A Study Of Human Response To California Library Organization And Management Systems

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Content A STUDY OF H U M A N RESPONSE TO CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
ORGANIZATION AND M A N A G E M E N T SYSTEMS
by
Edward Jorgen H ess
+*T~ ,
A D is s e r t a tio n P r e se n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t ia l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents fo r th e D egree
D O C TO R OF PHILOSOPHY
(L ib ra ry S c ie n c e )
A ugust 1970
I
7 1 - 1 2 ,3 9 3
HESS, Edward J o rg en , 1 9 2 5 -
A STUDY O F H U M A N RESPONSE TO CALIFORNIA
LIBRARY ORGANIZATION AND M ANAGEM ENT
SYSTEMS.
U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a , Ph.D.,
1970
L ib rary S cien ce
University Microfilms. A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
T H IS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
THB GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 8 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
E<^ar d J • H e ss
under the direction of h.is... Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by T he G radu
ate School, in partial fulfillm ent of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
(/ Dtaa
...........
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
..............
§ Chairman
221
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C hapter Page
I . INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1
The Problem
A ssum ptions U n d erlyin g th e Study
H yp oth eses
R e la te d R esearch
I I . THEORETICAL BASIS FO R THE STUDY................................ 28
I I I . RESEARCH DESIGN . . ............................................................. 41
The P o p u la tio n
The Sample
The D a ta -G a th erin g Instrum ent
G ath erin g th e D ata
IV . FINDINGS OF THE STUDY........................................................ 53
L ead ersh ip P r o c e sse s
M o tiv a tio n a l F a rces
Communication P r o c e ss e s
I n te r a c t io n -I n flu e n c e P r o c e ss e s
D e c is io n Making P r o c e sse s
G oal S e t t in g P r o c e ss e s
C o n tro l P r o c e sse s
Perform ance G oals and T ra in in g
P u b lie -T e c h n ic a l S e r v ic e R iv a lr y
Summary o f F in d in g s
V . CONCLUSIONS A ND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................104
C o n clu sio n s
Recommendations
APPENDIX A. DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENT...................................117
APPENDIX B. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL TABLES.........................132
APPENDIX C . LIST OF PARTICIPATING LIBRARIES . . . . 239
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................248
i i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The purpose o f t h i s stu d y h as been t o e x p lo r e the
n a tu r e o f th e lib r a r y as a human o r g a n iz a t io n . I t has
been assumed th a t th e p e r so n n e l making up a lib r a r y s t a f f
c o n s t i t u t e a s o c i a l sy ste m , and th e g o a ls o f th e lib r a r y
ten d to d eterm in e th e r o le s o f th e in d iv id u a ls w ith in th e
sy ste m . T hese r o le s have t r a d it i o n a l l y been o rg a n ize d
in t o a b u r e a u c r a tic s tr u c tu r e in w hich each r o le has th r e e
b a s ic s e t s o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , s u p e r io r t o su b o r d in a te ,
su b o rd in a te t o s u p e r io r , and c o o r d in a te , th a t i s , w ith
c o lle a g u e s on th e same h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l . T h e r e fo r e , th e
e x p lo r a tio n o f th e n a tu re o f th e lib r a r y a s a human
o r g a n iz a tio n n e c e s s a r ily became th e e x p lo r a tio n o f t h i s
com plex o f in t e r r e la t io n s h ip s a s th e y a re r e la t e d t o th e
d eg ree t o w hich th e lib r a r y i s a t t a in in g i t s o b j e c t iv e s .
R ep ortin g e x p lo r a to r y a c t i v i t y r e q u ir e s some d e s
c r ip t io n o f th e area c o v e r e d . Such d e s c r ip t io n m ight be
a cco rd in g to v a r io u s fram es o f r e f e r e n c e , b u t f o r th e
p u rp oses o f t h i s in v e s t i g a t i o n , th e p a r t ic u la r d e s c r ip t iv e
approach d ev elo p ed by R en sis L ik e r t has been judged most
a p p lic a b le . L ik e r t 's th eo ry p la c e s o r g a n iz a tio n s on a
d e s c r ip t iv e continuum a c c o r d in g t o t h e ir management
1
sy ste m s . The continuum ran ges from "System 1 ," in
L ik e r t 's e a r l i e r work c a l l e d " e x p lo it a t iv e a u t h o r it a t iv e ,"
t o "System 4 ," e a r l i e r r e fe r r e d t o a s " p a r t ic ip a t iv e
group." Placem ent on th e continuum depends p r im a r ily on
measurement o f v a r io u s c a u s a l and in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s
in th e s tr u c tu r e o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l in t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Such m easurem ents a re made u sin g an in stru m en t d ev elo p ed
s p e c i f i c a l l y fo r the p urpose
L ib r a r ie s in ele m e n ta ry and secon d ary s c h o o ls have
been ex c lu d e d from th e p r e s e n t stu d y b eca u se in m ost c a s e s
th e y were judged n o t t o have th e f u l l range o f i n t e r
r e la t io n s h ip s m entioned ab ove, w ith in th e lib r a r y a s an
autonomous o r g a n iz a t io n . S p e c ia l l i b r a r i e s have been c o n
s id e r e d to be s o l i t e r a l l y " s p e c ia l," th a t i s , each one s o
n e a r ly u n iq u e, a s t o c o n s t it u t e an a rea fo r se p a r a te stu d y.
Thus r e s t r i c t e d t o academ ic ( c o l le g e , ju n io r c o l l e g e , and
u n i v e r s i t y ) , and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s , th e sco p e has been
fu r th e r lim it e d t o th e s e k in d s o f l i b r a r i e s in C a lifo r n ia
a s b ein g s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f such
^R ensis L ik e r t i s a P r o fe s so r o f P sy ch o lo g y and
S o c io lo g y , and th e D ir e c to r o f th e I n s t it u t e fo r S o c ia l
R esearch a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f M ichigan. He h as d e s c r ib e d
th e developm ent o f h i s e n t ir e approach in two b o o k s,
New P a tte r n s o f Management (New York: M cGraw-Hill Book
C o ., I n c ., 1 9 6 1 ) , and The~Human O rg a n iza tio n (New York:
M cGraw-Hill Book C o ., I n c . , 1 9 6 ^ ), more fu -lly d e a lt w ith
in a su b seq u en t p o r tio n o f t h i s r e p o r t.
3
o r g a n iz a tio n s in th e U n ited S t a t e s .^
The Problem
In s p i t e o f i t s r a th e r o b v io u s q u a lit y , th e e s s e n
t i a l l y d u al or dichotom ous n a tu r e o f lib r a r y a d m in istr a
tio n seems t o have been l i t t l e r e c o g n iz e d or s tu d ie d .
L ib r a r ie s have been d e s c r ib e d as s o c i a l a g e n c ie s which
c o l l e c t , o r g a n iz e , p r e s e r v e , and p ro v id e a c c e s s t o th e
2
c a r r ie r s o f th e t r a n s c r ip t o f c u lt u r e . They m ight a ls o
be d e s c r ib e d as s o c i a l sy stem s in th a t th ey r e p r e s e n t th e
p a tte r n e d a c t i v i t i e s o f a number o f in d iv id u a ls . In th e
form er c o n t e x t, l i b r a r i e s a re su b system s o f th e communi
c a tio n sy stem o f th e s o c ie t y in which th e y e x i s t . In th e
l a t t e r c o n t e x t, l i b r a r i e s a re su b system s o f th e com plex
S o c ia l system s making up th e s o c ie t y in w hich th e y e x i s t .
On one hand, lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n i s con cern ed w ith th e
o r g a n iz a tio n and management o f reco rd ed know led ge. On th e
o th e r hand, lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n in v o lv e s th e o r g a n iz a
t io n and management o f program s and s e r v i c e s , th e c o o r d i
n a tio n o f a c t i v i t i e s in s id e and o u ts id e o f th e lib r a r y ,
and i t i s p a r t ic u la r ly con cern ed w ith th e s u p e r v is io n o f
*The c o n te x t o f th e lib r a r y and o r g a n iz a tio n a l
l i t e r a t u r e upon w hich th e stu d y h as been b ased was a t
l e a s t i m p l i c i t l y th e eco n o m ic, p o l i t i c a l , and s o c i a l v a lu es
p r e v a le n t in th e U n ited S t a t e s .
o
J e s s e H. S h era , " L ib r a r ie s ," I n te r n a tio n a l Ency-
c lo p e d ia o f th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s (New York: M acm illan and
F ree P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ), V I I , 3 1 4 .
human b e in g s .
S c h o la r s o f a d m in is tr a tio n and th e b e h a v io r a l
s c ie n c e s have r e c e n t ly d ev o ted much e f f o r t to th e stu d y o f
th e c l a s s o f s o c i a l sy stem s known a s o r g a n iz a t io n s . Many
o r g a n iz a tio n s have th e d u al n a tu re a t t r ib u t e d above t o
l i b r a r i e s , t h a t i s , a t e c h n o lo g ic a l su b system and a
s o c i a l su b sy stem . F u ll r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e in ter d e p e n d en ce
o f th e s e su b sy stem s h as been a f a i r l y r e c e n t d ev elo p m en t,
and has been e x p r e sse d in th e id e a o f a s o c io - t e c h n i c a l
s y s te m .3 ’ U n t il th e l a s t two or th r e e d e c a d e s , em phasis
was s tr o n g ly on th e t e c h n o lo g ic a l su b sy stem , w ith th e s o -
c a l l e d s c i e n t i f i c management and c l a s s i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n
th e o r y . More r e c e n t ly , em phasis h as ten d ed t o s h i f t to
th e s o c ia l su b sy stem , w ith th e s o - c a l l e d human r e la t io n s
ap p roaches to management and o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y . In th e
l a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s , e f f o r t s have been made t o a v o id o v e r
em phasis o f e it h e r su b sy stem , w h ile acknow ledging th e
e x is t e n c e o f b o th .
L ib r a r ia n s , d o c u m e n ta lis ts , in fo r m a tio n s c i e n t i s t s ,
and o th er groups w ith s im ila r i n t e r e s t s have g iv en much
a t t e n t io n t o th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f reco rd ed know led ge.
B eh a v io r a l s c i e n t i s t s have shown i n t e r e s t in and have
u t i l i z e d th e f r u i t s o f th e e f f o r t s o f th e know ledge
* F .E . Emery and E .L . T r i s t , " S o c io -T e c h n ic a l
S y stem s." Management S c ie n c e s , Models and T ech n iq u es, I I
(1 9 6 0 ), 8 3 -$ > .
o r g a n iz e r s . H owever, know ledge o r g a n iz e r s have shown
l i t t l e aw aren ess o f and l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in th e r e s u lt s o f
s tu d ie s o f human b e h a v io r in o r g a n iz a t io n s .1 A tte n tio n
h as been g iv e n a lm o st e n t i r e l y t o th e t e c h n o lo g ic a l a s p e c t
o f th e s o c io - t e c h n ic a l sy stem .
L ib r a r ia n sh ip has p r im a r ily been p r a c tic e d in an
o r g a n iz a tio n a l c o n t e x t . The s i z e o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l
u n it w ith in which i t i s p r a c tic e d h as r a th e r s t e a d i l y and
s u b s t a n t ia lly in c r e a s e d . T hus, th e apparent la c k o f
i n t e r e s t in th e s o c ia l su b system o f th e lib r a r y has been
seen by th e p r e se n t w r ite r b oth as a c u r io u s phenomenon
and one p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous t o th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s w ith
which th e lib r a r y can f u l f i l l i t s m issio n as a s o c ia l
agency c o l l e c t i n g , o r g a n iz in g , p r e s e r v in g , and p r o v id in g
a c c e s s t o th e c a r r ie r s o f th e t r a n s c r ip t o f th e c u lt u r e .
I t h as been th e w r i t e r ' s hope th a t th e f in d in g s o f t h i s
stu d y may in s p ir e fu r th e r r e s e a r c h , and may h e lp t o fo c u s
a d d itio n a l a t t e n t io n upon th e s o c i a l su b system o f th e
lib r a r y w ith e v e n tu a l b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t .
A ssum ptions U n d erly in g th e Study
V a rio u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e lib r a r y have been
assumed t o be s e l f - e v i d e n t . I t has been assumed th a t th e
^This was commented on as f a r back as 1957 in
Edward A. W ight, "R esearch in O r g a n iza tio n and A d m in istra
t io n ," L ib rary Trends . VI (O cto b er, 1 9 5 7 ), 14 5 .
lib r a r y g e n e r a lly i s a sy stem c o n s is t in g o f a group o f
p e o p le c o n s t it u t in g a s o c i a l sy ste m , engaged in a c t i v i t i e s
p e r ta in in g t o a c q u ir in g , o r g a n iz in g , and p r e se r v in g
g ra p h ic and a u d io -v is u a l m a te r ia ls , as w e ll a s p r o v id in g
a s s is t a n c e in th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f th o se m a te r ia ls , w hich in
th e m se lv es c o n s t i t u t e a t e c h n o lo g ic a l su b sy stem . T h ere
f o r e , th e lib r a r y h as been assum ed t o be a s o c io - t e c h n ic a l
sy stem .
The fu r th e r assum ption has been made t h a t th e
lib r a r y g e n e r a lly i s an open sy ste m . I t r e q u ir e s in p u ts
in th e form o f m a te r ia ls and human la b o r . T hese are t r a n s
formed by th e system in t o o u tp u ts t o which th e environm ent
r e a c t s in such a way th a t th e system i s c o n t in u a lly r e
e n e r g iz e d by fu r th e r in p u t o f m a te r ia ls and la b o r .
The s o c i a l su b system o f th e lib r a r y has been assumed
to d i f f e r l i t t l e , i f a t a l l , in i t s g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a s a human o r g a n iz a tio n , from th e s o c i a l su b system s o f
o th er s o c io - t e c h n ic a l sy stem s o p e r a tin g in an e s s e n t i a l l y
s im ila r m ilie u . I m p lic it in t h is assum ption has been th e
view th a t l i b r a r i e s a re u s u a lly o rg a n iz ed b u r e a u c r a t ic a lly ,
e x h ib it in g t o a c o n s id e r a b le d eg ree th e w ell-know n c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c s o f d iv is io n o f la b o r b ased on f u n c t io n a l
s p e c ia l i z a t i o n , h ie r a r c h y o f a u t h o r it y , sy stem o f r u le s and
p r e s c r ib e d p r o c e d u r e s, im p e r so n a lity o f in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a
t i o n s , and o r g a n iz a tio n a l membership b ased on t e c h n ic a l
7
co m p eten ce.
H yp oth eses
As in d ic a te d a b ove, t h i s stu d y h as been in te n d e d to
be p r im a r ily e x p lo r a to r y , and s e c o n d a r ily d e s c r i p t i v e , in
n a tu r e . T h e r e fo r e , i t was in ten d ed th a t h y p o th e se s w ould
be g en e ra ted r a th e r than t e s t e d .* As a co n seq u e n c e,
fo r m u la tio n o f a g e n e r a l, fu nd am en tal h y p o th e s is h as seemed
t o r e q u ir e th e in t e r r o g a t iv e form: What i s th e n a tu re o f
th e management sy stem s p r e v a ilin g in C a lif o r n ia academ ic
and p u b lic lib r a r ie s ?
R ela ted R esearch
In a s e n s e , a l l r e se a r c h in th e a rea o f human
o r g a n iz a tio n s i s r e la t e d to th e t o p ic o f t h i s s tu d y . The
l i t e r a t u r e o f human o r g a n iz a tio n s i s , how ever, v ery e x te n
s i v e . H i s t o r i c a l l y , a lm o st a l l major p h ilo s o p h e r s , h i s
t o r ia n s , and b io g ra p h er s have d e v o te d some a t t e n t io n t o
2
th e management o f o r g a n iz a t io n s . In s p i t e o f a c o n s id e r
a b le q u a n tity o f l i t e r a t u r e on th e s u b je c t o f lib r a r y
a d m in is tr a tio n , rem arkably l i t t l e o f i t has a ttem p ted to
go beyond th e t r a d it io n -b a s e d " h o w -to -d o -it" p r e s c r ip t io n s
^ C la ire S e l l t i z , e t ^ a l . , R esearch Methods in S o c ia l
R e la tio n s (R ev. e d . ; n .p .: H o lt, R in eh a rt and W in ston ,
T 5 5 5 T T p7 5 0 .
o
James G. March, e d ., Handbook o f O r g a n iz a tio n s
(C h icago: Rand M cNally and Company, 1 9 6 5 ), p . i x . At tim e
o f p u b lic a t io n , March was Dean o f S o c ia l S c ie n c e s a t th e
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lif o r n ia , I r v in e .
fo r p e r so n n e l a d m in is tr a tio n . A lm ost no r e p o r ts o f
r e se a r c h o r ie n te d tow ard th e human o r g a n iz a tio n a l a s p e c ts
o f l i b r a r i e s have seem ed to e x i s t , and u n t i l v er y r e c e n tly ,
th e r e h as appeared t o be am azin gly l i t t l e c o g n iza n c e o f
p e r t in e n t w r itin g in o r g a n iz a tio n a l r e s e a r c h .
A most in t e r e s t in g stu d y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o f
o r g a n iz a tio n a l b eh a v io r was r e p o r te d in M arch's Handbook
2
o f O r g a n iz a tio n s . Two h ig h ly reg a rd ed r e c e n t works were
s e le c t e d , by March, from each o f s ix " tr a d it io n s ," s o c i o l
og y , a n th r o p o lo g y , management, eco n o m ics, p o l i t i c a l
s c ie n c e , and p sy c h o lo g y , a s b a s ic r e f e r e n c e s . A sam ple o f
c i t a t i o n s was drawn from each work, and a l i s t o f t h i r t y -
th r e e " a n c e str a l" books was d e v e lo p e d , r e p r e s e n tin g f r e
q u e n tly c i t e d ite m s in th e tw e lv e r e c e n t w ork s. One c o n
c lu s io n March drew from t h i s stu d y was th a t th e f i e l d o f
o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t u d ie s a s an i d e n t i f i a b l e c lu s t e r o f r e
se a r ch i n t e r e s t s in th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s d a te s la r g e ly from
1 9 3 7 -4 2 , stemming from th r e e works p u b lish e d d u rin g th a t
p e r io d .
The v a lu e o f M arch's a n a ly s is fo r th e p r e se n t stu d y
Ip a u l Wasserman, "Developm ent o f A d m in istr a tio n in
L ib rary S e r v ic e ," C o lle g e & R esearch L ib r a r ie s , XIX
(J u ly , 1 9 5 8 ), 2 8 5 . At tim e o f p u b lic a t io n , Wasserman was
L ib ra ria n and A s s is t a n t P r o fe s s o r , G raduate S ch o o l o f
B u sin e ss and P u b lic A d m in istr a tio n , C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y .
2March, Handbook o f O r g a n iz a tio n s , p p . x - x i i i .
h as been th e p r o v is io n o f some r a t io n a l b a s is fo r d e te r m i
n in g "im portant" works on o r g a n iz a tio n s w hich presum ably
sh o u ld have been r e fe r r e d t o by w r it e r s d e a lin g w ith
l i b r a r i e s as human o r g a n iz a tio n s , inasm uch a s l i t t l e or no
r e se a r c h had been r ep o rted in t h i s area by lib r a r ia n s .
March u sed th e term " b a sic r e fe r e n c e s " to r e f e r s p e c i f i
c a l l y t o th e tw e lv e r e c e n t works m entioned in th e p r e
c e d in g paragrap h , and th e a d j e c t iv e " a n c e str a l" fo r th e
t h ir t y - t h r e e e a r l i e r w ork s. In su b seq u en t p a ra g ra p h s,
th e s e term s have been u sed to d en o te th e s p e c i f i c conno
t a t io n in ten d ed by March.
The f o llo w in g d is c u s s io n h as in c lu d e d ite m s from
lib r a r y lit e r a t u r e found t o be r e le v a n t t o l i b r a r i e s as
human o r g a n iz a t io n s . V ariou s te x tb o o k s in lib r a r y ad m in i
s t r a t io n have been in c o r p o r a te d on th e assum ption th a t
th ey r e p r e se n te d th e s t a t e o f th e a r t s h o r tly b e fo r e d a te s
o f p u b lic a t io n . In t h i s s tu d y , r e p u ta b le m a te r ia ls sy n th e
s iz i n g a n d /o r r e p o r tin g p r e v io u s li t e r a t u r e su rv ey s have
been p a r t ic u la r ly so u g h t.
The g e n e r a l s t a t e o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o f lib r a r y
a d m in is tr a tio n was e v a lu a te d by two com m entators. Paul
Wasserman1 ' s t a t e d u n e q u iv o c a lly th a t no major advances in
th e th e o ry o f lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n had o ccu rred s in c e
^Wasserman, "Developm ent o f A d m in istr a tio n in
L ib rary S e r v ic e ," 2 8 5 .
10
th e in tr o d u c to r y p r o p o s itio n s s u g g e s te d by P aul Howard in
1940. V ir t u a lly no one had t r i e d t o d i s t i l l a s e t o f
h y p o th eses from a number o f " in s t it u t io n s " w hich m ight
c o n tr ib u te t o u n d ersta n d in g common s it u a t io n s in d i f f e r e n t
s e t t i n g s . W r itin g s on a d m in is tr a tio n in lib r a r y l i t e r a
tu r e were c h a r a c te r iz e d as "a ty p e a f la t t e r - d a y f o l k -
1
lo r e ."
In c o n n e c tio n w ith an a n a ly s is o f p u b lic and ed u
c a t io n a l a d m in is tr a tio n , Wasserman in tim a te d th a t n o t o n ly
th o se f i e l d s but a ls o b u s in e s s a d m in is tr a tio n , s o c i a l
p sy c h o lo g y , and econ om ics m ight make s u b s t a n t ia l c o n t r i
b u tio n s to lib r a r ia n s h ip . He s t a t e d th a t l i b r a r i e s are
o r g a n iz a tio n s o f p e o p le se e k in g a common o b j e c t iv e , and
th e p r e s s in g n eed was fo r in c r e a s e d know ledge and u n d er
sta n d in g o f how t o a cco m p lish o b j e c t iv e s through p e o p le .
E rn est J . R eece, M e lv il Dewey P r o fe s so r E m eritus
o f L ib rary S e r v ic e , Columbia U n iv e r s it y , o b serv ed t h a t
some lib r a r y le a d e r s had r e c o g n iz e d th e li t e r a t u r e o f
lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n as sc a n t and im m ature, r e f l e c t i n g
l i t t l e r e s e a r c h . A d m in istr a tio n o f l i b r a r i e s d oes n ot
d i f f e r m a te r ia lly from th a t o f o th e r o r g a n iz a tio n s , and
lib r a r y a d m in is tr a to r s m ight p r o f it from know ledge and
1I b id .
11
1
e x p e r ie n c e in o th er a r e a s . R eece e x p r e s se d th e th ough t
th a t perhaps th e fu tu r e would be c h a r a c te r iz e d by stu d y o f
a d m in is tr a tiv e problem s "w ith e a g e r n e s s t o lo o k over fe n c e s
and s e i z e upon th e w e a lth o f g u id a n ce in o th e r p a s tu r e s ."
P aul Howard, w r it in g in 1939, c l e a r l y was aware o f
th e human a s p e c t o f lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n . He c o n c e iv e d
o f th e lib r a r y a s a form o f c o o p e r a tiv e e n t e r p r is e i n
v o lv in g th e a c t i v i t i e s o f " in d iv id u a ls ," th a t i s , p e r s o n s .
H is su rv ey o f r e fe r e n c e s t o management in lib r a r y l i t e r a
tu r e d is c lo s e d th a t as e a r ly a s 18 8 7 , F . M. Crunden d i s
c u s se d a p p lic a tio n o f b u sin e s s m ethods in lib r a r y manage
m ent. In 1911, Arthur E. B o stw ick , in d is c u s s in g a d o p tio n
o f th e ap proaches t o b u s in e s s e f f i c i e n c y a d v o ca ted by
F . W. T a y lo r , warned t h a t lib r a r ia n s were l i k e l y t o c a r r y
th e se e k in g o f e f f i c i e n c y , by such m eth od s, t o an unde
s ir a b le e x tre m e . W ritin g in 1919, C h a rles C. W illiam son
s u g g e ste d t h a t lib r a r y management w ould r e p r e s e n t a
s p e c ia l a p p lic a tio n o f p sy c h o lo g y and s o c io lo g y , i n d i
c a t in g no one had y e t a ttem p ted a com p reh en sive trea tm en t
^E rnest J . R eece, " In tr o d u c tio n ," L ib rary T ren d s,
V II (Jan u ary, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 3 5 . P r o fe sso r R eece e d ite d t h is
p a r t ic u la r is s u e o f th e jo u r n a l, e n t i t l e d "C urrent Trends
in L ib ra ry A d m in istr a tio n ."
2 i b i d ., 3 3 6 .
^Paul Howard, "The F u n ctio n s o f L ib rary Management,"
L ib ra ry Q u a r te r ly . X (J u ly , 1 9 4 0 ), 3 1 3 -4 9 . T h is was b a sed
on h i s M a ste r 's t h e s i s , a c c e p te d by th e G raduate L ib rary
S c h o o l, U n iv e r s ity o f C h ica g o . At th e tim e , he was
L ib r a r ia n o f th e M isso u ri S ch o o l o f M in es.
12
o f th e s u b j e c t . D onald Coney m a in ta in ed in 1930 th a t
s o lu t io n o f management problem s in u n iv e r s it y l i b r a r i e s
fo llo w e d th e p r in c ip le s o f s c i e n t i f i c management.
The b u lk o f Howard's a n a ly s is o f th e fu n c tio n s o f
lib r a r y management was an ex ten d ed d is c u s s io n under th e
h e a d in g s o f d ir e c t in g , o r d e r in g , s u p e r v is in g , c o n t r o llin g ,
o r g a n iz in g , e v a lu a tin g , and r e p r e s e n tin g . In g e n e r a l,
t h i s fo llo w e d c l a s s i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y , as su g g e ste d
by h is d is c u s s io n o f th e approaches to management
esp o u sed by F . W. T a y lo r and H enri F a y o l. He a ls o
r e fe r r e d t o two o f th e " a n c e str a l" books d is c lo s e d by
M arch's stu d y d is c u s s e d p r e v io u s ly , B arn ard 's The
F u n ctio n s o f th e E x e c u tiv e and G u lic k 's and U rw ick 's
Papers on th e S c ie n c e o f A d m in is tr a tio n . Howard co n
c lu d e d , among o th er t h in g s , th a t m an agerial a c t i v i t i e s
in l i b r a r i e s co rresp o n d t o such a c t i v i t i e s in a l l o th er
" c o -o p e r a tiv e e n t e r p r is e s ."
In 1956 th e secon d e d it io n o f The U n iv e r s ity
L ib r a r y , by W ilson and T auber, a p p e a r e d T h i s r e p r e
s e n te d a c a r e f u l s y n t h e s is o f th e r e le v a n t l i t e r a t u r e up
t o 19 5 5 . That t h i s li t e r a t u r e was th a t o f lib r a r ia n s h ip
a lm o st e x c lu s iv e ly i s e v id e n t from an ex a m in a tio n o f th e
J-Louis R. W ilson and M aurice F . T auber, The U n i
v e r s i t y L ib rary (2d e d . ; New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ). At th e tim e , W ilson was P r o fe s s o r , S ch o o l
o f L ib rary S c ie n c e , U n iv e r s ity o f N orth C a r o lin a , and
Tauber was P r o fe s so r o f L ib rary S e r v ic e , Colum bia
U n iv e r s it y .
c i t a t i o n s . The o n ly one o f M arch's " a n c e str a l" works in
o r g a n iz a tio n a l b eh a v io r c i t e d was G u lic k 's and U rw ick 's
Papers on th e S c ie n c e o f A d m in is tr a tio n . H enri F a y o l, n o t
on M arch's l i s t , was a l s o c i t e d , fu r th e r in d ic a t in g th a t
th e " p r in c ip le s " d is c u s s e d r e f l e c t e d c l a s s i c a l o r g a n iz a
t io n th e o r y .
B r ie f n o t ic e was g iv e n o f th e im p ortan ce o f "a keen
u n d ersta n d in g o f human r e la t io n s h ip s " b eca u se o f th e i n
f lu e n c e o f p e r so n a l a t t it u d e s o f in d iv id u a l s t a f f members
on c o o r d in a tio n and c o o p e r a tio n .^ R e c o g n itio n was a ls o
g iv e n t o th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p a r t ic ip a t io n by th e s t a f f
in " o r g a n iz a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s , " a lth o u g h t h is was tem pered
by s t a t in g t h a t th e " p r in c ip le o f c e n t r a liz e d c o n tr o l in
th e hands o f th e c h ie f" i s n e c e s s a r y fo r " e f f e c t i v e manage
m en t." 2
In an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " I n s t it u t io n a l A d m in istra
t io n ," P h i l l i p Monypenny, P r o fe sso r o f P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e
and S t a f f A s s o c ia te o f th e I n s t i t u t e o f Government and
P u b lic A f f a ir s , U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s , c i t e d two o f
M arch's " a n c e str a l" works a lo n g w ith s e v e r a l o th e r s on
a d m in is tr a tio n from f i e l d s o th e r than lib r a r ia n s h ip . He
su g g e ste d t h a t d is c u s s io n o f any a d m in is tr a tiv e o r g a n i
z a tio n i s e x p e d ite d by d is t in g u is h in g betw een i t s in t e r n a l
1I b i d ., p p . 3 2 6 -2 7 .
2I b i d ., p . 3 4 2 .
14
and e x t e r n a l a s p e c t s . The fo r m a lly p r e s c r ib e d p a tte r n o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y betw een th e s t a f f members and th e g o v ern in g
body i s th e o r g a n iz a t io n 's s tr u c t u r e , and th e in te r c h a n g e
o f s e r v ic e s w ith in th e o r g a n iz a tio n and betw een i t and i t s
environm ent c o n s t i t u t e s th e o r g a n iz a t io n 's p a tte r n o f
r e l a t i o n s h i p s • 1
Monypenny p o in te d ou t th a t i f a number o f s t a f f
members id e n t i f y w ith a p r o f e s s io n , th e s e p r o f e s s io n a ls
ten d t o ta k e a v iew o f th e g o a ls and m ethods o f th e organ
iz a t io n in d ep en d en t from t h a t o f i t s a d m in is tr a tio n . T h is
in d ic a t e s th a t the a d m in is tr a tiv e s t y l e o f th e head o f th e
o r g a n iz a tio n ten d s t o be a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r , fo r when
" d e a lin g w ith p r o f e s s io n a ls th e mere u se o f a u th o r ity i s
in a d e q u a te ." The d e s ir e d outcome o f th e o r g a n iz a t io n 's
a c t i v i t i e s w i l l r e s u lt o n ly when a l l s t a f f members are
aware o f each o t h e r 's d u t ie s and n e e d s, and how th ey
r e l a t e t o th e g o a ls o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n . Ig n o r in g th e
p r o f e s s io n a l g o a ls and sta n d a rd s o f members w ould s e r io u s ly
d is r u p t w orking r e l a t i o n s h i p s . " A d m in istra tio n i s e s s e n
t i a l l y an in te r p e r s o n a l a c t i v i t y , n o t a m a n ip u la tio n o f
non-human o b j e c t s ." T h e r e fo r e , c o lla b o r a tio n betw een
a d m in is tr a to r s and th e rem ain in g o r g a n iz a tio n members in
p o lic y making as w e ll as in d e f in in g s tr u c tu r e and method
^ P h illip Monypenny, " I n s t i t u t i o n a l A d m in istr a tio n ,"
L ib rary T ren d s. V II (Jan uary, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 3 7 -3 8 .
15
i s " in d is p e n s a b le ." Monypenny argaed th a t o r g a n iz a tio n s
a re in t e r a c t in g p e o p le s e t in an environm ent w hich must
s u s t a in t h e ir c o o p e r a tiv e e f f o r t . Mere le g a l a u th o r ity i s
i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r management, and must be co u p led w ith
aw areness o f s t a f f g o a ls and v a lu e s , and th e a b i l i t y to
1
r e l a t e th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l program t o them .
E. W. McDiarmid, Dean o f th e C o lle g e o f S c ie n c e ,
L it e r a t u r e , and th e A rts o f th e U n iv e r s ity o f M in n esota,
advanced e ig h t c o n c e p ts o f a d m in is tr a tio n : d e f i n i t i o n ,
c e n t r a l a d m in is tr a tio n , econom y, la y p a r t ic ip a t io n , s t a f f
p a r t ic ip a t io n , o r g a n iz a tio n , r e f l e c t i o n o f th e n eed s o f
2
th e community s e r v e d , and r e s e a r c h . He made no s p e c i f i c
c i t a t i o n in th e a r t i c l e , but o f fe r e d f i v e " g en era l r e f e r
e n c e s ," fo u r from lib r a r y l i t e r a t u r e and one from ed u ca
t io n a l a d m in is tr a tio n . The o n ly co n cep t w hich seemed
r e la t e d t o th e lib r a r y as a human o r g a n iz a tio n was s t a f f
p a r t ic ip a t io n . I n d ic a tin g th a t th e q u e stio n was one o f
d eg ree r a th e r than w hether or not th e r e sh o u ld be p a r t i c i
p a tio n , McDiarmid summarized argum ents fa v o r in g w id er
in volvem en t as th e broad er b a se o f e x p e r ie n c e and i n f o r
m ation th u s ta p p ed , and th e presumed improvement in m orale.
"Dangers" were summarized as d e la y in re a c h in g d e c is io n s ,
1I b i d . , 3 4 1 -4 4 .
2E . W. McDiarmid, "Current C oncepts in L ib rary
A d m in istr a tio n ," L ib rary T ren d s. V II (Jan u ary. 1 9 5 9 ).
3 4 6 -5 6 .
16
and th e lik e lih o o d o f i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . He s u g g e ste d th a t
th e b a s ic g a in t o be a c h ie v e d was im proved m o ra le, b u t
th a t i t sh o u ld be a t ta in e d by u n d ersta n d in g and communi
c a tio n r a th e r than by w ider p a r t ic ip a t io n in th e a c tu a l
a d m in is tr a tiv e p r o c e s s . W hatever e l s e m ight be s a id o f
M cDiarmid, he c o u ld h a rd ly be c h a r a c te r iz e d as an a d v o ca te
o f p a r t ic ip a t i v e management in th e s e n se a d v o ca ted by
F o l l e t t or L ik e r t.
A rthur M. M cAnally w rote p e r c e p t iv e ly on th e m atter
o f d ep artm en ts in u n iv e r s it y l i b r a r i e s .^ He gave e v id e n c e
o f h a v in g su rv ey ed management l i t e r a t u r e b r o a d ly , c i t i n g
th r e e o f M arch's " a n c e str a l" works a s w e ll a s s e v e r a l
o th er w r it in g s from o u ts id e lib r a r y l i t e r a t u r e . C o n sid er
a b le sp a ce was d ev o ted t o the d e s ir a b le s i z e s o f work
gro u p s, b oth from th e p o in ts o f view o f r e l a t i o n a l com
p l e x i t y and span o f c o n t r o l. He spoke o f th e in fo r m a l
o r g a n iz a tio n and i t s im p o rta n ce. At one p o in t , M cAnally
a s s e r t e d , "The day o f th e a r is t o c r a t i s w an in g, and th a t
o f th e c o o p e r a tiv e team i s ta k in g i t s p la c e ."
A lthough Guy R. L y le , D ir e c to r o f L ib r a r ie s a t
Emory U n iv e r s it y , showed no e v id e n c e o f h a v in g drawn upon
o r g a n iz a tio n s c h o la r s , he o f fe r e d a few maxims w hich
A r th u r M. M cA nally, "D epartm ents in U n iv e r s ity
L ib r a r ie s ," L ib rary T ren d s, V II (Jan u ary, 1 9 5 9 ), 4 4 8 -6 4 .
M cAnally was D ir e c to r o f L ib r a r ie s a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f
Oklahoma•
17
r e la t e to th e lib r a r y a s a human o r g a n iz a t io n . These
in c lu d e d th e im portance o f m utual c o n fid e n c e betw een th e
lib r a r ia n and h i s s t a f f , and th e need to c u l t i v a t e and
m ain tain an " e s p r it de c o r p s ." He cu lm in a ted h i s a n a ly s is
by s t a t i n g , "The g r e a t e s t danger t o s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r so n n e l
r e la t io n s and e f f e c t i v e lib r a r y s e r v ic e i s . . . th e
lib r a r ia n who i s d o m in eerin g , a u t o c r a t ic , and in c o n s id e r -
1
a te in h a n d lin g p e o p le in su b o r d in a te p o s it io n s ."
P r a c t ic a l A d m in istr a tio n o f P u b lic L ib r a r ie s , by
Joseph L. W heeler and H erb ert G old h or, in c lu d e d c o n s id e r
a b le d is c u s s io n and p r e s c r ip t io n o f how th e lib r a r y as a
human o r g a n iz a tio n sh o u ld be a d m in is te r e d . S e v e r a l
so u r c e s from o u ts id e lib r a r y l i t e r a t u r e were c i t e d ,
a lth o u g h none o f M arch's " b a sic r e fe r e n c e s " and o n ly one
o f th e " a n c e str a l" ite m s was in c lu d e d . V ariou s g e n e r a li
z a t io n s w ere made which showed c o n s id e r a b le aw areness o f
th e human elem en t in l i b r a r i e s . A tte n tio n t o th e m echani
c a l a s p e c ts o f management must now be supplem ented by
a t t e n t io n to th e in d iv id u a l. The a c c e p te d em ployee r e l a
t io n s o f t h ir t y y e a r s ago a re n o t n e c e s s a r ily v a l i d a t th e
*Guy R. L y le , The A d m in istr a tio n o f th e C o lle g e
L ib ra ry (3d ed.j New York: H. W. W ilson C o ., 1 ^ 6 1 ),
p p . 1 3 3 -8 6 .
2
Joseph L. W heeler and H erb ert G old h or, P r a c t ic a l
A d m in istr a tio n o f P u b lic L ib r a r ie s (New York: Harper and
Row, 1 ^ 6 2 ). W heeler was form er L ib r a r ia n o f th e Bnoch
P r a tt L ib ra ry , B a ltim o r e . G oldhor se r v e d as C h ief
L ib ra ria n o f th e E v a n s v ille , In d ia n a , P u b lic L ib rary p r io r
t o p u b lic a tio n o f t h i s b ook .
18
p r e s e n t tin e * W heeler and Goldhor s t a t e d , " P a r tic ip a tio n
i s p a r t ic u la r ly a p p r o p r ia te . . . a s a so u r ce o f m orale
and o f id e a s and a s a management m ethod." I f an ad m in i
s t r a t o r a sk s th e o p in io n s o f some s u b o r d in a te s p r io r to
making a major d e c is io n , he i s p r a c t ic in g c o n s u lt a t iv e
a d m in is tr a tio n --n o t d em ocratic a d m in is tr a tio n . In c o n
n e c tio n w ith p e r so n n e l p o l i c i e s , v ie w p o in ts o f " a ll"
sh o u ld be c o n s id e r e d . At l e a s t th e p r o f e s s io n a l s t a f f
sh o u ld be in v o lv e d in s e t t i n g p o l i c i e s fo r o p e r a tio n and
in lon g range p la n n in g .
The ty p e o f lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n a d v o ca ted by
W heeler and G oldhor c l e a r l y showed aw areness o f th e human
r e l a t i o n s and newer c l a s s i c a l s t u d ie s o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l
b e h a v io r • A lthough th e so u r c e s c i t e d w ere n o t among th e
landmark works in t h a t f i e l d , th ey r e f l e c t e d v ie w p o in ts
from o u ts id e lib r a r y l i t e r a t u r e . T h is r e p r e s e n te d c o n
s id e r a b le p r o g r e s s , i f W asserm an's and R e e c e 's c r i t i c i s m s
o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o f lib r a r y a d m in is tr a tio n may be co n
s id e r e d v a lid *
The ch a p ter on " P u b lic L ib rary Management," w r itte n
by H arry N. P e te r so n , in L ocal P u b lic L ib rary A d m in istra
t i o n .* was in k eep in g w ith th e g e n e r a l to n e o f W heeler and
^Roberta B ow ler, e d . , L ocal P u b lic L ib rary Adm ini
s t r a t io n (C h icago: I n te r n a tio n a l C it y Managers A s s o c ia tio n ,
1 ^ 6 4 ), p p . 95-118* P e terso n was D ir e c to r o f th e D i s t r i c t
o f Columbia P u b lic L ib rary a t th e tim e o f p u b lic a t io n .
19
G old h or, and showed c o n s id e r a b le stu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e o u t
s id e th e lib r a r y f i e l d . C it a t io n s were p red om in an tly n o t
t o th e landmark works i d e n t i f i e d by March, a lth o u g h one
r e fe r e n c e was made t o a " b a sic r e fe r e n c e ." C lea r aw are
n e s s o f c l a s s i c a l th eo ry a s r e p r e se n te d by s c i e n t i f i c
management, and o f human r e l a t i o n s th e o r y , was shown,
a lth o u g h d is c u s s io n o f them r e c e iv e d o n ly about one page
from th e tw e n ty -fo u r page c h a p te r .
S e v e r a l a llu s io n s w ere made to th e im portance o f
th e human a s p e c t o f th e lib r a r y . For exam p le, th e n e c e s
s i t y o f o b ta in in g a ccep ta n ce o f p o l i c i e s by th e s t a f f and
t h e ir c o o p e r a tio n in im p lem en tin g them was p o in te d o u t.
The d e s i r a b i l i t y o f d em o cra tic le a d e r s h ip was m en tion ed .
The sta te m e n t was made th a t "the more p e r c e p tiv e a d m in is
tr a to r s know . . . th a t p e o p le work b e t t e r and produce
more where th e y have some sa y about t h e ir jo b s and
a c t i v e l y p a r t ic ip a t e in s e t t i n g g o a ls ." The la r g e amount
o f s o c i a l s c ie n c e , p u b lic , and b u s in e s s a d m in is tr a tio n
w r itin g r e le v a n t t o p a r t ic ip a t io n in d e c is io n making was
ig n o r e d , how ever, and McDiarmid* was ad op ted a s th e
a u th o r ity in t h is a r e a . In g e n e r a l, th e s y n t h e s is a t
tem pted by P e terso n d id show a g r e a te r c a t h o l i c i t y o f
approach than had c h a r a c te r iz e d m ost e a r l i e r w r itin g on
^McDiarmid, "Current C oncepts in L ib rary Adm ini
s t r a t io n ," i b i d .
lib r a r y management.
W ritin g in C o lle g e & R esearch L ib r a r ie s , T ai Keun
Oh, a p r o j e c t a s s i s t a n t in th e U n iv e r s it y o f W iscon sin
M ed ical S ch o o l L ib ra ry , p ro v id ed a com p reh en sive a s s e s s
ment o f o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y w ith in th e lib r a r y .* He
p o in te d ou t th a t lib r a r y management l i t e r a t u r e had drawn
la r g e ly -u p o n c l a s s i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y , w hich he saw
a s a developm ent o f T a y lo r 's r a th e r narrow s c i e n t i f i c
management approach in t o a broad er c o n c e p tio n in v o lv in g
th e e n t ir e o r g a n iz a tio n . A fte r d e s c r ib in g th e e v o lu tio n
o f human r e la t io n s th e o r y , Oh c h a r a c te r iz e d "modern
o r g a n iz a tio n a l th e o r y ." He i d e n t i f i e d th r e e groups o f
r e s e a r c h e r s : b e h a v io r a lis t s , s o c i o l o g i s t s con cern ed w ith
e m p ir ic a l t e s t i n g o f c l a s s i c a l th e o r y , and management
s c i e n t i s t s . A fte r d e s c r ib in g R. M. S t o g d i l l ' s th e o r y o f
in d iv id u a l b eh a v io r and group a ch ievem en t a s an exam ple o f
a modern th e o r y w ith p o t e n t ia l v a lu e fo r lib r a r y manage
m ent, he co n clu d ed th a t lib r a r ia n s w ould b e n e f it from
know ledge o f o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y o th er than th a t o f th e
c l a s s i c a l s c h o o l, and th a t r e se a r c h in lib r a r y management
i s n eed ed .
Oh c i t e d o n ly one o f M arch's " b a sic r e fe r e n c e s " in
1-Tai Keun Oh, "New D im en sion s o f Management Theory,"
C o lle g e & R esearch L ib r a r ie s , XXVII (November, 1 9 6 6 ),
4 3 1 -3 8 .
21
o r g a n iz a tio n a l r e s e a r c h , b u t r e fe r r e d to n in e o f th e
t h ir t y - t h r e e " a n c e str a l" w ork s. In th e tim e s in c e th e
p u b lic a tio n o f h i s a r t i c l e , th e l i t e r a t u r e o f lib r a r y
a d m in is tr a tio n h a s d em on strated l i t t l e fu r th e r a c q u a in t
ance w ith o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y . Perhaps th e f i r s t r e a l l y
f a ir t e s t o f t h i s w ill come w ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f a
r e v is e d e d it io n o f one o f th e stan d ard t e x t s m entioned
p r e v io u s ly , or a s p e c ia l is s u e o f a jo u r n a l such as
L ib rary Trends d ev o ted t o a d m in is tr a tio n .
A r e c e n t a r t i c l e by W . Boyd Rayward had th e avowed
purpose " to e x p lo r e th e p o s s ib le a p p lic a t io n s o f o r g a n i
z a tio n th eo ry t o th e stu d y o f l i b r a r i e s ;•* A fte r ch a r a c
t e r i z i n g much p r e se n t-d a y th eo ry a s a m atter o f co n v erg en t
p o in ts o f v ie w , em phases, and a p p ro a ch es, th e author saw
th e lib r a r ia n g a in in g from such th eo ry and r e se a r c h an
u n d ersta n d in g o f th e dynam ics o f form al o r g a n iz a tio n s and
an aw aren ess o f th e com plex o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l phenomena
a f f e c t in g b oth s tr u c t u r e and p r o c e s s . He argued th a t th e
lib r a r ia n n eed s a th e o r y p e r m ittin g him t o work "beyond
p u r e ly d e s c r ip t iv e or p r e s c r ip t iv e a cco u n ts o f lib r a r y
a d m in is tr a tio n ." In s p i t e o f h i s s t a t e d p u rp o se, Rayward
*W. Boyd Rayward, " L ib r a r ie s as O r g a n iz a tio n s ,"
C o lle g e & R esearch L ib r a r ie s , XXX (J u ly , 1 9 6 9 ), 3 1 2 -2 6 .
Rayward was A s s is t a n t P r o fe s so r and P e r io d ic a ls L ib ra ria n
a t C hicago S t a te C o lle g e .
22
d i r e c t l y c i t e d o n ly one o f M arch's " b a sic r e fe r e n c e s" and
one o f th e " a n c e str a l" b o o k s. He u t i l i z e d v a r io u s com pi
l a t io n s o f m a te r ia ls on o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y , in c lu d in g th e
Handbook o f O r g a n iz a tio n s .
A lthough Rayward's p e r c e p tiv e d is c u s s io n was i n t e r
e s t i n g , o n ly a sm a ll p a rt o f i t was r e le v a n t t o th e human
o r g a n iz a tio n a s c o n sid e r e d in th e p r e s e n t r e p o r t. P o in tin g
out th a t l i t t l e i s known about th e in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n
o f th e lib r a r y , he in d ic a te d th a t i t has been t r a d it io n
a l l y regard ed a s a b u reau cracy w ith many o f i t s members
e x h ib it in g " b ureaupathic" b e h a v io r . The r e a l in c id e n c e o f
such b eh a v io r i s n o t known. He co n clu d ed th a t th e i n f o r
mal o r g a n iz a tio n may v er y w e ll have c o n s id e r a b le power in
th e lib r a r y .
Through 1969, th e l i t e r a t u r e o f lib r a r y ad m in i
s t r a t io n showed l i t t l e c o g n iz a n ce o f th e f i e l d o f o r g a n i
z a tio n th e o r y . Some know ledge o f th e c l a s s i c a l sc h o o l was
shown, but th e r e was l i t t l e aw areness o f human r e la t io n s
th e o r y or o f th e more r e c e n t ap p roach es t o o r g a n iz a tio n a l
s t u d i e s . In g e n e r a l, lib r a r ia n s h ip e x h ib ite d a la g o f some
t h ir t y y e a r s in i t s u se o f o r g a n iz a tio n th e o r y .
In th e r e c e n t p a s t , o r g a n iz a t io n a l r e se a r c h h as
been c a r r ie d on w ith in th e c o n t e x ts o f s i x in t e r r e la t e d -
f i e l d s o f i n t e r e s t : s o c io lo g y , a n th r o p o lo g y , management,
23
1
eco n o m ics, p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e , and p sy c h o lo g y . Inasmuch
a s th e in v e s t ig a t io n h e r e in r e p o r te d h as been an a ttem p t
t o e x p lo r e l i b r a r i e s from th e p a r t ic u la r t h e o r e t ic a l
p o in t o f v iew o f R en sis L ik e r t, an e f f o r t t o s y n t h e s iz e
th e e n t ir e f i e l d o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l r e se a r c h was judged to
2
be beyond th e sco p e o f t h is s tu d y . L ik e r t 's book, New
P a tte r n s o f Management, was c o n s id e r e d by March t o be
r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f c u r r e n t o r g a n iz a tio n a l r e se a r c h in th e
f i e l d o f p sy c h o lo g y . T h is work, to g e th e r w ith h is la t e r
b ook , The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , r e p r e s e n ts th e most co m p lete
r e p o r t o f th e s t a t u s o f L ik e r t ’s t h e o r e t ic a l approach t o
d a te , and th ereb y c o n s t i t u t e s a s y n t h e s is o f th e s p e c i f i
c a l l y r e le v a n t p r io r r e se a r c h in o r g a n iz a t io n s . New
P a tte r n s o f Management p ro v id ed a b ib lio g r a p h y o f a p p r o x i
m a tely 364 ite m s . I t in c lu d e d tw e n ty -s ix t i t l e s o f w hich
L ik e r t was e it h e r s o le or j o in t a u th o r , ra n g in g in d a te o f
p u b lic a tio n from 1932 t o 1961. A b ib lio g r a p h y o f 112
ite m s was in c lu d e d in The Human O r g a n iz a tio n . Of t h e s e ,
L ik e r t was s o le or j o in t author o f n in e , p u b lish e d betw een
1932 and 19 6 4 . Some s i x t y - f i v e o f th e 112 ite m s in th e
i
) --------
^March, Handbook o f O r g a n iz a tio n s , p . x .
2The most com prehensive e f f o r t a t such a s y n t h e s is
e x t a n t , M arch's Handbook o f O r g a n iz a tio n s , i s a volum e o f
1 ,2 4 7 p ages in c o r p o r a tin g th e work o f t h ir t y - o n e s c h o la r s
in a d d itio n t o th e e d i t o r .
24
b ib lio g r a p h y bore d a te s o f p u b lic a tio n o f 1961 or l a t e r .
A nother p e r s p e c tiv e on th e p la c e o f L ik e r t 's work
in r e s p e c t t o th e major stream s o f a c t i v i t y in th e d ev elo p
ment o f management th e o r y was p ro v id ed by Warren B en n is,
an other s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g is t who was P r o fe s so r o f O rgani
z a tio n and Management P sy ch o lo g y a t th e M a ssa ch u setts
I n s t it u t e o f T ech n o lo g y , He c h a r a c te r iz e d L ik er t as b ein g
w ith th e " r e v i s i o n i s t s ," th o se who s e e k t o r e v is e th e un
r e a l i s t i c a s p e c ts o f th e human r e la t io n s approach w ith o u t
s a c r i f i c i n g i t s r a d ic a l d ep a rtu re from c l a s s i c a l th e o r y .*
One o f L ik e r t 's major c o n tr ib u tio n s has been in th e
area o f se a r c h in g fo r more s a t i s f a c t o r y c r i t e r i a fo r
measurement o f o r g a n iz a t io n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s than th e t r a
d i t i o n a l perform ance and s a t i s f a c t i o n . He was among th e
le a d e r s in p o in tin g o u t th a t the presum ed (by some)
p o s i t i v e r e la t io n s h ip betw een perform ance and s a t i s f a c t i o n
was an o v e r s im p lifie d view o f r e a l i t y . H is e f f o r t has
been tow ard d e v e lo p in g m u ltip le c r i t e r i a o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,
and in B en n is' judgm ent, h i s work h a s been a s ig n i f i c a n t
c o n tr ib u tio n t o th e stu d y o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s .2
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , B en n is d e s c r ib e d L ik e r t 's work
^Warren G. B e n n is, Changing O r g a n iz a tio n s (New
York: M cGraw-Hill Book C o."]J Inc., 1 9 6 6 ), p . 6 9 ,
2I b i d . . pp . 3 7 -3 9 .
25
as a p p lic a tio n o f Kurt L ew in 's* f i e l d and group t h e o r ie s
t o i n d u s t r ia l o r g a n iz a tio n , show ing th e im portance o f
a f f i l i a t i o n and group b e lo n g in g t o m o tiv a tio n , and s t r e s
s in g th e c r u c ia l r o le o f th e p erson who has m u ltip le group
m em berships. Such a p erson i s in a u n iq u e p o s it io n t o
2
se r v e as a " lin k in g pin" betw een and among g ro u p s.
A ttem pts to e v a lu a te L ik e r t 's work from th e n a r
rower p e r s p e c tiv e o f r e v ie w s o f h i s books were lim it e d by
th e sm a ll amount o f a t t e n t io n th ey r e c e iv e d a t th e hands o f
r ev ie w in g p u b lic a t io n s . R eview s o f th e e a r l i e r book, New
P a tte r n s o f Management, c o u ld n o t be fo u n d . The Human
O r g a n iz a tio n was rev iew ed in S c ie n c e , The American J o u rn a l
o f S o c io lo g y , and The Am erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview .
Andrew E f f r a t o f th e O n ta rio I n s t i t u t e fo r S tu d ie s
in E d u ca tio n , a lth o u g h s p e c i f i c a l l y r e v ie w in g The Human
O r g a n iz a tio n , d e s c r ib e d th e work i t r e p r e se n te d a s among
th o se which "may w e ll mark th e b e g in n in g o f im portant
b rea k th ro u g h s, b oth in our u n d ersta n d in g o f human a c tio n
and in th e lib e r a t io n o f new e n e r g ie s in s o c ie t y ." He was
somewhat c r i t i c a l o f th e m eth od ology, and c o n sid e r e d th e
^Lewin was a major f ig u r e in th e f i e l d o f p sy c h o lo g y
p r io r to h i s d eath in 1947, w h ile he was D ir e c to r o f th e
R esearch C enter fo r Group Dynamics a t th e M a ssa ch u setts
I n s t it u t e o f T ech n o lo g y . E a r lie r he had h e ld p r o f e s s o r
s h ip s a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f B e r lin and th e U n iv e r s ity o f
Iow a.
2B en n is, Changing O r g a n iz a tio n s , p . 186.
26
work t o have been a t o m is t ic , fo c u s in g la r g e ly on s m a ll-
group in t e r a c t io n .*
In The American J o u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , Abraham
Z a le z n ik o f Harvard U n iv e r s ity d ism iss e d The Human O rgan i
z a tio n as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e u se o f s o c i a l s c ie n c e in
th e s e r v ic e o f m yth-m aking. He s t a t e d t h a t th e myth
making c e n te r e d around th e hope o f e q u a liz in g power in
o r g a n iz a tio n s .^
R eview ing The Human O r g a n iz a tio n . James F . S u lliv a n
o f th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia , R iv e r s id e , d e sc r ib e d
L ik e r t 's work in term s o f System 4 , th e id e a l management
sy stem w hich was b e in g e m p ir ic a lly d e r iv e d from th e
management p r a c t ic e s d isc e r n e d in h ig h ly p r o d u c tiv e
o r g a n iz a t io n s . S u lliv a n c o n sid e r e d System 4 t o be a s e t
o f recom m endations and p r in c ip le s fo r m anagers, r a th er
than an a n a l y t i c a l l y d e s c r ip t iv e th e o r y o f o r g a n iz a t io n s .
In s p i t e o f L ik e r t 's s p e c i f i c d isa v o w a l o f th e human
r e l a t i o n s t r a d it io n as su c h , S u lliv a n p la c e d The Human
O r g a n iz a tio n in th a t c a te g o r y o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t u d i e s .3
^Andrew E f f r a t , " D em ocratizin g and P rod u cin g,"
S c ie n c e , CLXII (December 13, 1 9 6 8 ), 1 2 6 0 -6 1 .
o
"Book R eview s," The American J o u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y ,
LXXIII (May, 1 9 6 8 ), 7 7 5 -7 7 .
3"Book R eview s and N o te s," The Am erican P o l i t i c a l
S c ie n c e R eview , LXIII (Ju n e, 1 9 6 9 ), 5 6 4 -6 5 .
A b r i e f summary o f L ik e r t 's th e o r y , w hich e v e n tu
a l l y w i l l f i l l two more books in a d d itio n t o th e two
a lr e a d y p u b lish e d , h as been found t o be e x tre m e ly d i f f i
c u l t w ith o u t s e r io u s d im in u tio n o f th e im pact o f i t s
c l o s e l y rea so n ed c h a r a c t e r . Such a summary h as been
a ttem p ted in th e n e x t ch a p ter o f t h is p a p er. I t has a ls o
in c lu d e d m ention o f th e t h e o r e t ic a l p o s it io n d ev elo p ed by
Mary Parker F o l l e t t . 1 A lthough sh e was n o t n o ted a s a
p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n te c e d e n t o f L ik e r t in th e com m entaries
p r e v io u s ly m en tion ed , h er p la c e in th a t stream o f d e v e lo p
ment has seemed c le a r enough t o m erit a t t e n t io n .
^Mary Parker F o l l e t t was a p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t
w ell-kn ow n in th e -U nited S t a te s and th e U n ited Kingdom in
th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e p r e s e n t c e n tu r y . Her c o l l e c t e d
p a p e r s, p u b lish e d p osthum ously a s Dynamic A d m in is tr a tio n ,
w ere one o f M arch's " a n c e s tr a l” works fo r modern o r g a n i-
z a tio n s t u d i e s . C f . p o s t . p . 2 2 .
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL BASIS FO R THE STUDY
The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s is fo r th e stu d y has been th a t
d ev elo p ed by R e n sis L ik e r t in a lon g c a r e e r as a p s y c h o lo
g i s t , c u lm in a tin g in th e d ir e c t o r s h ip o f th e I n s t i t u t e fo r
S o c ia l R esearch a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f M ich igan . B rin g in g
to g e th e r many stream s o f th ou gh t and th e r e s u lt s o f
numerous e m p ir ic a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , L ik e r t may s c a r c e ly be
s a id t o be an exp on en t o f one p a r t ic u la r p r io r p o in t o f
v ie w . The m a n agerial p h ilo so p h y d ev elo p ed by Mary Parker
F o l l e t t appears t o have had a c o n s id e r a b le in flu e n c e on
L ik e r t* s work.
F o l l e t t was a stu d e n t o f p h ilo so p h y , h is t o r y , and
p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e a c t iv e in s o c i a l work in B oston in the
e a r ly p a rt o f t h i s c e n tu r y . S u b seq u en tly she b u i l t a
r e p u ta tio n a s a th in k e r and w r ite r in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
and in d u s t r ia l management both in th e U n ited S t a t e s and
th e U n ited Kingdom. Her c o l l e c t e d p ap ers were p u b lish e d
p osth u m ou sly a s Dynamic A d m in is tr a tio n .*
She d e v e lo p ed fou r b a s ic p o s it io n s w ith reg a rd to
th e fu n c tio n in g o f o r g a n iz a t io n s . Communication among
*Mary P . F o l l e t t , Dynamic A d m in istr a tio n (B ath ,
E ngland: Management P u b lic a tio n s T r u s t, L td ., 1 9 4 1 ).
28
29
c o lle a g u e s on c o o r d in a te l e v e l s i s as im p ortan t a s com
m u n ication a lo n g v e r t i c a l , h ie r a r c h ic a l l i n e s . The p e o p le
con cern ed w ith a d e c is io n or p o lic y sh o u ld b e in v o lv e d in
th e c o n s id e r a tio n s b e fo r e th e d e c is io n i s made or th e
p o l i c y p rom u lgated , n o t m erely c o n s u lte d on im p lem en tation
a fte r w a r d s . The w orkings o f an o r g a n iz a tio n are v e ry com
p le x , and a l l in t e r r e la t io n s h ip s must be tak en in t o
a c c o u n t. B ecause o f t h is c o m p le x ity , com bined know ledge
and j o in t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y must r e p la c e th e i l l u s o r y co n cep t
o f u ltim a te in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b ased on h ie r a r c h i
c a l p o s i t i o n .
F o l l e t t argued th a t th e work p e o p le do in an organ
i z a t io n sh o u ld be b ased on th e o b j e c t iv e req u irem en ts o f
th e s it u a t io n and n o t on th e whim or judgm ent o f a p a r tic u
la r h ie r a r c h ic a l f ig u r e . The req u irem en ts o f th e s itu a tio n
may be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d eterm in ed o n ly by j o in t stu d y o f
th e f a c t s by a l l co n cern ed , and by b r in g in g o b j e c tiv e
d if f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n and judgm ent i n t o th e op en . T h is
p r o c e s s w ould d e c id e th e s p e c i f i c m is s io n s t o be a s s ig n e d ,
as w e ll as th e a t t i t u d e s o f in d iv id u a ls and groups toward
t h e ir m is s io n s .
Her id ea o f in t e g r a t iv e u n ity d e s c r ib e d above
w ould seem e s p e c i a ll y a p p lic a b le in p red o m in a n tly p r o f e s
s io n a l o r g a n iz a t io n s , such a s l i b r a r i e s . Each p erson
a c c e p ts r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r h i s c o n tr ib u tio n to th e b e s t o f
h i s a b i l i t y , and fu n d a m en ta lly r e c e iv e s h is o rd ers from
30
h i s own and h i s work g ro u p 's p e r c e p tio n s o f what n eed s t o
be d on e.
R en sis L ik e r t 's work m ight be view ed a s e s s e n t i a l l y
an e x te n s io n and ex p a n sio n o f F o l l e t t ' s th e o r y . I t un
d o u b ted ly h as in c o r p o r a te d v a r io u s t h e o r e t ic a l l i n e s o f
d evelop m en t. For exam p le, B ennis view ed i t a s an a p p li
c a tio n o f L ew in 's p s y c h o lo g ic a l f i e l d and group t h e o r ie s
to in d u s t r ia l o r g a n iz a tio n .^ L ik e r t h im s e lf has d e s c r ib e d
i t a s developm ent o f a th eo ry o f o r g a n iz a tio n b ased on th e
p r in c ip le s and p r a c t ic e s o f th e managers who a re a c h ie v in g
th e b e s t r e s u lt s in American b u s in e s s and governm ent.
P a r t ia l t e s t s o f th e th e o r y showed im p ortan t in c r e a s e s in
o r g a n iz a tio n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s and p r o d u c t iv it y , c o u p led
w ith g r e a te r human s a t i s f a c t i o n s fo r th e members. The
fo c u s o f t h e o r e t i c a l developm ent was on b u s in e s s e n t e r
p r i s e s , but th e g e n e r a l p r in c ip le s c o u ld be a p p lie d t o
2
o th er k in d s o f o r g a n iz a t io n s .
The em ergence o f th e management system b e in g u sed
by th e most e f f e c t i v e American m anagers was a c c e le r a t e d by
th e need t o in c r e a s e American p r o d u c t iv it y to rem ain com
p e t i t i v e in w orld m a rk ets. American w orkers w ere becom ing
1 C f . a n t e , p . 1 9 .
^ L ik e r t's m ajor e x p lic a t io n o f h i s th eo ry was made
in New P a tte r n s o f Management. A su b seq u en t book, The
Human O r g a n iz a tio n , p r e se n te d r e fin e m e n ts t o th e th e o r y .
I t was t o be th e f i r s t p a r t o f a t r i l o g y , s e t t i n g f o r th th e
n a tu re o f th e s c ie n c e -b a s e d sy stem o f management in d e t a i l .
C f. a n t e , p . 2 , n o te 1 .
31
l e s s w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t p r e s su r e and c l o s e s u p e r v is io n .
G rea ter in volvem en t in d e c is io n making in hom es, s c h o o ls ,
and com m unities was c r e a t in g th e e x p e c ta tio n o f such i n
volvem en t in work s it u a t io n s as w e l l . The im proving
e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l o f th e work fo r c e a ls o h elp ed t o c r e a te
th e e x p e c ta tio n o f in c r e a s e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a u t h o r it y ,
and incom e. G rea ter em o tio n a l m a tu r ity o f w orkers and
in c r e a s in g con cern fo r t h e ir m en tal h e a lth was n e c e s s i
t a t in g ad justm en t o f management p r a c t ic e t o f i t b e t t e r
t h e ir p e r s o n a lit y n e e d s.
L ik e r t i n i t i a l l y d isc e r n e d two b a s ic management
sy stem s b e in g used in th e U n ited S t a t e s . These were c e n
te r e d on tw o k in d s o f su p e r v is o r y p r a c t ic e w hich he
la b e le d "jo b -c e n te r e d " and " e m p lo y e e-ce n ter e d ." J o b -
c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n made th e p r e c is e d e te rm in a tio n o f the
" b est" way t o perform an o p e r a tio n th e m anager's r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y . T ra in in g was g iv e n o n ly in t h i s "best" way, and
perform ance was e v a lu a te d o n ly in r e la t io n t o d e sig n a te d
ta s k s and s p e c if i e d p r o c e d u r e s. I n c e n tiv e s were in th e
form o f p ie c e wage r a t e s . J o b -c e n te r e d s u p e r v is o r s w ere
found t o be in ch arge o f u n it s p rod u cin g a t a r e l a t i v e l y
low l e v e l .
E m p lo y ee-cen tered s u p e r v is io n in v o lv e d g iv in g p r i
mary a t t e n t io n t o th e human a s p e c ts o f s u b o r d in a te s'
p ro b lem s. A str o n g e f f o r t was made to b u ild e f f e c t i v e
work groups w ith h ig h perform ance g o a ls . U n its in w hich
32
t h i s ty p e o f s u p e r v is io n p r e v a ile d produced a t a compara
t i v e l y h ig h l e v e l .
S ig n if ic a n t f a c t o r s in s u p e r v is io n w ere found to
in c lu d e m utual c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t betw een s u p e r v is o r and
s u b o r d in a te s , su p e r v is o r y a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r , a se n se
o f freedom on th e p a rt o f s u b o r d in a te s , p eer group lo y a lt y ,
and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f com m unication. The s u p e r v is o r 's
s k i l l in s u p e r v is in g h is su b o r d in a te s a s a group was an
im p ortan t v a r ia b le in s u c c e s s f u l s u p e r v is io n .
H igh p r o d u c t iv it y m ight be a c h ie v e d by jo b -c e n te r e d
s u p e r v is io n w ith v ery t ig h t c o n t r o l s . I t ten d ed t o be
accom panied by e x c e s s iv e w a ste and scx<»p l o s s , s u b s t a n t ia l
em ployee tu r n o v e r, much h o s t i l i t y tow ard management w ith
many g r ie v a n c e s g o in g t o a r b it r a t io n , and fr e q u e n t slo w
downs and work s to p p a g e s . On th e o th er hand, h ig h p r o - .,
d u c t iv it y was n o t n e c e s s a r ily a c h ie v e d w ith em p lo y ee-
c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n u n le s s th e group members s e t h ig h
perform ance g o a ls fo r th e m s e lv e s, a s a r e s u lt o f e f f e c t i v e
s u p e r v is o r y le a d e r s h ip arid g en u in e in v o lv em en t in d e c is io n
m aking.
T hese s it u a t io n s ten d ed t o be c o n fu se d and ob scured
by m easuring o n ly end r e s u l t s , and th o s e over a sh o r t
p e r io d o f tim e . I t was found t h a t th e v a r ia b le s r e f l e c t i v e
o f th e in t e r n a l s t a t e o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n , such as lo y a l t y ,
m o tiv a tio n , c a p a c ity fo r e f f e c t i v e in t e r a c t io n , communi
c a t io n , and d e c is io n making m ust be m easured t o o b ta in
33
adequate in fo r m a tio n . I f th e s e in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s , as
L ik e r t c a l l e d them , w ere r e g u la r ly m easured, t h e ir r e l a
t io n s h ip s t o th e end r e s u l t s m ight show th e tr u e s t a t e o f
th e o r g a n iz a tio n . I f th e human a s s e t s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n
were b ein g liq u id a t e d by jo b -c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n in ord er
to im prove end r e s u l t s , th e in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s m ight
in d ic a te th e p ro b a b le s e v e r e lon g run l o s s to t h e e n t e r
p r is e from c o n tin u in g such s u p e r v iso r y p r a c t i c e s .
The tim e p e r io d over which m easurem ents w ere taken
was found t o be h ig h ly s ig n i f i c a n t in a v o id in g m isle a d in g
in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f r e su lts.'* ' Changing tow ard em p lo y ee-
c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n m ight n o t c r e a te g r e a t ly im proved end
r e s u lt s f o r a c o n s id e r a b le tim e, e s p e c i a l l y i f th e jo b -
c e n te r e d p r a c t ic e s had been u sed over an ex ten d ed p e r io d .
Improvements w ould f i r s t be m a n ife ste d in m easurem ents o f
th e in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s . As th e im provem ents in i n t e r
p e r so n a l s k i l l s and group m o tiv a tio n s shown by th e s e
m easurem ents w ould c o n tin u e , end r e s u lt im provem ents would
e v e n t u a lly ap p ea r.
On th e o th e r hand, improvement in end r e s u lt s by
a p p lic a tio n o f s tr o n g jo b -c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n m ight be
im m ed iate. The in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s w ould soon show
d e t e r io r a t io n , and by th e seco n d or t h ir d y e a r , end
^ R ensis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , p p . 7 8 -1 0 0 .
34
r e s u lt s would d e c r e a s e . P robab ly by th e m id d le o f th e
t h ir d y e a r , management w ould b e fo r c e d by la b o r d i f f i
c u l t i e s , tu r n o v e r , sc r a p l o s s , and d e c r e a se d custom er
s a t i s f a c t i o n , t o red u ce p r e ssu r e fo r h igh p r o d u ctio n and
low c o s t s . However, l i t t l e im m ediate improvement w ould be
l i k e l y . The d e t e r io r a t in g tren d in in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s
w ould be slow t o r e v e r s e , and improvement w ould become
apparent o n ly v e r y g r a d u a lly .
Three or four y e a r s m ight be r eq u ir ed sim p ly to
work out the m ost s a t i s f a c t o r y arrangem ents fo r a p p lic a
t io n o f a management sy stem in c o r p o r a tin g em p loyee-
c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n and o th e r a s p e c ts o f a s c ie n c e -b a s e d
sy stem a s esp o u sed by L ik e r t. An a d d itio n a l f i v e y ea rs
p rob ab ly would be n e c e s sa r y t o a c h ie v e f u l l - s c a l e a p p li
c a tio n and optimum r e s u lt s from i t .
As n o ted p r e v io u s ly , th e s e tw o p a tte r n s o f su p er
v i s i o n , jo b -c e n te r e d and e m p lo y e e -c e n te r e d , were a t th e
h e a r t o f two management sy stem s w hich had p a r a l l e l d e v e lo p
ment in American b u s in e s s . The jo b -o r g a n iz a tio n sy stem ,
b a sed on jo b -c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n and r ig o r o u s u se o f
s c i e n t i f i c management te c h n iq u e s , ten d ed t o d ev e lo p where
r e p e t i t i v e work p red o m in a tes. The c o o p e r a tiv e -m o tiv a tio n
sy stem , u t i l i z i n g em p lo y e e -c en ter ed s u p e r v is io n and a h igh
l e v e l o f m o tiv a tio n r a th e r than te c h n iq u e s o f s c i e n t i f i c
management, a r o s e where v a r ie d work p red o m in a tes.
35
An attem p t to in t e g r a t e th e s e two sy ste m s, and
a c h ie v e many o f th e b e n e f it s o f b o th , was made in a mana
g e r i a l p r o c e s s c a lle d work s im p l i f i c a t i o n . In t h i s method,
an e f f o r t was made to d e v e lo p a g e n u in e ly p a r t ic ip a t iv e
s it u a t io n in w hich b oth s u b o r d in a te s and s u p e r v is o r s
j o i n t l y se e k t o a p p ly th e m ethods o f s c i e n t i f i c management.
The th r u s t was t o d e v e lo p c o o p e r a tiv e team s w ith in th e
o r g a n iz a tio n , in s te a d o f a c o l l e c t i o n o f m in ia tu re k in g
doms c a l l e d dep artm en ts or d i v i s i o n s which c h a r a c te r iz e d
many e n t e r p r is e s . S o - c a lle d c o n s u lt a t iv e management, in
w hich su b o r d in a te s were g iv e n an o p p o r tu n ity fo r e x p r e s
s io n b u t were n o t t r u ly in v o lv e d in d e c is io n m aking, was
found to p ro v id e an i n s u f f i c i e n t amount o f p a r t ic ip a t io n
t o b rin g about optimum b e n e f it s o f work s im p l i f i c a t i o n .
A ctu a l p a r t ic ip a t io n by su b o r d in a te s in d e c is io n making
came t o be regard ed as v i t a l t o s u c c e s s f u l in te g r a tio n o f
th e jo b -o r g a n iz a tio n and c o o p e r a tiv e -m o tiv a tio n s y ste m s ,
a c h ie v in g d e s ir a b le outcom es o f b o th .
T ra in in g o f managers in human r e la t io n s s k i l l s was
o fte n d is a p p o in tin g . One o f th e p ro b a b le rea so n s was
dependence on a s e t o f r u le s fo r s u p e r v is io n a lle g e d ly
"proper" fo r a l l s i t u a t i o n s . The su p e r v is o r y p r o c e s s i s
much to o com plex t o be c o v ered by one s e t o f p r e s c r ip t iv e
r u l e s . Another rea so n was fr e q u e n t d is c r e p a n c ie s in p e r
c e p tio n o f su p e r v iso r y b eh a v io r by th e s u p e r v is o r and by
th e s u b o r d in a te s . The s u b o r d in a te s ' resp o n se i s n o t
d eterm in ed s o l e l y by th e s u p e r v iso r y a c t . I t i s g r e a t ly
in flu e n c e d a l s o by h i s e x p e c t a t io n s , v a lu e s , and i n t e r
p e r so n a l s k i l l . The same c o u ld be s a id fo r th e su p e r
v i s o r ' s r e sp o n se t o th e a c t o f a s u b o r d in a te .
I t was d em on strated t h a t in d iv id u a l m o tiv a tio n s
w ith in an o r g a n iz a tio n a re most l i k e l y to be cu m u la tiv e
and r e in f o r c in g when in t e r a c t io n s ten d t o p ro v id e a
f e e l i n g o f su p p ort and r e c o g n itio n o f th e i n d iv id u a l's
im portance and v a lu e as a p e r s o n . T h is p ro v id ed th e b a s is
fo r L ik e r t 's e n u n c ia tio n o f th e c e n t r a l p r in c ip le w hich
managers o f h ig h p rod u cin g u n it s a p p lie d , c a l l e d the p r in
c i p l e o f s u p p o r tiv e r e la t io n s h ip s : "The le a d e r s h ip and
o th er p r o c e s s e s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n must be such as t o
en su re a maximum p r o b a b ilit y th a t in a l l in t e r a c t io n s and
a l l r e la t io n s h ip s w ith th e o r g a n iz a tio n ea ch member w i l l ,
in th e l i g h t o f h is background, v a lu e s , and e x p e c t a t io n s ,
view th e e x p e r ie n c e a s s u p p o r tiv e and one which b u ild s and
m a in ta in s h i s s e n se o f p e r so n a l w orth and im p o rta n ce." *
B ecause o f th e c r u c ia l im portance o f th e work group
to e f f e c t i v e a p p lic a tio n o f t h i s p r in c ip le , L ik e r t ad vo
c a te d than an o r g a n iz a tio n sh o u ld d e lib e r a t e ly s e e k t o
d e v e lo p groups ca p a b le o f in t e r a c t in g e f f e c t i v e l y , and
h avin g str o n g group l o y a lt y and h ig h perform ance g o a ls .
* R en sis L ik e r t, New P a tte r n s o f Management, p . 103.
37
These groups must be lin k e d to g e th e r by p erso n s h o ld in g
m u ltip le m em berships.
The problem o f c o o r d in a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n it s
d e sig n e d on th e b a s is o f fu n c tio n had alw ays been d i f f i
c u l t . The econom ies o f la r g e s c a le o p e r a tio n and new
t e c h n o lo g ic a l d evelop m en ts ten d ed to d ic t a t e f u n c tio n a l
o r g a n iz a t io n . B ecause th e problem o f e f f e c t i v e c o o r d i
n a tio n was so d i f f i c u l t , v a r io u s m easures o f d e c e n t r a li
z a tio n were t r i e d in e f f o r t s t o m it ig a t e th e d i f f i c u l t y .
T h is approach was found to be in a d eq u a te fo r b oth b u s in e s s
and governm ent a g e n c ie s . L ik e r t e x p r e s se d doubt th a t a
s a t i s f a c t o r y s o lu t io n t o such problem s m ight be found so
lo n g a s adherence to t r a d it i o n a l t h e o r ie s o f o r g a n iz a tio n
was r e t a in e d .
At l e a s t four c o n d itio n s must be p r e s e n t fo r s a t i s
fa c to r y c o o r d in a tio n o f a f u n c tio n a lly -o r g a n iz e d e n t e r
p r i s e . High l e v e l s o f c o o p e r a tio n , both v e r t i c a l l y and
h o r iz o n t a lly , must e x i s t . Both th e in t e r a c t io n s k i l l s o f
th e members and th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e must be such
as t o p erm it r e s o lu t io n o f d if f e r e n c e s e f f e c t i v e l y . I t
must be p o s s ib le t o e x e r t in flu e n c e w ith o u t s o le depend
en ce uoon l i n e a u t h o r it y . The worker must be a b le t o
perform w ith o u t fe a r when he has two or more s u p e r v is o r s .
The work groups c o n s t it u t in g th e o r g a n iz a tio n must
fu n c tio n e f f e c t i v e l y a s g ro u p s, and th ey must o v e r la p in
ord er t o a c h ie v e s a t i s f a c t o r y c o o r d in a tio n . In o th e r
38
w ords, v a r io u s members o f each group must h o ld m u ltip le
m em berships, and s e r v e to lin k th e grou p s to g e th e r . T h is
lin k in g fu n c tio n may be se r v e d v e r t i c a l l y by means o f
s u p e r io r s h o ld in g membership in h ig h e r l e v e l m an agerial
g ro u p s. For h o r iz o n ta l c o o r d in a tio n , su b o r d in a te members
o f th e r e s p e c t iv e groups sh o u ld p ro v id e th e lin k in g
f u n c tio n . Both or a l l o f th e lin k e d groups must u t i l i z e
group p r o c e s s e s fo r d e c is io n making in order t o r e s o lv e
d i f f e r e n c e s . F a ilu r e t o r e s o lv e d if f e r e n c e s and th u s
c o o r d in a te s a t i s f a c t o r i l y would in d ic a t e to h ig h er groups
th a t th e se groups p erform in g u n s a t i s f a c t o r i ly need fu r th e r
t r a in in g in group p r o c e s s e s .
In th e s e c a s e s o f h o r iz o n ta l o v e r la p , th e lin k in g
su b o rd in a te w ould h a v e, in e f f e c t , two or more s u p e r io r s .
One su p e r io r sh o u ld be d e s ig n a te d t o a c t in p e r so n n e l
m a tters such a s s a la r y r e v ie w . In t h i s s it u a t io n th e
o r g a n iz a tio n a l atm osphere would a lm o st c e r t a in ly be such
th a t su p e r v is o r y ju dgm en ts, in any e v e n t , w ould n o t d i f f e r
s u b s t a n t i a l l y .
L ik e r t 's p r e s e n ta tio n in c lu d e d c o n s id e r a b le ex p o
s i t i o n o f th e n a tu r e o f a h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e g r o u p .* He
i d e n t i f i e d tw e n ty -fo u r p r o p e r tie s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
an id e a l work grou p . R o les in su ch a group were
1I b id . . p p . 1 6 2 -7 7 .
c l a s s i f i e d in t o ta sk and b u ild in g -m a in te n a n c e r o l e s .
S im ila r ly , he d e v e lo p e d an id e a l m odel o f an in t e r a c t i o n -
in flu e n c e sy stem fo r an o r g a n iz a tio n , o u t lin in g t h ir t e e n
o p e r a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . These p o r tio n s o f h is th e o r y
have n o t been d e t a il e d h e r e , n o t b e in g im m ed iately r e le v a n t
to th e o b j e c t iv e s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . They have been
m entioned to in d ic a t e th e f u ll n e s s o f h is t h e o r e t ic a l
s tr u c tu r e and th e c a r e u n d erly in g th e develop m ent o f t h i s
s tr u c t u r e .
In s tu d y in g th e p a tte r n s o f management p r a c t ic e d in
American b u s in e s s and governm ent, L ik er t e v e n t u a lly came
to d is c e r n fo u r sy stem s o f o r g a n iz a tio n : " e x p lo it a t iv e
a u t h o r it a t iv e ," " b en ev o len t a u t h o r it a t iv e ," " c o n s u lta tiv e ,"
and " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group." He co n clu d ed th a t th e se
system s showed in t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y and formed an o r d e r ly
p a tte r n a lo n g a continuum . Each sy stem r e q u ir e d p a r tic u la r
p e r s o n a l i t i e s , s k i l l s , and ways o f i n t e r a c t in g . For
exam ple, a u th o r ita r ia n o r g a n iz a tio n s r e q u ir ed a p redom i
nance o f d ependent p e r s o n a l i t i e s , w h ile p a r t ic ip a t iv e
o r g a n iz a tio n s r e q u ir e d e m o tio n a lly mature p e r s o n a l i t i e s .
S im ila r ly , each system ten d ed to produce p erso n s s u it e d to
fu n c tio n w e ll w ith in i t . An a u th o r ita r ia n sy stem ten d ed
t o d e v elo p dependent members and few le a d e r s . P a r t i c i
p a tiv e sy stem s ten d ed t o d e v e lo p e m o tio n a lly and s o c i a l l y
mature p erso n s c a p a b le o f show ing i n i t i a t i v e and le a d e r
s h ip , and o f e f f e c t i v e in t e r a c t io n .
40
The p a r t ic u la r groups o f v a r ia b le s i d e n t i f i e d in
c o n n e c tio n w ith t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l
sy stem s w ere: c h a r a c te r o f th e m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s , com
m u n ica tio n , in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e , and d e c is io n making
p r o c e s s e s ; g o a l s e t t i n g or o r d e r in g ; c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s ;
and perform ance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
A fte r s e v e r a l y e a rs o f fu r th e r s tu d y , th e ty p o lo g y
o f sy stem s was changed as f o llo w s : " e x p lo it a t iv e a u th o r i
t a t iv e " became "System 1"; " b e n e v o le n t a u th o r ita tiv e "
became "System 2"; " c o n s u lta tiv e " became "System 3"; and
" p a r t ic ip a t iv e group" became "System 4 ." The groups o f
v a r ia b le s rem ained s u b s t a n t ia lly s im ila r . O r g a n iz a tio n a l
a s p e c ts co v ered became: le a d e r s h ip p r o c e s s e s u sed ; the
c h a r a c te r o f th e m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s , com m unication,
in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e , and d e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s ; g o a l
s e t t i n g or o r d e r in g ; c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s ; and perform ance
g o a ls and t r a in in g .
The expanded and r e f in e d v e r s io n o f th e ty p o lo g y
o f management sy stem s was r e t i t l e d " P r o f ile o f O rgani
z a t io n a l C h a r a c t e r is t ic s ." I t has p ro v id ed th e b a s is f o r
th e in stru m en t d e v ise d to i n v e s t i g a t e management system s
in l i b r a r i e s fo r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH DESIGN
As p r e v io u s ly s t a t e d , the p urpose o f t h i s i n v e s t i
g a tio n was t o e x p lo r e th e n a tu re o f C a lifo r n ia academ ic
and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s a s human o r g a n iz a tio n s , u s in g an
a d a p ta tio n o f R en sis L ik e r t 's " P r o file o f O r g a n iz a tio n a l
C h a r a c t e r is t ic s ." The fo llo w in g item s h ave been in c lu d e d
in t h i s c h a p te r : (1 ) d e s c r ip t io n o f th e p o p u la tio n to
w hich in fe r e n c e s a re made; (2 ) th e method o f sam pling th a t
p o p u la tio n ; (3 ) th e n a tu re o f the d a ta -g a th e r in g in s t r u
ment; and (4) d e s c r ip t io n o f the d a ta -g a th e r in g a c t i v i t y .
The P o p u la tio n
The p o p u la tio n c o n s is t e d o f a l l academ ic and p u b lic
l i b r a r i e s whose s t a f f s were la r g e enough t o c o n s t it u t e a
"human o r g a n iz a tio n ," and p h y s ic a lly lo c a te d in C a lifo r n ia .
L ik e r t in d ic a te d th a t h is " P r o file " w ould be a r e l i a b l e
in d ic a to r o f t h e n a tu r e o f th e management system o f any
o r g a n iz a tio n w hich h a s a t l e a s t a minimum amount o f c o n tr o l
or c o o r d in a t io n .1 . T h e r e fo r e , th e minimum s t a f f s i z e c o n
s id e r e d t o be a p a rt o f th e p o p u la tio n f o r th e p r e se n t
in v e s t ig a t io n was s e t as th r e e f u ll- t im e - e q u iv a le n t
^-Rensis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , p . 12 2 .
41
42
p o s i t i o n s . A lthough th e r e i s n o th in g m agic about th e
number th r e e , i t was judged th a t in a t y p ic a l lib r a r y e n
viron m en t, a t l e a s t th r e e p erso n s would n eed to be
in v o lv e d to c r e a t e th e m inim al l e v e l o f c o n tr o l or c o o r d i
n a tio n s p e c if i e d by L ik e r t.
Taking in t o accou n t th a t low er li m i t a t i o n , th e
p o p u la tio n o f academ ic l i b r a r i e s in t h i s stu d y in c lu d e d
a l l th o se r e p o r tin g in th e 1965-66 L ib rary S t a t i s t i c s o f
C o lle g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s .* A few a d d itio n a l l i b r a r i e s
were added to t h i s group from the American L ib rary
D i r e c t o r y . 3 A t o t a l o f 144 academ ic l i b r a r i e s was in clu d e d
in th e p o p u la tio n a s f i n a l l y c o n s t it u t e d . The p o p u la tio n
o f p u b lic l i b r a r i e s , ta k in g in t o accou n t th e minimum
s t a f f s i z e l i m i t a t i o n , was a s i t e x is t e d d u rin g th e f i s c a l
year 1 9 6 6 /6 7 , r e p o r te d in NNCL. 3 A t o t a l o f 167 l i b r a r i e s
was in c lu d e d in t h i s p o p u la tio n .
The t o t a l p o p u la tio n , t h e r e fo r e , c o n s is t e d o f 311
l i b r a r i e s , 4 6 .3 per c e n t b e in g academ ic and 5 3 .7 p er c e n t
b ein g p u b lic . The m ost r e le v a n t d im ension o f th e s e o r g a n i
z a tio n s was s t a f f s i z e . In th e c a s e o f academ ic l i b r a r i e s ,
^L ibrary S t a t i s t i c s o f C o lle g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s ,
1965-66 I n s t i t u t i o n a l Data (C h icago: American L ib rary
A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 6 7 ).
2American L ib ra ry D ir e c to r y (26th e d .; New York:
R. R. Bowker C o ., 1 9 6 8 ).
^NNCL: News N o tes o f C a lifo r n ia L ib r a r ie s , L X III,
No. 1 (1 9 6 6 ).
43
t h is ran ged from th e a r b itr a r y low er li m i t o f th r e e
p o s it io n s t o 3 8 7 .2 f u ll - t im e - e q u iv a le n t p o s i t i o n s . The
s t a f f s i z e range fo r th e p u b lic l i b r a r i e s was from th r e e
t o 1 ,0 8 5 f u ll- t im e - e q u iv a le n t p o s i t i o n s . Each lib r a r y ,
r e g a r d le s s o f s i z e , c o n s t it u t e d a human o r g a n iz a tio n fo r
th e p u rp o ses o f t h is i n v e s t i g a t i o n . O b v io u sly , th e o n ly
f e a s i b l e way t o le a r n t h e ir c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s was through
th e p e r c e p tio n s o f t h e ir members.
The Sample
The w r ite r was w e ll aware o f th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f
o b ta in in g a p r o b a b ilit y sam p le, inasm uch a s th e dependa
b i l i t y o f in fe r e n c e s from th e sam ple t o th e p o p u la tio n i s
h e a v ily dependent on t h i s . S in c e o n ly co m p a ra tiv e ly
lim it e d r e s o u r c e s w ere a v a ila b le fo r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
and b eca u se o f the t o t a l dependence on th e good w i l l o f
q u e s tio n n a ir e r e c ip ie n t s to p ro v id e r e s p o n s e s , th e l i k e l i
hood o f a d h erin g r ig o r o u s ly t o a p r o b a b ilit y sam pling p la n
was e a r ly r e c o g n iz e d a s alm ost n i l . The hope was to
o b ta in a co m p a r a tiv e ly la r g e and r e p r e s e n ta t iv e nonproba
b i l i t y sam p le, which w ould p erm it th e h y p o th e s iz in g o f
in fe r e n c e s t o th e p o p u la tio n from th e d a ta , but w ith o u t
th e a b i l i t y t o s t a t e l e v e l s o f c o n fid e n c e and s im ila r
in d ic a to r s o f s tr e n g th p e r m itte d by th e u se o f th e p a ra
m e tr ic s t a t i s t i c a l m odel.
The p o p u la tio n o f o r g a n iz a tio n s was d e fin a b le and
o f w orkable s i z e , so i t was d eterm in ed th a t an e f f o r t
w ould be made t o query e v e r y elem en t o f th e p o p u la tio n .
B u t, as L ik er t and o th e r s have p o in te d o u t, p e r c e p tio n s
o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may vary m arkedly among
th e members. I t was judged n e c e s s a r y to o b ta in m u ltip le
r e sp o n se s from ea ch o r g a n iz a tio n i f a v iew o f i t s c h a r a c
t e r were t o be r e a so n a b ly r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f th e d i f f e r i n g
p e r c e p tio n s . The in v e s t ig a t o r fu r th e r deemed i t l i k e l y
t h a t , i f d i f f e r i n g p e r c e p tio n s d id e x i s t , th ey m ight
r e f l e c t th e r e sp o n d e n ts' r e l a t i v e l e v e l s in th e o r g a n i
z a t io n a l h ie r a r c h y . As a co n seq u e n ce, th e r e sp o n se s
sough t were s t r a t i f i e d in th r e e l e v e l s : to p ech elo n
management, m iddle e c h e lo n management (in th o se o r g a n i
z a t io n s h a v in g such a l e v e l ) , and e s s e n t i a l l y non
manager i a l .
The number o f sm a ll l i b r a r i e s in th e p o p u la tio n was
c o n s id e r a b ly g r e a te r th an th e number o f la r g e o n e s . As a
co n seq u en ce, i f o r g a n iz a tio n a l s i z e was a f a c t o r i n f l u
e n c in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an d /or t h e ir p e r c e p tio n , se e k in g
an eq u a l number o f r e sp o n se s from ea ch o r g a n iz a tio n
r e g a r d le s s o f s i z e w ould have in tro d u ce d a b ia s fa v o r in g
th e sm a ller o n e s . On th e o th e r hand, an e f f o r t t o o b ta in
a resp o n se from e v e r y in d iv id u a l in a l l l i b r a r i e s would
have in tro d u ce d a b ia s fa v o r in g th e la r g e r o n e s . F u rth e r
more, th e number o f p o s s ib le r e sp o n se s in v o lv e d in such an
45
approach ex ceed ed th e r e s o u r c e s o f th e in v e s t ig a t o r t o
s e e k or to h a n d le . A r a t io n a l b a s is fo r a v o id in g th e
b ia s e s o f e it h e r ex tre m e , w h ile s ta y in g w ith in a v a ila b le
c a p a b i l i t i e s , was s o u g h t.
The number o f to p e c h e lo n m anagers1 was judged t o
eq u a te c l o s e l y w ith th e number o f l i b r a r i e s in v o lv e d . As
a r e s u l t , one re sp o n se from t h is h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l was
sou gh t fo r each o r g a n iz a t io n . In c o n t r a s t , n o t a l l
2
l i b r a r i e s had m iddle e c h e lo n m anagers, and even th o se
l i b r a r i e s h av in g such a l e v e l d id n o t have a la r g e number
o f such p o s i t i o n s . One resp o n se from t h i s l e v e l was
sou gh t from th e o r g a n iz a tio n s a p p a r e n tly h avin g such
p o s i t i o n s •
The m a jo r ity o f p o s it io n s was e s s e n t i a l l y n on-
m a n a g eria l, th a t i s , n o t in e it h e r c a te g o r y m entioned
a b o v e. T h is c a te g o r y in c lu d e d c l e r i c a l and s u b p r o fe s
s io n a l em p lo y ees, in a d d itio n to th o se p r o f e s s io n a l
p o s it io n s a t a r e l a t i v e l y low rank in th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l
h ie r a r c h y . I t was in t h i s a rea th a t an e f f o r t had t o be
made t o a v o id undue b ia s toward e it h e r th e sm a ller or
la r g e r l i b r a r i e s .
*Head or a s s o c i a t e / a s s i s t a n t lib r a r ia n s .
^ P o s itio n s p r im a r ily r e s p o n s ib le fo r c o o r d in a tio n
o f work groups r a th e r than d ir e c t su p e r v is io n o f the
a c t i v i t i e s o f in d iv id u a l w o rk ers.
46
In a d is t r ib u t io n o f th e p o p u la tio n ranked
a c co r d in g t o s t a f f s i z e , i t appeared t h a t th e a v erage
in c r e m e n ta l in c r e a s e fo r each lib r a r y (from lo w e st to
h ig h e s t ) approxim ated th r e e and t h r e e - t e n t h s p o s it io n s fo r
th e academ ic l i b r a r i e s , and two and o n e - h a lf p o s it io n s fo r
th e p u b lic l i b r a r i e s * 1 As th e number o f o r g a n iz a tio n s i n
c r e a s e d by in crem en ts o f on e, th e number o f p o s it io n s i n
c r e a s e d on th e a v era g e by the in crem en ts s t a t e d above*
The ran ges o f th e d is t r ib u t io n s were g r e a t , but th e
m edians w ere low , b ein g a p p ro x im a tely n in e and th r e e -
te n th s fo r th e academ ic l i b r a r i e s , and s ix t e e n fo r the
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s .
R easoning th a t th e o r g a n iz a tio n and th e d a ta -
g a th e r in g in stru m en t w ere the b a s i c , i n d i v i s i b l e u n i t s ,
th e in v e s t ig a t o r sought one resp o n se from a n on -m an agerial
em ployee in each lib r a r y ran k in g below th e m edian. The
upper h a lf o f each d is t r ib u t io n was th en ro u g h ly c a t e
g o r iz e d so th a t a r a t io ap p roxim atin g one t o th r e e e x is t e d
betw een c a t e g o r i e s . The r e s u lt in g fo u r c a t e g o r ie s , th a t
i s , one b elow th e median and th r e e a b o v e, w ere s e n t
q u e s tio n n a ir e s fo r n o n -m a n a g eria l em p loyees in q u a n t it ie s
o f o n e , tw o, fo u r , and sev en r e s p e c t i v e l y . Working w ith
l-For p u b lic l i b r a r i e s , th e two h ig h e s t v a lu e s w ere
o m itte d in a r r iv in g a t t h i s f ig u r e b eca u se o f t h e ir
r a d ic a l d ep a rtu re from th e tren d o f th e rem ainder o f th e
d i s t r i b u t i o n .
47
in te g e r s o f one d i g i t made i t e x c e e d in g ly d i f f i c u l t to
p ro v id e in crem en ta l in c r e a s e s g r e a te r than one but l e s s
than a g eo m etric p r o g r e s s io n , so th e s e q u a n t it ie s n e c e s
s a r il y r e p r e se n te d cru d e a p p ro x im a tio n s.
The D a ta -G a th erin g Instrum ent
The in stru m en t u sed t o g a th er th e d a ta was an
a d a p ta tio n o f th e " P r o file o f O r g a n iz a tio n a l C h a r a c te r is
t ic s " g iv e n in L ik e r t 's The Human O r g a n iz a tio n . 1 T h is was
an expanded and r e f in e d v e r s io n o f h is e a r l i e r "O rgani
z a t io n a l and Perform ance C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f D if f e r e n t
2
Management System s B ased on a C om parative A n a ly s is ."
V ariou s p ro ced u res u se d in th e developm ent and refin em en t
3
p r o c e ss w ere d is c u s s e d in The Human O r g a n iz a tio n .
B ecause o f th e r e l a t i v e u n f a m ilia r it y o f many
lib r a r y p e r so n n e l w ith th e term in o lo g y u sed in management
and b e h a v io r a l s c ie n c e l i t e r a t u r e , th e w r ite r sough t t o
adapt th e m a te r ia l t o lib r a r y te rm in o lo g y a s much as
p o s s i b l e , w h ile le a v in g th e language o f th e r e sp o n se s
e s s e n t i a l l y unchanged to m in im ize th e p o s s ib le im pact o f
th e changes on the v a lid a t io n p ro ced u res L ik e r t had p e r
form ed. A cop y o f th e in str u m e n t, in c lu d in g i t s c o v e r in g
^ R ensis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , pp. 19 6 -2 1 1 .
^ R en sis L ik e r t, New P a tte r n s o f Management,
p p . 2 2 3 -3 3 .
O
■^Rensis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , pp. 1 1 7 -2 2 .
48
l e t t e r s o f e x p la n a tio n , has b een p ro v id ed in Appendix A .
The v a r ia b le s from th e " P r o f ile ” were r e c o n s t it u t e d in t o
q u e s t io n s , and o n ly minor ch a n g es were made in th e r e s
p o n se s , such as s u b s t it u t io n o f " lib r a r y " fo r " o rg a n i
z a tio n ."
The " P r o file " c o n ta in e d f i f t y - o n e e lem en ts in
e ig h t g ro u p in g s: le a d e r s h ip p r o c e s s e s u se d , c h a r a c te r o f
m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s , com m unication p r o c e s s , in t e r a c t io n -
in flu e n c e p r o c e s s , d e c is io n making p r o c e s s , g o a l s e t t i n g
or o r d e r in g , c o n tr o l p r o c e s s e s , and perform ance g o a ls and
t r a in in g . In a d d itio n , th e p r e s e n t w r ite r added two
q u e s t io n s , se e k in g t o e x p lo r e th e a p p a r en tly w id ely p e r
c e iv e d r iv a lr y betw een t e c h n ic a l and p u b lic s e r v ic e
ele m en ts o f lib r a r y s t a f f s . The f i n a l in stru m en t u sed had
f i f t y - t h r e e q u e s t io n s . L ik e r t 's e ig h t g ro u p in g s, as w e ll
as th e one added, were i m p l i c i t , but th e r e sp o n d e n t's
a t t e n t io n was n o t p a r t ic u la r ly c a l l e d t o them by form at
or o th e r m eans.
One fe a tu r e o f L ik e r t 's " P r o file " which had o b v io u s
im p lic a tio n s fo r th e n a tu re o f th e d ata was n o t u se d .
T h is was a continuum fo r th e r e sp o n se s t o each q u e s tio n ,
a p p a r e n tly in ten d e d to g iv e th e s c a le o f e s s e n t i a l l y fo u r
r e sp o n se s th e c h a r a c te r o f an in t e r v a l s c a l e . T h is
f e a tu r e was n ot in c o r p o r a te d i n t o th e in stru m en t fo r
s e v e r a l r e a s o n s. Forem ost was th e i n v e s t i g a t o r 's judgment
49
t h a t , a lth o u g h th e p o s s ib le r e sp o n se s w ere c l e a r l y o r d in a l
in c h a r a c te r , no g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d , w id e ly r e c o g n iz e d
q u a n t it a t iv e u n it o f measurement e x i s t e d fo r them . Lacking
such a u n it o f m easu re, i t seemed th a t an unw arranted
appearance o f p r e c is io n o f measurement would be in tro d u c ed
in t o th e d a ta by an in t e r v a l s c a l e . An a d d itio n a l rea so n
fo r d e le t in g th e continuum fe a tu r e was th a t th e in v o lv e d
e x p la n a tio n i t s u se w ould n e c e s s i t a t e w ould i n h i b it r e s
p on d en ts from co m p le tin g th e a lr e a d y lo n g and com plex
q u e s t io n n a ir e .
The in v e s t ig a t o r r e a liz e d , o f c o u r s e , th a t t r e a t in g
th e re sp o n se s c a le a s o r d in a l r a th e r than in t e r v a l removed
any p o s s i b i l i t y o f u se o f p a ra m etric s t a t i s t i c s in a n a ly
s i s . H ence, th e sm a ll lik e lih o o d o f o b ta in in g a prob a
b i l i t y sam ple co u p le d w ith th e la c k o f a g e n e r a lly a c c e p
te d u n it o f m easure fo r th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s under
c o n s id e r a tio n seemed t o p reclu d e th e u se o f such a n a ly t ic a l
te c h n iq u e s •
G a th erin g th e Data
D uring February and March o f 1969, a t o t a l o f
1 ,0 8 7 q u e s tio n n a ir e s was s e n t to 311 l i b r a r i e s , a n t i c i
p a tin g a p o s s i b i l i t y o f 311 r e sp o n se s from top e c h e lo n
m anagers, 159 from th e m iddle e c h e lo n , and 617 from
p e r so n s in n o n -m a n a g eria l p o s i t i o n s . T hese in c lu d e d 480 "
q u e s tio n n a ir e s t o th e 144 academ ic l i b r a r i e s , in groups o f
50
1 44, 6 1 , and 2 7 5 , a cc o r d in g t o th e r e s p e c t iv e h ie r a r c h ic a l
l e v e l s . The 167 p u b lic l i b r a r i e s r e c e iv e d 607 q u e s t io n
n a ir e s , in groups o f 1 6 7 , 9 8 , and 342 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Bach q u e s tio n n a ir e was accom panied by a b r i e f
c o v e r in g l e t t e r , in c lu d e d in A ppendix A o f t h i s p a p er. In
ord er to see k th e c o o p e r a tio n o f lib r a r y a d m in is tr a to r s
in co m p letio n o f th e q u e s t io n n a ir e s , and b eca u se o f th e
im p r a c t ic a lit y o f o b ta in in g th e names and a d d r e sse s o f
in d iv id u a ls , each group o f q u e s tio n n a ir e s f o r a p a r t ic u la r
lib r a r y was a d d ressed t o th e t i t u l a r head w ith a c o v e r in g
l e t t e r o f e x p la n a tio n . As may be seen in Appendix A, t h is
l e t t e r r e q u e ste d th a t th e in stru m en t be d is t r ib u t e d to th e
a p p r o p ria te l e v e l s a s d is c u s s e d ab o v e, b u t o th e r w ise made
no s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . The in v e s t ig a t o r rea so n ed th a t the
p r o b a b ilit y o f s y s te m a tic b ia s in d is t r ib u t in g th e in s t r u
m ents was reduced by th e d e v ic e o f , in e f f e c t , h avin g them
d is t r ib u t e d by 311 i n d iv id u a ls . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f b ia s
d id e x i s t in th e e v e n t th a t th e t i t u l a r head was s u f
f i c i e n t l y con cern ed t o tr y t o d i s t r i b u t e th e q u e s tio n
n a ir e s t o p erso n s l i k e l y t o g iv e a fa v o r a b le p ic tu r e o f
the o r g a n iz a tio n .
U sable r e sp o n se s w ere e v e n t u a lly r e c e iv e d from 188
l i b r a r i e s , or 6 0 .5 p er c e n t , in c lu d in g 98 academ ic
l i b r a r i e s (6 8 .1 per c e n t ) and 90 p u b lic l i b r a r i e s (5 3 .9
per c e n t ) . A few a tte m p ts w ere made t o e l i c i t r e sp o n se s
51
where none had been fo rth co m in g , but th e s e were ig n o r ed or
brought h o s t i l e a n sw ers. I t was ap p aren t th a t i f th e
t i t u l a r head had been fa v o r a b ly d isp o s e d upon r e c e ip t o f
th e m a te r ia l, i t had b een d is t r ib u t e d and some r e sp o n se s
were made. In c a s e s where th e head had n o t been fa v o r a b ly
d is p o s e d , th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s had a p p a r e n tly n ot been d i s
t r ib u t e d , or no encouragem ent had been g iv e n t o co m p lete
them .
A t o t a l o f 582 q u e s t io n n a ir e s , or 5 3 .6 per c e n t o f
th o se d is t r ib u t e d , was r e tu r n e d . Of t h e s e , 298 were from
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s (4 9 .1 per c e n t ) , and 284 from academ ic
l i b r a r i e s ( 5 9 .4 per c e n t ) . I t was in t e r e s t in g t o n o te
th a t each p u b lic lib r a r y r e f l e c t e d , on th e a v er a g e, th e
p e r c e p tio n s o f 3 .2 0 o r g a n iz a tio n members, and each academ ic
lib r a r y 2 .9 0 members. A re tu rn o f 100 per c e n t o f th e
in stru m en ts w ould have meant an average o f 3 .6 3 in d iv id u a l
p e r c e p tio n s fo r each p u b lic lib r a r y , and 3 .3 3 f o r each
academ ic lib r a r y .
The r e s p o n se s on each q u e s tio n n a ir e were punched
in t o an IBM c a r d , a lo n g w ith co d in g fo r r e le v a n t c l a s s i
f i c a t i o n s as f o llo w s : p r o f e s s io n a l s t a t u s o f resp on d en t
( p r o f e s s io n a l or n o n - p r o f e s s io n a l) ; ty p e o f lib r a r y
( p u b lic , a c a d em ic-p u b lic su p p o r t, or a c a d e m ic -p r iv a te
s u p p o r t); s t a f f s i z e c a te g o r y (fo u r c a t e g o r ie s a s d e sc r ib e d
under "The Sam ple"); and m a n agerial s t a t u s o f resp on d en t
52
(to p e c h e lo n , m iddle e c h e lo n , or n o n -m a n a g e r ia l)• In a s
much as th e p a tte r n o f p o s s ib le r e sp o n se s f o r some o f th e
q u e s tio n s had been v a r ie d somewhat t o red u ce th e proba
b i l i t y o f b ia s from t h a t s o u r c e , a t th e tim e o f punching
th e c a r d s th e r e sp o n se s w ere r e s to r e d t o norm al o r d e r . In
o th er w ord s, even though th e a c tu a l r e sp o n se t o a g iv e n
q u e stio n may have been in th e f i r s t c a te g o r y , in r e a l i t y
th a t may have been th e "System 4" r e s p o n se , and i t was so
punched. T h e r e fo r e , a l l ta b u la tio n s o f r e sp o n se s were
made c o n s is t e n t w ith L ik e r t 's "System 1 -2 -3 -4 " d e s c r ip t iv e
ap p roach . F r eq u e n c ie s and p e r c e n ta g e s fo r a l l r esp o n ses
in t o t a l and in each c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w ere th en o b ta in e d
through th e s e r v ic e s o f th e Computer S c ie n c e s L aboratory
o f th e -U n iv e r sity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia .
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
The purp ose o f t h i s stu d y was to e x p lo r e th e n a tu re
o f l i b r a r i e s as human o r g a n iz a tio n s and t o d e s c r ib e t h e ir
management sy stem s a cco rd in g t o th e ty p o lo g y d ev elo p ed by
R en sis L ik e r t. The d e s c r ip t io n was e s s e n t i a l l y in d u c tiv e
in n a tu r e , in t h a t c e r t a in o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
w ere e x p lo r e d and a s s e s s e d , and th e r e s u lt s o f th e a s s e s s
ment were c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d in g to L ik e r t 's schem a. The
c l a s s i f i e d d a ta w ere th en u sed to c h a r a c te r iz e th e manage
ment system s p r e v a ilin g in th e o r g a n iz a tio n s s tu d ie d .
The a c tu a l r e s u l t s o f th e stu d y were th e r e sp o n se s
t o each o f th e o r g a n iz a t io n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s e s s e d .
T hese r e sp o n se s w ere made on a fo u r p o in t s c a le in each
c a s e , o r d in a l b u t n o t q u a n t it a t iv e in n a tu r e . B ecause th e
r e sp o n se s were sp rea d over th e e n t ir e s c a l e , i t was n e c e s
sa r y t o h y p o th e s iz e th a t th e modal r esp o n se r e p r e s e n te d th e
p r e v a ilin g s it u a t io n in th e l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d . The modal
r esp o n se t o each q u e s tio n , t h e r e fo r e , c o n s t it u t e d th e
fundam ental u n it fo r th e p r o c e s s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n u se d to
d e s c r ib e th e management sy ste m s . The a c tu a l c l a s s i f i c a
t io n was th e c o n c lu s io n from th e f in d in g s o f th e s tu d y ,
54
th a t i s , th e modal r e sp o n se s t o each o f th e v a r ia b le s , and
has b een d e s c r ib e d in th e f i n a l ch a p ter o f t h i s r e p o r t .
The p r e s e n t ch a p ter h as been d ev o ted t o sta tem en t o f th e
fin d in g s w ith in th e framework o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l a s
p e c ts upon w hich L ik e r t 's schema was b a se d , and th e a d d i
t io n a l one th e a u th o r added fo r t h i s s tu d y .
The r e sp o n se s t o th e f i f t y - t h r e e q u e s tio n s in th e
d a ta -g a th e r in g in stru m en ts were ta b u la te d and c o n v e r te d
in to p e r c e n ta g e s f o r th e t o t a l o f a l l r e sp o n d e n ts, a s w e ll
as fo r each o f th e t h ir t e e n subgroups a cco rd in g t o p r o f e s
s io n a l s t a t u s , ty p e o f lib r a r y , s t a f f s i z e , and m a n a g eria l
l e v e l . P r o fe s s io n a l s t a t u s p ro v id ed two o f th e t h ir t e e n
su b grou p s, p r o f e s s io n a l and n o n -p r o f e s s io n a l. T h is d i s
t in c t io n was in te n d e d t o r e f e r t o th e c l a s s o f th e
p o s it io n h e ld by th e resp o n d en t in th e lib r a r y in w hich he
was em ployed. Type o f lib r a r y r e f e r r e d t o p u b lic or
acad em ic, w ith academ ic l i b r a r i e s b ein g fu r th e r d iv id e d
in t o th o se o f ta x -su p p o r te d and p r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d i n s t i
t u t io n s o f h ig h er e d u c a tio n . S t a f f s i z e a cco u n ted fo r
four su b grou p s, la b e le d v e r y la r g e , la r g e , medium, and
s m a ll, a cco rd in g t o th e r a t io n a le d ev elo p ed in th e samp
lin g p la n .* The rem aining groups were b ased on m a n a g eria l
X C f. a n t e , p p . 3 4 -3 6 . In su b seq u en t d is c u s s io n ,
th e term " la r g e r s t a f f s " h a s been u sed to r e f e r t o th e
very la r g e and la r g e subgroups c o n sid e r e d in c o m b in a tio n .
S im ila r ly , " sm a ller s t a f f s " has meant th e com b in ation o f
55
l e v e l . Top e c h e lo n m anagers w ere head and a s s o c i a t e /
a s s i s t a n t lib r a r ia n s . M iddle e c h e lo n m anagers were th o se
o f low er rank, such as p r in c ip a l lib r a r ia n s and d iv is io n
c h i e f s , p r im a r ily co n cern ed w ith c o o r d in a tio n o f o r g a n i
z a t io n a l u n it s r a th e r than th e a c t i v i t i e s o f in d iv id u a ls .
Non-managers were p e r so n n e l whose d u t ie s were n ot p r i
m a r ily m an agerial or s u p e r v is o r y in n a tu r e .
Each o f th e r e s u lt in g d i s t r ib u t io n s was then a n a l
yzed f o r c e n t r a l te n d e n c y , v a r i a b i l i t y , sk ew n ess, and
k u r t o s i s . 1 S in c e th e d ata w ere o r d in a l and d is c o n tin u o u s ,
th e mode and th e median w ere a p p r o p r ia te in d ic a to r s o f
th e medium and sm a ll s t a f f s i z e c a t e g o r i e s . In g e n e r a l,
th e r e sp o n se s from v ery la r g e and la r g e s t a f f s ran c l o s e l y
p a r a lle l,a n d th o se from medium and sm a ll s t a f f s d if f e r e n t
but s im ila r ly p a r a l l e l . T h e r e fo r e , t h i s co n d en sa tio n o f
fou r subgroups i n t o tw o, in m ost c a s e s , was s u g g e ste d by
th e d a t a .
Numbers o f f u ll- t im e - e q u iv a le n t p o s it io n s in th e s e
ra n g es were as f o llo w s : la r g e r p u b lic , 4 8 .3 t o 1085;
la r g e r academ ic, 3 0 .8 t o 3 8 7 .2 . S m a ller p u b lic , 3 .0 to
4 7 .0 ; sm a lle r acad em ic, 3 .0 t o 3 0 .5 . T hese f ig u r e s were cf
d o u b tfu l s ig n if ic a n c e in any a b s o lu te s e n s e , r e p r e s e n tin g
bu d get a llo c a t io n s fo r one p a r t ic u la r f i s c a l y e a r . P r io r
y e a rs w ere l i k e l y lo w er, and su b seq u en t y ea r s were p rob ab ly
h ig h e r , in many c a s e s .
^C entral ten d en cy r e f e r r e d to th e c lu s t e r in g c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s o f th e r e s p o n s e s . V a r i a b i l i t y e x p r e sse d th e
e x t e n t o f v a r ia t io n o f r e s p o n se s from th e in d ic a to r o f
c e n t r a l ten d en cy . Skew ness d e s c r ib e d th e asymmetry o f th e
d is t r ib u t io n o f r e sp o n se s r e l a t i v e t o a norm al c u r v e .
K u r to sis in d ic a te d th e p ea k in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e r e s
ponse d is t r ib u t io n s r e l a t i v e t o a norm al c u r v e . These
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f freq u en cy d i s t r ib u t io n s a r e f u l l y
e x p la in e d in most in tr o d u c to r y s t a t i s t i c s t e x t s , such as
Palmer 0 . Johnson and R obert W. B. J a ck so n , In tr o d u c tio n
t o S t a t i s t i c a l Methods (New York: P r e n tic e - H a ll, I n c .,
1 9 5 3 ), pp . 1.20-202.
56
c e n t r a l te n d e n c y . V a r ia b ilit y was d e s c r ib e d by v a r ia t io n
r a t i o ( v ) , d e c i l e range ( d ) , and s e m i- in t e r q u a r t ile ran ge
( s i q ) . B ecause o f th e d isc o n tin u o u s n a tu r e o f th e d a t a ,
skew n ess was n o t a c t u a lly computed b u t was in d ic a te d as
p o s i t i v e or n e g a tiv e b ased on in s p e c t io n o f th e d a ta . For
th e same r e a so n , k u r t o s is was n o t com puted. The k u r t o s is
o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s fo r each o f th e t h ir t e e n subgroups
was g iv e n as le p to k u r t ic or p la t y k u r t ic r e l a t i v e to th e
t o t a l r e sp o n se d is t r i b u t i o n . T hese d e s c r ip t io n s o f th e
d a ta h ave been g iv e n in ta b u la r form in A ppendix B. Two
t a b le s h ave b een p ro v id ed fo r each v a r ia b le , one show ing
p e r c e n ta g e d is t r ib u t io n s and th e o th e r th e v a r io u s d e s
c r i p t i v e e le m e n ts m entioned in th e p r e c e d in g s e n t e n c e s .
E x te n s iv e e x p la n a tio n o f th e lo g i c o f s t a t i s t i c a l
in fe r e n c e has been judged to be beyond th e sco p e o f t h i s
r e p o r t I n a s e n s e , a l l s t a t i s t i c a l in fe r e n c e may be
reg a rd ed a s h y p o th e t ic a l or t e n t a t i v e in n a tu r e . W ith
p r o b a b ilit y sa m p les, in t e r v a l or r a t i o m easuring s c a l e s ,
and th e o th er e lem en ts o f th e p a ra m etric s t a t i s t i c a l m odel,
i t i s p o s s ib le t o make in fe r e n c e s w ith s p e c i f i e d l i m i t s
Most s t a t i s t i c s t e x t s and t r e a t i s e s on r e se a r c h
m ethods d is c u s s t h i s a t le n g th . For exam ple, L in ton C.
Freem an, E lem entary A p p lied S t a t i s t i c s ; For S tu d en ts in
B e h a v io r a l S c ie n c e (New York: John W iley and S o n s. I n c ..
1 9 6 5 ), p p . 1 4 2 -6 1 .
57
and d e g r e e s o f c o n fid e n c e .^ In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , b ased
on a n o n p r o b a b ility sam ple and o r d in a l m easurem ent, such
s p e c if i c a t i o n s w ith reg a rd t o c o n fid e n c e in th e in fe r e n c e s
w ere u n w arranted. The in fe r e n c e s in t h i s r e p o r t must be
c o n s id e r e d t o be v er y t e n t a t iv e and h y p o th e t ic a l in n a tu r e ,
su p p o rted by th e d ata but w ith u n s p e c if ie d l i m i t s and
d e g r e e s o f c o n fid e n c e .
Each q u e stio n in th e d a ta -g a th e r in g in stru m en t
r e p r e se n te d a d is c r e t e elem en t in th e s tr u c tu r e c u lm in a tin g
in th e ty p o lo g y o f management sy stem s d e v e lo p e d by R en sis
L ik e r t . The f in d in g s g iv e n below were th e fundam ental
in fe r e n c e s from th e d a ta , drawn from th e modal r e sp o n se s
t o th e q u estio n s-. They d e s c r ib e d , t e n t a t i v e l y but in some
d e t a i l , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as human o r g a n iz a tio n s o f th e
l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d , nam ely, a la r g e group o f C a lif o r n ia
academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . I t was from th e s e f in d in g s
th a t th e c h a r a c te r o f th e management sy stem s was d e r iv e d .
They w ere th e p ro d u cts o f the e x p lo r a tio n fo r which th e
stu d y was p r im a r ily co n d u cted , and th e b a s ic ele m e n ts o f
th e d e s c r ip t iv e a s p e c t, p r e v io u s ly r e fe r r e d t o as th e
seco n d a ry o b j e c t iv e .
The f in d in g s have been s t a t e d and b r i e f l y d is c u s s e d
*For a good d is c u s s io n o f th e p a ra m etric s t a t i s t i c a l
m odel, s e e S id n ey S i e g e l , N onparam etric S t a t i s t i c s fo r th e
B e h a v io ra l S c ie n c e s (New York: M cGraw-Hill Book C o ., I n c . .
1 9 5 6 ), pp . 1 8 -2 0 .
58
below w ith in th e framework o f m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s , p e r
form ance g o a ls and t r a in in g , and th e p r o c e s se s o f le a d e r
s h ip , com m unication, in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e , d e c is io n
m aking, g o a l s e t t i n g , and c o n t r o l. Those f in d in g s have
been ord ered on th e b a s is o f t h e ir appearance in the
q u e s tio n n a ir e , a s c o n ta in e d in Appendix A.
S p e c ia l te n d e n c ie s on th e p a r t o f one or more o f
th e t h ir t e e n subgroups have b een b r i e f l y n o te d , where such
te n d e n c ie s were judged t o e x i s t . T hese were n o t b ased on
p r e c is e d e g r e e s o f d if f e r e n c e in th e d a ta , b eca u se th e
m easuring s c a le s u sed w ere n o n -q u a n tita tiv e and in e x a c t .
I n s te a d , such te n d e n c ie s w ere deduced from in s p e c tio n o f
th e d a ta a s d e sc r ib e d in Appendix B, w ith p a r t ic u la r
r e fe r e n c e t o th e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g th s o f r e sp o n se s tow ard
th e upper or low er ends o f th e s c a l e s . A ll such ten d en
c i e s were r e l a t i v e t o com parable su b g ro u p s. For exam ple,
a p a r t ic u la r ten d en cy on th e p a rt o f la r g e r s t a f f s , such
a s in th e a b i l i t y o f su b o r d in a te s t o e x e r t in flu e n c e on
th e g o a ls and o p e r a tio n s o f t h e ir u n i t s , had m eaning o n ly
in i t s r e la t io n t o th e com parable c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fo r
sm a lle r s t a f f s . F u rth erm ore, th e s tr e n g th o f th e s e su b
group te n d e n c ie s was n o t g r e a t . In o n ly a few c a s e s was
th e ten d en cy str o n g enough t o r e s u lt in a mode d if f e r e n t
from th a t fo r th e e n t ir e sa m p le. A lthough i t may bo
in t e r e s t in g and a p p e a lin g t o draw in fe r e n c e s b ased on th e
59
su b g ro u p s, i t must be remembered th a t su ch in fe r e n c e s
w ould be l i t t l e more than s p e c u la t io n u n le s s th e y showed
g r e a t c o n s is t e n c y th rou ghou t th e range o f f a c t o r s co n
s id e r e d .
L ea d ersh ip P r o c e sse s
The f i r s t a s p e c t o f th e management sy stem s e x p lo r e d
in t h i s in v e s t ig a t io n was th e le a d e r s h ip p r o c e s s e s u sed in
th e v a r io u s o r g a n iz a t io n s . L ead ersh ip p r o c e s s e s were
d e fin e d a s th o se b e h a v io r s s u p p o r tiv e t o th e in d iv id u a l
o r g a n iz a t io n a l member, f o s t e r in g in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n
s h ip s among members, a f f e c t in g o r g a n iz a t io n a l g o a ls , and
f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e ir accom p lish m en t. ^ F iv e v a r ia b le s w ere
u sed to a s s e s s t h is d im en sion in reg a rd t o m utual c o n f i
d en ce and t r u s t by h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s and su b o r d in a te s,
s u p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r by s u p e r io r s , and m utual d is c u s s io n o f
j o b - r e la t e d m a tters by s u p e r io r s and s u b o r d in a te s .
The e x t e n t t o w hich s u p e r io r s had c o n fid e n c e and
t r u s t in su b o r d in a te s was in d ic a te d on a fo u r p o in t s c a le
ra n g in g from none t o c o m p le te . R esp on ses were o v e r
w h elm in gly toward th e com p lete en d , w ith c a te g o r y th r e e
b e in g modal and s u g g e s tin g th e fin d in g t h a t h ie r a r c h ic a l
s u p e r io r s had s u b s t a n t ia l b u t not co m p lete c o n fid e n c e and
t r u s t in s u b o r d in a te s . S m a ller s t a f f s showed a somewhat
1R en sis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , p p . 7 1 -7 3 .
60
h ig h e r l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t by s u p e r io r s in su b
o r d in a te s th an was shown in la r g e r s t a f f s . Top e c h e lo n
m anagers in d ic a te d a s l i g h t l y g r e a te r d eg ree o f c o n fid e n c e
and t r u s t in su b o r d in a te s than was p e r c e iv e d by p e r so n n e l
in n on -m an agerial and m iddle management p o s i t i o n s .
The secon d v a r ia b le was th e r e v e r s e o f th e f i r s t .
C on fid en ce and t r u s t by su b o r d in a te s in s u p e r io r s w ere
m easured on a s im ila r s c a l e . R esponses were a ls o s im ila r ,
te n d in g s tr o n g ly tow ard th e h ig h e r en d , w ith th e t h ir d
c a te g o r y a g a in b e in g m odal. In t h i s c a s e , th e fin d in g was
th a t su b o r d in a te s had s u b s t a n t ia l b u t n o t com p lete c o n f i
d ence and t r u s t in s u p e r io r s . S u b o rd in a tes were p e r c e iv e d
t o have more c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t in s u p e r io r s than was
tr u e in th e o p p o site c a s e . The ten d en cy fo r sm a ller
s t a f f s t o show more c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t m entioned above
was a ls o shown h e r e .
The t h ir d v a r ia b le exam ined was th e e x t e n t to w hich
s u p e r io r s d is p la y e d s u p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r toward su b o rd in a te
members o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n . The s c a le o f p o s s ib le
r e sp o n se s v a r ie d from v i r t u a l l y no s u p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r t o
" f u lly and in a l l s it u a t io n s ." A lthough once a g a in th e
modal re sp o n se was th e t h ir d p o in t on th e s c a l e , and th e
d is t r ib u t io n was h e a v ily toward th e h ig h er en d , th e p a t
te r n showed somewhat g r e a te r sp rea d than th e p r e v io u s
v a r ia b le s . The seco n d c h o ic e , "in co n d escen d in g manner
and s it u a t io n s o n ly ," was s e le c t e d by a s u b s t a n t ia l
61
number o f r e s p o n d e n ts . The fin d in g was t h a t s u p e r io r s
g e n e r a lly d is p la y e d s u p p o r tiv e b eh avior toward t h e ir su b
o r d in a te s . P u b lic l i b r a r i e s showed a g r e a te r in s ta n c e o f
su p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r th an academ ic l i b r a r i e s . S m aller
s t a f f s had c o n s id e r a b ly more su p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r than
la r g e r s t a f f s . Judgment o f th e e x t e n t o f such b eh a v io r
v a r ie d d i r e c t l y w ith h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l , th e top e c h e lo n
s e e in g s u p o o r tiv e n e s s t o a g r e a te r d egree th an low er
l e v e l s .
An in d ic a t io n o f th e d eg ree t o which s u b o r d in a te s
f e l t fr e e t o d is c u s s j o b - r e la t e d m a tters w ith im m ediate
s u p e r io r s was so u g h t in q u e stio n fo u r . A lthough 87 per
c e n t o f th e t o t a l r e sp o n se s were fo r " ra th er fr e e " and
" co m p letely f r e e ," th ey w ere alm ost e v e n ly d iv id e d b e
tw een th e tw o. B ecause o f sem a n tic d i f f i c u l t i e s in p r o
v id in g an adverb to e x p r e s s a d eg ree o f f e e l i n g betw een
th o se two a l t e r n a t i v e s , th e fin d in g was th a t su b o r d in a te s
f e l t r a th e r f r e e t o d is c u s s j o b -r e la t e d m a tters w ith
t h e ir s u p e r io r s . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l p e r so n n e l f e l t a
g r e a te r d e g r e e o f freedom fo r d is c u s s io n w ith s u p e r io r s
than d id p r o f e s s io n a l p e r s o n n e l. S t a f f s o f p r iv a t e ly -
sup p orted academ ic l i b r a r i e s f e l t "much more freedom" in
t h i s r e s p e c t than e it h e r o f t h e ir ta x -su p p o r te d c o u n te r
p a r t s . A pronounced d if f e r e n c e appeared betw een la r g e r
and sm a lle r s t a f f s , w ith th e la r g e r ones f e e l i n g "much
l e s s fr e e " in such d is c u s s io n . Top ec h elo n managers
62
p e r c e iv e d more o f t h is freedom than e it h e r m iddle mana
g e r s or p erso n s in e s s e n t i a l l y n o n -m a n a g eria l p o s i t i o n s .
The rem ain in g v a r ia b le u sed t o d e s c r ib e th e le a d e r
s h ip p r o c e s s e s in th e o r g a n iz a tio n s a s s e s s e d th e e x te n t
t o w hich an im m ediate s u p e r io r , in s o lv in g jo b p rob lem s,
u s u a lly o b ta in ed s u b o r d in a te s' id e a s and o p in io n s and
made c o n s tr u c t iv e u se o f them . P o s s ib le r e sp o n se s
ranged from "seldom" through "som etim es" and " u su a lly " to
" a lw a y s." The modal re sp o n se was th e th ir d a l t e r n a t i v e ,
and th e fin d in g was th a t s u p e r io r s , in s o lv in g job
p ro b lem s, u s u a lly o b ta in e d s u b o r d in a te s ' id e a s and
o p in io n s and t r ie d to make c o n s t r u c t iv e u se o f them . Tax-
su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r ie s showed a somewhat sm a lle r
in c id e n c e o f t h is c o n s u lt a t io n than was r e f l e c t e d in th e
r e s p o n se s from p r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d acad em ic, or p u b lic
l i b r a r i e s . Among sm a lle r s t a f f s , th e r e was a g r e a te r
d eg ree o f c o n s u lt a t io n than among la r g e r s t a f f s , and
m anagers ten d ed t o p e r c e iv e more o f t h i s c o n s u lt a t iv e
b eh a v io r than d id th e n o n -m a n a g eria l s t a f f .
M o tiv a tio n a l F o rces
M o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s were th o se f a c t o r s in flu e n c in g
b e h a v io r , such as th e n eed s and d e s ir e s o f th e in d iv id u a l,
h i s p e r c e p tio n s o f and a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e o r g a n iz a tio n ,
and th e v a lu e s and g o a ls h e ld by h i s work g r o u p .* These
^ R en sis L ik e r t, New P a tte r n s o f Management, pp. 198-%
63
f o r c e s w ere e x p lo r e d by sev en v a r ia b le s in th e su r v e y ,
in te n d e d t o in d ic a t e th e n a tu r e and u se o f u n d e r ly in g
human m o tiv e s in v o lv e d , a t t i t u d e s o f s t a f f members toward
th e o r g a n iz a tio n and i t s g o a ls a s w e ll a s tow ard o th er
p e r s o n s, and th e s a t i s f a c t i o n d e r iv e d from o r g a n iz a tio n a l
membership*
The u n d e r ly in g human m o tiv es tap ped by th e v a r io u s
li b r a r i e s w ere in d ic a te d on a s c a le from th e m ost b a s ic
m o tiv a tio n s , such a s p h y s ic a l s e c u r it y and econom ic n e e d s,
t o eg o and s im ila r m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s a r is in g from group
in t e r a c t io n . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e sp o n se s s u g g e ste d a
ten d en cy tow ard r e lia n c e on th e more b a s ic m o tiv es in th e
l i b r a r i e s su r v e y ed . The f in d in g was th a t th e u n d er ly in g
m o tiv es tap ped by th e p r e v a ilin g management sy stem s were
c h i e f l y econom ic n e e d s , accom panied by some u se o f ego
m o tiv e s . P u b lic l i b r a r i e s made more u se o f e g o and o th er
h ig h e r m o tiv e s , such a s th e d e s ir e fo r new e x p e r ie n c e s ,
than th e academ ic l i b r a r i e s . S m aller s t a f f s drew upon
th e s e h ig h e r m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s t o a g r e a te r e x t e n t than
la r g e r s t a f f s . Non-m anagers p e r c e iv e d g r e a te r dependence
on th e b a s ic m o tiv es in t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n s than d id
m an agerial l e v e l s .
The se v en th q u e s tio n n a ir e item so u g h t t o determ in e
th e manner in w hich th e u n d e r ly in g human m o tiv es were
u t i l i z e d in th e l i b r a r i e s . The resp o n se s c a le v a r ie d from
64
f e a r , t h r e a t s , and p u n ish m en t, through rew ards and some
in v o lv em en t, t o s u b s t a n t ia l p a r t ic ip a t io n in d e te r m in a tio n
o f g o a ls and econom ic co m p en sa tio n . The preponderance o f
r e sp o n se s was tow ard p a r t ic ip a t io n , s u g g e s tin g th e fin d in g
th a t u n d e r ly in g m o tiv e s w ere u t i l i z e d c h i e f l y through
management te c h n iq u e s in c o r p o r a tin g some d eg ree o f group
p a r t ic ip a t io n and in v o lv e m e n t. L ib r a r ie s in ta x -su p p o r te d
academ ic i n s t i t u t i o n s showed l e s s u se o f group p a r t i c i
p a tio n and in v o lv em en t than t h e ir p r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d
c o u n te r p a r ts or p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . Larger s t a f f s in d ic a te d
a n o ta b ly sm a lle r d eg ree o f p a r t ic ip a t io n than th e sm a lle r
s t a f f s . M iddle m anagers p e r c e iv e d l e s s in v o lv em en t than
th e l e v e l s above and b elow them .
A t tit u d e s tow ard th e lib r a r y and i t s g o a ls were
th e s u b je c t o f th e e ig h th q u e s t io n . P o s s ib le r e sp o n se s
v a r ie d from u s u a lly h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e s t o s tr o n g ly fa v o r a b le
on es g iv in g p o w erfu l s tim u la tio n fo r g o a l- d ir e c t e d behavior.
Over h a lf o f th e r e sp o n se s in d ic a te d u s u a lly fa v o r a b le
a t t it u d e s su p p o r tiv e o f th e g o a l s , and v e r y few s u g g e ste d
th a t h o s t i l i t y was p r e v a le n t . The f in d in g was th a t th e
a t t it u d e s d e v e lo p e d tow ard th e l i b r a r i e s and t h e ir g o a ls
u s u a lly w ere fa v o r a b le and su p p o rted b eh a v io r im plem enting
th e g o a ls . The te n d e n c ie s o f la r g e r and sm a lle r s t a f f s t o
d iv e r g e , n o ted p r e v io u s ly , w ere a g a in e v id e n t h e r e .
L arger s t a f f s showed much more u n fa v o r a b le a t t it u d e s
toward th e l i b r a r i e s and t h e ir g o a ls than th e sm a lle r
65
s t a f f s .
The n in th v a r ia b le d e a lt w ith th e e x t e n t t o w hich
m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s were in c o n f l i c t w ith or in su p p o rt o f
each o t h e r . R esponse c a t e g o r ie s w ere from marked c o n f l i c t
and l i t t l e r ein fo r c e m e n t to m inim al c o n f l i c t and str o n g
r e in fo r c e m e n t. The d is t r ib u t io n s u g g e ste d l i t t l e c o n f l i c t
and c o n s id e r a b le r e in fo r c e m e n t, a lth o u g h th e modal r e s
ponse o f th e th ir d c a te g o r y was n o t g r e a t ly in e x c e s s o f
th e f o u r t h . The fin d in g was th a t m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s
som etim es c o n f l i c t e d , b u t o fte n r e in fo r c e d each o t h e r .
P r iv a te academ ic l i b r a r i e s in d ic a te d g r e a te r re in fo r c e m e n t
among th e m o tiv a tio n a l fo r c e s than th e o th e r l i b r a r i e s .
S m a ller s t a f f s had g r e a te r r ein fo r ce m e n t and l e s s c o n f l i c t
among m o tiv a tio n s than d id th e la r g e r s t a f f s .
The f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r ach ievem en t o f
th e l i b r a r i e s ' g o a ls was measured by v a r ia b le te n . C oncen
t r a t io n o f th e f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a t h ig h l e v e l s
w ith some g o a l- d e f e a t in g b eh a v io r a t low er l e v e l s was one
extrem e o f th e r esp o n se s c a l e . At th e o th e r end was a
gen u in e f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and g o a l-im p lem e n tin g
b eh a v io r a t a l l l e v e l s . R esponses tow ard th e l a t t e r end
o f th e s c a le p red om in ated , s u g g e s tin g th e fin d in g th a t a
s u b s t a n t ia l p o r tio n o f th e p e r s o n n e l, e s p e c i a l l y a t h ig h e r
l e v e l s , f e l t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r a c h ie v in g th e l i b r a r i e s '
g o a ls and behaved a c c o r d in g ly . In la r g e r s t a f f s , th e
f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ten d ed t o be c o n c e n tr a te d in th e
66
h ig h e r l e v e l s and weak a t low er l e v e l s , in com parison t o
th e s it u a t io n in sm a lle r s t a f f s . Top m anagers p e r c e iv e d
a n o ta b ly g r e a te r f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a t a l l l e v e l s
than d id o th e r p e r s o n n e l.
P r e v a le n t a t t it u d e s o f s t a f f members tow ard each
o th er w ere th e s u b je c ts o f th e n e x t q u e s t io n . V a r ia tio n
was a lo n g a s c a le from h o s t i l e , contem ptuous a t t it u d e s
w ith much d i s t r u s t , t o f a v o r a b le , c o o p e r a tiv e a t t it u d e s
w ith m utual t r u s t . Modal r e sp o n se was a t th e c o o p e r a tiv e ,
r e a so n a b ly fa v o r a b le p o in t , g iv in g a fin d in g th a t p r e v a l
e n t a t t it u d e s tow ard o th e r s t a f f members w ere c o o p e r a tiv e
and r e a so n a b ly fa v o r a b le , but w ith some h o s t i l i t y ca u sed
by p eer c o m p e titio n , and some c o n d e sc e n sio n toward su b
o r d in a te s . P r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s and
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s had more fa v o r a b le a t t it u d e s among t h e ir
s t a f f s tow ard each o th e r than th e ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic
l i b r a r i e s . S m aller s t a f f s showed more fa v o r a b le , c o o p e r
a t iv e a t t it u d e s tow ard ea ch o th e r among th e members than
la r g e r s t a f f s .
The t w e lft h v a r ia b le s tu d ie d th e s a t i s f a c t i o n
a ffo r d e d by membership in th e s t a f f s o f th e v a r io u s
l i b r a r i e s . As m ight be e x p e c te d , resp o n se c a t e g o r ie s were
from d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n t o r e l a t i v e l y h igh s a t i s f a c t i o n . "The
m a jo r ity o f resp o n d en ts in d ic a te d g r e a te r s a t i s f a c t i o n
than d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , w ith th e fin d in g th a t s t a f f members
67
p r o fe s s e d f e e l i n g s ra n g in g from some d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n t o
m od erately h ig h s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith reg a rd to membership in
th e s t a f f s , s u p e r v is io n , and t h e ir own a c h ie v e m e n ts. Non
p r o f e s s io n a l p e r so n n e l r ep o rted g r e a te r s a t i s f a c t i o n in
s t a f f membership than d id p r o f e s s io n a l members. P r iv a te
academ ic l i b r a r i e s showed a h ig h e r l e v e l o f s a t i s f a c t i o n
in membership in t h e ir s t a f f s th an e it h e r o f th e o th er two
k in d s . S m a ller s t a f f s f e l t s u b s t a n t ia lly g r e a te r s a t i s
f a c t io n than la r g e r s t a f f s , w ith a m a jo r ity o f members o f
sm a lle r s t a f f s in d ic a t in g h igh s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith member
s h ip in th e o r g a n iz a tio n a t a l l l e v e l s . Top managers
p e r c e iv e d a much h ig h e r l e v e l o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith s t a f f
membership than o th e r l e v e l s , w ith n on -m a n a g eria l p erso n
n e l r e p o r tin g n o ta b ly l e s s s a t i s f a c t i o n than m iddle
m anagers.
Com munication P r o c e s s e s
Communication p r o c e s s e s in c lu d e d th e tr a n sm iss io n
o f c o g n i t i v e , m o tiv a t io n a l, a n d /or e m o tio n a l m a te r ia l from
a sen d er t o a ta r g e t a u d ie n c e , a s w e ll a s th e r e c e p tio n ,
com p reh en sion , and a c c e p t a n c e /r e j e c t io n o f t h is m a te r ia l
by one or more r e c i p i e n t s . * F ou rteen v a r ia b le s were used
to a s s e s s t h i s a r e a . They con cern ed th e amount o f com
m u n ication aim ed a t a c h ie v in g o r g a n iz a t io n a l o b j e c t iv e s ;
^Tbid. , p . 44
68
d ir e c t io n o f in fo r m a tio n flo w ; n a tu re o f downward, upward,
and sid ew ard com m unication; and p s y c h o lo g ic a l c lo s e n e s s o f
s u p e r io r s and s u b o r d in a te s.
The amount o f in t e r a c t io n and com m unication i n
ten d ed t o c o n tr ib u te t o the l i b r a r i e s ' o b j e c t iv e s was
m easured on a s c a le ran gin g from "very l i t t l e " t o "much,
w ith b o th in d iv id u a ls and g ro u p s." The fin d in g was th a t
c o n s id e r a b le in t e r a c t io n and com m unication w ere d ir e c t e d
tow ard a c h ie v in g th e l i b r a r i e s ' o b j e c t i v e s . P r iv a te
academ ic l i b r a r i e s r e p o r te d a somewhat sm a lle r p o r tio n o f
in t e r a c t io n and com m unication as b e in g r e le v a n t to th e
ach ievem en t o f o b j e c t iv e s than was p r e v a le n t in t a x -
su p p o rted academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . L arger s t a f f s
had a la r g e r p r o p o r tio n o f in t e r a c t io n and com m unication
n o t c o n tr ib u tin g to a ch ievem en t o f o b j e c t iv e s than sm a lle r
s t a f f s . N on -m an agerial p e r so n n e l p e r c e iv e d somewhat l e s s
com m unication and in t e r a c t io n r e le v a n t t o o b j e c t iv e s than
m a n a g eria l l e v e l s .
Q u estio n fo u r te e n attem p ted t o a s c e r t a in th e p r e
v a i l i n g d ir e c t io n o f in fo r m a tio n flo w in th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l
h ie r a r c h ie s . P o s s ib le r e sp o n se s v a r ie d from downward on
th e one hand, t o downward, upward, and w ith p e e r s on th e
o th e r h an d . A s u b s t a n t ia l number o f r e sp o n se s w ere
reco rd ed in each o f th e fou r p o s s ib le c a t e g o r i e s , w ith a
c le a r b u t n o t overw helm ing mode a t th e "most fa v o r a b le
r e s p o n se ," in d ic a t in g com m unication flo w in a l l d i r e c t i o n s .
69
The f in d in g was th a t in fo r m a tio n flo w ed in downward,
upward, and sidew ard d ir e c t io n s in th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l
h ie r a r c h ie s . The o n ly e x c e p tio n was p r iv a te academ ic
l i b r a r i e s , where th e modal r e sp o n se was fo r downward and
upward d ir e c t io n s o n ly . H owever, a s r e fe r e n c e t o
T ab le 14-1 in Appendix B i n d i c a t e s , t h i s sub -grou p had a
h ig h e r p ro p o r tio n o f i t s t o t a l r e sp o n se s in th e c a t e g o r ie s
in d ic a tin g upward and sid ew a rd a s w e ll a s downward flo w ,
than was tr u e in th e c a s e o f th e p u b lic or ta x -su p p o r te d
academ ic l i b r a r i e s . Larger s t a f f s had a la r g e r p r o p o rtio n
o f p erso n s who saw in fo rm a tio n flo w as p red o m in a n tly down
ward than was found tr u e in s m a lle r s t a f f s . P e r c e p tio n o f
in fo r m a tio n flo w in upward and sid ew ard d ir e c t io n s was
l e s s in n on -m an agerial than m a n a g eria l r a n k s.
The f i f t e e n t h v a r ia b le so u g h t t o d eterm in e th e
h ie r a r c h ic a l lo c a t io n s from w hich downward com m unication
was i n i t i a t e d . A lt e r n a tiv e s ranged from a l l l e v e l s o f th e
o r g a n iz a tio n to th e to p o n ly . The modal re sp o n se su g
g e s te d th e fin d in g th a t some i n i t i a t i v e fo r downward com
m u nication was shown b elow th e to p l e v e l , but such
com m unication was p a tte r n e d on th a t from th e to p . Non
p r o f e s s io n a l resp o n d e n ts saw com m unication o r ig in a t in g a t
th e top t o a g r e a te r e x t e n t than th e p r o f e s s io n a ls . In
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s , a g r e a te r p o r tio n o f th e downward com
m u nication came from th e top than was tr u e in academ ic
l i b r a r i e s . Larger s t a f f s showed a s im ila r s it u a t io n
70
r e l a t i v e t o sm a lle r s t a f f s , N on -m an agerial p e r so n n e l
p e r c e iv e d a g r e a te r p r o p o r tio n o f com m unication i n i t i a t e d
a t th e to p than d id m anagers.
The e x t e n t t o w hich s u p e r io r s w i l l i n g l y sh a red
in fo r m a tio n w ith su b o r d in a te s was e x p lo r e d by th e n e x t
q u e s tio n , ra n g in g from m inim al in fo r m a tio n t o a l l i n f o r
m ation th a t was r e le v a n t an d /or r e q u e s te d . R esp on ses were
h e a v ily toward th e d ir e c t io n o f g iv in g a l l r e le v a n t i n f o r
m a tio n , a lth o u g h th e mode v a r ie d somewhat betw een th e
th ir d and fo u r th c a t e g o r ie s in th e su b g ro u p s. The o v e r a ll
modal re sp o n se su g g e ste d th e f o llo w in g fin d in g : s u p e r io r s
sou gh t t o g iv e su b o r d in a te s a l l r e le v a n t in fo r m a tio n , and
in f a c t a l l in fo r m a tio n th e y w an ted . N o ta b le d e p a rtu r es
from the o v e r a ll mode o ccu rred fo r n o n -p r o fe s s io n a l
p e r s o n n e l, la r g e r s t a f f s , and n o n -m a n a g eria l p o s i t i o n s .
In th e s e c a s e s , in fo r m a tio n was l e s s f r e e l y g iv e n and
ten d ed to be r e s t r i c t e d o n ly t o th a t n eed ed , w ith some
q u e s tio n s b e in g an sw ered . A s t r i k i n g d iff e r e n c e in th e
p e r c e p tio n o f in fo r m a tio n sh a r in g appeared betw een to p
managers and th e two r e la t e d c a t e g o r i e s . They w ere much
l e s s s tr o n g ly co n v in ced th a t a l l r e le v a n t in fo rm a tio n was
g iv e n .
V a r ia b le se v e n te e n m easured th e d egree o f a c c e p t
ance by su b o r d in a te s o f downward com m unication. S c a le
range was from "view ed w ith g r e a t su sp ic io n " t o " g e n e r a lly
71
a c c e p te d ." As ab o v e, modal resp o n se ten d ed t o v a ry
betw een th e th ir d and fo u r th r e sp o n se s among th e su b
g r o u p s. The in d ic a te d fin d in g was th a t com m unications
d ir e c t e d downward in th e h ie r a r c h y w ere g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d
by s u b o r d in a te s , and i f n o t , th ey were o p en ly and c a n d id ly
q u e s tio n e d . T a x -su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s , la r g e r
s t a f f s , and n o n -m a n a g eria l l e v e l s showed r a th e r s u b s ta n t ia l
p r e fe r e n c e fo r th e t h ir d a l t e r n a t i v e , " o fte n a c c e p te d ,
bu t i f n o t , may or may n o t be o p en ly q u e s tio n e d ." P r o fe s
s io n a l p e r so n n e l a l s o showed a s l i g h t ten d en cy t o fa v o r
t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e .
Adequacy o f upward com m unication v ia th e l i n e
o r g a n iz a tio n was c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e e ig h te e n th q u e s t io n .
The s c a le in c lu d e d " very l i t t l e , " " lim it e d ," "dome," and
"a g r e a t d e a l." The t h ir d c a te g o r y was m odal, le a d in g t o
th e f in d in g th a t som e, b u t n o t a l l , com m unication upward
in th e o r g a n iz a t io n a l h ie r a r c h y was c a r r ie d by th e l i n e
o r g a n iz a t io n . Somewhat more upward com m unication was
c a r r ie d by th e l i n e o r g a n iz a tio n in p u b lic l i b r a r i e s than
in academ ic l i b r a r i e s . S m aller s t a f f s w ere th e o n ly
e x c e p tio n t o th e mode m entioned ab ove, w ith a g r e a t d e a l
o f t h e ir upward com m unication v ia th e l i n e , much more than
in l a r g e r - s t a f f s . Non-m anagers saw th e l i n e o r g a n iz a tio n
c a r r y in g l e s s upward com m unication than was p e r c e iv e d by
m anagers.
72
R e s p o n s ib ilit y f e l t by s u b o r d in a te s fo r th e i n i t i
a tio n o f a c c u r a te upward com m unication was m easured by a
s c a le ran gin g from "none a t a l l " t o " c o n sid e r a b le resp o n
s i b i l i t y f e l t and much i n i t i a t i v e shown* . . . " A c le a r
m a jo r ity o f r e sp o n se s in d ic a te d th e fin d in g th a t some t o a
m oderate d eg ree o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was f e l t by su b o r d in a te s
t o i n i t i a t e a c c u r a te upward com m u n ication. Academic
l i b r a r i e s showed l e s s f e e l i n g o f such r e s p o n s i b i l i t y than
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . A marked d i s t i n c t i o n e x is t e d betw een
la r g e r and sm a lle r s t a f f s , w ith the l a t t e r r e p o r tin g a
h ig h er d eg ree o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . N on -m an agerial p e r so n n e l
r e p o r te d l e s s o f t h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t y than m anagers, w ith
m iddle managers p e r c e iv in g n o ta b ly l e s s than th e top
e c h e lo n .
The a ccu racy o f upward com m unication v ia th e li n e
o r g a n iz a tio n was a s s e s s e d on a s c a le le a d in g from " ten d s
t o be in a c c u r a te " t o " a c c u r a te ." A m a jo r ity o f r e sp o n se s
r e s u lt e d in th e fin d in g th a t upward com m unication v ia th e
l i n e o r g a n iz a tio n was a c c u r a te . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a ls p e r
c e iv e d g r e a te r a ccu ra cy in such in fo r m a tio n than p r o f e s
s i o n a l s . Academic l i b r a r i e s r e p o r te d l e s s ten d en cy tow ard
a ccu ra cy than th e p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . Larger s t a f f s showed
s u b s t a n t ia lly l e s s a ccu ra cy f o r upward com m unication by
th e l i n e o r g a n iz a tio n than d id th e sm a lle r s t a f f s . Top
e c h elo n managers saw a much h ig h e r d eg ree o f a ccu ra cy than
e it h e r non-m anagers or th e m id d le e c h e lo n .
73
The tw e n ty -se c o n d v a r ia b le s tu d ie d th e need fo r up
ward com m unication c h a n n e ls t o supplem ent th e li n e o r g a n i
z a t io n . The ex trem es o f th e re sp o n se s c a le w ere " g rea t
need" fo r supplem entary c h a n n e ls , t o "no need" fo r them .
The d is t r ib u t io n was sp rea d w id e ly over th e s c a l e , b u t th e
f in d in g was th a t th e r e was o n ly a s l i g h t need fo r upward
com m unication ch a n n els t o supplem ent th e l i n e o r g a n iz a tio n ,
w ith form al s u g g e s tio n sy stem s som etim es b e in g u se d .
P r iv a te academ ic l i b r a r i e s in d ic a te d l e s s n eed fo r such
supplem entary d e v ic e s than t h e ir ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic
and p u b lic c o u n te r p a r ts . Larger s t a f f s saw much g r e a te r
n eed fo r supplem entary c h a n n e ls than sm a lle r s t a f f s .
M iddle m anagers p e r c e iv e d s l i g h t l y l e s s need fo r such
c h a n n e ls than e it h e r top m anagers or p erso n s w ith o u t mana
g e r ia l d u t i e s .
Communication h o r iz o n t a lly w ith in h ie r a r c h ic a l
l e v e l s was e x p lo r e d on a s c a le from " u s u a lly poor" b eca u se
o f p eer c o m p e titio n , t o b e in g "good t o e x c e lle n t ." R es
p o n ses were s tr o n g ly tow ard th e f a i r t o good t o e x c e l l e n t
end o f th e ra n g e , w ith th e f in d in g t h a t th e adequacy and
a ccu ra cy o f sid ew a rd com m unication among th e s t a f f s was
f a i r t o good. P r o f e s s io n a ls c o n s id e r e d h o r iz o n ta l communi
c a tio n t o be b e t t e r than n o n - p r o f e s s io n s I s . S im ila r ly , i t
was seen t o b e b e t t e r in p u b lic l i b r a r i e s than acad em ic.
The u su a l d i s t i n c t i o n betw een la r g e r and sm a lle r s t a f f s
a l s o was apparent in t h i s in s t a n c e , w ith th e la r g e r s t a f f s
74
in d ic a t in g l e s s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith t h e ir h o r iz o n t a l com
m u n ic a tio n .
V a r ia b le tw en ty -fo u r a ttem p ted to m easure th e
e x t e n t o f f r i e n d l i n e s s betw een s u p e r io r s and su b o r d in a te s
in term s o f d e g r e e s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l c lo s e n e s s ra n g in g
from " fa r apart" t o " u s u a lly v e r y c lo s e ." H ere th e
f in d in g was a g a in in th e th ir d c a te g o r y o f th e s c a l e ,
s u p e r io r s and s u b o r d in a te s were p s y c h o lo g ic a lly f a i r l y
c l o s e . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a ls p e r c e iv e d l e s s o f t h i s f r i e n d l i
n e s s than p r o f e s s io n a l p e r s o n n e l. T a x -su p p o rted academ ic
l i b r a r i e s r e p o r te d much l e s s f r i e n d l i n e s s betw een
s u p e r io r s and s u b o r d in a te s than th e p r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d
o n e s . The d if f e r e n c e in th e d is t r ib u t io n o f r e s p o n se s on
e i t h e r s id e o f th e mode fo r la r g e r and s m a lle r s t a f f s was
s t r i k i n g , w ith much l e s s p s y c h o lo g ic a l c lo s e n e s s from th e
la r g e r o n e s . P e r c e p tio n o f f r ie n d lin e s s v a r ie d d i r e c t l y
w ith h ie r a r c h ic a l p o s it io n , non-m anagers s e e in g much l e s s
than th e to p e c h e lo n .
The know ledge and u n d ersta n d in g by s u p e r io r s o f th e
problem s fa c e d by su b o r d in a te s w ere a s s e s s e d by th e n e x t
q u e s t io n . The r e sp o n se range was from h a v in g no know ledge
or u n d ersta n d in g t o knowing and u n d ersta n d in g th e problem s
v e r y w e l l . Modal resp o n se in d ic a te d a f in d in g th a t s u p e r i
o r s knew and u n d ersto o d s u b o r d in a te s' problem s q u it e w e l l .
As w ith th e p re ce d in g v a r ia b le , ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic
75
l i b r a r i e s re p o r te d l e s s know ledge and u n d ersta n d in g than
e it h e r p r iv a te academ ic or p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . Larger
s t a f f s in d ic a te d f a r l e s s know ledge and u n d ersta n d in g o f
s u b o r d in a te s' problem s than in sm a lle r s t a f f s . In th e
c a s e o f th e la r g e r on es a s a subgroup, th e mode was "have
some know ledge and u n d ersta n d in g o f s u b o r d in a te s ' prob
lems" r a th e r than "know and u n d ersta n d problem s o f sub
o r d in a te s q u ite w e ll." The p e r c e p tio n s o f th e m id d le
e c h e lo n and th e non-m anagers were in s u b s t a n t ia l agreem ent
on c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s know ledge and u n d ersta n d in g than th e
to p managers p r o fe s s e d to s e e .
The t w e n ty -s ix th q u e s tio n co n clu d ed th e group o f
v a r ia b le s d e a lin g w ith com m unication p r o c e s s e s . I t was
con cern ed w ith th e a ccu ra cy o f s u p e r io r s ' and su b o r d i
n a t e s ' p e r c e p tio n s o f each o th e r . The s c a le was " o fte n
in e r r o r ," " o fte n in e r r o r on some p o in t s ," "m od erately
a c c u r a te ," and " u su a lly q u ite a c c u r a te ." R esponses w ere
v e r y numerous in th e l a t t e r two c a t e g o r ie s , le a d in g t o th e
f in d in g th a t s u p e r io r s ' and s u b o r d in a te s' p e r c e p tio n s o f
each o th er w ere m o d era tely a c c u r a te . P r o fe s s io n a ls co n
s id e r e d th e s e p e r c e p tio n s t o be l e s s a cc u r a te th an non
p r o f e s s io n a ls . Academic l i b r a r i e s , e s p e c i a ll y th e t a x -
su p p orted o n e s , r e p o r te d l e s s a ccu ra cy o f p e r c e p tio n than
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . The c o n s is t e n t break betw een sm a lle r
and la r g e r s t a f f s a g a in e x i s t e d in t h i s in s t a n c e , w ith
76
g r e a te r a ccu ra cy o f s u p e r io r s ' and s u b o r d in a te s' p e r
c e p t io n s o f ea ch o th e r in th e sm a lle r s t a f f s . D egree o f
a ccu ra cy p e r c e iv e d by th e v a r io u s m an agerial l e v e l s v a r ie d
d i r e c t l y w ith h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l , to p m anagers p r o fe s s in g
t o s e e more a c c u r a te p e r c e p tio n than th e o t h e r s .
I n t e r a c t io n - ln f lu e n c e P r o c e sse s
The n e x t s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s d e a lt w ith in t e r a c t io n -
in flu e n c e p r o c e s s e s , in v o lv in g th e m a n ife s ta tio n s o f th e
w orking o f a sy stem c o n s is t in g o f a l l in te r p e r s o n a l p r o
c e s s e s in th e o r g a n iz a t io n s , th e management t h e o r ie s under
w hich th e y o p e r a te d , and th e m o tiv a tio n s tapped a s th e y
w ere em ployed in c o o r d in a tin g , in t e g r a t in g , and g u id in g
th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n s and t h e ir members.^
The s i x s p e c i f i c v a r ia b le s in v o lv e d were in t e r a c t io n ,
teamwork, and v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f th e a b i l i t y t o in flu e n c e
g o a ls and a c t i v i t i e s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n s and t h e ir p a r t s .
The amount and c h a r a c te r o f in t e r a c t io n , v a r y in g
from o n ly a sm a ll amount w ith accom panying fe a r and d i s
t r u s t t o a la r g e amount c o u p led w ith h ig h c o n fid e n c e and
t r u s t w ere e x p lo r e d . The modal r e s p o n s e , in c lu d in g a good
m a jo r ity o f th o s e p o s s i b l e , p ro v id ed th e fin d in g th a t
in t e r a c t io n w ith in th e s t a f f s was m od erate, o fte n accom
p a n ied by a f a i r amount o f c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t . L ess
1I b i d . , pp . 1 7 8 -7 9 .
77
in t e r a c t io n was r e p o r te d by th e ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic
l i b r a r i e s than by th e o th e r k in d s. Much more in t e r a c t io n
w ith g r e a te r c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t o ccu rred in th e sm a lle r
s t a f f s r e l a t i v e t o th e la r g e r .
C o o p era tiv e teamwork was m easured on a s c a le from
"none" t o a "very s u b s t a n t ia l amount" o f teamwork th rou gh
ou t th e o r g a n iz a tio n . The l a t t e r c a te g o r y was modal in
th e t o t a l p ic t u r e , but th e subgroups v a r ie d betw een th a t
r esp o n se and th e th ir d c a te g o r y , a "m oderate amount" o f
teamwork. The in d ic a te d fin d in g was th a t a v e ry su b sta n
t i a l amount o f c o o p e r a tiv e teamwork was p r e s e n t th rou ghou t
th e o r g a n iz a t io n s . A m oderate amount o f teamwork r a th e r
than v ery s u b s t a n t ia l was found in academ ic l i b r a r i e s . The
la r g e r l i b r a r i e s w ere c h a r a c te r iz e d by o n ly a m oderate
am ount. Top management saw much more e v id e n c e o f teamwork
than e it h e r m iddle m anagers or p erso n s n o t h avin g mana
g e r i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
Q u estio n tw e n ty -n in e e x p lo r e d th e e x te n t to which
su b o r d in a te s c o u ld in f lu e n c e th e c o u r se o f t h e ir o r g a n i
z a t io n a l u n it a s view ed by s u p e r io r s . C h o ices ranged from
"none" t o "a g r e a t d ea l" o f in f lu e n c e . The fin d in g was
th a t su b o r d in a te s c o u ld e x e r t m oderate in flu e n c e on th e
g o a ls , m ethods, and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l
u n i t s , a s view ed by s u p e r io r s . P r o fe s s io n a l em ployees
c o n s id e r e d s u b o r d in a te s' in flu e n c e t o be str o n g e r than d id
th e n o n -p r o f e s s io n a ls . In p u b lic l i b r a r i e s , su b o r d in a te s'
78
in flu e n c e was judged t o be somewhat w eaker than in a c a
dem ic l i b r a r i e s . In sm a lle r s t a f f s , th e a b i l i t y o f sub
o r d in a te s t o e x e r t in flu e n c e was much s tr o n g e r than in
la r g e r s t a f f s . G reat d if f e r e n c e e x i s t e d b etw een top
m anagers, who p e r c e iv e d much in flu e n c e by s u b o r d in a te s ,
and low er r a n k s, who saw o n ly m oderate a b i l i t y o f su b o r
d in a te s t o in flu e n c e th e c o u r se o f t h e ir u n i t s , from th e
v ie w p o in t o f th e s u p e r io r .
A b i l i t y o f su b o r d in a te s t o in flu e n c e th e c o u r se o f
o r g a n iz a t io n a l u n it s was a g a in th e s u b je c t o f th e n ex t
q u e s t io n , t h i s tim e from th e p o in t o f v iew o f th e su b
o r d in a t e s . The in fo r m a l o r g a n iz a tio n and u n io n iz a tio n
w ere b rou gh t in t o th e p ic tu r e in t h i s c a s e , w ith th e
a lt e r n a t e r e s p o n se s v a r y in g from no in flu e n c e e x c e p t
through th o s e two a g e n c ie s , t o a " s u b s t a n t ia l amount" o f
in flu e n c e "both d i r e c t l y and by u n io n iz a tio n ," where i t
e x i s t e d . The re sp o n se d is t r ib u t io n was s im ila r t o th e
p r e v io u s v a r ia b le , b u t th e r e was a g r e a te r number o f r e s
p o n ses n ea r th e low er end o f th e s c a l e . The f in d in g was
th a t as v iew ed by su b o r d in a te s, su b o r d in a te s t a f f members
c o u ld e x e r t m oderate in flu e n c e on th e g o a ls , m ethods, and
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n it s b oth d i r e c t l y and
by u n io n iz a tio n , where i t e x i s t e d . The s m a ll in c id e n c e o f
u n io n iz a tio n a t th e tim e o f th e su rv ey p ro b a b ly ten d ed t o
m in im ize th a t p a r t ic u la r a s p e c t in th e r e s p o n s e s . Tax-
su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s in d ic a te d l e s s a b i l i t y by
79
su b o r d in a te s t o in flu e n c e u n it s than in th e o th er two
k in d s o f l i b r a r i e s . Larger s t a f f s r e p o r te d c o n s id e r a b ly
l e s s such a b i l i t y , a s v iew ed by s u b o r d in a te s , than sm a lle r
s t a f f s . As w ith th e p r e v io u s q u e s tio n , to p managers saw
much g r e a te r a b i l i t y o f su b o r d in a te s t o in flu e n c e than was
p e r c e iv e d by th e low er r a n k s.
The n e x t q u e s tio n d e a lt w ith th e d e g r e e o f i n f l u
en ce h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s c o u ld e x e r c is e over th e g o a ls ,
m ethods, and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n i t s .
P o s s ib le r e sp o n se s ran ged from "m oderate u n le s s c a p a c ity
t o i n f l i c t s e v e r e punishm ent i s p r e s e n t," t o " s u b s ta n tia l"
in f lu e n c e , b u t o fte n e x e r te d i n d i r e c t l y . The fin d in g was
th a t s u p e r io r s , e s p e c i a l l y a t h ig h e r l e v e l s , e x e r c is e d
m oderate t o s u b s t a n t ia l in flu e n c e over th e g o a ls , m ethods,
and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir u n i t s . S u p e r io r s in ta x -su p p o r te d
academ ic l i b r a r i e s c o u ld in flu e n c e t h e ir u n it s somewhat
l e s s than th o s e in th e o th er c l a s s e s o f l i b r a r i e s s t u d ie d .
The u su a l pronounced d if f e r e n c e betw een la r g e r and sm a lle r
s t a f f s was p r e s e n t, w ith s u p e r io r s a b le t o e x e r t more su b
s t a n t i a l in flu e n c e in th e sm a lle r s t a f f s . P e r c ep tio n o f
th e a b i l i t y o f s u p e r io r s t o e x e r t in flu e n c e v a r ie d
d i r e c t l y , but n o t w id e ly , w ith m an agerial l e v e l . Top
managers saw more in flu e n c e e x e r c is e d by s u p e r io r s than
was p e r c e iv e d by th e low er l e v e l s .
V a r ia b le t h ir t y - t w o so u g h t t o a s c e r ta in th e p r e s
en ce or a b sen ce o f an e f f e c t i v e s tr u c tu r e p e r m ittin g
80
o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n it s t o in flu e n c e each o t h e r . V ir tu a l
ab sen ce o f such s tr u c t u r e was a t one end o f th e s c a le ;
p re se n c e o f a h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e s tr u c tu r e a t th e o th e r .
A lthough th e modal r e sp o n se was s tr o n g , a la r g e p o r tio n
o f th e non-m odal r e s p o n se s f e l l toward th e end o f th e
s c a le in d ic a tin g la c k o f e f f e c t i v e s tr u c t u r e . The fin d in g
was th a t a m o d era tely e f f e c t i v e s tr u c tu r e e x i s t e d e n a b lin g
o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n it s t o in flu e n c e each o th e r , a lth o u g h i n
f lu e n c e ten d ed t o b e e x e r te d through v e r t i c a l l i n e s .
Somewhat l e s s e f f e c t i v e s tr u c tu r e was in d ic a te d in t a x -
su p p orted academ ic l i b r a r i e s than in p r iv a te academ ic
or p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . L arger s t a f f s showed much l e s s
e f f e c t i v e n e s s in t h i s r e s p e c t than sm a lle r s t a f f s , w ith
th e modal re sp o n se f o r th e la r g e r ones a c t u a lly b ein g
" lim ite d c a p a c it y e x i s t s ." A w ide gap se p a r a te d top
e c h e lo n m anagers, who p e r c e iv e d a more e f f e c t i v e in flu e n c e
s tr u c t u r e , from o th e r p e r so n n e l who saw a l e s s e f f e c t i v e
o n e.
D e c is io n Making P r o c e ss e s
D e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d th e m ethods and
te c h n iq u e s u sed in s e l e c t i n g c o u r s e s o f a c tio n w hich were
l i k e l y t o r e s u lt in th e m ain ten an ce o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n
and p r o g r e ss toward i t s g o a l s T h i s , th e f i f t h a s p e c t o f
1I b i d . . p p . 109-11
81
th e o r g a n iz a tio n s in v e s t ig a t e d , u se d e i g h t q u e s tio n s fo r
th a t p u r p o se. They a s s e s s e d th e h ie r a r c h ic a l lo c a t io n o f
fo rm a l d e c is io n m aking, th e c h a r a c te r o f th e know ledge and
in fo r m a tio n u sed in th e p r o c e s s , and a s p e c ts o f th e n a tu re
o f t h e d e c is io n making a c t i v i t i e s .
A s c a le ra n g in g from lo c a t io n a t th e to p o n ly to
w ide d is p e r s io n through th e o r g a n iz a tio n was u sed t o
e x p lo r e th e l e v e l a t w hich form al d e c is io n making o ccu rred .
T h is was one o f o n ly fo u r v a r ia b le s in th e e n t ir e stu d y in
Which th e modal r e s p o n se , b oth f o r the t o t a l and fo r a l l
su b g ro u p s, was in th e low er h a lf o f th e s c a l e . The fin d in g
was t h a t p o lic y d e c is io n s w ere made a t th e to p o f th e
o r g a n iz a t io n s . Many o th er d e c is io n s w ith in a p r e s c r ib e d
framework were made a t low er l e v e l s , b u t th e to p manage
ment was u s u a lly c o n s u lte d p r io r t o im p le m e n ta tio n . Non
p r o f e s s io n a l resp o n d e n ts p e r c e iv e d more d e c is io n s b e in g
made a t to p l e v e l s than d id p r o f e s s i o n a ls . T h is ten d en cy
tow ard c e n t r a liz e d d e c is io n making was n o ta b ly more p r o
nounced in p u b lic 15.braries than in th e o t h e r s . A r a re
e x c e p tio n t o th e u su a l tren d w ith reg a rd t o la r g e r and
sm a lle r s t a f f s o ccu rred in t h i s in s t a n c e . M edium -sized
s t a f f s r e p o r te d l e s s , and sm a ll s t a f f s more c e n t r a liz a t io n
o f d e c is io n making th an was tr u e in th e la r g e r o r g a n iz a
t i o n s . M anagerial p e r so n n e l p r o fe s s e d to s e e l e s s co n cen
t r a t io n o f d e c is io n making a t th e top th an d id th o se who
w ere n o t m anagers.
82
The t h ir t y - f o u r t h v a r ia b le u n d erto o k th e e v a lu a tio n
o f th e in fo r m a tio n a v a ila b le a t th e d e c is io n making l e v e l .
Adequacy and a ccu ra cy o f in fo r m a tio n w ere th e s c a le d
f a c t o r s , from " g e n e r a lly in a d eq u a te and in a cc u r a te" t o
" r e l a t i v e l y co m p lete and a c c u r a te ." R esp on ses retu rn ed
t o th e more t y p ic a l p a tte r n , w ith a str o n g m a jo r ity fo r
th e t h ir d and fo u r th a l t e r n a t i v e s . The fin d in g was th a t
r e a so n a b ly ad eq u ate and a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n was a v a ila b le
a t th e predom inant d e c is io n making l e v e l . N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l
em p loyees r e p o r te d a judgment o f somewhat b e t t e r i n f o r
m ation a t th e d e c is io n making l e v e l than d id p r o f e s s io n a ls .
P u b lic lib r a r y s t a f f s tended t o s e e more adeq u ate and
a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n fo r d e c is io n making than t h e ir a ca
dem ic c o u n te r p a r ts . The u su a l p a tte r n fo r la r g e r and
sm a lle r o r g a n iz a tio n s r e tu r n e d , w ith sm a lle r on es r e p o r tin g
b e t t e r d e c is io n making in fo r m a tio n than th e la r g e r s t a f f s .
The to p m a n a g eria l e c h e lo n p e r c e iv e d h ig h e r q u a lit y i n f o r
m ation f o r d e c is io n making than d id th e low er l e v e l s .
A w areness by d e c is io n makers o f p rob lem s, e s p e c ia lly
a t th e low er h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l s , was th e s u b je c t o f th e
n e x t q u e s t io n . R esponse range was from " o fte n unaware" o f
problem s t o " g e n e r a lly q u ite w e ll aware" o f them . The
fin d in g was th a t d e c is io n makers w ere g e n e r a lly q u ite w e ll
aware o f p rob lem s, in c lu d in g th o se a t low er o r g a n iz a tio n a l
l e v e l s . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l, ta x -su p p o r te d acad em ic, la r g e
s t a f f s i z e s , and n an -m an agerial subgroups had secon d ary
83
peaks n o t im m ed ia tely a d ja c e n t t o th e modal r e sp o n se s in
th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , in d ic a t in g th a t a la r g e r number o f
resp o n d e n ts in th o s e groups seemed t o th in k d e c is io n
makers w ere d e f i n i t e l y unaware o f some o r g a n iz a tio n a l
p rob lem s, r a th e r than b ein g sim p ly " m od erately aware" o f
e x i s t i n g o n e s . In f a c t , fo r th e la r g e r s t a f f s , th e modal
r esp o n se was "aware o f some problem s b u t unaware o f
o th e r s ," S m aller s t a f f s w ere overw h elm in gly in th e more
fa v o r a b le r esp o n se c a t e g o r i e s . M iddle m anagers and n on -
m a n agerial p e r so n n e l w ere in f a i r l y c l o s e agreem ent on
l e s s aw areness o f problem s by d e c is io n makers than th e
major d e c is io n makers th em se lv es r e p o r te d .
V a r ia b le t h i r t y - s i x m easured th e u se o f t e c h n ic a l
and p r o f e s s io n a l know ledge in * d e c is io n m aking. The s c a le
co v ered from u se o f o n ly th a t knowledge p o s s e s s e d a t
h ig h er l e v e l s t o u se o f "much o f what i s a v a ila b le any
where in th e o r g a n iz a tio n ," The d is t r ib u t io n showed a
weak bim odal ten d e n cy , w ith a str o n g resp o n se on u se o f a l l
a v a ila b le in fo r m a tio n , and a weaker resp o n se two s c a le
p o in ts aw ay, s u g g e s tin g e x c lu s io n o f know ledge p o s s e s s e d
o n ly a t low er l e v e l s . The fin d in g was th a t much o f th e
t e c h n ic a l and p r o f e s s io n a l know ledge a v a ila b le anywhere in
th e o r g a n iz a tio n s was u sed in d e c is io n m aking. O nly th e
m ed iu m -sized s t a f f s and to p e c h e lo n managers d id n o t show
th e bim odal ten d en cy . N o n -p r o fe s sio n a ls saw a som eth at
g r e a te r i n c l i n a t i o n t o e x c lu d e know ledge p o s s e s s e d by th e
84
low er l e v e l s than d id th e p r o f e s s i o n a ls . Larger s t a f f s
saw t h is same ten d en cy to a much g r e a te r e x t e n t than
sm a lle r s t a f f s . A gain , a pronounced d if f e r e n c e o f p e r
c e p tio n was e v id e n t betw een to p e c h e lo n m anagers and low er
l e v e l s , w ith v e r y much l e s s r e p o r tin g o f u se o f th e
know ledge a v a ila b le a t a l l l e v e l s on th e p a r t o f th e non
m anagers and m id d le e c h e lo n .
The n e x t q u e stio n was w hether or n o t d e c is io n s
w ere made a t th e b e s t o r g a n iz a tio n a l l e v e l in term s o f
in fo r m a tio n a v a i l a b i l i t y . Answers ran ged from d e c is io n
making u s u a lly a t l e v e l s h ig h e r than th o se h av in g th e m ost
r e le v a n t in fo r m a tio n , t o p u sh in g d e c is io n making t o th e
l e v e l p o s s e s s in g th e in fo r m a tio n . Subgroup d is t r ib u t io n s
v a r ie d som ewhat, b u t th e modal c a te g o r y fo r th e t o t a l was
th e fo u r th o n e, w ith th e fin d in g th a t group p r o c e s se s
ten d ed t o push d e c is io n making t o th e p o in t where i n f o r
m ation was m ost a d eq u a te, or t o p a ss in fo rm a tio n t o th e
p la c e o f d e c is io n . T a x -su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s
v a r ie d m arkedly from th a t r e s p o n s e , in d ic a t in g a ten d en cy
t o make d e c is io n s a t l e v e l s h ig h e r than th o se p o s s e s s in g
th e b e s t in fo r m a tio n . Larger s t a f f s showed th e same
r e s p o n se , d i f f e r i n g s tr o n g ly from th e sm a lle r s t a f f s .
S tr a n g e ly , m iddle managers fa v o r e d th a t d e v ia n t mode,
w h ile both non-m anagers and th e to p e c h e lo n agreed w ith
th e fin d in g r e p o r te d fo r th e e n t ir e sa m p le. Non-managers
85
p e r c e iv e d a c o n s id e r a b ly g r e a te r ten d en cy t o make d ecisio n s
where in fo r m a tio n was la c k in g than th e to p e c h e lo n .
A gain th e m atter o f d e c is io n making was e x p lo r e d ,
t h i s tim e w ith reg a rd t o w hether or n o t d e c is io n making
p r o c e s s e s c o n tr ib u te d t o th e m o tiv a tio n fo r im p lem en ta tio n
o f th e d e c i s i o n s . P o s s ib le answ ers w ere from " s u b s ta n t ia l
c o n tr ib u tio n " t o m o tiv a tio n to l i t t l e c o n t r ib u t io n , or
even a d v erse m o tiv a tio n . D is t r ib u t io n s re tu r n ed t o th e
common e a r l i e r p a t te r n , w ith th e fin d in g b ein g th a t
d e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s made some c o n tr ib u tio n t o th e
m o tiv a tio n f o r im p lem en ta tio n . P u b lic l i b r a r i e s r e p o r te d
a g r e a te r m o tiv a tio n a l c o n tr ib u tio n by th e d e c is io n making
p r o c e s s than was th e c a s e f o r t h e ir academ ic c o u n te r p a r ts .
Larger s t a f f s showed l e s s o f a p o s i t i v e r e la t io n s h ip b e
tw een d e c is io n making and m o tiv a tio n fo r im p lem en tation
than was tr u e w ith th e sm a lle r s t a f f s . The top e c h e lo n
o f management saw a g r e a te r p o s i t i v e c o n n e c tio n th e r e than
d id th e low er l e v e l s .
In volvem en t o f s u b o r d in a te s , or la c k o f i t , was
in d ic a te d by th e t h ir t y - n in t h v a r ia b le , ra n g in g from no
in v o lv em en t to f u l l in v o lv em en t " in a l l d e c is io n s r e la t e d
t o t h e ir work." A la r g e m a jo r ity resp on d ed in term s o f
c o n s u lt a t io n w ith o u t a c t u a l in v o lv e m e n t, r e s u lt in g in th e
fin d in g th a t su b o r d in a te s were u s u a lly c o n s u lt e d , but
o r d in a r ily were n o t a c t u a lly in v o lv e d in making d e c is io n s
86
r e la t e d to t h e ir w ork. P r iv a te academ ic l i b r a r i e s
r e p o r te d more o f a ten d en cy toward in v o lv em en t in d e c is io n
making than p u b lic or o th e r academ ic l i b r a r i e s . In lin e
w ith th e p r e v a le n t p a t te r n , sm a lle r s t a f f s in d ic a te d a
n o ta b ly g r e a te r e x t e n t o f a c tu a l in v o lv em en t than la r g e r
s t a f f s . Top e c h e lo n managers p e r c e iv e d somewhat more i n
v olvem en t o f s u b o r d in a te s in d e c is io n making than d id th e
su b o r d in a te s th e m s e lv e s.
The l a s t q u e stio n a d d ressed in c o n n e c tio n w ith
d e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s was th e u se o f "man-to-man"
v e r su s a "group p a ttern " o f d e c is io n m aking, and c o n s e
quent im pact on teamwork w ith in th e o r g a n iz a t io n s . P o s
s i b l e r e sp o n se s v a r ie d betw een "man-to-man o n ly ; d i s
co u ra g es teamwork," and " la r g e ly b ased on th e group
p a tte r n ; en co u ra g es teamwork." A str o n g mode d ev elo p ed
in th e a lt e r n a t iv e in d ic a t in g th e e x is t e n c e o f b oth
p a tte r n s but th e predom inance o f n e it h e r . The fin d in g was
th a t d e c is io n making was b ased on b oth "man-to-man" and
"group" a p p ro a ch es, w ith co n seq u en t p a r t ia l encouragem ent
o f teamwork. I t was somewhat s u r p r is in g th a t th e non
p r o f e s s io n a ls p e r c e iv e d more o f th e group approach than
d id p r o f e s s io n a l r e s p o n d e n ts . Academic l i b r a r i e s r ep o rted
u se o f th e group p a tte r n l e s s than p u b lic l i b r a r i e s .
S m a ller s t a f f s showed more u se o f group p r o c e s s e s than
la r g e r s t a f f s .. Not u n e x p e c te d ly , to p m anagers p e r c e iv e d
more u s e o f th e group approach than d id t h e ir su b o r d in a te s.
87
G oal S e t t in g P r o c e sse s
G oal s e t t i n g p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d th e e s ta b lish m e n t
o f q u a l i t a t i v e an d /or q u a n t it a t iv e o b j e c t iv e s fo r th e
o r g a n iz a tio n and th e in d iv id u a ls co m p risin g i t * 1 * Three
a s p e c ts were in c lu d e d in t h i s c a te g o r y : th e manner o f
g o a l s e t t i n g , th e e x t e n t o f s t r i v i n g fo r h ig h perform ance
g o a ls , and th e d e g r ee o f a ccep ta n ce o f th e g o a ls .
The manner in w hich g o a ls and p r i o r i t i e s were
e s t a b lis h e d was th e s u b je c t o f th e f o r t y - f i r s t q u e s t io n .
The s c a le v a r ie d from o u tr ig h t iss u a n c e o f o rd ers t o
iss u a n c e o f o rd ers w ith some p o s s i b i l i t y o f comment on
them , th en t o is s u a n c e o f o rd ers a f t e r d is c u s s io n , and
f i n a l l y t o th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f g o a ls by group p a r t i c i
p a t io n . The m a jo r ity o f r e sp o n se s was in th e c o n s u lt a t iv e
v e in , r e s u lt in g in th e fin d in g th a t g o a ls w ere s e t and
o rd ers were is s u e d by s u p e r io r s a f t e r d is c u s s io n w ith su b
o r d in a te s o f problem s and p lan n ed a c t io n s . More group
p a r t ic ip a t io n was seen by p r o f e s s io n a ls than by th e non
p r o f e s s io n a l em p lo y e es. Academic l i b r a r ie s r e p o r te d
somewhat more group p a r t ic ip a t io n in g o a l s e t t i n g than was
th e c a s e in p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . S m a ller s t a f f s in d ic a te d
c o n s id e r a b ly more group a c t i v i t y r e l a t i v e t o g o a l s e t t i n g
than la r g e r s t a f f s . F o llo w in g a w e ll- e s t a b lis h e d p a tte r n
1I b i d ., p p . 1 6 5 -6 9 .
88
in t h i s s tu d y , top management p e r c e iv e d more d is c u s s io n
and group p r o c e s s in g o a l s e t t i n g than th a t r e p o r te d by
low er l e v e l s .
P o s s ib le d if f e r e n c e s in g o a l a s p ir a t io n s among
h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l s w ere c o n s id e r e d w ith th e n e x t v a r ia b le .
The f i r s t r esp o n se c a te g o r y was p r e s s u r e fo r h ig h g o a ls
from th e to p l e v e l , " g e n e r a lly r e s i s t e d by su b o r d in a te s."
The o p p o s ite extrem e was th e s e e k in g o f h ig h g o a ls by a l l
l e v e l s , "w ith low er l e v e l s som etim es p r e s s in g fo r h ig h er
g o a ls than to p l e v e l s ." The f in d in g was th a t h igh g o a ls
w ere sou gh t by th e h ig h e r l e v e l s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n s ,
but w ere o c c a s io n a lly r e s i s t e d by th e low er l e v e l s . T ax-
su p p orted academ ic l i b r a r i e s v a r ie d m arkedly from th e
tren d o f th e t o t a l , a c t u a ll y h a v in g th e modal resp o n se
in d ic a t in g t h a t lower l e v e l s som etim es a s p ir e d to h ig h er
g o a ls than d id th e to p l e v e l s . The combined academ ic
subgroup in d ic a te d h ig h e r g o a ls a t low er l e v e l s than in
p u b lic l i b r a r i e s . S im ila r ly , sm a lle r s t a f f s r e p o r te d sub
s t a n t i a l l y g r e a te r in c id e n c e o f h ig h g o a l a s p ir a t io n in
th e low er ranks than was fou nd among la r g e r s t a f f s . In
t h i s s it u a t io n , m iddle m anagers p e r c e iv e d more o f th e
" o c c a s io n a l r e s is t a n c e " to th e h ig h g o a ls than e it h e r
t h e ir s u p e r io r s or s u b o r d in a te s . Perhaps t h is r e f l e c t e d
th e in h e r e n t n atu re o f th e m id d le management f u n c tio n .
The e x p lo r a tio n o f g o a l s e t t i n g and o r d e r in g was
com p leted w ith a q u e stio n co n c e r n in g th e r e l a t i v e
89
a c ce p ta n ce o f and r e s is t a n c e to o r g a n iz a tio n a l g o a ls .
S c a le r e sp o n se s were couched in term s o f " overt" and
" co v ert" a ccep ta n ce and r e s i s t a n c e . The ex trem e s were
" o v ert" a c ce p ta n c e w ith str o n g " co v ert" r e s i s t a n c e , and
f u l l a c ce p ta n c e "both o v e r t ly and c o v e r t ly ." A str o n g
m a jo r ity resp on ded in th e t h ir d c a t e g o r y , le a d in g t o th e
fin d in g th a t g o a ls w ere o v e r t ly a c c e p te d b u t a t tim es
were c o v e r t ly r e s i s t e d . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l p e r so n n e l saw
more a cc ep ta n c e and l e s s r e s is t a n c e than p r o f e s s io n a ls .
S m a ller s t a f f s r e p o r te d c o n s id e r a b ly g r e a te r a cc e p ta n ce
and c o r r e sp o n d in g ly l e s s r e s is t a n c e than la r g e r s t a f f s .
P e r c e p tio n o f a c c e p t a n c e /r e s is ta n c e v a r ie d d i r e c t l y w ith
m a n a g eria l l e v e l w ith in r a th e r narrow l i m i t s .
C o n tro l P r o c e ss e s
A n a ly s is o f c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s was n e x t c o n s id e r e d ,
in c o r p o r a tin g f i v e v a r i a b l e s . C o n tro l p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d
th e a sse ssm en t and m easurem ent o f th e e x t e n t t o w hich th e
g o a ls o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n w ere b e in g a c h ie v e d .^ H ie r a r c h i
c a l s e a t and c o n c e n tr a tio n o f th e c o n t r o l f u n c tio n , th e
v a l i d i t y o f and u se made o f th e in fo r m a tio n a p p lie d in
t h i s c o n n e c tio n , and th e e x t e n t o f a c t i v i t y o f th e in fo rm a l
o r g a n iz a tio n r e l a t i v e t o g o a l ach ievem en t were th e p a r
t ic u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s tu d ie d .
^ R ensis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , p p . 2 0 9 -1 0 .
90
The h ie r a r c h ic a l lo c a t io n o f prim ary co n cern fo r
perform ance o f th e c o n t r o l fu n c tio n was sou gh t in th e n e x t
v a r ia b le . Range o f v a r ia t io n was from h av in g con cern o n ly
a t th e to p o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n t o con cern b e in g f e l t
th ro u g h o u t. R esponse d is t r ib u t io n was f a i r l y even on
e it h e r s id e o f th e mode, and th e fin d in g was t h a t major
con cern reg a rd in g th e c o n t r o l fu n c tio n r e s t e d p r im a r ily in
th e to p e c h e lo n , b u t w ith some shared f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y a t m iddle l e v e l s and to a l e s s e r e x t e n t a t low er
l e v e l s . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l em ployees e x p r e sse d th e b e l i e f
th a t con cern fo r th e c o n t r o l fu n c tio n was more w id esp rea d
through th e o r g a n iz a tio n than th e p r o f e s s io n a ls saw i t . In
p r iv a te academ ic l i b r a r i e s , c o n t r o l ten d ed t o be p la c e d a t
or n ear th e h ie r a r c h ic a l apex t o a somewhat g r e a te r e x t e n t
than in o th e r l i b r a r i e s . Concern fo r th e c o n t r o l fu n c tio n
was more w id esp rea d th rou ghou t sm a ller s t a f f s than was
tru e in la r g e r s t a f f s . M iddle managers showed much
s tr o n g e r ad h eren ce t o th e fin d in g d e r iv e d from th e modal
r esp o n se a b ove, than e it h e r t h e ir s u p e r io r s or s u b o r d i
n a t e s .
The a ccu ra cy o f in fo r m a tio n u sed fo r c o n t r o l p u r
p o se s was th e o b je c t o f th e n e x t q u e s tio n . The e x t e n t o f
f o r c e s t o d i s t o r t or f a l s i f y t h i s in fo r m a tio n was a
c l o s e l y r e la t e d f a c t o r , w ith p o s s ib le r e sp o n se s running
th e gamut from " very str o n g f o r c e s e x i s t to d i s t o r t and
f a l s i f y . . . w ith co n seq u en t in c o m p le te , in a c c u r a te
91
in fo r m a tio n , to " stro n g p r e s s u r e s to o b ta in co m p lete and
a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n . . . . " The l a t t e r was th e modal
r e s p o n s e , le a d in g t o th e f in d in g th a t in fo rm a tio n fo r
c o n t r o l p u rp oses ten d ed to be co m p lete and a c c u r a te b e
c a u se s tr o n g p r e ssu r e s e x i s t e d t o o b ta in th a t in fo rm a tio n
t o g u id e th e b eh avior o f in d iv id u a ls and work g ro u p s. The
subgroups showed c o n s id e r a b le v a r ia t io n in th e freq u en cy
o f th e o v e r a ll modal r e s p o n s e , and, in f a c t , la r g e r s t a f f s
had a s t h e i r mode th e c a te g o r y in d ic a t in g e x is t e n c e o f
"some p r e ssu r e t o p r o t e c t s e l f and c o lle a g u e s . . . "
r e s u lt i n g in some d is t o r t io n o f in fo r m a tio n u sed fo r co n
t r o l p u r p o se s. P r o fe s s io n a l em p loyees were l e s s fir m ly
c o n v in c e d o f th e co m p le te n e ss and a ccu ra cy o f th e c o n tr o l
in fo r m a tio n than were th e n o n - p r o f e s s io n a ls . T ax-
su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s w ere weaker than p u b lic
l i b r a r i e s , and much weaker than t h e ir p r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d
c o u n te r p a r ts in th e m odal c a te g o r y , s u g g e s tin g l e s s co n
v i c t i o n o f th e c o m p le te n e ss and adequacy o f c o n tr o l
in fo r m a tio n in t h a t c l a s s o f l i b r a r i e s . The th r e e
h ie r a r c h ic a l le v e l s showed s u r p r is in g u n ifo r m ity , w ith th e
n o n -m a n a g eria l group show ing o n ly s l i g h t l y l e s s optim ism
about in fo rm a tio n co m p le te n e ss and a ccu ra cy th an th e
m anagers.
C o n c e n tr a tio n , or c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , o f th e c o n t r o l
fu n c tio n in th e o r g a n iz a tio n s was m easured on a s c a le
92
ra n g in g from a h ig h d eg ree o f c o n c e n tr a tio n in th e to p
e c h e lo n , t o " review and c o n t r o l done a t a l l l e v e l s , w ith
low er l e v e l s a t tim es im p osin g more v ig o r o u s re v ie w s and
t ig h t e r c o n t r o ls than to p management." T h is was an oth er
o f th o se ra re c a s e s in w hich th e r e sp o n se s w ere n o t la r g e ly
f a v o r a b le , w ith th e mode b e in g th e secon d s t e p o f th e
s c a l e . The r e s u lt a n t fin d in g was th a t r e v ie w and c o n t r o l
fu n c tio n s w ere h ig h ly c o n c e n tr a te d a t th e to p o f th e
o r g a n iz a tio n s s tu d ie d , but w ith some d e le g a t io n t o m iddle
and low er l e v e l s , N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l em p loyees p e r c e iv e d
g r e a te r c o n c e n tr a tio n a t th e to p than d id p r o f e s s io n a ls .
F o llo w in g th e u su a l p a tte r n , la r g e r s t a f f s re p o r te d
g r e a te r c e n t r a liz a t io n o f rev iew and c o n t r o l a t h ig h e r
l e v e l s than in sm a lle r s t a f f s . Managers a g reed f a i r l y
c l o s e l y in p e r c e p tio n , b u t non-m anagers r e p o r te d more
c o n c e n tr a tio n than th e m a n a g eria l l e v e l s .
The p r e se n c e or a b sen ce o f an in fo r m a l o r g a n iz a
t io n and i t s im pact on f u l f i l l m e n t o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l
g o a ls w ere n e x t in v e s t ig a t e d . The range o f v a r ia t io n was
from h a v in g an in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n p r e s e n t and op p osin g
th e g o a ls , t o th e in fo r m a l and form al o r g a n iz a tio n s b ein g
i d e n t i c a l , w ith a l l s o c i a l f o r c e s ten d in g t o su p p ort g o a l
a ch iev em en t. W ith some d e v ia tio n among th e su b grou p s, th e
o v e r a ll c o n c lu s io n was th a t an in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n may
be p r e s e n t, and may be e it h e r su p p o rtin g or p a r t i a l l y
93
r e s i s t i n g th e g o a l s . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l r e s p o n d e n ts,
p r iv a t e academ ic l i b r a r i e s , and sm a lle r s t a f f s a l l d e
p a r te d from t h i s norm, and t h e ir modal r e sp o n se was
a c t u a lly fo r i d e n t i t y betw een th e in fo rm a l and form al
o r g a n iz a t io n s . The d if f e r e n c e betw een th e p r iv a t e and
ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s was p ronounced, a s i t was
betw een la r g e r and sm a lle r s t a f f s . The p r e se n c e o f an
in fo r m a l o r g a n iz a tio n and a p o t e n t ia l fo r r e s is t a n c e t o
th e g o a ls o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n were more s tr o n g ly f e l t in
th e ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s and th e la r g e r s t a f f s .
Non-m anagers and to p m anagers in d ic a te d l e s s aw aren ess o f
an in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n and p o s s ib le r e s is t a n c e t o g o a ls
than d id th e m id d le e c h e lo n .
The l a s t v a r ia b le d e a lin g w ith c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s
e x p lo r e d th e m ethods o f u s in g c o n t r o l d a ta in th e o r g a n i
z a t i o n s . A lt e r n a t iv e s in c lu d e d , a t th e low end o f th e
s c a l e , u se o f c o n t r o l d a ta p u n it iv e ly and f o r p o l i c i n g ,
t o u se fo r s e lf - g u id a n c e and c o o r d in a te d problem s o lv in g
a t th e o th e r end o f th e s c a l e . R esp on ses w ere s tr o n g ly in
th e fo u r th c a t e g o r y , g iv in g th e f in d in g th a t c o n t r o l d ata
w ere u sed fo r s e lf - g u id a n c e and c o o r d in a te d problem
s o lv i n g . The d a ta w ere n o t u sed p u n i t i v e l y . T h is fa v o r
a b le modal r e sp o n se was weaker fo r la r g e r s t a f f s than
sm a lle r s t a f f s and weakened c o n c u r r e n tly w ith d escen d in g
m a n agerial l e v e l . In a l l subgroups a str o n g m a jo r ity
c h o se th e modal c a te g o r y .
94
Perform ance G o a ls and T ra in in g
Three v a r ia b le s w ere in te n d e d t o a s s e s s th e l e v e l
o f perform ance g o a ls a lo n g w ith th e a v a i l a b i l i t y and a d e
quacy o f t r a in in g w ith in th e l i b r a r i e s . Perform ance g o a ls
were th e q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t it a t iv e a s p ir a t io n s o f th e
o r g a n iz a tio n s and th e in d iv id u a ls co m p risin g them .*
T ra in in g was d e fin e d a s an a c t i v i t y in te n d e d to b r in g
about c o g n it iv e , a t t i t u d i n a l , and s k i l l ch an ges co m p a tib le
w ith th e system o f management in w hich th e tr a in in g was to
be u se d . T h is o r g a n iz a tio n a l d im en sion was th e e ig h th
and l a s t o f th o se in c lu d e d in th e d a ta -g a th e r in g i n s t r u
ment d e v ise d and v a lid a t e d by R e n sis L ik e r t .
E x p lo r a tio n o f th e l e v e l o f perform ance g o a ls fo r
th e o r g a n iz a tio n so u g h t by h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s was
u n d erta k en . The range o f a lt e r n a t iv e r e sp o n se s was from
" se ek a v erage g o a ls" t o " se ek t o a c h ie v e e x trem e ly h ig h
g o a ls ." The b u lk o f r e sp o n se s w ere f o r th e two m iddle
c h o ic e s , w ith th e t h ir d one b e in g modal by a sm a ll m argin.
The fin d in g was th a t h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s sou gh t to have
th e o r g a n iz a tio n s a c h ie v e v e r y h ig h g o a ls . D e v ia tio n s
from th e d is t r ib u t io n f o r th e t o t a l among th e subgroups
w ere m inor, and h a rd ly s u f f i c i e n t to w arrant d e s c r ip t io n .
1I b i d ., pp. 5 3 -6 3 .
2I b i d . , pp. 1 2 3 -2 7 .
95
The f i f t i e t h q u e stio n was p e r s o n a liz e d , a sk in g th e
a
e x t e n t t o w hich th e r e sp o n d e n t's lib r a r y had g iv e n him th e
k in d o f management t r a in in g he d e s ir e d . As m ight be
e x p e c te d , th e s c a le ran from "have r e c e iv e d no management
t r a in in g o f th e k in d I d e s ir e " to "have r e c e iv e d a g r e a t
d e a l o f management t r a in in g o f th e k in d I d e s ir e ."
A lthough n o t overw helm ing, a c le a r mode d e v e lo p ed in th e
secon d c a t e g o r y , in d ic a t in g r e c e ip t o f "some" management
t r a in in g o f th e ty p e d e s ir e d by th e r e sp o n d e n t. The
f in d in g was th a t p e r s o n n e l in th e l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d
r e c e iv e d some management tr a in in g o f th e k in d th ey d e s ir e .
A lthough th e mode was c o n s is t e n t among th e su b grou p s, th e
rem ainder o f th e d is t r ib u t io n s v a r ie d som ewhat. P r o fe s
s io n a l em p loyees ten d ed t o in d ic a t e r e c e ip t o f l e s s
t r a in in g o f th e k in d d e s ir e d th an th e n o n - p r o f e s s io n a ls .
T a x -su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s showed a p oorer r e c o r d in
management t r a in in g than p u b lic or o th er academ ic lib r a r ie s .
Larger s t a f f s r e p o r te d a l e s s e r e x te n t o f such t r a in in g
than sm a lle r s t a f f s . The d is t r ib u t io n o f m id d le ec h e lo n
and n on -m an agerial r e sp o n se s showed g r e a te r p o s i t i v e skew
n e s s than th e top e c h e lo n , s u g g e s tin g l e s s s a t i s f a c t i o n
w ith management t r a in in g r e c e iv e d a t th o s e l e v e l s .
The adequacy o f r e so u r c e s f o r t r a in in g su b o r d in a te s
w ith in th e l i b r a r i e s was e x p lo r e d w ith a s c a le ra n g in g
from " o n ly f a i r l y good" r e s o u r c e s t o " e x c e lle n t" o n e s .
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T h is was th e o n ly v a r ia b le in th e e n t ir e stu d y fo r which
th e modal resp o n se was in th e lo w e s t c a te g o r y , and th e
d is t r ib u t io n was h e a v ily toward th e low er or l e s s d e s ir
a b le end o f th e s c a l e . The f in d in g was th a t o n ly f a i r l y
good r e s o u r c e s were p ro v id ed fo r t r a in in g su b o r d in a te s in
th e l i b r a r i e s s t u d ie d . T h is t r a in in g s it u a t io n was r e
garded a s e s p e c i a ll y poor by p r o f e s s io n a l p e r s o n n e l, in
ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s , and in la r g e r s t a f f s .
Academic l i b r a r i e s in g e n er a l r e p o r te d l e s s adequacy o f
r e s o u r c e s fo r t r a in in g su b o r d in a te s than p u b lic l i b r a r i e s .
A ll h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l s agreed c l o s e l y in t h e ir a s s e s s
m ents o f th e r e s o u r c e s fo r t r a in in g o f s u b o r d in a te s ,
nam ely th a t th ey w ere o n ly f a i r l y go o d .
P u b lic -T e c h n ic a l S e r v ic e R iv a lr y
Two a d d it io n a l q u e stio n s w ere p ro v id ed in an e f f o r t
t o a s s e s s th e e x t e n t o f r i v a l r y , o fte n a lle g e d t o e x i s t ,
betw een p u b lic s e r v ic e s and t e c h n ic a l s e r v ic e s in
l i b r a r i e s . The approaches u sed w ere w ith reg a rd t o th e
e x te n t o f such r i v a l r y and co n seq u en t i n t r a - s t a f f t e n s io n ,
and th e e x t e n t o f p a r t i a l i t y shown by top a d m in is tr a tio n
betw een th e s e major o r g a n iz a tio n a l e n t i t i e s .
The e x te n t t o which r iv a lr y betw een p u b lic and
t e c h n ic a l s e r v ic e s was p e r c e iv e d , and ten d ed t o c r e a te
te n s io n w ith in th e o r g a n iz a tio n , was c o v ered by a s c a le
from " r iv a lr y s e r io u s ly d is r u p ts th e work o f th e lib r a r y
s t a f f " t o "no s i g n i f i c a n t r iv a lr y e x i s t s ." The m a jo r ity
o f r e s p o n se s w as fo r th e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e , g iv in g th e
fin d in g t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t r i v a l r y e x i s t e d betw een p u b lic
and t e c h n ic a l s e r v i c e s . N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l p e r so n n e l p e r
c e iv e d such r i v a l r y t o a g r e a te r e x te n t than p r o f e s s io n a l.
T a x -su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s had a much g r e a te r
ten d en cy tow ard such i n t r a - s t a f f r iv a lr y than th e o th e r
k in d s o f l i b r a r i e s . Larger s t a f f s a c t u a lly d ep a rted from
th e p r e v a ilin g mode, in d ic a t in g th a t some r iv a lr y was
n o te d by many more s t a f f members than was th e c a s e in
sm a lle r s t a f f s . M iddle and non-m anagers showed aw areness
o f somewhat more r iv a lr y than d id th e to p e c h e lo n .
The ap p aren t p a r t i a l i t y in th e p h ilo so p h y o f to p
management, a s r e f l e c t e d in r e so u r c e a l l o c a t i o n s t o p u b lic
and t e c h n ic a l s e r v i c e s , was th e s u b je c t o f th e f i n a l
q u e s t io n . The s c a l e range was from " g r ea t p a r t ia l i t y " on
a c o n s is t e n t b a s i s , t o co m p lete im p a r t ia lit y . The
m a jo r ity r e sp o n se in d ic a te d co m p lete im p a r t ia lit y , w ith
th e co n seq u en t fin d in g t h a t in th e l i b r a r i e s s t u d ie d , top
a d m in is tr a tio n was c o m p le te ly im p a r tia l in i t s b a s ic
p h ilo so p h y as r e f l e c t e d by r e so u r c e a l l o c a t i o n s . A la r g e r
p r o p o r tio n o f th e s t a f f s o f p r iv a te academ ic l i b r a r i e s
c o n s id e r e d to p management t o be c o m p le te ly im p a r tia l than
was tr u e in th e ta x -s u p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s . O v e r a ll,
academ ic l i b r a r i e s d id n o t d i f f e r m a te r ia lly from p u b lic
l i b r a r i e s . A v e r y s u b s t a n t ia l p o r tio n o f th e s t a f f s o f
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la r g e r l i b r a r i e s p e r c e iv e d th e e x is t e n c e o f o c c a s io n a l
p a r t i a l i t y on th e p a r t o f t h e ir a d m in is tr a t io n s . Lower
h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l s saw more p a r t i a l i t y than top m anagers,
as m ight be e x p e c te d .
Summary o f F in d in g s
Each v a r ia b le in th e stu d y was d i s c r e t e , and d e s
c r ib e d a p a r t ic u la r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n s
su r v e y ed . T h e r e fo r e , sum m arization in th e s e n se o f tr u e
s y n t h e s is i s a lm o st im p o s sib le and l i k e l y t o r e s u lt in
s ig n i f i c a n t l o s s or d is t o r t io n o f in fo r m a tio n . Summari
z a tio n in th e s e n se o f c l a s s i f y i n g th e s e o r g a n iz a tio n a l
a t t r ib u t e s a cc o r d in g t o L ik e r t 's ty p o lo g y o f management
system s h as been d e s c r ib e d in th e n e x t c h a p te r , r e p r e
s e n tin g a c o n c lu s io n drawn from th e stu d y r a th e r than a
l i t e r a l sum m arization o f i t .
In th e rem ainder o f th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r , an e f f o r t
has been made t o c h a r a c t e r iz e th e f in d in g s on th e b a s is o f
an o r d in a l s c a le e s s e n t i a l l y s im ila r t o th o se upon which
th e r esp o n ses t o each q u e stio n were made. T h is summary
s c a le in c lu d e d fo u r c a t e g o r ie s , a s d id th e o t h e r s , and
p la c e d th e groups o f modal r e sp o n se s a c c o r d in g t o th e
in flu e n c e on o r g a n iz a t io n a l p r o d u c t iv it y th ey s u g g e s te d .
The fou r p o in ts w ere: (1) v er y u n fa v o r a b le t o h ig h o r g a n i
z a t io n a l p r o d u c t iv it y ; (2 ) u n fa v o r a b le t o h ig h o r g a n i
z a t io n a l p r o d u c t iv it y ; (3 ) fa v o r a b le t o h ig h o r g a n iz a tio n a l
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p r o d u c t iv it y ; and (4 ) v e r y fa v o r a b le t o h ig h o r g a n iz a tio n a l
p r o d u c t iv it y .
R esponses from th e t o t a l group t a l l i e d t h i r t y - f i v e
o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " fa v o ra b le" t o h ig h
p r o d u c t iv it y . T h ir te e n r e sp o n se s w ere "very fa v o r a b le ,"
fo u r were " u n fa v o r a b le," and one was " very u n fa v o ra b le"
t o h ig h o r g a n iz a tio n a l p r o d u c t iv it y . The s tr o n g e s t o f th e
" very fa v o r a b le " r e sp o n se s w ere in th e v a r ia b le s d e a lin g
w ith th e a ccu ra cy o f upward com m unication, a ccu racy o f
in fo rm a tio n f o r c o n t r o l p u r p o se s, u t i l i z a t i o n o f c o n tr o l
d a ta , and r iv a lr y betw een p u b lic and t e c h n ic a l s e r v i c e s .
The " u n favorab le" r e sp o n se s w ere in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e
u n d er ly in g human m o tiv e s ta p p e d , h ie r a r c h ic a l lo c a t io n o f
form al d e c is io n m aking, c o n c e n tr a tio n o f th e c o n t r o l
f u n c tio n , and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f management t r a in in g . The
s in g l e "very u n fa v o ra b le" re sp o n se was w ith reg a rd to th e
r e s o u r c e s a v a ila b le fo r th e t r a in in g o f s u b o r d in a te s .
M o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s and p r o c e s s e s o f le a d e r s h ip , communi
c a t io n , i n t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e , d e c is io n m aking, c o n t r o l,
and g o a l s e t t i n g w ere g e n e r a lly fa v o r a b le t o h ig h produc
t i v i t y . Perform ance g o a ls and t r a in in g a s a c a te g o r y was
u n fa v o r a b le , but th e la c k o f te n s io n from p u b lic - t e c h n ic a l
s e r v ic e r iv a lr y was v e r y fa v o r a b le t o p r o d u c t iv it y in th e
l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d .
P r o fe s s io n a l and n o n -p r o fe s s io n a l resp o n d en ts were
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in b a s ic agreem ent on t h e ir p e r c e p tio n s o f th e o r g a n iz a
t io n s in w hich th ey w orked. T h is p r o f e s s io n a l s t a t u s sub
group fo llo w e d c l o s e l y th e t o t a l group r e s p o n se s d e s c r ib e d
in t h e p r e c e d in g paragrap h .
P u b lic l i b r a r i e s re p o r te d a t o t a l o f f o r t y - n in e
o r g a n iz a t io n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " fa v o ra b le" or " very fa v o r
ab le" t o h ig h p r o d u c t iv it y , one more than th e t o t a l grou p .
The tw o k in d s o f academ ic l i b r a r i e s each r e p o r te d f o r t y -
sev en c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in th o se same c a t e g o r i e s , one l e s s
than th e t o t a l grou p . Of th e f o r t y - s e v e n , e ig h te e n w ere
"very fa v o r a b le " t o h ig h p r o d u c t iv it y in th e p r iv a te
i n s t i t u t i o n s , compared t o e le v e n f o r th e ta x -s u p p o r te d
e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e p o r te d
" very fa v o r a b le " to p r o d u c t iv it y in th e p r i v a t e ly -
su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s , b u t n o t in e i t h e r p u b lic or
ta x -s u p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s , w ere m utual c o n f l i c t or
r e in fo r c e m e n t o f m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s , s a t i s f a c t i o n in
s t a f f membership,' s u p e r io r -s u b o r d in a te f r i e n d l i n e s s , and
s u p e r io r s ' v iew o f s u b o r d in a te s' a b i l i t y t o in flu e n c e
t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n i t s . P r iv a te academ ic and p u b lic
l i b r a r i e s , b u t n o t ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s ,
a g reed on a s it u a t io n "very fa v o r a b le " t o p r o d u c t iv it y in
f i v e v a r i a b l e s . They were th e freedom o f s u b o r d in a te s to
d is c u s s j o b - r e la t e d m a tters w ith s u p e r io r s , u se o f under
ly in g human m o tiv e s , su b o r d in a te s' a c c e p ta n c e o f downward
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com m unication, teamwork, and a p p r o p r ia te n e ss o f d e c is io n
making l e v e l in term s o f in fo r m a tio n a v a i l a b i l i t y . On th e
o th er hand, ta x -su p p o r te d academ ic l i b r a r i e s in d ic a te d a
'•very favor able*' s it u a t io n f o r p r o d u c t iv it y in two
r e s p e c ts n o t s o r a te d by t h e ir c o v in te r p a r ts: s u p e r io r s '
a b i l i t y t o in flu e n c e t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n i t s , and p e r
form ance a s p ir a t io n s w ith in th e s t a f f s . A ll th e s e d i f
fe r e n c e s among th e k in d s o f l i b r a r i e s w ere s c a t t e r e d
through th e m ajor a s p e c t s , such as m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s
and le a d e r s h ip p r o c e s s e s , so th a t th e g e n e r a l summaries
o f th o se a r e a s d e s c r ib e d above s t i l l rem ained a p p lic a b le .
The p o in t o f i n t e r e s t was th e ap p aren t ten d en cy toward
h ig h e r o v e r a ll p r o d u c t iv it y in th e p r iv a te ly -s u p p o r te d
academ ic l i b r a r i e s .
The d if f e r e n c e in resp o n se p a tte r n s betw een la r g e r
and sm a lle r s t a f f s , n o te d r e g u la r ly in th e main t e x t o f
t h is c h a p te r , was ap p aren t when view ed in summary. Larger
s t a f f s r e p o r te d f o r t y o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as
" fa v o r a b le ," and th r e e a s " very fa v o r a b le " t o o r g a n iz a
t io n a l p r o d u c t iv it y . S m a ller s t a f f s had t h ir t y c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s " fa v o ra b le" and n in e te e n "very fa v o ra b le " t o
o r g a n iz a tio n a l p r o d u c t iv it y . S im ila r ly , ten " u n favorab le"
and " very u n fa v o r a b le" c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were d is c e r n e d in
la r g e r s t a f f s , com pared t o o n ly fo u r in sm a lle r s t a f f s .
The a r e a s r e p o r te d by th e sm a lle r s t a f f s as "very
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fa v o r a b le " in which th e g r e a t e s t d if f e r e n c e e x i s t e d w ith
reg a rd t o th e la r g e r s t a f f s were freedom o f su b o r d in a te s
t o d is c u s s j o b - r e la t e d m a tte rs w ith s u p e r io r s , f e e l i n g o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r g o a l a ch iev em en t, s a t i s f a c t i o n in s t a f f
m em bership, teamwork, p r e se n c e o f an in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n ,
and p e r c e iv e d r iv a lr y betw een t e c h n ic a l and p u b lic s e r
v i c e s . T hese v a r ia b le s w ere s u f f i c i e n t l y w id esp read to
c a u se o n ly one d ep a rtu re from th e summary o f th e major
a s p e c t groups r e p o r te d fo r th e t o t a l o f a l l r e s p o n s e s .
The e x c e p tio n was in c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s . In th a t c o n
n e c t io n , r e sp o n se s from sm a lle r s t a f f s ten d ed to be "very
fa v o r a b le " t o p r o d u c t iv it y , compared to o n ly " fa v o ra b le"
in th e c a s e o f th e la r g e r s t a f f s .
There was a p e r s is t e n t ten d en cy , n o te d in th e
d e t a ile d d is c u s s io n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n s e s , shown
by to p e c h e lo n m anagers to view th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s in a more fa v o r a b le l i g h t than m id d le managers
and n on -m an agerial p e r s o n n e l. At l e a s t f o r t y - e i g h t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were p e r c e iv e d a s e it h e r " fa v o ra b le" or
" very fa v o r a b le " t o h ig h o v e r a ll p r o d u c t iv it y by a l l th r e e
m a n a g eria l l e v e l s s tu d ie d . Top m anagers p la c e d tw en ty
a t t r ib u t e s in th e c a te g o r y o f " very fa v o r a b le " t o o r g a n i
z a t io n a l p r o d u c t iv it y , compared t o o n ly e le v e n each f o r
m id d le m anagers and n on -m an agers. A reas o f g r e a t e s t d i s
agreem ent betw een th e to p e c h e lo n and th e su b o r d in a te
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e c h e lo n s were th e sh a r in g o f in fo r m a tio n by s u p e r io r s w ith
s u b o r d in a te s, and th e s u p e r io r s ' v iew o f su b o r d in a te s'
a b i l i t y t o in flu e n c e t h e ir o r g a n iz a t io n a l u n i t s . T hese
d if f e r e n c e s were s u f f i c i e n t l y d is p e r s e d t h a t o n ly one
major a s p e c t was a f f e c t e d by them . I n t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e
p r o c e s s e s ten d ed t o be reg a rd ed a s "very fa v o r a b le " t o
p r o d u c t iv it y from th e p o in t o f v iew o f th e top e c h e lo n ,
b u t th e low er l e v e l s saw them a s o n ly " fa v o r a b le ." The
p o in t o f i n t e r e s t was th e g e n e r a l agreem ent in p e r c e p tio n s
o f non-m anagers and m iddle m anagers, w h ile th e top e c h e lo n
ten d ed t o d is a g r e e , s e e in g t h e o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s in a more fa v o r a b le l i g h t .
The o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e l i b r a r i e s
s tu d ie d were g e n e r a lly c o n d u civ e to a h ig h l e v e l o f
p r o d u c t iv it y . The o p tim iz a tio n o f p r o d u c t iv it y would
r e q u ir e m o d ific a tio n o f p r e v a ilin g p r a c t ic e s in a t l e a s t
f o r t y o f th e f i f t y - t h r e e o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a s s e s s e d . G r e a te s t improvement w ould have t o occur in th e
la r g e r l i b r a r i e s in term s o f s t a f f s i z e , and in th e t a x -
su p p o rted academ ic l i b r a r i e s . No k in d or c l a s s o f lib r a r y
s tu d ie d would be exem pt from such ch an ges i f o p tim iz a tio n
w ere s e r io u s ly so u g h t. Recommendations f o r management
sy stem m o d ific a tio n s le a d in g tow ard o p tim a l p r o d u c tiv ity
have been g iv e n in th e n e x t c h a p te r .
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECO M M ENDATIONS
In t h i s c h a p te r , th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic management
sy stem o f C a lif o r n ia academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s has
been d e r iv e d on th e b a s is o f th e f in d in g s g iv e n in th e
p r e c e d in g c h a p te r . V ariou s recom m endations have been made
w ith a v iew tow ard what sh o u ld be done i f l i b r a r i e s , a s
human o r g a n iz a t io n s , are to approach o p tim a l l e v e l s o f
p r o d u c t iv it y in th e fu tu r e .
C o n clu sio n s
A management system was d e fin e d a s th e p r o c e s s e s
and a c t i v i t i e s n e c e s sa r y t o o rg a n iz e th e e f f o r t s o f i n d i
v id u a ls s o th a t d e s ir e d o b j e c t iv e s may be a c h ie v e d .1
E a rly in h i s s t u d i e s , R en sis L ik er t d is c e r n e d two b a s ic
sy stem s in u se in th e U n ited S t a t e s , th e jo b -o r g a n iz a tio n
and c o o p e r a tiv e -m o tiv a tio n s y s te m s . Each sy stem was
c e n te r e d on a p a r t ic u la r s t y l e o f s u p e r v is io n . The jo b -
o r g a n iz a tio n sy stem d ev elo p ed around jo b -c e n te r e d su p er
v i s i o n , c h a r a c t e r iz e d by a h igh d eg ree o f s u p e r v is o r
d o m in a tio n , c a r e f u l l y d e sig n a te d t a s k s , and v e r y s p e c i f i c
p r o c e d u r e s. I t was p r e v a le n t where r e p e t i t i v e work was
th e r u l e .
R e n s i s L ik e r t, New P a tte r n s o f Management, p . 5 .
104
105
The c o o p e r a tiv e -m o tiv a tio n sy stem , b a se d on em ployee-
c e n te r e d s u p e r v is io n s t r e s s i n g th e b u ild in g o f work team s
w ith h ig h perform ance g o a ls , d ev e lo p ed where th e work was
v a r ie d in n atu re* E f f o r t s w ere made t o in t e g r a t e th e se
sy stem s throu gh work s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . T h is was s u c c e s s f u l
in some s it u a t io n s but l e s s so in o t h e r s , and d id n o t
become w id esp r ea d . S ystem s w hich were c h a r a c te r iz e d by
c o n s u lt a t io n , t h a t i s , g iv in g su b o r d in a te s an o p p o r tu n ity
fo r e x p r e s s io n b u t no tr u e in v o lv em en t in d e c is io n m aking,
w ere found in a d eq u a te t o p ro v id e maximum b e n e f i t s .
G en u in ely p a r t ic ip a t i v e sy stem s were found n e c e s s a r y f o r
f u l l y s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a tio n o f th e work s im p lif ic a t io n
ap p roach .
E v e n tu a lly , L ik e r t 's stu d y o f th e management s y s
tem s in o p e r a tio n over th e n a tio n le d to th e d iscern m en t
o f fo u r sy stem s o f o r g a n iz a tio n and te c h n iq u e s h avin g
in t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y and l o g i c a l placem ent on an
a u t h o r it a r ia n - p a r t ic ip a t iv e continuum . He la b e le d th e se
sy stem s as " e x p lo it a t iv e a u t h o r it a t iv e ," " b en ev o len t
a u t h o r it a t iv e ," " c o n s u lt a t iv e ," and " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group."
L a te r , w ith th e a d d itio n o f fu r th e r c h a r a c t e r iz in g e l e
m en ts, th e ty p o lo g y was e n t i t l e d " P r o file o f O r g a n iz a tio n a l
C h a r a c t e r is t ic s ," and th e fo u r sy stem s were r e la b e le d as
"System 1 ," "System 2 ," "System 3 ," and "System 4 ."
S t r i c t l y sp e a k in g , th e t y p o lo g ie s r e p r e s e n te d by
th e tw o s e t s o f te r m in o lo g y w ere n o t i d e n t i c a l . The la t e r
106
o n e, "System 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 ," r e p r e s e n te d a t l e a s t s i x y e a r s o f
a d d itio n a l stu d y and r e fin e m e n t. The s im i l a r i t y betw een
th e " P r o file " and i t s fo reru n n er was judged t o be s u f
f i c i e n t l y g r e a t t o p erm it a p p lic a t io n o f th e e a r l i e r te r m i
n o lo g y , from " e x p lo it a t iv e a u t h o r it a t iv e " t o " p a r tic ip a t iv e
grou p ," in th e c o n c lu s io n s o f th e p r e s e n t r e p o r t. P u ll
d e f in i t i o n o f th e se sy stem s p ro b a b ly w i l l n o t be co m p leted
u n t i l p u b lic a tio n o f th e rem ain in g books in th e t r i l o g y o f
w hich The Human O r g a n iz a tio n was th e f i r s t .
The m odal r e s p o n se s fo r a l l f i v e o f th e v a r ia b le s
in v o lv e d in le a d e r s h ip p r o c e s s e s in d ic a te d " c o n s u lta tiv e "
management p r a c t ic e s in t h i s a r e a . T h is u n ifo r m ity
o ccu rred a ls o in g o a l s e t t i n g p r o c e s s e s . M o tiv a tio n a l
f o r c e s , com m unication p r o c e s s e s , and in t e r a c t ip n - in f lu e n c e
p r o c e s s e s w ere c l e a r l y in th e " c o n s u lta tiv e " c a te g o r y ,
a lth o u g h some v a r ia t io n in t o th e a d ja c e n t a r e a s , " benevo
le n t a u t h o r it a t iv e " and " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group," was m ani
f e s t e d . D e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s were " c o n s u lta tiv e " or
" p a r t ic ip a t iv e grou p ," a lth o u g h th e p re se n ce o f b e n e v o le n t
a u th o r ita r ia n ism in r e g a rd t o th e l e v e l o f form al d e c is io n
making n eg a ted t o some e x t e n t t h i s appearance o f c o n s id e r
a b le p a r t ic ip a t io n . Perform ance g o a ls were in th e
" c o n s u lta tiv e " a r e a , b u t management tr a in in g f e l l t o th e
" b en ev o len t a u t h o r it a t iv e " c a te g o r y . R esou rces fo r
t r a in in g su b o r d in a te s w ere in th e " e x p lo it a t iv e a u t h o r i
t a t iv e " p o r tio n o f th e continuum .
107
" C o n su lta tiv e " p r a c t ic e s g e n e r a lly p r e v a ile d in th e
C a lifo r n ia academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d . Some
u se o f p a r t ic ip a t iv e p r a c t ic e s was e v id e n t in communi
c a t io n , m o tiv a tio n , d e c is io n m aking, in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e ,
and c o n t r o l. P a r t ic ip a t io n was n o t dom inant in any one
a s p e c t . A lthough e v id e n c e s o f a u th o r ita r ia n p r a c t ic e s
w ere n o t abundant, i t was v ery c le a r where th e y d id occur
in m o tiv a tio n , d e c is io n m aking, c o n t r o l, and t r a in in g .
Perhaps m ost s i g n i f i c a n t w ere th e in d ic a t io n s th a t form al
d e c is io n making and th e r e v ie w and c o n t r o l fu n c tio n s
ten d ed t o be c o n c e n tr a te d a t or near th e top o f th e o r g a n i
z a t io n a l h ie r a r c h ie s . A lthough L ik e r t d id n o t w eig h t
th e s e p a r t ic u la r f a c t o r s more h e a v ily than th e o th e r s ,
t h e ir im pact on th e e n t ir e management system may be v er y
g r e a t . They may ten d to n e g a te many o f th e p a r t ic ip a t iv e
p r a c t ic e s b eca u se th ey w ould b e , in e f f e c t , r o le p la y in g
and n o t tr u e in v o lv e m en t.
The s e v e r e d e f i c i e n c i e s in t r a in in g , both o f mana
g e r s and o f su b o r d in a te s, may h ave had some r e la t io n s h ip
t o th e lo c u s o f d e c is io n making and c o n t r o l a t th e to p o f
th e o r g a n iz a t io n s . I f most m a tte r s o f su b sta n c e w ere n o t
r e a l l y d e c id e d below th e to p l e v e l , th e ap p aren t n eed fo r
t r a in in g a t th e m iddle e c h e lo n or n o n -m a n a g eria l l e v e l s
may n o t have been g r e a t . The to p e c h e lo n p e r c e iv e d th e
t r a in in g s it u a t io n in much th e same l i g h t as low er l e v e l s ,
w hich w ould n o t sup p ort th e p r e c e d in g s p e c u la t io n . The
108
f a c t s I n d ic a te d th a t t h is a rea was th e s in g le a s p e c t o f
th e o r g a n iz a tio n s s tu d ie d m ost n eed in g im provem ent, w h at
e v e r th e r ea so n s may have been fo r th e d e f i c i e n c i e s .
P ro ceed in g t o an other l e v e l o f g e n e r a lit y , th e
C a lifo r n ia academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d were
o r g a n iz e d and o p er a te d c h i e f l y u sin g th e te c h n iq u e s and
ap p roach es o f " c o n s u lta tiv e " management, b u t w ith apparent
r e lu c ta n c e t o d e le g a te a u th o r ity and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b elow
th e upper e c h e lo n in d e c is io n m aking, r e v ie w , and c o n t r o l.
T ra in in g r e s o u r c e s and program s a t a l l l e v e l s d ep a rted
s tr o n g ly from th e " c o n s u lta tiv e " mode in th e d ir e c t io n o f
a u th o r ita r ia n management. There was no rea so n t o co n clu d e
th a t th e l i b r a r i e s s tu d ie d w ere in any way u n r e p r e se n ta
t i v e o f t h e e n t ir e body o f such l i b r a r i e s in C a lif o r n ia .
T h e r e fo r e , h y p o th e s iz in g th e c o n c lu s io n s t o a l l such
o r g a n iz a tio n s in th e S ta te seem ed w a rra n ted , even though
th e n a tu re o f th e sam ple and th e d ata d id n o t p erm it
developm ent o f c o n fid e n c e in t e r v a ls and c o e f f i c i e n t s fo r
such a h y p o th e s is .
L ik e r t 's work in d ic a te d th a t management sy stem s in
b u s in e s s and governm ent ten d ed to have s im ila r c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s th rou gh ou t th e U n ited S t a t e s , d ep en d in g on th e
n a tu re o f th e work b e in g d o n e. T h e r e fo r e , i t seem ed
p la u s ib le t o assum e th a t l i b r a r i e s th rou ghou t th e co u n try
p o s s e s s e d e s s e n t i a l l y s im ila r p a tte r n s o f o r g a n iz a tio n and
management, and t o ex ten d th e p r e c e d in g g e n e r a l c o n c lu sio n
109
t o academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s th rou gh ou t th e U n ited
S t a t e s , O b v io u sly , such a c o n c lu s io n was l e s s s tr o n g ly
su p p o rted than th e one a p p lie d t o C a lifo r n ia o n ly , where
a la r g e and r e p r e s e n ta t iv e sam ple o f th e p o p u la tio n was
a c t u a lly s t u d ie d .
Recommendations
The d e s i r a b i l i t y o f o b ta in in g h ig h e r p r o d u c t iv it y
in l i b r a r i e s in term s o f mare and b e t t e r s e r v ic e s t o
c l i e n t e l e s , more e f f e c t i v e b ib lio g r a p h ic o r g a n iz a tio n ,
and l e s s em ployee a b sen ce and tu rn o v er h as seem ed s e l f -
e v id e n t , I f one a c c e p ts L ik e r t 's p o s it io n th a t moving
tow ard " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group" o r g a n iz a tio n and management
p r a c t ic e s w i l l in c r e a s e p r o d u c t iv it y in a broad s e n s e ,
academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s sh o u ld exam ine t h e ir manage
ment sy stem s w ith a v ie w tow ard in c r e a s in g th e u se o f
group p r o c e s s e s , w ith th e o b j e c t iv e o f e v e n t u a lly
d e v e lo p in g an in te g r a te d sy stem o f h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e groups
in ea ch lib r a r y . E f f e c t i v e d e le g a t io n o f a u th o r ity in
d e c is io n m aking, r e v ie w , and c o n t r o l sh o u ld be so u g h t.
The marked d e f i c i e n c i e s in t r a in in g program s and r e so u r c e s
a t b o th m an a g eria l and n an -m a n a g eria l l e v e l s sh o u ld be
rem ed ied .
T hese g e n e r a l recom m endations have been d is c u s s e d
a t somewhat g r e a te r le n g th b elo w , in a c o n te x t o f what a
p a r t ic u la r lib r a r y m ight do in an e f f o r t t o move toward
110
L ik e r t 's "System 4 ," th a t i s , " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group"
o r g a n iz a tio n and management* Such recom m endations have
been regard ed a s in c o m p lete and t e n t a t iv e * C om p leten ess
and f i n a l i t y must a w a it th e f u l l e x p lic a t io n o f "System 4"
o r g a n iz a tio n and management prom ised by L ik e rt in th e
t r i l o g y begun w ith The Human O r g a n iz a tio n .
T ra in in g fo r group p a r t ic ip a t io n
High p r i o r i t y sh o u ld be g iv en t o t r a in in g program s.
Such a c t i v i t i e s sh o u ld em phasize le a r n in g th e u se o f group
p r o c e s s e s a t a l l l e v e l s o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n , and c l e a r l y
le a d tow ard th e developm ent o f h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e groups as
d e sc r ib e d by L ik e r t . * S u p e r v iso r y and a d m in is tr a tiv e
p e r so n n e l sh o u ld be e s p e c i a l l y tr a in e d in te c h n iq u e s and
p r o c e s s e s a p p r o p r ia te t o d em o cra tic le a d e r sh ip * A ll s t a f f
members sh o u ld become accustom ed to r e s o lu t io n o f o b je c
t i v e d if f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n by open d is c u s s io n and e f f o r t s
t o i d e n t if y a l l r e le v a n t f a c t o r s in a s it u a t io n r a th e r
than by su p p r e ssio n or a p p ea l t o a u t h o r it y . Perhaps such
t r a in in g program s sh o u ld be a p p lie d f i r s t t o upper
e c h e lo n s , fo r la c k o f a c ce p ta n c e o f tr u e p a r t ic ip a t io n a t
th o se l e v e l s w ould be l i k e l y to n e g a te c o m p le te ly any
p o s s ib le g a in s through group p r o c e s s e s a t low er l e v e l s .
Such tr a in in g program s sh o u ld , among o th er t h in g s , s e r v e
1I b id . . p p . 1 6 2 -7 7 .
Ill
t o enhance m utual c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t betw een s u p e r io r s
and s u b o r d in a te s, as w e ll as betw een f u n c tio n a l g ro u p s,
such a s t e c h n ic a l and p u b lic s e r v ic e a g e n c ie s . H ie r a r c h i
c a l s u p e r io r s must d e v e lo p in t h e ir a b i l i t y t o behave su p -
p o r t iv e ly tow ard s u b o r d in a te s . As L ik e r t p o in te d out
r e p e a te d ly , management sy stem s must be in t e r n a lly c o n s is
t e n t t o be e f f e c t i v e . D evelopm ent o f g en u in e " p a r t ic i
p a t iv e group" management w ould n o t be p o s s ib le i f su p er
v is o r y p r a c t ic e s were c h a r a c te r iz e d by d is c o u r t e s y , sh o r t
tem p er, and s u s p ic io n .
D e le g a tio n and e f f e c t i v e groups
As t h is t r a in in g w ould p ro ceed and r e s u lt in th e
growth o f a su p p o r tiv e atm osphere th rou gh ou t th e o r g a n i
z a t io n , e f f o r t s sh o u ld be made t o d e le g a t e e f f e c t i v e l y th e
d e c is io n making and c o n t r o l fu n c tio n s t o th e l e v e l s p o s
s e s s in g th e most ad eq u ate and a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n r e le v a n t
t o a g iv e n p rob lem . Some change in o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c
tu r e m ight become n e c e s sa r y a t t h i s s t a g e , w ith th e need
fo r m u ltip le group m em berships t o a llo w fo r th e developm ent
o f an e f f e c t i v e in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e s t r u c t u r e . D r a s tic
r e sh a p in g o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n c h a r t would p rob ab ly be
u n n e c e ssa r y , b u t group d e c is io n p r o c e s s e s w ould have t o be
p r a c t ic e d in a l l u n i t s . L in k in g r e la t io n s h ip s on th e
c o o r d in a te l e v e l betw een and among u n i t s , such as a c q u i
s i t i o n and c a t a lo g in g , or a c q u i s i t i o n , c a t a lo g in g , and
112
c i r c u l a t io n , sh o u ld be e s t a b l i s h e d . T hese r e la t io n s h ip s
sh o u ld u t i l i z e su b o r d in a te members o f th e u n it s a s
" lin k in g p in s ." As L ik e r t s u g g e s te d , lin k in g a t th e n e x t
h ig h e r e c h e lo n may n o t be s u f f i c i e n t fo r e f f e c t i v e and
e x p e d itio u s problem s o lv in g . The h ig h e r e c h e lo n group
would be in ten d e d p r im a r ily t o f u l f i l l o th er p u rp oses than
r e s o lu t io n o f d a y -to -d a y c o o r d in a tiv e problem s o lv in g , and
g iv in g i t th e d u a l or m u lt ip le r o le s i t h as in many
o r g a n iz a tio n s te n d s t o mean th a t none o f i t s fu n c tio n s a re
l i k e l y t o be done o p tim a lly , or even s a t i s f a c t o r i l y in
many c a s e s . A g a in , th e g en u in e a c ce p ta n ce o f th e p r in c ip le
o f su p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r by s u p e r v is o r s and a d m in is tr a to r s
w ould be v i t a l . U n it heads show ing s u s p ic io n o f th e su b
o r d in a te " lin k in g p in ," and b e in g u n w illin g t o a llo w him
t o fu n c tio n f r e e l y and e f f e c t i v e l y in t h i s im p ortan t
a s p e c t o f th e in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e p r o c e s s e s o f th e
o r g a n iz a tio n , w ould o b v io u s ly p re v e n t a tta in m en t o f th e
d e s ir e d r e s u l t s .
M easurement o f p r o g r e ss
The t r a in in g a c t i v i t i e s and th e developm ent o f
e f f e c t i v e in t e r a c t io n - in f lu e n c e p r o c e s s e s and s tr u c tu r e
w ould ta k e tim e . L ik e r t s t r e s s e d th e im portance o f tim e
a s a v a r ia b le in any e f f o r t t o e f f e c t improvement in a
management s y s t e m .* Assum ing w illin g n e s s by th e top
^ R ensis L ik e r t, The Human O r g a n iz a tio n , p p . 7 8 -1 0 0 .
113
e c h e lo n t o a llo w s u f f i c i e n t tim e, p e r io d ic p r o g r e ss
r e p o r ts w ould be d e s ir a b le . T hese m ight be in th e form
o f sem i-a n n u a l or annual m easurem ents o f in te r v e n in g
v a r ia b le s , such as group l o y a l t y , perform ance g o a ls ,
c o o p e r a tio n , and m o tiv a tio n . Such m easurem ents w ould p r e
sup p ose ad eq u ate a t t e n t io n t o c a u s a l v a r ia b le s , such a s
th e g e n e r a l o v e r a ll p la n o f o p e r a tio n , h ig h g e n e r a l p e r
form ance g o a ls , and p r o v is io n o f t e c h n ic a lly com petent
s t a f f a t a l l l e v e l s . Inasmuch a s th e d e s ir e d im provem ents
in end r e s u l t s , such as low er c o s t s , h ig h e r p r o d u c t iv it y ,
and im proved p u b lic r e l a t i o n s , m ight n o t be im m ed iately
m a n ife s te d , th e measurement o f in te r v e n in g v a r ia b le s would
be u sed t o show th e e x te n t o f p r o g r e ss tow ard developm ent
o f h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e groups and s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t e r a c t io n -
i n f lu en c e s t r u c t u r e .
The t e c h n ic a l a s s is t a n c e o f p r o p e r ly q u a lif ie d
s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s w ould be d e s ir a b le in i n s t i t u t i n g and
e f f e c t i n g th e p e r io d ic m easurem ents o f in te r v e n in g v a r i
a b le s . A s s is ta n c e a ls o in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e
t r a in in g programs m ight be a d v is a b le , and even n e c e s s a r y
in a s it u a t io n in which th e p r e v a le n t management system
was a u t h o r it a r ia n . The a d o p tio n o f ready-m ade t r a in in g
program s, j u s t b ecau se th e y w ould be r e a d ily a v a ila b le ,
w ould be a h ig h ly dubious p r a c t i c e . F i r s t th e se programs
sh o u ld be c a r e f u lly e v a lu a te d in term s o f th e p o t e n t ia l
outcom es o f th e t r a in in g . I f th e y w ere n o t l i k e l y to
114
r e s u lt in in p ro v ed group p r o c e s s e s , t h e ir u se m ight be a t
b e s t a w a ste o f tim e , and a t w o rst a s t e p in th e wrong
d i r e c t i o n , away from " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group" o r g a n iz a tio n
and management r a th e r than tow ard i t .
P e r c e p tiv e and th o u g h tfu l a d m in is tr a to r s and su p e r
v i s o r s , p o s s e s s in g a gen u in e commitment tow ard d em o cra tic
le a d e r s h ip and p a r t ic ip a t iv e group o p e r a tio n , m ight accom
p l i s h a g r e a t d e a l in moving an o r g a n iz a tio n tow ard
L ik e r t 's "System 4 ," th a t i s , " p a r t ic ip a t iv e group"
management, w ith or w ith o u t s o p h is t ic a t e d s o c i a l s c ie n c e
te c h n iq u e s and d e v ic e s . On th e o th e r hand, s o c i a l s c ie n
t i s t s and management s p e c i a l i s t s c o u ld a cco m p lish n o th in g
in th e a b se n c e o f such u n d ersta n d in g and commitment on
th e p a rt o f a d m in is tr a to r s and s u p e r v is o r s . T h e r e fo r e ,
p o s s ib ly th e f i r s t and m ost fundam ental s te p tow ard
" p a r t ic ip a t iv e group" management w ould be th e g e n u in e ,
lo n g run commitment by th e h ig h e s t l e v e l s o f th e o r g a n i
z a tio n t o management system im provem ent. A n yth in g l e s s
w ould be l i k e l y t o a c h ie v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s in u ltim a te
c o n se q u e n c e s•
I n c r e a s in g c l i e n t s a t i s f a c t i o n
A v ery im p o rta n t outcome o f a movement tow ard a
" p a r t ic ip a t iv e group" system w ould be an im provem ent in
c l i e n t s a t i s f a c t i o n and good w i l l . A lthough L ik e r t ’s
115
a n a ly s is o f t h i s f a c t o r was in a b u s in e s s s e t t i n g ,* i t
would seem a p p lic a b le t o l i b r a r i e s and s im ila r s e r v ic e
o r g a n iz a t io n s . C ustom er, or c l i e n t , good w i l l m ight be
v a r ie d on th e fo llo w in g b a s is : q u a lit y o f s e r v ic e p ro
v id e d (an end r e s u lt ) w ould depend upon th e b eh a v io r o f
th e o r g a n iz a t io n 's management (a c a u s a l v a r ia b le ) and th e
r e s u lt in g m o tiv a tio n and b eh a v io r o f s e r v ic e p e r so n n e l
(in te r v e n in g v a r i a b l e s ) . A lthough l i b r a r i e s u s u a lly w ould
n o t o p e r a te on a p r o f i t - l o s s b a s i s , th e im pact o f c l i e n t
good w i l l on them w ould ten d t o be r e f l e c t e d in th e
p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s by w hich f i s c a l r e s o u r c e s w ould be
a llo c a t e d t o them by a p p r o p r ia tin g b o d ie s . In c rea sed
c l i e n t s a t i s f a c t i o n , a s a r e s u lt o f im proved management
w ith co n seq u en t h ig h er m o tiv a tio n and more e f f e c t i v e b e
h a v io r o f s e r v ic e p e r s o n n e l, w ould be a lm o st c e r t a in t o
h e ig h te n th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e c e iv in g a la r g e r sh are o f
community r e s o u r c e s .
A q u o ta tio n from R e n sis L ik e r t h as seem ed an appro
p r ia t e and e f f e c t i v e c o n c lu s io n :
An o r g a n iz a tio n sh o u ld be o u tsta n d in g in i t s
perform ance i f i t h as com petent p e r s o n n e l, i f i t
h as le a d e r s h ip w hich d e v e lo p s h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e
groups and u se s th e o v e r la p p in g group form o f
s t r u c t u r e , and i f i t a c h ie v e s e f f e c t i v e communi
c a t io n and in f lu e n c e , d e c e n t r a liz e d and c o o r d i
n a ted d e c is io n m aking, and h ig h perform ance g o a ls
1I b i d . , p p . 1 5 1 -5 2 .
116
co u p led w ith h ig h m o tiv a tio n . W e sh o u ld e x p e c t
such an o r g a n iz a tio n t o have h ig h p r o d u c t iv it y ;
p ro d u cts o f h ig h q u a lit y ; low c o s t s ; low w a ste;
low tu rn o v er and a b se n c e; h igh c a p a c ity t o adapt
e f f e c t i v e l y t o ch an ge; a h ig h d eg ree o f en th u sia sm
and s a t i s f a c t i o n on th e p a r t o f i t s em p lo y e es,
cu sto m e r s, and s to c k h o ld e r s ; and good r e la t io n s
w ith u n io n s . In s h o r t, th e t h e o r e t ic a l model
c a lle d fo r by th e newer th e o r y ap p ears t o be an
id e a l o r g a n iz a t io n . E x is tin g o r g a n iz a tio n s can
move tow ard t h i s model w ith b e n e f it t o a l l . T h is
appears t o be th e d ir e c t io n in w hich th e h ig h -
p rod u cin g m anagers a r e , in f a c t , m o v in g .!
^ R ensis L ik e r t, New P a tte r n s o f Management, p . 240
APPENDIX A
DATA-GATHERING INSTRUMENT
117
118
TO: L ib rary D ir e c to r
FROM : Edward J . H ess
517 N . V is ta B o n ita Avenue
G len d o ra , C a lif o r n ia , 91740
SUBJECT: L ib r a r ie s a s human o r g a n iz a tio n s
W ill you h e lp to d e v e lo p a body o f d a ta co n cern in g
C a lifo r n ia academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s a s human o r g a n i
z a t io n s ? A ll in fo r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g your lib r a r y
s p e c i f i c a l l y w i l l be h e ld in s t r i c t e s t c o n fid e n c e . The
d a ta w i l l be co m p iled in t o g e n e r a liz e d c a t e g o r ie s a c c o r
d in g t o s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a .
T h is i s b e in g done f o r my Ph.D . d i s s e r t a t i o n a t th e
S ch o o l o f L ib ra ry S c ie n c e , U n iv e r s it y o f Southern
C a lif o r n ia , under th e s u p e r v is io n o f Dean Martha B oaz.
Your L ib r a r y 's p a r t ic ip a t io n w i l l r e q u ir e a few m in u tes o f
th e tim e o f v a r io u s s t a f f members t o be d e s ig n a te d by y o u ,
t o co m p lete th e e n c lo s e d q u e s t io n n a ir e ( s ) . A ll q u e s t io n
n a ir e s a re i d e n t i c a l , but in ord er to f o llo w a d e t a ile d
sam p lin g p la n , I r e q u e st t h a t th e f o llo w in g members o f
your s t a f f p a r t ic ip a t e :
to p e c h e lo n manager ( y o u r s e lf or an a s s o c i a t e /
a s s i s t a n t lib r a r ia n )
m id d le e c h e lo n m an ager(s) (head o f major d iv is io n
or d ep artm en t)
_ ____ p e r s o n (s ) in e s s e n t i a l l y n o n -m a n a g eria l p o s i t i o n ( s )
( e it h e r p r o f e s s io n a l or c l e r i c a l , or some o f ea ch )
The p a r t ic ip a t io n o f your lib r a r y w i l l h e lp g r e a t ly
t o make t h i s p r o j e c t a w o rth w h ile a d d itio n t o th e ex trem ely
sm a ll amount o f r e se a r c h p r e v io u s ly done reg a rd in g
l i b r a r i e s a s human o r g a n iz a t io n s .
119
Dear C o lle a g u e :
The p u rp ose o f t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e i s t o d ev elo p a
p r o f i l e o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
C a lif o r n ia academ ic and p u b lic l i b r a r i e s as human o r g a n i
z a t io n s , d is t in g u is h e d from o r g a n iz a tio n s o f lib r a r y
m a te r ia ls and s e r v i c e s . I t i s b a sed on an in stru m en t
d ev elo p ed by R en sis L ik e r t o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f M ichigan,
and d e s c r ib e d in h is book The Human O r g a n iz a tio n : I t s
Management and V a lu e .
In order t o d e v e lo p a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e p r o f i l e , r e s
p o n se s to t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e a re b e in g so u g h t from th r e e
c a t e g o r ie s o f lib r a r y p e r so n n e l: to p e c h e lo n m anagers,
m id d le e c h e lo n m anagers, and p e r so n s in e s s e n t i a l l y n on -
m a n a g eria l p o s i t i o n s . I t i s assum ed th a t m ost resp o n d en ts
w i l l be p r o f e s s io n a l l ib r a r ia n s . H owever, t h i s i s n ot a
req u irem en t o f th e s tu d y . Where th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l s i t u
a t io n i s such th a t p e rso n s w ith o u t p r o f e s s io n a l s t a t u s are
th e l o g i c a l r e sp o n d e n ts, t h e ir r e s p o n se s w i l l be p e r f e c t ly
a c c e p ta b le in d e v e lo p in g th e p r o f i l e . The r e sp o n se s to
in d iv id u a l q u e s tio n n a ir e s and groups o f them from s p e c i f i c
l i b r a r i e s w i l l be h e ld in s t r i c t e s t c o n fid e n c e . The
answ ers t o th e q u e s tio n s below a r e n e c e s s a r y o n ly t o p la c e
your resp o n se in the p rop er c a te g o r y .
What i s th e s p e c i f i c t i t l e o f your p o s it io n ?
What i s th e rank o f your p o s i t i o n , i . e . , S e n io r L ib r a r ia n ,
L ib r a r ia n I I I , S en io r C le r k , e t c . ? ________________________
How many p o s it io n s do you s u p e r v is e in an im m ediate s e n s e ,
i . e . , d ir e c t t h e ir work on a more or l e s s d a ily b a s is ?
P le a s e in d ic a te in th e b la n k t o th e l e f t o f each o f
th e q u e s tio n s on the fo llo w in g p a g es th e number o f th e
a lt e r n a t iv e answer w hich b e s t c h a r a c t e r iz e s th e s it u a t io n
a s you p e r c e iv e i t in th e lib r a r y o r g a n iz a tio n in which
you w ork. E xcept where th e q u e s tio n s p e c i f i e s " o r g a n i
z a t io n a l u n it ," p le a s e c o n sid e r th e lib r a r y o r g a n iz a tio n
a s a w h o le, i . e . , n o t lim it e d o n ly t o your departm ent or
b ra n ch .
The v a l i d i t y o f th e p r o f i l e o f C a lifo r n ia academ ic
and p u b lic li b r a r i e s d e v e lo p e d from th e s e q u e s tio n n a ir e s
depends h e a v ily on e v e r y resp o n d en t an sw erin g ev e ry
120
q u e stio n t o th e b e s t o f h is or her know ledge and judgm ent.
An a d d r e sse d , stam ped en v e lo p e i s e n c lo s e d t o f a c i l i t a t e
th e e a r ly r e tu r n o f th e com p leted q u e s tio n n a ir e .
S in c e r e ly y o u r s,
Edward J . H ess
517 N. V is ta B o n ita Avenue
G len d ora, C a lifo r n ia 91740
121
QUESTIONNAIRE
In th e b lan k a t th e l e f t o f ea ch q u e s tio n , p le a s e in d ic a t e
th e number o f th e a lt e r n a t iv e w hich b e s t d e s c r ib e s th e
s it u a t io n in your lib r a r y , a s you p e r c e iv e i t .
1 . To what e x t e n t do h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s have
c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t in t h e ir su b o r d in a te s?
(1 ) Have n o c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t in su b o r d in a te s,
(2 ) Have co n d escen d in g c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t , such
a s m aster h as in serv a n t, (3 ) S u b s t a n tia l b u t n o t
com p lete c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t ; s t i l l w ish e s t o
keep c o n t r o l o f d e c is io n s , (4 ) C om plete c o n fid e n c e
and t r u s t in a l l m atters*
2 . To what e x t e n t do su b o r d in a te s have c o n fid e n c e and
t r u s t in t h e ir h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s ? (1 ) Have
no c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t in s u p e r io r s (2) Have
s u b s e r v ie n t c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t , such a s s e r v a n t
h as t o m aster (3 ) S u b s t a n tia l b u t n o t com p lete
c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t (4 ) C om plete c o n fid e n c e and
tru st*
3 . To what e x t e n t do h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s d is p la y
su p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r toward t h e ir su b o r d in a te s?
(S u p p o rtiv e b eh a v io r would be p e r c e iv e d by a su b
o r d in a te , in th e l i g h t o f h i s background, v a lu e s ,
d e s ir e s , and e x p e c t a t io n s , a s b eh a v io r w hich
b u ild s and m a in ta in s h i s s e n se o f p e r so n a l w orth
and im p o r ta n c e .) (1 ) D is p la y no su p p o r tiv e
b eh a v io r or v i r t u a l l y none (2 ) D is p la y s u p p o r tiv e
b eh a v io r in a co n d escen d in g manner and in c e r t a in
s it u a t io n s o n ly (3) D is p la y su p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r
q u ite g e n e r a lly (4 ) D is p la y s u p p o r tiv e b eh a v io r
f u l l y and in a l l s it u a t io n s *
4 . To what e x t e n t do h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s behave so
th a t a su b o r d in a te f e e l s f r e e t o d is c u s s im p ortan t
th in g s about h i s job w ith h i s im m ediate s u p e r io r ?
(1 ) S u b o rd in a tes f e e l c o m p le te ly f r e e t o d is c u s s
th in g s ab ou t th e jo b w ith t h e ir s u p e r io r s (2 )
S u b o rd in a tes f e e l ra th e r f r e e t o d is c u s s th in g s
about th e jo b w ith t h e ir s u p e r io r s (3 ) S u b o rd i
n a te s do n o t f e e l v e r y f r e e t o d is c u s s th in g s
about th e jo b w ith t h e ir s u p e r io r s (4 ) S u b o rd i
n a te s do n o t f e e l a t a l l f r e e t o d is c u s s th in g s
about th e jo b w ith t h e ir s u p e r io r s .
122
To what e x t e n t d o es an im m ediate s u p e r io r , in
s o lv in g job p ro b lem s, g e n e r a lly t r y to g e t su b
o r d in a te s ' id e a s and o p in io n s and make c o n
s t r u c t i v e u se o f them? (1) Always g e t s id e a s and
o p in io n s and alw ays t r i e s t o make c o n s tr u c t iv e
u se o f them, (2 ) U s u a lly g e t s id e a s and o p in io n s
and u s u a lly t r i e s t o make c o n s tr u c t iv e u se o f
them, (3 ) Som etim es g e t s id e a s and o p in io n s o f
su b o r d in a te s in s o lv in g job problems^ (4 ) Seldom
g e t s id e a s and o p in io n s o f su b o r d in a te s in
s o lv in g jo b p ro b lem s.
What u n d e r ly in g human m o tiv es are tapped by your
lib r a r y ? (1) P h y s ic a l s e c u r it y , econom ic n e e d s,
and some u se o f th e d e s ir e fo r s t a t u s , (2 ) Economic
n eed s and m oderate u se o f eg o m o tiv e s , e . g . ,
d e s ir e fo r s t a t u s , a f f i l i a t i o n , and ach ievem en t,
(3) Economic n eed s and c o n s id e r a b le u se o f ego and
o th er major m o tiv e s , e . g . , d e s ir e f o r new e x p e r i
en ces, (4 ) P u ll u se o f econ om ic, e g o , and o th er
major m o tiv e s , e . g . , m o tiv a tio n a l fo r c e s a r is in g
from group g o a ls .
How a re u n d e r ly in g human m o tiv es u se d in your
lib r a r y ? (1 ) P ea r, t h r e a t s , punishm ent, and
o c c a s io n a l rew ards, (2 ) Rewards and some a c tu a l
or p o t e n t ia l punishm ent, (3 ) Rewards, o c c a s io n a l
p unishm ent, and some in volvem en t, (4 ) Economic
rew ards b ased on com p en sation sy stem d ev elo p ed
through p a r t ic ip a t io n ; group p a r t ic ip a t io n and
in v o lv em en t in s e t t i n g g o a ls , im proving m ethods,
a p p r a isin g p r o g r e s s tow ard g o a ls , e t c .
What k in d s o f a t t i t u d e s d oes your lib r a r y d e v e lo p
tow ard i t s e l f and i t s g o a ls ? (1) A t tit u d e s a re
s tr o n g ly fa v o r a b le and p r o v id e p o w erfu l s tim u la tio n
t o b eh a v io r im p lem en tin g lib r a r y 's g o a ls , (2 ) A t t i
tu d e s u s u a lly a r e fa v o r a b le and su p p ort b eh a v io r
im plem enting lib r a r y ' s g o a ls , (3) A t tit u d e s are
som etim es h o s t i l e and co u n ter to lib r a r y ' s g o a ls
and a re som etim es fa v o r a b le t o th e g o a ls and su p
p o r t th e b eh a v io r n e c e s sa r y to a c h ie v e them,
(4 ) A t tit u d e s u s u a lly a re h o s t i l e and co u n ter t o
l i b r a r y 's g o a l s .
To what e x t e n t do m o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s (econom ic
n e e d s , d e s ir e fo r s t a t u s , d e s ir e f o r new e x p e r i
e n c e s , d e s ir e t o p a r t ic ip a t e in th e accom plishm ent
o f group g o a ls , e t c . ) c o n f l i c t w ith or r e in f o r c e
one a n o th er? (1 ) Marked c o n f l i c t o f fo r c e s
123
s u b s t a n t ia lly r ed u cin g th o s e m o tiv a tio n a l fo r c e s
le a d in g t o b eh a v io r in su p p o rt o f th e l i b r a r y 's
g o a ls , (2) C o n f lic t o fte n e x i s t s ; o c c a s io n a lly
th e f o r c e s w i l l r e in f o r c e each o th e r , a t l e a s t
p a r t ia lly , (3 ) Some c o n f l i c t , b u t o fte n m o ti
v a t io n a l f o r c e s w i l l r e in f o r c e each o th er,
(4 ) M o tiv a tio n a l f o r c e s g e n e r a lly r e in f o r c e each
o th er in a s u b s t a n t ia l and c u m u la tiv e manner*
1 0 . How much r e s p o n s i b i l i t y d o es each member o f your
lib r a r y s t a f f f e e l fo r a c h ie v in g th e lib r a r y ' s
g o a ls ? (1) P e r so n n e l a t a l l l e v e l s f e e l r e a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r l i b r a r y ' s g o a ls and behave in
ways t o im plem ent them* (2 ) S u b s t a n tia l p o r tio n
o f p e r s o n n e l, e s p e c i a l l y a t h ig h e r l e v e l s , f e e l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and g e n e r a lly behave in ways t o
a c h ie v e the l i b r a r y ' s g o a l s , (3 ) M anagerial
p e r so n n e l u s u a lly f e e l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; rank and
f i l e u s u a lly f e e l r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y fo r a c h ie v in g l i b r a r y 's g o a ls , (4 ) High
l e v e l s o f management f e e l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; low er
l e v e l s f e e l l e s s ; rank and f i l e f e e l l i t t l e and
o fte n welcom e o p p o r tu n ity to behave in ways to
d e fe a t lib r a r y 's g o a ls*
1 1 . What a r e th e r e v a ilin g a t t i t u d e s tow ard o th er
members o f th e lib r a r y s t a f f ? (1 ) F a v o r a b le,
c o o p e r a tiv e a t t i t u d e s th ro u g h o u t th e s t a f f w ith
m utual t r u s t and c o n fid e n c e , (2 ) C o o p e r a tiv e ,
rea so n a b ly fa v o r a b le a t t it u d e s tow ards o th e r s on
th e s t a f f ; may be some c o m p e titio n betw een p e e r s
w ith r e s u lt in g h o s t i l i t y , and some c o n d e sc en sio n
toward s u b o r d in a te s, (3) S u b se r v ie n t a t t i t u d e s
tow ard s u p e r io r s ; c o m p e titio n fo r s t a t u s
r e s u lt in g in h o s t i l i t y tow ard p e e r s ; co n d e
s c e n s io n toward s u b o r d in a te s (4 ) S u b se r v ie n t
a t t it u d e s tow ard s u p e r io r s c o u p led w ith h o s t i l i
ty ; h o s t i l i t y tow ard p e e r s and contem pt fo r
su b o r d in a te s; d i s t r u s t i s w id esp r ea d .
12 . What d eg ree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n i s d e r iv e d from
membership in your lib r a r y s t a f f ? (1 ) R e la
t i v e l y h ig h s a t i s f a c t i o n th rou gh ou t th e s t a f f
w ith regard t o membership in i t , th e s u p e r v is io n ,
and o n e 's own a c h ie v e m e n ts, (2 ) Some d i s s a t i s
f a c t io n to m o d era tely h ig h s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith
regard to m embership in th e s t a f f , th e su p e r
v i s i o n , and o n e 's own a ch iev em en ts, (3 ) D is
s a t i s f a c t i o n t o m oderate s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith
reg a rd to m embership in th e s t a f f , th e
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s u p e r v is io n , and o n e 's own a c h ie v e m e n ts, (4)
U su a lly d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith membership in th e
s t a f f , th e s u p e r v is io n , and o n e 's own a c h ie v e
ments*
13* How much o f th e in t e r a c t io n and com m unication in
your lib r a r y i s aimed a t a c h ie v in g the lib r a r y ' s
o b j e c t iv e s ? (1) Very l i t t l e , (2 ) L i t t l e , (3 )
Q u ite a b i t , (4) Much, w ith b oth in d iv id u a ls and
g ro u p s.
14. What i s th e p r e v a ilin g d ir e c t io n o f in fo rm a tio n
flo w in your lib r a r y ? (1) Downward through th e
h ie r a r c h y , (2) M ostly downward, (3 ) Both down
ward and upward through th e h ie r a r c h y , (4 ) Down
ward, upward, and w ith p eers*
15 . Where i s com m unication downward in th e h ie r a r c h y
i n i t i a t e d in your lib r a r y ? (1 ) I n i t i a t e d a t a l l
l e v e l s , (2 ) P a tte r n e d on com m unication from to p ,
but w ith some i n i t i a t i v e a t low er l e v e l s , (3)
P r im a r ily a t to p , or p a tte r n e d on com m unication
from to p , (4 ) At top o f o r g a n iz a tio n , or to
im plem ent d i r e c t i v e s from t h e top*
16 . To what e x t e n t do h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s w illin g ly
sh are in fo r m a tio n w ith t h e ir su b o r d in a te s?
(1) P ro v id e minimum o f in fo r m a tio n , (2 ) G ive
s u b o r d in a te s o n ly th e in fo rm a tio n th e s u p e r io r s
f e e l th e y n eed , (3 ) G ive in fo r m a tio n needed and
answer m ost q u e s t io n s , (4) Seek t o g iv e su b o r d i
n a te s a l l r e le v a n t in fo r m a tio n , and a l l i n f o r
m ation th e y w a n t.
17* To w hat e x t e n t a re com m unications downward in th e
h ie r a r c h y a c c e p te d by s u b o r d in a te s? (1 ) G ener
a l l y a c c e p te d , b u t i f n o t , o p en ly and c a n d id ly
q u e s tio n e d , (2 ) O ften a c c e p te d , b u t i f n o t , may
or may n o t be o p en ly q u e s tio n e d , (3 ) Some
a c c e p te d and some view ed w ith s u s p ic io n , (4)
Viewed w ith g r e a t s u s p ic io n .
18* How w ould you c h a r a c te r iz e th e adequacy o f com
m u n ica tio n upward in th e h ie r a r c h y v ia th e l i n e
o r g a n iz a tio n ? (1 ) V ery l i t t l e , (2 ) L im ited ,
(3) Some, (4 ) A g r e a t d e a l.
1 9 . How much r e s p o n s i b i l i t y do s u b o r d in a te s f e e l f o r
i n i t i a t i n g a c c u r a te com m unication upward in th e
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h ie r a r c h y ? (1 ) None a t a l l , (2 ) R e la t iv e ly
l i t t l e ; u s u a lly com m unicate " f ilt e r e d " i n f o r
m ation and o n ly when r e q u e ste d ; may "yes" the
b o s s , (3 ) Some t o m oderate d egree o f r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y f e l t to i n i t i a t e a c c u r a te upward com
m u n ic a tio n , (4 ) C o n sid er a b le r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f e l t and much i n i t i a t i v e shown; group communi
c a t e s a l l r e le v a n t in fo r m a tio n .
2 0 . What are th e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g th s o f f o r c e s
le a d in g t o a c c u r a te , or d is t o r t e d com m unication
upward in th e h ie r a r c h y ? (1) V ir t u a lly no
f o r c e s t o d i s t o r t and p ow erfu l f o r c e s t o com
m u nicate a c c u r a t e ly , (2) O c c a sio n a l f o r c e s to
d i s t o r t a lo n g w ith many fo r c e s t o com m unicate
a c c u r a t e ly , (3 ) Many f o r c e s to d i s t o r t ; a l s o
some fo r c e s fo r h o n e st com m unication, (4 ) Power
f u l f o r c e s t o d i s t o r t in fo r m a tio n and d e c e iv e
s u p e r io r s .
2 1 . What i s th e d eg ree o f accu racy o f com m unication
upward in th e h ie r a r c h y v ia th e l i n e o r g a n i
z a tio n ? (1) A cc u r a te, (2 ) In fo rm a tio n th a t
b o ss w ants to hear flo w s ; o th er in fo r m a tio n may
be lim it e d or c a u t io u s ly g iv e n , (3 ) In fo rm a tio n
b o ss w ants to hear flo w s ; o th er in fo r m a tio n i s
r e s t r i c t e d and f i l t e r e d , (4 ) Tends t o be
in a c c u r a te *
2 2 . What i s th e e x te n t o f n eed fo r a supplem entary
upward com m unication sy stem to augment norm al
com m unication v ia th e l i n e o r g a n iz a tio n ? (1 ) No
n eed fo r any sup p lem en tary sy stem , (2 ) S lig h t
need fo r supplem entary system ; s u g g e s tio n
sy ste m s may be u se d , (3) Upward com m unication
o f te n supplem ented by s u g g e s tio n sy stem and
s im ila r d e v ic e s , (4 ) G reat need to supplem ent
upward com m unication by sp y sy ste m , s u g g e s tio n
sy ste m , and s im ila r d e v ic e s *
2 3 . What i s th e n a tu r e o f th e adequacy and a ccu racy
o f sid ew ard com m unication in your lib r a r y ?
(1 ) U su a lly poor b eca u se o f c o m p e titio n betw een
p e e r s and co n seq u en t h o s t i l i t y , (2) F a ir ly poor
b eca u se o f c o m p e titio n betw een p e e r s , (3) F a ir
t o good , (4) Good t o e x c e l l e n t .
24* What i s th e d eg ree o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l c lo s e n e s s o f
h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s t o s u b o r d in a te s , i . e . ,
f r i e n d l i n e s s betw een s u p e r io r s and su b o r d in a te s?
(1 ) U su a lly v e r y c l o s e , (2 ) F a ir ly c l o s e , (3) Can
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be m o d era tely c l o s e i f proper r o le s a re k e p t,
(4 ) Par a p a r t.
2 5 . How w e ll do h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s know and
u n d ersta n d th e problem s fa c e d by t h e ir su b o r d i
n a te s ? (1 ) Know and u n d erstan d th e problem s o f
su b o r d in a te s v e r y w e l l , (2 ) Know and u n d ersta n d
problem s o f s u b o r d in a te s q u ite w e l l , (3 ) Have
some know ledge and u n d ersta n d in g o f s u b o r d in a te s '
p ro b lem s, (4 ) Have no know ledge or u n d ersta n d in g
o f problem s o f s u b o r d in a te s .
2 6 . How a c c u r a te a re th e p e r c e p tio n s o f s u p e r io r s and
su b o r d in a te s o f ea ch o th e r ? (1 ) O ften in e r r o r ,
(2 ) O ften in e r r o r on some p o in t s , (3 ) M od erately
a c c u r a te , (4 ) U s u a lly q u ite a c c u r a te .
2 7 . What i s th e amount and c h a r a c te r o f in t e r a c t io n
in your lib r a r y ? (1 ) E x te n s iv e , f r ie n d ly i n t e r
a c tio n w ith a h ig h d eg ree o f c o n fid e n c e and
t r u s t , (2 ) M oderate in t e r a c t io n , o fte n w ith a
f a i r amount o f c o n fid e n c e and t r u s t , (3 ) L i t t l e
in t e r a c t i o n , u s u a lly w ith some c o n d e sc e n sio n by
s u p e r io r s , and f e a r and c a u tio n by s u b o r d in a te s ,
(4 ) L i t t l e i n t e r a c t i o n , alw ays w ith fe a r and
d i s t r u s t .
2 8 . How much c o o p e r a tiv e teamwork i s p r e s e n t in your
lib r a r y ? (1 ) V ery s u b s t a n t ia l amount th rou ghou t
th e o r g a n iz a t io n , (2 ) M oderate amount, (3 ) R ela
t i v e l y l i t t l e , (4 ) N one.
2 9 . As se e n by h ie r a r c h ic a l s u p e r io r s , t o what e x t e n t
can su b o r d in a te s in flu e n c e th e g o a ls , m ethods,
and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l u n it s ?
(1 ) N one, (2 ) V ir t u a lly n o n e, (3 ) M oderate amount,
(4 ) A g r e a t d e a l .
3 0 . As seen by h ie r a r c h ic a l s u b o r d in a te s , t o what
e x t e n t can su b o r d in a te s in f lu e n c e th e g o a ls ,
m eth od s, and a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a tio n a l
u n it s ? (1 ) None e x c e p t through th e " in fo rm a l
o r g a n iz a tio n " or by u n io n iz a t io n , (2 ) L i t t l e
e x c e p t through th e " in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n " or by
u n io n iz a t io n , (3 ) M oderate am ount, b oth d i r e c t l y
and by u n io n iz a t io n , where i t e x i s t s , (4 ) Sub-
s t a n i a l am ount, b oth d i r e c t l y and by u n io n i
z a t io n , where i t e x i s t s .
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3 1 . How much a c tu a l in flu e n c e can h ie r a r c h ic a l
s u p e r io r s e x e r c is e over th e g o a ls , m ethods, and
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ir o r g a n iz a t io n a l u n its ?
(1 ) B e lie v e d t o be s u b s t a n t ia l, b u t a c t u a lly i s
o n ly m oderate u n le s s c a p a c ity t o e x e r c is e s e v e r e
punishm ent i s p r e s e n t, (2 ) M oderate to somewhat
more than m oderate, e s p e c i a l l y fo r h ig h e r l e v e l s
in th e o r g a n iz a tio n , (3 ) M oderate t o s u b s t a n t ia l,
e s p e c i a l l y fo r h ig h e r l e v e l s in th e o r g a n iz a tio n ,
(4 ) S u b s t a n t ia l, b u t o fte n done i n d i r e c t l y , e . g . ,
by su p e r io r b u ild in g an e f f e c t i v e system f o r
group p a r t ic ip a t io n in making d e c is io n s r e l a t i v e
to th e g o a ls , m ethods, and a c t i v i t i e s .
3 2 . To what e x te n t d o es an e f f e c t i v e s tr u c tu r e e x i s t
t o en a b le one p a rt o f your lib r a r y t o e x e r t i n
flu e n c e on o th er p a r ts ? (1 ) H ig h ly e f f e c t i v e
s tr u c tu r e e x i s t s e n a b lin g e x e r c is e o f in flu e n c e
in a l l d ir e c t io n s , (2 ) M od erately e f f e c t i v e
s tr u c tu r e e x i s t s ; in flu e n c e e x e r te d la r g e ly
through v e r t i c a l l i n e s , (3) L im ited c a p a c ity
e x i s t s ; in flu e n c e e x e r te d la r g e ly v ia v e r t i c a l
l i n e s and p r im a r ily downward in th e h ie r a r c h y ,
(4 ) E f f e c t iv e s tr u c tu r e v i r t u a l l y n o t p r e s e n t.
3 3 . At what l e v e l in your lib r a r y a r e d e c is io n s
fo r m a lly made? (1 ) B ulk o f d e c is io n s a t th e top
o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n , (2 ) P o lic y a t th e to p , w ith
many d e c is io n s w ith in a p r e s c r ib e d framework made
a t low er l e v e l s , b u t u s u a lly ch eck ed w ith to p
b e fo r e a c tio n i s ta k en , (3 ) Broad p o lic y
d e c is io n s a t th e to p , w ith more s p e c i f i c d e c is io n s
a t low er l e v e l s , (4) D e c is io n making w id e ly done
th rou ghou t th e o r g a n iz a tio n , a lth o u g h w e ll i n t e
g r a te d through a lin k in g p r o c e s s p ro v id ed by
o v e r -la p p in g g ro u p s.
3 4 . At th e l e v e l where m ost d e c is io n s a re made in
your lib r a r y , how ad eq u ate and a c c u r a te i s th e
in fo r m a tio n a v a ila b le f o r d e c is io n making?
(1 ) In form ation i s g e n e r a lly in a d eq u a te and i n
a c c u r a te , (2 ) In fo rm a tio n i s o fte n somewhat
in a d eq u a te and in a c c u r a te , (3 ) R easonably a d e
q u ate and a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n i s a v a ila b le ,
(4 ) R e la t iv e ly co m p lete and a c c u r a te in fo rm a tio n
i s a v a ila b le , b ased b oth on m easurem ents and an
e f f i c i e n t flo w o f in fo r m a tio n in th e o r g a n iz a
t i o n .
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3 5 . To what e x t e n t a re th e d e c is io n makers aware o f
problem s in your lib r a r y , p a r t ic u la r ly problem s
a t low er o r g a n iz a tio n a l l e v e l s ? (1 ) G e n e r a lly
q u ite w e ll aware o f p ro b lem s, (2) M oderately w e ll
aware o f p rob lem s, (3) Aware o f some p rob lem s,
but unaware o f o t h e r s , (4 ) O ften unaware or o n ly
p a r t i a l l y aware o f p ro b lem s.
3 6 . To what e x t e n t are t e c h n ic a l and p r o f e s s io n a l
know ledges u sed in d e c is io n making in your
lib r a r y ? (1 ) Used o n ly i f i t i s p o s s e s s e d a t th e
h ig h e r l e v e l s , (2) Much o f what i s a v a ila b le in
th e upper and m id d le l e v e l s i s u se d , (3 ) Much o f
what i s a v a ila b le anywhere in th e o r g a n iz a tio n i s
u se d .
3 7 . Are d e c is io n s made a t th e b e s t l e v e l in your
lib r a r y , in term s o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f th e most
ad eq u ate and a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n b e a r in g on th e
d e c is io n s ? (1) O v erla p p in g groups and group
d e c is io n p r o c e s s e s te n d t o push d e c is io n making
to th e p o in t where in fo r m a tio n i s most a d eq u a te,
or t o p a ss th e r e le v a n t in fo r m a tio n t o th e
d e c is io n making p o in t , (2 ) Some ten d en cy fo r
d e c is io n s to be made a t h ig h e r l e v e l s than th o se
where most adeq u ate and a c c u r a te in fo rm a tio n
e x i s t s , (3) D e c is io n s o f te n made a t l e v e l s
a p p r e c ia b ly h ig h e r than th o se where most adequate
and a cc u r a te in fo r m a tio n e x i s t s , (4 ) D e c is io n s
u s u a lly made a t l e v e l s a p p r e c ia b ly h ig h e r than
th o se where most ad eq u ate and a c c u r a te in fo rm a tio n
e x i s t s .
3 8 . Are d e c is io n s made a t th e b e s t l e v e l in your
lib r a r y , in term s o f th e m o tiv a tio n a l co n seq u e n ces,
i . e . , d oes th e d e c is io n making p r o c e s s h e lp t o
c r e a t e th e n e c e s sa r y m o tiv a tio n in th o se p erso n s
who have t o c a r r y ou t th e d e c is io n s ? (1 ) Sub
s t a n t i a l c o n t r ib u t io n s by th e d e c is io n making
p r o c e s s e s t o th e m o tiv a tio n f o r im p lem en ta tio n ,
(2 ) Some c o n tr ib u tio n by th e d e c is io n making
p r o c e s s e s t o th e m o tiv a tio n f o r im p lem en ta tio n ,
(3) D e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s c o n tr ib u te r e l a
t i v e l y l i t t l e t o th e m o tiv a tio n fo r im plem enta
t io n , (4 ) D e c is io n making p r o c e s s e s c o n tr ib u te
l i t t l e or n o th in g t o th e m o tiv a tio n fo r im p le
m en ta tio n , and u s u a lly y i e l d a d v erse m o tiv a tio n .
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39* To what e x t e n t a re h ie r a r c h ic a l su b o r d in a te s
in v o lv e d in making d e c is io n s r e la t e d t o t h e ir
work? (1 ) Not a t a l l , (2 ) Never a c t u a lly i n
v o lv e d in d e c is io n s , but a re o c c a s io n a lly
c o n s u lt e d , (3 ) U s u a lly a r e c o n s u lte d but o r d i
n a r ily a re n o t a c t u a lly in v o lv e d in th e d e c is io n
m aking, (4 ) Are in v o lv e d f u l l y in a l l d e c is io n s
r e la t e d t o t h e ir work.
4 0 . I s d e c is io n making in your lib r a r y b a sed on a
man-to-man or a group p a tte r n o f o p e r a tio n ? Does
i t en cou rage or d isc o u r a g e teamwork? (1 ) M an-to-
man o n ly ; d isc o u r a g e s teamwork, (2 ) Man-to-man
a lm o st e n t ir e l y ; d isc o u r a g e s teamwork, (3 ) Both
m an-to-man and group; p a r t i a l l y en co u ra g es team
w ork, (4 ) L a rg ely based on th e group p a tte r n ;
en co u ra g es teamwork.
4 1 . How are g o a ls u s u a lly s e t and p r i o r i t i e s u s u a lly
e s t a b lis h e d in your lib r a r y ? (1 ) E xcep t in
e m e r g e n c ie s, g o a ls are u s u a lly e s t a b lis h e d by
means o f group p a r t ic ip a t io n , (2 ) G oals a re s e t
and o r d er s is s u e d a f t e r d is c u s s io n w ith s u b o r d i
n a te s o f problem s and p lan n ed a c t io n s , (3 ) O rders
a re is s u e d ; o p p o r tu n itie s t o comment may or may
n o t e x i s t , (4 ) O rders a re is s u e d ,
4 2 . To what e x t e n t do th e d i f f e r e n t h ie r a r c h ic a l
l e v e l s in your lib r a r y ten d t o s t r i v e fo r h ig h
perform ance g o a ls ? (1 ) High g o a ls so u g h t by a l l
l e v e l s , w ith low er l e v e l s som etim es p r e s s in g f o r
h ig h e r g o a ls than to p l e v e l s , (2 ) High g o a ls
sou gh t by h ig h er l e v e l s , b u t w ith o c c a s io n a l
r e s is t a n c e by low er l e v e l s , (3 ) H igh g o a ls
p r e s se d by top l e v e l , b u t g e n e r a lly r e s i s t e d by
s u b o r d in a te s .
4 3 . What a re th e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g th s o f f o r c e s t o
a c c e p t, r e s i s t , or r e j e c t g o a ls in your lib r a r y ?
(1 ) G oals a re o v e r t ly a c c e p te d , b u t are c o v e r t ly
r e s i s t e d s t r o n g ly , (2) G oals a re o v e r t ly a c ce p te d ,
b u t o f te n a re c o v e r t ly r e s i s t e d t o a t l e a s t a
m oderate d e g r e e , (3 ) G oals a re o v e r t ly a c c e p te d ,
b u t a t tim e s meet w ith some c o v e r t r e s i s t a n c e ,
(4 ) G o a ls are f u l l y a cc ep ted b oth o v e r t ly and
c o v e r t l y .
4 4 . At what h ie r a r c h ic a l l e v e l s in your lib r a r y d oes
th e major or prim ary con cern e x i s t w ith reg a rd to
perform ance o f th e c o n t r o l f u n c tio n , e . g . ,
ch eck in g on p r o d u c tio n , c o s t s , p r o c e d u r e s, e t c . ?
130
(1 ) At th e v e r y top o n ly , (2 ) P r im a r ily or
la r g e ly a t th e to p , (3 ) P r im a r ily a t th e to p ,
b u t w ith some sh a red f e e l i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
a t m id d le l e v e l s , and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t a t low er
l e v e l s , (4 ) Concern fo r perform ance o f c o n t r o l
f u n c tio n s i s l i k e l y t o be f e l t throughout th e
o r g a n iz a tio n .
4 5 . How a c c u r a te a r e th e m easurem ents and in fo rm a tio n
u sed t o g u id e and perform th e c o n tr o l f u n c tio n ,
and t o what e x t e n t do f o r c e s e x i s t to d i s t o r t or
f a l s i f y t h i s in fo r m a tio n ? (1 ) S tron g p r e s s u r e s
t o o b ta in co m p lete and a c c u r a te in fo r m a tio n t o
g u id e o n e 's own b eh a v io r a s w e ll a s th e b eh a v io r
o f o n e 's own and r e la t e d work groups; h e n c e ,
in fo r m a tio n and m easurem ents ten d to be co m p lete
and a c c u r a te , (2 ) Some p r e ssu r e t o p r o te c t s e l f
and c o lle a g u e s ; h e n c e , some p r e s su r e s t o d i s t o r t ;
in fo r m a tio n i s o n ly m o d era tely co m p lete and
c o n ta in s some in a c c u r a c ie s , (3) F a ir ly str o n g
fo r c e s e x i s t t o d i s t o r t and f a l s i f y ; h en ce ,
m easurem ents and in fo r m a tio n are o fte n in co m p lete
and in a c c u r a te , (4) V ery s tr o n g f o r c e s e x i s t to
d i s t o r t and f a l s i f y ; a s a co n seq u e n c e, m easure
m ents a re u s u a lly in co m p lete and o fte n a re i n
a c c u r a te .
4 6 . To what e x te n t are th e rev iew and c o n t r o l fu n c
t io n s c o n c e n tr a te d ? (1 ) H ig h ly c o n c e n tr a te d in
to p management, (2 ) R e la t iv e ly h ig h ly c o n c e n tr a te d
a t th e to p , w ith some c o n t r o l d e le g a te d t o m id d le
and low er l e v e l s , (3) M oderate downward d e le g a tio n
o f re v iew and c o n t r o l p r o c e s s e s ; low er a s w e ll as
h ig h e r l e v e l s perform th e se t a s k s , (4 ) R eview and
c o n t r o l done a t a l l l e v e l s , w ith low er l e v e l s a t
tim e s im p osin g more v ig o r o u s rev iew s and t ig h t e r
c o n t r o ls than to p management.
4 7 . To what e x te n t i s th e r e an " in fo rm a l o r g a n iz a tio n "
p r e s e n t su p p o r tin g or op p osin g th e g o a ls o f th e
form al o r g a n iz a tio n in your lib r a r y ? (1 ) Inform al
o r g a n iz a tio n p r e s e n t and o p p osin g g o a ls o f form al
o r g a n iz a tio n , (2 ) Inform al o r g a n iz a tio n u s u a lly
p r e s e n t and p a r t i a l l y r e s i s t i n g g o a ls , (3) I n fo r
mal o r g a n iz a tio n may be p r e se n t and may e it h e r
su p p ort or p a r t i a l l y r e s i s t g o a ls , (4 ) Inform al
o r g a n iz a tio n and form al o r g a n iz a tio n a re one and
th e same; hence a l l s o c i a l f o r c e s sup p ort e f f o r t s
to a c h ie v e g o a l s .
4 8 . To what e x te n t are c o n tr o l d a ta ( p r o d u c tiv ity ,
131
c o s t , e t c . ) u sed f o r s e lf - g u id a n c e or group
problem s o lv in g by m a n agerial and n o n -m a n a g eria l
em p lo y ees, or u sed by s u p e r io r s in a p u n it iv e ,
p o lic in g manner? (1 ) U sed fo r p o l i c i n g , and in a
p u n itiv e m anner, (2) Used fo r p o lic in g co u p led
w ith reward and punish m en t, somewhat p u n it iv e ly ;
u sed somewhat fo r g u id a n c e , but in a cco rd w ith
o r d e r s , (3 ) Used fo r p o lic in g w ith em phasis
u s u a lly on rew ard, b u t w ith some punishm ent; used
fo r g u id an ce in a cco rd w ith o r d er s; some u se
a l s o fo r s e lf - g u id a n c e , (4) Used fo r s e l f
gu id an ce and fo r c o o r d in a te d problem s o lv in g and
g u id a n ce; n o t u sed p u n i t i v e l y .
4 9 . What l e v e l o f perform ance g o a ls do h ie r a r c h ic a l
s u p e r io r s s e e k t o have your lib r a r y a c h ie v e ?
(1 ) Seek t o a c h ie v e e x tr e m e ly h igh g o a ls , (2 )
Seek v e r y h ig h g o a ls , (3 ) Seek h ig h g o a ls ,
(4 ) Seek a v era g e g o a ls .
5 0 . To what e x t e n t h as your lib r a r y g iv e n you th e
k in d o f management t r a in in g you d e s ir e ? (1 ) Have
r e c e iv e d no management t r a in in g o f th e k in d I
d e s ir e , (2 ) Have r e c e iv e d some management t r a i n
in g o f th e k ind I d e s ir e , (3 ) Have r e c e iv e d
q u ite a l o t o f management t r a in in g o f th e k in d I
d e s ir e , (4 ) Have r e c e iv e d a g r e a t d e a l o f manage
ment t r a in in g o f th e k in d I d e s ir e .
5 1 . How would you d e s c r ib e th e adequacy o f t r a in in g
r e so u r c e s p ro v id ed t o a s s i s t in th e t r a in in g o f
h ie r a r c h ic a l su b o r d in a te s? (1 ) T ra in in g r e s o u r
c e s p ro v id ed a re e x c e l l e n t , (2 ) T ra in in g
r e so u r c e s p ro v id ed a re v er y good, (3 ) T r a in in g
r e so u r c e s p ro v id ed a r e good, (4 ) T ra in in g r e
so u r c e s p ro v id ed a re o n ly f a i r l y good .
52 . To what e x t e n t d o es r i v a l r y fo r p e r s o n n e l, fu n d s,
e t c . , e x i s t betw een t e c h n ic a l and p u b lic or read
e r s e r v ic e s in your lib r a r y ? (1) No s ig n i f i c a n t
r iv a lr y e x i s t s , (2 ) Some r iv a lr y e x i s t s , b u t does
n o t c r e a te s e r io u s t e n s io n s , (3) C o n sid er a b le
r iv a lr y e x i s t s , and te n s io n s are c r e a t e d , (4)
R iv a lr y s e r io u s ly d is r u p ts work o f lib r a r y s t a f f .
5 3 . To what e x t e n t i s th e to p a d m in is tr a tio n im par
t i a l , or p a r t ia l to e it h e r t e c h n ic a l or p u b lic
s e r v i c e s , in a l l o c a t i n g r e s o u r c e s and in th e
b a s ic o p e r a tin g p h ilo so p h y o f your lib r a r y ? (1 )
Show g r e a t p a r t i a l i t y fa v o r in g e it h e r t e c h n ic a l
or p u b lic s e r v i c e s , (2 ) Show some p a r t i a l i t y
toward e it h e r t e c h n ic a l or p u b lic s e r v i c e s , (3 )
Show o c c a s io n a l p a r t i a l i t y , b u t n o t a r e g u la r
p a tte r n , (4 ) C o m p letely im p a r t ia l.
APPENDIX B
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL TABLES
132
TABLE 1-1
SUPERIORS’ CONFIDENCE AND TRUST IN SUBORDINATES
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 1
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per Cent o f N
i 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 0 .5 4 .5 7 7 .5 1 7 .2 0 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .7 4 .9 7 7 .9 1 6 .0 0 .5
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0 .0 3 .2 7 6 .3 2 0 .5 0 .0
P u b lic 298 0 .7 4 .0 7 4 .8 2 0 .1 0 .3
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 0 .5 4 .8 8 1 .2 1 3 .0 0 .5
Academ ic—p r iv a te 77 0 .0 5 .2 7 7 .9 1 6 .9 0 .0
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .4 4 .9 8 0 .3 1 4 .1 0 .4
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 .2 7 .0 8 2 .6 8 .1 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 0 .6 6 .4 8 3 .7 9 .3 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .0 3 .9 7 1 .3 2 4 .7 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 1 .4 7 4 .7 2 2 .6 0 .7
Top e c h elo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 0 .7 8 1 .5 1 6 .6 0 .7
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0 .8 4 .7 7 6 .4 1 8 .1 0 .0
N on-m anagerial 302 0 .3 6 .0 7 6 .5 1 6 .9 0 .3
TABLE 1-2
SUPERIORS' CONFIDENCE AND TRUST IN SUBORDINATES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 1
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s i q Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 0 3 .2 3 n e g a tiv e
s m t mm
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 0 3 .2 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 1 0 3 .2 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 1 0 3 .2 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 1 0 3 .2 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Academic —pr iv a t e 3 1 0 3 .2 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 1 0 3 .2 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 1 0 3 .1 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 1 0 3 .1 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 0 3 .2 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 1 0 3 .2 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 1 0 3 .1 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .2 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Non -man ager ia 1 3 1 0 3 .2 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 2-1
SUBORDINATES' CONFIDENCE AND TRUST IN SUPERIORS
Summary o f R esponsesi fo r V a r ia b le 2
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ic e s S e le c t e d a s a
I 2" ' 3"""
Per Cent
" 4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .5 5 .8 6 7 .9 2 4 .2 0 .5
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 .9 6 .3 7 0 .2 2 0 .9 0 .7
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0 .6 4 .5 6 1 .5 3 3 .3 0 .0
P u b lic 298 1 .0 4 .0 6 4 .4 3 0 .2 0 .3
Academic — t ax-su p p or te d 207 1 .9 8 .2 7 5 .4 1 4 .0 0 .5
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 2 .6 6 .5 6 1 .0 2 8 .6 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .1 7 .7 7 1 .5 1 8 .0 0 .7
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 3 .5 8 .1 7 9 .1 9 .3 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 2 .9 7 .6 8 0 .8 8 .7 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .0 4 .5 6 0 .7 3 4 .3 0 .6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 4 .1 5 4 .8 3 9 .0 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 0 .7 4 .0 7 2 .8 2 1 .2 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 1 .6 3 .9 7 2 .4 2 1 .3 0 .8
N on -m anagerial 302 2 .0 7 .3 6 3 .9 2 6 .8 0 .0
u >
ui
TABLE 2-2
SUBORDINATES' CONFIDENCE AND TRUST IN SUPERIORS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 2
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 0 3 .3 2 n e g a tiv e
— — —
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 0 3 .3 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 1 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 1 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A c a d e m ic -ta x -su p p o r te d 3 1 0 3 .2 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic—p r iv a t e 3 1 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 1 0 3 .2 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .2 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 . 2 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 1 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an a g eria l 3 1 0 3 .2 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
M iddle e c h elo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .2 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 1 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 3-1
SUPPORTIVE BEHAVIOR DISPLAYED BY SUPERIORS
T O W A R D SUBORDINATES
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 3
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a Per C ent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2 .1 1 3 .7 6 4 .8 1 9 .1 0 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 3 .1 1 3 .4 6 4 .6 1 9 .7 0 .2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .9 1 4 .7 6 5 .4 1 7 .3 0 .6
P u b lic 298 2 .3 1 0 .4 6 2 .4 2 4 .5 0 .3
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .4 1 8 .8 6 6 .2 1 3 .5 0 .0
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 77 2 .6 1 3 .0 7 0 .1 1 3 .0 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 .8 1 7 .3 6 7 .3 1 3 .4 0 .4
S t a f f s i z e —v er y la r g e 86 7 .0 1 7 .4 6 4 .0 1 1 .6 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 2 .3 2 5 .0 6 2 .2 9 .9 0 .6
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 1 .1 5 .6 6 9 .1 2 3 .6 0 .6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .0 8 .2 6 3 .0 2 8 .8 0 .0
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 3 .3 7 4 .2 2 1 .9 0 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 2 .4 1 0 .2 6 8 .5 1 8 .1 0 .8
N on-m anagerial 302 2 .6 2 0 .2 5 8 .9 1 7 .9 0 .3
TABLE 3-2
SUPPORTIVE BEHAVIOR DISPLAYED BY SUPERIORS
T O W A R D SUBORDINATES
X
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 3
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .3 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .3 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .3 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .2 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .3 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 1 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 1 0 3 .3 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 1 0 3 .3 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h elo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .2 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .3 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-manager i a 1 3 2 0 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
W
00
TABLE 4-1
FREEDO M OF SUBORDINATES TO DISCUSS JOB-RELATED
M ATTERS W ITH SUPERIORS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 4
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a Per C ent o f N
' ~I 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2 .1 1 0 .7 4 5 .2 4 1 .8 0 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2 .1 1 0 .3 4 6 .7 4 0 .6 0 .2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .9 1 1 .5 4 1 .0 4 4 .9 0 .6
P u b lic 293 3 .0 9 .1 4 3 .6 4 4 .3 0 .5
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .4 1 5 .0 4 9 .3 3 3 .8 0 .5
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 77 0 .0 5 .2 4 0 .3 5 3 .2 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 .1 12 .3 4 6 .8 3 9 .1 0 .7
S t a f f s i z e —v er y la r g e 86 3 .5 1 6 .3 5 1 .2 2 9 .1 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 172 2 .9 1 8 .6 5 8 .7 1 8 .6 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178
1 .1 5 .6 3 7 .6 5 5 .6 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 .4 4 .1 3 4 .9 5 9 .6 0 .0
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 1 .3 4 .1 4 4 .4 5 0 .3 0 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 2 .4 1 2 .6 4 8 .8 3 5 .4 0 .8
N on-m anageria1 302 2 .3 1 2 .9 4 4 .4 4 0 .1 0 .3
TABLE 4-2
FREEDO M OF SUBORDINATES TO DISCUSS JOB-RELATED
M ATTERS W ITH SUPERIORS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 4
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 4 1 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 1 4 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 1 4 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anageria1 3 2 1 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
TABLE 5-1
SUPERIORS' EFFORTS TO OBTAIN AND USE
SUBORDINATES' IDEAS AND OPINIONS
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 5
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a Per Cent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 3 .8 2 2 .0 5 8 .9 1 4 .6 0 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 .0 2 2 .3 5 8 .5 1 4 .6 0 .7
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 3 .2 2 1 .2 6 0 .3 1 4 .7 0 .6
P u b lic 298 4 .0 1 8 .5 6 3 .1 1 3 .8 0 .7
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 4 .3 2 7 .5 5 2 .7 1 5 .0 0 .5
Academic —p r iv a te 77 1 .3 2 0 .8 5 9 .7 1 6 .9 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .5 2 5 .7 5 4 .6 1 5 .5 0 .7
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 7 .0 2 6 .7 6 4 .0 2 .3 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 7 .0 3 4 .9 4 4 .2 1 2 .2 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178
1 .1
1 7 .4 6 5 .7 1 5 .2 0 .6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 .4 9 .6 6 5 .1 2 4 .0 0 .0
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .0 1 4 .6 6 8 .2 1 7 .2 0 .0
M iddle ec h e lo n m an agerial 127 4 .7 1 7 .3 6 2 .2 1 5 .0 0 .8
N on-m anagerial 302 5 .0 2 7 .8 5 3 .3 1 2 .9 1 .0
TABLE 5-2
SUPERIORS' EFFORTS TO OBTAIN AND USE
SUBORDINATES' IDEAS AND OPINIONS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 5
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe ssio n a 1 3 2 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic- -p r iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 1 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 2 O 3 .3 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .3 2 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .3 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 6-1
UNDERLYING HUMAN MOTIVES TAPPED
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a ria b le! 6
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
.......“i
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 7 .7 3 3 .3 2 9 .0 1 4 .3 5 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 7 .1 3 2 .6 3 0 .5 1 5 .3 4 .5
N o n -p r o fe ssia n a 1 156 1 9 .2 3 5 .3 2 5 .0 1 1 .5 9 .0
P u b lic 298 1 6 .8 3 0 .2 3 2 .9 1 4 .4 5 .7
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 7 .4 3 7 .7 2 7 .1 1 2 .6 5 .3
Academic — pr iv a te 77 2 2 .1 3 3 .8 1 9 .5 1 8 .2 6 .5
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 8 .7 3 6 .6 2 5 .0 1 4 .1 5 .6
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 9 .8 4 1 .9 2 3 .3 9 .3 5 .8
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 172 2 1 .5 3 8 .4 2 7 .3 8 .1 4 .7
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178 1 6 .9 2 7 .5 3 3 .1 1 8 .5 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 3 .0 2 9 .5 2 9 .5 1 9 .2 8 .9
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 8 .6 2 9 .8 3 9 .1 1 8 .5 4 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 2 2 .0 2 7 .6 3 2 .3 1 3 .4 4 .7
N on -m anagerial 302 2 0 .5 3 7 .4 2 2 .8 1 2 .3 7 .0
W
TABLE 6-2
UNDERLYING HUMAN MOTIVES TAPPED
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 6
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 2 3 1 2 .6 7 p o s i t i v e
— — w
P r o fe s s io n a l 2 3 1 2 .6 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 2 3 1 2 .6 5 p o s i t i v e lep to k u r t i c
P u b lic 3 3 1 3 .6 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 2 3 1 2 .6 2 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic- -p r iv a te 2 3 1 2 .6 6 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 2 3 1 2 .6 3 p o s i t i v e lep to k u r t i c
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 2 3 0 2 .5 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 2 2 0 2 .6 2 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 3 1 3 .6 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - s m a ll 3 3 1 2 -3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .6 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 2 3 1 3 .6 8 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 2 3 1 2 .6 3 p o s i t i v e lep to k u r t i c
*
*
TABLE 7-1
MANNER IN WHICH UNDERLYING HUMAN MOTIVES WERE USED
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 7
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices
i
S e le c t e d
2
a s a
3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .5 5 .7 3 8 .5 4 5 .7 8 .6
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 .2 4 .5 4 1 .3 4 5 .5 7 .5
Not- p r o f e s s io n a l 156 2 .6 9 .0 3 0 .8 4 6 .2 1 1 .5
P u b lic 298 2 .0 4 .0 3 7 .2 4 8 .7 8 .1
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .0 7 .2 4 3 .0 4 0 .6 8 .2
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 1 .3 7 .8 3 1 .2 4 8 .1 1 1 .7
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 .1 7 .4 3 9 .8 4 2 .6 9 .2
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 4 .7 9 .3 5 3 .5 2 5 .5 8 .1
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 .7 7 .6 4 7 .7 3 4 .9 8 .1
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .6 2 .8 3 1 .5 5 7 .3 7 .9
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 4 .8 2 7 .4 5 6 .8 1 0 .3
Top e c h e lo n m an a g eria l 151 0 .0 2 .6 3 9 .1 5 3 .0 5 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0 .8 3 .1 4 7 .2 4 0 .2 8 .7
N on-m anagerial 302 2 .6 7 .9 3 4 .8 4 4 .7 9 .9
TABLE 7-2
MANNER IN WHICH UNDERLYING HUMAN MOTIVES WERE USED
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 7
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n ses 3 .5 1 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 4 2 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
P u b lic 4 1 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 1 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academi c - -pr iv a t e 4 2 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 4 1 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 3 2 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 1 4 .4 3 n e g a tiv e lep tp k u r t i c
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 4 1 4 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on -m anagerial 3 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 8-1
ATTITUDES TOWARD THE LIBRARY AND ITS GOALS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 8
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
"""' 4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .5 2 0 .1 5 5 .0 2 2 .5 0 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 .6 2 0 .7 5 5 .2 2 1 .8 0 .7
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .3 1 8 .6 5 4 .5 2 4 .4 1 .3
P u b lic 298 1 .3 1 6 .4 5 6 .4 2 4 .8 1 .0
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .0 2 4 .6 5 3 .6 1 9 .8 1 .0
A c a d em ic--p r iv a te 77 3 .9 2 2 .1 5 3 .2 2 0 .8 0 .0
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 .8 2 3 .9 5 3 .5 2 0 .1 0 .7
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 3 .5 2 5 .6 6 4 .0 5 .8 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 172 0 .6 3 2 .0 5 5 .8 1 1 .6 0 .0
S t a f f s iz e -m e d iu m 178 0 .6 1 2 .9 5 4 .5 3 0 .9 1 .1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2 .7 1 1 .6 4 9 .3 3 4 .9 1 .4
Top e c h elo n m a n agerial 151 0 .7 1 3 .2 5 4 .3 2 9 .8 2 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 127 0 .8 2 5 .2 5 8 .3 1 5 .7 0 .0
N on-m anagerial 302 2 .3 2 1 .5 5 4 .0 2 1 .5 0 .7
TABLE 8-2
ATTITUDES TOWARD THE LIBRARY AND ITS GOALS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 8
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic—p r iv a te 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 1 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 O 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
M iddle e c h elo n m a n agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 9-1
EXTENT TO W H ICH MOTIVATIONAL FORCES CONFLICTED
WITH C X I SUPPORTED EACH O TH ER
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 9
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
”T 2 3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .5 1 5 .8 4 1 .8 3 4 .9 6 .0
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 .6 1 4 .8 4 3 .0 3 4 .0 6 .6
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .3 1 8 .6 3 8 .5 3 7 .2 4 .5
P u b lic 298 0 .7 1 2 .8 4 3 .0 3 6 .6 7 .0
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .4 2 1 .7 4 3 .0 2 9 .5 4 .3
Academ ic—p r iv a t e 77 5 .2 1 1 .7 3 3 .8 4 2 .9 6 .5
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .5 1 9 .0 4 0 .5 3 3 .1 4 .9
S t a f f s i z e — v e r y la r g e 86 4 .7 1 8 .6 4 6 .5 2 3 .3 7 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 .2 2 6 .2 4 1 .3 2 4 .4 7 .0
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .6 7 .3 4 6 .1 4 2 .1 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 .4 1 2 .3 3 4 .2 4 5 .2 6 .8
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 7 .9 4 5 .7 3 9 .7 6 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 1 .6 1 3 .4 5 2 .0 2 7 .6 5 .5
N on-m anagerial 302 2 .0 2 0 .9 3 5 .4 3 5 .4 6 .3
*
v O
TABLE 9-2
EXTENT TO W H ICH MOTIVATIONAL FORCES CONFLICTED
W ITH O R SUPPORTED EACH O TH ER
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 9
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s i q Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e
« _ «
p r o f e s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 3 .6 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic s 3 2 1 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e ie p to k u r t ic
Academ ic—p r iv a te 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 1 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 -4 .2 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
I
TABLE 10-1
FEELING OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR GOAL ACHIEVEM ENT
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 10
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
Of N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 3 .1 1 7 .0 4 5 .7 3 2 .8 1 .4
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 3 .3 1 6 .9 4 6 .0 3 2 .9 0 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 2 .6 1 7 .3 4 4 .9 3 2 .7 2 .6
P u b lic 298 3 .4 1 5 .1 4 6 .0 3 4 .2 1 .3
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 3 .4 1 8 .8 4 7 .8 2 8 .5 1 .4
Academic —pr iv a t e 77 1 .3 1 9 .5 3 9 .0 3 9 .0 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .8 1 9 .0 4 5 .4 3 1 .3 1 .4
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 1 0 .5 2 4 .4 5 3 .5 1 1 .6 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 172 2 .3 2 6 .2 5 4 .1 1 6 .3 1 .2
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178 0 .6 1 0 .7 3 9 .3 4 7 .2 2 .2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2 .7 9 .6 3 9 .0 4 7 .3 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 2 .0 7 .9 4 3 .0 4 5 .7 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0 .0 2 3 .6 4 9 .6 2 5 .2 1 .6
N on-m anagerial 302 5 .0 1 8 .9 4 5 .4 2 9 .5 1 .3
151
TABLE 10-2
FEELING OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR GOAL ACHIEVEMENT
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 10
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A cadem ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 1 3 -4 .2 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 3 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e -----
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
TABLE 11-1
ATTITUDES OF STAFF MEMBERS TOWARD EACH OTHER
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 11
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .0 3 .4 6 4 .8 2 9 .2 1 .5
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .7 3 .1 6 6 .7 2 8 .2 1 .4
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .9 4 .5 5 9 .6 3 2 .1 1 .9
P u b lic 298 1 .3 4 .0 5 7 .7 3 5 .2 1 .7
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 1 .0 2 .4 7 7 .3 1 8 .4 1 .0
Academ ic- -pr iv a te 77 0 .0 3 .9 5 8 .4 3 5 .1 2 .6
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .7 2 .8 7 2 .2 2 2 .9 1 .4
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 9 .3 7 2 .1 1 5 .1 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 0 .6 4 .1 7 7 .9 1 6 .3 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .0 1 .7 6 1 .2 3 4 .8 2 .2
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 146 2 .1 1 .4 4 9 .3 4 5 .9 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 0 .7 6 6 .9 3 0 .5 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0 .8 0 .0 7 1 .7 2 4 .4 3 .1
N on-m anagerial 302 1 .3 6 .3 6 0 .9 3 0 .5 1 .0
153
TABLE 11-2
ATTITUDES OF STAFF MEMBERS TOWARD EACH OTHER
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 11
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 0 3 .3 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N a n -p r o fe ssio n a 1 3 1 0 3 .4 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 1 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 1 0 3 .2 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic —p r iv a te 3 1 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t i c
T o ta l academ ic 3 1 0 3 .2 8 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 0 3 .2 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 1 0 3 .2 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 1 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 1 1 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 1 0 3 .3 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .2 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 1 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
U 1
TABLE 12-1
SATISFACTION AFFORDED BY MEMBERSHIP IN THE STAFF
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 12
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2 .1 1 3 .7 4 5 .9 3 7 .1 1 .2
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2 .1 1 3 .8 4 7 .2 3 5 .7 1 .2
N on-pr o f e s s io n a 1 156 1 .9 •13.5 4 2 .3 4 1 .0 1 .3
P u b lic 298 0 .7 1 3 .1 4 3 .6 4 0 .6 2 .0
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 3 .4 1 5 .9 5 2 .7 2 7 .5 0 .5
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 77 3 .9 1 0 .4 3 6 .4 4 9 .4 0 .0
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .5 1 4 .4 4 8 .2 3 3 .5 0 .4
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 5 .8 2 6 .7 5 0 .0 1 7 .4 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 172 4 .1 1 9 .2 5 7 .0 1 8 .6 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .0 4 .5 4 5 .5 4 8 .3 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .0 1 1 .0 3 0 .8 5 6 .8 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .0 7 .9 4 1 .7 4 9 .0 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0 .8 1 1 .8 5 5 .1 3 2 .3 0 .0
N on-m anagerial 302 3 .6 1 7 .5 4 4 .0 3 3 .1 1 .7
155
TABLE 12-2
SATISFACTION AFFORDED BY MEMBERSHIP IN THE STAFF
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 12
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s i q Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academic - t a x - s u p p o r t e d 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Academic —p r iv a te 3 2 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v er y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 2 1 4 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anageria1 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 13-1
A M O U N T OF INTERACTION AND COM M UNICATION CONTRIBUTING
TO ACHIEVEM ENT OF OBJECTIVES
B a a s H s a s s s a H s a B B a s ^ ^ B s s a a s a a B s a n B S B a B i K B B B a a e s a a s s a B H ^ B B
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 13
C la ss o f R espondent N C h oices
r"..........
: S e le c t e d a s a
2 3
Per Cent
“ '4 - "
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2 .2 1 2 .9 4 5 .7 3 7 .8 1 .4
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2 .6 1 3 .1 4 4 .8 3 8 .3 1 .2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .3 1 2 .2 4 8 .1 3 6 .5 1 .9
P u b lic 298 1 .0 1 1 .1 4 3 .0 4 3 .6 1 .3
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 3 .4 1 3 .0 5 1 .2 3 1 .4 1 .0
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 77 3 .9 1 9 .5 4 1 .6 3 2 .5 2 .6
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .5 1 4 .8 4 8 .6 3 1 .7 1 .4
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 86 4 .7 1 8 .6 5 0 .0 2 5 .6 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 2 .3 1 9 .2 4 8 .8 2 9 .1 0 .6
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178
1 .1
7 .9 4 4 .4 4 4 .9 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2 .1 8 .2 4 1 .1 4 6 .6 2 .1
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 2 .0 7 .3 4 1 .7 4 7 .7 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 .1 1 1 .0 5 1 .2 3 3 .9 0 .8
N on-m anagerial 302 2 .0 1 6 .6 4 5 .4 3 4 .4 1 .7
u «
TABLE 13-2
A M O U N T O F INTERACTION AND COM M UNICATION CONTRIBUTING
TO ACHIEVEM ENT O F OBJECTIVES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 13
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e
m — —
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Not -pr o f e s s i on a 1 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic —pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 1 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 1 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 14-1
DIRECTION OF INFORMATION F L O W IN ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHIES
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 14
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 0 .7 1 8 .4 2 7 .0 4 2 .6 1 .4
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 7 .7 1 9 .5 2 7 .7 4 4 .1 0 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 8 .6 1 5 .4 2 5 .0 3 8 .5 2 .6
P u b lic 298 1 2 .8 1 5 .1 2 6 .2 4 4 .3 1 .7
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 9 .7 2 4 .6 2 2 .2 4 2 .5 1 .0
Academ ic—p r iv a te 77 5 .2 1 4 .3 4 2 .9 3 6 .4 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 8 .5 2 1 .8 2 7 .8 4 0 .8 1 .1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 7 .4 2 6 .7 1 5 .1 4 0 .7 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 2 .2 2 8 .5 2 1 .5 3 7 .8 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 9 .0 1 2 .9 2 9 .8 4 7 .2
1 .1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 6 .8 8 .2 3 7 .0 4 3 .8 4 .1
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 2 .0 1 1 .3 3 4 .4 5 1 .0 1 .2
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 127 7 .1 2 5 .2 2 2 .8 4 4 .9 0 .0
N on-m anagerial 302 1 6 .2 1 8 .9 2 5 .2 3 7 .7 2 .0
159
TABLE 14-2
DIRECTION OF INFORMATION F L O W IN ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHIES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 14
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 3 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e
_ _ —
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 3 1 4 .6 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 3 2 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Aca dem ic — t a x - suppor te d 3 2 2 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic—p r iv a te 3 2 1 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 3 2 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 3 2 4 .6 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 2 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 2 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on -m anagerial 3 3 1 4 .6 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 15-1
HIERARCHICAL LOCATIONS FR O M W H ICH D O W N W A R D
COM M UNICATION W A S INITIATED
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 15
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent o f N
4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 7 .9 2 4 .9 3 6 .4 2 8 .9 1 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 5 .9 2 4 .4 3 4 .7 3 4 .0 0 .9
N a n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 3 .5 2 6 .3 4 1 .0 1 4 .7 4 .5
P u b lic 298 1 0 .1 2 7 .2 3 4 .6 2 5 .8 2 .3
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 207 5 .8 2 2 .2 3 8 .2 3 1 .9 1 .9
Academ ic—p r iv a te 77 5 .2 2 3 .4 3 9 .0 3 2 .5 0 .0
T o ta l academ ic 284 5 .6 2 2 .5 3 8 .4 3 2 .0 1 .4
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 2 .8 2 4 .4 3 2 .6 2 9 .1 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 7 .6 2 7 .9 4 0 .1 2 3 .3 1 .2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 6 .7 2 5 .8 3 3 .1 3 2 .6 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 6 .8 2 0 .5 3 8 .4 3 0 .8 3 .4
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 5 .3 1 9 .9 3 8 .4 3 3 .8 2 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 4 .7 2 1 .3 3 9 .4 3 3 .1 1 .6
N on-m anagerial 302 1 0 .3 2 9 .1 3 4 .1 2 4 .8 1 .7
TABLE 15-2
HIERARCHICAL LOCATIONS F R O M W H ICH D O W N W A R D
COM M ONICATION W A S INITIATED
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 15
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .6 4 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 3 0 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 3 1 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 3 1 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .6 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic—p r iv a te 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 3 3 1 3 .6 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .6 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 0 3 • 62 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .6 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .6 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 3 1 3 .6 6 n e g a tiv e p la t y k u r t ic
M
0 »
to
TABLE 16-1
SHARING OF INFORMATION BY SUPERIORS WITH SUBORDINATES
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a ria b le 16
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 4 .3 1 5 .3 3 8 .1 4 0 .5 1 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 3 .8 1 4 .8 3 8 .0 4 2 .3 1 .2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 5 .8 1 6 .7 3 8 .5 3 5 .9 3 .2
P u b lic 298 4 .4 1 3 .1 4 0 .9 3 9 .9 1 .7
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 4 .8 1 7 .4 3 6 .2 3 9 .6 1 .9
Academic —pr iv a t e 77 2 .6 1 8 .2 3 2 .5 4 5 .5 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 4 .2 1 7 .6 3 5 .2 4 1 .2 1 .8
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 5 .8 2 4 .4 4 4 .2 2 5 .6 0 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 9 .3 2 5 .0 4 1 .3 2 2 .1 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0 .6 9 .0 4 0 .4 4 7 .8 2 .2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2 .1 6 .2 2 8 .1 6 2 .3 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 0 .7 2 .6 3 1 .8 6 2 .9 2 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 .9 1 5 .7 4 0 .2 3 7 .8 2 .4
N on -m anagerial 302 6 .3 2 1 .5 4 0 .1 3 0 .8 1 .3
TABLE 16-2
SHARING OF INFORMATION BY SUPERIORS WITH SUBORDINATES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 16
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e
—
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 1 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 1 4 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t i c
Academi c —pr iv a t e 3 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 0 4 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 0 4 .3 7 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 1 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 17-1
ACCEPTANCE BY SUBORDINATES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATIONS
Summary o f R esponses> fo r V a r ia b le 17
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
Of N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 0 .5 1 3 .2 4 1 .4 4 3 .5 1 .4
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .5 1 3 .1 4 3 .4 4 2 .3 0 .7
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.6 1 3 .5 3 5 .9 4 6 .8 3 .2
P u b lic 298 0 .7 1 2 .4 3 7 .9 4 7 .3 1 .7
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 0 .5 1 4 .5 4 7 .8 3 5 .7 1 .4
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 0.0 1 3 .0 3 7 .7 4 9 .4 0.0
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .4 1 4 .1 4 5 .1 3 9 .4 1.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 1 9 .8 4 4 .2 3 2 .6 1.2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 0.0 22.1 4 8 .3 2 8 .5 1.2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 6.2 3 8 .8 5 2 .8 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 146 0.0 7 .5 3 4 .9 5 6 .2 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 6.0 4 2 .4 4 9 .7 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 1 8 .1 3 5 .4 4 4 .9 1.6
N on-m anagerial 302 0 .7 1 4 .9 4 3 .4 3 9 .7 1 .3
TABLE 17-2
ACCEPTANCE BY SUBORDINATES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATIONS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 17
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode v Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s
P r o fe s s io n a l
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l
P u b lic
Academi c — ta x -su p p or te d
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e
T o ta l academ ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e
S t a f f s i z e —medium
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial
N on-m anagerial
3 2 1 4
3 2 1 3
3 2 1 4
3 2 1 4
3 2 0 3
3 2 1 4
3 2 1 3
3 2 0 3
3 2 0 3
4 1 1 4
4 1 1 4
4 1 1 4
3 2 1 4
3 2 1 3
57 n e g a tiv e -----
57 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t i c
53 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
53 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
52 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
50 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
55 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
56 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
52 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
47 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
44 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
50 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
55 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
57 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
TABLE 18-1
ADEQUACY OF U PW A R D COM M UNICATION
VIA THE LINE ORGANIZATION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 18
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ic es S e le c t e d a s a Per Cent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 3 .4 1 8 .6 4 3 .5 3 2 .0 2.6
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 .2 1 5 .7 4 6 .7 3 1 .5 1 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .3 2 6 .3 3 4 .6 3 3 .3 4 .5
P u b lic 298 3 .0 1 5 .8 4 2 .3 3 6 .2 2 .7
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 4 .3 2 1 .7 4 3 .5 2 7 .5 2 .9
Academ ic—p r iv a te 77 2.6 20.8 4 8 .1 2 7 .3 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .9 2 1 .5 4 4 .7 2 7 .5 2 .5
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 11.6 2 4 .4 3 4 .9 2 6 .7 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 4 .1 2 9 .1 4 5 .9 1 9 .8 1.2
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178
1.1 11.8 4 9 .4 3 4 .8 2.8
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 11.0 3 8 .4 4 5 .9 4 .1
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 10.6 4 8 .3 3 9 .1 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n a g eria l 127 1.6 1 8 .9 4 0 .2 3 6 .2 3 .1
N on -m anagerial 302 5 .6 2 2 .5 4 2 .1 2 6 .8 3 .0
I
TABLE 18-2
ADEQUACY OF U PW A R D COM M UNICATION
VIA THE LINE ORGANIZATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a ria b le 18
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode v Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 “0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e - - -
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 2 ne g a t iv e lep to k u r t i c
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 3 1 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N on-m anageria1 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
O '
o o
TABLE 19-1
RESPONSIBILITY FELT BY SUBORDINATES FOR INITIATION
OF ACCURATE U PW A R D COM M UNICATION
Summary o f R esponses f o r V a r ia b le 19
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ic e s S e le c t e d as a Per C ent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 0 .7 1 3 .6 5 3 .8 3 0 .2 1 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .7 1 5 .0 5 5 .2 2 8 .2 0 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.6 9 .6 5 0 .0 3 5 .9 3 .8
P u b lic 298 0 .3 10.1 5 5 .4 3 2 .6 1 .7
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1.0 1 8 .8 5 4 .1 2 4 .6 1 .4
A c a d em ic--p r iv a te 77 1 .3 1 3 .0 4 6 .8 3 6 .4 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 1.1 1 7 .3 5 2 .1 2 7 .8 1.8
S t a f f s i z e —v e ry la r g e 86 3 .5 2 0 .9 5 0 .0 2 5 .6 0.0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 0.6 2 3 .8 6 1 .0 12.8 1 .7
S t a f f s iz e -m e d iu m 178 0.0 5 .6 5 6 .7 3 5 .4 2.2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0.0 6.8 4 3 .8 4 7 .3 2.1
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0.0 9 .3 5 2 .3 3 6 .4 2.0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.8 10.2 5 9 .8 2 8 .3 0.8
N on -m anagerial 302 1.0 1 7 .2 5 1 .7 2 8 .1 2.0
TABLE 19-2
RESPONSIBILITY FELT BY SUBORDINATES FOR INITIATION
OF ACCURATE U PW A R D COM M UNICATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 19
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Non - p r o fe s s io n a 1 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 1 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anageria1 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 20-1
STRENGTHS OF FORCES LEADING TO ACCURATE VERSUS
DISTORTED U PW A R D COM M UNICATION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 20
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r esp o n ses 582 0 .5 8.6 5 4 .5 3 2 .8 3 .6
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .7 9 .6 5 6 .8 3 0 .0 2.8
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 5 .8 4 8 .1 4 0 .4 5 .8
P u b lic 298 0 .3 6 .7 5 4 .4 3 4 .9 3 .7
Academic t ax-su p p or te d 207 1.0 12.1 5 4 .1 2 9 .0 3 .9
Academ ic- - p r iv a t e 77 0.0 6 .5 5 5 .8 3 5 .1 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .7 10.6 5 4 .6 3 0 .6 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 12.8 5 5 .8 2 5 .6 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 0.0 1 6 .9 5 8 .1 2 1 .5 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 2.2 5 8 .4 3 4 .8 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0.0 4 .1 4 4 .5 4 7 .9 3 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0.0 5 .3 5 9 .6 3 3 .1 2.0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 7 .9 6 1 .4 2 8 .3 2 .4
N on -m anagerial 302 1.0 10.6 4 8 .7 3 4 .8 5 .0
TABLE 20-2
STRENGTHS OF FORCES LEADING TO ACCURATE VERSUS
DISTORTED U PW A R D COM M UNICATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 20
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode v Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e
• • •
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe ssia n a 1 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A c a d e m ic -ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academic —p r iv a te 3 1 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 0 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 1 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on -m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
to
TABLE 21-1
ACCURACY OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION VIA THE LINE ORGANIZATION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 21
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s
P r o fe s s io n a l
N o n -p r o fe ssio n a 1
P u b lic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d
Academic —p r iv a te
T o ta l academ ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e
S t a f f s i z e —medium
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial
N on-m anagerial
582 1.0 6 .7
426 1.2 6.6
156 0.6 7 .1
298 1.0 6 .7
207 1.0 7 .7
77 1 .3 3 .9
284 1.1 6 .7
86 3 .5 12.8
172 1.2 11.0
178 0.6 2.2
146 0.0 3 .4
151 0.0 2.6
127 1.6 5 .5
302 1 .3 9 .3
3 5 .6 5 3 .1 3 .6
3 8 .0 5 1 .2 3 .1
2 8 .8 5 8 .3 5 .1
3 1 .5 5 7 .4 3 .4
3 9 .1 4 7 .3 4 .8
4 1 .6 5 1 .9 1 .3
3 9 .8 4 8 .6 3 .9
3 9 .5 4 0 .7 3 .5
4 4 .2 4 0 .1 3 .5
3 3 .7 5 9 .6 3 .9
2 5 .3 6 7 .8 3 .4
3 3 .1 6 1 .6 2.6
4 0 .2 4 9 .6 3 .1
3 4 .8 5 0 .3 4 .3
TABLE 21-2
ACCURACY OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION VIA THE LINE ORGANIZATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is tr ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 21
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 4 1 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 4 1 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 4 1 1 4 .4 2 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
P u b lic 4 1 1 4 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 4 1 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 4 1 1 4 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la t y k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 4 1 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t i c
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 1 4 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 0 4 .3 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 0 4 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 4 2 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
M
TABLE 22-1
NEED FO R U PW A R D COM M UNICATION CHANNELS TO SUPPLEMENT
THE LINE ORGANIZATION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 22
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 4 .3 1 9 .9 3 8 .1 3 3 .0 4 .6
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 .9 20.2 3 9 .0 3 1 .9 4 .0
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 2.6 1 9 .2 3 5 .9 3 5 .9 6 .4
P u b lic 298 2 .7 1 9 .1 3 8 .6 3 4 .2 5 .4
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 7 .2 22.2 3 6 .7 2 9 .0 4 .8
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 77 2.6 1 6 .9 4 0 .3 3 9 .0 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 6.0 20.8 3 7 .7 3 1 .7 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 8.1 1 9 .8 4 7 .7 1 7 .4 7 .0
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 7 .6 3 4 .9 3 5 .5 1 6 .9 5 .2
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178
1.1
1 5 .2 3 8 .8 4 1 .6 3 .4
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2.1 8.2 3 4 .9 5 0 .7 4 .1
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 2.0 1 7 .9 4 3 .0 3 5 .1 2.0
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n a g eria l 127 5 .5 2 0 .5 3 3 .9 3 5 .4 4 .7
N on -m anagerial 302 5 .0 2 0 .9 3 7 .4 3 0 .8 6.0
175
TABLE 22-2
NEED FOR U PW A R D COM M UNICATION CHANNELS TO SUPPLEMENT
THE LINE ORGANIZATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 22
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 o 3 .6 2 n e g a tiv e
m m m
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 3 -4 .2 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .6 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 0 3 .6 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academi c —pr iv a t e 3 2 1 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .6 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 1 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — medium 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 2 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 4 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .6 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
" 1
O '
TABLE 23-1
HORIZONTAL COM M UNICATION WITHIN HIERARCHICAL LEVELS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 23
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1.2 5 .8 4 8 .1 4 2 .8 2.1
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1.2 5 .6 4 7 .7 4 4 .4 1.2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .3 6 .4 4 9 .4 3 8 .5 4 .5
P u b lic 298 1 .7 5 .4 4 5 .3 4 5 .3 2 .3
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1.0 6.8 5 0 .2 4 0 .6 1 .4
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 77 0.0 5 .2 5 3 .2 3 9 .0 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .7 6 .3 5 1 .1 4 0 .1 1.8
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 9 .3 5 1 .2 3 6 .0 1.2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 .7 8 .7 5 4 .1 3 3 .7 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 2.2 5 1 .1 4 3 .3 2.8
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 4 .8 3 5 .6 5 6 .8 2.1
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 0 .7 3 .3 4 4 .4 4 9 .7 2.0
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 127 3 .1 4 .7 5 2 .0 3 8 .6 1.6
N on-m anagerial 302 0 .7 7 .6 4 8 .3 4 1 .1 2 .3
TABLE 23-2
HORIZONTAL COM M UNICATION WITHIN HIERARCHICAL LEVELS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 23
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 1 1 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 1 1 3 -4 .0 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 1 1 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic —pr iv a t e 3 1 1 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 1 1 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 1 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 O 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 1 1 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 1 4 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
■ > 1
0 0
TABLE 24-1
FRIENDLINESS BETWEEN SUPERIORS AND SUBORDINATES
Summary o f R esponses f o r V a r ia b le 24
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
I 5 3 2 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s
P r o fe s s io n a l
N o n -p r o fe ssio n a 1
P u b lic
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e
T o ta l academ ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e
S t a f f s i z e —•medium
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial
N on-m anageria1
582 3 .4 2 6 .3
426 3 .3 2 4 .6
156 3 .8 3 0 .8
298 3 .4 2 5 .8
207 3 .9 3 0 .0
77 2.6 1 8 .2
284 3 .5 2 6 .8
86 8.1 3 8 .4
172 4 .7 3 9 .0
178
1.1 1 6 .3
146 2.1 1 6 .4
151 0 .7 1 4 .6
127 1.6 2 1 .3
302 5 .6 3 4 .4
4 3 .3 2 5 .1 1 .9
4 4 .6 2 6 .3 1.2
3 9 .7 21.8 3 .8
4 4 .0 2 4 .8 2.0
4 5 .4 1 8 .8 1 .9
3 5 .1 4 2 .9 1 .3
4 2 .6 2 5 .4 1.8
4 4 .2 8.1 1.2
4 2 .4 11.6 2 .3
4 8 .9 3 2 .0 1 .7
3 7 .0 4 2 .5 2.1
4 4 .4 3 8 .4 2.0
5 5 .9 1 8 .9 2 .4
3 7 .1 21.2 1 .7
179
TABLE 24-2
FRIENDLINESS BETWEEN SUPERIORS AND SUBORDINATES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 24
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic —pr iv a t e 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 1 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 .6 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
00
O
TABLE 25-1
SUPERIORS' KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF PROBLEMS
FACED BY SUBORDINATES
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 25
C la ss o f R espondent • N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
------ 4------
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .7 3 0 .9 4 4 .3 2 2 .3 0 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2.1 3 0 .3 4 5 .1 21.8 0 .7
N o n -p r o fe ssio n a 1 156 0.6 3 2 .7 4 2 .3 2 3 .7 0.6
P u b lic 298 2.0 2 6 .5 4 6 .3 2 4 .2 1.0
Academ ic- - 1ax-suppor te d 207 1 .4 3 7 .7 4 1 .5 1 8 .8 0 .5
A cadem ic- -p r iv a t e 77 1 .3 2 9 .9 4 4 .2 2 4 .7 0.0
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 .4 3 5 .6 4 2 .3 2 0 .4 0 .4
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 4 .7 4 3 .0 4 0 .7 1 0 .5 1.2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 3 .5 4 5 .9 4 0 .1 1 0 .5 0.0
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.0 1 8 .0 5 2 .2 2 9 .2 0.6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0.0 2 1 .9 4 1 .8 3 4 .9 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m a n a g eria l 151 0.0 21.2 4 7 .0 3 0 .5 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 3 3 .1 4 8 .0 1 8 .1 0.8
N on -m an agerial 302 3 .3 3 4 .8 4 1 .7 1 9 .9 0 .3
TABLE 25-2
SUPERIORS' KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF PROBLEMS
FACED BY SUBORDINATES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a ria b le 25
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e lep tok u r t i c
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a1 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academi c - -pr iv a te 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 3 2 1 2 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 2 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
M iddle e c h elo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 26-1
ACCURACY OP SUPERIORS' AND SUBORDINATES'
PERCEPTION OP EACH OTHER
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 26
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
--------- 4 -
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .9 1 3 .2 5 0 .0 3 3 .5 1 .4
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2 .3 1 5 .3 4 9 .5 3 1 .2 1.6
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.6 7 .7 5 1 .3 3 9 .7 0.6
P u b lic 298 1 .3 1 1 .7 5 0 .0 3 5 .2 1 .7
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 3 .4 1 5 .5 5 2 .2 2 8 .5 0 .5
Academic —p r iv a te 77 0.0 1 3 .0 4 4 .2 4 0 .3 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .5 1 4 .8 5 0 .0 3 1 .7
1.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 7 .0 1 4 .0 5 4 .7 2 3 .3 1.2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 2 .3 22.1 5 4 .7 1 9 .2 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.0 9 .0 4 6 .6 4 3 .3 1.1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 7 .5 4 5 .9 4 4 .5 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 1 1 .9 4 7 .7 3 7 .1 2.6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 1 5 .7 5 0 .4 3 3 .1 0.8
N on -m anagerial 302 3 .3 1 2 .9 5 1 .0 3 1 .8 1.0
TABLE 26-2
ACCURACY OF SUPERIORS* AND SUBORDINATES*
PERCEPTIONS OF EACH O TH ER
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 26
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s i q Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e
w »
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 1 1 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e
- - -
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic —pr iv a t e 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e
---------
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 1 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
00
*
TABLE 27-1
AMOUNT AND CHARACTER OF INTERACTION
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 27
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
I 2 3 3 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s
P r o fe s s io n a l
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l
P u b lic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d
Academ ic—p r iv a te
T o ta l academ ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e
S t a f f s i z e —medium
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial
N on -m anagerial
582 0 .3 8 .4
426 0 .5 8.0
156 0.0 9 .6
298 0 .3 7 .7
207 0 .5 8 .7
77 0.0 1 0 .4
284 0 .4 9 .2
86 1.2 2 4 .4
172 0.0 11.0
178 0.0 1 .7
146 0 .7 4 .1
151 0.0 2.6
127 0.0 7 .9
302 0 .7 11.6
5 7 .7 3 2 .6 0 .9
5 8 .5 3 2 .2 0 .9
5 5 .8 3 4 .0 0.6
5 4 .0 3 6 .2 1 .7
6 5 .2 2 5 .6 0.0
5 1 .9 3 7 .7 0.0
6 1 .6 2 8 .9 0.0
5 9 .3 1 4 .0 1.2
7 3 .8 1 4 .5 0.6
5 3 .4 4 3 .8 1.1
4 3 .2 5 1 .4 0 .7
5 8 .9 3 7 .7 0 .7
5 8 .3 3 2 .3 1.6
5 7 .0 3 0 .1 0 .7
TABLE 27-2
AMOUNT AND CHARACTER OF INTERACTION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 27
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e *
M • » M
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 1 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 1 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 1 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic— p r iv a te 3 2 1 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 1 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .2 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 1 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
TABLE 28-1
COOPERATIVE TEAMWORK IN THE STAFF
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 28
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 0 .3 6 .7 4 2 .3 4 9 .8 0 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .5 7 .0 4 3 .2 4 8 .4 0 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 5 .8 3 9 .7 5 3 .8 0.6
P u b lic 298 0.0 5 .0 3 8 .9 5 4 .7 1 .3
A c a d e m ic -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 0 .5 7 .7 4 7 .3 4 4 .0 0 .5
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 1 .3 1 0 .4 4 1 .6 4 6 .8 0.0
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .7 8 .5 4 5 .8 4 4 .7 0 .4
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 1.2 1 7 .4 5 2 .3 2 6 .7 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 0.0 9 .9 5 8 .7 3 0 .8 0.6
S t a f f s iz e -m e d iu m 178 0.0 1.1 3 6 .0 6 2 .4 0.6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 3 .4 2 4 .7 7 0 .5 0 .7
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 2.0 3 3 .8 6 2 .9 0 .7
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 7 .9 4 8 .0 4 3 .3 0.8
N on-m anagerial 302 0 .3 8.6 4 4 .0 4 6 .0 1.0
187
TABLE 28-2
COOPERATIVE TEAMWORK IN THE STAFF
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 28
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 4 1 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 4 1 1 4 .4 5 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 1 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v er y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 0 4 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 4 1 0 4 .2 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 0 4 .3 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 1 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
0 0
o o
TABLE 29-1
SUPERIORS* VIEW OF SUBORDINATES* ABILITY TO INFLUENCE
THEIR ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 29
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
3
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1.0 7 .7 5 0 .3 3 8 .5 2 .4
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .5 7 .7 4 9 .5 4 0 .1 2.1
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 2.6 7 .7 5 2 .6 3 4 .0 3 .2
P u b lic 298 1.0 5 .7 5 4 .4 3 6 .6 2 .3
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .4 8 .7 4 8 .3 3 9 .1 2 .4
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 0.0 1 3 .0 4 0 .3 4 4 .2 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284
1.1
9 .9 4 6 .1 4 0 .5 2 .5
S t a f f s i z e —v er y la r g e 86 2 .3 1 4 .0 5 8 .1 2 3 .3 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 .7 1 3 .4 5 5 .2 2 7 .9 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 2.8 4 8 .9 4 5 .5 2.2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0.0 3 .4 4 1 .8 5 1 .4 3 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0.0 0 .7 3 7 .7 5 9 .6 2.0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 7 .9 5 2 .8 3 7 .8 1.6
N on-m anagerial 302 2.0 1 1 .3 5 5 .6 2 8 .1 3 .0
TABLE 29-2
SUPERIORS * VIEW OF SUBORDINATES' ABILITY TO INFLUENCE
THEIR ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 29
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 1 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e
M T J
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 1 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 1 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic- -p r iv a t e 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 1 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an a g eria l 4 1 1 4 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on -m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
TABLE 30-1
SUBORDINATES’ VIEW OF THEIR ABILITY TO INFLUENCE
THEIR ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 30
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ice s S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
4
Of N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 3 .6 1 7 .9 4 8 .5 2 3 .5 6 .5
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 3 .3 1 7 .8 4 7 .4 2 4 .2 7 .3
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 4 .5 1 7 .9 5 1 .3 21.8 4 .5
P u b lic 298 3 .4 1 5 .4 5 0 .7 22.8 7 .7
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 2 .9 2 3 .2 4 6 .4 2 2 .7 4 .8
A cadem ic- -pr iv a t e 77 6 .5 1 3 .0 4 5 .5 2 8 .6 6 .5
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .9 2 0 .4 4 6 .1 2 4 .3 5 .3
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 86 7 .0 2 0 .9 5 2 .3 1 6 .3 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 3 .5 3 0 .2 4 8 .3 11.6 6 .4
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178 3 .4 1 0 .7 5 1 .1 2 9 .2 5 .6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2.1 1 0 .3 4 3 .2 3 4 .9 9 .6
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 9 .9 4 2 .4 3 5 .1 1 1 .9
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 2 .4 1 8 .1 5 2 .8 22.0 4 .7
N on -m anagerial 302 5 .6 2 1 .5 5 0 .0 1 8 .2 4 .6
TABLE 30-2
SUBORDINATES1 VIEW OF THEIR ABILITY TO INFLUENCE
THEIR ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 30
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 1 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Nc»i -m a n a g eria l 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
TABLE 31-1
INFLUENCE SUPERIORS CAN EXERCISE OVER
THEIR ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 31
>
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
' 1 2 ■ 3 -
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 4 .5 1 8 .2 3 7 .6 3 4 .5 5 .2
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 .9 1 8 .1 3 8 .3 3 4 .0 4 .7
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 3 .2 1 8 .6 3 5 .9 3 5 .9 6 .4
P u b lic 298 4 .4 1 5 .1 3 8 .6 3 6 .2 5 .7
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 3 .9 2 3 .7 3 3 .3 3 4 .8 4 .3
Academic — pr iv a te 77 6 .5 1 5 .6 4 5 .5 2 7 .3 5 .2
T o ta l academ ic 284 4 .6 2 1 .5 3 6 .6 3 2 .7 4 .6
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 5 .8 2 5 .6 3 4 .9 3 0 .2 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 8.1 2 5 .0 3 9 .0 2 4 .4 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 1 2 .9 4 2 .1 4 1 .6 2.8
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 4 .1 1 2 .3 3 2 .2 4 0 .4 11.0
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 3 .3 12.6 3 9 .1 3 9 .7 5 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 4 .7 1 6 .5 3 9 .4 3 5 .4 3 .9
N on-m anagerial 302 5 .0 2 1 .5 3 6 .4 3 1 .5 5 .6
193
TABLE 31-2
INFLUENCE SUPERIORS CAN EXERCISE OVER
THEIR ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 31
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .62 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .62 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 3-4 .28 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 1 3 .61 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 0 4 .65 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academ ic—p r iv a te 3 2 0 3 .55 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 o 3 .63 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .65 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 o 3 .61 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 2 1 3 .58 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 1 4 .60 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 4 .60 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 3 2 0 3 .61 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .64 n e g a tiv e
«
p la ty k u r t ic
*
TABLE 32-1
EXISTENCE OF EFFECTIVE STRUCTURE PERMITTING ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
TO INFLUENCE EACH O TH ER
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 32
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 6.0 2 6 .3 4 2 .4 21.0 4 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 5 .6 2 7 .5 4 1 .5 2 0 .9 4 .5
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 7 .1 2 3 .1 4 4 .9 21.2 3 .8
P u b lic 298 5 .7 2 3 .8 4 2 .6 2 3 .2 4 .7
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 5 .8 3 0 .9 3 9 .6 1 9 .3 4 .3
A cadem ic- -p r iv a te 77 7 .8 2 3 .4 4 9 .4 1 6 .9 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 6 .3 2 8 .9 4 2 .3 1 8 .7 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e — v ery la r g e 86 11.6 3 8 .4 3 4 .9 12.8 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 5 .2 3 9 .0 3 6 .6 1 6 .3 2 .9
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 4 .5 2 1 .3 5 2 .8 1 9 .1 2.2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 5 .5 1 0 .3 4 1 .1 3 3 .6 9 .6
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 4 .0 1 5 .9 4 6 .4 2 8 .5 5 .5
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 .9 2 8 .3 4 4 .9 1 8 .9 3 .9
N on-m anagerial 302 7 .9 3 0 .5 3 9 .7 1 7 .9 4 .0
TABLE 32-2
EXISTENCE OF EFFECTIVE STRUCTURE PERMITTING ORGANIZATIONAL UNITS
TO INFLUENCE EACH O TH ER
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 32
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e
V M M
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A cadem ic- - ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 2 3 1 2 .6 2 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 1 2 .6 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — medium 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 2 0 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M
O
O'
TABLE 33-1
HIERARCHICAL LOCATION OF FO RM AL DECISION M A K IN G
t
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 33
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ic es S e le c t e d a s a Per Cent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
2 5 .3 5 .8 0 .7 T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s
P r o fe s s io n a l
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l
P u b lic
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted
A cadem ic- -p r iv a t e
T o ta l academ ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e
S t a f f s i z e —medium
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial
N on -m anagerial
582 21.0 4 7 .3
426 20.2 4 4 .4
156 2 3 .1 5 5 .1
298 2 2 .5 5 1 .3
207 1 9 .3 4 2 .5
77 1 9 .5 4 4 .2
284 ' 1 9 .4 4 3 .0
86 22.1 4 4 .2
172 22.1 5 0 .0
178 1 2 .9 4 6 .6
146 2 8 .8 4 6 .6
151 1 6 .6 4 1 .1
127 1 6 .5 5 0 .4
302 2 4 .8 4 9 .0
2 8 .2 6.6 0 .7
1 7 .3 3 .8 0.6
1 8 .8 6.0 1 .3
3 1 .9 6 .3 0.0
3 2 .5 3 .9 0.0
3 2 .0 5 .6 0.0
3 0 .2 2 .3 1.2
2 3 .3 4 .7 0.0
3 2 .0 7 .9 0.6
1 6 .4 6.8 1 .4
3 2 .5 8.6 1 .3
2 7 .6 4 .7 0.8
2 0 .9 5 .0 0 .3
TABLE 33-2
HIERARCHICAL LOCATION OF FO R M A L DECISION M AK ING
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 33
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 2 2 0 2 .5 3 p o s i t i v e
M — »
P r o fe s s io n a l 2 2 0 2 .5 6 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t i c
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 2 2 0 2 .4 5 p o s i t i v e lep to k u r t i c
P u b lic 2 2 0 2 .4 9 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
A c a d e m ic -ta x -su p p o r te d 2 2 1 2 .5 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 2 2 0 2 .5 6 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 2 2 1 2 .5 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 2 2 0 2 .5 6 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 2 2 0 2 .5 0 p o s i t i v e lep to k u r t i c
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 2 2 1 2 .5 4 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 2 2 0 2 .5 3 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an a g eria l 2 2 1 2 .5 9 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 2 0 2 .5 0 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 2 2 0 2 .5 1 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
H *
V O
00
TABLE 34-1
ADEQUACY AND ACCURACY OF INFORMATION AT THE
DECISION M A K IN G LEVEL
Summary o f R esponses; fo r V a ria b le 34
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2.1 9 .1 5 0 .5 3 4 .7 3 .6
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2.8 9 .4 5 2 .1 3 2 .2 3 .5
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 8 .3 4 6 .2 4 1 .7 3 .8
P u b lic 298 1 .7 7 .4 4 7 .7 3 8 .9 4 .4
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 2 .4 1 3 .5 5 0 .7 3 0 .0 3 .4
A c a d em ic--p r iv a te 77 2.6 3 .9 6 1 .0 3 1 .2 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .5 1 0 .9 5 3 .5 3 0 .3 2.8
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 1 5 .1 5 3 .5 1 9 .8 9 .3
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 172 2 .3 1 5 .7 5 7 .0 2 1 .5 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 2.2 5 .1 4 8 .3 4 3 .3 1.1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 .4 2 .7 4 3 .8 4 8 .6 3 .4
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 3 .3 6.0 5 0 .3 3 9 .1 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 .1 9 .4 5 2 .8 3 1 .5 3 .1
N on-m anagerial 302 1.0 10.6 4 9 .7 3 3 .8 5 .0
199
TABLE 3 4 -2
ADEQUACY AND ACCURACY OF INFORMATION AT THE
DECISION M AK ING LEVEL
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 34
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e
mm m m «
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A ca d e m ic --p riv a te 3 1 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 4 1 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on -m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
to
O
o
TABLE 35-1
DECISION M AKERS' AW ARENESS OF PROBLEM S
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 35
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 .......2 3 " "
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 4 .6 2 4 .6 2 4 .6 4 4 .5 1 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 .5 2 4 .9 2 6 .3 4 3 .2 1.2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 5 .1 2 3 .7 1 9 .9 4 8 .1 3 .2
P u b lic 298 4 .0 21.8 2 4 .8 4 7 .0 2 .3
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 5 .3 2 9 .0 2 2 .7 4 1 .5 1 .4
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 5 .2 2 3 .4 2 8 .6 4 2 .9 0.0
T o ta l academ ic 284 5 .3 2 7 .5 2 4 .3 4 1 .9 1.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 11.6 3 2 .6 2 7 .9 2 4 .4 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 172 8.1 3 8 .4 22.1 2 9 .7 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 1 6 .3 2 7 .0 5 5 .1
1.1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 .4 1 3 .7 22.6 6 1 .0 1 .4
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 1 .3 1 4 .6 2 9 .8 5 3 .0 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 .1 2 6 .8 2 6 .8 4 0 .2 3 .1
N on-m anagerial 302 7 .0 2 8 .5 21.2 4 2 .1 1 .3
to
O
TABLE 3 5 -2
DECISION MAKERS' AW ARENESS O F PROBLEM S
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 35
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e
V M M
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A cadem ic- - 1ax-su p p or te d 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
A cadem ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 3 1 2 .6 7 p o s i t i v e p la t y k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 2 .6 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 2 1 4 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 4 2 1 4 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 4 2 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 4 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
202
TABLE 36-1
USE OF TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL K N O W L E D G E
IN DECISION M AKING
Summary o f R esp on ses f o r V a r ia b le 36
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 1 .7 2 4 .2 1 7 .9 4 3 .1 3 .1
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 12.0 22.8 1 8 .5 4 4 .1 2.6
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 0 .9 2 8 .2 1 6 .0 4 0 .4 4 .5
P u b lic 298 10.1 2 4 .2 1 6 .4 4 5 .3 4 .0
Academic — ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 3 .0 2 3 .7 1 8 .8 4 1 .5 2 .9
A cadem ic- -pr iv a t e 77 1 4 .3 2 6 .0 20.8 3 9 .0 0.0
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 3 .4 2 4 .3 1 9 .4 4 0 .8 2.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 9 .8 3 2 .6 1 8 .6 2 4 .4 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 6 .3 3 2 .6 1 6 .3 3 2 .0 2 .9
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 7 .3 1 9 .7 2 1 .3 4 8 .9 2.8
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 6.8 1 5 .1 1 5 .1 6 0 .3 2 .7
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 3 .3 1 3 .9 1 7 .2 6 3 .6 2.0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 11.0 2 9 .1 1 7 .3 3 8 .6 3 .9
N on-m anagerial 302 1 6 .2 2 7 .2 1 8 .5 3 4 .8 3 .3
203
TABLE 36-2
USE OF TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL K N O W L E D G E
IN DECISION M AK ING
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 36
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s i q Mode v Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 3 2 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 3 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 3 2 4 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 3 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 3 2 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Academic — pr iv a t e 3 3 2 4 .6 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 3 2 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e ry la r g e 2 3 1 2 .6 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 2 3 1 2 .6 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 2 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 4 2 1 4 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 2 0 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 3 1 4 .6 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 3 1 4 .6 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
(o
O
*
TABLE 37-1
APPROPRIATENESS OF DECISION MAKING LEVEL IN
TERMS OF INFORMATION AVAILABILITY
Summary o f R esponses f o r V a r ia b le 37
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 3 .8 9 .8 3 9 .2 4 3 .1 4 .1
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 3 .5 9 .9 3 9 .4 4 3 .9 3 .3
N o t-p r o fe s s io n a 1 156 4 .5 9 .6 3 8 .5 4 1 .0 6 .4
P u b lic 298 3 .7 9 .4 3 7 .6 4 4 .3 5 .0
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 3 .9 10.6 4 2 .0 4 0 .1 3 .4
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 77 3 .9 9 .1 3 7 .7 4 6 .8 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .9 10.2 4 0 .8 4 1 .9 3 .2
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 0 .5 1 4 .0 4 7 .7 2 3 .3 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 5 .2 1 6 .9 4 6 .5 2 7 .9 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — medium 178 1 .7 4 .5 3 6 .5 5 4 .5 2.8
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 5 .5 2 8 .8 5 8 .9 6.2
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 1 .3 6.0 3 9 .1 j 4 9 .7 4 .0
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 1.6 9 .4 4 4 .1 4 0 .9 3 .9
N on-m anageria1 302 5 .6 1 1 .9 3 7 .1 4 1 .1 4 .3
205
TABLE 37-2
APPROPRIATENESS OF DECISION MAKING LEVEL IN
TERMS OF INFORMATION AVAILABILITY
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is tr ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 37
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 3 0 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 0 4 .4 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anageria1 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
to
8
TABLE 38-1
APPROPRIATENESS OF DECISION MAKING LEVEL IN
TERMS OF INFORMATION AVAILABILITY
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 38
C la s s o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per Cent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2 .7 1 7 .0 4 4 .5 3 1 .8 4 .0
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 3 .3 1 6 .7 4 5 .8 3 0 .8 3 .5
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a 1 156 1 .3 1 7 .9 4 1 .0 3 4 .6 5 .1
P u b lic 298 1 .7 1 4 .4 4 6 .3 3 2 .9 4 .7
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 4 .3 2 0 .3 4 2 .5 3 0 .0 2 .9
A cadem ic- -pr iv a t e 77 2.6 1 8 .2 4 2 .9 3 2 .5 3 .9
T o ta l academ ic 284 3 .9 1 9 .7 4 2 .6 3 0 .6 3 .2
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 5 .8 2 5 .6 4 8 .8 1 5 .1 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 5 .8 2 7 .9 4 4 .2 1 6 .9 5 .2
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178 0.0 8 .4 4 7 .8 4 2 .7 1.1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 9 .6 3 8 .4 4 5 .9 5 .5
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 6.6 4 6 .4 4 1 .1 5 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 .1 1 8 .9 4 6 .5 2 7 .6 3 .9
N on-m anagerial 302 3 .6 2 1 .5 4 2 .7 2 8 .8 3 .3
207
i
TABLE 38-2
APPROPRIATENESS OF DECISION M AKING LEVEL IN
TERM S OF MOTIVATIONAL C O N SEQUENCES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 38
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e
* » —
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Not- p r o f e s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 2 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Non-manager i a 1 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
208
I
TABLE 3 9 -1
INVOLVEM ENT OF SUBORDINATES IN DECISIONS
RELATED TO THEIR W O R K
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 39
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
Of N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1.2 1 1 .9 5 5 .8 2 9 .2 1 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1.6 1 0 .3 5 7 .5 2 8 .9 1.6
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 1 6 .0 5 1 .3 3 0 .1 2.6
P u b lic 298 1 .7 1 0 .7 5 6 .7 2 9 .2 1 .7
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1.0 12.6 5 6 .5 2 7 .5 2 .4
Academ ic—p r iv a te 77 0.0 1 4 .3 5 0 .6 3 3 .8 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .7 1 3 .0 5 4 .9 2 9 .2 2.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 4 .7 1 6 .3 6 5 .1 11.6 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1.2 1 8 .0 6 4 .0 1 4 .5 2 .3
S t a f f s iz e -m e d iu m 178 0.0 6 .7 5 6 .2 3 6 .0 1.1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 8.2 4 0 .4 4 8 .6 2.1
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 2.0 5 3 .6 4 2 .4 1 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.8 8 .7 6 5 .4 22.8 2 .4
N on-m anagerial 302 1 .7 1 7 .9 5 3 .0 2 5 .5 2.0
209
TABLE 39-2
INVOLVEM ENT OF SUBORDINATES IN DECISIONS
RELATED TO THEIR W O R K
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 39
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t i c
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic- - 1 ax-su p p or te d 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic — pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 1 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .4 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 40-1
t
USE OF MAN-TO-MAN AND GROUP PATTERNS OF DECISION M AK ING
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 40
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
i 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2.6 1 3 .1 5 5 .3 2 5 .8 3 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2.8 1 2 .9 5 7 .7 2 3 .5 3 .1
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .9 1 3 .5 4 8 .7 3 2 .1 3 .8
P u b lic 298 2 .3 10.1 5 3 .0 3 0 .9 3 .7
Academ ic- -ta x -su p p o r ted 207 2 .9 1 5 .9 5 7 .5 2 1 .3 2 .4
Academ ic- -pr iv a te 77 2.6 1 6 .9 5 8 .4 1 8 .2 3 .9
T o ta l academ ic 284 2.8 1 6 .2 5 7 .7 2 0 .4 2.8
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 86 5 .8 12.8 6 1 .6 1 6 .3 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 .7 2 3 .3 5 0 .6 1 9 .8 4 .7
S t a f f s iz e -m e d iu m 178 1 .7 9 .0 6 0 .1 2 8 .1
1.1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2 .7 6.2 5 1 .4 3 5 .6 4 .1
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 2.0 6.6 5 6 .3 3 1 .8 3 .3
M iddle e c h elo n m an agerial 127 2 .4 11.0 6 2 .2 2 1 .3 3 .1
N on-m anagerial 302 3 .0 1 7 .2 5 2 .0 2 4 .5 3 .3
TABLE 40-2
USE OF M AN-TO-M AN AND G RO UP PATTERNS O F DECISION M AK ING
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 40
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e
« — _
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Academ ic—p r iv a te 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v er y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la tly k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 1 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .4 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
212
TABLE 41-1
MANNER OF ESTABLISHMENT OF GOALS AND PRIORITIES
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a ria b le 41
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per C ent
.....4 ' "
Of N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 2.2 21.6 5 6 .5 1 6 .7 2 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2.1 1 9 .2 5 7 .0 1 9 .0 2.6
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 2.6 2 8 .2 5 5 .1 1 0 .3 3 .8
P u b lic 298 2 .7 22.8 5 8 .1 12.8 3 .7
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 2 .4 1 8 .8 5 6 .0 2 1 .3 1 .4
A cadem ic- -p r iv a t e 77 0.0 2 4 .7 5 1 .9 1 9 .5 3 .9
T o ta l academ ic 284 1.8 2 0 .4 5 4 .9 20.8 2.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 8.1 3 0 .2 4 5 .3 1 4 .0 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 172 1 .7 3 4 .9 4 7 .1 11.6 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 1.1
1 2 .4 6 2 .9 2 1 .3 2.2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 1 2 .3 6 6 .4 1 8 .5 2.1
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 0.0 7 .3 6 2 .9 2 7 .2 2.6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 2 .4 22.8 5 2 .8 1 8 .1 3 .9
N on -m anagerial 302 3 .3 2 8 .1 5 5 .0 1 0 .9 2.6
TABLE 41-2
MANNER OF ESTABLISHMENT OF GOALS AND PRIORITIES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 41
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .43 n e g a tiv e
p r o f e s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .43 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .45 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .42 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .44 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Academ ic- -pr iv a te 3 2 0 3 .48 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .45 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 1 3 .55 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 3 .53 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .37 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 o 3 .34 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top ec h elo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .37 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .47 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .45 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
TABLE 42-1
PERFORMANCE ASPIRATIONS OF HIERARCHICAL LEVELS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 42
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 2 3
Per C ent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .5 11.2 4 4 .3 3 7 .3 5 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2.1 1 1 .7 4 4 .1 3 6 .6 5 .4
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 9 .6 4 4 .9 3 9 .1 6 .4
P u b lic 298 0 .7 1 2 .4 4 8 .7 3 3 .6 4 .7
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 2 .4 10.1 3 7 .7 4 2 .0 7 .7
A cadem ic- -p r iv a t e 77 2.6 9 .1 4 5 .5 3 9 .0 3 .9
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .5 9 .9 3 9 .8 4 1 .2 6 .7
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 86 4 .7 1 5 .1 4 3 .0 3 3 .7 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 172 1.2 1 4 .0 5 1 .2 2 9 .7 4 .1
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 178 1.1 9 .0 4 5 .5 4 0 .4 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e - - s m a l l 146 0 .7 8.2 3 5 .6 4 4 .5 11.0
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 1 1 .9 4 1 .7 4 1 .1 4 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 1 3 .4 5 1 .2 3 0 .7 4 .7
N on-m anagerial 302 2.6 9 .9 4 3 .0 3 7 .7 6.6
215
TABLE 42-2
PERFORMANCE ASPIRATIONS OF HIERARCHICAL LEVELS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 42
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e
•m —
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic- - ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 4 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
A c a d em ic--p r iv a te 3 2 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 4 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size --m ed iu m 3 2 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 .5 2 1 4 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
to
O '
TABLE 43-1
STRENGTH OF FORCES TO ACCEPT, RESIST, O R REJECT GOALS
Summary o f R esponses f o r V a ria b le 43
•
C la s s o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1.2 1 3 .2 6 1 .9 20.8 2 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .9 1 3 .8 6 2 .9 1 9 .0 3 .3
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .9 1 1 .5 5 9 .0 2 5 .6 1 .9
P u b lic 298 0 .3 1 3 .1 6 1 .4 22.1 3 .0
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 .4 1 4 .0 6 3 .3 1 8 .8 2 .4
Academ ic—p r iv a te 77 3 .9 1 1 .7 5 9 .7 20.8 3 .9
T o ta l academ ic 284 2.1 1 3 .4 6 2 .3 1 9 .4 2.8
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 1 6 .3 7 0 .9 8.1 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1.2 2 0 .3 6 4 .5 11.0 2 .9
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 1 .7 7 .3 6 4 .6 2 4 .7 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0.0 1 0 .3 5 0 .0 3 4 .9 4 .8
Top e c h elo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 8.6 68.2 1 9 .2 3 .3
M iddle e c h elo n m an agerial 127 0.0 11.8 6 3 .8 2 1 .3 3 .1
N on-m anagerial 302 2.0 1 6 .2 5 7 .9 21.2 2.6
TABLE 43-2
STRENGTH OF FORCES TO ACCEPT, RESIST , O R REJECT GOALS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 43
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .3 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .4 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .3 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .3 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 3 2 0 3 .4 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 1 0 3 .2 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 0 3 .3 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 1 0 3 .3 5 ne g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 0 3 .3 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
( O
M
00
TABLE 44-1
HIERARCHICAL LOCATION OF PRIMARY C O N C ER N
FO R THE CONTROL FUNCTION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 44
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
Of N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 6 .4 2 4 .2 4 2 .1 2 4 .4 2 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 6.1 2 6 .1 4 3 .2 21.6 3 .1
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 7 .1 1 9 .2 3 9 .1 3 2 .1 2.6
P u b lic 298 7 .7 2 0 .8 4 4 .0 2 3 .5 4 .0
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 2 .9 2 6 .6 4 3 .0 2 5 .6 1 .9
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 77 1 0 .4 3 1 .2 3 2 .5 2 4 .7 1 .3
T o ta l academ ic 284 4 .9 2 7 .8 4 0 .1 2 5 .4 1 .8
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1 0 .5 2 6 .7 4 4 .2 1 6 .3 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 172 4 .7 3 0 .2 4 4 .8 1 9 .2 1.2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 3 .9 1 9 .7 4 6 .1 2 8 .1 2.2
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 8 .9 21.2 3 2 .9 3 0 .8 6.2
Top e c h e lo n m a n agerial 151 4 .6 2 7 .2 3 5 .8 2 7 .8 4 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m a n agerial 127 3 .9 1 8 .9 5 1 .2 22.8 3 .1
N on-m anagerial 302 7 .9 2 5 .2 4 1 .7 2 3 .2 2 .0
TABLE 44-2
HIERARCHICAL LOCATION OF PRIM ARY C O NCERN
FOR THE CONTROL FUNCTION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f or V a r ia b le 44
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 0 3 .6 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A cadem ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 0 3 .5 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academic — p r iv a te 3 3 1 3 .6 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 0 3 .6 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 3 0 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 0 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 3 2 0 3 .6 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .6 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M iddle ec h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 0 3 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
M
(o
O
TABLE 45-1
ACCURACY OF INFORMATION USED FOR CONTROL PURPOSES
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 45
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 0 .5 1 .9 3 8 .3 5 3 .3 6.0
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 0 .7 1 .9 4 0 .8 5 0 .5 6.1
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 1 .9 3 1 .4 6 0 .9 5 .8
P u b lic 298 0 .3 1 .7 3 6 .9 5 4 .0 7 .0
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 1.0 2 .4 4 4 .4 4 7 .3 4 .8
A ca d em icr-p riv a te 77 0.0 1 .3 2 7 .3 66.2 5 .2
T o ta l academ ic 284 0 .7 2.1 3 9 .8 5 2 .5 4 .9
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 3 .5 3 .5 4 4 .2 4 0 .7 8.1
S t a f f s i z e - - l a r g e 172 0.0 , 2 .9 5 1 .2 4 1 .9 4 .1
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.0 0.0 3 6 .5 5 9 .6 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0.0 % 2.1 2 1 .9 6 6 .4 9 .6
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0.0 0 .7 4 1 .1 5 3 .6 4 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.0 1.6 4 0 .2 5 3 .5 4 .7
N on-m anagerial 302 1.0 2.6 3 6 .4 5 2 .6 7 .3
TABLE 45-2
ACCURACY OF INFORMATION USED FOR CONTROL PURPOSES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 45
C la ss o f R esoondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u rto sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n ses 4 1 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 4 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 4 1 0 4 .3 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 4 1 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 1 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 4 1 0 4 .3 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 4 1 1 4 .4 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 3 1 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 1 1 3 .4 9 ne g a t iv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 1 4 .4 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 0 4 .3 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Non-manager i a 1 4 1 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
to
to
to
TABLE 46-1
CONCENTRATION OF CONTROL FUNCTION IN THE ORGANIZATION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a ria b le 46
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
T 2 " ' 3
Per Cent
~4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 1 .2 4 6 .2 2 8 .4 1 0 .3 4 .0
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 1 .0 4 4 .1 3 0 .5 1 0 .1 4 .2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 1 .5 5 1 .9 2 2 .4 1 0 .9 3 .2
P u b lic 298 1 0 .4 4 8 .0 2 8 .2 8 .7 4 .7
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 1 0 .6 4 5 .4 2 7 .5 1 4 .0 2 .4
A c a d em ic --p r iv a te 77 1 5 .6 4 1 .6 3 1 .2 6 .5 5 .2
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 2 .0 4 4 .4 2 8 .5 1 2 .0 3 .2
S t a f f s i z e - v e r y la r g e 86 1 5 .1 5 0 .0 2 6 .7 4 .7 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 1 .6 5 3 .5 2 3 .3 9 .3 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 9 .0 4 2 .7 3 4 .3 1 0 .7 3 .4
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 1 .0 3 9 .7 2 8 .1 1 4 .4 6 .8
Top ec h elo n m an agerial 151 7 .3 4 3 .0 3 1 .8 1 3 .2 4 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 1 1 .8 4 0 .2 3 5 .4 8 .7 3 .9
N on-m anagerial 302 1 2 .6 5 0 .3 2 3 .8 9 .6 3 .6
223
TABLE 46-2
CONCENTRATION OF CONTROL FUNCTION IN THE ORGANIZATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 46
C la s s o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 2 3 1 2 .5 4 p o s i t i v e
— — —
P r o fe s s io n a l 2 3 1 2 .5 6 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 2 3 2 .4 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
P u b lic 2 2 1 2 .5 2 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 2 3 1 2 .5 5 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 2 2 1 2 .5 8 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 2 3 1 2 .5 6 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 2 2 1 2 .5 0 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 2 2 2 .4 7 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 2 2 1 2 .5 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 2 3 1 2 .6 0 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 2 1 2 .5 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 2 1 2 .6 0 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 2 3 0 2 .5 0 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
to
to
*
TABLE 47-1
PRESENCE OF INFORM AL ORGANIZATION AND ITS IM PACT
O N G O AL FULFILLMENT
Summary o f R esponses; fo r V a ria b le 47
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .4 6 .5 4 6 .0 3 8 .4 7 .6
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1 .9 6 .3 4 9 .3 3 6 .4 6.1
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 0.0 7 .1 3 7 .2 4 4 .2 1 1 .5
P u b lic 298 0.0 3 .7 4 6 .6 4 0 .9 8 .7
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o r te d 207 2 .4 10.1 5 0 .2 3 1 .9 5 .3
A cadem ic- -*pr iv a t e 77 3 .9 7 .8 3 2 .5 4 6 .8 9 .1
T o ta l academ ic 284 2.8 9 .5 4 5 .4 3 5 .9 6 .3
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g - ? 86 1.2 7 .0 6 4 .0 1 9 .8 8.1
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1.2 12.2 5 7 .6 2 1 .5 7 .6
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 3 .4 4 0 .4 5 1 .1 4 .5
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2 .7 3 .4 2 8 .8 5 4 .1 11.0
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 2.6 2.6 4 8 .3 4 1 .1 5 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 2 .4 4 .7 5 5 .1 2 9 .9 7 .9
N on-m anagerial 302 0 .3 9 .3 4 1 .1 4 0 .7 8.6
225
TABLE 47-2
PRESENCE OF INFORMAL ORGANIZATION AND ITS IM PACT
O N GOAL FULFILLMENT
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is tr ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 47
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skewness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 1 1 3 .5 4 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 1 1 3 .5 1 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 1 1 4 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 3 1 1 3 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A cadem ic- - t a x - suppor te d 3 2 0 3 .5 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Academic —p r iv a te 4 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 3 2 1 3 .5 5 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — veify la r g e 3 1 0 3 .3 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — lafige 3 2 0 3 .4 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 1 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 1 3 .5 2 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 1 o 3 .4 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 2 1 3 .5 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
226
TABLE 48-1
UTILIZATION OF CONTROL DATA
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a ria b le 48
C la s s o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 2 3
Per Cent
..........4“ '
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1.2 5 .5 1 6 .2 . 7 0 .4 6 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 1.2 4 .9 1 5 .5 7 1 .8 6.6
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 .3 7 .1 1 7 .9 6 6 .7 7 .1
P u b lic 298 1.0 3 .0 1 6 .1 7 1 .5 8 .4
A cadem ic- -ta x -su p p o r te d 207 0 .5 9 .7 1 7 .4 6 7 .6 4 .8
Academic —p r iv a te 77 3 .9 3 .9 1 3 .0 7 4 .0 5 .2
T o ta l academ ic 284 1 .4 8.1 1 6 .2 6 9 .4 4 .9
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 1.2 5 .8 2 4 .4 5 8 .1 1 0 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 .7 11.0 2 1 .5 6 1 .0 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 1.1 2.8 1 2 .9 7 8 .1 5 .1
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 2.1 8 .9 7 9 .5 8 .9
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 2.6 9 .9 8 2 .1 4 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 0.8 3 .1 1 8 .1 7 1 .7 6 .3
N on -m anagerial 302 1 .7 7 .9 1 8 .2 6 4 .2 7 .9
227
TABLE 48-2
UTILIZATION OF CONTROL DATA
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 48
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 4 1 0 4 .3 0 n e g a tiv e
— « w
P r o fe s s io n a l 4 1 0 4 .2 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N an-p r o f e s s i on a 1 4 1 0 4 .3 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 4 1 0 4 .2 9 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 4 2 0 4 .3 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
A c a d em ic--p r iv a te 4 1 0 4 .2 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 4 2 0 4 .3 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 4 1 0 4 .4 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 4 2 0 4 .3 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 4 1 0 4 .2 2 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 0 4 .2 1 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 0 4 .1 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 0 4 .2 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 4 2 0 4 .36 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
228
TABLE 49-1
LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE GOALS SOUGHT BY SUPERIORS
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 49
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per Cent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 8.2 3 3 .7 3 4 .9 2 1 .3 1 .9
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 8 .7 3 4 .0 3 4 .0 2 0 .9 2 .3
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 7 .1 3 2 .7 3 7 .2 2 2 .4 0.6
P u b lic 298 5 .0 3 1 .5 3 5 .2 2 6 .8 1 .3
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 11.6 3 6 .2 3 5 .7 1 4 .5 1 .9
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 77 1 1 .7 3 5 .1 3 1 .2 1 8 .2 3 .9
T o ta l academ ic 284 11.6 3 5 .9 3 4 .5 1 5 .5 2 .5
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 11.6 3 1 .4 3 4 .9 2 0 .9 1.2
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 1 0 .5 3 6 .0 3 3 .1 1 6 .9 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 3 .4 3 4 .3 3 7 .1 2 4 .7 0.6
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 9 .6 3 1 .5 3 4 .2 22.6 2.1
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 6.0 3 5 .8 . 3 4 .4 2 3 .2 0 .7
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 7 .1 3 2 .3 3 6 .2 22.0 2 .4
N on-m anageria1 302 9 .9 3 3 .4 3 4 .4 1 9 .9 2 .3
229
TABLE 49-2
LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE GOALS SOUGHT BY SUPERIORS
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s f o r V a r ia b le 49
C la ss o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 3 2 1 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e
m m m m w
P r o fe s s io n a l 3 2 1 2 -3 .3 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 3 .6 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
P u b lic 3 2 0 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 3 3 1 2 .6 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A c a d e m ic --p r iv a te 3 3 1 2 .6 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 3 3 1 2 .6 4 n e g a tiv e ’ le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 3 1 3 .6 5 n e g a tiv e --------------
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 3 1 2 .6 4 n e g a tiv e lep to k u r t i c
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 3 2 1 3 .6 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e - s m a l l 3 3 1 3 .66 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t i c
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 2 .6 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 3 .6 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 3 3 1 3 .66 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
TABLE 50-1
AVAILABILITY OF MANAGEMENT TRAINING WITHIN ORGANIZATION
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 50
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a Per C ent o f N
1 2 3 4 None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 9 .2 3 9 .7 2 0 .3 1 5 .3 5 .5
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2 0 .4 4 1 .5 1 8 .3 1 4 .8 4 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 1 6 .0 3 4 .1 2 5 .6 1 6 .7 7 .1
P u b lic 298 1 6 .8 4 0 .3 2 3 .2 1 4 .1 5 .7
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 207 2 2 .7 4 0 .6 1 6 .4 1 5 .9 4 .3
Academic —p r iv a te 77 1 9 .5 3 5 .1 1 9 .5 1 8 .2 2.8
T o ta l academ ic 284 21.8 3 9 .1 1 7 .3 1 6 .5 5 .3
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 86 3 0 .2 4 1 .9 1 8 .6 7 .0 2 .3
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 2 8 .5 4 2 .4 1 4 .5 1 0 .5 4 .1
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 1 2 .4 4 3 .3 2 1 .3 1 8 .5 4 .5
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 1 0 .3 3 0 .8 2 6 .7 2 1 .9 1 0 .3
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 1 5 .2 3 6 .4 1 8 .5 2 0 .5 9 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 11.0 5 1 .2 1 9 .7 1 4 .2 3 .9
N on -m anagerial 302 2 4 .8 3 6 .4 21.2 1 3 .2 4 .3
TABLE 50-2
AVAILABILITY OF MANAGEMENT TRAINING WITHIN ORGANIZATION
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 50
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 2 3 1 2 .6 0 p o s i t i v e
P r o fe s s io n a l 2 3 0 2 .5 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 2 3 1 2 .6 5 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 2 3 1 2 .6 0 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
A c a d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 2 3 0 2 .5 9 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
Academic —p r iv a te 2 3 1 2 .6 5 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 2 3 0 2 .4 1 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e r --v e r y la r g e 2 2 0 2 .5 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 2 3 0 2 .5 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 2 3 1 2 .5 7 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 3 3 1 2 .6 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 3 1 2 .6 4 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 3 1 2 .4 9 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
N on-m anagerial 2 3 0 2 .6 4 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
TABLE 51-1
ADEQUACY OF RESOURCES FOR TRAINING SUBORDINATES
Summary o f R esponses fo r V a r ia b le 51
C la ss o f Respondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 2 3
Per Cent
4
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 3 8 .7 3 2 .0 1 7 .4 7 .7 4 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 2 .3 3 0 .0 1 6 .2 7 .3 4 .2
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 2 8 .8 3 7 .2 2 0 .5 9 .0 4 .5
P u b lic 298 3 2 .9 3 5 .2 1 8 .8 9 .1 4 .0
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 4 5 .9 2 7 .5 1 5 .5 6.8 4 .3
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 77 4 1 .6 3 1 .2 1 6 .9 5 .2 5 .2
T o ta l academ ic 284 4 4 .7 2 8 .5 1 5 .8 6 .3 4 .6
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 5 3 .5 2 7 .9 1 0 .5 3 .5 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 4 7 .7 2 9 .7 1 6 .3 5 .2 1.2
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 2 8 .7 3 6 .5 1 9 .7 . 1 0 .7 4 .5
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 3 1 .5 3 1 .5 1 9 .9 9 .6 7 .5
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 4 1 .1 3 0 .5 1 4 .6 8.6 5 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 3 9 .4 3 1 .5 22.8 3 .9 2 .4
N on -m anagerial 302 3 7 .1 3 2 .8 1 6 .6 8 .9 4 .6
233
TABLE 51-2
ADEQUACY OF RESOURCES FOR TRAINING SUBORDINATES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is tr ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 51
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 2 2 1 1 .6 1 p o s i t i v e
„ — —
P r o fe s s io n a l 2 2 1 1 .5 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 2 2 0 2 .6 3 p o s i t iv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 2 2 0 2 .6 5 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
A ca d em ic--ta x -su p p o rted 2 2 1 1 .5 4 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
A ca d e m ic --p r iv a te 2 2 1 1 .5 8 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 2 2 1 1 .5 5 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 1 2 1 1 .4 7 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 2 2 1 1 .5 2 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 2 3 0 2 .6 3 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 2 3 0 1 — 2 .3 7 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 2 1 i .5 9 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 2 2 1 i .6 1 p o s i t i v e le p to k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 2 2 1 i .6 3 p o s i t i v e p la ty k u r t ic
234
TABLE 52-1
PERCEPTION OF INTRA-STAFF RIVALRY
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 52
C lass, o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d as a
1 2 " 5
Per C ent
■7f
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 1 .7 8.6 3 2 .1 5 4 .8 2 .7
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 2.1 8 .9 2 9 .1 5 6 .8 3 .1
Non -p r o f e s s i cm a 1 156 0.6 7 .7 4 0 .4 4 9 .4 1 .9
P u b lic 298 1.0 6 .4 2 9 .2 6 0 .1 3 .4
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 207 3 .4 1 4 .5 3 6 .7 4 3 .5 1 .9
Academ ic- -pr iv a t e 77 0.0 1 .3 3 1 .2 6 4 .9 2.6
T o ta l academ ic 284 2 .5 1 0 .9 3 5 .2 4 9 .3 2.1
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 86 2 .3 1 6 .3 4 1 .9 3 6 .0 3 .5
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 3 .5 1 3 .4 4 3 .6 3 7 .8 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 0.6 3 .9 2 7 .0 6 6 .9 1 .7
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 0 .7 4 .1 1 9 .2 7 1 .2 4 .8
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 0 .7 5 .3 2 7 .2 6 2 .3 4 .6
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 1.6 7 .1 3 9 .4 4 9 .6 2 .4
N on-m anagerial 302 2 .3 1 0 .9 3 1 .8 5 3 .0 2.0
235
TABLE 52-2
PERCEPTION OF INTRA-STAFF RIVALRY
I
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is tr ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 52
C la ss o f R espondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 4 2 1 4 .4 5 n e g a tiv e
P r o fe s s io n a l 4 2 1 4 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 4 1 1 4 .5 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 4 1 1 4 .4 0 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
A cadem ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
A cadem ic- - p r iv a t e 4 1 0 4 .3 5 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
T o ta l academ ic 4 2 1 4 .4 1 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 3 2 0 3 .5 8 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 3 2 1 3 .5 6 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f size--m ed iu m 4 1 0 4 .3 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
S t a f f s iz e - - s m a l l 4 1 0 4 .2 9 ne g a t iv e lep to k u r t i c
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 0 4 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 1 1 4 .5 0 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
N on-m anagerial 4 1 1 4 .4 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
236
TABLE 53-1
PARTIALITY OF TOP MANAGEMENT IN ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES
Summary o f R esp on ses fo r V a r ia b le 53
C la ss o f R espondent N C h o ices S e le c t e d a s a
1 " 2" 3
Per C ent
■ 4~
o f N
None
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 582 4 .6 12.0 2 6 .5 5 1 .5 5 .3
P r o fe s s io n a l 426 4 .2 1 2 .9 2 4 .4 5 3 .5 4 .9
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 156 5 .8 9 .6 3 2 .1 4 6 .2 6 .4
P u b lic 298 4 .4 11.1 2 6 .5 5 2 .0 6.0
Academ ic- - 1ax-su p p or te d 207 5 .8 1 4 .5 2 9 .5 4 6 .9 3 .4
Academ ic- -p r iv a t e 77 2.6 9 .1 1 8 .2 6 2 .3 7 .8
T o ta l academ ic 284 4 .9 1 3 .0 2 6 .4 5 1 .1 4 .6
S t a f f s iz e - - v e r y la r g e 86 9 .3 1 5 .1 3 7 .2 3 3 .7 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e — la r g e 172 5 .8 1 7 .4 2 9 .1 4 3 .0 4 .7
S t a f f s i z e —medium 178 3 .4 10.1 2 5 .8 5 6 .7 3 .9
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 146 2.1 6.2 1 7 .8 6 5 .8 8.2
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 151 1 .3 8.6 2 3 .2 6 1 .6 5 .3
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 127 4 .7 10.2 3 3 .1 4 8 .0 3 .9
Not- m an agerial 302 6 .3 1 4 .6 2 5 .5 4 7 .7 6.0
l
237
TABLE 53-2
PARTIALITY OF TOP MANAGEMENT IN ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES
D e s c r ip tio n o f Frequency D is t r ib u t io n s fo r V a r ia b le 53
C la s s o f Respondent Median d s iq Mode V Skew ness K u r to sis
T o ta l o f a l l r e sp o n se s 4 2 1 4 .4 8 n e g a tiv e
W W W
P r o fe s s io n a l 4 2 1 4 .4 6 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
N o n -p r o fe s sio n a l 3 2 1 4 .5 4 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
P u b lic 4 2 1 4 .4 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
Academ ic— ta x -su p p o r te d 3 2 1 4 .5 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
A cadem ic—p r iv a te 4 2 0 4 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
T o ta l academ ic 4 2 1 4 .4 9 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e —v e r y la r g e 3 3 0 3 .6 3 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
S t a f f s i z e - l a r g e 3 2 1 4 .5 7 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e —medium 4 2 1 4 .4 3 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r t ic
S t a f f s i z e — sm a ll 4 1 0 4 .3 4 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
Top e c h e lo n m an agerial 4 2 0 4 .3 8 n e g a tiv e le p to k u r tic
M iddle e c h e lo n m an agerial 3 2 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r tic
N on-m anageria1 4 2 1 4 .5 2 n e g a tiv e p la ty k u r t ic
to
00
APPENDIX C
LIST OF PARTICIPATING LIBRARIES
239
ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
A n telo p e V a lle y C o lle g e
Azusa P a c if ic C o lle g e
B a k e r s fie ld C o lle g e
B ib le I n s t it u t e o f Los A n g eles
C a lifo r n ia B a p tis t C o lle g e
C a lifo r n ia B a p tis t T h e o lo g ic a l Sem inary
C a lifo r n ia I n s t i t u t e o f T ech n ology
C a lifo r n ia S t a te C o lle g e , Dominguez H i l l s
C a lifo r n ia S t a te C o lle g e , F u lle r to n
C a lifo r n ia S t a te C o lle g e , Hayward
C a lifo r n ia S t a te C o lle g e , Long Beach
C a lifo r n ia S t a te C o lle g e , Los A n g eles
C a lifo r n ia S t a te C o lle g e , San B ernardin o
C a lifo r n ia S t a t e P o ly te c h n ic C o lle g e , Pomona
C a lifo r n ia S t a te P o ly te c h n ic C o lle g e , San L u is O bispo
Chabot C o lle g e
C h a ffey C o lle g e
C hico S ta te C o lle g e
C itr u s C o lle g e
C o lle g e o f Marin
C o lle g e o f San Mateo
C o lle g e o f th e D esert
College of the Sequoias
Compton C o lle g e
C ontra C osta C o lle g e
De Anza C o lle g e
D ia b lo V a lle y C o lle g e
E l Camino C o lle g e
F resn o C ity C o lle g e
F resn o S t a te C o lle g e
F u lle r T h e o lo g ic a l Sem inary
F u lle r to n J u n io r C o lle g e
G eorge P epperdine C o lle g e
G len d a le C o lle g e
G olden S t a t e B a p tis t T h e o lo g ic a l Sem inary
Grossm ont C o lle g e
Honnold L ib rary
Humboldt S ta te C o lle g e
Im m aculate H eart C o lle g e
Laney C o lle g e
La S ie r r a C o lle g e
Loma Linda U n iv e r s ity
Long Beach C ity C o lle g e
Los A n g eles P ie r c e C o lle g e
Los A n g eles V a lle y C o lle g e
L oyola U n iv e r s ity
Marymount C o lle g e
Merritt College
M onterey P e n in su la C o lle g e
Mount S a in t M ary's C o lle g e
O c c id e n ta l C o lle g e
Orange C o a st C o lle g e
P a c if ic S ch o o l o f R e lig io n
P a c if ic Union C o lle g e
Palomar C o lle g e
Pasadena C ity C o lle g e
Pasadena C o lle g e
R eed ley C o lle g e
R io Hondo J u n io r C o lle g e
R iv e r s id e C ity C o lle g e
Sacram ento S t a te C o lle g e
San B ernardino V a lle y C o lle g e
San D ieg o C ity C o lle g e
San D ieg o Mesa C o lle g e
San D iego C o lle g e fo r Men
San D ieg o S t a te C o lle g e
San Fernando V a lle y S t a te C o lle g e
San F r a n c is c o C o lle g e fo r Women
San F r a n c is c o S t a t e C o lle g e
San F r a n c is c o T h e o lo g ic a l Sem inary
San Joaquin D e lta C o lle g e
S an ta Ana C o lle g e
S an ta Monica C ity C o lle g e
Scripps College
243
S ie r r a C o lle g e
Sonoma S t a t e C o lle g e
S ou th ern C a lifo r n ia C o lle g e
S o u th w estern C o lle g e
S t a n is la u s S ta te C o lle g e
U n ite d S t a t e s I n te r n a tio n a l U n iv e r s ity
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , B erk eley
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , D a v is
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , I r v in e
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , R iv e r s id e
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , San D ieg o
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , San F r a n c isc o M ed ical C enter
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , Santa Barbara
U n iv e r s it y o f C a lifo r n ia , S an ta Cruz
U n iv e r s it y o f Redlands
U n iv e r s it y o f San F r a n c isc o
U n iv e r s it y o f Santa C lara
U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lifo r n ia
U n iv e r s it y o f th e P a c if ic
V ic t o r V a lle y C o lle g e
W est V a lle y C o lleg e'
Westmont C o lle g e
W h ittie r C o lle g e
Yuba C o lle g e
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
A. K. S m iley P u b lic L ib ra ry
Alameda County Free L ib ra ry
Anaheim P u b lic L ib rary
Arcadia P u b lic L ib rary
Auburn P u b lic L ib ra ry
Azusa P u b lic L ib rary
Banning U n ifie d S ch o o l D i s t r i c t L ib ra ry D i s t r i c t
Beaumont D i s t r i c t L ib rary
Burbank P u b lic L ib rary
Burlingam e P u b lic L ib rary
B u tte County L ib rary
C a lifo r n ia S ta te L ibrary
C oalinga U n ifie d S ch o o l D i s t r i c t L ib rary
Commerce C ity P u b lic L ib rary
Corona P u b lic L ib ra ry
Covina P u b lic L ib ra ry
D aly C ity P u b lic L ib rary
Dean Hobbs B lanchard M em orial L ib ra ry
Downey C it y L ib rary
E l Dorado County L ib rary
*
E scondido P u b lic L ibrary
Fresno County F ree L ib ra ry
F u lle r to n P u b lic L ibrary
G len d a le P u b lic L ib ra ry
G lendora P u b lic L ib rary
Hayward P u b lic L ib rary
Humboldt C ounty L ib rary
H untington Beach P u b lic L ib rary
Inglew ood P u b lic L ib rary
Kern County L ibrary
K ings County L ibrary
L assen County F ree L ib rary
Lodi P u b lic L ibrary
Lompoc P u b lic L ibrary
Long Beach P u b lic L ib rary
Los A n g eles County P u b lic L ib ra ry
Los G atos M emorial L ib ra ry
M a r y sv ille C ity L ib rary
Menlo Park M unicipal L ib rary
Modoc C ounty Free L ib rary
M onrovia P u b lic L ib rary
M onterey County L ib rary
Mountain View P u b lic L ib rary
Oakland P u b lic L ib ra ry
O n ta rio C ity L ibrary
Orange County P u b lic L ib ra ry
Orange P u b lic L ibrary
Oxnard P u b lic L ibrary
Palm S p r in g s P u b lic L ib rary
P a lo A lto C ity L ib rary
P a lo Verde V a lle y D i s t r i c t L ib rary
P a lo s V erdes L ibrary D i s t r i c t L ib rary
Pasadena P u b lic L ib rary
Petalum a F ree P u b lic L ib rary
Redwood C ity P u b lic L ib rary
Richmond P u b lic L ib rary
R iv e r s id e P u b lic L ib rary
Sacram ento C ity -C o u n ty L ibrary
San B e n ito County Free L ibrary
San Bruno Free P u b lic L ib rary
San D ieg o County L ib rary
San D ieg o P u b lic L ib rary
San F r a n c is c o P u b lic L ib rary
San J o se P u b lic L ib rary
San Leandro Community L ibrary
San L u is O bispo County Free L ib rary
San L u is O bispo P u b lic L ib rary
San M arino P u b lic L ibrary
San Mateo County L ib rary
San M ateo P u b lic L ib rary
S an ta Ana P u b lic L ib rary
Santa Barbara P u b lic L ib rary
Santa C lara P u b lic L ib rary
S an ta Maria P u b lic L ib rary
Santa Monica P u b lic L ib rary
S an ta Rosa-Sonoma County Free P u b lic L ib ra ry
S a u s a lit o P u b lic L ib rary
S ie r r a Madre P u b lic L ib rary
Sonoma P u b lic L ib rary
South Pasadena P u b lic L ib rary
South San F r a n c is c o Free P u b lic L ib rary
S u tte r County F ree L ib rary
Tehama County L ib rary
T u rlock C ity L ib rary
V a lle j o P u b lic L ibrary
V entura County and C ity L ib rary
W a tso n v ille P u b lic L ib ra ry
W h ittie r P u b lic L ib rary
Y olo County F ree L ib rary
Yorba Linda D i s t r i c t L ib rary
S E L E C T E D
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
i
248
\
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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S tu d e n ts in B e h a v io r a l S c ie n c e . New York: John
W iley & S o n s, I n c ., 1^65.
Howard, P a u l. "The F u n ctio n s o f L ib rary Management."
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L ib rary S t a t i s t i c s o f C o lle g e s and U n i v e r s it i e s , 1965-66
I n s t it u t io n a l D a ta . C h icago: American L ib rary
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L ik e r t, R e n s is . The Human O r g a n iz a tio n : I t s Management
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. New P a tte r n s o f Management. New York: McGraw-
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« '
L y le , Guy R. The A d m in istr a tio n o f th e C o lle g e L ib r a r y .
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M cA nally, A rthur M. "D epartm ents in U n iv e r s ity
L ib r a r ie s ." L ib rary T ren d s, V II (Jan uary, 1 9 5 9 ).
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McDiarmid, E. W. "C urrent C oncepts in L ib rary Adm ini
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March, James G ., e d . Handbook o f O r g a n iz a tio n s . C hicago:
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L ib rary T ren d s. V II (J a n u a ry , 1 9 5 9 ), 3 3 7 -4 5 .
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A d m in istr a tio n o f P u b lic L ib r a r ie s . New York:
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Asset Metadata

Creator Hess, Edward Jorgen (author)

Core Title A Study Of Human Response To California Library Organization And Management Systems

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Library Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Library Science,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Boaz, Martha (committee chair), Hart, Eugene D. (committee member), Kilpela, Raymond (committee member), Siegel, Gilbert (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-456498

Unique identifier UC11363179

Identifier 7112393.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-456498 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7112393

Dmrecord 456498

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hess, Edward Jorgen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses