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An Analysis Of Antithesis As A Basis Of Epic Rhetorical Patterns

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An Analysis Of Antithesis As A Basis Of Epic Rhetorical Patterns

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Content i 4 - Copyright by- Graham Kingsbury Spring 1966 AN ANALYSIS OF ANTITHESIS AS A BASIS OF EPIC RHETORICAL PATTERNS by Graham Kingsbury Spring A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Comparative Literature) August 1965 UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CA LIFO RN IA 8 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by under the direction of k..^.?..Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ....... ^ Dean September 196f> DISSERTATION COMMITTEE PREFACE The following study has heen based on the concept that there are valuable lessons and probably new ideas to be gained from an appreciation and interpretation of the role of antithesis as a foundation for rhetorical patterns in the epic. Specifically, this study will consist primarily of a series of comparative analyses of anti thesis as the foundation for rhythmic patterns, patterns of tropes, that is, particularly patterns of certain intrinsic elements of the epic literature selected for investigation. Periodically, throughout this study summations will be made which will call attention to the possible conceptual process that might well be involved in the antithetical oscillation of examples considered. Thus, there will be presented, in various summaries, corollary considerations of a somewhat relatively abstract telos, namely, antithesis as a stimulus to an atmosphere of creative imagination. The Greek and Latin texts used are, for the greatest part, those of the latest editions of the Oxford classical texts; also, the second edition of F. A. Patterson*s The Student * s Milton has been the text for the passages quoted from Milton*s Paradise Lost. All translations and paraphrases are my own. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE............................................. iii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION............................. 1 The Iliad and the Odyssey The Aeneid Paradise Lost II. THE RHYTHMIC PATTERN IN EPICS.............. 12 Specific Considerations Homeric Examples Examples in the Aeneid Paradise Lost Summary III. TROPE IN EPIC: THE SIMILE................. 1+7 Examples from the Homeric Epic The Simile in the Aeneid The Simile in Paradise Lost Summary IV. TROPE IN EPIC: THE METAPHOR............... 78 General Observations Examples from Homer The Metaphor in the Aeneid The Metaphor in Paradise Lost Summary V. TROPES IN EPIC: IMAGERY................... 9 1 + General Observations Epic Imagery in Homer Epic Imagery in the Aeneid Epic Imagery in Paradise Lost VI. CONCLUSIONS................................. 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................... 129 APPENDIXES......................................... I37 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION At the outset it may be best to determine the definitional scope of antithesis as it will be funda mentally used in subsequent analyses. Antithesis, therefore, will be considered in a somewhat broader concept than the usual rhetorical definition which tends to depict antithesis as a figure of speech characterized by emphatically contrasting words, clauses, or sentences. Rather, antithesis as a basis for subsequent comparative analyses may perhaps be more broadly defined as follows * Antithesis is the setting opposite certain contrasted, opposed, or analogous ideas— in words, expressed within rhetoriflai patterns which bring out the contrast or analogy most forcibly, word corresponding to word, clause to clause, construction to construction. Also, with regard to the adjective rhetorical, as used in the phrase, rhetorical pattern, in the above definition, it will be necessary to delimit the meaning of this adjective in its substantive form, rhetoric. It has been defined in many different ways. Although Aristotle defined it as an art of persuasion, rhetoric may be defined as being the verbal content of a composition (e.g., a poem) or a genre or type (e.g., the epic).1 Yet, even more specifically, and particularly as it will be applied in this study, rhetoric will include from a more modern standpoint, such intrinsic elements as rhythm (and such tropes as) simile, metaphor, and symbol.2 Thus the generic phrase, rhetorical pattern, will be subsequently considered as covering such patterns of intrinsic elements as a rhythmic pattern, a pattern of simile, or a pattern of metaphor. Before we consider such patterns of intrinsic elements, let us first consider in a general way the role of antithesis with regard to certain extrinsic elements of the epic. The antithetical nature of what might be termed patterns of extrinsic elements of the epic will be considered for the most part only in this introductory chapter, and only in a broad and general manner. Now the purpose of such cursory treatment at this point is to provide a contrast or a foil for detailed treatment of antithesis in later chapters, especially antithesis as a foundation for patterns of rhetorical intrinsic elements, ^f. Aristotle, Ars Rhetoric a.i. ii, I, together with definition of rhetoric as detailed in Wepster»s Third International Dictionary. 1961* "2b* the verbal content of a composition (as a poem) or a body of literature.” 2Cf. Cleanth Brooks and R. P. Warren, Modern Rhetoric (New York, 19^9), pp. ix, N. B., section entitled Metaphor and Creative Imagination (pp. ^32-3); also, cf. section entitled Rhythmic Patterns (pp. M-91-2). 3 as will be seen In detail later. An example of what is meant in this study by the phrase extrinsic element— say, in the epic— would be the relationship of an epic hero with the society common to the hero and the epic involved. Accordingly, let us now consider an application of anti thesis. The Iliad and the Odyssey Both in the Iliad and the Odysseyr each poem has a central figure, the hero, around whom action revolves. Yet, although the social milieu of both Homeric epics is reasonably comparable, the imagery derived is presented from almost antithetical polar viewpoints. Specifically, the Iliad begins with Mfjviv (Wrath), and throughout the greater part of the poem we see a picture of a wrathful Achilles in isolation from his comrades. The Odyssey, however, begins with an *'Av6pa . . .ho^Ctpoxov , a man of many turns or facets, superb in his versatile adaptability and, as a viator, eminently successful in all his encounters. In contrast, Achilles, even at the end of the Iliad, is constantly engrossed with his own honor, pride, and self-esteem* indeed, even with Priam he is ready to explode at the slightest provocation. Definitely he is an unsocial figure; moreover, his egocentric undiluted attitude lends him an almost supernatural autocratic, i f abstract quality, a generic quality that might be termed the spirit of warlike honor (for better or worse). In short, Achilles is an individual, singled out in a surrounding society. Odysseus, on the other hand, is another type of epic hero who consciously and continually strives to place himself in various types of society and to experience his own reactions to these societies. Truly he is the inquisitive, knowledge-seeking type of man. Yet, despite a decade of devious wanderings, he desires to return to his own society, his own home, and his own family. For then he will feel that he is a complete man and can thus make all of his own (social milieu) complete. Indeed, with his return and restoration, Telemachus matures into a man; and, Laertes becomes rejuvenated from almost senile decrepity into a heroic figure; moreover, last but far from least, Penelope, Homeric in every feminine dimension, achieves superb fulfillment* her endurance is rewarded; her husband is home and safe; and, her son has matured. Thus, at the beginning of Western literature, in the Homeric epic, we see an intense interest concentrated on two men, Achilles and Odysseus, and their position in the world about them. Although there are also definitely gods and cosmic forces, still these dynamic entities (divine and otherwise) are unable to upstage these epic heroes. Now up to this point, antithesis has been the basis for a pattern which is relatively wide in its spectrum of epic man and his societyt for at one extreme there is the rashly courageous beau-ideal type of hero, Achilles, introvert indeed; whereas at the opposite extreme stands the versatile type of hero, Odysseus, extrovert par excellence. To obtain this pattern, however, two Homeric epics were used. In the next section, only one epic, the Aengid, will be treated in the main; moreover, the antithesis of broad themes will be considered instead of the possibly broader pattern of man and society. Nevertheless, at the conclusion of the next section, the antithetical themes of the Iliad will be comparatively treated with regard to the Aeneid in order to emphasize the role of antithesis as a basis for a certain type of extrinsic pattern in the epic. The Aqneld As opposed to the two heroes of the two Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Qdvssev. we find only one central figure, Aeneas, as the hero of the Aeneid. first of the great literary epics of Europe. Just as we recently noted the importance of the very first words in both the Iliad and the Odyssey, we should likewise be alert to the antithetical significance of the first two words of the 4aae.lfl. Actually, the opening two words, arma and virum. even at first glance, present us with rather surprisingly antithetical polar viewpoints, namely arms and the man, the antithesis of which may be carried to some length with the ideas of man set over against the ideas of arma in a broader sense than the literal meaning of the word, namely, arms. Indeed, after having taught Latin, and especially the Aeneid. for several semesters, I increasingly think of arma in its broader and more figurative sense; for granted that arma could mean, as it does in its literal sense, merely military materiel or armament, e.g., cllpeum (shield) ("clipei," Aeneid. VIII, 625), or again in the sense of armed forces as seen in the dire machine like Trojan horse "filled with armed forces" ("feta armis," Aeneid. II, 238); yet, in its figurative or metaphorical sense, it might be construed as ways of attacking one as in the use of arma in the phrase "quaerere arma" (Aeneid. II, 99) wherein Ulysses was seeking "ways of attacking" Sinon, according to Sinon. Finally the clause, "in arma feror" (Aeneid. II, 337 and 655) "I enter into the contest" or "I rush into battle" tends to elicit the meaning of contest as a somewhat figurative meaning 7 Inherent in the word arma. Antithetically, we thus have Vergil singing "Arma ▼irunique,'1 that is, a man, Aeneas, versus the "various ways of attacking" said man, an Aeneas aeonistes in effect: for whether his opponent is an attacking force divine (Juno et al.), or a devastating human attacking force, Dido (supreme temptation and high tragic struggle for Aeneas) or the aggressor-attacking-forces of Latlum, Aeneas agonistes was— in contest— a rival against the various attacking forces of hoth God and man, from the fall of Troy down to the final pacification of Italy. And, always we note the epic hero, Aeneas, man, virum versus the counterattacking forces, arma ("contestings," mortal and immortal,— ever testing Aeneas to the core). What then was the purpose? Aeneas was aware that he was a man of destiny; and, he was willing to play to the hilt his purposeful role In the achievement of Imperium Romanum, despite contestations Involving man against all types of attacking forces. Thus, we may come to grips with the theme of the Aeneid which is a striking anti thetical feature in itself; in truth, Vergil states in his first three words: Arma virumaue cano. I sing arms and the man. Accordingly, in fulfillment of Aeneas* great purpose against immense odds, we have present at first the conception of Italy as a single nation, especially as seen in the final hooks of the Aeneid. Yet, in contrast, in the final seven books, we note also the traditional Historia Romana (particularly in the Sixth Book) rendered as a continuous MROMEM ab urbe condlta to a full expansion ("pontem indignatus Araxes." (Aeneid. VIII, 728) of Imperium Romanum. Moreover, we have noted thus far in this section that the antithesis inherent in the two words arma and virum have provided the basis of a selected extrinsic epic pattern fundamental throughout the Aeneid. Before concluding this section on Vergilian epic theme-vords, let us consider comparatively two theme-words in the Iliad. As an example, the opening theme-word of the Iliad. , (Iliad. I, 1) the Wrath (of Achilles), is in rather direct contrast with the theme-word, pooXfj , (Iliad. I, 5) the plan (of Zeus— and the gods). There is, however, no destiny of empire involved as in the Aeneid. Now, these two themes (Wrath versus Plan) of the Iliad are maintained at length in a somewhat strikingly parallel pattern based on the following antithesis, namely, the Wrath of Achilles running its course parallel to the course of the Plan of action of Zeus and the gods (with much attendant strife and tragedy). The courses of these two themes, then, run generally parallel through the first eighteen books of the Iliad. Thereafter, the synthesis of the divine Plan (in action) and the Wrath of Achilles is completed in the final books of the Iliad. Nevertheless, there is only a temporary termination (at the end of Book XXIV) of the conflict of the antithetical forces manifest in the pattern of the first eighteen books of the Iliad. Comparatively speaking, we see no resolution in the Iliad of a possible empire-to-be as in the Aeneid. no promise of ancestry and progeny as in the Aeneid— only the end of a tragic epic. Paradise Lost If the Iliad may be considered as terminating on a rather final and tragic note, it may be said, in contrast, that Milton*s Paradise Lost is an epic not terminated, in that it bespeaks of hope in this, our world. Moreover, in contrast to the Vergilian epic and Homeric epics, we find a somewhat different but nevertheless dynamic antithesis pervading Milton*s Paradise Lost. Indeed, it may be said that Paradise Lost provides an antithesis on a theologi cally abstract level--an awesome antithesis of a world of innocence versus a world of sin. Noteworthy too, is the fact that Milton in the content of his Paradise Lost depicts these two worlds (before sin and after sin) with a pattern of epic artistry whose foundation is anti thetical withal. 10 After the opening books of Paradise Lost* Milton portrays the state of original bliss in which Adam and Eve passed hand in hand. Then this happy pair sinned, and through their sin a tremendous change came over the world. Not only were Adam and Eve affected but even God himself became melancholy. Rivers, streams, and seasons became oppressive. In the broad theological sense, Paradise is lost; and, it is indeed a real loss. Thus we note that man has had to move from a world of almost unimaginable Innocence (a world of leisure and perfection) to another world because Of lost innocence or of sin; and, in addition, this is a world we ourselves know. One might say that the vivid anti thesis (of our present world versus a Paradise Lost) which Milton depicts is the basis of a pattern of duality, namely, a contrast between a world of good (innocence) and a world of evil (sin). Yet this world of evil is to be understood as a world of purpose (and hence hope), and one of moral effort: it is a challenging world, a world of sorrow and work, yet nevertheless a world vital in attendant love and companionship and worthwhile activity: definitely, this world is not Paradise. Indeed as they leave Paradise, it is this our challenging world, the antithesis of a paradise lost, that is all before them, completely theirs and where to 11 choose their place of rest* As mentioned at the beginning of this section, In contrast to the Iliad. Paradise Lost is an epic that is not complete when the thoughtful reader reaches the final line. For Milton gives his reader an antithetical thought a 1*envoi, almost undeniable in its intensity. Human courage, after the natural tears have been wiped away, asserts itself in the face of inevitable evil and inevitable trouble; notwithstanding, although Paradise may be lost, HUMANITY, nevertheless is gaineds for human life and human love are gained. As in the Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid. antithesis of dominant concepts (largely extrinsic in nature) has furnished a foundation for patterns which interrelate man with his society and his theology. In the ensuing chapters, however, antithesis will be comparatively analysed as it relates to various epic rhetorical patterns of Intrinsic epic elements such as rhythm, simile, metaphor, and imagery. CHAPTER II THE RHYTHMIC PATTERN IN EPICS The basis of this chapter is the fact that there is an antithesis inherent in the rhythmic pattern of an epic; and, in addition, this antithesis with its resultant intellectual interplay (or "oscillation11), if appreciated, may assist the oral reader by providing a stimulus to one’s creative imagination. With the concept of anti thesis firmly in mind, we shall employ two general hexameter principles in conjunction with this concept.* First, there is the principle that the long vowel is "weighed on" longer than the short vowel— with an interesting antithesis within a metrical foot of a "long" and the two "shorts." Again, as in the last foot of a dactylic hexameter, the final two "longs" are weighed on consecutively (or all the "longs" of the spondaic line)— all of which combinations may occur in variation in most any series of so-called dactylic hexameter lines. Secondly, there is the principle that the modifi cation of sound (later to be shown by Greek accents) is not a stress but a modulation of the voice somewhat above or below the normal pitch. Perhaps the epic chanting of 1Cf. sjieES, P. 1. 12 recent Yugoslavian bards which Milman Parry has preserved (or today*s chanting of Sanskrit hymns) provides us the nearest approach to the consequent effect of the epic modulation of voice.^ The dactylic hexameter was used by poets for nearly a millenium and a half after Homer, but no Greek or Homan poet equalled him in the antithetical balance between freedom and law: for Homer never blurs or dims the basic form of his measure for any length of time, nor does he allow this form to intrude markedly upon our attention. Indeed it is in the freedom with which Homer gives variety to verse of a single metric pattern that he excels• Specific Considerations To the person who loves epic poetry its verse (or its verse pattern) is not an inflexible set of rules. Rather, it is, inherent with song, the quickening spirit which gives a varied rhythmic beauty to the interplay of words. Yet, in addition to the interplay of words within the rhythmic movement of an epic verse, specific charac teristic patterns have been developed in epic poetry. From a comparatist*s standpoint, the epic verse or single line in Homer is more unitary than in Vergil: ^Cf. passim musical scores as illustrated in A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales. for Vergil, in contrast to Homer, tends to build relatively long verse structures or periods which probably belong to a late post-Homeric stage or development. This is not to say that the hexameter in the Iliad and the Odvssev had not been developed into any verse groups or paragraphs under the hand of a Homert e.g., Iliad XXII, 131-5; Odrssey V, 291-8. Moreover, the verse groups in the Iliad and the Odvssev are probably those which Homer has most to do with, as opposed to such passages as the "catalogue of the ships"— at least this is my feeling on the matter. For in the "catalogue" Homer probably inherited a unitary line type of,description which is more independent; hence, line after line in the sequence of the "catalogue" is, as it were, integrated into this "catalogue" passage as opposed to being a part of a tightly composed verse group, or verse paragraph. In contrast, however, Vergil was probably one of the first Latin poets to build his verses Into longer structures which became finished units of expression. Indeed, Vergil#s single line of verse, even when it is practically a single phrase, tends to make Itself felt as part of a larger periodic structure. Yet, within this verse-group structure, Vergil maintains a constant variation of stress and pause, almost a fugal mastery which has been equalled in English by probably only Milton in his Paradise Lost. Again, a final specific consideration with regard to rhythmic patterns is the concept that ANTITHESIS, as it will be used foundationally in patterns of intrinsic elements, is the setting over against each other of contrasted, opposed, or analogous ideas, expressed in language that brings out the contrast most forcibly, word corresponding to word, clause to clause, construction to construction.3 As applied to rhythm and words, the phrase "word corresponding to word" permits consideration of contrasting vowels and vowel combinations within the words of a verse. Homeric Examples Example 1 Antithesis of rhythmic elements in a single Homeric verse As an introductory example of antithesis within a single Homeric verse, let us consider the second verse of the following two Homeric verses: M.oxT)0|icp 0' drcd xSicpou fexeoceCovTo voiidv xdp xoTajidv xeXaSovTa, itapd fiodavdv Covaxfyx.^l- 3Cf. supra, pp. 1 and 12 ^Iliad. XVIII, 575-6. 16 We find that If we divide the verse at the caesura and "extract" the vowels we have a tonal antithesis within the rhythmic pattern: (Note that we have superimposed the first half of the verse over the second half) Mark too the fact that the vowels below their respective positions In each word are In a tonal pattern which should make for a definite degree of aesthetic stimulation or the stimulus one derives from something intrinsically beautiful. Moreover, the pattern of the second half of the verse is almost, but not quite, the same as that of the first half; however, the sequence (of vowels) of the second half follows, almost fugue-like, the sequence of vowels of the first half: First half: ao ao ea oa Second half: (a) ao ao oa Tia Also manifest is the antithesis of the vowel a alternating with the vowel o in the first part of each half verse and then an inversion after the first pair of ( a o ) alternations, with the more articulate vocal- vowel sound, _a_, occurring in the opening and closing syllables. There are no harsh-sounding consonants in the entire verse, and only a single sonant mute, & . occurring three times. Ten of the total twenty consonants are liquids as befits the harmony of the scene as well as the subtle ever-present epic continuum or flow. 17 Another aspect which is coupled to a great degree with the rhythm is the overall imagery with its sequence of Images and the stimulus of beauty to our perceptive senses. Like certain Constable paintings, the pasture in this case stands in contrast to the (water or) river; and, (in this case) the murmuring of the river (to the ear) is again in turn contrasted to the slender reeds waving (to the eye). Here there is a definite aesthetic interplay to be grasped as we read aloud this "pure" hexameter line with its longs followed by two shorts (for five consecutive feet with the normal spondee at the end), giving us the expected and desired variety of rhythm in a unit line. Thus, too, the antithesis of the vowel sequence provides an intense rhythmic interplay that might well provide a source of stimulus to creative imagination. Indeed, rhythmic intensity in this instance should produce an optimum climate for creative imagination — largely through the cerebral oscillation derived from the interplay existing in the basic aesthetic antithesis of the rhythmic pattern. Example 2 Antithesis of rhythm in a Homeric passage Generally speaking, in the rhythmic pattern of Homeric verse, main caesural pauses, enjambment, inversion, 18 and the contrasting positioning of these elements of rhythmic pattern, verse against verse, provide freedom and interplay without detracting from the ideal pattern of the dactylic hexameter. Additionally, however, the rhythmic contrast or setting of one verse against another verse (antithesis) may serve as an aesthetic stimulus to the readerfs imagination. Perhaps the induction of the Iliad may help make this concept somewhat clearer. (Page 19) Rhythmical pattern (Lines 1-12. Iliad. Book I).— v v / v v / // /______ v v / _ v v /___ v v / __ // / _v v / / v v / _____ / _____/ / // v v / v v / _____ ______/ // / _v v / __ v v / v v / _____ ______/ v V / ___ V // V /___ V V / ___ V V / 5 ______ / _________/ V // V / _________/ V V / _______ V V / V V / _______ / // / V V / _______ _______ / V V / ___ // V V /___ V V / ___ V V / _______ ______/ v V / ___ V // V /___ V V / ___ V V / _______ V V / V V / __ V V / _____// V V / V V / ________ 10 V V / ______/ ____ / / ____/ V V / _______/ _______ vv / __ // V V / __ vv / v v / v v / _______12 Through analysis of the rhythmic pattern we note that the first line, introducing the seminal theme, moves rhythmically in a smooth fashion and almost in precise 1A1AA02 A ttfide Ota- lIt]\>iiabcoj \A\iAfjos > ovkop{vi]i>, > i pvpi' ’A x«toif a k y t' tOrjKf, > vokkas 8’ l<j>Oipovs \Jrv^hf "A'ibi itpoiatytv i)pu>m>, avTOvs hi ikd p ia reO^f KVi’facrw 3t ol<ovoitr( re 7ra< rt, A to? 8’ ir tk fitr o fiovky, ov 8ij ra itpara hiaar/jTijv ip(<ravrc 5? ’Arpetbr)? re & i>a£ avbp&v kai 8ios ’AxiAAevs. T t i r ip (r< f> o )( Ot&v e/u8i £vvtr)Kf paytcrOai; t , » ... AjjtoCs Kal Aibr vlos" b ycip fiao-ikffi xokoiflels I'oftror ava crrparov op<rc kok»jv, oXqkovto 8e Aaof, otJrcKa rov Xpvcrqv tjrPpacrev iptjrf/pa • X ’Arpc 'ciys' 8 ya p fjkOc Boas iit l vtjas ’A xaiw p 20 adherence to the ideal pattern of the dactylic hexameter.5 Too, the main caesural break occurs in the third foot and thus conforms with a general rule that the principal caesura is usually found in the third foot of the Homeric verse. As we move to the second verse, we see a contrast to the first verse in that the caesura occurs in the second foot and, like the main caesural foot in the first verse, it also is a spondee. The spondee in the second foot of this second verse tends to add intensity to the tragic import of the adjective odXoiaevrjv, especially if the reader will dwell perceptibly longer on the final syllable of this word. Again, ^ , the relative pronoun, heightens the sense of impending tragedy with its long quantity by nature. Additionally, the immediately succeeding feet of the second verse and the third verse (with its enjambment into the fourth verse) lend largeness to the tragic imports in sequence there are woes ttXyea beyond number liopia > and sent to Hades are the many souls of heroes xoXX4c--\|foxAc— i^p6(i)v , to include heroes on both sides. In our setting of verses against each other within the rhythmic pattern, observe that the third verse has its Cf. supra. p. 8 and infra. p. 21 with regard to manifest content and rhythm. 21 main caesural break in the fourth foot In contrast to the caesural breaks In the first and second verses. Yet, in the fourth verse ve have the principal caesural pause In the second foot as we had In verse two— a turn and counter turn inasmuch as verses two and four are "enjambed" from their preceding verse. If we consider the remainder of verses four and five, we find a quantity of almost macabre imagination stimulated by the "treasure trove for dogs and for all the vultures" with a return to the natural break in the third foot of verse five. Accordingly, it is in the third foot where we would naturally be expecting a principal break, and here indeed it is colonic: for, from a punctuational standpoint, we have the antithesis of the Mf^viv , Wrath, namely the pooXfj , the Plan of Zeus (which was accomplished).6 At this point the thematic antithesis of the Iliad should be further noted in conjunction with the rhythmic inner impulse, antithetical withal, in this passage. Furthermore, both the Wrath and the Plan, as antithetical themes are maintained in parallel fashion to the eighteenth book and are finally resolved in the last books of the Iliad.7 6Cf. supra, pp. 8,20. ?Ibid. 22 Time Is linked with the tragic theme as the sixth verse begins, appropriately weighted with spondaic feet, inasmuch as the tragedy of the Wrath began at the time when first the two heroes parted in anger (Agamemnon, the wide ruling, contrasted with Achilles, the godlike): in consonance with content of verse seven, note the caesural break which points up the antithesis of content within * * _ verse seven. In the eighth verse the transitional gap from the proem to the inception of the action is deftly handled by use of a skillful chiastic antithesis: SiaoTfjroiv &pfoavTe (vs. 6) versus 'fcpibi §ovfcrpte (vs. 8) (cf. vss. 6 and 8): for what God set these two to fight in strife (vs. 8)? In the ninth verse we have the answer, namely, Apollo, i.e., as far as the caesural pause in the third foot, after which foot we have a tricolon of reasons (vss. 10, 11, 12): first, the god, angered at king Agamemnon, sent a plague; secondly, Agamemnon had shamed Apollo's priest, Chryses; thirdly, Ghryses (and here the action begins) came to the Greek ships to ransom his daughter. Rhythmically vss. 9-12 support the antithetical "winding bout" as we may see by checking the rhythmic pattern.Q Thus, in verse nine we have a colon-like pause supra, p. 18, especially vss. 9-12 with 23 in the third foot; however, in vs. ten we have the caesural pause in the fourth foot; and, also in the tenth verse we have a masculine caesura with the attendant vigorous tone and inversion to an anapaestic rhythm Con the rise). Verse eleven, the first spondaic verse in this passage, is antithetical in its rhythmic heaviness as compared to the immediately preceding two verses (vss. 9, 10); moreover, verse eleven with its spondees tends to emphasize the direful shame done to Chryses. Finally, after the sharp caesural break in the second foot of verse twelve, we have an inversion to anapaestic rhythm and an attendant vigorous rising move ment as the action begins. Example 3 Antithesis in rhythm of a dramatic dialogue Example three will be an analysis of a rhythmic response in a dramatic dialogue from the Odvssev. In all probability a fairly good case may be made for the dramatic structure inherent in the Iliad and the Odvssev.9 regard to the basic antithesis of the rhythmic pattern, manifest in the schema of "stops." 9Cf. Bassett, The Poetry of Homer, pp. 233-238, 257, particularly with regard to Gudeman; also, Aristotle, De Arte PoeticaT l*+59b2. 2b Notwithstanding, a detailed analysis of a set passage will now be made to show that the dramatic dialogue in Homeric poetry through its antithetical interplay may stimulate a degree of creativity— especially through the artistry inherent in schematized word patterns. Indeed this artistry in schematized word patterns may have possibly influenced Sophocles and other Greek poets, and an example of such possible influence will be considered later (v. 1q£L&9 PP- 28-30). Thus, in considering Odysseus' request for renewing connubial relations with Penelope (Odyssey. XXIII, 166-180), we note indications of a schematized verse- pattern (with an almost amoebean-like characteristic even in the Batuovtrj (v, 166) versus the 6a»nov»’ (v. 17* 0.10 In analysing both passages further, more interesting points may be apparent. (Page 28) 166 170 1°N. B., the two passages being compared are vss. 166-172 versus vss. 17*+-180 (Odyssey. XXIII). Omit vs. 173 (not part of dialogue). Rhythmic patternt (Odyssey. 166-180).— v v / _ v v / __ v // v / _____ / v v / v v / , v v / V // v / v v / v v / _ / _________/___ V // V / _____ / vv /___ v v / _____/ ___//___ / __ V V / V V / v v / / __ vv /__ // __ / __ V V / _ “ ba.Ljj.avu], vepl a o i ye yvvaiKtov Oijkvrepuani kj)p aTepa.jj.vov eOtjtcav 'O kv/xvta bdpar' iyo rres’ oil pev k akki] y <5Se yvvi] rerkrjoTi Ovpta avbpos & tl> e< rTci(i], os ol k o k c l v o kka jioyijtras ekOoL &IKOOT& ere'i is varpCba yaiav. a k k ' aye pot, fiaia, aropeerov keyos, ocjipa Kal avros ke^opai- jj yap rfj ye aribrjpeov iv efjpealv r/Top." T o r b' aure vpoaeeme ir(pi(}>po)V n r " b a t p o m our’ op r i ptyakt£op.ai ovr' aOtfiiijv aire kirjv ayajiai, p aka h' c5 nl5’ otos eijerOa e£ ’IflttKtjs evt vijbs io n ’ bokiyijpeTjJ.oio. a k k ' aye ol erropetrov vvklvov key&tj Evpvnketa, eKTOS ivaraOeos Oaka.jj.ov, roV p ' avros iv o tc r evOa ol inOeierai v v k l v o v keyos epfiaker ewijV, K taea K a l \ k a t v a s K al p i j y e a a i y a k o e v r a . " 26 V / / __ vv / vv// / v v / _____ v / / __ V // V /___ vv / v v / _____172 v / / __ //vv /___ vv / v v / _____ 171 * v / __ vv /___ //vv/ / v v / ______ 175 V / ___ V V / v // v / ___ vv / /____ ___ V / __ vv /___ vv / _ vv//______/ ______ V / __ vv /___ vv / __ // / v v / ______ V / ______/___ vv / vv// v v / ______ V / / __ // __ / vv / vv / 180 In analysing we find that both Odysseus*s request and Penelope*s denial are equal in length, that is, there are two hexameter seven-verse groups; moreover, both sequences begin with almost Identical words of salutation (as previously noted) 6ai|xovfr| and 5a»n6vi * .H Never theless, in our consideration of verse against verse (v. 166 versus v. 17^ and then v. 167 versus v. 175, etc.) we find that there is a lack of identical similarity line for line as we set one line of one passage over against its counterpart line of the other passage. For example, verse 166 has a feminine caesura and a spondee in the fourth foot whereas verse 17^ has a 1;lC£. Stifira, p. 2k 27 masculine caesura and a spondee in the second foot; like wise, variety, within hexameter verses being compared, may be found by comparing verse 167 with verse 175, verse 168 with verse 176 until we come to the comparison of verse 171 with verse 179* Now, as we place corresponding verse 171 "against" verse 179, we find a bucolic caesura combined with adjectival assonance (on the last syllable of each adjective) plus an actual identity of noun, namely, X&xoC • In addition, X&X** , bed is the pi&ce de resistance of this antithetical dramatic dialogue; in short, this is what all the argument is about between Odysseus and Penelope. Resourceful Penelope in subsequent verses forces Odysseus to prove his true identity to her satisfaction; he gives positive evidence to her by proving in detail that he was the one who made their tree- anchored bed which could never be budged— thus, we have synthesis from the antithetical dialogue and a happy reuniting. Although these two seven-verse sequences provide us with an antithetical rhythmic interplay of verse set over against verse, nevertheless this interplay is entirely within the bounds of the freedom and the law of the hexameter tradition. Moreover, the overall structure (with its inherent rhythmic Interplay) should provide the reader with stimuli for creative imagination. 28 The stimuli for creativity emergent from structures of verse sequences and rhythmic elements there in may be best experienced, perhaps, by considering an artistically perfected example of rhythmic "response" in Sophocles* Oedipus Tvrannus (0. T., 151-166). (Page 29) Rhythmic pattern (The Oedipus Tvrannus. 151-166).— vv/ __ v v / __ vv/// vv / _ v v / ______151 . v / v / v / 152 / __ vv / __ vv / __ vv / _ v v / _____ _ 153 . __ vv / __ vv / _____ / __ 15^ v v / v v / v v / __ VV 155 v v / v v / / __ v v / __ v v / VV 156 v v / __ v v / __ //vv /___ v v / v v / 157 vv / __ vv / __ vv / __ vv / __ v v / 158&159 . V / V / V / 160 e vv / __ vv / __ vv / __ vv / __ v v / 161 . __ vv / __ vv / __ / 162 vv/ _ v v / ___ vv/ __ vv 163 vv/ __ vv/ / vv/ vv/ vv 16^&165 vv/ __ vv/___ //vv/___ vv/___ vv/ 166 With regard to the example of Sophoclean strophe and antistrophe, an analysis of the rhythmic pattern reveals that the similarity of foot and verse in the strophe versus the foot-and-verse counterpart in the 29 x o p o z . erf. a. tS AtO? aSve7T€? tftart, TtV 7T O T € Ta? •jroA.uj^piJerot/ • dyX aas e/3a$ , . 3 © 7$«?» iKTerafiat, <fto/3epdu <ppipa B etp a n irdXXwt’ , 4 tijte AaXce ITatai/, 5 «r/t^2 <roi d^opevos r l p o t ‘ fj viov i j j 6 j J ire p tT e \\o p .£ i/a ts w p a tS ir d X tv i^ a v v a e ts \p io s - 7 ewr^ pot, c5 xpwrla? rixvov 'EXirtSos, dppore & apa; bct. a . irptSrd ae tcexXopepos, dvyarep A toy, dp/3por' *A 0 a i/a, • yataoj(ov t a8eX<f>cdv 16 0 3 'A p re p tv , a kvkXocvt ayopds Qpovov evitX ia Oaoaet, 4- * al Q otfiov eftaftoXov, id) $ TpHraol dXejjtpopot irpofyavrjre pot, 6 ei it ore teat irporipas a r a s virep opvvpivas iroXet 165 7 ijpverar ifcroirtap tf>\oya irqparoi, eX&ere teal vvv. 30 antistrophe tends to provide a striking and artistic balances for Sophocles* stately dactylic measures correspond in strophe and antistrophe even to division of words into syllables. In the rhythmic structure, however, there is an exception in lines 152 and 160 wherein there is a predominately iambic rhythm, which adds to a basic antithesis of rhythmic pattern. If we compare the Sophoclean example with the Homeric example, we note the great artistic development, conscious or otherwise, which has been achieved by Sophocles. Nevertheless, in the antithetical interplay of the Sophoclean strophe and antistrophe, we both hear and note an antithesis of consummate artistry which contains without doubt even more of a creative stimulus than that produced by the inherent antithesis basic to the Homeric dialogue and its rhythmic pattern. Both the Homeric and Sophoclean passages just discussed have tended to provide me with a definite stimulus of intellectual creativity. In addition, it is my belief that the auditory imagination of a conditioned reader should be stimulated by hearing (and seeing) the aesthetic antithesis inherent in the rhythmic oscillation — especially in the passages of the quoted Sophoclean strophe and antistrophe. Examples In the Aeneid 31 Example 1 Vergil in his Aeneid frequently obtains a high degree of antithesis which is basic to both his rhythm and verse patterns. In fact, we shall see this when we consider the next example— particularly regarding rhythmic interplay within a verse group as opposed to rhythmic Interplay within a single verse or two verses in sequence, with or without enjambment. We must remember, however, that in our analysis of ensuing examples from both the Aeneid and Paradise Lost we shall be now dealing with literary epic verses which have been developed from a traditional literary epic background. Although Sophocles perfected a striking rhythmic pattern based on antithesis as we have just seen in his dramatic strophe and antistrophe, Vergil nevertheless developed an extremely distinctive rhythmic pattern with basic antithesis mainly through an adroit combination of rhythm and verbal schematization. as we shall see later in examples from the Aeneid. This combination of rhythm and verbal schematization within a verse has been termed a golden verse or a golden line. We shall explain this terminology as we analyse the various examples of Vergil*s Aeneid with regard to rhythmic patterns and their basic antithetical elements. With these preliminary remarks in mind, let us see how skillfully Vergil achieves this pattern of rhythm and verbal schema in the opening lines of his Aeneid (Aeneid I, 1-11): A B B A Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris B C D Italiam fato profugus Laviniaque venlt C litora— multum ilia et terris iactatus et alto A B A B vi superurn, saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram, multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem 5 A A inferretque deos Latio— genus unde Latinum B B C C Albanique patres atque altae moenia Romae. Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso A A B C B quidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casus D D B C B insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores 10 E A B B A impulerit. tantaene animls caelestibus irae? Rhythmic pattern (Aeneid I. 1-11).— 33 v v / __ // __ / v v / ______/ ___ v v / _____ v v / / ______/ // / __ v v / 5 / __ v v / _ v v / __ //vv/ __ vv/ _____ / __ vv / __ // __ / / __ v v / _____ v v / / _ vv / __ // /___ v v / __ v v / / __ vv / __ // /___ v v / _____ / __ v v / v v / //vv / __ v v / 10 vv / __ // / v v / ______/ ___ v v / _____ At this point, however, before we make an analysis of the opening eleven verses of the Aeneid* let us first consider certain aspects of the Golden Line in the works of specific Latin poets. Especially, we should note for purposes of comparative consideration the restrained and skillful use of the golden-line concept in the Aeneid and its not so restrained use in Lucan's De Bello Civili. By close comparative perusal of appendices A and B, infra, we may draw the following conclusions Lucan normally uses the concept of the golden line within a single epic verse, yet with seemingly no partic ular set purpose in mind such as emphasis or periodic punctuation; Vergil, however, tends to exploit both the elements of emphasis and periodic punctuation in his Aeneid. To repeat, Vergil, in contrast to Lucan, has seemingly developed out of his Eclogues and Georgies a singular concept of the golden line in his selectivity 3k and emphasis— particularly with regard to periodic punctuation. Rather than confine his golden-line schemat ization to a single verse (in the Aeneid) Vergil will often weave the elements of the golden line, through enjambment, into three successive verses and thus gain a more closely integrated periodic verse unit than might be normally achieved through a non-golden-line schema. In the opening line.of the Aeneid. the first three words state the theme. Then, Vergil goes beyond ordinary Homeric enjambment; and, by interlocking his word groups ABBABCDC within the rhythm of the first three verses, he interweaves a short rhythmic period ending (through an enjambment) in the word litora. Again, in line four we have an ABAB interlocking word group which has somewhat of a verbal tie-in with iactatus in line three; in fact, the last five words of line four gives us the awesome reason that Aeneas has been (and will have been) driven hard during his lifetime so full of suffering. In verses six and seven we have in antithesis not an interlocking order but a "heavy" beat of noun and adjective: AABBCC with a possible verb (understood) of, say, evenerunt. Thus, we have a non-interlocking pattern concluding the periodic structure of the first seven lines. Likewise, this rather striking Latin epic golden verse contrasted with traditional epic verse should add 35 aesthetic stimuli to a careful reader's thinking, partic ularly with regard to interlocked verse groups of the Aeneid versus the single verse interlocking within itself and serving thus as an indicative verse of telling periodic punctuation— an example of which we shall soon see when we come to our consideration of verse 11. Accordingly, the reader may now he so alerted to the novel pattern of Vergil's Latin epic-verse interplay that he may begin to react appreciatively to the AABCBDD BCBE in verses nine to eleven, ending with impulerlt. here we have an interlocked word group whieh gives inter acting rhythmic periodic strength of description in contrast to the opening verse of this verse group, namely, line eight. Finally, in the last four words of line eleven we have an extremely compact golden line which sums up strikingly and punctuationally the periodic verse structure of the eleven opening lines of the Aeneid: here Vergil gives us a well-balanced schemas ABBA. Thus, the opening eleven verses contain on the one hand an antithesis of rhythm (cf. separate verses of rhythmic pattern, supra, page 32, with regard to the pattern of caesura, enjambment, and inversion); yet, on the other hand, antithesis of rhythm integrated with the golden-line schema provides emphatic interpenetration 36 of words and rhythm, all of which should provide, through the intense inter animation, an unusual stimulus to one's auditory imagination. Paradise Lost Milton, influenced probably by patterns of rhythmic antithesis in Homeric and Vergilian epics, achieves a great degree of harmony through the varied rhythmic pattern of his poetry— especially by his distinctive positioning of breaks, enjambments, and inversions. Thus, his rhythmic pattern of blank verse admits of freedom (i.e., rhythmic interplay) within the rules of the iambic pattern as it is based on the fundamental pattern of blank verse (v. infra, appendix C, for a more detailed treatment of blank verse and metrical symbols): v-/v-/v-/v-/v- In application consider the following verse (Paradise Lost. II, 950): And swims or sinks or wades, or creeps, or flyes: v - v - v - v - v - The preceding verse adheres to the strict law of this meter. Moreover, this law of meter is a permanent underlying factor in the varying developments of which blank verse is capable. Thus, an analysis of the rhythmic contrast or antithesis (i.e., antithesis based on the setting of one 37 verse or verse group against another verse or verse group) may well provide a reader with a deeper appreciation of the aesthetical stimulus Inherent in the antithetical elements of the rhythmic patterns of Paradise Lost: for, in Milton*s epic verse, law, and its very antithesis, (freedom of) impulse, should combine to produce an aesthetic appreciation of ordered freedom. Before we take up a pattern of any length, let us compare a forceful verse from Paradise Lost (X, 936) with a somewhat similar verse (Aeneid. IX, *+27) from the Aeneid. We shall use this introductory example to show the scheme or method of "accentuation" to be later used in explaining elements of antithesis with regard to rhythmic patterns of periodic metrical structure (i.e., the metrical structure of a verse paragraph). In the tenth book of Paradise Lost. Eve demands Heaven*s punishment for herself only (Paradise Lost. X, 933-36, particularly vs. 936): Example 1 There with my cries importune Heaven, that all The sentence from thy head remov*d may light On me, sole cause to thee of all this woe, then follows the powerful line in question: Mee mee onely just object of his ire. __/__ v /__ ■ /v v^/ v __ Note the intense mea-culpa note of self-absorption 38 in both Milton*s verse (Paradise Lost, X, 936) and Vergil*s verse (Aeneid. IX, b27): for the rhythm in both the English and Latin verse emphasizes the breast-beating self absorption: Me, me, adsum qui fecit, in me convertite ferrum, (Rhythmic pattern: Aeneid. IX, ^27): / ____/ _ / / _ / _______/ — v v / ____ We should also note in Milton*s verse (Paradise Lost. X, 936) the extremely effective spondee in the third foot— "just object" which takes on a trochaic overtone in _/ v the heavier "weighting" of the word just as opposed to the first syllable "weighting" of the word object. Inter estingly enough, Vergil accomplishes decided emphasis in the third spondee of his verse (Aeneid. IX, ^27) by the use of a caesura and an elision, which combination tends towards a trochaic "weighting." From the standpoint of antithesis, in Milton's verse (Paradise Lost, X, 936) we have the first half of the verse composed of a heavily weighted spondee followed by two trochaics; however, by way of contrast, the last two feet are comprised of a definitely rising pattern, namely, the sequence of a pyrrhic followed by an iambic. This internal rhythmic antithesis should provide an aesthetically intellectual stimulus— particularly for an oral reader. Also, this antithetically based pattern within the verse gives added 39 emphasis to this verse which climaxes and concludes the verse paragraph of the preceding twenty-two lines. Thus, this verse serves as rhythmic punctuation for a paragraph Cor unit) of poetical thought. With this single-verse pattern of rhythm (based on antithesis) well in mind, let us consider a verse para graph consisting of a basic antithesis not only in the pattern of separate verses but also within the entire structure, that is, a group of verses in antithesis to another group of verses within the verse paragraph of the passage in question (Paradise Lost. I, 59)* Example 2 Anon they move In perfect EJaaiaflS. to the O.PElafl mood 550 of Flutes and soft Recorders$ such as rais’d To hlghth of noblest temper Hero’s old Arming to Battel, and in stead of rage Deliberate valour breath’d, firm and unmov’d With dread of death to flight or foul retreat, 555 Nor wanting power to mitigate and swage With solemn touches, troubl’d thoughts, and chase Anguish and doubt and fear and sorrow and pain From mortal or immortal minds. 559 The pattern of overflow lines in relation to the passage as a whole reveals a preponderance of "unstopped lines*' set over against the so-called "closed lines." Moreover, we should note the rhythmic antithesis of "movements" within the complete structure of this passage of Milton. Metrically, the so-called stately iambic (or anapaestic) movement is seldom interrupted by trochaic *♦0 inversions; thus, the dominant iambic pattern of the first group of seven verses provides a rather realistic and detailed marching mood incorporated in a 1, 2, 3, h beat v - v - or cadence not too unslmilar to even our present-day cadence of a military unit— or, as here, the archetypical phalanx, with its majestical marching mood breathing forth Nln stead of rage//Deliberate valour.* * These first v - v - v-vv - v seven verses constitute the physical earth-bound beat of the basic part of an antithesis as it applies to the entire structure of the pattern of this passage* In contrast to the first seven verses, let us now consider the last four verses (of this passage) wherein there is an "Erhebung" mood tantamount to evoking an uplift from mundane troubles— a catharsis for minds mortal or immortal.12 Indeed we should be able to feel the uplifting rhythmic effect Inherent in these last four versesx for we have passed from music in Its tactical Influence on the esprit de corps of the phalanx en marche, even on and upward to the broader and higher spiritual power consonant with Milton’s music of words. In these o ^ T*,5* fiiJttjLBaiiaa* XIt 28 (from Collected Poems 1909-1962, p. I/o), with regard to the mood of exaltation, Erhebuna. in consonance with the mood of Milton’s music of words (vss. 556-9). hi concluding four verses as opposed to the preceding seven verses, we observe the spiritual power of music having manifestly the capacity to soften and assuage brooding cares. Yet Milton's poetic music can and does rise even higher-dispelling a gamut of unpleasantness from minds mortal or immortal, In these four concluding verses compare the final words of the first two of these concluding verses (11, 556, 557), namely, swage and chase. Whereas these two words are bound together by assonance, or rhyming vowels, the succeeding consonants are definitely antithetical. Consequently, the slowly moving swage tends to suggest a continuous and uncompleted action, whereas the swiftly moving chase depicts an immediate and total victory. Keeping in mind that the overflow lines are . predominant in the rhythmic pattern, note the inversion effected by three torchees, two in the first foot, A r m i n g and Anguish, and one in the fourth foot (of line 55*0, namely, firm. Now, the inversion (of accentuation) in an iambic line usually lends prominence to the inverted foot — especially when the foot follows a pause and also an accentuated emphatic syllable: such is the case with regard to firm as well as with Arming and Anguish. For each of these words follow a pause and also an accentuated emphatic syllable. For example, firm stands, as it were, b2 fixed In the verse not unlike an Ironsided Dorian soldier. Likewise, Arming■ far from disrupting by an inversion of accentuation, rather helps us sense the explosive energy fundamental to valour, deliberate withal. Again, the inversion of accentuation in the trochee Anguish (after the emphatic chase) sets off one of Milton's most telling lines. In reconsideration of the rhythmic pattern with its basis of antithesis, we have in the first seven lines a movement which is indeed suggestive of a phalanx en marche to the Dorian mood, breathing valor instead of rage. Yet, in the final four verses (11, 556-559) the movement rises and achieves a higher potency, emanating a deeper spiritual force, almost a panacea to one and all. Noteworthy of the antithetical power of the Dorian mood is the fact that this mood evokes withal a courageous spirit; still, there is not lacking an additional power to bring all heaven before one's eyess for there is an intellectual exaltation in the Dorian strain. Obviously the Dorian mood is in direct contrast to the softly almost effeminate mood in the final eighteen verses of Milton's LlAllegro. We do not find any anti thesis of mood in the final eighteen verses of L*Allegro: instead, we find the antithesis to the Lydian mood in II Penseroso. within the final sixteen verses especially. ^3 For these two poems give us an antithesis of mirth versus melancholy', yet embodied in a music of poetry spelled out by the antithesis of the titles of the poems themselves: for in I^Alleero and II Penseroso. Milton has depicted two different worlds in wide disparity. Likewise in the passage just under consideration (Paradise Lost. I, 5^9- 559) Milton, within the short compass of ten verses, has given us first a tactical world of the military on the march, yet, in conclusion, he has lifted us almost celestially into musical poetry sublime. Thus, as a developed artist of the epic, Milton often incorporated a pattern of rhythmic antithesis (even to mood) within a passage of very few verses, as we have just noted in detail (Paradise Lost. I, 5^9-559). To gain additional insight into the antithetically based rhythmic pattern within the compass of a verse paragraph, compare (within the structure of the final eighteen verses of the last book of Paradise Lost) the following antithetically based patterns of rhythms: lines 629 through line 6*+0 (starting with, "High in front advanc*t . . . then disappear*d.") as contrasted with lines 6^1 through 6U-9: "They looking back, . . . Through Eden took thir solitarie way." See pages 12^,5 (infra) for full text. Summary In retrospect, it is clear that the antithesis basic to the rhythmic pattern in Homeric epic poetry is one that is coexistent with a pattern which is limited usually to a single verse or two verses in succession through enjambment. Such a statement does not preclude an extension of an antithetically based rhythmic pattern to include several verses in sequence or possibly an entire verse paragraph; however, I have seldom found patterns that include several verses in succession within a content structure that could be termed a verse paragraph as such. Both Vergil and Milton, in their epics, usually afford us in contrast to the Homeric epic almost a distinctly different rhythmic pattern based on antithesis, inasmuch as the verse paragraph is usually the functional rhythmic Gestalt most often employed to combine meter and content. Especially to be noted is the fact that Vergil*s verse paragraphs in the Aeneid are often an Integral unit characterised by a pattern (or patterns) of rhythmic anti thesis which usually enhances the aesthetic Interplay of rhythm and contents this interplay is emphasized partic ularly in those passages where Vergil*s skillful use of the golden line or sequences of golden lines may well act as a stimulus to the reader*s imagination in an unremitting manner through one*s being exposed to the *+5 auditory oscillation inherent in the intrinsically inter woven rhythmic pattern. In synthesis, then, the series of comparative rhythmic analyses considered thus far should have made evident the fact that antithesis has been a definite foundational element throughout the rhythmic patterns considered in the epics of three different national cultures. Still, it may aid our summary considerations of rhythm by quoting Whitehead's general concept of rhythm with regard to an inherent pattern based on antithesis: A rhythm involves a pattern and to that extent is always self-identical. But no rhythm can be a mere pattern; for the rhythmic pattern depends equally upon the differences involved in each exhibition of the pattern. The essence of rhythm is the fusion of sameness and novelty; so that the whole never loses the essential unity of the pattern, while the parts exhibit the contrast arising from the novelty of their detail.^3 Note that no words were originally underlined in the original statement— only in this case by me, for the sake of emphasis. With this concept of Whitehead’s in mind, it was found in our Homeric examples of rhythmic pattern that the pattern was always self-identical in that the dactylic hexameter verse (as a meter) continually provided the essential unity of pattern, while the separate elements 13a . N. Whitehead, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge, p. 198.1" (e.g., inversion) of the Homeric single verse, as well as the enjambed verses, exhibited the necessary antithesis surgent from the abundant novelty of detail. Likewise, we considered the contrast between the interrelated rhythmical pattern and the units of thought, not only in the Homeric epic verse but also in the larger compass of the Vergilian and Miltonic verse paragraphs. By such analysis of examples considered and with an appreciation of the oscillation inherent in the dynamic rhythm, the surgent antithesis (emergent from the epic rhythmic pattern) should interanimate and stimulate the imaginative powers of the reader who vocalizes (classically) great epic verse. CHAPTER III TROPE IN EPIC: THE SIMIEE Previously, during our analysis of the rhythmic patterns in epic poetry with regard to antithesis as a basic element therein, we observed a development toward a greater extension of the basically antithetical pattern (e.g., In the paragraph-pattern of rhythm in the Aeneid and Paradise Lost In comparison with the Homeric linear one, two, or three line unit of rhythmic pattern). In fact, this should have been increasingly evident in each succeeding section of the previous chapter as our sequence of analyses moved from the Homeric epics to the Aeneid and Paradise Lost. Likewise, we may now note a somewhat similar development of the trope in epic as we analyse the Homeric epic tropes, especially the Homeric simile-type of trope, in comparison with the simile-type trope in the Aeneid and Paradise Lost. Before we take up a specific example of a Homeric simile, let us consider tropes in general. In a broadly conceived sense, there are four main types of tropesi image, symbol, simile, and metaphor. Images will be given close analysis in Chapter V; indeed, images which are both literary and for the purpose of our analyses, sensory, should perhaps not be termed sensory in ^7 b8 the usual sense of the word. Symbols, however, combine both a literal and sensuous quality with an aspect which may be abstract or suggestive or both. Notwithstanding, the symbol will also be the subject of a close comparative study in the fifth chapter. The simile which describes by EXPRESSED ANALOGY will presently be comparatively analysed, and in the next chapter, the metaphor which describes by IMPLIED ANALOGY. Although this definitional difference may appear adequate, often simile and metaphor are used synonomously. Thus, Aristotle*s rhetorical dictum should be closely noted at this point, even though a separate chapter will be devoted to the sltnile and another chapter to the metaphor: af 6' stxovefi fyri p.e'ccupopaf, tftpTTcat xoXX&xiC. 1 But the similes, as has often been stated, are metaphor. Note too that the four types of tropes, just listed, not only define or limit the meaning of the rather comprehensive term, imagery (as opposed to imagg), but also intimate the possible scope of application that may be found in the term imagery which will be considered in a later chapter (Chapter V). Aristotle, Ars Rhetorica. Ill, xi, 13. **9 Finally, in our consideration of the various types of tropes, we should keep in mind that to utilize the metaphorical concept is probably bv far the most Important thing t Xp^&©ai—-xo\0 Gfe ntYtcJTOV ord p e T a x p o p i x G v e l v a i * 2 Although Aristotle's statement on the Importance of the metaphor is a significant tenet in the mimetic theory, nevertheless the metaphorical concept is of great importance in the Horatian pragmatic theory with its UTILE-et-dulce "audience-effect" as well as its attendant idea of instruction— even to this day. Accordingly, if the pragmatic view, as traditionally conceived, has been the principal aesthetic attitude of the western world, then indeed the metaphor (with its basic definitional con cept of describing through implied ANALOGY) is of extreme importance— particularly in the light of the present century's objective in the field of knowledge, namely, the objective of discovering and learning the process of how one discovers, creates, and contributes to the vast field of traditional knowledge. Thus, the following quotation may aid in emphasizing the importance Qf 2Ibid., De Arte Poetica. 1^59, a, 5. 50 analogy in the area of creativity: The direct basis of much creative activity is analogy* *a relation of likeness between two things, or of one thing to or with another, consisting in the resemblance not of the things themselves, but of two or more attributes, circumstances, or effects. * The foregoing is Webster. A leading psychologist of the turn of the century, Charles Spearman, gave this definition* *First a pair of ideas is given, between which a relation has to be cognized; and then this relation has to be applied to a third idea, so as to generate a fourth one called a correlate.* The best correlation in an early study of tests of originality was with analogy. Aristotle declared, *Metaphor is the special mark of genius, for the power of making a good metaphor is the power of recognizing likeness.* Ribot goes so far as to say, *The essential, fundamental element of the creative imagination is the capacity of thinking by analogy— that is, by partial and often accidental resemblance.* Knowlson makes the point of a rich feel for analogies, and asserts that this can be developed to a pitch that at first seems improbable. It should not be overlooked that one of the best kinds of training in creativity is to look for analogies constantly.3 Therefore, an analysis, and especially a comparative analysis of tropes which describe through ANALOGY should provide the conditioned reader with an appreciation of the antithetical elements integral to patterns (of tropes) which comprise analogous concepts. Moreover, continual appreciations of analogous concepts should release or provide catalytically, impulses towards creativity. Consideration of comparative analysis of tropes should be an essential part of any instructional program which might involve training in creativity. 3John W. Haefele, Creativity and Innovation, p. 59» 51 Examples from the Homeric Epic Seldom is there a lack of definite pattern in a Homeric description that employs simile at length; and, seldom is there a lack of antithesis as a basis for the definite pattern of a Homeric passage "structured" on a simile a queue longue. To illustrate such types of definite patterns based on antithesis, let us consider the descriptive passage of the first Greek attack in the fourth book of the Iliad (IV, '+19-^56)s (See page 52) Example 1 Diomedes (^19) has leapt in full armor from his chariot down to the ground; and, as he sprang into battle there was a terrible clanging of the prince*s bronze armor: Indeed, in the face of such an onset, fear might have seized the heart of stoutest strength. These lines (*+19-^21) are introductory to a simile of many lines to follow (^22-lf 56); yet, there is a pattern in these three lines indicative of the (pattern*s) basis on antithesis which we are about to see in the simile-passage to follow. In fact, we note that in these three lines the poet has moved from the sensuous to the emotional and from the objective to the subjective— especially in view of the impressionistic passage to follow. As we examine the pattern in this elongated simile and highly impressionistic description of forward 52 ’H pa Kai e£ Syeiov abv revyeertv aAro yapa^e' 8eti'or 8’ if}paye yakubs in i em/Oeerenv &va*Tos 4*° opvvpivov brro k( v rakaerCeftpovA reep bios elkev. 'Sis b’ or' iv alyiakep vokvrjyl'i iivpa Oakaererr/s opvvr' ircaererdrepov Zeefivpov Hiro KivrjeravTOS' 7tovto) p e v re rrpwra Kopvaererai, a vra p frreira Xlperep pr/yvvpevov peyaka (3plpei, bpepl b l r' axpas 4*5 .Kvprov lov Kopvrjiovrai, anonrvei 8’ aAos &yyr/v' &s ror* enaaervrepai Aavaeov kC vvvto efiAkayyes vcokeplios irokepov b l• Ktkfve be oTeriv eieaerros > f/yepovmv 0 * 1 8’ akkot Aki/ v lerar, obbe Ke < f> a(r/s rocrerov kaov enecrOai iyo vr’ iv arr/Oeaiv avbi/v, 43° enyij betbtores ai/pAvropas' & pef> l 8e itaa 1 revyea noiKtk' eka p m , ra elplvoi iernyooivro. T p S ff b \ &s t’ o ’ i t s irokvrrApovos Avbpbs I v abkfj pvpiai iari/Kaenv apekyopevai ya ka keVKOV a^i/ye? pepaKvlai uKovovtrat on a uproir, w ' ’"4 3 5 t)S TpiOlOV (ikdkljTUS lira errparov elpbv vpebpei' ov yap irai'i iur jjer upbs Opoo? ovb’ la yT/pvs, akka ykeberera p ip ikto, nokvKki/rvt 8’ ioav urbpes. > opae be rob? per "Api]?, rob? be ykeivrMm? ’AOl/ri/ ■ > AeTpo? r* i/bi «I>d/3os m l "Epts uporov pepavia, 44° “ Apeos ewbpotftovoio Kacnyi’ijTi) irit/oj re, « ij t ’ Aklyi/ per r, potra KOpvererereu, avrap e~eira ovparG) lerri/pi^e Kapi/ kui in i yOorl jia ivti' if a e ft iv Kai rore veiKos b polio v epfiake pe’eroru ipyoplvi1 KaO' opikor oeftlkkovaa arovov avbpmu 445 o tV ore bt/ p’ Is \topov era fmorres X k o v to , ovv p lj3akor pirovs, erbv b' eyyea Kai peve' ai’bpQv > yakKeodeopi/Koiv’ arap uernibt? opjiakoeererai Inkr/vr’ akkljkyen, nokbs 8’ opvptiybos optltpei. (vOa 8’ &p' olptoyT/ re xnt ev^wAi; n lk tv avbpwv 45° > Akkvvrwv re xat okkvplvtov, pee b' eiipan yaia. ws 8’ ore yelpappoi rrorapol x ar’ opeerefn plovres is pioyayKeiav ervpfiakkerov ojipipov vbeap Kpovveav I k peyakm> Kotki/s evroerOe \apabpi/s, t&v b l re rt/kAire bovnov i v ovpeeriv Ixk ve rtoipr/v' 455 > ru v jueryoplveov y lv tr o Jaxij tc rsivos re. marching elements 0+22-^56), we must not overlook an obvious yet key point of Greek syntax integral to the Homeric epic simile. Rarely, if ever, does the Homeric simile refer to the past. Indeed, Homer almost always uses the present or gnomic aorist tense in his similes. Additionally, after the simile, he often uses a key word (e.g., rS'ue ) to point up the return to the objective and factual (i.e., in antithesis to his vivid and imaginative analogous references couched in the present tense, or the gnomic aoris tense— a ’ ‘ general knowing-observation tense"). The pattern of Homeric simile, therefore, is as follows: facts are presented filled with life; then, impressions through similes are added. For Homer uses similes for that which tends to baffle description. Naturally, this pattern may be reversed: subjectively, similes may be presented first; then, in antithesis, objective (vital) facts may follow. Antithesis, of course, is manifestly a basis of patterns of Homeric similes as we shall note in the typically descriptive passage under consideration: First, the onset of the Greek and Trojan armies begins. Actually, in this case, however, the pattern commences with a simile and a verb in the present tense opvuT* (a* ) (*f23), according to formula in the two 5 1 * preceding paragraphs; also, note the characteristically introductory 2C* (b22). As ve progress, ve note that the Greek army, in close order, and echeloned in depth, is like sic (*+22) wave upon wave rising and breaking upon the echoing beach. Additionally, as the simile is drawn out, the poet reveals that these ocean waves are driven by Zephyros (personifi cation) which first curls (metaphorically) the (ruffled) sea (with white-caps); however, with a thundering roar it breaks upon the beach, and from the headland crags recoiling, flings in giant curves its (tossing) head aloft and belches forth briny foam (metaphorical intensity within the overall simile proper). Thus (then), TO't'(e) ( e) (*4-27), and we now move to the objective report: for the key word t o indicates an antithetical "turn" in pattern from present tense and subjective description to past tense and objective (factual) reporting. To repeat, (thus, then) ( WC tots ), in echeloned close- order marched the Greek battle groups, ever onward into battle. Each of the commanders directed his troops; and, the rest, however, in silence marched onward; nor would you have thought that such a massive military aggregate following (en masse) had even a voice (left) in their chests--being as they were in "communications silence," apprehensive of their commanders* (behest: for the order 55 of battle was based on a march-in-attack "In silence"). Yet, the well-wrought armor gleamed, sparkling around every man— so completely were they armed as they advanced in steadfast array. But, the Trojans (were probably milling about) (no Greek verb is immediately picked up as we move into another simile; and, again, antithesis is at work as we move back into a subjective tone) like, tfc (^33)» ewes countless in number, that stand in the sheep-cote of a wealthy land-owner, while they are having their white milk drawn from them and they bleat unceasingly. Even thus an equally wildly varied yelling arose through the vast army of the Trojans. On account of this babel the poet makes a break in the simile as he explains the situation. Accordingly, they, the Trojan host, did not all have the same manner of speech, or means of a single common language; instead, there was a babel of tongues: for they were men from many alien lands. Next, we note a Homeric allegory and we sense the undertone of hatred that war arouses as the pattern of another (allegorical) trope is presented. Ares urged on the Trojans while (on the other hand) grey-eyed Athena drove the Greeks. Terror and Panic and Discord (spirits of war) added their impetus in the attack. Discord (Hatred) whose fury ever rages, sister and comrade to man-slaughtering Ares, who at first is an insignificant being, yet, in a brief span, she stalks over the earth and her head (towering) touches the heavens. Now ( tbit ) (Wf), to return .to our story, it was she who cast common Discord into their midst, as she thrust her way through the throng and multiplied the grief of men. The pattern in the next eleven lines will be, at first, objective Homeric reporting with regard to the first six lines (W6-1 +51); then, in antithesis, we shall have in the last five lines (*+52-^56) the simile with its attendant subjective description. When they crashed together and closed in on one area, there clashed together simultaneously the leathern bucklers, spears, and raging bronze-clad soldiers; too, the metal-plated shields collided with those of friend and foe and a terrific din arose. Then a groaning cry and (in the same instant) a cry of triumph of soldiers (either winning or losing) was mingled together with those who were killing or being killed; and, the earth flowed with blood. As ( (i+52)) when two winter torrents pour down from the mountains; and, where the gorges meet, these two torrents crash (thunderously) together, their seething flood-waters are forced up from enormous springs deep within the chasmed earth; and, the 57 shepherd (as you might guess) from a distance hears the roaring (far away) in the mountains. Thus, indeed, from the battling contestants came the shouts of horror and (violent) struggle. Example 2 Instead of analysing a passage describing a Greek attack, let us analyse a passage describing the last retrograde movement on the part of the Greeks battling before Troy (Iliad. XVII, 715-61): (Page 58) In the paragraph introductory to the retrograde simile proper (715-721), we note that Telamonian Ajax directs Menelaus and Meriones to evacuate Patroclus* dead body back to the ships, while they, especially the Aiantes, act as a covering force for the Greek army in its retrograde maneuver, prior to the great Achillean counterattack. Beginning with line 722, we note our pattern emerging, first with an objective description, and, with an imperfect tense of the verb, hapax legomenon withal; too, Menelaus and Meriones lift high aloft Patroclus* dead body from the ground, whereupon the Trojan forces, close behind, shouted and roared as they saw the Achaeans lifting the dead body. Now (and it is here we have, in antithesis, but still a continuing "descriptive-elabora- tionM in either gnomic aorist or present tenses) like 58 Tot/ 8’ ijpei/3<r’ tn tira piyas TtXapiSvws A'as* 7l5 n ivra kclt' aTirav ttm ts ayaxXtis of' MereAae* aAAa < ry /xry Kai MrjpioVrjy v7rodi/yre paX’ utxa vtKpbv itlpavrts < j> tp(T ix novov' avrap £niirOt > v m piayi)<r6p t0a ’Tpiatriv r t xal * E/crop t Sup T itov Ovpbv fxo vrts ipiavvpoi, o X to napor irep ' 7*° i plpvoptv < 5£i»y "Aptfa nap* aXXifXotiri pivovrtf. *&U f< t> a O ', o X S’ apa vticpov in b \ 0ovbt ayfci&yro { J\j/i paXa ptydXias- Ini S’ »ax« Aaos onurOt TpaaVKo's, As *c8oyro re W atpovras 'Agatovs. lOvsrav St Kvvtacriv ioixorts, o7 r ’ <7rl xanptp fas px.ifp.ivia atfuitri npb xovpiav Qifpifrifptov' ea>s pt<y yap re Oioviri Jiappataai ptpaurts, 5i aAA’ ore Srj p iv rottrtv iX(£trai aXxl ntnotOws, & \jf r' avtx<ipifirav Sta r’ trptcrav SXXvSis SXXos. As TpSes flos p iv optAabbv aliv inovro 730 vvcro-cvTts {tyttrCv re Kai iyxfiriv apifnyvouriv• aAA’ ore 8»J«p’ AfayTe ptTaaTpKpOivTt xar airrovs oraiijirav, Ttav Si rpdntro \p<as, ovSi rts erAij npoatria ai£as ntpl vexpov SifpiaaaOai. *Cl? of y ipptpaw rt vixvv < j> ipov in noXipoto 735 injas in t yXa<pvpds' in i Si nroXtpos riraro irtfnv aypios » ] < 5 re nvp, to t' intffo-vptvov noXiv ivSp&v opptvov t^a(<f)Vtfs ipXtyiOti, ptvvOovai 8e oikoi iv aiXa'i ptyuXta- rb S’ Inifiptpti ts avipo 1 0 . As p iv to is inn lav re K ai avSpuv al\pifTaiov 740 bOlX'l9 dpvpaySbs intfifv ipyopivoiaiv ot S’ ws O ' ifpCovo t xp'artpbv p iv os a p ifa ifta A o v T ts (Xkukt’ i£ optos xa ra namaXoto-crav arapnov if Sokov » ]e Sopv p iya vifiov iv Si r t Ovpos TtCptO’ opov n a p o r ia ,re Kai i8pw (rnfvSovTtarirw 745 Ay of y’ ippepaQrt vikvv ipipov. abrap onurOtv Alavr’ hryaviTifv, u > s re npiav hryavti vSiap bXiftts ntbioio Sianpviriov TfTvyifxibs, St Tf Kai lifiOipiav n o T a p ia v aXtytiva pieOpa faxec, aipap Si re iratri poov ntSlov 8i rWifiri 75° nXaQav' ovSi rC piv trOivtX pifyvvtri piovrts* As aiel Afayre pax?fv avitpyov iniaa-ta ’Tptawv o X S' ap inovro, Svco S’ iv toT iti paXurra . Alvttas r 'AyxKTidSifS Kai ipaCSipos *Ektu>p. , r&v S’ &s r t yfrapiov viipos ip%crai ifi koXoiS v 755 • pvXov KtKXifyovTts, Are npotbcairw lovra K ipK ov, S re o p iK p p tr t < }> a vo v < f > 4pti 6pvC9f<r<nv, . As ip ’ i n ’ Alvtia re Kai "Exropi xovpoi ’A\aiQ v ouAoy KtKXljyovTfs ttrav, XifOovro Si yApptijs. ■ woAAa Si ret?xea xaXh nicrov n tp l r’ & p < f> l re raifipov 760 (fxvyovTiav Aavauv* noXipov S’ ov yiyvtr’ ipm p ^ 59 dogs they— the Trojans— leap forward (as dogs are wont to do) in front of their youthful hunting-masters and spring upon a wounded wild boar. For a while indeed they run around eager to tear him to pieces; but no sooner does the boar turn around upon them, trusting to his strength, then back they run, dispersing this way and that in rapid flight. With the antithesis again in counter play, we note objective reporting in non-gnomic secondary tenses: thus, the Trojans in large battle groups (at first) pressed home their attack, wielding their swords and double-pointed spears. Yet, as often as the two Ajaxes turned and held their ground against them, then the Trojans paled in color, nor did anyone dare, in a forward probing attack, to battle around the dead body. From this point on (735-761) we have an antithesis of subjective accounts (similes) and objective accounts (factual descriptions) all of which are fundamental as basic antithesis with regard to the following pattern: "S" I. Simile: a roaring fire razing a city. "01 ' A. Objective account of the roar of Trojan armor (chariots, horses, weaponry). "0M II. Objective notation, merely two words, , namely, the two bearers (in their evaluating role). ”S" A. Menelaus and Meriones compared 6 0 to strong mules dragging a burden. M0" III. Again a brief objective notation of the blocking role of the two AJaxes. US" A. Blocking action is compared to a forest ridge which diverts rampaging rivers. "0" IV. Aeneas and Hector (with their assaunts) terrify the Greeks. ’ •S” A. Their assault action compared to attacks of hawk on a flock of small birds. "0" V. Finally, an objective conclusion which notes the near Greek rout, loss of joy in battle, and, especially, the loss of valuable weaponry; yet, there was no end of fighting. In somewhat more detailed analysis we find that, despite close-in fighting, Menelaus and Meriones were striving to evacuate Patroclus* body to the hollow ships; however, the intensity of battle increased to a fierce tempo (objective account now stops and simile begins with ‘ ftf'ce (737) just as a fire (and with our simile we move into the present tense or gnomic aorist) pounces on a city of men and bursts forth blazing all at once and their houses crash in a tremendous glare, and the force of the wind roars in a stupendous din, thus did the incessant din of horses (in armored-chariot action) and the fighting well-armed soldiery roar in unrelenting 61 pursuit— all this on the one hand, ;l&v ( 7I 4 X)>objectively speaking. Yet, on the other hand, still objectively speaking oV 0' (7*+2), those two bearing Patroclus, but with the Wc (7*+2) we start the simile, just as mules throw their enormous strength into hauling and dragging forth from a mountain, down an almost impassable by-way, either a (cumbersome) rafter or a huge ship-mast. Moreover, as they strive increasingly, their spirit is worn to a frazzle with both toil and sweat. Thus (7*+ 6) (objective "thus" and with the oY y' we enclose the simile neatly) in actuality did Menelaus and Meriones struggle with all their might to carry away the dead body. (Note that we continue objectively for the next four words, however, immediately behind the two bearers, the two A. 1 axes maintain their renowned rear-guard action and hold the Trojan army at bay; now, follows a simile, showing how the rear-guard blocking action worked.) Just as a dominant forested ridge, which happens to stretch its whole length across a plain, and thus holds back the swirling flood-waters and contains even the milling streams of rampaging rivers, and, in a manner, turns all the wandering currents into the plain; and, in no wise do the eddying waters in their strength break through the ridge, thus (again we embrace the simile objectively) continually the two Ajaxes contained and held back the Trojan attack. Nevertheless, the Trojans pressed continually their close attacks— and especially among the Trojans, those two, namely, Aeneas, and glorious Hector; and, it can be said of these two (by way of simile) that just as &C a flock of starlings or blackbirds fly screaming and cackling Incessantly with their confused cries when they see a hawk hovering near— a hawk who brings death to the small birds— thus Wc (objectively speaking) in the same manner, the fledgling troops of the Greeks, shouting in confusion, fell back before the (attacking) Aeneas and Hector; and, they (the Greeks) forgot the joy of battle, and much magnificent armor fell both in and around the trench-line of the fleeing Greeks; still, there was no let-up in the battle. In brief, whether we used (in our examples 1 and 2) formula ••SO” where "S" stands for Subjectivity, i.e., simile, and precedes "0" (Objectivity, i.e., occurrences as being actually or factually recorded) or, whether we used the opposite formula, "OS," we find the antithesis of "0" vs "S" or "S" vs "0." Moreover, in example 2, we find that we have an extension of formula, namely, "0S0M (7^6-753)— a neatly framed pattern with attendant under lying antithesis withal. Again, we have an "0S0" framed pattern immediately following the passage just mentioned (753-759). Thus the pattern attendant to the Homeric simile, (whether it be OS, SO, 0S0, or SOS) with its oscillation resulting from a basic antithesis of the simile-pattern, should afford stimulus to a reader*s auditory imagination. Too, the function of poetic analogy is fulfilled repeatedly by series of similes, as we have noted in Examples 1 and 2; thus, too, analogy serves as an imaginative enhancement of Homeric action. The Simile in the Aeneid In a comparative study of similes in the Homeric epics as opposed to the similes in the epics of Vergil or Milton, one should keep in mind the fact that the Aeneid and Paradise Lost are literary epics and, therefore, the similes therein are more subjectively presented than those in the Homeric epics. Despite the element of increased subjectivity, there is, nevertheless, a definite and traditional pattern in most of the similes in the Aeneid: moreover, as might be expected, there is an element of antithesis basic to the patterns of both the Vergilian and Miltonic similes. In fact, Vergil*s aesthetic concept, like nearly every classical epic concept, whether Homeric or Apollonian, demands a harmonious balance of opposites. Example 1 An Illustration in the Aeneid of a classical epic concept, as It applies to an epic simile and its inherent pattern based on antithesis, may be observed in the Diana simile (Aeneid, I, *4-98-50*0* quails in Eurotae ripis aut per iuga Cynthi exercet Diana choros, quam mille secutae hlnc atque hinc glomerantur Oreades; ille pharetram fert umero gradiensque deas supereminet omnis (Latonae taciturn pertemptant gaudia pectus): tails erat Dido, talem se laeta ferebat per medios instans operi regnisque futuris. The music, both as regards rhythm and mood, in these Latin verses makes itself apparent indeed, especially in the opening four verses of the simile, as we note a Dido regina in a traditional image of beauty and majesty, namely, Diana, against a "high-staged" background of beautiful scenery. As on the banks of Eurotas or along Cynthian hilltops, Diana keeps her dancing train in rhythm while around her gather a thousand nymphs (note the sublimity of scenic environment and her own eminence of stature) and, as she sweeps along, shouldering her quiver, she overtops all the goddesses: undescribably, joy flows into the heart of Latona: such was Dido— and thus did she bear herself with joyous enthusiasm through the throngs, giving her own impetus to the build-up of an empire in the making. 65 In analysis, ve note the preponderant formula of pattern in "SO" with the simile proper occupying the first five lines. Although the first four lines are definitely in the pattern of Homeric simile (cf. Odyssey. VI, 102 ff), nevertheless, the fifth line has a psychological intensity of inner content which has rather far-reaching implications* for the crux of the simile rests in the joy that fills not only the heart of Latona but also the heart of the still unseen spectator, Aeneas.1 * Indeed, even with in this five-line simile we have an inner and outer drama. For outwardly we see, in the first four lines, a Diana- like Dido moving against a mythico-theatrical backdrop of dominatingly enhancing scenery; yet, in the sharply anti thetical fifth line, a dramatically inward-looking verse, we know, on the one hand the mythical Latona*s maternal (inward) joy at seeing her daughter, while, on the other hand, we sense (through the mythical symbol of emotion evoked) that Aeneas invisus is inwardly and deeply moved by Dido's exquisite charm. Thus, within the very simile **Cf• "(Latonae taciturn pertemptant gaudia pectus)" with certain subjective verses as Heine*s and Vergil's (in the lyrical Eclogues) but also note that Aeneas, like Latona as she witnessed, was actually present and saw: and, in effect, he may have felt* "Ich schau* dich an, und Wehmut Schleicht mir ins Herz hinein." (from Heine's Du bist wie eine BlumftVy or, again: "ut vidi, ut peril, ut me malus abstulit errorJ" (from Vergil's Ecloea. VIII, 4l.) 66 Itself, we have an antithesis of outward (content) versus inward (content), that is, manifest content versus latent content. Moreover, in considering the final two verses of this passage, that is, the Objective context part of the Diana simile, we note the underlying and definite anti thesis (even grammatically): for in the simile proper we have such vivid present tense verbs as exercet. glomerantur. fert, supereminet. pertemptant as opposed to the contrasting "imperfects," erat and ferebat which objectively record the actual impetus of Dido as she carried out the customary operations in a growing empire. In brief, what makes the whole passage of the Diana simile equally "plurisignative" and rich in conceptual energy is the compact inner-action intensity versus outer-action intensity. For example, in the Nausicaa Homeric simile (cf. Odyssey. VI, 102 f - f . - ) Odysseus is still asleep at a distance from the spot where Nausicaa and her group are playing; too, the scenic beauty, engendered by the Nausicaa simile, is witnessed by none but the poet and his listeners; however, in the Diana simile, Aeneas stands waiting invisus: but, although as one unseen, Aeneas sees Dido regina! Again, in contrast to the Nausicaa simile whose essence might be described as the joyous sport of 67 frolicking or playing (e.g., ball), we note the essence of the Diana simile in the Aeneid to be Aeneas’ intense incipient love* for Vergil’s verse (line 502) gives this implicit direction through the intense inner action of this one verse and its mythic content. Example 2 In the next analysis of a Vergilian simile, at least one grammatical consideration should be kept in mind. As we noted in the passage of the Diana simile, the verbs in the objective context or narrative, erat and ferebat. were in the past (i.e., imperfect) tense in contrast to the verbs (in the simile proper) which were in the present tenses. Too, we previously noted in the Homeric similes that Homer uses the past tenses when he returns to the objective context of a simile-passage. Also, it is to be noted that in contrast to the Homeric epic, Vergil tends to be more subjective, generally speaking, when he depicts in the objective context of a simile-passage. Indeed, Vergil makes common use of the historical present in the objective context; and, by so doing, he thus renders a more intense impact of action which tends to put us more immediately in contact, as it were, with Vergil’s very own senses as he relates his epic. In fact, this usage of the historical present is rather common to some literature and, such 6 8 usage may probably come from Imagining past events as happening in our Immediate presence; note, too, the term for this usage, namely, repraesentatio. which may perhaps best be rendered as a lively description. Nevertheless, despite the use of the historical present, there is still an antithesis basic to the pattern of a Vergilian simile-passage, that is, the antithesis latent in the subjective simile versus the objective context— even though the verbs throughout the entire simile-passage may be (and quite often are) preponderantly in the present tenses. In fact, by use of the subjective present tense Vergil often obtained even in his objective context a lively descriptive effect— almost subjective and as intense as the poetry of a great lyrical poet, as we shall see, for instance, in the following example (Aeneid. XII, 1+73-80): nigra velut magnas domini cum divitis aedes pervolat et pennis alta atria lustrat hirundo pabula parva legens nidlsque loquacibus escas, et nunc porticibus vaculs, nunc umida circum stagna sonat: similis medios Iuturna per hostis fertur equis rapidoque volans obit omnia curru, iamque hie germanum iamque hie ostentat ovantem nec conferre manum patitur, volat avia longe. Immediately we note that all the tenses are present in the formula “SO" of the pattern that comprises the simile-passage. We appreciate, however, that after the nexus, similis (line *+77), we are, through Vergil*s adroit use of the historical present, vividly there on 69 the very battlefield with Juturna and Turnus; hence, though subtly and, perhaps, thus more forcibly, the anti* thesis basic to the pattern of this passage is prevalent even in the rendition or translation effected by the combination of our mind and senses. This haunting simile may be Vergil's own inventions certainly, from my own studies, nothing has been found in prior extant epics to belle such a statement. Indeed, the simile proper could well have been derived from Vergil's boyhood background and experience; and, even in trans lation (with terminology of Varro in mind), we note the background of res rustica in the opening five lines. Even now (just as when) a (sooty) black swift flies circling through and around the clustered farm buildings of a wealthy overseer; and then wings and darts in circles about the inner farm-yards and lofty barns, gathering tiny morsels for her chirping nestlings; and again (she) twitters and chirps now through the open- fronted sheds and now and again skimming over the watering ponds* Such is Juturna as she is carried forward by her chargers through the ranks of the enemy; and, such is she as she darts this way and that all over the battlefield in her swift chariot— now here, now there, as she momentarily brings to view her exultant brother; nor does she permit Turnus to engage in combat, but instead whirls 70 him away (from Aeneas) far off into the distance. The pattern of the simile-vehicle and overall content is hased on an antithesis that is Integral with the vita Romana of the centuries leading up to Vergil*s time: for the antithesis of res rustica versus res belllca was a sensitive point with Vergil (cf. Ecloga. I, and especially line 72 of this eclogue: "his nos consevimus agros!"); and, Vergil neatly balances his structure of content with four-verses-plus being given to the res rustica. and the remainder to the res bellica. Again, we note in the pattern of content a symbolical antithesis, almost hauntingly mysterious, namely, a winged black swift with its rapid circling and its personified counterpart, Juturna, and her rapid maneuvers to obviate Turnus1 impending death: for the nigra hirundo. the black swift, is a proleptic symbol of the misericordia tragica about to unfold completely in the final lines of the twelfth book. Pity and pathos, with an exquisite taste of poetic rendition, are indeed the two elements which Vergil, as in this simile, has integrated into his epic to the extent that epic and tragedy are seemingly interwoven harmoniously. The Simile in Paradise Lost In both the Homeric and Vergilian simile we have observed a rather conventional pattern based to a certain 71 extent on antithesis. Milton, however, in Paradise Lost probably used each of his similes primarily as an artistic means to an expository end. Indeed, the simile in Paradise Lost was more than the mere utilising of a part of epic machinery. True, Milton would and did make use of epic precedent in the matter of simile and its content; yet, he made certain that his application of simile was especially implicit. Almost uniquely, however, Milton's epic simile often differed from that of his predecessors in the matter of_a novel integration of proleosls into his epic simile. Especially as a function in certain similes of Paradise Lost, proleosls is specifically a representation of a subsequent moment together with the main action— as we shall bring out in the following example (Paradise Lost. I, 759-787)* Example 1 they anon With hundreds and with thousands trooping came 760 Attended* all access was throng'd the Gates And Porches wide, but chief the spacious Hall (Though like a cover'd field, where Champions bold Wont ride in arm'd, and at the Soldans chair Defi'd the best of Panim chivalry 765 To mortal combat or carreer with Lance) Thick swarm'd both on the ground and in the air, Brusht with the hiss of russling wings. As Bees In spring time, when the Sun with Taurus rides, Poure forth thir populous youth about the Hive 770 In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers File to and fro, or on the smoothed plank, The suburb of thir Straw-built Cittadel, New rub'd with Baume, expatiate and confer 72 Thir State Affairs. So thick the aerie crowd 775 Swarm'd and were straitn'd; till the Signal glv'n Behold a wonderI they but now who seemd In Bigness to surpass Earths Giant Sons Now less then smallest Dwarfs, in narrow room Throng numberless, like that Plgmean Race 780 Beyond the Indian Mount, or Faerie Elves, Whose midnight Revels, by a Forrest side Or Fountain some belated Peasant sees, Or dreams he sees, while over head the Moon Sits Arbitress, and neerer to the Earth 785 Wheels her pale course, they on thir mirth & dance Intent, with jocond Music charm his ear; In analysis, the formula of pattern of this slmlle-passage is as followst 0 (759-768); § (768-775)} 0 (775-780)} £ (780-787)— in short, 0 £ Q £. We must appreciate, too, the fact that Milton tends to pile simile upon simile in cluster-like sequence to his drawn-out simile. Likewise, we should note the preponderance of past tenses in the O-bjective-context part of the simile- passage in contrast to the full use of the present tenses in the £-ubjective-context part of the simile-passage. Thus far we have a pattern based on the antithesis of such elements of pattern as £ versus 0 as well as grammatical antithetical elements of pattern such as past tenses versus present tenses. Additionally, Milton obtained perhaps a greater spectrum in the generic relationship of his epic living beings that probably any of his predecessors. In fact, he has provided us an epic locus classlcus in his comparison of a vast commonwealth of winged spirits to the entire polity of e hive. Yet, most remarkably, his spirits, though winged, are reducible to the diminutive size of bees, though previously being, as it were, anthro- morphlc in corporeal dimension, and of no small size. Indeed, here, in the functioning of prolepsls, we not only anticipate the antithesis of the Earth*s giant sons (cf. line 778) becoming less (cf. line 779) than the smallest dwarfs but also observe especially in the O-bjective context an actual metamorphosis of these same winged creatures ad dimuendum. In antithesis, as we mentally place a spirit-polis over against an insect-polis— remembering the important objectives of the solemn council at Pandemonium— we realize that the parliamentarian "busyness" of the winged minions of Satan (in their expatiating and conferring on the affairs of state) is neatly contrasted to the parlla- mentary-buzzlng "busyness" of the polity of a hive. Thus, in the pattern of this slmlle-passage of Milton, we have, additionally, both anticipatory and retrospective antithesis as constituent elements of the. pattern of an epic simile. Needless to say, the antici patory or proleptic function, particularly in the intrinsic elements of an epic simile (e.g., as here in Milton's Pandemonium simile) should provide considerable stimuli to the imagination through the mental oscillation 7^ and such concurrent mental activities as suspense and comparative alternation. Example 2 The next passage will deal with the antithetical elements basic to a pattern structure of a cluster of similes used in relatively close sequence with a resultant “phasing in” of successive stages of action (Paradise Lost, I, 299-313 and 331-3555 lines 31^-330 contain Satan's rousing AOX ARMESf)t Nathless he so endur'd, till on the Beach 299 Of that inflamed Sea, he stood and call'd His Legions, Angel Forms who lay intrans't Thick as Autumnal Leaves that strow the Brooks In Vallombrosa. where th' Etrurian shades High overarch't lmbowr; or scatterd sedge Afloat, when with fierce Winds Orion arm'd 305 Hath vext the Red-Sea Coast, whose waves orethrew Burials and his Memphian Chivalrie, While with perfidious hatred they pursu'd The Sojourners of Goshen, who beheld From the safe shore their floating Carkases 310 And broken Chariot Wheels, so thick bestrown Abject and lost lay these, covering the Flood, Under amazement of their hideous change. 313 They heard, and were abasht, and up they sprung 331 Upon the wing, as when men wont to watch On duty, sleeping found by whom they dread, Rouse and bestir themselves ere well awake. Nor did they not perceave the evil plight 335 In which they were, or the fierce pains not feel; Yet to their Generals Voyce they soon obeyd Innumerable, As whan the potent Rod Of Aarawa Son in Egypts evill day Wav'd round the Coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 3^0 Of Locustsf warping on the Eastern Wind, That ore the Realm of impious Pharaoh hung Like Night, and darken'd all the Land of Nllei So numberless were those bad Angels seen Hovering on wing under the Cope of Hell 3L-5 75 •Tvixt upper, nether, and surrounding Fires; Till, as a signal glv'n, th* uplifted Spear Of their great Sultan waving to direct Thir course, In even ballance down they light On the firm brimstone, and fill all the Plain; 350 A multitude, like which the populous North Pour9d never from her frozen loyns to pass Rhene or the Danaw. when her barbarous Sons Came like a Deluge on the South, and spread Beneath Gibraltar to the Lyblan sands 355 After the Introductory verses (299-301) we have the following formula of simile-patterns MQII (301-302) “His Legions— Thick" "S" (302-30>O "as Autumnal Leaves— imbowr" 3 CO s (30*+-306) "or scattered sedge— Red-Sea Coi H g l l (306-311) "whose waves— Chariot Wheels" IIQM (311-313) "so thick--hideous change" Satan9s call to arms* (31*+-330) WQU (331-332) "they heard— the wing" i i g n (332-33*+) "as when— well awake" IIQM (335-338) "Nor did they— Innumerable" H g t l (338-3*+3) "As when— Land of Nile" MQII (3M+-351) "So numberless— A multitude" t i g n (351-355) "like which--Lyblan sands" The structure of the pattern which evolves from the "fi"-b;Jective context In contrast to the "£"-imiles proper is based on an underlying sequence of antithesis which In the latent alternation reveals a progressive action through all six similes from the Inert multitude, prostrate as Autumnal Leaves (302), then next as sedge 76 (30*0 under an exterior force, and finally a degree of motion Intimated In the third simile— motion from outside forces. After the call to arms we have further movement which the host first roused as pickets caught napping, then like Locusts (3*+l> the multitude takes to flight and finally we have the formation of the Satanic Host, drawn up for combat somewhat along the lines of Northern migrant barbarians• Summary In our preceding examples of the simile with its pattern, attendant formulae, and apparent basis of anti thesis to the patterns Involved, we should note that the simile, as opposed to the metaphor, tends to develop its pattern of content step by step with an expressed nexus between objective context and simile proper. Relatively, the almost leisurely development of the simile as a rhetorical device gives the mind a modicum of leisure to relate the objective context to the simile per se— not so the metaphor. Moreover, the simile permits a hearer to grasp a new idea by simply noting its resemblance to a somewhat familiar experience. On the other hand, as we shall observe in the next chapter, the metaphor gives, relatively speaking, little or no time to relate actual word(s) to concept, since, by the structure of a metaphor's 77 pattern, it is usually of a rather tightly compact nature, without a concrete nexus, and calls for an immediate process of expressing the implied analogy in one’s mind. Nevertheless, in the simile with its rather deliberate and limited application, we have found that by placing opposite (i.e., the antithesis of) the likeness of one thing to another, we have an expressed an^iftgyT or a possible basis or source for creative activity. CHAPTER IV TROPE IN EPIC: THE METAPHOR During the previous chapter we noted an almost definite physical pattern common to the simile even to the extent of a formulaic application to the pattern involved; also, integral with this pattern was a defi nitely basic antithesis. General Observations The metaphor, however, in its role of an implied analogy, evokes an almost instantaneous catalysis or fusion of the actual word(s) (in the context) with the conceptual entity (or idea) evoked in the mind of the auditory reader. Besides, the placing opposite (i.e., literally, the antithesis of) the contextual element versus the conceptual element may well occur in as brief a compass as a pair of words: 0o6cO&ktoXo6 'H&C , rosy- fingered morn as a metaphor may be interpreted as an attribution of fingers to the dawn (personified) but on the other hand may mean that the dawn is being fingered or touched by fingers. Yet again, it may mean that there is an extension of meaning to the following concept. With its finger*s rosy-like rays, the dawn opens the gates of the sun. Nevertheless, these are but three of probably 79 many imaginative fusions of (metaphorically charged) content with metaphorical concept— all from what might be termed a traditional Homeric metaphor. Notwithstanding the brief compass of a traditional Homeric metaphor, there is often both an abbreviated pattern and an attendant formula. Moreover, basic to this pattern there is a definitely fundamental antithesis in its more literal meaning, namely, the-placing-opposite. The pattern of the abbreviated metaphor, however, is a pattern of tangible (contextual word or words) versus the intangible (the coceptual entity or idea derived from the imagination^ reaction to the tangible word or words). The pattern, of course, is in consonance with the definition of a metaphor which basically means a trans ferring, that is, the transfer of a name, action, or descriptive term to an object different from (but analogous to) that to which it is properly applicable; e.g., in the first line of the Sixth Book of the Aeneid, •'classique immittit habenas," he looses the reins of the fleet, there is a distinct metaphoric force to be heard in the words Immittit habenas. Nevertheless, we must feel or sense the metaphoric force of unloosening, say, the reins of race-horses versus the unloosening of the hawsers of the fleet. Thus, the transferring or meta phoric pattern is apparent and the basic antithesis is 80 seen In the pattern, in that we note the ships of the fleet are like coursers starting forth: and, at the same time the very words, immittit habenas* turn our imagination from the tangible debarkation to an imaginative intangible action, namely, that of spirited race-horses or coursers given free rein at the starting post. The formula would be 4*£ wherein A (Actual content), that is, I. A. Richards* vehicle or the actual word(s) is to C (Conceptual entity or idea) or I. A. Richards* tenor— the intangible. The sign of the colon ":" is used, as it is in mathematics, to express ratio and hence the phrase "is to.1 1 inasmuch as the formula does not equate but relates (or transfers) proportionally. or perhaps more exactly, analogously. With this formula in mind, let us analyse some abbreviated metaphors from Homer, Vergil, and Milton. The term "abbreviated" is used advisedly in this chapter. In the next chapter we shall be occasionally concerned with a somewhat more extensive metaphor as part of a comprehensive study of imagery in the epic. With these points in mind, let us apply our formula and analyse with regard to a pattern and its basic antithesis (Odyssey. XI, 598; also, cf. Aristotle’s quotation from Odyssey: Ars Rhetorica: III, xi, 3,^.): aZ'tit exei'ra icfedovOa xuXtvOexo XaaC dvaidfjC* Then again the ruthless stone rolled down to the plain. Just as Aristotle has shown, the force of metaphor is in the animation of an inanimate object. For, as the stone is ruthless as far as Sisyphus is concerned, even thus is the ruthless person to the one who is ruthlessly treated. In formula, AsC, we have, to repeat, an inanimate stone (A) given a property of ruthlessness, and we analogously may perhaps conceptualize (C) the idea that, inexorably, ruthlessness shall, in retribution, drive Sisyphus back and despite his efforts, roll ruthlessly from the cunning ruthlessness of Sisyphus, to the plain belowj and thus, ruthlessly without end frustration continues. Examples from Homer Example 1 In the last four lines of the Sixth Book of the Iliad, Hector exhorts his brother, Paris, "Yet, let us be goingi we will make up our differences at a later time, if Zeus may ever grant us to SET A BOWL QF FREEDOM (line 528) in our great halls before heaven*s eternal Gods, after we have driven away the well-greaved Achaeans from Troy." Now, in the formula A:C, we note that with regard to "A" (actual words), xpTjo^pa— fcXeOGepov (528), a BOWL OF FBEEDOM with its tangible image, namely, a bowl, 82 instantly should come to mind; yet, with regard to the MC" part of the formula, we may readily imagine deeper, especially in view of the phrase M0F FREEDOM.1 1 being a rather intangible concept, the Trojan objective, to wit, FREEDOM, and the celebration of that FREEDOM which should inspire every Trojan, including Paris, to free Troy. xprjr^pa oTfjoaoOai &Xe6@epov §v iieY&poioiv (528) If we reread this passage aloud, we may note a deeper significance in the final two words eV ixey&poioiv of line 528 and thus our concept may be extended to an appreciation of certain traditional (Hellenic) social aspects, particularly the deep consideration that friend ships were not only contracted over the social BOWL on festive occasions, but particularly on the recovery of liberty. With reference to the pattern of this metaphor we note that the abbreviated nature of this metaphor tends to make formula and pattern approximate each other; however, even in an abbreviated metaphor a more extensive appreciation is often achieved in close analysis of the metaphorical pattern. First, we note the bowl and the metaphorical action in the verb to set. These two metaphorical items are quite tangible in the mind's eye; but, when we add the adjective free or its genetival phrase, of freedom, a decidedly increased stimulation to the imagination should occur, especially with regard to the entire content of the final four lines of the Sixth Book. Indeed, with the adjectival phrase of freedom, our pattern has evolved into the intangible or the conceptual part of the metaphorical pattern, which unlike its formula evokes a larger appreci ation of the content of an entire passage in which the metaphor is located. The basic antithesis of tangible versus Intangible is immediately evident in the pattern of this metaphor; also, in the intangible part of the pattern at least one concept may arise in keeping with the Hellenic social tradition. For example, friendships were often custom arily contracted over the social bowl at festivals, particularly on the recovery of liberty or especially in the spirit of freedom of pursuit of one*s ends (cf. p. 11)8, infra.) . In the next example we shall be analysing another relatively compressed metaphor, Iliad. VIII, 393-5* Example 2 ad'T&n.a'cai xGXai (j.6xov odpavoO €yov 2pai fixiTfcTpaxTai plyaC obpavdC O^XopicoC *zz fjpfcv dvaxXTvai xuxtvdv v£q>oC ^G'fcueetvai • “Unbidden the (self-moving) gates of Heaven roared open, (gates) which the Seasons controlled, in whose care 8*+ are both vast Heaven and Olympus, both to roll back the thick cloud and to restore it in place again." The underlined words point up the formula A:C, since we have automated gates of Heaven roaring open, the Actual words themselves presenting us initially with a tangible image; yet, beyond the Actual words, there is an intangible Concept which is almost simultaneously evoked. That is, the built-in automated psychic device which at times opened to the gods* will (here the will of Hera and Athena) and at other times would be controlled by the Seasons: for the control of the Olympian cloud-gates was indeed the special prerogative of the Seasons. Wien we consider the pattern of this metaphor as it relates to the content of the passage (both as to verses immediately preceding and following) we note that there is a dramatic force to this metaphor. Indeed, the gates (automatedly) roar open with dramatic surprise and intensity. Also, these gates are not just any tangible gates but are gates as mysterious as the clouds in their etherial essence; and, as concept extends in consonance with pattern, we note the Seasons who are able to throw back or clap to the could-gates. Thus, we have in Actual words the tangible gates (of Heaven) in antithesis (within the overall metaphoric pattern) with the mysterious unseen (but Conceived) activation of these gates— 85 especially actuated cloud-gates vhich can roar open on the one hand or again, in their role of cloud-gates, curl lightly golden round, depending on the Seasons. The Metaphor in the Aeneid In a manner similar to some metaphors in the Homeric epic, the metaphor in the Aeneid is often quite forceful. Example 1 For instance, in the Third Book of the Aeneid. as the Trojans first reach Italy their immediate haven lies concealed (Aeneid. Ill, 535-6) "gemino dimittunt bracchia muro turritl scopull refugitque ab lltore templum.M "Towering crags let down their arms into two walls and the temple starts back from the shore." In our formula AsC, we have the saliently tangible towering headlands and the twin wall as it is related to the concept of a massive headed promontory alive to the point of letting its arms down in a welcome embrace, while the second application of AsC is seen in the actu ality of a temple of Minerva receding before their eyes as the Trojans approach by water, all of which is related to the concept of a retiring spiritual objective, a fane which lies back, so to speak, waiting for those longing to feel once again the security of an aegis of sacredness* 86 Admittedly, this is one concept and perhaps extended a bit too far; yet, we do have in these two verses tangible and intangible elements, if we give our imagination a bit of free rein. As is often the case in the Aeneid. the pattern of a metaphor is rather closely integrated with the content of an entire passage. Thus, in this instance, we note that the force of this metaphor gives added intensity and meaning to the passage as a whole. For, in the tangible letting down of the arms and the gentle receding of the temple (i.e., to the voyagers* vision as they approached closer and closer), we have the tangible element of our pattern developing (through an auditory reader*s imagina tion) into the conceptual element— as the content of the passage warrants. Instead of an aspect of bristling hostility, the seeming note of welcome is enhanced by metaphor. Thus, not only are we struck with the concept of welcome in the letting down of the arms but also we note the absorption into a depth of serenity (e.g., the serene temple *s gentle lying back or receding as the Trojans approach). All of this should make for an increased spirit of welcome. Moreover, the integration of metaphorical pattern with the pattern of the passage (as to content) in fotn is readily noted in such succeeding words as prlmtim nm«n 87 (vs. 537), namely auattuor eauos. the four horses (vs. 537) o terra hosoita. sues et pads, numina sancta— Palladia— quae prima acceplt ovantls (vss. 539-^). Basic to the pattern of the metaphor Is the anti thesis which is at once indeed obvious in the Interplay of tangible with intangible; even this antithesis— basic to the pattern of metaphor— is integral also with the encompassing content of the entire passage. In our next example we shall consider, within the compass of two words, the antithesis basic to a particular metaphoric pattern. Example 2 Perhaps one of the more telling instances of the antithesis of tangible versus intangible is the striking metaphor in verse 887 of the Sixth Book of the Aeneid: "aeris in camnls latis atque omnia lustrant" "They wandered everywhere on vast fields of air." Here in the "fields of air," we have the tangible campis (fields), definitely ipsa res materia, versus the intangible aeris (air), Indeed ipsa res cognita. with its not improbably creative stimulus to the auditory imagina tion. In our formula "A" (actual word Cjynpls, tangible indeed to the Boman mind) is to "C" (conceptual word aeris. intangible to the point of being airy nothing); however, 88 attendant In these two words is a considerable amount of metaphoric "energy-tension" and stimulus with regard to the auditory imagination not only in relation to the word aeris alone but particularly in relation to the comblnated entirety of the metaphor, fields of air. For in this metaphor we have an example of Gesamt-Vorstellung. i.e., a representation of togetherness of (disparate) elements. Again, the abbreviated nature of this metaphor tends to make pattern and formula practically coincide. Yet the pattern of tangible versus Intangible of this metaphor is a coherent element in the larger pattern of the preceding and succeeding verses as they contribute to the conclusion of the Sixth Book of the Aeneid. Too, the phrase, fields of air, is a subtle yet powerful reminder that the pageant just experienced has been a visionary journey, as though in a dream. Indeed, the fields of air with Its metaphoric force tends to point up the lines to follow, wherein Aeneas and the Sibyl return into the upper world through the Gates of Sleep. The Metaphor in Paradise Lost The metaphor in Paradise Lost has likewise a subjective intensity somewhat similar to that subjective intensity found in many of the metaphors of the Aeneid: in contrast, the metaphor of the Homeric epic tends to have a classic objectivity which is nevertheless enduringly 89 powerful) when the Homeric metaphor Is used for singular effect as opposed to the metaphor used for traditional effect. With this general observation In mind let us now consider the following metaphorfrom Book I of Paradise Lost (Paradise Lost. I, 17^-5): Example 1 "and the Thunder, Wing'd with red Lightning and impetuous rage," Thunder, of course, we normally hear; but, in this metaphor we probably should Imagine a thunderous dark cloud serratedly winged with the red lightning of a fiery nature to say nothing of an Incorporated "imp^tpous rage.*1 From a grammatical standpoint, we have a concrete noun, Lightning. followed by an abstract noun, rage. The imaginative response is perhaps increased as we try to grasp the meaningful phrase "Wing'd with— impetuous rage." From the standpoint of formula A*C, we have Thunder as an Actual or tangible word, tangible to the auditory senses but "transferring" within its very word- meaning to the idea of thunder-cloud. Nevertheless, it is to its imaginative possibilities, conceptual, that is, that the metaphoric force receives full play, especially being winged both with (red) lightning. a concrete noun, and also with (impetuous) rage, an abstract noun in contrast. Thus, the pattern here is one of interplay of ' 90 actual words and the concepts arising within the working of the metaphoric activity. Additionally, the metaphor supports, with Its pattern, the pattern of the passage as a whole, namely the description by Satan of the fury of Heaven, perhaps now at last spent. The antithesis basic to the pattern of metaphor is again (AtC) formulaic in that one of our first tangible responses is involved In a "transferring" or "metaphoring" Into a secondary yet conceptually Imaginative response with the possibility of attendant creative stimuli. Example 2 If we now turn to the Ninth Book of Paradise Lost, we note in verses 781 and 782 that Eve has just reached out for the forbidden fruit: “She pluck*d, she ate: Earth felt the wound," Earth as the Actual tangible word felt, even as a person might, the wound: in the word, woundr we have transferred to the Conceptual or the intangible yet full metaphoric force; indeed, as we integrate metaphoric pattern with overall contextual pattern, we note the intensity of concept heightened by the metaphor itself: even Nature in her entirety grieved and showed that every thing was lost. The pattern, then, of the metaphor is 91 syntactical to a degrees for the subject, Earth, tangible indeed, develops into the predicate (the verb) felt, picking up metaphoric force in its progress, and additional force as the clause progresses into the predicate position of the vivid noun, wound. Hence, we have pattern adhering to formulas AsC. The antithesis basic to the pattern may be seen in the subject in position opposite to the predicate position of the word, wound: however, as we develop the "subject-verb-object" pattern we have an oscillation developing as we move from tangible to Intangible— an antithesis based on the conceptual development wherein terra becomes natura as brought out by the metaphor in conjunction with the content of the entire passage. sasasarg In conclusion, with regard to the abbreviated metaphor in the epic, we may summarize by comparing the metaphor with the simile and then emphasize certain characteristics peculiar to the metaphor. As we noted in Chapter III, the simile with its nexus tends to SEPARATE the known (i.e., the tangible, the actual, or the concrete) from the unknown (i.e., the intangible, the conceptual, or the abstract). The metaphor, however, DIRECTLY FUSES the frnnwn (i.e., the tangible, the actual, or the concrete) with the 92 unknown (i.e., the intangible, the conceptual, or the abstract). Briefly, metaphor Is an Implied analogy. Indeed the metaphoric fusing of the actual with the conceptual is not unidirectional but oscillatory to the degree that metaphoric fusion is in reality "intrafusion." Nevertheless, the "intrafusion" of a thesis of the actual with an antithesis of the conceptual is not the telos or final criterion of the metaphor. Rather the telos of the metaphor is one of creativity, namely, a conceptual synthesis (or syntheses) resulting from an "intrafusion" of THESIS AND ANTITHESIS. Thus, "the two component counterpowers actually interpenetrate each other, and generate a higher third, including both the former, lta tamen ut sit alia et maior.wl Finally, let us compare a current dictionary definition of the metaphor with Ernst Cassirer's findings on the same subject. Webster defines a metaphor as "a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them."2 Ernst Cassirer has stated further: *s* T* Coleridge, The Statesman Manual, Appendix C, p. 353 (London: George Bell and Sons, 18167. 2Webster»s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, 1963. 93 den Grundbergrlff der Metapher selbst sch&rfer zu bestimmen und zu umgrenzen. Man kann diesen Begriff in dem Sinne fassen, dass unter ihn nlchts anderes f&llt als der bewusste Ersatz der Bezeichnung fttr einen Vorstellungsinhalt durch den Namen eines anderen Xnhaltes, der dem ersten In Irgendeinem Zuge Ahnlich 1st oder doch irgendvelche mlttelbaren "Analogien" zu ihm darbietet. In diesem Falle handelt es sich in der Metapher um eine echte "Ubertragung" :die beiden Inhalte zvischen denen sie hin- und hergeht, stehen als fflr sich bestimmte und selbst&ndlge Bedeutungen fest und zvischen ihnen, als festem Ausgangs- und Endpunkt, als einem gegebenen tqqafaipg.ft qw. und findet nun die Vorstellungsbevegung statt, die dazu fuhrt, vom einen zum anderen iiberzuleiten und den einen, dem Ausdruck nach, durch den anderen zu ersetzen.^ But, if ve take the metaphor in a broader and more sublime sense, not only do ve have the mere transference in the relatively narrov sense but also ve have creativity in operation, as Cassirer states in a summary sentence on the metaphor: Hier findet nicht nur eine, tfbertragung, sondern eine echte peTa^aoiC efc ttXXo vfcvoC statt; ja es vird hierbei nicht nur in eine anaere, bereits bestehende Gattung iibergegangen, sondern die Gattong, in die , der Ubergang erfolgt, vird selbst erst erschaffen.4 - 3Ernst Cassirer, Sprache und Mvthos. p. 70 “ ♦jfeia., p. 71. CHAPTER V TROPES IN EPIC: IMAGERY General Observations Previously ve analysed patterns of such classical tropes as similes and metaphors, all of which have received extensive critical appreciation since the time of Aristotle. In this chapter, however, ve shall consider the patterns of an extremely comprehensive trope, namely, imagery* e.g., imagery may, and perhaps often does, Include within the term such tropes as symbols, images, metaphors, and similes. Moreover, we shall consider the comprehensive trope, imagarv, to be a somewhat relatively recent tenet in literary theory. Therefore, our analytical study in this chapter will be indeed exploratory in nature, since imagarv (as a comprehensive trope) has not been a subject of extensive traditional study. Yet, notwithstanding, imaflft-rv may Indeed contain an Integral pattern which is often based on antithesis; that is, one of the fundamental elements of a pattern of epic imagery may be antithesis. Epic Imagery in Homer To illustrate the fundamental element of antithesis in a Homeric epic pattern of imagery, consider the 9^ 95 following passage from the Odyssey (Odyssey. VII, 81-132* see Appendix D for actual text. Passages in Greek or Latin which are referred to in this chapter will he found in Appendix D). Example 1 Athena has just led Odysseus to the palace of Alcinous. Almost at once we are struck by the symbol of Bronze, x&*xeov (83) particularly with regard to its hardness and endurance. This symbol could stand for the characteristic of both king and kingdom. This is not all, howevers for there is in fact, a splendor which strikes one's eyes. In contrast to the all-pervading bronze-like strength and solidarity, the blaze, cuyXt) (8*0 that dazzles Odysseus is that (of an antithesis, namely, of sun and moon)— an altogether different type of eternal significance to that of the bronze. For here we have (in the sun and the moon) Images or rather symbolic Images that are opposites, and yet the two are contained in a metaphor of time and space: certainly we know that the sun and moon (in their eternal cycles within the concepts of time and space) are not literally inside the palace. Rather, their symbolical images, gold and silver produce the imagery in the (torchlight's) gleam cuyXtj (8*+). Indeed both the gold (of the sun, fjeXioo (8*0) 96 and the silver (of the moon, oeX^vt)C (8*0) are in rela tively constant contrast and deeply penetrating. The door jamb and threshold were silver whereas the door hook itself was gold. Again, there were the dogs, both gold dogs as well as silver dogs; besides, these antithetical symbols of security, wrought by Hephaestus, were the eternal watchdogs of the palace of the great-hearted Alcinous. Nor were they ephemeral in concept; but, being like the sun and the moon, they were undying and ageless forever* A0av&'rooC--xat &Yf|p<oC (9*0. Now, in contrast to the torch-bearing youths, sculptured in gold, are living handmaidens bustling with activity* some are busy grinding yellow grain while others, as they sit, at their distaff, are turning the woolen threads constantly and weaving with busy hands like the (vibrant) leaves of a lofty poplar* Note that, in addition to a basic antithesis, this simile adds much to the symbolic Imagery of this passage* for the living images (of the women) intensely active in their industry not only provide a contrast to the statuesque images of the golden youth and the silver and golden hounds but also Intensify the action in the vibrating chiaroscuro of the poplar leaves (tending to coruscate now darkly now brightly in the wind), symbolical of the extreme activity and bustle, all prevailing. 97 Nor does the imagery cease outside the palace in contrast to that within. Thus, there is a great garden burgeoning with teeming succession of crop after crop, a symbol of vitality and perennial endurance— without decay or surcease. Nor does the fruit ever fall, nor is it ever lacking, in winter or summer, enduring all the year. In verses 123 and 12*t, we have an antithesis wherein a sunny spot on level ground is used for drying by sun the gathered grapes (into raisins), while in the other parts of the vineyard the grapes that are hanging are being gathered, while those gathered are being pressed into wines Next, we note the continuum of contrasting meta phoric images furthering the overall symbolic imagery! in the foreground are unripe grapes shedding their blossom, while others in turn are beginning to grow dark. Again, in perpetual growth, garden beds of all types— of herbs— are shining brightly just beyond the vineyard; finally, there are two springs, one of which streams everywhere irrigating the garden, whereas the other runs below the threshold of the court-enclosure and on beyond the confines of the lofty palace (towards the agora), supplying at last the public fountain. In addition to the various observations concur rently made up to this point with regard to the antithesis basic to the pattern of Imagery throughout this passage, It Is to be particularly noted that from verse 8l through verse 102 only past tenses are used In depicting the series of Images at the moment of action. In short, this constitutes the objective method of narrating and, as such, It tends to continue epic Illusion (that Is, the Illusion of Historicity, Vitality, and Continuity). Next, however, In antithesis to the objective passage (vss. 81-102), we have a passage wherein the poet uses the subjective method throughout (I.e., In vss. 103- 131). In this method of description, the poet and you are right at the scene, and while the present tense Is used, the copula (Implied or actually used) tends to be predominant as opposed to noncopulative main verbs of action. Hence, within the entire passage of Imagery (vss. 81-132) we have a pattern that contains a sequence of Images presented In an objective manner versus a sequence of Images presented In a subjective manner. Likewise, within the passage presented in the subjective manner, we have an antithesis basic to the subjective pattern of presentation. First, there is the credible item of description, namely, the fifty hand maidens, grinding the yellow grain and weaving the wool; then, in contrast, i.e., outside the palace as opposed to inside, there follows a description of locale, mirablle 99 &L££U‘ Basie to the entire pattern of imagery throughout the whole passage is the antithesis of the real and the ideal, particularly from the standpoint of symbol* For, if a symbol is the visible sign of an inward invisible meaning plus a profundity of meaning beyond that which is associated with a single metaphor or image, we should note the symbol embodied in the metaphorical images in sequence that make up the tenor or idea of stability in the palace. Also, we should take into account those Images that constitute the tenor of timelessness in the garden. All these images then embody a symbol which outwardly represents the residency of a great king. Yet, inwardly, so to speak, this symbol incorporates £ latent and ideal content. In fact, it is a symbol that suggests a "plurisignificance" of excellent qualities of character and great strength of mind— an acropolis to a capsizing world--even that world which had well nigh capsized for Odysseus. Thus, in the symbol there is res extensa (i.e., res materlae) et res cogitans (i.e., res mentis), namely, an opposition between material substance and mental substance, extension versus thought. Hence, an imagery which contains within its pattern a dominant symbol has, of necessity, a basic antithesis. For the material furnished by our 100 senses (I.e., Images, preferably and usually metaphoric) may, through an oscillation between mind and senses, actually create a symbol which, according to Suzanne Langer is an elementary idea.-*- Furthermore, Imagery with an Inherent symbol is a definite factor to be considered in the field of creativity, especially with regard to the processes involved in antithetical oscillationt THE FACT THAT THE HUMAN BRAIN IS CONSTANTLY CARRYING ON JL PROCESS OF SYMBOLIC TRANSFORMATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA THAT COMES TO IT CAUSES IT^TO^BE^YERITABgE FOUNTAIN OF MORE OR LESS Example 2 Next, we shall analyse an example in imagery from the relief of the Shielf of Achilles (Iliad. XVIII, 1 +83- 606)* note especially the basic antithesis throughout the sequence of images that comprise the composite shield- imagery, even from the first image which depicts a cosmic contrast wherein the triad of earth, sky, and sea is crowned by a ternion of sun, moon, and principal constel lations. But even more than the images themselves, set as ^Suzanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key, p. b2s N. B. the sentence, "The material furnished by the senses is constantly wrought into symbols, which are our elementary ideas." 2Ibid.. p. *+3* capitalization and underlined words are my own. 101 it were In antithetical ternion, Is the poetvs Immediate presentation of the symbol of the Dance— a symbol which Is to dominate the entire Imagery of the shield of Achilles. Although the Dance, as a symbol, may not seem obvious In our initial readings of the Introductory verses depicting the cosmic Images of the shield, Euripides nevertheless grasped, In the opening Images of "the shield," the Dance of the stars, especially when he passed on to us both the spirit and the sumbol of the Dance in his description of the shield of Achilles as chanted by the chorus of his Electra (particularly in verse W67)» ttOTptoV T* dOfeplOl XOpot, namely, the aetherlal dance of the stars. In contrast to the cosmic aspect, we have anti thetical arrangements of views of life on earth, probably contemporary with the epic age. For Hephaestus wrought on the shield two beautiful cities of mortal men. In one of the cities (on the one hand) were the Images of weddings and festal banquets, and, beneath the torchlight-blase, men were leading their brides from their virgin-chambers through the city; and, loudly rose the hymneal music. Also, there were youth whirling about as they danced; and, in accompaniment, the music of the flute and lyre rose high, while women, each one standing in her 102 doorway, continually marvelled. In this city of peace, however, we have a new sequence of Images within the overall Imagery of the shield: for the city-folk were thronging Into the agora; and there a trial had commenced (over a dispute that had arisen) and two men were striving about the blood-money concerning a man who had been slain. On the one hand ( jiiv vs. ^99) one declared he had paid everything, whereas on the other hand (G*(e) vs. 500) the other disputant denied it and said he had received nothing. Yet, both desired to receive a decision before a know ledgeable referee. The people, however, cheered both parties, as they sided with one cause or the other. But the heralds kept the boisterous crowd from getting out of hand. In contrast to this image there was the subsequent image of the judicial grouping of the elders of the community who were sitting on smooth stones in a circle sacred (to the tribunal); and, they had— for the moment— left their judicial scepters in the hands of the loud- voiced heralds (that is, during the hearing of the case prior to sentencing). With these judicial scepters--now once more in the judges* hands— the judges arose and gave their judgement in turn. And there lay in the middle foregound two talents of gold as a reward to the one who 103 should plead his cause In the most straightforward manner* But in direct antithesis to the city of peace was another city in discord around which a two-corps army was besieging— an army glltterlngly resplendent in its armed might. And, two plans were considered good courses of action to be presented to the besiegeds either they, those of the besieging army, would utterly sack the besieged city, ££ they would divide everything (within the city) into two parts sharing (with the besieged) whatever property the lovely city held within its walls. The besieged, however, were not as yet surren dering, but instead were arming for an ambush (in the making, against the besieging army). Now (on the one hand nfev ) on the wall of the city both beloved wives and darling children stood as a covering force, supplemented by a home-guard of elders, yet (on the other hand 6* ) in contrast, the forces— for ambuscade--advanced to attack* Moreover, in the van of these attacking forces, both their leaders were Ares and Pallas Athena all glittering in gold, and golden even was their raiments even as gods they were naturally strikingly handsome and mighty in their armor; yet, in contrast, and as a natural consequence symbolically, the people under their command (and being lower in rank), were smaller in stature. 10*f Thus, when they arrived where It seemed convenient to deploy In ambush along the river bank, where there was a watering place for all kinds of flocks, even there they assumed a defiladed position by crouching— to conceal themselves— In their sparkling bronze armor. Additionally, for those In ambuscade, two scouts were placed as an outpost In reconnaissance at a distance from those In ambush, especially that they, the scouts, might gather Information concerning the movement of flocks and crooked-horned cattle (as a stratagem of ambush or an indication of an approaching enemy). And, soon indeed, the cattle came, and with them two shepherds amusing themselves with their pipes and little suspecting what stratagem was to take place. Accordingly, those In ambush, having been alerted, attacked In full force and quickly Intercepted on each side of the road some herds of oxen and some choice flocks of white-fleeced sheep, and In addition they killed the shepherds• The besieging army, however, were sitting in a staff meeting in front of the speakers' platform and, upon becoming aware of the clamor among the moving cattle, they Immediately mounted their hlgh-pranclng horses and arrived on the scene almost at once. Having drawn up in combat position, they joined battle along the river 105 banks and struck and wounded one another with bronze- pointed spears. In the thick of combat Strife and Tumult moved back and forth in the hand-to-hand fighting, and even destructive Death, who grasped now one man alive— though freshly wounded- and another man unwounded; while still another, though being dead, Death dragged through the battle by the foot. And, her garments, especially round her shoulders were vibrantly red with the blood of (fighting) men. Thus, as living men (and not mere figures embossed in metal), they clashed in hand-to-hand combat and fought incessantly and yet they were also dragging off their own dead who had died at the hands of others. Before proceeding to the various images of country life, a recapitulation at this point may greatly assist us in grasping the antithesis basic to the pattern of imagery encompassed by the entire shield of Achilles. Beginning with verse *+82 we noted a cluster of images which practically attained cosmic proportions as the sequence of images were developed by the poet. These images naturally occupied the center of the shield; yet, within the depth of these images we noted a basic anti thesis of earth as opposed to the sky and the sea; also there was the fundamental antithesis of sun versus the moon; then, followed more cosmic elements such as definite constellations and the turning movement antithetically 106 basic to the Intimated dancing (of the stars). At this point It had been noted that the symbol of the Dance was to appear dominantly throughout the Imagery of the shield. Next, ve observed the Images depicting two cities, a city In peace, on the one hand, n-fcv (**91)» yet, on the other hand, 5' (509)* in antithesis, we observed a city in war. In the city of peace there was an antithesis basic to the pattern of images which Included marriage feasts, dancing, and jury action versus the ever attendant crowd as witnesses; contrastingly, in the city at war there was a basic antithesis in the pattern of images depicting the besieged versus the besieging forces, those left behind versus those sallying forth to lie in ambush, all of which was to be followed by an antithesis, basic to the pattern of images, depicting the actual combat, especially in such detailed use of key antithetical elements as p.lv and * specifically, for example, of p.fev (527) versus of 6' (530). From the standpoint of antithesis we shall now turn to a series of image-clusters of country life as opposed to city life. Moreover, it is not improbable that the series of rural images about to be considered were intended to depict occupations of the various seasons, 107 that Is, from verse 5^1 through verse 589. Spring, for example, will he represented by Images of plowing, summer by images of reaping and the harvest feast, and autumn by vintage, and winter by the herding along, the resounding river ( n&p xoTapdv xeXadovTa 576), inasmuch as rivers are resoundingly noisy when swollen, usually only at the end of the autumn rainy season. With this brief resume' in mind, we note that Hephaestus also fashioned a field, newly enclosed, of fresh virgin soil, even now undergoing a third ploughing; and, depicted herein, many ploughmen drove their yoked teams in a circular course round the field. Moreover, when they came to the end of the field and turned, a man would step forward and hand them a goblet of sweet wine. Yet, on the other hand, others would be turning back on the furrows, desiring to reach the end of the deep (loamy) fallow land. And the rich earth blackened behind, and seemed as though the ground had been plowed up afresh, even though it was wrought in gold: such indeed was the great marvel in the workmanship. Moreover, within the shield he fashioned (in chased artistry) the enclosed field of a king wherein hired laborers with sharp sickles in their hands were cutting the corn and some handfuls (of grain) were falling thick and fast upon the ground along the swath while (in 108 contrast) other bundled-armfuls the sheave-binders were tying together by straw-bands. Three sheave-blnders, however, stood near the reapers; yet, close behind, boys collected the grain Into sheaves and were bringing It up and giving It to the binders. And In one of the furrows the king stood near the reapers holding his scepter and gladness was In his heart. But apart from the rest underneath an oak, heralds were preparing a feast, and were attending to the sacrifice of a large ox which they had sacrificed. The women, however, were sprinkling a great quantity of white barley (into the kneading trough) to make bread for the reapers. Be also set therein a vineyard whose vines were very heavily weighed down with bunches (of grapes) beautifully golden. But the grapes were black, yet (the golden clusters of black grapes) were hanging throughout on silver-mounted vine-poles. Round the vineyard he ran a dark blue-steel trench and round that he ran a fence of tin: but leading to the vineyard there was only a single path by which the vintagers might come and go, whenever they were gathering the vintage in the vineyard. Both boys and girls in their light-hearted youthful glow brought the honey-sweet grapes in the wicker-work baskets. But a boy (standing) in their midst with a 109 clear-toned late was playing a charming air for them, and also with his delicate voice he sweetly sang (in accompani ment with his music) the lay of Linos (a symbol of fading autumn versus lively youth) while they, however, stamping the ground with a perfect beat, and in rhythmic movement with the song, and together with shouts of joy, they danced along with their nimbly-moving feet. And too, he fashioned within the shield a herd of high-horned cows, but the cows were wrought in gold and tin (for contrast in color); and, with bellowing they rushed out from the farmyard to the pasture beside both the resounding river and the flickering slender reeds. Too, four golden herdsmen were following along with the cattle and nine fleet-footed dogs also followed close at heel. But (in contrast to this idyllic image) two fierce- looking lions had seized from the front of the herd a loud-bellowing bull who roared mightily as the lions dragged him away. But the dogs and the lusty youths went after the bull in hot pursuit. Both lions were ripping open the hide of the enormous bull and were gulping down his entrails and black blood. The herdsmen, however, gave chase in vain, even though they urged on their swift dogs; but, the dogs turned away from biting the lions and stood close by and barked but kept out of their way. Also, thereon, the famed halting-god fashioned 110 (In close sequence with the Images of the herding and the lion-attack and In extension of the winter symbol Inherent In the herding images) within a beautiful glen a spacious meadow of white sheep, and then (beyond), stalls, thatched cottages, and cotes. Too, he wrought with skill the dancing floor, like that one which Daedalus once built in spacious Knossos for beautiful-tressed Ariadne. There danced youths and maidens richly-dowried, grasping, as they danced, one another's hands by the wrist. Now the maidens were dressed in exceedingly fine linen whereas the youths were wearing well-woven tunics ever so slightly glistening with oil. And, as we would expect, the maidens wore beautiful diadems whereas the youths were wearing long golden knives dangling from silver belts. Now sometimes they would run (a circle) in skill ful dance-steps with an exceeding ease of grace, just as when a potter sits at his wheel which runs around in his hands as he tries it out as to whether it will run true; yet, at other times, they would run in lines (this way and that) forming as they danced (in rows as it were) face to face with each other. And a great throng stood pressing close around, in delight with the lovely dance. Also among them a divine minstrel provided music and song, as he played on his lyre; but among the dancers two Ill tumblers set the tempo as they whirled through their, midst. As a final encirclement of the entire Imagery of the shield, he fashioned on the outermost periphery of the skillfuly-wrought shield the enormous force of the River of the Ocean. Note contrasts passim pp. 107-9, supra. Epic Imagery in the Aeneid In a sense, Imagery In the Aeneid is a following, as It were, in the footsteps of Homer; however, there Is a marked difference in subject-matter and spirit (anlma Vergiliana): for Homer portrays a varied imagery of life whether It be a sequence of Images of war and peace or again an interplay of several images concerning toil or merry-making. Vergil, on the other hand, gives us in addition, an imagery of the growth and grandeur of Rome, down through the centuries to his own time. With this in mind, let us now examine certain antithetical elements basic to the pattern of imagery in Vergil*s description of the shield of Aeneas (Aeneid. VIII, 626-728). Example 1 On the shield (as opposed to the armor which Vergil has just described, such as helmet, sword, breastplate, greaves, and spear) the lord of fire had embossed the matter of Italy along with the triumphs of the Romans; nor was Vulcan lacking in prophetic wisdom or knowledge 112 of the futures the entire lineage of Ascanius as well as the long succession of wars fought without remittance. All of this Is by way of Introduction; next, we see an Interplay of images. First, Vulcan portrayed (fecerat (630)) a peaceful image, the Image of a wolf (after giving birth— fetam) stretched out in the green cave of Mars while around her teats were the twin boys, hanging on and playing around, while, oblivious to fear, they licked (the breast of) their (foster-) mother. She, with beautifully rounded neck bent back, was fondling them in turn and licking their bodies— Minto shape"— with her tongue. In contrast to this image, and not far from the preceding image, he had set Rome, and also the rough manner of the rape of the Sabine women in the crowded seats during the great Circus games. And, suddenly a new war raged between the followers of Romulus and the aged king Tatius and stern Cures (the capital of the Sabines is used here to symbolize the typically hard working nation— possibly symbolizing the Quirites to be). Next, as opposed to the previous image, these two kings, having put aside their mutual strife, stood as ones armed with the sacrificial bowls before the altar of Jove; then they joined a pact over a slaughtered sow. Contrastingly, in the next image, violence is 113 depicted wherein dashing four-horse chariots, driven apart, had torn Mettus— double-dealing ruler of Alba Longa— In half, (symbolical of deserving punishment for double- dealing): you should have remained true to your words, 0 Alban ruler! and Tullus tore the flesh of the liar through the forest, and the bushes were spattered and dripping with his blood. (From this point we shall consider the remaining images comprising the all-embracing Imagery in a somewhat summary fashion.) In contrast to the execution of Mettus, we note in the next sequence of Images, first, the siege of Home by Porsena, seen in simile like one who chafes, yet one who threatens• Next, instead of an Image of a siege, we have an image of the besieged (probably at the top of the shield— in summo) with Manlius holding the Capitoline Hill; yet, notwithstanding, we have the contrast of the goose wrought in silver fluttering among the golden colonnades as it gave warning by its cries that the Gauls were on the threshold— the Gauls in the darkness; yet, in contrast, their hair and attire of gold stand out against this darkness. Also, in contrast to the darkness were the Gauls* striped cloaks glittering as well as their milk- white necks bound in gold, to say nothing of the Alpine javelins which sparkled in their hands. Ill* As opposed to the Image of besiegement, we next note the procession of the ancllla and the dancing Sail! as guardians of these shields. Vulcan also added in contrast to Images of Rome the great places of hell, the lofty gates of Dis, and the doom of crimes, even Cataline, hanging from a beetling cliff and shivering In fear at the faces of the Furies; and— in antithesis, i.e., secretos. set apart— the good $ to vhom Cato is delivering privileges. Amid these images ("Haec inter” (671) literally, that is), inasmuch as the preceding Images may be thought of as vignettes surrounding the central grouping of images yet to be described— amid these Images, to repeat, we have a highly colorful sequence of images on the battle of Actium with the ever-present element of antithesis basic to the imagery of the shield as a whole. For one image shows Augustus, while another shows Agrippa— all with vivid details; yet, set apart is another pair of anti thetical images, namely, those of the opposition: for one image shows Antonius with outrageous array and arms of every sort and Cleopatra following as his escort; and, as the ocean is torn up into foam, the result of an ensuing fire-fight and missile attack is summed up vividly in a concluding and tightly-packed metaphorical golden line:— "arva nova Neptunia caede rebuscunt": the fields 115 of ocean run red with fresh carnage. Then Cleopatra summons her squadron with an Egyptian (religious) type rattle. Next follows an Image of Egyptian dog-barking gods and other barbarous gods fighting the Homan godss Neptune, Venus, and Minerva; also Mars fights savagely as one carved in iron. Again, the direful goddesses of Dread (circle) overhead, and Discord, as one rejoicing, moves in with torn garments (symbolic of violence and destruction) while Bellona (female counterpart of Mars) presses close with blood-soaked whip. Actian Apollo turns the tide of battle with the threatening symbol of his stretched bow. Cleopatra is next depicted as spreading sail. Imaged opposite (contra), mourning Nile now calls with his entire adornment into his blue lap and secret rivers (within the delta). Again, we note a distinctive and telling metaphor, "blue lap" as well as the interlocked order of golden verse. In the final series of images depicting the triple triumph of Augustus (29 B.C.) we should note that Augustus has entered Rome and dedicated to the gods a vowed offering, namely, three hundred or so shrines. Even throughout the city, the streets were loud with festivity. In every temple was a band of women as well as altars, before whose earth slaughtered steers were strewn. 116 Too, there was Augustus, represented as sitting on the snowy white threshold of Apollo9s marble temple, while receiving gifts of nations and then posting these symbolic trophies on the magnificent temple-doors. Next, we observe in contrast an image of the con quered tribes moving in a long line, diverse in speech, and no less so in type of dress and arms. Here were Nomads and unglrdled Africans as opposed to tribes from Asia Minor and archers from Scythia. Inasmuch as images representing rivers were carried in triumphal processions, it is of interest to note that the Euphrates depicted on the shield "was now moving with a gentler stream"— having been subdued. And as thus, a gentler stream, it presents a symbolic image showing that the distant East felt respect for the victorious Augustus. Likewise, respect of the Morlni, from Belgic Gaul, is contrasted with that of the Dahae, from beyond the Caspian Sea, while (the subjection of an area, especially that area around the two mouths of) the two-horned Rhine is contrasted with the (area around the) Araxes, vexed as it flows under Augustus9 bridge. Finally, it may be said that antithesis has been basic to the entire pattern of imagery throughout the description of Aeneas9 shield. Also, the imagery, as a whole, has contained an inherent symbol of the grandeur 117 of Rome as the sequence of Images moved through legend into history, in a pattern-process of contrasting one set of images with another. Thus, the antithetical oscillation, involved in the pattern of interanimative Imagery, should lend itself to a reader*s auditory imagination and thus provide a definitely prevailing stimulus to creativity. Example 2 Nov, ve shall consider certain antithetical elements basic to the pattern of imagery in Vergil*s description of the palace of Latlnus (Aeneid, VII, 160-191). While Aeneas is laying out his first city on the Italian coast, his embassy moves to a view of the towers and the high pitched roofs of the Latins; then they pass under the city wall. (Now the images unfold:) in the dusty arena before the city itself, youths in the first flush of manhood, are either maneuvering on horseback or unlimbering their chariots for future operations, or they are bending their sharply-twanging bows or from their arms fly the smoothly-whirling javelins (note detailed antithesis in metaphorical adjectives: actls, sharp, versus lenta, smooth). Again, there are those in contest with one another in track or boxing. From the outside arena we move, in contrast, into the reception room; however, we should note in passing that the preceding images have been largely action-images — in an arena atmosphere— as opposed to the sequence of hallowed images to follow within the walls of the awesome palace. This stately and vast palace of Plcus, the Laurentlne (now the home of Latinus rex), was waved over by a bristling forest steeped in a sacred awesomeness. Indeed, it was the ritual, a point of augury, that the kings should first receive in this place the scepter and have the fasces first raised— i.e., the symbolic images of power. Also, this symbolical temple-palace served as senate and gathering place for sacrificial feasts. Here when a ram was slaughtered, the fathers would, as was the custom, sit down at the long tables— perpetuis mensis. In addition, there stood, carved out of ancient cedar, an ordered arrangement of Images, the effigies of previous generations: Italus, and father Sabinus, the wine planter, preserving as an integral part of his image, the sickle. Also, there was old Saturn as well as the double-countenanced image of Janus, and other kings from beginning times, particularly those who had suffered battle-wounds for their country. Moreover, as opposed to the personal images were the symbolical images of victories: armor could be seen hanging profusely on the sacred doors: e.g., captured 119 chariots, curved axes, helmet crests, massive postern-bars, lances, shields, and rostras ripped from the warships. Plcus himself was sitting there adorned with the symbolic regalia of offices Quirinus' divining-wand, the scarlet-striped white robe, and on his left arm the sacred shield. This was Picus, the tamer of horses, whom Circe, his bride, seized with a passionate lust, transformed into a bird (a woodpecker, picus) through philtres. After he had been transfixed by her golden wand, she even -spangled his wings with colors. In brief, as we found in our analysis of the imagery of the Shield of Aeneas, the elements of anti thesis are basic to the composite pattern of imagery throughout the description of the palace of Latinus. Again, as in the imagery of the Shield of Aeneas, the imagery involved in the depiction of the palace of Latinus may be said to contain, throughout, the symbol of Roman robur and legendary tradition prophetic of a Roman grand eur to come. Also, the oscillation— constantly in play between the antithetical entities basic to the entire imagery— is a "reaching-out and receiving-in process" which "is the basis of percept-formation, and percepts constitute the primordial material of the flash of insight."3 Thus, the shuttle or oscillating process 3Harold Rugg, Imagination, p. 80. 120 Involved throughout a multi-image spectrum of imagery should he a stimulus to creative imagination. In previous sections of this chapter, rather extensive examples of imagery have been studied in order to demonstrate antithesis as a basic element in the pattern of epic imagery. The subsequent examples from Paradise Lost, however, will be of briefer compasst for shorter passages should, at this point, be sufficient to explicate the fundamental role played by antithesis in the pattern of epic imagery. Nevertheless, before we consider those lines in our next example which show how Milton regarded the fallen world in which he lived, let us paraphrase the initial lines (Paradise Lost. Ill, 1-39) wherein Milton says, in effect: Our world, granted, is a fallen world. We have sinned; and, no longer do we live in a perpetual spring. Thus, in the opening of Book III, when Milton is lamenting that he is bereft of sight, what he regrets most is the loss of these very things which only came into the world with sin, namely, the changing seasons. Yet, he describes the ways of men as being Indeed cheerful (Paradise Lost. Ill, M-O-55)* Thus with the Year *+0 121 Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of Ev*n or Morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or Summers Rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine; But cloud in stead, and ever-during dark b5 Surrounds me, from the chearful waies of men Cut off, and for the Book of knovledg fair Presented with a Universal blanc Of Natures works to mee expung'd and ras’d, And wisdoms at one entrance quite shut out. 50 In addition to the detailed and internal anti thetical images such as those of Ev’n or Morn, vernal bloom as opposed to Summers Rose, animals versus the all- important human face divine, we have the larger yet basic chiaroscuro-antithesis of images in sequence, if we choose to balance the light images, those in lines *fO-M+, against those dark images presented in lines *+5-50. Also, it may be noted that metaphor and symbol are complementary to the entire imagery of the passage. Thus, the extended metaphor is the personalizing of images now coming, now going (as it were); and, additionally the symbolization in the images of the beauty of that which makes up the fallen world— especially the image of *'the human face divine"— is Inherent in the sequence of light images. In contradistinction to the images of the world of light, there is for Milton, symbolically and metaphorically a cloud that surrounds him, and cuts him off from light and the cheerful ways of man and even the knowledge of Nature’s works, his eyes being unresponsive in the meta phorical expression that wisdom is, at one entrance, quite 122 shut out. -- Next, in the final five lines (51-55)s So much the rather thou Celestial light Shine inward, and the mind through all her powers Irradiate, there plant eyes, all mist from thence Purge and disperse, that I may see and tell Of things invisible to mortal sight. we observe abstract images of light (as opposed to previous images of darkness, that is, physical blindness). Thus, "Celestial light" is invoked to shine inwardly; and, moreover, there is to be an irradiation of the poet’s mind, an imaginative image withal, to be followed by a metaphorical image in the poet's request that eyes be planted In his mind. In addition, the dominant symbolical image, Celestial light, is (as it were, in person) to thrust away all mist from Hilton's mind— for a most heroic purpose, namely to see and tell of Paradise Lost, things invisible to mortal sight. Example 2 for now too nigh Th* Archangel stood, and from the other Hill To thir fixt Station all in bright array The Cherubim descended; on the ground Gliding meteorous, as Ev'ning Mist Ris'n from a River O're the marish glides, 630 And gathers ground fast at the Labourers heel Homeward returning. High in Front advanc't The brandisht Sword of God before them blaz'd Fierce as a Comet; which with torrid heat, And vapour as the Libyan Air adust, Began to parch that temperate Clime; whereat In either hand the hastnlng Angel caught Our lingring Parents, and to th9 Eastern Gate Led them direct, and down the Cliff as fast 123 To the subjected Plains; then disappear'd. 6*+0 They looking back, all th* Eastern side beheld Of Paradise, so late thlr happie seat, Wav’d over by the flaming Brand, the Gate With dreadful Faces throng’d and fierie Armes: Som natural tears they drop’d, but wip’d them soon; The World was all before them, where to choose Thlr place of rest, and Providence thlr guide: They hand in hand with wandririg steps and slow, Through Eden took thir solitarie way. (Paradise Lost. XII, 625^9) The imagery in the last twenty-five lines of Book XII of Paradise Lost In comprised of a sequence of images, with definite elements of antithesis basic to the pattern of overall imagery within the passage in question. First, we see the kingly Archangel standing on Paradise's highest hill as a man resplendent in his arms. Notwithstanding, from another hill, the incessantly alert bright cohort of watchful Cherubim (with double-Janused faces and wondrously alert Argus eyes) now descends and, though aground, still glides meteorous-ly as evening mist. Here we note images enhanced by metaphor— meteorous— and then by simile— as evening mist— and again a metaphor of a mist that (vs. 631) "gathers ground fast at the Labourers heel/Homeward returning." Quickly these images are superseded in a fiery contrast by the flaming image of God’s blazing brandished sword which is likened by simile to another image, a comet, whose "vapour" (trail) is in sequence likened through another simile to "the Libyan Air adust." 12*+ Then follows the final sequence of Imagesi in haste the Angel leads our lingering parents to the eastern gate of Paradise and thence to the plain below, and then disappears. Turning they see an Image of Paradise In retrospect still nWav,d over by that flaming BrandjH too, the gate Is a vast throng of dreadful faces and fiery arms. In the next Image we note their momentary weeping, to be supplemented soon by the prospect of a new world before them, with & new guide, Providence. Now, the final image occurs as they move slowly through Eden on their solitary way with an antithesis of suspended images to be structured by the imagination somewhat as followst on the optimistic note that the world was all before them, we see this pair as a symbolization of human courage in the face of inevitable evil and trouble. Yet, though we look back and see a Paradise Lost, we also may look forward and see a Humanity Gaineds the glory of human life and the grace of human love gained. Milton9s passages incorporating vivid imagery have a way of providing an aftermath of lntellectualized contrasting images. Thus, in our last two examples of this chapter, we have seen the intellectual stimulus clearly at work. For, although the actual verses cease, they carry on, in the mind, abstract images of reflection 125 and interanlmatlon like the seasonal Images that run through the entire poem. Indeed, there Is the glory of the imperfect, an epic Imperfect If you will. And, despite all the Images that may haunt us of Imperfections of this world, there Is nevertheless magnificence in abundance and the compensation of purposeful work, love, and companionship. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS "Mensch 1st nich nur eln homo sapiens. sondern eln homo craator."^- In essence, then, it is evident that man Is becoming Increasingly aware of the fact that man is not only highly knowledgeable but alsa possessed, of_a capability of creativityt and, this is readily seen by examining the recent corpus of publications devoted to the varied studies relating to creativity and creative man. In fact, Professor Guilford of the University of Southern California has pointed out that the Zeitgeist relating to creativity during the past three decades has been little short of astounding.2 Early in my own studies in the classics, I realized that especially in the reading aloud of the Greek and Latin epics there was, at least for me, a tremendous stimulus with regard to creativity. What was the source of this stimulus? I felt sure that in part it was embedded in the power of the epic rhythm; again, I realized that much of the power of the rhythm was to be ^rich Neumann, Dar_Schbpferlsche Menach. p. 16*+. 2Harold H. Anderson, .GHltin- P* l**2t N.B. Professor Guilford's opening (Symposium) remarks regarding "an aspect of our Zeitgeist.1 1 126 127 found interlinked with the content of the epic, partic ularly with regard to the figures of speech, and specifi cally with regard to the metaphor, simile, and imagery— and all that imagery implies in its more comprehensive aspect, namely, the Inclusion of images in sequence, as well as metaphors, similes, and symbols that might or might not be involved in the overall concept of the generic meaning of the comprehensive term, imagery. The basic elements of a pervasive antithesis current throughout the Greek and Latin epics as well as other epics and other genres of literature led me Increasingly to test and examine antithesis as a fundament in patterns rhetorical (that is, patterns of rhythms or tropes), particularly with a view to determining if anti thesis might be one source of stimuli with regard to creativity. In the metaphor, which is based almost completely on the concept of implied analogy, and which obtains much of its creativity-potential from the analogy involved in the metaphor, I felt that I had found a rather positive source of creative stimuli. Moreover, I have been strengthened in my opinion by the following quotation: In studying poetry, one is taught to recognize the simile, the metaphor, onomatopoeia, and other figures of speech. Mostly, these are pointed out as merely different from the general run of thought. Occasionally their purpose— to expound the writer*s thought on something less familiar in terms of 128 something more familiar to the reader— is made clear. Bat why not add the most Important things in analogy lies the secret of all creative activity? The simile and the metaphor are analogies. The onomatopoeia is a sound analogy, and its words were probably supercharged for the author. A new combina tion is the sum of two old fundaments transferred by analogical imagination to new settings.3 In conclusion, with regard to intrinsic elements of the epic, antithesis as a basis of epic rhetorical patterns has been manifestly shown to be a definitely fundamental element in patterns of epic rhythm and epic tropes (simile, metaphor, and imagery in its rhetorically comprehensive aspect). Additionally, we periodically indicated, partic ularly in the summaries, the stimulus to creativity which might be afforded to a reader's Imagination. In this respect we pointed out the oscillatory interanimation which might result from one's auditory appreciation of the antithetical elements, especially those basic to the rhetorical patterns of intrinsic elements. ^John W. Haefele, Creativity and Innovating. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1962, p. 266. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. PRIMARY BOOKS Aeschylus• Aeschvli Seotem Quae Pnparsiint Tra^oedlae. Editors G. Murray. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1937. Aristotle, De Arte Poetica. Editors I. Bywater. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1955* _______• Aristotelis Ars Rhetoriea. Editors A, Roemer. Leipsigs B. G, Teubner, 1898. _______• Ars Rhetoriea, Editors W. D. Ross. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1959. Catullus. Catulli Carmlna. Editors R. Ellis. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1950. Ennius. Ennianae Poesis Reliquiae. Editors J. Vahlen. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1903. Euripides. Euripidis Fabulae. Editors G. Murray. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1902-09. Vols. I-III. _______. Electra. Editors H. Weil. Pariss Hachette, 1903. Homer. Homeri Ilias. Editors T. W. Allen. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1931. Vols. I-III. _______. Homeri Opera. Editors T. W. Allen. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1950. Vols. III-IV. _______. Homeri Ilias. Editors W. Dindorf. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 190*+. Vols. I-II. . Homeri Odyssea. Editors W. Dindorf. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1906-07. Vols. I-II. _______• The Iliad. Editors Walter Leaf. Amsterdams A. M. Hakkert, i960. Vols. I-II. Horace. Q. Horati Flacci Opera. Editors E. C. Wickham. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 19*+7. Lucan. De Bello Clvili Liber VII. Editors 0. A. W. Dilke. Cambridges The University Press, i960. 130 131 _______. De Bello Civil! Liber I. Editors R. J. Getty. Cambridge: The University Press, 1955. _______. Belli Civills Libri Decem. Editor: A. E. Housman. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950. Milton, John. Poetical Works. Editor: Helen Darbishire. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1955. Vols. I-II. _______. Poetical Works. Editor: Helen Darbishlre. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961. _______• The Complete Poetical Works of John Milton. Editor: H. F. Fletcher. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin Co., 19^1. ________• John Mllton,s Complete Poetical Works. Editor: H. F. Fletcher. Urbana: The University of Illinois Press, 19^3-19^8. Vols. I-IV. _______• The Poems of John Milton. Editor: H. J. C. Grierson. London: Chatto and Vindus, 1925. Vols. I-II. _______. The Poems of John Milton. Editor: J. H. Hanford. New York: T. Nelson and Sons, 1936. _______. The Poetical Works of John Milton. Editor: David Masson. New York: MacMillan and Co., 1890. Vols. I-III. _______• The Complete Poetical Works of John Milton. Editor: W. V. Moody. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1899. _______• The_Cambridge Manuscript of John Milton. Editor: F. A. Patterson. New York: Columbia University Press, 1933. _______. The Studentts Milton. Editor: F. A. Patterson. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1933. Ovid. P. Ovldius Naso. Editor: R. Ehwald. Leipsig: B. G. Teubner, 1907-1922. Vols. I-III. Plato. Platonis Opera. Editor: I. Burnet. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1899. Vols. I-V. 132 Sophocles. The Text of the Seven Plays. Editors R. Jebb. Cambridges The University Press, 1957. . Sophoclis Fabulae. Editors A. C. Pearson. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1928. Theocritus. Bucollci Graeci. Editors A. S. F. Gow. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1952. Vergil. Opera Verglli. Editors F. A. Hirtzel. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1900. ■ The Aeneld. Editors J. W. Mackail. Oxfords The Clarendon Press, 1930. _______. Verglli Aeneis Buch VI. Editors E. Norden. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1916. _______. Verglli Opera. Editors 0. Ribbeck. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1907. B. SECONDARY ROOKS Allen, Don C. Image and Meaning. Baltimores The John Hopkins Press, I960. Anderson, Harold H. Creativity and Its Cultivation. New Yorks Harper and Bros., 1959. Baker, James V. The Sacred River. Baton Rouges The Louisiana State University Press, 1957. Banks, Theodore H. Miltonys Imagery. New Yorks The Columbia University Press, 1950. Bassett, Samuel E. The Poetry of Homer. Berkeleys University of California Press, 1938. Brooks, Cleanth and Robert Penn Warren. Modern Rhetoric. New Yorks Harcourt, Brace, 19^+9. ” Brooks, Rose Christine. A Grammar of Metaphor. London: Seeker and Warburg, 1958. Browning, Robert. The Complete Poetical Works of Browning. Cambridges Houghton Mifflin Co., 1895. Bush, Douglas. The Renaissance and English Human!gm. 133 Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1958. Cassirer, Ernst. Scrache und Mvthos. Leipsig: B. G. Teubner, 1925. Coleridge, Samuel T. Biogranhia Llteraria. London: G. Bell and Sons, I089. Dale, A. M. The Lyric Metres of Greek Drama. Cambridge: The University Press, 19*+8. Dryden, John. Dramatic Essavs. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co.7 1931. Eliot, T. S. Collected Poems. 1909-1962. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 19o3• Empson, William. Seven Types of Ambiguity. London: Chatto and Windus, 19*+7. Ferry, Anne D. Miltonts Epic Voice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963. Gordon, William J. Synectics. New York: Harper and Bros., 1961. Haefele, John W. Creativity and Innovation. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1962. Hanford, J. H. A Milton Handbook. New York: F. S. Crofts, 1939. Heine, Heinrich. Lieder und Gedichte. Editor: C. A. Bucheim. New York: MacMillan and Co., 1897. Johnston, H. W. The Metrical Licenses of Vergil. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1898. Knight, W. J. Accentual Symmetry in Vergil. Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1939- ______ • Roman Vergil. London: Faber and Faber, 191 +6. Knowlson, T. S. Originality. London: T. W. Laurie, Ltd., 1917. Kullman, W. Die Quellen der Illas. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, i960. Langer, Susanne K. Philosophy in a New Key. Cambridge: 13k Harvard University Press, 1957. Longinus, C. Dg ^nb^raate Llbellus. Editors Otto Iahn. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1910. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Cambridges Harvard University Press, I960. Lowes, John L. The Road to Xanadu. Bostons Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927. Muller, L. De Re Metrica. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1861. Nauck, A. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragments. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1899. Neumann, Erich. Per SchBpferische Mensch. Zurichs Rhein-Verlag, 1959. Patin, P. M. Etudes1 sur les Tragiaues Grecs. Pariss Hachette, 1877* Poschl, Viktor. The Art of Vergil. Ann Arbors University of Michigan Press, 1962. Quintilian. M^ Fabil Quintilian! Instltutionis Oratoriae Librl Duodecljn. Editors E. Bonne11. Leipsigs B. G. Teubner, 1905. Vols. I-II. Rand, E. K, The Magical Art of Virgil. Cambridges The Harvard University Press, 1931. Ribot, T. A. Essai sur L>Imagination Creatrice. Pariss K. Alcan, 1900. Richards, I. A. The Philosonny of Rhetoric. New Yorks Oxford University Press, 19^0. _______• Principles of Literary Criticism. Londons Legan Paul, Trench Trubner and Co., 1928. Rugg, Harold. Imagination. New Yorks Harper and Row, Spearman. Charles. The.Creative Mind. New Yorks Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1931. Thrall, William, Addison, Hibbard, and C. Hugh Holman. A_Handbook to Literature. New Yorks The Odyssey Press, I960. 135 Weston, Arthur H. Selections from Latin Prose and Verse. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1938. Wheelwright, P. E. The Burning Fountain. Bloomington* Indiana University Press, 195*+• ______ . Metaphor and Reality. Bloomington: Indiana University Press7l9o2« Whitehead, Alfred N. An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Knowledge. Cambridge* The University Press, 1919. ______ . Symbolism. New York* The MacMillan Co., 1927. C. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Coolidge, John. "Great Things and Small* The Virgilian Progression," Comparative Literature. XVII (Winter, 1965, No. 1), 1-23. Keith, Arthur. "Nature-Imagery in Vergil*s Aeneid." The Classical Journal. XXVIII (May, 1933), 591-610. Levin, Harry. "Portrait of a Homeric Scholar," The Classical Journal. XXXII (February, 19377T~256-259. Parry, Milman. "The Homeric Gloss* A Study in Word- Sense," T, A. P. A.. LIX (1928), 233-2^7. . "The Traditional Metaphor in Homer," Classical Philology. XXVIII (January, 1933)j 30-^3. Rand, Edward. "Young Virgil’s Poetry," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. XXX (1932), 103-185. Whaler, James. "Animal Simile in Paradise Lost." P. M. L. A.. XLVII (1932), 53^-553. ______ . "The Miltonic Simile." P. M. L. A.. XLVI fiom. 103^-107*+. — — ’ Young, Arthur. "Schematized Word Order in Vergil," The Classical Journal. XXVII (April, 1932), 515-'522. D. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS Conference on "The Creative Person." 1961. Institute of Personality Assessment and Research} University of California, Berkeley, California, 1961. APPENDIXES APPENDIX A (THE GOLDEN LINE IN LUCAN) Introduction To a remarkable degree the Latin language lends itself to poetically balanced lines plus an interlocked word order. In fact, the interlocked word order, as we shall soon see, tends to make manifest a form of poetical beauty which one may often find in Latin verse of certain selected poets. Lest one might look askance at too detailed a consideration of metrics plus Interwoven word-order "framed into" a poetically formulaic study, one might well consider the creative stimulus and resultant response which may be derived almost automatically from an intensive analysis of formulae, metrics, and other constituents, say, of an epic— especially the tradition ally oral epic, such as Homer*s Iliad. This statement concerning creativity is my own contention; however, I feel (and have actually experienced) a creative stimulus even in much of Lucan to say nothing of Vergil, Horace, and Catullus. Our main purpose in this appendix is to consider the Golden Line as used by Lucan in his epic, De Bello 138 139 Civili— particularly with regard to the frequency and types of Golden Lines used throughout the ten books of his De Bello Civili. Aspects of motivation will not be considered at this point. Instead, in the conclusion of this appendix ve shall attempt to show whether Lucan has enhanced his epic by use of the Golden Line or whether he has intro duced a somewhat debilitating element. Moreover, we shall consider, if feasible, the possible pattern of the Golden Line throughout the ten books of De Bello Civili with a view to evaluating the probably aesthetic stimuli which might reward the auditory Imagination of the reader. Note that the very term, the Golden Line, will be underlined in the early part of this appendix; also, in the latter part of this appendix. The term will not be capitalized. This was my intentions for the term as used by Knight is not capitalized whereas with others it is; however, the trend is not towards capitalizing, since the term is becoming more common. Emphasizing is another matter. Definitional Media When we try to delimit a word, a phrase (e.g., the Golden Line), or even an idea, from offhand and hazy associations, we may well start by building a definition based on definitional media already in existence. One 1^0 reason we try to become more specific in defining, say, a phrase such as the Golden Line, is that the present definition (or definitional media) is far from being distinct, specific, and comprehensive. In short, we must have a clear concept of the proper uses which a compre hensive term such as the Golden Line can and does mean. In this study, by consideration of traditional definitional media and formulae, we may prepare an approach to an acceptable definition. Accordingly, let us consider first a probable origin and secondly, some recent observations concerning the Golden Line in Latin verse. Dryden, in his Preface to Svlvae or The Second Part of "Poetical Miscellanies.1 1 may have been the first to provide an indication if not origin of the term, the Golden Line— speaking in high praise of Vergil, he states: His verse is everywhere sounding the very thing in your ears whose sense it bears yet the numbers are perpetually varied to increase the delight of the reader; so that the same sounds are never repeated twice together. On the contrary, Ovid and Claudian, though they write in styles differing from each other, yet have each of them but one sort of music in their verses. All the versification and little variety of Claudian is included within the compass of four or five lines, and then he begins again in the same tenor; perpetually closing his sense at the end of a verse, and that verse commonly which they call golden, or two substantives and two adjectives, with a verb betwixt them to keep the peace. Ovid, with all his sweetness, has as little variety of numbers and sound as he: he is always, as it were, upon the 1»+1 hand-gallop, and his verse ruins upon carpet> ground.1 I took the liberty to underline the pertinent words in this quotation. Next, let us review a few recent observations on the Golden Line and some typical examples of this verse. Professor A. H. Weston in his Selections from Latin Prose and Verse, in presenting Vergilfs neatly turned line (line *+68, Georgies, Bk. I): Impiaque aeternam timuerunt saecula noctem has the following notet "A beautifully balanced type of line referred to by Dryden as "that which they call golden, or two substantives and two adjectives, with a verb betwixt them to keep the peace."2 Again, let us consider L. P. Wilkinson’s comments on the Golden Line in his book, Horace and His Lvric Poetrv: There was one artistic effect which Latin, with its flexible word-order, could achieve, while in other languages it is scarcely possible— the arrangement of words in grammatical patterns. As I know of no English term for this, let us call it •word-placing.* It consists chiefly in the separation of nouns from their epithets. In hexa meters the most comspicuous example is ’that verse which they call Golden, of two substantives and two adjectives with a verb betwixt to keep the peace.* dryden, Dramatic Essavs. p. 16*+. 2Weston, Selections,from Latin Prose and Verses, pp. 71, 258. Ib2 This arrangement has a monumental effect, and was generally reserved by Virgil for special purposes, such as the summing up of a period, while by lesser artists its value was frittered away through over use. Horace rounds off the second Satire of Book II with a brave Golden Line, Fortiaque adversis opponite pectora rebus. He also uses the type twice running for mock- grandiose effect in describing the impressiveness of the house entered by the town mouse and the country mouse: Rubro ubi cocco tincta super lectos canderet vestis eburnos multaoue de magna superessent fercula cena. And with a splendid example, Nobills ut grand! ceclnlt Centaurus alumno, He lifts the thirteenth Epode from the contemporary atmosphere of the beginning to that of the Heroic age. 3 Before we consider another of Wilkinsonfs observa tions of the Golden Line, let us read W. F. J. Knight*s remarks concerning Vergil and the Golden Line: Vergil was early in his life dominated by Catullus and others of the neoteric school. Catullus had an exceptional thirst for symmetry, which he satisfied on different scales. In the single verse Catullus adopted the balance of the golden line; a pair of nouns, each with an adjective and a verb, the verb in the middle, and each pair divided by it, and partly in each half of the verse. Vergil in his early period wrote such verses, as mollia luteola pingit vaccinia calta, fpaints the soft ^Wilkinson, Horace and His Lyric Poetry, pp. 1^6,7. The second quotation from Horace is from Horace's Sat., II, 6, 102-k. 1^3 irises with yellow marigold,* two adjectives, a verb, and then the two nouns. (Note line 32 prior page is from E, II, 50.) This arrangment of words in the line is not Lucretian. But it has become frequent already in Catullus and the early work of Vergil. It is possible that Cicero started it in his poems; they were much more Important for the development of the Latin hexameters than is usually supposed. The golden line can be brought into relation with much of Vergil's technical history. It is a useful line for Catullus, whose verse-groups allow a very sharp unity to the lines in them: but Vergil gave to his verse-groups so sharp a unity of their own that so unitary a line must oppose the unity of the group. Accordingly Vergil gradually repressed the golden line, making its structure looser and looser according to a detectable devolution, until word-order became preponderantly a function of the verse-group, not of the single verse. In Vergil's later style, if a golden line, or a line like one, occurs, it is usually at the end of a verse-group, asserting unity by rhythmic punctuation.^ At this point it will be well to delimit our definition of the Golden Line by applying an "optimum- type formula" to the apparently many possible formulae applicable to the Golden Line. All are seemingly admissible: by the word "all" we are to understand that this word applies to only all those various formulae used by Arthur M. Young in his Schematised Word Order in Vergil (CJ 27 (1931-2) 515-522— on the golden line). Professor Edward O'Neil, if I do not misconstrue his concept, has obviously set up a more demanding formula W g h t , Roman Vergil, pp. 184-5. l¥+ (an optimum-type formula, If you will) which gives a higher degree of word-interlocking plus the desired sense- response. A------b---- V----- a---------- B Note that the small letters In the formula are adjectives; the capitalized letters are nouns, with the exception, of course, of the capitalized "V" which stands for the verb* As an example of an optimum-type, let us consider the following verse from Lucan*s De Bello Civili (this is the line where Pompey curses the deeds of his laurel- crowned youth during Sulla*s time)} A b V a B ^ actaque lauriferae damnat Sullana iuventae' Now, if we refer to pages 138,9 (supra), we note that W. F. J* Knight may be "leading up" to the same optimum-type formula which Professor 0*Neil has set forth in the "A— b— V— a— B" order. Knight refers to Catullus; moreover, he could well be referring to a Catullian (optimum-type) verse such as the line in which we see Ariadne as being likened in quality to (the myrtles) or theisharply blending colors (of nature which) the (fresh) spring breath of air brings forth (in glory): ^Lucan, t , Bk. VIII, line 25. 1^5 A b V a B . "aurave distinctos educit verna colores"® Again, we should note that the Golden Lines here tofore quoted were, with one exception (Horace's Sat, II, 6, 103), all based on formulae that had the somewhat disturbing feature of two adjectives (whether "a" or "b" or "b" or "a") placed before the Verb and two nouns placed after the Verb. Vlth regard to the two adjectives before the verb, note Wilkinson's treatment of Ovid and the Golden Line: First there are patterns of symmetry, as in 'that verse which they call Golden, of two sub stantives and two adjectives with a verb betwixt to keep the peace9: this is found both in hexameters— A aurea sanctorum potuissent templa deorum; B nulla recantatas deponent pectora curas C grandla per multos tenuantur flumlna rivos; and in pentameters— D Callidus in falsa luslt adulter ave; £ Hoscida purpurea supprlme lora manu; F7 frigidaque arboreas mulceat aura comas." ' Before we take up the Golden Line in Lucan we should consider, for later comparative study, Vergil's growth in golden schematism as brought out by W. F. J. ^Catullus, Carmen. LXIV, v. 90. ^Wilkinson, Ovid Recalled, p. 37. l*+6 Knighti In the Eclogues a period may end with a golden line, or a quasi-golden line, which at least gives some definition at the end of a succession of lines, each of which tends to have a rather emphatic unity of its own. This use of the « •golden* schematism continued even in the Aeneid. Lucan might probably have developed his golden schematism to a much greater degree had he been able to finish his work and repolish it; however, this is a conjecture and we shall soon note that Lucan9s Golden schemation seldom develops into "passage-unity" or as a means to rhythmic punctuation. Use of the Golden Line in Lucan Before we begin to analyse the various Golden Lines in Lucan, a "legend1 1 should perhaps be set up to expedite and possibly simplify our observation. "Opt." when used in reference to a line considered, will mean optimum, that is, the optimum-type formula as applied to a verse which adheres to the formula, A— b— V — a— B, as used with a "best type" of golden line. "D," when used, will mean D eflnitional, which term will designate that the Golden Line indicated by a “D" meets at least the requirements of Definition by tradition. ®Khight, Roman Vergil, p. 272. lb? "2" when used, will mean a quasi-golden line, which term will designate that the Golden Line Indicated by "<3" may or may not meet the definitional requirements: it is to be remembered that the Golden Line (as a term) is rather much in the study stage* Line numbers will refer to lines in A. E. Hourmants edition (1950) of Lucan’s De Bello Civill. whose complete title is M. Annaal Lucani Belli Civilis Libri Decem. Book 1 The Golden Lines in Book I are as follows: Line 3— M: sua probably may be taken as posses sive pronoun but I am using it as a pronominal adjective (possessive type); hence, schematism is sound. Line lM-— : hoc may be taken as demonstrative pronoun, but I am taking it as a pronominal adjective (demonstrative); hence, schematism should be sound. Line *K>— D: definitionally this is sound; but note that both adjectives occur before the verb. Line 62— D: see note on line *t 0 Immediately above, this page. Line 95— D. Line 105— D. Line 106— D. Line 121--": Tu and ne do not impair schematism. Line 122— Q: This line may be considered only if I*f8 victis Is taken as an adjective. Line 170— Q: sub does not impair schematism. Line 180— Q: verbal (adjective) referens is allowable; that is, verbal serves as verb. Line 188— Q: verbal (adjective) effundens serves as verb. Line 2*+5— D. Line 2*+7— B: note both adjectives occur before the verb. Line 269— B. Line 283— Qi pronoun te is substitute for noun. Line 301— Opt. Line 322— B* Atque does not impair schematism. Line 323— Bi the drama here is heightened by the golden line. Line 329— B* the following quotation is from page 72 of M. Annaei Lucanl De Bello Civili Liber I, edited by R. J. Getty ”329 altus: adjective for the adverb alte to ensure the balance in the line of adjective A, Adjective B, verb, Noun A, Noun B.” Line 361— Q: Schematism is sound despite quod and tflas; tuas is taken as a pronominal adjective. Line 382— Q. Line 398— Bj a colorful line is probably enhanced by being a golden line. Ik9 Line ^69— Dt auoaue and &£ do not Impair the line. Line W76— Dt this Is definitely a panoramic golden line. Caesar*s forces are widely on the move. Line 500— D. Line 526--D. Line 530— Opt.: Golden line enhances quirks of nature. Line 531— Q. Line 5*+5— Q: Ora, the mouths, as an object actually lends to the llne*s high poetical content. Line 568— D. Line 581— D. Line 596— D: minor does not hurt the line, "opt” line perhaps. Line 600— D1 line enhances the mysteries. Line 612— Opt.: cum temporal enhances line. Line 613— D: Lucan gives a vivid picture of the sacrifice. Line 620— D: Lucanesque vividness is shown here regarding blood. Line 6*+8— D. Line 6 — D. Line 657— D. Line 675--Pot. Line 676— D: the analogy here is Intense. 150 Line 691— Ds line alludes to assassination of Caesar. Book II Line 3— D. Line 33— D: this line appeals indeed to the audible sense. Line 90— D. Line 11*»~ Ont. Line 125— Ds This is a strong golden line by the nature of its very words. Line 171— Ds Lustrasse. an infinitive, is a sufficient verbal. Line 188— Ds sub does not impair this line. Line 238— Opt.s non is a neat device when combined with amola. Line 268— Ds suo is taken as a pronominal adjective. Line 285— D. Line 35*+— Ds non as an added word tends to enhance both the line and its meaning. Line 355— Opt. Line 361— D. Line 364-— Opt, s this is indeed a neat line. Line 393— Opt.s this too is a neatly turned line. Line 5^8— Q: aui used well by Lucan in this line. 151 Line 572— D. Line 615— Q. Line 62*4— D. Line 627— D: Picturesque geography. Line 64-1— D: natlens is probably a sufficient verbal. Line 697— D: this line gives quite a vivid picture of action. Book III From this point forward we shall not go into as close detail with regard to each line unless particular attention to a certain line is required: Line 3— D: compare line 3, Book I and II. Line’70— Q. Line 85— Q. Line 89— Q: Visam should serve as a sufficient verbal for schematism. Line 127— D. Line 171— D. Line 180— Q. Line 182— D. Line 219— Q. Line 239— D. Line 24-9— Ont. Line 255-D. 152 Line 282— Q: solvens as a verbal may well be sufficient. Line 29^— Q. Line 350— Q. Line 381— Opt.: tunc is a good introduction; and, it does not impair the line. Line *+05— D: this line is characteristic of Lucan with regard to every tree being stained with human gore; blood has great "play" in Lucan. Line M-86— D. Line ^87— Q. Line 507— Q. Line 528— D. Line 5^0— Q. Line 551— D. Line 580— < 3. Line 582— D: Note the use of the Golden Line as periodic punctuation. Line 598— Opt. Line 60**— D. Line 680— D: This is actually "QM with nulla and tamen at start. Schematism carries through verse 68l by enjambment. Book IV Line 6— D. 153 Line 170— D. Line 291— D. Line 298— Q. Line 301— Oct. Line 302— D. Line 315— 0* Lucan in this line tells of loath some blood being sucked from a spent udder: blood is a somewhat characteristic subject, one which Lucan makes more vivid by use of a golden line and the aj) does not detract. Line 339— Q. Line ^30— Q: Mlssa actually "launches" the line. Line 528— Opt.t allusion to constellation is excellent, too, note periodic punctuation. Line 551 *— D: again a strong line with vast furrows filled with kindred blood. Line 632— D. Line 656— Q. Line 657— Q. Line 660— Q: Note the use of this line as a means to periodic punctuation. Line 683— Q. Line 755— Opt. Line 757— Q: ej; and lonee tend to enhance. 19+ Line 758— D. Book V Line 11— D: with regard to hospes. "It is also used adjectlvelv." N. B., the dictionary of Facciolatl, under hospes. Line 70— Dt This verse provides good periodic closure. Line 7**— Di This is a solidly-packed golden line. Line lMf— D. Line 23^— Q: qua does not spoil the schematism. Line 332— D. Line 380— D. Line *+15— D. Line ^21— D. Line 507— ififfi is a neat word as used here. Line 5^6— Opt. Line 577— Q* verbal element cessura and sibi. pronoun,make for good usage: this is a good opening line: Caesar confident that every danger will yield to him. Line 675— Q* Ubi does not impair the line. Book VI Line 6— Q: Mundo is used with telling effect as the one word outside an otherwise tight schematism. Line *+8— Nunc is neat introductory element for a solid introductory line. Line 68— Opt. Line 82— Q. Line 83— Opt. Line 85— D. Line 87--D. Line 1*4-6— Qj prompt us. but who would deny Scaeva a promotion? It is rightly "(Scaeva) promoted." Golden schematism is prevalent in verses l*4-5-l1 +8. Line 239— D. Line 2*+9— Q: schematism is not impaired by the pronoun te, as a substitute for a noun. Line 281— D. Line 308— D. Line 315— Q* Caesar et is introductory element in this line (as is the whole line an introduction, periodically). Line 3^- 2“-*"D. Line 382— D. --- --- Line kk$— Q. Line *f**6— Opt. Line *+50— D. Line *f82— Q. Line 557— Ont. Line 632— Opt. 156 Line 656— Opt. Line 660— Q: iam---- iam. Line 752— D. Line 753— Q. Line 780— D. Line 781— D. Book VII Line 8— D. Line 6*+— Ds Saevos has been changed to read Saevus. This change is seen in 0. A. W. Dilke*s edition of Lucan*s De Bello Civil!. i960 (page 53). Line 160— Ds I find an Indication of periodic structure heres for this line could well represent a paragraph closure. Line I67— Ds the two words, inventurn est. comprise the verb in this line; too, we have another rhythmic punctuation device, that is, a closing-off of a unity of thought. Line 228— Qs quae and atque do not impair schematism. Line ^57— Opt. Line 510— Qs illic and proella do not impair the line. Line 531— Qs is and praecepts do not impair the line. Line 851— Opt.i auae and non do not Impair schematism. Line 852— Ds aao and non do not Impair schematism; and as In line 851, immediately above, we see the neatly turned example of an Interrogative golden line. Line 859--DJ this is an example of rhythmic punctuation; and, this line serves as a closing-off of a unity of thought. Book VIII Line 2— Ds petens in its verbal form serves well as an introductory verb in the golden schematism existent in verses 1 through 5 of Book VIII. Line — D. Line 25— Out. Line 92— D. $ Line 116— Q. Line 171— Ds This verse provides introduction to quotation. Line 172— Ds This verse plus verses 173» 17^, and 175 provide a pattern of golden schematism. Line 203— D. Line 272— D, Line 282— Ds This verse provides a semi-periodic closure. Line 283— Ds This verse serves as an Introduction 158 to another thought. Line 291— D. Line 303— Opt.t two successive lines excellently describing ancient guided missiles. Line 30*f— D* Note the "S" sounds of the guided missiles in lines 303 and 30*+. Line 309— Di This verse and line 3^0 comprise a semi-periodic closure. Line 310— D: v. note on line 309 supra. Line *f8l~D. Line 625--Qpt.x tibl lends power to a line which is almost sententious. Line 671— Opt.: vivid indeed! Line 732— D. Line 86k— D. Book IX Line 5— D: qua, though somewhat extraneous, introduces the golden line neatly. Line 115— Opt.: Faciens serves as an excellent verbal. Note, too, the abbreviated antithesis. Line 208— Q: felix is a neatly turned Introduction to this line. Line 38^— D. Line 619--D: this line serves as a periodic introduction to a collection of Lucan*s concepts 159 concerning Libyan aer or climate and why Libya should abound In poisonous living entitles, animals and/ or plants. Line 660— Ds excellent alliteration. Line 669— Pot. Line 677— D. Line 821— Opt.t Note periodic closure. Line 827— Ds This is definitely an onomatapoeic lines note "S" sound, and periodic closure. Line 901— D. Line 965— Ds This is a rather memorable line. Book X Line 52— Ds This verse is periodic in its termira tion of a collection of pertinent observations— good rhythmic punctuation, that is, by use of the golden line. Line l^l--Ds (Lucan*s accolade to Cleopatra?) Line 153— D* abductus an excellent verbal for this line. Line 175— Ds Good periodic closure. Line 188— Qs sed. cum, the "but, although" introduction serves this golden line veil. Line 322— Ds This verse is a fine periodic closure to thoughts, a unity of thoughts, on the Nile, good rhythmical punctuation. 160 Line 32*+— Q. Line 326— Q. Line *+30~D* dimittere is, as an infinitive, and an excellent verbal for this line. Line 523— D* This is probably the most frequent internal pattern of the golden line throughout De Bello Civili: namely, two adjectives before the verb, which verb is followed by two nouns. Conclusion In the previous pages of this appendix we have commented on the internal pattern of the De Bello Civili: moreover, other points of the internal pattern have been listed in our rather detailed analysis. As to the large general pattern we note that Lucan is definitely developing a sense of periodic closures and introductions, rhythmic punctuation if you will; and this fact is brought out by a comparison of observations made in this appendix. In summation, it may be said that Lucan has not harmed his epic too much by his use of the golden line; indeed, in the last four books, where he has made more effective use of the golden line, I would say that he has enhanced his epic; in fact, we see Lucan developing somewhat along the lines of Vergil. It is possible that in his final four books there is a pattern beginning to 161 emerge— particularly with regard to rhythmic punctuation. As to aesthetic motivation, I personally find not only heauty hut also an intellectual inspiration in Lucan's golden lines, and in his application of golden lines, especially as he used these lines in his last four books, where there are relatively very few poor golden lines. One almost tends to wait for them in Lucan's final books; and, generally speaking, one is usually rewarded in one's search. APPENDIX B GOLDEN-LINE PATTERNS IN VERGIL*S VERSE STRUCTURES Vocibus aurea iam infixit Maro carmlna priscis Whether Vergil developed his golden schematization from contemporary and previous Latin poets or from late Greek Idyllic poets such as Theocritus (cf. the final two verses of Idyll II, The Pharmaceutria). the fact remains that Vergil quite often presents in the Aeneid a golden- verse pattern which is often integrated as an antithetical element within his verse paragraph. Indeed, with regard to certain verse paragraphs of the Aeneid we may find standard epic non-golden verse introducing and concluding an epic verse paragraph in contrast to an interior grouping (within the paragraph structure) of golden verses. Such an overall standard pattern (versus an internal golden-line pattern) may he found in the following verse paragraph: (Aeneid. Bk. I, 157-179) Defessi Aeneadae quae proxima litora cursu 157 contendunt petere, et Libyae vertuntur ad oras. est in secessu longo locus: Insula portum efficit obiectu laterum, quibus omnis ab alto 160 frangitur inque sinus scindit sess unda reductos. A A B C Hinc atque hinc vastae rupes geminlque minantur 161 162 163 B In caelum scopuli, quorum sub vertice late 162 C C D E E aequora tuta silent; turn sllvls scaena coruscls 163 F G G H F desuper, horrentlque atrum nemus imminet umbra; 165 I I J J fronte sub adverse scopulls pendentlbus antrum, 166 K K L L lntus aequae dulces vlvoque sedllia saxo, I67 A* B* A* nympharum domus. hie fessas non vincula navis 168 B* C* E* D8 ulla tenent, unco non alligat ancora morsu. I69 A" A” A" BM hue septem Aeneas collectls navlbus omni 170 B « c*' C" D" ex numero sublt; ac magno tellurls amore 171 E" F" G" E" F" egressl optata potluntur Troes harena 172 HM H" I" et sale tabentls artus in litore ponunt. 173 ac primum sllicl scintillam excudit Achates suscepltque ignem foliis atque arida clrcum 175 nutrlmenta dedit rapultque in fomite flammam. turn Cererem corruptam undis Cerealiaque arma expediunt fessi rerum, frugesque receptas et torrere parant flamrais et frangere saxo. 179 Although we have set up our internal pattern of golden- verse schematization to begin with line 161, we find the intensity of golden-verse schema beginning vith horrentiaue (line 165). From verse 165 onward we find the golden-line pattern continuing through verse I67. Again, in verse 168, starting with hie fessas. we find a 16* + continuance (or a second sequence) of the golden-line pattern (through verse 169)* Verses 170 through 173 continue the golden-verse schema but not with the intensity that we found in verses 165 through 169. Nevertheless, the frame of crescendo (verses 161-163) and diminuendo (verses 170-173) enhance the aesthetic focus (verses 165-169) of the interior grouping of golden verses. Too, in the above quoted passage (Aeneid. Bk. I, 157-179) an alphabetical analysis (capitalized letters above the words composing the elements of the golden-verse schema) of Vergil’s “central" golden-line pattern has been presented in contrast to the preceding and succeeding patterns of standard epic verse of this verse paragraph. Next, despite Otto Ribbeck’s praemonitum "ab aliis interpolata uncis inclusi" (page XLII, line 2,3, Vergili Opera. Leipsig, Teubner, 1907), we present the following pattern of golden-verse schema used in the introductory lines of a verse paragraph as being definitely Vergilians (Aeneid. VI, 893-896) A A B C Sunt geminae Somni portae, quarum altera fertur B D E F E D cornea, qua veris facilis datur exitus umbris G H G I H altera candenti perfecta nitens elephanto 165 J K J sed falsa ad caelum mittunt insomnia manes. Not only do we have an example of strong antithet ical content and imagery (e.g., the antithetical images of one gate of horn versus the other gate of ivory) but also we note interwoven golden-verse pattern standing in contrast to the immediately preceding and succeeding verses of Book VI. Indeed, this golden-line unit of four verses with its vivid imagery usually remains in the readerfs memory as a definitely impressive tall-plece to Book VI— particularly is this so if the reader is aware that the rhythmic pattern may provide a punctuational period or conclusion, as it were, to Aeneas* underworld journey. In contrast to these four verses, the subsequent and final verses of Book VI provide a relatively uncharged coherent link with the opening lines of Book VII. In opposition to these few transitional final verses of Book VI, we note a strong opening twenty-four verse introduction to Book VII. As we read the first four verses of Book VII of the Aeneid. we feel an interlocking golden schema about to materialize into a complete golden- verse structure, what with litoribus nostrls. Aenela autrix^ aeternam famam. honos tuus. Hesperia maena. Yet, these opening four verses are but a prelude to an antithetically-based verse pattern which follows in the next twenty lines— with lines 10 to l*f providing the 166 antithetical piece de resistance versus preceding and succeeding lines. An interlocking verse (line 5) opens the verse paragraph vith what might he called a golden-line (a good opening rhythmical punctuational device): A B A B At plus exsequils Aeneas rite so.lutis (Note that the verbal entity understood within the ablative absolute construction of "exsequiis— solutis" provides the verb in what amounts to a temporal clause: But when (or after) the last rites have been properly fulfilled, dutiful Aeneas— ) Then follow verses 6-9, strong descriptive epic hexameters. Verses 10-1*+, however, form (in antithesis to preceding and succeeding verses) a golden-verse pattern of five verses which should lend striking aesthet ic stimulus in its line for line intensity: A B C A B Proxima Circaeae raduntur litora terrae, 10 D E D E dives inaccessos ubi Solis filia lucos 11 F G F H H adsiduo resonat cantu, tectlsque superbis 12 I J K K J urlt odoratam nocturna in lumlna cedrum 13 L M N L M arguto tenuis percurrens pectine telas. 1*+ In this passage the interlocking effect of one 167 verse with another in the middle three verses (i.e., enjambing) (lines 11-13) stands in contrast to the first and last verse of the pattern (lines 10 and 1*0 which lines stand by themselves to a greater extent. Prit and resonant are the attendant verbs which actively interlock the middle verses. Thus, in conclusion, we note that in considering the first twenty-four lines (with the exception of line 21, a golden line), we have a verse paragraph of twenty lines which coherently links up the dreamy atmosphere of the twin gates and the fields of air (aeris in campis. Bk. VI, line 886) at the end of Book VI and moreover maintains much of the weirdness of the unearthly realms so prevalent in Vergilfs epic Intermezzo of the under world . Accordingly, the overall pattern of strong descriptive hexameter verses embraces in antithesis a five-verse interior vignette of golden lines, interlocked antithetically within these five verses by verb and enjambment• Moreover, with regard to the auditory imagination, as we read aloud and appreciate the inter locking pattern of syllabic end-sounds (as well as attendant mental interlocking) combined with the rhythmic sweep of each line, we should be able to respond to the different aesthetic stimuli in verses lO-m in antithesis to the other- verses of the verse paragraph.1 168 ^C£. lines 10-1*+ of this Book (VII) with a similar passage in Vergil’s Georgies I, 291-29*+ and note the rhythm and music inherent in the antithesis basic to Vergil's epic golden-verse pattern as he subsequently developed it in this present passage as opposed to the relatively non-patterned passage of the Georgies. APPENDIX C NOTES ON RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE IN PARADISE LOST Item Is Metrical pattern and verse In this Item will be treated In an Introductory fashion with emphasis on basic meter, signs, and symbols. The following form will be used to indicate an iambic patterns v -- wherein the small letter "v” will represent a syllable. Thus, in the example (Paradise Lost. II, 950): And swims or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flyess v - v - v - v - v the single syllable conjunctions, being merely connective words, naturally will be represented by a short sign, namely, v, that is, the symbol v represents an unaccen tuated syllable; however, Impressive words (as here, verbs) e.g., swims, sinks, wades, will be indicated by the symbol ---, which symbol will indicate accentuated words or syllables. In this case, we have single syllable words throughout our example. Item 2: Metrical pattern and verse in this item relate specifically to verse 936, Book X, Paradise Lost: As noted in Item 1 above (this page), "v" represents an unaccentuated syllable. At this point, however, there will be introduced a third symbol, namely, two dashes 169 170 (or two underlinlngs) one above the other: = and this symbol will indicate an even stronger accentuation (or "weighting11) than that indicated by the symbol of a single dash -- underneath an accentuated syllable. This method of marking accentuation (or lack thereof) is an explanatory vehicle or rather a device; and, as such, it is not intended to intimate that there are three distinctly categorized markings to indicate accentuation or unaccentuation. Orally a good reader may vary his accentuation to an even greater degree; however, rhythmic symbols listed in this appendix indicate a guidance in intensity of accentuation. For, it is felt, the rather rough classification "v" for no accentuation, and — for normal accentuation, and = for stronger or greater than normal accentuation, may assist the oral reader and prove to be of value in appreciating rhythmical verse patterns in Paradise Lost. Again, it is worth noting that the same metric foot Bay be differently interpreted by different readers, one treating it as a spondee, another as a trochee; or, again, one reader may read a foot as an iambic whereas another may treat it as a pyrrhic. With the foregoing notes in mind, we find in reading aloud the poignant line 936 (Bk. X, Paradise Lost), the following rhythmic pattern: Mee Mee ,onely Just object of Ills Ire M v/ M 7v v / v As we read aloud this verse together with the realization of Bvecs intensity of self-accusation, more weight (that is, a heavier weighting— or weighing on if you will) should be placed on the monosyllabic words "Mae mee" than, say, on the first syllable of "onely"; then, the first unaccentuated syllable would be the -1y of Monely." Again, the monosyllabic word "Just" in consonance with Evef f s exhortation should receive a greater degree of accentuation or weighting than the initial syllable of "ob/Ject" which, by its pronunciation, — ▼ warrants at least a degree of accentuation as opposed to -ject, which syllable correspondingly (re its pronun- v elation) rates an absence of accentuation, namely, a v* Item 3* Metrical pattern in this item will provide an example not only of Milton's effectiveness in the epic verse paragraph but also an application of the metrical schema (as used in this paper) with regard to one of Milton's verse paragraphs (Paradise Lost. I, 5^9-559)' Anon/ they move v v __ In per/fect Pfaa/laax to/ the Dor/ian mood 550 V __ V __ __ V v ___ vv __ Of Flutes/ and soft/ Record/ers} such/ as rais'd 172 To highth/ of nob/lest tem/per He/ro*s old v __ v v v______ v ___ Arming/ to Bat/tel, and/ In stead/ of rage v v — v v v __ v _ Delib/erate va/lour breath*d,/ firm and/ unmov'd v vv v __ —_ v v — With dread/ of death/ to flight/ or foul/ retreat, 555 v __ v __ v __ v _ v __ Nor vant/ing power/ to mit/igate/ and swage v v ~ v __ v __ With sol/emn touch/es, troub/l*d thoughts,/ and chase v _____ v __ Anguish/ and doubt/ and fear/ and sor/row and pain V V __ v __ V _ V __ From mor/tal or/ lmmor/tal minds. 559 V ___ VV m m m m . v __ Note the word, "power,” in line 556 above is pronounced as a monosyllable; also, the final syllable of the word, "sorrow," in line 558 above, is blended in, as it were, with the conjunction, "and" which immediately follows. APPENDIX D TEXTUAL PASSAGES Qtoasr, VII, 81-132* *ily apa (fjcoinjo-aa' aitifii] ykavxaims ’AOijrr) vdvrov lit ' arpvyeroi> , k h tt 8 « Syepfyv ipa.Ta.vip>, Xkero 8 ’ i s M apaOmva Kal tbpvayviav 'A0 ip>r\v, 8 0 hvve 8’ ’E peyOpos rtVKivbv hopov. a ira p ’Obvairevs * AXkii'oov rrpbs h tip a r' U x k vru ' irokka 8< oi # c » } p appan' Itrrapeixp, irplv yakxeov obhor IseaOai. ms r t y a p i]ek(ov a ly k rj ir ik tv » } i trtki'ivqs bmpa kaO' b\jrepe<f>is ptyakijropos 'AKkivooio. *5 yakxeoi p iv yap roiyot ikrjkear' evOa teal tvOa, pvydv i£ ovSov, rsepl hi ffpiyxos xvdvoto- Xpvtraat hi Ovpai rrvxivdv hop.ov ivros iepyov apyvpeoi araOpol 8' iv yakxem earaaav oiihw, apyvpeov h’ ie f> inepOvpiov, yjivali) hi xopmvtj. 9° ypvtretoi 8’ ixdrepOt xai apyvpeoi xvves ycrav, ohs "ilrjiaioros rev£ev ihvii/m irpanihea-cri hmpa tftvkaeraepevai ptyakijropos ’Akxivooto, aOavatovs ovras Kal ayijpms ijpara rtavra. iv he Opovoi irepl roTyov iptjpehar' evOa xa't tvOa, 95 is pvyov i£ ovhoio hiapnepes, evO' ivl rrerrkot kertrol ivvvrjroi f3(/3kt/aro, ipya yvvaixmv. evOa h i ^aujxajv tpyijropes ihpiomvro vivovres xai ehovres" im jeravov yap eyeaxov. ypvtreioi h’ apa xovpoi ivhprjrmv im fitapmv . too itrratrav alOopevas hathas peril yeptrlv iyovres, tpaivovres vvxras xarci hmpara hairvpovetrtri. itevrijxovra he ol hptpal Kara hmpa yvvaixes . al p iv bkerpeiovtri pvki/s im prjkorta xapnov, ••al 8* Itrroiis vtfioaio-L kal rjkai(ara trrpmipmtriv 105 ijpevai, ola re tfivkka paxehvijs alyeipoio' xaipoaemv h’ bOovimv airoke(/3erat vypov ikaiov. . otrtrov <t>aii]xes rrepl rtdvrmv Xhptes avhpStv vfja Ooi/v ivl rrovrip ikavvepev, &s hi yvvaixes ! lardiv reyvijcrcrav rtipi yap artpitri hmxev 'A6r\vi) n o 173 t p y a t* i n la r a e r O a t n e p i K a k k i a K a l e p p iv a s itr O k a r . fK T o tr fffv b ' a v k r js p i y a s o p y a r o s a y \t O vp a o iv r t r p a y v o s ' ire/u 8’ ipK O s i k i j k a r a t ip e p o r ip ia O e v . iv O a h t h t v h p t a p a K p a n t t p v K a a t r tjk tO o to v r a , o y ^ v a i K al p o ia l K a l p r jk e a t a y k a o K a p n o t (TV K tai r e y k v K t p a l K al i k a l a t r ijk tO o u x r a i. r a to v o v w o r t K a p n o s a n o k k v r a t o i b ' a n o k e t n e t \ t t p a r o s ov8e O e p e v s, i n e n j a t o s ' a k k a p a k ’ a i d ZtepvpC rj n v e t o v t r a r a p i v <pvet, a k k a b e n e c r a e t. o y x v t f i n ' o y x y y y ijp a e r K tt, p i j k o v b ’ em p ijk fp , a i r a p i n i c r a e p v k r j a r a e p v k r j, a v K o v b ' i n i <tvko>. . iv O a b e o l n o k v K a p n o s a k to ij i p p t ^ m r a i , r t j s e r e p o v p i v O e ik o n tb o v kevpu> i v l r e p e r e r a t rje k ito , i r e p a s 8* a p a r e r p v y o o i a t v , a k k a s b e r p a n t o v e r t' n a p o tO e h i r ’ o p e p a K ts tie r t v a v 6 o s a ep tetera t, e r e p a : 8’ in o n t p K a d p v c n v . iv O a b e K o e rp ijra l n p a t r t a l n a p a v e l a r o v o p x o v n a v r o i a i n e e p v a a tv , i n i j e r a v o v y a v o a x r a f i v b e b v e o . K p fjv a t fj p e v r ' a v a K tjn o v & n a v r a (TK C hvarat, rj 8’ i r t p i o O t v i n ' a i k i j s o v h o v irjert n p o s b d p o v i \ j n j k o v , o O tv v h p e v o v r o n o k t r a t , rot' &p' iv 'AkKtvooio detov ierav aykaa btbpa. *EvOa arras Oijetro nokvrkas bios 'Obvaertvs. airap inel bi] n&vra ity Qipjeraro Ovpty, KapnakCpcos in ip oibov i(3/jaero bdparos etato. eipe bi<I>au]Ktov rjy/jropas ij8e pihovras antvbovras bendetrtrtv ivcrKona ipyeupovrp, $ nvpdriy crnevheeTKOv, ore pvrjeralaro koC tov. Iliad. XVIII, b83-606* 175 IA1AA0 ;S S 189 i pairrrtfpa Kparept'iv, {re'p rj< /> ( Sc y iv ro -nvpayptp'. f floiei 8i Trpw TicrTa troKos p iy a re orijiapov re 1 ■namocrt ftatftaAXcoi', 1repl ft’ avrvya (3aXAe <paeivi\v ■ TptnXaKa pappapitjv, in 5’ apyvpeov reXapGtva. 4 8 0 n t p r e ft’ dp' airrcv ia a v <t<xk(os Trru^ts" a u ra p iv avT<j> irotei ftcuSaXa tto X X c i Iftvijjtrt upaniheaatv. ’Ey p iv yaiav ereuf’, iv 5’ ovpavov, iv 8e OdXaaaav, i)iXiov r' aK.ap.avTa a-eA ?/r»/y t o TrXi'iOovcrav, iv Sc ra reipea iravra, t o . t ’ ovpavds core^ayiorai, 485 nAijiaftas 0’ 'Taftas re to re crOivos 'Slpimvos "ApKTov 6 , tjv Kal A pa£av iniKArjcriv KaXiovtrtv, 7 } r airov aTpi<p(Tai K al r’ 'Q .p C c o v a boKevei, otrj f t* a p .p t.o p o s itT T i Aoerpwv '£1 K fa v o io . ’Ey h i bvco uoCijae iroXeis peponatv dvOpdmav 490 KaXas. iv rfj p iv pa yap o i r’ ia a v eiXaitCvat re, > vvp<pas S’ itc OaXapcov daibojv v tto Xapitopevatav rfyivoov i v a atrru, iroXvs S’ vp iva 10s 6pu>pei' Kovpot 8’ dpXTjfTTypos ibiveov, iv S’ apa Toltrtv > avXol tpopptyyis re fiotjv e \ o v d l be yvvaiKes 495 > icrrdpevai OavpaQov iitl rrpoOvpouriv iKatrrq. Xaoi 8 * eiv iyopfj eaav dQpoo i* evOa b\ vetKos 176 wpiopd, duo 8’ avbpe? ivfCneov civtKa iroiinjs avbpos a~o(f>6iH(i>ov 6 (tcv tv\€ro irdur' aizobovvai bi'ifioi m tfia virK o a v, o 8’ avaCvtro pijblv k\i<rQat' 500 a p < f> a > 8’ UV0iji> C77L (trropi Tttipap iXtrrOai. > Aaot 8’ ap< poT(pot< riv i m 'jn v o v a / u j n s d p w y o t■ KrjpvKts b' a p a A a b v ipijrvov oX 8£ yipovrts efar* iwi £ecrro»rt AiOois U p!j> iv l kvkXu, tTKtjnrpa 8 f c KijpvK<ov iv xfy'7’ ^X0 1 ' i)*po< f> < A v< t)v - 5°S toT viv tvtir* ipatrov, &pm(3i}bls 8e bU afrv. (tfiro 8’ ap’ fy pticrtroiiTt bva> xpvtroio rdKavra, r<p brffifv 6s fitrh rolfft Swctjp W uprara cfaot. Tt/v b’ hip rjv irdAtv apufil 8tfa> crrparol rjaro Aafip rttl)(tcri Aapuro/Xfvot' biya bi cr<ptcriv ijvbavf (3ovAy, 5>o i/e bianpaOetiv 6 avbiya iravra bdcratrOat > KTrjcriv o<rrjv •nroXUdpov iirrjparov ivros itpytv" o t 8 ’ ov vto KftOovTO, Xoyio 8 ’ \nvt6iopf'/crirovro. t« x ° 5 P*v P aXoypl re < j> C X a t Kal vijvia r (Kva pvar’ itpttrraoTfs, fxera 8’ a v ip ts o ts ex« yrjpas' 5*5 ot 8’ t<rav i}p\( b’ & p i a c p iv 'Aprjs Kal FIaA/\ay 'A6r)vr\ t 177 ap<f>m y p v a i t i o , x p v c e i a fie et/iara e<rOr\v, xa\u> itai /uyaXio < rui> Tevx«°'»»'> w? T« 0 «w ncp > ap.(f>h a p i£ ij\( o ' k a o l fi’ iwoXtfoi'es i ja a v . 01 S’ tee 8 > J /V txavov 0O1 cr< p (< T iv eixe ko^tjcraL 5 * 0 i v uora|iuj, 0 O 1 t ’ a p b p b s ir jv T .a v r t t r m /3 o ro T a tv , i v O ' a p a r o t y t ^ o v r ’ e l k v p t v o i a iO o m \a k x u > . r o ttr i 5’ e7reir’ a T ra ve u tfe fioco o’/cotto! efaro k a tiiv h t y p t v o t 07777oxe p .ijk a ISofaro xat eXiKar /3ofiy. 01 fie Taxa n p o y e v o v T o , b v to 8’ a/e’ c w o v r o v o p r je s 5* 5 T f p n o p t v o i tr v p iy £ i" b o k o v 8’ o v r 1 ir p o v o ^ tr a v . o \ p i v to ir p o ib d v T ts i n t b p a p o v , w n a 8’ i i r e n a T a p v o v T a p tfrl fio S tv a y i k a s K a l 77wea xaAa a p y i v v t t t i v o lS tv , k t u v o v 8’ e77i p r jk o fio T ijp a s . d 8’ & > s o?i> (7TV0OVTO n o k v v K fk a b o v ita p a [ io v tr lv 5 3 0 < Ip a to v T T povdpoiO e x a O ijp tv o i, avriV e(/> ’ V rn im v f i a v r t s a t per m o b w v p t r tK ia O o v , a i\f/a 6’ Ikovto. tr r r jc r d p fv o i 8’ i p a \ o v r o p d y r j v v o r a p o i o n a p ' o y d a s , f i d k k o v 8’ a k k i j k o v s x .a k K rjp « T iv i y y t t r j e n v . i v 8’ "E/jty 8e K v b o ip d s ip C k e o v , i v 8’ < 5 A o ?j K r jp , 535 SXXov £<oov i ^ o v a - a v t o v r a r o v , S k k o v S o v t o v, < a k k o v TtO vi\u> Ta Kara p d O o v ek K € i> o b o U v ( i/x a S ' e \ ' ap< p' u ip o ic ri Sa< f> oivtov a t p a n (poircbv. b > fx (\fv r S ' to? T( t j t o o t (3 p o T o l i)S ' i p d y o s n o , > v( kpovs t' akkykcov ipvov KaraTfOprjcbrai. 'E v 6’ iriO ti vtiov pakanyv •nUipav apovpav tv p tia v rpinoK ov •nokkol S' dporqpcs iv avrfj £ tvy(a SivtvovTts ikdcrrpeov IvOa Kal ivOa. ot S' ottot( oTpt\fravTts iKoCaro rik ttov apovpys, rottri S' fitftr ' iv Xf P(Ti Seira? pekiybcot olvov SooKtv avyp iiTuav ro t 8e arpixpaaKov av'. dypovs, lipevot vcioZo (3a0c(ys rik o o v Uctrdat. fj be p tk a iv tr ' om vO fv, apypopivy Si iipKfi, XpvcreiT] irep iovtra' to by irtpl Oavpa TtTVKTo. > 'E v S' irtO ft rip tv o s (3a<Ttkyiov0 ivOa S' iptffoi yptov o£eta? bptnavas iv \tp (r\v iy o v rfs. 8pdypara S' a k k a p er' dypov in yrp ip a ttZvtov ipa£t, d k k a S' apakkoberypfs iv ikktbavoZat Siovro. 179 r p e is 8’ a p a p a k k o b tT tjp e s i(f>i<TTa<rav‘ a v r a p on u rO t n a i b e s b p a y p e v o v r e s i v ay/caki'beant tftip o v r e s a a n e p y l s n a p e \ o v f i a a i k e v s 8’ i v ro ia -i ertuini) <TKT\nTpOV ()((l>V i(TT1)Kei i n ' o y p o V yi)0d(TVVOS Kljp. K rjpvK es 8’ a n a v e v O e v i n b b p v l h a ir a n l v o v r o , f i o v v 8’ le p e v e r a v r e s p i y a v d p .< [ x n o v at b i y v v c u K c s > btinvov iplOouriv kevK akifura nokka nakvvov. ’Ev 8’ ir tO e i <TTa<f>vXfja-t p e y a 0 p (0 o v < ra v akoiJjV K a k iiv x p v a f l i j v p e k a v e s 8’ a ra 0 o r p v e s ija a v , i a r y K e i b i K a p a £ t b i a p n e p i s a p y v p e g tr tv . ap<f>l b i K v a v iijv k a n e r o v , n e p l 8’ ip n o s e k a tr tre K a< rcn.T fpov pC a 8’ oh; a r a p n i r o s t/e v i n ' a v r i jv ,^ Trj vC trovro tp o p fje s o r e T p v y o u e v a k to ijv . n a p O iv iK a l b e /cat ■qiOeoi d r a k a , <f>poviovrer nkenTOLS iv r a k d p o io -i <f>ipov p e k ir jb e a n a p n o v . ' to!<tw 8 * iv p itr n o ic r i nais ip o p p iy y i > Ipepdev KiOdpiCf, kCvov 8* vno xakov aeibe k tn ra k itj < f> < i> v jj‘ rol be p fo ffo V T c s .& p a p r ij 555 560 565 570 pokvrj t IvypQ re trocrl a-Kclpovres enovro. ’Ey 8’ iy e k i } V n o b jtr e fio c a v b ^ o K p a i p d a i v a t 81 f i o e s x p v a o i o T e r e v x a r o K a a a i r i p o v r e , pvK TjO pto 8’ aTrb K o irp o v in e o - o e v o v r o v o p o v 81 n a p n o r a p o v KeXdSorra, n a p a p o b a v b v b o v a K tja . X p v a e to i 81 v o p ije s a p i t r r i x p t o v r o f i d e o o i r e tr tr a p e s , i v v i a be <r<fii K v v e s n o b a s d p y o l e n o v r o . <rpepba\e< a h e k e o v r e 8iT it* n p u t r p m f i d e o n i r a v p o v i p v y p r j k o v i x i r t j v 8 h i p a ie p a p e p v K tb s I k K e r o ' r o v h i k v v e s p e r e K la O o v r\h ' a t f t o l . rat p e v a v a p p ij£ a v r e p o d s p e y d k o t o f f o e f y v > e y x a r a n a l p i k a v a t p a ka<f>v<raeToir ol h e v o p r je s 5t a i m s iv b ie e r a v r a y e a s K v v a s i r p v v o v r e s . ol 8* iJtoj b a K ie iv p i v d n e r p e a n & v r o k e d v r o iv , l a r d p e v o t 81 p d k ’ i y y v s i k d n r e o v i n r i k e o v r o . ’Ey 81 vopbv voir}<re neptKkvrbs &p<f>tyvfris iv Kakfl Pwa-ji p iy a v olutv dpyevvdtav, > oraOpods re Kkicrlas re Kartjpe<f>eas Ibe crifKovs. > ’Ey 8 1 \opov n o h ik k e neptKkvrbs dpepiyvfris, ry ficcXoy otoy nor iyi K y a > < r< j> evpeCy AaCbakos frK tjaev KakkmkoKapip ’Apidhvrj. evOa pev rjiOeoi Kal napOevoi dktpeo-Cfioiai ipxevvr aXXtjXwy enl xapn<o \eipas eyovres. > rG > v 8’ at pev kenras dOdvas e\ov, ol 81 \ir u v a s > etar’ ivvvfrovs, fr a <rrlk/3ovras i k a l y — Kal p al p iv Kakas orefpcwas eyov, ol he payalpas — eiyov ypvaelas e£ apyvpeoiv rekapeavow. ol 8’ < 3 re pev OpefcavKOV enMrrapevotfri nohecren peia p d k’, a s ore uy rpoyov appevov ev nakdptjotv l(opevos Kepapevs neipiprerai, a l t e 6eii<rtv dkkore 8’ av OpefcaerKOV in i arrlxas akkrjkota-t. nokkos 8 * Ipepoevra \opov nepilaraO' opikos > repnopevot' B oca) hi KvfiterrriTfjpe tear’ avrovs pokrnjs i£dp\ovres iblvevov Kara pe<r<rovs. ’Ey 8’ IrtOei norapoio p iy a aOlvos 'ilKeavoio 181 Aeneid. VIII, 626-728I 1111c res Italas Romanorumque trlumphos haud vatam ignarus venturlque inscius aevl fecerat ignlpotens, 1111c genus omne futurae stlrpls ab Ascanlo pugnataque In ordlne bella. fecerat et Vlrldl fetam Mavortis In antro 630 procubulsse lupam, geminos huic ubera clrcum ludere pendentIs pueros et lambere matrem lmpavldos, 111am teretl cervice reflexa mulcere alternos et corpora fingere lingua. nec procul hlnc Romam et raptas sine more Sabinas 635 consessu caveae, magnis Circensibus actls, addlderat, subltoque novum consurgere bellum Romulldis Tatioque seni Curlbusque severis. post Idem inter se poslto certamlne reges armati Iovis ante aram patera so,ue tenentes 6*+0 stabant et caesa iungebant foedera porca. haud procul Inde cltae Mettom in diversa quadrigae dlstulerant Cat tu dlctis, Albane, maneresl), raptabatque vlri mendacls viscera Tullus per silvam, et spars! rorabant sanguine vepres. 6*+5 nec non Tarquinium eiectum Porsenna lubebat accipere ingentique urbem obsidione premebat* Aeneadae In ferrum pro libertate ruebant. ilium indignant1 similem slmilemque minantl asplceres, pontem auderet quia vellere Codes 650 et fluvium vine11s innaret Cloelia ruptis. in summo custos Tarpeiae Manlius arcis stabat pro templo et Capitolia celsa tenebat, Romuleoque recens horrebat regia culmo. atque hie auratls volitans argenteus anser 655 porticlbus Gallos in limine adesse canebat; Galll per dumos aderant arcemque tenebant defensi tenebris et dono noctis opacaes aurea ceasarles ollis atque aurea vestls, virgatls lucent sagulls, turn lactea colla 660 auro innectuntur, duo qulsque Alpina coruscant gaesa manu, scutis protect! corpora longis. hie exsultantls Sallos nudosque Lupercos lanigerosque apices et lapsa ancllia caelo extuderat, castae ducebant sacra per urbem 665 pilentis metres in mollibus. hinc procul addit Tartareas etlam sedes, alta ostia Dltis, et scelerum poenas, et te, Catillna, minaci pendentem scopulo Furiarumque ora trementem, secretosque pios, his dantem lura Catonem. 670 haec inter tumldi late marls lbat imago aurea, sed fluctu spumabant caerula cano, et circum argento clarl delphines in orbem aequora verrebant caudls aestumque secabant. in medio classis aeratas, Actia be11a, cernere erat, totumque instrueto Marts videres fervere Leucaten auroque effulgere fluctus. hinc Augustas agens Italos in proelia Caesar cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis, stans celsa in puppi, geminas cui tempora flammas laeta vomunt patriumque aperitur vertlce sidus. parte alia ventis et dis Agrippa secundis arduus agmen agens* cui, belli inslgne superbum, tempora navali fulgent rostrata corona, hinc ope barbarica variisque Antonius armis, victor ab Aurorae populis et litore rubro, Aegyptum vlrlsque Orientls et ultima secum Bactra vehlt, sequiturque (nefas) Aegyptla coniunx una omnes ruere ac totum spumare reductis convulsum remls rostrisque tridentibus aequor. alta petunt; pelago credas innare revulsas Cycladas aut montis coneurrere montibus altos, tanta mole vlrl turritls puppibus instant, stuppea flamma manu telisque volatile ferrum spargitur, arva nova Neptunia caede rubescunt. reglna in medlls patrlo vocat agmlna sistro, necdum etiam geminos a tergo resplclt anguls. omnigenumque deum monstra et latrator Anubis contra Neptunum et Venerem contraque Kinervam tela tenent. saevit medio in certamine Mavors caelatus ferro, trlstesque ex aethere Dirae, et scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla, quam cum sangulneo sequitur Bellona flagello. Actius haec cernens arcum intendebat Apollo desupert omnis eo terrors Aegyptus et Indi, omnis Arabs, omnes vertebant terga Sabaei. ipsa videbatur ventis reglna vocatis vela dare et laxos iam iamque lmmlttere funis. 111am inter caedes pallentem morte future fecerat ignlpotens undls et Iapygo ferri, contra autem magno maerentem corpore Nllum pandentemque sinus et tota veste vocantem caeruleum in gremium latebrosaque flumina victos. at Caesar, tripllcl invectus Romana triumpho moenia, dis Italis votum lmmortale sacrabat, maxima ter centum totam delubra per urbem. laetitia ludlsque vlae plausuque fremebant; omnibus in templls matrum chorus, omnibus arae; ante aras terrain caesl, stravere iuvenci. ipse sedens niveo candentis limine Phoebi dona recognosclt populorum aptatque superbls postibus; incedunt victae longo ordine gentes, quam varlae Unguis, habltu tarn vestis et armis. 182 675 680 685 i 690 695 700 705 710 715 720 183 hie Nomadum genus et dlsclnctos Mulclber Afros, hlc Lelegas Carasque saglttlferosque Gelonos 725 finxerat; Euphrates ibat iam molllor undls, extremique hominum Morini, Rhenusque blcornls, indomitique Dahae, et pontem indignatus Araxes. Tails per clipeum Volcani, dona parentis, mlratur rerumque Ignarus Imagine gaudet 730 attollens umero famamque et fata nepotum. Aeneld. VII, 160-191* iamque Iter emensl turris ac tecta Latlnorum 160 ardua cernebant iuvenes muroque subibant. ante urbem pueri et primaevo flora iuventus exercentur equis domitantque in pulvere currus, aut acrls tendent arcus aut lenta lacertis spicula contorquent, cursuque letuque lacessunt* 165 cum praevectus equo longaevi regis ad auris nuntius ingentis ignota In veste reportat advenisse viros. ille intra tecta vocari lmperat et solio medius consedlt avito. Tectum augustum, ingens, centum sublime columnis 170 urbe fult summa, LaurentIs regia Picl, Horrendum sllvls et religione parentum. hie sceptra accipere et primos attollere fascls reglbus omen erat; hoc 1111s curia templum, hae sacris sedes epulis; hie ariete caeso perpetuis soliti patres considere mensls. quin etlam veterum effigies ex ordlne tvorum antlqua e cedro, Italusque paterque Sablnus vitlsator curvam servans sub Imagine falcem, Saturnusque senex Ianlque bifrontis Imago vestibulo astabant, alilque ab origine reges, Martiaque ob patriam pugnando vulnera passl. multaque praeterea sacris in postibus arma, captivl pendent currus curvaeque secures et crlstae capitum et portarum ingentia claustra spiculaque cllpelque ereptaque rostra carinls. ipse Quirinali lituo parvaque sedebat succlnctus trabea laevaque anclle gerebat Picus, equum domitor, quern c*pta cupidlne coniunx aurea percussum virga versumque venenis 190 fecit avem Circe sparsitque coloribus alas. 175 180 185

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Creator Spring, Graham Kingsbury (author)

Core Title An Analysis Of Antithesis As A Basis Of Epic Rhetorical Patterns

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag literature, classical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Graff, Richard L. (committee chair), Crittenden, Walter M. (committee member), O'Neil, Edward N. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-184109

Unique identifier UC11359728

Identifier 6600581.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-184109 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6600581.pdf

Dmrecord 184109

Document Type Dissertation

Format dissertations (aat)

Rights Spring, Graham Kingsbury

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA