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The other world in the New World: Representations of the supernatural in short fiction of the Americas

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The other world in the New World: Representations of the supernatural in short fiction of the Americas

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Content INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. U M I films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send U M I a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these w ill be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note w ill indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6” x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact U M I directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M l 48106-1346 USA U M T 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TH E OTH ER W ORLD IN THE N EW W ORLD: REPRESENTATIONS O F THE SUPERNATURAL IN SHORT FICTIO N OF THE AM ERICAS b y D ana K ristine D el G eorge A D issertation P resen ted to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA h i P artial F ulfillm ent o f the R equirem ents fo r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILO SOPHY (C om parative L iterature) A u g u st 1999 C opyright 1999 D an a D el G eorge Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. U M I Number 9955502 Copyright 1999 by Del George, Dana Kristine All rights reserved. ___ ® UMI UMI Microform9955502 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL. UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90007 This dissertation, written by Dana K r is tin e Del George under the direction of hsf. Dissertation Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of re quirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Date DISSERTATION COMMIT TEE Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. for m y fam ily Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOW LEDGEMENTS I th an k all those w hose h e lp a n d en couragm ent m ad e th is stu d y possible, including: M oshe L azar, T ony K em p, R oberto Ignacio D iaz, D allas W illard, D agm ar B am ouw , L isa M uscate, Joanne W eidm an, M organ M urray, D erek Jones, L izbeth Jones, K ris Jones, T e d Jones, a n d S tevan D el G eorge. I am also in d eb ted to E v erett F. B leiler's T he G uide to S u p ern atu ral Fiction (K ent State UP, 1983) w h ich d ire c te d m e to stories I m ig h t n o t o therw ise hav e fo u n d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS In tro d u ctio n vi I. Com ing to T erm s w ith A m erican S u p ern atu ral S h o rt Fiction 1 A Usable Eternal: Alternatives to Historical Imagination 2 The Dual Nature of Reality: Traditional B elief in the Supernatural 4 The Fantastic The Supernatural Threatens Reality 7 The Local-Color Ghost Story 18 Blended Realities in the Neo fantastic and Magical Realism 20 The Short Story: The Genre of the Popular Imagination 25 E L The L aw o f A uthority: The C om plexity o f th e O ther W orld 38 Traditional B elief in Texts of Premodem Europe 40 Traditional Belief in Folktales 55 The Brothers Grimm and Their M odem U se o f Folktales 58 Modem Critical Uses of Folktales 63 A M odernized Folktale Compared with Its Original 70 Premodem European Belief Transplanted in the N ew World 77 Early Encounters of Native American and European Beliefs 81 The Popol V uh: A Written Record o f Pre-Columbian Belief 85 m . The L aw o f Science: H au n ted M em ories in a n A ge of Progress 89 Pioneers o f American Supernatural Fiction 91 The Supernatural Sentimentalized 101 Ambiguities o f Spilt Religion 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. V The Science of the Numinous 129 Poe's Preternatural Tales 133 Modernising and Tradition 149 The Psychological Ghost Story 159 IV. The Law of T otal Fiction: lif e is B ut a D ream 171 Parapsychology and World. War II: Scientific Materialism Unraveling 173 Dream and Deceit: Early Forays into Postmodernism 180 The Last Laugh: The Jubilance of Total Fiction 186 Tragic Magic Kisses: The Alienation o f Total Fiction 194 National Supernaturalism: The Cultural Constitution of Magical Realism 201 Other American Dreams: Magical Realism in U. S. Ethnic Literature 216 Strange Angels: The Puzzling Patterns of the Neofantastic 223 Miniature Universes and Reflective Story-Surfaces: Visionary Space and the Textualization o f the Reader in Neofantastic Fiction 233 C onclusion 242 B ibliography 246 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INTRODUCTION A m ong th e m any fascinations o f the W o rld W ide W eb is "In terlu p e,"1 a site th at represents a conglom eration o f a ttitu d e s to w ard th e su p e rn atu ral sp an n in g h u n d red s o f years. T he subject o f th is w ebsite is th e ap p earan ce o f O u r L ady o f G uadalupe to the A ztec Ju an D iego in M exico C ity in th e y ear 1531; an im age o f the V irgin w as m iraculously im p rin ted o n Ju an D iego's clo th in g an d p reserv ed as a relic. O ne o f the pages lin k ed to "In terlu p e," e n title d "T he Eyes," discusses scientific p ro o f of th e reality o f th e V irg in 's im age: "[I]n 1944, analysis m ade b y o u tstan d in g opthalm ologis ts id en tified m icro artery circu latio n in the free edge of th e im age's eyelids." T he w ebsite casts th e V irgin o f G u ad alup e as a prem o d em m iracle, a m odem scientific fact, a n d a p o stm o d ern hyp ertex t; thus, "Interlupe" m ay be view ed as a palim psest o f th e intellectu al h isto ry o f the su p ern atu ral. B ut it is n o t th e f irs t Long before th e In tern et existed, th e sh o rt story w as a p o p u lar m edium fo r th e expression o f su p ern atu ral in terests, an d it continues to b e so today. The follow ing stu d y traces the h isto ry o f represen tatio n s o f the su p ern atu ral th ro u g h sh o rt n arrativ es o f U . S. a n d Spanish-A m erican literatures. Belief in the su p ern atu ral has changed d ram atically since th e ad v en t of m odernity, an d so has its literary rep resen tatio n . T he arriv al o f E u ro pean conquistadors an d colonists in the A m ericas coincides w ith th e beginnings o f a 1 http:/ / spin.com .m x/-m saiazar/ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m ajor change in W estern cosm ology. In 1534, fifty years after C o lu m b u s lan d ed in the W est Indies, C opernicus p u b lish ed O n th e R evolutions o f th e H eav en ly Spheres. In 1620, the sam e year P ly m o u th C olony w as fo u n d ed , F rancis B acon published N ovum O rg an u m . T hese trea tise s exem plify h o w W estern scholars b egan to p refer the in d u ctiv e th in k in g o f em p iricism to the d ed u ctiv e reaso n in g of religious au th o rity . T he N ew W orld a n d th e m o d em w o rld w ere con cu rren tly in tro d u ced to W estern cu ltu re, a n d w h ile b e lief in the o th er w o rld still ab o u n d ed in the N ew W orld fo r sev eral centuries in th e form o f C hristianity a n d N ativ e A m erican religions, the E uropean E n lig h ten m en t fou n d its w ay to th e A m ericas a t the end of the eig h teen th century. In d e e d , th e U nited States re tu rn e d th e favor to Europe in the form o f B enjam in F ranklin, w ho joined the circles o f intellectuals engaged in deb u n k ing th e claim s o f th e o th e r w orld. Even as the em erging nations o f th e N ew W orld b egan to id en tify them selves w ith m o d em W estern c u ltu re, p rem o d e m cultures still th riv e d in the A m ericas, offering a v iew o f a w ay o f life th a t h a d becom e ex tin ct in E u ro pe. W hile only traces o f p rem o d em life rem a in e d in the O ld W orld b y th e n in eteen th century, N ative A m erican cultures su rv iv e to this d ay w ith their su p e rn a tu ra l beliefs intact. C onsequently, P an-A m erican (henceforth "A m erican") su p ern atu ral literatu re is inform ed b y p lu ra l versions of the o th er w o rld . W hen th e o th er w o rld is d ep icted in lite ra tu re, it is n o t m erely a "secondary" w orld. The "other" w o rld is a sy n o n ym fo r the su p e rn a tu ra l, w hile a secondary w o rld is th e p ro d u c t o f a n in d iv id u a l w riter's im ag in atio n . T he genres of science fictio n an d fantasy, fo r in stan ce, are n o t in clu d ed in th is stu d y . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. R obert H ein lein distinguishes these tw o genres as "im aginary-but-possible" an d "im aginary-and-not-possible," resp ectiv ely (D avenport 18); th ey d e a l n o t in established beliefs b u t in projected id e a s.2 T hey fill a space le ft o p e n b y the rem oval o f th e su p ern atu ral fro m m o d e m W estern ideology. T he o th er w o rld o f the su p e rn atu ral, b y definition, is in h e re n t (if n o t in its totality) in th e n atu ral w orld. A s su ch , th e depictio n o f th e o th e r w o rld w ill be, a t le a st in p a rt, a depictio n o f th e w o rld recognizable to th e re a d e r as his o r h er o w n. V erisim ilitude in a su p ern atu ral sto ry in clu des n o t only th e rep re se n ta tio n of recognizable settin g s, objects, a n d ch aracter types b u t also of recognizable beliefs.3 M o d em narratives o f th e o th e r w o rld are com plicated b y th e assum ptions o f th eir in te n d ed audience, w h ich is u su a lly eith er th reatened b y the trad itio n al claim s of the o th e r w orld o r n o stalg ic fo r its charm s. "M odem ," fo r th e p u rp o ses 2 In the first chapter of his doctoral dissertation, Dan Timmons offers an excellent review of "The Elusiveness o f Fantasy: Critics on the Genre from EM . Forester to T.A. Shippey." He notes that the critical study of fantasy began in earnest in the mid-1960s, and many o f these studies take J .R. R. Tolkien's essay, "On Fairy-Stories," as their point o f departure. 3 Verisimilitude is created in a story by including markers in the narrative world w hich represent the implied audience's external "real" world and episteme. Barthes' description of this "reality - effect" is helpful: The truth o f this illusion is as follows: suppressed from realistic enunciation qua denotative signified, the 'real' returns to inhabit it as a signified of connotation; for in the very moment in which these details are supposed to denote reality directly, they do little else—w ithout saying so—than to signify it... it is the category of the 'real' itself (and not its contingent content) which is thereby signified; in other words, it is the very deficiency of signified as opposed to referent w hich becomes itself the signified o f realism: a 'reality- effect' is produced, the basis of the unspoken category o f verisim ilitude (quoted in Jameson 22) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o f th e follow ing argum ent, is sim ply th e consciousness o f being m od em .4 The self-proclaim ed "m odem " attem p t to correct th e erro rs o f "prim itive" tho u g h t o r "sup erstitio n " flares u p m o st intensely after th e E nlightenm ent; a n d , on into th e tw en tieth century, w h en critics refer to them selves an d th eir age as "m odem ," th ey invoke a sim ilar se t o f associations: science, progress, m aterialism and psychology. T he m o d em rea d er also h as d istin g u ish in g characteristics of a practical kind. T he lim its o f th e m odem rea d er's leisu re tim e have encouraged the developm ent of n ew form s o f storytelling a n d publication, including the sh o rt story a n d th e m agazine, w hich reach a w id er audience th an do m any literary genres w ith a lo n g er history. T he sh o rt stories th a t ap p ear in m agazines a n d anthologies reach a n audience w ith (one could assum e) nearly th e sam e facility as th at w ith w h ich folktales reached th eir original audience. In the chapters th a t follow , I w ill arg u e th a t nineteenth- a n d tw entieth- cen tu ry su p ern atu ral sto ries are them atically a n extension of p rem odem folktales, w ith the significant difference th a t they are w ritten as fiction an d have only a shadow o f the reality ascribed b y th e p rem o d em consciousness to su p ern atu ral stories. In m o d em tim es, w hich have fully arriv ed b y the n ineteenth century, th e su p ern atu ral is no longer u n d ersto o d as a n external an d objective reality b u t ra th e r as im aginary a n d in terio r phenom ena projected b y the 4 The subjective significance o f the term "modem" is what is in question here, but its use arises under certain objective historical conditions, such as industrial capitalism and nationalism and intellectual movements such as positivism and social science, usually referred to as "modernity." "[MJodemity can be taken as a summary term, referring to that cluster of social, economic and political systems brought into being in the West from somewhere around the eighteenth century onwards" (Sarup 130). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. self an d in its o w n im age. A lth o u g h relig io u s b elief in the su p e rn a tu ra l has su rv iv ed in m o d em tim es, a defen siv e apologetics o ften accom panies th e m o d em b eliever's m en tio n of m iracles, th u s th e "Interlupe" insistence o n th e scientific verifiability o f the V irgin o f G u ad alu p e. R eality continues to lose its sta tu s as external a n d objective in th e tw e n tieth cen tu ry , w h en th e project o f d isco v erin g a u n iv ersal tru th is nearly ab an d o n ed . For th e purposes o f m y a rg u m en t, I h av e developed a se t o f term s to describe the epistem e. o r consciousness, o f th e in ten d ed audience o f a g iv en te x t5 The law o f au th o rity is m y term fo r w h a t gives coherence to th e p rem o d e m epistem e; in m o d em tim es, the law o f science governs th e n in eteen th -cen tu ry epistem e; an d w h at I call th e la w o f to ta l fiction rules th e tw entieth -cen tu ry ep istem e. The law o f au th o rity deem s th e su p ern atu ral m ore re a l a n d m ore po w erfu l th a n the n atural. The la w of science conflates the n a tu ra l a n d th e real a n d locates th e su p ern atu ral in th e h u m a n im agination, w hich h as th e sta tu s o f illusion. Finally, the law o f to tal fictio n ru les w h en b o th the su p e rn a tu ra l a n d the n a tu ra l lose th eir status as real. T his last category contains the characteristics associated w ith postm odernism . T he geographic bo u n d aries o f the p resen t stu d y a re m ore a n effo rt to ad d ress a lack of critical atten tio n to A m erican su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re th a n a n 5 By episteme. T mean Foucault's definition: "the epistemological field... in w hich knowledge, envisaged apart from all criteria having reference to its rational value or to its objective forms, grounds its positivity and thereby manifests a history which is not that of its grow ing perfection, but rather that o f its conditions of possibility' (xxii). However, the epistemes delineated here do not match Foucault's. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. effo rt to m ake claim s a b o u t A m erican identity. T he su p e rn atu ral literatu re trad itio n s in G erm any a n d E n g land , fo r instance, a re w ell-established a n d w ell- stu d ied , w hile th e A m erican su p e rn a tu ra l literatu re tra d itio n rarely receives notice beyond th a t acco rd ed to certain in d iv id u al a u th o rs su ch as Poe a n d B orges. O thers, like M ary W ilkins F reem an o r C ristin a P eri R ossi, deserve m ore critical atten tio n to th e ir su p e rn a tu ra l tales, w hich o ffer a d istin ct depiction o f th e o th er w orld. W hile A m erican sh o rt fictio n has found its w ay in to theoretical discussions o f su p e rn atu ral literatu re, it is rarely d iscu ssed as a coherent continental trad itio n . S tu d ies lik e B rian A ttebery's T he F antasy T radition in A m erican L iterature: From Irv in g to I.e Guin sh o u ld b e p u t in to conversation w ith collections like O tros m u n d o s. o tro s fuegos: F an tasia y realism o m ig ico e n Iberoam erica f O ther W orlds. O th e r Fires: Fantasy an d M agical Realism in Iberoam erical. The in ter-A m erican critical conversation ab o u t su p ern atu ral literatu re has b eg u n in recen t collections such as M agical R ealism : Theory. H istory. C om m unity, a n d it con tin ues here. C hapter O ne o f th is th esis, "C om ing to Term s w ith A m erican S u p ern atu ral Fiction," b eg in s w ith a b rief review o f c ritical stu d ies of the c u ltu ral id en tity of the A m ericas a n d g en re stu d ies of fantastic lite ra tu re an d sh o rt fiction. I p o stu late a "usable etern al" as a n alternative to th e "u sab le p ast" th at A m erican cu ltu re lacks. This rev iew concludes th a t theoretical m o d els o f su p ern atu ral literatu re are faulty to th e ex ten t th a t they fail to acknow ledge th e instability o f th e m eaning o f the term "su p ern atu ral," w hich is u n d e rsto o d as a fact o r a fictio n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. d ep end in g o n w h e n it is u sed . W hile theories o f th e fantastic g iv e an excellent account o f n in eteen th -cen tu ry su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re, the local-color g h o st sto ry of the sam e era h as n o t received the sam e atten tio n ; a n d critical w ork o n th e su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re of th e tw entieth cen tu ry , th e neofantastic a n d m agical realism , is still co in in g into focus. These th ree altern ativ e genres are o u tlin ed in this ch ap ter a n d d iscu ssed in m ore d e ta il in la te r chapters. T hose critical w orks th at situ ate th e g en res o f th e fantastic a n d o f th e sh o rt story w ith in th eir cu ltu ral- historical contexts a re em phasized th ro u g h o u t th is stu d y . C h ap ter T w o, "Q uestions of the A u th o rity o f th e O ther W orld" dem onstrates th e com plexity of prem o dem su p e rn atu ral narratives w ith close readings o f sev eral an cien t an d m edieval texts; it offers a discussion o f folktales an d th eir a p p ro p ria tio n by m odem collectors, critics, a n d au th o rs; an d it concludes w ith a lo o k a t the first encounters o f E u ro pean an d N ative A m erican su p ern atu ral beliefs. T hroughout, I em phasize th a t prem o d em cultures w ith differing relig io us beliefs have m ore in com m on w ith each o th er th an they d o w ith m o d em m ateria list culture; indeed, th e conflict o f the first encounters o f E uropean an d N ativ e A m erican beliefs p ro v es th eir likeness. M y treatm en t o f p rem od em su p e rn a tu ra l narratives serves as a back g ro u nd ag ain st w hich m o dem su p e rn a tu ra l fiction w ill becom e clearer b y contrast. The th ird c h ap ter of m y dissertation, "H au n ted M em ories in a n A ge o f Progress," focuses o n A m erican literatu re o f th e n in eteen th century, w hich exhibits o p p o sin g a ttitu d e s tow ard trad itio n al beliefs: frig h t a n d sentim entality. Those A m erican sh o rt stories th at are w ritte n according to E uropean m odels o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fantastic fiction give th eir read ers a chilling sense o f th e u n cann y —as described by F reud—w hile regional g h o st sto ries give th eir read ers a sense o f poignancy and even am u sem en t B oth k in d s o f m odem su p ern atu ral stories, a n d som e curious hybrids o f the tw o, rep re se n t a com plex o f m aterialist biases an d m etaphysical fascinations; b o th u se n arrative devices th a t allo w m o d em readers to su sp en d th eir disbelief in th e su p ern atu ral in o rd er to enjoy its em otional effects, h i this chapter, U . S. lite ra tu re is prom inent, w h ile Spanish-A m erican literature is p ro m in en t in th e fo u rth chapter. In m y fo u rth chapter, "Life is B ut a D ream ," the su p e rn atu ral becom es its least com m on denom inator: th e relativization o f tim e a n d space, w hich Jung described as characteristic of th e collective and th e in d iv id u al unconscious. The regional g h o st sto ry becom es m agical realism , a n d the fan tastic becom es the neofantastic—tw o often in d istin g u ishab le genres m ark ed b y attitu d es of nostalgia a n d uncertainty. T he conflicting realities of m agical realism are d raw n from the conflicting cultures o f th e A m ericas, an d a rad ical skepticism abo u t the distinctions o f W estern philo so ph y allow s the n eofantastic to erase all kinds o f boundaries, including the b o u n d ary betw een text a n d read er. T hough the tw entieth-century epistem e offers a heterogeneous a n d undecid eab le reality, free of the psychological lim itations o f science, its literatu re b ears the m arks of alienation because it is difficu lt to achieve com m unity w ith o u t concrete shared beliefs. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 CHAPTER O N E COM ING TO TERMS W IT H AM ERICAN SUPERNATURAL SH O RT FICTIO N If the nations o f th e A m ericas are young, co m p arativ e literary stu d ies o f the A m ericas are even y o u n g er. O nly in the p a st d e c a d e hav e scholarly stu d ies of the literatu re o f the A m ericas b e g u n to accu m ulate. O n e such stu d y is a collection o f essays e d ite d b y G ustavo P6rez F irm at e n titled Do th e A m ericas H ave a C om m on L iterature? In h is in tro du ctio n , P erez F irm at describes fo u r d istin ct approaches to th e stu d y o f the lite ra tu re o f th e A m ericas: generic, genetic, appositional, a n d m ed iativ e (3). The g en eric approach "attem p ts to establish a hem ispheric co n tex t b y using as a p o in t o f d ep artu re a b ro ad , ab stract notion of w ide applicability "; th e genetic a p p ro a c h exam ines causal link s am ong au th o rs an d texts; the a p p o sitio n al approach "p laces w orks side b y sid e w ith o u t postu latin g causal connections"; a n d the m ed iativ e ap p ro ach "concentrates o n texts w hich already em b ed a n inter-A m erican o r com parative d im en sio n " (Perez F irm at 3-4)-1 This stu d y w ill tak e each o f these ap p ro ach es as they are called fo r b y the p rim ary texts in question, b u t first it w ill a offer a co ro llary to a n excellent generic thesis ab o u t th e A m ericas w hich w as first p resen te d in Pdrez Firm at7 s 1 Alfred J . Mac Adam's book Textual Confrontations: Comparative Readings in Latin American Literature (1987) was among the first to offer an inter-American literary study, though British literature is better represented than U.S. literature in his essays. Mac Adam's thesis, which could be characterized as genetic, is that Latin American literature is "eccentric" in the context of Western literature and functions parodically: "Thus it gives back to what once were the centers of Western culture their own w riting, now distorted and reshaped into something new" (x). Mac Adam criticizes the generic approach Rene Welleck and A ustin Warren take to the study of Western culture as "anachronistic and utopian" (3). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 collection. T he essay, "The U sable P ast: T he Id ea of H isto ry in M o d em U . S. an d L atin A m erican Fiction," by Lois P ark in so n Z am ora w as la te r re v ise d a n d included in Z am o ra's book, T he U sable Past: The Im agination o f H isto ry in R ecent F iction o f th e A m ericas (1997). Z am ora argues th a t in th e A m ericas there is an "im pu lse to create precursors ra th e r th a n cancel them ," w h ic h is evidence o f "an anxiety o f origins" b ro u g h t a b o u t b y th e seem ing lack o f lo n g -estab lish ed cultural trad itio n s (ix). I. A U sable E ternal: A lternatives to H isto rical Im agination Z am ora's thesis has exp lan ato ry p o w er fo r m uch o f A m erican literatu re, b u t it does n o t account for the success o f autochthonous A m erican sto ries, w hich offer their read ers unique satisfactions d e sp ite a lack o f n atio n al h isto ry a n d w ith o u t the p reten se o f one.2 For exam ple, a n anxiety o f o rig in s is e v id e n t in a fam ous co m p lain t o f N athaniel H aw th o rn e's, b u t in th e scope o f h is b o d y of 2 Besides lacking a national history, the Americas are also lacking in cultural centers. Mac Adam explains how, for many years, Paris was the cultural center for Latin American authors; and their Northern neighbors have no advantage in this regard, to this very day: Unlike France or England, the United States does not concentrate its cultural, political, and economic centers in one place. There are many centers spread over a vast space in a country that has traditionally resisted the centralization of power. The large number o f state and private universities together w ith the paradoxical absence of any national university- also contributes to the diffusion of culture. Local schools of all kinds crop up... but they tend to be ephemeral and their disciples scatter over the land. It is, therefore, difficult to single out a predominant tendency in any aspect o f cultural life in the United States; and to speak o f anything beyond general tendencies in the plastic arts, literature, or dance is impossible. The exceptions always outnumber the rule, a fact that engenders among academics and artists a nostalgia for vanished centers. (8-9) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 w ork, th e com plaint loses v alid ity . In th e preface to The M arble F au n . H aw thorne w rites: N o au th o r, w ith o u t a trial, can conceive o f th e d ifficu lty o f w riting a R om ance a b o u t a country w here th ere is n o shadow , no antiquity, no m y stery , n o picturesque a n d gloom y w rong, n o r anything b u t a com m onplace p rosperity, in b ro ad an d sim ple daylight, as is h ap p ily th e case w ith m y d e a r n ativ e land, (quoted in A tteb ery 42) H aw th o rn e's desire fo r a lo n g er h isto ry a n d a m ore m ysterious trad itio n m ay n o t have b een satisfied b y his n ativ e lan d , b u t his gloom y scenes o f forests filled w ith P u ritan evils are n o t lacking in in trig u e. A nd H aw th o rn e's w o rk d id n o t d ep en d en tirely o n his n atio n 's sh o rt h isto ry . W here history failed him , the eternal d id not. H aw thorne's allegories a n d rom ances have a h ig h m etaphysical content th a t com pensates for th e uselessness o f A m erican history. A sh o rtag e o f tim e p assed does n o t h in d er a young n a tio n 's connection to a tim eless o th e r w o rld . A m erican au th o rs have a t their disposal, if n o t a long historical record, a t le a st a considerable inheritance o f in tricate su p ern atu ral beliefs. N o t only d id the first E u ro p ean A m ericans have a d etailed p ictu re o f the o th er w orld, they encountered ev en m ore su p ern atu ral beliefs in N ative A m erican cultures. This en co u n ter continues to reverberate in th e fiction of contem porary authors like Alej'o C arpentier, w ho concludes h is fam ous statem ent, "O n the M arvelous R eal in A m erica," w ith these w ords: Because of the v irg in ity o f th e lan d , o u r upbringing, o u r ontology, the F au stian presence o f the In d ian a n d the black m an, the revelation co n stitu ted b y its recent discovery, its fecund racial m ixing fm estizajel. A m erica is far from u sin g u p its w ealth o f m ythologies. A fter all, w h at is the en tire h isto ry of A m erica if n o t a chronicle o f the m arvelous real? (88) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 W here H aw thorne saw a cou n try w ith "no shadow , n o an tiq u ity , no m ystery, no picturesque a n d gloom y w rong," C arpentier sees a c o n tin en t w h ere "w e have n o t yet b eg u n to estab lish a n inventory o f o u r cosm ogonies" (87). W hile H aw thorne sees th e h isto rical p o v erty of th e A m ericas, C arp en tier sees the m etaphysical w ealth o f th e A m ericas w hich is fo u n d in th e m any a n d varied m ythologies an d th e cu ltu ral contrasts of th e N ew W orld. C arp en tier in sists o n th e im portance o f su p e rn a tu ra l belief to literary inspiration; he says, "th e phenom enon o f the m arv elo us p resu p p oses faith" (86). For C arpentier, a n esoteric W estern m ovem ent lik e Surrealism com pares unfavorably to th e m arvelous reality of A m erica because it is a "m arvelous invoked in disbelief," "n ev er anything m ore th a n a lite ra ry ruse" a n d therefore "boring" (86). The o th er, m arvelous w orld is n o t sim p ly a p ro d u ct of an in dividual unconscious m in d b u t is m apped o u t to th e consensus o f a w hole culture an d is co nsisten t in its logic and detail. A c u ltu ra l cosm ogony is w o rth m ore to C arpentier th a n S urrealism 's "codes fo r the fan tastic b ased o n the principle of the donkey d ev o u red b y the fig" (85). II. The D ual N atu re of R eality: T raditional Belief in th e S u p ern atu ral A lthough belief in th e su p ern atu ral has w an ed w ith m odernity, m odem su p ern atu ral fiction still references cosm ogonies ra th e r th a n in v en ted codes, an d the belief in th e su p e rn atu ral th a t survives in th e m o d em d ay is n o t very changed from w h a t it w as in p rem odem tim es. In h is 1931 volum e, The N atu ral an d the S u p ern atu ral, p h ilo so p h er John W ood O m an describes th e su p ern atu ral Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 as a n "env iro n m ent" in w hich, w e live, an alo g o us to th e n atu ral a n d "so constantly in terw o v en [w ith the natu ral] th a t n o th in g m ay b e w holly n a tu ra l o r w holly su p ern atu ral" (O m an 72). O m an w rites, W e m ay b e liv in g b y this h ig h er en v iro n m en t as fishes in th e w ater liv e b y a ir, a n d be eq u ally ig n o ra n t of th e fact: a n d th e reaso n m ay b e lack of interest, n o t o f capacity. To in q u ire in to su ch a p o ssib ility w ith o u t in te re st in it is obviously futile. (O m an 5) The in terest o f th e su p e rn a tu ra l to th e p re se n t arg u m e n t is clear, b u t it is a literary in terest, n o t a philosophical one. T herefore, a n illu stratio n o f ignorance of o n e's en v iro n m en t, analogous to O m an 's b u t p erh ap s m ore fittin g to th e p resen t interests, is this: I t is possible fo r a p e rso n to en ter a room a n d n o t notice the a rt o n the w alls n o r th e m usic playing, b u t h e o r she w ould hav e a n im poverished experience o f the environm ent. In th e sam e w ay, it is p ossible to read a su p e rn atu ral sto ry w ith o u t a n u n d e rstan d in g o f su p ern atu ral beliefs th a t inform the story , b u t th is w o u ld also b e a n im p o v erish ed reading. The h isto ry o f th e vicissitudes o f su p e rn a tu ra l belief a n d th eir effects o n literatu re w ill g u id e the read in g of m y selected texts. A s O m an p o in ts o u t, "A ll environm ent d eals w ith u s a n d w e d eal w ith a ll environ m en t as m ean in g , a n d fo r this o u r thin k in g a b o u t it is of the u tm o st im p o rtan ce" (O m an 96). L iteratu re is certainly a m ean in g-m ak in g endeavor, a n d it freely m akes m eaning e v en w here it only p reten d s to k n o w reality. It is n o t fru stra te d , as philosophy is, b y the reticence o f reality . O m an com plains th a t rea lity "only dim ly unveils itself o f o u r m ost sym pathetic a n d far-reaching in sig h t," a fact th a t fru strates p h ilo so p h y (O m an 52). B ut w h e re p h ilosophy is fru strate d , literatu re is co n ten t to b e ju s t th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 sh ad o w of reality, a n d th e tru th o f a su p e rn atu ral belief is o f less in te re st to au th o rs, a t least m o d em ones, than, th e u sefu ln ess o f th a t b elief to th eir literary en terp rises. T heir q u estio n is n o t "Is it tru e?" b u t rath er "H o w d o es it w ork?" W hether the su p e rn a tu ra l is co n sid ered rea l o r im agined, it is u sefu l to th in k o f it as a n environm ent, co-m ingled w ith o u r n a tu ra l en v iro n m en t, though u su ally inaccessible to th e p h y sical senses. A s a n environm ent, d e a lt w ith as m eaning, it has values an d p ro v o k es responses w hich the n a tu ra l can n ev er have o r d o . T hus, the rep resen tatio n o f th e su p e rn atu ral in a realistic sto ry w ill a d d levels o f m eaning to th e n arrativ e. T his logic, consistent w ith O m an 's p ro p o sitio ns, is also fo u n d in K ath ry n H u m e's book. F antasy a n d M im esis: R esponses to R eality in W estern L itera tu re . H um e proposes th a t lite ra tu re is p ro d u ced b y the im p u lses o f m im esis and fantasy—th e latter b eing the realm o f th e su p ern atu ral, am ong o th e r things. This does raise th e q u estio n of w h e th er th e su p e rn atu ral folktale is m im etic o r fantastic, since p rem o d em sto ry tellers b eliev ed the su p ern atu ral to b e as real an en v iro n m en t as the n atu ral. H ow ever, th o u g h th e m o d em sto ry teller is unlikely to believe th a t th e su p e rn atu ral is real, h e r im pulse to include it in a sto ry is, as for h e r ancestors, b ased o n a d e sire to m ake h e r sto ry m ore m eaningful. Speaking o f the category into w h ich sh e collects the su p ern atu ral, K ath ry n H um e says o f fantasy: Its m anifestations in th e te x t serv e several purposes: reliev in g au th o rial tensions o r g iv in g voice to au d io rial vision; m an ip ulatin g an d releasin g au dien ce tensions; shocking, enchanting, a n d com forting. A bove all, fantasy helps activ ate w h atev er it is in o u r m in d s th a t gives u s the sense th a t som ething is m ean ing fu l. (20) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 So w hether in p rem o d e m o r m o d em lite ra tu re, th e use o f th e su p ern atu ral increases a sto ry 's m eaning. The literary effects H u m e describes, "shocking, enchanting a n d com forting," have som ething in com m on w ith th e effects o f the su p ern atu ral described b y O m an: m anifesting "absolute v alu e," stirrin g "the sense o f the holy" and d em an d in g esteem as "sacred" (O m an 72). O m an an d H u m e b o th see positive effects o f th e su p ern atu ral a n d associate it w ith m eaningfulness. To th is extent, their view s a re ra th e r trad itio n alist a n d are n o t a t g reat variance w ith p rem odem a ttitu d es to w ard the su p ern atu ral. H ow ever, these view s rep resen t the lesser p a rt o f m o d em critical opinions. M ost m o d em literary critics assig n to the su p ern atu ral a p u rely negative value. T his is p artly because m o d em fan tastic fiction tends to rep re se n t th e su p ern atu ral as fearfu l, a n d critical d escrip tio n s of su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re reflect this tendency. DI. The Fantastic: T he S u p ern atu ral T hreatens R eality For m any critics, a d efin in g quality o f th e fan tastic is the in te n t to p roduce fear o r horror in th e read er. R egarding th e fan tastic genre, Jaim e A lazraki notes, "The distinctive characteristic o f the genre, in w h ich all the critics seem to agree, w o u ld be in its capacity to engender fear o r h o rro r" (E n busca del unicom io 18, em phasis A lazraki's). C iting critics such as P eter P enzoldt, Louis V ax, R oger C aillois an d H . P. L ovecraft, A lazraki explains th a t this fear is p ro voked by the eru p tio n of the su p e rn atu ral in to a w o rld tam ed b y science; an d th is is a good description for m u ch of th e su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re o f th e n in eteen th century. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 H ow ever, T zvetan T odorov objects to defining th e fan tastic b y th e read er's fearfulness. In h is sem inal stu d y . T h e Fantastic: A S tru ctu ral A p p ro ach to a L iterary G enre, he w rites: It is su rp risin g to fin d su c h ju d g m ents offered b y serio u s critics. If w e take th e ir d eclaratio ns literally—th a t th e sentim ent o f fear m u st o ccu r in th e read er—w e sh o u ld hav e to conclude th a t a w o rk 's g en re d ep en d s o n th e sang-froid o f its reader. N o r do es th e d eterm in atio n o f the sen tim en t o f fe a r in the characters offer a b e tte r o p p o rtu n ity to d elim it th e g enre. In the first place, fairy tales c a n b e stories o f f e a r .. . . M oreover, th ere are certain fan tastic narratives fro m w h ich a ll terro r is a b se n t.. . . F ear is o ften linked to the fan tastic, b u t it is n o t a necessary co n d itio n o f the genre. (35) Still, T odorov's defin itio n of the fan tastic depends u p o n th e te rm "su p ern atu ral," an d th e term carries a special em o tio n al cargo in th e m o d em age, a n affective am bivalence w hich is only im p lied in T odorov's form ula. Few critics of fantastic lite ra tu re m atch T odorov's th o ro u g h n ess a n d precision, a n d m ost u se h is d efin itio n o f the fantastic as th e ir p o in t o f d ep artu re. A ccording to Todorov, "The fan tastic is th a t hesitatio n ex p erien ced b y a p erson [literary character o r read er (25)] w h o know s only th e law s o f n a tu re , confronting a n ap paren tly su p ern atu ral event" (33). T odorov takes m easures to con tain this assertion by p u ttin g historical lim its to h is definition, claim ing n o territo ry beyond nineteenth-century lite ra tu re .3 Y et T odorov's b rillia n t stu d y is w eak in one significant point: H e offers no d efin itio n o f "su p ern atu ral," a term crucial to 3 He asserts that the fantastic "appeared in a system atic way around the end of the nineteenth century" and had "a brief life span" (Todorov 166). In the last chapter o f his book, Todorov again binds the fantastic to the nineteenth century w ith this generalization: "The nineteenth century transpired, it is true, in a metaphysics of the real and the imaginary, and the literature of the fantastic is nothing but the bad conscience o f this positivist era" (168). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 h is definition. W hat T o dorov neglects to m ake ex p licit is th e instability of the term "su p ern atu ral," w h ich conjures d ifferen t m ean in g s a n d responses d ep en d in g o n th e h isto rical co n tex t of its use. T he h isto rical lim its o f T odorov’ s stu d y do stabilize h is u se o f th e term "supernatural" to som e degree; how ever, h e w rites in the tw e n tieth cen tu ry , a n d his read ers, calling to m in d only w h a t th ey m ea n by "supernatural," th ereb y receive a n in su fficien t d escrip tio n o f n in eteen th - cen tu ry fantastic lite ra tu re . T w entieth-century re a d e rs a re n o t likely to u n d e rstan d the in ten sity o f th e th re a t th e su p e rn a tu ra l poses to nineteenth- cen tu ry readers, w hose c u ltu re h a d only recen tly d isav o w ed su p ern atu ral belief. P resent-day read ers o f P o e's tales are often am u sed ra th e r th an frightened, for instance, enjoying th e frig h tfu l conventions as a k in d o f "cam p." M odem critics w h o seek to m ake tim eless claim s a b o u t th e rep resen tatio n o f th e su p ern atu ral a re o ften u n aw are of th e m o d em a ttitu d e s w hich sla n t th eir view s. In the p ro lo g u e to th e illu strio u s A rgentine A ntologfa d e la lite ra tu ra fantastica \A nthology o f F antastic L iteratu re!. A dolfo B ioy C asares does n o t h av e a n historically lim ited d e fin itio n o f the fan tastic g en re in m in d as h e proceeds to p ro p o se a h eu ristic fo r fan tastic literatu re. H e acknow ledges th at, "th ere are n o t one b u t m any ty pes o f fan tastic stories" (8), b u t his o p en in g lin e betrays a bias to w a rd the m o d em fan tastic genre: "As o ld as fear, fan tastic fictions b eg in before letters do" (7). Yet p re m o d e m n arrativ es are n o t w ritte n as fictions, a n d fear is o ften lacking from b o th p rem o d e m an d tw en tieth -cen tu ry su p ern atu ral stories, so a g a in th e term "fan tastic" b etray s its h isto rical lim its. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 Bioy C asares’ fu rth e r com m ents o n th e fan tastic anticipate aspects of T odorov's stru c tu ra list approach, th o u g h h e d o es n o t p u t histo rical lim its o n his m odel as T o d o ro v does: F an tastic sto ries can be c la ssifie d according to the follow ing explication: a) T hose w h ich are explained b y th e agency of a su p ern atu ral b e in g o r event. b) T h o se w h ich have a fan tastic b u t n o t su p ern atu ral explanation___ c) T hose w h ich are explained b y th e in terv en tio n o f a su p e rn a tu ra l being o r ev en t b u t also insinuate the p o ssib ility o f a n atu ral explanation (Bioy C asares 12) T hese categories co rrespond to T odorov’ s categories o f the m arvelous, the fantastic a n d th e uncan n y , respectively, b u t Bioy C asares im plies th a t a ll o f these techniques are sim ultaneously effective, reg ard less of changing histo rical epistem es 4 Bioy C asares a d d s th at astonished exclam ations often in d icate th e fantastic. B ut m ere asto n ish m en t a t the appearance o f th e su p ern atu ral is n o t descriptive enough for m o st m o d em critics. A sto n ish m ent a n d w onder are a p p ro p ria te reactions to v isio ns a n d revelations ev en in p rem o d em tim es. F or th e m o d em critic, the asto n ish m en t m u st be accom panied b y disbelief a n d d isc o m fo rt A s Eric R abkin say s, a character's asto n ish m en t sig n als the fantastic g en re "n o t 4 It must be noted that this theory is an attempt to account for all the various texts "hedonistically" com piled in the anthology by Bioy Casares, Ocampo and Borges: To create the collection we followed hedonistic criteria; we did not begin with the intention of publishing an anthology. One night in 1937 we talked about fantastic literature, we discussed the stories w e thought were best; one o f us said that if w e met and gathered those fragments in our notebooks o f a similar character, w e w ould obtain a good book. This is the book we put together. (14) The anthology contains everything from fragments o f ghost sighting reports of the seventeenth century (written in a more journalistic than literary style) to some of Kafka's short fiction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 m erely because h e is astonished, b u t because his grapholect im pl[ies] th a t his asto n ish m e n t. . . com es n o t from obtuseness b u t from th e shock o f experiencing the an ti-ex p ected . . . " (21).5 T he m o d em su p ern atural is, to u se H um e's and R abkin's w ord, a shock. T he shock is a t w o rst a horrifying in sig h t into the cosm os a n d a t b est a n im aginary th rill. Todorov is q u ite rig h t th a t th e su p ern atu ral m ay b e shocking, o r fearful, even in a p rem o d em fairy tale. It is the n atu re o f the shock an d its connection to "a w orld tam ed b y science" (in A lazraki's w ords) w hich distinguishes this m odem attitu d e to w a rd the su p ern atu ral from the p rem o d em one. The su p ern atu ral, to th e nineteenth-century read er, confounds a n d contradicts th e law s th a t give th e w o rld coherence. A m aryll C hanady takes an historically aw are ap pro ach to th is question, as she notes th e critical consensus th at the structures of the fan tastic an d the legend are sim ilar a n d th a t the form er m ay have descended from the latter. She explains th at, "In b o th form s, the effect p ro d uced by the story is one o f terro r in the face o f the su p ern atu ral, w hich cannot b e controlled because it belongs to a different dim ension" (C hanady 7). H ow ever, the legend does n o t d istu rb the logic of th e listener, w ho finds the su p ern atu ral aw e-inspiring, "b u t n o t logically incom patible w ith o th er beliefs, since there is no rational d istinction betw een it and the n a tu ra l" (C hanady 8). C hanady suggests "a far m ore satisfactory term " to describe the fantastic th an T odorov7 s "hesitation." H er term is antinom y, o r th e sim ultaneous presence o f tw o conflicting codes in the text. Since n eith er can be accepted in th e presence 5 A character's "grapholect" (Rabkin's neologism) is simply the representation o f his episteme. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 o f the o th er, th e ap p aren tly su p e rn a tu ra l phenom enon rem ains inexplicable. . . . [T]he fan tastic creates a w o rld w hich cannot b e ex plained b y any co h eren t code. (12) C hanady accurately describes th e fu n ctio n o f th e su p e rn atu ral in m o d em fantastic fiction, an d , like T odorov, h e r to n e is objective, a n d she is careful to lim it h er claim s. She is p erh ap s m ore successful in th is th a n T odorov; h e r th eo ry accounts fo r b o th th e attitu d es o f m o d em read ers a n d th e m istakes o f m o d em critics, w ho d o n o t acknow ledge th a t th e su p e rn a tu ra l can b e v iew ed as its o w n coherent code. A u nique m o d em critical stu d y w hich d escrib es trad itio n al su p e rn a tu ra l beliefs as th reaten in g in an o th er w ay is R osem ary Jackson's M arxist w ork, Fantasy: The L iterature o f Subversion. She w rites, "W ith o u t a context of fa ith in su p em atu ralism (w h eth er sacred o r secular), fan tasy is a n expression o f h u m a n forces" (18)—w hich Jackson celebrates.6 B ut Jackson criticizes the "su p e rn a tu ra l econom y" for being "a disp lacem en t o f h u m an resp o n sib ility o n to th e level o f destiny: h u m an action is seen as o p eratin g u n d e r th e controlling influence o f Providence, w h eth er fo r g o o d o r fo r evil" (53). H ere i t is political action, ra th e r than science, th at suffers w h en th e su p e rn atu ral eru p ts. Jackson view s fairy tales 6 Jackson's final paragraph reviews her thesis, which celebrates non-traditionalist supernatural literature as a critique of political oppression, and states: The modern fantastic, the form of literary fantasy w ithin the secularized culture produced by capitalism, is a subversive literature. It exists alongside the 'real', on either side o f the dominant cultural axis, as a m uted presence, a silenced imaginary other. Structurally and sem antically, the fantastic aims at dissolution of an order experienced as oppressive and insufficient. Its paraxial placing, eroding and scrutinizing the 'real', constitutes, in Helfene Cixous's phrase, 'a subtle invitation to transgression'. By attempting to transform the relations between the imaginary and the sym bolic, fantasy hollows out the 're<il', revealing its absence, its 'great Other', its unspoken and its unseen. (180) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 and m o d em "nostalgic" o r trad itio n alist su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re (such as the w ork of J. R. R. Tolkien, a n d C. S. Lew is) as being p o litically unacceptable because they "discourage b e lief in the im portance o r effectiveness o f actio n " (154, em phasis Jackson's). The m o d em u n d erstan d in g o f th e su p ern atu ral as d o u b tfu l, fearfu l, o r oppressive is p e rp e tu a te d by au th o rs a n d critics alike; a n d , one p e rso n can play b o th roles, as p ro v e d b y E dgar A llan P oe in th e n in etee n th cen tu ry a n d H . P. Lovecraft in th e tw en tieth . T heir m o d em attitu d es to w a rd th e su p ern atu ral, to be expected in th e ir fiction, pose as objective analyses in th e ir criticism , thus p erp etu atin g the d a n g e r of anachronistic readings o f tales b esid es th eir ow n. These tw o prolific m en , the ground-breaking Poe a n d h is a d m irer L ovecraft, d id m uch to estab lish th e m o d em trad itio n o f "su p ern atu ral h o rro r" a n d to m ake the tw o w ords synonym ous. S up ern atu ral H o rro r in L iteratu re is the tid e o f L ovecraft's b o o k o n the subject, an d h is m o d em , negative v iew o f the su p e rn atu ral is as ev id en t here as in his fiction. H e w rites in one o f h is letters: N ow all m y tales are b ased o n the fu n d am en tal p rem ise th a t com m on h u m a n law s a n d in terests an d em otions hav e no v alid ity o r significance in th e v a st cosm os-at-large [W ]hen w e cross th e lin e to the b o un d less an d h id eo u s u n k n o w n —the sh ad o w -h au n ted O utside—w e m u st rem em ber to leave o u r h u m an ity a n d terrestrialism a t th e threshold, (q u o ted in Jos h i 141) The environm ent o f th e su p ern atu ral is hostile, according to L ovecraft, an d it should n o t b e rep resen ted as in any w ay sym pathetic to h u m a n experience. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 Lovecraft practices w h a t he preaches in his tale "The C all o f C th u lh u ," in w hich a N orw egian sa ilo r fu tilely attem pts to k ill C thulhu, a su p e rn a tu ra l sea m onster lately aw ak en ed fro m hibernation. T he sailo r drives h is sh ip , th e A lert. w ith full force a t the m o n ster, a n d th e resu lt is this: There w as a b u rstin g as o f a n exploding b lad d er, a slu sh y nastiness as o f a clo v en sunfish, a sten ch as o f a th o u san d o p en ed g raves, a n d a so u n d th a t th e chronicler w ould n o t p u t o n p ap er. F o r a n in sta n t th e ship w as befouled b y a n acrid an d b lin d in g g ree n cloud, an d th en th ere w as only a venom ous seeth in g astern ; w here—G od in heaven!—th e scattered p lasticity o f th a t nam eless sky-spaw n w as nebulously recom bining in its hateful o rig in al form , w h ilst its distance w id en ed ev ery second as th e A lert g ained im petus from its m o u n tin g steam . ("The C all of C th ulh u " 158) H ere the su p ern atu ral is b o th horrib le an d indifferent, an d its h o rro r is ow ing to its indifference. "H u m an ity a n d terrestrialism " are certainly 'le f t b e h in d a t the threshold" in this tale. T he h o rro r for the m an is th a t w hile the m o n ster can h arm him , he cannot h a rm th e m onster, o r ev en m ake th e m o nster tak e notice of him . Lovecraft learn ed h is v iew of "cosm ic indifferentism "7 from Poe. L ovecraft's hom age to P oe in S upernatural H orro r in L iterature is w o rth q u o tin g a t length: Before Poe th e b u lk o f w eird w riters h a d w orked larg ely in th e dark; w ith o u t a n u n d erstan d in g of the psychological basis of the h o rro r ap p eal, a n d ham p ered by m ore o r less conform ity to certain em p ty lite ra ry conventions su ch as th e h ap p y ending, v irtu e rew ard ed , a n d in general a hollow m oral 7 James Campbell uses this accurate and descriptive term in his essay describing Lovecraft's fiction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 didacticism , acceptance o f th e p o p u lar stan d ard s a n d values, an d striv in g o f th e a u th o r to o b tru d e his o w n em otions in to the sto ry a n d take sides w ith th e partisans of th e m ajo rity 's artificial ideas. Poe, o n th e o th er hand, perceiv ed th e essential im personality of th e re a l a rtist; an d k n ew th a t th e fu n ctio n o f creative fiction is m erely to express a n d in te rp re t ev en ts a n d sensations as they are, regardless o f h ow th ey te n d o r w h at they p ro v e—good o r evil, attractive o r repulsive, stim u latin g o r depressing, w ith th e a u th o r alw ays acting as a v iv id an d detach ed chronicler ra th e r th a n as a teacher, sy m p ath izer, o r v en d o r o f opinion. H e saw clearly th a t all p h ases o f life a n d th o u g h t are equally eligible as subject m atter fo r th e a rtist, a n d being inclined b y tem p eram en t to strangeness a n d gloom , decid ed to b e the in te rp re te r o f those pow erful feelings a n d freq u en t happenings w h ich atten d p ain rath e r th a n pleasure, decay rath e r th an g ro w th , terro r rath er th an tran q u illity , a n d w hich are fundam entally e ith er adverse o r in d ifferen t to the tastes a n d trad itio n al o u tw a rd sentim ents o f m an k in d , a n d to the h ealth , sanity, a n d norm al expansive w elfare o f the species. (53) H ere the artist, Poe, is described as a scientist—a "d etach ed chronicler" w ho describes "events as they are" w ith "im personality" an d "indifference." This is the scientific eye looking th ro u g h th e m icroscope a t th e tin y h u m an "species" w ith no sentim ental attachm ent to th e object of its observation. Poe coldly "decided" to reco rd the subjects to w h ich he w as d raw n because o f h is "tem peram ent," n o t his care fo r them . In a "w orld tam ed b y science," the su p ern atu ral registers as a h o rro r a n d attracts th e notice o f m o rb id chroniclers. A nother w ay in w hich L ovecraft follow s Poe's exam ple w as as a w riter of sh ort stories. In d eed , both au th o rs w ro te in th a t genre alm o st exclusively. D id Poe invent b o th m o d em su p ern atu ral h o rro r an d the m o d em sh o rt story? O r could it be th a t the su p ern atu ral ten d s tow ard, o r is sim ply a t its b est in , the sh o rt Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 narrativ e?8 P eter P en zo ld t, in th e introduction, to h is book The S u p ern atu ral in F ictio n offers a n ex p lan atio n o f w hy "th e su p e rn a tu ra l seem s to flo w m o re easily in to the sh o rt tale in p ro se o r verse." H e declares th at, T he h u m an m in d can n o t leave th e so lid b asis o f reality fo r long, a n d h e w h o contem plates o ccu lt ph enom ena m u st sooner o r la te r re tu rn to logical th in k in g in term s of reality le st his reaso n b e en d an g ered . T his is a s tru e fo r th e believer in the p re te rn a tu ra l a s fo r th e m o d em sc ep tic w ho asks n o th in g b u t a d elig h tfu l sh iv e r from w eird fictio n . T hus if it is to be successful th e tale o f th e su p e rn a tu ra l m u st b e short, a n d it m atters little w h e th er w e accept it a s a n account of facts o r as a fascinating w o rk o f art. (P enzoldt 4) P enzoldt7 s theory o f w h y su p ern atu ral sto ries a re o ften sh o rt is clearly co lo red by the m o d em a ttitu d e th a t to en tertain th o u g h ts o f th e su p ern atu ral, o n e m u st leave "reality" k n ow n to u s b y m eans of science. C ontrary to P en zo ld t7 s assessm ent, it m atters m u ch w h eth er the su p ern atu ral is accep ted as fact o r is a e sth e tid z e d . B eyond the p rejudices o f its read er, the story itself h a s a n attitu d e to w ard th e su p ern atu ral w h ich g reatly determ ines the possibilities o f its reading. Som e m o d em fantastic fictio n th w a rts a trad itio n alist read in g b ecause it is n o t set in a n y k n o w n su p ern atu ral e n v iro n m en t M o d em w riters o f su p ern atu ral sto ries ten d to p ro d u ce n arra tiv e s w h ich cannot b e u n d e rsto o d w ith reference to estab lish ed traditio ns o r co h eren t codes of the su p ern atu ral, as do Poe a n d L o v ec raft Still, Penzoldt7 s sta te m e n t has explanatory value fo r th e m o d em sh o rt sto ry , if n o t for the w hole h isto ry o f 1 9 The attraction of the supernatural to the short narrative is evident in the universal human experience o f dreams, which are also brief and often bizarre. The stories to be considered in this study could be called "dreamlike," but this classification w ould not stabilize their meaning, because the significance o f dream ing has also been subject to change in recent Western history. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 sh o rt n arrativ es. It is tru e th at th e su sp en sio n o f d isb elief is a challen g e in m odem tim es, a n d suspen d in g i t fo r too lo n g can b e tirin g to th e m o d e m read er. H ow ever, P e n z o ld t's theory does n o t account for th e sh o rtn ess o f th e su p ern atu ral folktale, ancestor o f th e sh o rt sto ry b u t believable and. realistic to its original au dience. A n o th er h isto rical reaso n fo r th e com bination o f th e su p e rn atu ral a n d th e sh o rt n a rra tiv e can b e found in th e d evelo p m en t o f G othic fiction. A s C hris B aldick explains in h is in tro d u ctio n to T he O xford Book o f G othic T ales, this genre o f lite ra tu re w as very p o p u la r in th e n in eteen th century, a n d , a t th e lo w er en d o f th e m a rk e t th ere w ere th e p o p u lar chapbooks know n from th e ir covers as 'b lu eb o ok s' a n d som etim es nicknam ed 'sh illin g shockers'. T he first d ecad e o f th e n in eteen th century w itn essed a b risk trad e in these sixp en n y , thirty-six p ag e p am p h lets w ith th e ir co n d en sed rew o rk in g s an d o u trig h t plag iarism s of G othic novels, (xvii) These "bluebooks" a n d "shilling sh o ck ers" evolved in to the su p e rn a tu ra l sh o rt fiction of m agazines, in w hich Poe b u ilt his rep u tatio n . Poe w ro te in th e G othic trad itio n , a trad itio n th a t m akes "su p e rn atu ral" and "h o rro r" synonym s. B aldick calls G othic fiction "anti-G othic," in th e original sense o f th e prem o dem G othic. H e explains. T he an ti-G o th id sim o f G othic, b y w hich I m ean its in g rain ed d istru st o f m edieval civ ilizatio n a n d its rep resen tatio n o f th e p a st p rim arily in term s o f ty ran n y a n d su p erstitio n , has tak e n sev eral form s In w h atev er form , it has p ersisted as a m ajor elem en t of the trad itio n , ev en th o u g h its significance has ten d e d to b e d isguised b y th e a p p a re n t indulgence of archaic su p erstitio n s an d b arb aro u s energies. (Baldick xiii) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 Poe w rites in th e G othic trad itio n b y rep u d ia tin g th e p a st w hile p lay in g w ith its beliefs. P oe's n arrato rs are m en o f science, relu c ta n t to believe th eir senses w h en th eir senses tell them o f things, alw ays h o rrib le th in g s, n o t d ream t o f in th eir n atu ral philosophy. IV. The Local-Color G host Story R obert D. R hode notes th a t "D uring th e p e rio d 1865-1900 the sh o rt story w as n o t only the m ost p o p u lar n arrativ e vehicle, b u t w as also the prin cipal focus o f experim entation in w idely scattered p a rts o f A m erica" (11). The experim ental form th at concerns R hode is the nineteen th -cen tu ry local-color story, w hich w as a n equally p o p u lar b u t co n trastin g altern ativ e to m o rb id fantastic fiction. Sentim entality m arks the local-color story, even w h e n its subject is the local ghost. Like the fantastic, th e local-color sto ry h as a n affin ity for the sh o rt story genre; as R hode explains, "the sh o rt story alone exhibits m o st o f the significant aspects of the A m erican local color m ovem ent" (10). T his is because, like the fantastic, it is a genre th a t developed w ith in the co n tex t o f th e m odem m agazine.9 9 Though the local-color story differs from the fantastic because o f its autochthonous aims, Warfel credits Sir Walter Scott as its inventor. Harry R. Warfel avers: Sir Walter Scott's formulae dominated early nineteenth-century serious fiction and led to imitation in three directions: first, the search for legends and traditions which could be localized on American streams, or in caves, or in hillside fastnesses; second, the search for American regions which could be portrayed with quaintness or distinction; and third, a fictional representation of American's past, (xiv) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 In the in tro d u ctio n to A m erican Local-C olor Stories (1941), H arry R. W arfel writes: G enerally th e term local color h as denom inated a su rface realism d elig h tin g in o d d ity , w him sicality, idiosyncrasy, a n d in those stu b b o rn , in b red ch aracter traits w h ich le n d them selves to com ic trea tm e n t o r caricature. M erit d ep en d s u p o n a n a u th o r's know ledge, in sig h t, a n d artistry . T he ch ief lim itatio n o f local color, in practice if n o t as a genre, it its freq u en t un w illin g n ess to fro n t som e o f th e u n p leasan t facts o f life [T ]ragedy, w h en a p p aren t, w ears a softer asp ect because am elio rated b y com m unity sym pathy, (xi) The content o f local-color stories w as q u a in t an d sentim ental, b u t i t sh a red th e m agazine-reading aud ien ce w ith fan tastic fiction: A n ev en t o f significance in th e developm ent o f local m aterials w as th e fo u n d in g late in th e d ecad e [of th e 1850s] o f T he A tlantic M onthly u n d e r th e ed ito rsh ip o f Jam es R ussell Low ell, w h o p ro v ed especially encouraging to th e regionalists.1 0 The local-color sto ry w as, like all A m erican sh o rt sto ries, including th o se o f H aw thorne, Poe, a n d Stockton, m o re o r less d ep en d e n t u p o n p ub licatio n facilities, for dev elo p m en t in sh o rt fiction cam e o nly w ith ex p an sio n in the m agazine field. (W arfel xix) Indeed, betw een 1887-1900 "m o re th a n a h u n d red volum es o f local-color stories w ere published" (W arfel xxii). T hough su p ern atu ral sto ries rep re se n t only a p o rtio n of local-color stories (as they do in fan tastic fiction, w h ich is o ften entirely n atu ralistic in the end), the local-color gen re is a gatew ay fo r th e g h o st story. It has a n in h ere n t connection to the p rem o d em epistem e. as it rep resen ts com m unities n o t y e t m odernized. 10 Rhode makes a distinction between the local-color story and regionalism: "The contemporary movement [regionalism] is generally recognized as an offspring of the local color movement, differing from its parents by greater depth and a superior sense of tradition'' (28). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 H ow ever, th ere is a double-consciousness in th e gen re, created b y the au th o r's need to com m unicate to a m o d e m read ersh ip . T he local-color sto ry is, in m any cases, a q u asi-an th ro p o lo g ical effo rt to record th e w ays o f cu ltu res th at are threaten ed w ith d isso lu tio n b y m odernization. T he m sh im b rism n trad itio n o f H ispanic literatu re co u ld b e describ ed as a local-color trad itio n , a n d M arfa d e los A ngeles A yala explains h o w th e p u rp o se of m stu m h rism o sh ifted from its earlier to its later expressions, fro m relig io u s m oralizing to a p ro jec t o f representing a n historical reality th a t w o u ld so o n d isap p ear (17). A local-color g en re th a t is o rig in al to S ou th A m erica is th e trad id d n . invented by its first p rac titio n er, R icardo Palm a. T he g e n re o f the trad id o n es. according to Julio O rtega, is "intergeneric," a textual h y b rid , a tran sitio n betw een discourses: The tra d id d n is — th e give a n d take b etw een fab le a n d history, b etw een th e p a st a n d th e p resen t, b e tw ee n experience an d co n sden ce, b e tw e e n fabulous parad ig m s a n d h isto rical sequences, b e tw ee n o rality a n d w riting, b etw een com m on sense a n d critical u n d erstan d in g , betw een p o p u la r w isdom an d m o d em iro n y , b etw een culture as trad itio n a n d n a tio n as id en tity (xxiv) The trad id d n is, like a ll local-color genres, in a lim inal p o sitio n betw een the p rem odem an d the m o d e m epistem es. as is th e fan tastic g en re. Y et the tw o genres are so d ifferen t in to n e a n d conventions th a t th is com m onality is invisible to a first glance. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 V. B lended R ealities in th e N eofantastic a n d M agical R ealism The fan tastic a n d local-color lite ra tu re o f th e n in eteen th cen tu ry becom e, respectively, th e n eofantastic an d the m agical realist literatu re o f th e tw entieth. W hereas th e fan tastic a n d the local-color sto ry are opposites in to n e a n d style, the neofantastic a n d m agical realism often b le n d an d can b e h a rd to d istin g u ish . Both conform to th e g en eral defin itio n o f postm odernism , a c u ltu ra l o u tlo o k em phasizing contingency an d am bivalence. M adan Sarup lists its central features as "th e d e le tio n o f the b o u n d ary b etw een a rt an d ev ery d ay life; th e collapse of the h ierarchical distinction b etw een elite an d p o p u lar cu ltu re; a stylistic eclecticism a n d the m ixing o f codes" (132). Scientific m aterialism is no longer assu m ed in su p ern atu ral lite ra tu re o f the tw entieth cen tu ry , w h ich is a m ovem ent b o th beyond th a t o f the n in eteen th century an d b e h in d i t It is a re tu rn to p rem o d e m su p ern atu ral n a rra tiv e style insofar as su p e rn a tu ra l events are n o t u su a lly in tro d u ced w ith reluctance an d horror; b u t tw en tieth -cen tu ry disbelief is m ore p ro fo u n d th a n th a t o f th e nineteenth cen tu ry . R eality is a set of co n stru cts o r fictions, a n d ev en science is no longer co n sid ered capable of p ro v id in g so lid ontological g ro u n d . Like qualities o f tw entieth-cen tu ry su p e rn atu ral fictio n are d iscussed n e a r th e e n d of T odorov's stu d y o f th e fan ta stic To d em o n strate the historical lim its o f his definition of fan tastic fiction, T odorov discusses Franz K afka in th e fin al chapter of his book. T odorov reg a rd s K afka as a m aster of th e all-encom passing fictio n o f the tw entieth century: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 W ith Kafka, w e are — confronted w ith a generalized fantastic w hich sw allow s u p th e en tire w o rld o f th e book a n d the reader along w ith it.. . . H ere in a w o rd is the difference betw een the fan tastic tale in its classic v ersio n a n d K afka's narratives: w h at in th e first w o rld w as a n exception here becom es th e ru le . (T odorov 173-4, em phasis T odorov's) A realistic experience o f th e su p e rn atu ral is a n exception in fantastic fiction because n atu ral law d o es n o t allo w fo r th e reality o f th e su p ern atu ral. L ike o th er tw entieth-century su p ern atu ral fiction, K afka's fiction does n o t generalize the realistic experience o f th e su p e rn atu ral as p rem o d em n arrativ es do; rath er, it generalizes the h esitatio n of th e read er, w ho now has reaso n to d ou b t the reality of h e r o w n fam iliar w o rld as w ell as th e reality o f th e su p ern atu ral one. A lso thinking of Kafka (as he exam ines th e w o rk o f Julio C ortSzar), Jaim e A lazraki coins the term neofantastic to describe th e su p ern atu ral fiction o f the tw en tieth century. H e says, In contrast to th e nineteen th -centu ry fan tastic fiction in w hich the text m oves from th e fam iliar an d n a tu ra l to the unfam iliar an d su p ern atu ral, lik e a jo u rn ey th ro u g h a know n a n d recognizable territo ry w hich eventually leads to a n unknow n and d read fu l d estin atio n , th e w riters o f the neofantastic bestow equal v alid ity an d verisim ilitude o n b o th orders. They have no difficulty in m oving w ith the sam e freedom a n d ease in both. This un b iased ap p ro ach is in itself a profession of faith. The u n stated assu m p tio n declares th a t th e fantastic level is ju st as real (or u nreal, from a realist standpoint) as the realist level. (The F inal Island 10) A gain, m odem assum ptions ab o u t reality have been shaken, b u t not restored to th eir prem odem condition. T he resu lt resem bles w h at Jean-Franqois L yotard describes in The Postm odern C ondition: A R eport o n K now ledge . O n e su c d n ct Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 statem ent sum s u p th e resem blance: "P ostm o d ern k n o w le d g e . . . rein fo rces o u r ability to tolerate th e incom m ensurable" (L yotard xxv). In n eo fan tastic fiction the su p ern atu ral a n d th e re a l a re still incom m ensurable, as th ey w e re in the n ineteenth cen tu ry , b u t th e ir co m b in atio n is tolerated.1 1 In h er book, A R hetoric o f th e U nreal: S tudies in N arrativ e a n d S tru ctu re. Especially of the Fantastic. C h ristin e Brooke-R ose describes w h a t re a lity has suffered in this century: [W ]hat u se d to b e called em p irical reality , o r th e w o rld , seem s to have becom e m o re a n d m ore u n real, an d w h at h as lo n g b een reg ard ed as u n re a l is m o re a n d m ore tu rn ed to o r stu d ied as the o nly 'tru e ' o r 'a n o th e r a n d equally v a lid ' rea lity . (Brooke-Rose 4) O nce again, n o t a rev iv ificatio n o f th e law o f au th o rity b u t a d am ag in g o f the law of science has created th e crisis. A n d th e dam age to the law o f science h as com e, in m any cases, fro m science itself: A fter E instein's equivalence o f m atter an d energy, after d e B roglie's d u a l n a tu re o f p article a n d lig h t w ave, a fter P lan ck 's d em o n stratio n th a t en erg y is em itted in discontinuous q u a n ta , an d H eisen b erg 's u n certain ty p rin cip le w hich rep laced th e d eterm in ism of classical p h y sics w ith a state o f p ro b ab ility a n d random ness, a n d sh o w ed th a t observable phenom ena are affected b y the in stru m e n t ob serv in g them , a certain to leran ce of am biguity w as in tro d u c e d in to science, an d m an is n o w faced w ith a p h ilo so p h y o f in determ in acy an d a m u ltiv alen t logic. (Brooke-Rose 7) 11 The term "postmodern" has taken on more meanings than the one suggested by Lyotard, but they all coalesce around a notion o f ontological upset. An example of a definition o f postmodernism that displays a kind of tolerance for the incommensurable is Silvio Gaggi's. He posits that "Postmodernism can be understood as differing from modernism either because it extends modernist principles further than m odernists themselves did or because it rejects them" (18). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 M ultivalent lo g ic is also a good description, o f m agical realism . T he defin itio n o f this term , w h ich , like the term "lo cal color," has its o rig ins in th e visual arts, has d ev elo p ed a consensus w h ich m akes it useful in lite ra ry criticism . As recently as 1975, E m ir R odriguez M onegal fo u n d th e term u tte rly u se le ss.1 2 In "R ealism o m agico v s. lite ra tu re fan ttstica: u n didlogo d e sordos" ["M agical R ealism vs. F antastic L iteratu re: A D ialogue o f th e D eaf"], he com plains th a t m agical realism is a fo rm u la o f "non-com m unication" w hich "in stead o f establishing a basis fo r critical dialogue, co n stitu tes a veritable cul-de-sac, a n alley w ith o u t a n exit, a lab y rin th w ith o u t a cen ter" (27). In fact, it is p recisely th e m ultivalent logic o f m agical realism th a t h as becom e essential to its d efin itio n . By 1985, C hanady is satisfied w ith the critical consensus th a t m agical realism has certain traits, in clu d in g "th e occurrence o f th e su p ern atu ral, or an y th in g th a t is contrary to o u r conventional view of reality " (18). C harlady's d efin itio n o f m agical realism echoes A lazraki's d efin itio n o f th e neofantastic. B oth com pare tw entieth-century su p ern atu ral narratives to th o se o f the n in eteen th cen tu ry a n d fin d the sam e p a tte rn o f tolerance versu s in to leran ce o f incom m ensurable w o rld s: th e su p ern atu ral o f m agical realism is n o t disconcerting, as in th e fantastic, b u t is "p resen ted in a m atter-of-fact m aim er" 12 Rodriguez Monegal takes issue with Angel Flores for seeing magical realism in the w hole history of Latin American literature, from the early chroniclers to the present day. His objection has merit in the context o f this study, because it is based on a recognition of the great change of attitude toward the supernatural in the last two centuries: For any chronicler, for Columbus, for Cabeza de Vaca, the presence of God, the reality of the marvelous, the justice of the Spanish cause were... unarguable.. . . For the "realists" of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, things were completely different: God had be substituted for Science, the m arvelous had been exiled from the "real" world, the Spanish cause now had no legal recourse. How to compare, then, the incomparable? (Rodriguez M onegal 32) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 rath er th a n as a pro b lem (C hanady 24). C harlady's definition goes o n to a d d this im p o rtan t em phasis: th e n arrativ e is w ritte n as fiction, n o t as tru th . She explains th at "W hat is antinom ious o n th e sem an tic lev el is resolved o n th e lev el o f fiction" (C hanady 31). B ut the m o st im p o rta n t distinction b etw een th e neofantastic an d m agical realism is th e c u ltu ra l em phasis o f th e latter. A s C hanady observes, m agical realism is co ncern ed w ith th e problem o f "expressing the m yths a n d su p erstitio n s o f th e A m erican In dian s" w hile m ain tain in g a m odem W estern consciousness (C hanady 19). T here are, o f course, o th e r ethnic groups in the A m ericas, like the A fricans, w hose beliefs are rep resen ted in m agical realism . VI. The S hort Story: T he G enre of the P o p u la r Im agination A lthough m agical realism can b e fo u n d in o th er genres th an th e sh o rt story, its ap p ro p riaten ess to the sh o rt sto ry m ay be in its rep resen tatio n o f colonized peoples, w ho register as so litary a n d 'Tittle" people o n th e scale o f W estern im perialism . Frank O 'C onnor, in h is oft-quoted treatise, T he L onely Voice: A S tu dy o f th e Short Story, claim s th a t in th e short story "is the first appearance o f the L ittle M an" o r w h at h e la te r calls "a subm erged p o p u latio n group" (O 'C onnor 1 5 ,18)1 3 . H e a d d s th a t the sh o rt story "began, a n d continues 1 3 Northrop Frye agrees that the Little Man a m odem literary subject In his theory o f m odes, he states: If inferior in power or intelligence to ourselves, so that we have the sense of looking dow n on a scene of bondage, frustration or absurdity, the hero belongs to the ironic m ode. This is still true w hen the reader feels that he is or m ight be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 to function, as a priv ate a rt in te n d ed to satisfy the stan d ard s of th e ind iv id ual, solitary read er" (14), a n d w hile th e read er can fin d a reflection o f his idealized self in a novel, there is no su ch m agic m irro r in th e sh o rt sto ry , w hich offers in stead "an intense aw areness o f h u m an loneliness" (O 'C onnor 17,19). To prove his point, O ' C onnor cites the case o f A kakey A kakeivitch, in G ogol's "The O vercoat," victim o f m uch teasing a b o u t h is o ld b attered overcoat an d th en robbery victim w hen h is d ear new co at is sto len from him : W hat G ogol has d o n e so boldly a n d b rillian tly is to take the m ock-heroic character, th e ab su rd little copying clerk, and im pose his im age ov er th a t of the crucified Jesus, so th a t even w hile w e lau g h w e are filled w ith h o rro r a t th e resem blance.1 4 (O 'C onnor 16) A kakey A kakeivitch is only a L ittle M an in th e first h a lf o f this am azing story, how ever. In the second half of th e story, after a p itifu l d eath from the cold, h e becom es a p ow erful g host a n d w reaks his revenge o n th e m en w h o robbed him . A t this p o in t his resem blance to C h rist is qu ite d im in ish ed , desp ite the resurrection. in the same situation, as the situation is being judged by the norms of a greater freedom. (34) Frye goes on to say, "During the last hundred years, most serious fiction has tended increasingly to be ironic in mode" (34-35). 14 O'Connor's observation calls to mind Erich Auerbach's analysis of the N ew Testament's style in his famous work Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. He discusses the revolutionary mixture of high and low in the New Testament that made it possible to write about the experiences of a Little Man w ith seriousness, and he uses as an example the story of Peter's denial in the Gospel of Mark. Still, Peter the humble fisherman shines in the reflected glory of the supernatural. The story o f his denial of Jesus w ould not have been recorded had it not been followed by the story of Jesus's Resurrection. And perhaps Gogol would not have written the realistic first part of "The Overcoat" without the fantastic second part. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 O 'C o n n o r's p o in t is w ell tak en w h en i t com es to realistic sh o rt stories, like those of G uy d e M au p assan t, in w hich th ere is n o ju stice fo r th e L ittle M an w ho suffers a t th e h a n d s o f th e m ore p o w erfu l o r as a re su lt o f h is o w n ignorance. In the su p e rn atu ral sh o rt sto ry , o n th e o th er h a n d , th e case o f th e L ittle M an is m ore like th e case o f th e m ain ch aracter o f a folktale: h e m ay lack p o w ers o f h is ow n, b u t he can asso ciate h im self w ith su p e rn atu ral forces in his e n v iro n m e n t A G rim m sto ry , "T he F ish erm an an d H is W ife," opens w ith a d escrip tio n o f a very little m an in d eed : "T h ere once w as a fish erm an w ho liv ed w ith h is w ife in a pigsty n o t far fro m th e sea, an d every d a y the fish erm an w en t fishing. A n d h e fished a n d fish ed " (70). If th e sam e ch aracter w as fo u n d in a m o d e m realistic sh ort story, th e m a in a ctio n of the n arrativ e m ig h t b e th a t the fish erm an 's ro d w ould b reak , h is p ig sty h o u se w o u ld b e w ash ed aw ay in a sto rm , o r h e m ig h t even have a n e p ip h a n y w h ich m akes him see his p ig sty in a n e w lig h t. B ut in this folktale, th e fish erm an catches a flo u n d er w ith su p e rn atu ral p o w ers (w ho is actually a n e n ch an ted prin ce) an d is g ran ted w ishes. T here is n o n e o f L ovecraft's "cosm ic in d ifferen tism " here. The fish erm an 's w ife foolishly d em an ds to b e m ad e em p ero r, p o p e a n d finally G od. A n d , o f course, the fisherm an a n d h is w ife are b ack in the p ig sty a t the end; b u t th e elem en t o f the su p ern atu ral in this sto ry has p arad o x ically b o th m ade the m an seem little , b y co n trast to itself, a n d has g lo rified h im , b y its condescending contact. If g lo rified seem s too stro n g a w o rd , it w o u ld be accurate to say a t le a st th a t th e fisherm an's experience becom es extrem ely m eaningful as a re s u lt o f h is encounter w ith th e m agical fish, H o w ev er, a p rem o d em re a d e r o r liste n er w o u ld n o t take m u ch notice o f the h u m a n b e in g if Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 th e su p ern atu ral b ein g w e re n o t d o se by . F or p rem o d e m audiences, th e little M an in his o rd in ary o r p u re ly n a tu ra l enviro n m en t is n o t a n ad eq u ate subject fo r a story. W hile a m im etic d escrip tio n o f the little M an 's experience has alw ays b een possible, it w as n o t co n sid ered w o rth y o f lite ra tu re b efo re m o d em tim es.1 5 The sh o rt-sto ry g e n re is o ften view ed as a m o d e m in v en tio n , b u t this is sim ply a case o f n ew in te re st in a n o ld phenom enon. Jam es C o o p er Law rence avers th at sh o rt stories h a v e alw ays b e en a p o p u la r g en re, b u t w ith o u t a literate p o p u lu s, stories m u st b e to ld ra th e r th a n w ritten . H e says: The only d ifferen ce b etw een m o d em sh o rt-sto ry tech n iqu e a n d th a t o f th e M id d le A ges is a verbal one. T he o n ly develo p m en t th a t c an b e traced is n o t a n im p ro v em en t in any d istinctiv e essen tial o f th e a rt of story-telling, b u t is m erely a g eneral d ev elo p m en t in th e know ledge o f w o rd s a n d the ability to u se th em , w h ich affects the fram ing o f w ills a n d the fo rm u latio n o f o ffitia l docum ents m u ch m ore v ita lly th a n it does the tellin g o f tales. (Law rence 70) 1 5 With reference to Mircea Eliade's scholarship, Kathryn Hume explains why pre-modem societies would not find Guy d e Maupassant's realistic short stories interesting: Mircea Eliade points out that reality in a traditional society is entirely different from reality in our ow n. We take the everyday, the nitty-gritty details, to be real. In a traditional society, only those essences w ithin objects and actions that imitate the initial m ythic truths are considered real. "If we observe the general behavior o f archaic man, w e are struck by the follow ing fact: neither the objects of the external world nor human acts, properly speaking have any autonomous intrinsic value." Eliade goes on, "The crude product o f nature, the object fashioned by the industry of man, acquire their reality, their identity, only to the extent o f their participation in a transcendent reality. The gesture acquires meaning, reality, solely to the extent to which it repeats a primordial act" The m ythic truth established in illo tempore (sacred tim e) is "real"; man living in profane time becomes real only to the degree that he imitates the sacred pattern and actualizes it w ithin himself. In other w ords, im itation o f the mythic pattern gives a sense o f meaning. Man's highest aim in traditional society was to depart from what w e would call consensus reality, the everyday dull detail, in order to im itate a state w e would call privileged fantasy. The process involved in fantasy (departure from consensus reality), though called by different terms, is very much present in traditional society. (Hume 31) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 Law rence b eg in s h is essay w ith a b rief a n d b ro a d classification o f sh o rt stories according to th e ir substance (stories o f fa c t o r o f fancy) a n d form (stories to ld historically, d ram atically , or didactically). L aw rence w rote h is essay in 1917, before N ew C riticism cam e into fashion. Since th e n there have b een m any attem pts to d efin e th e sh o rt story exactly a n d synchronicaU y. E nrique A n d erso n hnbert7 s b o o k -len g th stu d y o f th e sh o rt sto ry in clu d es a chapter o n its g enre. A nderson Im bert m akes a c h art o f term s fo r d ifferen t form s of the sh o rt sto ry (from o ral trad itio n to lo n g w ritte n narration) in six d ifferen t languages, b u t h e p o in ts o u t th at th o u g h h is c h art gives the appearance o f firm boundaries fo r th e term s, "the tru th is th a t, in th e flu id ity o f history, th e term s slip u n d er th e boxes lik e fish an d one n ev er know s w here they w ill ap p ear" (356). The p ro ject o f classifying th e sto ry in to g en res is, in m any w ays, a n exercise in fu tility , y e t it is d u e a t least som e atten tio n because, as Jorge Luis Borges p o in ts o u t, g enres shape the expectations o f th e reader: . . . I believe th ere are [genres], o n ly in th e sense th at there is a n ex p ectatio n in the reader. If a p erso n read s a sh o rt sto ry , h e read s it in a m an n er different fro m w h en h e looks fo r a n article in a n encyclopedia o r w hen h e rea d s a n ovel, or w h en he reads a poem . Texts m ay n o t be d ifferen t, b u t th ey change according to th e reader, according to th e expectation. (440) W hat read ers h av e com e to expect, in m o d em tim es, is sh ap ed b y the m agazine m ark et, w h ich deals largely in sh o rt sto ries an d sells to a g en eral population, lik e th e one th a t trad ed sto ries o rally in p rem od em tim es. M odern- day attem pts to d efine th e sh o rt sto ry are m ark ed b y the m agazine in d u stry . For exam ple, in h e r in tro d u ctio n to The O xford B ook o f A m erican S hort Stories. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 Joyce C arol O ates grap p les w ith th e q u estio n o f "h o w sh o rt is th e sh o rt story?" She concludes: M y personal d efin itio n o f th e fo rm is th a t it rep resen ts a concentration o f im aginatio n , an d no t an expansion; i t is no m ore th an 10,000 w o rd s; an d , no m atter its m ysteries o r experim ental p ro p erties, it achieves closure—m ean ing th at, w hen it en d s, th e a tten tiv e rea d er u n d erstan d s w hy. (7) O ates’ choice to italicize is b efo re sh e lay s d o w n th e law o f 10,000 w ords seem s m ore th e m ove of a n e d ito r th a n th a t o f a creative w riter. H e r statem en t has a sense o f the m agazine m ark et, co u n tin g w ords to b e exchanged for m oney. A nother influence o n h e r statem en t is th e fam ous d ictu m o f Poe, th a t the sh o rt sto ry sh o u ld have a "single effect"— "concentration" a n d "closure," in O ates' w ords. B oth Poe an d O ates b elo n g to a d a ss of m o d em au th o rs w ho have b een able to trad e their w o rd s for m oney, en o u g h even to su p p o rt them selves, an d P o e's theories o n th e subject a re also m ark ed by th e m ark et. In a 1929 volum e e n title d O u tlin e o f L iteratu re, p a rt o f F u n k an d W agnalTs "Pocket L ibrary of the W o rld 's E ssential K now ledge" series o f 1910, G erald E. SeBoyar im plies, w ith a h in t o f scom fulness, an econom ic m otive fo r Poe's w riting: W hen Poe w as stru g g lin g to g a in recognition as a w riter, he received from a B altim ore p a p e r a prize o f o ne h u n d re d dollars for MS. F o u n d in a B ottle, a rom antic sto ry of adventure. A fter th is success h e w rote a b o u t sev en ty stories, ranging from ro m an tic n arrativ es to analy tical stu d ies o f obsessed conscience. (SeBoyar 51) T he lack of enthusiasm in th is d escrip tio n is ch aracteristic o f th e w hole of the ch ap ter "The M odem S h o rt S tory," w hich shares space in th e O utline of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 L iterature w ith su c h g ran d io se chapters as "T he R u ssian N ovel" a n d "T he E lizabethan D ram a." T h e opening o f th e sh o rt sto ry ch ap ter m akes n o g re a t prom ises. It reads, W ith th e in crease in th e n u m b er o f m ag azin es the d em an d fo r sh o rt sto ries h a s becom e v ery g reat. T hey are th e chief read in g m a tte r fo r a large section o f th e p o p u latio n , w h ich does n o t h a v e tim e fo r the novel. T hey d eal intensively w ith one situ a tio n a n d develop ra p id ly to a clim ax. E veryone w ith any in clin atio n fo r w ritin g has en d ea v o re d to su p p ly th is m a rk e t T he re s u lt h as been a m u ltitu d e o f v ery ind ifferen t stories in th e o ld e r form s an d som e strik in g experim ents b y recent w riters. (SeBoyar 49) N ot u n til th e final sen ten ce o f this first p a ra g ra p h is a m easure o f resp ect g ran te d to the genre. In a m uch m ore rec en t stu d y , T he C u ltu re a n d C om m erce o f th e A m erican Short Story. A n d rew L evy p o in ts o u t th a t th e sh o rt-sto ry m arket su rv iv e d d espite freq u ent attack s fro m literary critics a n d m an ag ed to p reserv e " a p a rtia l foothold in the h ig h cu ltu re" (3). W hile a n O u tlin e o f L iterature m ay m ak e an obligatory sneer a t th e sh o rt sto ry , the g en re h as a u n iq u e claim to b o th h ig h a n d p o p u lar cu ltu re.1 6 L evy traces the histo ry o f th e sh o rt sto ry an d its m ark e t a n d 1 6 Ironically, despite his high-cultural prejudices, SeBoyar's ow n project is a digest o f the literary canon, a reference book for m iddle-class dilettantes. The m iddle class was also Poe's intended audience and the original audience of the Gothic fiction genre. As Chris Baldick explains: In the early days o f Gothic writing, the strong anxiety among both critics and practitioners of Gothic fiction about the risks o f dabbling in bygone superstition, and especially about the permissible use o f supernatural incidents was animated by a watchful Protestant fear o f popery and its imaginative snares. It is no accident at all that Gothic fiction first emerged and established itself within the British and Anglo-Irish m iddle class, in a society w hich had through generations o f warfare, political scares, and popular martyrology persuaded itself that its hard-won liberties could at any moment be snatched from it by papal tyranny and the ruthless w iles o f the Spanish Inquisition, (xiii- xiv) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 argues th a t, "From th e tim e o f Poe, th e sh o rt sto ry has b een d e sig n ed as a cu ltu rally d isp o sable artifact—a th in g to b e re a d once a n d enjoyed" (2). H e gives an acco u n t o f th e currency attain ed b y P o e's review o f H aw th o rn e's Tw ice Told Tales in 1842, th e piece th a t p ro m o ted th e "single effect" a n d co n tin u es to dom inate discussions o f th e sh o rt sto ry genre. Leavy argues th a t P oe "created a system o f v alu e th a t exalted the sh o rt sto ry fo r th e traits it sh a re d w ith th e m agazine itse lf (i.e., disposability, space conservation)" (11). P o e 's p raise fo r H aw th o rn e's sh o rt stories coincided w ith h is plans to create a lite ra ry jo u rn al for the South, a n d th us o p en a new m ark e t fo r sh o rt stories. H e so u g h t to encourage the p reten sio n s o f S outherners, w ho w h eth er o r n o t they re a d it, w o u ld a ll w ant a copy of th e jo u rn al o n display in th eir hom es. Levy considers th e philosophical content o f P o e 's sh o rt sto ry th eo ry as in cid en tal to its financial en d : P o e's literary philosophy, as ex p ressed in the review o f H aw th o rn e, ow es m u ch to A risto tle's Poetics for its d iscu ssio n o f u n ity , b u t it also rests firm ly w ith in th e trad itio n o f th e confidence m an (another A m erican invention o f the 1840s), w h o attem p ts to m an ip u late a n au dience directly for th e p u rp o se o f personal p ro fit (23) T ho u g h p ro fit m ay be th e m otive b e h in d Poe's theory o f th e sh o rt story, he d id n o t o v erstate th e im portance of th e "sin g le effect" to th e sh o rt sto ry as he m ade it a sellin g p o in t, h i the rev iew o f N ath an iel H aw thorne's Tw ice T old Tales, Poe w rites th a t "th e sh o rt p ro se n arrativ e" requires "from a h alf-h o u r to one o r tw o h o u rs in its p eru sal" (703). H e objects to the novel b ecau se " it cannot be read in o n e sittin g " an d therefore, "d ep riv es itself, o f course, o f th e im m ense force d eriv ab le from totality" (Poe 703, em phasis Poe's). The u n in te rru p te d an d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 com plete literary experience o f th e sh o rt story is in d eed u nique an d rew ard in g . O f course, the novel h as o th e r m erits w hich the sh o rt sto ry lacks, b u t the single effect available in the sh o rt p ro se n arrativ e is the focus o f this argum ent, particularly w h en th a t effect is created in p a rt b y th e rep resentation o f th e supernatural. A nd w h en th e m o d em sh o rt story m ark et sells th e stu ff of folklore, a new a n d stran g e p ictu re o f th e universe em erges, d eserving o f critical attention. Stories know n as "novellas" w ill b e included in the ran g e o f this stu d y because they, too, h av e a "single effect," an d the h istory of the novella b eg in s in prem odem tim es, h i A natom y o f th e N ovella. R obert C lem ents a n d Jo sep h G ibaldi discuss the R enaissance n ovella, w hich "w as considered b o th a rh eto rical an d a literary exercise" (8 ).1 7 M ost R enaissance novellas averaged a recitatio n tim e of ab o u t tw enty m in u tes, an d th e tran sitio n from the R enaissance n o v ella to the m odem sh o rt sto ry w as actu ally a m ovem ent to w ard am plification a n d expansion (C lem ents 217-218). The "A ristotelian-H oratian" id eal of b rev ity inform ed the novellistic g en re (C lem ents 8), an d the sam e value is reflected in the m o dem sh o rt story a n d n o v ella,1 8 alth o u g h the latter is n o w com paratively longer. 17 The double nature of the novella, being both oral and written, ties it to the folktale, another kind of premodem short story. 18 The Outline of Literature, cited above, has an excellent and concise statement of the genetic relationship of the m odem short story to Renaissance and other premodem short narratives: The difference between the narratives o f the Renaissance and the m odem short story lies primarily in the matter of coherent development. The former are a collection of episodes bearing more or less directly on a central theme, while the modem short story progresses directly to a definite goal. In early literature the parables o f the N ew Testament resemble most closely the short story. The accounts of the prodigal son, the good Samaritan, and the unworthy servant, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 The texts co n sid ered in th e co urse o f th is a rg u m en t h av e in com m on th a t they a re all sh o rt p ro se narratives w h ich can b e re a d in a sin g le sittin g . N o fu rth er g en eric d istinctions w ill b e m ad e in this reg a rd . E fforts in th a t d irectio n usually p ro test too m u ch in th eir claim s to p recision o r else co nclu d e o n a fru strated note. P erh ap s m o re interesting,- a n d certainly m ore liv ely , a re th e rem ark s of sh o rt sto ry w riters them selves o n th e g en re. C ritics o f th e sh o rt sto ry a re m ore serious ab o u t its d efin itio n an d classification th a n a re th e ir au th o rs, w ho often seem am u sed b y th e critical com m entary th ey m ention, especially w h e n it concerns th eir o w n w ork. "El cuento y y o " ["The S h o rt S tory a n d M e"], a transcribed ad d ress of Jorge Luis B orges, begins this w ay: I w as ju s t inform ed th a t I'm g o in g to talk a b o u t m y sh o rt stories. You, p erhaps, k n o w th em b e tter th a n I d o , since I h ave w ritte n th em once a n d h av e trie d to fo rg et them , in o rd e r n o t to discourage m yself I h av e p assed o n to o th ers; b u t, m aybe one o f y o u has read som e sto ry o f m ine, le t s say, a co u p le of tim es, som ething w hich h as n o t occurred to m e to do. (439) This k in d of reluctance (feigned o r genuine) is n o t a n u ncom m on beg in n in g to a n au th o r's com m entary o n the su b ject for example, have the main elements o f excellent short stories, but their plots are merely outlined. All the details o f setting and character are left to the imagination o f the reader. The narrator desired to teach a moral truth as directly as possible. Therefore, he gave only the essential facts. The immediate predecessors o f the short stoiy are the romantic tales of Hoffmann, the fairy tales o f the Grimm Brothers in German and those o f Hans Christian Andersen in Danish, and W ashington Irving's legends o f the Dutch settlers of N ew York. (SeBoyar49-50) The Grimm Brothers, Hoffmann and Irving are key figures in the history of the supernatural short story, particularly. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 A rgentine a u th o r H oracio Q uirog a o pens "El m an u a l d e l perfecto cuentista" ["T he M anual o f th e P erfect Short Story W riter"] b y saying th a t th e p leas an d d esp eratio n o f th o se w ho w rite sh o rt sto ries as a pastim e p e rsu a d e d h im to offer a few tip s o n h o w b e st to do it. In clu d ed w ith the "M anual" is th e "D ecalogue o f the P erfect S h o rt Story W riter/' th e first com m andm ent of w h ich is: "Believe in a m aster—P oe, M aupassant, K ipling, C hekhov—as in G od him self" (335). Q uiroga a d m its in a la te r article th at h is m an u al and decalogue w ere w ritten "w ith m o re h u m o r th a n solem nity," b u t th is has n o t p rev en ted a g rea t m any critics h o rn tak in g h im seriously ("L a retd rica d el cuento" 337). In the "M anual," Q u iro g a gives a n exem plary p lo tlin e o f a w eird tale1 9 : a m an w o uld give his rig h t h a n d ju s t to be able to d e a n th e m u d off the shoes o f a w om an w ho d o es n o t a ttra c t h im in any o th er w ay (331). T his tongue-in-cheek exam ple is rem iniscent o f P oe's farcical "H ow to W rite a B lackw ood A rtid e," in w h ich he pokes fu n a t th e w e ird w riters of his d ay b y h av in g M r. Blackw ood give the follow ing ad v ice to M iss Psyche Zenobia, a n am ateu r aspiring to w rite "bizarreries" an d " in ten sities": The first th in g req u isite is to g et y ourself in to su c h a scrape as no one ever g o t in to before. The oven, fo r instance,—th at w as a good h it B ut if y o u h av e no oven, o r b ig b e ll, a t han d , and if y o u cannot con v en ien tly tum ble o u t o f a b alloon, o r be sw allow ed u p in a n earth q u ak e, o r g e t stu ck fa st in a chim ney, y o u w ill have to b e co n ten ted w ith sim ply im ag in in g som e sim ilar m isad v en tu re. I sh o u ld prefer, how ever, th a t y o u have the actu al fact to b e a r y o u o u t. N oth in g so w ell assists the fancy, as a n ex p erim en tal know ledge o f the m a tte r in hand. 1 9 The Spanish-Ianguage "insdlito" story matches in meaning w ith w hat is known in Anglophone literatures as "weird fiction," which aim s to horrify with either uncanny or fantastic events. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 'T ru th is stra n g e / y o u know , 'stra n g e r th a n fiction'—besides b e in g m ore to th e p urpose. (341) Poe d id n o t h av e th e naive en th u siasm o f th e w eird w riters h e m ocked, b u t h e d id d esire to b e successful in th e sam e m agazine m a rk e t H e trie d to d ress th at m ark et u p in h ig h cu ltu ral pretensio n s ev en as h e tried to m ake a liv in g from it. So his treatise o n th e "single effect" o f th e sh o rt sto ry is n o t w ritte n in g o o d faith any m o re th a n a re Q uiroga's treatises o n th e su b je ct B oth au th o rs d isd ain ed m an y o f th e ir fellow practitio n ers, a n d th a t d isd ain m ig h t b e d u e to financial com petition. Poe an d Q uiroga, w h o w ere w riting as a n occupation, h a d little patience fo r th o se w ho w rote as a n avocation. A g en eratio n later, Julio C ortez ar w rites, in all seriousness, "D el cuento breve y sus alred ed o res" ["O f the Short S tory a n d Its O utskirts"]. A fter a n attem p t to d escrib e the unconscious an d trance-like processes of w ritin g , the coda of this piece ad dresses fantastic sto ries (a to p ic w hich finds its w ay in to m ost of th e S panish-A m erican discussions o f the sh o rt story). C ortazar "observes" th a t th e d esire for the fantastic is a k in d o f nostalgia fo r tim es before determ inism , a n d h e observes th at the fan tastic m u st b e based in the o rd in ary (406-407). P erh ap s th e d esire to see the su p e rn a tu ra l in terru p t o rd in ary reality is, in the p resen t d a y , nostalgic; b u t w h atev er tren d s occur in h ig h cu ltu re, the su p ern atu ral a n d th e sh o rt story seem to a ttra c t each other perennially, from G ogol's "O vercoat" to Cort&zar's "A xolotl," stories in w hich m en are transform ed in to som ething m ore exquisite th a n th ey w ere before. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 su p ern atu ral sh o rt sto ry ap p ears to b e a p o p u lar taste, lik ely to p ersist th rou g h several m ore p erm u tatio n s.2 0 2 0 Film is another permutation of the genre that has its origins in oral performance and produces a single effect by telling a story in one sitting. It is also a genre conducive to the representation o f the supernatural, as evident in such popular films as It's a Wonderful Life and Like Water for Chocolate. Like the short story, film reaches a wide audience, including those with little time for leisure. In Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror. S. S. Prawer suggests that "the ghost- stoiy... is alive and w ell and living in the cinema" (3). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 CHA PTER TW O THE LAW O F AUTHORITY: THE COM PLEXITY OF TH E O TH ER WORLD The first en co u n ters o f E uropean a n d N ativ e A m ericans in v o lv ed extrem e differences o f lan g u ag e an d custom , b u t in th e ir beliefs th ese cu ltu res h a d m uch in com m on w ith each o th er and little in com m on w ith A m erican cu ltu re o f today. B oth E u ro p ean colonists an d N ative A m ericans believ ed in th e rea lity a n d au th o rity o f th e su p e rn atu ral,1 an d th e ir sto ries reflect these beliefs. The ancestors o f th e m o d e m sh o rt sto ry com e in sev eral p rem o d em form s, including holy scrip tu res, m y th cycles, oral trad itio n , letters, an d histories. W hen in tro d u ced in to th e m o d em epistem e. th e p rem o d e m su p e rn atu ral stories of E urope are ch an g ed dram atically. T h o u g h th e su p ern atu ral beliefs a re com plex, even conflicting tra d itio n a l cultures are m u tu a lly intelligible in term s o f the o th er w orld, as texts a b o u t early encounters of C olonial E uropean A m ericans and N ative A m ericans d em o n strate.2 1 In The Indian Heritage of America. Alvin M. Josephy explains that a belief in the supernatural is one of the characteristics that was shared by most N ative American cultures: The life of alm ost all Indian societies was colored by a deep faith in supernatural forces that w ere believed to link human beings to all other living things. To many Indians, each animal, each tree, and each m anifestation of nature had its ow n spirit with which the individual could establish supernatural contact through his ow n spirit or that o f an intermediary. In som e societies, the combined total o f the people's spiritual powers was believed to be the unseen force that filled the world. It was a sum supernatural force that shaped and directed life. The Iroquois called it orenda. the Algonquians manitou. the Sioux wakan. and the South American Incas huaca. Som e believed in personal guardian spirits and sought to establish contact w ith them through dreams and vision quests. Several tribes worshipped a single creator force, or Supreme Being, w hich w hite men taught them to call "the Great Spirit." (25) 2 The term "Colonial" does not intend to im ply the innocence of American colonists. Whether they sought religious freedom or gold, European colonists of America brought harms and disasters to the N ative Americans, whose way o f life was devastated by the European invasion. The Puritans, the Conquistadors, the Algonquians, and the Incas shared a belief in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 Too often, m o d em critics m ake the m istak e o f exag g eratin g the n atu re a n d p o w er o f th e p rem o d em relig io u s au th o rity , d isto rtin g it to tyrannical o r com ical p ro p o rtio n s. P rem o d em belief, as can b e seen in th e sto ries th a t rep resen t it, is a t once subtle a n d au th o ritativ e, com plex a n d c o n siste n t W hen p rem od em stories o f the su p ern atu ral are subjected to m o d em in te rp retatio n s th ey lose d etail a n d com plexity, a n d th eir in te n d ed audience is m isu n d ersto o d . The landscape o f p rem o d em belief, as fa r as i t c an b e reco n stru cted fro m p rem o d em texts, proves to be m uch m o re v a rie d a n d m ulti-dim ensional th a n it ap p ears in its m od em caricature. In d eed , an y k in d o f belief b rin g s w ith it the in h eren t problem of uncertainty a n d d o u b t, fo r b elief is a resp on se to a p ic tu re o f reality th at is incom plete an d inconclusive in its m aterial aspect. The su p ern atu ral w o rld w as alm ost as invisible to th e p rem o d em as to th e m o d e m view (except for m iraculous visions); th e difference is th a t a com plex sym bolic structure h eld th e place of w h at w as n o t sense-perceptible to the p re m o d e m view er. These trad itio n al beliefs constitute a b o d y o f k n o w led g e, w hich w as lost, as g reater scientific know ledge w as gained. P rogress c a n b e a n illusion—a change of in terest does n o t necessarily produce a closer ap p ro x im atio n of reality. O u r m o d em cu ltu ral assu m p tio n th a t later m eans b e tte r p rev en ts a clear view of prem o d em cu lture. The p a st m ay be co nsidered as a n o th er culture, rem oved from us in tim e rath e r th a n in space. K now ing th e c u ltu re o f the p a st is in m any respects m ore difficult th a n know ing cu ltu res co ntem p o rary w ith ours; b u t, as w ith cu rren t anthro po lo g ical stu d ies, those w ho in v estig ate th e p a st m u st b e supernatural, but to emphasize this similarity is not to deny the differences among these cultures or the strife they caused. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 aw are o f th eir p rejudices. W e m u st rem em ber th a t m eth o d s o f observation an d analysis w ere av ailable in prem odem tim es, b u t th ey w e re d irected a t a d ifferent object. The n a tu ra l environm ent w as of less in te rest th a n th e su p ern atu ral environm ent b ecau se su p ern atu ral w as considered p rio r to th e n atu ral— su p ern atu ral force created and sustained n atu re. The p rem o d e m c u ltu ral bias w as th at earlier m eans b etter.3 S upernatural au th o rity w a s resp ected as highest because old est, ev en th o u g h the ru le o f the su p e rn atu ral co u ld b e h a rd to fathom . I. T raditional B elief in T exts of P rem odem E urope W hen K ing S aul is th reaten ed b y th e Philistines a n d b e re ft o f rev elatio n from the Lord (I Sam uel 28:3-19), he takes th e desperate m easu re o f co nsulting the m edium of E ndor, w ho is in hiding because th e p ro p h e t S am uel "expelled the m edium s a n d w izard s fro m the land." Saul com m ands h er: "B ring u p Sam uel for m e," an d sh e obeys b y conjuring "a divine b e in g . . . o u t o f the g ro u n d ." Saul takes the figure th a t em erges for Sam uel, a n d the only re a so n g iv en fo r the identification is th a t th e fig ure is "w rap p ed in a robe." A fter th is, th e narrative refers to the fig u re as "Sam uel"; an d "Sam uel" chides S au l fo r losing th e L ord's 3 In his book The Estrangement of the Past: A Study in the Origins of M odem Historical Consciousness. Anthony Kemp describes this premodem cultural bias which privileges tradition over innovation: The tradition can be defined as everything that a present generation receives from the past. This constitutes the valid and true, the substantial body o f knowledge. Everything, therefore, that it is possible to know is already known, and all knowledge is available by the method of consulting the tradition. Tradition accumulates by denying its own accumulation, by declaring its innovations to be ancient and original. The result is a cognitive timelessness____(79) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 favor an d offers h im no h elp , to S au l's g re a t distress. In his boo k The S upernatural in L iteratu re, P eter P en zo ld t declares th a t th e "sto ry o f th e W itch o f E ndor [was] w ritten [w hen] th e tale o f th e su p ern atu ral w as n o th in g m ore th a n a reco rd o f facts, a n acco u n t o f realities w h ich possessed a h ig h religious v a lu e , a tru th fu l revelation, q u estio n ed b y n o n e" (3). O n the contrary, th e sto ry o f th e M edium of E ndor raises u n an sw erab le questions. T he biblical tex t n ev er clarifies how a n unholy m edium c o u ld conjure th e d ead so u l o f the holy p ro p h e t w h o b an ish ed her. It happens th a t its p ro blem s w ere n o t resolved b y th e m ediev al m ind s fo r w hom the Bible w as th e su p rem e basis o f ontology. C haucer's 'T ria l's T ale" represents the story of th e m ed iu m o f E ndor as a m ystery. A fien d from H ell m akes this allusion to it as he explains his physical form to th e sum m oner h e has joined o n the road: Som tym e w e feyne, a n d som tym e w e aryse W ith d ed e b o d y es, in fu l so n d ry w yse, A nd speke as ren ab ly [readily] a n d faire a n d w el As to the F h ito n issa [the M edium o f Endor] d id e Sam uel. (And y e t w ol som e m en seye it w as n a t he; I do no forse o f [care n o th in g of] y o u r dyvynvtee [theology].) (125-126) The d ev il disregards th e theological q u estio n because h e has no n eed fo r th e Scriptures: he belongs to a n d has d irect experience of th e system th e S criptures evoke, an d so he needs n o sym bolic su p p o rt for his reality. T he q u estio n o f th e veracity of the m ed iu m o f E n d o r's conjured Sam uel is left open, b u t the q u estio n o f the reality of the su p e rn atu ral is d efinitely closed. (A fter all, h o w co u ld th e su p ern atu ral be d isp ro v ed b y a devil?) The fien d accepts th a t the m ed iu m d id Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 som ething su p e rn a tu ra l; th e o n ly u n c ertain ty is w h at k in d o f su p e rn a tu ra l thing it w as. T he sto ry o f th e m ed iu m o f E n d o r is n o t exactly a n u n q u e stio n e d "account o f re a litie s /' as P en zo ldt w o u ld h av e i t N either does it d e fe a t the realities it touches o n . I t m erely h u m b les th e character o f th e su m m o n er, th e in ten d ed au d ien ce o f th e tale, a n d th e m ed iev al theologian b y d escribing som ething b e y o n d them , so m ething th a t exists in d ep en d en t o f th e ir apprehension. W hat is b ey o n d th e faith fu l re a d e r, in th e case o f th e biblical tex t, still has au th o rity o v er h im , concerns him , a n d , as E rich A uerbach explains, forces h im into a n act o f in terp retatio n . B ible sto ries are, in A uerbach's p h rase, "frau g h t w ith b ack g ro u n d ," a n d the gaps a n d u n certain ties in the stories req u ire the read er to p o n d er. W hat behooves th e re a d e r to take the act o f in te rp re ta tio n seriously is th e au th o rity o f the text, the fact th a t it m akes claim s a b o u t the u niverse the re a d e r occupies. T he in te rp re ta tio n of the Bible, the sym bolic elaboration o f a u n iv ersal system o f reality b ased o n revelation, w as th e business of church a u th o rity w hose in terp retiv e in d u stry filled in the S c rip tu re 's g ap s an d b ackground fo r th e faith fu l.4 The sto ry o f th e m edium o f E ndor is in a category o f exceptional Bible sto ries th a t re sist th e ex tractio n of clear d o ctrin e a n d d em o n strate th e in ad eq u acy o f relig io u s sym bolism to d ep ict exactly th e su p ern atu ral realm . 4 The Reformation challenged the interpretive authority of the church, but the Reformers assumed that the authority o f the Biblical text itself w ould supematurally cause its readers to concur after they separately interpreted it. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 D octrinal system s, th en , can n ev er claim to b e com plete, despite th e ir b u rd e n o f being au th o ritativ e: the in te re st of d o ctrin e to th e p rem o d em epistem e d id n o t erase its difficulties. H ow ever, as d octrine has lo st its c u ltu ra l value o v er tim e, an d as the Bible h as com e to b e view ed m ore as a collection of literary texts th a n as an au th o ritativ e su p e rn a tu ra l revelation, its o rig in al p u rp o se and accom plishm ents te n d to b e described in sim p listic term s. M odem read ers generally do n o t ap p reciate th e intensity Biblical am biguity h ad fo r its in te n d ed audience, a n d so th ey assum e th a t its o riginal au d ien ce w as naive a n d accepted the w hole Bible w ith o u t problem s of any kind. B u t to rem em ber the in terests o f the in ten d ed au dien ce o f th e Bible is to g ain a com plicated p icture o f th e tran sactio n b etw een th e sacred tex t an d its read ers, w ho so u g h t tru th ra th e r th an entertainm ent. A uerbach touches o n th is tran sactio n as h e describes th e extinction o f the k in d of read er the Bible w as w ritten for: If th e tex t o f th e B iblical n arrative, th en , is so g reatly in n eed o f in terp retatio n o n th e basis of its ow n co n ten t, its claim to absolute a u th o rity forces it still fu rth er in th e sam e direction. Far from s e e k in g . . . m erely to m ake u s fo rg et o u r ow n reality for a few h o u rs, it seeks to overcom e o u r reality: w e are to fit o u r o w n life in to its w o rld , feel ourselves to b e elem ents in its stru ctu re of u n iv ersal history. T his becom es increasingly difficult the fu rth e r o u r historical en v iro n m en t is rem oved from th a t of th e B iblical books; a n d if th ese nevertheless m ain tain th e ir claim to absolute a u th o rity , it is inevitable th at they them selves b e a d ap ted th ro u g h in terp retiv e transform ation. T his w as for a lo n g tim e com paratively easy; as late as th e E u ro p ean M iddle A ges it w as possible to rep resen t B iblical ev en ts as o rd in ary p h en o m en a of contem porary life, th e m ethods o f in te rp retatio n them selves form ing th e b a sis fo r su ch a tre a tm e n t B u t w hen, th ro u g h too Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 g re a t a change in en v iro n m en t a n d through th e aw akening of a critical consciousness, th is becom es im possible, the Biblical claim to absolute au th o rity is jeopardized; th e m ethod o f in terp retatio n is scorned a n d rejected, the Biblical stories becom e ancient legends, a n d th e doctrine they h a d contained, n o w dissevered h o rn th em , becom es a disem bodied im age. (A uerbach 15-16) The "d isem b o d ied im age" o f th e d o ctrin e extracted from the Bible has ceased, in m odem tim es, to correspond accu rately to th e doctrine itself a n d has decayed into a stereo ty p e o f a p a st cu ltu re th a t w as, in fact, certainly as com plex as ours. P rem o d em cu ltu re w as com plex because it w as in p a rt a resp o nse to an unseen w o rld . The project o f in terp retin g th e Bible to account fo r th e invisible w orld p ro d u ced , through the cen tu ries, a pictu re of su p ern atu ral reality w hich w as rem arkably consistent fo r all its specificity an d d etail an d d esp ite difficulties like the sto ry o f th e m edium o f E n d o r. In his w id ely contested schem atic book, The E lizabethan W orld Picture. E. M. W . T illy ard argues th at th e E lizab eth an w orld p icture d id n o t v ary significantly from the m edieval o n e .5 W hile there is som e controversy ab o u t w hen relig io u s au th o rity b eg an to d isin teg rate in W estern cu ltu re, T illyard's book offers a t least a good review o f th e m edieval epistem e a n d a p o in t o f d ep artu re. H e suggests th at "th e P u ritan s a n d the courtiers w ere m ore u n ited b y 5 In The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature, a more respected book than Tiliyard's, C. S. Lewis offers "Reservations" to his similar account o f the premodem epistem e. He begins by observing, "To describe the imagined universe which is usually presupposed in medieval literature and art is not the same thing as writing a general history of m edieval science and philosophy" (13). He goes on to explain that he w ill deliberately ignore the changes and controversies of the periods he describes because they "have hardly any effect on the literary level. The Model, as regards those elements in it which poets and artists alike could utilise, remained stable" (13). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 a common, theological b o n d th a n they w ere d iv id e d b y ethical d isagreem ents" a n d th eir view o f th e w o rld w as "still so lid ly theocentric," "a sim plified v e rsio n o f a m uch m ore com plicated m edieval p ictu re"6 (4). Yet p a g a n practices lik e astrology, m agic a im e d a t reducing th e ev il influences of the stars, acco u n t fo r p a rt o f th is p ictu re. As T illyard explains, " It w as one o f the C h u rch ' s m a in tasks to red u ce th e licence o f late p ag an astrological su p erstitio n in to h e r o w n d iscip lin e" (53), a n d the astrologically- influenced d octrine o f th e stars w as form ed: "th e sta rs . . . th ro u g h obeying G o d 's changeless o rd er, [w ere] resp on sib le for th e v ag aries o f fortune in th e realm s below the m oon" (52). M agic a n d p ag an sp iritu a lity w ere also ad d ressed to th e u nseen w orld, an d so th e ir influence w as inescapable, especially w h en th ey ad d ressed w h at C h ristian ity d id not. R eality w as com plex becau se hum anity o ccu p ied tw o w orlds a t once, alw ay s feeling the conflict o f th eir claim s; and, to th e c h ag rin o f p rem o d em th ink ers, hum anity w as no longer capable of perceiving a s m u ch o f these w orlds as it could in its P relap san an sta te (50). The m usic o f the spheres, for instance, fell o n ears deafened b y the Fall (50). H ow ever, rev elatio n a n d m agical belief su p p lied m ost of the lost know ledge o f the invisible w o rld , a n d so angels a n d p lan etary 6 Tillyard points out that this theocentrism was not uncomplicated nor was its life span brief: Those who know m ost about the Middle Ages now assure us that humanism and a belief in the present life w ere powerful by the tw elfth century, and that exhortations to contemn the world were them selves powerful at that time for that very reason. The two contradictory principles co-existed in a state of high tension. Further it is an error to think that with the Renaissance the belief in the present life won a definitive victory. . . . Indeed from A ugustine him self through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, through the Elizabethans to Donne and Milton, the old arguments persisted. (5) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 pow ers could b e as carefully classified as w ere th e beasts a n d th e p lan ts. The p o ten tial p o w er o f th e su p ern atu ral w o rld w as deeply felt, a n d th e re w as no need to perform th e K an tian d u ty o f actin g "as if" doctrines o f th e su p ern atu ral w ere tru e.7 In h e r less sch em atic an d m ore th o ro u g h stu d y . H abits o f T h o u g h t in the English R enaissance: R eligion. Politics, a n d th e D om inant C u ltu re, D eborah K uller S huger w rites th a t 'T illy a rd w as p e rh a p s o n the rig h t trac k in em phasizing th e cen trality of analogy to th e E lizabethan w o rld -p ictu re, altho u g h h e gave his d a ta too sta tic an d N eop lato n ic a fram e" (255). She a d d s, "O n the one h an d , th ere rem ain s the archaic com pactness of th e political a n d su p ern atu ral o rd ers O n the o th e r h a n d , o n e notes various a ttem p ts to p u ll a p art these analogic ties"—even, an d esp ecially , in texts o f the "h ig h official culture" (255). In h e r in tro du ctio n , sh e exp lain s th at "The fu n d am en tal beliefs h eld b y th e d o m in an t cultu re are b y a n d la rg e invariable—the ro y a l suprem acy, the N icene C reed, th e v alu e of o rd er—w h ile differen tiatio n occurs a t th e m ore fundam ental level o f h o w the m in d in te rp re ts th e w orld" (12-13). W h at can reasonably b e su g g ested , then, is th a t p re m o d e m culture does n o t e n d of a su dden; its relig io u s au th o rity a n d system s o f classification ev en tu ally b eg in to 7 The Kantian position takes more than it gives: it requires bravery whereas the pre-modem world picture offers consolation. Tillyard explains the psychological benefit o f the pre-modem world picture (paradoxically) as he mentions its "superstitious terrors": [I]t is worth reflecting (as is not alw ays done) that even these were not all horror and loss. If mankind had to choose between a universe that ignored him and one that noticed him to do him harm, it m ight w ell choose the second. Our ow n age need not begin congratulating itself on its freedom from superstition till it defeats a more dangerous temptation to despair. (54) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 decay, an d th e epistem es o f th e p rem o d em a n d th e m o d em sta rt to b lu r an d overlap a ro u n d th e tim e o f the R enaissance. B ut to re tu rn to C haucer's "T he F riar's Tale," a d ecid ed ly prem o d em text, certain com plications o f religious au th o rity can b e fo u n d ev en here— com plications w hich are inescapable in the context o f o rd e r a n d orthodoxy. T hough characters in p rem o d em sto ries are convinced o f the reality o f th e su p ern atu ral a n d can classify it, th ey are n o t n ecessarily quicker to ap p reh en d it in its physical m anifestation th a n a re th eir m o d em co u n terp arts. S upernatural phenom ena still req u ire testin g in th e p rem odem ag e because deception is alw ays a possibility. "T he F ria r's T ale" is the story o f a m an w ho tests th e veracity of a su p ern atu ral b ein g a n d finds o u t too la te th a t h e is indeed in the com pany o f a devil. M o dem rea d ers often m iss the com plex subtlety o f the sum m oner's hesitance to believe. This sum m oner, w ho "knew o f briberyes [w ays o f stealing] m o I T han possible is to telle in yeres tw o" (124), sets off one m o rn in g , "evere w aityng on his p ray [prey]," a p o o r o ld w idow . A long the w ay h e g reets a young m an an d introduces him self as a b ailiff. "D ep ardiex i [by G od]" says th e stranger in reply (tongue-in-cheek, since he is actu ally a devil), an d h e d eclares th a t he is a bailiff too (312). The tw o jo in forces a n d a re soon trad in g trick s o f extortion. W hen the sum m oner enthusiastically req u ests a form al in tro d u ctio n , th e you n g "bailly" m atter-of-factly tells h im , "I am a feend; m y dw ellyng is in h elle" (125). H ere begins the subtle conflict o f the sto ry . The sum m oner ap p ears to accept this proposition because h e begins to a sk questions w h ich follow from it, b u t the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 q uestions he asks are u ltim ately designed to te st th e p ro p o sitio n they assu m e. T he y o ung bailiff m ay b e ju s t a hum an, looking to p la y a jo k e o n th e su m m o n er. T he m an's ap p earan ce is certainly hum an, a n d so th e sum m oner b eg in s his cu n n in g exam ination b y ask in g th e bailiff to ex p lain h is sh ap e, w hich h e d o es as q u o ted above. T he b a iliff is inform ative b u t self-deprecating: " It is n o w o n d er th y n g th o g h itb e so [sh ap e changing]," h e say s (125). If th is tale w ere sim p ly the rew orking of th irteen th -cen tu ry exem pla, as H elen C ooper in terp rets it in T he O xford G uides to C haucer: T he C anterbury T ales, th e n th e len g th y theological d ig ression th at follow s w o u ld serve no p u rp o se b u t to d e la y the real m o ral p o in t of the story. The d iscu ssio n th a t follow s is b est re a d as a n in tellectu al j'ousting m atch, w ith the su m m o n er carefully avoiding b o th c red u lity an d in cred u lity . H e stan d s to lose his p rid e if th e b ailiff is hum an, a n d h e sta n d s to lose his so u l if the b ailiff is a devil. This is in d e e d a story w ith a m oral, a n d th e m oral is p ro v e d negatively, as the su m m o n er learn s th a t his sm arts can n o t p ro tect his so u l. F irst the sum m oner asks w h y the devil sh o u ld go to "al th is labour" o f changing shapes (125); th e d e v il avoids answ ering, claim in g h e is in a h u rry , a n d h e concludes w ith the in s u lt "b ro th er m yn, th y w it is a l to b a re I To u n d ersto n d e, a lth o g h I tolde hem th ee" (125). Y et the bailiff obliges th e sum m oner a fte r a ll, w ith a discourse o n th e lim itatio n s of dem onic pow ers, referencing the B ook o f Job. T he sum m oner p u rsu e s questions th at follow fro m a p ro p o sitio n h e do es n o t believe; he begs th e b a iliff to go on. H ere the b ailiff m entions th e p ro b lem of the m edium of E ndor—a theological question irrelev an t to a d ev il b u t w h ich , to th e sum m oner's w ay o f th in k in g , a devil o u g h t to b e ab le to answ er. In ste a d , th e b ailiff brushes th e q u e stio n a sid e, prom ising m enacingly th a t the su m m o ner w ill Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 soon fin d e n o u g h answ ers in h is "o w en e experience." H e concludes b y o fferin g the su m m o n er a choice betw een h is c o n tin u ed com pany o r a chance to "fo rsak e" him (126). If th e su m m o n er w ere convinced th a t h is com panion w as a d ev il, h e w o u ld have reaso n to flee, know ing him self to b e a n u n rep e n tan t sinner a lread y in d an g er o f th e fires o f H ell. B ut in stead , h e in sists o n staying to g eth er w ith a conditional affirm atio n w hich h in ts th a t h e is still n o t convinced o f his com panion's id en tity : 'T o r th o u g h th o u w e re th e devel Sathanas, I M y tro u th w ol I h o ld e to m y b ro th er" (126). The su m m o n er th en begins a p ractical ra th e r than a n in tellectu al te st o f the b ailiff's tru e id en tity . They com e u p o n a fru stra te d carter w ho is cu rsin g his team o f h o rses fo r b ein g unable to p u ll h is c a rt th ro u g h a m u d d y p a tc h o f ro ad : "'T he feen d ,' q u o d h e, 'y o w fecche, body a n d b o n e s'" (126). In the lin e im m ediately follow ing th is one, th e sum m oner exults in h is o p p o rtu n ity to a d d in terest to the in tellectu al jo u stin g m atch: "H eere sh a l w e have a pley." H e know s th at the fien d tak es w h a t all hum ans freely g ive h im , so he slyly challenges the "devil" to take w h a t th e c arter has offered him . B ut th e b a iliff is n o t d istu rb ed by h is in ab ility to do so; he explains th a t h e cannot take th e c art a n d horses b ecause th e c a rte r is insincere: "A xe h y m th y self, if thou n a t to w est m e; I O r elles sty n t a w h ile, a n d th o u sh alt see" (126). O nce again, th e su m m o n er's attem p t to settle th e b ailiff's identity is deflected, a n d his com panion's claim th a t th e carter w as in sin cere seem s proven tru e w hen, m om ents later, th e horses p u ll th e c a rt th ro u g h a n d the carter blesses them . "H eere m ay y e se, m y n ow ene deere b ro th er," say s th e bailiff to th e su m m o n er, "The carl [fellow ] sp a k oo thing, b u t h e th o g h te anoth er" (126). A p p aren tly th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 sum m oner believ es th e b a iliff s excuse is invalid, a n d th e carter's change of feeling is coincid en tal, fo r h e still does n o t flee. C om fortable th a t th e bailiff is b luffing ab o u t b ein g a devil, th e sum m oner tells h im to w a tc h h o w extortion is rea lly done as h e retu rn s to th e p u rsu it of his original p rey . H e " d a p p e th a t th e w ydw es gate," a n d w h en she a p p ears, he accuses h e r o f a false charge o f im m orality a n d d em an d s h e r d o a k a s paym ent, since she has n o m oney. She p lead s innocence a n d begs th e sum m oner fo r m ercy, b u t w h e n h e still insists, she becom es in d ig n a n t a n d tells th e d e v il to take him . M ore p re d se ly , she says, "U nto the devel b lak a n d ro u g h o f hew e I Yeve I thy bo d y a n d m y p an n e [doak] also!" (318). T he d ev il in terru p ts to verify th at the w idow m eans w h a t she says, a n d she affirm s it* if h e does n o t rep e n t, the devil can take him . T he dev il th e n accepts the su m m on er an d d o a k as h is "by right," an d he co n d u d es w ith a jab a t the sum m oner's earlier preten se of theological q uestio n in g : "T hou sh a lt w ith m e to helle y e t tonyght, I W here thou sh alt know en o f o u r privetee I M oore th an a m aister o f dyvynytee" (127) W ith this he sw oops d o w n o n the sum m oner an d d rag s h im to H ell. In th e O xford G uide. C ooper d e d ares th at th is tale h as a "m oral o f ra p a d ty and in ten t" w h ich is "n o t a n ap p en d ag e, b u t stru ctu rally integral" (168). T hen she accuses C h au cer o f "blindness" fo r "his in d u sio n o f a n extra m o ral a t the end, d istinctly a t o d d s w ith the p lo t, in w hich th e au dience is in v ited to consider how th e d ev il lies in w ait to en trap th e innocent—scarcely the p o in t o f this story" (168). H ow ever, innocence is in d eed in teg ral to th e stru ctu re of th e sto ry —both m oral an d in tellectu al innocence. T he sum m oner's problem is th a t h e relied on his intellectual ra th e r th a n h is m o ral capacity. T he m o rally innocent are, in fact, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 safe from Satan; it is those w ho w o u ld rath e r m an ip u late th an obey su p e rn atu ral au th o rity w ho are in d an g er. For ev en believers d o n o t alw ays know w h a t sp iritu al dangers su rro u n d them , b u t th e p u rity o f th eir souls can help th em w h en th e clarity o f th e ir in sig h t cannot. C haucer's F riar concludes his sto ry w ith th is m o ral a n d a brief reflection o n the terrors o f H ell, w h ich could, h e say s, b e m ad e considerably longer b y tak in g them es "A fter the tex t o f C rist, P oul, a n d John 1 A n d o f o u re othere doctours [authorities on ch u rch doctrine] m any o on" (127). H ere again is deference to church authority, w hose teachers, contrary to th e m o d em m ode of valu atio n, are the m ore tru stw o rth y fo r being old. T he F riar em phasizes th a t the good w ill have n o th in g to fear, b u t h e clearly believes fear o f su p ern atu ral consequences is a necessary d eterren t from sin. T hus th e p rem o d em u nd erstan d in g o f th e su p ern atu ral is b o th in ten se an d n uanced, an d m o d em critics such as P en zo ld t a n d C ooper m iss the la tte r q u ality in th eir read in g s o f prem odem texts. T here is even a nuance to the in ten sity o f the p rem o d em fear of hell, a t least in the w ays it is d ifferen t fro m the su p ern atu ral h o rro r o f m odem G othic a n d fan tastic fiction. For th e p rem odem person, fear is ju st one in a range of responses to the su p ern atu ral, w hile m o d em su p ern atu ral horror is a ll of a k in d . The physical m anifestation o f the su p ern atu ral h as a qualitatively d ifferen t effect in a p rem o d em su p ern atu ral sto ry , w h ere characters are am azed to see th e su p ern atu ral phenom ena they believe in , because the su p ern atu ral is, b y n atu re, asto u nd in g . M odem read ers a n d characters o f su p e rn atu ral stories, follow ing T odorov's form ula, are am azed to see w h a t they do n o t believe in, a n d th eir am azem ent generally takes the form o f fear ra th e r th a n aw e. A clearer Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 d istin ctio n b etw een aw e a n d fear, th e p rem o d em a n d th e m o d em responses to the su p ern atu ral, can b e m ade. A w o rld w ith o u t th e su p e rn a tu ra l—a t least in its beneficent possibilities—is fearful in p rem o d em su p e rn a tu ra l stories; a w orld w ith th e su p ern atu ral—im agined en tirely in its m aleficen t possibilities—is fearfu l in m o d em fan tastic fiction. In the sto ry o f th e m ed iu m o f E ndor, S au l's resp o n se to "Sam uel's" ad d ress is to fall "full len g th o n the g ro u n d , filled w ith fe a r b ecau se o f th e w ords of Sam uel" (I Sam . 28:20). T he fear com es from th e p ro sp e c t o f facing the P hilistines w ith o u t the h elp of th e L ord. O ne d e a r d octrine em erg es from th is sto ry because it is, if am biguous in its p ictu re o f th e afterlife a n d th e occult, d e a r in its m essage th at all is lo st w h en th e L o rd 's h elp is unavailable. F e a r b eg in s w hen the aw esom e L ord d ep arts. A n o th er form o f p rem o d em fe a r a sso d a ted w ith the su p ern atu ral is the trad itio n al "fear o f G od," e sp etially in h is presence. The law of au th o rity com m ands a resp ect fo r th e su p e rn a tu ra l so extrem e th at it resem bles fear. W . E. V ine, in V ine's E xpository D ictio n ary o f N ew Testam ent W ords, explains "rev eren tial fear" (one tran slatio n o f th e G reek w o rd "phobos" in several k ey passages o f th e N ew T estam ent) as " n o t a m ere fear of [G od's] pow er a n d righteous retrib u tio n , b u t a w holesom e d re a d o f d ispleasing H im , a fear w hich banishes the terro r th at shrinks fio m H is p re s e n c e ..." (84). E ven the "terro r" of G od th a t th e sin fu l experience is d ifferen t fro m th e m o d em terro r of the su p ern atu ral because the latter is b a sed o n a lack o f know ledge. T hese varieties of fear are fu rth er evidence o f th e com plexity o f prem o d em su p ern atu ral belief. F or th e p rem o d em person, fear c a n re s u lt from the absence o f the su p ern atu ral, w hich creates a sense o f h u m an in ad eq u acy , o r its presence, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 w hich pro d u ces rev eren tial respect, b u t i t can also resu lt from experiencing th e ev il side o f th e su p ern atu ral. The d ev il, as C h au cer rem inds u s, is a p o w erfu l force in the p rem o d em a n d early-m odern C h ristian w orld. A gain, the su p ern atu ral is k n o w n sym bolically b efo re i t is k n o w n experientially, so e v e n a n ev il m anifestation o f th e su p ern atu ral is n o t as m u ch o f a su rp rise a n d a perplexity to a p rem o d em person—ch aracter o r read er—as i t w o u ld b e to a m od em one. Even w ith th e ap p earan ce of a n u n k n o w n ev il in the p rem o d em a n d p re - C hristian W elsh m y th cycle, the M abinogion. th e o rd ered cosm os is n o t distu rb ed . In the n in th ep isode of "P w yll P rin ce o f D yved," one b ran ch o f th e M abinogion. the noble T eym on T w ryf I ia n t h a s a n encounter w ith a m y sterio u s evil force th a t has b een stealin g foals from h is b eau tifu l m are. W hen the m are gives b irth again, T eym on is present, an d h e g ets a glim pse o f th e p red ato r: [Teym on] h e a rd a g rea t com m otion, an d after th e com m otion, lo , a g reat d a w th ro u g h a w in d o w o f the house and seizing the c o lt b y the m ane. T eym on d re w h is sw o rd a n d struck o ff th e arm a t th e elbow , so th a t m uch o f th e a rm to g eth er w ith the colt w as in sid e w ith him . A n d w ith th a t h e h e a rd a com m otion a n d a scream , b o th a t once. H e op en ed th e d o o r a n d ru sh ed after the com m otion. H e could n o t see th e com m otion, so very black w as th e n ig h t. H e ru sh ed a fter it an d p u rsu e d it. A n d h e rem em bered th a t h e h a d left the do o r open , an d he retu rn e d . A nd a t the door, lo, a n in fa n t boy in sw addling-clothes, w ith a sh e et o f brocaded silk w rap p ed aro u n d him . (20) In this episode, w hich contains a su p e rn a tu ra l terro r n o t unlike som ething from a n H . P. L ovecraft story, th e u n d a u n te d T ey m o n actually p u rsues a n d triu m p h s over the m onster, an d the episode en d s w ith th e g rea t good fo rtu n e of th e reap p earan ce of th e m issing child o f P rin ce Pw yll. In m odem fan tastic fiction, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 such su p ern atu ral terro rs com pletely overw h elm th e h u m an ch aracters a n d becom e the cen tral actio n o f the n arrativ e. The sh o rt n arrativ e o f Pw yll op en s w ith a n exchange th a t ty p ifies th e interm ixture o f n a tu ra l a n d su p e rn atu ral in th e w o rld o f p rem o d em sto ries. Pw yll m eets A raw n, a lo rd of the o th e r w o rld , a n d by m eans of A raw n 's pow ers they trad e sh ap es. T ransform ed, P w yll re tu rn s to A raw n's hom e a n d ru les there w ith o u t any o f A raw n 's co u rt o r subjects noticing the difference, fit his "Prolegom ena to a R eading of th e M abinogi: T w y ll' an d 'M an aw y d an ,'" P atrick K. Ford explains, "T he opening ep iso d e o f Pw yll i s ... concerned w ith the m ediation of th e tw o w orlds, w ith b rin g in g g o d to m an an d m an to g o d " (205). Ford rem arks o n th e "considerable o b scurity o f the boundaries o f th e tw o w orlds" in the M abinogio n (203), w hich, b u t fo r the m ilder h ierarch y of su p ern atu ral o v er n a tu ra l, is n o t v ery d ifferen t from the u n b o u n d ed incidence of the su p ern atu ral in C h ristian p rem o d em n arrativ es. In o th er w o rd s, pag an s an d C hristians o f th e p rem o d em w o rld have m o re beliefs in com m on th a n do prem odem p ag an s a n d m o d em m aterialists. The m ed iu m o f E n d o r story is from th e H ebrew scriptures an d d a te s from perhaps the te n th century BCE; C haucer w ro te his friar's tale in th e la te fourteenth cen tu ry in C hristianized E u ro p e; the M abinogion w as w ritte n do w n in C haucer's cen tu ry b u t probably o rig in ated three h u n d red years e arlie r w h en W elsh p ag an ism w as still in practice. D esp ite th e g reat sp an of tim e an d religious orien tatio n s rep resen ted b y th ese stories, they all share a v iew o f the cosm os strikingly d ifferen t from the ep istem e o f m odem W estern cu ltu re. In the epistem e of p rem o d em cultures, th e su p e rn atu ral w orld is as real as th e n a tu ra l Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 one; h u m an ity is p a rt o f b o th w o rld s; know ledge o f b o th w orlds is available to hum ans; a n d the su p ern atu ral w o rld , lik e the n a tu ra l o n e, has b o th helps a n d terrors. H. T rad itio n al Belief in Folktales T he p rem o d em interm ixture o f n a tu ra l an d su p e rn atu ral environm ents c an still b e fo u n d in parts o f the w o rld w here trad itio n al cu ltu res survive. In his excellent stu d y Folktales and R eality. L utz R ohrich relates the com m ents o f a native G reenlander, "w hich typ ify the deep-seated b elief th a t all o ral narratives are true": A ll of o u r legends (this includes folktales a n d m yths) d ep ict p eople's experiences. T hey are the tru th . O u r w ise forefathers d id n o t pass d o w n th oughtless jabber o r lies. If m any incidents ap p ear u n tru e to m o d em people, it is only because they are of m ore d elicate co n stitu tio n th a n th e ancestors w ho gave u s these stories. (R ohrich 145) A ccording to this prem odem u n d erstan d in g , a n in cred ulo u s response to a m arvelous story is a sign of a d efect in th e reader, n o t in the sto ry . Thus, the living o ral trad itio n of a folk c u ltu re is reg ard ed b y its o rig in al culture as a rep resen tatio n of reality, no m a tte r how fantastic its sto ries m ay seem to a m o d em audience. B ut once a n o ra l trad itio n is no lo n g er living, it is no longer a com pletely reliable p ictu re of folk belief. Folktales are am ong th e last rem nants of p rem o d em culture w hich rem ain tru e to their o rig in al m eanings in surviving p rem o d em contexts; b u t they becom e a reco rd of th e process o f m odernization as they m ake contact w ith m o d em consum ers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 W ritten folktale collections a re n o t alw ays a n accu rate rep resen tatio n o f the p rem od em consciousness, fo r reasons elab o rated belo w , b u t the basic n a rra tiv e stru ctu res o f folktales s till reflect p rem o d em v a lu e s.8 D eclaring his w o rk a p rerequ isite to h isto ric al stu d ies o f folktales, V lad im ir P ro p p , in M orphology o f the Folktale, describes th e folktale "according to its com ponent p arts a n d th e relationship o f th ese co m p o nen ts to each o th e r a n d to th e w hole" (18). H e g roups folktales acco rd in g to th e ir "functions," w h ic h a re "stable, co n stan t elem ents in th e fo lk tale g en re, in d ep en d en t o f w h o p erfo rm s them , a n d h o w th ey are fu lfilled b y th e d ra m a tis personae" (20). A s P ro p p catalogues folktale functions, he does n o t a tte m p t to m ake claim s a b o u t th e values of th e fo lk w h o first created the tales, b u t som e of th eir beliefs a re visib le th ro u g h P ro p p 's stu d y even so. For exam ple, th e la w o f au th o rity is v isib le in a t lea st one of th e structures he describes: th e interdiction. A ccording to P ro p p , a fo lk tale's in terd ictio n is one o f its prim ary functions; and a n in terd ictio n is p ro d u c t of au th o rial law . I t is also a p ro d u ct of d ed u ctiv e thinking, w hich is b a se d o n necessity: if a fo rb id d e n actio n is taken, th ere w ill be u n p leasan t consequences. W hat guarantees th e n ecessity o f th e consequences is the au th o rity of th e o n e m ak in g the interdiction. T his fo rm o f au tho rity-based 8 As w ith myth cycles like the M abinogion. folktales have no single author whose intentions or personal history can be known, nor can the date of their origins ever be precisely determined. Therefore, these texts cannot stand alone; they require an understanding of a whole culture and system of belief, not just an understanding of an idiosyncratic author. As Roman Jakobson observed, "The socialized sections o f mental culture, as for instance language or the folk tale, are subject to much stricter and m ore uniform laws than fields in which individual creation prevails" (quoted in Tatar 66). Thus, generalizations about premodern culture are essential to any attempt to understand their original m eaning. An individual author like Chaucer, who was w riting in a fictional and comic but realistic m ode, still partakes o f the prem odem consciousness and can lend support to claims about it. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 d eductive th in k in g fell o u t o f favor w ith th e scientific rev o lu tio n , b u t G- K. C hesterton describes its v irtu es in h is tw entieth-century relig io u s treatise. O rthodoxy. C h esterto n calls the fo lk tale in terd ictio n the "D octrine o f C onditional Joy,"9 a n d h e calls it a n exam ple o f h o w fairy tales a re m u ch m ore "philosophic" th a n m o d e m science: "W e h av e alw ays in o u r fa iry tales k e p t this sharp d istin ctio n b e tw ee n th e science o f m en tal relations, in w h ic h th ere really are law s, a n d th e science o f ph y sical facts, in w hich there are n o law s, b u t only w eird rep etitio n s" (51). W ith the p h rase "w e ird rep etitio ns" C h esterto n alludes to inductive thinking. But, d esp ite h o ld o u ts like C h esterto n , th e scientific rev o lu tio n a n d th e m odem preference fo r in d u ctiv e th in k in g eventually m ad e th e ir w ay to the folk and beg an to replace tra d itio n a l w ays o f life, as P adraic C olum describes in his in tro d u ctio n to The C o m p lete G rim m s' F airy Tales: 'T h e p ro lo n g atio n o f lig ht, the in tro d u ctio n of b o o k s a n d new sp apers, th e cessation o f th e h o u seh o ld arts all w ent together to m ak e a n e n d of th e trad itio n a l stories in E u ro p ean cottages" (viii). These n ew technologies an d m ean s of com m unication e ro d e d th e pattern s o f p rem o d em daily life, in w hich "O ne d id n o t introduce n ew d esig n s into w eaving o r cart-b u ild in g , a n d one d id n o t introduce new d esig n s in to 9 Chesterton says: Anyone can see it w ho w ill sim ply read "Grimm's Fairy Tales." . . . [A]ccording to elfin ethics all virtue is an "if." The note o f the fairy utterance always is, "You may live in a palace of gold and sapphire, if you do not say the word 'cow"'; or "You may live happily w ith the King's daughter, if you do not show her an onion." The vision always hangs upon a veto. A ll the dizzy and colossal things conceded depend upon one sm all thing withheld. A ll the w ild and whirling things that are let loose depend upon one thing forbidden. It is no matter that the condition is "incomprehensible," for the happiness promised on that condition is equally so. (Chesterton 55-56) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 storytelling" (C olum ix). A nd R dhrich p o in ts o u t th a t ev en fo r the folktale, histo ry does n o t stan d still. Folktales giv e u s a lin k to th e archaic m agical p ast, b u t in itself this "genre" experiences changes o v er tim e. R bhrich w rites th a t "the histo ry o f the folktale is th e h isto ry o f g rad u ally ch an ging orientations to reality corresponding to th e various stag es in p eo p le's sen se o f reality ” (4). Yet R ohrich insists in th e in tro d u ctio n to h is b o o k th a t th e folktale m u st b e u n d ersto o d as a p ro d u ct o f p eo p le's m inds, so th e in te rp reter m u st consider the historical w ays of thin k in g th a t p ro d u ced it (8).10 H e ad d s th a t w h en in terp reters look fo r a "deeper" o r "actual" m eaning to a fo lktale (the larg e num ber an d disagreem ent of w hich prove th e m eth o d d u b io u s), th ey b etray th eir rationalistic prejudices a n d ironically privilege th e in te rp retatio n as m ore real th an the folktale, no t seeing the h isto ricity o f th eir o w n beliefs (R ohrich 7). M odem critical interpretations o f folktales req u ire fu rth e r atten tio n , b u t before looking a t how the m eaning o f folktales has fared in m o d em tim es, w h a t the narratives them selves have suffered m u st b e ad d ressed . E v en th e m o st sincere efforts to reconstruct the values of th e o rig inal audience w ill b e th w arted to som e exten t by the m utations th a t the tales have alread y un d erg o n e. 10In his book, The Folktale. Stith Thompson makes a sim ilar observation when he discusses the traditional background from which so much o f the literary and artistic life of Europe and western Asia has sprung: A very important part o f this background o f im agination is dependent upon the belief in m agic That the world is filled w ith objects w hich defy all the laws of nature and which obtain miraculous results w ithout ordinary labor—such is the faith of all those who take seriously the tales o f the Brothers Grimm or the properly vouched for local legends o f one's ow n community. (Thompson 253) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 HI. The B rothers G rim m a n d T heir M odem U se of Folktales In the first sectio n o f h e r book. The H a rd Facts o f th e G rim m s' F airy T ales. M aria T atar offers the resu lts o f h e r research in to the in itial m o d em contam ination o f the G rim m folktale collection b y its o w n resp ectab le a n d scholarly ed ito rs, Jacob a n d W ilhelm G rim m . She explains th a t th e G rim m s b o th intensified the violence o f th e stories (the difference in "The M agic T able, the G old D onkey, a n d th e C u d g el in th e Sack" betw een the first a n d seco n d editions of the collection is dram atic) an d elim inated references "to w h a t th e y coyly called "certain conditions a n d relatio n sh ip s/ Forem ost am ong th e co n d itio n s seem s to have b een pregnancy" (T atar 6-7). D orothea V iehm ann, a fo lk n a rra to r a n d inform ant high ly reg ard ed b y the G rim m s, related to them a v ersio n o f "The M aster H u n ter" w hich, because of its references to a n ak ed p rin cess, a p rin ce w ho lies d o w n n e x t to h er, a n d a resu ltin g pregnancy, n ev er fo u n d its w ay from the Grimms" notes to p u blication (T atar 7). W hile Jacob w as less e ag e r to revise the tales, W ilhelm "w as p rep ared to d elete o r revise tales d eem ed u n su itab le for children" (T atar 18). To fu rth er w eak en the claim th a t th e G rim m tales rep resen t p rem o d e m values, T atar explains th a t "recent scholarship has show n th a t [th e G rim m s] actually relied o n sources a t least a t one rem ove from p easan t c u ltu re "(24). Indeed, the G rim m s describe D orothea V iehm ann in th e preface o f th e ir second volum e as a "p easan t w om an" w ho to ld "genuine H essian tales," th o u g h sh e w as, in reality, fro m a H u g u en o t fam ily a n d the w ife o f a ta ilo r (N eu m ann 31). It seem s th a t the Grim m s" tendency w as to idealize b o th the tales a n d th e ir tellers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 T atar concedes, how ever, th a t "T he b asic content [of th e tales] m ay n o t have d ev iated sharply from w h a t w as to ld a t h arvesting tim e o r in th e sp in n in g room , b u t off-color details along w ith c ru d e language h a d n o d o u b t b e en toned d o w n o r elim inated" (24)* I t m u st b e n o te d th a t ev en if th e G rim m s a n d th eir inform ants av oid ed folktale co n ten t th a t m ig h t h av e sh o ck ed nineteenth-century G erm an bourgeois sen sib ilities, scholars like P ro p p h av e b e e n ab le to describe die essential qualities o f fo lk tales, w h ich su rv iv ed d esp ite o th e r d isto rtio n s o f m o d em tim es. Y et one cru cial q u estio n rem ains: W hat effect d id the bow dlerizing of th e tales h a v e o n th e ir su p ern atu ral content? In T atar's book, th ere is a n o u tstan d in g exam ple o f d isto rtio n o f the p rem o d em view o f th e su p e rn a tu ra l in these tales, w hich is in th e "th e textual h isto ry o f the tale k n o w n as 'T h e G irl W ithout H a n d s'" (T atar 9). Squeam ishness ab o u t the unsavory topic o f in ce st m otiv ated the G rim m s to choose fo r th eir collection a less au th en tic a n d , interestin g ly , m ore su p e rn atu ral v ersio n of the tale. In the m ore au th en tic v ersio n , a g irl tries to escape h e r fath er, w ho dem ands to m arry her, a n d h e r h a n d s a n d b reasts are ch o p ped off a s p u n ish m en t. In less au th en tic versions, the fa th e r is p o o r a n d unw ittingly gives th e d e v il his d au g h te r in a bargain, a n d th o u g h she is pious a n d elu d es th e d ev il, the g irl loses h e r h an d s in doing so. T atar do es n o t elaborate o n how th e G rim m s ju d g ed one form o f the tale m ore a u th e n tic th a n another, b u t the sim p le fact th a t tw o su ch d ifferen t versions o f this tale ex ist is w o rth consideration. It is true th a t p rem o d em E u ro p ean cultures believed in th e d e v il an d in his ability to m otivate p eople to sin , b u t it is also tru e th at th e G rim m s preference fo r the su p ern atu ral v ersio n o f "T he G irl W ithout H ands" a d d s in a sm all w ay to th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 im p ressio n th a t p rem o d e m E uropeans w ere n aiv e a n d credulous, w ith o u t a so ph isticated u n d e rsta n d in g o f h u m an n atu re. In fact, th e m ore au th en tic v ersio n o f th e tale d em o n strates th a t p rem o d em s w ere n o t a t all relu ctan t to discuss difficult topics lik e incest, a n d it show s th a t th e o rig in al audience o f th is tale h ad a category fo r p u re ly h u m an evil. By its lack o f su p ern atu ral elem ents, therefore, th e m ore a u th en tic v e rsio n o f the tale a d d s to th e p ictu re of p rem o d e m consciousness, w h ich h a d ro o m fo r b o th su p e rn atu ral evils, like w itches, a n d n a tu ra l evils, like in cestu o u s a n d abusive fathers. Finally, in looking a t T atar's tex tu al histo ry o f th e G rim m stories, w h a t stan d s o u t ab o u t th e tro u b le tak e n to alter th em is th e incredible in terest o f th e m od em , scientific G rim m B rothers in p rem o d em p easan t folktales an d th e life lo n g investm en t th ey m ad e in p rom oting them . T h eir in terest is the m ore incredible, g iv en th a t th e sales o f th eir w ork w ere n o t significant u n til w ell a fte r th eir d eath s.1 1 A long w ith d isap p o in tin g sales cam e unfavorable review s, a n d th e G rim m s n early d e sp aire d o f th eir collection. The first b it o f sales success th e G rim m s exp erienced cam e in 1825 w ith th e "Sm all E dition" o f th e ir book, "w h ich w as conceived p rim arily fo r ch ild ren an d in clu d ed fifty selected texts a n d engravings" (N eum ann 29). This is o b serv ed b y 11 Ruth B. Bottigheimer explains w hy in her article, "The Publishing History of the Grimms' Tales: Reception at the Cash Register": Both the German book-buying public and the books it bought changed in the course of the nineteenth century. Bourgeois taste tending toward the aristocratic dominated the fairy-tale market around 1800 In the course of the nineteenth century, however, book buyers in general came to reject aristocratic styles and instead affirmed consciously bourgeois ones. . . . However, by the turn o f the twentieth century taste has further altered, and the folk content, values, and style of the Grimms' Kinder- und HausmIrchen. ringing up sales at the cash register, made it the reigning favorite of the fairy-tale world____(78) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Siegfried N eu m an n in h is article "T he B rothers G rim m as C ollectors a n d E ditors of G erm an F olktales"; h e goes o n to n o te th a t th is "sm oothed th e w ay fo r th e reception o f th e larg e edition" w hich fo llo w ed it an d th a t w as, ev en m ore th an the first tw o ed itio n s, stylistically "honed" b y W ilhelm (29). W hereas T atar dem onstrates th e G rim m s' censorship o f th e tales, N eum ann gives strik in g exam ples o f th e ir literary em bellishm ent.12 O n e reaso n for this em bellishm ent w as th e G rim m s' d esire fo r the book to b e u se d fo r educational p u rp o ses (N eum ann 27), a n am b itio n th a t w as im possible if th e tales w ere n o t w ritte n in H igh G erm an. G rim m s' tales eventually becam e sta n d a rd in school curricula th e w o rld over. In fact, "w e know th a t baby E leanor M arx, K arl's daughter liv in g in London, lea rn ed h e r G erm an from th e G rim m s' fairy tales" (B ottigheim er 79). O ther notable G erm ans w ho enjoyed the tales as child ren include G oethe, A ugust W ilhelm a n d Friedrich Schlegel, a n d H ugo v o n H ofm annsthal (B ottigheim er 79).1 3 W hat w as of u n iqu e sch o larly in terest to the G rim m s in the 12 In the first edition, the opening lines o f "The Frog King" read this way: Once upon a time there was a king's daughter w ho went into the forest and sat down at a cool w ell. She had a golden ball that w as her favorite toy. She would throw it up and catch it in the air and was am used by this, (quoted in Neumann 29) By the final edition, the same opening has become: In olden tim es, when wishing still helped, there lived a king whose daughters were all beautiful, but the youngest was so beautiful that the sun itself, which had seen so many things, was always filled with amazement each time it cast its rays upon her face. N ow , there was a great dark forest near the king's castle, and in this forest, beneath an old linden tree, was a w ell. Whenever the days were very hot, the king's daughter w ould go into the forest and sit down by the edge of the cool w ell. If she became bored, she would take her golden ball, throw it into he air, and catch it. More than anything else she loved playing w ith this ball, (quoted in Neumann 30) 13 The tales also occupied the attention of a young Friedrich Nietzsche, as Richard Perkins describes in "Little Brier Rose: Young Nietzsche's Sleeping Beauty as Legend and Swan Song." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 early n ineteenth cen tu ry becam e th e com m on in te re st o f la te r generations w ho g rew u p read in g the tales. A q u estio n th a t rem ains u n an sw ered , how ever, is w hy the bourgeois G erm an p aren ts o f th e n in eteen th cen tu ry , w ho d id n o t fin d the tales fit read in g fo r them selves—d u e, m o st likely, to th e tales' low culture a n d su p erstitio n —w o u ld h av e co nsidered th em fit re a d in g fo r th eir children. It seem s th a t th e G rim m tales h av e a resonance e v en in the m o d em age. O ne explanation fo r th is is th a t th e G rim m s' project sh a re d th e aim s o f N aturpoesie. a concept th at saw "th e o rig in al source o f poetry a n d th e echo o f ancient literatu re" in th e "songs, fairy tales, a n d legen d s o f the com m on p e o p le " a n d w as a g reat in sp iratio n to the R om antic m ovem ent (N eum ann 26). T he R om antic m ovem ent h a d a n in terest in rem o v in g th e su p ern atu ral from its d o ctrin al context an d exploiting its im aginative p o w e r in th e arts. If m o d em read ers have no taste for su p ern atu ral au th o rity , th ey still have a taste fo r folktales. IV. M odem C ritical U ses o f Folktales M odem critics o ften ap p ro ach folktales w ith a stra n g e com bination of ad m iratio n an d condescension. T hey p o stu late th a t g re a t psychological tru th s w ere unconsciously d ep o site d in these p rem o d em c u ltu ra l artifacts. The m o d em h isto ry of folktale criticism is m ark ed b y this ad m irin g condescension, w hich is u su ally ow ing to a F reu d ian critical m ethod of lo o k in g fo r th e laten t m eaning in the m anifest one. The p rem o d e m folk, in these analyses, a re rep resen ted as w ise b u t b lin d , speaking tru th s th ey them selves d id n o t fu lly u n d erstan d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 Jam es M . M cG lath ery 's book, G rim m s' F airy Tales: A H istory o f C riticism o n a P o p u lar C lassic, o ffers a n excellent co m p en d iu m o f various schools o f folktale criticism o f th e la s t tw o centuries. T he first o f th e schools to fin d a difference betw een m an ifest a n d la te n t co n ten t in fo lk tales w as led by M ax M uller, w ho av erred th a t th e tales w ere really a b o u t th e m o v em en t o f heavenly b o d ies. 'T o r exam ple, th e p rin c e 's aw akening o f S leeping B eauty w as seen as d ep ictin g th e su n 's w arm in g o f th e e a rth in sp rin g tim e" (M cG lathery 7-8). A n o th er ap p ro ach h a d scholars stu d y in g w o rld folktales as th ey w o u ld botany, search in g fo r p ro o f of m onogenesis o r polygenesis. This ra th e r objective m ethod la te r a d d e d to the controversy a b o u t w h e th er the la te n t significance o f the tales w as u n iv ersal o r national. T he G rim m s' enthusiasm fo r folktales w as d u e in p a rt to th eir n atio n alist sen tim en ts, as th ey w orked d u rin g the th rea t of occupation b y N apoleon. N a tio n a list sentim ent in F in lan d g av e rise to the project o f cataloguing fo lk tale m otifs in indexes, a s th e F in n ish governm ent su p p o rte d the creation o f fo lk tale archives (M cG lathery 9). These assertio n s th a t folktales w ere re a lly a b o u t eith er the heavenly y e ar o r national sp irit seem ra th e r m ild com pared to th e claim s o f the m o st p ro lific a n d long-lived school o f folktale criticism : p sy ch o an aly sis. T he psychoanalytic stu d y of folktales alm o st im m ediately follow ed the em ergence of psychoanalytic criticism in th e e a rly p a rt o f the tw en tieth cen tu ry (M cG lathery 11), a n d it continues to th is d a y (nearly a century later!). In d eed , th e pow er of psychoanalytic criticism is precisely in its ab ility to m ake claim s. O th er, m ore objective stu d ies, lik e P ro p p 's, fall sh o rt o f b e in g ab le to offer m u ch to th e read er searching fo r m ean in g . Scholars like S tith T ho m p so n , w ho consciously follow s a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 scientific m odel o f research , o r Jack Zipes, w ho takes a M arxist approach, are constrained to offer a lim ited thesis w hich m ay describe asp ects o f a tale b u t do n o t in terp ret th e tale as a w hole. A nother lim ited a p p ro ach is fem inism , w hich, like M arxism , can p o in t o u t o p p ressio n in a tale b u t, th o u g h it tries to, still can n o t say w h a t the tale m ean s generally. Indeed, psychoanalytic critics easily absorb th e w o rk o f th o se w ho m ake m ore objective claim s. A lth o u g h M aria T atar criticizes P ro p p fo r hav in g "lim ited his v isio n . . . to th e shallow ness o f em pirical o bservation a n d ... consequently explained nothing m o re th a n th e m anifest content o f fo lktales" (68), the folktale m odel she uses in h e r o w n thesis ow es a g reat d eal to P ro p p 's fo rm alist analysis (and sh e recognizes h e r d e b t to him ). W hat T atar ad d s to h e r folktale m odel is a n arg u m en t th at the la te n t m eaning o f su p ern atu ral folktales is th e psychological dynam ics of im m ediate fam ilies. T atar's key argum ent, if tautological, is representative of th e psy cho an alytic school of in terp retatio n . She says, "S upernatural events, b y th eir very n atu re, invite in te rp retatio n " (T atar 51). In o th er w ords, su p e rn atu ral events—naturally—cannot b e su p ern atu ral; they m u st b e som ething else, a m an ifestatio n o f a different, la te n t m eaning. This m ethod of in terp retatio n is n o t o n ly "n atu ra l" b u t sane a n d so p h isticated , because "W ho w ould be so literal m in d e d as to try to explain H ansel a n d G retel's encounter w ith [the w itch] in realistic term s?" (T atar 51). In d eed , v ery few m o d em critics w ould be. T hough T atar's o w n a p p ro ach is psychological, she recognizes th e dan g er of this pow erful m ethod. T atar criticizes scholar K arl A braham fo r "seizing on the parallels betw een p lo t p a tte rn a n d a psychological d o c trin e ,. . . telling u s m ore Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 about the F reudian d o ctrin e th a n about th e tale" (55). This sober-m inded observation is follow ed b y a n injunction to a ll folktale scholars: "T hose w ho m ake it th eir b u sin ess to stu d y fairy tales m u st see to it th a t th ey tell u s m ore about the tales th an a b o u t th e ir particu lar school o f th o u g h t" (T atar 55). A nd this is all sound an d excellent advice. H ow ever, if the su p ern atu ral in folktales requires in terp retatio n , an d , as T atar later says, " it is g en erally p o intless to tu rn the historian's beacon o n th a t particu lar w o rld in search o f signs o f th e tim es" (57), how can an y m o d em critic avoid saying m ore ab o u t h e r favorite th eo ry than about "th at p articu lar w orld"? It seem s th a t it is im possible for m o d em critical stu d ies o f folktales com pletely to avoid th e m istake o f K arl A braham w ho "replaces o ne m y th w ith another" (Tatar 55). W hen T atar refers to A braham 's F reu d ian th eo ry as a "doctrine" or a replacem ent m yth, she is q uite right. In general, psychology has becom e a replacem ent fo r p rem o d em doctrines, a m y th w h ich fills in g ap s o f u nderstanding an d p ro v id es th e authority to reaso n d eductively w h en the evidence necessary fo r scientific thinking is unavailable. T he m eaning of folktales cannot b e p ro v id ed b y em pirical m eans,14 an d p rem o d em stories cannot supply to m o d em read ers th e m eaning they once d id to th eir o riginal audiences—a m eaning w h ich w as external a n d objective. In stead , psychology has internalized the cosm os, a n d psychological critics fin d th a t folktales "are m ore likely to h arb o r in n er th an outer realities, to incarnate psychic tru th s rather 14 Psychology does not provide these empirical means. Karl Popper, who insists that "the criterion of the scientific status o f a theory is its falsifiability. or refutablility. or testability." considers psychology a pseudoscience because there is no way to falsify such psychological theories as the Freudian O edipus Complex (101, emphasis Popper's). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 th a n social facts, an d to rep re se n t fig u rativ e expressions ra th e r th a n literal m eanings" (T atar 57). It is o d d th a t T atar's book, w h ic h begins as a treatise o n th e u n reliab ility o f the G rim m folktale collection, becom es, w ith in tw o ch ap ters, a n arg u m en t fo r th e "tim eless ideas em bedded in fairy tales" (57). She accom plishes th is startlin g tran sitio n fro m textual criticism to b o ld explication o f th e tales b y rely in g o n em pirical m ethods o f "id en tify in g th e rec u rren t them es, stock characters, a n d rep etitiv e p attern s th a t co n stitu te foU doric texts." T atar "m ove[s] from the folklore o f fairy tales to th e fo lk lore o f th e h u m an m ind" (57). T atar relies n o t only o n fo rm alist criticism b u t also cm th e polygenesis theo ry o f folktales, w h ich suggests th a t universal m eanings w e re d isp arately o b served a n d reco rd ed in folktales th e w o rld over. T his in d ire ctly ad d s relevance to F re u d 's theory of fam ily rom ance, the m ain su p p o rt fo r T atar's thesis, b y m atching his th eo ry w ith u n iv ersalist claim s ab o u t folktales. F reu d is no longer a b o urg eo is V iennese in tellectu al of the tu rn of th e c e n tu ry b u t a m aster w hose revelations are as "tim eless" as folktales. W ith o u t som e form o f a u th o rita tiv e revelation, w h eth er it b e p rem o d em theology o r m o d em psychology, th e "real" m eaning o f folktales is o u t o f reach. B ecause folktales have no single a u th o r w hose intentions o r p erso n al h isto ry can b e know n, a n d because the d a te of th e ir origins can n ev er b e determ in ed , these texts can n o t stan d alone. T hey o p e ra te according to a se t o f assum ptions v ery d ifferen t from those o f m o d em lite ra tu re . P ro pp an d oth ers lik e h im h av e d escrib ed the law of folktales b u t h a v e n o t described the m ean in g o f th e w o rld Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 th at they o p erate in, w h ereas the psychological school o f folktale criticism invents a new m ean in g fo r folktales. To th e task o f in v en tin g a new m eaning, th e o ld m eaning is a n o bstacle. F o r psychological criticism to offer its m ean in g to folktales, w h at rem ains o f th e p rem o d em m ean in g o f folktales m u st b e c le are d aw ay. O nce o ld beliefs a re debunked, they c an becom e u sefu l to m o d e m p u rp o ses. P erhaps th e m o stly w idely-know n w o rk o f psychological criticism o f folktales is B runo B ettelh eim 's The U ses of E nchantm ent: T he M eaning a n d Im portance o f Fairy Tates. In th is stud y , B ettelheim answ ers the earlier q u e stio n o f w h y scientific p a re n ts w o u ld read folktales to th eir children: because it is sa lu ta ry fo r the you n g p sy ch e. B ettelheim reassu res p a re n ts w ith these w o rd s: From a n a d u lt p o in t of view a n d in term s of m o d em science, th e answ ers w hich fairy stories o ffer are fan tastic rath er th a n true. A s a m atter o f fact, these so lu tio n s seem so incorrect to m any a d u lts—w ho have becom e e stran g e d from the w ays in w hich y o u n g p eo p le experience th e w o rld —th a t they object to exposing ch ild ren to such "false" in fo rm atio n . H ow ever, realistic explanations are usu ally incom prehensible to ch ild ren , because they lack th e ab stract u n d erstan d in g req u ire d to m ake sense o f th em I t is therefore im p o rtan t to rem em ber th a t only statem ents w h ic h are intelligible in term s o f th e ch ild 's existing k n o w ledg e a n d em otional p reo ccu p atio ns carry conviction fo r h im . (47-48) Indeed, th o u g h B ettelheim dignifies folktales to d u b io u s parents, h e m akes n o attem p t to rescue th em fro m the nu rsery . T he U ses o f E nch an tm en t is, first a n d forem o st, a w o rk of child psychology. In a single sentence, B ettelheim m oves from v a lu in g th e general w isd o m o f folktales to d ev alu in g it b y lim iting th e u se o f th is w isdom to child psychology: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 "These tales are th e p u rv ey o rs o f d eep insights th a t h av e su stain ed m ankind throu g h the long v icissitudes o f its existence, a h eritag e th a t is n o t revealed in any o th er form as sim ply a n d directly, o r as accessibly, to children" (26). In o ne m om ent B ettelheim describes folktales as ad d ressin g "u n iv ersal hum an problem s" (36); in an o th er m o m en t h e p u ts p reliterate p eo p le o n a p a r w ith children (45). U sing Piaget*s m o d el o f stages o f d ev elopm ent, B ettelheim recognizes b elief in folktales as a n im p o rtan t stage, n o t to b e skipped, o n th e w ay to m aturity. This in d irectly calls in to q u estio n th e po ssib ility o f m atu rity for m em bers of a p reliterate o r p rem o d e m cultures. Folktales, then, o u g h t to b e outgrow n. T heir usefulness can only be tem porary an d transitional, in th e service o f reaching a so lid ly scientific view o f the w orld. A lthough B ettelheim 's statem ents are ab o u t "m an" a n d "m ankind," w hat he says ab o u t cu ltu ral p ro g ress can only be said o f m o d em w estern cultu re: W hat seem s d esirab le fo r the in d iv id u al is to re p e a t in his life sp an the process in v o lv ed historically in th e genesis of scientific th o u g h t F o r a lo n g tim e in h isto ry m a n u se d em otional projections—su ch as gods—b o m o f h is im m ature hopes an d anxieties to ex p lain m an, his society, a n d th e universe; these ex p lan atio n s gave him a feeling o f security. T hen slow ly, b y h is o w n social, scientific, a n d technological progress, m an freed him self o f the co n stant fea r fo r his very existence. Feeling m o re secure in th e w orld, a n d also w ith in him self, m an co u ld n o w b e g in to qu estio n th e v alid ity o f the im ages h e h a d u se d in th e p a st as explanatory tools. From there m an 's "ch ild ish " projections dissolved a n d m ore rational explanations took th e ir place. (51) O ne m ight w onder if B ettelheim believes there can be m atu re hopes an d anxieties, especially as he concludes his rem arks: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 "This process, how ever, is by no m eans w ith o u t vagaries. In in terv en in g periods of stress an d scarcity, m an seeks fo r co m fo rt a g a in in the 'c h ild ish ' n o tio n th a t he and his place o f abo de are the center o f th e u n iv erse" (51). T he po ssib ility o f the real existence o f su p ern atu ral succor fo r h u m an k in d is sim ply unacceptable to the m atu re ad u lt, e v en if it m ay be w ish e d fo r in difficult tim es. B ettelheim is a t least adm iring in h is condescension, allow ing som e continued u se fo r su p ern atu ral stories. O th ers are m ore condescending th an adm iring. In h is fam ous tum -of-the-century w o rk . The G olden B ough . Sir Jam es Frazer adm its "o u r d e b t to the savage" b u t p o in ts o u t the "flaw " o f p rem o d em th o u g h t incorrect prem ises of reasoning th a t assum ed th e reality o f th e supernatural. The "erro rs" of p rem o d em beliefs w ere "sim ply hypotheses, justifiable as su ch a t th e tim e w hen th ey w ere p ro po u n d ed, b u t w h ich a fu rth er experience has p ro v ed to b e inadequate" (98). F razer is g rateful fo r th e "toil" of prem odem th in kers, b u t h e has no ro o m fo r th e o ld m eaning in h is n e w one. Both Frazer a n d B ettelheim have a scientific v iew o f the w o rld a n d re a d the su p ern atu ral elem ents of folktales as im m atu re m istakes, b u t B ettelheim goes so far as to sanction co n tin u ed belief in th e tales, if only the tem p o rary b elief o f children. As c u ltu ral artifacts o r as m etap h o rs fo r psychic processes, folktales are acceptable to m o d em critics. V. A M odernized Folktale C om pared w ith Its O riginal E ven the w ild est suggestions ab o u t th e m eaning of folktales a re to the credit of the p rem o d em fo lk w hose p o p ular sto ries still sp ark g reat in te rest h u n d red s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 o f years later. The folktale h as a d efinite form , b u t i t h as n o t ossified (as B akhtin, says of the epic)—p erh ap s because its settin g is tim eless a n d its characters are sim ple folk w ith w hom th e audience m ay id en tify . T he p lasticity o f folktales h a s k e p t them alive, a n d d esp ite th e po ten tial p ro b lem o f th eir su p ern atu ral co n ten t, they are still attractiv e a n d u sefu l to m o d em a u th o rs a n d audiences. A d ap tatio n s o f folktales, lik e those collected b y th e B rothers G rim m , reflect new er tim es, as m o d em au th o rs a n d critics a d a p t th em to th eir p u rp o ses. T he bow d lerized folktales o f th e G rim m collection sh o w som e o f the sensibilities o f the nineteenth-century G erm an m id d le d a ss, d e sp ite th e G rim m B rothers' scholarly ideals, for instance. B ut there is m o re th a n scholarly in terest in folktales in m o d em tim es. C reative w riters, as diverse as perform ance a rtist Laurie A nderson a n d h o rro r fictio n w riter P eter S trau b (H aase 9,20), have u sed folktales fo r in sp iratio n a n d as source m aterial. A n o th er is A nne Sexton, w hose poetic retellin g of "G odfather D eath" in h e r collected revisions o f G rim m folktales, T ransform ations, rep resen ts fa r m o re o f m o d em th an p rem o d em tim es. T he transform ation o f th is tale is the re su lt o f a d ra stic rein terp retatio n o f its m etaphysics. In Sexton's v ersio n of "G o dfath er D eath ," m o d em psychological, sexual an d p o litical a ttitu d e s replace p rem o d e m cosm ology. A tale o f su p ern atu ral au th o rity becom es a tale of th e m aterial forces of death , sex, an d politics. Sexton follow s the g en eral plo tlin e of th e G rim m tale: A poo r m an chooses D eath, o v er G od an d the D evil, to be g o d fath er to h is th irteen th son; a n d w h en the son is g ro w n , D eath m akes h im a p h y sician w ith th e pow er to cu re any disease, p ro v id ed D eath signals h is ap p ro v al. O n e d etail is confused b y Sexton, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 w hose p h y sic ia n can heal if D eath is a t th e fo o t of th e p a tie n t's b e d —it is the reverse in th e G rim m tale. T he rest, h o w ev er, is th e sam e. T he p h y sician cures the king, w ith o u t D eath 's approval, a n d h e is w arn ed n o t to d efy h is god fath er again; b u t h e is u n ab le to resist curin g th e doo m ed princess, w ho se h a n d in m arriage is h is re w a rd if she lives. A fter th e phy sician 's fin al disobedience, D eath takes h is g o d so n aw ay to a cave w h ere candles sta n d fo r h u m a n lifetim es, and th e g o d so n sees h is o w n sm all can d le, ab o u t to b u m o u t. H e begs his godfather fo r a n ex ten sio n o f life, b u t D e ath p reten d s to slip a n d extinguishes the physician's can d le. T he o p e n in g sta n za of Sexton's v ersio n depicts d e ath as " a little crotch dance," a n d th e p o em 's la st line is an o th er m etap h o r fo r d eath: "th e b ig no." W ithin this fram e o f d e a th as libidinal fru stratio n (rath er th a n th e g ate to the afterlife), S ex to n 's p o em unfolds. T he violence of th e N azi regim e a n d th e sexual energy o f p ro stitu tio n p ro vide the color o f Sexton's characterization. T he m an searching fo r a g o d fath er for his th irtee n th so n rejects G od w ho w ears "his righteousness lik e a sw astika" a n d the d e v il w ho w ears "his streets like a w hore" (31). L ater, th e m o tiv e fo r the p h y sician 's defiance of D eath in cu rin g th e princess is d escrib ed in sexual term s: "T he princess w as as rip e as a tangerine I H er b reasts p u rre d u p an d d o w n like a cat" (33). H ere, then, is a m an w hose sexual in stin c t overcom es him resu ltin g in th e "little crotch d an ce" o f d eath . W hen D eath w h isk s h im aw ay to th e cave, th e violence is tan g ib le as the physician "jum p[s] lik e a w ild rab b it o n a ho o k " an d soon "his cro tch tum [s] blue as a b lo o d b liste r" (34). W hat follow s is "th e b ig blackout, I th e b ig no"— death. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Sexton's m o d em d etem u n ism an d pessim ism m ig h t n o t surface fo r o th er m o dem read ers, look in g fo r a m oral in w h a t th ey believe to b e a children's sto ry . The d esire to fin d a m o ra l to th e story is ap p ro p riate, especially as a com pensation fo r a ta le th a t lacks the h ap p y en d in g u su a lly fo u n d in the G rim m collection. O ne m ig h t conclude th a t "G odfather D eath" is a cautionary tale against overreaching, a tale ab o u t th e im portance of obedience to authority. A n d this in terp retatio n co u ld b e su p p o rted w ith reference to P ro p p 's description o f the folktale in terd ictio n . F u rth er su p p o rt co u ld b e fo u n d in th e original context of th e tale, in the law o f a u th o rity o f the p rem o d em epistem e. H ow ever, if th e p rem o d em epistem e is cred ited w ith subtlety a n d a so p h isticated understan ding of h u m an n atu re, an o th er in terp retiv e possibility em erges. A n in terp retatio n o f the tex t w hich is pessim istic a n d determ inistic like Sexton's b u t consistent w ith trad itio n al b elief system s re a d s b o th the physician a n d his fath er as fools w h o b rin g a n unhap p y en d in g u p o n them selves. T heir lack o f respect fo r an d g o o d sense abo u t the su p ern atu ral are after the p a ttern o f the fisherm an's w ife w h o w ishes herself em peror, pop e, a n d finally G od. Like her, the fath er a n d so n lose everything to th eir ow n stu p id ity . The physician's father rejects G od as a g o d fath er because he "gives to th e ric h an d lets the p o o r go h u n g ry ," an d h e fin ally chooses D eath because h e "take[s] rich and po or alike" (153). The m istak e th e fath er m akes h ere is to concen trate o n w orldly w ealth w ith no view to th e afterlife, w hich is som ething o n ly G od could p ro v id e his child. H e also forgets, o r p erh ap s devalues, th e fact th a t G od is the m ost m erciful of the three co n ten ders for godfather (the second o f w hom is Satan). Thus, he sh o rt-sig h ted ly d en ies his son a m erciful g o d fath er a n d a rich afterlife; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 an d later, h is so n show s th e sam e sho rt-sig h ted n ess w h e n h e defies D eath 's signal. The tex tu al h isto ry o f this tale a d d s in te re st to this p oint: [I]n th e first p u b lish ed v ersio n o f th e tale "G odfather D eath " (1812, N o. 44), the p o o r m a n an sw ers th e "good L ord" w ith th ese w ords: '" I d o n 't w a n t y o u to b e godfather! Y ou giv e to the ric h a n d le t the p o o r g o h u n g ry .' W ith th a t h e le ft h im sta n d in g th ere an d w en t o n " In la te r editions, how ever, this com m entary follow s: "T he m an sa id th a t b ecau se h e d id n o t k n o w how w isely G od d istrib u tes w ealth a n d po v erty ." (N eum an n 33) Siegfried N eu m an n contends th at, "W ith th a t in terpo latio n , th e o rig in al m essage of this p assag e is fundam entally ch an g ed a n d tu rn ed in to its o pp o site" (33). This brief in tru sio n o f a m oralizing n arrativ e voice stan d s o u t stylistically from the rest of the tale a n d m ig h t seem like a n a d d itio n ev en to those w ho d id n o t know its textual h isto ry . H ow ever, this lin e does n o t reverse th e m ean in g o f the tale, it m erely m akes it explicit. In doing so , th e m ain dam age d o n e to th e tale is th a t of ad d in g the aw kw ardness o f a n unnecessary explanation. It w o u ld b e ak in to ad d in g a lin e su ch as this to th e tale o f the fish erm an 's w ife: "She ask ed to be G od because o f selfish am bition a n d th is req u est w as b lasphem ous." The a d d e d line in "G odfather D eath " sh o u ld b e u n d ersto o d as m erely a clarification o f w h a t is im plicit in th e tale. T his la st in terp retatio n o f "G odfather D eath" is co n sisten t w ith C h ristian d o ctrin e, th e u niversal stru c tu re o f m eaning contem poraneous w ith the o ral tran sm ission o f th e tales. A s w ith C haucer's "F riar's T ale," m o d em critics are p ro n e to overlook in terp retiv e possibilities w hich assum e conscious com plexity a n d sophistication in p rem o d em culture. A belief in the su p ern atu ral does n o t p rec lu d e a realistic u n d erstan d in g o f h um an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 behavior- B ut if th e m ean in g o f "G odfather D eath " is still uncertain, there can a t lea st b e no d o u b t th a t i t w a s believed to b e a n acco u n t o f realities. H ere a caveat is in o rd er: to say th at th e G rim m tales w ere first u n derstoo d as realistic it is n o t n ecessary to say th a t th eir o rig in a l audience believed th a t th ey w ere actual, any m ore th a n m o d em audiences b eliev e the events o f Sister C arrie to b e actual. I t is o n ly to sa y th a t th e orig in al au d ien ce recognized in th e tales d ie w o rld they liv ed in a n d b eliev ed th e action o f th e tales to b e possible. It m ay b e, th o u g h the claim is m u ch m o re difficu lt to d efen d , th a t th e original audience b eliev ed the tales to b e b o th p ossible an d actual;15 b u t th e m ore m odest claim h as a stro n g er defense, w ith referen ce to w h at can b e k n o w n ab o u t p rem o d em b elief a n d b y a d o se read in g o f th e tales. In "G odfather D eath" a h u m a n being n o t o n ly crosses p ath s an d converses w ith su p ern atu ral b eing s b u t calm ly an d reaso n ab ly chooses to form a so tial relatio n sh ip w ith one o f th em . A m o d em rea d er m ig h t account for the calm ness of the characters in the p resen ce o f the su p e rn atu ral b y calling the im m ortal b ein g allegorical, b u t th e m o d e o f this sto ry is n o t allegorical b u t realistic. D eath is g iv en no special treatm en t b y the poor m an w ho m akes a so tial contract w ith him : "The m an said: 'N e x t S u n d ay is the christen in g ; b e there a t th e rig h t tim e / D eath ap p eared as he h a d pro m ised , and sto o d g o d fath e r quite in the u su al w ay" 15 In his artide entitled "Fairies and Hard Factsr The Reality o f Folktales," Eugen Weber argues that folktales "can tell us a great deal about real conditions in the world of those who told and those who heard the tales" (96). He makes a well-documented case for the accuracy o f folktales in describing actual conditions in premodem Europe lasting until the nineteenth century, particularly the severe poverty and high mortality rate. Weber suggests that a "frequent recourse to the supernatural" in premodem times was compensation for "a high death rate, a high inddence of illnesses and accidents, and fairly narrow lim its to lived experience" (109). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 76 (210). This o rd in ary beh av io r o n th e p a rt o f D eath has n o seco n d m eaning an d is the b est in stan ce o f th e non-allegorical m ixture o f the n a tu ra l a n d the su p ern atu ral in p rem o d em tales. T he rea d er (or listener) can alm o st p ictu re D eath a t the cerem ony in h is S u n d ay best, shifting his w eig h t fro m tim e to tim e as the p riest d ro n es on. A glance fo rw a rd to the fan tastic g en re offers a com parison th a t clarifies the acceptance o f th e presence o f th e su p e rn atu ral in this tale. C h aracters in fantastic tales frequently cry o u t in th eir asto n ish m en t an d fear a t the ap p earan ce of the su p ern atural. T here is n o t a single sh iv er o r exclam ation o f te rro r from any hum an ch aracter in "G odfather D eath " u n til th e "horrified" p h y sician sees th at his life is in d an g er, tow ard th e e n d o f th e story. H ere, the only cry, "A h, d ear godfather," is sim ultaneous w ith evidence th a t the su p ern atu ral is w ell-know n. It is q u ite the o p p o site for the m ain ch aracter of a story in th e fan tastic genre w ho is fearful to fin d him self in the presence o f the su p ern atu ral b ecau se fo r h im it is u n know n a n d uncontrollable. In d eed , th e physician believes th a t this su p ern atu ral force m ig h t be controllable, for h e pleads w ith D e ath to e x ten d his life an d begs th a t h e d o it "for love o f m e" (114). The u n ab ash ed belief in th e su p e rn atu ral an d respect fo r a u th o rity fo u n d in folktales does n o t req u ire gullibility o r obedience on the p a rt o f lite ra ry characters, how ever. In "G odfather D eath" trickery an d m arvels ex ist side by side, an d n e ith er eclipses the other. E ven m ore, a character d elib erately breaks the law of a u th o rity w hich holds h is w o rld together. The p h y sician "cheat[sj" D eath by tu rn in g th e k in g 's b o d y a ro u n d , changing D eath's sig n a l from d eath to life. This g rea tly angers D eath w ho, v ery concretely, "threaten[s] h im w ith his Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 finger" an d repeats the in terd ictio n . L ater, in th e cave, D eath show s the physician to his d ying can dle, a n d the physician begs fo r a new o n e to b e lit: "D eath behaved as if h e w ere going to fulfill his w ish, a n d took h o ld o f a ta ll new candle; b u t as he d esired to revenge him self, h e p u rp o sely m ade a m istak e in fixing it, an d the little p iece fell d o w n an d w as extinguished" (212). This n o n - ailegorical D eath, w hose ph y sical an d em otional characteristics d iffer o n ly in degree from his god so n 's, is ju st as susceptible to b ein g tricked as any h um an . H is su p ern atu ral pow ers fin ally p u t a n en d to th e trickery, b u t this com es o n ly after being tested tw ice b y the physician. A nd D eath, n o t m uch larg er th a n life, gets his revenge in a n eq u ally tricky w ay. This p rem o d em tale allow s h u m an s to be both clever a n d credulous;1 6 Sexton's version o f the tale does n o t allow hum ans any intelligence o r d ignity. VI. Prem odem E uropean Belief T ransplanted in th e N ew W orld A nne Sexton transform s E uropean folktales b y m odernizing them , b u t she perform s the converse tran sfo rm atio n o n h er o w n m o d em life in h e r sto ry "The G h o st" In this first-perso n n arrativ e, Sexton's g rea t-au n t's ghost describes h er 16 Claude L£vi-Strauss shows how skepticism can combine with credulity in an example from a surviving premodem culture. His chapter "The Sorcerer and His Magic" in Structural Anthropology tefls the story o f Quesalid, a Kwakiutl Indian sorcerer from the Vancouver region of Canada. Quesalid is initiated into shamanism and learns all the tricks of the trade. Like the physician from "Godfather Death," he becomes renowned for his curative powers, but he secretly knows that he is deceiving all o f his patients by spectacle and sleight o f hand. He begins a personal search for a true sorcerer and finds only one who did not accept money for his services or laugh at his patients in secret (172). Thus, cultures with supernatural beliefs, separated from ours by time or by space, are not w ithout skepticism and critical thinking. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 g ran d n iece's m en tal illness in su p e rn a tu ra l term s. The g h o st c a n h a u n t h er liv in g rela tiv e because the tw o sh are a n am e; a n d th o u g h th e liv in g w om an denies th e existence o f ghosts, she feels th e g h o st's presence a n d av o id s living in o ld h o u ses. T his p recau tio n do es n o g o o d , how ever, as th e g h o st explains: E ng lish g h o sts, w hose fam ilies stay in th e sam e hom e fo r g en eratio n s, m ay h a u n t places, b u t A m erican ghosts, w h o se fam ilies a re m uch m ore m o b ile, h a u n t p erso n s in ste a d (226). Because th e g h o st disap p rov es o f h e r g ran d -n iece's b eh av io r (especially h e r extra-m arital sex u al relations) fo r b ein g "alto g eth er too m o d em ," sh e p u n ish es the im m oral b e h av io r w ith sym ptom s o f a n erv ou s b reak d o w n , prom isin g to "p u sh th e d e v il h o rn her" in a y e a r's tim e (228-229). A lth o u g h Sexton su p em atu ralizes h e r experience, sh e still eq u ates the su p e rn a tu ra l w ith h o rro r an d d istress. S ex to n 's g host claim s to co m fo rt th e w o m an she h au n ts, b u t she cannot c o m fo rt a w om an w ho w ishes to av o id h er a n d o n ly suffers a t h e r ghostly h an d s. S ex to n w as h au n ted b y h e r A m erican p ast as w as N ath an iel H aw thorne, w ho saw h is p red ecesso r's m o ral codes an d d iscip lin ary actions as pu rely n eg ative. T h o u g h this d ark v iew o f the su p e rn a tu ra l is a co ndition o f th e m o d e m age, the w ritings of th e first N ew E n g lan d colonists su p p ly p lenty of su p e rn a tu ra l horrors a n d to rm en ts for m o d em au th o rs to choose from . T he first E u ro p ean A m ericans b ro u g h t C hristianity b u t also m agical beliefs to th e N ew W orld from Europe. A s R ich ard G odbeer explains in T he D evil's D om inion: M agic a n d R eligion in E arly N ew E ngland, alth o u g h P u rita n religious au th o rities trie d to m aintain tig h t co n tro l o v e r com m unity relig io u s practices, "su p e rn a tu ra l b elief in the n o rth ern colonies w as n o t exclusively religious. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 A longside P ro testan t C h ristian ity th ere ex isted a tan g led skein o f m agical beliefs a n d practices th a t th e colonists b ro u g h t w ith th em from E ngland" (5). T hese m agical beliefs, w hich "w ere p a rt o f n o co h eren t d o ctrin al system " tran sp lan ted belief in w itches to th e N e w W orld. T hough m agic w as discouraged, it w as n o t d iscred ited b y th e Puritans, w ho considered w itchcraft a S atanic practice. " In E u ro p e, E ngland, a n d N ew E ngland alike, theologians saw w itch craft as a fo rm o f heresy: th e w itch, they believ ed , h a d rep u d iated C h ristian ity a n d en tered th e service o f Satan; in return fo r obedience, the D evil p e rp e trated evil d eed s o n th e w itch 's behalf" (Godbeer 155). P u ritan authorities, in a n effo rt w hich is fo reig n to m o d em w ays o f thinking, so u g h t to restore th e goodness o f th eir com m unity b y pu nish in g the ev il of w itchcraft. P rem o d em optim ism a b o u t th e su p e rn a tu ra l ironically produced a g reat tragedy. The P u ritan theocratic co u rts w ere m ean t to b e an instrum ent o f G od's deliverance from th e h o rro r o f w itch craft, b u t th e cure w as worse th a n the disease: over 150 p eo p le w ere accused o f w itch craft in the Salem trials of 1692, an d tw enty-five p eople lo st th eir lives. W h at w as th e perceived action th a t caused such a d rastic reaction? C otton M ather describes the h o rro r th e co u rts tried to overcom e in h is re p o rt o n the illness an d d e a th o f th e virtu ou s M r. P h ilip S m ith w ho "w as m urdered w ith a n hideous w itchcraft, th a t filled a ll th o se p a rts o f N ew England w ith astonishm ent" (347). "T he ju ry th at v iew ed h is corpse fo u n d a swelling o n one breast, h is privates w o u n d ed o r b u rn ed , h is back fu ll o f bruises, and several holes th at seem ed m ade w ith aw ls" (350). M ath er finds th a t even w hen w itchcraft is n o t dead ly , it can cause su ch harm s as th e d e a th o f farm anim als and th e d an g er Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 of specter-driven flying iro n in stru m en ts (352). To th e m in d s o f th e P u ritan leaders like M ather, sw ift an d stro n g retaliatio n ag ain st th ese attack s o f Satan w as u rg en tly needed. C o tto n M ather w as am ong th e P u rita n lead ers w h o , b y m id -fall o f 1692, cam e to fin d them selves in the m id st o f such a g rea t con tro v ersy th a t th e trials collapsed. The focus o f the con tro v ersy w as sp ectral evidence (G odbeer 216). P u ritan authorities concluded, a fte r m u ch p ro testatio n o f th e accused o n this p o in t, th at th e D evil co u ld p ro d u ce th e likenesses o f in nocent p eo p le a n d do evil d eed s in the guise of th eir specters. W hatever the m o d em in terp retatio n s o f the "real" reasons beh in d th e trials (sexual, econom ic, etc.), w h a t fin ally en d ed them w as th is m atter of d eductive reaso n in g, based o n the law o f a u th o rity a n d belief in th e reality of the o th er w orld. T he d ed uctiv e reasoning of th e p rem o d em epistem e could cure its ow n ills—th o u g h too late, in this case. The checks and balances o f th e o th er w o rld cou ld b e m ed iated b y hu m an in stitu tio n s an d authorities o r b e ad m in istrated b y G od H im self. In th e early six teen th century, Fray B artolom e d e las C asas reco rd ed w h a t h e b eliev ed to be G o d 's d irect p unishm ent o f S panish g reed a n d excesses in th e N ew W orld. In his B rief H isto ry of the D estruction o f th e Indies, he describes a p lag u e o f an ts th at decim ated all of the crops o f the isla n d of S aint John. H e view s the p lag u e as retrib u tio n for the h arsh treatm en t o f th e S panish gave th e In d ian s, w ho d ied in g reat num bers from forced lab o r in th e m ines an d a sm allpox e p id e m ic Las C asas reflects o n the In d ian deaths: N o C hristian can d o u b t th a t, alth o u g h G od b y his secret judgm ents m ig h t h av e p e rm itte d afflicting these peop les in th is w ay an d w ith su ch in h u m an ity , an d in sh o rt, p u ttin g a n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 en d to them , th a t o n th e fin al judgm ent, a n d o n th e day of u niversal ju dg m ent, th ose w ho w ere m in isters o f such harshness a n d cau sed th e loss of so m an y so u ls, w ill be severely p u n ish ed b y d iv in e justice. (35) T he culprits w o u ld b e p u n ish e d in the o th er w o rld , b u t they w o u ld also b e p u n ish ed in this one. B ecause th e S panish n o lo n g er h a d en o u g h w orkers to m ake m ining profitable, th ey p lan ted a large crop o f cassia trees. B ut th e trees w ere soon eaten by th e "in fin ite n u m b er of ants. . . th a t co u ld n o t b e sto p p ed in an y w ay or by any h u m an m eans." T he ants w o u ld "e a t th e trees from the ro o t u p , a n d as tho u g h fire h a d fallen from the sky a n d b u rn e d them , they sto o d all scorched an d d ried o u t" (36). Las C asas' final reflectio n is, "W hen G od w ishes to p u n ish lands o r the m en w ho five in them fo r th e ir sin s, h e does n o t lack the m eans to afflict them , an d can even d o so w ith the tin ie st little creatures" (38). T he plague o f au n ts w as finally dim inished by a rev iv al o f th e C atholic faith am ong the Spaniards o f the islan d , h e explains. The first E uropeans in th e N ew W orld, w h eth er S p an ish clerics o r E nglish P uritans, had C hristian beliefs a n d a d d ed su p ern atu ral m eaning to earthly events. By appealing to o r su b m ittin g to the law o f a u th o rity , they believ ed they h a d the m eans to overcom e su p ern atu ral horrors— e v en if those horrors w ere the punishm ents of a ju st G od. VII. Early E ncounters of N ativ e A m erican an d E u ro p e a n Beliefs E uropean colonists a n d N ativ e A m ericans d id n o t d iscred it each o th er's religious an d m agical beliefs. E ach g ro up recognized th e o th er as having access Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 to g en u in ely su p ern atu ral forces. T he P uritans, w h o h a d relig iou s m otives fo r com ing to th e N ew W orld, h a d com plete faith in In d ian su p e rn a tu ra l pow ers, w hile o th er U. S. colonists w ere m o re likely to see th e In d ian s as superstitious. B elief a n d ap p reciatio n d id n o t com e together, h ow ever. T he P u ritan s view ed In d ian m agic ritu als as they d id w itch craft in th eir o w n com m unity—it w as fu eled b y th e d ev il's pow er. T his, a t least, w as th e a u th o rita tiv e in terp retatio n. As C o tto n M ather w rites o f th e In d ian sham ans, "w h ere th e p ractice of w itchcraft has b een hig h ly esteem ed, th e re m ay b e g iv en th e p lain est d em o n stratio n o f m o rtals h av in g fam iliarity w ith in fern al sp irits" (269). M ath er continues w ith th e sto ry o f a n In d ian sh am an w h o h a d th e p ow er to d iv in e w here sto len goods h a d b een tak en from a n d w here th ey w ere deposited. A P u ritan w ho h ad b een ro b b ed so u g h t the help o f th is sh a m an o r "pow aw ," w hose p ow ers he h a d w itnessed . T he P u ritan 's hopes w ere fin ally fru strated b y theological differences: T he pow aw , after a little pau sin g , d em an d ed w h y h e req u ested th at from h im , since the o th er serv ed an o th er G od, th a t therefore h e c o u ld n o t h e lp him . B ut h e a d d e d , "If y o u can believe th a t m y G od w ill h elp you, I w ill try w h a t I can do." W hich d iv erted th e m an from fu rth e r in q u iry . (270) T his ab ility to locate stolen go o d s is th e only po sitiv e p o w e r M ath er m entions w h en describing pow w ow m agic. H e says, "T hat th e p ow w ow s b y the infernal sp irits o ften killed persons, cau sed lam eness an d im potency, as w ell as show ed th eir a rt in perform ing things b ey o n d h um an, b y d iab olic sk ill—su ch w ho have conversed m u ch am ong them h av e h a d n o reaso n to q u estio n " (270). T hough h e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 view s In d ia n m agic as "infernal," p h rases lik e 'T h e re can b e no d o u b t o f it" recu r in M ather's re p o rt (271). In co n tra st to M a th er's account o f In d ia n religion, Jo h n L aw son's h isto ry o f N o rth C aro lin a is m ark e d b y m ore a d m iratio n b u t also m ore m o dem skepticism . L aw son ad m ires th e In d ian s' ability to cu re com m o n m aladies like b u m s a n d ulcers, a n d h e rec o u n ts a sto ry of a m ore su p e rn a tu ra l h ealing o f a m y sterio u s d istem per. T he In d ia n d o c to r gave h is E n g lish p a tie n t h erb s th at m ade h im sw eat profusely, a n d th e n h e p u t a rattlesn ak e (teeth rem oved) in the p a tie n t's b ed . The sn ak e w ra p p e d tightly aro u n d th e p a tien t, b u t its stren g th g av e w ay b y degrees, a n d in th e m o rn in g , the snake w as d e a d a n d th e m an w as cured. L aw son describes th e cu re in a practical m an n er, d e sp ite its strangeness. As a su rv ey o r-g en eral, m ore in terested in econom ic th a n sp iritu al g ain , L aw son has m o re to leran ce a n d ap p reciatio n fo r In d ia n religion th an M ath er does, b u t h e d o es n o t give it the sam e c re d it as h e gives In d ian m edicine. H e describes In d ia n b eliefs w ith a m odem p o stu re o f a d m irin g co n d escen sion H e has little p atien ce fo r E u rop ean folklore, b u t h e recognizes the political p o w er o f telling su p e rn atu ral sto ries in the In d ian cu ltu re. H e say s o f the Indians: T hey are n e v er fearfu l in the n ig h t, n o r do th e thoughts of sp irits e v er tro u b le them , su ch as th e m any hobgoblins an d b u g b ears th a t w e suck in w ith o u r m ilk , a n d th e foolery o f o u r n u rses a n d serv an ts suggests to u s, w h o b y th eir id le tales o f fairies a n d w itches m ake su ch im pressions o n o u r tender years th a t a t m a tu rity w e carry pygm ies' so u ls in g ia n ts' bodies a n d ev er after a re thereby so m uch d e p riv e d o f reaso n and u n m an n ed as n ev er to be m asters o f h a lf th e b rav e r nature d esig n ed fo r u s. N o t b u t th at th e In d ian s h av e as m any lying sto ries o f sp irits a n d conjurers as a n y peo p le in the w orld, b u t th ey tell it w ith n o disadvantage to them selves. F or the g reat Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 esteem w h ich th e o ld m en b rin g to them selves is b y m aking the o th ers b eliev e th eir fam iliarity w ith d ev ils a n d sp irits, an d w h atever th ey after im pose u p o n th e p eople is received as infallible. (282) L aw son recognized th e p o w er o f su p ern atu ral belief, b u t h e w as n o t threatened by it because h e saw it as confined to In d ian culture. Q n th e o th er h an d , th e sixteenth-century S panish colonists o f th e A m ericas w ere so th reaten ed b y In d ia n b elief an d ritu a l th a t th ey trie d to stam p it o u t com pletely. In one case, th ey w e n t so far as to try to b a n M ayan clothing, w hich carried com plex relig io u s m essages in its designs (Tedlock 25). This action was b ru tal b u t n o t condescending. It w as also n o t com pletely successful. In d ian religious practices w e n t u n d erg ro u n d w h en they w ere o u tlaw ed . For instance, the M ayan book of life, th e P opol V uh. w as converted b y M ayans from hieroglyphic to alp h ab etic tex t an d p reserv ed for several centuries u n til a tolerant p riest m ade the only existing copy (w ith a n ad d ed Spanish translation) in the first years of the eig h teen th century. The alphabetic P o p o lV u h opens w ith a defense o f its o w n au th o rity against the prevailing claim s o f C hristianity. C hristianity is n o t attack ed as in v alid or u ntrue; it is sim ply se t asid e as unnecessary o r superfluous. T he n arrato r insists that the M ayan d eities "accounted for everything—a n d d id it, too—as enlightened beings, in en lig h ten ed w ords. W e shall w rite a b o u t th is now am id the preaching of G od, in C hristendom now " (63). The ju x tap o sitio n o f these tw o sentences h ighlights th e conflict o f religious authorities w hile underscoring the im portance of au th o rity o f this k ind. The su p ern atu ral is tak en seriously enough to be h an d led su b v eisiv ely , a t th e risk o f fu rth er h arm b y th e S p an ish C atholics. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 A ccording to th e n a rra to r, th e genuine P o p o lV u h survives in secret: "T here is the original boo k a n d an cien t w riting , b u t th e o n e w ho read s a n d assesses it h as a h id d en identity" (63). V m . The Popol V u h : A W ritten R ecord o f P re-C olum b ian Belief The conflict o f th e N ativ e A m erican a n d E u ro p ean claim s to su p e rn a tu ra l au th ority proves th eir likeness; com petition is p re d ic a te d o n sim ilarity, a n d th ere are sim ilarities betw een th e P o p o lV u h a n d th e B ible. F o r exam ple, the creatio n story o f the Popol V uh describes how th e g o d s m ak e m en from m aize (rath e r th an m ud, as in G enesis) a n d th en lim it h u m a n p o w ers in o rd er to en su re d iv in e suprem acy. T his act o f lim itatio n resem bles th e G enesis accounts o f the F all a n d the Tow er of Babel. T he first Q uiche people h a d to ta l vision: "Perfectly th ey saw , perfectly they knew ev ery th in g u n d er the sky, w h en ev er they looked. T he m om ent they tu rn e d aro u n d an d looked a ro u n d in the sky, on th e earth , everything w as seen w ith o u t any obstruction" (147). The deities are th rea te n ed b y this hum an sight. "W hat w e'v e fo u n d o u t is n 't good," they say to them selves, "Their deeds w o u ld becom e eq u al to o u rs, ju s t b ecau se th eir know ledge reaches so far" (148). So the gods m ar h u m an sight: "T h eir v isio n flickered. N o w it w as only from close u p th a t th ey cou ld see w h a t w as th ere w ith an y clarity" (148). Etiological stories like th e creation a n d fall sto ries o f th e P o p o lV u h a n d th e Bible b in d hu m an h isto ry to th e su p ern atu ral. W h at D ennis Tedlock says o f th e com pilers of the Popol V uh is equally tru e o f th e com pilers of th e Bible: "[They] treated the m ythic an d h isto rical p arts of th e ir n arrativ es as belonging to a single, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 balanced w h o le In stead o f b ein g in logical opposition to o n e an o th er, the realm s o f d iv in e a n d h u m an actions a re jo in ed b y a m u tu al a ttrac tio n " (59). The Popol V uh a n d th e B ible also h av e in com m on th a t they are p re m o d e m b u t n o t caught in cyclical tim e (as d escribed in M ircea E liade's theory). T im e is linear fo r the M ayan a n d the H ebrew scrip tu res. The Jew ish m essianic ex p ectatio n is b o u n d to lin e a r tim e, a n d G od m ak es long-lasting covenants w ith th e children o f Israel. S im ilarly, th e m arks o f p a st M ay an history are n o t e ra se d perio d ically in a renew al o f tim e. F o r exam ple, the g o d s' first attem p t to create h u m an s from w ood p ro d u c e d the m onkeys th a t still su rv iv e. T he P opol V u h also has in com m on w ith prem odem E u ro p ean texts th at su p ern atu ral p o w e r a n d reaso n d o n o t cancel each o th er o u t. A s su p ern atu ral beings are su b ject to tests an d tricks in C h au cer's "F riar's T ale" a n d G rim m s' "G odfather D eath ," so the div in e tw in s o f th e Popol V uh. H u n a h p u a n d X balanque, u se th eir w its in co m bination w ith th eir su p e rn atu ral p o w ers to defeat th eir u n d e rw o rld enem ies. T he tw ins are killed b y th e u n d e rw o rld Xibalbans (w hose hostilities b egin w ith th e boys d istu rb in g th e ir p eace b y playing b all o v erh ead ), b u t they are resu rrected an d th en d isg u ise them selves as m iracle-w orking vagabonds. T he v ag ab o n d s achieve p o p u larity b y perform ing m iracles su ch as sacrificing a n d resu rrectin g each oth er, a n d so th ey are soon in v ited to e n te rta in a t Xibalba. T he tw ins p erfo rm for the X ibalbans, sacrificing a n d resu rrec tin g each other an d th en one o f th e X ibalban's dogs. T hey also am aze by se ttin g th e X ibalbaris house o n fire w ith o u t b u rn in g it. T he trap is sp ru n g w hen th e X ibalban rulers enthusiastically a sk to b e sacrificed a n d resu rrected them selves, a n d the tw ins Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 oblige w ith sacrifices b u t n o t resurrections. T hus, b y m eans o f m iracle a n d cunning, th e M ayan h ero es d efeat their foes. The resourcefulness o f these M ayan heroes stan d s in sh a rp contrast to th e d efeat o f the en tire Ih ca em p ire b y 150 Spaniards in 1532. H o w a populous a n d pow erful n atio n co u ld b e d estro y ed by a sm all b a n d o f in v ad ers is a q uestio n th at has attracted d iv e rg e n t explanations. Ju lian Jaynes offers a n u n u su al th eo ry in The O rigins o f C onsciousness in the B reakdow n o f th e B icam eral M in d . Jaynes explains the d e fe a t o f th e Incas w ith his assertio n th a t p rem o d em civilizations w ere o rg an ized according to au d ito ry h allucinations: the king hallucinated the voice o f th e g o d s, an d the people h allu cin ated th e voice of th e ir king. W ith reference to the m echanics of hypnotism a n d b ra in physiology, Jaynes m akes a n in te restin g case for the bicam eral m ind. H e argues th at su c h elaborate prem o d em civilizations as the Incas, th e M ayans, th e M esopotam ians a n d the E gyptians w e re n o t subjectively conscious. T hus, th e Inca w ere "u n ab le to deceive o r to n a rra tiz e ab o u t th e deception o f o th ers" a n d so they w ere "captured like h elpless au to m ato n s" (160). I t seem s th a t Jaynes has n o t re a d th e Popol V uh. w hich q u ite ably n arrates deception, a n d title m ystery rem ains. M odem W estern c u ltu re, w h ich believes in cunning b u t n o t in m iracles, is n o t com fortable w ith m y steries. In this w ay, o u r culture stan d s o u t from the m ajority of cultures th ro u g h o u t th e h istory a n d aro u n d th e w orld. Jaynes describes this state o f affairs as th e resu lt o f a "break d o w n ," a n d so he avoids som e of the condescension o f th e F reudian psychoanalysts. N ow adays it is n o t the p rem odem Inca w h o are co n sid ered barbaric, b u t th e S p aniard s w ho conquered them . O u r cu ltu re continues to show a n in te rest in the su p ern atu ral. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 an d this in terest is easily g ratified in the A m ericas, w here p rem o d em cultures survive prom inently a n d extensively am ong m o d em ones. The beliefs o f prem odem N ative A m ericans are becom ing as attractive to W estern society as g o ld once w as. The change o f th e W estern a ttitu d e tow ard N ativ e A m erican beliefs, from d estru ctiv e d isreg ard to resp ectfu l interest, began w ith efforts a t preservation like those o f th e B rothers G rim m . The G rim m B rothers h a d im itators in A m erica, w here p easan t cu ltu res w ere alive an d w ell a n d g enuine "inform ants" w ere easy to find. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 CHAPTER THREE THE LAW O F SCIENCE: H A U N TED MEMORIES IN A N AGE O F PROGRESS In Science an d the M o d em W o rld . A lfred N o rth W h iteh ead 's central concern is h o w the "q u iet g ro w th o f science has p ractically recoloured o u r m en tality " a n d "has altered th e m etaphysical p resu p p o sitio n s a n d the im aginative contents o f o u r m in d s" (2). The law o f science, o r w h a t W hitehead calls "scientific m aterialism ," g iv es n o credence to su p e rn a tu ra l auth o rity . H e explains th at the fixed scientific cosm ology p resupposes th e u ltim ate fact of an irreducible b ru te m atter, o r m aterial, sp re a d th ro u g h o u t space in a flux of configurations. In itself su c h a m aterial is senseless, valueless, p u rp o seless. It ju st does w h a t it does do, follow ing a fixed ro u tin e im posed b y ex tern al relatio n s w hich do n o t sp rin g from th e n a tu re of its being. (18) In terru p tio n s of this routine, su c h as m iracles, o r m etap h y sical presences, su c h as gho sts o r angels, have a ten u o u s p lace in the m o d em epistem e. B u t for a few exceptions, th e su p ern atu ral is g iv e n th e status o f fiction. A s E uropeans w ere colonizing th e A m ericas, th e la w o f science w as b eg in n in g its conquest o f W estern cu ltu re. By th e tu rn o f the n in eteen th century, C o tto n M ath er's beliefs w ere a n tiq u ated , an d th e P op o l V uh, once treated as a th rea t to C atholicism , w as p ro m o te d b y a liberal p rie s t T he su p ern atu ral w as no lo n g er intellectually credible, b u t its em otional p o w er liv e d on. M odem au th o rs co n tin u ed to m ake u se o f th e p rem o d e m cosm ology fo r p o ig n an t o r dread ful em otional effects, th o ug h they h a d to em ploy special d ev ices to su sp en d the d isb elief of th eir audiences. T w o cu rren ts of m o d em su p e rn a tu ra l fiction ra n th ro u g h A m erican literature: local-color stories o f su p e rn a tu ra l events, w hich Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 in v ited audiences to take a to u rist's d elig h t in q u a in t com m unities a n d o ld - fashioned beliefs, a n d fan tastic fiction b a sed o n E u ro p ean m odels, w h ich tam p ered w ith m o d em scientific certainties in o rd e r to terrify th e read er. By th e en d o f th e cen tu ry these cu rren ts began to cro ss, a n d th ere em erged su p e rn a tu ra l stories w ith the em otional a p p ea l of local-color g h o st stories an d th e scientific aw areness o f fan tastic fictio n . By the tw e n tie th cen tu ry , the n in eteen th -cen tu ry d u a l conventions o f su p e rn atu ral literatu re, local-color an d the fantastic, d o n o t ju st overlap b u t often m ix to g ether. O ne caveat ab o u t chronology m u st b e m ad e: A m erican w riters d o n o t alw ays neatly d iv id e in to epistem es according to th e d ates of th eir lives a n d w orks. T he authors rep resen ted in this c h a p te r all liv e d betw een 1783 a n d 1938, show ing th a t the law of science persisted b ey o n d th e tu rn o f the tw en tieth century, especially fo r au th o rs w ho w rote w ith in estab lish ed genres. For instance, S panish-A m erican au th o rs d id n o t b e g in to p u b lish stories in flu en ced by Poe u n til he w as d ead , a n d th ey continued to w rite in the fantastic g e n re o n into the tw en tieth cen tu ry .1 O n th e other h a n d , som e w riters w ho liv ed a n d w ro te d u rin g the n in eteen th cen tu ry an ticip ated th e epistem e of th e tw e n tieth 1 Naomi Lindstrom's chapter o f The Latin American Short Story: A Critical History, entitled "The Spanish American Short Story from Echeverrfa to Quiroga," addresses roughly the nineteenth century. She writes: One may w ell wonder how Latin American literature could have developed over three centuries without producing any brief narrative fiction suitable for consideration in an overview o f the continent's short story. The most obvious o f possible answers to this question is that Latin American intellectuals, however talented w ith words, found relatively little occasion to cultivate such an artistic form. The hectic succession o f real-world dilemmas facing educated individuals im pelled them toward more pragmatic forms of writing, documents intended to communicate a meaning in an immediately useful w ay. (35) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 century an d its law of to tal fiction; M ark T w ain is a n exam ple. In this chapter, chronological o rd er is p artly reversed: alth o u g h W ashington Irv in g (1783-1859) a n d R icardo Palm a (1833-1919) p o p u larized th e local-color m ovem ent in th eir hem ispheres, fantastic fiction in terv en ed in b o th th e U. S. a n d Spanish A m erica an d g ain ed m ore prom inence fo r a tim e. Below , th e trad itio n s are discussed one a t a tim e. W hether autochthonous o r E urocentric, su p ern atu ral tales o f the n ineteenth-century A m ericas rep resen t a com plex o f m aterialist biases an d m etaphysical fascinations. H ow ever, m aterialism is alw ays alread y suprem e. The pioneers o f A m erican su p ern atu ral fictio n follow ed the m o d el o f the B rothers G rim m , b u t the p easan t cu ltu res th ey reco rd ed w ere far from dim inishing. E arly A m erican local-colorists p resen t living su p ern atu ral beliefs as a so rt of last testam ent, p erh ap s to h a sten th eir d e a th an d secure th e m odem epistem e in A m erica. The values o f au to ch th o n o u s stories are generally those of E urocentric ones, despite obvious differences in sty le an d approach. I. Pioneers of A m erican S upernatural F iction T he ostensible p u rpo se o f the B rothers G rim m w as to collect o ral folktales w ith o u t in tru d in g on them , b u t their m o d em concerns still colored the p resen tatio n o f th e tales. C ontinuing in th e trad itio n of the B rothers Grim m , au th o r R icardo Palm a collected the trad itio n s o f Lim a, P eru; b u t b y m eans of fram ing n arrativ es and a deliberately in tru siv e n arrato r, h e clearly m arked his m odem epistem e in the tales. This is a t once a m ore self-conscious approach to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 handling p rem o d em n arrativ es a n d a w ay of p u ttin g g re a te r distance betw een m odem readers a n d p rem o d e m characters. Palm a's E nglish tran slato r, H arriet d e Orns, com pares h im to W ashington Irving: B oth lo v ed to evoke th e p a st in its in tim ate a n d legendary, rath er th a n strictly historical, aspects, to seek o u t th e b rig h t threads th a t g iv e th e w eb o f history w arm th a n d color. Irv in g 's leg en d s a n d tales belong, in b ro ad classification, to the sam e genre a s [Palm a's] T radidones. (xi) To extend the com parison, P alm a's tradiriones an d Irv in g 's tales can be considered exam ples o f th e literary legend, w h a t in G erm an criticism is called the K unstsage. The Sage [legend] is a local story, a sso d a ted w ith specific places w here m em ories a n d sp irits h a u n t the landscape (C am pbell 841); an d w hile "the Sage is conceived to b e a re d ta tio n o f fact," it "m ay b e d ev elo p ed into the K unstsage." o r "literary legend," w hich is fictional (C am pbell 841). Lutz R ohrich explains th a t the "reality" o f th e leg en d is in contrast w ith the folktale because it is m o re specific abo u t tim e a n d place. T he historical legend takes place in th e h isto rical p ast, b u t the folktale is basically ahistorical—"Tim e has no function in th e folktale" (Rbhrich 12). The fu n ctio n o f tim e, o r history, is the central problem o f P alm a's a n d Irv in g 's literary leg en d s, w h ich record the overlap of the p rem o d em a n d th e m odem epistem es.2 2 Eugen Weber comments on Irving's modem consciousness of tim e, which is the main difference between his literary legends and folktales: [T]he folk public had no perception of... fashion as such By the time Washington Irving invented Rip Van W inkle,. . . change-in-time was the whole point of the story w ith nature and humans thoroughly altered, the village changed, dress different, humans aging and dying. All that after only 20 years sleep! And the whole story is about history, about the evolution o f m en and societies in time. So we have quite a different notion of chronological time, w hich traditional peasant Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 The m arv elo u s aspects of L atin A m erica reality are d o cu m en ted in P alm a's T radidones p e ru an as. collected sh o rt n arrativ es th a t d raw fro m th e "teem ing cydoram a o f h isto ry 7 ' a n d in d u d e ev ery th in g from pirate attack s to m ira d e s to the Independence (d e O nis xii). P alm a's n a rra tiv e s w ere so m aste rfu l th a t they gained "co n tin en tal statu re" (de Qnfe xii); a n d th is p o p u larity a b ro a d w as likely m ade possible b ecau se Palm a's w o rk w as w ritte n fo r a m o d em m ateria list audience, n o t fo r th e faith fu l folk w ho p o p u la te th e tales. "[R ]ealism w as in the ascendancy w h e n P alm a began h is T rad id o n es. a n d th a t ten d en cy o f th e tim es w as reinforced b y h is o w n skeptical, satirical, V oltairean tu rn o f m in d " (de Om's xi). Palm a consciously m arks his tu rn o f m in d in his narratives. Palm a c o lle d e d p rem o d em tales, b u t h e a d d e d to them a d efin ite sense of both tim e a n d p lace; th u s, his stories have tw o epistem ic levels, th e p rem o d em an d the m o d em . T he g enre of the trad id o n es. ag ain to tite Julio O rteg a 's rem arks, is "in terg en eric," a textual h y b rid , a tran sitio n b etw een d isco u rses: The tra d id d n is . . . the give an d tak e betw een fable an d histo ry , b etw een the p a st an d th e p resen t; betw een experience a n d conscience, betw een fabulous paradigm s an d h isto rical sequences, b etw een orality an d w ritin g , betw een com m on sense a n d critical understan d in g, b etw een p o p u lar w isd o m an d m o d em irony, betw een c u ltu re as trad itio n a n d n a tio n as id e n tity (xxiv) O rtega sees d elib erate anachronism as P alm a's so lu tio n to the p ro b lem o f his historical situ atio n . P alm a w rites in a "d o u b le register," w rites th e n ew in to the old. B ut he does th is "w ith the ironic d istan ce o f his tim e" (O rteg a xxv). societies tend to ignore because it has very tittle to do with their condition o f life and work, as has the notion of change-in-time. (105-106) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 The d ialogue b e tw ee n n a rra to r (Palm a) a n d D on A d eo d ato , h is inform ant, in "D 6nde y c6m o e l d iab lo p e rd id e l poncho" ["W here a n d H o w th e D evil L ost H is Poncho"] d ram atizes th e sh iftin g vision of "reality" b etw een th e folk an d th e m o d em s w ho sh a red th is tra n sitio n a l tim e. Palm a w rites h im self in to the o p en ing of the sto ry a n d p u ts h is o w n biases o n d isp lay as h e reco rd s an exchange w ith th e m an w h o first to ld h im the tale, D on A d eo d ato .3 D on A deodato, a m an o f th e p re m o d e m epistem e. attacks P a lm a 's m o d em critical m ethods: jComo! u ste d q u e hace d£ d m as, y q u e la ech a d e cro nista o de histo rietista, y q u e escrib e e n los papeles p u blicos, y q u e ha sido d ip u ta d o a C ongreso, ig n o ra lo q u e e n m i tiem p o sabfan hasta lo s chicos d e la am iga? A sf son las re p u ta d o n es literarias q u e en trd la P atria. jH ojarasca y soplillo! jO ropel, puro oropel! (174) [What! Y ou w ho w rite verses, a n d p reten d to b e a h isto ria n or story-teller, a n d h a v e th in g s p rin ted in the p u b lic new spapers, and have b een a congressm an, d o n 't know w h a t in m y d ay s even the tw o-year-olds knew ? T h at's w h a t lite ra ry fam e has becom e since "th e b irth o f a nation." D ry leaves a n d chaff! Tinsel, n o th in g b u t tinsel! (233-234)] Palm a apologizes a n d beg s D o n A d eo d ato to en lig h ten h im . T he flattery is effective, and the sto ry is to ld . B ut Palm a, w ith a n iro n ic a n d su p erio r tone, first ad dresses his au dience a b o u t a few p o in ts reg arding D o n A d eo d ato 's tale: Por su p u esto que, com o u sted es saben, n i C fisto n i sus discfpulos so n ar a n e n trasm o n tar los A ndes (au nq u e 3 Palma the author and 'Talma" the character are not exactly the sam e, o f course. However, this gesture of marking one's involvem ent in historical research, which is totally lacking in the Brothers Grimm, greatly facilitates in distinguishing the premodem from the m odem aspects of the Tradidones peruanas. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 doctfsim os historiadores afirm an q u e e l apdstol Tom ds o T om e p red icd el Evangelio e n A m erica), n i e n esos tiem pos se conocfan el tel£grafo, el v ap o r y la im p ren ta. Pero hdganse u sted es los d e la vista m iope co n estos y otros anacronism os, y ah f v a a d p edem litterae la conseja. (175) [O f course, as y o u all know , n e ith e r C h rist n o r H is disciples d ream ed o f crossing the A ndes (alth o u gh there are learn ed h isto rian s w ho affirm th a t th e ap o stle Thom as preached th e g o sp el in A m erica), n o r w as th ere su ch a th in g as the teleg rap h in th ose days, n o r steam boats n o r p rin tin g p resses. B ut ju s t overlook these a n d o th e r anachronism s, a n d h e re is the sto ry , ad pedem litterae. (234)] W hen P alm a relates another trad itio n . "El a la c rin de fray G dm ez" ['T ray Gdmez"s Scorpion"], h e m akes a sim ilar disclaim er: "T ratdndose d e m arav illas, no gas to tin ta e n defenderlas n i en refu tarlas (264) [In questions o f m iracles I do n o t in ten d to w aste in k eith er defen d in g th em o r refuting them (225)]. C haracteristic of h is tim e, Palm a is am b iv alen t ab o u t m irad es. F ray G 6m ez reportedly h a d a su p ern atu ral ab ility to h e a l people; b u t th o u g h P alm a cites w itnesses an d h isto rical m arkers th a t confirm th e existence o f F ray G om ez, h e is still relu ctan t to d e d a re th e p riest's m ira d e s objectively true. The T rad id o n es peruanas are am bivalent, y et they are filled w ith good w ill, som ething th a t "predom inates" in the G rim m sto ries as w ell (C olum xiii).4 4 The Grimm story previously examined, "Godfather Death," does not end happily as do most of the fairy tales, but it is still possible to say that good w ill predominates in this story. The ruin of the physician is due to a lack of good w ill: he does not honor the generous contract his godfather made with him. Yet in another fairy tale, 'The Two Brothers," a lack of good w ill ends in a death but is followed by a resurrection. The younger brother chops off his older brother's head in a mistaken fit of rage. Immediately a magic object, a root that restores life, is brought to the scene like a deus ex machina. and the older brother is revived in order to live happily ever after. This happy ending is more typical o f Grimm's fairy tales than the unhappy ending of "Godfather Death." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 T his good w ill separates th e "trad id o n es" from o th e r legends. They m ostly lack th e pessim ism R ohrich describes in h is com parison o f th e leg en d to the folktale: w hile the folktale m oves fro m d iso rd er to o rd er, th e reverse h ap pen s in the legen d , w hich usu ally e n d s trag ically a n d has no h ero es. T he trag ic "P alla- h u arcan a" is one trad id o n th a t fits R ohrich's definition o f th e leg en d. It is the sto ry o f a n In d ian m aiden, sacrificed b y th e leader o f a co n q u ering kingdom fo r try in g to escape his harem w ith h e r lover. "Y ella escucha aleg re la sen ten tia" [She receives the sentence w ith a sm ile] because she longs to rejo in h e r lover w ho w as k illed in the a ttem p t to escape (6). B ut even in th is som b er tra d id b n . the m o d ern ized n arrato r's voice in tru d e s w ith a pejorative reference to th e "sen d lla su p e rstid d n " [naive superstition] o f th e n ativ es' (6). In tru siv e narrato rs, w ho ju d g e the subjects o f the sto ries th ey n arrate, a n d fram in g devices, w hich act as d isd a im ers to the unbelievable p arts o f the stories th at follow , allow m odem au th o rs to ex p lo it the in terest o f p rem o d em m aterials w ith o u t risking the scorn o f m o d em audiences. If the tra d id o n e s o f D on A deodato, Fray G om ez, a n d the In d ia n m aiden w ere n a rra te d fro m th eir o w n p o in ts o f view , nineteenth-century audiences w o uld likely b e so d istracted b y th e n a rra to rs' su p ern atu ral d a im s th a t th ey w o u ld m iss the o p p o rtu n ity to enjoy the em otional rew ard s of the stories. B u t w h en p rem o d em fact becom es m o d em fiction, it loses its th reat to the law o f sd en ce. Like Palm a, W ashington Irv in g colors his stories w ith th e m o d em epistem e by u sin g fram ing devices a n d in tru siv e n arrato rs. H e also w rites b o th som ber an d com ic tales, an d G erm an R om anticism is one o f Irv in g 's sources fo r b o th k in d s. "T he A dventure o f th e G erm an S tudent," in w hich a (probably insane) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 stu d e n t learns h e h as u n w ittin g ly co m m itted n ecrop h ilia, has the pessim ism o f P oe rath er th a n th e go o d w ill o f th e G rim m s; b u t in an o th er sto ry w ith a G erm an setting, "The Spectre B ridegroom ," Irv in g p o k es gen tle fu n a t su p ern atu ral b elief. T he B aron V on L an d sh o rt h as arra n g ed a m a rria g e for h is only d au g h ter, w ho h as b een reared b y h er m aid en au n ts. T he B aro n is described as a g o o d -h earted , if unscientific, m an: "H e w as m u ch g iv en to th e m arv ello u s, a n d a firm b eliev er in a ll those su p ern atu ral tales w ith w hich e v ery m o u n tain an d valley in G erm any abounds" (63). B ecause o f h is p rem o d em se ttin g , h e is h ard ly to blam e, a n d th e rea d er can enjoy him condescendingly, as d o h is w ell-fed an d freq u en t guests w hose faith "exceeded ev en h is ow n; they liste n e d to [his] every tale o f w o n d e r w ith o pen eyes a n d m ou th , a n d never failed to b e astonished, even th o u g h rep eated for th e h u n d re d th tim e" (63). W hen the in ten d ed groom is m u rd e re d o n h is jou rn ey to be m arried , his last w ords are a p lea to h is rid in g co m p an io n to tak e th e new s to L a n d sh o rt T he com panion arriv es, a n d before he can ex p lain , h e falls in love w ith the B aron's d au g h ter. H e sp en ds th e evening enjoying h im self u n d e r false pretenses an d escapes in the n ig h t. W hen the new s o f th e in te n d e d groom 's d eath reaches th e castle, all are convinced th a t th eir g u e st of th e p rev io u s n ig h t w as a specter. B u t the young m an w oos the B aron's d au g h ter in secret, th ey m arry, an d soon the tru th is generally know n. O ne o f th e m aid en au n ts w as p articu larly m ortified a t h av in g h e r m arvellous story m arred, a n d th a t th e only spectre sh e h a d ev er seen should tu rn o u t a counterfeit; b u t th e niece seem ed perfectly hap p y a t having fo u n d h im su b stan tial flesh a n d b lo o d . (75) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 H ere in th e figures o f th e m aid en a u n t a n d th e B aron's d au g h ter, respectively, the p rem o d em a n d m o d em epistem es are rep resen ted . G ood w ill predom inates in th is sto ry only because it is b ased o n d isbelief in th e su p e rn a tu ra l a n d a preference fo r "su b stan tial flesh a n d blood." Irv in g uses an A m erican settin g to p resen t a sim ilar sto ry in "T he Legend of Sleepy H ollow ." The d esid eratu m o f th e m a in character, schoolm aster Ichabod C rane, is th e h a n d o f K atrina V an T assel, "th e d a u g h te r a n d only child o f a su b stan tial D utch farm er" (13). B ut it is a sp ecter th a t keeps h im from attain in g K atrina—a specter g enerated b y h is o w n su p erstitio u s beliefs an d conjured b y Brom Bones, a n o p p o n en t w hose p referen ce fo r su b stan tial flesh an d b lo o d secures his trium ph. In th is fam iliar sto ry , B rom im p erso nates die G alloping H essian of th e H ollow , also k n o w n as "th e h ead less horsem an," in o rd er to scare Ichabod o u t o f tow n. A lthough th e n a rra to r does n o t directly say so, since h e uses Ichabod's p o in t o f view to tell th e sto ry , th e rea d er learns, by m eans of obvious h in ts, the real id en tity o f the h o rsem an a n d th e real identity o f the h ead h e throw s a t Ichabod: a pum pkin. U nlike "The Spectre B ridegroom ," this sto ry is ch aracter-d riv en an d m akes no sense w ith o u t a n extensive d escrip tio n o f Ich ab o d 's p red ilectio n s a n d interests: H e w as, in fact, a n o d d m ixture o f sm all sh rew d n ess a n d sim ple credulity. H is ap p etite fo r th e m arv ello u s, an d his pow ers of d ig estin g it w ere equally ex trao rd in ary ; a n d b o th h a d b een increased by his residence in this sp ell-b o u n d region. N o tale w as too gross o r m onstrous fo r his capacious sw allow . (11) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 Ichabod's physical descrip tio n , w hile delightful (he is outrageously tall a n d gangly, w ith a h u g e a p p e tite fo r fo o d and the com pany o f y o ung ladies), serves only the purpose o f en tertain m en t; his fascination w ith the su p ern atu ral is th e sine q u a non o f th e sto ry , as th is m akes him vulnerable to th e fin al p ra n k o f B rom Bones. Bones' p relim in ary m ischief, w hich includes sto p p in g Ichabod's chim ney a n d ransacking his schoolroom , is physical a n d so does n o th ing to d e te r th e other-w orldly Ichabod fro m h is q u e st o r to advance the p lo t A nother p arallel b e tw ee n "T he Spectre B ridegroom " a n d "T he L egend of Sleepy H ollow " is the sp irit-h au n ted landscape of each. U nlike H aw th o rn e, w ho lam ented the "com m onplace p ro sp erity " of A m erica an d d id n o t co n sid er it "picturesque," Irv in g fin d s even m ore im aginative p o w er in the A m erican settin g th an in the E uropean one. Sleepy H ollow is m ore im bued w ith th e su p e rn atu ral th an are the m ountains a n d valleys o f G erm any, th o u g h G erm an su p erstitio n contributes to the atm o sp h ere o f th e H ollow . Some say th a t th e place w as bew itched b y a H ig h G erm an doctor, d u rin g th e early d ays of the settlem ent; others, th a t a n old In d ian chief, th e p ro p h e t o r w izard o f this tribe, h eld his pow -w ow s th ere before th e country w as discovered by M aster H endrick H udson. C ertain it is, the place still continues u n d e r the sw ay of som e bew itching pow er, th a t holds a sp ell over the m inds o f the g o o d people They are g iv en to all k in d s of m arvellous beliefs; a re subject to strange trances an d visions; an d freq u en tly see strange sights, an d h ear m usic an d voices in the air. (6) H ere the d u al su p e rn atu ral influences of A m erica are d ep icted in th e figures o f the E uropean a n d N ative A m erican w itch doctors. To ad d to th e m etap h y sical effect of his surroundings, Ichabod's favorite read in g is none o th er th a n C o tto n M ather's H istory o f N ew E ngland W itchcraft. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 "in w hich, b y the w ay , h e m o st firm ly a n d p oten tly believed" (11). A lth o u g h the n arrato r's ju d g m en t o f M ath er's w o rk is ev id e n t in the iro n ic to n e h e tak es tow ard it, su ch p rem o d em chronicles o f su p ern atu ral events in fo rm a n d en rich m odem su p e rn atu ral fiction. A n o th er o f Ich ab o d 's influences is th e circle of D utch w ives w ho e n te rta in h im a ro u n d th e ir hearths w ith "m arv ello us tales o f ghosts a n d goblins, a n d h a u n te d field s, a n d h au n ted brooks, a n d h a u n te d bridges, an d h a u n te d h o uses, a n d p a rticu larly o f the headless h o rsem an " (12). Ichabod's enjoym ent o f these w iv e s' tales is som ew hat like the m a te ria list's enjoym ent o f su p ern atu ral fiction: h e h as th e pleasure o f "snugly c u d d lin g in th e chim ney-corner o f a cham ber th a t w as a ll o f a ru d d y glow from th e crack lin g w ood-fire, an d w h ere o f course, n o sp ectre d a re d to show h is face" (12). H ow ever, Ichabod is a b eliev er a n d so , u n lik e a m o dem m aterialist, h is p leasu re is "dearly p u rch ased b y th e terro rs o f h is subsequent w alk h o m ew ard s," d u rin g w hich the discovery o f a g en u in e su p e rn a tu ra l terro r is a p o ssibility fo r h im . The fram e n a rra tiv e o f "T he L eg en d o f Sleepy H ollow " com es a t th e en d , in the form of a p o stscrip t. T he fictio n al D ied rich K nickerbocker reco rd s th e conversation th at to o k place " a t a C o rp o ratio n m eeting" after the tale w as told. One "cautious o ld g en tlem an " can n o t fin d th e m oral of th e sto ry a n d d eclares it "a little on the ex trav ag an t—th ere w ere o n e o r tw o points o n w hich h e h a d his doubts" (38). The rep ly o f the sto ry teller is, "Faith, s i r : . . as to th a t m a tte r, I d o n 't believe one h a lf o f it m yself" (38). H ere th e narrative shifts to th e concerns of the m o d em ep istem e. A m o d em au d ien ce is m ade uncom fortable b y th e su p ern atu ral suggestions o f th e sto ry , a n d th is discom fort is d iffu sed b y th e insistence th at the sto ry is fictional, n o t factual. If the "caution" o f a n in e te e n th - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 century audience is n o t to interfere, th e n a rra to r m u st p ro v id e this k in d o f m aterialist reassurance. "The Spectre B ridegroom " an d "T he L egend o f Sleepy H ollow " are sto ries o f the su p ern atu ral ex p lain ed , in terestin g p rim a rily fo r w h a t they d em o n strate o f Irv in g 's attitu d e to w a rd th e su p ern atu ral.5 In "R ip V a n W inkle" the su p ern atu ral is n o t ex p lain ed aw ay u n til th e p o stsc rip t. R ip V an W inkle sleep s for tw enty y ears, d u rin g w h ich tim e th e A m erican R evolution takes p lace, a n d he aw akens to find h is v illag e m u ch changed—th o u g h h e him self is as lazy as h e ev er w as. R eassurance fo r th e read er com es in th e iro n y o f D iedrich K nickerbocker's insistence th a t h e has talk ed to R ip V an W inkle him self; h as seen a "certificate o n the subject;" a n d considers th e sto ry "beyond th e p o ssib ility o f d o u b t" (57). This catalo gu e o f sham evidence m atch e d w ith K nickerbocker's naive credulity reflects b ack o n th e story, w h ich is sealed as fiction b y this ap p eal to "fact."6 5 John Clendenning, in "Irving and the Gothic Tradition," calls Irving's depiction o f the supernatural in these tales "sportive" gothic or "inverted" gothic, which parodies the unlim ited imagination that is "wholly separated from human experience" (382). As does Irving, Clendenning conflates the supernatural and the imaginary. 6 Phillip Young explains that the tale is consciously taken from a collection of Grimm foktales and Otmar's Volke-Sagen of 1800, w hich contains the tale of Peter Klaus, who suffers the same fortune as Rip. Most of Young's article compares Irving's story to grander figures o f every tradition from Teutonic to Chinese mythologies; thus, he "certifies" Rip by granting him a Frazerian reading but concludes w ith an insistence on the privacy of fetal meanings, which are always psychological: "[Tlo confront the meaning o f life and the future of all our childish selves, w e all have to go up into our ow n mountains" (479). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 II. The S u p ern atu ral Sentim entalized D esp ite h is generous u se o f iro n y , Irv in g w as accused o f sentim entality7— and rig h tly so, since Irving's aim s w ere entirely aesthetic. Jane T om pkins explains the "g en eral charge against sen tim en tal fiction": it "blots o u t th e u g lier details o f life a n d cu ts experience to fit a p a tte rn o f p io u s expectation" (Tom pkins 151); m oreover, i t is "divorced from actu al h u m an experience" a n d fails "to d eal w ith the b ru te facts o f political an d econom ic oppression" (160). T he sam e accusation has lan d e d o n w om en w riters o f th e n in eteen th century; fo r instance, M argaret F errand T h o rp declares th at sentim en tality w as an im pulse "[n]o fem ale au th o r o f the n in eteen th century could w holly escape" (26). H ow ever, T om pkins defends the sen tim en tal fiction of antebellum w riters such as H a rrie t B eecher Stow e in Sensational D esigns: The C ultural W ork of Am erican F iction 1790-1860. She argues th a t these authors w ere w ell aw are o f their political lim itatio n s. To g ath er pow er, th ey a d d e d G od's au th o rity to th e fig u re of the d u tifu l w ife an d exploited h er lim ited territo ry, the hom e, to its m axim um potential. S p iritu al p ow er in its 7 Fred Lewis Pattee describes this "serious indictment": Blackwood's mentioned it as early as 1824. About all of Irving's writings, the reviewer had complained, there is a languorous softness that relegates them almost to the realm of feebleness, and he added, "Nobody has ever taken a strong hold of the English mind whose own mind has not had for one o f its first characteristics manliness." Expressed in modem phraseology, it means that Irving lacked robustness, masculinity, "red-bloodedness." He was gentle to the verge of squeamishness. Mrs. Foster, who knew him intimately in Dresden, noted that "he looks upon life as a picture, but to catch its beauties, its lights—not its defects and shadow s. On the former he loved to dw ell. He had a wonderful knack at shutting his eyes to the sinister side of anything." Beyond a doubt this lack of robustness in Irving m ust be reckoned with as one cause of the general effeminacy and timid softness that characterized so much o f American fiction during the greater part of the century. (144) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 C hristian form , th e re su lt o f th e ethic o f sub m issio n, com pensated fo r a lack o f political pow er. T om pkins attrib u tes th e dism issal of nineteen th -cen tu ry w om en a u th o rs to tw entieth-century scientific m aterialism ; sh e arg u es th a t contem porary re a d e rs are incapable o f a p ro p er app reciatio n of th e p o w e r o f sentim ental lite ra tu re b ecau se it has a religious fram ew ork.8 W hile th is ex p lan atio n has m erit, it elides th e relig io u s com plications o f th e n in etee n th century, w h ich w as m aterialist en o u g h to p ro d u ce antagonism from th e o rig in al readers o f sen tim en tal fiction. N athaniel H aw thorne's infam ous grievance is a n exam ple: A m erica is n o w w holly given over to a d****d m ob of scribbling w om en, a n d I sh o u ld h av e n o chance of success w hile the p u b lic taste is occupied w ith th eir trash —an d sh o u ld be asham ed o f m yself if I d id succeed, (q u o ted in T om pkins 217) H aw thorne scorned attach m en t to p rem o d em tastes a n d values, a n d h e w as n o t speaking only for him self. In B eneath the A m erican Renaissance: The S ubversive Im agination in the Age o f F.m erson an d M elville. D av id S. R eynolds w rites th a t th e m ajor literatu re o f th is p e rio d "w as p ro d u ced a t [a] crucial w atershed m o m en t betw een the m etaphysical p a st an d the secu lar fu tu re, betw een th e typological. 8 Tompkins writes: In the twentieth century, materialist notions about the ultimate nature of reality and faith in the validity o f scientific method have given rise to strategies of persuasion that require institutionally certified investigators to argue in technical vocabulary for conclusions based on independently verifiable evidence, gathered according to professionally sanctioned methods o f inquiry. (The metaphysical assumptions behind this mode o f argumentation are no less powerful for being unstated.) (155) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 otherw orldly eth o s o f P uritanism a n d th e m im etic, earth ly w o rld o f literary realism " (16). W hile n in eteen th -cen tu ry au th o rs w ro te, to som e extent, in a m ixture o f th e prem odem a n d th e m o d em epistem es. w h a t su rv iv ed o f p re m o d e m doctrine w as em battled a n d g rea tly in n eed o f p ro p p in g u p . T he ethos o f th e Second G reat A w akening in fo rm s th e w ork o f auth o rs lik e Stow e, b u t relig io u s aw akenings are predicated o n relig io u s slum ber, a n d a seco n d aw akening im p lies th e failure o f th e first. A ttem p ts a t rev iv al o f p rem o d em re lig io n m ay h av e b e e n d ram atic, b u t they d id n o t h av e lo n g -lastin g effects o n th e g e n e ra l cu ltu re. In fa c t, m o st of w h at d id last w as the d ram a. A s R eynolds explains, A forcefully secular em otionalism h a d arisen d u rin g th e cam p- m eetin g rev iv als o f the Second G re at A w akening a n d , d esp ite lo u d resistan ce h o rn orthodox theologians a n d ratio n alistic lib erals, w as d estin ed to take o n progressively m ore h u m an ize d form s as its influence b ro ad en ed in th e c o u rse of th e cen tu ry . (21) W hether b y coincidence o r b y necessity, th e su p e rn atu ral becam e a m eans of provoking in ten se em otional reactions, a n d m o d em auth o rs, reg ard less o f their religious p ersu asio n s, tu rn ed to su p e rn atu ral them es in o rd e r to realize stro n g sentim ental effects. T he generation of A m erican w riters after Irv in g included Sarah O m e Jew ett, M ary E. W ilkins F reem an, a n d H arriet B eecher Stow e, authors of literary leg en d s filled w ith good w ill a n d stro n g se n tim e n t O n ly S tow e was verifiably C h ristian , b u t the others d em o n strate a taste fo r p re m o d e m m orality. W hile p ath o s a n d m o ral instru ctio n are th e hallm arks o f th eir fictio n , these au th ors h ad to d eal w ith th e disbelief o f th eir rea d ers, w h ich they d id b y m eans o f fram ing narratives a n d fictio n al storytellers like Irv in g 's D iedrich K nickerbocker. These Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 authors w ro te ab o u t su rv iv in g p rem o d em ru ral cu ltu res, w h ich they described fo r th eir readers as fo r to u rists. S arah Q m e Jew ett w ro te h e r first book o f sketches a b o u t M aine because sh e w anted "to exp lain its n a tiv e s to the sum m er visitors fro m o th e r p a rts o f the country w ho d istu rb ed h e r b y th e w ay they m isu n d ersto o d h e r neighbors" (T horp 6). Jew ett7 s explanations o f h e r com m unity pro tected it b y allo w ing h er read ers to keep their critical facu lties a t a distance. This is especially tru e o f h e r su p e rn atu ral story 'T h e Foreigner," w h ic h sh e su rro u n d ed w ith a fictio n al fram ing device, alth ou g h Jew ett h erself b e liev e d in com m unication w ith th e d e a d a n d p erso n al im m ortality, b o th su g g ested in the tale (T horp 41). "T he F oreigner" is a story o f a m o th er's ghostly a p p earan ce a t h e r d au g h ter's d eath b ed , a n d it is told by the fictional M rs. A lm ira T o d d , w ise w om an an d h erb alist o f D u n n et L anding. N one of Irv in g 's irony is p re se n t in th is story, an d M rs. A lm ira T o d d has all the d ig n ity th at D iedrich K nickerbocker lacks, though she tells the sto ry in a q u ain t d ia le c t The fram e n a rra tiv e takes place d u rin g a storm y n ig h t, w h e n M rs. T odd appears a t th e n a rra to r's h o u se, w anting com pany as sh e k eep s vigil for the sailo rs o u t in th e gale. A s w ith m an y local-color g h o st stories, a sn u g h e a rth is the se ttin g of this fram e n arrativ e, a n d th e id le com pany aro u n d it is so o n in th e m ood fo r storytelling. The n a rra to r ask s M rs. T odd to tell a g h o st sto ry a n d th en hesitates, b etray in g h er expectations: "I w as really afraid th a t she w as going to tell m e som ething th a t w o u ld h a u n t m y thoughts o n every d a rk sto rm y n ig h t as long as I lived" (146). H ow ever, th e sto ry tu rn s o u t to b e co n trary to th ese expectations: its m essage is one of co n so latio n , n o t alarm . In this w ay, Jew ett7 s sto ry suggests th e prem odem epistem e. T he b eneficent possibilities of th e su p e rn a tu ra l are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 elaborated, co n trary to the expectations o f th e fram e n arrato r an d th e in te n d ed audience o f Jew ett's sto ry —m od em aud ien ces w ho ten d ed to im agine th e su p ern atu ral in its m aleficent possibilities exclusively, because th ey h a d b e en reading au th o rs lik e Poe. B ut in fact. Je w e tts sto ry is n o t p rem o d em in its sensibilities precisely because it can n o t im agine the d a rk e r aspects o f th e su p ern atural; th u s, th e su p ern atu ral is sen tim en talized a n d loses p a rt o f th e spectrum o f p rem o d e m su p ernatu ral belief- T he title character, E liza T olland, is a m isu n d ersto o d foreigner w hose n eig h b o rs im agine h er as h arm ful, ju s t as— th e story im plies—th e su pern atu ral is m isu n d ersto o d if im agined as harm ful. Eliza is a F rench-born Jam aican w ho m arried C ap tain T olland a fte r h e rescued h er from d ire circum stances in Jam aica an d b ro u g h t h e r hom e to D unnet L anding. A lm ira T odd's m other b efrien d s the culture-shocked E liza a n d defends h e r stran g e w ays to her d isap p ro v in g neighbors. A lm ira co ntinu es h e r friendship w ith E liza after h er m other's d e a th a n d learns from h e r " a sig h t o ' things ab o u t h erbs" (155). The neighbors im agine th a t som e o f E liza's h erb al concoctions a n d charm s a re u sed to cast evil spells o n h e r enem ies, b u t A lm ira in sists th a t " 't w as a ll nonsense; 'tis th e believin' in su ch th in g s th a t causes 'e m to b e any h arm , an' so I to ld 'e m " (155). The su p ern atu ral can b e nonsense, as the m o d em epistem e w o u ld h av e it, b u t only w hen believed to b e h arm fu l an d unsym pathetic. W hat A lm ira does believe in , how ever, is the ben ig n p o ten tial o f th e supernatural—a lb eit sh e is discreet in say in g so. T he penultim ate section of the story is A lm ira T o d d 's account o f th e v isitatio n of th e E liza's m o th er's g h o s t A t this po in t in the fram e n arrativ e, M rs. T o d d d raw s h e r chair in closer, low ers h er Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 voice a n d says, " I a in 't to ld y o u a l l . . . n o , I h av e n 't sp o k en o f all to b u t v ery few " (166). Follow ing this is a n o d d sh ift in th e n arrato r's to n e, as sh e describes M rs. T odd in learn ed an d allusive term s in ap p ro p riate to th eir su b je c t "M rs. T odd looked lik e a n o ld prophetess as sh e s a t th ere w ith th e firelig h t shining o n h e r stro n g face; she w as p o sed fo r som e g re a t p ain ter. The w o m a n . . . w as as unconscious an d as m ysterious as a n y sib y l o f the Sis tin e C hapel" (166). E liza's hostile neighbors are ig n o ran t in th e ir in terp retatio n o f th e su p ern atu ral, b u t M rs. T odd is a n a u g u st p rophetess as sh e sh ares hers. M rs. T o d d is credible, in th is sentim ental context, because she is sy m p a th e tic A lm ira tells o f E liza's la st m om ents o f life, w hen sh e su d d en ly rallied a n d s a t u p in b e d , looking tow ard th e d oo r. A lm ira looks u p a n d sees fo r a n in sta n t " a w o m an 's d a rk face lookin' rig h t a t u s '[T ]w as a p leasan t en o u g h face, sh a p e d so m eth in ' lik e M rs. T olland's, a n d a k in d o f expectin' look" (168). A lm ira h as a b rief fain tin g spell, and the gh o st is g o n e w h e n she recovers. H e r blackout is follow ed b y a sense of calm , "an ' [I felt] lifted to som ethin' d ifferen t as I n ev er w as since," she concludes (169). H av in g exp lain ed th at she w as tire d from k eep in g vigil w ith E liza, A lm ira anticipates th e n a rra to r's skeptical pro test: '"N o, I d o n 't expect I w as asleep ,' M rs. T o d d a ssu re d m e quietly, after a m om ent's pau se, th o u g h I h a d n o t spoken" (168). In d eed , she blam es o n ly h e r quaverin g o n h e r exhaustion, a w eakness of "p o o r h u m a n n a tu r'" (168). T he g h o st is also a foreigner, from another w orld, a n d deserv es th e sam e k in d ly co nsideration as d o es Eliza. T he sto ry 's final section un dersco res its veracity. M rs. T o d d repeats h e r claim to discretion, 'T v e to ld the circum stances to b u t v ery few ," an d she ad d s, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 "b u t I d o n 't call it b ey o n d reaso n " (169). H e r u ltim ate su p p o rt fo r th e tru th o f h e r sto ry is a n a p p ea l to science: "T h ere's so m eth in ' o f all o f u s th a t m u st still liv e on; w e'v e g o t to jo in b o th w o rld s to g ether a n ' liv e in o n e b u t fo r th e oth er." T he d o c to r sa id th a t to m e on e day, a n ' I n e v e r c o u ld fo rg et it; h e s a id 't w as in one o ' h is o ld d o cto r's books. (169) The law o f science is th e h ig h est au th o rity o f th e m o d em age, a n d th is is tru e even in the context o f local-color stories, in w h ich th e rep resen tativ es o f th e la w of science are few a n d o ften lim ited to th e co u n try do cto r. B ut appeals to th e la w of science n eed n o t b e as d irect as a q u o tatio n fro m a d o cto r; som etim es a fram e n arrativ e suffices. A porch, n o t a h e a rth , is the settin g fo r th e fram e n arrativ e o f "The L ost G host," a sentim ental su p e rn atu ral tale b y M ary E. W ilkins Freem an. The sto ry ap p ears in one m o d em an th o lo g y w ith a n o th e r fram e w o rth noting. In M asters of Shades an d Shadow s: A n A nthology o f G reat G h o st S tories. Seon M anley a n d G ogo Lew is list th e sto ry u n d e r th e section title "H o rro r a t th e H earthside (V ictorian W om en G h o st W riters)." H ere a lack o f critical atten tio n to the trad itio n o f A m erican su p e rn a tu ra l fiction is e v id e n t. A lth o u g h the editors in tro d uce F reem an's sto ry b y saying th a t th e a u th o r "tu rn e d h e r back u p o n th e o v erw ro u g h t a n d o v erw o rk ed G othic influences o f E urope" (99), they still lis t h e r as "V ictorian" a n d so e lid e th e autochthonous n a tu re o f h e r w ritin g . A nd alth o u g h they c red it h e r fo r offering "a n ew so lid ity to th e fragile g h o st sto ry , an d n ew em otions to o ,. . . poignancy, fo r exam ple" (99), th ey still lead read ers to expect "H o rror a t the H earth sid e" from h e r sto ry . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 In fact, F reem an w as n o t a h o rro r w rite r b u t a sentim ental local-colorist, an d as su ch sh e rep resen ts o ne o f A m erica's co ntributions to m o d e m su p ern atu ral fiction: a n altern ativ e w ay to ex p lo it p rem o d em b e lief fo r em otional e ffe ct Freem an d eftly em ploys devices to k eep h e r read ers in tellectu ally d istan t from the sto ry 's epistem ology b u t em otionally d o s e to its ch aracters a n d events. T he fram e n a rra tiv e is a conversation, in th e ir o w n dialect, b e tw ee n M rs. M eserve an d M rs. E m erson. I t takes place o n M rs. E m erson's p o rc h as th e tw o w om en sew for th e ch u rch fair. D espite th e relig io u s a sso d atio n s called u p by th eir handiw ork, b o th w om en in sist o n th eir skepticism in th e co u rse o f th eir conversation. M rs. M eserve has com e to sh are th e gossip o f th e scoffing new tenants of a rep u ted ly h a u n te d ho u se, b u t w h e n th is recalls h e r o w n h au n ted - h ouse experience, sh e m akes several d isd a im ers before reco u n tin g h e r sto ry . Firstly, M rs. M eserve h as b een ad v ised b y h e r h u sb and , Sim on, th a t she sh o u ld n o t tell h e r sto ry because, "H e sa id lo ts o f folks w o u ld so o n er te ll folks m y h ead w a sn 't rig h t th a n to o w n u p th ey c o u ld n 't see th ro u g h it" (103). Sim on him self c a n 't ex p lain aw ay h is w ife's experience, b u t h e still in sists th a t "h e d id n 't believe it w as an y th in g su p ern atu ral" (103). H ere is th e su p e rn atu ral read th ro u g h the m o d em epistem e as a n im aginary creatio n or, w o rse, a sym ptom of m adness. B ut M rs. M eserve is n o t a v ictim o f h e r h u sb an d 's m aterialism ; she m akes her ow n d isd a im e r before telling h e r sto ry , o ne rem iniscen t o f P alm a's in "El alacran de fray G dm ez" ['T ray G om ez7 s S corpion"], q u o ted above—th o u g h h ers is m ore p erso n al a n d dram atic: O f c o u rse . . . I a in 't going to say p o sitiv d y th a t I believe o r disbelieve in ghosts, b u t a ll I tell y o u is w h a t I saw . I c a n 't explain i t I d o n 't p rete n d I can, fo r I c a n 't. If y o u can, w ell Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 an d good; I sh all b e g lad , fo r it w ill sto p to rm en tin g m e as it has d o n e a n d alw ays w ill otherw ise. (103) D isclaim ers com plete, M rs. M eserve finally lau n ch es the read er o u t o f th e fram e narrativ e an d in to th e sto ry . W hen sh e w as y o u n g , M rs. M eserve b o ard ed w ith tw o lovely o ld lad ies, M rs. D ennison an d M rs. B ird. M rs. B ird is even m ore sym pathetic th an Jew ett's M rs. T o d d —M rs. B ird "w as a re a l m otherly so rt o f w om an; sh e alw ays seem ed to b e th e h ap p iest w h en she w as d o in g som ething to m ake o th er folks h ap p y a n d com fortable," th o u g h sh e n ev er h a d ch ild ren o f h e r o w n (104). The d ear o ld lad ies' h o u se is h a u n te d b y a little g irl ghost, w ho repeats "I can 't fin d m y m other" a n d tries to h elp w ith h o u seh o ld chores. W hen M rs. M eserve discovers the gh ost, w hich the o ld lad ies alread y know about, all are shaken, and M rs. D ennison requires a glass o f w ater. A vase is hastily p ro cu red for the p u rpo se, b u t M rs. D ennison is w o rried ab o u t the vase's p ain ted flow ers getting w et a n d w ash in g off. Such charm ing d etail, in th e m idst of recovering from the frig h t a n d chill o f seeing a gh o st, am eliorates any excessive h o rro r o n the p a rt of th e read er an d rescues th e sen tim en tal tone from m orbidity. The little g host is so m u ch the opposite o f h o rrify in g th a t ev en the cat does n o t fear it, "an d th a t seem ed q u eer, fo r I h a d alw ays h e a rd th a t anim als w ere d readfu lly afraid o f ghosts; b u t then, th at w as a p retty harm less little so rt of g host" (110). The g h o st is harm less, b u t she is th e victim o f g reat harm : she d ied from the neglect of h e r self-centered an d m aniacal m oth er. Freem an m anages th e p olarities of creepiness a n d com passion w ith rem arkable skill. W ithin three sentences, "dread" of seeing th e g h o st becom es "p itifu l" feeling, "enough to b reak yo u r h eart" (114). C om passion is the stro n g est em o tio n M rs. Bird has Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I l l tow ard the g h o st, d esp ite h e r com pulsion to re-w ash dishes w a sh e d b y th e little d ead girl, w ho h a d b e en forced to d o su ch ch o res fo r h e r m o th er d e sp ite h e r young age. M rs. M eserve says, I d o n 't th in k [M rs. Bird] w as ev er so scared b y th a t p o o r little g host, as m u ch as she p itie d it, a n d sh e w as m ost h e artb ro k en because sh e c o u ld n 't d o an y th in g fo r it, as sh e co u ld h av e done fo r a live child. (114) The sto ry en d s w ith th e d e a th o f M rs. B ird, forecasted b y h e r ap p earan ce one snow y m o rn in g o n the p ath , w alking h an d -in -h an d w ith th e c h ild w h o w as "nestling close to h er as if she h a d fo u n d h e r o w n m other" (115). A p o ten tially creepy b u t actually poig n an tly com ic d e ta il concludes the story: W e h u rrie d u p stairs as fast as w e c o u ld go, an d [M rs. B ird] w as d e a d in h e r bed , a n d sm iling as if she w as d ream in g , a n d one a rm a n d h a n d w as stretch ed o u t as if som ething h a d h o ld of it; a n d it c o u ld n 't b e straig h ten ed ev en a t the la st—it la y o u t over h e r casket a t the funeral." (115) The child w as n e v er seen again; presum ably, sh e w as escorted to h e av e n b y the w arm an d caring M rs. B ird. U nlike th e m ain characters of fan ta stic sto ries w ho experience the h o rro rs of th e su p ern atu ral in ag o nizing isolation, th e characters of sentim ental su p e rn atu ral tales alw ays h av e com pany an d sy m p ath y . H ow ever, they d o n o t enjoy any verification o f th eir experience o r a straig h tfo rw ard acco u n t o f it. The occasional in terru p tio n s o f M rs. E m erson's com m ents an d q uestio n s into M rs. M eserve's tale serve to rem in d th e re a d e r th a t the story, th o u g h absorbing, is h earsay a n d therefo re potentially fictio n al. W hat F reem an has accom plished in h e r treatm en t of th is sto ry o f a m urderous m o th er is ev id en t in a com parison o f h er tale to th e M exican leg en d of "La L lorona," th e W ailing W om an, w hich m ig h t possibly h av e a g en etic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 connection to Freem an's tale. T h ere a re still people in M exico w h o h ear the w aiting s o f La L lorona, a w o m an w h o h a u n ts th e e a rth g riev in g fo r th e ch ild ren sh e k illed (Scheffler 154-156). L ike th e m o th er o f F reem an's little ghost, L a L lorona is a b eau tifu l w om an, a n d b o th m o th e rs v iew th eir ch ild ren as a hindrance. H ow ever, the focus o f the "L a L lo ro n a" leg en d is o n th e crim inal, a n d the focus o f F reem an 's story is o n th e victim . L a L lo ro n a is co n dem n ed to e te rn al reg ret, b u t F reem an redeem s the severe consequences of infanticide. S entim entalism is allo w ed b y F reem an's tale b ecau se it p resen ts a problem th a t can b e corrected b y w arm feeling; an d in so doing, it giv es sentim entality a n o p p o site b u t eq ual v alu e to th e h o rro r of th e crim e. T h o u g h each sto ry arrives a t it b y d ifferen t m eans, th e m o ral of b o th "The L ost G host" a n d "La L lorona" is th e sam e—care fo r y o u r ch ild ren above yourself. T he m o ra l im p o rt of su p e rn atu ral events is entirely lacking from fantastic fiction lik e P o e's, b u t the ladies o f local-color have a k een aw areness of it. H arriet Beecher Stow e, in "T h e G host in the M ill," conflates sentim entality, m o rality a n d belief. A s w ith the tales b y Jew ett an d Freem an, S tow e's n a rra to r sp eak s in d ialect b u t projects d ig n ity a n d sym pathy. A s w ith Irv in g 's "The Spectre B ridegroom ," Stow e's sto ry h as tw o co n trastin g figures w ho rep re se n t the p rem o d e m an d the m o d em epistem es. Sam L aw son is the storyteller, a n d h e p ertain s to th e p rem o d e m epistem e. telling tales of w o n d er th at are g o v ern ed b y th e law of au tho rity . B y contrast, A u n t Lois is a sk ep tic an d h er respo n se to S am 's w ondrous tale typifies th e m o d em ep istem e: 'T o r m y p a rt," said A u n t Lois sh arp ly , "I n ev er b eliev ed th a t story." . . . I w o u ld n 't b eliev e su ch a thing if it d id h a p p e n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 rig h t befo re m y face an d eyes. I sh o u ld o nly th in k I w as crazy, th a t's all." (107) A nother character o f a prem o d em m indset, th e g ran dm o th er, gives a rep ly th a t begs the q u estio n b u t rev eren tly references Ich ab o d C ran e's su p ern atu ral authority: "C om e L ois, if I w as you, I w o u ld n 't ta lk like a Sadducee W hat w o u ld becom e of a ll th e accounts in D r. C o tto n M ath er's 'M agnilly' if folks w ere like you?" (107). W hat becom es o f M ath er's w ork in th e m o d em age is th a t it is a esth etid zed and fictionalized b y a u th o rs d raw n to its d ra m a b u t rep elled by its doctrine. Stow e, how ever, h a d u n ab ash ed su p ern atu ral beliefs, d esp ite h er p ractical n eed to fram e the su p e rn atu ral in a w ay th at w o u ld n o t rep el h e r audience. H er strateg y is to m ake a subtle arg u m en t fo r the im possibility o f h u m an m orality a n d u n iv ersal justice o u tsid e of a m atrix o f trad itio n al belief. "T he G host in the M ill" has M ather's au to chthonous flavor. It is th e sto ry o f a crim e uncovered b y a n In d ian w om an, "one of th e ra e l [sic] w ild sort," n am ed K etury. She blow s in to th e m ill, w here tw o m en are sittin g o u t a storm b y the h e arth , an d "sh e rattled h e r necklace o ' bones an d snakes' tails; a n d h er eyes seem ed to sn ap ; a n d she looked u p the chim bley, a n d called o u t, 'C om e dow n, com e d o w n , le t's see w ho ye b e '" (105). W hat em erges, b it b y b it, from the chim ney, is th e b o d y of a m u rd er victim . Sam pronounces the m o ral of th e story: "So th ere y o u see, boys, there c a n 't b e no iniquity so h id b u t w h a t it'll com e out. The w ild Indians o f th e forest, a n d the storm y w inds an d tem pests, j'in e d to geth er to b rin g o u t this 'ere" (107). It is strikin g th a t, lik e M ather, Sam p resu p p o ses a sp iritu al w o rld kn o w n to b o th C hristians a n d In d ian s, th o ug h b y d ifferen t m eans. Indeed, K etury, w hose Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 father w as a pow w ow (sham an), is believ ed to have b e en se t a p art for the service of th e D evil a s a ch ild (104). L ike E liza T olland o f Jew ett's 'T h e Foreigner," "folks u sed to say [of her] th at anybody th a t K etury g o t m ad a t w as su re to g et the w o rst o f it fu st o r last" (105); unlike E liza, sh e is depicted unsym pathetically an d no one defends h e r from this accusation. K etury is a w oefully p reju d icial depiction of N ative A m erican culture, b u t h e r e v il presence in th e sto ry m akes Stow e's tale m ore p rem o d em th an Jew ett's o r F reem an's, because sh e rep resen ts the dark er aspects o f th e su pern atu ral, resto rin g th e fu ll spectrum o f su p ern atu ral possibilities. T he h e a rth w here the m u rd er victim 's body reassem bles is n o t a sym pathetic setting, b u t th e h earth of Stow e's fram e narrative is the fam iliar settin g of a sentim ental local-color story. A ro u n d th is fram e-narrative h earth are characters w hose countenances and conversation provide all the go o d w ill a n d sym pathy th a t are lacking fro m Sam 's story. H arry , one o f the boys in S am 's audience, has "very w ide b lu e eyes, in w hich u n d o u b tin g faith shone as in a m irro r" (99). The fram e n arrato r, w h o is p a rt of the audience, explains, "W e w ere alw ays in th e m ost receptive a n d sym pathetic condition" w h en Sam to ld his stories (100). Sam playfully b an ters w ith the boys a n d feigns reluctance to tell stories, w hich they try to overcom e as they beg an d p lead . The scene is m arked b y a su rfeit o f sym pathy and good w ill. The scene is also m arked b y nostalgia. W hile Jew ett a n d Freem an depict living ru ra l cu ltu res, Stowe depicts a d y in g one. Sam an d th e boys are residents of "O ldtow n," a n d they live a t a tem p o ral distance from S tow e's read in g audience. Theirs is a p rem o d em culture: "all th e m ultiform devices—pictorial, narrative, an d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 poetical—w hich keep th e m in d o f th e p resen t g e n e ra tio n ablaze w ith excitem ent, h a d n o t th en ev en a n existence"; " In those d ay s o f e a rly M assachusetts, fa ith a n d credence w ere in the very a ir" (98). Storytellers w e re in dem and, an d th e ag ed d rew o n the "teem ing c y d o ra m a o f history"—as d e O m s says o f P alm a's trad id o n es—telling tales o f early life; tales o f w a r an d a d v e n tu re , o f forest-days, o f In d ian captivities a n d escapes, of b ears a n d w ild -cats an d p an th ers, o f rattlesn ak es, o f w itches a n d w iz a rd s, a n d stran g e an d w o n d erfu l d ream s a n d appearances a n d providences. (Stowe 98) But, as evidenced b y th e m o d e m a ttitu d e o f A u n t L o is, i t is a cu ltu re th a t w ill d ie as the h earth em bers d ie w h e n the stories are fin ish ed . m . A m biguities o f S pilt R eligion M odem m aterialism c a n b e sm ug an d is g en erally g lad to be rid o f p a s t "sup erstitio n ," b u t th ere is also a n elegiac stra in in th e m o d em epistem e. This is w h a t M . H. A bram s ad d resses in N atu ral S u p em atu ralism : T radition a n d R evolution in R om antic L itera tu re . A ccording to A b ram s, th e R om antics u n d erto o k to save th e overview of h u m a n h isto ry an d destiny, the exp erien tial p arad ig m s, a n d the c ard in al v alu es o f their religious h eritag e, b y reconstructing th em in a w ay th a t w o u ld m ake th em in tellectu ally acceptable, as w ell as em otionally pertin en t, for th e tim e being, w hich w as th e e ra after the E nlightenm ent (66). A b ra m 's takes T. E. H u lm e's assessm ent of R om anticism as "sp ilt religion" as h is p o in t o f d ep artu re. T he Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 "R om antic enterprise," w rites A b ram s, w as resolved "to g iv e u p w h a t one was convinced one h a d to give u p o f th e d o g m atic u n d e rstru c tu re o f C hristianity, y e t to save w h at one co u ld save o f its ex p erien tial relevance a n d v alu es" (68). This describes N athaniel H aw th o rn e's sto ries—experim ents in alleg o ry a n d autochthony, w hich are obsessed w ith b rin g in g the p a st to term s w ith the p re s e n t H aw th o rn e's tales negatively d em o n strate th e p o w e r o f th e la w of science in th e m o d em epistem e b y th eir co n stan t resistance to its d ictates; th ey are m ark ed by a p ersisten t am biguity o f th em e a n d m ode, a n d b affle th e reader's attem p ts to g ain certainty. D onald A . R inge, au th o r o f A m erican G o th ic Im agination an d R eason in N in eteen th -C en tu rv F iction, w rites, "H aw thorne estab lish ed a m id d le g ro u n d b etw een th e real and th e im ag in ary w here most of h is fictions take place" (9). In his p reface to T he H ouse o f th e S even G ables. H aw th o rn e describes his w o rk as a "R om ance," and th e d escrip tio n h e gives fits m an y o f his sh o rt stories as w ell. F or H aw th o rn e, R om ance allow s " a certain latitu d e" n o t available to th e N ovel w riter, w ho m u st "aim a t a v ery m inute fid elity n o t m erely to the possible, b u t to th e probable a n d o rd in a ry course of m a n 's experience." T he R om ance is freer, though "it sins u n p ard o n ab ly so far as it m ay sw erve aside from the tru th o f th e h u m an h eart"—a tru th w h ich m ay be p resen ted according to "the w rite r's o w n choosing o r creatio n " (1302). In his characteristically conflicted fashion, H aw thorne ad v ises "m oderate" u se of the "M arvellous" an d th en su g g ests th at, on the o th e r h a n d , there is no "crim e" in disreg ard in g this "cau tio n" (1302). The w arn in g coincides w ith his scornful w ords ab o u t the "d****d m ob o f scribbling w om en" h e com peted with, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 w ho m ade th e M arvellous (contrary to H aw th o rn e's advice) n o t " a slight, delicate a n d evanescent flavor" b u t a larg e "p o rtio n o f the actu al su bstance o f the d ish offered to the p u b lic " The u se o f a d om estic m etap h o r h ere suggests th a t the ladies o f local-color m ay in d eed h av e in sp ire d th e w arning; b u t H aw th o rn e's dism issal o f th is w arn in g, im m ediately su b seq u en t, is probably fo r h is o w n sake. H aw thorne p articip ated in th e v ery k in d o f su p ern atu ral sen tim en tality h e com plained o f an d w arn ed against. H is sto ry "T he Snow Im age" is m o re cloying than m any a sto ry b y th e "scribbling w om en." V iolet a n d P eony L indsey, th e d arlin g ch ild ren o f a n ad o rin g an d sy m p ath etic m other, b u ild th e im age o f a little girl o u t of snow , a n d sh e com es to life. T heir fath er, "an excellent b u t exceedingly m atter-of-fact so rt of m an " (1087), retu rn s hom e to fin d h is ch ild ren gam boling a b o u t the y a rd w ith a n u n d er-d ressed little girl, a s th eir m o th er w atches on. D istu rb ed b y the neglect o f g o o d sense, M r. L indsey in sists th a t th e little g irl com e in sid e a n d sit b y the fire, a n d sh e m elts into a p u d d le. H aw th o rn e finishes the tale w ith a lengthy m oral a n d th is apology: The rem arkable sto ry of th e snow -im age, th o u g h to th at sagacious d a ss o f people to w hom g oo d M r. L indsey belongs it m ay seem b u t a childish affair is, nevertheless, capable o f b eing m o ralized in various m eth o d s, g reatly for th eir edification_ _ _ B ut, after a ll, th ere is no teaching an y th in g to w ise m en o f g o o d M r. L in d sey's stam p. T hey know everything—O , to b e sure!— ev ery th in g th a t has been, a n d ev ery th in g th a t is, an d ev ery th in g th at, b y an y fu tu re p ossibility can be. A nd, sh o u ld som e phenom enon of n a tu re o r Providence transcend th eir system , th ey w ill n o t recognize it, even if it com e to pass u n d e r th eir very noses. (1102) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 H ere the n arrato r speaks as a R om antic against the in ev itab le law of science an d derides m o d em certainties. H e d esires transcendence, n o t th e closed system o f scientific m aterialism . W hile th e local-colorists u su ally dispose o f th e p ro b lem s created b y th e law o f science by m eans o f a fram e narrativ e, H aw thorne em p lo y s a m ore am biguous strategy. It is n ev er m ad e d e a r w h eth er the sn o w g irl is im ag in ary o r real, a n d M r. L indsey's ability to see h e r is y e t m ore confounding. T he n arrato r—w ho is m ore in trusive th an those o f local-color stories—describes th e lab or of Peony a n d Violet: "They really seem ed to im agine th at th ere w o u ld b e no difficulty w hatever in creating a live little g irl o u t of the sn o w "; h e a d d s, "A nd, to say the tru th , if m irad es are ever to b e w rought, it w ill b e b y p u ttin g o u r hands to the w ork, in p red sely su ch a sim p le a n d undou b tin g fram e o f m in d " (1080). If d o u b t rules o u t m irad es, th en it follow s th a t M r. L indsey sh o u ld n o t h ave seen anything b u t snow w h en h e lo ok ed a t his ch ild ren 's p lay m ate. Instead, he sees the snow girl, seizes h er, sets h e r d o w n in fro n t o f th e fire, a n d m arches off to fin d h er parents. W hen h is w ife calls him back a n d sh o w s h im th e p u d d le o f w ater, he exhibits "the u tm o st perplexity" a n d dem an d s a n explanation (1102). V erification o f th e m ira d e is n o t available to M r. L in d sey , n o r is it to the reader. M ultiple view s of th e sn o w girl are described b y th e n arrato r, b u t he validates none o f them . E ven th e sym pathetic M rs. L indsey, w ho sew s b y the w indow thinking fondly o f h e r "golden-haired V iolet a n d bright-cheeked Peony," cannot tell for certain w h a t is going on. She an sw ers h e r children's req u est to look o u t the w indow , Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 B ut it so h a p p e n e d th a t th e su n —fo r th is w as o n e o f the sh o rte st d a y s o f th e w hole y ear—h a d su n k e n so n e a rly to the edge o f th e w o rld , th at h is settin g sh in e cam e obliquely into the la d y 's ey es. So sh e w as d azzled , y o u m u st u n d erstan d , a n d co u ld n o t very distinctly observe w h a t w as in th e garden. Still, h o w ev er, th ro u g h a ll th a t b rig h t, b lin d in g d azzle o f the su n an d th e n ew snow , sh e b eh eld a sm all w h ite fig u re in the g ard en , th a t seem ed to h av e a w o n d e rfu l d e a l o f h u m a n likeness a b o u t i t (1091-2) W hen the d azzle d e p a rts, a n d M rs. L indsey c a n see clearly ag ain , h er c h ild ren call h er o u t to see th e ir playm ate, a n d th ere is a little g irl w ith them ; b u t th e read er can n o t k n o w h e r o rig in for certain. "In d eed , (M rs. L indsey] alm ost doubted w h eth er i t w ere a re a l child, after all, o r on ly a lig h t w reath o f th e new - fallen snow , b lo w n h ith e r a n d th ith er ab o u t th e g a rd e n b y th e intensely cold w est-w ind" (1094). T his d o u b t is echoed b y th e n eig h b o rs, w h o w atch M r. L indsey p u rsu in g th e g irl to b rin g h er inside: th ey "w o n d ered w h a t could possess p o o r M r. L in d sey to b e ru n n in g a b o u t h is g a rd e n in p u rsu it of a snow drift, w hich th e w est-w in d w as d riv in g h ith e r a n d th ith er!" (1098). "The Snow Im ag e" p resents a com pelling m oral, d esp ite its excessive sentim entality a n d th e indeterm inacy o f its m iracle: th a t is, th e m o d em scientific p erso n m isses o u t o n w o n d er an d often destro y s i t A sim ilar m oral is tak en u p in "The B irthm ark," th e quasi-allegorical tale o f a scien tist w h o destroys his b rid e by trying to perfect h e r. T he events of th is n a rra tiv e are sta te d w ith certainty, b u t the m ode o f th e sto ry a n d its m eaning d em o n strate H aw th o rn e's characteristic am b ig uity . The scientist, A ylm er, becom es obsessed w ith a tiny h an d -shap ed b irth m a rk o n th e cheek o f his b e a u tifu l w ife, G eorgiana. It becom es fo r him the "sym bol o f h is w ife's liability to sin , sorro w , d ecay, a n d death " (262), Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 an d so, w ith h e r co n sen t (devastated b y h e r h u sb an d 's reactio n to th e m ark, she w ill su ffer a n y th in g to b e rid o f it) A y lm er resolves to rem ove i t in h is laboratory. Tragically, "th e fa ta l H a n d g rap p led w ith th e m ystery o f life, a n d w as th e b o n d by w hich a n an g elic sp irit k ep t itself in u n io n w ith a m o rtal fram e" (277); G eorgiana d ies m o m en ts after A y lm er's p o tio n erases th e b irth m ark . H aw th o rn e's sto ry m ay celebrate th e "angelic sp irit" of G eorgiana, b u t the story does no serv ice to trad itio n al C h ristian belief. W hile it is n o t explicitly associated w ith relig io u s questions, "T he B irthm ark" is a b o ld re-in terp retatio n of th e C h ristian th em e o f C h rist's p u rificatio n o f th e church, ex p ressed in P au l's epistle to the E phesians: H u sb an d s, love y o u r w ives, ju st as C h rist lo v ed th e ch u rc h an d g av e h im self up for h er, in o rd er to m ake h e r holy b y clean sin g h e r w ith the w ash in g o f w ater b y the w o rd , so a s to p re se n t th e ch u rch to him self in sp len d o r, w ith o u t a sp o t o r w rin k le o r an y th in g of the k in d —yes, so th a t sh e m ay b e h o ly w ith o u t blem ish. (Eph. 5:25-30, NRSV) O f course, C h rist sacrifices him self for h is b rid e, w hile A ylm er sacrificed his brid e for him self; b u t H aw th o rn e's tale a d d s sin ister im plications to th e C hristian concept of a p u rify in g lover. "The B irth m ark " redefines a them e o f C h ristian origin, a n d it redefines a genre trad itio n ally associated w ith C h ristian doctrine: allegory. Ju s t as G eorgiana can n o t b e sep arated from h e r b irth m ark , so th e levels o f H aw thorne's quasi-allegory can n o t b e sep arated en o u g h to allow the one-to-one correspondence b e tw ee n literal a n d exegetical m eanings th a t alleg o ry is b ased on. It is rare th a t su p e rn atu ral events, lik e G eorgiana's d e a th b y derm atology, are fo u n d in th e lite ra l level of a n allegorical sto ry . U sually, n a tu ra l Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 circum stances com prise th e lite ra l level a n d sta n d fo r su p e rn atu ral m eanings on the exegetical one. F o r th is reason, the success o f H aw th o rn e's "allegories" is h a rd to judge; H aw th o rn e him self once declared, "U p o n m y hon o r, I am n o t q u ite su re I en tirely co m p reh en d m y ow n m eaning in som e o f these blasted allegories; b u t I rem em b er th a t I alw ays h a d a m eaning—or, a t least, th o u g h t I h ad " (quoted in B unge 120). T he classical alleg o rist m u st clearly know , a t th e o u tse t o f h e r w ork, w h at m etaphysical m eaning sh e is try in g to express w ith h e r figures a n d plot, a n d she m u st convey this m ean in g w ith a logical lite ra l n arrativ e. A ngus Fletcher rem arks, The w hole p o in t of allegory is th a t it does n o t need to b e read exegetically; it o ften h as a literal level th a t m akes good enough sense all b y itself. B ut som ehow th is literal surface suggests a p eculiar d o u blen ess o f intention, a n d w hile it can, as it w ere, g et along w ith o u t th e in terp retatio n , it becom es m uch richer an d m ore in terestin g if g iv en in terp retatio n . (7) F urtherm ore, allegorical actio n trad itio n ally p ictu res a process, o r journey, in the course of w hich the h eroes "discover w hich ideals a re w o rth p u rsu in g an d w h at things are obstacles to th a t p u rs u it The n arrativ e actio n th u s grad u ally establishes a h ierarch y o f v alu e a n d dis-value" (C lifford 11). R ichard H arter Fogle finds a n allegorical m ean in g of "The B irthm ark" b en eath th e literal one,9 9 In just a few sentences, Fogle constructs a model of Hawthorne's metaphysical universe, as revealed in "The Birthmark": The philosophy o f Hawthorne is a broadly Christian scheme which contains heaven, earth, and hell. Whether the heaven and hell are realities or only subjective states of m ind is one of Hawthorne's crucial ambiguities In his mixed macrocosm, man is a microcosm also mixed. Man's chief temptation is to forget his limits and com plexities, to think him self all good, or to think himself all bad. Either way he fells into spiritual isolation and pride. He needs a proper mixture of the earthly and the ideal—with a touch of the flame to temper i t Thus Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 b u t as h e explicates th e tale, h e em phasizes "H aw thorne's crucial am b ig uities," w hich are exactly w h a t p re v e n t “T h e B irthm ark" from b ein g a stric t allegory. Instead th e tale is a p artially -co llap sed allegory or, as R eynold's calls it, a "secularized" one (39). Like th e new secu lar em otionalism sp aw n ed b y th e S econd G reat A w akening, R eynolds cites "secularized allegory" an d H aw th o rn e's "enthusiastic" resp o nse to th is "p o p u la r lite ra ry m ovem ent" as fu rth e r evidence th at "w h at w as once th e p ro v in ce o f theologians becam e largely th e bu sin ess o f creative w riters" in th e n in eteen th cen tu ry (15). T w entieth-century C h ristian philosopher Sim one W eil denounces "th e u su rp atio n by w riters o f th e fu n ctio n of sp iritu al guidance, fo r w h ich th ey are to tally un suited " (293); th is acq u isitio n o f sp iritu al a u th o rity w as, according to W eil, "a resu lt o f w h a t w as called E nlightenm ent in th e e ig h teen th cen tu ry ," w h en the place o f p rie sts w as tak en by scientists as w ell as b y w riters (295). The epistem e o f the n in eteen th cen tu ry is u n su ited to allegory because it in sists o n th e ultim ate im portance o f th e earth ly life an d do u bts the p ossib ility o f a su p ern atu ral environm ent co rresp o n d in g to the n atu ral one. R om antics like H aw th o rn e h a d no q u arrel w ith th e em phasis on earthly life, th o u g h th ey w ish ed to keep all p riestly pow ers to them selves because they saw no im ag in ative possibilities in science. Aylmer, the sdentist-hero of "The Birthmark," violates the covenant o f humankind when he tries to eradicate the only blem ish o f his beautiful w ife The condusion epitom izes Hawthorne's thinking "... had Aylmer reached ..." There is a time for everything, and an eternity. Aylm er should have waited. (134-5) The use of a traditionally Christian gen ie to promote "the covenant of humankind" should emphasize Hawthorne's variance from the "Christian scheme." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 R om antic p h ilo so p h y is estab lish ed as th e h ig h est v alu e in th e process o f "T he B irthm ark"; i t is a p h ilo so p h y th a t can ex alt h u m an eccentricities a n d flaw s, as d id G eorgiana's su ito rs b efo re A ylm er.1 0 T hey "w ere w o n t to sa y th a t som e fairy, a t h e r b irth -h o ur, h a d la id h e r tin y h an d u p o n th e in fa n t's cheek, a n d le ft this im p ress there, in to k en o f th e m ag ic endow m ents th a t w ere to g iv e h e r su ch sw ay o v er all h earts" (261). R om anticism is m ade p ossible as scientific m aterialism clears aw ay C h ristia n d o g m a w hich h em s in im ag in atio n a n d lim its the ex altatio n of hum ans. B arbara E ckstein observes th a t rom ance "co n trib u tes to the m etaphysical excesses o f science as science con trib u tes to the m etaph y sical excesses o f rom ance" (511). Science is in sp ired b y ro m an tic notions o f p erso n al p ow er, a n d scientific discoveries fu el th e rom antic im agination. B oth m odes o f th o u g h t offer illusions o f im m o rtality to replace th e C h ristian hope o f heaven. B ut science an d rom ance actu ally seem q u ite d ifferen t in th eir a ttitu d e s to w ard d eath —the scien tist w an ts to overcom e d e a th g lo rio u sly a n d th u s g ain im m o rtality, and the ro m an tic w an ts to d ie gloriously, in fu ll bloom , a n d n o t liv e to see th e declension a n d w eak n ess o f o ld age: "It is according to [the rom antic] code, b e tter for G eorgiana to d ie fo r love an d perfect b eau ty . . . th an to live b ey o n d th e rom ance p lo t—in m arriag e w here h er flaw s a re acknow ledged" (E ckstein 514). T hus, w hile G eorgiana becom es the h eroic m arty r a n d thereby establishes rom ance as th e h ig h est v alu e, A ylm er's actio n gives h er th is statu s; rom ance a n d scientific m aterialism are m u tu ally d ep en d en t. H ow ever, th is m u tu a l dependency is n o t ack n o w led g ed b y the m o ral a t th e e n d of "T he 10 Hawthorne's diaries show that he w as convinced of the need to be content with w hat nature offered and was convinced, also, of the perils of pining or striving for more (Rucker 446). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 B irth m ark /' w h ich scolds A ylm er fo r his overreaching . H aw thorne's collapsed, secularized alleg o ry is interpretable, d e sp ite th e occasional confusion o f its sem antic levels. The in tru siv e n a rra to r g u aran tees a crucial m inim um m eaning, an d he is su re to p ro claim a reso un d in g criticism o f science. As "T he B irthm ark" critiques C h ristian sanctification an d scientific am bition, it d e p en d s o n C h ristian a n d R om antic tro p es. T here is a fascin atin g synthesis of w ell-k n o w n em blem s in "T he B irthm ark"—one trad itio n al, d a tin g from the sev en teen th century, a n d one m o d em , from alm ost tw o centuries later. The form er, B u n y an 's Pilgrim 's P ro g ress. is in v o k ed n o t ju st in the sto ry 's allegorical m o d e b u t also in a g estu re o f G eo rg ian a's: w hen she read s h e r h u sb an d 's scientific notebook, "so d eep ly d id th ese reflections affect G eorgiana, th at she la id h e r face u p o n the o p en volum e, a n d b u rst into tears" (272). A lthough this to m e is largely a chronicle o f h is failu res, G eorgiana tells A ylm er, "It has m ade m e w o rsh ip y o u m ore th a n ev er" (272). Like Pilgrim , sh e w eeps as she reads a g o o d b o ok ; like a rom antic, th e g o o d n ess o f the book, to h er, is th a t it records h er h u sb a n d 's aspirations to im m o rtality . G estures fro m B unyan's allegory are rem ark ab ly com bined, in this tale, w ith gestures fro m a w ell-know n m o d em em blem , Fuseli's fam ous p ain tin g , N ightm are: the co m p o sitio n consists o f th ree m a in elem ents, a sleeping girl, a n incu b u s o r nightm are sq u a ttin g o n h e r belly, an d the h ead o f a h o rse peerin g th ro u g h th e cu rtain s w ith w ildly starin g e y e s .. . . [T]he cu rta in b e h in d th e scene is a d ark th eatrical red , th e incubus b ro w n ish , th e g irl is d a d is w hite. (Pow ell 34) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 G eorgiana strikes the sam e pose in a sim ilar settin g w h en she faints an d is th en laid d o w n in a room w ith "gorgeous curtains." The m om ent after she loses consciousness, A ylm er sum m ons A m inadab, his d a rk a n d shaggy assistant, w ho is described as "looking in ten tly a t th e lifeless form o f G eorgiana" (266). T here is no horse in "The B irthm ark," b u t A m inadab's "hoarse, chuckling laugh" m ay com pensate fo r its absence. "In F useli's N ightm are th e ho rse an d th e incubus are n o t 'see n ' by th e sleeper: th ey are sym bols o f the terro r a n d suffocating oppression w hich sh e feels. (She is show n, significantly, in a po sitio n from w h ich she could not see either, ev en w ere h e r eyes open)" (Pow ell 49). W hen G eorgiana recovers consciousness in "The B irthm ark," A m inadab is alread y g one from the room . A s C indy W einstein notes, "G eorgiana n ev er sees A m inadab" (42). Fuseli's N ig h tm are w as w idely p o p u lar in his day, as w as Pilg rim 's Progress in B unyan's. W h at stru ck N ightm are's first observers w as its contem poraneity; the fu rn itu re w as in m odem style (Pow ell 77). The p ain tin g is ab o u t the "beliefs w hich still su rv iv ed an d still survive a t th e back o f the E uropean m ind," in sp ite o f its rationalism (Pow ell 96). The d ark forces o f the o th er w orld w ere b u ried b y the E nlightenm ent, b u t they w ere still alive. The rom antics, an d H aw thorne am ong them , strove to com bine the dark, folkloric forces of the p rem o d em epistem e an d th e d ep th an d au th o rity of the C hristian religion, w hile rem aining thorou g h ly m o d em an d unencum bered b y p rem o d em su p erstitio n o r its m orality. T he encum brance of p a s t relig io n is the subject o f "Y oung G oodm an B row n," a tale th a t recalled th e A m erican P u ritan p ast for a nineteenth-century Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 audience. W hile "T h e S now Im age" a n d 'T h e B irthm ark" are set in no p articu lar location, "Y oung G o o d m an B row n" is se t in th e P u rita n com m unity' o f Salem village. Like "T he B irth m ark " (w hich takes p lace in "th e latter p a rt o f th e last [eighteenth] cen tu ry ") it is a n historical fictio n , s e t in a n age o f C h ristian belief rath e r th an a n ag e o f scientific E nlightenm ent. T he P u rita n appellations o f som e of the characters g iv e th e sto ry a n allegorical flav o r—B row n's w ife, F aith, is "aptly n am ed" (133)—b u t th e autochthonous settin g (com plete w ith In d ian pow w ow s) p rev e n ts it from being a p u re alleg o ry . T he n a rra to r is n o t extrem ely intru sive in th is sto ry , accounting for the v a rie ty o f critical in terp retatio n s of th e tale. A m biguity m ark s b o th th e literal a n d th e exegetical levels of th e tale; b u t seen in the con tex t o f H aw th o rn e's ro m an tic concerns, th e m oral becom es clear: the C hristian d rea m sh o u ld b e eschew ed a n d th e R om antic one accepted. A tone o f h ig h serio u sness pervades "Y oung G oodm an B row n." W hereas Ichabod C ran e's su p e rn a tu ra l beliefs, w h ich terrify h im a s he w alks—like B row n—th ro u g h th e fo rest a t night, are a so u rce o f h u m o r in Irv in g 's "The L egend of Sleepy H o llo w ," su ch beliefs are a so u rce o f irrem ediable trag ed y fo r Y oung G oodm an B row n. T his is one of sev eral G othic characteristics o f the tale, w hose n arrativ e cru x is a G othic convention o f am bivalence th a t takes the b u rd e n of the m od em re a d e r's d isb elief off the n a rra to r's sh o u ld ers. The rea d er is p ro v id ed w ith a n a lte rn a te explanation of B ro w n 's jo u rn ey th ro u g h th e forest, w ith the devil as esco rt, to a black Sabbath a tte n d e d by a ll the p ious p eople o f h is com m unity, in clu d in g his d e a r w ife. T he v isio n , w h ich ru in s B row n's life, is vexed by the n a rra to r's single intrusive q u estio n , em p h asized as a p a rag rap h o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 its ow n: "H ad G oodm an B ro w n fallen asleep in th e fo rest, a n d on ly d ream ed a w ild d ream o f a w itch-m eeting?" (147). This q u asi-rh eto rical q u e stio n is follow ed b y th ese w ord s: Be i t so if y o u w ill. B ut, alas! it w as a d ream o f ev il om en fo r y o u n g G oodm an B row n. A stem , a sad , a d a rk ly m ed itativ e, a d istru stfu l, if n o t a d esp erate m an, d id h e becom e, fro m the n ig h t o f th a t fearfu l d ream . (147) In o th er w o rd s, th e reality o f h is experience is irrelev an t: B row n c a n on ly be as happy as he believ es h im self to b e . H is experience w as am biguous, b u t he in terp rets it acco rd in g to th e C h ristian dream . B row n is o ffered a different dream a t the b eg in n in g o f th e sto ry , one he sh o u ld h a v e accepted: F aith begs him n o t to go o n h is jo u rn ey a n d h in ts a t d istu rb in g d ream s. B row n reflects, M eth o u gh t, as sh e sp o k e, there w as trouble in h e r face, as if a d ream h a d w a rn ed h e r w h a t w ork is to b e d o n e to -n ig h t. B ut, no, no! 'tw o u ld k ill h e r to think it. W ell; sh e 's a b lessed angel on e arth ; a n d afte r th is o n e night, I'll cling to h e r sk irts a n d follow h e r to h eav en . (134) The n arrato r ironically co n trasts "th is excellent resolve fo r th e fu tu re" w ith B row n's "p resen t ev il p u rp o se" (134). B row n's tragic m istak e is m ade here, and all the evil th a t follow s is a consequence of his preference fo r o th erw o rld ly ad ven tu re over his "an g el o n earth ." B row n's faith in F aith is te ste d once m ore, a t th e clim ax o f th e w itch- m eeting. She ap p ears, v eiled a t first, am ong th e th ro n g a n d joins h e r h u sb an d in p rep aratio n fo r the d e v il's b ap tism . "T aith! F a ith !'c rie d th e h u sb an d . T o o k up to H eaven, a n d re sist th e W icked O ne!"' (146). This en treaty is a p a ra g rap h of its ow n, a n d the n e x t p a ra g ra p h b eg ins, "W hether F aith obey ed , h e knew n o t H ardly h a d h e sp o k en , w h en h e fo u n d him self am id calm n ig h t a n d solitude" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 (146). F aith 's possible obedience to h is p lea is as im p o rtan t a q u e stio n as the uncertain reality o f h is w h o le experience. E v en if th e w itch-m eeting w ere real, his bond w ith F aith m ay h av e been eno u g h to save th em b o th fro m dam nation. Yet B row n takes th e m o re pessim istic v iew in b o th cases: h e assum es th a t his experience w as real a n d th a t F aith d id n o t obey him . T herefore, in th e en d , "they carved no hopeful v erse u p o n his tom b-stone; fo r h is d y in g h o u r w as gloom " (148). T here is a recen t critical tendency to re a d "Y oung G oodm an B row n" psychoanalytically, tak in g B row n's journey fo r only a d ream in o rd e r to in terp ret his experience as a m an ifestatio n o f sexual sh a m e .1 1 T here is som e textual su p p o rt for th is p o sitio n , b u t it reduces H aw th o rn e's rom antic sto ry , w hich offers a su p ern atu ral su rp lu s o f m eaning, to a n in terestin g case of neu ro sis. It is true th at the m eaning of th e sto ry depends on a m arriage, b u t w hile th is im plies a sexual relationship, H aw th o rn e's tales d e p ic t m arriag e as som ething m ore. "The B irthm ark" an d "Y oung G oodm an B row n" a re b o th stories o f a h u sb a n d 's tragic inability to take his w ife's sp iritu ality seriously. A nother of H aw th o rn e's tales th a t belabors this subject is th e quasi-allegory "Egotism ; or, The B osom -Serpent," in w hich R oderick Elliston, an o th er husband consum ed b y a g ran diose q u e st for som ething besides rom antic love, successfully abandons h is obsession a n d h as th e ho p e o f b ein g "p u rified ." H is w ife, Rosina, prom ises h im red em p tio n "w ith a heavenly sm ile" a t the en d o f the 11 Two such critical essays are 'Pretty in Pink: 'Young Goodman Brown' and New-W orld Dreams," by Jerome Loving, and "Hawthorne's Gothic Tales" by Allan Lloyd-Smith. Both are collected in (and were specifically written for) Critical Essays on Hawthorne's Short Stories (1991). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 sto ry (294). H aw thorne's tales d e p e n d o n p artial d isavow als o f relig io n an d science. They are am biguous, a n d th ey offer a m ed iatio n —u su a lly in th e fo rm o f a m ediatrix—betw een h eav en a n d e arth . The fem ale ch aracters, e a rth ly angels, b rin g heaven to earth, a n d th e m ale characters a re sav ed b y H ingin g to th eir sk irts, as Y oung G oodm an B ro w n sh o u ld have done. T rue fa ith b elo n g s in Faith, o r another such h u m an red eem er, a n d it is o nly a t th is in tersectio n o f m arital a n d sp iritu al life th at the su p e rn atu ral becom es concrete in H a w th o rn e's tales. IV. The Science of th e N u m ino u s H aw thorne's rom ances a re located som ew here b etw een th e p a s t a n d th e fu tu re, an d if this am biguity c a n b e aw kw ard, a tale by A m brose B ierce proves h ow difficult it is to w rite su p e rn atu ral fiction in the m o d em e p istem e. "The Eyes of the P anther" is a n a tte m p t to fu se sentim ental local-color a n d fantastic uncanny effects, b u t B ierce's stra te g y fo r suspending d isb elief p ro d u ces n eith er sentim ent nor hesitation. B ierce's tale is th a t of a fem ale w ere-p an th er, w ho w as transform ed by a traum a w h ile still in h e r m other's w om b. F ollow ing a d ialogue betw een Irene M arlow e, the w ere-p an th er, a n d h e r su ito r Jen n er B rading, the n arrato r usurps the story. I t concludes w ith B rading shooting a p a n th e r, w ho, of course, tu rn s o u t to be Irene. T he sto ry is sub-divided in to titled sections, a n d th e first section, "O ne Does N o t A lw ays M arry W hen Insane," co n clu d es w ith the n arrato r taking over the sto ry fro m Irene: "In deference to th e re a d e r's possible prejudice against the artless m e th o d o f a n unpractised h isto rian th e a u th o r ventures to su b stitute his o w n v ersio n fo r hers" (179). This effectively alienates Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 the read er from identification, w ith an y o f th e sto ry 's characters, a n d th e occasional tin g e o f irony, e v id e n t in th e section title above, co u n teracts th e sto ry 's p o ten tial fo r uncan n y effects. In c o n tra st to this u n e v e n sto ry , an o th er o f B ierce's tales p u ts fo rth the problem the m o d em epistem e p o ses to su p ern atu ral tales in a p o te n t w ay . "A Fruitless A ssignm ent" is th e sto ry o f H en ry Saylor, rep o rte r fo r th e C incinnati C om m ercial, w h o is assig n ed to in v estig ate rep o rts o f a h a u n te d h o u se. A s he sits in th e h o u se after d ark , h e b eg in s to h ear footsteps, a n d w h e n h e g ets u p to search the h o u se, his foot strik es a sev ered head—w hich soon becom es th e b all in a so rt o f soccer gam e am ong sp o o k s in a n adjoining room . W hen S aylor retu rn s to his office early the n ext m o rn in g , his ed ito r questions him : "T hey say th a t th in g s w ere uncom m only q u ie t o u t th ere," the e d ito r said , triflin g w ith a p ap er-w eig h t u p o n w h ich h e h a d d ro p p e d his eyes, " d id a n y th in g occur?" "N othing w h atev er." (382) T hus ends th e sto ry. O ne th e o n e h a n d , there are suggestions in th e sto ry th a t the ed ito r believes th e house really is h a u n te d an d intends Saylor h a rm ; o n the other hand, S aylor is th e q u in tessen tial m o d em journalist, w ho know s fa c t from fiction and w o u ld sacrifice his d irect p e rso n al experience to th e d em an d s o f h is epistem e. S aylor is the m o d e m v e rsio n o f th e boy in a G rim m ta le w h o left hom e to fin d o u t ab o u t the shivers, b u t h e ventures o u t to d ebunk ra th e r th a n to discover. The law o f science fo rb id s su p e rn atu ral experiences, b u t m o d e m read ers of the n in eteen th cen tu ry still cra v ed a sense of the num inous. In T h e Id ea of the H oly R udolf O tto describes the n u m in o u s, w hich S. L. V am ado tak es to b e "the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 v ery essence of th e su p e rn atu ral tale" (V am ado 1). V am ado sum m arizes O tto 's num inous as: a n affective sta te in w hich th e p e rc ip ie n t—th ro u g h feelings o f aw e, m ystery, a n d fascination—becom es aw are o f a n objective sp iritu al p resence. O tto w o u ld a rg u e th a t th e feeling is univ ersal, th a t it exists in b o th p rim itiv e a n d m ore highly developed religions.(15) V am ado explains th a t th e num in o us m ay b e am o ral—"b eyo n d goo d a n d e v il"— u n til "later d e v elo p m e n t" w h en it is "co m m in g led w ith m o ral a n d ratio n al elem ents" an d "becom es p a rt of th e fu lly d ev elo p ed category o f the H oly" (18). A lthough the decay o f trad itio n al re lig io n in th e m o d em age reverses O tto 's progressive m odel o f th e ev o lu tio n o f th e n u m in o u s in to the holy, a literary rationalizing process is ev id en t in th e d e v elo p m en t o f the m ore p rim itiv e leg en d in to the m odem fan tastic story, w hose ch aracters, to recall T odorov's d efin itio n , k n o w only the law s of n a tu re . The stru ctu ral sim ilarity of th e leg en d a n d th e fantastic genre has b e e n n o ted by critics, an d som e ev en claim th a t o n e fo rm h as descended directly from th e other. . . . In b o th fo rm s, th e effect p ro d u ced b y th e story is one o f te rro r in the face o f th e su p ern atu ral, w hich cannot b e co n tro lled because it b elo n g s to a different dim ension. (C hanady 7) In o th er w ords, b o th n a rra tiv e form s rely o n th e num inous. A s w ith th e fan tastic, the su p ern atu ral figures o f th e leg en d te n d to b e am orphous, invisible a n d m ysterious; and they overw helm th eir h u m a n w itnesses, w ho u su ally experience the su p ern atu ral only once in a lifetim e (R ohrich 23-24). U nlike its p red ecesso r, the folktale, the legend is n o t com fortable w ith th e su p ern atu ral, an d th e im p lie d Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 audience is expected to be m ad e u n easy : "N othing as ex trao rd in ary as the events in th e leg en d ever happens in th e folktale. T he folktale em ploys only things necessary fo r the p lo t In contrast, th e leg en d co ntains elem ents in tend ed to asto n ish the audience" (R bhrich 23),1 2 a n d th us it occupies a tran sitio n al space b etw een the p rem o d em an d th e m o d em e p is te m e s . W hat separates the legend from th e m o d em fan tastic g en re is its lack o f scientific sensibility. A tten tio n to th e la w of science d istin g u ish es E dgar A llan P oe's tales, an d this m ay b e possible because h is tales dispense w ith the legend's local color. Like Irving, Poe w as influ en ced b y G erm an R om anticism , b u t unlike Irving, h e m ade no attem p t to tran slate it into au to chthonous term s. Poe's stories are concerned w ith rationality, n o t w ith sentim ent, a n d th eir uncanny effects are p ro d u ced b y tam pering w ith ratio n ality . For a fu rth e r com parison, Eugene C urrent-G arcfa notes: W hereas H aw thorne d istru ste d th e cla im s o f science, Poe adm ired, perh aps above all else, the o rd erly processes o f ratio n al analysis, com bined, how ever, w ith a finely sensitized capability, as exem plified in the character o f h is fam ous detective, C. A uguste D u p in . (60) Poe w as a p ractitio n er of the fan tastic gen re an d the in v en to r of detective fiction, a n d m aterialist biases inform b o th k in d s o f n arrativ e. A t th e sam e tim e, Poe 12 The folktale could not keep up with changing times, and it w as soon relegated to the nursery, but the legend managed to last longer. Rohrich suggests that the legend maintained its vitality longer than the folktale because it deals w ith factual or experiential knowledge which challenges the audience's critical intellect. Its narrative is also more personal and individual: "Even the skeptical grandchildren are interested in their grandfathers' believed experiences. Even where people have finally ceased to believe the legend, they still have opinions about its reality" (10). The burgeoning scientific skepticism o f a new episteme created a new w ay to read: with interest but without credulity. A story might have historical interest w ithout being objectively true. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 m anaged to en d o w science w ith the n u m in o u s, p ro d u cin g aw e, m ystery, a n d fascination in all o f h is w ork. B ecause P o e's stories are w ritten, in th e lim in al space betw een n a tu ra l a n d su p ern atu ral, they can n o t be com pletely settled : th ere is alw ays a p o ssib ility left over. T here is a n excess o f m eaning, a n d m ean in g is w h a t th e su p e rn atu ral provides a n d scientific m aterialism canfnot. T he w an in g of su p ern atu ral b e lief in the m o d em age created a crisis fo r lite ra tu re. W hen th e su p ern atu ral is b eliev ed to be a n objective a n d intellectible p a rt o f the cosm os, m eaning is read ily available. W hen th e cosm os w as e m p tie d o f its m eaning in th e m o d em ag e, artists h a d to go lo oking fo r significance elsew here. P oe's solution, like F re u d 's, w as to intern alize th e cosm os. V. Poe's P retern atu ral Tales In The S u p ern atu ral in G othic Fiction: H o rro r. Belief, a n d L iterary C hange. R obert F. G eary offers a n historical p ersp ectiv e o n th e num inous "m achinery" o f gothic fiction, w hich includes, as F rancis R. H a rt h as suggested: 1) a n an tiq u arian taste fo r...w h at w as tak en to be the style o r o rn am en tatio n o f th e late M id d le A ges a n d Renaissance; 2) an am biguously en lig h ten ed taste fo r the supernatural; 3) a fascination w ith th e m y stery o f h u m an m alevolence, p erv ersity , sadism ; 4) a preference for th e sty le o r affective state called sublim ity; an d 5) a sh ift aw ay from th e d id a c tic (q u o ted in G eary 3) G eary d em onstrates h o w these elem ents a p p ea re d differently in the "m atrix o f b e lie f' o f early eighteenth-century p ro v id en tia list literatu re1 3 a n d how th ey w ere Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 later altered to p ro d u ce a "free-floating sense o f th e n u m in o u s" (21). The G othic novel show s th a t th e n u m in o u s m ay b rea k fle e of a n in h e rite d d o ctrin al context, retu rn in g n o w as a pleasing sh iv er, n o w as p rim itiv e d re a d . I t is p recisely th e w eakening, th e su sp en sio n , o r the absence o f su c h a co n tex t th a t enab led th e n o v els to ap p eal to read ers w ho w e re n o t in v ite d b y th e fo rm al d evices o f th e n o v els to en d o rse a b elief in th e reality o f th e o th erw o rld ly o r to experience n u m in o u s aw e o r dem onic d re a d . (G eary 21) P o e's sto ries, w h ich p e rta in to sev eral genres, a ll h a v e som e elem ents o f th e G othic a n d p ro d u ce "a free-floating sen se o f the n u m in o u s." W hether a realistic story su ch as "T he Facts in th e C ase o f M . V aldem ar," a sto ry to ld by a n insane p erso n su ch as "The T ell-T ale H eart," a fantastic sto ry su c h as "L igeia," o r a detective sto ry su ch as "T he M u rd ers in th e R ue M orgue," P o e's tales all contain elem ents of th e G othic "m achinery" liste d above. B esides sh o w in g a p erp etu al fascination w ith h u m an m alevolence a n d sublim ity, P o e's tales are all located o n the b o rd er b etw een n a tu ra l a n d su p ern atu ral an d create a sen se o f th e uncanny w hich req u ires a m ixture o f m aterialism a n d m etaphysics. P oe's sto ry , "The Facts in the C ase o f M . V aldem ar," is a b o u t a dying m an w ho agrees to b e M esm erized in the la st stages o f d e a th as a n experim ent to see "to w h at ex ten t, o r fo r h o w lo n g a p erio d , the encroachm ents o f D eath m ig h t b e arrested b y th e process" (96). T he experim ent is m ore successful th a t the Geary cites a passage from A ddison's Spectator paper 110 (July 6,1711) as "an example of Gothic elem ents in earlier literature" (8). Darkness, ravens, a ruined abbey, a graveyard and burial vault, even the mood o f religious awe—'Gothic' elements all—are here in profusion" (8). However, "Addison carefully binds the numinous elements within a psychological and theological context which rem oves the 'superstitious' while retaining enough numinous awe to support certain basic (or low est common denominator) orthodox doctrines" (Geary 9). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 experim enters im a g in ed it co u ld be, a n d M . V ald em ar—w h o, w hile M esm erized, declares him self d e a d —is k e p t in a state o f su sp e n d e d anim ation fo r seven m onths. The h o rrify in g conclusion to th e ex p erim en t com es w hen the n a rra to r attem pts to w ake th e su b ject from his trance, a n d his w hole fram e a t once—w ith in th e sp ace o f a single m inute, o r less, s h ru n k —crum bled—ab so lu tely ro tte d aw ay beneath m y h an d s. U p o n the bed, befo re th a t w h o le com pany, there lay a n early liq u id m ass o f loathsom e—o f d etestab le putrescence. (103) This chilling tale h as all th e w onder a n d te rro r o f a g h o st story, b u t it is decidedly n o t su p e rn atu ral; indeed, the en tire n a rra tiv e is suffused w ith m edical term inology a n d scien tific com posure. The n a rra to r stresses the w o rd "facts/' an d explains th a t th e sto ry w as w ritten from th e m em o ran d a of a m edical stu d en t w ho w as in a tten d an ce a t the e x p e rim e n t U nlike the narrato rs o f m an y of P oe's o th er tales, w h o have no one besides them selves to w itness the apparently su p e rn a tu ra l ev ents they experience, a com pany of doctors an d nurses w itness the ev en ts of M . V aldem ar's case alo n g w ith the n arrato r. P oe verifies th at his n a rra to r h as described so m eth in g external, objective, a n d real; Poe does n o t d o su ch fav o rs for the n arrato rs o f "T he Tell-Tale H eart" an d "Ligeia," an d these n a rra to rs, w ho m ake su p e rn a tu ra l suggestions, are u su ally believed to b e m ad b y th e read ers w ho in te rp re t th eir stories. Poe set his sto ries in th e lim inal space b e tw ee n n a tu ra l an d su p ern atu ral, an d w hile M esm erism p ro v id ed one such lim in al space, m adness p ro v id ed a greater one. P oe's tales a re m ostly to ld in first-p erso n n arrative; they lack fram e narratives, a n d n o om n iscien t voice in tru d es o n th e n a rra to r's story. W itho u t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 these devices, n ew strateg ies fo r suspending the rea d er's disb elief are necessary, h i o rd er to have th e stro n g e st em otional effect o n h is read ers, P oe h a d to w rite realistically; an d to g iv e th e su p ern atu ral verisim ilitude, it h a d to b e presented as som ething projected ra th e r th a n ap p reh en d ed by th e n a rra to r—as a n internal rath er th an an ex tern al reality . M esm erism paved th e w ay fo r th e m o d em psychological u n d erstan d in g o f th e supernatural, w h ich w as later epitom ized in F reud's essay "The U ncanny." F reu d 's essay is a cornerstone o f T odorov's stud y of the fantastic genre, a n d b o th w orks h elp m ake sense o f sev eral o f P oe's stories that seek to exploit th e w o n d er an d terro r of the su p ern atu ral w ith o u t offending m odem m aterialistic sensibilities. "The Facts in th e C ase o f M . V aldem ar" is k ep t safely w ith in the m aterial w orld because it d ep en d s o n M esm erism , a secularized form o f exorcism w hich enjoyed g reat p o p u larity in P o e's day. "There is b u t one h ealth , one disease, an d one rem edy" is M esm er's fam ous p h rase w hich is em blem atic o f his entire theory. M esm er d eclared th a t a flu id flow s throughout th e universe, connecting all bodies, an d w h en i t flow s th ro u g h organism s, it is called "anim al m agnetism ." A blockage of th is flow creates disease, and a n "ad ep t" person can locate the "poles" o f th e m ag netic flow in the body an d m assage these areas, breaking the blockage. M esm er in sisted o n a physicalist ex p lanatio n of his healing "anim al m agnetism ," a n d "he believed th at h e w as a g en iu s in th e field of physics an d th a t h is d iscovery w o uld revolutionize m edicine an d be of incom parable ben efit to th e h u m an race" (Pattie 282). H is th eo ry of "som nam bulism ," w h ich led to th e stu d y of hypnotism , is th e "M esm erism " Poe refers to in his story. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 The often fru stra te d a n d alw ays g ran d io se F ranz A nton M esm er (1734- 1815) strove to e x p la in h is w o rk in n atu ralistic a n d scientific term s. H is "D issertatio Physico-M edica d e P lan etaru m Influ x u " o r "Physical-M edical T reatise o n the Influence o f th e Planets," in w h ic h h e cites N ew to n a n d K epler, takes g reat p ain s to d istin g u ish anim al m ag n etism from the su p e rn a tu ra l. H e attacked religious h ealin g in h is ow n d ay , a n d th is w as probably m o tiv a te d b y his desire to c u rry fav o r w ith th e skeptical scientific e stab lish m en t "M esm er craved respectability n o t p o p u larity , a n d th e official acceptance o f th e learn ed " (Kelly 19). T hough M esm er w as d iscred ited d u rin g h is lifetim e, M esm erism continued as a fa d fo r m an y y e ars after his d e a th . Furtherm ore, h is v o cab u lary m ade a lastin g im p act o n W estern discourse. H is secu lar an d n a tu ra listic term inology w as a d o p te d fo r psychological processes. Especially in F re u d 's w orks, M esm er's term s recu r—term s like "flow s," "dam s," "charges," "discharges," "excitation," "cathexis," "cu rren ts o f energy," "resistan ce," "tension" an d in th e n o tio n o f m ental energy as electric or h y d rau lic (M aria M . T atar 43). W ith these term s, M esm er m ade p o ssib le a non-religious d iscu ssio n o f the sofa. M esm er's resp ectab ility w as perhaps m o st h in d ere d by his com m ercialism , an d this is one w ay in w h ich P o e resem bles M esm er: h e h ad p o p u lar a p p e a l b u t failed to g ain respectab ility as a m an o f letters. L ike M esm er, Poe w as g iv e n to perverse an d self-d estractiv e behaviors. Like M esm er, it w as those w h o m Poe influenced w ho later p ro v e d th e valu e o f h is w o rk to serious a n d so p h isticated audiences. M esm er is th e in tellectu al ancestor o f F reu d , an d Poe in flu en ced su ch celebrated au th o rs as D ostoevsky. Perhaps th e m o st significant sim ilarity Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 b etw een Poe a n d M esm er is th e success b o th h a d in rein v en tin g th e su p ern atu ral to su it m o d em sensibilities. B etw een the tw o, m iracu lo u s healing, exorcism , o u t- of-body experiences, h au n tin g , a n d resu rrectio n w e re p resen ted in su ch a w ay th a t they could n o t be rejected, a t least b y th e co m m on p erso n , as "su p erstitio u s." T he sam e could b e sa id o f F reud, w ho sexualized th e su p ern atu ral in o rd er to p reserv e th e w o n d er a n d terro r it p ro v id ed . Indeed, C arl Ju n g believed th a t F reu d w as b u ild in g a n alternate m etaphysics, a n d th is cau sed th e rift b etw een them . In M em ories. D ream s. R eflections. Jung tells h o w "w henever h e ad v an ced h is reservations ab o u t the sex ual theory, F reu d w o u ld attrib u te h is p o sitio n a n d its accom panying objections to inexperience" (Kelly 103). F reud w o u ld n o t b u dg e from his p osition, an d as Ju n g recounts, I can still recall vividly h o w F reud sa id to m e, "M y d ear Jung, prom ise m e n ev er to ab an d o n th e sexual th eo ry . T h at is the m ost essential th in g o f all. You see, w e m u st m ake a dogm a o f it, a n unshakable bulw ark ." . . . In som e asto nish m en t, I asked him , "A b u lw ark —ag ain st w hat?" To w h ich h e replied, "A gainst the b lack tid e o f m u d . . . o f o ccultism ." . . . W hat Freud seem ed to m ean b y occultism w as v irtu a lly everything th at p h ilosophy an d re lig io n . . . h a d le a rn e d ab o u t th e psyche. To m e th e sexual theo ry w as ju st as occult, th a t is to say, ju st as u n p ro v en a n hy pothesis, as m any o th e r sp eculativ e view s." (quoted in K elly 103) Ju n g goes o n to say th a t F reu d "h a d alw ays m ad e m u ch o f h is irreligiosity," b u t he h ad now co n stru cted a dogm a; o r rath e r, in place o f a jealous G od w hom h e h a d lost, he h a d su b stitu ted an o th er com pelling im age, th a t o f sexuality. It w as no less in s is te n t exacting, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 dom ineering, th reaten in g , a n d m orally am bivalent th an th e original o ne. (qu o ted in K elly 103) Indeed, F re u d 's estim ation o f th e su p ern atu ral is negative, b u t h is view of h um an sexuality—if it resem bles relig io n in its oppressive aspects—is n o t a t all optim istic, an d h e so u g h t to d eliv er h is p atien ts from th e d isillu sio n o f th e form er a n d the dom inance o f the la tte r. In h is essay, "The U ncanny," F re u d describes num inous experience as th e failu re o f rationality. He says: "an u n can n y experience occurs either w h e n in fan tile com plexes w hich have b e en rep ressed are once m ore rev iv ed by som e im pression, o r w hen prim itive beliefs w h ich have b een surm ounted seem once m o re to b e confirm ed" (249). R eality eq u als m ateriality in the m o d em ep istem e. a n d beliefs to the con trary a re deliberately discarded. C astratio n anxiety a n d o ral fixations take th e place o f th e num inous. Since the goal o f F reudian th erap y is to m inim ize these com plexes, these substitutes for th e su p ern atu ral sh o u ld also eventually d isap p ear. A fter h e gives specific exam ples of uncanny th in k in g , F reu d points o u t th a t som e m o d em m en can evolve to becom e incapable o f num in o u s experience: As soon as som ething actually happens in o u r lives w hich seem s to confirm the o ld , d iscard ed beliefs w e g e t a feeling of the uncanny; it is as th o u g h w e w ere m aking a ju d g em en t som ething like this: 'S o, a fte r all, it is true th a t one can k ill a p erso n b y the m ere w ish !' o r, 'So the d ead do live o n a n d ap p ear o n the scene o f th eir form er activities?' a n d so on. C onversely, anyone w h o h as com pletely an d finally rid him self o f anim istic beliefs w ill b e insensible to this type o f the uncanny. (248) It is this F reu d ian view o f su p e rn atu ral experience th a t is th e b asis of T odorov's study o f fantastic literatu re; though, ironically, T odorov claim s th at Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 psychoanalysis has rep laced (an d thereby m ade useless) die literature o f the fa n ta stic .. . . T he them es of fantastic literatu re have becom e, literally , th e v ery them es o f die psychological investigations o f th e la st fifty y ears. (161). T his is consistent w ith T o do ro v 's d elim itatio n o f fantastic literatu re to th e n in eteen th century, a n d th ere does seem to ex ist a k in d of sym biosis b e tw ee n fan tastic literature an d psychoanalytic theory. A large p a rt o f F reu d 's essay, "T he U ncanny," is d evoted to a n analysis o f a fantastic story b y E.T.A. H offm ann, the G erm an w riter w hose influence is visible th ro u g h o u t P o e 's w ork. The hesitation betw een a n atu ral a n d a su p ern atu ral ex planation o f a n experience pu ts T odorov's th eo ry in th e sam e lim inal space P oe's stories occupy, y et Todorov declares th a t m o st o f P oe's fiction is naturalistic a n d v ery little fells in to the category of the fantastic. O ne o f P o e's stories w hich surely fits T o d o ro v 's d efin ition is "Ligeia." The raven -h aired tid e character w ills h er w ay b a c k fro m d e ath to rejoin h er husband, th e n arrato r. H er ghastiy route back to h im is th ro u g h the body o f his n ew b lo n de w ife, R ow ena. Proof th a t "L igeia" is fan tastic is im m ediately available in the collected criticism of the story. B ecause of th e alm ost unbelievable p raise th at th e n a rra to r has for his deceased w ife a n d the fact that, through a p o rtio n o f die story, his senses are d eranged b y o p iu m , critics have hesitated betw een n atu ral a n d su p ern atu ral explanations o f th e sto ry 's events. The q uestion fueling th e d eb ate is w hether o r n o t to b eliev e w h a t the n arrato r sees. The n arrato r him self resists believing w h at he sees, a n d he does n o t resolve th e u n certainty of w h at exactiy h as happened to h im u n til th e en d of the story. Indeed, n o t u n til the v ery last lin e of the story, in his fin a l "shriek," does the n arrato r seem to be certain o f h is perceptions: "H ere th e n , a t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 141 le a s t,. . . can I never—can I n ev er b e m istak en —these are th e full, a n d th e black, and th e w ild eyes—o f m y lo st love—o f th e L ady—o f th e Lady Ligeia" (666). U nlike th e n a rra to r o f "The F acts in th e C ase o f M . V aldem ar," th e n a rra to r of "Ligeia" is alo n e w h en his w ife re tu rn s to h im , a n d so h is sto ry is less credible. H is sto ry is also rip e fo r a F reu d ian in te rp re ta tio n , like th at of B rian M . B arbour w ho avers, 'T h e re is o f course n o t a L ig e ia . . . sh e is w holly the creatio n o f th e n a rra to r's fan tasy , the p ro d u ct o f a n ero to m an ia rooted, I w o u ld guess, in a h a b it of m astu rb atio n " (79). The n a rra to r h im self w eakens the case fo r L igeia's actu al resurrection, as h e is relu ctan t to b eliev e w h a t h e sees, blam ing his visions o n th e opium h e to o k earlier an d d ie laten ess o f th e h o u r. H ow ever, the n a rra to r's reluctance to b elieve his senses co u ld also m ake h im m ore credible, since m adm en are u n lik ely to d o u b t them selves. O n e critic, John L auber, m akes a p lea for a literal in te rp retatio n of "L igeia." H e says, q u ite accurately, "The basic qu estion a b o u t 'L ig eia,' then, is w h e th e r th e n a rra to r's w o rd sh o u ld b e tru sted , w hether h e is to b e considered as a reliab le o r u nreliable rep o rter o f events" (28). L auber th en in sists th a t "the n a rra to r's m ad n ess n eed n o t m ean th a t h e is incapable o f rep o rtin g accurately w h a t h e h as perceived, b u t rath e r th a t h e m ay be capable o f p erceiv in g realities b e y o n d th e d u ll com m onplaces o f n o rm al life" (29). Som e ex tern al evidence fo r th e n a rra to r's credibility is a letter Poe w rote reg ard in g "L igeia": O ne p o in t I h av e n o t fu lly c arried o u t—I should have in tim ated th a t the w ill d id n o t p erfect its intention—there sh o u ld hav e been a relapse—a fin al one—a n d Ligeia (w ho h a d only succeeded in so m uch a s to convey a n idea of the tru th to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 142 the narrator) sh o u ld b e a t len g th en to m b ed as R ow ena—the bodily alterations h av in g g rad u ally fa d e d aw ay. (O stram 118) B ut alth o u g h P oe's correspondence suggests th a t h e him self took the su p e rn atu ral explanation, in th e co n text o f his o th e r stories—"Tell-Tale H e a rt" fo r instance—"Ligeia" b eg in s to lo o k m ore like th e d elu sio n o f a m adm an. In "T he Tell-Tale H e a rt" th e p o in t o f v iew is th a t o f a confessed m adm an, w ho m u rd ers his k in d benefactor, an d , d esp ite ch o pp in g u p th e corpse a n d concealing it in the floorboards, hears h is victim 's h e a rt th u m p in g lo u d ly th ro u g h o u t th e h o u se. W hen th e police a rriv e to in v estig ate, th ey see no th in g am iss, a n d th e ir n o n p lu sed reaction in th e fin a l scene o f th e sto ry su gg ests th a t the d eafening h eartb ea t is all in the n a rra to r's h ead . H ere there a re w itnesses to the a p p aren tly su p e rn atu ral event, b u t th ey d o n o t confirm the n a rra to r's experience. O f course, confirm ation o f su p ern atu ral experience o f any k in d is h a rd to com e b y in the m odem ep istem e. B ut w h eth er th ro u g h m adness o r genius, th e su p e rn atu ral in P oe's tales alw ay s origin ates in th e h u m an head. N ext to the n a rra to r of "The Tale-Tale H e a rt" L igeia's n a rra to r ap p ears to be m ad, b u t n e x t to C. A u g u ste D upin, hero o f P o e 's detectiv e stories, L igeia herself ap p ears to b e a m en tal giant. M any of P oe's read ers, e v e n critical ones, a re in clin ed to view his d etectiv e fiction an d his fantastic fictio n in o p p o sitio n to each oth er. For exam ple, in a n o th erw ise irrefutable article M ichael H o lq u ist declares th a t "A gainst the m etap h o rs for chaos, fo u n d in h is o th er tales, [Poe] sets, in the D upin stories, th e essen tial m etaphor fo r o rd er: th e d etectiv e" (156). O n th e o th er han d , w h at L aw rence Frank notes a b o u t th e genesis o f detective fiction m akes sense of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 143 fantastic fictio n as w ell: it "ap p eared a t a m o m en t o f social a n d in tellectu al crisis th at it b o th reco gn ized a n d defined" (169). F ran k explains h o w th e m o d em epistem e, w h ich is "to th is day un settlin g ," is dram atically d ifferen t fro m the p rem o d em "g en erally C hristian" one (169). I t em phasizes ru p tu re ra th e r th an continuity o f th o u g h t b y discarding th e law o f a u th o rity for th e law o f science. D etective fictio n a n d fantastic fiction sh a re n a rra tiv e strategies b ased o n m o d em epistem ology; in P o e's w ork, they sh are m o re th a n th a t "T he M u rd ers in the R ue M orgue" is th e detective story w h ich in tro d u ced M onsieur C. A u g uste D u p in to the w o rld as a n illu stratio n o f the "analytical" m ind an d its "p raetem atu ral" abilities (Poe 141), w h ich D upin uses to trace tw o m urders to a n escap ed w ild ape. "L igeia" b ears m any interesting resem blances to "The M u rd ers in th e R ue M orgue," d esp ite b ein g o f a different g en re a n d despite L igeia's v ery different object. A s a n o th e r possessor o f hu ge m ental pow ers, sh e p resen ts a figure equally as larg e a s D u p in . B oth "L igeia" a n d "The M urders in th e R ue M orgue" dem onstrate P o e 's overarching in terest in the extraordinary in d iv id u al w hose gen iu s is th e su m to tal of his or h e r character. The detectiv e story produces a n effect o f o rd er as a solution to a crim e is provided, b u t th is o rd er is only ap p aren t a t th e en d o f the story w h en th e m ethodology o f th e detective is p ro v en successful. If D u p in w ere left, a t the en d of "The M u rd ers in th e R ue M orgue," w ith n o so lu tio n , clutching h is m eager d u es—a k n o tte d rib b o n a n d a strange tu ft o f h a ir—the story w o u ld seem disorderly in d eed . H o lq u ist's statem ent th e n also assum es th at psychological illness— central to P o e's "chaotic" tales—h as n o o rd ered pattern, a n o tio n w hich w ould h ard ly fin d agreem ent in psychoanalytic d rd e s , w here ev en a slip o f the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 144 tongue is no a ccid en t A n d P o e's fantastic "L igeia" h as a very o rderly p lo t th e epigram w hich begins th e sto ry intim ates a w illfu l triu m p h over d e a th w hich is achieved a t the en d o f the sto ry . It m ay seem radical, a t first, to su g g est th a t ratiocination, w hich ostensib ly overcom es irratio n ality , d ep en d s u p o n th e sam e n arrativ e structures as the fantastic, w hich is d esig n ed to en g en d er irra tio n a l fears in readers. T odorov observes th a t in b o th genres, th e narrative: involves tw o solutions, one p ro b ab le a n d su p ern atu ral, the o th er im probable a n d rational. I t suffices, therefore, th a t in the detective sto ry th is second so lu tio n b e so inaccessible as to "defy reason" fo r u s to accept th e existence o f the su p ern atu ral rath e r th a n to re st w ith the absence o f an y explanation a t all. (49) T hough T odorov does n o t carry his co m p ariso n o f th e detective story a n d th e fantastic tale m uch fu rth er, som e o f his o th er g en eric form ulations of th e fan tastic also serve to describe d etective fiction. B oth fantastic stories a n d detective sto ries ten d to have a su rp rise end in g , and so detective fiction sh ares the q uality o f "irrev ersib le tem porality" w ith fantastic fiction (T odorov 90). O nce th e su rp rise is experienced b y a read er, th a t sam e read er can n ev er ag ain enjoy the fu ll effect o f th e n arrativ e's ending. A second read in g becom es a "m eta-reading" w h ic h allow s the read er to analyze and "discover relation sh ip s w here a first im p ressio n d id n o t even su g g est th eir existence" (90). W hen the re a d e r rereads w ith th e en d in g in m ind, he o r she c an locate h id d en clues o r causes m ore quickly a n d accurately th an in the first reading. This "m eta-reading" is w h at p ro d u ces th e im pression o f o rd er in th e detective story. The read er, n o w know ing th e so lu tio n to the m ystery, looks b ack Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145 o n the sequence o f actions a n d d etails w hich lead u p to th e conclusion an d sees, possibly fo r th e first tim e, th e p a tte rn o f d u e s w h ich h av e g u id e d th e detective's investigation. A m etap h o r w h ich expresses th e stru ctu ral sim ilarity o f fan tastic an d detective fictio n is th a t o f th e h u n t. T his m etap h o r is d e sc rip tiv e o f the relatio n o f the curious rea d er to e ith er k in d o f sto ry , b u t it is also d e scrip tiv e o f the relatio n of the m ain character to his o r h e r circum stances, h i th e d etectiv e story, the h u n ter is obviously th e d etectiv e, w ho stu d ies th e traces le ft b y his p rey a n d tracks him accordingly. In th e fan tastic tale, the h u n t is m o re com plicated: A character h u n ts fo r th e ex p lan atio n fo r a series of stran g e effects, possibly p ro d uced b y a su p ern atu ral ag en t, in o rd er to locate th eir c au se a n d dispel fear; this ch aracter is also th e p re y o f th e h u n t if the ag en t o f th e effects really is su p ern atu ral a n d n o t m erely im aginary. In o th er w o rd s, th e frightened character seeks a n ex p lan atio n fo r alarm in g phenom ena, an d th ese sa m e phenom ena m ay also b e the traces o f a su p e rn atu ral p red ato r. In b o th g e n re s, once the character's h u n t fo r a n ex p lan atio n is o v er, the sto ry is over. B oth fan tastic fiction a n d detective fiction op erate w ith in w h at Carlo G inzburg calls a "conjectural p arad ig m ," a "cognitive m o d e l w h ich is a t once very ancient a n d v ery n ew " (102). A ccording to G inzburg, h u n tin g and divin atio n a re an cien t form s o f conjecture; an d co n o isseu rsh ip , m edical diagnosis an d psychoanalysis a re n ew er form s. C onjecture becom es n ecessary w hen the cause o f a circum stance is a b sen t o r unavailable. "W hen cau ses can n o t be repeated, th ere is no altern ativ e b u t to in fer them from th e ir effects" (G inzburg 103). In b o th th e fantastic sto ry a n d the detective sto ry , th e teleological force of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 the n arrativ e d eriv es fro m m aking conjectures a b o u t th e n a tu re of causes w h ich have becom e o r alw ay s w ere invisible. The teleology o f b o th genres is epistem ological: so m eth in g o r som eone m u st b e fo u n d o u t O ften, to b eliev e th e n a rra to r of a fantastic sto ry o n e m u st choose to believe in the su p ern atu ral (o r, a t least, choose to su sp en d o n e 's disbelief in the su p ern atu ral in o rd e r to enjoy the story). O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e detective sto ry , like an uncanny sto ry , suggests the su p ern atu ral b u t d o es n o t deliver it. For instance, in "T he M u rd ers in th e R ue M orgue," th e b o d ies a re found in a sealed cham ber, suggesting a m u rd ere r capable o f w alking th ro u g h w alls. This is a basic difference b e tw ee n the detective an d fan tastic g en res: the su p ern atu ral is alw ays ru led o u t in th e form er. T odorov calls fan ta stic fictio n "nothing b u t the b a d conscience o f [a] p o sitiv ist era," the n in eteen th c en tu ry (168). The detective story, then, is p erh ap s th e good conscience of th e sam e era. Yet the d o se relationship b etw een th e genres, a t least in th e case o f P o e 's w riting, persists in w h at could be called th e them e of th e p retern atu ral m in d . Both Ligeia a n d D u p in sh are a m ental (or w h a t P o e w o u ld call a "m oral") stren g th w hich seem s alm o st su p ern atu ral. S om ething p retern atu ral can be either su p erno rm al o r su p ern atu ral; D upin is a su p e rn o rm a l character w hile lig e ia is a su p e rn atu ral character. The first lines o f "T he M urders in the Rue M orgue" announce th e n a rra to r's intention to d iscu ss "th e m ental features discoursed o f as th e an aly tical," w h en they are "in o rd in ately possessed" (141). D upin becom es th e ex em p lar of this extraordinary q u a lity as his qualities an d actions are rev eren tially describ ed b y the n arrato r. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 L igeia deserves sim ilar praise. H e r husb an d , the n a rra to r, stan d s in aw e of h er p re te rn a tu ra l intellect: "H er know ledge w as such as I h av e n e v er k no w n in a w om an—b u t w h ere breathes th e m a n w h o h as traversed, a n d successfully, afl the w id e areas o f m oral, physical, a n d m athem atical science? " (657) H er intellectual gifts are m etaphysical, n o t analytical, b u t they are trem endous. Indeed, she p ro v es tru e Joseph G lanvilTs suggestion th a t a stro n g w ill can triu m p h o v er d eath . This m agical fe a t is ev en m ore "asto u nd in g " th an D upin's ability to solve crim es. H ow ever, D u p in 's crim e-solving ab ility also seem s m agical, as th e n arrato r of "The M u rd ers in th e Rue M orgue" explains: [The analyst] is fond o f enigm as, o f conundrum s, hieroglyphics; exhibiting in h is solutions of each a d eg ree of acum en w h ich appears to th e o rd in ary apprehension p raetem atu ral. H is resu lts, b ro u g h t ab o u t b y the very so u l a n d essence of m ethod, h av e, in tru th , the w hole a ir of in tu itio n . (141) This statem en t suggests th at the detective is o n a p a r w ith the m agician w ho uses sleight-of-hand to create an appearance of m agic, b u t th e d iscu ssio n follow ing com plicates th is m etaphor. T he n a rra to r goes o n to say th a t the an aly st, D u p in in this case,1 4 ow es h is pow ers to h is "im agination." A fter p ro p o sin g a com plex theory of th e relation sh ip betw een "in g en u ity " an d analysis, the n a rra to r concludes, " It w ill b e found, in fact, th a t the ingenious are alw ays fanciful, an d the tru ly im ag in ativ e never otherw ise th an analytic" (143). T here is a n 1 4 The dividing line between the philosophical first part and the narrative second part o f "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" is as follows: "The narrative [starring Dupin] which follows w ill appear to the reader somewhat in the light o f a commentary upon the propositions just advanced" (143). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 interdependence, th en , b etw een im agination a n d analysis, a n d th u s w e k n o w th at D upin, the m an o f an aly tical acum en, is also a m an o f g re a t im agination. Im agination—h ero ic im ag in ation —is w h a t D u p in a n d L igeia share. T herefore, it could b e a rg u e d th a t lig e ia does n o t accom plish h e r resu rrectio n th ro u g h m erely m agical m ean s; indeed, h e r m etaphysical im agination, a p p lie d to the philosophies o f reco n d ite books, m ay b e w h a t allow s h e r to env isio n th e possib ility o f h er re tu rn . H ero ic im agination allow s D u p in to env isio n a crim e after it h as h ap p en ed o r re a d h is com panion's train o f th o u g h t w ith a p recisio n ak in to m ental telep athy . In b o th stories, a hero ic im ag in atio n projects a po ssibility u n th in k ab le to o rd in ary people. T he aw esom eness o f the m en tal p ow ers o f D u p in a n d L igeia is reflected in the im pressions m ad e u p o n the n a rrato rs of each sto ry , n a rra to rs w ho are o rd in ary m en. D u p in an d L igeia a re su rely godlike (in the ancient G reek sense, a t least). O ne p ro o f o f this is th e ir indifference to w h a t w o u ld im b u e o rd in ary h u m an s w ith h o rro r. M adam e a n d M adem oiselle L 'E spanaye's corpses in "The M u rd ers in th e R ue M orgue" a n d R ow ena's d e a th in "L igeia" are d escrib ed in g h astly b u t d isp assio n ate d etail. D u p in do es m ake one hum ane p aren th etical rem ark a b o u t the b lo o d y h air ro o ts, "clo tted w ith fragm ents o f the flesh o f th e scalp," w h ic h h e fin d s a t the scene o f th e crim e: "(a hideous sight!)" (161). T he re st of his d escrip tio n of sev ered th ro ats a n d b ru ise d bo d ies has th e im p assiv e tone o f a scientist. M ost o f the sig n ifican t crim e-solving n a rra tio n o f "T he M u rders o f th e R ue M orgue" is given in D u p in 's voice. Ligeia, o n the o th er h a n d , h a s v ery little d ialo g u e in h er sto ry . Y et th e sam e disp assio n ate tone is a p p a re n t in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 descrip tio n o f R o w en a's d eath . The n a rra to r h a s established his indifference to R ow ena a n d h is lo n g in g fo r Ligeia; a n d L igeia's u su rp a tio n o f R ow ena's b o d y clearly ind icates lig e ia 's d isreg ard fo r h er. A s the n a rra to r o f "Ligeia" w atches R ow ena's corpse d y in g an d reanim ating sev eral tim es successively, th e re a d e r is sp ared n o g o ry d e ta il. R ow ena's d e ath th ro es a re "rep ulsive," b u t they sum m o n no p ity in th e n a rra to r o r in Ligeia. T his ind ifferen ce to m o rtal suffering underscores th e su p e rh u m an qualities o f D u p in a n d Ligeia. T hey are above th e law an d above o rd in ary feeling. They an ticip ate th e N ietzchean su perm en , w h o are entitled, b y th e ir su p erio rity to o th er h u m a n beings, to th ro w off all restrain ts o n their pow ers. W ith no g o d s to h in d er them , P o e's characters can be # extravagantly p o w erfu l a n d am oral, b u t n ih ilism p ervades all of P o e's tales. VL M oderrdsm o a n d T rad itio n In his essay o n R uben D ario, "The S iren a n d th e Seashell," O ctavio Paz describes th e m odem ism o [M odernism ] m o vem en t o f tum -of-the-century L atin A m erica as "a n aesth etic o f lu x u ry a n d d eath , a n ih ilist aesthetic" (26). A m ong its influences a re F ren ch Poetry, G erm anic verse, a n d E dgar A llan Poe (28). W ith its heritage o f pre-C olom bian beliefs, L atin A m erica w as rich w ith source m aterial for su p e rn a tu ra l literatu re, b u t th e m o d em ista au th o rs felt cu ltu rally distinct from o th er W estern nations. T hey fo llo w ed Poe, w ho so u g h t th e cosm opolitan a n d th e u n iv ersal, n o t the au to ch th o n o u s experience. A s d id R icardo Palm a, th e m o d em istas in sisted o n th e ir m o d ern ity an d alien ated them selves fro m th e ir local cultures: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 [L atin A m erican] M odernism seeks to locate itself in the present- O n ly those w ho feel th a t they are n o t w h o lly in the p resen t, w h o sense th a t th ey are outside o f living h isto ry , p o stu late contem poraneity as a goal. (Paz 23) Indeed, the sh o rt sto ry developed la te in L atin A m erica, as com pared w ith o th er p arts of th e W estern w orld. M any o f th e Spanish-A m erican fantastic stories th a t b eg an to em erge in th e late n in eteen th cen tu ry are im itative o f fantastic w riters like Poe, th o u g h the quality o f som e o f th ese stories riv als th eir m odels. "E l hom bre m u erto " ["The D ead M an"] b y L eopoldo Lugones is, like "The Facts in th e C ase o f M. V aldem ar," the sto ry o f a delayed d e a th th a t results in su d d e n decom position of a corpse w h en it is finally allow ed to d ie com pletely. In L ugones7 sto ry , the d ead m an is cu rsed to seem alive u n til som eone believes h e is d ead . W hile P oe's M V aldem ar is in a state of su sp end ed ex p iratio n for som e m onths a n d can m ove only his tongue, L ugones7 Fulano h as b e en in a sim ilar state fo r th irty years an d is am bulatory. A nother o f L ugones7 stories w ith a g rea t w eight o f tim e is "Y zur,7 7 the narrativ e o f a rem o rsefu l m ad scien tist w ho spends y ears attem p tin g to take a scientific theory b ey o n d its know n lim its—like the docto r in Poe7 s "T he Facts in th e Case of M . V aldem ar." Poe7 s d o cto r tests M esm erism o n a d y in g m an; Lugones7 d o cto r tests H einicke7 s m eth o d of teaching d eaf m u tes to sp eak o n an ape. Yet L ugones7 d o cto r tests m ore th a n a scientific theory; lik e P o e's Ligeia, h e also tests a w ise say in g —th a t of the n atives o f Java w ho say o f th e apes, "N o h a b la n . . . p a ra q ue n o los h ag an trabajar" (156) ["They keep silen t so as n o t to be se t to w ork7 7 ] (111). C onvinced th a t " n o h a y ninguna razd n cientffica p a ra que el Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 m ono no hable" (157, em phasis L ugones') fthere is n o scientific explanation fo r the fact th a t apes do n o t sp eak ! (112), the n a rra to r is d riv e n to m om ents o f cru e lty in his training o f Y zur, form erly a circus chim panzee. T he n arrato r finds Y zur to be increasingly h u m an —h e notices the chim panzee g azin g a t the stars one evening—an d continually stu b b o rn in his silence. B olstered b y a re p o rt fro m th e cook th a t h e h a d o v erh eard Y zur sp eaking, the n arrato r presses the chim panzee to speak ev en o n th e p o o r creature's deathbed. The fin al w ords o f th e sto ry are Y zur's d y in g w o rd s :"—AM O, A G UA, AM O, M I A M O ..." (165) ["W ater, m aster. M aster, m y m aster " (117)]. L ike Ligeia's narrator, th ere are n o w itnesses to this fin al scene, rendering th e acco u n t potentially unreliable. H ow ever, unlike L igeia's n a rra to r, Y zur's m aster has b o th clear senses and a m oral conscience. Indeed, the m o ral o f the story is close to H aw thorne's "The B irthm ark." H e is com pelled b y "[e]l dem onio del andlisis" (163) [the dem on o f in v estig atio n (116)], an d w h en h e is convinced th at his experim ent has p rov en the w illfu l silence of the apes, his reflections are a lam en t: Infortunios d el an tro p o id e retrasado e n la e v o lu d d n cuya delantera tom aba e l hum ano con u n d espotism o d e som brfa barbarie, habfan, sin d u d a , destronado a las g ran d es fam ilias cuadrum anas del dom ninio arbdreo d e su s prim itivos edenes, raleando sus filas, cau tiv an d o sus hem bras p a ra organizar la esd av itu d desde el p ro p io vientre m atem o, h asta in fu n d ir a su im p o ten d a d e v e n d d a s el acto de d ig n id ad m o rtal que las llevaba a rom per co n e l enem igo el vinculo su p e rio r tam bidn, pero infausto d e la p alab ra, refugi^ndose com o salv ad d n suprem a en la noche d e la anim alidad. (164) [In the race w e call evolution, m an h a d o v ertak en the anthropoid and cru sh ed him w ith savage b ru tality , dethroning the g re a t fam ilies w ho ru led th e ir p rim itiv e Eden, thinning th eir ranks, cap tu rin g their fem ales so th a t organized Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 slavery m ig h t b eg in in th e v e ry w om b- U ntil, b e a te n a n d helpless, they expressed th eir h u m an d ig n ity b y b reak in g the h ig h er b u t fatal b o n d —speech—th a t lin k ed them to the enem y, a n d as th eir la st salv atio n to o k refuge in th e d a rk n ig h t o f th e anim al kingdom . (116)] O nce again, th is scientific p u rsu it o f th e n u m inous m akes th e events p rete rn atu ral, a n d "Y zur" cou ld ev en b e called a detective sto ry because talking anim als, a n ap p aren tly su p ern atu ral p henom enon, a re h e re g iv en a n a tu ra l explanation. H o rad o Q uiroga also w ro te m an y tales a b o u t tran sfo rm ed o r talk in g anim als—m o st o f th ese stories reflecting so m eth in g b ey o n d th e m odem ep istem e. Such stories are m ore in th e com pany o f tw en tieth -cen tu ry "Boom " w riters like Julio C ortdzar o r G abriel G arcia M arquez. T h o u g h Q u iro g a is n o t u su ally classified as a m od em ista. his sto ry "El alm ohaddn d e p lu m as" ["The F eather Pillow "], w ith its p rete rn atu ral ev en ts a n d fan tastic ch aracters a n d settin g , is rem iniscent of Poe. In "El alm ohaddn de plum as," a n e w b rid e has the b lo o d suck ed o u t o f h er each n ig h t as she sleeps by a m onster in h e r pillow , a n d a fte r sh e dies, the pillow is o p ened , a n d "en tre las plu m as, m oviendo lentam ente las p a ta s vellu d as, habfa u n anim al m onstruoso, u n a b o la viviente y viscosa. E staba ta n hin ch ad o que ap en as se le p ro n u n d ab a la boca" (58) [am ong the feathers, slo w ly m oving its h a iry legs, w as a m onstrous anim al, a liv in g , viscous ball. I t w as so sw ollen one co u ld scarcely m ake o u t its m outh] (9). A n d if this p ictu re is n o t h o rrify in g enough, Q uiroga goes a step fu rth er th a n P oe ever d id b y su g g estin g a th rea t to the read er, sta te d in m atter-of-fact, q u asi-sd en tific term s in th e la st parag raph : "E stos p ardsitos d e las aves, d im inutos e n e l m edio h ab itu al, lleg an a a d q u irir en d e rta s co n d id o n es p ro p o rd o n es enorm es. L a sangre h u m an a parece series Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 particularm ente favorable, y no es raro hallarlos e n los alm ohadones d e p lu m as" (59) [These parasites o f fea th ere d creatures, d im in u tiv e in th e ir h ab itu al environm ent, reach en o rm o u s p ro p o rtio n s u n d e r certain conditions. H u m an b lo o d seem s p articu larly favorable to them , a n d i t is n o t ra re to en co u n ter them in feather pillow s (9)]. U n lik e P o e's fantastic stories, w h ich a re u su ally to ld in the first p erso n a n d h a v e u n reliab le n arrato rs, th e n arrativ e o f th is sto ry is objective an d in the th ird p erso n . T he objectivity- is m ad e possible retro activ ely b y the final p arag rap h , w h ic h m oves aw ay from th e n arrativ e a n d in to e v en m ore objective—a n d sim u ltan eo u sly m ore m enacing—term s. The coldness o f science a d d s a num inous chill to P o e's stories a n d to Q u iroga's; b o th au th o rs achieve th e anom aly o f deriv in g num in o u s effects w ith a scientific style. H ow ever, th e exceptions to the im itativ e fan tastic sto ries o f m odem ism o are in trig u in g in th e ir u se of trad itio n al beliefs; tw o rep resen tativ e stories of this variety h av e h o ly m en fo r central characters. W hile references to C hristianity are scarcely to b e fo u n d in Poe a n d Q uiroga, S atan 's tem p tatio n o f a C atholic m onk is the su b ject o f b o th R ubdn D ario 's "V erdnica" a n d L u g on es' "L a estatu a d e sal" ["The P illar o f Salt"]. The first is se t in m o d em tim es a n d d eals w ith m odem science, a n d th e second is set in th e fo u rth cen tu ry a n d dep icts C hristianity as a n exotic n e w religion. R uben D ario w ro te "V eronica" in 1896, a n d in 1913, h e chan g ed th e title to "La extrana m u erte d e fray P ed ro " ["The Strange D eath o f B rother P ed ro "]. It is the story of a n excessively cu rio u s friar w ho forsakes his religious d u ties to satisfy his consum ing p a ssio n fo r science. A lthough h e ratio n alizes h is p u rsu its b y telling him self th a t h e in te n d s h is discoveries fo r g o o d (";c6m o triu n fa ria la Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 religi6n!" [H ow relig io n w ill trium ph!] [54]), it is th e d ev il in d isguise w ho offers him the x-ray cam era h e longs for. W ith h is in fern al cam era, fray P edro dares to snap a p ictu re o f th e H ost. The next m o rn in g he is fo u n d dead, a n d later, o n the ground n earby , h is su p erio rs fin d a p h o to g rap h ic p late bearing "con los brazos d esdavados y u n a terrib le m irada en lo s divinos ojos, la im agen d e N uestro Senor Jesucristo" [w ith his arm s u n n a iled a n d a terrib le look in th e d iv in e eyes, the im age of O u r L o rd Jesus C hrist] (55). A d o se read in g o f this story a n d a look a t its b rief textual h isto ry dem onstrate D ario 's n arrativ e skills; h e m an ag ed to tran slate th e concrete structures of trad itio n a l C hristian belief in to m o d em fantastic term s. D ario 's slight revision o f "V erdnica," originally p u b lish ed in 1896, dem onstrates his strategy. T he seco n d versio n o f D ario 's sto ry , p u b lish ed in 1913, su b stitu tes the w ord "terrible" fo r "d u lce" [sw eet], to describ e th e look in C h rist's eyes. A lso changed is a w o rd in F ray P edro's reverie: ";Si e n L ourdes hubiese habid o u n a instantdnea, d u ra n te el tiem po d e las visiones de B ernadette!" [If only th ere h ad been an in stam atic in L ourdes d u rin g th e tim e o f B ernadette's visions!](53). The later version read s "kodak" rath er th an "instantdnea." These retrospective changes (just th e title a n d tw o w ords in a v ery sh o rt story) effectively ren d e r the story m ore fantastic. T he change o f the lo o k in C h rist's eyes justifies the n ew title—th e d eath is m ore "extrafla" [strange] th an before because it resu lts from a sw eet look, a n d th e change of term for th e cam era contem porizes th e sto ry for a new generation, w h ich n o w recognizes th e cam era b y its b ran d nam e. In the second version, th e re su lt o f B rother P e d ro 's scientific q u est for religious Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 revelation is bo th m ore accurate in its depiction o f C h rist's ch aracter a n d m ore fantastically am biguous.15 T he title o f a sto ry g iv es its re a d e r his o r h e r first id e a o f w h a t the sto ry is abou t, an d the title "V ertfnica," fo r th e read er fam iliar w ith C atholic trad itio n recalls th e w om an w ho w ip e d C h rist's sw eaty b ro w a n d la te r fo u n d h is im age on the cloth she used. T he p h o to g rap h ic p late bearing C h rist's im age com es as less o f a su rp rise to the rea d er o f th e first version w ho, becau se o f th e title, m ig h t have expected C hrist's im ag e to sh o w u p .1 6 T here are sev eral su rprises fo r th e read er o f the second v ersio n , especially the sw eet lo o k o n C h rist's face. H ere C h rist is n o t a fierce deity, an g ry a t b eing d istu rb ed , b u t ra th e r th e forgiving L ord w ho allow ed the d o u b tfu l S t Thom as to feel th e n a il p rin ts in h is h ands. C h rist's gracious look m akes fray P ed ro 's sin seem m ore terrib le b y contrast a n d These slight changes in the text provoked Enrique Anderson-Imbert to accuse Darfo o f sacrificing his art to religion at the end o f his life. He remarks: The excessive piety of Dario's later years badly affected Darfo and hurt the free play of his fantasy. . . . It is evident that Darfo, more attentive to the conventions of a sacred history than to the necessities of a fantastic story, forgot that if there are looks that kill, the one that killed Brother Pedro had to be terrible, not sw eet. He thought more of the image of Christ that smiles on the stickers parish priests give children than o f the im age o f Christ as he intimidates us from Byzantine altars. (33) This reading of Darfo's authorial intent in his revisions prohibits a serious consideration of the aesthetic effect of the maneuver. The text is more complicated in the second version and more radically undermines the expectations o f the reader, who like Anderson-Imbert, w ould expect Christ's look to be a look wrathful enough to frighten the life out o f som eone, and not this "extrana" because "dulce" look. 16 The emphasis of the second version, "La extrana muerte de fray Pedro," is shifted from the image of Christ to the protagonist's death. The reader o f the second version knows from the beginning that Brother Pedro is going to die and that his death w ill be a strange one; however, she or he doesn't know how Brother Pedro w ill die, and that curiosity drives the reading o f the story. When Christ shows up this time, he is unexpected by the reader, and his appearance is the more startling. Christ's entrance is not threatened by the distraction o f shock at Brother Pedro's death. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 m akes h is d e a th seem stran g er. The re a d e r m u st connect a su b lim e sw eetness w ith a su d d e n d e ath . F ray P ed ro 's h e a rt attack (if th a t w as th e cause o f h is death), suggests th a t h e w as n o t p rep a red to fin d w h a t h e fo u n d , desp ite the fact th at he w as lo o k in g fo r i t 17 T he m eaning o f C h rist's sw eet lo o k in fray P e d ro 's photo becom es as d ifficu lt to decide as th e m ean in g o f th e M o na L isa's sm ile. C h rist's sw eet lo o k is as stran g e as fray P e d ro 's d eath .18 S tran g er still is th e fact th at fray P edro w as successful in u sin g science to p ro b e th e secrets of faith , even after the n a rra to r o f th e sto ry w arn ed a g ain st it, a n d ev en th o u g h fray P ed ro 's uses diabolical m eans to d o so. Less stran g e to th e re a d e r o f th e seco n d v e rsio n is th e technology th a t captivates fray P e d ro 's im agination. R eaders o f th e 1913 v ersio n are less lik ely to be w onders tru ck b y x-ray cam eras th a n read ers o f th e 1896 v ersio n . To counteract th is technological disenchantm ent, D arfo calls th e "instandnea" a "kodak," a n d this n e w term no w m akes fray P ed ro seem less p rim itiv e a n d highlights h is fascination w ith foreign in v en tio n s. The tem p tatio n fray P edro 17 Fray Pedro was after the true image of Christ. Veronica's cloth and the shroud of Turin were the best material instances o f Christ's image so far. The only presence of Christ which the Church could claim was in the Eucharist As Jaroslav Pelikan explains, early church historians declared that a true image of Christ w ould have to be "one in being" w ith him the w ay Christ, the true image of the Father, w as "one in being" with the Father. "The only image o f Christ that could be said to be 'one in being' w ith Christ. .. was the Eucharist, which contained the real presence o f the body and blood of Christ" (86). Fray Pedro was pursuing the true im age of Christ w ith his x- ray camera, he knew that the Eucharist is exactly where to look for it, and he dared "por fin a realizar su pensamiento ..." [finally to realize his though t .. .](54, em phasis Dario's). 18 This strangeness is felt by the reader as fantastic hesitation. There is an increased ambiguity in "La extrana muerte de fray Pedro" which never comes to be resolved. Even the narrator seems wonders truck by the w ay things turn out. The narrative voice which makes didactic interruptions in the first half o f the story (he preaches against "el mal de la curiosidad," [excessive curiosity] for example [52]) reports without comment or explanation the events of the second half. If the narrator does understand what took place, he does not explain it to the reader. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 faces, then, is a tem p tatio n to d isc ard h is cu ltu ral a n d relig io us inheritance in favor of a sh o rt c u t to k n ow ledge. T he o ld a n d fam iliar w ays to k n ow G od are n o t good en o u g h fo r fray P ed ro w h o h ears th e sirens o f "p ro g ress." T he n arrato r leaves n o d o u b t th a t "la d e n d a co n stitu y e sen d llam en te, e n e l p rin d p io , el arm a d e la Serpiente; e n el fin , la e se n d a l p o te n d a d el A ntecristo" (52) [sdence sim ply constitutes, in th e b eginning, th e w eap o n o f th e S erpent; in th e e n d , th e essential p o w er o f th e A ntichrist]. D an o w a n ted a contem porary settin g fo r his story, an d in a n age w h en K odak x-ray cam eras seem m ore real th a n a n alleg ed d eity w ho liv e d tw o th o u san d y ears ago, th a t a p ecu liar m onk co u ld cause C h rist to appear o n a ph o to g raph ic p late is tru ly fan tastic. In th e en d , h ow ever, a ll fray Pedro learn ed w as th a t C h rist existed, a p ro p o sitio n w hich m o st o f h is b ro th ers took b y faith. C h rist is n o m ore q u an tifiab le th a n before his p ictu re w as taken, as his m ysterious lo o k dem onstrates. The m ysteries a n d m ira d es o f the C hristian relig io n are th e subject of L ugones' "L a estatu a d e sal," w h ich em ploys a unique strateg y fo r the p resen tatio n o f su p e rn atu ral ev en ts, a b u n d a n t th ro u g h o u t the sto ry . Lugones retu rn s to th e C h ristian tra d itio ris early h isto ry , in o rd er to m ake it seem strange a n d exotic. It is the reco rd , th rice rem o v ed from the read er, o f S osistrato, one o f a com pany " re d e n convertidos a la relig io n d e l crudficado" [recently converted to the religion o f th e crucified one] (116). T he n arrato r w as to ld th e sto ry b y a pilgrim , w ho co u ld n o t have b e en to ld b y Sosistrato him self, since th e sto ry ends in S osistrato's d eath . T he g re a t rem o v al o f th e sto ry 's source a n d d ie distance o f its tim e p ro v id es a w ay to su sp en d d isb elief to a skeptical m o d em audience. E ven so, the sto ry teller p ilg rim describes th o se w ho lau g h ed a t th e sp iritu al Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 endeavors o f Sosistrato a n d his com pany as ignorant, because th ey d o n o t realize th at "El sacrifid o d e aquellos d esterrad o s, q u e ofrecfan diariam ente la m aceraddn d e su s cam es y la p en a d e su s ayunos a la ju sta ira d e D ios, p a ra aplacarla, ev itaro n m uchas pestes, g u erras y terrem otos" (117) [The sacrifice o f those exiles, w ho d aily offered the b eatin g o f th e ir flesh an d the suffering o f th eir fasts to the ju s t w ra th o f G od, to ap p ease i t p rev ented m any pestilences, w ars, an d earthquakes]. U nlike o th er m o d em fantastic sto ries, w hich d elay th e su p e rn atu ral ev en t u n til the en d o f th e story, th e su p ern atu ral is pervasive here. Sosistrato is so holy th at his little o ld b o d y is "casi tran sp aren te" [alm ost transparent]. H e p ray s fifteen hours a day, a n d h is only susten an ce is pom egranate seeds, fed to him b y a p air of doves, a n d d ie b re a d an d w ine th a t ap p ear to h im m iraculously every G ood Friday. S o sistrato 's holy life is in te rru p te d one d ay b y a trav eler w ho reports th a t h e has se en th e salt statu e w h ich is L ot's w ife, w ho still suffers h e r p unishm ent for looking b ack a t Sodom a n d G om orrah as G od w as destro yin g them . The trav eler tells S osistrato, "L a m u jer estA viva, herm ano m io, y yo la h e escuchado gem ir y la h e v isto su d ar a l so l d e l m ediodia" [The w om an is alive, m y brother, a n d I hav e h e a rd h er m oaning, a n d I have seen h er sw eating in the noonday sun] (118). The trav eler is "Satan^s e n persona" [Satan in person] (119), an d thus com m ences th e sto ry 's m ain conflict, w h ich is based o n a prev io us su p ernatu ral event. The traveler su g g ests to Sosistrato th a t i t w o u ld b e a charitable a c t to liberate L ot's w ife from h e r condem nation, effectively, to perform a negative m iracle. Sosistrato refu ses to un d o th e ju stice o f G od, b u t S atan begins a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 theological deb ate ab o u t G o d 's justice versus h is m ercy; th e k ey elem ent of his arg u m en t is th a t G o d 's m ercy in C h rist sh o u ld retro activ ely co v er O ld T estam ent events. A n angel confirm s th is in one o f S osistrato's d ream s, a n d h e journeys to w here L ot's w ife is a n d lib erates h e r from h e r p u n ish m en t b y p o u rin g holy w ater o n h e r. I t is only a t th is p o in t th a t Sosistrato succum bs to a tem p tatio n : he is curious to know w h a t L o t's w ife saw before she w as co nd em n ed , a n d w hen she refuses to tell, h e insists th a t sh e m u s t She relu ctantly tells h im , a n d h e dies. The sh o rt n arrativ es o f L ugones a n d o th er m o d em ista a u th o rs ten d to w ard rare an d extrem e situ atio ns; n o t m erely the su p ern atu ral ev en ts o f these stories b u t the very statu s q u o these ev en ts in te rru p t could n o t b e called o rd in ary . The verisim ilitude o f these stories is, in general, one b ased o n feasible b u t n o t u su al circum stances. O n th e o th er h a n d , a U . S. literary tren d , w h ich , lik e m odem ism o. lasted ju st beyond th e tu rn o f th e n ineteenth century, em p lo y ed a n opposite strateg y for rep resen tin g the su p ern atu ral. U nlike sen tim en tal su p ern atu ral fiction, w hich k ep t th e rea d er a t sev eral rem oves from th e c h aracters, o r fantastic fiction, w hich h a d a v erisim ilitu d e o f settin g b u t p re te rn a tu ra l ch aracters, the psychological g host sto ry th a t b eg an w ith a v erisim ilitude o f b o th character an d setting. The o rd in ary lives in to w h ich com e su p ern atu ral su g g estio n s could be the lives of the readers. VII. The Psychological G host S tory In the conclusion to T he V arieties o f R eligious E xperience, W illiam Jam es rem arks th at Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 it is a b su rd fo r science to sa y th a t th e egoistic elem ents o f experience sh o u ld b e su p p ressed . T he axis o f reality' ru n s solely th ro u g h th e egoistic places—th ey a re stru n g u p o n it like so m an y b e ad s. To d escribe th e w o rld w ith a ll th e various feelings o f th e in d iv id u al p in c h o f d estin y , a ll th e various sp iritu a l a ttitu d e s, le ft o u t fro m th e d escrip tio n —they b ein g as describable as an y th in g else—w o u ld b e som ething like offering a p rin te d b ill o f fare a s th e eq u iv alen t fo r a so lid m eal. (387) Science is in d eed a b u rd e n fo r th e m o d em au th o r, w h o w ishes to rep re se n t "th e in d iv id u al p in ch o f destin y " to h is o r h e r read ers. W illiam Jam es reiterates: "C om pared w ith th is w o rld of liv in g in d iv id u a lize d feelings, th e w o rld o f generalized objects w h ich th e in tellect contem plates is w ith o u t solid ity o f life" (389). Solidity of life is precisely w h a t H en ry Jam es, W illiam 's bro th er, offers in his psychological g h o st stories. H e com bines th e so lid a n d the su p ern atu ral, b u t h e leaves a d o o r o p e n to scientific ex p lan atio n s a t th e sam e tim e. T w o o f H en ry Jam es' stories, T he T u rn of the Screw a n d "T he Jolly C om er," an d an o th er b y h is frien d E d ith W harton, en titled "P om egranate Seed," are representative o f the subtle tactics o f th e psychological g h o st sto ry . D escriptions o f th e m en tal an d em otional states o f th e characters in th ese sto ries are so v iv id a n d generous th at the read er is liable n o t to notice th a t th e ch aracters' su p ern atu ral experiences are never ad eq u ately confirm ed. E laborate n a rra tiv e sty le com bined w ith p ro fo u n d them es an d com m on predicam ents leave th e read er p ro n e to th e sam e p o w er o f suggestion th at ov erw h elm s the m ain ch aracters in each o f these stories. Jam es' T he T u rn o f th e Screw is to ld p rim arily th ro u g h the la te r w ritten account o f th e m ain character, a y o u n g g o v ern ess in charge of a n o rp h an ed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 b ro th er a n d sister, M iles a n d F lora. A fter being in stru c te d nev er to re p o rt to h e r em ployer, she becom es th e m istress ofB ly, a n enorm ous ho use w h ere h e r only o th er com pany is th e servan ts a n d h e r only confidant is M rs. G rose, th e housekeeper. Because o f a series o f stran g e events, th e governess so o n becom es convinced th at M iss Jessel a n d P e ter Q u in t, th e d isrep u tab le deceased governess a n d v alet a t Bly, are try in g to lu re th e children in to ev il a n d d eath . In th e final scene, M iles dies in th e g o v ern ess' arm s as the ap p aritio n o f Q u in t h o v ers nearby. N ear the m id d le o f th e n arrativ e, th e n arrato r m akes a rem ark th a t is em blem atic of the en tire sto ry . She reflects o n th e m o m ent w h en she first becam e su re th a t the child ren h a d su p e rn a tu ra l "visitors": H ow can I retrace to -d ay th e strange steps o f m y obsession? There w ere tim es o f o u r b ein g together w h en I w o u ld have been ready to sw ear th a t, literally, in m y presence, b u t w ith m y d irect sense o f it closed , they h a d v isito rs w h o w ere know n a n d w ere w elcom e. (52) H er ap p aren t h o rro r a t this realizatio n a n d the fact th a t th e read er h as n o o th er p o in t o f view to co ntrad ict h ers m akes the account believable; b u t, seen an o th er w ay, this is also a confession o f lu n acy . A n early review b y John D . B arry takes the form er position: "She perceiv es w h a t is beyond all perception, a n d th e read er w ho begins b y q uestioning w h eth er she is su pposed to b e sane, ends b y accepting h er conclusions a n d th rillin g over the h orrors th ey involve" (174). O n the o th er hand, H aro ld C. G o d d ard , th e earliest to advance the in te rp retatio n th a t the governess is m ad, argu es th a t the w hole story is in d eed a retracing o f the "strange steps" of h e r "obsession."1 9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 162 In his article, posthum ously p u b lish ed a n d collected in the N o rto n C ritical E dition w ith th e title "A Pre-Freudian R eading o f The Turn o f the S crew /' G oddard ad m its th a t its originality (the v iew is no longer original post-F reud) is ow ing to a p erso n al experience o f G o d d ard 's. A s a child he h a d a n in san e governess fo r a tim e, a n d even h is first read in g o f th e story w as colo red b y th at experience. H ow ever, G oddard does n o t fail to p ro v id e am ple a n d convincing p roof of the legitim acy o f his reading. H e dem onstrates how " it is p recisely com plication a n d n o t explanation th a t [the governess] w ants—th o u g h o f course she does n o t k n o w it" (187). Each tim e she questions M rs. Grose, the housekeeper, sh e is m ore alert to h in ts th a n to d irect responses, a n d th e h in ts p rovided by M rs. G rose (for exam ple, th a t M iss Jessel w as beautiful), w h en later referenced b y the governess, becom e "proof" to the superstitious M rs. G rose th at the governess has in d eed seen th e ghosts. The children, u n d er the su p erv isio n of an insane w om an, are soon enough frig h ten ed an d badgered into seein g w h a t she sees. A ccording to G oddard, the governess literally scares M iles to d eath . G o d d ard is su re to insist, how ever, th a t th e sto ry 's pow er is n o t dim inished by the fact th a t th e governess is insane: A re P eter Q u in t an d M iss Jessel a w h it less m ysterious o r less ap p allin g because they are evoked b y the governess's im agination? A re they a w h it less real? Surely the h u m an b ra in is as solid a fact as the terrestrial globe, an d inh ab itan ts of th e form er have ju st as au th en tic a n existence as in h ab itan ts o f th e latter. (206) 19 This gothic reading o f the story makes it parallel to a classic U. S. story, "The Yellow Wallpaper," by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. In this story, a woman's post partum depression is worsened by the "rest cure" prescribed by her doctor husband. With nothing to do but stare at the wallpaper day after day, the woman begins to see a figure in the pattern, and she finally identifies with the figure so much that she believes she has escaped from the wallpaper pattern. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 H ere is th e "solidity" o f life in th e governess7 "eg oistic'7 experience. T he T u rn o f the Screw is a scientifically unverifiable b u t em o tio n ally factual sto ry . If a y o u n g fanciful governess, aw ay fro m hom e for th e first tim e a n d w ith a stro n g d e sire to be a h ero in e,20 h a d n o o n e to co rrect h e r d e lu sio n a l th in k in g , sh e c o u ld d o g re a t dam age to h e r charges. A n d if th e d ead co u ld com e b ack to p u rsu e th e liv in g , as the g overness believes th e y a re d o in g to M iles a n d Flora, anyone w o u ld re a c t as fearfully a n d defensively a s sh e d oes a n d w o u ld p ro g ress th ro u g h the sam e "stages7 7 o f "obsession." T he claim of the d e a d o n th e living is also th e subject o f "P om egranate Seed" b y E d ith W harton. I t is th e sto ry o f C h arlo tte A shby, w ho has recently m arried a w idow er, a n d h e r stru g g le to m ain tain a h a p p y m arriage a g ain st th e pow er o f m ysterious le tte rs to h e r h u sb an d th a t arriv e in intervals an d estran g e him fro m h er. The h a n d w ritin g o n th e envelopes is faint, a n d w h en sh e fin ally d ares to o p en one because h e r h u sb an d h as g o n e m issing, there is only one fa in t w ord o n th e page: "C om e." C h arlo tte's m other-in-law , w ho has jo in ed h e r in vigil fo r th e m issing K en n eth A shby, seem s to recognize th e w ritin g o n the envelope a n d seem s to in d icate th a t it is th a t o f K enneth7 s d e ad first w ife, E lsie. As in The T urn o f th e S crew , there is n o u nm istak ab le confirm ation o f th e ap p aren tly su p ern atu ral e v en ts. C harlotte7 s c ertain ty com es from follow ing th e gaze of th e senior M rs. A shby: "Y ou7 ve an sw ered m e now ! Y ou're looking 20 At the beginning of the story, w hen the governess meets the master of Bly, the children's uncle, she is taken with him and is disappointed by his instructions never to contact him. Freudian readings may make too much o f this fact, but her infatuation could make her w ish for a crisis that would call the uncle's attention to her and feature her as valiant protectress. Goddard's "pre- Freudian" reading agrees with this. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 164 straig h t a t th e w all w here h e r p ic tu re u se d to hang!" C harlotte cries (335), a n d alth o u g h the o ld er w om an n ev er ag rees a n d in sists th a t th e w ritin g is too p ale to see d early , "C h arlo tte lau g h ed again. T su p p o se ev ery th in g 's p a le a b o u t a g h o st/ sh e said strid en tly " (335). I t m ay b e th a t C h arlo tte has gu essed co rrectly , b u t it m ay b e th a t sh e has b een d riv en m ad b y the em otional p a in o f h e r h u sb a n d 's e stran g em en t T he d escrip tio n o f th e m o m en t p rio r to o p ening th e le tte r suggests th at C harlotte is alread y in a m o rb id state of m ind: [S]he h a d to h u n t o n h e r h u sb a n d 's w ritin g table fo r his iv o ry letter opener. A s sh e p u sh e d a b o u t th e fam iliar objects h is ow n h an d s h a d so lately to u ch ed , th ey se n t th ro u g h h e r th e icy chill em anating fro m th e little p erso n al effects o f som eone new ly d ead . In th e d eep silence o f th e room th e tearin g o f th e p a p er as she slit th e envelope so u n d ed like a h u m an cry. (334) C harlotte is p rep a red to im agine th e v ery w o rst before she ev en re a d s th e letter. Yet the painfulness of h e r situ atio n w o u ld n o t be less in a m ateria list reading of the sto ry . W hether K en n eth A sh b y's corresp o nd en t is a g h o st o r a real w om an, C harlotte is still losing h im . T he re a d e r m ay suffer w ith C h arlo tte th ro u g h alm ost the en tire sto ry w ith o u t su sp ectin g th at h er o p p o n e n t co u ld b e a ghost. The psychological effects o f th e sto ry are strong regardless o f w h eth er they have a n a tu ra l o r a su p e rn a tu ra l cause. T he rise an d fall o f C h a rlo tte's level of faith in h e r h u sb an d 's affection co n stitu tes th e m ain action of th e sto ry . A fter a distressing conversation w ith h e r h u sb a n d ab o u t the letters, C h arlo tte begins to feel "as if the stran g e talk she h a d ju st h a d w ith h e r h usband m u st h a v e tak en place in an o th er w orld, b etw een tw o beings w ho w ere n o t C h arlo tte G orse an d K enneth A shby, b u t phantom s p ro jected b y h e r fevered im ag in atio n " (324). This description o f h e r feelings is realistic, b u t it is n o t to be tak en literally ; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 165 descriptions of psychological states m ay use p re te rn a tu ra l figures to convey em otional intensity. E ven th e m ore su b stan tial "d u e s" th a t la te r becom e "proof" o f E lsie's m aneuvering m ay easily be re a d psychologically an d d o n o t take o n another significance u n til a second read in g o f th e sto ry. F or exam ple, w h en C harlotte tau n ts K enneth—o n th e assum p tio n th a t the letters a re fro m an o ther w om an— th a t h e has forgotten Elsie "tw ice w ith in th e year," h is re p ly is indeterm inate: T have n ev er forgo tten E lsie / h e said. C harlotte co u ld n o t repress a fain t lau g h . T h e n , y o u poor dear, betw een th e three o f us—' 'T here are n o t—' h e began; an d th e n b ro k e o ff an d p u t his h an d to his forehead. 'N o t w hat?' 'I'm sorry; I d o n 't believe I know w h a t I'm saying. I'v e g o t a b lin din g h eadache.' H e looked w a n a n d fu rro w ed enough for th e statem en t to b e true, b u t she w as exasperated b y his evasion. (323-324) K enneth's sentence w o u ld probably have finished " n o t th ree o f you," an d this could su g g est th a t either Elsie is m anipulating h im fro m th e grave—keeping th e num ber of lovers a t tw o—o r perh ap s th a t his a to rm en to r has o th er purposes. E arlier in the story K enneth adm its th at th e w ritin g is a w om an's, and w h en C harlotte asks w h at the w om an w rites to h im a b o u t, K enneth answ ers th a t the letters are about business an d th a t he has b een look in g after his co rrespondent's affairs fo r "a very lo n g tim e" (321). A gain, a retrospective readin g cou ld take this for another d u e th a t Elsie is th e letter-w riter, b u t an in itial read in g could take K enneth a t his w ord. H e is a law y er a n d scrupulous ab o u t keeping confidences, so his reaction to the letters m ay only indicate a difficult business a t w ork, w hich m ay b e so grav e as to th rea te n h is career. In Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 166 th at case, he m ay in d e e d b e in dan g er of su icid e a t th e en d o f th e sto ry , b u t the cause w ould b e p e rso n al sham e rath er th an a su p e rn atu ral su m m o n s. Both "P om egranate Seed" an d The T urn o f th e Screw are th u s am biguous enough to in v ite d ifferen t interpretations o f th e ir events, b u t u n lik e fan tastic stories an d d etective stories w hich have a n "irreversible tem p o rality " (to u se T odorov's term ), th ese g h o st stories are re-readable because o f th e ir psychological realism . If C harlotte has a m en tal b reak d o w n ra th e r th a n a n epiphany a t the en d o f "Pom egranate Seed," th e rea d er is still in trig u e d to see w hat b ro u g h t it on. E d ith W harton exploited th e m achinery o f th e g h o st sto ry to depict psychological realities o f everyday life. S an d ra M. G ilbert asserts th a t W harton's b est g h o st stories rep resen t "th e u n leashing of fem ale ra g e as w ell as the release o f fem ale d esire" a n d "the expression o f fem ale p a in a t th e rep ressio n of rage and the k illin g o f d esire" (165). F or W harton, the g h o st sto ry "consistently m ade po ssib le ju st the transgressive p ro test ag ain st 're a lity ' th a t she secretly longed to m o u n t" (G ilbert 165). This is less the case in "P om egranate Seed" than it is in o n e o f G ilb ert's exam ples, th e sto ry "K erfol," in w h ic h a y o u ng w ife claim s th a t h er d e a d d ogs m utilated a n d k illed th e dom ineering h u sb an d w ho h ad killed a ll o f th em o n e by one. D esire for rev en g e is one psychological reality ; reg retting th e ro a d n o t taken is another. E xisten tial an g st ab o u t p a st choices is th e cen tral th em e o f H enry Jam es' "The Jolly C om er," an d the sp o o k in th is sto ry is lite ra lly a psychological g h o st "T he Jolly C om er" is a su p rem e psychological g h o st sto ry because it m akes th e q u estio n o f verification m o o t This story proves W illiam Jam es' avow al th a t "th e axis o f reality ru n s solely th ro u g h the eg o istic places," Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 a n d its subject is "th e in d iv id u al p in ch o f d estin y ," m en tio n ed in the sam e sta te m e n t It is the sto ry o f S pencer B rydon, w h o re tu rn s to N ew Y ork a t age fifty-six, after a thirty -th ree y e ar sojo urn in E urope. H is con fid an t, A lice S taverton, shares his n o stalg ia fo r m ore d e ce n t d ay s a n d h is repu g n an ce fo r the "m onstrosity" of a m o d em b o om ing N ew York. O b sessed w ith w ho h e m ig h t h av e b een if h e h a d stayed in N e w York, B rydon h a u n ts h is o ld fam ily h om e a t n ig h ts an d finally m eets face-to-face w ith th e sp ecter o f h is a lte r ego, w hom M iss S tav erto n has also seen in d ream s. T he sto ry is tru e ev en if it is n o t tru e. T he evocative lan g u ag e th a t describes B rydon7 s state o f m in d is b o ld ly su p e rn atu ral b u t a t first in ten d ed to b e only figurative. As he h au n ts h is o ld hom e, h e im agines it as a "m ystical o th er w o rld " o f "baffled forsw orn possibilities." W hat h e d id therefore b y this ap p eal o f h is h u sh e d presence w as to w ake them in to su c h m easure o f g h o stly life as they m ig h t still enjoy. T hey w ere shy, all b u t u n ap p easab ly shy, b u t they weren" t really sin ister; a t lea st th ey w e re n 't a s h e h a d h ith erto felt them —before they h a d tak en th e F o rm h e so y earn ed to m ake th em take (771) T he rea d er begins to u n d erstan d from this th a t B rydon p erso n ifies his "forsw orn p ossibilities" an d thinks of them in su p ern atu ral term s; m o reov er, he longs fo r a one-on-one encounter w ith his o w n g h o s t The p o ssib ility o f su p em atu ralizin g his visits is in tro d uced b y a rem ark m ade by M rs. M uldoon, w h o tend s to th e em p ty house fo r B rydon. She is sim ple a n d su p erstitio u s lik e M rs. G rose in T he T u rn of the Screw , a n d she says, in h er stro n g d ia le c t th a t sh e refuses to a tten d th e house after d ark a n d go "crap in g u p to th im to p sto rey s in th e ayvil h o u rs" (764). B rydon's original attitu d e o f condescension to w ard M rs. M uldoon's Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168 concerns is slow ly re v e rse d in th e successive n arrativ e, as h is obsession grow s a n d his late-n ig h t v isitatio n s to th e h o u se in crease, a n d h e eventually feels him self to b e in d ee d p assin g ev il h o u rs th ere. The n arrativ e a t once creates a tra il o f su p e rn atu ral suggestion a n d throw s th e read er off th a t tra il. It is n o t u n til o ne n ig h t w h en B rydon is shocked to fin d a d o o r sh u t th a t h e k n o w s h e h a d le ft o p en m om ents before th a t th e rea d er sees h o w serious B rydon h as becom e ab o u t th e gho stly "Form ": "If h e h a d le ft th a t one open, h a d n 't h e le ft th is o n e closed, a n d w a sn 't h e n o w in m ost im m ediate presence o f som e inconceivable occult activity?" (781). O nce again, the su p ern atu ral q u estio n can n o t b e d efinitively answ ered, th o u g h th ere ap p ears to b e unm istakable co n firm atio n o f th e g h o sf s reality a t the en d of th e story. B rydon passes o u t a fte r fin ally en co un tering his ghost, w hom he observes in detail, and w h en h e is fo u n d th e n ex t m o rn in g b y M iss S taverton an d M rs. M uldoon, M iss S tav erto n a p p ea rs to verify h is vision. She claim s th a t sh e h a d d ream t of th e g h o st fo r a seco n d tim e th a t sam e n ig h t, a n d w hen she sup p lies accurate details o f th e g h o st's appearance, in clu d in g spectacles an d tw o m issing fingers, it read s as "p ro o f." H ow ever, th ere is a g a p in th e text, a n d a m otive o f M iss S taverton's allow s fo r a m aterialist re a d in g o f th e fin al scene. A t th e e n d o f th e sto ry 's first section, M iss Staverton rep o rts to B ry d o n th a t sh e h as d ream t of his ghost. W hen B rydon asks, "W haTs the w retch like?" M iss S tav erto n is evasive an d answ ers " I'll tell y o u som e o th er tim e!" (769). W hat th e re a d e r does n o t know is if a n d w h en she fulfilled h er prom ise to in fo rm him . If she h as described th e ghost to h im subsequently, th e fin al scene can b e read as B rydon rep o rtin g a hallu cin atio n th a t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 169 w as in sp ired b y M iss Staverton.'s d ream . B ut w hy w o u ld M iss Staverton. offer him this fancy? B ecause, like th e gov ern ess in T he T u rn o f th e S crew , she w ants to create a n affliction th a t only sh e c an d eliv er h im from , because she loves him . A nd if th is is h e r strateg y , she is m o re successful th a n d ie governess: the final line of the sto ry is, "'A n d h e is n 't—no, h e is n 't—y o u !' she m u rm u red as h e d rew h er to his breast" (787). Alice S taverton is like M ay B artram in "The B east in th e Jungle," another Jam esian heroine w h o so loves a h a u n te d m an th a t sh e in d u lg es his fantasy. U nlike M ay B artram , w ho dies u n fu lfilled , Alice Staverton is fin ally taken into the arm s o f th e m an sh e loves. M ay B artram believes John M archer's prophecy th at som ething in ten sely significant is w aitin g to h ap p en to him , a n d th o u g h she hopes it w ill be fallin g in love w ith h e r, sh e dies an o ld m aid . A lice Staverton cannily exorcises th e p a rt o f Spencer B rydon th at is a g reed y in d u strialist, an d she can continue to sh are h e r nostalgic life w ith him . The exorcism is real, w hether it w as psychological o r su p e rn atu ral—she fin d s a w ay to p u t his g h o st to rest. The story is tru e even if it is n o t tru e. W harton a n d Jam es are o n th e cu sp o f a new epistem e, in w hich the b u rd en of science is lifted from the su p ern atu ral story. In the m o d em epistem e there are hierarchical binaries o f liv in g /d e a d , m o d em /su p erstitio u s— w ith th e first term privileged in each case. In W harton a n d Jam es, these b in aries a re being unsettled: d e ad w ives a n d cleaning lad ies can overcom e p o w erfu l m o d em m en. B ut at the sam e tim e, science is n o t p ro v e n false in th e psychological ghost story. W ith psychology a t th e cen ter of th ese sto ries, the sp iritu al a n d th e m aterial overlap. T he overlap of th e n atu ral a n d th e su p ern atu ral is w h a t characterizes Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 170 the su p ern atu ral sh o rt sto ry o f th e tw en tieth cen tu ry —it is a n overlap o f m utually exclusive p o ssib ilities th at, by m eans o f n e w n arrativ e strateg ies, d o n o t cancel each o th er o u t. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 171 CHAPTER FO UR THE LAW O F TOTAL FICTION: LIFE IS BU T A DREAM L i Six M em os fo r the N e x t M illennium . Italo C alvino m entions his effo rt to trace the h isto ry of fan tastic fictio n a n d contrasts tw o "v eins" o f nineteenth- century fan tastic tales: "th e v isio n ary an d sp ectacu lar v ein " th a t "pulses" in the stories o f su c h au th o rs as H aw th o rn e an d Poe, a n d a "v ein th a t m akes fan tastic events sp rin g from the ev ery d ay —a n inner, m en tal, in v isib le fantasy, culm inating in H enry Jam es" (95). Jam es' psychological g h o st stories a re o n the threshold b etw een the n in eteen th - a n d tw en tieth-cen tu ry epistem es. b u t C alvino's treatise skips a step . W ith o u t m entioning th e fan tastic fiction o f the tw entieth century, he goes o n to ask: W ill the literatu re o f th e fan tastic be possible in th e tw en ty - first century, w ith th e grow ing in flatio n o f p refab ricated im ages? Tw o p a th s seem to be o p en from n o w on. (1) W e co u ld recycle u sed im ages in a new co n text th a t changes their m ea n in g .. . (2) W e c o u ld w ip e the slate clean a n d sta rt from scratch. (C alvino 95) C alvino describes the first p a th as "th e postm odern." w h ich feeds o n th e m ass m edia an d em phasizes the alien atio n of trad itio n al beliefs (95, em phasis C alvino's). H e later notes th a t postm o d ernism is b o u n d to g eth er w ith m odernism in its defin itio n o f know ledge as m u ltip licity , a n d h e expresses the hope th a t postm odernism w ill co ntinue into th e n ex t m illen nium (116). Indeed, w hat C alvino projects fo r th e tw en ty -first cen tu ry is alread y w ell u n d er w ay in the tw entieth. K now ledge as m u ltip licity describes th e ch aracter o f tw entieth-century su p ern atu ral fiction, w hich com es in several varieties— all v ariegated w ith in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 172 them selves. W hereas nineteenth-century fictio n ten d s to privilege a scientific m aterialist u n d e rstan d in g o f experience, tw en tieth -cen tu ry fiction m ay p re se n t a n experience fro m b o th a su p em atu ralist a n d a m aterialist p o in t o f v iew w ith o u t privileging eith er p ersp ectiv e. W hether b y m ean s o f "recycling" trad itio n al beliefs o r b y m eans o f "w ip in g d e an " th e slate o f W estern rationalism , th e stories discussed in th is c h ap ter a re in som e w ays a re tu rn to prem odem su p e rn atu ral stories; b u t th o u g h th e u n iv erse is no lo n g er d iv id e d betw een fact an d fiction, th e alienation o f m o d em c u ltu re is still p alp ab le in th ese sh o rt narratives. The literary critical term s th at roughly co rre sp o n d to the gestures o f "recycling" a n d "w ip in g d e a n " are m agical rea lism a n d the neofantastic, respectively. T hese contem porary strains o f su p e rn a tu ra l fiction have nineteenth-century co u n terp arts. The local-color g h o st story is a p red ecesso r of m agical realism , a n d th e predecessor o f the n eo fan tastic is ap p aren t in th e term itself. W hile the tw o nineteenth-century stra in s o f su p ern atu ral fictio n d id n o t u su ally overlap (w ith a few exceptions, in d u d in g sev eral of H aw th o rn e's tales), the m agical realist a n d th e neofantastic strain s o f tw entieth-century su p e rn atu ral fiction are often h a rd to separate. B uilding o n th e fo u n dation of Jean W eisgerber, w h o distinguishes b etw een tw o types o f m agical realism , W endy B. F aris offers a se t of synonym s th at h e lp to d ab o rate w h a t is ab o v e asserted as the d istin ctio n betw een m agical realism a n d the neofantastic. T hey are, in th at order, th e m ythic o r folkloric versus th e "scholarly"; the ontological v ersu s the epistem ological; an d , the A m erican v ersu s th e E uropean (Faris 165-166). Faris adm its th a t the distinctions are "far fro m absolute" an d th a t w h e n tested against cases like C o rtazar's "A xolotl," th e "categories b eg in to cru m ble" (166). H er a rtid e . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 173 "Scheherazade's C hildren: M agical R ealism an d P o stm o d ern F ictio n /' also m akes a convincing case for m agical realism as a subset o f p ostm odernism , a proposition explored m ore below . Two p o stm o d ern a ttitu d e s, n ostalgia an d u ncertain ty , p erv ad e tw entieth- century su p ern atu ral fiction. T he su p ern atu ral is reliev ed o f th e b u rd en of science in the tw en tieth cen tu ry , b u t the traditions o f the p rem o d em epistem e becom e incoherent, a n d th e ch aracter of th e su p ern atu ral becom es vague and contingent. Its defin itio n is red u ced to a least com m on d en om in ato r, w hich Jung p u t fo rth repeatedly: the relativ izatio n of tim e an d space, a n d therefore of m atter. Jung found th a t the unconscious broke these physical b arriers in th e sam e w ay th at they are bro k en in w o rld m ythology and religion; th u s, h e p o sited a category of psychological tru th th a t w o rk ed according to its o w n se t o f axiom s, often a t o dds w ith physical law s. T his n ew v aluation o f th e psyche in its o w n term s cleared the w ay fo r creative au th o rs to introduce th e su p e rn atu ral m ore boldly in th eir stories, w hich presen ted "tru th s" th at did n o t d ep en d o n "reality ."1 These are tru th s w hich recall the them es an d figures o f p rem o d em su p ern atu ral belief, b u t only in the context of local o r in dividual concerns. 1 After completing this section of m y argument, I came across Magic Realism Rediscovered. 1918-1981 by Seymour Menton, in which the author argues, "The juxtaposition o f magic and realism is clearly an artistic reflection o f the psychological-philosophical ideas of Carl Jung (1875- 1961)" (13). However, Jung was not the sole proponent of this new approach; William James was another notable proponent Jung him self might have argued that his theories—or at least their positive reception—were the fruit of a general cultural movement reflecting an expression of the collective unconscious. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 174 I. Parapsychology a n d W orld W ar II: T he U n rav elin g o f Scientific M aterialism "It is in te restin g to no te," w rites Ju n g in h is fo rew o rd to "Psychology a n d Spiritualism ," " th a t th e beginnings o f A m erican spiritu alism coincided w ith th e gro w th o f scientific m aterialism in th e m id d le o f th e nin eteen th cen tu ry . Spiritualism in all its fo rm therefore h a s a com pensatory significance" (140). T he occultist fad s o f th e n in etee n th century becam e Ju n g 's p o in t o f d e p a rtu re , as h e staged his p ro tests ag ain st th e law o f science. Ju n g p arted w ays w ith F reu d because of F reu d 's in sisten ce o n a m aterialist explanations o f psychological phenom ena, a n d in "T he Psychological F o u n d atio n s o f Belief in S pirits," Jung bem oans "th e fear o f su p erstitio n —w hich, stran g ely enough, is th e conco m itan t of universal en lig h ten m en t" (123); an d h e vow s, "I sh all n o t com m it th e fashionable stu p id ity o f reg ard in g ev erythin g I can n o t explain as a frau d " (124). In another article, "T he Phenom enology o f S p irit in Fairytales," Jung challenges m odem m aterialism fo r its failure to am elio rate h u m an evil: I p u t it to th e en lig hten ed ratio n alist: has his ratio n al red u ctio n led to th e beneficial control o f m a tte r an d spirit? . . . The fearful an sw er is th ere before o u r eyes: m an h as b een d eliv ered fro m n o fear, a h ideous n ig h tm are lies u p o n the w o rld A fter th e last W orld W ar w e h o p ed fo r reason: w e go o n h o p in g ----- It seem s to m e, frankly, th a t fo rm er ages d id n o t exaggerate, th a t the sp irit has n o t slo u g h ed off its dem onism s, a n d th a t m an k in d , bem use o f its scientific a n d technological d ev elopm ent, h as in increasing m easu re d eliv ered itself ov er to the d a n g e r o f possession. (253) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 175 F or Jung, parapsychology w as a n av en u e for th e ex p lo ratio n o f all science h a d left unex p lain ed ab o u t th e h u m a n psyche. In "T he S oul a n d D eath," Jung notes th a t no o n e know s w h a t "psy ch e" is, a n d one know s ju s t as little h o w far into n atu re "psyche" extends. A psychological tru th is therefore ju st as g o o d a n d respectable a th in g a s a physical tru th , w hich lim its itself to m atter as the form er d o e s to the psyche. (131) T hus, psychological tru th s co u ld b e excavated in ev ery th in g fro m spiritualism to the " consensus gentium th a t expresses itself th rou g h th e relig io n s" ("The Soul an d D eath" 131), w hich Jung la te r term ed th e collective unconscious. These psychological tru th s w ould be n o less v alid th an scientific tru th s, a n d they w o u ld be m ore essen tial to h u m an w elfare. T hese view s are p o rtray ed in tw o tw entieth-century sh o rt stories about psychical research, "N ight-Side" b y Joyce C arol O ates a n d 'T h e Seance" b y Isaac B ashevis Singer. The su p ern atu ral is fo reg ro u n ded in "N ight-S ide" an d is w itn essed b y m ore th an one p erso n , taking th e n arrative ev en ts o u tsid e the fram e of nineteenth-century fan tastic fiction. W hile S in g er's sto ry has no verified su p e rn atu ral events, "The Seance" collapses the value of e ru d itio n b y show ing th a t even d eg rad ed sp iritu alism m ore effectively ad d resses h u m a n m isery th an d o science a n d philosophy. U sing d ifferen t strategies, b o th sto ries critique the psychological ignorance an d b arren n ess o f m o dem m aterialism . In "N ight-Side" the m ain ch aracter, Jarvis, takes a ra th e r Ju n g ian view of p aran o rm al experience, an d th e ev en ts o f th e story u n dersco re th e pow er of sp irits o v er liv in g beings—reg ard less o f its scientific verifiability. T he story takes Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 176 the form o f Ja rv is' p riv ate journal, F ebruary to Ju ly o f 1887, m ixed w ith episodes from his stream o f consciousness. In conversations w ith his colleague D r. P erry M oore, a fellow m em ber o f the Society fo r Psychical Research, an d w ith the historical ch aracter W illiam Jam es, Jarvis form ulates a n explanation o f parapsychological phenom ena th at ap p ea r to b e genuine. U nder the lab el "N aturalistic" h e lists "telepathy" an d a form o f "m u ltip le perso nality ," in w hich a m edium achieves ra p p o rt w ith h e r clients by a m eeting of th eir unconscious m inds, w hich h o u se "secondary beings" (313).2 D espite th is quasi-acceptance o f a few claim s o f spiritualism , Jarv is has rationalist p rejudices, a n d he w ill n o t ad m it a gen u in e com m unication b etw een the living an d th e dead. W hen he an d D r. M oore are sen t to investigate a m edium in a n o th er city, h e w rites in h is jo u rn al, "Is M rs A— o f Q uincy a conscious o r unconscious fraud?" (306). Because h e begins w ith the assu m p tio n that she is a frau d , h e is p u zzled b y h e r w illingness to have a sten o g rap h er p resent a t seances, h e r unw illingness to accept paym ent, an d the accuracy o f the various languages sp ok en by h er "sp irit g u id es." W hen Jarvis a n d D r. M oore attend one of M rs A —' s seances, Jarvis is sensible of strange effects in th e room , and a judge w ho is p resen t has a tearfu l conversation w ith his d ead w ife. D r. M oore, "an em piricist w ho accepts n o th in g o n faith," seem s unaffected b y it all (312). 2 Andy Sawyer notes. The term "telepathy" — was first used by the early members of the Society for Psychical Research, who were (by their ow n lights at least) hard-headed scientific investigators exploring paranormal phenomena which may well be reduced to aspects of the scientific fields we know. (268) Even Freud allowed for the validity of telepathy and suggested that it was perhaps "the original archaic method by w hich individuals understood one another" (quoted in Sawyer 271). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 177 A t the follow ing seance, th e voice o f a y o ung su icid e victim nam ed B randon speaks to D r. M oore, a n d D r. M oore, w ho k n ew B ran d on w hen he lived, is suddenly overcom e. "W hat a spectacle! D r P erry M oore calling after the sp irit, begging it to re tu rn — a n d then crying afterw ard , in fro n t o f four astonished w itnesses," Jarvis w rites in h is journal, "D r P erry M oore o f all people" (317). T his effects a conversion for D r. M oore, w ho n o w believes th a t h e has been present a t th e d aw n in g o f a new age, "com parable to th e storm y transitional period b etw een th e Ptolem aic a n d C opem ican theories of the universe" (325). The refu sal o f h is colleagues to tak e h im serio u sly is to him , 'T ik e the cardinals refu sin g to look through G alileo's telescope" (319). M oore is u rg en t to p ursue the new know ledge and insists th a t m u ch is a t stake if he cannot find support. H e declares to his colleagues: [W]e w ill b e d efeated , ignobly, an d it w ill rem ain fo r th e tw entieth cen tu ry to discover the existence o f th e S p irit U niverse th a t su rro u n d s th e M aterial U niverse, a n d to determ ine th e ex act w ays by w hich one w o rld is related to another. (325) D r. M oore is soon reg a rd ed as a lunatic, a n d h e d ies n o t lo n g afterw ards. B ut he seem s to live on, as h e v isits Jarvis in dream s a n d asks h im to find "m y secret journals — life's w o rk — physical an d sp iritu a l w isdom — m ust n o t be lost" (329, em phasis M oore's). M oore gives Jarvis th e precise location an d h id in g place of the w ritings. H e begs him , "M y journal, m y soul: w ill y o u salvage it?" (331). Jarvis' em phatic resp o n se is, "I w ill n o t in v estig ate D r M oore's strongbox an d his secret journal; I w ill n o t ev en think ab o u t d o in g so" (331). Jarvis is a representative of nineteenth-century biases, w hich le ft th e discovery of a sp iritu al Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 178 w o rld to th e tw en tieth cen tu ry . The irony o f M o ore's p red ictio n th a t th is o th er w o rld w ill b e d isco v ered is, o f course, th a t su c h a n o th e r w o rld w as tak en fo r g ran ted by centuries o f p rem o d em culture. The fin al scene o f "N ight-Side" takes place in th e tho ug h ts o f Jarvis, as he is taking a vigorous sw im in th e ocean. Jung u n d e rsto o d th e ocean as a m etaph o r fo r th e psyche, a n d th is lo n e m aterialist, fig h tin g h is w ay th ro u g h th e se a a n d d w arfed b y it, signifies th e p altrin ess o f attem p ts to u n d erstan d ratio n ally the forces of the unconscious m in d . A n em phasis o n th e physical frailty o f a m o dem ratio n alist also concludes S in g er's story, "T he Seance"; it ends w ith D r. Z orach Kalis her being ten d erly m o th ered by a m ed iu m in h e r living room . D r. K alisher is a W orld W ar II refu g ee liv in g in M anh attan a n d a n academ ic failu re. H e m ooches off M rs. K opitzky, a d en tist's w id o w tu rn e d m edium , fo r h e r atten tio n , m oney, an d food—n o n e o f w h ich he seem s to enjoy. Dr. K alisher h as fo rsak en h is gran d io se sex u al theory o f th e u n iv erse, an d th o u g h M rs. K opitzky pro m ises him a ro le in secret cosm ic crises, he sh o w s no in terest in these schem es n o r in h e r schem es to m ake h im h er lo v er. She h ires a w om an to p lay the g h o st o f h is d ead m istress N ella, a n d h e su rp rises th e "ghost" in th e dark en ed a p artm e n t o ne n ig h t as h e tries to e n te r the bathroom . Because of a n advanced a n d u n tre a te d pro state condition, h e w ets h is p an ts. M rs. K opitzky brings him a change o f clothes from h e r d e a d h u sb an d 's w ard ro b e (w hich a "prem onition" to ld h e r she sh o u ld save), a n d she insists th a t h e lie d o w n on h er couch. H e d rifts o ff to sleep b u t aw akes as M rs. K opitzky tries to p u t a pillow u n d er h is h ead . She asks him , "H ow d o y o u feel?" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 179 "H as N ella left?" h e asked, am azed a t h is o w n w ords. H e m u st still be h alf asleep. M rs. K opitzky w inced. H e r d o u b le c h in sh o o k an d trem bled . H er d a rk eyes filled w ith m o th erly reproach. "You7 re laug h in g , h u h ? T here is n o d eath , th ere isn7 1 any. W e five forever, a n d w e love forever. T his is p u re tru th ." (15) This assertio n th a t there is n o d e ath , a n echo o f D r. M oore's n ew spiritual w isdom , en d s the story, a n d M rs. K opitzky sh a ll fin ally h av e D r. K alisher—a t his w o rs t D r. K alisher7 s philo so p hy h a d d ep en d ed o n physical vigor, b u t M rs. K opitzky7 s parapsychology w o rk s w ith h u m an frailty . O ates7 sto ry and Singer's sh o w th a t ev en so b er scientists are h um an an d have deep psychological n eed s a n d com pulsions, a n d b o th stories suggest th a t to be hum an is to be spiritual, no m atter how em p h atically th is sp iritu ality is denied. B oth Singer an d O ates h av e o th er sto ries in w h ich th e faith of spiritualism — th a t there is no d e a th —is u p h eld , a n d th e sp irits o f the d ead interact w ith th e living o r serv e th em as escorts to th e afterlife. F or exam ple, in "The D ead F iddler," Singer p resen ts a sm all P o lish village w here a young girl is possessed b y tw o dybbuks, o r d e a d souls, a m ale fid d le r an d a fem ale p ro stitu te. A t the expense of the g irl a n d h e r fam ily, th e d y b b u k s e n te rta in the w hole to w n w ith their ro w d y conversation; a n d th e villagers coax th e tw o dybbuks into getting m arried . In "The O thers," b y O ates, a m an n am ed Spence begins sighting d ead friends a n d relatives, w ho cross his u su a l su b u rb a n p ath s a n d unsettle him . Finally, one day , he follow s a crow d o f the d e a d to a n unfam iliar subw ay tunnel, w hich is a passagew ay to th e afterlife. B oth o f these tales are b o ld ly su p ern atu ral, b u t in neith er tale are spooks a n d sp irits rep resen ted in th e v ag u e a n d terrify in g term s o f th e nineteenth- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 180 century fantastic. S inger's d e ad fid d ler shocks h is audience w ith his fo u l language a n d th irs t fo r liqu o r, b u t h e is am u sin g a n d end earin g a ll th e sam e. H e becom es a leg en dary to w n fixture, a n d h is m usic Is h eard fo r years after h e is exorcised. In 'T h e O th ers" Spence fears fo r his san ity , b u t h e is co nfronted only by ben ig n specters su ch as his elem entary school teacher, w hom h e helps b y pay in g h er p o stage a t th e p o st office w h en sh e can n o t fin d h e r change. T hese non-threatening gh o sts are closer to those o f n ineteenth-century local color stories an d p resen t com ic as w ell as tragic aspects o f th e su p ern atu ral. II. D ream an d D eceit: E arly Forays into P ostm odernism L ooking back to a n early exam ple of com ical ghosts, M ark T w ain's "A G host Story" (1891) has n eith er the fear n o r the sentim en t typical of n in eteen th - century su p e rn atu ral stories. It begins w ith all th e conventions o f a g othic h o rro r story : the n a rra to r feels a "superstitious d rea d " a n d sh u d d ers aw ay in the u p p e r room of "a hu g e o ld b u ild in g " (245). H e sh u d d ers "as one w ho h a d encountered a phantom " (245), a n d before long he does en counter one. It tu rn s o u t to be the g h o st of the C ard iff G iant, w hich fact b rin g s a su d d e n reversal o f th e n a rra to r's affect: "A ll m y m isery vanished—for a ch ild m ig h t know th a t no h arm could com e w ith th a t b en ig n an t countenance" (247). T he n arrato r offers th e g h o st a chair, w hich h e breaks as he tries to sit in it, b rin g in g th e already d o w n h earted g h o st to tears. H e h as b een h au n tin g the m useum w h ere his b o d y is k e p t as the "P etrified M an," a n d h e can h ave no final re st u n til it is b u ried . B ut the p o o r g h o st is stu p id as w e ll as sad: th e g enuine C ardiff G ian t is in an o th er city 's Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 181 m useum , a n d w h at he thinks is h is corpse is ju s t a p laster c a s t T he em barrassed ghost excuses him self, his search red irected , leaving th e n a rra to r so rry a t h is d ep artu re "—a n d so rrier still th a t h e h a d c arried off m y re d b lan k et a n d m y b ath tu b " (250). T w ain 's su p ern atu ral sto ries o ften ten d e d to w ard d a rk h u m o r ra th e r th a n light h u m o r. A n exam ple is "T he Facts C oncerning the R ecent C arnival of C rim e in C onnecticut" (1876), in w h ich a m a n finally kills th e nasty little d w a rf th a t is his conscience, a them e th a t forecasts one o f h is m ost in trig u in g tales. In the few years p reced in g an d follow ing th e tu rn o f th e tw en tieth century, M ark T w ain w orked o n a novella w hich w as p o sth u m o u sly p ublished as T he M ysterious Stranger. T his unique tale begins b y in voking conventions o f th e local color ghost sto ry an d ends b y p resag in g som e axiom s th at are often d escrib ed as postm odernism . This tragicom ic sto ry takes a view o f h u m an society th a t is a t once m o u rn fu l an d ironic, as it d a rk ly paro d ies th e h u m an "M oral Sense"; how ever, th e m ost significant featu re o f the sto ry is its ending, w h ich u n d ercu ts any m oral ag en d a the sto ry m ig h t h av e seem ed to prom ote. The M ysterious Strange r is se t in A u stria in 1590 a n d th u s sidestep s w ith chronology any questions o f th e em pirical verifiability o f its events. B ut th e sto ry finally dism antles ju st the scientific criticism th a t req u ires su ch read erly d istan ce in order to su sp en d disbelief. In d eed , th e em phasis of the story is o n b elief—belief th at destroys an d belief th a t liberates as it alienates. T he A u strian to w n o f E seldorf ("Jackassville") is "asleep," as th e n a rra to r repeats sev eral tim es, recalling Irv in g 's Sleepy H ollow . E seld o rf s resid en ts take prid e in th eir w ay of life a n d in th e ir tim e: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 Som e ev en se t it aw ay back cen tu ries u p o n cen tu ries an d said th a t b y th e m e n ta l a n d sp iritu al d o c k i t w a s still th e Age of B elief in A u stria. B u t they m ean t i t a s a com plim ent, n o t a slu r, a n d it w a s so taken, an d w e w ere a ll p ro u d o f i t (55-56) A long w ith its Irv in g esq u e charm , E seldorf enjoys m anifestations of a sy m pathetic su p e rn atu ral, in th e o rd er o f Jew ett, F reem an a n d Stow e. Felix B randt, "th e o ld est serv in g m an in the castle" te lls th e n a rra to r, T heodor, a n d h is yo un g friends a b o u t "o ld tim es an d stran g e th in g s," as does Sam in Stow e's O ldtow n. W hile it w a s "p leasan t an d cozy in sid e ," the boys w ould h ear "ab o u t ghosts an d h o rro rs o f ev ery k in d " (58). T h eo d o r is d eep ly im pressed b y Felix's sentim ental w isdom : H e en co u rag ed us n o t to fear su p e rn a tu ra l th in gs, su ch as ghosts, a n d sa id th ey d id no harm , b u t o n ly w an d ered about because th ey w ere lonely an d d istre sse d a n d w an ted kindly notice a n d com passion; an d in tim e w e le a rn e d n o t to be afraid , a n d e v e n w e n t do w n w ith h im in th e n ig h t to the h au n ted ch am b er in th e dungeons of th e castle. (59) T w ain uses th e con ventions of local co lo r g h o st stories, b u t his sto ry show s few signs of the n in eteen th -cen tu ry b u rd e n o f su sp en d in g rea d er disbelief. The su p ern atu ral is fran k ly a n d u nh esitatin g ly p resen te d , as T heodor an d his friends see the castle g h o st a n d h e ar of angels. B efore lo n g , th ey m eet a n angel, nam ed S atan after h is uncle— w ho, y o u n g S atan claim s, is th e only fallen m em ber o f th e fam ily. S atan also calls h im self Philip T raum , m ean in g P h ilip "D ream ," a n d so - nam ed he becom es a n em blem o f the sto ry 's them e: life is b u t a dream . O r a nightm are. P resen ted in a fran k an d u n h esitatin g m an n er, is a feeling q u ite contrary to th a t o f sen tim en tal fiction: extrem e co n tem p t fo r hum anity. T w ain 's personal co rresp o nd en ce show s th at he in te n d ed T he M ysterious Strange r as Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 183 "th e rig h t vessel to contain all th e ab u se I am p lan n in g to d u m p into it" (quoted in Fuss ell 76); the re su lt is a n u n relen tin g d erisio n o f th e M oral Sense. Satan relativ izes tim e an d space in o rd er to p resen t to T heodor scenes of h u m an cru elty , ran g in g from th e b u rn in g o f a n in n o cen t w om an as a w itch to th e extrem e o p p ressio n o f factory w orkers in France, alw ays p o in tin g o u t the su p erio rity o f beasts to hum ans. H av in g thoroughly lam b asted h u m an cu ltu re a n d m orality, Satan finally reveals to T heodor th a t th e w hole spectacle o f h u m an life is im aginary. T here is a v ariety o f critical op in io n ab o u t th e s to r e s en d in g , w h ich w as discovered po sth u m o u sly by T w ain's literary executor, A lb ert B. Paine. For instance, in "T he S tru ctu ral P roblem o f T he M ysterious S trange r" E d w in S. Fussell w rites: C onstantly, in read in g T he M ysterious S tranger, one observes T w ain's em otional reactions in serious conflict w ith his theoretical form ulations. IB s sym pathies are d eep ly involved in th e h u m an p re d ic a m e n t.. . . [H ]is h e a rt continues to ache, as it alw ays h ad , over injustice, m isery, o p p ressio n , o r sorrow . Life in the ab stract m ay b e p altry , m eaningless, finally unreal; b u t in d irect experience, in p assio n a n d suffering, certain v alues an d a lim ited d ig n ity em erge." (82) E dm und Reiss also notes a "stru ctu ral problem ," b u t h e d o es n o t find it in the end in g . In his article, "A n A uspicious B eginning, a D isjointed M iddle, a n d a G reat F inal C hapter," R eiss declares th at the en d in g "brings the w o rk to g eth er a n d gives it direction" (84). W hile there is a noticeable in te rn al conflict in th e n arrativ e tone, the them e of th e n arrativ e is consistent. S atan 's la st w ords co u ld be th o se o f a p o stm o d ern ist, b u t so could m any o f his earlier w ords. N o t lo n g into the n arrativ e, S atan m akes th is declaration: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 184 M an's m in d clum sily an d tediously a n d laboriously patches little triv ialities together a n d gets a re su lt—su ch as it is. M y m in d creates! Do y o u g e t the force o f that? C reates anything it desires—a n d in a m om ent. C reates w ith o u t m aterial. C reates flu id s, solids, colors—an y th in g , everything—o u t o f the airy n o th in g w h ich is called T hought- A m an im agines a silk th read , im agines a m achine to m ake it, im agines a picture, th en b y w eeks o f lab o r em broiders it o n canvas w ith the th read . I th in k the w hole thing, a n d in a m om ent it is before yo u—created . (92) S atan's last w o rd s to T heodor re tu rn to th is in sisten ce o n the n atu re of experience as created, n o t perceived: "Tife itself is only a vision, a dr-pam.___ "The d ream -m ark s are all p resen t; y o u sh o u ld have reco g n ized th em earlier. "It is tru e, th a t w hich I have revealed to you; there is no G od, no u n iv erse, n o h u m an race, n o earth ly life, n o heaven, no hell. It is all a dream —a grotesque a n d foolish dream . N othing exists b u t y o u . A n d y o u are b u t a though t—a vagrant th o u g h t, a useless thought, a hom eless thou g h t, w andering fo rlo rn am o n g th e em pty eternities!" H e v an ish ed , an d left m e ap palled ; fo r I knew , and realized, th at all h e h a d said w as true. (120-21, em phasis his) This declaration u n d o es any effort to in sp ire com passion in T heodor o r th e reader, w ho now u n d e rstan d th at all of the sufferin g caused by h u m an ignorance and indifference is com pletely im aginary; in o th er w ords, the m oral of the story caves in an d decon stru cts itself. There is n o t ev en the potential solace o f H aw thorne's "Y oung G oodm an Brow n"—th a t one could choose to aw ake from a n evil dream . F urther d efin itio n of th e term "postm odern" is necessary, in o rd er to in sist upon the p o stm o d ern q uality of T w ain's novella. L yotard suggests, in T he Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 185 Postm odern. C ondition: A R ep o rt o n K now ledge , th a t p o stm o d ern ism is p artly a n extension o f m o d ern ism a n d p a rtly a n in n o v atio n . H e describes tw o m odes in m odernism , a sense o f lo ss o r a g ain , dep en d in g o n em p hasis: it can be o n "nostalgia fo r presence fe lt b y th e h u m an subject, o n th e o bscu re a n d fu tile w ill w hich inhabits h im in sp ite o f ev erything" o r it can b e o n "th e increase o f b ein g a n d the ju b ilatio n th a t re s u lt fro m th e invention o f n e w ru les o f th e gam e" (L yotard 79-80). L y o tard sta te s th a t these m odes o ften coexist in m odernism ; h e ad d s th at p ostm o d ernism is a stro n g e r sense o f th e u n p resen tab le, w hich "denies itself the solace o f g o o d fo rm s" a n d denies itself "th e consensus of a taste w hich w ould m ake it possible to sh a re collectively the n o stalg ia fo r th e u nattainable" (81). The M ysterious S trange r offers nostalgia, along w ith n e w a n d uncertain "rules of the gam e," a n d a stro n g "sense o f th e u n p resen tab le"— the id ea o f life as "a v ag ran t th o u g h t, a u seless th o u g h t, a hom eless th o u g h t, w and erin g forlo rn am ong the em pty etern ities!" (T w ain 21). It p resen ts a w o rld n o t m ade by deities an d n o t m ade o f things a n d th e ir physical law s, b u t a w o rld m ad e only of beliefs a n d rem em bered stories. L yotard's analysis is th eo retical an d rarefied, b u t h is assertio n s are n o t far from those m ade b y Jo h n B arth in a fam ous p a ir o f articles w ritte n for The A tlantic: "The L iteratu re o f E xhaustion" (1967) an d "T he L iteratu re of R eplenishm ent P o stm o d ern ist F iction" (1980). In the la te r article, B arth m akes the sam e declaratio n as L y o tard , th a t "the [postm odern] p ro g ram is in som e respects an extension of th e p ro g ram o f m odernism , in o th er respects a reaction against it" (67). H e goes o n to su g g est a "w orthy p ro g ram fo r po stm o d ern ist fiction," w hich consists in " th e syn th esis or transcension" of a se t o f "antitheses," Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 186 rep resen tin g th e p rio rities of bourgeois realism a n d the m o d ern ist fiction th at follow ed it (70). T hus "linearity, ratio n ality , consciousness, cause a n d effect, naive illusionism , tran sp aren t language, in n o cen t anecdote, a n d m id d le class conventions" w o u ld jo in an d m ix w ith "[djisjunction, sim u ltan eity , irrationalism , anti-illusionism , self-refiexiveness, m edium -as-m essage, p o litical olym pianism , an d a m oral p lu ra lism ap proaching m o ral en tro p y " (70). B arth b eliev es th a t "[t]he id eal p o stm o d ern ist novel w ill som ehow rise above th e q u a rre l betw een realism a n d irrealism , form alism a n d 'c o n te n tism / p u re an d co m m itted literatu re, coterie fiction a n d ju nk fiction" (70). In o th er w ords, p o stm o d ern ist fiction is g en erally b o th nostalgic an d u n certain . The p o stm o d ern storyteller p rizes h e r n arrativ e inheritance, b u t she prizes it for its art, n o t its tru th ; a n d th at is because a rt is th e only categ o ry left in a w orld g o v ern ed b y th e law of to tal fiction. L yotard describes th e losses an d gains o f m od ern ism , a n d perhaps th e loss is fe lt m ore th an th e g a in in T w ain's The M ysterious S tran ger, b u t the law o f to tal fiction brings g rea t gains for o th er w riters. If th e one w ith th e best sto ry h as th e m ost pow er, th en th o se w ho previously h a d n o p o w e r now h ave the resource o f narrative a t th e ir disposal. In tw o stories b y S inger a n d G abriel G arcia M arquez, th e last becom e first w h en orphaned id io ts tu rn lies into tru th w ith th e ir storytelling pow ers. IH. The L ast L augh: T he Jubilance o f T o tal Fiction In co n trast to th e "forlorn" feeling a tten d in g th e discovery th a t life is b u t a dream in T w ain 's sto ry , th e characters in th e follow ing stories feel th e benefits of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 187 this discovery. F or G im pel, o f Singer's "G im pel th e Fool," an d B lacam an el bueno, of G arcia M arq u ez's "B lacam an el b u en o v en d ed o r d e m ilagros" ["Blacam an the G ood, V en d o r o f M iracles"], fictio n is a g re a t advantage because it can create a n altern ate reality . To b eg in w ith , these characters are w ith o u t privilege o r resource, b u t th e y eventually hav e th e last lau g h. G im pel is the fool of Fram pol, a sm all P o lish village, w here he w a s reared b y a g ran d fath er "already b en t to w ard the g rav e" (1439). The g u llib le G im pel is a source of entertainm ent fo r the v illag ers, w ho constantly tell h im tall tales, th o u g h he p leads w ith them , "D o n 't b e deceitful w ith m e, fo r I'm a n orphan" (1440). B lacam an el bueno is " e l u nico huerfano de p a d re y m ad re a quien todavfa no se le habfa m uerto e l p ap a" (86) ["an o rp h an on b o th sides w hose p ap a h a d n 't d ied " (465)]. H e is picked o u t b y h is m agician m entor, B lacam dn el m alo [Blacam an the Bad], because he has "cara d e bobo" (86) ["the lo o k o f an idiot" (464)]. Things g e t w orse b efo re they g e t better, fo r b o th G im pel a n d B lacam an the G ood. They are ab used , deceived, an d rid icu led . G im pel is push ed into m arrying Elka, the to w n slu t, an d Blacam an th e G ood becom es the w h ip p in g boy of B lacam an the Bad, w h o is a charlatan. The y o u n g G im pel is continually astonished b y new s su ch as " a cow flew ov er th e ro o f a n d laid brass eggs" (1439), an d as an a d u lt h e w orks as a baker to p ro v id e fo r the needs of all the children borne to Elka an d fath ered b y other m en d u rin g th eir m arriage. B lacam dn the G ood first serves his m en to r b y p u ttin g aw ay b o ttles of snake oil, an d later o n his m entor attaches him to a b iza rre sew ing m achine ru n by "la electrid d ad d el sufrim iento" (87) ["the electricity of suffering" (466)]. The abuse of B lacam an the Bad fuels the m achine so w ell "que no solo cosfa m ejor q u e u n a n o v id a, sino que Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 188 adem as bordaba pdjaros y astxom elias seg u n la p o sitio n y la in ten sid ad del d o lo r" (88) ["th at it n o t only sew ed b e tte r th an a novice n u n b u t also em broidered b ird s o r astrom elias according to the p o sitio n a n d in ten sity o f the p ain " (466)]. A ll the abuse leads to a crisis fo r b o th o rp h an ed id io ts, b u t B lacam an th e G ood em erges w ith a g reater com m itm ent to th is w o rld w hile G im pel em erges w ith a g reater com m itm ent to th e n ex t one. B lacam an th e G ood's vengeful feelings finally boil over as B lacam in the Bad to rtures h im in the ru in s o f a colonial m ission, w here they are in h id in g h o rn angry A m erican m arines w hose d ead com m ander w as sold a b o ttle o f pho n y cure for fa ta l snake b ites. Blam ing his apprentice fo r this b ad luck, B lacam an the Bad in v en ts a hyperbolic series of to rtu res for him , including b a n g w ra p p ed in b arb ed w ire a n d ru b b ed w ith salt, a n d bein g hung by the ankles a n d tem p ted w ith food w h ile h av in g h is teeth g ro u n d to nothing. Finally, a b e tte r d ream com es along: N o se cuanto tiem po habfa p asado, cuando [B lacam an el m alo] m e llev6 el cadaver de u n conejo p a ra m ostrarm e q ue preferfa echarlo a p u d rir e n vez d e ddrm elo a com er, y h a sta allf m e alcanzo la p a d e n d a y solam ente m e quedo el rencor, d e m odo que agarre el cuerpo d el conejo p o r las orejas y lo m ande contra la pared con la ilu sio n d e que era el y n o el anim al el que se iba a reventar, y entonces h ie cuando sucedid com o e n u n sueflo, que el conejo no sdlo resu d to con u n chillido d e espanto, sino que regreso a m is m anos cam inando p o r e l a ire . A si fue com o em pezo m i v id a grande. (90-91) [I d o n 't know how m uch tim e h a d p assed w h en (B lacam an th e Bad) b ro u g h t m e the carcass o f a rab b it in o rd e r to show m e th at he preferred th ro w ing it aw ay to ro t ra th e r th a n giving it to m e to eat, b u t m y p atience only w en t so far a n d all I h a d left was rancor, so I g rabbed th e rab b it b y the ears a n d flung it Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 189 ag ain st th e w all w ith th e illusion th a t it w as h e a n d n o t th e an im al th a t w a s go in g to explode, a n d th e n it hap p ened , a s if in a dream . T he ra b b it n o t only rev iv ed w ith a squeal o f fright, b u t cam e back to m y hands, h o p p in g th ro u g h th e air. T h at w as h o w m y g rea t life b eg an . (467)] B lacam an th e G o o d 's n e w life begins w ith a d re a m o f revenge, b u t G im p ers begins b y re p u d ia tin g a dream o f rev en g e. A fter Elka d ies confessing h er sins, G im pel is te m p te d o n e n ig h t b y "th e S p irit o f E vil him self," w h o m akes him this pro p o sitio n : "T he w hole w o rld deceives y o u . . . an d y o u o u g h t to deceive the w o rld in y o u r tu rn You m ig h t accum u late a bu ck et o f u rin e every d ay an d a t n ig h t p o u r it in to the dough. L e t th e sages of F ram pol e a t filth" (1447). The S p irit o f E v il ap p en d s a n in sig h t fo r G im pel th a t echoes th a t o f T w ain's Satan; he d eclares th a t th ere is no w o rld to com e an d no G od, o n ly a "th ick m ire" (1448). G im p el is tem pted far e n o u g h to m ake a filthy b atch o f b read , b u t before he c a n sell it, h e is visited b y a n o pp o sin g dream o f E lka, w h o says to him , "Y ou fool! B ecause I w as false is ev ery th in g false too? I n ev er deceived anyone b u t m yself. I'm paying for it all, G im pel. They sp are y o u n o th in g here" (1448). T his affirm atio n of his fa ith is en o u g h to m ake him rep e n t, an d from th en o n h e chooses a p a th of belief. G im pel's n ew life beg in s w ith a decision to accep t every sto ry as tru e . H e goes into the w o rld a n d fin d s a n ew life. A fter m any y ears I becam e o ld an d w h ite; I h e a rd a g reat deal, m any lies a n d falsehoods, b u t the lo n g er I liv ed the m ore I u n d ersto o d th a t th ere w ere really n o lies. W hatever d o e sn 't really h a p p e n is d ream ed a t night. It h a p p en s to one if it d o e sn 't h a p p e n to an o th er, tom orrow if n o t tod ay , or a century hence if n o t n e x t y ear. W hat difference c a n it m ake? O ften I h eard tales o f w h ich I said , "N ow th is is a th in g th a t cannot Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 190 h ap p en ." B ut before a y e ar h a d elapsed I h e a rd th a t it h a d com e to p ass som ew here. (1449) G im pel him self is now a n itin e ra n t storyteller, w ho "spin[s] y a m s"—im probable things th at co u ld n ev er hav e h a p p en e d —abo u t d ev ils, m agicians, w indm ills, a n d the like" for th e d elig h t of c h ild ren (1449). H e h as com e to u n d e rstan d th at life o n ea rth is a life o f to tal fiction, a n d th e o n ly prom ise o f certain ty is in th e life to com e: "N o d o u b t the w o rld is e n tirely a n im aginary w o rld , b u t it is only once rem o v ed from the tru e w o rld " (1449). T hus, he is n o t afra id o f d eath , "W hen the tim e com es I w ill go joyfully. W h atev er m ay be th ere, it w ill b e real, w ithout com plication, w ith o u t rid icule, w ith o u t deception. G o d b e p raised : there even G im pel cannot b e deceived" (1449). O n this note th e sto ry en d s, h in tin g a t the u northodox b u t su bstantive b elief in G o d th at S inger h as confessed in interview s. W hat G od prov id es fo r G im pel, a su p ern atu ral p o w er o f another k ind p ro v id es to Blacam&n the G ood. T he deceitful "science" o f B lacam an the B ad en g end ers the genuine m agic o f B lacam an the G ood, w h o retu rn s to the C aribbean p o rt to w n o f S anta M aria d e l D arien a n d w orks m iracles for m oney. B lacam an the G ood enjoys m o re fam e a n d certainly m ore w ealth th an the w an d erin g G im pel, a n d h e is n o t in te reste d in th e afterlife. W hen a gro up of investigators validate his p o w ers a n d su g g est th a t h e sh o u ld w o rk to becom e a sain t, B lacam an the G ood p ro tests th a t i t is exactly lik e a sa in t th a t he started . H e explains, La v erd ad es que yo n o gano n a d a con ser san to desp u £ s d e m uerto, yo lo que soy es u n artista, y lo unico q u e q u iero es estar vivo p a ra seg u ir a p u ra d e flor de b u rro co n este carricoche convertible d e seis d lin d ro s q ue le com pre al cdnsul d e los infantes, con este chofer trinitario q u e e ra barftono d e la Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 191 6 p e ra d e los piratas e n N u ev a O rleans, con m is cam isas d e g u san o legitim o, m is lociones d e oriente, m is d ien tes d e topacio, m i som brero d e ta rta rita y m is bo tines d e d o s colores, d u rm ien d o sin d esp ertad o r, b ailan d o con las rein as d e la b elleza y dejdndolas com o a lu d n a d a s con m i reto rica d e d icd o n ario , y sin qu e m e tiem ble la pajarilla s i u n m iercoles d e cen iza se m e m architan las facu ltad es, que p a ra seg u ir con esta v id a d e m inistro m e b a sta co n m i c ara d e bobo y m e som bra con el tro pel d e tiendas q u e tengo d esd e aquf h a sta m ds alia d e l crepusculo, do n d e los m ism os tu ristas q u e nos a n d ab an co b ran d o al alm irante trastab illan ah o ra p o r los retra to s con m i ru b ica, los alm anaques co n m is versos d e am or, m is m edallas d e perfil, m is p u lg ad as d e ropa, y todo eso sin la g lo rio sa conduerm a d e e sta r to d o e l d fa y to d a la noche escu lp id o e n m arm ol ecuestre y cagado d e golondrinas com o los p a d re s d e la p atria. (92) [The tru th is th at I'd g a in n o th in g b y being a sa in t after being d e a d , a n a rtist is w h at I am , a n d th e only th in g I w a n t to b e is aliv e so I can keep going alo n g a t donkey level in th is six - cy lin d er touring car I b o u g h t fro m th e m arin es' consul, w ith th is T rinidadian chauffeur w ho w as a b arito n e in th e N ew O rleans p irates' opera, w ith m y g enuine silk sh irts, m y O rien tal lotions, m y topaz teeth , m y flat straw h at, a n d m y b ico lo red buttons, sleeping w ith o u t a n alarm d o ck , dancing w ith b eau ty queens, an d leav in g th em h allucinated w ith m y d iction ary rhetoric, an d w ith n o flu tte r in m y sp leen if som e A sh W ednesday m y faculties w ith er aw ay, because in o rd er to go o n w ith th is life o f a m in ister, a ll I need is m y id io t face, a n d I have m ore th an en o u g h w ith the string o f shops I ow n fro m here to beyond th e su n set, w h ere the sam e to u rists w ho u sed to go aro u n d collecting from u s thro u g h the adm iral, n o w go stum bling after m y au to g rap h ed p ictures, alm anacs w ith m y love poetry, m edals w ith m y profile, bits o f m y d o th in g , a n d all of th a t w ith o u t th e glorious p lag u e o f sp en d in g all day and all n ig h t scu lp ted in eq u estrian m arble a n d sh a t o n b y sw allow s lik e th e fath ers o f o u r country. (468)] B lacam an th e G ood is su rrou n d ed b y so m any ju b ilan t fictions th a t if som e of them fail him , others w ill b reak his fall. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 192 The la st B lacam an has becom e first, a n d th e first Blacam an, g reatly re d u c e d in sp len d o r b y th e e n d o f th e story, m akes a n a p p e a l to th e d eaf ears o f h is erstw hile w h ip p in g b o y . H e reenacts the o p en in g scene of the story—in w h ich he subm its to a d eath ly snakebite in o rd er to p ro v e th e potency o f h is cure—b u t rath er th a n using a non-poisonous snake, h e e n tru sts him self to the ressu rectiv e pow ers o f his ap p ren tice. B lacam dn th e G ood fails to resu rrect h im th en , b u t h e brings his to rm en to r b a ck to life once he h as b e e n entom bed, "y si acaso se h a vuelto a m o rir lo v u eiv o a rsu d ta r, pues la g racia d e l escarm iento es q u e sig a viviendo en la se p u ltu ra m ientras yo este vivo, es d e d r, p a ra siem pre" (94) ["an d if by chance h e h as d ie d again, I bring him b ack to life once m ore, fo r the b e au ty of the p u n ish m en t is th a t h e w ill keep o n liv in g in h is tom b as long as I'm aliv e, th at is, forever" (469)]. O n the o th er h and , G im pel treats h is form er to rm en to r, Elka, w ith tenderness a n d resp ect to the end. H e sees h er in dream s a t n ig h t, beautiful a n d fu ll o f consolation, an d he begs h e r, "L et m e be w ith you" (1449), to w hich she resp o n d s w ith affection and adm on ish m en ts th at he be p atient. G im pel's fictions m ay n o t offer him the sw eetness o f revenge, b u t they o ffer him the alternative sw eetness of a n enem y reim ag in ed as a friend, an d thu s, a life w ith o u t enem ies. The o rp h an ed id io ts rise above th eir su fferin g a n d th eir torm entors b y different m eans, b u t th e ir dream s an d stories a re inevitably elevating. W h at they rise above is also w h a t g ro u n d s them : th eir com m unities. They are b o th su p e rio r to their religious establishm ents—G im pel is w iser th a n th e rabbis w ho ad v ise them , an d Blacam dn th e G ood offers his C arib b ean C atholics m ore healing th an they celebrate, o n P alm S unday, in the o p en in g scene of the story. Y et n eith er Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 193 has an id en tity a p a rt from h is co m m u n ity . B oth stories are n a rra te d in first p erso n b u t h av e a stro n g sen se o f co m m u nity; G arcia M S rquez's n a rra tiv e occasionally sw itches to th e first-p erso n p lu ral. The com m unities coalesce aro u nd a "n o stalg ia fo r p resen ce," to u se L yotard's term , a n d w h a t S u san Sontag says o f S in g er's characters h o ld s tru e fo r G arcia M arquez's as w ell: "O f necessity, these a re n o t characters in th e m o d e m , in finitely expandable, in d iv id u a l sense, b u t creatures o f a vigorously collective psychology" (33). The n o stalg ia for a co m m u n ity o f sh a red beliefs becom es a k in d o f forw ard-thinking fo r Singer a n d G arcia M drquez. These au th o rs, w ho are as poetic in in terv iew s as they a re in th e ir storytelling, h av e b o th com m ented o n the m inim al difference b etw een th e fictio n s o f th e p ast a n d those o f th e p resen t an d the fu tu re. S inger sees no basis fo r m o d e m artists to feel su p erio r to p rem o d em ones, since b o th are inventors: I th in k th a t it's a g re a t tra g e d y th a t m o d em w ritin g has div o rced itself from fo lk lo re; b ecau se folklore is th e b e st soil o n w h ich literatu re g ro w s. U n til ab o u t fifty years ago o r so, lite ra tu re w as so d eep ly co n n ected to folklore th a t w e really d id n 't know w here o n e e n d s a n d th e other begins. It's the m o d em w riter w ho h as d e c id e d th a t w e have eno u gh o f the folklore. A ctually w e a re liv in g in folklore, a n d w e a re creatin g folklore. W e d o n 't realize, for exam ple, th at psychoanalysis is g o in g to b e folklore fifty years from now . T hey w ill say these o ld -fash io n ed people believed th a t if y o u lie d o w n o n a couch y o u a re g o in g to be cu red o f m an y o th er things. O r o u r sociology w ill b e folklore. W e are a ll th e tim e creatin g folklore; a n d b ecau se o f this, there is no sense fo r a w riter to ru n from it. T h ere is n o ch arm in literatu re w ith o u t folklore. The fact th a t lite ra tu re , th e dram a, has gone aw ay from folklore is d o in g a lo t of dam age to m od em a r t T his is m y conviction. A n d I b eliev e it is a g o ld m ine w hich h as Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 194 n ev er b een ex h au sted an d can n ev er b e ex h au sted . (Interview 89) H ere the n o tio n o f the inexhaustibility o f folklore is n o t fa r fro m John B arth's p o stm o d ern sentim ent. In a sim ilar vein, G arcia M arquez p o in ts o u t th a t m o d em prejudices are red u ced to ab su rd ity b y th e law o f total fiction: [T]he g re a t m ajority o f things in th is w o rld , from spoons to h e a rt tran sp lan ts, w ere in m an 's im ag in atio n b efo re becom ing reality . Socialism w as in K arl M arx's im a g in atio n before being in th e Soviet U nion. These dich£ tru th s le a d u s to poetry, for th ey au th o rize u s to believe th a t p e rh ap s th e e a rth is n o t ro u n d , b u t rath e r b e g an being so w h en m an y m en, fo r the com fort o f th e p erio d , im agined it to b e th a t w ay . I believe th at this system o f exploration o f reality, w ith o u t rationalistic prejudices, opens u p . . . a sp len d id p ersp ectiv e. A nd it sh o u ld n o t b e believed th a t it is a n escapist m eth o d : so o n er o r later, reality ends b y agreeing w ith im agination. (Interview 80) E ven th e m o st deliberate d eceit can b e a self-fulfilling prophecy, as show n b y G im pel a n d B lacam an th e G ood; indeed, the first ste p to w a rd deliverance is deceit, in th eir stories. M oreover, even the m o st ch erish ed "tru th s" an d "realities" o f th e m o d em age are claim s no stro n g e r th a n those m ade in the p ast, as h ere observed b y Singer a n d G arcia M arquez. T his m ay b e a deg rad atio n for science, b u t it is a p ro m o tio n for the heart. IV. T ragic M agic Kisses: T he A lienation of T otal F ictio n Ray B radbury prom otes the h eart in tw o o f h is sto ries, w hich b o th recall the sentim en t o f nineteen th -cen tu ry local color fictio n w ith a frank tw entieth- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 195 century p resen ta tio n o f sup ern atu ral events. H is b ittersw eet stories "A pril W itch" a n d "T he L ake" m ake a n interesting co m parison w ith tw o o th er stories of a darker em otional h u e. "The C ircular V alley" b y P au l Bowles an d A u ra by Carlos F uentes are, lik e B radbury's stories, tales o f lo v e stretched b ey o n d natural lim its, b u t th ese sto ries offer m ore agony th an ecstasy. They em body w h at Lyotard calls th e "no stalg ia for presence felt b y th e h u m an subject,----- the obscure a n d fu tile w ill w hich inhabits him in sp ite o f everything." H ere som e of the frig h tfu l feelings o f the nineteenth-century fan tastic tale are recalled, as w ith B radbury, in a tw entieth-century context o f to tal fiction. B rad b ury 's sto ry "The A pril W itch" brings a colloquial saying to life. W hen y o u n g A n n L eary shakes h er head and rem arks to herself, 'T ve ren ted by body to a n A p ril w itch, for sure," she is n o t far w ro n g (18). A fellow adolescent fem ale, b u t a m agical one, nam ed Cecy has in h ab ited A nn Leary. As Cecy explains: T m one o f a n o d d fam ily. W e sleep d ay s a n d fly nights like b lack kites o n file w ind. If w e w ant, w e can sleep in m oles th ro u g h th e w inter, in the w arm earth. I c an live in anything a t a ll—a pebble, a crocus, or a praying m antis. I can leave m y p lain , bony bo d y behind an d sen d m y m in d far o u t for an ad v en tu re. (15) The ad v en tu re she w an ts in this case is th a t o f fallin g in love. C ecy com pels A nn to accept a n in v itatio n to a dance, an d th en a g o od -n ig h t kiss, from a y o ung m an A nn has rejected, n am ed Tom. Cecy falls in love w ith Tom as Tom falls in love again w ith A n n , a n d th e w istful Cecy follow s him hom e in the body o f a b ird , hoping h e 'll fin d h e r b y the address she m ade A n n g iv e him as they p arted . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 196 Cecy is w istfu l as sh e h o p es, a n d th e n arrato r o f B rad b u ry 's 'T h e L ake" is extrem ely w istfu l as h e rem em b ers. T he opening scene takes p lace d u rin g h is tw elfth sum m er, befo re h e goes acro ss th e country to b o a rd in g school. A s h e says goodbye to th e lake, h e also say s a last goodbye to h is M en d T ally w h o d row ned there recently. In T ally 's h o n o r, he b u ild s h alf a sand-castie, as th ey each vised to do in collaboration. T he second scene is th a t o f th e n a rra to r's re tu rn to the lake ten years la te r w ith th e h is n ew w ife, M a rg are t S om ething com pels him to ask his w ife to stay b e h in d as h e w alks fu rth er d o w n th e beach, a n d h e notices a lifeg u ard carry in g a co rp se o u t of the w ater. I t tu rn s o u t to b e T ally 's body, w hich h a d n ev er b een reco vered , an d th en th e n a rra to r notices h a lf a san d - castle nearby. H e com pletes th e castle a n d retu rn s to M argaret, feeling e stran g ed from h er now . The M idw estern settin g s a n d sim ple characters of B rad b u ry 's sto ries m ay keep them from b ein g as re-read ab le as John B arth believes p o stm o d ern fictio n should be, b u t they d o qu alify a s neofantastic fiction n everth eless. T he sam e p lotting devices se t fu rth e r so u th in th e A m ericas tu rn o u t to b e m ore com plex, ow ing to the Spanish-A m erican c u ltu ral atm osphere (as d iscu ssed below ) a n d perhaps also ow ing to b e tte r craftsm anship. The sto ry resem bling "T he A p ril W itch" is w ritten by a U . S. a u th o r, b u t it is set in S o u th A m erica. P au l B ow les' "The C ircular V alley," like m u ch o f B ow les' o th er fiction, d raw s u p o n fo reig n m ythologies fo r its n arrativ e tex tu re. T he action takes place in a n d a ro u n d a n abandoned m onastery, in the cen ter o f a circular valley w h ere th e local In d ian s refuse to go fo r fear o f th e Atldj'ala, a su p ern atu ral bein g w ho d w ells th ere. L ike Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 197 Cecy, the A tlajala c an in h ab it anim als a n d people fo r any len g th o f tim e, a n d he acquires a ta ste fo r p ossessing p eo p le w hile the m onastery is still occupied. The A tlajala is in trig u ed b y th e self-flagellating b eh av io r o f a you n g m onk w ho senses a n o th e r presence in his b o d y , an d the A tlajala is g ratefu l w h en years later, h u m an s re tu rn to his valley. A w om an an d h e r a d u ltero u s lover fin d them selves in th e v alley a n d g o to ex p lore the m onastery. T he A tldjala inhabits the m an first, enjoying th e experience o f h is love for the w om an, an d th en m oves into th e w om an, w ho m he im m ediately prefers. H e feels h o w she is to m betw een h e r h u sb a n d a n d h e r lover, w ho is her hu sb an d 's frien d ; an d o u t o f love for her, the A tlajala "helps" h e r, w h ile th e couple are still in ran g e o f h is pow ers, by g u id in g h e r lo v er's b u rro off the steep p ath to certain d eath . T he alienation th at tinges B rad b u ry 's "The A p ril W itch" is exaggerated in B ow les' tale, in w hich no one lives h ap p ily ev er after: n o t th e d e ad lover, n o t the b ereft and g u ilty w om an, a n d n o t th e lonely A tlajala. A ura, b y C arlos Fuentes, is a n intensification o f the them e o f "The L ake"— lovers sep ara ted b y d e a th a n d tem po rarily reu n ited b y m agic. A ura is th e sto ry of Felipe M ontero, a you n g scholar h ire d b y the ancient Seftora C onsuelo to w rite the m em oirs o f h e r d e ad h u sb an d G eneral Llorente. The sto ry unfolds as a m ystery. Felipe falls in love w ith th e o ld w om an's niece, A ura, w ho is a su p ern atu ral rep lica o f C onsuelo's y o u n g er self, conjured b y C onsuelo's deterio ratin g efforts. In the clim actic en d in g, Felipe discovers th a t he is a rep lica of G eneral L lorente, a n d he clings passionately to the dessicated o ld w om an, prom ising to love h e r forever. T here is a sense of futility in h is vow s, because if the reu n io n can b e p ro lo n g ed , it can n e v er b e restored to w h a t it w as in life. H e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 198 w ill n o t enjoy th e d estin y o f th e k n ig h t in C haucer's "The W ife of B ath's T ale," w ho m arries a n o ld enchantress w ho, allo w ed to choose w h eth er sh e is to tranform herself into a fa ir o r a faith fu l w ife, becom es b o th . This is n o t to su g g est th a t all p rem o d e m stories o f su p em atu ralized u n io n s en d h ap p ily a n d a ll su ch p o stm o d ern ist sto ries en d tragically; rather, it is sim ply to n o te th a t characters in tw entieth-century sto ries ten d to be alien ated fro m th eir objects of desire. O ne m eans of this alien atio n is technology, w hich, as F re u d notes in C ivilization a n d Its D iscontents, offers th e p arad o x of a t once b rin g in g us close to w h at w e desire a n d taking u s fa r from i t F reud notes th at technological pow er over space an d tim e, th is subjugation o f th e forces of n ature, w hich is the fulfillm ent o f a longing th a t goes back thousands o f y ears, has n o t in creased th e am o u nt of pleasurable satisfaction w h ich [m en] m ay expect from life an d has n o t m ade th em feel h a p p ie r. (39) F reu d fu rth er explains th a t w hile technology is to thank fo r inventions th a t b rin g loved ones d o se over distance, like th e telephone, it is also to blam e for inventions th at separate them , like the railw ay (40). "The Lake" juxtaposes childhood faith a n d the b lin d m om entum of technology. A fter recounting how he called o u t to his d e ad friend Tally a t age tw elve, the n a rra to r observes th at "y o u really expect answ ers to yo u r calling w h en y o u are young. Y ou feel w h atev er y o u m ay th ink can b e real. A nd som etim es m aybe th a t is n o t so w ro n g " (184). B ut abo u t traveling to b o ard in g school, he rem arks, "A tra in has a p o o r m em ory. It soon p u ts all behin d i t It forgets the rivers o f childhood, the b rid g es, th e lakes, the valleys, the cottages, the p ain s and joys. It sp read s them o u t b e h in d a n d they d ro p back of a ho rizo n " Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 199 (185). T en y ears later he finds th a t "A tra in w orks b o th w ays, like a m em ory. It brings ru sh in g back all those th in g s y o u left b eh in d so m an y years before" (186). B ut it offers only m em ories; th e tra in cannot restore tim e a s it resto res space. T ally's recovered body has b een rav ag ed b y tim e, a n d th e o n ly w ay th e lifeguard know s h e r b o d y is fem ale is b y th e locket she still w ears, "T h ere's n o th in g m uch else to tell b y —" h e says (187). The n a rra to r o f B radbury's "T he Lake" occasionally w rites in th e second person, a n d F uentes' n arrato r in A u ra w rites the entire sto ry in the second p erso n and in the p resen t tense. O ne re su lt o f this narrative strateg y is a con stan t contem porization of the sto ry 's ev en ts. A ura was w ritten in 1962, b u t the present-tense n arrative brings it to th e read er's o w n tim e. T he fam iliar products of technology are w hat Felipe M ontero clings to w hen his "reality" is shaken by m agic. H is grow ing anxiety is assu ag ed briefly one m o rn in g by his m orning trip to the bathroom , by "la costum bre" ["the habits"] w hich are "m ds fuertes que la im ag in ad d n " ["even stronger th a n th e im agination"]. H e cu ts him self shaving as it daw ns o n h im th at A ura an d C onsuelo act in concert, "com o si u n a im itara la otra, com o si d e la voluntad d e u n a dependiese la e x isten d a d e la o tra" (52) [as if one w ere im itatin g the other, as if th e w ill o f one d ep en d ed o n th e existence of the other] [H ]aces u n esfuerzo p a ra dom inarte. Term inas tu aseo contando los objetos d e l botiqum , los fiascos y tubos q u e trajo de la casa d e huespedes e l criado a l que nunca h as visto: m u rm u ras los nom bres d e esos objetos, los tocas, lees las in d icad o n es d e uso y contenido, p ro n u n d as la m arca d e fdbrica, prendido a esos objetos p a ra olvidar lo o tro , lo otro sin nom bre, sin m arca, sin co n sisten d a rad o n al. (52) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 200 [(Y)ou m ake a n effo rt to get con tro l o f you rself. W hen y o u fin ish sh av in g y o u co u n t the objects in y o u r travelling-case, th e b o ttles a n d tu bes w hich th e se rv a n t y o u 'v e never seen b ro u g h t o v e r fro m y o u r boarding-house: y o u m urm ur th e nam es o f th ese objects, touch them , re a d th e contents and in stru ctio n s, p ro n o u n ce the nam es o f th e m anufacturers, keeping to th o se objects in o rd er to fo rg e t th a t other one, the one w ith o u t a nam e, w itho u t a lab el, w ith o u t an y ratio n al consistency. (412)] T he uncanny scene o f F elip e's recognition o f h im self a s G eneral L lo ren te is m ed iated b y th e technology o f photography. T he representative ex actitu d e o f the photo a n d th e tem p o ral distance b etw een h im self a n d the occasion o f the p h o to g rap h m akes F elipe as h esistan t to accep t h is tru e identity as it m akes it im possible for h im to d e n y it. The m arkers o f contem poraneity are th u s clearly essential to th e m agical realist effects o f A ura. Y et in a n essay b y F uentes, en titled "O n R eading a n d W riting M yself: H o w I W rote A ura." h e locates him self in a stream o f th e collective unconscious th a t reaches back b e y o n d reco rd ed history. H e traces the influences a n d sources o f th e tale all the w ay b ack to ancient C hina: C ould I, c o u ld anyone, go beyond th e "B iography of A i'K ing" to the m u ltip le sources, the m yriad, b u b b lin g springs in w h ich th is fin al tale lo st itself: the trad itio n s of th e o ld est C hinese literatu re, th a t tid e o f narrativ e cen tu ries th a t hard ly begins to m u rm u r th e v astn ess o f its co n stant them es: th e su p ern atu ral virgin, th e fa ta l w om an, the sp ectral b rid e , th e couple reun ited ? (536) R ichard J. C allan d em o n strates this in his article, 'T h e Jungian Basis o f C arlos Fuentes' A u ra /' w hich concludes, As to w h e th er o r n o t C arlos F uentes k n ew w h a t he w as d o in g , I am in clin ed to th in k th at he d id , a n d , furtherm ore, th a t he Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 201 enjoyed ad ap tin g and tran sp o sin g in to h is tig h t little "case histo ry " as m any facets as p o ssib le o f Sym bols o f T ransform ation an d like Ju n g ian stu d ies. (75) A q u e stio n em erges: H ow m u ch is m agical realism a n ex p ressio n o f u n iv eral a n d etern al h u m an interests, a n d h o w m uch is it a n ex p ressio n o f p articu la r c u ltu ral a n d historical m o m en ts o f th e tw en tieth century? P erhaps there is a n ex planation beyond diffe rin g m easu res o f lite ra ry ta le n t fo r w hy B radbury a n d Bowles produce v a ry in g in ten sity a n d in te rest in th e sto ries selected h ere. P erhaps the difference in settin g betw een "T he C ircu lar V alley" a n d "T he A p ril W itch" is a crucial one. B rad b u ry 's n arrato rs, se t in th e ir hom e cu ltu res, have only the difference b e tw ee n th eir reality a n d th eir im aginations for n arrativ e co n trasts. The U. S. couple in B ow les' sto ry clash w ith th e cu ltu re of the ju n g le they trav el to—even w ith o u t h av in g d irect contact w ith th e Indians th at live th ere. T here is no such th in g as a n A tlija la in th e co n tex t o f the E uropean-A m erican cu ltu re of th e M idw est, a n d a n im agined m agical b ein g like Cecy is som ehow less com pelling th a n a b ein g th a t exists acco rding to th e beliefs of a w h o le com m unity. B oth authors h av e eq u al access to th e collective unconscious, b u t it appears to be in su fficien t in itself to th e p u rp o ses o f m agical realism . V. N atio n al Supem aturalism : The C u ltu ra l C o n stitu tio n o f M agical R ealism In "T he lite ra tu re of R eplenishm ent," B arth declares p o stm o d ern ism to be the b est o f tw o literary eras, m odernism a n d th e burgeois realism th a t cam e before it. Likew ise, m agical realism is a com bination of tw o w o rld s, as the term Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 202 suggests: th e m o d em W estern w orld o f ratio n alism a n d technology a n d the p rem odem su p e m atu ralist w o rld s rem aining in th e A m ericas a n d elsew here. These rem aining p rem o d em com m unities a re d en sely d istrib u ted in L atin America,, an d th is len d s su p p o rt to the case fo r m agical realism as a literary nationalism . A m aryll C h an ad y describes th is case in 'T h e T erritorialization o f the Im aginary in L atin A m erica: Self-A ffirm ation a n d R esistance to M etropolitan Paradigm s." She begins b y review ing the sem inal statem en ts o f A ngel Flores, Alejo C arpentier, a n d L uis L eal (am ong others), w ho arg u e th at m agical realism belongs to L atin A m erica. C hanady describes th re e options taken b y th e cham pions o f L atin A m erican autonom y: the claim s o f "sim ilitude," "difference an d equality," o r "superiority" vis-a-vis th e d o m in an t W estern cu ltu re (134). In each instance, th e antitheses of civilization a n d barbarism figure in to th e discussion as th e typical term s of praise o r blam e fo r L atin Am erica from th e o u tsid e. To conclude h er treatise, C hanady insists th a t m agical realism "cann o t be attrib u ted b y a naive essentialist argum ent to th e sup p o sed m arvelous reality o f the continent o r ascribed to the u n id irectio n al flow of m etro p o litan influence." Instead she offers this m ulti-faceted explanation: It is conditioned b y various factors, su ch as a critical stance w ith respect to canonical rational a n d especially positivistic paradigm s in the context of neocolonial resistance, the trad itio n of th e a rtist's vindication o f th e im ag in atio n a n d subversion of hegem onic m odels, the F rench S urrealists' indictm ent o f restrictiv e em pirical know ledge a n d valorization of non-E uropean m entalities, the ap p ro p ria tio n o f the indigenous O th er a s a m arker o f difference, a n d th e general delegitim ation o f v alu es and conceptual fram ew orks o f the p ast few decades. (141) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 203 A dding in sig h t to th e term "neocolonial resistance" is S tep h en Slem on7 s article, "M agic R ealism as Postcolonial D iscourse." H e w rites, "m ag ic realism , as a socially sym bolic contract, carries a resid u u m o f resistance to w a rd th e im perial center an d to its to talizin g system s o f g en eric classification" (408). B u ild in g o n M ikhail B akhtin7 s descrip tio n of the heteroglossic discourse o f th e n o vel, Slem on argues, sim ply sta te d , th a t m agical realism offers a n alternate h isto ry o f colonization, com posed o f m any voices, in clu d in g those left o u t o f th e im p erial record. In o th e r w o rd s, m agical realism can b e u n d ersto o d as essen tially political, a n d th u s inextricably tied to specific c u ltu ral and historical circum stances. C om ing fu ll circle, from a Jun gian to a p o litical in terp retatio n o f m agical realism a n d back ag ain —b u t w ith a difference— Lois Parkinson Z am ora notes a shared tendency o f rom ance a n d m agical realism to "arehetypalize th e self" (499). Z am ora's article, "M agical R om ance/M agical Realism : G hosts in U . S. an d L atin A m erican Fiction," takes F redric Jam eson7 s definition o f ro m an ce as a p o in t of departure: rom ance expresses "a tran sitio n al m om ent" in w hich a society feels itself "to m b etw een p a st a n d future in such a w ay th a t the altern ativ es are grasped as hostile b u t som ehow u n related w o rld s" (quoted in Z am o ra 540). This definition suggests th e polarities o f m agical realism , and Jam eson's M arxist view s are creatively em ployed by Z am ora, w ho n otes that, A rchetypal conceptions o f subjectivity d ra w n from collective sources p ro v id e bases u p o n w hich m agical realists m ay co n stru ct po litical positions resistan t to th e abuses o f in d iv id u alism —exploitative capitalism an d m essianic nationalism , am ong others. T hese au th o rs generalize in o rd e r to u n settle absolutes, to clear a space fo r a larger perspective Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 204 from w hich to v iew th e particu lar cu ltu res th ey d ram atize. (504) A p air of S panish-A m erican stories th a t d ram atize th e cu ltu ral h isto ry o f L atin A m erica are "C hac M ool," b y C arlos F uentes, a n d "L a noche boca arrib a," by Julio C ort^zar. In b o th o f th ese stories, a m o d em m an d ies a t th e h an d s o f a n a v atar of the S panish-A m erican p ast. T he p a st is p re se n te d as a b ru tal a n d vengeful force, capable o f d ev astatin g th e p resen t. "C hac M ool” begins w ith g estu res of condescension to w a rd prem o d em beliefs a n d custom s, gestures com m on to the m o d em epistem e. The m o d em characters in th is sto ry a t first exhibit a patronizing toleran ce o f efforts to take th e p a s t seriously by em phasizing or resp ectin g th e pow er o f pre-C olom bian belief- B ut this condescension is co n v erted to extrem e seriousness b y the e n d of the sto ry , e v en as a d ark er hum or replaces th e ironic h u m o r o f e arlie r scenes. A s the story b egins, the n arrato r h as trav eled to A capulco to look afte r th e affairs of his co-w orker Filiberto, w ho d ro w n ed th ere. T he n a rra to r believes th a t Filiberto, a m iddle-aged m a n in poor physical cond itio n , h a d b een overly am bitious in sw im m ing. W hen the n arrato r goes to su p erv ise the tran sp o rtatio n o f the b ody, he is b em u sed b y the "sup erstition " o f th e b u s d riv en C uando llegue, tem p ran o, a vig ilar el em barque d e l feretro, Filiberto estaba bajo u n tum ulo d e cocos; el chofer dijo q ue lo acom odaram os rap id am en te e n el toldo y lo cubrieram os de lonas, p a ra q u e n o se esp an taran los pasajeros, y a v er si no le habfam os echado la sal al viaje. (95) [W hen I arriv ed , early in the m orning, to su p erv ise th e loading of the casket, I fo u n d Filiberto b u ried b en eath a m o u n d o f coconuts; the b u s d riv e r w an ted to g et h im in th e luggage com partm ent as quickly as possible, covered w ith canvas in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 205 o rd e r n o t to u p se t the p assen g ers a n d to avoid b a d lu ck o n th e trip- (4)] The com ic iro n y o f th e tone o f th is p assag e is b ased in the n a rra to r's m o d em sense o f h a v in g "surm ounted” th e "prim itive,, beliefs o f this b u s d riv er, w hose su p erstitio u s b eh aviors are con trary to n a tu ra l law . The su p e rstitio n w ill g e t the last laugh, how ever. D u rin g th e trip , th e n arrato r o p en s Filiberto s satchel a n d rin d s a one-w ay ticket to A capulco a n d Filiberto's jo u rn al, w h ich the n arrato r h o p es w ill explain his recen t d eclin e a t w ork. The n a rra tiv e th e n becom es a tran scrip tio n o f F iliberto's jo u rn al, a n d th e events th a t lead u p to Filiberto’ s d e a th are to ld from his p o in t o f view . A collector o f M exican In d ian art, Filiberto h a d recently acquired a n effigy of th e M ayan ra in g o d C hac M ool from a "tienducha" [flea m arket shop]. H e w rites, Es u n a p ieza p red o sa, d e tam aflo n atu ral, y au n q ue el m arch an te aseg u ra su o rig in alid ad , lo dudo. La p ie d ra es co rrien te, p ero ello no am in o ra la eleg an d a d e la p o stu ra o lo m a d z o d e l bloque. El d esleal v en d ed o r le h a em b arrado salsa d e to m ate e n la b arrig a p a ra convencer a los tu ristas d e la a u te n tid d a d sangrienta d e la escu ltu ra. (98) [It's a m arvelous piece, life-size, a n d th o u g h the d ealer assu res m e it's a n original, I q u estio n i t The stone is nothin g o u t of the o rd in ary , b u t th at d o e sn 't d im in ish the elegance of th e com position, o r its m assiveness. The rascal has sm eared tom ato k etch u p o n the belly to convince the to u rists of its bloo d y authenticity. (70)] It seem s to F iliberto th a t the sh o p k eeper's ridiculous efforts to m ake th e statu e appear alive a n d th reaten in g only em p h asize h o w dead the sto n e really is. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 206 bloody au th en ticity of th e p a st am ounts to ketchup: som ething to d ip into for flavor b u t n o th in g su b stan tial. H ow ever, the id o l b eg in s com ing to life in Filiberto’ s cellar. In no tim e the Chac M ool is conversing w ith F iliberto, th o u g h a footnote to th e tex t says, "Filiberto n o explica e n q ue len g u a se en tendia con el C hac M ool” (103). [Filiberto d o es n o t say in w h a t language h e com m unicated w ith the Chac-M ool (12).] The C hac M ool becom es a n obnoxious guest, robbing Filiberto o f his b ed an d robbing th e w hole to w n o f its w ater supply. C hac begins to acquire hum an tastes an d d evelops a fondness for w ine, silk bathrobes a n d serv an t girls. The jo u rn al en d s b y recording F iliberto's p lan s to escape to A capulco. A t this point, the n arrato r takes over again, a n d in tw o m ore p aragraphs, th e sto ry ends. The n arrato r b rin g s Filiberto's coffin to h is house, b u t before h e can g e t the key into the lock, th e d o o r opens rev ealin g "u n in d io am arillo, e n b ata d e casa, con bufanda" [A yellow -skinned In d ian in a sm oking jacket an d ascot] w earing thick an d p oorly-applied cosm etics (105). The In d ian in stru cts th e n a rra to r to have Filiberto’ s coffin p u t in th e basem ent. C hac h as becom e rid icu lo u s as h e h as becom e m odem , b u t h e is still a m enace, an d h e is still F iliberto 's m u rd erer. T here is a d a rk iro n y in th e fact that the b asem ent is w here C hac M ool begins an d Filiberto ends. T his rev ersal is a sym bolic rev ersal of the outcom e o f the struggle betw een indigenous cultures an d W estern conquistadors in S p an ish A m erica. It is a k in d o f po etic revenge. G eorgina G arcia G utierrez explains h o w in this story, O nce ag ain the W estern a n d th e indigenous cultures cross, b y w h a t the sto ry 's sym bolism establishes a n d dram atizes—a stru g g le betw een th e autochthonous culture a n d the foreign Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 207 one. In th is sense C hac a n d Filiberto in te rp re t, b y rep eatin g it, the negative d a s h o f tw o cu ltu res as in th e C o n q u e st (20) The d ram atizatio n h ere takes place o n a stag e o f realism , w here only th e slig h test room fo r d o u b t is available in th e fin al scene, sin ce th e n a rra to r does n o t explicitly verify the Indian7 s in d en tity as C hac. T here is m ore room fo r d o u b t in "L a n o ch e b oca arrib a" ["The N ig h t Face U p7 7 ] b y Julio C ortdzar: a sto ry th a t d rifts in a n d o u t o f d ream . This qualify is m ore neofantastic th an m agical realist; m agical realism d o es n o t n eed th e excuse of unconsciousness for its su p ern atu ral co n ten t, w h ich is fo u n d ed o n sh ared beliefs of historical com m unities. H ow ever, th e d u a l cu ltu res of th e sto ry interm ix in a definite m agical realist w ay. A th em e o f rev en g e is again a p p a re n t in "La noche boca arrib a7 7 ; d ie m ain character is ro b b ed n o t only o f h is life b u t o f the historical record of his existence, w hich is red u c ed to a d ream as the p ast takes over. The story begins w ith a n exuberant rid e , w h ich is su d d en ly in te rru p te d as the m ain character sw erves to avoid a p e d e stria n a n d en d s u p u n d er his m otorcycle. H e is h u rt b u t still in g o o d sp irits, as h e is carried to a nearby pharm acy an d th en to the h o sp ital. C o n fid en t in m o d em m edicine a n d his h ealing pow ers: "Se sentfa b ien , era u n a c d d e n te , m ala su erte; unas sem anas quieto y n ad a m ds" (12). [H e felt p retty g oo d , i t h a d b een a n accident, to u g h luck; stay q u iet a few w eeks, n othing w orse (362)]. W hen h e gets to the h o sp ital, "L a enferm eras brom eaban todo el tiem po, y s i no h u b iera sid o p o r las contracdones del estom ago se habrfa sen tid o m u y b ien , casi contento7 7 (12). ["The nurses w ere constantly m aking w isecracks, a n d if it h ad n 7 1 b een fo r the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 208 stom ach co n tractio n s h e w ou ld have fe lt fin e, alm o st h app y (362).] B ut so o n an X-ray is p laced o n his chest "com o u n a ld p id a n eg ra" [like a b lac k tom bstone], an d soon h e b eg in s a stran g e dream . "C om o suefto e ra curioso p o rq u e e stab a Ileno d e olores y e l n u n ca sofiaba olores" (13). [It w as a n u n u su al dream b ecau se it w as full o f sm ells, a n d h e never d ream t in sm ells (363).] This is th e first sig n th a t h is dream is tak in g h im to a place as real as th e h o sp ital h e believes h e is in , a n d th at place is filled w ith bogs an d beset w ith th e A ztec w ar o f th e blossom . T he m ain ch aracter is n o w a M otecan w a rrio r, ru n n in g a t nig h t, h y in g to elu d e th e A ztecs w h o p u rsu e him to m ake him a h u m a n sacrifice. As h e ru n s a n d leap s, h e is back in th e h o sp ital room again, b e in g w arn ed by th e p a tien t n e x t to him th at h e is a b o u t to fall o u t of bed: "M ientras tratab a d e sonrefr a su v e d n o , se despego casi fisicam ente d e la ultim a v isio n d e la pesadilla" (13). [W hile try in g to sm ile a t h is n eig h b o r, he detached h im self alm o st physically fro m th e fin al scene o f th e n ig h tm are (363).] H is good m o o d is stra in e d as the n ig h tm are strain s its psychological b o u n d s and begins to m ak e a n e n try into the p hysical w o rld . As he d rifts b ack into being a M otecan w arrio r, he finds him self in the p red icam en t o f h av in g lo st his trail, a n d h e p ray s 'l a plegaria d e ma£z q u e trae la lunas felices, y la su p lica a la M uy A lta, a la d isp en sad o ra d e los b ien es m otecas" (14) [the su p p lica tio n o f the co m w hich b rin g s a b o u t the b en eficen t m oons, an d the p ray er to H e r V ery H ighness, to the d istrib u to r of all possessions (364)]. A group of attack ers com es u p o n him , a n d th o u g h h e m anages to k ill on e o f them , he is sn ared b y a ro p e from behind. H is h o p es in h is M otecan g o d a re as useless Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 209 as h is hopes in science. W h en h e discovers th at his attackers h av e strip p ed him o f h is am ulet, h e realizes th a t h e is beyond, salvation. T hough he jum ps b a c k to th e h o sp ital night one final tim e, h e is quickly b ack to being a captive o f w a r a n d fin ds him self being carried to th e a lta r. H e m akes an effort to re tu rn to th e m o d em w orld, Pero olia m u erte, y cu an d o abrio los ojos vio la fig u ra en san gren tad a d e l sacrificador que verua h a d a el con e l cuchillo d e p ie d ra e n la m ano. A lcanzo a cerrar o tra vez los parp ad o s, aim q u e a h o ra sabia q u e no iba a d esp ertarse, qu e estaba d esp ierto , q u e el sueflo m aravilloso habfa sid o el o tro , absurdo com o todos lo s sueflos; u n sueflo en el que h abfa andado p o r extraflas av en id as d e un a d u d a d asom brosa, con luces verdes y rojas q u e ard fan sin llam a y sin hum o, co n u n enorm e insecto d e m etal q u e zum baba bajo su s p iem as. E n la m entira in fin ita d e ese sueflo tam bien lo h ab ian alzado d e l suelo, tam bien a lg u ie n se le habfa acercado con u n cuchillo e n la m ano, a 61 ten d id o boca arrib a, a 61 boca arrib a con los ojos cerrados en tre las h o g u eras. (17) [But h e sm elled d e a th , a n d w h en he opened his eyes h e saw the blood-soaked fig u re o f th e executioner-priest com ing tow ard him w ith th e sto n e knife in his hand. H e m an ag ed to d o se his eyelids ag ain , alth o u g h h e knew n o w h e w as n o t going to w ake u p , th a t h e w as aw ake, th at the m arv elo u s dream h ad b een th e o th er, a b su rd as all dream s are—a d rea m in w hich he w as g o in g th ro u g h the strange avenues o f a n astonishing d ty , w ith g reen a n d red lights th at b u rn e d w ith o u t fire o r sm oke, o n a n enorm ous m etal insect th a t w h irred aw ay b etw een h is legs. In the infinite lie of th e dream , they h ad also p ick ed h im up off the ground, som eone h ad app ro ach ed h im also w ith a knife in his hand, ap p ro ach ed him w ho w as ly in g face u p , face u p w ith his eyes d o se d betw een th e b onfires o n th e step s. (367)] In this final scene, the A ztec p rie st a n d th e m odem surgeo n collapse in to a single figure, as the m ain ch aracter's p re se n t collapses into th e p a s t T he m o d em w orld Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 210 h as b ro u gh t w ith it no cu re for death, a n d h is circum stances are no w orse as a M otecan sacrifical victim th a n as a m odem m o to rcy clist R eading m ore in to th e story, there is a k in d o f revenge in this phen o m en o n of p a st overw helm ing th e p re s e n t A long w ith th e strong sm ell th a t sig nals th e physical arriv al of th e in d ig en ou s past, th e v erb tense o f the narrative m ark s th e p rio rity of the M otecan w o rld in the tran sitio n betw een the tw o w orlds. A s M arfa C ristina A rostegui notes, In this transition, tw o verb tenses predom inate: the indefinite th at m arks th e contradictorily p assiv e actions o f the vigil an d the p reterite im perfect, the tense o f d u ra tio n a n d circularity, th at operates in oneiric situations. A s th e story progresses, w e see how this la s t tense im poses a n d involves the action in a crushing clim ax. (20) T he final instance of th e indefinite tense is w h en th e m ain character m anages to close his eyes again in the last scene; from th is m om ent on, the im perfect tense extends his d eath o n th e A ztec a ltar and tu rn s h is m o dem life into a dream . The revenge of th e p a st is the m em ory o f it, w hich overflow s the boundaries of the m o d em epistem e as it in tru d es into the p re se n t A na M arfa A m ar Sanchez argues th a t the "binary play" o f C o rtazar's fiction, w hich "La noche boca arriba" exem pliflies, is typical o f L atin A m erican literature as a w hole: "a type of w ritin g th a t debates, defines, a n d constructs the rep resen tatio n of th e im age th at is T a tin A m erica'" (20, em phasis hers). H er article, "B etw een U topia and Inferno (Julio C ortdzar's V ersion)," asserts th a t since cultu re is m erely a set o f representations o r fictions, th e difference betw een realistic o r fantastic stories becom es irre le v a n t In o th er w ords, th e law of total fiction gives science an d the su p ern atu ral eq u al privilege. She w rites, "all representations Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 211 configure a n im aginary system o f L atin A m erica a n d d ram a tiz e th e tensions a n d contradictions am ong th e m u ltip licity o f discourses (literary a n d nonliterary) th a t have created an d continue to create L atin A m erica" (21). By its presence as a m em ory7 o r discourse/ th e p a st tro u b les an y p resen t a ttem p ts to d efine L atin A m erica in totalizing term s. T he m em ory o f th e p a st m ay also b e a solace to th e p re se n t w h e n m o d em discourses disappoint. T he m ean s o f th is solace is n o stalg ia; an d nostalgia is a sign ifican t force in "E l su r" ["T he S o u th "], a sto ry b y Jo rg e L uis B orges th at is un cannily sim ilar to "La noche b o ca arrib a." In this sto ry , Ju an D ahlm ann su stain s a severe injury to his h e a d as h e ru sh es u p a d a rk stairw ay , eager to read a n ew book. A fter being released from th e hospital—a n ev en t w ith enough d ream m arkers to m ake its a ctu ality du b io u s—D ah lm an n h ead s fo r his ran ch in the S outh. A long the w ay, h e is ch allen g ed to a knife fig h t, a n d a n o ld gaucho, "en el q ue D ahlm ann vio u n a cifra d e l S u r (del S ur q u e e ra suyo)" (195) [in w hom D ahlm ann saw a su m m ary a n d cip h er of the S o u th (his South) (302)], th ro w s h im a knife so th at, feeble th o u g h D ahlm ann is, h e can accept the challenge. D ahlm ann accepts th is as "la m uerte q u e h u b ie ra elegido o sofiado" (195) [the d eath h e w o u ld hav e ch o sen o r d ream t (302)]. It is a d e a th like the "rom antica" one suffered b y h is m atern al g ran d fath er, w h o w as "lanceado p o r indios d e C atriel" (187) [ru n th ro u g h w ith a lance b y In d ian s fro m C atriel (297)]; an d th e read er know s from the sto ry 's o p en in g th a t D ah lm an n chooses to id en tify him self w ith th is lin e o f d escen t. H is (dream ed?) ro m an tic d e a th saves him th e hum iliation of d y in g in a h o sp ital, from a n in fected h ead w o u n d caused by clum siness. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 212 A n o th er exam ple o f su p ern atu ral solace b ro u g h t to p resen t scen e o f suffering is th e sto ry "W alim ai" b y Isabel A llende. This is a sto ry o f rescu e rath er th a n rev en g e. W hile D ahlm ann's solace is self-consciously d iscu rsiv e o r fictional, th e fictio n al sta tu s of "W alim ai" is d ifferen t, because th e m a in ch aracter is an In d ian w ith h is su p ern atu ral beliefs in tact. H ere the fractional e q u a tio n o f Fuentes' a n d C o rtd zar's m agical realism is in v erted , an d the p ersp ectiv e th a t in terru p ts th e o rg in al narrativ e code is th e m o d em one. The in teg rity o f W alim ai's su p e rn a tu ra l beliefs finally fen d s o ff th e in tru sio n o f the m o d e m epistem e. as h e rescu es a young In d ian g irl from sexual slavery by k illin g h er, absorbing h e r sp irit, a n d th en setting h e r sp irit free. N iether D ah lm an n n o r W alim ai sees th e p o ssib lity of a good d e a th in th e m odem epistem e. so b o th characters seek a p rem o d em death. W hereas in th e sto ries discussed above th e p a st first in terru p ts th e p resen t as m em ory, in "W alim ai" the p resen t first in te rru p ts the p a st as ru m o r. W alim ai n arrates his o w n sto ry , a n d he explains h o w h is p rem od em lifes w as so rem oved from the m o d em W estern one th at the first rep o rts o f m o dem life stru c k h im as funny: Los p rim e r os tiem pos vivf e n la selv a sin saber que existfa m u n d o m as alia d e los acan tilad os y los n o s. En algunas ocasiones v in iero n am ingos v isitan tes d e o tras tribus y n o t co n taro n ru m o res d e Boa V ista y d e El P latanal, de los extranjeros y su s costum bres, p ero creiam os que e ra n solo cuentos p a ra hacer rerr. (115) [In th e e arlie st tim es w e liv ed in th e ju n gles w itho u t know ing th at th ere w as a w orld bey o n d th e cliffs a n d rivers. Friends cam e to v isit from other tribes, a n d to ld u s rum ors o f Boa V ista a n d E l P lantanal (sic), of th e w h ite ones and th eir Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 213 custom s, b u t w e b eliev ed these w ere only sto ries to m ake us laugh. (144)] W hen th e rum ors o f w h ite p eople tu rn ed in to rea lity , W alim ai's people b eg an to retreat into th e forest, b u t ev en so the cu ltu ral en co u n ter creates for th em a ru p tu re w ith th eir p ast: Asf h a sido d esd e q u e m e acuerdo: d ejar todo y echar a correr com o ra to n e sy n o com o los g ran d es g u errero s y lo s dioses que p o b laro n este territo rio e n la an tigiiedad. A lgunos jdvenes tien en cu rio sid ad p o r los blancos y m ien tras nosotros viajam os h a d a lo p ro fu n d o d el bosque p a ra se g u ir viviendo com o nuestros an tep asad o s, otros em p ren d en e l cam ino contrario. C onsideram os a los que se v a n com o si estuv ieran m uertos, p o rq u e m u y pocos regresan y qu ienes lo hacen h a n cam biado tanto q u e no podem os reconocerlos com o parientes. (114) [So it has b een as lo n g as I have m em ory: leave everything, ru n aw ay like m ice—n o t like th e m ighty w arrio rs an d gods w ho inhabited th ese lan d s in days of o ld . Som e o f o u r young are curious ab o u t th e w hites, a n d w hile w e trav el d eep er into the fo rest to co ntinue to live as o u r ancestors d id , others undertake a differen t p ath . W e think of those w h o leave as if they w ere dead , because very few retu rn , a n d th o se w ho do have changed so th a t w e cannot recognize th em as kinsm en. (142)] The cultural d u ality req u ired fo r m agical realism is establish ed , a n d W alim ai's people are now experiencing a n ew sentim ent: nostalgia. But th o ug h m ost o f W alim ai's people are fa r from m o d em , th eir culture has a feature sh ared b y postm odernism —the concept o f creatio n b y verbal fiat. W alim ai opens the sto ry b y reflecting o n the d an g ero u s p ractice am ong "los extranjeros" [the foreigners] o f speaking each o th er's nam es. H e says, "He notad o que esas personas h ab lan con la m ayor liv ian d ad , sin ten er e n cuenta q u e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 214 hablar es tam bien ser" (113) [I have n o ted th a t th ese p ersons speak u n th in k in g ly , n o t realizing th a t to sp eak is also to b e (141)]. I t is im p o rtan t to rem em ber th a t W alim ai is a fictional character, created b y a p o stm o d ern author, an d as su c h his voice is n o t a u th e n tic in an y ethnographical sense; b u t, as A llende d ram atizes th e cultural d a s h b etw een th is indigenous cu ltu re a n d the m o dem W estern on e, h er story echoes th e "tru th s" o f o th er stories lik e it, e v en if it em phasizes p o stm o d ern Walim ai is c ap tu red b y w hite m en a n d fo rce d to w o rk in a ru b b er factory. O ne day he confronts th e w eakened Ila g irl th ere, a captive chained to a sta k e in a h u t an d a v ictim o f serial rapes; he is convinced th a t h e r w ish is to die. H e poisons her, a n d as sh e is dying, he w aits for h e r nam e, w hich is h er s p irit A cerque m i oreja a su boca y ella m u rm u rd su nom bre. Lo rep etf d o veces en m i m ente p a ra e sta r b ie n seguro, p ero sin p ro n u n d a rlo e n a lta voz, po rq ue no se d e b e m entar a los m uertos p a ra no p ertu rb ar su p az, y ella y a no estaba aunque todavfa p a lp itara su corazon. (117) [I h eld m y e ar to h er m outh, an d she m u rm ered h er nam e. I rep eated it tw ice in m y m ind to b e v ery su re , b u t d id n o t speak it alo u d; it is n o t good to m en tio n th e d e ad or d istu rb th eir peace, a n d she w as alread y d e a d e v en th o u g h h er h eart still b e a t (148)] As her body fin ally dies, h er sp irit leaves th ro u g h h e r nostrils, enters W alim ai, and anchors itself to his sternum . H e feels th e w eig h t o f her spirit, a n d he converses w ith h e r as h e escapes back in to th e fo rest. W hile the w hole sto ry has a strong sense of th e physical body, existence is essentially discursive: H ablam os m ucho. La lengua d e los Ila es fibre y resuena bajo los arb o les con u n largo eco. N osotros com unicam os cantando, con todo el cuerpo, con los ojos, la d n tu ra , los pies. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 215 Le rep etf las ley en d as que aprendf d e m i m a d re y d e m i p ad re, le conte m i p a sa d o y ella m e contb la p rim e ra p a rte d e l s u y o . . ..(118) [We spoke o ften . T he tongue of the Ila is u n in h ib ite d a n d resounds b e n e a th th e trees w ith a lon g echo. W e com m unicated sin g in g , w ith o u r b ody, w ith o u r eyes, o u r w aist, o u r feet. I rep e ate d to her th e legends I h a d learn ed from m y m o th e r a n d m y father; I to ld h e r m y p a st, a n d she told m e o f th e firs t p a rt o f h e r life ___ (149)] Finally, W alim ai fasts u n til th e g irl's sp irit gains e n o u g h co u rag e to set off o n h er ow n "al territorio d e las alm as" [to the land o f th e souls] in th e form o f a Toucan. T hus, the Ila g irl h a d a g o o d d e ath , a n d it m ay b e said th a t th e sto ry has a h ap p y ending. Yet as the re a d e r k n o w s from the story's o u tset, W alim ai's cu ltu re has b een perm anently en d an g ered . E v en so, this is a sto ry o f a successfu l rescue and passage to the afterlife, a n d th is sto ry w ould b e en tirely d a rk a n d unsym pathetic if to ld from the p o in t o f v iew o f its w hite characters. T he E u ro p ean p o in t of view is represented, in te rsp e rse d w ith th e non-E uropean p o in t o f view , in the novel H reino de este m undo fT he K ingdom o f This W o rld l. b y A lejo C arp entier, w hich m akes existence even m o re d iscursive an d heteroglossic th a n A llende's story does. French colonialists o bserve w ith ho rro r as A frican reb els lau g h a t the d e ath of th eir leader. B ut th e n th e sam e scene is also to ld fro m th e A frican p o in t o f view , through w h ich it becom es visible th at th eir le a d e r's sp irit, like th at of the Ila girl, has d e p arted his b o d y in the form o f a b ird . "Viaje a la sem illa," also b y Alejo C arpentier, is a m ag ical realist story o f a p ro p er burial, if n o t o f a g o o d d eath . A com parison o f th is sto ry to "The C urious Case of Benjam in B utton," a like sto ry by F. Scott F itzg erald , show s th at the d u a l Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 216 cu ltu ral p ersp ectiv e o f m agical realism can a d d d e p th an d dim en sio n to a neofantastic situ atio n . B oth a re the sto ry o f a m an living life in rev erse, b u t in C arpentier's sto ry th e actio n is started b y a n o ld m an m u tterin g in can tatio n s. This figure m ay b e th e A frican character so a d o re d b y the m ain ch aracter. M artial, w h en h e is a y o u n g boy, a n d h e m agically deconstructs M a rtia l's hom e before w orkers c an fin ish dem olishing it. W hile M artial's com panions liv e th is reversal of life w ith him , B enjam in B utton is alone in his chronological inversion, a n d it is only fo r th e m id d le p o rtio n o f h is life, w h en he h as b o th y o u th a n d w isdom , th at B enjam in B u tto n is h ap p y . F itzg erald 's story lacks th e cro ss- cultural m om ents th at, b rief th o u g h they are, a d d in trig u e to C a rp en tie r's. VI. O ther A m erican D ream s: M agical R ealism in U. S. E thnic L iteratu re C arp en tier's w itch d o cto r an d B orges' gaucho offer a ro m an tic e n d in g to W estern characters an d a d d fascination to th eir stories. It seem s th a t U . S. authors are larg ely d e p riv e d o f m agical re a list in sp iratio n , a n d O ctavio Paz w ould agree. Z am o ra explains die thesis o f P a z 's essay "M exico a n d th e U n ited States" th a t w h ereas th e colonizing p a ttern o f th e U . S. w as to ig n o re o r d estro y indigenous cu ltu res, the colonizers o f M exico assim ilated in d ig en o us cultures. Thus, E very M exican carries w ith h im th is continuity, w h ich goes back tw o th o u sa n d years. It d o e sn 't m atter th at this presen ce is alm o st alw ays unconscious a n d assum es naive form s o f leg en d a n d ev en su p erstitio n . It is n o t som ething k n o w n b u t som eth in g liv ed , (quoted in A zm ora 531) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 217 H ow ever, as Z am o ra p o in ts out, indig en o u s cu ltu res do inform th e cu ltu ral landscape of som e regions o f th e U . S. She p o in ts to th e fiction o f W illiam G oyen as an exam ple; h is sto ries a re se t in D eep E ast Texas, w h ich "is sp o tted w ith C addoan b u rial m ou n d s, testam en ts to a p a st th a t still exists in the p resen t o f th is region" (Z am ora 532). G oyen's m agical realist sto ry "G host an d Flesh, W ater a n d D irt" is discussed below . B u t ev en w here th ere are no physical m arkers o f a n indigenous p ast, th e presence o f ethnic cultu res w ith in th e U. S. is en o u g h to provide the conditions fo r m agical realism . K athleen B rogan's 1998 book, C ultural H aunting: G hosts a n d E thnicity in R ecent A m erican L iterature, is a n excellent stu d y of som e key U . S. m agical realist w ork s by authors su ch as L ouise E rdrich, Toni M orrison, a n d C ristin a Garcia. W ithout em ploying th e term , B rogan describes the cu ltu ral conditions fo r m agical realism th a t are fo u n d in th e U. S.: [W]e see in lite ra tu re b y authors from m in o rity groups, an d p articu larly in th e w ritin g of the d escendants o f enslaved or colonized peoples, a heightened aw areness o f th e disjunction betw een m ainstream h istory an d th e g ro u p 's o w n accounts of its p ast. This aw areness leads to a n em phasis o n m ultiple view points, the fictionality of any reco n stru ctio n of the p ast, and the creatio n of altern ativ e histories th ro u g h th e telling of u n h eard o r su p p ressed stories. (17) The insistence o n to tal fictio n also locates these sto ries in th e postm odern epistem e. W hat B rogan calls "stories of cu ltu ral h au n tin g " depict "The g h o st as go-betw een, a n enigm atic tran sitio n al figure m oving betw een p a st a n d presen t, d e ath an d life, one cu ltu re an d another" (6). M oreover, fam ily lineage, in these stories, "is established th ro u g h riv ers of w ords": "Fam ilies do n o t sim ply tell stories; stories create fam ilies" (18). A gain, reality is co nstituted discursively. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 218 A fter establishing th e p aram eters o f h er stu d y , B rogan w rites: "W hy, it m ig h t be asked, if the p o sitio n o f h eir-eth n o g raph er c a n b e assu m ed b y an yone w ho straddles subcultures, a re so m an y stories o f c u ltu ral h au n tin g w ritte n b y w om en?" (24). For a n an sw er, sh e suggests th at, "A s a n absence m ad e p resen t, the g h o st can give expression to th e w ays in w hich w om en are ren d ered invisible in th e p ublic sphere" in "societies th a t restrict th e ex p ressio n o f fem ale p ow er" (B rogan 25). In th e context o f th is stu d y , it m u st also b e o b serv ed th at th e au th o rs o f the nineteenth -cen tu ry local-color g h o st sto ry also ten d e d to be w om en. O f the th ree U. S. m agical realist g host sto ries a b o u t to be discussed, tw o have w om en authors, tw o are w ritte n in d ialect as e arlier local-color g h o st stories often w ere, an d all th ree h av e a fem ale cen tral character. So it seem s th at the keeping of g h o st stories is trad itio n ally a fem inine office. T here is no m ore p erfect fit fo r B rogan's term "h eir-ethn o g rap h er" th an Z ora N eale H urston, w ho w as th e first black A m erican to collect a n d p u b lish A frican-A m erican folklore. In h e r o w n sh o rt stories, sh e ad d resses the cu ltu ral d iv id e betw een scientific m aterialism a n d sp iritualism , w h ite cu ltu re a n d black culture. H er story "Black D eath " h as a double v isio n lik e th a t o f "W alim ai"; it criticizes m odem w hite c u ltu re fro m th e perspective o f a su p e m atu ralist one. "Black D eath" begins: The N egroes in E ato n v ille k n ow a num b er o f thin g s th a t the hustling, b u stlin g w h ite m an never dream s of. H e is a m aterialist w ith little ears fo r overtones. For instance, if a w h ite p erson w ere h a lte d o n the streets of O rlando a n d to ld th a t O ld M an M organ, th e excessively black N egro hoodoo m an , c an kill an y p erso n in d icated an d p aid for, w ith o u t e v e r leav ing his house o r e v e r seeing his victim , h e 'd lau g h in y o u r face an d w alk aw ay, w o n derin g Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 219 h o w lo n g th e N egro w ill co n tin u e to w allow in ign o ran ce a n d su p erstitio n . B ut no b lack p e rso n in a rad iu s o f tw en ty m iles w ill sm ile, n o t m uch. T hey k n o w . (202, em phasis H u rsto n 's) T he exploits o f O ld M an M organ a re w ell know n b y th e resid en ts o f E atonville, a n d H u rsto n 's n arrato r in sists o n th e superiority o f th e ir in tu itiv e know ledge o v er scientific know ledge: "A ll o f these things can easily b e p ro v ed by the testim ony o f th e villagers," sh e w rites, "T hey o u g h t to k n o w " (203). W hen the w h ite co ro n er a ttrib u te s the d e a th o f O ld M an M organ's riv al w itc h d o cto r to epilepsy, sh e w rites, "B ut the villagers k new . W hite folks are v ery stu p id ab o u t som e things. T hey can th in k m ightily b u t can n o t feel" (203, em p h asis H u rsto n 's). W hen the v illain B eau D iddely com es to tow n, he is n o t w hite, b u t h is speech m arks his id en tificatio n w ith the m o d e m ep istem e. A ll th e o th er ch aracters speak in dialect, b u t h is speech em phasizes h is difference from th e v illag ers, even as h e uses it to d istan ce him self from th em e v en m ore w ith his in su lts. " . . . I'm n o n e o f y o u r dow n-S outh-country-suckers," Beau d eclares to the m other o f D o d a B oger, th e g irl h e h as im p reg n ated an d refuses to m arry . M entioning th a t h e 's alread y m arried an yw ay , B eau brashly leaves D o d a an d M rs. Boger to th e ir d e sp a ir an d sets o ff to fin d m ore sexual conquests. T aking even m ore distan ce fro m Beau as she sets o u t to rig h t h er d a u g h te r's w ron g , M rs. Boger identifies w ith th e prem o d em A frican epistem e. As she h e ad s fo r O ld M an M organ, "all A frica aw oke in h e r b lo o d ": h i the sw am p a t the h ead o f th e L ake, sh e saw Jack-O -L antem d a rtin g h e re a n d there an d th ree h u n d re d years of A m erica p assed like th e m ist of m o rn in g . A frica reached o u t its d a rk h a n d a n d d a im e d its ow n. D ru m s, tom , tom , tom , tom , tom , b eat h e r ears. Strange dem ons seized h er. W itchdoctors d an ced befo re h er, laid h an d s u p o n h e r alternately freezing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 220 a n d b u rn in g flesh, u n til sh e found herself w ith in th e house of M organ. (206) M rs. B oger shoots a t B eau's im age in a m agic m irro r, a n d h e dies a t th a t in stan t. T he co ro n er appears ag ain a n d identifies Beau7 s cause o f d e a th as h eart failure, "B ut they w ere m ystified b y w h a t looked like a p o w d e r b u m directly o v er the h e a rt7 7 (207). O f course, "th e N egroes knew in stan tly w h en they saw th a t m ark, b u t everyone agreed th at h e g o t justice" (208). W hile B eau w as confident th a t h is "m oney" w ould p ro tect h im fro m any legal claim s o f th e Bogers, it does n o t p ro tec t h im from m agical justice. T his possibility o f su p e rn a tu ra l justice is a them e th a t repeats in th e fictio n o f U . S. ethnic w riters o f m agical realism . If the h isto rical record and th e legal system s of the U. S. are u n ju st to its m inorities, m agic is a m eans of having the la st lau g h . H urston7 s sto ry concludes, "A nd the w h ite folks never knew an d w o u ld have laughed h a d an y o n e to ld them ,—so w h y m en tio n it?" Poetic—o r fictional—justice takes place in an o th er story b y L ouise E rdrich, a U. S. a u th o r o f m ixed C hippew a a n d G erm an-A m erican b lood.3 In E rdrich7 s "Fleur7 7 the injustice is again sexual; F leu r P illager is rap ed by w h ite m en, an d the justice of h e r su p ern atu ral revenge is precise. She sends a to rn ad o th ro u g h the to w n o f A rgus th a t leaves the p ro p erty o f h e r friends perfectly in tact as it dem olishes th e p ro p erty of her offenders, w h o freeze to d e ath in a m eat locker th at sh u t o n th em d u rin g the storm . 3 This racial mixture means that Erdrich could be classified by the Latin American term m estiza. even, though Octavio Paz claims that the mestizo heritage separates the Mexican identity from the U. S. one. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 221 W hat pro v o ked these m en to ra p e h e r w as h er uncanny accom plishm ent, o ver a m o nth 's tim e, of w inning exactly o n e d o llar a t cards w ith o u t th e ab ility to bluff. The n ig h t sh e finally breaks h e r one-dollar w inning streak a n d takes all of the m en's m oney is th e n ig h t they a tta c k h er. B ut the w om an th ey chose to attack is a w itch doctor; as a young w om an, "She g o t herself in to som e half-forgotten m edicine, stu d ied w ays w e sh o u ld n 't ta lk about" (729). She has also tw ice survived dro w ning . "They [her attackers] n ev er knew sh e 'd drow ned- They w ere blinded, th ey w ere stu p id , they o n ly saw h e r in the flesh" (731). T he In d ian m en, on the o th er h an d are w iser: "[They] stay ed d e a r of Fleur P illager after the second drow ning. E ven th o u g h she w as good-looking, nobody d a re d to co u rt h er because it w as d e a r th at M isshepeshu, th e w aterm an, the m onster, w an ted h er for him self" (728). The In d ian com m unity suspects th a t M isshepeshu m ight b e th e fath er of the child Fleur la te r bears. The y o ung n a rra to r recalls. L ast w in ter, I w ent to help o u t in h e r cabin w hen she b o re the child, w hose green eyes an d sk in the color of a n old penny m ade m ore talk, as no one c o u ld decide if the child w as m ixed blood or w hat, fathered in a sm okehouse, o r by a m an w ith brass scales, o r by the lake. T he g irl is bold, sm iling in h e r sleep, as if she know s w h at p eo p le w onder, as if she h ears the old m en talk , turning th e sto ry over. (740) F leur's story is a su p ern atu ral one, b u t ev en am ong her native com m unity, it is uncertain. B ut w h a t th e In d ian com m unity does know for certain, as th e n arrato r explains, is th a t 'T o w e r travels in the bloo d lin es, handed o u t before b irth " (740). The p aternity of th e child is in question, a n d th e narrative leaves som e slig h t room for d o u b t ab o u t w hether the to rn ad o w as really caused b y Fleur; b u t like Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 222 th e resid en ts o f H u rsto n 's E atonville, th e N ative A m ericans know things w h ite p eo p le d o n 't It is c lear to the n arrato r th a t w h a t attracted F leu r to A rgus in th e first p lace w as a k in d o f su p ern atu ral challenge: th e steeple o n th e C atho lic church. 'T o r if sh e h a d n 't seen th a t sig n o f p rid e, th a t slim p ray er, th a t m ark e r, m aybe sh e w o u ld have k e p t w alking" (730). A fter F leur has av en g ed h e rself w ith the to rn ad o , "th e C atholic steep le h a d b e e n to m off lik e a p e a k e d cap a n d se n t across five fields" (738). A lthough they can n o t rely on the ju stice o r know ledge o f p resen t-d ay institution s, ru n b y w h ite p eo p le, Fleur a n d M rs. B oger have the pow ers o f ancient trad itio n s b eh in d th em . From th eir su p e m atu ralist p o in t of view , they hav e even m ore kn o w led g e a n d even b e tter ju stice th a n the w hite p eo p le do. T he total fiction o f m ag ical realism is som etim es achieved b y the m u tu al in v alid atio n o f one g ro u p b y th e o th er. In "B lack D eath " a n d in "F leur," the w hites hav e no faith in th e claim s o f th e m inorities, a n d th e m inorities have no fa ith in th e claim s of th e w hites. Justice is n o t alw ays a m atter o f p u n ish in g others, h i th e case of "G host an d Flesh, W ater a n d D irt," b y W illiam G oyen, justice is accep tin g the consequences o f o n e's actions. W hat B rogan says of sto ries o f cu ltu ral h au n tin g , th at they ten d "to organize p lo ts as m o v em en t from n eg ativ e to positive form s o f h au n tin g " (B rogan 17), applies to G o y en's story o f a w o m an w h o retu rn s to h e r h au n ted hom e. The n a rra to r is a w id o w tw ice over; sh e m a rrie d th e second h u sb an d in C alifornia to escape h er first h u sb an d 's g h o st in T exas. She ad dresses the re a d e r as "H oney" as she tells h e r sto ry in D eep E ast T exas d ia le c t "R aym on E m m ons," h e r first h u sband, com m itted suicide o u t of th e d e sp a ir she caused Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 223 him fo r blam in g him fo r th eir d a u g h te r's accidental d eath . W hen sh e retu rn s to Texas a n d to Raym on. E m m on's g h o st, sh e h as m oved from n eg ativ e to positive haunting—b u t th e "greeting" a n d "grieving" of life still com es in cycles. She says, . . . I th in k th a t ghosts, if y o u se t still w ith em long en o ug h , can g iv e y o u o v er to flesh 'n b o n es; a n d th at flesh 'n bo n es, if y o u go ro u n w h e n it's tim e, c a n se n d y o u back to a faith fu l gh ost. O ne p ro v id es the o th er. (313) Cycles o f tim e o r the em ergence o f special circum stances c a n b rin g the pow er o f th e p a st to th e p resen t in th e m agical realist sto ries o f H u rsto n , Erdrich, an d G oyen. T he recycling o f o ld sto ries (to recall C alvino's p h rase) can b e a strategy of b o th m agical realism a n d the neofantastic, b u t as P. G abrielle Forem an p u ts it, "M agic realism , u n lik e the fan tastic o r th e su rre al, presum es th at the in d iv id u a l requires a b o n d w ith the traditions a n d th e fa ith o f the com m unity, th a t s /h e is historically con stru cted an d connected" (286). W iping the slate o f c u ltu ral m em ory d e a n (recalling C alvino's second option) is a possibilty k n o w n to the neo fan tastic b u t n o t to m agical realism . W hile the neofantastic can m anifest nostalg ia, its defin in g q uality is u n certain ty . VII. Strange A ngels: The P uzzling P attern s o f the N eofantastic B ut the slate can never b e w ip e d perfectly clean—even in th e neofantastic there are traces o f p a st beliefs th a t sm u d g e efforts to m ake a fresh philosophical start. The p rem o d em epistem e th a t h au n ts the fantastic genre is still p resen t, if transform ed, in th e neofantastic g en re. U ncertainty in th e stru g g le to in te rp ret Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 224 events as su p ern atu ral o r scientific is th e epistem ological condition h ig h lig hted in T odorov's defin itio n o f th e fantastic as a sta te o f h esitatio n. It is suggested above th at m agical realism versus the neo fan tastic co u ld b e expressed as th e ontological versus th e epistem ological; how ever, B rian M cH ale contends in P ostm odernist Fiction th a t th e dom inant concern o f postm odernism is alw ays ontology. H e takes issu e w ith T odorov's an aly sis o f K afka, th a t h esitatio n is replaced in K afka's w orks b y adaptation. M cH ale w rites, T odorov has failed to see th at in th e co n tex t o f postm odernism the fantastic has b e e n co-opted as o n e o f a n u m b er of strategies o f a n ontological poetics th a t p lu ralizes th e "real" an d thus p roblem atizes representation. The postm odernist fantastic can b e se en as a so rt of jiu -jitsu th a t uses rep resen tation itse lf to overthrow rep resen tatio n . (75) M ore to the p o in t a t h an d , M cH ale argues th a t th e read er o f K afka's fiction continues to h esitate an d ev en resist—a n a rg u m en t th a t preserves the difference betw een the n atu ral (the re a d e r's experience) a n d the su p ern atu ral (the events o f the text). A gain, th e su p ern atu ral here m eans sim p ly th e relativization of space, tim e, or m atter th a t h ap p en s in the unconscious—resu ltin g in dream s o r in im aginative literature. G ranted th a t th e relativ izatio n of space, tim e, o r m atter is a n ontological process, those distinctions— su ch as ontological v ersu s epistem ological—th at begin to overlap so m uch as to confuse m u st b e ab an d o n ed. M cHale suggests another theoretical concept th a t is specific en o u g h to b e usefu l here: the "banalization" of th e fan tastic in postm odernism . In d eed , this begins to so u n d like T odorov's fantastic "ad ap tatio n ," an d it aligns w ith A lazraki's description o f Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 225 the neofantastic as bestow ing "equal v alidity" o n "th e fa m ilia r a n d n a tu ra l" an d "the unfam iliar an d su p ern atu ral" (The Final Islan d 10). To w ip e the slate o f W estern philosophy d e a n of certain distinctions is the stated ag en d a of Julio C ortdzar, w hose story "L a noche boca arrib a" erases th e distinction betw een p a st a n d p resen t w ith th e cu ltu ral strategies of m agical realism . B ut C ortazar's fiction in general is less a v alid atio n o f th e perspectives o f colonized cultures an d m ore a challenge to W estern cu ltu re in its o w n term s. As A lazraki explains, C ortazar's fictional w o rld . . . represents a challenge to cu ltu re, a challenge, as h e p u t it, to "th irty centuries o f Judeo-C hristian dialectics," to "the G reek criterion o f tru th and. erro r," to the hom o sapiens, to logic a n d th e law o f su ffid e n t reaso n an d , in general, to w h at h e calls "th e G reat H a b it" (The Final b la n d 8) W hat "th e G reat H a b it' o cd u d es is " a second reality w h ich is n eith er m ysterious n o r theological, b u t profoundly h u m an " (The Final Islan d 9, em phasis C ortazar's). If the first reality, w ith its thirty-century h isto ry , is in fact larg ely fictional, th en the "second reality " has equal validity; th a t is, it m u st sh are th e statu s of fiction because it claim s th e statu s o f reality. C om peting versions o f reality m ay co-exist because of the law of to tal fiction, th e ru le of the tw en tieth - century epistem e. T hough C ortazar m akes su re to d istin g u ish his "second reality" from traditio nal religion, the suggestion o f a n other w o rld calls u p asso d atio n s o f heaven an d hell, adding a p rem o d em residue to th e relativ ization o f space, tim e, an d m atter, h i neofantastic stories, th e m etaphors o f tran sactio n betw een tw o "realities" are often incarnated as angelic or dem onic fig ures, and, because th e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 226 original m eaning o f "angel" is "m essenger," angels m ake sense in this context. A banalized an g el o r a q u asi-an g el is the c en tral figu re o f th ree Spanish-A m erican neofantastic sto ries th a t raise questions a b o u t consensus reality a n d critiq u e the know n w o rld fro m th e p ersp ectiv e of a n u n k n o w n one. T hose sto ries are "U n senor m uy viejo co n u n o s alas enorm es" ["A V ery O ld M an w ith E norm ous W ings"] b y G arcia M arqu ez, "L as islas n u ev as" ["N ew Islands"] b y M arfa L uisa Bom bal, an d "E l an g el cafdo" ["The F allen A ngel"] b y C ristin a P eri R ossi. G arcia M arquez's sto ry c o u ld also b e d escrib ed as m agical realist, ag ain p ro v in g the considerable o v erlap b etw een th a t genre a n d th e neofantastic; b u t because the quasi-angel ch aracter is n o t a recognizable m an ifestatio n o f com m unal b elief,4 an d because the sto ry q u estio n s the very p o ssibility of recognition, it is prim arily neofantastic. These th ree n eo fan tastic angel sto ries have a n in terestin g S p anish - A m erican predecessor: a sentim ental sto ry b y m odem ista au th o r A m ado N ervo also en titled "E l an g el cafdo" ["The F allen A ngel"]. This sentim ental story, w hich shares th em es w ith o th er m o dem ista sto ries like D ario 's a n d w ith sentim ental stories lik e H aw th o rn e's, serves as a background a g ain st w hich th e neofantastic an g el sto ries w ill achieve g rea ter d efin itio n b y c o n tra st N erv o's sto ry begins, "lirase u n an g el que, p or re to z a r m ds d e la cu en ta sobre u n a n u be crepuscular ten id a d e violetas, p erd io p ie y cayd lastim osam ente a la tierra" [Once there w as a n a n g e l w ho m iscalculated w hile frolicking o n a tw ilig h t clo u d 4 In "The logic o f wings: Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Afro-American literature," Vera M. Kutzinski suggests that this story is a version of "what is commonly known as the myth of the flying Africans," and she makes a good case for the African influence on Garcia Marquez's Caribbean fiction. However, the villagers do not regard the old man as any kind of mythic figure. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 227 tin g ed w ith violets a n d lo st h is footing, falling p itifu lly to earth "] (160). H e injures a w ing in th e fa ll a n d is rescu ed b y a little b oy, w ho takes th e p o o r celestial creature hom e to b e ten d ed b y h is m other. As th e an g el's con dition im proves, he p lay s w ith th e b o y a n d h is sister M aria. A s in N athan iel H aw tho rn e's "T he Snow Im ag e," th e ado rin g m o th er enjoys w atching h er c h ild ren play w ith th e su p e rn a tu ra l creatu re. W h en th e an g el is com pletely cu red , he becom es m elan ch o ly a t th e th o u g h t o f leavin g h is p laym ates. S adness tu rn s to ecstasy as th ey all a g re e to M aria's su g g estio n th a t the an g el take th em w ith him to heaven. F irst th e an g el carries the ch ild ren off, a n d th en h e retu rn s fo r th eir m other. N ervo's story, lik e th o se o f m any U . S. sen tim en tal authors, w as extrem ely p o p u lar th o u g h it w as d e p re cia te d b y critics (C hirinos 222), an d , like several of D ario 's stories, it is b o ld y C ath o lic in its su p e rn atu ral elem ents. To qualify the la tte r point, E du ard o C h irin o s su g g ests th a t the satan ic association o f the sto ry 's title m ay prove th a t "el p o e ta n o p u d o sacudirse d e d e rto ro m an tid sm o " [the p o et could n o t shake a c e rta in rom anticism ] (223). W hether echoing C atholic o r rom antic m odem ista sen tim en ts, th e n arrato r critiq u es th e m aterialist cu ltu re o f "el siglo XX" [the tw en tieth century]: C uando U egaron a casa, solo un o s cuantos chicuelos curios os les segufan. Los h o m b res, m u y ocupados e n su s n eg o d o s, las m ujeres q u e co m ad reab an e n las p lazu elas y a l b o rd e d e las fuentes, n o se h a b ia n p ercatad o d e que p a sab a n u n nifto y u n angel. (161) [W hen th ey a rriv e d ho m e, only a few cu rio u s kids follow ed them . T he m en, v e ry b u sy w ith th eir b u sin ess, the w om en w ho g o ssip ed in th e little p lazas a n d a t th e edge o f the fountains, h a d n o t n o ticed th a t a boy a n d a n angel p assed by.] Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 228 A lthough th e d istracted ad u lts d o n o t see th e angel in N erv o 's sto ry , th e faith an d innocence o f th e ch ild ren m ake th e an g el visible to them . T his a g ain recalls th e ch ild ren in H aw th o rn e's "The S now Im age," w ho w o rk "m iracles" w ith their "sim ple a n d u n d o u bting fram e o f m in d " (H aw thorne 1080). N ervo dedicates "El £ngel cafdo" to his niece M arfa d e los Angeles, w hose nam esake is the g irl in th e sto ry . "U n sefior m uy viejo c o n u n o s alas enorm es," w a s also w ritten for ch ild ren (K utzinski 217), a n d it is su b titled "A Tale fo r C hild ren " in its E nglish tran slatio n . T he o ld m an, w ho h a s fallen from the sky, is first believed to be an angel because o f the coincidence o f h is arriv al an d th e sickness of a baby. W hen the ch ild g row s o ld er, he plays w ith th e angel; b u t this is n o t th e h ap p y gam boling of the trio in N ervo's story. T he b o y in G arcia M arquez's sto ry does n o t respect his celestial playm ate: "El dngel n o fue m enos displicente co n el que con el resto d e los m o rtales, pero soportaba las infam ias rrtis ingeniosas con u n a m ansedum bre d e p e rro sin ilusiones" (18) [T he angel w as no less stan d o ffish w ith him th an w ith o th e r m ortals, b u t h e to lerated the m ost ingenious infam ies w ith the patience o f a d o g w ho h ad no illu sio n s (209)]. The ch ild is n o t sentim entalized an d n eith er is th e m other, E lisenda. She comes u p w ith the id e a to p u t a fence a ro u n d th e angel an d charge ad m issio n to the curious, a n d th o u g h this soon m akes h e r fam ily rich, she cannot to lerate the presence o f the an g el in h e r house after his fence caves in. H e seem s to b e all over the house a t once, "y la exasperada E lisenda g ritab a fuera d e quicio que era u n a d esg ratia vivir e n aq u el infiem o lleno d e dngeles" (19) [and th e ex asp erated a n d u n hinged E lisenda sh o u ted th a t it w as aw fu l liv in g in th at h ell fu ll of angels (209)]. W hen h e gets sick, h er only w orry is n o t know ing how to d isp o se o f d ead Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 229 angels, a n d she sighs w ith relief w h e n she w atches h im d e p a rt a t th e en d o f th e story (20). She is g lad th a t h e r ch ild h as b een le ft b eh in d b y th e angel, an d she has no d esire to accom pany h im herself. B ut w hy sh o u ld she? This very banalized v ery o ld m an w ith en orm o u s w ings m ay n o t e v e n b e a n angel. The first im pression th a t E lisen d a an d h e r h u sb an d Pelayo have of th e o ld m an is th at h e is a "p esadilla" [nightm are]: A m bos observaron e l cu erp o cafdo con u n callado estupor. E staba vestido com o u n trap ero . Le q u ed ab an ap en as u n as hilachas descoloridas e n e l crdneo pelado y m u y pocos dientes e n la boca, y su lastim osa co n d itio n d e bisabuelo enso p ad o lo habfa desprovisto d e to d a grandeza. Sus alas d e gallinazo gran d e, su tias y m ed io d esplum adas, estab an encallad as p ara siem pre en el lodazal. (11) [They b o th looked a t th e fallen body w ith m u te stu p o r. H e w as d ressed like a rag p ick er. T here w ere only a few fad ed h airs left o n his b ald sk u ll a n d very few tee th in h is m outh, an d h is p itifu l co n d itio n o f a drenched g reat-g ran d fath er h a d tak en aw ay any sen se o f g ran d e u r he m ig h t h av e h a d . H is hu g e b u zzard w ings, d irty a n d half-plucked, w ere forever en tan g led in the m u d . (204)] This descrip tio n is a t th e o p p o site extrem e of th e aesth etic scale from th at of N ervo's fallen angel5: "P aretia u n g ra n pajaro azul, con alg o d e m ujer y m ucho de palom a, y h asta e n lo zu rd o d e s u an d ar habfa g ra tia y sefiorio" (162) [H e resem bled a g rea t blu e bird , w ith som ething o f a w om an a n d m u ch o f a dove about him , a n d even in the clum siness of his w alk there w as grace an d dignity]. 5 Eduardo Chirinos pursues this comparison in “Del quetzal al gallinazo: la percepcidn popular del angel en dos cuentos hispanoamericanos (“El dngel cafdo" de Amado Nervo y "Un senor muy viejo con unas alas enormes" de Gabriel Garcia Mdrquez)" [From Bird o f Paradise to Buzzard: The Popular Perception of the A ngel in Two Spanish-American stories...] . This comparison was first suggested to Chirinos by the remarks of Oscar Hahn. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 230 T here is som e aw k w ard ness in N erv o 's an g el because h e 's u n u se d to E arth ; for instance, th e n a rra to r n o tes th a t th e S un day-school sticker icon is re v e rse d w h en the boy carries th e an g el hom e. B ut th is tem p o rary aw kw ardness is fa r fro m the continuous n astin ess o f G arcia M arq u ez's angel. As P elayo a n d E lisenda recover fro m th e ir surprise, they co n clu d e th a t the fallen o ld m an is a castaw ay. "Sin em b arg o , llam aro n p ara q u e lo v iera a u n a v e d n a qu e sab ia to d as las cosas d e la v id a y la m uerte, y a ella le b a std co n u n a m irada p a ra sacarlos d e l erro r" (12) [A n d y e t, th ey called in a n eig h b o r w o m an w ho knew ev ery th in g ab o u t life a n d d e a th to see h im , and a ll she n e e d e d w as one look to sh o w th em th eir m istake (204)]. It is sh e w ho declares h im a n angel, an d he is called a n an g el thereafter. B u t e v en th o u g h everyone accepts th a t h e is a n angel, they d o n o t tre a t him as one. T h e n ex t m orning the co u p le fin d s "to d o el v ed n d ario fren te a l gallinero, reto zan d o co n el dngel sin la m en o r d e v o d d n y echandole cosas d e com er p o r los huecos d e las alam bradas, com o s i n o fu e ra una criatura so b ren atu ral sino u n anim al de circo" (13) [the w hole n eig h b o rh o o d in fro n t of th e chicken coop having fu n w ith th e angel, w ith ou t th e slig h te st reverence, to ssin g h im things to e a t th ro u g h th e openings in th e w ire as if h e w e ren 't a su p e rn a tu ra l creature b u t a d rc u s an im al (205)]. T he v illag ers a re n o t in sp ired to tre a t th e o ld m an like a n an g el, a n d the "angel" does n o t tre a t th e p arish p riest like a m in ister of G od; th e o ld m an w ill n o t show h im re sp e c t o r speak to h im in L atin (13). Even the d o c to r is p u z zled by the p o o r c re atu re , a n d after exam ining h im , th e doctor is su rp rise d th a t h e is alive a t all a n d also su rp rised b y "la logica d e sus alas. R esu ltab an ta n naturales e n aq u el organism o com pletam ente h u m an o , qu e no p o d ia en ten d erse p o r que no las ten fan tam bi£n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 231 los otro s hom bres" (18) [th e logic o f h is w ings. T hey seem ed so n atu ral o n th a t com pletely h u m an o rg an ism th a t h e c o u ld n 't u n d e rsta n d w hy oth er m en d id n 't h av e them too (209)]. W hile th e ch ild ren a n d th eir m other in N erv o 's sto ry can converse w ith th eir fallen angel, no one e v er b reak s the code o f th e w in g ed o ld m an's lan g uag e in G arcia M arquez's sto ry . H e com es a n d goes w ith o u t explanation, a n d th e m ystery soon tires the cro w d , w ho d esert h im fo r a m o re sensible w o n d e r a w om an changed into a sp id e r fo r hav in g d isobeyed h e r paren ts. This trav elin g show no solo costaba m enos q u e la en trad a p a ra v e r a l £ngel, sino que p erm itian h acerle to d a d a se d e p reg u n ta s sobre su ab su rd a co n d itid n , y exam inarla a l derecho y a l reves, de m odo qu e n ad ie p u sie ra e n d u d a la v erd ad d e l h orror. (16) [was n o t only less th a n th e adm ission to see th e angel, b u t people w ere p erm itted to ask her a ll m an n er o f questions ab o u t h e r ab su rd sta te a n d exam ine h e r u p a n d d o w n so th at no one w o u ld e v er d o u b t th e tru th o f h e r h o rro r. (208)] The intelligibility o f the sp id e r w om an w ins h e r ad m irers, an d the angel is abandoned for n o t being ab le to iden tify him self, h i th e en d , the reader kn ow s all ab o u t the villagers a n d alm o st n o th in g ab o u t th e an g el. Jo h n G erlach explains ho w "d u ste rs" of p ossibilities "give the story its p o w er a n d create the effects w e id en tify w ith fantasy; the clu sters w o rk m uch th e sam e w ay as the h esitatio n o v e r the n atu ral an d the su p e rn atu ral [in T odorov's d escrip tio n of the fantastic]" (128). G erlach's a rtid e , "T he L ogic o f W ings: G arcia M drquez, T odorov, an d th e E ndless R esources o f F antasy," takes issue w ith G eorge M cM urray's Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 232 in terp retatio n o f 'T Jn hom bre m u y viejo con unos alas enorm es," th at the story is a "cathartic destru ctio n o f an tiq u ated m yths" (q u o ted in G erlach 121). Stretching T odorov's defin ition of the fan tastic to neofantastic len g th s, G erlach describes "fantasy" as a process o f recu perating a b reak from norm s; a n d since it is n o t a resu lt, "its resources are endless, an d it is in no w ay d ep en d e n t o n the fashion o f the conventions it ad ap ts" (129). G erlach's article concludes b y dw elling o n the m agical possibilities o f neofantastic to ta l fiction: W hat o ne ultim ately grasp s in a fantasy is th e p o ten tial of language to construct a w o rld p artly , b u t n o t w holly like o u r ow n. Fantasy is th e logical extension, the w ings, o f language itself. lite ra tu re in g en eral an d fantasy in p articu lar are the m agic w hich o u r custom ary language so dim ly represents. (129) The endless resources o f fantasy a re em ployed in tw o fem inist stories th at also m ake use o f the figure o f a fallen angel; how ever, "E l in g e l cafdo" by C ristina Peri Rossi a n d "Las n uevas islas" by M arfa L uisa B om bal use the m agic of language to critique social problem s. Peri R ossi's "El in g e l cafdo" repeats m any of the p attern s of p uzzlem ent fo u n d in G arcia M irq u e z 's story, b u t the settin g o f h er story is u rb an a n d post-apolcalyptic. T he fall o f th e angel in Peri R ossi's story is likened to th e fall of espionage satellites, a n d th e passersby w ho reg ard him are fru strated a t th eir in ab ility to categorize h im b y race o r sex. O nly a m iddle-aged w om an w ho ignores the sirens th a t scatter th e crow d regards the angel w ith com passion. She w o nders if h e w ill be m issed, n o w th a t he has fallen; an d w hen she is arrested by soldiers fo r defying the o rd e r o f the sirens, the angel "se p reguntd si alg u ien echarfa d e m enos a la m ujer q ue habfa cafdo, antes d e ser in tro d u d d a con v io len tia en el coche b lin d ad o " (15) [w ondered if anyone w ould Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 233 m iss the w o m an w h o h a d fallen before b ein g v io len tly forced in to th e arm o red car (8)]. T his p a tte rn o f co rresp o n d en ce b etw een an g els fallin g to e a rth a n d w om en falling in m asculine society is fo u n d in "Las islas n u ev as," a sto ry fro m fifty y ears earlier- The q u asi-an g elic Y olanda is fru stra te d b y th e ag gressivity o f h e r beloved Ju an M anuel. T he d a y n ew islan ds m ag ically em erge in n earb y lakes, Juan M anuel sets o u t to h u n t o n them . L ater, w h e n h e spies o n Y olanda as sh e is undressing, h e sees th e stu m p o f w ing o n on e o f h e r sho u ld ers. G ab riela M ora suggests th a t th is u n fo rm ed w in g represents one o f B om bal's rec u rren t them es: "la m ujer com o ser incom plete), deform ado y , p o r tan to , infeliz" (855) [w om an as incom plete being, d efo rm ed an d , as such, u n h ap p y ]. E ven th o u g h these tw o stories have a d e a r p o litical m essage, they em ploy n eo fan tastic techniques of p uzzlem ent—the p assersb y a re pu zzled in "El dngel cafdo" a n d Ju a n M anuel is puzzled b y th e sig h t o f Y olanda7 s form ing w ing—w h ic h challenge th e "G reat H abit" (as C o rtazar p u ts it) o f W estern trad itio n . Vm. M iniature U niverses a n d R eflective Story-Surfaces: V isionary Space a n d the T extualization o f th e R eader in N eo fan tastic Fiction W om en take th e m o re traditional ro le o f m use in tw o n eo fan tastic stories p attern ed a fter D an te's v isio n ary epics. In "T he S w im m er" b y Jo h n C heever a n d "El A leph" ["The A lep h "] b y Borges, beloved w o m en are a b rid g e b etw een the protagonists a n d th e cosm os. In C heever7 s sto ry , N e d d y M errill is in sp ire d one sum m er m orning to sw im h is w ay hom e from a su b u rb a n party: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 234 H e seem ed to see, w ith a carto g rap h er's eye, th a t strin g o f sw im m ing pools, th a t q u asi-su b terran ean stre am th a t curv ed across the county. H e h a d m ad e a discovery, a co n trib u tio n to m o d em geography; h e w o u ld n am e th e stre am L u cin d a after h is w ife. (714) B orges, fictionalized as n a rra to r o f "E l A leph," is p u t o n th e p a th o f a su p e rn atu ral p o in t o f space by th e com m em oration o f h is beloved: "Beatriz V iterbo m u rio e n 1929; d esd e en to n es, n o d eje p asar u n tre in ta d e abril sin volver a su casa" (152) [Beatriz V iterbo d ie d in 1929. From th a t tim e on, I never le t a th irtie th o f A p ril go b y w ith o u t a v isit to h e r house (286)]. B orges explains, "A sf, e n aniversarios melanc61icos y v an am en te eroticos, re d b f las graduales co n fid en d as d e C arlos A rgentino D an eri" (153) [It w as in th is w ay, on these m elancholy an d vainly erotic an n iv ersaries, th at I cam e in to the gradual confidences of C arlos A rgentino D an eri (286)]. D aneri is B eatriz's cousin, a n asp irin g w riter of b ad po etry , a n d h e has sole access to th e secret A leph in his basem ent—u n til he show s it to B orges. A t first look, these tw o sto ries h ard ly seem to h av e en o u g h in com m on to ju stify th eir com parison. N ed d y M errill is b lan d U. S. b o u rg eois a n d Borges is a n obsessed A rgentine intellectual. N ed d y sw im s the co u n ty as seasons pass u n n o ticed b y him an d retu rn s hom e to a n abandoned h o u se. Borges ingratiates him self to his beloved's cousin, a m an he despises, an d after seeing D aneri's A lep h for him self, chooses to p re te n d he saw nothing a n d g ro w s to d o u b t its a u th e n tid ty . B ut as Stanley J. K ozikow ski explains, C heever w as a lover of D ante, w hose w orks h e re a d rep eated ly ; a n d as Jon T hiem explains, Borges, too, w as a lo v er o f D ante, w hose w orks h e rea d repeatedly. B oth "T he Sw im m er" Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 235 and 'T h e A leph" a re a k in d o f Com m edia: th ey a re b o th inform ed by w h at Thiem calls "th e po etics o f to tal vision." The poetics o f to ta l vision, according to T hiem , is, " in o th er w ords a stu d y of the principles a n d lim its o f expressing to ta l v isio n b y m eans o f verbal art" (101). T hough D an te h im self com plains o f th e im possiblity o f the task, one o f h is m etaphors fo r sp iritu a l exhaustion, th a t o f a sp e n t sw im m er, becom es th e seed o f C heever's story (K ozikow ski 368). A nd D ante th e p ilg rim 's perception o f G od as a p o in t of lig h t w h o se brilliance hu rts th e eye is recalled b y B orges' d escrip tio n o f the A leph as "a sm all irid escen t sphere o f alm o st unbearable brilliance" (Thiem 101). Tim e an d sp ace are su p em atu rally relativ ized in b o th stories, b u t as in other neofantastic fiction, th e sup ern atu ral is b an alized . N ed d y 's hell is a series of sw im m ing p ools a n d th eir proprieters w ho are increasingly unfriendly to N eddy; D aneri's A lep h h elps him w rite p rep o stero u s p o etry th a t w ins the Second N ational P rize fo r L iterature, m u ch to B orges' chagrin. Besides m anifesting th e cosm ic literary m o d el of the C om m edia. these stories by C heever a n d Borges display o th er in tertex tu al qualities. B orges' sto ry is filled w ith d irect lite ra ry references, an d C h eev er's is a neofantastic echo of tw o quintessential U . S. sh o rt stories, as critics h av e n o ted —"Rip V an W inkle" and "P eter R ugg, T he M issing M an" (both discu ssed in C hapter HI).6 C heever gives N eddy the b a n ality o f R ip V an W inkle a n d th e doom ed destiny o f P eter Rugg. C haracteristic o f postm odern pessim ism , u nlike D an te's pilgrim , n eith er 6 Robert M. Slabey, w hose article compares Neddy and Rip Van Winkle, point out this contrast: "Cheever omits the final movement of the archetype (Rip's reconciliation with the new life o f the town), but he plays out the full, darker implications" (185). James W. Mathews explains how both Neddy and Peter Rugg tragically "demonstrate the same unbounded faith in the celebrated American ideal of self-determination and in the concomitant myth of guaranteed success" (101). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 236 N eddy n o r B orges a re tran sfo rm ed o r d eliv ered b y th eir to ta l v isio n . T his shifts the b u rd en o f learn in g to th e rea d er, w hose know ledge is n o w e q u a l to th at of N eddy a n d Borges b u t w hose existential options are still o p e n a fte r th e stories are ended. B oth "The Sw im m er" a n d "T he A leph" acknow ledge th e re a d e r in a neofantastic effort to absorb h e r in to th e text. The second sectio n of "T he Sw im m er" begins: H ad y o u go n e fo r a S unday aftern o o n ride th a t d a y y o u m ig h t have seen h im [N eddy], close to naked, stan d in g o n the shoulders o f R oute 424, w aitin g fo r a chance to cross. Y ou m igh t have w o n d ered if h e w as the victim o f foul p lay , h a d his car bro k en do w n , o r w as h e m erely a fool. (718) This brief confrontation of th e read er, th o u g h unsustained, is e n o u g h to expand the boundaries of th e tex t to in clu d e th e read er's experience, o r a t lea st the possibility of h er experience. A n even briefer m ention of th e re a d e r in '"The A leph" is y e t m ore confrontational. In a long passage d escrib in g B orges' total vision in the A leph, he w rites: . . . v i el engranaje d e l am o r y la m odification d e la m u erte, v i el A leph, d esd e todos los p u n to s, v i en el A leph la tie rra, y en la tierra o tra v ez el A lep h y e n el A le p h la tierra, v i m i c ara y m is vfsceras, v i tu cara. y senff vertigo y llore, p o rq u e m is ojos habian visto ese objeto secreto y conjetural, cuyo n o m b re u su rp an los hom bres, p ero q u e n in g u n hom bre ha m irad o : el inconcebible u niverso. (166, em phasis m ine) [... I saw the coupling o f lo v e a n d the m odification o f d eath ; I saw the A lep h from ev ery p o in t a n d angle, a n d in th e A lep h I saw the earth a n d in th e e a rth th e A leph an d in the A le p h the earth; I saw m y o w n face a n d m y o w n bow els; I saw v o u r face: an d I felt d izzy a n d w ep t, fo r m y eyes h a d seen th a t se cre t an d conjectured object w hose nam e is com m on to all m en b u t Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 237 w hich no m an has lo o k ed u p o n —the u nim aginable un iv erse. (293, em phasis m ine)] T he rea d er could h ave seen N e d d y M errill, a n d th e read er h as been se e n by B orges. The law o f to tal fictio n d ra w s n o ontological d istin ctio n b etw een th e re a d e r a n d th e text she read s, an d a sim ilar state of affairs is aptly describ ed b y P atricia W augh in her stu d y M eta fiction: T h e T heory a n d Practice o f Self-C onscious Fiction. She w rites: Meta fiction is a te rm g iv e n to fictional w ritin g w hich self consciously a n d sy stem atically draw s atten tio n to its statu s a s a n artefact [sic] in o rd e r to p o se qu estion s about th e relationship b etw een fictio n a n d reality. In prov id in g a critique o f th eir o w n m eth o d s of construction, su ch w ritin gs not only exam ine th e fu n d am en tal stru ctu res of n arrativ e fiction, they also e x p lo re th e possible fictionality o f th e w o rld outside th e literary fiction al te x t (2) She also m akes this p ith y statem en t: "T he trad itio n al fictional q u e st h a s th u s b een transform ed in to a q u e st fo r fictio n a lity ' (10). Like n early all critics of p o stm o d ern o r su p ern atu ral fiction , W augh cites T odorov's stu d y o f th e fantastic, w hich sh e considers as "an alternative w orld." She takes as h e r p o in t of d e p artu re T odorov's o b serv atio n th a t "literary discourse can n o t b e tru e o r false, it can only be valid in rela tio n to its o w n prem ises" (quoted in W augh 109). T hus, m etafictional texts "p u rsu e th e ir q u estio n in g th ro u g h the self-conscious construction of altern ativ e w o rld s w h ich contest th e 're a lity of the ev ery d ay w o rld , o r of each o th er" (109). N early all theorists o f p o stm o d e rn fiction also cite a sto ry b y B orges, "T lbn, U qbar, O rbis T ertius," in w h ich objects from a fictio n al w o rld b eg in to a p p e a r in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 238 the "real" on e. A nother em blem atic exam ple of the law o f to ta l fictio n is "C o n tin u id ad d e los p arq u es" b y C o rtd zar. In this tw o -p arag rap h tale, a m an read in g a n o v e l is m u rd ered b y o n e o f its characters. In y e t an o th er sto ry of total fiction, a m a n is m u rd ered b y th e w o m an in his dream . "E l u m b ral" ["The T hreshold"], b y C ristina P eri R ossi, beg in s w ith the co m p lain t o f a w om an w ho is m iserable because sh e d o e sn 't d re a m a n d so, "Le faltab a la p u e rta d e lo s sueflos que se abre cad a noche p a ra p o n e r e n d u d a las certidum bres d e l dfa" (123) [She d o e sn 't hav e th e d o o r of d ream s th a t o p en s every n ig h t to q u e stio n the certainties o f th e d a y (97)]. She is en v io u s o f her lover fo r h is ab ility to dream , an d he trie s to h elp h er across th e d re a m th resh o ld b y creatin g a sto ry w ith h er th at m ig h t tran slate into th eir d ream s th a t night. T heir co n v ersatio n blends w ith his d ream as h e falls asleep, a n d sh e d irects h er fictional se lf to stab h is fictional self in the back. As he tries to w ak e fro m th a t dream , h e slip s in a pool o f blood. The b o u n d a ry betw een d rea m s a n d dream ers a n d th e b o u n d ary betw een readers a n d literary characters m ay b e perm eable, an d so m ay b e the b oundary betw een th e p a st a n d the p resen t, in th e tw entieth-century ep istem e. In a piece of historical sh o rt fiction b y D o n ald B arthelm e, "C ortes a n d M ontezum a" (another case, like B ow les', o f a U . S. a u th o r capitalizing o n th e perceived m arvelous reality o f Spanish A m erica), A lazraki's d efin itio n o f th e neofantastic m ust be slig h tly am m ended. R ath er th a n presenting a m ix tu re o f th e fam iliar and the u n fam iliar, this story p re se n ts a m ixture of tw o fam iliar w o rld s w hich are m ade u n fam iliar by th eir co m b in atio n . Strange am algam s o f p a st an d p resen t accum ulate w ith m ore tra d itio n a l instances of the su p e rn atu ral. A letter of M o ntezum a's, to h is m other, co n tain s th is exem plary passage: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 239 N o t since the late years of th e last B undle h av e w e h ad so m any sp ittin g , fartin g , h air-shedding d ev ils ab ro ad . A long w ith th e d ev ils th ere have b e en roaches, roaches as big as ironing b o ard s. T hen, too, w e h av e th e S p a n ia rd s. . . (72) The sto ry en d s w ith a strange figure rep eated th ro u g h o u t th e sto ry an d finally su p em atu ralized : "T he p a ir w alking d o w n b y th e docks, h a n d in h and, the ghost of M o ntezum a reb u k es th e g h o st o f C ortes. 'W hy d id y o u n o t throw u p your h an d , a n d catch th e stone?'" (76). M ontezum a's g h o st believes th a t C ortes could h av e sav ed h im from assassination. B ut th e dram atic historical events are m in im ized in B arthelm e's story, a n d as Lois G ordon notes th a t w h at strikes the read er is "B arthelm e's em phasis o f th e p erso n al an d y e t o ften banal dram a to be told, ra th e r th a n the larger, trad itio n al on e recited by h isto ry texts" (201). H ere the fan tastic is n o t banalized, rath er, th e b an alized is th e fantastic. M ontezum a's "rebuke" o f C ortes m u st b e m ild , since it is spoken as th ey h o ld hands. The ghosts exhib it a k in d of good-sportsm anship, resigned to w h at the sto ry suggests: " th a t w h atev er th eir tim e a n d place, p eo p le are ultim ately controlled by the forces of history" (G ordon 200). D onald B arthelm e h as said in a n interview , th a t h e believes C ortes an d M ontezum a h a d a g en u in e h ig h reg ard for each o ther; thus, their p o sitio n as enem ies is a k in d o f h isto rical tragedy. B ut th e b an ality o f the story keeps tragic sentim entality a t bay; in B arthelm e's w ords, If I d id n 't have roaches big as iro n in g b o ard s in th e story I c o u ld n 't show C ortes an d M ontezum a h o ld in g h an d s, it w ould b e m erely sentim ental. Y ou look a ro u n d fo r offsetting m aterial, th in g s th a t tell the read er th a t alth o u g h X is happ en in g , X is to b e reg ard ed in th e lig h t o f Y ------(Interview 104) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 240 T his strateg y o f presen tin g conflicting forces together m eans th a t th e se n tim en t o f "X" is canceled b y th e ab su rd ity o f "Y," p ro d u cin g a m atter-of-fact atm o sp h ere o f neofantastic banality. F urtherm o re, th is strateg y calls atten tio n to th e te x t as text, locating B arthelm e's w o rk (ag ain st h is rep o rte d w ishes) in the category o f m etafiction. A particularly m etafictional m ove in B arthelm e's sto ry is the p resen ta tio n o f his source as a character in th e story: "B ernal D iaz d e C astillo, w ho w ill one d a y w rite The T rue H isto ry o f th e C o n q u est o f N ew S p ain . stan d s in a sq u a re w h ittlin g u p o n a piece o f m esq u ite" (73). A gain, the "X" force o f seriousness in v o k ed by the tide T he T ru e H isto ry is canceled by th e "Y" force o f triv iality inv o k ed by the w hittling. B arth elm e's fictional history o f the conquest o f N ew S pain, "C ortes an d M ontezum a," includes, along w ith the w hole scene o f th e conquest, the chronicler w ho reco rd ed it—th u s fictionalizing the ch ro n icler's "tru e " acco u n t As observed b y M aurice C ou tu rier a n d Regis D uran d , B arthelm e strain s o u r intelligence a n d im agination, to leave u s in a m ental d aze, m u c h as E scher does in su ch w orks as Convex an d C oncave, o r C ube w ith M agic R ibbons, w hich w e cannot possibly v iew as sim ultaneously b o th convex an d concave. H e v irtu ally p rev en ts u s from n aturalizing his fictions, urgin g us, in stea d , to see th em as objects, as solid blocks. (71) B ut again, a self-consciously fictional w o rld th a t absorbs into itself h isto rical p eo p le o r "true" histories challenges th e reality status of the w o rld o u tsid e die te x t If A m erican histo ry is a fiction, p erh ap s the culture is a fiction, an d th e re a d e r m ay also be a fiction. F rom th e A m erican dream of R ip V an W inkle to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 241 C ristina P eri R ossi's d ream th resh o ld , A m erican, au th o rs of su p e rn a tu ra l sh o rt fiction su g g est th a t tim e a n d sp a ce a n d m a tte r are relative everyw here. R eaders are now req u ired to m an ag e m o re a n d m o re p lu ralized w orlds o f d isco u rse, a n d th is fact req u ires a re tu rn to co n sid eratio n o f th e sh o rt story genre, w h ic h is ro o ted in m agazines. In a se ctio n en titled "T he S hort Story as th e F o rm of Form s," in h is treatise o n D o n a ld B arthelm e, C harles M olesw orth observes, T he sto ries in som e sen se reflect th e ir place o f publication, nam ely th e m o d em m ag azin e. A d d ressed to a n audience w ith a relativ ely w id e experience of trav el, a n acute sense o f fash io n a n d change, as w ell as a consciousness form ed in p a rt b y a p u rp o sely p lia n t c u ltu ra l context, th ese stories m u st co n stan tly w iden, sh ift, a n d q u ick e n th eir re a d e rs' sense of tim ely d etails. In a sense, B arth elm e's stories m u st com pete w ith, ev en as they ironically co m m en t on, th e advertisem ents a n d n on fictio n features th a t su rro u n d them . T his calls for a fictional voice th a t is b o th coy a n d disaffected, n aiv ely desirous an d d isp assio n ately su av e, especially in reg ard to the vagaries o f statu s a n d th e q u ick silv er tokens o f its possessors. (10) T he neofantastic becom es a "qu ick silv er" p a ssp o rt am ong the m u ltip ly in g w orlds of the tu rn in g m illen n iu m . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 242 CON CLU SION W ith a n o th e r m illennium o f W estern cu ltu re p assed, a n d the quincen ten ary o f th e E uropean a rriv a l to the A m ericas observed, the su p ern atu ral is still alive a n d w ell in lite ra tu re. In the p a st o n e h u n d re d an d fifty years th e sh o rt sto ry has em erged a n d flo u rish ed in the lite ra ry m arketplace, and it has c a p tu re d th e atten tio n o f read ers in larg e p a rt because o f its su p em atu ralist preoccupations. T he pains o f n in eteen th -cen tu ry sh o rt sto ry conventions are notew orthy: fro m its inception, it stro v e to rem in d its read er o f a n o th er w orld w hich w as co n sid ered best forgotten, a n d it h a d to provide financially fo r its authors a t th e sam e tim e. Folktale fo rm u lae th a t h a d alw ays d ra w n a n audience w ere u p d a te d o r presen ted a t a safe distan ce from the skeptical read er. W hen science b e g an to lo se its credibility in th e tw en tieth century, folktale form ulae m aintained p o p u la r in terest a n d took th e lead in stories once again. T he m o d e m attitu d e to w ard folklore o f ad m iring condescension has given w ay to a co n tem p o rary adm ission th a t folklore feeds the psych e in a u n iq u e and irreplaceable w ay. B ut a re tu rn to b elief in a su p ern atu ral reality has n o t taken place; in stea d , th e N ew W orld an d n e w th o u g h t have op en ed u p for th e reader m any m ore w o rld s th an tw o. If read ers req u ire a gatew ay to a n o th er w orld, there are a d izzy in g num ber of w o rld s in the discourse of A m erican cu ltu res and in the d isco u rse o f postm odernism . P ostm odernism sp lin tered th e hom ogenous w orld of m o d e m m aterialism an d im perialism , b u t w ill postm o dern ism find its lim its too? W ill read ers be satisfied w ith ev er increasing choices if those choices are n o t a ttac h ed to m eaning? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 243 These speculations can only b e answ ered b y th e literary history th a t has y et to be w ritten . F or no w , I hope th a t this stu d y h as d ra w n attention to the uniqueness o f A m erican su p ern atu ral sh o rt fiction, w h ich is as valuable to W estern literatu re a s its E u rop ean counterpart. R oberto G onzdlez E chevarria, in his ancle "L atin A m erican a n d C om parative L iteratu res," points o u t a characteristic "belatedness" o f L atin A m erican lite ra tu re th a t forces a self questioning w hich "m ay v ery w ell be w h at ho n es it in to th e cutting edge o f literary p ro d u ctio n to d ay " (55). This could b e sa id o f U. S. literatu re as w ell, w hich along w ith L atin A m erica is a reco rd o f "th e m o st significant historical break in the W est since th e b irth o f C h rist the D iscovery a n d C onquest of A m erica" (G onzalez E chevarria 55). A nd y et A m erican literatu re is as en titled to deal w ith the b irth o f C h rist as it is to d eal w ith th e D iscovery an d C onquest o f Am erica. It is also en title d to d eal w ith the creation stories o f N ative A m erican cultures. G onzalez E chevarria calls for a new b reed o f critics a n d scholars train ed in the languages of the A m ericas, w ho "w ill n o t re a d 'p e rip h e ral literatu res' alw ays from the center, b u t w ill b e capable of read in g th em also in their ow n context" (58). W hat else is necessary, a n d has b eg u n to ap p ear, is a breed of scholars an d critics w ho do n o t re a d m ore p o p u lar genres like th e sh o rt story or su p ern atu ral literature as "p erip h eral." A uthors an d genres w h ich w ere w idely p o p u lar in their day m u st be rev iv ed a n d studied. Studies like Jane Tom pkins' Sensational D esigns: The C u ltu ral W ork of Am erican Fiction 1790-1860 have d em onstrated th at po p u lar literatu re has im portance even w h en its artistic m erit is deem ed lacking. P o p u lar lite ra tu re can also h ave artistic m erit; an d , furtherm ore, it offers Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 244 a b e tter record o f a g iv en c u ltu ra l m om ent th an d o m an y critically-acclaim ed w orks of literatu re, w h ich in flu en ce cu ltu re w ith o u t necessarily reflecting its cu rren t interests. A m erican su p e rn a tu ra l sh o rt fiction is a lite ra tu re o f b o rd ers: the b o rd er b etw een high a n d lo w c u ltu re , th e b o rd er betw een th is w o rld a n d others, the b o rd er betw een U . S. a n d L a tin A m erica, the b o rd er b e tw e e n m o d em m aterialism a n d p rem o d e m su p em atu ralism , a n d th e b o rd e r betw een literary trad itio n an d in n o v atio n . T h u s, A m erican su p e rn atu ral sh o rt fiction is com parative in th e b e st sense—it raises questions th a t m u st b e p u rsu e d across b o th tim e an d space, q u estio n s th a t m u ltiply bey o n d th e b o u n d aries of this stu d y . For instance, h o w is N ativ e A m erican folklore affected b y m odem W estern culture? T he to w n sto ry teller of San Ju an G uelavfa, a Z apotec village in O axaca, M exico (the to w n w h e re I sp e n t m y childhood), to ld a n intriguing story w hich m y fath er tran scrib ed in "A necdotas p o r el Serior P ed ro H em dndez." The title, "D e cuando e l Seftor L o o n fu e a v er las ru in as" ["W hen Seflor L oon W ent to See the R uins"] is in S panish, b u t the story w as first w ritte n d o w n in Zapotec. Senor L oon goes to M itla, a n earb y m arket to w n w h ich h as ruins o f the an cien t Z apotec civilization, a n d h e m eets som eone th ere w h o later finds him a t hom e and know s him b y nam e: "C hiy gueldilaazbi —nab— d ec encantadpac nd M itliqui, ru t guc liz d e to g u las" (12) [That w as w h en h e b eliev ed for su re th a t it's enchanted there in M itla, w h ere th e ru in s are]. T he sto ry en d s w ith the b rief account of an o th er v isito r w h o h as a R ip V an W inkle experience in the sam e ru in s. A fter selling h is w ares a t th e m arket, he ties his b u rro o u tsid e an d steps in to the ruins to look a t th e fig u res inscribed in th e w alls. W hen h e em erges, h e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 245 c a n 't find, his b u rro an d ask s if anyone h as seen it. Som eone tells him , "—A xtisy g u d u b iz cua tu b y b u rr ru u ju sg ad q u it rd x ialti tu xtenm i. N e p a r laab rlilo b tu b y ratizy giieb, n e tu b y iz guegiaab gu y aa" (12) ["L ast y e a r there w as a b u rro tie d near the co u rt h e re in M itla, a n d no o n e kn ew w h o se it w as." H e b eliev ed th a t it h ad only been a little w hile, b u t an en tire y e ar h a d p assed as he loo k ed a t th e figures]. T hough th e m estizo m arketplace ru n s o n m o d em tim e, th e an cien t Z apotec ru in s h av e a u sab le eternal. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 246 B ibliography A bram s, M. H . N atu ral S upernaturalism - T radition a n d R evolution in R om antic lite ra tu re . N ew Y ork: N orton, 1971. A lazraki, Jaim e. E n b u sca d e l unicom io: Los cuentos d e Tulio C o rtizar: Elem entos p a ra u n a poetica d e lo neofantdstico. M adrid: E ditorial G redos, 1983. A lazraki, Jaim e, a n d Iv ar Iv ask , ed s. The Final Tsland: T he Fiction o f Tulio C ortazar. 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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 251 C urrent-G arcfa, E ugene. The A m erican S h o rt Story before 1850: A C ritical H istory. Boston: T w ayne, 1985. D ario, R uben. "V erbnica." R uben D ario: C uentos fan tastico s. E d . Jose O livio Jim enez. M adrid: A lianza, 1976.50-55. D ark, L arry, ed . The L iterary G host: G reat C ontem porary G h o st S tories. N ew York: T he A tlantic M onthly P , 1991. D avenport, B ail, ed . The Science F iction N o vel. Chicago: A d v a n t, 1969. Eckstein, B arbara. "H aw thorne's 'T h e B irthm ark': Science a n d R om ance as Belief." Studies in Short F ictio n 26 (1989): 511-519. Erdrich, L ouise. "Fleur." The O x fo rd Book o f A m erican S h o rt S to ries. Ed. Joyce C arol O ates. O xford: O xford U P , 1992.728-740. Faris, W endy B. "S cheherazade's C hildren: M agical R ealism a n d P ostm odern Fiction." Z am ora a n d Faris 163-190. Fletcher, A ngus. A llegory: T he T h eo ry of a Sym bolic M ode. 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Asset Metadata

Creator Del George, Dana Kristine (author)

Core Title The other world in the New World: Representations of the supernatural in short fiction of the Americas

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag comparative literature,literature, American,Literature, Latin American,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-559954

Unique identifier UC11354943

Identifier 9955502.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-559954 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 9955502.pdf

Dmrecord 559954

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Del George, Dana Kristine

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA