University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Mental Imagery As A Function Of Muscular Tension And Suggestion

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Mental Imagery As A Function Of Muscular Tension And Suggestion

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Content MENTAL IMAGERY AS A FUNCTION OF MUSCULAR TENSION AND SUGGESTION by Lawrence Jay Hermann A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Psychology) August 1971 72-559 HERMANN, Lawrence Jay, 1927- MENTAL IMAGERY AS A FUNCTION OF MUSCULAR TENSION AND SUGGESTION. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1971 Psychology, clinical University Microfilms, A X ER O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .........Lawrence.. Jay...Hermann.... under the direction of Ala... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Dafe..August..l971 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE..........................................iii LIST OF TABLES.................................. v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS..................... vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ........................... 1 II. THE PROBLEMS OF THIS STUDY............... 11 III. HYPOTHESES............................. 13 IV. METHOD................................. 14 Subjects Design Procedure V. RESULTS................................. 23 Data Analysis VI. DISCUSSION............................. 31 VII. SUMMARY............................ . . 40 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................... 43 APPENDICES...................................... 76 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the contri butions of Dr. Albert Mars ton, Dr. A. Steven Frankel, Dr. Jack Hattem and Dr. Norman Cliff who gave generously of their time and knowledge as guidance committee members. Special thanks are due Dr. Milton Wolpln: as com mittee chairman he provided a rare combination of encour agement and intellectual excitement. The kindness and warmth shown by him and by the other committee members helped make this research a truly rewarding experience. ill Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my wi£e, Rita, and to my children, Hatthew and Arthur. It is small compensation for the inumerable weekends on which they did without husband and father. Throughout the years of graduate school they never failed in their love and sup port; their excitement and pleasure at each step of the way was sustaining in the truest sense of the word. iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Multivariate Analysis of Variance.......... 48 2. Difference Scores by Sex across Scenes.............. 49 3. Multivariate Analysis of Variance.......... 50 4. Univariate Analysis of Variance Scene I (Meadow)..................... 51 5. Scene I Meadow, Variable 1............... 53 6. Scene I Meadow, Variable 4............... 54 7. Scene I Meadow, Variable 5............... 55 8. Univariate Analysis of Variance Scene II (Ocean)..................... 56 9. Scene II Ocean, Variable 5............... 58 10. Univariate Analysis of Variance Scene III (Ladder).................... 59 11. Scene III Ladder, Variable 5............. 61 12. Scene III Ladder, Variable 9............. 62 13. Univariate Analysis of Variance Scene IV (Earthquake)................ 63 14. Correlation of Betts QMI Scale with Bright-Dim Dimension on Pre-Treatment Semantic“ I5ifferentia 1. .............. 65 15. Correlation of Good-Bad and Bright-Dim Dimensions on tre-‘ Treatment Semantic Differential......................... 66 v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Significant Difference Scores By Treatment Group, Scene I .............. 68 2. Significant Difference Scores By Treatment Group, Scene II.............. 70 3. Significant Difference Scores By Treatment Group, Scene III............ 72 4. Difference Scores By Treatment Group, Variable 5..................... 74 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The publication of Psychotherapy by Reciprocal In hibition (Wolpe, 1958) dates the beginning of one of the most influential modern developments in psychotherapy technique. In this work, Wolpe set forward a clear theo retical alternative to the classic "disease models" of neurotic behavior which characterize certain deviant be haviors as symptoms of an underlying conflict, much as a fever is seen as a symptom of an organic pathology. Based in part on principles derived from animal studies in which fear is conceptualized as a learned drive (Miller, 1948; Brown and Jacobs, 1949) and on his own early work with experimental "neurosis" in animals (Wolpe, 1952), hi8 theory states that neurotic behavior is nothing more than learned unadaptive behavior and that its main tenance can be accounted for within the framework of exist ing learning theory. More specifically, Wolpe's model is similar to the two-factor learning theory propounded by Mowrer (1960) in which a response of anxiety is classically conditioned to a previously neutral stimulus as a result of the pairing of this stimulus and pain. Since anxiety (or fear) is an aversive drive, the conditioned stimulus (CS-f) is avoided by the organism and the avoidance be 1 2 havior Is In turn operantly reinforced by the reduction in anxiety. There is much apparent similarity between laboratory avoidance behavior and phobic behavior in humans; it is not surprising that Wolpe uses phobic behavior as his basic neurotic paradigm. While there have been serious criticisms raised regarding the validity of two-factor learning theory (Herrnstein, 1969) and the relevance of avoidance behavior models to human phobias (Costello, 1970), they remain the most widely accepted positions and the central assumptions in behavior therapy research. Working from this model of neurotic behavior, Wolpe goes on to. present a treatment method that he believes is based on response substitution. ... if a response inhibitory to anxiety can be made to occur in the presence of anxiety evoking stimuli so that it is accompanied by a complete or partial suppression of the anxiety response, the bond between these stimuli and the anxiety response will be weakened (Wolpe, 1961, p. 189). His attempt, then, is to present stimuli which are designed to produce a response of anxiety in such a way that the response does not occur; the technique which im plements this process he calls systematic desensitization (SD). The rationale for SD is a combination of physio logical theorizing and the concept of reciprocal inhibition originally put forth by Sherrington. According to Wolpe, anxiety and fear are responses predominantly mediated by the sympathetic nervous system and any response Which is predominantly a function of the parasympathetic nervous system can be made to reciprocally inhibit the conditioned fear response (CR-f). While he has experimented with such supposedly parasympathetic responses as eating, sexual activity and assertive behavior, the emphasis has been on skeletal relaxation as the basic technique for evoking a parasympathetic response. The reasoning is that fear and anxiety are always accompanied by skeletal states of ten sion and a state of fear is impossible while the body is in a state of complete relaxation. . . . it is therefore to be taken as axiomatic that relaxation inhibits anxiety; their concurrent expres sion is physiologically impossible (Lazarus & Rach- man, 1957, p. 935). Following this line of reasoning, the maintenance of the response of relaxation while anxiety arousing stimulus situations are presented at low but increasing intensities should effectively preclude the fear response; that is, the response of relaxation should "reciprocally Inhibit" CR-f. The actual technique Involves training the patient in complete muscular relaxation and, while he maintains this state, asking him to imagine scenes of fear evoking situations (the supposed CS-f) which the patient has helped to construct and arrange in rank order from least to most fear evoking (the hierarchy). The weakest items on the A hierarchy are presented first and later Items presented only after the patient indicates he can visualize the previous item without experiencing anxiety. The use of imaginary scenes is standard procedure in SD and is be lieved to allow control of the Intensity and content of the CS-f through the choice of images on the hierarchy. The method of muscular relaxation used in SD is that developed by Jacobson (1938). It involves training the patient to sense muscular tension and then to systemati cally relax muscle groups. The importance of the relax ation training to practitioners of SD is indicated by the fact that Wolpe spends half of each of the first six sessions training his patients in this method (Wolpe, 1961). In Jacobson's major work, Progressive Relaxation (1938), his method of muscular relaxation is presented as a thera peutic technique in and of itself, and is recommended for the management of a wide range of dysfunctions from in somnia to muccou8 colitis. Jacobson himself has an impressive set of research credentials dating bade forty years; since 1936 he has been the director of the Laboratory for Clinical Physiology at the University of Chicago; he has both an M.D. and a Ph.D. and has done research in psychology as well as physi ology. His publications date back to the introspectionist period in psychology (Jacobson, 1911) and his work on the 5 electrical measurement of muscle potentials (Jacobson, 1932) remains the standard reference in this area. The research in electromyography was tied directly to the work in progressive relaxation, giving an objective method to test the self report of the subjects. All the subjects and patients who attained high skill in progressive relaxation spontaneously arrived at, and agreed in, their conclusions regarding psycho logical activities. With visual imagery there is a sense as from tenseness in the muscles of the ocular region. Without such faint tenseness, the image dis appears. This may be done by Individuals of greatest skill and experience, not alone lying down but also sitting up with eyes open. Motor or kinesthetic imagery likewise may be relaxed away. "Inner speech," for Instance, ceases with pro- f ressive relaxation of the muscles Of the lips, tongue, arynx and throat. Auditory imagery also is attended by a sense of tenseness, sometimes perhaps felt in the auditory apparatus, but characteristically in the ocular muscles. The individual tends to look toward the imaged source of sound. With the relaxation of such looking or other tension, the auditory image is absent. Progressive relaxation is not, as a rule, perfect or complete save perhaps for brief periods of time. It is during such brief periods that imagery seems alto gether absent. However, when the relaxation of the muscles of the sense organs seems to approach complete ness, there takes place the diminution of lmage-pro- cesses. It appears that natural sleep ensues after the imagele8S state is maintained for a relatively pro longed time. With progressive muscular relaxation - not alone Imagery, but also attention - recollection, thought- processes and emotion gradually diminish (Jacobson, 1938, p. 188). Jacobson spends an entire chapter documenting this process, including transcripts of sessions with two patients, and it is his position that the ability to con trol thought processes through muscular relaxation is one 6 of the major therapeutic benefits of progressive relax ation. This quite different from the theoretical assump tions of SD Which assume an anxiety evoking image (CS-f) as relatively constant and the response of anxiety (CR-f) as inhibited by the relaxation. Mental imagery is one of the oldest subjects in psy chology) It includes such areas as individual differences in visual memory (Galton, 1883) , the imageless thought controversy (Osgood, 1953), and repeated attempts to estab lish objective tests for determining the type of Imagery (visual, auditory, motor, etc.) in Which individuals en code their memories (Angell, 1910; Fernald, 1912; Wood- worth & Schlosberg, 1954). The perennial nature of the problem is indicated by current research attempting the same task (Leibovits, 1968; Richardson, 1969). Neverthe less, for a period of almost fifty years the study of men tal imagery was not a really respectable research area; after Watson (1913) excluded consciousness from American psychology as "mentalistlc" a topic as imagery dropped out of the mainstream. Not untypical of the occasional work done during this hiatus was research by Jacobson (1932) and Max (1937) who attempted to show that thoughts, images and ideas were merely subvocal verbal responses. An excellent history of this issue and a milestone in the resurrection of mental imagery as a significant re- 7 search area is an article by Robert Holt (1964), titled Imagery: The Return of the Ostracized. Holt attributes the new Interest to several factors, among them the "prob lem" of Imagery In vigilance studies* In sensory depri vation and In hallucinogenic drugs. In the years since Holt's article there seems to have developed a Zeitgeist In which consciousness and experience are regarded as valuable and serious in their own right, further increas ing interest in this area as shown by major conferences on the single topic of imagery (Paivio, 1969; Reese, 1970). However, except for the study by Wolpin (1966) to be dis cussed, there has been no attempt to determine the effect of muscular tension on the affective quality of mental Imagery. The fact that Jacobson obtains a complete ab sence of Imagery using the same technique that supposedly evokes Imagery in SD (Wolpe also attempts to have his patients completely relax their eye muscles) indicates a discrepancy, but gives no indication as to qualitative changes under various conditions of muscular tension. The possibility that the character of mental imagery changes under relaxation was studied by Wolpin (1966). He first did a pilot study in which he tested the vivid ness of Images under conditions of muscular contractions and relaxation. Si s reported little change in vividness but further questioning revealed marked changes in the 8 activity of the imagery. For example, Ss visualizing the ocean while undergoing muscular relaxation reported a calm, gentle sea as opposed to a stormy, wind-lashed ocean under muscular contraction. Automobiles were usually seen as parked during relaxation and moving during contrac tion.: , In the study proper, thirty-six normal Ss imagined eight different scenes under each of the above conditions, and also with muscles in their usual state; that is, with no special instructions. Each S imagined the scenes under all three conditions, which were counterbalanced for order. Ss had their eyes closed under all conditions, a routine instruction in SD. At the end of the last repetition of the eight images, Ss rated their experiences on an eighteen item questionnaire based on questions generated during the pilot study. Significant differences were found between all conditions on those items which reflected affect and activity. This study raises a major question regarding the theoretical basis of SD; if an anxiety evoking image (CS-f) becomes more benign under relaxation, it is quite possible that stimulus substitution is the effective element in SD rather than, or in addition to, response substitution. Thus if one thinks of an anxiety evoking situation such as going into a large crowd, but does so in a physically re- 9 laxed state* the crowd may appear benign and comforting rather than hostile and threatening. Lending further credence to this possibility Is the high degree of suggestibility encouraged In systematic desensitization; If at all possible, Wolpe suggests that the therapeutic sessions be conducted under hypnosis. To illustrate the massive suggestion involved, the following verbatim account is quoted of the first desensitization session Wolpe conducted with a patient suffering from guilt over insufficient work. After hypnotizing and re laxing the patient, the therapist gave the following in structions: You will now Imagine a number of scenes very clearly and calmly. The scenes may not at all disturb your state of relaxation. If by any chance, however, you feel disturbed, you will be able to Indicate this to me by raising your left index finger an inch or so. (Pause of about 10 seconds^ First, I want you to Imagine that you are standing at a busy street corner. You notice the traffic passing— cars, trucks, bicycles, and people. You see them all very clearly and you notice the sounds that accompany then. (Pause of about 15 seconds). Now, stop imagining that scene and again turn your attention to your muscles. (Pause of about 20 seconds). Now, Imagine that it is a work day. It is 11 A.M. and you are lying in bed with an attack of Influenza and a temperature of 103°. (Pause of about 10 seconds). Stop imagining the scene and again relax. (Pause of 15 seconds). Now, Imagine exactly the same situation again. (Pause of 15 seconds). Now, Imagine exactly the same situation again. (Pause of 10 seconds). Stop imagining the scene and relax. (Pause of about 20 seconds). Now, I want you to imagine that you are at the post office and you have just sent off a manuscript to a journal. (Pause of 15 seconds). Stop imagining the scene and only relax. (Pause of about 5 seconds). In a few moments, I will be counting up to five and you will wake up feeling very calm and refreshed. (Pause of about 5 second*). One, two, three, four, five. (The patient opened hia eyes looking somewhat dazed). (Wolpe, 1961, 194-195). This massive suggestion creates an area of possible confounding between the contributions of suggestion and muscular relaxation in SD; it is quite possible that the major effect of muscular relaxation is to suggest a re laxed mental state, and it is the cognitive aspect rather than the physiological function of the relaxation that is Important. Since both effects are in the same direction it is difficult to assess their relative contributions. A number of recent studies have demonstrated the im portance of expectancy in enhancing the effectiveness of SD (Jaffee, 1968; Valins & Ray, 1967; Leitenberg et al, 1969), but there has been no attempt to tease apart the cognitive and physiological variables as they relate to imagery. Studies by Donaldson (1969) and Perloff (1970) using snake phobic Ss indicate that positive Imagery is at least as effective as SD in fostering approach behavior, but no attempt was made to control for muscular tension. In the Wolpin study the effect of muscular tension on men tal imagery was the central issue, but there was no attempt to separate cognitive from physiological effects on the imagery produced. CHAPTER II THE PROBLEMS OF THIS STUDY The purpose of the present research was to examine the following questions: (1) Does the presence or absence of muscular tension effect the character of mental imagery? If it is true that muscular tonus does effect imagery, what factors in the imagery change and in what direction? (2) If there is a change in the mental Imagery, does the change result from the suggestion Inherent in the physio logical state (that is, the suggestion to relax or to be tense) or from the physiological state itself? (3) Does systematic desensitization operate on the principle of response substitution? For the purposes of this study, the question becomes one of Imagery constancy; that is, whether the affective tone of the image is effected by either the suggestion of relaxation or the physiological process of relaxation. If the image remains constant the argument for response substitution is strengthened; if the imagery changes there is a basis for arguing that stimulus substitution produces the behavioral changes evidenced in systematic desensitization literature. (4) Is there an interaction between the original affective tone of an imagined scene, the muscular tonus of the S and/or the suggestion of relaxation? It is conceivable that relax- 11 12 atlon whether Induced through muscular relaxation or through suggestion may have a differential effect on pleasant and unpleasant scenes. (5) A secondary question that will be examined In this research concerns individual variation in imagery ability; vrtiile it is well established that there is considerable variation in imagery ability (Galton, 1883; Betts, 1909; Sheehan, 1968), it has not been established whether this variation corresponds to the ability to imagine active scenes of the type used in sys tematic desensitization. CHAPTER III HYPOTHESES The experimental hypotheses stem from two major assumptions: that the lntrapsychlc change occurring in systematic desensitization is one of stimulus substitution} and the effect of muscular relaxation on mental imagery stems primarily from the cognitive suggestion that the relax. The following predictions are therefore made about the experimental results: 1. The state of muscular contraction will have an effect on the activity and character of the mental imagery. Specifically, muscular relaxation should cause scenes to appear happier, safer, easier and more free, while muscular contraction should have the opposite effect. 2. A direct request for relaxation or alert behavior on the part of the j i > should have a greater effect on the imagery than the state of muscular contraction. 3. No interaction is predicted between the initial affective tone of the imagined scene and the experimental treatment; muscular relaxation should have about the same effect on a pleasant scene as an unpleasant one. 13 CHAPTER IV METHOD The problems of this study were investigated by com paring the performance of forty adults representing an extremely wide educational and occupational range. Each j S filled out an imagery questionnaire! was then randomly assigned to one of five treatment groups and proceeded to visualize four scenes presented by E in constant order. For this first series of visualizations each S was seated in a large arm-chair and given no other instructions than to be comfortable; upon completing the visualizations £ 5 rated each scene on the Osgood Semantic Differential (OSD). After a short break, the four scenes were visualized once more while each S underwent one of the five treatment con ditions. A second rating was then done on the OSD and this was followed by a short series of questions discussing the experimental experience. Subjects Ss consisted of twenty men and twenty women ranging in age from eighteen to fifty-three years, and in educa tional level from high school graduate to M.D. and Ph.D. S t o were volunteers recruited from introductory psychology courses at the University of Southern California, the staff of the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute and visitors to 14 15 both institutions. Selection criteria were minimal; Ss were required to pass the initial screening test described below, no psychotic Ss were used, and all S ! s were expected to have been in Los Angeles during the 1971 earthquake (a fact which was verified during the postexperimental ques tioning) . Ss were told only that we were doing research on mental Imagery, that the experiment would take about an hour and that no deception would be practiced. To limit conmunication between Ss an attempt was made to recruit from as many sources as possible and each S was requested not to discuss the experiment for at least two weeks (dur ing which time all Ss were run). Design The forty Ss (twenty women and twenty men) were randomly assigned to one of five treatment groups with the restriction that an equal number of men and women be in each group. The treatment conditions consisted of a state of moderate muscular contraction (Group 1), Jacobson re laxation (Group 2), moderate muscular contraction coupled with the repeated suggestion that an inner state of calm be maintained (Group 3), and Jacobson relaxation coupled with the repeated suggestion that an inner state of extreme alertness be maintained (Group 4). A control group (Group 5) visualized the scenes without being given physiological 16 instructions or suggestions other than to be seated com fortably; they simply repeated the pretreatment visuali zation. The design, therefore, consisted of two S categories (male and female) divided into five treatment groups; the experimental paradigm being a Treatment X Blocks model with four Ss per cell. Procedure Prior to the experiment proper, each S filled out a copy of the Betts QMI Vividness of Imagery Scale (Appendix A). This scale had originally been developed at Columbia Teacher1s College in the first decade of this century as an expanded form of Galton's questlonary (Galton, 1883; Betts, 1909) . Betts was concerned with the distribution of mental imagery and his one-hundred-fifty item questionnaire covers seven sensory modalities; it remains to this day the most comprehensive test of imagery available. Sheehan (1967) developed a shortened form of this scale having only thirty- five items (five items each on seven modalities) and which correlates .92 with the complete scale. Sheehan's shor tened form was used in this study. Ss were encouraged to fill out the Betts scale at their leisure, usually several days before the experimental procedure. The experiment was conducted in quiet, dimly lit room 17 containing an arm chair in which S could lean back and a small chair or hassock on which he could put his feet. After being seated in the chair, the following statement was played to each S from a cartridge type tape recorder: The purpose of this study is to evalute the effect of various experimental conditions on mental imagery. The hypothesis and experimental conditions are relevant variables in Behavior Therapy. There is no "hidden agenda" in this study and you will not be lied to or misled in any way. All questions about the experimental experience will be answered after the completion of the experimental tasks. 1 want to emphasize that partici pation is purely on a voluntary basis and you have complete freedom to withdraw from the experiment at any time. The experiment will take about one hour of your time; if you cannot give this time now we can reschedule the session or we can cancel it completely if you wish to withdraw now. We are interested in studying what a person sees when they are asked to picture, in their mind, certain objects, and scenes. In a way we are trying to study something like dreaming, or day-dreaming. You know what it is like to have dreams. And you probably, at various times, daydream. Dreams, in part, are sinply pictures that people experience inside themselves. Essentially, I am going to ask you to create certain pictures in your mind; this will invoke a variety of responses. After we go through the procedure I will then discuss it a bit with you. Do you have any questions? Questions were answered by rephrasing statements al ready made; actually, few questions were asked and no S withdrew or requested that the experiment be rescheduled. Next, Svaa given a screening test to insure minimal \ ability to visualize; the following material was read aloud by E. I want to give you a few examples of the thing we have been talking about. Please close your eyes and have them remain closed while you imagine a few things I am going to suggest to you. Please picture, that is, see or hear, in your mind, the following: 18 Picture a pair of roller skates. (15 second pause) Picture an apple. (15 second pause) Try hearing the sound of your doorbell ringing. (15 second pause) The sound of a dog barking. (15 second pause) The sound of glass breaking. (15 second pause) The sound of a crowd cheering. (15 second pause) Picture a pair of scissors. (15 second pause) Picture a tennis racket. (15 second pause) At the conclusion of this list j 5 was asked If he was able to have pictures In his mind; If his answer was af firmative he was Included In the experiment even though he may have qualified his statement by Indicating that some of the Images were very faint, or that he was unable to picture or hear certain of the items. The critical factor was the presence of imagery rather than the quality or quantity of Imagery. Immediately after the screening test S was requested to arrange himself comfortably In the chair and to close his eyes. When he appeared comfortable the tape recording was again started and the following instructions describing the experimental visualizations were read to S in a slow, calm voice; a pause of forty-five seconds was made between each set of instructions to allow S to visualize the scene as completely as possible. 19 1 want you to Imagine a green meadow In the summer time. Please try and experience the meadow as intense ly as possible. Try to smell the various smells* feel the air on your skin* hear the various sounds. In your mind's eye look around and see the various things that are in the meadow. Do your best to make the experience real. (45 second pause) Next I want you to imagine yourself looking at the ocean as it appears from the shore. Again* try to experience the scene as Intensely as possible* with its smells* feeling* and sounds. Do your best to make the experience real. (45 second pause) Now I want you to imagine yourself standing on a four-foot high* wobbling stepladder. Try to experience the way your body feels on the ladder* tne movement of the ladder, the way things look as you try to keep your balance. Again* do your best to make the exper ience real for yourself. (45 second pause) Last of all, I want you to imagine yourself during an earthquake. Try to feel the movement of the earth quake and to hear the sounds. In your mind's eye look around at the things that are happening. Again, do your best to make the experience real for yourself. The scenes were presented in constant order to all jSs; the sequence was chosen to approximate the presentation of items in a systematic desensitization hierarchy which starts with neutral items and progresses to anxiety pro ducing scenes. The scenes themselves were selected for universality; a green meadow in the summertime (Scene I), a view of the ocean as seen from the shore (Scene II), 20 standing on a wobbling stepladder (Scene III)* and an earth quake (Scene IV) are within the experiental repetoire of most California citizens. The California earthquake, which occurred just a few weeks before the experiment, for tuitously provided a large subject pool who had recently experienced a powerful, unpleasant event. At the conlusion of the four visualizations, each S filled out an OSD (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957) rating each of the four scenes. A copy of the OSD is shown in Appendix B. The ten items chosen for the OSD were selected to represent the three main factor groupings of evaluation, activity, and potency. The items representing the evalu ative factor are happy-sad, good-bad, and safe-dangerous. The items representing the potency factor are vigorous- feeble, constrained-free, and strong-weak. Finally, items representing Osgood's Factor III, the activity factor, are fast-slow, difficult-easy, and excitable-calm. The tenth item on the OSD is bright-dim: this dimension was chosen to test the correlation between imagery intensity on the imagined scenes and that on the Betts QMI Scale. After filling out the OSD S was given a recess of five minutes during which time he was encouraged to move around, have a drink of water or a cup of coffee, and to generally clear his mind of the imagery experienced. At 21 the end of this time S was again seated In the chair and, depending on his treatment group, given one set of the Instructions listed In Appendix C. Ss In Treatment Group Five, the control group, were requested to arrange themselves Into a comfortable position In the chair and close their eyes, exactly as In the original visualization. Groups One and Two were easily checked by Inspection; the muscular contraction condition was quite evident from the final position that S assumed; the same was true In the Jacobson relaxation condition. When Ss were really relaxed they appeared to "flop" In the chair quite differ ently from their normal relaxed position. While the muscular contraction In Group Three could be observed easily, the amount of Internal relaxation could not. This was also true of Group Four, who looked Identical to Group Two even though they were told to be alert Internally. The effect of the suggestion on both of these groups could only be assessed after the experiment by self-report. After the conclusion of the set of visualizations S i s were again given an OSD to fill out with the Instruction that they now rate the new set of Images that they had just experienced. After completion of the OSD jSs were read the ques tions shown In Appendix D by the experimenter, who then 22 filled out the questionnaire. The entire procedure averaged about forty-five minutes. CHAPTER V RESULTS The diverse group of Ss taking part in this re search proved to have little difficulty in visualizing the scenes as requested. All Ss stated that they were able to have images after completing the imagery screening test, and the only . S replaced stated that he was unwilling to visualize the images rather than unable to do so. The great majority of Ss found the experimental experience to be enjoyable and inherently interesting. There was little problem with motivation; S i s seemed pleased to share the experience with E during the post experimental questioning. This same questioning showed that all Ss were able to visualize the scenes during both the pretreatment and post treatment trials and that there was no consistent bias in the perception of the experimental task. Most Of the j3s believed that the task was one of measuring mental imagery; about ten percent of the Ss believed that the research con cerned muscular states and imagery, but no S was able to state an approximation of the basic hypothesis. The re mainder of the post-experimental questioning revealed no particular patterns of difficulty; there were scattered complaints of distraction, boredom and difficulty in rating the items on the OSD, but these comments were rare and 23 24 appeared to be evenly distributed among the various treat ment groups. Data Analysis The considerable amount of data generated by this research necessitated some strategy in analyzing the re sults. Data consisted of thirty-five rating scores on the Betts QMI Imagery Scale (which in turn subdivided into five ratings on each of seven sensory modalities), a pre treatment score of forty ratings on the OSD, and a post treatment score of forty ratings on the same scale (ten ratings on each of four scenes), giving a total of 115 data points. To reduce variability due to subject effects, the experimental design was such that each S provided a basal score by scoring his imagery on the pretreatment OSD. The posttreatment OSD score was then subtracted from the _Ss pretreatment score on each of the forty complimentary variables, generating forty difference scores for each S. The remaining data analysis was then performed utilizing the difference scores which, hopefully, reflected only the treatment effects. The first data analysis on these scores consists of the multivariate analysis of variance shown in Table 1. This analysis was conducted using the UCLA Biomedical Com- 25 puter Program X69 (Dixon» 1969) and contains all forty difference scores. The independent variables are sex of £ > , treatment condition, and imagery scene. An examination of the results indicates that only treatment condition and imagery scene reach a significant probability level; neither sex nor the various interaction sources reach sig nificance. The difference scores across scenes for males and females is shown in Table 2, and demonstrate the simi larity of these groups. An analysis of variance was per formed on each of the imagery scenes separately; sex did not reach significance on any of the four scenes and an inspection of the group means showed the same similarity that was demonstrated across scenes. Since the effect of sex on the imagery difference scores was not significant, the male and female groups were combined for all further analysis, increasing the cell size from four to eight S i s per treatment. Of considerable interest was the possibility of a Treatment x Imagery Scene Interaction. To test more closely for this effect an additional analysis was conduc ted using the combined groups and taking advantage of the larger cell size. These results are summarized in Table 3 and do not show this interaction effect reaching signifi cance. Since the interaction effect did not reach signifi- 26 cance, there was no compelling reason to study the results across scenes, and all further analysis was carried out one scene at a time for greater clarity and a more micro scopic view of the experimental results. The remaining univariate and multivariate analysis of variance was carried out using the UCLA Biomedical Computer Program BMD07M (Dixon, 1970). Scene I - A Meadow in the Summertime. Table 4 lists the means and standard deviations of the difference scores by treatment groups for each of the ten variables of the OSD. In addition, Table 4 lists the F Ratio and significant probabilities for each of these variables; it can be seen that three out of the ten variables significantly discriminate between the treatment groups. Accounting for the greatest variance is variable five, the constrained - free dimension. An examination of the mean scores in Table 4 shows that the treatment effect results from a shift of almost three points toward constrained by the two muscular contraction groups compared with a much smaller shift in the same direction by the re laxation and control groups. Table 5 is an F matrix of treatments based on this dimension and shows that the muscular contraction groups differ from the relaxation and control groups with a p ^ .01, but do not significantly differ from each other. It should also be noted that the 27 relaxation groups do not significantly differ from the control group. The same pattern is followed by variable four, the good - bad dimension and variable one, the happy - sad dimension. Here again all groups shift toward the bad and sad ends of the semantic differential, but the treat ment effect results from a significantly larger shift by the two muscular contraction groups. Tables 6 and 7 describe the F matrix of the treat ment groups on each of these variables. Finally, Figure 1 shows these relationships graphically; the difference scores are plotted as absolute values for better compari son of the three variables. Additional combinations of variables were tested, but no combination demonstrated improved discriminant ability over that of the three sig nificant variables taken individually. Scene II - The Ocean as Viewed from the Shore. On this scene only one of the ten variables reaches significance, and again it is the constrained - free di mension. Inspection of Table 8 indicates that the contrac tion groups move more than two points toward constraint, the control group moves an average of one point in this direction and the two relaxation groups show practically no change. The F matrix given in Table 9 shows the two muscular contraction groups differing significantly from 28 the two relaxation groups, but not from the control group. The relaxation and the control group do not significantly differ from each other. The Information la shown graphi cally in Figure 2. Further tests Indicate that no combi nation of the remaining variables increases discrimination over that of the single constrained - free dimension. Scene III - Ladder. Table 10 lists the means and standard deviations for each of the variables on this scene. The F ratios shown on this table indicate that two of the dimensions, variable five (constrained - free) and variable nine (excitable - calm), reach significance. Table 11 gives an F matrix on variable five and indicates that the effect results from group one shifting toward constraint, while the remaining treatment groups shift toward free. Only treatment group one differs from the remaining groups. Table 12 is the F matrix for variable nine and indicates that groups one and two shift toward calm while the remaining treatment groups show little change. On this variable alone does a treat ment group differ significantly from the control group; group two (relaxed) shifts toward calm and differs sig nificantly from the control group. Figure 3 shows both variable five and variable nine difference scores plotted as a function of treatment group. No other variables reach significance nor do they provide better discrimination be- 29 tween treatment groups. Scene IV - Earthquake. In this scene no variable reaches a significant probability level as shown In Table 13. Figure 4 Is a plot of variable five as It occurs In each of the four scenes, Including the earthquake scene where the treatment effect was not significant. In this figure it can be seen that the effect of the treatments tends to become less as we progress from Scene I to Scene IV. The curve becomes quite flat as we reach the earthquake scene, and this is fairly typical of the other variables In Scene IV. Table 14 gives an intercorrelation matrix between the Betts QMI Imagery scale and the bright - dim dimension (variable ten) on each scene. This matrix was developed by calculating a mean of the five scores obtained for each of the seven modalities on the Betts scale and then corre lating each mean with the score on variable ten for each scene on the pretreatment OSD. This correlation matrix does not test treatment effect, but instead is an attempt to examine the relationship between imagery as rated on the Betts scale, and the basal rating of imagery brightness on each scene. It will be noted that these correlations are quite low and only four of the twenty-eight correlations reach significance. The significant correlations are the visual and touch modalities as correlated with brightness 30 on the meadow scene, and the touch and smell modalities correlated with the earthquake Images. CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION Hypothesis number one, that the state of muscular contraction will have an effect on the activity and charac ter of mental Imagery was, at best, only partially borne out. Muscular contraction resulted In three of the four scenes being perceived as more constrained, and Scene I (Meadow) shifting toward the bad and sad ends of the rating scale. Finally, on Scene III (Ladder), both muscular con traction and relaxation resulted In a rather paradoxical shift toward a rating of calm. Out of forty ratings cover ing the evaluation, activity and potency of the scenes only six ratings differentiated between the treatment groups at a significant probability level. Furthermore, only a single rating out of the forty showed a significant difference between a treatment group undergoing relaxation and the control group. In this research, therefore, muscu lar contraction had the effect of making certain scenes appear less pleasant (possibly because the muscular con traction Itself was uncomfortable and constraining) but thorough muscular relaxation did not cause Images to be come happier, safer, easier or more free as was predicted. The second hypothesis, that a direct request for re laxation or for alert behavior on the part of the subject 31 32 would have a greater effect on imagery than the state of muscular tension, was directly contradicted. For this hypothesis to be borne out, it would be necessary to have significant differences between treatment groups One and Three, and between treatment groups Two and Four. An in spection of Figures 1, 2 and 3 shows that these groups, instead of differing, move in the same direction and with almost the same magnitude. The single exception is the significant difference between treatment groups Two and Four on Scene III, in which group Two shifts toward a rat ing of calm while group Four shows virtually no change. The conclusion from this research is that direct requests for alert or relaxed mental attitudes not only do not over ride the effect of muscular contraction or relaxation, but that these requests hardly diminish the major effect. Hypothesis number three, predicting that interaction would not be significant between treatment and scene, was not contradicted: treatment by scene Interaction did not reach a significant probability level when subjected to multivariate analysis of variance or when analyzed a single variable at a time. This is not surprising in that vari able Five was the only variable to reach significance in more than one scene and, as shown in Figure 3, treatment effects are in the same direction across scenes. While not statistically significant, it is of interest that each 33 treatment effect diminishes in magnitude as we progress from Scene I to Scene IV. The treatment effect on variable Nine, Scene III (Ladder) is rather difficult to account for, but it most probably results from an Interaction between the kines thetic responses evoked by this scene and the effective treatments. Almost everyone has discovered that the easiest way to walk along a narrow ledge or to stay balanced on a ladder is simply to ignore the fact that the ledge is nar row or that the ladder is wobbling. It would follow that concentrating attention on muscular contraction or relaxation might have exactly the distracting effect that would cause the scene to appear calmer, while the control group would not have the benefit of this distraction. Treatment group Four was specifically instructed to stay alert and presumably this alertness would be directed toward the perception of the ladder wobbling. A problem with this hypothesis is the performance of treatment group Three who were given a task that would appear at least as distracting as that given groups One and Two. A possible explanation lies in the difficulty Ss experienced in contracting their muscles and maintaining a relaxed feeling internally: the difficulty of the task itself may have balanced out a shift toward calmness, 34 leaving treatment Three without effect. While the entire explanation may be a bit strained, a combination of kinesthetic effect and distraction should adequately account for the significant difference between treatment group Two and the control group, the contrast of most interest. This is the only point in the study where a muscular relaxation group differs significantly from the control group, and the effect would appear to result from an unusual interaction rather than a general characteristic of muscular relaxation. The major conclusions to be drawn from this research revolve around the lack of treatment effect from muscular relaxation and the rather high stability of individual imagery in the face of various treatments. Mean difference scores within treatments rarely exceed two points and typically are less than a point, underscoring the reli ability of the imagery ratings rather than the effect of the treatments. While these results differ from those found by Wolpin (1966), much of the variation can be accounted for by con trasting the design of the two experiments. The Wolpin study was a repeated measurements design in which each S was run under all treatment conditions and visualized eight seperate scenes. After each treatment conditions, _Ss rated the combined impression of the eight scenes. This 35 has the advantage o£ eliminating between Ss variability on treatment effect and is a very powerful design* but at the same time is open to questions of nonadditivity and elimi nates the possibility of testing for a treatment by scenes interaction. While the present study avoids both these difficulties* a considerable loss of power is the price for this conservatism. Nevertheless* the two studies are not discrepant in their significant results. The Wolpin study found only two reliable differences between the relaxed and usual (con trol) conditions: those ratings testing how relaxed the S felt and how rapidly things were going. The bulk of the significant results were between the muscular relaxation and muscular tension treatment conditions* a finding repli cated in the present study. From the outset of this experiment there was no ex pectation of reproducing Jacobson's results. The utterly complete relaxation that he describes requires highly trained £ > s who have had many hours of relaxation training. In addition* the experimental task in this study was to produce imagery* while in Jacobson's work the entire task was relaxation with imagery regarded as an intrusive dis traction. The relaxation obtained from S i s in the present study was quite similar to that described by Wolpe (1958) and in 36 many cases closely resembled a light hypnotic trance state. While the effect of relaxation on Imagery brightness did not reach significance, the mean difference scores for treatment group Ttoo shifted toward dim on all four scenes, the direction that would be predicted from Jacobson's re sults. There is no support at all for the position that muscular relaxation enhances imagery. Aside from the question of relationship between re laxation and imagery, there are some intriguing problems regarding the imagery process and the possible dilution of unpleasant images. A basic assumption running through the entire litera ture on mental imagery is that the ability to visualize is relatively constant within a single individual. In this sense, mental imagery is regarded as a trait. While there have been numerous studies of modality preference, the assumption is that an individual who has a primary mode of visual imagery will, within this mode, visualize various scenes and objects with some degree of constancy. Following this reasoning, it would be expected that Ss rating themselves as low in visual imagery on the Betts scale would be unable to visualize scenes in this research with any degree of brightness. The surprisingly low corre lation between the Betts scale and variable Ten on the OSD was not congruent with this expectation, nor was the rela- 37 tive ease with which unselected £ 5 s actively entered into the imagery scenes. What, then, was related to differences in the bright- dim ratings on the OSD? One possibility was the scenes themselves: when tested for the effect of scene rather than treatment highly significant differences were found in the pretreatment ratings on this dimension (F ■ 14.14, df » 3/117, p .001). It would appear from this result that the scene being visualized has a greater effect on the vividness of the imagery than either the visualizing abili ty of the individual or the state of relaxation while accomplishing the visualization. This suggested the possibility that the bright - dim rating? might be related to perceptual defence. The hy pothesis was tested by calculating the correlation between variable Four (good-bad) and variable Ten on the pretreat ment OSD. The correlations are listed in Table 15 and prove to be highly significant on Scenes I, 11 and 111. While the correlation does not prove that unpleasant imagery is also perceived as dim (it might well be the other way around or both ratings may be the result of difficulty in visualizing the scene), the finding would be consistent with the hypothesis that Ss dilute unpleasant imagery. This concept should be testable and is suggestive of further research. 38 A recent experiment bearing directly on the role of mental imagery in aystematic desensitization should be mentioned at this point. Grossberg and Wilson (1968) demonstrated that imagining fearful scenes can produce physiological arousal. In this study, Ss first read aloud and then imagined fearful and neutral scenes while having heart rate, skin conductance and forehead EMG recorded. Two of the three physiological variables, heart rate and skin conductance, showed significantly more arousal during visualization of the fearful scenes. These re searchers also noted that successive trials produced sig nificantly decreasing amounts of arousal and pointed out that this extinction effect took place without relaxation training. While it is not possible to compare this study with the present research (besides the difference in dependent variables, Grossberg and Wilson had each visualize an anxiety producing scene four times), one possible interpre tation of these results could be based on the dilution of Imagery over repeated trials. Unfortunately, S i s in this study did not rate the intensity of imagery as a function of trial, leaving no way to test this hypothesis. In summary, the present research found mental imagery to be relatively Insensitive to the effects of muscular relaxation, the direct request for a relaxed state of mind, 39 or a request for alert behavior. Imagery showed somewhat greater change as a function of muscular contraction* pri marily as a shift toward increased constraint* but the major conclusion is that the treatment variables had little effect on the imagery. If Jacobson relaxation is a criti cal factor in systematic desensitization* it is unlikely that this is due to its effect on mental imagery as originally hypothesized. In spite of the insensitivity of the imagery to the treatment variables* it was found that imagery vividness differed quite significantly between scenes. Furthermore* brightness was significantly correlated with "goodness" on three of the four scenes* raising the possibility of perceptual defense against unpleasant images. In the light of these results it appears that any theoretical explanation of systematic desensitization must still take into account imagery variation. Further re search in this area is Indicated. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY This study was an attempt to test between alternate theoretical paradigms of desensitization therapy. The established theoretical model is one of response substi tution; were it possible to demonstrate that mental imagery changes as an effect of desensitization therapy, specifi cally as a result of Jacobson relaxation, a strong argu ment could be made for a stimulus substitution paradigm. In addition, an attempt was made to separate the effect of suggestion from the physiological factors in the muscular relaxation process. Forty non-psychotic subjects were divided into five treatment groups consisting of (1) a moderate state of muscular contraction, (2) muscular relaxation, (3) moderate muscular contraction coupled with the request for an inner state of calm, (4) muscular relaxation coupled with a re quest for alert behavior and (5) a control group. Each subject visualized four scenes while comfortably seated in an arm chair and then rated these scenes on a semantic differential designed to cover areas of activity, potency and evaluation. This process was then repeated under one of the five treatment conditions, the difference score between the two ratings being used to test for the effect 40 41 of treatment. Analysis of variance revealed that the muscular con traction groups differed significantly from the control group in rating their images as more constrained on three of the scenes, and in shifiting toward a negative evalua tion on a single scene. The muscular relaxation groups differed significantly from the control group on only one rating out of forty, leading to the conclusion that muscu lar releaxation has little effect on mental imagery. Di rect requests for calm or alert behavior did not change the direction or significantly alter the magnitude of changes produced by the muscular state. These results strengthen the argument for a response substitution paradigm. However, further data analysis indicates that there may be major changes in imagery re lated to the perceived unpleasantness of the particular scene rather than the state of muscular tension. Highly significant differences were found between scenes when basal ratings were analyzed, and significant correlations were found between the ratings of "goodness" and bright ness on three of the scenes. The possibility of percep tual defence against anxiety was raised. Each subject was administered the Betts QMI Vividness of Imagery Scale as a pretest and scores for various ima gery modalities were tested for correlation with the basal 42 brightness rating on each scene. Few significant corre lations were found, suggesting that active imagery of the type used in systematic desensitization may differ from the static memory images used in older rating scales. BIBLIOGRAPHY 43 BIBLIOGRAPHY Angell, J. R. Report of the committee of the American Psychological Association on the standardizing of procedure in experimental tests. Psychological Monographs. 1910, 53, 61-107. Brown, J. S., & Jacobs, A. The role of fear in the moti vation and acquisition of responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1949, 39, 747-759. Cattail, R. B. (Ed.) Handbook of multivariate experimen tal psychology. Chicago: band McNally & Co., 1966. Costello, C. G. Dissimilarities between conditioned avoidance responses and phobias. Psychological Review, 1970, 77, 250-254. 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TABLES 47 SOURCE Sex (6) Treatment Scene (V) G x T T x V G x T N - 4 TABLE 1 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Likelihood Ratio (U) Derived F Ratio df p 0.90 0.92 10/80 NS (T) 0.34 2.57 40/300 <.01 0.46 2.38 30/230 <.01 0.61 1.08 40/300 NS 0.31 0.88 120/640 NS x V 0.20 1.25 120/640 NS variables ■ 10 - e * o o r TABLE 2 Difference Scores by Sex across Scenes Variable Hale Female Means 1 -0.35 -0.54 -0.44 2 -0.28 -0.76 -0.52 3 -0.20 -0.45 -0.33 4 -0.35 -0.65 -0.50 5 0.45 0.54 0.49 6 0.31 0.35 0.33 7 0.01 -0.05 -0.02 8 -0.35 -0.35 -0.35 9 -0.26 -0.54 -0.40 10 -0.39 -0.69 -0.54 • e * vD TABLE 3 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (Treatment and Scenes) SOURCE Likelihood Ratio (U) Derived F Ratio df P Treatment (T) 0.40 2.50 40/365 <r.oi Scene (V) 0.51 2.39 30/280 /.01 T x V 0.37 0.86 120/750 NS n - 8, variables - 10 L n O TABLE 4 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (df-4/35) Scene I (Meadow ) Variable Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 F Ratio P 1 Mean -1.75 -0.88 -1.38 -0.25 -0.25 3.04 <.05 S.D. 1.04 0.99 1.77 0.71 0.46 2 Mean -1.13 -1.25 -0.50 0.25 0.25 1.41 NS S.D. 1.25 1.91 2.67 1.49 0.46 3 Mean -0.38 0.13 0.75 0.38 0.50 0.52 NS S.D. 2.33 2.03 1.16 1.41 1.07 4 Mean -1.75 -0.75 -1.50 -0.25 -0.38 4.15 <.01 S.D. 1.16 0.89 1.31 0.46 0.52 5 Mean 2.75 0.38 2.75 0.25 0.13 9.90 <.01 S.D. 1.58 1.30 1.58 0.46 0.83 6 Mean 1.75 0.50 S.D. 1.04 2.45 7 Mean -1.25 -0.38 S.D. 1.16 1.19 8 Mean -1.13 -1.00 S.D. 2.53 2.00 9 Mean -0.28 -0.63 S.D. 2.39 1.30 10 Mean -1.63 -0.50 S.D. 1.85 1.41 1.38 2.20 -0.88 2.36 -1.38 1.30 1.38 2.50 -1.25 1.91 0.50 0.38 1.05 NS 1.20 1.19 0.0 0.13 1.41 NS 1.07 0.35 -0.75 0.25 0.88 NS 1.91 1.49 -0.50 -1.13 1.97 NS 1.60 1.46 -0.13 0.0 1.90 NS 0.83 0.93 i n to TABLE 5 Group SCENE I MEADOW VARIABLE 1 (Happy-Sad) F Matrix (df » 1/35) 2 2.60 3 0.48 0.85 4 7.64** 1.33 4.30 5 7.64** 1.33 4.30* 0.00 *p <.05 **p <.01 U 1 u> TABLE 6 SCENE I MEADOW VARIABLE 4 (Good-Bad) F Matrix (df-1/35) Group 1 2 3 4 2 4.61* 3 0.29 2.59 4 10.37** 1.15 7.20* 5 8.71** 0.65 5.83* 0.07 *p <*05 **p <.01 Ln r - ■ - ■ ----- TABLE 7 ----- — SCENE I MEADOW VARIABLE 5 (Constrained-Free) _F Matrix (df-1/35) Group 1 2 3 4 2 ^ b ^ b 14.83 3 0.00 14.83** 4 16.43** 0.04 ^ b ^ b 16.43** 5 18.11** 0.16 **p </.oi ^ b ^ b 18.12 0.04 U l Ui r TABLE 8 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Scene II (Ocean) Variable Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 F Ratio p (df-4/35) Mean >1.88 S.D. 2.10 ■0.75 1.28 -0.38 1.60 0.0 0.93 - 1.00 1.31 1.81 NS Mean -1.38 S.D. 2.26 •0.88 1.13 -0.25 2.76 0.0 1.07 -0.88 1.A6 0.70 NS Mean -1.00 S.D. 1.41 •1.13 2.95 0.75 1.58 •0.25 1.28 -0.88 2.17 1.23 NS Mean -1.88 S.D. 2.42 ■0.50 1.51 -1.13 1.46 ■0.75 0.71 -0.25 1.39 1.27 NS Mean 2.38 S.D. 2.50 0.0 1.20 2.25 2.05 ■0.13 0.64 1.00 2.07 3.41 <.05 in o \ Mean 1.88 -0.38 S.D. 2.70 1.85 Mean -0.75 0.13 S.D. 2.76 2.53 8 Mean -0.50 -1.13 S.D. 2.27 1.55 Mean 0.13 -1.25 S.D. 1.89 2.19 10 Mean -2.13 -1.00 S.D. 3.27 1.51 1.50 2.73 -0.25 1.83 -0.38 1.41 0.25 2.19 0.50 2.45 0.50 -0.13 2.46 NS 0.93 1.25 0.63 0.0 0.48 NS 1.60 1.07 0.50 0.0 0.63 NS 0.76 0.53 0.25 -0.75 1.08 NS 1.39 1.58 0.13 -1.50 1.35 NS 0.64 1.77 Ul -si TABLE 9 SCENE II OCEAN VARIABLE 5 (Constrained-Free) F Matrix (df-1/35) Group 1 2 3 4 2 6.79 3 0.02 6.10* 4 7.53** 0.02 6.79* 5 2.28 1.20 1.88 1.52 *p <.05 **p <^.01 Ul 00 TABLE 10 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (df-4/35) Scene III (Ladder) I Variable Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 F Ratio p 1 Mean -0.13 0.25 0.25 -0.25 0.0 0.27 NS S.D. 1.55 1.28 1.16 0.89 1.07 2 Mean -0.13 -0.88 -0.75 -0.13 0.13 0.43 NS S.D. 3.27 1.55 1.16 0.99 1.46 3 Mean -0.88 -1.25 -0.25 -0.13 0.50 1.79 NS S.D. 2.17 1.16 0.46 0.99 1.77 4 Mean -0.63 0.63 0.25 -0.50 0.13 0.99 NS S.D. 2.33 1.19 1.58 0.53 1.25 5 Mean 1.13 -0.75 -0.50 -1.13 -0.63 2.82 <.05 S.D. 1.89 1.28 1.20 1.55 1.30 l/i vO r Mean 0.50 -1.25 -0.38 S.D. 1.69 1.39 0.92 Mean 0.0 0.75 0.25 S.D. 1.51 1.39 0.71 8 Mean 0.13 -0.38 0.50 S.D. 3.14 1.41 0.76 Mean -0.88 -1.25 -0.25 S.D. 1.81 0.89 0.89 10 Mean -0.50 -0.38 0.25 S.D. 2.51 1.51 1.75 -0.75 0.25 2.38 NS 0.89 1.49 0.88 0.0 0.96 NS 1.46 0.53 0.50 0.50 0.41 NS 1.07 0.93 0.0 0.38 2.77 <.05 0.53 1.06 0.38 0.13 0.40 NS 1.19 1.46 O TABLE 11 SCENE 111 LADDER VARIABLE 5 (Constrained-Free) F Matrix (df-1/35) roup 1 2 3 4 2 6.55* 3 4.92* 0.12 4 9.43** 0.26 0.73 5 5.71* 0.03 0.03 0.47 *p <.05 **p <.01 TABLE 12 Group SCENE III LADDER VARIABLE 9 (Excitable-Calm) F Matrix (df-1/35) 2 0.45 3 1.25 3.20 4 2.45 5.00* 0.20 5 5.00* 8.45** 1.25 0.45 *p < .05 **p <.01 ON N 3 TABLE 13 UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (df-4/35) Scene IV (Earthquake ) Variable Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 F Ratio P 1 Mean -0.25 0.25 -0.13 -0.13 -0.25 0.24 NS S.D. 0.71 1.16 1.64 0.99 1.16 2 Mean -1.63 -0.50 0.0 -0.63 -0.13 1.30 NS S.D. 2.83 1.41 0.76 1.41 0.35 3 Mean -1.75 -1.00 -0.25 -0.50 0.13 1.51 NS S.D. 2.66 2.14 1.04 0.93 0.64 4 Mean -0.50 -0.38 -0.25 -0.38 0.0 0.46 NS S.D. 2.39 1.60 0.71 1.19 0.53 5 Mean 0.75 0.0 0.0 -0.38 -0.38 1.07 NS S.D. 1.28 1.51 1.20 1.30 0.92 o \ u » f ... • 6 Mean 1.25 0.13 0.13 0.13 -0.25 0.97 NS S.D. 2.19 1.46 1.64 1.46 1.28 7 Mean -0.50 0.50 0.0 0.63 -0.25 1.43 NS S.D. 1.51 1.60 0.53 1.06 0.46 8 Mean -0.75 -0.38 -0.25 -0.50 0.13 0.38 NS S.D. 2.55 1.18 1.28 1.20 0.35 9 Mean -1.25 -0.88 -0.75 -0.50 0.0 1.26 NS S.D. 1.75 1.13 1.04 1.20 0.0 10 Mean -0.50 -1.13 -0.63 0.25 -0.13 1.13 NS S.D. 1.51 1.55 1.85 1.04 0.64 o\ •o TABLE 14 Correlation of Betts QMI Scale with Bright-Dim Dimension on Pre-Treatment Semantic Differential Modality I (Meadow) Scene II (Ocean) III (Ladder) IV (Earthquake Visual * .300 .066 .150 .044 Auditory .115 .236 .026 .183 Touch ** .476 .042 .256 f t .314 Kinesthetic .114 .049 .115 .225 Taste .245 .120 .161 .203 Smell .169 .108 .237 .1*2.0* Somatic .236 .148 .055 .150 Note: -Score for Betts QMI scale Is mean of five ratings for each modality. *p <.05 **p <.01 TABLE 15 Correlation of Good-Bad and Bright-Dim Dimensions on Pre-Treatment Semantic Differential Scene Correlation p (One-Tailed I (Meadow) .519 <T.001 II (Ocean) .637 < .001 III (Ladder) .440 <.01 IV (Earthquake) -.080 NS o\ Ox FIGURES 67 FIGURE 1 SCENE I: SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE SCORES BY TREATMENT GROUP 68 t c o § u o a CO 8 CO u u 2 u b s 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 4 5 2 Cont. Relax Con/Calm Rel/Alert Control GROUP A A Variable 1 O O Variable 4 A— — * Variable 5 O' VO FIGURE 2 SCENE II: SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE SCORES BY TREATMENT GROUP 70 03 25 03 1 U 03 0 3 55 9 w 0 4 0 4 3.0 o—o 2.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 Cont. Relax Con/Calm Rel/Alert Control Treatment Group Variable 5 FIGURE 3 SCENE III: SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE SCORES BY TREATMENT GROUP 7 - 2 r ^ t 3 I d C / 5 § CO 8 CO 8 a s u & Variable 5 1.0 Variable 9 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 4 2 5 1 Cont. Relax Con/Calm Re1/Alert Control TREATMENT GROUP Co FIGURE 4 VARIABLE 5: DIFFERENCE SCORES BY TREATMENT GROUP 74 r — > t a M 03 a s 8 03 8 03 & a s w £ H Q 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 4 5 1 2 3 A SCENE I (MEADOW) O O SCENE II (OCEAN) SCENE III (LADDER) — • SCENE IV (EARTHQUAKE) Cont. Relax Con/Calm Rel/Alert Control Treatment Group i n APPENDICES 76 APPENDIX A BETTS QMI VIVIDNESS OF IMAGERY SCALE 77 NAME: THE BETTS QMI VIVIDNESS OF IMAGERY SCALE DATE: ADDRESS: TELEPHONE: Instructions for Doing Test The alia of this test is to determine the vividness of your imagery. The items of the test will bring certain Images to your mind. You are to rate the vividness of each image by reference to the accompanying rating scale, which is shown at the bottom of th< page. For example, if your image is "vague and dim" you give it a rating of 5. Record your answer in the brackets provided after each item. Just write the appropriate num ber after each item. Before you turn to the items on the next page, familiarize your self with the different categories on the rating scale. Throughout the test, refer to the rating scale when judging the vividness of each image. A copy of the rating scale will be printed on each page. Please do not turn to the next page until you have completed the items on the page you are doing, and do not turn back to check on other items you have done. Complete each page before moving on to the next page. Try to do eacn item separately independent of how you may have done other items. The image aroused by an item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience Moderately clear and vivid . . . Rating 1 . . . Rating 2 . . . Rating 3 " V l 00 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable Rating 4 Vague and din Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible Rating 6 No Image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object Rating 7 An example of an item on the test would image which comes to your mind's eye of a red ly clear and vivid you would check the rating follows: Item 5. A red apple Now turn to the next page when you have the test. be one which asked you to consider an apple. If your visual image was moderate- scale and mark "3" in the brackets as Rating (3) understood these instructions and begin VO Think of some relative or friend Whom you frequently see, considering carefully the picture that rises before your mind's eye. Classify the images suggested by each of the following questions as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 1. The exact countour of face, head, shoulders and body ....() 2. Characteristic poses of head, attitudes of body, etc. . . . ( ) 3. The precise carriage, length of step, etc. in walking . . . ( ) 4. The different colours worn in some familiar costume . . . ( ) Think of seeing each of the following, considering carefully the picture which comes before your mind's eye; and classify the image suggested by each of the following questions as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. 5. The sun as it is sinking below the horizon................( ) o o o Rating Scale The image aroused by an Item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience ....... Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid Rating 3 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable Rating 4 Vague and dim Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible Rating 6 No image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object Rating 7 0 0 Think of each of the following sounds, considering carefully the image which comes to your mind’s ear, and classify the images suggested by each of the following questions as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 6. The whistle of a locomotive . . . 7. The honk of an automobile . . . . 8. The mewing of a c a t ........... 9. The sound of escaping steam . . , 10. The clapping of hands in applause. 00 t v j Rating Scale The image aroused by an item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience ........ Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid Rating 3 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable Rating 4 Vague and dim Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible Rating 6 No image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object Rating 7 Think of "feeling" or touching each of the following, considering carefully the image which comes to your mind's touch, and classify the images suggested by each of the following questions as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness speci fied on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 11. Sand................................................ ( ) 12. Linen................................................ ( ) 13. Fur................................... ( ) 14. The prick of a pin..................................... ( ) 15. The warmth of a tepid bath ( ) 0 0 Rating Scale The image aroused by an item o£ this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience ......... Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid Rating 3 Hot clear or vivid, but recognizable Rating 4 Vague and dim Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible Rating 6 No image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object Rating 7 00 U) Think of performing each of the following acts, considering carefully the image which comes to your mind's arms, legs, lips, etc., and classify the images suggested as indicated by the degree of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 16. Running upstairs 17. Springing across a gutter, 18. Drawing a circle on paper. 19. Reaching up to a high shelf. 20. Kicking something out of your way. 00 < T\ Rating Scale The image aroused by an Item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience ........ Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid Rating 3 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable Rating 4 Vague and dim Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible Rating 6 No image present at all, you only , f knowing" that you are thinking of the object Rating 7 00 v j Think of tasting each of the following considering carefully the image which comes to your mind's mouth, and classify the images suggested by each of the following questions as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 21. Salt................................................ ( ) 22. Granulated (white) sugar................................( ) 23. Oranges...............................................( ) 24. Jelly................................................ ( ) 25. Your favorite soup.....................................( ) 00 00 Rating Scale The image aroused by an item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience . . . . . Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience . . . . . Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid . . . . . Rating 3 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable . . . . . Rating 4 Vague and dim . . i . . . Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible . . . . . Rating 6 No image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object . . 00 VO Think of smelling each of the following, considering carefully the image which come8 to your mind's nose and classify the images suggested by each of the following questions as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 26. An ill-ventilated room.............. 27. Cooking cabbage............ ......... ......... t- • • • 28. Roast beef . . . ; .................... 29. Fresh paint......................... 30. New leather......................... VO o Rating Scale The image aroused by an item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience . . . . . Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience . . . . . Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid . . . . . Rating 3 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable . . . . . Rating 4 Vague and dim . • . . . Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible . . . . . Rating 6 No image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object . . . . . Rating 7 NO I - * Think of each of the following sensations* considering carefully the image which comes before your mind, and classify the images suggested as indicated by the degrees of clearness and vividness specified on the Rating Scale. Item Rating 31. Fatigue...................................... .... ( ) 32. Hunger ...................................... .... ( ) 33. A sore throat................................ .... ( ) 34. Drowsiness .................................. .... ( ) 35. Repletion as from a very full meal ............ .... ( ) vO NJ Rating Scale The image aroused by an item of this test may be - Perfectly clear and as vivid as the actual experience Rating 1 Very clear and comparable in vividness to the actual experience ........ Rating 2 Moderately clear and vivid Rating 3 Not clear or vivid, but recognizable Rating 4 Vague and dim Rating 5 So vague and dim as to be hardly discernible Rating 6 No image present at all, you only "knowing" that you are thinking of the object Rating 7 vo (jO APPENDIX B OSGOOD SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL 94 INSTRUCTIONS 95 The purpose of this study is to measure the meanings of certain things to various people by having them judge them against a series of descriptive scales. In taking this test, please make your judgments on the basis of what these things mean to you. On each page of this booklet you will find a different concept to be judged and beneath it a set of scales. You are to rate the concept on each of these scales in order. Here is how you are to use these scales: If you feel that the concept at the top of the page is very closely related to one end of the scale, you should place your cneck-mark as follows: fair X :___ : ____: ____:___ : ____: unfair OR fair :___ :___ : ____:___ : ____: X unfair If you feel that the concept is quite closely related to one or the other end of the scale (but not extremely), you should place your check-mark as follows: strong____: _X : ____: ____: ____: ____: weak OR strong____: _______ : ____: : X : weak If the concept seems only slightly related to one side as opposed to the other side (but is not really neutral), then you should check as follows: active___ : ____: X : ____: ____: ____: ___passive OR active____: ____:__: _____: X : ____: ___passive The direction toward which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends of the scale seem most charac teristic of the thing you're judging. If you consider the 96 concept to be neutral on the scale , both sides of the scale equally associated with the concept , or If the scale Is completely Irrelevant, unrelated to the concept, then you should place your check-mark in the middle space: safe :___ : ____: X : ____: ___ : ____dangerous IMPORTANT: (1) Place your check-marks In the middle of spaces, not on the boundaries: THIS NOT THIS : X :___ : X : (2) Be sure you check every scale for every concept - do not omit any. (3) Never put more than one check-mark on a single scale. Sometimes you may feel as though you've had the same item before on the test. This will not be the case, so do not look back and forth through the items. Do not try to re- member how you checked similar items earlier in the test. Make each item a separate and independent judgment. Work at fairly high speed through this test. Do not worry or puzzle over individual items. It is your first impressions, the immediate "feelings" about the items, that we want. On the other hand, please do not be careless, because we want your true impressions. A MEADOW IN THE SUMMERTIME 97 HAPPY • • • • • • • • • • • • SAD VIGOROUS • • • • • • • • • • • • FEEBLE FAST • • • t • • • • • • • • SLOW GOOD • • • • • • • • • • • • BAD CONSTRAINED • • • • • • • • • • • • FREE DIFFICULT • • • • • • • • • • • • EASY SAFE • • • • • • • • • • • • DANGEROUS STRONG • • * • • • • • • • • • WEAK EXCITABLE • • • • • • • • • • • • CALM BRIGHT • • • • • • • • • • • • DIM THE OCEAN 98 HAPPY • • • • • • • • • • • • SAD VIGOROUS • • • • • • • • • • • • FEEBLE FAST • • • • • • SLOW GOOD • • • • • • • • • • • • BAD CONSTRAINED • • • • • • • • • • • • FREE DIFFICULT • • • • • • • • • • • • EASY SAFE • • • • • • DANGEROUS STRONG • • • • • • • • • • • • WEAK EXCITABLE • • • • • • • • • • • • CALM BRIGHT • • • ♦ • • • • • • • • DIM STANDING ON A WOBBLY LADDER 99 HAPPY • • • • • • • • • • • • SAD VIGOROUS • • • • • • • • • * • • FEEBLE FAST • • • • • • • • • • • • SLOW GOOD • • • • • • • • • • • • BAD CONSTRAINED • • • • • • • • • • • • FREE DIFFICULT • • • • • • • • • • ♦ • EASY SAFE • • • • • • • • • • • • DANGEROUS STRONG • • • • • • • • • • • • WEAK EXCITABLE • • • • • • • • • • • • CALM BRIGHT • • • • • • • • • • • • DIM AN EARTHQUAKE 100 HAPPY • • • • • • • • • • • • SAD VIGOROUS • • • • • • • • • • • • FEEBLE FAST • . • • • • • • • • • • • SLOW GOOD • • • • • • • • • • • • BAD CONSTRAINED • • • • • • • • • • • • FREE DIFFICULT • • • • • • • • • • • • EASY SAFE • • • • • • • • • • • • DANGEROUS STRONG • • • • • • • • • • • • WEAK EXCITABLE • • • • • • • • • • • • CALM BRIGHT • • • • • • • • • • • • DIM APPENDIX C TREATMENT GROUP INSTRUCTIONS 101 102 INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN TREATMENT GROUP 1 Before you engage in any more visualization, I would like you to develop and maintain a moderate state of muscu lar contraction throughout your entire body. I will try to help you to develop this state of muscular contraction. Now, as best you can, follow the directions I give to you: (a) Make a fist of your right hand. Not too tight, but not too loose. Just moderately tight. Just keep your hand closed to have it in the shape of a fist. (Check to see that the knuckles show slightly white). (b) Now make the same kind of fist with your left hand. Not too tight and not too loose. (c) Next, put your right heel on the floor and raise your toes off the floor toward you so you can feel some tension in your ankle, and in the calf of your leg. (d) Now place your left heel on the floor and repeat the same procedure as with the right until you feel a slight pull in your ankle and calf. (e) Now suck in your abdomen and stomach. (f) Wrinkle up your face and forehead next. (g) Now hunch up your neck and shoulders as if you were very cold. While you maintain this moderate state of muscular contrac tion, please close your eyes and follow the instructions I will next play. 103 INSTRUCTIONS FOR TREATMENT GROUP 2 Now before you proceed to engage in any more visuali zation 1 would like you to loosen up your muscles* just let them be free* and let go of them as much as you possibly can. I will try to help you to accomplish this. So, would you please close your eyes. As best you can* follow the instructions 1 will now give to you: (a) Tense your right arm and make a fist so that you can feel the pull of the muscles in this arm. Notice how the tension feels and where it is located. Now let go of all the muscles in your arm. Just do nothing with them. Feel the difference in your arm as the muscles let go; just let that arm hang completely free and limp. (b) Repeat for left arm. (c) Tense your right leg by pressing your foot against the floor and squeezing the muscles tight* Notice where the tension is in your leg and how it feels. Now let go of all the muscles in your foot and leg; just let your leg be completely loose. Feel the difference in your leg as the muscles let go. Let your leg hang completely free and limp. <d) Repeat for left leg. (e) Next tighten up your abdomen and stomach muscles; hold them tense just for a moment to feel where the tension is located. Now let all of those muscles go loose. Feel the difference as you allow your stomach and abdomen to be completely free. (f) Repeat for forehead, eyes and eyelids, cheeks and jaw. (g) Repeat for muscles in neck and shoulders, ending with shoulder drooping and head hanging freely. The entire procedure takes five to ten minutes. 104 Now, While you maintain this complete state of muscular relaxation, keep your eyes closed and follow the instruc tions 1 will next play. 105 INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN TREATMENT GROUP 3 Before you start to make any more pictures I want you to get as comfortable and as peaceful as you can. Just sit quietly and let your mind go blank; the only thing you need pay attention to is the sound of my voice. You will find yourself getting more and more relaxed, feeling calm and peaceful. Just let yourself relax and feel rested and easy. (This is repeated several times with long pauses be tween) . Now while you stay comfortable and relaxed, feeling calm and peaceful, (a) Make a fist of your right hand. Not too tight, but not too loose. Just moderately tight. Just keep your hand closed to have it in the shape of a fist. (Check to see that the knuckles show slightly White). (b) Now make the same kind of fist with your left hand. Not too tight and not too loose. Now, feeling comfortable and peaceful (c) Put your right heel on the floor and raise your toes off the floor toward you so you can feel some tension in your ankle, and in the calf of your leg. (d) Now place your left heel on the floor and repeat the same procedure as with the right until you feel a slight pull in your ankle and calf. While you are doing this keep the nice, calm, gentle feeling going inside of you. (e) Now suck in your abdomen and stomach. 106 (£) Wrinkle up your face and forehead next. (g) Now hunch up your neck and shoulders. Now, feeling peaceful and relaxed inside, please close your eyes and follow the Instructions 1 will next play. 107 INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN TREATMENT GROUP 4 Now before you proceed to engage In any more making of pictures I would like you to loosen up your muscles, just let them be free, and let go of them as much as you possibly can. At the same time I want you to stay very alert mentally. I will try to help you to accomplish this. So, would you please close your eyes. As best you can, follow the instructions I will now give to you: (a) Tense your right arm and make a fist so that you can feel the pull of the muscles in this arm. Notice how the tension feels and where it is located. Now let go of all the muscles in your arm. Just do nothing with them. Feel the difference in your arm as the muscles let ? o; just let that arm hang completely free and imp. While your muscles are free and limp, keep your mind as bright and alert as you can. (b) Repeat for left arm, with request to stay ex tremely alert. (c) Tense your right leg by pressing your foot against the floor and squeezing the muscles tight. Notice where the tension is in your leg and how it feels. Now let go of all the muscles in your foot and leg; just let your leg be com pletely loose. Feel the difference in your leg as the muscles let go. Let your leg hang com pletely free and limp. Stay bright and sharp inside. (d) Repeat for left leg, with request to stay very alert. (e) Next tighten up your abdomen and stomach muscles; hold them tense just for a moment to feel where the tension is located. Now let all of those muscles go loose. Feel the difference as you allow your stomach and abdomen to be completely free. Stay very aware and alert mentally. 108 (£) Repeat for forehead, eyes and eyelids, cheeks and jaw with alert suggestion. (g) Repeat for muscles in neck and shoulders, ending with shoulder drooping and head hanging freely. The entire procedure takes five to ten minutes. Conclude with request for alertness. Now, while you stay very alert with all your muscles re laxed, keep your eyes closed and follow the instructions I will next play. APPENDIX D POSTEXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONNAIRE 109 110 Name_________________________ Subj ect #______________ Were you able to have pictures in your mind? Were you able to have pictures in your mind on both the £irst and second times you visualized each scene?_____ How did the overall feelings and experiences compare under the two different times you visualized the scenes? Did they differ in any way? What did you think the experiment was about? What did you think we were trying to find out? Ill What would have made the experiment easier for you? What gave you the greatest difficulty?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hermann, Lawrence Jay (author)

Core Title Mental Imagery As A Function Of Muscular Tension And Suggestion

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Wolpin, Milton (committee chair), Hattem, Jack V. (committee member), Marston, Albert R. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-532104

Unique identifier UC11363209

Identifier 7200559.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-532104 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7200559

Dmrecord 532104

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hermann, Lawrence Jay

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA