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ANALYZING THE COST EFFECTIVENESS
OF USING PARENTS AND COMMUNITY VOLUNTEERS
TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE ARTS TEST SCORES
by
Mary Ann Burke
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 1999
Copyright 1999 Mary Ann Burke
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UMI Number: 9933749
Copyright 1999 by
Burke, Mary Arm
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
School o f Education
Los Angeles, California 90089-0031
This dissertation, written by
MARY ANN BURKE
under the direction ofh.^T..Dissertation Committee, and
approved by all members o f the Committee, has been
presented to and accepted by the Faculty o f the School
o f Education in partialfulfillment o f the requirementsfor
the degree o f
D o c to r o f E d u c a tio m
WcAiSLH fî.
Dean
Dissertation Committee
t f .
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University of Southern California
School of Education
TO THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION:
We, the undersigned members of the Dissertation Committee for a n n b u rk e
in candidacy for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
certify that the candidate has successfully defended the dissertation in an oral examination and is
hereby unanimously recommended for the degree of Doctor of Education.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Date
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List o f Tables...................................................................................vii
Abstract.............................................................................................ix
CHAPTER I
Introduction........................................................................1
Overview o f the Problem.................................................................. 1
The Problem Defined........................................................................ 4
Background........................................................................................ 4
Purpose o f the Study......................................................................... 9
Importance........................................................................................10
Research Questions......................................................................... 10
Methodology.................................................................................... 11
Limitations........................................................................................13
Assumptions.................................................................................... 15
Glossary o f Terms............................................................................16
1 1
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CHAPTER 2
Review of the Literature................................................. 19
Introduction......................................................................................19
Impact o f Using Parents and Community Volunteers to
Improve Students’ Academic Success.................................... 28
Longitudinal Effects o f Parent Involvement in the Preschool
Years.......................................................................................................................28
Longitudinal Effects o f Parent Involvement in the Elementary
Schools................................................................................................................... 32
Longitudinal Effects o f Parent and Community Involvement
in Schools.............................................................................................................. 37
Methods for Analyzing the Cost Effectiveness o f Using
Parents and Community Volunteers to Improve
Students’ Academic Success................................................... 42
How to Identify and Measure Costs and Expenditures............... 47
How to Design a Measure and Collect Data for
Determining the Cost Effectiveness o f Using
Parents and Community Volunteers as Mentors and
Tutors......................................................................................... 52
Types o f Existing Programs That Were Compared to
This Program.............................................................................54
How to Determine Which Program Variation Is Cost
Effective and the Most Cost-Effective Option
Available....................................................................................58
111
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CHAPTER 3
Methods and Procedures.................................................61
Introduction.................................................................................... 61
Sample............................................................................................. 62
Data Collection Procedures............................................................64
Personnel and Community Volunteers.......................................................... 64
Other Human Resources C osts........................................................................66
Value o f Client Time and Other Client Inputs............................................. 66
Other Costs........................................................................................................... 67
A Compcaison o f Expenditures U sedfor Three Different
Project Applications.................................................................................. 68
Statistical Procedures..................................................................... 74
Methodological Assumptions........................................................ 75
CHAPTER 4
Findings and Discussion..................................................77
Introduction.................................................................................... 77
Findings........................................................................................... 78
Research Question 1...........................................................................................78
IV
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Research Question 2 .......................................................................................... 81
Data Analysis Directed Toward Comparisons of Group Means......................... 83
Summary of Statistical Results.......................................................................... 90
Data Set I Results........................................................................................90
Data Set II Results.......................................................................................91
Data Set III Results.....................................................................................91
Data Set IV Results......................................................................................91
Teacher Interview Results: Analysis and Interpretation.....................................92
Parent and Community Volunteer Interview Results: Analysis and
Interpretation.............................................................................................93
Research Question 3 .......................................................................................... 94
Discussion o f the Findings............................................................ 96
Considerations o f What Should Be M easuredfor Cost
Effectiveness................................................................................................ 96
Considerations fo r Measuring Cost U tility................................................. 98
Evaluating the Return on Investment on the Parent
Training........................................................................................................ 98
A School’ s Impact on a Community’ s Economic
Development................................................................................................99
Implications fo r Further Longitudinal Research......................................100
CHAPTER 5
Summary, Policy Implications, and
Conclusions...............................................................102
Introduction.................................................................................. 102
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Summary........................................................................................ 103
Selected Findings................................................................................................103
Conclusions in B rief.......................................................................................... 106
Considerations o f What Should Be Measured for Cost Effectiveness..................106
Considerations for Measuring Cost Utility............................................................107
Evaluating the Return on Investment on the Parent Training...............................108
A School’s Impact on a Conununity’s Economic Development.......................... 108
Implications for Further Longitudinal Research................................................... 108
Options and Policy Implications..................................................109
Legislative Im pact..............................................................................................109
Research Impact................................................................................................. 110
Study Conclusions.........................................................................110
Suggestions for Further Research................................................ 112
References....................................................................... 114
Appendixes...................................................................... 121
Appendix A: Teacher Interview Form Responses.................. 122
Appendix B : Volunteer Mentor Interview Form
Responses...................................................... 135
vt
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List of Tables
Table Page
Table 1 Outcomes of Various Volunteer Strategies................................................53
Table 2 Characteristics of the Nine Classrooms...................................................... 63
Table 3 Comparison of Kinds of Expenditures Used for Three
Different Research Studies................................................................... 69
Table 4 Total Identified Costs and Expenditures for the Six
Experimental Classrooms......................................................................70
Table 5 Teacher Interview Form................................................................................72
Table 6 Parent and Community Volunteer Interview Form................................... 73
Table 7 Cost Comparisons of Three Program Variations.......................................80
Table 8 BEST Test Results.........................................................................................82
vu
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Table 9 Data Set I: Pretest Means, Posttest Means, Adjusted
Posttest Means (All Pretest Means Being Statistically
Equal), and Standard Deviations for Three First-Grade
Spanish Speaking Groups Experiencing Supportive
Intervention or No Intervention........................................ .85
Table 10 Significance of Differences Between Adjusted Posttest
Means for Selected Pairs of Groups Associated With
Data Set I ......................................................................... .86
Table 11 Data Set H: Pretest Means, Posttest Means, Adjusted
Posttest Means (All Pretest Means Being Statistically
Equal), and Standard Deviations for Three Second-
Grade English Speaking Groups Experiencing
Supportive Intervention or No Intervention.................. .87
Table 12 Significance of Differences Between Adjusted Posttest
Means for Selected Pairs of Groups Associated With
Data Set I I ....................................................................... .88
Table 13 Data Set HI: Pretest Means, Posttest Means, Adjusted
Posttest Means (All Pretest Means Being Statistically
Equal), and Standard Deviations for Two Second-
Grade Spanish Speaking Groups Experiencing
Supportive Intervention or No Intervention.................. .89
Table 14 Data Set IV: Pretest and Posttest Means and Standard
Deviations for the Single Group of Spanish Speaking
Students Who Received Supportive Ditervention From
Four Parents (10 Visits)................................................... .90
V lll
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Abstract
Background. Although California implemented Proposition 227 (which
limits bilingual education), little research is available on measuring the cost
effectiveness of using parents and community volunteers to help improve students’
language arts performance. The policy value of the study is to help educators and
state policy makers understand the economic ramifications o f training volunteers to
serve as paraprofessionals in the classroom. Additionally, few volunteer training
models exist in state and federally funded reading assistance programs. Although
most research supports the usage of volunteers in the classroom, there are limited
strategies available on how to support students with limited English proficiency.
The need for this pedagogy is critical to respond to the significant increases o f
limited English proficient students.
Purpose. The purpose of the study was to ascertain whether the use of
parent and community volunteers in the classroom would lead to students’ improved
language arts performance and lower program delivery costs. This study focused on
an urban charter elementary school located in Los Angeles with primarily low
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income and limited English proficient students. The research compared the costs
and the students’ academic performance when using parents and community
volunteers as mentors and tutors during the school’s language arts period to classes
that used no volunteers during this period.
Conclusions. The study used Levin’s (1983) ingredients method for
identifying expenditures, an analysis of covariance with adjusted mean test scores to
measure language arts test score improvements, and a cost effectiveness ratio for
determining the cost o f obtaining one unit of test gain. The results indicated that the
number of experimental groups was too small and the variables were too wide to
determine which program strategy to invest in. The researcher recommended
further experimentation. Future longitudinal research could include a cost
effectiveness and utility measurement of various program components, a return on
investment evaluation on training components, and a study of a school’s impact on a
community’s economic development.
Dissertation Committee:
Lawrence O. Picus, PhD, Chairperson
Guilbert C. Hentschke, PhD
Stuart E. Gothold, EdD
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Overview of the Problem
Identifying and measuring cost effective ways to help students improve their
language arts test scores has received significant attention in recent years. Current
innovative strategies to improve test scores include increasing the number of
paraprofessional personnel in the classroom and reducing class size. Both
innovations have proved to be increasingly costly to implement. Another possible
solution is the training of parents and community volunteers to serve as language arts
paraprofessionals in the classroom. Becher (1984) and Henderson and Berla (1994)
found that when families are involved in their children’s education, they receive
higher grades, have better test scores, and graduate at higher rates. The Western
Institute for Research and Evaluation has documented academic achievement gains
for students participating in Junior Achievement’s mentorship programs in urban
schools (Junior Achievement, 1997).
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The need to research the benefits and cost effectiveness in utilizing parents
and community members as language arts tutors for bilingual students has become
critical with the passage of California’s Proposition 227 in June, 1998. This ballot
measure requires that the state’s 1.4 million students, who are not fluent in English,
be placed in an intensive sheltered English immersion class for about a year and then
moved into regular classrooms. Parents whose children are denied English language
instruction can take legal action against individual teachers or the school district’s
employees and board members (Brazeley, 1998). The measure allocates
$50,000,000 per year fi'om the state’s general fund for parents and community
volunteers to receive fi'ee or subsidized English language instruction for tutoring the
state’s limited English proficient students. These training programs must be offered
at schools or community organizations. Funding for the training will commence
during the first fiscal year that this initiative is enacted and will continue for nine
additional fiscal years (California Secretary of State, 1998). The state's courts
recently reviewed and upheld the legality of this law that became effective during the
1998-1999 academic year.
In response to this change in California’s public education system, this study
adds to the limited research available on measuring the cost effectiveness of utilizing
parent and community volunteers as paraprofessional tutors and mentors in the
classroom. Through an ingredients method. Levin (1983) identified the specific
ingredients for a specific classroom strategy. In identifying these ingredients, Picus
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(1994) cautioned that policy makers have little information about the actual costs for
these innovations. To respond to these limitations, Picus developed a conceptual
framework for analyzing the costs of alternative assessments. Elements of this
framework can be applied to measuring the costs for using parents and community
volunteers as paraprofessionals and tutors in the classroom. When using this
framework, one must also consider a number of complex issues regarding the
expenditures and costs (Monk, 1993). For example, there remains substantial
disagreement about how to best respond to this need. A cost analyst can either focus
on past experiences and devise surveys to gauge results, or the analyst can consider
the future to identify resource requirements for emerging programs (Monk, 1996).
Monk's approach to evaluating costs and expenditures on the New Standards Project
was to separate cost estimates for alternative sets of assumptions and to use
sensitivity analysis to estimate ranges of costs.
King (1994) used cost analysis to evaluate three comprehensive school
models aimed at bringing at-risk students to grade level during their elementary
school years. Through a compare/contrast framework. King found that there was
still a need for a common base to weigh the alternative strategies with a cost
effectiveness analysis. To facilitate the cost comparisons of the three school models.
King used a marginal cost analysis that assumed that all three models continued to
provide standard educational services. The analysis focused on the costs for the
additional services that were specified in each model to improve school effectiveness.
When considering the usage of parents and volunteers in the program. King
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determined that their time was a valuable resource. The reliance on hired
professional resources was shifted to donated parental resources depending on the
productivity and costs o f these resources. To maintain the distinction between
budgetary expenditures and costs borne by other individuals, the costs among the
diffèrent actors were separately distributed in each educational process. For
example, a teacher’s salary and benefits were estimated at $50,000, while a parent
volunteer or aide's was projected at $20,000.
The Problem Defined
This study examined whether the use of parent and community volunteers as
paraprofessionals in the classroom would lead students to improved language arts
performance and would lower program delivery costs in light of Levin’s (1983)
method for cost effectiveness, Picus’ (1994) framework for cost assessment, and
King’s (1994) analysis of three school reform models.
Background
Historically, parents and community members have been occasionally used to
support teachers in the classroom. Epstein (1995) formulated a framework of six
major types of parent involvement that has evolved from various studies. A type 1
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involvement includes helping families establish home environments to support
children as students, whereas a Type 6 involvement identifies and integrates
community resources and services to strengthen a school’s program, family practices,
and student development. The expected results fi'om Type 6 community
collaborations for students include increased skill development, an awareness of
career and future educational options, and opportunities to connect to the
community. Parents have access to more local resources, they interact with more
community members, and they develop an awareness of the school’s role in the
community. Teachers benefit from the community’s resources to enrich their
instruction. They also increase their skills in using parents and community volunteers
in the classroom as tutors and mentors, and are knowledgeable about family referrals
to community resources. The Mentoring Center (1996) classifies mentoring roles
into four types, two of which are soft mentoring and hard core mentoring. Soft
mentoring includes academic tutoring; hard core mentoring provides extended
support to the student’s family by assisting with parenting skill development and
career guidance.
The impact of parent and community involvement in schools cannot be over
emphasized. From the time a child is bom, parents are a child’s first teachers. They
teach their child how to eat, speak, take care of himself or herself, and play with
other children. While it is the school’s job to teach their child how to read and write,
it is the parents' responsibility to show their child that school is important and
homework must be finished (Far West Lab, 1992; White, 1987). When a parent does
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not have the skills to help their child with homework, it is the school’s responsibility
to support the parent in leaming how to help. When parents are not available or
unable to support their child to succeed in school, community mentors can provide
the necessary support.
Research has indicated that students do well in school when their parents
express high expectations for school achievement and provide support in their
student’s leaming (Young & Westemofif, 1996). Teachers working with families of
differing cultures must be sensitive to the cultural interpretations and different
perceptions of the educational system, and to their roles with parents (Young &
Westemoff, 1996). To overcome traditional communication barriers, schools must
provide parents and community volunteers with adequate information for making
appropriate educational decisions to support each student’s academic success.
The study utilized a cost effectiveness model to evaluate the use of parents
and community volunteers in the classroom. This model provided a process for
comparing the costs of different tutoring, mentoring, or other methods that provide
the best educational results for any given costs, or that provide a specific strategy at
the least cost (Levin, 1983). The costs for a specific strategy are assessed by
determining its various ingredients. Its effectiveness is determined by comparing
students’ test scores with those of a control group with no intervention strategy.
Attaching specific costs and expenditures to the time and training required to
support parents and community volunteers requires distinguishing between the two.
Monk (1995) defined costs as a measure of benefits one forgoes to realize some
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outcome or benefit, whereas expenditures are resource flows regardless of their
consequence. It is common to compare the monetary value o f the resources and
total expenditures among programs. Monk (1993) cautioned, however, that this
process assumes that the various strategies accomplish the same goals and have the
same inefficiencies. Similarly, when multiple strategies operate together, the costs
include the benefits forgone by shifting resources into other areas (Picus, 1994).
To create a useful cost analysis for decision-makers, a common metric to
measure the costs of various strategies for using parents and volunteers in the
classroom as mentors and tutors must be developed. Levin (1983) identified this
process as the ingredients method. If ingredients for a specific strategy can be
identified, and their costs can be ascertained, the total costs for a particular strategy,
as well as the cost per unit of effectiveness, benefit, or utility can be estimated. The
cost burden can also be distributed among the sponsoring agency, funding agencies,
donors, and clients.
Typical ingredients (Levin, 1983) include:
• Personnel
• Facilities
• Equipment and materials
• Other program inputs including training and fingerprinting
• Client inputs
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Personnel ingredients can include all full- and part-time employees, consultants, and
volunteers used for a specific strategy. The facilities include any classroom space,
ofiBces, storage areas, recreational facilities, training facilities, and other building
requirements. Equipment and materials refer to the classroom and ofiBce furniture,
instructional equipment, and oflBce supplies. Other program inputs might include
required training sessions and conferences attended through other organizations to
support the project, extra liability insurance required for the volunteers, and
ingredients that support a project. Client inputs are defined as any transportation,
books, equipment, food, or other student services that are required fi'om the students
or their families to support the project. All ingredients listed should be sufficiently
specified, consistently placed in categories, and accurately listed according to their
overall contribution. Monetary values must be determined for each ingredient.
When this information is not readily available, a shadow price must be established by
determining the potential market value of a particular ingredient.
This cost effectiveness analysis can provide added information necessary for
decision making. Levin (1983) cautioned, however, that the best analyses must be
combined with other types of information to make good decisions because the
measures of costs, benefits, effects and utilities are estimates. These are subject to
some error. Second, it is not possible to include all considerations in an evaluation to
determine a final decision. Third, Picus (1994) concluded that it is hard to identify
and measure the benefits of educational programs. The differences in the amounts of
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resources needed for a specific strategy can lead to difficulties in comparing benefits
among the various strategies.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to ascertain whether the use o f parent and
community volunteers as paraprofessionals in the classroom would lead students to
improved language arts performance and would lower program delivery costs. The
study described in this dissertation focused on Fenton Avenue Charter School in Los
Angeles. The school is an urban, K-5 elementary school with primarily limited
English proficient at-risk students. The study compared the costs and the students’
academic performance using parents and community volunteers as mentors and
tutors during the school’s language arts period to classes using no volunteers during
this period. To analyze the cost effectiveness of using parents and community
volunteers to improve students’ language arts performance, the cost analysis
component relied on Levin’s (1983) method for cost effectiveness, Picus' (1994)
fi-amework for cost assessment, and King’s (1994) analysis of three school reform
models.
Student performance was measured through the Los Angeles Unified School
District’s Basic Elementary-Secondary Test (BEST) (Los Angeles Unified School
District, 1978) that was administered to students participating in the study at the
beginning and ending of an eight-week interval. This analysis focused on the
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vocabulary and reading skill of the students. In-depth interviews were administered
to teachers, parents, and community volunteers to evaluate the effectiveness of
various program strategies.
Importance
Although California implemented Proposition 227, little research has been
conducted to measure the cost effectiveness of using parents and community
volunteers to help improve students’ language arts performance. The policy value of
this study is helping educators and state policy makers understand the economic
ramifications of training volunteers to serve as paraprofessionals in the classroom.
Research Questions
The study answered the following research questions:
1. What are the costs of utilizing parents and community
volunteers as tutors and mentors in the classroom?
10
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2. What specific combinations of parent and community
volunteer support strategies in the classroom will generate the
greatest impact on language arts test performance?
3. What is the cost effectiveness of these alternative strategies?
Methodology
The study used Levin’s (1983) ingredients method to measure the cost
effectiveness of three different classroom parent and volunteer models and three
control groups. The Basic Elementary-Secondary Test was administered to students
participating in the study at the beginning and ending of an eight-week interval to
measure basic achievement in reading vocabulary and comprehension (Los Angeles
Unified School District, 1978). In-depth interviews were administered to the
teachers, parents, and community volunteers to evaluate the effectiveness of various
program strategies.
Fenton Avenue Charter School was selected for this project because as a
charter school it had independence in its governance and fiscal autonomy. Because
of its fiscal autonomy, Fenton Avenue Charter School had the ability to easily
identify the costs and expenditures of a specific program strategy. This California
11
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Distinguished School chose to participate in the study because its mission states that
the school community of students, teachers, staff, administrators, parents, and
community members will work together to create a child-centered environment that
empowers partners to be responsible for their school (Fenton Avenue Charter
School, 1998). The Los Angeles Unified School District’s Fenton Avenue Charter
School Evaluation (WestEd, 1998) reported that the school is committed to
improving parent involvement, especially with regard to school governance. This
commitment was demonstrated in program planning and teacher training to prepare
for the use of parents and community volunteers as tutors and mentors in the
classroom.
Fenton Avenue Charter School is a pre-kindergarten through fifth grade
school located in the San Fernando Valley in Lakeview Terrace, California. A multi
track, year-round school, it has a teaching staff o f 63 teachers and a student body of
approximately 1,330 students with over 62% of them LEP. Although 95% of the
students qualify for fi'ee or reduced meals, the school provides 100% o f its students
with fi'ee breakfast and lunch. Students participate in Title 1, bilingual education,
special education, and expanded day and weekend classes.
The project estimated the costs of each parent and community volunteer
program component using Levin’s ingredients approach. Estimates of the project’s
total costs were further classified as actual expenditures and costs. Then a
determination was made about which parent and volunteer classroom strategy was
the most cost effective in providing tutoring and mentoring language arts assistance.
12
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Language arts testing was given at the beginning and ending of an eight-week
interval to track student performance. In-depth interviews were conducted with
teachers, parents, and community volunteers at the end of the project to evaluate the
effectiveness of using these volunteers in the classroom.
Limitations
As stated previously, the measures of costs, benefits, effects, and utilities
were really estimates of those dimensions, and they were subject to the following
sources and limitations (Levin, 1983):
1. The accuracy of the indicators depended heavily on the cost
evaluation, the effectiveness of various strategies, and the ability
for accurate measurement.
2. It was difficult to incorporate all of the considerations for a final
decision because this task reduced complex data into a
manageable set of relations for analysis (Levin, 1983).
3. In measuring the resources needed for each classroom, difficulties
occurred when comparing costs between the same grade level
classrooms to other grade levels (Picus, 1994).
13
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4. If a teacher did not allocate the time required for project activities,
test scores might have suffered. It then would be difBcuIt to
measure for the costs and to determine who incurred those costs.
5. Estimating the project’s costs and benefits as a simple monetary
metric was challenging to develop (Picus, 1994).
6. Lee (1992) cautioned that mentorship and tutoring programs
should use classrooms that do not use volunteers as control
groups. Interviews and questionnaires should be used as the
primary instruments for gathering data. Lee did not consider
applying the rigors of a cost effectiveness analysis as part of the
evaluation process.
7. Baumol and Becker (1996) argued that there appears to be a
problem of public acceptability of experiments using a control
group. There is also an ethical requirement in education that
subjects must be informed that they are to participate in an
experiment. Because of this requirement, it was expected that
some members of the control group would feel deprived of the
treatment.
8. Any educational experiment would likely provide benefits to
participants because these experiments would attract teachers of
14
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superior ability and stimulate their enthusiasm (Baumol & Becker,
1996).
9. The purity of the experiment would be diluted because people
respond to incentives. In this research project, the teachers
received added technical assistance, students obtained added
personalized attention, and parents and community volunteers
acquired added training and recognition for their contributions.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were evident in the investigation;
1. Information presented in the study from primary and secondary
sources was accurate.
2. The scores on the language arts standardized test were sufficiently
reliable and valid for the purposes of the test.
3. All participants in the study were honest in their responses to
interview questions.
4. All information used in the analysis was accurate.
15
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5. All estimations of costs and expenditures were reasonably
accurate.
6. Methodological assumptions for statistical analysis of data were
accurate.
Glossary of Terms
BEST: Unless noted otherwise, BEST refers to the Basic Elementary-Secondary
Test designed to measure basic achievement for this study in reading only for grades
1 through 5. BEST is a screening test that can determine pupil eligibility for the
compensatory education program or any program that seeks to identify students
achieving below grade level. It can also serve as a screening device for new students
who have no recent standardized test scores available. BEST is correlated with the
California Test o f Basic Skills (CTBS) (California Test Bureau/McGraw-Hill, 1978)
for determining those students at or below the Q2 or Q1 measure (Los Angeles
Unified School District, 1978).
Community Volunteers: Unless otherwise noted, this term refers to any person
who volunteers his or her time in the classroom, and is not a parent of a student in
the class or a student representing a program fi-om a middle school, high school, or
college.
16
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Cost Effectiveness: This term refers to the evaluation o f alternatives according to
their costs and their effects with regard to producing some outcome or set of
outcomes (Levin, 1983).
Costs: These are measures o f what must be foregone to realize some benefit (Monk,
1995). The cost o f a specific intervention is the value of all of the resources that it
utilizes and assigns to its most valuable alternative use (Levin, 1983).
Expenditures: These are measures of resource flows regardless of their
consequence (Monk, 1995). They include determining the monetary value of the
resources necessary to implement each program, and comparing the total
expenditures across programs. Often expenditure data are difBcult to identify by
classroom use and program, and may require estimations of staff time and objects
used (Picus, 1994).
M entoring: For purposes of this study, mentoring refers to a volunteer who
provides one-on-one or small-group guidance on the relevance of classroom
activities for future careers. The mentor volunteer can provide academic tutoring
along with career, academic, and professional guidance. Parent, community, and
student volunteers can also provide these services to students.
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Parent Volunteers; Parent volunteers include parents who have children currently
attending the school. For purposes of this study, the parent volunteer refers to a
parent who is assisting in the same classroom with his or her child.
Student Volunteers: Student volunteers include students who are providing
volunteer services in the class, and represent a volunteer program from a middle
school, a high school, or college.
Tutoring; For purposes of this study, tutoring refers to a volunteer who provides
one-on-one or small-group teaching, coaching, and academic assistance in the
classroom under the direction of a credentialed classroom teacher.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
The importance of parent and community involvement in the education of
their children has been an issue which has gained much attention (Rebman, 1983;
Young & Westemoff, 1996). Over the last thirty years, a number of programs have
been initiated requiring some form of parent participation or community involvement.
Beginning in the 1960s with Project Head Start and Title 1, a majority of state and
federally funded programs include a parent and community participation component.
How the schools meet the requirement of involving parents and community
volunteers in their program development and delivery has been diverse and at times
controversial. In 1993, the National Education Goals Panel (1997) found that 63%
of parents of students in grades three through twelve reported that they participated
in two or more activities at their children’s school. By 1996, parent participation had
not increased. The panel also found that parents of elementary school children were
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more likely to participate in school activities when compared to older students’
parents.
A review of the research showed that the terms participation and involvement
are often used interchangeably. Parent participation and community involvement that
can have a positive influence on their children’s education include the following
(Becher, 1984; California State Department of Education, 1987; Cloud, De Leon,
Eugenio, Kimber, & Wu, 1989; Iddins, 1981; Short & Greer, 1997; Truby, 1987;
U.S. Department of Education, 1994):
• Parents control absenteeism, provide a variety of reading
materials, establish a family routine that includes time for
homework, monitor television watching, and supervise out of
school activities.
• Parents are recipients o f information through parent and teacher
conferences, parent education courses, or general school based
meetings.
• Parents are instructed on how to reinforce their children’s learning
at home.
Parents and community members volunteer to assist at various
school functions or in the classroom.
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• Parents and community members read out loud to children.
• Parents are co-Ieamers with their children and hold high
expectations for achievement.
• Parents take time for parent and child conversations, and
communicate positive values.
• Parents and community members assist in planning and
implementing school programs in an advisory capacity.
Epstein (1995) expanded this definition for parent participation by
formulating a fi’ amework of six types of involvement. She defined Type 1 Parenting
as helping families establish supportive home environments for their children’s
learning. Type 2 Communicating supports effective home and school
communications about school programs and students’ academic progress. Type 3
Volunteering organizes parent help and support at the school. Type 4 Learning at
Home provides academic information to parents to help students at home. Type 5
Decision Making includes parents in the school’s decision making processes, and
Type 6 Collaborating with Community helps schools to integrate community
resources to strengthen a school’s programs and family practices. Most schools
tailor modifications of this fi-amework to fit their individual needs. Commonalties
across successful programs include a focus on student development, attention to
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involvement that promotes a variety o f opportunities for schools, families, the
community working together, and an action team to coordinate community
partnerships (Epstein). Schools which encompass all of these forms of parent
involvement help parents build home conditions that can support their children’s’
learning (Lewis, 1992).
Schools can facilitate the inclusion of students with their parents by explicitly
establishing activities with appropriate sociocultural knowledge about the school.
When congruence exists between the home and the school, children have a greater
success in succeeding in school. Delgado-Gaitan (1991) defined three basic
dimensions of power in parent involvement. The conventional type of parent
involvement activities represents a domination o f power on the part of the district
that attempts to make families conform to school policy. Nonconventional parent
involvement activities include shared power with the district. Parents are encouraged
to participate at the school and leam how to help their children succeed in school.
The parents leam how to teach their children by the teacher’s modeling. A third
model of parent involvement involves an autonomous group o f parents who set their
own agendas and design a context to invite the school’s personnel to provide their
input on school policies and programs (Delgado-Gaitan). Parents can maintain
autonomy of power separate fi'om the school while simultaneously sharing power
with it. This indicates the level of commitment these parents have for their children’s
success in school.
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Families can further support their children’s academic success by making sure
their children are ready to leam each day by providing them with a nutritional
breakfast, a good night’s sleep, adequate health care, and emotional support.
Families can leam from their children and the school about the school's activities and
they can teach their children how to complete their homework assignments.
Supportive families must be informed to make appropriate decisions about what is
best for their children at school (Far West Laboratory, 1992).
Parents from varying cultures may initially interpret the educational system
based on their own cultural experiences. Parents’ cultural sensitivity about the
importance of education and the teacher’s understanding about educational systems
in other countries can help build effective partnerships (Young & Westemoff, 1996).
Awareness of one’s cultural behaviors, beliefs, and values is critical to forming
effective parent and teacher relationships. This awareness can be generated by
acknowledging different cultural perspectives and by gathering information about the
students’ cultures. Increased parent participation can be encouraged by recognizing
that the parents are valuable multicultural resources. As multicultural resources,
parents can speak on culturally relevant topics, participate in international events, and
translate parent education materials.
In focus groups conducted by Los Angeles County Office of Education
(1997), parents representing diverse cultures felt they should be actively involved in
their children’s education at home and at school, as well as become more involved in
the school’s decision making and volunteer opportunities.
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Tutoring is another efifective parent and volunteer involvement activity that
can help increase students’ academic achievement. Structured tutoring sessions in
which content and delivery o f instruction are carefully planned can result in increased
academic achievement for students. Quality tutoring programs insure (HofiBnan,
1997):
#
Tutors are well prepared and equipped with a variety of learning
strategies and materials.
Activities are consistent and systematic.
Instruction is appropriate for the student’s current performance
level and is designed to move the student forward in a cumulative
process.
Tutoring sessions are flexible to meet the individualized needs of
students.
Mentoring is a form o f parent and community involvement that addresses
some of the poverty issues surrounding urban schools. Planned mentorship programs
can bridge the chasm between low income students and the caring adults who can
make a difference in their lives (Lee, 1992). Traditionally, mentors share personal
experiences and information for achieving success with a mentee. This support
enables the mentee to follow in the mentor’s footsteps (Cronenwett, Vansickle, &
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Walker, 1996). While mentoring programs are characterized more by diversity, their
essential component is the focus on the development of the personalized relationship
between an adult and a youth that continues over time. The relationship is focused on
the student’s personal development, academic performance, self-esteem and career
decision making (Cronenwett, Vansickle, & Walker). The mentor can provide the
student access to the values, customs, resources, and individuals representing various
occupations and careers (Bernard, 1992). Mentors are expected to encourage
students to complete high school, obtain occupational training, prepare for
postsecondary education, and pursue goals to maximize the student’s personal
potential (Cronenwett, Vansickle, & Walker, 1996). According to Weinberger
(n.d ), effective mentors provide students with the following supportive services:
• Students become engaged in a positive relationship with the
mentor.
• Students develop positive self-esteem through the attention
provided by the mentor.
• Through the guidance of the mentor, students leam to react
effectively to stressful situations.
• If the mentor is English proficient, students can leam effective
communication skills through their mentor’s guidance.
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• The mentor provides leadership and is a positive role model for
his or her mentee.
• The mentor meets weekly with the mentee, is committed to the
project and nurtures a relationship that respects the mentee’s
dignity.
• The mentor accepts responsibility and reinforces the student’s
academic and personal growth.
The Mentoring Center (1996) has classified mentoring relationships as four
types. Soft mentoring relationships provide companionships, academic tutoring and
career guidance. In addition to these services, medium mentoring provides students
with self-esteem building activities. Hard mentoring includes conflict resolution,
parent education, and responsibility training. Hard Core mentoring also provides
self-respect activities, cultural awareness, respect for authorities, and respect for the
law.
Sherk (1998) defines group mentoring as a process between one or more
adult mentors and a group of mentees, where the adults provide consistent support,
guidance, and help to the students. Group mentoring provides students with the
following beneficial services:
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• Programs can be taken to scale sooner because not as many
mentors are required to support a program.
• Through networking and support, mentors receive more support
from the other mentor groups.
• Students are less likely to suffer when a mentor is absent.
• Groups can use group dynamic teamwork for conflict resolution
and team problem solving.
Through the entrepreneurial spirit and community focus o f charter schools,
school administrators, teachers, parents and community members have an
opportunity to participate in innovative approaches for students’ academic success.
Many of the nation’s charter schools develop agreements with their students and
families. These agreements build a strong, positive working relationship between the
school and family before the academic school year begins (Nathan, 1996). Charter
schools have created agreements for volunteers and mentors participating at the
school site and include the roles the volunteers and mentors are expected to fulfill at
the site. Parents and community volunteers can assist a charter school in obtaining
buildings and equipment, painting walls, writing grants and supporting the school’s
governance (Nathan).
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Impact of Using Parents and Community Volunteers
to Improve Students’ Academic Success
Academic success has been found to be influenced by parental and
community involvement (Funkbouser, Gonzales, & Moles, 1998; Karnes, 1979;
Young & Westemoff 1996). This is true regardless of the family’s income or
education (Henderson & Berla, 1994).
Longitudinal Effects of Parent Involvement in the Preschool Years
In early childhood education, Radin (1972) found that the students of
mothers who were intensely involved in their child’s preschool experiences showed a
significantly greater gain in Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test I. Q. during the
kindergarten year than the children with no maternal involvement. The results
indicated that a parent education component is important for a child to continue to
benefit academically beyond a compensatory preschool program, even if there may
not be any immediate effect on the students. Programs which emphasize the parent-
child interaction and help mothers develop teaching skills have produced greater and
more lasting results (Bronfenbrermer, 1974). Children whose parents had a high level
of participation in these programs retained their I. Q. gains better than children
whose parents were not as active (Langenbrunner & Thornburg, 1980).
The Milwaukee Project of the 1960s and the Abecedarian Project o f the early
1970s illustrate that intensive parent involvement and stimulation of very young poor
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children can lead to higher I. Q. scores and that it is possible to have success from
such interventions (Lewis, 1992). fri the Milwaukee Project, students who attended
an enrichment program seven hours per day from the time of infancy through first
grade maintained close to normal I. Q. scores through age 14. Abecedarian Project
low income children who had an I. Q. below 70 scored in the normal range of
intelligence by the age of three after receiving daily year-round services.
Furthermore, these early interventions in the Abecedarian Project resulted in a 50%
reduction in the rate of grade retentions during the elementary grades. The results
indicate that young children need adults to model efifective learning habits.
Beebe (1976) studied the impact of involving parents in a Saturday program
for four-year-olds. The researcher found that the involvement o f the parents
influences the program’s structure and success more than any other factor. An
average of 98% of the parents helped in the program at least once in the year and
78% contributed to the program five times a year. In tracking the outcome on this
project, Beebe found that the third grade achievement tests of the initial project
group of students were significantly higher in the total test battery and in all sub-
areas except math than control groups'.
In a similar study, Lazar (1981) found that the long-term academic effects on
students who have participated in Head Start type of programs were due mostly to
parent involvement. Within Head Start programs, parents were seen as the principal
influence in each child’s education and development. These programs required that
the parents participate in program planning and implementation (Peters, 1978). In
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researching 48 Head Start sites, the New York State Department of Education
determined that direct parent participation in preschool was related to academic
achievement in the elementary years (Lazar, 1981). The parents’ involvement was
important to the students’ success in school as much as to the parents’ perceptions of
themselves as teachers to their own children (Langenbrunner & Thornburg, 1980).
Bronfenbrermer (1974) concluded that the family is the most effective and
economical system for fostering and sustaining the child's development. When
effective parent involvement programs are implemented, substantial improvements
have been found in children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development. Without
such family involvement, the effects in the cognitive sphere appear to erode rapidly
once the program ends (Bronfenbrermer). This research supports the fact that
parents and other members of the family are with the young children for more hours
than other preschool personnel. Therefore, it only makes sense that parent
involvement is a critical component of children’s learning experiences at school
(Karnes, 1979).
Whether children maintain their advantage after completing a Head Start
program depends on the length, type, and level o f parent participation provided in the
program (Grotberg, 1969). Schaefer (1972) found that parent-centered early
intervention programs have equal immediate effectiveness and greater long-term
effectiveness, are less expensive, and produce vertical and horizontal diSiision
through the family and community. Evidence indicates that early parent behaviors
are related to intelligence and reading achievement (Schaefer). There are also
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indications that parent involvement has helped to improve the children’s cognitive
and language skills (Andrews, 1981).
Becher (1984) studied the large body of research assessing the effects of
parent involvement and education programs on student’s academic achievement.
Most of the empirical work was centered on federally funded compensatory
education programs to train low income parents how to teach their children in order
to prevent or remediate basic school achievement deficiencies. There is considerable
evidence that parent education and involvement programs are effective in improving
the intellectual functioning of children as measured in standardized intelligence tests.
There is further evidence that the gains have been sustained for up to five years
following program completion. It appears that parent education and involvement
programs improve students’ language performance as measured on standardized
achievement tests and through the students’ school behavior. Becher (1984) argued
that the following parent involvement characteristics can contribute to these
academic results;
• Home visits are more effective than parent meetings, classes, or
workshops to increase the cognitive skills o f students.
• Programs that encourage parental teaching of children produce
stable long-term gains.
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• A one-on-one highly structured parent/teacher relationship
produces greater results.
• Efifective programs that involve long-term consultations for up to
two years are prescriptive and are personalized in their content.
Scott (1996) studied third grade achievement test scores of students who had
participated in a Home Start individualized preschool program for children from 2 to
5 years of age. The program included weekly one-hour visits to a child’s home. The
results indicated that, especially for black children, home-based preschool enrichment
may more effectively promote growth in math and basic skills areas with more
limited enrichment effects on language subject areas.
Longitudinal Effects of Parent Involvement in the Elementary Schools
Regardless of the impact of parent involvement in the preschool years, Lewis
(1992) cautioned that it is too early to say what works in high poverty urban
elementary schools. So far, few parent involvement programs have produced much
reliable data about the special needs of veiy young parents and interventions that will
have a lasting impact on their children’s performance in school. The research
indicated, however, that inner city schools must go beyond traditional strategies to
help parents view themselves as educators of families. Lewis argued that positive
school attitudes and practices regarding parent involvement directly influence how
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much parents support their children’s learning at home. For example, in the Willard
Model School Parent Center, parents assisted school staff in selecting parent
education workshop topics and the center provided lending libraries and teacher
curriculum briefings. During the 1990-91 school year, approximately 80% of the
parents attended one parent education workshop, and 71% attended two or more.
The John Hopkins University designed interactive homework assignments for parents
and students. In Indianapolis, families interacted with schools via a cable channel
that broadcasted a homework hotline.
The most promising programs to reach multilingual families build on family
strengths, emphasize collaboration among early childhood and adult educators, and
value the families’ traditional values when educating them about the new culture
(Lewis, 1992). For example, the Pajaro Valley program in Arizona used storytelling
among Hispanic parents and children in Spanish and English (Ada, 1988). Barriers
to Hispanic parental involvement included:
• Parents believe that the roles of home and school are sharply
delineated.
• A negative view o f the school system and past negative
experiences with education can deter involvement.
• Language barriers limit access to teachers.
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• A belief that the school is a bureaucracy controlled by non-
Hispanics and is discriminatory will discourage involvement.
To overcome these perceptions, educators must believe that parents are their
children’s first teachers and the only teacher that remains with a child for a long
period of time (Chavkin, Gonzalez, & Lara, 1995). This belief can help educators
utilize the rich sources of cultural knowledge and of personal experiences Hispanic
families can share with their schools. Some research has indicated that the more
personal the approach, the more effective the results (McCaleb, 1994). Chavkin,
Gonzalez and Lara (1995) also found that family participation in education was twice
as predicative of academic learning as family social economic status.
Davis-Kennedy (1996) studied the effectiveness of parental involvement on
reading achievement. In her study, 22 fifth grade students received reading support
firom their parents and 19 students received no support services. Unlike previous
research results, these results indicated that the reading achievement scores did not
increase. She attributed this discrepancy to the small number o f students in her test
sample and the lack of longitudinal research. In her conclusions, Davis-Kennedy
recommended that:
• More parental involvement is needed school-wide to ensure
reading achievement gains.
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• Staff development should be included for teachers participating
with parents in language arts activities.
• Teachers should have an open house at the beginning of the year
and school-wide, year-round activities to encourage strong
teacher and parent relationships.
The San Diego County Office of Education (1994) compiled literature on the
impact o f parent involvement and student achievement. In their literature review,
they concluded that parents play a positive role in their children’s education
regardless of the parents’ education level, family income level, race, or ethnic
background (e.g.. Far West Laboratory, 1992). The most critical factors for success
were the parents’ positive attitude about the importance of a good education and
their belief in their children’s ability to succeed in school. Benefits to students on
parents’ involvement at school included higher grades and test scores, positive
attitudes and behavior, more effective performance in academic programs, and more
effective schools.
Aronson (1995) and North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (1998)
found that parent involvement raises the academic achievement of students, improves
the attitudes and performance of students in school, increases students’ attendance,
reduces student discipline problems, increases students’ career aspirations, helps
parents understand the school’s goals, and builds school community relationships
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that provide ongoing prevention strategies. Although there are many types o f parent
involvement, it is unclear how each contributes to school effectiveness, to student
achievement, and to other indicators of school success (North Central Regional
Educational Laboratory, 1998). Despite the lack of a clear research endorsement for
a specific parent involvement strategy, many federal and state program funding
guidelines require parents to participate in the education of their children. Parent
involvement seems to cluster around two approaches. These include encouraging
parents to support learning and conducting school based activities that support the
teacher and parent relationship (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory).
School-based activities can include parents’ attendance at meetings, parent
involvement in school decision making, and parent assistance in developing their
student’s Individualized Education Program (Far West Laboratory, n.d ). The more
parents participate in a substantial, consistent way, the more positive the effect on the
student’s education and attainment (California Department of Education Healthy
Kids Healthy California Office, n.d.).
There also appears to be a relationship between the age of the child and the
forms of parental involvement. Typically, greater efforts for parent involvement have
focused on the preschool and primary levels. By middle and high school, parent
involvement declines. This decline has been attributed to the need for the adolescent
to achieve greater autonomy and more responsibilities. Additionally, high schools
have a more complex structure, and it is more difficult for parents to coordinate
involvement efforts with specific teachers. The North Central Regional Laboratory
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(1998) found that although most secondary teachers felt parent involvement remains
important at the high school level, a small percentage believe that it is the teacher’s
responsibility to involve parents. The study contended that schools who are serious
about developing partnerships with parents can provide information to parents about
different ways they can be involved. These schools understand how to overcome the
barriers to keep parents more active.
Longitudinal Effects of Parent and Community Involvement in
Schools
Walberg (1985) found that while high community support and high student
achievement are correlated, only certain types o f involvement affect student
performance. Community support and fundraising, attendance at school meetings,
and the number of school functions that involved parents and community members
highly correlated with students’ academic performance. Besides serving the
communication needs for a school community’s parents, community education
programs can also achieve overall community support by serving senior citizens,
nonparents, and parents whose children attended private schools.
When children and youth are in trouble, the whole community becomes
affected. This becomes evident when communities compare crime rates to dropout
rates, suspension, and expulsion rates. Community involvement programs that
respond to these problems and promote protective factors to foster resiliency in
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children and youth are currently being effectively implemented across the nation.
These approaches actively engage families, schools, community organizations,
children, and youth in community problem solving practices based on resiliency
theory (California Department of Education Healthy Kids Healthy California OfiBce,
n.d.).
As the decline o f the federal role in education has resulted in increased state
control, added recognition on the impact of parent and community involvement in
students’ academic performance is indicated in legislative initiatives (Walberg, 1985).
The America Reads Challenge (Corporation for National Service, 1998) reports that
over thirty years of research shows that parental involvement makes a significant
difference in children’s reading success. By reading to their children thirty minutes a
day or taking their children to the library, parents can guide their children to do well
in school. The passage of California’s Proposition 227 in June, 1998 (California
Secretary o f State, 1998) requires that the state’s 1.4 million students, who are not
fluent in English, be placed in an intensive sheltered English immersion class for
about a year and then moved into regular classrooms. To facilitate this change,
$50,000,000 fi-om the state’s general fund has been allocated each year for the next
ten years to train parents and community volunteers to tutor the state’s limited
English proficient students in English language instruction. These training programs
are to be offered at schools or community organizations. Although the legality of
this new law was reviewed in the state’s courts, this legislation sends a powerful
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message about the importance of trained parent and community volunteer tutors to
support students’ academic success.
Bloom (1986) found that the average tutored student outperformed 98% of
the students in conventional classes. The tutoring research demonstrated that most
students have the potential to reach high levels o f learning when they are properly
supported. A challenge is to search for ways o f achieving these results under more
practical and mainstream conditions rather than through one-to-one tutoring which is
too costly and time consuming on a large scale (Bloom).
In 1996-97, the Cahfomia Mentor Initiative provided 77 grants to 149
schools to develop and improve academic mentoring programs (State of California
Governor’s OfiBce of Child Development and Education, 1998). As of June 30,
1997, 4,022 mentors provided academic mentoring to 6,645 students. Overall,
preliminary findings indicate that the programs have improved student performance
in the areas of grade point average, standardized tests, attendance, and discipline. Of
the 28 programs that reported an overall score for grade point average, 22 improved,
5 declined and 1 remained the same. O f the 17 programs that reported both
participant and comparison group data, 15 improved and 2 declined. O f the 6
programs that reported test results in reading, 4 improved and 2 declined relative to
the comparison group. In language arts, 1 program improved and 1 declined. In
math, all 3 programs improved relative to their comparison group. In its conclusion,
the state’s report strongly suggested that academic mentoring is an effective strategy
for helping students at risk of academic failure.
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In her research of mentoring programs for urban youth, Bernard (1992)
emphasized that one-to-one mentoring is not essentially a numerical formula; rather
this concept describes the intention to provide the personalized attention and care
one associates with an effective interpersonal relationship. Bemand concluded that
caring mentoring relationships provide a sense of belonging and security for youth.
Without this relationship, youths hesitate to take the risks that conventional success
requires and tend to become more impulsive in their decision making. Another
benefit of these relationships is the personalized access to resources a mentor makes
available to a youth. Effective mentors advocate for students in a variety of
situations, and provide at-risk youth with opportunities that most middle income
students have access to. When Bernard reviewed the research on I Have A Dream
Foundation’s mentoring programs, he found that mentors are typically viewed as
guardian angels that provide the daily guidance and support needed for students to
collect their sponsor’s tuition offer. When researching New York mentoring
programs, Bernard found that paid field staff is the most important single ingredient.
Junior Achievement volunteers deliver school based business and economic
tutoring and mentoring programs to K-I2 students. In its evaluation of the
programs, the Western Institute for Research in Education found that students
participating in the elementary school program over four years acquired significantly
more economics and business knowledge than those participating in the Junior
Achievement program for the first time in grade four (Junior Achievement, 1997).
Middle school students scored significantly higher on objective-reference tests than
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their non-participating peers. High school students participating in the program
demonstrated a more realistic sense o f personal economic and business
empowerment. The teachers credited the volunteers for bringing an outside business
perspective into the classroom and serving as positive role models for the students.
Since the 1980s, more businesses have been motivated to build educational
partnerships with schools to improve the academic and technical skills of the future
work force. As businesses engage in collaborative partnerships, they look for
benefits that will affect their operation, productivity, and profit margin (Lankard,
1995). Business partnerships that focus on classroom teaching and expose teachers
to new technology help teachers transfer work experiences into the classroom. One
successful school-business partnership was the Rochester Initiative (Whitmore,
1988). This was a cooperative educational effort among Rochester schools,
businesses, and community. Only limited numbers of students were able to benefit
fi'om this initiative. Another effective partnership was with the Eastman Kodak
scientists who have enriched the elementary school’s teaching of science,
mathematics, and computer literacy. In an effort to collect information on the
numbers o f community partnerships with schools in the state o f California, Guthrie
(1989) found that over 3,400 partnerships were reported. The research ascertained
that exemplary programs focused on career and academic improvement. As school
business partnerships continue to flourish across the country, it is time to look
beyond the actual successes of individualized programs and focus on systemwide
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issues to make the fundamental improvements necessary for ongoing academic
success of students (Woodside, 1985).
Methods for Analyzing the Cost Effectiveness of Using
Parents and Community Volunteers to Improve Students’
Academic Success
Although the value of using parents and volunteers to support students’
academic performance is well documented, there is limited research on the cost
effectiveness o f using parents and volunteers for improving student performance.
King (1994) developed cost comparisons of three comprehensive school reform
programs aimed at bringing elementary at-risk students to grade level. The models
used different strategies that have implications for program costs, but shared the
same goals. When identifying strategies. King compared and contrasted the age
span, curriculum, instructional methods, parental involvement, and governance
systems of Robert Slavins’s Success for All Schools, Henry Levin’s Accelerated
Schools, and James Comer’s School Development Program. To determine the cost
effectiveness of each approach. King used a common base and made the following
assumptions:
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• All models or strategies continue to provide standard educational
services.
• Although nonpersonnel costs do exist, they are relatively small
compared to personnel costs. The nonpersonnel costs appear to
be roughly equal across the models.
• The costs are associated with budgetary expenditures and with the
inputs of all actors. This includes the usage of parent time and
donated teacher resources in the educational process. The
distribution of costs for the various actors is listed separately to
avoid masking the reality of the actual time used by each actor.
To determine program costs. King (1994) estimated the salary and benefits of
professional staff members at $50,000 and the paraprofessional staff, including parent
volunteers, at $20,000 each. Trainer costs for staff development were projected at
$380 per day. This figure included $20 for travel per day, $10 for food per day, and
$50 for lodging per day when necessary. Participant fees were estimated at $180 per
day. Fees included $150 for salary, $20 for travel and $10 for food. Values were
estimated on the time demands of existing staff and parent volunteers for the three
program models. King used full versus partial staff to distinguish between the time
requirements of the different actors. Although dollar values were used for costs, the
costs of using additional time for staff, parent volunteers and students were left in
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time units. King contended that cost analysts typically search for the value of the
best opportunity forgone when a resource is used for a specific application. King
also determined that the added time of staff and volunteers did not need to have a
monetary value assigned to it. Finally, King found that there was no market value for
unemployable young students.
Low and high cost estimates were derived for a school site analysis for each
program model. Costs associated with additional demands of time were assigned to
teachers, principals, parents, and students. Added teacher time included the time
required to communicate with the reading tutors, the time to administer the students’
reading performance assessments, and the time required to sit on various committees
for developing the program. The added time for principals was estimated for
participating in a weekly advisory meeting. Although parents served many
supportive roles in the various models. King estimated the time parents volunteered
to serve on advisory committees and attended the required family support team
meetings. The time estimated for students included cooperative learning and tutor
pull out time.
In her conclusion. King (1994) argued that it would be ideal to combine the
estimated costs and estimated additional staff, parent, and student time to derive a
total societal cost estimate for each of the three models. This task would be
problematic because the metrics used to measure resources differ and because there
are no specific market functions to weigh a given quantity of parent’s, teacher’s, and
principal’s time. Additionally, the valuing of a parent volunteer’s time can be
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associated with high or low opportunity costs depending on the individual’s
education and employment opportunities. Implementation sites can also vary widely
in their productivity of using donated personnel resources. Of particular interest are
the current levels of donated personnel resources relative to the alternative o f hired
professional resources.
When compared to King’s research. Levin (1983) attempted to identify the
specific ingredients used for a particular classroom strategy through a cost
effectiveness analysis. This evaluation of alternatives considers the costs and effects
of particular strategies with regard to producing predetermined outcomes. Levin
assumed that only programs that are similar can be compared and that a common
measure of effectiveness can be used to assess them. The ingredients method
represents a straightforward approach to estimating costs. If the ingredients can be
identified for a specific strategy and their costs can be ascertained, the total costs of
an intervention can be determined.
The first step to applying the ingredients method is to identify the ingredients that
are to be used. To identify various ingredients for cost estimation, it is important to
be clear about the project's scope. For purposes o f a cost analysis, the ingredients
evaluated should only be the added resources required for a specific intervention.
The identification of resources should be broken into personnel, facilities, equipment
and materials, other program inputs, and client inputs. Personnel ingredients include
all human resources required for a project. This category consists o f all full- and
part-time employees, consultants, and volunteers. Qualifications are those skills
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required for the job, and time inputs include the amount o f time each person allocates
to the intervention. Facilities refer to the physical space required for the intervention.
Equipment and materials consist of furnishings, instructional equipment, and
materials used for the intervention. Other inputs include the extra liability insurance
required or the cost of training at a local college. Client inputs can be the
transportation, books, and materials required for the clients and their families. Levin
(1983) recognizes the three following overriding considerations in specifying
ingredients:
• The ingredients should be specified in sufiBcient detail.
• The categories of ingredients should be consistent.
• The accuracy in listing ingredients should depend on their
contribution to the total cost of the intervention.
Typically, personnel inputs represent at least 75% of the costs of educational
and social service interventions. Thus, an eventual small error in estimating
personnel can have a large impact on the total cost estimate because of the relative
importance of personnel in the overall intervention strategy.
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How to Identify and Measure Costs and Expenditures
A number of complex conceptual issues must be considered when estimating
the costs of various intervention strategies (Monk, 1993). Most important is the
distinction between expenditures and costs. Costs are measures o f what must be
foregone to realize some benefit, whereas expenditures are measures of resource
flows regardless of their benefit. Expenditures are sensitive to the unit of analysis.
They are typically easier to track since accounting systems normally report resource
flows by objects (e.g., instruction, administration) (Picus & Tralli, 1998). A cost
analysis requires a comparison o f benefits, while an expenditure analysis does not
(Monk, 1995). A common approach to comparing costs o f various intervention
programs is to determine the monetary value of the resources necessary for the
program and compare the total expenditures across the various programs (Picus,
1994). If two programs were operated together, the costs o f one program would
include the benefits forgone by shifting resources fi'om other areas. Relying on
Levin’s (1983) ingredients’ approach, individual items used for a specific intervention
must be identified and summed to determine the total costs of a program.
Picus (1994) established a conceptual framework for estimating the full
economic costs of a specific program. The first dimension o f the matrix relates to
the components or specific activities supporting a particular intervention. The
second dimension of the matrix indicates the level at which the expenditures are
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incurred. Levels can include the state, the school district, a school, a classroom, or a
private test market. The third dimension of the matrix consists of the kinds of items
purchased for each activity component at each level. The resource costs for each
ingredient of the program can be placed in the different cells of the matrix. Once the
various intervention strategies have been developed, expenditures are relatively
straightforward to measure. The level at which the expenditures occur depends on
the level initiating the various strategies. The identification of the full program costs
must consider the benefits forgone from the best alternative to the selected program.
Problems in determining costs include (Picus, 1994):
• It is hard to identify and measure the benefits of educational
programs.
• Differences in the amount of resources needed for each program
strategy can lead to difBculties in comparing benefits across
programs.
• The costs of personnel time must be evaluated consistently and
include determining the value of personnel time devoted to an
specific strategy, but not directly compensated by the program.
The most common method for placing a monetary value on ingredients is
using their market prices (Levin, 1983). In some cases, there may not be a market
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for an ingredient or the existing market price may not be an accurate reflection of the
cost o f obtaining additional units of an ingredient. When attempts are made to
estimate the value o f an ingredient, the estimated value is called a shadow price.
The following is a list o f ingredients based on Levin’s (1983) method for cost
effectiveness, Picus’ (1994) framework for cost assessment. King’s (1994) analysis
of three school reform models;
Personnel
Personnel can include the salaries and fringe benefits for all full- and part-time
employees, consultants and volunteers used for a study. (Levin, 1983; Monk, 1995;
Picus, 1994).
Added Project Staff
Added project staff are the salaries and benefits o f additional staff members
required for implementing a particular program. Examples o f professional staff
include teachers, facilitators, and counselors. Classroom aides are examples o f
nonprofessional or paraprofessional staff (King, 1994).
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Facilities
Facilities refers to the personal space allocated to a study. Facility usage can
be estimated according to the value o f a facility adjusted for depreciation and interest
(Levin, 1983).
Materials and Equipment
Materials and equipment consist of the furnishings, instructional equipment
and materials used for a study. The cost of materials and equipment can be difficult
to estimate. Accordingly, estimates for costs can be determined by adding the total
expenditures of materials to the estimated value of those that were contributed
(Levin, 1983).
Other Inputs
The category can include all ingredients used for an intervention that does not
fit into the other categories. Examples of these ingredients are extra liability
insurance, the cost of a training session offered at a local college, energy costs,
maintenance costs, and general overhead costs (Levin, 1983).
Value of Client Time and Other Client Inputs
Client inputs can be all ingredients that must be provided to the clients for
services. According to Levin (1983), client inputs include students’ transportation
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and the materials used to assist the students in an invention. For example, if parents
transport their children to school, the annual cost is calculated based upon the
estimated mileage and the value of the parents’ time.
Added Time Requirement of Existing Personnel
Used by King (1994), this category represents the additional responsibilities
and time required for teachers and principals for an intervention. Personnel
resources used for the intervention may involve significant opportunity costs and can
be diflBcult to value. The added demands o f time can be reported in time units.
Added Time Requirement for Parents
This classification consists of the additional responsibilities and time required
fi'om parents for an intervention and can be reported in time units (King, 1994).
Added Time Requirement for Students
The valuing of students’ time involves learning instead of earning
opportunities (King, 1994). The economic value of foregone learning opportunities
is difiBcult to quantify and can be reported in time units for an intervention.
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How to Design a Measure and Collect Data for
Determining the Cost Effectiveness of Using Parents and
Community Volunteers as Mentors and Tutors
To use the cost effectiveness approach, it was necessary to first determine the
program’s objective and an appropriate measure of effectiveness. Given these
requirements, it was possible to design an evaluation of alternatives to achieve a
particular criterion for effectiveness and obtain cost information on each alternative
strategy (Levin, 1983). For example, student learning was measured through
compiling and comparing test scores in appropriate domains utilizing the Los
Angeles Unified School District’s Basic Elementary-Secondary Test (BEST) (Los
Angeles Unified School District, 1978). BEST was administered to students
participating in the study at the beginning and ending of an eight-week interval.
BEST is a screening test that can determine pupil eligibility for the compensatory
education program or any program that seeks to identify students achieving below
grade level. It can also serve as a screening device for new students who have no
recent standardized test available. The BEST is correlated with the California Test
o f Basic Skills (CTBS) (California Test Bureau/McGraw-Hill, 1978) for determining
those students at or below the Q1 or Q2 measure (Los Angeles Unified School
District, 1978).
Levin (1983) contended that the cost effectiveness approach lends itself to
the traditional evaluation approaches and types o f outcomes that decision makers
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often considered. The approach can be applied according to an explicit set of
premises and replicated easily by others. Table 1 illustrates how various alternative
strategies were applied in using parents and community volunteers as language arts
mentors and tutors in the classroom. Costs were calculated by using the kinds of
expenditure data collected on each alternative strategy. A comparative analysis of
test scores was used to measure changes in student performance over a specific
treatment time (Levin). In-depth interviews were administered to teachers, parents,
and community volunteers to evaluate the effectiveness o f various program
strategies.
Table 1
O utcom es of Various Volunteer Strategies
Multiple Outcomes of Alternative Volunteer Strategies
Alternative
Cost per
Strategy
BEST Reading Comprehension
and Vocabulary Test Scores
Pretest Posttest
Parent Volunteers only
Community Volunteers only
Combination of Parent and Community Volunteers
Control Group with No Volunteers
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In considering the costs of various strategies, it was important to consider
who received the benefits or shared in the effects of each alternative (Levin, 1983).
In the case o f using parent and community volunteers to assist students in their
language arts performance, the students gained language arts skills, the parents
developed skills in further assisting their children and themselves, and the community
volunteers used their newly acquired knowledge for themselves or others.
Furthermore, a specific strategy can have a profound effect on the lowest pretest
scores and no effect on the highest scores. Essentially these issues are really a
variant of multiple outcomes. Any result can be decomposed among various
populations that are affected to see how each can share in the outcome (Levin,
1983).
Types of Existing Programs
That Were Compared to This Program
Besides the research conducted by King (1994) on a cost analysis of three
different educational reform models and Levin (1983) on the cost effectiveness of a
specific program, there is little research available on the cost effectiveness of
comparable programs. Warfield (1994) conducted a cost effectiveness analysis of
early intervention services in Massachusetts. The findings indicated that for a $1,000
expenditure, students demonstrated adaptive behavior and child-mother interaction
improvement, depending on the severity of their disability and their age of entry into
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the program. The expenditure data were determined for the study by using a unit
rate structure. This structure has been used in Massachusetts since 1985. Early
intervention programs are reimbursed by the Department of Public Health or
Medicaid at a set dollar per hour rate for each of six different service types. The
initial rates were determined by a unit cost analysis collected on all program
operating expenses. Service types were functional activities and included home
visits, center-based individual visits, child-focused group sessions, parent support
sessions, and the hours required to complete screenings and assessments.
Limitations o f this cost effectiveness analysis included:
• The cost effectiveness of the intervention was only measured by
determining the total hours of service received.
• No data on the quality of the intervention was available.
• The extent o f the individual’s participation in the intervention or
the skill of the interventionist was not considered in the study.
• The cost effectiveness of early intervention services should be
evaluated for samples that include socio-economic diversity of
families.
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Hartman and Fay (1996) studied the cost effectiveness o f instructional
support teams in Pennsylvania. The cost effectiveness o f two alternative strategies
for working with students with learning problems were evaluated. The first strategy
mandated substantial prereferral activity to assist students with learning problems in
the regular classroom. If the activity was successful, most students referred to the
prereferral activity would be served appropriately through modifications in the
regular instructional program, fewer students would be referred for a
multidisciplinary evaluation, and even fewer students would be placed in special
education programs. Program effectiveness measures included:
• the number of referrals for the prereferral activity
• the number of referrals for psychological evaluations for special
education program eligibility
• the number of students placed in special education programs
• the number of same-year retentions reported by the schools
Cost components included costs for the value o f time spent by persoimel for
the prereferral activity, the value o f time spent by personnel for the multidisciplinary
process, the special education placement costs, and the retention costs. An
important assumption in the analysis was the assumed length of time students were in
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special education programs. Long-term placement over several years dominated the
cost efifectiveness analysis. Sensitivity analyses were included for the time in the
program, the differences in the numbers o f students placed in special education, and
the combination of time in special educational and prereferral activities. The study
found that the cost effectiveness was greater in the prereferral activity, and it was
able to reduce the number of students placed in special education.
Finally, Levin (1998) analyzed empirical evidence on achievement differences
between public and private schools and the comparative costs of public and private
schools in an overall voucher system. The findings indicated that there was no or
only a slight advantage for private schools over public schools in student
achievement. There were, however, substantially higher rates of graduation, college
attendance, and college graduation achieved by Catholic high school students.
Furthermore, the findings indicated that there was consistent evidence that
educational choice led to greater socioeconomic and racial segregation of students.
From these results, the costs of an overall voucher infi-astructure appear to exceed
the present system. Additionally, few private schools provide special education
services to students with disabilities. The comparison in the study of average per
pupil expenditures for public services included other services not traditionally
provided by most private schools. These were vocational education, transportation,
and food services. The tuition charges used to compare private schools with public
school figures were those of both elementary schools and the more costly secondary
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schools. The study was limited in that it did not delineate kinds of expenditures
required for further cost efifectiveness analysis.
How To Determine Which Program Variation
Is Cost Effective and the Most Cost-Effective Option
Available
To determine whether the use of parents and community volunteers as
classroom mentors and tutors is cost effective or what strategy used is most cost
effective required further analysis and identification of the assumptions and
limitations. Additionally, there was substantial debate on what should be included in
a kind of expenditure. In an article on the cost o f large-scale assessment, Phelps
(1996) contended that it is easy to isolate particular expenditures with particular
consequences when required. To ascertain the costs of any test, Phelps argued that
the research must isolate the expenditures for that particular test. The U. S. General
Accounting OfiBce used this method to estimate the marginal costs of testing. The
method attempted to isolate all the costs to a certain activity and ignore any cost not
attributable to that activity.
When considering the importance of balance in the study of educational costs.
Monk (1996) generally separated cost estimates for alternative sets of assumptions
and provided the results of a sensitivity analysis. He also included the cost
fi-amework used so that readers could generate their own cost estimates that could be
tailored to specific approaches. This approach is not tied to old practices that reform
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seeks to change and provides a conceptual framework for applying newly defined
strategies. The limitation of this approach is its dependence on ideas for reform that
are in the process of being tested.
Zerbe (1998) stated that a cost benefit analysis can be a useful scientific tool
if the profession adopts three rules for its application:
1. The role of the cost benefit analysis is to provide information
relevant to the decision, but not provide the decision.
2. The principle that the analysis rests on all existing values, and it is
not a tool for creating the values.
3. The analysis rests on the law determined by society and the
psychological reference points defined by society.
In his conclusion, Zerbe (1998) stated that the cost benefit analysis should be
seen as the consistent application of a set o f procedures for economists to furnish
useful information to policy makers. These procedures require that the application of
the analysis cannot proceed outside the institutional context with which it is found.
The question of value in the analysis cannot be separated from its legal context. An
understanding of what values count cannot be separated from the law. A cost benefit
analysis also contributes to the law. When there is a discrepancy between legal and
psychological ownership, the law can change to reflect the psychological ownership.
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The values are broad in a cost benefit analysis and include those associated with
income distribution.
When considering the relevance of literature reviewed to determine the cost
effectiveness and the most cost effectiveness o f an specific option, one must clearly
articulate assumptions in data usage. The limitations o f the study must be fully
analyzed, and implications for further research on the various strategies must be
considered based on the results of the data collected and analyzed.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Introduction
The following methods, procedures, and statistical analyses were employed in
evaluating the data. The first section of Chapter 3 describes and identifies the
characteristics of the sample population. The next section discusses the data
collection procedures. The final section examines the measures and data used for
statistical analysis. The chapter closes with methodology assumptions pertinent to
answering these research questions:
1. What are the costs o f utilizing parents and community volunteers
as tutors and mentors in the classroom?
2. What specific combinations of parent and community volunteer
support strategies in the classroom generate the greatest impact
on language arts test performance?
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3. What is the cost effectiveness of these alternative strategies?
To answer these questions, data were collected from nine classrooms consisting
of six experimental classes and three control classrooms. Pre- and posttest data were
evaluated to determine which experimental program variation was the most cost
effective.
Sample
O f the 63 teachers employed at Fenton Avenue Charter School, three
teachers were selected from each of the three school tracks to participate in the
study. All teachers were fully credentialed. Each of the teachers participating in the
study was currently teaching first grade, second grade, or a first and second grade
combination class. The language arts portion of each teacher's class was taught in
either English or Spanish. Table 2 summarizes the characteristics of each of the nine
teacher’s classrooms participating in the study.
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Table 2
Characteristics of the Nine Classrooms
Teacher
Number
Track Cycle
and
Grade Level
Class
Language
Quantity and
Types of
Volunteers
Used
Total Number of
Times Teacher
Reported Use of
Volunteers
1 A
Second Grade
English 1 Community
Volunteer
20
2 A
First Grade
Spanish None None
3 A
Second Grade
Spanish 2 Parent
Volunteers
8
4 B
Second Grade
English None None
5 B
Second Grade
English 3 Community
and 2 Parent
Volunteers
10 for Community,
5 for Parents
6 B
First and Second
Grade
Spanish 4 Parent
Volunteers
10
7 C
First Grade
Spanish 1 Community
Volunteer
8
8 C
First Grade
Spanish 3 Parent
Volunteers
8
9 C
Second Grade
Spanish None None
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Data Collection Procedures
To determine the costs and expenditures o f training and using parent and
community volunteers in the classroom, a common metric to measure the costs and
expenditures during the eight weeks of the study was developed. Levin (1983)
defined this process as the ingredients method. To identify the ingredients for using
parent and community volunteers and to ascertain the total costs and expenditures,
Fenton Avenue Charter School’s administrators were interviewed. From this
interview, it was determined that the following costs and expenditures were incurred
based on Levin's (1983) and King's (1994) research. In the discussion that follows,
the ingredients identified in the literature are described and when appropriate cost
estimates are developed. Table 3 summarizes the ingredients recognized by Levin
(1983) and King (1994) and those used in this study. Table 4 lists the expenditures
identified for this research.
Personnel and Community Volunteers
Since the personnel accounted for a majority of the total costs for the
intervention strategies, the salaries for employees were obtained fi"om the normal
payroll or expenditure data. Fringe benefits were not included in the calculations
because they were negligible amounts. The hourly salary for the exempt
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administrative employee assigned to manage the parent training was calculated by
determining her hourly wage at $35 per hour and multiplying it by the five hours a
week she dedicated to the project during the eight-week project. The classified staff
employee who assisted with the parent training had an hourly wage of $13.50. To
determine the cost for the classified employee, the employee’s wage was multiplied
by the two hours a week she supported the project during the six weeks o f the parent
training course. The parent trainer’s hourly salary was $25 per hour. She contributed
five hours per week for the eight-week project.
The initial cost of training all of the school’s 63 teachers was significant, but
it was not included in the study because these costs were the same for the control
groups. Six classroom teachers provided support to the parent and the community
volunteers. The teachers’ hourly salary was calculated at $22 per hour. It was
approximated that each teacher who participated in the study averaged three hours
per week in classroom support activities for the eight-week project.
The value of a community volunteer was determined by estimating the market
value of the personnel services provided. In determining the value of using volunteers
in the classroom, a shadow price of $9 per hour was established. This was
determined by estimating the potential market value of hiring a classroom aide with
some experience and training to assist the teacher during the language arts period.
The community volunteers worked a total of 38 times in the classroom for 1.5 hours
each time (Levin, 1983; Monk, 1995; Picus, 1994).
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Other Human Resources Costs
This category included the salaries and fringe benefits for added project staff
required for implementing an intervention. The added time requirements for existing
personnel, parents, and students represented the additional responsibilities and time
required for an intervention and were reported in time units. Identified by King
(1994), these categories overlapped the personnel, value of client time, and other
client inputs used by Levin (1983) and were not used for this study.
Value of Client Time and Other Client Inputs
Client inputs are all ingredients that must be provided to the clients for
services. According to Levin (1983), client inputs include students’ transportation,
books, equipment, food, or other student services that can be used to assist the
students or their families in the development of the students’ language arts skills. For
example, if parents transport their children to school, the annual cost can be
calculated by estimating the mileage and the value of the parents’ time. Based on
this analysis, the value of the parents’ time in working as paraprofessionals in the
classroom was determined by estimating the market value of a paraprofessional’s
salary and multiplying the hourly rate by the hours worked in the classroom. In this
case, the salary for a paraprofessional was estimated at $9 per hour. It was
determined that parents worked a total o f 31 times in the classroom for 1.5 hours
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each time. The parents’ time for driving the students to school and the mileage
calculations were not included because they were the same as the control groups.
Other Costs
In addition to the costs and expenditures identified for this study. Levin
(1983) included facilities, equipment and materials, energy, maintenance, overhead,
and liability insurance for volunteers as part of the project inputs. Facilities include
any classroom space, oflBces, storage areas, recreational facilities, facilities used for
training, and other building requirements used for the project. Facility usage can be
estimated according to the value of a facility adjusted for depreciation and interest.
Equipment and materials refer to the classroom and office furniture used for the
project, the instructional equipment, and ofGce supplies. Other program inputs might
include training sessions and conferences attended through other organizations to
support the project, and ingredients specified clearly with a statement of their
purpose. When considering these other costs and expenditures, the administrative
staff at Fenton Avenue Charter School determined that the facility, materials and
equipment, maintenance, and overhead expenses were not relevant or significant
enough to include in the study. It was argued that these costs could not be separated
from the daily costs of running the school and did not change appreciably due to the
intervention.
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Although the school administrators were able to ascertain their costs for the
study, Levin (1983) cautioned that the best analyses must be combined with other
types o f information because the measures o f costs, benefits, effects, and utilities are
estimates and are subject to some error. Picus (1994) fiarther concluded that it is
hard to identify and measure the benefits o f educational programs. The differences in
the amounts o f resources needed for a specific strategy can lead to difGculties in
comparing benefits among various strategies utilizing volunteers in the classroom.
A Comparison o f Expenditures Usedfor Three Different Project
Applications
Table 3 compares the kinds of expenditures used for King’s (1994) comparison of
the three program models, for Levin’s (1983) computer-assisted project, and for
Burke’s expenditures in using parents and community volunteers as language arts
classroom tutors and mentors. In light of Picus’ (1994) expenditure dimensions, the
level of expenditures was school-based and the categories listed are the kinds of
expenditures for each of the three research studies. Expenditure components were
not considered in this table because each of the research studies evaluated programs
with different functional needs.
Table 4 identifies the total costs and expenditures used for the six
experimental classrooms in this study.
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TABLE 3
Comparison of Kinds of Expenditures
Used for the Three Research Studies
Each kind of expenditure is checked when used in a specific project application
Kind of Expenditure Research Study
King Levin Burke
Personnel (including new personnel, added expenditures
for existing personnel, and anticipated expenditures if
volunteers were paid for their services)
X X
Additional Project Staff X
Facilities X
Materials and Equipment X
Other (energy, maintenance, overhead, insurance,
training at a local college)
X X
Value of Client Time and Other Client Inputs X X
Added Time Requirement of Existing Personnel X
Added Time Requirement for Parents X
Added Time Requirement for Students X
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TABLE 4
Total Identified Costs and Expenditures for the Six Experimental
Classroom s
Kind of Expenditure T otal C osts and Expenditures
Personnel
Administrative employee
$35 per hour x 5 hours per
w eek X 8 weeks
$1,408
Classified employee
$ 13.50 X 2 hours per week x
6 w eeks
$165
Parent trainer
$25 per hour x 5 hours per
w eek X 8 weeks
$1,001
Classroom teachers
$22 per hour x 3 hours per
w eek X 8 w eeks x 6 teachers
$3,168
Community volunteers
$9 per hour x 1.5 hours x 38
times
$513
Value of Client Time and Other Client
Inputs
$9 per hour x 1.5 hours x 31
times
$419
Grand Total $6,674
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The study measured the changes in students’ language arts performance after
receiving assistance from the volunteers by giving students a BEST pre- and posttest.
The test was administered in either Spanish or English to students participating in the
study at the beginning and the ending of each teacher’s eight-week track. Test
analysis focused on the students' vocabulary and reading skills compared to the norm
referenced numbers set at the 49“* percentile. In-depth interviews were also
administered to teachers, parents, and community volunteers to evaluate the
effectiveness of various program strategies. Table 5 lists the teacher survey
questions and Table 6 lists the parent and community volunteers survey questions.
Before interviewing the teachers and volunteers, it was decided not to code the
responses because the survey responses would provide additional information in the
project analysis.
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Table 5
Teacher Interview Form
Teacher's Name: Track:
Total number of volunteers used:
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and
type of volunteer (community or parent):
1 .
2.
3.
4.
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
What benefits did you observe In working with the volunteer mentors?
What limitations did you observe In working with the volunteer
mentors? (What Is a limitation In what the volunteers were able to
do? What were the limitations In the project's results?)
Did your students' language arts test scores Improve, remain the same,
or decrease?
How do you feel the volunteer mentors Impacted the students' ability
to learn?
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research
project?
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Table 6
Parent and Community Volunteer Interview Form
Teacher's Name: Track:
Your N am e:______________________________Your Phone Number:___
Approximate number of times you helped during the research
project: ______
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the language
arts period.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
What problems did you have working with the students?
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
How did you help the students learn?
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Statistical Procedures
Both descriptive and inferential statistics are reported in this investigation.
The initial analysis involved primarily a citation of frequencies o f positive and
negative changes in the test score performance that was associated with various
classroom groups. The major statistical analyses yielded from the test scores
included pretest means, posttest means, adjusted posttest means, and standard
deviations derived from the use o f an analysis of covariance procedure. The analysis
of covariance procedure affords a determination for various groups o f what the
posttest means would be when they are adjusted in the context that all groups
possess the same pretest mean. This procedure, in essence, corrects for inequalities
among the groups in terms o f their mean pretest scores (Isaac & Michael, 1997).
Obviously, a group with an unusually high pretest mean would have a predetermined
advantage. Statistically, a determination was made for the level of significance of the
differences of all possible pairings of adjusted posttest means with the alpha level
being set a .05 for a two-tailed probability.
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Methodological Assumptions
The following methodological assumptions were determined to be significant
for this study:
1. Information presented in the study from primary and
secondary sources was accurate.
2. The sample population represented a sufBcient number and
composition of the total school population for
generalizing results.
3. The standardized test used to measure the language arts skills
of students was reliable and valid.
4. All participants in the study were honest in their responses to
interview questions.
5. All information used in the analysis was accurate.
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6. All procedures for this study were appropriate for obtaining
the results necessary to answer the research questions.
7. All estimations of costs and expenditures were reasonably
accurate and appropriate.
8. Methodological assumptions for statistical analysis of data
were accurate.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter has four sections. The first section. Research Question 1,
includes a discussion of the compiled data to determine the costs o f using the parents
and community volunteers as tutors and mentors. The second section attempts to
answer Research Question 2 by providing the statistical test score data as well as the
in-depth interview responses fi’ om the teachers and volunteers. The third section
analyzes the cost effectiveness of alternative strategies (Research Question 3) by
comparing the data and interview responses compiled to respond to the first and
second research questions. The fourth section provides a discussion of results in
relation to the key findings highlighted in the study.
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Findings
Research Question 1
What are the costs o f utilizing parents and community volunteers as tutors
and mentors in the classroom?
The costs o f training and supervising both parent and community volunteers
were significant. Personnel costs were extensive for training the parent volunteers to
assist in the classroom. This was partially due to the fact that most of the parent
volunteers participating in the study had a limited understanding of the skills required
for a student’s mastery o f language arts proficiency. The six-session parent training
course that the school offered taught parents how to support students in the
classroom in language arts development. The sessions also helped parents learn how
to assist students with homework support. The course provided parents with
effective communication strategies to support students in the classroom and at home.
Finally, the classes taught parents how to work effectively with the school’s
administration and with the classroom teachers. In this way, parents would not feel
confused or intimidated about the school’s policies and procedures.
Table 7 lists the different kinds of expenditures that were identified for the
program variations of using parent volunteers only, o f using community volunteers
only, and of using a combination of parents and community volunteers. Expenditures
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for supporting these program variations included the cost of an administrative
employee, the cost for the classified employee, the cost for a parent trainer, the cost
for classroom teachers and the value o f either a parent volunteer or community
volunteer. The cost for each kind o f expenditure was calculated by dividing the
number of parents or total number o f parents and community volunteers by the total
expenditure that was identified by school site administrators. For example, the total
cost for the administrative employee’s time to support the parent volunteers was
$1,408 divided by 11 parents. This calculation of $128 represented the
administrator’s cost to support each of the 11 parents.
Table 7 indicates that nine parents were assigned to three classes of parent
volunteers and two parents were assigned to a combined class of parents and
community volunteers. At $128 per parent, the administrator’s cost for a program
variation was multiplied by the total number o f parent volunteers used for that
program. The costs for the classified employee and the parent trainer were
calculated the same way. The costs for classroom teachers who used any type of
volunteers were calculated by a fiat rate of $528 per teacher times the number o f
classes using a specific program variation. This value was to account for the
additional time required in supervising the volunteers. The value of the volunteer
was determined by multiplying the market price o f $9 per hour by an average o f 1.5
hours per session and multiplying this product by the total number of times a
volunteer was used for a specific program variation.
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Table 7
Cost Comparisons of Three Program Variations
Kind of
Expenditure
Parent
Volunteers Only
(3 classes)
(9 parents)
Community
Volunteers
Only
(2 classes)
(2 community)
Parents and Community
Volunteers Combined
(1 class)
(3 community and
2 parents)
Administrative
Employee
{$128 per
parent)
$1,152 $256
Classified
Employee
($15 per
parent)
$135 $30
Parent Trainer
($91 per
parent)
$819 $182
Classroom
Teacher
($528 per class
using any type
of volunteer)
$1,584 $1,056 $528
Value of the
Volunteer
($9 per hour x
1.5 hours X
total times)
$351 for 26
times of using
volunteers
$378 for 28
times of using
volunteers
$203 for 15 times of
using volunteers
Total Cost $4,041 $1,434 $1.199
Cost for Each
Time a
Volunteer
is Used
$155 $51 $80
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After calculating the totals for all expenditures of each program variation, a
cost per single-time use of a volunteer was determined. This was done by dividing
the total cost for a specific program variation by the number of times a volunteer was
used in that program variation. For example. Table 7 indicates that the total cost for
using parent volunteers only was $4,041, which was then divided by the 26 difièrent
times a volunteer was used. This calculation equaled an average cost of SI55 for
each time a parent volunteer was used in the classroom. The average cost for using
community volunteers was $51 per occurrence. For using a combination of parents
and community volunteers, the average cost was $80 per occurrence as noted in
Table 7.
Research Question 2
What specific combinations o f parent and community volunteer support
strategies in the classroom will generate the greatest impact on language arts test
performance?
Table 8 lists the BEST test results for all 9 classes participating in the study.
Comparing the posttest results of each class with the pretest results, Table 8 reports
the number and percentage by class of the students who achieved higher, lower, or
no score changes. Table 8 indicates that all but Teacher #7 who used one
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community volunteer achieved an overall average o f higher posttest results when
compared to pretest scores.
Table 8
BEST Test Results
Teacher
Number
Number
of
Students
Number
with
Higher
Scores
Percent
with
Higher
Scores
Number
with No
Score
Change
Percent
with No
Score
Change
Number
with
Lower
Scores
Percent
with
Lower
Scores
1 18 13 72.22% 1 5.56% 4 22.22%
2 18 16 88.89% 1 5.56% 1 5.56%
3 19 16 84.21% 2 10.53% 1 5.26%
4 19 13 68.42% 2 10.53% 4 21.05%
5 19 10 52.63% 2 10.53% 7 36.84%
6 19 14 73.68% 2 10.53% 3 15.79%
7 11 1 9.09% 8 72.73% 2 18.18%
8 18 8 44.44% 3 16.67% 7 38.89%
9 14 10 71.43% 2 14.29% 2 14.29%
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Data Analysis Directed Toward Comparisons o f Group M eans
In the statistical data analyses, the following four sets represented different
class combinations;
Data Set I (Teachers' Numbers 2. 7. 81
This set represents three first grade Spanish speaking groups comprising (a) a
classroom control group (Teacher #2) receiving no volunteer intervention, (b) a
classroom group (Teacher #7) receiving visits fi"om one community volunteer, and
(c) a classroom group (Teacher #8) receiving visits fi’ om three parent volunteers.
Data Set H (Teachers' Numbers 1.4. 51
This set includes three second grade English speaking groups consisting of
(a) a classroom control group (Teacher #4) receiving no volunteer intervention, (b) a
classroom group (Teacher #1) receiving visits fi'om one community volunteer, and
(c) a classroom group (Teacher #5) receiving visits fi'om three community and two
parent volunteers.
Data Set T T T TTeachers’ Numbers 3.9)
This set represents two second grade Spanish speaking groups comprising (a)
a classroom control group (Teacher #9) with no intervention and (b) a second
classroom group (Teacher #3) with visits firom two parent volunteers.
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Data Set IV (Teacher Number 61
This set includes one first and second grade combined classroom group
(Teacher #6) o f Spanish speaking students receiving support fi'om four parent
volunteers.
In all four data sets, pretests and posttests covering appropriate subject
matter materials were administered to all students in all groups. For the first three
data sets, analyses of covariance ascertained whether there were statistically
significant differences between posttest mean scores that had been adjusted
statistically to reflect equivalence of all groups on pretest scores. The pretest mean
scores were all set equal to the overall mean of pretest scores for the total sample
comprising the various groups receiving different types of volunteer intervention.
Corresponding to Data Sets I, U and m, pretest means, posttest means, adjusted
posttest means, and standard deviations are reported in Tables 9, 11, 13. Tables 10
and 12, respectively, cite for Data Sets I and II all possible differences between
pairings of the adjusted posttest means along with statements of probability to
indicate statistical significance. In the instance of Data Set m , a footnote in Table
13, which is modeled after Tables 9 and 11, indicates the level of significance of the
difference between the two adjusted posttest means. Finally, Table 14 sets forth the
pretest and posttest means for the single classroom group, as weU as an indication of
the level of significance of the difference between the pretest and posttest mean
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scores. In all tables, standard deviations are presented along with the numbers of
participating students in each of the various groups.
Table 9
Data S et I: Pretest Means, P osttest Means,
Adjusted P osttest Means (All Pretest Means Are Statistically
Equal), and Standard Deviations for Three First-Grade
Spanish Speaking Groups Experiencing Supportive
Intervention or No Intervention
Pretest Posttest Posttest
(Means Adjusted)
Group n M < T M a M (T
1. Control Group
(No Intervention)
18 12.00 3.14 14.83 2 .0 4 14.87 2.04
2. One Community
Volunteer (8 visits)
11 15.00 2.00 14.73 2.49 13.20 2.49
3. Three Participating
Parents (8 visits)
18 10.33 2.30 10.83 2.01 11.73 2.01
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Table 10
Significance of Differences Betw een Adjusted Posttest Means for
Selected Pairs of Groups A ssociated With Data S et I
Groups Being Compared Difference Between
Means
Probability
(2-tailed)
Control (1) vs. One Community Volunteer (2)
Control (1) vs. Three Participating Parents (3)
M\ - M i — 1.67
M^ - Mz = 3 .13
.022
.000
One Community Volunteer (2) vs. Control (1)
One Community Volunteer (2) vs. Three
Participating Parents (3)
M i - M^ — -1.67
M i - M i = 1.47
.022
.068
Three Participating Parents (3) vs. Control (1)
Three Participating Parents (3) vs. One
Community Volunteer (2)
M i - Ml = -3.13
M i - M i — -1.47
.000
.068
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Table 11
Data S et il: Pretest M eans, Posttest M eans,
Adjusted P osttest M eans (Ali Pretest Means Are Statistically
Equal), and Standard Deviations for Three Second-Grade
English Speaking Groups Experiencing Supportive
Intervention or No Intervention
Pretest Posttest Posttest
(Means Adjusted)
Group n M (3 M a M a
1. Control Group 19 2 3 .0 0 5.93 24.95 6 .28 2 5 .8 4 6.28
(No Intervention)
2. One Community 18 2 6 .8 9 6.36 29.44 4 .1 8 2 7 .9 4 4.18
Volunteer (20 visits)
3. Three Community 19 2 3 .5 8 6.31 26.21 4 .7 4 2 6 .7 5 4 .7 4
Volunteers and Two
Participating Parents
(15 visits)
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Table 12
Significance of Differences Between Adjusted Posttest Means for
Selected Pairs of Groups A ssociated With Data Set I I
Groups Being Compared Difference Between
Means
Probability
(2-tailed)
Control (1) vs. One Community Volunteer (2) M\ - Mi. = -2.10 .083
Control (1) vs. Three Community Volunteers
and Two Participating Parents (3)
M\ - M i = - .90 .427
One Community Volunteer (2) vs. Control (1) M i - Ml = 2.10 .083
One Community Volunteer (2) vs.
Three Community Volunteers and
Two Participating Parents (3)
M i - M i = 1.19 .316
Three Community Volunteers and
Two Participating Parents (3)
vs. Control (1)
M i - M\ = -1.19 .316
Three Community Volunteers and Two
Participating Parents (3) vs.
One Community Volunteer (2)
M i - M i = .90 .427
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Table 13
Data S et III: Pretest Means, P osttest M eans,
Adjusted P osttest Means (Ali Pretest Means Are Statistically
Equal), and Standard Deviations for Two Second-Grade
Spanish Speaking Groups Experiencing Supportive
Intervention or No Intervention
Pretest Posttest Posttest
(Means Adjusted)
Group n M C T M c r M c r
1. Control Group
(No Intervention)
14 25.29 4.36 28.36 2.41 28.04 2.41
2. Two Participating
Parents (8 visits)
19 24.11 5.60 27.21 4.02 27.44 4.02
Note. The difference of 0 .6 0 between the adjusted means of 2 8 .0 4 and 2 7 .4 4 for
the first and second groups w as not statistically significant {p > .05).
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TABLE 14
Data Set IV: Pretest and Posttest M eans
and Standard Deviations for the Single Group
of Spanish Speaking Students Who Received
Supportive Intervention From Four Parents (1 0 Visits)
Group Pretest Data Posttest Data Difference Between Means
{n = 19) M 2 < J 2 Ml C T j (M1-M2)
Spanish Speaking 8.16 2 .8 0 9 .8 9 3.07 1.73
Students Receiving
Intervention
Note. The difference of 1.73 between the posttest mean and the pretest mean
(correlated mean) w as statistically significant, f (18) = 2.80, p = .0 1 2 (2-tailed).
Sum m ary o f Statistical Results
The statistical results of this investigation may be summarized as follows:
D ata Set I Results
A s can be seen from the entries in Table 10, four o f the six differences
between adjusted posttest means were statistically significant beyond the .05 level.
The positive and negative differences o f 1.47 associated with the one community
volunteer group and the three participating parents group barely missed significance
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in a two-tailed test (p = .068). It was apparent that when the control group was
compared with either one of the two intervention groups, the differences between
adjusted posttest means were statistically significant at least beyond the .03 level with
the control group achieving a higher mean level o f performance than that realized by
either one of the two intervention groups.
Data Set I I Results
A s reflected in Table 12, none of the differences reported between the six
pairings of adjusted posttest means was statistically significant. However, if the
probability was interpreted in the context of a one-tailed test rather than a two-tailed
one, the one community volunteer group did outperform the control group (p =
.042).
Data Set III Results
A s indicated in Table 13, the difference between the adjusted posttest means
of the control group and of the intervention group associated with two participating
parents was not statistically significant.
Data Set IV Results
For the single Spanish speaking group of students who received intervention
fi’ om four parents, a statistically significant gain between the pretest and posttest
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means reported on Table 14 was realized (p = .012, two-tailed test). If the data are
interpreted in a directional sense, the probability of a mean gain score as large as the
one obtained or larger would be approximately .006.
Teacher Interview Results: Analysis and Interpretation
Although the costs and expenditures of training parents and community
volunteers varied significantly, the information compiled from the teacher, parent,
and community volunteer in depth interviews added substance to the statistical data
analyses. When questioned about the benefits of using parents and community
volunteers, teachers found that the volunteers provided general classroom relief and
student assistance by keeping students on task through individualized support.
Teachers asked the volunteers to assist with tutoring, art projects, classroom
assignments, and reading.
Significant limitations in classroom assistance were observed when parent
volunteers did not have sufBcient language arts skills in either English and Spanish.
Other limitations included parents who distracted students in the class, or parents
who showed favoritism towards their own children or a select group o f students.
When the test results for each class were evaluated, all but one teacher with
the Spanish speaking classes showed lower than average gains. Two teachers
attributed this result to the limitations of the students’ ability or lack of a
kindergarten experience for first grade students. One teacher expressed concerns
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about the validity o f the study when compared to English speaking classes, or when
Spanish speaking classes were compared to classes that had a skilled teacher who
preferred not to use classroom volunteers.
Regardless o f the costs and expenditures o f training the volunteers, all
teachers who used parent and community volunteers found value in their usage and
are now committed to using them in the classroom. Although some parents lacked
sufBcient language arts skills, teachers valued the parents’ involvement in the
classroom. Teachers declared that the parents were becoming more skilled in helping
classroom students and assisting their own children with their homework. One
significant observation was that the three teachers who did not use volunteers for the
study did not express interest in using volunteers in the future.
Parent and Community Volunteer Interview Results: Analysis and Interpretation
Both parents and community volunteers assisted with language arts reading,
writing, tutoring, and arts activities. All of the volunteers stated that they were
valued and that they were successful in helping the students learn. Only two of the
parents and community volunteers contended that they had a problem keeping
students focused. All o f the volunteers, however, noticed improvements in the
students. These improvements included students demonstrating more self-
confidence, more focus, and more productivity. Both the parent and community
volunteers helped students leam through small group interventions, reading with the
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students, answering questions, and acting as aides in the classroom. Parents were
very vocal in valuing their experiences in the classroom. Comments included that
parents now understood how to help their children with their schoolwork. In several
instances, students thought the parents were teachers also.
Based on the information provided by both the teachers and the volunteers, it
appears that parents along with community volunteers would provide the best
combination of support to overcome any language barriers that might occur in a
Spanish speaking class, or an English speaking one. The Spanish speaking parents
can pair up with the English speaking volunteers to support the language arts
activities in either language. Limitations would still be present when an English
speaking community volunteer is paired with a Spanish speaking parent with limited
Spanish language ability in a Spanish speaking class. Pairing two students together
to support each other can compensate for this situation. The students can then peer
tutor each other. The role o f the volunteers in this situation would be to help
students remain focused on the lesson.
Research Question 3
What is the cost effectixeness o f these alternative strategies?
To determine the cost effectiveness ratio (CE) in using parent volunteers, the
average cost per class of using parents was $1,347 divided by 1.87 (the average
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difference between the adjusted posttest means of control groups and the parent
volunteer program variation). This CE equaled a cost of $720.33 for obtaining one
unit of test score gain. For one community volunteer group, the CE was $717
divided by a 1.67 average difference between the adjusted posttest means. The CE
for this group represented $429.34 per unit o f test score gain. In calculating the CE
for one other community volunteer group and a combined group of parents and
community volunteers, the treatments did not actually work. Assuming that the 1.67
difference between the adjusted posttest means for using community volunteers was
accurate and the CE for using parent volunteers is valid, one can conclude that using
the community volunteers is more cost effective when compared to using only
parents in the classroom. The major difference between these two strategies may be
related to the language skills of the parents in supporting the school’s language arts
needs. It appears, however, that regardless o f the language limitations of parents, the
benefits of having them in the classroom can have a significant impact on their child’s
success in school.
The information compiled from the teacher and volunteer interviews indicates
that using community volunteers to support the efforts of parents in the classroom
can radically reduce costs, yet at the same time provide a much needed service to
teachers and parents. This analysis, however, was limited because of the small
number of experimental groups used in the study and because the variables were too
wide. Based on this analysis, one can conclude that justifying an investment in these
alternative program strategies requires further experimentation.
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Discussion of the Findings
The following key themes surfaced when reviewing the literature and
considering the results of the study:
Considerations o f What Should Be Measured for Cost Effectiveness
Conventional evaluation models for measuring the cost effectiveness of a
specific intervention do not adequately capture the interactions among various
components or the range of outcomes that a comprehensive intervention intends to
achieve (Hayes, Lipof^ & Danegger, 1995). For example, distinctions should be
made between the components of training and the components of education
(Orlansky, 1985). Training is typically linked to jobs, whereas education is linked to
careers. Within student career development, students may increase their achievement
levels. Typically, schools are evaluated on how well students perform while
attending the school, and not how well they do after they have left it. (Kerchner,
1997).
When these distinctions are considered, measurements could have been
developed to evaluate the changes in knowledge and skills o f the teachers, parents,
and community volunteers participating in the project. The primary mode of
research analysis employed in this study was concerned with changes in language arts
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achievement for students. The in-depth interviews with teachers and volunteers
provided additional information for the evaluation. Other evaluation instruments
could have been created to measure the changes of knowledge and skills for teachers,
parents, and community volunteers.
Also, a meaningful evaluation of the cost effectiveness o f a specific training
or educational intervention could have included equivalent data on the costs of the
conventional instructional system. These costs could then be compared to the costs
of providing additional intervention support to the students, the teachers, the parents,
and the community volunteers as added outcomes to the study.
The most relevant measures of effectiveness should be closely related to the
central purpose of course of study. For example, it is possible that a student’s test
scores might indicate the level of skill established as necessary for acceptable job
performance (Orlansky, 1985). Other measures can then include the time needed to
train volunteers to support the students, the time required to train the teachers, and
the motivational outcomes of the students, teachers, and volunteers. When viewing
the intervention as a multi-faceted strategy targeting the school’s students and the
members o f the greater school community, measurements and evaluation instruments
for cost effectiveness would be more diverse and inclusive.
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Considerations for Measuring Cost Utility
Besides determining the cost effectiveness o f an intervention, considerations
can be made regarding an intervention’s equity, social impact, and the decision
maker’s values. A cost utility analysis assigns a numerical value to the desirability an
outcome has for each decision-maker (Fletcher, H aw l^, & Piele, 1999). The value
or utility of an outcome can be measured by asking several respondents to rate the
value on an appropriate scale. The ratings can then be aggregated to obtain an
overall utility for the outcome. Respondents should have a stake in the choice of
alternatives. This measurement device could have been added to the in-depth
interview questions to add a finite value to the responses fi’ om the teachers, parents,
and community volunteers.
Evaluating the Return on Investment on the Parent Training
Unfortunately, the study did not provide an adequate evaluation on the return
on investment for training the parents and for providing support to the community
volunteers (Davidove, 1993). A survey can identify the relationship of training
objectives and business objectives. After the training program has been completed,
the results of a needs assessment can help determine whether the participants
mastered the pre-determined training objectives. I f the study had focused more on
the multi-faceted objectives of training volunteers, the return of investment
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measurement could have been utilized for measuring training objectives for the
parent volunteers.
A School’ s Impact on a Community’ s Economic Development
Schools have evolved into complex institutions serving various purposes.
Parents view schools as providing the basis for academic achievement. Employers
perceive schools as a critical component for job training. Interest groups envision
schools as instruments for achieving the larger social goal of economic development
(Inger, 1990). The problem for educators has been that it is difficult to educate
students who are worried about how their families will survive. Although the school
can somewhat compensate for the problems of the students living in economically
depressed areas, the goal o f all educators starting at preschool must be to grow the
middle class and shrink the underclass (Adler, 1997). This objective can best be
achieved through human capital development. With the goal of reducing the
dependency ratio of a community, public schools can help community members
become more productive.
This research study provided an opportunity for parents and community
members to become more productive by training them to serve as mentors and tutors
for primarily low income, limited English prohcienqf students. Parents were able to
leam how to effectively support the academic needs of their children. Moreover, the
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parents received training on language arts skills that could increase their own
language arts abilities.
In a follow-up interview with Fenton Avenue Charter School administrators,
the administrators noted that the school is rapidly moving towards a family literacy
model of supporting their students. This model not only will support their students’
academic success, but also it will add to their community’s overall academic
development. The administration argued that this process is the only way the school
can contribute to the future economic survival of its students and their families. The
school intends to increase family literacy through parent participation in the
classroom, computer literacy training, parent education, and a family tutorial
program.
Implications for Further Longitudinal Research
Although the statistical analyses indicated that the control group intervention
generated the greatest test score gains, this analysis did not support most o f the
longitudinal research cited in this study. The reason for this discrepancy may be that
the treatment time for this study was only eight weeks. Significant gains in many of
the studies cited in the study were longitudinal. Most research time intervals in the
studies cited varied fi"om one year to several years. For example, Radin (1972) found
that a parent education component was important for a child to continue to benefit
academically beyond a compensatory preschool program even if there might not have
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been any immediate effect on students. In another study, Davis-Kennedy (1996)
researched the effectiveness of parental involvement on reading achievement for fifth
grade students. Although the reading results o f her students did not reflect an
increase, she attributed this discrepancy in part to the lack o f longitudinal research.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, POLICY IMPLICATIONS, AND
CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to ascertain whether the use of parent and
community volunteers as paraprofessionals in the classroom would lead students to
improved language arts performance and would lower the program delivery costs.
The study described in this dissertation focused on Fenton Avenue Charter School in
Los Angeles. The school is an urban K-5 elementary school with primarily limited
English proficient, at-risk students.
This research compared the costs and the students’ academic performance
when using parents and community volunteers as mentors and tutors during the
school’s language arts period to classes using no volunteers during this period. The
cost analysis component relied on Levin’s (1983) method for cost effectiveness,
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Picus' (1994) framework for cost assessment, and King’s (1994) analysis of three
school reform models to analyze the cost effectiveness of using parents and
community volunteers to improve students’ language arts performance. Based on
these models, the study intended to answer the following research questions;
1. What are the costs of utilizing parents and community volunteers
as tutors and mentors in the classroom?
2. What specific combinations of parent and community volunteer
support strategies in the classroom generate the greatest impact
on language arts test performance?
3. What is the cost effectiveness of these alternative strategies?
Summary
Selected Findings
The following is a summary of selected findings generated from this study.
These findings are most relevant to the policy issues discussed in further detail later
in this chapter. For additional information about the results of the study, please refer
to Chapters 3 and 4.
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1. Based on the estimated expenditures for using various program
strategies, it cost $155 per occurrence for using a parent in the
classroom, $51 for each time using a community volunteer, and
$80 per occurrence when using a combination o f parent and
community volunteers in the classroom.
2. All but one of the six experimental classrooms and three control
classrooms reported increased language arts test scores within an
eight-week period. The one experimental classroom that
reported a reduction of test scores used one community volunteer
on eight different occasions.
3. Evaluating the language arts test scores using analyses of
covariance and adjusted mean scores showed that the control
groups performed slightly better compared to the three
intervention groups. Furthermore, in a comparison o f the three
first grade Spanish speaking classes, the differences between
adjusted posttest means were statistically significant at least
beyond the .03 level with the control group achieving a higher
mean level of performance than that realized by either one o f the
two intervention groups.
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4. During their interviews, ail teachers who used parent and
community volunteers declared that they found value in their
usage o f volunteers and they are now committed to using
volunteers in the classroom. Although some parents lacked
sufficient language arts skills, the teachers still supported the use
of these parents in the classroom. The teachers also contended
that the parents were becoming more skilled in helping classroom
students and assisting their own children with their homework.
5. The three interviewed teachers who did not use volunteers for the
study did not express interest in using volunteers in the future.
6. When interviewed, both parents and community volunteers stated
that they were valued and that they were successfiil in helping the
students leam. The parents were very vocal in valuing their
experiences in the classroom.
7. In light of the information provided by both the teachers and the
volunteers, it appears that parents along with community
volunteers would provide the best combination of support to
overcome any language barriers that might occur in a Spanish
speaking or an English speaking class.
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8. The cost effectiveness for using parents was $720.33 for
obtaining one unit of test score gain. For one community
volunteer group, the cost effectiveness was $429.34 per unit of
test score gain. This analysis was limited because of the small
number o f experimental groups used in the study and because the
variables were too wide.
Conclusions in Brief
The following conclusions were derived, based on the findings summarized in
the previous section. For an expanded discussion on these conclusions, please refer
to Chapter 4 and to the discussion of related policy issues following this section.
Considerations o f What Should Be Measured fo r Cost Effectiveness
Conventional evaluation models for measuring the cost effectiveness of a
specific intervention do not adequately capture the interactions among various
components or the range of outcomes that a comprehensive intervention intends to
achieve (Hayes, Lipoff, & Danegger. 1995). When distinctions are considered,
measurements could have been developed to evaluate the changes in knowledge and
skills of the teachers, parents, and community volunteers participating in the project.
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Other evaluation instruments could have been created to measure the changes of
knowledge and skills for teachers, parents, and community volunteers.
The most relevant measures of effectiveness should be closely related to the
central purpose of course of study. These measures can then include the time needed
to train volunteers to support the students, the time required to train the teachers,
and the motivational outcomes of the students, teachers, and volunteers. When
viewing the intervention as a multi-faceted strategy targeting the school’s students
and the members of the greater school community, measurements and evaluation
instruments for cost effectiveness would be more diverse and inclusive.
Considerations fo r Measuring Cost Utility
Considerations can be made regarding an intervention’s equity and social
impact, and the decision-maker’s values. A cost utility analysis assigns a numerical
value to the desirability an outcome has for each decision-maker (Fletcher, Hawley,
& Piele, 1999) This measurement device could have been added to the in-depth
interview questions to add a finite value to the responses fi"om the teachers, parents,
and community volunteers.
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Evaluating the Return on Investment on the Parent Training
If the study had focused more on the multi-faceted objectives of training
volunteers, the return o f investment measurement could have been utilized for
measuring training objectives for the parent volunteers.
A School’ s Im pact on a Community’ s Economic Developm ent
Schools have evolved into complex institutions serving various purposes
(Inger, 1990). Although the school can somewhat compensate for the problems o f
the students living in economically depressed areas, the goal of all educators starting
at preschool must be to grow the middle class and shrink the underclass (Adler,
1997). This objective can best be achieved through human capital development.
With the goal of reducing the dependency ratio o f a community, public schools can
help community members become more productive.
Im plications fo r Further Longitudinal Research
Although the statistical analyses indicated that the control group intervention
generated the greatest test score gains, this analysis did not support most of the
longitudinal research cited in this study. The reason for this discrepancy may be that
the treatment time for this study was only eight weeks. Significant gains in many of
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the studies cited in the study were longitudinal. Most research time intervals in the
studies cited varied from one year to several years.
Options and Policy Implications
Legislative Impact
Although California implemented Proposition 227, little research has been
conducted to measure the cost effectiveness of using parents and community
volunteers to help improve students’ language arts performance. The policy value of
this study is helping educators and state policy makers understand the economic
ramifications of training volunteers to serve as paraprofessionals in the classroom.
Due to the past funding of California’s Mentor Initiative and the recent
passage of California’s Proposition 227, a training methodology is critical for using
volunteers effectively in the classroom. Not only do volunteers need training
assistance, but school site administrators along with teachers need guidance on how
to adequately incorporate parents and community volunteers in their program
planning. Currently, limited training models of this type exist within the Mentorship
Initiative programs or through the AmeriCorp federally funded reading assistance
programs (Corporation for National Service, 1998).
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Research Impact
Although most research supports the usage o f parents and community
volunteers as mentors and tutors in the classroom, there are few strategies
disseminated on how to adequately support students with limited English proficiency
in the classroom. The need for this pedagogy is critical to respond to the significant
increases of culturally diverse populations with limited English proficiency skills.
Study Conclusions
Identifying and measuring cost effective ways to help students improve their
language arts test scores has received significant attention in recent years. Current
innovative strategies to improve test scores have included increasing the number of
paraprofessional personnel in the classroom and reducing class size. Both of these
innovations have proved to be increasingly costly to implement. Another possible
solution has been training parents and community volunteers to serve as language
arts paraprofessionals in the classroom. The need to research the benefits and cost
effectiveness in utilizing parents and community members as language arts tutors for
bilingual students has become critical with the recent passage of California’s
Proposition 227. This ballot measure requires that the state’s 1.4 million students,
who are not fluent in English, be placed in an intensive sheltered English immersion
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class for about a year and then moved into regular classrooms. Parents whose
children are denied English language instruction can take legal action against
individual teachers or the school district’s employees and board members (Brazeley,
1998). The measure allocates $50,000,000 per year from the state’s general fund for
parents and community volunteers to receive free or subsidized English language
instruction for tutoring the state’s limited English proficient students. These training
programs must be offered at schools or community organizations. Funding for the
training will commence during the first fiscal year that this initiative is enacted and
will continue for nine additional fiscal years (Secretary of State of California, 1998).
The legality of this law that became effective during this academic year was recently
reviewed in the state’s courts.
In response to this change in California’s public education system, this study
adds to the limited research available on measuring the cost effectiveness of utilizing
parent and community volunteers as paraprofessional tutors and mentors in the
classroom. When using this framework, the study noted a number of complex issues
that were considered regarding the expenditures and costs (Monk, 1993). For
example, there was disagreement about how to best respond to the measurement of
cost effectiveness. A cost analyst could either focus on past experiences and devise
surveys to gauge results, or the analyst could consider the future to identify resource
requirements for emerging programs (Monk, 1996). The study used Levin’s
ingredients method for identifying expenditures, an analysis of covariance with
adjusted mean test scores to measure language arts test score improvements, and a
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cost effectiveness ratio for determining the cost of obtaining one unit o f test gain. In
its findings, the study suggested that the number of experimental groups were too
small and the variables were too wide to determine which program strategy to invest
in. The study also recommended that further experimentation is necessary.
Suggestions for Further Research
In light of the limitations of the study, the following is a list o f areas that can
be further researched to determine the cost effectiveness o f using parents and
community volunteers to improve students’ language arts test scores:
1. Future research can identify and evaluate other evaluation
instruments that can be created to measure the changes of
knowledge and skills for teachers, parents, and community
volunteers participating with students in a study.
2. Additional research can consider and assign a numerical value
to a parent and community volunteer intervention’s equity,
social impact, and the decision-maker’s values for a cost utility
analysis.
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3. A study can focus on the multi-faceted objectives of training
volunteers, and a return o f investment measurement can be
utilized for measuring training objectives for the parent
volunteers.
4. Research is also needed for determining a school’s impact on a
community’s economic development when involving parents
and community volunteers in supporting students’ language
arts test score development.
5. Finally, fiirther longitudinal research must be considered for
measuring the impact and cost effectiveness o f using parents
and community volunteers to increase language arts test
scores.
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Appendixes
Appendix A: Teacher Interview Form Responses
Appendix B: Volunteer Mentor Interview Form
Responses
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Appendix A
Teacher Interview Form Responses
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T1 Trade A
Total number o f volunteers used: 1
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and Qpe of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. C l l
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
She primarily read with my below level readers. She did individual phonics and reading
assessments with the students. She worked particularly with one girl below grade level.
She also taught various language arts lessons.
What benefits did you observe in woricing with the volunteer mentors?
One main benefit was having children assessed by the volunteer so that I could keep
focused with the other children.
What limitations did you observe in woridng with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
It was difficult for me to give her work that she could complete independently without me
going over her work again. I could not rely on her in teaching the language arts units
because she was deficient in many areas even when she came in with classroom
background training.
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
They did improve.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to learn?
There were positives and negatives. She presented many language arts concepts, but
unfortunately not as well as a main teacher. She had an opportunity to read on a one-to-
one basis with the students.
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
I wish that I was able to rely on her more. I ’ m happy to be part o f the whole process. This
was an interesting process.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T2 Track: A
Total number o f volunteers used: None
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. Not applicable
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
Not applicable
What benefits did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
Not applicable
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
Not applicable
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
The scores improved.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ abili^ to learn?
Not applicable
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
Well, I really didn’ t do anything but test.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T3 Track: A
Total number of volunteers used: 2
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. P31
2. P32
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
I had them listen to the children read, file papers, do art projects with the students to
support the writing project, and oversee a sewing project.
What benefits did you observe in woridng with the volunteer mentors?
I got a lot more done. They were able to take care o f the filing, cutting and pasting, and it
gave me more opportunities to work with the students. The aide also had more time
working with the students because he is trained in language arts and the parents are not.
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
It was their limited ability to work with the children. They could listen to the kids read,
but they could not help with the students ’ writing, or editing of their writing. That's why I
had the parents do the other projects that would have taken my aide's time.
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
They improved.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to learn?
/ think it helped because not only did I gain time, but I was able to work
with the kids more.
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
It forced me to get the volunteers in the classroom. I probably would have hesitated
longer. Now, I use them as a crutch.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T4 Track: B
Total number of volunteers used: None
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. Not applicable
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
Not applicable
What benefits did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
Not applicable
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
Not applicable
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
They increased.
How do you feel the volimteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to learn?
Not applicable
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
Not really
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T5 Track: B
Total number of volunteers used: S
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. C51
2. P51
3. P52
4. C52
5. C53
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
I have fo u r different groups ofstudents working at various activities. The volunteers
helped a t the independent assignment table.
What benefits did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
The kids were not interrupting me or the teacher’ s aide. The students ’ independent work
production and quality o f work increased. Their work was taken a step further.
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
I had to explain what to do with the students. Sometimes scheduling created a challenge.
I wanted the time with the volunteers to be meaningful and sometimes it wasn 't. For
example, a music lesson would be scheduled during the volunteer’ s time, or a fire drill
would occur.
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
The class as an average went up fifty points. This was particularly the case with students
that I had the volunteers focus on with the lower test scores in the teens and low twenties.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to leam?
Students were more focused particularly when their mothers were there.
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
I really liked having the volunteers in my classroom, but getting them there was hard.
Everything was extremely positive regardless o f the test scores.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T6 Track: B
Total number o f volunteers used: 4
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
L P61
2. P62
3. P63
4. P64
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
The volunteers helped with individual tutoring and reading the books fo r their reading lab.
One parent was artistic. The parent drew pictures while the children wrote stories, and
drew pictures about the stories. One parent always watched and was in a training mode,
but it helped her to help her son. One parent had poor listening skills and helped with art
activities fo r language arts.
What benefits did you observe in woridng with the volunteer mentors?
I t inspired the parents to attend the training course. They were able to develop better
vocabulary skills fo r their children. It also reinforced positive self-esteem in the children
when they received individual attention.
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
Language was a limitation and I was restricted to the use o f Spanish. In an economically
deprived community, parents who have free time are either moms with young children who
need child care, or there is that segment o f the population who need training. With
training, they want to make an income fo r their family.
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
They improved generally.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to leam?
The lower ratio o f students to adults usually raises overall classroom performance o f
individual students.
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Teacher interview Form Responses (T6 Responses Continued)
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
Educational research is ju ll o f holes and it is difficult to take any research ofchildren,
parents, and the different abilities o f the teachers, and consider how each affects the
performance o f students. For example, there might be a high performing teacher who does
not use volunteers and who is extremely successful with her students. The performance o f
the class is compared to a classroom teacher’ s class who is highly motivated to develop
parent volunteers. The volunteer aided class may also have a large number o f students
with serious leaning difficulties. The comparison o f these two classes is unfair. Learning
is such a subjective thing because you are dealing with some students who need work on
their self-esteem, and others who need help with skill building. This is a highly
competitive environment to perform in. I f I would do this aver again, I would take one
semester with volunteers and one semester without volunteers fo r comparison. Then we
would be evaluating the use o f volunteers. We would have to set some sort o f measure fo r
those volunteers who are non-English speaking.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T7 Track: C
Total number of volunteers used: 1
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. C71
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
The volunteer assisted the children in answering questions about the assignment. She
helped them with their writing and asked clarifying questions when appropriate. She also
listened to the children read and helped them with their errors.
What benefits did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
It allowed the students to have more individual attention and freed me up to personally
help the students more. She also helped me when I was at a loss fo r using the proper
Spanish word. She enunciates w ell and does not use slang. She also does not have a
strong Spanish accent. This made it easy fo r non-native Spanish speaking people to
understand. She was very supportive.
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
Because o f her limited English proficiency, she was not able to work as much with my
English speaking students. We were able to leam from each other.
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
From what I remember, they were pretty much the same, but some increased.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to leam?
The students did not have to w ait as long fo r help i f they had a question. I t also allowed
the Spanish speaking students to ask questions in their native language. This made the
students more comfortable.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses (T7 Responses Continued)
Do you have a iy more comments about this experience or the research project?
Because o f the research project, I was more intent in getting volunteers to assist in my
classroom. In my whole five years o f teaching. I ’ m not used to having another adult in my
classroom. I found that it was not the m ost comfortable thing to have another adult in the
classroom, but we were able to g et used to each other’ s personalities and the experience
was good. The research project added a little more stress to my life because I would not
have been aggressive in recruiting parents into my classroom.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T8 Track: C
Total number of volunteers iised: 3
Names and phone numbers o f volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. P81
2. P82
3. P83
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
They ■worked -with a sm all group office students and made booklets with vocabulary words.
They read the vocabulary words with the children. They m ostly reinforced the weekly
vocabulary words and dictation sentences.
What benefits did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
The children had someone new to work with, and they had the opportunity to know
someone else’ s mommy. The volunteers kept the little groups on target.
What limitations did you observe in woridng with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
Some volunteers wouldfavor their child and one had problems with another child’ s parent
and was not nice to that child. I will not encourage that volunteer to return. Sometimes,
they were too lenient with the other children.
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
They remained the same or decreased. I think it’ s because I have a young group and
academically they are not at grade level. We 're working on improving that.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses (T8 Responses Continued)
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to leam?
Usually the volunteers provided reinforcement. Sometimes I gave parents experimental
tasks. I f they could notfollow a simple task, I would not have them risk teaching the
children the wrong way.
Do you have any more comments about this experience or the research project?
I think it’ s a very good idea and I think it is necessary fo r parents to be involved with the
students. I think some o f the parents want to be involved, but are overwhelmed because
they might not have the skills although they have the eagerness to do it. I t ‘ s really hard to
tell what the parents ’ skills are because they might think they are strong in areas they are
not. I think that training is very important, but training that is not intimidating to the
volunteers. That is very difficult.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Teacher Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T9 Track: C
Total number of volunteers used: None
Names and phone numbers of volunteers used for language arts and type of volunteer (community
or parent):
1. Not applicable
Describe how you used the volunteers during the language arts period.
Not applicable
What benefits did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
Not applicable
What limitations did you observe in working with the volunteer mentors?
(What is a limitation in what the volunteers were able to do? What were the limitations in the
project’s results?)
Not applicable
Did your students’ language arts test scores improve, remain the same, or decrease?
They improved.
How do you feel the volunteer mentors impacted the students’ ability to leam?
Not applicable
Do you have any more conunents about this experience or the research project?
For my particular personality, I fin d it difficult working with volunteers because I always
fe e l like I ’ m looking fo r work. In the past, I had some volunteers and they were distracting
to the students.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Appendix B
Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: XI Track: A
Your Name: C ll Your Phone Number:
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 20
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I usually taught the lesson and helped individual students.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
It seemed to help them some. I didn ’ t get a chance to do an assessment. I worked with one
student quite a bit and tutored her on phonics and consonants.
What problems did you have working with the students?
I didn’ t seem to have problems working with the students. I had trouble explaining to one
student.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
Yes, they seemed to be doing better. After one lesson on quotation marks, students would
recognize them in another text.
How did you help the students leam?
I helped them to leam by breaking things into small steps. I tried to use a lot o f visual
aides in my presentations. I helped the students with questions.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I think that is it.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T3 Track: A
Your Name: P31 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 3
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
A rt and reading
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
I helped to develop art skills fo r language arts.
What problems did you have working with the students?
None
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
Yes, the students were very happy.
How did you help the students leam?
The students read every day with me.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
The teacher is very good and I like her very much.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T3 Track: A
Your Name: P32 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 5
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I did everything and helped with reading and sewing.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
Yes, it helped them.
What problems did you have working with the smdents?
None
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
Students were good in reading and math.
How did you help the students leam?
I explained to them what they were supposed to do.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I do everything including cutting and supporting small groups.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T5 Track: B
Your Name: C51 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 1
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped students that needed help on a language arts worksheet.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
They were able to figure it out. 1 gave them leading questions on what they had to do. I
corrected them i f they didn’ t understand the directions fully.
What problems did you have working with the students?
There were no problems.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
They initially came to me not quite sure and then they g o t the idea.
How did you help the students leam?
1 was able to help them by basically being there and challenging them to interpret the
directions. I taught business writing before and I was fam iliar with the mechanics o f
writing. The students I was assisting were fairly literate in English.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I ’ m curious how successful the project will be in getting parents to stick with volunteering.
I recommend that every time parents are met, there should be a big push fo r volunteering
and signs should be posted fo r recruiting parents to volunteer.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T5 Track: B
Your Name: P51 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 1
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped students who were having difficulty with their lesson.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
M y assistance did help. I found it was very interesting volunteering. It was not only good
fo r the students. I t was good fo r the parents to leam how their children are learning.
What problems did you have working with the students?
I didn’ t have any problems. Whenever I was asked fo r help, the students paid attention to
me.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
I t was very soon to tell. To be honest. I ’ ve only been in the class as a volunteer once and
it stimulated the kids. When parents volunteer, the students will see that the parents are
interested in their education.
How did you help the students leam?
I was able to help some o f the kids sometimes. Some o f the directions were not too clear
so I explained what was supposed to be done.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
Overall, I think it is important to encourage the parents to cooperate with their kids, and
to encourage the parents to participate in the classroom.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T5 Track: B
Your Name: P52 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 1
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped kids out on projects and activities.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
/ helped them to have more one-on-one help. They can leam a lot better. I answered
individual questions fo r the students.
What problems did you have working with the students?
I didn’ t have problems.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
I noticed improvements. I fe lt like they wanted to outdo each other and they wanted to
finish quiclxr.
How did you help the students leam?
Basically, I tried to help them sound words out. They were also learning their verbs.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
Hopefully, it will help the students and more parents will get involved volunteering
throughout the year. I know my son really benefited from it. I really enjoyed my volunteer
experience and would like to be there every day, but my children are on different tracks. I
lookforward to having them on the same track next year so I can help more.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name; T5 Track: B
Your Name: C52 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 1
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
Having a guest there was beneficial. The students talked to their guest and they liked
having a different person who was special.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
I gave them more confidence and positive feedback.
What problems did you have working with the students?
Sometimes they did not pay attention to directions.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
I noticed more improvement in the students ’ confidence. They were willing to go out and
ask a question, or say something they thought with confidence.
How did you help the students leam?
That’ s a hard question.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
No, I do not.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T5 Track: B
Your Name: C53 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research piojea: 3
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped students do their project.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
I gave them more one-on-one attention instead o f a twenty-five to one ratio.
What problems did you have working with the students?
I had a problem with their attention span and focus.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
There was a lot o f improvement. The kids we were teaching learned and came away with
something we fe lt good about.
How did you help the students leam?
I reinforced the assignment and clarified the concepts the teacher presented.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
There is nothing else.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T6 Track: B
Your Name: P61 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number o f times you helped during the research project:
This parent moved out o f the area and was not able to be interviewed.
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
What problems did you have woridng with the students?
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
How did you help the students leam?
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T6 Track: B
Your Name: P62 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number o f times you helped during the research project: 4 - 5
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped a group o f students complete their work during the reading time.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
It helped.
What problems did you have working with the students?
None
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
Yes
How did you help the students leam?
I helped the students by saying different things, but not telling them the answer. I was able
to guide them in their math and reading by giving them examples. I helped them draw and
make shapes.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I did not know about the research part o f the project.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T 6 Track: B
Your Name: P63 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 2
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I checked homework, students read to me, and I helped them with the comprehension.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
M y assistance helped the students. They were happy.
What problems did you have working with the students?
There were no problems.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
They were very distracted when they came to class. They started calling me the teacher. I
told them I was not the teacher, and I was able to stop them from being distracted.
How did you help the students leam?
I helped the students to read. I checked their books and helped them work on the proper
page.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
No
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T6 Track: B
Your Name: P64 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 2
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped them with reading.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
They understood more when I read with them.
What problems did you have working with the students?
I didn’ t see any problems. The children were very happy that I worked with them.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
Yes
How did you help the students leam?
I read with groups o f fo u r students.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
The teacher was very good with me and she is great with the students.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T7 Track: C
Your Name: C71 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 8
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I read to the children and they read to me. I corrected the children’ s spelling and
observed the children in their sm all groups.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
The students were able to practice their reading and spelling more and leam how to
pronounce the words properly. I was able to help the children become interested in their
reading. I think that children who read a t the 3 (f' percentile are not very good. These
students need help possibly because their parents do not listen to their children read.
What problems did you have working with the students?
I had no problems. I ’ ve known some o f these children from my work at the fam ily center,
and they treated me with a lot o f respect. There is a particular child who needs special
help and the parent does not read to him or give him special help. I think the child is very
intelligent in the classroom. On his homework, however, the child does not complete it, or
he does it all wrong. The teacher has contacted his parent, but I feel the parent needs to
become more interested in the child’ s work.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
From my observation, I am not really sure.
How did you help the students leam?
I helped the children write their words more than anything. I helped the children become
interested in their work. Possibly, there should be some exercises to help the children
write better.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
/ believe that parents must be stricter with their children in completing their homework.
Parents should stress the reading a t home. I believe parent participation will help the
students ’ parents become interested in the learning process o f their child. That's the
really important part ofgetting parents interested in their child’ s reading and writing.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T8 Track: C
Your Name: P81 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 3 to 4 times
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I guided the children in reading, or in the computer lab fo r language arts activities. I
checked their work. I let the children struggle in their learning. I tried to help the
teacher’ s aide organize papers.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
I think I helped the students a great deal. I could have helped the students more by
effectively supporting them.
What problems did you have working with the students?
There were no problems. I got along with the students and they knew me. I f I was able, I
would help four days a week because this is easy fo r me to do.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
I noticed a great deal o f improvement. You can see some kids that have not gone to
kindergarten be able to adjust to the routines and schedules. The other kids are not shy
and they can do it by themselves.
How did you help the students leam?
I helped them with the vowels and I pronounced the letters fo r them.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I was wondering i f it is possible to g et a job from this experience? I t ’ s hardfor me to
come to the volunteer training right now, and Ife e l like I ’ ve missed a lot o f the class. I t ’ s
easier fo r me to help my son after helping in the classroom. Now I can be consistent in his
schoolwork.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T8 Track: C
Your Name: P82 Your Phone Number
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 3
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I helped the children with reading.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
I t helped the kids a lot.
What problems did you have working with the students?
There were no problems.
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
Yes, the students gave me a lot o f attention, and called me teacher. I told them I was not
the teacher.
How did you help the students leam?
I sat down with a small group o f students. They read to me. I learned when the children
read to me by hearing the words.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I liked the teacher a lot. The teacher was very respectful with me.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
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Volunteer Mentor Interview Form Responses
Teacher’s Name: T8 Track: C
Your Name: P83 Your Phone Number:
Approximate number of times you helped during the research project: 3
Describe how you were used as a volunteer mentor during the
language arts period.
I worked with small groups o f students and assisted them with reading and writing
sentences.
How do you think your assistance helped the student?
What problems did you have woridng with the students?
None
Have you noticed any improvements since helping the students?
The students learned to answer my questions in complete sentences instead o f ju st saying
yes or no.
How did you help the students leam?
I explained the assignment to individual students.
Is there anything else you would like me to know?
I like the teacher and she is very strict. I like the program. M y son received an award fo r
attendance.
Thank you for your time and support for this research.
151
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Asset Metadata

Creator Burke, Mary Ann (author)

Core Title Analyzing the cost effectiveness of using parents and community volunteers to improve students' language arts test scores

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, bilingual and multicultural,education, curriculum and instruction,Education, Finance,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor [illegible] (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member), Gothold, Stuard (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-441813

Unique identifier UC11353956

Identifier 9933749.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-441813 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 9933749.pdf

Dmrecord 441813

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Burke, Mary Ann

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA