ust include: a) Intelligent evaluation and utilization of his pre-college language training through course placem ent according to results of proficiency tests. b ) An offering of language and literature courses advanced enough to enable him to teach the gifted student. * These specifications apply to the specialist in m odern foreign languages at all levels. In the elem entary schools there is a clear need for specialists as well as for the classroom teachers who do the follow-up work on the specialist teacher’s lesson. c) Courses and directed reading th at give him a first-hand acquaintance w ith major works of literature, to be tested by a com prehensive exam ination. d) Use of the foreign language as the language of instruction in all language and literature courses. e) Extensive and regular exposure to several va rieties of native speech, through teachers, lecturers, discs, tapes. f) Instruction in the foreign geography, history, and contem porary culture. g) Instruction in stylistics, phonetics, and lin guistics. h) Instruction in the psychology of language learn ing and the philosophy of education. i) Instruction and practice in the use of the language laboratory and audio-visual aids. j) System atic observation of the foreign language being expertly taught, followed by the ex perience of teaching under expert direction. k) Evaluation of the teacher candidate through (1) proficiency and other appropriate tests, (2 ) appraisal of his teaching skill by experts. 5. An approvable program should also make provision for: a ) N ative speakers as teachers or inform ants. b ) Study abroad for at least one summer. c) O rganized extra-curricular foreign-language ac tivities. d ) Training in evaluating and diagnosing pupil progress. 6. The institution must be able to dem onstrate that its m odern-foreign-language staff is of sufficient size and com petence to give the desired instruction. There should be at least two well-qualified teachers of each language and at least one teacher of each language should hold the Ph.D . 7. A candidate’s readiness to teach (as attested by his foreign-language departm ent, the education d ep art m ent, the academ ic dean, and the principal of the school in which he does his apprentice teaching) must he certified not only by the departm ents directly con cerned but in the nam e of the whole institution. 8. Teacher-preparing institutions should regularly evaluate the effectiveness of their program s by arrang ing for visits to their graduates on the job and by invit ing evaluations from adm inistrators of the schools in which their graduates teach. It is the responsibility of institutions that prepare teachers of foreign languages— together with the state departm ents of education that certify them —to scrutinize constantly the effect of their programs upon foreign-language learning in the schools that em ploy their graduates. A CALL TO ACTION To Overcome the Critical Shortage of Teachers of M odern Foreign Languages Recognizing the urgent need for greater num bers of qualified language teachers, a conference convened in Decem ber 1963 by the M odern Language Association addresses the following “call to action” to colleges and universities that prepare such teachers And to state de partm ents of education. Close cooperation betw een these 268 two agencies can result in new sources of supply anil new , flexible, expeditious means of preparing and cer tifying elem entary- and secondary-school language teachers who already possess some of the qualifications. T he action proposed is to certify any teacher candi date who dem onstrates that he possesses the requisite personal qualities, skills, and educational background no m atter how or w here they have been acquired. The following steps are proposed: 1. Public announcem ent of certification require m ents (statem ent of qualifications, course syllabi) and of ways of m eeting these requirem ents expeditiously ( recom m ended courses, sum m er institutes, reading lists, taped courses and other audio-visual m aterials, qualifying exam inations). 2. A dm inistration of the MLA (o r equivalent) Pro ficiency Tests for diagnostic purposes. 3. Interview s w ith teacher candidates by one or more authorities designated by the state departm ent of edu cation or by a teacher-preparing institution to appraise the candidates’ qualifications (including credentials from foreign universities) and to advise them how to overcome any deficiencies discovered. 4. A pprentice teaching guided jointly by a dem on stration teacher and a supervising teacher. 5. Final appraisal of the candidate’s readiness to teach by a com m ittee of experts. 6. A dm inistration of a second form of the MLA (or equivalent) Proficiency Tests, if needed to determ ine proficiency. 7. Recom m endation for certification by all those con cerned with the candidate’s preparation. 8. G ranting of license by the state. [The first drafts of these docum ents w ere w ritten at a C onference at MLA headquarters in New York on 13 D ecem ber 1963. P articipants in the conference: Theo dore Andersson, C hairm an, D ept, of Rom ance L an guages, Univ. of Texas; L eonard Brisley, Indiana High School Program , Indiana Univ.; Aaron S. C arton, School of Education, New York Univ.; Jerem iah S. Finch, D ept, of English, P rinceton Univ.; John H. Fisher, Ex ecutive Secretary, MLA; Stephen A. Freem an, Vice President Em eritus and D irector of the Language Schools, M iddlebury College; D onald H erdm an, Direc tor of College C urricula in T eacher Education, New Jersey State D ept, of E ducation; E lton Hocking, D ept, of M odem Languages, Purdue Univ.; P aul A. Irvine, D irector of G uidance and Testing, Pennsylvania D ept, of Public Instruction; Frederick H . Jackson, The Car negie Corporation of New York; Thom as W . Kelly, In structor in Spanish, Somerville (N .J.) H igh School; Norm an D. K urland, Consultant, College Proficiency Exam inations, New York D ept, of Education; A rchibald T. MacAilister, Professor of Italian, Princeton Univ.; H ow ard L ee N ostrand, Chairm an, D ept, of Rom ance Languages, Univ. of W ashington; E verett V. O ’Rourke, Consultant, Secondary Education, California State D ept, of Education; F . Andr£ P aquette, N ew York State Univ. at Plattsburg; Robert J. Solomon, E ducational Testing Service, Princeton, N.J.; W ilm arth H. Starr, D irector, MLA-NYU Testing Program , New York Univ.; D onald D. W alsh, Associate Secretary, MLA, and Director, Foreign L anguage Program , Chairman. The docum ents w ere subsequently revised twice by correspondence b e fore reaching their present form.] APPENDIX F MLA GUIDELINES FOR TEACHER-EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES 269 270 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES Recom m endations of the Modern Foreign Language I ’cacher Preparation Study of the Modern Language Association in cooperation with the N ational Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification with the support of the Carnegie Corporation of N ew York. (T he official statement below is addressed to college and university personnel who are engaged in or are planning to engage in programs to prepare teachers of modern foreign languages in Ameri can schools. T h e statement was prepared in a special M LA project directed by F. Andrd Paquette. At various stages of developm ent the statement has had the benefit of review anti com m ent by more than 500 members of the foreign language profession, and it has been approved by the M LA For eign Language Program Atlvisory Committee. T hroughout the project, members of the N ational Association of State Directors of T eacher Education and Certification [N A SD TEC ] provided much helpful professional advice, and Lhe statement carries the formal endorsem ent of N A SD TEC .) A . T h e Preparation o f t h e A m e r i c a n School Teacher: T h e p r e p a r a tio n o f a teach er in th is co u n tr y u su a lly c o n sists of: g eneral e d u c a tio n , courses a n d e x p e r ie n c e s w h ich h e lp h im b e c o m e a w e ll-ed u ca ted person; a ca d em ic s p e cialization, cou rses an d ex p e r ie n c e s w h ich h e lp h im b e c o m e p rolicient in an aioa of c o n ccn ti ation; and p rofe s sional e<lnration, o in is i s and ex p e r ie n c e s ivhirh h e lp h im pH ]}.lie h i m .‘ II as an ed u cator. f lte sta tem e n t w h ich fo llo w s is con cern ed o n ly w ith academ ic specialization and professional education. It is in te n d e d to d elin e the to le of th e m o d e m foreign la n g u a g e teach er, to stale the m in im a l c o m p e te n c e w h ich sh o u ld he p ro v id ed by a I ta in in g p rogram , and to c h a ra c terize such a p rogram . II. T h e M o d e r n Foreign f.anguage T e a c h e r in A m e r i can Schools: T h e teach er of a m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e in A m erica n schools is e x p e c te d to: 1. D e v e lo p in stu d en ts a p rogressive co n tro l o f the four la n g u a g e skills (listen in g, speaking, read in g, waiting). 2. Present th e la n g u a g e as an essential e le m e n t of th e foreign c u l t m c and sh o w h ow that cult tut: is sim ilar to an d d ifferen t from th a t o f the U n ite d Stales. 3. Present th e foreign literatu re in such a was as to brin g th e stu d en ts to u n d ersta n d it a n d to apprec iate its values. 4. M ak e ju d ic io u s se le ttio n and use of a p p io a c h e s m eth o d s, tech n iq u es, aids, m a tetia l. and e q u ip m e n t foi la n g u a g e teaching. 5. Cm relate his te a c h in g w ith that in o th e r areas. f>. E v a lu a te th e progress and d ia g n o se the deficiencies of stu d en t p erfo rm a n ce. (I. M i niinut Ohjet tiers for a I'eucher /■ .d u ra tio n P r o g ra m in M o d e r n Foreign Languages:* 1 he p rogram to prepare a b e g in n in g m o d e r n fo ie ig n la n g u a g e leachci m ust p io c id e h im w ith the o p p o r tu n ity to develop : 1. A b ility to u n d ersta n d c o n v ersa tio n at n o r m a l te m p o , lectures, an d n ew s broadcasts. 2. A b ility to talk w ith a n a tiv e w ith a c o m m a n d of vo ca b u la ry and syntax sufficient to ex p ress h is th o u g h ts in co n v ersa tio n at n o r m a l speed w ith reasonably g o o d p r o n u n c ia tio n . 3. A b ility to reail w ith im m e d ia te c o m p r e h e n sio n prose a n d v c is e o f a v e ia g e difficulty a n d m a tu r e con ten t. 4. A b ility to w rite a sim p le "free co m p o sitio n ," such as a letter or m essage, w ith clarity a n d correctn ess in vocab u lary, id io m , a n d syntax. A n u n d e r s ta n d in g of th e d ifferen ces b e tw e e n th e s o u n d system s, form s, an d stru ctu res of the foreign la n g u a g e an d of E nglish and ab ility to ap p ly this u n d e r s ta n d in g to m o d e r n lo ie ig n la n g u a g e teaching. <i. An a w aren ess o f la n g u a g e as an essential e le m e n t of c u ltu r e and an u n d e r sta n d in g of the p rin cip al w avs in w h i< 1 1 the foi eigii < u 1 1 u u 111 lb is f i out o u r o w n . I- i i st h a n d k n o w le d g e o f so m e literary m a sterp ieces an d a c q u a in ta n ce w ith the g eo g ra p h y , h istory, art. social cu sto m s, a n d con ic m p o i.iiy civilization o f th e fo ie ig n p eo p le. 7. K n o w le d g e o f th e p resen t-d ay o b je ctiv es o f m o d e r n fo ie ig n la n g u a g e te a c h in g as c o m m u n ic a tio n , an d an un d c r s ta n d in g o f th e m e th o d s a n d te c h n iq u e s for a tta in in g tins;* ob jectives. K n o w le d g e of th e use o f specialized tech iiiqties, such as e d u c a tio n a l m e d ia , an d o f the rela tio n of m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e stu d y to o th e r areas o f th e cu r r ic u lu m . A b ility to ev a lu a te th e p rofessional literatu re of m o d e rn foreign la n g u a g e teach in g. I). Features of a T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n P ro g ra m i n M o d c m Foreign Languages: A n in stitu tio n th a t seeks ap proval of its m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e tea ch er e d u c a tio n * It.iwd [ill 1 lie ' G o o d ” level o f t h e " Q u a li f ic a t io n s for S cojii clary S c h o o l I f at hers of M o d e r n F o r e i g n L.anguage s," The Put trim of / h e X a t i o m d Assot i a l i n n of Seroiutary Si hoot Prim i p u ts. XXXIX ( N o v l ‘i.r»r>). as revised ill W i l m a r t h II. Starr, " M I A V o r e i g n L a n g u a g e P i o f i c i e i u y T i m s tor T e a c h e r s a m i A d v a l u e d .Students." P.Ml.A, r x x v i t (Se pt. 1962. Part 2), 38 271 p rogram accepts t h e re sp o n sib ility for d e m o n s tr a tin g th a t its p rogram p ro v id es stu d e n ts w ith t h e o p p o r tu n ity to a cq u ire th e c o m p e te n c e s n a m e d a b ove. It is characterized by th e featu res listed b elo w . 1. T h e in stitu tio n h a s a clearly fo r m u la te d p o licy c o n c ern in g a d m issio n to, r e te n tio n in, a n d conij. iion of th e p ro g ra m . T h e sta te m e n t o f th is p o licy in c lu d e s p r e cise in fo r m a tio n a b o u t w h e n a n d h o w to a p p ly for a d m ission to th e p ro g ra m a n d w h a t criteria are u sed in sc reen in g a p p lica n ts; it states t h e m in im a l a c h ie v e m e n t req u ired for successful c o m p le tio n o f th e p r o g r a m a n d it in d ica tes w h e n , h o w , a n d b y w h a t p ro fessio n a l criteria stu d en ts arc e lim in a te d from th e p ro g ra m . A p rin te d sta te m e n t o f th is p o licy is a v a ila b le to all w h o req u est it. 2. T h e in stitu tio n e v a lu a te s th e p r e v io u s la n g u a g e e x p e r ien ce o f all a p p lic a n ts for a d m issio n to th e in stitu tio n as w ell as o f th a t o f a p p lic a n ts to th e m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e teach er e d u c a tio n p ro g ra m th r o u g h t h e u se o f p roficien cy tests in th e fo u r la n g u a g e skills. It uses th e results o f su ch e v a lu a tio n for stu d e n t p la c e m e n t in m o d ern fo reig n la n g u a g e in stru ctio n . 3. In o r d e r to p r o v id e c a n d id a te s of varied b a ck g ro u n d s w ith th e o p p o r tu n it y to ach iev e at least the level o f •'G ood" in th e seven areas o f c o m p e te n c e o u tlin e d in S ection C a b ove, th e in stitu tio n offers, or p r o v id e s by spc rial a r r a n g e m e n t, in str u c tio n in: a. T h e four la n g u a g e skills (lis te n in g , sp e a k in g , rea d ing, w r itin g ). T h i s in stru ctio n in c lu d e s reg u la r an d e x ten siv e e x p o su r e to several varieties o f n a tiv e sp eech th r o u g h teachers, le itu r e is , n a tiv e in fo r m a n ts, or m e c h a n ica lly rep ro d u ced sp eech , and e x p o su r e to several varieties o f the w ritten la n g u a g e th r o u g h book s, n ew s papers, m agazines, d o c u m e n ts, etc. b. T h e m a jo r w orks o f th e literatu re. T h is instruc tio n is largely o r e n tir e ly in th e fo reig n la n gu age. c. O th e r aspects o f th e c u ltu r e a n d civ iliza tio n . T h e in stru ction in c lu d e s the stu d y of th e g en grap h v. his tory, a n d co n tem p orarv civilization d. L a n g u a g e analysis, in c lu d in g a stu d y o f th e p h o n o lo g y , m o r p h o lo g y , and syn tax o f th e m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e an d co m p a riso n of these e le m e n ts w ith th o se o f A m erica n E n glish. e. P ro fessio n a l e d u c a tio n , in c lu d in g a stuilv o f the social fo u n d a tio n s a n d th e o rg a n iza tio n o f p u b lic ed u c a tio n in the U n ite d States, h u m a n g r o w th a n d d e v e l o p m e n t, le a r n in g theory, a n d c u r r ic u lu m org a n iza tio n , in c lu d in g th e p lace of f o ie ig n la n g u a g e s in th e cur ricu lu m . f. M e th o d s o f tea ch in g m o d e m foreign lan gu ages. A stu d y o f a p p r o a c h e s to, m e th o d s o f, a n d te c h n iq u e s to b e used in te a c h in g a m o d e r n fo reig n la n g u a g e . T h e r e is in stru ctio n in th e use o f th e la n g u a g e lab o ra to ry a n d o th e r e d u c a tio n a l m e d ia . 4. T h e in s titu tio n p r o v id e s an o p p o r tu n it y fo r sys tem atic, su p erv ised o b ser v a tio n o f a variety o f m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e te a c h in g situ a tio n s o f d ifferin g q u a lity in elem en tu rv a n d secon dary schools, at b e g in n in g , in te r m e d ia te , a n d a d v a n ced lev els o f in str u c tio n , in classroom a n d la n g u a g e laboratory. a. T h e in stitu tio n p r o v id e s s tu d e n t-te a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e u n d e r e x p e r t su p e r v isio n in w h ic h th e c a n d id a te ca n d e m o n str a te h is a ctu a l o r p o te n tia l a b ility to b e a m o d ern foreign la n g u a g e teacher. t>. T h e in stitu tio n h a s a staff w h o se c o m b in e d c o m p eten ces are su p e r io r to t h e lev el o f in str u c tio n a l p r o ficiencies w h ic h are th e o b je ctiv es o f th e p ro g ra m . T h e teachers o f th e m e th o d s courses a n d th e classroom te a c h ers (c o o p e r a tin g teachers) w h o su p erv ise t h e stu d e n t te a c h in g a ie e x p e r ie n c e d fo reig n la n g u a g e teach ers a n d a t e th e m selv es p roficien t at least at th e level o f ''G o o d ” in the seven areas o f c o m p e te n c e . In addiLion, th e c o o p e r a tin g teachers are in te rested in h a v in g stu d e n t teachers w ork u n d er th e ir su p erv isio n . 7. T h e in s titu tio n m a in ta in s a c u r r ic u lu m library c o n ta in in g th e m a ter ia ls a n d e q u ip m e n t c o m m o n ly used in te a c h in g m o d e r n fo reig n la n g u a g e s in e le m e n ta r y a n d secon dary schools. 8. T h e in s titu tio n p ro v id es all stu d e n ts o f m o d e r n foreign la n g u a g e s w ith such o p p o r tu n itie s for r e in fo r c e m e n t o f th e ir classroom le a r n in g as a la n g u a g e lab oratory, foreign film s, plays, a n d lectures; la n g u a g e r e a d in g an d listen in g lo o m s w ith hooks, period icals, records, and tapes; la n g u a g e h o u se s a n d la n g u a g e tables. ft. 1 h e iu -n t u lio n , if it d o es not h a v e its o w n p ro g ra m o u ts id e th e U n ite d States, calls to th e a tte n tio n o f all foreign la n g u a g e m ajors specific fo reig n stu d y p rogram s w h ich h ave been carefu lly selected. 111. \ r.iu d id ate's a c h ie v e m e n t in th e seven areas nl iiiiii])! I, m r is ev a lu a te d tln o u g li a p p io p r ia tc tests, his te a c h in g skill is a p p ra ised by exp erts, a n d th e results oi th e ev a lu a tio n a n d a p p r a i.a l are a v a ila b le for a d v isin g h im in his c o n t in u in g e d u c a tio n a n d for r e c o m m e n d in g , licen sin g, a n d e m p lo y in g h im . H is readiness to teach is certified in th e n a m e o f th e w h o le in stitu tio n . A n official d esig n a ted to m ake such certification is a b le to d em o n strate that h e has received in fo r m a tio n a b o u t th e ca n d i d a te from all u n its in the in stitu tio n t o m e r n e d w ith the can d id ate's p rep a ra tio n .

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Creator Franklin, Mayer Joel (author)

Core Title The Preparation Of Teachers Of French And Spanish In Southern California Secondary Schools

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

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Advisor Wilbur, Leslie (committee chair), Berkey, Max Leslie, Jr. (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member), Stoops, Emery (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-587988

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