University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Historiographic Study Of Plutarch'S 'Tiberius Gracchus'

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A Historiographic Study Of Plutarch'S 'Tiberius Gracchus'

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Content This dissertation has b een microfilmed exactly as received 69-5063 NAGLE, Dermot Brendan, 1936- A HISTORIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF PLUTARCHT S TIBERIUS GRACCHUS. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1968 History, ancient University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan A HISTORIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF PLUTARCH'S TIBERIUS GRACCHUS fey Dermot Brendan Nagle A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (H is to ry ) August 1968 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCHOO L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Dermot__Brendan__Nj_£le........................... under the direction of h...ls. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean 7W A u g u st 1 9 68 ___ .TATION COMMITTEE Chairman TABLE OP CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1 . THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE GRACCHI . . . . 6 2 . PLUTARCH'S TIBERIUS GRACCHUS IN HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE GRACCHI .......................... 32 3 . PLUTARCH AND A PPIA N ....................................................101 4„ TIBERIUS GRACCHUS: RADICAL CONSERVATIVE . . 123 APPENDICES ............................................................................................162 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................176 11 ABBREVIATIONS For* p e r i o d i c a l s , th e sy ste m o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s o f L 1Annee P h il o l o g iq u e i s g e n e r a l l y f o llo w e d , w ith some s l i g h t modi f i c a 't i o h s . b.c_. A p p ia n 's Be H um C i v i l e . TG P l u t a r c h 's T i b e r i u s G ra c c h u s. VM V a l e r i u s Maximus. CAH Cambridge A n cien t H i s t o r y . CIL Corpus I n s c r ip t i o n u m L a tin a ru m . HER2 H. P e t e r , H is to ric o r u m Romanorum R e li q u i a e i 2 . L e ip z ig , 1914. MRR T. R. S. B rou ghton, The M a g i s t r a t e s o f th e Roman R e p u b lic i . New Yorlc^ l9 '$ i. p p ORF H. M a lc o v a ti, O ratorum Romanorum F ragm ents . T u rin , 1955. RE Pauly - Wissowa - K r o l l , R e a l- E n c y c lo p a d ie d e r c l a s s i s c h e n A l t e r t u m s w i s s e n s c h a f t . S t .R . T. Mommsen, Romiaches S t a a t s r e c h t . 3 v o l s . L e ip z ig , 1 8 8 7 - 8 8 . S tu d i P. Fpaccaro-, S t u d i s u l l ' e t a d e l G racch i i . C i t t a d i C asteT T o T '13137 : i i i INTRODUCTION ! j Any stu d y o f h i s t o r y i n which P l u t a r c h i s u se d a s a so u rc e must ta k e i n t o acco u n t th e f a c t t h a t P l u t a r c h i s not w r i t i n g h i s t o r y o r even b io g ra p h y , b u t m o r a l i s t i c e s s a y s and t h a t th e g r e a t f i g u r e s o f h i s t o r y he d e a ls w ith a r e I u se d t o d ra m a tiz e i n a c t i o n h i s m oral p r i n c i p l e s . In Tim oleon 1 he a s s e r t s t h a t a lth o u g h he began t o : w r i t e th e L ives f o r o t h e r s , he found h im s e lf u s i n g th e v i r - | t u e s o f th e g r e a t men he w ro te about as a m i r r o r f o r th e ! e x a m in a tio n o f h i s own l i f e . Prom a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e i 1 v i r t u e s and o u ts ta n d in g q u a l i t i e s o f th e s e men, he was a b le | t o p r e s e r v e h im s e lf from th e c o n ta g io n r e s u l t i n g from th e i J n e c e s s i t i e s o f d a i l y l i v i n g . He i n s i s t s t h a t r e f l e c t i o n on th e n o b le deeds o f th e v i r tu o u s i s b o th p l e a s u r a b l e and | an e f f e c t i v e means o f se lf-im p ro v e m e n t. In Cimon 2, a f t e r I _ _ _ p r a i s i n g L u c u llu s f o r h i s e f f o r t s on b e h a l f o f Chaeronea, he d e c l a r e s t h a t s in c e I t i s Im p o ssib le t o r e p r e s e n t a m an's l i f e as e n t i r e l y s p o t l e s s and f r e e from blam e, only th e b e s t c h a p te r s sh o u ld be u se d t o b u i l d up th e s u b j e c t 's image and t h i s sh o u ld be r e g a r d e d as th e t r u e l i k e n e s s . In Galba 2, a f t e r r e f e r r i n g to some o f th e e v e n ts t h a t le d t o N e ro 's and G a lb a 's d e a th s , he makes th e comment t h a t h i s pu rp o se i s n o t t o w r ite a h i s t o r y o f th e p e r i o d In i t s f u l l form, b u t o nly to re c o u n t what th e C aesars d id and s u f f e r e d 2 The famous p a ssa g e i n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e L ife o f A lexander a l s o r e v e a l s h i s m oral p u rp o se : I t i s n o t h i s t o r i e s I am w r i t i n g b u t L iv e sj and i n th e most i l l u s t r i o u s deeds t h e r e i s n o t alw ays a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f v i r t u e o r v ic e , b u t a l i t t l e t h i n g l i k e a p h ra s e o r a j e s t o f t e n r e v e a l s c h a r a c t e r b e t t e r th a n b a t t l e s . . . o r s i e g e s o f c i t i e s . A cco rd in g ly , j u s t as p a i n t e r s g e t t h e i r l i k e n e s s e s i n t h e i r p o r t r a i t s from th e fa c e and th e e x p r e s s io n o f th e e y e s, w h e rein th e c h a r a c t e r shows I t s e l f , b u t makes very l i t t l e a cco u n t o f th e o t h e r p a r t s o f th e body, so I must be p e r m i tt e d t o d ev o te m y se lf r a t h e r t o th e s ig n s o f th e s o u l I n men, and by means o f th e s e t o p o r t r a y th e l i f e o f each, l e a v in g t o o t h e r s th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r g r e a t c o n t e s t s (A lexander l ) . The r e l i a b i l i t y o f P l u t a r c h 's a c c o u n ts was only o f se co n d a ry i n t e r e s t t o him. As an a r t i s t he c o u ld r e a r r a n g e e v e n ts , m agnify some e p is o d e s and om it o t h e r s and i n s h o r t a rra n g e h i s m a t e r i a l s t o s u i t h i s m oral p u rp o se s r a t h e r t h a n p ro v id e a s t r i c t h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e . He had l i t t l e c o n ce rn f o r th e a c t u a l e v e n ts o f th e tim e , t h e i r ch ro n o lo g y o r t h e i r i n n e r w orkin g. A lthough f u l l y aware o f th e c h ro n o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i o n s t o a m ee tin g betw een Solon and Croesus he goes on t o a c c e p t th e s t o r y on th e grounds t h a t such a good t a l e sh o u ld n o t be r e j e c t e d b e ca u se o f th e s o - c a l l e d r u l e s o f chrono log y (Solon 2 7 ) . 1 He saw th e p a s t p r i n c i p a l l y a s a s to re h o u s e o f m oral I l l u s t r a t i o n s . In w r i t i n g th e L iv e s, he d id , o f c o u rs e , ad h ere t o as much o f th e ! 3 I i | t r u t h as was c o n v e n ie n t. He d id n o t vary th e r o l e s o f h i s I c h a r a c t e r s o r th e c irc u m s ta n c e s i n which th e y l i v e d , b ut I t h e i r l i v e s on P l u t a r c h 's s ta g e showed o nly th o se f a c e t s ; w hich co u ld be lin k e d up t o form th e m oral o f th e p a r t i c u l a r b io g ra p h y . T h is a t t i t u d e t o th e p a s t was c o u p le d w ith s tr o n g ; f e e l i n g s f o r h i s n a ti v e B o e o tia and deep r e l i g i o u s i n - ! s t i n c t s . He was p ro ud o f h i s s e r v i c e as a p r i e s t o f ! ' I ; A pollo and defen ded th e o ld ways and th e v a l i d i t y o f th e j p ; e s t a b l i s h e d o r a c l e s . He in v e ig h s a g a i n s t c o n te m p o ra rie s 1 f o r t h e i r l a c k o f p r o p e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e o r a c l e of D e l p h i . 3 He p a r t i c u l a r l y b e r a t e s S u lla f o r c o n f i s c a t i n g j ; th e D elphic t r e a s u r e s , th e p r o p e r t y of th e gods (S u lla 1 2 ). jThe im p ie ty o f D em etrius, A ntigonus and P y rrh u s i n i ; P l u t a r c h 's mind, c o n s t i t u t e s th e m oral f a u l t which u l t i - . , . : m ately l e d t o t h e i r d o w n fa ll. His p a t r i o t i s m i s r e g u l a r l y | e v id e n t i n th e u n fa v o ra b le c o n t r a s t betw een Greek and j Roman f i g u r e s i n th e L iv es and i n p a r t i c u l a r betw een F la m in in u s and h i s g r e a t h e ro , Philopoem en. The same j : m oral and p a t r i o t i c con cern -is v i s i b l e i n th e L ives o f th e j i - i ’ G ra c c h i. Both men a re r e l e g a t e d t o a l e v e l s l i g h t l y below ! t h a t o f t h e i r Greek c o u n t e r p a r t s and b o th a re g u i l t y o f | r e l i g i o u s f a i l i n g s . T ib e r iu s l i s t e n e d t o th e s c o f f i n g o f i | an a t h e i s t , B lo s s iu s o f Cumae and d e s p i t e th e m a n ife s t ; w arning o f th e gods, went t o th e assem bly where he met h i s | d e a th . S i m i l a r l y Gaius d is r e g a r d e d th e w i l l o f th e gods | i n r e g a r d t o th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a colony a t C arthage l | and s h o r t l y a fte r w a r d s he, to o , met h i s d e a th . A lthough P l u t a r c h 's i n t e r e s t was n o t p r i m a r i l y h i s - : t o r i c a l b u t m oral, th e s tu d e n t o f h i s t o r y owes a p a r t i c u - ! l a r debt to him becau se o f th e u se he made o f e x i s t i n g ! s o u rc e s i n th e c o m p o sitio n o f th e L i v e s . In th e b i o g r a - I p h ie s o f th e G racch i, i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h h i s th e o r y o f | m oral d e t e r i o r a t i o n , he f e l t com pelled t o move from one 1 so u rce t o a n o th e r f o r th e n e c e s s a r y m a t e r i a l . To i l l u s t r a t e th e v i r t u e s and good q u a l i t i e s o f th e G racchi he i j drew on so u rc e s f a v o r a b le t o them w h ile c o n v e r s e ly , to ! i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r m oral f a i l i n g s , he had r e c o u r s e t o a n t i - | G racchan m a t e r i a l . In so d o in g he p r e s e r v e s l a r g e segm ents o f works t h a t u l t i m a t e l y go back, p e rh a p s th ro u g h s e v e r a l | i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , t o s o u rc e s contem porary w ith th e G ra c c h i. i ! ; I t i s w ith th e s e s o u r c e s , r a t h e r th a n w ith th e L iv es as I i such, t h a t t h i s stu d y i s c o n cern ed . The purp o se o f t h i s stu d y i s t o i s o l a t e th e d i f f e r e n t 1 so u rc e s u sed i n b o th P l u t a r c h and th e o th e r a c c o u n ts and I d e te rm in e to what e x te n t each one i s f a v o r a b le o r h o s t i l e j t o th e G racch i, w ith p a r t i c u l a r em phasis on th e t r i b u n a t e I ! o f T i . G racchus. I t w i l l be se en t h a t e v ery e v en t i n Ti* j G racch us' l i f e h as a t l e a s t two re c o rd e d v e r s i o n s , one f a - i i i v o ra b le and th e o th e r h o s t i l e . In some a c c o u n ts he a p p e a rs a s a m a r ty re d p a t r i o t , w h ile i n o t h e r s he i s a m a le v o le n t r e v o l u t i o n a r y . When a l l o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s a r e i d e n t i f i e d and e a c h one a n a ly z e d f o r t h e d e g re e o f h o s t i l i t y o r f r i e n d l i n e s s , i t w i l l t h e n be p o s s i b l e t o make an a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e s o u r c e s . The f i n a l c h a p t e r w i l l exam ine c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e t r i b u n a t e o f T i . G racchus i n th e l i g h t o f th e p r e c e e d - i n g s o u rc e a n a l y s i s . 6 CHAPTER 1 THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE GRACCHI The G racchan r e v o l u t i o n h as t h e m i s f o r t u n e o f n o t h a v in g had th e s e r v i c e s o f a s i n g l e n o te w o rth y h i s t o r i a n t o r e c o r d . i t j w h ile t h e S p a r t a n r e v o l u t i o n was a b l e t o c a l l on t h e t a l e n t s o f su c h c o n te m p o r a r ie s o r n e a r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a s P o ly b iu s , P h y la r c h u s and A ra tu s o f S ic y o n . The a c t o r s o f t h e G racchan r e v o l u t i o n l e f t s p e e c h e s and p o l i t i c a l p a m p h le ts . Some even composed a n n a l s , b u t o f t h e s e n o t one a c h ie v e d th e l e v e l o f t r u e h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . D e s p ite th e a s s e r t i o n s o f t h e G racchan c o n te m p o ra ry , Sem pronius A s e l l i o , 1 no one had t h e t a l e n t o r i n t e r e s t t o a tt e m p t t o r e c o r d t h i s g r e a t e v e n t i n Roman h i s t o r y . C o e liu s A n t i p a t e r , a n o t h e r c o n te m p o ra ry , d e v o te d h i s p r i n c i p a l e f f o r t s t o th e se co n d P u n ic War, w h ile C a lp u r n iu s P is o a p p a r e n t l y c o u ld o n ly c o m p lain o f t h e d e c l i n e o f Roman m o ra ls due t o th e i n f l u x o f w e a l t h from th e E a s t . Some o f G r e e c e 's b e s t w r i t i n g i n t r a g i c h i s t o r y i s fo u n d i n P l u t a r c h ' s L iv e s o f Agis and Cleom enes where P h y la r c h u s form s th e p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e . Of th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g Roman L i v e s , o n ly t h e s o u rc e f o r G aius h as any l i t e r a r y m e r i t , w h ile t h e s o u r c e s f o r T i b e r i u s do n o t r i s e above t h e l e v e l o f p a r t i s a n p ro p a g a n d a . I n th e p a r a l l e l s o u r c e s , th e Gracchan p e r i o d i s dom inated by th e t r i v i a l a c c o u n ts o f such n o n e n t i t i e s a s V e l l e i u s P a t e r c u lu s , V a l e r i u s Maximus, F l o r u s , de^ v i r i b u s i l l u s t r i b u s and O ro s iu s . C i c e r o 's s c a t t e r e d r e f e r e n c e s , when c o l l e c t e d and a rra n g e d in a c o h e re n t a c c o u n t, show him a t th e lo w e st l e v e l o f o r a t o r i c a l s e l f - p i t y and s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n . Appian i s p r a i s e d l a r g e l y b e ca u se th e o t h e r so u rc e s a re so c a t a s t r o p h i c a l l y p oor and b e cau se he a p p e a ls t o th e sympa t h i e s o f 1 9t h and 2 0 th c e n tu r y h u m a n ita r ia n s c h o l a r s . The f o u n d a tio n f o r th e h i s t o r y o f th e G racchi amounts to a c o l l e c t i o n o f a n e c d o te s and s lo g a n s , p r i n c i p a l l y p r e s e r v e d by th e r h e t o r i c a l s c h o o ls , and th e b i a s e d a c c o u n ts o f p o l i t i c a l p a m p h le ts. On th e o t h e r hand, t h i s m a t e r i a l i s o f g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l v a lu e because i t d id n o t e v o lv e much beyond i t s o r i g i n a l f o r m u la tio n . Hence t h e r e i s no problem o f b e in g m is l e d by th e e l a b o r a t i o n s and t h e o r i e s o f g r e a t h i s t o r i a n s . I t a l s o t e s t i f i e s t o th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o l i t i c a l v i t a l i t y o f t h i s p e r i o d , t o a p e o p le p r e o c c u p ie d w ith p o l i t i c s and to a c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e Gracchan p e r i o d a s a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n th e h i s t o r y o f th e Roman r e p u b l i c . The o u t l i n e o f T i , G racch u s' l i f e as i t a p p e a rs i n th e v a r io u s s o u r c e s , i s r e l a t i v e l y s im p le . He i s d e p ic te d as th e son o f a d i s t i n g u i s h e d s ta te s m a n who had been a c e n so r, c o n su l tw ic e and a v i c t o r i n f o r e i g n w a rs. His g ra n d - i f a t h e r was one o f th e most famous o f a l l Romans, S c ip lo ; A f ric a n u s . He r e c e i v e d a good e d u c a tio n u n d e r th e f irm ! hand o f h i s m other and th e a b le d i r e c t i o n o f Greek t u t o r s . His m oral q u a l i t i e s were c o n s id e re d o u t s t a n d i n g and by s to rm in g th e w a lls o f C arth age u n d e r S c ip io A em ilianus, he a u t h e n t i c a t e d h i s p e d ig r e e . A f te r th e d e b a c le i n Spain he made th e b e s t o f th e unhappy d e f e a t and th e n came back t o Rome t o b e g in a c a r e e r t h a t was i n e x p l i c a b l e to h i s own and l a t e r g e n e r a t i o n s . T h is in v o lv e d th e p a ssa g e o f a g r a r i a n law s, th e d e p o s i t i o n o f an o p posing t r i b u n e and I I \ a f i n a l t r a g i c c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith a n o th e r S c ip io , h i s c o u s in N asica S e r a p io . The s o u rc e s o f f e r no e x p la n a tio n f o r h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t i e s o t h e r t h a n th e r e p e t i t i o n | o f s to c k m oral r e a s o n s , j C i c e r o 's m ention o f Gaius G racch u s' sc rip tu rn ad M. Pomponium, and a much v ag u er r e f e r e n c e i n P l u t a r c h , h as l e d t o th e s u g g e s tio n t h a t t h i s work was a p o l i t i c a l pam phlet and p o s s i b l y re p re se n te d '" th e " l5 e g in n in g o f th e a p o l o g e t i c , 2 p ro -G ra cc h an t r a d i t i o n . I t seems l i k e l y t h a t t h i s pam p h l e t was among th e m a n u s c rip ts o f th e G racchi p o s s e s s e d 3 by P. Pomponius Secundus. Nepos p r e s e r v e s two pseudo, a lth o u g h v e ry a n c i e n t l e t t e r s o f C o r n e lia , which w i l l be 4 c o n s id e re d i n C h ap ter 11. Among th e c o n te m p o ra rie s o f th e G racchi was L. C a lp u r- n iu s P iso F r u g i, t r i b u n e 149, c o n su l w ith P. Mucius i 9 j ;S caevola th e G racchan i n 133, and c e n so r 1 2 0 . ^ He c o l - i |l i d e d v i o l e n t l y w ith Gaius G r a c c h u s , ^ and h i s h o s t i l e i I tr e a tm e n t o f Sp. M aelius may be an i n d i c a t i o n o f h i s a t t i tu d e tow ard T i b e r i u s . ^ He may even have o r i g i n a t e d th e ;p a r a l l e l betw een th e G racchi and Sp. M aelius which was p a r t i c u l a r l y fa v o re d by C ice ro who saw h im s e lf i n th e r o l e O 'o f a new S e rv iu s Ahala o r S c ip io N a sic a . L iv y 's acco unt I o f th e d e a th s o f Sp. C a ssiu s and Sp. M aelius a l s o shows 9 | t r a c e s o f th e heavy hand of th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n . j As an h i s t o r i a n , P iso harp ed on th e theme o f o r i e n t a l c o r r u p t i o n , in tr o d u c e d he claim ed by Cn. M a n liu s' r e t u r n - I in g army i n 1 8 7 . Livy, u s i n g s i m i l a r words and d e v e lo p in g th e same theme, claim ed t h a t M a n liu s' army was r e s p o n s i b l e i f o r th e "semina . . . f u t u r a e l u x u r i a e . " ^ T his theme was ; a l s o a f a v o r i t e o f S a l l u s t ' s . P i s o 's a n n a ls were once ip ro p o se d as th e o l d e s t so u rc e f o r th e G racchi and were 11 claim ed to u n d e rly th e a cc o u n t o f D io dorus. | Sempronius A s e l l i o se rv e d as a m i l i t a r y t r ib u n e w ith : A em ilianus a t Numantia and a c c o rd in g t o G e lliu s w rote a ; d e t a i l e d acco u n t "quibus g e re n d is ip s e i n t e r f u i t "12 ! down t o abou t 90 o r 80 B.C. The same fragm ent c o n ta in s i ! a r e f e r e n c e t o th e l a s t days o f T ib e r iu s Gracchus i n which j A s e l l i o claim ed t h a t th e t r i b u n e n e v e r went o ut w ith l e s s | ! th a n t h r e e o r f o u r th o u sa n d men. T his may i n d i c a t e a h o s- ; t i l e a t t i t u d e tow ards Gracchus becau se P l u t a r c h e x p r e s s ly I c o n t r a d i c t s t h i s by s a y in g t h a t T i b e r i u s 's s u p p o r t e r s n e v e r ; amounted t o t h r e e th o u sa n d a l t o g e t h e r A s e l l i o has a l s o been p ro p o se d a s an i n d i r e c t so u rc e f o r P l u t a r c h . 1^ | P l u t a r c h m entio ns a C. F an nius who was f i r s t t o mount j I th e w a lls o f C arthage w ith T i . Gracchus and who l a t e r w rote 1^ ! o f th e e x p l o i t . ^ Appian m ention s a n o th e r C. F a n n iu s, so n - ; in - la w o f L a e li u s , who s e rv e d i n S p ain u n d e r F a b iu s Maximus ■i / T : S e r v i l i a n u s . C icero a p p a r e n tly c o n fu se s b o th men. As i ; a r e s u l t , t h e r e has been a lo n g c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r th e id e n - ! t i t y o f C. F a n n iu s. F ra c c a ro s u g g e s ts t h a t th e most l i k e l y ; e x p la n a t i o n i s t h a t C. F an n iu s M .f ., s o n - in - la w o f L a e liu s , was th e one who abandoned th e G racchi i n 122 and C. F ann ius 1 C .f . was th e a n n a l i s t who w rote o f th e s to rm in g o f ' 17 ; C a rth a g e . He has s e v e r a l tim e s been su g g e s te d as th e • "j Q ; p r i n c i p a l so u rc e f o r P l u t a r c h . ; I L. C o e liu s A n t i p a t e r was a n o th e r contem porary and a j ! ! prime so u rc e f o r L ivy . He was e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y p r a i s e d by C ic e ro p r i n c i p a l l y because he r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e o r a t o r ' s r i eyes an advance o v e r h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s by i n tr o d u c in g a ■ m easure o f adornment i n h i s h i s t o r i e s . 1^ His c r i t i c a l s to c k p o r t r a i t u r e o f C. F la m in iu s may | I a l s o i n d i c a t e som ething o f h i s o p in io n o f th e G racchi who | were a l s o a c c u se d o f i r r e l i g i o n and were a s s o c i a t e d w ith ■ F la m in iu s as r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r i b u n e s . 2 0 He i s a l s o c i t e d ! by C ice ro f o r G aiu s' dream i n w hich T ib e r iu s warned him he | ! c o u ld n o t escap e th e same f a t e he had s u f f e r e d . A n t i p a t e r ! 11 I claimed, he h e a rd t h i s from Gracchus h i m s e l f . 21 P. R u t i l i u s Rufus s e rv e d u n d e r S c ip io A em ilianus as I m i l i t a r y t r i b u n e a t Numantia, was p r a e t o r i n 1 1 8, a l e g a t e 1 22 I t o M e te llu s i n th e J u g u r th in e War and c o n su l i n 105. He s e rv e d w ith th e p ro c o n s u l, Q. Mucius S caevola (a n o th e r so n - ;in - la w o f L a e l i u s ) , i n Asia and t h e r e in c u r r e d th e w ra th of ith e Roman t a x c o l l e c t o r s . He was a f o llo w e r o f P a n a e tiu s land a f r i e n d o f L u c i li u s and P o s e i d o n i u s I t has been i ;p ro p o sed t h a t P o s e id o n iu s made u se o f h i s h i s t o r i e s which i | :were w r i t t e n i n Greek and so th ro u g h t h i s in te r m e d ia r y ibecame a p o s s i b l e so urce f o r th e p e r i o d o f th e G racchi f o r oil : P l u t a r c h . He was h e ld in h ig h esteem i n a n t i q u i t y . Livy | a s s o c i a t e d him w ith P o ly b iu s , and P l u t a r c h , who p ro b ab ly 'd e r i v e d th e in f o r m a tio n from an in te r m e d ia r y so u rc e , i p r a i s e s him h ig h ly thou gh w ith r e s e r v a t i o n s , i n th e L ives ; o f M arius and Pompey. 25 His o r a t i o n s were known to C icero | 26 who c o n s id e re d them weak. Cn. and A. G e lliu s a re m entioned by C ice ro : "omnes ; hoc h i s t o r i c i , P a b i i , G e l l i , sed proxime C o e liu s . . . "27 a re known t o have w r i t t e n from th e e a r l i e s t tim e s t o t h e i r I own. T h is would p la c e them a l i t t l e e a r l i e r th a n C o e liu s . ! C. Sem pronius T u d ita n u s , c o n su l 129* a n o th e r contem porary ; o f th e G racch i, a ls o w rote a lth o u g h he a p p a r e n tly d id n o t ; d e a l w ith th e Gracchan p e r i o d . 2® i Apart from th e h i s t o r i e s o f c o n te m p o ra rie s o f th e | G racch i, th e r e was a g r e a t o u tp o u rin g o f o r a t o r y d u rin g ;th e p e r i o d some o f w hich s u r v iv e d even down t o th e L ate ;E m pire. The sp e e c h e s o f b o t h T i . and G. G racchus were !v e ry p o p u l a r , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e o f G aius and were e n jo y e d pg by t h e Emperor, M. A u r e li u s . C ic e ro has B ru tu s say t h a t Gaius G ra cc h u s' sp e e c h e s were th e o n ly ones he r e a d o f th e 30 ;e a r l i e r o r a t o r s . A e m ilia n u s 1 sp e e c h e s were a l s o known, 31 . as were th o s e o f L a e l i u s . T. Annius Luscus (c o s . 1 5 3 )* :Q. Pompeius ( c o s . l 4 l ) and Q. C a e c i l i u s M e te llu s (c o s. 32 ^143)j were v ig o ro u s o p p o n e n ts o f T i . G racch u s. The isp e e c h e s o f a t l e a s t Pompeius and M e te llu s were known t o ; C ic e ro , 33 anc^ th o s e o f L uscus were in c l u d e d i n th e a n t i - G racchan t r a d i t i o n a t an e a r l y d a t e . S p u riu s P ostum ius A lb in u s (c o s . 1 4 8 ), a contem p o rary o f T i . G racchus m en tio n ed by P l u t a r c h , i s c i t e d by C ic e ro : "m u ltae s u n t Sp. A lb in i o r a t i o n e s . " 34 rphe Sp e e c h es o f M. A em iliu s L e p id u s, th e m en to r o f T i . G racchus and C. C ar- bo, a l s o s u r v i v e d t o th e f i r s t c e n tu r y a s d id th o s e o f L. A u r e liu s O r e s te s , th e c o n s u l o f 126, who was Gaius* com- 35 mander i n S a r d i n i a . The o r a t i o n s o f G ra c c h u s' enemy, 36 S c i p io N a sic a , were known t o C ic e ro o n ly th ro u g h a f r i e n d b u t th o s e o f M. F u lv iu s F la c c u s , th e G racchan, were a p - 37 p a r e n t l y r e a d by C ic e ro h i m s e l f . C. S u l p i c i u s G alba, b r o t h e r - i n - l a w o f Gaius G racchus and a member o f th e a g r a r i a n com m ission, and q . A e liu s T ub ero, a c o u s in o f oO A e m ilia n u s, a r e a l s o m en tio n ed by C ic e ro . 13 Of t h e l a t e r a n n a l i s t s , t h e f r a g m e n ts o f Q u a d r i g a r i u s and A n tia s t h a t d e a l w i t h t h e G racch an p e r i o d , a l l r e v o l v e a ro u n d t h e N um antine t r e a t y i n c i d e n t w h ic h was i n v a r i a b l y g iv e n a h o s t i l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by t h e a n t i - G r a c c h a n a c c o u n t s . 39 A lth o u g h n o t enough m a t e r i a l s u r v i v e s t o p a s s a c e r t a i n ju d g m e n t, i t w ould p r o b a b l y be c o r r e c t t o c o n c lu d e t h a t b o t h o f t h e s e a n n a l i s t s g iv e a s t a n d a r d o p t im a te 40 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d . P o s e i d o n i u s h a s o f t e n b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e G reek i n t e r m e d i a r y b e tw e e n t h e a c c o u n t s o f Roman c o n te m p o r a r ie s 4 l and t h e a c c o u n ts o f P l u t a r c h and A p p ian . A d d i t i o n a l e v id e n c e i s a l s o s u p p l i e d . b y S a l l u s t on t h e a s s u m p tio n t h a t P o s e i d o n i u s i s h i s s o u r c e f o r t h e proem ium o f t h e H i s t o r i e s , c h a p t e r s 6 - 10 o f t h e B e llu m G a t i l i n a e and Z £ 5 41 and 42 o f t h e B e llu m J u g u r t h i n u m . A c c o rd in g t o T a e g e r , an o u t l i n e o f t h e P o l y b i a n a n a - c y c l o s i s t h e o r y can be d e t e c t e d i n t h e f r a g m e n ts o f P o s e i d o n i u s a n d i n S a l l u s t , b e g i n n i n g w i t h P o s e i d o n i u s 1 a c c o u n t o f N a s i e a 's o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f 4^ C a r th a g e . J N a s ic a a rg u e d t h a t t h e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e o f C a rth a g e was t h e b e s t means o f m a i n t a i n i n g harmony a t Rome an d o f g u a r a n t e e i n g j u s t t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p r o v i n c e s . I n f a c t , P o s e i d o n i u s c o n t i n u e s , once C a rth a g e was d e s t r o y e d t h e harmony o f th e Roman s t a t e was d i s r u p t e d by dem agogic schem es o f l a n d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , r e v o l t s among t h e a l l i e s 14 I 44 ; and c i v i l w a rs. His e x p la n a tio n o f th e o r i g i n o f th e j S i c i l i a n S lave War i s t h a t th e la n d owners, i n i m i t a t i o n ' o f t h e i r I t a l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , im p o rted m asses o f s l a v e s 'whom th e y t r e a t e d w ith th e g r e a t e s t c a l l o u s n e s s . The owners, f o r th e most p a r t Roman e q u i t e s , l e d a l i f e o f u n r e s t r a i n e d lu x u ry and i n s t e a d o f p r a c t i c i n g m o d e ra tio n i n t h e i r h a n d lin g o f th e s l a v e s th e y were c r u e l and a r - 45 r o g a n t . S i m i la r e v e n ts to o k p la c e th ro u g h o u t Asia where 46 th e r e v o l t was le a d by A r i s t o n i c u s , At Rome, th e n o b ly bo rn T i b e r i u s Gracchus headed th e movement f o r r e d r e s s , i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e l a n d . L a t e r , h i s b r o t h e r Gaius a tte m p te d t o a b o l i s h a r i s t o c r a t i c r u l e and s u b s t i t u e a dem ocracy. The r e s u l t was a d i s s o l u t i o n o f th e e x i s t i n g harmony betw een s e n a te , k n ig h ts and the m asses o f th e p e o p le w hich Gracchus a tte m p te d t o use as a 47 s t e p p in g s to n e t o p e r s o n a l power. Borrowing from S a l l u s t , T aeg er rounds out th e th e o r y . From th e b e g in n in g once o u ts id e t h r e a t s were removed, th e s t r o n g e r ele m e n ts o f th e Roman p e o p le began t o e n c ro a c h on th e w eaker and caused th e p e o p le t o be a l i e n a t e d from th e s e n a t e . The p a t r i c i a n s ty r a n n i z e d o v e r th e p l e b e ia n s as o ver s l a v e s , d i s p o s s e s s e d them o f t h e i r la n d s and e x - 48 elu d ed them from th e governm ent. Now, a f t e r th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C a rth a g e, th e same t h i n g was h app en in g and a sm a ll group o f o l i g a r c h s had e v e r y th in g i n i t s c o n t r o l 1 5 i n peace and i n w ar. The p e o p le were b u rd en e d w ith m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e and p o v e rty w h ile th e s p o i l s o f war went t o th e g e n e r a l s and t h e i r f r i e n d s . The p o w e rfu l drove t h e i r w eaker n e ig h b o rs o f f t h e i r l a n d . ^9 Love o f money and l u s t f o r power e n g en d ered e v ery k in d o f e v i l . A varice d e s tr o y e d h o n o r and i n t e g r i t y and i n s t e a d t a u g h t men t o be p ro u d and c r u e l . 5° P r e v io u s ly th e p e o p le r e s c u e d th e m s e lv e s from t h e i r p l i g h t by d e v i s i n g th e t r i b u n a t e . Now th e y a g a in (5 0 t u r n e d t o th e t r i b u n a t e i n th e p e rs o n s o f th e G ra c c h i. j When th e s e men sou ght t o f r e e th e p e o p le th e y were s l a i n : by th e n o b i l i t a s . T h is was th e f i r s t o f th e s e d i t i o n e s ; w hich f i n a l l y l e d t o th e c i v i l w a r s .- ^ From t h i s tim e on, I th e mos maiorum d e g e n e r a te d , n o t g r a d u a l l y as b e f o r e b u t j i n a t o r r e n t . ^ ! | T ae g er m a in ta in s t h a t t h i s r e p r e s e n t s an e l a b o r a t i o n ; o f P o l b y i u s 1 th e o r y o f th e d e g e n e r a t io n o f a r i s t o c r a t i c form s o f governm ent and th e r i s e o f d e m o c ra tic , which P o s e id o n iu s a p p r o p r i a t e d and worked out i n th e l i g h t o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e c i v i l w a r s .- ^ S a l l u s t a c c e p te d th e t h e o r y b u t s h i f t e d th e blame t o th e o p p o n en ts o f th e G racch i P o s e id o n iu s may w e ll have p ro p o se d a P o ly b ia n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e G racchan p e r i o d b u t even t h i s i s d o u b t f u l i n view o f th e f a c t t h a t we do n o t have h i s a c t u a l a cc o u n t b u t o n ly fra g m e n ts o f a d i g e s t o f i t . The a c c o u n ts o f th e G racchi a r e th e p r e c i s o f a much lo n g e r v e r s io n and th ey r e c e i v e l e s s th a n h a l f th e space a f f o r d e d th e S i c i l i a n S lave War by th e C o n s ta n tin ia n E x c e r p ta . In th e segment d e a l in g w ith T ib e r iu s G racchus t h e r e i s a m ajor gap b e tween th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O ctav iu s and th e f i n a l s c e n e s . In view o f th e f a c t t h a t th e acco u n t i n one p la c e a pproves o f a la n d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme b u t e lsew h ere se e s such schemes as ev id e n ce o f demagoguery, th e a cc u ra c y o f th e e x c e r p t o r s may w e ll be c a l l e d i n q u e s t i o n . 57 Both P o s e id o n iu s and S a l l u s t show marked s i m i l a r i t i e s t o th e o t h e r s o u rc e s w hich l e s s e n s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f S a l l u s t ' s dependence on P o s e i d o n i u s 0 In th e a cc o u n t o f th e S lave War, P o se id o n iu s sa y s t h a t th e e q u i t e s were In charge of th e e x t o r t i o n c o u r t s which i s a l s o th e v e r s io n o f P l u t a r c h 58 and Dio.-^ The c la im t h a t Gaius Gracchus in te n d e d t o i n tro d u c e a democracy i s found i n V a le r iu s Maximus i n r e f e r e n c e t o T i b e r i u s . 59 Fragm ents o f a speech o f T ib e r iu s Gracchus In P l u t a r c h , Appian and F lo r u s a re s i m i l a r t o th e fin p a s s a g e s c i t e d above from S a l l u s t , The r i c h a re p o r t r a y e d as e n c ro a c h in g on th e p o or who a re bowed w ith m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e and p o v e rty , w hile th e g e n e r a l s g e t a l l th e s p o i l s . The sm a ll fa rm e rs a re d r iv e n o f f th e la n d and th e o n ly r e c o u r s e l e f t t o th e p e o p le i s t o t u r n to th e t r i b u n a te . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s th e s ta n d a r d second c e n tu ry th e o r y of decay th ro u g h th e I n f l u x o f w e a lth and f o r e i g n ! c o n ta m in a tio n t h a t can be t r a c e d back to th e a n n a ls o f 6 l : L. C a lp u rn iu s P is o . In th e O r ig in e s , Cato sp eak s a t le n g t h o f th e d e m o r a liz in g e f f e c t s o f p r o s p e r i t y ,- and on th e im p ortance o f a n e x t e r n a l t h r e a t t o m a in ta in v i g i l a n c e : "sed enim i d m etu ere , ne s i nemo e s s e t homo quern v e rerem u r, q u id q u id l u b e r e t fa c e re m u s". A ccording to S e r v iu s , S a l l u s t made u se o f Cato f o r h i s e a r l y h i s t o r y o f Rome i n th e Bellum C a t i l i n a e , ^ which f u r t h e r weakens th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t S a l l u s t was u s in g P o s e id o n iu s . S a l l u s t a p p a r e n tly to o k some o f th e s to c k m a t e r i a l o f th e Gracchan h i s t o r i c a l corpus and wove i t i n t o h i s o v e r - a l l v e r s io n o f a s e r i o u s d e c l in e a f t e r th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C a rth a g e . P o se id o n iu s a l s o borrow ed from t h i s g e n e r a l so u rc e which e x p la in s th e commonplace rem arks about G racch u s' l in e a g e and p e r s o n a l v i r t u e s , which even Dio a d m its . I t a ls o e x p la in s th e more h o s t i l e d e s c r i p t i o n o f Gaius which i s a ls o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e a n ti-G ra c c h a n a c c o u n ts . To go any f a r t h e r i s im p o s s i b l e . C a r d in a l! p u ts i t w e ll: La concezion e d e g l i a v v en im e n ti £ i . e . i n D iodorusJ e la l o r o c o l o r i t u r a . . . sono c ertam en t^ p a r t o d e l l a mente d i P o sid o n io , ma e ugualm ente c e r t o che e g l i desunse g l i e le m e n t! d i f a t t o d e l l a sua e s p o s iz io n e da q u a lc h e f o n te romana contem poraenea, a ten d en za a r i s t o c r a t i z z a n t e . Quale ggsa fo s s e non e p o s s i b i l e p r e c i s a r e . ^ 18 A nother Im p o rta n t f i r s t c e n tu ry so u rc e i s C ice ro , who f r e q u e n t l y makes r e f e r e n c e s t o th e G racchi i n b o th h i s speech es and h i s p h ilo s o p h ic w orks. A marked change o f a t t i t u d e i s v i s i b l e as e v e n ts in C i c e r o 's own l i f e a re r e f l e c t e d in h i s w r i t i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r th e e v e n ts of 58 B.C. Thus h i s e x p e r ie n c e s a t th e hands o f C lo d iu s , h i s abandonment by h i s f r i e n d s among th e n o b i l i t y , h i s e x i l e and th e l o s s o f h i s home made i t e a s i e r f o r him t o i d e n t i f y w ith S c ip io N asica and Opimius th a n w ith th e G ra c c h i. In th e de_ o f f i c i i s , one o f h i s l a t e r works, he makes a b r u t a l and narrow -m inded a t t a c k on a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n o f a l l k in d . He p i o u s l y a rg u e s t h a t e x p l o i t a t i o n o f th e s t a t e f o r s e l f i s h m o tiv es i s b o th immoral and c r i m in a l . C a te r in g t o th e m asses i s a su re way t o d e s t r u c t i o n b o th f o r th e s t a t e and th e p o l i t i c i a n and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , debt r e d u c t io n and a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n a r e g r e a t e v i l s because i t i s a b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f s t a t e c r a f t t h a t th e harmony of th e community i s alw ays d e s tr o y e d by t a k i n g away from one and b e sto w in g i t on a n o th e r : " l a b e f a c t a n t fundam enta r e i i p u b lic a e . . . cum a l i i s a d im u n tu r a l i i s c o n d o n an tu r p e c u n ia e 1 1 (2 . 7 8 ) . For t h i s re a s o n , S p a rta and e v e n t u a l l y a l l o f Greece c o lla p s e d and a t Rome th e G racchi p e r i s h e d f o r t h e i r a g r a r i a n a g i t a t i o n . On th e o t h e r hand, when sp e a k in g b e fo re th e p eo p le tw enty y e a rs e a r l i e r a g a i n s t R u llu s , he had an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t view . Then he was a model o f o b j e c t i v i t y and c o n ce rn f o r th e p e o p le . He was w holly i n f a v o r o f th e l e g e s t a b e l l a r i a e , a lth o u g h e n t i r e l y a g a i n s t them e l s e w here. 65 ne co u ld p r a i s e th e G racchi f o r t h e i r c i v i c minded c o n cern f o r th e p e o p le : "duos v i r o s c l a r i s s i m o s , 66 i n g e n i o s i s s im o s , am a n tissim o s p l e b e i Romanae v i r o s " . F a r from condemning th e G racch i, C icero d e c l a r e s t h a t i t co u ld be no crim e to p r a i s e th o s e from whom th e r e s p u b lic a had b e n e f i t e d so much.67 In h i s d e fe n se o f R a b ir i u s , th e same a s p e c t o f a d j u s t i n g h i s a t t i t u d e tow ard th e G racchi to th e needs of th e moment, i s a p p a re n t a g a in . In t h i s s tr a n g e c a s e , R a b ir iu s was a cc u sed o f t a k i n g p a r t i n th e m urder o f S a tu r n in u s some f o r t y y e a r s p r e v i o u s ly and t h r e a t e n e d w ith an u n u s u a l form o f e x e c u tio n . C icero im m ediately had r e c o u rse t o th e l e x de c a p i t e civ ium Romanorum o f Gaius Gracchus (p ro Rab. p e r . 1 2 ), b u t th e n sw itc h e d c o m p lete ly around and arg u ed t h a t h i s c l i e n t was p e r f e c t l y j u s t i f i e d i n k i l l i n g S a tu r n in u s , s in e i u d i c i o , on th e grounds t h a t th e g r e a t p o p u la r l e a d e r M arius had convened th e s e n a te which p a s s e d th e i te c r e e . w i th in months C ice ro had cause to d e fe n d h im s e lf on s i m i l a r grounds a g a i n s t c h a rg e s t h a t he, to o , had k i l l e d a Roman c i t i z e n w ith o u t t r i a l . U n til th e end o f h i s l i f e he se a rc h e d f o r p r e c e d e n ts t o j u s t i f y h i s d eed . In th e cte domo sp eech d e l i v e r e d a f t e r h i s r e t u r n from e x i l e , C ice ro a g a in made th e a p p e a l: "u t n i h i l de c a p i t e c i v i s a u t de h o n is s in e i u d i c i o s e n a tu s a u t p o p u li . . . d e t r a h i p o s s i t " (3 3 ). He a rg u e d t h a t C lo d iu s v i o l a t e d e v e ry p o s s i b l e law i n h a v in g a m easure p a s s e d c o n c e rn in g th e c i v i l s t a t u s o f an uncondemned man. The most s a c r e d laws had been v i o l a t e d . No a c t was c r u e l e r , more d a n g e r ous o r more a b h o rre n t t o th e Roman p e o p le (4 3 ). Yet he had no d i f f i c u l t y i n f i n d i n g lo o p h o le s i n th e same law when d e fe n d in g M ilo. How a b su rd t o assume t h a t anyone g u i l t y o f hom icide sh o u ld a u t o m a t i c a l l y be p u n ish e d I I f t h a t were so , th e n A em ilianus was mad when he judged t h a t T i. Gracchus was lu r e caesum and S e rv iu s Ahala, P u b liu s N a sic a , L ucius Opimius, Gaius M arius and C icero would a l l 68 n e f a r i i " s i s c e l e r a t o s c i v i s i n t e r f i c i n e fa s e s s e t . " Milo was in n o c e n t and t h e r e was no need t o throw h im s e lf on th e mercy o f th e c o u r t f o r l i k e h i s i l l u s t r i o u s p r e d e c e s s o r s , i n c l u d i n g C ic e ro , he had r i s k e d h i s l i f e w h ile 6 9 a c t i n g on b e h a l f o f th e s t a t e . While i t i s u n f a i r to h o ld C ice ro r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e v e r y th in g he s a i d i n c o u rt as a law y er and demand im p o s s ib le s ta n d a r d s o f c o n s is te n c y , th e p o i n t a t is s u e i s th e d eg ree t o w hich C i c e r o 's own e x p e r i e n c e s i n f lu e n c e d h i s judgm ent. C ice ro found h im s e lf i n a dilemma, f o r on o c c a s io n he f e l t sympathy f o r th e G ra cc h i, who l i k e h im s e lf , had been condemned w ith o u t due p r o c e s s , w h ile on o t h e r o c c a s io n s , i t was e a s i e r t o 21 i d e n t i f y w ith N a sic a , who had a l s o a d m in is te r e d summary j u s t i c e i n th e b e l i e f t h a t th e s t a t e was e n d an g e re d . C ice ro u se d h i s knowledge o f th e G racch i much as P l u t a r c h d id i n Ti_. G racchus, a t one moment a p p e a rin g t o be p r o - Gracchan and a t a n o th e r a n ti- G r a c c h a n a s n e c e s s i t y d e manded. In th e de_ o f f i c i i s C ice ro re a c h e s th e h e ig h t s o f s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t i o n ( 1 . 7 6 f . ) . As A em ilianus p e rfo rm ed no g r e a t e r s e r v i c e i n d e s t r o y i n g Numantia th a n d id N asica i n k i l l in g T i. G racchus, so C ice ro re n d e r e d a g r e a t e r s e r v i c e t o th e s t a t e i n h i s c o n s u ls h ip t h a n anyone u n d e r arm s. The r e p u b l i c had n e v e r been i n g r e a t e r d a n g e r, b u t as a r e s u l t o f h i s v i g i l a n c e and a d v ic e , " th e weapons s l i p p e d from th e hands o f th e most d e s p e r a t e t r a i t o r s . " What achievem ent i n war was so g r e a t ? "Quae r e s i g i t u r g e s ta umquam i n b e l l o t a n t a ? " C ice ro p r a i s e s h im s e lf f o r d e l i v e r i n g th e s t a t e as 70 N asica d e l i v e r e d i t "ex dom inatu T i . G ra c c h i" . He was t h e " s e r v a t o r r e i p u b lic a e " as was Opim lus , ^ 1 and l i k e so many g r e a t men o f th e p a s t , M i l ti a d e s , T h e m is to c le s , C a m illu s, Ahala, N a sic a , Opimius, M e te llu s and M arius, he to o s u f f e r e d and n o b ly bo re th e i n g r a t i t u d e o f h i s 72 c o u n tr y . At th e same tim e th e e x i l e had a n o th e r a s p e c t : i t had been u n j u s t l y i n f l i c t e d and he had l o s t h i s house a s a r e s u l t o f i t . C ice ro was c e r t a i n l y S e r v iu s Ahala, 22 S c i p io N asica and Opimlus k i l l i n g w ould-be t y r a n t s , b u t he was a l s o T i. G racchus s u f f e r i n g u n j u s t l y and G aius G racchus s e e k in g vengeance f o r wrongs i n f l i c t e d s i n e i u d i c i o . A ltho ugh V a l e r i u s Maximus p r e s e r v e s o n ly s c a t t e r e d a n e c d o te s , t h e y can be g a th e r e d t o form an o u t l i n e o f th e l i v e s o f th e G ra c c h i. Most o f th e u s u a l p o i n t s a r e c o v e r e d . T i b e r i u s and h i s b r o t h e r were h e i r s t o a g r e a t fa m ily 73 t r a d i t i o n and e a r l y i n t h e i r c a r e e r s showed h ig h h o p e s. Had th e y c h o s e n 't o f o l lo w i n th e f o o t s t e p s o f t h e i r f a t h e r o r g r a n d f a t h e r , t h e y would have done g r e a t t h i n g s f o r th e 74 s t a t e , ' b u t i n s t e a d th e y chose t o t e a r i t down: cum T i. G racchus i n t r i b u n a t u p r o f u s i s s i m i s l a r g i t i o n i b u s f a u o re p o p u li o c c u p a to rem p u b lic a m opp ressam t e n e r e t palamque d i c t i - t a r e t in te r e m p to s e n a t u omnia p e r plebem a g i d e b ere . . . (3 . 2 . 1 7 ) . V i g u i t i n n o s t r a c i v i t a t e T i . e t C. G rac- chorum summa n o b i l i t a s ac sp e s a m p lis s im a . se d q u ia s ta tu m c i v i t a t i s c o n a t i e r a n t c o n u e l l e r e . . . (6 . 3 . Id ; c f a l s o 1 . 4 . 2 ; 7. 2. 6; 8. 1 0. 1). F o r t u n a t e l y S c ip io N asica was a t hand and when th e c o n s u l r e f u s e d t o ta k e a c t i o n a g a i n s t T i b e r i u s , d e s p i t e th e a greem en t o f a l l th e s e n a t o r s , N asica to o k d e c i s i v e 75 a c t i o n h i m s e l f , a lth o u g h a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l . He t h e n s u f f e r e d th e i n g r a t i t u d e o f h i s countrym en, f o r n o t a lo n e d i d he f a i l t o r e c e i v e a triu m p h - w hich was l e g a l l y 76 im p o s s ib le anyway - b u t he was e x i l e d . ' In th e c a se o f G aius G racchus t h e r e was no h e s i t a t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e c o n s u l, L. O p i m i u s . ^ Dio o u tr a n k s V a l e r i u s Maximus as th e most h o s t i l e o f a l l t h e a c c o u n ts , and a lt h o u g h th e s u r v i v i n g fra g m e n ts a re b r i e f , th e y a r e v e ry i n f o r m a t i v e . B e s id e s P l u t a r c h , Dio i s th e o n ly w r i t e r t o make r e f e r e n c e t o T i b e r i u s 1 a tte m p t t o woo th e mob w i t h demagogic p r o p o s a l s b e f o r e h i s b i d f o r r e - e l e c t i o n t o th e t r i b u n a t e . Dio c o v e rs a l l th e m ain p o i n t s o f th e s t a n d a r d o u t l i n e , th e n o b le fa m ily back g ro u n d , th e good e d u c a tio n , th e e f f e c t o f t h e Numantine t r e a t y , up t o th e b i d f o r r e - e l e c t i o n . At t h i s p o i n t th e frag m en t e n d s . The g e n e r a l to n e i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f V a l e r i u s Maximus. B oth b r o t h e r s were r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , a lth o u g h T i b e r i u s began a t a h ig h l e v e l o f m oral e x c e ll e n c e w h ile Gaius was b o rn e v i l . Dio g iv e s t h e Numantine t r e a t y a c count an u n u s u a l t w i s t : T i b e r i u s had hoped f o r a triu m p h b e c a u se he co n d u cted th e n e g o t i a t i o n s b u t i n s t e a d came n e a r t o b e in g handed o v e r t o th e enemy I O c ta v iu s a p p e a rs i n as b ad a l i g h t a s T i b e r i u s , w hich i s a n o th e r u n iq u e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f D io. In th e s e c t i o n where he a g r e e s w ith TG 16, Dio makes T i b e r i u s i n t o a th o ro u g h g o in g demagogue, w h ile P l u t a r c h to n e s down th e a c c o u n t c o n s i d e r a b l y . Ac c o rd in g t o Dio, T i b e r i u s p ro p o se d t o a m e li o r a te th e con d i t i o n s o f army s e r v i c e and t o t r a n s f e r th e c o u r t s from t h e s e n a t e t o th e k n i g h t s and i n g e n e r a l p ro m ise d th e 24 p e o p le a n y th in g th e y w an ted . He was a l s o t o have h im s e lf and h i s b r o t h e r e l e c t e d t o th e t r i b u n a t e and h i s f a t h e r - i n - la w t o th e c o n s u l a t e f o r th e f o llo w in g y e a r . W hatever so u rc e Dio i s f o llo w in g , h i s a c c o u n t f i t s i n w ith h i s o v e r - a l l p u rp o se o f b o l s t e r i n g th e r u l i n g c l a s s e s , f o r h i s p r i n c i p a l c o n c e rn i s how T i b e r i u s and G aius a f f e c t e d th e power o f th e n o b i l i t y . I n f r . 84 he n o t e s t h a t t h e i r power was d im in is h e d by th e d e a t h o f A e m ilian u s and th e G racchan la n d com m ission was a b le t o ra v a g e a l l I t a l y . F r . 8 5 , w hich b r i e f l y sum m arizes th e c a r e e r o f G aius G racchus, c o n c lu d e s w ith th e r e f l e c t i o n t h a t th e n o b i l i t y and s e n a t o r i a l p a r t y would have b een wiped o u t had Gracchus n o t d ie d so so o n . T ae g er i s c o n v in ced t h a t Dio and P l u t a r c h u se d P o s e id o n iu s f o r t h e i r a c c o u n ts o f th e G racch i and t h i s i s a l s o a p p a r e n t l y G e l z e r 's 78 v i e w . 1 V e l l e i u s and F l o r u s h o ld a m iddle p o s i t i o n betw een t h e extrem e a n ti- G r a c c h a n a c c o u n ts , r e p r e s e n t e d f o r e x ample by Dio and V a l e r i u s Maximus, and th e extrem e p r o - G racchan a c c o u n ts . V e l l e i u s fo llo w s th e u s u a l o u t l i n e b u t adds a few c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f h i s own. T i b e r i u s p ro m ised c i t i z e n s h i p t o a l l I t a l y w h ile Gaius p ro p o se d what a p p e a rs t o be a d u p l i c a t e o f T i b e r i u s ' l a n d schem e. His a c c o u n t embodies su c h s t a n d a r d f e a t u r e s o f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n as t h e i n v i d i a f o e d e r i s N um antin i, b u t he a l s o pays th e 25 h i g h e s t t r i b u t e t o T i b e r i u s ' p e r s o n a l v i r t u e s . N e v e r th e l e s s , T i b e r i u s d e p a r t e d from t h e p a r t y o f t h e n o b l e s and b r o u g h t t h e s t a t e i n t o e x trem e d a n g e r . The p o r t r a y a l o f G aius i s a l s o u n f a v o r a b l e , b u t a t t h e end V e l l e i u s r e t r a c t s a l i t t l e by o f f e r i n g a c r i t i c i s m o f O p im iu s ' a c t i o n . The n a r r a t i v e i s o v e rb u rd e n e d w i t h r h e t o r i c and th e m ain fo c u s o f a t t e n t i o n i s on su c h t r i v i a l i t i e s a s th e n o b le b a c k g ro u n d s o f T i b e r i u s and N a s ic a and th e d e t a i l s o f t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n . F l o r u s 1 a c c o u n t i s d o m in a te d by h i s c o n c e rn f o r th e m o ra l decay o f th e R e p u b lic a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i n f l u x o f w e a l t h and th e e x p a n s io n o f Roman p o s s e s s i o n s . His a c c o u n t i s i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u se i t i s so o b v i o u s l y d e ta c h e d and d i s i n t e r e s t e d . A ll t h e i s s u e s a r e now dead and a r e o f a n t i q u a r i a n and m o ra l i n t e r e s t o n l y . The f i r s t h u n d re d y e a r s o f Rome's em pire w ere g o ld e n and t h e o l d p a s t o r a l l i f e p r e v a i l e d , b u t t h e n came t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C a r th a g e , C o r i n th and N um antia, th e i n h e r i t a n c e o f A t t a l u s and th e c o n q u e s t o f S y r i a and t h e G olden Age came t o an a b r u p t en d . The f i r s t and se co n d G racchan s e d i t i o n s a r o s e b e c a u s e th e p e o p le demanded l a n d and fo o d i n i m i t a t i o n o f th e r i c h , f o r Rome had become a common sew er o f v ic e and l u x u r y , T i b e r i u s G racchus s e t th e f i r s t fla m e , e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e Num antine t r e a t y o r b e c a u s e o f good m o ti v e s . F l o r u s d o e s n o t have t o d e c id e - t h e r e i s no l o n g e r any p o i n t i n 26 t a k i n g s i d e s . He does* however* blame G racchus f o r d e s t r o y i n g t h e u n i t y o f th e s t a t e and g i v i n g i t , a s he p u t i t , two h e a d s . F l o r u s h a s s e v e r a l p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t w i t h P l u t a r c h . The r e a s o n s he a d v a n c e s f o r th e a g r a r i a n law s ( 2 .1 ) a r e v e ry s i m i l a r t o p a s s a g e s i n TG 9 and b o t h w r i t e r s comment on t h e h a r s h t r e a t m e n t o f th e b o d ie s o f th e s l a i n . Of th e re m a in in g a c c o u n ts , t h e ad H erennium c o n t a i n s v a l u a b l e q u o t a t i o n s from r h e t o r i c a l t o p i c a w hich may have o r i g i n a t e d o r b e en i n s p i r e d by G racehan p o l i t i c a l t r a c t s . O ro s iu s and de_ v i r i b u s i l l u s t r i b u s c o n s i s t e n t l y f o l lo w th e a n t i - G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n s . 27 : MOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION I | ^ In th e M o r a lia , P l u t a r c h a c c e p ts th e e v en t | w ith o u t q u e s t io n , e . g . de m a l i g . H erod. 857F, 8 5 8A; Ad. : ah am. 5 8E. ! p i de_ P y t h . o r a c . 792F 3op. c i t . 490C-D NOTES TO CHAPTER 1 -^HRR2 f r . 1 = G e l l. 5 . 1 8 . 7 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n ; o f t h i s fra g m e n t, see M. G e lz e r, Hermes 6 9 (1934), p . 48; 82 (1954), p . 346 = K le in e Schrif't'en" i i i , W iesbaden 1 9 6 2 - i ■ 1964, p p . 95 and 109. * j 2de d i v . 1 .3 6 ; 2 .6 2 ; TG 8 . 7 . Ed. S chw artz was ; th e f i r s t Fo s u g g e s t t h a t th e ""scriptum ad M._ Pomponium" o f Gaius Gracchus was a p o l i t i c a l p a m p h le t: G o t t . g e l . Anz. 10 (1 8 9 6 ), p . 793; a c c e p te d by G. C a r d i n a l i , St'udi ; g r a c c a n i . Genoa, 1 9 1 2, p . 6 n . l and Ed. Me ye r , 1 1 U n'ter-1 i suchungen z u r G e sc h ic h te d e r G ra cc h en ", K le in e S c h r i f t e n 2 : H a lle , 1924, p . 3 6 8 n . 2 ; F. T ae g er e x te n d e d t h i s id e a i n T i b e r i u s G racchus: U n tersuchu ngen z u r rom ische G e sc h ic h te und Q ueTlenkunde. S t u t t g a r t , 1928, p .""974 J a e g e r d e - I v is e d th e term s' "Sem pronian" and " C o rn e lia n '' t r a d i t i o n s ! f o r i n c i d e n t s t h a t r e f e r r e d t o fa m ily a f f a i r s o r were ob- ! v i o u s l y p a r t i s a n , e . g . T i. G ra cc h u s' sp e e c h i n TG 9» th e ’ d e b a te on th e Numantian t r e a t y , th e l i s t o f omens a l l : b e lo n g t o th e "Sem pronian t r a d i t i o n , " w h ile th e in fo rra a - ! t i o n f o r T i b e r i u s ’ m a rria g e was o b ta in e d from a " C o r n e lia n i t r a d i t i o n " p . 15. C ic e ro was u n d e r th e i n f lu e n c e o f th e ; " C o rn e lia n t r a d i t i o n " p . 13. See a l s o p ages 66 and 1 0 2 f. i These term s and t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s were h e a v i ly (and e x - j c e s s i v e l y ) c r i t i c i z e d by M. G e lz e r, Gnomon 5 (1929)> p . 296 ! = K le in e S c h r i f t e n i i , p . 7 3 f . ; P. F r a c c a r o , Athenaeum | 9 ( 1 9 3 1 )3 P. 2 9 1 f. 1 j n . h . 1 3 .8 3 . | ^ HRR2 i i , De I n l u s t r i b u s V i r i s , f r . 15. | 5MRR i , 459, 492, 523; RE 96; HRR 2 CLXXXI HRR f r . 24. D. C. E a r l a rg u e s t h a t P ls o was "■benevolently n e u t r a l " d u r in g T i . G ra cc h u s' t r i b u n a t e : T i b e r i u s G ra c c h u s : A _ Study i n P o l i t i c s , Latomus 66, 1 9 6 3 p . 141 r e j e c t e d by ATE7- AstTn^ S c i p io A erailian u s, O xford. 1967, P. 3 l 6 f . g C a t . 1 . 3 ; dom. 86; p r o M i l . 8; p ro S e s t . 143; P h i l . 2 , 2 6 f .; Or. 135V de r e p . ' l . L 6 T '2 .4 9 . 9L iv . 2 .4 1 and 4 .1 3 . 10f r . 34; L iv . 3 6 . 6 . 7 . *1 Klimke, Die a l t e s t e n Q u e lle n z u r G esch . d e r G racehen, c i t e d by G. B u s o l t , Weue J a h r b u c h e r f d r P h i l , l'4 l,' 1890, p . 3 2 1 . 12HRR2 f r . 6 = G e l l . 2 .1 3 . 13TG 2 0 .2 ^ W . S o l t a u , NJ 1 8 9 6 , h f t . 6 , p . 3 5 7 and e s p . 364. 15MRR i , 468, 5 1 9 , 5 1 6 ; RE 7 • ^ I b e r . 67; B r u t . 99 - 101 1 7RAL, 19 (1910), p . 6 5 6 ; Athenaeum 4 (1926), P .1 5 3 f . ■^H. P e t e r HRR2 CXCV11; Die Q u e lle n P l u t a r c h s . Amsterdam 1 9 6 5 (= r e p r i n t o f th e H a lle e d . 1 8 6 5 )'.' E. Kornemann "Zur G e sc h ic h te d e r G r a c c h e n z e i t V K lio 1, 19033 p . 2 f . Reviewed and r e j e c t e d by' P'. Cauer,~ B e r l i n . P h i l . W o c h . 19^ 1905^ c o l . 5 9 9 f. and Ed. Meyer, o p . c i t . p . 3 99, n . 2 . ^ d e l e g . 1 .6 ; de_ o r a t . 2 .5 4 ; B r u t . 102. OQ C. Plam inium C o e liu s r e l i g i o n e n e g l e c t a c a e c i d i s s e apud Trasumenum s c r i b i t " (de n a t . d e o r . 2 . 3 . 8 ) ; C. F la m in iu s and th e G ra c c h i: de l e g . ~ U . 20; a c a d .' 2 .1 3 29 23B r u t . 114; de_ o f f . 3 .1 0 . 2 4 s o lta u , op. cifc. p . 3^ 3 . 2^M ar. 28; Pomp. 37. g^B r u t . 114. 27de d iv . 1 .5 5 . 23ERR2 C C III. 290RP2 f r . 12. 3QB r u t . 125. 31QRP2 p . I 2 2 f ; 1 1 5f . 32mrr 452, 477, 471. 33B rut. 96/97; 8 l. 3^tg 8 .8 ; ORF2 p . 135; MRR 4 6 l . 3 5 B r u t 95/96; 94. 3^Brut. 107. 3 7B r u t. 1 0 8 . 38B rut. 127; 117. 39HRR2 f r s . 73, 74, 75; A n tla s : f r s . 57, 58. ^°T aeger op. c l t . p . 3 6 ; Meyer o£. c i t . p . 372. 4 lB u s o lt and S o lta u l o c . c l t . ; C a r d in a l! op. c i t . p . 8 3 , n . 1 names f o u r more, i n c l u d i n g N ieb uhr; T aeg er o p . c i t . p . 105f; M. G e lz e r, Gnomon 5, 1929, P. 297 ■ K leine S c h r i f t e n 2, p . 74. 4 2 p # K lin g n e r, Hermes 6 3 , 1 9 2 8, p . l 6 5 f ; T aeger op. c i t . p . 4 7 f; W. Schur, S a l l u s t a l s H i s t o r i k e r , S t u t t g a r t , 1934. 43p. 5i f . 4 4 D io d . 3 4 / 3 5 . 3 3 . 4 5 o p . c i t . 2 f . and 2 4 f . o p . c i t . 2 . 2 6 . 47 o p . c i t . 5 f . and 2 5 f . C f. T a e g e r , o p . c i t . p . 53: So n a h e l i e g e n d e s w a re , sc h o n P o s e i d o n i o s d e n Gedanken z u z u s c h r e i b e n , d a s s d i e g l e i c h z e i t i g e E rh e b u n g a u c h d e s r o m is c h e n P r o l e t a r i a t s i n einem d i r e k t e n Zusammenhang m it d i e s e n E r s c h e in u n g e n s t e h e , w e l l e s s i c h um S t r u k t u r - ^ n g e ru n g e n i n d e r M i t t e l m e e r w e l t h a n d e l t e , d i e d u r c h d i e I ro m is c h e W e l t h e r r s c h a f t a u s g e l o s t w a re n , so l e h n e n w i r d as | a b . P o s e i d o n i o s e n t w i c k e l t e i n e n j e d e n F a l l a u s s e i n e n | B e d in g u n g e n h e r a u s u nd f i n d e t n u r i n U rs a c h e n u nd A b la u f, | a u c h da P o ly b io s f o l g e n d , g e w is s e t y p i s c h e und darum immer !w ie d e r k e h r e n d e E r s c h e in u n g e n . 48 H i s t . f r . 11. 4 9j u g . 4 l f . 5°Cat_. 1 0 .4 51H i s t . f r . 11. 52J u g . 4 2 . 5 3 H i s t . f r s . 17 and 1 8 . 5 4 H i s t . f r . 1 6 . j 33T a e g e r , o p . c i t . p . 5 4 . I 9 8T a e g e r , o p . c i t . p . 5 6 . 57D io d . 3 4 / 3 5 .6 and 3 3 . ! I 58 j | TG 16 and D io, Bk. 24, f r . 8 3 . ! I 5 93 .2 .1 7 o I | 6°TG 9 . 4 ; b . c . 1 .9 and 11; F l o r . 2 .1 j i 6 1 HRR2 f r . 34; L iv . 3 9 . 6 . 7 . 62HRR2 f r . 95a and 95b * G e l l . 6 . 3 . 1 4 and 16. 31 63HRR2 f r . 5 . ^ o p . c i t . p . 1 8 ; c f a l s o Munzer: P o s id o n iu s . . . i s t t dagegen zu bedenken, d a ss f u r s e i n U r t e i l u b e r in n e r e rom ische V e rh & ltn is se n i c h t s e in e e ig e n e g e i s t i g e B edeutung den M assstab a b g i b t , sondern s e in e A bhangigkeit von rom ische Gewahrsmannern, d ie P o l i t i k e r von a u s g e s p ro c h e n e r R ich tu n g w aren. RE, no . 53 1404. 65s®. l e g , a g r . 24 and de l e g . 3 .3 4 f . 6^de l e g , a g r. 2 .1 0 . 67 l o c . c i t . and 81. 6&pro M i l . 8. ^9pro M il. 8 2 . The same argum ents a re r e p e a t e d i n p ro P l a n e . 70; de r e p . 1 6 ; i n P i s . 95 and T u s c . 4 .5 1 . 7°Brut. 212. 71pro Plane. 69. 72de r e p . 1 . 5 f ; de_ dom. 8 6 j p ro M il. 7; in P i s . 75. 7 3 6 .3 id . 7 ^ 4 .7 .2 . 753.2 .1 7. 765 . 3 . 2 e . 772.8 .7 . 73Taeger op. c i t . p . 105f; Gelzer, K leine S ch riften , p . 74. 32 CHAPTER 2 PLUTARCH'S TIBERIUS GRACCHUS IN THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE GRACCHI THE LITERARY STRUCTURE OF PLUTARCH'S TIBERIUS AND GAIUS GRACCHUS The i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T i b e r i u s G ra cc h u s, c h a p t e r s 1 - 7, i s i n marked c o n t r a s t t o th e r e s t o f th e b io g ra p h y w hich i s o f t e n i n c o h e r e n t and c o m p le te ly d o m in ated by v i o l e n t l y p a r t i s a n v ie w p o in ts . Judg ed by th e canons o f t r a g i c h i s t o r y , t h e s e f i r s t c h a p t e r s r e a c h a h ig h l e v e l o f e x c e l l e n c e . The s y n k r i s i s i n c h a p t e r s 2 and 3 i s s k i l l f u l l y draw n. In a minimum amount o f sp a c e , th e a u t h o r draws up a l i s t o f s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s on th e b a s i s o f 3 n o y o s» cHdLTtocand Q<5os, i n t o w hich he weaves a n e c d o te s and ap h o rism s w ith th e e a se o f a m a s te r . The v i g n e t t e o f T i b e r i u s ' n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith th e N um antians i n c h a p t e r s 5 and 6 i s a l s o w e l l composed. T i b e r i u s becomes th e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n w h ile Mancinus i s s h i f t e d c o m p le te ly o u t o f th e p i c t u r e . A ll th e d e t a i l s o f th e a c c o u n t a re drawn t o g e t h e r t o show o f f G ra c c h u s ' v i r t u e s i n th e b e s t p o s s i b l e l i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y h i s r e l i g i o s i t y and i n d i f f e r ence t o w e a lth . C h a p te r 7 i s a l s o a c h a r a c t e r s k e t c h i n i t s own r i g h t . A ll o f t h e s e v i g n e t t e s a r e c a r e f u l l y e x e c u te d . They e a c h have a b e g in n in g , m iddle and c o n c lu s io n and f i t i n t o t h e o v e r - a l l p a t t e r n o f th e b io g ra p h y w i t h re m a rk a b le 33 g r a c e . The to n e and o b je c t i s u n d e n ia b ly a p o lo g e ti c and e u l o g i s t i c , b u t i t i s done i n o f f e n s i v e l y and w ith a h ig h d e g re e o f s u b t l e t y . As w i l l be seen i n th e com parison i w ith th e o t h e r s o u r c e s , th e b io g r a p h e r submerges a l l th e u n f a v o r a b le v e rs io n s o f th e e v e n ts and s e l e c t s only th o se i t h a t s u i t h i s p u r p o s e s . On th e o t h e r hand, th e r e s t o f ! th e b io g ra p h y , c h a p te r s 8 - 21, i s c lu m s ily p a r t i s a n and j b e lo n g s on th e l e v e l o f p o l i t i c a l p a m p h le te e rin g and p r o - i i I p a g a n d a . T here a re no l i t e r a r y p r e t e n c e s i n t h i s s e c t i o n , n o t even an a tte m p t t o p r e s e n t a c o h e re n t a c c o u n t. A v i o l e n t l y p ro -G ra c c h a n s e c t i o n , c h a p te r s 8 - 1 3 . 3 # p i l l o r i e s th e r i c h u n m e r c if u lly a s narrow -m inded and o b s t i n a t e i n th e fa c e of th e l e g i t i m a t e demands o f th e p o o r ; i ( c h a p te r s 8 and 9 ) . The m a s te r mind o f th e o p p o s i t io n i s i a l a r g e l a n d - h o l d e r , S c ip io N a sic a , who h a te d Gracchus b e cau se o f th e l o s s e s he s u f f e r e d a s a r e s u l t o f th e p a s sage o f th e law ( c h a p te r 1 3 ). The r i c h worked th ro u g h j i O c ta v iu s, a n o th e r l a n d - h o l d e r , who a l s o happened t o be a t r i b u n e . Gracchus was f o r c e d t o depose him i n o r d e r t o j p a s s th e la n d law . At t h i s p o in t ( c h a p te r 13.3)# a n o th e r s o u rc e , on about ! \ th e same l i t e r a r y l e v e l as th e p r e v io u s one, i s i n tr o d u c e d j and i n t e r r u p t s th e c o n t i n u i t y o f th e b io g ra p h y . Except f o r one s e c t i o n i t i s e x tre m e ly h o s t i l e to Gracchus and marks a com plete b re a k w ith th e te n d e n c y of th e p r e v io u s I 3 4 s o u r c e . The aw kw ardness o f t h i s a c c o u n t i s a p p a r e n t on f i r s t r e a d i n g . I n c h a p t e r 18 t h e p r o - G r a c c h a n s o u r c e r e a p p e a r s and t h e v i l l a i n o u s N a s ic a l e a d s an a s s a u l t on G racchu s and h i s f o l l o w e r s . L a t e r he m e e ts a f i t t i n g end i n Pergamum. The b io g r a p h y o f G aius shows no p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h a t o f T i b e r i u s , o t h e r t h a n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p - i t e r s 1 - 7 . I n c o n t r a s t , i t h a s a w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d p l o t w h ic h o f f e r s a c o h e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e r i s e an d f a l l o f G a iu s . T here a r e no a p p a r e n t i n t e r p o l a t i o n s . I t i s m o d e ra te i n to n e an d c o m p l e t e ly l a c k s t h e d e v i a t i o n s so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f T i b e r i u s . I t i s t h o r o u g h l y p r o - G r a c c h a n ,; b u t w i t h o u t any o f t h e f a n c i f u l e x c e s s e s o f t h e o t h e r L i f e . The r i c h a r e e n t i r e l y a b s e n t and N a s i c a 's c o u n t e r p a r t , ! O pim ius, i s a much more s u b t l e l y d e l i n e a t e d f i g u r e . I t i s c o n s t r u c t e d o f a s e r i e s o f i n c i d e n t s , e a c h one h a v in g j t h e c h a r a c t e r o f an e s s a y o r s h o r t - s t o r y i n i t s own r i g h t , (as i n T i b e r i u s 1 - j), w h ich a r e w orked i n t o t h e l a r g e r fram ew ork o f t h e b i o g r a p h y . The r e s u l t i s a h i g h l y a r t i s - I t i c c o m p o s it i o n . G a iu s ' s e r v i c e i n S a r d i n i a ( c h a p t e r 2) i s a good j 1 i exam ple o f t h e s h o r t - s t o r y a s p e c t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n c i - ! d e n t s . I t b e g i n s w i t h th e f l a t s t a t e m e n t t h a t G aius s u r - ! I p a s s e d a l l h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s i n m i l i t a r y c a p a c i t y , j u s t | d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e s u b j e c t p e o p le and l o y a l t y t o h i s com- j 35 m ander. The v i g n e t t e th e n p ro c e e d s t o d e m o n s tra te t h i s by showing how he rem edied a s e r i o u s s h o r ta g e o f s u p p l i e s f o r th e army. I t c o n clu d es w ith G a iu s' r e t u r n t o Rome where he was a b le t o c la im t h a t he was th e only one t o go o u t w ith a f u l l p u rs e and r e t u r n w ith an empty one w h ile h i s comrades f i l l e d t h e i r empty wine j a r s w ith g old and s i l v e r . O ther exam ples a re found i n c h a p t e r s 4, 7 j 9 and i ; 15. Some o f th e i n c i d e n t s o f th e b io g ra p h y o f Gaius ra n k | j w ith th e b e s t o f th e t r a g i c h i s t o r i a n s . C h ap ter 15j w hich ; d e s c r i b e s th e e v e n ts o f G a iu s' l a s t day i s an exam ple. At d a y -b re a k , F la c c u s , who had t o be ro u s e d from a drunken s l e e p , armed h i s f o l lo w e r s w ith th e s p o i l s o f h i s G a l li c v i c t o r y . W ith th e s e few words, th e b io g r a p h e r evokes a scene o f i r o n i c change o f f o r t u n e . The very weapons won by F la c c u s i n war a g a i n s t Rome's enem ies a re now t o be u se d a g a i n s t h i s f e llo w c i t i z e n s ! The drunken and v i o l e n t P la c c u s makes a good c o n t r a s t w ith th e p e a c e f u l Gaius who i n a very moving sc e n e , ta k e s le a v e o f h i s w ife and c h i l d . L i c i n i a i s g iv e n some good l i n e s b e fo re she i s a llo w e d to p a ss out and be removed from th e s t a g e . The w eeping Gaius : a t th e tem ple o f Diana ( c h a p te r 16) i s a n o th e r moving i sc e n e , r e d o l e n t w ith p a th o s . N othing o f th e k in d i s found | i n th e o t h e r b io g ra p h y . The b io g r a p h e r o f Gaius has a c o h e re n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f j i j 36 t h e f a i l u r e o f h i s p r o t a g o n i s t i n c o n t r a s t t o th e o t h e r L if e w hich w allow s i n c o n f u s io n . F la c c u s i s s a d d le d w ith t h e p r i n c i p a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e d i s a s t e r a lo n g w ith th e i n t r a n s i g e n t O pim iu s. B ecause th e b i o g r a p h e r c l e v e r l y d e v e lo p e d th e p l o t and i n tr o d u c e d h i s comments ab out | ! F la c c u s a t w e ll ch o sen p l a c e s , t h e r e a d e r comes away w i t h o u t any q u e s t i o n s a b o u t what went wrong. T i b e r i u s G racchus has none o f th e s e t o u c h e s . I t i s I rough-hew n i n th e extrem e and t o t a l l y d e v o id o f s u b t l e t y . ; N asica and th e r i c h a r e m o n ste rs i n th e g r o s s e s t se n se and l i t t l e sympathy I s evoked f o r T i b e r i u s th e waj i t has b een done f o r G a iu s. T i b e r i u s re m a in s a much v a g u er f i g u r e , w h ile G a iu s' s o u l i s l a i d b a re f o r a l l t o s e e . The second b io g ra p h y i s th e p a i n s t a k i n g work o f a g e n u in e a r t i s t , w h ile th e fra g m e n ts o f p o l i t i c a l p a m p h le ts , p o p u la r s lo g a n s and a p h o rism s w hich c o n s t i t u t e th e so u rc e o f T i b e r i u s r e duce t h i s b io g ra p h y t o a much lo w e r l i t e r a r y l e v e l . F u r t h e r a n o m a lie s a r e d is c o v e r e d when th e b i o g r a p h i e s o f th e G ra cc h i a re r e a d w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e f o u r L iv e s i n Agis 1 - 2 and th e Com parison a t th e e n d . In th e I n t r o d u c t i o n th e b i o g r a p h e r makes th e p o i n t t h a t g l o r y and p r a i s e a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r th e p r o p e r grow th and developm ent o f v i r t u e , b u t t h a t once a man h as a c h ie v e d p e r f e c t i o n , he has no l o n g e r any need o f p r a i s e . G lory i s t h e r e f o r e d e s i r a b l e and n e c e s s a r y , b u t o f t e n men a re 37 c a r r i e d away by e x c e ss and i n s t e a d o f i d e n t i f y i n g th e g l o r i o u s w ith th e good, th e y i n v e r t th e o r d e r and b e li e v e ! t h a t what i s g l o r i o u s i s a u to m a t i c a ll y good. j i The young and th o s e i n p o l i t i c s a re p a r t i c u l a r l y prone; t o make t h i s m is ta k e b e cau se p o l i t i c s in v o lv e s th e w inn ing ; o f p o p u la r f a v o r and t h i s i n t u r n g e n e r a t e s dependence on th e m u l t i t u d e . In th e c ase o f th e G ra cc h i, i t was n o t an immoderate d e s i r e f o r g lo r y b u t r a t h e r f e a r o f l o s i n g i t i I t h a t r u i n e d them, f o r a f t e r e n jo y in g th e su p p o rt o f th e i | mob th e y f e l t an o b l i g a t i o n t o re p a y t h e i r b e n e f a c t o r s and so c o n tin u o u s ly s t r i v e d t o outdo th e m se lv e s w ith popu- : l a r l e g i s l a t i o n . They found th e m se lv e s tr a p p e d In such a way t h a t th e y c o u ld n e i t h e r c o n tin u e n o r e x t r i c a t e them s e l v e s w ith o u t d is h o n o r. Of th e two b i o g r a p h i e s , o nly Gaius g e n u in e ly c o r r e sponds t o th e th e o r y p ro p o se d i n th e I n t r o d u c t i o n , w h ile i n T i b e r i u s th e p l o t e v o lv e s a c c o rd in g t o an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y . In T i b e r i u s th e p r o t a g o n i s t un d erg o es a m oral d e t e r i o r a t i o n . A f t e r i l l e g a l l y and u n w o r th ily d e p o sin g a f e l l o w t r i b u n e ( 1 1 .2 ), he goes on t o i n t e r f e r e w ith th e s e n a t e 's p r e r o g a t i v e i n r e g a r d t o f o r e i g n p o l i c y . He was ac c u se d o f rowdy b e h a v io r and k e e p in g bad company, b u t h i s | p r i n c i p a l crim e was h i s v i o l a t i o n o f th e s a c r o s a n c t i t y o f j th e t r i b u n a t e (1 4 ), by w hich he a n ta g o n iz e d b o th th e a r i s - j to c r a c y and th e p e o p le (1 5 ) . In a p u b l ic a d d re s s he j 38 a tte m p te d t o r a t i o n a l i z e h i s a c tio n s * b u t t o no a v a i l . As a l a s t r e s o r t he t r i e d t o win th e p e o p le by p o p u l a r l e g i s l a t i o n w hich he p ro p o se d W ithout i n t e r e s t i n e i t h e r j u s t i c e o r th e common good ( l 6 ) . F i n a l l y , when th e v o t in g began i and i t was a p p a r e n t he was l o s i n g , h i s p a r t i s a n s b ro k e up i | j th e m e e tin g . T h is t h e o r y o f a m oral d e c l i n e i s q u i t e a l i e n t o th e j ; one p ro p o se d i n th e I n t r o d u c t i o n and d e v elo p ed i n G a iu s, ' b u t i t does r e f l e c t th e views e x p re s s e d i n th e Com parison where P l u t a r c h seems t o be unaware o f th e o t h e r t h e o r y , j I n s t e a d o f f i n e m oral s h a d in g , P l u t a r c h i s c o n te n t w ith su ch g e n e r a l i t i e s as a m b itio n , vengeance and b r a v e ry w hich a r e th e commonplaces o f th e b u lk o f th e s o u rc e s and i n p a r t i c u l a r o f T i b e r i u s . The most s e r i o u s ch arg e a g a i n s t G racchus was t h a t he had d e p osed a f e l l o w t r i b u n e and | so u g h t r e - e l e c t i o n . Gaius was a c c u se d o f th e m urder o f ! A n t y l l i u s (Comp. 5 . 1 ) . He t h e n sp e a k s o f th e " r i c h " much th e same way T i b e r i u s does and a c c e p t s th e v e r s i o n o f th e b io g ra p h y t h a t G racchus so u g h t r e - e l e c t i o n th ro u g h f e a r (Comp. 5 .5 = TG 1 6 ) . The com parison i s s u p e r f i c i a l . I t s b a s i s i s a sim p le j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f ite m s from th e b i o g r a p h i e s , f o r exam ple, th e manner i n which th e h e ro e s d ie d i o r th e r e l a t i v e acco m p lish m en ts o f t h e f o u r men i n m i l i t a r y l m a t t e r s . i The e x p l a n a t i o n seems t o be t h a t i n th e o r i g i n a l a c - j c o u n t, T i b e r i u s was p r e s e n t e d as a v i c t i m o f th e v i c i o u s I 39 . i c i r c l e d e s c r i b e d i n th e I n t r o d u c t i o n . I n s e e k in g t o f u l - j f i l l l e g i t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l a m b itio n s , he depended on th e j p e o p l e 's s u p p o r t and found h i m s e l f g r a d u a l l y tr a p p e d by J ! t h e i r c o n tin u in g demands and h i s own i n a b i l i t y to s a t i s f y i j them . R a th e r t h a n b e in g m o ra lly g u i l t y , G racchus was a j h a p l e s s v i c t i m o f f a t e . T h is was n o t what P l u t a r c h w a n t e d ,1 so he went t o o t h e r s o u r c e s f o r in f o r m a ti o n t h a t would i e n a b le him t o propound h i s own t h e o r y o f m o ral d e t e r i o r a - | t i o n . I n s t e a d o f f o l lo w in g th e o r i g i n a l s o u rc e he broke away from i t e n t i r e l y and s u p p l i e d . t h e c o n t e n t s o f c h ap t e r s 13.4- - 17 from o t h e r s o u r c e s . T h is s e c t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y P l u t a r c h e a n . I t shows a r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n | on G ra c c h u s' p a r t a f t e r h i s Im pious d e p o s i t i o n o f O c tav iu s and g iv e s prom inence t o th e w i l l o f th e gods m a n if e s te d j th r o u g h omens. In d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e w a rn in g s , T i b e r i u s compounds h i s g u i l t and becomes a p e r f e c t example o f | | P l u t a r c h 's t h e o r y . j The r e s t o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c e rn e d w ith P l u t a r c h 's s o u rc e s f o r th e L iv e s o f th e G ra c c h i, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e b io g ra p h y o f T i b e r i u s , r a t h e r t h a n w ith P l u t a r c h 's u se o f th e s o u r c e s . The p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y i s t o i s o l a t e th e d i f f e r e n t s o u rc e s u s e d b o th i n P l u t a r c h and th e o t h e r a c - i I I I c o u n ts and t o d e te rm in e w h e th er th e y a r e f a v o r a b l e o r ; h o s t i l e t o th e G racch i and t o what d e g r e e . I t i s assumed j t h a t much o f th e m a t e r i a l found i n P l u t a r c h and th e o t h e r s o u r c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Appian, i s v e ry a n c i e n t and goes b a ck u l t i m a t e l y t o th e G racchan p e r i o d i t s e l f . B ecause i th e o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e s e s o u r c e s was p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r th a n l i t e r a r y , th e y have und ergo ne r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e I change i n s u c c e s s iv e r e - e d i t i n g s . A f t e r th e s o u r c e s have b e en e v a l u a t e d i n term s o f t h e i r b i a s , i t w i l l th e n be I p o s s i b l e t o go on t o an a sse sm e n t o f t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l v a - | l i d i t y . | The term s " P l u t a r c h , 1 ' " b io g r a p h e r " , " a p o l o g i s t " , i w hich a r e u se d th ro u g h o u t th e s tu d y a r e i n te n d e d t o r e f e r t o th e s o u r c e s , n o t t o P l u t a r c h h i m s e l f . A lthough i t i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e a re i n s t a n c e s where i t i s p o s s i b l e to see where P l u t a r c h a c t u a l l y d e p a r t e d from th e s o u rc e and added h i s own comment, f o r example i n th e r e f l e c t i o n on t h e power o f th e v e to i n Roman law (TG 1 0 .2 ) and th e s ta te m e n t t h a t th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s was i l l e g a l , w hich i s found i n none o f th e o t h e r s o u r c e s (TG 1 1 .2 ) , t h i s ; does n o t im ply t h a t P l u t a r c h i s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e b io g ra p h y as we have i t now, b u t m ere ly t h a t em phasis i s g iv e n t o th e s o u r c e s f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f h i s t o r i c a l r a t h e r t h a n l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s . The te rm "Appian" i s a l s o u se d t o I d e s i g n a t e th e s o u r c e s r a t h e r t h a n Appian h i m s e l f . 41 TIBERIUS AND CORNELIA: TG 1 .1 j P l u t a r c h 1 b e g in s th e s t o r y o f th e Gracchan b r o t h e r s w ith a few a n e c d o te s ab out t h e i r a n c e s t o r s . The f a t h e r , T i b e r i u s Sem pronius Gracchus was c e n s o r, tw ice c o n s u l, e n joyed two triu m p h s b u t was most famous f o r h i s v i r t u e . Hence, d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t he and A fric a n u s were n o t f r i e n d s , he was c o n s id e re d w orthy t o r e c e i v e A f r i c a n u s 1 d a u g h te r i n m a rria g e a f t e r th e l a t t e r * s d e a t h . T h is s t a t e - i i | ment i s r e p e a te d e m p h a tic a lly i n TG 4 .3 where P o ly b iu s i s i g iv e n as th e so u rc e o f t h i s in f o r m a tio n , w ith s t r e s s on the: f a c t t h a t a t A fric a n u s * d e a th C o r n e lia , h i s younger daugh- ; ! t e r was u n b e tr o th e d and th e m a rria g e to o k p la c e a f t e r h e r | _ — i_ -i - i - I — f a t h e r ' s d e a th . A com parison w ith th e o t h e r so u rc e s seems t o p o i n t t o an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c r e d i t i n g th e b io g r a p h e r 2 j ! w ith good s c h o l a r s h i p i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , f o r lo n g b e f o r e , Livy had d e s p a ir e d o f r e s o l v i n g th e i n c r e d i b l y c o m p lic a te d a cco u n t o f th e t r i a l o f th e S c ip io s which c o n ta in s h i s v e r s i o n o f th e e s p o u s a l o f C o r n e lia : "Nec i n t e r s c r i p t o r e s rerum d i s c r e p a t solum, sed o r a t i o n e s . . . a b h o rr e n t i n t e r s e ." 3 C ic e ro , V a l e r i u s Maximus, P lin y and G e l li u s a l l have ; a n e c d o te s and a l l u s i o n s to t h i s famous i n c i d e n t and i t i s j c l e a r t h a t b e fo r e th e e v e n ts o f 1 3 3* th e r e l a t i o n s betw een ! i th e S c ip io n e s and th e Sem pronii had become th e s u b j e c t j m a t t e r o f le g e n d .^ - In p a r t i c u l a r , th e i n c i d e n t of th e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f A fric a n u s and Gracchus r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r - | 42 |a b l e a t t e n t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, one o f t h e commonest them es o f j ' I t h e a n t i - G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n was t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t I T i b e r i u s and G aius G racchus had b e t r a y e d t h e i r a n c e s t r a l 1 5 I h e r i t a g e on b o t h t h e i r f a t h e r ' s and m o t h e r 's s i d e . - ' i t |seem s h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t among t h e u n f l a t t e r i n g co m p a riso n s :made b e tw ee n f a t h e r and so n s was th e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t o th e I e t e r n a l m i s f o r t u n e o f Rome, t h e so n s u n l i k e t h e i r f a t h e r , :were u n a b le t o s i n k t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h th e S c i p i o s . ^ 1 iHence i t was n o t s c h o l a r s h i p o r o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t l e d th e b i o g r a p h e r t o s e l e c t P o l y b i u s , th e f a m ily h i s t o r i a n o f th e i S c i p i o s , a s h i s a u t h o r i t y , b u t h i s i n t e r e s t i n s e l e c t i n g ia s o u r c e t h a t was a t v a r i a n c e w i t h th e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e ^ r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . The b i o g r a p h e r n e a t l y a v o id e d th e whole ^problem o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n by i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e b e t r o t h a l ; ; | i to o k p l a c e a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f A f r i c a n u s . He d i d n o t go t o t h e e x tre m e o f s a y i n g t h a t A f r ic a n u s and G racchus were i f r i e n d s and t h e r e f o r e n e ed e d no r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , as 7 j F r a c c a r o and C a rco p in o c l a i m . 1 T h is w ould have s p o i l e d h i s a p o l o g e t i c a rg u m e n t. I n s t e a d he s t r e s s e s th e one s a f e j f a c t t h a t a t th e tim e o f A f r i c a n u s ' d e a t h , C o r n e lia was I u n b e t r o t h e d and s a y s n o t h i n g o f th e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . The ; b i o g r a p h e r ' s e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t T i b e r i u s G ra c c h u s' v i r t u e | | d e s p i t e d is a g r e e m e n ts w i t h A f r i c a n u s , was s u f f i c i e n t I g ro u n d s f o r t h e m a r r i a g e . By I m p l i c a t i o n t h e r e was no r e - 43 c o n c i l i a t i o n . As w i l l be se e n th ro u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r , th e whole te n d e n c y o f th e b io g ra p h y s u p p o r ts t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Again and a g a in th e a n ti - G r a c c h a n view i s r e f u t e d by a sim p le i n v e r s i o n o f th e f a c t s , a d e n i a l o r th e a d d i t i o n o f some m o ral e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i s i n te n d e d t o c o n v e rt th e o p p o sin g view i n t o a d e fe n s e o f th e G racchan p o s i t i o n . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , th e b i o g r a p h e r h as r e - d i r e c t e d a h o s t i l e t r a d i t i o n i n t o a f a v o r a b l e c h a n n e l and expunged th e damag in g co m p a riso n . GRACCHUS AND THE SERPENTS: TG 1 .2 The a n e c d o te o f th e s e r p e n t s found i n T i b e r i u s G rac chus ' h elm et must have b een one o f th e most p o p u la r o f th e whole G racchan le g e n d . I t p o i n t s t o th e s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f much o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e G ra cc h i and to th e f a c t t h a t many, i f n o t a l l th e a n e c d o te s re c o r d e d by th e s o u rc e s had i ta k e n on a t an e a r l y tim e an in d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r own w ith o u t any r e f e r e n c e t o w r i t t e n s o u r c e s . j The same s t o r y a p p e a rs i n P l i n y , V a l e r i u s Maximus, i de v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s and i n two p l a c e s i n C i c e r o 's de_ d i v - j Q i n a t i o n e . In C i c e r o 's work, Q u in tu s i s a rg u in g i n f a v o r o f d i v i n a t i o n and among th e exam ples adduced t o s u p p o rt h i s p o s i t i o n , he p r e s e n t s th e c a se o f th e s e r p e n t s found ! I n G ra c c h u s' h e lm e t. G aius G racchus i s g iv e n a s th e 44 s o u r c e . ^ i n t h i s s t o r y G racchus i s a d v is e d t h a t i f he l e t s th e male e sc a p e , h i s w ife w i l l d ie w h ile he h im s e lf w i l l d ie i f th e fem ale i s a llo w e d t o e s c a p e . In book two C ic e ro i s r e f u t i n g h i s b r o t h e r ' s p o s i t i o n and r i d i c u l e s th e example o f th e sn a k e s . Why n o t c a l l i n th e s o o th s a y e r s about l i z a r d s and mice? Why d i d n ' t G racchus k i l l b o th sn a k e s , f o r Gaius i n h i s a cc o u n t does n o t say t h a t any o p in io n was g iv e n a s t o th e r e s u l t s i f n e i t h e r snake were a llo w e d t o escape? In th e same s e c t i o n he t e l l s th e s t o r y o f th e d i v i n e r who was ask ed what was th e meaning of th e d is c o v e r y o f a snake wrapped around a beam i n som eone's h o u se . The r e p ly was t h a t i t was n o t a p o r t e n t and would o n ly have been one i f th e beam were wrapped around th e snake I P lin y and th e o t h e r s have th e same a cc o u n t as C icero so t h a t th e b i o g r a p h e r 's v e r s i o n w i l l be se en t o be con s i d e r a b l y more "advanced" o r r a t i o n a l i z e d th a n th e r e s t f o r he h as a lr e a d y ta k e n i n t o a cco u n t C i c e r o 's d ilem m a.10 As t o l d by th e b io g r a p h e r , t h i s s t o r y does n o t d e r iv e from G a iu s' a cc o u n t a lth o u g h t h i s work i s c i t e d i n c h a p te r 8, n o r from C ic e ro . The most l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t th e s t o r y o f th e snakes was as w e ll known as th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O ctav iu s and underw ent c o n s id e r a b le develo p m en t. The p o i n t o f th e a n ec d o te i s c l e a r : G racchus was a v ery r e l i g i o u s man i r r e s p e c t i v e l y , an A dm etu s-lik e f i g u r e who s a c r i f i c e d h im s e lf on b e h a l f o f h i s w ife whom he loved, d e a r l y , i n i 11 ; o b edien ce t o th e m a n if e s t w i l l o f th e go ds. CORNELIA AND HER SONS: TG 1 .4 The d i f f e r e n t i n f e r e n c e s drawn by V a l e r i u s Maximus and P l u t a r c h 12 i n r e g a r d to G ra c c h u s1 d e a th p o in t t o th e b i o g r a p h e r 's a p o lo g e ti c te n d e n c y , which a g a in a p p e a rs o nly i when c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e o t h e r s o u r c e s . l n T ib e r iu s C o rn e lia manages t o ta k e some o f th e c r e d i t f o r h e r h u s b a n d 's s e l f - s a c r i f i c e as w e ll as G rac chus h im s e lf : c e r t a i n l y , sa y s P l u t a r c h , Gracchus d id n o t make a m ista k e i n l e a v in g h i s c h i l d r e n i n h e r hands! V a l e r i u s Maximus on th e o t h e r hand g iv e s Gracchus a l l th e p r a i s e : I I ta q u e C orneliam n e s c io u tru m f e l i c i o r e m d ix e rim , quod ta le m virum h a b u e r i t , an m is e rio re m , quod ta le m virum a m i s e r i t ( 4 . 6 . 1 ) . j The b io g r a p h e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n th e u n i t y o f th e fa m ily j and th e more c l o s e l y he can t i e C o rn e lia to h e r sons th e more d i f f i c u l t i t w i l l be f o r th e o p p o s i t io n t o a t t a c k th e 1 sons w ith o u t a l s o a t t a c k i n g th e m o th e r. T h is i s e v i d e n t l y j ’ h i s i n t e n t i o n i n s t r e s s i n g th e e d u c a ti o n a l i n f lu e n c e o f 1^ C o rn e lia on h e r c h i l d r e n . A f t e r G racch u s' d e a th , J she | i to o k charge o f t h e i r e d u c a tio n so e f f e c t i v e l y t h a t a lth o u g h ! i h e r sons were h ig h ly endowed by n a t u r e , t h e i r v i r t u e s were j i th o u g h t t o d e riv e from t h e i r e d u c a tio n r a t h e r th a n t h e i r 46 n a t u r a l g i f t s . C ice ro and Q u i n t i l i a n r e p e a t t h i s t e s t i mony and even D i o 's h o s t i l e a cc o u n t makes a l l u s i o n t o th e j 14 i e x c e l l e n t e d u c a tio n r e c e i v e d by th e G ra c c h i. ' The i n s t a n c e s where C o rn e lia a p p e a rs as an i n s t i g a t o r | o f h e r sons o r even a s an acco m p lice i n th e m urder o f I A e m ilian u s, a re very c u r i o u s . -*-5 Taken a t fa c e v a lu e th e y im ply C o r n e l i a 's a p p ro b a tio n o f h e r s o n 's a c t i v i t y , and : can t h e r e f o r e h a r d l y be d e s c r ib e d as a n ti- G r a c c h a n i n c h a r a c t e r . T h is i s borne o u t by o t h e r te s tim o n y which p o i n t s t o a happy r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m o ther and so n s. V a l e r i u s Maximus t e l l s th e l i t t l e s t o r y o f th e m other who d i s p l a y e d h e r j e w e l l e r y t o C o rn e lia t o w hich C o rn e lia r e p l i e d t h a t h e r sons were h e r j e w e l s . I n Gaius 19 C o rn e lia j who h as r e t i r e d t o Misenum, d i s p l a y s p r i d e r a t h e r th a n shame i n r e g a r d t o h e r s o n s ' d e e d s . There i s a ls o th e te s tim o n y o f C icero and Seneca and o f an i n s c r i p t i o n t o a I 16 ' happy r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e m other and s o n s . T here i s no doubt t h a t th e o p p o s i t io n made e f f o r t s t o weaken t h i s im p o rta n t p o s i t i o n o f th e G racch an s. They had ; t o d e ta c h C o rn e lia from "h er_s o n s ' s id e i f th e y were t o prove t h e i r p o i n t t h a t th e Gracchans b e tr a y e d t h e i r a n - j I c e s t o r s w hich was one o f t h e i r most im p o rta n t c o n t e n t i o n s , j E v id e n tly th e y were u n s u c c e s s f u l f o r o t h e r th a n two s p u r io u s l e t t e r s p r e s e r v e d by Nepos, a comment i n Gaius 1 3 .2 o f no s i g n i f i c a n c e and a d o u b tf u l a l l u s i o n i n Oros. J5...12.9,. t h e r e is . nothing , t o i n d i c a t e wide a c c e p ta n c e o f ___ th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n v e r s i o n . As has been m en tio ned , th e u s u a l l y h o s t i l e a c c o u n ts o f Dio and V a le r iu s Maximus a re f a v o r a b le as i s C ic e ro . N e p o s1 l e t t e r s o f C o rn e lia canno t s ta n d up i n th e fa c e o f th e c o n tr a r y e v id e n ce adduced above. They become even more s u s p e c t i n th e l i g h t o f th e comments o f C ice ro and Q u i n t i l i a n about th e l e t t e r s o f C o rn e lia w ith which th e y a r e f a m i l i a r . ^ B oth t e s t i f y t h a t th e l e t t e r s show a good r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m oth er and so n s . However, t h e r e i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t th e l e t t e r s a re very o ld and f o r t h a t r e a s o n a re u s e f u l i n d i c a t o r s of th e k in d o f a n t i - 1 R G racchan m a t e r i a l i n c i r c u l a t i o n a t an e a r l y d a t e . ° SYNKRISIS: TG 2 AND 3 The b io g r a p h e r d e v o te s c h a p te r s two and t h r e e t o a com parison o f T i b e r i u s and G aius G racchus a c c o rd in g to h i s own h ig h ly d e v elo p ed v e r s i o n o f th e p e r i p a t e t i c b i o g r a p h i c a l f o r m .1^ In a p p ea ra n c e T i b e r i u s was g e n tl e and composed, Gaius h ig h ly s t r u n g and im p a ss io n e d . The same q u a l i t i e s a p p ea re d i n t h e i r o r a t o r y . T h e ir t a b l e and mode o f l i f e was d i f f e r e n t a l s o , as might be e x p e c te d from G a iu s' ten d e n cy tow ard s th e fla m b o y a n t. In c h a r a c t e r , T i b e r i u s was m ild and r e a s o n a b le , w h ile h i s b r o t h e r was h a rs h and im p u ls iv e . N o n e th e le s s , th e y were e x a c t l y a l i k e i n m a tte r s o f v i r t u e where th e y e x c e ll e d i n b r a v e ry , 48 20 j u s t i c e * h o n e s ty and m o d e ra tio n . In a cc o rd a n c e w ith h i s a p o l o g e t i c i n t e n t * th e b i o g r a p h e r h as made an e x tre m e ly f a v o r a b l e com p arison betw een th e b r o t h e r s and as m ight be expected* t h i s i s th e c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n . Of a l l th e co m p a ri sons* i m p l i c i t o r e x p l i c i t i n th e s u r v i v i n g s o u r c e s , D io 's I s th e most h o s t i l e . A ccording t o Dio, T i b e r i u s a t l e a s t began w ell* b u t G aius was b o rn e v i l . He e x c e l l e d h i s b r o t h e r i n o r a t o r i c a l power and in tr o d u c e d th e custom o f I w a lk in g up and down w h ile a d d r e s s i n g th e assem b ly w ith h i s j 2 1 jarm b a r e d . Dio s e e s t h i s a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f G a i u s 1 demagogic and a r r o g a n t b e h a v i o r . P o s e id o n iu s on th e o t h e r hand* i s g e n ero u s i n h i s p o r t r a y a l o f T i b e r i u s b u t h a r s h on Gaius and a lth o u g h no e x p l i c i t co m p ariso n su rv iv e s * i t can be s e e n i m p l i c i t l y i n what r e m a in s . S i m i l a r l y t h e r e i s no c o n s c io u s ly c o n s t r u c t ed com parison on a good b r o t h e r - bad b r o t h e r b a s i s i n th e r e m a in in g s o u r c e s . The u s u a l l y h o s t i l e V a l e r i u s Maximus sp e a k s a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y o f T i b e r i u s and V e l l e i u s and F l o r u s have n o th in g t o say on t h i s them e. A lthough C i c e r o 's co m pariso n i s more e x te n d e d t h a n any o u t s i d e P lu ta rc h * t h e r e i s s t i l l no t r a c e o f a good b r o t h e r - bad b r o t h e r them e. As i n a l l o f h i s r e f l e c t i o n s on th e G racchi* h i s judgm ent i s c o lo r e d by th e n e e d s o f th e moment. In a v a s t m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s where he sp eak s 49 o f th e b r o t h e r s as i n d i v i d u a l s o r as th e G ra c c h i, he b r a c k e t s them t o g e t h e r a s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s : T i . Gracchus c o n v e l l i t c i v i t a t e m . . . s e c u tu s e s t C. G racchus (de h a r . r e s p . 4 l) A grariam T i . G racchus legem f e r e b a t . G rata e r a t populo . . . F rum entariam legem C. Gracchus f e r e b a t . Xucunda e r a t p l e b e i (p ro S e s t . 1 0 3 ). In th e i n s t a n c e s where he f e e l s th e need to p la y th e p o p u l a r i s T ib e r iu s and Gaius a re n a t u r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d i n a f a v o r a b le manner: V e n it enim m ihi i n mentem duos c l a r i s s i m o s i n g e n io s is s im o s , a m a n tissim o s p l e b e i Romanae v i r o s , T ib eriu m e t Gaium Graechos . . . (de l e g , a g r . 2 .1 0 ; c f . 8 l ; a l s o p ro R ab. p e r . 14) ; The on ly tim e a c o n t r a s t i s made i s when G a iu s 1 e x c e lle n c e 23 a s an o r a t o r i s r e f e r r e d t o . An i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f how th e d i f f e r e n t a c c o u n ts employed th e a n e c d o te s a b o u t th e G racch i i s found i n th e s t o r y o f G aiu s' u se o f a f l u t e p l a y e r which i s found i n P l u t a r c h , C ic e ro , V a l e r i u s Maximus, Q u i n t i l i a n , 24 G e lllu s and Dio. G e lliu s p o i n t s out t h a t t h e r e a re two v e r s i o n s o f th e s t o r y , one u n f a v o r a b le to Gaius and th e o t h e r f a v o r a b l e . The a n ti- G r a c c h a n v e r s i o n a c c o rd in g t o t h i s a c c o u n t, p u t Gaius i n th e unbecom ing r o l e o f th e p l a n l p e s of th e mime, w ith th e m u sic ia n p l a y i n g a l l th e tim e . The o t h e r v e r s io n a llo w ed th e f l u t e p l a y e r a r o l e o n ly when Gaius began to g e t c a r r i e d away. C ic e ro , V a le r iu s Maximus and Dio a l l fo llo w th e h o s t i l e v e rs io n , 50 | b u t th e b io g r a p h e r a c c e p t s th e f a v o r a b l e a c c o u n t a lm o st e x a c t l y a s G e l l i u s h as i t . ^ As i n a l l th e a n e c d o te s ab o u t th e G ra c c h i, th e d e t a i l s v a ry , b u t i t i s th e end p u rp o se o f th e a n e c d o te t h a t c o u n ts , n o t th e d e t a i l s . AUGTJRATE, MARRIAGE AND MILITARY SERVICE: TG 4 - 7 By a n c i e n t custom , son su c ce ed e d f a t h e r i n th e c o lle g e ; 26 o f a u g u r s . I f T i b e r i u s G racchus th e f a t h e r d ie d i n 154 (C arco p in o ) o r a t l e a s t n o t l a t e r th a n 147 ( P r a c c a r o ) , h i s ; son would have t a k e n h i s f a t h e r ' s p l a c e i n th e c o ll e g e o f a u g u rs sometime betw een h i s n i n t h and s i x t e e n t h y e a r . ^ > \ > The b i o g r a p h e r sa y s t h a t t h i s happened £_u©-u.s- £.ic / *rrot_lo 10 v (TG 4 .1 ) w hich may m ere ly mean a s soon as he : assum ed th e to g a v i r i l i s , b u t w ith o u t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t in g t h a t he had r e a c h e d h i s f i f t e e n t h y e a r . W hatever th e e x a c t a g e, i t r e q u i r e s a s t r e t c h o f th e im a g in a tio n to a c c e p t th e b i o g r a p h e r 's e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i t was b e ca u se o f T i b e r i u s 1 a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d r e p u t a t i o n f o r v i r t u e t h a t he was c o -o p te d i n t o th e a u g u r a t e . The p r o p e r e x p l a n a t i o n : i s t h a t T i b e r i u s was a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o -o p te d sim ply b e ca u se : he was th e son o f T i . Sem pronius G racchus and S c i p io j A f r i c a n u s . T h is a n e c d o te th e n i s p a r t o f th e g e n e r a l 1 developm ent o f th e r e l i g i o u s s i d e o f T i b e r i u s 1 c h a r a c t e r | w hich a tt e m p t s t o show th e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e fa m ily J t r a d i t i o n o f r e l i g i o s i t y . I t i s a l s o a r e b u t t a l o f th e 51 o f th e c h a rg e s o f im p ie ty by th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n which t r i e d t o l i n k T ib e r iu s w ith a n o th e r su p p o sed ly ’ * i r r e l i g i o u s t r i b u n e , C. F la m in iu s , who a l s o had d i s r e g a r d - 28 ed a whole s e r i e s o f omens on th e day he d i e d . Livy f o llo w in g C o e liu s A n t i p a t e r says i t was b e cau se F la m in iu s ig n o re d th e m a n if e s t w i l l o f th e gods t h a t he met d i s a s t e r and Obsequens in c l u d e s G racchus among th o s e who d ie d soon a f t e r rem oving t h e i r c o lle a g u e s from o f f i c e . In a d d i t i o n , | th e b io g r a p h e r had t o c o n ten d w ith th e most s e r i o u s charge I o f th e o p p o s i t io n , t h a t G racchus had v i o l a t e d th e s a c r o - l . s a n c t i t y o f th e t r i b u n a t e by h i s rem oval o f O ctav iu s and th u s i n i t i a t e d th e d o w n fa ll o f th e R e p u b lic . The p a n e g y ric o f G ra c c h u s' v i r t u e c o n tin u e s i n th e n e x t i n c i d e n t w hich d e s c r i b e s h i s b e t r o t h a l to th e daugh- 29 t e r o f Appius C la u d iu s . Again th e b io g r a p h e r i s con c e rn e d t o show th e f i d e l i t y o f T ib e r iu s t o Roman t r a d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y t o th e t r a d i t i o n s o f h i s fa m ily . Like h i s f a t h e r , G racchus had an o u t s t a n d i n g r e p u t a t i o n f o r v i r t u e and m a rrie d th e d a u g h te r o f one o f Rome's l e a d in g men, who had been c o n su l, c e n so r and was now th e p r i n c e p s s e n a t u s . He ig n o r e s th e f a c t t h a t C lau d iu s was A e m ilia n u s 1 p r i n c i p a l r i v a l and th e m a rria g e p o s s i b l y r e p r e s e n t s : T i b e r i u s ' s w itc h o f a l l e g i a n c e t o th e C la u d ii from th e j S c i p io n i c c o n n e c tio n o f h i s f a t h e r . In th e same c o n te x t, | i g n o r in g th e i n c o n g r u i t y , th e b io g r a p h e r goes on to p r a i s e 52 T i b e r i u s ' f i r s t m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e u n d e r S c ip io A em ilian u s. A ccording t o th e a c c o u n t, T i b e r i u s s h a re d th e t e n t o f h i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w and le a r n e d to i m i t a t e h i s v i r t u e s . In e m u la tio n o f A em ilianus a t I n t e r c a t i a , G racchus was th e f i r s t man t o s c a l e th e w a lls o f C arthage and th e deed was | j r e c o rd e d by F anniu s who claim ed t o have s h a re d i n th e e x p l o i t w ith G racchus. ! A lthough th e o r d e r o f th e s e a n e c d o te s i s a c t u a l l y th e r e v e r s e o f th e t r u e o r d e r , t h e r e sh o u ld be no s u r p r i s e . The b io g r a p h e r i s n o t w r i t i n g s c i e n t i f i c h i s t o r y , but r a t h e r i s a tte m p tin g t o c r e a t e an i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c image f a v o r a b le t o h i s s u b j e c t . T h is demands a s e p a r a t e g ro u p in g o f th e i n c i d e n t s o f T i b e r i u s ' c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y c a r e e r s . Up t o 4 ,4 , th e b io g r a p h e r has been d e a l in g w ith j T i b e r i u s i n h i s p r i v a t e c a p a c i ty , w h ile 4 . 4 - 7 d e a ls e x c l u s i v e l y w ith h i s m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . The n e x t th r e e c h a p te r s (5 - 8) t e l l th e s t o r y o f G racch u s' s e r v i c e u n d e r Mancinus i n S p a in . From t h i s a c count i t m ight e a s i l y be supposed t h a t T ib e r iu s was th e c o n su l r a t h e r th a n Mancinus and b o re th e e n t i r e r e s p o n s i - j b i l i t y f o r th e term s o f th e t r e a t y . The fragm ent o f V a le r iu s A n tia s i n G e lliu s which sa y s t h a t T ib e r iu s was among th e sp o n so re s o f th e t r e a t y and th e f a c t t h a t Appian does n o t even m ention him, s u g g e s ts t h a t T i b e r i u s was SO m erely among th e w itn e s s e s t o th e t r e a t y . Yet th e b i o - g r a p h e r makes him th e s o le a c t o r and w h ile th e c o n su l has c o m p le te ly l o s t h i s w i t s , h i s low ly q u a e s to r e x t r a c t s th e e n t i r e army, t o g e t h e r w ith h i s r e c o r d s and th e s a c r i f i c i a l in c e n s e . The a cc o u n t does wonders f o r G racch u s' image, i n p a r t i c u l a r by c o m p le te ly e x o n e r a tin g him from r e s p o n s i - ! b i l i t y f o r th e r e p u d i a t i o n o f th e t r e a t y w hich i s blamed on h i s kinsm an, S c ip io A em ilian u s. The b io g r a p h e r d e v elo p s h i s th e o r y as f o l lo w s . I T ib e r iu s had a r e p u t a t i o n f o r v i r t u e among th e N um antians, I b u t a p a r t from t h i s i t was h i s f a t h e r ' s r e p u t a t i o n t h a t made them i n s i s t t h a t T i b e r i u s a lo n e conduct th e n e g o t i - a t i o n s . His f a t h e r , th e y remembered, had made a peace w ith them t o w hich he had alw ays k e p t th e Roman p eo p le f a i t h f u l . Who c o u ld blame T ib e r iu s when th e a ll - p o w e r f u l A em ilianus a llo w e d th e t r e a t y to be r e j e c t e d ( c h . 7)? The a n e c d o te o f th e le d g e r s and th e in c e n s e i s a good example o f s p e c i a l p le a d in g by th e b io g r a p h e r , f o r d e s p i t e the i m p r o b a b il i t y o f T i b e r i u s ' r e t u r n v i s i t t o Num antia, he a tte m p ts t o s e t t l e beyond doubt T i b e r i u s ' i n t e g r i t y and r e l i g i o s i t y and i n d i f f e r e n c e t o m a t e r i a l t h i n g s . Even th e blam ing of Mancinus i s n o t done by T ib e r iu s h im s e lf , b u t by th e r e l a t i v e s o f th e men he had sa v ed . I t sh o u ld be k e p t i n mind t h a t o r i g i n a l l y a l l th e o f f i c e r s and even Pompeius, one o f M ancinus' p r e d e c e s s o r s , were t o be handed o v e r t o th e N um antians. A ccording t o C ic e ro , Mancinus 54 s u p p o rte d th e p r o p o s i t i o n b u t Pompeius d e fe n d e d h i m s e lf SI v i o g r o u s l y , f o r w hich C ic e ro condemns him . In th e a n t i - G racchan a c c o u n ts i t i s a l l e d g e d t h a t T i b e r i u s so u g h t | e l e c t i o n t o th e t r i b u n a t e o u t o f f e a r o f b e in g handed o v e r t o th e enemy and de v i r i b u s i l l u s t r i b u s sa y s t h a t o n ly SP h i s e lo q u e n c e sa v ed him . Hence t h e r e I s a w e a lth o f o t h e r a c c o u n ts , a l l o f w hich th e b i o g r a p h e r c a r e f u l l y a v o id s . He s e l e c t s o n ly th e one w hich w i l l show G racchus j | i n th e most f a v o r a b l e l i g h t . | The a c c o u n t now ad v an c es a d d i t i o n a l a p o l o g e t i c p l e a s . i D e s p ite th e u n f r i e n d l y r o l e o f A em ilian u s m entioned e a r l i e r i n th e c h a p t e r , he and T i b e r i u s have o n ly a m ild f a l l i n g o u t and t h e i r d is a g re e m e n t was n o t beyond r e p a i r , j T h is i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e b i o g r a p h e r h a s d e l i b e r a t e l y s e t a s i d e any i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t th e r e p u d i a t i o n o f th e t r e a t y ■ had an a d v e rs e e f f e c t on T i b e r i u s ' c h a r a c t e r i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n a c c o u n t where th e i n v i d i a f o e d e r i s N um antini was th e most p o p u l a r o f a l l e x p la n a - t i o n s f o r th e t r i b u n e ' s r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t i e s . . . ex i n v i d i a f o e d e r i s N um antini b o n is i r a t u s a c c e s s e r a t (C ic. B r u t . 1 0 3 ). . . . Gracchus t r i b u u n u s p l e b i i r a t u s n o b i l i t a t i c u r i n t e r a u c t o r e s N um antini f o e d e r i s n o t a t u s e s s e t (O ros. 5 . 8 . 3 ) . I I The b i o g r a p h e r 's own e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t T i b e r i u s ' p a t r i o t i s m and c o n c e rn f o r th e p o o r was th e r e a l c a u s e . In a l l lik e 2 h o o d G racchus had lo n g s in c e d e p a r t e d from i A e m ilia n u s' c i r c l e and i t i s most p ro b a b le t h a t A em ilian us j i i was one o f th e prim e movers i n th e r e j e c t i o n o f th e t r e a t y . j T h is seems t o be c o n firm ed by C i c e r o 's a c c o u n t o f a con- < ' '' ’ ! s i l i u m in v o lv in g th e c o n su l o f 136, F u r iu s P h i l u s , L a e liu s j and A e m i l i a n u s ^ and th e su b seq u e n t h a n d in g o v e r o f Man c in u s by F u r i u s . j i The b io g r a p h e r does n o t c r i t i c i z e A em ilianus f o r 1 ! f r e j e c t i n g th e t r e a t y b u t f o r n o t s e e i n g t h a t i t was u p - | h e l d . His o b j e c t i s t o p la y down any c o n f l i c t betw een i Gracchus and th e o t h e r members o f th e n o b i l i t y . He must emerge from th e b i o g r a p h e r 's a c c o u n t as an o u t s t a n d i n g l y v i r t u o u s Roman f o llo w in g i n th e f o o t s t e p s o f h i s a n c e s to r s .: In f a c t , only T ib e r iu s s u r v iv e s u n s c a th e d i n t h i s a c c o u n t, | w h ile i n a l l th e o t h e r s o u r c e s , th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e : Numantine a f f a i r i s e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d among a l l th e ! a c t o r s , T i b e r i u s , Pompeius, Mancinus and A e m ilia n u s. At th e v ery end t h e r e i s th e j a r r i n g n o te t h a t T i b e r i u s would ; n e v e r have become in v o lv e d i n h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t i e s ; 35 had S c ip io been i n Rome. THE AGRARIAN LAW: TG 8 AND 9 I i B e sid e s Appian, th e p a r a l l e l so u rc e s f o r c h a p t e r s 8 - 12 a re i n no way a s d e t a i l e d as th e y a re f o r c h a p t e r s 1 - 5 . They c o n s i s t e n t l y d e p ic t th e G racch i a s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s i n g e n e r a l i z e d s l o g a n s . C o rre s p o n d in g ly , P l u t a r c h 's 56 a c c o u n t d e g e n e r a t e s i n t o p o l i t i c a l p a m p h le te e r in g . Chap t e r s 1 - 7 o f th e b io g ra p h y had a c e r t a i n s u b t l e t y t o th e e x t e n t t h a t th e h i s t o r y o f G r a c c h u s ' l i f e up t o h i s t r i b u n a te was c a r e f u l l y p u rg e d o f a l l dam aging a s p e c t s and G racchus h i m s e l f was p r e s e n t e d as a th o r o u g h ly good, i f c o m p le te ly wooden Roman. He h as a l l th e c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s m a t e r i a l t h i n g s , l e a d s a f r u g a l l i f e , f i g h t s b r a v e l y and i s d e v o u tly r e l i g i o u s . The b i o g r a p h e r 's a p o l o g e t i c i s o f th e m i l d e s t k in d by co m parison t o what f o l - n 36 i lo w s . I ; { From c h a p t e r 8 - 1 3 .4 th e a c c o u n t becomes v i r u l e n t . | : The s h a r p e s t l i n e s a r e drawn betw een th e a n t a g o n i s t s , th e r i c h and th e p o o r and th e b a s e s t m o t i v a t i o n i s a t t r i b u t e d | t o th e o p p o s i t i o n . I n b o th p ro -G ra c c h a n and a n t i - G r a c chan a c c o u n ts , th e e v e n t s a r e subm erged i n a f lo o d o f p r o - ; paganda and l i t t l e a tte m p t i s made t o c o v e r up o u t r i g h t f a l s i f i c a t i o n and d i s t o r t i o n . ! C h a p te r 8 sum m arizes Roman p o l i c y i n r e g a r d t o a g e r p u b l i c u s i n such a f a s h i o n t h a t i t i s c l e a r t h a t th e ! ---------------- I sum m arizer h as i n t e r e s t i n th e d e t a i l s o f th e m a t t e r them - j s e l v e s o n ly i n so f a r as th e y s e rv e h i s p ro p ag an da p u r p o s e s . The p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i s t o d e p i c t T i b e r i u s a s a ! warm h e a r t e d p a t r i o t , d i s t u r b e d by th e encroachm ent o f i th e r i c h , th e d e c l i n e o f th e s m a ll fa rm e rs and th e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s l a v e s . The b i o g r a p h e r a t th e o u t s e t j 57 makes I t c l e a r t h a t th e c o n t e s t i s b etw een th e s e l f i s h - i n e s s and g r e e d i n e s s o f th e r i c h o f whom O c ta v iu s and Nasicaj i a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and th e g e n e r o s i t y and s e l f - s a c r i f i c e o f G racchus and h i s s u p p o r t e r s . T h is i s h i g h l i g h t e d i n j t h e d e r o g a to r y a c c o u n t o f L a e l i u s ! a tte m p te d re fo rm ( 8 . 4 ) , ; where A e m ilia n u s' c l o s e s t s u p p o r t e r i s d e p i c t e d a s a weak- ; l i n g , e a s i l y f r i g h t e n e d o f f by th e 6 u v (* -T o t, As a con se q u e n c e , th e a p o l o g i s t s a r c a s t i c a l l y re m a rk s, he r e c e i v e d | th e t i t l e o f " S a p i e n s . ” T i b e r i u s on th e o t h e r hand goes i | w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n t o th e h e a r t o f th e m a t t e r . Any a n c i e n t w r i t e r p u r p o r t i n g t o summarize Roman p o l i c i e s o f th e p a s t s h o u ld be im m e d ia te ly s u s p e c t and h e ld i n th e g r a v e s t doubt u n t i l c l e a r e d o f m i s r e p r e s e n t a - | t i o n and f a l s i f i c a t i o n . The a c c o u n t o f P l u t a r c h In r e g a r d | | t o t h e h i s t o r y o f Roman la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n m ethods i s one o f t h e s e and i t i s o n ly i n th e e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h i s h i s t o r y I In a l l th e d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s t h a t th e p a r t i c u l a r b i a s o f ! th e a p o l o g i s t can be i d e n t i f i e d . 37 j A ccording t o th e a p o l o g i s t , G ra c c h u s' o b j e c t i n p r o p o s in g h i s law was th e a l l e v i a t i o n o f th e s u f f e r i n g o f th e p o o r and th e r e - p o p u l a t i o n o f th e c o u n t r y s i d e , Appian a g re e s t h a t t h i s was G ra c c h u s ' p u rp o se w i t h th e f u r t h e r j o b j e c t o f s o l v i n g th e manpower c r i s i s o f th e arm y. B oth I s o u rc e s im ply t h a t Gracchus m erely renew ed an a n c i e n t law j j i n r e g a r d t o th e p o s s e s s i o n o f p u b l i c la n d t h a t had been 58 c irc u m v e n te d o v e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f t im e . The law c i t e d s t a t e s t h a t t o p r e v e n t th e f o r m a t io n o f l a t i f u n d i a , a l i m i t a t i o n was p l a c e d on t h e amount o f la n d t h a t c o u ld be p o s s e s s e d and th e number o f a n im a ls t h a t c o u ld be g r a z e d . A ppian adds t h a t th e o b j e c t o f t h i s law was t o g u a r a n te e "3 Q th e manpower s u p p ly f o r t h e a rm y .- ^ B e s id e s P l u t a r c h and A ppian, t h e r e i s l i t t l e In f o rm a t i o n a b o u t Roman m ethods o f h a n d l i n g p u b l i c l a n d p r i o r t o t h e G racchan c r i s i s an d what t h e r e i s i s f o r t h e m ost p a r t a r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n te rm s o f t h a t c r i s i s . Livy i s vague and v e ry g e n e r a l and t a l k s a b o u t a l e x de modo 40 a g ro ru m , n o t an a g r a r i a n la w . He knows o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n t o 5 0 0 ju g e r a b u t knows n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e o t h e r c o n - 41 d i t i o n s o f t h e law m e n tio n e d by A ppian. T h is h a s l e d T i b i l e t t i t o c o n c lu d e t h a t L ivy p r o b a b ly knew o f t h i s 42 a n c i e n t law o n ly t h r o u g h t h e G racchan t r a d i t i o n . No w here does L ivy sp e a k o f a l l o t m e n t s , b u t o n ly o f l i m i t a t i o n s . I n view o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e p l e b e i a n s were e x c lu d e d from th e m a g i s t r a c i e s and from connubium , i t i s h i g h l y l i k e l y t h a t th e y were a l s o e x c lu d e d from p o s s e s s i o n o f p u b l i c l a n d . The s o - c a l l e d L i c i n i a n law th e n p r o b a b ly r e p r e s e n t s th e s u c c e s s f u l s t r u g g l e o f th e p e o p le t o s h a r e t h i s r i g h t . The d e t a i l s In L iv y , su c h a s th e d a t e , th e name o f t h e p r o p o s e r o f t h e law and e x a c t f i g u r e o f 500 j u g e r a a r e a l l s u b s e q u e n t r e - c o n s t r u c t i o n s . I t was o n ly I n th e l i g h t o f G racchan a g i t a t i o n t h a t th e L i c i n i a n law a c q u ir e d what T i b i l e t t i c a l l s a "postuma j c e l e b r i t a . | V a rro , th e r e f e r e n c e i n P l u t a r c h 's L if e o f C a m illu s , ; D io, de_ v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s and V a l e r i u s Maximus, a l l f a l l j 4 4 i i n t o th e same c a te g o r y a s L iv y . C olum ella and S i c u lu s I F la c c u s , how ever, p r e s e r v e v a lu a b le r e f e r e n c e s t o p r e - 45 L i c i n i a n law p r a c t i c e s o f la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . The most im p o r ta n t r e f e r e n c e o f a l l i s t h a t o f Cato i n h i s sp e e c h f o r th e R hodians who c i t e s what a p p e a rs t o be L i v y 's L i c i n i a n law a s an example o f a law w ith o u t any 46 f o r c e . In T i b i l e t t i ' s view , t h i s law i s n o t th e L i c i n i a n law, b u t a l a t e r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f i t . Hence th e e v o lu t i o n o f th e p r o c e s s was as f o l l o w s . P r i m i t i v e custom a llo w e d i n d i v i d u a l members o f th e community occupy a s much j i p u b l i c la n d a s th e y c o u ld c u l t i v a t e by t h e i r own e f f o r t s , b u t when Roman t e r r i t o r y expanded by c o n q u e s t, th e law ; i was m o d ifie d t o s u i t and a t l e a s t by th e b e g in n in g o f th e i t h i r d c e n tu r y , th e p l e b e i a n s were a llo w e d t o s h a re i n th e j newly a c q u i r e d p o s s e s s i o n s . Some tim e b e f o r e 168, th e datei o f C a t o 's sp e e c h , t h e law was m o d ifie d f u r t h e r and th e ; 5 0 0 ju g e r a l i m i t a t i o n m en tio n ed i n th e s o u r c e s was a d d e d .^7; However, none o f t h e s e law s was an a g r a r i a n law contem p l a t i n g th e a ssig n m e n t o f l o t s , b u t m ere ly aim ed a t r e g u l a t i n g th e maximum h o ld in g s a llo w e d . The l a n d b e lo n g - j j ed t o th e s t a t e and c o u ld n o t become th e p r o p e r t y o f th e 60 u s e r no m a tte r how lo n g i t was o c c u p ie d . The o b j e c t o f l e g e s de modo agrorum was to make th e p r o c e s s o f la n d o c c u p a tio n an o r d e r l y one. There was no c o n ce rn a t t h i s tim e f o r a d e c r e a s in g p o p u l a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r th e oppo- 48 s i t e . A f te r th e H a n n ib a lic and S p a n ish w ars, th e s i t u a t i o n was d i f f e r e n t and th e G racchans p ro p o se d th e most com p re h e n s iv e a g r a r i a n law e v e r o f f e r e d . I t was n o t a new i i c o l o n i z a t i o n p r o j e c t , th e t r a d i t i o n a l method o f h a n d lin g j j o v e r p o p u la tio n , b u t a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d a l r e a d y o c c u p ie d . A lthough p e r f e c t l y l e g a l and t r a d i t i o n a l i n a r i g o r o u s s o r t o f way, i t n a t u r a l l y a ro u s e d i n t e n s e op p o s i t i o n . To circu m vent t h i s , th e Gracchans fram ed th e law i n a manner t h a t b e s t em phasized i t s t r a d i t i o n a l i t y , by c la im in g t h a t i t was i n f a c t , m erely a r e p e t i t i o n o f an a n c i e n t law . ^ In r e a l i t y , i t was a n o v e l p la n , w ith o u t p r e c e d e n t i n Roman h i s t o r y . However, none o f t h i s i s v i s i b l e i n th e s o u r c e s , l e a s t o f a l l i n P l u t a r c h , th e most p r o p a g a n d i s t i c o f a l l th e s u r v i v i n g a c c o u n ts . As r e g a r d s T i b e r i u s ' m o tiv a tio n , some s a i d he was l e d by f o r e i g n e r s , D iophanes o f M ity len e and B l o s s iu s o f ! i Cumae, o t h e r s t h a t he was l e d by h i s own o r h i s m o th e r 's a m b itio n . As m ight be e x p e c te d , G racchu s' t r u e m o tiv a - | i t i o n was o f a very s u p e r i o r n a t u r e . F a r from b e in g le d by o u t s i d e r s o r by s e l f i s h m o tiv es o f any k in d , he was moved 6 l t o se e k r e d r e s s by th e v i s i o n o f a d e p o p u la te d c o u n tr y side,, swarming w ith sla v es* and most o f a l l by th e d i r e c t a p p e a ls o f th e p e o p le th e m s e lv e s . R a th e r th a n d r a f t th e law on h i s own i n i t i a t i v e * he d id so i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith J / th e fo rem o st men o f th e s ta te * o u t s t a n d i n g f o r t h e i r cX-fgrr) j | and These were C rassu s th e p o n t i f e x maximus, S caevola th e j u r i s t and Appius C la u d iu s . A lthough i n c h a p t e r 4 C lau d iu s i s c o r r e c t l y d e s i g n a t e d p r in c e p s s e n - j ; | atu s* th e f a c t i s n o t m entioned h e re and i n r e a l i t y , ! : j C ra ssu s became p o n t i f e x maximus o n ly a f t e r S c ip io N a s i c a 's d e a th i n 1 3 2 .^ ° The e r r o r about th e p o n t i f e x maximus o f 133 has an i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l i n th e o t h e r s o u rc e s and w i l l be c o n s id e r e d e ls e w h e re . A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g th e c o m p lic ity o f le a d in g members o f th e a r i s t o c r a c y , th e a p o l o g i s t goes on t o show th e m ild n e ss o f th e p ro p o se d law w hich sou ght o nly to r e c o v e r la n d i l l e g a l l y o c c u p ie d . A lthough th o s e who had v i o l a t e d th e law i n occupying p u b l ic la n d d e s e rv e d t o be p u n ish e d and fined* th e y were i n s t e a d o f f e r e d co m p en satio n . No one b u t th e b a s e s t co u ld oppose such a law* c o n ce iv e d from ! th e h i g h e s t m o tiv es o f p a t r i o t i s m and com passion f o r th e p o o r. The p e o p le , m o tiv a te d by th e most p e a c e f u l and ! c o n c i l i a t o r y in te n t io n s * were c o n te n t t o l e t bygones be by g o n es. Such c o n s id e r a tio n s * however* were u n a b le t o to u c h th e h e a r t s o f th e r i c h who from g re e d were l e d to h a te b o th th e law and th e l a w - g i v e r . They m aligned T i b e r i u s w ith th e hoary ch arg e o f y q s «CVot and g e n e r a l r e v o l u t i o n . The t e x t i s so m a n i f e s tl y p a r t i s a n , n o t much f a i t h can be p la c e d i n i t s d e t a i l s . Compared t o Appian t h e r e i s l i t t l e in f o r m a tio n and th e one ite m t h a t th e a p o lo g i s t a lo n e o fT e r s , th e q u e s t io n o f co m pensation f o r c o n f i s c a t e d l a n d , i s very q u e s t i o n a b l e . F i r s t th e a p o l o g i s t a lo n e m en tio n s i t and th e n u n d e r th e most dub io u s c ir c u m s ta n c e s . A l i t t l e f u r t h e r on Gracchus i s made w ith draw th e measure and s u b s t i t u t e a h a r s h e r b i l l w ith no com pensation (10.3) a t a moment when l o g i c a l l y he would have a v o id e d a n ta g o n i z i n g th e o p p o s i t io n f u r t h e r . T h is i s s u p p o rte d by h i s e a g e r a c c e p ta n c e o f th e s e n a t e 's o f f e r t o m ed iate th e d i s p u t e i n c h a p t e r 11 (b.c_. 1 .1 2 ) . A nother c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s th e f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t o f th e p ro p o se d c o m p en satio n . In 133 Rome was so s e r i o u s l y s h o r t o f c a sh t h a t A em ilianus had t o r a i s e and f in a n c e h i s own e x p e d i ti o n t o Numantia, so i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t th e l e x Sempronia would con te m p la te a l a r g e o u t la y a t t h i s tim e . B e s id e s , i t was i l l e g a l t o i n tr o d u c e m o d if i c a t io n s i n a b i l l w ith o u t a SI new p r o m u lg a tio n .^ P o s s ib ly th e most c o n v in c in g argum ent d e r i v e s from th e whole ten d e n cy o f th e a u th o r t o e x o n e ra te Gracchus and s a d d le th e blame on th e r i c h . He a c h ie v e s t h i s by 1 63 i I h a v in g Gracchus f i r s t p r e s e n t a m ild , c o n c i l i a t o r y b i l l ! w hich th e i n t r a n s i g e n c e o f th e o p p o s i t i o n made him r e t r a c t , ! j t h u s m aking th e r i c h r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e c r i s i s i n v o l v i n g j j th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s . Hence when th e b i l l was j a c t u a l l y p a s s e d w ith o u t a com pensatory c l a u s e , th e r i c h 52 c o u ld b e a r th e blam e. The l a u d a t i o n c o n ti n u e s w ith a summary o f one o f G r a c c h u s ’ sp e e c h e s on b e h a l f o f th e p o o r and th e d i s p o s - s e s s e d . " ^ The v a lu e o f th e sp e e c h i s c o n s i d e r a b ly r e s t r i c t e d by th e a p o l o g e t i c c h a r a c t e r o f th e n a r r a t i v e , b u t i | t o th e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s e x t r a c t h as any h i s t o r i c a l v a lu e , ! 54 i t seems t o p o i n t t o a c o n c e rn f o r Roman c i t i z e n s o n ly . The a p o l o g i s t has no i n t e r e s t i n th e I t a l i a n a l l i e s and th e m ain o b j e c t o f th e sp e e c h i s t o b e r a t e th e r i c h who d e fr a u d e d th e p o o r o f t h e i r j u s t s h a r e o f th e c o n q u e s ts . The te s tim o n y o f th e o t h e r s o u rc e s i s f ra g m e n ta ry and j c o r r e s p o n d in g ly v i t r i o l i c . W ell worn s lo g a n s a r e i n u se on b o th s i d e s , b u t th e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h th e a n ti - G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n i s t h a t th e s lo g a n s a re o f t e n d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t th e whole G racchan p rog ram w ith o u t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g betw een th e v a r i o u s law s o r d eeds o f th e two b r o t h e r s . Where i t h e r e i s no e x p l i c i t good b r o t h e r - bad b r o t h e r com parison, th e same judgm ent i s p a s s e d on b o th men. I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r v i r t u e s o r t h e i r p a r e n t a g e , th e y a re condemned a s I 1 r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . 64 C ic e ro a f t e r h i s r e t u r n from e x i l e i s much more h o s t i l e t o th e G ra cc h i th a n he was b e f o r e . His q u a r r e l w ith them became an a s p e c t o f h i s c o n s t a n t a tte m p t a t s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n and s e l f - g l o r i f i c a t i o n . In th e de o f f i c i i s he makes a com parison betw een n o b le and b rav e d eeds done by i n d i v i d u a l s i n a c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y c a p a c i t y . S c ip io A em ilianu s d id no g r e a t e r s e r v i c e t o th e | s t a t e i n d e s t r o y i n g Numantia th a n d id N a s ic a , a lth o u g h a p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l , i n rem oving T i . G r a c c h u s . I n th e same way i n h i s own c o n s u l s h i p , C ic e ro removed an even g r e a t e r t h r e a t when he c ru s h e d th e C a t i l i n a r i a n con s p i r a c y . 56 The most s i g n i f i c a n t o f a l l C i c e r o 's a n t i - G racchan a s s e r t i o n s i s found i n th e same work ( 2 . 7 8 f . ) i n t h e l e n g th y d i a t r i b e a g a i n s t a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n . T a n ta - j l i z i n g l y C ic e ro sa y s t h a t G reece was r u i n e d by a g r a r i a n ; a g i t a t i o n a s were th e G ra c c h i, b u t he does n o t seem t o j see any c a u s a l c o n n e c tio n b etw een th e tw o. N e v e r t h e l e s s j I t does a p p e a r l i k e l y t h a t im p u ta tio n s o f G reek i n f l u e n c e | were among th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n a l l e g a t i o n s w ith w hich th e j b i o g r a p h e r had t o c o n te n d . As has b een p o i n t e d o u t, he j sim p ly d e n ie s th e i n f l u e n c e (8 . 7 ) . In th e B r u t u s , C ic e ro d e c l a r e s t h a t N asica r e s c u e d th e s t a t e "ex dom inatu T i. G r a c c h i " (2 1 2 ). Opimius i s t h e " s e r v a t o r r e i p u b l ic a e " f o r h i s a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f G aius G racchus (p ro P l a n e . 6 9 ) . O th er j t e x t s have b e en c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y .^7 I The same e s t i m a t e , w ith o u t any o f C i c e r o 's q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , i s found i n V a l e r i u s Maximus. G racchus was p l a n n in g " r e s novae" when he was k i l l e d ( 1 . 4 . 2 ) . As an | " in im ic u s p a t r i a e " ( 4 .7 .1 ) he was condemned by th e whole j s e n a t e , w hich lo o k s l i k e a p a r a l l e l f o r C i c e r o 's and j V e l l e i u s ' s t a te m e n t : "ab i p s a r e p u b l i c a i n t e r f e c t u s " (B r u t . 103; V e i l . 2 . 3 . 2 ) . In 6 . 2 . 3 V a l e r i u s Maximus c h o o ses th e same p h r a s e a s does C ic e ro i n d£ h a r . r e s p . 41: " c o n v e l l i t c i v i t a t e m . " Q u i n t i l i a n , who a l s o borrow ed from C ic e ro , r e p e a t s th e same d e b a te a b o u t th e a b i l i t y o f e lo q u e n c e t o s u b v e r t and d e s t r o y s t a t e s : d £ o r a t . 1 .3 8 = I n s t . 2 . 1 6 . 5 . A ll th e o t h e r s , L iv y, Dio, P o s e id o n iu s , V e l l e i u s and F l o r u s i n t h e i r own way a r r i v e a t th e same c o n c l u s i o n , j F o r a l l o f them th e G ra cc h i were r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . I t i s j i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t L iv y , P o s e id o n iu s and F l o r u s a l l c o n - j c e n t r a t e on th e rem oval o f O c ta v iu s r a t h e r th a n on th e j a g r a r i a n law . V e l l e i u s and Dio v a g u e ly g a t h e r a l l s o r t s o f c h a r g e s , t r u e and f a l s e b u t make no a tte m p t t o e x p l a i n why any o f them s h o u ld be c o n s id e r e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y . S im i l a r l y C ic e ro and V a l e r i u s Maximus f u lm in a te a b o u t a t t e m p t s ! t o o v e rth ro w th e s t a t e a s th o u g h no e x p l a n a t i o n was n e - i i c e s s a r y and V e l l e i u s and F lo r u s have th e m e a n in g le s s p h r a s e s : T i . G racchus . . . d e s c i v i t a b o n is . . . i I 66 summa im is m is c u it e t i n p ra e ru p tu m a tq u e anceps p e ric u lu m a d d u x it rem p u b lic am (V e il. 2. 2. 2). Primam certam inum facem T i . G racchus a c c e n d it ( F lo r . 2 . 2 . 1 ) . Not one g iv e s a th o u g h t t o th e c au se s o f th e u p h e a v a l. A ll a re c o r r u p te d by th e n e c e s s i t y o f p ro d u c in g some c l e v e r r h e t o r i c a l p h r a s e . In f a c t , th e most n o t i c e a b l e f e a t u r e o f a l l th e a c c o u n ts (a t tim e s n o t even e x c lu d in g | Appian) i s t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r . The G racch i o r th e | r i c h a re damned w ith slo g a n s which can be a d a p te d t o f i t alm o st any n e e d . A good example o f t h i s i s t o be found in th e developm ent o f C i c e r o 's th o u g h t from th e r e l a t i v e l y m ild judgm ents p a s s e d w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to N asica o r Opimius b e fo re 58 b . c . and th e v i c i o u s , s e l f - p i t y i n g h a ra n g u es a f t e r w a r d . By C i c e r o 's tim e th e Gracchan s e d i t i o had become a s to c k t o p i c o f th e r h e t o r i c a l s c h o o ls : r T _I- _I- _ L _ 'r ~ u ~ » — j and N asica and Opimius had jo in e d T h e m is to c le s and a l l th e j o t h e r g r e a t f i g u r e s o f h i s t o r y who had been e x i l e d by t h e i r u n g r a t e f u l f e llo w c i t i z e n s . The im p re s s io n g iv e n i s t h a t lo n g b e fo r e C ic e ro , th e G racch i had c e a se d t o have any h i s t o r i c a l e x is te n c e of t h e i r own and had p a s s e d i n t o th e w o rld o f slo g a n , p o l i t i - 1 c a l p a m p h le te e rin g and le g e n d . F lo r u s , L ivy, V e l l e i u s , i 1 Maximus and even C ice ro a re u s e f u l t o th e e x te n t t h a t th e y r e f l e c t th e k in d o f p o p u la r h i s t o r y t h a t was i n c i r c u l a t i o n i about th e G racchi i n th e l a t e R e p u b lic and e a r l y Empire, 6 7 b u t s i n c e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n i s o f t e n co u ch e d a s a n e c d o te and r h e t o r i c a l p h r a s e , th e y have a c t u a l l y l i t t l e t o p a s s o n . They a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h a t t h e y i n d i c a t e t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e a n t i - G r a c c h a n p o s i t i o n and p r e v e n t u s fro m a c c e p t i n g a t f a c e v a lu e t h e p r o - G r a c c h a n a c c o u n ts o f P l u t a r c h and A p p ian . THE DEPOSITION OF OCTAVIUS: TG 10 - 12 F o r t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f O c t a v i u s , t h e p a r a l l e l s o u r c e s ( a g a i n e x c e p t f o r A ppian) o f f e r o n ly o n ly s l o g a n s i n th e p l a c e o f a c o h e r e n t a c c o u n t . T h is t im e , h ow ev er, t h e p r o - ; | G ra cc h an a c c o u n t i s by no means i n th e d o m in a n t p o s i t i o n j ; i t was i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s . C h a p te r 10 i s d e f i n i t e l y ; p r o - G r a c c h a n , b u t I n c h a p t e r s 11 and 12 t h e p a c e f a l t e r s and by t h e end o f 13 h a s b r o k e n down a l t o g e t h e r . The p r o - j G racch an s o u r c e p e t e r s o u t and a d e c i s i v e l y a n t i - G r a c c h a n I a c c o u n t f i l l s t h e gap b e tw e e n 1 3 .4 and c h a p t e r 18 w here the| p r o - G r a c c h a n a c c o u n t resu m es a g a i n . However, c h a p t e r s 11 and 12 a r e s t i l l p r e d o m i n a n t l y p r o - G r a c c h a n and a p o l o g e t i c so t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e e a t a p p r o x i m a t e ly w hat p o i n t t h e b i o g r a p h e r i n t r o d u c e s t h e e x t r a n e o u s , a n t i - G r a c c h a n j m a t e r i a l . ' The o p p o n e n ts i n t h e s e c h a p t e r s a r e t h e a r o u s e d | I p e o p l e , t h e v i r t u o u s T i b e r i u s and t h e o b s t i n a t e r i c h . The p e o p le w an ted no more t h a n t h e i r j u s t r i g h t s ( 1 1 . 3 ) . 6 8 The b i l l p ro p o se d was m ild and c o n c i l i a t o r y , T i b e r i u s r e a s o n a b le and g e n tle m a n ly a s was O c ta v iu s . B oth d e b a te d th e i s s u e f r e e l y , b u t i t was c l e a r t h a t O c tav iu s was n o t i m p a r t i a l f o r he was a l a r g e l a n d - h o l d e r . T i b e r i u s , a l thou gh n o t a r i c h man, o f f e r e d to in d em n ify him out o f h i s ; own p o c k e t. He n e v e r c e a se d h i s p r a y e r s and s u p p l i c a t i o n s j b u t O ctav iu s was i n th e g r i p o f th e r i c h and c o u ld n o t be moved by any c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f j u s t i c e and e q u i t y . Gracchus t r i e d a l l p e a c e f u l means. He sto p p e d th e t r a n s - : a c t i o n o f p u b l ic b u s i n e s s ^ 8 b u t th e o n ly r e s u l t was a h a rd e n in g o f p o s i t i o n s . A c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith th e s e n a te pro v ed f r u i t l e s s due t o th e i n f lu e n c e o f th e w e a lth y . | j Then th e r i c h p la n n e d t o a s s a s s i n a t e him. There was f i - ! n a l l y no remedy l e f t : he had t o remove O c ta v iu s, b u t f i r s t he p ro p o se d t h a t th e p e o p le v o te on th e a b r o g a tio n i o f h i s own o f f i c e . Again O ctav iu s r e f u s e d . A f te r a n o th e r j postponem ent and more e n t r e a t i e s , O c ta v iu s was deposed and ! i i th e a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d . j The b la c k e n in g o f O c ta v iu s ' c h a r a c t e r by i m p l i c a t i o n s 1 o f a d is h o n e s t s ta n d a g a i n s t th e l e g i t i m a t e demands o f th e ; p e o p le i s an obvious p ie c e o f p ro p ag a n d a. The i n d e m n if i- | c a t i o n c la u s e and th e innum erable a tte m p ts a t p e r s u a s io n and c o n c i l i a t i o n a re a l s o a tte m p ts t o make th e o p p o s i t io n | i b e a r th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e a c t i o n ta k e n a g a i n s t | O c ta v iu s . To th e end Gracchus i s w holly r e a s o n a b le , even j to th e e x te n t o f v o l u n te e r i n g t o a llo w th e p e o p le p r o nounce on him f i r s t . The s ta te m e n t t h a t O ctav iu s and Gracchus were f r i e n d s and d e b a te d th e a g r a r i a n law c o u r t e o u s l y and w ith o u t a n g e r i s h ig h ly d ubio u s and i s un s u p p o rte d i n any o f th e s u r v i v i n g a c c o u n ts . Appian says t h a t two men c o l l i d e d im m ed iately and Dio adds t h a t th e y had i n h e r i t e d a fa m ily f e u d . C ice ro knows n o th in g o f a f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een Gracchus and O c ta v iu s, a l th oug h u s u a l l y w e ll in fo rm ed on t h i s p e r i o d . Again, when th e a p o l o g i s t has G racchus arm h im s e lf b e cau se o f an a s - ! s a s s i n a t i o n p l o t , Appian s t a t e s th e o p p o s i t e , namely t h a t j he g a th e r e d a bodyguard t o c o erce O ctav iu s (TG 1 0 .7 ; 1 .4 9 ) . F i n a l l y Gracchus was p ro b a b ly n o t p o o r. C o rn e lia had b ro u g h t a dowry o f 50 t a l e n t s (P olyb. 3 1 .2 7 .2 ) and th e fa m ily had h ouses on th e P a l a t i n e and a t Misenum (CG 1 2 .1 ; 1 9 .1 ) . Gaius c o u ld a f f o r d e x p e n siv e s i l v e r and j T i b e r i u s ' w ife was th e d a u g h te r o f th e p r i n c e p s s e n a t u s .5 9 C h ap ter 10 i s o b v io u sly th e n as p ro -G ra c c h a n a s th e p r e v io u s c h a p t e r s , b u t i n 11 and 12 th e dom inant a p o lo g e ti c j acco u n t p e t e r s out i n c o n fu s io n . E leven b e g in s i n t r u e p ro -G ra cc h an f a s i o n : th e r i c h have s t o l e n th e v o tin g u rn s on th e e l e c t i o n day and th e p e o p le a re throw n i n t o c o n fu s io n . S e c re t b a l l o t i n g , how e v e r , was n o t in tr o d u c e d i n t o l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b lie s u n t i l two o r t h r e e y e a rs l a t e r by th e l e x P a p i r ia o f 130 o r 70 1 2 2 ^ 6 0 u n l e s s th e o f 1 1 .1 a r e th e s i t e l l a o f C ic e ro d £ n a t . deorum 1 .1 0 6 (which i s u n l i k e l y ) , th e a c - i c o u n t h a s a l l th e f a m i l i a r e m b e llish m e n t o f th e p r o - j G racchan i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . G ra c c h u s' c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith th e s e n a t e i s p r e f a c e d by a v e ry un-Roman a p p e a l by two c o n s u l a r s . The m e e tin g p ro v e d a f a i l u r e b e c a u se o f th e i n f l u e n c e o f th e w e a lth y , ; j so t h a t G racchus was f i n a l l y f o r c e d t o p ro p o se th e o n ly | m easure l e f t t o him, th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s . Alone among th e s o u r c e s , P l u t a r c h d e s i g n a t e s t h e p r o p o s i t i o n u n - . /* ■ » l a w f u l and i n e q u i t a b l e . B o th t h i s comment, th e f o l l o w in g u n l i k e l y s u g g e s t i o n o f O c ta v iu s (1 1 .2 - 4) and th e a n e c d o te o f th e f i n a l rem oval o f O c ta v iu s by f o r c e (1 2 .4 ) a l l s u g g e s t t h a t e i t h e r th e a p o l o g i s t su d d e n ly became n e g l e c t f u l o r some o t h e r so u rc e was c a l l e d upon f o r th e s e a n e c d o te s , f o r th e y a r e c l e a r l y u n f a v o r a b l e t o G ra cc h u s. e L The a n e c d o te i n 1 1 .2 o f T i b e r i u s ' o f f e r t o O c ta v iu s t o l e t th e p e o p le choose betw een them has b e en f r e q u e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d a s an i m p o s s i b i l i t y : "The t h o u g h t l e s s em b e l l i s h m e n t o f an h i s t o r i a n who d i d n o t a p p r e c i a t e th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s w o r d s ."^3 gu t th e a p o l o g i s t , a s h a s j b e en se e n , i s n o t c a r e l e s s o r t h o u g h t l e s s and would be th e ! l a s t p e rs o n t o s u g g e s t t h a t G racchus was g u i l t y o f su c h u n - j Roman t h o u g h t. T h is e n t i r e s e c t i o n may be P l u t a r c h 's sum- j mary o f an a n ti - G r a c c h a n v e r s i o n , to n e d down a l i t t l e and i n s e r t e d a t t h i s p o i n t b e cau se th e p ro -G ra c c h a n so u rc e was to o a p o l o g e t i c . The n e x t c lu e t h a t 1 1.3 and 1 2 .4 may be P l u t a r c h 's own c o n t r i b u t i o n i s th e f a c t t h a t Appian sa y s n o th in g a b o u t th e i l l e g a l i t y o f th e a c t and i n s t e a d of th e v i o l e n t I rem oval o f O c ta v iu s, has him le a v e o f h i s own a c c o rd . The a n ti- G r a c c h a n a c c o u n ts of D iodorus and F lo r u s have th e same v e r s i o n as P l u t a r c h and im ply t h a t O c ta v iu s ' r e f u s a l t o le a v e i n d i c a t e d h i s d e n i a l o f th e l e g a l i t y of th e a b r o g a t io n . More im p o r t a n t l y , T. Annius Luscus i n a sp e ec h a g a i n s t G racchus, was a b le to c la im t h a t he had v i o l a t e d th e s a c r o s a n c t i t y o f th e t r i b u n a t e and P l u t a r c h h im s e lf says | (Comp. 5) t h a t th e most s e r i o u s a c c u s a t i o n a g a i n s t Gracchus was h i s d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s . C ic e ro , s p e a k in g ; i i n r e b u t t a l o f h i s b r o t h e r 's a t t a c k on th e o f f i c e o f t r i - j bune, c laim ed t h a t i t was T i b e r i u s ' m isuse o f o f f i c e t h a t j i ! b ro u g h t h i s d o w n fa ll: j j Quid enim i l l u d a l i u d p e r c u l i t , n i s i quod p o t e s ta te m i n t e r c e d e n t i c o lle g a e a b ro g a v it? (de_ l e g . 3 .2 4 ) I . . . q u i c o n leg ae m a g istra tu m p e r s e d itio n e m a b r o g a v it (p ro M i l . 7 2 ), The a c c o u n ts o f D iod orus, Livy and F lo r u s a l l c o n c e n tr a te ! i on th e rem oval o f O c ta v iu s . j i A ll o f t h i s p o i n t s to a w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d a n ti- G r a c c h a n d e b a tin g p o in t which c o u ld n o t p o s s i b l y have been unknown 72 t o th e a p o l o g i s t who to o k such p a in s w ith o t h e r much l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t s . The o nly p o s s i b l e e x p la n a t i o n i s t h a t j t h i s comment (11.2) t o g e t h e r w ith 1 2 .4 i s P l u t a r c h 's own i I i n s e r t i o n . He d id t h i s p o s s i b l y t o l e s s e n th e f e r v o r o f th e a p o lo g e ti c acco u n t which a t t h i s p o i n t was no doubt extrem e and a l s o becau se i n h i s com parison betw een th e Greek and Roman p a i r s , th e G racchi alo n e were accu sed o f demagogic a c t i v i t y , p r e c i s e l y th e ch arge o f th e a n t i - G r a c - i chan s o u r c e s . I f th e a p o l o g i s t made th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O ctav iu s p e r f e c t l y l e g a l , a s he was q u i t e c a p a b le o f d o in g , I 65 [ th e n h i s a cc o u n t would have been u s e l e s s t o P l u t a r c h , i : THE AGRARIAN COMMISSION: TG 1 3 .1 - 3 I The p ro -G ra c c h a n so u rc e c o n tin u e s i n c h a p t e r 1 3 .1 - 3 . The a g r a r i a n commission i s chosen by vo te as opposed s t o th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n v e r s i o n which sa y s Gracchus a p p o in t ed i t : "T rium v iros . . . c r e a v i t " (V e il. 2 . 2 . 3 ) j "seque e t C. Gracchum f r a t r e m e t Appium Claudium socerum tr iu m v ir o s c r e a r e t " (L iv. p e r . 5 8 ) . C ice ro i s I n agreem ent w ith P l u t a r c h and say s e x p l i c i t l y t h a t th e G racchan a g r a r i a n comm ission was e l e c t e d , n o t a p p o in te d : de_ l e g , a g r . 2 .3 1 . V a l e r i u s Maximus seems t o be fo llo w in g C ice ro when he say s j j t h a t th e a g r a r i a n commission a c te d "secundum legem" (7 .2 . 6) and Appian b . £ . 1 .5 5 a ls o im p lie s e l e c t i o n . There were t h e r e f o r e two v e r s io n s o f th e c r e a t i o n o f 73 th e a g r a r i a n commission and th e p ro -G ra cc h an a c c o u n t by i I n e c e s s i t y chose th e one f a v o r a b le t o T i b e r i u s . j Next th e a cc o u n t goes on to show how th e commission ! j was v i c tim iz e d by th e r i c h i n th e s e n a te who a s s ig n e d a j d e ro g a to ry 9 o b o ls a day expenses and d e n ie d th e custom ary p u b l i c t e n t . S p e c i f i c a l l y N asica i s s i n g l e d out a s th e prim e mover o f th e s e h a ra s s m e n ts , who as a l a r g e h o ld e r o f p u b l ic la n d was a n g ered over h i s l o s s e s and "gave h im s e lf | up c o m p le te ly t o h i s h a tr e d " ( 1 3 .3 ) . The b io g r a p h e r seems t o be i n t e n t on p r e j u d i c i n g th e r e a d e r i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f N a s i c a 's l a t e r r o l e . | O ther th a n p o s s i b l y O ro siu s, no o t h e r acco unt mentions; th e harassm en t o f th e s e n a te o r th e la n d h o ld in g s o f e i t h e r N asica o r O c ta v iu s. O rosius combines th e o p p o s i t io n o f N asica and Pompeius: o b s i s t e n t e N asica e tia m Pompeius sp o p o n d it j se Gracchum cum primum m a g i s t r a t u a b i s s e t , j acc u satu ru m ( 5 .8 .4 ; c f . TG 1 4 .2 ) . There i s no c e r t a i n t y t h a t th e o p p o s i t io n o f N asica r e f e r r e d t o by O ro siu s b e lo n g s a t t h i s p o i n t , b u t i t seems l i k e l y t h a t P l u t a r c h , b ecau se he r e c o r d s N a s i c a 's o p p o s i- i t i o n i n c h a p te r 1 3, makes no r e f e r e n c e t o him i n c h a p te r 14 where he would be l o g i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith Pompeius, | M e te llu s and L uscus. I f N a s ic a fs o p p o s i t io n a p p e a re d i n c h a p t e r 14 i n s t e a d o f 13, i t would have had a d i f f e r e n t j c h a r a c t e r a l t o g e t h e r , c e r t a i n l y n o t a s u n f a v o ra b le as th e 74 v e r s i o n g iv e n by P l u t a r c h i n c h a p t e r 13 . I n s t e a d o f b e in g p r o - G r a c c h a n , i t w ould h ave b e e n a n t i - G r a c c h a n , b u t s i n c e P l u t a r c h f o l lo w e d t h e p r o - G r a c c h a n a c c o u n t f o r t h e a s s a s - i s i n a t i o n s c e n e s , he a llo w e d t h e a n e c d o te t o s t a n d . ; T h is i n c i d e n t s t a n d s s o l e l y on t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e a p o l o g e t i c , p r o - G r a c c h a n s o u r c e and i t m ust be a llo w e d t h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e s a weak f o u n d a t i o n f o r any m a jo r a r g u m ent, a s f o r exam ple t h e p r o p o s a l t h a t t h e d e n i a l o f fu n d s by t h e s e n a t e c o m p e lle d t h e G ra c c h a n s t o d i v e r t t h e t r e a s u r e s o f A t t a l u s t o s u p p ly t h e i r own n e e d s . ANTI-GRACCHAN INTERLUDE: TG 1 3 .4 - 17 THE FIRST APPEAL OF GRACCHUS TO THE PEOPLE: TG 1 3 .4 - 5 Up t o t h i s p o i n t , P l u t a r c h ' s a c c o u n t h a s a t l e a s t b e e n c o h e r e n t , b u t from 1 3 .4 - 17* t h e f lo w o f t h e n a r r a t i v e b r e a k s down c o m p l e t e l y . The b u l k o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s a s e r i e s o f s p e c t a c u l a r a n e c d o t e s w h ich have no c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r . Up t o 1 3 .4 G ra cc h u s h a s b e e n r e s o u n d i n g - ; l y s u c c e s s f u l . H is a g r a r i a n law h a s p a s s e d , t h e c o m m issio n i s i n t h e h an d s o f h i s f a m i ly and he i s s u p p o r t e d by a t l e a s t one o t h e r t r i b u n e , t h e r e p la c e m e n t f o r O c t a v i u s . The ! | p e o p le a r e s o l i d l y b e h in d him . I n an i n s t a n t t h i s image d i s s o l v e s . W ith o u t e x p l a n a t i o n t h e p e o p le s u d d e n ly become i n f la m e d a g a i n and by t h e end o f t h e c h a p t e r G racch u s h a s d e s p a i r e d o f h i s l i f e ! At l e a s t he s t i l l a p p e a r s t o have th e p e o p le on h i s s i d e . I n c h a p t e r 14 conies a new s e r i e s o f a n e c d o t e s . G rac chus p r o p o s e s t o s e q u e s t e r t h e t r e a s u r e s o f A t t a l u s f o r th e p e o p le and i s v a r i o u s l y a s s a u l t e d i n t h e s e n a t e , s u r p r i s i n g l y , n o t f o r h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e s e n a t e ' s p r e r o g a t i v e s , b u t f o r rum ors a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e f a c t t h a t he was h o s t t o th e Pergamene envoy, f o r m o ra l l a x i t y and f o r h i s d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s . By c h a p t e r 15 he h a s l o s t th e s u p p o r t o f t h e mob b e c a u s e o f h i s in f r in g e m e n t o f t r i b u n i c i a n s a c r o s a n c t i t y , p r e c i s e l y th e s e n a t o r i a l c h a rg e i n c h a p t e r 14 . T h is g iv e s P l u t a r c h an o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n s e r t G r a c c h u s ' a tte m p t a t s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n ( c h a p t e r 15)* By t h e n e x t c h a p t e r th e s i t u a t i o n i s so b l a c k t h a t G r a c c h u s 1 f r i e n d s d e c id e t h a t th e o n ly way o u t i s f o r him t o r u n a se co n d tim e a p e r - su ad e th e 7T t\ f) © os t o e l e c t him by w h o le s a le b r i b e r y . R em arkably , h a r d l y any o f t h e p r o p o s a l s t o w in th e p e o p le can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s g e n u in e ly p o p u l a r . As w i l l be s e e n l a t e r , t h e whole p ro g ram lo o k s re m a rk a b ly l i k e t h a t o f G a iu s . P r e d i c t a b l y th e p e o p le d i d n o t buy t h e pro g ram j and beg an t o v o te a g a i n s t T i b e r i u s . At t h i s p o i n t th e s u p p o r t e r s o f G racchus b ro k e up t h e m e e tin g . A gain G rac chus was a s b a d ly o f f as he was t h r e e c h a p t e r s e a r l i e r and | a g a i n he makes a to u c h i n g a p p e a l t o t h e mob, t h i s tim e | w i t h t e a r s , and s u c c e e d s i n g e t t i n g a b o d y g u a rd f o r t h e , n i g h t . | 7 6 The n e x t day b e g in s b a d ly . The p u l l a r i i r e f u s e t h e i r , food and s e r p e n t s eggs h a tc h o u t In G racch u s' h e lm e t. Then he s tu b b e d h i s to e and was alm o st h i t by a t i l e knocked down by q u a r r e l i n g r a v e n s , b u t B lo s s iu s was a t hand t o s c o f f a t th e s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d i v in e d i s p l e a s u r e and so he p e rs u a d e d G racchus t o march to h i s d e a th . The e n t i r e s e c t i o n i s b a d ly c o n s t r u c t e d and c o n s i s t s j m erely o f a s t r i n g o f d is c o n n e c te d a n e c d o te s . P l u t a r c h j d e p a r te d from th e a p o lo g e ti c so u rc e a t th e end o f 13.3 and i n s e r t e d th e s t o r y o f th e f u n e r a l and T i b e r i u s 1( f i r s t ) ; a p p e a l t o th e p e o p le , w hich i s q u i t e out o f o r d e r . T h is ■ i s w e ll a t t e s t e d i n Appian (1 .6 2 ) , G e l li u s ( 2 ,1 3 .5 ) and Dio ( f r . 8 3 ) where th e a n e c d o te a p p e a rs i n th e same o r d e r j as TG 1 6 . 3 . The c o n c lu s io n must be t h a t P l u t a r c h sa v o re d \ i th e a n ec d o te o f th e f u n e r a l and th e a p p e a l t o th e p e o p le ! and p u t i t i n even th o u g h i t was o u t o f c o n t e x t . In a d - j i d i t i o n , th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e e v en t a s an a tte m p t by Gracchus t o s t i r up th e m ob's a n g e r, r a t h e r th a n e x c i t e p i t y (as i n th e o t h e r c a s e s ) p o i n t s to a d e p a r t u r e from I th e a p o lo g e ti c a cco u n t and th e I n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n t i - G r a c chan m a t e r i a l . ! j THE BEQUEST OF ATTALUS AND THE ATTACKS IN THE SENATE: TG 14 I | 1 C h ap ter 14 b e g in s w ith th e s t o r y o f G racch u s' a tte m p t j t o d is p o s e o f th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s , a l s o r e c o r d e d by 77 Livy, p e r . 5 8, de v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s 64 and O ro siu s 5 . 8 . 4 . O ro siu s and dje v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s say t h a t th e money was t o be d i s t r i b u t e d to th e p e o p le i n g e n e r a l : "populo d i s t r i b u e r e t u r e t d i v i d e r e t u r , ,T w h ile Livy sa y s i t was i int-ended f o r th o s e who sh o u ld have b e n e f i t e d u n d e r th e j Sem pronian law b u t f o r whom t h e r e was i n s u f f i c i e n t la n d j when th e d i v i s i o n beg an . P l u t a r c h sa y s t h a t th e money was ; in te n d e d t o s to c k and eq u ip th e new a l l o t m e n t s . A ll b u t Livy say th e law was a c t u a l l y p a sse d o r a t l e a s t p ro p o se d . Livy sa y s t h a t Gracchus o n ly in te n d e d t o p ro p o se th e law: "legem se prom ulgaturum o s t e n d i t . " P l u t a r c h would have a l l th e goods o f A tta lu s ( Tot . jCfnUaLTct ) d iv id e d , w h ile th e o t h e r s m ention only p e c u n i a . I n a d d i t i o n P l u t a r c h says t h a t Gracchus f u r t h e r t h r e a t e n e d t o d is p o s e o f th e c i t i e s o f Pergamum as th e peo p le saw f i t b e cau se i t d id n o t b e lo n g t o th e s e n a te t o d e cid e on them . Only O ro siu s and de v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s imply th e money was a c t u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d and c o n t r a d i c t J u s t i n u s 3 6 . 4 . 9 : "P erpern a . . . A t t a l i c a s g a z a s, h e r e d i t a r i a s i p o p u li Romani n a v ib u s im p o s ita s , Romam d e p o r t a v i t ." The f i r s t h e s i t a t i o n i n r e g a r d t o a c c e p ta n c e o f th e ! i t e x t s as th e y s ta n d d e r i v e s from t h e i r a n e c d o ta l c h a r a c t e r and t h e i r com plete ab sen ce i n th e o t h e r m ajor s o u r c e s . P r a c t i c a l l y a l l th e d e t a i l s a re i n c o n f l i c t , which i s a su re s i g n o f le n g th y developm ent i n p o le m ic a l d e b a te . 7 8 j Appian who h as c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d P l u t a r c h from c h a p t e r 8 j t o t h i s p o i n t , b r e a k s o f f c o m p le te ly and sa y s n o t h in g o f | i th e e v e n ts o f 1 3 .4 - 17 e x c e p t f o r a p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e t o 66 a t h r e a t o f p r o s e c u t i o n once T i b e r i u s was o u t o f o f f i c e , n o r does C ic e ro who was v e ry c o n c e rn e d w ith any i n f r i n g e - j ment o f s e n a t o r i a l power by th e G ra c c h i. While t h e r e a re no p ro -G ra c c h a n a c c o u n ts t o b a la n c e th e p i c t u r e , th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n a c c o u n ts a r e v e ry s t r o n g . | The s ta te m e n t o f V a l e r i u s Maximus t h a t G racchus p ro p o se d | " in te r e m p to s e n a tu , omnia p e r plebem a g e re " ( 3 . 2 . 1 7 ) i f i t does n o t p o i n t t o t h i s i n c i d e n t , a t l e a s t g iv e s an id e a o f j th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n p ro pagand a i n c i r c u l a t i o n a t th e tim e . Hence a c c e p ta n c e o f th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s and th e d i s - i J p o s i t i o n o f th e Greek c i t i e s as^ p r e s e n t e d i n th e s o u r c e s : I presum es a c c e p ta n c e o f th e v i r u l e n t a n ti- G r a c c h a n p r o paganda a c c u s a t i o n s a s w e ll, namely t h a t T i b e r i u s p ro p o se d m ajo r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ch an g e s: "omnia p e r plebem a g e re d e b - i e r e . " I t i s t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w hich u n d e r l i e s many a n c i e n t and modern h i s t o r i e s o f th e G ra c c h i. A lthough th e c o rr e s p o n d in g p ro -G ra c c h a n a cc o u n t has d is a p p e a r e d , a c e r t a i n amount can be deduced from c h a p t e r s 18 - 21 ( e s p e c i a l l y 2 0 .1 - 2 ) where once more th e p r o - G r a c chan a c c o u n t i s b e in g u s e d . In t h e s e c h a p t e r s , r e s p o n s i - j b i l i t y f o r G ra cc h u s' d e a th i s a t t r i b u t e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o j th e r i c h who a r e a c c u s e d o f b e in g th e f i r s t t o r e s o r t t o j t j 79 b lo o d s h e d . The a c c o u n t c la im s t h a t G racchus was alw ays am enable t o p e r s u a s i o n b u t t h a t th e h a t r e d and a n g e r o f th e r i c h was su c h t h a t d i s c u s s i o n was out o f th e q u e s t i o n . T h is i s p ro v e d , th e a c c o u n t goes on t o sa y , by th e t r e a t ment m eted o u t t o th e dead body o f th e t r i b u n e a f t e r th e r i o t . i To c o u n te r t h i s c h a rg e , th e o p p o s i t i o n had t o demon s t r a t e t h a t G racchus was j u s t i f i a b l y k i l l e d a s a r e s u l t o f t r e a s o n o u s and r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t i e s . T h is was done by c la im in g t h a t N asica sav ed th e s t a t e from d e s t r u c t i o n i n th e n i c k o f tim e by m u rd e rin g G racchus, an argum ent t h a t a p p e a rs c o n s t a n t l y i n C ic e ro and h a s b een exam ined p r e v i o u s l y . The p h r a s e " i u r e caesura" c o in e d by S c i p io Aemi- l i a n u s , im m e d ia te ly became a r a l l y i n g c ry and i n two words 67 summed up t h e whole a n ti - G r a c c h a n p o s i t i o n . Hence th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s a s d e s c r i b e d i n th e s o u rc e s can n o t be a c c e p te d a s an in n o c e n t p i e c e o f i n f o r m a ti o n added f o r d e c o r a t i v e p u r p o s e s , b u t i s an im p o r ta n t f e a t u r e i n a v e ry v i t a l d e b a t e . P o s s i b l y th e o n ly k e r n e l o f t r u t h i n th e whole s t o r y i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e S em pronii t o th e A t t a l i d s and th e f a c t t h a t Eudemus s t a y e d w ith T i . G racchus when b r i n g - 68 i n g word o f th e b e q u e s t t o Rome. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , even P o m p e iu s1 a c c u s a t i o n t h a t he had s e e n th e diadem and robe o f Pergamum a t G ra c c h u s' house may be t r u e . The f a c t t h a t 80 G racchus was u n d e r a t t a c k would g iv e wide c i r c u l a t i o n t o th e s t o r y , so i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o see how t h i s c o u ld e s c a l a t e i n t o a rumor t h a t he was p ro p o s in g to d i s t r i b u t e th e money to th e p e o p le . T h is i n t u r n co u ld become th e a c c u s a t i o n o f Maximus t h a t G racchus p ro p o se d t o a b o l i s h th e s e n a te and i n s t i t u t e a dem ocracy. i Most modern com m entators a c c e p t th e b e q u e s t o f A ttalu sj becau se i t f i t s i n w e ll w ith th e assumed need o f money by j th e a g r a r i a n comm ission a s a r e s u l t o f th e s e n a t e 's d e n i a l : o f f u n d s : The com m issioners d id n o t have t o pay an army [a r e f e r e n c e t o A e m ilia n u s ' d i f f i c u l t i e s th e p r e v io u s y e a r j , b u t t h e i r im m ediate exp en ses were bound t o be very c o n s i d e r a b le ; i t i s h a rd t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r p r i v a t e f o r t u n e s c o u ld have s u s t a i n ed th e a g r a r i a n program f o r lo n g . At t h i s j c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e an envoy, Eudemus, a r - 1 r i v e d from Pergamum w ith th e news t h a t I A t t a l u s I I I had d ie d . . . (A s tin , op. c i t . P. 2 1 2 ). j But when th e t r e s v i r i were i n a p r e d i c a - , ment a lr e a d y a c u t e , f o r t u n e came t o th e re s c u e (L a st, CAH 9f P» 3 0 ) . ! T h is i n t u r n p l a c e s a l l th e bu rd en o f p r o o f upon th e s i n g l e a p o l o g e t i c an ec d o te o f P l u t a r c h i n c h a p t e r 13. I f I ! P l u t a r c h had o m itte d t h a t s t o r y , s c h o l a r s would p ro b a b ly have been more s c e p t i c a l ab out A t t a l u s ' b e q u e s t as p r e - j s e n te d by P l u t a r c h . F u r t h e r , w h ile i t i s g e n e r a l l y | a s s e r t e d t h a t th e money went t o su p p o rt th e a g r a r i a n com- j m is s io n and th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e law, t h i s i s nowhere s t a t e d i n th e s o u r c e s . The s o u rc e s a re making a p ro p a - | ganda c la im on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t T ib e r iu s d i s t r i b u t e d I 1 th e money t o th e p e o p le . F r a c c a ro i s more f a i t h f u l t o th e I ; s o u rc e s th a n A s tin o r L ast when he a c c e p ts L iv y 's c la im ! t h a t t h e r e was n o t enough la n d t o go around and Gracchus | had t o buy o f f h i s d is a p p o in t e d s u p p o r t e r s (S t u d i , p . 1 2 8 ). The e n t i r e problem i n r e g a r d t o A t t a l u s ' b e q u e s t d e- i I pends on our w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n a c - ! count f o r w hich we have no c o n t r o l . Since i t i s obvious I t h a t P l u t a r c h has d e p a r te d from th e a p o l o g e t i c so u rc e a t : t h i s p o i n t , i t i s most l i k e l y t h a t t h e r e was e i t h e r no ! r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s i n c i d e n t i n th e p ro -G ra cc h an t r a d i t i o n , i o r e l s e a d e n i a l o f i t . C o n s is te n t w ith h i s p o l i c y of j ! n o t e x a l t i n g th e G racchi o v e r Agis and Cleomenes, P l u t a r c h ! has i n s e r t e d th e s e u n fa v o r a b le a n e c d o te s as l o g i c a l s te p s ; i n T i b e r i u s ' m oral d e t e r i o r a t i o n le a d in g to h i s a s s a s s i n a - ; t i o n . ; P l u t a r c h c o n clu d es c h a p te r 14 w ith a s e r i e s o f a n e c - i d o t e s which s u r v iv e d from a t t a c k s made o n Gracchus by Q. 6q : Pompeius, Q. C a e c il i u s M e te llu s and T. Annius L uscus. ^ i ; A ll a re h o s t i l e t o G racchus. Pom peius' a c c u s a t i o n con- i : t a i n s th e germs o f th e charge t h a t Gracchus was s e e k in g a i | regnum and M etellus* t h a t o f th e u n fa v o ra b le f a t h e r - son | com parison, so f r e q u e n t l y seen i n th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n po - ! | le m ic . L u scus' d e fe n se o f t r i b u n i c i a n s a c r o s a n c t i t y was r ia good d e b a tin g p o in t f o r th e o p p o s i t io n and p a r t o f th e 82 g e n e r a l a tte m p t t o v i n d i c a t e th e c la im t h a t G racchus was " l u r e c a e su m ." I t was a l s o a g e n e r a l o p tim a te p o s i t i o n i n th e a n n a l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n ( e .g . L ivy 6 . 3 8 . 6 ) . P l u t a r c h j u s e d t h i s l a s t a n e c d o te t o in tr o d u c e T i h e r i u s ' d e fe n s e o f 1 h i s a c t i o n w hich o c c u p ie d th e whole o f c h a p t e r 15. S in c e t h i s c h a p t e r in v o lv e s th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e o r i g i n o f G ra cc h u s' i d e a s , i t w i l l be h a n d le d i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r i n , j c o n n e c tio n w ith th e q u e s t i o n o f Greek i n f l u e n c e . GRACCHUS' SECOND LEGISLATIVE PROGRAM: TG 16 Apart from P l u t a r c h , o n ly Dio, t h e most h o s t i l e o f a l l th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n s o u r c e s , has a n y th in g t o say o f 70 G ra c c h u s' seco n d l e g i s l a t i v e pro g ram . His l i s t does n o t i i n c l u d e th e a p p e a l t o th e p e o p le from th e c o u r t s , b u t he does add t h a t Appius C la u d iu s was t o se e k th e c o n s u la te and G aius G racchus th e t r i b u n a t e f o r th e f o l lo w in g y e a r as w e l l as h i s b r o t h e r . B oth Dio and P l u t a r c h say t h a t G racchus o f f e r e d h i s new program w ith th e e x p l i c i t i n t e n t o f b u y in g r e - e l e c t i o n j b e c a u se o f th e t h r e a t o f p r o s e c u t i o n a t th e end o f h i s te rm o f o f f i c e . The t h r e a t was r e a l enough, b u t th e mo- i t i v a t i o n and th e l e g i s l a t i v e program a r e a n ti- G r a c c h a n f i c t i o n . | The c r u c i a l p o i n t i n th e propagand a b a t t l e was t o s e t t l e th e blame on th e o p p o s i t i o n . I f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n s 83 c o u ld prove t h a t T ib e r iu s was " i u r e caesum" th e n a l l was w e l l . The Gracchans on th e o t h e r hand, had to prove t h a t T ib e r iu s was in n o c e n t and N asica and h i s f o llo w e r s were g u i l t y . In th e d e b ate t h e r e were no r e s e r v a t i o n s . A ll means, f a l s i f i c a t i o n , e x a g g e r a tio n and calumny were l e g i t i m a t e . The main argum ent o f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n s was th e d e - j p o s i t i o n o f O c tav iu s and th e v i o l a t i o n o f t r i b u n i c i a n j s a c r o s a n c t i t y , b u t o t h e r argum ents were a l s o added, as f o r example G racchus' supposed p r o p o s a ls f o r A t t a l u s ' b e q u e st and th e Greek c i t i e s . To round out th e p i c t u r e we have th e l e g i s l a t i o n o f c h a p t e r 16 and th e c o rre s p o n d in g a cc o u n t i n Dio ( f r . 8 3 ). The f i r s t p o in t i s t h a t as e a r l i e r i n P l u t a r c h ( 7 .4 ) , i t was n o t T i b e r i u s b u t h i s f r i e n d s who u rg e d him t o ta k e t h i s new co u rse o f a c t i o n . j Then comes th e p ro p o se d l e g i s l a t i o n , G racch u s' e v i l mo- j t i v e s and th e f a i l u r e o f the program a t th e p o l l s . A ll o f t h i s i s in te n d e d t o show th e ex trem es t o which T ib e r iu s i (or h i s f r i e n d s ) were p r e p a r e d t o go t o a v o id p r o s e c t u i o n and presum ably condem nation ( c f . c h a p te r 1 5 .l ) . S e rio u s d o u b ts must be e n t e r t a i n e d i n r e g a r d to t h i s e n t i r e a c c o u n t. F i r s t Appian and C ice ro say n o th in g o f t h i s new program , a lth o u g h th e y a re m ajo r so u rc e s f o r th e ! I p e r i o d . In a d d i t i o n , Appian c o n t r a d i c t s th e acco u n t o f | i I th e v o tin g : Gracchus was w inning when th e r i c h , n o t th e I G racch an s, p u t an end t o th e assem b ly (b.c_. 1 . 1 4 ) . The same argum ents i n r e g a r d t o th e p r o p a g a n d i s t l c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e a c c o u n t a r e v a l i d h e re a s i n th e p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n o f th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s . I t i s a l s o n o t i c e a b l e t h a t th e ! a n ti- G r a c c h a n s had d i f f i c u l t y m aking t h i s new p rogram o f G racchus lo o k dem agogic. In what se n se can th e new m eas u r e s o f T i b e r i u s be c a l l e d p o p u l a r and how c o u ld th e y have e n t i c e d th e mob t o v o te f o r h i s r e - e l e c t i o n ? Only th e f i r s t ite m can have had any p o p u l a r a p p e a l and even t h a t i s d o u b t f u l . As r e g a r d s th e seco n d , t h e r e was o n ly one c o u r t a t th e tim e (not " c o u r t s " a s P l u t a r c h c la im e d ) , th e q u a e s t i o de r e p e t u n d i s s e t up by P is o i n 149. Appeal to th e p e o p le from i t can h a r d l y have b een o f i n t e r e s t t o th e tt i\ H i u n l e s s th e y p la n n e d t o s e l l t h e i r v o te s , w hich seems u n l i k e l y a t t h i s tim e . Nor c o u ld th e a d d i t i o n o f ju d g e s from th e e q u i t e s be c o n s id e r e d an overw h elm in g ly | | p o p u l a r p r o p o s a l . Why would th e mob be i n t e r e s t e d i n | w h e th e r k n i g h t s o r s e n a t o r s s a t on th e bench? The most l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t t h e a n ti- G r a c c h a n i a c c o u n t was a b le t o a s c r i b e th e s e l e g i s l a t i v e m easures t o T i b e r i u s a s a r e s u l t o f th e g e n e r a l te n d e n c y t o b r a c k e t i th e b r o t h e r s a s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s w ith o u t m aking any d i s - j t i n c t i o n s w ith r e g a r d t o t h e i r l e g i s l a t i o n . B oth were k i l l e d i n ro u g h ly th e same way by th e same p e o p le . In j b o t h c a s e s o p p o s i t i o n t r i b u n e s p la y e d l e a d i n g r o l e s . 85 From c a l l i n g th e b r o t h e r s r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s and d i s t u r b e r s o f th e s t a t e , i t was only a s t e p t o c o n fu s in g and f a l s i - I f y in g t h e i r l e g i s l a t i o n . J I The f o llo w in g i s a l i s t o f p r o p o s a ls made by T i b e r i u s j a f t e r th e a g r a r i a n law: 1. B oth T i b e r i u s and Gaius p ro p o se d to d i s t r i b u t e th e r i c h e s o f Pergamum ( a lth o u g h w ith d i f f e r e n t e n d s ): TG 14 and F lo r u s 2 . 3 . 2 : "C. G racchus, q u i cum r e - centem A t t a l i h e r e d i ta t e m i n a lim e n ta p o p u li p o l - l i c e r e t u r ." 2 . T ib e r iu s e x te n d e d th e i u s p r o v o c a tio n s (TG l 6 . l ) ; Gaius was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r som ething s i m i l a r : "C. Gracchus legem t u l i t , ne de c a p i t e civium Romanorum i n i u s s u v e s t r o i u d i c a r e t u r " (p ro R ab. p e r . 4 .1 2 ; c f . i n G a t. 4 . 5 . 1 0 ) . 3 . T ib e r iu s p ro p o se d t o r e s t r i c t m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e : TG l 6 . 1; P l u t a r c h him self, say s t h a t Gaius a l s o p ro p o se d m i l i t a r y law s: CG 5 .1 . 4 . The d i v i s i o n o f th e c o u r t s a s c r i b e d to b o th T ib e r iu s and G aius: TG 16.1 and CG 5 .2 . P lin y a s c r i b e s t h i s a c t i n d e s c r i m i n a t e l y t o th e "G rac c h i" ( n .h . 3 3 .3 4 ) as does T a c it u s (Ann. 12.60; c f . Ampel. 2 6 ,1 ) 5 . T ib e r iu s was supposed t o have p ro p o se d th e e x t e n s i o n o f th e f r a n c h i s e to a l l I t a l y : V e i l . 86 2 . 6 . 2 ; t h i s was a l s o p a r t o f Gaius* p ro g ram : CG 5 . 1 . Again i t i s a q u e s t i o n o f o u r w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a n t i - G r a c c h a n a c c o u n t a s i t s t a n d s . As t i n f o r exam ple, a c c e p t s D i o 's and P l u t a r c h ' s v e r s i o n t h a t f e a r o f co n d em n atio n by th e p e o p le l e d G ra c chus t o s e e k r e - e l e c t i o n : T i b e r i u s was s e r i o u s l y a f r a i d t h a t some tim e i n 132 h i s enem ies m ig h t be a b l e t o m u s te r enough v o t e s i n th e a sse m b ly t o have him condem ned. He d e c id e d , o r was p e r s u a d e d , t h a t he m ust s e c u r e im m unity from p r o s e c u t i o n and t h a t t h e b e s t - o r o n ly - way t o a c h ie v e t h i s was t o be e l e c t e d t o th e t r i b u n a t e f o r a seco n d t i m e . I n o r d e r t o s t i m u l a t e th e n e c e s s a r y e n th u s ia s m and s u p p o r t he may have p ro m is e d new l e g i s l a t i o n . . . (o p . c i t . p . 2 1 4 ). Why n o t t h a t he so u g h t r e - e l e c t i o n t h r o u g h f e a r f o r h i s l i f e , P l u t a r c h ' s o t h e r v e r s i o n (Comp. 5 . 5 ) ? The f a c t t h a t T i b e r i u s d i d s e e k r e - e l e c t i o n d o e s n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y a u t h e n t i c a t e t h e l e g i s l a t i v e e n a c tm e n ts o f c h a p t e r 16. THE IMPIETY OF TIBERIUS GRACCHUS: TG 17 C h a p te r 17 c o n c lu d e s th e a n t i - G r a c c h a n s e c t i o n and c o n t a i n s some o f t h e most im p o r ta n t c h a rg e s made a g a i n s t t h e t r i b u n e . The c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s how G racchus im p io u s ly ig n o r e d th e w i l l o f h e a v e n and f i t t i n g l y met h i s d e a t h . I n V a l e r i u s Maximus, de_ v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s and O bsequens, t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e s p e l l e d o u t , w h ile P l u t a r c h h a s a more s u b t l e a p p r o a c h . In a n t i c i p a t i o n o f th e e v e n ts o f th e 87 e l e c t o r a l asse m b ly , he makes an o b j e c t l e s s o n o f T i b e r i u s ' n e g l e c t o f omens and th e bad a d v ic e o f th e f r e e - t h i n k e r B l o s s i u s . One o f th e p r i n c i p a l c la im s o f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n prop ag an da has b e en G ra c c h u s' im p ie ty i n i g n o r i n g t r i b u - n i c i a n s a c r o s a n c t i t y , ab an d o n in g h i s a n c e s t r a l h e r i t a g e , b e in g l e d a s t r a y by h i s f r e e - t h i n k i n g f r i e n d s , and now a s i f by d i v in e c o n f i r m a t i o n , on th e day he d i e s a l l t h e s e e le m e n ts come t o g e t h e r . I f T i b e r i u s had fo llo w e d i n th e f o o t s t e p s o f h i s f a t h e r , a summus au g u r (de d i v . 1 .3 8 ) , famous f o r h i s o b e d ie n c e t o th e w i l l o f God, he would have r e c o g n iz e d th e s i g n s and s t a y e d away from th e f a t a l a sse m b ly . I n s t e a d , he a llo w e d h i m s e l f t o be swayed by th e demagogic l o g i c o f B l o s s i u s and so s u i t a b l y p e r i s h e d . THE PINAL SCENES: TG 18 - 21 For th e f i n a l sc e n e s P l u t a r c h r e t u r n s t o th e a p o lo g e t i c p ro -G ra c c h a n so u rc e found o r i g i n a l l y i n c h a p t e r s 8 - 13.3* and a g a in e v e r y t h in g favors T i b e r i u s . M a g ic a lly th e b l a c k im p u ta tio n s o f c h a p t e r s 13 - 1 7* th e a c c u s a t i o n s o f im p ie ty , r e v o l u t i o n , demagoguery and i n t e r f e r e n c e i n s e n a t o r i a l a f f a i r s , v a n is h . The a c c o u n t b e g in s d i s j o i n t e d l y i n th e m iddle o f th e l a s t assem bly w ith th e p r e s i d i n g t r i b u n e , th e p ro -G ra c c h a n M ucius, a tt e m p t in g t o r e s t o r e o r d e r . T here is. no m en tio n o f th e a c t i o n o f th e G racchans d r i v i n g t h e i r o p p o n e n ts out o f th e assem bly (b .c_ ,1 .6 4 ). A f r i e n d warns T i b e r i u s t h a t th e s e n a te i s p la n n in g v i o le n c e , w h ile i n Appian i t i s th e G racchans who f i r s t c o n te m p la te v i o le n c e . As a r e s u l t of th e w arn ing, th e Gracchans arm th e m se lv e s and T i b e r i u s g iv e s h i s famous s i g n a l which th e a p o l o g i s t e x p la in s was meant to t e l l th e p e o p le he was i n d a n g e r, a lth o u g h Appian say s i t was p r e - a r r a n g e d and had a n o th e r m eaning. Next th e rumor o f t h i s g e s t u r e r e a c h e s th e s e n a te w ith th e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t G racchus was s e e k in g a crown. The s e n a te i s d i s t u r b e d , b u t th e main r o l e i s p la y e d by th e g r e a t lan d -o w n e r, S c ip io N asica who i n s i s t s t h a t th e c o n s u l ta k e 72 a c t i o n . When th e c o n su l r e f u s e d , N asica l e d o f f a group o f s e n a t o r s , p a s s e d th ro u g h th e a c q u ie s c e n t mob and k i l l e d th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r i b u n e and some o f h i s f o l lo w e r s . The whole a c c o u n t i s o b v io u s ly p a r t i s a n . N asica a p p e a r s as a v i l l a i n , m o tiv a te d by d i s h o n e s t i n t e n t i o n s and a c t i n g a g a i n s t th e l e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f th e c o n su l who had d e c l a r e d t h a t a n y th in g G racchus m ight do i l l e g a l l y would no t be condoned. The i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t i t was N a sic a , n o t T ib e r iu s who was ig n o r in g l e g a l p r o c e s s e s . He i s c h arg ed w ith t a k i n g th e law i n t o h i s own hands and m urder in g an unarmed and d e f e n s e l e s s man. In th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n a c c o u n ts t h i s i s p a s s e d o v e r l i g h t l y and N asica i s h a i l e d as a s a v i o r o f th e s t a t e and i t i s T ib e r iu s who i s th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y . The r o l e o f N asica i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d e- 89 v e lo p e d i n b o th t r a d i t i o n s , t o th e e x te n t t h a t i n P o s e i - d o n lu s , th e ad Herennium, V a l e r i u s Maximus and p ro b a b ly C ic e ro , i t was he who a c t u a l l y k i l l e d G r a c c h u s On th e o t h e r hand, Appian does n o t g iv e N asica any s p e c i a l r o l e i n th e d e b a te and h as him sh o u t h i s w a r-c ry - "Let th o s e who would save t h e i r c o u n try fo llo w me" - only a f t e r th e a r r i v a l o f h i s group a t T i b e r i u s ' a sse m b ly . Even i n P l u t a r c h , N a s i c a 's p a r t y was unarmed when i t a r r i v e d and h i s v e r s i o n t h a t th e s e n a t o r s f o llo w e r s were eq u ipped w ith c lu b s has th e f a m i l i a r a s p e c t s o f p a r t i s a n e m b e ll i s h m ent. I t I s im probable t h a t N asica and h i s f o llo w e r s had any i n t e n t i o n o f k i l l i n g G racchus, l e t a lo n e t h r e e hundred o f h i s f o l lo w e r s : . . . t o have s e t out t o k i l l c i t i z e n s w ith o u t t r i a l would have been, t o say th e l e a s t , a g rav e r i s k , b o th p e r s o n a l and p o l i t i c a l , and f u rth e rm o re q u i t e u n n e c e s s a ry ; t h e i r c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t was to p r e v e n t T ib e r iu s b e in g r e e l e c t e d t r i b u n e , and to t h a t end th e y needed t o b re a k up th e assem bly which th e y b e li e v e d was b e in g condu cted i n an i l l e g a l manner (A stin , op. c i t . p . 2 2 0 ). N a s i c a 's r o l e became a s le g e n d a ry a s t h a t o f G racchus, so t h a t w h a tev e r h i s i n t e n t i o n s may have been o r i g i n a l l y , th e y a u to m a t i c a ll y c e a se d t o have any s i g n i f i c a n c e when Gracchus was k i l l e d . From th e n on i t was n e c e s s a r y to j u s t i f y N a s i c a 's r o l e and th e b e s t way t o a c h ie v e t h i s was t o su g g e st t h a t th e s e n a te had d e b a te d th e i s s u e and a r r i v e d a t a d e c i s i o n e x e c u te d by N a sic a . T h is j u s t i f i c a t i o n 90 o f N a s i c a 's r o l e was a u t o m a t i c a l l y n e c e s s i t a t e d by th e G racchan c la im t h a t a Roman c i t i z e n had been k i l l e d w ith out due p r o c e s s . Also o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i s th e a t t i t u d e o f th e mob which w i l l i n g l y a llo w e d th e s e n a t o r s b e a t G racchus and h i s f o l low ers t o d e a t h . In b o th P l u t a r c h and Appian th e lame e x cuse i s t h a t th e p e o p le were overawed by th e s e n a t o r 's d i g n i t y . A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n would be t h a t th e p r o - Gracchan so u rc e p a s s e d o v e r th e f a c t t h a t G racch u s' su p p o r t among th e p e o p le had waned, f o r i t would s p o i l th e argum ent t o even h i n t t h a t G ra c c h u s ' su p p o rt was n o t as s o l i d as i t seemed. On th e o t h e r hand, th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n had a l s o d e v elo p ed t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , c la im in g t h a t th e p e o p le th e m se lv e s had t u r n e d on T i b e r i u s u n d e r th e l e a d e r s h i p o f N asica (C ic. B r u t . 103; P l o r . 2 . 2 ) . V e l l e i u s a l s o c la im s t h a t some o f th e p e o p le had a hand i n h i s d e a th ( 2 . 3 . 2 ) . The l a s t sc e n e s o f T i b e r i u s ' l i f e a r e m is s in g i n Dio, b u t th e c la im t h a t Gaius was k i l l e d by h i s own f o llo w e r s may i n d i c a t e how he h a n d le d T i b e r i u s ' end as w e l l . The most l i k e l y v e r s i o n i s t h a t d e v elo p ed by A s tin : As one u n o rg a n iz e d crowd a tte m p te d t o d i s p e r s e a n o th e r , th e a s s a i l a n t s , i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o h a s t e n th e p r o c e s s , s e i z e d b ro k en c h a i r l e g s and s i m i l a r o b j e c t s to use a s tru n c h e o n s . . . s id e by s id e w ith th e s e n a t o r s were t h e i r a t t e n d a n t s , s l a v e s and freedm en, su d denly p r e s e n t e d w ith a un iq u e o p p o r tu n ity t o u n l e a s h t h e i r a g - 91 g r e s s l v e i n s t i n c t s , y e t w i t h l i t t l e com p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r th e v i o l e n c e ; i t i s a l l to o e a sy t o u n d e r s t a n d how i n th e c o n fu s e d tu m u lt and e x c ite m e n t t h e b lo w s, e n c o u ra g e d by o c c a s i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e and c o u n te r - b lo w s , became more sav ag e and i n some c a s e s l e t h a l ( A s tin , op . c i t . p , 2 2 4 ) . I n c h a p t e r 20 th e a p o l o g i s t h a s a good o p p o r t u n i t y t o d r i v e home h i s f i n a l a rg u m e n ts . He c o n te n d e d e a r l i e r i n r e g a r d t o G r a c c h u s 1 b a t t l e w i t h O c ta v iu s t h a t T i b e r i u s was a lw a y s am enable t o a r b i t r a t i o n and c o n c e s s i o n . In t h i s a t t i t u d e , t h e a c c o u n t c o n t i n u e s , he was th o r o u g h ly Roman, f o r i n tim e s p a s t a l l d i s p u t e s had b een s e t t l e d by m u tu a l c o n c e s s i o n on th e p a r t o f th e p e o p le and t h e n o b i l i t y and t h e r e n e v e r had b e en any r e s o r t t o b lo o d s h e d . Now f o r th e f i r s t tim e a man had b e e n k i l l e d and i t was th e h a t r e d and a n g e r o f th e r i c h t h a t was t o b la m e . T h e i r p r e t e x t s were d i s h o n e s t a s was p ro v e d by t h e i r sav ag e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e b o d i e s o f t h e dead and t h e i r p r o s e c u t i o n o f G ra c c h u s ' f r i e n d s and f o l l o w e r s . To h e i g h t e n th e p a t h o s , th e a p o l o g e t i c a c c o u n t has G aius r e q u e s t h i s b r o t h e r ' s body, a l t h o u g h i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y he was s t i l l w i t h A e m ilia n u s a t N um an tia. To th e end N a sic a i s th e enemy. I t was he who exam ined B l o s s i u s a lt h o u g h C ic e ro s a y s th e q u a e s t i o was c o n d u c te d by th e c o n s u ls o f t h e y e a r , L aenas 74 and R u p i l i u s w i t h L a e l i u s a s c o u n s e l . P l u t a r c h makes no m e n tio n o f t h e G racchan q u a e s t i o m e n tio n e d i n D io d o ru s 3 4 / 3 5 . 3 3 .7 a t w hich N a sic a w h ile 92 b e in g exam ined by th e t r i b u n e s cla im e d t h a t Gracchus had been aim ing a t a ty r a n n y . Nor does he m en tio n C i c e r o 's acc o u n t o f how M. F u lv iu s F la c c u s succeed ed i n h a v in g Scaevola nom inated judge i n a n o th e r q u a e s t i o (de o r a t . 2. 2 8 5 ) s in c e b o th o f th e s e would presum ably d e t r a c t from 75 th e p a th o s o f th e s c e n e . The g u i l t i s l a i d s q u a r e ly on th e s h o u ld e r s o f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n f a c t i o n . The a p o l o g i s t has one f i n a l f l o u r i s h o f h i s v i r t u o s i t y i n th e c la im t h a t N asica was d r i v e n i n t o e x i l e b e cause th e p e o p le d e s p is e d him and c a l l e d him a t y r a n t and a v i o l a t o r o f th e s a c r o s a n c t i t y o f th e t r i b u n a t e . A fte r su p p o sed ly w andering ig n o m in io u sly from la n d t o la n d , he e v e n t u a l l y ended up i n Pergamum where he d ie d . The a n t i - Gracchan t r a d i t i o n which makes N asica a m a rty r b e cau se of 76 th e " e x i l e " says o nly t h a t he d ie d i n Pergamum. P l u t a r c h c lo s e s th e l i f e w ith a summary o f two a n e c d o te s ab o u t A em ilian u s. The f i r s t was h i s q u o t a t i o n o f 77 Homer upon h e a r in g o f G racch us' d e a th . The o t h e r i s a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o a r e p l y o f A em ilianus t o Carbo who i n 131 p ro p o se d a b i l l r e a f f i r m i n g th e l e g a l i t y o f r e - e l e c t i o n t o th e t r i b u n a t e . In th e c o n tio Carbo tr a p p e d A em ilianus i n t o p a s s i n g judgment on th e m urder o f T i b e r i u s and th e p h ra s e " iu r e caesum v i d e r i " p a s s e d i n t o le g e n d . The crowd was in c e n s e d and A em ilianus made a d i s d a i n f u l r e p l y t h a t a ls o p a s s e d i n t o h i s t o r y , a lth o u g h n o t r e c o r d e d by P l u t - 93 a r c h . 7® These a n e c d o te s do n o t b e lo n g t o th e p ro -G ra cc h an acco u n t and were added by P l u t a r c h as a c o n v e n ie n t con c l u s i o n t o th e L i f e . 94 NOTES TO CHAPTER 2 While P l u t a r c h i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e whole o f : T i b e r i u s G racchus, th e i n t e r e s t o f t h i s stu d y i s p r i n c i - : p a l l y i n th e so u rc e s u se d by him. I t i s assumed t h a t he I c l o s e l y fo llo w e d them and t h a t a t l e a s t i n some i n s t a n c e s ■ th e y can be re a c h e d th ro u g h P l u t a r c h 's r e - e d i t i n g o f them. 2i . e . n o t P l u t a r c h h im s e lf , b u t h i s s o u r c e . 3 3 8 . 5 2- 6 0 , e s p e c i a l l y 5 6 .4 . ^ de p r o v . c o n s . 18; VM 4 . 1 . 8 ; 4 . 2 . 3 ; p r . 10; S eneca, C o n tro v . 5 . 2 . 3 . E .g . VM 4 .2 .3 'i "Clarum e tia m i n A frica n o s u p e r i o r e ac T i. Graccho d e p o sita ru m i n i m i c i t i a r u m exemplum . . . " ^de f i n . 4 .6 5 ; am ic. 4 l ; de o f f . 2 .8 0 ; de p r o v . c o n s . 1 8 ; cte" r e p . 6 . 1 2 ; de h a r . 41; VH 4 . 1 . 8 ; 4 7 7 .2 ; b . 3 . I d ; Dio Bk. 34, f r . 8 3 j i m p l i c i t l y : V e i l . 2 .2 ; F l o r . 2 . 2 . 1 ; de v i r . i l l . 64. E .g . de f i n . 4 .6 5 : " [ T i. G racchus p a t e r ] s t a b i l i r e rem pub 1icam" s t u d u e r i t , a l t e r e v e r t e r e . " ^T h is i s borne out i n P l u t a r c h 's d i s c u s s i o n o f th e r e j e c t i o n o f Numantine t r e a t y (to be examined s h o r t l y ) . 7 S tu d i s t o r i c i v. Rome, 1911* p . 259; A utour des Gracques'.' P aris', 1928, p . 5 7 i . ; c f . rev ie w of 1 C arco - pino' by' F r a c c a ro i n Athenaeum 9 (1931)* P. 308. ^de d i v . I . 3 6 ; 2 .6 1 ; VM 4 . 6 . 1 ; de v i r . i l l . 64; P lin y , n . h . T . 1 2 2 . ----------- --------- ^ G r a t u i to u s l y C arcopino sa y s "probablem ent f a l s i f i e d ' a i l l e u r s " op. c i t . p . 6 7 . TOH.^Peter i s s u r e l y wrong when he sa y s " . . . d ie i n d e r F l i i c h t i g k e i t des P l u t a r c h i h r e n Grund haben kann", Die Q u e lle n P l u t a r c h s . Amsterdam, 1 9 6 5* P. 95 ( r e p r i n t o f the' H a lle e&'. o f I 8 6 5 ) . 11 de n a t . deorum 1 .1 0 ; VM 1 . 1 . 3 . 42Again n o t P l u t a r c h h im s e lf , b u t h i s s o u r c e s . 43por th e age o f C o r n e lia , see Appendix I . 95 lJ+Dio f r . 33; B r u t . 104; 211; Q u in t. I n s t . 1. 1.6. 15TG 8 .5 ; CG 1 3 .2 ; b . c . 1 .2 0 . l^VM 4 .4 ; Seneca C ons. ad H elv . l 6 . 6 ; acl M arc. 1 6 .3 ; C ic . de o r a t . 3 .2 1 4 ; B r u t . 104"; CIL 6, 10043 '= ILS 1 .6 8 : " A f r ic a n i f i l i a Gracchorum (s c . m a t e r ) . Good d i s c u s s i o n i n Meyer, K l. S c h r .2 i , p . 370. 17 B ru t. 211; Q u in t. I n s t . 1 . 1 . 6 . 1 ft E. Norden, Die a n ti k e K u nstprosa i . L e ip z ig , 1898, p . 1 7 1f. Leo, Die g r ie c h is c h - r o m is c h e B i o g r a p h i e . L e ip z ig , 1901, p . l8'0'f. The A r i s t o t e l i a n biography' was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s u se o f le g e n d a ry m a t e r i a l , s c a n d a l, p o le m ic s and a p o p u la r l i t e r a r y form i n w hich c h a r a c t e r was r e v e a l e d th ro u g h a m an's a c t i o n s . U nlike th e A lex a n d r i a n b io g ra p h y w hich te n d e d t o c o n s i s t o f an accum ula t i o n o f m a t e r i a l w ith o u t i n t e r n a l c o h e sio n , th e p e r i p a t e t i c form c o n s t i t u t e d an a r t i s t i c u n i t y w ith a d i s t i n c t b e g in n in g , m iddle and c o n c lu s io n . 2^F. T ae g er, T i b e r i u s G ra c c h u s. S t u t t g a r t , 1928, p . 106: Die m it Recht geriihmte S y n k 'ris is u m fa s st u r - s p r u n g l i c h a l s o n u r 2; und w ir l a s s e n e s d a h i n g e s t e l l t , ob P l u t a r c h d r e i iiberhaup t i n s e i n e r V o rlage fa n d , Oder ob e r es n i c h t e h e r s e l b s t e in g e f u g t h a t , w e il es k e in e u n m it t e l b a r e n B eruhrungen m it den im Proomion e n tw ic k e l- t e n Gedanken a u f w e i s t . 21Dio, f r . 8 5 . pp de l e g . 3 . 2 0 f . ; de o r a t . 1 . 3 8 . 2^p ro P o n t . 39; B r u t . 125; he_ h a r . r e s p . 4 l . 24de o r a t . 3 .2 2 5 ; VM 8 .1 0 .1 ; Dio f r . 8 5 . 25 G e lliu s as o f t e n , p ro b a b ly got h i s v e r s i o n from P l u t a r c h . 26 >. Q G. Wissowa, R e lig io n und K u ltu s d e r Romer. Munich, 1912, p . 484; Fraccaro', 'Sh'udi, p'. 4 X f.; ffUhenae- um 9 (1931), P. 310. 2 ^See A ppendix I . 96 28C ic . de l e g . 3 .2 0 ; TG 17; Obseq. 70; L ivy 2 2 .3 . 4 ; 2 2 . 9 . 7 ; C oeTius: HRR 2U - de d i v . 1 .7 7 ; o f . P.G. W alsh, L iv y . C am brid ge/ 1963, p . 131. P o ly b . 2 . 2 1 . 8 and F.W. Walbank, Commentary on P o ly b iu s i . O xford, 1957 p . 192. 29 F o r th e d a te o f T i . G ra c c h u s' m a r r ia g e , see Appendix 2. 3° G e l l . 6 .9 .1 2 = A n tia s f r . 57. F r a c c a r o s u g g e s ts t h a t G racchus was n o t even a c o n sp o n so r o f th e t r e a t y , b u t m ere ly a w itn e s s t o i t s e x i s t e n c e . TEe" N um antians would have b e en p l e a s e d t h a t G racchus was among th e w i t n e s s e s : "N ulla d i s t r a n o che g l i a n n a l i s t i a b b ia n o p o i f a t t o d i q u e s t i s p o n s o re s d e l l ' e s i s t e n z a d e l t r a t t a t o d e g l i sp o n - s o r e s d e l t r a t t a t o s t e s s o , " o p . c i t . p . 48 . 31de o f f . 3 . 1 0 9 ; de r e p . 3 . 2 8 . 32V e l l . 2 . 1 . 1 ; Dio f r . 83; de v i r . i l l . 64. 33Dio f r . 83; Q u in t. I n s t . 7 .4 .1 3 ; B r u t . 103; de h a r . r e s p . 43; F l o r . 2 . 2 . 2 ; ‘ V e i l. 2 . 2 . 1 ; de v i r . T T 1 T T 4 . ----------- 3^de r e p . 3 . 2 8 . 39T h is i s p r o b a b ly n o t P l u t a r c h 's own comment f o r i n th e M o ra lia (A pophth. S c ip . Min. 201E-F) he shows he i s aware o f a q u a r r e l betw een S c ip io and th e G ra c c h i; how ever, P l u t a r c h was n o t bound by any s t r i c t r u l e s o f c o n s i s t e n c y . F o r th e r e s t o f t h i s c h a p t e r th e te rm " a p o lo g i s t " i s u s e d i n p l a c e o f " b io g r a p h e r " t o i n d i c a t e a s w itc h from th e so u rc e u s e d i n Agis 1 - 2, TG 1 - 7 and a l l o f G aius w hich seem t o be by th e same h a n d . C h a p te rs 8 - 1 3 . 3' and 18 - 21 a re from a n o th e r s o u r c e , u s e d a p p a r e n t l y by th e " b io g ra p h e r " f o r th e s e s e c t i o n s . P l u t a r c h h i m s e l f i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e i n s e r t i o n o f c h a p t e r s 1 3 .4 - 17 w hich he d e r i v e d from some a n ti - G r a c c h a n a n e c d o t a l s o u r c e . 37 The a rg u m en ts o f G. T i b i l e t t i a re fo llo w e d c l o s e l y i n t h i s s e c t i o n : " I I p o s s e s s o d e l l ' a g e r p u b l i c u s e l e norme de modo agrorum s in o a I G ra c c h i, Athenaeum 26 (1948), p . l7 3 T 7 “and 27 (1949), P. 3 f . ; "Ricerch'e d'i s t o r i a a g r a r i a ro m a n a ," op. c i t . , 2 8 (1950), p . l 8 3 f . 38TG 8; b . c . I . 11. 39b . c . 1 .8 .3 2 . 97 ^ ° 6 . 3 4 .4 ; T i b i l e t t i , Athenaeum 26, p . 209. 4 l b . c . 1 .8 .3 3 . up op. c i t . p . 2 1 5 . 43op. c i t . p . 230. ^ V a r r o , r . r . 1 . 2 . 9 ; G am illu s 3 9 .5 ; Dio Bk. 7 f r . 2 9 .6 ; de v i r . T lT . 2 0 .2 ; VM 87573. ^ r . r . 1 . 3 . 1 0 f . ; de c o n d i c . a g r . p . 1 3 6 - 8 Lachmann. l± & Q ORF f r . 1 6 7 = G e l l . 6 . 3 . 3 7 . 4 ?op. c i t . p . 222. ^ o p . c i t . p . 193 and p . 1 9 8 ; Athenaeum 27, p . 1 6 . ^ T i b i l e t t i , Athenaeum 2 6 , p . 202. 5° m rr 499 and 503 ^Mommsen, St_.R. i i i , p . 371; F r a c c a r o , op. c i t . p . 96. ^2F r a e c a r o s u g g e s ts ” , . . b iso g n a v a i n q u a lc h e modo t r o v a r e un r i p i e g o , e l o s i e s c o g i t o e g re g ia m e n te , fa c c e n d o r i c a d e r e s u g l i a v v e r s a r i la co lp a d e l m ancato in d e n n iz z o " (op. c i t . p . 9 8 ) . He adds t h a t th e a p o l o g i s t may have had i n mind c u r r e n t o p in io n t h a t a n c i e n t a g r a r i a n laws o f r e p o s s e s s i o n o f f e r e d c o m p en satio n , a s r e f l e c t e d f o r exam ple i n th e l e x I c i l i a w ith r e g a r d t o th e A ventine i n 456 (Dion. 10.327"! Last', a lth o u g h d o u b t f u l a b o u t th e amended b i l l , a c c e p t s i t on th e g e n e r a l g ro und s t h a t G rac chus was a h u m a n ita r ia n r e f o r m e r . He c o u ld have p ro p o se d th e b i l l b u t was l a t e r f o r c e d t o w ith d raw i t " a f t e r f i n d in g p e t t y p a r t i s a n s h i p e n d e a v o u rin g t o w reck a m easure c o n c e iv e d i n th e b ro ad -m in d ed s p i r i t o f a s ta te s m a n " CAH 9, P. 25. 5 3 tg 9 A = ORF2 f r . 13; b . c . 1 .9 ; F l o r . 2 .1 ; S a i l . J u g . 47T. 5^See A ppendix 3 . de, o f f . 1 .7 6 ; a s a p r i v a t u s : p ro P l a n e . 88; T u sc. 4 .5 1 ; Brut". 212; de dom. 91; V e l T 7 2 . 3 . 1 ; VM 3 . 2 . 1 7 . C i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y r o l e s : de o f f . I .7 6 = VM 2 . 8 . 7 and 3 .2 . 1 7 . 56i n Cat_. 1 . 2 f . ; 4 .4 . ,57300 c h a p t e r 1, n o te s 8 and 6 9 . 5^See Appendix 4. 59tg 2 .3 : a t 1250 drachmas p e r pound; P lin y , n . h . 3 3 .1 4 7 : 5*000 s e s t e r c e s a pound. Cf. Mommsen, Rom. F o r s c h . B e r l i n , 1864 - 79* P. 489; C arcopino, op. c i t . P. 15. ~ ^°de l e g . 3 .3 3 ; Cf. L.R. T a y lo r, Roman Assem b l i e s . Ann 3 r b o r , 1 9 6 6, p . 125* h. 2; A s tin , S clp lb ' A e m ilia n u s. Oxford, 1967* P. 347. 6 * 1 The l e g a l i t y o f O c ta v iu s ' d e p o s i t i o n has been c o n s id e r e d many tim es and th e g e n e r a l c o n c lu s io n re a c h e d i s t h a t th e l e g a l p o s i t i o n o f th e t r i b u n a t e i n 133 was vague. ". . . i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t th e a b r o g a tio n even o f a c t u a l m a g i s t r a c i e s , l e t alone of t r i b u n a t e s , was c l e a r l y and e x p l i c i t l y p r o h i b i t e d by l e g i s l a t i o n . " (A stin , op. c i t . p . 206. In N otes R and S, p . 3 4 8 f. A s tin o f f e r s an e x c e l l e n t rev ie w o f th e e v id e n c e ) . 6? ^C arcopino, op. c i t . p . 13; F ra c c a r o , op. c i t . p . 101. 6 * 3 N J L a s t, op. c i t . p. 27. Cf. F r a c c a r o : "E a ssu rd o che T ib e r io e sp rim e ss e q u e s t ! c o n c e t t i che sono l a n e g az - io n e d e l c o n c e t t i d e l l a c o l l e g i a l i t a e d e l l a i n t e r f e r e n z a d e l l e p o t e s t a p a r i , che e conseguenza d e l l a c o l l e g i a l i t k , s u i q u a l i e b a s a t o t u t t o 11 congegno d e l l a c o s t i t u z i o n e r e p u b l i c a n s ." (op. c i t . p . 1 0 9 ). L a s t, however, a c c e p ts th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e p a s s a g e : "The t r i b u n a t e was to be t o th e C oncilium P l e b is what th e C abin et i s t o th e House o f Commons, and th e People was t o w ie ld a s o v ra n ty a s com p l e t e as t h a t o f a Greek assem b ly, w ith o u t even th e l i m i t a t i o n s l i k e th o s e imposed a t Athens by th e graphe paranomon. T ib e r iu s G racchus and h i s b r o t h e r were p e rh a p s th e f i r s t t r u e dem ocrats i n Rome - and, i t may be added, th e l a s t . " '(op. c i t . p . 2 8 ). 99 65The p h r a s e s Ae yo o crtv ' and <5oicec. i n 1 2 .3 a l s o seem t o p o i n t t o t h e u s e o f d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e v o t i n g p r o c e d u r e i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f Oc t a v i u s , s e e A ppendix 5. /T /T A ppian d o e s m e n tio n t h e b e q u e s t e le s e w h e r e : M i t h . 62; h.c_. 5 . 4 . ^ 7de o r a t . 2 .1 0 6 ; p r o M il. 8 ; L iv y , p e r . 59; VM 6 . 2 . 3 ; V e T r r " 2 . 4 . 4 ; de~~vTrT~T l l . 58. E. B a d ia n , F o r e i g n C l i e n t e l a e . O x fo rd , 1958, P . 173. ^ T . A nnius L u sc u s: L iv . p e r . 58 = ORF f r . 3; MRR p . 452; Q. O a e c i l i u s M ete1 l u s T i B r u t . 8 l = ORF f r . 1; MRR.p. 471; Q. P om peius: TG 1 4 .3 = ORE f r . 5; c . 1 .5 7 - 'ORF f r . 7; MRR p . 4 7 1 . 7^The fra g m e n t o f A e m l l l a n u s ! s p e e c h (ORF^ f r . 30 = M acrob. S a t . 3 . 1 4 . 6 ) t o t h e e x t e n t a n y t h i n g can be made o f i t , b e lo n g s t o h i s a t t e m p t t o c u r t a i l t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e a g r a r i a n com m issio n i n 1 2 9 . S c i p i o was s t i l l i n S p a in i n 133. P l i n y s p e a k s o f t h e G r a c c h i: " iu d ic u m autem a p p e l l a t i o n e s e p a r a r e eum o rd in e m p r i m i omnium i n s t i t u e r e G ra c c h i d i s c o r d ! p o p u l a r i t a t e i n c o n tu m e lia m s e n a t u s . . . n . h . 3 3 .3 4 . A m pelius 2 6 . 1 i s s p e a k i n g o f t h e w hole o f T i b e r i u s ’7 ” t r i b u n a te . 71VM 1 . 4 . 2 ; O bseq. 2 7 a ; de v i r . i l l . 64 . 7 2 C ic . de dom. 91; T u s c . 4 .5 1 ; VM 3 . 2 . 7 : " S c a e - v o la n e g a v i t ; " cle~ v i r . i l l . 5T: " s e g n i t e r q u e c e s s a n t e M u cio ;" de_ dom.- ^ l l ""P. M ucius . . . s e g n i o r . " 78 p h i i . 8 .1 3 : "P. N a s ic a . . . T. Gracchum i n t e r - f e c i t ; 1 1 c f . de_ o r a t . 2 .2 8 5 and i n G a t . 1 . 3 ; VM 1 . 4 . 2 : "A S c i p io n e N a sic a p o n t i f i c e maximo d e c u s s u s G a p i t o l i o fra g m e n to s u b s e l l i i i c t u s p r o c u b u i t . " A lso D io d . 3 4 / 3 7 . 7 an d ad H e r . 4 . 6 8 . P o s s i b l y : de_ o f f . 176 and B r u t . 107. 7^de a m ic . 37; VM 4 . 7 . 1 ; V e i l . 2 . 7 . 3 . 75The s u p p o s e d j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f N a s i c a 's a c t by S c a e v o la r e p o r t e d by C ic e r o (de dom. 91* p r o P l a n e . 86) i s u n l i k e l y and i s u s e d by him b e c a u s e i t s u p p o r t ¥ " l i i s own p o s i t i o n i n r e g a r d t o t h e C a t i l i n a r i a n c o n s p i r a t o r s . 7^VM 5 . 3 . 2 ; de_ v i r . i l l . 64; de r e p . 1 . 6 ; p ro F l a c c . 75: ILS 8 8 8 6 ; cfT- F lin y* n . h . 7TT2O; de a m io . 4 1 ------- ------- 77TG 2 1 .4 ; D iod. 3 4 / 5 . 7 . 3 = P o s e id . f r . 110 FGrH. 7^See n . 6 7 ; a l s o A p o p h th . S c i p . M in. 22; P o ly - a e n . 8 . 1 6 . 5 . CHAPTER 3 i I PLUTARCH AND APPIAN The com parison o f P l u t a r c h and A ppian h as b een r e - ' s e rv e d f o r s e p a r a t e t r e a tm e n t b e c a u s e , e x c e p t f o r th e f i n a l s c e n e s th e two a c c o u n ts a r e i n c lo s e a g re e m e n t. In com p arison s b etw een P l u t a r c h and A ppian, l i t t l e I | c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s e v e r g iv e n t o th e b i o g r a p h i e s o f th e G rac- l | c h i as h i s t o r i c a l docum ents i n t h e i r own r i g h t and Appian i h as a lm o st i n v a r i a b l y been ch o sen i n p r e f e r e n c e t o P lu - 1 t a r c h . When th e two a re com pared, t h e co m p arison i s made | ! on th e b a s i s o f i n d i v i d u a l l y c o r r e s p o n d in g p a s s a g e s r a t h e r t h a n th e works a s a w h ole. As a r e s u l t , th e o v e r - a l l i s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e two a c c o u n ts , e s p e c i a l l y : t h e i r s i l e n c e i n r e g a r d t o th e e v e n ts a f t e r th e e l e c t i o n i ! o f t h e a g r a r i a n com m ission goes u n n o t i c e d . j 1 ® P l u t a r c h and Appian a p p a r e n t l y u se d th e same s o u rc e s ; ; i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s , b u t w ith d i f f e r e n t prop ag anda a im s. ! P l u t a r c h s t r e s s e s th e g re e d o f th e r i c h and th e in d ig e n c e o f th e p o o r, w h ile A ppian i s more co n ce rn e d w ith t h e demo- I g r a p h ic decay o f I t a l y . In c h a p t e r 2 i t has a l r e a d y been j | e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f l a t i f u n d i a a s th e i I ! cau se o f a l l o f Rome's p ro blem s i s G racchan p ro p a g a n d a . i i | The same i s t h e r e f o r e t r u e o f t h e c o rr e s p o n d in g s e c t i o n o f I A p p ia n 's a c c o u n t, w ith th e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t th e em phasis 102 i s g iv e n t o th e I t a l i a n s and th e d e c l i n e i n th e number o f th e a l l i e s . S ince T i b e r i u s ’ l e g i s l a t i o n in c lu d e d Roman c i t i z e n s o n ly , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t A p p ia n 's a cc o u n t r e p r e s e n t s a rew o rk in g o f th e o r i g i n a l Gracchan p o s i t i o n i n term s o f th e n eeds o f Gaius Gracchus who may have found i t ad v an tag eo u s to d e p ic t h i s b r o t h e r as a champion o f th e a l l i e s as w e ll a s th e Romans i n view o f h i s p r o p o s a l t o e n f r a n c h i s e th e I t a l i a n s . T h is c h a p t e r w i l l a tte m p t t o show th e c lo s e c o r r e spondence betw een P l u t a r c h and Appian f o r th e e v e n ts p r i o r t o th e a s s a s s i n a t i o n s c e n e s . T hroughout, th e term s " P lu t a r c h " and "Appian" w i l l be u se d w ith th e se n se o f "th e so u rc e s of P l u t a r c h (o r A p p ia n )." THE ORIGINS OP AGER PUBLICUS TG 8 .1 ; b . c . I 7-26 - 28 In c h a p te r 8 o f P l u t a r c h and c h a p te r 7 o f Appian b e g in s th e famous concordance whose e x is te n c e has been a l t e r n a t e l y d e n ie d o r a f f ir m e d by e v ery s c h o l a r who h as e x amined th e p a s s a g e s s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f modern s c h o l a r s h i p . 2 Everyone a llo w s t h a t t h e r e i s some s i m i l a r i t y , but f o r some th e s i m i l a r i t y i s s u f f i c i e n t to prove c o n c l u s i v e ly th e use o f a common so u rc e by P l u t a r c h and Appian, w hile o t h e r s f e e l th e d e m o n s tra tio n i s f a r from co m p lete. The acco unt i n Appian b e g in s w ith two in v o lv e d se n - 103 t e n c e s (2 6 and 2 7 ) w hich d e s p i t e a p p a re n t r e p e t i t i v e n e s s , a c c u r a t e l y sum up th e f o u r ways i n w hich Rome d i s t r i b u t e d c a p tu r e d l a n d : c o lo n i e s (s u b d iv id e d f u r t h e r ) , s a l e , l e a s e and o c c u p a tio n . Of th e la n d a c q u ir e d i n I t a l y , Appian s a y s t h a t p a r t was c o n f i s c a t e d and towns b u i l t o r where towns a l r e a d y e x i s t e d , c o l o n i s t s were a s s i g n e d . In e i t h e r c a s e , th e o b j e c t was t o e s t a b l i s h c l e r u c h i e s . At t h i s p o i n t Appian a p p e a rs t o r e p e a t h i m s e l f , f o r i n th e n e x t s e n te n c e he b e g in s t o go o v e r ground a l r e a d y c o v e re d : th e la n d a c q u i r e d by war was a s s i g n e d t o c o l o n i s t s (as men t i o n e d a b o v e ), s o l d o r l e a s e d . However, by t©T* oc^jJopLSvois Appian means v i r i t a n e a s s ig n m e n ts w ith o u t th e e s t a b l i s h - 4 ment o f a c o lo n y . Hence th e f i r s t method o f d i s p o s a l o f a g e r p u b l i c u s in v o lv e d f u l l s c a l e c o lo n i e s o r i n d i v i d u a l a l l o t m e n t . The n e x t method o f d i s p o s a l m en tio n ed i s s a l e and th e ! = . la n d th u s a c q u ir e d was term ed a g e r q u a e s t o r i u s . The t h i r d method was by l e a s e , l o c a t i o c e n s o r i a This u s u a l l y a p p l i e d t o th e most p r o d u c tiv e p a r t , f o r exam ple, th e famous case o f a g e r Campanus.7 The f i n a l method was o c - c u p a t io and i n t h i s case th e la n d was term ed a g e r o c cu p a - O t o r i u s . The payment o f a p e r c e n ta g e o f th e c ro p by p o s - s e s s o r e s m en tio n ed by Appian (a r e n t i n P l u t a r c h ) , r a i s e s th e th o r n y q u e s t i o n w h e th er a v e c t i g a l was custom ary b e f o r e G racchan tim e s . I t seems l i k e l y t h a t th e t a x was p a id a t 104 l e a s t by way o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f s t a t e ow n ersh ip: ''v e c ti g a l t e s t a n d i c a u sa . Prom t h i s i t i s c l e a r t h a t i n a few l i n e s Appian has g iv e n a c o n c is e and a c c u r a t e a cc o u n t o f Roman la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n m ethods. U n f o r tu n a te ly th e a cc o u n t comes w i t h o u t c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e fe re n c e s * a lth o u g h i t i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d t h a t th e d e s c r i p t i o n r e f e r s to th e p e r io d a f t e r th e 10 H a n n ib a lic war. On th e o t h e r hand, P l u t a r c h d e v o te s a s i n g l e s e n te n c e t o th e e n t i r e a c c o u n t, a lth o u g h he sa y s e s s e n t i a l l y th e same t h i n g a s Appian. The d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e i r d i v e rg e n t p r o p a g a n d i s t ic t e n d e n c i e s . F or P l u t a r c h th e whole s t o r y i s summed up as a b a t t l e betw een r i c h and p o o r; f o r Appian, th e s o c i i and t h e i r w e lfa r e a re th e key f i g u r e s . Hence P l u t a r c h 's so u rc e em phasizes th e a s s i g n e e s , th e p o o r and th e in d ig e n t and th e f a c t t h a t la n d o ccu p ied by th e r i c h was p u b l i c , n o t p r i v a t e la n d . The p o s s e s s o r e s i n b o th Appian and P l u t a r c h pay a v e c t i g a l w ith P l u t a r c h f o r h i s propaganda p u rp o s e s , em p h asizin g th e f a c t t h a t i t was p a id to th e p u b l ic t r e a s u r y . Appian, whose i n t e r e s t s l i e e ls e w h e re , says n o th in g o f t h i s . C a r d i n a l i f i n d s a d i f f i c u l t y i n th e f a c t t h a t Appian makes th e t a x c o n s i s t o f a p e rc e n ta g e o f th e c ro p , w hile P l u t a r c h makes i t a f i x e d amount. T h is i s r e s o l v e d , as w i l l be se en f u r t h e r on, when due c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iv e n t o th e d i f f e r e n t p u r p o se s o f th e w r i t e r s . P l u t a r c h i s making an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y b r i e f summary and s i m p l i f i e s th e account t o p r e s e r v e co h e re n c e , w h ile Appian who d e v o te s tw ice a s much space t o th e m a t t e r , can a f f o r d t o he more p r e c i s e . The c o n c lu s io n seems t o he t h a t th e s o u rc e s o f P lu t a r c h and Appian r e l i e d on th e same a c c o u n t. Appian g iv e s th e o r i g i n a l more f u l l y th a n P l u t a r c h , w h ile th e l a t t e r i s even more summary becau se o f th e l i t e r a r y demands o f th e b i o g r a p h i c a l form . Hence t h e r e i s no fo u n d a tio n f o r th e ch arg e t h a t Appian and P l u t a r c h c o n t r a d i c t each o t h e r f o r th e h i s t o r y o f Roman methods o f h a n d lin g a g e r p u b lic u s w hich i s one o f th e p r i n c i p a l c o n te n tio n s o f th o s e who m a in ta in t h a t P l u t a r c h and Appian made use o f d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OP LATIFUNDIA TG 8 .2 - 3j b . £ . 1 . 7 . 2 8 - 30; 8732 - 3'4"" In c h a p t e r 7 .2 8 Appian b e g in s h i s e x p la n a tio n o f th e o r i g i n o f l a t i f u n d i a , p r e f a c i n g i t w ith an e d i t o r i a l com ment w hich r e f l e c t s h i s propaganda v ie w p o in t. A ccording t o Appian th e s o le m otive b e h in d a l l Roman methods o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a g e r p u b lic u s was th e i n c r e a s e o f th e I t a l i a n r a c e and th e p r e s e r v a t i o n th e re b y o f t h e i r a l l i e s . ^ rph e o p p o s ite happened b e cau se th e r i c h , p e r modum o c c u p a t i o n i s , were a b le t o ab so rb th e g r e a t e r p a r t o f th e a g e r p u b lic u s and buy o u t t h e i r p o o r e r n e ig h b o r s , p a r t y by p e r s u a s io n and p a r t l y by f o r c e . P l u t a r c h however, says t h a t t h i s was 106 acc o m p lish e d by h ig h e r r e n t s p a id by th e r i c h ( i . e . p e r modum l o c a t i o n s ), an e x p la n a t i o n "profondam ente d i v e r s a " t o Appian a c c o rd in g t o Gabba.*^ C a r d in a l! and F r a c c a ro say t h a t P l u t a r c h 's v e r s i o n i s im p o s s ib le : l a t i f u n d i s m IS grew by abuse o f p o s s e s s i o n o t l o c a t i o c e n s o r i a . J C a r d i n a l ! say s t h a t P l u t a r c h mixed up th e money d e r i v i n g from c e n s o r i a l c o n t r a c t s w ith th e v e c t i g a l o f th e p o s s e s s o r e s . F r a c c a r o r e j e c t s t h i s : i f b o th P l u t a r c h and Appian d e r iv e d from th e same so u rc e , how c o u ld P l u t a r c h have made such a b lu n d e r? His e x p la n a t i o n i s t h a t P l u t a r c h 's im m ediate so u rc e changed th e o r i g i n a l (which was th e same as Appi an 's ) b ecau se by th e tim e he was w r i t i n g th e I t a l i a n la n d q u e s t i o n was c o m p le te ly c lo s e d and th e on ly p la c e a g e r p u b lic u s was s t i l l an i s s u e was i n th e p r o v i n c e s . Here l a t i f u n d i a grew by th e method P l u t a r c h m e n tio n s, by con t r a c t t o a few p e o p le by th e c e n s o r s . A ll memory o f I t a l i a n l a t i f u n d i s m had v a n ish e d by th e tim e th e c o r r e c t o r d id h i s w o rk ."^ Schw artz p o i n t s t o th e d iv e rg e n c e as p r o o f o f d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . He a rg u e s t h a t Appian and P l u t a r c h a re co n cern ed w ith two e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s , th e r e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e army and s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n and must t h e r e f o r e go back t o d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s . ^ A ll o f th e s e e x p la n a tio n s a re much to o r a d i c a l . They assume t h a t P l u t a r c h 's propaganda so u rc e was w r i t i n g a t e c h n i c a l l e g a l b r i e f i n s t e a d o f a b l a t a n t l y p a r t i s a n 1 07 p a m p h le t. P l u t a r c h i n h i s e x tr e m e ly d i g e s t e d a c c o u n t h as ^ \ s a i d t h a t t h e p o s s e s s o r e s owed a r e n t : eL*no<f> o-poiy . In th e n e x t s e n t e n c e he c o n ti n u e s th e t h o u g h t : th e r i c h u n g f V > , ; tb^s oi.Ticstyo-pots and im m e d ia te ly g oes on t o th e a t t e m p t s made t o c u r t a i l t h e r i c h . I t seems c l e a r t h a t P l u t a r c h ' s s o u rc e i s n o t so much s u g g e s t i n g an e x p l i c i t m ethod o f a c - i q u i s i t i o n a s t h a t th e r i c h , sim p ly b e c a u s e o f t h e i r w e a lth , w ere a b l e t o g e t r i d o f th e p o o r . How much can be e x p e c t - ed from h a l f - a - d o z e n l i n e s o f t e x t ? The l o n g e r a c c o u n t o f A ppian d e t a i l s t h e p r o c e s s : t h e p o o r were b o ug ht out w i l l i n g l y o r u n w i l l i n g l y . P l u t a r c h I s i n t e r e s t e d o n ly i n h i g h l i g h t i n g th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f r i c h and p o o r and i s co n t e n t t o s lo u g h o v e r l e g a l n i c e t i e s . I n a s e n s e I t i s t r u e t h a t he f a l s i f i e d th e o r i g i n a l , b u t t h e r e i s no l i k e l i h o o d t h a t he f o llo w e d a d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e . N e i t h e r F r a c c a r o 's n o r C a r d i n a l ! ' s e x p l a n a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y . A ppian c o n t i n u e s w i t h a l e n g t h y a c c o u n t ( 7 .2 9 - 31; 8 .3 2 ) o f th e e v i l e f f e c t s o f th e g ro w th o f l a t i f u n d i s m on I t a l y . He s p e c i f i e s t h r e e t h i n g s : gang s o f s l a v e s r e p l a c ed t h e f r e e l a b o r e r ; p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e d and w i t h i t th e a v a i l a b l e s u p p ly o f r e c r u i t s f o r th e arm y. In t h e s i n g l e s e n te n c e P l u t a r c h d e v o te s t o th e m a t t e r , he e m p h a siz e s th e same t h r e e t h i n g s (TG 8 . 3 ) . However, i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e w e ig h t o f t h e p ro p a g a n d a e m b e llis h m e n t i s on A p p ia n 's s i d e . P l u t a r c h b r i e f l y m e n tio n s t h a t a l l 108 I t a l y was aware o f th e d e a r t h o f f r e e men and the- grow th o f th e s la v e p o p u l a t i o n . T his comment about I t a l y was e v i d e n t l y i n th e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t. Appian was a b le t o u se ; i t as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r e x p a t i a t i o n on th e sad c o n d itio n j o f th e I t a l i a n p e o p le , d w in d lin g i n num bers, o u tb re d by s l a v e s , o p p re sse d by w ant, ta x e s and m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . I f t h i s r e p r e s e n t s th e propaganda o f Gaius Gracchus a s has been s u g g e s te d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , th e n what we have h e re i s an e x te n s io n o f th e o r i g i n a l argum ent o f T ib e r iu s i n r e g a r d t o th e d e c l in e of th e Roman p o p u l a t i o n t o th e I t a l i a n s . Appian next sp eak s o f a law e n a c te d to c u r t a i l th e ex p an sio n o f l a t i f u n d i s m . Since no d a te f o r th e law i s g iv e n i n e i t h e r P l u t a r c h o r Appian, th e r e f e r e n c e has become a m ajor a re a o f d e b a te , w ith some s c h o l a r s h o ld in g t h a t i t sh o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e L i c i n i a n law o f th e fourth cen tu ry,^ or an updating of i t , 20 and the majority t h a t i t was e n a c te d a f t e r th e H a n n ib a lic War and b e fo re 1 6 7 when t h e r e i s a c l e a r r e f e r e n c e t o i t i n a fragm ent 21 o f C a to 's sp e ec h f o r th e R h odian s. Again P l u t a r c h d e a ls w ith th e m a tte r i n a few words compared t o Appians com p a r a t i v e l y ex te n d ed v e r s i o n . P l u t a r c h goes i n t o none o f A p p ia n 's d e t a i l s , b e in g c o n te n t w ith th e b a ld s ta te m e n t ohat a law r e s t r i c t i n g h o ld in g s to 50 0 ju g e r a was e n a c te d . B oth P l u t a r c h and Appian have b a s i c a l l y th e same v e r s io n o f how i t s p r o v i s i o n s were e lu d e d . F o r P l u t a r c h i t was by means o f f i c t i t i o u s t e n a n t s w h ile i n A p p ia n 's more e x te n d e d a cc o u n t r e l a t i v e s were in v o lv e d . LEX SEMPRONIA TG 9; b . c . 1 .9 .3 5 - 11 .4 7 Appian goes im m ed iately from th e d i s c u s s i o n o f a g e r p u b l ic u s t o th e l e g i s l a t i o n o f T i b e r i u s G racchus, w hile P l u t a r c h b re a k s away from th e o r i g i n a l and i n s e r t s a s e r i e s o f a n e c d o te s betw een th e two. D e sp ite th e f a c t t h a t P l u t a r c h ’s a c c o u n t i s c o n s i d e r a b ly s h o r t e r th a n A p p ia n ’s (by o v e r a h a l f ) and has a d i f f e r e n t propaganda v ie w p o in t, th e two a c c o u n ts p r e s e n t th e same b a s i c s e quence o f e v e n ts . F i r s t a d i f f i c u l t y a r i s e s w ith r e g a r d to th e s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een Appian 8 .3 3 , 9, 10 and 11 which a p p e a r to r e p e a t th e same arg u m e n ts. T i b e r i u s sp eak s i n 9 and 11; th e p o o r sp eak i n 10; and th e r i c h speak i n 8.3 3 and 11. The im p re s s io n i s g iv e n t h a t Appian has rew orked th e same b a s i c sp eech i n th e mouths o f th e t h r e e p r o t a g o n i s t s . A ppian’s s p e c i a l b i a s a p p e a rs i n c h a p te r 9 .3 5 - 36 where th e p o v e rty and c h i l d l e s s n e s s o f th e I t a l i a n s i s co n t r a s t e d w ith th e p r o l i f i c m u ltitu d e o f s l a v e s . In c h a p te r s 10 and 11 where th e same argum ent r e c u r s th e I t a l i a n s a re c t dropped and i t i s th e p o o r o<- Ti£V9'T£_^ i n one case and th e KoivoV i n th e o t h e r w hich a re c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e 110 s l a v e s . There I s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y s i m i l a r i t y betw een c x ' ' Appian 1 0.40 (from oc tt£VQT£s ) and c h a p t e r 11, a s though Appian to o k th e argum ents from th e sp e ec h i n e le v e n and re-1 a rra n g e d them t o a c t a s a c o n t r a s t w ith th e argum ents o f j th e p o s s e s s o r e s i n 10 .3 9 - 40 and f u r t h e r u se d them i n th e 1 s h o r t s e c t i o n o f 9 .3 5 - 3 6 . 22 One e x p la n a t i o n c o u ld be t h a t c h a p t e r 11 b e lo n g s t o th e o r i g i n a l so u rc e and th e v e r s i o n s o f i t a p p e a rin g i n 9 and 10 a r e A p p ia n 's d ra m a tic rew eav in g o f th e m a t e r i a l i n th e i n t e r e s t s o f h e ig h te n in g th e c o n t r a s t betw een th e d i s o r d e r and s t r i f e o f th e R e p u b lic and th e o r d e r and t r a n q u i l i t y o f th e P r i n c i p a t e . A more l i k e l y e x p la n a t i o n i s t h a t Appian was d i g e s t i n g a lo n g e r a cc o u n t o f th e whole l e g i s l a t i v e p r o c e s s w ith i t s c o n t i o n e s , a s s e m b lie s and v o tin g p r o c e d u r e s . 23 Hence c h ap t e r 9 r e p r e s e n t s one c o n ti o p e rh a p s on th e day o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e law; c h a p t e r 10 th e d i s c u s s i o n s a t Rome of th e law ; c h a p t e r 11 th e f i n a l c o n tio o f G racchus on th e day o f p4 th e v o tin g i t s e l f . I t i s re a s o n a b le t o e x p e c t t h a t i n A p p ia n 1s d i g e s t e d acco u n t a l l t h r e e d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e p r o p o s a l s sh o u ld a l i k e . The e q u iv a le n t i n P l u t a r c h i s 9 . 4 - 5 where a f r a g ment o f T i b e r i u s ’ sp eech i s r e c o r d e d i n an o b v io u s ly d i g e s te d form . N o n e th e le s s i t c o n ta in s th e same p o i n t s a s do th e sp eech es i n A ppian. True t o h i s propaganda view p o i n t , P l u t a r c h i s more c o n cern ed w ith showing up th e I l l r a p a c i t y o f th e r i c h th a n w ith th e d e c l i n e o f th e s t u r d y p e a s a n t s o l d i e r o f I t a l y which i s A p p ia n 's s p e c i a l view p o i n t . C h a p te r 9 b e lo n g s t o th e n a r r a t i v e begun i n 8 .3 (th e p ro -G ra cc h an so u rc e ) and t h e r e f o r e c o n tin u e s th e c o n t r a s t o f r i c h and p o o r. T i b e r i u s was n o t co n cern ed w ith th e d e c l in e o f th e I t a l i a n sm a ll fa rm e r and t h e r e f o r e h i s law was c r e a t e d to b e n e f i t Roman c i t i z e n s . Appian g iv e s th e f a l s e im p re s s io n t h a t th e o p p o s ite was th e c a s e , b u t as can be seen from th e com parison w ith P l u t a r c h , th e o r i g i n a l a cco u n t made no m ention o f th e I t a l i a n s . T i b e r i u s ' sp e ec h i n TG 9 .^ i s e v i d e n t l y a d i g e s t o f a lo n g e r harangue i n th e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t w hich p ro b a b ly a rg u e d t h a t th e Romans who had con q u e re d I t a l y had l o s t r a t h e r th a n g a in e d . Appian sim ply made t h i s same argum ent th e p o s i t i o n o f th e I t a l i a n s . There i s no re a s o n why th e s o c i i nom inis L a t i n i who were a t tim e s a l s o members o f Roman c o lo n ie s and who d o u b tle s s p o s s e s s e d t r a c t s o f a g e r p u b lic u s c o u ld n o t have come t o Rome to e x p re s s t h e i r o p i n i o n s . 25 From t h e i r p re s e n c e i n Rome, Appian was a b le t o d e v elo p h i s propaganda a s p e c t and p l a u s i b l y e x te n d T i b e r i u s ' law t o in c lu d e I t a l i a n s . On th e o t h e r hand, P l u t a r c h , who was a rg u in g f o r o t h e r ends, i g n o red th e I t a l i a n manpower c r i s i s and c o n c e n tr a te d on th e i n j u s t i c e s u f f e r e d by th e p o o r. THE DEPOSITION OF OCTAVIUS TG 10 - 1 2 j b . c . 1 .1 2 .4 8 - 54 At th e b e g in n in g o f t h i s s e c t i o n F r a c c a r o comments i n an u n i n te n d e d t r i b u t e t o P l u t a r c h ' s p r o p a g a n d i s t s a b i l i t y : . . . i l m ale e che d a l N i t z s c h i n p o i n e ssu n a e s p o s i z i o n e s t o r i c a d i q u e s t i f a t t i ha s a p u to i n te r a m e n te l i b e r a r s i da q u e s t e s u p e r f e t a z i o n i (S t u d i . p . 9 4 ) . R e v e rs in g t h e p r e v i o u s o r d e r , P l u t a r c h d e v o te s o v e r tw ic e a s much sp a ce t o th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s and p l a c e s heavy em p h a sis on th e d r a m a tic a s p e c t s o f t h e e v e n t . A lth o u g h much more d e t a i l e d i n P l u t a r c h , t h e b a s i c o u t l i n e o f th e e v e n t s i s th e same i n b o t h a c c o u n t s . N o rm ally , i t i s assum ed t h a t P l u t a r c h sa y s n o t h i n g o f th e f i r s t d a y 's c o m itia and O c t a v i u s ' f i r s t v e t o . ^ How e v e r , t h e s t a te m e n t i n c h a p t e r 1 0 .2 t h a t O c ta v iu s h e l d o f f p a s s a g e o f th e b i l l , c o u p le d w i t h t h e comment a b o u t th e v e to power o f t r i b u n e s i n Roman law , seems a good p a r a l l e l t o A ppian 48. I f O c ta v iu s d i d n o t i n t e r p o s e h i s v e to a t t h i s tim e , t h e r e i s no e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th e b a t t l e s b etw een him and T i b e r i u s i n th e c o n t l o n e s m e n tio n e d i n 1 0 .4 . T h is seems t o be c o n firm e d by a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n i n TG 1 2 .1 w here G racchus on th e t h i r d day i s s t i l l t r y i n g t o p e rs u a d e O c ta v iu s t o remove h i s v e t o . A lth o u g h P l u t a r c h d o e s n o t r e p e a t th e p r e c i s e fo rm u la i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e v e to was b e in g i n t e r p o s e d . I n o t h e r w ords, P l u t a r c h a s u s u a l 113 i g n o r e s th e c h r o n o l o g i c a l and l e g a l a s p e c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t o t e l l h i s s t o r y i n t h e most c o m p e llin g m anner p o s s i b l e . Hence a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s no e x p r e s s s t a t e m e n t o f a v e to on th e se co n d day, no o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . T h ere i s a p a r a l l e l s i t u a t i o n i n b . £ . 1 2 .5 1 w here T i b e r i u s o b v io u s ly a d jo u r n e d t h e asse m b ly b u t no e x p r e s s m en tio n i s made o f i t . When P l u t a r c h s a y s O c ta v iu s r e b u f f e d T i b e r i u s he was r e f e r r i n g t o O c t a v i u s ' r e f u s a l t o l i f t h i s v e t o . Hence, a lt h o u g h th e e x a c t se q u en c e i s h a z y , t h e r e a r e t h r e e d a y s and t h r e e s e p a r a t e v e to e s i n e a c h a c c o u n t. S in c e b o th w r i t e r s have l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r c h ro n o lo g y , th e y g iv e th e im p r e s s io n t h a t th e p r o m u lg a tio n o f T i b e r i u s 1 a g r a r i a n law , t h e v e to and d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s and th e p a s s a g e o f th e S em pronian law a l l o c c u r r e d i n a v e ry s h o r t sp a ce o f t im e . Some a t t e m p t s have b een made t o e s t a b l i s h a c h r o n o l o g y ,2^ b u t th e e s s e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t we have no i d e a when t h e a g r a r i a n b i l l was f i r s t p ro p o s e d , what d i e s c o m i t i a l e s w ere a v a i l a b l e i n t h e y e a r 133* w h e th e r th e a b r o g a t i o n o f O c ta v iu s was a law o r an e l e c t i o n and i f a law , when i t was p ro p o s e d . B oth P l u t a r c h and Appian i n d i c a t e t h a t th e d e c i s i o n t o remove O c ta v iu s was t a k e n and p r e s e n t e d on th e se co n d c o m i t i a l day a f t e r th e f r u i t l e s s v i s i t o f T i b e r i u s t o th e s e n a t e . I f th e a b r o g a t i o was c o n s i d e r e d l e g i s l a t i o n , th e tr in u m nundinum , s e v e n te e n t o tw e n ty f o u r d a y s , would have | 114 ! t o e l a p s e . 2^ P l u t a r c h (12 .1) c a l l s th e rem oval o f O c tav iu s ia law* h u t i t i s u n re a s o n a b le to demand l e g a l e x a c tn e s s 'fro m him i n t h i s r e g a r d . Appian say s n o th in g o f a law . Most s c h o l a r s assume t h a t a b r o g a t io was a l e g i s l a t i v e act* a lth o u g h Geer f e e l s i t was an e l e c t i o n . 2^ His r e a s o n in g i s i t h a t i f i t were a n y th in g b u t an e l e c t i o n i t would have been I v e to e d . F raccaro * however* c i t i n g Mommsen sa y s t h a t a I t r i b u n i c i a n v e to was i n a p p l i c a b l e t o an a c t o f a b r o g a t i o . | I f th e r o g a t i o was f i r s t i n tr o d u c e d aro und December j :16* s i x days a f t e r T i b e r i u s e n te r e d o f f ic e * i t would have come up f o r v o tin g on e i t h e r J a n u a ry 8 o r 12. I f O ctav iu s j i v e to e d th e b i l l f o r th e f i r s t tim e on e i t h e r o f th e s e days* th e n e x t a v a i l a b l e c o m i t i a l day was e i t h e r Ja n u a ry 31 | 12 o r 16. Next comes O c ta v iu s ' second veto* T i b e r i u s ' ^ r o g a t i o on O ctav iu s and a n o th e r i n t e r v a l o f 17 t o 24 days* iw hich would b r i n g u s t o F e b ru a ry 18 as th e n e x t a v a i l a b l e c o m i t i a l d ay. At t h i s tim e O ctav iu s was deposed and th e I a g r a r i a n law p a s s e d . T h is would be th e e a r l i e s t p o s s i b l e j < tim e and th e t o t a l amount o f tim e r e q u i r e d would be betw een : 38 and 52 d a y s . 32 i APPROVAL OF THE AGRARIAN LEGISLATION | TG 1 3 .1 ; 1 4 .2 - 6; b . c . 1 .1 3 .5 4 . i ! | The s e l e c t i o n o f O c ta v iu s ' s u c c e s s o r and th e a g r a r i a n | commission i s a rra n g e d d i f f e r e n t l y i n P l u t a r c h and Ap- 115 p l a n . From t h i s C a rc o p in o d e d u ce s t h a t A ppian i s c o r r e c t and P l u t a r c h wrong on th e b a s i s t h a t w i t h o u t a f u l l c o l l e g e o f t r i b u n e s t h e r e w ould be a v i t i u m i n th e p a s s a g e 3 4 o f th e law . T h is seems o v e r l y s u b t l e i n t h a t b o t h P l u t a r c h and A ppian a re su m m arizin g and a s a r u l e pay no a t - . t e n t i o n t o l e g a l n i c e t i e s o r c h ro n o lo g y o u t s i d e t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p ro p a g a n d a v i e w p o i n t s . How e v e r , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t b o t h a u t h o r s ig n o r e C i c e r o 's a l l e g e d i l l e g a l i t y o f t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e com m ission from 35 a s i n g l e f a m i l y . F r a c c a r o a r g u e s t h a t C i c e r o 's a l l e g a t i o n i s p o s t fa c tu m and t h a t th e p r o h i b i t i o n was in v o k ed o n ly a f t e r t h e G racchan p e r i o d . ^ Even i f t h e r e was no c o n te m p o ra ry d e b a te on th e l e g a l i t y o f th e a c t , t h e p o l i t i c a l - a s p e c t s would n o t have b een i g n o r e d . I n s t a n d a r d Roman f a s h i o n , th e o p p o s i t i o n would have a rg u e d t h a t th e G racch an s were a im in g a t a regnum . ' C oupled w ith th e rum ors o f t h e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s and t h e c o n n e c ti o n o f t h e j S e m p ro n ii w i t h th e A t t a l i d s , t h e r e w ould have b e e n some J o O j g ro u d s f o r p r o d u c in g th e w e ll- w o r n c h a r g e . P o m p e iu s1 j a c c u s a t i o n i n TG 14 and N a s i c a 's a s s e r t i o n b e f o r e t h e p e o p le t h a t T i b e r i u s was a im in g a t a ty r a n n y (G io d . 3 4 /3 5 . i 3 3 .7 ) b o t h b e lo n g t o t h i s c a t e g o r y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , Appian h a s n o t h i n g t o sa y o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n and t h e r e i s a com p l e t e gap b etw een th e a p p o in tm e n t o f th e a g r a r i a n commis- 116 s i o n and th e f i n a l c a t a s t r o p h e „ There a re no r e f e r e n c e s t o th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s , th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e Greek c i t i e s o r th e second l e g i s l a t i v e program and only the b r i e f e s t a l l u s i o n to Pom peius' t h r e a t o f impeachment and none a t a l l t o th e c h a rg e s o f M e te llu s and L uscus. ^ P r e v io u s ly i t has been arg u e d t h a t th e e x o n e r a tio n of T i b e r i u s i n th e a p o l o g e t i c so u rc e fo r c e d P l u t a r c h to s w itc h t o a n ti-G ra c c h a n s o u rc e s t o e s t a b l i s h h i s th e o r y o f m oral d e t e r i o r a t i o n on T i b e r i u s ' p a r t . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t th e s p a r s e n e s s o f m a t e r i a l i n th e a p o lo g e ti c so u rc e (and t h e r e f o r e u l t i m a t e l y i n th e common so u rc e s h a re d by P lu t a r c h and Appian) fo r c e d him t o lo o k e lsew h e re f o r t h i s in f o r m a ti o n . The f a c t t h a t th e p ro -G ra cc h an so u rc e t e r m i n a te s a t e x a c tl y th e same p o i n t i n b o th P l u t a r c h and Ap p i a n seems t o c o n firm t h e i r u se o f a common s o u r c e . RE-ELECTION AND CATASTROPHE TG 18 - 19; b . c . I . l 4 . 5 8 - 17.72 I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t th e a c c o u n ts o f P l u t a r c h and Appian c o v e rin g G racchu s' a tte m p te d r e - e l e c t i o n and a s s a s s i n a t i o n go back u l t i m a t e l y t o th e same s o u r c e . While t h e r e a re n o ta b le s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e r e a re a ls o im p o rta n t d i f f e r e n c e s . The most s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l i s th e sudden c o ll a p s e i n b o th a c c o u n ts o f th e p o s i t i o n o f T i b e r i u s . One moment he 117 i s h o no red by th e p e o p le a s th e fo u n d e r o f a l l I t a l y (h.c.. 1 .1 3 .5 6 ) , h i s a g r a r i a n law h as b een p a s s e d and h i s f a c t i o n h as com plete c o n t r o l o f th e a g r a r i a n com m ission. In th e n e x t i n s t a n t i n b o th P l u t a r c h and Appian, T i b e r i u s i s i n m o r ta l d a n g e r. N e i t h e r a c c o u n t can s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e x p l a i n th e sudden change o f f o r t u n e . O th er th a n t h i s , t h e r e a re more c o n t r a s t s th a n sim i l a r i t i e s . In Appian, f o r exam ple, i t i s th e G racchans who make th e f i r s t move to w a rd s v io le n c e when th e y d r i v e t h e i r o p p onents out o f th e l a s t a sse m b ly , w h ile P l u t a r c h sa y s n o th in g o f t h i s . The f i n a l s c e n e s a r e e q u a l ly d i v e rg e n t i n b o th f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l and prop ag anda v ie w p o in ts . 118 NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 ■'■i.e. th e In te rm e d ia r y so u rc e s u se d by P l u t a r c h : and Appian. The a ssu m p tio n I s t h a t th e In te r m e d ia r y j s o u r c e s o f th e s e two w r i t e r s (term ed "th e a p o l o g i s t " in th e case o f P l u t a r c h TG 8 - 1 3 .3 and 18 - 2 1 .3 ) had a c c e s s ; t o very a n c ie n t m a t e r i a l which th e y u sed f o r t h e i r own pur-: p o s e s . In c h a p te r s 8 - 1 3 .1 o f T ib e r iu s Gracchus and b.c_. ; 1 .7 - 1 3j th e same so u rc e was a p p a r e n t l y u se d by th e s e in te r m e d ia r y a u th o r s , b u t w ith d i f f e r e n t propaganda aim s. p F o r th e use o f a common so u rc e , e . g . G. C a r d in a l! S tu d i g r a c c a n i . Genoa, 1912, p . 47 et_ p a s s im ; P. F ra c c a r o S t u d i , p . bb e t p a s s im ; a g a i n s t th e u se o f a common s o u rc e ; e . g . F. T aeg er, T i b e r i u s G ra cc h u s. S t u t t g a r t , 1928, p . 72 e t p a s s im ; J . Ca r c op'ino,' Aut'our des G ra cq u e s. P a r i s , 1928, p. 5 f .; E. Gabba, Appiano e la s't'or'i'a delTe G uerre C i v i l i . F lo r e n c e , 1956, p . 3 ? / n . l . It' m ight be added t h a t th o se who oppose th e u se o f a common so u rc e by P l u t a r c h and Appian, u s u a l l y f a v o r Appian. E .g . C arcopino p . 5: "La n a r r a t i o n des f a i t s s ' y p o u r s u i t , so b re e t p l e i n e , lum ineuse e t v iv a n te , comme une t r a g e d i e c l a s s i q u e s ' a - chemine au denouem ent. P o in t de d i g r e s s i o n s I n u t i l e s ; pas de p h ra s e s a e f f e t . " Cf. a l s o p . 45. ^ C a r d i n a l i rem arks t h a t com parisons o f P l u t a r c h and Appian have pro d u ced "un ampio paludam ento f a t t o non s o lo d i e r u d i z io n e , ma t a l v o l t a anche d i f a n t a s i a , " (op. c i t . p . 4 6 ) . 4 E. Gabba, B ello ru m C iv iliu m L ib e r P rim u s. F l o r e n c e , 1958, p. 12 ( c i t e d : Gabba); J . W. K ub itsch e k, RE s . v . A d s ig n a t io . ( T ^ ^Mommsen, St_.R. i i , p . 551; A. B urdese, S tu d i s u l l ra g e r p u b l i c u s . T u rin , 1952, p . 4 3 f . Gabba, lo c 7 b i t . ^Mommsen, op. c i t . p . 459* ^ L iv . 2 7 .3 .1 ; 1 1 .8 ; 4 2 .1 9 ; C ic, de l e g , a g r . 2 . 76 and 8 0 . ^C f. b . c . I . 1 8 . 7 8 ; C a r d in a l! , op. c i t . p . l 6 0 f . G. T i b i l e t t i , AtHenaeum, 1948, p . 180. ^ L iv . 3 1 .1 3 .7 w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e la n d d i s t r i b u - 119 t e d as q u i t r e n t t o c r e d i t o r s d u r in g th e Second M acedonian War; F r a c c a r o , S tu d i p . 6 7 and C a r d i n a l i , op. c i t . p . 99 a rg u e f o r th e t a x ; B u rd ese, op. c i t . p . 64 a g a i n s t . 1 0F r a c c a r o , S tu d i p . 6 7 w ith more r e f e r e n c e s ; Gabba, p . 10. "^A gain n o t P l u t a r c h h i m s e l f , b u t h i s s o u r c e . 1 2op. c i t . p . 9 7 . ■^Gabba, p . 15 f e e l s t h a t t h i s p o i n t s t o th e non- Roman so u rc e used, by Appian; however, an e x c l u s i v e l y dem ographic i n t e r e s t on th e p a r t o f Rome f i t s th e second c e n tu r y w e l l: F r a c c a r o , p . 6 8 , 6 9 , n . l ; opposed, T i b i - l e t t i , Athenaeum, 1950, p . l 8 3 f . -^Gabba, p . 15. " ^ C a r d i n a l i , op. c i t . p . 9 8 ; F r a c c a ro , op. c i t . P. 74. ■ ^ F ra cc aro , l o c . c i t . 1 7G 5 t t . g e l , a n z . 158 ( 1 8 9 6 ), p . 801. ■^An i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l i n term s o f s i m i l a r c o m p o sitio n i s o f f e r e d by H. H. S c u l l a r d , From th e G racchi t o N ero. London, 1 9 6 6, p . 20: ". . . i t so happened th a t' a s a r e s u l t o f th e H a n n ib a lic War th e S t a t e had much a g e r p u b lic u s o f which t o d is p o s e : when u n a b le t o a t t r a c t th e p e a s a n t - f a r m e r back t o i t , th e S t a t e was rea d y t o l e a s e i t out i n l a r g e a ssig n m e n ts t o anyone who had th e c a p i t a l and v i s i o n t o u n d e rta k e th e v e n t u r e ." S c u l l a r d i s o b v io u sly n o t sp e a k in g o f " l e a s e s " i n th e s t r i c t se n se o f Roman law a s he does f o r exam ple, l a t e r on (p. 2 6 f . ) , where he means o c c u p a t i o . ■ ^ c a r d i n a l i , op. c i t . p . 129; W. S o lta u , Hermes 30 (1895), P . 824. 2 0Gabba, p . 20. 2^0RF2 f r . 1 6 7 = G e ll. 6 . 3 . 3 7 ; B. N ie se, Hermes 23 (1888), p . 4 l 0 f . F r a c c a r o , S t u d i , p . 71; T i b i l e t t i , Athenaeum, 1949* P. 12; J . Carcop'ino, Des Gracques a S y l l a , 3 i d e n t i f i e s th e law w ith th e a tte m p ts o f C rassu s i n l4'5 on th e b a s i s o f V arro, r . r . 1 . 2 . 9 ; b u t c f . T i b i - 120 l e t t i , Athenaeum 1950., p . 2 3 6 . 2 2c f . Gabba, p . 30: M a s t r o f i n i I n t e r p r e t s 43 as r e f e r r i n g t o th e c o n t r a s t betw een r i c h and p o o r i n ch ap t e r 1 0 . F r a c c a r o , S t u d i , p . 83; Gabba, p . 24 a c c e p ts F r a c c a r o 's d a t i n g o f t h i s sp e ec h o f T i b e r i u s i n December 134, soon a f t e r t a k i n g o f f i c e ; C arcopino, Des Gracques p . 206 p r e f e r s March 133 a f t e r th e d e p a r t u r e of" th e a n t i - G racchan" c o n s u l, L. C a lp u rn iu s P is o . F o r v o tin g p r o c e d u re s see L.R. T a y lo r , Roman V o tin g A s s e m b lie s . Ann Arbor, 1 9 6 6, p p . 1 6 , 5 7, 74, X l’ S’ / ' n V 4; G.W. B o ts f o r d , Roman A sse m b lies. New York, 1909; C a r d i n a l i , op. c i t . pT T 55~ 24 Mommsen, S t.R . i i i , p . 395; R.M. Geer, TAPhA 70 (1939), P. 30; T a y lo r op. c i t . p . 74; D.C. EarlT T ib e r iu s G racchus, B r u s s e l s , l9'6'3, p . 84, 25 c a r d i n a l i , o£. c i t . p . l 6 0 f . ; F ra c c a r o , S tu d i p . 8 3f . ; Gabba, p . 29. 2^R.M. Geer, S tu d ie s i n Honor o f E.K. Rand, New York, 1938j P. 106; J . C arco p in o , A utour des G racques, p . 13; Gabba,^ p . 34. E .g . C arco p in o , p .' T3”:""CYest'"donc q u ' i l se r e p r e s e n t a i t 1 1i n t e r c e s s i o d 'O c ta v iu s sous un t o u t a u t r e j o u r , e t q u ' i l I 1 a s ’ i t u ^ e s u r un p la n in c o n - c i l i a b l e avec c e l u i de P l u t a r q u e ." 2 7Geer, TAPhA p . 30 - 3 6 . 2^ B o ts fo rd , op. c i t . p . 260, n . l 2 ^C arcop ino, A uto ur, p . 2 6 ; B o ts f o r d , op. c i t . p . 3 6 6 f .; Geer, Rand S t u d i e s , p . 109. 3 ° F ra c c a ro , S tu d i, p . 112, n . 2; Mommsen, S t.R i ^ , p . 2 8 7, n . l . ^ B o t s f o r d , op. c i t . p . 471, n . 3; G. M ancini, I I C a le n d a r i o . Rome, 1941: in c l u d e s s e v e r a l p l a t e s of p r e - J u T i a n c a l e n d a r s , 32 F ra c c a ro p ro p o se s A p r il 27 f o r th e t h i r d assem b l y (S t u d i , p . 108); Geer, (TAPhA) s u g g e s ts F e b ru a ry 18 f o r th e second assem bly and F e b ru a ry 19 f o r th e t h i r d ; Gabba r e j e c t s t h i s (p. 3 § ). The f o llo w in g r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s b a sed on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t P l u t a r c h and Appian sp eak o f 121 t h r e e s e p a r a t e c o m i t i a l d ay s. A g ra ria n law p ro p o se d (Decem b e r l 6 - 1 9 ) F i r s t c o m i t i a l day and O ctav i u s ' f i r s t v e to (Ja n u ary 8 o r 12) B a t t l e betw een th e t r i b u n e s (Ja n u a ry 8 - 12 o r 12 - 16) Second c o m i t i a l day and Oc t a v i u s ' second v e to (Ja n u a r y 12 o r 1 6 ); T i b e r i u s ' r o g a t i o on O ctav iu s T h ird c o m i t i a l day: a b r o g a t io n o f O c ta v iu s ' o f f i c e and th e p a ssa g e o f th e a g r a r i a n law (F eb ru ary 1 8 ). 38 52 ^ A n o t h e r ite m o f d isa g re e m e n t betw een Appian and P l u t a r c h i s i n th e t i t l e o f th e a g r a r i a n com m ission. A ccording t o Appian th e I l l v i r i were a p p o in te d only to d iv id e th e la n d ; P l u t a r c h however says t h a t th ey were t o a d j u d i c a t e and d i v i d e . L ivy, p e r . 58 has d iv id e only a s i n Appian, b u t adds t h a t l a t e r THe commission a l s o a c q u ir e d th e power t o d e c id e d i s p u t e d c a s e s . A p p a ren tly th e so u rc e s o f b o th P l u t a r c h and Appian were sum m arizing a f u l l e r acco u n t so t h a t th e d iv e rg e n c e amounts m erely to a d i f f e r e n t c h o ic e o f ite m s . 28; r e f u t e d by Geer, TAPhA, p . 110. 3 5 c ic . de l e g . a g r . 2 .2 1 ; L iv . p e r . 5 8 ; V e i l . 2. 2 .3 . F r a c c a r o , S tu d i, p . 1 1 9 f. 37 S c ip io A fric a n u s M aior was a cc u sed o f s e e k in g a regnum : L iv . 3 8 .5 4 .1 ; P o ly b . 1 0 .4 0 , a s were S a tu r n in u s , Cinna, U a t i l i n e , C aesar; c f , Ch. W irsz u b sk i, L i b e r t a s as a P o l i t i c a l Idea a t Rome. Cambridge, i 9 6 0, p . 62.' Minimum Maximum 17 days 24 days x x (P robably f o u r days) 1 7 days 24 days 122 qQ FraccarO j S t u d l , p . 1 3 6 ; C ic. de a m lc . 41; de_ r e p . 2<,49; 6 .8 ; B r u t . 212; S a i l . J u g . 3177 3 9 b .c . 1 .1 3 .5 6 = M e t e l l u s ' sp eech In TG 1 4 .4 ; 57 = th e a rg u m en t o f L uscus. 123 CHAPTER 4 TIBERIUS GRACCHUS: RADICAL CONSERVATIVE 1. W AS T I. GRACCHUS A REVOLUTIONARY? From th e a n a l y s i s o f th e so u rc e s i t i s now p o s s i b l e to go on t o an e v a l u a t i o n o f th e t r i b u n a t e o f T i. G racchus. I t has been determ ined., a t l e a s t t o some e x t e n t , th e degree t o w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l so u rc e s a re b i a s e d f o r o r a g a i n s t th e G racch i and on t h i s b a s i s i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e to a s s e s s more a c c u r a t e l y th e v a lu e of judgm ents p a s s e d on t h i s 1 im p o rta n t e v e n t. The a n c ie n t a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n s a re alm o st u n animous t h a t T ib e r iu s caused an u p h e a v a l in th e s t a t e , but th e y a re very vague a s t o th e e x a c t n a tu r e o f h i s s e d i t i o u s a c t i v i t i e s . Sometimes th e c h a rg e s a re r e l i g i o u s , som etim es m oral o r p o l i t i c a l . He i s a c c u se d o f h a v in g so ugh t a regnum o r a d o m in a tio or o f h a v in g v i o l a t e d t r i b u - n i c i a n s a c r o s a n c t i t y . Only r a r e l y i s i t a l l e g e d t h a t th e a g r a r i a n a s p e c ts o f h i s l e g i s l a t i o n o r th e a p p e a l t o the p e o p le was r e v o l u t i o n a r y . I t has t h e r e f o r e been l e f t t o modern h i s t o r i a n s to d e te rm in e th e e x a c t n a tu r e o f T i. G racchus' r e v o l u t i o n . Not many d is a g r e e as to th e n a tu r e o f th e c r i s i s fa c e d by T i b e r i u s a lth o u g h t h e r e i s g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f o p in io n as r e g a r d s the p la c e o f em ph asis. F or th e most p a r t t h e r e i s g e n e r a l agreem ent t h a t th e wars from 2 1 8 to 133 c u t 124 d e e p ly i n t o Roman manpower r e s o u r c e s and made demands t h a t th e o ld p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s were u n a b le t o b e a r . At t h i s p o i n t th e d is a g re e m e n t b e g i n s . A m a j o r i t y o f h i s t o r i a n s a c c e p t th e propaganda t r a d i t i o n s o f th e G racchans ( i . e . P l u t a r c h , TG 8 f . and Appian, b . £ . I . 7 f . ) w hich c la im e d t h a t T i b e r i u s ' o p p onents were narrow -m inded o b s t r u c t i o n i s t s , whose v e s te d i n t e r e s t s p r e v e n te d them from s e e i n g how 2 tim e s had changed. T i b e r i u s on th e o t h e r hand, i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s a f a r s e e in g s ta te s m a n whose modest p r o p o s a l was r e j e c t e d by th e g re e d o f h i s o p pon ents who were so c o r r u p t t h a t th e y e v e n t u a l l y d id away w ith t h e i r o b s t r e p e ro u s to r m e n to r . These i n t e r p r e t e r s f e e l t h a t th e c r i s i s f a c e d by G racchus was more o r l e s s as P l u t a r c h and Appian d e s c r i b e i t . L a t i f u n d i a c o v e re d I t a l y , s q u e e z in g o u t th e s m a ll fa rm e rs who stre a m e d t o Rome and th e towns o f I t a l y c r e a t i n g a u s e l e s s p r o l e t a r i a t and l e a v i n g h o rd e s o f s l a v e s and f l o c k s o f sheep and c a t t l e In t h e i r p l a c e . Hence th e c r i s i s was p r i m a r i l y a g r a r i a n and s o c i a l i n c h a r a c t e r . The d e g e n e r a te g o v e rn in g c l a s s had a llo w e d th e c r i s i s t o d e v e lo p w ith o u t d o in g a n y th in g ab o u t i t and w ith th e r i s e o f G racchus began t h e i r r e a r - g u a r d b a t t l e a g a i n s t change t h a t ended w ith th e P r i n c i p a t e . G ra cc h u s' p r o p o s a l s , even i f e n a c te d , had o n ly a m oderate chance o f s u c c e s s b u t i n th e f a c e o f ad am antine o p p o s i t i o n th e y had no chance a t a l l . As f o r th e a c t u a l co u rse o f e v e n ts d u r in g G racchus' t r i b u n a t e , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t h i s o r i g i n a l l y moder a t e p o s i t i o n h ard en ed and as th e o p p o s i t io n grew more and more i n t r a n s i g e n t , G racch u s' p r o p o s a ls became more and more r a d i c a l . F i r s t th e a g r a r i a n law had a com pensatory c la u s e w hich was l a t e r w ithdraw n. In th e fa c e o f th e t r i b u n i c i a n v e to o f O c ta v iu s, T ib e r iu s was fo r c e d t o ta k e d r a s t i c a c t i o n and when h a m -stru n g by s h o rta g e o f fu n d s, he i n t e r f e r e d w ith th e most p r e c i o u s o f a l l s e n a t o r i a l p r e r o g a t i v e s , th e h a n d lin g o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . He p ro p o se d t o d i s t r i b u t e A t t a l u s ' h e r i t a g e t o th e m asses and have th e p e o p le s e t t l e th e q u e s t io n o f th e Greek c i t i e s o f Asia by p l e b i s c i t e . He went even f u r t h e r and p ro p o se d a th e o r y o f p o p u la r s o v e r e ig n ty more r a d i c a l th a n th e democracy a t A thens. F i n a l l y , when i n d i f f i c u l t i e s b e fo re h i s r e - e l e c t i o n b id , he p ro p o se d a n o th e r l e g i s l a t i v e program even more r a d i c a l th a n th e f i r s t . There i s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n s e e in g P l u t a r c h 's T i -, b e r i u s Gracchus u n d e r ly in g t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h is b i o graphy a l s o b e g in s w ith th e m oderate and h u m a n ita ria n p r o p o s a l s o f T i b e r i u s and t r a c e s th e e v o lu t i o n from m odera- : t i o n t o r e v o l u t i o n and th e h a rd e n in g o f p o s i t i o n s on b o th s i d e s . I t i s a l o g i c a l and s a t i s f y i n g a cc o u n t b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y i t i s more a triu m p h f o r th e s o u rc e s o f T ib e r iu s , Gracchus th a n f o r h i s t o r y . Because G racchan h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i s b a s i c a l l y p r o p a g a n d i s t s , none o f i t can be a c c e p te d a t fa c e v a lu e . As a com prehensive e x p la n a tio n , t h i s th e o r y i s u n a c c e p ta b le and i t i s slo w ly b e in g r e p la c e d by a n o th e r a lth o u g h i n some r e s p e c t s i t combined th e fra g m e n ta ry e v i d ence more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n i t s re p la c e m e n t. The new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s much more c a u tio u s about d e f i n i n g th e n a tu r e o f th e c r i s i s fa c e d by G ra cch u s.^ I t p l a y s down o r even d e n ie s a g r a r i a n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and i n s i s t s t h a t Gracchus 1 aims were p r i m a r i l y p o l i t i c a l i n th e t r a d i t i o n a l Roman s e n s e . I t s p ro p o n e n ts q u e s t io n th e o v e r a l l im p o rtan ce g iv e n t o th e a g r a r i a n c r i s i s i n th e o l d e r th e o ry and em phasize i n s t e a d th e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f G rac c h u s' o b j e c t i v e s . He may have aimed a t a l l e v i a t i n g p o v e rty o r r e d u c in g th e t h r e a t o f s la v e r e v o l t s , b u t h i s main ob j e c t , as Appian s t a t e s , was manpower f o r th e army. As a b y - p r o d u c t, th e r e would be an enormous i n c r e a s e i n G rac c h u s' own p o l i t i c a l power. T i b e r i u s a c te d w i th in th e norm al framework o f Roman p o l i t i c s as a member o f a f a c t i o n whose main o b j e c t was th e i n c r e a s e o f p o l i t i c a l power th ro u g h th e en la rg em en t o f i t s c l i e n t e l a . The immediate o b je c t o f th e l e g i s l a t i o n was to so lv e th e r e c r u i t i n g c r i s i s o f th e army, b u t th e lo ng te rm g o a l was th e in c r e a s e o f th e f a c t i o n ' s p o l i t i c a l power. As r e g a r d s th e a c t u a l co u rse o f e v e n t s , t n i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n o t much d i f f e r e n t th a n th e o t h e r m entioned a b o v e . G racchus b e g an m o d e r a te ly b u t became more and more r a d i c a l a s th e o p p o s i t i o n s t i f f e n e d . In b o t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , G racchus a p p e a rs a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y , a l t h o u g h th e se c o n d would c la im t h a t he a t l e a s t b e g an w i t h i n th e n o r m al, c o n s e r v a t i v e bounds o f Roman p o l i t i c s . However, th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s and th e h a ra n g u e o f c h a p t e r 15 o f T i b e r i u s G racchus a r e o f su c h r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r t h a t i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o a rg u e t h a t t h e se co n d p h a se o f G ra c c h u s' t r i b u n a t e was a s c o n s e r v a t i v e a s t h e f i r s t . In t h i s seco n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , th e p ro p ag a n d a s o u r c e s a r e more c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e d , b u t i n t h e i r own i n s i d i o u s 4 way, th e y triu m p h a g a i n . The c la im o f p u r e l y p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s f o r T i b e r i u s f i t s i n w e l l w ith t h e h i g h l y d e v e lo p e d a n ti - G r a e c h a n t r a d i t i o n w hich i n t e r p r e t e d h i s t r i b u n a te a s an u n d i s g u i s e d b i d f o r d o m i n a t i o . None o f t h e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s answ er th e one f u n d a m e n ta l q u e s t i o n o f why G ra c c h u s ' t r i b u n a t e was a s e x p lo s iv e and d e c i s i v e a s i t w as. The f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would blam e th e o p p o s i t i o n and c la im t h a t G racchus i n s t e a d o f c h o o s in g r a d i c a l m e a su re s, was d r i v e n t o them . The second h a s r e a l l y no e x p l a n a t i o n f o r what went wrong b e c a u se a c c o r d in g t o t h i s t h e o r y , T i b e r i u s was a c t i n g w i t h i n th e n o r mal bounds o f Roman p o l i t i c s . P e rp h ap s i t would say t h a t G ra c c h u s' method was o rth o d o x b u t b e c a u se t im e s had ch an g ed , o rth o d o x y was h e te r o d o x y . Or i t would f i n d i n th e 128 h a n d lin g o f th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s and th e t h e o r y o f p op u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y e v id e n c e f o r a l a t e r d e v i a t i o n on G rac c h u s ' p a r t . I n s t e a d o f b a c k in g down when he saw he c o u ld n o t win, he p e r s i s t e d and i n a tt e m p t in g t o e lu d e th e f a t e u s u a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r th o s e w ith im m oderate a m b itio n s , he was a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l e d i n a s c u f f l e and became a m a r t y r . ' Once b lo o d had b een sh e d , t h e r e was no way b a ck f o r e i t h e r s i d e and by th e tim e o f Gaius G racchus, th e s i t u a t i o n was i r r e m e d i a b l e by p o l i t i c a l means. Hence t h i s view would p l a c e th e blame i n p a r t on G ra c c h u s' s tu b b o r n p e r s o n a l i t y and i n p a r t on th e n a t u r e o f Roman p o l i t i c s . In f i l l i n g i n th e b la n k s l e f t by th e s o u r c e s i n r e g a r d t o th e e x a c t n a t u r e o f G ra c c h u s' t r i b u n a t e , m o d e m i n t e r - p r e t e r s a r e i n b a s i c agreem ent t h a t i t was r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n c h a r a c t e r , b u t d i s a g r e e a s t o w hich a s p e c t s sh o u ld be so c l a s s i f i e d . F o r th e o l d e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , th e whole t r i b u n a t e , g o a ls and means, was r e v o l u t i o n a r y . In th e second th e g o a ls and some o f th e means were n o t r e v o l u t i o n a r y b u t o t h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e t a c t i c i n r e g a rd t o th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s , th e p r o p o s a l o f p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y and th e second l e g i s l a t i v e program , were c l e a r l y u n t r a d i - t i o n a l . Each o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s has i t s own d i f f i c u l t i e s . F i r s t t h e r e i s th e o v e r a l l p rob lem s h a r e d by b o th t h a t modern p r e j u d i c e s f a v o r G ra cc h u s' r e v o l u t i o n . T h is i s u n d e r s t a n d 129 a b le I n view o f th e su b seq u e n t c o u rse o f Roman h i s t o r y and o u r own e x p e r ie n c e s i n a p o s t-M a rx ia n w o rld . G racch u s' r e v o l u ti o n was th e r i g h t k in d o f r e v o l u t i o n , so we a r e n a t u r a l l y p re d is p o s e d t o b e l i e v e th e p ro -G ra cc h an p ro p ag an d a. A p p aren tly f o r t h i s re a s o n n e i t h e r o f th e two m ajor i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have shown much h e s i t a t i o n about a c c e p t in g th e p i c t u r e o f a g r a r i a n c o n d it i o n s as p r e s e n t e d by P l u t a r c h and Appian, a lth o u g h th e second view p la y s down t h i s a s p e c t as much as p o s s i b l e and i n s i s t s t h a t G racchu s' views were p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r th a n s o c i a l . R a re ly i s th e p o i n t made t h a t b o th P l u t a r c h and Appian a re h e a v i ly c o n ta m i n a te d by Gracchan propaganda and a re a c t u a l l y p u rv e y in g a p u r e ly Gracchan i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n g iv in g an ob j e c t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s t a t e o f I t a l y . In o t h e r words, P l u t a r c h 's and A p p ia n 's a c c o u n ts a re t a i l o r e d to f i t G rac c h u s 1 l e g i s l a t i o n and a lth o u g h i n G racch u s' mind l a t i - fundism may have been th e cause o f Rome's problem , t h e r e i s no p ro o f t h a t i n r e a l i t y t h i s was th e c a s e . T i b i l e t t i has d e m o n stra te d t h a t t h e r e was i n f a c t no s h o r ta g e o f la n d i n 133 and t h a t t h e r e had been a c o n s id e r a b le amount o f c o l o n i z a t i o n betw een th e H a n n ib a lic War and G racchus' 5 t r i b u n a t e . V ast a r e a s o f N o rth e rn I t a l y were a v a i l a b l e a f t e r th e s u b ju g a tio n o f th e t r i b e s i n t h a t a r e a . De S a n c ti s s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e r e was a s much as 18 ,000 sq . km. o r about 4 .5 m i l l i o n a c r e s a v a i l a b l e i n t h i s r e g io n , much o f i t a s f e r t i l e as any i n I t a l y . ^ Hence a lth o u g h th e l a t i f u n d i a were s c a t t e r e d f a i r l y w id e ly a s i s i n d i c a t e d by th e Gracchan c i p p i , t h e r e seems t o have been no s h o r ta g e o f la n d f o r c o l o n i z a t i o n . In f a c t th e o p p o s ite seems t o have been th e c a s e . In s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s Rome lo o k ed e lsew h e re f o r c o l o n i s t s . In 210 th e s e n a te l o c a t e d th e d e p o rte d 7 Campanians, n o t i n M arsian c o u n try b u t i n Latium i t s e l f . In 180, 47*000 L ig u r ia n s were moved i n t o th e h e a r t o f Roman t e r r i t o r y and a c c o rd in g t o L ivy, a Macedonian was g iv en Q 200 ju g e r a i n th e t e r r i t o r y o f T arentum . F or g e n e r a t i o n s c o lo n i e s had been e s t a b l i s h e d w ith o u t d i s t u r b a n c e and a b e g in n in g had been made i n s e t t l i n g Roman c i t i z e n s i n th e t e r r i t o r y of C is a lp in e G a u l.^ Rome seems t o have had no o b j e c t i o n to th e c o n tin u o u s i n f l u x o f I t a l i a n s and L a tin s from th e m ountain r e g i o n s i n t o Campania, th e Roman Cam- pagna and from th e s e r e g io n s t o Rome i t s e l f , as i s i n d i c a t e d by th e r e q u e s t o f th e a l l i e s i n 1 8 7 and 177 to have t h e i r c i t i z e n s r e t u r n e d and th e p r o p o s a l t h a t every L a tin who e x e r c i s e d h i s j u s m ig ra n d i sh o u ld le a v e a son i n h i s own c i t y . 10 Due c r e d i t must t h e r e f o r e be g iv e n t o th e a s t u t e n e s s o f th e Gracchan p r o p a g a n d is ts who arg u e d e f f e c t i v e l y t h a t i f Romans had m a in ta in e d th e law s and custom s o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , th e y would n e v e r have found th e m se lv e s i n t h e i r p r e s e n t c r i s i s . L a t if u n d i a woi’l d n e v e r have come i n t o 131 e x i s t e n c e and Rome would s t i l l have b een a b le t o depend on i t s s t u r d y p e a s a n t p o p u l a t i o n f o r i t s a r m ie s . T h is e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e , b a c k w a rd -lo o k in g propagan da h a s won most b a t t l e s s in c e i t was f i r s t p ro m u lg a te d i n 1 3 3 /1 3 2 b . c . Hence a lt h o u g h th e f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c o r r e c t i n a r g u in g t h a t a m ajo r a g r a r i a n p ro b lem la y a t th e r o o t o f th e G racchan c r i s i s , i t does so on th e wrong g ro u n d s. The seco n d e x p l a n a t i o n , b e ca u se i t p l a y s down t h e a g r a r i a n a s p e c t s o f th e l e x S em p ro nia, m is s e s t h i s p o i n t c o m p le te ly and lo o k s e ls e w n e re f o r th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r o f G ra c c h u s' t r i b u n a t e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has re d u c e d th e scope o f i t s r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r by p r o v in g t h a t G racch u s' g o a ls and some o f h i s means were n o t r e v o l u t i o n a r y . T h is t h e o r y o f f e r s t h r e e p r i n c i p a l p r o o f s . I . FACTIO From e v id e n c e s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t th e s o u r c e s , i t can be shown t h a t G ra c c h u s' t r i b u n a t e , r a t h e r th a n b e in g e n t i r e l y n o v e l, f i t t e d i n t o th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f Roman p o l i t i c s and i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t o th e p o l i t i c a l develo p m en ts o f th e p e r i o d 150 - 133. F i r s t , G racchus was n o t a lo n e r e v o l u t i o n a r y who s e t o u t t o r e - e s t a b l i s h th e a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n s o f th e Roman s t a t e . He was th e son o f an op p o r t u n i s t i c p o l i t i c i a n and an a m b itio u s m o th e r. His s i s t e r was m a r rie d to th e g r e a t e s t Roman o f th e tim e s , P. C or n e l i u s S c i p io A em ilian us and he h i m s e l f was m a r rie d t o th e 132 d a u g h te r o f th e p r i n c e p s s e n a t u s . His f i r s t c o u s in , P. C o rn e liu s S c ip io N asica was th e p o n t i f e x maximus and h i s b r o t h e r was m a rr ie d t o th e d a u g h te r o f t h e n e x t p o n t i f e x maximus, P. L i c i n i u s C r a s s u s , th e b lo o d b r o t h e r o f th e c o n s u l o f 133, P. Mucius S c a e v o la . A nother d a u g h te r o f C ra ssu s was m a rr ie d t o th e son o f th e n o t o r i o u s S. S u l - p i c i u s G alba. At an e a r l i e r d a te Galba had b e en d e fe n d e d by Q. F u lv iu s N o b i l i o r who had h e lp e d make Appius C la u d iu s p r i n c e p s s e n a t u s . A nother F u l v i u s , M. F u lv iu s F la c c u s was d e e p ly in v o lv e d i n th e program s o f b o th T i b e r i u s and Gaius G racch u s. O ther s u p p o r t e r s were C. P o r c iu s C ato, c o n su l o f 114, g ran d so n o f th e C ensor and a nephew o f A em ilian us and th e n o b i l i s s i m u s , C. P a p i r i u s C arb o . 11 A lthough i t i s im p o s s ib le t o u n r a v e l a l l o f th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e t o p ro v e t h a t a l l b u t A em ilianus and S c i p io N asica s u p p o r te d G racchus i n g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g re e . A f t e r G ra c c h u s' d e a th , h i s n o b le f o l lo w e r s d id n o t abandon th e cause a s m ight be e x p e c te d i f he was th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y f i g u r e o f th e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n . P. L i c i n i u s C ra ssu s to o k th e p l a c e o f T i b e r i u s on th e a g r a r i a n com m ission o f w hich Appius C la u d iu s was s t i l l a member. S ca ev o la s e r v e d a s a ju d g e on a q u a e s t i o o f some k in d i n s t i t u t e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e d e a t h o f G rac chus and a c c o r d in g to D io d o ru s, N a sica was q u e s tio n e d 12 b e f o r e th e p e o p le by th e t r i b u n e s . M. F u l v i u s F la c c u s 133 ... to o k th e p i e c e o f C ra ssu s on th e a g r a r i a n com m ission when th e l a t t e r was k i l l e d w h ile cam paign ing a g a i n s t A r i s t o n i c u s and C. P a p i r i u s Carbo r e p l a c e d C la u d iu s on h i s d e a t h th e same y e a r . In 121, C. S u l p i c i u s Galba r e p l a c e d F la c c u s and L. C a lp u rn iu s B e s t i a r e p l a c e d G aius G racchu s. 2. MANPOWER SHORTAGE T hroughout th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e seco n d c e n t u r y , Rome had a t l e a s t 4 0 ,0 0 0 men u n d e r arms e v e ry y e a r and a t tim e s a s many a s 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 .^ A e m ilian u s had 8 4 ,0 0 0 men a t C ar th a g e and Mummius 2 6 ,5 0 0 a t th e same tim e . Between 201 14 and 1 5 1 some 9 ^ * 0 0 0 c i t i z e n s and a l l i e s were k i l l e d . Rome's new p r o v in c e s r e q u i r e d c o n s t a n t a t t e n t i o n and th e l e g i o n s were s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t S p a in , No. I t a l y , Gaul, S a r d i n i a , C o r s ic a , D a lm a tia , P an n o n ia, M acedonia, S i c i l y and No. A f r i c a . From e a r l y i n th e c e n tu r y t h e r e had b een s ig n s o f d is c o n te n tm e n t w ith th e d r a f t sy ste m . In 199 t h e r e was a m utiny i n Macedonia and i n 195 Cato had t r o u b l e w ith h i s 15 c a v a lr y i n S p a in . ^ In 151 th e le v y was so u n p o p u la r t h a t i t s o p e r a t i o n had t o be su sp en d ed , th e c o n s u ls were im p r i s o n e d and th e men were cho sen by l o t . ^ I n 145, Q. F a b iu s Maximus A em ilian us had t o p a s s o v e r th e v e te r a n s o f e a r l i e r wars and ta k e o u t an u n t r a i n e d army and f i v e y e a r s l a t e r Q. Pompeius r e c e i v e d s i m i l a r re p la c e m e n ts f o r h i s e x i s t i n g f o r c e w hich had s e r v e d f o r s i x y e a r s i n j 134 ■ S p a i n . S e r i o u s r i o t s broke out a t Rome i n 144 becau se | o f th e le v y and a t r i b u n e a tte m p te d t o p r e v e n t th e c o n su l ! from m arching t o S p a in . The c o n s u ls o f 138, P. C o rn e liu s | S c ip io N asica and D. J u n iu s B ru tu s were im p riso n e d f o r r e - i f u s i n g t o g r a n t exem ptions t o th e le v y and i n 134 A e m ili- : anus was r e f u s e d p e rm is s io n t o h o ld a le v y on th e grounds 19 i t h a t I t a l y would have been s t r i p p e d o f men. ^ The Span- : i s h wars were u n p r o f i t a b l e , d an gero us and h ig h ly unpop- i ; u l a r . There was l i t t l e b o o ty and th e p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e c o u ld s t r e t c h f o r as lo n g a s s i x y e a r s . The system o f r e - i c ru itm e n t was o b s o l e te , b ased on th e o ld c o n c e p tio n o f j : b r i e f m i l i t i a - t y p e wars l a s t i n g f o r a few weeks t o a few ' months a t th e l o n g e s t . The new c o n d it i o n s o f em pire d e- ; manded a r a d i c a l l y new r e c r u i t i n g method, b u t th e Roman ; : governm ent c lu n g c o n s e r v a t i v e l y t o th e o ld sy stem . The l o s s e s s u f f e r e d i n d e fe n se (or a c q u i s i t i o n ) o f th e I j ; em pire were n o t b a la n c e d by p o p u l a t i o n g a in s i n I t a l y pro p -j ; e r , f o r betw een 164 and 136 th e census f i g u r e s show a d e - ! c l i n e o f o v e r 2 0,0 00 o r ab o u t 6$ , A lthough th e i n t e r - , p r e t a t i o n o f th e census f i g u r e s i s an a re a o f c l a s s i c d e - j b a t e , th e l o s s i s a p p r e c i a b le , w h eth er th e census f i g u r e s | a r e ta k e n t o r e f e r t o th e t o t a l a d u l t male p o p u l a t i o n o r i 20 j o nly to th o s e l i a b l e t o be d r a f t e d . The d e c l in e however, d i d n o t go u n n o tic e d , f o r i n 145 0 . L a e li u s , th e i n ti m a t e ! o f A em ilian u s, made some a tte m p t t o remedy th e s i t u a t i o n 1 35 and i n 142 S c i p i o a t t a c k e d th o s e who u s e d a d o p t i o n t o a v o id th e b u rd e n s o f p a r e n t h o o d . I n 131 M e te llu s Mace- 22 d o n ic u s made h i s famous sp e e c h de_ p r o l e a u g e n d a . 3 . NEW POLITICS D u rin g t h i s p e r i o d , Roman p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s , show in g t h e i r u s u a l f l e x i b i l i t y , were m oving i n new d i r e c t i o n s . T r i b u n i c i a n a c t i v i t y was on th e I n c r e a s e and i n a d d i t i o n t o th e I n s t a n c e s m e n tio n e d a b o v e, t h e r e were th e f o l l o w i n g . I n 145 G. L i c i n i u s p r o p o s e d t h e p o p u l a r e j e c t i o n o f p r i e s t s b u t was v i g o r o u s l y o p po sed by L a e l i u s and A e m ili- 25 a n u s . J The l e g e s t a b e l l a r i a e o f 139 and 137 b r o u g h t th e e l e c t i o n s o f m a g i s t r a t e s and a l l t r i a l s b e f o r e th e p e o p le (e x c e p t th o s e f o r p e r d u e l l i o ) u n d e r t h e s e c r e t b a l l o t . 2^ I n r e a c t i o n , t h e m y s t e r i o u s l e g e s A e lia e t F u f i a o f th e p e r i o d 1 5 3 /1 5 0 e x te n d e d th e pow er o f o b n u n t i a t i o t o m ag i s t r a t e s o t h e r t h a n t h e one p r e s i d i n g and a l s o seem t o have l i m i t e d l e g i s l a t i o n t o d i e s c o m i t i a l e s . They a l s o e x c lu d e d t h e d i e s c o m i t i a l i s b e f o r e e l e c t i o n s from th e l e g i s l a t i v e s c h e d u le w i t h t h e o b j e c t o f c h e c k in g l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i v i t y 25 i n Rome when t h e p e o p le w ere t h e r e i n c ro w d s. A ll were aim ed a t c u r t a i l m e n t o f th e t r i b u n a t e . T hese a rg u m e n ts p u t th e t r i b u n a t e o f T i . G racchus i n a much b e t t e r l i g h t , p r i n c i p a l l y b e c a u s e th e y r e p r e s e n t a l i b e r a t i o n from th e p ro p ag a n d a t r a d i t i o n s o f b o t h t h e G ra c - c hans and t h e i r o p p o n e n ts . They p o i n t t o t h e g ro w th o f 136 t e n s i o n s w i t h i n th e s t a t e as o ld i d e a l s and p o l i t i c a l m ach in ery a tte m p te d t o cope w ith new s i t u a t i o n s . Rome i n t h i s p e r i o d was u n d e rg o in g m assiv e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and econom ic change o f w hich th e r u l i n g c l a s s was o n ly dim ly aware and in c a p a b le o f a n a l y z i n g . N o n e th e le s s , th e s e argu m ents do n o t e x p l a i n why th e s to rm broke i n G ra cc h u s' t r i b u n a t e . I f T i b e r i u s a c t e d w i t h i n th e t r a d i t i o n a l fram ew ork, as t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n s i s t s , why s h o u ld t h i n g s go wrong a t t h i s p o i n t and n o t t e n y e a r s e a r l i e r o r t e n y e a r s l a t e r ? On th e one hand, th e arg u m en ts w hich p o i n t t o a c o n s e r v a t i v e s ta n d on G racch u s' p a r t a r e u n d e n ia b le i n c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s . The n o t io n o f f a c t i o n a l s u p p o r t, manpower l o s s e s and th e grow th o f new p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s a l l p o i n t t o a l e s s t h a n n o v e l a p p ro a c h by th e G ra cc h an s. On th e o t h e r hand, s in c e G rac c h u s ' t r i b u n a t e as_ a_ whole was a n y th in g b u t c o n s e r v a t i v e , t h i s view has t o f i n d th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c a u se s n o t i n th e g o a ls b u t i n th e m eans. S in c e n e i t h e r th e a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n n o r th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O c ta v iu s a r e s i n g l e d out f o r t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r , a l l o f th e b u rd en o f p r o o f r e s t s on th e d i s p o s a l o f th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s , th e th e o r y o f p o p u la r s o v e r e i g n t y and th e second l e g i s l a t i v e program . As h as been p o i n t e d out b e f o r e , a l l o f t h e s e ite m s as th e y a p p e a r i n P l u t a r c h and i n th e o t h e r s o u r c e s b e lo n g t o t h e extrem e a n ti- G r a c c h a n t r a d i t i o n and form a v e ry weak ; 137 j i b a s i s f o r any argu m en t. At t h i s p o i n t i t m ight t h e r e f o r e jbe u s e f u l t o re v ie w b r i e f l y some o f th e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s * 2 6 i w e a k n e s s . ! F i r s t t h e r e i s th e l a c k o f co h eren c e i n c h a p t e r s 1 3 .^ : - 17 o f P l u t a r c h 's T i b e r i u s G ra c c h u s. S u re ly 1 5 .1 must r e p r e s e n t th e o n ly c a se i n h i s t o r y o f a p e o p le becom ing d i s - i s a t i s f i e d w ith g r a n t s o f land* money and p o l i t i c a l power b e c a u se o f th e s c r u p l e s o f t h e i r enem ies who cla im e d t h a t t h e i r p o p u l a r l e a d e r had v i o l a t e d a r e l i g i o u s p r e c e p t I Is ■ i t p o s s i b l e t h a t th e same group o f p e o p le c o u ld e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y s u p p o r t a r a d i c a l la n d law , th e d e p o s i t i o n o f an ; o p p o sin g t r i b u n e , th e a p p o in tm e n t o f a h i g h ly p a r t i s a n la n d ■commission e t c . , t h e n i n a moment abandon t h e i r l e a d e r a t :th e b e h e s t o f t h e i r enem ies o n ly t o r a l l y t o him a few days i l a t e r ? I t i s s u s p i c i o u s , t o say th e l e a s t , t h a t th e p e o p le I s h o u ld d e s e r t T i b e r i u s f o r p r e c i s e l y th e r e a s o n s d i c t a t e d ;by t h e i r en em ies. ! The b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o demon- ! 1s t r a t e th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r o f T i b e r i u s ' t r i b u n a t e , on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t su c h i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e p r e r o g - i l a t i v e s o f th e s e n a te was ta n ta m o u n t t o s e d i t i o n . The a s - i I su m p tio n i s p r o b a b ly c o r r e c t , b u t i t i s s t r a n g e t h a t none io f th e a n c i e n t s saw i t i n t h i s l i g h t . A lth o u g h he was i ia c c u s e d o f many t h i n g s , i t was n e v e r s u g g e s te d t h a t he i n - ite n d e d t o s u b v e r t th e s t a t e th ro u g h i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e 138 s e n a t e 's l e g i t i m a t e f i e l d o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . Sometimes Pom peius' c la im (TG 14) t h a t Gracchus had been p ro v id e d w ith a diadem and c lo a k i s g iv e n as e v id e n ce f o r t h i s a s s e r t i o n . T h is i s i n c o r r e c t* f o r t h i s t a l e b e lo n g s to a n o th e r and more common charge* namely t h a t Gracchus was se e k in g a d o m in a tio o r a regnum . I t i s modern w r i t e r s who have made th e c o n n e c tio n betw een th e b e q u e s t o f A tt a l u s and th e su p p o sed ly r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r o f T i b e r i u s ' t r ib u n a te * r a t h e r th a n th e grounds which a re a c t u a l l y a s s e r t e d which a re p r i n c i p a l l y m oral and r e l i g i o u s . A nother d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t w hile c h a p te r 15 i s o f t e n ta k e n as ev id e n ce o f T i b e r i u s ' i n t e n t i o n to in tr o d u c e a democracy (or a t l e a s t o f b e in g i n f e c t e d by such id e a s)* i t i s i n f a c t an answ er to a charge t h a t was n e v er made. There i s o nly an a p p a re n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i t and th e a c c u s a t i o n o f Luscus t o w hich i t I s supposed t o re sp o n d . C hapter 15 i s i n f a c t a j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t th e p e o p le have th e r i g h t t o t r a n s f e r th e t r i b u n a t e from one man to a n o th e r (15-6)* w h ile Luscus m erely a sk ed w h ether Gracchus (not th e p e o p le ) had th e r i g h t t o remove a c o lle a g u e from o f f i c e . Yet a n o th e r weakness i s th e supposed p o p u la r s o v e r - 27 e ig n t y th e o r y p ro p o se d by Gracchus u n d e r Greek i n f l u e n c e . Again t h e r e i s a problem o f m ethodology. The e v id en ce f o r Greek in f lu e n c e i s found i n th e very s e c t i o n t h a t i s most 139 I n s i s t e n t on d e m o n s tr a tin g how r e v o l u t i o n a r y G racchus was - e x a c t l y th e p o i n t i n q u e s t i o n . I t i s h a rd to see how a v i c i o u s c i r c l e can he a v o id e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c h a p t e r 15 h as r e g u l a r l y b een a c c e p te d as a g e n u in e frag m e n t o f T i b e r i u s ' sp e e c h and 1 1 .4 - 6 i s a l s o c o n s id e r e d a t r u e r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s b e l i e f s . I f t h i s a s su m p tio n i s c o r r e c t , G racchus was more d e e p ly r e v o l u t i o n a r y th a n e i t h e r moderns o r a n c i e n t s r e c o g n i z e , f o r th e s e fra g m e n ts r e p r e s e n t a d e f e n s e o f a th o r o u g h ly a l i e n democracy e x p re s s e d alm o st e n t i r e l y i n Greek c o n c e p ts . L a s t h as a lr e a d y b een q u o te d i n r e g a r d t o 1 1 .3 - 4 and F. T ae g er has made a s t r o n g c a se f o r e x te n s i v e Greek 28 i n f l u e n c e i n c h a p t e r 15. He p o i n t s o u t t h a t th e p h ra s e Sd,v <5e uQ tov S i } } i s t y p i c a l l y Greek w ith no L a t i n e q u i v a l e n t and t h a t Rome i n g e n e r a l had no f e e l i n g f o r t h i s c o n cep t b e c a u se i t was n o t a dem ocracy. The a r gument i n r e g a r d t o th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e d o c k y ard s i s more a p p r o p r i a t e t o f i f t h c e n tu r y Athens t h a n t o second c e n tu r y Rome where th e f l e e t was a lm o st n o n - e x i s t e n t .^ 9 The id e a t h a t T a rq u in was d r i v e n o u t b e ca u se o f wrong d o in g and h u b r i s i s c l o s e l y c o n n e c te d w ith th e Greek id e a e x p re s s e d i n Homer and c l a s s i c a l drama t h a t o b e d ie n ce i s due t o a l e a d e r o n ly as lo n g a s he i s t r u e t o h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . The com parison o f th e t r i b u n a t e t o th e v o tiv e o f f e r i n g s t o th e gods i s n o t a Roman th o u g h t e i t h e r b e c a u se th e p o s s e s s i o n s o f th e gods and tem p le p r o p e r t i e s p la y e d 140 l i t t l e r o l e a t Rome a t t h i s t i m e , I n g e n e r a l , a c c o r d i n g t o T a e g e r, th e whole t h e o r y o f j u s t i f i a b l e o p p o s i t i o n t o an u n j u s t m a g i s t r a c y can be t r a c e d t o G reek s o u r c e s . I f t h i s r e a l l y r e p r e s e n t s G ra c c h u s' th o u g h t, h i s t o r i a n s have b e e n much to o r e s t r a i n e d i n t h e i r ju d g m e n t. L a s t i s p e r f e c t l y j u s t i f i e d I n j u d g in g th e G ra c c h i th e f i r s t and t h e l a s t d e m o c ra ts t h a t Rome p ro d u c e d and T a e g e r i n s e e i n g i n G ra c c h u s' s p e e c h th e f i r s t u n f o l d i n g o f a g e n u i n e t h e o r y o f p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y . On t h e o t h e r hand, h i s t o r i a n s who do n o t a c c e p t th e t h e o r y o f G reek I n f l u e n c e , a r e i n th e u n c o m f o r ta b le p o s i t i o n o f h a v in g some v e ry s t r a n g e e v id e n c e on t h e i r hands and n o t knowing what t o do w i t h i t . I n s h o r t , none of t h e i n c i d e n t s o f T i b e r i u s G racchus 1 3 .4 - 17, t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e b e q u e s t o f A t t a l u s , th e d e m o c r a tic p r o p o s a l s o f c h a p t e r 15 and th e se co n d l e g i s l a t i v e p ro g ram c o n s t i t u t e u n im p e a c h a b le e v id e n c e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i t y on T i b e r i u s 1 p a r t . The b u rd e n o f p r o o f m ust r e s t e ls e w h e r e , namely on th e a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n i t s e l f and th e means em ployed t o p o p u l a r i z e and e n a c t i t . As w i l l be s e e n , t h i s i s s u f f i c i e n t t o a c c o u n t f o r th e v i o l e n c e o f th e e v e n t s o f 1 3 3 . ] 141 S 2. TIBERIUS GRACCHUS: RADICAL CONSERVATIVE | A ll o f th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m entioned above, th e fa m ily j j r e l a t i o n s h i p s , manpower s h o r ta g e s and th e emergence o f new i ! p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s , red u ce th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t T i b e r i u s ' ' p r o p o s a ls were r a d i c a l l y new. They show t h a t t e n s i o n s were i I b u i l d i n g up and a tte m p ts were b e in g made t o remedy them . : However, th e y le a v e unansw ered th e fu n d am en tal q u e s t io n of why p r e c i s e l y th e t r i b u n a t e o f T i . Gracchus tu r n e d out to ! I be th e d e c i s i v e t u r n i n g p o i n t o f th e second c e n tu r y . Mere- : ly t o show th e a n te c e d e n ts o f th e r e v o l u t i o n does n o t e x p l a i n th e r e v o l u t i o n I t s e l f . The im prisonm ent o f th e con s u l s o f 151 and 1 3 8 and th e p r o p o s a ls o f L i c i n i u s and , L a e liu s d id n o t provoke th e r e a c t i o n which G racchus' t r i b u - i n a te d id n o r d id th e Roman a g r a r i a n p o l i c y o f th e p re v io u s se v e n ty y e a r s . There was n o th in g a c c i d e n t a l abou t th e e x p l o s i o n o f 133. The Roman s t a t e co u ld have muddled a lo n g ; f o r a lo n g tim e b e fo r e b e in g f o r c e d t o make any v ery s e r i - ; ous a l t e r a t i o n s i n i t s p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . I t would j have g r a d u a l ly made su c h a d ju s tm e n ts as o c c a s io n demanded | as i t had i n th e p a s t . Rome was a m a s te r o f a d a p t a t i o n | t o new s i t u a t i o n s . She had ex te n d ed th e f r a n c h i s e g e n e r - | o u s ly , s e n t o u t c o lo n i e s , e s t a b l i s h e d c o u r ts t o p r o t e c t j ! h e r p r o v in c e s and g e n e r a l l y a d j u s t e d t o w orld d o m in a tio n i w ith rem a rk ab le e l a s t i c i t y . Her g e n iu s was one o f im p ro v i- 1 ; s a t i o n w ith in r i g i d fo rm a l m oulds. I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e i was a s e r i o u s dem ographic c r i s i s b u t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t 1^2 n a t u r a l e m i g r a tio n movements from th e h i l l c o u n tr y would have s o lv e d t h i s p r o b l e m , T h e a r i s t o c r a c y was n o t any more c o r r u p t t h a n i t had e v e r b een o r any l e s s i m a g i n a t i v e . T here was more money, more p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o r r u p t i o n b u t e v i d e n t l y r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e was s p e n t on p r i v a t e o s t e n t a t i o n w h ile most went on p u b l i c works o f one k in d o r a n o t h e r . 3-1 - Most o f th e money was a p p a r e n t l y i n v e s t e d i n la n d w hich was v a c a n t anyway. The p r o l e t a r i a t was p ro b a b ly i n e r t as i t u s u a l l y i s , c a p a b le o f b e in g l e d i n any d i r e c t i o n . I t was n o t p e r se r e v o l u t i o n a r y and had t o be made so by someone o r some group w hich p o s s e s s e d th e a b i l i t y and th e i n i t i a t i v e w h ile th e o p p o s i t i o n m erely r e a c t e d . A c tin g w i t h i n th e norm al fram ework o f Roman p o l i t i c s , th e G racchans s t o l e a m arch on a l l o p p o sin g f a m i l i e s and g ro u p in g s o f f a m i l i e s . U nlike any o t h e r f a c t i o n , th e y p r o po se d an o r g a n ic p la n f o r th e r e f u r b i s h i n g o f th e Roman s t a t e , won s u p p o r t b o th among th e m asses and th e n o b i l i t y and p ushed i t th r o u g h s u c c e s s f u l l y . I t was u n f o r t u n a t e l y m arred by a number o f i n c i d e n t s , th e p r i n c i p a l one b e in g th e d e a t h o f T i b e r i u s and th e r e a c t i o n o f th o s e who d id n o t b e n e f i t by th e l e g i s l a t i o n , th e a l l i e s and th e I t a l i a n s . When t h i s was r e c t i f i e d i n th e t r i b u n a t e o f Gaius G racchus, th e o p p o s i t i o n grou ps were a b le t o t i p th e b a la n c e by s e d u c in g th e Roman c i t i z e n s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e o r i g i n a l l e g i s l a t i o n . The r e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f G ra cc h u s' t r i b u n a t e con s i s t e d o f h i s a g r a r i a n p r o p o s a l s and n o t h i s i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e le g a c y o f A t t a l u s , h i s seco n d l e g i s l a t i v e program o r h i s supp osed p r o p o s a l s f o r a democ r a c y a t Rome. T i b e r i u s p ro p o se d t o r e d i s t r i b u t e Roman la n d w hich was i n th e form o f l a t i f u n d i a . I n f a v o r o f th e scheme he c o u ld a rg u e t h a t t h e r e was a l r e a d y a law i n e x i s t e n c e l i m i t i n g th e o c c u p a tio n o f such la n d t o 5 0 0 ju g e r a and th e f a c t t h a t p u b l i c la n d c o u ld n o t become p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y no m a t t e r how lo n g i t had been o c c u p ie d . I t was an im m ensely s t r o n g propagand a p o s i t i o n b e c a u se i t p u t h i s op p o n e n ts i n th e p o s i t i o n o f d e fe n d in g i l l e g a l p o s s e s s i o n s i n th e f a c e o f l e g i t i m a t e c la im s and t h e i r own s e l f i s h i n t e r e s t s i n th e f a c e o f Rome's p r e s s i n g manpower n e e d s . G racchus p re -e m p te d th e s t r o n g e s t propagan da p o s i t i o n s by c la im in g t o r e s t o r e th e Roman s t a t e and f o r c e d h i s oppon e n t s t o se e k any means p o s s i b l e t o r e f u t e him . I t was d i f f i c u l t t o make th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h arg e p l a u s i b l e when e v e r y t h in g he p ro p o se d seemed to be th o r o u g h ly t r a d i t i o n a l and i n s p i r e d s o l e l y f o r th e good o f Rome. The opp o n en ts o f th e scheme c o u ld e a s i l y be a c c u se d o f p l a c i n g t h e i r own s e l f i s h m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s b e fo r e th e good o f th e s t a t e . Because o f th e r a d i c a l n a tu r e o f th e p r o p o s a l , th e G racchans d id n o t a tte m p t t o se e k a p p ro v a l o f th e m easure by th e s e n a te b e f o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o th e p e o p le . There 144 were p r e c e d e n ts i n th e e n a b lin g l e g i s l a t i o n o f 147 and 134 on b e h a l f o f A em ilianus and p ro b a b ly a l s o i n th e case o f th e l e x C a ssia i n 137* b u t th e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n f o r p r e s e n t i n g th e m easure i n t h i s way must have been to a v o id c e r t a i n r e j e c t i o n by th e s e n a t e . S in ce th e o b j e c t o f s e c u r in g th e s e n a t e 's a p p ro v a l was th e av o idance o f a t r i b u - n i c i a n v e to , i t may be su rm ise d t h a t th e G racchans a n t i c i p a t e d th e o p p o s i t io n o f O ctav iu s and made p la n s to c ircu m v e n t i t a s had been done on p r e v io u s o c c a s io n s , thou gh p ro b a b ly n o t t o th e e x te n t o f d e p o s i t i o n from o f f i c e . The n e c e s s a r y s u p p o rt was n o t d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d . C ol o n ie s had n e v e r a ro u s e d much e n th u s ia sm among th e masses and L a t in c o lo n i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r were u n p o p u la r s in c e e n r o llm e n t i n them in v o lv e d l o s s o f c i t i z e n s h i p . The l o s s was n o t b a la n c e d by p r o p e r t y g a in s , f o r th e p e d i t e s of th e s e c o lo n ie s c o u ld r e c e i v e a s low an a llo tm e n t as 15 j u g e r a . - ^ Roman c o l o n i s t s r e c e i v e d from 5 - 10 ju g e ra b u t p o s s i b l y had s p e c i a l a c c e s s to th e a g e r p u b lic u s o f 33 th e colo ny as a w hole. A ll o f th e s e c o lo n ie s te n d e d t o be l o c a t e d f a r t h e r and f a r t h e r from Rome, i n newly con q u e re d t e r r i t o r i e s i n N o rth e rn I t a l y , f o r example a t Mu- ■34 t i n a , Parma, Luna and A q uileia,-^ and o f th e s e A q u ile ia was a L a tin colony o rg a n iz e d on a m i l i t a r y b a s i s and s e r v in g a s t r a t e g i c m i l i t a r y p u rp o s e . T i b e r i u s ' scheme on th e o t h e r hand opened up th e 145 p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f owning n o t o n ly good la n d b u t even th e b e s t la n d i n I t a l y , f o r th e l a t i f u n d i a had been c r e a t e d i n th o s e a r e a s where farm la n d had been l e f t v a c a n t o r had been c o n f i s c a t e d a f t e r th e H a n n ib a lic War. They d id n o t come i n t o b e in g in u n c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s o r newly conquered t e r r i t o r i e s , b u t i n p l a c e s w hich had been u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n f o r g e n e r a t i o n s . As L ast p o i n t s o u t, l i t t l e perm anent damage was done th e land,, o t h e r th a n th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f th e s m a ll fa rm e rs and th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r d w e llin g s . Such good la n d must have r a p i d l y come u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n a g a in by whoever had th e a v a i l a b l e c a p i t a l . Areas where Roman landow ners d id n o t e s t a b l i s h l a t i f u n d i a were d o u b t l e s s l y o ccu p ied by m ig ra n ts o r by l o c a l landow ners and s m a ll f a r m e rs . Hence Gracchus d id n o t pro pose t o a l l o c a t e la n d i n rem ote a r e a s o f I t a l y r e c e n t l y conquered and p o s s i b l y s t i l l i n p r i m i t i v e c o n d i t i o n s . His scheme o f f e r e d la n d a lr e a d y u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n i n a r e a s w ith t r a d i t i o n a l l i n k s w ith Rome, f o r th e l a t i f u n d i a . a f f e c t e d by th e Gracchan law a p p e a r to have been w i t h i n a two hundred m ile r a d i u s o f th e c i t y .35 From th e evid ence a lr e a d y adduced, i t can be i n f e r r e d t h a t th e main a p p e a l o f t h i s k in d o f l e g i s l a t i o n would have b een t o th o se who would b e n e f i t by th e b re a k up o f l a t i f u n d i a In t h e i r own im m ediate n e ig h b o rh o o d . The p o s s i - b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g o w n ersh ip o f la n d a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e d u n d e r lea se * th e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f d o u b t f u l t i t l e s o r th e g u a ra n te e o f s e c u r e p o s s e s s i o n a g a i n s t th e encro achm ent o f r i c h n e ig h b o r s must have b een ov erw h elm in g ly a t t r a c t i v e t o th e la n d -h u n g r y . In a d d itio n * th e day l a b o r e r s m en tio n ed by Cato (cte a g r i c . 144 - 6 ) , must have b e en numerous i n th e s m a ll towns and v i l l a g e s o f I t a l y o r even on th e l a t i - f u n d ia th e m s e lv e s . To them th e l e x Sem pronia a g r a r i a o f f e r e d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f in d ep e n d en c e and a new s o c i a l s t a t u s , f o r th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f p r o p e r t y amounted t o r e - e n - f r a n c h is e m e n t i n th e Roman p o l i t i c a l community f o r th o s e who had b een re d u c e d t o th e l e v e l o f p a u p e r s by th e e v e n ts o f th e p r e v io u s h a l f c e n t u r y . A lthou gh i t i s f r e q u e n t l y a s s e r t e d t h a t s l a v e s to o k th e p l a c e o f t h e f r e e l a b o r e r th r o u g h o u t I t a l y * we have no id e a how e x te n s i v e t h i s was and i t can n o t be i n f e r r e d t h a t a l l th e fo rm e r f r e e l a b o r ers* d i s p o s s e s s e d s m a ll fa rm e rs and s m a ll p o s s e s s o r e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y ended up a t Rome where th e y found th e m se lv e s w ith o u t work, a u s e l e s s la n d -h u n g ry p r o l e t a r i a t . I t I s much more l i k e l y t h a t th e d i s p o s s e s s e d rem a in e d i n t h e i r own n e ig h b o rh o o d s and c o n tin u e d t o work th e la n d , e i t h e r a s t e n a n t s o r l a b o r e r s . Again th e e v id e n c e i s s p a r s e a lt h o u g h b o th Cato and V arro sp eak o f te n a n c y (de_ a g r i c . 136 - 7; £•£.. 1 . 2 . 1 7 ) and a n a lo g y w ith o t h e r e r a s su g g e s t th e l i k e l i h o o d o f te n a n c y c o - e x i s t i n g w i t h l a t i f u n d i s m . I t i s f r e q u e n t l y a s s e r t e d t h a t th e rem oval o f th e u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t from Rome was th e m ain o b j e c t o f th e la n d law and H.C. B oren h as d e m o n s tra te d t h a t th e c i t y s u f f e r e d s e v e r e l y from i n f l a t i o n and unemployment i n th e 1 3 0 s. T here i s t h e r e f o r e th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e u rb a n p r o l e t a r i a t may have found th e G racchan law a t t r a c t i v e . On th e o t h e r hand, P l u t a r c h sa y s n o th in g o f th e p e o p le f o r whom th e la n d was in te n d e d and Appian and D iodorus b o th sp e a k o n ly o f th e s u p p o rt o f r u r a l d w e l l e r s . The p r e su m p tio n i s t h e r e f o r e a g a i n s t th e u rb a n p e o p le as th e main b e n e f i c i a r i e s , a lth o u g h t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t th e y c o u ld have p a r t i c i p a t e d i f th e y so d e s i r e d . I n a l i e n a b l e l a n d - g r a n t s , however, a p p e a l o n ly t o th e g e n u in e ly la n d -h u n g ry and t h i s c l a s s i s u n l i k e l y t o have b een found among th e p r o l e t a r i a t , f o r by d e f i n i t i o n i t c o n s i s t e d o f Romans r e duced t o p o v e rty by lo n g s e r v i c e i n th e army and c o n s e q u e n t l o s s o f t h e i r la n d o r th o s e a t t r a c t e d by employment i n th e c i t y i t s e l f . They had a lr e a d y made t h e i r b r e a k w ith t h e la n d and would h a r d l y have ch osen t o go b a ck t o i t i f t h e y c o u ld a v o id i t . I t i s h a rd t o im agine how a g r a n t o f 30 ju g e r a (th e f i g u r e p ro p o se d by Mommsen by a n a lo g y w ith t h e a g r a r i a n law o f 111 37) COu l d have a t t r a c t e d su c h p e o p le . F u r t h e r , where would th e y g e t th e c a p i t a l t o la u n c h t h e i r new farm s when th e y were p e n n i l e s s ? Again e v e r y t h i n g p o i n t s t o p e o p le a l r e a d y c o n n e c te d w ith th e 148 la n d , e i t h e r t h r e a t e n e d sm all fa rm e rs o r sm a ll p o s s e s s o r e s , t e n a n t s o r day l a b o r e r s , as a t l e a s t th e main t a r g e t s o f th e law. Appian seems t o c o n firm t h i s when he say s t h a t crowds came to Rome from th e c o u n try t o su p p o rt and oppose th e law and s p e c i f i c a l l y m entions th o s e from c o lo n ie s and m u n ic ip ia and e lsew h ere (b.c.I.1 0 . 4 1 ) It i s easy to g u ess what m o tiv a te d th e o p p o s i t io n , b u t what a t t r a c t e d th e su p p o rt? Again th e e v id en ce i s s c a n ty , b u t from an e x a m in a tio n o f c o l o n i a l la n d a l l o t m e n t s , some i n f e r e n c e s can be a r r i v e d a t . Members o f Roman c o lo n ie s re^ " 1 iv e d from 5 - 1 0 ju g e ra and w hile L a tin c o l o n i s t s r e c e i v e d 15 - 50 j u g e r a , t h e r e was no a d eq u a te com pensation f o r th e l o s s o f c i t i z e n s h i p . The t i n y a ll o t m e n ts o f la n d i n th e Roman c o lo n ie s amounted t o only a f r a c t i o n o f th e t o t a l b e lo n g in g to th e c o lo n y . F o r exam ple, th e 2 ,0 0 0 c o l o n i s t s o f th e Roman colony a t Mutina r e c e iv e d a t o t a l o f 10,000 ju g e ra o r 1 .2 6 $ o f th e t o t a l la n d in v o lv e d . ^ T i b i l e t t i p o i n t s out t h a t i t would be very d i f f i c u l t to l i v e o f f 5 ju g e r a and th e d e n s i t y of 40 p o p u l a t i o n would be im p o s sib ly h ig h . He s u g g e s ts t h a t i n a d d i t i o n to th e 5 j u g e r a , th e c o l o n i s t s had a c c e s s to th e p u b lic la n d o f th e colony as p o s s e s s o r e s and co u ld make use o f i t as p a s t u r e o r a r a b l e la n d as d e s i r e d . The r a t i o n a l e beh in d th e system was to make p r o v i s i o n f o r th e g r a d u a l a s s i m i l a t i o n o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t members o f th e com m u n ity . I n s t e a d o f im m e d ia te ly r e c e i v i n g a s i z e a b l e l a n d - g r a n t , t h e s e c o l o n i s t s were s t a r t e d o u t a t a lo w er l e v e l th a n th e more a f f l u e n t members. I t i s c o n c e iv a b le t h a t u n d e r th e G racchan law, c o l o n i s t s c o u ld have o b ta in e d t i t l e t o th e p u b l i c la n d o f th e colon y th e y had managed t o occupy and t h a t th o s e who had n o t done as w e ll a s t h e i r n e ig h b o r s c o u ld o b t a i n a l a r g e r o u t r i g h t g r a n t th a n th e y a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s e d a t th e tim e . S in c e th e a l l o t m e n t s were to be a s s i g n e d o u t s i d e th e fram ework o f c o l o n i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t i s c o n c e iv a b le t h a t t h i s a l s o o f f e r e d some new b e n e f i t . I t i s known t h a t c o lo n i e s n e v e r a ro u s e d much e n th u s ia s m , so i t i s p r o b a b le t h a t th e abandonment o f th e c o l o n i a l a rra n g e m e n t may have been an a d d i t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n . I t I s an added argum ent a g a i n s t th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e p e n n i l e s s u rb a n mobs were th e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t o f th e Gracchan l e g i s l a t i o n . W ithout th e c o l o n i a l s t r u c t u r e t o su p p o rt them, members o f th e p r o l e t a r i a t would have had no means o f s u p p o r t i n g th e m s e lv e s o r a c q u i r i n g th e n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s f o r farm management. The v o t e r s from th e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s may have been d i s p o s s e s s e d s m a ll f a rm e rs , day l a b o r e r s , t e n a n t s o r r e t u r n ed s o l d i e r s who hoped t o b e n e f i t by g r a n t s o f la n d i n th e v i c i n i t y o f t h e i r homes. They may have been th e sm a ll f a rm e rs o r s m a ll o c c u p a to r e s i n th e a re a who were b e in g 150 a f f e c t e d by th e movement tow ard s l a t i f u n d i a . U n f o r tu n a te l y we have no way o f knowing, b u t i t must be s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s were a l l v e ry c lo s e t o Rome and had s u f f e r e d h e a v i ly i n manpower l o s s e s i n th e wars o f th e p r e v io u s y e a r s . F i n a l l y , th e v o tin g power o f a l l th e t r i b e s was s o l i d l y b e h in d th e law, n o t m erely t h a t o f th e f o u r u rb a n t r i b e s . L ast has arg u ed t h a t t h i s was b ecau se Rome was f i l l e d w ith r u r a l trib e s m e n who had been red u c ed t o th e p r o l e t a r i a t l e v e l and whose i n t e r e s t s were i d e n t i c a l w ith 41 th o s e o f th e u rb an mob. T h is may be so, b u t t h e r e i s no e v id e n ce f o r i t and i n th e fa c e o f th e e x p l i c i t s ta te m e n ts o f Appian and D iodorus t h a t th e v o t e r s came t o Rome special l y f o r th e o c c a s io n , t h i s p o s i t i o n i s u n t e n a b le . The su p p o rt o f th e r u r a l v o t e r a ls o s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a c c o u n ts f o r th e sudden c o ll a p s e o f G racchu s' s t r e n g t h d u r in g h i s r e - e l e c t i o n b i d . The ab sence o f th e p e o p le i s a t t e s t e d i n b o th a n t i - and p ro -G ra cc h an a c c o u n ts (TG 16 and b . £ . I . l 4 ) . In th e h o s t i l e so u rc e th e s ta te m e n t comes i n th e c o n te x t o f an abandonment of Gracchus by th e p e o p le becau se he had v i o l a t e d th e s a c r o s a n c t i t y o f the t r i b u n a t e (TG 1 4 ), w h ile i n Appian. th e p e o p le a re a b se n t becau se o f th e h a r v e s t . A p p ia n 's e x p la n a t i o n i s p l a u s i b l e i n view o f th e f a c t t h a t th e r u r a l v o te r s cou ld a lr e a d y have sp e n t up t o 52 days a t Rome d u r in g th e enactm ent o f 151 42 th e a g r a r i a n l e g i s l a t i o n e a r l i e r i n th e y e a r . S in c e th e y came from a l l o v e r I t a l y i t i s l i k e l y t h a t th e r e q u e s t o f t h e i r s u p p o rt i n a r e - e l e c t i o n b i d was n o t s t r o n g enough t o have them make th e t r i p a g a in w ith s u b s e q u e n t d e la y s and l o s s o f tim e . Hence G racchus had t o r e l y p r i n c i p a l l y on th e u rb a n m asses t o whom th e a g r a r i a n b i l l had n o t been s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d . A p p a re n tly he had t h e i r su p p o rt and was on th e way t o r e - e l e c t i o n when th e assem bly was b ro k e n up by th e o p p o s i t i o n and G racchus was k i l l e d . I f A p p ia n 's a c c o u n t i s combined w ith th e s ta te m e n t o f TG 2 0 .1 t h a t Gracchus was s u p p o r te d by o n ly a s m a ll number o f people* i t i s p o s s i b l e t o deduce t h a t th e v o t e r s a t h i s l a s t assem bly were n o t as e n t h u s i a s t i c a's on th e p r e v io u s o c c a s io n . They a p p a r e n t l y made l i t t l e e f f o r t t o m a in ta in th e assem b ly o r d e fe n d G racchus a g a i n s t N a s i c a 's p a r t y . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a t l e a s t th e p r i n c i p a l b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th e l e x Sem pronia a g r a r i a i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f th e k in d o f re fo rm c o n te m p la te d by th e G racch an s. I t was a s e r i o u s p r o p o s a l t o r e - c o n s t i t u t e th e s t a t e on i t s s u p po se d t r a d i t i o n a l economic* s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l fo u n d a t i o n s . I t was a com preh en sive p l a n t o cope w ith what th e G racchans and t h e i r a l l i e s b e l i e v e d to be th e r o o t o f Rome's problems*, namely th e c h ro n ic s h o r ta g e o f r e c r u i t s f o r th e a rm ie s and p resu m ab ly th e o v e r a l l decay o f Roman m o re s . The o ld m i l i t i a sy ste m was o b s o l e te b u t th e a r i s - 152 t o c r a c y was c o n v in c ed by t r a d i t i o n and t h e i r own m ythology t h a t th e b e s t s o l d i e r s were in d e p e n d e n t p e a s a n t fa rm e rs and was u n w i l l i n g t o t r y a new sy ste m . L o g ic a l l y th e re fo rm in g n o b le s had r e c o u r s e to a p l a n t h a t would m u l t i p l y th e s u p p l y o f t h e s e i d e a l s o l d i e r s and a t th e same tim e r e t u r n Rome t o i t s o ld econom ic sy ste m . I t was i r r e l e v a n t t h a t th e p e a s a n t s o l d i e r was a t th e b e s t o f tim e s an a m ateu r and i n th e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n c o m p le te ly u n s u i t e d t o th e demands o f e x te n d e d w a r f a r e , e s p e c i a l l y g u e r r i l l a w a rfa re i n th e p r o v i n c e s . T hat th e o ld system o f a g r i c u l t u r e was l e s s e f f i c i e n t th a n th e new was obv io u s t o Cato b u t th e G racchans were w i l l i n g t o s a c r i f i c e e f f i c i e n t l a t i f u n d i a f o r t h e i r i d e a l o f a s m a ll farm sy stem . They d e l i b e r a t e l y t u r n e d t h e i r b acks on th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e new system and d e c re e d t h a t i t sh o u ld be a b o li s h e d and th e o ld l i f e r e s t o r e d . There was much t o recommend t h i s c o u rs e o f a c t i o n . T here had b een s la v e r e v o l t s i n E t r u r i a i n 1 9 6 and A pulia i n 185 and i n 133 one o f th e c o n s u ls was i n S i c i l y a t t e m p t in g t o p u t down th e l a r g e s t u p r i s i n g y e t e x p e r ie n c e d . Rome i t s e l f was f u l l o f unem ployed men who a c c o r d in g t o P lu t a r c h p e t i t i o n e d G racchus t o remedy t h e i r p l i g h t (TG 8 . 7 ) . T hroughout I t a l y th e e f f e c t s o f war, th e drop i n th e cen su s f i g u r e s , th e i n f l u x o f w e a lth and th e grow th o f l a t i - fund ism , r e i n f o r c e d by th e c h ro n ic s h o r ta g e o f r e c r u i t s , 153 must have e n u n c ia te d a c l e a r m essage t o anyone who was w i l l i n g t o l i s t e n . M e te llu s M acedonicus w o r r ie d a b o u t th e d e c r e a s i n g b i r t h r a t e and S c i p io A em ilianu s b e w a ile d th e a v o id a n ce o f p a re n th o o d by th e n o b i l i t y . Romans had n o t p r e v i o u s l y been f a c e d w ith su ch com p l e x p e a c e tim e p roblem s and c o n s e q u e n tly had no p r e c e d e n t s t o work form . C o lo n ie s were in te n d e d t o r e l i e v e p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s n o t remedy p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e s . Now., r a t h e r th a n th e norm al p ie c e m e a l a p p ro a c h , th e G racchan p l a n p ro p o se d a r a d i c a l and o rg a n ic s o l u t i o n t o a l l o f Rome's p ro b le m s. I t was b a s e d on th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t Rome c o u ld have b o th h e r o ld way o f l i f e and h e r p r o v in c e s and new p o s i t i o n as w o rld l e a d e r . B adian h as a rg u e d a t l e n g t h t h a t Rome was very slow t o commit h e r s e l f t o a c t u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f h e r newly a c q u i r e d p o s s e s s i o n s .^3 i n s t e a d o f s e t t l i n g C o r in th o r C a rth a g e f o r exam ple, she p r e f e r r e d t o p lo u g h them up . " Roman m o tiv e s were p u r e l y s t r a t e g i c and p o l i t i c a l : to s t r i k e a t s t r o n g l y f o r t i f i e d c e n t r e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a n t i - Roman l e a d e r s h i p . S h e p r e f e r r e d c l i e n t kingdoms and p r i n c e s t o th e m achin ery o f e m p ire . Macedonia was a n nexed o n ly a f t e r th e f a i l u r e o f c o n t r o l l e d in d ep en d en ce and i n th e Asia commitments were c u r t a i l e d a s f a r as p o s s i b l e . In th e West th e same was t r u e . D e s p ite th e s u c c e s s f u l p a c i f i c a t i o n o f T r a n s a l p in e Gaul i n th e 1 2 0 's , I 154 | t h e a r e a was n o t annexed n o r was Numidia a f t e r th e ! J u g u r t h i n e w ar. But t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i c y o f n o n- i ; a n n e x a ti o n was a g a i n and a g a i n d i s r u p t e d and Roman l e g i o n s ■ w ere f o r c e d t o r e t u r n t o a r e a s a l r e a d y c o n q u e re d . The j G racch an s were u n w i l l i n g t o b r e a k w i t h t h i s p o l i c y and : c o n ti n u e d t o lo o k t o Rome, L atiu m and th e a l l i e s f o r th e ! i t r o o p s t o m a i n t a i n th e e m p ire . I n s t e a d o f s e e k i n g new I fo rm s, t h e y went b a ck t o t h e p a s t f o r t h e i r m odel. The i i o l d v i r t u e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l Rome a s p r o c la im e d by Cato and C a lp u r n iu s P is o were n o t a t f a u l t , m e re ly th e y were n o t i n s u f f i c i e n t s u p p ly anym ore. What Rome n e e d e d was a r e v i v a l ! o f th e o ld ways and a r e t u r n t o th e s o u rc e o f Roman | s t r e n g t h , t h e l a n d . I n i t s own f a s h i o n , t h i s r e f u s a l t o a c c e p t changed c o n d i t i o n s r e p r e s e n t s a f a i l u r e o f th e Roman t r a d i t i o n i t s e l f . Roman p o l i t i c s were re m a rk a b ly f l e x i b l e and u n d o g - | m a t i c . T h ere were no I d e a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s dem anding r i g i d j j c o n f o r m i ty . Rom e's own o r i g i n s and e a r l y d ev elo p m e n ts ; f o r b a d e t h e f o s s i l i z a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l fo rm s, a lt h o u g h I t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t th e form s te n d e d t o re m a in th e same 1 ! w h ile change went on u n d e r n e a t h . The G racchans s to p p e d i | t h i s p r o c e s s by i n s i s t i n g on t h e form r a t h e r t h a n th e s u b - i J s t a n c e . An u n lu c k y c o n c a t e n a t i o n o f e v e n ts tr a n s f o r m e d ; T i . and G aius G racchus i n t o m a r ty r s and gave t h e i r i d e a l s j a perm anency t h a t t h e y d i d n o t d e s e r v e . I n s t e a d o f a c - 155 c e p t in g change w hile p r e s e r v i n g th e form s, th e Gracchans w anted t o g ive perm anent form to th e Rome o f a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d . They were so r a d i c a l l y c o n s e r v a tiv e t h a t th e y c e a se d t o be t r a d i t i o n a l . In r e f u s i n g t o a c c e p t t r a d i t i o n a l modes o f a d a p t a t i o n th e y became un-Roman. They viewed th e changes o f th e tim e s a s movements away from some i d e a l p a s t and i n th e i n s t a n t o f t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n th e y , th e m se lv e s, broke w ith Rome a s a l i v i n g and d e v e lo p in g community. T h e ir v i s i o n o f th e p a s t gave s p e c io u s p l a u s i b i l i t y t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n and l e f t t h e i r opponents g ro p in g f o r a s u i t a b l e r e p l y . I f l a t i f u n d i a and s l a v e r y had alw ays e x i s t e d a t Rome, i t would have been e a s i e r to cope w ith th e c h a lle n g e , b u t th e G racchan s t r o n g p o i n t was th e i n s i s t e n c e t h a t th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s were a l i e n to Rome, w h ile th e d e f e n d e r s of th e new a g r a r i a n sy stem were fo r c e d to argue f o r som ething b ran ded u n t r a d i t i o n a l and u n p a t r i o t i c . What c o u ld s l a v e s c o n tr ib u e t o th e d e fe n se o f Rome? They were a d a n g er r a t h e r th a n a s a f e g u a r d . In c o n t r a s t , f r e e men went hungry and hom eless w ith o u t s h a r in g i n th e bo oty o f th e wars th e y had won. Reduced to p o v e rty , th e y were dying out b e cau se th e y were to o poor t o r a i s e c h i l d r e n (TG 9 .4 ; b . c . I . 9 j 10 and 1 1 ). I t was a very p e r s u a s iv e argum ent b u t i t s s u c c e s s i n a r o u s i n g p o p u la r e n th u sia sm p ro b a b ly to o k th e G racchans by 156 s u r p r i s e . The p r o p o s a l t o "break up th e l a t i f u n d i a may have been r o u t i n e p o l i t i c s u n t i l th e u n e x p e c te d p o p u la r su p p o rt s u g g e ste d a way around O c ta v iu s ' v e to . Perhaps i n th e h e a t o f th e d e b a te , w ith p a s s io n s a ro u se d on b o th s i d e s , Gracchus made th e move t h a t e v e n t u a l l y le d to d i s a s t e r . I t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t th e Gracchans had any a c c u r a te e s tim a te o f th e e n th u s ia sm t h e i r a g r a r i a n law was l i k e l y t o a ro u s e , b u t once th e y were p r e s e n t e d w ith a body o f e n t h u s i a s t i c s u p p o r t e r s , th e y were u n w i l l i n g to l e t th e op p o r t u n i t y p a ss them by. The s t a t e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n I t a l y was good, p r i c e s o f food were h ig h and many Romans s t i l l had c lo s e t i e s t o th e l a n d . L and-hunger and a tta c h m e n t t o th e s o i l i s an em otion alm ost unknown i n an u rb a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , b u t f o r a n a t i o n where p e a s a n ts p re d o m in a te , i t i s th e most p o w e rfu l o f a l l e m o tio n al f a c t o r s . N othing compares w ith i t , n e i t h e r r e l i g i o u s e n th u sia sm n o r th e d e s i r e f o r power o r w e a lth . Rome was a n a t i o n o f p e a s a n ts and f o r re a s o n s we can only dim ly g ra s p , th e Gracchan la n d law p o l a r i z e d a l l th e f o r c e s a t work i n th e s t a t e d u rin g t h i s p e r io d o f change and th e r e s u l t was th e Roman r e v o l u t i o n . 15 7 NOTES TO CHAPTER 4 ^Summary o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d i n t h e s o u r c e a n a l y s i s o f c h a p t e r s 2 and 3 o f t h i s s t u d y : 1. TG 8 - 1 3 .3 and b . c . 1 . 7 - 14 r e f l e c t t h e u s e o f a com mon s o u r c e w h ic h was p r o b a b l y a G racch an p ro p a g a n d a t r a c t j u s t i f y i n g t h e p ro g ra m s o f T i . and G. G ra c c h u s . TG 18 - 2 1 .3 i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s s o u r c e , a l t h o u g h n o t fo u n d i n A ppian. A gis 1- 2, TG 1 - 7 and a l l o f G aius r e f l e c t th e u s e o f a s i n g l e s o u r c e , composed by t h e 'same p e r s o n , p r o b a b ly a b i o g r a p h y o f T i . and G. G ra c c h u s . A p p a r e n tly th e a u t h o r o f t h i s b i o g r a p h y made u s e o f t h e same s o u r c e a s A p p ia n !s i n t e r m e d i a r y f o r TG 8 - 1 3 / b . c . I . 7 - 14. 3 . P l u t a r c h fo u n d t h i s b i o g r a p h y o f T i . an d G. G racch u s i n h i s s o u r c e s b u t was d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h th e t h e o r y o f g l o r y - a m b i t i o n - p o p u l a r f a v o r d e v e lo p e d by th e b i o g r a p h e r and i n s e r t e d from an a n t i - G r a c c h a n a n e c d o t a l s o u r c e t h e s e c t i o n 1 3 .4 - 1 7 . T h is i n s e r t i o n e n a b le d him t o e s t a b l i s h t h e t h e o r y o f a m o ra l d e t e r i o r a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f T i . G ra c c h u s. p E . g . B.G. N ie b u h r, H i s t o r i c a l L e c t u r e s i i , London, i8 6 0 , p p . 2 7 1 f . ; T. Mommsen, The H i s t o r y o f Rome e d . D. A. S a u n d e rs and J . H. C o l l i n s . New York 1958, p p . 2 5 f . ; A. H. J . G re e n id g e , A H i s t o r y o f Rome, London 1 906. W. E. H e i t l a n d , A _ S h o r t H is to r y ' o f tEe~ Roman R e p u b l i c . London, 1911, p p . 2 l 8 f . ; E. von jStfern, Hermes 5'b (1 9 2 1 ), p p . 2 2 9 f , j H. L a s t , CAH 9, p p . I f . ; A. P i g a n i o l , H i s t o i r e de Rome. 2 P a r i s , 1946, p p . 140 f . ; L. P a r e t i e t a l . The Ancient" W o rld . New Y ork, 1 9 6 5 , p p . 4 8 7 f . 0 3 p . P r a c c a r o , S t u d i , p a s s im ; M. C ary, A H i s t o r y °/_ Rome* London, 1 9 6 5 * p . 285; D. C. E a r l , T i b e r i u s tx racoh us, p . l 6 f . ; A. E. A s t i n , S c i p i o A e m ilia n u s , p . 1 9 0 f . CTT"E." 1 5ad ian , F o r e i g n C l i e n t e l a e , p . l 6 8'f. ^ e . g . E a r l , op. c i t . p . 112 a c c e p t s D i o 's c la im t h a t A ppius C la u d iu s and in G racch u s were g o in g t o s e e k o f f i c e o f 1 3 2 . 5Athenaeum 2 8 (1 9 5 0 ) , p p . l 8 3 f . ; c f . th e a r t i c l e s i n RE by E. Kornemann on m u n ic i p ia and c o l o n i e s . 158 ^ C i t e d by T i b i l e t t i , op . c l t . p . 207; T. F r a n , Econom ic S u rv e y i , B a lt i m o r e 15 3 3 i PP. 215 f . ; K. J . fie lo c h , RGm. G e sc h . , B e r l i n , 1926, p . 6 2 1 . ? L iv . 2 6 .3 4 . ®Liv. 4 0 . 3 8 . 1 - 7 and 4 1 . 3 f . T i b i l e t t l c o n c l u d e s : "Q u esto t r a t t a m e n t o r i s e r v a t o a n e m lc i i r r i d u c i b i l i d i m o s tr a che 11 g o v e rn o romano aveva a n c o r a - s ia m o ^ n e l 1 8 0 a non m o lta d l s t r a n z a d a l l ' e t a g r a c c a n a - a l p l u l a r g a d i s p o n i b i l i t a d i t e r r i t o r i o non o c c u p a to o f a c i l m e n t e s g o m b e r a b ile p e r s c o p i a s s e g n a t o r i o i n g e n e re a g r a r i " (o p . c l t . p . 2 0 5 f . ) . "La p o l i t i c l a a g r a r i a e c o l o n i a r i a p r o c e d a v a , q u a lc h e d e - c e n n io p rim a d e i G r a c c h i, se n z a i n c o n t r a r e a lc u n a r e s i s - t e n z a e con p l e n a s o d d i s f a z i o n e d e l l e e s i g e n z e e d e l l e p r e t e s e d i t u t t i , d e l l a c l a s s e d i r i g e n t i , d e l l e c o n s o r - t e r i e p o l i t i c h e che p o te v a n o e s s e r v i i n q u e l tem po, d e l l a p o p o l a z i o n e ; e s s a r a p p r e s e n t a v a f o r s e , i n t u t t o i l q u a d ro d e l l a v i t a p o l i t i c s roraana, l a m in o r f o n t e d i p r e o c c u p a - z i o n e ." (o p . c i t . p . 2 0 6 ) . ^ T i b i l e t t i , o p . cit_. p . 199. 1 0 L iv . 3 9 . 3 . 4 ; 4 1 . 9 . 9 . ^ A p p i u s C la u d iu s P u l c h e r RE C la u d iu s n o . 295 S. S u l p i c i u s Galba RE S u T p ic iu s n o . 5 8 . 0.. F u l v i u s N o b i l i o r RE F u l v i u s n o . 95* M. F u l v i u s F l a c c u s R E ~ F u lv iu s n o . 5 8 . C. P a p i r i u s Carbo RE P a p i r i u s n o . 33 . P. M ucius S caevola~ H E M ucius n o . 1 7 . P. L i c i n i u s C r a s s u s RE L i c i n i u s n o . 72. C. P o r c i u s C ato RE P o r c i u s n o . 15 ( o ld R E ). 1 2 C ic . de o r a t . 2 .2 8 5 ; D io d . 3 4 / 3 5 . 3 3 . 7 . 4 3 r . e . S m ith , S e r v i c e i n t h e P o s t - M a r i a n Roman ■Army, c h . 1 . £.' fiabba A thenaeum , 2 7 .( 1 9 4 9 ) P. 1 7 3 f; E a r l op. c i t . p . 3Of A s ti n , op . c i t . p . l 6 7 f . 14p r a n ic op. c i t . p . 1 1 0 . 1 5 L i v . 3 2 . 3 . 2 ; ORF2 17 an d 18. A ppian, I b e r . 49; L iv . p e r . 4 8 . 4 7 ^ p p ia n , I b e r . 65 and 7 8 . 1 5 9 1 Q L iv . o x y . p e r . 54. •^ A p p ia n , i b e r . 84; C lc . &e l e g . 3 .2 0 ; p r o r e g . P l o t . 19; L iv . per~ 57; V e i l . 2 .9 7 7 ; S a i l . Jug~ 7 . 2 ; P l u t . A pophth. S c i p . Min. 15. 2 0 c f . E. Gabba, op. c i t . p . 187; a l s o , 30 (1952) p . l 6 l f . ; A s t i n , op . c i t ., A ppendix 12, p . 335. 21TG 8 . 4 ; ORF2 f r # i 4 . 2 2 0RF f r . 4 - 7 = L iv . p e r . 49; S u t e . Aug. 8 9 . 2 . pO C i c . de a m i c . 96; B r u t . 83; de n a t . deorum 3 . 5 ; r e p . 6 . 2 7 2^ C ic . de_ l e g . 3 .3 5 ; de. a m i c . 4 1 ; B r u t . 97* 106; p r o S e s t . 1 0 3 3 -4 ; L 'iv . o x y . p e r . '54; p e r / 54'. ^ C ic . cte h a r . r e s p . 5 8 ; i n V a t . 23; i n P i s . 10; L .R . T a y l o r r e v ie w s th e deve'l oprne n t a s’/ f o l l o w s :T T 7 . . i n t h e n e x t -18 y e a r s b e f o r e t h e t r i b u n a t e o f T i . G ra cc h u s, t h e r e a r e no l e s s t h a n tw e n ty t h r e e r e c o r d e d e p i s o d e s o f t h e t r i b u n a t e . I t seem s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e was a r e v i v a l o f t h e i n i t i a t i v e and in d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e t r i b u n a t e " JRS 5 2 (1 9 6 2 ) , p . 2 2 . p 6 c f . c h a p t e r 2 , p . 7 0 f . 2 7B .G. N ie b u h r, op . c i t . p . 270; A .H .J . G re e n id g e op . c i t . p . 104; W.E. H e i t l a n d , o p . c i t . p . 249; E. von SlTern, o p . c i t . p . 279; W. E n s s l i n , P E T lo lo g u s 8 2 (1927) p . 3 2 0 f . ; H. L a s t , CAH p . 20; D.R. D udley , JRS 21 (1949) PP . 9 4 f . ; A. P i g a n i o l , op. c i t . p . l 4 l ; T .S . Brown, CJ 1 9 4 6 - 47, p . 4 7 1 f . ; H. D r e x l e r , E m e rita 19 (1 9 5 1 ), PP. 5 1 f . ; T.W. A f r i c a , I n t e r n a t l . R e v . o f S o c . H i s t . 6 ( 1 9 6 1 ) p p . 1 1 0 f . ; F . Sm uts, A cta C la s s ic 'a I (” 1 9 5 8 ), p p . 1 0 6 f . ( E n g li s h sum m ary); J'.!B. iB'ecker, F a r o l a d e l P a s s a t o 1964, p p . 1 2 5 f . 2 8 c h a p t e r 2, p . 70; F . T a e g e r , o p . c i t . p . 1 7 f . 2 ^ F ra n k , op . c i t . p . 2 2 2 f. ^ ° T i b i l e t t i , op . c i t . 2 6 (1 9 4 8 ), p . 2 0 5 f . 31 T. F ra n k , l o c . c i t . e t p a s s im ; H.C. B o ren AHR 6 3 n r . 4 (1 9 5 8 ), p 7 “S 9 0 fT " l6 o 3 2T i b i l e t t i , op. cit_. 26 (1948), pp. 2 1 9 f. 3 3T i b i l e t t i , op. c l t . p . 2 2 9 f. 3\ i v . 3 9 .5 5 .7 ; 4 1 .1 8 .4 . 33Nine Gracchan c i p p i (th e l a t e s t I n 1953) have been d is c o v e r e d i n f i v e d i f f e r e n t a r e a s . One d a te s from 1 3 2, s i x from 131 and two from e i t h e r 129* 126 o r 123. The method o f d a t i n g worked o u t by C arcopino (A utour des G racques, pp. 125f*T has been g e n e r a lly accepteH [eTgTTTy A. D e g r a s s i, I n s c r . l a t i n a e l i b e r a e Rei P. 1. 1957* P. 2o0 n r s , 467 - 47W- 1. L ucanla has s u p p lie d t h r e e , w ith th e names of Gaius G racchus, Appius C lau d iu s and L ic in i u s C ra s s u s , A ll d a te from 131. CIL l 2 639; ILLRP 469; V. B racco, N o t i z i e d e g l i s c a v i . 1953* P. 337. 2. Two a re from Campania w ith th e same i n s c r i p t i o n and t h e r e f o r e th e same d a t e . One was found i n th e t e r r i t o r y o f Capua. CIL l 2 640 and 6 4 l. 3. One i s from th e Ager G a l li c u s w ith th e same i n s c r i p t i o n . CIL l 2 642. 4. One i s from Picenum w ith th e i n s c r i p t i o n L i c i n i u s C ra s s u s , C lau d iu s P u lc h e r and G. G racchus, w hich t h e r e f o r e d a te s from 132. CIL 1 , 817. 5. Two a re from A pulia w ith th e i n s c r i p t i o n M. F u lv iu s F la c c u s , G. Gracchus and C. Carbo, which c o u ld be d a te d 129* 126 o r 123. CIL l 2 643 and 648. 3^Ges. S c h r . i . r e p r . B e r l i n , 1 9 6 5* p . 103. 57op. c i t . n o te , 28; cf. F ran k , Ec_. Surrey i , p . 217; L a s t, CAR 9* P. 10: "The end i t s e l f - o r 'the main end, i f Gracchus had s e v e r a l b e fo r e him - was a r e d u c t i o n o f th e p a u p er p r o l e t a r i a t o f th e to w n s." 3^see ap p en d ix 3 i n r e g a r d t o th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f Ita lia n s i n th e la n d law . 3 % i b i l e t t i , op. c i t . 26 (1948), p . 2 2 9 f. 40 T i b i l e t t i , op. c i t . p . 228. l 6 l 4l op. c i t . p . 8 . lip see c h a p t e r 3, p . 1 2 0 , n . 3 2 . E. B ad ian, Roman Im p e r ia lis m i n th e L ate Re - p u b l i c . P r e t o r i a , 1967. iiii ^ o p . c i t . p . 2 1 . APPENDIX 1 THE AGE OP CORNELIA The p ro b lem o f C o r n e l i a 's age a r i s e s i n r e g a r d t o how s t r i c t l y C i c e r o 's s ta te m e n t i s t o he ta k e n when he d e c l a r e s t h a t she was an a d u le s c e n s a t th e tim e o f G r a c c h u s ' d e a th , de d i v . 1 . 3 6 . The i s s u e was a p p a r e n t l y s e t t l e d by Mommsen (Rom. P o r s c h . i i , p p . 489 - 91) who deduced t h a t th e m ar r i a g e to o k p la c e i n 165 from th e known d a te o f T i . G rac chus T . f ' s b i r t h i n 163 and from P lin y n . h . 7*57 and 122. A lso, a c c o rd in g t o th e l e x V i l l i a a n n a l i s ( 1 8 0 ), G racchus would have had t o have b een f o r t y - t w o when c o n s u l i n 177 and h i s b i r t h d a t e i n t h a t c ase would have b een arou nd 2 2 0 ( th u s Munzer i n RE sv Sem pronius n o . 5 3 ). C arcopino how ever, has s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a lle n g e d Mom msen on p a r t o f t h i s i s s u e . He h as p ro v ed (A utour des G racq u es, p . 6 2 f . ) t h a t Mommsen m is u n d e rs to o d P lin y n . h . 7 .5 7 w hich he to o k t o mean t h a t th e tw elv e c h i l d r e n o f C o r n e lia (Seneca ad M arc. l 6 . 3 j ad H e lv . 1 6 .6 ) were b o rn a l t e r n a t e l y male and fem a le , y e a r a f t e r y e a r from 1 6 4 /1 6 3 t o 15 2 /1 5 1 . By t h i s method, a c c o r d in g t o C a rco p in o , we can o n ly deduce t h a t th e m a rria g e d id n o t ta k e p l a c e a f t e r 1 6 4 /1 6 3 and n o t t h a t i t to o k p la c e i n 1 6 5 . C a rc o p in o 1s own d a te f o r th e m a rria g e i s 17 6/5 (o p . c i t . p . 6 6 ) w hich he deduces from a com parison o f G ra cc h u s' m a rria g e w ith t h a t o f N a sica Corculum and C o r n e l i a 's e l d e r 163 s i s t e r . From P o ly b . 3 1 .2 7 he a r g u e s t h a t b o t h m a r r i a g e s to o k p l a c e t h e same y e a r , so t h a t i f t h i s was 1 6 5 , N a sic a S e r a p i o , so n o f C orculum , w ould have b e e n i m p o s s i b l y young i n 149 when he r e c e i v e d t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e C a r t h a g i n i a n arm s (App. I b e r . 8 0 ) . He w ould a l s o have b e e n u n d e ra g e f o r h i s c o n s u l s h i p i n 1 3 8 . I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t S e r a p i o was a q u a e s t o r (2 7 y e a r s o ld ) i n 149 and was t h e r e f o r e b o r n i n 1 7 6 w h ich i s t h e r e f o r e a l s o th e y e a r o f G r a c c h u s ' m a r r i a g e . N ext C a rc o p in o h a n d le s C i c e r o 's s t a t e m e n t t h a t C or n e l i a was a n a d u l e s c e n s on t h e eve o f h e r h u s b a n d 's d e a t h (A u to u r, p . 6 7 f . ; C ic . d £ d l v . 1 .3 6 ; TG 1 . 2 ) . He p o i n t s o u t t h a t a d u l e s c e n t i a c o u ld l a s t fro m t h e ag e o f 15 t o 3 0 . Now, i f a s Mommsen t h o u g h t , G racchus d i e d i n 151 ( i . e . tw e lv e y e a r s a f t e r t h e b i r t h o f T i b e r i u s ) and C o r n e li a was t h i r t y a t t h i s d a t e (th e maximum age p o s s i b l e t o f i t C i c e r o 's s t r i c t u r e ) , she would have b e e n b o r n two y e a r s a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f h e r f a t h e r ! The c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t C ic e r o i s n o t t o be t a k e n l i t e r a l l y and when C o r n e li a m a r r i e d G racchus she was a b o u t 1 5 . Her b i r t h d a t e w ould t h e n have b e e n 1 9 1 j e i g h t y e a r s b e f o r e h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h . C a rc o p in o d e r i v e s th e d a te o f G r a c c h u s ' d e a t h from P l u t a r c h ' s s t a t e m e n t (TG 1 .3 ) t h a t P to lem y P hyscon r e q u e s t ed t h e hand o f th e widowed C o r n e li a i n m a r r i a g e . T h is o c - c u r e d , C a rc o p in o f e e l s , d u r i n g P t o l e m y 's v i s i t t o Rome i n 154 (P o ly b . 3 3 . 1 0 ) . Hence th e d e a t h o f G racch u s i s t o be 164 p la c e d sometime i n 154. F r a c c a r o in h i s rev ie w o f C arcopino, a c c e p t s much o f h i s c r i t i c i s m o f Mommsen, b u t w i l l n o t go as f a r a s h a lv in g th e t r a d i t i o n a l age d i f f e r e n t i a l (Athenaeum 9 (1931)* p . 2 9 1 f . ) . He a g re e s t h a t Mommsen was i n c o r r e c t i n h i s e v a l u a t i o n o f P lin y , b u t s u g g e s ts t h a t a n o th e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e i n C a rc o p in o 's com parison o f th e m a rria g e o f Grac chus and Corculum: . . . da 1 1im p re ss io n e d i una n o te v o le d i f - f e re n z a d 'e t b f r a Gracco e C o rn e lia 11 f a t t o che la s o r e l l a m aggiore d i C o rn e lia sposo P. C o rn e lio N asica Co^culo, che e ra in d u b b ia - mente p a re c c h io p i u g iovane d i G racco: e d i l e n e l 169 (e n a to q u in d i c i r c a 11 2 0 0), anno d e l l a c e n su ra d i Gracco . . . (op. c i t . p . 3 0 9 ). F ra c c a ro i s a ls o u n w i l l i n g t o commit h im s e lf e n t i r e l y to 154 as th e d a te o f G racchu s' d e a th : I I C. pone la m orte d i Gracco p a d re prima d e l 154, anno n e l q u a le Tolomeo F isco n e avrebbe c h i e s t o l a mano d i C o r n e lia . Ma non s i pub e s c lu d e r e che i l F isco n e a b b ia f a t t o la sua domanda p i u t a r d i , p . e s . quando n e l 136/5 l 'E m i l l a n o s i re c o ad A l e s s a n d r ia , n e l q u a l caso l 'E g i z i a n o avrebbe t e n t a t o d i c a t t i v a r - s i l a s im p a tia d e l l 'E m i l i a n o r ic h ie d e n d o l 'u n i c a donna d i s p o n i b i l e d e l l a sua f a m i g l i a . I n o l t r e T ib e r io su c c e s s e a l p ad re n e l c o l - l e g i o d e g l i a u g u ri . . . non prim a d 'a v e r a s s u n to l a toga v i r i l e , c io e a 15 - 16 a n n i, e q u in d i non prim a d e l 147, o d e l 148 a l massimo, ten en d o conto che s i p o te v a a n t i c i - p a re l 'a s s u n z i o n e d e l l a to g a p e r un f i g l i o p rim o g e n ito o r f a n o . Se i l p a d re f o s s e m orto n e l 154 (come vuole i l C. p . 79), o T ib e r io g l i sa reb b e su c c e d u to a 9 - 10 a n n i, o i l p o s to g l i sa re b b e s t a t p c o n s e rv a to v a ca n te p e r a n n i, c io che non e p r o b a b i l e (op. c i t . p . 3 1 0, n . 2 ). 165 A.E. A s tin a c c e p t s 147 as th e l a t e s t p o s s i b l e d a te f o r G racch u s' d e a th (S c ip io A e m ilia n u s. Oxford, 1967j P. 3 6, n . 1 ). The n e t e f f e c t i s t o su p p o rt th e view t h a t th e mar r i a g e to o k p la c e a f t e r A f r ic a n u s ' d e a th as P l u t a r c h ( i . e . h i s b i o g r a p h i c a l s o u rc e ) i n s i s t e d and t o make im p o s sib le th e b e t r o t h a l sc en e s re c o u n te d by Livy and G e l l i u s . I t a l s o p ro v id e s a d a te f o r th e e n tr a n c e o f T i , Gracchus i n t o th e a u g u ra te and h e lp s r e v e a l th e a p o lo g e ti c aims o f th e b io g r a p h e r . APPENDIX 2 THE DATE OP THE MARRIAGE OP T I. GRACCHUS The most l i k e l y d a te f o r G ra c c h u s' m a rria g e i s some y e a r s a f t e r th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C a rth a g e, p e rh a p s i n 143 ( f i r s t p ro p o se d by F r a c c a r o , S t u d i , p . 42, n . l ; th e n by Munzer, Rom. A d e ls. p . 2 6 8f . ; E arl, T i. G racchus, p . 6 7 ; A s tin , S c i p i o , p . 3 1 9 ). T h is d a te d e r i v e s from a com parison o f t h r e e t e x t s . The f i r s t o f th e s e says t h a t Gaius G racchus, sometime b e tw een 1 2 3 /1 2 2 claim ed t h a t only he and a p u e r s u r v iv e d of th e fa m ily o f P. A fric a n u s and T i. Gracchus (S ch ol. Bob. S u l l . p . 81 S ta n g l - QRP 2 f r . 4 7 ). The second t e x t , a r e f u t a t i o n by th e c e n so r M e te llu s Numidicus o f th e cla im s o f L. E q u i t i u s , s t a t e s t h a t T i. 166 G racchus ( t r i b . 133) had t h r e e sons., one o f whom d ie d w h ile on m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e i n S a r d i n i a , one as an i n f a n t i n P r a e n e s te and th e t h i r d a t Rome, h o rn a f t e r h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a t h (VM 9 . 7 . 2 ) . The t h i r d i s from Sem pronius A s e l l i o (HRR2 f r . 7 = G e l l . 2 . 1 3 . 1 ) . I t t e l l s th e s t o r y o f T i b e r i u s ' a p p e a l f o r p r o t e c t i o n t o th e p e o p le s h o r t l y b e f o r e h i s a s s a s s i n a t i o n , f o r h i m s e l f and f o r h i s c h i l d r e n . Then he o r d e r e d th a t, t h e one male c h i l d he had a t t h a t tim e be b ro u g h t out and p r e s e n t e d to th e p e o p le . Prom th e f i r s t t e x t i t can be deduced t h a t a l l of T i b e r i u s ' c h i l d r e n were dead by 121, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e th e r th e A f r ic a n u s r e f e r r e d t o i s A em ilian u s o r A f r i c a n u s M aior o r th e Gracchus i s th e f a t h e r o r th e so n . The p u e r must a l s o be th e son o f G aius, n o t T i b e r i u s . Nor was Gaius c o u n tin g fe m a le s b e ca u se h i s s i s t e r Sem pronia, th e widow o f A em ilian u s was s t i l l a l i v e i n 123/122 and s u r v i v e d u n t i l 1 0 1 . The seco n d t e x t p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r l i n k i n th e argu m en t. I f a l l th e c h i l d r e n o f T i b e r i u s were dead by 121, th e n th e son who d ie d i n S a r d i n ia m ost p l a u s i b l y would have s e rv e d t h e r e w ith h i s u n c le i n 1 2 6 , i n w hich c ase he c o u ld n o t have been b o rn l a t e r t h a n 142. The m a rria g e t h e r e f o r e to o k p la c e i n 143. The t h i r d t e x t I m p lie s t h a t i n 133 one o f G ra cc h u s' 167 s o n s was a l r e a d y d ead ( a t P r a e n e s t e ) , one was u n b o rn and h e n ce t h e one he p r e s e n t e d t o th e p e o p le was t h e one who l a t e r d i e d i n S a r d i n i a . E a r l (op. c i t . p . 6 7 ), on th e b a s i s o f one o f M d n z e r's c o n j e c t u r e s , a r g u e s t h a t G aius had o n ly a d a u g h t e r i n 1 2 1 , so t h a t th e p u e r o f th e f i r s t t e x t was a so n o f T i b e r i u s and he c o u ld have s e r v e d u n d e r M e t e l l u s i n S a r d i n i a b e tw e e n 115 and 111. He c o n c lu d e s t h a t t h e r e i s no p r o o f t h a t t h e m a r r ia g e t o o k p l a c e as e a r l y a s 143. H is a rg u m e n ts , h ow ever, do n o t seem s t r o n g enough t o sh a k e t h e a c c e p t e d d a t e o f 143. APPENDIX 3 WERE NON-ROMANS INCLUDED IN THE AGRARIAN LAW OP TIBERIUS GRACCHUS? The s e r e n i t y and a p p a r e n t o b j e c t i v i t y o f A p p ia n 1s a c c o u n t h as l e d many s c h o l a r s t o a c c e p t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e l e x Sem pronia a g r a r i a e x te n d e d t o I t a l i a n s a s w e l l a s Roman c i t i z e n s ( e . g . K.W. N i t z s c h , c i t e d by G e lz e r , K l. S c h r . i i , p . 91; Mommsen, Rom. G es. i i , p . 8 6 and G e s. S c h r . i , p . 104; E. M eyer, K l. S c h r . i 2 , p . 3 8 7 f . ; P . T a e g e r , T i b e r i u s G ra c c h u s , p p . 13, 72, 140 n .5 5 2 ; J . G o h le r, Rom und I t a l i e n , p . l 6 l , 203 and p a s s i m ; E. Gabba, A ppiano e_ la_ s t o r i a d e l l e G u erre C i v i l e , p . 4 3 f . ; and A p p ia n i B e llo ru m C i v i l i u m L i b e r P rim u s , comm, f o r 1 . 4 l ) . I t c a n n o t be d e n ie d t h a t A ppian does g iv e a d i s t i n c 168 t i v e " I t a l i a n " f l a v o r to h i s a cco u n t o f th e Gracchan c r i s i s b u t th e c r u c i a l q u e s t io n i s w h eth er t h i s c o lo r i n g b e lo n g s t o th e o r i g i n a l a cc o u n t o r r e p r e s e n t s a l a t e r r e - e d i t i n g , e i t h e r t h a t o f Gaius Gracchus (as su g g e s te d i n c h a p te r 3 )j o r th e more commonly a c c e p te d th e o ry o f a l a t e f i r s t cen t u r y b . c . r e d a c t i o n . None o f th e o t h e r so u rc e s a re s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r t o s e t t l e th e m a t t e r and so th e d e b a te con t i n u e s . T here i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t I t a l i a n s were de_ f a c t o p o s s e s s o r e s o f p u b l ic la n d , w hether th e y had l e g a l t i t l e " l — ' ^ - i n - - I t o i t o r n o t . The a l l i e s p o s s e s s e d th e ju s commercii w ith Rome and co uld t h e r e f o r e come i n t o p o s s e s s i o n of p u b l ic la n d by p u r c h a s e . Appian a l s o m entions th e c l a n d e s t i n e p o s s e s s io n o f p u b l ic la n d by non-Romans ( b . £ . I . 2 6 ) 0 There was a huge in c r e a s e in th e amount o f p u b l ic la n d a v a i l a b l e a f t e r th e Second Punic War, th ro u g h b o th d e v a s t a t i o n and c o n f i s c a t i o n so t h a t i t would have been im p o s sib le t o h in d e r i t s o c c u p a tio n t o some e x te n t by I t a l i a n s (c f. G. C a r d in a li , S tu d i g r a c c a n i , p . l 6 l ) . In a d d i t i o n t h e r e a re i n s t a n c e s i n which th e a l l i e s were a llo w e d t o j o i n L a tin c o lo n ie s (Cosa, L iv. 3 3 .2 4 ) , Roman c o lo n ie s ( P u t e o li , S a le rn o , B uxento, L iv . 3 4 .4 2 ) and even r e c e iv e d v i r i t a n e a ll o t m e n ts (L iv. 4 2 .4 ; see G. T i b i l e t t i , Athenaeum 28 (1950), p . 1 9 2 f . ) , The a g r a r i a n law o f 111 m entions e x p l i c i t l y th e p re s e n c e o f I t a l i a n s on ! 169 i la g e r p u b l i c u s : l i n e s 21, 29* and p o s s i b l y 31 • C i c e r o 's j I s ta te m e n t t h a t T i. G racchus "so c io ru m n o m in isqu e L a t i n i I i u r a n e g l e x i t ac f o e d e r a " (de r e p . 3 .4 1 ; see a l s o 1 .3 1 ) and IA e m ilia n u s' a c t i o n on b e h a l f o f I t a l i a n s t h r e a t e n e d by th e ila n d com m ission, a l l p o i n t t o th e de f a c t o p r e s e n c e o f ' I t a l i a n s on p u b l i c la n d . No m a t t e r how th e y came i n t o p o s s e s s i o n o f t h i s la n d , i ; I t a l i a n s c o u ld e x p e c t no b e t t e r t r e a tm e n t th a n c o u ld Roman Io c c u p a t o r e s . They s u f f e r e d th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f n o t h a v in g ; d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t Rome and th e f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e y may have h e ld la n d t h a t o n ly Roman c i t i z e n s :had a r i g h t t o ( C a r d i n a l ! , op. c i t . p . 167; C. a l s o su g - ■g e s t s t h a t i t was t h i s e x p e r ie n c e t h a t l e d th e a l l i e s t o i p r e s s f o r c i t i z e n s h i p ) . However, none o f t h e s e argum ents im ply t h a t th e G rac chan la n d law e x te n d e d t o th e I t a l i a n a s w e l l a s t o th e jRoman p o o r . There i s no m en tio n i n th e l e x a g r a r i a o f 111 : o f a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p u b l i c la n d u n d e r th e Sem pronian law t o I t a l i a n s e x c e p t f o r th e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f a n c i e n t la n d I t i t l e s i n 1. 21. Some t e x t s i n Appian a l s o seem t o c o n firm I th e e x c l u s i o n o f non-Romans. In b . £ . 1 .1 0 .4 1 t h e r e i s th e |s t a t e m e n t t h a t l a r g e crowds o f p e o p le p o u red i n t o Rome |fro m th e c o u n try t o s u p p o rt one o r o t h e r s id e i n th e b a t t l e |o v e r th e e n actm en t o f th e Sem pronian a g r a r i a n law . Appian v s p e c i f i e s t h a t th e crowd came from ot-ire>tkoc Tro(\e.L5 and I 1 7 0 I LG ic> 7T c> 7 ) recasts and "e lse w h e re where t h e r e was a ; v e s t e d I n t e r e s t " Q o«.^huJ>y G«6tvu3v/€c Tijr (5g "T fjS yo? ! As p o i n t e d o ut by F r a c c a r o (S t u d i , p . 84, n .3 )* th e e x - : p r e s s i o n i s s i m i l a r t o th e fo rm u la i n th e a g r a r i a n law o f ■ 111, 1 . 31: S e i q u e i c o l o n i e i s s e i v e m oi] n i c i p i e i s s e iv e quae p ro m o i n i c i p i e i s c o l o Q n i e i s v e su n t civiu m Rom/J n o m in isv e L a t i n i . . . (E.H. W armington, Remains o f Old L a t i n , 4 p . 3 9 7 ). *• < • ; Hence th e oLizoi kol *no?iEfyare c o l o n i e s o f Roman c i t i z e n s and L a t i n s and th e C .<re> 7ror\ l-t <_j£s- Tro^ecr a re m u n ic ip ia civ iu m Romanorum ( f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e te r m s , see Mommsen, S tR . i i i , p . 790 - 797)• T here i s d is a g re e m e n t o v e r th e p h r a s e 0 <3<.7\7)u3^ ccrT). G e lz e r (as C a r d in a l! e a r l i e r a rg u e d , o]D. c i t . p . 168, n . l ) , f e e l s th a t' t h i s p h ra s e r e p r e s e n t s th e I t a l i a n s w h ile F r a c c a r o b e l i e v e s t h a t i t i n c l u d e s a l l Roman c i t i z e n s u n d e r th e l e v e l o f c o lo n i e s o r m u n i c i p a l i t i e s (G e lz e r, K l. S c h r . ; i i , p . 92; F r a c c a r o , l o o . c i t . ) . None o f t h e s e s c h o l a r s a r e i n d is a g re e m e n t as t o th e f a c t t h a t Roman c i t i z e n s a lo n e were th e o b j e c t o f th e , G racchan a g r a r i a n law . G e lz e r a rg u e s f u r t h e r from A p p ia n rs ! a c c o u n t o f th e s e d i t i o n o f S a tu r n in u s ( b .£ . I . 2 8 . 1 3 2 f . ) I t h a t th e words d.yfc>tKe>t, ttT)q»os duo -rtov^yftuvand o£.<ttttcot t : -iro?icTt«'£otr SqjU-os a re u s e d i n c o n t r a s t f o r mobs o f Romans from th e c o u n tr y s id e and th e c i t y r e s p e c t i v e l y . He e x - i " 171 ; te n d s th e argum ent t o th e G racchan s e d i t i o n by s u g g e s tin g : t h a t Appian u se d th e same d i v i s i o n t h e r e a l s o , b u t d e s i g - ; n a te d th e r u r a l Romans a s I t a l i a n s : Es h a n d e l t s i c h i n W i r k l i c h k e i t urn p l e b s u rb a n a und r u s t i e a . . . Ic h z ie h e "daraus den" S c h lu s s , d a ss A ppian und j e d e n f a l l s auch s e in e u n m i t t e l b a r benutz.te Q u e lle m it den I t a l i k e r n d e r A g r a r g e s c h ic h te d ie ro'm- ! i s c h e n B u rg e r des a g e r Romanus m e in te n . . . I t a l i c ! war dam als 'der G e s a m tb e g riff f u r d ie ROmer und i h r e i t a l i s c h e n V e rb u n d e te n . Der * p o p u lu s Romanus b e s a s s , um m it P o ly b io s 3. 118.^5 und 9 zu r e d e n , tqv JlT</.rW «u-ru3v . . . Trjs ’XtaW s <5yv*vre(wln diesem SInne k a m p ften ^ d ie von T i b e r i u s A n g e red e te n jltolT V (G e lz e r, K l. S c h r. i i , p . 7 5 f . ; cf. K l. S c h r . i i i , p . 2 8^ for" th e same o p in io n reaTfirm'e'd t h i r t y y e a r s l a t e r ) . B adian d i s a g r e e s on th e grounds t h a t th e whole t e n d ency o f Appian p o i n t s i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f an o p p o s ite i n t e r p r e t a t i o n (F o r e ig n C l i e n t e l a e , p . 172, n . 8 ) . He f a i l s : how ever, t o ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e f a c t t h a t th e o r i g i n a l ■ s o u rc e p ro b a b ly d id a rg u e i n t h i s f a s h i o n ( i . e . i n G e l z e r 's se n s e ) u n t i l i t was r e - i n t e r p r e t e d and g iv e n i t s p r e s e n t ! I t a l i a n o r i e n t a t i o n . T h is can be deduced from a compar- ; i s o n w ith P l u t a r c h where th e common s o u rc e i s re p ro d u c e d ; w ith o u t th e I t a l i a n c o l o r i n g . None o f th e s c h o l a r s m en tio n ed above seem t o 'f i n d l any o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n A p p ia n 's p h r a s e ( b .£ . 1 .1 0 . 4 1 ) . I P l u t a r c h , Appian and D iodorus a l l sp e a k o f i n t e n s e s u p p o rt I f o r th e law and Appian and D iodorus s p e c i f y t h a t I t came ; from th e r u r a l a r e a s . Is i t p o s s i b l e t h a t u n d e r A p p ia n 's ; 172 g e n e r a l c a te g o r y o * . A n c o u l d be found th e sm a ll fa rm e rs i and s m a ll p o s s e s s o r e s o f th e a g e r p u b l i c u s o u t s i d e th e ^ a Se r p u b l i c u s Romanus, who were b e in g sq u e ez ed out by t h e i r : r i c h e r n e ig h b o r s a s d e s c r i b e d i n TG,8 and b.c_. 1 .7 ? P erhaps ; t h i s gro up a ls o i n c lu d e d men who s ta y e d on th e l a t i f u n d i a a s t e n a n t s and l a b o r e r s a f t e r r e d u c t i o n t o t h i s s t a t u s . ! i : i : These were th e k in d o f p e o p le , r a t h e r th a n th e u rb a n p r o - j ■ l e t a r i a t , who had som eth in g t o g a in by th e G racchan a s s a u l t ! on th e l a t i f u n d i a and i t was t h e i r a b sen ce t h a t l e d to ; T i . G ra c c h u s ’ d i f f i c u l t i e s when he sou ght th e t r i b u n a t e a ! seco n d tim e ( b .£ . I . l 4 and p o s s i b l y TG 1 6 ) . i ; ■ ! APPENDIX 4 | THE JUSTITIUM OF TG 1 0 .5 C arco p in o a rg u e s t h a t th e j u s t i t i u m m en tio n ed i n : P l u t a r c h was p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y and l e g a l l y i m p o s s i b l e : "une m o n stru o site * j u r i d i q u e " (A utour des G racq u es, p . 1 7)* and t r i e s t o p ro v e t h a t i t i s a p r o j e c t i o n i n t o th e second c e n tu r y o f p o s t - S u l l a n Rome (op. c i t . p . 2 2 ). He p r e s e n t s : a number o f arg u m e n ts, b u t th e p r i n c i p a l one a p p e a rs to ; be t h a t i t i s n o t found in Appian and must t h e r e f o r e be an i i n v e n t i o n o f P l u t a r c h : | . . . e t c ’e s t t a n t mieux p o u r Appien s ' i l a so ig n eu sem en t expure son p r o p r e expose de ces i n v e n t i o n s d e r i s o i r e s . I I ne l e s a p as om ises p a r a r t i f i c e de r h e t e u r ou p ro p o se de c o n c i s i o n . I I l e s a r e j e t e e s i n t e n t i o n n e l - j 173 i I lem en t, p o u r s u iv r e une t r a d i t i o n q u i s 'o p p o s e cl t o u t e s l e s s o u rc e s de P lu - I ta r q u e . . . (op. c i t . p . 2 3 ). I A lo n g l i s t o f a u t h o r i t i e s a c c e p t th e m easure: 'Mommsen, St_.R. i^ p . 2 6 3 f .; i i 3 p . 290 - 301; i i i , p . 1 0 6 3 f .; 1048; F ra c c a r o , S tu d i, p . 100; Miinzer RE c . l 4 l 6 ; ; R.M. Geer, S tu d ie s f o r E.K. Rand, p. 107; L a s t, CAH p . l ! 25; G. N i c c o l i n i , Il_ T r ib u n a to d e l l a P le b e , p . l l l f . t | b e l i e v e s t h a t th e t r i b u n e d id n o t have th e power to invoke i th e j u s t i t i u m as such, b u t does a c c e p t the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f : TG 10 .5 as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a de f a c t o j u s t i t i u m ; i t i s a l s o a c c e p te d by R. Thomsen, E r l i e s s T i. Gracchus e in ; J u s t i t i u m ? C & M 6 (1944), p . 6 0 f . ; M. G e lz e r, Gnomon : 5 (1929) P. 6 4 9 f .; A s tin , op. c i t . p . 204. i ! | APPENDIX 5 I THE VOTING PROCEDURE ON OCTAVIUS: TG 1 2 .2 ; b . c . 1 .12 1 The acco u n t o f th e d e p o s i t i o n o f O ctavius as p r e s e n t e d | by P l u t a r c h and Appian has caused c o n s id e r a b le d e b a te on th e n a tu r e of th e v o tin g p ro c e d u re s and has produced f l a t I c o n t r a d i c t i o n s on b o th s i d e s by d i f f e r e n t s c h o l a r s . The b a s i s of th e d isa g re e m e n t i s w h eth er th e t r i b e s i j ! v o ted s u c c e s s iv e l y o r s im u lta n e o u s ly . P l u t a r c h i s su p - i | posed t o p r e s e n t sim u lta n e o u s v o tin g and Appian s u c c e s s iv e . 1 T h e re fo re P l u t a r c h i s wrong, because th e d e p o s i t i o n o f j O ctav iu s was a l e g a l a c t and t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d s u c c e s s iv e 174 v o t i n g (C a rc o p in o , o p . c i t . p . 2 6 ) . S c h w a rtz draw s th e o p p o s i t e c o n c l u s i o n (G o tt = g e l . Anz. 158* (1 8 9 6 )* p . 805) = Card.inali proposes that hoth passages are identical: I due passi non corrispondono perfettamente, e non semhrano rappresentari una votazione successive, tribu per tribu? (Studi graccani, P . 5 6 ). Fraccaro agrees: . . . il chiaro schema di un comlzio tributo romano che sorregge in Appiano in racconto, svanisce in Plutarco sotto le alterazioni introdotte a scopo morale, ma ci sono persino coincidenze letterali che dimostrano l'identi- t'a dell'originale (Studi, p. 1 1 5 ) . Cardinali and Fraccaro are undoubtedly correct because Carcopino's assumption of Appian's universal superiority vitiates his argument and Schwartz was still dependent on Mommsen's now discarded theory of simultaneous voting for all comitia. Geer holds a middle position: ... in either form of voting the vote of each tribe was separately reported to the presiding magistrate and separately an nounced by him, and that it is therefore almost impossible in our notices to dis tinguish between the two systems (Rand Studies, p. 1 0 9 ). Cardinali earlier proposed the same explanation (op. cit. p. 57* n. 5 ) . F ra u u a ro i n A t t i d e l l ' Accademia d i T o rin o 49 (1913 - 1 9 1 4 ), p p . 6 0 0 f . d i s p r o v e d Mommsen's t h e o r y o f s im u lta n e o u s v o t i n g f o r a l l c o m itia (St^.R. 3, p . 3 9 6 - 415) and p r o p o s ed s u c c e s s i v e v o t i n g f o r J u d i c i a l and l e g i s l a t i v e assem b- 175 l i e s and sim u lta n e o u s v o tin g f o r e l e c t i o n s . T h is th e o r y i s a c c e p te d by L.R. T a y lo r, Roman V o tin g A sse m b lies, pp. 40, 128 n .6 , b u t d is p u te d by U. H a ll, H i s t o r i a 13 (1964) p . 2 8 8 f . who cla im s t h a t s u c c e s s iv e v o tin g was th e o r i g i n a l p r a c t i c e i n e l e c t i o n s as w e l l. 176 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. ANCIENT AUTHORS R e fe re n c e s th ro u g h o u t a re t o th e Loeb C l a s s i c a l L ib ra ry e d i t i o n s ex cep t f o r th e a u th o r o f d£ v i r i s i l l u s t r i b u s and V a le r iu s Maximus, where th e T eubner e d i t i o n s (1966 and 1 9 6 7) have been u se d . 2. MODERN W ORKS A f ric a , T.W. P h y la rch u s and th e S p a r ta n R e v o lu t i o n . Be r k e l e y , 196T "A r i s t o n i c u s , B l o s s iu s and th e C ity o f th e Sun", I n t e r n u t , R ev. of S o c . H i s t ., 6 (1 9 6 1 ), pp. l l O f . A f z e liu s , A. Die rom ische K riegsm acht wahrend d e r A usein- a n d e rs e tz u n g m it den h e l l e n i s t 'i s c h e n GrossmSTchten. Copenhagen, 1944’. A s tin , A.E. The Lex A n n a lis b e fo r e S u l l a . 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Creator Nagle, Dermot Brendan (author)

Core Title A Historiographic Study Of Plutarch'S 'Tiberius Gracchus'

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program History

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag History, ancient,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Africa, Thomas W. (committee chair), Dales, Richard C. (committee member), O'Neil, Edward N. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-658952

Unique identifier UC11362014

Identifier 6905063.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-658952 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6905063.pdf

Dmrecord 658952

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nagle, Dermot Brendan

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA