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The Old French Fabliau: A Classification And Definition

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The Old French Fabliau: A Classification And Definition

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Content 72-17,518 - THOMPSON, Norma Jean, 1935- THE OLD FRENCH FABLIAU: A CLASSIFICATION AND DEFINITION. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972 Language and Literature, modern University Microfilms, A X ERO X Com pany, Ann Arbor, Michigan © 1972 NORMA JEAN THOMPSON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED THE OLD FRENCH FABLIAU: A CLASSIFICATION AND DEFINITION by Norma J. Thompson A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (French) January 1972 UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFO RNIA TH E GRADUATE SC H O O L U N IV ERSITY PARK L O S A N G ELES, C A LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by under the direction of h.& c... Dissertation C om mittee, and a p proved by all its m em bers, has been presented to and accepted by T he G radu ate School, in partial fulfillm ent of require ments of the degree of Noraa. J.t...Thoir®spn. D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean D a te..£ekruary.. 1972 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE nh/jirmnw^ i ' L .... PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page INTRODUCTION ...................................... 1 I. FRENCH MEDIEVAL NARRATIVE LITERATURE AND THE FABLIAU.................................... 31 1. Didactic Literature.......... .......... 44 2. The chansons de geste.....................Ill 3. Courtly Literature ...............117 4. Lyric Poetry .................... 157 5. Proven§al Literature ................. 160 6. Bourgeois Literature ................. 170 II. THE NATURE OF THE FABLIAU...................... 187 1. A Classification .........................208 2. The Subject Matter .............225 3. The Structure.............................232 4. The Style ................ 245 5. The Social and Economic scene..............269 6. The Characters .......... 286 7. The Moral Code ...........................305 8. The Fabliau as Narrative Literature . . . 316 CONCLUSION .........................................323 BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................329 ii INTRODUCTION A noble, but impoverished, young man asks the hand of his beloved in marriage. Having been twice refused by her father, he begs for the help of a rich uncle. The uncle treacherously arranges the marriage for himself. To carry the bride in suitable style to the church, the father borrows the rejected lover's magnificent palfrey. As the nuptial procession wends its way towards the church before the dawn, the palfrey, unobserved by others of the company, takes the little forest path by which the lover habitually came to visit his lady. Horse and bride ar rive at the lover's castle. The couple are united, marry, and live happily ever after. The above tale is the fabliau of the "Vair palefroi" (III)* by Huon le Roi. However, the story is found earlier in Phaedrus and its sources vanish in the mists of antiquity. When Huon le Roi composed this work, he was responding to what seems to be a universal need on ^Individual fabliaux will be referred to by the Roman numerals assigned to them by Anatole de Montaiglon and Gaston Raynaud in the Recueil qSnSral et complet des fabliaux des XIIIe et XIVe~~siScles imprimis ou inidits. publlS d'aprds les manuscrits (6 vols.i Parisi Librairie des Bibliophiles, 1872-90) rather than by page numbers which differ according to edition. the part of mankind to tell stories and to hear them told. He adapted his tale to an age, a culture, and to the thought of the times and he put it in rhyme. Probably he neither knew nor cared that his subject matter was al ready very ancient. Since the nineteenth century, critics have tried to trace this and other folktales to their source and thus to determine their origins. They are in general agree ment that the basic material from which these tales de rive is very ancient and in continual flux. It is transformed by authors according to geographic position, the milieu, and the thought of the times. Let us con sider, by way of example, the "Vair palefroi" already cited. The basic material from which the story is con structed is simplistic. Two rivals, one old and rich, one young and poor, love the same girl. The rich one wins her, but the borrowed animal on which the bride is mounted for the marriage procession brings her back to his master. The couple then marries. As we have al ready seen, Huon le Roi creates from this schematic plot a story of chivalric France of the thirteenth century. What is more, he plants his story firmly in reality. Phaedrus* tale, on the contrary, unfolds in quite another setting and is adapted to a quite different thought. The noble palfrey is replaced by a donkey, the fortunate error of direction becomes a favor of Venus who sends a storm at precisely the right moment, and the reunion of the lovers takes place at the tavern where the dejected suitor is in the process of consoling himself amid the wine jugs.2 Critics are in disagreement, however, concerning the authorship of folktales. Was there a single man of genius who first observed in daily life the material for his tale? Or does the source lie in the collective in spiration of a people? The place of origin is also a sub ject of debate. Certain critics favor a very precise place of origin from which the stories spread throughout the world. Others adopt the theory that the material is self-created at any given moment in societies distant from one another in space or time, but of a same cultural level. Finally, there is the problem of relationship be tween the motif and the fully developed tale. Is the tale nothing but a composite of floating motifs? Or did there exist a primordial story which fragmented creating motifs which, in turn, were combined to form other tales ad infinitum? A number of theories have developed designed to answer these questions. The following are the four most important. 2Joseph BSdier, Les Fabliauxi etudes de litt€ra- ture populaire et d*histoire litt§raire du moven Sere (Paris* Champion, 1925), pp. 119-20. In 1812-1815 in Kinder und Hausmarchen and later in 1854-1857 in Deutsche Mythologie, the Grimm brothers advanced the theory that folktales are the relics of Aryan solar myths created at some far distant time by Indo- European tribes and slowly evolved. With an almost mystic respect of the people, the brothers further declared that the creation of these myths was most certainly collective. At about the same time (1859), in the preface to the first volume of his edition of the Pantschatantra, Theodor Benfey affirmed that folktales are of oriental origin and come predominantly from India. They were later borrowed by other peoples, first in the Orient and later in the Occident. According to Benfey, the Buddhist monks gave the tales a moral which is sometimes retained, but may be omitted, by subsequent imitators.3 Some years later, in Custom and Myth (1885) and Myth. Ritual and Religion (1887), Andrew Lang protested that folktales do not belong to a single people or geo graphical region. He pointed out that daily life pre sents a limited number of situations. Therefore, there must exist a limited number of plots. All literature is, in Lang's opinion, merely an elaboration of a few basic plots. Peoples separated from one smother might, given 3For a detailed study of this subject see also Gaston Paris, "Les Qontes orientaux dans la literature francaise du moyen age," in La Poesie du moven age (2 vols Parisi Hachette, 1885-95), I, 75-106. a similar cultural level, create the same tale with only superficial variations. The means by which these tales have been transmitted remains highly uncertain. Joseph Bidier records Lang as having saidi Nous croyons impossible, pour le moment, de de terminer jusqu'a quel point il est vrai de dire que les contes ont £ti transmis de peuple a peuple et transport's de place en place dans le pass§ incommen surable de 1'espSce humaine, ou jusqu'a quel point ils peuvent etre dus a l'identite de 1'imagination humaine en tous lieux . . . Comment les contes se sont-ils rSpandus? c'est ce qui demeure incertain. Beaucoup peut etre du a 1 * identity de 1'imagination dans les premiers ages? quelque chose a la trans mission. 4 However, Lang does not seem sure of his own theory. In a later conversation with Bidier, he admitted that he should have transposed the words "beaucoup" and "quelque chose” and have saidi "Quelque chose peut etre du a 1'identity de 1'imagination dans les premiers ages; beaucoup a la transmission." This change perceptably alters his theory5 Alexander Krappe posed the question of origins differently in his book the Science of Folklore (1980). No longer insisting on collective creation, he perceived at the origin of each tale an author living at a precise place and time. Following its creation, a story spread by oral means, became more and more diversified, and 4Bldier, pp. 65-66. (Quoted from a conversation with Andrew Lang.) ^Ibid., p. 66. 6 finally disintegrated. This disintegration left in its wake motifs from which other tales could be constructed. Therefore, the tale preceded the motif. Krappe accepts the possibility that the same tale might have been in vented by authors widely separated by space and time. Moreover, he concedes that oriental sources comprise often the most ancient version of a given tale. However interesting these theories may be, they offer no definite answers. Each seems to rest on a dif ferent concept of history, of the nature of the human being, and of the processes of creativity. The question of the origin of folktales must always remain open to speculation. However, it is profitable to study the more concrete aspects of the problem, such as written evidence of the tale on French soil. Folktales must have been prevalent in Gaul for some time when, in the eighth century, the church councils began to denounce them. They no doubt enjoyed a wide popularity and churchmen, determined to enliven their preaching, drew upon this ever circulating fund of oral narratives. It is certain that the most appreciated of the sermons were those which were punctuated with folk tales, for the sorames de pinitence list a taste for licentious stories among the punishable sins. Joseph Bidier comments* Des le VIIIe et le IXe siScle, le Poenitentiale Egberti (d. 766) les Capitula ad presbvteros d'Hincmar (d. 882) interdisent aux chrStiens de prendre plaisir e i ces vilaines historiettes (fabulis otiosis studere, fabulas inanes referre), et cies contes a rire qu'un vieux texte bien connu appelle dSja des fabellae ignobilium devaient ressembler fort a nos fabliaux.6 None of these fabellae has been preserved. They were, un doubtedly, nothing but anecdotes in the vulgar tongue in serted in the sermon and intended not only to instruct, but to retain the interest of the crowd and prevent it from emptying the church at the slightest noise from out side. References, such as the above, to the presence of the fabellae in sermons do afford proof that, long before the fabliau came into being as a literary form, bawdy tales of fabliau type were popular among the people. Even more reliable testimony exists concerning the existence of tales and the pleasure of telling them. Ele ments of popular stories actually appear in the chansons de geste. Early in the twelfth century (about 1130) popu lar humor, firmly grounded in the everyday and the trivial, won out over epic idealism in the Voyage de Charlemagne 5 Jerusalem et & Constantinople, a veritable parody of chivalry. As the result of a marital squabble, Charle magne undertakes a long expedition to prove to his wife that he is the "plus grand roi" in the world. He and the 6Ibid.. pp. 304-5. For additional references to obscenity in medieval sermons as early as the sixth century see R. Dubuis, "GenSse de la nouvelle en France au moyen age," in Cahiers de ^Association Internationale des Etudes Franoaises. no. 18 (Paris* Les Belles Lettres, 1^66). ” twelve peers, behaving more like rustics than like knights, relax in the Apostles' seats at Jerusalem and insult the king of Constantinople by boasting of their physical and amorous prowess. The peers' buffoonery, their ingenuous sacrilege, and Olivier's sexual exploits are easily recog nizable as fabliau material. This comic chanson de geste also affords precious information concerning the popu larity of tales and anecdotes for their own sake. Having retired for the evening, the twelve peers compete in in venting "gabs" which are nothing less than stories invented to entertain their companions.7 Those ’ ’ gabs" are perhaps the primitive state of what were later to become fabliaux. There exist works in the Recueil g6n§ral,8 such as the "Deux bordSors ribauz" (I), which are no more highly developed. "Richeut,considered by many to be the first fabliau, appeared in the third quarter of the twelfth century. Contrary to the majority of other works in the genre, it originated without easily discernable ante cedents, certainly none among the folktales. Strictly 7Le Voyag-e de Charlemagne, ed. Paul Aebischer, Textes Litt^raires Frangais (Paris> Minard, 1965). 8The authoritative collection of fabliaux made by Anatole de Montaiglon and Gaston Raynaud shall be re ferred to as the Recueil g&n&cal. 8lrving Lecompte, "Richeut, Old French Poem of the 12th Century," RR, IV (1913), 261 ff. speaking, "Richeut" is not a fabliau, but a portrait of manners. The plot, which will become the predominant element of the fabliaux, is unimportant. Neither does the author place great emphasis on the ingenious tricks which often form the very core of the action in later works. Unlike those in the fabliaux, the characters are of major importance and the author seems to take real pleasure in describing them. B^dier notesj Ge caractere qui marque le plus ancien fabliau con serve, a savoir la vSritS effrontSe de l'observa- tion, la visite rlialiste d'un monde interlope, 1*exactitude dans la peinture des moeurs, et spScialement des mauvaises moeurs, nous verrons bientot qu'il restera l'un des signes distinctifs du genre au cours de son histoire.10 It is to be questioned whether the fabliaux in general are realistic as B^dier suggests. However, it is cer tainly true that the setting, atmosphere, and philosophy of "Richeut" are similar to those commonly found in the fabliaux. A minor genre at the beginning, the fabliau will claim a considerable audience in the thirteenth century. It will serve as an interlude for works of a more serious nature and will rival the chansons de geste in popularity. In the "Deux bordSors ribauz" (I), a minstrel draws up a comic list of works which he is capable of reciting. This list includes all types of literary productions from 10BSdier, p. 308. 10 chansons de qeste to courtly romances and includes fabliaux. The minstrel complains of the latter*s great following. Before its disappearance about 1340, the fabliau will attract, surprisingly enough, the most well- known authors such as Rutebeuf and Jean Bodel. It will be sent to ladies along with love poemst Ne por quant, s'il me requeroit conseill, savoir se bon seroit qu’il feist rimes jolivetes, motez, fableaux et changonetes qu'il veille a s'amie envoier.H It will even inspire secondary sculptures on the exterior of cathedrals and on choir stalls.^2 Unfortunately, only about 157 fabliaux have sur vived. No doubt many were lost simply through neglect, for the fabliau has never been considered a valid literary form even in its own time. These 157 fabliaux provide us, nonetheless, with the essential of the genre, "une sorte de justice distributive a guidS le hasard dans son oeuvre de destruction. Elle nous a conserve ceux que le Moyen I O Age reconnaissait pour les plus accomplis." This state ment of Joseph Bedier seems to be true. Among the ■^Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung, Le Roman de la Rose, ed. FSlix Lecoy (3 vols.j Parisi Champion, 1965-70), II, 11. 8307-11. 12L. Maeterlinck, Le Genre satirique, fantastique et licencieux dans la sculpture flamande et wallone (Parist J. Schemit, 1910). ■^BSdier, p. 39. 11 allusions to tales found in the works of diverse writers very few refer to lost fabliaux.^ Furthermore, the 157 existing tales do not offer 157 different plots or sub jects. Some are simply variants of fabliaux which them selves figure among the 1 5 7 . Therefore, the manuscripts were not the product of chance, but veritable choice collections compiled according to popular demand. Five manuscripts contain the majority of known fabliaux. They all date from the thirteenth and four teenth centuries. Paris: BibliothSque Nationalej MS fr. 837 (62 fabliaux) Berne: Burgerbibliothekj MS 354 (41 fabliaux) Berlin: Nationalbibliothekj Hamilton 257 (30 fabliaux) Paris: BibliothSque Nationalej MS fr. 1593 (24 fabliaux) Paris: Bibliotheque Nationalej MS fr. 19152 (26 fabliaux) Jean Rychner lists sixteen other manuscripts containing fabliaux- * - 6 and isolated works have been discovered from time to time (the latest by L. F. Flutre in 1936) ^The minstrel’s repertory contained in fabliau XIII mentions only one fabliau unknown to date. 15Fabliaux II, XIX, LXXXIX, CXXIII, CXXXVI, CXLII, CVI, CL are all variations on the theme of the disposal of a dead body. ^ ■ 5Jean Rychner, Contribution a l'Stude des fabli aux: Variantes, remaniements, degradations, Recueil de travaux publies par la Faculte des Lettres de 1'University de Neuchatel, Fascicule 28 (2 vols.j Neuchatel-Geneve: 1960), I, 10. See also J. Legry-Rosier, "Manuscrits de contes et de fabliaux,” Bulletin d'information de l'lnsti- tut de recherche et d*histoire des textesT IV (1955), 37- 47. 17l . F. Flutre, ”Un manuscrit inconnu de la Biblio theque de Lyon," Rom, LXII (1936), 1-16. 12 Such discoveries have added little to the study of the fabliaux, for they are limited to either a variant of an already preserved work or they are so fragmentary as to be of little literary value. The manuscripts mentioned above do not contain fabliaux exclusively. The serious and the burlesque, the religious and the profane, the elegant and the trivial are preserved side by side. This suggests that there existed associations of minstrels who had access to collected texts which may have amounted to veritable repertories. In speaking of manuscript 19152 of the Biblioth&que Na- tionale, Edmond Faral notes that it has the appearance oft . . . une bibliothSque ou les jongleurs, qui avaient a satisfaire des demandes variSes, pouvaient alimenter leur repertoire, car il n'est pas douteux, qu'il ait exists une certaine industrie qui mettait a la disposi tion des ricitants de profession les textes dont ils avaient besoin.18 The professional reciters were not necessarily authors and they tell us so themselves. The author of the following passage assures us he is about to relate a fabliau written by Guillaumej II sont mais tant de Menestrex Que ne sai S . dire desquels Ge sui, par le cors S. Huitace; GUILLAUME, qui sovent s'Slasse - * - 8Edmond Faral, Le Manuscrit 19152 du fonds franoais de la BibliothSque Nationale. Reproduction phototypique publifee avec une introduction et notes IParisi Fondation Singer-Polignac, 1934), p. xi. En rimer et en fabloier, En a .1. fait . . . (XXXI)iy The borrowed tale could have been heard somewhere or found in the "livre” which was perhaps the repertory already mentioned. One author seeks to prove the authenticity of his material by stating* "Ainsi le tesmoingne li livres" (XIX). Sometimes the minstrel revised his source by ap plying to it a new rhyme scheme or adapting it to the general character of his audience, but those were his only concessions to originality. One author complains* Plus donnent ils as mal parliers As cointereax, as mentSors Qu'ils ne font as bons trovSors Qui contruevent ce que il dient. (I) The names of approximately twenty-five to thirty authors have been preserved. It is difficult to be pre cise, for several fabliaux are signed simply "Guirin" or "Guillaume,” both common names in the Middle Ages, which could have been the signature of several different men. Some of these poets, such as Henri d'Andeli and Philippe de Beaumanoir, were merely amateurs, others, wandering clerics or minstrels like Rutebeuf and Jean Bedel (Jean Bodel d'Arras), were professionals. Later, at the be ginning of the fourteenth century, authors such as Jean de CondS, Watriquet de Couvin, and Jacques de Baisieux ■^Citations as well as titles from the Recueil g€n&ral shall be given as they stand with no attempt to modernize the diacritical marks. 14 were in the service of nohle lords. Many fabliaux remain anonymous and few authors wrote more than one. Gautier le Leu and Jean Bedel are the most prolific writers with eight fabliaux each. Jean de GondS wrote six and Rutebeuf five.20 Amid this diversified group of authors, the wander ing clerics and minstrels are of the greatest interest. Their names have been preserved, yet little or nothing is known of their personal lives. Nonetheless, their very existence explains, in part at least, the sudden appearance and the great success of a genre which appears so fragile at its beginnings, as well as its great success in the commercial centers of the North.2- ' - The north of France at the close of the twelfth and throughout the thirteenth century was undergoing a period of rapid growth and change. Cities were springing up around the fairs and market towns and the barter sys tem gave way to a moneyed economy. Gradually wealth be came redistributed. The noble landlords, rich in nothing except land, insisted upon maintaining the standard of living to which they had become accustomed. To obtain the capital necessary to buy the new luxury products from 20pOr details concerning the lives of these authors, see BSdier, chap. xiv. 2^The North (Picardy, Artois, Ponthieu, Flanders, Hainaut) 38j Ile-de-France (Beauvaisis, Beauce) and Orleanais 15; Normandy 10; Champagne and Nivernais 3; England 6. For more complete information see Bedier, p. 43. 15 the East, they sold off parcels of land to their re tainers or arranged advantageous marriages for their daughters. The distress of the aristocracy produced a perilous situation in the warrior class. The chevaliers tournoyeurs (knights who closely resembled the rodeo cow boys of today) were forced by their poverty to follow the tournaments and to accept hospitality where they found it, since they were no longer in the service of a lord. As the nobles became poorer, some peasants and bourgeois 00 became rich. The minstrels belonged to the lower levels of this society. They were no longer retained by feudal lords as in earlier times (CXVII), but went from castle to castle and town to town seeking to buy their evening meal and a bed by their "gaberies" (CL). Often they received only a glass of wine (XXXVI, LXVII, XLIX) or some clothing (LVII). It was a hard life and not a particularly rewarding one since minstrels and authors were generally looked upon with disfavor by their contemporaries. ChrStien de Troyes berates the professional storyteller for deforming and ruining Erec et Enidet d*Erec, le fil Lac, est li contes, que devant rois et devant contes 22r , l . Kilgour, The Decline of Chivalry, Harvard Studies in Romance Languages, no. 12 (Cambridge! Harvard University Press, 1937); also Herbert J. Muller, The Uses of the Past (New York* New American Library, 1952). 16 depecier et corronpre suelent cil qui de conter vivre vuelent.23 Beroul condemns minstrels for attributing to famous heros actions of which they never would have been capable.2^ The minstrels had a great deal in common with the wandering clerics, students for the most part in the newly established universities. These clerics were some times minstrels themselves. Certainly minstrels and clerics enjoyed the same type of life and are often con fused xtfith one another (L, LII). Both have much in com mon with the chevalier tournoyeur who was also dependent on the generosity and good humor of others for his sur vival (XXXIV).25 There existed a community of interest, if not a social bond, between the minstrel, the cleric, the chevalier tournoyeur, the bourgeois, and the impoverished aristocrat who all had the same suspicion of riches and of authority. The provost who wielded temporal power, the priest as the symbol of the Church, and the husband who 23Chr£tien de Troyes, Erec et Enide, ed. Mario Roques (Parisi Champion, 1966), 11. 19-23. 2^BSroul, Le Roman de Tristan, ed. Ernest Muret, CFMA (Parisi Champion, 1966), 11. 1265-70. 25see also Charles Livingstone, Le Jongleur Gautier le Leu, Harvard Studies in Romance Languages, no. 24 (Cambridgei Harvard University Press, 1951), p. 131 and Edmond Faral, Les Jongleurs en France au moyen age (Parisi Champion, 1910). 17 represented good citizenry are the fabliau author's fa vorite targets. It made little difference if this hus band was a peasant, a noble, or a merchant) class was not the question. It was rather riches and respectability that the fabliau author and his public coveted and laugh ingly disdained at the same time. Being thus addressed to all who, while being neither rebellious nor hateful, had a grudge against the times, the fabliau was assured of a vast audience. Fabliaux were, in fact, recited before dukes and counts (IV), merchants (XXXVII), and even women (LXIII). They were told at weddings (LXXXIII), by the fireside in the company of friends (CXXV), in the market place, and at fairs (CXXVI). If the author of "Boivin de Provins" (CXVI) is serious when he says that the provost pays well for bawdy stories, they were also recited in the homes of the very men whom they attacked. Therefore, the fabliau is the result of three factorsi a liking for humorous, irreverent, and even obscene stories, the existence of authors whose profes sion encouraged them to borrow tales from diverse sources and adapt them to the times and a particular philosophy of life, a society in transformation which recognized in the fabliaux the problems of the day and derived amuse ment from them. 18 If the spirit, the appearance, and the enormous popularity of the genre can be thus explained, the written sources, if such exist, are still veiled in mystery. Yet critics have never ceased to discuss the origin and the nature of the fabliau. Largely scorned and neglected in the Middle Ages and even until the nineteenth century, at least as a literary form, the fabliau has not been en tirely devoid of defenders. However, for centuries ad mirers of the genre did little more than collect samples of it along with tales of widely different natures. In the sixteenth century, Claude Fauchet in his Histoire des anciens poetes franpois (1581) focused at tention on medieval tales, but from the viewpoint of the historian. If the literary historians of the century were not seriously interested in the fabliau, the novella authors drew from it many motifs and themes. Out of the some thirty-six collections of nouvelles written in France during the sixteenth century, at least one-third made use of subjects and motifs found also in the fabliaux. The fabliau suffered from the opinion, prevalent in the seventeenth century, that the Middle Ages was merely a period of barbarism from which mankind had for tunately liberated itself. Critics remained silent on the fabliau. Although Charles Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy collected medieval romances and transformed them into children's fairy tales, they completely neglected 19 humorous tales. However, La Fontaine found both the ma terial and spirit of many of his fables and tales in the fabliaux. Moli^re, imitating a still unknown source, wrote his version of the "Vilain mire" (LXXIV). In conformity to the anti-clerical trend of the time, scholars in the eighteenth century began to study profane writings, among them the fabliau. The Comte de Caylus, an Italianist, archeologist, and medieval art lover, examined in 1746 the Saint-Germain-des-Pr€s manu script. In the M€moire de l'Acad&nie des Inscriptions (Vol. XX) he commented with astonishment on this old literature. Barbazan was the first to compile medieval tales in a collection entitled Fabliaux et contes des poetes franoais des XIIe, XIIIe et XIVe siecles tirgs des meilleurs auteurs (1756). This was a beginning, but most of the tales found therein correspond in no way to the present definition of the fabliau. Le Grand d'Aussy followed Barbazan*s example and in 1779 published a multi-volume edition of translations and adaptations of the fabliau. Voltaire revitalized the old tale known in folklore as the Matron of Ephesis (fabliau LXX) in the person of Azora in his philosophic tale Zadiq. Although the picaros of Lesage and Diderot were modeled after Spanish types, it is interesting to note that they have more in common with the voluble, clever, amorous, high- living, yet good natured cleric of the fabliau than with 20 the cynical rebel found in the Spanish sources. In 1808, under the Empire, MSon published a pa tiently gathered collection of stories. Successive find ings enlarged this edition and it was finally completed by Jubinal in 1839-42. Finally, Montaiglon and Raynaud collected the various brochures (those of Francisque Michel and of Thomas Wright among others), omitted the tales which did not correspond to the then current defini tion of the fabliau, and published the Recueil q€n&ral (1872-90) which is still considered authoritative.26 There are only ten works generally considered fabliaux which are not found in this collection and they are, for the most part, variants of already known tales. One well known author of the period, Balzac, makes use of fabliaux in his Contes drolatigues. The latter part of the nineteenth century saw critics no longer content to merely collect tales, but attempting first to determine their sources and later to define them. Gaston Paris, in his book Les Contes orien- taux dans la littSrature francaise du moyen age (1875), revitalized the theory of oriental origins first pro- 97 posed by Benfey in 1859 and applied it to the fabliaux. 26Bossuat numbers are as follows! MSon 1808 (2432) 1823 (2433), Jubinal 2434, and Montaiglon and Raynaud 2436. 2?This idea actually originated with the Comte de Caylus and Pierre Huet. However, Benfey is credited with having elevated it to the status of a theory. See Pierre 21 Later he stated his theory briefly as followst D'oii venaient les fabliaux? La plupart avaient une origine orientale. C'est dans l*Inde, en re montant le courant qui nous les amine, que nous en trouvons la source la plus reculSe (bien que plusieurs d*entre eux, adoptSs par la littSrature indienne et transmis par elle, ne lui appartiennent pas originaire- ment et aient itS empruntis a des littiratures plus anciennes). Le bouddhisme, ami des examples et des paraboles, contribua a faire recueillir ces contes de toutes parts et en fit aussi inventer d'excellents, Ces contes ont pinitri en Europe par deux intermidi- principaux* par Byzance, qui les tenait de la Syrie ou de la Perse, laquelle les importait directement de l'Inde, et par les Arabes. L'importation arabe se fit elle-meme en deux endroits tres diffirentsi en Espagne, notamment par 1'intermidiaire des Juifs, et en Syrie, au temps des Croisades, En Espagne, la transmission fut surtout littiraire . , en Orient, au contraire, les croisSs, qui vicurent avec la popu lation musulmane dans au contact fort intime, re- cueillirent oralement beaucoup de rScits. Plusieurs de ces rScits, d'origine bouddhique, avaient tan caractire moral et meme ascitiquei ils ont Sti facile- ment christianisSsj d'autres, sous pretexte de mora- liti finale, racontaient des aventures assez scabreusesi on garda l'aventure en laissant lsi, d’ordinaire, la moralitij d*autres enfin furent retenus et traduits comme simplement p l a i s a n t s . 2 8 Paris feels that the medieval Latin tales translated or imitated from oriental storytellers (such as those found in the Disciplina Clericalis, the Dolopathos. the Historia Septem Sapientium, the Directorum Humanae Vitae and Barlaam and Josaphat) are evidence of the popularity of the Orient and of things oriental during medieval times. D. Huet, Trait€ de 1*origine des romans, ed. A. Kok, Diss. Amsterdam (Amsterdamt Swets and Zeitlinger, 1942). 28Gaston Paris, La Litt&rature franoaise du moyen age (Paris* Hachette, 1914), p. 111. 22 In 1924, as a result of a detailed study of the Latin literature of the medieval schools, Edmond Faral evolved a new theory of o r i g i n s . He established the chronology* ancient Latin comedy, medieval Latin comedy, fabliau. He first proved that the word comoedia in the Middle Ages no longer meant "destined for the stage," but simply referred to a narrative of non-serious nature. Narrative does, indeed, invade the dialogued portions of medieval Latin comoedia, as is seen in the Amphitryo of Vitalis (an imitation of Plautus) in which the comic spirit of the old Latin theater is expressed in story form. Later, in his "Trubert," Douin de Lavesne wrote an imita tion of Guillaume de Blois’ Alda actually calling the work a fabliau. In the Milo of Mathieu de Vendome, the basic theme of Latin comedy is given a new direction. Sexual exploits, not love, are the author's major interest. Finally, Faral detected in the comoedia motifs and themes present also in the fabliaux. The Amphitryo contains the familiar disguise motif, Lydia contains the theme of the "Prestre qui abevete" (LXI), and Baucis et Thraso has the same theme as "Richeut." If the fabliaux are related to exempla by their subjects, says Faral, they derive their form and spirit from the scholarly literature of Latin institutions. The medieval Latin tale is then nothing 2^Edmond Faral, "Le Fabliau latin au moyen age,” Rom. L (1924), 321-85, 23 but the fabliau disguised in scholarly style and derived from ancient comedy. Although Faral's theory is most interesting, the fact remains that the Latin works on which he based his study are contemporaries of the fabliaux. It would be impossible to determine whether the influence was of the comedy on the fabliau or the opposite. Joseph Btdier applied his ingenuity to the problem of origins in 1925 and directed criticism to a new area of study. First, he combatted the oriental theory and proved that the majority of fabliau themes were already known be fore the Crusades and existed in classical antiquity. He then proceeded to make the first study of the fabliaux as a literary genre, thus orienting criticism toward the definition of the fabliau. His point of departure was the famous and still dis cussed formula* "Les fabliaux sont des contes & rire en 30 vers."',v The fabliaux were, in his opinion, the product of the middle class* "... les fabliaux sont originairement 1'oeuvre des bourgeois. Le genre naquit le jour oii se fut vraiment constitute vine classe bourgeoise . . ,”31 <rhe nature, origin, and public of the fabliaux thus ascer tained, he proceeded to a classification according to the 30Btdier, p. 30. 31Ibid.. p. 371. 24 following criteria* Fabliaux which possess a simplistic basic material Fabliaux which correspond to the definition of Gaulic wit 3. Fabliaux which display a scornful attitude toward women 4. Obscene fabliaux32 The limits of the definition and of these criteria are evident. The fabliaux BSdier listed are not all stories and certainly the middle class was not alone in enjoying them. Furthermore, the definition is vague, so vague, in fact, that one might easily classify therein the first branches of the Roman de Renart. Finally, BSdier's classi fication is somewhat mixed* It takes into consideration form, spirit, and tone. However, BSdier seemed to have produced the defini tive study of the fabliaux. It was not until 1957 that Per Nykrog finally attacked his theory from two points of 33 view. First, Nykrog tried to constitute a more coherent classification of the fabliaux in view of making a stylis tic study of the genre. He classified them according to basic themes in the following manner* ^2Ibid., chap. x, 33Per Nykrog, Les Fabliaux* Etude d'histoire lltt€raire et de stylisticme m€diSval, Piss. Aarhus (Copenhagen* Munksgaard, 1957). 25 I. Erotic fabliaux A. Choice of protagonists 1. Triangular 2. Two protagonists 3. Seduction 4. Diverse groups B. Endings 1. Success 2. Failure II. Non-erotic fabliaux The results of his study were two-fold. First, he con cluded that the fabliaux, far from being intended for the middle class alone, were created for the same public as courtly literature, that is, sometimes aristocratic, some times bourgeois. Secondly, he stated that the fabliau is the willful caricature of courtly manners to the detri ment of the commoner, not of the aristocracy. He says* Le fabliau est trSs souvent une parodie de la cour- toisie mais loin de viser l'aristocratie, cette parodie se moque des classes qui lui sont infSrieures. Le fabliau parait done etre le genre par lequel les nobles s'amusent aux dSpens de la "courtoisie des vilains."34 This theory has the advantage of being more co herent than B§dier*s, but it still remains rather vague. In discussing Nykrog*s classification, Omer Jodogne says* "On peut admettre qu*un roman soit Srotique au sens large que Nykrog donne a ce mot, qu'il soit triangulaire et que l'issue en soit favorable. "35 m fact, many narrative 34Ibid.. p. 104. 35omer Jodogne, "Considerations sur le fabliau," in Melanges offerts 3 . Ren£ Crozet (2 vols.j Poitiers* Soci^te des Etudes MSdiSvales, 1966), II, 1046. 26 forms in the Middle Ages might be classified under this definition, as, for example, "Lanval" and the "Chatelaine de Vergi." Furthermore, Nykrog has not satisfactorily ex plained why some of the grossest characters in the fabliaux are not commoners, but nobles.36 Certainly the most serious disadvantage in Nykrog*s ambitious attempt to ascribe to the fabliaux a stylistic unity, as well as singleness of intent, is the necessity for banning from the genre all fabliaux which do not parody courtly litera ture. The theories of BSdier and Nykrog have this in com mon* They accept the existence, the coherence, and the stylistic unity of the fabliaux as a genre. They indicate that it is possible to define the fabliau. Jean Rychner does not ascribe to this view. In a speech in 1959, he posed the following question* "Est-il lSgitime de con st ituer un genre ritrospectivement, en dSpit d'une terminologie flottante et en 1*absence de tSmoignages sur 1*unitS d'intention des auteurs?"3^ Rychner himself made an effort to classify the fabliaux from a stylistic standpoint.38 After a long study of texts and variants, 36See, for example, fabliaux XVII and XLVII. 3^Jean Rychner, "Les Fabliaux* Genre, style, publics," in La LittSrature narrative d'imagination* Collogue International de Strasbourg 1959 (Paris* P. U. F., 1961), p. 45. 38Rychner, Contribution a 1 *Stude des fabliaux. I. 27 with, by his own admission, a very meager success, he con cluded* "Chronologiquement, rien ne nous pousse a croire qu'il y ait une Spoque des originaux et une Spoque des remaniements, ou le genre se serait d£grad£." Later he added* "L'ensemble des remaniements ne semblent pas OQ postSrieur a 1'ensemble des originaux.He then recom mended a definition more in relation to the usage of the fabliaux than to their aesthetics. The fabliaux are nothing more than "bonnes histoires a servir apres le repas."40 In conclusion, he added* En 1*absence de doctrines littSraires d*§poque, et.en vertu des conditions particulieres ou cette littSrature s'est pratiqu§e, l*historien de la litt&rature m£di£- vale doit, a mon avis, reconnaitre avec patience les ~individus avant de donner la definition de l'espece, etre bien plus inductif que deductif, se soumettre constamment aux faits et ne pas les classer a coups d'idies* le vin importe davantage que 1 * Etiquette.4! In 1966, Omer Jodogne reopened the debate by presenting yet another classification of the fabliaux. He realized that the error of former critics lay either in the expansion of the definition to include all fabliaux in the Recueil gSnSral (as did BSdier) or in the too narrow limitation of the classification from a stylistic point of view which led them to exclude fabliaux called such by their authors (as did Nykrog). Jodogne also maintained that the theme of a fabliau does not necessarily 39Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 50. 4®Ibid., p. 51. 4^Ibid.. p. 52. 28 distinguish it from a lai or an episode of a courtly novel. He then proceeded to base his inventory exclusively on fabliaux motifs with the following resultant classifica tion* I. Words A. Linguistic problems B. Psychological facts II. Acts A. Accusations B. Punishments C. Good luck and misfortune Finally, he made an effort to isolate and analyze that indefinable quality of the fabliau which prevents it from becoming a lai. This might be atmosphere, philosophy of life, tone, but certainly not style. Here is his revised definition of the fabliau* "Un conte en vers ou, sur un ton trivial, sont narSes une ou plusieurs anecdotes plaisantes ou exemplaires, l*un et 1'autre ou l'un ou 1*autre.”42 Critics have come a long way since that day when Claude Fauchet focused attention on the fabliau in a somewhat cursory manner. If critics have, as yet, not been able to agree either on the origins or on an exact definition of the genre, they have assembled and sorted, over a long period of time, a considerable quantity of facts and observations. 42Jodogne, p. 1055. 29 Although possessing no absolute conclusions as to the origin of the fabliau, critics have made us aware of many possibilities. A cleric amused himself by trans forming a Latin school comedy, already a narrative work, into a tale. Another may have borrowed from a collection of Oriental stories. A minstrel heard at the fair an anec dote brought from a far country by some merchant. Another minstrel found the theme of some courtly work ridiculous and parodied it accordingly. Yet another remembered a tale told by his father transmitted for ages from one generation to another. We know that if some subjects can be traced to India, or classical antiquity, they did not necessarily originate there. Certainly the author's personal inventiveness cannot be ignored in a study of the fabliaux. Furthermore, a definition of the fabliau must always take into consideration its diversity. It is of little importance whether the genre is studied from the point of view of structure, of style, of contents (motifs and themes), or of usage. One constantly encounters that mercurial and unstable quality which is the very essence of the fabliau. Today critics approach the fabliau with much more respect than did BSdier when he proclaimed at the be ginning of his study* "Voici sur un sujet lSger, un livre pesant."43 They know that the study of the fabliau affords precious information on the origin, nature, and development of the French nouvelle. The fabliau, more than any other medieval form, stands at the crossroads of French narrative literature. 43B§dier, p. 1. CHAPTER I FRENCH MEDIEVAL NARRATIVE LITERATURE AND THE FABLIAU In the mid-twelfth century, French literature was in the process of transformation. Hesitation in direc tion of development is evident in all literary genres of the time and influences of one genre upon another are frequent. However, the majority of medieval works retain their own character despite the presence of foreign ele ments. The Chanson de Guillaume and the Charroi de Nimes both contain comic passages and the Prise d*Orange includes a love story, yet all three works are easily recognizable as chansons de geste. Lyric poems such as the chanson de toile or pastourelle can recount a story, yet would not be considered narrative literature. Marie de France's tale "Bisclavret” contains elements of a fabliau, yet may still be classified as a lai. This interpenetration of literary genres is par ticularly evident in the fabliau. However, the fabliau not only had a definite influence on other forms and was influenced by them, it tends to be always in the process of becoming something other than itself. Consider, for example, the fabliau*s structure. It has been dismissed 31 . . . . ....... 32 as simplistic and unworthy of consideration, yet is actu ally quite varied. Some fabliaux conform to the struc ture of the lai (CLI*),^ some to that of the anecdote (CVI*), or the dit (XL*). One even seems to be a lyric poem (XI) and another a song (XXXII). It has been widely accepted that the fabliau is a story in verse, yet a number of them are not narrative (LIV). The style of the fabliau is more varied than one would suppose and is sometimes reminiscent of the courtly romance (III, L, LXXl). Far from being exclusively erotic, the subjects cover a wide range of situations. Some would not be out of place in a sermon (LIV*, XLV, CXXXV, LXXIV, CXLI, LXXXVII*), a dit (XL), a courtly romance (CLI*, LXXl), or even a chanson de geste (XXVI). The fabliau presents a gallery of character types that might be recognized, superficially at least, in a wide variety of literary works. The tone, usually humorous and exasperatingly trivial, is occasionally quite serious. The fabliau's purpose is still a major subject of controversy? some seem to be merely comic diversions, others are clearly parodies, while still others seem to verge on the didactic. Is this phenomenon the consequence of too broad a definition of the fabliau reflected in compilations such ^Works designated fabliaux by their authors will be marked by an asterisk f*} in the following pages and referred to as "attested" fabliaux. 33 as the Recueil cr§ngral? It would seem not, for the ex clusion of all works not specifically designated as fabliaux by their authors does not appreciably alter the situation. The diversity of the following list is evi dence of this fact. Attested Fabliaux Des trois bocus (II) Des trois avSugles de Compiengne (IV) De sire Hain et dame Anieuse (VI) Du provost S l'aumuche (VII) Le Cuvier (IX) Les .ii. chevaus (XIII) Des .iii. dames qui trouverent l'anel (XV) Le Dit des perdriz (XVII) D’Estormi (XIX) Du sot chevalier (XX) Le Flabel d’Aioul (XXIV) Du fotgor (XXVIII) Du prestre et d'Alison (XXXI) De Guillaume au faucon (XXXV) Le Debat du cul et du con (XXXIX) Le Dit des cons (XL) Du vallet qui se met a mesaise (XLIV) De deux Angloys et de l’anel (XLVI) Du prestre et de la dame (LI) Du chevalier a la robe vermeille (LVII) De la crote (LVIII) Du prestre qui abevete (LXI) De la damoisel qui ne poo it ol'r parler de f outre (LXV) De pleine bourse de sens (LXVII) Des putains et des lecheors (LXXVI) Du vilain du buffet (LXXX) De Berengier au lone cul (LXXXVI) De frSre Denise (LXXXVII) Des braies au cordelier (LXXXVIII) Du prestre qu’on porte ou de la longue nuit (LXXXIX, Cl) De la male honte (XC) Du provoire qui menga les meures (XCII) Des tresces (XCIV) De Barat et de Hairnet ou des .iii. larrons (XCVII) Des .iii. dames (XCIX, CXII) De Porcelet (Cl) Do prfi tondu (CIV) De la sorisete des estopes (CV) De Constant du Hamel (CVI) 34 Du vilain de Bailluel (CIX) D'AuberSe (CX) De la damoisele qui n'ot parler de fotre . . . (CXI) De Boivin de Provins (CXVI) Du prestre qui dist la Passion (CXVIII) De l'escuiruel (CXXI) Le jugement des cons (CXXII) Du prestre qui ot mere a force (CXXV) De la grue (CXXVI) De la vielle qui oint la palme au chevalier (CXXVII) De la viellete ou de la vielle truande (CXXIX) Li sohaiz desvez (CXXXI) Le povre clerc (CXXXII) Les .iiii. souhais saint Martin (CXXXIII) De la dame qui se venja du chevalier (CXL) Du chevalier qui fist les cons parler (CXLVII) De la coille noire (CXLVIII) De la dame escolli€e (CXLIX) Le Dit dou soucretain (CL) Du chevalier qui recovra l'amor de sa dame (CLI) It is true that the works cited above are all written in eight syllable assonanced or rhymed verse. However, of the approximately 157 fabliaux in existence, only three (XI, XXXII, XLV) do not conform to this pat tern. Therefore, poetic form has never been a serious criterion for definition. On the other hand, fabliau structures are quite varied. Present on the list are a dit (XL*), a debat (XXXIX*), an anecdote (CIV*), a judgement (CXXII*), and even a lai (CLI*). Some di versity of subject matter is also apparent. The list in cludes fabliaux on the following themest deception by unfaithful wives, relations of husbands and wives and of wives and lovers, avarice of public figures, lewdness of the clergy, mockery of the English, trickery for its own sake, wooing of ladies. Characters are numerous and of all classes and typesi vagabonds, drunks, hypocritical girls, peasants, knights, merchants, priests, public offi cials, and the King of England himself. Furthermore, the above fabliaux evidence some difference in purpose. The "Estats du siecle" (LIV*) is quite moralizing in tone and is even called a "fable." The "Valet qui d’aise a mesaise se met" (XLIV*) is a miniature portrait of manners. The "Chevalier qui recovre l*amor de sa dame" (CLI*) is a wryly humorous little romance. Yet present on the same list are such blatently obscene works as the "Dit des cons" (XL*) or "De la damoisele qui ne pooit oir parler de foutre” (LXV*). Stylistic differences are even more apparent. The "Quatre prestres” (CXLII) of Haisel tells in eighty un distinguished lines the same story to which Hughes Piaucele devotes 620 lines in "Estormi" (XIX*). Haisel*s rhymes are mediocre while those of Hughes Piaucele are quite studied and even affected. Only the latter is designated as a fabliau by its author. The same is the case with the"Braies au cordelier." The version of Jean de Cond6 (CLV) is not called a fabliau and is totally de void of stylistic interest. Yet the author of another version of the same fabliau (LXXXVIII*) took some pains to render his "conte" amusing, lively, and varied. These examples confirm Per Nykrog*s theory that the fabliaux intentionally parodied courtly literature. All fabliaux 36 should, if his theory is true, have pretentious styles.2 Unfortunately, such is not the case. The two versions of "Boivin de Provins" (CXVI* and notes*) are both attested fabliaux, yet version B (notes) is quite crude compared with its counterpart (CXVI*). In addition, "Beranger au lone cul” (XCIII*) is popular in style and a fabliau, yet another version (LXXXVI*), also a fabliau, is not only an accomplished parody, but verges on satire. If we accept Rychner*s statement that the fabliau did not pass through a period of development, prosperity, and de cline, we cannot call the less accomplished works either crude beginnings or later degradations.3 We can only assume that fabliau authors made an effort to adapt the tales to the social level of their audience, but that they did not always remember to name their stories specifically "fabliaux.” It is apparent that the exclusive study of only attested fabliaux is of no real value. As we have seen, often the very works whose exclusion would bring unity to the genre are called fabliaux by their authors. Besides contributing no real unity, a study of only attested 2For a complete discussion of this question seei Rychner, "Les Fabliaux,” p. 49. 3Ibid., p. 50. (See also the Introduction to this thes is.) 37 fabliaux excludes works long considered veritable models of the genre. The following omissions are significant! La Houce partie (V) La Bourgeoise d'Orlieans (VIII) (L) Brunain (X) L'Enfant qui fu rerais au soleil (XIV) Le Prestre crucefiS (XVIII) Gombert et les .ii. clercs (XXII) Le Prestre au lardier (XXXII) Le Meunler d'Arleux (XXXIII) Le Vilain mire (LXXIV) Le Vilain qui conquist paradis par plait (LXXXI) Le Boucher d'Abeville (LXXXIV) Estula (XCVI) And the above list includes only the most famous. In view of the diverse nature of the fabliau and the problems which attend its study, we have decided to use as the basis for our research the Recueil cr€n€ral of Montaiglon and Raynaud generally accepted as the best to date. However, before proceeding to a classification and definition of the fabliau, we will point out its rela tionship to other medieval narrative forms. We expect thus to put the fabliau in its proper place within the framework of medieval literature and at the same time to emphasize the great variety and flexibility of the form. It will then be possible to isolate those works which cannot properly be called fabliaux. This will prepare the way to a definition. Let us first consider the medieval literary scene as a whole. For almost a century scholars have viewed medi eval literature in terms of Joseph BSdier's famous 38 formulai "D'un cot§ les fabliaux et Renardj de l'autre la Table Ronde."4 First, there was the aristocracy which pictured man as an artist sculpting and perfecting his life. By deeds of daring and adherence to an elaborate code of behavior, he managed to surpass himself and be come a truly exceptional being. The chansons de creste, the courtly romances, moral works, and the Roman de la Rose of Guillaume de Lorris were the literary manifesta tion of this concept of life. Later, and in opposition to the aristocratic world, a middle class arose in the commercial centers of the North. Its ideal was firmly rooted in practicality and of ten in the crude and trivial aspects of everyday living. Its view of life, to quote Joseph B§dier, was* "Le pays de Cocagne oxi plus l'on dort et plus l'on gagne, ou l*on mange et boit a plants, ou les femmes ont autant plus d'honneur qu'elles ont moins de vertu."^ This concept of life, exalting all that is in opposition to the aristo cratic ideal, and written by the middle class for the middle class, was represented in literature by the fabliaux, the satiric dit, the Roman de Renart, and the continuation of the Roman de la Rose by Jean de Meung. BSdier believed that these two worlds existed separately even in the thirteenth century. He saysi "II 4Ibid., p. 47. (Quoted from BSdier, p. 371.) ^BSdier, p. 369. 39 y a d'un bourgeois du 13e siScle a un baron pr£cis€ment la meme distance que d'un fabliau a une noble lSgende aven- tureuse . . . Ici la poisie des chateaux, la celle des carrefours."6 As proof of this juxtaposition of two worlds, BSdier cites the Roman de la Rose in which "Jean de Meung croit nalvement continuer le travail de Guillaume de Lorris."7 In the light of recent scholarship, it is diffi cult to accept Bidier's theory. While it is certain that a clear-cut division between works expressing two such seemingly different modes of thought as courtly romance and the fabliau would be a decided convenience, such a division does not correspond to the facts. As we have already stated, there is no pure form in the Middle Ages and chansons de geste or courtly romances listed by BSdier as aristocratic literature, contain qualities of bourgeois literature as well. Furthermore, all the favorite themes of the so-called bourgeois literature seem to have existed at the very core of aristocratic forms. The exaggerations of the chansons de geste pro vided fertile ground for parody. The marital predicament of King Marc in Tristan et Iseut can be easily trans formed into a comic fabliau situation. The sentimentality 6Ibid.. p. 371. 7Ibid., p. 369. 40 and stereotyped physical descriptions of the chanson d*amour invited parody. The climate of thought that created the Chanson de Roland and the thought that was ever willing to satirize it, as in the Voyage de Charlemagne, have existed to gether since the beginning of French literature and even before. To believe otherwise would be to ignore such evidence as the presence of obscene stories in sermons as early as the eighth century and the comic elements in the early chansons de geste. In fact, we have more reason to believe in the anteriority of the thought underlying bourgeois litera ture. Recent developments in historical theory regard ing the Middle Ages tend to support this view. The early medieval period resembled a childhood more than an inter mediary period between the ancient and modem worlds. A racially diverse people, largely uncultured and even barbaric, but possessing a folk culture, found imposed upon them a totally foreign political and religious struc ture. Their native customs, myths, and ideas seeped through and contaminated even the most lofty ideals.8 If the literary manifestation of this spirit did not reach its full development until the thirteenth century, it is because non-serious literature has been in all ages 8Muller, p. 262. 41 slow in gaining acceptance on its own merit. It is equally difficult to accept BSdier's asser tion that the fabliaux were created by and for the middle class. It seems more likely that they were the work of clerics, wandering minstrels, and vagabonds of all types. Moreover, the fabliau author is careful to select subjects of universal appeal. He does not single out any particu lar social class for condemnation. The henpecked husband, the miser, public and religious officials, the nagging wife, are and always have been the favorite subjects of situation comedy. Furthermore, since the middle class citizen of the fabliau seldom fares well, while the clerc, menestrel, and lecheor always triumph, it is difficult to subscribe to the thory of bourgeois authorship. The fabliau flourished in the commercial centers because it found its audience there, and this audience represented a cross-section of medieval society. A crowd at the fair feeling they had paid too much for goods that day would delight in the misfortunes of the tradesman Brifaut (CIII). A merchant fresh from a dangerous journey would find amuse ment in the cowardice of the knight in "Beranger au lone cul" (XCIII*) or the vengeance of the husband in "De 1*enfant qui fu remis au soleil" (XIV). At the same time, an impoverished noble would revel in the misfortunes of a rich commoner (XI) or of a merchant (II*). 42 That the fabliau was enjoyed by a wide variety of people has been pointed out recently by Jean Rychner.® We have already mentioned stylistic differences in the fabliaux intended to adapt them to audiences of differ ing degrees of culture. These changes in style are ac companied by changes in content evidently designed to conform to the interests and sensibilities of widely different social groups. Per Nykrog had already noted that fabliaux intended for recitation before aristocratic audiences omit detailed descriptions of meals. Such descriptions were considered in bad taste by serious authors of the time. Nykrog had further pointed out an interesting fact concerning obscenity* As the antipode of the courtly ideal, obscenity is an aspect of parody and is therefore an integral part of the fabliaux as he conceived them, that is, as parodies. Rychner feels Nykrog's findings point to an even wider audience than Nykrog imagined, and his theory seems to be confirmed by the type of content revision apparent in "Beranger au lone cul." Version D (LXXXVI*), intended for recitation before aristocratic audiences, openly satirizes non nobles. However, the author of version A (XCIII*) skil fully deleted the offensive passages and thus spared the feelings of his non-aristocratic listeners. Therefore, ®Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," pp. 47 ff. 43 although fabliaux were enjoyed by all social classes, it seems highly unlikely that all people enjoyed the same version of a given fabliau. - * - 0 In consideration of the above facts, it seems dangerous to classify some French medieval literature as aristocratic and other as bourgeois for any reason but that of convenience. In the words of Raymond LebSguei Je serais content de voir abandonner la distinction usuelle entre littSrature aristocratique et littSra- ture bourgeoise. Le roi Ren€ se plaisait aux farces, sous Louis XIII Gaston d'OrlSans est grand amateur de ballets farcis d'allusions obscSnes et les fait jouer a la Courj au XVIII siScle le thSatre "gras** se joue dans les salons aristocratiques.H A similar variety of tastes must have also existed in the thirteenth century and not only among kings and princes. Even the lowest classes in society had the opportunity of hearing all forms of literature recited at fairs, at festivals, and in the market places. One of the min strels in the "Deux bordSors ribaux" (I) happily confuses in his comic repertory tales of the Round Table, chansons de geste.and fabliaux. We have established that the French medieval literary world for all its diversity and complexity was basically a single world. It now remains to be determined what place the fabliau occupied in medieval French 10Ibid.. pp. 48-49. H lbld.. p. 54. (Comment by Raymond LebSgue.) 44 literature, what influence it had on other forms, and how it was influenced by them. We shall begin this study with the exempla. 1. Didactic Literature When eighth-century preachers began to enliven their sermons with tales drawn from popular tradition they were not evidencing any originality. The practice of illus trating sermons with anecdotes and examples is an ancient one. Buddhist priests as well as Old and New Testament religious teachers made use of parables drawn from daily experience or tradition to clarify and emphasize their doctrines. Saint Gregory used them when he preached in Rome in 604, although not as part of a sermon. The Venerable Bede (673-735) mentions their importance in the Hi&toria Ecclesiastica Gentis Anqlorum.12 If it was to clarify and emphasize a religious truth, an exemplum had to be brief and clear, but above all it had to catch the listener's attention. This could be accomplished either by means of the form or the content, usually the latter. In order to appeal to their audience, medieval preachers at first chose their material from popular tales. Later, they drew upon written collections 12p«or further information see* Thomas Crane, The Exempla or Illustrative Stories from the Sermones Vulqares of Jacques de Vitry (Londont Nutt, 1890), pp. xvii-cxvi. 45 of oriental tales, such as the Historia Septem Sapientium, or used the Arabian stories found in the Disciplina Cleri cal is . Therefore, the exemplum occupied a position simi lar to that of the stained glass cathedral windows. Its sole purpose was to make church doctrine comprehensible and palatable to a rowdy public. The exemplum has been de fined by Lucien F^bvre asj "Un r€cit ou une historiette, une fable ou une parabole, une moralitS ou une description qui pouvaient servir de preuve e i l'appui d*un expos £ doctrinal, religieux ou moral.”- * - 3 The most important collection of sermons contain- ing exempla to appear in Europe was that of Jacques de Vitry. His sermons, composed in the twenty years prior to his becoming Bishop of Acre (1217), are of three types. The Sermones Dominicales include three sermons for each Sunday and feast day. Although intended for the laity, they contain no exempla. The Sermones de Sanctis have never been printed and, therefore, cannot be of use in this study. The Sermones Vulgares (or Sermones ad Status) are seventy-four sermons intended for the clergy and laity and destined to meet the needs of the various social classes. The following sermons are those most closely related to fabliaux themest *3Lucien F&bvre, Autour de 1'Hgptameroni amour sacrS, amour profane (Parisi Gallimard, 1944), p. 208. 46 I-VIII To prelates and priests IX-XII To secular canons and other clergy XIII-XIV On the ordaining of the clergy XVII-XVIII To judges and lawyers LIV-LV To citizens and burghers LVI-LIX To merchants and money changers LX-LXI To laborers LXVI-LXVIII To the married LXIX-LXXII To widows LXXIII-LXXIV To boys and young men Exempla were used in these sermons. However, the manu scripts give only a sentence or two concerning their con tent simply as a memory device. Jacques de Vitry's Sermones Vulgares had a consid erable influence on preaching all over Europe and church men soon demanded collections of the exempla alone. Although the author never made such a collection per sonally, several are in existence. The most complete is the Vatican manuscript 9352 dating from the early four teenth century. Although the exempla contained in this manuscript are referred to as Jacques de Vitry's, it seems unlikely that they are all his work. Preachers in the thirteenth century consecrated personal exempla by de claring them the creation of the great religious figure. The exempla contained in the Vatican manuscript 9352 make use of a wide variety of sources. Some of them are beast fables, some anecdotes, some parables, some saints lives. Often personal experience plays a major part. These exempla are usually brief, some only two or three sentences in length, and in Latin prose. 47 They possess no introduction and seldom have a conclusion, for they were never intended to exist alone, but as an accessory of the sermon which provided the theme and the concluding moral. These exempla represent a summa of the best of the genre, irrespective of authorship. Preceding as they do the reform of preaching carried out by the Dominican order towards the middle of the thirteenth century, they pre sent an extreme limit of primitive exempla form. Further more, their date of composition corresponds to the rise of the fabliau. If the exemplum and fabliau had a common origin, or if the two forms in any way influenced one another, a comparison of the content of fabliaux with Jacques de Vitry's exempla as found in the Vatican manu script should provide important evidence. The exempla reveal several motifs in common with fabliaux such as mutilations (57, 22) , scatology (1, 5), tonsuring of women (210), and beatings (237). Moreover, exempla make use of some of the same characters found in the fabliaux* the rustic (10, 11, 20, 34), evil monks and priests (46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 58, 60, 67, 80, 197, 233, 240, 241, 242), contrary women (227), fickle women (214), deceiving women (230, 231, 248), and lustful women (230, 256, 282). This is not surprising, for these •^Arabic numerals refer to the numbers of exempla in the Crane edition of Jacques de Vitry, 48 are universal types common to all ages. The interest lies rather in the treatment given these characters. Jacques de Vitry was far from an author of fabliaux. If he pointed out present evils in men and society, it was to reform them not to derive amusement from them. Furthermore, his condemnation was never di rected against persons, but against vices> against infidelity not against women, against misconduct not priests, against cruelty not husbands. Lessons such as the denial of the flesh, the glories of paradise, the wrath of God, the presence of evil in the world, and man's guilt are always emphasized. Despite certain similari ties in subject matter, fabliaux and exempla seem to be widely separated from each other in intent. Nonetheless, thirteen exempla have counterparts in the fabliaux. We shall now consider these in detail. Occasionally there is no discernible difference between the treatment of the material in the fabliau and exemplum. Three fabliaux add a conclusion not contained in the exemplum, but implied by the nature of the sermon. The first of these is the fabliau "Del convoiteus et de l'envieux" (CXXXV) which has the same content as exemplum 196. Two men are granted a wish on condition that the one who asks last receive twice as much. Unwilling for his companion to have the lion's share, the one wishes to lose an eye. Consequently, the other becomes blind. 49 The fabliau author adds the following indictment! . . . mal dahez ait De moie part qui il en poise, Qu'il furent de male despoise. In his edition of the exempla, Thomas Crane states that the exemplum reached Jacques de Vitry through the Latin fabulists, of whom the first to use the material was A v a n i u s . ^ «rhe fabliau author may have found the subject in a Latin work or heard it from the pulpit. In any case, he did not alter his material except to rhyme it and to add the condemnation. It would be impossible to dis tinguish the exemplum from the fabliau were it not for the fact that the fabliau is rhymed and in French rather than Latin. The second fabliau of this type is "Du vilain mire" (LXXIV) which corresponds to two exempla (237, 254). Exemplum 237 includes a version of the "PrS tondu” (CIV) and the first episode of the fabliau which relates how the husband beat his wife and how she avenged herself by pass ing him off as a doctor. In the exemplum the wife is con trary and vicious and is beaten for that reason. The wife in the fabliau is beaten unjustly because her husband fears her infidelity. Exemplum 254 contains the cure of a mul titude by declaring that the greatest invalid will be burned and his ashes fed to the others. This portion •^Crane, p. 212. 50 differs from the fabliau in that the multitude to be cured is in a church and the healer in question is a priest who, before revealing the nature of the intended cure, tells the sick to throw away their crutches. The cure of the king's daughter by making her laugh is not present in the exemplun. The fabliau is much more highly developed. The listener is invited to sympathize with the ill-treated wif% to enjoy her ruse, to delight in the danger and humor of the husband's plight, as well as in his final reformi Ne onques plus ne fu batue Sa feme, ainz l'ama et chieri. Although comic in nature, "Du vilain mire" (LXXIV) closely resembles the moral tale. The influence in this case is apparently of the fabliau on the exemplum. Jacques de Vitry simply adapted portions of a popular tale to specific subjects. Finally, exemplum 111 and the fabliau "Du preudome qui rescolt son compere de noier" (XXVII) have similar themes, but the exterior circumstances vary. Both relate the ingratitude of a person towards his benefactor. In the exemplum, a woman with a black mark on her face pays a physician to remove it. He provides her with an herb which, when applied, removes the black mark along with the skin. Now totally disfigured, the woman accuses the doctor of malpractice. However, the judge merely commends him and dismisses the case. The fabliau author uses the 51 same theme in a comic vein with a surprise ending that re sembles a judgement of Solomon. A man accidently puts out the eye of a man he is saving from drowning. When the one-eyed man demands justice, instead of dismissing the case, the judge says he is to be put back in the water to see if he would have survived. If so, his benefactor must make restitution for the lost eye. Of course, the one-eyed man refuses and the author adds this moral* Por ce vos di, tot en apert, Que son tens pert qui felon sert. Although humorous, the fabliau reveals a philosophy simi lar to that of the exemplum and which would not have been out of place in a sermon. Although the preceding works have not only a com mon subject matter, but also similar intent, most fabliaux present a point of view very much at variance with the ex empla. On one occasion the fabliau adds a moral with comic effect. Exemplum 191 tells of a man who, raised by a dung hill, faints on passing by an apothecary's shop. He has to be returned to his dung-hill to recover his senses. The exemplum was probably used to show how the practice of evil turns men away from well-doing and makes virtue itself unbearable. The fabliau "Du vilain asnier" (GXIV), after telling the same anecdote, concludes that no one should try to change his nature. A parody here seems evident, for no one accustomed to the religious usage of the piece 52 could refrain from laughing at the twisted moral from which is derived true comic effect. Several fabliaux evidence a philosophy of life completely different from that found in the exempla. "Dou povre mercier" (XXXVI) is reminiscent of exemplum 69. A creditor who was promised God as security on a loan fails to receive his money on time. Passing along a road, he meets a monk riding a fine horse. In answer to the ques tion "Cujus estis?", the monk responds proudly* "Non habeo dominum nisi Deum." Thereupon the creditor takes his horse. Preachers undoubtedly used the material to point out that priests, as the earthly representatives of God, are responsible towards their flocks. In the fabliau, the creditor becomes a bumpkin who commends his horse to God and the owner of a field. The next day he finds his horse eaten by wild animals and the owner of the field only willing to pay half the loss. The latter suggests he collect the money from God. Together they waylay a priest who hesitates to confess God as his Lord and fi nally has to be coerced. The scene becomes one of public merriment. Again the fabliau deliberately parodies an exemplum. The story of the "Pr€ tondu" (CIV*) is found in exemplum 2 2 2 . It probably adorned one of the sermons *6A second version appears as a preface to exemplum 137. 53 for married couples and was used to point out the evil of a disobedient wife. The fabliau author includes this anecdote with two others, both emphasizing the impossi bility of silencing a woman. He thus turns the listener’s attention away from the proposed reform of the spirit and concentrates it upon the annoyances of the flesh. The first of three episodes of "Les .iii. dames qui trouverent l'anel" (XV*) is the subject of exemplum 231. A woman who is tired of her husband's company makes him drunk. She then sends for some monks telling them the husband is gravely ill and that his dying wish is to become a monk. The next day, quite sober, he awakens in the monastery and is too ashamed to return home for fear of being called an apostate. This story is part of a very widespread cycle and Jacques de Vitry may have drawn upon an oral source. Like the former exemplum (222), it was probably used in the sermons for married couples to en courage wifely obedience, harmony, and good conduct. The fabliau author certainly had no such intention. He de velops the praiseworthy aspects of the husband’s character by pointing out his kindness, generosity, and abstinence from strong drink. He provides the wife with a lover and adds two more crafty women and two additional tricks. Consequently, women's ruses and infidelity are emphasized rather than the moral lesson. 54 The famous story of the Matron of Ephesus is the subject of the fabliau "De celle qui se fist foutre sur la fosse de son mari" (LXX) and exemplum 232. The exemplum probably accompanied the sermon for widows and the con tinent. A widow who promises to remain eternally by her husband's grave wastes no time in falling in love with a soldier who has been left to guard a body on the nearby gallows. The body is stolen through the soldier's negli gence. However, the widow saves the day by digging up her husband's body to replace the stolen one. The fabliau turns the story into a frankly obscene piece from which all moral intention is removed and in which an unfavorable attitude toward women is evidenced. The fabliau of the "Houce partie" (V, XXX) is the same as exemplum 228. The exemplum was no doubt used in the sermon for boys and young men, for it concludes* "Benedicti sunt tales pueri qui parentum iniquitatibus nolunt consentire." The fabliau, far from ending on this elevating note, looks at the practical side of the ques tion. If the old man had not given all his money to his son, the son would not have considered throwing him out. The fabliau tells us* Ne donez tant a vostre enfant Que vous n'i puissiez recouvrer. It advises prudence motivated by mistrust, the very oppo site of Christian generosity. 55 As a final illustration of difference in philoso phy and intent between a fabliau and an exemplum. let us consider the "Vielle qui oint la palme au chevalier" (CXXVII*) and exemplum 38. In the exemplum, a poor old woman who is seeking justice from a venal judge takes the counsel of friends literally and begins to rub his hands with lard. The judge is put to shame and reforms. In bhe fabliau, the substance of the anecdote is the same, but the judge is replaced by a knight. The emphasis is placed on the stupidity of the old woman. The knight, far from repenting, does not even grant the woman justice. He returns her cows, but takes away her grazing rights. Jacques de Vitry implies that with sincerity and sim plicity one gains all. The fabliau author warns that even when someone seems to be giving, beware, for he is really taking. While we cannot be absolutely certain that the writers of fabliaux deliberately borrowed from the exempla. changing the emphasis and even parodying them, the possibility cannot be ignored. In most cases, it is impossible to determine what influence, if any, the fabliaux had on Jacques de Vitry. It is, of course, possi ble that the relationships we have pointed out are purely coincidental and are present only because Jacques de Vitry and the fabliau authors drew from a common fund of folklore. Each then adapted the individual stories to 56 his particular need and according to his philosophy. All the same, it is evident that the fabliau is far removed from the Christian morality implied in the exemplum. Occasionally the fabliaux seem to parody a basic situation found in the exempla. Exemplum 210 tells of the tonsure of a wife by her husband as punishment for a misdeed. In the fabliau "Des tresces" (XCIV*), a tonsur ing becomes the vehicle for a whole comedy of errors from which the wife extricates herself at the end. Of course, tonsuring was a common form of punishment at the time, and the fabliau author may have simply been exploiting a frequent occurrence. In exemplum 133, Jacques de Vitry tells of the arrival of a soul before the gates of heaven. This situa tion was one of the cliches of exempla literature. The fabliau MDu vilain qui conquist paradis par plait" (LXXXI) recounts a similar situation, but stresses the comic aspects. The soul of a peasant arrives at the heavenly gates and demands entrance. It is told to leave, for it does not possess the proper credentials. It then confronts each of the Apostles in turn. Each, condemned by his own conscience, turns away abashed. Finally, the Lord himself welcomes the soul to heaven. Peasant common sense and the simple life triumph over church dogma. Let us consider one final exemplum. Unde legimus quod quidam episcopus, cum predi caret in ecclesia quod centuplum reciperent, qui 57 omnia que haberent pauperibus erogarent, quidam dives hoc audiens valde commotus est et compuctus, et omnia que habuit in manu episcopi dedit. Episcopus vero omnia pauperibus erogavit. Patre autem mortuo filii episcopum in causam traxerunt bona paterna repententes; qui cum reddere non posset inspiratum est ei ut filiis responderets "Eamus ad patrem vestrum." Cum igitur ipsum de tumulo extraxissent, invenerunt in manu ejus cartarn, in qua scriptum erat quod non solum pecuniam, quam dederat in manu episcopi, sed insuper centuplum recipisset. Quod videntes filii episcopum absolve- runt. (96)17 Here we have the material for the fabliau "Brunain" (X). Upon hearing a sermon to the effect that a man who gives receives twofold, a peasant and his wife give their cow to the priest. The next day the cow comes home bringing the priest's cow with her. The fabliau author first reduces the "hundredfold" of the exemplum to a double portion. He then invents the credulous peasant and his wife to provide the comedy. Their credulity is the core of the action, for it is through it that they are taken in by the greedy priest and by it that they profit in the end. The fabliau author takes his story out of the domain of mysticism. There is no mysterious letter, but the palpable fact of the re turning cow. Finally, he directs attention onto the prac tical; while man gained in spiritual riches in the 17"a certain bishop preached that he who gave all his goods to the poor would receive a hundredfold. A rich man followed this precept and died. The son de manded the father's property from the bishop, who ans wered, 'Let us go to your father.' They opened the tomb, and in the dead man's hand they found a paper on which was written that he had received not only the money which he had deposited in the bishop's hands, but a hundredfold more." Crane, p. 175. (In the version of Etienne de Bourbon, the "hundredfold" is received as well as eternal life.) 58 exemplum, an extra cow is all that is necessary to the fabliau couple. The tone of the fabliau is light, but it betrays an underlying scepticism prevalent in the genre, as well as an unfavorable attitude towards priests. While a few of the fabliaux just considered in clude written or implied morals worthy of sermons, there is a general tendency to divert attention from a Chris tian moral such as obedience of wives, virtue, fidelity, and honorable action. Fabliaux present all the cliches of situation comedy* talkative and disobedient wives, un faithful widows, depraved priests. They emphasize ma terialism and practicality. They teach how to make one's way in a corrupt society. They sometimes even parody exempla situations. The fabliau has been considered blatently immoral since its inception. Despite some opposition to the crudeness of the genre by fabliaux authors themselves (CXXXVII, LXXII), it is true that mockery, trickery, brawling, vengeance, rape, murder, and adultery are pre ferred subjects. Yet a number of fabliaux have a con cluding moral. This fact seems rather surprising in view of their content. As we have seen, some fabliaux have a practical purpose. Others, although not perhaps intended as didac tic works, include moral observations or a warning. How ever, most of these morals are, as Omer Jodogne discerned 59 recently, exasperatingly commonplace. ^ - 8 It would seem that in adding a moral the fabliau authors conformed to some unknown model. The fabliau may have derived from the exemplum or the fable and, even after being transformed into an in dependent and wholly profane work, retained this connec tion to its ancestor. Perhaps the moral was kept as a deliberate effort to maintain a relationship to didactic literature. However, the moral does not always correspond to the tale it concludes and therefore produces a kind of shock. The ars poetica of the time recommended as a prologue and conclusion of all works a proverb or gener ality of some sort. After mentioning that it was the practice to begin and end with a proverb, Edmond Faral states* "C'est par une extention de ce proc£d£ que s'est itabli 1'usage des g£n£ralit§s morales sans rapport avec le sujet qui servent couramment de prSambule a toute espSce de contes et de romans."-’ -^ However, more recent critics have pointed out that medieval literature de veloped largely independent of Latin ars poetica. It is possible that a proverb or moral provided the author with the rapid and strong conclusion needed in oral narrative. Were the fabliau authors searching for ISjodogne, p. 1053. l^Edmond Faral, Les Arts pogtiques du XIIe et XIIIe siecles (Paris* Champion, 1924), p. 60. 60 such a conclusion, it is possible they chose proverbs and morals at random. As Jodogne says* "C'est a se demander si certains auteurs de contes plaisants ne se sont pas crus tenus & formuler une moralitS parce que le protocole du fabliau 1'exigeait."^5 Let us now consider these possi bilities in greater detail. If one considers subject matter alone, one might say that not only are fabliaux immoral, but so are exempla and even miracles of the Virgin. The immorality of the fabliaux resides not so much in their content as in the lack of relationship between the body of the work and the moral or proverbial ending. For example, the author may transform a Christian moral into a practical lesson thus giving it a certain wry humor. In the "Houce partie" (V, XXX), a lesson such as "Do unto others . . ."or "Re spect your elders" is anticipated. It never materializes, for the author is not interested in encouraging human generosity. On the other hand, if the author is dealing with an obscene subject, he might have turned it into instruction by a proper moral. He often chooses to do just the opposite. The fabliau "De la damoisele qui sonjoit" (CXXXIV) provides a detailed description of rape which is repeated at the victim's request. The girl then pretends nothing has happened and the author com ments t 20jodogne, p. 1053, Autressi face 5 raoi le mien, Et B l ces dames qui ci sont Les premiers qu'eles troveront Soit autretel comme cil fui Mout lor seroit bien avenu. By this "moral,” the fabliau author actually encourages misconduct. Even when the author does add a proper moral, as, for example, in "C'est de la dame qui aveine deman- doit ..." (XXXIX), its presence in such a blatently ob scene work does little to convince one of the author's didactic intent. Since the author usually shows no overtly moral intention, it seems unlikely that the fabliau should seek to maintain a relationship to didactic literature. We are told in the "Dit dou pligon" (Vol. 6, Ap. II) thati Gens sont qui ont plus kier ris€es Et mokeries desghisSes Oxr que ne face [nt] siermons . . . The unpopularity of sermons is also mentioned in the Roman de Renarti Or me covient tel chose dire dont je vos puisse faire rire, car je sai bien, ce est la pure, que de sarraon d'avez vos cure.21 However, some critics have intimated a relationship be tween the exemplum and the fabliau.^ ^Le Roman de Renart, ed. Mario Roques, CFMA (6 vols.j tarisi dhampion, 1948-63), II, 11. 1-4. 22Dubuis, p. 14. 62 Several works in the Recueil q§n§ral are, in fact, called "exemple" by their authors. Two of these will be studied later. The first is "Martin Hapart" (XLV) which will be discussed fully as a miracle. The other is "Gui llaume au faucon" (XXXV*) which is called a "fabliau" and an "exemple," but has more in common with the lai. Of the remaining works, one is the "Houce partie" (V, XXX) al ready discussed. Another is "Do preste qui manja mores" (XCII*, CXIII). This work, with all its humor, has a practical moral in harmony with its content. A priest, while standing on his horse to reach some ripe berries, wonders what would happen if someone said "hez." Inad vertently, he pronounces the word aloud and the horse gallops away. The author concludes that one should not say all he thinks. Neither content nor moral is within the domain of didactic literature. Rather they are evidence of the anti-clericalism and mistrust so often found in the fabliaux. Although no counterpart of this tale is to be found in Jacques de Vitry, the author may possibly have parodied a sermon which he heard. It is interesting that while one version (XCII*) is called a fabliau, the other version of the tale (CXIII) is called an "exemple." Both contain the concluding moral. There are five other works called "exemple" which are of even greater interest. All end with a statement such asi "Par cest example vous dit ..." However, all 63 have questionable or openly obscene subject matter. The "Prestre crucefiS" (XVIII) recounts the love affair of a sculptor's wife with the village priest. Surprised by the husband's arrival, the priest takes refuge in the workshop extending himself on a cross. The husband, aware of the trick and pretending to give the finishing touch to his work, castrates him. The author concludes* Gest example nous monstre bien Que nus prestres por nule rien Ne devroit autrui fame amer. Here is the exact opposite of the effect produced in the "Houce partie" where the expected moral was not supplied. Here a completely conventional moral is added just as un expectedly to an indecent work. The "Fevre de Creeil" (XXI) tells of a man who de cides to test his wife's fidelity. He describes to her his apprentice's sexual advantages and then reveals his inten tion to leave town. She berates him for his vulgar talk, but runs to the apprentice. The husband returns before they can take advantage of the situation. The author advises* Par cest example voil moustrer C'on doit ain^ois le leu huer Des bestes qu'il y soit venuz. Again the moral is unexpected. But this time it is closer to the general tenor of fabliaux, for it recommends wari ness. Another of the same type is "De celui qui bota la pierre" (CII, CLII). When a child unwittingly reveals 64 the mother*s amorous affair with the priest, the author adds* "Que l*on se gart do petit oil," The last two works decry women’s sexual appetite and are among the most obscene in the Recueil q§n£ral. The first of these belongs to a cycle of three tales in volving hypocritical girls whose actions give the lie to their words. All are built on elaborate sexual metaphors without, for that matter, losing any of their explicit ness. Two of these (LXV*, CXI*), both attested fabliaux, have no conclusion other than the end of the story line. The third is "La Pucele qui abreva le polein" (CVII). Although the most explicit of the three, and the only one in which the couple is not married, it is called an "exemple" and ends with the following moralt Par cest essanple monstrer vueil Que femes n'aient point d'orgueil De foutre paller hautement, Quant il foutent tot igalment. The s econd work, "Do maignier qui foti la dame" (CXXX), is in the same tradition. A woman who refuses to sleep with her husband falls while preparing a bath and injures her self. The doctor comes and has intimacies with her which she urges him to continue. The author concludes* Par cest example vos deffant Que se nus de vos fame prant, Vos lo devez mout bien savoir* Ne faites pas votre pooir D'a li gesir au premierain, Que quant vanroit au darrien Por fol vos porriez teniri Si ne le porroiez fornir, 65 Ce que avreiez comanciS Ele avroit mout tost porchaciS Qui li feroit autant o plus, Et por ce nel doit panser nus. These last two works do not have morals in the true sense of the word. The ending sums up the content of the tale rather than stating a lesson to be derived from it. They reveal a more general meaning of the word "exemple." Besides referring to an element of the sermon, the term "exemplum" signified anything cited that might serve as an illustration of a fact. It is even used in just this manner in "Gombert et les .ii. clercs" (XXII*)t "Cis fabliaux moustre par example ..." Nor is such usage confined exclusively to the fabliaux. Marie de France's lai "Equitan" and a number of her fables end with a state ment pointing out that the preceding story was used as an example. The "Chastelaine de Vergi" concludes! Et par cest example doit l'en s'amor celer par si grant sen c'on ait toz jors en remembrance que li descouvrirs riens n'avance et li celers en toz poins vaut.23 The element of parody in these last five fabliaux (XVIII, XXI, Cll, CVII, CXXX) seems evident. The authors took advantage of the prevalent custom of teaching by example. To provide humor they added to the most dis reputable tales a moral or summation and called their works "exemples." 3^La Chastelaine de Vergy, ed. Gaston Raynaud, CFMA (Parisl Champion, jls67},.11. 951-55. 66 The origin of the moral cannot be determined with any certainty. However, some conclusions can be reached concerning its usage. The moral was not added after the fact or at random. It is an essential part of the whole work. Thirty-four attested fabliaux and thirty-six non attested fabliaux have morals or proverbial conclusions. To be sure, the moral is most often not present for didactic purposes. As we have seen, it adds a comment on life, an element of humor, parodies a religious exemplum, or even encourages misconduct. The lack of agreement between the fabliau and its moral is inten tional, in some cases at least, and is even its reason for being. Accustomed to sermons in which they found these same stories moralized, the medieval audience ex perienced the same shock and amusement as we on hearing these unexpected endings. Although the works previously discussed have had little positive relation to the exemplum, there are two works included in the Recueil g€n€ral which can be favora bly compared. Rutebeuf's "Frere Denise" (LXXXVII*) treats the licentiousness of priests, a subject found in Jacques de Vitry's exempla.^ It relates the seduction of a girl by the local priest and her entry into the monastery dressed as a man. There is no comic element and no 24see, for example, 20 bis, 233, 241, 242, 282 67 obscenity, although the opportunity is present for both. The problem is satisfactorily resolved by marrying off the girl and punishing the priest. The author adds a note of warning that the frock doesn't make the monk. This work seems to be entirely within the tradition of didactic literature, yet the author specifically calls it a fabliau.^ Another work, "La Dent" (XII), is worthy of con sideration. The author begins by bemoaning the ills of society, the loss of Bertrand du Guesclin, and the de cline of chivalry. He then demonstrates a possible cure for social evils by telling the story of a blacksmith who ties a peasant's ailing tooth to the anvil. As the smith strikes the anvil with his hammer, the man jumps in terror and loses his tooth. The author concludes by comparing the smith to Robert Malet who, by his example, reveals the cowardice of those around him. The evil ones must be pulled out like the tooth. Apart from the humor of the anecdote, the tone and purpose of the piece are wholly serious. "La Dent" is an exemplum in the precise sense of the words it is an anecdote which illustrates a point. 25<rhis work is also related to the chatiment. While the fabliaux ridicule priests, they never attack the clergy as a whole. Yet here Rutebeuf condemns Fran ciscans in general as he does in his satirical dits on the religious orders. Without pretending to properly classify this work, we can certainly say that it is totally unlike other fabliaux. Furthermore, it seems evident that, where possible, one must take into account an author's personal ity and total works in considering unusual fabliaux. 68 Furthermore, it is accompanied by a sermon and concluding moral. However, the work is late (after 1380) and can provide no real information on the early relationship of the fabliau and exemplum. While the fabliau and the exemplum have some sub jects in common, relationships are far less numerous than would be supposed if the two had a common origin. Out of 314 exempla, only six have any strong resemblance to the fabliaux. Therefore, it seems unlikely that the fabliau exercised any great influence on the exemplum. What in fluence it did have was of a negative nature. The scepticism, materialism, and obscenity prevalent in the fabliaux were a constant menace to the exempla. As exempla tended to dominate later sermons they became in creasingly obscene. Dante comments on them in La comme- dia and in 1528 the Council of Sens condemned them formally. However, the exemplum seems to have had an influence on the fabliau. The word "exemple" found in some fabliaux is a derivative of "exemplum." The word is sometimes used in the sense of "illustration" and some times for comic effect. Furthermore, fabliau authors often parodied both the content of the exemplum and the ^6Dante, La commedia, Vol. 7 of Classici Italiani, Novissima Biblioteca (Milam Istituto Editorale Italiano, n.d.), Paradiso XXIX, w. 94 ff. 69 moral conclusion found in the sermon. Yet rarely is the fabliau in keeping with the didactic intent of the sermon. The fable, like the exemplum, is a short narrative designed to convey a moral. Unlike the exemplum. the con cluding precept, sometimes in the form of a maxim, is part of the work itself. The fable is generally considered to be of Indian origin, although Aesop (600 B.C.) is reputed to have been influenced by a Syrian author.27 whatever the ancestors of the fable may have been, medieval Euro pean writers followed in the tradition of Aesop rather than imitating the Indian fabulists. They based their fables exclusively on the collection in verse of Aesop's fables made in 300 B.C. by Demetrius of Phalerum. In 111 A.D., Valerius Babrios made a prose translation of this work. It is from Babrios that Avianus (390 A.D.) derives his Latin collection and that the Avionnet (1339-49) and the Isopets I and III are taken. A second medieval tradi tion begins with Phaedrus (ca. 31 A.D.) who made a Latin verse translation of a lost prose collection inspired from 27Valerius Babrios maintains that the fable is the invention of Syrians living along the Ninus river. Some historians believe that Aesop never existed and that the fables attributed to him were an adaptation of the Baby lonian Words of Ahikar. For a complete discussion of this question see* Andrl Dupont-Sommer, "La littSrature Ara- mSenne," in Litt&ratures anciennes orientales et orales, Vol. I of Histoire des Litt§ratures, ed. Qu^neau (3 vols.; Paris* Gallimard, 1955), pp. 642 ff. 70 Demetrius. Representative of this tradition are the fables of the Pseudo-Alfred and of Marie de France (11707) . While to Aesop the fable was quite clearly a prose tale teaching the lessons of life, usually in the guise of stories about animals, we cannot accept this definition exclusively after considering the entire history of the fable. First, there is no evidence to prove that a fable must be a prose tale. The sixth-century Pehlevi trans lation of the Indian Panchatantra is in prose, but the concluding maxims are versified. Demetrius, Phaedrus, and Babrios all expressed themselves in verse. Although the Romulus is in prose, the Romulus Neveletti is a verse translation of the same work. Furthermore, the fable does not deal exclusively with animals. Even the Panchatantra includes tales dealing with humans. Finally, the fable is not always used for a purely moral purpose. Phaedrus used it as social criticism and disguised in it references to contemporary events. Most certainly in medieval times the fable was no longer considered exclusively a moral beast tale. In his Etymolocriae, Isodore of Seville (5607-636) defines the Latin term fabula as a beast fable, a myth, a comedy, or quite simply anything that is mere invention. The author of the Ad Herennium states* "Fabula est, quae neque veras, neque veri similes continet res, ut hae, quae in tragoediis 71 traditae sunt."28 Apparently as the story element grew in importance, the moral, which had been the major charac teristic of the fable at its origins, became so weakened as to be a mere convention. Therefore, according to the definitions of medieval Latin authors, the fabliau might possibly be nothing more than a degeneration of the fable.28 If such is the case, a comparative study of the fable and the fabliau should prove enlightening. It is evident that the fable presents three ele ments of interest for this study. Although lacking a prologue, it is composed, like some fabliaux, of a tale with a concluding moral. Furthermore, lexicologists have suggested that the word "fabliau" (Old French flabel, flabel; pi. flablaus) is a derivative of the Latin word fabula + ellus,30 Finally, the fable was an extremely 28Ernst Robert Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, Harper Torchbooks (New Yorki Harper and Row, 1953), p. 455. oq Additional comment on this subject is found ini R. C. Johnson and D. D. R. Owen, Fabliaux Selected and Edited (Oxford, 1957) and T. B. W. Reid, Twelve Fabliaux from Manuscript fonds franoais 19152 (Manchester, 1958), pp. x~xi. 30FrSdSric Godefroi, Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue franoaise. (10 vols.j Paris* Vieweg, 1881-1902) and Tobler-Lommatzsch, Altfranzosisches Worterbuch, (5 vols.j Berlin* Weidmann, 1925— ). See also Joseph Bedier, "Les Fabliaux," in Histoire de la langue et de la llttSrature franoaise, ed. Petit de Juleville (Paris* Colin, 1896), p. 58. Fabula + ellus gives fableau (as bellus gives beau). Fabliau is a dialectic form from the Northeast. However, since Claude Fauchet and the Comte de 72 popular medieval form which may have provided subject matter for the fabliaux. We have chosen as the basis of our comparative study the Fables of Marie de France which have three distinct advantages. They are the first fables written in Old French. Their date corresponds to the rise of the fabliau. Their subject matter is not derived exclusively from the Latin fabulists. We shall study the content for possible similarities with the fabliau material. We shall then complement this study by a consideration of Marie's use of basic material in hope of better understanding the nature of the fabliau. Marie composed her collection of 102 fables to wards 1170 and dedicated them to Count William Longsword. They are written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets and each has a Latin title. The collection is preceded by a pro logue and concluded by an epilogue. The sources of these fables have not yet been determined with any certainty. However, forty of them are to be found in some form in the Romulus. The other sixty-two may be borrowed from a yet unidentified middle English author and from oral tradition.3 Caylus first undertook studies of the fabliaux, the form has been widely accepted despite the efforts of purists to correct such usage. 3^Fgr a complete discussion seei BSdier, Les Fabliauxt etudes de littSrature populaire « . pp. 122- 25. See also Karl Warnke. Die Faneln der Marie~"de France (Hallei Max Niemeyer, 189877” . . . . 73 Interestingly enough, Marie's definition of a fable does not correspond to the ideas of medieval Latin authors. To her, as to Aesop, a fable was an invented story told with a desire to instruct. She states in the prologue* Merveille en orent li plusur qu'il [Aesop] mist sun sens en tel labur; mes n'i a fable de folie ou il nen ait philosophie es essamples ki sunt apr€s, u des cuntes est tuz li fes. She obviously considered the moral of even greater im portance than the story itself. Marie's fables are brief, twenty-five to seventy- five lines in length. The majority deal with animals. Making minimal use of dialogue and detail, she relates the stories simply, directly, and rapidly. All effort is concentrated on producing a single effect which will be summed up in the moral. Unlike Aesop, she often draws from the tale a precept with social implications* the duty of kings, the resolution of peasant disputes, the necessity for stoic acceptance of one's social condition. It is not unusual for her to add a Christian moral. Of the 102 fables, seventeen deal exclusively with humans and, therefore, deserve comparison to the fabliau. Of these seventeen, seven (XLII, XLIX, XLVIII, LIV, LV, XCIX, C) are closely related to the exemplum by their obvious Christian morals. They warn of the dangers of 74 belief in sorcery, set forth the proper method of praying, and point out the wrong of returning evil for good. Only two of the seven have any slight relationship to the fa bliau. The first of these, "De homine devite qui sanguinem minuit" (XLII), contains a fabliau situation. A girl is given a basin of her sick father's blood to keep for the doctor. Examination of this blood will reveal the nature of the father's illness. The girl spills the blood and, frightened at the prospect of punishment, replaces the spilled blood with her own. The doctor discovers the father is pregnant and the daughter is obliged to admit the exchange. Marie makes no attempt to exploit the possi bilities of this material. Furthermore, attention is actually directed away from the daughter's unexplained pregnancy by the moral* Altresi vet des triche\lrs, des larruns e des boiseiirs, en qui la felunie meinti par els meismes sunt ateint; quant meins se guardent d'estre pris, si sunt encumbre e ocis. Such lines might easily conclude a sermon exemplum. The other, "De rustico orante et equum petente" (LIV), is reminiscent of the fabliau "Brunain" (X) and Jacques de Vitry's Exemplum 96, but the circumstances are changed and the emphasis placed differently. D'un vilein cunte ki entra en un mustier e si ura. Un suen cheval aveit mult chier, si l'atacha hors del mustier. 75 A deu requist qu'il li aidast qu'un altel cheval li donast. Tant cum il fist ceste ureisun, sun cheval emblent li larrun. Quant il fu del mustier eissuz, si esteit sis chevals perduz. Ariere vet hastivement, si prie deu devotement qu'altre cheval mar li durreit, mes face li aveir le suen, kar il n'avra ja mes si buen. Here the peasant prays for another animal rather than giving his own to the church. He thus puts himself in the position of the priest in "Brunain.” Like the priest, he loses. However, here no attempt is made to parody the institution of tithes or the person of the clergy. Marie adds a moral which, if it had been present in the fabliau, would have transformed it into an exemplum* Pur ceo ne deit nuls huem preier de plus aveir qu*il n'a mestieri ceo guart que deus li a don£, si li suffise en leialt€l Five fables have themes found also in the fabliaux. However, in each case Marie attenuates the material or re directs the interest so as to create a work quite differ ent from a fabliau. "De vidua” (XXV) is the ancient tale of the Matron of Ephesis found in fabliaux LXX and LXIX and Jacques de Vitry's Exemplum 232. Although both the fabliau authors and Jacques de Vitry used this tale as an illustration of woman's fickleness, specifically that of desolate widows, Marie does not* Par iceste signefiance poum entendre quel creance deivent aveir li mart es vis. Tant est li munz fals et jolis. She deliberately diverts attention from individuals and sexes and places it on the whole human condition. The fabliau "Do pr$ tondu" (CIV*), also found in Jacques de Vitry*s Exemplum 202, is recounted in "De homine et uxore litigiosa" (XCIV). Marie's version is similar to the exemplum. but differs appreciably from the fabliau. She minimizes the wife's bad nature by summing up her character in the single word "cuntrariuse," In contrast, the fabliau devotes six lines to condemning the wife and adds a social comment* the inadvisability of a commoner's marrying a rich noblewoman. Marie emphasizes the couple's argument by relating it at length and in dialogue. It ends by the husband cutting the wife's tongue out and then asking her again to agree with him. The fabliau author lightly passes over the dispute itself and replaces the tongue motif by a detailed description of the number and quality of blows the husband inflicts on the wife before he silences her. Marie adds a moral completely at variance with the intent of the fabliau and exemplum* Par cest essample vuelt mustrer, bien le puet hum suvent pruver* se fols parole une folie et altre vient, ki sens li die, ne l'en creit pas, einz s'en airej la u il set qu'il en est pire, vuelt sa men§unge metre avant* nuls nel fereit de ceo taisant. 77 It is the husband who speaks first in the fable and he is the one who becomes angry, not the wife. It is he who is at fault since he silences the voice of reason so that he can persist in his foolish error. The obedience of women stressed in the exemplum and the anti-feminism of the fabliau are transformed into a piece of general wisdom. As we have seen, the themes of the two preceding fables are found not only in the fabliaux, but in Jacques de Vitry and were cliches of exempla literature as well as of world folklore. It is not surprising to find them in Marie de France. The three remaining fables with counter parts in the fabliaux are less well known. The first of these, "De uxore mala et marito eius" (XCV), is based on the same theme as the fabliau "De la dame escolliSe" (CXLIX*). According to the fabliau, a woman always does the opposite of what her husband desires. One day a count asks for food and drink and the husband pretends he cannot have them so that the wife will grant the request. Later, the daughter wants to marry the count. The father ap proves, but pretends to oppose the marriage to gain the wife’s consent. During a visit a year later, the son-in- law arranges to be alone with the mother. Out of patience with her ways, he pretends to castrate her as one would a male. The woman believes the operation actually took place and reforms. The author adds* "Dahet feme qui despit home." Marie's rendition of the story is as 78 follows* Some men working in the fields with a farmer ask him for refreshments. He tells them to ask his wife, but to be sure to say they are requesting the food against his wishes. They do so and she brings the food. When she sees her husband's pleased expression she backs away towards the river. He follows, forcing her to the very edge where she falls in. The men rush downstream to save her, but the husband calls out that, judging from her nature, she must have gone against the current and to look upstream instead. She drowns and Marie concludes* Issi avient* plusur estrivent vers lur seignur, tant cum il vivent, ne vuelent saveir ne sentir, quels mals lur en puet avenir* lur riote tienent avant. Quant il le va aparcevant, e il le turne a maltalent, si s'en venge plus asprement. It is obvious that the same basic material has beai used in very different ways and for different reasons. The fabliau uses the theme of the contrary wife to show that women must be disciplined. To demonstrate this fact, it uses two familiar devices* a detailed beating and a comic fake operation. The fabliau is much more highly developed than the fable which is probably closer to oral tradition. It makes use of contrast* the obedient daugh ter and her ornery mother, the authoritative son-in-law and the submissive husband. It adds secondary episodes involving the daughter's marriage* the mother’s advice 79 to follow her example, and the new husband's various at tempts to warn his bride of the consequences which will attend any slight imitation of the mother. The ending is in conformity with the usual anti-feminist theme. On the other hand, Marie sees in the theme a political implication. The story is told with great economy of detail. The ending conforms perfectly to the seriousness of her concluding moral. ”De rustico et nano" (LVII) is a version of the popular folklore theme of wishes granted by a supernatural being which are used to no advantage. Marie tells it as follows* D'un vilein cunte ki prist ja un folet, que lung tens guaita. Cil li dona treis uremenz, pur ceo qu'il nel mustrast as genz. Li vileins fu foius et liez. Quant a sa femme est repairiez, les dous uremenz li dona; un en retint, pru nel guarda. Eissi furent bien lungement, qu'il ne firent nul urement, desqu'a un jur que il aveient a un mangier, u il esteient, d'une berbiz l'eschine et l'os dunt la meole pareit fors. La femme en ot grant desirier, volentiers la volsist mangier; mes ne la pot aveir as meins, si a ur€ que li vileins eust tel bee, mult li plaireit, cume li witecos aveit. Eissi avint cum ele ura. E li vileins s'esmerveilla, si a urS qu'en veie fust e que sun vis meftne eust. Dous uremenz unt ja perduz, que nuls n'en est a pru venuz. 80 She does not complete the story with the third wish which traditionally puts the situation to rights. Rather she accomplishes this with the second, leaving the couple a third which will, hopefully, be used to better advantage. She then addsj A plusurs est si avenui suventes feiz i unt perdu, ki trop creient altrui parole, ki tuz les deceit et afole. Li fols quide del vezie qu*il le vueille aveir conseilli€ si cume sei; mes il i fait, kar tant ne set ne tant ne valt. The moral is all-important. At no time does she con sider the wishes or their consequences as the essential parts of the fable. The same theme appears in three fabliauxi the "Convoiteus et l'envieus" (CXXXV), "Les Souhais" by Gautier le Leu,32 and "Les .iiii. souhais saint Martin" (CXXXIII*). The first of these is clearly an exemplum (see Jacques de Vitry Exemplum 196). The second offers an interesting variation and is divided into two parts. A man traps some angels in a fishnet. As a reward for their liberation, they offer him whatever he desires. He chooses to have as much money as his brother. They admonish him to do good with it and send him home where he finds everything transformed. The brother becomes 32For additional information see Livingstone, pp. 139 ff. 81 jealous, learns the secret, and goes fishing to catch the angels. He traps devils instead and they obligingly grant him three wishes. He gives two to his wife who wastes one wishing their son had a long beard. The husband retorts he hopes her eyes fall out and she wishes the same to him. The concluding moral points out the perils of for tune and assures that God curses those who have plenty and covet more. The motif of the eyes is obviously borrowed from fabliau CXXXV and Jacques de Vitry*s Exemplum 196. Fur thermore, the tale still retains the moral implications of the exemplum as well as its tragic overtones. It also seems to have undergone some influence of the Cain-Abel theme. However, it has two points in common with the fablei the capture of the supernatural creature and the gift of two of the wishes to the wife. Marie de France and Gautier le Leu may have known of a popular exemplum or folktale. Marie then reduced her material, as usual, to produce a single effect in harmony with the conclu sion she wished to make. Gautier le Leu expanded his in conformity to fabliau techniques without losing sight of the moral implications. "Les .iiii. souhais saint Martin" (CXXXIII*), which contains the same theme, is an obscene piece on the las civiousness of woman. In true fabliau tradition, the nature of the wishes is in doubtful taste. The wife 82 makes the first to which the husband replies in kind. She then makes another which only worsens the situation. The husband finally has to restore the status quo. The fourth wish is added so that both the wife's sexual desires and her stupidity are evidenced. The conclusion is a lesson of experience and has nothing in common with the above variantsi . . . cil ne fet mie savoir Qui mieux croit sa fame que lui: Sovent l'en vient honte et anui. The foregoing works may demonstrate the process by which an exemplum or a fable became a fabliau. A popu lar tale originally existing in oral tradition may have been used in didactic literature from which it derived an attendant moral. Gautier le Leu's version would repre sent an intermediate state; half fabliau and half fable. Finally, the material became the obscene piece just men tioned (CXXXIII*). We shall never know with certainty, for the respective dates of composition of these works cannot be absolutely determined. Of course, it is possi ble that Gautier le Leu had never heard a moral work on the subject, but derived his story, complete with moral, solely from oral tradition. It is true that his conclu sion is not a moral in the purest sense of the word, but merely a summation of the content. The final theme found in both Marie de France and the fabliaux is the "Prestre qui abevete" (LXI*), the first episode of which is contained in "De muliere et proco eius" (XLIV). According to the fabliau, a priest loves a lady and watches her through the window dining with her husband. He calls the husband outside and shames him for having intercourse with his wife in plain sight of others. The husband protests that he was only eating dinner. The priest assures him that the eyes are de ceivers. To prove his point, he enters the house and has intimacies with the all too willing wife while the husband watches from outside. The husband accuses him of misbehaving, but the priest insists they were only dining. This fabliau seems to have originated as a parody of a popular saying about the deceptive senses. The characters are entirely familiari the lecherous priest, the unfaithful wife, the credulous husband. How ever, the moral lays the blame on stupidity in general and thus somewhat resembles the fable* Ensi fu li vilains gabSs Et decheus et encantSs Et par le prestre et par son sans Qu'il n'i ot paine ne ahans, Et, pour ce que li uis fu tuis, Dist on encor* Maint fol paist duis. Marie changes the circumstances somewhat, but arrives at the same conclusion. She begins her fable with the wife and lover in bed and the husband outside watch ing. When he demands an explanation, she shows him his image in the water barrel and asks if he is really in the 84 barrel. When he replies in the negative, she assures him it is foolish to believe one's eyes. There is no anti clericalism implied. The wife becomes the active charac ter instead of the lover and thus resembles the typical crafty fabliau wife. However, Marie passes over the fact and concludesi Par cest essample nus devise que mult.valt mielx sens e quointise e plus aide a meinte gent que sis aveirs ne si parent. Although this moral stresses good sense as does the fabliau, Marie's thought is positive; good sense is worth much. The fabliau emphasizes the negative, that is, the consequences resulting from a lack of wisdom. The remaining five fables concerning humans are popular tales that might well have furnished material for the fabliaux. However, none of these is to be found textually therein. Although Joseph BSdier did not study these fables in detail, he noted their existence as proof that folktales were prevalent in northern France towards 1050.^ While tales were, no doubt, circulating even be fore that date, their presence in Marie de France's fables scarcely ftarnishes proof of this fact. Most critics feel that Marie's middle English source could not have been 33B§dier, Les Fabllauxt gtudes de littSrature populaire . . ., pp. 122 ff. 85 anterior to the early twelfth century.34 Furthermore, since she was admittedly interested in oral literature, we cannot be sure that she did not add tales she had per sonally heard recited. Whatever their origin, these fables have been called by Nykrog "fabliaux avant la lettre."33 The statement is of great importance since the date of "Richeut" cannot be stated with any preci sion. Furthermore, if one does not accept "Richeut” as the first fabliau, Marie may well have been the originator of the genre. Let us now consider each of these fables in detail to determine its relationship to the fabliaux. The first is "De rustico et scarabaeo" (XLIII)i D*un vilein dit ki se giseit cuntre soleil, si se dormeit. A denz s'ert mis tuz descoverz, e sis pertus esteit overz. Uns escharboz dedenz entra, e li vileins s'en esveilla. Grant mal li fist, tant qu'a un mire 1*esteit alez cunter et dire. Li mires dist qu'il esteit preinz. Or fu mult pis qu'il ne fu# j einzj kar li vileins bien le crej!, e li fols peuples, ki l'ol*, dient que c'est signefiance. En pour sunt e en dutancej n'i a celui ki bien ne creie que granz mals avenir lur deie. Tant est li fols pueples muables, qu'en veines choses nunverables unt lur creance a lur espeir. 34Urban T. Holmes, History of Old French Litera ture (New Yorkj Russell and Russell, 1962)» pp. 185-92. 33Nykrog, pp. 15-16. Le vilein guaitent pur saveir par unt cil enfes deveit nestre. Li escharboz par la fenestre, u il entra, s*en est eissuz* dune furent il tuz deceuz. This work has three attitudes in common with the fabliauxi preoccupation with the anus, scorn of the peasant, and scepticism regarding miracles. The characters themselves are not unfamiliar. The inefficient doctor, (LXXIV), the credulous peasant (X, XCV, GV), and the crowd of stupid citizenry are all to be found in the fabliaux (LXXIII, XXIV etc.). The structure, composed of a basic situation, crisis, and resolution which provides for the preservation of the status quo, is also similar to that of the fabliau. Why then is this piece not a fabliau? Simply because Marie does not take advantage of a single one of these elements. The expected sexual metaphors never materialize The humorous and dramatic possibilities inherent in the structure are never exploited. The characters never openly exhibit their stupidity by dialogue or action. Finally, in the moral, Marie attenuates what element of social or religious criticism was present by saying* Par cest essample le vus di* des nunsachanz est altresi, ki creient ceo qu'estre ne puet, un vanitez les trait et muet. "De equo vendite" (XLVII) is the story of a man who raises a horse and decides to sell him for "vint solz." The buyer is unwilling to meet this price so they 87 agree to ask: the first person they encounter to judge the animal’s worth. He happens to be a one-eyed man who sets the price at "dix solz." The owner takes the case to court where he declares the one-eyed man could see only half the horse's value. He wins his case. This tale is vaguely reminiscent of peasant disputes in the fabliaux (XIII). However, once again Marie fails to develop the latent comic and dramatic elements. She makes no use of dialogue, nor does she assign to her characters any visi ble signs of their station in life or of their personality. She concludes by pointing out a universal factt Beware of speaking out before the judge, for fine arguments often win over truth1 By adding this moral, she destroys that element of thought the tale had in common with the fabliau, that is, the triumph of peasant ingenuity. To Marie the trick is not humorous, it is morally wrong. Another fable dealing with peasants and judicial procedure is "De rustico et monedula eius" (LVI). A poor peasant, discovering his pet bird has been killed by a cruel neighbor, complains to the judge. The neighbor comes wearing a leather vest which he gives the judge to understand will be his if the case is decided in his favor. The judge accepts the bribe. The bribery motif appears in the fabliau "De la vielle qui oint la palme au chevalier" (CXXXVII*) and Jacques de Vitry*s Exemplum 38. Marie again does not develop the material, but this time makes some use of dialogue. Her moral involves prac tical reform by insisting on the responsibility of kings and princes in choosing good judges. Such a moral is the very opposite of the fabliau's thought which emphasizes the venality of judges without expressing any hope for future reformation. "De homine et equo et hirco" (LXIV) tells the following storyi Uns riches huem, ceo dit, aveit un cheval, que vendre voleit e un suen buc tut a un pris. Pur vint solz dist a ses amis que chescun d'els voleit duner, se nuls les volsist achater. Uns marcheanz les bargaigna; le cheval dit qu'il retendra, mes li bus ne valeit nient Li riches huem par maltalent dist qu'ambedous achatereit u ambesdous les i larreit. The theme of two items, the one worthless, being sold for the price of one is common in folklore and can be found in Jacques de Vitry's Exemplum 168. Marie uses the tale to show how a foolish man will even do harm to himselfi Veeir poez del nunsachant, ki sun mal us prise altretant cume sun bon tut oelmenti ne poet lessier sun fol talent. This material could have been transformed into a fabliau with some changes. The rich man would have become a rich peasant. His argument with the merchant would have been developed and dramatized. A crowd of spectators might have been added to comment the scene. The merchant would 89 have been rendered unsympathetic. The end result would have been the humorous situation of two tricksters at tempting to cheat one another and ending up by cheating themselves. The moral would warn against the treachery of man, not underline the general moral trait to be over come, namely stubbornness. Although the foregoing fables present some motifs and characters in common with the fabliau, they cannot be judged as such because of fundamental differences in at titude and technique. However, the last of the five, "Iterum de muliere et proco eius" (XLV), is in fact a fabliau. A man sees his wife head for the forest with her lover. When he accuses her of infidelity, she cries out that surely she shall die tomorrow, for her mother and grandmother were so accused and died on the following day. The distressed husband, fearful of losing his wife, swears he never saw the couple together. Marie concludesi Pur ceo dit hum en repruvier que femmes sevent engignieri les vezi&es nunverables unt un art plus que li diables. The theme of the mystified husband is a fabliau clichfi (XV*, LVII*, LXXXIX*, CIX*, CXXIV, CXXXVIII). However, this particular deception is not found in them. Marie develops the dramatic possibilities through dialogue. The husband’s annoyance is artfully changed into surprise and then distress. His gullibility and affection are 90 marked and in contrast to his wife’s astuteness and perfidy. The lover is an appendage, a necessity for the action, as he is in so many fabliaux. Finally, Marie draws the conclusion, so prevalent in fabliaux, that women are not to be trusted. However, it is amusing to note that she is not comfortable with the moral. She begins, "Pur ceo dit hum ..." thus echoing what was, no doubt, a conclusion derived from popular tradition, not a per sonal belief. It is surprising how little real effect the con tent of Marie de France's fables had on the fabliaux. Five of her fables have subjects similar to them, but these same subjects are also present in Jacques de Vitry's exempla. Since six of Vitry's exempla are present in Marie's fables, but not in the fabliaux, it seems safe to conclude that the relationship fable-exempium is closer than that of fable-fabliau. Moreover, even when fable and fabliau present similar material, the latter develops it differently. While Marie states only the necessary facts in a way that they coincide with and point up the con cluding moral, the fabliau author creates amusing and dramatic scenes, develops episodes, or adds ones, corre sponding to the effect to be produced. Furthermore, Marie has a profoundly moral purpose in writing. Whether she is speaking of social, domestic, or spiritual problems her aim is to make man see his error and reform. The 91 fabliau, on the contrary, functions entirely within a set system of prejudices. These may sometimes conform to con ventional Christian morality, but more often do not. No concerted attempt is made to reform, only to amuse. Fi nally, Marie*s morals draw from a specific happening a lesson of universal importance and thus remain entirely within the tradition of the fable. The fabliau moral centers on specific circumstances, not general truths. It parodies or provides comedy. It is almost exclu sively of a negative nature and offers little hope of change for the better. The presence of one fabliau-type story in Marie's fables (XLV) scarcely establishes her as the originator of the form. However, it does give additional proof that stories other than "Richeut" were indeed circulating in the last half of the twelfth cen tury, and were occasionally being put in writing. Despite the tenuous relationship between the fabliaux and Marie de France's fables, several works in the Recueil cr€n§ral do seem to have been influenced by the fable genre, if not specifically by Marie. One is "Du vilain qui donna son ame au deable" (CXLI). A poor man who is no longer able to bear his misery makes a pact with the devil. He is given riches, but every ten years when the devil comes to take his soul the man insists he is still hale and hearty. Finally, when he can no longer walk, the devil takes him to hell. The author concludes 92 that those who want everything for themselves lose every thing. The devil’s pact theme is, of course, common in folklore.36 Its usage here is for a totally moral purpose and in conformity with the Christian teaching of humility and poverty expressed in Marie's Fables LV and XCIX. It does not seem possible to class this work as a fabliau. The word "fable" is used to describe the fabliau called the "Estats du siecle" (LIV) which relates how a man becomes successively a priest, a merchant, a farmer, a knight, a lawyer, and a husband. In each, he finds troubles and finally becomes a hermit and devotes his time to astronomy "Quar de la terre n*a plus cure." The word "fable" here conforms to the medieval definition of the word as an invented story. The form differs from that of the fable in that no moral is present. However, the moral intent is clear throughout and the general lesson is drawn that man is never content with his lot. Although perhaps not a fable in the narrow sense of the term, this work has nothing to recommend it as a fabliau. T^ie fabliau "Des putains et des lecheors" (LXXVI*) also bears comparison to the fable. It takes to task knights who mistreat the "lecheors" (here the author evi dently means the minstrels). The piece is preceded by a 36See, for example, Rutebeuf, Le Miracle de Th§o- phile, ed. Grace Frank, CFMA (Parist Champion, 1949). 93 kind of. apologue which tells how God created three es tates* the knights, clerics, and peasants. He then com manded the clerics to care for the prostitutes and the knights to succor the minstrels, assuring both that those who obey His commands inherit heaven. Yet now everyone knows that the prostitutes live luxuriously while the minstrels starve. The author concludes* A cest conte font li clerc bien Desor toz les autres qui font. Si mes fabliaus dit voir, done sont Par cest commant li clerc sauvS Et li chevalier sont dampnS. (LXXVI*) Jean Rychner gives this work, along with the "Pre tondu" (CIV*), as proof that fabliaux include didactic messages identical to those found in the fables. It is quite true that "Des putains et des lecheors" has some elements in common with the fable. The events are told simply with no dialogue or dramatic development. The moral is a general truth drawn from a specific illustra tion. However, this moral is scarcely edifying. Rather, it is openly ironic. It is evidence of yet one more concession to the "cleric as wastrel" theme so ceaselessly in evidence in the fabliaux. This tongue-in-cheek conclu sion resembles the wrenched morals already noted in fabliaux which parody the exempla (V, X). Therefore, it certainly does not share the fable’s didactic intent. The 94 work seems far more likely to be a parody of the fable. The parodic element seems clear in Rutebeuf's "Testament de l'asne" (LXXXII) which tells the story of a rich priest who buries his donkey in holy ground. The bishop hears of the sacrilege and admonishes him. The priest then reveals to the bishop that the donkey left money to be used to assure the salvation of his soul. The bishop greedily accepts the money and Rutebeuf con cludes t Qui denier porte a sa besoingne Ne doit douteir mauvais lyens; Li asnes remest crestiens. (LXXXII). Here are the customary properties of the fablei the in vented story from which is drawn a general truth. The anti-clericalism, dramatic development, and ironic con clusion are, however, in the tradition of the fabliau. We have already noted that the doctrinal intent of the exempla generally separates them from the fabliaux. In like manner, Marie*s tendency to apply a Christian morality to the ancient pagan fable divorces her fables from fabliau attitudes. We must necessarily wonder if collections devoid of Christian moralizing would betray Of course, the form and didactic message also bear comparison with the exemplum or may be a parody of the leoon which usually accompanied the sermon. 95 more similarities to the fabliau. A cursory glance at Aesop's Fables convinces us that the fabliau has at least some characteristics in common with the ancient fable. For example, Aesop and the fabliau authors view man in a similar fashion. Both regard him as an animal and see human relationships as a battle of wits in which a loss means ridicule and often physical injury. They both frequently use man's passions and shortcomings as sub ject matter. It is true that the fable invests animals with these shortcomings while the fabliau deals exclu sively with people. However, the animal nature of fable characters is an obvious artifice, for when one compares Aesop's Fable "The Frog and the Ox"**8 with the bragging husband in the "Saineresse" (XXV) one finds no real difference. Frog and man are embodiments of a human failing. Because of these common attitudes, certain situa tions and conclusions are identical in the fable and the fabliau. One of these is the "revenge in kind" sequence. It is seen in the "Fox and the Stork."39 When the fox provides only a flat dish for Mrs. Stork to eat from, she vows revenge, invites her host to dinner, and fur nishes him only a deep necked vase. Just such a pattern 38Aesop, Fables, ed. and trans. Boris Artzybasheff (New Yorki The Viking Press, 1933), p. 28. 39Ibid.. p. 74. is used in all fabliaux with a revenge theme (LXXXV, XIV, LXXX*, LVIII*, CXLVIII*, LXXXIII, XXXIV, LXXXIV, LXXV, XCVII). Moreover, both fable and fabliau make considerable use of ruses. In the "Fox and the Crow,"4® Aesop tells of a crow holding a piece of cheese in his beak. The envious fox flatteringly persuades him to open his beak and let it fall. He then scampers off with the booty. How many fabliaux are based on similar ruses (LXXXVIII*, LVII*, CXXIV, LXI*, ap. II, etc.)l Finally, the fabliau, like the fable, evidences a thoroughly pagan morality. "The Lion and the Mouse"4- * - concludes with the statement that one always has need for someone smaller than oneself. Just such lessons for survival are implied in many fabliaux (CXXXII*, XXII*, LXII, LXXXI, CIX*, CXXXIII*, etc.). However, no real thematic similarities occur. Generally speaking, there exist three points of coincidence between the fabliau and the fable. Both have a common form* prologue, narrative, conclusion. Yet what medieval work does not correspond to this pattern? It seems to be the natural response to the problems of oral recitation. Furthermore, the structure of both fable and fabliau involves a basic situation followed by 40Ibid., p. 59. 41Ibid.. p. 23. 97 one or more complications which are resolved to the detri ment of one of the characters. However, let us remember that if we place the exemplum within the context of the sermon which contained it, it too would resemble the fable in both form and structure. Finally, Aesop's fables, but not Marie's, have some attitudes in common with the fabliau. The differences between the fable and the fabliau are evident. As we have already seen, the fabliau and Marie's fables, at least, share only a few themes and motifs, and most of these are present in Jacques de Vitry or in world folklore. Furthermore, the fabliau author develops his tale by means of dialogue and descrip tion while the fable presents little more than a plot outline. Although the fabliau is probably etymologically related to the fable, we cannot call it physically a degeneration thereof, at least not on the basis of the foregoing analysis. Any absolute conclusions must necessarily be founded on an exhaustive study of the medieval Latin fabulists together with a consideration of the chronological development of the fabliau. The first is not possible within the confines of this paper and the second may not be possible at all. It is certain that the task of finding the fabliau's ancestors is an almost impossible one. Thematic similarities often occur 98 in the most disparate medieval works. Therefore, thematic similarities alone cannot provide sufficient proof of a common origin. Furthermore, the fabliau's proclivity for parody tends to establish many diverse forms as possible ancestors. Among these are dits. lais, and miracles, as well as exempla and fables. The primary reason for assuming that the fabliau is a degeneration of the fable is that both have a moral or proverbial conclusion. We have already seen that the fabliau's ending seldom includes a true moral. It al most never points out a general truth, but concludes humorously a specific circumstance taken, supposedly, from daily life. Therefore, if it is a degeneration of the fable, the fabliau must have lost its didactic intent very early. In any case, its very presence must be noted, for seventy works in the Recueil g§n€ral contain a pseudo moral conclusion. This fact, of course, does not con stitute proof of relationship between the two forms. Morals and proverbs are forceful and succinct conclusions and lend themselves naturally to short narrative litera ture, especially those works intended for recitation. However, one fact is sure, the fabliaux are the only medieval works to make extensive use of them. For the present, let us conclude that the fabliau remains a unique blend of folktale subjects, grafted, to be sure, on a fable or exemplum structure, sometimes with 99 an attendant moral, but developed using dialogue and the dramatic techniques of oral recitation, and giving proof of a pagan morality which may have some relationship to the fable, but this relationship has yet to be proven. We have seen that in external structure, purpose, and tone a fable and an exemplum are closely associated, while neither can become a fabliau without profound re vision. However, the terms exemplum. fabula, and fabliau remain vague and often overlapping. As an attempt at clar ifying this situation, let us consider briefly the Contes moralis§s of Nicole Bozon.43 The Contes are descriptions of animals, plants, or stones. From each, Bozon draws a moral lesson by relating a fable or an anecdote. These fables and anecdotes re semble exempla and are called such as well as "aventures," "faits," and”contes." Although two of the contes pre sent themes found in Jacques de Vitry and the fabliaux,43 we shall not make a detailed study of them here. Their late date of composition assures us that these works exercised no influence on the fabliaux. 4%icole Bozon was a Franciscan friar from the north of England. The Contes were composed after 1320. For a complete study see* Nicole Bozon, Contes moralises„ eds. Lucy Tomlin Smith and Paul Meyer, SATF (Paris* Didot 1889). 43Fabliaux CXXXV, LXXIV and Jacques de Vitry’s Exempla 112, 44. 100 The importance of Bozon's Contes lies rather in the terminology used to describe them in the Gray's Inn manuscript (ca. 1350). The copyist precedes each exemplum by the title "fabula ad idem" or "narratio ad idem." While he was making an obvious attempt to divide exempla into fabula and narratio, he certainly did not have in mind a distinction between beast fables and stories, for of the forty-two fabula ad idem, sixteen are not beast fables and one of the twenty-four narratio ad idem involves ani mals. In fact, he calls an exemplum a fabula and a fabula a narratio with such ease that it seems evident that by the middle of the fourteenth century there was no clear- cut distinction among the three words. Probably no such distinction existed even earlier, for the person who translated the Disciplina clerlcalis into verse, under the title Chastoiement d'un pgre a son fils (early thirteenth century), assigns the name fabliaux to the very stories which Petrus Alfonsi clearly designated as exempla.44 Therefore, it seems evident that the Latin word fabula, like the word exemplum. has a specific and a general meaning. It may refer to a moral verse or prose tale in the manner of Aesop or to an invented story of non-tragic nature.4^ 44Jodogne, p. 1053. late thirteenth-century collection of Latin apologues entitled Fabulae Extravacrantes has little rela tion to the fable. The stories therein are long and 101 Another short didactic form, itself perhaps a derivative of the exemplum or of the saint*s life, is the moral tale. It usually relates a person's misdeed, his subsequent reform through suffering or gradual transforma tion of thought, and his final redemption. The most fa mous moral tale is probably "Le Chevalier au barillet" by an anonymous author of the thirteenth century.46 We shall use it here as an example of the type. The tale begins by a description of the sins of a wealthy nobleman who murders, steals, and blasphemes daily. One Good Friday his knights, shocked by his desire to eat meat, induce him to accompany them in a visit to a saintly hermit. Although the hermit forces him to confess his faults, the nobleman steadfastly refuses to accept all suggested means of penitence. He does finally promise to fill the hermit's water barrel at the nearby stream and to return it only when he shall have filled it. No water enters the barrel. Suffering physical torture, humiliation, and the hatred of others, and always hating and scorning his fellowmen, he totally lacking in moral intent. While a moral is an nounced in a few lines at the beginning, it is nothing more than a pretext for the following tale. Nor do they seem related to the fabliaux, but are probably inspired by the Roman de Renart. See John Flinn, Le Roman de Renart (Torontoi University of Toronto Press, 1963), pp. 514-27. 46Le Chevalier au barisel, ed. F§lix Lecoy, CFMA (Parisi Champion, 1956) . 102 journeys afar in an attempt to fill the barrel. His travels take him throughout the world only to return to the hermit on Good Friday one year later, his barrel still empty. Horrified at this hardness of heart, the hermit implores God to accept the nobleman's soul into heaven in lieu of his own. Touched by this unselfish love, the nobleman sheds a tear which fills the barrel and his soul is welcomed into paradise. This pathetic tale seems widely removed from the fabliaux, yet two fabliaux closely resemble moral tales. The first of these is the"Pleine bourse de sens" (LXVII*). A merchant named Renier who is married to a good and beautiful woman keeps a mistress in the nearby city and spends all his money on her. This grieves the wife and she reproaches him for his misconduct. Angrily, he leaves to visit his mistress. The next morning, as he departs on a trip, he asks his wife what she would like as a gift. She responds* Forsseul plaine borse de sen; Mes s'il vous plest, aportez m'en Plaine une borse de deniers. He sets out, sells his goods in the market and, ready to return home, buys a dress for his mistress. He then re members his wife's request and inquires where he may find a "bag of money" to buy. After two unsuccessful attempts, Renier encounters an old merchant from Galicia. The old man, understanding the play on words and realizing that 103 Renier believes ’ ’sens" to be a type of coin, asks him if he has a wife and a mistress. He then advises Renier to return home and before visiting his mistress and wife to take off his fine clothes, leave behind his goods, and declare himself a pauper. He does so and is rejected by the mistress, but welcomed joyfully by the wife. Thus the prodigal is brought back to the path of virtue by the patience and wisdom of a loving wife. It is evident that the structure of this fabliau closely resembles that of the moral tale. First Renier*s sins are evidenced by the quarrel on the eve of his de parture and his visit to the mistress. He proceeds on his trip sure of himself until he meets the old merchant who corresponds to the hermit of the moral tale. This old merchant sends Renier forth on an errand of self- discovery. The ideas of punishment and repentance are implicit in the old man's statement! Honiz es, se ni te porpensses Que je te voudrai conseillieri Sanz toi mout forment traveillier. Through his newly found "good sense," Renier*s life changes from one of material self-seeking to one based on love and fidelity and more spiritual values. This transformation is symbolized by the change in meaning of "sens" from "money" to "good sense." His joyful reunion with his wife corresponds to the divine pardon of the moral tale and is summed up in the wife's wordss Or avez vous trovi le sen Que vous avoie demand^; Vous l*avez trov§, en non D§. The didactic intent of the fabliau is clear. When Renier is about to buy a rich robe for his mistress, the author prefaces the event by these words* Or oez de sire Renier, Com fu de sens vuis et delivres . . . When the old merchant questions Renier as to whether his amorous activities ever caused his wife pain and Renier admits they have, the author again interpolates* Li preudom commence a sorrire De la folie qu'il entent . . . The concluding moral is long and explicit. It is, in part, as follows* Seignor, vos qui estes de geste, Qui cuers avez legiers et fols, Se vous volez croire mon los, Chascuns de vous i prendra garde. Fox est li horn qui croit musarde ... The second fabliau to resemble the moral tale is "De foie larguece” (CXLVI) by Philippe de Beaumanoir. A husband works hard daily carrying loads of salt on his back from the sea for his wife to sell. However, she gives the salt to each and all and the couple are soon in financial straits. The husband then decides to teach the wife a lesson. He invites her to accompany him on his daily trip to the seashore. She is delighted to leave behind the boredom of her housewifely duties. However, the return trip is laborious and her load heavy. The following morning she is unable to rise and promises to change her ways. She so thoroughly reforms that enough money is saved to buy one horse, then a second. Her husband's life is made easier and her own more in teresting. This fabliau resembles both the exemplum and the moral tale. The author begins by a kind of brief sermon explaining the difference between charity and foolish generosityi De foie larguece casti Tous ciaus qui en sont aati; Car nus ne la puet maintenir Qui en puist a bon cief venir. Je ne blasme pas le donner Ne les bontSs guerredoner; Mais il convient maniere et sens De soi tenir ou droit assens. Par coi on puist le grS avoir Des bons sans perdre son avoir . Li sages larges . . . regarde combien Deux Li a presti de son avoir, Et puis si prent garde au savoir, Et plus au povre que au rice; Car je tieng £ sot et 5 nice Qui avoir a, se larguement N'en depart & la povre gent . . . He then tells his "essample" in the manner of the moral tale. The woman's laziness is contrasted with the hus band's industry. A moment of crisis is reached when the husband proposes that the wife accompany him on his next trip. The journey back comprises the penitence. The wife's apology and subsequent reformation and the couple's resulting affluence provide the repentance and benediction The author concludes with a morali Par ce conte poSs savoir Que fous larghes pert son avoir, Et mout souvent maint tel largece En cuer oiseus, plain de perece. The above works closely resemble the moral tale in tone, intent, and structure. They contain no licenti ous elements although the occasion for such is present in both. They are totally serious in nature with no comic or jesting overtones. Each includes the theme of moral transformation! the first according to a Christian ethic and the second for purely economic considerations which are supported by Biblical reference. Each trans formation is described in four phasest misdeed, punish ment, repentance, blessing. Yet the resemblance to the moral tale is not complete, for the religious and doctrinal aspects as sociated therewith are totally absent. It is true that fidelity in marriage is a religious concept and that Philippe de Beaumanoir cites Biblical authority. None theless, both works show proof of that practical wisdom and common sense we have already discovered as a prin ciple characteristic of the fabliaux. To be sure, Renier should not deceive his wife because it is morally wrong, but also because he is making a fool of himself. The wife should not give away the salt because her husband works hard for it, but also because by so doing they will 107 not be respected by their neighbors. The classification of works such as these pre sents one of the major problems in fabliau studies. Per Nykrog excludes the "Pleine bourse de sens" from the genre, in spite of its designation as an attested fabliau, because of its similarity to the moral tale. However, he retains "De foie larguece" feeling that it has "une teinte d*ironie et de comique.Omer Jodogne rejects the latter, but retains the former simply because it is an attested fabliau.^8 Jean Rychner also retains the "Pleine bourse de sens" saying* "M. Nykrog se donne done l'air de savoir mieux ce qu'est un fabliau que 1*auteur de la •Pleine bourse de sens.* " He further states that this piece, which he admits resembles the moral tale, may be closer to the origins of the fabliau. Consequently, he views the fabliau as a work originally intended to convey a moral l e s s o n . However, the fact remains that all nomenclature aside, the "Pleine bourse de sens" has much more in common with the moral tale than with the fabliau. Moreover, whether it presents a primitive form of the fabliau has not yet been proven and does not alter the ^ R y c h n e r , "Les Fabliaux," p. 45. (Quoted from Nykrog, p. 17.) 48jodogne, pp. 1048 and 1053. ^Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 45. 108 fact that it, like the "Foie larguece," is totally tinlike other fabliaux in tone, structure, and content. Let us now consider one last short didactic form, the miracle. The most famous and extensive collection was made by Gautier de Coinci after 1223. However, his sources were mainly twelfth century. The external struc ture of a miracle somewhat resembles that of the fabliau, for it contains a prologue or plea for silence, a tale which culminates in the miracle, and a conclusion. How ever, the miracle adds, following the conclusion, an ex hortation to serve the Virgin. Although called "miracles," the actual miracle comprises an insignificant portion of the whole work, at most only one-fourth. The subjects are far from religious and involve seduction, rape, mur der, kidnapping, and incest. Yet surprisingly enough, the miracles of Gautier de Coinci contain no real fabliaux.50 In treatment, purpose, and tone the fabliau is the antithesis of the miracle. The miracle deals with the most serious of crimes in no way seeking to minimize their gravity. In contrast, the fabliau tends to avoid really serious offenses, such as incest and murder. If 50See Nykrog, pp. 15-16 for a study of one miracle which he feels has a fabliau-type theme. 109 murder is involved, it is treated in a comic or unreal vein and the surrounding events, not the murder itself, are emphasized. In the miracle, the characters possess an underlying moral consciousness. Repentance is al ways at the forefront and all action tends toward the moment of miraculous intervention. The psychology of fabliau characters is always kept at a minimum and, far from repenting of their actions, they rather seek means to continue them. The miracle emphasizes the change in a character's personality through great suffering. The fabliau notes no such change. Finally, the tone of a miracle is entirely serious, never humorous; always hope ful, never cynical; always uplifting, never pessimistic. While the fabliau evidently had no real influ ence on the miracle, the miracle apparently had a nega tive effect on the fabliau. Three fabliaux seem to be inverted miracles. The first of these is "Du vilain qui conquist paradis par plait" (LXXXI), already discussed in relation to Jacques de Vitry*s Exemplum 133. Instead of repenting, the peasant points out others* errors and his own virtues and produces his own miracle, acceptance into heaven. Another is "De saint Piere et du jougleur" (CXVII) which relates how a reciter is left in charge of hell by the devil and how he loses all the souls to Saint Peter in a card game. The devil then expells him and tells him to go seek refuge in heaven. In the third, "Le 110 Pet au vilain" (VIII), a peasant dies after partaking of a huge meal and breaks wind on his way to hell. The devils say he smells too bad and send him to heaven. In the last two examples, persons who presumably deserved to go to hell end up in heaven by means of their own actions. Neither involves repentance. The characters simply make full use of their sins; gambling and gluttony. Their subsequent success seems to ridicule the basic concept of the miracle. Another fabliau. "Martin Hapart" (XLV), resem bles the miracle in structure as well as content and may possibly be a parody. A citizen of Avranches is noted for his high living, avarice, and lack of piety. His wife is devoted to Saint Michael. She finally persuades her husband to go on a pilgrimage to Mont St-Michel and to offer the saint a "maille" (a coin of little value). He goes, but fails to leave the money and dies on the way home. While burying him, the gravedigger unwittingly lets his own purse fall in the grave. He runs to the authori ties declaring that Martin snatched it. The grave is searched and the gravedigger's purse found along with the "maille." Saint Michael is touched, intercedes, and sends Martin to heaven. Here the essential characteris tics of the miracle are lacking or deformed. Martin goes on the pilgrimage to silence his wife, not through any deep-seated repentance. The pilgrimage he undertakes Ill (from Avranches to Mont St-Michel) is neither long nor hazardous. When he arrives, he fails to give his offer ing. The miracle is not occasioned by the supernatural, but is the result of the thoroughly comic graveyard scene. Saint Michael then grants the pardon through sheer error. These events, prefaced by an exhortation to give alms which are never given and concluded by a prayer for sal vation which is the result of an error, constitute a work which is scarcely pious. Rather, it betrays the humorous and sceptical view of life prevalent in the fabliaux. 2. The ”chansons de creste" Although this study is confined to narrative liter ature of a length similar to that of the fabliau, a com parison of the latter with the chanson de geste is not irrelevant. Both forms emanate from a common source, that is, from a universal penchant for story telling. Furthermore, whether or not one fully accepts the theory of lost primal material, fragmentations of which circu lated orally and were collected into cycles, there seems to be general agreement that the extant chansons de geste are collections of episodes rather than single works. The Chanson de Roland is composed of four partst the treason, the battle, the Baligant episode, and the punishment. Raoul de Cambrai is comprised of three separate stories put end to end. The Chanson de Guillaume evidences 112 popular intrusions and a not too able soldering of di vergent elements. It is further evident that the chansons de geste present an essentially limited subject matter. A few narrative themes such as the great battle or the hero’s death are constantly reiterated. These themes may them selves be divided into smaller segments. For example* the battles consist of a number of singular combats each with its beginning, middle and end. An excellent ex ample of this is Gormont et Isembart which, although only a fragment, really comprises a complete unit. Let us now study to what degree the material contained in the chanson de geste is similar to that found in the fabliaux. It can be immediately stated that the existing chansons de geste contain no specific fabliau themes or motifs. However, in Aiol mention is made of a lost chanson de geste called A u d i q i e r Apparently it was a comic and obscene parody which was shocking even to medi eval tastes. Therefore, it may have been in the tradition of the fabliaux and possibly contained some of their themes. We have seen that the spirit of the fabliaux is present in the subject matter, characterization, and tone 53-Aiol, eds. Jacques Normand and Gaston Raynaud, SATF (Paris* Firmin, 1877), 11. 953 and 992. 113 of the Voyage de Charlemagne (ca. 1130). Charlemagne and his knights journey to Jerusalem like a troupe of minstrels on holiday. Olivier behaves thoroughly like a fabliau lover and the entire atmosphere is one of irreverent gaiety. Further evidences of popular tradition appear in chansons de geste throughout the twelfth and thir teenth centuries, usually in the form of comic incidents or characters. Several humorous episodes exist in the Chanson de Guillaume. In the opening laisses, Estormi and Tedbald take flight through a flock of sheep and under a gallows. Their mishaps are reminiscent of the confusion heaped on unsympathetic characters in the fabliaux (XXIV, CXVI). Other comic scenes are occasioned by Rainoart the kitchen boy. However, his giantism renders him unlike fabliau characters. Guillaume and Guibourc are in some ways similar to fabliau couples. Guibourc, like fabliau women, has a mind of her own and manages to have her way. She permits young Gui to go into battle against her hus band's orders and later refuses Guillaume entrance to the castle until he has identified himself. However, she is never portrayed as superior to her husband, as are fabliau wives, and is always respected.^2 52La Chanson de Guillaume, ed. Duncan McMillan, SATF (Parisi Picard, 1948), 11. 328 ff., 1505 ff., 2307 ff., 2695 ff. 114 Other characters with personalities similar to those found in the fabliaux are present in Aiol and Avmeri de Narbonne. In the latter, Ernaut de Gironde is very much like the fabliau clerict m £s toz ses diz torna a fausetS Car dist ce, voiant tot son barn€, Que fame rouse n*avroit en son ai; Puis en ot une, ainz lone terme passS, Qu*il n*ot plus laide en une grant cit§; D’un pie clochoit, s'ot .i. oil avuglS, Si estoit rouse, et il rous, par vertS. Et apres s'est d*autre chose vent^i Qu*il ne fuiroit d'estor por homme n£, Puis 1'enchaucierent Sarrazin desfa€ Granz .iiii. liues jusque dedanz . i. gr& Et neporqant s'iert il de grant bontS.53 Bold, talkative, a joker, and a liar, he is still a good fellow. In Aiol, when the hero enters Orleans he is pur sued by a crowd of "lecheors," "pautonners,” and "ecu- yers."**4 In the lead is the bourgeois Hageneu and his wife Hersent who are reminiscent of the ill-assorted pairs of the fabliau such as Hain and Anieuse (VI*) and the mother in "La Dame escolliSe" (CXLIX*). A similar situation exists in the Charroi de Nimes. The hero Guillaume, disguised as a merchant, is forced to endure the jibes of a crowd of spectators.55 53Aymeri de Narbonne, ed. Louis Demaison, SATF (Parist Firmiri, 1867), 11, 4549 ff. 54 11. 2579 ff. 55Le Charroi de Nimes, ed. J. L. Perrier, CFMA (Parisi Champion, 1966), 11. 1205-1386. 115 The chanson de creste apparently had a slight effect on the fabliau. One fabliau. "D'une seule fame qui ser- voit .c. chevaliers de tous points" (XXVI), has an epic setting. An army fighting the pagans in a foreign land has two women to serve its needs. However, one is jealous of the other and, while the army is away, she induces one of two wounded knights remaining in the castle to kill the other woman as the price for her favors. Although the theme of women's lasciviousness is basic to the fabliau, in this case, it is devoid of the usual humor. Furthermore, there is a strain of barbarism throughout this work that is foreign to the fabliau. The fabliaux also contain several mock-heroic bat tles which seem to parody the chanson de creste. One is found in the mel£e at the conclusion of "Boivin de Provins" (CXVI*)* Lors vel'ssiez cheveux tirer, Tisons voler, draps deschirer, Et l'un desouz 1*autre che£rj Li marcheant corent veir Ceux qui orent rouge testSe, Que mout i ot dure meslSe . . . However, the best example of an epic combat is found in "De sire Hain et de dame Anieuse" (VI*) of which the battle occupies the major portion. Deciding once and for all to put his wife in her place, Hain puts his pants in the middle of the1 , courtyard and calls two neighbors to witness the couple's struggle to gain possession of them. 116 The fight begins with threats and continues punctuated by insults. The blows are epici Quar sire Hains sa fame ataint Si grant cop que trestout li taint Le cuir, sor le sorcil, en pers Hains fiert sa fame enmi les denz Tel cop que la bouche dedenz Li a toute emplie de sane Delez l'oreille l*acosta Que toute sa force i emploie. A sire Hains l'eschine ploie, Quar del grant cop moult se detort . . . Anieuse finally falls back in the basket and admits defeat. Despite the presence of some similar characters, situations, and attitudes the fabliau and chanson de geste seem to have had no substantial influence upon one an other. Comic episodes in the chansons de geste seem to be concessions to popular humor rather than evidence of borrowings from identifiable sources. On the other hand, the fabliau authors, as was their custom, found elements in the chansons de geste which invited parody. Essentially the fabliau and the chanson de geste represent two entirely different world views. The latter pictures the earth as the scene of an apocalyptic strug gle between the armies of good and evil. Good does not immediately triumph, but shall ultimately, and man must always play the game nobly. The chanson de geste mag nifies man and the human condition. In contrast, the fabliau sees the world as a microcosm of conflicting 117 personalities in which man must make his way by his wits. It does not matter how he plays the game as long as he wins. It concentrates on the trivial and the humorous elements in human affairs. The fabliau and the dhanson de geste differ also in their view of man. The epic hero is larger than life. He is an individual who, though beset by human flaws and overwhelming odds, retains a tragic nobility even in de feat. He is a colossus of energy and strength. The fabliau presents man’s grosser aspects. It sees him as often petty, cruel, crafty, or jealous. He is bold only when the odds are in his favor. He is great only in his capacity for physical enjoyment. These opposing views of man often co-exist in the chanson de geste, never in the fabliau. 3. Courtly Literature Like the chanson de geste. the courtly romance is constructed of a series of adventures each of a length comparable to that of a fabliau. It is not an exaggera tion to classify these adventures as short narrative literature. Consider, for example, the “Saut de la chapelle" and"Folie Tristan” episodes in Tristan et Iseut or the "Joie de la cour" and ‘ 'Chateau de Pesme-Aventure” selections from ChrStien de Troyes. Each is a complete tale and can exist apart. Moreover, the romances owe 118 much to oral tradition. Therefore, one would expect to find in them themes, motifs, and even characters similar to those contained in the fabliaux. As the basis of our comparative study we have chosen Tristan et Iseut because of its closeness to oral sources and the works of Chretien de Troyes which are contemporary with the development of the fabliau. Surprisingly enough, thematic similarities are few. The orchard trysting place motif in Tristan et Iseut is present in fabliaux VIII, XXV, L, C*, CXXXVII. The lovers' night of bliss observed by an enemy is found in fabliau XLVII.56 However, the romance treats this ma terial in an entirely different manner. Only vague simi larities are apparent in characterization. The wicked dwarf somewhat resembles the jealous humpback found in the fabliau "Des .iii. bocus" (II*) and King Marc's be havior occasionally verges on that of the cuckold husband, but neither resemblance is sufficiently pronounced to constitute proof of influence. Although ChrStien de Troyes occasionally includes in his works a rustic or a person with some humorous quality of manner or appear ance, none of these has a corresponding type in the fabliaux. Even if one subscribes to the theory that 56B£roul, 11. 643 ff. 119 Percival is a parody of the courtly ideal, the main char acter cannot be considered a fabliau type. Furthermore, the romances, especially those of ChrStien de Troyes, possess an inspiration, purpose, and method totally different from the fabliaux. While the latter remain generally within the realm of recognizable reality, the romance finds its subjects in myth and the supernatural. This fanciful material is then used, es pecially by ChrStien, to show man's progress towards an ideal. The fabliau has no guiding theme and usually ridicules idealism. The romance traces man's progress by means of psychological analysis, while the fabliau is exclusively concerned with actions, never thoughts. Finally the romance, despite a few humorous moments, is entirely serious in intent. In view of the negligible number of similar themes to be found in the above works and the very obvi ous differences in outlook expressed in the fabliau and the courtly romance, we shall not make a detailed com parison here. We shall rather turn our attention to another courtly form, the lai. Similar to the romance in that it evidences a mixture of Celtic myth and courtly ideals with moral and psychological overtones, the lai has a length comparable to that of the fabliau. Since its relationship to the latter is not only complex, but of some significance it must here be studied in detail. We 120 shall begin our study by a consideration of the history and nature of the lai, then proceed to study its influence on the fabliau, and finally attempt to determine what constitutes the difference between the two forms. Ernest Hoepffner has defined the lai as follows* Le lai se distingue du roman courtois, dont il est le plus proche parent, par sa bridvetS. Tandis que le roman s'Stend sur plusieurs milliers de vers, le lai ne dSpasse guSre le nombre de mille versj il se tient dans tine moyenne de 400 a 600 vers. Aussi bien il est rSduit en regie gSnSrale 5 un seul Spisode qu*il ra- conte "par bref sermon" (Marie de France, Milon v. 6) tandis que le roman rSunit au contraire autour de son h€ros des aventures diverses et nombreuses, dont 1* en semble lui fait line espSce de biographie poStique. Bref, le lai est par rapport au roman dans le do- maine de la littSrature courtoise, ce qu’est aujourd* *hui encore au roman la nouvelle, la short story.57 The term "lai" was first used by Marie de France. It de rives from the Celtic word "laid" meaning "song" and was originally applied to musical compositions, perhaps with out words, which were associated with some extraordinary event whose memory they were purported to transmit to posterity.58 Marie was always careful to call the stories 3he composed "contes" and to distinguish them from her inspiration, the lai.58 Therefore it is important to keep 57Emest Hoepffner, Les Lais de Marie de France (Paris* Nizet, 1959), p. 48. 58Ibid., pp. 38-48. S^Martln de Riquer, "La 'aventure,* el *lai' y el 'conte* en Maria de Francia," RP, II, no. 5 (1955), 1-19. 121 in mind the progression aventure or basic happening, lai or musical commemoration, conte or written poetic narra tive based on the lai, but personalized by the author. After Marie, the word lai designated simply the type of story she had created. To Jean Renart and Huon le Roi, a lai was most definitely a poetic narrative. Therefore, Jean Frappier proposes the following definition! "On dSsigne par le terme de lai des contes ou des nouvelles en vers de huit syllabes a rimes plates sur des sujets varies, mais dans l'ensemble fSeriques et courtois."60 On the basis of the above definition it would seem that the fabliau is as different from the lai as it is from the courtly Breton romance. Yet Jean Frappier has also stated! "On constate entre les deux genres le fabliau et le lai un parallglisme et une antithdse a la fois.”61 Bgdier ignored the parallelism and explained the antithesis on the basis of the fabliau's "bourgeois" na ture. 6 ^ He viewed the underlying thought as incompatible with the courtly ideal. Yet Per Nykrog has linked the 60Jean Frappier, "Remarques sur la structure du laij essai de definition et de classement," La Litterature narrative d'imagination! Collogue International de Stras bourg^ 1959 (Paris! P. U. F., 1961), p. 25. 61Frappier, p. 24. 62B£dier, Les Fabliauxi etudes de littgrature populaire . . ., p. 368. 122 fabliau to the courtly ideal in the sense that it is a caricature of it to the detriment of the commoner.63 Jean Frappier has summed up the question accurately in the following statement! "Sans trop cSder au paradoxe, on peut estimer que les deux genres, lai et fabliau, ont coexists, non pas en symbiose, raais dans une sorte de contrepoint esthStique et moral.omer Jodogne has re cently pointed out that a definition of the nature of the fabliau is dependent on an understanding of its similarity to and difference from the lai.6- * It is with this thought in mind that we shall study some examples of the two forms. We shall begin by a consideration of the respective struc tures and themes of the lai and the fabliau, proceed to a study of their influence upon one another, and conclude by defining their basic difference in attitude. Marie de France's "Lanval" offers a perfect ex ample of the Breton lai. A lone knight from a foreign land is overlooked by King Arthur in the distribution of rewards. Disappointed, he leaves the court and comes to a meadow with a flowing stream. Lying there contemplating his misfortunes, he sees two fairies approaching. They 63Nykrog, pp. 16 ff. 64Frappier, p. 25. 65Jodogne, p. 1043. lead him to their queen who treats him royally and offers to come to him whenever he likes on condition that he keep their love a secret. He returns to court where he rejects the advances of Queen Guenevere. Angrily, she insults his manhood and he, unthinkingly, retorts that he loves a lady who is so beautiful that even her servants are more lovely than Guenevere. The queen complains to her husband and Lanval is forced to stand trial. However, the other knights obtain a delay in the hope that Lanval will pro duce his lady. This he cannot do. Angered because he has betrayed their secret, she refuses to answer his call. When the delay is almost over, the two fairies appear one by one followed by the lady herself. Refusing to speak or even to look at Lanval, she explains the situation. As she leaves, Lanval finally takes the initiative, leaps on the back of her horse, and they ride away together to Avalon. In this tale, the three basic elements of the lai are ably fused* the real world, the supernatural world, and the connecting adventure. The real world is com posed of King Arthur's court with its attendant miseries* Lanval's loneliness and his lack of recognition, later his quarrel with the queen and trial. This world is not satisfactory to Lanval and he yearns for, then actively seeks, another. This other world of happiness and love offered by the fairy is enjoyed as long as the hero keeps 124 his promise, and it is implied in the flight of the couple to Avalon. There is here an obvious agreement between the demands of the supernatural world and those of the courtly tradition of "fine amors"i submission, fidelity, secrecy. The two worlds meet in the meadow where they are separated by a humid barrier, the river. This is the scene of the "aventure" or meeting of Lanval and representatives of the supernatural world. The lai*s structure corresponds to this content. First the action takes place within the real world. The hero, by his desire to be other than the common run of men, wanders from the real world and encounters the ad venture. Jean Frappier explains the importance of the adventure as followsi Certes 1'Smerveilleraent courtois reste psychologique et moral, raais c'est aussi une fSerie, et dans cette fSerie peut encore s * insurer le motif de 1*adventure, d'une aventure devenue intSrieure, mais toujours marquee par un signe concret, rare, Strange, hors de l'ordre commun, un acte, un geste, un mot, qui rSvSle la haute qualitS d'un etre ou traduit la chance mSritSe d'un destin exceptionnel. C'est £ mon avis, cet SlSment d'aventure, de merveille et de singularitS qui assure en dSpit de ses transformations une con- tinuitS entre les diffSrentes variStSs de lais . . . et qui constitue le caractSre dSterminant ou le trait le plus distinctif de ce genre littSraire.®6 Therefore, the adventure comprises the passage from the logical and limited human plane, through a period of 66Frappier, pp. 31-32. 125 psychological analysis, to a superior and unlimited super natural plane. From the moment of the adventure, the lai moves in an ascending path towards the conclusion which is happy and wherein love triumphs and a future of eternal bliss is promised. The hero is transported into the supernatural world and time is abolished. Frappier says* ”Ce denouement 'ouvert' me parait appartenir a la tradi tion la plus authentique du lai."67 The lai then has three major structural characteristics* the action evolv ing on two planes, the adventure which is psychological, yet marked by a concrete sign, and the "open" ending. Yet a lai does not necessarily possess the Breton supernatural elements. Let us now consider a courtly lai which presents the same structure. The "Lai de 1*ombre" of Jean Renart is the story of the amourous conquest of a married woman by a knight versed in all the subtleties of courtly love. Once again there are two different planes of action* the real world and the ideal world of love. These are linked by the adventure which, in this case, has lost its supernatural quality. It is nothing more than a subtle love thought symbolized by the ring thrown at the lady's reflection in the water. By it, the hero passes from the real world to the happiness of an ideal 67Ibid.. p. 32. 126 love and acceptance by his mistress. The ending is, there fore, "open."68 Two attested fabliaux evidence similar structures. The first of these is "Guillaume au faucon" (XXXV*) which has the same theme as the "Lai de 1'ombre." For seven years, a young man has loved the wife of the knight he serves. The husband goes away to war and the young man declares his passion. When the wife rejects his advances, he refuses all nourishment. The returning husband in sists upon an explanation of this fast. The wife threatens to reveal all if the suitor does not eat, but he holds firm to the end. Taking pity on him, she tells her hus band that the young man wants his "faucon" and that she refuses to give it. The husband authorizes her to satisfy the young man and she then grants him her favors. All of the structural elements of the lai are here, but with what a difference1 The real world and the ideal world of love linked by the adventure, as evidenced by the lover*s fast and his bravery, are in perfect accord with the lai. The lovers are united, as in the "Lai de 1'ombre," in a happy and "open" ending. However, despite these structural similarities, we cannot agree with Jean Rychner that "Guillaume au faucon" is a courtly lai.68 68Jean Renart, Le Lai de 1*ombre, ed. Joseph BSdier, SATF (Paris* Picard, 1913). 68Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 46. See also Nykrog, p. 17 and Jodogne, p. 1044. 127 The elevated tone, far from remaining constant as in the lai, suddenly collapses with the wife's obscene play on words. The husband's role becomes ridiculous for he ac tually authorizes his wife's infidelity. Love itself falls from the sublimity of the courtly concept to triviality and bestiality. It is not an exaggeration to say that "Guillaume au faucon" is a parody of the courtly lai. After all the preliminary protestations, fastings, re fusals, and coquetry the real focal point is the sexual experience revealed in the wife's pun. The husband is heaped with ridicule as a consequence. Furthermore, the psychological development so prevalent in the lai is totally absent. The second fabliau with the structure of a lai is the "Chevalier qui recovra l'amor de sa dame" (CLI*). A knight will be loved by his lady if he defeats her husband at the tournament. He does so and the tournament ends sadly with the accidental death of another knight. The knight goes to meet his lady and, tired and bruised, he falls asleep. Infuriated at finding him asleep, the lady returns to her husband's bed and sends a servant to inform the knight that she never wants to see him again. He then enters the lady's chamber fully armed and demands her forgiveness, saying that he is the knight killed in the tournament. The husband asks naively how he had of fended the wife, but receives no reply. He then advises 128 his wife to forgive the knight, unwittingly authorizing her infidelity. In this fabliau, two adventures, one of prowess and the other of courage, finally unite the happy lovers. By his submission to his lady's will, the lover fulfills the obligation of courtly love. Although the structure closely parallels that of the lai and the content is in the tradition of courtly love, this tale is not a lai. The appearance of the knight in the bed chamber is comic, as are the husband’s surprise and gullibility. These are in the domain of the fabliau. Therefore, a tale may have a courtly theme and the structure of a lai and still be a fabliau. It is a question of moral attitude. As Jodogne expresses it so aptlyt ". . .la dfigringolade, la chute ^ plat dans le trivial” is the essential property of the fabliau.70 Yet it is true that the vast majority of fabliaux differ structurally from the lai in the same way as from the moral tale or saint's life. In the two latter forms, as in the lai, two worlds are present. A crisis of con science connects them and leads, through a series of sufferings, to a final triumph which constitutes an "open” ending with infinite future possibilities for the hero. The lai, of course, lacks the moral tale's religious and 70jodogne, p. 1045. 129 doctrinal bias. However, it would seem that the parallel structures of the lai, moral tale, and saint's life are not pure coincidence. In the consciousness of people in the high Middle Ages, even before the constitution of the lai as a literary genre, the word "advenire" or "aven ture" was linked to the second coming of Christ.Thus the entry of the other world on earth is suggested. Man's progression towards perfection on a spiritual, moral, or purely human level seems to be at the root of the lai as well as of the moral tale and saint's life. The fabliau takes just the opposite view. It tends to point out the defects in human nature and either to ob serve a character's decline or preserve the status quo. In this respect, the fabliau's structure closely parallels that of the exemplum and fable. However, as we have seen, these forms lack the fabliau's development. The "Pr€ tondu" whether told by Jacques de Vitry, Marie de France, or the fabliau author depicts the destruction of the character} what might be termed a "closed" ending. The various exempla and fables involving women's tricks are examples of the preservation of the status quo. "Le Cuvier" (IX*) will serve as an illustration. Her husband ^Elena Eberwein, Zur Deutung mittelalterlicher Existenz, Kolner Romanistsche Arbeiten, Bd. 7 (Bonn und Koln, 1933); also Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 39. (Com ment by M. Imbs.) absent, a ■woman bathes with a cleric. Suddenly the hus band and three other merchants arrive. Hurriedly the wife pours out the water, turns over the tub, and goes to meet her husband. The cleric hides tinder the tub. The hus band enters, throws a cloth over it, and demands food. Just then the neighbor's servant presents herself and asks for her tub to be returned. To the husband's amaze ment, the wife refuses. However, the neighbor understands the refusal and tells her servant to shout "fire." Upon hearing the cry, the four merchants run into the street and the wife frees the cleric. The action of this fabliau takes place on a single plane, that of daily experience. The wifer's infidelity is already known to all except the husband. The action proceeds through a series of crises each putting the cleric in greater danger and showing him as less able to help himself. At the same time the wife is called upon to display all her wits. The ending we might call "stationary.” It leaves the characters where they have always been, the wife unfaithful, the husband a dupe. The only improvement evidenced is the wife's greater dexterity in deception which is purely negative morally speaking. We have seen that the fabliau can have the struc ture of a lai and still remain a fabliau. On the other hand, the lai is not an absolutely pure form, even at its origins, and may contain elements of the fabliau. Let us 131 examine two lais of Marie de France which betray some relationship to the fabliau. The first of these is "Bisclavret. A man is frequently transformed into a werewolf. Before the change, he removes his clothing and can only resume the appearance of a man by donning them again. His wife discovers his secret, steals the clothes, and is thus free to marry a neighbor. While hunting one day, the king encounters the werewolf. The latter demon strates such respect and affection that he is taken to court as a pet. During a festival, the animal attacks his former wife and her new husband. Later, the king takes lodging with the couple during a hunt and the were wolf bites off the woman's nose. The king requires an explanation and she is forced to admit her deed. The wolf is given his clothing whereupon he becomes a knight again. The couple is exiled, but their descendants are known because the women are born noseless. This lai is very different from ''Lanval.” Struc turally, it presents the customary two worlds. However, the supernatural world is never seen as a desirable place. The adventure, rather than producing joy, brings tragedy, for the wife is dismayed by her discovery. The ending restores things approximately as they were rather than opening new vistas of bliss. Finally, the emphasis is placed differently. While Marie de France usually di rects attention onto the character who is ascending and 132 improving himself, here she watches the wife decline right down to the final curse. Present in this lai are two apparent fabliau traits> the wife's behavior and the humorous ending. The wife's disgust for her husband, her slyness in discover ing the hiding place of his clothes, and her treachery in removing them, as well as her rapid remarriage, are the material for a fabliau. The humorous ending in which the wolf bites off the woman's nose is not expected in a lai and is probably a vestige of folk tradition. The final assurance that the women of the family are born noseless is pure fabliau humorous exaggeration. Yet "Bisclavret" is assuredly not a fabliau. Its atmosphere is not that of everyday life, but belongs to the realm of fantasy. Furthermore, Marie takes an in terest in the psychology of her characters that no fabliau author ever did. Finally, the basic attitude is not that found in a fabliau. The familiar triangle is there* wife, husband, lover. However, the wife does not betray her husband for the sheer joy of infidelity. Nor does she do so because it is her nature to be perverse. She is fright ened by something she does not understand and her husband becomes repugnant to her. The husband, far from becoming ridiculous in his plight, actually endears himself to all by his good conduct. Only the lover retains some re semblance to a fabliau character in that he is a mere 133 appendage of the wife. He is dragged down by her mis conduct. To Marie the question is a moral one; the hus band did not deserve the treatment he received, nor was the wife justified in her action. Both receive their rewards. Marie de France's lai "Equitan" has a closer rela tionship to the fabliau. This lai is divided into two parts. In the first, Equitan loves the wife of his sene schal from afar. He goes hunting in the region as a pretext for lodging with the couple. There he sees the lady for the first time and falls hopelessly in love. After a night of indecision, he tells her of his passion. She hesitates to accept him on the grounds that they are not equal. He convinces her by affirming himself completely subjugated to her will. They pledge their loyalty and love each other for some time. However, in the second part, the people urge Equitan to marry. The wife hears rumors, confronts her lover with them, and receives as surance that he would marry her if her husband were dead. She then arranges for her husband to bathe with Equitan and prepares two tubs. The husband's is filled with boil ing water. During the husband's momentary absence, the lovers, unable to wait, come together and are discovered by the husband. To hide his shame, Equitan jumps into the wrong bath and is scalded. Thereupon the husband pushes his wife head first into the boiling water. The tale is 134 one of pure and simple adultery that betrays an underlying brutality. Ernest Hoepffner has called iti " . . . un midiocre fait-divers sans grandeur, qui fournirait plutot matiere a un f a b l i a u . "^2 '•Equitan'* is, in fact, a curious juxtaposition of the courtly ideal and fabliau behavior. The first part is structured as a courtly lai. but there is no supernatural element. Equitan*s ideal world of love meets the real world through his encounter with the lady which com prises the adventure. He passes from the logical plane of action to a superior world of love. This progress is re vealed by psychological analysis leading up to the final passionate avowal. The lovers then arrive together in a world of perfect happiness. The second part is structured as a fabliau. An attempt is made to preserve the status quo, their love, even if to accomplish this the husband must die. It is the woman who invents the trick and attempts to carry it out. The ending here is not "stationary," but "closed" and constitutes a failure. The emphasis is placed on the disintegration, not the rise, of the characters. Furthermore, the second part betrays literary qualities fabliau type. The style is more rapid and less studied. ^Hoepffner, p. 146. 135 Frequently actions, such as the husband’s unexplained ab sence just before the conclusion, are not motivated. Several situations are improbable. Would the husband really enter the tub without testing the water? Why does Equitan jump in the scalding tub and not the temperate one? Finally, "Equitan” is the only one of Marie’s lais to end with a moral in the same manner as many fabliaux. Yet we cannot consider even the second part of "Equitan" a fabliau. The treatment of the husband-wife- lover triangle is in accordance neither with fabliau at titudes nor techniques. The wife and lover are at fault, the husband an innocent victim. The latter is not ridicu lous and is quite capable of taking the initiative when necessary. The wife is not the cunning female of the fabliaux; she is a woman in love capable of anything to preserve her happiness. Furthermore, the characters, in spite of the sketchy nature of their motivation, are real people, not just vehicles of the action. It is for this reason that the ending is not entirely comic. Because we know the lovers and understand their all-absorbing love the conclusion contains a certain pathos. It is her basic concern for people rather than detached bemusement at the human condition that here separates Marie de France from the fabliau. Finally Marie's tale is essentially moral. She disapproves of the lovers the moment they plot the husband's death. She emphasizes this point in her 136 conclusion* Ki bien vodreit reisun entendre Ici pureit ensample prendre; Tel purcace le mal d'autrui Dunt le mals revert sur l u i . ^ 3 This moral is neither ironic nor is it unrelated to the content of the lai as are the conclusions of so many fabliaux. Although obviously unimpressed by the trappings of courtly love, Marie does not demonstrate her disap proval in the same way as a fabliau author, that is, by uproarous humor, irony, or detailed obscenity. The absurdity and unreality of the demands of courtly love certainly inspired some fabliaux. The juxta position of the courtly and mundane is in evidence in the "Chevalier a la robe vermeille” (LVII*). A woman is loved from afar and won by an exemplary knight. The lovers meet during the husband's absence. On one occasion, the lover, even though his visit is in secret, arrives in full regalia. He then wants to go to bed fully clothed, but is told by the lady that such conduct is improper. Inter rupted by the husband's early return, the lover takes refuge under the bed. Up to this point fabliau and courtly elements are comically mingled. The work now be comes a true fabliau. The wife takes charge of the ^Marie de France, "Equitan," in Lais. ed. Jeanne Lods, CFMA (Paris* Champion, 1959), 11. 31.3-16. 137 situation by assuring her husband that the cloak, palfrey, two dogs, and sparrow hawk which composed the lover’s cortege are gifts from her brother. Thereupon the hus band goes to bed and falls asleep. When he awakens, she convinces him it was all a dream and assures him that he is far too proud to accept gifts from her brother. Be having as the typical duped husband he goes on a pil grimage to exhort the devil by which he thinks he is possessed, and the lovers continue to deceive him. This fabliau seems to indicate that, whatever form you may attach to it, love is no more than a sexual need. All attempts to give it dignity are ludicrous. Despite their studied behavior, when danger threatens the knight is still a coward and the woman crafty. Marie de France was both more subtle and more constructive in her criticism. She points out that while the elaborate styl ization of courtly love cannot ennoble sexual experience, love can. It has been said thati "Quelque remaniement que l'on pratique sur un fabliau, celui-ci ne rejoint jamais le lai, meme s’il acquiert un caractSre courtois.”74 Fabliaux XXXV*, LVII*, AND CLI* are certainly proof of this fact. Yet the inverse is also true, namely that a 74Rychner, ”Les Fabliaux,” p. 54. (Comment by M. Imbs.) 138 lai does not become a fabliau because it possesses hu morous elements or structural similarities. As we have observed, the fabliau and the lai may have a common structure. They may even possess a common theme and this courtly. Yet it is in the treatment of this theme that the difference lies. As Pierre le Gentil has saidi Entre les detax genres [le lai et le fabliau] qu'on essaie difficilement de delimiter, il y a un dScalage du plan. l'atmosphdre n'est pas la mSme. Le lai baigne dans 1'optimisme et le merveilleux, tandis que le fabliau prend ses racines dans le r§el. A cet egard, le fabliau est l'envers du lai.75 Let us now consider possible influences of the lai on the fabliau. Two fabliaux are specifically called lais by their authors. The first of these is the "Vair palefroi" (III). Jean Frappier has made the following comment concerning this work* Dans le Vair palefroi. 1'aventure s'accomplit grace a 1*instinct et par la mediation du palefroi qui sait ramener au chevalier son amie. Rien ne choque la vraisemblance et la raison. Mais il n*importe. II subsiste dans ce trait insolite ou cet SvSnement singulier une parentfi avec les merveilles de Bretagne et une valeur structurale du meme o r d r e . 7 6 It is true that the action takes place on two planes* the real world and the ideal world of love. The horse's error 7^Ibid., p. 54. (Comment by Pierre le Gentil.) 76Frappier, p. 34. 139 is in consequence of the lover's assiduity in visiting his love. It is the symbol of his self-improvement. The second fabliau called a lai is "De l'epervier" (CXV). The first part is purely courtly. Two knights love one another devotedly. One marries a beautiful woman and is so jealous he will not allow his friend to see her. Friend and wife fall in love because it is for bidden and meet secretly. This state of affairs con tinues for some time. Part two introduces the fabliau element. One day the lover asks to see the lady in her husband's absence. As she gets ready, she asks a squire to hold the mirror. Taken with her charms, he kisses her and she has just time enough to hide him when the lover arrives. The husband is then heard approaching and to save the situation the lady tells her lover to say* "If you take it again I'll kill you." The husband thinks the lover is threatening him and waits outside as the lover emerges brandishing a sword. The lady then explains to her husband that the squire had stolen a sparrow hawk and she had to hide him to keep the knight from killing him. The squire then leaves his hiding place thinking the lady has saved his life. Actually all three men are deceived. The motif of neighbors falling in love found in this work is common in medieval literature. It appears also in the fabliau "Les .ii. changSors" (XXIII) and in Marie de France's "Laustic." However, its treatment here 140 is entirely within the domain of the fabliau. Although the first part resembles the structure of the lai, the second presents a "stationary" fabliau conclusion follow ing the typical series of crises. The characters are not interesting as people, but as vehicles for the triple de ception. The woman is pictured as a sly coquette. All attention is focused on the trivial rather than the sub lime. The affixing of the title lai to a work, the sec ond part of which is an obvious fabliau, seems to be with intent to parody. At the conclusion the author statess Cest aventure si fu voirei Avoir le doit on en raemoirej Tot ainsi avint, ce dit l'on* Li lays de l*Esprevier a non Qui trSs bien fet a remembrer. Le conte en ai oi’^conter Mes onques n'en oi la note En harpe fere ne en rote. The last lines are similar to those that conclude "Guigemar"* De cest cunte k*o3C avez Fu Guigemar le lai trovez, Que hum fait en harpe e en rote. Bone en est a oir la note.77 Or to those concluding "Eliduc"* Li auncien Bretun curteis Firent un lai,pur remembrer, Qu*hum nel deust pas o b l i e r . 7 8 77Marie de France, "Guigemar," 11. 883-86. 78Marie de France, "Eliduc," 11. 1181-84. 141 of course the author may have merely wanted to lend some authenticity to his tale. It is also possible that an original courtly lai was contaminated by folk tradition and that the author of the fabliau heard that version told. °ne fabliau, the "Lai d*Aristote" (CXXXVII), has the title of lai in three of five manuscripts, but this denomination is not contained in the text itself.78 Neither the structure nor the humorous tone are similar to the lai. However, the refinements of style and the delicate description of nature found in this work are un usual in the fabliaux and it is, perhaps, for this reason that some copyist named it a lai.80 Several fabliaux are called "aventures." Most of these (LXXXI, LXIV, CXLI, CXXVIII, CXXXIX, CXXIII) have no relationship to one another or to the lai. The word "aventure" means in these cases "event" or "happening," nothing more. However, two fabliaux, while structurally unrelated to the lai, seem to imply parody of courtly themes. The first of these is "Des .ii. changSors" (XXIII). Using the typical fabliau device of adultery and 79Maurice Delbouille, Le Lai d'Aristote de Henri d*Andeli, Bibliothdque de l’Universit^ de LiSge, Fascicule 123 (Paris* P. U. F., 1951). ®°In two manuscripts "AuberSe" (CX*) is called a lai rather than a fabliau. The term perhaps implies parody, but is more likely merely another example of the imprecision with which medieval authors and copyists named their works. 142 the motif of the deceiver punished using his own means, the fabliau ridicules the secrecy tenet of "fine amors." The other, the "Bourgeoise d'Orliens" (VIII and C) is called specifically an "aventure cortoise." Using the theme of the lovers' encounter in the garden found in Tristan et Iseut, the author turns an amorous occasion into an hilarious event including a disguise, a trick, and a final beating. Another version (L) of the same fabliau which has much in common with the lai is simply called a "roman." This version includes more highly de veloped characters and logical motivation. It will be discussed fully under Proven§al literature. The "Mantel mautaillS" (LV), also called an "aventure," is listed by Per Nykrog with the "Lai ducor," the "Lai d'Ignaures," the "Lai du chevalier a 1'espSe," and the "Lai du lecheor" as a comic or parodic lai. He places it at a mid point between the lai and the fabliau. 8^- The story is as followst All King Arthur’s knights are assembled for Pentecost. Boredom reigns, for there have been no adventures and the petulant king refuses to sit down to eat without one. Suddenly, a young man arrives with a cloak and says it is the gift of a beautiful lady to King Arthur if he does as she desires. The cloak must 8%ykrog, p. 15. 143 be tried on the ladies present until one is found whom it fits. This one will have been faithful to her lover. One after another the ladies present try on the cloak. It always fits badly. Finally it is found to fit a young woman who was not with the others. She had not been ion- faithful because of illness I Here are all the qualities of the laii a courtly theme, the two planes of existence (real and supernatural), the adventure, the "open end," Yet the "Mantel mautaillS" is nonetheless a fabliau. It is a fabliau by its critical attitude towards women, by its emphasis on the baser aspects of human nature, by its cynical conclusion. It has been said that* "Le mervei- leux, l'aventure ouverte restent propres au lai."82 Yet here is a fabliau with both qualities. It seems obvious that structure, courtly subject matter, and the super natural are not sufficient criteria for distinguishing a lai from a fabliau. The final example of a fabliau called an "aventure" is the "Sentier batu" (LXXXV). This fabliau elaborates the theme of Lanval's argument with Guenevere. However, the names are different and the fabliau has a supposed moral intent. The author warns that one should say nothing that might insult another. He then tells of a 82Rychner, "Les Fabliaux,” p. 54. (Comment by M. Imbs.) 144 queen who is annoyed with a certain knight because he did not prove manly enough for her. One day she proposes a word game in which proverbs are used as repartees. Dur ing the game she casts doubt on the knight's masculinity in front of those present by asking why he has no body hair. He avenges himself by asking; Dame, respondez moi sanz guile; A point de poil a vo poinille? To her negative reply he responds; . . en sentier / Qui est batus ne croist point d'erbe." And the queen becomes an object of ridicule. In this fabliau the niceties of courtly games are turned into obscenity. Again the fabliau calls attention away from the refinements of life to the triviality and baseness of the animal underneath the fine clothes and manners.83 Several other fabliaux have courtly themes, but either have no denomination or are attested fabliaux. One of these, the "Chevalier d la corbeille" (XLVII), is reminiscent of episodes in Lancelot and Tristan et Iseut which involve entrance to the loved one's chamber and a night spent together under the very nose of surveillants. 83Revenge using the offender^ own method is popu lar in medieval literature. (See Maitre Pierre Pathelln. ed. Richard Holbrook, CFMA Paris; Champion, 1§37 and fabliaux XIV, XXIII, etc.) However only two other fa- bliaux T"Pe Gauteron et de Marion" [LIX ] and "La CoiTle noire" [CXLVIII* ]) make use of the "revenge by repartee" device. Neither has a courtly setting and they are evi dently not parodies. The "Sentier batu" may derive from an actual event, for it describes the well-known party game King and Queen proscribed by the Council of Worcester (1240) for its obscenity. 145 In the fabliau, the lover gains admission to the lady's chamber not by physical strength, as did Lancelot, but by means of a basket hauled up by two accomplices. The lovers are enjoying the night, but an old servant is aroused by the constantly falling blanket. The lady as sures her it is due to a flea whose bites cause her to scratch. The old woman finally rises and falls in the waiting basket. The men below haul on the rope thinking it is their master ready to descend. Discovering it is not he, they let the old servant dangle in mid air, then drop her. She regains the room thinking the devil is in hot pursuit. A parody seems quite evident here. The pro longed and elaborate courting found in the romance is re duced to a minimum. Only the lover's union is important in the fabliau and even this moment of bliss is trans formed into a comedy of errors. Another situation common to the courtly lai is found in "La Grue" (CXXVI*). It is the plight of a young girl locked in a tower under the guard of an old woman who leaves her only to get food. In Marie de France's "Yonec" this situation is treated as followsi The girl is unjustly imprisoned by a jealous old husband. She is visited by a bird who turns into a handsome prince who loves her and by whom she has a son. Through the hus band's treachery the bird is wounded and dies, but the wife escapes long enough to receive from him a ring which 146 has power to make the husband forget the incident. The child later avenges his father by killing the jealous husband. The fabliau author views the situation differ ently. The girl is imprisoned by her father who evi dently knows what he is about, for the girl is rather sexually precocious. One day the old woman leaves the door open and the girl sees a young man pass by with a crane in his arms. She wants the bird and he agrees to give it to her for a "foutre.” The nurse returns, finds the crane, and hears the girl's explanation. At first she is angry, but then decides to cook the bird and de parts to get the necessary utensils leaving the door open once more. The young man is invited up again and told to take the crane back. A repeat performance ensues and the young man leaves with the crane. The love, fidelity, and beauty of the lai are reduced in the fabliau to pure obscenity. The sensitive lady becomes a silly adolescent, the lover a lecherous young vagabond. The two planes of existence are reduced to one. The adventure becomes an error due to the girl's ignorance or lust. The cir cumstances are, however, the samej only the view of them differs. Finally, the first part of the fabliau "Du chevalier qui fist les cons parler" (CXLVII*) is reminis cent of the adventures of Lanval. On crossing an un familiar country with his squire, a poor knight sees three i 147 ladies bathing in a pool. Their clothing, all of gold, are on the bank. The squire steals the clothes, but the knight makes him return them. The ladies are in reality fairies who give the knight three gifts of dubious merit as a recompense.The remainder of the fabliau recounts the knight's rise in the world by means of the three gifts until he is finally wealthy. This fabliau presents a variation of the structure of the lai. The supernatural and the adventure are present. Poverty and wealth might be said to constitute the two planes of existence. How ever, there is no psychological development, no improve ment in the hero from a moral standpoint. With its emphasis on the material aspects of live, the fabliau here reduces even the supernatural to the mundane.8^ 8^This theme is also found in the lais "Graelent" and "Guingamor" and the Germanic legend of Galand the Blacksmith. According to these versions, the fairy is caught bathing in a pool in the woods. The man takes her clothes, holds her prisoner, and makes her his mistress. The lai "Lanval" is already far removed from this tradi tion, for when Lanval meets the fairies they are coming from the bath and lead him to their lady. The fabliau presents a kind of median position. 8^The lai has been frequently parodied. The "Lai dou lecheor," written in the first half of the thirteenth century, is completely courtly in tone, but has an obscene subject. For a further study of this question see Gaston Paris, "Lais inSdits," Rom., VIII (1879), 64 ff. 148 Although it has no specific denomination, one fabliau, "Des .iii. chevaliers et del chainse" (LXXI), is a courtly lai in the true sense. It tells of three knights following the tournaments who spend the night at the home of a lady and her husband. They declare their love, but she refuses their advances. However, she sends a "chainse" (light undergarment) to the tournament with the message that the knight who fights dressed in it alone will have her love. One accepts, fights, and is wounded. She then carries the "chainse” with her in view of her husband and grants the lover her favors. The tale concludes with a question reminiscent of the Provengal jugement, but lack ing the form and the complicated casuistry. Or prie JAKES DE BASIU As bacheliers et as puceles, As dames et as damoisieles Et as chevaliers ensiment, K'il fachent loial jugement Liqueis d'iaz fist plus grant emprise . . . Here the theme of the eternal triangle is treated in total seriousness according to the demands of courtly love. The lady is distant, the lover discreet, faithful, and sub servient, even to the point of risking his life. The action involves two planes of existence, an adventure, and an "open" ending. There is no intruding trivial element, no obscenity, no trait to connect it to the fabliau. In conclusion, let us say that the reciprocal in fluences of the fabliau and the lai seem to have been 149 quite extensive. Folk tradition and some fabliau atti tudes are present in the lai. The lai itself seems to have been widely parodied in the fabliau. Yet each maintains its own nature even where contamination or parody is present. Although the differences between the lai and fabliau have been stated in the past as structural and thematic, it seems that the differences can be more ac curately described as aesthetic and moral. We have seen that a lai and a fabliau can have the same basic structure. However, in general, the lai has a more complex sequence of events, moves according to an irregular rhythm. Nothing is predetermined; the characters themselves decide the outcome of the action. It includes an ’ •open” ending, that is, one implying things are better than they were at the outset. °n the other hand, the fabliau is linear and extremely simple. The rhythm is regular, even preconceived. The action will carry the characters along without deviating from its course. The ending is "stationary" or "closed" in that it leaves things as they were in the beginning or worse. There is a feeling of finality in the fabliau. The fu ture of the characters is of no real interest. However, exceptions to these statements abound. Therefore, it is really impossible to base the difference between fabliau and lai exclusively on structure. 150 One occasionally finds similar subjects in the lai and fabliau. Yet the aesthetic tone of each is different. Given a mundane situation the lai will elevate it, adorn it with beauty and subtle meaning. The fabliau will trans form the most noble situation into the prosaic. It will interpret virtue as ignorance, love as bestiality, gener osity as foolhardiness. Yet illusionless as it is, the fabliau is never lacking in good humor. The attitude shown in the lai and fabliau is the most valuable criterion for definition. The lai expresses an essentially moral outlook on life in that it openly seeks to harm no one. A jealous husband may reap the fruit of his thinking, but no one is openly persecuted except for wrongdoing. The fabliau presents the opposite view. Anyone can be an object of ridicule; all he has to do is get in the way of the action. Furthermore, in the fabliau it is every man for himself and the cleverest will win. The fabliau tends to view man as a sly intellect. It is not interested in his motives, his emotions, or his ideals. The lai views man in his totality as a moral being capable of perfection. To attain this perfection, he needs the supernatural or at least an ideal to attain to. Not so in the fabliau. Man is, was, and always shall be as he is at that moment. The supernatural and ideals are fools’ illusions. 151 Jean Frappier has studied ably and at length those episodes that can be detached from the lengthy romans d’aventures of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.®® They present, however, no real interest for this study. Moreover, those short independent thirteenth-century narratives of adventure such as "L'Empereur Constant," "Amis et Amile," and especially "La Fille du comte de Ponthieu" have no real structural or thematic similari ties to the fabliaux. The exoticism of foreign travel, totally lacking in the fabliaux, plays a major role. The vicissitudes of an eventful plot create a structure rich in twists and turns, long periods of relative calm, and sudden rapidity and abundance of incident. The time element usually extends over a period of years. However, "La Chastelaine de Vergi," a brief narra tive composed shortly before 1288, is an interesting as semblage of lai and fabliau attitudes, structure, and characterization. These elements are so subtly fused that they constitute a new form which is in many ways similar to the sixteenth-century nouvelle. It is small wonder that Marguerite de Navarre chose to give a prose transposition of it as the cornerstone of the Heptamgron, 86Jean Frappier, Etude sur la Mort le Roi Artu, Publications Romanes et Frangaises, Fascicule 70 (Paris* Minard, 1961). 152 thus confirming her debt to medieval narrative. According to the story, a worthy young man falls in love with the chatelaine of Vergi (niece of the Duke of Burgundy) and she with him. When her husband is absent, she sends a little dog through the orchard as a signal to her waiting lover that he may enter. Thus they live happily for some time when the Duchess of Burgundy also falls in love with the young man and makes unequivocal advances. Her pride is wounded at his polite, but firm, refusal and she tells her husband that the young man has been annoying her with his attentions. The enraged duke orders him out of the country forever. Faced with the prospect of never seeing his beloved again, the young man admits his devotion to the chatelaine and even allows the sceptical duke to secretly observe their meeting. Satisfied that his wife is lying, the latter pledges eternal silence on the matter and the problem seems ade quately resolved. However, the following night the duch ess, realizing her lie has been discovered, tearfully re fuses to sleep with her husband charging that he has greater faith in his retainers than in her. Falling prey to her ruse, the duke divulges the young man's secret. However, he swears to kill her if she reveals it to any one. Never fearing his threats, she does not delay in commending the chatelaine on her cleverness in training the little dog. Realizing that only her lover knew of 153 the animal, the chatelaine believes herself betrayed and flees to an adjoining room where she dies of grief. Find ing her dead, and learning from a lady in waiting the cause of death, the lover stabs himself. The duke, enter ing as his faithful retainer dies, seizes his sword and beheads the duchess in full view of all present. The courtly theme of failure to preserve the secrecy of love is treated with an expert blend of the idealism of the lai and the pessimism of the fabliau. The lovers live in an ideal world of their own creating which adheres to a strict code of honor and in which human behavior is regarded as always noble. Totally separate from this world dwell the duchess with her jeal ousy and animal craftiness and the duke with his scepti cism and cruelty. The forced mingling of these two planes of existence results in the disillusionment and death of the lovers. The duchess' murder comes as a kind of anti-climax. At worst it is a brutal satisfac tion of the duke's honor, at best a futile and ill-timed attempt to set things to rights. It is this clash between the baser aspects of human behavior and a higher idealism, resulting in the destruction of the latter, but accom panied by some ineffectual human attempt to rectify matters, that will figure in many sixteenth-century nouvelles. ®?Marguerite de Navarre, L'Heptam€ron, ed. Michel 154 It is obvious that the structure of the "Chaste- laine de Vergi" easily adheres to the lai's two worlds, but these do not constitute an ascending scale of self- improvement. At the beginning of the story, the lovers are already in the ideal "other world" of blissful love. It is through the young man's effort to maintain the status quo that he brings dishonor upon himself and de struction upon them both. Thus one witnesses the decline of the character as in the fabliau. The adventure which is the very core of the lai, and which would normally implement the hero's rise to the higher plane, gives way to the familiar fabliau series of crises. These crises, however, are not met with conclusively as in the fabliau. Therefore, the action resulting from them resembles the more irregular rhythm of the lai. The first crisis occurs when the young man is confronted by the duchess. His polite refusal, the only action possible if he is to re main loyal to his love, is an unsatisfactory response and results in the duchess' lie. This occasions the second crisis in which the duke confronts the young man. Again, the only possible defense is not conclusive and leads to the revelation of his secret. The result of this revelation, the chatelaine’s death, constitutes the third crisis. Here the young man's action, self destruction, is Francois, Classiques Garnier (Paris* Garnier, 1967), nouvelle 13. 155 finally conclusive, but unavailing. The ending is "closed” in fabliau tradition with a punishment and con cluding moral. However, the fabliau comic chastisement is here rendered a totally serious, brutal, and somewhat grotesque killing. The moral "exemple" is not a wry twist of meaning, but a sad comment on the perversity of human nature. Again, structures such as this are not uncommon in the sixteenth-century nouvelle.88 The pathos of this conclusion is due in no small measure to the reader’s feeling for the characters. As in the fabliau, they are developed by dialogue and action. As in the lai, provision is made for description of mo tives and thought processes. Details of physical appear ance are still left to the imagination and understandably so, for all emphasis is placed on behavior and the mo tives underlying it. The author shows himself capable of very subtle shadings. For example, the duchess' brash ness, sensuality, ruse, and single-minded revenge are reminiscent of fabliau women. Yet these characteristics are tempered by descriptions of her passion for the young man, dismay at being found out by her husband, coquetry, and jealousy. She is at once more consciously evil and less obviously so than a fabliau woman. Her veneer of 88Ibid., nouvelle 21. 156 social respectability is already a hint of the sixteenth- century nouvelle.89 Furthermore, the characters are both individuals and representatives of the human condition. The young man acts through personal failings, to be sure, but he also behaves as any person would in his predicament. He is no longer the exceptional hero of the lai, but more human. He cannot take the initiative and make things turn out satisfactorily as does Lanval. Of course it is possi ble for him to do so. Ostensibly he has all the necessary freedom to act. However, since he behaves as a human be ing, not as an ideal hero, he will not choose fidelity to a vow and certain banishment, but will remain near his beloved and risk dishonor. Consequently, his fate is decided according to his humanity, not according to his ability to rise above his humanity. Therefore, there pre vails an implicit fatalism which is the result of the blending of the lai's freedom of personal action according to optimistic premises and the predestination of events resultant from the fabliau's pessimism regarding human nature. The sixteenth-century nouvelle will use as one of its major characters the well-meaning young man who, in his attempt to preserve an ideal, makes a human miscalcu lation which was really unavoidable.90 "ibid. , nouvelle 1. 9°Ibid., nouvelle 12. 157 The search for an ideal that surpasses the human and pessimism concerning human nature and its effects on everyday events; analysis of motive and emphasis on ex ternal behavior; ascent from an inferior to a superior world and descent through a series of crises, these phe nomena existed separately in the lai and fabliau. When they are fused in the "Chastelaine de Vergi" they reveal a new concept of the short narrative which does not involve man’s escape from the world either through self-improve ment or laughter. Rather it observes his existence in, and often unsuccessful struggle against, the world. Why search for the origins of the nouvelle in the fourteenth- century Italian novella or even in the episodic four teenth-century Arthurian romances?®-*- The raw materials are already present in the fabliau and the lai. 4. Lyric Poetry Few lyric forms betray any similarity to popular tradition. One possible exception is the pastourelle in which a peasant girl customarily outwits a noble suitor and her friends give him a good beating. Another is the chanson de toile in which the girl usually displays a willingness all too common in the fabliaux. However, Janet M. Ferrier, Forerunners of the French Novel (Manchester: The University Press, 1954). 158 neither of these is really comparable to a fabliau situa tion. The rusticity of manners is a mere convention and both lyric forms treat their themes with considerable grace. The sotte chanson parodies the chanson courtoise by point ing out all the ugliness of the loved one rather than her beauty. Although it presents an attitude in common with the fabliau, the latter has no comparable physical de scriptions . The chanson satirique often denounces the clergy, but that is its only similarity to the fabliau. Yet interestingly enough, several fabliaux have a form or content resembling that of lyric poetry. Two are similar to the lyric in form only. ’ ’ Martin Hapart" (XLV) is written in octosyllabic lines grouped into stanzas of eight, each ending with a four syllable line. "Du prestre qui fu mis au lardier" (XXXII) is com posed of eight line stanzas. The first four lines of each stanza have five syllables each and the last four, ten syllables. It is called a "chanson’ ’ and is the only fabliau found preserved in a chansonnier. Some critics believe i t may have been sung to a musical a c c o m p a n i m e n t . ^ If so, it is unique in the genre. One fabliau presents both a form and subject mat- mater similar to a lyric mal marine. It is the "Chastelaine 92RyChner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 46. 159 de Saint-Gille" (XI). Composed of eight syllable lines, these are grouped into stanzas of nine lines, each con cluding with a refrain. The last words of the refrain are repeated with some variation in the first line of the following stanza. Occasionally, the refrain is only one line in length. Usually it contains repetition or allit eration. Following are the last three lines of the first stanza and the entire second stanzai Si m'ait Diex, ne l'aurai ja. Ostez-le moi, cel vilain la, Se plus li voi, je morrai ja. Je morrai ja, dist la pucele, Se plus me dites tel novele, Biaus p£re, que je vous oi dire; Si me gart Diex d'anui et d'ire, Li miens amis est filz de conte; Doit bien avoir li vilains honte, Qui requiert fille a chastelain, Ce le me foule, foule, foule, Ci le me foule le vilain. The content of the piece is as followst A girl's father wants to marry her off to a rich peasant, but she refuses. After many discussions and when there seems no recourse, the girl's lover arrives and takes her away to his country. This simple theme is treated with a seri ousness, candor, and artistic accomplishment rare in the fabliau. Although the suitor is presented here as a "riche vilain," there is little else to attach the story to the fabliau. The peasant is really not undesirable because of his social class, but because of his avarice which is revealed in his speech and manners. Yet he is 160 never a repugnant bumpkin. Nor is he just a vehicle of the action. The characters' psychological development is subtle and gradual. The girl refuses first from stubbornness, then loyalty to her lover, and finally real distress as she sees every avenue of escape blocked. Her anguish at the thought that her lover may have forgotten her is evident in her words and actions. The couple's final joyful meeting and elopement is beautifully con trasted with the rejected suitor's sad journey homeward. While by no means typical, the above works offer some interesting variations in form. Certainly form alone is not sufficient to banish a piece from the fabliau genre. Yet a work like "La Chastelaine de Saint Gille" (XI) has so little content and thought to recommend it as a fabliau that it might better be classed as a lyric. 5. Provencal Literature Provengal literature offers three types of short narrative: the razo and the vida in prose, the nova in verse. The razos, composed in the thirteenth and begin ning of the fourteenth century, are explanations or com mentaries on specific poems. According to Jean Boutiere, they form: ". . . la premiere ebauche d’histoire littS- raire existant en Europe."93 In fourteenth-century 93jean Boutiere, Biographies des troubadours (Paris: Nizet, 1954), p. viii. 161 chansonniers t they are transcribed separately from the poems they describe as an independent literary genre. Although their stereotyped language and phrasing would lend themselves to parody, neither these nor the razo1s subject matter had any influence on the fabliau. The vidas, or biographies of the poets, are also a well-constituted literary genre composed at the same time as the razos. They too are usually preserved separately from the poems they were meant to accompany. They range between four and twenty lines in length and are a mix ture of fact and fancy. One of them, the vida of JaufrS Rudel, is of importance in a study of the fabliau. The following is the text according to manuscript IK* Jaufres Rudels de Blaia si fo mout gentils horn, princes de Blaia. Et enamoret se de la comtessa de Tripol, ses vezer, per lo ben qu'el n'auzi dire als pelerins que venguen d'Antiocha. E fez de leis mains vers ab bons sons, ab paubres motz. Et per voluntat de leis vezer, et se croset et se mes en mar, e pres lo malautia en la nau, e fo condug a Tripol, en un alberc, per mort. E fo fait saber a la comtessa et ella venc ad el, al son leit et pres lo antre sos bratz. E saup qu'ella era la comtessa, e mantenent recobret l'auzir e»l flairar, et lauzet Dieu que l'avia la vida sostenguda tro qu'el 1'agues vista; et enaissi el mori entre sos bratz. Et ella lo fez a gran honor sepellir en la maison del Temple; e pois, en aquel dia, ella se rendet morga, per la dolor qu’elle n'ac de la mort de lui.y4 ^Ibid. . pp. 16-17. - - - J 162 Such a tale seems far removed from the fabliau, yet a version of it appears in the "Chevalier, sa dame et le clerc" (L). This fabliau is one of a group of three including the "Bourgeoise d’Orliens” (VIII) and the "Dame qui fist batre son mari” (C) all on the following theme* A married woman is in love with a cleric and agrees to meet him in the garden at nightfall. The husband dis covers the plan and, disguised as the cleric, waits by the garden gate for the wife's arrival. She recognizes her husband under the disguise and leads him away to a room where he is to wait. She then returns to the garden, meets her lover, and all proceeds according to plan. After the lover's departure, she tells her servants to beat the waiting cleric (husband) for making improper ad vances . Although the events of the three fabliaux are basically the same, the author of the "Chevalier, sa dame et le clerc" (L) adds an introduction which duplicates in some respects JaufrS Rudel's vida. A married woman is secretly loved by the cleric who opens the church door for her each morning. He daily pines away for her and re fuses all nourishment. The lady's sister-in-law en courages her to visit him for he is at the point of death. He tells her of his love and she finally agrees to meet him in the garden. The tale then proceeds as above, but at the conclusion, the cleric leaves the country and the 163 lady lives out her life in expiation of her sin. Although the typical triangle (husband, wife, lover) is the basis for version L and adultery the end result, this is far from an ordinary fabliau. The author carefully describes the physical beauty and moral vir tues of the married couple. He assures his listeners that the cleric is not the traditional lecherous vagabond, but an orphan dedicated to the service of God. Further more, the act of adultery is not described or emphasized. It is certain that the wife had never succumbed before nor will she again. The husband is punished for his jealousy by having to reveal his identity to the servants, not by a beating. The wife's fault is kept secret and not noised abroad as is usual in the fabliaux. While version L is totally lacking in the gross ness which prevails in the other versions, the author still reveals a philosophy of life firmly rooted in the practical and not without a certain cynicism. It is this philosophy which points up a very obvious difference be tween the vida and its fabliau counterpart. The vida is a highly romanticised tale which unfolds according to the most stringent rules of courtly love. The poet loves a distant lady on the basis of hearsay alone and under takes a dangerous journey just to see her. She loves him in return because of his great proof of love. Their love remains unfulfilled for he dies in her arms at their first; 164 meeting. The lady retires chastly to a nunnery in re spect of his memory. The characters seem to obey a law of love superior to themselves which gives nobility to their simplest actions. However, in the fabliau, idealism is transformed into practical reality. The lady is not a far-off countess, but a married lady near at hand. The lover is not a poet, but a churchman. His love is based on material presence, not imaginings. Their love does not remain chaste nor does he die of it. Showing no faith in the durability of her lover's passion, the lady sends him off with the assurance that their encounter will not be repeated. She continues to live busying herself with good deeds and penitence, not indulging in romantic es capism. Of course, it is difficult to determine with any certainty if the fabliau author knew of the vida. The themes of lovers pining away for their ladies and of ladies retiring from the world in respect of dead suitors are prevalent in folklore. The fabliau "Guillaume au faucon" (XXXV*) also includes the fasting lover motif. Therefore, it is possible that the vida and fabliau L simply drew upon a common folklore source. However, it is also possi ble that the author of the fabliau knew of the vida, but adapted it to his own thought. One final Provengal type, the nova, can be de fined as a tale of gallantry in verse. Fauriel saw in it 165 the source of the fabliau; Les troubadours aussi firent des fabliaux, et je ne balance pas a croire qu'ils en donnerent les modeles . . . Les petits contes galants . . . Staient si bien un des genres ordinaires de la poSsie provengale des XII et XIII si§cles que les poetes qui les cultivaient formaient une classe a part.95 This statement seems to rest on no valid proof. Provencal literature is, in fact, almost totally lacking in narra tive poems, especially those of a humorous nature. Karl Bartsch has made a list of "novellen" in his Provenza- lisches Lesebuch. His classification is based on form and the following are all written in eight syllable rhymed couplets; 1. The * ’ Castia gilos" of Raimon Vidal de Besalu 2. The "Judici d'amor" of Raimon Vidal de Besalu 3. The "Ensenhamen" of Raimon Vidal de Besalu 4. The "Novas del papagai" of Arnaut de Carcasses 5. An allegorical nouvelle by Peire Guilhem 6. The anonymous allegorical tale; "Senhor, vos que voletz la flor . . . "96 Critics have since attempted to rectify the above list. Alfred Jeanroy excludes the two allegorical pieces and points out that the subject of the "Judici d'amor" is really that of a partimen.^ Clovis Brunei omits the "Ensenhamen" and drawn up the list as follows; 95Alfred Jeanroy, Histoire sommaire de la poSsie occitane (Paris; Didier, 1947), p. 103. (Quoted from Fauriel, Histoire de la poSsie provenoale, II, 388.) 961.-M. Cluzel, "Le Fabliau dans la literature provengale," Annales du midi, LXVI (1954), 318. 97jeanroy, chap. xiii. 166 1. "Novas del papagai” 2. "Castia gilos" 3. "Judici d'amor" 4. "A vos que et [z] aysi dirai" (fragment) 5. "Mot aurai estat longamen" (fragment) 6. "RScit de la condamnation d'un consul de Beziers" (An inscription of sixty-eight lines telling of the condemnation of the consul Jacques Laures.)88 Numbers four and five are undoubtedly narrative, but of no real literary value. Number six can obviously not be considered a fabliau. Therefore, there seem to be only two novas with any resemblance to fabliaux, namely, the "Novas del papagai" and the "Castia gilos." The punish ment of a jealous husband is the central theme of both works. The "Castia gilos," as has been pointed out by I.-M. Cluzel, presents the same subject as the fabliau trilogy mentioned above ("La Bourgeoise d'Orliens" [VIIl], "La Feme qui fist batre son mari" [C], and "Le Chevalier, sa dame et le clerc" [L]).99 The husband, Amfos, a power ful Aragonese lord is informed by his men of rumors about his wife Elvira and a certain noble named Bascol de Cotanda. Amfos believes the reports and proposes to Bascol to leave together for the wars. Bascol demures, Q Q ^°Clovis Brunei, Bibliocrraphie des manuscrits litt£ra!res en ancien provenoal (Parist Droz, 1935), p. 116. 99The "Castia gilos" is being edited by I.-M. Cluzel. The following study is made from his detailed r£sum£, pp. 320 ff. 167 pleading illness. Amfos, convinced of his wife's infidel ity, pretends to leave, but returns that night to catch the supposed lovers unawares. However, Elvira is above reproach. As Amfos approaches her bed pretending to be Bascol, she is not deceived. However, she feigns to be so and beats him off. She then flees, locking Amfos in the room. Enraged by her husband's suspicions, she runs to Bascol and, in vengeance, offers herself to him. She then tells the servants to beat the offending husband, but he reveals his identity and is not touched. I.-M. Cluzel has noted the basic differences be tween the Provengal version and the fabliau VIII and C. The setting and characters of the former are aristocratic, the tone less cruel and cynical. Furthermore, the Pro vengal poet held an entirely different conception of wo man and of marriage. In the fabliau, it goes without saying that the wife is profoundly immoral. All interest is centered on her cleverness, the merrimaking with her lover, the humorous beating of the husband, and his final disposal on a dung heap. In the nova, it is the husband who clearly is at fault and the wife only unfaithful be cause of her outrage at being suspected. The husband is not a sympathetic character, but he is most certainly not a buffoon. His authority and dignity are maintained and the wife never has that moment of triumph when all mankind seems to join her in ridiculing the husband which 168 she enjoys in the fabliau. Therefore, the popular element of goodnatured, yet somewhat crude, humor is totally lack ing in the Provengal work. In concluding that the two northern French ver sions (VIII, C) are certainly anterior to the nova, Cluzel is probably correct. However, he did not study the third fabliau (L) which has many similarities to the "Castia gilos." The setting and characters of the fabliau are noble and the wife of irreproachable conduct. She only consents to see the cleric to keep him from dying of love for her. In the end, her husband makes himself known to his servants in the same fashion as the husband in the Provengal version. We have already seen that this fabliau (L) had possibly undergone the influence of the vida of JaufrS Rudel. The additional similarity of the fabliau to the "Castia gilos" and the fact that the former was written in England where the southern tradition was strong at court, would seem to indicate that the "Castia gilos" may have been anterior to version L. Raimon Vidal de Besalu probably found his subject in the same popular tradition as the fabliau authors of VIII and C and then adapted his source. He may even have had direct knowledge of VIII and C. His work was then adapted by the author of L. The only original fabliau subject found in Pro vengal must then be the"Novas del papagai." Here again 169 no positive statements can be made, for the theme belongs to an old medieval tradition.^00 A lady in a garden en closed by high walls receives the visit of a parrot bear ing a love note from his master Antiphanor. The bird manages to convince the lady to deceive her husband and she gives him a ring and a golden cord as tokens of her pledge. The author then indulges in a long expos£ on courtly behavior. Finally, one learns that the lover is to gain access to the garden by a feu qrgqois which will be spread by the bird. All goes according to plan and the lovers take full advantage of their solitude. When the fire is extinguished they separate and Antiphanor ex horts his lady according to the traditions of courtly love. The author concludes by telling us that he wrote his story tot "... les maritz castiar / que vols lors molhers garar." Although the themes of the incendiary bird and the bird messenger, here juxtaposed, are quite widespread in medieval literature, neither is found in the fabliaux. Furthermore, the supernatural element and the long amour- ous discourses widely separate the "Novas del papagai" l°°See Cluzel, pp. 322 ff. for a r€sum<S and J. Coulet, "Novas del papagai," Revue des langues romanes, XLV (1902), 322 for further information. 170 from fabliau attitudes. The courtly idealization of love, the nobility of nature of hero and heroine alike proved resistant to popular humor and to the cynical attitude prevalent in the fabliaux. Therefore, Provengal litera ture can claim only one fabliau, the purity of which can be disputed and the origin of which is most uncertain. Furthermore, Provengal tradition did not significantly influence the fabliaux. 6. Bourgeois Literature Anthologies generally class the fabliau as "bour geois" literature. Therefore, a comparison with the so- called bourgeois forms is unavoidable. We shall see that the Roman de Renart includes some motifs also present in the fabliau and that both the dit and the d&bat have con tent and structures similar to works found in the Recueil general. It remains to determine the nature, extent, and importance of these relationships. It has been suggested that the fabliaux and the Roman de Renart may have originated in clerical circles and that both are a derivative of the fable. Certainly, unlike the genres just studied, both the fabliau and the Roman de Renart make the everyday world their theater of action. While their realism may be open to question at least their world view is less idealized than that of the lai or saint's life, less contrived than that of the 171 fable. Although the Roman de Renart supposedly relates the adventures of animals, this fact does not render a comparison with the fabliau absurd. These animals con stantly betray human thoughts, emotions, and actions and the society in which they live imitates the social struc ture of France of their day. The Roman de Renart is composed of "branches” or tales involving this society of animals in which the fox, Renart, is the central figure. The word "roman” signifies simply "stories put in French." It is believed the sec ond branch was composed towards 1176 and drew upon the Latin poem Isengximus by Nivard. Other tales were added over a period of over 150 years to form a veritable animal epic. The last major work including Renart is Renart le contrefait written in 1342. Therefore, the fabliau and Roman de Renart both flourished over the same period. Certainly they possess some attitudes and char acters in common. Both regard priests as crafty, im moral, and money grubbing. Women are depicted as unfaith ful, lascivious, and sly. Furthermore, the name Hersent (Ysengrin the wolf's wife) appears in the fabliaux "Richeut" and "Du prestre teint" (CXXXIX). In both cases it is applied to a woman of questionable morals. Of even greater interest is the analogy that can be made between certain character types* Renart and the cleric, Ysengrin and the husband, Hersent and the wife. Renart suffers, 172 like the cleric, occasional setbacks, but eventually emerges victorious. Ysengrin, like the husband, always loses. Hersent is always avid of pleasure, sharp tongued, and generally unfaithful. Adultery was an obvious source of amusement in both the fabliau and the Roman de Renart. In fact, branches II and Va are almost entirely devoted to the illegitimate love of Renart and Hersent. However, none of these similarities can be con sidered positive proof of influence or common origin. The adultery theme has been a popular vehicle for humor since classical times. Furthermore, the appearance of the name "Hersent" may be pure coincidence. It also appears in the chanson de geste Aiol and a variant of it, "Hermesent," appears in "De foie largese" (CXLV) describ ing a totally respectable woman. The name was evidently a popular one. That this popularity was due to the Roman de Renart seems impossible to determine with cer tainty. Finally, unfavorable attitudes towards priests and women are found in much of medieval literature. Since it is impossible within the limits of this thesis to consider all the thematic similarities be tween the fabliaux and the Roman de Renart, we have limited our research to the early branches (II, Va, III, IV, XIV, I) which, because of their popularity, exer cised the most influence. By contrasting these branches with the fabliaux we find that I, III, and V possess 173 several themes and motifs already encountered in the fabliau. However, the surrounding circumstances differ so widely that a detailed comparison seems useless. We shall, therefore, content ourselves with the following summation! B r a n c h I 1. Castration (fabliaux XVIII, CXXVIII, XXIV*, CXXXIX) 2. Rape of a woman in the presence of her chil dren (fabliaux CII, CLII) B r a n c h l b 1. Erroneous pronunciation and faulty comprehen sion of French by an Englishman (fabliaux XLVI*, XC*) 2. Phallic worship (fabliau LXIII) 3. Women fighting (fabliau LXXXIV) B r a n c h I I I 1. Theft by trickery (fabliau CIIl) Branch Va 1. Comic flight and pursuit (fabliaux XXXI*, CXXXIX) B r a n c h V 1. Venality of judges (fabliau CXXVII) 2. Theft of a ham by three men (fabliau XCVII) However, one motif merits discussion. In branch la, Renart jumps through an open window in search of food and lands in a vat of yellow dye. In the fabliau "Du prestre teint" (CXXXIX), the priest has come to spend the night with his lady love. She prepares him a bath as her husband had directed and goes to prepare dinner. The husband returns and the frightened priest jumps from the bath into a tub he assumes is empty, but which is full of yellow dye. The motif of jumping into a tub of liquid by mistake is borrowed from folklore and is found in Marie de France’s "Equitan" (ca. 1167) . The author of branch la (ca. 1179) added the humor of the yellow dye which was 174 in turn used by Gautier le Leu in "Du prestre teint" (ca. 1250). The influence of the Roman de Renart here seems possible, for not only does the fabliau include the dye motif, but the name Hersent as well. All three tales include the popular expression "joinz pez" to describe the movement of jumping. The fabliau and the Roman de Renart also possess some structural similarities. The latter does not preface each branch with a prologue nor does it end with an obser vation on life akin to a moral. However, the internal structure does develop by crises or tricks as in the fabliau and the ending is "stationary" or "closed." In the yellow dye incident just mentioned, Renart simply manages to save his skin, thus preserving the status quo. While it is certainly true that the fabliaux and Roman de Renart have some attitudes and character types in common, these seem to be the heritage of that popular tradition found throughout medieval literature rather than indications of reciprocal influences. More sig nificant is the fact that they possess no identical ma terial. Had they a common origin certainly some evidence of this should be present. In reality, the fabliau is quite different from the Roman de Renart. There exists between them a basic dissimilarity in literary conception. Although the Roman de Renart is composed of individual tales, it is really 175 a mock epic. Therefore, it has an essential unity, the center of which is its hero, Renart. It gives a satiric view of a total society: the court, the nobility, the church, the peasant, etc. The fabliau has no such unity and is closer to the short story. It has no central hero and never attempts to give a total picture, but merely glimpses of life. Nowhere is the difference between the fabliau and the Roman de Renart more apparent than in the tone of each.l°l John Flinn has distinguished two ages of thought in the latter. The first corresponds to the early branches. In these, the spectacle of trickery is fore most as it is in the fabliau. Yet even in these branches the satiric elements predominate and the author is not content to simply (amuse. The later branches become openly caustic. While it is true that the fabliau also loses some of its gaiety in evolving, it seldom strays from its primary purpose which is to make the audience laugh. Rarely does it contain the hatred necessary for satire, but generally maintains an attitude of benign amus ement P-0 2 lOlpiinn, pp. 9-10. 102ip]riere are some notable exceptions to this statement. Gautier le Leu's "Connevert" is satiric and often fierce in its hatred of priests. Some scholars con sider it the first sermon joyeux written in French. For a detailed study, see Livingston, pp. 219-32. Further more, the fabliaux of one late author, Watriquet de Couvin, betray a significantly different tone. In "Les 176 The dit is yet another bourgeois form. It is a poem, usually narrative, which ends with a precept. The form and purpose of the dit vary greatly. Some, such as the "Dit de la soucretaine," are quite evidently didactic literature. Others, like the "Dit de l'empereur Con stant," resemble short novels. Those of Rutebeuf can be classified more accurately as satiric poetry and were used as polemics or propaganda. Yet whatever its pre cise intent, the narrative dit is usually of a serious nature. Since several works in the Recueil qgngral are called dits, a comparison is in order. Four of these works (XVII*, XL*, XLVIII*, CL*) are attested fabliaux. If these are in reality dits, then we can list them along with the didactic and polemical as constituting a third category, the humorous dit. In the "Dit des perdriz" (XVII*), a woman eats the two partridges intended for Sunday dinner and then convinces her husband that the priest stole them. The .iii. dames de Paris" (LXXIII) and "Les .iii. chanoinesses de Couloingne" (LXXII) the spontaneous gaiety usually found in the fabliaux has disappeared. The author is making an obvious effort to be humorous, but he is not convinced that the scene he describes is actually a laugh ing matter. However, it must be remembered that such variations are due to individual temperament and in no way; indicate trends. The fabliaux of Jean de CondS which were written at approximately the same time as those of Watri- quet de Couvin still represent the classical humorous fabliau of one hundred years earlier. 177 author concludesi Par example cis fabliaus dist Fame est f&te pour decevoir; Mengonge fet devenir voir, Et voir fet devenir mengonge. Rather than providing a rule for action as is customary in the dit, the author provides a comment on life which is entirely within the domain of the fabliau. Yet the author states clearly that his work is both a fabliau and a diti Cil n'i vout metre plus d'alonge, Qui fist cest fablel et ces dis. Ci faut li fabliaus des pertris. The words "fablel'’ and "dis" are used here interchangeably and the latter certainly means nothing more than "saying," The subject matter, form, and tone relate this piece to the fabliau. The "Dit de la gageure" (XLVIII*) is called a dit only in the title and a "fable" in the text itself. It has little relation to either form as it contains no pre cept or moral. This fabliau seems to be a parody of courtly love, specifically the necessity for a knight to prove his devotion even at a cost to his well-being and personal dignity. The lady of the house does not like her husband's relatives. Upon learning that her brother- in-law wishes to marry her sister, she insists that the boy must prove his devotion in full view of all by kiss ing his beloved's posterior. He agrees, but rather than kissing her, rapes her. The husband is amused and 178 consents to the couple's marriage in spite of his wife's rage. We are assured that the young couple enjoy eternal bliss. Despite its denomination, this is a lai by its courtly theme and by its structure which contains both an "adventure" and an open ending. It is most decidedly a fabliau by its humorous treatment of serious material, its prejudice against women, its obscenity, and its triv iality. Another work called a dit only in the title is the "Dit dou soucretain" (CL*). This fabliau belongs to a series of tales which deal with the disposal of one or more bodies. The theme is widespread in folklore and has been used recently by Alfred Hitchcock in his film The Trouble with Harry. This series of tales seems to result from a mingling of two themes found in the fabliaux "De Constant du Hamel" (CVI*) and "Des trois bogus" (II*). The first of these contains the theme of the virtuous wife pursued by three men who apprises her husband of her plight.. The husband then induces her to arrange a clandestine meeting, lies in wait, and humiliates the would-be lovers. The second contains the theme of a comic disposal of three dead bodies resulting in the death of an innocent fourth party. The fabliaux "Estormi" (XIX*) and "Des .iiii. prestres" (CXLII) include the triple body disposal theme and involve the repetition of the same action three times. In "Du prestre qu'on porte" (LXXXIX*) "Du segretain ou du 179 moine" (CXXIII), ”Du segretain moine" (CXXXVI), and the "Dit dou soucretain” (CL*) the same events occur, but only a single body is used and the variety of attempts at dis- posal constitute the humor. The use of the word dit in the title seems to have been the addition of a copyist. None of the other tales contain the word and certainly none of them involves a precept. All seem to be obvious fabliaux. None of the above works betrays any real struc tural similarity to the narrative dit. Furthermore, the themes are vastly different. It seems likely that the word dit had a very broad meaning and might be applied to a variety of narrative forms. However, the "Dis de le vescie a prestre" (LXIX), although designated as a dit only in the title, seems to be both a moral and a humorous dit. As a dying priest makes his last bequests, two Dominicans arrive desiring some remembrance for their or der. When they learn everything has been given away, they demand that the priest repossess his goods so that they may have a share. Told to return the next day, they go home and boast to their fellows of the great wealth they expect to receive. However, when they arrive the following day, the priest gives them his bladder for a coin purse and lectures them on their greed. They return to their monastery abashed. Although the humorous de velopment of this work closely allies it to the fabliau, 180 the moral intent is clear. It would be entirely possible to classify the piece as a humorous dit. Evidently the term "dit" was also applied to non narrative literature, for a number of medieval dits are decidedly dramatic in nature. These may be humorous like Rutebeuf’s "Dit de l’herberie" in which a peddlar boasts of his wares. They may also be satiric as in the "Dit de Guillaume de Saint Amour." These have some counterparts in the fabliau. At least, several works in the Recueil g6n6ral having no specific denomination are not narrative and may be compared to dramatic dits. Some are eulogies, some prayers, others enumerations, diatribes, or even lamentations. Some are humorous, others not. Most of them have little or nothing in common with other fabliaux. The "Dit des marchSans" (XXXVII) is a eulogy of the travels, life and wares of merchants. It is wholly serious in tone and one can imagine it being recited, or even acted out, before a company of wealthy merchants. The appeal for money at the end seems to indicate the author expected both approval and reward. There is nothing to connect this piece with the fabliaux. On the other hand, the "Dit des cons" (XL*), while also a eulogy, is easily classed with the fabliaux because of the nature of its subject matter and the elaborate sexual metaphors which provide the humor. 181 A curious piece, "Une tranche d'armes” (XXXVIII), is included among the fabliaux of the Recueil qinlral. It is a eulogy, comparison, lamentation, and enumeration* The author begins by a kind of guessing game: "Qui est li gentis bachelers?" He then gives a description of an ideal knight which he contrasts to the chivalry of the time. Although he does not mention names, he obviously intended that his listeners supply them and gives a series of clues to this purpose. The work is totally serious and really cannot be considered a fabliau. A third serious work resembling a dramatic dit is the "Faucon lanier" (LXVI). This is a lamentation on society built on a comparison with the bird mentioned in the title and noted for its cowardice and laziness. The author is totally serious in his condemnation of those people who don't work, but say they would if . . . He ends with a precept which is reminiscent of the narrative dit: Tel gent ne doit on pas amer, Ainz le doit on mout desprisier . . . Another jeremiade, this time on avarice, is found in "De Grongnet et Petit" (LVI). Had the two above-mentioned works been lyric in form they would have closely resembled the Provengal sirvent^s which customarily had as its theme a political, moral, or personal lament. Without pretending to give these works their proper classification, at least 182 we can say that they are totally unlike other fabliaux. Their seriousness, the treatment of the subject matter, and the moral conclusion separate them from the thought and intent of the fabliau. The "Contregengle" (LIII) is a kind of diatribe, often nonsensical, sometimes fierce. There are obviously two people present. The speaker begins by accusing his partneri FabloiS as or longuement Et moi ledangie durementi Si te vient de grant ribaudiej Mes qui biau veut oir, biau die. He then proceeds to heap him with abuse. Again, this piece has little relation to the general body of fabliaux, even though it was probably intended to be humorous. Another humorous work is "De 1'oustillement au vilain" (XLIII) which describes all the items necessary for a peasant getting married. This was probably recited before the middle class and nobles to ridicule the peasants, for it emphasizes all the most mundane items. It is sim ply an enumeration and has little in common with other fabliaux. "Des vins d'ouan (XLI) is called an "oroison" and is just that, but in a comic vein. The author laments the poor quality of this year’s wines and begs God and the Virgin to make them better. The "Patre-Nostre farsie" (XLII) is of the same type. It uses the Lord's Prayer as 183 a vehicle for criticism of the rich. The Latin text of the prayer is scattered throughout the French to provide a comic effect. Both of these seem closely related to the dit. It is obviously impossible to draw any decisive conclusions concerning the relationship of the fabliau and the dit. The dit itself is a particularly ill-defined form. However, it would seem that the term is applied to several narrative fabliaux with the broad meaning of "story" or "something said." It is also true that several works contained in the Recueil qineral, both serious and humorous, would be more correctly classified as dramatic dits. One of these (XL*) is an attested fabliau, although the only characteristic to recommend it as such is its obscene subject matter. Three fabliaux can be compared to the popular medi eval dibat. A dibat is a semi-dramatic form which may be performed by a single actor who takes both parts. It in volves an argument which may end in blows. The "Deux bordiors ribauz" (I) is an excellent example of the type, even though it is classed in the Recueil qiniral as a fabliau. Two professional reciters argue over whose work is the most accomplished. The dispute gives each an oppor tunity to prove his glibness. "Le Roi d'Angleterre et le jongleur d’Ely" (LII) is another spirited altercation in 184 which an entertainer, taking all the king's questions literally, ably demonstrates his wit. There is nothing that recommends these as fabliaux, nor are they so called. However, another piece of exactly the same type, "Le D^bat du cul et du con" (XXXIX*), is an attested fabliau. Once again we find (as with fabliaux XXXVII and XL*) that when two works possess the same theme, treated in like fashion, the obscene one is invariably called a fabliau. If its author had not designated it in the text as a fabliau, the "Debat du cul et du con" would have been easily classified as a djsbat. We have found that structurally the fabliau has much in common with the fable and exemplum, but lacks their internal development. It contrasts with the lai, for its action evolves on a single plane and progresses by means of a succession of crises, not by means of an adventure involving transformation of character. Further more, its ending usually is closed or stationary. It is customarily narrative, but sometimes resembles the dra matic dit or d€bat and may occasionally have a lyric form. While an astonishing number of fabliaux included in the Recueil qingral have characteristics in common with other types of literature, few can actually be set aside as non-fabliaux. Evidently fabliau authors parodied not one, but a variety of literary forms. In any case, the 185 resultant works retained an autonomy of method and out look. For this reason, it is useless to seek the origin of the fabliau in related genres. Its origin lies rather in a temperament which is both universal and perennial. This temperament adapts from a variety of contemporary ma terial, literary, oral, and real, whatever may be useful in providing amusement. The following list is a summary of those fabliaux which are most closely related to other genres. It is not an attempt to classify definitely these works, or is it intended to exclude them arbitrarily from the fabliaux. Del convoiteus et de l'envieux (CXXXV) Du preudome qui rescolt son compere . . . (XXVII) De Frere Denise (LXXXVII*) De la dent (XII) Du vilain qui donna son ame au diable (CXLI) Des estats du siecle (LIV) De pleine bourse de sens (LXVII*) De foie larguece (CXLVI) Le Chevalier, sa dame et le clerc (L) Le Dit des cons (XL*) Le Debat du cul et du con (XXXIX*) Du vilain mire (LXXIV) Du vair palefroi (III) Des .iii. chevaliers et del chainse (LXXI) La Chastelaine de St-Gille (XI) Le Dit des marcheans (XXXVII) Des vins d'ouan (XLI) La Patre-Nostre farsie (XLII) De 1'oustillement du vilain (XLIII) Une branche d'armes (XXXVIII) La Contregengle (LIIl) De grongnet et de petit (LVI) Du faucon lanier (LXVI) Des deux bord^ors ribauz (I) Le Roi d'Angleterre et le jongleur d'Ely (LII) Le Dis de le vescie 3 . prestre (LXIX) 186 The results of the first portion of this study are admittedly negative in nature. We know that the fabliau is not an exemplum, for its primary objective is not instruction. It is not a fable, for it does not usu ally seek to draw a general truth from a specific inci dent. Nor is it a moral tale or saint’s life, for it lacks the doctrinal and reformatory purpose contained therein. It is not a lai, even though in subject matter and structure the two forms may be identical, for its world view is trivial and mundane, not idealistic. Its negative and limited portrayal of man separates it from the chanson de geste; its tone and literary conception distinguish it from the Roman de Renart. While we can say with a fair amount of certainty what a fabliau is not, it remains for us to determine exactly what a fabliau is. This shall be the major objective of the second part of our study. CHAPTER II THE NATURE OF THE FABLIAU The foregoing study of the relationship of the fabliaux in the Recueil cr§n§ral with other medieval lit erary forms reveals three major facts. Foremost of these is the amazing variety of the works which are generally considered fabliaux. Furthermore, a surprising number of these works contain more or less accomplished parody of other types of literature. Finally, the terminology used to describe the works is vague and often contradictory. All three of these facts constitute major sources of frustration to anyone attempting classification and defini tion. As we have seen, the variety of the fabliaux is not confined to their subject matter, but includes form, structure, style, and even intent. The fabliaux share themes and motifs with the exemplum. the fable, the moral tale, the epic, and even the courtly lai. Their form has elements in common with the exemplum, fable, dit, and, surprisingly enough, lyric poetry. Although the fabliau’s structure has many elements in common with the exemplum and the fable, it is not unusual to encounter fabliaux 187 188 which are structured as moral tales and often as lais» Their style ranges from the most banal and unaccomplished to the elaborate and affected. The fabliaux are even varied in intent. While the vast majority are humorous, irreverent, and often obscene, a few pretend to convey didactic messages. Many fabliaux are evidently parodies. The follow ing list, including works containing parodic elements of varying degrees and types, gives some indication of the importance of parody in the fabliaux. La Houce partie (V, XXX) La Bourgeoise d'Orliens (VIII, C) Brunain (X) Des .iii. dames qui trouverent l'anel (XV*) Le Prestre crucefiS (XVIII) Du fevre de Creeil (XXI) Des .ii, changSors (XXIII) D'une seule feme qui servoit .c. chevaliers (XXVI) De Guillaume au faucon (XXXV*) Du povre mercier (XXXVI) De Martin Hapart (XLV) Du chevalier 5 la corbeille (XLVIl) Du mantel mautailliS (LV) Du chevalier a la robe vermeille (LVII*) Le Pet au vilain (LXVIII) De cele qui se fist foutre (LXX) Des putains et des lecheors (LXXVI*) Du vilain qui conquist paradis par plait (LXXXI) Le Testament de l'ane (LXXXII) Le Sentier batu (LXXXV) Du provoire qui menga les meures (XCII*, CXIII) De celui qui bota la pierre (CII, CLII) Do prS tondu (CIV*) De la pucele qui abreva le polain (CVII) Du vilain asnier (CXIV) De l'espervier (CXV) De Saint Piere et du jougleur (CXVII) De la grue (CXXVI*) De la vielle qui oint la palme (CXXVII*) Do maignier qui foti la dame (CXXX) 189 Du chevalier qui fist les cons parler (CXLVII*) Du chevalier qui recovra l'amor (CLI*) The preceding list includes works covering a wide range of subjects. The parody is by no means always of courtly literature, as Nykrog suggests. In fact, fabliaux offer burlesques of moral tales, exempla, fables, miracles, lais, even epic combats. Furthermore, the works span a vast scale of intensity. They range from the irreverent, yet good humored, "Vilain qui conquist paradis par plait" (LXXXI), to the frankly ironic "Putains et lecheors" (LXXVI*). Even the method of parody varies. Some authors play upon the content of various works (XLVII, CXXVI*), others offer pastiches of style and structure (CXV). Be cause of this strong parodic element, it is often difficult to ascertain if the fabliau actually had a nature of its own or if it merely toyed with borrowed themes and struc tures . The vague and often conflicting terminology used to describe the fabliaux is even more troublesome than their variety and parodic tendencies. The confusion re sults from three factors. Works in the Recueil general are designated by a variety of terms. Some are called "exemples," "fables," "contes," yet others, apparently identical to them, are called "dits," "romans," "aventures," "debats," and "truffes." Furthermore, authors are seldom content to designate a work by a single term. They may 190 begin by asserting that the piece in question is not a fabliau and then conclude by stating that not only is it a f a b l i a u , b u t a d i t a s w e l l ( X V I I * ) . O f t e n t h e y g i v e the work several appelations, such as ’ ’fabliau," "exemple," and "dit," making no apparent distinction among them. Consider, for examples S e i g n o r , o i e z un n o v ia u c o n t e Q ue mon f a b l e l d i t e t r a c o n t e . . . (LXV*) A n o th e r a u t h o r s t a t e s : " R a c o n te r v u e i l u n e a v e n t u r e ," but then concludest "Par cest essanple monster vueil" (CVII). Yet another begins: In iceste fable novele Vos conte d'une damoisele . . . a n d s t a t e s a t t h e en d s "A i c e s t m o t f a u t l i f a b l i a u s " (CXI*). The confusion is compounded by the fact that the various manuscripts denote the same work by different names. Here are some examples: Par cest fablel vous vueil moustrer . . . Var: Par cest proverbe vueil conter . . . Conclusion: essemples (fr. 12603)1 D 'o r e n a v a n t c i s f a b l i a u x c o n t e . . . Var: romans (fr. 1553)^ The practice is not confined exclusively to fabliaux. In t h e B a t a i l l e d e c a r e s m e e t ch a rn a cre o n e f i n d s : Isee the fabliau "AuberSe" (CX*) and the notes in the Recueil cr6n6ral, V, p. 302. ^See the fabliau "Du vilain au buffet" (LXXX*) and the notes in the Recueil q6n6ral, III, p. 388. 191 Seignor, je ne vous quier celer: Un fablel vueil renoveler Qui lone tens a este perdus ... Var: conte (fr. 2168), dit (fr. 25545)3 As a result of these facts and in view of the difficulties they entail for any classification and defini tion of the fabliaux, it is tempting to content ourselves with the negative results of Chapter I and to echo Paul Imbs' statement: "Les meilleures definitions pour les genres littSraires ne seraient-elles pas les definitions negatives?"4 Jean Rychner is perhaps correct in ques tioning the legitimacy and possibility of defining the fabliau. Yet, despite his hesitation, the fact remains that the fabliau has been frequently defined. Let us con sider briefly some of these attempts. Jean Frappier assures us that when Jean Bedel de clared himself to be a "rimoiere de fabliaux" (CXXXI*) he knew of exactly what genre he was speaking.3 It is true that fabliau authors have left us some information concerning the origin and nature of their works. In fact, most authors deem it necessary to legitimize their efforts by giving some indication of sources or composers. How ever, such indications in no way form a coherent whole, 3Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 42. 4Ibid., p. 54. (Comment by M. Imbs.) 3Ibid., p. 53. (Comment by M. Frappier.) 192 but are scarcely more than random comments meant to convey to the audience the novelty of their work, its source, and its veracity. Most authors take special pains to inform us that theirs is a new and rhymed version of an old tale* Qui pres de moi se vorroit traire, .1. beau conte m'orroit retraire Dont ge me sui mult entremis, Qu'autresi l'ai en rime mis . . . (CX*) One author prides himself on knowing both the old familiar tales and the new onesj Tant ai dit contes et fableaus Que j'ai trouv£, viez et noveaux . . . (LXXXVH*) Yet statements concerning the exact origins of the ma terial vary. Some authors maintain that their source is written* Nos trovomes en escriture Une merveilleuse aventure . . . (LXXXI) De maint lontain pals i vint Maint roi et maint due et maint conte, Si com l’estoire le raconte. (LV) However, they offer little precise information about this written material. One author designates the language of origin without reference to a specific work or creator: JAKES DE BAISIU, sans dotance, L’a de Tieus6 en Romanc rimSe Por la trufe qu'il a am§e. (LXIX) A few authors declare their sources to be oral: 6"Tieux,” "tyois," or "tiois” is given in the glossary of the Recueil ggngral as "bas-allemand," "nSerlandais." 193 Voudre je un fabliau ja fere Dorn la matiere oi retrere A Vercelai devant les changes. (CXXVI*) Un example vueil conmencier Qu'apris de Monseigneur Rogier . . . (XVIII) More than one insists on the veracity of his work* Un exemple vous en dirai, Si vrai que ja n'en mentirai . . . (LXXXV) Avint, n'a pas .i. an entier, A Guillaume le Penetier . . . (LXXXIII) Dirai en leu de fable voir . . . (LXX) However, some question that a fabliau can be truet Si fabliaux puet veritez estre . . . (CIX*) Seignor, a pres le fabloier, Me vueil & voir dire apoier . . . (CXXXV) Certainly there is no reason to doubt the accuracy of these statements. We have already seen that the fabliau parodies a variety of literary forms and human predica ments and that authors found their material almost any where. The authors themselves bear witness to the fact that a fabliau may be a verse rendition of a well-known folktale heard in some market town or along a trade route. Its material may also be found in written collections of tales in different languages or in the reciters' reper tories . Certainly more than one fabliau was merely an exaggeration and deformation of a real event. Only the authors’ declarations that the event is being related exactly as it happened in real life must be regarded with some scepticism. 194 Fabliau authors also comment on the nature of their works, but these comments are little more than tantalizing hints. None can be termed a coherent defini tion. The authors do inform us that the fabliau is in verse and that it is not original, but adapted from another source, and that the author's creativity plays a role. Chascuns se veut mes entremetre De biaus contes en rime metre . . . (IX*) RimS ai de rime nouvele L'aventure que j’ai cont£e . . . (LXXXV) Por ce m'estuet, ainz que je muire, Faire un flabel d'une aventure . . . (LXXXVII*) The rhyme is not necessarily studied, for one author tells us s Ma paine metrai et m'entente, Tant com je sui en ma jovente, A conter ,i. fabliau par rime Sans colour et sans leonime . . . (CXII*) The fabliau is brief: Ce ne vol pas faire lone conte . . . (CXXXII*) Ichi aprSs vous voel conter .1. flablel courtois et petit . . . (LXI*) D'une aventure que je sai Que j'oi conter a Douai Vous conterai briSment la some . . . (CXXXI*) The author of "Du prestre qu'on porte" (LXXXIX*) even excuses himself because his tale is so long: Enfouis fu sans contredit, Car vous arai contet et dit .1. flabel qui n'est mie bri6s; A entendre est pesans et griSs, Et mout longe en est la matere. 195 The fabliau is usually amusing* Gens sont qui ont plus kier ris£es Et mokeries desghisSes Oir que ne facent siermons; S'en ai estet souvent seraons De ris§es a rime mettre . . . (Vol. S, ap. II) Some authors insist the fabliau may be didactic as well* Vos qui tableaus volez oxr, Peine metez a retenir; Volentiers les devez aprendre, Les plusors por essample prendre, Et les plusours por les risSes . . . (CXL*) Car qui bien i voudroit entendre, Maint bon essample i porroit prendre. (CXV) We must accept these last assertions with some reserva tions, for both are found in works of questionable taste. Moreover, we have already seen that authors who emphasize the moral intent of the fabliau do so in the most obscene works (XVIII, CII, CLII, CVII, CXXX). In accordance with the above statements, it would be possible to define the fabliau as a short work in verse adapted from an already existing oral or written source with intent to demonstrate ingenuity of versification and to provide amusement as well as instruction. Yet such a definition would not be legitimate, for no single fabliau author said as much. Even if such a definition were made, it would not distinguish a fabliau clearly from any other short rhymed work. A wide variety of medieval works, in cluding dits, dfsbats, fables, lais, and exempla, draw upon oral sources and are intended to amuse or provide 196 instruction. If the fabliau is definable, certainly the authors themselves have not managed to accomplish the task satisfactorily. It seems doubtful that when they named their works ’ ’ fabliaux” the term called to mind a well- formulated literary genre. Statements of a variety of medieval authors bear witness to the term's variety of connotation. The author of the Vie de Saint Alexis uses the verb form of the term "fabliau" in the sense of "to kid," "to deceive," or "to lie": "Tant fu rices li plais, ne vous en quier fabler. Later Wace employs the term in much the same way in Rou: "Jeo ne di mie fable, ne jes ne voil fabler."8 In Aucassin et Nicolette the verb has the meaning of "to tell a story" and is synonymous with "dire" and "conter": "Or, dient et content et fablent." These statements cor roborate our finding that the word "fabliau" early lost its association with fabula as an animal story or as a brief narrative with a moral. Translation A of the Disciplina Clericalis (Cha- stoiement d'un pere a son fils) throws further light on the fabliau as it was conceived by writers at the begin ning of the thirteenth century. The father tells his son ^Variant of 1. 160 in the Oxford manuscript. (See Godefroi under the heading "fabler.") ®L. 1355. (See Godefroi under the heading "fabler.") 197 the story of a young man who allowed himself to be drawn into a tavern by the singing of revellers and lewd women. Arrested by error, he was condemned to death along with some assassins who were present. The father uses the tale as a warning against women. The son then sayss Ghiers pere, mout ai grant talent D'oir de lor contenement; De lor uevres et de lor tors, De lor engienz et de lor mors Orreie volentiers parler Por saveir mei d'eles garder. Aucun fablel, aucune rien M'en dites, si fereiz mout bel. Whereupon the father tells the story of the "Feme qui charma son mari" (fabliau CXXXIV). The son requests a third talei Iceste espose . . . Esteit veirement engignoses Par grant engin fu delivree De ce dont el ert encombree, A grant profit li tornereit Qui teus tableaus auques orreit. Per Nykrog sees in this conversation of a father and his son a definition of the fabliau. He sayss II est tres Evident que pour ce traducteur normand du d£but du XIIIe siecle, un fabliau est un conte d tri angle dans lequel la femme se tire d'un embarras par une ruse. La traduction comprend trente et un contes de caracteres tres divers, mais il n'y a parmi eux que ces trois qui, a l'avis du traducteur, soient des fabliaux.^ Only one author actually attempts to define the fabliau and his effort is not that of a literary historian. %ykrog, pp. 60-61. In "Trubert," Douin de Lavesne states: En fabliaux doit fables avoir s’i a il, ce sachiez de voir. Por ce est fabliaux apelSz que de faubles est aun£z. Douins, qui ce fabliau rima, Tesmoigne que il vint ja . . . This "Trubert" is a poetic rendition of Guillaume de Blois' semi-dramatic work Alda. While it is included in BSdier's list of fabliaux as a "sous-genre"H Nykrog, along with most contemporary critics, excludes it from the fabliaux entirely.^ its editor, Jakob Ulrich, calls it a pica resque novel.- * - 3 In fact, "Trubert" has little to recom mend it as a fabliau. It is 2986 lines in length while the longest fabliau ("Du prestre qu'on porte" LXXXIX*) has only 1164 lines. The theme is, at least in part, bio graphical. However, we know of no fabliau that gives even the vaguest information as to its author's life. "Trubert" includes six well-developed episodes taking twenty-five days for their complete unfoldment. No fabliau has as many incidents. Furthermore, the action of the l°Douin de Lavesne, Trubert, altfranzosischer Schelmenroman, ed. Jakob Ulrich (Dresden: 1904), 11. 1-6. **BSdier, Les Fabliaux: itudes de littlrature populaire . . ., p. 32. 12por a more detailed consideration of "Trubert" and its criticism see Jodogne, pp. 1048-49. 13jakob Ulrich gave his edition the subtitle "altfranzosischer schelmenroman." 199 g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u x t a k e s p l a c e i n a m a t t e r o f m om ents o r , a t m o s t , h o u r s . T h e r e f o r e , i t w o u ld se e m t h a t D o u i n 's s t a t e m e n t i s m ore o f a n a p o lo g y t h a n a d e f i n i t i o n . B y c a l l i n g h i s w o rk a f a b l i a u a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y s e q u e n c e f a b l e ^ f a b l i a u h e s e e m s t o b e w a r d in g o f f c r i t i c i s m o f t h e l e n g t h an d c o n t e n t o f h i s w o r k . C e r t a i n l y b e f o r e we c a n c o n s i d e r t h i s an a t t e m p t a t d e f i n i t i o n , w e w o u ld h a v e t o know w h a t D o u in m e a n t b y t h e te r m " f a b l e . " H e r e i t m ay m ean n o m o re t h a n " in v e n t i o n " o r " im a g in a t io n ." C e r t a i n l y " T r u b e r t" d o e s n o t fo r m t h e l i n k , i f s u c h e x i s t s , b e tw e e n t h e f a b l e a n d t h e f a b l i a u . W h ile m e d ie v a l a u t h o r s h a v e l e f t u s o n l y s c a n t y , t o o g e n e r a l , o r i m p r e c i s e in f o r m a t io n c o n c e r n i n g t h e f a b l i a u , t h e c r i t i c s h a v e a c c o m p lis h e d l i t t l e m o r e . S p e a k i n g o f t h e f a b l i a u x , J o s e p h B § d ie r s a id * I l s s o n t d e s c o n f e s s c e q u i l e s c o n s t i t u e e s s e n - t i e l l e m e n t , c ' e s t l e r £ c i t d 'u n e a v e n t u r e . P a r l a , i l s s ’ o p p o s e n t d a n s l a t e r m i n o l o g i e d e s t r o u v e r e s , s o i t a u x d i t s q u i d i v e l o p p e n t , s o u s fo r m e d o g m a tiq u e e t d i d a c t i q u e , d e s th e m e s m o ra u x o u s a t i r i q u e s , s o i t a u x rom an s p a r l e u r p l u s g r a n d b r i e v e t l . 1 4 Y e t t h e f a b l i a u x d o n o t a c t u a l l y r e l a t e an a d v e n t u r e a n d t h e y c e r t a i n l y d i f f e r fr o m t h e r o m a n c e s i n m ore w a y s t h a n l e n g t h . G u s ta v e L a n so n r e p e a t e d B i d i e r ' s a s s e r t i o n b y s t a t i n g : " L es f a b l i a u x s o n t d e s c o n t e s p l a i s a n t s e n v e r s l^B^dier, "Les Fabliaux," p. 58. 200 d o n t l e s s u j e t s s o n t e n g § n S r a l t i r £ s d e l a v i e commune e t p h y s iq u e m e n t , s i n o n m o r a le m e n t e t p s y c h o lo g iq u e m e n t , v r a i s e m b l a b l e s . A r e t h e f a b l i a u x r e a l l y draw n a s a b o d y fr o m e v e r y d a y l i f e ? P e r h a p s t h e y w e r e a t som e r e m o te p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y , b u t n o t b y t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r s a n d b y t h e i r own a d m i s s i o n . A r e t h e y " p h y s iq u e m e n t v r a i s e m b l a b l e s " ? C e r t a i n l y n o t a l l o f th em are.-*-6 A l b e r t P a u p h i l e t a g a in e c h o e d B e d i e r ' s w o r d s a n d a d d e d a v a g u e r e f e r e n c e t o t o n e . He c a l l e d t h e f a b l i a u x t " C o n te s a s s e z b r e f s d o n t r i e n n e s p S c i f i a i t p a r a v a n c e l e ton."-*-^ A l l t h r e e c r i t i c s c o n s i d e r e d t h e f a b l i a u x t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e m id d le c l a s s . P e r N y k r o g p o i n t e d o u t t h i s l o n g - s t a n d i n g m is t a k e b y u n c o v e r i n g t h e p a r o d i c q u a l i t y p r e s e n t i n m any f a b l i a u x . A ssu m in g a u n i t y o f s t y l e a n d o f a u d i e n c e , h e d e c l a r e d t h e f a b l i a u x t o b e a " b u r le s q u e c o u r t o i s " a n d m ore p r o p e r l y a r i s t o c r a t i c t h a n b o u r g e o i s . Y e t J e a n R y c h n e r h a s p r o v e n r e c e n t l y t h a t t h e y h a v e n e i t h e r a s t y l i s t i c u n i t y n o r a u n i t y o f i n t e n t . I n h i s e s t i m a t i o n , t h e m o s t o n e c a n s a y a b o u t t h e f a b l i a u x i s t h a t t h e y a r e " b o n n e s h i s t o i r e s a - ^ G u s t a v e L a n s o n , H i s t o i r e d e l a l i t t ^ r a t u r e f r a n p a i s e ( P a r i s j H a c h e t t e , 1 9 0 3 ) , p . 9 9 . l ^ S e e , f o r e x a m p le , f a b l i a u x X XX IX*, L X *, X C IX *, C X X II* , C X L V II*, t o m e n t io n o n l y a f e w . ^ A lb e r t P a u p h i l e t , L e M oyen a cre, V o l . I o f H i s t o i r e d e l a l i t t g r a t u r e f r a n p a i s e , e d s . F o r t u n a t S t r o w s k i a n d G e o r g e s M o u ln ie r ( 2 v o l s . ; P a r i s : D e l a l a i n , 1 9 3 7 ) , p . 6 7 . 201 s e r v i r a p r e s l e r e p a s ." ^ 8 F i n d i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t t o o v a g u e , Omer J o d o g n e p r o p o s e d a d e f i n i t i o n in t e n d e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e f a b l i a u fr o m t h e l a i . C o n s e q u e n t ly , h e e m p h a s iz e d t h e t o n e o f t h e w o r k s . T h e f a b l i a u is » " . . . un c o n t e en v e r s o u , s u r u n t o n t r i v i a l , s o n t n a r r ^ e s u n e o u p l u s i e u r s a n e c d o t e s p l a i s a n t e s o u e x e m p l a i r e s , l ' u n e t 1 * a u t r e o u l ' u n o u 1 ' a u t r e . T h e w o rd " e x e m p la ir e " s c a r c e l y se e m s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e f a b l i a u . W orks i n t h e R e c u e i l g e n e r a l w i t h a t r u e d i d a c t i c i n t e n t a r e r a r e in d e e d . I f d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e f a b l i a u h a v e b e e n a n n o y in g ly i n a c c u r a t e , v a g u e , o r i n c o m p l e t e , t h e f a u l t l i e s n o t in t h e men w ho h a v e a t t e m p t e d d e f i n i t i o n , b u t i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f a b l i a u i t s e l f . T h e fo r m i s a m a z in g ly r e s i s t a n t t o c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n h a s , i n t h e a fo r e m e n t i o n e d a t t e m p t s , p r o v id e d t h e u n iq u e b a s i s f o r d e f i n i t i o n . A ny e f f o r t s t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e f a b l i a u x b y th e m e s o r m o t i f s , a s B e d i e r , N y k r o g , a n d J o d o g n e h a v e d o n e , m u st e n d i n f r u s t r a t i o n . A l l im a g in a b le c a t e g o r i e s l e a v e f a b l i a u x u n a c c o u n t e d f o r . F u r th e r m o r e , w hen r e d u c e d t o i t s s k e l e t a l th e m e , m any a f a b l i a u i s u n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e fr o m o t h e r g e n r e s . We h a v e s e e n , a lsc ^ t h a t t h e sam e m o t i f s a r e a p t t o - * - 8Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 31. l^Jodogne, p. 1055. 202 r u n t h r o u g h o u t m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f g e n r e . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y fo r m i s e q u a l l y u s e l e s s f o r , r a t h e r th a n b r i n g i n g c o h e s i o n t o t h e f a b l i a u , i t d e m o n s t r a t e s i t s d i v e r s i t y . T h e sam e i s t h e c a s e w i t h s t y l e an d a u d ie n c e a s N y k r o g u n w i t t i n g l y p r o v e d . I f a t t e m p t s a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y th e m e , fo r m , s t y l e , a n d a u d ie n c e h a v e f a i l e d , s o h a v e e f f o r t s t o d e f i n e t h e f a b l i a u a s a g e n r e . G e n r e t h e o r y , l i k e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , s t r i v e s t o b r i n g u n i t y t o d i v e r s i t y . I n a p p ly in g t h i s t h e o r y t o t h e f a b l i a u x , c r i t i c s , s u c h a s B S d ie r , h a v e t e n d e d t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o i n c l u d e a s m any d i v e r g e n t w o r k s a s p o s s i b l e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , c r i t i c s , s u c h a s N y k r o g , h a v e e x h i b i t e d a f a r t o o p r e s s i n g d e s i r e t o l i m i t t h e num ber o f w o r k s a n d t h u s f a c i l i t a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . R e c e n t a t t e m p t s , s u c h a s J o d o g n e ' s , w h ic h s t r i v e t o t a k e a m e d ia n p o s i t i o n , r e t u r n t o fo r m e r v a g u e a p p e l a t i o n s o f t h e f a b l i a u a s a " c o n t e ” o r " a n e c d o t e " a n d i n s i s t u p on i t s d i d a c t i c r o l e . In c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e d u b io u s r e s u l t s o b t a in e d b y t h e f o r e g o i n g i m p r e s s i v e l i s t o f m e d ie v a l s c h o l a r s , we h a v e c h o s e n t o a p p r o a c h t h e f a b l i a u fr o m a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e . S p e a k in g o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g a s t u d e n t o f t h e f a b l i a u x J e a n R y c h n e r s t a t e s i " . . . o n d o i t r e c o n n a i t r e l e s i n d i v i d u s a v a n t d e d o n n e r l a d e f i n i t i o n d e l ' e s p e c e . " 2^ 20Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 52. 203 F o l l o w i n g h i s c o u n s e l , w e h a v e a t t e m p t e d i n C h a p te r I t o p l a c e t h e f a b l i a u w i t h i n t h e m e d ie v a l l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t a n d t h u s t o b e t t e r r e c o g n i z e , a n d s e t a p a r t , i n d i v i d u a l fo r m s ; t h o s e f a b l i a u x w h ic h h a v e m o re in common w i t h o t h e r g e n r e s . L e t u s now p r o c e e d t o a s t u d y o f t h e f a b l i a u x t h e m s e l v e s . A t t h e c l o s e o f C h a p te r I w e p r e s e n t e d , b y w ay o f sum m ary, a l i s t o f f a b l i a u x w h ic h a r e v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o o t h e r g e n r e s . A t t h a t t i m e , w e d i d n o t d e f i n i t e l y e x c l u d e t h e s e w o r k s fr o m t h e b o d y o f f a b l i a u x . To h a v e d o n e s o w o u ld h a v e p u t u s i n t h e d a n g e r o u s p o s i t i o n o f b a n i s h i n g fr o m t h e g e n r e f o u r a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x . L e t u s now c o n s i d e r b r i e f l y t h i s q u e s t i o n o f a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x . O f t h e a p p r o x im a t e l y 1 5 7 f a b l i a u x w h ic h h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d , o n l y f i f t y - s e v e n a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y c a l l e d f a b l i a u x b y t h e i r a u t h o r s . O f t h e s e f i f t y - s e v e n , s i x a r e a l s o a s s i g n e d o t h e r n am es i n t h e sam e m a n u s c r ip t . T h e r e f o r e , o n l y f i f t y - o n e w o r k s , o u t o f t h e 1 5 7 , a r e c a l l e d f a b l i a u x a n d n o t h i n g e l s e . T h is i s n o t an i m p r e s s i v e n u m b er. We p o i n t e d o u t i n C h a p te r I t h a t i t i s n o t l e g i t i m a t e t o c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e s e a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , f o r s u c h a s t u d y w o u ld e x c l u d e m any a c c e p t e d m o d e ls o f t h e fo r m . We h e r e q u e s t i o n t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f c o n s i d e r i n g a f a b l i a u a s s u c h s im p ly b e c a u s e t h e a u t h o r , o r a s u b s e q u e n t c o p y i s t , s a i d i t w a s . A s c a s e s i n p o i n t , l e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e f o u r a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x w h ic h a p p e a r o n o u r l i s t . 204 We h a v e n o t e d t h a t " F r e r e D e n is e " (LXXX VII*) i s a t o t a l l y s e r i o u s w o rk i n w h ic h v i r t u e a n d i n n o c e n c e , a l t h o u g h n o t e x a c t l y r e w a r d e d , a r e a t l e a s t s p a r e d a n d e v i l i s p u n is h e d . I t i s c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o t h e ex em p lu m . Why t h e n d id R u t e b e u f c a l l i t a f a b l i a u ? He d i d n o t s o nam e "Le P e t au v i l a i n " ( L X V I I I ) , "De l a dam e q u i f i t , i i i . t o r s e n t o r l e m o u s t ie r " (LXXIX) , "Le T e s ta m e n t d e l ' a n e " (LXXXIIV a n d "Du v i l a i n q u i c o n q u i s t p a r a d is p a r p l a i t " (L X X X I), a l l o b v io u s f a b l i a u x . I n f a c t , " F r e r e D e n is e " i s t h e o n l y o n e o f R u t e b e u f ' s f a b l i a u x s o e n t i t l e d . I f w e a s s u m e , a s J e a n F r a p p ie r a n d J e a n R y c h n e r w o u ld h a v e u s d o , t h a t R u t e b e u f knew e x a c t l y o f w h a t h e w as s p e a k in g w hen h e c a l l e d " F r e r e D e n is e " a f a b l i a u , t h e n w e m u st a c c e p t i t a s s u c h a n d g i v e t h e f a b l i a u a d e f i n i t i o n a k in t o t h a t o f t h e m o r a l t a l e o r , p o s s i b l y , o f t h e s a t i r i c d i t . T h is w o u ld , i n t u r n , f o r c e u s t o e x c l u d e R u t e b e u f ' s o t h e r f o u r w o rk s fr o m t h e g e n r e f o r t h e y h a v e n o p a r t i n t h e m o r a l t a l e . T h is we h e s i t a t e t o d o , f o r t h e y c o m p r is e a w h o le s c a l e o f f a b l i a u t y p e s an d w e w o u ld n e c e s s a r i l y a l s o n e e d t o e x c l u d e t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h e w o rk s i n t h e R e c u e i l g § n £ r a l . We p r e f e r t o t h i n k t h a t R u t e b e u f d i d n o t know p r e c i s e l y o f w h a t h e w as s p e a k in g a n d u s e d t h e w ord " f a b l ia u " i n a v e r y g e n e r a l s e n s e in d e e d . A n o th e r o f t h e f o u r a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x i s "De p l e i n e b o u r s e d e s e n s " (L X V I I * ). A g a in t h e w ork i s c o m p l e t e l y s e r i o u s i n t o n e w i t h a m o r a l c o n c l u s i o n . I t s s t r u c t u r e 205 an d i n t e n t s t r o n g l y a f f i l i a t e i t t o t h e m o r a l t a l e . Y e t i t i s u n e q u i v o c a l l y nam ed a f a b l i a u . L e t u s rem em b er, h o w e v e r , t h a t t o t h e t r a n s l a t o r o f t h e D i s c i p l i n a c l e r i - c a l i s , a f a b l i a u w as n o m ore th a n a s t o r y i n v o l v i n g w o m en 's c l e v e r n e s s . ”De p l e i n e b o u r s e d e s e n s " i s j u s t s u c h a s t o r y a n d t h i s m ay h a v e d e t e r m in e d t h e a u t h o r t o c a l l h i s w ork a f a b l i a u . T h e l a s t tw o o f t h e f o u r a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x o n t h e l i s t , t h e " D e b a t du c u l e t du con " (XXXIX*) an d t h e " D it d e s c o n s " (X L * ), a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e d i t s an d d & b ats n u m bers X X V III, I , a n d L I I . W ere i t n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e a c t u a l l y c a l l e d f a b l i a u x i n t h e t e x t i t s e l f , n o o n e w o u ld c o n s i d e r c a l l i n g th em a n y t h in g b u t a d i t a n d a d | b a t . T h e o n l y b a s i s f o r n a m in g th e m f a b l i a u x m u st h a v e b e e n t h e i r o b s c e n e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T h e r e f o r e , o b s c e n i t y w as c o n s i d e r e d , a t l e a s t b y so m e , a s sy n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e te r m " f a b l i a u . " L e t u s c a r r y t h e a n a lo g y f u r t h e r . When R u t e b e u f c a l l e d " F r e r e D e n is e " a f a b l i a u , h e m ay h a v e d o n e s o m e r e ly b e c a u s e i t i s a s t o r y a b o u t l u s t f u l p r i e s t s . S u c h a c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e f a b l i a u e v i d e n t l y e x i s t e d i n som e m e a su r e i n t h e M id d le A g e s . T h e r e a r e t w e n t y - f o u r f a b l i a u x t h a t d e a l w i t h t h e c o n c u p i s c e n c e o f c h u r c h m e n . S i x o f t h e s e a r e m e r e ly v a r i a n t s o n t h e " P r e s t r e q u 'o n p o r te " th e m e . O f t h e e i g h t e e n t h e m a t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t w o rk s on l u s t f u l p r i e s t s , e l e v e n a r e a t t e s t e d f a b l i a u x , f o u r h a v e 206 n o a p p e l a t i o n , tw o a r e c a l l e d " e x e m p le s ," o n e a n " a v e n t u r e c o r t o i s e . " T h e te r m s " e x e m p le " a n d " a v e n t u r e c o r t o i s e " a r e h e r e e v i d e n t l y u s e d i n a n i r o n i c s e n s e . T h e r e f o r e , a t l e a s t e l e v e n , an d p o s s i b l y f o u r t e e n , o u t o f e i g h t e e n a u t h o r s c a l l e d a s t o r y a b o u t p r i e s t s a f a b l i a u . E v en i f , i n t h e e y e s o f s o m e , t h e f a b l i a u w as an o b s c e n e s t o r y , a s t o r y a b o u t w o m en 's r u s e s , o r o n e a b o u t l u s t f u l p r i e s t s , w e c a n n o t w e lc o m e t h e s e c o n c e p t s a s c o n s t i t u t i n g a r e a l d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e fo r m . N um erou s m e d ie v a l w o r k s , i n c l u d i n g s a i n t s l i v e s an d e x e m p la , c o n t a i n o b s c e n i t y o r d e c r y t h e s i n s o f women a n d p r i e s t s , y e t o n e w o u ld n o t o n t h i s b a s i s a l o n e c o n s i d e r th em f a b l i a u x . F u r th e r m o r e , n o o n e p e r s o n c o n c e i v e d o f t h e f a b l i a u a s i n c l u d i n g a l l t h r e e t y p e s . E v i d e n t l y R u t e b e u f d i d n o t s h a r e t h e v ie w t h a t a f a b l i a u i s a t a l e a b o u t w o m en 's r u s e s , f o r h e d i d n o t c a l l "De l a dam e q u i f i t . i i i . t o r s e n t o r l e m o u s t ie r " a f a b l i a u . I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , i t se e m s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t f a b l i a u a u t h o r s o r s u b s e q u e n t c o p y i s t s h a d a w e l l - c o n s t i t u t e d n o t i o n o f w h a t a f a b l i a u w a s , a t l e a s t n o t in t h e p r e c i s e te r m s i n w h ic h c r i t i c s d e f i n e l i t e r a r y fo r m s t o d a y . D e f i n i t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t o r , r e c i t e r , o r c o p y i s t . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e f a b l i a u c e r t a i n l y e v o l v e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e a p p r o x im a t e l y 1 5 0 y e a r s o f i t s d e v e lo p m e n t . A s a fo r m , i t se e m s t o h a v e c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e w o rd 207 f a b u l a a n d i t s l a t e r d e r i v a t i v e f a b u l o s u s > f a b u l e u x . F i r s t m e r e ly an i n v e n t e d s t o r y , s o m e t h in g " f e i n t " o r " i m a g i n a i r e , " i t m u st h a v e g r a d u a l l y a ssu m e d t h e c o n n o t a t i o n o f " S to n n a n t" a n d " e x t r a o r d i n a i r e ," an d t h e n m oved o n to w a r d s r e a l i s m . A t l e a s t w hen W a t r iq u e t d e C o u v in (1 3 4 0 ) s p e a k s o f t h e f a b l i a u w h ic h , b y t h e n , h a d r e a c h e d i t s c u l m i n a t i o n , h e se e m s t o v ie w i t a s a " m e r v e i l l e . " I n t h e p r o lo g u e t o t h e " T r o is dam es d e P a r is " ( L X X I I I ) , h e s a y s i J a d i s s o u l o i e n t l e s m e r v e i l l e s C o n t e r , a s f e s t e s e t a s v e i l l e s , C o l i n s , H a u v is , J e t r u s , H e r s e n s ; Or s o n t a P a r i s , d e t o u z s e n s , Les maisons plaines et les rues De grans merveilles avenues . . . He t h e n g i v e s a p i c t u r e o f r e a l i t y w h ic h , i s , in d e e d , m ore f a n t a s t i c t h a n t h e e x a g g e r a t i o n s o f t h e f a b l i a u x . I n v ie w o f t h e v a r i e t y o f c o n n o t a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e te r m " f a b l i a u , " w e f e e l t h a t i t i s h i g h l y d a n g e r o u s t o a c c e p t a w o rk a s s u c h m e r e ly o n t h e a u t h o r ' s w o r d . To l e t t h e te r m i n t e r f e r e w i t h a d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e f a b l i a u i s u n n e c e s s a r y . T h e r e f o r e , l e t u s l e a v e " F r e r e D e n i s e ," "De p l e i n e b o u r s e d e s e n s , ” "Le D e b a t d u c u l e t du c o n ," a n d "Le D i t d e s c o n s " o n t h e l i s t o f v a r i a n t f a b l i a u x a n d l e t u s s e p a r a t e t h e w o rk s on t h i s l i s t fr o m t h e m a in b o d y o f f a b l i a u x . To d o t h i s e l i m i n a t e s n o t o n l y w o r k s w i t h n o r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e f a b l i a u , b u t t h o s e w h ic h a r e c o m p l e t e l y s e r i o u s a n d h a v e an o v e r t l y d i d a c t i c i n t e n t . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e h a s s e r i o u s l y h in d e r e d o r d i s t o r t e d 208 p a s t d e f i n i t i o n s . By e x c l u d i n g m o r a l w o r k s , w e d o n o t im p ly t h a t t h e y h a v e n o r e l a t i o n s h i p w h a t e v e r t o t h e f a b l i a u . I n f a c t , som e o f th em may w e l l com e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d p r e c u r s o r s o r p r i m i t i v e f o r m s , i f t h e f a b l i a u i s p r o v e n som e d a y t o b e a d e g e n e r a t i o n o f d i d a c t i c l i t e r a t u r e . K e e p in g i n m in d t h a t t h e f a b l i a u e v i d e n t l y h ad t h e g e n e r a l m e a n in g o f " in v e n t e d s t o r y , " w e s h a l l now a t te m p t t o d i s c o v e r i f i t a l s o d e s i g n a t e d a s p e c i f i c l i t e r a r y g e n r e . We s h a l l b e g i n t h i s s t u d y b y a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h o s e w o r k s n o t i n c l u d e d on t h e l i s t o f v a r i a n t f o r m s . We s h a l l t h e n p r o c e e d t o a s t u d y o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r , s t r u c t u r e , a n d s t y l e . S i n c e w e know t h a t n o n e o f t h e s e c a n b e , a l o n e , a b a s i s f o r d e f i n i t i o n , o u r m a jo r o b j e c t i v e s h a l l b e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e f a b l i a u b e t t e r . We s h a l l t h e n c o n s i d e r t h e e c o n o m ic an d s o c i a l p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f a b l i a u x , t h e c h a r a c t e r s , a n d t h e f a b l i a u ' s m o r a l c o d e . F i n a l l y , w e s h a l l e x a m in e t h e f a b l i a u ' s u s a g e a n d i t s n a r r a t i v e t y p e . I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t w e s h a l l a t t e m p t a d e f i n i t i o n . 1 . A C l a s s i f i c a t i o n T h is c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f a b l i a u x i s m ade a c c o r d in g t o w h a t w e w i l l c a l l " m a in s p r in g o f a c t i o n . " By t h i s , w e m ean t h a t e l e m e n t , w h e th e r i t b e w o r d , s i t u a t i o n , o r e v e n t , a r o u n d w h ic h t h e a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l w ork i s 209 c e n t e r e d . We f i n d t h i s m eth o d t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y s a t i s f a c t o r y . N o t o n l y d o e s i t p r o v i d e p r e l i m i n a r y in f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r an d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f a b l i a u , b u t i t l e a v e s n o d o u b t a s t o i t s c o m ic i n t e n t . A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y s u b j e c t m a t t e r , m o t i f s , o r th e m e s a lo n e d o e s n o t h a v e t h i s v e r s a t i l i t y . T h r o u g h a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s m e th o d o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , w e f i n d t h a t a l l f a b l i a u x c o n fo r m t o o n e o f t h r e e t y p e s o f m a in s p r in g o f a c t i o n . T h e l e a s t n u m erou s o f t h e s e a r e w h a t w e w i l l te r m t h e " l i n g u i s t i c t y p e ." T h e s e a r e a l l b a s e d o n som e c l e v e r u s e o f la n g u a g e s u c h a s j a r g o n , p u n s , r e t o r t s , o r f o r m u la e . A m ore n u m ero u s c a t e g o r y i s co m p o se d o f t h o s e f a b l i a u x r e s t i n g on som e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t r i a n g l e * h u s b a n d , w i f e , l o v e r . F i n a l l y , t h e m o s t v a r i e d a n d m o s t n u m erou s g r o u p a r e t h e f a b l i a u x f o u n d e d o n a n im p r o b a b le o r e x a g g e r a t e d e v e n t . T h e a c t i o n o f s i x t e e n f a b l i a u x i s b a s e d on som e s o r t o f l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e . T h e c a t e g o r i e s c a n b e l i s t e d a s f o l l o w s * I . T h e L i n g u i s t i c T y p e A . P r o n u n c i a t i o n De d e u x A n g lo y s e t d e l ’ a n e l (X LVI*) B . J a r g o n Du p r e s t r e q u i d i s t l a P a s s i o n (C X V III* ) C . s t a t e m e n t t a k e n l i t e r a l l y De B r u n a in (X) Du p o v r e m e r c ie r (XXXVI) D e l a v i e i l l e q u i o i n t l a p a lm e (C X X V II*) D . D o u b le m e a n in g E s t u l a (XCVI) D e l a m a le H o n te (XC*) 210 E . S t a t e m e n t t h a t i n v i t e s a r e t o r t L e S e n t i e r b a t u (LXXXV) D e G a u te r o n e t d e M a r io n (L IX ) Do p r £ to n d u (C IV *) F . M a g ic w o rd C ' e s t d e l a dam e q u i a v e i n e . . . (XXIX) D e l a d e m o i s e l l e q u i n e p o o i t . . . (L X V * ,C X I* ) D e p o r c e l e t (C l* ) D e l a p u c e l e q u i v o l o i t v o l e r (C V I I I) D e l ' e s c u r i e l (CXXI*) De l a g r u e (CXXVI*) D e l a p u c e l e q u i a b r e u v a l e p o l e i n (C V II) L e t u s now c o n s i d e r e a c h s e c t i o n i n m o re d e t a i l . T h e c o m ic s t o r y o f "De d e u x A n g lo y s e t d e l ' a n e l (X L V I*) c e n t e r s a r o u n d t h e a lm o s t r i d i c u l o u s l y s im p le d e v i c e o f a f o r e i g n e r ’ s m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f F r e n c h . An E n g lis h m a n t r a v e l i n g i n F r a n c e t r i e s t o o b t a i n som e lam b (a g n e a u ) f o r h i s a i l i n g f r i e n d . T h e b u t c h e r u n d e r s ta n d s h im t o b e r e q u e s t i n g d o n k e y m e a t , f o r t h e d i m i n u t i v e " a n e l" c l o s e l y r e s e m b le s t h e w o rd f o r la m b . T h is s im p le e r r o r g i v e s r i s e t o a l l s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n . T h e " P r e s t r e q u i d i s t l a P a s s io n " (C X V III* ) e x p l o i t s a n o t h e r l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e s m e a n in g le s s j a r g o n . An o l d a n d b e f u d d l e d p r i e s t c a n ' t f i n d h i s p l a c e a n d r e a d s random s e n t e n c e s fr o m a v a r i e t y o f s e r m o n s . A c l e r i c f i n a l l y t e l l s h im t o b e s t i l l an d t o t a k e up t h e c o l l e c t i o n . I n t h i s w o r k , t h e a u t h o r w as a b l e t o a c h i e v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f com ed y fr o m t h e v e r y s im p le d e v i c e o f j u x t a p o s i n g p h r a s e s c i t e d o u t o f c o n t e x t . S e v e r a l f a b l i a u x a r e b a s e d on v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s t a t e m e n t s t a k e n l i t e r a l l y . We h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t io n e d 211 " B ru n a in " (X) an d "Du p o v r e m e r c ie r " (XXXVI) i n w h ic h s im p le p e a s a n t s e x p e c t , o r d em an d , t h e l i t e r a l f u l f i l l m en t o f s t a t e m e n t s h e a r d i n s e r m o n s . "De l a v i e i l l e q u i o i n t l a p a lm e ” (C X X V II*) o f f e r s a v a r i a n t o f t h i s t y p e , i n t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t t a k e n l i t e r a l l y i s a p o p u la r p r o v e r b . " E s tu la " (XCVI) a n d t h e " M ale H on te" (XC*) a r e b a s e d on t h e e a s e w i t h w h ic h t h e F r e n c h la n g u a g e le n d s i t s e l f t o p u n s . I n t h e f o r m e r , a c a s c a d e o f e v e n t s p r o c e e d s fr o m t h e f a c t t h a t a d o g ' s n a m e, " E s t u la ," s o u n d s l i k e t h e q u e s t i o n " E s - t u la ? " B e l i e v i n g h i s co m p a n io n t o b e c a l l i n g h im , a r o b b e r a n s w e r s : " o i l v o ir e m e n t , s u i j e s i . " T h is r e s p o n s e s e t s o f f a r i o t o u s s e q u e n c e o f m is h a p s . T h e "M ale H o n te" i s o f t h e sam e t y p e , b u t l i n g u i s t i c a l l y m ore c o m p l i c a t e d . T h e a u t h o r g i v e s h i s c h a r a c t e r t h e p r o p e r nam e o f " H on te" w h ic h a l s o m ean s " e v i l , " " d i s h o n o r ," " sh a m e ." T h e d y in g M r. H o n te a s k s a f r i e n d t o d e l i v e r h i s " m ale" ( t r u n k ) t o t h e k in g a s t r i b u t e . T a k in g t h e s u b s t a n t i v e " m a le ," w h ic h p r e c e d e s t h e p r o p e r n ou n i n t h e g e n i t i v e , f o r t h e a d j e c t i v e "m al" ( e v i l ) , t h e k in g i s h o r r i f i e d t o h e a r r e p e a t e d l y t h e p h r a s e : "La m a le H o n te v o s a p o r t" a d d r e s s e d t o h im a s t h e f r i e n d p a t i e n t l y a t te m p ts t o m ake h i s v i s i t u n d e r s t o o d . T h e hum or r i s e s t o a p i t c h w i t h e a c h r e p e t i t i o n u n t i l t h e k i n g ' s a n g e r b o d e s d a n g e r . A t h i r d p a r t y t h e n s t e p s i n a n d r e s o l v e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y . 212 S e v e r a l f a b l i a u x a r e b a s e d o n a s t a t e m e n t w h ic h i n v i t e s a r e t o r t . T h e "P rS to n d u " r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e w o rd s " fa u c h £ " a n d " to n d u ." T h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e te r m " fa u c h S " ( r e a p e d ) , im m e d ia t e ly c a l l s f o r t h t h e a lm o s t sy n o n y m o u s te r m " ton d u " (m o w e d ). T h e s u b s e q u e n t s e n s e l e s s b a t t l e p r o c e e d s fr o m t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e s e tw o w o r d s . T h e " S e n t i e r b a tu " (LXXXV) i s o f t h e sam e t y p e , b u t h a s a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f s u b t l e t y b e c a u s e o f t h e u s e o f a f a m i l i a r p r o v e r b i n an u n u s u a l c o n t e x t . A s t a t e m e n t in t e n d e d t o r i d i c u l e p u b l i c l y a m em ber o f a g r o u p o f c o u r t i e r s i s t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e p e r p e t r a t o r . " G a u te r o n e t M arion " (L IX ) i s o f s i m i l a r n a t u r e , b u t i n t h i s f a b l i a u i t i s t h e a b s u r d i t y , n o t t h e m a l e v o l e n c e , o f t h e o n e c h a r a c t e r ' s s t a t e m e n t w h ic h c a l l s f o r t h t h e r e p l y . F a b l i a u x s u c h a s "La G rue" (CXXVI*) a r e b a s e d on a te r m w h ic h i s m e a n in g le s s t o o n e c h a r a c t e r . I n o t h e r w o rk s o f t h i s g r o u p , s u c h a s "De l a d e m o i s e l l e q u i n e p o o i t o i’r . . . (LX V*, C X I*) o r " L 'E s c u r ie l" (C X X I* ), a w o rd w h ic h i s s u p p o s e d ly r e p u g n a n t t o o n e c h a r a c t e r s e r v e s a s t h e m a in s p r in g o f t h e e n t i r e a c t i o n . I n y e t a n o t h e r t y p e , s u c h a s t h e " P u c e le q u i v o l o i t v o l e r " ( C V I I I ) , t h e te r m " v o le r " i s en d o w ed w i t h a s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I n " P o r c e l e t " ( C l * ) , a s e e m in g l y m e a n in g le s s p h r a s e a s s u m e s i n c a n t a t o r y p r o p o r t i o n s . A l l o f t h e f a b l i a u x o f t h i s g r o ijp a r e e r o t i c . 213 T h e p s y c h o l o g y a n d t e c h n i q u e s e m p lo y e d i n f a b l i a u x o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c t y p e a r e a m a z in g ly e l e m e n t a r y . T h e p s y c h o lo g y i s o f t e n r e m i n i s c e n t o f c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n ' s w o rd gam es a n d o f t h e " c a n ' t l " " c a n t o o l " t y p e o f d i s p u t e . F a b l i a u x b a s e d o n a m a g ic w o rd o r p h r a s e a r e s i m i l a r t o o l d e r c h i l d r e n ' s i n t r i g u e s i n v o l v i n g p h r a s e s w i t h s e c r e t m e a n in g s , p a s s w o r d s , a n d e n ig m a s . T h e t e c h n i q u e s e s p e c i a l l y a r e e x t r e m e l y s i m p l i s t i c . E v en t h e s e e m i n g l y com p l i c a t e d s e x u a l im a g e r y e m p lo y e d i n f a b l i a u x o f g r o u p F a r e , i n r e a l i t y , o n l y v a r i a t i o n s o n a s im p le m e ta p h o r . T h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y o f f a b l i a u x a r e t h o s e c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e t r i a n g l e i h u s b a n d , w i f e , l o v e r . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t h e m a in s p r in g o f a c t i o n i s t h e s i t u a t i o n t r i a n g l e i t s e l f . H o w e v e r , w e h a v e l i s t e d s u b c a t e g o r i e s c o r r e s p o n d in g t o t h e o u tc o m e o f e v e n t s . T h e s e s u b - c a t e g o r i e s p o i n t o u t t h e c o m ic n a t u r e o f t h e a c t i o n . T h e y a l s o r e v e a l i t s e s s e n t i a l s a m e n e s s . I I . T h e S i t u a t i o n T r i a n g l e : H u sb a n d , W if e , L o v e r A . R e s u l t i n g i n r i d i c u l e o f t h e h u sb a n d L a S a i n e r e s s e (XXV) D e G u illa u m e a u f a u c o n (XXV*) D 'A u b e r S e (CX*) Du p r e s t r e q u i a b e v e t e (L X I*) D e l a dam e q u i f i s t t r o i s t o r s (LXXIX) Du v i l a i n d e B a i l l u e l (C IX *) Do m a ig n ie r (CXXX) Du c h e v a l i e r q u i r e c o v r a l ’ am or . . . (C L I*) D e l a s o r i s e t e d e s e s t o p e s (CV*) Du m e u n ie r e t d e s d e u x c l e r c s (CXIX) G om b ert e t l e s d e u x c l e r c s (X X I) L e M e u n ie r d 'A r le u x (X X X III) B . R e s u l t i n g i n p u n is h m e n t o f t h e h u sb a n d La B o u r g e o i s e d ’O r l i e n s ( V I I I ) L e F l a b e l d ' A l o u l (X XIV *) 214 C . R e s u l t i n g i n t h e c o m ic e s c a p e o f t h e l o v e r D es t r e s c e s (X C IV *) L e C u v ie r (IX * ) Du f o t& o r (X X V III* ) Du c h e v a l i e r a l a c o r b e i l l e (X L V II) Du p r e s t r e e t d e l a dam e (L I * ) Du c h e v a l i e r a l a r o b e v e r m e i l l e (L V II* ) D e s b r a i e s a u c o r d e l i e r (L X X X V III*, V o l . 6 , a p . I ) D e l ' e s p e r v i e r (CXV) Du c l e r c q u i f u r e p u s d e r i e r e l ' e s c r i n (X C I) D e l a dam e q u i f i s t e n t e n d a n t . . . (CXXIV) L e D i t du p l i g o n ( V o l . 6 , a p . I I ) D . R e s u l t i n g i n t h e p u n is h m e n t o f t h e l o v e r Du p r e s t r e c r u c e f i e (X V I I I) D es . i i . c h a n g e o r s (X X I I I ) Du p r e s t r e q u i f u m is a u l a r d i e r (X X X II) D e C o n s t a n t d u H am el (C V I*) D e C o n n e v e r t (C X X V III) Du p r e s t r e t e i n t (CXXXIX) D e l a dam e q u i s e v a n g e a (CXL*) Du p r e s t r e e t d u l e u (CXLV) Du p r e s t r e e t du m o u to n (CXLIV) D 'E s t o r m i (X IX *) Du p r e s t r e q u 'o n p o r t e (LXXXIX*) Du s e g r e t a i n (C X X III) Du s e g r e t a i n m o in e (CXXXVI) D es . i i i i . p r e s t r e s ( C X L I I ) L e D i t d o u s o u c r e t a i n (CL*) E . D i s c o v e r y o f t h e w i f e ' s i n f i d e l i t y D e 1 ' e n f a n t q u i f u r e m is a u s o l e i l (X IV ) Du c h e v a l i e r q u i f i s t s a fem m e c o n f e s s e (X V I) L e P o v r e c l e r c (C XXX II*) D e c e l u i q u i b o t a l a p i e r r e ( C I I , C L II) Du f e v r e d e C r e e i l (X X I) A l l f a b l i a u x o f t h e f i r s t g r o u p (A ) p u t t h e h u s b a n d a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e a n d t h e n t a k e d e l i g h t a t h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r p h y s i c a l i n a b i l i t y t o d e f e n d h i m s e l f . How e v e r , d e g r e e s o f r i d i c u l e v a r y . I n som e w o r k s , s u c h a s "Le C h e v a l i e r q u i r e c o v r a l'a m o r d e s a dame" ( C L I * ) , r i d i c u l e i s s l i g h t . I n o t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e " P r e s t r e q u i a b e v e t e " (L X I*) o r "De l a dam e q u i f i t . i i i . t o r s " (LXXIX), t h e h u sb a n d i s b l a t e n t l y s t u p i d a n d r e c e i v e s n o m e r c y . 215 T h e g r e a t e s t d e g r e e o f r i d i c u l e i s p r e s e n t i n t h e " S a i n e r e s s e " (X X V ), f o r t h e a u t h o r s k i l l f u l l y c o n t r a s t s t h e h u s b a n d 's c o c k y a s s u r a n c e t h a t h e c o u l d n e v e r b e d e c e i v e d w i t h t h e w i f e ' s r a t h e r o b v io u s r u s e . I n a l l c a s e s , t h e com ed y i s g o o d - n a t u r e d a n d e n o r m o u s . T h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e f a b l i a u x o f g r o u p A i s u s u a l l y b a s e d on t h e w i f e ' s v o l u n t a r y i n f i d e l i t y , s o m e tim e s w i t h t h e h u s b a n d 's f u l l k n o w le d g e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e tw o e x c e p t i o n s . I n t h e " M eu n ier d 'A r le u x " (X X X III) , a m a r r ie d man a t t e m p t s t o s e d u c e a y o u n g g i r l a n d b e c o m e s t h e v i c t i m o f h i s own s c h e m e . I n "Du m e u n ie r e t d e s d e u x c l e r c s " ( CXIX, X X I ) , tw o s t u d e n t s s p e n d in g t h e n i g h t w i t h a man an d h i s f a m i l y p r o f i t fr o m t h e p r e s e n c e o f b o t h w i f e a n d d a u g h t e r a n d m ake a f o o l o f t h e u n c o m p r e h e n d in g h u s b a n d . N e i t h e r w i f e n o r d a u g h t e r sh o w s h e r s e l f t h e w i l l i n g v i c t i m u s u a l l y fo u n d i n t h e f a b l i a u x . A r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll num ber o f f a b l i a u x t a k e d e l i g h t i n t h e p h y s i c a l p u n is h m e n t o f t h e h u s b a n d . T h is p u n is h m e n t, w hen i t d o e s o c c u r , i s u s u a l l y c o m p r is e d o f n o m ore th a n a b e a t i n g b y , a n d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f , s o c i a l i n f e r i o r s . I n t h e " B o u r g e o is e d ' O r l i e n s " ( V I I I ) , t h e b e a t i n g i s a r e w a r d f o r j e a l o u s y , y e t i n t h e " F l a b l e l d ’A lo u l" (X X IV *)* t h e h u sb a n d f a l l s h e i r t o a c a s c a d e o f m i s f o r t u n e s f o r a p p a r e n t l y n o r e a s o n . I t i s q u i t e common f o r a n a u t h o r t o e x p l o i t t h e c o m ic p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e l o v e r ' s f o r c e d e s c a p e d u r in g o r a f t e r a n a m orou s e n c o u n t e r . F a c e d w i t h t h e h u s b a n d 's im m in e n t p r e s e n c e , t h e l o v e r s o m e tim e s b r a v e s i t o u t a s i n t h e " F o t io r " ( X X V I I I * ) , o p e n l y a d m i t t i n g w h a t h e cam e f o r , b u t i n s i s t i n g h i s w i s h w as n e v e r f u l f i l l e d . M ore o f t e n h e d e p e n d s u p o n t h e w i f e ' s i n g e n u i t y t o g e t h im o u t o f t h e p r e d ic a m e n t . S u c h i s t h e c a s e i n "La Dame q u i f i s t e n t e n d r e . . . " (CXXIV) a s w e l l a s f a b l i a u x L X X X V III*, I X * , L V I I * , L I * . T h e w i f e ' s r u s e w i l l v a r y , b u t w h a t e v e r i t s n a t u r e , i t w i l l i n v o l v e som e t e m p o r a r y p h y s i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s c o m f o r t f o r t h e l o v e r . T h e " C le r c q u i f u r e p u s d e r i e r e l ’ e s c r i n ” (X C I) i s an o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p le . T h e w i f e m a n a g es t o s a v e tw o l o v e r s fr o m h e r h u sb a n d a n d fr o m e a c h o t h e r , b u t n o t w i t h o u t g i v i n g a l l t h r e e a f e w a n x io u s m o m en ts. O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e e s c a p e i n v o l v e s d u p in g a f o u r t h p a r t y , s u c h a s an o l d woman h i r e d b y t h e h u sb a n d t o k e e p g u a r d . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e d i s c o m f o r t t o t h e f o u r t h p a r t y i s m in im a l, b u t i t s c o m ic a s p e c t s r e m a in s t r o n g . A g o o d e x a m p le i s fo u n d i n t h e " C h e v a lie r a l a c o r b e i l l e " (X L V II) i n w h ic h t h e o l d woman i s n e v e r h a r m e d , b u t s t i l l b e h a v e s c o m i c a l l y b e c a u s e s h e c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t i s h a p p e n in g . Our c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t l o v e r s a r e n o t o n l y f r e q u e n t l y i n c o n v e n i e n c e d , b u t , i f t h e y h a p p e n t o b e p r i e s t s , a r e p u n is h e d a n d s e v e r e l y . F a b l i a u x s u c h a s "D es , i i . c h a n g e o r s " (X X I I I ) a n d t h e "Dame q u i s e v e n g e a " (CXL*) d o l i t t l e m o re t h a n p r e s e n t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p h y s i c a l d a n g e r f o r t h e l o v e r , b u t o t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e 217 " P r e s t r e q u i f u m is a u l a r d i e r " (X X X II) a n d t h e " P r e s t r e c r u c e f i § " ( X V I I I ) , h o ld h im u p t o p u b l i c s c o r n . I n " C o n s ta n t du H am el" ( C V I * ), t h e " P r e s t r e e t l e le u " (C X L V ), a n d t h e " P r e s t r e e t l e m ou ton" (C X L IV ), p u b l i c r i d i c u l e i s r e i n f o r c e d b y p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t a n d , i n t h e c a s e o f " C o n s ta n t du H a m el," b y p e r s o n a l d i s h o n o r . P u n is h m e n t i n " C o n n e v e r t" (C X X V IIl) i n v o l v e s m u t i l a t i o n a n d t h e a lm o s t r i t u a l i s t i c b u r n in g o f t h e o f f e n s i v e m em ber. S i x f a b l i a u x , a l l v a r i a n t s o f t h e sam e th e m e , r e s u l t i n t h e d e a t h o f a r e a l , o r s u p p o s e d , l o v e r . No f a b l i a u x i n c l u d e p h y s i c a l p u n is h m e n t o f t h e w i f e . I n t h e " P o v r e c l e r c " (C X X X II* ), a y o u n g s t u d e n t i s r e f u s e d f o o d an d l o d g i n g s b y a w i f e w ho i s a n x i o u s l y a w a i t i n g h e r l o v e r ' s a r r i v a l . He t a k e s h i s r e v e n g e b y r e v e a l i n g t h e w i f e ' s s i n s t o t h e h u s b a n d . H o w e v e r , t h e h u sb a n d i s t o o i n e f f e c t u a l t o c h a s t i s e h e r . T h e " C h e v a lie r q u i f i s t s a fem m e c o n f e s s e " (X V I) i n v o l v e s e x p o s u r e o f t h e w i f e ' s c o n d u c t , b u t t h i s e x p o s u r e i s n o t p u b l i c an d b y i t t h e h u sb a n d r e a l l y o n l y a d d s t o h i s own h u m i l i a t i o n . I n t h e " E n fa n t q u i f u t r e m is a u s o l e i l " (X IV ) t h e in n o c e n t c h i l d i s p u n is h e d w h i l e t h e w i f e s u f f e r s o n l y i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h h i s l o s s . H ow ever v a r i e d i n i n c i d e n t , t h e s i t u a t i o n t r i a n g l e s t o r i e s a r e e x a s p e r a t i n g l y s i m i l a r i n i n t e n t a n d t e c h n i q u e . A l l a im t o p r o d u c e u p r o a r io u s l a u g h t e r . T h is i s a cco m p l i s h e d i n v a r i a b l y b y p l a c i n g t h e h u sb a n d o r l o v e r a t a 218 d i s a d v a n t a g e a n d t h e n o b s e r v i n g h i s d i s c o m f i t u r e . E v en i n t h o s e w o rk s w h e r e t h e w i f e ' s i n f i d e l i t y i s d i s c o v e r e d , i t i s t h e h u sb a n d w ho i s r i d i c u l o u s b e c a u s e h e an d e v e r y o n e e l s e know t h a t h e i s a c u c k o l d . E v e n t s se e m t o a ssu m e a n a lm o s t r i t u a l i s t i c n a t u r e , f o r t h e a u d ie n c e w as i n c o n s t a n t a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a p u r s u i t o r a c h a s t i s e m e n t . T h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e s e may v a r y , b u t t h e y a lw a y s fo r m t h e c u lm i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n . T h e a c t i o n o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u x e v o l v e s fr o m an im p r o b a b le o r e x a g g e r a t e d e v e n t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , m o s t o f t h e s e e v e n t s , s i m i l a r t o t h e l i n g u i s t i c a n d s i t u a t i o n t r i a n g l e c a t e g o r i e s , a r e draw n fr o m p l a t i t u d e s o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n . Y e t t h e a r t i s t ' s im a g in a t i o n h a s s o d e fo r m e d th em t h a t t h e y a r e n o l o n g e r p h y s i c a l l y o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y p r o b a b l e . O ur c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e f a b l i a u x * l a c k o f c r e d i b i l i t y . I I I . T he I m p r o b a b le o r E x a g g e r a t e d E v e n t A . N a t u r e o f t h e h a p p e n in g 1 . P h y s i c a l l y im p r o b a b le a n d /o r e x a g g e r a t e d Du v i l a i n a s n i e r (CXIV) L e T e s ta m e n t d e 1 ' a s n e (LX XX II) Du v i l a i n q u i c o n q u i s t p a r a d is (LXXXI) D es p u t a i n s e t d e s l e c h e o r s (LXXVI*) L e P e t a u v i l a i n (L X V III) Du m a n t e l m a u t a i l l S (LV) Du p e c h e u r d e P o n t s u r S e i n e (L X I I I ) L 'A n e l q u i f a i s o i t . . . (LX) De S a i n t P i e r r e e t du j o u g l e u r (C X V II) L e J u g e m e n t d e s c o n s (C X X II*) L i S o h a iz d e s v e z (CXXXI*) L e s . i i i i . s o h a i t s S a i n t M a r t in (CXXXIIT*) D e l a d e m o i s e l l e q u i s o n j o i t (CXXXIV) D e M a r tin H a p a r t (XLV) 219 D es . i i i . dam es (X C IX *, C X II* ) Du c h e v a l i e r q u i f i s t l e s c o n s p a r l e r (C X L V II*) 2 . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y im p r o b a b le a n d /o r e x a g g e r a t e d D es . i i i . c h a n o i n e s s e s d e C o u lo in g n e (LX XII) D e s t r o i s b o c u s ( I I * ) De B e r a n g e r a u l o n e c u l (LXXXVI*) D e l ' e v e s q u e q u i b e n e i’ l o c o n (LX XV II) D es . i i i . m e s c h in e s (LX IV ) La H o u ce p a r t i e (V , XXX) De c e l e q u i s e f i s t f o u t r e (LXX) Du p r e s t r e q u i o t m ere a f o r c e (CXXV*) Du p r o v o s t 3 l ’ aum uche ( V I I * ) D e l a dam e e s c o l l i S e (CXLIX*) De S i r e H a in e t d e Dame A n i e u s e (V I* ) Du v a l l e t a u x . x i i . fem m es (L X X V III) Du p r o v o i r e q u i m an gea m u res (X C I I * , C X III) D e l a v i e l l e t e (CXXIX*) L e V i l a i n d e F a r b u (XCV) L e D i t d e l a g a g e u r e (X V I I I) Du s o t c h e v a l i e r (XX*) L e D i t d e l e n o n n e t e ( V o l . 6 , a p . I l l ) B . R e p e t i t i o n o f t h e h a p p e n in g 1 . C a s c a d e o f e v e n t s D e B a r a t e t d e H a im e t (X C V II*) D es t r o i s a v e u g l e s d e C o m p ien g n e (IV * ) Du p r e s t r e e t d ' A l i s o n (X XX I*) De B o i v i n d e P r o v in s (CXV I*) 2 . C o n t r iv e d d o u b le m a in s p r in g Du v i l a i n d u b u f f e t (LXXX*) D e l a c r o t e (L V I I I * ) D e l a c o i l l e n o i r e (C X L V III*) D e C h a r io t l e j u i f (L X X X III) L e P r e s t r e e t l e c h e v a l i e r (XXXIV) L e B o u c h e r d ’A b e v i l l e (LXXXIV) La P l a n t e z (LXXV) De J o u g l e t (X C V II*) C . T h e m a in s p r in g g i v e s r i s e t o u n b e l i e v a b l e e v e n t s L e L a i d ’A r i s t o t e (CXXXVII) D e B r i f a u t (CXXX) D e l ’o u e a u c h a p e l a i n (C X L III) Du p r e s t r e e t d e s . i i . r i b a u z (L X II) L e D i t d e s p e r d r i x (X V II* ) L e s . i i i . d am es q u i t r o v e r e n t l ’ a n e l (X V *, CXXXVIII) I t i s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e h a p p e n in g w h ic h d i v o r c e s t h e w ork fr o m r e a l i t y . S o m e tim e s t h e e v e n t 220 i s p h y s i c a l l y u n b e l i e v a b l e . W ould an a s s d r i v e r r e a l l y f a i n t on c o n t a c t w i t h p e r fu m e a s d o e s t h e " v i l a i n a s n i e r " (C X IV )? Do d o n k e y s w r i t e w i l l s (L X X X II)? I f a p e a s a n t e v e r e n t e r e d h e a v e n b y p l e a d i n g , o r i f S a i n t P e t e r p la y e d a c a r d gam e w i t h t h e k e e p e r o f h e l l , c e r t a i n l y n o m o r t a l w o u ld b e p r i v i l e g e d t o w i t n e s s t h e e v e n t (LX XX I, C X V I I). F u r th e r m o r e , i n e v e r y d a y l i f e man i s n o t g r a n t e d w is h e s b y s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s w h e th e r f a i r i e s o r s a i n t s (C X L V II*, C X X X III*) . D ream s d o n o t com e t r u e (C X X X IV ), k n i g h t s do n o t a r r i v e b e a r i n g m a g ic c l o a k s (L V ), a n d y o u n g men d o n o t f i n d m a g ic r i n g s on t h e r o a d (L X ). A t o t h e r t i m e s , t h e p s y c h o lo g y b a s i c t o t h e a c t i o n se e m s i n c r e d i b l e . One w o u ld b e t r u l y a s t o n i s h e d t o f i n d n u n s b e h a v in g l i k e t h e t h r e e " c h a n o in e s s e s " (L X X II) o r b is h o p s a s f o o l i s h a n d d e p r a v e d a s t h e o n e i n f a b l i a u L X X V II. S m a ll c h i l d r e n r a r e l y d e m o n s t r a t e s u c h w isd o m an d s u b t l e t y a s t h e o n e i n t h e "H ouce p a r t i e " (V , X X X ). O ne w o n d e r s in d e e d i f a w i f e w o u ld u n d e r t a k e t h e e l a b o r a t e d i s g u i s e , d e c e p t i o n , a n d a t t e n d a n t p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t a n d d a n g e r d e s c r i b e d i n " B e r a n g e r a u l o n g c u l" (LXXXVI) j u s t t o r i d i c u l e h e r h u sb a n d f o r h i s c o w a r d ic e . I n s e v e r a l f a b l i a u x , t h e s t u p i d i t y o f o n e o r m ore o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s i s e x a g g e r a t e d o u t o f a l l p r o p o r t i o n . T h e " V i l a i n d e F arb u " (XCV) i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . I t t e l l s o f a fa r m e r s o g u l l i b l e t h a t h i s i n f a n t s o n c a n , a n d d o e s , o u t w i t h im . Or c o n s i d e r t h e " s o t c h e v a l i e r " (XX*) w h o s e i d i o c y 221 c o n t a m in a t e s o t h e r s a n d r e s u l t s i n a w h o le s e r i e s o f im p r o b a b le e v e n t s . I n som e f a b l i a u x i t i s n o t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e h a p p e n in g i t s e l f , b u t i t s r e p e t i t i o n , w h ic h m ak es t h e s i t u a t i o n u n b e l i e v a b l e . T h e t r i p l e n a t u r e o f t h e d e c e p t i o n i n t h e " T r o is a v e u g l e s d e C om p ien gn e" (I V * ) d e s t r o y s w h a t e v e r c r e d i b i l i t y e a c h e v e n t w o u ld h a v e h a d a s a s i n g l e u n i t . T h a t a man m e e t s t h r e e b l i n d men o n t h e r o a d an d t r i c k s th em i n t o b e l i e v i n g h e h a s g i v e n th em som e m oney i s , i n i t s e l f , q u i t e p l a u s i b l e . When o n e a d d s t o i t d e c e p t i o n s b y t h e sam e m an , o n t h e sam e d a y , o f an in n k e e p e r a n d a p r i e s t , o n e ' s c a p a c i t y f o r b e l i e f i s s e r i o u s l y s t r a i n e d . I n f a b l i a u x s u c h a s " B a r a t e t H airnet" (X C V II*) a n d " B o iv in d e P r o v in s " (C X V I* ), t h e c a s c a d e o f e v e n t s p r o c e e d i n g fr o m t h e f i r s t i l l o g i c a l a c t i o n c o m p l e t e l y d e f i e s b e l i e f . H o w e v e r , so m e f a b l i a u x a r e n o t e n t i r e l y u n b e l i e v a b l e . "La Dame e s c o l l i i e " (C X L IX * ), s o r i d i c u l o u s t o m od ern t a s t e s , m ay w e l l h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m e d ie v a l v e r s i o n o f a p r a c t i c a l j o k e . T h e b a t t l e o f " S i r e H a in e t Dame A n ie u s e " (V I* ) i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y w i t h o u t p a r a l l e l i n m od ern e x i s t e n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , m any a y o u n g man h a s p r o b a b ly w is h e d f o r a h a r e m , b u t u l t i m a t e l y c o n t e n t e d h i m s e l f w i t h o n e m a te a s d o e s t h e y o u n g man i n "Du v a l l e t a u x . x i i . fe m e s" (L X X V I I I ). T h e d i s p u t e o v e r t h e h o r s e i n " L es , i i . c h e v a u x " ( X I I I * ) m ig h t b e w i t n e s s e d , w i t h som e 222 a l t e r a t i o n s , o n m a r k e t d a y e v e n i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . N o n e t h e l e s s , a l l t h e s e w o r k s p o s s e s s som e d e g r e e o f e x a g g e r a t i o n a n d c a n , t h e r e f o r e , b e in c l u d e d i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e m a in s p r in g o f a c t i o n i s c o n t r i v e d t o g i v e r i s e t o a s e c o n d a c t i o n i n v o l v i n g a r e t o r t o r r e v e n g e . S u c h a p r o c e d u r e o b v i o u s l y d i m i n i s h e s t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e s e f a b l i a u x , f o r t h e o u tc o m e i s im p l i e d b y t h e f i r s t a c t i o n . T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n f a b l i a u x l i k e "La C o i l l e n o ir e " (C X L V III* ) i n w h ic h a w i f e ' s f a u l t - f i n d i n g i s a n o b v io u s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e h u s b a n d 's u n p l e a s a n t r e t o r t . O f c o u r s e , t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e r e s p o n s e i s n o t know n a n d t h e s u r p r i s e i t b r i n g s w i t h i t c o m p r is e s t h e c o m e d y . I n w o rk s s u c h a s "Le V i l a i n au b u f f e t " (L X X X *), n o t o n l y i s t h e i n i t i a l a c t i o n c o n t r i v e d a n d a r t i f i c i a l , b u t t h e s e c o n d , a r e v e n g e i n k i n d , i s t o o p e r f e c t . How o f t e n i s i t r e a l l y p o s s i b l e t o a d m i n i s t e r r e v e n g e i n t h e e x a c t m an n er t h a t t h e i n s u l t w as p e r p e t r a t e d ? O f c o u r s e , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e v e n g e i s b r o u g h t a b o u t a g a i n s t a l l o d d s p r o v i d e s t h e h u m or. Som e f a b l i a u x h a v e c o m p l e t e l y b e l i e v a b l e m a in s p r in g s o f a c t i o n , b u t t h e e v e n t s r e s u l t i n g fr o m th em a r e h i g h l y u n l i k e l y . A c l e r i c m ig h t w e l l e a t h i s s u p e r i o r ' s s u p p e r ( C X L I I I ) . W h eth er h e w o u ld s u b s e q u e n t l y sm e a r t h e c r u c i f i x ' s m o u th w i t h g r e a s e i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . T h a t t h e p r i e s t w o u ld b e l i e v e t h e c r u c i f i x a t e h i s f o o d i s 223 i n c r e d i b l e . T h r e e women m ig h t f i n d a v a l u a b l e r i n g o n t h e r o a d , b u t w o u ld t h e y r e a l l y g o t o t h e t r o u b l e o f i n v e n t i n g e l a b o r a t e s c h e m e s t o d e c e i v e t h e i r h u sb a n d s j u s t t o d e t e r m in e w h ic h o f th em d e s e r v e d p o s s e s s i o n o f i t (X V *, C X X X V III)? T h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e r i n g s e e m s n o t h in g m o re t h a n a d e v i c e t o s e t i n m o t io n t h e t r i p l e d e c e p t i o n a n d i s , t h e r e f o r e , u n b e l i e v a b l e . A g a in , B r i f a u t ( C I I I ) m ig h t l o s e h i s m e r c h a n d is e i n t h e m a r k e t p la c e , b u t w o u ld h e d i e t h e sam e n i g h t a s t h e r e s u l t o f an o a t h c o n c e r n in g t h e l o s s ? I n a l l t h e s e c a s e s , t h e m a in s p r in g i t s e l f h a s an a r t i f i c i a l a n d c o n t r i v e d q u a l i t y . I n d i v i d u a l f a b l i a u x i n t h e f o r e g o i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n m ay, o f c o u r s e , h a v e e l e m e n t s o f m ore t h a n o n e c a t e g o r y . W h ile "La C r o t t e " (L V I I I * ) i s b a s i c a l l y an im p r o b a b le e v e n t , i t a l s o h a s l i n g u i s t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s b e c a u s e i t i s b a s e d o n a r e j o i n d e r . T h e " P r e s t r e e t l e m ou ton " (CXLIV) i s f o u n d e d on t h e t r i a n g l e , b u t i s a l s o a c o m p l e t e l y u n r e a l e v e n t . T h e " E s p e r v ie r " (C X V ), a g a i n b a s e d o n t h e t r i a n g l e , i n c l u d e s t h e l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e o f a p h r a s e w i t h d o u b le m e a n in g a s w e l l . A u th o r s m an age t o u s e a s m uch a s p o s s i b l e a l l t h r e e e le m e n t s o f com edy: t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e la n g u a g e , an d t h e e x a g g e r a t i o n o r d e f o r m a t io n o f an o t h e r w i s e n o r m a l o c c u r r e n c e . O f t e n f a b l i a u x w i t h i d e n t i c a l th e m e s h a v e d i f f e r e n t m a in s p r in g s o f a c t i o n . T h e m o s t o b v io u s e x a m p le s o f t h i s p h en om en on a r e t h e n u m erou s v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e 224 " P r e s t r e q u 'o n p o r t e . " One o f t h e s e , " C o n s ta n t du H am el" ( C V I * ), i s b a s e d o n t h e t r i a n g l e , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s d e r i v e t h e i r a c t i o n fr o m im p r o b a b le e v e n t s . One o f t h e s e r i e s , "D es . i i i . b o g u s" ( I I * ) , i s a c o m b in a t io n o f t h e t r i a n g l e a n d a n im p r o b a b le e v e n t . T h e w i f e f e a r s t h a t h e r j e a l o u s h u sb a n d w i l l t h i n k s h e h a s an a m orou s i n t e r e s t i n t h e t h r e e m i n s t r e l s a n d , t h e r e f o r e s t u f f s th em i n a b o x w h e r e t h e y s m o t h e r . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e m any v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e r e t o r t a n d r e v e n g e th e m e e v i d e n c e d i f f e r e n t m a in s p r in g s o f a c t i o n . T h e " S e n t i e r b a tu " (LXXXV) i s c l e a r l y l i n g u i s t i c , t h e " E n fa n t q u i f u r e m is a u s o l e i l " (X IV ) i s b a s e d o n t h e t r i a n g l e , an d "De l a c r o t t e " (L V I I I * ) p r o c e d e s fr o m an im p r o b a b le e v e n t . L e t u s e m p h a s iz e a g a i n , t h a t w h i l e t h e f a b l i a u x a r e b a s e d o n t h e e t e r n a l p r o b le m s o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e som e p a r t i n t h e r e a l i t i e s o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , e v e n t s a r e d e fo r m e d o r e x a g g e r a t e d s o g r e a t l y t h a t t h e y b eco m e im p r o b a b le , i f n o t d o w n r ig h t i n c r e d i b l e . W h ile a l l m ay a g r e e t h a t w id o w s a r e n o t a lw a y s f a i t h f u l , o n e f i n d s i t h a r d t o b e l i e v e t h a t a w id ow w o u ld f i n d , an d s u b m it t o , t h e man o f h e r d rea m s t h e v e r y d a y o f h e r h u s b a n d 's f u n e r a l an d i n t h e g r a v e y a r d I T h is d e f o r m a t io n i s i n t e n t i o n a l ! I t i s t h e f a b l i a u * s m o s t c u s to m a r y a n d s u c c e s s f u l b r a n d o f h u m or. T h e a b o v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s c e r t a i n l y n o t r e v e l a t o r y o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f a b l i a u , n o r i s i t m e a n t t o b e . 225 I t i s p r i m a r i l y an o r d e r i n g o f m a t e r i a l s a t h a n d , b u t i t h a s s e v e r a l s a t i s f y i n g r e s u l t s . F i r s t , a l l e x c e p t t h r e e f a b l i a u x a r e e a s i l y c l a s s i f i e d a n d t h e s e d o n o t p r e s e n t c a s e s o f e x tr e m e v a r i a t i o n . 21 F u r th e r m o r e , t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e v e a l s t h e b a s i c s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l fr o m w h ic h f a b l i a u x a r e c o n s t r u c t e d . I t a l l o w s o n e t o g l i m p s e t h e r e p e t i t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e a c t i o n an d t o r e a l i z e t h a t f a b l i a u x a r e co m p o se d o f v a r i a t i o n s o n a r a t h e r l i m i t e d num ber o f s i t u a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e a u t h o r s m ake u s e o f e v e r y c o m ic p o s s i b i l i t y , w h e th e r t h e s e b e l i n g u i s t i c , i m p l i c i t i n a s i t u a t i o n , o r d e r i v e d fr o m a d i s t o r t i o n o r e x a g g e r a t i o n o f som e p l a t i t u d e o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n . 2 . T h e S u b j e c t M a t t e r T h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f t h e f a b l i a u , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h a t o f t h e c o u r t l y ro m a n ce o r t h e e p i c , i s d e r i v e d fr o m e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n s p r e s e n t i n t h e l i v e s o f p e o p l e o f a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s . A lt h o u g h t h e e v e n t s r e l a t e d a r e e x a g g e r a t e d a n d o f t e n c o n t r i v e d , t h e y a r e n o t a l l e g o r i c a l o r s u p e r n a t u r a l . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y se e m t o r e v e a l t h e m undane a s p e c t s o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n m ore a c c u r a t e l y ^ T h e s e a r e : "Du v a l e t q u i s e m e t ci m e s a is e " (X L IV * ), "La V e u v e (X L IX ), " L es . i i i . dam es d e P a r is " ( L X X I I I ) . A l l t h r e e s h a l l b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n r e l a t i o n t o r e a l i s m . 226 t h a n d o m o s t m e d ie v a l l i t e r a r y f o r m s . E s p e c i a l l y i n t h e r e a lm o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s f a b l i a u s u b j e c t s a r e v e r y t i m e l y . I n f a c t , t h e y c o n t a i n tw o e v e r c u r r e n t p r o b le m s . T h e f i r s t i n v o l v e s c h i l d r e n an d t h e i r p a r e n t s a n d t h e s e c o n d h u sb a n d s a n d w i v e s . I n a s e n s e , t h e f a b l i a u x c o n t a i n t h e i r own b r a n d o f " g e n e r a t io n g a p ." T h is i s s e e n i n t h e f r e q u e n t w o rk s in w h ic h a c h i l d i s o v e r l y p r o t e c t e d o r c l o s e l y g u a r d e d b y an a d u l t w i t h whom h e f o r s e e s n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f com m u n ic a t io n ( C V I I I , C X X I*, C V II, C X X V I*). S u c h a c h i l d u s u a l l y r e b e l s i n w h a t e v e r f a s h i o n h e c a n . Y oung p e o p l e i n g e n e r a l sh o w a t e n d e n c y t o c o n t r a d i c t , t o j u d g e , o r t o condem n t h e i r p a r e n t s ( C I I , C L I I , V , XXX) a n d t o r i d i c u l e t h e a g e d (C X X IX * ). F u r th e r m o r e , t h e y a r e o f t e n r e s i s t a n t t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r e x p r e s s e d i n t h e C h u r c h , la w , a n d m o r a l i t y ( I V * , X C V II* , X X V I I I * ). A l l a s p e c t s o f m a r i t a l d i s c o r d a r e t o b e fo u n d i n t h e f a b l i a u x . S o m e tim e s , b e c a u s e o f a m is m a tc h , an o l d a n d j e a l o u s h u sb a n d k e e p s h i s y o u n g b r i d e c l o i s t e r e d ( I I * ) . M ore f r e q u e n t l y , t h e f a b l i a u x f o c u s on t h e i n f i d e l i t y o f w h a t a p p e a r t o b e h a p p i l y m a r r ie d women ( I X * , CXXIV, L V I I * e t c . ) . W ith t h e h u sb a n d a b s e n t o n a b u s i n e s s t r i p , t h e w i f e f i n d s h e r s e l f c a u g h t i n t h e m e d ie v a l e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e s u b u r b a n h o u s e w i f e ' s d ile m m a . M a r i t a l w r a n g lin g i s n o t i n f r e q u e n t a n d m any a f a b l i a u c o u p le r i v a l i n f e r v o r an d 227 b r u t a l i t y t h e c o u p le i n W h o's A f r a i d o f V i r g i n i a W o o lf ? ^2 H o w e v e r , t h e c r u e l t y i n t h e f a b l i a u x i s p u r e l y p h y s i c a l n o t p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n d a lw a y s h u m orou s n o t t r a g i c . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f a b l i a u d o e s n o t f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e t h e c o m ic p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n s u c h p e r s o n a l i t i e s a s t h e i n e f f e c t u a l h u sb a n d o r t h e n a g g in g w i f e (C IV * , C XLIX *, V I * , CXXX) . T h e f a b l i a u x a l s o d e a l w i t h human r e l a t i o n s h i p s o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y c i r c l e . F r i e n d s h i p , a l t h o u g h n o t a common s u b j e c t , i s s o m e tim e s p r e s e n t e d a s g o o d (X L V I*, X C * ), A t o t h e r t im e s i t s d u r a b i l i t y i s s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n e d ( X X I I I ) . M o st o f t e n c o n t a c t s o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y a r e l i m i t e d t o b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s a n d i l l i c i t l o v e a f f a i r s . A m e r c h a n t who i s t r i c k e d o r r o b b e d i s a f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t ( C I I I ) , a s w e l l a s d i s p u t e s o v e r t h e v a l u e o f g o o d s (LXXV, X I I I * ) . T h e e t e r n a l t r i a n g l e i s t h e s i n g l e m o s t im p o r t a n t s u b j e c t , a n d w i t h i t , t h e w ayw ard w i f e ' s g r e a t f e r t i l i t y o f i n v e n t i o n . F a b l i a u s u b j e c t s a r e s o m e tim e s draw n fr o m t h e p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , o r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . E v id e n c e o f m a n 's e t e r n a l f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h j u d i c i a l p r o c e d u r e i s p r e s e n t i n c o u r t s c e n e s (C X X V II*, XXXVI, CXXV*, LXXX*) a s w e l l a s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e a r c h f o r j u s t i c e ( V I * ) . Som e f a b l i a u x a r e fo u n d e d o n t h e o b v io u s im p o r t a n c e o f 22 g d w a rd A l b e e , W h o's A f r a i d o f V i r g i n i a W o o lf? (N ew Y ork : A th e n e u m , 1962). 228 t h e C h u rch i n m e d ie v a l l i f e . R e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s s u c h a s t h e c o n f e s s i o n ( X V I ) , p i l g r i m a g e s ( X ) , s y m b o ls ( X V I I I ) , a n d t h e r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e i t s e l f (C X V III* ) f i n d t h e i r p l a c e . S u b j e c t s s u c h a s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e l o r d a n d h i s s e r f s (XXXVI, LXXX*) a n d t h e d a i l y d u t i e s o f t h e p r i e s t to w a r d h i s p a r i s h i o n e r s (XCVI) a r e d e r i v e d fr o m t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . H o w e v e r , t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u x d o n o t c h o o s e t h e i r s u b j e c t m a t t e r fr o m e i t h e r human r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r t h e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h e y r a t h e r f i n d ma t e r i a l w h ic h w i l l sh ow t o a d v a n t a g e t h e c o m ic q u a l i t i e s o f w h a t w e m ay te r m t h e "human a n im a l." F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r ’ s f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t s a r e t h o s e b a s e d on t h e a n i m a l i t y , p a s s i o n s , a n d f a i l i n g s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l man a s a n i s o l a t e d u n i t , n o t a s a p a r t o f s o c i e t y . He p r e s e n t s t h i s a n im a l man w i t h t h e s o l e p u r p o s e o f d e r i v i n g hum or fr o m h im . H is m e th o d i s s im p l e i He r i d i c u l e s t h e i n e p t , t h e f o o l , t h e c o w a r d , o r p r a i s e s t h e c l e v e r m in d . T h e f a b l i a u c o n s i d e r s man a h e a l t h y a n im a l a t t h e p r im e o f l i f e an d a c o n s i d e r a b l e am ou n t o f i t s m a t e r i a l i s d e r i v e d fr o m t h e b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s o r t h e g r o s s e r d e s i r e s . E a t in g i s a f a v o r i t e a c t i v i t y a n d e v e n g l u t t o n y i s c o n d o n e d (X V I I * , C X L I II, V I I * ) . E x c r e m e n ts a r e i n f r e q u e n t e v i d e n c e (L V I I * , X C V I I * ). Som e f a b l i a u x o p e n l y p a n d e r t o m e n 's s e x u a l a p p e t i t e s (X X IX , LXV*, C l * , C V I I I , e t c . ) . 229 T h e t e n d e n c y t o s e e man a s an a n im a l i s m o s t a p p a r e n t i n t h e f a b l i a u ' s u s e o f w h a t w e w i l l c a l l t h e " a n i m a l p r e d ic a m e n t ." T h a t i s , t h e f a b l i a u v ie w s man a s e i t h e r p r e d a t o r o r v i c t i m . I f t h e v i c t i m , h e m u st d e f e n d h i m s e l f b y a b a t t l e o f w i t s o r b o d i e s i n w h ic h h e u s u a l l y t u r n s o u t t o b e t h e l o s e r ( L V I I I * , X C V II* , X V I I * , V I * , e t c . ) . S o m e tim e s h e i s c o r n e r e d l i k e a h u n te d h a r e . I n t h i s c a s e h e h a s s e v e r a l c h o i c e s o f a c t i o n . He c a n " p la y d ea d " a n d h o p e f u l l y w a i t f o r t h e t r o u b l e t o v a n i s h ( V I I I ) o r f o r a i d t o a r r i v e fr o m an o u t s i d e s o u r c e ( I X * ) . He c a n d e p e n d on h i s l e g s t o c a r r y h im o u t o f d a n g e r ' s w ay (XCVI) o r t a k e h i s p u n is h m e n t s t o i c a l l y ( V I I I ) . S o m e tim e s t h e h u n te d b e com es t h e o b j e c t o f q u a s i - s a d i s t i c t o r t u r e (C X L * ). T h is i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f t h e o l d o r j e a l o u s h u s b a n d an d t h e a m orou s p r i e s t . V ie w e d a s a v i c t i m , man i s a lw a y s r i d i c u l o u s , n e v e r t o b e p i t i e d . T h e f a b l i a u m ak es u s e o f a v a r i e t y o f i n c i d e n t t o r i d i c u l e t h e v i c t i m . O f t e n t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e s e i n c i d e n t s i s d e r i v e d fr o m m a n 's b a s e r p a s s i o n s . J e a l o u s y , f o r e x a m p le , e s p e c i a l l y o n t h e p a r t o f h u s b a n d s , i s a v e r y com mon e m o t io n i n t h e f a b l i a u x ( V I I I , X C IV * ). L u s t i s a n o t h e r s u b j e c t o f l a u g h t e r . W h ile r e l a t i v e l y fe w f a b l i a u x a c t u a l l y p a n d e r t o m a n 's s e x u a l d r i v e s , a c o n s i d e r a b l e num ber r i d i c u l e s u c h d r i v e s . T h e com ed y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g i n t h e c a s e o f a m o ro u s p r i e s t s (X X X I* ), o f h u sb a n d s i n t e n t on s e d u c i n g y o u n g g i r l s ( X X X I I I ) , a n d i n t h e c a s e 230 o f o l d m en . T h e " L a i d ' A r i s t o t e " (CXXXVII) i s an o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p le o f t h e a g in g l o v e r . A c c o r d in g t o t h e s t o r y , A r i s t o t l e , s u p p o s e d ly g i v e n t o s c h o l a r l y p u r s u i t s a n d s c o r n f u l o f l o v e a s u n w o r th y o f a s t r o n g i n d i v i d u a l , su ccu m b s t o a y o u n g g i r l ' s ch arm s a n d i s w i l l i n g t o l e t h e r r i d e h i s b a c k i n r e t u r n f o r a f f e c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e f a b l i a u c h o o s e s s u b j e c t s t h a t r i d i c u l e m an’ s f a i l i n g s a n d w e a k n e s s e s . I t la u g h s a t s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f a l l k in d s : o l d w i v e s t a l e s (L X X IX ), d ream s (L X X X V III* ), w is h e s (C X X X III* ), b e l i e f i n s p i r i t s (X L V ), o r f a i r i e s (C X L V II* ). I t f i n d s human p r i d e a m u sin g an d i l l - f o u n d e d (X X V ). I t a c c e p t s g r e e d a s an e s s e n t i a l , b u t r i d i c u l o u s , p a r t o f human n a t u r e . B e c a u s e o f i t , j u d g e s w i l l s e l l t h e i r d e c i s i o n s t o t h e h i g h e s t b id d e r (C X X V II* ), l a n d l o r d s a n d t h e C h u rc h w i l l e x p l o i t t h e w eak (X X X V I), a n d f r i e n d s w i l l f i g h t f o r p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e m o s t w o r th l e s s o b j e c t s (X C IX *, C X I I * ) . T h e f a b l i a u t a k e s p a r t i c u l a r d e l i g h t i n r i d i c u l i n g c o w a r d ic e , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e p a r t o f a h u sb a n d o r a p r i e s t (LXXXVI*, X X X I I). H o w e v e r , s t u p i d i t y i s t h e g r e a t e s t s u b j e c t o f a m u sem en t a n d s t u p i d i t y c a n b e d e f i n e d a s a n y t h in g l e s s t h a n b e i n g a w in n e r . I t c a n i n v o l v e a w id e r a n g e o f i n e p t i t u d e s fr o m b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s (CXXX) t o s e x l i f e (C l* ) an d i s o f t e n c o n f u s e d w i t h v i r t u e s s u c h a s f i d e l i t y , g e n e r o s i t y , o r h o n e s t y . I f t h e f a b l i a u c h o o s e s s u b j e c t s m a in ly t o r i d i c u l e t h e v i c t i m , i t d o e s n o t n e g l e c t t o p r a i s e t h e p r e d a t o r . 231 A s p r e d a t o r , man tr iu m p h s e i t h e r b y s t r e n g t h o f b o d y o r s h a r p n e s s o f w i t . Fie m ay b e i n v o l v e d i n an e p i c co m b a t fr o m w h ic h h e e m e r g e s v i c t o r i o u s , b e a r i n g t r iu m p h a n t ly t h e p r o o f o f v i c t o r y (C X L IX *, V I * , X I I I * ) , o r h e m ay s l y l y l a y a t r a p f o r h i s p r e y (GXLV, X V I I I , X X I, e t c . ) . T h e f a b l i a u d o e s r e s e r v e a f e w s u r p r i s e s . P r e d a t o r s so m e t im e s b eco m e v i c t i m s a n d v i c t i m s d o o c c a s i o n a l l y e m e r g e v i c t o r i o u s . F o r e x a m p le , c o n s i d e r t h e h u sb a n d i n "Des t r e s c e s " (XCIV*) who s e e m s t o h a v e t h e u p p e r h a n d an d t h e n g o e s down t o d e f e a t . A g a in , i n "Du p r e s t r e e t d e l a dame" ( L I * ) , t h e t r a p p e d p r i e s t ’ s p r e s e n c e o f m in d i n a d a n g e r o u s s i t u a t i o n i s r e w a r d e d b y t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s amor o u s a m b i t i o n s . N o t h in g se e m s t o h a v e d e l i g h t e d a f a b l i a u a u d ie n c e m ore t h a n t h o s e o c c a s i o n s w hen t h e v i c t i m o u t w i t s t h e p r e d a t o r . N o t h in g s e e m s t o h a v e c a l l e d f o r t h m o re h o o t s o f d e r i s i o n t h a n t h e h u n te d a n im a l who g i v e s up o r i s t o o c o w a r d ly o r s t u p i d t o e s c a p e . A lt h o u g h , a s a r u l e , t h e f a b l i a u d o e s n o t p r o v id e a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d s o c i a l com m ent o r s t u d y o f t h e human b e i n g i n h i s t o t a l i t y , i t d o e s a c c e p t an e x i s t i n g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d p r e s e n t a p e r s o n a l v ie w o f man w i t h i n w h ic h i t f i n d s i t s s u b j e c t s . I t c h o o s e s t h e s e n o t am ong h e r o i c d e e d s a n d g r a n d a s p i r a t i o n s , b u t fr o m am id t h e t r i v i a a n d a b s u r d i t y o f m undane a f f a i r s , t h e m o s t sea m y o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d t h e b a s e s t o f human p a s s i o n s a n d f a i l i n g s . 232 I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e m u st n e c e s s a r i l y a s k i f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f t h e f a b l i a u d i f f e r s fr o m t h a t o f a n y h u m o ro u s w ork s t r e s s i n g r i d i c u l e o f t h e a n im a l man a n d p r a i s e o f h i s q u a l i t i e s o f s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n . I n s h o r t , i s i t d i f f e r e n t fr o m t h a t o f t h e Roman d e R e n a r t o r t h e s a t i r i c a l d i t ? T h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i t s e l f i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e , b u t t h e e m p h a s is i s p l a c e d d i f f e r e n t l y . B o th t h e Roman d e R e n a r t a n d t h e d i t d ra w som e o f t h e i r m a t e r i a l fr o m m a n 's g r o s s e r d e s i r e s , h i s p a s s i o n s a n d f a i l i n g s , an d fr o m t h e t r i v i a o f d a i l y e x i s t e n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s d e r i v e fr o m t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d r e l i g i o u s s t r u c t u r e an d m a n 's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t . T h is c h a n g e o f e m p h a s is i s s e e n i n t h e t i t l e s o f som e o f t h e b r a n c h e s o f t h e Roman d e R e n a r t : " R e n a r t m e d e c in ," "Le D u e l d e R en art," "Le P e l e r i n a g e R e n a r t , ” "Le M o n ia g e I s e n g r i n . " 22 T h e s e s u b j e c t s w e r e c h o s e n t o r e v e a l man i n r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . T h e f a b l i a u c h o o s e s i t s m a t e r i a l u n i q u e l y t o d e r i v e hum or fr o m man h i m s e l f . I t d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e t h a t man n e e d s t o f r e e h i m s e l f fr o m a s t r u c t u r e ; h e a l r e a d y i s f r e e fr o m a l l e x c e p t h i m s e l f . 3 . T h e S t r u c t u r e We h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e f a b l i a u x p r e s e n t a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s . S e v e r a l a r e c o n s t r u c t e d a s l a i s w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l tw o w o r l d s , t h e c o n n e c t i n g a d v e n t u r e , 23Branches XIX, VIII, IX, XII. 233 a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o p e n e n d in g (XXXV*, C L I* , e t c . ) . O th e r s c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m i r a c l e (X L V ). U s u a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e f a b l i a u r e s e m b le s t h e fra m ew o rk an d r h y th m o f t h e f a b l e a n d ex em p lu m , b u t d o e s n o t h a v e t h e i r l e n g t h an d d e v e lo p m e n t . T h a t i s , i t t a k e s p l a c e on o n l y o n e p la n e o f e x i s t e n c e , w i t h i n a l i m i t e d p e r i o d o f t i m e , a n d i n v o l v e s o n e o r m o re c o m p l i c a t i o n s w h ic h a r e r e s o l v e d i n a " c l o s e d e n d in g " t h a t l e a v e s t h e f u t u r e o f n o r e a l i n t e r e s t o r im p o r t a n c e . T h e a c t i o n m o v es i n a v e r y r e g u l a r r h y th m to w a r d t h e c l im a x w h ic h i s f o l l o w e d b y an a b r u p t e n d in g . U n l i k e t h a t o f t h e f a b l e an d ex em p lu m , t h e f a b lj a u 's c o n c l u s i o n m ay l a c k r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e e v e n t s p r e s e n t e d , o r m ay b e s i m p l y a su m m a tio n . A d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h e f a b l i a u ' s s t r u c t u r e r e v e a l s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f w o rk s c o n fo r m t o o n e o f s e v e r a l v a r i a t i o n s o f a b a s i c p a t t e r n . T h e r e e x i s t s an i n i t i a l s i t u a t i o n . I n t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n com es a c o m p lic a t i o n w h ic h i s u s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f f a t e . T h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e w ork i s c o m p r is e d o f t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y . T h e f a b l i a u , t h e r e f o r e , c o n fo r m s e a s i l y t o t h e p r e v a l e n t m e d ie v a l l i t e r a r y form s p r o l o g u e , n a r r a t i v e , e p i l o g u e . I t u s e s t h e p r o lo g u e a s a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , p a s s e s o n t o a c o m p l i c a t i n g i n c i d e n t o r t r i c k a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t r e s o l u t i o n , w h ic h a r e t h e n f o l l o w e d b y a s h o r t e p i l o g u e . 234 W it h in t h i s e x t r e m e l y s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e , t h e f a b l i a u a t t a i n s a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i v e r s i t y o f t y p e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f i n c i d e n t . B y m a k in g u s e o f f o u r m a jo r p a t t e r n s , e a c h o f w h ic h h a s s u b - p a t t e r n s , i t m a n a g es t o l e a v e a n im p r e s s i o n o f a m a z in g v a r i e t y . T h is i m p r e s s io n i s , o f c o u r s e , f a l l a c i o u s , f o r a l l o f t h e w o r k s a r e s im p ly v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e : s i t u a t i o n , c o m p l i c a t i o n , r e s o l u t i o n . L e t u s now e x a m in e t h e f o u r p a t t e r n s a n d t h e i r s u b - p a t t e r n s i n d e t a i l . T h e f i r s t i s c o m p r is e d m e r e ly o f t h e b a s i c s e q u e n c e : s i t u a t i o n , t r i c k , r e s o l u t i o n . "La S a i n e r e s s e " (XXV) i s t h e o n l y e x a m p le o f t h e t y p e . T h e a u t h o r b e g i n s d i r e c t l y w i t h a s u c c i n c t s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r s : D 'u n b o r g o i s v o u s a c o n t l a v i e , Q u i s e v a n t a d e g r a n t f o l i e , Q ue fa m e n ' e l p o r o i t b o u l e r . Sa fa m e en a 01 p a r l e r ; S i en p a r l a p r iv S e m e n t , E t en j u r a un s e r e m e n t Q u ' e l e l e f e r a m e n g o n g ie r J a t a n t n e s * i s a u r a g u e t e r . He t h e n i n t r o d u c e s t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n , i n t h i s c a s e a t r i c k . T h e w i f e i n v i t e s h e r l o v e r , d r e s s e d a s a w om an, t o com e a n d b l e e d h e r . He e n t e r s , p a s s e s b y t h e h u sb a n d w i t h a h e a r t y g r e e t i n g , l i e s w i t h t h e w i f e , an d e x i t s u n d i s c o v e r e d . T h e a u t h o r c o n c l u d e s r e g a r d i n g t h e h u sb a n d : P o r c e t i e n g - j e c e l u i a f o l Q u i j u r e s o n c h i e f e t s o n c o l Q ue fa m e n e l p r o o i t b o u le r E t q u e b i e n s ' e n s a u r o i t g a r d e r . 235 He then draws the larger lessons M a is i l n ' e s t p a s e n c e s t p a i’s C i l q u i t a n t s o i t d e s e n s e s p r i s Q u i m ie s e p S u s t g u e t i e r Q ue fe m e n e l p u i s t e n g i n g n i e r . T h is p a r t i c u l a r f a b l i a u i s s t r u c t u r a l l y v e r y c l o s e t o t h e ' f a b l e . A lt h o u g h d i a l o g u e i s p r e s e n t , i t i s k e p t t o a m i n i mum. T h e i n c i d e n t e x i s t s o n l y a s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f an e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t s e t f o r t h i n t h e p r o lo g u e a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n p o i n t s o u t a g e n e r a l t r u t h . H o w e v e r , i t i s l o n g e r t h a n t h e c u s to m a r y f a b l e ( 1 1 6 l i n e s ) . O f c o u r s e , t h e g r e a t e r l e n g t h d o e s n o t e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p a r o d y . T h is p a t t e r n i s u s u a l l y b a s e d o n a c o m p l i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a t r i c k . F o r e x a m p le , i n t h e " D it d o u p lig o n " ( V o l . 6 , a p . I I ) , t h e l o v e r s a r e s u r p r i s e d b y t h e r e t u r n in g h u s b a n d . I n r e s p o n s e t o t h i s c o m p l i c a t i o n , t h e w i f e h i d e s t h e l o v e r a n d t h e n g r e e t s h e r h u s b a n d . P r e t e n d i n g t o b e o v e r j o y e d a t h i s u n e x p e c t e d r e t u r n , s h e t e a s i n g l y c o v e r s h i s h e a d w i t h a f u r c o v e r l e t , t e l l i n g h im a l l t h e w h i l e t h a t s h e i s d o in g i t t o a l l o w h e r l o v e r t o e s c a p e . N e v e r s u s p e c t i n g t h e t r u t h o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t , h e g o e s a lo n g w i t h t h e j e s t . I n t h i s t y p e o f v a r i a t i o n , i f t h e t r i c k f a i l s , t h e c o n c l u s i o n i s u s u a l l y i n t h e fo r m o f a p u n is h m e n t (CXLIV , C IX * , X X X I* ). T h e num ber o f t r i c k s o r c o m p l i c a t i o n s m ay v a r y . I n "G om bert e t l e s d e u x c l e r c s " ( X X I I * ) , o n e c l e r i c w i s h e s t o s e d u c e t h e d a u g h t e r an d d o e s s o . T h en t h e s e c o n d s e e s 236 h i s c h a n c e w i t h t h e w i f e an d t a k e s a d v a n t a g e o f i t . T h e a u t h o r c o n c l u d e s t h a t n o man w i t h a b e a u t i f u l w i f e s h o u l d t a k e i n l o d g e r s , e s p e c i a l l y n o t s t u d e n t s . S t i l l a n o t h e r v a r i a t i o n i n c l u d e s t h r e e t r i c k s . I n t h e " T r o is dam es q u i t r o v e r e n t l ' a n e l " (X V * ), t h r e e f r i e n d s f i g h t f o r p o s s e s s i o n o f a r i n g fo u n d on t h e r o a d . I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m in e w h ic h o f th em i s t o r e t a i n p o s s e s s i o n o f i t , e a c h i n v e n t s an d e x e c u t e s a t r i c k t o d e c e i v e h e r h u s b a n d . T h e a u t h o r t h e n i n v i t e s t h e a u d ie n c e t o s u p p ly t h e c o n c l u s i o n b y c h o o s in g t h e b e s t o f t h e t h r e e . T h e s e c o n d p a t t e r n i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e sam e a s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f p a t t e r n o n e w h ic h h a s tw o t r i c k s , b u t t h e o r d e r o f t r i c k an d r e s o l u t i o n i s c h a n g e d . T h e p a t t e r n may b e s t a t e d : i n t r o d u c t i o n , c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k , r e s o l u t i o n , s e c o n d c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k , r e s o l u t i o n . T h is t y p e o f f a b l i a u h a s tw o c o n c l u s i o n s . T h e " B r a ie s a u p r e t r e " (L X X V III) i s an e x c e l l e n t e x a m p le . W ith h e r h u sb a n d s c h e d u le d t o l e a v e o n a b u s i n e s s t r i p t h a t m orn i n g , a w i f e d e c i d e s t o s p e n d t h e h o u r s b e f o r e dawn w i t h h e r l o v e r . S h e t r i c k s h e r h u sb a n d i n t o a r i s i n g b e f o r e t h e a p p o in t e d t i m e . H o w e v e r , w hen h e a r r i v e s a t t h e hom e o f h i s t r a v e l i n g c o m p a n io n , h e r e a l i z e s h i s m is t a k e a n d r e t u r n s h om e. T h is i s t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e f i r s t a c t i o n . S e e i n g h e r h u sb a n d a p p r o a c h in g , t h e w i f e h a s j u s t e n o u g h t im e t o h i d e t h e l o v e r . T h en s h e s e t s i n m o tio n t h e s e c o n d t r i c k . A s h e r h u sb a n d g e t s b a c k i n t o b e d s h e sc r e a m s h y s t e r i c a l l y p r e t e n d i n g t h a t s h e b e l i e v e s h im t o b e a s t r a n g e r . He i s f o r c e d t o l e a v e h a s t i l y an d t a k e s t h e l o v e r ' s p a n t s b y m i s t a k e . S h e know s h e w i l l d i s c o v e r t h e e r r o r o n a r r i v i n g a t h i s d e s t i n a t i o n , s o s h e a r r a n g e s f o r a p r i e s t i n to w n t o s w e a r t h a t s h e b o r r o w e d h i s p a n t s i n o r d e r t o dream s h e w as p r e g n a n t . S h e t h u s r e s o l v e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y . One c a n n o t h e l p b u t a d m ir e w i t h w h a t i n g e n u i t y t h e s e r a t h e r s i l l y e v e n t s a r e w o v en i n t o a c o h e r e n t an d h i g h l y a m u sin g n a r r a t i v e . T h e a u t h o r d e m o n s t r a t e s a g r e a t d e a l o f s k i l l i n p r e s e n t i n g s y m m e t r i c a l l y t h e tw o t r i c k s , t h e s e e m in g f a i l u r e , a n d f i n a l s u c c e s s o f e a c h . T h e a c t i o n i s r a p i d a n d e a c h e v e n t l e a d s p e r f e c t l y i n t o t h e n e x t . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e t r i c k s a l l o w s f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d r a m a t ic p o s s i b i l i t i e s : t h e w i f e ' s s c r e a m a s t h e h u sb a n d g e t s i n t o b e d , t h e l o v e r ' s h a s t y e x i t w i t h o u t h i s p a n t s , an d t h e h u s b a n d 's i n c r e a s i n g b e w ild e r m e n t . S u c h a s t r u c t u r e e n a b l e s t h e r e c i t e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e a l l h i s t a l e n t s a s a s t o r y t e l l e r . A v a r i a n t o f t h i s sam e p a t t e r n i s c o m p r is e d o f an i n t r o d u c t i o n , i n c i d e n t , e x p l a n a t i o n , s e c o n d i n c i d e n t , an d f i n a l e x p l a n a t i o n . I t may b e b a s e d o n a c o m p l e t e l y l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e s u c h a s t h e o n e i n "Le S e n t i e r b a tu " (LXXXV) M ore o f t e n , i t i s b a s e d on an a c t i o n s u c h a s i n "De l a c r o t e " ( L V I I I * ) . T h e " V i l a i n a u b u f f e t " (LXXX*) i s an e x a m p le o f t h i s p a t t e r n b a s e d on a c o m b in a t io n a c t i o n an d 238 p u n . A w ic k e d s e n e c h a l s l a p s a p o o r p e a s a n t o n e f e s t i v a l d a y b e f o r e a l l t h e p e o p l e . He t h e n e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e s l a p ( b u f f e ) i s t h e p o o r m a n 's d a i l y f o o d ( b u f f e t ) . T h e p e a s a n t w a i t s u n t i l t h e s e n e c h a l i s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h h i s l o r d a n d a g r o u p o f n o b l e s . He t h e n r e t u r n s t h e s l a p , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t h e w a n ts t o r e t u r n t h e f a v o r . T h e l o r d s e e s h i s s e n e c h a l i n a new l i g h t an d s t e p s i n t o r e s o l v e t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n f a v o r o f t h e p e a s a n t . A l l t h e f a b l i a u x w h ic h i n c l u d e a r e v e n g e m o t i f a r e s t r u c t u r e d i n t h i s f a s h i o n . T h e s e c o n d i n c i d e n t u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l i n s u l t . T h e e x p la n a t i o n i s t h e n t h e sam e a s , o r a v a r i a t i o n o f , t h e o n e g i v e n a f t e r t h e f i r s t i n c i d e n t . H e a r in g t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i n a new c o n t e x t p r o v id e s t h e h u m or. T h e m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p le o f a r e v e n g e u s i n g a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t e x p la n a t i o n i s t h e " E n fa n t q u i f u r e m is a u s o l e i l ” (X I V ) . A w om an, t i r e d o f a w a i t i n g h e r h u s b a n d 's r e t u r n , t a k e s a l o v e r a n d h a s a c h i l d . When t h e h u sb a n d a r r i v e s on t h e s c e n e , s h e e x p l a i n s t h a t o n e d a y a s s h e a w a it e d h i s r e t u r n , f a c e u p tu r n e d t o h e a v e n , a s n o w f la k e f e l l i n t o h e r o p e n m o u th a n d s h e c o n c e i v e d . T h e h u sb a n d a c c e p t s t h e e x p la n a t i o n , b u t f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r h e t a k e s t h e c h i l d o n a lo n g j o u r n e y a n d s e l l s h im i n t o s l a v e r y . Q u e s t io n e d b y t h e w i f e c o n c e r n i n g t h e c h i l d ' s d i s a p p e a r a n c e , h e e x p l a i n s t h a t a s t h e y c r o s s e d t h e h i g h m o u n ta in s u n d e r a b r i g h t su n t h e b o y m e l t e d . T h e h u m orou s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e d o u b le 239 e x c u s e a r e s t i l l r e c o g n i z a b l e t o d a y . T h e t h i r d p a t t e r n i n v o l v e s a d i s c o v e r y a n d t h e t a k i n g o f a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e s w h ic h r e s u l t i n a f i n a l p u n is h m e n t . T h e s t r u c t u r e may b e s t a t e d i i n t r o d u c t i o n , d i s c o v e r y o f s k u l d u g g e r y , t r a p s e t , c o n c l u s i o n . T h e " P r e s t r e e t l e le u " (CXLV) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e . A man l e a r n s t h a t h i s w i f e i s e n t e r t a i n i n g t h e p r i e s t a n d d i g s a t r e n c h i n t h e r o a d a lo n g w h ic h t h e o f f e n d i n g l o v e r m u st p a s s . F i r s t a w o l f f a l l s i n , t h e n t h e p r i e s t . W o n d e r in g why h e r l o v e r h a s n o t m ade a n a p p e a r a n c e , t h e w i f e s e n d s h e r s e r v a n t g i r l t o g e t h im . S h e t o o f a l l s i n t o t h e t r a p . T h e n e x t m o r n in g t h e h u sb a n d k i l l s t h e w o l f , r o b s t h e p r i e s t , an d c h a s e s o f f t h e g i r l . T h is t e c h n i q u e o f l e t t i n g t h e a u d ie n c e i n o n t h e t r i c k , b u t n o t o n i t s r e s u l t s , d e v e l o p s t h e s u s p e n s e an d c o n s e q u e n t h u m or. T h e t r i p l e c a t c h , b e c a u s e i t i s u n e x p e c t e d , i s a m u s in g . T h e c o n c l u s i o n , i n w h ic h t h e h u sb a n d m a n a g es t o g e t r i d o f t h o s e w ho a r e e a t i n g h i s f o o d , m a k in g h im a c u c k o l d , a n d b e t r a y i n g h im , i s a s a t i s f y i n g r e s u l t t o t h e a c t i o n . T h is i d e n t i c a l s t r u c t u r e c a n a l s o b e i n v e r t e d . T h a t i s , a f t e r t h e t r a p i s s e t , i t may b e d i s c o v e r e d an d u s e d a g a i n s t t h e p e r s o n who l a i d i t . I n t h e " B o u r g e o is e d ' O r l i e n s " ( V I I I ) , t h e w i f e d i s c o v e r s t h e d i s g u i s e d h u s b a n d l y i n g i n w a i t f o r h e r a n d h e r l o v e r i n t h e g a r d e n , t r i c k s , a n d im p r is o n s h im . S h e t h e n e n j o y s h e r l o v e r ' s 240 com pany a n d , a s a c o n c l u s i o n , h a s h e r h u sb a n d b e a t e n . T h e v e r s a t i l i t y o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s g r e a t . I t c a n e v e n b e u s e d , a s i n t h e " F e v r e d e C r e e i l " ( X X I ) , t o t e s t a w i f e ’ s l o y a l t y . T h e h u sb a n d i n t h i s f a b l i a u s u s p e c t s , e n c o u r a g e s t h e i n f i d e l i t y , c a t c h e s t h e l o v e r , a n d d i s p o s e s o f h im . T h e f o u r t h , a n d f i n a l , p a t t e r n i s l e s s r i g i d l y o r d e r e d . I t i s c o m p r is e d o f a s e r i e s o f u n r e l a t e d a c t i o n s o r e v e n t s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r . I n t h e " F l a b l e l d ’A lo u l" (X X IV * ), A l o u l i s c a u g h t i n a s e r i e s o f h a p p e n in g s w h ic h h e d i d n o t s e t i n m o t io n an d w h ic h h e i s u n a b le t o u n d e r s t a n d o r c o n t r o l . H is w i f e ' s l o v e r a c c i d e n t l y g e t s i n b e d w i t h h im . U pon t h i s s im p le m is t a k e i s b u i l t a s e r i e s o f i n c i d e n t s i n c l u d i n g a b e a t i n g , a f i g h t , a t h e f t , a n d a n a t t e m p t e d c a s t r a t i o n . E a c h e v e n t f l o w s fr o m t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e w i t h o u t m o t i v a t i o n o r l o g i c . T h e a c t i o n i s k e p t m o v in g b y t h e t o t a l l y u n e x p la in e d p r e s e n c e o f a n o l d w om an, tw o t h i e v e s , an d a cro w d o f c i t i z e n r y who a d d t o t h e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g c o n f u s i o n . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h i s sam e p a t t e r n i s u s e d w i t h m ore f i n e s s e . I n t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e " P r e s t r e q u 'o n p o r t e " ( LXXXIX*) , t h e a u t h o r p r e p a r e s e a c h s u c c e s s i v e a c t i o n a s t h e r e s u l t o f a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i lem m a. When t h e b o d y o f t h e d e a d p r i e s t i s d r o p p e d o f f a t t h e f i r s t h o u s e , t h e i n h a b i t a n t b e l i e v e s h e c o m m itte d t h e m u rd er a n d d r o p s i t o f f o n a n o t h e r c i t i z e n w h o , i n t u r n , b e l i e v e s h i m s e l f g u i l t y o f t h e c r i m e . T h is c o n t in u e s : 241 u n t i l t h e w h o le c h a in o f a c t i o n h a s b e e n f u l f i l l e d . A s i s o b v io u s fr o m t h e s e e x a m p le s , t h e f a b l i a u ' s s t r u c t u r e i s n o t a lw a y s co m p o se d a c c o r d i n g t o l o g i c . T h e c o m ic e l e m e n t o f t h e u n e x p e c t e d i s , h o w e v e r , h e i g h t e n e d i n t h i s t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e . H ow ev er v a r i e d an d i l l o g i c a l t h e e v e n t s r e l a t e d m ay b e , t h e y a r e a lw a y s r e s o l v e d i n a s a t i s f y i n g c o n c l u s i o n . F a b l i a u a u t h o r s o c c a s i o n a l l y c o m b in e tw o s t r u c t u r e s i n a s i n g l e n a r r a t i v e . T h e " P r e s t r e q u ’ o n p o r t e " j u s t m e n t io n e d i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . I n t h i s f a b l i a u , t h e a u t h o r f u s e s t h e t h i r d t y p e o f s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n ( d i s c o v e r y o f s k u l d u g g e r y , m e a s u r e s t a k e n , p u n is h m e n t) w i t h p a t t e r n f o u r ( c a s c a d e o f i l l o g i c a l i n c i d e n t s ) . I n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e f a b l i a u , t h e h u sb a n d s u s p e c t s h i s w i f e o f d e c e i v i n g h im w i t h t h e p r i e s t , l a y s a t r a p an d k i l l s t h e p r i e s t . T h is i s s u f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l f o r a f a b l i a u o f p a t t e r n t y p e t h r e e . H o w e v e r , t h e a u t h o r c o n t i n u e s h i s t a l e . T h e w i f e an d s e r v a n t g i r l d i s c o v e r t h e d e a d p r i e s t , p u t h i s b o d y t e m p o r a r i l y i n t h e h a y l o f t , l a t e r rem o v e i t a g a i n , a n d f i n a l l y p l a c e i t a t a n e i g h b o r ' s f r o n t d o o r . F u r t h e r a t t e m p t s t o d i s p o s e o f t h e d e a d b o d y c o m p r is e t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e f a b l i a u a c c o r d i n g t o p a t t e r n t y p e f o u r . T h is f a b l i a u i s a b l e n d i n g o f " C o n s ta n t du H am el" (C V I* ) an d t h e " T r o is b o g u s" ( I I * ) . E v i d e n t l y p o p u la r s t o r i e s w e r e o f t e n t h u s w e ld e d a n d s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d f o r n o v e l t y . 242 I n som e c a s e s , s u c h c o m b in a t io n s h a v e a p r o fo u n d e f f e c t on t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e " T r o is a v e u g l e s d e Com- p ie n g n e " ( I V * ) , a new s t r u c t u r e se e m s t o h a v e e v o l v e d fr o m w h a t w as p r o b a b ly t h e b l e n d i n g o f tw o t a l e s w i t h t h e p a t t e r n o n e s t r u c t u r a l t y p e ( s i t u a t i o n , t r i c k , r e s o l u t i o n ) . I n t h i s w o r k , t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f e a c h o f t h r e e p r o b le m s i s a l s o t h e i n c i t i n g i n c i d e n t f o r t h e n e x t a n d t h e r e r e s u l t s a k in d o f s t r u c t u r e d c h a in r e a c t i o n . T h is p a t t e r n i s n o t u n l i k e p a t t e r n tw o ( i n t r o d u c t i o n , f i r s t t r i c k , r e s o l u t i o n , s e c o n d t r i c k , r e s o l u t i o n ) , e x c e p t f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l t r i c k a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f e a c h t r i c k d i r e c t l y s e t s i n m o t io n t h e n e x t a c t i o n . J u s t s u c h a t e n d e n c y t o c o m b in e s t o r i e s m ay b e a t t h e o r i g i n o f som e o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l t y p e s . I n sum m ary, l e t u s r e i t e r a t e t h a t t h e f a b l i a u x c o n fo r m t o a s i n g l e e x t e r i o r fo r m ; p r o l o g u e , n a r r a t i v e , c o n c l u s i o n . W it h in t h i s fo r m , m o s t f a b l i a u x f o l l o w o n e o f f o u r b a s i c p a t t e r n s , n o n e o f w h ic h i s e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t fr o m t h e o t h e r s e x c e p t i n t y p e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f i n c i d e n t . T h e s e p a t t e r n s c a n b e summed u p a s f o l l o w s * T y p e O ne I n t r o d u c t i o n C o m p lic a t io n o r t r i c k R e s o l u t i o n ( U s u a l l y i n t h e fo r m o f an e s c a p e ) I n t r o d u c t i o n F i r s t c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k S e c o n d c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k R e s o l u t i o n ( U s u a l l y i n t h e fo r m o f a p u n is h m e n t) 243 I n t r o d u c t i o n F i r s t c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k S e c o n d c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k T h ir d c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k R e s o l u t i o n T y p e Two I n t r o d u c t i o n F i r s t c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k R e s o l u t i o n S e c o n d c o m p l i c a t i o n o r t r i c k R e s o l u t i o n I n t r o d u c t i o n F i r s t i n c i d e n t E x p la n a t io n S e c o n d i n c i d e n t ( O f t e n r e v e n g e ) E x p la n a t io n (On t h e sam e th e m e a s t h e f i r s t e x p l a n a t i o n ) T y p e T h r e e I n t r o d u c t i o n D i s c o v e r y o f s k u ld u g g e r y T r a p s e t C o n c lu s io n (A p u n is h m e n t) T y p e F o u r I n t r o d u c t i o n S e r i e s o f i l l o g i c a l e v e n t s h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r C o n c lu s io n H ow ever e le m e n t a r y t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s may b e , o n e c a n n o t f a i l t o b e im p r e s s e d b y t h e v a r i e t y o f c o m ic e f f e c t s f a b l i a u a u t h o r s w e r e a b l e t o d e r i v e fr o m s u c h a l i m i t e d num ber o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s . A lt h o u g h t h e p a t t e r n h e u s e s may v a r y , t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r p r e s e n t s h i s m a t e r i a l s u c c i n c t l y an d a lw a y s t e r m i n a t e s t h e a c t i o n n e a t l y i n a b r i e f a n d d e c i s i v e c o n c l u s i o n E v e n t s m ove a lo n g r a p i d l y i n a s t a c c a t o , b u t r e g u l a r f a s h i o n . T h e r e a r e n o c h a n g in g a n g l e s o f v i s i o n , n o 244 m u l t i p l e d im e n s i o n s . A l l t h a t t h e f a b l i a u h a s t o o f f e r i t s l i s t e n e r s a p p e a r s q u i t e c l e a r l y o n t h e s u r f a c e . F i n a l l y , t h e s t r u c t u r e i s n e v e r i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r s , b u t i s a lw a y s t h e o u t g r o w t h o f t h e t h o r o u g h ly c o n t r i v e d an d p r e c o n c e i v e d p l o t . I n e s s e n c e , t h e f a b l i a u ' s s t r u c t u r e d o e s n o t d i f f e r fr o m t h a t o f t h e f a b l e , ex em p lu m , o r i n d i v i d u a l b r a n c h i n t h e Roman d e R e n a r t . A l l m ake u s e o f v a r i o u s fo r m s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , c o m p l i c a t i o n , r e s o l u t i o n s e q u e n c e . A l l m ove a c c o r d i n g t o an a b r u p t , b u t r e g u l a r r h y th m . A l l i n v o l v e o n e p la n e o f e x i s t e n c e an d an e x t r e m e ly l i m i t e d t im e p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , t h e f a b l i a u ' s s t r u c t u r e d i f f e r s fr o m t h e f a b l e ' s an d ex em p lu m ' s b e c a u s e o f i t s l e n g t h an d d e v e lo p m e n t . I t d i f f e r s fr o m t h e Roman d e R e n a r t b e c a u s e i t s a c t i o n i s s l i g h t l y l e s s p r e c o n c e i v e d . I n t h e Roman d e R e n a r t , R e n a r t a lw a y s w i n s , Y s e n g r in a lw a y s l o s e s , an d H e r s e n t i s a lw a y s u n f a i t h f u l . T h e f a b l i a u d o e s o f f e r u s a fe w s u r p r i s e s . L e t u s rem em b er, a l s o , t h a t w h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u x c o n fo r m t o t h e f o u r s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n s m e n t io n e d a b o v e , a fe w d o n o t . F a b l i a u x i n o u r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e s t r u c t u r e d a s m i r a c l e s a n d l a i s , o r e v e n a s m o r a l t a l e s (X L V ). I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o im a g in e a m ore s t r u c t u r a l l y d i v e r s e g r o u p o f w o r k s t h a n t h e f a b l i a u x . 4. The Style S i n c e i t s b e g i n n i n g , t h e f a b l i a u h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d o f d o u b t f u l l i t e r a r y m e r i t . T h is i s d u e , i n so m e c a s e s , t o i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r , b u t i s l a r g e l y t h e r e s u l t o f s t a t e m e n t s a n d a t t i t u d e s o f t h e a u t h o r s t h e m s e lv e s . L i t e r a r y f i g u r e s l i k e R u t e b e u f e v i d e n t l y ju d g e d t h e f a b l i a u a n i n f e r i o r fo r m . A t l e a s t h i s f a b l i a u x a r e d e v o id o f h i s u s u a l p e d a n t r y a n d sh o w l i t t l e c o n c e r n f o r v o c a b u la r y a n d p r o s o d y . H e n r i d ' A n d e l i q u i t e c l e a r l y s t a t e s t h a t f a b l i a u x a r e o n l y w o r t h y o f i n s c r i p t i o n o n " t a b l e t t e s d e c i r e . " 2 5 s u c h v ie w s h a v e p r e j u d i c e d c r i t i c s who o f t e n s u m m a r ily d i s m i s s f a b l i a u x a s c r u d e c o m p o s it io n s i n o c t o s y l l a b i c v e r s e w i t h f l a t rh y m es a n d f r e q u e n t a s s o n a n c e s . O v e r t l y l a c k i n g i n s t y l i s t i c b r i l l i a n c e , l i n g u i s t i c a l l y im p o v e r is h e d a n d p l a t i t u d i n o u s , t h e f a b l i a u h a s l o n g b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e s t e p c h i l d o f m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e . 26 A lt h o u g h w i d e l y h e l d , s u c h o p i n i o n s a r e n o t e n t i r e l y a c c u r a t e . R e c e n t l y b o t h P e r N y k r o g a n d J e a n R y c h n e r h a v e d e v o t e d a m a jo r p a r t o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h on t h e f a b l i a u t o s t y l e . R y c h n e r e s p e c i a l l y h a s g i v e n p r o o f 2 4 c o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p le , L e M i r a c l e d e T h i o p h i l e a n d t h e f a b l i a u x "Le P e t a u v i l a i n " (L X V III) a n d t h e "Dame q u i f i s t . i i i . t o r s e n t o r l e m o u s t ie r " (L X X IX )* 2^ B 6 d ie r , L e s F a b li a u x t e t u d e s d e l i t t e r a t u r e p o p u l a i r e . . . . p . 5 8 . 2 6 S e e t h e w r i t i n g s o f J o s e p h B ^ d ie r , G u s ta v e L a n s o n , an d G a s to n P a r i s . 246 o f t h e m any l e v e l s o f s t y l i s t i c a c c o m p lis h m e n t t o h e fo u n d t h e r e i n . H o w e v e r , i t i s n o t o u r p u r p o s e h e r e t o d i s c u s s t h e f a b l i a u ’ s s t y l i s t i c v a r i e t y . R a t h e r , w e s h a l l a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r w h a t e le m e n t s o f s t y l e a l l f a b l i a u x h a v e i n com m on, a lw a y s t a k i n g c a r e t o p o i n t o u t e x c e p t i o n s . We s h a l l o r g a n i z e t h i s s t u d y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t h r e e p a r t s o f t h e f a b l i a u i p r o l o g u e , n a r r a t i v e , a n d c o n c l u s i o n . We s h a l l t h e n d i s c u s s t h e c o m p o s it io n o f e a c h i n t u r n . D e s p i t e t h e v a r i e t y o f a b i l i t y an d i m a g i n a t i o n e v i d e n c e d b y t h e a u t h o r s a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e l e v e l o f s t y l i s t i c a c c o m p lis h m e n t , i t w o u ld se e m t h a t t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u x p o s s e s s a u n i t y o f t e c h n i q u e an d c o n fo r m i n m o re o r l e s s t h e sam e f a s h i o n t o t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s o f t h e g e n r e . M o st f a b l i a u x b e g i n w i t h a p r o lo g u e w h ic h i s o f t e n w r i t t e n i n t h e f i r s t p e r s o n . T h is p r o lo g u e i s u s u a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s , a l l o f w h ic h a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r e s e n t i n a s i n g l e w o r k . I n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n , t h e a u t h o r g i v e s a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t o r y r e m a r k . T h is m ay b e an a p o s - t r o p h y s u c h a s : " A id e D eu s q u i t o t g o v e r n e ! " (LX X V ). S o m e tim e s , i t i s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f a g e n e r a l t r u t h : En P a r a d is 1 ' e s p e r i t a b l e O n t g r a n t p a r t l a g e n t c h e r i t a b l e . . . (LXVHI) P s e u d o -m o r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e n o t uncommon: F o l i e e s t d ' a u t r u i r a m p r o s n e r , N e g e n s d e c h o s e a r a i s o u n e r D o n t i l o n t a n u y e t v e r g o i g n e . . . (LXXXV) 247 Sometimes the reciter adds a few words of praise for his own a b i l i t y o r r e p e r t o r y * T a n t a i d i t c o n t e s e t t a b l e a u s Q u e j ' a i t r o u v S , v i e z e t n o v e a u s , N e f i n a i p a s s e z s o n t d u i an . . . (LXXXVI*) A t o t h e r t i m e s , h e g i v e s t h e s o u r c e o f h i s w ork: N o s tr o v o m e s en e s c r i t u r e U ne m e r v e i l l e a v e n t u r e Q u i j a d i s a v i n t a u v i l a i n . . . (LXXXI) O c c a s i o n a l l y , h e i n s i s t s o n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e s t o r y h e i s a b o u t t o t e l l * Du t e n s q u e v o l e n t e z me v i e n t , De f a b l e d i r e me c o v i e n t ; D i r a i en l e u d e f a b l e v o i r . . . (LXX) F r e q u e n t l y , h e s im p ly a p p e a ls t o t h e a u d ie n c e f o r s i l e n c e * S ' e n d i r § , s ' o x r me v o l e z , M out d o i g e b i e n e s t r e e s c o u t e z . ( C I l l ) These assertions and appeals are of no real importance t o t h e n a r r a t i v e . E v i d e n t l y , t h e y w e r e u s e d t o b r i n g t h e a u d ie n c e t o a t t e n t i o n a n d w i t h f u l l a w a r e n e s s t h a t t h e f i r s t l i n e s o f a n y o r a l w o rk a r e u s u a l l y l o s t u p o n t h e h e a r e r s . T h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n o f t h e p r o lo g u e i s u s u a l l y d e v o t e d t o t h e n a m in g o f t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e a c t i o n i s t o u n f o l d . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e " B o u r g e o is e d ' O r l i e n s " ( V I I I ) p r o c e e d s a s f o l l o w s * V ou s v o i l c o n t e r d 'u n e b o r j o i s e j N § e e t n o r i e e s t o i t d ' O r l i e n s . . . I f s p e a k in g o f a r u r a l a r e a , t h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n i s som e t im e s g iv e n * 248 A v i n t e n l a f o r e s t d 'A r d a n e , A q u a t r e l i u e s p r e s d 'O t a n e . . . (XX*) H o w e v e r , a u t h o r s se e m p a r t i c u l a r l y e a g e r t o a t t a c h t h e i r w o r k s t o l a r g e c o m m e r c ia l c e n t e r s s u c h a s C o m p ie g n e (C X *, I V * ) , M o n t p e l l i e r (C X IV ), P r o v i n s (C X V I* ), S e n s (C X V I I ), H aynau (X C I) , F a r b u (XCV) , A r r a s ( C H I ) . O f t e n t h e a u t h o r s e e m s t o b e a c t u a l l y b o a s t i n g t h a t h e h a s f r e q u e n t e d s u c h p l a c e s i A O r l i e n s , l a b o n e c i t § , Ou j ' a i p a r m e i n t e f o i z e s t £ . . . (CXXXIX) I t i s h a r d t o d e t e r m in e w h e t h e r t h e n a m in g o f to w n s i s a d e v i c e t o d a z z l e t h e r u s t i c w i t h t a l e s o f b i g c i t y l i f e , o r s im p ly a p r e s c r i b e d s t y l i s t i c d e v i c e . S i n c e n o r e a l d e t a i l s a r e e v e r g i v e n t o d i s t i n g u i s h o n e c i t y fr o m a n o t h e r , t h e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e s e e m s h i g h l y p o s s i b l e . N e x t , a u t h o r s i n c l u d e t h e s e a s o n i n w h ic h t h e e v e n t s t a k e p la c e * . . . e t f u en l a s a i s o n Q u ' i l f a i t c h a l t t e n s com e n a o s t . . . (CX*) A u * a v in t en 1 ' e n t r S e d e m a i . . . (CXXXIX) F e s t i v a l t im e s r e c e i v e a c e r t a i n p r e f e r e n c e s A l a P e n t e c o u s t e en e s t S . . . (LV) A v i n t e n t o r l a s a i n t M a r t in . . . (L V II) E n t o r f e s t e T o z S a in s a v i n t . . . (LXXXIV) M o st o f t e n , a l l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d a t e o f t h e e v e n t i s summed u p i n a g e n e r a l te r m s u c h a s s " j a d i s , " " en i c e l t e n s , " " j o u r q u i j a f u , " o r e v e n " i l e s t o i e n t j a d i s " i n 249 t h e f o l k t a l e t r a d i t i o n . O c c a s i o n a l a t t e m p t s t o b e m o re p r e c i s e d o n o t r e a l l y p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l d a t a . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e " H ou ce p a r t i e " (V ) s t a t e s : H u im es v o u s f a z a p e r c e v o i r U ne a v e n t u r e q u i a v i n t B ie n a .X V I I . a n s o u .X X . . . . N o n e o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s c o m p r is e s a r e a l e f f o r t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a u t h o r t o b e e x a c t a s t o t h e t i m i n g o f t h e e v e n t s r e l a t e d a n d s e e m , o n c e a g a i n , t o h a v e b e e n m ere c o n v e n t i o n s . F i n a l l y , t h e p r o lo g u e s e t s f o r t h t h e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n o r a g e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s . Many f a b l i a u x b e g i n a s f o l lo w s : A p r e s v o s c o n t e d 'u n v i l a i n s o t . . . (CV*) V o s v o i l c o n t e r d 'u n e b o r j o i s e . . . (C) S e i g n o r , o e z e t e n t e n d e z J[. f l a b l e l q u ' e s t f a i z e t r i m e z , D 'u n r o i q u i E n g l e t e r r e t i n t . (XC*) D 'u n p r e s t r e v o u s d i e t r e c o r t . . . (LXXXIX*) J a d i s a v o i t e n C a rem b a n t U ne r i c h e v i e l l e m a n a n t . . . (X C V III) A fe w r e m a r k s c o n c e r n i n g p h y s i c a l , m e n t a l , a n d m o r a l q u a l i t i e s may b e in c l u d e d : U ne p u c e l e q u i e s t b e l e . . . (XXXI*) J a d i s e s t o i t d a m o is e a x Q u i m o lt e s t o i t c o i n t e s e t b e a x . . . (XXXV*) D 'u n p r e s t r e s o t e t m a l s e n £ . . . (C X V III* ) I b o r j o i s f u p r e u z e t h a r d i z . . . (CXXIV) E t c i l q u i n ' e r t a v e r s n e c h i c h e . . . (CX*) 250 O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e p r o l o g u e i n c l u d e s a g e n e r a l m o r a l d e s c r i p t i o n . I n "D es t r e s c e s " (X G IV ), t h e a u t h o r d i s c o u r s e s o n t h e q u a l i t i e s t o b e s o u g h t i n a k n i g h t . I n t h i s w a y , h e c o n t r a s t s w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s e x e m p la r y w i t h t h e p o o r e x c u s e f o r k n ig h t h o o d t h a t h e i s a b o u t t o d e s c r i b e . H o w e v e r , s u c h d i s c u r s i v e n e s s i s r a r e in d e e d . I t w o u ld se e m t h a t t h e p r o lo g u e h a s t h e u n iq u e f u n c t i o n o f s i l e n c i n g t h e a u d ie n c e a n d o f p r o v i d i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y in f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e t t i n g an d c h a r a c t e r s . I t i s d e l i b e r a t e l y g e n e r a l a n d s u r p r i s i n g l y u n i fo r m i n c o n t e n t . I t s c o n c i s i o n g i v e s i t t h e f o r c e w h ic h i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n o r a l w o r k . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t c a p t u r e s t h e l i s t e n e r ' s a t t e n t i o n q u i c k l y . T h e n a r r a t i v e , i n v a r i a b l y i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n , f o l l o w s t h e p r o l o g u e . T h e la n g u a g e i s f r e e o f p e d a n t r y an d c o n t a i n s im a g e r y d e r i v e d fr o m o n l y t h e m o s t common e v e r y d a y o b j e c t s . T h e p h r a s e i s l o n g , c u t b y p u n c t u a t i o n , b y s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , y e t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s e n t e n c e i n n o w ay o b s c u r e s t h e t h o u g h t . C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p le , t h e o p e n in g w o rd s o f t h e n a r r a t i v e i n t h e "Dame q u i f i s t b a t r e s o n m a ri" (C ): L i e s c o l i e r s a t a n t p r o i i La d a m e, q u ' i l l ' a m is e en v o ie * E t l a b e a s s e t o t e v o i e A t o t e s c o u t S e t o3! C onm ant i l o n t l o r p l a i t b a s t i ; Au b o r j o i s r e v i e n t m a in t e n a n t , S i l i c o n t e l o c o v e n a n t , Q ue l a dam e l o m a n d e r o it ; E t l i c o v e n a n z t e u s e s t o i t , 251 Q a n t e l p o r r o i t s a v o i r n e c r o i r e Q ue s e s s i r e s i r o i t & f o i r e P o r s a b e s o g n e p o r c h a c i e r , Q u ' i v i e n t p a r d e v e r s l o v e r g i e r A un h u i s q u ' i l e n s e i g n a , E t f e r o i t e n c o n t r e l u i l 4 Q a n t i l s e r o i t b i e n a n u i t i S . T h e r h y t h m ic m ovem en t i m i t a t e s t h e f l o w o f a n a t u r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h i t s t w i s t s a n d t u r n s a n d , t h e r e b y , t e n d s t o p r o d u c e an in t im a c y b e tw e e n t h e n a r r a t o r an d h i s a u d ie n c e w h ic h h o ld s t h e i n t e r e s t . D e s c r i p t i o n i s K ep t t o a m inim um an d i s s e ld o m o f m a jo r im p o r t a n c e . I t i n c l u d e s o n l y t h o s e e le m e n t s n e c e s s a r y t o t h e a c t i o n , s u c h a s o c c a s i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s t o p h y s i q u e a n d c l o t h i n g , t h e b a s i c e le m e n t s o f t h e s e t t i n g , t h e p r e s e n c e o f r e l e v a n t p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s , a n d c h a n g e s o f m in d o r c h a r a c t e r o n t h e p a r t o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s . T h e a u t h o r c o n t e n t s h i m s e l f w i t h a s i m p l e s t a t e m e n t , r a r e l y a d e v e l o p m e n t, a n d t h u s r e l i e s a lm o s t e n t i r e l y o n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s c a p a c i t y t o im a g in e . When a f a b l i a u a u t h o r d o e s d e s c r i b e t h e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s , h e u s e s n o n e b u t t h e m o s t n e u t r a l a d j e c t i v e s . G i r l s a n d women a lw a y s a r e " a v e n a n ts " o r " b e l e s ," w h i l e o l d women a r e n o t o n l y u g l y , b u t d e fo r m e d : " B o g u e e s t o i t , l a i d e e t h id e u s e " (C X X V *). F a b l i a u a u t h o r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e p a r o d y in g c o u r t l y w o r k s , t e n d t o g i v e t h e i n v a r i a b l e p o r t r a i t o f t h e m e d ie v a l woman: " g r e l e , " " b lo n d e ," a n d " b la n c h e ." O n ly on r a r e o c c a s i o n s d o e s t h i s b eco m e t h e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d b l a s o n fo u n d 252 t h r o u g h o u t m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e * G r a i l l e t e e s t o i t , e t l e s m a m eles L i v e n o i e n t t o u t p r im e r a in s ; L e s d o i s a v o i t I o n s e t l e s m a in s ; P l u s b la n c h e e s t o i t q u e n ' e s t g e l S e . Q u a n t e l e e s t o i t e s c a v e l £ e , S i c h e v e i l r e s a m b l o i e n t d * o r , T a n t e s t o i e n t l u i s a n t e t s o r ; S ' o t l e c o l b l a n c e t l e f r o n t p l a i n ; I c e l e e r t n i e c h e a u C a p e l a i n , S ' a v o i t p e t i t e s o r e i l l e t e s ; B ie n l i s S o i e n t l e s l e v r e t e s E t l i d e n t m en u e e t b l a n c ; S a b o u c h e r e s a n l o i t f i n s a n e ; C le r e t r i a n t f u r e n t l i o e u l . (XXXIV) L o v e r s p o s s e s s t h e u s u a l m e d ie v a l p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d a r e " b e a u ," " m ig n o n ,” " g r a s ." T h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f f o u r c l e r i c s i s t y p i c a l o f t h e f a b l i a u x ; D e N o r m a n d ie s o n t v e n u z Q u a t r e N o rm a n z, c l e r s e s c o l i e r s : L o r s a s p o r t e n t conm e c o l i e r s , D ed a n z l o r l i v r e s , e t l o r d r a s ; M out e s t o i e n t m ig n o z e t g r a s , C o r t o i s , c h a n t a n t e t e n v o i s i e z E t e n l a v i l e b i e n p r i s i e z , 0 i l a v o i e n t o s t e l p r i s . (C) H u sb a n d s a r e " v i e i l , " " l a i d , " " n o i r ," " m a u fe z ," " d e l a i d e h u r e ." A p o o r h u sb a n d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e p u g n a n t . One a u t h o r d e s c r i b e s o n e t h u s ; " . . . d e l a i t p e l a i n ; / D e s l a v e z e s t , s ' o t c h i e f l o e u . . . ” (L X X X *). T h e l i s t e n e r s a r e n e v e r in fo r m e d i n m ore d e t a i l o f t h e s p e c i f i c q u a l i t i e s o f b e a u t y o r u g l i n e s s w h ic h t h e c h a r a c t e r p o s s e s s e s . H o w e v e r , a n o c c a s i o n a l c o m p a r is o n i s e v i d e n t l y an a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e j u s t s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n . O ne a u t h o r a s s e r t s ; N e p u r r o i t - o n t r o v e r p lu s b e l e , N e e l R e a lm e d e G a s t e l e . (XXXV*) 253 Y e t e v e n t h i s a n a lo g y d o e s l i t t l e t o e n l i g h t e n o n e . S u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e e v i d e n t l y t h e r e s u l t o f w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d c o n v e n t i o n s , f o r s i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s c a n b e fo u n d t h r o u g h o u t m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e r o m a n c e s .27 D e s c r i p t i o n s o f a p p a r e l a r e e x t r e m e l y i n f r e q u e n t . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g r a r e e x a m p le , t h e a u t h o r d e m o n s t r a t e s a s t y l i s t i c s k i l l g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t fo u n d i n m o s t f a b l i a u x ; Q u a n t e l e s t p a r £ e e t v e s t u e , Q ue n ' e s t f a u c o n s q u i i s t d e m u e, N e e s p e r v i e r , n e p a p e g a u t . D *un e p o r p r e e s t o i t s o n b l i a u t , E t s e s m e n te a u s d ' o r e s t e l S e , E t s i n ' e s t o i t m ie p e l S e , L e p e n n e q u i d 'e r m in e f u ; D 'u n s e b e l i n n o i r e t c h e n u Fu l i m e n te a x a u c o l c o u l e z , Q ue n * e s t o i t t r o p t r a n z n e t r o p l e z , E t , s e g e o n q u e s f i s d e v i s e D e b e a u t S q u e D ez e u s t m is e En c o r s d e fe m e n e en f a c e , Or me p l a i s e - i l q u e m es c u e r s f a c e Ofi j a n ' e n m e n t i r a i d e m o t. (XXXV*) A u th o r s u s u a l l y t e l l o n l y t h a t a d r e s s i s " b e le " a n d r e f u s e a l l r e f e r e n c e t o i t s d e s i g n a n d c o l o r . T h is i s i n d e c i d e d c o n t r a s t t o t h e w r i t e r s o f ro m a n ce who i n d u l g e i n op l o n g , p r e c i s e , a n d c o l o r f u l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f i n e r y . i t w o u ld seem t h a t b o t h t h e b l a s o n m e n t io n e d a b o v e (XXXIV) an d t h e p r e c e d i n g e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f f i n e r y a r e p a r o d i e s o f c o u r t l y l i t e r a t u r e a s P e r N y k r o g s u g g e s t s . 27S e e , f o r e x a m p le , M a r ie d e F r a n c e , " L a n v a l," 1 1 . 5 3 1 , 6 0 2 a n d " L a u s t i c , ” 1 . 1 4 ; A l s o C h r i t i e n d e T r o y e s , E r e c e t E n id e , 1 . 4 1 1 . 2® C h r S tie n d e T r o y e s , E r e c e t E n id e , 1 1 . 1 5 6 7 f f . 254 H o w e v e r , s u c h e l a b o r a t e p a r o d i e s a r e r a t h e r r a r e i n t h e f a b l i a u x . A s i n t h e c a s e o f p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n , m o r a l q u a l i t i e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n f r e q u e n t l y an d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s . P e o p l e a r e g o o d o r b a d , s t u p i d o r c l e v e r , w i t h n o s h a d e s o f v a r i a t i o n . A d j e c t i v e s l a c k s p e c i f i c i t y , im a g e s a r e v a g u e . T erm s s u c h a s " f e lo n ,'" " a v e r ," " r e c u i t , " a s w e l l a s " p r e u x ," " s a g e s ," " g e n t ," a n d " c o r t o i s " a b o u n d , b u t g i v e l i t t l e r e a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s t h e y d e s c r i b e . H o w e v e r , f a b l i a u a u t h o r s d o d e m o n s t r a t e som e v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e i n d e s c r i b i n g m o r a l q u a l i t i e s . A t r a i t s u c h a s a v a r i c e c a n b e c o n v e y e d i n a p h y s i c a l fo r m w h ic h p r o d u c e s a v i s u a l im a g es Q u a n q u ’ i l p o o i t t e n i r a s p o in z ; E t o i t m o u t fe r m e m a n t t e n u z . . . (C) Or t h e q u a l i t y c a n b e r e v e a l e d e x c l u s i v e l y b y a n a c t i o n . T h e c o q u e t r y o f t h e " v i e i l l e tr u a n d e " (CXXIX*) i s e v i d e n t i n h e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f b e a u t y o i l , t h a t o f t h e w i f e i n "De l ' e s p e r v i e r " (CXV) i n h e r p r im p in g b e f o r e t h e m ir r o r , t h a t o f t h e w id o w (X LIX ) i n t h e p i n n i n g up o f h e r s k i r t a s s h e g o e s t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s . T h e j e a l o u s y o f h u sb a n d s i s u s u a l l y e v i d e n c e d b y t h e i r f u r t i v e n e s s a n d s p y i n g . G e n e r a l l y , i t i s b y w h a t i s o f t e n a s u b t l e c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n t h e s p o k e n w o rd a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y in g p h y s i c a l a c t i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r r e v e a l s t h e c h a r a c t e r ’ s m o r a l 255 q u a l i t i e s . O ne s k i l l f u l u s e o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s fo u n d i n "Du p r e s t r e t e i n t " (CXXXIX) i n w h ic h t h e a u t h o r p o i n t s o u t a f r e q u e n t f a b l i a u c h a r a c t e r f l a w , h y p o c r i s y . W ith h e r h a n d f i r m l y c l u t c h i n g t h e f i s t f u l l o f c o i n s a p r i e s t h a s g i v e n h e r i n p a y m en t f o r h e r a i d i n w in n in g a r e t i c e n t b o u r g e o i s e , H e r s e n t s i m p e r s * " ' . . . a g r a n t b e s o i n g / D o i t l ' e n b i e n s o n am i a i d i e r . ' " (CXXXIX) I n " B e r a n g e r a u l o n e c u l" (LXXXVI*) t h e a u t h o r c o n t r a s t s t h e h u s b a n d 's b o a s t w i t h h i s f r e n z i e d f l i g h t i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f h i s own w i f e d r e s s e d i n a r m o r . E m o tio n s a r e d e s c r i b e d s u c c i n c t l y a n d i n v i s u a l t e r m s . O ne o r tw o l i n e s , b o r r o w e d fr o m w h a t , a g a i n , se e m s t o h a v e b e e n a common fu n d o f p h r a s e s , s u f f i c e t o c o n v e y an e m o t io n a l s t a t e . F e a r i s a lw a y s p h y s i c a l l y o b v io u s * E t l i v i l a i n s d e p a o r t r a m b le . . . (LXXIV) T e l p a o u r a q u 'a m out g r a n t p e i n e P u e t i l m es r e p r e n d r e s ' a l e i n e . . . (CXL*) T r e m b la u n t com e f u e i l l e m enue Q e l e v e n t d e b y s e d e m e y n e . (X L V II) A n x i e t y i s show n b y c o n f u s i o n : S a fa m e l ’o y , q u e f a i r e n e s o t P r e s n ' i s s o i t du s e n s . . . (X X X II) A n g e r i s s e e n i n i t s e f f e c t s upon t h e body* "De m a u t a la n t l i c u e r s l i t r a m b le . . . " ( X V I I I ) . T e a r s a r e s i g n s o f s a d n e s s : P l e u r e c e l e e t p e r t s e j o i e . . . (XXXIV) P l o r a n t s ' e n v a i j u q u 'a S e ig n o r . . . (XXXVI) 256 J o y i s a n a n im a t io n o f t h e w h o le p e r so n * A i n s i f u l i e z d e s ' a v e n t u r e L i b o r g o i s , e t b e l s ' e n d e p o r t e . . . (CX) S u r p r i s e i s g i v e n v e n t t o a u d ib ly * Q u a n t l a p a r v i n t , t e l n o i s e f a i t E t a g i e t S . i . s i g r a n t b r a i t C 'o n l ' o i s t . . . • •••••••••••••a De l e v i l e p a r t o u t l e s e n s . (XXXIV) E m b a r r a ssm e n t i s s e e n i n a d e s i r e f o r p h y s i c a l a b s e n c e * " L ors v o u s i s t e s t r e e n E n g l e t e r r e . . ( X X I I I ) . T h e g r o w th o f p a s s i o n i s c o n v e y e d b y t h e l o v e r ' s f i x e d g a z e s T o u t e j o r l ' e s g a r d e a e s t a l L i c l e r s , s i q u 'a p a i n e s e c i l l e . . . (X X II* ) L o v e i t s e l f i s o f t e n p i c t u r e d a s an o u t s i d e f o r c e a t t a c k in g i t s v i c t i m b o d ily * M D 'a m o r s q u i l ’ a o u c o r s n a v r § . . ." (C V I * ). Y e t a t o t h e r t i m e s , l o v e i s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s u m in g fla m e * "A m ors q u i l ' a p o i n t d ' a r d a n t e s t a n c e l e . . (C X X V II* ). O f t e n i t i s t h r o u g h a r e v e l a t o r y g e s t u r e , r a t h e r th a n d e s c r i p t i v e im a g e s , t h a t o n e c a n u n d e r s ta n d t h e f e e l i n g s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s . A g i r l c r u m p le s i n s a d n e s s a n d d i s t r e s s * "De d o l o r p l o i e l ' e s c h i n e " (XXXIV) . An o t h e r th r o w s down a c l o a k i n a n g e r * La d a m o i s e l e e s t t a n t i r i e Q u ' e l e n e s e t q u e f e r e d o i e S i p r e n t p a r l ' a t a c h e d e s o i e L e m a n t e l , s i l ' a j u s g e t £ . . . (LV) T h e K in g o f E n g la n d h e a r s w i t h m in g le d j o y an d r e l i e f t h a t t h e f o r e i g n e r ' s i n s u l t w as n o t i n t e n t i o n a l * 257 L i r o i s l ' e n t e n t , s a c u i s e b a t D e l a j o i e q u ' i l o t e iie . . . (XC*) D is c o u r a g e d , a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r l e t s h i s w h o le b e i n g t e s t i f y t o h i s f e e l i n g s * " S o r . i . l i t s ' e s t l e s s i e z v e r s e r . . . " (C V I* ) . T h e p h y s i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e s e im a g e s m ay m ake th em a p p e a r r a t h e r n a i v e t o t h e m od ern r e a d e r , y e t t h e i r v i s u a l f o r c e i s n o t w i t h o u t e f f e c t , e s p e c i a l l y i n o r a l l i t e r a t u r e . L ik e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p e o p l e , i n d i c a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x t e r i o r d e c o r a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e m e n tio n o f a fe w l o c a l i t i e s o r b u i l d i n g s . T h e s e a r e o n l y m e n t io n e d i f t h e y a r e n e c e s s a r y t o t h e a c t i o n . O ne i s r e m in d e d o f t h o s e O r i e n t a l d ram as i n w h ic h s p e c t a t o r a n d a c t o r a l i k e a c c e p t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c h u r c h , h o u s e , o r f o r e s t w i t h o n l y v e r b a l p r o o f o f i t s e x i s t e n c e . A lt h o u g h i t c o n t a i n s m any s u p p o s e d l y a c t u a l s i t e s , t h e f a b l i a u la n d s c a p e se e m s t o b e j u s t a s f a c t i t i o u s a s t h a t o f t h e e p i c . F i e l d s , w o o d s , r i v e r s , c a s t l e s , t o w n s , o r c h a r d s , m a r k e t s , c h u r c h e s a r e a l l m e n t io n e d , b u t t h e i r e x a c t a p p e a r a n c e i s l e f t e n t i r e l y t o c o n j e c t u r e . A lt h o u g h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y i s o f t e n p r e s e n t f o r s m a ll t a b l e a u x , t h e a u t h o r s s e ld o m t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f i t . T h e o p e n in g s c e n e i n t h e " M eu n ier d 'A r le u x " (X X X III) c o u l d h a v e b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a m i n i a t u r e fr o m A lp h o n s e D a u d e t. T h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t se e m t o e v e n s u s p e c t t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e m om en t. O c c a s i o n a l l y , a b r i e f g li m p s e o f t h e s c e n e i s p r o v i d e d , s u c h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c i t y a t n i g h t : 258 Q u a n t l a v i n r e n t , s i e s t o i t n u i s E t s i e s t o i e n t c l o s l i h u i s , E t l e s b e s t e s e r e n t v e n u e s , E t l e s e s t o i l l e s p a r l e s r u e s L u i s o i e n t , q u i c l a r t e t d o n n o i e n t A c h ia u x q u i l e s c h e m in s a l o i e n t . . . (XXXIV) T h e s i m p l i c i t y a n d charm o f t h i s m i n i a t u r e m ake o n e w is h f o r m ore o f t h e sa m e . N a t u r a l p h en om en a a r e , i n t h e m s e l v e s , o f n o i n t e r e s t t o t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r . T h ey a r e p r e s e n t o n l y i f t h e a c t i o n dem ands th e m . I n t h e " P r o v o ir e q u i m an gea m u r e s ” ( X C I I * ) , t h e p r i e s t m u st b e p i c k i n g t h e b e r r i e s fr o m a b u s h , b u t n o n e i s m e n t io n e d . T h e p r e s e n c e o f an o r c h a r d i n s e v e r a l f a b l i a u x (LX X IX , C , V I I I , CXXXVII) se e m s t o b e m ore an a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l l o c u s am oen u s o f L a t i n l i t e r a t u r e , o r o f t h e t r y s t i n g p l a c e o f t h e A r t h u r ia n r o m a n c e , t h a n a p h y s i c a l l o c a l i t y . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e tw o e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s s t a t e m e n t . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e " L a i d ' A r i s t o t e " (CXXXVII) i s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e b e a u t i e s o f n a t u r e : E nz e l v e r g i e r s o u z l a t o r m i s e , En . 1 . b l i a u t y n d e g o u t e , Q u ar l a m a t in e e e r t d ' e s t i E t l i v e r g i e r s p l a i n s d e v e r d u r e . C o n s i d e r , a l s o , t h e s e l i n e s fr o m t h e " F l a b l e l d ' A l o u l ” (X X IV ): L o n g u em en t f u en c e l e s c i l , T a n t q u e l i d o u z m o is f u d ' a v r i l , Q ue l i t e n s e s t s o u e z e t d o u z V e r s t o u t e g e n t , e t a m orou zj L i r o x i n g n o l s l a m a t in e e C h a n te s i c l e r p a r l a ra m ee Q ue t o u t e r i e n s s e m u e r t d 'a m e r . 259 H o w e v e r , s u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e t y p i c a l o f i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r s an d n o t a t a l l common i n t h e f a b l i a u x . I n t e r i o r s a r e s e ld o m m e n tio n e d a n d a lm o s t n e v e r d e s c r i b e d . A fe w n o u n s s u f f i c e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a c t i o n i s t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n a h o u s e o r c a s t l e an d t h a t t h e room i n q u e s t i o n c o n t a i n s a b e d , a w a s h t u b , a t a b l e , a f i r e p l a c e , o r an o v e n . S i n c e t h e n o u n s a r e n e v e r p a r t i c u l a r i z e d , t h e it e m s m e n t io n e d c o u ld b e lo n g t o a n y e p o c h o r c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h e a u t h o r o f ”Du v a l e t q u i s e m e t a m e s a is e " (X L IV *) g i v e s an e x t e n s i v e l i s t o f h o u s e h o ld it e m s a n d f u r n i t u r e w i t h o u t o n c e p a r t i c u l a r i z i n g t h e n o u n s . T h e a tm o s p h e r e o f t h e f a b l i a u i s u n if o r m ly g r a y an d b r o w n . A lt h o u g h o b j e c t s o f m o m en ta ry im p o r t a n c e t o t h e a c t i o n r e c e i v e som e s p o t l i g h t i n g , t h e f a b l i a u n o r m a lly o f f e r s l i t t l e b r i g h t n e s s o r c o l o r . I f n i g h t i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p l o t , o n e i s a p p r is e d o f t h i s f a c t , o t h e r w i s e i t i s f o r t h e a u d ie n c e t o a ssu m e t h a t i t i s d a y . T h e r e a r e o n l y o c c a s i o n a l s p l a s h e s o f c o l o r , a n d t h e s e a r e a lm o s t a lw a y s r e d , y e l l o w , a n d g o l d . I n a l l t h e l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e l o v e r an d h i s c o r t e g e fo u n d i n t h e " C h e v a lie r a l a r o b e v e r m e i l l e " ( L V I I * ) , o n l y t h e c o l o r o f h i s r o b e i s m e n t io n e d a n d t h i s w as a l r e a d y know n fr o m t h e t i t l e . L ik e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s , e v e n t s o f t h e n a r r a t i v e a r e g i v e n w i t h g r e a t c o n c i s i o n . H u rry o r f l i g h t , f o r 260 e x a m p le , a r e e v i d e n c e d b y t h e r a p id a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f s e v e r a l a c t i o n s : La c h a m b r ie r e i s n e l e m e n t L i r e n t s a r o b e , e t i l s ' a t o r n e ; M a in t e n a n t d e , , 1 ' o s t e l s ' e n t o r n e . . . (X X I I I ) T h e v e r b s h e r e a r e a l l - i m p o r t a n t . R e i n f o r c e d b y t h e tw o a d v e r b s , t h e y g i v e a c o m p le t e p i c t u r e o f t h e h a s t y d o n n in g o f t h e r o b e an d h u r r i e d e x i t . T h e p a s s i n g o f t im e i s sh ow n b y a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o e v e r y d a y a c t i o n s t r a n s p i r i n g b e t e e n tw o g i v e n e v e n t s : "Q ueque f o z d o r t e t t e r m e s v i e n t . . . " (L X X X II). A t r i p i s i m p l i e d , n o t b y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i t i n e r a r y n o r b y a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e m ode o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , b u t b y a s e r i e s o f v e r b s o f m o t io n t h e c o l l e c t i v e e f f e c t o f w h ic h r e s s e m b le s r u n n in g i n p l a c e . T a n t v a , t a n t v i e n t e t t a n t d em a n d e, T a n t a e r r 6 p a r I n g u e la n d e , Q u ’ i l a t r o v § . . . (XC*) Proximity is judged, not by measures, but by physical n e a r n e s s o f tw o o b j e c t s o r p e r s o n s : L 'e v e s q u e s s e d e l i s 'a p r o u c h e Q ue p a r l i e r i p o u t b o u c h e a b o u c h e . (LX X X II) A g a in t h e s e p h r a s e s i n t h e i r r a p i d i t y , im m in e n c e , an d b r e v i t y a r e o f a n u n d e n i a b l e e f f e c t . B a t h in g a n d e a t i n g a r e t h e o n l y f a b l i a u e v e n t s i n v i t i n g l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n . T h e a u t h o r o f "D es . i i . c h a n g S o r s " (X X I I I ) c o n s i d e r s e v e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e b a t h w a t e r im p o r t a n t . W iv e s a r e o f t e n c a u g h t i n t h e a c t o f p r e p a r i n g a su m p tu o u s m e a l f o r a l o v e r (G , C X *, X X X III, 261 C X X X II*) o r o f e a t i n g i t w i t h a h u sb a n d ( L X I * ) . "Le P r e s t r e e t l e c h e v a l i e r " (XXXIV) o f f e r s t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f a r e p a s t f i t f o r a k in g * F a i t l e P r e s t r e s p r e m ie r e m e n ti "Vous c o n t e r a i . v . s a u s a u p a i n , E t . v . a u v i n , p l a i s a n t e t s a i n , E t . v . a l e c h a r d e p o r e s a i n e ; A u t r e s t a n t a v a l u e l a l a i n e . S ' e n a . v . a s g e l i n e s c r a s s e s , .V . a s c a p o n s e t , v . a s l i a s t e s , .V . a s p a s t S s , . v . a s g a s t i a u x , Q ue n o u s a u ssm e s b o i n s e t b i a u x , .V . a s a u s e t . v . a s o i s s n i o n s , .V . au p o i v r e e t , v . a s p o i s s o n s , E t s i a r a . v . s a u s a u f e u , .V . au s e r j a n t e t . v . a u k e u , .V . p o u r l ' a v a i n e . . . " H o w e v e r , e v e n t h i s l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n i s r e a l l y l i t t l e m ore th a n an e n u m e r a tio n an d t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e num ber f i v e m e r e ly a c o m ic d e v i c e . S u c h lo n g l i s t s o f f o o d a n d c o n d im e n ts w e r e i n t e n d e d t o am u se t h e a u d i e n c e , n o t t o p r o v i d e in f o r m a t io n o n t h e t a s t e s o f t h e d a y . M e ta p h o r s a n d s i m i l i e s p l a y an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e f a b l i a u n a r r a t i v e w h e r e t h e v e r b d o m in a t e s a n d n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s a r e e x a s p e r a t i n g l y g e n e r a l . When t h e y do o c c u r , t h e y a r e draw n u s u a l l y fr o m t h e a n im a l an d v e g e t a b l e k in g d o m s . S p e a k in g o f l o v e an a u t h o r s a y s i t i s : S o r t o u t e a u t r e r i e n g e n t i e x Comme l i o s t o r s au t e r g u e l . . . (X X II* ) W iv e s d o n ' t l o v e t h e i r h u sb a n d s " m ie un e s c a l o i g n e " ( X X V I I I ) , o r " p a s un a l i e " (X X X I* ). P o p u la r com m en ts o f t h i s t y p e s t i l l s u r v i v e i n s t a t e m e n t s l i k e i " H e 's a r o t t e n a p p le " o r " H e 's a b a d e g g ." Many o f t h e s e 262 c o m p a r is o n s a r e c l i c h e s o f w o r ld l i t e r a t u r e . P e o p l e t r e m b le "com u n e f u e i l l e d 'a r b r e " (X X X I* ). G i r l s * e y e s a r e "com e c r i s t a l . " P e o p l e ' s f a c e s t u r n " p lu s b la n c h e q u e n a p e" o r " p lu s r o u g e q u e fe u " u n d e r e m o t io n a l s t r e s s . T h e d y e d p r i e s t i s s " . . . p l u s t e i n t e t p l u s v e r m e i l / A u ’ au m a t i n e t n ’ e s t l e s o l e i l . . ." (C X X X IX ). A g a in , t h e c o l o r s r e d a n d y e l l o w a r e u s e d a n d i n t h e m o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n n er. I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m in e i f t h i s t y p e o f im a g e r y i s s im p ly b o r r o w e d fr o m f o l k l o r e o r i f i t i s an i n t e n t i o n a l p a r o d y o f t h e e l a b o r a t e b a r o q u e m e ta p h o r s fo u n d i n m e d ie v a l L a t i n t e x t s . T h e n a r r a t i v e p o r t i o n o f t h o s e f a b l i a u x i n v o l v i n g s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f som e t y p e i s b u i l t o n a s i n g l e m e ta p h o r . T h e p r e c i s e m a t e r i a l o f t h i s m e ta p h o r c a n b e o f s e v e r a l t y p e s . U s u a l l y t h e v o c a b u la r y i s draw n fr o m e q u i t a t i o n w i t h w o r d s s u c h a s " l i m a r e s c h a l," " b a u c e n t ," ” " p o l e i n , " " p r £ a u ," " a b r e u v e r " u s e d w i t h d o u b le m e a n in g s (L X V * ). O th e r m e ta p h o r s a r e b a s e d on t h e a n im a l an d v e g e t a b l e k in g d o m a n d t h e f e e d i n g o f fa r m b e a s t s (X X IX , C V I I ) . S t i l l o t h e r s m ake u s e o f h u n t i n g t e r m i n o l o g y ( C X I * ) . T h is t y p e o f m e ta p h o r i s b y n o m eans u n iq u e , b u t i s common t h r o u g h o u t e r o t i c l i t e r a t u r e an d s t i l l i n u s e t o d a y . ^ S e e C u r t i u s , p p . 1 2 8 - 4 4 . ^ S e e , f o r e x a m p le , t h e J u l i e t t e G r e c o s o n g " C h a n d ern a g o r" i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o lu m b ia r e c o r d alb u m J u l i e t t e , n o . W L 1 3 8 . 263 T h e f a b l i a u a l s o m ak es f r e q u e n t u s e o f r e p e t i t i v e p h r a s e s w h ic h o f t e n v e r g e o n r e f r a i n s . I n t h e " P r e s t r e q u ’ o n p o r t e " (L X X X IX *), t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e d e a d p r i e s t i s a n n o u n c e d b y m e to n y m ie s s u c h a s* " c e l u i k i m ie n ' a e n te n d u " o r " c e l u i q u i n ' a p a s p a o r g r a n t d e l u i . " T h e s e 'forew arn t h e a u d ie n c e o f a new a n d d i f f e r e n t a t t e m p t t o d i s p o s e o f t h e b o d y . I n "De C o n s t a n t du H am el" ( C V I * ) , a s e r v a n t g i r l a c t s a s a g o - b e t w e e n i n t h e w i f e ' s d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e p r i e s t . T h e p h r a s e "m out s e p a i n e d e t o s t a l e r " sh o w s h e r t r i p t o t h e c h u r c h w i t h a m e s s a g e , w h i l e "a s a dam e r e v i n t e r r a n t " i n d i c a t e s h e r r e t u r n w i t h an a n s w e r . T h e tw o p h r a s e s a ssu m e t h e q u a l i t i e s o f a r e f r a i n a n d a r e u s e d t o e m p h a s iz e t h e r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e t r i p s a n d t h e c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g r e s u l t s o f t h e g i r l ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h t h e p r i e s t . T h is r e f r a i n i s a s i m p l e , b u t e f f e c t i v e , c o m ic d e v i c e . T h e d e s c r i p t i v e an d n a r r a t i v e p a s s a g e s j u s t d i s c u s s e d , a lt h o u g h t h e m o s t h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d s t y l i s t i c a l l y , b y n o m ean s c o m p r is e t h e b u lk o f t h e f a b l i a u . I n t e r r u p t i o n s o f t h e n a r r a t i v e a r e , b y f a r , t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d im p o r t a n t p o r t i o n s . T h e s e a r e o f tw o t y p e st d i a l o g u e s o r m o n o lo g u e s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s a n d i n t r u s i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r . S e n t e n c e s i n t h e d i a l o g u e s a r e s h o r t e r t h a n t h o s e o f t h e n a r r a t i v e s e g m e n t s . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e r h y th m i s m o re s t a c c a t o , r a p i d , a n d l i v e l y . P i c t u r e s q u e e v e r y d a y e x p r e s s i o n s a n d i n t e r j e c t i o n s s u c h a s " p o r D ie u m e r c i ," 264 " la v r a i e c r o i x , " " l a s s e , " a n d "m al j o r a i e s " l e n d a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d n a t u r a l n e s s t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a s d o t h e f r e q u e n t com m an d s, i n t e r r o g a t i o n s , a n d o c c a s i o n a l p r o v e r b s . D ia lo g u e a n d m o n o lo g u e c a n h a v e a v a r i e t y o f f u n c t i o n s . U s u a l l y t h e y p l a y u p t h e c o m ic e l e m e n t s . F o r e x a m p le , E s to r m i g r u m p ily a p o s t r o p h i z e s t h e d e a d b o d y w h ic h som eh ow , h e t h i n k s , k e e p s c o m in g b a c k t o l i f e : R ' e s t u e z o r e p o r l a d o s n e R e v e n u z s i n o v e le m e n t ? J a p o r n u l e s p o e n t e m e n t N e l e r a i q u e n e v o u s e n f u e c h e . (X IX *) S u c h m o n o lo g u e s a l s o b r i n g o u t t h e human q u a l i t i e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s . E s t o r m i i s o b v i o u s l y a f r a i d a n d r a t h e r d r u n k . He i s t a l k i n g t o h i m s e l f a s m uch a s t o t h e d e a d b o d y . A g a in , i n t h e " V a le t q u i s e m e t a m e s a is e " (X L I V * ), t h e p a r e n t s * c o n v e r s a t i o n i n b e d a b o u t how t o e x t r a c t t h e g r e a t e s t am ou n t o f m on ey fr o m t h e y o u n g s u i t o r b e t r a y s t h e i r n a t u r e s b e t t e r t h a n m e r e d e s c r i p t i o n e v e r c o u l d . T h e d e b a t e o f h u sb a n d a n d w i f e o v e r r e l i g i o n i n " M a r tin H a p a rt" (XLV) l e t s t h e a u d ie n c e know e x a c t l y w h e r e M a r t i n ' s f a i t h l i e s . Q u a r r e l s , w i t h t h e i r a t t e n d a n t c u r s e s a n d t h r e a t s , h a v e t h e a d d e d a d v a n t a g e o f h e i g h t e n i n g d r a m a t ic i n t e n s i t y ( I X * , LX X X IV). P r o b a b ly t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n o f d i a l o g u e a n d m o n o lo g u e i s t o b e t r a y t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s t e m p e r , n a t u r e , o r e m o t io n a l r e a c t i o n t o som e e v e n t . I n t h e " T r o is b o g u s" ( I I * ) , t h e s e r v a n t ' s m o n o lo g u e t o t h e d e a d b o d y i n c r e a s e s i n l e n g t h i n p r o p o r t i o n t o h i s e x a s p e r a t i o n . I n t h e 265 " B o r g e o is e d ' O r l i e n s " ( V I I * ) , t h e w i f e f e i g n s o u t r a g e d v i r t u e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e r v a n t s a s s h e e n j o i n s h e r n ep h ew s t o h e a t h e r in n o c e n t h u s b a n d . T h is d i s p l a y l e a v e s n o d o u b t a s t o h e r m o r a l c a l i b r e . C o n s id e r t h e f o l l o w i n g e x c e l l e n t e x a m p le o f s u r p r i s e show n e n t i r e l y b y d i a l o g u e . T h r e e b l i n d men d i s c o v e r n o n e h a s t h e g o l d c o i n w h ic h a k in d t r a v e l e r s u p p o s e d ly g a v e th em : F a i t l i u n ss "Quar l i b a i l i e d o n t L i q u e l s l ' a . B e l j e n ' e n a i m ie . — D o n t l ' a R o b e r s B a r b e - f l o r i e ? — Non a i , m es v o u s l ' a v e z , b i e n s a i . — P a r l e c u e r b i e u , m ie n ' e n a i . — L i q u e l s l ' a d o n t? — Tu 1 ' a s . — M es t u . " I n t r u s i o n s o f t h e n a r r a t o r h i m s e l f c o m p r is e a s m a li b u t e s s e n t i a l , p a r t o f t h e f a b l i a u . He i s j u s t a s a l i v e t o d a y a s h e w as s e v e n h u n d r e d y e a r s a g o c o m m e n tin g , em p h a s i z i n g , a s s u r i n g , p r o v i d i n g t r a n s i t i o n s b e tw e e n s t o r y s e g m e n t s , a b b r e v i a t i n g t h e a c t i o n , o r s im p ly l e t t i n g h i s p r e s e n c e b e f e l t . S o m e tim e s h e a n t i c i p a t e s t h e a c t i o n h e i s a b o u t t o r e l a t e * Or o i i S s d e l e b o n e f e m e , Q u i d e v a n t l ’ u o e i l l i t r a i t l e p a n e . (IV * ) O f t e n h e e x p r e s s e s a n o p in io n * M ieu x l i v e n i s t , l e m a l o s t r u t , L e c h a t i f e t l e d u r f e u t , C ’ o n l e f r e s i s t d 'u n g r a n t b a s t o n . . . (XLIV*): i He m ay u s e a f a m i l i a r p r o v e r b t o e m p h a s iz e a p o i n t ( L I * , L X X X II, LXXXIV, CXXVI*) . Or h e may e v e n com m ent on t h e t h i n k i n g o f o n e o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s * j 266 N e c u i d o i t p a s q u e m o r t e n t r a s t En t e l c h a s t e l n ' e n s i f o r t t o r . . . (XLV) F e a r i n g t h a t h i s a u d ie n c e f a i l s t o b e l i e v e h im , h e i n s i s t s u p on t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h e m o s t u n b e l i e v a b l e i n c i d e n t s (L X X X III, C X X IX *). S o m e tim e s h e s im p ly a b b r e v i a t e s t h e a c t i o n : N e c o n t e r a i p a s l o r j o r n S e s , Q ue t a n t e s t e r r e s o n t p a s s S e s . (X IV ) He may i n t e r v e n e o n l y lo n g e n o u g h t o e f f e c t a t r a n s i t i o n fr o m o n e e v e n t t o a n o t h e r : D e c i e z - c i i l l u e c v o u s l a i r a i D ou c h e v a l i e r b l e c i £ d i r a i . . . (XXVI) F o l l o w i n g a l e n g t h y a s i d e , h e r e t u r n s t o t h e n a r r a t i v e b y s a y in g : " O r, r e v e n d r a i & mon t r e t i S " (C X X X V II), S u c h i n t r u s i o n s a r e s o m e tim e s r a t h e r c o y . F o r e x a m p le , o n e a u t h o r ( o r n a r r a t o r ) f e i g n s l o s i n g h i s p l a c e : " M ais n e s a i p l u s q u e v o s en d ie " (X C V I I * ). T h e s e a u t h o r i n t r u s i o n s a r e e f f e c t e d w i t h m o re o r l e s s s k i l l . T h e ir s u d d e n n e s s i s o c c a s i o n a l l y a n n o y in g . H o w e v e r , t h e i r u t t e r l a c k o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n a n d f r e s h n e s s o f com m ent p r o v id e m uch o f t h e charm o f t h e s e w o r k s . T h e y k e e p t h e n a r r a t i v e a l i v e an d f l o w i n g a n d t h e a u d ie n c e i n v o l v e d w h ic h i s , a f t e r a l l , t h e i r r e a s o n f o r b e i n g . Som e f a b l i a u x h a v e n o c o n c l u s i o n , b u t m e r e ly en d w i t h t h e s t o r y l i n e . O th e r s h a v e s i m p l e , a n d o f t e n r a t h e r a b r u p t , e n d i n g s . O ne a u t h o r s im p ly s t a t e s : " E n s i d e fin e e a i; mon c o n t e ” (X X X ). A n o th e r i s o n l y s l i g h t l y m o re v e r b o s e : 267 En c e s t f a b e l n ' a v r a p l u s m is Q u ar a t a n t en f i n e l e c o n t e ; Q ue D ie u x n o u s g a r t t r e s t o z d e h o n t e ! (C V I*) O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e a u t h o r i n v i t e s t h e l i s t e n e r s t o p r o v i d e t h e i r own c o n c l u s io n * Or v o u s p r o i - j e com m unem ent Q u 'e n t r e v o u s m 'e n d i t e s l i v o i r , S e l i v i l a i n s l e d o i t a v o i r . ( X I I I * ) O v e r o n e t h i r d o f t h e f a b l i a u x i n o u r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n en d w i t h a m o r a l. T h is i s s o m e tim e s i n t h e fo r m o f a p r o v e r b w h ic h sum s u p t h e a c t io n * En p e t i t d ' e u r e D ie u x l a b e u r e , T e l s r i t a u m a in q u i a u s o i r p l e u r e , E t t e l s e s t a u s o i r c o r o u c i e z Q u i au m a in e s t j o i a n z e t l i e z . (XCVI) On o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , t h e m o r a l o f f e r s a l e s s o n o f e x p e r i e n ce* P a r c e s t f a b l e a u p o e z s a v o i r Q ue c i l n e f a i t m ie s a v o i r Q u i d e n u i z m e t s a fe m e h o r s* S ' e l f a i t f o l i e d e s o n c o r s , Q u a n t e l e s t h o r s d e s a m a is o n , L o r s a e l e d r o i t e a c h o is o n Q u ' e l e f a c e s o n m a r i h o n t e . I c i v u e i l d e f i n e r mon c o n t e . (X C IV *) O f t e n t h e m o r a l i s i n v i v i d c o n t r a s t t o t h e n a r r a t i o n . A f t e r an e x t r e m e ly e x p l i c i t e r o t i c f a b l i a u t h e a u t h o r c o n c l u d e s s P a r c e s t c o n t e v o u s c h a s t i e z ; F a i t e s a m e s u r e e t et p o i n t . (XXIX) T h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y a r t i s t i c , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t m e a n t t o b e . O n ce t h e s t o r y e n d e d , n o d o u b t , t h e l i s t e n e r s l o s t a l l i n t e r e s t a n d t o o l e n g t h y a n e n d in g 268 m ig h t w e l l b e l o s t i n a c h o r u s o f a u d ie n c e r e a c t i o n . A s t h e y s t a n d , f a b l i a u c o n c l u s i o n s p r o v i d e a s a t i s f a c t o r y t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n . I s i t t h e n t r u e t h a t t h e f a b l i a u i s s t y l i s t i c a l l y u n i n t e r e s t i n g , a s som e c r i t i c s w o u ld h a v e o n e b e l i e v e ? C e r t a i n l y i f o n e i s l o o k i n g f o r e l a b o r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n s , b e a u t i f u l im a g e r y , s y n t a c t i c b r i l l i a n c e , an d a r i c h v o c a b u l a r y , t h e f a b l i a u i s n o t f e r t i l e g r o u n d f o r s t u d y . Y e t w h a t m o s t c r i t i c s h a v e f a i l e d t o p e r c e i v e i s t h a t t h e s t y l e c o n fo r m s p e r f e c t l y t o t h e u s a g e f o r w h ic h i t w a s d e s i g n e d . A p u b l i c r e c i t e r i s c o n s t a n t l y m en a ced b y tw o f a c t o r s * t h e n e e d t o p r e s e n t t h e n e c e s s a r y f a c t s an d c h a r a c t e r s c l e a r l y an d t h e d r e a d o f w e a r y in g h i s a u d i e n c e . I f h e f a i l s t o m a in t a in t h i s d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e , h i s l i s t e n e r s w i l l a b a n d o n h im . T h e r e f o r e , h e c a n n o t i n d u l g e i n l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d s t y l i s t i c i n t r i c a c i e s w h ic h w o u ld e i t h e r t i r e th em o r r e m a in u n h e a r d . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e r e c i t e r m u st u s e e v e r y a v a i l a b l e d e v i c e t o k e e p t h e n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i n g . Many o f t h e a w k w a r d n e s s e s o f t h e f a b l i a u , s u c h a s a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n s , r e p e t i t i o u s f o r m u la e , s t y l i z e d s e t t i n g s , an d a u t h o r i n t r u s i o n s w h ic h a r e s o a n n o y in g t o t h e m od ern r e a d e r , w e r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e w hen l i s t e n e d t o i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y a r e n o t s o m uch f a u l t s o f t h e f a b l i a u a s o f t h e a g e . H ow ever r o u g h - hew n t h e f a b l i a u x m ay b e , h o w e v e r l a c k i n g i n v o c a b u la r y a n d b a n a l i n im a g e r y , n o t a o n e f a i l s t o m a in t a in i n t e r e s t 269 t o t h e e n d . W hat b e t t e r p r o o f o f t h e a u t h o r s ' s t y l i s t i c p r o w e s s t h a n t h e i r co n su m m a te s k i l l a s s t o r y t e l l e r s 1 A lt h o u g h w e c a n d i s t i n g u i s h a s t y l i s t i c p a t t e r n t o w h ic h , m o re o r l e s s , a l l f a b l i a u x c o n fo r m , t h i s p a t t e r n i s c e r t a i n l y common t o F r e n c h m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e a s a w h o l e . M o st m e d ie v a l w o r k s b e g in w i t h a p r o lo g u e an d e n d w i t h som e t y p e o f b r i e f c o n c l u s i o n . W ith f e w e x c e p t i o n s , t h e y t e n d t o m in im iz e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e o p l e an d p l a c e s . T h e ir im a g e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y c o n c r e t e , b u t n o t s p e c i f i c . T h e y p r e s e n t e m o t io n s v i s u a l l y an d t h r o u g h a c t i o n an d m o r a l q u a l i t i e s t h r o u g h b r i e f p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n , a c t i o n , a n d d i a l o g u e . T h e ir a u t h o r s i n t e r v e n e c o n s t a n t l y t o p r o v id e in f o r m a t i o n o r t o com m ent o n t h e a c t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i e t y o f a r t i s t i c a ccom p lis h m e n t p r e s e n t i n t h e f a b l i a u x t h e m s e l v e s m u st b e r e c o g n i z e d . T h e r e f o r e , w e m u st c o n c u r w i t h J e a n R y c h n e r an d c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e f a b l i a u x c a n n o t b e d e f i n e d , a s a b o d y , on s t y l i s t i c g r o u n d s a l o n e . A ny s u c h d e f i n i t i o n w o u ld f a i l t o r e c o g n i z e t h e f a b l i a u ' s d i v e r s i t y an d w o u ld n o t d i s t i n g u i s h i t fr o m o t h e r m e d ie v a l fo r m s . 5 . T h e S o c i a l an d E c o n o m ic S c e n e S i n c e G a s to n P a r i s s t a t e d t h a t t h e f a b l i a u x a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f r e a l i s t i c n o v e l s , t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e a l i s m ' s p l a c e i n t h e f a b l i a u h a s b e e n a m a t t e r o f c o n t r o v e r s y . P a r t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e th e r t h e f a b l i a u x 270 a r e o r a r e n o t r e a l i s t i c s te m s fr o m t h e d i f f e r i n g a c c e p t e d d e f i n i t i o n s o f r e a l i s m i t s e l f . I f o n e a d o p t s a d e f i n i t i o n i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d , t h u s l i m i t i n g r e a l i s m t o a t e n d e n c y t o r e p r e s e n t t h e g r o s s e r p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f human e x i s t e n c e , t h e f a b l i a u x a r e c e r t a i n l y r e a l i s t i c . H o w e v e r , i f o n e d e f i n e s r e a l i s m m ore i n te r m s o f an e t h i c , t h a t i s , a s a r e f u s a l t o i d e a l i z e t h e r e a l an d an e f f o r t t o r e p r o d u c e an o b j e c t o r p e r s o n a s i t i s , w e w o u ld n e c e s s a r i l y h e s i t a t e t o i n c l u d e t h e f a b l i a u x . F i n a l l y , i f o n e a c c e p t s a p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c d e f i n i t i o n w h ic h v ie w s r e a l i s m a s a s e t o f l i t e r a r y c o n v e n t i o n s t h a t c l a i m t o r e p r e s e n t t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e human e x p e r i e n c e , t h e f a b l i a u x m u st b e e x c lu d e d fr o m r e a l i s m . C e r t a i n l y t h e f a b l i a u x h a v e n o p a r t i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n c e p t o f r e a l i s m . T h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a l i s t s e m p lo y e d a c t u a l i n c i d e n t s o r im a g in a r y o n e s b a s e d on u n im p e a c h a b le d o c u m e n t a t io n an d in t e n d e d t o i m i t a t e t h e r e a l . A lt h o u g h t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r s c o n s t a n t l y i n s i s t t h a t t h e e v e n t s t h e y r e l a t e a r e t r u e , w e c a n s c a r c e l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y o r t h e i r a u d ie n c e a c c e p t e d th em a s s u c h . T h is d o e s n o t m ean t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e f a b l i a u i s f a n c i f u l . I t s o r i g i n w as i n m any c a s e s a r e a l e v e n t . B a s e d o n som e c l i c h S o f t h e human c o n d i t i o n , f o l k t a l e s , o n w h ic h m any f a b l i a u x a r e b a s e d , w e r e g r a d u a l l y d i s t o r t e d a c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s a g e s a n d r e g i o n s . W ith t h e f a b l i a u t h e s e t a l e s 271 r e a c h e d a h i g h d e g r e e o f h u m orou s e x a g g e r a t i o n a n d u n r e a l i t y . H o w e v e r , fr o m t h e f a b l i a u on w a rd t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l a g a in m ove to w a r d i t s n a t i v e r e a l i t y . M a r g u e r it e d e N a v a r r e w i l l u s e t h e i d e n t i c a l m a t e r i a l , p e o p l e i t w i t h c o n te m p o r a r y a n d e v e n w e ll-k n o w n b e i n g s , m ake i t s d e s c r i p t i o n m o re s p e c i f i c , i n t r o d u c e an e le m e n t o f t r a g e d y a n d an i n t e r e s t i n p s y c h o l o g y . S h e w i l l t h e n i n s i s t u p on i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y w i t h n e v e r a q u a lm . T h e r e f o r e , a lt h o u g h t h e f a b l i a u ’ s t e n d e n c y t o d i s t o r t a n a c t u a l h a p p e n in g s e p a r a t e s i t fr o m r e a l i s m , t h e t y p e o f i n c i d e n t i t r e l a t e s i s t h e sam e a s t h o s e u s e d b y l a t e r a t t e m p t s a t r e a l i s m . N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a l i s m t e l l s a b o u t o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h r e a l , o r a t l e a s t b e l i e v a b l e , e m o t io n s w h i l e t h e f a b l i a u d o e s n o t . T h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u c h a r a c t e r s a r e n o m o re th a n f a c e l e s s t y p e s s c a r c e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e fr o m o t h e r s o f t h e sam e t y p e . W hat e l e m e n ts o f t h e i r p h y s io g n o m y w e d o know v e r g e o n t h e c a r i c a t u r a l . W h ile t h e i r s e n t i m e n t s an d e m o t io n s a r e t r u e e n o u g h t o l i f e , t h e y a r e s e ld o m i n d i v i d u a l i z e d o r n u a n c e d . H u sb a n d s, w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , a r e j e a l o u s , a l l w id o w s a r e u n f a i t h f u l . R e a c t i o n s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s t e n d t o b e i n c o n f o r m it y w i t h t h e p l o t r a t h e r t h a n w i t h p e r s o n a l p s y c h o l o g y . A w i f e w i l l h a v e h e r l o v e r h i d e r a t h e r th a n e s c a p e , n o t b e c a u s e t h a t i s h e r r e a c t i o n t o d a n g e r , b u t b e c a u s e t h e p l o t c a l l s f o r a h id d e n l o v e r , a t r i c k , a n d a 272 m ad cap f l i g h t . S i n c e t h e c h a r a c t e r s d o n o t se e m r e a l , n o e m p a th y i s e s t a b l i s h e d b e tw e e n th em an d t h e a u d ie n c e an d t h e l a t t e r c a n la u g h f r e e l y . W h ile r e a l i s m p r i d e s i t s e l f o n t h e m in u te an d a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f s e t t i n g , t h e f a b l i a u e x c l u d e s a l l d e t a i l . T h e o c c a s i o n a l g l i m p s e s o f h o m e s , f a i r s , t a v e r n s a r e n o t s o m uch i n a c c u r a t e a s t h e y a r e i n c o m p l e t e . O b j e c t s a n d p l a c e s a r e p r e s e n t n o t f o r a n y i n t e r e s t t h e y m ay h a v e o f t h e i r o w n , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e p l o t . H e n c e , t h e f a b l i a u * s d e s c r i p t i v e t e c h n i q u e s a r e m uch c l o s e r t o t h o s e o f som e "new n o v e l i s t s " th a n t o n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a l i s m . 3 ^ F i n a l l y , t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r m ak es n o a t t e m p t t o a c h i e v e t h e o b j e c t i v i t y an d a n o n y m ity o f r e a l i s m . He p l a y s t h e p a r t o f a n e y e w i t n e s s i n n o w a y c a m o u f la g in g h i s p r e s e n c e a s d id F l a u b e r t , f o r e x a m p le . He i s p r e s e n t i n h i s s t o r y fr o m t h e o u t s e t g i v i n g h i s o p i n i o n s an d m o d i f y i n g o r s h a p in g t h o s e o f h i s a u d i e n c e . However, it is true that at its beginnings the fabliau seemed headed in the direction of realism. " R ic h e u t" ( c a . 1 1 6 5 ) , t h e o n l y p r e s e r v e d f a b l i a u o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , i s t h e s t o r y o f an a p o s t a t e nun an d h e r 3 ^T he m od ern " c in S - r o m a n ," e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f M a r g u e r it e D u r a s , u s e s o b j e c t s o n l y t o l o c a l i z e t h e a c t i o n o r t o p r e s e n t in f o r m a t io n a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r s . D e s c r i p t i o n , a s i n t h e f a b l i a u , i s r e d u c e d t o t h e m e n tio n o f o b j e c t s w i t h o u t s p e c i f y i n g t h e i r e x a c t a p p e a r a n c e . 273 s o n Sam son whom s h e s u c c e s s i v e l y t r i e s t o p a s s o f f a s t h e h e i r o f a p r i e s t , a k n i g h t , an d a b u r g h e r . A s Sam son g r o w s up t o b e a c e l e b r a t e d Don J u a n , h i s b o a s t s o f p o w er o v e r women w ound h i s m o t h e r ’ s e g o . W hen, a f t e r a lo n g a b s e n c e , h e r e t u r n s t o h i s n a t i v e to w n a n d f a i l s t o r e c o g n i z e h e r , s h e t a k e s a c t i o n . D r e s s i n g a p r o s t i t u t e a s a f a i r y o u n g g i r l , s h e l e a d s h e r s o n on t o w oo h e r . He f a l l s i n t o t h e t r a p an d i s r e w a r d e d b y a b e a t i n g . 3 2 On t h e s u r f a c e , t h e t a l e i s t h a t o f t h e t y p i c a l s c u r r i l o u s f a b l i a u . H o w e v e r , r e a l i s t i c e l e m e n t s a r e s t r o n g . T h e a u t h o r t a k e s r e a l p l e a s u r e i n p a i n t i n g h i s c h a r a c t e r s a n d e n l i v e n s h i s w ork w i t h m i n i a t u r e p o r t r a i t s a n d t a b l e a u x . He sh o w s R i c h e u t ’ s c o q u e t r y a n d h e r p r i d e a s s h e c a r r i e s h e r s o n t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s , p a s t t h e d is a p p r o v in g p o p u l a c e , t o t h e c h u r c h t o b e b a p t i z e d . W ith c o m p le t e o b j e c t i v i t y h e d e s c r i b e s t h e c a r e w i t h w h ic h s h e p r e p a r e s t h e t r a p f o r h e r own s o n an d t h e g l e e w i t h w h ic h s h e w e lc o m e s h i s d o w n f a l l . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e t im e p e r i o d i n v o l v e d i s lo n g e r th a n i n m o s t f a b l i a u x an d a l l o w s f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e w ork s e e m s t o b e an im p e r s o n a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i v e s o f r e a l p e o p l e w i t h q u i t e b e l i e v a b l e e m o t io n s an d c o n s e q u e n t l y r e a l i s t i c . 33 ■ ^ L e c o m p te , p p . 261 f f . 3 3 " R i c h e u t ," u n l i k e t h e f a b l i a u x , e v i d e n t l y b e lo n g e d t o a c y c l e o f t a l e s r e l a t i n g R i c h e u t ' s a d v e n t u r e s . 274 T h r e e f a b l i a u x i n t h e R e c u e i l q&n & r a l a l s o e x h i b i t m ore r e a l i s m th a n t h e o t h e r s . O ne o f t h e s e , "La V eu v e" (X L IX ), i s a m i n i a t u r e p o r t r a i t . T h e n a r r a t i v e b e g i n s w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w id o w a s , w e e p in g a n d la m e n t i n g , s h e f o l l o w s h e r h u s b a n d 's f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n . S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r s h e p u t s o n r o u g e a n d s h e d s h e r m o u r n in g c o s tu m e . S o o n s h e e v e n g o e s o u t i n t o t h e s t r e e t s e y e i n g t h e y o u n g men an d p in n in g u p h e r s k i r t c o q u e t t i s h l y . S h e c h a s e s , a n d f i n a l l y w i n s , a y o u n g man who m a r r i e s h e r f o r h e r m o n e y , l i e s a r o u n d t h e h o u s e r e f u s i n g t o w o r k , an d b e a t s h e r r e g u l a r l y . A lt h o u g h e v e n t s s t i l l o c c u p y t h e m a jo r p a r t o f t h e w ork an d t h e w id ow i s s t i l l a t y p e r a t h e r t h a n an i n d i v i d u a l , t h e a u t h o r i s o b v i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p o r t r a y a l o f c h a r a c t e r . W ith g r e a t s u b t l e t y h e sh o w s h e r g r a d u a l e m e r g e n c e i n t o t h e w o r ld a n d h e r v e r y s e n s u a l d e s i r e f o r a m an. T h e o t h e r tw o f a b l i a u x v e r g e on t h e p o r t r a i t o f m a n n e r s . T h e " V a le t q u i s e m e t a m e s a i s e ” (X L IV *) t e l l s o f a p o o r y o u n g f e l l o w who f a l l s i n l o v e w i t h a r i c h g i r l . At least its opening lines seem to so indicatej Or faites pais, si escotez, Qui de Richeut oxr volezl Soventes foiz ox avez Conter sa vie ... Further allusions in the text to adventures which are never told (11. 34 and 54) must have been clear to the medieval audience while they only arouse the modern reader's curi osity. 275 D u r in g t h e l o n g n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h h e r p a r e n t s , c o n t r a r y t o t h e w i s h e s o f h i s f r i e n d s , h e g r a d u a l l y g i v e s u p a l l h i s g o o d s . T h e y o u n g c o u p l e m a r r y , b u t l i f e i s h a r d a n d t h e g i r l n o t a c c u s to m e d t o h a r d w o r k . A f t e r a y e a r , t h e r e i s a c h i l d t o f e e d a n d f o o d a n d m on ey a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s c a r c e . T h e w i f e b e c o m e s c a n t a n k e r o u s , t h e h u sb a n d d i s e n c h a n t e d . On t h i s b a n a l p l o t t h e a u t h o r g r a f t s s e v e r a l e x c e l l e n t t a b l e a u x . T h e y o u n g man d e c l a r i n g h i s l o v e t o t h e b l u s h i n g g i r l i s a v i s u a l an d s e n s i t i v e s c e n e . I t i s a b l y c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e f i n a l m om en ts o f t h e s t o r y w hen t h e h u sb a n d i s p i c t u r e d r e t u r n i n g a f t e r a d a y o f h a r d l a b o r t o t h e h o v e l t h e c o u p l e c a l l hom e a n d h i s s w e e t b r i d e t u r n e d s h r e w . T h is g r a d u a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r s i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f H on orS d e B a l z a c . " L es . i i i . d am es d e P a r is " ( L X X I I I ) , o n e o f t h e l a s t f a b l i a u x c o m p o s e d , p o s s e s s e s s t r o n g r e a l i s t i c e l e m e n t s . T h r e e women s i t d r i n k i n g i n t h e t a v e r n . A s t h e i r d r u n k e n n e s s i n c r e a s e s , t h e y s t a g g e r i n t o t h e s t r e e t s , a r e r i d i c u l e d a n d b e a t e n , a n d f i n a l l y f a l l down on t h e c i t y g a r b a g e h e a p w h e r e t h e y s p e n d t h e n i g h t s l e e p i n g o f f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e i r o r g y . T h is w ork i s t h e d i s p a s s i o n a t e s t u d y o f a n a s p e c t o f m e d ie v a l l i f e t o l d w i t h o u t hum or a n d w i t h o u t r e p r o b a t i o n . A lt h o u g h i t l a c k s t h e s c i e n t i f i c o v e r t o n e s o f n a t u r a l i s m , t h i s v i v i d a n d g r o s s l y m a t e r i a l p o r t r a y a l o f a s o c i a l p h en om en on i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e t e c h n i q u e o f E m ile Z o la . 276 I f w e a r e t o lo o k am ong m e d ie v a l w o r k s f o r t h e o r i g i n s o f r e a l i s m , i t w o u ld b e i n w o rk s s u c h a s t h e s e , a l l o f w h ic h a r e d e v o id o f hum or an d d e v e l o p t o som e d e g r e e c h a r a c t e r a n d s e t t i n g r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h e s t o r y l i n e . H o w e v e r , l e t u s rem em ber t h a t i n t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f f a b l i a u x a l l s u c h d e v e lo p m e n t i s a b s e n t . I n f a c t , i t i s t h e a v o w ed h u m orou s p u r p o s e o f t h e f a b l i a u w h ic h d i v o r c e s i t fr o m r e a l i s m . S i n c e t h e com ed y i s b a s e d o n t h e i n t r i g u e , t h e i n t r i g u e m u st d o m in a te a n d t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e r s o n s a n d s e t t i n g b e s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l e d . E ven th o u g h i t m ay h a v e s u b j e c t s d e r i v e d fr o m d a i l y a f f a i r s , t h e s e m u st b e d e fo r m e d a n d e x a g g e r a t e d . T h e f a b l i a u d i d n o t i n t e n d t o p r e s e n t t h e p e o p l e a n d m a n n ers o f t h e a g e a n y m o re t h a n i t s o u g h t t o c o r r e c t th e m . I t d o e s n o t se e m l e g i t i m a t e t o c o n s i d e r " R ic h e u t ," "La V eu v e" (X L IX ), "Le V a l e t q u i s e m e t a m e s a is e " (X L IV * ), an d " L es . i i i . dam es d e P a r i s ” (L X X III) f a b l i a u x a n y m o re th a n o n e w o u ld c o n s i d e r " T r u b e r t" a s s u c h . N o t o n l y do t h e s e w o rk s p r e s e n t v a r i a t i o n s i n a t t i t u d e a n d t e c h n i q u e , b u t t h e y h a v e s t r u c t u r e s n o t fo u n d i n t h e f a b l i a u x . I n a l l t h e s e w o r k s s t r u c t u r e i s d e t e r m in e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r s , n o t b y t h e p l o t . C o n s e q u e n t ly , t h e rh y th m i s i r r e g u l a r , f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' s p e c i f i c a c t i o n s i n t h e p l o t a r e n o t p r e c o n c e i v e d . T h e u n u s u a l d e p t h o f c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n an d e x p a n s io n o f t h e t im e e le m e n t o f f e r new a n g l e s 277 fr o m w h ic h t o v ie w t h e e v e n t s o f t h e n a r r a t i v e . 3 4 R i c h e u t e v o l v e s a s a p r o u d m o t h e r , a v e r y p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o s t i t u t e , an d a v e n g e f u l f e m a l e . E a ch o f h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s e v i d e n c e d a s t im e p a s s e s an d s h e b e c o m e s r e c o g n i z a b l e a s a human b e i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , a l l t h e s e w o r k s p r e s e n t man i n , an d a t g r i p s w i t h , s o c i e t y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y se e m t o b e m o v in g aw ay fr o m t h e h u m orou s o r a l t a l e to w a r d s t h e s e r i o u s a n d r e a l i s t i c n o v e l . T h is m ovem en t i s n o t a g e n e r a l o n e , n o r c a n i t b e p r e c i s e l y t im e d . R a t h e r , i t i s t h e w o rk o f a f e w i s o l a t e d an d t a l e n t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . I n a p a s s i v e s e n s e , r e a l i s m i s o n l y t h e d e g r e e i n w h ic h a n a u t h o r e v i d e n c e s i n h i s c r e a t i o n s m a n k in d 's c o n c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y a t h i s p r e c i s e p e r i o d i n h i s t o r y . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e f a b l i a u x a r e r e a l i s t i c f o r , i n t e n t i o n a l l y o r n o t , t h e y d o c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m e d ie v a l v i e w o f r e a l i t y . T h e y s e e man a s a p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l e n t i t y e x i s t i n g m o m e n t a r ily i n a t e m p o r a l w o r ld w h ic h h e d o e s n o t a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d , b u t i n w h ic h h e s im p ly m ak es h i s w a y . A lt h o u g h i t w o u ld b e a g r o s s e x a g g e r a t i o n t o v i e w t h e f a b l i a u x a s a k in d o f m e d ie v a l c o m ^ d ie h u m a in e , i t i s e q u a l l y an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o c o n s i d e r th e m c o m p l e t e l y l a c k i n g i n a u t h e n t i c i t y . G u s ta v e R e y n ie r s a y s i 3 4 T h e t im e p e r i o d i s , o f c o u r s e , b r i e f i n " L es . i i i i dam es d e P a r is " ( L X X I I I ) . H o w e v e r , t h e a u t h o r m ak es u s e o f t h e t im e e le m e n t t o sh ow t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s . 278 On a u r a i t t o r t d * y c h e r c h e r [d a n s l e s f a b l i a u x ] u n e im a g e t r e s f i d e l e d e s m o e u r s c o n t e m p o r a in e s e t m&me d e s r e n s e ig n e m e n t s b i e n p r S c i s s u r 1 ' h a b i t a t i o n , s u r l e m o b i l i e r , s u r l e s c o u t u m e s , s u r l a v i e f a m i l i e r e d'alors.35 T h is s t a t e m e n t i s m i s l e a d i n g a n d n o t e n t i r e l y a c c u r a t e . A lt h o u g h i t i s p e r f e c t l y t r u e t h a t t h e f a b l i a u x a r e s e l dom p r e c i s e , t h e y d o o f f e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e am ou n t o f i n f o r m a t io n o n m e d ie v a l s o c i e t y . F a b l i a u x m ig h t b e te r m e d a s k e l e t a l human c o m e d y , an e x t e n s i v e , b u t i n c o m p l e t e , t a p e s t r y o f t h e m e d ie v a l s c e n e . T h o s e p a r t s o f t h e t a p e s t r y w h ic h a r e c o m p le t e d g i v e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t y p i c a l human t y p e s an d a t t i t u d e s , m a n n ers an d i n s t i t u t i o n s , an d o f a s o c i e t y i n t h e t h r o e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . L e t u s now c o n s i d e r t h e t h i r t e e n t h a n d e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s a s p o r t r a y e d b y t h e f a b l i a u x . Human a c t i v i t y w as n e i t h e r l o c a l i z e d o n t h e f a r m s , n o r o n t h e f e u d a l d o m a in s , b u t i n t h e c i t i e s . E ven i f t h e y a r e t e l l i n g t h e i r s t o r i e s t o c o u n t r y f o l k , t h e a u t h o r s s p e a k o f P r o v i n s , O r l e a n s , A r r a s a s t h e p l a c e s " w h ere t h e a c t i o n i s . " L i f e i n t h e s e t r a d e c e n t e r s seem s t o h a v e b e e n e x c e e d i n g l y com m u n al. P e o p l e knew e a c h o t h e r , v i s i t e d e a c h o t h e r , b o r r o w e d fr o m e a c h o t h e r , an d t r a v e l e d t o g e t h e r (C X *, I X * , X C IV *, L I * ) . T r a v e l e r s s p e n t t h e n i g h t i n p r i v a t e hom es a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e v a l e n t c u s to m o f ^ ^ G u s ta v e R e y n i e r , L e s O r i g i n e s d u rom an r § a l i s t e ( P a r i s : H a c h e t t e , 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 1 7 . h eb ercrem en t a n d m any a f a b l i a u i s b u i l t o n t h e a d v a n t a g e s , i n c o n v e n i e n c e s , a n d e v e n d a n g e r s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e (X X X III, X X I, X X IV , e t c . ) . P e a s a n t s cam e t o t h e f a i r s o r t h e m ar k e t s w h e r e t h e y d i s c o v e r e d t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e b la c k s m it h (X C V ), t h e m on ey c h a n g e r ' s b e n c h ( X X I I I ) , t h e m e r c h a n t 's d i s p l a y s , o r g o t l o s t i n t h e cro w d a n d r o b b e d (GXXX, X C V ). T h e g r e a t c a t h e d r a l s w e r e b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d a n d s t o n e m a so n s a r e f r e q u e n t m em bers o f t h e f a b l i a u p o p u l a t i o n ( X V I I I , CXX, V I I I , CXXIV, e t c . ) . A lt h o u g h n o s p e c i f i c c a t h e d r a l i s m e n t io n e d , t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e c h u r c h e s i s e v i d e n t a s p l a c e s f o r p r a y e r ( C V I * ), f o r r e p e n t a n c e (C X * ), o r f o r a m orou s e n c o u n t e r (C X V I I I * ) . O ne c a n a s sum e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s b y t h e num ber o f w a n d e r in g c l e r i c s c o m p le t e w i t h t h e i r b o o k b a g s (X X I, X X I I * , C V I I , C V I I I , e t c . ) . I n a p e r i o d o f p o l i t i c a l c a lm , t h e f a b l i a u x g i v e e v i d e n c e o f s m a l l - s c a l e s o c i a l d i s o r d e r s . M ob s, b e a t i n g s , m a im in g s , f i g h t s , c o n f r o n t a t i o n s b e tw e e n s t u d e n t s a n d v i l l a g e r s , an d d r u n k e n n e s s a r e common e v e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a t e r f a b l i a u x (X X IV *, C X V I*, X C V II* , L X I I , C I I I , e t c . ) . R ic h e s w e r e b e c o m in g r e d i s t r i b u t e d . A s t h e l a n d - p o o r g e n t r y g r a d u a l l y l o s t o u t t o t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s , m any a f a i t h f u l r e t a i n e r o r k n i g h t w as th r o w n o n t h e h a n d s o f f a t e . T h e r i s e o f t h e m e r c h a n t i s o b s e r v e d w i t h m in g le d aw e an d e n v y b y f a b l i a u a u t h o r s . P r o d u c t s s u c h a s s p i c e s a n d c l o t h a r e am ong t h e fe w m a t e r i a l it e m s c o n s i s t e n t l y 280 m e n t io n e d ( C I I I , XXXI*) an d t r a v e l s a r e d e p i c t e d a s l o n g a n d e x o t i c a d v e n t u r e s (X IV , X X X V II). H o w e v e r , a t t h e sam e t i m e , m e r c h a n ts a r e v ie w e d w i t h e n v y an d e v e n s u s p i c i o n f o r t h e i r r a p i d l y a c q u ir e d w e a l t h (C X * ). Com m oners who h a v e m ade g o o d a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u s p e c t an d t h e i r w e a l t h i s i n v a r i a b l y c o n s i d e r e d i l l - g o t t e n ( I I * , C X * ). T h e d e c l i n e o f c h i v a l r y i s v ie w e d u s u a l l y w i t h a m u se m en t, b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t h f e a r , n o s t a l g i a , an d e v e n d r e a d ( X I I , CXLVII^ X X *, X X X IV ). K n ig h t s e v i d e n t l y b eca m e a w a n d e r in g c l a s s s o m e tim e s l i v i n g o f f t h e f t (X L V I I * ), b u t m a in ly o f f t o u r n a m e n ts fr o m w h ic h t h e y o f t e n e s c a p e d w i t h o n l y t h e i r s k i n (XXXIV) . S i n c e t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r s f i g u r e d am ong s o c i e t y ' s p o o r , t h e i r s u s p i c i o n s a r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e r i c h , t h a t i s , a g a i n s t t h e m e r c h a n t ( V I I * ) , t h e s o c i a l c l im b in g com m on er ( I I * , C X ), a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c l e r g y (C X X V I*, L X X V II, L X X X II, e t c . ) . T h ey o f t e n i n d i c a t e t h e p r i v i l e g e s t h e s e r i c h h a d o v e r t h e p o o r (X L I I , L X X X II, L X X II, CXXVII*). I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e s i n g l e m o s t r e i t e r a t e d s o c i a l c o m p la in t i n t h e f a b l i a u x i s p o v e r t y ( L X I I , X CV I, LXXX*, CXIX) an d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e t h e g r e a t p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e f t (X C V II* , CXXXVI, C I I I , L X I I ) . T h e p r e s e n c e o f p o v e r t y a l s o e x p l a i n s t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f v a g a b o n d s , b e g g a r s , d r u n k s , an d i d l e r s o f a l l d e s c r i p t i o n s ( I X * , L X I I , LXXVI*, C X V I l). T h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r ’ s s y m p a t h ie s a r e a lw a y s w i t h t h e s e . 281 B e s ic ie s c o m m e n tin g on t h e s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m ic s c e n e , t h e f a b l i a u x p r e s e n t a v e r i t a b l e p an oram a o f human t y p e s . T h e K in g o f E n g la n d h i m s e l f , f a b l e d K in g A r t h u r , an d v a r i o u s c a s t e l l a n s an d l o r d s r e p r e s e n t a u t h o r i t y an d a r e i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f d e c i d i n g t h e f a t e o f o t h e r s (LXXX*, X X X V I). T h e v a v a s o u r ( u s u a l l y t h e in t e r m e d i a r y i n l o r d - p e a s a n t d e a l i n g s ) i s o f t e n v ie w e d a s t h e v i l l a i n s t a n d i n g b e tw e e n t h e p o o r man an d h i s j u s t d u e (L X X X *). T h e c i t i e s a r e p e o p le d w i t h an a c t i v e a n d v a r i e d c i t i z e n r y . T h e m e r c h a n t v e n d s h i s s p i c e s an d c l o t h , t h e c h a n g e r s i t s i n t h e p u b l i c s q u a r e , t h e b u t c h e r c a r r i e s h i s m e a t t o m a r k e t , an d t h e s m it h l a b o r s b e f o r e h i s f o r g e (X X X I*, CXXX, X X I I I , LXXXIV, X X I ). M i l l e r s , s h o e m a k e r s , f o r e s t e r s , p r o v o s t s , l a w y e r s , s t o n e m a s o n s , h a r d w a r e d e a l e r s , f is h e r m e n a r e a l l p r e s e n t (X X X III, CX*, C V I*, V I I * , X V I I I , XXXVI, L X I I I ) . B i s h o p s , p r i e s t s , a n d c l e r i c s r e p r e s e n t t h e c l e r g y . V a g a b o n d s , m i n s t r e l s , p r o s t i t u t e s , a n d p a n d e r e r s roam t h e s t r e e t s . N o s o c i a l c l a s s i s c o n s i d e r e d u n w o r th y o f m e n t io n i n t h e f a b l i a u x . P e o p l e seem t o h a v e b e e n v e r y a w a r e o f s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s , y e t t h i s s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w as n o t b a s e d e x c l u s i v e l y o n f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d . R ank o f t e n se e m s t o b e sy n o n y m o u s w i t h w e a l t h an d f o r t h a t r e a s o n a w e a lt h y man w i l l s o m e tim e s r e f u s e a m a r r ia g e f o r h i s d a u g h t e r i f t h e in t e n d e d i s n o b l e , b u t p o o r (C X *, X L IV * ). T h e p r a c t i c e o f m a r r y in g n o b l e l a d i e s t o r i c h b o u r g e o is o r e v e n com m oners 282 i n o r d e r t o k e e p t h e g e n t r y e c o n o m i c a l l y a f l o a t w a s a com mon p r a c t i c e (V , X X IV *, LXXXV), h u t m e t w i t h som e o p p o s i t i o n fr o m t h e women c o n c e r n e d ( I I * ) . H o w e v e r , i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m in e i f t h e s e women o b j e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e i r h u sb a n d s w e r e com m oners o r b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e u g l y . C e r t a i n l y g o o d lo o k s h a v e a r a n k o f t h e i r own i n t h e f a b l i a u x an d com m oners a r e a lw a y s p h y s i c a l l y r e p u g n a n t (X X X IV ). O c c a s i o n a l l y a n c e s t r y t o o p l a y s a p a r t , f o r b o u r g e o i s a r e c a r e f u l t o i d e n t i f y t h e i r s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d s ( LXXXIV, C X X IX *). T h e i n d i v i d u a l e v i d e n t l y c o u n t e d f o r l i t t l e e x c e p t i n te r m s o f t h e e c o n o m ic , a n c e s t r a l , o r p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i o n h e p o s s e s s e d . P r e j u d i c e s w e r e n u m ero u s a n d o f t e n d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e w e a k e s t . Som e p r e j u d i c e s a r e f a i r l y i n o f f e n s i v e and s t i l l p ro m p t l a u g h t e r on t h e p a r t o f a m o d ern r e a d e r . T h e E n g l i s h d o n o t p r o n o u n c e o r u n d e r s t a n d F r e n c h c o r r e c t l y (X L V I*, XC*) a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a r e h i g h l y a m u s in g . O th e r p r e j u d i c e s a r e m ade p a l a t a b l e b y t h e i r e x a g g e r a t i o n . T h a t women a r e i n f e r i o r b y n a t u r e ( X V I I * ) , n e e d r e g u l a r b e a t i n g s t o b e b e a r a b l e ( V I * , X C IV * ), o r t h a t t h e c l e r g y a r e a l l l e c h e r s , m i s e r s , an d s c o u n d r e l s (X , X IX * , CL*) a r e h u m ou rou s r a t h e r t h a n o f f e n s i v e o p i n i o n s . S t i l l o t h e r p r e j u d i c e s r e v e a l a l a c k o f c o m p a s s io n d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e m od ern r e a d e r t o a c c e p t . T h e la m e an d d e fo r m e d , h um pbacks ( I I * ) , b l i n d ( I V * ) , s i c k ( L X I I ) , an d m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d (X X *, CV*, X C V II*) a r e o f t e n t h e t a r g e t o f u n p l e a s a n t r i d i c u l e . 283 P r e j u d i c e i s a l s o d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t i n s t i t u t i o n s am ong w h ic h t h e C h u rc h i s t h e f a v o r i t e t a r g e t . F a b l i a u x r i d i c u l e i t s e v e r y a s p e c t fr o m t h e Im m a c u la te C o n c e p t io n (X IV ) t o t h e s a i n t s (C X X V II I ). E v en t h e h o l y s y m b o ls an d g a r m e n ts s u c h a s t h e c r u c i f i x a n d t h e c h a s u b l e a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f i r r e v e r e n t j e s t s (X C V I, X V I I I ) . O n ly t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e M ass i t s e l f , t h e h o s t an d t h e w in e , a r e n o t m o c k e d . H o w e v e r , f a b l i a u r e l i g i o u s j e s t s d o n o t r e s e m b le t h o s e o f m o s t m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e i n w h ic h "M ary w as o f t e n t h e o b j e c t o f e r o t i c s p e c u l a t i o n a n d J o s e p h b eca m e a k in d o f h o l y c u c k o l d . " 3 6 T h e a n t i - c l e r i c a l i s m o f t h e f a b l i a u x i s q u i t e i n o f f e n s i v e a n d i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f p r e s e n t - d a y j o k e s a b o u t t h e g o v e r n m e n t o r d o c t o r s . T h e f a b l i a u x a l s o g i v e som e i n d i c a t i o n s c o n c e r n in g r e l i g i o u s a n d s o c i a l c u s t o m s . S e v e r a l t e l l o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s f o r e n t e r i n g i n t o a m a r r i a g e , t h e a g r e e m e n t on d ow ry (X , X L IV * ), a n d t h e w e d d in g p r o c e s s i o n an d f e a s t (X X * ). I n "La V eu v e" (L X X ), t h e r e i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a f u n e r a l c o r t e g e m o v in g t h r o u g h t h e s t r e e t s , t h e m o u r n e r s f o l l o w i n g t h e r a i s e d c a s k e t , a n d e n t e r i n g t h e c e m e t e r y w i t h i t s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e g a l l o w s . P i l g r i m a g e s w e r e e v i d e n t l y a f r e q u e n t p r a c t i c e a n d w e r e f a r fr o m p u r e l y r e l i g i o u s u n d e r t a k in g s (X LV, X C IX * ). T h e f a b l i a u x a l s o g i v e som e i n s i g h t i n t o w h a t 36See Muller, p. 259. 284 e v e r y d a y l i f e w a s l i k e a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f s o c i e t y . K in g s an d n o b l e s h e l d c o u r t (XC*) o r s a t i n ju d g m e n t o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s (C X X X V II). N o b le l a d i e s d e v o t e d t h e i r l e i s u r e t o h a n d iw o r k (XXV) an d c o u r t g am es (LXXXV). T h e common p e o p l e r o s e e a r l y a n d w o r k e d h a r d . T h e women t e n d e d t h e s t o r e (X X X I* ), d i d t h e w a s h in g ( I X * ) , c o o k e d t h e m e a ls ( X V I I * ) , p r e p a r e d t h e b a t h ( X X I I I ) , an d g a t h e r e d h e r b s (X X X I* ). Men s u p p l i e d t h e p h y s i c a l l a b o r (X X I ) , t h e g o o d s (C X X IV ), o r t h e s e r v i c e s (X X I I I ) n e c e s s a r y t o s o c i e t y . T h e a u t h o r o f "Du v a l e t q u i s e m e t a m e s a is e " g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g r€ su m § o f a t y p i c a l d a y : C h ie x v a t r e s t o u t l e j o u r o u v r e r E t v u a a i g n i e r e t l a b o u r e r , E t q u a n t i l v i e n t a s o n o s t e l , D o n t l i e s t u e t l e f u s o u f f l e r . . . (X L IV *) O c c a s i o n a l l y , an a u t h o r c a t c h e s t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n a t y p i c a l d a i l y p o s e . T h is d e s c r i p t i o n o f a p e a s a n t a n d h i s w i f e s p e n d in g an e v e n i n g b y t h e f i r e s i d e e v i d e n t l y w as i n t e n d e d t o a m u se a n o b l e a u d ie n c e : S o r un c o u s s i n t o u t p l a i n d ' e s t r a i n S e d e g r a t o i t d e l e z s o n f e u , E t s a fa m e s i s t en s o n l e u D e 1 * a u t r e p a r t s o r u n e n a t e . . . (L V I I I * ) P l e a s u r e s w e r e a v i d a n d o f t e n f r e n z i e d . Many f a b l i a u x r e f e r t o t h e d e l i g h t s o f d r i n k i n g i n t h e t a v e r n (X IX * , LXXV), o f g a m b lin g (X IX * , C X V I I), o f g l u t t o n o u s e a t i n g (X V I I * , XXXIV, LX X X IV ), an d o f b a t h i n g ( I X * , CXXXIX, C V I* , e t c . ) . O u td o o r a c t i v i t i e s , d e p e n d in g o n s o c i a l c l a s s , c o n s i s t e d o f p i c n i c s (LXXXV), h u n t i n g 285 (L X X X I II ), p u b l i c d a n c e s (L X IV ), o r l i s t e n i n g t o t h e m i n s t r e l s a t t h e f a i r . C o u r t p r o c e d u r e s an d ju d g m e n ts w e r e a p a s t im e a s w e l l a s a s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y (C X X II* , LXXXIV, L X IV , L X X I). T o u r n a m e n ts w e r e a p o p u la r a t t r a c t i o n (X X X IV ). E v en s o c i a l r e p r i s a l s seem t o h a v e b e e n a s o u r c e o f m e r im a k in g . P u n is h m e n ts w e r e v i o l e n t an d b e a t i n g s (X X IV * ), h a n g in g s (L X X ), an d m a im in g s (X V I I I ) a c h i e v e d t h e s t a t u s o f s p e c t a t o r s p o r t s . H ow ever i n t e r e s t i n g t h i s v a r i e d , b u t i n c o m p l e t e , t a p e s t r y o f m e d ie v a l s o c i e t y m ay b e , w e m u st r e i t e r a t e t h a t i t w a s n o t in t e n d e d a s a r e a l i s t i c s t u d y . T o t h e f a b l i a u a u t h o r t h i n g s s im p ly w e r e a s t h e y a lw a y s h ad b e e n a n d w o u ld b e . I t c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t e v e n o c c u r t o h im t h a t l i f e m ig h t som e d a y b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t a n d t h a t h e s h o u ld p r e s e r v e a w o rd p i c t u r e o f h i s w o r ld an d l i f e s t y l e f o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e f a b l i a u ’ s p o r t r a y a l o f m e d ie v a l s o c i e t y c o i n c i d e s e x a c t l y w i t h h i s t o r i a n s ' c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e l i f e o f t h e p e r i o d . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e t h e f a b l i a u x a r e n o t r e a l i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e , t h e y s t i l l c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d a s l a c k i n g a u t h e n t i c i t y . I t i s t o b e w o n d e r e d i f t h e s o c i a l p i c t u r e in t h e 3 ? s e e M u lle r ; K i lg o u r ; a l s o J . H u iz in g a , T h e W an in g o f t h e M id d le A g e s (L o n d o n : S t . M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 ) an d H a s t in g s R a s h d a l l , U n i v e r s i t i e s o f E u r o p e i n t h e M id d le A g e s (O x fo r d : T h e C la r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 8 9 5 ). fabliaux, its method of presentation, and variety really differ perceptibly from the glimpses of contemporary life seen in the chansons de geste, romances, or Roman de Renart. Certainly the world scene in the chanson de geste and its preoccupation with war and the warrior class is that of another age. However, the occasional glimpses of city dwellers are not, as we have seen, really different from those given in the fabliaux. Even if allowance is made for the idealism and otherworldliness of the romance, its social picture is almost completely made up of the nobility. Therefore, its view of society is not only lim ited in scope, but may be distorted. The Roman de Renart offers a more organized and complete presentation of the social scene, but this picture does not differ in quality from that found in the fabliaux. Therefore, it seems that the fabliau*s view of society coincides with other medieval literature of its time and does not offer any really unique qualities. 6. The Characters With reference to the religious statuary on the gothic cathedral Emile Male has said: "All these figures with their unvarying costume and arrested type have their place in traditional scenes. No matter how dramatic may be the scene in which they play a part, their every action 287 has been previously determined.’ He might well have been describing the fabliau characters, for their costume is as unvarying as their physique, they are types, and they are indeed fixed in a characteristic pose for eternity. Just as costume is a sign of sex and social status, physique is the sign of age and character. Men tradi tionally are described wearing the "surcot” and "braies" and women the "bliaut," "manteau,” "gonele," and "penne." The poor wear the inevitable "chemise couSe, nou£e" (LXII) through which their ribs appear. The knight is dressed in his armor and the priest in his surplice. Like the cathedral statues, each tradesman holds the tool of his craft; the smith wields his hammer, the merchant carries his bolt of cloth. Ugliness is the mark of old age or of an unpleasant character, just as beauty is characteristic of youth and desirability. Even their names define the characters socially, psychologically, or physically. Con sider these vivid appellations* "Chariot le juif" the juggler, the shrew "Dame Anieuse," "Gronget" the grouch, 38Emile Male, The Gothic Imacre (New York* Harper and Row, 1958), p. 3. •^These terms are somewhat general. A "bliaut" is a long tunic which was worn by both men and women. The "manteau" or cloak also was common to both sexes. The "gonele" was customarily a skirt, but also referred to a long frock worn by both sexes or a priest's garb. The "pene" or "penne" was a piece of material wrapped about the head or let fall in a kind of train. For more detailed information on medieval costume see Jules J. E. Quicherat, Histoire du costume en France (Paris* Hachette, 1877). 288 and his friend stingy "Petit," or the blind man "Robers Barbe-florie” (LXXXIII, VI*, LVI, IV*). T^e fabliaux then, like the gothic cathedral, pre sent a gallery of types. Although fabliau characters do not incarnate specific virtues or vices and, therefore, are not allegorical, they are not for that matter individ uals. They are, rather, mental or social states objecti fied. Here one sees a braggart or a coward, a cynic, an egotist, a precious lady, or an insolent youth, while there goes a knight, a merchant, a king, a peasant, or a saint. However, within their moral or social role, they show no individuality. One coward behaves like all others of his type and a king acts no differently than the com moner, or knight, or merchant. Furthermore, all age groups evidence similar behavior. Children are no more than small sized adults (CII, V). Even supernatural be ings look and act exactly like humans (LXXXI, CXVII). Fabliau authors and characters alike treat them with ironic familiarity. On the rare occasions when real peo ple are mentioned (LXXIII), they are not depicted with any more detail than imaginary or supernatural beings. It is to be wondered if this lack of individuality is due to a real lack of intellectual and behavioral difference among the various social groups or to a lack of stylistic skill on the part of the authors. Certainly the latter cannot be true, for many fabliaux evidence 289 stylistic merit. Nor is it conceivable that the thirteenth century, more than any other, was a period of mass con formity. In fact, we have already noted that authors deemed it necessary to adapt their works to audiences of varying social levels. Rather, it would seem that the fabliau stylizes reality and that this stylization is the outgrowth of the medieval view that man is forever fixed in his psychological as well as social and physical status. The medieval tendency to see ideas in concrete terms led the fabliau author to view even supernatural beings as physical entities. This does not mean that fabliau authors are com pletely lacking in psychological insight, but only that this insight is limited. While they recognize the variety of human existence, they fail to comprehend the complexity of the individual. Old women behaving like coquettes and young girls throwing themselves at the first man who comes along are well-established and scientifically docu mented psychological phenomena. Modern man would tend to see these as outward effects of a purely mental problem and in no way the totality of the human being. However, fabliau authors mistake just such a single exterior facet of the personality for the whole entity. They do not mention other emotions that might possibly accompany such behavior, emotions such as fear, nervousness, or shyness. Nor do they hint that the character might have any 290 qualities other than the one shown. Perhaps they did not even suspect the existence of other qualities. Fabliau characters generally evidence only the violent passions such as jealousy or lust. However, occasionally subtler psychological phenomena are shown. The fabliaux contain incidents which reveal snobbery (XXXlfy feminine complicity (XCI), coquetry (CII, CXV), coyness (CX*, XLVIII*, XLIV*), hypocrisy (XXIX), sadism (XXIII), face saving (LXXXII), rationalizing (L), and escapism (LIV) on the part of a variety of characters. Yet what ever qualities the characters possess, they are usually unpleasant ones. Evidence of the affective personality is totally exterior, one never enters a fabliau character's mind to know if or what he is thinking. There is never any sign of indecision, of internal debate, nor is there any real speculation on the part of the author as to his charac ter's mental state. Even in ”La Veuve" (XLIX) where one sees all the exterior evidence of the widow's change of heart, one does not know precisely why she changes, nor is one presented with the psychological testimony of changa The only reason given is a purely physical onej Car li doiens le resomont Ki desire a mangier char crue. Thus the fabliaux operate according to inexhorable physi cal laws. It is for this reason that desire, revenge, 291 jealousy, and other passions, in short, all psychological phenomena, are presented in physical terms. Possibly the most significant aspect of the fabliau character is his relative lack of importance in the in dividual story and in the total body of works. He is wortly of only minimal description at the outset and remains physically and psychologically unchanged. The character remains in the plot like the statue in its niche on the cathedral wall and like medieval man in his world. The plot, like the world, is a fixed reality the end of which is pre-determined. It operates according to a limited number of possibilities and man's presence in it is inci dental. The world affects man and never does one have the impression that the character, by some power of his own, might change the direction of the action. He can only behave according to his eternal nature. Thus the wife will be the eternal cheat, the priest the scapegoat, and the husband the poor dupe. If they are otherwise, it will be because the action so dictates. Joseph Bidier has implied that fabliau characters seem insignificant because the authors themselves scorned them.4° It is to be wondered if the fabliau author actu ally scorned his characters or if this is merely a modern 4®B^dier, Les Fabliauxt itudes de littlrature populaire . . ., p. 325. 292 critic's impression as he looks back on the world view of a past age. Man in the thirteenth century simply did not have the sophistication and consequent complexity of mod ern man. Therefore, fabliau characters cannot be expected to resemble modern man. They are, in fact, often remi niscent of big children, unconsciously sadistic, inno cently perverse, deriving joy from disobedience, especially under the outraged eye of authority, and unconscious of the pain of others because they have not experienced or are callous to pain. This aspect of the characters, to gether with the tendency of fabliau authors always to present only the crudely physical side of man, may be interpreted as scorn. We prefer to think that the fabliau authors simply had no illusions about man as they saw him. It would seem that the insignificance of the characters is the consequence rather of the medieval view of life. Man did not then have the individual importance he enjoys in modern times. Attention was focused on a future world salvation at which time the present would simply be dissolved. The world and man's fate in it were pre-ordained and, therefore, not worthy of much thought. As Gaston Paris has said speaking of the effects of the medieval world view* Ces convictions enlevent a la poisie du moyen age beaucoup de ce qui fait le charme et la profondeur de celle d'autres Spoquesi 1*inquietude de l'homme sur sa destinSe, le sentiment douloureux de grands pro- blemes moraux, le doute sur les bases memes du bonheur 293 et de la vertu, les conflits tragiques entre l'aspira- tion individuelle et la r§gle s o c i a l e . 4 1 Without totally subscribing to Gaston Paris' belief that the medieval world view detracts from the charm of the works, we must recognize that such a world view did have a profound effect on the representation of character. Let us now consider some fabliau types in more detail. The portrayal of women in the fabliaux seems to be a consequence of the "querelle des femmes" which was brew ing as early as the twelfth century, but did not gain full strength until the fifteenth with Christine de Pisan and Jean Gerson. The sources of this dispute are ancient and seem to be both psychological and religious. Probably the most evident example of the longstanding rancor of man towards woman is expressed in the allegory of Adam and Eve consecrated by the Church. Women, represented by Eve, are inferior and evil beings responsible for man's down fall, but they are also the indirect agent by which man gains salvation. As personified by Mary, they are pure and celestial. This concept, again consecrated by the Church and resting on a contradiction, gave rise to con troversy. Marriage is a sacrament of the Church, but marriage has been denied to the elite of the clergy since Gregory VII. Hence the lamentations and invectives against 4^-Paris, La Littirature franpaise du moyen age, p. 31. 294 women and matrimony written by clerics. Critics tend to see in the fabliaux thirteenth- century anti-feminism in its most highly developed form. B^dier and others subscribe to Brunetiere’s statement: Les femmes dans le monde bourgeois du moyen age, semblent avoir courb£ la tete aussi bas qu'en aucun lieu de la terre, sous la loi de la force et de la brutalitS . . . Ni la mSre, ni l'ipouse, ni la soeur n'ont place dans cette ipopie populaire. Une telle conception de la femme est le deshonneur d'une littl- rature.43 The statement is a strong one and it does comprise one way of viewing the fabliaux. However, it is not the only way. BrunetiSre and others have made some obvious errors. The first is one typical of the nineteenth cen tury, that is, the grouping of various forms of litera ture under the general title "bourgeois." The Roman de Renart gives proof of a much higher degree of anti feminism than the fabliaux, yet its criticism is not as strong as that of other thirteenth-century works such as the Blastencre des femmes, the Epitre des femmes and the Contenance des femmes.44 Therefore, the question of 42gimone <je Beauvoir, The Second Sex (New York: Knopf, 1952), Pt. II, chap. vii. 4^B£dier, Les Fabliaux: Etudes de litt&rature populaire . . .. p. 325. 44B§dier, "Les Fabliaux," p. 91. 295 degree must not be overlooked. Furthermore, the fabliaux, unlike the Roman de Renart, are not satirical works, but humorous ones. They have no relationship whatever to polemics. Finally, woman’s significant role in the fabliaux persuades us that her position was perhaps not as downtrodden as the critics have supposed. Historically woman was making gradual social and economic progress. This progress was slow and encountered opposition, but it existed, nevertheless, and the fabliaux provide some indications of it. The changing economic scene brought her more power and p r e s t i g e . ^5 In the ab sence of the husband, the wife kept shop and took care of the home (IX*, XIV). Furthermore, marriages between diffes- ent social classes, especially of impoverished noble women with commoners, gave women a cultural superiority to the man (CIX*, LXXXVI*). For the first time, in the fabliaux one can find women’s needs expressed. The wife in the "Chevalier qui fist sa feme confesse" (XVI) makes a plea for women's sexual liberty* Et li mari si sont vilain Et de grant felonie plain, Si ne nous oson descouvrir Vers aus, ne noz besoins gehir, Quar por putains il nous tiendroient, Si noz besoins par nous savoient. The wife in the "Dame escolliSe" (CXLIX*) dares to affirm ^Beauvoir, pp. 91 ff. 296 what many fabliau women think, that women are equal to men. She advises her daughter! Bele fille, levez la chiere, Vers vostre seignor soiez fiere. In "Sire Hain et Dame Anieuse" (VI*) the wife even attempts to control the household. We do not presume to say that fabliaux are en listed in a kind of women's liberation movement before the time; nothing of the sort. The feeble attempts on the part of women to assert themselves are thoroughly ridiculed, but unless they were first made would they have been thought worthy of ridicule? Certainly fabliaux present a new concept of woman. She is no longer the warrior found in the epic, the distant object of adora tion to be won by noble deeds as in the romance, or the object of satirical scorn as in clerical polemics. She is placed in everyday life. Destined to lose the battle for equality on the basis of force (XCIV*), in the fabliau she vies for supremacy through resourcefulness and is amazingly successful. Certainly woman is, as much as other characters, the product of fabliau prejudices. She is a spendthrift (XLIV*), tricky (XXV, CV*, CXXIV, etc.), loves pleasure and amusement (XVI, XVII*), spends all day primping before a mirror (LXIV, CXV), can't be trusted with a secret (CX*), and talks too much (VI*). However, for a genre 297 that is reputed to be anti-feminist, aren't these rather mild criticisms? In the same way twentieth-century tele vision comedians laugh at women, generally their own wives, and those very wives are listening as women listened to the fabliaux in the thirteenth century. Surely medieval women found these stories just as amusing as do female television viewers today and did not consider them insults as the critics would have us believe. One fabliau author even calls on the women present to testify to the truth of his statements (LXIII). If the humor of some fabliaux seems a bit heady for the modern woman, let us remember that medieval sensibilities were not as delicate as our own. A society that laughs at someone with that person present either considers him less than human and, there fore, of no consequence as Brunetiere suggests, or has already accepted his worth and is laughing at least in some degree with, not at, him.4® We prefer to accept the latter alternative because the fabliaux are humorous stories, not invectives, because the view of woman ex pressed in them is not offensive, and because woman is 46Henri Bergson, Le Rirei essai sur la significa tion du comigue (Parisi Librairie Filix Alcan, 1900); also D. H. Monro, Argument of Laughter (Melbourne! Melbourne University Press, 1970). 298 the dominant fabliau character. It seems to us that where Brunetiere saw hatred of women, in reality there exists an admiration which includes an element of distrust, but is eminently amused. We further suggest that while women certainly did not have a privileged or even equal position in medieval society, they were not totally downtrodden and were constantly gaining in influence and prestige. Of course, it is true that whatever acceptance women had was gained on a domestic and intellectual basis. Socially and legally, women were still every bit a posses sion. Young girls were protected goods, the property of their parents, and very much a commodity.^7 The fabliaux see unmarried girls as either innocent and vulnerable (XXXIII, XXI) or depraved (CXXVI*, etc.). If a young inno cent, she had no voice in her marriage which was arranged by the parents and often totally repugnant to her (CX*). If pursued, she could wait and hope to be saved from dis honor by a third party (XXXI*, XXXIII), but she would never attempt to escape on her own initiative. Like the chanson de toile, the fabliau sees young girls as passionate and frivolous (LXV*, CVIII, etc.). If they do not seek the opportunity for illicit love, at least they do not avoid it. Occasionally, they are incredibly 47Beauvoir, p. 94. 299 ingenuous and sell themselves for worthless objects (CXXVI*) or incredibly vain and spend the day applying beauty potions (LXIV). Insight into the more subtle as pects of the young girl is almost totally lacking. One glimpse of jealousy on the part of a sister (CXXII*), another of coyness (XLIV*), and one of modesty (XLIV*) are the only three to be noticed. Unmarried women in the fabliaux are invariably prostitutes, procurers, or servants. It seems that at the beginning of the Middle Ages morals were extremely relaxed and prostitution was virtually non-existent. However, by the time of Saint Augustine (455-529) prostitution was accepted as a part of civilization and Saint Thomas (d. 1274) warned that its suppression would bring about the disruption of society. Certainly since the establish ment of the family the husband has looked for his pleasure 4 8 outside the home. Yet interestingly enough, prostitutes have a negligible place in the fabliaux. Alison, under paid, completely submissive, and a social pariah is the only true "fille de joie." Richeut is more than a prosti tute: She becomes the incarnation of debauchery, ruse, and female vengeance. Hetairas are mentioned, but in frequently figure in the action. They are usually referred 48Ibid., pp. 95 ff. 300 to as the "pretresse," beautiful, well-groomed, and gener ally envied (LXXVII, XXXIV, LXXXIV). The procurer, always a woman, is found in several fabliaux. She is invariably capable, sly, completely un scrupulous, and only occasionally a social outcast. She can lend her services to men and women alike. Mabile in "Boivin de Provins" (CXVI*) offers herself, but later substitutes a younger girl in order to profit from the higher price. Auberie, in the guise of a respectable bourgeoise, plies her trade without arousing suspicion (CX*), but Hersent is driven from the home of an angry housewife (CXXXIX). Some homes in the fabliaux are provided with one servant, either a ladies maid or a kitchen girl (VIII, IX*, CXLV). She is often only an agent of the action and conspires with husband or wife according to the demands of the story. Occasionally, she is reminiscent of the soubrette of the Italian commedia dell'arte. She has the same agile tongue and resourcefulness, the same disrespect and sense of humor (XXVIII*, LXXXIV). Old women are physically invariable, but have different functions. If they are nurses or mothers-in- law, they guard the wife. In this case, they are silly, superstitious old fools (CXXVI*, XLVII). Occasionally, old women are portrayed as dirty and unkempt old coquettes (CXXIX*). One mother is even repudiated by her own son 301 (a priest) because of her ugliness and stupidity (CXXV*). The fabliau preference for the healthy animal at its prime rules out old age and extreme youth as equally repugnant. The married woman is the most prevalent fabliau character. Although she is occasionally faithful, the husband has to pay a price for this fidelity by putting up with her nagging (CVI*). Most married women's aim in life seems to be outwitting a husband they do not love. If virtually imprisoned by a jealous, old, and repugnant mate, she occasionally remains faithful because she has no other choice (II*). Usually she is pushed by her hus band's jealousy, or her own desire, to be unfaithful and will stop at nothing in the pursuit of pleasure (XLVII, VIII, CXV). If discovered, she goes unpunished (XIV, XVI, CXXXII*, CII, CLII, XXI). It would seem that the fabliau woman occupies a kind of middle ground between Eve and Mary. Woman is neither a devil inspired temptress nor a saint. She is quite frankly human. While she occupies a subordinate position, she is surely not ignored and is even accepted to a certain degree. If fabliau authors retain vestiges of the ancient hatred of woman, they still like women. Certainly they think no less of her than they do of man kind in general. The relationship of husbands and wives evidenced in the fabliaux seems to be the heritage of Judaeo- 302 Christian tradition via Saint Pauls "For the husband is head of the wife, even as Christ is the head of the AQ church." This view was somewhat modified by Germanic tradition according to which women followed their husbands to war, were married without their consent, and were gener ally treated as servants. However, they had the assurance of monogamy and certain property rights, such as the abil ity to inherit if there were no male heirs.^ In the thirteenth century, the husband held a place which was the combination of these influences. He repre sented authority and his wife was his property. Several fabliaux testify to the fact that one could do harm to a man by dishonoring his possession, woman (XVI, XXXIV). It is because of man's authoritative position physically, economically, and legally that jealousy was looked upon with so much amusement. Why be jealous when a good beating would settle the matter definitively? However, husbands in the fabliaux rarely show force and if they do, it is misdirected (XCIV*). Some are good, hard working men (CX*, CVI*), others are cruel (XVIII, CXVIII), philanderers (XXXIII), impotent (CXLVIII*, LXXVIII, LXXXV), mentally deficient (XX*, CV*), or henpecked (CXLIX*). As a general rule, the husband is stupid and ineffectual. For this ^Ephesians v. 23. ^Beauvoir, pp. 91 ff. 303 reason, he is often beaten or put in a compromising posi tion. Rather, it is the lover who is the active male. He is, as far as one can tell, an unmarried young man, a cleric, chevalier tournoyeur, vagabond, or minstrel. What ever his exact social class, morally he is a kind of outlaw obeying none but his own rules and living by his wits. If a knight, he is sometimes accompanied by a squire and the relationship that exists between the two is reminiscent of Diderot’s Jacques le Fataliste and his master. The squire's experience and audacity always surpass that of his superior (LXX, CXLVII*). The lover generally succeeds in his enterprises either through his own dexterity or that of the wife. The priest as lover is one of the fabliau's main sources of comedy. Despite elaborate plans and untiring effort, he rarely succeeds in his venture. Usually he is just stupid, fearful, and fatuous, but occasionally he is perverse (XXXII, LXXVII). If the fabliau author is to be accused of showing scorn for a character, it would be for the priest or the husband, rather than for the wife. The relationship of the lovers to one another is particularly interesting. The woman satisfies his desire, but retains her intellectual and emotional autonomy. She is often instrumental in the lover's escape and even enjoys giving him a few frenzied moments if he has not met with 304 her entire satisfaction (CXV, LVII*, XXIII). Furthermore, it is the woman who is sexually demanding and phallic wor ship is indeed prevalent on the part of fabliau women (XXI, CXII*, etc.). Thus masculine and feminine social, as well as sexual, roles are entirely reversed with the fe male assuming the intellectual superiority and emotional independence while the lover's physical and social ad vantages are rendered of no effect and he assumes a female timidity and servility.51 To whom was this view of man addressed? To the populace in general it would seem, with certain allowances being made for the sensibilities of individual audiences. It is doubtful that anyone took the works very seriously. Just as today we take pleasure in the ridicule of the powerful, political figures, doctors, and clergymen, even so the medieval audience delighted in laughing at their 53-This change of roles is quite unlike that found in a work such as Aucassin et Nicolette where the heroine, despite her initiative, retains all her femininity and the lover shows himself capable of action when necessary. Nor is the change similar to works of the type of "Le Roi Flore et la belle Jehanne" in which the woman dons masculine garb and fulfills masculine tasks thus contributing to the success of her lover without his knowledge. Here subservi ency and devotion are the rule, rather than domination. Compare: Aucassin et Nicolette, ed. Mario Roques (Paris: Champion, 1965) and "Le Roi Flore et la belle Jehanne" in Nouvelles francoises en prose du XIIIe siecle, eds. L. Moland and C. d'Hericault (Paris: Plon, 1861) with a fabliau such as "De la dame qui se venja du chevalier" (CXL*) . 305 spiritual leaders and scions of society. Even as we enjoy an amused look at the human condition so did the men of the thirteenth century. Except for the grosser aspects of the humor which were representative of the times, the delight at the cripple and idiot and the often childish behavior, the fabliau1s portrayal of a comic humanity does not differ much from that of our own day. It was in the thirteenth century, however, quite unique. It does not idealize man as do the epic and romance. It does not satirize him as do other humorous works. It does not scorn him as do the polemics. In fact, the fabliau's amused, yet unsympathetic, view of man and his foibles is unlike all other works of the period. 7. The Moral Code We have already seen that the proverbs and morals which conclude many fabliaux are ironic, that others merely Siam up the content of the work, that still others provide a lesson of experience. We have also seen that individual authors reflect differing degrees of moral consciousness. Therefore, works on the same theme such as the "Bourgeoise d'Orliens" (VIII) and the "Chevalier, sa dame et le clerc" (L) are often based on radically different ethical con cepts. Occasionally, the degree of morality involved de pends on the author's emotional state at the time of composition. Events that the author of the "Prestre 306 teint" (CXXXIX) finds quite amusing, are viewed with bitterness and violence by Gautier le Leu in ’ ’ Connebert” (CXXVIII) and these sentiments influence his moral sense. With the exception of differences such as these, the fabliaux do conform to a fairly uniform moral code. The morality of the fabliau is not a Christian morality. It is, in fact, the victory of the flesh over faith. It is to be wondered if medieval Christian doc trine had any influence at all on the fabliau. Respect for parents or the aged is never considered of much con sequence, fidelity to the marriage covenant is virtually non-existent, and adultery is never condemned if it can be gotten away with. In those few works ('’ Constant du Hamel" [CVI*] and its variants) in which the marriage vows are honored, rape or murder occur and are condoned. The only fabliau character who remains almost always faithful to the marriage contract is the husband, and he is ridi culed for it. The fabliau makes a token denouncement of vice, but not in accordance with traditional Christian ethics. Avarice, covetousness, and usury are not condemned be cause of moral considerations, rather they are looked down upon through envy (LXIX, CXII*, CXXXV, VII*). It is quite clear that the very people condemning such practices would engage in them readily, if they had ever been afforded the opportunity. The fabliau makes a point of 307 censuring boasting and self esteem (XCIII*, XXV, LXXXVI*, LXXVlli). However, in the very works denouncing these traits, far worse crimes are described and without con demnation, The many fabliaux attacking hypocrisy never fail to excuse and even encourage obscenity (XVI, LXV* , CXI*, CVIII, CVII). Certainly those fabliaux which con demn lustful priests are censuring the priests, not their vices, for concupiscence is normally acceptable behavior (CXXVIIl). Therefore, although a token punishment of small vices is made, serious sins go unpunished and fabliau morality is based on a system of straining out gnats and swallowing camels. The fabliau's closest contact with Christian con duct can be stated in a negative and passive rephrasing of the Golden Rule* "Don't cause hurt to others or they will hurt you" (LXXV, etc.). The Biblical injunction to love one's neighbor and actively help him according to the example of the Good Samaritan becomes in the fabliau* "Watch out, those you aid will turn against you" (V, XXX). Rather than accepting an insult or wrong with charity and patience, the fabliau advises that one avenge him self (LXXV, etc.). This vengeance is not according to divine law, but human judgment. This human judgment is ignorant of the real virtues of chastity, humility, charity, hope, and patience. 308 As the fabliau seems unaware of Christian morality, it openly mocks the chivalric code and the bourgeois ideal of hard work and responsibility. It ridicules physical prowess (CXLVII*), uncovers concealed brutality and cowardice (XCIV*, LXXXVI*), and heaps blow upon epic blow in mock combats (VII*, VIII, VI*). The chivalric virtue of measure is derided by excesses of all kinds (XVIII), and personal honor is considered laughable (XXVIII*). The fabliau totally destroys the courtly ideal of love. The stylized demonstrations of affection which form the very core of the courts of love are abolished in favor of the sexual act (LV, XLVII, etc.). Euphemistic language and exaggerated refinement are looked upon as hypocrisy and camouflage for vulgarity (LXV*, LXXXV, etc.). More over, the fabliau declares that men must make their way in life by ruse. Honest work or adherence to an ethical code count for little except to make a man lose out on the fun (LXXXVIII*). The sanctity of the family and individual respectability are constantly threatened by these views. The fabliau moral view is a profane one based on intelligence. Its aim is physical well-being and whatever produces this well-being is necessarily good. The fabliau ideal is, as Joseph BSdier has statedi "Le pays de Cocagne ou l'on mange et boit bien, et ou les femmes ont autant 309 52 plus d'honneur qu'elles ont moins de vertu.” Bathing, eating, and drinking with good companions and an active sex life compose this ideal. To arrive in this fabliau Utopia one must have the most acute and subtle intelligence (VIII, LXXXII, etc.) and a certain amount of brashness (XXVIII*). Who will arrive there? Only the wife and, to a lesser degree, the cleric. Who will fail? The poor, befuddled, loving, and honorable husband, the good hearted fool, the local priest, the aged, the rich, and occa sionally even the wife or cleric themselves if they do not display enough wit and nerve. For success in the fabliau is based on the simple assumption that there are the takers and the taken, the winners and the losers. If you are going to win you must be smarter than your oppo nent . Although the fabliau envisages no ideal state other than personal pleasure, it does present an ele mental philosophy. It recognizes that life is incompre hensible and full of evils (LVI) and that one can be punished unjustly (IV*, CXLII). Yet, it further ob serves that everyone is guilty of some evil. Therefore, it is best not to complain if punished oneself or look too closely and with scorn at a neighbor's faults (CX*). ^^B^dier, Les Fabliauxt itudes de litterature populaire . . ., p. 369. 310 To accept one's own failings with a shrug of the shoulders is the only sensible way. The fabliau morality is one of experience and dis trust. To learn from your mistakes and never make them again (CXIX, CXLVI, CIII) and above all, to take care, are its basic teachings (XXI, XCI, etc.). Listen to these implied adages which form, rather than the conventional concluding proverbs, the real fabliau moral1 Be nice to people, you may see them again (CXXXII*)I Don’t let a cleric in the house (XXII*)i Learn guile and ruse, you will need them (LXII)1 Trickery is better than force (LXXXI)1 Don't believe your wife (CIX*, GXXXIII*)1 Don’t waste time helping people, they will be ungrateful (XXVII)1 Don't give money to your children, they will throw you out when you are old anyway (V)1 Don't be a fool (CIX*)1 Watch out amateur Don Juans that you don't end up in the larder (XXXII)I Don't get married (LXXVIII, etc.)l Be careful your wife doesn't make you a cuckold (XXV, etc.)I These are only a few fabliau injunctions. Beneath this awareness of the evils of existence, there is a muted desire for justice. Good is sometimes rewarded (CXLVII*, CXIV) and there is a marked tendency to show that people receive according to their deserving (XXXIII, LXVII*, etc.) In the judicial proceedings pre sented, justice usually triumphs (XXXVI, LXXX*, CXXV*). However, it is also true that the definition of good and 311 evil, as well as their punishment and reward, are in ac cordance with the customary fabliau prejudices. Jealous husbands and lewd priests are usually chastized, while clerics and wives, no matter how serious their crimes, go free. The law is, in a majority of cases, taken into in dividual hands (LXXVII, XIV, XXXIV, etc.). Therefore, the fabliau moral is essentially one of freedom. It is contemptuous of all lawi ecclesiastical, political, and human. It invites man to get away with all he can. All in all, the fabliau*s moral code is one of the intelligence and of the senses, not of the heart. It is a moral of freedom from all restraint, but which includes no desire to upset the established order. It is a harsh, distrustful, and often cruel moral lacking charity and human sympathy. Yet it is also optimistic, good humored, healthy, and down to earth. It never asks men to be other than themselves. It is happy to find good, rare that it is, and to point out evil without any pretense at de stroying it. With all its bawdyness, there is an innocence about its vices, and a childlikeness in its devilment. In view of these facts, it is surprising that Omer Jodogne has emphasized the fabliau’s didactic role. While we do not deny the presence of proverbial conclusions in the fabliaux, we question not only their moral intent, 53Jodogne, pp. 1053-54. 312 but their importance in the total narrative.^ In the first place, they are very brief (four to ten lines). Therefore, the considerably longer story portion tends to overshadow them in importance. This is not the case in the fable or exemplum where the narrative segment is ex tremely schematic. Furthermore, in the fabliau the hu morous story commands full attention. The sudden return to seriousness, if it be seriousness, in the conclusion cannot have carried a great deal of weight. It may have meant no more to those present than a wry comment on life. Finally, it is doubtful that, once the narrator com pleted his tale, the audience took any interest in the moral. Perhaps they did not even hear it. Therefore, we feel it is doubtful that anyone took the fabliaux and their moral view very seriously. They were, after all, as Jean Rychner has phrased it so well, "bonnes histoires a servir apres le repas."^ This usage is of capital importance. Amid the myriad forms of medieval oral literature, the fabliaux more than any other form, resemble jokes, "gabs,” of the type that Roland, Olivier, and their friends shared after dinner in the Voyage de Charlemagne. The author of "Dou povre ^Dubuis, p, 15. 5^Rychner, "Les Fabliaux," p. 51. 313 mercier" (XXXVI) emphasizes the comic intent of the fabliaux* Car par biaux diz est obliie Maintes foix ire et cussangons. Ai abasiis granz tangons, Car, quant aucuns dit les ris§es, Les forts tangons sont obliges. Several fabliau authors even use the word "fabler" in the sense of "to mock" or "to kid." Gautier le Leu, in reference to a statement made, uses the expression in the following manner* "Porvec c'on li eut dit en fable." ° This can be translated "Unless they told it to him as a joke." When given only half the horse blanket, the grand father complains to his son that the grandson "... tre- stout torne 3 fable / Quanque tu commandas et fis." (V). This can be interpreted* "He turns to naught (or non sense) all that you ordered and said" or "He makes a joke of your commands." In "Du prestre et de la dame" (LI*) the amorous priest dismounts and hurries toward the lady. The author comments* "Cil n'a soing de fabler." We in terpret this’ to means "He doesn't care to fool around." When one of the minstrels in the "Contregengle" (LIII) wishes to silence his companion's flow of talk, he says* "... fabloiS as or longuement / Et moi ledangi£ dure- ment." In other words* "0. K. so you've kidded me long enough." ^Livingstone, p. 150, 1. 101. 314 The fabliaux are jokes, but they are a very special type of joke. This type is still seen in the repertory of certain stand-up comedians of our own day such as Myron Cohen or Shelley Berman. These comedians still employ the structurei first person prologue, narrative in the third person, and an abrupt conclusion which can include proverbial comment. Choosing some eternal human situa tion, they adapt their material to a particular culture. They choose two or three characters as vehicles of the action and, developing them only as types, use them to display man’s foibles. Dialogue is used to advantage and description kept at a minimum. The reciter can and does intervene in the same manner as a fabliau author. Humor ous exaggeration is still the major source of humor. Con sider how often these comedians assure their audiences that the events they are relating actually happened to them I For these reasons we cannot take the fabliau’s immorality too seriously. As in the modern mystery story, death is not really death, but just a condition necessary for the unfolding of the more important puzzle. In the same way, adultery and even murder in the fabliau are just minor incidents which give impetus to the far more essen tial trick. Therefore, we must disagree with Gustave Lanson when he says, speaking of the fabliaux> "Ainsi, immoralitS et fourberie, voila pour le fondi ajoutez-y la 315 malpropretS comme forme extSrieure, et la cruaute comrae ressort de 1'action. Le comique est tantot & faire lever le coeur, et tantot d'une rSvoltante brutalitS."57 This brutality is not real. It is the brutality of the joke, or of children's cartoons. Think how many Saturday morn ings cartoon characters such as Woody Woodpecker have been flattened, beaten, stretched, chased, and tricked only to exhibit amazing resiliencyI No one takes his plight seri ously, nor do we that of the fabliau character. The fabliau is humorous, but it is not satirical. This does not mean that the humor contained in the fabliau is always of the same type. We have already seen that the humor may be extremely elementary and derive amusement from a pun, a chase, a beating, a cascade of improbabilities, or that it can be quite sophisticated and make use of "gimmicks” and contrived actions which give rise to other actions. The fabliau may even con tain more subtle types of humor such as irony. For ex ample, "Des putains et des lecheors" (LXXVI*) is built entirely on an ironic moral lesson. However, there is no resentment involved. The author is simply pointing out an absurdity of the human condition and he still does so humorously. However, there are two exceptions to the rule ^Lanson, p. 102. 316 that the fabliau is not satiric. One late fabliau, "Des •iii. chanoinesses de Couloigne" (LXXII), has lost the humorous spontaneity usually present in the fabliau. There is a deliberate quality about the women's misdeeds that approaches satire. Only one work is openly satiric. This is Gautier le Leu's "Connevert" (CXXVIII), a vicious attack on priests which betrays an almost sick hatred. The work ends with a pitiless and ritualistic mutilation. Such a work seems closer in mood to the satirical dit than to the fabliau. Certainly it must be set aside, if not excluded, from the fabliaux which generally demon strate a spontaneous and totally good-natured amusement at men and events. The humor of the fabliau then is that of the joke or of the cartoon, it is not that of the satiric review or of the newspaper cartoon with social and political overtones. Such criticism conforms more nearly to the thought of the Roman de Renart or the satirical dit. T^e fabliau's moral attitude, which is part and parcel of its humor, never sought to enlighten or reform men or institutions, only to make them laugh at others and at themselves. 8. The Fabliau as Narrative Literature Certainly all will agree that the fabliau is a storyt a public art lacking an exact form. Occasionally 317 it approaches the anecdote. However, its lack of bio graphical and of personal elements usually distinguishes it from this form. As we have seen, some critics have called the fabliau a "conte” because of its emphasis on action and schematic presentation of character. If the term is used in its general sense, that is, ••story,” they are correct. However, it must be remembered that the fabliau is not a deliberate retreat from reality through use of the fantastic. It does not contain a variety of adventures extending over space and time, nor does it have a symbolic signification. Therefore, in a narrow sense the fabliau is not a "conte." To what degree the fabliau is the forerunner of the modern nouvelle or short story we shall now attempt to determine. A nouvelle is an art form which is primarily as sociated with the nineteenth century, although the term was first used in the fifteenth century to describe quite a different type of narrative.it is to be distin guished from the novel in length, technique, and aim. Because it is longer, the novel can fully develop the three elements of narrative* plot, character, and setting. A variety of techniques results from the coexistence and 58Pierre Jourda, Conteurs frant^ais du 16e siecle. Bibliothique de la PlSiade (Paris* Gallimard, 1965), p. ix. 318 relative importance of these three elements. However, the aim is always to portray an individual struggling against the human condition. The nouvelle can develop only one of the three elements of narrative and usually chooses character. It will carefully select and relate only those aspects which pertain to the particular facet of personality it is describing. Its aim is to give a brief glimpse of a moment in the character’s life which reveals him most fully. Rather than a single hero, it is often inclined to present a collective one, such as Maupassant's prostitutes or Gogol's subalterns.^9 Henri BSnac defines the nouvelle as: Un rScit centre en general autour d'un seul ivenement dont il Studie les repercussions psychologiques; personnages peu nombreux, qui, a la difference du conte, ne sont pas des symboles ou des etres irreels, mais possedent une realite psychologiquei cependant, a la difference du roman, leur psychologie n'est pas etudiee tout entiere, mais simplement sous un aspect fragmentaire. La nouvelle cherche a produire une impression de vie reelle.60 Two phrases in this definition are significant. Charac ters in the nouvelle possess a "realite psychologique" ^9Frank O'Connor, The Lonely Voice (New York* World Publishing Company, 1963); Brander Matthews, The Short Story (New York: American Book Company, 1907X7” Anton Chekhov, Letters on the Short Story, eds. Friedland and Simmons (New York: Blom, 1964). 60Henri Benac, Vocabulaire de la dissertation (Paris: Hachette, 1949), p. 111. and the story seeks to produce an effect of "vie r£elle." Such statements would seem to reflect the bias of nine teenth-century realism. However, even the sixteenth- century authors of nouvelles sought authenticity. When Marguerite de Navarre tells the fabliau "Le Dit dou pli§on (Vol. 6, ap. II) the alterations she makes are designed precisely to make the story more believable. First, she gives the reader some indication of the wife's personality Then she changes the nature of the ruse in order to make it the product of this personality.6^ Because it lacks authenticity, the fabliau would seem to be the very antithesis of the nouvelle. However, in reality, the fabliau is the nouvelle's ancestor, and the latter owes to it far more than appears on the surface The fabliau already possesses the concision, unity of time and singleness of emphasis which are the very foundation of the nouvelle. It has the forceful climax which the later nouvellistes will render unexpected and surprising. Furthermore, its action is developed dramatically through dialogue. Significantly, the fabliau and nouvelle often employ the same basic structure.62 ^Marguerite de Navarre, nouvelle 6. 6^Werner Soderhjelm's definition of the nouvelle takes into consideration its development. He sayst "La nouvelle, rScit court, gSnSralement en prose, qui nous prSsente une situation g£n§ralement prise dans la vie de tous les jours et resserrSe dans un cadre Stroit. 320 Let us consider, by way of example, Maupassant's well known story ”La Ficelle."63 It begins with a very brief introduction that sets the scene, establishes the characters, and provides the basic situation* Maitre Hauchecorne and Maitre Malandin are enemies. The narra tive proper follows with its complicating incident* the finding of the piece of string. From this innocent action, derive the denunciation of Hauchecorne as the thief of Maitre Houlebreque's wallet, his interrogation, the re covery of the lost property, and the spreading popular conviction that Hauchecorne found the wallet and had it returned by another to collect the reward. Hauchecorne at no point controls the action. He is caught up in a series of events that he does not understand until the very end. The narrative is developed through conversa tion and dramatic action. Furthermore, Maupassant has the fabliau author's tendency to make characters behave accord ing to specific prejudices* Hauchecorne behaves like all L'SvSnement racontS aboutit a une catastrophe inattendue ou surprenante, ce qui veut dire que l'Sliment drama- tique joue un role essentiel dans la constitution de la nouvelle. A l'origine tout est concentrS dans l'effet de cette pointe . . . Plus tard, et peu a peu, 1'etude psy- chologique gagne en importance. Tandis que le roman nous donne une image de la formation et du dSveloppement d’une personnalitS, la nouvelle ne nous donne qu'un Spisode . . . un cotS du caract&re." Jourda, p. ix. 6^Quy de Maupassant, Contes et nouvelles (Paris* Albin Michel, 1956), p. 36. 321 Normands, as a miser and a cheat. The conclusion is a rapid and decisive "closed ending": Hauchecorne dies. This story evidences the material, the structure, and in some respects, even the technique of a fabliau. In fact, the fabliau "Brifaut" (CIII) has some characteristics in common with it. According to the story a merchant has his cloth stolen in the market place, fumbles about in a vain attempt to retrieve it, and dejectedly returns home to confess the loss to his wife. He swears that death can take him if he is not telling the absolute truth, and then drops dead. This event brought about riotous laughter on the part of the thirteenth-century audience. It is obvious that these two works were meant to produce entirely different reactions. An analysis of these reactions establishes the basic distinction be tween the fabliau and the nouvelle. This distinction is the simple result of physical and psychological plausi bility. By precise, yet carefully limited, description Maupassant places his characters within a specific setting. By analysis of their emotions and reactions as well as by portrayal of their actions, he makes his characters real beings. While Hauchecorne behaves as a Normand, he also behaves as an individual. As an individual he con trols the action, in the sense that his passions and failings determine the incidents of the plot, and these, in turn, are evidence of his individuality. His final 322 comprehension of the events of the plot is at the same time a moment of self-knowledge. Therefore, while both Maupassant and the fabliau author take a brief, but strik ing glance at a character in one moment of his existence, the nature of this glance is very different because of the attitude which motivates it. With the fabliau author we laugh because the situation and the character are un real. With Maupassant, we recognize that this event could happen to any one of us, we sympathize with the character, and we cannot then laugh at him. Therefore, to develop into the nouvelle, the fabliau must shed its distorting humor and thus attain plausibility. It must take the emphasis off the action itself, place it on the character, and develop the latter through psychological analysis, not exclusively through dialogue and action. However, let us recognize that the framework of the nouvelle is already present in the fabliau. Let us also recognize that the lai already possesses the interest in character later developed in the nouvelle. Works such as "Equitan" which have lost all supernatural elements, show interest in psychology, and make use of fabliau techniques are certainly initial steps in the formation of the character as the nouvelle en visages him. Furthermore, works such as "La Veuve" (XLIX) and "Le Valet qui se met a mesaise" (XLIV*) are signifi cant contributions to plausibility. CONCLUSION In this study, we have first attempted to place the fabliau within the context of medieval literature and to set aside those works which have more in common with other genres than with the main body of works contained in the Recueil cr§n§ral. Through a subsequent classifica tion and analysis of the remaining works, four facts have become apparent. Only slightly more than one-third of the fabliaux have a moral or proverbial conclusion. No more than three can be considered realistic in the strict sense of the term. They do not parody courtly litera ture exclusively, but an astonishing variety of forms. All are humorous. Therefore, we maintain that the fabliaux are not primarily didactic. They are not the first fumbling steps of realism. Nor are they uniquely parodies of courtly literature. Rather they are humorous narratives intended to amuse a diverse audience. We have recognized, as have critics before us, the difficulty of defining the fabliau in precise terms. We know that it is impossible to make a definition accord ing to a single element, such as style or structure, for each evidences considerable variety. Moreover, we find that, all considerations of emphasis aside, the fabliau’s 323 324 subject matter is not essentially different from that of other humorous works. Finally, the fabliau's portrayal of medieval society, although lacking the breadth and com pleteness of the Roman de Renart, conforms qualitatively to that of other medieval works. However, we have discovered that the fabliau pre sents several unique features. Its amused and unsympa thetic view of man and the world and its unorthodox moral code are distinct from other medieval literary thought. Therefore, it is our belief that the fabliau does exist as a genre. However, by defining it as such, we do so in the broad sense in which the novel, for example, is con sidered a genre. We recognize that definition is, in a large measure artificial, a convenience which satisfies the human desire to understand and to sum up this under standing. We know that no definition can be an absolute and we intend this one only as a guide. Again, we emphasize that the fabliau is the prod uct of almost two centuries and of a wide variety of authors, each of whom contributed to it his particular talents and attitudes. Furthermore, we recognize the presence of those variant forms we have excluded from the genre: the rare tableau de moeurs, the infrequent didac tic work, the occasional satire. These too have some part at least in the fabliau. Consequently, we maintain that a definition of the fabliau must be as varied and 325 unorthodox as the form itself, for "fabliau" is at once a term, a literary form, the written manifestation of a purely psychological phenomenon, and a philosophical attitude. "Fabliau" is first and foremost a term used in medieval times to designate a wide variety of works. It evolved slowly from the Latin fabula + ellus which meant originally "invented narrative." It gradually assumed the connotation of "fantastic," as is seen in the works of Watriquet de Couvin around 1340. In the interim, it seems to have meant "story about women's ruses," "story about lustful priests," "nonsense," and even "joke" ac cording to the person defining it. "Fabliau" then is a general term like "exemple," "conte," "aventure" the exact meaning of which cannot be determined with any precision and which, therefore, cannot really contribute to a definition of the fabliau as a genre. Despite the elusiveness of the term "fabliau," there existed, all the same, a short medieval narrative form which was different from the lai, the exemplum, the fable, the moral tale, and the dit, which we will call a fabliau. Despite all variations, the great majority of works in the Recueil g£n§ral possess an amazing similarity of attitude. Therefore we can define the fabliau as a short verse narrative of diverse origins, undetermined structure, and varied style and content which takes an 326 exaggerated and often parodic, an unsympathetic, yet always humorous, glance at human foibles and the triviali ties of the human condition without seeking to either amend or satirize them. The glance that the fabliau gives of human exist ence is in accordance with a specific psychological mecha nism. Human relationships are a game, a system of offense and defense, the "good guys" versus the "bad guys." Eric Berne has described the game as foliosi A game is an ongoing series of complementary ulterior transactions progressing to a well-defined, predict able outcome. Descriptively it is a recurring set of transactions, often repetitious, only superficially plausible, with a concealed motivation; or, more colloquially, a series of moves with a snare, or " g i m m i c k . " 6 4 If we add that the game is both frivolous and amusing, this definition describes perfectly not only the physical mechanics of the fabliau, but the mental process which lies behind its creation. The fabliau disappeared as a literary genre with Jean de CondS and Watriquet de Gouvin about 1340, and this date marked the end of an epoch. In 1337 the French were dealt a resounding blow at CrScy and the long Hundred Years 64Quoted in a speech entitled "The Adversary Gamei A Manual for Our Times," delivered in April 1969 by James Yandell at a conference on the subject: Yuncr and the Unconscious. 327 War began. The war, together with the plague of 1347-48 which wiped out one-third of the population of Europe, discouraged the practice of public gatherings and min strels fell upon evil times. Moreover, reading became increasingly popular and the abandonment of recitation meant a turning to new, longer, and more elaborate liter ary productions such as the interminable fourteenth-cen tury Arthurian romances. At the court of Burgundy, poets began to experiment with new forms which would culminate in the acrobatics of versification and artifices of style of the fifteenth-century grands rhetoriqueurs. With the loss of its audience and the new directions of poetic ex- 65 pression, the fabliau necessarily met its end. However, the fabliau is more than a minor medieval literary genre. It is an attitude existing throughout world literature and which has been particularly objecti fied in what is termed "gaulic wit." It establishes man's freedom from all that implies restraint, whether this be governmental, religious, social, or moral. It praises the physical pleasures of the good life. Above all, it laughs at the absurdity of the animal man and the triviality of the human condition. This attitude can be found in works of a wide variety of form, and the themes and motifs it ^BSdier, Les Fabliaux* Etudes de litt&rature populaire . . ., pp. 425-26. Also see Muller, pp. 252 ff. 328 has consecrated in works of great seriousness. If Rabelais, Moliere, La Fontaine, Voltaire, Balzac, and Marcel AymS all betray in some degree fabliau attitudes, the Archi- preste de Hito, Chaucer, Boccaccio, Marguerite de Navarre, Diderot, Paul-Louis Courier, and even Birago Diop have found its themes and motifs worthy of repetition. As an attitude, the fabliau is not confined to France of the thirteenth century, but is alive in all ages and climes. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Principal Editions of the Fabliaux Barbazan. Fabliaux et contes de poetes franoais des XIIe, XIIIe et XlVe si&cles, tirgs des meilleurs auteurs. 3 vols. Paris, 1756. Faral, Edmond. Le manuscrit 19152 du fonds francais de la Bibliotheque Nationalei Reproduction phototypique publiee avec une introduction. Paris: Fondation Singer-Polignac, 1939. Flutre, L. F. "Un manuscrit inconnu de la Bibliotheque de Lyon," Rom. LXII (1936), 1-16. Hellmann, Robert, and 0'Gorman, Richard. Fabliaux: Ribald Tales from the Old French. Translated and edited. New York: Crowell, 1965. Johnson, R. C., and Owen, D. D. R. Fabliaux. Blackwell's French Texts. Oxford, 1957. Jubinal, A. Nouveau recueil de contes, dits, fabliaux et autres pieces in^dites des XIIIe, XIVe et XVe sil- cles, pour faire suite aux collections de Legrand d'Aussy, Barbazan et M$on^ 2 vols. Paris, 1839- 42. Lecompte, Irving C. "Richeut, Old French Poem of the Twelfth Century, with Introduction, Notes and Glossary," RR, IV (1913), 261 ff. Le Grand d'Aussy. Fabliaux ou contes du XIIe et du XIIle slide, traduits ou extraits d'apres divers manu- scrits du terns, avec des notes historiques et critiques. 4 vols. Paris, 1779 and 1829. M§on. Fabliaux et contes des poites franqais des XIe. Xlie, xille. XIVe et XVe siicles . . . publiis par Barbazan. 4 vols. Paris, 1808. ________. Nouveau recueil de fabliaux et contes inSdits des poetes francais des XIIe. xille, XIVe et XVe siecles. 2 vols. Paris, 1823. 330 331 Montaiglon, Anatole de, and Raynaud, Gaston. Recueil g£n§ral et complet des^fabliaux des XIIIe^et XIVe siecles imprimes ou inedits, publi£ d'apres les manuscrits. 6 vols. Paris* Librairie des Biblio philes, 1872-90. Omont, H. Fabliaux, dits et contes en vers franpais du XIIIe siecle. Fac-simile du manuscrit franpais 837 de la Bibliotheque Nationale. Published under the auspices of the Institut de France. Paris* Fonda- tion Delrousse, 1932. Reid, T. B. W. Twelve Fabliaux from Manuscript Fonds Franpais 19152 of the Bibliotheque Nationale. Manchester, 1958. Secondary Sources* Fabliaux Bidier, Joseph. "Les Fabliaux," in Histoire de la langue et de la litterature franpaise. Edited by Petit de Juleville. 2 vols. Paris* Colin, 1896. II, 57-103. ________. Les Fabliaux* £tudes de litterature populaire et d*histoire litteraire du moyen acre. 5th edi tion. Paris* Champion, 1925. Bossuat, Robert. "La littSrature bourgeoise," in Le Moyen Age. Vol. I of Histoire de la litterature fran paise. General editor J. Calvet. Paris* Del Duca, 1962. Pp. 95-123. Cluzel, I.-M. "Le Fabliau dans la litterature provengale du moyen age," Annales du midi, LXVI (1954), 317- 26. Cohen, Gustave. "Les Fabliaux," and "L'Esprit gaulois et les fabliaux," in La Vie litteraire en France au moyen age. Paris* Tallandier, 1949. Pp. 186-88 and 128-29. ________. Tableau de la litterature franpaise mgdiSvale. Paris* Richard-Masse, 1950. Crosland, Jesse. "Story-telling in the Middle Acres," in Medieval French Literature. New York* Macmillan, 1956. Pp. 124-43. Delarue, Paul. Le Conte populaire franpais. Paris* Erasme, 1957. 332 Delbouille, Maurice. Le Lai d*Aristote d'Henri d'Andeli. Bibliothique de 1'UniversitS de Liege, Fascicule 123. Paris: P. U. F., 1951. Dubuis, M. R. "La GenSse de la nouvelle en France au moyen age," Gahiers de 1‘Association Internationale des Etudes Franoaises, no. 18. Parisi Les Belles Lettres, 1966. Pp. 9-20. Faral, Edmond. "Le Fabliau latin au moyen age," Rom, L (1924), 321-85. Foulon, Charles. "Jehan Bedel ou Jehan Bodel"?, Rom, LXXI (1950), 397-99. Frappier, Jean. "Remarques sur la structure du lai: Essai de definition et de classement," in La Litterature narrative d*imagination! Collogue International de Strasbourg. Parisi P. U. F., 1961. Pp. 23-39. Godefroi, Frederic. Dictionnaire de I'ancienne langue franpaise. 10 vols. Paris: Vieweg, 1881-1902. Hart, W. M. "The Fabliau and Popular Literature," PMLA, XXIII (1908), 330-74. Holmes, Urban T. "The Fabliau and the Tale," in History of Old French Literature. Revised edition. New York: Russell and Russell, 1962. Pp. 200-206. Jodogne, Omer. "Considerations sur le fabliau," in Melanges offerts a Rene Crozet a 1'occasion de son soixante-dixieme anniversaire. 2 vols. Poitiers: Soci^te des Etudes M^diSvales, 1966. II, 1042-55. Krappe, Alexander H. "The Merry Tale," in The Science of Folklore. New York: The Dial Press, 1930. Pp. 45-59. Langlois, Ernest. "Fabliaux," Jahresbericht fur romanische Philoloqie, V (1897-98), 102-9. Legry-Rosier, J. "Manuscrits de contes et de fabliaux," Bulletin d*information de l'Institut de Recherche et d*Histoire des Textes, IV (1955), 37-47. Livingstone, Charles H. Le Jongleur Gautier le Leu: Etude sur les fabliaux. Harvard Studies in Romance Languages, no. 24. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951. 333 Meyer, Paul® "Le Chevalier, la dame et le clerc," Rom, I (1872), 69-87. Nykrog, Per. Les Fabliauxi etude d*histoire litteraire et de stylistique m§di€vale. Diss. Aarhus. Copenhagen! Munksgaard, 1957. Paris, Gaston. La Litterature franoaise au moyen acre. Pariss Hachette, 1914. ________. 'Les Contes orientaux dans la litterature fran- gaise du moyen age,” in La Ppesie du moyen age. 2 vols. Parisi Hachette 1885-95. I, 75-108. Patzer, Otto. "The Wealth of the Clergy in the Fabliaux," MLN, XIX (1904), 195-96. Rychner, Jean. Contribution a 1'etude des fabliauxi Variantes, remaniements, degradations. 2 vols. Recueil de travaux publics par la Faculte des Let- tres de l'Universite de Neuchatel, Fascicule 28. Neuchatel-Geneve, I960, ________. "Les Fabliauxi genre, style, publics," in La Litterature narrative d1imagination! Collogue International de Strasbourg. Parisi P. U. F., 1961. Pp. 41-54. Suchier, L. "Fabelstudien," ZRP, XLII (1922), 561-605. Tiemann, Hermann. "Bemerkungen zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Fabliaux," Romanische Forschungen, LXXII (1960), 406-22. ________. Die Entstehung der mitteralterlichen Novelle in Franchreich. Schriftenreihe zur europaischen Integration, Sonderheft 1. Hamburg! Europa- Kolleg, 1961. Tobler-Lommatzsch. Altfranzosische Worterbuch. 5 vols. Berlini Weidmann, 1925. Togeby, Knud. "Les Fabliaux," Orbis Litterarum, XII (1957), 85-98. Varvaro, Alberto. "I fabliaux e la societa,” Studi medio- latini e volcrare. VIII (1960), 275-99. ________. "II Segretain moine ed il realismo dei fabliaux," Studi mediolatini e volqare, XIV (1966), 195-215. 334 Related Works Aesop. Fables. Translated and edited by Boris Artzyba- sheff. New York: The Viking Press, 1933. Aiol: Chanson de geste publi€e d'apres le manuscrit unique de Paris par Jacques Normand et Gaston Raynaud. SATF. Parisj Firmin, 1877. Albee, Edward. Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? New York: Atheneum, 1962. Andreas Capellanus. The Art of Courtly Love. Translated and edited by John Jay Parry. New Yorki Ungar, 1959. Aucassin et Nicolette. Edited by Mario Roques. CFMA. Paris: Champion, 1965. Auerbach, Erich. 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Edited by Lucy Tomlin Smith and Paul Meyer. SATF. Paris* Didot, 1889. Brunei, Clovis. Bibliographie des manuscrits litteraires en anclen provenpal. Paris* Droz, 1935. La Chanson de Guillaume. Edited by Duncan McMillan. 2 vols. SATF. Paris* A. and J. Picard, 1948. Le Charroi de Nimes. Edited by J. L. Perrier. CFMA. Paris* Champion, 1966. La Chastelaine de Vergi. Edited by Gaston Raynaud. 3rd edition revised by Lucien Foulet. CFMA. Paris* Champion, 1967. Chekhov, Anton. Letters on the Short Story. Translated and edited by Friedland and Simmons. New York* Blom, 1964. Le Chevalier au barisel. Edited by Felix Lecoy. CFMA. Paris* Champion, 1955. Chretien de Troyes. Erec et Enide. Edited by Mario Roques. CFMA. Paris* Champion, 1966. Coulet, J. "Novas del papagai," Revue des langues ro man es , XLV (1902), 322. Crane, Thomas F. The Exempla, or Illustrative Stories from the Sermones Vulgares of Jacques de Vitry. London* Nutt, 1890. Cunningham, K. 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Core Title The Old French Fabliau: A Classification And Definition

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