University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Philosophical Analysis Of The Sports Experience And The Role Of Athletics In The Schools

(USC Thesis Other)

A Philosophical Analysis Of The Sports Experience And The Role Of Athletics In The Schools

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SPORTS EXIERIENCE AND THE ROLE OF ATHLETICS IN THE SCHOOLS A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n ted to th e F a c u lty o f th e School o f E d u catio n U n iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia In f h r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree D octor o f E d u catio n by J e a r a ld Rex Gregg Ja n u ary 1971 I 71-12,389 GREGG, Jearald Rex, 1938- A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SPORTS EXPERIENCE AND THE ROLE OF ATHLETICS IN THE SCHOOLS. University of Southern California, Ed.D., 1971 Education, theory and practice University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan ^ Copyright by Jearald Rex Gregg 1971 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. Date.. Jt& 4LU JU u.t 1 9 . J . A.......... ............... Dean Guidance'yCpmmHtee ^ Chairman ...i^i ' f t U' < ’ y \ £ < J TABLE O F CO NTENTS C h ap ter Ihge I . INTRODUCTION I 1 O b je c tiv e s H ypothesis Scope D esign and M ethodology D e fin itio n s Review o f R e la te d L ite r a tu r e and R esearch O rg a n iz a tio n I I . EXISTENTIAL EPISTEMOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL THEORY ............................................................................... i E x i s t e n t i a l i s t E pistem ology E x is te n t ia l C r itic is m o f and P ro p o sals I f o r Modern E d u catio n | Summary i ; I I I . THE BASIS FOR AND THE GENERAL NATURE L in g u is tic L im ita tio n s i n D e sc rib in g th e S p o rts E x p erien ce D isc u rsiv e and N o n -d isc u rsiv e S y m b o lizatio n S p o rt and A w areness o f Being S p o rt and Awareness o f "The O ther" OF SPORT 47 D e f in itio n o f S p o rt C h a r a c te r is tic s o f S p o rt Summary IV. THE SPORTS EXPERIENCE 82 i i C h ap ter Rage H eightened /w a re n e ss in S p o rt A u th e n tic ity in S p o rt Summary V. SURVEY DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES 118 The Q u e s tio n n a ire : F o o tb a ll C ross C ountry Q u e stio n n a ire C lassroom Q u e stio n n a ire C ritiq u e o f Q u e stio n n a ire s V I. FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY 145 Com parisons Elem ent O n e --D isc u rsiv e n e ss and N on-dis c u rs iv e n e s s Element Ttoo— Awareness o f S u b je c tiv ity Element T hree— A u th e n tic ity M o d ific a tio n o f th e Theory Summary V II. SIM1ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOM M ENDATIONS The N atu re o f th e S p o rts E xperience The Role o f S p o rt in th e Schools Recommendations f o r E d u cato rs Recommendations f o r F u rth e r R esearch FOR FURTHER STUDY 170 APPENDIX 186 BIBLIOGRAPHY 198 i i i LIST O F FIGURES F ig u re ftige 1. Number o f S ig n if ic a n t D iffe re n c e s f o r th e Four Com parisons Made f o r th e Study . . 150 2 . Number o f R esponses Tending t o S upport th e (V era11 Theory D eveloped f o r T his Study ................................................................. 152 ! 3 . Number o f R esponses Tending to Support Element One o f th e Theory o f S p o rt f o r This S t u d y .......................................................................... 155 4 . Number o f R esponses Tending t o Support Elem ent Ttoo o f th e Theory o f S p o rt Developed f o r T his S t u d y ........................ . . . . 163 5 . Number o f R esponses Tending t o Support Elem ent T hree o f th e Theory o f S port D eveloped f o r T his S t u d y .......................................... 166 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION For y e a rs th e r o le o f a t h l e t i c s in th e sc h o o ls has been th e c e n te r o f c o n s id e ra b le c o n tro v e rs y . C r i ti c s a tt a c k a t h l e t i c s a s u n r e la te d t o th e aim s o f e d u c a tio n , w h ile p ro ponents d efen d a t h l e t i c s a s q u i te a p p ro p r ia te t o th o se a im s. A ll th e w h ile , th o u sa n d s o f young men and women i n v o lv e th em se lv e s in a t h l e t i c s w ith a f e r v o r seldom se en in th e c la ssro o m . A th le tic s p o rt in one form o r a n o th e r h as been a f e a tu r e o f e v e ry c u ltu r e known t o h i s t o r y o r e th n o g ra p h y . Q uite sim ply, a s i g n i f ic a n t number o f young and o ld in m odern and a n c ie n t c u ltu r e s have b een a t t r a c t e d to s p o rt and s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The m agnetism o f s p o r t is a s s u re d and i t i s p ro b ab ly s a fe to assum e t h a t s p o rt w i l l c o n tin u e a s a u n iv e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c u ltu r e s no m a tte r w hat i s s a id o r w r i t t e n in re g a rd to i t . A th le tic s p o rt a s an e d u c a tio n a l d e v ic e , however, i s open t o q u e s tio n a s e v id e n ce d by th e c o n s id e ra b le 1 _______ 2 d is p u te w hich re v o lv e s ab o u t th e r o l e and even th e p resen ce o f a t h l e t i c s w ith in th e program o£ th e s c h o o ls . O bviously, s p o rt does not g e n e ra te th e k in d s o f m eanings to w hich th e stu d y o f language, h i s t o r y o r s c ie n c e g iv e r i s e . In a d d i t i o n , i t i s p ro b ab ly s a fe t o assum e t h a t many p erso n s whose p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o rt has been q u i te lim ite d have m ani f e s te d th e v i r t u e s w hich su p p o se d ly flow from a c tiv e s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The q u e s tio n q u ite p ro p e rly a r i s e s , t h e r e f o r e , a s t o th e e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e o f s p o r t. I f s p o rt i s e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le , t h a t v a lu e p ro b ab ly l i e s in th e n a tu re o f th e e x p e rie n c e s w hich a r e p o s s ib le f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t . Few people w r itin g in th e E n g lish language have a tte m p te d a n a n a ly s is o f s p o rt a s i t i s e x p e rie n c e d by th e in d iv id u a l p a r tic ip a n t in o rd e r to d e term in e p o s s ib le v a lu e s and d is v a lu e s f o r e d u c a tio n . Such in v e s tig a tio n s seem needed i f r e s o l u ti o n o f th e co n tr o v e r s y re g a rd in g th e r o l e o f s p o r t in th e sc h o o ls i s t o be a tt a i n e d . What seems n e c e s s a ry i s a n a n a ly s is o f what m ight be c a l le d th e i n d i v i d u a l 's s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e in o rd e r t o d eterm in e th e m eaning th e in d iv id u a l f in d s in s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Follow ing such a n a ly s is , th e need i s to r e l a t e such m eaning t o th e aim s o f e d u c a tio n . 3 O b je c tiv e s The o v e rrid in g purpose o f t h i s stu d y has been t o su g g e st th e p ro p e r r o le o f a t h l e t i c s in th e s c h o o ls . There a r e two b a s ic problem s in v o lv e d in su ch a d e te rm in a tio n . The i n i t i a l co n cern was t o d eterm in e th e n a tu re o f th e a t h l e t e 's e x p e rie n c e s in s p o r t . The aim h e re , in sim p le r te rm s, was t o d eterm in e th e n a tu re o f th e m eanings to be found in s p o r t. Secondly, th e stu d y sought to e x p lo re th e im p lic a tio n s f o r e d u c a tio n o f th e m eanings w hich s p o rt g e n e r a te s . E s s e n tia lly , th e s u g g e s tio n o f th e p ro p e r r o l e o f a t h l e t i c s i n th e sc h o o ls in v o lv e s c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e f o l low ing q u e st i o n s : I . What i s th e n a tu re o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e ? A. What i s th e n a tu re o f s p o r t ? B. Are th e r e d if f e r e n c e s in th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s w hich d i f f e r e n t s p o r ts p ro v id e ? C. What i s th e n a tu re o f th e m eanings found i n s p o rt by th e in d iv id u a l p a r tic ip a n t ? I I . What i s th e p ro p e r r o le o f a t h l e t i c s p o rt in th e program o f th e sc h o o ls ? A. Are th e m eanings g e n e ra te d in s p o r t 4 e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le ? B. I f th e m eanings g e n e ra te d in s p o r t a re ed u c a t io n a l ly v a lu a b le , how i s th e a t h l e t i c program t o be r e l a t e d to th e o v e r a ll p ro gram o f a sc h o o l? H ypothesis A s in g le b a s ic h y p o th e s is was e s ta b lis h e d f o r u t i l i z a tio n in th e developm ent o f t h i s s tu d y . T his h y p o th e s is i s t h a t th e r e i s a s i g n i f ic a n t r o l e f o r a t h l e t i c s w ith in th e program o f th e sc h o o ls and t h i s r o le can be su g g e ste d and su p p o rte d p h ilo s o p h ic a lly . Scope E h ilo so p h ic b a s is fo r a n a l y s i s .- - C e r t a in l y many p h ilo s o p h e rs in v a rio u s t r a d i t i o n s make s ta te m e n ts w hich jare a p p lic a b le t o th e a n a ly s is o f a n i n d i v i d u a l 's s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e and r o l e o f a t h l e t i c s in th e s c h o o ls . W hile s e v e r a l p o s itio n s w ere c o n sid e re d , th e ap p ro ach o f e x is te n t ia l is m , o r perh ap s phenomenology, was chosen a s a b a s is f o r t h i s s tu d y b ecau se o f i t s g r e a t e r fo cu s upon th e i n d i v id u a l, h is p la c e in th e w o rld and th e n a tu r e o f h is e x p e rie n c e . The term e x is t e n tia lis m in t h i s stu dy i s in te r - I |p r e te d somewhat more b ro a d ly th a n i s o r d i n a r i ly th e case i and r e f e r s to th o s e p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o s itio n s w hich c e n te r upon th e in d iv id u a l and th e i n d iv i d u a l's e x p e rie n c e s in th e w o rld . E x is te n tia lis m , o r perhaps phenomenology, f o r p u r poses o f t h i s s tu d y th u s in c lu d e s th o s e w r itin g s g e n e r a lly re c o g n iz e d a s e x i s t e n t i a l o r phenom enological, a s w e ll a s w r itin g s such a s Zen and Dewey's e x p e rim e n ta lism . I I j j As8u rn p tio n s. - -As in any s ta te m e n t o f p o s itio n o r a n a ly s is c e r t a i n b a s ic assu m p tio n s upon w hich th e stu d y i s | b u i l t need to be made e x p l i c i t . The assu m p tio n s upon w hich t h i s stu d y proceeds a re a s f o llo w s : 1. I t was assum ed t h a t s p o r t i s an im p o rtan t a re a o f human en d eav o r t h a t len d s i t s e l f t o p h ilo s o p h ic i n v e s t i g a t i o n and t h a t s p o rt g e n e ra te s m eaning fo r th e p a r t i c i p a n t . 2 . I t was assum ed t h a t th e r o le o f a t h l e t i c s in th e sc h o o ls p ro v id es a n im p o rta n t a re a fo r in v e s tig a tio n . 3 . F o o tb a ll and c ro s s c o u n try w ere s e le c te d fo r com parison and a n a ly s is f o r t h i s s tu d y . I t was assum ed th a t th e s p o r ts s e le c te d f o r in v e s tig a tio n in t h i s stu d y w ere d i f f e r e n t enough in k in d t o make t h e i r com parison m ean in g fu l t o th e s tu d y . 4 . In o rd e r to su g g e st v e r i f i c a t i o n o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t developed f o r t h i s stu d y , a group o f a c tiv e h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s w ere s e le c te d and su rv ey ed in re g a rd to |t h e i r a t h l e t i c and c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e s . I t was assum ed | t h a t th e a t h l e t e s su rv ey ed in th e s tu d y w ere r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f A m erican h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s and t h a t th e y resp o n d ed a s h o n e s tly and th o u g h tf u lly a s th e y co u ld h ave. ! | D e lim ita tio n s . --C o n s id e ra tio n o f s p o rt and th e r o le |o f a t h l e t i c s in th e sc h o o ls in a l l p o s s ib le a s p e c ts w ould ! be im p o s sib le , a t l e a s t in a s in g le s tu d y . T h e re fo re , t h i s stu d y has been d e lim ite d in th e fo llo w in g w ays. 1. The fo cu s o f th e stu d y was r e s t r i c t e d a s f a r a s p o s s ib le t o an a n a ly s is o f th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e i n d i v id u a l when p a r t i c i p a t i n g in s p o r t . B io lo g ic a l, s o c i a l , and c u l t u r a l f a c to r s w ere c o n s id e re d , but th e m ain t h r u s t i o f th e stu d y was lim ite d t o th e h ig h ly p e rs o n a l, h ig h ly in d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e s o f th e man o f s p o r t. 2 . The s tu d y was r e s t r i c t e d p r im a r ily t o a d is c u s s io n o f h ig h sc h o o l i n t e r s c h o l a s t i c a t h l e t i c s . S ta te m e n ts, how ever, w hich have been made i n re g a r d t o i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e , p r o f e s s io n a l, o r am ateu r a t h l e t i c s (as c o n tr a s te d w ith 7 s c h o l a s ti c a t h l e t i c s ) w hich w ere a p p lic a b le t o th e a t h l e t i c program o f th e seco n d ary sc h o o ls o f th e U nited S ta te s w ere a ls o c o n sid e re d . 3 . In o rd e r t o d eterm in e p o s s ib le d if f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t d i f f e r e n t s p o r ts p ro v id e and y e t t o j r e s t r i c t th e stu d y in term s o f th e num bers o f s p o r ts d i s c u sse d , th e stu d y was lim ite d p r im a r ily t o two s p o r t s : f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try . F o o tb a ll an d c ro s s c o u n try w ere chosen b ecau se th e y p ro v id e s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t s . F o o t- i b a l l was s e le c te d f o r th r e e re a s o n s . F i r s t o f a l l , f o o t b a l l i s a team s p o r t. Second, f o o t b a l l i s a c o n ta c t s p o r t. T h ird , f o o t b a l l i s a h ig h p r e s tig e s p o rt in m ost h ig h l s c h o o ls . C ross c o u n try was s e le c te d b e c a u se o f i t s a p p a r e n t d if f e r e n c e s from f o o t b a l l. C ross c o u n try i s an i n d i v id u a l s p o r t. Second, c ro s s c o u n try i s a n o n -c o n ta c t s p o r t . T h ird , c ro s s c o u n try i s a r e l a t i v e l y low p r e s tig e |s p o r t in most h ig h s c h o o ls . In C a lif o r n ia h ig h s c h o o ls , f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try se aso n s o ccu r a t th e same tim e so t h a t i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t a f o o t b a l l p la y e r w i l l be a c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e r and v ic e v e r s a . O ther a s p e c ts o f th e two s p o r ts may se rv e to d i f f e r e n t i a t e them f u r t h e r , b u t th e c o n tr a s ts 8 betw een them seem q u ite w e ll e s t a b l is h e d . The in te n t was ito s e l e c t two s p o r ts w hich m a n ife s t pronounced d if f e r e n c e s | so t h a t any s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a t m ight be found w ould be more s i g n i f i c a n t . I f th e r e a r e a s p e c ts o f th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e r in a ra c e t h a t a r e s im ila r o r i d e n t i c a l to th e e x p e rie n c e o f a f o o t b a l l p la y e r in a game, th e n such fin d in g s m ight be g e n e ra liz e d so t h a t i t can be concluded t h a t th e r e a re a s p e c ts o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e t h a t under-* l i e many, i f n o t a l l , s p o r t s . The common a s p e c ts o f s p o rt a s e x p e rie n c e d by p a r t i c i p a n ts th e n w ould a i d in th e de velopm ent o f a th e o r y o f s p o r t . W hile th e stu d y was r e s t r i c t e d t o a c o n s id e r a tio n o f c ro s s c o u n try and f o o t b a l l, i t sh o u ld be remembered t h a t many h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s p a r t i c i p a t e in more th a n one s p o r t . The re sp o n se s o f th e a t h l e t e s su rv ey ed , th e r e f o r e , Imay have been made in l ig h t o f t h e i r t o t a l s p o r ts b ack ground, r a t h e r th a n in term s o f f o o tb a ll o r c ro s s c o u n try a lo n e . 4 . As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , e x i s t e n t i a l i s m was chosen a s th e p h ilo s o p h ic p o s itio n f o r th e a n a ly s is o f s p o r t . In k eeping w ith t h i s c h o ic e , th e th in k in g o f e x i s t e n t i a l |e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i s t s was ch o sen a s th e b a s is fo r th e |d e te rm in a tio n o f e d u c a tio n a l aim s t o w hich th e m eanings i |g e n e ra te d in s p o r t w ere r e l a t e d . One o th e r f a c t o r was a ls o in v o lv e d in t h i s l im i ta t io n . E x is te n t ia l th in k in g i s b e coming in c r e a s in g ly im p o rta n t in e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry a s i t does seem t o p ro v id e many answ ers and d ir e c tio n s f o r th e q u e s tio n s and problem s t h a t fa c e e d u c a to rs and s o c ie ty a s a w hole. | 5 . F in a lly , t h i s s tu d y e x c lu d e d fo r th e m ost p a rt any d is c u s s io n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and lim ite d i t s e l f t o th e d is c u s s io n o f what m ight be c a l le d a f t e r - s c h o o l i n t e r s c h o la s tic a t h l e t i c s . I t i s e x p e c te d t h a t a t some l a t e r tim e th e fin d in g s o f t h i s stu d y be g e n e r a liz e d w here p la u s ib le t o in c lu d e p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and c o lle g e , p ro f e s s io n a l and am ateu r s p o r t a s w e ll. The e x c lu s io n o f p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n from th e c o n te x t o f t h i s stu d y , a lo n g I w ith th e o th e r d e lim ita tio n s p re s e n te d above, i s in te n d e d t o p ro v id e th e p e rs p e c tiv e from w hich th e o v e r a ll stu d y may be more m e a n in g fu lly view ed. D esign and M ethodology T his stu d y com bined " lib ra ry * ' o r " p h ilo s o p h ic " r e se a rc h w ith p ro ce d u res t h a t g e n e r a lly a r e la b e le d " s u rv e y ." i ” 10 j ! ! I The s tu d y was d ev elo p ed th ro u g h a rev ie w o f v a rio u s p rim ary I and seco n d ary e x i s t e n t i a l w r itin g s such a s S a r t r e 's Being and N othingness (5 4 ), W a lte r Kaufm an's N ie tz s c h e : R iilo s o - I r p h e r. R3v c h o lo e is t. A n tic h r is t (2 9 ), Susanne L a n g e r's I ; H illo so p h v In a New Kev (34) a s w e ll a s th e w orks o f c e r t a i n e x i s t e n t i a l s p o r t s , d an ce, and e x e r c is e t h e o r i s t s such a s S lu s h e r 's Man. S p o rt, and E x is te n c e ; A C r i t i c a l A n a ly sis (5 9 ), E lean o r M etheny's C o n n o tatio n s o f Movement in S port and Dance (4 3 ), Movement and Meaning (4 4 ), an d o th e r s . C e rta in o f th e s e w orks p ro v id e d background r a t h e r th a n i su b s ta n c e and a r e l i t t l e q u o te d i f a t a l l . The s tu d y | r e l i e s , how ever, more s u b s t a n t i a l l y upon o th e r w orks such ja s th e w ork o f S lu s h e r, L anger, and Metheny an d th e s e a r e j q u o te d e x te n s iv e ly . ! i f I The rev iew d e s c rib e d above p ro v id e d th e b a s is f o r th e developm ent o f a th e o ry o f s p o r t w hich s u g g e s ts th e I n a tu re o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . The rev ie w a ls o p ro v id e d th e b a s is f o r th e fram ing o f q u e s tio n s w hich w ere p re s e n te d t o th e h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d i n th e su rv e y . i S econdly, a c t iv e p a r t i c i p a t i n g h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s w ere in te rv ie w e d an d a sk e d t o com plete q u e s tio n n a ir e s . The a t h l e t e s a tte n d e d v a rio u s h ig h sc h o o ls in Los A ngeles and Orange C o u n tie s. Four o f th e sc h o o ls w ere p u b lic sc h o o ls and two w ere C a th o lic s c h o o ls . The purpose o f th e su rv e y was t o su g g e st v e r i f i c a t i o n o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t w hich was developed th ro u g h th e rev ie w and to p o in t out a s p e c ts o f th e th e o ry in n eed o f m o d ific a tio n . In e ach o f th e sc h o o ls su rv e y e d , one o r more o f th e coaches w ere c o n ta c te d and a sk ed t o i n v i t e fo u r o r f iv e o f t h e i r more a c tiv e a t h l e t e s to ta k e p a r t in th e su rv e y . A c tiv e a t h l e t e s who had p a r t i c i p a te d in th e m ost re c e n t o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s p o rt w ere chosen b e ca u se i t seemed l i k e l y t h a t th e s e w ere young men t o whom a t h l e t i c s w ere most m e a n in g fu l. I t was a ls o re q u e s te d t h a t v a rio u s a b i l i t y le v e ls be re p re s e n te d and a s f a r a s p o s s ib le t h i s was done. In t h i s way f a c to r s such a s th e d if f e r e n c e s in r e c o g n itio n j and a t t e n t i o n t h a t th e v a rio u s a t h l e t e s had g a in e d w ere | c a n c e le d . I The coaches th em se lv e s w ere in v ite d to ta k e p a rt by in fo rm a lly ad d in g t h e i r th in k in g re g a rd in g th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e t o th e d is c u s s io n s . A ll o f th e coaches in v o lv e d j ; in th e su rv e y w ere most c o o p e ra tiv e , j T hree t o s ix f o o t b a l l p la y e rs and th r e e t o s ix c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs from each o f th e sc h o o ls su rv ey ed 12 w ere a sk e d to com plete q u e s tio n n a ir e s re g a rd in g t h e i r a t h l e t i c and c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e s and th e n to p a r t i c i p a t e |in th e in te rv ie w -d is c u s s io n s w hich fo llo w e d . In a l l , i ie ig h te e n c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs and t h i r t y f o o t b a l l p la y e rs p a r t i c i p a te d in th e s tu d y . The q u e s tio n n a ir e s u sed in th e su rv e y w ere b a se d upon th e rev iew o f th e v a rio u s so u rc e s w hich form ed th e |b a s is f o r t h i s s tu d y . The i n t e n t in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f | th e q u e s tio n n a ire s was t o p ro v id e some m easure o f u n i fo rm ity and o b j e c t i v i t y in th e g a th e rin g o f d a ta . At th e same tim e , g r e a t c a re was g iv e n t o a v o id a s much a s p o s s i b l e th e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t a r i s e when c o lle c tin g d a ta re g a rd in g s u b je c tiv e e x p e rie n c e s w ith a " c lo s e e n d e d ," o b je c tiv e in s tru m e n t. A g roup in te r v ie w - d is c u s s io n te c h n iq u e was a ls o u se d so t h a t th e s u b je c ts m ight draw upon th e re s p o n s e s , !com nents, and q u e s tio n s o f o th e r in te rv ie w e e s in o rd e r to e x p re ss more f u l l y t h e i r own f e e lin g s in re g a rd t o t h e i r a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s . The in te rv ie w -d is c u s s io n s w ere a llo w e d t o p ro ceed in a r a t h e r "open ended" way so t h a t th e problem s a r i s i n g o u t o f th e vise o f an o b je c tiv e in stru m e n t w ere seem in g ly overcom e. The in te rv ie w s a ls o p ro v id ed ! 1 3 i !f o r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f c o n c e p ts w hich proved somewhat d i f f i c u l t t o th o se su rv e y ed . A rev ie w o f th e works o f e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l ! : i ; i p h ilo s o p h e rs , p r im a r ily Van C leve M orris* E x is te n tia lis m i n E d u catio n (4 6 ), George F. K n e lle r 's E x is te n tia lis m and j E d u catio n (3 2 ), and W illiam F. 0 * N e ill* s " Je a n -R a u l S a r t r e 's Concept o f Freedom an d I t s Im p lic a tio n s f o r Am erican Edu- j - ! c a tio n " (4 9 ), was u n d e rta k e n in o rd e r to d e te rm in e e x is te n - I t i a l i s m 's v iew a s to th e p ro p e r aim s o f e d u c a tio n . These i a im s, i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e th e o ry o f s p o r t t h a t was d e v elo p ed , p ro v id e d background by w hich th e p ro p e r r o le o f a t h l e t i c s in th e sc h o o l was th e n su g g e ste d . j I D e fin itio n s I i The problem o f d e f i n i t i o n poses a c o n s id e ra b le j d i f f i c u l t y in th e d is c u s s io n o f any p h ilo s o p h ic a l t o p ic . U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s compounded in d e a lin g w ith e x is t e n t i a l i s m , a p h ilo so p h y w hich i s in e sse n c e no le s s th a n a com plete r e d e f i n i t i o n o f B eing. (4 9 :1 8 ) W ith th e above q u o ta tio n in m ind, t h i s stu d y does i n o t a tte m p t t o p ro v id e a com prehensive l i s t o f d e f i n i t i o n s . The d e f i n i t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p ts a r e , th e r e f o r e , p re s e n te d in c o n te x t a s e s s e n t i a l a s p e c ts o f th e o v e r a ll a n a l y s i s . C e rta in c o n c e p ts , how ever, may be d e fin e d h e re 14 In m ost g e n e ra l te rm s. A man may be se e n a s s e v e r a l th in g s depending upon th e a c t i v i t i e s i n w hich he i s engaged. The man o f s n o r t. t h e r e f o r e , r e f e r s t o a man a s he i s engaged in s p o r t . The same man may be se e n a s th e man o f s p o r t and in o th e r s i t u a t i o n s a s th e man o f b u s in e s s , l e t t e r s , o r a r t a s w e ll. The s n o r ts e x p e rie n c e r e f e r s p r im a rily to th e su b j e c t i v e aw aren ess o f an in d iv id u a l a s he p a r t i c i p a t e s in i is p o r t. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s a te rm o r concept w hich ! | i s concerned w ith th e h e re and now and i s n o t concerned |w ith th e q u a n tity o r le n g th o f tim e t h a t an in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a t e s in s p o r ts a c t i v i t i e s . The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e a g a in , t h e r e f o r e , r e f e r s o n ly t o th o s e a s p e c ts o f a n i n d i v i d u a l 's s u b je c tiv e aw areness a s he p a r t i c i p a t e s in s p o rt and th e m eanings t h a t th e f a c to r s o f h i s aw areness have f o r him . i Review o f R e la te d L it e r a t u r e and R esearch A d e ta il e d i n v e s ti g a t i o n o f r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h re v e a le d few w orks in th e a re a o f s p o r ts th e o ry o r e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y . Those w orks w hich w ere un co v ered , how ever, proved m ost s i g n i f i c a n t t o th e o v e r a l l ! 15 ! developm ent o f th e p re s e n t s tu d y . , Since th e s e w orks a r e im p o rta n t to th e developm ent j o f th e stu d y a s a w h o le , th e y a re o n ly b r i e f l y rev iew ed j h e re , th e i n t e n t b e in g t o p r e s e n t th e w r i t e r 's p u rp o ses and i fin d in g s . In t h i s w ay, th e s e t t i n g f o r th e p re s e n t s tu d y ; I i s p ro v id e d . j Thomson, in " O n to lo g ic a l T ru th in S p o r t: A Phenome n a l A n a ly sis" (6 4 ), in d ic a te s t h a t mere movement c a n p ro v id e an o p p o rtu n ity f o r th e developm ent o f human p o t e n t i a l . ! ! i E d u c a to rs, who p ro v id e e x p e rie n c e s f o r young p eo p le and a d u lts to le a r n movement s k i l l s , have w ith in t h e i r g ra s p an o p p o rtu n ity to f u r t h e r s e rv e t h e i r s tu d e n ts ' ach iev em en t o f p o t e n t i a l hum anness. ! (6 4 :1 4 7 ) Thomson d ev elo p s a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s tr u c t b ased upon | th e th in k in g o f p h ilo s o p h e r M aurice M erleau-F onty w hich p ro v id e s a means by w hich sh e was a b le t o a n a ly z e r e f l e c t i v e l y p a r t i c u l a r s p o r ts e x p e r ie n c e s . The su rv e y q u e s tio n n a ir e s u sed f o r th e p r e s e n t stu d y w ere v e ry much dependent i f o r t h e i r developm ent upon Thomson's th in k in g in re g a rd |t o th e a n a ly s is o f s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e s . In C o n n o tatio n s o f Movement in S p o rt an d Dance (43) E lean o r Metheny s e e s s p o r t dance and th e movement in v o lv e d in su ch a c t i v i t i e s a s a means by w hich man can e n c o u n te r :r e a l i t y . Metheny has been in flu e n c e d by th e th in k in g o f Susanne L anger whose book P hilosophy in a New Kev (34) a ls o form s an im p o rta n t b a s is f o r th e p re s e n t s tu d y . Metheny i n v e s tig a te s C a s s i r e r ’s co n cep t o f form s in Movement and Meaning (4 4) and th e n d ev elo p s t h i s p r in c ip le ;a s a p a r t o f an a n a ly s is o f p o s s ib le m eaning in s p o r t , dance, and e d u c a tio n . W e may n o te t h a t a l l man-made form s o f movement, how e v e r th e y may be p e rc e iv e d , may fu n c tio n a s sym bolic fo rm s, c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e p r o p e r tie s o f b e in g , d e n o ta tio n and c o n n o ta tio n . In s u b s ta n tiv e te rm s, th e s e form s may be d e s c rib e d a s o rg a n iz a tio n s o f b o d ily movements o r a s a dynamic o r g a n iz a tio n o f a p e rso n w ith in th e c o n te x t o f a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n . However we may d e s c rib e them , th e s e movement form s d en o te some id e a o r c o n c e p tio n o f w hat th e p e rso n i s doing o r tr y in g to do. They a ls o se rv e t o evoke o th e r id e a s , f e e l i n g s , em otions w hich a r e co n n o ted r a t h e r th a n d en o ted by o u r r e c o g n itio n o f c e r t a i n | p a tte r n s w ith in th e form . (4 4 :3 8 -3 9 ) M eaning, t h e r e f o r e , a c c o rd in g t o M etheny, i s a t ! l e a s t p o s s ib le in human movement. In re g a rd to th e d an ce, Metheny s a y s , Today, a s y e s te rd a y , d a n c e rs dance f o r two re a s o n s . They dance to denote o r fo rm u la te a c o n c e p tio n o f a sequence o f dynamic p a tte r n s ; th e y dance to evoke w h a tev e r c o n n o ta tio n s may be g e n e ra te d by aw areness j o f th e dynamic e lem en ts on th o s e p a tt e r n s . . . . I The d a n c e r 's i n t e r e s t in dancing i s p re d ic a te d upon h is i n t e r e s t i n th e s e w o rd le ss c o n c e p tio n s , f e e l in g s , and em o tio n s. They c o n s t i t u t e th e prim ary so u rc e o f w h a tev e r m eanings he fin d s in th e dance; know ingly o r | unknow ingly, he fin d s th e a c t o f dancing m ean in g fu l 17 i i b ecau se he fin d s th o s e w o rd le ss c o n n o ta tio n s m eaning f u l ; and he dances f o r th e purpose o f evoking and e x p e rie n c in g th e f e e lin g s and em otions t h a t a re evoked by th o se c o n n o ta tio n s . (4 4 :5 5 -5 6 ) ; The d a n c e r, th e r e f o r e , a c c o rd in g to Metheny dances ; b ecau se to dance I s to p ro v id e an o p p o rtu n ity t o f in d mean- ' lng ev en though t h a t m eaning may n o t le n d I t s e l f to l l n - I i i g u l s t l c e x p re s s io n . In h e r a n a ly s is o f s p o r t M etheny comments upon th e I m o tiv a tio n o f th e a t h l e t e by s a y in g , W hatever th e In flu e n c in g f a c t o r s may b e , we know t h a t j he u n d e rta k e s th e perform ance o f t h i s ta s k f o r th e m ost v a l i d o f a l l human re a s o n s ; he in v o lv e s h im s e lf j in th e e f f o r t o f p erfo rm in g t h i s ta s k b ecau se i t i n t e r e s t s him and b ecau se he fin d s t h a t involvem ent m ean in g fu l in i t s own r i g h t . (4 4 :7 5 ) ! The man o f s p o r t , a c c o rd in g t o M etheny*s v ie w , p a r t i c i p a t e s I | In s p o r t f o r th e same re a so n s t h a t th e d an cer d a n c e s, p r i - | m a rily b ecau se m eaning i s to be found in su ch a c t i v i t i e s . | She a ls o in d ic a te s t h a t su ch m eaning i s p o t e n t i a l in s p o r t no m a tte r w hat th e p e rfo rm e r's le v e l o f a b i l i t y may b e . In th e w o rld o f r e a l i t y , th e d u f f e r 's Mt. E v e re st may be se en t o be a v e ry i n s i g n i f i c a n t h i l l , b u t in th e I sym bolic w o rld o f s p o r t i t demands h is u tm ost e f f o r t and in v o lv e s th e utm ost re a c h e s o f h is b e in g . (4 4 :7 6 ) M etheny in d ic a te s t h a t th e s p o r ts s p e c ta to r may a s w e ll f in d m eaning in s p o r t . i | But we m ust n o t a sk th e s p e c ta to r t o e x p la in th e m eanings he fin d s in w a tch in g th e perform ances o f th e cham pions. In a l l p r o b a b i l it y he c an n o t e x p la in | th o s e m eanings to hixnsel£. But t h i s does n o t m a tte r . He has made th o s e m eanings h i s own by e x p e rie n c in g them w ith in th e in n erm o st re a c h e s o f h is own f e e l i n g s , : and in e x p e rie n c in g them , he h as found a m ean in g fu l image o f h im s e lf a t h is u tm o st. (4 4 :6 2 ) Metheny re a c h e s s im ila r c o n c lu sio n s a b o u t th e v a lu e j o f th e v a rio u s n o n c o m p e titiv e e x e r c is e form s t h a t a r e i ! a v a ila b le t o man. She c o n c lu d e s h e r book by e n co u rag in g e d u c a to rs t o su p p o rt s tro n g program s o f s p o r t , d ance, and e x e r c is e w ith in th e c u rric u lu m o f t h e i r s c h o o ls a s th e r e ! i s m eaning to be found by p a r t i c i p a n ts in su c h a c t i v i t i e s j w hich a r e o v e r and above t h e i r p h y s ic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s . Maxine S h eets in The Rienomena o f Dance (58) p ro - j : v id e s , a s th e t i t l e i n d ic a t e s , a phenom enological a n a ly s is | |o f th e dance and o f h e r e x p e rie n c e s in th e d a n ce . In h e r i |a n a l y s i s , sh e c o n s id e rs th e i n d i v i d u a l 's r e l a t i o n to su ch ;a s p e c ts o f th e u n iv e rs e a s tim e , sp a c e , and rhythm . She ! co n clu d es t h a t th e dance p ro v id e s m eaning in and o f i t s e l f !and t h i s m eaning i s th e o n ly j u s t i f i c a t i o n n e c e s s a ry f o r d a n cin g . S h eets a l s o draws im p lic a tio n s f o r e d u c a tio n in h e r s tu d y . S heets s u g g e s ts , a s in d ic a te d ab o v e, t h a t th e e x - ! p e rie n c e o f th e dance and th e m eanings t o be d e riv e d from I I !such a e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e s a r e in th em selv es e d u c a tio n a lly 19 v a lu a b le (5 8 :1 4 5 ). James E. G en asci and V a s i l l i s K lis s o u ra s , In an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "The D elphic S p i r i t i n S p o rts" (1 9 ), com p a re s p o r t t o th e s tr u g g le o f th e a n c ie n t G reek i n h is clim b up th e m ountain o f D elphi i n s e a rc h o f m eaning f o r t h e i r l i v e s . I f one h as b een in v o lv e d i n s tre n o u s s p o r ts , i t i s e a sy t o Im agine u n d e rta k in g th e s te e p clim b up th e m ountain, w ith a l l i t s demands c h a lle n g in g th e c o re o f human c a p a c i t i e s . S p o rts a p p e a r t o be d ir e c te d e x c lu s iv e ly to w ard a c h ie v in g th e u ltim a te g o a l o f v i c t o r y , b u t on th e slo p e o f th e D elp h ic m ountain, th e clim b in g b rin g s one t o th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e r e i s a n o th e r dim ension in a c tiv e s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The s u r p r is e h e ld out f o r th e u n i n i t i a t e d i s t h a t i t i s not th e end o f th e clim b t h a t f i l l s m an 's s o u l w ith jo y , i t i s th e way t o th e en d —n o t th e e c s ta s y o f th e a t h l e t i c v i c t o r y , b u t th e jo y o f th e e n d e a v o r. (1 9 :4 3 ) G enasci and K lisso u ra s re a c h v e ry i n d e f i n i t e con c lu s io n s s t a t i n g , " A th le te s do n o t r e t r e a t from l i f e d u rin g s p o r ts p erfo rm an ces; on th e c o n tr a r y th e y immerse them s e lv e s c o m p le te ly an d a u th e n ti c a l ly " (1 9 :4 4 ). G lo ria T y n e r's purpose in h e r t h e s i s , "S p o rt and B eing: An A p p lic a tio n o f C e rta in C oncepts D eveloped by V ic k to r F ra n k l" (6 5 ), was t o t e s t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t s p o r t i s a medium f o r a c h ie v in g b e in g . T yner i d e n t i f i e s th e m ajo r e le m e n ts o f F r a n k l's concept o f m an 's s e a rc h f o r m eaning in b e in g o r hecnm inp w hat he i s o r c an be (65 :2 ) 2 < > 1 and th e n r e l a t e s th e s e e le m e n ts t o an a n a ly s is o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . T yner co n clu d es t h a t th e a t h l e t e has th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r a u th e n tic e x p e rie n c e th ro u g h s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . F in a lly , T yner c o n c lu d e s, S port i s a medium f o r b e in g ; man g iv e s i t e sse n c e t o th e d eg ree t h a t he in v o lv e s h im s e lf . S p o rt i s a medium by w hich man d e te c ts h is a u t h e n t i c i t y . When man i s open t o s p o r t, s p o r t i s open t o him . I t pro** v id e s man w ith th e c h a lle n g e o f d e te c tin g p o t e n t i a l m eaning f o r f u l f i l l m e n t . (6 5 :3 1 ) S lu s h e r’ s book Man. S p o rt, and E x is te n c e : A C r i t i c a l A n a ly sis (59) was u sed e x te n s iv e ly in th e p re s e n t stu d y and p ro v id e s a n im p o rta n t fo u n d a tio n f o r th e th e o r y o f s p o rt developed in l a t e r c h a p te r s . S lu s h e r 's p rim a ry co n c e rn was a n e x a m in a tio n o f th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s in h e re n t in s p o r t f o r e s t a b l is h i n g w hat h e c a l l s a n " a u th e n tic r e l a t io n s h ip betw een h im s e lf and a l l w ith in h is u n iv e r s e " (5 9 :1 ). S lu sh e r p re s e n ts th e o n ly com plete a n a ly s is o f s p o r t from an e x i s t e n t i a l p o in t o f v iew t h a t was unco v ered in th e rev ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . S lu sh e r comments upon th e v a lu e s p o s s ib le i n s p o r t and upon th e a b u ses o f s p o r t t h a t he f in d s in a c t u a l p r a c tic e and co n clu d es t h a t an a u th e n tic r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e a t h l e t e and h i s w o rld i s p o s s ib le in s p o r t . 21 The th in k in g o f Johan H uizinga i n Homo Ludens (2 7 ) jwas im p o rtan t t o th e p re s e n t stu d y e s p e c ia lly in re g a rd t o th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p la y and s p o r t . H u iz in g a 's m ost i n t e r e s t i n g a n a ly s is i s d i r e c te d tow ard an e x a m in a tio n o f th e r o l e o f p la y i n th e developm ent o f human c u ltu r e and th e v a rio u s i n s t i t u t i o n s w ith in c u lt u r e . H u izin g a s e e s p la y a s a n i n s t i n c t i v e im p u lse w hich i s common t o m ost a n im als an d t o human b e in g s . H uizinga se e s p la y a s an elem ent o f n e a r ly a l l human a c t i v i t i e s th e re b y c o n tr ib u tin g t o th e developm ent o f our most re v e re d c u l t u r a l f e a tu r e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s . In tim e , a c c o rd in g to H u izin g a, th e s e a c t i v i t i e s become fo rm a liz e d w ith in c u ltu r e and a r e c o n s id e re d w ith g r e a t e s t g r a v ity . I t i s t h i s p ro c e ss w hich, a c c o rd in g t o H u izin g a, r e s u l t s in such fo rm a liz e d and im p o rta n t human a c t i v i t i e s a s lan g u ag e, r e l i g i o n , law , s c ie n c e , p h ilo so p h y , and th e a r t s . Flay i j ! i s n o t se e n a s th e b a s is f o r th e s e a c t i v i t i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t r a t h e r a s th e n o u ris h in g o r e n e rg y g e n e ra tin g f a c t o r . Susanne I a n g e r 's book P hilosophy in a New Key (34) p ro v id e s a n o th e r Im p o rta n t b a s is f o r t h i s s tu d y . L a n g e r's purpose i s th e developm ent o f a th e o ry o f a r t . In so j 22 d o in g , Langer d e v elo p s h e r th o u g h ts a s re g a rd s th e th in k in g j i ! p ro c e ss in man and w hat sh e s e e s a s th e two prim ary means o f know ing. T h in k in g , a c c o rd in g to L anger, i s in f a c t a j !p ro c e ss o f sy m b o liz a tio n w hich i s o f two ty p e s : d is c u r s iv e 1 j and n o n * d is c u rs iv e . | D isc u rsiv e th in k in g , i n D an g er's v iew , i s t h a t j I w hich we m ost commonly th in k o f a s th in k in g . D isc u rsiv e i th in k in g i s th in k in g o f th e s o r t t h a t i s m ed iate d by and makes u se o f v e r b a l and w r i t t e n sym bols. D isc u rsiv e th in k * ! i ! in g i s th e th in k in g o f s c ie n c e and law . N o n -d isc u rsiv e i ] th in k in g , on th e o th e r hand, i s th e s o r t o f s y m b o liz a tio n j | j w hich i s e s s e n t i a l t o th e realm o f human f e e lin g and su ch | i i i i [human a r e a s a s a r t i s t i c e x p re s s io n and a e s t h e t i c e x p e ri* ! e n c e . N o n -d isc u rsiv e th in k in g i s p r e s e n t a ti o n a l , i t i s u nm ediated by v e r b a l o r w r i t te n sym bols. The m eanings p ro v id ed by th e n o n -d is c u rs iv e re a lm a r e im m ediate, d i r e c t , and n o n -v e rb a l. la n g e r im p lie s t h a t man fin d s m eaning and j th e r e f o r e know ledge th ro u g h b o th modes o f th in k in g . C e rta in w o rk s --p rim a rily S a r t r e 's Being and N oth ingness (5 4 ), H e id e g g e r's An In tr o d u c tio n t o M eta p h y sic s (2 2 ), B lackham 's Man and E x is te n c e : E s s e n tia l Works o f E x is te n tia lis m ( 8 ) , Kaufm an's N ie tz s c h e : P h ilo s o p h e r. B sv c h o lo g ist. A n tic h r is t (2 9 ), and Morgan’s What N ie tz sc h e ] Means (4 5 )--w e re im p o rta n t to th e o v e r a ll developm ent o f ! ; th e p re s e n t s tu d y . These s u p p o rtiv e w r itin g s w ere n o t | | |q u o te d e x te n s iv e ly , b u t th e y d id p ro v id e th e b ack d ro p f o r ith e th in k in g p re s e n te d in th e s tu d y . i S a r t r e 's Being and N o th in g n ess (54) i s a c l a s s i c | 'among e x i s t e n t i a l l i t e r a t u r e an d p ro v id e s th e b a s is f o r w hat m ight be c a l le d S a rtre a n e x is t e n t i a l i s m . In t h i s w ork, S a r tr e p re s e n ts a s s y s te m a tic a lly a s p o s s ib le h is ! I view o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l p h ilo so p h y o f B eing. Being and N o th in g n ess i s in f a c t a r a d i c a l r e d e f i n i t i o n o f B eing. i I ! |S a r t r e a n a ly z e s human c o n sc io u sn e ss and i t s r e l a t i o n to th e j !w o rld , a lo n g w ith th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s g e n e ra te d by m an's t ! |p o s i t io n w ith in t h a t w o rld . I i M a rtin H eidegger in An I n tr o d u c tio n to M etaphysics (22) a l s o i n v e s tig a te s th e problem o f b e in g . He ap p ro ach es th e word "b e in g " s e m a n tic a lly an d fin d s t h a t th e w ord has no d e f i n i t e m eaning. He th e n a tte m p ts h is own s y s te m a tic i d e s c r ip tio n o f th e w ord and th e problem . "To b e " ( s e in ) i s f o r us th e i n f i n i t i v e o f " i s . " And in v o lu n t a r i l y , a lm o st a s though n o th in g e l s e i w ere p o s s ib le , we e x p la in th e i n f i n i t i v e " to b e" to o u rs e lv e s th ro u g h th e " i s . " (2 2 :7 7 ) H eidegger th e n p ro ceed s to a tte m p t to o u tlin e w hat he se e s a s th e lim i ta t io n s o f b e in g , r e l a t i n g b e in g to tim e , o b lig a tio n , th in k in g , and becom ing. In so doing he p ro - v id e s a m ost i n t e r e s t i n g a n a ly s is o f th e a n c ie n t p h ilo s o p h e rs H e ra c litu s and I& rm enides, who H eidegger se e s a s th e j j in a u g u ra to rs o f a l l p h ilo so p h y . I H. J . Blackham b rin g s to g e th e r w hat he se e s a s key | I s e le c tio n s o f e ig h t w e ll known e x i s t e n t i a l w r i t e r s in th e | book R e a lity . Man and E x is te n c e : E s s e n tia l Works o f E x is t e n t i a l is m (8 ). Blackham*s p rim ary purpose i s to e x p la in | e x is te n ti a li s m by p ro v id in g h is own a n a ly s is and d e s c r ip - ; t i o n a lo n g w ith s e le c tio n s by K ie rk e g aa rd , N ie tz sc h e , J a s p e r s , M arcel, Buber, S a r tr e , M erleau-B onty, and a s e l e c t i o n by W erner Brock who comments on th e th in k in g o f < H eidegger. | N ie tz sc h e : R iilo s o n h e r. f e v c h o lo e is t. A n tic h r is t (29) by W alte r Kaufman and What N ie tz sc h e Means (45) by George A. Morgan a re com m entaries on th e l i f e and th in k in g o f F r ie d r ic h N ie tz sc h e . Morgan a tte m p ts t o s i f t th ro u g h th e jmass o f N ie tz s c h e 's w r itin g s to a p p ly N ie tz s c h e 's th in k in g ito problem s o f th e m odem w o rld . Morgan p re s e n ts and com- jments upon N ie tz s c h e 's view s o f l i f e , h i s t o r y , m o ra ls , a r t , 25 and man. Kaufman p ro v id e s a f a r more d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f N ie tz sc h e th a n i s u s u a l. Kaufman e x p lo re s N ie tz s c h e 's th in k in g in term s o f i t s r e l a t i o n t o th e th in k in g o f S o c ra te s , P la to , L u th e r, R ousseau, and o th e r e s ta b lis h e d p h ilo s o p h e rs from th e h i s t o r y o f w e s te rn p h ilo so p h y . N ie tz s c h e 's g r e a t e s t v a lu e may w e ll l i e in th e f a c t t h a t he em bodied th e t r u e p h ilo s o p h ic s p i r i t o f " se a rc h in g in to m y se lf and o th e r m en." (2 9 :1 2 ) The b a s ic so u rc e s f o r th e developm ent o f e x is te n t i a l aim s o f e d u c a tio n w ere George K n e lle r 's E x is te n tia lis m and E d u catio n (3 2 ), Van C leve M orris * E x is te n tia lis m in E d u ca tio n : What I t Means (4 6 ), and W illiam F. O 'N e i l l's " J e a n -Ih u l S a r t r e 's Concept o f Freedom and I t s Im p lic a tio n s f o r Am erican E d u ca tio n " (4 9 ). In each c a s e , th e a u th o rs c a l l f o r an end to th e im p e rso n a l and c o l l e c t i v i s t c h a ra c t e r o f A m erican e d u c a tio n . K n e lle r seems m ost i n te r e s te d I i n changes in sc h o o l o r g a n iz a tio n so t h a t a more h ig h ly in d iv id u a liz e d e d u c a tio n a l sy stem m ight d e v elo p . M orris p ro v id e s an e x c e lle n t e x p la n a tio n o f e x i s t e n t i a l c u rric u lu m I and in d ic a te s a h ig h r e g a r d f o r th e ap p ro ach es in v o lv e d i n e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r program s o f m ost s c h o o ls . He se e s th e s e |program s a s im p o rta n t in t h a t th e y p ro v id e f o r w hat he |c a l l s th e r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y . O 'N e i l l's c o n ce rn a s 26 th e t i t l e o f h is d i s s e r t a t i o n I n d ic a te s I s t o d e v elo p w hat he c a l l s S a rtre a n e x i s t e n t i a l i s m and t o r e l a t e t h i s t o e d u c a tio n . In d is c u s s in g w hat S a r tr e se e s a s th e long ran g e o b je c tiv e o f e d u c a tio n , O 'N e ill s t a t e s t h a t S a rtre Is In e s s e n c e , a n e d u c a tio n a l e s s e n t i a l i s t , th e a d v o c a te o f a t r u l y " l i b e r a l " e d u c a tio n --a n e d u c a tio n d e d ic a te d t o th e " l i b e r a t i o n " o f man from e r r o r , from co w ard ice, and from s e l f - d e c e i t . (4 9 :4 0 2 ) Since in m ost sc h o o ls a t h l e t i c s a r e a p a r t o f w hat has been c a l le d e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s two w orks w ere rev iew ed w hich d e a l w ith what th e a u th o rs se e a s th e r o l e o f e x t r a - c l a s s a c t i v i t i e s in th e s c h o o ls . The m ajo r fu n c tio n o f e x tr a c l a s s a c t i v i t i e s i s t o p ro v id e o p p o r tu n itie s t o le a r n and t o p r a c tic e a v a r i e t y o f p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l u n d e rs ta n d in g s and s k i l l s . (33:575) Krug em phasizes th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r d e v e lo p in g s o c i a l s k i l l s in e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s . He a ls o |a d d re s s e s h im s e lf t o th e q u e s tio n o f overem phasis b u t in d ic a te s t h a t su ch c h a rg e s may be unfounded in t h a t even w ith a f u l l ran g e o f a c t i v i t i e s in a sc h o o l o n ly a s m a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f s tu d e n ts may be p a r t i c i p a t i n g in an y one a c t i v i t y . In a d d itio n , Krug s u g g e s ts t h a t overem phasis i s r e a l l y a m a tte r t o be ju d g ed on th e b a s is o f th e good o r harm t h a t b e f a l l s th e in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a n t . S tro u p in d is c u s s in g e x t r a - c l a s s a c t i v i t i e s a t th e c o lle g e le v e l s a y s , The w hole h i s t o r y o f A m erican h ig h e r e d u c a tio n demon s t r a t e s th e f a c t t h a t c o lle g e s have b een a t a lo s s t o know w hat t o do a b o u t th e e x t r a - a c t i v i t i e s c u r ric u lu m . (6 2 :3 3 ) S tro u p in d ic a te s t h a t th e r e h as b een l i t t l e o r no p h ilo s o p h ic j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r e x t r a - c l a s s a c t i v i t i e s p ro gram s. He s u g g e s ts th a t S e lf a c t u a l i z a t i o n , th e n , i s th e g e n e r a l g o a l t o be a c h ie v e d by s tu d e n ts . The s o c i a l form s by w hich th e s e l f may be r e a l iz e d , how ever, a r e m a n ifo ld and d iv e r s e . (6 2 :3 3 ) S tro u p 's p rim a ry co n cern i s th e developm ent o f a t r u l y l i b e r a l c u rric u lu m in th e c o lle g e s . He co n clu d es t h a t e x t r a - c l a s s a c t i v i t i e s sh o u ld be an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f su ch a n e d u c a tio n . O rg a n iz a tio n As in d ic a te d , th e stu d y re v o lv e d ab o u t t h r e e m ain p ro b lem s: (1 ) th e developm ent o f a th e o ry by w hich th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e in s p o r t m ight be a n a ly z e d , (2 ) th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s ' v iew o f th e p ro p e r aim s o f e d u c a tio n , and (3 ) th e s u g g e s tio n o f th e | 2 8 1 p ro p e r r o le o f a t h l e t i c s in th e s c h o o ls . The a c t u a l con- ; d u ct o f th e s tu d y p ro ceed ed in th e o rd e r th u s d e s c rib e d . i i _ I In o rd e r t h a t th e o v e r a ll p r e s e n ta tio n be b e t t e r u n d e r- ; I s to o d , th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e p r e s e n ta tio n d i f f e r s some- ; | w hat from t h a t o f th e co n d u ct o f th e s tu d y . j C hapter I I p re s e n ts th e rev ie w o f e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i s t s . T his rev ie w i s p re s e n te d e a r l y in j o rd e r to p ro v id e background f o r th e re a d e r so t h a t th e j i j d is c u s s io n o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t m ight be se e n in l i g h t o f o v e r a ll e d u c a tio n a l aim s and a ls o t o p ro v id e background f o r th e f i n a l c h a p te r w hich comments upon th e r o l e o f a t h l e t i c s in th e s c h o o ls . C hapter I I I p r e s e n ts a g e n e ra l d e s c r ip tio n o f th e |c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s p o r t . T his c h a p te r d e s c rib e s w hat j i s p o r t i s , how i t i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p la y and games and th e { i g e n e ra l f e a tu r e s o f th o se a c t i v i t i e s c a lle d a t h l e t i c s p o r t. C h ap ter IV i s f o r th e m ost p a r t a rev ie w o f th e th in k in g o f s e v e r a l w r i t e r s — p r im a r ily H uizinga (2 7 ), | S lu sh e r (5 9 ), and Metheny (43 and 4 4 ) —w hich i s p e r tin e n t to th e a n a ly s is o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . On th e b a s is o f t h i s re v ie w , C h ap ter IV a ls o p r e s e n ts th e th e o ry o f s p o r t j developed f o r t h i s s tu d y . 29 The su rv e y w hich was done f o r t h i s stu d y was con d u cted i n o rd e r t o su g g e st v e r i f i c a t i o n o f th e th e o r y o f i | s p o r t dev elo p ed in C hapter IV and a ls o t o p ro v id e th e b a s is f o r m o d ific a tio n o f th e th e o r y when t h i s proved n e c e s s a ry . C h ap ter V p r e s e n ts th e in stru m e n t and te c h n iq u e s u se d in p o llin g th e a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d in th e s tu d y . C hapter VI d is c u s s e s th e fin d in g s o f th e su rv e y . On th e b a s is o f th e fin d in g s o f th e su rv e y th e th e o r y o f s p o rt d ev elo p ed in C h ap ter IV was m o d ifie d and i s a ls o p re s e n te d in C h ap ter VI in m o d ifie d form . C h ap ter V II sum m arizes th e stu d y and comments upon th e r o l e o f a t h l e t i c s in th e s c h o o ls . S u g g estio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and recom m endations t o e d u c a to rs a r e a ls o p ro v id e d in th e c h a p te r . CHAPTER I I EXISTENTIAL EPISTEMOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL THEORY E x i s t e n t i a l i s t s do n o t p ro v id e a u n if ie d , t o t a l l y c o n s is te n t p h ilo so p h y o r e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y . E x is te n t i a l i s t s do n o t seem e a g e r t o make sw eeping s ta te m e n ts re g a rd in g e d u c a tio n , b u t th e y do seem, in t h e i r view , to c o n c e n tr a te on c e r t a i n c o n ce p ts t h a t p o in t t o th e e s s e n t i a l elem en ts o f a n im p lic it e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y . George F. K h e lle r in h is book E x is te n tia lis m and E d u catio n (3 2 ) s e t s th e s ta g e f o r th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e e s s e n t i a l s o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y : D isc u ssio n o f e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry m ust i m p l i c i t ly re c o g n iz e two b a s i c a l l y c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s : (1 ) th e d e s ir e o f th e in d iv id u a l to c o n tr o l h is a c tio n s in l i g h t o f h is p e rs o n a l m o tiv es and p re fe re n c e s ; (2 ) th e d e s ir e o f p o l i t i c a l l y o rg a n iz e d s o c ie ty t o d e v elo p and p e rp e tu a te th e c u ltu r e i t c h e r is h e s . (3 2 :3 0 ) The ta s k o f any e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y i s t o d e a l w ith th e needs o f th e in d iv id u a l in l i g h t o f th e needs o f th e c u l t u r e . In h is book E x is te n tia lis m i n E d u catio n (4 6 ) M orris d e a ls w ith th e problem s o f e d u c a tio n f o r c u ltu r e 30 31 a s f o llo w s : I f th e a u th e n tic nan Is o u r aim , th e n th e a u th e n tic s o c ie ty I s a ls o o u r aim . That s o c ie ty I s a u th e n tic In th e d eg ree t o w hich I t f a l l s t o provoke In th e I n d i v id u a l c i t i z e n th e s e u rg ln g s t o e sca p e h is freedom . That s o c ie ty I s a u th e n tic In th e d eg ree t o w hich I t summons th e c i t i z e n t o s ta n d by h im s e lf, f o r h im s e lf, In sh a p in g th e d ir e c tio n s o f h is l i f e , and t h e r e f o r e th e m eaning o f h is e x is te n c e . That s o c ie ty i s a u th e n t i c w hich n e v e r a c h ie v e s a " n a tio n a l p u rp o se ," w hich Is i n f a c t u n in te r e s te d in a c h ie v in g one, b u t i n t e r e s te d o n ly in b e in g h o st to th e in d iv id u a l p u rp o ses In i t s c i t i z e n s . (46:103 ) M o rris im p lie s t h a t s o c ie ty must a d a p t t o i t s i n d i v id u a ls , r a t h e r th a n th e o p p o s ite . A s o c ie ty w ith " n a tio n a l p u rp o se" a llo w s and en co u rag es i t s c i t i z e n s t o g iv e up t h e i r freedom . C itiz e n s m ust p a tt e r n t h e i r b e h a v io r and th in k in g in su ch a way t h a t m eets th e demands o f th e n a ti o n 's s t a t e d g o a ls . Such a s i t u a t i o n p ro v id e s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r in d iv id u a ls t o escap e from th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r own l i v e s . The re a d e r i s d ir e c te d to E rich Fromm's Escape from Freedom (18) w hich p ro v id e s an e x c e l le n t a n a ly s is o f th e d e s ir e o f in d iv id u a ls t o g iv e up t h e i r freedom t o v a rio u s c re e d s and d o c trin e s i n o rd e r t o a v o id th e v e ry t r y in g and d i f f i c u l t ta s k o f assum ing th e re s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r d e c is io n s . To a v o id m aking d e c is io n s and to a v o id assum ing th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th o s e d e c is io n s i s t o be n o n a u th e n tic . 32 To be n o n a u th e n tic i s , in e x i s t e n t i a l i s t th in k in g , perhaps m an's c a r d in a l s i n . A man a c c o rd in g t o th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s l iv e s in and f o r h im s e lf and o th e rs in t h a t he makes h is own d e c is io n s and assum es f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th o s e d e c is io n s . A s o c ie ty w hich p ro v id e s f o r and encourages t h i s i s a u th e n tic and th e r e f o r e w o rth y . The ta s k o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a to r i s n o t th e t r a i n i n g o f in d iv id u a ls f o r s o c ie ty , b u t r a t h e r th e e n couragem ent o f hum anity and a u t h e n t i c i t y w ith in t h a t s o c ie ty . I f i t c an be assum ed t h a t " a u th e n tic man" i s in f a c t th e aim o f an e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n , th e n , t o p a ra p h rase th e w ords o f M o rris, e d u c a tio n i s w o rth w h ile in th e d eg ree t o w hich i t e n co u rag es in d iv id u a ls t o r e a l i z e t h e i r c o n d itio n i n th e w o rld and a c c e p t th e freedom p ro v id ed them a s b a s e le s s c h o o s e rs . That e d u c a tio n i s w o rth y w hich r e fu s e s t o in d o c tr in a te i t s s tu d e n ts i n to any c re e d o r d o c tr in e . T hat e d u c a tio n i s w o rth y w hich e n co u rag es th e achievem ent o f in d iv id u a l p u rp o ses in i t s s tu d e n ts (4 6 :1 0 3 ). The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r i s t s con c e rn i s o b v io u sly I n d iv id u a l developm ent. W illiam O 'N e i l l's d i s s e r t a t i o n "Je an -R a u l S a r t r e 's Concept o f Freedom and I t s Im p lic a tio n s f o r American 33 E d u catio n " (49) p r e s e n ts w hat S a r tr e se e s a s th e u ltim a te aim s f o r e d u c a tio n . The suprem e end o f a n e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n c o in c id e s w ith th e suprem e end o f a l l human a c t i v i t y — th e a tta in m e n t o f t h a t s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n w hich a tte n d s th e a ssid u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n o f p e rs o n a l a u t h e n t i c i t y . (4 9 :256) E x i s t e n t i a l i s t E pistem oloev The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e p iste m o lo g y ( i f such i t may be te rm e d !) assum es t h a t th e in d iv id u a l i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r h is own know ledge. E x i s t e n t i a l i s t knowledge i s " i n t u i t i v e . " I t i s "hum an," i t o r i g in a te s in and i s composed o f , w hat e x i s t s in th e i n d i v i d u a l 's c o n s c io u s n e ss and f e e lin g s a s a r e s u l t o f h is e x p e rie n c e s and th e p r o je c ts he a d o p ts in th e c o u rse o f h i s l i f e . L ikew ise, th e v a l i d i t y o f knowledge i s d eterm in ed by i t s v a lu e t o th e in d iv id u a l. (3 2 :5 9 ) To th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t a l l knowledge i s s u b je c tiv e . B efore a n y th in g i s known, th e r e m ust be a knower t o know i t . Knowledge depends upon th e knower and f u r t h e r , know l edge depends upon th e knower m aking what i s t o be known a p a rt o f h is own p o in t o f view and l i f e . N e ith e r th e w o rld n o r t r u t h h a s a la b e l on i t , t e l l i n g what i t i s and how i t i s r e l a t e d t o th e o th e r . T here i s no way b u t th e way o f in d iv id u a l judgem ent. (2 2 :232 ) B esides c e r t a i n t y , th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p tio n o f t r u t h in v o lv e d an A b so lu te o r True B eing, and a c o r re sp o n d in g q u i n t e s s e n t i a l know ledge. F or N ie tz sc h e , th e two a re c lo s e l y c o n n ec te d ; t h e r e can be no a b s o lu te knowledge i f th e r e i s no a b s o lu te Being f o r i t t o be r 34 t i a b o u t: i f r e a l i t y i s a flu x o f r e l a t i o n s , knowledge m ust be a f lu x o f r e l a t i v i t i e s , and can n ev er hope to fathom o r e x h a u st th e n a tu re o f th in g s . (2 9 :254) I f w hat i s to be known i s in f l u x , th e n knowing m ust be a m a tte r o f in d iv id u a l judgm ent o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n I | |o f " f lu x o f r e l a t i o n s " (4 6 :2 4 5 ). I f th e r e i s no A b s o lu te , j | I 1 th e n man i s condemned to ju d g e , to choose w ith o u t A b so lu te b a s is f o r h is c h o ic e s . In sp e ak in g o f th e stu d y o f th e A m erican R e v o lu tio n , M orris sa y s , j Each s tu d e n t m ust become a " b a s e le s s ch o o ser" a t | t h i s p o in t. He m ust c r e a te and th e r e f o r e become j p e rs o n a lly re s p o n s ib le f o r th e m eaning o f th e American R e v o lu tio n f o r h is own l i f e . And i f you a sk why he m u st, th e answ er i s t h a t he c a n n o t a v o id ta k in g some k in d o f a t t i t u d e tow ard t h a t h i s t o r i c a l X once he c o g n itiv e ly u n d e rsta n d s i t ; t h a t i s h is p o in t o f view re g a rd in g i t , t h a t i s h is m eaning v i s - a - v i s th e Ameri can R e v o lu tio n . (4 6 :1 2 2 ) The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t view o f know ledge and knowing i s a h ig h ly p e rs o n a l one. Man ta k e s w hat i s to be known, w hat i s m ean in g fu l to him, and makes i t h is in a v e ry u n iq u e and h ig h ly in d iv id u a l way. Many e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s ! c a l l t h i s view o f knowledge th e "E pistem ology o f Appro- | p r ia tio n " (4 6 :1 2 1 -1 2 3 ). | I E x is te n t ia l C r itic is m o f and P ro p o sals f o r Modern E d u ca tio n E x is te n tia lis m i s co n cern ed w ith and c r i t i c a l o f m an's p la c e in mass s o c ie ty . ! 35 ‘ | W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n i s no lo n g e r ta k in g a cc o u n t o f th e in d iv id u a l and th e r e seem no grounds f o r hoping i t w i l l e v e r do so a g a in . . . . S o c ie ty knows o n ly a few o f th e dim ensions o f th e in d iv id u a l; man in h is w holeness c o n s id e re d a s an in d iv id u a l no lo n g e r e x i s t s f o r i t . (3 6 :1 7 2 -1 7 3 ) j As he i s c o n cern ed w ith man in m ass s o c i e t y , th e | i j |e x i s t e n t i a l i s t i s c o n cern ed w ith th e f a t e o f th e in d iv id u a l | I i | when fa c e d w ith a m ass e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m . The e x is te n - i ! i j t i a l i s t ' s d e s ir e in re g a rd t o e d u c a tio n i s a h ig h ly i n d i v id u a liz e d e d u c a tio n w hich en co u rag es th e developm ent o f i ; | a man who i s re s p o n s iv e to h is own c o n sc ie n c e and re s p o n - . i I s i b l e f o r h is own l i f e : th e a u th e n tic man. The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t i s c r i t i c a l o f to d a y 's sc h o o ls i i i b u t w ould n o t condemn a l l t h a t he fin d s t h e r e . He r e s e r v e s h is condem nation f o r th o s e in flu e n c e s w hich dehum anize th e s tu d e n t and demand h is c o n fo rm ity . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t , f o r I iex am p le, w ould be q u ite c r i t i c a l o f th e d re s s codes f o r s tu d e n ts t h a t many e d u c a to rs h o ld so d e a r. D ress codes | a re o f te n defended a s a means o f g e n e ra tin g d i s c ip l i n e on j I th e p a r t o f th e s tu d e n t. D is c ip lin e i s a le g itim a te aim I i f o r e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a to rs b u t th e d i s c i p l i n e th e y seek i s s e l f im posed and n o t a m a tte r o f c o n fo rm ity t o p r in - j c ip l e s o r codes t h a t th e s tu d e n t can n e i t h e r a c c e p t n o r i | r e j e c t . Such codes en co u rag e mass c o n fo rm ity an d n o t tr u e 36 d i s c i p l i n e . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t w ith h is co n cern f o r th e in d iv id u a l i s , a s s t a t e d above, e x tre m e ly c r i t i c a l o f any in flu e n c e w hich en co u rag es u n th in k in g c o n fo rm ity t o e x t e r n a l l y im posed p r i n c i p le s . E x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n i s b ased upon th e assum p t i o n t h a t a u th e n tic man sh o u ld be th e aim o f e d u c a tio n . In com paring e x i s t e n t i a l i s m w ith e x p e rim e n tslism , K n e lle r s t a t e s : There i s s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y betw een th e e x i s te n t i a l i s t ' s co n cep t o f tra n s c e n d e n c e and th e e x p e r i m e n t a l i s t 's co n cep t o f grow th; in t h i s In s ta n c e , s e l f tra n s c e n d e n c e i s perh ap s th e more a c c u ra te te rm . Both t r a d i t i o n s g ra n t t h a t th e v e ry f u n c tio n o f liv in g i s t o grow, " to tra n s c e n d o n e 's p re s e n t s e l f and become som ething m ore"; in o th e r w ords, t o seek s e l f r e a l i z a - £l2£L T h is s e l f tra n s c e n d e nce th u s becomes b o th th e means and th e en d , b o th p ro d u ct and p ro c e ss o f th e human e n t e r p r i s e . (3 2 :7 0 , i t a l i c s m ine) E d u catio n f o r th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t i s more th a n su b j e c t m a tte r and i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c i p l i n e . E x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n seek s an aw akening on th e p a r t o f th e le a r n e r ; an aw areness o f h im s e lf a s a f r e e e x i s t e n t who i s f r e e to choose h is v a lu e s and i s t o t a l l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e l i f e t h a t he ch o o ses f o r h im s e lf. O 'N e i l l's a n a ly s is o f th e e d u c a tio n a l im p lic a tio n s o f S a rtre a n e x i s t e n t i a l i s m r e v e a ls , in more s p e c i f i c te rm s, f iv e u ltim a te aim s f o r th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a to r. The 37 f i r s t o f th e s e o b je c tiv e s i s "The Development and ftropa- g a tio n o f E x is te n t ia l I n s ig h t" (4 9 :3 9 6 ). By " e x i s t e n t i a l in s ig h t" O 'N e ill r e f e r s t o an o v e r a ll aw areness on th e p a rt o f th e le a r n e r o f h im s e lf and w hat m ight be c a l le d " l i f e a s i t i s . " I t i s e s s e n t i a l a c c o rd in g t o O 'N e i l l's a n a ly s is , I t h a t th e s tu d e n t become aw are o f a c l e a r and c o n v in cin g j concept o f man, th e human c o n d itio n and m an 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in r e l a t i o n t o su ch r e a l i t i e s . T h is e x i s t e n t i a l ! c o n c e p tio n o f man p ro v id e s th e fo u n d a tio n f o r th e s t u d e n t 's i s e a rc h f o r a u t h e n t i c i t y . The second o f O 'N e i l l's o b je c tiv e s i s "The En couragem ent o f A ttitu d e o f P o s itiv e A ffirm a tio n Toward E x is te n c e " (4 9 :3 9 8 ). O 'N e ill s u g g e s ts t h a t t h i s i s perh ap s i | th e m ost d i f f i c u l t o b je c tiv e o f a l l t o a c h ie v e e s p e c ia lly a f t e r th e s tu d e n t has become aw are o f w hat th e e x is te n t i a l i s t s se e a s th e u ltim a te a b s u r d ity o f l i f e . The s t u d en t sh o u ld become aw are t h a t i t i s in th e so c a lle d l a b s u r d ity o f l i f e t h a t th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r r e a l and a b so - I j l u t e freedom i s p ro v id e d . The aim o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a to r i s t o encourage a p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e tow ard th e ! freedom t h a t e x is te n c e o f f e r s . The t h i r d p r in c ip le w hich O 'N e ill d is c u s s e s i s th e " C u ltiv a tio n o f P erso n al Autonomy Through A ctiv e D e d ic a tio n 38 t o a System o f S e lf C onstrued V alu es" (4 9 :3 9 8 ). T his t h i r d p r i n c i p le i s c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e second and in* v o lv e s th e developm ent o f a s e l f chosen v a lu e system t o i | w hich th e s tu d e n t i s a c t iv e l y d e d ic a te d . A t r u l y e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n s t r i v e s t o in d u ce th e c r e a t i v e s y n th e s is o f a t o t a l system o f p e rs o n a l | v a lu e s , a system encom passing th e i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f e v e ry e x is te n t and p ro v id in g a n a d eq u a te b a s is f o r t h a t "engagem ent" w hich i s a r a t i o n a l c o r o l l a r y o f an a ffirm e d and e v a lu a te d e x is te n c e . (4 9 :3 9 9 ) j I f th e s tu d e n t i s aw are o f h im s e lf and o f h is f r e e dom, has developed a p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h a t freedom , j and i f A b so lu te s ta n d a rd s a r e n o t a v a i la b l e , th e n th e j ! s tu d e n t can d ev elo p h is own v a lu e sy stem . M orris se e s j e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n a s one w hich r e s u l t s in a y o u n g ste r who becomes f u l l y aw are o f h im s e lf as a sh a p e r o f h is own l i f e , aw are o f th e f a c t t h a t he j must ta k e ch arg e o f h i s own l i f e and makes h i s own ! sta te m e n t o f w hat a human b e in g ought t o b e - - t h i s i s th e in d iv id u a l who has b een b ro u g h t beyond m ere su b j e c t m a tte r , beyond m ere i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c ip l i n e , beyond mere e n c u ltu r a tio n , beyond m ere "fundam ental d i s p o s i t i o n s ," t o th e e x o tic b u t suprem ely human zone . . . th e zone o f v a lu e c r e a tio n beyond th e re a c h o f te a c h e r and te x tb o o k . (4 6 :1 1 1 ) The s tu d e n t th e n c r e a te s h i s own v a lu e system ev en though th e r e i s no A b so lu te b a s is f o r t h a t sy stem . The s tu d e n t becomes a b a s e le s s c h o o s e r. In o th e r w ords, th e s tu d e n t who i s aw are o f h im s e lf and th e u ltim a te a b s u r d ity o f h is 39 s i t u a t i o n makes th e b e s t o f h i s e x is te n c e by c h o o sin g and a s s ig n in g v a lu e t o th o s e e le m e n ts w ith in h is s i t u a t i o n t h a t he fin d s m e a n in g fu l. The i n d i v i d u a l 's freedom t o choose in v o lv e s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e consequences o f th o s e c h o ic e s . The in d iv id u a l i s n o t m ere ly free, he i s a ls o r e s p o n s ib le . i l e t e d u c a tio n be th e d is c o v e ry o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ! Let le a rn in g be th e s h a rp and v i v id aw akening o f th e le a r n e r t o th e se n se o f b e in g p e rs o n a lly an sw e rab le f o r h is own l i f e . (4 6 :1 1 7 ) Yet t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s o f a v e ry p a r t i c u l a r ty p e . Someone w i l l sa y , " I d id n o t a sk t o be b o r n ." T h is i s a n a iv e way o f th ro w in g g r e a t e r em phasis upon our f a c t i c i t y . 1 am re s p o n s ib le f o r e v e ry th in g , in f a c t , e x c e p t f o r my v e ry r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , f o r I am n o t th e fo u n d a tio n o f my b e in g . T h e re fo re , e v e ry th in g ta k e s p la c e a s i f I w ere com pelled t o be r e s p o n s ib le . I am abandoned In th e w o rld , n o t in th e se n se t h a t 1 | m ight rem ain abandoned and p a s s iv e i n a h o s t i l e u n i- j v e rs e l i k e a b o a rd f l o a t i n g on th e w a te r, b u t r a t h e r ■ in th e se n se t h a t 1 f in d m y se lf su d d e n ly a lo n e and w ith o u t h e lp , engaged in a w o rld f o r w hich I b e a r th e w hole r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w ith o u t b e in g , w h a tev e r I do, t o t e a r m y se lf away from t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r an i n s t a n t . F or I am r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r my v e ry d e s ir e o f f le e in g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . (5 4 :6 8 0 ) M an's s i t u a t i o n p ro v id e s more th a n th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r v a lu e c r e a tio n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , i t demands i t . Choosing and th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r ch o o sin g a r e in e f f e c t j |t h e o n ly c o n s ta n ts i n th e human s i t u a t i o n . E d u catio n th e n :sh o u ld seek aw areness on th e p a rt o f th e s tu d e n t o f th e j . . 4 0 demands o f th e human s i t u a t i o n . O 'N e i l l's f o u r th o b je c tiv e i s "The Encouragem ent o f A ctiv e Engagement" (4 9 :3 9 9 ). The aim o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t | e d u c a to r i s t h a t h is s tu d e n t w i l l become a c t i v e l y in v o lv e d in l i f e . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t 's overpow ering them e i s t h a t | j th e p r o je c t o f liv in g o n e 's l i f e in su ch a way a s -to ! be d e se rv in g o f som ething b e t t e r th a n n o th in g n e s s and | o b l i t e r a t i o n ; t o c o n fro n t n o th in g n e s s , t o deny n o th in g - j n e s s , by f i l l i n g i t up w ith a l i f e t h a t ought n e v e r t o be l o s t o r a n n ih i l a t e d . (4 6 :2 9 ) j T his fo u r th o b je c tiv e i s c lo s e l y a s s o c ia te d w ith th e second: |a p o s itiv e a t t i t u d e to w ard e x is te n c e . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t j e d u c a to r f a i l s when h i s s tu d e n t y ie ld s t o th e te m p ta tio n jto "d ro p o u t" o r become d ise n g a g e d from l i f e in th e fa c e o f i |w hat m ight be se e n a s th e f u t i l i t y o f l i f e . The e x i s te n t i a l i s t e d u c a to r c h a lle n g e s h is s tu d e n t t o make se n se o f th e w o rld and c o n tin u a lly t o se ek a u t h e n t i c i t y w ith in t h a t i ! w o rld . 1 s O 'N e i l l 's f i n a l o b je c tiv e i s "The Advocacy o f i S o c ia l L ib e rty " (4 9 :4 0 0 ). j S o c ia l l i b e r t y i s , o f c o u rs e , th e c ru x o f S a r t r e 's | e t h i c a l th e o r y . I t i s , a s su c h , an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f S a r t r e 's e t h i c a l program f o r form al e d u c a tio n . The | e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a to r i s a m o r a lis t, and th e b a s is o f | h is m o r a lity r e s id e s i n a c o n v ic tio n t h a t th e f u l l e s t developm ent o f in d iv id u a l a u t h e n t i c i t y i s a lm o st i n v a r ia b ly a s s o c ia te d w ith a maximum d eg ree o f s o c ia l ( p o l i t i c a l ) l i b e r t y w ith in th e c u lt u r e a t la r g e . (4 9 :4 0 0 ) The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t i s concerned w ith th e developm ent o£ a | s o c i a l c lim a te w ith in w hich th e o th e r fo u r o b je c tiv e s can more e a s i l y be acco m p lish e d . In t h i s in s ta n c e , th e r e f o r e , | I !e x is te n ti a li s m i s a s o c i a l p h ilo so p h y a s w e ll a s a p e rs o n a l | j p h ilo so p h y and s u g g e s ts th e aim o f e s ta b lis h in g th e a u th e n t i c s o c ie ty as w e ll a s th e a u th e n tic man. | i A ccording t o th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , th e n , e d u c a tio n i ! sh o u ld seek t o awaken in th e s tu d e n t an aw aren ess o f him s e l f a s a f r e e e x i s t e n t . Secondly, e d u c a tio n sh o u ld make j i th e s tu d e n t aw are t h a t h is freedom o b lig a te s th e s tu d e n t t o i become a " b a s e le s s c h o o s e r." F in a lly , th e s tu d e n t becomes i o b lig a te d n o t o n ly t o c r e a te h is v a lu e sy stem b u t a c t i v e l y and a u th e n ti c a l ly to l i v e in l i g h t o f t h a t sy stem . In o rd e r f o r th e s tu d e n t t o become aw are o f h im s e lf > a s f r e e and r e s p o n s ib le , he m ust f i r s t become aw are o f h is i ! own e x is te n c e . The e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e s o f th e e x is te n - | ‘ i t i a l i s t aim f i r s t a t i n te n s if y in g s e l f a w are n ess. | | I f e d u c a tio n i s t o be t r u l y human, i t m ust some how awaken aw aren ess in th e l e a r n e r —e x i s t e n t i a l aw areness o f h im s e lf a s a s in g le s u b j e c t i v i t y p re s e n t in th e w o rld . , To be human i s f i r s t to e x i s t , and t o e x i s t i s t o 1 be aw are o f b e in g , t o be aw are o f e x is t i n g . (4 5 :1 1 0 ) | I t fo llo w s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th o s e a c t i v i t i e s w hich j i n te n s i f y th e aw areness o f th e in d iv id u a l o f h im s e lf a s 42 i Ian e x is tin g s u b j e c t i v i t y a r e th o se t h a t th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a to r s e e k s . In S a r t r e 's te rm s, th o s e a c t i v i t i e s w hich ! i " r e le a s e s u b j e c t i v i t y " (5 4 :7 1 1 ) a r e e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le . ! I S a r t r e 's c o n ce p t o f th e " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y [ |le a d s to c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t i n g i f n o t a sto u n d in g c o n c lu sio n s in re g a rd to th e p ro p e r " s p i r i t " f o r th e co n d u ct o f ed u ca t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . | As soon a s a man ap p reh en d s h im s e lf a s f r e e and | w ish es t o u se h is freedom , a freedom , by th e way, w hich c o u ld j u s t a s w e ll be h is a n g u is h , th e n h is i a c t i v i t y i s p la y . (5 4 :7 1 1 ) ! P lay, l ik e K L erk eg aard 's ir o n y , r e le a s e s su b je c - i t i v i t y . What i s p la y i f n o t an a c t i v i t y o f w hich man | i s th e f i r s t o r i g in , fo r w hich man h im s e lf s e t s th e i r u l e s and w hich has no co nsequences e x c e p t a c c o rd in g to th e r u l e s p o s ite d . (5 4 :7 1 1 ) P lay, t h e r e f o r e , a llo w s man t o know t h a t he is , and en co u rag es him to ex p erim en t w ith h i s b e in g . I f p la y r e - i | le a s e s s u b j e c t i v i t y and i f a c t i v i t i e s w hich r e le a s e s u b j e c t iv i t y a r e se e n a s e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le th e n in |one way o r a n o th e r , th e " s p i r i t o f p la y " sh o u ld be an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e s s . The " s p i r i t o f p la y " f u l f i l l s o r en co u rag es th e f u l f il l m e n t o f many o f th e u ltim a te aim s f o r e d u c a tio n su g g e ste d by O 'N e ill. The ;" s p i r i t o f p la y " th e r e f o r e i s p ro p e rly a t th e c o re o f e x is - ! t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l th in k in g and p r a c t ic e . As w i l l be se en in th e d is c u s s io n o f H uizinga in C hapter I I I , p la y i s n o t n e c e s s a r il y f r i v o l o u s . Play may j be c o n s id e re d w ith g r e a t e s t g r a v ity . A " s p i r i t o f p la y " in e d u c a tio n does n o t deny th e g r a v ity o f e d u c a tio n a l i | a c t i v i t i e s , b u t i t does a f f ir m a n e x p e rim e n ta l and e x p e r i- , J ' e n t i a l mode f o r e d u c a tio n . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t w ould n o t abandon th o s e s u b je c t m a tte rs w hich have fo rm e rly been h e ld | ! ! i i n g r e a t e s t e steem b u t w ould p ro b a b ly m odify th e t r a d i - j I j 1 t i o n a l a p p ro a ch t o su ch s tu d ie s an d i n j e c t i n to them th e ! i " s p i r i t o f p la y ." | In c o n tr a s t t o th e " s p i r i t o f p l a y ," S a r tr e d e fin e s i th e " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s " : The s p i r i t o f s e rio u s n e s s h as tw o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : i t c o n s id e rs v a lu e s a s tr a n s c e n d e n t g iv e n s independent o f human s u b j e c t i v i t y , and i t t r a n s f e r s th e q u a l i t y o f " d e s ir a b le " from th e o n to lo g ic a l s t r u c t u r e o f th in g s | t o t h e i r sim p le m a te r ia l c o n s t i t u t i o n . (5 4 :7 6 6 ) |The " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s " r e l i e s upon th e e x is te n c e o f tr a n s c e n d e n t p r e - e x is tin g v a lu e s w hich a re d e n ie d by th e i i ;e x i s t e n t i a l i s t . I Many s u b je c t a re a s in th e m odern sc h o o l a r e con- ! s id e r e d i n th e " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s ." Such s u b je c t jm a tte rs a r e c o n sid e re d a s im p o rta n t in and o f th em se lv e s |c o n ta in in g p r e - e x is tin g m eanings n e c e s s a ry t o th e e d u c a tio n 44 !o f a s tu d e n t a s though th e y w ere p a in ts t o be a p p lie d t o iproduce a f in is h e d w ork o f a r t . These s u b je c t a re a s w ould i be im p o rta n t t o th e e d u c a te d man w h e th e r o r n o t he f in d s m eaning i n them . As has b een shown, th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t se e s a l l v a lu e e x is ti n g o n ly in s o f a r a s th e in d iv id u a l e x i s t s to a s s ig n su ch v a lu e , and m eaning e x i s t s o n ly in s o f a r a s i t |becom es m ea n in g fu l i n th e l i f e o f th e s u b j e c t . S u b je c ts c o n s id e re d in th e " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s ," th e n , a r e n o t n e c e s s a r ily m ea n in g fu l and o f q u e s tio n a b le e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e . The " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s ," t h e r e f o r e , i s in a p p ro - i |p r i a t e f o r e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t may I c o n s id e r c e r t a i n s u b je c t m a tte rs w ith extrem e g r a v ity , b u t n o t w ith s e rio u s n e s s , i f by s e rio u s n e s s i s m eant t h a t th e s u b je c t m a tte rs have p r e - e x is tin g v a lu e and m eaning i n and i o f th e m se lv e s. | In s te a d o f c o n c e n tra tin g upon th e a n g u ish t h a t i s i j in h e re n t in b e in g and h is lo n e ly e x is te n c e i n th e w o rld , I I p la y a llo w s o r en co u rag es man t o a cc o m p lish jo y f u ll y each | o f th e f iv e u ltim a te aim s f o r e d u c a tio n su g g e ste d by I j O 'N e i ll 's a n a l y s i s . | W hatever e ls e i t may b e, e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n i s n e ith e r a sim p le in tr o d u c tio n t o in d is c r im in a te e x p e rie n c e n o r an ex te n d ed c o u rse in p r a c t i c a l problem 45 s o lv in g . I t i s , in th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , "a p re p a ra tio n f o r l i f e " —t h a t i s , a p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e f u l l e s t o r m ost a d eq u a te r e a l i z a t i o n o f o n e 's c a p a c i ti e s a s a man in th e w o rld . . . . S a r tr e i s n o t a r e l a t i v i s t . He i s | q u ite w illin g t o d e c la re t h a t c e r t a i n elem en ts a r e la c k in g in th e p r e - e x i s t e n t i a l and n o n - e x i s te n ti a l man and t h a t th e s e e le m e n ts a r e p r e c is e ly w hat t h i s man (o r c h i l d ) needs i n o rd e r t o become a b e t t e r o r " r e a l" p e rso n . He i s , i n b r i e f , a n e d u c a tio n a l e s s e n t i a l i s t , th e a d v o ca te o f a t r u l y " l i b e r a l " e d u c a tio n —a n ed u ca t i o n d e d ic a te d t o th e " l i b e r a t i o n " o f man from e r r o r , from co w ard ice, and from s e l f - d e c e i t . (4 9 :2 5 9 ) E x is te n tia lis m does n o t a d v o c a te m ere a w a re n e ss. S e lf | i r e a l i z a t i o n i s th e o v e r a l l aim , b u t th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t v e ry | ■ j | r e a d i l y se e s th e need f o r th e s tu d e n t t o a c q u ire th e t o o ls j |and s k i l l s t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l e d u c a to rs o fte n h o ld so d e a r | in o rd e r t o a t t a i n e x i s t e n t i a l aw aren ess o f s e l f . E x is t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n i s n o t n e c e s s a r il y in o p p o s itio n t o academ ic s u b je c t m a tte r b u t e x i s t e n t i a l i s m v a lu e s su ch s u b je c t m a tte rs in l i g h t o f i t s o v e r a l l alm s f o r e d u c a tio n . I The m ost a p p ro p r ia te mode f o r e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e i s " th e s p i r i t o f p la y ." Summary T his c h a p te r h as o u tlin e d e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f | I e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n a l th e o r y a s i t a p p lie s t o th e p re s e n t s tu d y . The aim o f e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l th in k in g i s s e l f a c t u a l i z a ti o n , th e developm ent o f th e a u th e n tic man 46 i who i s a s e l f d ir e c te d re s p o n s ib le I n d iv id u a l. Knowledge a c c o rd in g t o th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t I s a j m a tte r o f a p p r o p r ia tio n . Han ta k e s from h is s i t u a t i o n t h a t j | w hich I s m ea n in g fu l f o r h im s e lf . Knowledge Is knowledge j ; ! when I t becomes m e a n in g fu l I n th e l i f e o f th e s u b je c t. , j An e d u c a tio n I s m ea n in g fu l when I t p ro v id e s th e |s tu d e n t th e o p p o rtu n ity t o r e a l i z e t h a t he i s a fu n c tio n in g j i i j | f r e e e x is te n t who i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r h is own l i f e . B efore th e s tu d e n t can become aw are o f h is freedom and r e s p o n s i- i b i l i t y , he m ust become aw are o f h is b e in g , o f h is s u b je c - j t l v l t y . | I | Those a c t i v i t i e s w hich en co u rag e a h e ig h te n e d : I aw areness o f b e in g , th o s e a c t i v i t i e s w hich " r e le a s e su b j e c t i v i t y " a re o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e in th e e x i s t e n t i a l v ie w . The " s p i r i t o f p la y " i s a p p ro p r ia te t o e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry in t h a t i t se e s man a s th e c r e a t o r o f v a lu e even th o u g h s u b je c t m a tte r s and a c t i v i t i e s th em se lv e s may be t r e a t e d w ith utm ost g r a v i t y . T hat th e s tu d e n t J r e a l i z e t h a t he i s th e c r e a t o r o f h is v a lu e s and re s p o n s i b l e f o r h is c r e a tio n i s th e e sse n c e o f e x i s t e n t i a l ed u - i c a t io n a l th e o r y . ! \ CHAPTER I I I THE BASIS FOR AND THE GENERAL NATURE OF SPORT I | The developm ent o f a com plete a ll-e n c o m p a ss in g ! d e f i n i t i o n and d e s c r ip tio n o f s p o r t may w e ll be im p o s s ib le , i The s u b je c t seems w o rth y o f a f u l l stu d y in and o f i t s e l f . A g e n e ra l d e f i n i ti o n and d e s c r ip tio n , how ever, i s f u l l y a d eq u a te fo r p u rp o ses o f t h i s stu d y an d w i l l p ro v id e b ack g ro u n d f o r th e r e a d e r f o r th e a n a ly s is o f th e s p o r ts ex p e rie n c e w hich i s p re s e n te d in C h ap ter IV. D e f in itio n o f S port E lean o r M etheny, in h e r book C o n n o tatio n s o f Move ment in S p o rt an d Dance (4 3 ), d e fin e s s p o r t v e ry g e n e r a lly s t a t i n g t h a t we may " i d e n t i f y s p o r t a s th e r e s u l t a n t o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een fo rc e s t h a t man se n se s a s h is own powers and th e fo rc e s in th e u n iv e rs e t h a t seem t o a c t on him" (4 3 :1 9 ). M etheny s t a t e s t h a t " a l l forms o f s p o r ts and dance a re man made form s c r e a te d o u t o f th e f o rc e s t h a t 47 | 48 i men a r e a b le t o c o n tr o l" (4 3 :1 9 ). L a te r , she s t a t e s t h a t " s p o r ts and dances a r e c r e a te d o u t o f th e I n t e r a c t io n betw een powers i n man an d th e fo rc e s t h a t a c t oil him" (4 3 :1 9 ). In Movement and Meaning (4 4 ), Metheny a s s e r t s t h a t , A s p o r t I s a n o rg a n iz a tio n o f e f f e c t i v e a c t io n s . The c o n c e p tio n o f th e s e a c tio n s I s d en o ted In a code o f r u l e s , and th e s e r u l e s a ls o d e fin e th e c o n c e p tio n o f "w hat c o u n ts " In e v a lu a tin g th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f th e a c t io n s . (4 4 :5 7 ) I M etheny*s d e f i n i t i o n s a re s t a t e d In v e ry g e n e ra l i te rm s, y e t th e y do encom pass th e e s s e n t i a l s o f s p o r t. i | S t i l l , M etheny's d e f i n i t i o n does prove tro u b le so m e . The j b u ild in g o f a s k y s c ra p e r, o r a b rid g e , o r a ro c k e t to th e moon m ight be se en a s "man made form s c r e a te d o u t o f fo rc e s t h a t men a re a b le t o c o n tr o l" (4 3 :1 9 ). A c o u rt t r i a l may be se en a s an " o rg a n iz a tio n o f e f f e c t i v e a c tio n s . . . d en o ted In a code o f r u l e s " (4 4 :5 7 ). S u rely th e s e a c t i v i t i e s a r e n o t s p o r t , a t l e a s t In i th e a c c e p te d se n se o f th e w ord. What seems la c k in g in ; M etheny*s d e f i n i t i o n i s a se n se o f p la y , a se n se o f p u r- I I p o se, and a se n se o f m eaning. What seems Im p o rta n t to em phasize in M eth en y 's d e f i n i t i o n o f s p o r t i s t h a t s p o r t i s a man made a c t i v i t y . S p o rt i s v e ry much a human 49 j a c t i v i t y a s l a t e r d is c u s s io n w i l l show. i t I In s p i t e o f w e ak n esses, M etheny's d e f i n i t i o n p ro v id e s a v e ry g e n e ra l w orking d e f i n i t i o n o f s p o r t . The d e f i n i t i o n i s vague and in some in s ta n c e s w eak, b u t th e rev iew o f l i t e r a t u r e an d r e s e a r c h r e v e a le d few d e f i n i ti o n s i a t a l l , and none t h a t a r e a s a d e q u a te a s M eth en y 's. I t i s s a f e t o assum e t h a t human s p o r t i s b a sed , p r im a r ily , on w hat m ight be c a l le d th e im pulse t o p la y . I | ! John H uizinga, in h is book Homo Ludens (2 7 ), d is c u s s e s th e i t i | p la y co n cep t i n d e t a i l . ! Play i s o ld e r th a n c u lt u r e , f o r c u lt u r e , however d e fin e d , alw ays p resu p p o se s human s o c ie ty , and a n im als | have n o t w a ite d f o r man t o te a c h them t h e i r p la y in g , j W e can s a f e l y a s s e r t even, t h a t human c i v i l i z a t i o n has added no e s s e n t i a l f e a tu r e t o th e g e n e ra l id e a o f p la y . Animals p la y j u s t l i k e men. (2 7 :1 ) Anim als p la y and men p la y and th e ra n g e o f such a c t i v i t i e s , a c c o rd in g t o H u izin g a, ru n s from mere rom ping I t o "much more h ig h ly d ev elo p ed fo rm s: r e g u la r c o n te s ts and b e a u t if u l p erform ances b e fo re a n a d m irin g p u b lic " (2 7 :1 ). Somewhere a vague l in e may be drawn betw een th e sim p le r form s o f p la y an d t h a t w hich we c a l l s p o r t , b u t i t i s po s s i b l e to assum e t h a t b o th th e e la b o r a te r i t u a l o f a p ro - i | f e s s io n a l b a s e b a ll game and th e m erry gam bols o f young k i t t e n s a r e on th e same continuum . 50 j Even in i t s s im p le s t forms on th e a n im al le v e l p la y i s more th a n mere p h y s io lo g ic a l phenomenon o r psycho lo g ic a l r e f l e x . I t goes beyond th e c o n fin e s o f p u re ly p h y s ic a l o r b io lo g ic a l a c t i v i t y . I t i s a s i g n i f i c a n t | f u n c t i o n - - th a t i s t o sa y , th e r e i s som ething " a t p la y " w hich tra n s c e n d s th e im m ediate needs o f l i f e and im- ! p a r ts m eaning to th e a c tio n . A ll p la y means som ething. I f we c a l l th e a c tiv e p r in c ip le t h a t makes up th e e sse n c e o f p la y , " i n s t i n c t , " we e x p la in n o th in g ; i f we c a l l i t "mind" we say to o much. However we may r e - i g a rd i t , th e v e ry f a c t t h a t p la y has a m eaning im p lie s a n o n - r a a te r ia lis tic q u a l i t y in th e n a tu r e o f th e th in g i t s e l f . (2 7 :1 ) There have been many a tte m p ts to e x p la in th e fu n c tio n s o f p la y . Some e x p la in i t a s a r e le a s e o f p h y sio - ! |l o g i c a l e n e rg y , o r a s a c t i v i t y whose fu n c tio n i s to s a t i s f y i | a re q u ire m e n t in man f o r r e l a x a t i o n . In h is book The S ile n t language (2 0 ), Edward T. H a ll s e e s p la y a s one o f th e prim ary form s o f com m unication w ith in c u lt u r e b u t t h a t th e f u n c tio n s o f p la y a r e n o t e x a c tly c l e a r . In th e c o u rse o f e v o lu tio n , p la y has been a r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t and n o t to o w e ll u n d e rsto o d a d d itio n to liv in g p ro c e s s e s . I t i s w e ll dev elo p ed in mammals b u t n o t so e a s i l y re c o g n iz a b le in b i r d s , and i t s r o le a s an a d a p tiv e mechanism i s y e t to be p in n ed down. (2 0 :5 6 ) i i ! In l i g h t o f H u iz in g a 's th o u g h ts , w h e th er c u l t u r a l ! o r p r e c u l tu r a l, i t may w e ll be s a id t h a t p la y i s a form o f | com m unication. H a ll s t a t e s t h a t p la y m ight be a n a s p e c t o f a l l form s o f com m unication a s w e ll a s a form o f 51 | com m unication in i t s e l f (2 0 :5 6 -5 7 ). H a ll s e e s p la y a s c lo s e ly a l l i e d w ith a n i n d i v i d u a l 's o r c u l t u r e 's d e fe n se o f ! !i t s e l f , Im plying t h a t p la y in v o lv e s some s o r t o f tr a i n in g |f o r d e fe n se p u rp o ses and s t a t i n g t h a t jo k in g i s o f te n a i |means o f c o n c e a lin g p o s s ib le w eaknesses (2 0 :5 7 ). R obert A rd ley , in h is book T e r r i t o r i a l Im p era tiv e | ( 1 ), im p lie s t h a t i n s p o r t we f in d a s p e c ts o f M an's n a tu r a l, b io lo g ic a l n a tu re m a n ife s te d in s o c i a l l y a c c e p te d w ays. !He a ls o im p lie s t h a t s p o r t i s one o f th e few a re a s o f human a c t i v i t y w here Man can l e t go h is b a s ic a n im al n a tu re (1 :2 4 1 -2 4 4 ). H uizinga p ro b a b ly w ould n o t f in d H a ll o r A rd le y 's a n a ly s is in e r r o r , b u t he does in d ic a te t h a t su ch b io - c u l t u r a l e x p la n a tio n s m iss th e p o in t. In sp e a k in g o f such e x p la n a tio n s , H uizinga s a y s, Most o f them o n ly d e a l i n c i d e n t a ll y w ith th e q u e s tio n o f w hat p la y i s in i t s e l f and w hat i t means fo r th e p la y e r . They a t t a c k p la y w ith th e q u a n ti t a t iv e m ethods j o f e x p e rim e n ta l s c ie n c e w ith o u t f i r s t pay in g a t t e n t i o n | t o i t s p ro fo u n d ly a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y o f p la y a s such v i r t u a l l y u n to u ch ed . (2 7 :3 ) i What th e n i s th e p rim ary q u a l i t y o f p la y ? What i s th e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f p la y ? Why i s a huge crowd ro u se d to a fre n z y by a f o o t- j b a l l m atch? T his i n t e n s i t y o f , and a b s o rp tio n in i fin d s no e x p la n a tio n in b io lo g ic a l a n a l y s i s . Yet in i t h i s i n t e n s i t y , t h i s a b s o rp tio n , t h i s power o f mad d en in g , l i e s th e v e ry e sse n c e , th e p rim o rd ia l q u a l i t y o f p la y . N a tu re , so o u r re a s o n t e l l s u s, c o u ld j u s t a s e a s i l y have g iv e n h e r c h ild r e n a l l th o s e u s e f u l | fu n c tio n s o f d is c h a rg in g su p ra -a b u n d a n t en erg y , o f r e la x in g a f t e r e x e r tio n , o f t r a i n i n g f o r th e demands o f l i f e , o f com pensating f o r u n f u l f i l l e d lo n g in g s , e t c . , in th e form o f p u re ly m ech an ical e x e r c is e s and r e a c tio n s . But no, sh e gave us p la y , w ith i t s te n s io n , j i t s m irth and i t s fu n . (2 7 :2 -3 ) I i l i t w ould seem t h a t N atu re, God, o r w h atev er c o u ld have I i | p ro v id ed a more e f f i c i e n t means o f d e a lin g w ith th e f a c t o r s ; ! ! H uizinga l i s t s i n th e above q u o te . H uizinga w ould n o t deny ; t h a t p la y perform s th e v a rio u s f u n c tio n s t h a t have been j ! i I a t t r i b u t e d to i t , y e t he seems t o im ply m ore. He im p lie s j t h a t i t i s th e n a tu r e o f th e p la y e x p e rie n c e i t s e l f t h a t j Man and o th e r liv in g form s f in d so a t t r a c t i v e . I t i s th e | e sse n c e o f t h i s e x p e rie n c e t h a t t h i s stu d y seek s t o d e fin e , b u t i t i s h e re t h a t H uizinga b e g in s t o s k i r t th e is s u e , a t l e a s t a s f a r a s t h i s stu d y i s co n ce rn e d . He does s t a t e t h a t " th e fu n o f p la y in g r e s i s t s a l l a n a ly s is , a l l lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . . n e v e r th e le s s i t | i s p r e c is e ly t h i s fu n -ele m e n t t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e s th e i e sse n c e o f p la y " (2 7 :3 ). I f "fu n " c an n o t be d e fin e d , i t sh o u ld be d e s c rib e d , and t h i s H uizinga f a i l s to do, a t I l e a s t in e x p l i c i t te rm s. I t w ould seem t h a t p le a s u re o r jo y a r e t o be found a t th e b a s is o f th e term " f u n ." j i I H uizinga a ls o d ev elo p s an i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o rtan t i ta c k in h is d e s c r ip tio n o f p la y . j ! ! i S ince th e r e a l i t y o f p la y e x te n d s beyond th e sp h e re ; I o f human l i f e i t cannot have i t s fo u n d a tio n s in any I j r a t i o n a l nexus, b e c a u se t h i s w ould lim it i t t o m ankind. ! The in c id e n c e o f p la y i s not a s s o c ia te d w ith any p a r- j | t i c u l a r s ta g e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n o r view o f th e u n iv e rs e . | Any th in k in g p e rso n can s e e a t a g la n c e t h a t p la y i s a th in g on i t s own, even i f h is lan g u ag e p o ss e s se s no j g e n e ra l concept t o e x p re ss i t . Flay cannot be d e n ie d . I You can deny, i f you l ik e , n e a r ly a l l a b s t r a c ti o n s : j u s t i c e , b e a u ty , t r u t h , g o o d n ess, m ind, God. You can deny s e r io u s n e s s , b u t n o t p la y . j . . . Here we have t o do w ith an a b s o lu te prim ary j c a te g o ry o f l i f e , f a m i li a r t o everybody a t a g la n c e r i g h t down to t h e an im al l e v e l . W e may w e ll c a l l p la y j a " t o t a l i t y " in th e modern se n se o f th e w ord, and i t i s a t o t a l i t y t h a t we must t r y to u n d e rsta n d and e v a lu a te | i t . (2 7 :3 ) Flay, th e n , i s more th a n th e o p p o s ite o f s e r io u s n e s s , f o r p la y can be v e ry s e rio u s in d e e d . FLay i s th e r e , b u t what i s i t ? O bviously, H uizinga fin d s p la y a s a p e rv a s iv e q u a l i t y in m ost o r a l l a s p e c ts o f l i f e . His purpose i |i s to r e l a t e th e p la y co n cep t t o c u l t u r e , and w ith in c u l t u r e he se e s e v id e n c e o f p la y n e a r ly everyw here, n o t a s f r iv o lo u s , b u t a s an i n te g r a l p a rt o f th e developm ent o f what he c a l l s "th e g re a t a rc h ty p a l a c t i v i t i e s o f human s o c ie ty " (2 7 :4 ). H uizinga s e e s p la y a s e s s e n t i a l t o th e developm ent o f such b a s ic human a c t i v i t i e s a s lan g u ag e, m yth, and r i t u a l . "New i n myth and r i t u a l th e g re a t i n s t i n c t i v e fo rc e s o f c i v i l i z e d l i f e have t h e i r o r ig in ; law j and o r d e r , commerce and p r o f i t , c r a f t and a r t , p o e try , w is - dom and s c ie n c e " (2 7 :5 ). i i i The above i s q u ite a s t a r t l i n g s ta te m e n t, e sp e c i a l l y f o r th o s e who a r e ta k e n up i n th e s e rio u s n e s s o f j t h e i r work and t h e i r l i v e s . I t i s , how ever, d i f f i c u l t t o ! I deny H uizinga in t h i s m a tte r . The m ost s e r io u s s c i e n t i f i c I th e o r y b u ild in g , th e p r a c t i c a l problem s o f b u ild in g a ro a d ! j o r com m ercial em p ire, th e c r e a t i o n o f a poem o r a p a in tin g j a r e perm eated w ith p la y . W e p la v w ith id e a s , w ith a b s t r a c - I ! tio n s , w ith c o n c e p ts when we d ev elo p s c i e n t i f i c th e o ry . I I jWe to v w ith n a tu r a l fo rc e s when b u ild in g a b rid g e ; we p la v th e s to c k m ark e t. What i s p o e try b u t th e a tte m p t t o p la v w ith w ords in an a tte m p t to e x p re s s an id e a ? Though we c o n s id e r th e s i t u a t i o n g ra v e and demanding o f g r e a t e s t idecorum , i t i s d i f f i c u l t , a t tim e s , r e a l l y t o s e p a ra te th e I e la b o r a te r i t u a l o f a co urtroom from th e p la y o f c h ild r e n . The r i t u a l o f th e c o u rt seems t o p erfo rm a more v i t a l c u l t u r a l fu n c tio n , b u t i t seems p o s s ib le t h a t th e r i t u a l I i t s e l f h as a r i s e n out o f p la y . We c an become v e ry so - ; p h is tic a te d in o u r m ethods, and we can p erfo rm in g r e a t : e a r n e s t , b u t p la y I t s e l f seems a n I n t e g r a l p a r t o f m ost I human a c t i v i t i e s . At f i r s t g la n c e , p la y i s c o n c e iv e d o f a s th e oppo- : s i t e o f , o r a s a& o p p o site o f s e r io u s n e s s , b u t much, i f n o t I m ost a l l p la y i s v e ry s e r io u s in d e e d , i f by s e r io u s i s m eant t h a t th e a c t i v i t y i s g ra v e ly c o n s id e re d . W orld S e rie s b a s e b a ll p la y e rs o r c h ild r e n p re te n d in g t o co n q u er space a r e v e ry much in e a r n e s t and n o t o f te n in c lin e d to ! la u g h te r and f r i v o l i t y . T h ea tre i s c o n s id e re d s e r io u s and j i I comedy one o f i t s more im p o rta n t fo rm s. H uizinga s a y s , : " th e c a te g o ry o f th e comic i s c lo s e l y c o n n e c te d w ith f o l l v i n th e h ig h e s t and lo w est se n se o f t h a t w ord. P lay , how e v e r , i s n o t f o o l is h . I t l i e s o u ts id e th e a n t i t h e s i s o f wisdom and f o l l y " (2 7 :6 ). S e rio u s n e s s , o r th e s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s , a s con c e iv e d o f by S a rtre i s n o t a t a l l i n fa v o r w ith e x is te n t i a l i s t th in k in g . In Being and N o th in g n ess (5 4 ), S a r tr e c h a r a c te r iz e s th e " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s " (q u o ted in C h ap ter I I ) . In t h a t same w ork, a f u r t h e r d e f i n i t i o n o f th e " s p i r i t o f s e rio u s n e s s " i s found: The " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s " ( l 'e s p r i t de s £ rie u x ) view s man a s a n o b je c t and s u b o rd in a te s him to th e w o rld . I t th in k s o f v a lu e s a s hav in g a n a b s o lu te e x is te n c e in d ep en d en t o f human r e a l i t y . (5 4 :7 7 6 ) I f we g ra n t t h a t p la y I s th e o p p o s ite o f s e r io u s n e s s , we i m ust be aw are, a s H uizinga I n d ic a te s , t h a t p la y Indeed I s i :n o t f o o lis h . I f one I s to fo llo w S a r t r e 's th in k in g In t h i s m a tte r , one sh o u ld sa y t h a t p la y o r th e s p i r i t o f p la y I s iv ery much In lin e w ith e x i s t e n t i a l i s t th in k in g in t h a t i t i |w ould e le v a te man an d h is p la c e i n th e u n iv e r s e . I Is n o t c r e a t i v i t y a m a tte r o f b e in g a b le t o p u t a s id e o r a t l e a s t s e l e c t " e s ta b lis h e d know ledge" in o rd e r to produce a th o u g h t o r th in g t h a t i s new ? Berhaps i t | I w ould be c o r r e c t t o say t h a t th e m ost c r e a t i v e p eo p le in ; our w o rld a r e th o s e who a re m ost imbued w ith th e s p i r i t o f p la y . I f , how ever, p la y i s in f a c t i n t e g r a l to so many phases o f human a c t i v i t y , th e q u e s tio n o f s e rio u s n e s s seems r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o rta n t. Play w ould seem t o be a c a te g o ry o f l i f e t h a t i s somewhat l a r g e r th a n s p o r t an d p o s s ib ly i t encom passes th o s e a s p e c ts o f human e x is te n c e t h a t m ight be la b e le d s e r io u s . S t i l l , th e q u e s tio n re m a in s. What i s p la y ? Hui z in g a a d m its t h a t he c an n o t c o m p le te ly s o lv e th e problem : ; . . . so we m ust le a v e i t a t t h a t : p la y i s a f u n c tio n o f th e l iv i n g , b u t i s n o t s u s c e p tib le o f e x a c t d e f i - j n i ti o n e i t h e r l o g ic a l l y , b i o lo g i c a l ly , o r a e s c e t i - ! c a l l y . (2 7 :7 ) j lterhaps as m eaningful as a d e f in it io n o f p lay i s a j d e s c r ip tio n o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p la y . I t may be t h a t j | th e d e s c r ip tio n w i l l a t l e a s t p o in t th e way tow ard a more i a d e q u a te u n d e rsta n d in g o f s p o r t, sh o u ld such a d e f i n i t i o n I j iprove e lu s iv e . H uizinga f a i l s t o p ro v id e an a d e q u a te d e f i n i ti o n , b u t he does d e s c rib e p la y and w hat he se e s a s i th e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f p la y . H uizinga d ev elo p s s e v e r a l c a te g o r ie s and d e s c rib e s s e v e r a l a s p e c ts o f p la y . Play i s a f r e e v o lu n ta ry a c t i v i t y . I f p la y i s | i fo rc e d , i t no lo n g e r i s p la y , f o r th e need f o r p la y i s n o t | j a b s o lu te . W e need p la y o n ly t o th e e x te n t t h a t th e e n jo y - l | | ment o r p o s s ib le p r o d u c tiv ity o f p la y makes i t a need (2 7 :7 ). Play i s not o r d in a r y . That w hich i s e s ta b lis h e d ! becomes o rd in a ry . T hat w hich i s e s ta b lis h e d and o rd in a ry Iwould seem t o be found in th e re a lm o f th e " s p i r i t o f . ! s e rio u s n e s s " w hich has b een d e sc rib e d e a r l i e r . Play i s i I alw ays new and o th e r th a n t h a t w hich i s o rd in a ry . R ath er th a n b e in g e s s e n t i a l to l i f e , p la y seems t o be a com plim ent t o and adornm ent o f l i f e (2 7 :9 ). i The p la y e r can abandon h im s e lf body and s o u l t o th e game, and th e c o n sc io u sn e ss o f i t s b e in g "m erely" i a game can be t h r u s t i n to th e background. The jo y i n e x tr ic a b ly bound up in p la y in g c an t u r n n o t o n ly in to te n s io n , b u t e l a t i o n . . . . The play-m ood i s l a b i l e in i t s v e ry n a tu r e . At any moment " o rd in a ry l i f e " may r e a s s e r t i t s r i g h t s e i t h e r by Im pact from w ith o u t, w hich i n t e r r u p t s th e game, o r by a c o lla p s e | o f th e p la y s p i r i t , a so b e rin g , a d ise n ch a n tm e n t. i (2 7 :2 0 -2 1 ) j 1 I { | Flay i s c a r r i e d o u t i n a r e l a t i v e l y w e ll d e fin e d |a re a o r lo c a tio n and te n d s t o ta k e p la c e in a s e t t i n g t h a t j ! i s s p a t i a l l y s e p a r a te from th e s i t e s w here th e a c t i v i t i e s | ! j jo f o rd in a ry l i f e ta k e p la c e . For th e s e re a s o n s , we may say i I t h a t , f o r th e m ost p a r t, p la y i s s p a t i a l l y lim ite d (2 7 :1 0 ). ! Flay i s a ls o lim ite d te m p o ra lly . Flay b e g in s and i t e n d s. T here i s a moment when p la y i s o v e r. W hile i t i s in p ro g re s s a l l i s movement, change, a l t e r n a t i o n , s u c c e s s io n , a s s o c ia tio n , s e p a r a tio n . But Im m ediately c o n n e c te d w ith i t s l i m i t a t i o n a s t o tim e | ! th e r e i s a f u r t h e r c u rio u s f e a tu r e o f p la y : i t a t once j assum es f ix e d form a s a c u l t u r a l phenomenon. Once p lay e d , i t en d u res a s a new found c r e a t i o n o f th e m ind, : a tr e a s u r e to be r e ta in e d by th e memory. (2 7 :9 -1 0 ) I j W hile p la y i s lim ite d in tim e , i t c an be r e p e a te d . Of c o u rs e , s u c c e s s iv e p la y in g s a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l , b u t th e | r u l e s o f p la y may e a s i l y be reim posed and th e "game" may be re p e a te d (2 7 :1 0 ). Flay c r e a te s o r d e r . Even i n th e m ost f r e e o f p la y form s, th e r e a r e r u l e s ; th e r e a r e l i m i t s . Flay m ust p ro ceed w ith in b o u n d a rie s o f some s o r t . "F la y demands o rd e r, i a b s o lu te and suprem e" (2 7 :1 0 ). | In con ju n ction w ith th e above, p lay has a tendency i t o be p le a s in g a e s t h e t i c a l l y . I t may be t h a t t h i s a e s t h e t i c f a c t o r i s i d e n t i c a l w ith th e im pulse t o c r e a te o r d e r ly form , w hich a n im ate s ] p la y in a l l i t s a s p e c ts . The w ords we u se t o denote th e e le m e n ts o f p la y b elo n g f o r th e m ost p a rt t o a e s - j t h e t i c s , term s w ith w hich we t r y to d e s c rib e th e e f f e c t s o f b e a u ty : te n s io n , p o is e , b a la n c e , c o n tr a s t , | v a r i a t i o n , s o lu tio n , r e s o l u ti o n , e t c . Play c a s ts a j s p e l l o v er u s ; i t i s " e n c h a n tin g ," " c a p t iv a t in g ." I t i s in v e s te d w ith th e n o b le s t q u a l i t i e s w hich we a r e c a p a b le o f p e rc e iv in g i n t h i n g s : rhythm and harmony. (2 7 :1 0 ) | P lay i s " te n s e ." Play c o n ta in s w ith in i t a n e l e ment o f u n c e r ta in ty w h e rein l i e s th e te n s io n o f p la y . The j ! more th e is s u e i s in d o u b t, th e g r e a t e r th e te n s io n . Though p la y , a c c o rd in g to H uizinga, i s o u ts id e th e realm o f wisdom and f o l l y , i t i s in th e te n s io n o f p la y t h a t an i |e t h i c i s g e n e ra te d . A ll p la y has r u le s and w ith in p la y i jth e s e r u l e s a r e a b s o lu te and can n o t be d o u b ted . T ension p ro v id e s an e t h i c in t h a t th e " p la y e r" m ust a c h ie v e h is o b je c tiv e w ith in th e e s ta b lis h e d r u l e s (2 7 :1 0 -1 1 ). j In b r i e f , H uizinga s t a t e s t h a t " th e e lem en ts p ro p e r t o p la y : o rd e r , te n s io n , movement, change, so le m n ity , j rhythm , r a p tu r e " (2 7 :1 7 ), c o n s t i t u t e th e means by w hich p la y i s i d e n t i f i e d . H uizinga f u r t h e r sum m arizes th e i I i |c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p la y when he sa y s t h a t : 6 0 we m ight c a l l i t £ re e a c t i v i t y s ta n d in g q u ite con s c io u s ly o u ts id e " o rd in a ry " l i f e a s b e in g "not s e r i o u s ," b u t a t th e same tim e a b so rb in g th e p la y e r in te n s e ly and u t t e r l y . I t i s an a c t i v i t y co n n ected w ith no m a te r ia l i n t e r e s t and no p r o f i t can be g a in e d from i t . I t p ro - j ceeds w ith in i t s own p ro p e r b o u n d a rie s o f tim e and j sp ace a c c o rd in g t o fix e d r u l e s in a n o r d e r ly m anner. | I t prom otes th e fo rm a tio n o f s o c i a l g ro u p in g s w hich | te n d t o su rro u n d th em se lv e s w ith s e c re c y and t o s t r e s s | | t h e i r d if f e r e n c e from th e common w o rld by d is g u is e o r i o th e r m eans. (2 7 :1 3 ) i i I t w ould seem, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t on th e b a s is o f a j | J rev iew o f H u iz in g a 's Homo Ludens t h a t p la y form s a v e ry | i la r g e an d v e ry b a s ic c a te g o ry o f human e x is te n c e . Flay seems t o be a prim ary means by w hich c u lt u r e g e n e ra te s i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s . Human s p o rt th e n a p p e a rs a s a n a c t i v i t y w hich more n e a r ly ap p ro ach es pure p la y , w h ile i t s " c u l t u r a l c o u s in s " such a s law and language a p p e a r t o be th e r e s u l t o f p la y , b u t p la y w hich proceeded w ith g r e a t e r re g a rd f o r th e needs o f th e c u ltu r e and th e s i t u a t i o n s w hich c u ltu r e i I e n c o u n te rs . In o th e r w ords, human s p o r t seems t o r e p r e s e n t o r m a n ife s t p la y in a p u re r form th a n do th o s e o th e r a c t i v i t ie s o f human c u ltu r e in w hich p la y i s o r was e s s e n - t i a l . As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r , H uizinga does not p ro v id e a s p e c i f i c d e f i n i t i o n o f p la y o r s p o r t. S t i l l , i t seems |re a s o n a b le t o assum e, in l i g h t o f th e fo re g o in g , t h a t human ! 61 I I ! i I i 8 p o rt Is b ased w ith in a fundam ental c a te g o ry o f human | e x is te n c e : p la y . F u rth e r, i t seems re a s o n a b le to assum e j t h a t s p o rt i s a human a c t i v i t y t h a t i s f a r from f r iv o lo u s | and even c lo s e l y a k in t o w hat m ight be c a l l e d th e h ig h e r i I I phases o f c u lt u r e . ! i B srhaps, s p o r t i s c o n s id e re d w ith l e s s g r a v ity i n { i th e modern w o rld th a n i t s " c u l t u r a l c o u s in s " b e ca u se i t j i does n o t c o n tr ib u te d i r e c t l y t o th e s u r v iv a l o r good o rd e r j j I o f c u lt u r e . The v a lu e o f s p o r t th e n , i f th e r e i s r e a l i j v a lu e in s p o r t , may l i e n o t so much i n c u l t u r a l g a in s a s j | i n th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a n t . | T here a r e many such a c t i v i t i e s , su ch a s a r t , w hich i a re t r e a t e d w ith g ra v e s t c o n ce rn w ith in c u ltu r e w hich th em se lv e s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y c o n cern ed w ith human s u r v iv a l, and who i s t o say t h a t th e y a r e more e s s e n t i a l t o human e x is te n c e th a n i s s p o rt ? A g la n c e a t th e c u rric u lu m o f th e i m odem sc h o o l shows many s u b je c t a re a s w hich a r e v e ry [ h ig h ly re g a rd e d , b u t w hich do n o t c o n tr ib u te d i r e c t l y t o th e s u r v iv a l o f human c u lt u r e . Such s u b je c ts may be o f v a lu e , t h a t i s n o t th e is s u e h e re , b u t who i s t o sa y t h a t b ecau se such s u b je c ts a r e "academ ic" th e y a r e more im por t a n t t o th e in d iv id u a l o r t o th e c u ltu r e th a n i s s p o r t? 62 | fferhaps th e man o f s p o r t i s co n cern ed f a r le s s w ith I th e amount o f knowledge he p o s s e s s e s , th e le n g th o f h is e x is te n c e , th e q u a n tity o f h is l i f e th a n he i s w ith th e i i I q u a l i t y o f t h a t e x is te n c e . In s p o r t, man may f in d some* |th in g w hich enhances th e q u a l i t y o f h i s e x is te n c e . The q u a li t y o f human e x is te n c e i s perh ap s th e y a r d s tic k by I w hich a l l human e x is te n c e , in c lu d in g th o s e o f th e sc h o o l, j !sh o u ld be m easured. U n fo rtu n a te ly , H u izin g a d e a ls o n ly i n m ost g e n e ra l term s w ith th e n a tu re o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's p la y o r s p o rt e x p e rie n c e , e x ce p t t o say t h a t th e in d iv id u a l "e n jo y s" i (2 7 :8 ). l a t e r c h a p te rs w i l l d e a l w ith t h i s is s u e , b u t th e j need h e re i s t o p ro ce ed t o a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e c h a ra c te r* | i s t i c s o f human s p o r t a s a s p e c ia liz e d c a te g o ry o f p la y . i I C h a r a c te r is tic s o f S port j Howard S lu s h e r, in Man. S p o rt. and E x is te n c e : A C r i t i c a l A n a ly sis (5 9 ), a b s t r a c t s from w hat he c a l l s th e " s p i r i t o f th e co n cep t o f s p o r t" (5 9 :4 6 ) s e v e r a l c h a r a c te r i s t i c s o f s p o r t . R e a liz in g th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in v o lv e d in d e s c rib in g th e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f s p o r t, S lu s h e r makes no c la im t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s he p re s e n ts a r e a l l t o be !found in any one s p o r t, n o r a r e th e y t o be found encom- , ! j p a ssin g a l l t h a t Man c a l l s s p o r t . R a th e r, he p r e s e n ts , a s |s t a t e d above, g e n e ra liz e d s ta te m e n ts about s p o rt in g e n e r a l. iS lu sh e r p r e s e n ts fo u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r a s p e c ts o f s p o r t. i C o n ten tio n o f i n t e r e s t . — " I n s p o r t man o v e r tly , !th ro u g h obvious th o u g h t, has a n i n t e r e s t t h a t i s contended i i by e i t h e r man, a n im a l, o r n a tu r e " (5 9 :4 6 ). In s p o r t, th e | p a r tic ip a n t h as i n t e r e s t s o r p o s s ib ly g o a ls w hich he ( i 'a tte m p ts t o s a t i s f y o r a cc o m p lish . T hese i n t e r e s t s o r I g o a ls r e q u ir e t h a t th e p a r tic ip a n t overcome some a s p e c t o r ;a s p e c ts o f th e u n iv e rs e . i ! In th o s e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t A m ericans m ost g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r s p o r t , th e c o n te n tio n o f th e i n t e r e s t s o f one man o r g ro u p o f men by a n o th e r in d iv id u a l o r group who have s i m il a r , b u t opposing i n t e r e s t s a r e e a s i l y se e n . Examples a re e n d le s s . The r e a d e r m ight c o n s id e r th e s e few : w re s t l i n g , f o o t b a l l , b a s k e tb a ll, te n n i s , o r hockey. In e ac h , jth e i n t e r e s t s o f th e p a r tic ip a n t o r p a r t i c i p a n ts a r e con- i |te n d e d by a n o th e r in d iv id u a l o r g ro u p w ith s im ila r b u t opposing i n t e r e s t s . The m ost c l a s s i c exam ple o f th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e i i man o f s p o r t co n ten d ed by an an im al i s th e s o u th e rn 64 I I {European and l a t i n A m erican s p o r t o f b u l l f i g h t i n g . As i s | I ; o b v io u s, th e im p o rta n t e le m e n ts in b u l l f i g h t i n g a r e a man i n c o n te n tio n w ith a b u l l . I n th e U n ited S ta te s and Canada, th e p rim a ry exam ple o f man v e rs u s an im al form o f j I I !s p o rt a r e t o be found in ro d eo an d h o rse r a c in g . Rodeo h as i become an Im p o rta n t s p o rt in A m erica and i s even a p a r t o f i 'th e e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s o f c e r t a i n A m erican s c h o o ls ; | i and c o ll e g e s . ! The l in e s o f th e Man v e rs u s a n im al form o f s p o r t ! I become v ag u e, how ever, when a s p o r t such a s h o rse ra c in g i s j ; c o n s id e re d . Man, w ith c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t s an d g o a ls , in i c o o p e ra tio n w ith an im al (th e q u e s tio n o f th e p o s s ib le in - i i t e r e s t s o f th e a n im al w i l l n o t be c o n s id e re d h e r e ) c o n te n d s w ith a n o th e r man and h is a n im al who have s i m il a r b u t |o p p o sin g i n t e r e s t s . The d i f f i c u l t i e s in r i g i d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s p o rt becomes obvious a s a r e s u l t o f th e g re a t v a r i a t i o n in s p o r t form s. | Since i t i s I m p lic it in M etheny's d e f i n i ti o n s o f s p o rt t h a t i t i s a human a c t i v i t y , th o s e a c t i v i t i e s in w hich a n im al c o n ten d s w ith a n im a l, su ch a s in c o c k fig h tin g | o r dog f ig h tin g , cannot be c o n s id e re d s p o r t, a t l e a s t fo r p u rp o ses o f t h i s stu d y , even th o u g h su ch b r u t a l a c t i v i t i e s 65 | i j a s th e g l a d i a t o r i a l c o n te s ts o f a n c ie n t Rome w ould be con- j ! j s id e r e d su c h . B r u t a l i ty i s n o t n e c e s s a r ily o u ts id e th e re a lm o f s p o r t , b u t s p o r t alw ays in v o lv e s human d e f i n i t i o n i ! ! and p a r t i c i p a t i o n . M ountain c lim b in g and s k iin g a r e exam ples o f s p o r ts ) ; i ; I |i n w hich Man co n ten d s w ith th e fo rc e s o f n a tu r e . A gain, i ! how ever, th e l in e s become vague when a s p o r t su ch a s tr a c k I land f i e l d i s c o n s id e re d . The trackm an co n ten d s b o th w ith a n o th e r man a s w e ll a s w ith th e fo rc e s o f n a tu r e . i j What m ight be w e ll to re g a rd h e re in re g a rd to | i S lu sh e r* s co n cep t o f c o n te n tio n o f i n t e r e s t in s p o r t i s | I th e c o n te n tio n o f th e man o f s p o r t w ith h im s e lf. M an's c o n te n tio n w ith h im s e lf w ould seem a s b a s ic t o s p o r t a s i s h is c o n te n tio n w ith o th e r s and th e fo rc e s o f n a tu r e . S e lf c o n te n tio n seems t o be th e m ost Im p o rta n t elem en t i n th e s p o r t o f th e O rie n t. Eugen H e rrig e l in h is book Zen (24) w hich in c lu d e d two p re v io u s p u b lic a tio n s : Zen in th e A rt o f A rcherv and The Method o f Zen, d e s c rib e s th e s e l f con t e n t i o n t h a t he h im s e lf e n c o u n te re d in s i x y e a rs o f t r a i n - |in g in a rc h e ry u n d er a Zen m a s te r : The f i r s t s te p a lo n g th e ro a d had a lr e a d y been ta k e n . I t had le d to a lo o se n in g o f th e body, w ith o u t | w hich th e bow can n o t be p ro p e rly draw n. I f th e s h o t i s to be lo o se d r i g h t , th e p h y s ic a l m ust be c o n tin u e d | 66 j in a m en tal and s p i r i t u a l lo o s e n in g , so a s to make th e I mind n o t o n ly a g i l e , b u t f r e e : a g i l e b ecau se o f i t s freedom , and f r e e b ecau se o f i t s o r i g i n a l a g i l i t y ; and t h i s o r i g in a l a g i l i t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from e v e ry th in g t h a t i s u s u a lly u n d e rsto o d by m en tal a g i l i t y . Thus b etw een th e s e two s t a t e s o f b o d ily re la x e d n e s s on th e one hand and s p i r i t u a l freedom on j th e o th e r th e r e i s a d if f e r e n c e o f le v e l w hich can n o t be overcome by b r e a th c o n tr o l a lo n e , b u t o n ly by b e - j coming u t t e r l y e g o le s s ; so t h a t th e s o u l sunk w ith in | j i t s e l f s ta n d s i n th e p le n itu d e o f i t s nam eless o r i g i n . I (2 4 :5 6 -5 7 ) j | What i s im p o rta n t t o remember h e re i s t h a t in s p o r t i j Man m ust n o t o n ly overcom e h is opponent (w hether man, a n i- ! : jmal, o r n a tu r a l f o r c e s ) , b u t he m ust c o n tr o l h im s e lf in su ch a way a s t o make p o s s ib le th e accom plishm ent o f h is o b je c tiv e s . The s e p a r a tio n o f th e m ind-body c o n ce p ts h a s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , b een f r u i t l e s s in th e h i s t o r y o f p h i- | lo sophy. S t i l l , th e r e a r e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f M an's b e in g , i and a t tim es th e s e a s p e c ts seem to be a t odds w ith one a n o th e r. The man o f s p o r t s e e k s , i n one way o r a n o th e r, !to c o n tr o l o r fo cu s th e s e v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f h is b e in g in io rd er to a cco m p lish h i s o b je c tiv e s . i S lu sh e r s t a t e s t h a t "outcom es a re a d i r e c t e x te n s io n o f th e th e o ry o f c o n te n tio n o f i n t e r e s t " (5 9 :4 6 ). O bviously, when Man c o n te n d s w ith man, a n im a l, n a tu r e , o r i s e l f , som ething h ap p en s, th e r e a r e outcom es o f some s o r t , i i !however im p e rc e p tib le th e outcome may b e . S lu sh e r f u r t h e r 67 i s t a t e s , " s p o rt outcom es a r e b a se d on know ledge" (5 9 :4 6 ). In o th e r w o rd s, In o rd e r t o be s u c c e s s f u l in h is a im s, th e man o f s p o r t m ust have a n tin d e rsta n d in g o f th e s p o r t it** i I s e l f . He m ust know th e r u l e s o f th e game, th e s t r a t e g y , : e t c . , and he m ust assum e t h a t th e p e rso n s w ith whom he j co n ten d s have s im ila r u n d e rs ta n d in g s . I f such understand** | in g i s la c k in g on th e p a r t o f one o r a n o th e r o f th e con-* t e s t a n t s in s p o r t , th e n th e r e s u l t i s c o n fu s io n o r c h ao s. For exam ple, one o f th e m ost dangerous opponents a w r e s t l e r can fa c e i s an e a g e r b u t u n tr a in e d one. The ig n o ra n c e o f | th e opponent may w e ll r e s u l t in in ju r y t o one o r b o th Iw re s tle rs w h ile a m atch betw een tr a i n e d w r e s t l e r s i s seldom i j i i f e v e r dangerous and i s o f te n a b e a u ty to b e h o ld . When a l l c o n te s ta n ts have knowledge o f th e game, th e n a n e t h i c d e v e lo p s. To b re a k a r u le i n t e n t i o n a l l y , th e n , i s a v i o l a t i o n o f th e e t h i c , th e " s p i r i t o f th e game. " i i C o n siste n c y o f r o l e . — " I t a p p e a rs t h a t tow ard th e g iv e n *end* a c o n s is te n t p a t t e r n o f p re fe re n c e s i s alw ays m a in ta in e d by th e p e rfo rm e rs" (5 9 :4 6 ). In o rd e r t h a t th e a t h l e t e may a t t a i n th e outcom es he d e s i r e s , he m ust behave in c e r t a i n ways an d su ch b e h a v io r m ust be c o n s is te n t | 68 i th ro u g h o u t th e c o n te s t , o r th ro u g h o u t e a c h o f th e v a rio u s phases o f th e c o n te s t. 1 - i B ehavior th e n becomes c e n te re d a b o u t th e v a rio u s i j ta s k s t o be perform ed and g o a ls t o be a t t a i n e d , so t h a t ! j s e t s o f b e h a v io r, o r b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s , d e v e lo p . These j i j b e h a v io r p a tte r n s a r e c o n s is te n t w ith th e d e s ir e d outcom es | !and th e y a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y p r e f e r r e d to o th e r form s o f b e - i h a v io r. These " s e t s o f b e h a v io r" th e n become th e r o l e . ; T his r o l e developm ent i s , p e rh a p s , m ost e a s i l y se e n in th e i ! v a rio u s " p o s itio n s " found in team s p o r t s . The " g o a lie " in s o c c e r , f o r exam ple, has th e o p tio n o f beh av in g in iim um er- | I ! I | a b le w ays, b u t i f th e d e s ir e d outcom es a r e to be a c h ie v e d , i | th e g o a lie m ust behave in th o se ways m ost c o n s is te n t w ith i i p re v e n tin g th e opponent from s c o rin g a g o a l, and h is team - | | m ates a d o p t o th e r r o l e s w hich a r e c o n s is te n t w ith th e o v e r- i a l l d e s ir e d outcom e, t h a t o f w inning th e game. In t h i s w ay, th e r o l e s o f th e g o a lie an d h is team m ates become j j d e fin e d and th e v a rio u s p a r t i c i p a n ts become i d e n t i f i a b l e i n term s o f t h e i r r o l e . I m p lic it in th e above i s th e f a c t t h a t th e g o a lie chooses th e p ro p e r p a tte r n s o f b e h a v io r and h is team m ates choose t h e i r s . They c o u ld choose to behave in o th e r w ays, I 69 i I b u t in o rd e r to a t t a i n th e d e s ir e d outcom es, he ch o o ses, o r a t l e a s t p r e f e r s , th e p ro p e r r o l e b e h a v io r. Choosing th e n becomes an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f s p o r t. i i | The a t h l e t e m ust choose th e outcom es t h a t he d e s i r e s , o r | a t l e a s t he a g re e s (which in i t s e l f i s c h o o sin g ) to th e p o s s ib le outcom es d ic t a t e d by th e c o n te s t i t s e l f ; he m ust choose th e p ro p e r b e h a v io r p a tte r n s c o n s is te n t w ith th e d e s ir e d outcom es; an d he chooses to m a in ta in th e p ro p e r b e h a v io r u n t i l th e c o n te s t has been d e c id e d . i I O b viously, many o f th e s e c h o ic e s a r e n o t in th e I f o r e f r o n t o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t 's c o n s c io u s n e s s . Many tim es i !th e a t h l e t e 's b e h a v io r seems more i n s t i n c t i v e r e a c tio n , I r a t h e r th a n c a lc u la te d c h o ic e . The p a r t i c i p a n t 's b e h a v io r seems m ost o f te n d i c t a t e d by th e s i t u a t i o n in l i g h t o f th e d e s ir e d outcom es he d e s i r e s . S t i l l th e a t h l e t e can choose to l i e down, o r w alk o f f th e f i e l d , in w hich case he i s ch o o sin g to r e j e c t th e o v e r a l l outcom es he o r i g i n a l l y i d e s ir e d . In any c a s e , w ith in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n th e ! |a t h l e t e c h o o s e s . The f a c t t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n t 's b e h a v io r seems to be i n s t i n c t i v e r e a c tio n may in d ic a te t h a t th e c h o ic e s o f | s p o r t may be o f a n o rd e r o th e r th a n c h o ic e b a se d in 70 i r e f l e c t i v e th o u g h t. The p o in t to be made h e re i s t h a t th e i a t h l e t e chooses to a c t in c e r t a i n w ays, even though o th e r o p tio n s a r e a v a ila b le to him. ■ i | I t sh o u ld be p o in te d o u t t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n t I I chooses th o s e b e h a v io r p a tte r n s w hich a r e , a s he p e rc e iv e s ! j i th e s i t u a t i o n , c o n s is te n t w ith th e d e s ir e d outcom es. C er- ! • ! i t a i n l y , th e r e a r e th o s e b e h a v io r p a tte r n s w hich a re p re s c r ib e d by th e c o n te s t i t s e l f , b u t th e e x c ite m e n t and s p i r i t o f s p o r t l i e in th e drama o f c h o ic e a c c o rd in g to th e i i p a r t i c i p a n t ’s view o f th e s i t u a t i o n . I t i s b ecau se c h o ic e s a re made i n l i g h t o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t 's p e rc e p tio n s o f th e i s i t u a t i o n t h a t m ista k e s a r e m ade, t h a t a d v an tag e i s g a in e d . O therw ise s p o r t becomes m ere ly a c o n te s t o f s t r e n g th , w ith th e s tr o n g e r alw ays th e v i c t o r . Hundreds o f s p o r ts s t o r i e s b e a r w itn e s s to th e f a c t t h a t th e s tr o n g e r does n o t alw ays w in , e s p e c i a l l y when th e w eaker more c l e a r l y p e rc e iv e s th e s i t u a t i o n , o r when he i s a b le th ro u g h d e c e p tio n and th e j l ik e to make h i s opponent make th e wrong c h o ic e . Dr. f e t e r B e rto c c i, in a le c tu r e a t B oston U niver s i t y i n 1965, dev elo p ed h is th e o ry o f v a lu e and o b lig a tio n w hich he c a l l s N orm ative U h iv e rsalism (7 ). In e s s e n c e , B e rto c c i i n d ic a te s t h a t c h o ic e s a r e made on th e b a s is o f I th e d a ta g e n e ra te d i n a s i t u a t i o n a s i t i s p e rc e iv e d by 71 I I th e I n d iv id u a l m aking th e c h o ic e . I n s u f f i c i e n t d a ta o r im proper i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t d a ta may le a d to c h o ic e s I w hich a r e i n c o n s is te n t w ith d e s ir e d outcom es, and t h e r e f o r e m is ta k e n . A ccording to B e rto c c i, c h o ic e im p lie s iv a lu e , and v a lu e im p lie s o b lig a tio n . The a t h l e t e , th e n , |ch o o ses a p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v io r b a se d on th e d a ta g e n e ra te d I by th e s i t u a t i o n , and in l i g h t o f th e o v e r a l l g o a ls o f th e ;s i t u a t i o n w hich th e n becomes r i g h t . He th e n becomes o b l i g a te d to behave i n th e way he has c h o sen . The outcome o f ] h is c h o ic e may prove t h a t th e b e h a v io r chosen was wrong in l i g h t o f th e outcom es t h a t w ere d e s ir e d , b u t u n t i l proven I w rong, th e a t h l e t e i s o b lig a te d to p erfo rm a s he o r i g i n a l l y ;chose t o . j I t may be w o rth w h ile to comment upon B e r to c c i's concept o f d a ta . The d a ta from w hich c h o ic e s a re made, a c c o rd in g to B e rto c c i, may come from an y s o u rc e , se n se e x p e rie n c e , i n t u i t i o n , and lo g ic —a l l b e in g g iv e n e q u a l !fo o tin g a s so u rc e s o f d a ta . The a t h l e t e may choose on th e b a s is o f w hat he se e s and h e a rs : on th e b a s is o f w hat he l o g ic a l l y knows: o r on th e b a s is o f w hat he f e e l s i s th e p ro p e r c h o ic e in t h a t s i t u a t i o n . I t p ro b ab ly a l s o sh o u ld be s t a t e d t h a t w h ile c h o ic e j im p lie s o b lig a tio n , i t a ls o im p lie s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The a t h l e t e chooses and a c t s , b u t he m ust be aw are t h a t he w i l l l be r e s p o n s ib le f o r h is a c t io n s . I f he has th e o p p o rtu n ity |t o choose betw een a l t e r n a t i v e s and he chooses b e h a v io r t h a t |p ro v es i n c o r r e c t , he i s th e n re s p o n s ib le f o r th e co n se- | quences t h a t fo llo w . A f o o t b a l l p la y e r , f o r exam ple, may ichoose t o move to h is r i g h t in a tte m p tin g to make a ta c k le . | He has w eighed a l l th e d a ta a v a i l a b l e , even t h a t b a sed on i i n t u i t i o n and th e n makes h is c h o ic e . I f th e b a l l c a r r i e r goes in a n o th e r d i r e c t i o n and s c o re s a touchdow n, i t i s th e i ta c k ie r * s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . By th e same to k e n , i f th e t a c k i e r chooses c o r r e c t l y , he may w e ll be d e se rv in g o f I c r e d i t . I t may seem p e d a n tic to p re s s th e is s u e , b u t a c c o rd in g to S lu s h e r, " t h is p o in t m ust be s t r e s s e d . The dilemma o f in d iv id u a l d e c is io n m aking i s c r u c i a l to s p o r t. Where t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s n o t found—s p o r t does n o t e x i s t " (5 9 :4 7 ). I f c h o ic e i s an e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s p o r t , i t r e q u ir e s f u r t h e r e x a m in a tio n . When d e a lin g w ith s p o r t , th e in v e s ti g a t o r i s c o n s ta n tly r e tu r n e d to th e co n cep t o f c h o ic e , so t h a t i t s im p o rtan ce can n o t be overem phasized and th e co n cep t i t s e l f c an n o t be o v e rly c l a r i f i e d . | A ccording t o S lu s h e r: The t h e s i s o f d e c isio n -m a k in g , a s a p p lie d t o s p o r t , m ust be c o n ce iv e d i n two c a te g o r ie s : (1 ) d e c i sio n s made by th e in d iv id u a l and (2) d e c is io n s made by th e group. (5 9 :4 7 ) In d iv id u a l d e c is io n s in s p o r t seem o b v io u s , e s p e c i a l l y in i |l i g h t o f w hat h as been d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r . The c a te g o ry o f |"g ro u p d e c is io n s ," t h e r e f o r e , i s a l l t h a t w i l l be con- i j |s id e r e d h e re . Group d e c is io n s in team s p o r ts a p p e a r to d e p ic t w hat S lu s h e r c a l l s " u n ita r y i n t e r e s t " (5 9 :4 7 ). T h is ! i |may n o t i n f a c t be th e c a se a s S lu sh e r in d ic a te s t h a t group d e c is io n s a re more l i k e l y com plim entary d e c is io n s on th e p a r t o f team members. Each team member, in o th e r w o rd s, makes h is d e c is io n s in l i g h t o f and c o n s is te n t w ith h is own |c o n c e p tio n o f th e d e s ir e d outcom es. I d e a lly , in team s p o r ts s i m i l a r i t y o f d e s ir e d outcom es on th e p a r t o f i n d i v id u a l team members le a d s t o h ig h ly com plim entary c h o ic e s by in d iv id u a l team members so t h a t so c a lle d group d e c i- | s io n s may o n ly a p p e a r t o be u n ita r y . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t group d e c is io n s a r e in f a c t in d iv id u a l d e c is io n s may a c c o u n t f o r c a se s o f m isse d o r im p ro p e rly perform ed a ssig n m e n ts and ta s k s w hich low er w hat S lu sh e r c a l l s " p r o d u c tiv ity " (5 9 :4 7 ) in l i g h t o f o v e r a ll I |d e s ir e d outcom es. S lu sh e r s t a t e s : W e assum e th e team i s m aking d e c is io n s a s a g ro u p , w ith m utual i n t e r e s t s , when i n r e a l i t y many in d iv id u a l d e c is io n s may be ones o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t . To a c h ie v e e f f i c i e n t " p r o d u c tiv ity " th e in d iv id u a liz e d i n t e r e s t s m ust be re s o lv e d o r a d ju s te d . (5 9 :4 7 ) Thus, c o n te n tio n o f i n t e r e s t i n s p o r t le a d s to p a r- | j t i c u l a r c o n s is te n t b e h a v io r p a tte r n s w hich a r e chosen in l i g h t o f s i t u a t i o n and th e d e s ir e d outcom es o f p a r t i c i p a n ts . These b e h a v io r p a tte r n s become th e r o l e t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a n ts assum e. The a ssu m p tio n o f r o l e Im p lie s t h a t i |c h o o sin g i n one fotm o r a n o th e r o c c u rs . A p o in t t h a t ! | • j sh o u ld be m ade, w hich w i l l be d is c u s s e d in more d e t a i l i i I l a t e r in th e s tu d y , i s t h a t th e c h o ic e s o f s p o r t may w e ll be o f an o rd e r o th e r th a n th e k in d o f c h o ic e w hich i s b a se d i in r e f l e c t i v e th o u g h t. | U t i l i z a t i o n - a c t u a l i z a t i o n . — "T his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c in s p o r t i s r e le v a n t to m ax im iz atio n o f in d iv id u a l e f f o r t tow ard u t i l i t a r i a n en d s" (5 9 :4 7 ). In s p o r t , even though th e p a r t i c i p a n t may be se e k in g o n ly r e c r e a t i o n a l e n d s, th e r e i s g e n e r a lly an e f f o r t t o g a in g r e a t e r com petence i n h is p erfo rm an ce. This does n o t mean t h a t th e in d iv id u a l need fo cu s a l l a t t e n t i o n upon s k i l l im provem ent, s t i l l th e man o f s p o r t se ek s to b e t t e r h is p erfo rm an ce. Nor does t h i s m ax im izatio n o f in d iv id u a l e f f o r t mean t h a t th e man 75 ;o f s p o r t seek n e c e s s a r ily t o w in . W hile s p o r t in v o lv e s c o n te n tio n o f i n t e r e s t and overcom ing th e " o th e r" i s an i i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e c o n te s t , th e em phasis upon w inning j seems to be c u l t u r a l l y d e te rm in e d . "W inning" may be th e | l g o a l, i t may p ro v id e th e g o a l t h a t th e a t h l e t e s e e k s , b u t jth e em phasis upon w inning seems t o v a ry from c u ltu r e to I c u l t u r e . As w e ll a s im proving h is perform ance w h ile in - i v o lv in g h im s e lf in a p le a s a n t p a stim e , th e d e e p ly in v o lv e d ! man o f s p o r t may seek b ro a d e r knowledge th ro u g h h is ex p e rie n c e s : In Ja p an , th e aim o f t r a i n i n g i s n e v e r m ere te c h - | n i c a l e f f i c i e n c y . F or exam ple, a W estern s tu d e n t o f Jap an ese a rc h e ry was amazed and c h a g rin e d when s e v e re ly c r i t i c i z e d a f t e r a n a c c u ra te s h o t. He d id n o t r e a l i z e t h a t th e aim was n o t to h i t th e t a r g e t . A ccuracy i s a b y p ro d u ct o f p e r f e c t form and c o n c e n tr a tio n . The a rc h e ry m a s te r was t r y in g to d iv e s t th e s tu d e n t o f c o n cern f o r th e t a r g e t a lo n e , and to te a c h him to de v e lo p much b ro a d e r an d more m ea n in g fu l a b i l i t i e s . D is c ip lin e in a l l Jap an ese t r a d i t i o n a l a r t s i s so demanding t h a t i t re s h a p e s th e s tu d e n t co m p lete l y - - m e n ta lly and p h y s ic a lly . A man who has a t t a i n e d m a ste ry o f an a r t r e v e a ls i t i n h is e v e ry a c tio n . (1 7 :4 7 ) The man o f s p o r t seek s t o becom e. He a c t u a l i z e s h is b e in g to one d e g re e o r a n o th e r in th e c o u rs e o f h is p a r t i c i p a t i o n . At th e same tim e , th e man o f s p o r t i s co n cern ed i i w ith u t i l i t a r i a n a im s. The g o a ls o f th e v a rio u s s p o rt !form s e x i s t to be a cco m p lish ed . W hile th e man o f s p o r t may j seek to b rin g a b o u t changes in h im s e lf, he does a t th e same I tim e se ek t o b rin g a b o u t changes in h im s e lf , he does u t i l i t a r i a n e n d s. The a r c h e r 's t a r g e t does e x i s t to be h i t , ! even th ough th e a r c h e r se ek s more th a n t h a t t a r g e t . The ! man o f s p o r t i§ . concerned w ith te c h n ic a l p r o f ic ie n c y . He I does seek t o im prove h is s k i l l s p erh ap s so t h a t he m ight ! g a in b e n e f i ts t h a t may be a v a ila b le when perform ance i s | im proved. | U t i l i z a t i o n - a c t u a l i z a t i o n aim s a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ! |o f s p o r t a p p e a r to be somewhat c o n tr a d ic to r y . Yet th e y do seem c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s p o r t. I t may be t h a t th e y o p e ra te th ro u g h one a n o th e r (th e Jap an ese a r c h e r c o n c e n tra te s upon ;form —te c h n ic a l p r o fic ie n c y — in o rd e r t o g a in a g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h im s e lf and th e w o rld ), o r i t may be t h a t t I u t i l i z a t i o n - a c t u a l i z a t i o n aim s a r e d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o r a s p e c ts o f th e same e x p e rie n c e . V a ria b le p r e d i c t a b i l i t y . - - " I n th e s p o r t s i t u a t i o n th e v a r i a b le s w hich c o n tr ib u te to p o s s ib le outcom es a r e n o t c o m p le te ly s p e c if ie d " (5 9 :4 8 ). S lu sh e r im p lie s t h a t th e 1 d if f e r e n c e betw een games (games o f c h a n c e , e t c . ) and w hat I ; i s g e n e r a lly c o n sid e re d s p o r t i s w hat m ight w e ll be c a lle d | ! th e human factor. The l i n e betw een w hat i s game and w hat | I i s s p o r t i s f i n e l y drawn a t tim e s , i f n o t a lt o g e t h e r a b s e n t, b u t th e d if f e r e n c e can be g e n e r a lly s t a t e d on th e | jb a si8 o f v a r i a b le p r e d i c t a b i l i t y . ! In th e s p o r t s i t u a t i o n , th e f a c to r s w hich in flu e n c e | i | |th e a tta in m e n t o f th e o v e r a l l d e s ir e d outcom es c a n n o t a l l be d e te rm in e d . In a c h ess game, by c o n t r a s t , a l l p o s s ib le I c o m b in atio n s can t h e o r e t i c a l l y be com puted. In s p o r t , th e v a r i a b le s can n o t be d e te rm in e d , and a r e beyond th e lim its i | w ith in w hich we a r e a b le to make su ch p r e d ic tio n s . The ; v a r i a b le s t h a t do a r i s e in s p o r t , th e n , a r e fu n c tio n s o f th e c o n te s t i t s e l f , th e c o n d itio n s u n d er w hich i t i s p lay e d and th e a c tio n s and c h o ic e s o f th e p a r t i c i p a n ts in v o lv e d . The v a r ia b le s a r i s i n g from th e c o n te s t and th e c o n d itio n s u n d er w hich th e c o n te s t i s p lay e d m ight be p re d i c t e d , and in t h i s th e r e seems to be l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e betw een games and s p o r t , b u t th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a c tio n a r e lim ite d . The c h e ss p la y e r chooses h is m oves, b u t he may make o n ly one o f a m a th e m a tic a lly d e te rm in a b le number o f m oves. A ccording to S lu s h e r, how ever, th e f a c to r s —j j in v o lv e d in a b a s e b a ll p la y e r m aking a h i t a r e beyond any | p r a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e te rm in a tio n (5 9 :4 9 ). " In games j I |t h e c o n tr o llin g v a r i a b le s h y p o th e tic a lly can be p r e d ic te d . i I In s p o r t th e y c a n n o t" (5 9 :4 9 ). j S p o rt a s u n p ro d u c tiv e . — Metheny in Movement and Meaning (44) p ro v id e s w hat seems to be a f i f t h c h a r a c te r - j i s t i c o f s p o r t. S p o rt produces n o th in g l a s t i n g in term s o f j | i m a te r ia l a r t i f a c t s and th e l i k e . j I .. ! W e may sa y t h a t th e a t h l e t e perform s th e f u t i l e ta s k o f S isy p h u s, whose name means "v e ry w ise " o r "v ery c l e v e r ." In th e tim e o f S isy p h u s, you w i l l rem em ber, th e fo rc e s o f th e u n iv e rs e w ere c o n tr o lle d by th e many | gods who liv e d on Mt. Olympus. S isyphus was o n ly a m o rta l man and h is l i f e was w h o lly c o n tr o lle d by th o se f o r c e s , b u t in h is own c le v e r way he d isc o v e re d some th in g a b o u t th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e u n iv e rs e t h a t o n ly th e gods w ere supposed to know. When he u se d t h a t knowledge to h is own a d v a n ta g e , th e gods had to p u n ish him . And so th e y condemned him t o spend a l l tim e and e t e r n i t y p erfo rm in g th e f u t i l e ta s k o f pu sh in g a ro ck up a s lo p e , i n f u l l knowledge o f th e f a c t t h a t i t w ould alw ays r o l l back to th e b o tto m le s s v a ll e y from whence i t cam e, o b l i t e r a t i n g a l l t r a c e o f h is m o rta l j e f f o r t s . (4 4 :6 0 ) i The aim o f th e a t h l e t e i n a c o n te s t i s n e v e r a m a te r ia l g o a l, ev en In p r o f e s s io n a l s p o r t . The ta s k s to be acco m p lish ed a re d e fin e d by th e g o a ls and r u le s o f th e con t e s t . The a t h l e t e 's perform ance i s m easured in term s o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , y e t when th e c o n te s t i s c o m p le te , n o th in g ! ~ 79 m a te r ia l re m a in s. The a t h l e t e expends en erg y and may s u f f e r p a in , y e t he produces n o th in g t h a t can be touched o r se e n . In t h i s s e n s e , s p o r t Is a b su rd . I t I s t h i s v e ry ;a b s u r d ity , how ever, t h a t d e m o n stra te s t h a t s p o r t Is a human a c t i v i t y and t h a t i t o f f e r s freedom to man. I j The g o a ls and r u l e s o f s p o r ts c o n te s ts a r e d e fin e d |b y Man, th e perform ance i s a perform ance by Man, and th e e v a lu a tio n o f t h a t perform ance i s an e v a lu a tio n d e fin e d and i u n d e rta k e n by Man. S p o rt i s an a c t i v i t y t h a t a llo w s Man i to d e fin e h is t a s k , p erfo rm and e v a lu a te t h a t ta s k w ith a | minimum o f c o n s id e r a tio n o f f a c t o r s w hich a re o th e r th a n i i |hum an. In th o se a c t i v i t i e s in w hich som ething m a te r ia l i s p ro duced, Man m ust be co n cern ed w ith th e q u a l i t i e s o f th e m a te r ia ls w ith w hich he i s w orking. The q u a l i t i e s o f th e s e m a te r ia ls l i m i t th e a c t i v i t y , l im i t M an's freedom in th e s i t u a t i o n . The ta s k to be perform ed i s d e fin e d , a t l e a s t in p a r t , by f a c t o r s o th e r th a n th o se d e te rm in e d by Man. There a r e s p o r ts in w hich m a te r ia l a r t i f a c t s a re u se d , b u t th e r e a r e few i f any s p o r ts in w hich a m a te r ia l a r t i f a c t o r a r t i f a c t s a r e th e r e s u l t o f th e a c t i v i t y . T his b e in g th e c a s e , a c t i v i t i e s su ch a s a p ie b a k in g c o n te s t w ould n o t be c o n sid e re d s p o r t! 80 The r u l e s o£ s p o r t p ro v id e us w ith a man-made w o rld In w hich freedom I s f u l l y g u a ra n te e d . These r u l e s e lim i n a te th e demands o f n e c e s s ity by d e fin in g a n u n n eces s a ry t a s k . They e lim in a te a l l need f o r c o n s id e r a tio n o f m a te r ia l v a lu e s by d e fin in g a f u t i l e ta s k t h a t produces n o th in g o f m a te r ia l v a lu e . They e lim in a te q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e q u a l i t y o f m a te r ia ls by d e fin in g a s e t o f m a te r ia ls o f known q u a l i t y . They e lim in a te a l l q u e s tio n s a b o u t w hat we a r e tr y in g to do and how we can b e s t do i t , by p r e s c r ib in g th e a c tio n s t h a t may be u sed t o p erfo rm th e t a s k . They e lim in a te a l l doubt a b o u t w hat c o u n ts by d e s c r ib in g how th e perform ance o f th e ta s k i s t o be e v a lu a te d . And th e y e lim in a te a l l need to d e b ate o u r own m o tiv e s and th e m o tiv es o f o th e r p eo p le by Im posing th e same s ta n d a rd s o f co n d u ct on a l l p e rfo rm e rs. In t h i s s e n s e , th e r u le s o f s p o r t p ro v id e e a c h p e r form er w ith a r a r e o p p o rtu n ity to c o n c e n tra te a l l e n e rg ie s o f h is b e in g in one m ea n in g fu l e f f o r t to p e r form a ta s k o f h is own c h o o sin g , no lo n g e r pushed and p u lle d in a dozen d ir e c tio n s by many im p e ra tiv e s he may re c o g n iz e in h is l i f e . Or we may sa y t h a t he may e x p e rie n c e h im s e lf a s a f u l l y m o tiv a te d , f u l l y i n t e g r a te d , f u l l y fu n c tio n in g human b e in g . (4 4 :6 4 ) The above w ould seem t o a g re e w ith H u iz in g a 's a n a ly s is o f p la y . N e ith e r p la y n o r s p o r t a r e " o rd in a ry " y e t th e y b o th c r e a te o rd e r and g e n e ra te a n e t h i c . Summary T his c h a p te r has a tte m p te d to p ro v id e background f o r th e s tu d y by rev ie w in g s e v e r a l w orks p e r ta in in g t o and commenting on th e g e n e ra l n a tu r e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s p o r t . The c h a p te r has a ls o shown t h a t w hat i s " a t p la y " in s p o r t may w e ll be v e ry b a s ic to th e developm ent o f human |s o c i e t y , though th e p a r t i c u l a r f a c t o r " a t p la y " e lu d e s d e f i n i t i o n . S ince s p o r t seems to be a s p e c ia liz e d form o f p la y , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p la y w ere p re s e n te d . | Play i s f r e e and v o lu n ta r y . P lay i s n o t n e c e s s a ry ;to human e x is te n c e . Play i s n o t o rd in a r y . Play may be ! |sto p p e d and th e n r e jo in e d , b u t th e e x p e rie n c e i s alw ays inew. Play i s s p a t i a l l y lim ite d . Play i s te m p o ra lly lim ite d . Play c r e a te s o rd e r and g e n e ra te s an e t h i c . Play te n d s to be p le a s in g a e s t h e t i c a l l y and i s i d e n t i f i e d by th e e le m e n ts : o r d e r , te n s io n , movement, ch an g e, so le m n ity , rhythm , and r a p t u r e . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s p o r t , a s a s p e c ia liz e d form o f p la y w ould seem to In c lu d e th o s e f a c to r s m entioned above and c e r t a i n o th e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s w e ll. S p o rt in v o lv e s c o n te n tio n o f i n t e r e s t , c o n s is te n c y o f r o l e , v a r i a b le p re d i c t a b i l i t y . u t i l i z a t i o n - a c t u a l i z a t i o n a im s. In a d d itio n , js p o rt does n o t seem to be p ro d u c tiv e o f m a te r ia l g oods, jwhich c o n tr ib u te s to th e humanness o f s p o r t and th e freedom Man f in d s in s p o r ts a c t i v i t i e s . CHAPTER IV ; i I j i THE SPORTS EXPERIENCE j i ! 1 j i I D e s c rip tio n s in e x p l i c i t term s o f su ch p r iv a te e x - j |p e rie n c e s a s th o se g e n e ra te d by s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n a re ! I e x tre m e ly lim ite d , language seems t o f a i l when such ‘d e s c r ip tio n s a r e a tte m p te d . Those d e s c r ip tio n s w hich a re p ro v id ed seem to be more p o e try th a n d e s c r ip tio n , so t h a t j th e d i f f i c u l t y becomes a p p a r e n t. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e | i i |seem s to be o f an o rd e r o th e r th a n one f o r w hich lan g u a g e , • ; ' i la s we commonly th in k o f i t , i s a b le to p ro v id e a d eq u a te e x p la n a tio n . The d i f f i c u l t y becomes one o f fin d in g a means o f d e s c r ib in g th e m eaning t h a t s p o r ts may o r may n o t p ro v id e . T y p ic a l o f su ch d e s c r ip tio n s a r e th o s e p ro v id ed by H e rrig e l a s he d e lin e a te s h is own e x p e rie n c e s i n a rc h e ry i (2 4 ). H e rrig e l* s work has been ch o sen b ecau se h is work i s f a i r l y w e ll known, b ecau se he p ro v id e s e x c e lle n t i f p o e tic d e s c r ip tio n s o f h is e x p e rie n c e s , and b ecau se he a tte m p ts ih is own a n a ly s is o f h is e x p e rie n c e s , su ch a n a ly s is b ein g w hat i s g e n e ra lly la c k in g in su ch d e s c r ip tio n s . "S in ce a n c ie n t tim e s , th e p r a c tic e h a l l w here th e sw ordsm an's a r t i s le a rn e d h as been c a l le d th e 'P la c e o f i i ! E n l i g h t e n m e n t (2 4 :1 0 8 ). G iving th e name Place o f En lig h te n m e n t to a p la c e w here a m a r tia l a r t o r s p o r t i s jcond ucted seems a n a sto u n d in g d e s ig n a tio n , e s p e c i a l l y in !l i g h t o f th e c o n ce p t o f th e gymnasium o r p la y in g f i e l d t h a t ; i s common t o th in k in g in th e w e s te rn w o rld . The name i n d i c a te s t h a t th e e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id e d by th e a c t i v i t y do have m eanings f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n ts o v e r and above t h e i r m i l i t a r y o r r e c r e a t io n a l m eanings. The name in d ic a te s t h a t th e 'a c t i v i t y i s more th a n r e c r e a t i o n a l , more th a n t r a i n in g f o r | l a t e r l i f e , b u t i f th e r e i s m eaning to be d e riv e d in s p o r t (th e word s p o r t seems somehow in a d e q u a te when d e s c rib in g th e m a r t ia l a r t s o f th e E a s t) , w hat i s th e n a tu re o f t h i s m eaning? To answ er t h i s q u e s tio n w i l l be th e prim ary p u r- < pose o f t h i s c h a p te r. | L in g u is tic L im ita tio n s in D e sc rib in g th e S n o rts E x p erien ce I t i s p ro b a b ly s a f e to assum e t h a t H e rrig e l i s a t | l e a s t h o n e st in h is a tte m p t to convey h is e x p e rie n c e to h is r e a d e r s , and t h a t he d e s c rib e s h is e x p e rie n c e s a s b e s t j 84" i I ! I he c an . I f s o , th e r e a d e r w i l l se e t h a t in th e fo llo w in g j i q u o ta tio n , H e rr ig e l may have re a c h e d th e l im i ts o f th e : i language in a tte m p tin g to d e s c rib e and r e l a t e h is e x p e r i- ■ i !e n c e s . The s o u l i s b ro u g h t t o th e p o in t w here i t v i b r a t e s o f i t s e l f i n i t s e l f —a s e re n e p u ls a tio n w hich can be 1 | h e ig h te n e d i n to th e f e e l in g , o th e rw ise e x p e rie n c e d o n ly in r a r e dream s, o f e x tr a o r d in a r y l i g h t n e s s , and in j ra p tu ro u s c e r t a i n t y o f b e in g a b le to summon up e n e r- ! g ie s in any d i r e c t i o n , to i n t e n s i f y o r t o r e le a s e ten * sio n s g rad e d to a n ic e ty . T his s t a t e , in w hich n o th in g d e f i n i t e i s th o u g h t, p la n n e d , s t r i v e n f o r , d e s ire d o r e x p e c te d , w hich aim s in no p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n and y e t knows i t s e l f c ap a b le a l i k e o f th e p o s s ib le and th e im p o s s ib le , so unsw erving in i t s power— t h i s s t a t e w hich i s a t bo tto m purpose* le s s and e g o le s s , was c a lle d by th e M aster t r u l y ; " s p i r i t u a l . " I t i s i n f a c t c h arg ed w ith s p i r i t u a l aw areness and i s th e r e f o r e a ls o c a l le d " r i g h t p resen c e o f m in d ." This means t h a t th e m ind o r s p i r i t i s p r e s e n t ev ery w h ere, b ecau se i t i s nowhere a tta c h e d to any p a r t i c u l a r p la c e . And i t can rem ain p re s e n t b e c a u se , even when r e l a t e d t o t h i s o r t h a t o b j e c t , i t does n o t lo s e i t 8 o r i g i n a l m o b ility . (2 4 :3 9 ) I t i s a p p a re n t from th e ab o v e, t h a t H e rrig e l has n o t p ro v id ed a s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d , e x p l i c i t e x p la n a tio n o f th e |e x p la n a tio n o f th e e x p e rie n c e he w ish e s to d e s c r ib e . Since i t seems t h a t much o f w hat c o n s t i t u t e s th e s p o r ts e x p e r i ence i s f e e l in g , i t i s th e s u g g e s tio n o f t h i s stu d y t h a t su ch e x p e rie n c e s do n o t le n d th em selv es to e x p l i c i t l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t io n , such d e s c r ip tio n s becom ing more p o e try th a n s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s . I 8 5 ! i I I f we assum e, " ( 1 ) That language I s th e o n ly means j o f a r t i c u l a t i n e th o u g h t and (2 ) That e v e ry th in g w hich i s n o t sp e a k a b le i s f e e lin g " (3 4 :8 1 ), th e n i t i s d o u b tfu l t h a t ! i i {the u tte r a n c e s o f H e rrig e l o r o th e r s w r itin g o f t h e i r j 1 s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e s a r e more th a n e m o tio n a l b a b b lin g . j I Much o f th e problem in v o lv e d in d e s c rib in g and | j fin d in g m eaning in th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e seems to l i e in j ! j ! th e a re a o f lan g u a g e. I f th e q u e s tio n o f w hat can be known j i can be answ ered o n ly in term s o f w hat can be ask ed th ro u g h ! j l i n g u i s t i c p r o p o s itio n , th e n th e is s u e i s a t an end ; | (3 4 :1 3 -3 3 ). The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e , in t h a t i t seems t o be p r im a r ily a m a tte r o f f e e l in g , i s m ere ly e m o tio n a l, th e r e - j |f o r e , and p ro b a b ly unw orthy o f s e r io u s c o n s id e ra tio n a s a !so u rc e o f m eaning. I | D isc u rsiv e and N o n -d isc u rsiv e S y m b o lizatio n Susanne L anger, i n h e r book P hilosophy in a New :Kiev (3 4 ), p ro p o ses t h a t th e r e i s a re a lm o f r e a l m eaning, b u t o f a n o rd e r o th e r th a n , o r in c o n ju n c tio n w ith , th e k in d s o f m eanings w hich a r e c a r r i e d by lan g u ag e. I f th e r e i i s su ch a rea lm , th e n th e e r r o r o f H e rrig e l and o th e rs may l i e in th e a tte m p t to convey in lan g u ag e th o s e e x p e rie n c e s I 86 ! i I I and f e e lin g s w hich a r e e s s e n t i a l l y n o n -v e rb a l. | E x p e r ie n tia l d e s c r ip tio n s t r a i n s th e language in | t h a t e x is ti n g language seem to la c k th e c a p a c ity to e x p re s s | ! i i i ! m eanings in h e re n t in th e e x p e rie n c e s . In su ch c a s e s , th e | ! t h e o r i s t i s fa c e d w ith th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f p ro v id in g e x - j I I |p la n a tio n o f e x p e rie n c e w ith in a d e q u a te lan g u ag e. To do ; i s o , he is fo rc e d to tu r n to m etaphor and a n a lo g y w hich is ith e e sse n c e o f p o e try , o r he m ust tu r n to th e m ethod o r j m ethods o f phenom enology. Ia n g e r shows t h a t th e rea lm o f !th e phenom enologist may be th e e q u a l o f t h a t o f e m p iric a l ! j s c ie n c e in term s o f human m eaning and know ledge. ; I Ia n g e r im p lie s t h a t w hat we c a l l th in k in g i s in | f a c t a p ro c e ss o f sy m b o liz a tio n . i Q u o ta tio n s c o u ld be m u ltip lie d a lm o st i n d e f i n i t e l y , from a n im posing l i s t o f s o u rc e s — from John Dewey and B e rtra n d R u s s e ll, B runschw leg and P ia g e t and Head, | K ohler and K offka, C arnap, D e la c ro ix , R ib o t, C a s s ir e r , W hitehead--from p h ilo s o p h e rs , p s y c h o lo g is ts , n e u ro l o g i s t s , and a n th r o p o lo g is ts —t o s u b s ta n tia te th e c la im t h a t sy m b o liz a tio n i s th e key to t h a t m e n ta l l i f e , w hich i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y human and above th e le v e l o f s h e e r a n im a lity . Symbol and m eaning make m an's w o rld f a r more th a n s e n s a tio n . (3 4 :3 4 ) j i The sym bol i n L a n g e r's a c c o u n t i s u sed f o r th e m ost p a r t to s ta n d f o r th o se s ig n s w hich we use t o s ig n i f y ob j e c t s , r e l a t i o n s , a b s t r a c t i o n s , e t c . , w hich may o r may n o t be p re s e n t. S y m b o lizatio n i s , sim p ly , th e p ro c e ss by w hich I 87 | I j I Man g e n e ra te s su ch sym bols. "S y m b o liz a tio n i s p re - r a t i o n a t i v e , b u t n o t p r e - r a t l o n a l . I t i s th e s t a r t i n g |p o in t o f a l l i n t e l l e c t i o n i n th e human s e n s e , and i s more ! I * | !g e n e ra l th a n th in k in g , fa n c y in g , o r ta k in g a c tio n " (3 4 :4 6 ). j i i ; The sym bol, th e n , w ould seem to be th e " s t u f f " from w hich i I : i | j r a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c th o u g h t i s m ade, and a s w e l l, th e I [ " s t u f f " from w hich im ag in in g s and f e e lin g s a r e d e riv e d . ! I t w ould seem t h a t th e sym bol and sy m b o liz a tio n f o r th e | b a s is o f a l l m en tal l i f e and t h a t r a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c j j th o u g h t and f e e lin g and em otion a r e b u t c a te g o r ie s . j i j L anger s e e s sy m b o liz a tio n a s a b a s ic fu n c tio n in i i i Man. I i | T his b a s ic need, w hich c e r t a i n l y i s o bvious o n ly in man i s th e n eed o f s y m b o liz a tio n . The symbol** making f u n c tio n i s one o f m an 's p rim ary a c t i v i t i e s , lik e e a t in g , lo o k in g , o r moving a b o u t. I t i s th e fundam ental p ro c e ss o f h is m ind and goes on a l l th e tim e . Sometimes we a r e aw are o f i t , som etim es we m erely f in d i t s r e s u l t s , an d r e a l i z e t h a t c e r t a i n e x p e rie n c e s have p a sse d th ro u g h o u r b r a in s and have been d ig e s te d th e r e . (3 4 :4 5 ) i la n g e r , a s th e above q u o te i n d ic a t e s , s e e s sym bol- i I iz a ti o n a s a c o n s ta n t p ro c e s s . She a ls o in d ic a te s t h a t |sy m b o liz a tio n i s o f two ty p e s : (1 ) d is c u r s iv e and (2 ) non- jd is c u r s iv e o r p r e s e n t a ti o n a l . The d is c u r s iv e sym bol i s o f |th e k in d a s s o c ia te d w ith la n g u a g e , e m p ir ic a l s c ie n c e , |l o g i c a l th o u g h t, e t c . Man d e v elo p s v o c a l and w r i t te n 88 I |sym bols w hich i n t u r n r e p r e s e n t m e n ta l sym bols. The m en tal p ic tu r e we have when, f o r exam ple, we se e a b u ild in g I s n o t i i th e b u ild in g I t s e l f , b u t I s a p e rc e p tu a l symbol o f th e ' i : i b u ild in g . F u r th e r , we a r e a b le to d e v elo p m en tal sym bols j i i 1 i o f an a b s t r a c ti o n r e p r e s e n tin g a l l b u ild in g s . From t h i s j p o in t, I t seems a r e l a t i v e l y sim p le m a tte r to d ev elo p i | v e r b a l and w r i t te n sym bols to r e p r e s e n t th e o r i g in a l o b je c t ; i ! o r a b s t r a c ti o n . I t i s t h i s p ro c e ss w hich g e n e ra te s sp eech | ; j and la n g u a g e , b u t i t p re s e n ts d i f f i c u l t i e s : i T his p ro p e rty o f v e rb a l s y m b o lis m i s known a s | d is c u r s iv e n e s s : by re a s o n o f i t o n ly th o u g h ts w hich i can be a rra n g e d in t h i s p e c u lia r o rd e r ( l i n e a r ) can be spoken a t a l l ; any id e a w hich does n o t le n d i t - | s e l f to t h i s " p r o je c tio n " i s i n e f f a b l e , incommuni c a b le by means o f w ords. (3 4 :7 7 ) | W e r e l y upon language b e c a u se i t e x p re sse s th e j s e n s ib le w o rld t h a t we l iv e in , and t h i s encourages th e developm ent o f e m p iric a l s c ie n c e and lo g ic . E m p irical s c ie n c e r e q u ir e s language to e x p re s s s e n s ib le p e rc e p tio n s i and lo g ic o r a t l e a s t v e r b a l lo g ic i s b a se d on lan g u ag e. ; U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e su c c e ss o f s c ie n c e an d l o g ic , in a d d i t i o n to th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in e x p re s s in g any id e a w hich does n o t le n d i t s e l f to a l i n e a r " p r o je c tio n " (3 4 :7 7 ), h as le d to th e d e n ia l on th e p a r t o f many lo g ic ia n s , s c i e n t i s t s , and p h ilo s o p h e rs t h a t m eaning i s to be found anywhere 89 jexcept in language. I t seems obvious t h a t i f th e r e i s m eaning in a rea lm o th e r th a n th e one t h a t language d e s c r ib e s , th e n Man w ould have g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y in com m unicating t h a t mean- jin g . This does not mean, how ever, t h a t such m eaning does j I ! n o t e x i s t . j i Now I d id n o t b e lie v e t h a t " th e r e is a w o rld w hich j i s n o t p h y s ic a l o r n o t s p a c e -tim e ," b u t I do b e lie v e j t h a t in t h i s s p a c e -tim e w o rld o f our e x p e rie n c e th e r e j a re th in g s w hich do n o t f i t th e g ram m atical scheme o f e x p re s s io n . But th e y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r ily b lin d , in - j c o n c e iv a b le , m y s tic a l a f f a i r s ; th e y a r e sim p ly m a tte rs w hich r e q u ir e to be c o n c e iv e d th ro u g h some s y m b o lis tic schema o th e r th a n d is c u r s iv e lan g u ag e. (3 4 :8 3 ) To us whose i n t e l l i g e n c e i s bound up w ith lan g u ag e, whose achievem ents a re p h y s ic a l c o m fo rts, m ach in es, j m e d ic in e s, g r e a t c i t i e s , and th e means o f t h e i r d e s tr u c tio n , th e o ry o f knowledge means th e o ry o f com- | m u n ic a tio n , g e n e r a liz a tio n o f p ro o f, in s h o r t , c r i t i q u e j o f s c ie n c e . But th e l im i ts o f language a re n o t th e l a s t lim i t s o f e x p e r ie n c e , and th in g s in a c c e s s ib le to language may have t h e i r own form s o f c o n c e p tio n , t h a t i i s to sa y , t h e i r own sym bolic d e v ic e s . (3 4 :2 4 , ! i t a l i c s mine ) I f , a s s t a t e d e a r l i e r , th e p ro c e ss o f s y m b o liz a tio n j i s more g e n e ra l th a n th in k in g , th e n i t w ould seem re a so n - i I a b le to suppose t h a t th e r e a re th in g s w hich do n o t f i t th e gram m atical scheme o f e x p re s s io n . Such a re a lm may w e ll be f irm ly w ith in our sp a c e -tim e p h y s ic a l w o rld . "lan g u ag e i s by no means our o n ly a r t i c u l a t e p ro d u c t" (3 4 :8 3 ). 90 I f s y m b o liz a tio n i s a p ro c e ss more g e n e ra l th an t h a t we n o rm a lly c a l l th in k in g and i f , a s Ia n g e r in d ic a t e s , i ;s y m b o liz a tio n i s a c o n s ta n t p ro c e s s , th e n we may assiaaa t h a t sy m b o liz a tio n , w hich c a r r i e s m eaning e q u a l to th a t [found in th e d is c u r s iv e re a lm , o c cu rs in re g a rd to th o s e a re a s w here e x p e rie n c e ex ceed s lan g u ag e. Such sy m b o liza t io n , a c c o rd in g to Ia n g e r, i s n o n -d is c u rs iv e o r p re s e n ta - t i o n a l (34: C h ap ter IV ). C o n sid er th e m ost f a m i li a r n o n -d is c u rs iv e sym bol, s | p i c t u r e . Like language i t i s composed o f ele m e n ts th a t r e p r e s e n t v a rio u s r e s p e c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts in th e o b je c t; b u t th e s e e le m e n ts a r e n o t u n i ts w ith in d ep en d en t mean in g s . (3 4 :8 7 ) | The ele m e n ts w hich c o n s t it u t e th e p ic tu r e a r e u n iq u e, in t h a t th e y do n o t r e p r e s e n t, item f o r ite m , th o se w hich have names: th e r e i s n o t one b lo tc h f o r th e n o se , one fo r th e m outh, e t c . ; t h e i r sh a p e s , in q u ite in d e s c rib a b le c o m b in a tio n s, convey a t o t a l p ic tu r e in w hich th e nam eable f e a tu r e s may be p o in te d o u t. The g ra d a tio n s o f l i g h t and shade cannot be en u m erated . They can n o t be c o r r e l a t e d , one by o n e, w ith p a r ts o r c h a r a c te r i s t i c s by means o f w hich we m ight d e s c rib e th e p arso n ! who posed f o r th e p o r t r a i t . (3 4 :8 8 ) In a p a in tin g , o r p h o to g rap h , e ach sh a p e , p la n e , o r c o lo r a ti o n r e p r e s e n ts a n elem en t o f th e e n t i r e p i c t u r e . There a re shapes t h a t make up th e n o se , and th o s e t h a t make up th e e a r , e t c . They can n o t be named, f o r th e in d iv id u a l 89 i l excep t in language. I t seems obvious t h a t i£ th e r e i s m eaning i n a re a lm o th e r th a n th e one t h a t language d e s c r ib e s , th e n Man i w ould have g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y in com m unicating t h a t raean- i in g . T his does n o t mean, how ever, t h a t su ch m eaning does n o t e x i s t . Now I d id n o t b e lie v e t h a t " th e re i s a w o rld w hich i i s n o t p h y s ic a l o r n o t s p a c e -tim e ," b u t I do b e lie v e t h a t in t h i s s p a c e -tim e w o rld o f o u r e x p e rie n c e th e r e | a re th in g s w hich do n o t f i t th e g ram m atical scheme o f i e x p re s s io n . But th e y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r ily b lin d , in - ! c o n c e iv a b le , m y s tic a l a f f a i r s ; th e y a r e sim p ly m a tte rs w hich r e q u ir e to be c o n ce iv e d th ro u g h some s y m b o lis tic schema o th e r th a n d is c u r s iv e la n g u a g e . (3 4 :8 3 ) To us whose i n t e l l i g e n c e i s bound up w ith lan g u a g e, whose achievem ents a r e p h y s ic a l c o m fo rts, m ach in es, m e d ic in e s, g r e a t c i t i e s , and th e means o f t h e i r d e s tr u c tio n , th e o ry o f know ledge means th e o ry o f com- i m u n ic a tio n , g e n e r a liz a tio n o f p ro o f, i n s h o r t, c r i t i q u e | o f s c ie n c e . But th e l im i ts o f language a re n o t th e l a s t l im i ts o f e x p e r ie n c e , and th in g s in a c c e s s ib le to language may have t h e i r own form s o f c o n c e p tio n , t h a t i s t o sa y , t h e i r own sym bolic d e v ic e s . (3 4 :2 4 , i t a l i c s m in e ) I f , a s s t a t e d e a r l i e r , th e p ro c e ss o f sy m b o liz a tio n i s more g e n e r a l th a n th in k in g , th e n i t w ould seem re a s o n a b le to suppose t h a t th e r e a r e th in g s w hich do n o t f i t th e gram m atical scheme o f e x p re s s io n . Such a rea lm may w e ll be firm ly w ith in our sp a c e -tim e p h y s ic a l w o rld . "lan g u ag e i s by no means o u r o n ly a r t i c u l a t e p ro d u c t" (3 4 :8 3 ). 90 I f sy m b o liz a tio n i s a p ro c e ss more g e n e ra l th a n t h a t we n o rm a lly c a l l th in k in g and i f , a s Ia n g e r i n d ic a t e s , sy m b o liz a tio n i s a c o n s ta n t p ro c e s s , th e n we may assum e t h a t s y m b o liz a tio n , w hich c a r r i e s m eaning e q u a l to th a t found in th e d is c u r s iv e rea lm , o c cu rs in re g a rd to th o s e a re a s w here e x p e rie n c e ex ceed s lan g u ag e. Such sy m b o liza t i o n , a c c o rd in g to la n g e r , i s n o n -d is c u rs iv e o r p r e s e n ta t i o n a l (34: C h ap ter IV ). C o n sid er th e m ost f a m i li a r n o n -d is c u rs iv e sym bol, a p i c t u r e . L ike language i t i s composed o f e le m e n ts t h a t j r e p r e s e n t v a rio u s r e s p e c tiv e c o n s titu e n ts in th e o b je c t;j b u t th e s e e le m e n ts a r e n o t u n i ts w ith in d ep e n d en t mean in g s . (3 4 :8 7 ) | The e le m e n ts w hich c o n s t i t u t e th e p ic tu r e a r e u n iq u e , in t h a t th e y | do n o t r e p r e s e n t, ite m f o r ite m , th o s e w hich have nam es: th e r e i s n o t one b lo tc h f o r th e n o se , one fo r th e m outh, e t c . ; t h e i r s h a p e s , in q u i te in d e s c r ib a b le | c o m b in a tio n s, convey a t o t a l p ic tu r e in w hich th e nam eable f e a tu r e s may be p o in te d o u t. The g r a d a tio n s o f l i g h t and shade can n o t be en u m erated . They c an n o t be c o r r e l a t e d , one by o n e, w ith p a r ts o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by means o f w hich we m ight d e s c rib e th e p e rso n who posed f o r th e p o r t r a i t . (3 4 :8 8 ) |In a p a in tin g , o r p h o to g rap h , e ac h sh a p e , p la n e , o r c o lo r a ti o n r e p r e s e n ts an elem en t o f th e e n t i r e p i c t u r e . There a r e sh ap es t h a t make up th e n o se , and th o s e t h a t make up th e e a r , e t c . They can n o t be named, f o r th e in d iv id u a l sh ap es and c o lo r a tio n s a re n o t d i s t i n c t from one a n o th e r. j They c a n n o t be a c c u r a te ly named, nor even d e s c rib e d . The e le m e n ts can n o t be b roken down in to a s m a lle s t, o r b a s ic i I u n i t , n o r a r e th e y re c o g n iz a b le in d i f f e r e n t c o n te x t. The "e le m e n ts" t h a t th e cam era r e p r e s e n ts a re n o t th e "e le m e n ts" t h a t language r e p r e s e n ts . They a r e a th o u san d tim es more num erous. F or t h i s re a so n th e c o r- j resp o n d en ce betw een a w o rd -p ic tu re and a v i s i b l e o b je c t can n e v e r be a s c lo s e a s t h a t betw een th e o b je c t and i t s p h o to g rap h . (3 4 :8 8 ) j j I t i s o n ly when th e e le m e n ts a r e c o n s id e re d in I g ro u p in g s o r a s a w hole t h a t th e y can be named, o r become d is c u r s iv e . I t i s th e n t h a t we can t a l k a b o u t a nose o r an ; I e y e . W e can n o t speak e a s i l y a b o u t th e p la n e s a lo n g th e j i s id e o f th e nose o r th e e x a c t shape o f th e e y e , f o r th e s e can o n ly be v e ry c ru d e ly d e s c rib e d v e r b a l ly . G iven a l l a t once to th e i n t e l l i g e n t e y e , an in c r e d ib le w e a lth and d e t a i l o f in fo rm a tio n i s conveyed by th e p o r t r a i t , w here we do n o t have to s to p to c o n s tru e v e r b a l m eanings. That i s why we u se a p h o to g rap h r a t h e r th a n a d e s c r ip tio n on a p a s s p o rt o r in th e Rogues G a lle ry . (3 4 :8 8 ) A p h o to g rap h can o n ly be c o n s id e re d e f f e c t i v e l y a s a t o t a l i t y . I t does n o t len d i t s e l f t o any s o r t o f l i n e a r c o n s id e r a tio n . S ince th e e le m e n ts in a p ic tu r e c an n o t be named o r c o n s id e re d l i n e a r l y , th e n su ch p r e s e n ta tio n s to th e se n se s have no words a s s o c ia te d w ith them , e x c e p t a s th e y a p p e a r in g ro u p s. As in d iv id u a l elem en ts th e y have no v o c a b u la ry . "N o n -d isc u rsiv e sym bols can n o t be d e fin e d in term s o f o t h e r s , a s d is c u r s iv e sym bols can " (3 4 :8 8 ). i "V erbal sym bolism , u n lik e th e n o n -d is c u rs iv e k in d s , | has p r im a r ily a g e n e ra l r e f e r e n c e " (3 4 :8 8 ). A d is c u r s iv e sym bol, a s s t a t e d e a r l i e r , m ig h t, in a p a in tin g , be th e n o se , th e e n t i r e n o se . The n o se i s n o t a th in g , b u t a group o f th in g s and n o t e n t i r e l y d e fin a b le in w ords. The word nose i s n o t th e name o f a s p e c i f i c th in g , b u t r a t h e r , th e ! sym bol t h a t has been a s s ig n e d by c o n v e n tio n to t h a t group o f q u a l i t i e s p re s e n t in th e m id d le o f th e f a c e . "In th e n o n -d is c u rs iv e mode t h a t sp eak s d i r e c t l y to i s e n s e , how ever, th e r e i s no i n t r i n s i c g e n e r a l i t y . I t i s f i r s t and fo rem o st a d i r e c t p r e s e n ta tio n o f an in d iv id u a l o b je c t" (3 4 :8 9 ). N o n -d isc u rsiv e sym bols such a s th o se p r e se n te d in p ic tu r e s a p p e a r an d a r e m e a n in g fu l a s a w hole, r a t h e r th a n a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f p a r t s . The v a rio u s e le m e n ts w ith in a p ic tu r e a r e m e a n in g le ss in th e m s e lv e s , f o r th e y jean o n ly be c o n s id e re d in d iv id u a lly in a l i n e a r m anner, b u t | th e y do become e x tre m e ly m e a n in g fu l when th e y a r e con- I s id e re d a s th e y a re p r e s e n te d , a s a w hole. W ordless sym bolism w hich i s n o n -d is c u rs iv e and un t r a n s l a t a b l e does n o t a llo w o f d e f i n i ti o n s w ith in i t s 93 own sy stem , and th e y c an n o t convey g e n e r a l i t i e s . The j m eanings g iv e n th ro u g h language a re s u c c e s s iv e ly u n d e r- : sto o d and g a th e re d t o a w hole p ro c e ss c a l le d d is c o u rs e ; th e l a r g e r , a r t i c u l a t e sym bols a re u n d e rsto o d o n ly th ro u g h m eaning o f th e w h o le, th ro u g h t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w ith in th e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e . T h eir v e ry f u n c tio n in g a s | sym bols depends on th e f a c t t h a t th e y a r e in v o lv e d in a sim u lta n e o u s , " p r e s e n ta tio n a l" sym bolism , " to c h a ra c t e r i z e " i t s e s s e n t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n from d is c u r s iv e sym- j h o lism , o r "la n g u a g e " p ro p e r. (3 4 :8 9 ) In o th e r w o rd s, a s in d ic a te d e a r l i e r , d is c u r s iv e sym bols a r e b ro k en down in to b a s ic u n i t s o r g ro u p in g s and a re c o n s id e re d , m a n ip u la te d , and o rg a n iz e d in a l i n e a r m anner, one elem en t a f t e r a n o th e r. N o n -d isc u rsiv e sym bols j a re g e n e ra te d from a t o t a l se n se e x p e rie n c e , in w hich a l l j e le m e n ts a r e c o n s id e re d s im u lta n e o u s ly . : • ! T hat th e r e i s m eaning to be d e riv e d from p r e s e n ta - I t io n a l sym bols m ight be a t l e a s t su g g e ste d i n th e f a n t a s t i c a b i l i t i e s o f c e r t a i n h e ro e s o f m y ste ry f i c t i o n . I The fo llo w in g e x c e rp t from "A Case o f I d e n t i ty " a p tl y i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s p o in t. He had r i s e n from h is c h a ir and was s ta n d in g betw een th e p a rte d b lin d s g a z in g down i n to th e d u l l n e u t r a l - t i n t e d London s t r e e t , lo o k in g o v e r h is s h o u ld e r, I saw t h a t on th e pavem ent o p p o s ite th e r e sto o d a la r g e woman w ith a heavy f u r boa aro u n d h e r ! neck and a la rg e c u r lin g re d f e a t h e r in a b ro a d - ! brimmed h a t w hich was t i l t e d c o q u e ttis h Duchess o f D evonshire f a s h io n o v e r h e r e a r . From u n d e r t h i s g r e a t panoply sh e peeped up in a n e rv o u s , h e s i t a t i n g i fa s h io n a t o u r w indow s, w h ile h e r body o s c i l l a t e d backw ards and fo rw a rd , h e r f in g e r s f id g e te d w ith h e r g lo v e b u tto n s . S uddenly, w ith a p lu n g e , a s o f th e 94 swimmer who le a v e s th e b an k , she h u r r ie d a c ro s s th e ro a d and we h e a rd th e s h a rp c la n g o f th e b e l l . " I have se en th o se symptoms b e f o r e ," s a id Holmes, th ro w in g h is c i g a r e t t e in to th e f i r e . " O s c illa tio n upon pavement alw ays means an a f f a i r e de c o e u r . She w ould l ik e a d v ic e , b u t i s n o t s u re t h a t th e m a tte r i s | n o t to o d e li c a t e f o r com m unication. And y e t even h e re we may d is c r im in a te . When a woman has been s e r io u s ly w ronged by a man, sh e no lo n g e r o s c i l l a t e s , and th e u s u a l symptom i s a b ro k en b e l l w ir e . Here we may ta k e j i t t h a t th e r e i s a lo v e m a tte r , b u t t h a t th e m aiden i s n o t so much a n g ry a s p e rp le x e d , o r g rie v e d . But h e re she comes in p e rso n to r e s o lv e o u r d o u b ts ." . . . S ir A rth u r (Conan D oyle) made e x p l i c i t a h ig h ly complex p ro c e ss w hich many o f us go th ro u g h w ith o u t knowing we a re in v o lv e d . (20:42*43) S h erlo ck Holmes and o th e r f i c t i o n a l h e ro e s a re s u c c e s s f u l in many c a se s b ecau se th e y a r e a b le t o f in d m eaning in s i t u a t i o n s w hich a r e e s s e n t i a l l y n o n -v e rb a l. I t i s , o f i I c o u rs e , th e g r e a t a p p e a l o f S ir A rth u r Conan Doyle t h a t he i s a b le to r e l a t e l i n g u i s t i c a l l y t h a t w hich i s e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - lin g u a l. Since b o th d is c u r s iv e an d n o n -d is c u rs iv e sym bols a re th e r e s u l t o f th e p ro c e ss o f s y m b o liz a tio n , th e y p ro b a b ly a r e n o t d i s t i n c t e le m e n ts o f t h a t p ro c e s s . They a r e perhaps b e s t th o u g h t o f a s th e ex trem es o f a continuum . I f a n u m e ric a l s c a le o f one t o te n w ere im posed upon t h i s I continuum w ith d is c u r s iv e sym bols a t p o in t one and non- I j d is c u r s iv e sym bols a t p o in t t e n , th e n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e two form s m ight b e t t e r be u n d e rs to o d . The a re a betw een 9 5 ! one and t h r e e , f o r exam ple, m ight encom pass th e h ig h ly r e s t r i c t e d language o f s c ie n c e and lo g ic . The a re a betw een th r e e and seven w ould th e n be th e a re a o f norm al c o n v e rsa - i t i o n and th e a re a betw een se v en and te n w ould be th e a re a o f n o n -lin g u a l sym bols. , S p o rts e x p e rie n c e s seem to be o f th e n o n -d is c u rs iv e s o r t . A th le te s may, o f c o u rs e , d is c u s s t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , b u t g e n e r a lly i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r them to do so in any way o th e r th a n by m e tap h o r, a n a lo g y , o r th e g r o s s e s t o f g e n e r- j a l i t y . As was shown in H e r r ig e l 's d e p ic tio n o f h is e x - ! p e r ie n c e s , even a tr a i n e d p h ilo s o p h e r has g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y j in e x p l i c i t l y d e s c rib in g su ch e x p e rie n c e s . I f , a s Ia n g e r | I |i n d i c a t e s , n o n -d is c u rs iv e sym bols a r e u n t r a n s la ta b l e , th e n |th e d i f f i c u l t y o f a t h l e t e s i n d e s c r ib in g t h e i r f e e lin g s in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n and th e m eanings th e y f in d th e r e i s i u n d e rs ta n d a b le . C e r ta in ly , th e r e a r e a s p e c ts o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e w hich a r e d i s c u r s i v e , b u t t h a t w hich seems m ost s i g n i f i c a n t to th e man o f s p o r t i s p ro b a b ly th e non- i d is c u r s iv e re a lm . I t i s an a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t p re s e n te d in i t h i s s tu d y t h a t th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s e s s e n t i a l l y non- Iv e rb a l, and w ith in th e re a lm o f th e n o n -d is c u rs iv e o r 96 p r e s e n ta tio n a l sym bol a s d e lin e a te d by L anger. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e w ould, a c c o rd in g to la n g e r , g e n e ra te sy m b o liz a t i o n b u t th e e x p e rie n c e i s n o t m ed iate d by words w hich in i th em selv es a re sym bols w hich r e p r e s e n t y e t o th e r sym bols. S ince th e p r e s e n ta tio n a l symbol i s one o f im m ediate a p p re h e n sio n o f e le m e n ts p e rc e iv e d , th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e p ro v id e s f a r more im m ediate a p p re h e n s io n o f th e w o rld . I t i s o f te n s a id t h a t th e a t h l e t e sh o u ld n o t th in k o n ly r e a c t . Rarhaps t h i s sa y in g sh o u ld be c o r r e c te d to s t a t e t h a t th e a t h l e t e sh o u ld n o t th in k d i s c u r s i v e l y , o n ly p r e s e n t a ti o n a l l y . The r e a c t i o n o f th e a t h l e t e t o th e s i t u - j a t i o n he p e rc e iv e s i s b a sed upon h is sim u lta n e o u s p e rc e p t i o n o f a l l o r m ost e le m e n ts w ith in th e s i t u a t i o n and h is i ! - : im m ediate a p p re h e n s io n o f m eaning in th e s i t u a t i o n . The a t h l e t e m ust b ase h is a c tio n s upon c e r t a i n f a c t o r s w ith in ! i th e f i e l d o f h is im m ediate e x p e rie n c e . An im p o rta n t s k i l l t h a t may b e ta u g h t th e modern day f o o t b a l l p la y e r i s a te c h n iq u e c a l le d " k e y in g ." When k e y in g , th e f o o t b a l l p la y e r r e a c t s t o even th e m ost s u b tle movements o f h is o p p o n en t. In te a c h in g and in th e e a r l y i s ta g e s o f th e a c q u i s i ti o n o f t h i s s k i l l , th e movements o f I th e opponent a re d e a l t w ith d is c u r s iv e ly . The a t h l e t e may a c t u a l l y say to h im s e lf, " i f he moves t h i s way, I w i l l i move in th e same d ir e c tio n " o r an o p p o s ite d i r e c ti o n a s w i l l be d e term in ed by th e p a r t i c u l a r " k e y ." As th e p la y e r p ro g r e s s e s , h is r e a c tio n s become more " a u to m a tic " and le s s j and le s s m ed iate d by d is c u r s iv e th o u g h t. The p la y e r b e g in s | to d e a l w ith th e movements o f h is opponent p r e s e n ta tio n - a l l y . Some p la y e rs a re a b le to d e a l w ith a n im m ediate se n se p r e s e n ta tio n so s u c c e s s f u lly t h a t th e y c an n o t a f t e r m aking th e c o r r e c t move e x p la in how th e y knew t h a t th e move I ' I was c o r r e c t . As su g g e ste d e a r l i e r , i t m ight prove m ean in g fu l t o j c o n s id e r d is c u r s iv e and n o n -d is c u rs iv e sym bols in a some- ! w hat d i f f e r e n t l i g h t . E x p erien ces o f a d is c u r s iv e s o r t a r e ! m e d ia te d , in t h a t th e r e a re l i n g u i s t i c sym bols in te rp o s e d betw een th e s u b je c t and t h a t w hich he e x p e rie n c e s . M ediated e x p e rie n c e s m ight be seen in su ch a c t i v i t i e s a s re a d in g , w r i t in g , l i s t e n i n g to l e c t u r e s , e t c . E x p erien c es o f a p r e s e n t a ti o n a l o r n o n -d is c u rs iv e s o r t a r e u n m ed iate d , in t h a t th e s u b je c t im m ed iately e x p e rie n c e s h is w o rld . IJh- m ed iate d e x p e rie n c e s m ight be shown in c e r t a i n a e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e s and in th e c a se o f t h i s s tu d y , s p o r t . Uhmedi- a te d e x p e rie n c e s a r e a ls o th e re a lm o f f e e lin g and 98 im a g in in g , though th e l in e betw een m ed iate d and unm ediated e x p e rie n c e s becomes vague when such th in g s a s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith a f i c t i o n a l ( d is c u r s iv e ly p re s e n te d ) h e ro a r e I c o n s id e re d . j The b a s ic n a tu r e o f th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n has been ; p re s e n te d . I t i s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , e x p e rie n c e o f th e | i s o r t t h a t m ight be c a l l e d u n m ed iated . I f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s to be a s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e rie n c e , i t m ust be 1 m e a n in g fu l, a t l e a s t to th e a t h l e t e . I f th e a t h l e t e fin d s j m eaning in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n , w hat i s th e n a tu r e o f t h a t j m eaning? Is th e r e m eaning to be found in th e re a lm o f th e j i n o n -d is c u rs iv e sym bol? j W herever a sym bol o p e r a te s , th e r e i s a m eaning; and c o n v e rse ly d i f f e r e n t c la s s e s o f e x p e rie n c e — s a y , re a s o n , i n t u i t i o n , a p p r e c ia tio n — c o rre sp o n d to d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f sym bolic m e d ia tio n . No sym bol i s exem pt from th e o f f i c e o f l o g i c a l fo rm u la tio n , o f c o n c e p tu a l iz in g w hat i t con v ey s; how ever sim p le i t s Im p o rt, o r however g r e a t , t h i s im p o rt i s a m eaning. and th e r e f o r e an elem en t f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g . Such a r e f l e c t i o n i n v i t e s one to ta c k le anew , and w ith e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t e x p e c ta tio n s , th e w hole problem o f th e l im i ts o f re a s o n , th e much d is p u te d l i f e o f f e e l i n g , and th e g r e a t c o n v e r s a tio n a l to p ic s o f f a c t and t r u t h , know l edge and w isdom , s c ie n c e and a r t . I t b r in g s w ith in th e compass o f re a s o n much t h a t has been r e l e g a t e d to " e m o tio n ," o r t o t h a t c re p u s c u la r d e p th o f th e mind w here " i n t u i t i o n s " a re supposed to be b o rn , w ith o u t any m id w ifery o f sym bols, w ith o u t due p ro c e ss o f th o u g h t, t o f i l l th e gaps in th e e d i f i c e o f d i s c u r s iv e , o r " r a t i o n a l " judgem ent. (3 4 :9 0 ) P “ 99 Many lo g ic ia n s , s c i e n t i s t s , an d p h ilo s o p h e rs s t a t e t h a t t h a t w hich c an n o t be s t a t e d i s m ea n in g le ss em o tio n , la n g e r in d ic a te s t h a t on th e b a s is o f h e r c o n c e p t o f sym- I b o l i z a t i o n , i t i s p o s s ib le to expand o u r view o f th o u g h t, and t h a t w hich we c o n s id e r r a t i o n a l . A ccording to h e r j v iew , t h a t w hich we m ig h t c o n s id e r em otion i s n o t n e c e s- s a r i l y i r r a t i o n a l o r m e a n in g le ss. I f we c o n s id e r t h a t some sy m b o liz a tio n r e s u l t s in th e h ig h ly e x a c t and te c h n ic a l j language o f s c ie n c e and s y m b o liz a tio n a t a n o th e r le v e l i 1 j r e s u l t s in th e much le s s e x a c t language o f ev ery d ay con- j j v e r s a t i o n , i s i t u n re a so n a b le to assum e t h a t t h a t w hich | | r e s u l t s in o r i s th e r e s u l t o f m u sic, a r t , and s p o r t i s o f an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t o r d e r? I f th e r e l a t i v e l y em otion i f r e e language o f s c ie n c e and lo g ic and th e language o f 'e v e ry d a y c o n v e rs a tio n w hich i s seldom e x a c t a r e m e a n in g fu l, ! th e n i t seems re a s o n a b le t o assum e t h a t th e a re a o f emo t i o n a l o r unm ediated e x p e rie n c e , w hich i s on th e same con tinuu m , i s a ls o m e a n in g fu l. W hile th e m eaning may be one !o f a n o th e r o r d e r , th e r e seem s no re a s o n to assum e t h a t m eaning i s la c k in g , o r t h a t th e m eanings d e riv e d a r e |i r r a t i o n a l . Is i t n o t p o s s ib le t h a t th e s o r t o f ’’i n t u i t i v e " knowl edge . . . b e ca u se i t i s su p p o se d ly n o t m ed iate d by 100 I any fo rm u la tin g (and hence d e fo rm in g ) sym bol I s I t s e l f p e r f e c t l y r a t i o n a l , b u t n o t to be c o n ce iv e d th ro u g h lan g u a g e —a p ro d u c t o f t h a t p r e s e n ta tio n a l sym bolism w hich th e m ind re a d s In a f l a s h and p re s e rv e s In a d i s p o s i t i o n o r an a t t i t u d e ? (3 4 :9 0 -9 1 ) j R a tio n a lity I s th e e sse n c e o f m ind, and sym bolic t r a n s fo rm a tio n I t s e le m e n ta ry p ro c e s s . I t I s a fundam ental e r r o r , t h e r e f o r e , to re c o g n iz e i t o n ly i n phenomenon o f s y s te m a tic , e x p l i c i t re a s o n in g . T hat i s a m atu re and i p re c a rio u s p ro d u c t. R a tio n a lity , how ever, i s em bodied in e v e ry m en tal a c t , n o t o n ly when m ind i s " a t i t s f u l l e s t s t r e t c h and co m p ass." I t p erm eates th e p e r ip h e r a l a c t i v i t i e s o f th e human n erv o u s sy ste m , j u s t a s t r u l y a s th e c o r t i c a l | f u n c tio n s . (3 4 :9 1 ) The " c o r t i c a l f u n c tio n s " a r e f u n c tio n s o f th e b r a in j and c e n t r a l n ervous sy stem . I t seems u n re a so n a b le to i assum e t h a t em otive f u n c tio n s o r ig in a te w ith in a d i f f e r e n t j ■ sy stem . To assum e t h a t em otive fu n c tio n s o r i g in a te w ith in |a d i f f e r e n t sy stem i s to say more th a n we know a b o u t th e l |p h y s io lo g ic a l f u n c tio n s o f th e body. I f th e " c o r t i c a l i f u n c t io n s ," g e n e r a lly c o n s id e re d th e dom ain o f d is c u r s iv e th in k in g , a r e re a s o n a b le and m e a n in g fu l, th e n i t seems s a fe i to assum e t h a t th e em otive f u n c tio n s a r e n o t i r r a t i o n a l and th e y to o a r e m e a n in g fu l. To assum e o th e rw is e i s to assum e, s in c e b o th d is c u r s iv e and n o n - d is c u rs iv e sym bols land sym bolism o r i g in a te w ith in th e c e n t r a l n erv o u s sy stem , I t h a t th e c e n t r a l n erv o u s system perform s two s t r i k i n g l y 101 I d i f f e r e n t f u n c tio n s , o r t h a t e i t h e r d is c u r s iv e o r non- d is c u r s iv e th in k in g o r i g in a te s in a n o n -m a te ria l m ind o r s o u l. To assum e th e l a t t e r w ould c e r t a i n l y n o t be in l i n e w ith m ost s c i e n t i f i c th in k in g . The t i t l e o f P ro fe s s o r C re ig h to n * s tr e n c h a n t l i t t l e j a r t i c l e i s "Reason and F e e lin g ." I t s c e n t r a l t h e s i s i s t h a t i f th e r e i s som ething to o u r m e n ta l l i f e b e s id e s " r e a s o n ," by w hich he m eans, o f c o u rs e , d is c u r s iv e th in k in g , th e n i t c an n o t be a n a l o g i c a l f a c t o r , b u t i n j e sse n c e m ust be c o g n itiv e , to o ; an d s in c e th e o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e to t h i s re a s o n i s f e e lin g (th e a u th o r does n o t q u e s tio n t h a t axiom o f e p is te m o lo g y ), f e e lin g i t - | s e l f m ust somehow p a r t i c i p a t e in knowledge and u n d e r s ta n d in g . (3 4 :9 1 -9 2 ) I t i s perhaps th e f a c t t h a t d is c u r s iv e sym bols can be com m unicated w ith r e l a t i v e e a se t h a t i t has g a in e d i asce n d an c y . I t i s in th e d is c u r s iv e re a lm t h a t b u ild in g s i a re b u i l t and o rg a n iz a tio n s d ev elo p ed . The n o n -d is c u rs iv e I re a lm i s to o p e rs o n a l to be com m unicated e f f e c t i v e l y and l i t produces i n s p i r a t i o n , n o t e n g in e e rin g . I n s p i r a t i o n c an n o t be to u c h e d , bought o r s o l d , o r m easured by means t h a t a re g e n e r a lly a v a i la b l e . C e r ta in ly th e m eaning d e riv e d from th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s o f a somewhat d i f f e r e n t o rd e r th a n t h a t g a in e d i n s c ie n c e , a t y p i c a l c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e , o r o rd in a ry c o n v e rs a tio n . S lu sh e r p o in ts to a p o s s ib le s o lu tio n to th e problem o f m eaning in s p o r t. S p o rt and Awareness o f Being I t s [ s p o r t] p h y s ic a l form o f s y m b o liz a tio n i s n o t a p ic tu r e a s i t i s f o r th e a r t i s t , o r w ords as i t i s fo r th e w r i t e r , b u t r a t h e r a co m b in atio n o f movement, f o r c e s , and p a t t e r n s . I t d e p en d s, t o a g r e a t am ount, on p h y s ic a l o b j e c ts , body and e n v iro n m en t. The m eaning t h a t i s se n se d i s one o f b e in g . Man com m unicates h is b e in g th ro u g h an e x p re s s io n o f a c t io n . C e r ta in ly t h i s i s a v a l i d co n cep t f o r th e s p o r t p e rfo rm e r. (5 9 :9 7 ) I f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e g e n e ra te s m eaning in th e form o f h e ig h te n e d aw aren ess o f b e in g , th e n th e n a tu re o f b ein g sh o u ld be exam ined. The c e n t r a l t h e s i s o f p ro b a b ly a l l form s o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s m seems to b e , " e x is te n c e p re cedes e s s e n c e ." The f a c t t h a t a p erso n i s , i s p r io r to h is o r h e r r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h a t e x is te n c e . V ery sim p ly s t a t e d , th e problem , th e n , becomes one o f th e e x i s t e n t d e fin in g h is |o r h e r e s s e n c e . . . . th e w ord "B eing" i s i n d e f i n i t e in m eaning and y e t we u n d e rs ta n d i t d e f i n i t e l y . "B eing" pro v es to be t o t a l l y in d e te rm in a te . (2 2 :6 6 ) A g ram m atica l and e ty m o lo g ic a l,a n a ly s is o f th e word "B eing" u n d e rta k e n by M a rtin H eidegger in h is book, An I n tr o d u c tio n to M etaphysics (2 2 ), p ro v id e s no d e f i n i t e m eaning f o r th e w ord. Being does seem to be m ea n in g le ss when c o n s id e re d a s s e p a r a te from som ething t h a t i s . As | H eidegger i n d ic a t e s , how ever, t h a t w h ile language a n a ly s is 103 : j f a l l s to r e v e a l a m eaning to th e w ord, a m eaning does e x i s t and "we u n d e rs ta n d i t d e f i n i t e l y " (2 2 :6 6 ). Is a d e f i n i t i o n o f th e word "B eing" a c t u a l l y needed i f , a s H eidegger s a y s , th e m eaning i s u n d e rs to o d , even though i t c an n o t be s t a t e d ? No m a tte r w hat lo g ic a l m anipu l a t i o n s a r e e n d u re d , an in d iv id u a l knows t h a t he e x i s t s and in t h a t a lo n e we know th e m eaning o f th e word "B e in g ." Language i s a means o f o rg a n iz in g and com m unicating sym bols w hich a r e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s and a b s t r a c ti o n s o f e x p e rie n c e ! j and b e in g . In l i g h t o f th e d is c u s s io n o f L an g er, i t m ight | i be s a id t h a t "B eing" i s a sym bol o f th e m ost p rim ary un- ! I m ed iate d a s p e c t o f e x p e rie n c e . W e may a s k , n o t w hat Being i s , b u t how we may p o s s ib ly a p p ro a c h o r e n c o u n te r o r e x p e rie n c e o r " h e a r" o r d e c ip h e r o r b rin g Being to l i g h t . The answ er to su ch a q u e s tio n i s n o t in p r o p o s itio n a l te rm s , b u t in term s o f a t t i t u d e s , e x p e c ta tio n s , p r e p a r a tio n s , rem oval o f i n h i b i t i o n s , even te c h n iq u e s . (8 :8 ) i In s p o r t , a s S lu sh e r i n d ic a t e s , Man has th e o p p o r t u n i t y , a t l e a s t , o f a s s u r in g h im s e lf t h a t , to p a ra p h ra se D e sc a rte s someone i s e x p e rie n c in g so m e th in g . I t i s p ro b a- | \ b ly q u ite s a f e f o r th e in d iv id u a l in v o lv e d to assum e t h a t i th e someone m entioned above i s h im s e lf , th e s u b je c t. One o f th e r id ic u lo u s p u z z le s o f p h ilo so p h y has been th e q u e s tio n : Do I r e a l l y e x i s t ? I t i s r i d i c u lo u s b ecau se i t i s no problem ; no p h ilo s o p h e r g e n u in e ly 1 0 4 i doubted h is own e x is te n c e . And we m ust c e r t a i n l y , in c lu d e in t h i s g e n e r a liz a tio n D e sc a rte s h im s e lf. (4 6 :1 2 ) In s p o r t , th e i n i t i a l aw aren ess i s p ro b ab ly an aw areness o f th e body. The body e x i s t s and th e p erfo rm er ' i i s aw are t h a t i t i s h is body. There c a n be l i t t l e doubt t h a t , in s p o r t , th e body i s b ro u g h t i n to a c o n sc io u s a w a re n e ss. Through a s p o r t a c t i v i t y , su ch a s long jum ping, man lo c a te s h is body a s b e lo n g in g to him . As th e jum per s p r i n t s down th e runway o f an a p p ro a ch t h a t i s seem in g ly e n d le s s , th e body i s " s e l f e x p e rie n c e d ." The body i s a l l t h a t does e x i s t . I t r e a l l y is .. In i t s c o n c r e te n e s s , th e jum per knows i t m ust be p ro p e lle d . (5 9 :3 4 ) j The aw aren ess o f th e body in s p o r t i s n o t th e i aw areness o f a so m eth in g , a t o o l , d i r e c te d by some e th e r e a l | c o n s c io u s n e s s . I t i s r a t h e r an aw aren ess o f th e body as a i | t o t a l i t y . Mind and body a re o n e, o r a r e a t l e a s t recog** j n iz e d a s one. " I do n o t make u se o f my body, I am my jbody" (3 2 :3 3 3 ). "The body i s n o t an in stru m e n t a s su c h . f o r i t (th e b ody) i s who (n o t w h a t) i t is . ( s e l f ) " (5 9 :3 6 ). The a t h l e t e becomes aw are o f h im s e lf a s an e n t i t y , a s a s e l f . He a l s o p e rc e iv e s h is r e l a t i o n s h i p to fo rc e s and f a c to r s t h a t he co n ten d s w ith in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n i a s b ein g o u ts id e h im s e lf. The p e rfo rm e r, u n d e rs ta n d a b ly , u se s h is body to p e r c e iv e a s w e ll a s to e x p e rie n c e a v a r i e t y o f o th e r s e n s a tio n s . Hie jum per s e e s th e p i t a s an ele m e n t 105 o f sp a c e . As he In c o rp o ra te s h is body to th e s i t u a t i o n , th e s p o r t becomes a r e s o l u ti o n o f o b je c t and d i s t a n c e . (5 9 :3 5 ) S port and A w areness o f "The O th er” I f i t i s g ra n te d t h a t th e a t h l e t e e x p e rie n c e s h is own b e in g , th e n th e problem o f h is e x p e rie n c e s o f t h a t j w hich i s o th e r th a n h im s e lf becomes im p o rta n t. " I t i s im p o r ta n t to n o tic e t h a t th e t r a d i t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h ie s , f o r i a l l t h e i r p u ta tiv e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , have n e v e r p ro v id ed an a c c e p ta b le answ er to t h i s problem " (4 6 :5 7 ), th e problem o f i " th e o t h e r ." j | The man [o f s p o r t] m ust by d e f i n i t i o n co n cern him - j s e l f w ith r e a l i t y . What i s r e a l l y o c c u rrin g becomes o f param ount im p o rtan ce to th e p e rfo rm e r. I f n o th in g j e l s e , s p o r t p ro v id e s f o r a com plete and tr u e e x p e rie n c e ! o f w hat e x i s t s . (5 8 :1 0 2 ) j Hie o th e r has n o t o n ly re v e a le d to me w hat I w as; he | h as e s t a b l is h e d me in a new ty p e o f b e in g w hich can s u p p o rt new q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . T his b e in g was n o t in me p o t e n t i a l l y b e fo r e th e a p p e a ra n c e o f th e o t h e r , f o r i t c o u ld n o t have found an y p la c e in th e F o r - i t s e l f . (5 4 :2 7 3 -2 7 4 ) The a t h l e t e in h is r e l a t i o n t o th e w o rld o u ts id e i i h im s e lf f in d s m eanings th e r e t h a t c o u ld n o t have e x is te d i f !th e r e had been n o th in g o u ts id e h is b e in g t o g e n e ra te th o se m eanings. These m eanings s u rp a s s th e body and a t th e same tim e r e f e r to a w i t n e ss c a p a b le o f u n d e rs ta n d in g them and to th e t o t a l i t y 106 o f my human r e a l i t y . But t h i s new b e in g w hich a p p e a rs f o r th e o th e r does n o t e x i s t i n th e O th er; I am re s p o n s i b l e f o r i t . (5 4 :2 7 3 ) The O th e r, in o th e r w ords, e x i s t s f o r th e s u b je c t in s o f a r a s th e s u b je c t h im s e lf e x i s t s . I f , a s S lu s h e r i n d i c a t e s , s p o r ts p ro v id e s an o p p o rtu n ity f o r a h e ig h te n e d aw aren ess o f s e l f , th e n i t w ould be f a i r to say t h a t s p o r t p ro v id e s a h e ig h te n e d aw aren ess o f t h a t w hich i s n o n - s e l f . T his does n o t mean t h a t in f a c t th e s u b je c t i s a l l t h a t e x i s t s . I t i s a s i f th e E x i s t e n t i a l i s t w ere sa y in g " I am a l l t h a t th e r e i s . " N o te, how ever, t h a t he i s m aking no su ch a s s e r t i o n . He i s sa y in g o n ly , " I assum e my own e x i s te n c e a s a f a c t b e fo re I may r e f l e c t upon th e e x is te n c e o f o th e r o c c u p a n ts o f th e w o rld ." (4 6 :1 4 ) The s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a n t u se s h im s e lf , a u n ity o f i |m ind and body, to a c c o m p lish h is a im s. He, a s a t o t a l i t y , i i j i s a tte m p tin g t o overcom e th e demands o f d is ta n c e , g r a v i t y , 'o b j e c t s , and fo r c e s o th e r th a n h im s e lf. As in d ic a te d in C h ap ter I I , th e e sse n c e o f a s p o r ts c o n te s t i s found i n a n a t h l e t e c o n te n d in g w ith fo r c e s and f a c t o r s o th e r th a n him - |s e l f . The a t h l e t e becomes im m ed iately aw are o f h im s e lf in |r e l a t i o n to th o s e f o r c e s and f a c t o r s w hich a r e n o t h im s e lf . ! What r e a l l y does e x i s t f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t i s a f a c t o r o f p e rc e iv e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . M an's body becomes a n e n t i t y o f o t h e r / s e l f and o b j e c t/ s u b j e c t e x p e rie n c e s . (5 8 :3 5 ) 107 | The h e ig h te n e d aw aren ess o f s e l f and n o n - s e lf m ight be se en a s a " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y ." (4 6 :1 3 1 ) I t sh o u ld be n o te d h e re t h a t th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e i s d i r e c t and im m ediate. The man o f s p o r t comes j i n to d i r e c t aw areness o f h im s e lf and h is w o rld . He does n o t re a d ab o u t i t , n o r does he h e a r a b o u t i t , he e x p e r t- i ences i t . The a t h l e t e i s n o t o n ly aw are o f r e a l i t y , he f in d s h im s e lf c o n fro n tin g i t , and in v o lv e d w ith i t . He i s i 1 in v o lv e d and encom passed by th e r e a l i t y he p e rc e iv e s . His se n se o f s p e c i f i c i t y i s p r e s e n t, b u t in a r e a l se n se h is i n d iv i d u a l i t y i s l o s t . In a way, he has | tra n s c e n d e d h is s e l f . His enmeshment in w hat i s t o t a l l y r e a l ta k e s on a form o f m eaning. (5 9 :1 0 3 ) H eightened Awareness in S p o rt S ince th e a t h l e t e 's in v o lv em en t te n d s to be i n te n s e , h is aw areness seems to be h e ig h te n e d . His se n se o f aw are n e ss an d involvem ent in c lu d e s m o re : V a rie d s e n s a tio n s came to man. H ap p in ess, f e a r , d e s p a ir a re a l l p a r t o f th e em otion o f r e a l i t y . No lo n g e r a r e em otions d iv o rc e d from th e p a r t i c i p a n t s ; th e y a r e e x p e rie n c e d and a s su c h , th e q u a l i t y o f th e re n e s s i s p r e s e n t. (5 9 :1 0 3 ) In many ways an alo g y may be drawn w ith th e way l i g h t ra y s shed l i g h t on th e m se lv e s. By t h e i r v e ry e x is te n c e , th e y illu m in a te th em selv es a s som ething 108 d i s t i n c t from and r e l a t e d to t h e i r en v iro n m en t. S port a ls o r e f l e c t s th e " re v e a le d n e s s " o f human e x is te n c e and i t s a s s o c i a t io n w ith man. L ik ew ise, man i s b o th c l a r i f i e d and expanded a s he in v o lv e s h im s e lf in th e p ro c e s s . The in d iv id u a l’s p e rc e p tio n o f r e a l i t y in s p o r t may w e ll r e v e a l th in g s and e v e n ts t h a t fo rm u la te m ean in g fu l c o n ce p ts o f th e dynam ics o f e x is te n c e . (5 9 :1 0 7 ) i When man becomes aw are o f h is b e in g , and e s p e c ia lly i : ! a h e ig h te n e d aw areness a s i s p o t e n t i a l in s p o r t , he can a ls o become aw are o f h is n o n -b e in g . He can c o n ce iv e in v e ry r e a l term s o f h is n o n -b e in g . There i s a n o th e r p o s s ib le way o f c o n c e iv in g b ein g and | n o th in g n e s s a s com plim ents. One c o u ld view them a s two e q u a lly n e c e s s a ry com ponents o f th e r e a l w ith o u t | making b e in g "p ass in to " n o th in g n e s s —a s Hegel d o e s— and w ith o u t i n s i s t i n g on p o s t e r i o r i t y o f n o th in g n e ss j a s we a tte m p te d to do. W e m ight on th e c o n tra r y em- | p h a siz e th e r e c ip r o c a l f o rc e s o f r e p u ls io n w hich b e in g and n o n -b e in g e x e r c is e on e ach o th e r , th e r e a l in some way b e in g th e te n s io n from th e s e a n ta g o n is tic f o r c e s . (5 4 :2 0 ) N on-being o r n o th in g n e s s , a c c o rd in g to e x i s t e n t i a l - i i s t s , p ro v id e s th e background by w hich we e x p e rie n c e b e in g . As s t a t e d ab o v e, a h e ig h te n e d aw aren ess o f n o n -b e in g , o r a s many e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s w ould have i t : d e a th , i W hile th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c t u a l p h y s ic a l d e a th f o r th e a t h l e t e i s n o t l i k e l y in s p o r t , i t may be t h a t f o r th e i a t h l e t e in h is r o l e o f th e man o f s p o r t , th e lo s s o f a c o n te s t, th e f a i l u r e to a cc o m p lish an o b je c tiv e i s a v e ry 107 The h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e lf m ight be seen a s a " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y ." (46:131) I t sh o u ld be n o te d h e re t h a t th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e i s d i r e c t and im m ediate. The man o f s p o r t comes in to d i r e c t aw areness o f h im s e lf and h is w o rld . He does n o t re a d ab o u t i t , n o r does he h e a r a b o u t i t , he e x p e r i ences i t . The a t h l e t e i s n o t o n ly aw are o f r e a l i t y , he fin d s h im s e lf c o n fro n tin g i t , and in v o lv e d w ith i t . He i s in v o lv ed and encom passed by th e r e a l i t y he p e rc e iv e s . His se n se o f s p e c i f i c i t y i s p r e s e n t, b u t in a r e a l sen se h is i n d iv i d u a li t y i s l o s t . In a way, he has tra n sc e n d e d h is s e l f . H is enmeshment in w hat i s c o ta lly r e a l ta k e s on a form o f m eaning. (5 9 :1 0 3 ) H eightened Aw areness in S p o rt Since th e a t h l e t e 's involvem ent te n d s to be in te n s e , i i h is aw areness seems to be h e ig h te n e d . His se n se o f aw are n e ss and involvem ent In c lu d e s m ore: V aried s e n s a tio n s came to man. H appiness, f e a r , d e s p a ir a r e a l l p a r t o f th e em otion o f r e a l i t y . No j lo n g er a re em otions d iv o rc e d from th e p a r t i c i p a n ts ; | th e y a re e x p e rie n c e d and a s su c h , th e q u a li t y o f j th e re n e s s i s p r e s e n t. (5 9 :1 0 3 ) In many ways an alo g y may be drawn w ith th e way l i g h t ra y s shed l i g h t on th e m se lv e s. By t h e i r v e ry e x is te n c e , th e y illu m in a te th em selv es a s som ething 108 | d i s t i n c t from and r e l a t e d to t h e i r en v iro n m en t. S p o rt a ls o r e f l e c t s th e " re v e a le d n e s s " o f human e x is te n c e and I t s a s s o c i a t io n w ith man. L ik ew ise, man I s b o th c l a r i f i e d and expanded a s he In v o lv e s h im s e lf In th e p ro c e s s . The I n d i v id u a l's p e rc e p tio n o f r e a l i t y In s p o rt may w e ll re v e a l th in g s and e v e n ts t h a t fo rm u la te ! m ean in g fu l c o n ce p ts o f th e dynam ics o f e x is te n c e . | (5 9 :1 0 7 ) i When man becomes aw are o f h is b e in g , and e s p e c i a l l y I |a h e ig h te n e d aw areness a s Is p o t e n t i a l In s p o r t , he can | a ls o become aw are o f h is n o n -b e in g . He can c o n ce iv e In i v e ry r e a l term s o f h is n o n -b e in g . i ! There I s a n o th e r p o s s ib le way o f c o n c e iv in g b ein g and n o th in g n e ss a s com plim ents. One c o u ld view them a s two e q u a lly n e c e s s a ry com ponents o f th e r e a l w ith o u t making b e in g "p ass in to " n o th in g n e s s —a s Hegel d o es— and w ith o u t i n s i s t i n g on p o s t e r i o r i t y o f n o th in g n e ss j a s we a tte m p te d to do. W e m ight on th e c o n tra ry em- | p h a siz e th e r e c ip r o c a l fo rc e s o f r e p u ls io n w hich b e in g i and n o n -b ein g e x e r c is e on e ac h o th e r , th e r e a l in some way b e in g th e te n s io n from th e s e a n ta g o n is tic f o r c e s . (5 4 :2 0 ) N on-being o r n o th in g n e s s , a c c o rd in g to e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , p ro v id e s th e background by w hich we e x p e rie n c e b e in g . As s t a t e d ab o v e, a h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f n o n -b e in g , o r a s many e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s w ould have i t : d e a th . W hile th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c t u a l p h y s ic a l d e a th f o r th e a t h l e t e i s n o t l i k e l y in s p o r t , i t may be t h a t f o r th e a t h l e t e in h is r o l e o f th e man o f s n o r t, th e lo s s o f a | c o n te s t, th e f a i l u r e to a cc o m p lish an o b je c tiv e i s a v e ry j 109 i j r e a l e q u iv a le n t o f d e a th . I f i t can be assum ed t h a t d e fe a t I ! fo r th e man o f s p o r t i s in some way e q u iv a le n t to n o th in g - i n e ss o r a c t u a l d e a th i n man, th e n b e in g i t s e l f ta k e s on a I new p e r s p e c tiv e . The t h r e a t o f n o n -b ein g demands an in c re a s e d a p p r e c ia tio n and aw areness o f b e in g . i ; When d e fe a t i s b ro u g h t to c o n s c io u s , e x is te n c e | ta k e s on an immediacy and th e in d iv id u a l has a b ro a d ened view f o r c o n s id e r a tio n . (5 9 :1 4 8 ) An aw aren ess o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t r e s u l t s j p o t e n t i a l l y in a n in c re a s e d aw areness o f b e in g , o r su b j e c t i v i t y . In s p o r t , th e r e l a t i o n betw een b e in g and non- b e in g c r e a te s a s p i r a l o f aw areness t h a t c o n tin u e s to be enhanced u n t i l somehow in te r r u p te d o r u n t i l th e c o n te s t i s a t an end. E x is te n t ia l l i t e r a t u r e o fte n d e a ls w ith th e i n d i v id u a l who i s fa c e d w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o n -b e in g . Ihe term used t o d e s c rib e th e i n d iv i d u a l's f e e lin g s in th e s i t u a t i o n i s a n x ie ty . I t i s in t h i s a n x ie ty t h a t th e te n s io n , th e e x c ite m e n t, and th e em otion o f s p o r t m ight be found. I t i s o f te n th e p o p u la r p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t io n t h a t a n x ie ty sh o u ld be a v o id e d , t h a t l i f e sh o u ld be so |o rd e re d t h a t a n x ie ty may be e lu d e d . Few p s y c h o lo g is ts , I i j 110 |m odem p s y c h i a t r i s t s , o r e x i s t e n t i a l p h ilo s o p h e rs w ould | h o ld to t h i s v iew , a t l e a s t In t o t a l . E x is te n t ia l a n x ie ty !Is a r e s u l t o£ an aw areness o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o n -b e in g , i |o r In th e c a se o f th e a t h l e t e , d e f e a t . As s t a te d ab o v e, | j j !th e t h r e a t o f non-being enhances th e I n d iv id u a l's aw are- i ! i i n e s s . A n x ie ty , o f c o u rs e , p ro b a b ly can be a v o id e d , b u t | I o n ly a t th e expense o f th e I n d i v id u a l's aw areness o f him - ! !s e l f . "A nxiety . . . Is th e I n d iv id u a l a ffirm in g h is e x ls - i j te n c e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s " (5 9 :1 9 8 ). In a tte m p tin g to d e a l w ith j I |a n x ie ty , th e In d iv id u a l Is In f a c t r e a l i z i n g and d e fin in g i h im s e lf. He I s p ro cla im in g w hat he th in k s a man sh o u ld b e . j "M an's ta s k i s sim p le : he sh o u ld c e a se l e t t i n g h is 'e x i s - i te n c e ' be *a th o u g h tle s s a c c id e n t" (2 9 :1 3 5 ). The a n x ie ty o f s p o r t i s an I n t e g r a l p a r t o f such a c t i v i t i e s . I t i s a n x ie ty t h a t makes an e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e a l e x p e rie n c e (5 9 :1 0 7 , "S p o rt a s Human A b s u rd ity " ) a r e a l one. S p o rt i s u n r e a l in th e se n se t h a t i t i s n o t e s s e n t i a l to I |e x is te n c e , o r in th e se n se t h a t i t i s u n p ro d u c tiv e o f m a te r ia l o r id e o lo g ic a l a r t i f a c t s , b u t i s r e a l in th e se n se t h a t i t p ro v id e s th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r in c re a s in g th e p a r t i c i p a n t 's s u b j e c t i v i t y , o r h is aw areness o f h is s u b je c t i v i t y . j The su rv e y ta k e n o f h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s f o r t h i s | stu d y f a i l e d to s u p p o rt th e id e a t h a t d e fe a t i s to be ! j e q u ated w ith d e a th o r th e n o th in g n e ss o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t . ! i i i I S t i l l , i t cannot be d e n ie d t h a t em otion and a n x ie ty a r e i n t e g r a l to s p o r t . The q u e s tio n o f a n x ie ty le a d s to th e q u e s tio n o f s u f f e r in g and p a in . Man chooses to p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r t , a l l th e w h ile knowing t h a t he r i s k s a n x ie ty , a s : | w e ll a s a c t u a l p h y s ic a l p a in . The man o f s p o r t r i s k s f e a r and a n g u ish a s w e ll. C e r ta in ly th e r e i s jo y in s p o r t , b u t i l i t a ls o seems t h a t th e r e a r e few a c t i v i t i e s w hich so g r e a t ly | ! in v o lv e th e p o t e n t i a l f o r w hat m ight be se e n a s im m ediate j d i s a s t e r . The man o f b u s in e s s may f a i l , and may w e ll s u f f e r a n g u ish ; i t seems to be le s s im m ediate and o f a d i f f e r e n t o rd e r th a n t h a t o f s p o r t . The man o f s p o r t seems t o m eet h is d e fe a t more d i r e c t l y . His d e fe a t i s la m e d ia te ly e x p e rie n c e d , w h ile th e d e fe a t a man e n c o u n te rs in " l i f e " i s g e n e r a lly le s s d i r e c t and somewhat le s s im m ediate. ! F e a r, a n x ie ty , and s u f f e r in g a r e p o t e n t i a l in s p o r t. Those who p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r t r i s k s u f f e r in g . Such e m o tio n al s t a t e s a r e alw ays p o s s ib le in s p o r t , so much so , t h a t i t may be s a id t h a t such em o tio n al s t a t e s a r e un d e n ia b ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . Man 112 ja c c e p ts them when he ch o o ses to p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r t . The e m o tio n al s t a t e s t h a t a re p o t e n t i a l in th e i | I s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n a f f o r d th e p a r t i c i p a n t th e o p p o rtu n ity to |a s s ig n m eaning to th o se e m o tio n al s t a t e s t h a t he e x p e ri- i i e n c e s. "The p a in t h a t i s produced from s u f f e r in g a f f o r d s j j I man a s e p a r a tio n . I t a llo w s him to have an a c h ie v e d mean- j in e beyond h im s e lf" (5 9 :1 9 9 ), in t h a t i t i s d e riv e d o u ts id e i I h im s e lf and p ro v id e s a n aw areness o f h im s e lf and t h a t w hich • i s n o n - s e lf . I The tra g e d y o f p e rs o n a l s u f f e r in g i s re c o g n iz e d a s p a r t o f l i f e . Then why n o t s p o r t? The in e q u ity o f r u l e s , th e imminence o f d e fe a t and c o lla p s e o f e x p e c te d ! c o n d itio n s a l l w i l l r e s u l t in a n g u is h . Y et, each has | i t s p la c e in th e tra g e d y o f e x is te n c e . What i s more t r a g i c th a n th e f a t e o f th e b u l l ? S u ffe rin g i s in f l i c t e d upon b o th n a tu r e and man, y e t each w ith a re a s o n a ff o r d in g m eaning. Tragedy i s t r u e and in i t s t r u th f u ln e s s i t r in g s o f a u t h e n t i c i t y . (5 8 :1 9 9 ) I t w ould seem re a s o n a b le to assum e t h a t th e emo t i o n a l s t a t e s in v o lv e d In v i c t o r y w ould o p e ra te in a way t h a t is q u ite s im ila r to th o s e in v o lv e d in d e f e a t. W hether j i t be v i c t o r y o r d e f e a t, s p o r ts w ould seem to g e n e ra te i n te n s e aw areness o f s e l f , a " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y ." I t i s hoped t h a t th e p o in t i s w e ll m ade, t h a t s p o r ts p ro v id e s th e p a r t i c i p a n t th e o p p o rtu n ity to e x p e r i ence a h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f h im s e lf and h is w o rld . T his ! i |p o in t i s a t th e h e a r t o f th e s p o r ts developed fo r t h i s | s tu d y . John Dewey, in A rt a s E x p erien ce (1 4 ), re a c h e s a I s im ila r c o n c lu s io n in re g a rd to a r t and th e e x p e rie n c e o f a r t . i A u th e n tic ity in S port As in d ic a te d in C hapter I I I , th e a t h l e t e i s o b l i g a t e d to perform in ways demanded by th e s i t u a t i o n a s he i ! p e rc e iv e s i t , in l i g h t o f h is o v e r a ll g o a ls in th e c o n te s t. I l I In p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a c o n te s t, th e a t h l e t e a g re e s to i |o b lig a te h im s e lf to th e g o a ls in h e re n t in th e p a r t i c u l a r i s p o r t . He o b lig a te s h im s e lf, th e n , to choose to do th o se th in g s m ost c o n s is te n t w ith w in n in g th e c o n te s t and a v o id in g d e f e a t. The d e c is io n s n e c e s s a ry to th e a tta in m e n t o f th e s e g o a ls may be d i f f i c u l t , even p a in f u l, b u t th e y can n o t be av o id e d i f th e a t h l e t e i s to a v o id th e a n g u ish o f d e f e a t, a t t a i n th e e l a t i o n o f v i c t o r y , o r know t h a t he has done th e b e s t t h a t he c o u ld have done. The a t h l e t e can n o t a s s u re h im s e lf t h a t he w i l l n o t be d e fe a te d , b u t he does have th e o p p o rtu n ity to choose and behave in ways c o n s is te n t w ith h is c h o ic e s . In t h i s way, s p o r t en co u rag es th e a tta in m e n t o f an a u th e n tic e x is te n c e . j 114 I I f th e a t h l e t e ch o o ses t o behave in a l l th e ways t h a t he se e s a s b e s t in l i g h t o f th e g o a ls o f th e c o n te s t, even though to do so may in some way prove p a in f u l , i t may be s a id t h a t he i s b e h av in g a u th e n t i c a l l y . As th e man o f j s p o r t has th e o p p o rtu n ity t o behave a u t h e n t i c a l l y , he a ls o j h a s th e o p p o rtu n ity to be n o n - a u th e n tic . There a r e p ro b a- j i b ly few s i t u a t i o n s w here th e c h o ic e betw een a u t h e n t i c i t y | jand n o n - a u th e n tic ity i s so c l e a r c u t. i | A f o o t b a l l p la y e r i s c o n fro n te d w ith an opposing I I j b a l l c a r r i e r , f o r exam ple. He has th e c h o ic e o f ta c k lin g i h is opponent o r ta k in g some o th e r c o u rs e , f a l l i n g p e rh a p s. ! !Since th e a t h l e t e h as chosen to p a r t i c i p a t e and s in c e i t i s i n lin e w ith th e o v e r a ll g o a ls o f th e c o n te s t t h a t he t a c k le , he would be a u th e n tic i f he h o n e s tly a tte m p ts to do so and n o n -a u th e n tic i f he does n o t. W hether o r n o t th e a t h l e t e has chosen a u th e n t i c a l l y , may o n ly be known to h im s e lf , though o th e rs who a r e aw are i o f th e demands o f th e s i t u a t i o n may a ls o th in k t h a t th ey know a u t h e n t i c i t y o r n o n - a u th e n tic ity o f th e c h o ic e a s |w e ll. For th e m ost p a r t , th e a t h l e t e s ta n d s naked b e fo re |h im s e lf . The demands o f th e s i t u a t i o n a r e g e n e r a lly q u ite c l e a r c u t, and w h ile he may n o t choose a u th e n t i c a l l y , 115 he does have th e o p p o rtu n ity t o do so . This may n o t be th e !c a se in e v ery d ay l i f e w here c h o ic e s a re n o t alw ays so j c l e a r . The demands made upon th e a t h l e t e a re c o n s t a n t : | I am n e v er r e lie v e d o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; I can n o t j ! r e s t on my l a u r e ls ; i f I was a h e ro y e s te rd a y , t h a t i s | in q u e s tio n to d a y ; th e r e i s no d e c is io n once and f o r a l l ; I cannot ta k e re fu g e in w hat " i s d o n e ," n o r in w hat i s r e q u ir e d , n o r in th o u g h t-o u t p r i n c i p le s ; in s e c u r i t y , c a re i s o u r l o t . T hinking w hich b rin g s t h i s home to me i s v a l i d ; th o u g h t ta u g h t a s " r e s u l t s " g iv e s o u t a s e c u r i t y w hich can n e v er be o u rs . T his in s e - ! c u r i t y , how ever, i s th e c o n d itio n o f s p o n ta n e ity , j ! v i t a l i t y , p a s s io n , c r e a t i v i t y , th e c o n d itio n o f human l i f e and l iv in g ; w hereas a l l our s e c u r i t i e s a r e s t a t e s o f d e a th . (8 :6 ) | The above q u o te , when c o n s id e re d in th e c o n te x t o f s p o r t , seems to c a p tu re th e e sse n c e o f su ch a c t i v i t i e s . Summary T his c h a p te r has a tte m p te d to d is c u s s th e n a tu re o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e , and t o d e v elo p a th e o ry o f s p o r t . j |C e r ta in a s p e c ts o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e have been d e a lt w ith o n ly b r i e f l y , p r im a r ily th e a t h l e t e 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to o th e r s . The prim ary c o n ce rn has been to in v e s tig a te th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e in d iv id u a l a t h l e t e . i The th e o ry o f s p o rt d ev elo p ed in t h i s c h a p te r has i |o b v io u sly le a n e d h e a v ily upon th e th in k in g o f Howard S lu sh e r 116 and Susanne L anger. The e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f th e th e o ry fo llo w . ! The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e I s im m ediate and d i r e c t . The I a t h l e t e e x p e rie n c e s and d e a ls w ith th e p e rc e iv e d elem en ts I ! o f th e s i t u a t i o n s im u lta n e o u s ly o r p r e s e n ta tio n a lly . The j i i | e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e i s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , unm ediated 1 I i by d is c u r s iv e sym bolism , a llo w in g th e a t h l e t e a more d i r e c t j | c o n ta c t w ith h i s w o rld . | I The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s one o f h e ig h te n e d aw are- | | |n e s s o f s e l f and n o n - s e lf , th e r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y , and |t h i s i s m eaning f o r th e man o f s p o r t. The s p o r ts e x p e r l- i en ce p ro v id e s an in c re a s e d aw areness o f body; th e u n ity o f m ind an d body; n o n - s e lf ; th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o th in g n e ss o r n o n -b ein g a s se e n in d e f e a t; and em otion a r i s i n g o u t o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f e a t. H eightened aw areness o f s e l f and th e f a c to r s p re s e n te d above may a ls o a r i s e out o f th e pos- : s i b i l i t y o f an unm ediated e x p e rie n c e s and th e e m o tio n a l i i p o s s i b i l i t i e s in h e re n t in th e s i t u a t i o n . The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e p ro v id e s th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r a t t a i n i n g a u t h e n t i c i t y . A u th e n tic ity i s p o t e n t i a l in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . A u th e n tic ity p o t e n t i a l a r i s e s out o f !th e c h o ic e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s w hich a r e in h e re n t in th e s p o r ts t i s i t u a t i o n . 117 W hile S lu s h e r 's em phasis was a n a n a ly s is o f th e ! p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r a tt a i n i n g a u t h e n t i c i t y , and th e em phasis | o f Langer was th e developm ent o f a th e o ry o f a r t , th e em p h a s is o f t h i s stu d y l i e s in th e a t h l e t e 's aw areness o f h im s e lf and h is w o rld . The t h e o r e t i c a l fo u n d a tio n s a re s i m il a r , i f n o t i d e n t i c a l , th e d if f e r e n c e s b e in g d i f f e r en ces in e m p h asis. CHAPTER V | | SURVEY DEVICES A ND TECHNIQUES i i T his c h a p te r p r e s e n ts th e d e v ic e s an d te c h n iq u e s w hich w ere used in s u rv e y in g th e a c t iv e h ig h sc h o o l a t h l e t e s i re g a rd in g t h e i r a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s . The a tte m p t was to jsurvey th e a t h l e t e s i n o rd e r to d e te rm in e w h eth er o r n o t i |t h e i r e x p e rie n c e s c o n firm e d , d e n ie d , o r m o d ifie d th e th e o ry I o f s p o r t d ev elo p ed i n C hapter IV. The a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d iwere a ls o su rv ey ed a s t o t h e i r c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e s . In t h i s w ay, i t was f e l t t h a t th e a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s m ight b e view ed in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e s . The p rim ary te c h n iq u e used in th e s tu d y was a s u r v ey q u e s tio n n a ir e . A c tu a lly , th r e e q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ere p re p a re d . The f i r s t so u g h t d a ta re g a rd in g th e a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s o f th e f o o t b a l l p la y e r s , w h ile th e second sought d a ta re g a rd in g th e a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s o f th e c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs . The t h i r d q u e s tio n n a ir e was d e sig n ed f o r b o th g ro u p s. I t so u g h t to su rv e y a l l o f th e a t h l e t e s L 119 In v o lv ed a s to t h e i r c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e s . The a tte m p t I was to p re s e n t q u e s tio n n a ir e s w hich w ere e s s e n t i a l l y id e n t i c a l , d i f f e r i n g o n ly in term s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r g ro u p o r k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s in v o lv e d . Thomson’ s th in k in g (6 4 ) was jmost h e lp f u l in th e p re p a r a tio n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s in i t h a t i t p ro v id ed th e r a t i o n a l e f o r and su g g e ste d means f o r a phenom enological a n a ly s is o f th e ty p e r e q u ir e d f o r t h i s s tu d y . Thomson's c o n s tr u c t, u n f o r tu n a te ly , p ro v id ed f o r I"open ended" q u e s tio n in g , and sh e su rv e y ed one s u b je c t, i |h e r s e l f . The demands o f su rv e y in g la r g e r numbers o f p e o p le , o r g a n iz a tio n o f d a ta , e t c . , made th e u se o f an "open ended" l q u e s tio n n a ir e im p r a c tic a l. F or t h i s re a s o n , th e a t h l e t e s , upon c o m p letio n o f t h e i r q u e s tio n n a ir e s , w ere en couraged to e x p re s s th em selv es a s f u l l y a s p o s s ib le in re g a rd to t h e i r re sp o n se s t o th o se q u e s tio n s w hich, due t o th e w ording o r w h a te v e r, le d them to f e e l t h a t th e y w ere n o t a b le to ex- i p re s s t h e i r th in k in g . They w ere a ls o en couraged to e x p re ss th em selv es in re g a rd to a s p e c ts o f t h e i r a t h l e t i c e x p e r i e n ce s w hich th e q u e s tio n n a ir e d id n o t c o v e r. I t was hoped t h a t in t h i s way th e n e c e ssa ry "open en d ed n ess" w ould be ! m a in ta in e d . | The summary f o r C h ap ter IV o u tlin e s th e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t developed f o r t h i s stu d y . The problem In d e v elo p in g th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was to d e v is e | q u e s tio n s w hich w ould e x p lo re th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e a th le te s ! |i n r e l a t i o n to th e ele m e n ts o f th e th e o ry . S ince i t was i n o t l i k e l y t h a t th e a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d w ould be f a m ilia r jw ith th e language o f e x i s t e n ti a li s m and phenom enology, a j |seco n d problem re v o lv e d a b o u t fram in g q u e s tio n s t h a t w ould I |be m ean in g fu l to th o se su rv e y ed . The Q u e s tio n n a ire : F o o tb a ll l | The f i r s t elem ent o f th e th e o r y , w ith s u b p o in ts , was a s fo llo w s : j i 1. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s im m ediate and d i r e c t . a . The a t h l e t e e x p e rie n c e s and d e a ls w ith th e p e rc e iv e d ele m e n ts o f th e s i t u a t i o n sim u l ta n e o u s ly . b . The e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e i s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , unm ediated by d is c u r s iv e sym bol ism , a llo w in g th e a t h l e t e a more d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith h is w o rld . In su rv e y in g f o r t h i s e le m e n t, th e ta s k was to fram e q u e s tio n s t h a t aim ed a t d e te rm in in g w h eth er th e |a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e i s o f a d is c u r s iv e o r n o n -d is c u rs iv e |s o r t , and w h eth er o r n o t th e e le m e n ts o f th e s i t u a t i o n a r e i p e rc e iv e d s im u lta n e o u s ly . I t w i l l be n o tic e d t h a t th e i jq u e s tio n s w ere o f th e ty p e g e n e r a lly c a l le d " o b je c tiv e ." |The d ir e c tio n s f o r th e a t h l e t i c q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ere a s f o l - j : i !lo w s: | i [ I \ DIRECTIONS: The fo llo w in g a r e q u e s tio n s r e g a rd in g j you and your e x p e rie n c e s a s a n a t h l e t e . On th e answ er s h e e t, you w i l l n o tic e th r e e colum ns f o r yo u r re sp o n se s:! YES (o r T ru e ), NO (o r F a ls e ) , and UNDECIDED o r U N A N SW ER ABLE a s th e q u e s tio n i s p re s e n te d . I f you a r e con c e rn e d a b o u t th e m eaning o f any q u e s tio n , p le a s e f e e l f r e e to a sk a b o u t i t . I t i s im p o rta n t t h a t you a ls o j f e e l f r e e t o d is c u s s your UNDECIDED o r U NA N SW ERA BLE re sp o n se s d u rin g th e q u e s tio n an d answ er p e rio d t h a t w i l l fo llo w your c o m p le tio n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e . T his i s n o t a t e s t . I f you answ er th e q u e s tio n s a s h o n e s tly a s you can and o n ly a s th e y p e r t a in to you, you can i n o t be w rong. i I The q u e s tio n s d ev elo p ed f o r elem en t one o f th e th e o ry a r e p re s e n te d below : 1. In a f o o t b a l l game, d u rin g a p la y , a re you v e ry much aw are o f su rro u n d in g s su ch a s th e crow d, p eo p le aro u n d th e bench r e f e r e e s , p h o to g ra p h e rs, j e t c . ? 2 . Are you v a g u e ly aw are o f th e e le m e n ts m entioned in th e q u e s tio n above ? 3. W hile a p la y i s g o in g on, do you r e c a l l t h a t I you w ere th in k in g ? 122 4 . Were you th in k in g in w o rd s? 5. On d e fe n s e , d u rin g a p la y , do you o f te n " j u s t know" w hat to do? 6. In re g a r d to q u e s tio n 5 , do you th in k a b o u t your a c tio n s in w ords ? 7. On o f f e n s e , a re you g e n e r a lly a b le to r e a c t to th e u n ex p ected moves o f your o pponent? 8. In re g a rd to q u e s tio n 7, do you th in k a b o u t your a c tio n s in words ? For q u e s tio n s 9 and 10, t r y t o c o n s id e r o n ly w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a p la y . 9 . Does w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a p la y come th ro u g h in " b i t s and p ie c e s " ? 10. Does w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a p la y come th ro u g h to you a l l a t once? Q u estio n s 1 and 2 a tte m p te d to d e term in e th e n a tu r e o f th e p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d , was i t expanded o r r e s t r i c t e d ? Q u estio n s 1 an d 2 d id n o t in q u ir e a s to th e " i n te n s i t y " o f th e e x p e rie n c e , o n ly w h e th er o r n o t h is a t t e n t i o n was fo c u se d upon p a r t i c u l a r e le m e n ts w ith in th e s i t u a t i o n . Q u e stio n s 3 th ro u g h 8 a tte m p te d to d eterm in e w h eth er th e 123 e x p e rie n c e s o f th e a t h l e t e s w ere m ed iate d o r u n m edlated. 'Q u estio n s 9 and 10 so u g h t to d e te rm in e w h eth er o r n o t th e i In d iv id u a l was e x p e rie n c in g th e p e rc e iv e d elem en ts in th e s i t u a t i o n s im u lta n e o u s ly . I t was e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t to fram e q u e s tio n s in re g a rd to w h e th er o r n o t th e in d iv id u a l was s im u lta n e o u s ly p e rc e iv in g th e e le m e n ts he found in th e s i t u a t i o n . Perhaps t h i s a s p e c t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's e x p e r i ence i s b e s t d eterm in ed in some o th e r way. Q u estio n s 5 and 7 a tte m p te d to in q u ir e a s to w h eth er o r n o t th e s p o r ts | |e x p e rie n c e was d is c u r s iv e o r p r e s e n ta tio n a l a n d , a s f a r a s i p o s s ib le , w h e th er o r n o t th e a t h l e t e s s im u lta n e o u s ly a p p re hended th e p e rc e iv e d ele m e n ts in th e s i t u a t i o n . In su rv e y in g f o r th e second elem en t o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t developed f o r t h i s s tu d y th e ta s k was to fram e q u e s tio n s t h a t aim ed a t d e te rm in in g th e n a tu re o f th e a t h l e t e 's aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e l f . The second e l e m ent o f th e th e o ry w ith su b p o in ts i s a s fo llo w s : 2 . The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s one o f h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e lf , th e r e le a s e o f j s u b j e c t i v i t y , and t h i s i s i t s m eaning f o r th e I man o f s p o r t . | a . Aw areness o f th e body. I i b . Aw areness o f th e u n ity o f mind and body. 124 c . Aw areness o f n o n - s e lf . d . A w areness o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o th in g n e ss I | o r n o n -b ein g a s se en in d e f e a t. j e . B notion a r i s i n g o u t o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f | | d e f e a t. ] f . H eightened aw areness a s a r i s i n g o u t o f th e j p o s s i b i l i t y o f an unm ediated e x p e rie n c e and | th e e m o tio n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s in h e re n t in th e s i t u a t i o n . ! I The q u e s tio n s dev elo p ed f o r elem en t two o f th e th e o ry a r e p re s e n te d below : I 11. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , a r e you aw are o f your body? 12. Are you more aw are o f your body when in v o lv e d in a game th a n you w ould be in c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s ? 13. Are you le s s aw are o f your body when in v o lv e d I | in a game th a n you w ould be in c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s ? i | 14. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , does your body seem i a n a tu r a l p a r t o f you? i j 15. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , does your body seem I s e p a ra te from you? 125 16. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , does your equipm ent seem a p a r t o f you ( I . e . , p a r t o f your body) r a t h e r th a n s e p a r a te from you? 17. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , does y o u r equipm ent seem s e p a ra te from you r a t h e r th a n a p a r t o f , you? | 18. Are you more aw are ( i . e . , do th e y seem more | r e a l ) o f your team m ates and opponents in a game th a n you g e n e r a lly a r e o f people around I you in a t y p i c a l c la ssro o m ? 19. Are you le s s aw are ( i . e . , do th e y seem le s s r e a l ) o f your team m ates and opponents in a game th a n you g e n e r a lly a r e o f p eo p le around you in a t y p i c a l c la ssro o m ? Answer q u e s tio n s 20 and 21 a s t o your re a so n s fo r p la y in g f o o t b a l l . 2 0 . Want t o . 2 1 . Were e x p e c te d t o . 2 2 . N othing e ls e t o do. 2 3 . In a game, do you have th e f e e lin g t h a t w hat you do in a game i s v i t a l l y im p o rta n t to th e o v e r a ll team e f f o r t ? 126 24. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , can you r e c a l l r e a l iz i n g th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t? 25. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , do you r e c a l l f e e l ing a v e ry r e a l se n se o f im pending d i s a s t e r t h a t w ould a f f e c t you In a d e e p ly p e rs o n a l way? 26. In a game, c a n you r e c a l l f e e lin g any em otion? 27. I f s o , does t h i s em otion seem to a r i s e from b ein g o ffe n d e d In some way by a n opponent? 28. Does th e em otion seem to a r i s e m o stly from a d e s ir e to a v o id b ein g b e a te n ? 29. Does th e em otion seem to a r i s e m o stly from a d e s ir e to w in th e game? 30. Does th e em o tio n you f e e l In a game have an y th in g to do w ith your re a so n s f o r p la y in g f o o t b a l l ? Answer q u e s tio n s 31 th ro u g h 36 In re g a rd to your fe e lin g s ab o u t d e f e a t. A p e rso n who I s d e fe a te d Is In h is own e y e s : 31. Happy. 32. Sad. 33. No f e e lin g s one way o r th e o th e r . 127 34. Som ething. 35. N o th in g . 36. Less th a n he sh o u ld b e . 37. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g e x tre m e ly happy o r jo y f u l? 38. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g e x tre m e ly a n g ry ? 39. In a game, d u rin g a p la y , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g dow nhearted? 4 0 . Would you say t h a t you t r y to a v o id lo s in g a game b e fo re you th in k a b o u t w in n in g ? 4 1 . Would you sa y t h a t you t r y t o t i e b e fo re you t r y to w in? 42. In a game, i s th e upperm ost th o u g h t in your m ind w inning th e game r a t h e r th a n tr y in g to a v o id lo s in g ? Im agine t h a t you have made th e ta c k le t h a t keeps your team from b e in g b e a te n . Answer q u e s tio n s 43 th ro u g h 49 a s r e g a rd s your f e e lin g s in th e s i t u a tio n . 43. Joy o r e l a t i o n . 44. Sadness and d e s p a ir . 45. N e ith e r sa d n e ss n o r jo y . 128 4 6. Som ething. 47. N o th in g . j 48. D etached from th e s i t u a t i o n . | 49. Aware o f y o u r s e lf in th e s i t u a t i o n . I 50. Would you sa y t h a t in a game, d u rin g a p la y , j t h a t you a r e v e ry much aw are o f y o u r s e lf and j | o th e rs i n your s i t u a t i o n ( i . e . , more so th a n ! you w ould be in e v ery d ay l i f e ) ? Q u estio n s 11, 12, and 13 w ere in te n d e d t o in q u ire I las t o th e s u b j e c t 's aw areness o f h is body in th e s i t u a t i o n . : ! |Q u e stio n s 14 and 15 d e a lt w ith th e s u b j e c t 's aw areness o f i j th e u n ity o f m ind and body. Q u e stio n s 16 th ro u g h 19 so u g h t i to in q u ir e a s t o th e s u b j e c t 's aw areness o f non-*self. Reasons f o r p la y in g w ere d e a lt w ith in q u e s tio n s 20 th ro u g h 22 and 30. Q u e stio n s 24 and 2 5 , 31 th ro u g h 36, 40 th ro u g h 44 a tte m p te d to d e a l w ith th e a t h l e t e 's aw aren ess o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f e a t. The q u e s tio n o f em otion and th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f em otion a r i s i n g from th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t was d e a l t w ith in q u e s tio n s 26 th ro u g h 3 0 , 37 th ro u g h 4 5 . The i n v e s ti g a t i o n o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h e ig h te n e d aw areness in s p o r t was u n d e rta k e n in q u e s tio n s j 18, 19, 23, 46 th ro u g h 50. I t w i l l be n o tic e d t h a t s e v e r a l 129 jof th e q u e s tio n s make In q u iry in to two o r more a r e a s . I In fram in g q u e s tio n s f o r th e t h i r d e le m e n t, th e aim i toas to in q u ir e a s t o th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f th e a t h l e t e a t t a i n ing a u t h e n t i c i t y in s p o r t. The t h i r d elem en t o f th e th e o ry was a s f o llo w s : j 3. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e p ro v id e s th e a t t a i n i n g ] ! a u t h e n t i c i t y . j a . A u th e n tic ity a s p o t e n t i a l . ! b. A u th e n tic ity p o t e n t i a l a r i s i n g o u t o f c h o ic e p o s s i b i l i t i e s w hich a r e in h e re n t in j a s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . j j The q u e s tio n s developed f o r elem ent th r e e o f th e th e o ry w ere a s fo llo w s : S i t u a t i o n : A d e fe n siv e f o o t b a l l p la y e r i s fac ed w ith a 210 pound b a l l c a r r i e r coming s t r a i g h t a t him f u l l sp e ed . I t i s obvious t h a t th e b a l l c a r r i e r in te n d s t o "ru n o v e r” th e d e fe n d e r an d i t i s q u ite p o s s ib le t h a t th e d e fe n d e r c o u ld be in ju r e d . Answered th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s i n re g a rd to th e d e fe n d e r, th e b a l l c a r r i e r i s n o t th e r e a l s u b je c t o f c o n c e rn . 51. I f i t was p o s s ib le f o r th e d e fe n d e r to a v o id ta c k lin g ( i . e . , by f a l l i n g down p o s s ib ly ) 130 w ith o u t anyone know ing, do you th in k he sh o u ld a tte m p t th e ta c k le ? 52. I f th e d e fe n d e r a v o id e d t a c k li n g , and no one knew, do you th in k he sh o u ld f e e l r e lie v e d t h a t he had a v o id e d a p o s s ib le in ju r y ? 53. I f th e d e fe n d e r a v o id e d ta c k lin g and no one knew, sh o u ld he f e e l g u i l t y ? 54. I f th e d e fe n d e r a v o id e d ta c k lin g and no one knew, sh o u ld he f e e l a l i t t l e p rid e in t h a t he had g o tte n away w ith so m eth in g ? 55. I f th e d e fe n d e r h o n e s tly a tte m p ts th e t a c k le , b u t f a i l s , he m ight be c r i t i c i z e d a s a f o o t b a l l p la y e r ( i . e . , a bad t a c k i e r ) . I s h e , how ever, c h ic k e n ? 56. Is th e h o n e st a tte m p t more im p o rta n t th a n a c t u a l su c c e ss in m aking th e ta c k le ? 57. I f he a tte m p ts th e ta c k le and i s in ju r e d , sh o u ld he be p ra is e d ? 58. I f he a tte m p ts th e ta c k le and i s in ju r e d , do you suppose t h a t he sh o u ld f e e l dumb in having a tte m p te d th e ta c k le ? 59. Have you e v e r fa c e d a s i m il a r s i t u a t i o n ? 60. Did you perform a s you th in k you sh o u ld have? j 131 j Q u estio n s 51 th ro u g h 57 and 60 d e a l w ith a u th e n t i c i t y p o t e n t i a l In th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . Q u e stio n 60 a tte m p ts to d e te rm in e w h e th er o r n o t th e In d iv id u a l resp o n d in g to th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was re sp o n d in g to a s i t u a t i o n t h a t w as, In f a c t , f a m i li a r to him . I I ! C ross C ountry Q u e stio n n a ire | The q u e s tio n n a ir e d e v elo p ed f o r th e c ro s s c o u n try jwas d e sig n e d t o p a r a l l e l a s c lo s e ly a s p o s s ib le th e j q u e s tio n n a ir e d ev elo p ed f o r th e f o o t b a l l p la y e r s . The d ir e c tio n s f o r b o th q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ere i d e n t i c a l . The q u e s tio n n a ir e f o r th e c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs was a s f o llo w s : j 1. In a c ro s s c o u n try r a c e , a r e you v e ry much aw are o f su rro u n d in g s su ch a s s p e c t a to r s , o f f i c i a l s , fe n c e s , b u ild in g s , e t c . ? 2 . Are you v a g u e ly aw are o f th e ele m e n ts m entioned i n th e q u e s tio n above? 3 . W hile you a r e i n a r a c e , can you r e c a l l th in k in g ? 4 . Were you th in k in g i n w ords? 5 . In a r a c e , do you j u s t know when t o k ic k ? 6. In re g a rd to q u e s tio n 5 do you th in k a b o u t your a c tio n s in w ords ? 132 7. In a r a c e , a r e you g e n e r a lly a b le to r e a c t t o th e moves o f your opponents? 8. In re g a rd to q u e s tio n 7 , do you th in k a b o u t your a c tio n s in words ? For q u e s tio n s 9 and 10, t r y to c o n s id e r o n ly w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a t y p i c a l r a c e . 9. Does w hat you a re aw are o f d u rin g a ra c e come th ro u g h to you in " b i ts and p ie c e s " ? 10. Does w hat you a re aware o f d u rin g a ra c e come th ro u g h to you a l l a t once? 11. In a r a c e , a r e you aw are o f your body? 12. Are you more aw are o f your body in a ra c e th a n you w ould be when in v o lv e d in c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s ? 13. Are you le s s aw are o f your body i n a ra c e th a n you w ould be when in v o lv e d in c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s ? 14. In a r a c e , does your body seem to be a n a t u r a l p a r t o f you? 15. In a r a c e , do you somehow see your body a s s e p a ra te from you? 16. In a r a c e , does your equipm ent (sh o e s, u n i ' fo rm s, e t c . ) seem to be p a r t o f you ( i . e . , p a r t 133 o f your b o d y ), r a t h e r th a n s e p a r a te from you? 17. In a r a c e , does your equipm ent seem s e p a r a te from you, r a t h e r th a n a p a r t o f you? 18. Are you more aware ( i . e . , do th e y seem more r e a l ) o f your team m ates an d opponents in a ra c e th a n you g e n e r a lly a r e o f p eo p le around you in a c lassro o m ? 19. Are you le s s aw are o f your team m ates and opponents in a ra c e th a n you a r e o f people a ro u n d you in a c la ssro o m ? Answer q u e s tio n s 20, 21, and 22 a s t o your re a so n s f o r ru n n in g c ro s s c o u n try . 20. Want t o . 21. Were e x p e c te d t o . 22. N othing e l s e to do. 23. In a r a c e , do you have th e f e e lin g t h a t w hat you a r e doing i s in an y way im p o rta n t ? 24. In a r a c e , can you r e c a l l r e a l i z i n g th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t? 25. In a r a c e , can you r e c a l l f e e l in g a v e ry r e a l se n se o f im pending d i s a s t e r t h a t w ould a f f e c t you in a d e ep ly p e rs o n a l way? 134 26. In a r a c e , do you f e e l any em o tio n ? 27. I f s o , does t h i s em otion seem to a r i s e from b e in g o ffe n d e d by an op p o n en t? 28. Does th e em otion seem t o a r i s e from a d e s ir e to a v o id b e in g b e a te n ? 2 9 . Does th e em o tio n seem to a r i s e m o stly from a d e s ir e t o w in th e r a c e ? 30. Does th e em o tio n you f e e l in a r a c e have any th in g t o do w ith your re a s o n s f o r ru n n in g c ro s s c o u n try ? Answer q u e s tio n s 31 th ro u g h 36 in r e g a rd to your f e e lin g s a b o u t d e f e a t. A p e rso n who i s d e fe a te d i s , in h is own e y e s : 31. Happy. 32. Sad. 33. No f e e lin g s one way o r th e o th e r . 34. Som ething. 35. N o th in g . 36. Less th a n he sh o u ld b e . 37. In a r a c e , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g e x tre m e ly happy o r jo y f u l? 38. In a r a c e , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g e x tre m e ly an g ry ? 135 I 39. In a r a c e , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g dow nhearted? 40. In a r a c e , do you th in k a b o u t n o t lo s in g j b e fo re you t r y to w in ? j 41. Would you sa y t h a t i t i s b e t t e r to t i e ( i f | t h a t w ere p o s s ib le ) th a n lo s e ? j i 42. In a r a c e , i s th e upperm ost th o u g h t i n your ; i i mind w inning th e r a c e , r a t h e r th a n t r y in g to a v o id f i n is h in g l a s t ? Im agine t h a t you p la c e d in a ra c e so t h a t your team j was k e p t from d e f e a t. Answer q u e s tio n s 43 th ro u g h i 49 a s re g a rd s y our f e e lin g s in th e s i t u a t i o n . j i 43. Joy o r e l a t i o n . j I 44. Sadness and d e s p a ir . 45 . N e ith e r sa d n e ss n o r jo y . 46 . S om ething. 47 . N o th in g . 48 . D etached from th e s i t u a t i o n . 49. Aware o f y o u r s e lf in th e s i t u a t i o n . 50. Would you sa y t h a t d u rin g a r a c e , t h a t you a re v e ry much aw are o f y o u r s e lf and o th e r s in your s i t u a t i o n ( i . e . , more so th a n you w ould be in ev ery d ay l i f e ) ? 136 S itu a tio n : In a r a c e , a ru n n e r i s a p p ro a ch in g a tu r n . His body i s t o r tu r e d from th e e f f o r t s o f th e r a c e . He may n o t f i n i s h th e r a c e . 51. I f he c o u ld c u t th e c o rn e r, w ith o u t anyone know ing. do you th in k he sh o u ld c u t th e c o rn e r ? 52. I f he c u t th e c o rn e r and no one knew, do you th in k he sh o u ld f e e l r e l i e v e d t h a t he had red u c ed th e s t r a i n on h is body? 53. I f th e ru n n e r c u t th e c o r n e r , an d no one knew, sh o u ld he f e e l g u i l t y ? 54. I f th e ru n n e r c u t th e c o m e r , an d no one knew, sh o u ld he f e e l a l i t t l e p rid e in t h a t he had g o tte n away w ith som ething? 55. I f th e ru n n e r does n o t c u t th e c o rn e r and does n o t f i n i s h th e r a c e , i s he c h ic k e n ? 56. Is th e h o n e st a tte m p t more im p o rta n t th a n a c t u a l l y f i n is h in g th e r a c e ? 57. I f he a tte m p ts t o f i n i s h th e ra c e w ith o u t c u tt i n g th e c o rn e r and becomes i l l so t h a t he does n o t f i n i s h th e ra c e sh o u ld he be p r a is e d ? | 58. I f he a tte m p ts t o f i n i s h th e ra c e w ith o u t I c u tt i n g th e c o m e r an d becomes i l l so t h a t he i does n o t f i n i s h , sh o u ld he f e e l dumb f o r S I i having a tte m p te d th e ra c e in th e f i r s t p la c e ? ! 5 9 . Have you e v e r fa c e d a s i m il a r s i t u a t i o n ? j 60. Did you p erfo rm a s you th in k you sh o u ld have? i | C lassroom Q u e s tio n n a ire The t h i r d q u e s tio n n a ir e was dev elo p ed t o compare i th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e s in s p o r t an d t h e i r e x p e r i en ces i n th e c la ssro o m . I t was d e sig n e d to p a r a l l e l a s I c lo s e ly a s p o s s ib le th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s i n v e s tig a tin g th e . a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s o f th e s u b je c ts in v o lv e d . The d i r e c tio n s f o r th e q u e s tio n n a ir e w e re , f o r th e m ost p a r t , i d e n t i c a l t o th e d ir e c tio n s f o r th e a t h l e t i c q u e s tio n n a i r e s . The q u e s tio n n a ir e re g a rd in g th e c la ssro o m e x p e r i ence o f a l l a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d i n th e stu d y i s a s f o llo w s : i 1. In a t y p i c a l c l a s s , a r e you v e ry much aw are o f i I j su rro u n d in g s su ch a s c la s s m a te s , f u r n i t u r e , e t c . ? 2 . Are you v a g u e ly aw are o f th e ele m e n ts m entioned in th e q u e s tio n above? 138 3 . In a t y p i c a l c l a s s , c an you r e c a l l th in k in g ? 4 . Were you th in k in g in w ords? 5 . In a c la s s do you g e n e r a lly know w hat to do, o r a re i n s t r u c t i o n s g e n e r a lly p ro v id e d f o r you? 6 . In a c l a s s , w ould you sa y t h a t you d e a l m o stly w ith spoken o r w r i t te n words ? 7. Would you sa y t h a t a t y p i c a l c la s s i s movement i o r ie n te d ? 8. Would you sa y t h a t a t y p i c a l c la s s i s word j o r ie n te d ? For q u e s tio n s 9 an d 10 c o n s id e r o n ly w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a t y p i c a l c l a s s . 9. Does w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a c l a s s come th ro u g h to you in " b i t s an d p ie c e s " ? 10. Does w hat you a r e aw are o f d u rin g a c l a s s come th ro u g h t o you a l l a t once? 11. In a c la s s a r e you aw are o f your body? 12. In a c la s s a r e you more aw are o f your body th a n you w ould be when in v o lv e d in a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s ? 13. Are you le s s aw are o f yo u r body in a c la s s th a n you w ould be when in v o lv e d in a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s ? 14. In a c l a s s , does yo u r body seem a n a t u r a l p a r t j o f you ? j | 15. In a c l a s s , does yo u r body seem somehow s e p a r a te from you? 16. In a c l a s s , does th e equipm ent (d e s k s , b ooks, b la c k b o a rd , e t c . ) seem to be a p a r t o f you ( i . e . , p a r t o f your b o d y ), r a t h e r th a n se p a r a t e from you? j 17. In a c l a s s , does th e equipm ent (d e sk s, b o o k s, b la c k b o a rd , e t c . ) seem to s e p a r a te from you r a t h e r th a n p a r t o f you? 18. Axe you more aw are ( I . e . , do th e y seem more r e a l ) o f y o u r c la s s m a te s and te a c h e r In a c la s s th a n you g e n e r a lly a re o f p e o p le around you In an a t h l e t i c c o n te s t? 19. Are you le s s aw are o f your c la s s m a te s and te a c h e r In a c la s s th a n you a r e o f p eo p le aro u n d you In a n a t h l e t i c c o n te s t? Answer q u e s tio n s 2 0 , 2 1 , and 22 a s t o y o u r re a so n s f o r b e in g In an e l e c t i v e c l a s s . 2 0 . Want t o . 21. Were e x p e c te d t o . 22. N othing e l s e to do. 140 23. In a t y p i c a l c l a s s , do you o f te n have th e f e e lin g t h a t w hat you a r e doing i s s i g n i f i - , i c a n t ? 24. In a c l a s s , can you r e c a l l r e a l i z i n g th e pos s i b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e ? j 25. In a c l a s s , c an you r e c a l l f e e lin g a v e ry r e a l j j se n se o f d i s a s t e r t h a t w ould a f f e c t you in a d e ep ly p e rs o n a l way? ! 26. In a t y p i c a l c l a s s , do you f e e l any em o tio n ? i 27. I f s o , does t h i s em otion seem to a r i s e from boredom ? 28. Does th e em otion seem to a r i s e m o stly from a d e s ir e t o a v o id f a i l u r e ? 2 9 . Does th e em otion seem t o a r i s e from th e d e s ir e t o su cceed ? 30. Does th e em otion you f e e l i n a c la s s have a n y th in g to do w ith your re a s o n s f o r b e in g in th e c la s s ? Answer q u e s tio n s 31 th ro u g h 36 i n re g a rd t o your f e e lin g s a b o u t f a i l u r e i n a c l a s s . A p e rso n who f a i l s i s , i n h is own e y e s : 31. Happy. 32. Sad. 141 33. M o f e e lin g s one way o r th e o th e r . 34 . Som ething. 3 5 . N o th in g . 36. Less th a n he sh o u ld b e . 37. In a c l a s s , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g e x tre m e ly happy o r jo y f u l? 38. In a c l a s s , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g a n g ry ? 39. In a c l a s s , do you r e c a l l f e e lin g dow nhearted? 4 0 . In a c l a s s , do you t r y to p re v e n t f a i l u r e b e fo re you t r y f o r a n A? 41. Ten y e a rs from now, w i l l i t make a g r e a t d e a l o f d if f e r e n c e t h a t you g o t a C i n a c la s s r a t h e r th a n an A? 4 2 . In a c l a s s , i s th e upperm ost th o u g h t in yo u r mind g e tt i n g a n A r a t h e r th a n an F? Im agine t h a t you have j u s t p a sse d a t e s t . Your g rad e was good enough to keep you from f a i l i n g th e c l a s s . Answer q u e s tio n s 43 th ro u g h 49 a s re g a rd s your f e e lin g s i n th e s i t u a t i o n . 43 . Joy o r e l a t i o n . 4 4 . Sadness o r d e s p a ir . 45. N e ith e r sa d n e ss n o r d e s p a ir . 4 6 . Som ething. 4 7 . N o th in g . 4 8 . D etached from th e s i t u a t i o n . 4 9 . Aware o f y o u r s e lf in th e s i t u a t i o n . 50. Would you sa y t h a t d u rin g a t y p i c a l c l a s s , you a r e v e ry much aw are o f y o u r s e lf and o th e rs in th e c la s s ( i . e . , more so th a n you w ould be i n e v ery d ay l i f e ) ? S itu a tio n : In a c l a s s , a s tu d e n t has th e oppor t u n i t y t o copy th e p a p e r o f a n A s tu d e n t. He needs th e g ra d e v e ry b a d ly . He was n o t a b le t o stu d y b ecau se he was in v o lv e d in s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s , and he may w e ll f a i l i f he c an n o t g e t h e lp somehow. 5 1 . I f he c o u ld copy w ith o u t anyone know ing, do you th in k he sh o u ld copy? 52. I f he c o p ie d , and no one knew, do you th in k he sh o u ld f e e l r e lie v e d t h a t he h ad sav ed h is g rad e ? 53 . I f he c o p ie d and no one knew, do you th in k he sh o u ld f e e l g u i lt y ? 54 . I f he c o p ie d th e p a p e r and n o one knew, sh o u ld he f e e l a l i t t l e p rid e i n h av in g g o tte n away w ith i t ? 55. I f th e s tu d e n t does n o t copy, an d f a i l s th e t e s t , i s he c h ic k e n ? 56. Is th e h o n e st a tte m p t more im p o rta n t in th e s i t u a t i o n th a n p a s s in g th e t e s t ? 57. I f he does n o t copy, and f a i l s th e t e s t , sh o u ld he be p r a is e d ? 58. I f he does n o t copy, and f a i l s th e t e s t , sh o u ld he f e e l dumb f o r n o t co p y in g ? 59. Have you e v e r fa c e d a s i m il a r s i t u a t i o n ? 60. Did you perfo rm a s you th in k you sh o u ld h av e? I t was f e l t t h a t th e q u e s tio n n a ir e le d t o re sp o n se s t h a t w ere a p p r o p r ia te f o r t h i s s tu d y , b u t i t was a ls o f e l t t h a t th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ere n o t t o t a l l y a d e q u a te f o r p u r p oses o f t h i s s tu d y , in t h a t th e y d id n o t a llo w f o r th e d e p th o f e x p re s s io n t h a t m ight be n e c e s s a ry . A p re lim in a ry a d m in is tr a tio n t o a group whose re s p o n se s w ere n o t in c lu d e d i n th e d a ta r e v e a le d t h a t i t was n e c e s s a ry t o em phasize t o th o s e in v o lv e d t h a t th e y re sp o n d a s h o n e s tly t o th e q u e s t io n s a s th e y p o s s ib ly c o u ld . I t a ls o le d t o some m odi f i c a t i o n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s . The m o d ific a tio n s w ere C r itiq u e o f Q u e s tio n n a ire s 144 p r im a r ily in th e w ording o f c e r t a i n q u e s tio n s . The " c lo s e d en d ed n e ss" o f an o b je c tiv e in stru m e n t was a ls o s e e n a s a I draw back, a s w ere th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in h e re n t in d ev elo p in g m atch ing q u e s tio n s f o r th e d i f f e r e n t q u e s tio n n a ir e s . For th e s e re a s o n s , i t was f e l t t h a t a n "open ended" { d is c u s s io n sh o u ld fo llo w th e c o m p le tio n o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s . The d is c u s s io n s so u g h t to c l a r i f y "u n d ecid ed " and "u n an sw erab le" re sp o n se s t o th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s p r im a r ily . I ; In e ac h c a s e , t h i s le d to f u r t h e r d is c u s s io n o f a t h l e t i c j | and c la ssro o m e x p e rie n c e s . i In e ac h d is c u s s io n th e o n ly " p re p a re d " q u e s tio n had | |t o do w ith w h e th er o r n o t c o m p letin g th e q u e s tio n n a ir e and i |t h e d is c u s s io n t h a t fo llo w e d le d th e a t h l e t e s t o a b e t t e r ! u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e m se lv e s an d t h e i r a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s . Iw ith th e e x c e p tio n o f comments in te n d e d t o answ er q u e s t i o n s , th e p re p a re d q u e s tio n an d one o r two q u e s tio n s a r i s i n g o u t o f th e d is c u s s io n , th e in v e s tig a to r * s r o l e in th e d is c u s s io n s p roved m inim al. CHAPTER VI FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY i i T h is c h a p te r p r e s e n ts th e f in d in g s o f th e su rv e y |ta k e n in t h i s s tu d y . The purpose o f th e su rv ey was to i 1 d e term in e su p p o rt f o r o r r e f u t a t i o n o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t j dev elo p ed in t h i s s tu d y . i The q u e s tio n n a ir e s u sed in th e su rv ey d id n o t prove th em se lv e s t o t a l l y a d e q u a te , b u t th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s in co n - | | j u n c tio n w ith th e group in te rv ie w s d id , f o r th e m ost p a r t , I s u p p o rt th e th e o ry d ev elo p ed f o r th e s tu d y . The a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d in th e stu d y d id n o t seem t o t a l l y f a m i li a r w ith many o f th e c o n c e p ts p re s e n te d in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s , even though p re lim in a ry a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e d e v ic e s uncovered few problem s. In e ach su rv e y s e s s io n , th e a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d e x p re ss e d some c o n s te r n a tio n w ith th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s . Q u estio n s w ere encouraged th ro u g h o u t th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e su rv e y d e v ic e s , how ever, so t h a t I many o f th e problem s w ere a p p a re n tly overcom e. Even though 145 146 |th e problem s w ith th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ere seem in g ly o v e r come , i t was f e l t t h a t b ecau se th e r e w ere p roblem s, th e 1 r e s u l t s t h a t w ere d e riv e d sh o u ld be re g a rd e d w ith r e s e r v a t i o n . l a t e r s t u d i e s , u sin g more s o p h is tic a te d d e v ic e s and te c h n iq u e s , may f in d g r e a t e r v e r i f i c a t i o n o r r e f u t a t i o n o f th e th e o ry d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s s tu d y . In e ac h s e s s io n , how ever, th e a t h l e t e s e x p re s s e d a m easure o f f a s c i n a ti o n and i n t e r e s t in d e a lin g w ith t h e i r a t h l e t i c and academ ic e x p e rie n c e s from w hat was a p p a re n tly a new p o in t o f v iew f o r them . i ; I t was assum ed t h a t th e q u e s tio n s p re s e n te d by th e q u e s tio n n a ir e had fa c e v a l i d i t y , s in c e th e r e w ere no s t a n d ard s t o w hich th e item s m ight be com pared. The f a c t t h a t th e r e may w e ll have been u n c o n tr o lle d v a r i a b l e s , th e f a c t t h a t th e w ording o f th e q u e s tio n s may have b een a t tim es m is le a d in g , and th e f a c t t h a t th e q u e s tio n s d e a lin g w ith i ia u t h e n t i c i t y in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n s w ere p ro b a b ly n o t e x a c tly p a r a l l e l when th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een f o o t b a l l , c ro s s c o u n try , and th e c la ssro o m a r e c o n s id e re d s u g g e s ts f u r t h e r r e s e r v a tio n s i n c o n s id e rin g th e r e s u l t s . W ith th e above f a c to r s in m ind, i t was f e l t t h a t when th e re s p o n se s to a p a r t i c u l a r ite m w ere tw o - th ird s o r more o f th e t o t a l 147 ! { p o ssib le re s p o n s e , th e n t h a t Item m e rite d c o n s id e r a tio n a s j s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The tw o - th ir d s f ig u r e was a r r iv e d a t a r b i t r a r i l y . R esponse t o t a l s le s s th a n tw o- t h i r d s w ere c o n s id e re d due t o p o s s ib le w eaknesses in th e ite m , o r t o th e f a c t t h a t th e item s w ere n o t r e a l l y s i g - i n i f l e a n t in d e te rm in in g th e n a tu r e o f a t h l e t i c o r c la ssro o m e x p e r ie n c e s . ! Com parisons F o o tb a ll q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n s e s , f o o t b a l l c l a s s room re s p o n s e s , c ro s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n s e s , and c ro s s c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s w ere th e n com pared f o r s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e . In c o n s id e rin g s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s i n th e re s p o n s e s , A. N. Oppen- h e im 's m onograph (5 0 :2 8 7 -2 9 2 ) was u se d . The s p e c i f i c com parisons t h a t w ere made a r e d e s c rib e d in th e fo llo w in g p a ra g ra p h . The re s p o n se s c o rre sp o n d in g t o th e p a r t i c u l a r e l e m ents o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s stu d y w ere c o n s id e re d ele m e n t by e le m e n t. The s p e c i f i c com parisons made a r e a s f o llo w s : 148 1. F o o tb a ll v s . C ross C ountry ( a t h l e t i c q u e s tio n n a i r e s ) . a . E lem ent One— D isc u rsiv e n e ss and Non d is c u rs iv e n e s s . b . Elem ent Itoo--A w areness o f S u b je c tiv ity . c . Elem ent T h re e --A u th e n tic ity . 2 . F o o tb a ll v s . F o o tb a ll C lassroom . a . Elem ent One— D isc u rsiv e n e ss and Non d is c u r s iv e n e s s . b . Elem ent TVo—Awareness o f S u b je c tiv ity . c . Elem ent T hree—A u th e n tic ity . 3 . C ross C ountry v s . C ross C ountry C lassroom . a . Elem ent One— D isc u rsiv e n e ss and Non d is c u r s iv e n e s s . b . Elem ent TVo--Awareness o f S u b je c tiv ity . c . Elem ent T h r e e --A u th e n tic ity . 4 . F o o tb a ll and C ross C ountry ( a t h l e t i c q u e s tio n n a i r e s ) v s . F o o tb a ll and C ross C ountry ( c l a s s room q u e s tio n n a ir e s ) . a . Elem ent One— D isc u rsiv e n e ss and Non- d is c u r s iv e n e s s . b . Elem ent Tuo—Aw areness o f S u b je c tiv ity . c . Elem ent T h re e --A u th e n tic ity . 149 | In o rd e r t h a t th e th e o ry o f s p o r t d ev elo p ed f o r ' i t h i s stu d y be su p p o rte d , I t was c o n s id e re d t h a t th e r e w ould be few er s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e f i r s t o f th e above com parisons an d a g r e a te r number o f s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s i n th e rem ain in g co m p ariso n s. F ig u re 1 p re s e n ts th e number jo f s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s f o r e ac h o f th e fo u r com parisons | i t h a t w ere made. j j | | As i s in d ic a te d by th e f i g u r e , th e f i r s t com parison y ie ld e d o n ly s ix te e n item s i n w hich re sp o n se s y ie ld e d s i g - i n i f l e a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . T his te n d s to s u p p o rt th e th e o ry I d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s s tu d y an d seems to answ er th e second o f th e q u e s tio n s p re s e n te d in C h ap ter I : Are th e r e d if f e r e n c e s i n th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s w hich d i f f e r e n t s n o r ts p r o v id e ? There w ould seem to be l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s w hich a r e p o s s ib le in f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try a t l e a s t a t th e le v e l o f s e l f a w a re n e ss. I t may be t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le t o g e n e r a liz e and s t a t e t h a t th e r e a re few d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s w hich o th e r s p o r ts p ro v id e . The rem ain in g th r e e com parisons do show a g r e a t e r number o f s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een re sp o n se s a s w ould be e x p e c te d i f th e th e o ry i s to be s u p p o rte d . The 150 Number o f Item s f b f b EC fb & xc v s . v s . v s . v s . Eg. f b - c l a x c -c la f b - c la & x c -c la f b - - f o o t b a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s x c -- c r o s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s f b - c l a - - f o o t b a l l p la y e rs c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s x c - c la —c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s fb & x c —t o t a l s f o r f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s f b - c la & x c - c l a - - t o t a l s f o r f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s FIGURE 1 NUM BER OF SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES FOR THE FOUR COMIARISONS M A D E FOR THE STUDY 151 i number o f s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s , how ever, a r e n o t g r e a t enough t o s t a t e t h a t th e r e a r e extrem e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id e d i n a t h l e t i c s and th e t y p i c a l c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n . C o n sid e rin g th e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t th o se su rv ey ed e n c o u n te re d i n d e a lin g w ith th e c o n c e p ts p re s e n te d by th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s , i t may be t h a t th e d i f f e r en ces betw een th e e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id e d in a t h l e t i c s an d in I th e t y p i c a l c la ssro o m a re g r e a t e r th a n th e d a ta in d ic a t e . i |The group in te rv ie w s d id te n d t o c o n firm t h a t t h i s , in f a c t , was th e c a s e . F ig u re 2 p re s e n ts th e num ber o f re sp o n se s on a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e s w hich te n d t o s u p p o rt th e th e o ry o f s p o r t dev elo p ed fo r t h i s s tu d y . This f ig u r e in d ic a te s t h a t , o v e r a l l, th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e te n d s t o be th e k in d o f e x p e rie n c e d e s c rib e d by th e th e o ry o f s p o r t d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s s tu d y , w h ile th e e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id ed in th e t y p i c a l c la ssro o m seem le s s a b le t o g e n e ra te su ch e x p e rie n c e s . As in d ic a te d by th e a n a ly s is o f F ig u re 1, how ever, th e r e a d e r i s a g a in rem inded t h a t th e s e r e s u l t s sh o u ld be re g a rd e d w ith r e s e r v a tio n . 152 I j Number | o f Item s 6 0 ■ J ■ - . 55 50 fb f b - c l a xc x c - c la fb — f o o t b a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s f b - c l a - - f o o t b a l l c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s x c —c r o s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s x c - c l a - - c r o s s c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s FIGURE 2 NUM BER OF RESPONSES TENDING TO SUPPORT THE OVERALL THEORY DEVELOPED FOR THIS STUDY I 153~i i I | 1 Elem ent One— D is c u rs iv e n e s s and N o n -d isc u rsiv e n e ss | The f i r s t elem en t o f th e th e o ry was a s f o llo w s : i | 1. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s im m ediate and d i r e c t . I a . The a t h l e t i c e x p e rie n c e s and d e a ls w ith th e I [ p e rc e iv e d e lem en ts o f th e s i t u a t i o n sim u l- i ta n e o u s ly . ! b . The e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e i s , f o r th e i m ost p a r t , unm ediated by d is c u r s iv e sym bol- j ism , a llo w in g th e a t h l e t e a more d i r e c t j c o n ta c t w ith h is w o rld . | The a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d i n th e stu d y in d ic a te d t h a t w h ile th e y may be v a g u e ly aw are o f th e n o n -c o n te s t a s p e c ts o f th e a t h l e t i c s i t u a t i o n , t h e i r p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d s w ere h ig h ly r e s t r i c t e d d u rin g a n a t h l e t i c c o n te s t. On th e o th e r ihand, th e su rv e y in d ic a te d t h a t i n th e c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n i a t h l e t e s e x p e rie n c e a more "norm al" o r d if f u s e p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d . C ross c o u n try ru n n e rs in d ic a te d t h a t th e y a re p ro b a b ly more aw are o f n o n -c o n te s t e le m e n ts o f th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n th a n a r e f o o t b a l l p la y e r s . This su g g e sts t h a t w h ile th e p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d o f th e a t h l e t e i n th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n i s p ro b a b ly r e s t r i c t e d , c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs | 154 e x p e rie n c e somewhat g r e a t e r b re a d th in t h e i r p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d s th a n do f o o t b a l l p la y e r s . i The q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ere u n a b le to d e te rm in e w h eth er o r n o t th e p e rc e p tio n s o f th e a t h l e t e s a r e e x p e rie n c e d I s im u lta n e o u s ly . The in te rv ie w s d id in d ic a te t h a t th e I a t h l e t e s e x p e rie n c e th e p e rc e iv e d e le m e n ts o f th e a t h l e t i c s i t u a t i o n s im u lta n e o u s ly , b u t n o t to th e d eg ree t h a t f u l l a c c e p ta n c e o f t h i s a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry i s m e rite d . ! The re s p o n se s t o th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s an d th e i n t e r - ' view s d id in d ic a te d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e re sp o n se s to th e I a t h l e t i c and c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e s a s re g a rd s th e m edi a te d and unm ediated n a tu re o f th e a t h l e t i c and c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n s . F ig u re 3 s u g g e s ts t h a t a g a in , th e r e s u l t s sh o u ld be re g a rd e d w ith r e s e r v a tio n , b u t th e re sp o n se s to th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s , a lo n g w ith th e in te rv ie w s , d id te n d to s u p p o rt t h i s elem en t o f th e th e o ry . | The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e , a c c o rd in g t o th e d a ta , i s |one t h a t i s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , unm ediated by d is c u r s iv e sym bolism , w h ile th e e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id e d in th e ty p ic a l c la ssro o m te n d to be more m e d iate d . The in te rv ie w s r e v e a le d some c o n fu s io n on th e p a r t o f th o s e su rv ey ed a s to th e m eaning o f c e r t a i n o f th e 155 Number o f Item s fb f b - c la xc x c -c la | f b — f o o t b a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n s e s | f b - c l a - - f o o t b a l l c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s [ x c —c ro s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s x c - c l a - - c r o s s c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s FIGURE 3 N U M BER OF RESPONSES TENDING TO SUPPORT ELEMENT O N E OF THE THEORY OF SPORT FOR THIS STUDY | 156 i I q u e s tio n s , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e w hich a sk ed a b o u t " th in k in g in w o rd s." C l a r i f i c a t i o n was p ro v id e d in th e in te rv ie w s e s s io n s so t h a t f u r t h e r s u p p o rt was p ro v id e d f o r t h i s e l e m ent o f th e th e o ry . i j Elem ent Two—Aw areness o f S u b je c tiv ity The second elem en t o f th e th e o ry was a s f o llo w s : I i 2 . The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s one o f h e ig h te n e d ! aw aren ess o f s e l f and n o n - s e l f , th e r e le a s e o f j s u b j e c t i v i t y an d t h i s i s i t s m eaning f o r th e i | man o f s p o r t . a . A w areness o f body. b . A w areness o f th e u n ity o f m ind an d body. c . Aw areness o f n o n - s e lf . d. Aw areness o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o th in g n e ss o r n o n -b ein g a s se e n i n d e f e a t. e . Etootion a r i s i n g o u t o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f e a t. f . H eightened aw aren ess a s a r i s i n g o u t o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f unm ediated e x p e rie n c e and th e e m o tio n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s in h e r e n t in th e s i t u a t i o n . 157 On e le v e n o f f o r t y q u e s tio n s d e a lin g w ith t h i s e l e - j i m ent, th e r e w ere d if f e r e n c e s betw een f o o t b a l l p la y e rs and j jc ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs a t v a rio u s le v e ls o f s ig n if ic a n c e . |T hese d i f f e r e n c e s , how ever, seem to be a m a tte r o f d i f f e r - ! ences i n d e g re e , r a t h e r th a n r e a l d if f e r e n c e s in k in d . The jre sp o n se s to q u e s tio n s 26 and 41 p ro v id e an exam ple o f i t h i s . In b o th in s ta n c e s , 100 p e r c e n t o f th e f o o t b a l l I i | p la y e rs and 83 p e r c e n t o f th e c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs j resp o n d ed in a s u p p o rtiv e m anner, y e t th e re was a s i g n i f i - cance o f d if f e r e n c e betw een f o o t b a l l p la y e rs and c ro s s 'c o u n try ru n n e rs a t th e .0 1 l e v e l. O ppenheim 's m onograph te n d s to be somewhat in a c c u ra te a t th e ex trem e u p p e r and low er l im i ts (5 0 :2 8 8 ), so t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e s may n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t a t a l l . A c o n tr a d ic tio n a p p ea re d w ith re g a rd to two q u e s- i t i o n s . Hie q u e s tio n s so u g h t to su rv e y th e same f a c t o r , y e t th e re s p o n se s proved e x tre m e ly c o n tr a d ic to r y . In th e f i r s t o f th e s e q u e s tio n s (q u e s tio n 2 4 ), more c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs th a n f o o t b a l l p la y e rs in d ic a te d t h a t th e y w ere more aw are o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t i n th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . In th e second o f th e q u e s tio n s ( q u e s tio n 2 8 ) , how ever, f o o t b a l l p la y e rs in d ic a te d t h a t th e y w ere more aw are o f | 158 i |th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . In th e l a t t e r q u e s tio n and in in te r v ie w , f o o t b a l l p la y e rs i n d i c a te d t h a t t h e i r p rim ary c o n c e rn i s w inning th e c o n te s t , even though th e y w ere aw are o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e f e a t. |The d i f f i c u l t y p o in te d o u t by th e above c o n tr a d ic tio n seems t o be a se m an tic d i f f i c u l t y a r i s i n g o u t o f poor c o n s tru c t i o n o f th e p a r t i c u l a r ite m s in v o lv e d . A nother d i f f i c u l t y a ro s e in re g a rd to q u e s tio n 2 5 . {More ru n n e rs th a n f o o t b a l l p la y e rs in d ic a te d t h a t th e emo t i o n th e y f e l t i n a c o n te s t a ro s e from b ein g o ffe n d e d in jone way o r a n o th e r by an o p p o n en t. C o n sid erin g th e non- c o n ta c t and r a t h e r s o l i t a r y n a tu re o f c ro s s c o u n try ru n n in g , t h i s seems somewhat d i f f i c u l t to a c c e p t. N e ith e r c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs n o r f o o t b a l l p la y e rs in d ic a te d a n aw areness o f th e u n ity o f mind and body. The aw areness o f th e u n i ty o f m ind and body seemed to be a r a t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . Ope f o o t b a l l p la y e r , i n in te r v ie w , in d ic a te d t h a t he was n o t n e c e s s a r ily aw are o f h is body, b u t t h a t h e , i n s te a d , a c te d w ith " a l l o f m e." The com parison o f th e a t h l e t i c q u e s tio n n a ir e s w ith th e c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e s su p p o rte d th e p o in t t h a t th e c la ssro o m p ro v id e s few er o p p o r tu n itie s f o r I 159 I I e x p e rie n c e s in v o lv in g aw areness o f th e body o r th e u n ity o f mind and body. ! Both groups in d ic a te d a s tr o n g aw areness o f t h a t w hich i s n o n - s e lf in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . T his seems e s p e c i a l l y m ea n in g fu l when c o n tr a s te d w ith th e g ro u p 's re sp o n se s t o th e c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e d e a lin g w ith th e same a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry . I t i s s tr o n g ly su g g e ste d t h a t j |s p o r t s p ro v id e s th e a t h l e t e th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r h e ig h te n e d i I 'a w a ren e ss o f s e l f and n o n - s e lf . The o p p o r tu n itie s f o r su ch t |a w are n ess in th e t y p i c a l c la ssro o m , a c c o rd in g to th e q u e s- i tio r m a ir e re sp o n se s and in te rv ie w s , w ould seem to be some- i w hat lim ite d . Awareness o f s e l f and su rro u n d in g s w ould seem to be se e n by th e a t h l e t e s a s more d if f u s e and le s s in te n s e i n th e c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n . I n d ic a tio n s w ere a ls o t h a t th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e does more r e a d i ly p ro v id e o ppor t u n i t y f o r h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e lf th a n does th e t y p i c a l classro o m e x p e rie n c e . E q u atin g d e fe a t in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n w ith th e n o n -b ein g o f e x i s t e n t i a l th o u g h t was n o t s tr o n g ly su p p o rte d . Thus i t i s n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t in in te r v ie w , th e a t h l e t e s su rv e y ed had a g r e a t d e a l o f d i f f i c u l t y d e a lin g w ith th e c o n c e p t o f n o n -b ein g a s r e l a t e d to t h e i r a t h l e t i c | 160 j I i e x p e rie n c e s , though th e y w ere a b le to d e a l w ith th e co n cep t i a s re g a rd s t h e i r o v e r a ll l i v e s . The la c k o f su p p o rt f o r i ; t h i s a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry may have been due to a la c k o f j u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e c o n ce p t o f non**being a s r e l a t e d to [ a t h l e t i c s , a s w e ll a s to a c u l t u r a l em phasis upon w in n in g , r a t h e r th a n th e av o id an ce o f d e f e a t. O b v io u sly , t h i s a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry may have f a i l e d to g a in su p p o rt b e - | i ! • i c au se i t may w e ll be t h a t d e fe a t in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n | ! i c an n o t be e q u a te d w ith th e n o n -b ein g o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t . ! i In any c a s e , t h i s a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry h as been r e l i n - | i iq u is h e d , a t l e a s t f o r p u rp o ses o f t h i s s tu d y . j Both f o o t b a l l p la y e rs and c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs in d ic a te d t h a t th e y f e e l em otion in an a t h l e t i c c o n te s t. F o o tb a ll p la y e rs seemed to i n d ic a te a w id e r ran g e o f emo t i o n and more in te n s e f e e lin g s th a n d id th e c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs . This may be due t o th e n a tu re o f th e s p o r t i t s e l f , o r p o s s ib ly t o th e g r e a t e r c u l t u r a l em phasis upon f o o t b a l l a s opposed t o c ro s s c o u n try . j The a t h l e t e s in d ic a te d t h a t th e y w ere o f te n m o ti v a te d in th e t y p i c a l c la ssro o m and t h a t th e y do e x p e rie n c e em otion in th e c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n . They s tr o n g ly i n d i c a te d , how ever, t h a t th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e em otion t h a t th e y j 161 i |f e e l and th e fo cu s o f a t t e n t i o n In th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n was la c k in g in th e c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n . As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r , w h ile th e r e w ere d if f e r e n c e s in th e re sp o n se s o f f o o t b a l l p la y e rs and c ro s s c o u n try |r u n n e r s , th e s e d if f e r e n c e s seem t o be d if f e r e n c e s in d eg ree |r a t h e r th a n d if f e r e n c e s i n k in d . The s u g g e s tio n a g a in i s , 't h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id e d by c ro s s c o u n try I I I a re p ro b a b ly q u i te s im ila r to th e e x p e rie n c e s p o s s ib le in f o o t b a l l , a t l e a s t a t th e l e v e l o f su ch th in g s a s th e I aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e l f . One p e r ip h e r a l is s u e was d e a lt w ith by q u e s tio n s su rv e y in g Elem ent Ttoo, t h a t b e in g th e a t h l e t e s ' re a so n s f o r p a r t i c i p a ti n g in s p o r ts a c t i v i t i e s . The a t h l e t e s i n d i c a te d , p r im a r ily in in te rv ie w , a v a r i e t y o f re a so n s f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r t , ra n g in g from a d e s ir e f o r r e c o g n itio n to su b m issio n t o p a r e n ta l d e s i r e s . In m ost j le a s e s , how ever, th e a t h l e t e s in d ic a te d t h a t a t l e a s t p a r t o f th e re a s o n f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n had to do w ith th e e m o tio n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . S t i l l , th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s e l f a r i s i n g o u t o f th e s e e m o tio n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s was n o t su p p o rte d by o th e r q u e s tio n s in th e su rv e y . | Though th e r e s u l t s o f a n a ly s is o f th e re sp o n se s su rv e y in g th e second elem en t o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t de v e lo p e d f o r t h i s stu d y sh o u ld a g a in be re g a rd e d w ith |r e s e r v a t i o n , th e in d ic a tio n s (F ig u re 4 ) a re t h a t Elem ent i |Ttoo i s g e n e r a lly su p p o rte d . The a s p e c ts o f Elem ent Ttoo I t h a t have been r e lin q u is h e d , a t l e a s t f o r p u rp o ses o f t h i s s tu d y , a re th o se t h a t s u g g e st t h a t th e i n i t i a l aw areness i n s p o r t i s th e aw areness o f th e body; t h a t h e ig h te n e d |aw aren ess a r i s e s o u t o f th e e m o tio n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s in - i h e re n t in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n (even though su ch p o s s i b i l i - |t i e s may be a p rim ary re a s o n f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g in s p o r t s ) ; and t h a t d e f e a t in s p o r t m ight be e q u a te d w ith th e non- b e in g o f e x i s t e n t i a l th o u g h t. F ig u re 4 in d ic a te s t h a t Elem ent Ttoo has re c e iv e d more s u p p o rt th a n e i t h e r o f th e o th e r two e le m e n ts o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t t h a t was d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s s tu d y . Over- j a l l , Elem ent Ttoo r e c e iv e d g r e a t e r su p p o rt in th e in te rv ie w s a s w e ll. Elem ent T hree—A u th e n tic ity The t h i r d elem en t o f th e th e o ry was a s f o llo w s : Number o f Item s 40 163 29 29 (73%) (73%) f b - c l a xc x c - c la f b - - f o o t b a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s f b - c l a - - f o o t b a l l c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s x c - - c r o s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s x c -c l* » --c ro ss c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s FIGURE 4 NUM BER OF RESPONSES TENDING TO SUPPORT ELEMENT T W O OF THE THEORY OF SPORT DEVELOPED FOR THIS STUDY 164 3. The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e p ro v id ed o p p o rtu n ity f o r ! a u t h e n t i c i t y . a . A u th e n tic ity a s p o t e n t i a l , i b . A u th e n tic ity p o t e n t i a l a r i s i n g o u t o f I c h o ic e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s w hich a re in h e re n t l i n th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . In su rv e y in g f o r t h i s e le m e n t, th e a tte m p t was to : s e t up a c h o ic e s i t u a t i o n t h a t was h ig h ly p o s s ib le in th e s p o r ts o r c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n s . Many more s i t u a t i o n s I |sh o u ld be p ro v id e d to i n v e s tig a te th o ro u g h ly f o r t h i s e l e m ent, b u t i t was f e l t t h a t one su ch s i t u a t i o n m ight su g g e st c o rr o b o r a tio n o f th e e le m e n t. Hie r e a d e r sh o u ld a ls o be made aw are o f th e f a c t t h a t th e s i t u a t i o n s t h a t w ere d e v e lo p e d , w h ile p a r a l l e l w ere n o t i d e n t i c a l , so t h a t u n in ten d e d v a r i a b le s may w e ll have b een in tro d u c e d i n to th e su rv e y re s p o n s e s . I f i t can be assum ed t h a t n o t c h e a tin g on a t e s t and m aking a ta c k le o r f i n is h in g a ra c e a re a u th e n tic c h o ic e s in th e s i t u a t i o n s p ro v id e d , th e n i t w ould seem t h a t th e e t h i c d e v elo p ed in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n i s somewhat s tr o n g e r , o r a t l e a s t more c lo s e ly a d h e re d t o th a n th e e t h i c t h a t may o r may n o t be d ev elo p ed in th e c la ssro o m . 165 j The su rv e y in d ic a te d t h a t w h ile o v e r a l l th o s e su rv ey ed in d ic a te d t h a t th e y f e l t i t u n a u th e n tic t o c h e a t on a t e s t , th e a t h l e t e s , and e s p e c i a l l y many o f th e f o o t b a l l p la y e r s , j i i j in d ic a te d t h a t th e y have and p ro b a b ly w ould c h e a t in th e |c la ssro o m to a c h ie v e t h e i r a im s. At th e same tim e , th e I re sp o n se s o f th e a t h l e t e s to th e q u e s tio n n a ir e and i n t e r - i view in d ic a te d t h a t th e y w ere v e ry much opposed to un a u th e n tic b e h a v io r in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n . Along th e same ’l i n e s , th e a t h l e t e s in d ic a te d t h a t th e "h o n e st a tte m p t" i s ! a s im p o rta n t, o r even more im p o rta n t, to th e a t h l e t e in th e | i s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n th a n i s th e "h o n e st a tte m p t" in th e c l a s s room. F ig u re 5 sum m arizes th e s e d a ta . One i n t e r e s t i n g , i f p e r ip h e r a l, p o in t a r i s i n g o u t iof th e su rv e y was t h a t a t h l e t e s seemed to f e e l t h a t no s p e c i a l p r a is e i s due a u th e n tic b e h a v io r. P ra ise i s a p p a re n tly re s e rv e d f o r s u c c e s s f u l b e h a v io r r a t h e r th a n I ja u th e n tic b e h a v io r. F or th e m ost p a r t , th e t h i r d elem en t o f th e th e o ry o f s p o r t developed f o r t h i s stu d y has been su p p o rte d by th e s u rv e y . A gain w ith r e s e r v a t i o n s , i t m ight be s a id t h a t s p o r t p ro v id e s an o p p o rtu n ity f o r a u th e n tic c h o ic e , and t h a t th e c h o ic e s made in s p o r t seem , in f a c t , t o be 166 Number o f Item s 12 , fb f b - c l a xc x c - c la f b - - f o o t b a l l q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s f b - c l a f o o t b a l l c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s x c - - c r o s s c o u n try q u e s tio n n a ir e re sp o n se s x c ~ c la —c ro s s c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s tio n n a ir e re s p o n se s FIGURE 5 NUM BER OF RESPONSES TENDING TO SUPPORT ELEMENT THREE OF THE THEORY OF SPORT DEVELOPED FOR THIS STUDY ; 167 i |a u th e n tic o n e s, e s p e c i a l l y when c o n tr a s te d w ith ch o ic es t h a t a t h l e t e s a r e a t tim es m aking in th e c la ssro o m . i ! ] i M o d ific a tio n o f th e Theory I l f As has been in d ic a te d , th e fin d in g s o f th e su rv ey i d id n o t t o t a l l y s u p p o rt th e th e o ry d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s j s tu d y . l a t e r s tu d ie s may p ro v id e s u p p o rt f o r th o se a s p e c ts i o f th e th e o ry t h a t have been r e lin q u is h e d . For purp o ses o f t h i s s tu d y , how ever, th o se a s p e c ts o f th e th e o ry w hich w ere in o t su p p o rte d have been r e lin q u is h e d , r e q u ir in g m o d ific a t i o n o f th e th e o ry . On th e b a s is o f th e fin d in g s o f th e i i |s u rv e y , th e th e o ry o f s p o r t d e v elo p ed f o r t h i s stu d y was i r e v is e d t o th e form p re s e n te d below . The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s im m ediate and d i r e c t , b u t th e p e rc e p tio n s o f th e a t h l e t e o f th e e le m e n ts o f h is s i t u a t i o n a r e n o t , a c c o rd in g t o th e s u rv e y , n e c e s s a r ily e x p e rie n c e d s im u lta n e o u s ly . The e x p e rie n c e o f th e a t h l e t e i s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , unm ediated by d is c u r s iv e sym bolism , a llo w in g th e a t h l e t e a more d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith h is w o rld . The s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s one o f h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e l f , th e r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y , and t h i s i s i t s m eaning f o r th e man o f s p o r t . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e 168 I a t h l e t e e x p e rie n c e s a h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f f a c to r s su ch | a s a u n ity o f mind and body; n o n - s e lf ; em otion a r i s i n g o u t io f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e fe a t o r th e g o a ls o f th e c o n te s t; i em otion a r i s i n g o u t o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f unm ediated ex p e rie n c e . j | The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e i n i t i a l aw aren ess in s p o r t i i s aw areness o f th e body was r e lin q u is h e d in t h a t th e su rv ey d id n o t su p p o rt t h i s th in k in g . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t ;d e fe a t and n o n -b ein g a re to be e q u a te d in th e s p o r ts s i t u - j ja tio n was a ls o r e lin q u is h e d b ecau se th e su rv e y a ls o f a i l e d |t o s u p p o rt t h i s a s p e c t o f th e th e o ry . S port a ls o p ro v id e s an o p p o rtu n ity f o r a u th e n tic c h o ic e . The e th ic g e n e ra te d in s p o r t seems to be a d h ered t o more c lo s e ly by th e a t h l e t e th a n i s th e e th i c t h a t may o r may n o t be g e n e ra te d in th e t y p i c a l c la ssro o m . | Summary This c h a p te r has a tte m p te d t o p re s e n t th e fin d in g s o f th e su rv ey made f o r t h i s s tu d y . The q u e s tio n n a ir e d ev elo p ed f o r th e stu d y d id n o t prove t o t a l l y a d e q u a te , b u t th e resp o n se s made to th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s c o u p le d w ith th e in te rv ie w s o f th e a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d i n th e s tu d y d id g e n e r a lly su p p o rt th e th e o ry dev elo p ed f o r th e s tu d y . C e rta in a s p e c ts o f th e th e o ry w ere r e lin q u is h e d on th e b a s is o f th e su rv e y . The th e o ry was th e n m o d ifie d to r e f l e e t th e fin d in g s o f th e su rv e y . C H APTER V II j | SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOM M ENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY i i i The s ta te m e n t o f th e problem i n C h ap ter I posed two prim ary q u e s tio n s to be answ ered by th e s tu d y . T his chap- I t e r i s in te n d e d t o answ er o r r e s t a t e th e answ ers to th o se i i jq u e s tio n s a lo n g w ith th e c o n c lu s io n s t h a t w ere drawn; to Imake recom m endations t o e d u c a to rs ; and to s u g g e s t a re a s f o r !f u r t h e r s tu d y . I I | | The N atu re o f th e S n o rts E x p erien ce The f i r s t o f b a s ic q u e s tio n s d ev elo p ed f o r t h i s s tu d y in q u ire d a s to th e n a tu re o f th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e . T his in q u iry in v o lv e d th r e e s u b q u e s tio n s : 1. What i s th e n a tu re o f s p o r t? 2 . Are th e r e d if f e r e n c e s in th e k in d s o f e x p e r i- i en ce s t h a t d i f f e r e n t s p o r ts p ro v id e ? 3 . What i s th e n a tu re o f th e m eanings found in j s p o r t by th e in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a n t ? I 170 I 171 I What i s th e n a tu r e o f s p o r t ?— The stu d y was u n a b le to uncover a t o t a l l y a d e q u a te d e f i n i t i o n o f s p o r t , b u t i t was a b le t o d e te rm in e s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s p o r t. S p o rt a s a s p e c ia liz e d form o f p la y has th e fo llo w in g | c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : 1. S p o rt i s f r e e and v o lu n ta r y . 2 . S p o rt i s n o t o r d in a ry . I t p ro v id e s e x p e rie n c e s I ! w hich a r e c o n s ta n tly new. 3 . S p o rt i s s p a t i a l l y an d te m p o ra lly lim ite d . I | 4 . S p o rt c r e a t e s o rd e r and g e n e ra te s a n e t h i c . 5 . S p o rt te n d s to be p le a s in g a e s t h e t i c a l l y and i s i d e n t i f i a b l e by th e e le m e n ts: o r d e r , te n s io n , movement, c h an g e , so le m n ity , rhythm , and ra p t u r e . 6. S p o rt i s n o t p ro d u c tiv e o f m a te r ia l goods. 7. S p o rt i s a man-made, e x tre m e ly human a c t i v i t y . ! 8. S p o rt in v o lv e s c o n te n tio n o f i n t e r e s t on th e I p a r t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . 9 . S p o rt in v o lv e s c o n s is te n c y o f r o l e on th e p a r t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . 10. S p o rt in v o lv e s u t i l i z a t i o n - a c t u a l i z a t i o n aim s i | on th e p a r t o f p a r t i c i p a n t s . Are th e r e d if f e r e n c e s In th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s I t h a t d i f f e r e n t s p o r ts p r o v id e ?— On th e s u r f a c e a t l e a s t , ; th e r e a r e obvious d if f e r e n c e s betw een d i f f e r e n t s p o r t |fo rm s. I f th e fin d in g s g e n e ra te d by th e f o o t b a l l p la y e rs i J land c ro s s c o u n try ru n n e rs su rv e y ed by th e stu d y c an be | |g e n e r a liz e d , how ever, th e r e w ould seem to be l i t t l e d i f f e r - j ence betw een s p o r t form s a t th e le v e l o f s e l f a w a re n e ss. j | | W hile th e r e may be d if f e r e n c e s in i n t e n s i t y , a l l s p o r t | seems to e n a b le th e p a r t i c i p a n t to become more f u l l y aw are i o f h im s e lf a s a f r e e e x i s t e n t . | What, i s th e n a tu re o f th e m eanings found in s n o r t by th e in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a n t ?--A ccording to th e s tu d y , th e s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e i s one o f h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s e l f and n o n - s e l f w hich i s f o r th e m ost p a r t unm ediated by d is c u r s iv e sym bolism . S e lf aw areness i s i n i t s e l f th e m eaning t h a t man fin d s in s p o r t and t h i s - - a l o n g w ith th e !o p p o rtu n ity p ro v id e d in th e s p o r ts s i t u a t i o n f o r th e l a tta in m e n t o f an a u th e n tic r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith s e l f , th e w o rld , and o th e r s — i s th e p rim ary v a lu e to be a tt a i n e d in s p o r t and may w e ll a c c o u n t f o r th e a t t r a c t i o n s p o r t h o ld s I f o r man. i 173 I ! I | I d e a l i s t s and r e a l i s t s se e s p o r t a s a means by i w hich su ch v i r t u e s a s c o u ra g e , sp o rtsm a n sh ip , o r p e rs e v e r- S | | ance c an be ta u g h t. They se e s p o r t a ls o a s a means by w hich p h y s ic a l developm ent can be a t t a i n e d . The e x p e r i m e n ta lis ts h o ld t h a t s o c i a l developm ent i s th e prim e v a lu e j t o be a t t a i n e d i n s p o r t an d e s p e c i a l l y i n team s p o r t s . I t may be t h a t p e rs o n a l v i r t u e s a lo n g w ith s o c i a l and h e a lth aim s may be enhanced th ro u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r t , b u t : i t w ould be d i f f i c u l t to shew t h a t th e y a re o r i g i n a l l y i j |ta u g h t t h e r e . Iterhaps th e fa m ily i s to be g iv e n a t l e a s t ja s much c r e d i t a s a s c h o o l's a t h l e t i c program f o r g e n e r a tin g th e s e v i r t u e s and se e in g to th e s t u d e n t 's h e a lth n e e d s . A t h l e t i c s , a t one le v e l o r a n o th e r , may in f a c t h e lp t o d ev elo p th e v a rio u s q u a l i t i e s t h a t have been a t t r i b u t e d to them a t v a rio u s tim e s . I t i s th e c o n te n tio n I o f t h i s s tu d y , how ever, t h a t th e s e a r e p e r ip h e r a l v a lu e s j and t h a t a s s t a t e d s e v e r a l tim es in t h i s stu d y th e prim ary v a lu e s and m eanings to be a tt a i n e d in s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n ja re h e ig h te n e d s e l f aw areness and th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r p e r- I js o n a l a u t h e n t i c i t y . | The Role of Sport in th e Schools The second o f th e b a s ic q u e s tio n s d ev elo p ed in j I C hapter I in q u ir e s a s to th e p ro p e r r o l e o f a t h l e t i c s in th e sc h o o l The r o l e o f s p o r t in th e sc h o o ls in v o lv e d two I | s u b q u e s tio n s . 1. Are th e m eanings g e n e ra te d in s p o r t ed u ca t i o n a l l y v a lu a b le ? i 2 . I f th e m eanings g e n e ra te d in s p o r t a r e educa t i o n a l l y v a lu a b le , how i s th e a t h l e t i c program t o be r e l a t e d t o th e o v e r a l l program o f th e sc h o o ls ? Are th e m eanings g e n e ra te d in s p o r t e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le ?—As s t a t e d in C hapter I , e x i s t e n t i a l i s m was chosen a s th e p h ilo s o p h ic b a s is f o r t h i s s tu d y . In a c c o rd an ce w ith t h i s c h o ic e , C hapter I I p re s e n te d th e ele m e n ts o f j i e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry w hich w ere a p p lic a b le to th e p re s e n t s tu d y . | A ccording t o th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , e d u c a tio n i s p ro p e rly a n a c t i v i t y by w hich th e s tu d e n t becomes aw are o f h im s e lf a s a f r e e fu n c tio n in g s u b j e c t i v i t y who i s re sp o n s i b l e f o r h is own l i f e . The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t i s aw are o f th e need f o r th e command o f fu n d am en tal to o ls and p ro c e ss e s 175 jon th e p a r t o f th e s tu d e n t, b u t th e s e a re e d u c a tio n a lly j j ! v a lu a b le o n ly in s o f a r a s th e y a i d th e s tu d e n t in a tt a i n i n g i th e u ltim a te aim o f e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n : s e l f a c t u a l i z a t io n . A c c o rd in g ly , th o se a c t i v i t i e s w hich " r e le a s e sub- i j e c t i v i t y " a r e o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e . The " s p i r i t o f p la y " r a t h e r th a n th e " s p i r i t o f s e r io u s n e s s " i s a p p ro p r ia te to I |e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e in t h a t i t se e s man a s th e !c r e a t o r o f v a lu e and en co u rag es an e x p e rim e n ta l o r ex - i j p e r i e n t i a l a t t i t u d e . That th e s tu d e n t r e a l i z e h im s e lf as |th e f r e e and r e s p o n s ib le c r e a t o r o f v a lu e i s th e e sse n c e o f i e x i s t e n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l th e o ry . As in d ic a te d in C h ap ter I I , b e fo re a s tu d e n t can r e a l i z e h im s e lf a s a f r e e and r e s p o n s ib le c r e a t o r o f v a lu e he m ust become aw are o f h im s e lf a s e x i s t i n g . H erein l i e s one o f th e b a s ic fu n c tio n s t h a t s p o r t can and a p p a re n tly i does perfo rm in th e s c h o o ls . S port p ro v id e s th e in d iv id u a l th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y " w hich i s th e aw areness o f s e l f a s e x is ti n g and a s s t a t e d above, su ch a c t i v i t i e s a r e e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le . S port en co u rag es th e a t h l e t e t o a c t in a c c o rd w ith i jchosen g o a ls . I f i t i s e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le t h a t th e 176 j i j in d iv id u a l le a r n to behave a u th e n ti c a l ly and i f s p o r t p ro - j v id e s a r a t h e r c l e a r c u t o p p o rtu n ity f o r such b e h a v io r th e n s p o r t i s e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le in t h i s re g a rd a ls o . Thomson, M etheny, S h e e ts , S lu s h e r and th e p re s e n t stu d y a s w e ll a l l have su g g e ste d t h a t a t h l e t i c s p ro v id e s an I ! j o p p o rtu n ity f o r th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s th e e x i s t e n t i a l p h ilo s o p h e rs such a s M o rris, K n e lle r, an d O 'N e ill w ould c o n s id e r e d u c a tio n a lly v a lu a b le . Such b e in g th e c a s e , i t c a n be se e n t h a t a t h l e t i c s can and does p la y a n im p o rta n t | e d u c a tio n a l r o l e in th e s c h o o ls . This r o l e i s to p ro v id e o p p o rtu n ity f o r unm ediated e x p e rie n c e , h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s u b j e c t i v i t y , and th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r a t t a i n i n g a u th e n t i c i t y . I f th e m eanings g e n e ra te d i n s n o r t a r e e d u c a tio n a l l y v a lu a b le , how i s th e a t h l e t i c program to be r e l a t e d to th e o v e r a l l program o f th e sc h o o ls ?— E d u ca tio n i n Am erica h as become a h ig h ly sym bolic p ro c e s s . Am erican e d u c a tio n r e l i e s h e a v ily upon d is c u r s iv e sym bolism . T his i s p ro b a b ly n e c e s s a ry in a h ig h ly f l u i d and r a p id ly a d v an cin g te c h n o l o g i c a l s o c ie ty . S t i l l , th e r e may be d is f u n c tio n a l a s p e c ts t o an overdependence upon d is c u r s iv e sym bolism . A te a c h e r l e c tu r e s and th e s tu d e n t l i s t e n s . An a ssig n m e n t i s g iv e n I I and a book i s re a d o r a p a p er w r i t t e n . The s tu d e n t may s u c c e s s f u lly manage th e sym bols n e c e s s a ry to th e s i t u a t i o n , |b u t he i s n o t v i t a l l y in v o lv e d i n th e p ro c e s s . The s tu d e n t i may be c a l le d upon t o resp o n d , b u t h is re sp o n se may be o n ly a m a tte r o f s u c c e s s f u l management o f v e r b a l sym bols. This in i t s e l f i s n o t w rong, i t may ev en be d e s i r a b l e , b u t many s tu d e n ts become a d e p t a t m anaging d is c u r s iv e sym bols w h ile a v o id in g any r e a l o r v i t a l c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th em selv es o r o th e r s . ! j In th e s c h o o l, b ecau se o f th e s c h o o l's r e lia n c e upon d is c u r s iv e sym bolism , th e s tu d e n t seldom has th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r m ea n in g fu l fa c e to fa c e r e l a ti o n s h i p s w ith o th e r s , o r f o r unm ediated e n c o u n te rs w ith h im s e lf and w ith th e w o rld . The p s y c h o lo g ic a l e f f e c t s o f su ch sh a llo w r e l a ti o n s h i p s o f th e s tu d e n t w ith h im s e lf and o th e rs c o u ld w e ll be d e v a s ta tin g . S p o rt, a s has been shown, p ro v id e s j o p p o r tu n itie s f o r m ea n in g fu l e n c o u n te rs and r e l a t i o n s h i p s . i i Such b e in g th e c a s e , th e n i t i s q u i te p o s s ib le to se e th e p ro p e r r o l e o f th e a t h l e t i c program o f th e sc h o o ls a s com p lim e n ta ry to th e program o f th e r e g u la r c la ssro o m . A th le tic p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a d d itio n t o r e g u la r c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s c an more f u l l y p ro v id e f o r th e o v e r a l l d ev elo p m ent o f th e s tu d e n t. 178 i T his s tu d y does n o t s u g g e s t t h a t a t h l e t i c s and o th e r a c t i v i t i e s a r e i n any way s u p e r io r to c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s , n o r does i t s u g g e st t h a t a t h l e t i c s a r e th e o n ly i i a c t i v i t i e s w hich p ro v id e f o r " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y ." |A th le tic s a r e se en a s a c t i v i t i e s w hich sh o u ld be p ro v id ed f o r th o s e who f in d them v a lu a b le . T his stu d y s e e s a l l su ch a c t i v i t i e s a s w orthy o f encouragem ent. T his s tu d y has n o t d e a l t w ith th e m eanings to be ;d e riv e d f o r th e g e n e ra l s tu d e n t body o f a s c h o o l, o r th e | g e n e ra l com m unity. As in d ic a te d in C hapter I I , v a lu a b le |m eanings f o r th e s e groups may w e ll be g e n e ra te d by a v ig o r - i ous a t h l e t i c program . Here a ls o m ig h t be found b o th j u s t i f i c a t i o n and fu n c tio n f o r s tro n g a t h l e t i c program s in th e s c h o o ls . C e r ta in ly th e "abandon" o f s p e c ta to r s a t a t h l e t i c e v e n ts i s an i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon and may w e ll be com p a re d t o th e abandon and f e e lin g s o f freedom and th e " r e le a s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y " e x p e rie n c e d by th e a t h l e t e him s e l f . I i Recommendations f o r E ducators In l i g h t o f th e fin d in g s f o r t h i s s tu d y , th e edu c a t o r i s en couraged to p ro v id e v ig o ro u s su p p o rt f o r 179 |a t h l e t i c s and a l l a c t i v i t i e s w hich enhance aw areness o f s u b j e c t i v i t y and p ro v id e o p p o rtu n ity f o r a t t a i n i n g a u th e n t i c i t y a s su ch a c t i v i t i e s , a c c o rd in g to e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , a re o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e . S in c e , a s Metheny i n d ic a t e s , s p o r ts can p ro v id e m eaning f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t no m a tte r w hat h is le v e l o f a b i l i t y may b e , i t i s recommended t h a t th e e d u c a to r p ro v id e o p p o r tu n itie s f o r s p o r ts e x p e rie n c e s i I f o r s tu d e n ts who may n o t have th e a b i l i t y to p a r t i c i p a t e in V a r s ity program s. I ! I I t i s recommended t h a t th e e d u c a to r e v a lu a te p re s - i je n t a t h l e t i c program s in o rd e r t o d e term in e th e k in d s o f i e x p e rie n c e s t h a t su ch a c t i v i t i e s a r e a c t u a l l y p ro v id in g . The e x p e rie n c e s w hich any program p ro v id e s a r e , u n f o r tu n a te ly , dependent upon th e in d iv id u a ls in c h arg e o f th o se program s. E v a lu a tio n o f an a t h l e t i c program , t h e r e f o r e , i s p r im a r ily a n e v a lu a tio n o f th e a im s, a t t i t u d e s , and b e h a v io r o f c o a c h e s. W inning i s a n in h e re n t g o a l i n s p o r t . T his sh o u ld t be a g o a l o f co ach es a s w e ll a s a t h l e t e s , b u t i t sh o u ld n o t ibe th e s o le aim o f c o a c h e s. When th e p rim ary c o n s id e r a tio n I |o f th e coach i s th e w in -lo s s re c o rd th e program i s p ro b a b ly |becom ing d i s f u n c tio n a l. When th e w in -lo s s re c o rd i s th e 180 c o a c h ’s p rim ary c o n c e rn , th e n a t h l e t e s w i l l l i k e l y be i "used" in o rd e r to g a in o r m a in ta in a w inning re c o rd . When th e a t h l e t e i s " u s e d ," he i s b e in g robbed o f h is s u b je c t i v i t y and t h i s i s h ig h ly d is f u n c tio n a l in l i g h t o f e x i s t e n t i a l i s t e d u c a tio n a l a im s. When th e c o a c h 's prim e c o n s id e r a tio n i s t o p ro v id e th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r h e ig h te n e d aw areness o f s u b j e c t i v i t y th e n th e a t h l e t i c program becomes h ig h ly f u n c tio n a l edu c a t i o n a l l y and problem s o f overem phasis become m oot. I t i s I |a s u g g e s tio n o f t h i s stu d y t h a t a p ro p e rly c o n c e iv e d and j !a d m in is te re d a t h l e t i c program may be q u ite co n ce rn e d w ith w inning w ith o u t b e in g d e tr im e n ta l to th e in d iv id u a ls p a r- | t i c i p a t i n g in t h a t program . I t may w e ll be t h a t th o s e a t h l e t i c program s w hich have a s t h e i r u n d e rly in g em phasis th e e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e s d e s c rib e d e a r l i e r a r e th o s e w hich j a re c o n tin u a lly s u c c e s s f u l in term s o f w in -lo s s r e c o r d . A th le te s who a re s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r program s, who a re I e x p e rie n c in g h e ig h te n e d aw aren ess o f th em se lv e s may w e ll be |th o s e who d ev o te th em se lv e s m ost f u l l y to e x c e lle n c e o f p erfo rm an ce. Should a n e d u c a to r f in d t h a t th e u n d e rly in g co n cern [ o f th e a t h l e t i c program w ith in h is sc h o o l i s th e w in -lo s s ! 181 |r e c o r d and t h a t , a s a r e s u l t , th e a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d i n th e j program a re b e in g " u s e d ," th e n th e e d u c a to r sh o u ld f e e l i o b lig a te d to ta k e s te p s to c o r r e c t th e s i t u a t i o n . The d i f f i c u l t i e s in m aking su ch a d e te rm in a tio n a re o b v io u s. A w inning r e c o rd i s a c t u a l l y no more i n d ic a tiv e o f th e q u a l i t y o f th e a t h l e t i c program th a n a lo s in g one. Iterhaps th e number o f a t h l e t e s se e k in g th e o p p o rtu n ity to p a r t i c i - i p a te in s p o r ts i s a n im p o rta n t b a s is f o r e v a lu a tio n . A program w hich i s g e n e ra tin g in te n s e s u b je c tiv e e x p e rie n c e s i s a n a t t r a c t i v e program and w i l l p ro b a b ly a t t r a c t a la r g e j i ' p e rc e n ta g e o f th e m ale s tu d e n t body o f a s c h o o l. I f a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f a t h l e t e s a r e q u i t t i n g th e a t h l e t i c program th e n th e program i s p ro b a b ly n o t p ro v id in g e x p e r i en ces t h a t th e y f in d m e a n in g fu l, so t h a t t h i s i s a ls o a p o s s ib le means o f e v a lu a tin g th e a t h l e t i c program o f a s c h o o l. The m ajo r p a r t o f th e e v a lu a tio n o f an a t h l e t i c program i s u n f o r tu n a te ly s u b je c tiv e and w i l l depend upon th e e d u c a to r 's own s k i l l and i n s i g h t. | I t w ould seem n e c e s s a ry f o r e d u c a to rs t o d e term in e ! p h ilo s o p h ic a lly and even p s y c h o lo g ic a lly th e n a tu re o f th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s w hich a r e p ro v id e d by a l l o f th e v a rio u s a c t i v i t i e s o f th e s c h o o ls . Such a n e v a lu a tio n | 182 lwould a llo w e d u c a to rs t o m odify o r e lim in a te u n d e s ira b le j ' ! e x is ti n g program s and c r e a te new a c t i v i t i e s in o rd e r to I g e n e ra te e x p e rie n c e s b e t t e r w hich a r e o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e . I j I f e d u c a tio n a l program s a r e b ased in sound p h ilo - j ! s o p h ic a l c o n c e p ts th e y may a ls o be b e t t e r defended from j j i |i r r e s p o n s i b le c r i t i c i s m . The c u r r e n t a tta c k s made upon th e I Fam ily L ife and Sex E d u ca tio n program s i n th e s c h o o ls may g a in added s tr e n g th from a la c k o f aw aren ess on th e p a r t o f je d u c a to rs o f th e p h ilo s o p h ic and e d u c a tio n a l b a s is f o r su ch | | program s. Any program w hich i s n o t d efen d ed from a sound | p h ilo s o p h ic o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l p o in t o f v iew w ould seem to be a t th e m ercy o f th o se who f e e l f r e e t o make a l l m anner o f i r r e s p o n s ib le c h a rg e s . A program w hich c an n o t be defended from a sound p h ilo s o p h ic p o in t o f view i s o f q u e s tio n a b le lvalue and p ro b a b ly sh o u ld be e lim in a te d from th e c u rric u lu m . ! Recommendations f o r F u rth e r R esearch There a r e many a c t i v i t i e s p ro v id e d by th e m odem sc h o o l w hich seem to be in n eed o f p h ilo s o p h ic a n a l y s i s . The need i s t o d e te rm in e th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s t h a t ith e se a c t i v i t i e s a r e o r m ight be p ro v id in g and th e n t o I d e term in e w h e th er th e s e e x p e rie n c e s a r e o f e d u c a tio n a l j 183 i v a lu e . I t i s recommended, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s tu d ie s be , u n d e rta k e n to e v a lu a te th e program s w hich th e s c h o o ls a r e I m aking a v a ila b le to s tu d e n ts . I t i s a ls o recommended t h a t o th e r a c t i v i t i e s w hich j t ! a r e n o rm ally c o n s id e re d o u ts id e th e rea lm o f th e sc h o o ls j j j be in v e s tig a te d to d e te rm in e i f th e s e a c t i v i t i e s m ight be i o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e . I f , f o r exam ple, a c t i v i t i e s su c h a s j s e n s i t i v i t y t r a i n i n g w ere d e te rm in e d to be o f e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e th e n i t may be t h a t su ch a c t i v i t i e s w ould m e rit in - I e lu s io n w ith in th e c u r r i c u l a r o f f e r in g s o f th e s c h o o l. j T y p ic a l c la ssro o m a c t i v i t i e s th em se lv e s seem in | i i need o f a n a ly s is in o rd e r to d e te rm in e th e k in d s o f ex** 1 i I p e rie n c e s t h a t th e s e program s a re p ro v id in g . S tu d ie s |i n v e s ti g a ti n g th e e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s p ro v id ed i n a ! I t y p i c a l h i s t o r y c l a s s , f o r exam ple, m ight r e s u l t in s u r - I p r is in g r e v is io n s in m ethod and a p p ro a ch . A ll m anner o f s o c i a l r e l a ti o n s h i p s and a c t i v i t i e s m ight be in v e s tig a te d by th e m ethods d ev elo p ed f o r th e |p r e s e n t s tu d y . The p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e e n d le s s . S tandards i i jm ight be developed so t h a t th e k in d s o f e x p e rie n c e s w hich I many human a c t i v i t i e s m ight g e n e ra te can be d e te rm in e d and j even m easured. Such d e v ic e s w ould prove in v a lu a b le j 184 | n o t o n ly in th e sc h o o ls b u t in su ch v a r ie d a re a s a s i n d u s try and p e r s o n a lity c o u n s e lin g . i The problem i n r e g a r d t o phenom enological a n a l y s i s , |e s p e c i a l l y on a la rg e s c a l e , i s a problem o f m ethodology. Too o f te n t h in k e r s , no m a tte r t h e i r p h ilo s o p h ic p o s i t io n , make s ta te m e n ts and p ro v id e a n a ly s is o f v a rio u s phenomena b u t do n o t fo llo w t h e i r s ta te m e n ts w ith " in th e f i e l d " v e r i f i c a t i o n . I t i s one th in g , f o r exam ple, to sa y t h a t s p o r ts b u ild s m o ral c h a r a c te r , b u t i t i s q u ite a n o th e r to | | d e fin e w hat i s m eant by m o ral c h a r a c te r and s t i l l a n o th e r to d eterm in e i f in f a c t s p o r t does g e n e ra te su ch v i r t u e s , j I f phenom enological a n a ly s is i s c o n s id e re d m e a n in g fu l, th e n th e d e v ic e s and te c h n iq u e s need to be developed by w hich i |su ch in v e s tig a tio n s can be made w ith g r e a t e r e f f i c ie n c y , j The need i s f o r d e v ic e s , f o r te c h n iq u e s by w hich phenom enological a n a ly s is can be made. Once i t i s p o s s ib le to d e term in e th e n a tu r e o f v a rio u s e x p e rie n c e s , th e n i t w ould be a r e l a t i v e l y sim p le m a tte r t o e s t a b l i s h s ta n d a rd s by w hich to d e te rm in e th e q u a li t y o f th o s e e x p e rie n c e s . The p h ilo s o p h ic a n a ly s is t h a t was done f o r th e p re s e n t |stu d y i s somewhat u n iq u e in t h a t i t d e a lt w ith s p o r t s , b u t i t was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y u n iq u e in term s o f th e k in d s o f ; 185 i | in v e s tig a tio n s t h a t e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h e rs have done and ; a re d o in g . The su rv e y t h a t was developed and c a r r i e d o u t f o r th e p re s e n t s tu d y , how ever, r e p r e s e n ts a c ru d e b e g in - ! n in g d ir e c te d tow ard th e developm ent o f more s o p h is tic a te d ; d e v ic e s and te c h n iq u e s by w hich phenom enological a n a ly s is j I i can be c a r r i e d o u t on a la r g e s c a l e . | ! I t i s s tr o n g ly recommended, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t r e s e a rc h be d ir e c te d tow ard th e developm ent o f d e v ic e s and te c h n iq u e s by w hich phenom enological a n a ly s is can be e f f i c i e n t l y done on a la rg e s c a l e . F ollow ing t h i s , i t i s |recommended t h a t s ta n d a rd s be dev elo p ed by w hich th e l 'q u a li t y o f p a r t i c u l a r e x p e rie n c e s m ig ht be d e te rm in e d . APPENDIX 186 APPENDIX ! i i Survey Data | The d a ta d e riv e d from th e su rv e y a r e p re s e n te d below . In re a d in g th e t a b l e s , fb and gc a r e , r e s p e c t iv e ly , column t i t l e s f o r th e f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try a t h l e t i c |q u e s tio n n a ir e s . F b -c la and x c -c la a r e , r e s p e c t iv e ly , column i t i t l e s f o r th e f o o t b a l l and c ro s s c o u n try c la ssro o m q u e s t io n n a i r e s . Y and N r e p r e s e n t "Yes" and "No" answ ers f o r ith e p a r t i c u l a r item s w hich te n d to su p p o rt th e p a r t i c u l a r elem ent b e in g c o n s id e re d . Where th e r e was no " p re f e r re d " re s p o n se , Y o r N was n o t p ro v id e d . ] ' The Y o r N, th e n , r e p r e s e n t w hat m ight be c a lle d th e " c o r r e c t" answ er to a p a r t i c u l a r ite m . The number r e p r e s e n ts th e a c t u a l number o f re sp o n se s o f th e a t h l e t e s in v o lv e d in th e stu d y w hich ten d e d to su p p o rt th e elem ent i 1 under c o n s id e r a tio n . The p e rc e n ta g e r e p r e s e n ts a c o n v e r s io n o f th e number o f " c o r r e c t" re s p o n s e s . These p e r c e n ta g e s w ere rounded o f f to th e n e a r e s t f u l l p e rc e n ta g e ! 188 I i p o in t. The l a s t colum n in each ta b le in d ic a te s th e le v e l o f s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e (0 .0 0 0 , .0 5 , .0 1 , and .0 0 1 ) i i when re sp o n se s a r e com pared. i O ppenheim 's monograph (5 0 :2 8 7 -2 9 2 ) was used in d e te rm in in g le v e ls o f s ig n if ic a n c e . O ppenheim 's m onograph, j a s in d ic a te d e a r l i e r , te n d s to be somewhat in a c c u r a te a t | th e extrem e u p p er and low er l im i ts (5 0 :2 8 8 ), so t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e s , when th e y o c c u r, may n o t be a s s i g n i f i c a n t a s I th e y may a p p e a r. I I A s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e o f .05 w ould mean t h a t I in f iv e in s ta n c e s o u t o f a hundred, th e d if f e r e n c e m ight i o ccu r by c h an c e, and c o n v e rs e ly , in n i n e t y - f iv e in s ta n c e s !out o f one hundred th e d if f e r e n c e s e n c o u n te re d w ould n o t i |o c c u r by ch an ce. S ig n ific a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e a t th e .01 !le v e l w ould in d ic a te t h a t th e chances a r e one in one hundred t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e s o c cu r by ch an ce. By th e same to k e n , a s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e a t th e .001 le v e l w ould mean t h a t in o n ly one c a se o u t o f one th o u san d w ould th e j d if f e r e n c e o ccu r by c h an c e. A s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e a t th e .000 l e v e l, how ever, does n o t in d ic a te t h a t th e d i f fe re n c e c o u ld n o t o ccu r by c h an c e, o r t h a t th e r e w ould be |no in s ta n c e w here th e d if f e r e n c e w ould be le s s o r g r e a t e r . 189 S ig n ific a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e a t th e .000 le v e l means t h a t by ; c h an ce, th e p a r t i c u l a r d if f e r e n c e s in v o lv e d v o u ld o ccu r by chance in more th a n one o u t o f f iv e o u t o f one hundred c a s e s , and t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e in d ic a te d i s n o t s t a t i s t ! - | ! ! c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . I ; I | The ta b l e s a r e p re s e n te d in th e fo llo w in g o r d e r : j Table 1 - - f o o tb a l l (fb ) v s . c ro s s c o u n try ( x c ). j i Table 2 — f o o t b a l l ( f b ) v s . f o o t b a l l c la ssro o m | (f b - c l a ). | i j T able 3 - - c r o s s c o u n try (x c ) v s . c ro s s c o u n try i c la ssro o m ( x c - c l a ). i T able 4 - - f o o t b a l l ( f b ) p lu s c ro s s c o u n try (x c ) v s . c ro s s c o u n try c la ssro o m (x c - c l a ) p lu s f o o tb a ll c la ssro o m ( f b - c l a ). 1 — ■ ■ ■ ■ fb FOOTBALL % TABLE 1 v s . CROSS xc COUNTRY % 190 ■ S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe re n c e 1. N 26 87 N 15 83 0.000 2 . N 14 47 N 18 100 0.001 3 . Y 27 90 Y 15 83 0.001 4 . N 13 43 N 10 56 0 .000 5 . Y 21 70 Y 9 50 0.000 6. N 20 67 N 9 50 0.000 7. Y 22 73 Y 13 73 0.000 8. N 21 70 N 11 61 0.000 9. N 17 60 N 3 17 .. 0.010 10. Y 15 50 Y 15 83 0.000 11. Y 7 23 Y 15 83 0.001 12. Y 18 60 Y 9 50 0.000 13. N 20 67 N 15 83 0.000 14. Y 29 97 Y 18 100 0.000 15. N 27 90 N 18 100 0.000 16. Y 26 87 Y 13 72 0.000 17. N 27 90 N 12 67 0.050 18. Y 23 77 Y 10 57 0.000 19. Y 18 60 Y 9 50 0.000 20. Y 27 90 Y 16 89 0.000 21. N 15 50 N 13 72 0.000 22. N 29 97 N 16 89 0.000 23. Y 30 100 Y 14 78 0.050 24. Y 14 47 Y 15 83 0.010 25. Y 21 70 Y 2 11 0.001 2 6 . Y 30 100 Y 15 83 0 .000 2 7 . N 18 60 N 15 83 0.000 2 8 . Y 27 90 Y 12 67 0.000 2 9 . Y 27 90 Y 13 72 0.000 3 0 . Y 21 70 Y 12 67 0.000 31. N 27 90 N 18 100 0.000 32. Y 26 87 Y 15 83 0 .000 33. N 24 80 N 15 83 0.000 34. N 15 50 N 7 39 0.000 35. Y 7 23 Y 0 0 0.000 T A B L E 1 --C o n tin u ed O N < u o < U c U < d c o o > O O r-l •H (M p O O O < 4 - 1 O 0 ) o o o n-l • • • e < W o o o 0 0 t-l •H a C O < S | o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r ^ c o f n o O f o o o c o o o c o o o N O O c n O t n O N O m m N o o o c o m m o o o m o o m o o o o o v o o o o o o o o o i-io c n c o i— I r— t r— I H r l t — I « — I i— I NinvooiOMoOOMnONOOinoooocvjOOoOinoOinoomoovOto r-l iH r— I H H r l H H H r l H H H H H o o o n c n i ^ o r ^ o o o c n r ^ r ^ r v . o o r ^ v o O Q r ^ r ^ . r ^ o P ^ O O O N C O c O O O O N O O O N O N O O O N ^ O N O O O O O N O N w c M O N r ^ v O H^NtnONOONOONOOvDO'tnfN^VOONN'd'OOONPlOO N N N N r-l CMCOCOCNICMCMCOJCMCMCMCMCNJCNICNJ N N H • • • • • vONflOONOHMn^invOr^OOOiOHN(»)^invOrsOOO»0 M n n r r)v t'd , >^<t-<^vj>j'<fNt^}-inininuNUNiniriininin'0 . TABLE 2 | FOOTBALL v s . FOOTBALL CLASSROOM S ig n ific a n c e | fb % f b - c l a % o f j ________________________________________ D iffe re n c e 1. N 26 87 N 4 14 0.001 2 . N 14 47 Y 16 53 0 .0 0 0 i 3 . Y 27 90 Y 27 90 0.000 4 . N 13 43 Y 24 80 0.010 5 . Y 21 70 Y 21 70 0.000 6. N 20 67 N 9 30 0.010 7. Y 22 73 Y 18 60 0.000 8. N 21 70 Y 21 70 0.000 9. N 17 60 N 18 60 0.000 ! 10. Y 15 50 Y 15 50 0.000 I 11. Y 7 23 Y 12 40 0.000 12. Y 18 60 Y 7 13 0 .010 13. N 20 67 N 16 53 0.050 14. Y 27 90 Y 27 90 0.000 15. N 27 90 N 27 90 0.000 16. Y 26 87 Y 9 30 0.001 17. N 27 90 N 9 30 0.001 18. Y 23 77 Y 6 20 0.001 19. Y 18 60 Y 14 47 0.000 20. Y 27 90 Y 21 70 0.000 21. N 15 50 N 18 60 0.000 2 2. N 29 97 N 21 70 0.010 23. Y 30 100 Y 23 77 0.010 24. Y 14 47 Y 20 67 0.0 0 0 25. Y 21 70 Y 13 43 0 .0 0 0 26. Y 30 100 Y 14 47 0 .001 27. N 18 60 N 15 50 0 .000 28. Y 27 90 Y 18 60 0.010 2 9. Y 27 90 Y 19 63 0 .0 1 0 30. Y 21 70 Y 9 30 0.010 31. N 27 90 N 29 97 0 .000 32. Y 26 87 Y 27 90 0 .000 33. N 24 80 N 26 87 0.000 34. N 15 50 N 16 53 0 .0 0 0 35. Y 7 23 Y 5 17 0 .000 TABLE 2 - -C o n tin u ed % 193 i £b % f b - c la S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe re n c e 36. Y 21 70 Y 13 43 0 .000 37. Y 24 80 N 3 10 0.001 138. Y 27 90 Y 15 50 0.010 39. Y 25 83 Y 17 57 0.000 40. Y 10 33 Y 18 60 0.000 41. Y 2 07 Y 14 47 0 .0 1 0 42. N 0 00 N 6 20 0.050 43. Y 29 97 Y 17 57 0.001 44. N 30 100 N 26 87 0.000 45. N 30 100 N 27 90 0.000 46. Y 27 90 Y 26 87 0.000 47. N 28 93 N 29 97 0.000 i 48. N 26 87 N 23 77 0 .0 0 0 49. Y 29 97 Y 24 80 0.000 50. Y 23 77 Y 17 57 0 .0 0 0 51. Y 27 90 Y 9 30 0.001 52. N 24 80 N 6 20 0.001 | 53. Y 26 87 Y 15 50 0.010 ! 54. N 27 90 N 23 77 0.001 55. N 27 90 N 27 90 0.000 56. Y 24 80 Y 20 67 0.000 57. Y 8 27 Y 3 10 0.000 58. N 29 97 N 30 100 0.000 59. Y 23 77 Y 26 87 0.000 60. Y 18 60 Y 11 37 0.000 194 TABLE 3 CROSS COUNTRY v s . CROSS COUNTRY CLASSROOM S ig n ific a n c e xc % x c -c la % o f D iffe re i 1. N 15 83 N 6 33 0 .010 2. Y 15 83 Y 12 67 0.010 3. Y 15 83 Y 18 100 0.000 i 4 . N 10 56 Y 15 83 0,000 5 . Y 9 50 Y 12 67 0.000 i 6. N 9 50 N 15 83 0.050 7. Y 13 72 Y 3 17 0.001 8. N 11 61 Y 14 78 0.000 9. N 3 17 N 6 33 0.000 10. Y 15 83 Y 12 67 0.000 11. Y 15 83 Y 6 33 0.001 12. Y 9 50 Y 3 17 0.050 13. N 15 83 N 11 61 0.050 14. Y 18 100 Y 9 50 0.001 15. N 18 100 N 7 37 0.001 16. Y 12 67 Y 3 17 0.010 17. N 12 67 N 3 17 0.010 18. Y 10 56 Y 5 28 0 .0 0 0 19. Y 9 50 Y 9 50 0.000 20. Y 16 89 Y 18 100 0.000 21. N 13 72 N 12 67 0.000 22. N 16 89 N 12 67 0.000 23. Y 14 78 Y 10 58 0.000 24. Y 15 83 N 11 61 0.000 25. Y 2 11 Y 9 50 0 .010 26. Y 15 83 Y 12 67 0 .0 0 0 27. N 15 83 N 3 17 0 .0 0 1 28. Y 12 67 Y 3 17 0 .001 29. Y 13 72 Y 10 56 0 .0 0 0 30. Y 12 67 Y 6 33 0 .0 5 0 31. N 18 100 N 18 100 0.000 32. Y 15 83 Y 12 67 0.0 0 0 33. N 15 83 N 18 100 0.050 34. N 7 39 N 9 50 0.000 35. Y 0 00 Y 3 17 0.000 195 TABLE 3— Continued S ig n ific a n c e i xc % x c - c la % o f D iffe re n c e 1 j 36. Y 12 67 Y 9 50 0 .000 37. Y 15 83 N 7 39 0 .010 138. Y 6 33 Y 13 72 0 .050 ! 39. Y 9 50 Y 10 56 0 .0 0 0 4 0 . Y 9 50 Y 3 17 0 .050 41. Y 15 83 Y 9 50 0.050 |42. N 0 00 N 3 17 0 .000 ! 43. Y 9 50 Y 9 50 0 .000 44. N 15 83 N 15 83 0 .0 0 0 4 5. N 9 50 N 9 50 0 .000 4 6 . Y 18 100 Y 18 100 0.000 4 7 . N 15 83 N 18 100 0 .000 48. N 18 100 N 12 67 0 .0 0 0 49. Y 18 100 Y 13 72 0 .010 50. Y 12 67 Y 9 50 0 .000 51. N 18 100 Y 0 00 0 .001 52. N 18 100 N 6 33 0 .0 0 1 53. Y 15 83 Y 6 33 0 .0 0 1 54. N 18 100 N 15 83 0 .050 55. N 15 83 N 18 100 0.050 56. Y 18 100 Y 12 67 0.010 57. Y 3 17 Y 3 17 0 .0 0 0 58. N 18 100 N 16 89 0 .000 59. Y 6 33 Y 15 83 0 .010 60. Y 6 33 Y 8 44 0 .000 196 TABLE 4 FOOTBALL AND CROSS COUNTRY v s . FOOTBALL CLASSROOM AND CROSS COUNTRY CLASSROOM fb f b - c l a S ig n ific a n c e and % and % o f xc x c - c la D iffe re n c e 1. N 41 86 N 10 21 0 .0 0 1 2. N 32 33 Y 28 58 0 .0 0 0 3 . Y 42 87 Y 45 96 0 .000 4 . N 23 48 Y 36 75 0 .0 1 0 5 . Y 30 83 Y 33 69 0 .0 0 0 6. N 29 60 N 24 50 0 .0 0 0 7. Y 35 73 Y 21 44 0 .0 1 0 8. N 32 67 Y 35 73 0 .0 0 0 9 . N 20 42 N 24 50 0 .0 0 0 10. Y 30 63 Y 28 58 0 .0 0 0 11. Y 22 45 Y 18 48 0 .0 0 0 12. Y 27 56 Y 10 21 0 .001 13. N 35 73 N 27 56 0 .0 0 0 14. N 47 98 Y 36 75 0 .0 0 1 15. N 45 94 N 34 71 0 .010 16. Y 39 81 Y 12 25 0 .0 0 1 17. N 39 81 N 12 25 0 .001 18. Y 33 69 Y 11 23 0 .0 0 1 19. Y 27 56 Y 23 48 0 .0 0 0 2 0 . Y 43 90 Y 39 81 0.000 21. N 28 59 N 40 83 0 .000 22. N 45 94 N 33 69 0 .010 23. Y 44 92 Y 33 69 0 .0 1 0 2 4 . Y 29 60 Y 31 65 0 .0 0 0 2 5 . Y 23 48 Y 22 45 0 .0 0 0 2 6 . Y 45 94 Y 26 54 0 .0 0 1 2 7. N 33 69 N 18 37 0 .0 1 0 2 8 . Y 39 81 Y 21 43 0 .010 2 9. Y 42 88 Y 29 60 0 .010 3 0 . Y 33 69 Y 15 31 0 .0 0 1 31. N 45 94 N 45 94 0 .0 0 0 3 2. Y 41 85 Y 39 81 0 .0 0 0 3 3. N 39 81 N 44 92 0 .0 0 0 3 4. N 22 45 N 25 53 0 .0 0 0 3 5. Y 7 15 Y 8 17 0 .000 ! TABLE 4— C ontinued % 197 fb and xc 7 o f b - c la and x c -c la S ig n ific a n c e o f D iffe re n c e 36. Y 33 69 Y 22 45 0.050 1 37. Y 39 81 Y 10 21 0 .0 0 1 38. Y 33 69 Y 28 58 0.000 39. Y 34 71 Y 27 56 0 .0 0 0 40. Y 19 40 Y 21 43 0 .0 0 0 41. Y 17 35 Y 23 48 0.050 42. N 0 00 N 9 18 0 .050 43. Y 38 79 Y 26 54 • 0 .0 5 0 44. N 45 94 N 41 85 0.000 45. N 39 81 N 38 79 0 .0 0 0 46. Y 45 94 Y 44 92 0 .000 47. N 43 90 N 47 98 0.000 48. N 44 92 N 35 73 0 .0 5 0 49. Y 47 98 Y 37 78 0.050 50. Y 35 73 Y 26 54 0 .0 5 0 51. N 45 94 Y 9 18 0.001 52. N 42 88 Y 36 75 0 .0 0 0 53. Y 41 85 Y 21 43 0.001 54. N 47 98 N 38 79 0.010 55. N 42 88 N 45 94 0.000 56. Y 42 88 Y 32 67 0 .0 5 0 57. Y 11 23 Y 6 13 0.000 58. N 29 60 N 46 96 0 .000 59. Y 29 60 Y 41 85 0.010 60. Y 24 50 Y 19 40 0.000 ■ BIBLIOGRAPHY r i BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. A rd le y , R o b e rt. The T e r r i t o r i a l Im p e ra tiv e . New York: D e lta R ib lis h in g C o ., 1966. 2 . B a r re t, W illiam . I r r a t i o n a l Man: A Study in E x is te n t i a l P h ilo so p h y . G arden C ity , N.Y. : Doubleday and Company, 1962. 3 . B a y le s, E rn e st E. Pragm atism i n E d u c a tio n . New York: H arper and Row, 1966. 4 . B e rn s te in , Abraham. The E d u ca tio n o f Urban Popula t i o n s . New York: Random House, 1967. 5 . B e rto c c i, R ater A. E d u catio n an d th e V isio n o f E x c e lle n c e . B oston: B oston U h iv e rs ity P re ss, 1960. 6. _________ . I n tr o d u c tio n t o th e P hilosophy o f R e lig io n . Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.: f r e n t i c e H a ll, 1967. 7. . "N orm ative U n iv e rs a lis m ." U npublished l e c tu r e , B oston U h iv e rs ity , 1965. 8. Blackham, H. J . , e d . R e a lity . Man and E x is te n c e : E s s e n tia l Works o f E x is te n tia lis m . New Y ork: Bantam Books, 1965. 9 . B rightm an, Edgar S h e f f ie ld . Iterson and R e a l it y : An I n tro d u c tio n to M e ta p h y sic s. Ed. Ite te r A. B e rto c c i. New York: The Ronald P re ss, 1958. 10. B rin to n , C rane. N ie tz s c h e . New York: H arper and Row, 1941. 11. B rubacher, John S ., an d Rudy, W i l l i s . H igher Educa t i o n in T r a n s itio n : An American H is to ry . 1636- 1956. New York: H arper an d Row, 1958. 199 200 | 12. B u tle r, J . D onald. Id e a lism in E d u c a tio n . New York: H arper and Row, 1966. 13. Dewey, John. A rt and E d u c a tio n . Rahway, N.J.: ' The B arnes F o u n d atio n P re s s , 1929. i j 14. ________ . A rt a s E x p e rie n c e . New York: M inton-B alch ! an d C o., 1934. | | 15 . ________ . E xperience and E d u c a tio n . New Y ork: C o llie r Books, 1938. 16. F a rb e r, M arvin. Hienomenology and E x is te n c e : Toward a P hilosophy in N a tu re . New York: H arper and Row, 1967. 17. F ra g e r, R o b e rt. "The Psychology o f th e S am u rai," Psychology Today. I I (Ja n u a ry , 19 6 9 ), 4 8 -5 3 . 18. Fromm, E ric h . Escape from Freedom. New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt and W inston, 1941. 19. G en asci, James E ., and K L issouras, V a s i l l i s . "The D elphic S p i r i t in S p o rt," J o u rn a l o f H e a lth . P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n , and R e c re a tio n . XXXVII (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 6 6 ), 4 3 -4 5 . 2 0 . H a ll, Edward T. The S ile n t la n g u a g e . G reenw ich, C onn.: F aw cett A ib lic a tio n s , I n c ., 1959. 2 1 . H arper, R alph. " S ig n ific a n c e o f E x is te n c e and Recog n i t i o n o f E d u c a tio n ," Modern P h ilo s o p h ie s . 5 4 th Yearbook o f th e N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e Study o f E d u catio n , E hrt I . Ed. N. B. Henry. C hicago: N a tio n a l S o c ie ty f o r th e Study o f E d u c a tio n , 1955. 2 2 . H eid eg g er, M a rtin . An In tr o d u c tio n to M e ta p h y sic s. T r. R alph Manheim. Garden C ity , N.Y. : Doubleday and C o., 1966. 2 3 . Henry, J u le s . C u ltu re A g a in st Man. New York: Random House, 1963. I 201 I 2 4. H e rrig e l, Eugen. Zen. T r. R. F. C. H u ll. New York: McGraw H i l l Company, 1964. 25. H ick erso n , N a th a n ie l. E d u catio n f o r A lie n a tio n . Ehglewood C l i f f s , N.J.: f r e n t i c e H a ll, I n c ., 1966. 26. Hook, S idney. E d u catio n f o r Modern Man: A New P e rs p e c tiv e . New York: A lfre d A. fciopf, 1966. ! 27. H u izin g a, Johan. Homo L udens: A Study o f th e Plav Element i n C u ltu re . B oston: Beacon P re ss, 1950. 2 8 . K atz, Josep h ; N o c h lin , P h ilip ; and S to v e r, R o b ert, e d s . W rite rs on E th ic s C la s s ic and C ontem porary. R rin c e to n , N. J . : D. Van N o stran d and Company, I n c ., 1964. 29. Kaufman, W a lte r. N ie tz s c h e : P h ilo so p h e r. Psycholo g i s t . A n t i c h r i s t . New York: The W orld R ib lis h in g C o., 1950. 30. K ierk eg aard , S. E ith e r /O r . G arden C ity , N.Y. : Doubleday and Company, I n c ., 1959. V ol. I. 31. ____. E ith e r /O r . G arden C ity , N.Y. : Doubleday and Company, I n c ., 1959. V ol. I I . 32. K n e lle r, George F. E x is te n tia lis m and E d u c a tio n . New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c ., 1958. 33. Krug, Edward A. The Secondary School C u rricu lu m . New York: H arper and B ro th e rs , 1960. 34. L anger, Susanne K. H iilo so p h v in a New Kiev. New York: New A m erican L ib ra ry , 1951. 35. Loy, John W., J r . , and Kenyon, G e rald S ., e d s . S p o rt. C u ltu re and S o c ie ty : A R eader on th e S o cio lo ev o f S p o rt. T o ro n to : The M acm illan Company, 1969. 36. M arcel, G. Man A g a in st Mass S o c ie ty . C hicago: Henry R egnery C o., 1952. | 202 37. M arcel, G. M e tap h y sic al J o u r n a l. T r. B ernard W all. C hicago: Henry R egnery C o., 1952. 38. M a rita in , Ja c q u e s. E x iste n c e and th e E x is te n t. E n g lish v e r s io n by Lewis G a la n tie re and G erald B. P helan. New York: Random House, 1966. 39. Mason, R u s s e ll. I n te r n a l Ite rc e p tio n and B odily F u n c tio n in g . New York: I n t e r n a ti o n a l U n iv e r s itie s A reas, I n c ., 1961. ! 40 . M erleau -B o n ty , M aurice. In ftra ise o f H iilo so p h v . E v an sto n , 1 1 1 .: N o rth w estern U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1963. 41* . thenom enology o f P e rc e p tio n . New York: The H um anities f r e s s , 1962. 42. _________ . Sense and N on-S ense. E vanston, 1 1 1 . : N o rth w e stern I f a iv e r s ity P re s s , 1964. 43. M etheny, E le a n o r. C o n n o tatio n s o f Movement in S port ' and Dance. Dubuque, Iowa: W m . C. Brown Co., 1965. i 44. _________ . Movement and M eaning. New Y ork: McGraw- H ill Book C o., 1968. 45. Morgan, George A. What N ie tz sc h e M eans. New York: H arper and Row, 1941. 46. M o rris, Van C leve. E x is te n tia lis m in E d u c a tio n : What I t M eans. New York: H arper and Row, 1966. 47. N e i l l , A. S. S u m n e rh ill: A R a d ic a l Approach t o C h ild R e a rin g . New York: H art R ib lis h in g Company, 1960. 48. N ie tz sc h e , F r ie d r ic h . The H iilo so p h v o f N ie tz s c h e , j New York: The Modern L ib ra ry , 1954. I 4 9 . O 'N e ill, W illiam F rank. " Je a n -B a u l S a r t r e 's Concept o f Freedom and I t s Im p lic a tio n s f o r E d u c a tio n ." U npublished D o c to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U h iv e rs ity o f i S outhern C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g eles, 1958. | 203 [50. Oppenheim, A. N. Q u e stio n n a ire D esign an d A ttitu d e M easurem ent. New York: B asic Books, I n c ., 1966. 51. Raven, J . E ., and K irk , G. S. The R re -S o c ra tic P h ilo s o p h e rs : A C r i t i c a l H is to ry w ith a S e le c tio n I o f T e x ts . C am bridge: Cambridge U n iv e rs ity P re ss, ! 1964. I 52. Rugg, H aro ld . Im a e in a tio n . New York: H arper and Row, 1961. i 53. R unes, D agobert D. D ic tio n a ry o f H iilo so p h v . P a tte rs o n , N.J.: L i t t l e f i e l d , Adams an d C o., | 1961. 54. S a r t r e , Je a n -B a u l. Being and N o th in e n e s s . T r. H azel E. B arn es. New York: W ashington Square f r e s s , 1952. I 7 i 55. . E ssays in A e s th e tic s . S e le c te d and t r a n s l a t e d by Wade B askin. New York: C ita d e l | P re ss, 1966. ; 56. . S i t u a t i o n s . T r. B en ita E is l e r . G reenw ich, { C o n n .: F aw cett B ib lic a tio n s , 1962. 57. Shaw, O tto L. Youth in C r i s i s : A R a d ic a l A pproach t o D elin q u en cy . New York: H art P u b lish in g C o., 1966. 58. S h e e ts , M axine. The Phenomenology o f Dance. M adison, W is. : The U n iv e rs ity ftress, 1966. 59. S lu s h e r, Howard S. Man. S p o rt, and E x is te n c e : A C r i t i c a l A n a ly s is . P h ila d e lp h ia , Ba.: Lea and F e b ig e r, 1967. 60. S m ith, A nthony. The Body. New York: W alker and C o., 1968. 61. S t o r r , A nthony. Human A g g re ssio n . New York: Atheneum, 1968. 204 62. S tro u p , E. "The E x tr a - A c tiv itie s C u rricu lu m : What S tu d en t Needs Must Be M et?" L ib e r a l E d u c a tio n . P ro ceed in g s o f th e 5 3 rd A nnual M eeting o f th e A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erican C o lle g e s . W ashington, D.C.: A s s o c ia tio n o f A m erican C o lle g e s , 1967. L I I I , 3 3 -4 0 . 63. S uzuki, D. T. An I n tr o d u c tio n to Zen Buddhism. New York: Grove P re s s , I n c ., 1964. 64. Thomson, R a tr ic ia L o u ise. " O n to lo g ic a l T ru th in S p o rt: A H ienom enological A n a ly s is ." U npublished D o c to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U h iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e les, 1967. 65. T yner, G lo ria . " S p o rt and B eing: An A p p lic a tio n o f C e rta in C oncepts D eveloped by V ik to r F r a n k l." U npublished ( f e s t e r 's t h e s i s , U h iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e les, 1968. 66. W hitehead, A lfre d N o rth . The Aims o f E d u ca tio n and O ther E s s a v s . New York: The M acm illan Co., 1929. 67. Z e ig le r , E a rle F. P h ilo s o p h ic a l F o u n d atio n s f o r P h y s ic a l. H e a lth , and R e c re a tio n a l E d u c a tio n . Englewood C l i f f s , N.J.: P re n tic e H a ll, 1964.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

An Instrument For The Measurement Of Cognation: The Cognition Of Social Interaction

PDF

A Study Of California History Knowledge Possessed By High School Seniors Compared With Adults

PDF

The Characteristics Of Successful School Superintendents

PDF

Application Of A Reading Model To The Reading Syllabi Of The Ten Largest United States Secondary School Districts

PDF

The Influence Of Introductory Experiences On The Cognitive And Affective Outcomes Of Linear Programed Instruction

PDF

The Appropriateness Of Field And Level Of Vocational Choice As Related Toself-Concepts, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

PDF

A Study Of Pupil Participation In A Church-Related School

PDF

Fringe Benefits For Classified Employees Of Large-City School Districts

PDF

The Concept Of The Authentic Individual And Its Implications For Buildinga Framework For An Existential Philosophy Of Education

PDF

Some Apparent Results Of College Reading Improvement Programs Reconsidered In Terms Of The Method Of Measuring Improvement

PDF

The beliefs of educational philosophers in Philippine teacher-training institutions

PDF

Space Requirements Of The High School Administrative Unit

PDF

Lullabies Of The Western Hemisphere

PDF

Budgetary Administration In Privately Controlled California Liberal Arts Colleges And Independent Professional Schools

PDF

An Analysis Of The Philosophical Beliefs Implicit Within General Semantics And Their Relevance For Educational Theory

PDF

Demographic, Personal And Social System Variables In Labeling Children Aseducationally Handicapped

PDF

A Case Study Of A School District Undergoing Ethnic Change Of Its Citizencomposition

PDF

An Analysis Of Socio-Cultural Factors And Performance Of Primary Grade Children

PDF

The Effects Of Individual Counseling On Selected Groups Of Underachievingstudents With High Ability

PDF

Majority And Minority Americans: An Analysis Of Best Selling American Fiction From 1926-1966

Asset Metadata

Creator Gregg, Jearald Rex (author)

Core Title A Philosophical Analysis Of The Sports Experience And The Role Of Athletics In The Schools

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Brackenbury, Robert L. (committee chair), Hickerson, Nathaniel (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-455683

Unique identifier UC11363109

Identifier 7112389.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-455683 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7112389.pdf

Dmrecord 455683

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gregg, Jearald Rex

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA