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A Critical Analysis Of An Intercultural Institute For Personnel And Curriculum Development On India

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A Critical Analysis Of An Intercultural Institute For Personnel And Curriculum Development On India

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Content A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF AN INTERCULTURAL INSTITUTE FOR PERSONNEL AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ON INDIA by Vasisht Kumar Malhotra A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) February 1973 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at die upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 4SI O S Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73-18,826 MAMOTRA, Vasisht Kumar, 1936- A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF AN INTERCULHJRAL INSTITOTE FOR PERSONNEL AND CURRICULIM DEVELOMENT ON INDIA. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1973 Education, teacher training University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor. Michigan \ THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFLIMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, w ritten by vasisht ^ under the direction of h L s -- Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been presented to and accepted by T h e Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm en t of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y 7 - Dean D a te I . . . 1. 9 . 7 3 _ Chairman Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM........................ 1 Introduction Purpose of the Institute Statement of the Problem Research Procedures Limitations Delimitations Assumptions Definition of Critical Terms Major Phases of the Institute Organization of the Remaining Chapters II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE........................... 16 Cross-Cultural Contact Conceptual Approach to Social Studies Inquiry or Discovery Method III. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERCULTURAL INSTITUTE ON INDIA..............................46 Selection of Participants Pre-departure Orientation Field Experiences Post-field Training IV. ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF THE INTERCULTURAL INSTITUTE ON INDIA..............................76 Selection of Participants Pre-field Orientation Field Experiences Post-field Training V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 109 Summary Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 122 IX Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chapter Page APPENDIX I ..........................................133 APPENDIX I I ..........................................141 APPENDIX III..........................................145 APPENDIX I V ..........................................168 APPENDIX V .......................................... 230 ill Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CH:\PTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM India is the world's largest democracy with a popu lation of approximately five hundred and seventy million people. It possesses the world's oldest cultural traditions dating back over five thousand years. Yet most people in the United States have only a superficial know ledge about the Indian people and their culture. The major purpose in studying other cultures is to find out the ways in which various groups of human beings have organized their lives to answer the perennial questions of survival and fulfillment. To investigate other cultures, it is imperative that knowledge be com municated through pertinent experiences. Factual know ledge or facts in themselves are insufficient for inter- cultural comprehension. Cow worship in India is an illustrative example. The American view of the cow as a symbol is factually correct, but contextually false. The sacredness of Indian cows is associated in American minds with Indian religion and mythology. Yet nowhere in the Indian religious scriptures is the killing of cows speci fically prohibited. Why then is the cow regarded as sacred in India? Few Americans grasp the practical importance of cows - 1 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in non-industrialized countries such as India. A cow is a very useful animal. She gives milk and provides dung for fuel. She also reproduces cows and bulls. The young bulls, when castrated, become bullocks or oxen which are the main beasts of burden in rural India. Even in death the cow, bull and bullock provide skins for leather and bones for buttons. The origin of the cow's sacredness may lie not in her mere fertility, but in the productive and peaceful character of her life which can be viewed as a virtuous example for the human race. From this example it is evident that it is not mere facts or quantitative knowledge, but the contextual quality of ideas and feelings that illuminate the dynamics of culture. Cross-cultural understanding can never be taught directly; however, certain basic ideas can be taught to provide a level of knowledge upon which such understanding may take root. Traditionally most classroom instructors of world civilization have taught their subject matter from a historical point of view using expository methods of instruction rather than implementing a global per spective through the (perhaps more productive) conceptual- inquiry approach to learning about other cultures. In the application of the conceptual-inquiry approach, concepts are selected from various social science disciplines and serve as tools for exploration of a culture and provide a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 framework for collection of information and materials for classroom use. The selected concepts are taught through inquiry methods which encourage the students to formulate and test their own hypotheses and to arrive at their own conclusions. To generate a better understanding of the Indian people and their culture through firsthand experiences and observations and through the production of conceptually organized instructional materials, the Center for Inter national Education, School of Education, University of Southern California in conjunction with the United States Office of Education undertook a six-week intercultural study group to India in the summer of 1971. The Institute consisted of twenty-five elementary and secondary school teachers and administrators selected from various school districts in Southern California. Purpose of the Institute The objectives of the Institute were to give the school teachers selected from the Southern California area an insight into Indian culture and to train them in the conceptual-inquiry methodology as a framework for gathering and developing instructional materials on India for class room use. Through this approach, the Institute staff hoped to stimulate an appreciation of the common human heritage. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 The specific objectives of the Institute were as follows: 1. Participants should be exposed to Indian living patterns and institutions in a reasonably accurate and realistic manner. 2. Participants should show cognitive and affective responses to the field study experience. 3. Instructional products submitted by the parti cipants should reflect the training in concep tual-inquiry methodology as a tool for gathering, organizing and developing teaching materials. 4. Instructional products developed by the parti cipants should be useful in the classroom environment. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this investigation was to show how a stated proposal for an intercultural training Institute for personnel and curriculum development on India was implemented, to analyze and evaluate the same Institute and to make recommendations for future institutes of this kind. Research Procedures This dissertation utilized action research methodology Action research was considered the best method because this study concerns an intercultural training Institute con Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 ducted with an unrepresentative sample of twenty-one elementary and secondary school teachers and four school administrators from the Southern California area who were actively engaged in the field of teaching social studies. The empirical findings of the Institute were critically analyzed through evaluation of the Institute in terms of its stated objectives. The method of analysis was empirical insofar as it was based on actual observation and participation of staff and trainees. The participants were under observation during all phases of the India Institute. Subjective reactions on the part of the participants were elicited at the end of the field training period by means of a questionnaire. This questionnaire was developed in accord with the stated objectives of the Institute and required one hundred and nineteen responses from each participant. Some questions required quantitative ranking while others stipulated short essay answers. The questions were designed to probe various aspects of the pre-field sessions and the field-training workshop. Affective responses were generated by questions which tried to ascertain whether the Institute was personally and pro fessionally beneficial to the participants, whether they were given a reasonably accurate portrayal of Indian society, what their reaction was to the conceptual-inquiry Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. approach to social studies, and whether they would employ it in their own classrooms. Instructional materials developed by the participants, as part of the Institute objectives, were examined in terms of the stated objectives of this Institute. Limitations A number of operational limitations were imposed on the India Institute Summer 1971. The Institute proposal, as approved by the United States Office of Education, stipulated a six-week period of field-training in India and a budgetary limit of $60,635 with the entire sum to be derived from excess currency funds in India held under Public Law 480. The budgetary ceiling imposed limitations on the program design for the Institute including the accommodations and mode of transportation which could be used by the participants traveling to and from and also within India. The heat, humidity and rain during the Indian summer restricted activities and tended to dampen motivation on the part of participants accustomed to a temperate California climate. Change in diet and over consumption of highly spiced foods could be only minimally controlled. The degree of cultural shock experienced by each participant and overall response to the Indian envi ronment could not be directly controlled by the Institute Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 staff members who, except for this investigator, were undergoing similar reactions. The international political climate during the Summer 1971 was beyond project control. At that period tension existed between India and Pakistan over the Bengaladesh issue. Personal or political attitudes of Indians toward Americans and vice versa were beyond control of the staff. Delimitations Due to the nature of the proposal, this study will limit itself to the Indian culture and the interaction of Americans participating in this Institute. The India Institute participants, and hence the subjects for this study, were limited to twenty-five teachers and administra tors. This number was thought optimal for field training in a foreign environment. Selection of participants was limited to social studies teachers since India is part of the social studies curriculum in California. Only teachers with two years of classroom or administrative experience were accepted. A further stipulation was that each parti cipant had signed a contract to teach or administrate during the following academic year. The rationale for this restriction was to facilitate inservice training of teachers who plan to continue teaching and would presumably exert the longest range of influence over students and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 8 fellow teachers as a result of their specialized training. Participation was limited to those who could pay tuition fees for ten graduate units at the University of Southern California. The money derived from the tuition fees was utilized to defray expenses of the pre-field orientation and post-field follow up sessions. The tuition sum also covered part of the salaries of the Institute staff. Preference was given to those teachers whose school districts had agreed to contribute either money or time for the participants to apply their training in their respective schools. A maximum of two teachers from each Southern Cali fornia school district were to be selected while an attempt was made to involve participants from at least twelve districts, if not more. The area of selection was limited to four counties in Southern California since pre-field and post-field training sessions were to be held at the University of Southern California and would entail exten sive driving in some cases. During the pre-field training period, set at ten weeks, the participants were exposed to the conceptual- inquiry approach to the teaching of social studies. They were limited to the conceptual-inquiry approach as a theoretical framework from which to develop conceptually- organized instructional materials intended for classroom Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 use. Each participant was allowed to select one concept, or the generalizations relating to it, and was to apply it in field study. The data books and curriculum materials, produced during the summer and the four follow-up sessions, were to be examined according to whether they showed acquisition of the conceptual-inquiry approach or not. No attempt would be made to criticize or advocate the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies as a learning or teaching technique. The Institute staff stipulated that participants would not be permitted to take members of their family to India since this might interfere with the achievement of Institute objectives. The staff specialist in curriculum could stay in India only two out of a total of six weeks because she had to conduct another field workshop in Germany. In her absence, one of the participating administrators acted as curriculum coordinator. This investigation of the India Institute for 1971 would terminate with the post-field training workshop because all instructional materials developed would be turned into the Institute staff for academic credit. Assumptions A number of assumptions were made for the purposes of this study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 10 Firsthand experience of Indian culture was considered desirable for effective teaching of Indian studies in American schools. The sampling of teachers in this study was symbolic of the elementary and secondary social studies school personnel in Southern California. Recommendations in this study might be applied to other similar groups in planning and execution of future intercultural teacher training institutes. The problem was amenable to adequate examination by the research procedures used. The questionnnaire developed by the Institute staff to measure participants' responses to the training experience was valid. The participants would respond to it freely without any fears of reprisal. It was possible to draw from the research data generalizations which could be defended. Definition of Critical Terms Since there are a number of terms which reappear in the course of this study, it is important to elucidate working definitions of key words. Intercultural and Cross-cultural. This term is here defined as affective and cognitive interaction between, or relating to, cultures. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 Concept. A survey in the field of "concept" litera ture shows there is considerable confusion as to the nature of a "concept." For the purpose of this study, the definition given by Irving Morrissett would be appro priate. "A concept is an abstraction — an idea generalized from particular cases. Conceptual approach to social studies. This phrase refers to social studies curriculum that has extensive social science content. Specifically, it refers "to the development of programs base# on the structure of social science — the concepts, generalizations, themes and methods of inquiry that are fundamental in each discipline. Conceptual organization. As defined by anthro pologists, it means the maintenance (survival) systems and the projective (expressive) systems of a culture. Main tenance systems are social, political and economic while projective systems are ethical beliefs (incorporated in philosophies, religions and scientific theories) and aesthetic expressions in the arts. ^Irving Morrissett, "The New Social Science Curricula," Concepts and Structure in the New Social Science Curricula, Irving Morrissett, ed.(New York;Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 3. ^John U. Michaelis and A. Montgomery Johnston, eds., The Social Sciences : Foundations of the Social Studies, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1965), p. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 12 Generalization. As defined by Tanck, "a generali zation is an understanding of a relationship between or among concepts*"^ Inquiry or Discovery Method. This approach to instruction and learning emphasizes how to think rather than what to think. Inquiry "requires the teacher to move from the role of dispensing data to helping the student find the data for himself. Conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies. This term denotes the teaching of social science concepts with the aid of inquiry or discovery methodology. Michaelis defines the term "inquiry-conceptual" as "a program which develops modes and processes of inquiry along with the concepts that are most fruitful in studying dynamic aspects of man's cultural heritage. ^Marlin L. Tanck, "Teaching Concepts, Generalizations and Constructs," Social Studies Curriculum Development; Prospects and Problems, Dorothy McClure Fraser, ed. Washington, National Council for Social Studies, 39th Yearbook, 1968, p. 106. ^James L. Hill, "Building and Using Inquiry Models in the Teaching of Geography, * ! Focus on Geography ; Key Concepts and Teaching Strategy, Phillip Bacon, ed. Washington, National Council for Social Studies, 40th Yearbook, 1970, p. 306. Sjohn U. Michaelis, "An Inquiry-Conceptual Theory of Social Studies Curriculum Planning." Berkeley, University of California, 1968. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 Instructional Materials. This term encompasses all materials, including written, audio-visual, graphics and artifacts that can be used for classroom instruction. Educational Resources Center (abbreviated E.R.C.). The E.R.C. is a branch of the State University of New York located in New Delhi, India. Its central purpose is to develop materials for teaching and study programs about India in American schools and colleges. The E.R.C. is also a service organization that assists the visiting American scholars in gathering and developing materials about India. American. A person who is a citizen of the United States of America, Major Phases of the Institute The Institute was divided into three conceptually organized phases. These were 1) pre-field work training sessions, 2) field training workshop, and 3) post-field training workshop. The pre-field training sessions consisted of six objectives: 1. Instruction in the general objectives of the Institute. 2. Instruction in the practical aspects of the field trip to India. 3. Opportunity for the participants to know each Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 other. 4, Instruction in the basic components of Indian culture. 5, Instruction in the use of conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies using India as the exploratory setting. 6, Instruction in the technical aspects of data gathering. The field training workshop consisted of two objectives : 1. In-depth study of the Indian society including a. Seminars held in different parts of the country and conducted by specialists in social y political, economic and cultural dynamics of the Indian society. b. Observation and analysis of city and village life. c. Stay with Indian families. d. Discussions with leaders from different spheres and levels of Indian society. e. Study-visit to a holy city. f. Study-visit to places of cultural interest, i.e., art of Ajanta and Ellora caves. g. Discussion and performances of Indian classical dance and music. h. Exposure to the people from all walks of life in different parts of India. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 2. Assistance and guidance in the conceptual organi zation and use of data and materials for the development of instructional materials. The sole objective of the post-field training workshop was to give guidance and assistance in organizing field data and materials into instructional components. Organization of Remaining Chapters Chapter Two deals with the review of literature inclusive of writings on intercultural/cross-cultural institutes. There is relatively little literature available on the conceptual-inquiry approach to the social studies. Therefore, an effort was used to draw upon literature from conceptual approach and inquiry method as applied to social studies. Chapter Three is devoted to the implementation of the Institute which is critically analyzed and evaluated in Chapter Four. In Chapter Five recommendations are made for future intercultural institutes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter is divided into three sections dealing with literature on cross-cultural contact, the conceptual approach to social studies, and inquiry methodology. Cross-cultural Contact The effects of cross-cultural contact and the impressions generated in the traveler depend upon the focus of the travel. Some trips involve responsibility on the part of the traveler and some are undertaken for pleasure only. There are explorations undertaken to acquire purposive information. Such a travel orientation would tend to produce impressions emphasizing the sources of the information sought by the investigator. Such impressions are likely to be different from those randomly acquired. The tendency in literature about cross-cultural contact is to generalize concerning the impressions made by only a few types of travel. Ithiel de Sola Pool warns us to be cautious in generalizing about travel and the impressions it creates in the minds of the travelers. Social research on the effects of international contact has been conducted on only a few of the many kinds of travel situations. . . . Often, reports of such research have failed to recognize the specificity of the results to the parametric peculiarities of the situation and have generalized — 16 — Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 about the effects of travel, when in fact all that was justified was generalization about the effects of travel of some particular kind. Thus, for example, the conclusion that travel produces a more sophisticated perception of the host country which can be supported by the study of student travelers, may not hold up for soldiers in foreign theatres.° Even within the same category of travel the images it generates would differ from group to group (and among the individuals within the group), Peter Grothe utilized pre-travel and post-travel questionnaires as part of a research project based on a dissertation at George Washington University. He studied the attitude change of five hundred and forty-nine American tourists in the Soviet Union between 1965-67. Ninety per cent of the sample consisted of four groups : students, professionals, businessmen and teachers. Grothe sought to answer the question whether these travelers came back to the United States with the same set of perceptions they had taken to the Soviet Union. The simple answer to that simple question is "No". Much more complex is the extent to which various post travel images differed from the pre-travel images and the degree to which different groups within our sample differed from one another.? ^Ithiel de Sola Pool, "Effects of Cross-national Contact," International Behavior, ed. Herbert C. .Kèlman (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 110. 7 Peter Grothe, Attitude Change of American Tourists in the Soviet Union (Washington, D.C: George Washington University, 1969), p. 40. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 Although the travelers' impressions of the target culture may be favorable or unfavorable, accurate or in accurate, simple or complex depending upon the circum stances of travel, a major amount of past research has been written on the assumption that these travels generate goodwill and favorable attitudes toward the host culture. Selltiz and Cook state that "getting to know the people of another country will lead to liking them"; this assumption underlies the expectation that exchange of persons programs will increase international goodwill. In its simplest form, this hypothesis would lead one to expect that, on the whole, the visitors to a country will leave with more favorable views than they held before their arrival, and that their views after the trip will be more favorable than those of their compatriots who have not visited the country in question. The entire body of research on cross-cultural education, however, suggests that this expectation is oversimplified and overly optimistic.° Different studies indicate different results. In a study of American business and public policy, Bauer, Pool, and Dexter indicate that though cross-cultural contact brought a shift in the attitude of American businessmen studied, their outlook did not deviate from the national view. The influence of travel was not primarily to bring European or other foreign ideas to the traveler, leading him to diverge from the national norm. There was a shift in center of gravity away from narrow Q Claire Selltiz and S.W. Cook, "Factors Influencing Attitudes of Foreign Students Toward the Host Country, " Journal of Social Issues, XVIII (1962), p. 10. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 parochial interests toward international interests, but with views quite close to the national standard .... The reference group perceived as relevant changed from a parochial to a national one, but it remained a domestic one.9 In an investigation of an exchange program in which Belgium was selected for pilot study, O.W. Riegel drew a different conclusion. He found that the immediate reaction to the exchange experience is enthusiastic and produces favourable attitudes and responses. With the passage of time, the residual effect takes the form of warm friendli ness toward individual Americans. Even when the formation of attitudes toward other cultures were found to be positive, these effects were influenced by multiple factors. Basu and Ames, in a study using surveys and interviews, tested five hundred and sixty-two students from India in the Los Angeles metropolitan area in an effort to learn their attitudes toward American culture. They found that the formation of positive attitudes was "a complex syndrome involving reference groups, selective processes and supportive interpersonal relations." 9Raymond A. Bauer, Ithiel de Sola Pool and Lewis Anthony Dexter, American Business and Public Policy (New York: Atherton Press, 1968), p. 170. 1^0.W. Riegel, "Residual Effects of Exchange of Persons," Public Opinion Quarterly, XVII (1953), p. 326. l^A.K^ Basu and Richard G. Ames, "Cross-cultural Contact and Attitude Formation," Sociology and Social Research, LV (October 1970) , p. 16. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 UNESCO sponsored a study involving students from the United Arab Republic, India and Iran who had returned to their respective countries after two years of academic study in the German Federal Republic, the United Kingdom and the United States. In his report to UNESCO Galtung suggested that such factors as training in cultural pluralism, ideologies that regulate degrees of aculturation, cultural distance, the image of the home country abroad and its rank in the international system are relevant for the students in their adjustments and degrees of acceptance of the foreign culture. Other studies demonstrate the effect of firsthand experiences in reducing stereotypes, shifting of travelers' impressions from simplistic notions to a complex awareness of foreign people and their institutions. George Coelho writes in his study of Indian students' perceptions of the American culture that The new arrived student had a number of simple preconceptions about America and Americans. He soon began to discover that there were Americans and Americans. There were Whites and Negroes, rich and poor, friendly and unfriendly; informed and ignorant. And he found that individuals had complex views on even those items on which the foreign stereotype of Americans assumes a completely simple image: communism, materialism, race. . . . True most foreign student surveys have found that even returning students at the end of their stay are highly critical of American attitudes on Communism and race, but even if critical, they are apt to have somewhat simple notions of what these Galtung, "The Impact of Study Abroad; a Three- by-three Nation Study of Cross-cultural Contact," Journal of Peace Research, III (1965), p. 275. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 1 3 views are. At the University of Michigan, Claude Eggerton tried to assess the educational value of an exchange program which enabled teacher candidates from the University of Michigan to participate in a one semester program of study at Sheffield University in England. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that the experience abroad is associated with a more informed view of domestic and international problems. One hundred twenty-seven exchange students were matched with one hundred and twenty-seven non-participating students for a period from 1961 to 1966. Eggerton concludes that more than anything else, of course, the frank, often detailed and usually favorable assessments of the Sheffield-Keele experiences made by the participants attest to the all-round superiority of the exchange plan over the widely accepted domestic one.^* Harold Taylor authored a book based on two years of research into the problems and possibilities for extending the education of teachers to include education in inter national and cultural pluralism. The study presents l^George V. Coelho, Changing Images of America; A Study of Indian Students' Perceptions (New York: Free Press, 19^8}, cited in International Behavior, ed. Herbert C. Kelman (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p.118. ^^Claude A. Eggerton, An Evaluation of Study for the University of Michigan Teacher Candidates at the University of Sheffield, Englan<T' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan priis7nL9^fri~pr^Tr~ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 22 evidence and findings drawn from visits to a cross-section of fifty colleges and universities offering teacher prepa ration and from conferences with various educators, government officials, students. United Nations personnel and members of private organizations and public agencies. Taylor found that The experience of Operation Crossroads Africa, World University service, the Experiment in Inter national Living and colleges has shown that often short, intensive summer travel study and work projects have a traumatic effect in creating new attitudes and a new awareness of world problems on the part of the student and teacher. The short term experiences is C^reJ often enough to start a chain of consequences lasting an educational lifetime.15 In 1967 Earl E. Henderson sent a research question naire to eight hundred and seventy-one teachers in the United States. From the tabulated results he reported that, in general, cross-cultural contact "had dispelled some misconceptions they had held previously and that the background information they acquired through travel in creased their confidence in their professional capa bility. "16 The Center for International Education, School of Education, at the University of Southern California 15narold Taylor, The World As Teacher (New York: Doubleday and Company, Anchor books Edition, 1970) , pp. 171-172. l^Earl E. Henderson, "Seeing the World As It Is," Todays Education, LVIII (January 1969), p. 72. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 23 conducted three teacher training and curriculum development institutes on West Africa during the summers of 1968, 1969 and 1970. The primary objectives of these institutes were to generate greater awareness concerning the realities of West African life on the part of participating teachers, and to have this experiential knowledge reflected in the development of instructional materials for use in ele mentary and secondary schools. These institutes were composed on the average of twenty-four elementary and secondary school teachers, who were mostly members of social studies departments in the Los Angeles area schools. The implementation of the program was divided into two phases, i.e., orientation and field study (1968) and a third phase, or post-field follow-up, was added (1969, 1970) . During the orientation sessions the participants were given a general introduction to West African culture. In the 1969 and 1970 institutes, the participants were also introduced to an educational methodology, i.e., the con- ceptual-inquiry approach, for gathering, organizing and developing instructional materials. During the field phase the participating teachers were exposed to both the cognitive and affective domains of West African life by means of formal lectures by West African scholars and close contact with the culture provided through visits Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 to schools and individual family stays.1? In his final report to the USOE, each institute director reported that according to his observations and various responses from the participants, cognitive and affective changes had taken place. The directors were uncertain as to the extent of these changes and concluded that the knowledge of the participating teachers about the diversity of West African life was greatly enhanced by constructive contact. As William F. O'Neill put it, "All evidence would appear to support the conclusion that the participants formed more accurate concepts than they had formerly held about the people of Africa and the country of Ghana."IB There is, however, little evidence of instructional materials being produced that could be effectively utilized in the classroom for expanding intercultural awareness on the part of students. It is also unknown whether the participating teachers adopted conceptual-inquiry methodology in teaching social studies units on Africa. l?Final reports of African Curriculum Institute, Ghana, Africa, 1968; African Curriculum Development Institute for Elementary and Seconda^ School Personnel, Ghana, Africa, 1969, and African Studies Personnel and Curriculum Develop ment Program for Elementary and Secondary School Teachers, 1970 (Los Angeles: Center for International Education, School of Education, University of Southern California). ^Bibid., William P. O'Neill, Final Report on African Curriculum Development Institute, 1969, p. 26. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25 Conceptual Approach to Social Studies The term conceptual approach to social studies came into usage in the 1960s and refers to the increased appli cation of concepts or structures of social sciences to social studies curricula. The proponents of this approach take their direction from the works of Jerome Bruner, a Harvard psychologist. Bruner contends that each disci pline can be best mastered by teaching the basic organizing principles which, according to his view, form the structure of every natural and social science. He further maintains that the teaching of the structure of a discipline should be the basis of instruction from the elementary grades onward. Experience over the past decade points to the fact that our schools may be wasting precious years by postponing the teaching of many inportant subjects on the ground that they are too difficult, , . . The foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any age in some form.^^ Bruner theorizes that teaching the structure of a discipline enhances understanding, retention and transfer of material by assisting students to see relationships and by giving them something to hang their facts on. He states that "grasping the structure of a subject is understanding it in a way that permits many other things Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, I960), p. l2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 to be related to it meaningfully. To learn structure, in short is to learn how things are related."^0 Later Bruner writes that learning one set of prin ciples will logically lead to the learning of more complex concepts. The structure of knowledge — its connectedness and derivation that make one idea follow another — is the proper emphasis in education. For it is the structure, the great conceptual inventions that bring order to the congeries of disconnected observations, that give meaning to what we may learn and make possible the opening up of the new realms of experience.21 Here he suggests that if the major or pivotal concepts of a discipline can be identified, then the organization of that discipline would have been discovered. Joseph Schwab approaches the idea of structured discipline in a manner similar to Bruner. What Bruner calls structure, Schwab calls the principles of inquiry and emphasizes the changing views of subject matter. Forty years ago, it was possible for many scientists and most educators to nurse the illusion that science was a matter of patiently seeking the facts of nature and accurately reporting them. The conclusions of science were supposed to be nothing more than the summaries of these facts .... By the mid-twenties the revolution in physics had gone so far that we were faced with the fact that some of the oldest and least questioned of our ideas could no longer be treated as literally true or literally false. . . . Our 20ibid., p. 7. 2^Jerome S. Br __ University Press, 1962), p. 120. 2^Jerome S. Bruner, On Knowing (Cambridge: Harvard Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 old assertions about these matters were changed because physicists agreed to treat them in a new way — neither as self-evident truths nor as matters for immediate empirical verification. They were to be treated, instead, as principles of enquiry, conceptual structures which could be revised when necessary in directions dictated by large complexes of theory, diverse bodies of data, and numerous criteria of progress in sciences.22 Bruce Joyce defends the function of structural ideas, stating that "as the guide for research, structure serves as a kind of 'strategy' for a discipline, a tactical guide to use when venturing into previously unexplored terri- 23 tory." He calls structure, "organizing concepts", and describes how these operate within the social science framework. "They show how things are related in any given sphere of inquiry. They provide a basis for organizing knowledge in a field. They guide the search for further knowledge. Jarolimek calls these concepts "an intellectual filing system" which "makes it possible for men to establish order in all of the many thousands of specific 22 Joseph J. Schwab, "The Concept of the Structure of a Discipline," The Social Studies, ed. Martin Feldman and Eli Seifman (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969), p. 5. ^^Bruce R. Joyce, "Content for Elementary Social Studies," Readings for Social Studies in Elementary Education, ed. John Jarolimek and Huber M. Walsh (New York: Macmillan, 1969), p. 397. 24Bruce R. Joyce, New Strategies for Social Education (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., l972)^ p. 40, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 perceptions and unique experiences he has."25 Irving Morrissett holds a view similar to Bruner. He defines the structure of a discipline as "the arrange ment and interrelationships of parts within a whole" which sets forth the principal concepts of a system of thought and suggests some of the most important relationships among them.2® On the other hand, there is no universal agreement among the curriculum specialists on the validity and value of the conceptual-inquiry approach. Mark M. Krug, for example, gives a counter argument that it is not possible to determine major concepts of the social science disci plines. The task of identifying even a small number of ideas in world history and finding their spiraling relatedness may prove to be formidable if not for bidding. An example of a great idea in history, which has been cited by Bruner, "A nation must trade in order to live" is so broad and so full of fuzzy implications that its value for classroom instruction may prove to be useless as the generalization "in war there is no substitute for victory" or "appeasement of aggressors does not pay."27 25John Jarolimek, "Conceptual Approaches: Their Meaning for Elementary Social Studies;" Social Education (November 1966), p. 534. 25Irving Morrisset, "The New Social Science Curricula," Concepts and Structure in the New Social Sciences Curricula, ed. Irving Morrissett (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967), p. 4, 2^Mark M. Krug, Histo^ and the Social Sciences (Boston, Massachusetts: Blaisdell Publishing Company, 1967), p. 116. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 Krug further contends Is it probable that an interlocking, logically connected, progressively complex system of funda mental ideas in history or for that matter in sociology or political science, could ever be identified? The basic obstacle, which apparently does not exist or has been overcome in mathematics and in the natural sciences, is the lack of any logical ladder of progression in the study of sociology or history. It is not absolutely necessary for a high school student to have had a course in the American Revolution in order to study the Civil War. Students do learn about Napoleonic wars without ever having heard of the invasions and conquests of Alexander the Great. It would be rather difficult to formulate a generalization from the Napoleonic wars which would have a logical and necessary relationship to the wars of Alexander or the conquests of Ghengis Khan.2° Fred M. Newman raises an important point while discussing Bruner's idea for teaching the structure of a discipline. Can a discipline have a structure independent of the scholar's ability to articulate it? An affirmative answer carries with it an implication that some sort of intellectual natural law tran scends scholarly endeavor, unaffected by the studies of human beings, that pre-existing structures are waiting to be discovered. On the other hand, a negative reply suggests that the utility of structure as a concept depends mostly upon a prediction that scholars will in fact be able to articulate the structure of their field. If the existence of structure is mainly a function of the scholars ability to construct it, then there is no logical basis for assuming that any given discipline has a structure.29 2*Ibid., pp. 116-117. 29pred M. Newman, "The Analysis of Public Controversy, New Focus on Social Studies," The School Review, III (1965), p. 413. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 Alan Griffin is not sure whether the theoreticians and practicioners in the field of social studies are ready to integrate with the social scientists. But if the social sciences, considered individually are somewhat uncertain of structure, how much more difficult is the situation of the social studies considered as a grouping! It is exaggerated praise to say that the structure of social studies is as yet inchoate, candor would compel us to say instead that the social studies are at best amorphous and at worst almost empty of scientifically-organized specific content.3" Michael Scriven remains critical of attempts to produce conceptual reforms in school curricula. There is a tendency to go looking for concepts to hang everything on, the "fundamental concepts" of the discipline and then to hang everything on them. Nothing is more boring than doctoring elementary material so that it will hang on the same coat rack as Ph.D. theses. The kids are bored by it, I am bored by it, the teachers are bored by it. Of course, it looks neater.31 Scriven concludes that There is no clear empirical evidence that giving highly organized structures of knowledge to the children is really going to be the best use of our time and theirs. It may be that it is much better to spend a very little time giving them hints about the overall organization, and to let the full picture come alive as a by-product to discussing in low-level terms many specific cases that they find interesting and challenging.3% S^Alan Griffin, "Revising the Social Studies," Social Education (October 1963), p. 295. 3lMichael Scriven, Concepts and Structure in the New Social Science Curricula, ed. Irving Morrissett (New York; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967), pp. 148-149. 32lbid., p. 149. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 Lawrence Senesh has worked for two years with a team of social scientists including political scientist Easton of the University of Chicago; sociologist Purrucci of Purdue University; anthropologist Bohannan of Northwestern University; and geographer Greco of Syracuse University. This team has tried to outline the fundamental ideas of various disciplines in an effort to present the basic structures of disciplines in a brief form, stressing the major concepts and how they relate to selected generali zations and theories. Each discipline is distinguished by a one page chart showing the pivotal concepts and interrelationships of the discipline. Senesh calls it the "organic curriculum" in which fundamental ideas would be taught with increasing depth and complexity at each grade level with each concept receiving emphasis at a different level. Senesh explains that I call it the organic curriculum because these concepts are not presented atomistically between grade one and grade twelve. They are introduced all at once and grow with the child as he moves from grade to grade. Senesh maintains the identity of each social science, calling on each to make a contribution when it has something appropriate to offer for the particular ^^Lawrence Senesh, "Organizing a Curriculum Around Social Science Concepts," Concepts and Structure in the New Social Science Curricula, ed, Irving Morrissett (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967) , p. 24. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 curriculum objective in mind. He calls this process orchestration of the disciplines. Little research has been done on the application of social science concepts in the classroom. Martorella writes that often, even with basic social science concepts, it is difficult to accomplish precise rule speci fication, attribute delineation, and examplar construction, and accurate model referents are hard to come by. Seemingly basic concepts, such as 'river' and 'army' present a variety of instructional difficulties if the tasks are analyzed carefully in terms of rule, criterial attributes, examplers and non-exemplars. The classroom models available for these two concepts do not reveal all the attributes necessary to define the concepts. Additionally, it may be argued that many if not most of the social science concepts usually investigated in classrooms are of the nonconjunctive variety, for which little empirical research data, from any subject area, exists.34 Bernard Spodek, who is influenced by the structuralist approach, tested the hypothesis "that kindergarten children could begin to attain significant concepts in social sciences that could become the foundation for later leaurning at succeeding grade levels."35 He employed concepts from history and geography in the experiment and reports the following conclusions. 34peter H, Martorella, Concept Learning in the Social Studies (Scranton, Pennsylvania : Intext Educational Publishers, 1971), p. 30. ^^Bernard Spodek, "Developing Social Science Concepts in the Kindergarten," Social Education (May 1963), pp. 253-256. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 Kindergarten children can begin to develop significant social science concepts: 1) kinder garten children bring a background of knowledge with them to school, 2) kindergarten children gather information in many ways, 3) kindergarten children can deal with ideas over long periods of time, 4) kindergarten children use the tools of the social scientists, and 5) kindergarten children transfer their understanding in ap proaching new situations.36 Joseph Grannis made a study of sixth grade students using the concepts of "lobbying" and "subsidizing." The students were presented with case study exemplars to learn the concepts selected for analysis. The effects of addi tional information input and a classroom requirement to write a definition of the concepts were analyzed. While Grannis did not find that these were significant variables, approximately fifteen per cent of the students tested were able to demonstrate mastery in recognizing new cases as positive or negative instances of the concept and to correctly change such instances from positive to negative and vice versa.^7 In another study, Agnes Inn explored ways of helping elementary intern teachers use conceptual goals. During the intern semester, seminars were held in which the formulation of instructional goals and teaching of concepts 36ibid. ^7Joseph C. Grannis, "An Experimental Study of the Inductive Learning of Abstract Social Concepts" (unpub lished Ph.D. dissertation. School of Education, Washington University, 1965). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 and generalizations were taught. Techniques of classroom observation, intern logs, lesson plans and analysis of initial and final units were used to determine the effec tiveness of instruction. Inn concluded that intern teachers find it difficult to analyze and use conceptual goals. More specifically, interns have significant dif ficulty in translating goals into learning experiences. The most successful training technique is to involve teachers in planning experiences designed to achieve stated objectives since interns need guided experiences to think in terms of concepts and generalizations. Interns with higher academic achievement have less difficulty in planning and using conceptual goals. Inquiry or Discovery Method The inquiry method of teaching is based on the assumption that reflective thought constitutes the basis for acquisition and revision of knowledge. Other didactic methods assume that content should be pre-determined for the student whose role is to absorb whatever he is exposed to instructionally. In his writings on education, John Dewey frequently made reference to the term ^8Agnes Mai Son Inn, "Teachers' Problems with Social Studies Goals" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, 1966). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 "reflective thinking" which he defines as "active, persis tent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends. Dewey divides the process of reflective thinking into five phases or aspects to be used as classroom techniques and to serve as goals of instruction. In between, as states of thinking, are (1) suggestions, in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution; (2) an intellectualisation of the difficulty or perplexity that has been felt (directly experienced) into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought; (3) the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis, to initiate and guide observation and other operations in the collection of factual material; (4) the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposi tion (reasoning, in the sense in which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and (5) testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action.40 The impetus for the introduction of inquiry methodo logy first came from Jerome Bruner who argues that any subject "can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development."^^ Bruner informs us that the aim of teachers should be to John Dewey, How We Think; A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Education Process (Boston: dTc . Heath, 1933), p. 9. " 40lbid., p. 106. 4iJerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 19dO), p. 33. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 36 make students into "autonomous and self-propelled" thinkers. He contends that discovery methodology facili tates the achievement of this goal. To Bruner discovery is "a matter of rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that one is enabled to go beyond the evidence so reassembled to additional new i n s i g h t s . He sees four potential benefits to be gained from the experience of leeirning through self-made discoveries: an increase in intellectual potency, shift from extrinsic to intrinsic reward, an increased comprehension of the heuristic of discovery, and the development of a useful aid to memory. To Suchman inquiry is an attitude toward learning and teaching as well as a method whose "central values are the open mind and the autonomous probing of the learner."43 He outlines three conditions that stimulate and sustain inquiry, . . . 1) The child becomes an inquirer when he is freed by some event or situation that challenges his idea of the universe; 2) Inquiry can occur only in a climate that affords freedom for the student to gather data and to build and test theories in his own way; 3) Even the freedom to inquire cannot sustain inquiry if the learner has no access to data, no opportunity to test his ideas against empirical events.4^ 42Jerome S. Bruner, On Knowing (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963}, p. 82. 43j. Richard Suchman, "Leaurning Through Inquiry," Childhood Education, XLI (February 1965), p. 70, 44ibid., pp. 89-90. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 37 For the inquiry method to be effective, children should be encouraged to participate in “generating theories and gathering information as means of testing the theories to see if they stand up in the face of reality.“*5 Suchman warns teachers that while this process of inquiry is going on in the classroom, they should avoid pronouncing a judgment on what children say, for If they sense that their contributions are being evaluated, they respond only when they feel sure of the "correctness" of what they are saying. This keeps them from taking risks and trying out ideas that seem "leapy" and remote.*6 Edwin Fenton views inquiry methodology as the heart of social studies instruction. It "is a process", he says, "by which students, social scientists, and historians interpret the past and investigate both personal problems and contemporary public issues."*7 He divides the process of inquiry into six major steps: 1) recognizing a problem from data, 2) formulating hypotheses, 3} recognizing the logical implications of hypotheses, 4) gathering data, 5) analyzing, evaluating and interpreting data, and 6) evaluating the hypothesis in light of the data. 45lbid., p. 91. 46lbid. ^^Edwin Fenton, "Inquiry and Structure," Inquiry in the Social Studies, ed. Rodney F. Allen, John V. Fleckenstein and Peter M. Lyon (Washington, D.C: National Council for Social Studies, 1967), p. 90. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 John U. Michaells postulates a model which uses concepts as tools of inquiry. In his view the "fruitful” concepts of social sciences should be selected to serve as a guide for the use of inquiry processes which include "defining, observing, classifying, interpreting, comparing, contrasting, hypothesizing, generalizing, predicting, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, inferring and communicating."^® Michaelis advocates that the best of both inquiry and conceptual approaches be combined in the social studies program. The proponents of inquiry methodology for teaching assume that each of the social sciences has its unique method of inquiry which can be taught to and used by students in social studies classes. Benjamin Cox reported an experiment in which he attempted to define the distinct characteristics of inquiry related to the different social sciences. Cox assigned his graduate students who were all social studies teachers to study the research methods of leading scholeurs in social sciences, to search the relevant literature, and to describe the particular modes of inquiry used by each of the social sciences. Cox assumed that "each of the social science disciplines made use of pecu liar modes of inquiry distinguishable in some ways from ^®John U. Michaelis, "An Inquiry-Conceptual Theory of Social Studies Curriculum Planning," Social Education (January 1970), pp. 68-69. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 each of the other d i s c i p l i n e s . "*9 The results of inves tigation yielded disappointingly few concise statements of how the disciplines function as methods of inquiry. We found no clear descriptions of the kind that would be immediately useful in giving teachers an appreciation and some understanding of the methodologies of social sciences.50 Cox attributes the lack of definitive results to the fact that Human behavior apparently categorizes itself poorly, for the sociologist must assay unemployment, for exeunple, as he studies the habits of families just as the economist must assay the habits of the families as he studies unemployment. Do they borrow each other's tools to do so or do they borrow each other's conclusion.51 In commenting on Cox's inquiry, Malcolm Collier writes that Each of the social sciences is a dynamic entity with its own life history of internal change and development. The social scientists who are the creators of this constant growth and differentiation are themselves never in agreement about their respective disciplines. No two sociologists or geographers, or economists would agree completely on a definition or description of their respective fields.52 He concludes that social sciences do not differ greatly **C. Benjamin Cox, "An Inquiry into Inquiries," Social Education (May 1965), p. 300. SOlbid. 51lbid., p. 301. 52Malcolm Collier, "A Question About Questions," Social Education (December 1965), p. 555. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 in their respective methodologies, but differ in the questions they ask of their data. Gerald Leinwald writes that the inquiry method, advocated by Bruner and others, does provide the students with an opportunity to appreciate the works of social scientists. However, he doubts if many of the students could develop into social scientists. Leinwald also believes that to have the students perennially assume the role of the social scientist and discover what the historian or economist already knows is artifi cial. At its best it is play acting and, if what the student discovers is quite contrary to what he should discover, the entire pro cedure becomes wasteful — if not downright ludicrous.53 Martin La Forse sees serious practical problems arising out of freedom of inquiry. Exeunining issues that people may care something about is, like democracy itself, a risky business .... For inquiry must have the freedom to move explorations in directions which may produce unpredictable outcomes. Can teachers construct a hospitable environment in which to function? They may be the only ones who can, and in so doing they have to instruct a reluctant community in the values of free inquiry, if that is demanded.5* Bernard Friedlander argues that it really does not profit the students to learn the process of inquiry and ^^Gerald Leinwand, "Queries on Inquiry in the Social Studies," Social Education (October 1966), p. 413. 5%artin La Forse, "Why Inquiry Fails in the Classroom," Social Education (January 1970), p. 67. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 not know the place of men and events in the history of a country. He tells us that Promoting the concept of discovery alone as a method of instruction is likely to be deceptive and a vain pursuit because it is incomplete. We should pay as much attention to the question of consolidating the students new insights as to the methods for eliciting these i n s i g h t s .55 In the opinion of David Ausubel, it is plausible to suppose that independent discovery does lead to greater learning and retention. However, its supporters fail to understand that “problem-solving can be just as deadening, just as formalistic, just as mechanical, just as passive, and just as rote as the worst form of verbal exposition,"^® He adds "that because of the educational logistics in volved, even the best progreun of problem-solving experience is no substitute for a minimally necessary aunount of didactic exposition."®^ Robin J. McKeown holds similar views to those of Ausubel. He contends that there is a place for the expository method in the "new social studies" curricula. He suggests that 55sernard A. Friedlander, "A Psychologist's Second Thoughts on Concepts, Curiosity, and Discovery in Teaching and Learning," Harvard Educational Review (Winter 1965), p. 30. ®®David P. Ausubel, Educational Psychology; A Cognitive View (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), p. 57ibid., pp. 470-471. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 When it is a matter of helping students acquire certain information, a traditional, expository method may in many cases be the most effective way to learn. . . . It seems reasonable to say that good teaching may be that which enables students to learn to perform a specific task in a most efficient manner. It very likely would indicate inefficiency if two class periods were consumed with inquiry strategy when the sole objective was to impart a few essential informa tional items related to recent industrial advances in Japan.58 Charlotte Crabtree discusses the influences of inquiry approaches to concept learning and writes that no brief can be made for the problems approach as the only or even, for all purposes, the most productive route to concept learning. Reception learning where principles or higher abstractions are presented to the learner and not first "dis covered” by him, is an instructional method that serves an important function in classroom learning.5* Mark Krug maintains that there is a staggering variety of teaching methods. He contends that teaching is a complex activity that demands plurality of approaches. To assume that one or another method of teaching is the most effective under all circum stances is to suggest that we know how students learn best. In truth our knowledge about learning process is sketchy and i n c o n c l u s i v e .60 Krug feels that this vague understanding in no way down grades the contributions of educational psychology toward 50Robin J. McKeown, "Developing Asian Studies Program Materials,” Social Education (November 1969), p. 842. 5*Charlotte Crabtree, "Inquiry Approaches: How New and How Valuable,” Social Education (November 1966), p. 523. OOfiark M. Krug, op. cit., p. 92. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 comprehending learning and teaching processes. Rather, it is a reflection of the difficulty inherent in the clear comprehension of how one complex, changeable human being teaches twenty-five or thirty much younger but equally complex and changeable humans.61 He feels that it is safe to assume that competent teachers will always utilize a variety of teaching methods. Massialas and Zevin reported on research consisting of thirty-five student subjects enrolled in a modern world history course in a Chicago public high school. The general nature of the study was exploratory. Three questions were made the focus of investigation; whether high school students of slightly eüaove average ability are capable of participating in discovery; whether historical materials could be presented in such a way as to prompt students to study independently; and to what extent dis covery operates as a motivational device. A new discovery episode was introduced to the students every two weeks on the average. The discovery input consisted of a historical document the origin, referent and author of which had been deleted. The students were challenged to gather all the missing information. Massialas and Zevin report four research conclusions; 1) without exception the students were able to participate directly in the process of discovery and inquiry; 2) his- 61lbid., pp. 92-93. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 torical material could be used as raw material; 3) the way material is presented, coupled with the non-directive behaviour of the teacher, led to creation of a new psycho logical climate; and 4) the method of discovery had a highly motivational effect on students.62 In 1968 Oliver and Shaver conducted an experiment involving one hundred and twenty-five seventh and eighth grade students in the Boston area. The experiment was designed to test the comparative value of two methods of teaching critical thinking, i.e., the Socratic and the recitation methods. The researchers found no significant difference in learning as a result of applying one or the other of these instructional modes. They further concluded that all students do not react equivalently to the same teaching behaviour.63 C. Benjamin Cox made a comparison of two groups of high school students enrolled in an American history course. One group was taught through a reflective method and the other in a traditional manner. Standardized test 62Byron G. Massialas and Jack Zevin, "Teaching Social Studies Through Discovery," Social Education (1964), pp. 384-387 and 400. 63James P. Shaver and Donald W. Oliver, "The Effects of Student Characteristics — Teaching Methods, Inter actions or Learning to Think Critically," a paper presented to AERA, Chicago, February 9, 1968. Cited in Social Education (October 1968), p. 561. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 results failed to show significant difference between the two matched groups. An equal acquisition of factual know ledge appeared to result from either method.^4 David Ausubel states with regard to the research evidence on inquiry or discovery methodology that The professional literature on learning by discovery regrettably exemplifies, as clearly as any research in education, that all too fre quently hollowness of the hallowed phase phrase "research shows," Careful examination of what research supposedly "shows" in this instance yields these three disheartening conclusions: (a) that most of the articles most commonly cited in the literature as reporting results supportive of discovery techniques actually report no research findings whatsoever, but consist mainly of theoretical discussion, assertion, and con jecture; of descriptions of existing programs utilizing discovery methods; and of enthusiastic but wholly subjective testimonies regarding the efficacy of discovery approaches; (b) that most of the reasonably well-controlled studies report negative findings; and (c) that most studies reporting positive findings either fail to control other significant variables or employ questionable techniques of statistical analysis. Thus actual examination of the research litera ture alleged supportive of learning by discovery reveals that valid evidence of this nature is virtually nonexistent. It appears that the various enthusiasts of the discovery method have been supporting each other researchwise by taking in each other's laundry, so to speak, that is, by citing each other's opinions and assertions as evidence and by generalizing wildly from equivocal and even negative findings.65 ®4c, Benjamin Cox, "A Description and Appraisal of a Reflective Method of Teaching United States History" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1961). 65 David P. Ausubel, op, cit., pp. 497-498. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERCULTÜRAL INSTITUTE ON INDIA The Institute was divided into three major phases, pre-field workshop, field experiences and post-field training. The pre-field workshop was further divided into two segments, selection of the participants and pre departure orientation. Selection of the Participants The participants were selected by a double screening process. Fourteen school districts in four counties (Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside and San Bernardino) of Southern California were notified about the project and each district was asked to select and recommend to the Institute staff four elementary or secondary school social studies teachers and/or administrators, those candidates whom the districts felt would benefit most from it. The Institute staff also wanted to know from the districts whether they were willing to support financially their candidates through stipends for the purchase of realia and/or through release time for the development and intro duction in their districts of intercultural studies through conceptual-inquiry methodology. It was stated that a maximum of two participants would be selected from each - 46 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 district. All candidates were asked to submit curriculum vitae and two letters of recommendation, one of these to be from the Superintendent or his designate and the other from a person that has closely supervised and evaluated the candidate's work. The referees were asked particularly to evaluate the candidate's commitment to public education, classroom/supervisory effectiveness, motivation to intro duce intercultural studies in the classroom, psychological stability under conditions of stress, and ability to adapt to a foreign environment. In addition, each candidate was asked to enclose a statement of not more than three hundred words indicating how the trip to India would be beneficial to his/her professional commitment and to his/her immediate classroom activity. A total of forty-nine completed applications were received. During the interviews the program directors attempted to ascertain the candidate's commitment to inter cultural studies, willingness to utilize the conceptual- inquiry approach as a research tool, willingness to translate their experiences in India into classroom materials, willingness of the districts to provide financially for materials to be used later in the school districts, and willingness to attend ten days of pre departure orientation sessions and three to four post field follow-up sessions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 Personal questions were asked to ascertain whether the applicants could withstand the rigor of group field experience in the Indian environment. They were asked seven comprehensive questions ; 1. If they could undertake the expense of the program involved in the payment of tuition for ten graduate units and expenses enroute to and from India? 2. Whether they would be able to leave their family for a seven week period? 3. If they could cooperate effectively in a group situation? 4. What was the state of their health and their capacity to withstand physical strain? 5. Whether they could adjust to the humid tropical climate of India and lack of various modern conveniences in some instances? 6. If they could cope with emotional stress in new environments? 7. If they have experienced living in another culture previously? Of all the candidates interviewed, twenty-two from twelve school districts were selected on the basis of their potential for personal enrichment, contribution to curriculum development in their respective schools and districts, and cultural adaptability. Three candidates were selected from overseas schools making a total of twenty-five selected candidates. The selected participants ranged in age from twenty- three to fifty-seven. The following is a breakdown by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 49 current position, grade level, sex, and race of the participants. Current Position Elementary School Principal High School Departmental Chairman Director of Curriculum Director of Instructional Media Teachers 25 Grade Level Senior High Intermediate Elementary Administrators 10 1 11 3 25 Male Female Sex 11 14 25 Race Caucasians Blacks 24 1 25 For a brief sketch of each participant's academic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 50 background and educational experience see Appendix I. Pre-Departure Orientation The main objectives of the pre-departure orientation were to introduce participants to the various aspects of the Indian culture, to familiarize them with the con ceptual-inquiry approach to social studies and ways to apply this approach in classroom situations and in gathering information and materials during the field work phase in India, to select concepts or generalizations to be used by the participants in gathering data, and to provide information concerning the practical aspects of the trip. In preparation for the pre-departure orientation the project staff developed a manual for the use of the participants. The manual was conceptually organized and it included the objectives of the Institute, list of participants, project staff, pre-field training schedule, orientation section of general information and a reading list. In the maintenance systems section were articles about social, political and economic aspects of the Indian society while the projective systems sections included articles about the belief systems and aesthetic aspects of the Indian society. The methodology section of the manual presented articles on the conceptual-inquiry Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 approach to social studies. The field training schedule and post-field training schedule were included at the end of the manual. The conceptual framework of the pre departure orientation program is presented in Appeftdix II. Participants were asked to bring to their first group meeting a typed statement, not to exceed more than five pages, about their impressions and knowledge of India. The purpose of this statement was to give the Indian scholars an idea of the participants' background in Indian culture and point out the specific areas they needed to concentrate upon in their presentation of material. Some of the impressions of India held initially by the Institute participants were the following: When India is first mentioned via conversation, I immediately conjure up impressions of poverty, overpopulation and unsuccessful attempts at birth control. Visions come to mind of sacred cows walking freely among those people dying of starvation. On the other hand, are visions of the very wealthy and the jetsetters on tiger hunts — a stereotype I'm sure. Today, it [^India^ is one of the most densely populated areas of the earth with a confusing mixture of people representing every main religion and hundreds of languages and dialects, also many castes. The villager accepts his lot, his caste, his pov erty, his hunger — he accepts it without remorse or bitterness. Nothing seems to diminish his spirit of kindness or his loyalty to family and relatives. Women dressed in elegant silken saris, wearing a jewel or painted mark on the forehead; sacred cows of the Hindu walking freely through busy metropolitan centers honored and unmolested by those around; strikingly handsome men with flashing eyes and gentle Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 smiles showing white teeth, gracious respect and patience from all met; spicy food, mutton and lamb, but no beef. Although the Indian government insists upon a democratic form of government, there seems to be a question as to whether this form of government is the most efficient in terms of propelling the country towards its goals of improving the standard of living for all citizens. After hearing of China's seeming success in improving the standard of living under a Communist regime, is it not possible that the people of India might find this a more effective form of government in terms of achieving their goals? I wonder about the functioning of democracy in a country with the social and economic problems that face India. Is it meeting the needs of the people? I am aware of the many religions of India and some of their beliefs and resulting customs, but feel a need to study more in this area, due to its importance in the daily Indian life. I think that most Indians live in small villages as farmers and are using crude implements to till and are at the mercy of the wet and dry seasons; often suffering from drought and flood. Beautiful handicrafts exported. Many vegetarians. Cow sacred to some religions. India is Ravi Shankar playing his sitar accompanied by a tabla player who beats out numerous rhythms and behind him is a beautiful Indian woman with a lovely sari and she is strumming the strings of a sarod. I visualize India as a subcontinent having immense physical and cultural diversity, India resembles an elephant ear in its appearance on the map as does Africa and South J^erica. When I think of India, the word spiritual comes to mind immediately. Hinduism is not merely part of a culture, it is a culture. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 A theme which appears very strongly is the predominant and widespread system of caste which permeates all aspects of Indian life. One of my teachers made an indelible impression upon me about the extensive use of drugs in India, The words India and drugs are synonymous, I can recall almost no formal training about any aspect of Indian life, except obliquely when it was entangled with the fortunes of some other country, usually Western, Whereas the other culture-civilizations have had relevant and often awesome beginnings and dazzling periods of fruition. Never-the-less, they have unlike India, ceased. First thought includes multitudes of people, in flowing white robes, or saris — open markets, crafts men working in the markets. India is a populous and poor country. It produces far less food than it needs to feed its people. Starvation is common, the infant mortality rate is high, India to me is an underdeveloped country with a variety of seasons, people, land-types, climates and products. Pre-Departure Orientation Sessions Ten sessions were held at the University of Southern California, the first one on May 8, 1971, seven weeks before actual departure for India. Each session was divided into two parts. The first half of the session was devoted to the Indian culture and the second half to the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies to be applied in field research and in classroom content through origi nation of curriculum components. During the orientation program, the participants were Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 asked to select, with the assistance of the Curriculum Specialist, generalizations that would serve as the basis for collection of data and materials. However, the participants were not able to select their generalizations till the second week of the field study in India. The following were the generalizations selected by the participants. NAME GENERALIZATION LEVEL Esther Deines Katy McDermott Addie Owens Ginny Dunlavy Ethyl Richards Vivian Rattray Ann Wynn Individuals utilize those K-3 resources available in their physical and social environment to provide for their basic needs Man expresses his culture in 1-2 the way he seeks to satisfy his basic needs The work of society is carried 1-7 out by different people per forming different roles in different groups Societies develop social 3-5 structure to provide for the needs of their members Man uses his environment to 3-5 secure his basic needs Aesthetic meaning is learned 6 with membership in a culture i) Man learns social behavior 5 from groups with which he interacts ii) Man interacts to utilize available resources Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NAME Gene Fischer Jim Stratton Linda Quick Jim Walker Martha Mekjian Aggie Jackson Sherry Cannon Linda McCallister Israel Menick Bill Mahoney) i) Larry Dodd) ii) Richard Daniels GENERALIZATION Individuals utilize their resources in their social and physical environment to provide for their basic needs Religious institutions are developed to satisfy man's desire to know and under stand Art is manifested in the artifacts which a specific group develops Social systems are shaped by the values of interacting groups Man utilizes his social and physical environment to secure food Culture patterns are deter mined by utilization of available natural resources Peaceful interaction among people depends on social control Urbanization causes changes in the economic processes of the rural community The opportunity for individual economic satisfaction varies Men develop varying belief systems that are his way of satisfying his desire to know Man's values and beliefs affect his social structure The traditions of a society affect the degree to which individuals can utilize economic resources 55 LEVEL 5-6 5-6 4-6 6-8 7-8 9 9-10 10-12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. NAME Bill Corrigan Toby Larson Bill Rada May McIntyre Tom Rische GENERALIZATION Values (philosophical, ethical and aesthetic) are learned from membership in a group Degree and kind of social mobility depends upon the values of the culture i) Man adopts technological change if it raises his standard of living ii) Man rejects technological change for social reasons Culture is maintained by tradition and ceremony The media which develop in a culture reflect the technology and customs of that culture 56 LEVEL 11-12 11-12 11-12 7-12 12 Participants were instructed in the techniques of data gathering and they were to assemble conceptually organized data books after their return to the States. The data book assignment combined with the selection of a cultural generalization was intended to facilitate collection of data and materials in the field environment. The parti cipants were to draw from these data books during the post field training sessions and complete development of curri culum components based on individually chosen generali zations . The purpose of the first session was to acquaint the participants with general information pertinent to their Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 departure and to facilitate their getting to know one another and the staff members on an informal basis. The first half of each pre-field session for the next seven sessions was devoted to the cross-cultural contact area, in this case India, and the second half was devoted to application of data in classroom situations. The last two orientation sessions focused on the technical and verbal aspects of data gathering. Presentations on general aspects of social, political, economic and belief systems of the Indian society were made by Vasisht Malhotra, a native of India, who holds a master's degree in political science from Delhi University and is a doctoral candidate in International Education at the University of Southern California. The presentations on aesthetic aspects of Indian society (music, dance, art and literature) were given by Amiya DasGupta, Professor of Indian music at California Institute of the Arts and former student of Ravi Shankar, along with Claudia Charles, doc toral candidate in Communications with emphasis in Cinema at the University of Southern California. The curriculum development sessions which introduced the conceptual-inquiry approach were conducted by Dr. Elizabeth L. Simpson, Associate Director for Intercultural Studies of the Center for International Education and Assistant Professor at the University of Southern Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 California. Information on the use of audio-visual equip ment for data gathering was presented by Dr. E. Russell McGregor, Director of Instructional Media Services and Vice-Chairman of the Cinema Department at the University of Southern California. During the seven cultural orientation sessions, Mr. Malhotra stressed the importance of visualizing two Indias, one ancient, the other modern. Although the ancient cultural heritage would be referred to, emphasis would be placed on present-day India with her problems, strengths and weaknesses. In discussing the social and economic aspects of Indian life, he pointed out that about 3500 years ago the Aryans divided the society into four groups or castes for purposes of occupational organization. These divisions were the Brahmin (priests, teachers), Ksatriyas (warriors, rulers), Vaishas (businessmen) and Sudras (workers, servants). The caste system was intended as a cooperative network similar to the branches of a tree. It was a group system based on services rendered and received. Each caste member had certain responsibilities toward the society. Whenever a new tribe with its own customs and taboos ceune into the system, it was accepted and recognized accordingly. "Hindu leaders," writes Professor Radhakrishnan, "accepted primi- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 tive societies and foreign settlers such as the Greeks and the Scythians into the Hindu fold and recognized their priestly families as Brahmins and their fighting men as Ksatriyas."®® These tribes formed subcultures within an umbrella-like culture. "As a means of maintaining the individuality of a multitude of cultures within one stable society," Professor Thut and Adams remark that "the caste system has been referred to as the 'supreme expression of the genius of the Indian civilization.'"®? What ahppened to the stability of Indian society? "Over a period of time the Aryan class system changed and became a caste system that stresses precise gradations, ritual purity and social distance."68 w ith the repeated foreign conquests, revolt and ruthless suppression, it became rigid and reactionary. Greater importance began to be attached to the birth of a person rather than to his deeds, as caste began to be regarded as determined by karma or fate and this division of society degenerated into rigid castes and subcastes. Today there are over three thousand castes and sub- ^®'S, Radhakrishnan, Eastern Religions and Western Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 357. ®^I.N. Thut and Don Adams, Educational Patterns in Contemporary Societies (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1964), pp. 390-391. ®®Robert I. Crane, Asia in the Modern World, éd. by Helen G. Mathews (New York: New American Library, 1963), p* X68 * ReprocJucecJ with permission of the copyright owner. Further reprocJuction prohibitecJ without permission. 60 castes and the sanction of one's caste group is considered very important. These subcaste groups exert tremendous power over their members; however, caste is beginning to show cleavages. Caste mobility is taking place particu larly in the cities. Economic and educational incentives cause change and a great number of the populace is under going some form of caste mobility. The major motivating factors in breaking down caste barriers are 1) educational opportunities, 2) government exams for Civil Service, 3) occupational shifts to the city, 4) industrialization, and 5) the political process. Education is now free and compulsory up to the age of fourteen. Two results of this are that students increase their occupational opportunities and that children of different castes play together in the village school. Many government jobs, both white and blue collar, are open to all through competitive exams. Un- touchability, which is known by occupation (sweepers, garbage men, leather workers) is now officially outlawed. City people are less caste conscious than rural people and outside the villages it is becoming increasingly difficult to tell caste by occupation. In the words of A.L, Basham "caste is vanishing, the process began long ago, but its pace is now so rapid that the more objectionable features of caste may have disappeared."^9 ®9a .l. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1954), p. 484. - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 Amiya DasGupta, accompanied by his wife Maxine, presented a leoture-demonstration of "Classical Indian Music" played on the sitar and sarod. Professor DasGupta described Indian musical notes as colors and passed out a sheet illustrating the ten Indian scales or ragas. He discussed the progression of notes and demonstrated several improvisations on his sitar, then performed several folk melodies and classical ragas for the participants. Miss Claudia Charles gave a brief survey of Indian art, sculpture, literature and drama. She emphasized that all Indian fine arts are an outgrowth of religious feeling. In ancient India the building of temples gave impetus to the development of sculptural art in the form of decora tive bas reliefs intended to inspire contemplation and wonder in the beholders. The cave paintings at Ajanta and Ellora, produced during the Buddhist periods, reflect the subjective religious experience which is the motivating force in Indian art. During the Moghul period a shift occurred from the purely religious art forms toward secular objects used in the royal courts. The rulers actively patronized many of the arts which culminated in the erection of the famous Taj Mahal. Since the Islamic religion prohibited the depiction of human or animal forms, much of the decorative work in the palaces and mosques consists of geometric designs and floral motifs. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Beginning in the eighteenth century the British dominated India not only politically, but culturally. They downgraded the artistic heritage of India and imposed English education and cultural values on the Indian elite. In the post-independence period, many young artists are trying to imitate the Western art forms, or capitalize on art-for-art's sake. However, threads of social conscious ness of India's heritage are coming into some artists' work and a renaissance may occur in ten to fifteen years. During the curriculum sessions. Dr. Elizabeth L. Simpson outlined the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies and introduced major concepts and generalizations drawn from the social sciences. Dr. Simpson emphasized that in understanding the cultures of different ethnic groups it is essential to study the intrinsic nature of culture and its relationship to the people who practice it. Although the participants would be dealing with a specific culture, that of India, the conceptual under standing of the patterns of human behavior would apply to all cultures across space and time. Elizabeth Simpson discussed with the participants the 1) major unit concepts and subconcepts used in social sciences, 2) use of concepts for investigation as a method for organizing information, 3) sources for the collection of data, 4) methods of de signing a curriculum component, and 5) examples of a teaching technique with an intercultural perspective. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 In creating a curriculum component it is important to know what you want in the beginning. Class objectives should include observation, analysis as a means of under standing content and inference. Since level of understand ing relates to age level, teachers should lay out a plan of teaching and then adapt it according to the needs of individuals. Dr. Simpson stated that at the close of the India Institute there would be an evaluation of participants based on "What did you set out to do?" in short "What were your objectives?" In his seminar on technical aspects of data gathering. Dr. E. Russell McGregor discussed the uses of cameras (35mm still and Super 8mm movie types), tape recorders and accessories. He mentioned "Murphy's Law — if it can go wrong, it will — sooner or later." He advised three steps in achieving good pictures: 1) brace the camera firmly, 2) take pictures at the fastest shutter speed you can, 3) focus in closer for feeling of the subject. To correct wind noises in tape recordings, he suggested the use of a handkerchief over the microphone. Dr. McGregor pointed out the effectiveness of using a story board technique in designing the visuals of a lesson unit. He drew rough sketches of a storyboard plan and advised carrying the plan through in the field instead of taking Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 64 pictures at random which might confuse rather than inform the students. Field Experiences Field experience objectives were to provide the participants with an opportunity to probe deeper into Indian life and culture, to experience Indian living through involvement with people from various sections of the society, and to gather data and materials pertaining to individually chosen generalizations for research. In fulfilling these objectives the participants were required to attend seminars conducted by acclaimed scholars and specialists on aspects of Indian culture, i.e., the social, political, economic, religious, educational, artistic and literary. Participants were required to make field study visits to homes and places of cultural signi ficance. Wherever possible, care was taken to integrate the theoretical with the practical approach. For example, a seminar on Indian economy was followed by a visit to the industrial city of Faridabad to observe the manufacture of tractors as symbolic of the developing economy. Each participant was given the opportunity to stay with an Indian family for a weekend and was introduced to people from various walks of life. Free time was given to the participants for exploring and pursuing their particular Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 65 generalizations on their own. To give a cross-regional view of India and an appreciation of its cultural diversity field experiences involved travel to various parts of the subcontinent. During February 1971, one of the program directors, Mr. Malhotra, was called to Delhi on personal business. During that advance trip he obtained cooperation of the Educational Resources Center in New Delhi in acting as liaison during the field phase of the Institute. A com prehensive and detailed field program was worked out for the participants who would arrive at the beginning of July. Care was taken, insofar as possible, to balance the field experiences between the theoretical seminars, practical field trips and free time allotted for individual explora tion. A chronological outline of the field training program is presented below. FIELD ITINERARY June 26 June 28 June 29 June 30 July 1 9:00 10:00 5:30 10:00 a.m. 12:30 p.m. 7:00 p.m. Depart from Los Angeles Arrive in Hong Kong Arrive in Bangkok Arrive in New Delhi Program Orientation City Tour India: A Cultural Survey Prof.Nihar Ranjan Ray Emeritus Professor Calcutta University Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 66 FIELD ITINERARY (continued) July 2 July 3 July 4 July 5 July 6 July 6 July 7 9:00 - 10i30 a.m. 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. 8:30 - 12:00 noon Afternoon Evening Morning 9:00 - 10:30 a.m. 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. 9:00 - 10:00 a.m. 11:00 - 1:00 p.m. 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. Morning 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. The Social and Economic Dimensions of Rural Life in India Professor S.Navlakha Institute of Economic Growth University of Delhi The Indian Village Mr. S.N. Kaul Educational Resources Center, New Delhi Visit to Qutab Minar Free Dance Performance Free The Indian Contemporary Political Scene Mr. Dilip Mukherjee Political Correspondent The Statesman Indian Parliamentary Institutions Mr, S.N. Kaul Educational Resources Center, New Delhi Curriculum Session Dr. Elizabeth Simpson University of Southern California Visit to the Parliament of India Family and Caste in India Dr. Yogesh Atal Dept, of Humanities Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi Visit to Gazipur village General session Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 FIELD ITINERARY (continued) July 8 9:00 - 10:30 a.m. 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. July 9 July 10 10:00 a.m. 8:30 - 10:00 a.m. July 11 10:00 - 12:00 noon Morning Afternoon July 12 July 13 9:00 - 10:00 a.m. 11:00 a.m. 9:00 - 10:30 a.m. The Green Revolution and Its Impact on Rural Economy Professor Y.P. Chibbar Department of Economics A.R.S.D. College New Delhi Population and Family Planning Dr. (Mrs.) Manchanda Holy Family Hospital New Delhi Departure for Simla via Ambala and Chandigarh Overnight at Chandigarh Mountainview Hotel Urban Development Professor V.S. D^Souza Chairman, Department of Sociology Panjab University (lecture at the Univer sity) City Tour Departure for Simla after lunch Free Curriculum Session Dr. Elizabeth Simpson University of Southern California Visit to the Indian Institute of Advanced Study Leave for Delhi Problems of Education in India Mr. J.P. Naik Advisor, Ministry of Education Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 68 FIELD ITINERARY (continued) July 13 July 14 July 15 July 16 July 17 July 18 July 19 July 20 July 21 July 22 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. 9:00 -10:30 a.m. 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. 8:30 a.m. Evening Morning Afternoon Morning 12:00 noon 4:00 - 5:30 p.m. 9:00 a.m. Afternoon Morning 2:00 - 6:00 p.m. Morning 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. Problems of Higher Education in India Dr, Swaroop Singh Vice Chancellor University of Delhi Indian Economy Professor Ruddar Dutt A.R.S.D. College New Delhi Free Visit to Faridabad Industrial City on the way to Agra Visit to the Taj and the Red Fort Visit to Fatephur Sikri Return to Delhi after lunch via Sikandra Pick-up by families for family stay Family stay Return to Hotel Discussion of the Family Stays Mr. VasishtMalhotra University of Southern California Visit to schools Free for packing Departure for Bombay Stay at the Ritz Hotel City Tour Free Indi^ Literature Mr. Khushwant Singh Editor, Illustrated Weekly of India Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 69 FIELD ITINERARY (continued) July 23 July 24 July 25 July 26 July 27 July 28 July 29 July 30 10:00 - 11:30 a.m. 5:00 - 6:30 p.m. Morning 8:00 a.m. Morning Evening Morning Afternoon Morning Evening 9:00 - 10:30 a.m. Indian Government Dr.' 'Rafig Zakaria Minister of Public Health (at his office) Curriculum Session Dr. Ruth Cahan Participant and Elementary School Principal Departure for Auranga bad Check into Railway Hotel Bus trip to Ellora Overnight at Aurangabad Departure for Ajanta Overnight at Aurangabad Departure for Bombay Change plane for Bangalore Free Overnight at Westend Hotel Departure for Mysore by bus Lunch at Métropole Hotel City Tour Overnight at Krishna- rajsagar Hotel Return to Bangalore after lunch Departure for Madras Free Dance Performance Fundaunental Values of Indian Culture Pro^. T.M,P. Mahadevan Director, Center for Advanced Philosophy University of Madras Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 70 FIELD ITINERARY (continued) July 30 5:00 - 6 July 31 9:00 a.m. Evening August 1 9:00 a.m. Evening August 2 Morning Afternoon August 3 Morning 5:00 - 6 August 4 9:00 - 10 Evening August 5 Morning August 6 All day August 7 All day August 8 Morning Afternoon August 9 Morning The Southern Contribu tion 'to Indian Culture Dr. Ragavan Former head of Sanskrit University of Madras Winner Padma Bhusham Award Visit to Cholamandalis Artist Colony and then to Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram Free Visit to Ayyangurkulam Weavers Village Free Free Departure for Delhi Free Educational Films Evaluation Session Mr. Vasisht Malhotra University of Southern California Dance Performance Trip to Hardwar Free Free Departure for Bombay Free Return to Los Angeles via Europe Field experiences were conceptually organized along lines similar to the pre-field sessions, i.e., orientation, maintenance systems concepts (including survival adapta- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 tions with the subsystems of social, economic and political life) and projective systems (belief systems and aesthetic expressions). These holistic concepts served a double purpose in giving the participants a focus to concentrate upon and tools to explore the society and gather data and materials to be developed into curriculum components for classroom use. Dr. Elizabeth L. Simpson assisted in the conceptual organization of field experience data and materials. Four formal curriculum sessions were planned to guide the participants in translating their research findings into classroom materials. The conceptual organization of the field experiences was as follows: FIELDWORK TRAINING Orientation 1. Program Orientation 2. Guided tour of New Delhi 3. Guided tour of Chandigarh 4. Guided tour of Bombay Maintenance (Survival) Systems of India The Social System 1. Population and Family Planning 2. Family and Caste 3. Problems of General Education 4. Function of Higher Education in a Rapidly Changing Society 5. Artists Colony at Cholamandalis Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 72 Maintenance (Survival) Systems of India The Economic System 1. 2. 3. 4. The Rural Economy and the Green Revolution The Indian Economy Industrialization in India Experiential: Visit to Faridabad The Political System 1. Indian Parliamentary Insti tutions 2. Experiential: Visit to Parliament 3. Conference with Minister of Maharashtra Government 4. The Indian Contemporary Political Scene Projective (Expressive) Systems of India Belief Systems (Philosophy and Religion) 1, The Fundamental Values of Indian Culture 2. The Southern Contribution to Indian Culture Cultural Expressions of Beauty (Art, music, and literature) 1. History of Art in India 2. The Qutab Minar 3. Classical Dance 4. Art of the Ellora Caves 5. Art of the Ajanta Caves 6. The Sitar (a recital) 7. Indian literature India: An Integrative Approach 1, The Nation (A Cultural Survey) 2. Rural India: a. Social and Economic Dimensions b. Slides of Village Life c. Visit to Gazipur Village d. Visit to the Weavers' village Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 Indiaî An Integrative Approach (continued) 3. Urban Life a* Experiential: Family Stay for weekend in New Delhi The India Institute participants and supervising staff members arrived in New Delhi on June 30, 1972, after stopovers in Hong Kong and Bangkok. New Delhi was made the base of operations for the Institute on account of its central location, its prominence as the capital city and the proximity of the Educational Resources Center affil iated with the project. The entire field training was planned as a combination of theoretical seminars, practical experiences (of a cognitive and affective nature), and sufficient free time for individual exploration. Since the summer climate in India is scorching and humid (especially once the monsoon begins), all seminars and most activities were arranged either for early morning hours or late afternoon. On some days two seminars were held. Between seminars approximately five hours of free time was allowed for independent cultural exploration. A number of free mornings or evenings and two free days (prior to departure from India) were programmed. The field experiences were planned to integrate with the pre-departure orientation sessions. The basic intro- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 74 auction to the Indian political system at the University of Southern California would be complemented, for instance, by a seminar on the "Contemporary Indian Political Scene" and one on the "Indian Parliamentary Institutions" followed by attendance of a Parliamentary Session in New Delhi. All presentations by Indian scholars and specialists were followed by a question and answer period to give the participants a chance to probe deeper and the speaker an opportunity to elaborate further on some points. The last two days in India were left free for the participants to organize, codify and verify the informa tion, data and materials they had gathered. The partici pants and use staff members flew out of Bombay on August 9th, touching at Tel Aviv, Athens, Paris, and London on the way back to Los Angeles. Post-field Training Four meetings of the participants were held in the fall of 1971 to assist them individually, or in small teams, to organize and develop curriculum components based on the data and materials collected for classroom use. Each participant was asked to evaluate the Institute through a questionnaire prepared for them by the Institute staff. For a statistical breakdown of the individual responses to the evaluation questionnaire see Appendix III. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 75 During these meetings the Project staff emphasized the importance of cultural balance and the need for planned student-teacher activities in the development of instruc tional materials. The participants helped each other by sharing ideas, information and materials. The Project staff guided them in some of the specific problems per taining to the development of curriculum components. Conceptually organized data books and curriculum components were submitted individually or jointly by group members to the Project staff. A copy of the materials produced by each participant or team is on permanent file at the Center for International Education and may be consulted by teachers and district personnel. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OP THE INTERCULTURAL INSTITUTE ON INDIA Substantial time, money, and energy were spent in the implementation of the Institute. It would be reasonable to ask whether the experience was valuable and whether the Institute objectives were achieved. Despite many weak nesses in the planning and execution of the Institute, it can be reported that all objectives pertaining to the comprehension of the working of the Indian society and its people were achieved. It is difficult to assess, to what extent these were realized, since it is impossible to calculate mathematically the value of an experience. It can, however, be categorically stated, as is evidenced by the participants' responses totaling one hundred per cent, that this psycho-philosophical experience and the insights gained from it into Indian culture generated an increased intercultural awareness unparalleled in their personal and professional lives. As one participant put it — "No way to measure it, my whole life is changed." Before the participants left the United States, their knowledge of India was mostly random information either stereotyped or romanticized. After the field training experience, their new perceptions of the Indian culture were reflected in the following statements. - 76 — Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 77 The variety of races, religions and cultures, languages and customs coexisting in India. People of India are very similar to other people we have known with similar desires and ambitions. The complexities of problems facing the people. India's variety; vast growth and potential. The struggle for a 'poor' country to maintain a democracy and develop in the 1970s. The rich history and culture and variety of India. That past and present coexist. The people, beautiful people, friendly, hospitable and gracious. The discipline and humanity of the people. It is fairly certain that this knowledge of Indian culture and heightened sense of intercultural consciousness would be communicated by the participating teachers to their classrooms. The Institute objectives relating to the conceptual- inquiry approach to gathering, organizing and developing instructional materials were accomplished to some degree. The instructional products, i.e., conceptually organized data resource books and curriculum components submitted by the participants were reviewed by the Institute staff to ascertain the contextual and conceptual accuracy of the materials. The products contained a variety of materials, personal observations, information gathered by the parti cipants on their own, notes from seminars, illustrations Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 78 and photographs. The quality of these products ranged from thoroughly organized to fragmented information, while other products contained bibliographies of books available in their school libraries. Some of the instructional mate rials submitted were found to be useful and usable; others were not. The mediocre calibre of some classroom materials could be attributed to the fact that teachers are not pro fessional writers. Curriculum development is an exacting and time consuming process requiring skills of profes sionals in the field whereas these teachers were not so trained. The Institute planners' lack of cognizance about curriculum development was a major weakness in the overall program. Institute training in the conceptual-inquiry metho dology for gathering, organizing and developing materials for classroom use proved ineffective. The discrepancy between the intent and the actuality was influenced by several factors. Many teachers, through experience, have developed effective classroom skills and resent being told to teach a new way. Their resistance was increased when the curriculum specialist failed to communicate this approach effectively so that the teachers could visualize its application in their own classrooms. Most significant was the fact that the participating teachers were over whelmed by the complex stimuli of unfamiliar people. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 79 sights/ sounds, smells and colors. The participants suffered from cultural shock and most, if not all, energy was exhausted in adjusting to the foreign setting. It was not feasible for them to absorb sufficiently the Indian culture and at the same time apply an educational metho dology that was not an integral part of their teaching patterns. Planned curriculum sessions in this kind of stress environment were ritualistic rather than meaningful learning exercises. These dual objectives were too con flicting and frustrating to be useful in the creation of meaningful classroom materials. Reading materials and presentation on the conceptual- inquiry approach in the pre-departure orientation sessions were not well received and contributed to the training ineffectiveness. Only half of the participants found the materials useful and approximately forty per cent found the presentations helpful. In addition, each participant during the pre-departure orientation sessions was to choose a concept or generalization that would serve as a focus for collection of data and materials. Most generalizations, however, were not selected during that period and were finalized during the first two weeks after arrival in India. Thus, nearly a third of the valuable field explora tion time was partially wasted. There was a general lack of continuity and curriculum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 80 guidance during the field phase. The curriculum specialist stayed in India for two instead of six weeks. The task of guiding the participants was taken over by the curriculum coordinator. She had her own ideas about curriculum development which were not necessarily complementary to those of the curriculum specialist. Selection of the Participants The process of double screening, with the first screening done by the school districts themselves and the final selection carried out through interviews conducted by the Institute staff was good in as much as it encouraged cooperation and involvement between the University and the school districts. It could be an excellent method of selection, if it were diligently followed. However, it was difficult to generate sufficient interest in the selection process on the part of most school districts. Sometimes notification letters and application forms were lost or delayed in the bureaucratic structure of the school districts and suitable candidates were prevented from applying for the program. Most of the school districts notified did not make any announcement regarding the Institute in their schools. Some candidates who applied had heard about the Institute informally while others were recommended by the districts because they knew someone in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 81 the superintendent's office. Consequently, some of the school personnel recommended by the school districts met the selection criteria, while the criteria had to be stretched to accommodate others. Relatively few teachers applied for the Institute. A major deterrent may have been their reluctance to pay tuition fees for ten units which totalled $720.00 for each in order to join the Institute. This argument has merit and might have hindered selection of qualified candidates. However, the real problem seemed to be lack of enthusiasm on the part of school districts in facilitating partici pation in an intercultural training institute which utilized a new approach to social sciences. On investi gation it was discovered that some of the school districts did not want the responsibility of choosing the candidates for fear of being accused by the teachers' union of favor ing one teacher over smother. In one known instance selection was made through the process of lottery, hardly the best way to select the most capable candidates. Though all candidates had the moral support of their districts, only a limited number gave any money to their participants for the purchase of materials for classroom use. This further indicated the districts' cursory interest in the selection process. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 Pre-field Orientation Pre-departure orientation proved to be a useful and important component of the Institute in facilitating the participants' knowledge of and adjustment to a different culture. Howeverr failure to schedule time for the participants to become informally acquainted with one another proved to be a major weakness of the pre-departure period. Twenty-five participants were put into a different culture for six weeks, living and sharing rooms with one another without having known each other on a prior informal basis. One of the participants recalled that it was a strange experience to meet other members of the group for the first time casually on the way to India in a Hong Kong bar. On the one hand, participants had to take care of their personal problems, adjust to one another and to the group. On the other hand, they needed all their energies to grasp a different culture and adapt to an unfamiliar environment. Under multiple stress factors the level of emotion escalated and a number of participants experienced alienation from one another, the group and the culture. Such emotional distress was not conducive to learning. The Institute staff spent a number of hours with each partici pant in order to foster mutual understanding among them, but with limited success. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 Field Experiences Upon arrival in India, all participants and the Institute staff excluding this investigator, suffered from cultural shock. The abrupt contrast with their own cultural framework in the United States literally over whelmed many of the participants and incapacitated them from any meaningful learning for varying lengths of time. The Institute staff was not prepared for, and did not know how to handle, this situation. The participants had been cautioned to expect cultural shock on arrival in India. Despite pre-orientation efforts, India represented a total assault upon the participants' sensory organs and perceptive capabilities. An environment of total physical and attitudinal strangeness could not help precipitating benumbed reactions in even the best-trained neophytes. The Institute staff was not adequately prepared to cope with cultural shock occurring simultaneously in themselves, with the exception of Mr. Malhotra, and in the partici pants. Most of the participants rebounded on their own in a week or ten days while for a few a longer period was required. The field program was designed by the Institute staff to provide a balanced experience in a foreign culture. The field schedule was divided into seminars on the Indian culture and society, guided fieldtrips, faunily stays and Si Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84 allotted free time for individual exploration. Sixteen seminars were arranged to deal topically with the Indian society. A few of these seminars were helpful in gaining insight into some aspects of the Indian culture. Most, however, did not fare well with the participants. The prime reason was that the majority of these lecture- seminars were too academic for neophytes of Indian culture. Most of the scholars and specialists, though outstanding in their own fields, were unable to relate effectively to the participants. Those who did not communicate well were either too abstract, like Professor Ray, too verbose, like Professor Ragavan, or too technical, like Professor D*Souza, in their presentations. The Institute group felt that they could acquire such academic knowledge through books or papers written by these scholars. Those speakers who related well to the participants geared their presentations more toward the affective and less toward the cognitive domain. Such experts like Mr. Khushwant Singh, Dr. Swaroop Singh, and Mr. J.P. Naik, made meaningful comparisons between the Indian and the American cultures. They exuded a certain degree of warmth and down-to-earth attitudes. These speakers were rated very high by the participants. Another factor contributing to the ineffectuality of the formal seminars was the lack of proper balance amông Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85 the topics. There were, for example, three seminars sche duled on the Indian economy and only one on Indian religion and none devoted to Indian art. It would have been better to eliminate some and substitute other topics to avoid duplication of information. In some cases, as in the seminar on "Indian Parliamen tary Institutions," the material had been covered in the pre-departure orientation sessions and, therefore, became redundant. Whenever possible, an attempt was made by the Institute staff with some success to inform the speaker ahead of time about the participants' basic knowledge of Indian culture. Thus, Professor Atal, who was to speak on "The Caste System in India," was advised shortly before his presentation that the participants were knowledgeable about the basic structure of Indian family life and the caste system. What they wanted to know was the effect of urbanization on caste and family in the Indian society. Professor Atal graciously consented to this request for contemporary information on societal trends. All field seminars were followed by question and answer periods. However, some of the participants were deprived of an opportunity to discuss intensely and at length various issues raised in the lectures because the speakers often had other commitments following these sessions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86 Another drawback in programming was the scheduling of field seminars in the morning and evening on the same day. After the morning seminar, which ended at ten-thirty, participants had six hours to do as they pleased before reporting to the five o'clock seminar. This split schedule made it difficult for participants to engage in a prolonged activity, such as an interview or observation of a cere mony, because they had to curtail such activities in order to attend the evening session. This over-intensive sche duling frustrated the participants. Some of these late afternoon seminars were cancelled whenever it proved possible for the speaker to meet with the group at another time. Field visits contributed far more to the achievement of Institute objectives than the lecture-seminars did. These visits provided direct comprehension of the Indian cultural freunework and excellent opportunities for amassing instructional data. Field visits were arranged to follow, and supplement, the seminar's discussion. Hence a trip to the village of Gazipur was preceded by a seminar on the "Indian Village." The participants found these prepara tory seminars and field follow-up arrangements very helpful in re-enforcing concepts through personal experience of cultural institutions in action. Institute participants traveled to different regions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87 of India. The change of locale provided the group with new opportunities to observe the diversity of languages, religions and ethnic groups which coexist in democratic India and exemplified the theme of "unity in diversity" which was stressed during the seminars. An enthusiastically received experience was a visit to the holy city of Hardwar located on the banks of the River Ganga in northern India. On the shores of this river the group observed and were fascinated by some of the Hindu religious practices not found elsewhere. In spite of an exhausting whole-day trip by bus, virtually all of the participants found this experience to be extremely rewarding. During this field visit, it was observable that that participants were involved in questioning, interviewing and exchanging information. This interaction between the participants and Indian people proved to be a highly beneficial learning experience. Field visits to villages and schools had far greater positive impact than visits to historical monuments. There were, in fact, too many trips to monuments and not enough activities programmed to acquaint participants with average Indian citizens. Almost all of the participants found the field visits involving interaction with the Indian people to be very valuable, particularly the visits Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88 to schools, villages and the Parliament. The most meaningful opportunity for contact with Indians was the family stay. Although this experience spanned only two days over a weekend, the participants felt that these stays enabled them to see more of the inner workings of Indian families than any other experience planned by the Institute. The family stays offered the only chance for participants to relate to Indians on a personal level and to function in a home rather than a hotel. Some of the Institute house guests developed deep relationships with members of the host families and still correspond with them. Despite the attempt of the Institute staff to arrange family stays with a cross-section of the Indian population, most of the host families were from the urban middle and upper classes. Family stays were scheduled for a weekend when the whole family (father, mother, children, and sometimes grandpaurents) would be at home and relatives might drop by for short visits. All host families had at least one member who could converse in English with their American guests. This avenue of communication through a common language alleviated tension and feelings of alienation on both sides. Affectively and cognitively the family stay was rated the most valuable experience by one hundred per cent of the participants. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 At the beginning of the field study each participant had selected a generalization as a focal point around which instructional materials would be gathered, organized and developed for presentation. A logistic problem arose in trying to meet the needs of twenty-five participants working in the field on separate generalizations. A bind between personal need satisfaction and group needs some times occurred, for example, when a person seeking to explore in depth the rural feunily life of India was required to attend a lecture on urban development. Al though the lecture may have been of some help to this hypothetical participant, if he was able to link the village family life with its erosion in the city, he usually resented the time sacrificed from his individual project and would have been a better listener if provided with ample time and advisement for pursuing independent study. Since it was not feasible to meet the academic demands of each participant, the depth and focus of research were lessened by allowing participants to work on separate generalizations rather than in small groups or teams. Despite staff efforts to balance the field experience between time for group activities and independent study, most participants complained that they lacked sufficient time for research and exploration on their own. Two-thirds Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 90 of the group felt they needed more free time to achieve their field objectives. While there were more structured activities than time for individual exploration, a number of days in addition to some mornings, afternoons and evenings were left open for the participants to utilize as they saw fit. In actuality few persons used their time well. These free periods proved disadvantageous unless the individual participant formulated a clear cut purpose, knew who and where to go for information and possessed the skills needed for gathering materials having classroom potentiality. Too much instructional freedom could easily degenerate into superficial forays, bargain-hunting or a malaise of inactivity, boredom and loneliness. The field schedule shows clearly that substantial time was allotted in several cities, particularly Madras, Bangalore and Mysore for individual exploration of the environment. Conversely, when left alone, the participants grew restless and wanted the Institute staff to program activities for them. The staff was puzzled by the duality of people who complained about lack of free time, yet when given it, did not know what use to make of it. Hence most participants seemed to prefer organized activities or wanted to be handed out a list of activities and places to visit in a particular city. This desire for planned or Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 91 suggested activities reflected feelings of insecurity in a foreign culture and indicated an inability of the partici pants to familiarize themselves with a new setting rapidly enough to begin unassisted research. Lack of formal or informal evaluation sessions in the field was a chronic weakness of the Institute. Only one such evaluation session was planned close to final depar ture from India. At that point it was already too late to modify any part of the progreun. Although the Institute staff made a constant effort to seek an informal evaluation from each participant, there was a need for participants to join together as a group to share information and experiences. The practical arrangements of the field phase were instrumental in achieving the Institute objectives and bear mention. The participants were accommodated in comfortable hotels since the weather in India was intensely hot and humid. These controlled environments played a vital role in the capacity of individuals to function effectively and thereby contributed toward success of the Institute objectives. Medical facilities were available wherever the group travelled. The knowledge that a doctor was available if they fell ill, gave the participants some emotional ease. Most participants suffered stomach ail ments at sometime in the trip either once or repeatedly. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 92 The transportation facilities were on the whole quite adequate though the journeys were sometimes very fatiguing. New Delhi was chosen as the base of operations because it was the national capital, cosmopolitan and centrally located. Whenever the participants went on a long or short field excursion, they returned to Delhi and stayed in the Vikram Hotel. This repetition of environment gave the participants a feeling of relatedness to at least one city in a foreign culture and helped facilitate meaningful exploration of the foreign environment. The feeling of emotional security was enhanced during the field travel by the continuous presence of the staff members and fellow participants. The India Institute was conducted on a very intensive and highly mobile basis. It placed strenuous demands on all involved, particularly the Institute staff. Logisti cal and professional problems presented themselves in connection with moving twenty-five people from place to place in a leirge country with limited transportation and communication facilities. The staff members were compelled to double as tour guide, travel agent, porter, dietician, nurse, mailman, accountant, entertainer, loan manager and therapist friend. One of the members of the staff was a native of India and had traveled extensively, knew the culture and spoke several of the languages well. His presence facilitated the achievement of the Institute Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 objectives to a considerable extent. Postfield Training The postfield sessions were designed to assist the participants in the organization and development of their instructional materials by putting the entire experience into proper perspective. During the fall semester follow ing their return from India, the participants worked on organizing and developing curriculum components for classroom use, A copy of all the instructional products was submitted by participants to the Institute staff for review. The effectiveness of the postfield follow-up was hindered by the absence of the curriculum specialist who had worked with individual participants during the pre departure seminars and part of the field work period. The absence of a curriculum specialist during the post field sessions deprived the participants of guidance needed to finalize their products. The various participants submitted instructional products, including conceptually organized data books and curriculum components for classroom use. Participants had been allowed to pool their field data in small teams, if so desired, and to submit conceptually organized data books jointly. Of the participants ninety-two per cent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 94 submitted data books. Because of personal problems the other eight per cent asked to be allowed to submit their products at a later date; however, later attempts to secure these compiled materials were unsuccessful. The data books contained a variety of materials: notes from seminars, information gathered by the parti cipants on their own, interviews, personal observations and photgraphs. Most of the data was presented in accord with the conceptual framework outlined by the curriculum specialist during the pre-departure orientation sessions: Structure Function I. Maintenance Systems 1. Social Systems 2. Economic Systems 3. Political Systems II. Projective or Expressive Systems 1. Belief Systems (philosophy, religion, science, etc.) 2. Esthetic Systems (art, dreima, dance, literature, etc.) To enable the individual and the group to survive To order and develop patterns of expectation in human interaction To provide for wants and needs To resolve conflicts, pro vide for the general welfare, and facilitate peaceful interaction To enhance the life of the individual and the group To satisfy the need to know and to understand To enable the individual member of the culture to express himself and his culture and to satisfy the need for beauty Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95 Using the above framework y the participants would classify notes from the seminar on "The Effects of Urbani zation on Caste and Family in India" under the heading of "social systems," whereas, notes from a lecture on "Indus trialization in India" would be filed under the category of "economic systems." Participants found difficulty in classifying data from seminars such as "Family Planning" because the topic had relevance to both social and economic systems. As a consequence, the data from the lecture on the "Contemporary Indian Scene," which dealt with current political, economic and social aspects of Indian society, was filed under different headings by various participants. Participants experienced difficulty in categorizing complex data based on personal observa tions. An excellent example was the observation of an Indian marriage ceremony which is a complex phenomenon reflecting the social, economic and religious aspects of the families involved. To facilitate collection of meaningful data in the field, the curriculum specialist had given each participant the following list of sources during the pre-departure orientation session and often referred the participants to it. Recommended sources were to include Written materials: textbooks, references, letters, diaries, minutes, newspapers, magazines, government reports and documents, business records, biographical materials. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96 Art objects: paintings, murals, tapestries, vases, plagues, medals, jewelry, wall paintings, portraits, ornaments, sculpture. Orally transmitted materials: folklore, legends, sagas, ballads, anecdotes, stories, eyewitness accounts, tales of old timers. Recorded materials: photographs, slides, films, tapes, records, maps, diagrams, graphs, charts. Inscriptions: monuments, plaques, buildings, coins, clay tablets, walls, grave markers, bridges, art objects. Physical remains: buildings, monuments, aquaducts, implements, tools, utensils, weapons, pottery, baskets, clothing, textiles, costumes, furnishings, musical instruments. Content analysis: of printed materials, films, and other instructional media to gather data on meanings of terms, changes and trends, uses of resources, use of words to stir the emotions, underlying assumptions, and the frquency of occurence of other items under study. Field trips: to collect data on farming, business activities, conservation, transportation, communi cation, artifacts in exhibits, and other topics under study. Observation of activities of members of the feunily, house builders, and other community workers; of the roles of policemen, firemen, and other public officials; of changes in the weather and seasons; of meetings of the city council, school board, and other groups. Interviews, polls, and questionnaires: to gather data from fellow students, parents, community officials, business men, health workers, experts on conservation, and other resource persons who are expert on issues and questions under study. Role-playing and simulation: of activities and decision-making in families, markets, banks and other situations in which identification with others and involvement in decision-making processes are important. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 The participants were given the following list for recording, organizing, and presenting data: Making notes or tape recording of data obtained through interviews and on field trips. Construction of maps to show the distribution of homes, businesses, population, resources, and other phenomena, how such distributions as transportation networks and cities are related, and the flow of people, goods, and services between places. Construction of models, diagrams, graphs, tables, and charts of objects and processes under study to demonstrate and explain how they work and how they are used. Preparation of sketches, drawings, displays, and exhibits to illustrate processes, show the use of objects, and to highlight relationships between objects and human activities. Preparation of reports, oral or written, to share findings and conclusions with others. In view of these guidelines, it is worth examining more closely the conceptually organized data books sub mitted by the participants. Some were bulky while others were skimpy. Some participants listed excellent resources available on India, but showed no indication of having collected data during the field phase other than undigested tapes and films. These products represented bibliographies rather than data books. Other participants turned in material that was xeroxed from books on India which were available in the United States, but did not incorporate any of their own experiences in India. Other books con tained pictures with captions and very little meaningful Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98 information. Though the pictures were good, the captions were stereotyped. One picture showed two broken-down straw huts with the caption reading that many Indians live in what seems like incredible poverty. In point of fact, many Indians do live in broken-down huts and, for that matter, in incredible poverty. On the other hand, most do not, and, in order to show a balanced picture of Indian society, it would be necessary to include photo graphs of modern urban buildings as well as the deteriora ting mud and brick houses found in some villages. While slums do exist in India, only a minute percentage of the population dwell in them, and, by showing a single photo graph of a particular type of human habitation, a dis torted picture is formed in the viewer's mind that Indians characteristically live in these appalling circumstances. A tesun of two participants submitted a meunmoth data book totalling six hundred pages. The most impressive aspect of this book was its bulk. It included a daily log, disorganized and incoherent notes from the lecture- seminars (introductions of the speakers), along with newspaper clippings, pamphlets on tourism and brochures on such topics as how to wrap a saree. Other participants disregarded the conceptual method of organizing their data and arranged their material in chronological order. One such book included the time and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99 day of arrival in India, followed by the day to day happenings up to the moment of departure. This data book contained abbreviated notes from lectures, parts of inter views, some random information, a seven page table of contents, three pages of a dinner menu confiscated from a Westernized hotel in Madras, some newspaper clippings with commercial advertisements, and names and positions of Educational Resources Center staff members in New Delhi. Some of the participants organized their research data to give a reasonably accurate portrayal of the Indian society. These data books contain edited lectures, notes from personal interviews and descriptions of individual or group experiences. An example of a conceptually well organized data book is shown in Appendix IV. After examining these data books, the staff concluded that although most of the participants succeeded in cate gorizing and classifying materials according to the conceptual framework outlined for them, the content of these materials was superficial. Most data books did not reflect valuable personal experiences, significant obser vations of cultural traits, or a capacity to research information which had potential for instructional use. In developing curriculum components based on their chosen generalizations, the participants drew information from their resource books. Approximately eighty per cent Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100 of the participants completed this assignment. An effort to secure teaching components from the remaining partici pants was unsuccessful. The curriculum components submitted did not include any audio-visual materials, such as films, tapes and slides. Almost all participants took a number of slides in India. Reluctance to submit slides was perhaps due to the expense involved in duplicating them. In structuring their instructional components, the participants generally followed the design outlined by the curriculum specialist during the pre-departure orientation sessions. The basic elements of that design were presented as follows : 1. Objectives Over-arching ones a. Generalizations about human behavior Generalizations are useless unless they are related to something usable and meaningful to the children b. Content relating to a specific culture at a specific time Children should learn something that is true about human behavior c. Cognitive and affective processes Cognitive — skills that we want children to learn; analyzing, describ ing, comparing, synthesizing, applying, and inferring Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101 Affective — let children examine feelings and develop open-ended questions, i.e. , is it good? Is it bad? d. Value analysis and application Decision-making Problem solving (How do Indians solve problems? What do Indians value?) 2. Setting a. Group b. Time c. Place 3. Concept or generalization about some aspect of human behavior 4. Data and/or sources of information 5. Activities (Questions, games, interviews, observations, etc.) These are approaches which allow the pupil an opportunity to practice 6. Evaluation (based on objectives chosen previously) It should tell you whether you achieved whatever you set out to do, or if a different approach should be used. Some participants turned in a single teaching lesson while others turned in as many as ten teaching units. Most curriculum components reflected the above design, but very few of these indicated any of the participants' firsthand field experiences. One participant whose interest centered on Indian Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 village life indicated that her classroom approach to India consists of showing slides of an Indian village and asking the children what they see in the pictures. Following the slide presentation, there is a discussion on village life in India. Another participant who teaches fourth grade indicated that her objective was to communicate the concept of group interaction and its related generalization that man learns behaviour from groups with which he interacts. This participant said that she would show a particular slide of an Indian market and ask the children to pay special attention to the kind of interaction taking place. Then the children would listen to a cassette tape of bargaining in the Indian market. Afterwards the teacher would ask the children to compare the markets in India with those in the United States. This participant planned activities in which the children prepare a two-minute role playing session, simulating buying and selling transactions in the contrasting cultues. This teacher uses as a measure of successful learning the degree to which the students stress the social orientation of the Indian market as against the purely efficient business-like orientation which typifies the Western money transactions. After examining this particular lesson, the staff did not feel the teacher had indicated what she wanted Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103 compared: i.e.. Are the markets publically or privately owned? What is and is not sold there? Why are markets located where they are? How are these markets designed? Who trades at these markets? Where do the products come from? There was no indication that through this activity, as currently structured, that the learner could understand the underlying generalization or could absorb the relevant data. The above teacher had incorporated all the elements, as outlined, for curriculum design. Yet the total component did not reflect an understanding of this design. The majority of components submitted had the proper design, but were otherwise superficial in content. This inability to generate meaningful instructional materials is partially explained by the fact that the participants were not trained to be curriculum developers or writers. They were primarily classroom teachers with their own ways of impar ting instructional material. Most of these curriculum components failed to reflect the participants' field experiences or research. A few participants wrote stories on religion as part of their curriculum component. These were stories they wanted their school children to read as part of the assignment on India. After reviewing these stories, the staff concluded that they heightened popular stereotypes and showed little Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 evidence of real research effort. In these stereotypic lessons on Hinduism the participants tell their children that Hindus believe that man lives in one body after another until, with the necessary amount of suffering, he becomes part of God, i.e., Brahma. The way to rise higher and closer to God is through suffering. That is why in India men are willing to suffer by lying on a bed of nails for thirty years, or locking themselves in a small cage for the rest of their lives, or by closing their feet around their neck and rolling like a wheel for pilgrimages of hundreds of miles. This kind of lesson is a dramatic glorification of the worst kind of popular stereotype about Hinduism. It is grossly misleading to say the least. Even a little research or the reading of a second rate book on Hinduism would have shown that this was a myth. In Hinduism there are different pathways leading to union with God, and these have been broadly distinguished as being of three types: karma or union through disinterested service, bhakti or union through self-forgetting love and devotion, and jnana or union through wisdom. Wisdom does not mean intellectual acumen nor dialectical power. It is realized experience. A man may choose, like Gandhi, to lead an active life in the world and make every one of his actions an offering to God or he may devote his whole life, like Reunakrishna, to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 105 the loving worship of God, or he may, like Sankara or Socrates, seek to realize God through philosophical inquiry. Among the instructional components submitted there were some which utilized the conceptually organized design and which appeared to have classroom potential for instruc tion , An average example of a curriculum component is listed in Appendix V. All instructional products had been submitted by January of 1972. A year later, in January 1973, this investigator conducted a telephone interview of the participants to ascertain whether the instructional materials on India had proved useful in the respective classrooms. Out of twenty-four participants, twenty-two had turned in the data book and twenty-one had turned in the curriculum components. When contacted, five former participants were administrators or counselors (three had been in administration prior to the Institute and two became counselors on their return). These individuals said they had no opportunity to use these materials ex cept when speeücing to groups other than the classroom children. On those occasions, they found data books to be valuable for purposes of information. One Institute participant had quit teaching (hopefully not because of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106 the Indian experience). Two were out of the country. One had left California. Two more could not be contacted. Of the remaining eleven teachers, the majority felt that the data books developed by them were moderately useful. They had used information and photographs out of these books for classroom instruction. Two participants said they had put their data books in the reference room of the library and informed the students of their where abouts in the event they needed to use them. The teachers had not drawn much from these books personally. In their teaching techniques, they had generally relied on Indian guest speakers, shown films on India, and taken students on a field trip to an Indian restaurant or to an Indian movie. One teacher said she consulted books available in the United States to obtain information and materials on holidays and customs of Indian people in order to teach her elementary school children. A majority of the participants contacted felt their self-generated curriculum components were useless for classroom purposes. They expressed the feeling that each class has a personality of its own which demands flexibi lity in content and presentation on the part of the teacher. The overall feeling was that each component was designed for a fictional class and, therefore, did not meet the needs of an actual learning situation. Others felt Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 that it was possible to test the components and modify them to meet the needs of individual classes. On the other hand, it must be emphasized that all participants felt that, in addition to being able to purchase artifacts and handicrafts with the grant money, that the total experience in India had helped them to become better and more effec tive teachers. Their life perspective had been broadened to incorporate an intercultural awareness. The participants suggested that the conceptual-inquiry approach should not be made mandatory within the Institute. Most teachers do not use the inquiry method. One parti cipant said that her children became rebellious because of constant questioning. Others suggested that the individual teacher should not try to collect data on every aspect of Indian society. Instead, he or she should narrow to tangibles, then focus in, while remaining aware of other aspects of the larger cultural context. They should, for example, be aware of the current political climate in order to understand the economic reforms. A perceptive comment was offered by a Beverly Hills high school teacher who commented that the participants had been expected to leeirn about India and the conceptual- inquiry approach at the same time, which caused confusion that blocked a thorough understanding of India. Most felt that the practical understanding of Indian culture should Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 be emphasized with less stress on the conceptual approach to world history, and that teachers should be allowed to use their own experiences for constructing usable lesson units which would then be communicated by any method they deemed most suitable. Instead of the data book, some participants suggested that a personal diary be kept and that a record of the responses to field events be compiled which they could subsequently put together in a creative synthesis of their own experiences in conjunction with available books and films on India. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study was conducted to analyze and evaluate an intercultural teacher training institute on India which was conducted during the summer of 1971, The objectives of the Institute were to give selected school personnel from Southern California an insight into Indian culture and to train them in conceptual-inquiry methodology as a freunework for gathering, organizing and developing in structional materials on India for classroom use. Procedures The study involved twenty-four elementary and secondary level social studies teachers and school administrators from Southern California school districts who participated in the Institute. The organization and conduct of the Institute were critically analyzed and evaluated in terms of the Institute's stated objectives. The method used for analysis was empirical insofar as it was based on actual observation and participation of staff and trainees during all phases of the Institute. Personal evaluations were sought from the trainees at the end of the field phase by means of a questionnaire designed by the Institute staff. Instructional materials developed by - 109 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110 the participants were examined in terms of the stated objectives of the Institute. Implementation of the Institute The Institute was conceptually organized into three major phases: pre-field, field and post-field. The main objectives of the pre-departure orientation were to introduce participants to various aspects of Indian culture, to familiarize them with the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies and to provide them with information concerning the practical aspects of the field trip. Field experience goals were to provide the parti cipants with an opportunity to probe Indian life and culture, and to gather research data and materials per taining to individually chosen generalizations. The sole purpose of the post-field workshop was to provide guidance and assistance in organizing and developing field materials into instructional components for classroom use. Analysis and Evaluation All evidence indicated that this Institute experience generated increased intercultural awareness on the part of participants and that the objectives pertaining to the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ill comprehension of the workings of the Indian society and its people were achieved. The Institute training in conceptual inquiry methodology, as a tool for gathering, organizing and developing instructional materials, proved largely ineffective, and the Institute objectives relating to this approach were only partially accomplished. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions may be drawn from this study of the India Institute: Participants were given a reasonably accurate and objective portrayal of the Indian society as it exists today. Before departure for India the group was intro duced to Indian culture by various scholars of Indian studies who resided in the greater Los Angeles area. During their Indian stay, they were exposed to Indian living patterns through family stays and to institutions through seminars and field visits conducted by leading authorities on Indian culture. It can be categorically stated that virtually all participants had experiences which not only enhanced their knowledge of India, but helped them gain in such intang ibles as tolerance, maturity and understanding. The total experience of personal contact with India generated an intercultural awareness unparalleled in the participants' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112 personal and professional lives. As one participant put itf "No way to measure it, my whole life is changed." The instructional products submitted by the partici pants generally reflected the conceptual plan of organiza tion. However, an examination of the individual products revealed that they adopted the conceptual framework without comprehending its basic significance. The products were neatly categorized and classified, but they tended to be superficial in content. Two types of materials were submitted, conceptually organized data books and curriculum components. The data books were found to be moderately useful for information retrieval. However, the curriculum components developed by the participants were regarded either as virtually useless or as requiring considerable modification in order to fit the unique environmental needs of each classroom. The academic overlay of the conceptual-inquiry approach as a framework for learning about India caused undue confusion which left the participants ill-equipped for gathering meaningful and teachable products. The participants' evaluation of the Institute indi cated that their experiences during the pre-field and field phases of the Institute were meaningful in giving them a significant awareness of the dynamics of Indian society. However, the imposition of an academic structure, i.e.. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113 the conceptual-inquiry methodology for gathering, organiz ing and developing instructional materials, was something of a deterrent to gaining meaningful understanding of Indian culture. RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are offered in the interest of helping future intercultural institutes of this nature become more effective and meaningful. It is suggested that for gathering, organizing and developing instructional materials, the participating teachers be free to use any educational methodology that is an integral part of their teaching patterns. The participants should be made aware of innovations in various educational methodologies, as research tools which are available for use in collecting and developing teaching materials, but no methodology should be inordi nately emphasized. The comprehension of a dissimilar culture should be the major goal of any intercultural institute. This com plex task should not be complicated any further by the addition of a particular educational strategy for the development of instructional materials. In order to develop usable and meaningful instructional materials, the participating teachers should be free to exercise any approach they feel is workable in their classrooms. This Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114 recommendation is made in the belief that teachers are the best judges of their own classroom realities. To presume otherwise would be counter-productive. Most teachers evolve their teaching methods out of their own classroom experiences. A short-term Institute, regardless of how intensive it may be, provides little opportunity for teaching teachers how to instruct their students, and anyone who presumes otherwise is probably engaged in wishful thinking or does not fathom the reali ties of classroom teaching. Participating teachers should be provided with relevant experiences and materials, then left free to communicate their findings to their students by any means they consider appropriate. Selection of Participants It is a common saying that any program is only as good as the people involved in it. Hence, it is of utmost importance that the most capable individuals be selected for intercultural institutes of this kind. A larger num ber of applicants would facilitate the selection of the most able participants. It is suggested that school dis tricts in Southern California be notified regarding future intercultural institutes and that a copy of this announce ment letter be sent to all school principals along with a request that the letter be posted on the faculty bulletin Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 115 board. All social studies teachers and administrators should be encouraged to submit applications. During the final selection process the Institute Director should keep the school districts informed of the steps being taken. During the final selection process, the following criteria should be kept in mind while evaluating each prospective member of the Institute: 1. Educational background, 2. Teaching experience, 3. Involvement in social studies, 4. Commitment to public education, 5. Letters of recommendation, 6. Ability to work individually and in teams on selected concepts, gathering and developing materials for classroom use, 7. District's interest in effectively utilizing the participant!'s training after the field work phase in India, 8. Ability to withstand stress factors, 9. Physical fitness, 10. Adaptability to group functioning, 11. Adaptability to foreign environments, 12. Financial capacity, 13. Previous overseas travel, and 14. Emotional stability. As a common denominator of selection, heavy emphasis should be placed on the participant's ability to get along with others in a cooperative and contributive manner. The development of cognitive and affective understanding seems to be related to the participant's degree of tolerance of different views and his/her capacity for helpfulness and compassion for other human beings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 Pre-field Orientation It is suggested that informal gatherings and group encounters be made an integral part of the pre-departure orientation sessions. Such sessions would help generate feelings of mutual acceptance leading to group cohesive ness. Mutual acceptance would reduce problems arising in a foreign setting where all energies are needed for cul tural adjustment. Exposure to an unknown environment tends to increase emotional tensions and bring personal weak nesses to the surface. Feelings of alienation will result unless group bonds are well established before entry into another culture. It seems likely that depth and focus of research projects would be enhanced by the division of the parti cipants into small teams of four or five members. The team members would pool their abilities in probing a single theme, concept or generalization. Small working units would stimulate affective and cognitive interaction among team members, thus helping each person to function more effectively in a foreign environment. According to choice each team may divide up the responsibilities among its members in order to pursue subthemes or subconcepts. All fieldwork concepts or themes should be chosen conclu sively before departure to facilitate research and data gathering activities commencing upon arrival in the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 selected culture. Field Experiences It is suggested that cultural shock phenomena can best be dealt with through planned group encounters before and after arrival in the foreign environment. Such encoun ter sessions can serve as instruments for comprehending the diversity underlying the cultural framework for study. Group discussion of unfamiliar cultural stimuli and inte gration of random phenomena into a purposeful structure should help reduce the length and intensity of cultural shock. Lecture-seminars should be minimized, if not totally eliminated, during the field phase. Most seminars con ducted by guest lecturers tend to be too academic and too technically-oriented to be useful for the participants' learning needs. Moreover, most of what is said in such lectures can be found in books and articles written by the various guest scholars. These published materials could be made available to the participants for their present and future use. The few seminars that must be planned should be devoted to relevant and contemporary topics and should be conducted in an informal atmosphere. Since it is very difficult to prejudge a speaker's vitality and communicative ability, a considerable effort should be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 118 made to get experts who can relate well to the group. It is suggested that future institutes place heavy emphasis on the experiential aspects of the field visits. Participants should experience rather than observe a culture. Hence more opportunities should be offered for interaction between the participants and a cross-section of the Indian people. More stays of greater length should be arranged in the villages where eighty per cent of the Indian populace is concentrated. A variety of school visits should be planned. Observation of the Parliament, state assemblies and city council meetings should be done during typical open sessions. Trips to large and small scale factories in operation should be used to illustrate the direction and pace of economic development in a nation. Family stays must be an integral part of any future intercultural institute because of their intense learning value. Since two-day (a weekend) family stays are most comfortable for both the families and the participants, these should be arranged at least twice during the six week field period. The participants might, for example, stay for a weekend with families in the morth of India and later spend a weekend with families in the South. The importance of family stays and the firsthand cultural experiences to be gained by the participants cannot be over-emphasized. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 For purposes of concentrated research, it is suggested that small team seminars and field visits be designed to interrelate the participants' experiences with their chosen themes. An Indian scholar or specialist should be assigned to each team for a period of two or more weeks to aid con structive inquiry into the chosen culture. It would be possible, for instance, to have a professor from Delhi University lead a team effort in investigating a generali zation about the Indian belief system. Such resource per sonnel could travel with their respective teams to the research sites that would most vividly illustrate the topics for inquiry. All formal curriculum sessions should be eliminated since they do not seem to serve any significant purpose. Instead the curriculum specialist should hold informal conferences on an individual and team basis throughout the fieldwork period. The specialist should be a motivator and a resource person who guides the participants in collecting, organizing and developing instructional materials in accord with their own teaching patterns. Such curriculum guidance would hopefully result in the refinement of the partici pants' teaching skills along lines they feel beneficial for classroom use. It is suggested that a weekly evaluation session should be planned to elicit the participants' reactions to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 the program in progress. If the reactions indicate that certain planned activities are unproductive, an attempt should be made to modify the scheduled field activities. However, the major purpose of these sessions should not be to modify the program structure which is subject to bud getary and logistic limitations. It should serve instead as a forum for exchange of information, ideas, and ex periences. It is essential that these evaluation or"rap" sessions be informal since a relaxed atmosphere facilitates the open expression of ideas and feelings on various areas of agreement and conflict. These open sessions should generate a certain degree of understanding among the participants about themselves, each other and the culture they are studying. It is recommended that no more than one strenuous activity be planned on a single day. Ample unscheduled time should be allowed for the participants to explore the culture on their own. However, they should be provided with a list of activities, happenings and places that they may participate in or observe. A basic list should be included in the Institute manuals if at all possible. Staff members should remember that it would be better to have more planned activities than free time. It is much easier to modify a structured plan than to develop a new one on-the-spot. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 Practical aspects of the field visit should be given serious consideration since they sometimes make the dif ference between the success or failure of an Institute. Accommodations should be comfortable, medical facilities should be available and travel should be without much inconvenience, i.e., long trips by car or buses, air- conditioned or not, should be avoided for the resulting exhaustion lowers the participants' capacity to comprehend new information, however skillfully presented. The intercultural Institute staff should be selected with great care. The project director should be a versa tile individual capable of playing multiple roles and adapting to several cultures with spontaneous ease. The director should have lived one or more years both in the participants' culture and the culture selected for field investigation. The director should have compassion, warmth and understanding of other people's needs and problems. Above all he or she should have patience, be decisive and possess the stamina and enthusiasm to meet the demands of the large group under his care. Selection of a well- rounded and dedicated leader is so important that it could be the decisive factor in the successful implementation of an intercultural institute. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY - 122 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 123 I. Books Allenr Rodney F., Fleckenstein, John V,, and Lyon, Peter M., eds. Inquiry in the Social Studies, Theory and Examples for Classroom Teachers. Washington, D.C: National Council for the Social Studies, 1968. Altbach, Philip G., ed. Turmoil and Transition; Higher Education and Student Politics in India. Bombay : Lavani, 1968. Ausubel, David P. Educational Psychology; A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968, Basham, A.L. The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Indian Sub-Continent Before the Coming of the Muslims, New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1954. Bauer, R.A., Pool, I. de S., and Dexter, L.A. American Business and Public Policy; The Politics of Foreign Trade. New York; Atherton Press, 1963. Berg, Harry D., ed. Evaluation in Social Studies. Washington, D.C; National Council for the Social Studies, Thirty-fifth Yearbook, 1965. B^teille, Andrd". Castes: Old and New Essays in Social Structure and Social Stratificatrôn. New York; Asia Publishing House, 1969. Brown, Ina Corinne. Understanding Other Cultures. Engle wood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963. Bruner, Jerome S., Goodnow, Jacqueline J., and Austin, George A. A Study of Thinking. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 196V. Bruner, Jerome s. On Knowing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1962. Bruner, Jerome S. The Process of Education. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1960. Carstairs, G. Morris. The Twice Born. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1967. Cherrington, B.M. Methods of Education in International Attitudes. Teackers College Contribution to Education, No. 5. New York: Teachers College, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 Columbia University, 1934. Clements, H. Millard, Fielder, William R., and Tabachnick, B. Robert. Social Studies r Inquiry in Elementary Classrooms. New York; Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., TMT,--- Coelho, George V. Changing Images of America : A Study of Indian Students Perceptions. New York: Free Press, 1958. Cox, Benjamin, and Massialas, Byron G. Social Studies in the United States, A Critical Appraisal. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967. Conze, Edward, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. New York : Harper and Row, 195 9. ! Cormack, Margaret L. She Who Rides A Peacock: Indian Students and Social Change, A Research Analysis. New York: Praeger, 1962. Das, Durga. India from Curzon to Nehru and After. New York: John Day Company, 1970. De Bary, William Theodore, ed. Sources of Indian Tradition. Volumes I and II, New York : Columbia University Press, 1970. Dewey, John. How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Education Process. Boston, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath, 1933. DuBois, Cora A. Foreign Students and Higher Education in the United States. Washington, D.C: American Council on Education, 1956. Eggerton, Claude A. An Evaluation of Study for the University of Michigan Teacher Candidates at the University of Sheffield, England. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1969. Fancett, Verna S., et al. Social Science Concepts and the Classroom. Syracuse, New York: Social Studies Curriculum Center, Syracuse University, 1968, Feldman, Martin, and Seifman, Eli, eds. The Social Studies. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 125 Fenton, Edwin. Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools — An Inductive Approach. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. Fischer, Louis. Gandhi. New York: New American Library, 1963. Gagne, Robert M. The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965. Gandhi, M.K. Gandhi's Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Trut^ Trans, by Mahadev Desai. Washington, D.C: Public Affairs Press, 1948. Garratt, G.T., ed. The Legacy of India. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press , l93^, Grothe, Peter. Attitude Change of American Tourists in the Soviet Unionl Washington, D.C: George Washington University,1969. Hutton, John H. Caste in India. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. Huxley, Aldous. Jesting Pilate: An Intellectual Holiday. New York: George H. Doran, 1926. Hyman, Ronald T., ed. Teaching: Vantage Points for Study. New York: J.P. Lippincott Company, I960. Jarolimek, John and Walsh, Huber M., eds. Reading for Social Studies in Elementary Education. New York : Macmillan, 1969. Joyce, Bruce R. New Strategies for Social Education. Chicago : Science Research Associates, Inc., 19Ï2. Kelman, Herbert C., ed. International Behaviour. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Krug, Mark M. History and the Social Sciences. Boston, Massachusetts: Blaisdell Publishing Company, 1967. Lamb, Beatrice P. India; A World in Transition. New York: Praeger, 1968. Martorella, Peter H. Concept Learning in the Social Studies. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Intext Educational Publishers, 1971. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 126 Massialas, Byron G. and Cox, C. Benjamin. Inquiry in the Social Studies. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966. Mathews, Helen G., ed. Asia in the Modern World. New York: New American Libraury, 1963, Mende, Tiber. Nehru: Conversation on India and World Affairs. New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1956. Michaelis, John U., Johnston, A. Montgomery. The Social Sciences: Foundations of the Social Studies. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, 1965. Moore, Charles. The Indian Mind, Essentials of Indian Philosophy and Cultur^ Honolulu, Hawaii: East-West Center Press, University of Hawaii, 1967. Morris, R.T. The Two-Way Mirror. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 1960. Morrissett, Irving, ed. Concepts and Structure in the New Social Sciences Curricula! New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967. Myrdal, Gunnar. Asian Drama: An Inquiry Into the Poverty of Nations. Volumes I, II and III. New York: Pantheon Books, Inc., 1968. Narayan, R.K. The Financial Expert. New York: Noonday Press, 1970. Nehru, Jawaharlal. The Discovery of India. New York: Doubleday Press, I960. Radhakrishnan, S. The Hindu View of Life. 9th impression. New York: Macmillan Company, 1954. Radhakrishnan, S. Eastern Religions and Western Thought. London: Oxford University Press, 1940. Renou, Louis. Indian Literature. New York: Walker and Company, 1964. Rowland, Benjamin. The Art and Architecture of India. 2nd edition. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1956. Saiyidain, K.G. Education, Culture and Social Order. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1963. Spear, Percival. India; A Modern History. Ann Arbor, Michigan; University of Michigan Press, 1961. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 Srinivas, M.N. Social Change in Modern India» Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1969. Taba, Hilda. Teachers' Handbook for Elementary Social Studies. "Boston, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1967. Taylor, Harold. The World As Teacher. Anchor Books edition. New York: Doubleday and Company, 1970. Thut, I.N., and Adams, Donald. Educational Patterns in Contemporary Societies. New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1Ô64. Useem, J. and Useem, Ruth. The Western Educated Man in India. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1905. Ward, Barbara. The Lopsided World. New York: Norton and Company, 1968. Wilcox, Wayne A. India and Pakistan. New York: Foreign Policy Association, Inc., October, 1967. Wiser, William and Charlotte. Behind Mud Walls — 1930- 1960. Berkeley, California; University of California Press, 1963. Zimmer, Heinrich. Philosophies of India. Edited by Ceunpbell. New York: Meridian Books, Inc., 1956. II. Articles Basu, A.K. and Ames, Richard G. "Cross-cultural Contact and Attitude Formation." Sociology and Social Research LV, 1970, pp. 5-16. Brooks, Robert R.R. "Can India Make It?" Saturday Review, August 9, 1969, pp. 12-16. Bruner, J.S. and Perlmutter, H.V, "Compatriot and Foreigner: A Study of Impression Formation in Three Countries." Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, LV, 1957, pp. 253-260. Caplow, Theodore, and Finsterbusch, Kurt. "France and Other Countries: A Study of International Interaction." Journal of Conflict Resolution, XII, 1968, pp. 1-15. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 128 Collier, Malcolm. "A Question About Questions." Social Education, December, 1965, pp. 555-556. Cox, C. Benjamin. "An Inquiry into Inquiries." Social Education, May, 1965, pp. 300-302. Crabtree, Charlotte. "Inquiry Approaches: How New and How Valuable." Social Education, November, 1966, pp. 523-525, 531: Deutsch, Steven E, "The Impact of Cross-cultural Relations on the Campus." Sociology and Social Research, LIII, 1969, pp. 137-146. Fenton, Edwin. "Inquiry and Structure." Inquiry in the Social Studies. Edited by Rodney F. Allen, John V. Fleckenstein and Peter M. Lyon. Washington, D.C: National Council for Social Studies, 1967. Fersh, Seymour H. "Looking Outward is 'In'." Interna tional Dimensions in the Social Studies. Edited by James M. Becker and Howard D. Mehlinger. Washington, D.C: National Council for the Social Studies, 38th Yearbook, 1968. Fish, Alphoretta S. and Goldmark, Bernice. "Inquiry Method : Three Interpretations." Science Teacher, February, 1966, pp. 13-15. Friedlander, Bernard A. "A Psychologist's Second Thoughts on Concepts, Curiosity, and Discovery in Teaching and Learning." Harvard Educational Review, Winter, 1965. Galtung, I.E. "The Impact of Study Abroad; A Three-by- Three Nation Study of Cross-cultural Contact." Journal of Peace Research, III, 1965, pp. 258-275. Griffin, Alan. "Revising the Social Studies." Social Education, October, 1963, pp. 295-297, Hagen, Owen A. and Stansberry, Steve T. "Why Inquiry?" Social Education, May, 1969, pp. 534-537. Henderson, Earl E. "Seeing the World As It is." Todays Education, LVIII, January, 1969, pp. 72-73. Hill, James L. "Building and Using Inquiry Models in the Teaching of Geography." Focus on Geography: Key Concepts and Teaching Strategy. Edited by Phillip Bacon. Washington, D.C: National Council for Social Studies, 40th Yearbook, 1970. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129 Jarolimek, John. "Conceptual Approaches: Their Meaning for Elementary Social Studies." Social Education, November, 1966, pp. 534-536, 547, Laforse, Martin. "Why Inquiry Fails in the Classroom." Social Education, January, 1970, pp. 66-67, 81. Leinwand, Gerald. "Queries on Inquiry in the Social Studies." Social Education, October, 1966, pp. 412- 414. Manson, Gary A. and Williams, Elmer D, "Ihquiry: Does It Teach How or What to Think?" Social Education, January, 1970, pp. 78-81. Massialas, Byron G. "Evaluating Social Inquiry in the Classroom." High School Journal, November, 1969, pp. 75-86. Massialas, Byron G. and Zevin, Jack. "Teaching Social Studies Through Discovery." Social Education, November, 1964, pp. 384-387, 400. Menon, R.R. "Sangeet: An Approach to Indian Music," Saturday Review, July 27, 1968, pp. 43-46. Michaelis, John U. "An Inquiry-Conceptual Theory of Social Studies Curriculum Planning." Social Education, January, 1970, pp. 68-72. McKeown, Robin J. "Developing Asian Studies Program Materials." Social Education, November, 1969, pp. 838-845. . . . Newman, Fred M. "The Analysis of Public Controversy: New Focus on Social Studies." The School Review, III, 1965, pp. 417-434. Nimbark, Ashkant. "My Village in India Revisited." Social Education, November, 1969, pp. 816-822. Price, Roy A., et al. Major Concepts for the Social Studies. Syracuse, New York : Syracuse University Curriculum Center, 1965. Pool, Ithiel de Sola. "Effects of Cross National Contact." International Behaviour. Edited by Herbert C. Kelman. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 Quigley, Thomas E. "Students Who Ccune to Dinner,” Commonweal, XC, 1970, pp. 470-471, Riegel, O.W. "Residual Effects of Exchange of Persons." Public Opinion Quarterly, XVII, 1953, pp. 319-326. Sagl, Helen. "Problem Solving, Inquiry, Discovery?" Childhood Education, November, 1966, pp. 137-141. Schwab, Joseph J. "The Concept of the Structure of a Discipline." The Social Studies. Edited by Martin Feldman and Eli Seifman. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Selltiz, Claire and Cook, S.W, "Factors Influencing Attitudes of Foreign Students Toward the Host Country," Journal of Social Issues, XVIII, 1962, pp. 7-23. Senesh, Lawrence. "Organizing a Curriculum Around Social Science Concepts." Concepts and Structure in the New Social Science Curricula^ Edited by ïrvlng Morrissett. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. Shaffer, Robert H, and Dowling, Leo R. "Foreign Students and Their American Student Friends." School and Society, XCVI, 1968, pp. 245-249. Shaver, James P. and Oliver, Donald W. "The Effects of Student Characteristics — Teaching Methods, Inter actions or Learning to Think Critically." A paper presented to AERA, Chicago, Illinois, February 9, 1968. Cited in Social Education, October, 1968, p. 561. Spodek, Bernard. "Developing Social Science Concepts in the Kindergarten." Social Education, May, 1963, pp. 253-256. Suchman, J. Richard. "Learning Through Inquiry." Childhood Education, XLI, 1965, pp. 289-291. Tanck, Marlin L. "Teaching Concepts, Generalizations and Constructs." Social Studies Curriculum Development: Prospects and Problems. Edited by Dorothy McClure Fraser. Washington, D.C: National Council for Social Studies, 39th Yearbook, 1968. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131 III, Reports O'Neill, William F. Final Report on African Curriculum Development Institute, Ghana, Africa, 19697 Los Angeles, California: Center jfor International Education, School of Education, University of Southern California, 1969, Report on African Curriculum Institute, Ghana, Africa, 1968. Los Angeles, California: Center for Inter national Education, School of Education, University of Southern California, 1968. Report on African Studies Personnel and Curriculum Develop- ment Program, Ghana, Africa, 1970. Los Angeles, California : Center for International Education, School of Education, University of Southern California, 1970. IV. Dissertations Cox, C. Benjamin, "A Description and Appraisal of a Reflective Method of Teaching United States History," Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1961. Grannis, Joseph C, "An Experimental Study of the Inductive Learning of Abstract Social Concepts." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. School of Education, Washington University, St. Louis, 1965. Hunkins, R.H, "Education for International Understanding: A Critical Appraisal of the Literature." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1968, Inn, Agnes Mai Son, "Teachers' Problems with Social Studies Goals." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation. University of California, Berkeley, 1966. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDICES - 132 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX I Presented below is a list of the twenty-five parti cipants with a brief sketch of their academic background and educational experience: Mrs. Ruth Cahan (age 48) Position: Principal, Overland Avenue Elementary School, Los Angeles City Unified School District Education: B.A. (English and social sciences); M.A. (Education); Ph.D. from U.C.L.A. (Education, specializing in curriculum development) Miss Sherry A. Cannon (age 28) Position: Elementary school teacher, Victor Elementary School, Torrance Unified School District Education: B.S. from the University of Oregon (Political science and social science) Travel: Japan (extensive), Macao, Malaysia, Thailand School district appraisal: "She feels that it is important that students have an appreciation of the likenesses and differences of various cultures. . . Her effectiveness as a classroom teacher is superb." Mr. Williaun E. Corrigan (age 38) Position: English and Fine Arts teacher, Beverly Hills High School, Beverly Hills School District Education: B.A. from U.C.L.A. (English major, social studies minor); M.A. from U.C.L.A. (English) Travel: Mexico, England, France, Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany School district appraisal: "An outstanding teacher .... Mr. Corrigan is active and effective in team teaching projects, curriculum development, It Mr. Richard E. Daniels (age 35) Position: Chairman of the tenth grade Social Studies Department, Lakewood High School, Long Beach School District Education: B.A. with distinction from California State College at Long Beach; M.A. from California State College at Long Beach; received a fellowship to - 133 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 attend the Asian Studies program of the East-West Cultural Center at the University of Hawaii Travel: Japan, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia School district appraisal: "Mr, Daniels is a teacher who has an outstanding record of professional commitment and academic achievement." Mrs. Esther N. Peines (age 49) Position: Director, Multimedia Center, Newhall School District Education: B.A.;M.A. in education Travel: None School district appraisal: "She is very dedicated, competent and a highly professional educator." Mr. Larry L. Dodd (age 34) Position: Social Studies school teacher, Karlsruhe American High School, United States Overseas Armed Forces School Services, Germany Miss Virginia Dunlavy (age 29) Position: Elementary school teacher. La Marina Elementary School, Manhattan Beach School District Education: B.A. from San Jose State College (Elementary Education); graduate work at U.C.L.A., Pepperdine College and Long Beach State College Travel: Europe and Eastern Canada School district appraisal: "Her classroom always shows evidence of positive social studies activities that include intercultural studies." Mr. Eugene Fischer (age 40) Position: Vice-principal of the 93rd Street Elementary School, Los Angeles City Unified School District Education: B.A. from U.C.L.A. (History major, English and geography minor); M.S. from U.S.C. in Library Science; doctoral candidate in international Education at U.S.C. Foreign education and travel: 1963 Graduate study at St. Catherine Society, Oxford, England 1967 Sabbatical visit to schools in England, Denmark, Germany, South Africa, Senegal, Australia, Fiji, Curacao, and Trinidad 1970 Spring - again visited schools in England Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 135 School district appraisal: "Mr. Fischer is one of the outstanding vice-principals in his zone ... As a resource teacher and consultant, Mr. Fischer has been a leader in his social studies curriculum and as a vice-principal, he has done much to improve the black studies program in his school." Mrs. Aggie Jackson (age 23) Position: Elementary school teacher at Newland School, Fountain Valley School District Education: B.A. from California State College at Long Beach (elementary education) Travel: extensively in Mexico, Venezuela, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama School district appraisal: "She has conducted a highly integrated social studies program with a stress on customs, culture, language, history and geography of South America." Mr. Toby Larson (age 27) Position: Social studies teacher, Beverly Hills High School, Beverly Hills School District Education: B.A. from the University of Redlands (History); M.A. from California State College at Los Angeles (History) Travel: Austria, Denmark, Yugoslavia, and the South Pacific School district appraisal: "He is an effective classroom teacher, has pursued a program of continued professional growth, and has been instrumental in developing new course opportunities in the social studies department." Mrs. Linda McCallister (age 30) Position: Social studies teacher, Foster A. Segg Intermediate School, Manhattan Beach School District Education: B.A. from U.S.C. (Elementary education) Travel: Europe, Mexico, South America and Carribbean School district appraisal: "Linda McCallister is one of our districts outstanding teachers. . . . She has been active in establishing curriculum acti vities for our district." Miss Kathleen McDermott (age 25) Position: Elementary school teacher, Juan de Anza Elementary School, Wiseborn School District Education: B.A.; graduate work at U.S.C. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136 Travel: Japan, Central Europe and West Africa Mrs. Mary McIntyre (age 39) Position: Social Studies Department Chairman, Eagle Rock High School, Los Angeles City Unified School District; consultant to the Los Angeles City Schools Asian Studies curriculum project 1969-1970; member of Asia Studies Redbook Committee 1970-1971 Education: B.A. Travel: None School district appraisal; "She has shown outstanding leadership in developing a course outline for the newly introduced elective, Asian Studies. . . . Mrs, McIntyre has been instrumental in adding a most successful intercultural studies course for the students." Mr. William Mahoney (age 43) Position: Social studies school teacher, SHAPE American High School, United States Overseas Dependents Educational School Services, Germany Education: B.A. Mrs. Martha Mekjian (age 57) Position: Elementary school teacher, Overland Avenue Elementary School, Los Angeles City Unified School District Education; B.S. from U.C.L.A. Travel: Puerto Rico School district appraisal: "Mrs. Mekjian is an out standing teacher. She has served as an inservice leader for me in relationship to the new state- adopted materials for social studies. Without doubt one of the finest teachers," Mr. Israel Minick (age 49) Position: teacher and Chairman of the Social Studies Department, Caspar de Portola Jr. High School, Los Angeles City Unified School District Education; B.A. Travel; World War II and Korean Wars. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 Mrs. Addie Pearl Owens (age 45) Position: Teacher training para-professional, Park Village, Compton Unified School District Education: B.A. Travel: None School district appraisal: "She is very conscien tious, sincere teacher who has a fine rapport with both teachers and students." Mrs. Linda Quick (age 27) Position: Elementary school teacher, Longden Elementary School, Temple City School District Education: B.A. Travel: England, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France and Mexico School district appraisal: "Probably the best social studies teacher." Mr. William Rada (age 26) Position: Social studies school teacher, Taipei American School, Taipei, Taiwan Education: B.A. from Stanford University (History); M.A. from the University of Oregon (Teaching Progrcun specialization) Travel: Southeast Asia, Canada, Mexico, Far East School district appraisal: "He has organized his work diligently to develop a program which will emphasize conceptive ideas rather than the simple accumulation of facts. . . . We think of Bill Rada as an original thinker." Mrs. Vivian M. Rattray (age 48) Position: Elementary school teacher, Westlake Ele mentary School, Valley Oaks Union School District Education: B.A. from San Fernando Valley State College; M.S. from U.S.C. Travel: Europe, Morocco, North Africa, Mexico, Caribbean School district appraisal: "Unquestionably one of the most dedicated and knowledgeable people in education." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 138 Mrs. Ethel P. Richards (age 33) Position: Elementary school teacher, J.B, Bushard School, Fountain Valley School District Education: B.S. from Brigham Young University (Elementary education) School district appraisal: "Mrs. Richards has been most successful in introducing intercultural studies into the classroom. Mr. R. Thomas Rische (age 40) Position: Social studies and journalism teacher, South High School, Torrance Unified District Education: Doctoral candidate in International Education at U.S.C. Travel: Central America, Mexico, Europe, Africa and the Far East School district appraisal: "Mr. Rische is highly motivated himself and will benefit from and contribute to the program." Mr. James Williaun Stratton (age 33) Position: Elementary school teacher. Gird Elementary School, Chino Unified School District Education: B.A, from California State at Fullerton; M.A. from California State at Fullerton Travel; toured the world twice with the U.S. Navy, spent summer of 1969 on an archeological dig in Mexico City School district appraisal: "He has given some innovative programs in the area of music, reading and social studies." Mr. Jim M, Walker (age 52) Position: Director of curriculum, Chino Unified School District Education: B.A; M.A. from Arizona State University (Education); graduate work at Claremont University, University of California Riverside and the University of Redlands Travel: Mexico and Marshall Islands School district appraisal: "He has been a teacher, principal and curriculum director. He has worked in each of these jobs with dedication and energy." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 Mrs. Ann Wynn (age 26) Position: Elementary school teacher. Old Orchard School, Newhall School District Education: B.A; graduate work at U.S.C. Travel: West Africa School district appraisal: "Her academic background in the area of social sciences has certainly provided her with a sound base for intercultural studies participation. She has used the inquiry approach effectively." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX II - 140 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 3 CD ■D O Q. C g Q. ■D CD C/) C/) APPENDIX II 8 ■D INDIA INSTITUTE SUM M ER 1971 PRE-FIELD TORK TRAINING SESSIONS A. ORIENTATION CD 3 . 3" CD CD "O O Q. O 3 "O O CD Q. ■D CD C/) C/) SESSION DATE TIME May 8 1:30 - 4:30 p.m. I M H ___ I 2 May 15 1:30 - 4:30 p.m. TOPIC Incroduccion and practical aspects of the field trip. 1st Half: Information and discussion regarding pass port» visa, vaccinations, luggage, clothes, expenses, climate and food, etc. 2nd Half: 1. Participants to acquaint themselves informally with the staff and each other. (Coffee, tea and pastry pro vided) 2. Books and articles to be distributed to the participants. Introduction to India let Half: Discussion 2nd Half: Application (conceptual-inquiry approach) «ASSIGNMENTS Ferah, "Introduction" "Asia Perspective Is Prologue" . "India and South Asia" , "the Story of India" Michaelis, "An Inquiry-Con ceptual Tlicory of Social Studies Curriculum Plan ing Suchman, "Learning through In q u iry" C D "O O Q. C g Q. "O C D C /) C /) _B. MAINTBKANCE SYSTEMS: SURVIVAL ADAPTATIONS C D 8 "O (O' 3 . 3 " C D C D ■D O Q. C a o 3 T3 O (D Q. T3 (D (/) (/) SESSION DATE May 22 June 5 June 9 TIME 1:30 - 4:30 p.m. 9:00 -12:30 p.m. 6:00 - 9:00 p.m. j E o n c . . Social Systems 1st Half: Class, caste, family and village life. 2nd Half: Application Governance Systems 1st Half: Political dynamics, federal, state and village 2nd Half: Application ASSIGNMENTS Radhakrishnan, pp. 67-92 Nehru, pp. 49-53, 147-150, 153-162 Nimbark, "My Village In India Revisited" Ames, "Class, Caste and Kin ship In an Industrial City of India" Economic Systems 1st Half: Industrialization; Public and private sector. Agriculture; The green revolution 2nd Half: Application Wilcox, "The Structure of Contemporary India" Nehru, pp. 81-88, 150-153 Senesh, "Organizing A Curriculum" "The Social Sciences: Founda tions of the Social Studies" Nehru, pp. 192-197, 207-222, 244-250 Brooks, "Can India Make It" Dennison, "Problems of Indian Industrialization” Wilcox "The Structure of Contemporary India" pp. 46-55 Joyce, "Content for Elementary Social Studies" Hills, "Building and Using Inquiry Models in the Teaching of Geography" H* i t k CD ■D O Q . C g Q . ■D CD C/) C/) CD 8 ■D ( O ' C. fROJECTIVS SYSTEMS; ADAPTATIONS TO ENHAKCE LIFE 3 " CD CD ■D O Q . C a o 3 T3 O (D Q . T3 (D (/) C/) SESSION DATE June 12 June 19 June 20 TIME 9:00 - 12:30 p.m. 9:00 - 12:30 p.m. 9:00 - 12:30 p.m. TOPIC Beliefs of India 1st Half: Philosophy, religion and science 2nd Hslf: Application Cultural Expressions of Beauty 1st Half: Art, music and dance 2nd Half: Application Cultural Expressions of Beauty 1st Hslf: Literature and Drama 2nd Half: Application ASSIGNMENTS Radhakrishnan, pp. 1-66 Nehru, pp. 39-48, 55-64, 74-78, 387-391 Menon, "Indian Music" Higgins, "The Classical Music of India" "The Art and Sculpture of India" "Music and Dance" "The Literature of India" Khan, "Ghalib'a Vision of Man and Nature" Nehru, 94-102 W (D "O O Q. C g Q. ■D CD C/) C/) 8 ■D '< ( O ' 3 . 3 " CD CD ■D O Q. C a o 3 T3 O (D Q. T3 (D (/) (/) D. METHODOLOGY OF DATA GATHERING SESSION 1 0 DATE June 21 June 22 TIME 9:00 - 12:30 p.m TOPIC Technical Aspects of Gathering Audio-Visual Data 9:00 - 12:30 p.m. Technical Aspects of Gathering Verbal Data ASSIGNMENTS Depart for India June 26 ^ APartlclpants are required to hand In a three to five page paper expressing factual knowledge and Impressions about India by the 8th of May. NOTE: Assignment for each week should be read before coming to the class. APPENDIX III PARTICIPANT EVALUATION OP THE INTERCULTURAL INSTITUTE ON INDIA A specific objective of the Institute was that the participants evaluate the project by means of a question naire submitted to them upon completion of the field training phase. The questionnaire was divided into three sections: selection process, pre-departure orien tation sessions and field training experiences. Twenty-four questionnnaires were distributed at the first meeting after the field experiences. This meeting was held on October 22, 1971. Institute participants were asked to be candid in answering these questions and not to sign their names. Sixteen, or approximately 67%, of the participants responded. Unsuccessful attempts were made to secure responses from the remaining participants. Selection Section Of the sixteen respondents, 81.3% answered the ques tions in the section pertaining to participant selection criteria. They were asked specifically what information they felt would be the most beneficial to know about each applicant. The responses were as follows: - 145 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 146 A. Adaptability to both group and culture 38.5% B. Individual reaction under stress and strain 23.1% C. Much travel experience 23.1% D. Teaching success 7.7% E. Extensive background on the country before 7.7% leaving Pre-departure Orientation Sessions The participants were asked by means of eleven questions if the orientation program was well organized. Of the participants 87.5% responded to this question as follows : A. Extremely well-organized 35.5% B. Well organized 42.6% C. Somewhat organized 14.2% D. Poorly organized 7.1% Those responding to the poorly organized category specified weakness in the conceptual-inquiry theory presentations rather than in the cultural orientation portion. In regard to the ten pre-departure orientation sessions the participants were asked to indicate if these were enough to prepare them for the field-trip. Of these 81.3% responded to this question with 76,9% indicating that these were enough, 7.7% indicating not enough and 15.4% indicating that there were too many sessions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 Participants were asked if they would like to include anything that they felt had been left out. 37.5% responded as follows : A. More on history and geography of India 33.4% B. More on conceptual-inquiry approach 16.7% C. Personal case history data 16.7% D. Recommendation to take cash 16.7% E. Group dynamics, we would have known 16,7% each other better The participants were asked if they found the Institute manual useful. 87.5% responded to this question in this way: A. Very useful 42,6% B. Useful 42.6% C. Somewhat useful 7,1% D. Not useful 7,1% Participants were asked if they felt the material in the India Institute manual on the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies helped them understand this methodology, 87.5% responded as follows: A. Very helpful 0.0% B. Helpful 49.9% C. Somewhat helpful 28.6% D. Not helpful 21.4% The participants were asked if the readings were valuable in giving them background on Indian society. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 148 81.3% responded: A. Very valuable 30.8% B. Valuable 61.6% C. Somewhat valuable 0.0% D. Not valuable 7.7% Participants were asked to recommend other books and articles which they felt were valauble to read. 53.6% responded with the following suggestions: A. Mehta, Portrait of India 11.1% B. Hesse, Siddhartha 11.1% C. Khuswant Singh, Train to Pakistan 11.1% D. Zinkin, India 11.1% E. Kingsbury, South Asia in Maps 11.1% F. Rice, Mother India's Children 11.1% G. Markandaya's books 11.1% H. More novels 11.1% Participants were asked if they found the discussion sessions useful in giving them a basic background of Indian culture, 75.0% responded: A. Very useful 58.3% B. Useful 33.3% C. Somewhat useful 8.3% D. Not useful 0.0% The participants were asked if the curriculum sessions devoted to the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies were useful in helping them understand such an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 149 approach. 87.5% of the group responded: A. Very useful 0,0% B. Useful 42.8% C. Somewhat useful 28.6% D. Not useful 28.6% Participants were asked if the orientation on practical matters, such as visa, health, luggage, etc. was adequate. 87.5% responded: A. Very adequate 42.8% B. Adequate 50.0% C. Somewhat adequate 7.1% D. Inadequate 0.0% In the last question on the pre-departure section, the participants were asked to recommend improvement in the orientation phase of the Institute. 62.5% responded as follows : A. Concepts chosen sooner and made clearer 20.0% B. Contacts with more Indians prior to 20.0% leaving C. A free week before departure 20.00 D. A curriculum expert who could communicate, 10.0% Dr. Simpson did not communicate E. A definite decision before the trip about 10.0% the project assignments F. A course in the history of India 10.0% G. District curriculum consultants should be 10.0% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 involved in planning Participants were asked to rate the pre-departure seminar and the specialists involved, with these results presented on the following pages: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 S I e S l A I P U II ËS ga i i la i g g g g g g g g o o O o o O o o O ë g g g g g g g g o o o o o o o W m M Ï5 g g g g g g g g o o o o o o i in % É g g g g g g g œ rH o o o d r- o in f - i $ g g g g g g g n r~ < M m d n d d o m r~ in O m g g g - g g g g m < N 0» (N V D r* m tn o in r4 g g g g g g g g s G O s a H G O r4 00 a m M C O I i P L 1 0 n i a it M rH u c 0 D 0 ( d I d • r 1 « J 5 S B £ *H u H g H r4 u • r l 0 Id M D (d 0 ■ U C S O U S (A •H 0 m % rH u H 4 > 0 M •n Æ P U u m k « @ •H o •H > ( R *o m C A I d M > S > M n z C L < I t W a if S8 II fi } C A I N Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o m 152 g g g g g 2 o o o i r o N g g g g g g g g O P ' O O e s e s u l H O i n M g g g g g g g g e s e s : d ■ rH S m M m M 3 P» g g g g g e s o o m r i e s m r » n g g g g g m O e s M e n e s e s g g g g g d M e s m un CD VO r~ i n (0 0 O H i "g si ïî CA U < : . 2 1 ( I ) W •H % I n s £ I i J M p |i U g . i S Q % O m M i i % I A £ N M i a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 Field Workshop Section This section constituted the bulk of the question naire. The participants were asked if they felt that the trip was useful to them personally. 100.0% responded as follows ; A. Very useful 87,5%* B. Useful 12.5% C. Somewhat useful 0.0% D. Not useful 0.0% *One respondent wrote, "No way to measure it, my whole life is changed." When asked if the trip was useful to them profes sionally, 100.0% responded: A. Very useful 62.5% B. Useful 37.5% C. Somewhat useful 0.0% D. Not useful 0.0% Participants were asked what their objectives were in going to India. 93.8% responded: A. To learn about cultures different than 40.2% our own B. Personal enrichment and professional 26,8% growth C. To "feel it" 13.4% D. To gather firsthand information 13.4% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154 E. To improve my teaching and cultural 6.7% background The participating teachers were asked if they had achieved these objectives. 100.0% responded: A. Yes 43.8% B. Mostly 43.8% C. Somewhat 12.5% D. No 0.0% If their objectives were not achieved, what would have helped the participants achieve their goals. 37.5% responded : A. More free time 66.8% B. More time in the village 16.7% C. More background in the conceptual-inquiry 16.7% approach The participants were asked if they found the seminar meetings held in India on various aspects of the society to be helpful. 93.8% responded: A. Very useful 33.3% B. Useful 46.6% C. Somewhat useful 20.1% D. Not useful 0.0% The respondents were asked if adequate guidance was given in the collection of data and materials. 87.5% answered as follows: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 155 A. Yes 14.3% B. Mostly adequate 35.7% C. Somewhat adequate 28.6% D. Not adequate 21.4% The participants were asked if they understood the conceptual-inquiry approach to social studies. 100.0% responded : A. Yes 50.0% B. Mostly 25.0% C. Somewhat 12.5% D. No 12.5% Participants were asked if they knew how to use the conceptual-inquiry approach for organizing materials to be presented in the classroom. 100.0% responded: A. Yes 31.3% B. Mostly 31.3% C. Somewhat 25.0% D. No 12.5% When asked if they felt they would like to use this approach, 100.0% responded: A. Yes 68.8% B. Most of the time 12.5% C. Sometime 12.5% D. No 6.2% Inquiry was made as to whether participants felt that there was a balance between arranged program activities Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 and opportunities for pursuit of individual interests. 100.0% responded: A. Yes 18.8% B. Mostly 25.0% C. Somewhat 12.5% D. No 43.7% Participants were asked to indicate which aspects of the Institute were most beneficial to them. 93.8% responded : A. Contact with people and family stay 40.0% B. The experience of living in a different 26.6% culture C. The whole trip 13.3% D. Friendship offered by Vasisht and 6.7% other members and some lectures E. Travel experience 6,7% F. Trips out of Delhi 6.7% What aspects of the Institute were counter productive and why? 62.5% responded: A, Schedule of morning and afternoon lectures 40.0% B, Repetition of lectures 30.0% C, Curriculum sessions 20.0% What aspects should be eliminated and why? Of the group, 56.3% responded: A. Nothing, just modification 33.3% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 157 B. Too many lectures 33.3% C. Afternoon sessions 11,2% D. Split schedule 11.1% E. Too much competing for what is being 11.1% researched When asked to write about the most important insights they had gained from the India Institute, 81.3% responded: A. India’s variety, rich history, culture, 30.8% vast growth and potential B. That past and present coexist 15.4% C. The beautiful people, friendly, hospitable 15.4% and gracious D. The struggle for a "poor" country to 7,7% maintain democracy and develop in the 1970s E. The discipline and humanity of the people 7.7% F. Complexity of problems facing the people 7.7% G. People in India are very similar to other 7,7% people H. The mind of the Indian people 7.7% Participants were asked if they found the family stays useful. 100.0% responded: A. Very useful 68.8% B. Useful 31,2% C. Somewhat useful 0.0% D. Not useful 0.0% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 158 Respondents were asked how long they thought the family stays should be and why? 100.0% answered: A. One day 0.0% B. Two days 50.0% C. Three days 43.8% D. Others 6.2% When asked if there were enough evaluation sessions, 100.0% responded: A. Enough 43.8% B. Not enough 43,8% C. Too many 12.5% When asked how many evaluation sessions they would recommend and why, 56.3% responded: A. Weekly 44.4% B. Rap sessions every few days 11.1% C. Four, to pool ideas and make others aware 11.1% D. Three 11.1% E. One or two 11.1% F. Flexible 11.1% When should the evaluation sessions be held? Of the participants, 25.0% responded: A. Every ten days 25.0% B. Immediately after the activities 25.0% C. Early in the day 25.0% D. Every second Friday 25.0% Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 Asked if they found the travel in India satisfactory, 100,0% responded; A. Very satisfactory 50.0% B. Satisfactory 50.0% C. Somewhat satisfactory 0.0% D. Unsatisfactory 0.0% Participants were asked if the accommodations were satisfactory and 43.8% responded: A. Very satisfactory 46.6% B. Satisfactory 53.3% C. Somewhat satisfactory 0.0% D. Unsatisfactory 0.0% Asked if adequate medical help was available, 81.3% responded : A. Yes 92.4% B. Most of the time 7.7% C. Sometime 0.0% D. No 0.0% The last question posed was what would the partici pants recommend to improve future India institutes. 81.3% responded with their own statements listed and summarized below. A. Arrange for more formal and informal contacts. B. See more of the country, less of Delhi. C. Early information on travel systems of India. D. Include more of Northern India, more areas, less time Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160 in Delhi. E, Decide before the trip the requirements, select leaders who can teach and have some idea of school situations. P. A closer working relationship among the participants, G. A written document on the objectives of ERG. H. Get a new curriculum specialist, she writes well but lacks in verbal skills, suggest a pre and post test. I. It was very well planned and executed A++. J. Talk to some Moslems as well as Sikhs and Hindus; mingle more with the people, visit more schools, enroute two days are not enough. Use different travel agency. K, Visit more than Delhi, choose representative places of culture. L. Disappointed in the leadership, excluding Vasisht, felt they were along because they had Ph.D. degrees. M. You have to demonstrate inquiry-conceptual approach, not lecturing, talking to people on the personal level. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 7 3 0 & g Q. g I —H 3 " "O CD 1 ' • ■ o" 3 O 3 CD o EVALUATION DP SEMINAR ACTIVITIES IN INDIA T3 - »< ci- 3 - RESPONDENTS EXTREMELY HELPFUL MODERATELY SLIG H TLY NOT D ID NOT Q HELPFUL HELPFUL HELPFUL HELPFUL ATTEND Ê CD r D E LH I c 1 . C i t y T o u r 9 3 .8 % 33 .3 % 5 3 .3 % 1 3 .3 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 3 " CD 2 . I n d i a : A C u l t u r a l S u rv e y 8 1 .3 % 2 3 .1 % 3 0 .8 % 3 0 .8 % 1 5 .4 % 0.0 % 0 .0 % "O o P r o f . N ih a r R a n ja n 8 1 .3 % 1 5 .4 % 3 0 .8 % 3 0 .8 % 2 3 .1 % 0.0 % 0.0 % Q. C R ay a o 3 . Th e S o c ia l and 3 Econom ic D im e n s io n s ■ D o f R u r a l L i f e in O 3 " I n d i a 93 .8 % 4 0 .0 % 4 0 .0 % 2 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 0.0 % C T 1 —H CD P r o f . S . N a v la k h a 6 8 .8 % 2 7 .3 % 3 6 .4 % 2 7 .3 % 9 .1 % 0.0 % 0.0 % Q . 4 . Th e In d ia n V illa c r e 8 7 .5 % 7.1 % 3 5 .7 % 4 2 .8 % 0 .0 % 1 4 .3 % 0 .0 % 3 " O S .H . 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B h a r a t N atyam Dance o 3 P e rfo rm a n c e a t th e C e n te r 8 7 .5 % 4 2 .8 % 2 8 .5 % 2 1 .4 % 7 .2 % 0.0 % 0 .0 % 162 a if 1 2 Ü ) ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë o o d o o o o o VO 00 ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë o o m o o o o o o o o ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë o n o o o rH o n. d d ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë r4 M o m d H o rH in rH VO n m m ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë s o <N n H s o lO VO (M rH VO m m vO N m fO ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë (N o O' r* in pH o cs VO VO S3 m <N n d ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë ë r > * 00 VO n a CN VO s a a m O' in 1 I 0 > C D > o m •H k H HJ c E a 0 1 rH 3 o 0 X 4J H •A rH C X ü i 0) IQ > 0 0 •H *3 c (d > u ü X d d) u < Q i q (d M u nt c c X O S a c 0 'O X -ü k E C s (d ••H rH c c: ( Q 3 C H Id O u o •H • 3 0 a i a i id r d 0 A , 0) .fH eu p m ^ 1 • < H O ' HJ -H 0 > n T3 ÎH 4J > »o 0 N k •U d 0 > . r i C ?H ( 0 O H rH rH 4J • r i rH ♦H H •H Ü (k 3 (0 2 M ^ 1 10 0 > *o 0) 0 a I C •H l O e k •H «k X C X k o H U) > D- k •A Q > 0 i d 43 (k 0, Ü4 I I n E Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 I I g g * g g g O O O g g o o È î a % o C 4 g g g g O O O c s c s g o g g o o il II i s g g m e s g g g r ~ C D -C M r d A t *1 N t r c 3 •pf 0 ) 0 "g g C Q 1 Ü 0^ Û J Ï pH U V > C O 0 0 4J O > 4 J C « flj ( ( .1 W ^ 0 •H k t H > D O i pH cs g g g e s e s g m g g g g g g § V O o o V O f O r t o g g g s i J •M > I n s (A I U 5 g f O O i I C D 5 « N •H (d 1 c •H Id 'O > c T 3 H < O J U - l 5 o O o H - > 4 J 3 c n J J hJ C ) •rl *H 4 -> » b n 0 ) 3 •H C -P > H ( 0 n g g g g g g g g g g o < N O t n l A m o C N o < N O f S o ! m r - 0 3 g g g g g g g g g O 0 pH V O o o V O pH o C S c s M < s ( S r ~ v n g g g g c o r* C >\ o u " p 4 id 4J H J C t f c V 4 1 3 E T 3 4) M pH H > U a U H a <d 0 '% z 0) o (0 6 0 A w 4 ) 'O iH C O c 1 - 3 A H 0 T 3 k C C k e u R j •H X Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 164 I I g ë g g g g g a g g g g g g g g g o o o o o o o o o o II ë 3 I g g g g g g g g g g g O CD O O O O O O \0 g g g g g O g tn co tn m m m g g o \n g g g o n g û g î ? s D C D g g g g g g g m m g m in r t ff* g g ü ) CD O < N g N K g g g g g g to ■g. Ü 0) •F ^ C 0 '0 •H • n Id J : & c (0 y rd U w A •H rd 'D X A B < k % < 0 0 d 0 0 0 X C O P a M -( 0 c fj •H >% JJ ♦H e 0 k 0 3 Id C O Id rd C J5 (0 •H c rd u 'O 4J P o n « 0 3 M g o ^ 0 k C O C O "H »H > £ g C O -P u 4J 3 - -P m Q 0 1 *4i d o £ >1 > t rd rH rH Id rd A 4J A M rH a > 0 u *H •iH •H o ••H •rl rH 0 s5 0 ‘ u T3 C s M fO •H C A U •H rd § s g Û g A A H A > t o > A A A O S C O p] • a IN m in IP n» G O Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CD ■D O Û. C g Û. ■D CD C/) o ' 3 S, CD 8 5 C Q ' 3: i 3 CD EVALUATION OP SEMINAR A C T IV IT IE S IN IN D IA (c o n tin u e d ) RESPONDENTS EXTREMELY HELPFUL HELPFUL MODERATELY SLIG HTLY NOT D ID NOT HELPFUL HELPFUL HELPFUL ATTEND BOMBAY c 3 . 3 " CD CD ■o O Q. C a O 3 ■o O & o c ■o CD C/) o ' 3 1 . M e e tin g w it h M r . K hu shw ant S in g h , E d i t o r o f T h e I l l u s t r a t e d W e e k ly o f I n d i a 87.554 78.554 14.354 0.054 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 7 .2 % 2 . M e e tin g w it h D r . R a f iq z a k a r i a 87.554 7.254 14.354 42.854 7 .% 4 1 4 .3 % 1 4 .3 % 3 . C u r r ic u lu m S e s s io n 87.554 21.454 35.754 2 8 .6 % 7 .2 % 7 .2 % 0 .0 % D r . R u th C ahan 81.354 23.154. 46.254 2 3 .1 % 7 .7 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 4 . V i s i t t o A ja n t a and E l l o r a 100.054 68.854 25.054 6 .2 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % MADRAS 1 . Dance P e rfo rm a n c e i n M a d ras 93.854 46.554 33.354 2 0 .0 % 0.0 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % 2 . F u n d a m e n ta l V a lu e s o f In d ia n C u lt u r e 87.554 28.654 28.654 35.754 7.154 0 .0 % P .0% P r o f . T .M .P . M a h a- 81.354 23.154 23.154 3 8 .5 % 1 5 .4 % 0 .0 % 0 .0 % d e v a n M o> U1 166 3 5 3 5 g 3 5 g g 3 5 r ~ r ~ r - O n » m m r H C N 3 3 5 $ g 3 5 g g g i n H : n- O r ~ O O 3 5 2 5 3 5 g 3 5 g g S r > M o M M O O 3 5 3 5 3 5 g g g 3 5 . # i n M i n m m N S H C N \D o g 3 5 ë 3 5 g g 3 5 O i n i - i (M r * 9 3 O m m r ~ 3 5 § ë g g g g r - O 3 lÔ CN O t n O m m 00 p " 2 5 2 5 3 5 g g 2 5 2 5 S S g m 9 1 S m 0 1 00 P « * 00 0 § *0 A i 0 ) > 0 3 k Æ 0 c d 0 tn C w 0 A l d • H 0 ) • r l X A l s A i s d d u o s A > 0 0 • r l d c o A l d A i « r l lu c o 0 3 c * 0 0 ; JS O c w U H C L î è V s V3 •H > U a A l B • f 4 t a « £ •fî td > E • i J I •ai M k S a I ^ I 0 C n i i «a M X 0 . Û4 «H C < U 0 ) se i A l • a ’ > Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 167 I gi SS I ll Î I t/3 g g g g g g g g g o o o o o o O o o g g g g g g g g 0 } o M o rH rH o tn w o o ro o g g g g g g g g 1 0 O M rs O o o o O o ë g g g g g g g g m CM O CM « m m ro ro ro CM o ro CM r- g g g g g g g g g m CM O oô ro ro fO to to tô o PO CM H to Ê g g g g . ^ g g g tn CM o M tn H CM CM o tn rH ; PO CM o PO g g g g g g g g g in CM to a t£> tn s a û a û 5 S •S 4 Ci ( 0 X rH B rH A ( 0 0 B 0 a B B 0 4 rH O K X k S H lO e ( 0 Û JC 0 SS tw u cd co 0 4 «w < 0 0 ) 4J M u k U Vl ( 0 Q s S S s w H 5 Ci a I a S o 5 E * * 5 r l 0 > g I 5 0 ) ■s N •H Q g g U 5 § o Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX IV INDIA A CONCEPTUALLY ORGANIZED RESOURCE BOOK Submitted by; Larry Dodd William Mahoney - 168 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INTRODUCTION The data contained in this conceptually organized resource book was gathered by Mr, William Mahoney, social studies teacher at SHAPE American High School, Shape, Belgium, and Mr, Larry Dodd, social studies teacher at Stuttgart American High School, Stuttgart, Germany, while attending Project India, a six weeks summer institute in India, The institute was directed by Dr, Edward Berman, University of Southern California Intercultural Education professor and African Affairs expert, and Mr. Vasisht Malhotra, University of Southern California, Assistant Director for Asian Programs. The participants in the project operated from New Delhi, India, traveling to all parts of India in their quest for original data. The resource book is designed according to the following organizational structure originated by Dr. Elizabeth Simpson, University of Southern California curriculum designer and Director of Curriculum for Project India, I, Maintenance Systems (survival as organism and group) 1, Economic System (physiological needs and perceived needs and wants) 2, Political Systems (need for peaceful interaction, the authoritative allocation of scarce values, provision for the general welfare above and beyond the individual - 169 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 170 capability) 3. Social Systems (need for predictability, security — psychological as well as physical; structure and order) II. Projective Systems (Expressive Systems) 1. Belief Systems (need to understand, to know, etc; philosophy, magic, religion, science) 2. Esthetic Systems (need for beauty and the expression of one's individuality and group membership; art, dance, drama, music, literature, etc.) The resource book uses a sentence outline approach in which data were gathered through interviews with local natives of various social classes, through participation in seminars, and through first-hand observations and readings while in India. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 171 I. MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS (Survival as organism and group) 1. ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (physiological needs and perceived needs and wants) 1.1 The food supply of India is growing at a five per cent annual rate which is twice as fast as the population growth. Actual figures for the 1970-71 period show a 4.56 per cent annual food growth rate as compared to the 1971-72 mid year (July '71) rate of 5.4 per cent. The reason for the increase in productivity is the "Green Revolution". 1.2 As recently as 1953, the wheat belt farmers north of New Delhi along the Grand Trunk Road were threshing wheat with bullocks and drags, and camels could be seen walking in circles as they provided the power for irrigation cups and ditches. Although the scene can still be seen in India, tractors are replacing the bullock and camel in the production of wheat. This is in part due to the "Green Revolution". 1.3 The "Green Revolution", begun during the third Five Year Plan (1961-66) (see 1.17), Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 172 is well underway with an increase of from six million hectars (2.5 acres equal one hectar) under cultivation in 1969-70, to twenty-five million hectars in seed in 1971-72. 1.4 The "Green Revolution" in 1968-69 produced 18,000,000 tons of wheat. The goal for 1971-72 is 24,000,000 tons. 1.5 Although the "Green Revolution" is increas ing the food supply, it can be dangerous to India because of the present economic structure of India and the actual direction that the "Green Revolution" is taking. Land in India is prestige and production. There fore the people (83% are rural dwellers while 70% are dependent on agriculture) like to hold land. Not only does it give a man status but it allows the small holder to have a psychological weapon against unem ployment. Although India is a country of small holdings with sixty per cent of the land being 2.5 acres in size, this covers only seven per cent of the tillable land. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 173 Therefore, there are great landowner dis parities — with large and small landowners but no middle class. This is unfortunate because a country's strength is its middle class. 1.6 The landowning gap is widening rather than closing because as a large landowner gets tractors, unemployment increases, produc tivity increases, and the small landowner cannot compete. In order to survive he is forced to sell out to the large landowner. The acquisition of tractors in India has increased unemployment alone by 17 per cent. 1.7 Small holdings receive better cultivation and allow for greater employment. Seven acre farms seem best for maximum employment. Additionally, in a study of production per acre in Thailand and Burma, 2,5 acre farms were found to yield more than 40 acre farms in the United States. Beyond 12 to 15 acres, production begins to decline. 1.8 In addition to increased mechanization, the "Green Revolution" is demanding more capi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 174 talization. Capital investment and profits become more important than employment. This has negative aspects because it does not allow for maximum productivity nor maximum labor utilization. The large landowner can meet the capital demands whereas the small landowner cannot. The result is further dis parity in the economic structure. This adds to, rather than diminishes, India's biggest and most immediate problem — unemployment and underemployment. Therefore, it would be better if the goal of the "Green Revolution" was maximum employment plus maximum produc tion rather than only the latter, 1.9 The "Green Revolution" is confined to the growth, production and scientific improve ment of wheat; yet rice is India's major crop. The 1971-72 goal for wheat production, according to India's Five Year Plan, is 24.000.000 tons whereas its rice goal is 52.000.000 tons — almost twice as much. India has not managed to create conditions for high rice yields. Total food stuff pro duction stands at 105,000,000 tons for 1970- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 175 71f yet people are poor and starving. 1.10 An additional problem is that the "Green Revolution" is confined to either certain states or sections of certain states. Efforts have been made to spread the "Green Revolution" as well as to decrease the arid acreage. The increase in "Green Revolution" acreage was seven per cent in 1971 compared to only 1.5 increase in other crop areas. Land reform is difficult because the chief ministers in some states depend on vested interests for their positions. 1.11 The privileged condition of the "Green Revolution" creates fuel for disparity because it not only forces employment up in those areas but forces wages and prices up as well. Whereas prices remain relatively constant throughout India, wages do not. Therefore the buying power (real wage) has gone down throughout India. 1.12 The emphasis on education may hinder India's economic justice relative to the field of agriculture. Education tends to retard the idea of the ownership-production pattern. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 176 Educated people tend not to become tillers of the soil. The landowners generally belong to a higher class and cultivate their lands according to the absentee landlord theory. Tenancy of tillers of the soil is either according to written or oral contract. If it is the latter, chances of exploitation are good. The owner-cultivator considers education of the layman a hindrance. 1.13 Caste begins to play a part in the "Green Revolution" because most of the absentee landlords are of the higher caste and caste tends to beget caste. Ninety to ninety-five per cent of the low castes are not landowners in any sense, and they compose the majority of India's population. 1.14 Some people fear the "Green Revolution" could become a "Red Revolution" (Mrs. Gandhi is among that group) if the social and economic injustices continue and/or continue to grow. It is interesting to note that no Communist Party in India called for the nationalization of land in the last election. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 177 1.15 Critics of government policies suggest that land reform and government reclamation pro jects should aim toward the ownership of land by the poor people of rural societies. Sur plus land should be given not to the totally landless but to the small, 2.5 acre, land owner. However, the government should pass ceiling laws on farm sizes. The size sug gested is 15 acres because anything over that amount requires mechanization which the small farmer cannot afford. The present size of Indian families is adequate to do the farming manually. Not only would this give ownership but it would provide employment as well. Plus, at this stage of India's development, the small farmer is not educated enough to use mechanized tools. Additionally, coopera tives, which have been tried unsuccessfully, are not the answer because this method gives up actual ownership. 1.16 The "Green Revolution" seems to be aimed only at the Gross National Product. If this is so, it will solve India's dependency on other countries but will not correct the increase in social injustice. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 178 1.17 Total economic development in India has been carried out under a series of five year plans beginning in 1951. Although each plan has provided for development in every economic sector, certain specific areas have been stressed. Agricultural productivity had highest priority within the structure of the first Five Year Plan, Irrigation and acqui sition of scientific data for farmers were emphasized, although areas like transporta tion systems were not overlooked. Side roads that were once only cart trails now are hard topped. Thousands of villages throughout India have been brought out of relative isolation and into the road network begun during the first five years of the 1950s. The second and third Five Year Plans saw a shift from agriculture to an emphasis on the development of heavy industry. West Germany, the Soviet Union, the United States, and Poland gave financial and technical as sistance, particularly in the area of steel manufacturing. The third Five Year Plan additionally took on the added problem of self-sufficiency in food production. This Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 179 plan (1961-66) was hindered by the outbreak of hostilities between Red China and India over borders in Northern India. Nonetheless, â the "Green Revolution" was started (although late in the plan) with new varieties of seed, fertilizers and methods being tried. The fourth Five Year Plan is concentrated in the field of light industries and consumer pro ducts, The success of the Five Year Plans has been positive but the degree is ques tionable . 1.18 One major theme running throughout all of the Five Year Plans is the avoidance of the socialization of the entire economy or even part of it. The aim of government is to keep the reins of the economy (basic industries and most of the import trade) in the state governmental hands. As Mrs. Gandhi said: "We are a people in a hurry for progress but we have chosen a mixed economy with plenty of room and a real need for the private sector's initiative. Our concern is for the masses, not just the fortunate few in big business." Some controls instituted by the national government have been made because in our Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 180 country private capital, if left to itself, looks for quick profit and avoids the irksome but essential basic industrial problems, con centrates on urban areas and ignores the countryside. State initiative thus is essential for the backward areas and poor regions. 1.19 Droughts in 1966, 1967 and 1968 retarded economic growth as did the 1962 and 1965 wars with Red China and Pakistan respective ly. The current Pakistan-Indian conflict worries economists. Nonetheless, with luck in weather and a solution to the Pakistani problem, India could be feeding herself by 1973. 1.20 The banks were nationalized in 1970. This was done so that credit would be readily available for new and small businesses already established. 1.21 The need for new sources of employment is reflected in these statistics : India's popu lation is 547,900,000; forty-five per cent live (exist) on a rupee a day (one rupee equals 13* U.S.); there is a 2.5% increase Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 181 in population per year? the work force stands at 170,000,000; the work force increases at a rate of 5,000,000 a year; one person in seven teen is out of work (6%); seventy-five per cent of the work force are rural people; the rate of economic growth is 3.0 per cent per year; education is increasing the potential of India's human resources; 75 million people are now in elementary and secondary schools and two million are in colleges and univer sities . 1.22 To make small ashtrays (perhaps a question able industry at best) requires 2,000 rupees to get started. Not only is this expensive but it perpetuates the small business syn drome. Additionally, an industry such as ashtray manufacturing relies on sheet metal industries. It takes between 20,000 to 30,000 rupees to get started in the latter industry. In addition to the problem of slow accumulation of wealth to begin business, other problems are prevalent. West Bengal has the worst unemployment problem. Its major money source is jute. Production is falling because of foreign competition and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 182 synthetics. 1.23 Underlying Mrs. Gandhi's economic strategies is the philosophy of gradualism rather than rapid change. Supporting that philosophy is the fact that great aid from the United States, the Soviet Union and most other countries is drying up fast. The best sup port India can hope for these days is credit and loans at low interest rates. 2. POLITICAL SYSTEMS (Need for peaceful interaction the authoritative allocation of scarce values, provision for the general welfare above and beyond individual capacity.) 2.1 India functions as a parliamentary democracy under a federal constitution. She is the largest democracy in the world. India became a republic on January 26, 1950, the day the constitution was officially proclaimed. The constitution is very detailed because under British rule there was no real case of rights or freedoms. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 183 2.2 The government is a combination of American and British principles. The constitution calls for the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, 2.3 The judicial branch has both a British and U.S. flavor. The courts and the codes of law largely follow British jurisprudence. The highest court, like that of the United States is the Supreme Court wherein rests the final interpretation of the constitutionality of a law and is the final court of civil appeal. Additionally, like the Supreme Court of the United States, it determines the validity of both the actions of the legislative and judi cial branches. The justices of the Supreme Court must retire at the age of 65. 2.4 From Britain it borrowed the parliamentary system of government under which the execu tive authority is exercised by a cabinet which is responsible to Parliament (See 2,5). The Prime Minister nominates members of the Cabinet, presides over the Cabinet, and generally supervises the entire administra tion. The Prime Minister is chosen from the majority party by the President and is the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 184 most powerful person in India. However, under the constitution, all executive authority is vested in the President and the country is run in his name. He is Commander- in-Chief of the armed forces and has power of "president's rule." That is, he can take over the administrative duties of any state in India. However, he does this only on advice of the Prime Minister. The President can dissolve Parliament, dismiss the Prime Minister (if the Prime Minister loses major ity rule), and can rule the country for six months. At the end of six months, Parlia ment automatically assembles. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President on advice of the Prime Minister. The President is elected for a five year term by a college of electors. 2.5 India's legislative branch is called Parlia ment and is bicameral, being divided into two houses : the Lok Sabha, or House of the People and the Rajya Sabha, or Council of the State. The latter is considered the upper house al though the bulk of the power is located in the Lok Sabha. The members of Parliament are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 185 elected by Indians over the age of 21 for five year terms. Membership in the lower house presently stands at 521. The main criteria for membership in the House of the People is that one has no criminal record. The upper house membership stands at 280 and is indirectly elected. They are chosen by state legislatures from within their own ranks. Each state sends representatives based on population. A councilman's term is six years. One third of the Council of State is elected every two years. All money bills are introduced in the House of the People and although the Council of the State has advi sory powers in money matters, it must admit to the will of the House of the People. Parliament also has impeachment powers. 2.6 The Indian government is a federation and may be described as having a strong bias toward the center. 2.7 India chose the parliamentary system with cabinet responsibility mainly because she had a quarter of a century's direct exper ience with it in the provinces as a result of the Montagu-Che1msford Reforms of 1919 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 186 which announced and provided for self- government for India as a long term objective of the British government. 2.8 The national government has control over defense and foreign affairs, currency, inter state trade, banks, industry (although industry is not nationalized), mineral resources, and communications. The central government is organized into numerous de partments: State, External Affairs, Finance, Defense, Industry, etc. Over each of these presides a cabinet minister who is often assisted by a Minister of State (but who is without a seat in the Cabinet) or a Deputy Minister chosen from among the members of Parliament. The ministries over which cabinet ministers preside are staffed by a permanent service (Indian Administrative Service) recruited by an independent Public Service Commission through competitive exa minations and trained especially in admini strative methods. 2.9 In areas like price control the federal gov ernment has joint authority with state Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 187 governments. Still areas like health, edu cation, agriculture, police, public order, and local government are by-and-large left up to the jurisdictions of state governments. 2.10 As a federation, governmental structure pro vides for state and local government as well as a national form. Following the cabinet structure of the federal government, the state governments have called their chief executive officers, chief ministers and governors, the latter paralleling the posi tion of prime minister. These executive officers are appointed by the central gov ernment. The governor, appointed by the Prime Minister, has considerable power because it is he who decides which party or coalition of parties in the state legi slature is best able to form a government, 2.11 In 1959, village level and district level government was experimented with and has proved to be successful as is noted by its continued existance. Its main purpose was to break up and revitalize the centuries old "council of elders" that functioned in every Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 188 village, 2.12 At the village level, a council, or pancha- yat is chosen from a larger body made up of village heads from about 100 villages. This governmental body is called the panchayat samiti. Its main function is community development. At the district level, which comprises several hundred villages, is the zila parishad, or district council, which coordinates the planning and development of schools, dispensaries, sanitation projects, welfare programs, communication, etc. within the district. District sizes vary but generally are somewhat larger than a U.S. county. In larger cities like Madras and Bombay, municipal corporations, old esta blished British-formed organizations, guide city administration. 2.13 The frêimers of the Indian constitution were anxious to safeguard the considerable gains in the social field which had resulted from the intellectual awakening in India during the previous years. They were especially concerned with the equality of sexes, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 189 abolition of "untouchability" and the eradi cation of caste. A nation with universal suffrage and the world's largest electorate, India has been called the world's largest democracy. Both cities and rural areas are politically involved. With its six hundred thousand villages and thousands of towns practically every day local elections can be found going on somewhere, thus keeping the machinery of democracy alive. 2.14 Whereas village elections are enthusiasti cally colorful, general elections are marvels of organization. A quarter of a million polling places serve several hundred million people. For people who can't read — two thirds of the Indian population is illi terate (1969 figures) — ballots marked with bullocks, a lantern, a tree, etc., are used. Each symbol represents a political party. Participation is high. In the last general election (1971), 51.9 per cent of the elli- gible women voters participated. It was found in the 1971 elections that caste does not operate in elections. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 190 2.15 India has many parties (three are communist), eight of which could be considered major parties. However, the dominant political party, as a result of the 1971 general election, is the Congress Party. It cap tured 352 of the 521 seats in the House of the People. The remaining seats were split amongst the remaining parties. In the regularly scheduled 1967 election. Congress Party dominance, a position held for 20 years was destroyed, although it still retained control. By 1969, minority parties acting in coalition controlled the House. The 1971 election clearly established Mrs. Gandhi as Prime Minister and leader of India and also defined more clearly India's national principles. 2.16 Mrs, Gandhi advocates gradualism rather than rapid change. India, because of its geo graphical spaciousness, cannot have rapid change. In addition, rapid change would be an extreme and India has never experienced rapid change. Instead, the history of India reflects assimilation — rejecting that which proves to be incompatible with her culture Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 191 and accepting that which is in accord with it. 3, SOCIAL SYSTEMS (Need for predictability, security, psychological as well as physical; structure and order). 3.1 The population of India presents problems involving the economy and society. Not only does India have a problem in terms of unem ployment but also a problem in terms of space. It is estimated that in seven decades, the world population will be 3,000 million or one person per square foot of land. India's 547 million people will be, and indeed are now, feeling the pinch of population. 3.2 India's birth rate per year is 21,000,000. The death rate is 16 per 1000 or an annual increase of 13,000,000 per year. The birth rate presently is 40 per 1000. The present size of an Indian family is 6.3 children (a total of 8.3 people make up a family). The goal is 2-3 children per family which would actually be 17-18 per 1000 birth rate. Family planners would be happy with 20-25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 192 per 1000 birth rate, 3.3 The problem of disseminating family planning information is gigantic. Public awareness has been made via propaganda methods using radio, TV, posters, movies, etc. The radio is controlled by the government and because the radio is so popular in India, it has become the main source of propagandizing, 3.4 One hundred million people living in India have the ability to bear children, India has 5,000 large cities, fourteen of which could be termed enormous. Over two hundred dialects are spoken in India, 3.5 In addition to disseminating information about the benefits of family planning, various contraceptive methods are being used. The condom is being urged for families that have no children. Additionally, it is sold to children (young adults) at a subsidized rate. For a variety of reasons, the failure rate is two per cent. The loop, a plastic device, is advocated by officials in charge of family planning for families with children. Like the condom, failure rate is two per cent. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 193 The use of the loop would be great for India because it takes little knowledge (intelli gence) to use it. It is not used because of negative rumors started by people who have used it. The pill also has been tried in India with little success because of its short two year duration "safe period" (research shows high cancer rates after two years) and because it has limited use for people over forty. The diaphragm is also used and considered an excellent method with theoretically no failure rate. It is not used much by Indian women because of the need for a physical examination and fitting. Sterilization is also used and it has an excellent failure rate of .002 per cent. On men the operation is safe, simple, and in expensive. If women are "tubed," they are paid 40 to 50 rupees. The disadvantages to this method are that in India, it is still expensive and permanent. The rhythm method is not advocated because of the lack of proper data on its success-failure factors. 3.6 Family planning posters are evident in every village and in every city and town. Usually Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 194 with a yellow background and a red triangular attention-getting design, the posters, simply by words and pictures, get across the message that as marriage needs two people, so does a family need to be no more than two children. 3.7 Family planning has had little success be cause of the following facts: The largeness of the country prevents adequate policing of birth control methodology; farm labor is needed every day and farmers (eighty per cent of India) are unwilling to take time off to be informed of or treated for birth control; various religions (Muslim, Catholic) will not practice birth control because they want to propagate their faith; there is fear that birth control methods represent immoral conduct; the educational level is low; the large landowners tend to favor and apportion their land for lease to the largest families; sex is the only real form of recreation for villagers. 3.8 Success will be determined by showing the villagers how much more food and money they can have, how much more fun they can have. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 195 and how much better a standard of living they can have with a small family, 3.9 Abortion is not legal, although an abortion bill has passed the lower house (Spring, 1971), 3.10 Infant mortality rate is four to five per cent annually. 3.11 Average life expectancy is forty years, although in the ghetto areas surrounding and within cities it is eighteen years, 3.12 Strong family ties are reasons for non prostitution rather than religion. The "Cages of Bombay," however, support a colony of 100,000 prostitutes, 3.13 India is embarking on a national health plan. Both government and private industry are in volved. Government hospitals are free and industrial plans can be purchased for 15 to 18 rupees per year, 3.14 One can be and is thrown out of his caste and subcaste if his behavior flaunts custom. Custom has assumed the strength of ritual. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 196 It is enforced by boycott and excommunication as well as outcasting. It is not all eco nomic f for it also means that no one will talk or eat with the offender. Serious fracturing of custom results in physical removal, sometimes violently. It is so terrifying a penalty amongst rural people that few dare risk it, 3.15 As people move to the metropolitan areas, custom is slowly breaking down, because as they return permanently or to visit their villages, they bring with them new ideas and ideals. This is called psychological mobility, 3.16 People of India are not physically mobile, although 3,3 per cent of the people in a poll taken in 1969 were not living where they were born. Movement is limited, how ever, to within a district or state, seldom between states. 3.17 Family structure is strict and hinders mobility. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 197 3.18 The members of some 3,000 castes and sub castes do not normally intermarry or eat together except in the most westernized circles. 3.19 Western influence is only surface influence and really has not penetrated the thoughts and value patterns of Indian youth. 3.20 A caste member can try to go up in the world by changing his customs, trying to imitate the Joneses of another caste, or by changing his name and hoping its origins will be for gotten. This limited mobility is made easier by the fact that, although ranking is fixed in any one village, it has never, at least for the middle castes, been nationwide. 3.21 Mahatma Gandhi has said that "the caste system is not based on inequality; there is no question of inferiority, and in so far as there is any such question arising, as in Madras, Maharashtra, or elsewhere, the ten dency should be undoubtedly checked." Castes are shedding their most characteristic fea tures and are becoming more interest-oriented. They are behaving more like pressure groups Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 198 than status groups in a fixed hierarchy. Therefore castes are now being exploited by political groups. Caste is becoming strong and weak at the same time. In addition, government attempts to improve the lot of the untouchables have created animosity and confusion among castes who took the untouch ables (Harijans) for granted, 3.22 Caste is becoming urbanized. A dual morality is functioning because cities are reaching the villages and villagers are reaching the city. No one asks your caste in a city when you want to buy a cup of tea. Returning to villages, people tend to break down village traditions. 3.23 All four groups mentioned in the Rig Veda were regarded as of divine origin, each having emerged from a portion of the Creator symbolically appropriate to its activities. Untouchables, however, are still just that to many Indians. 3.24 Although occupation and caste are not synonymous, especially in cities, the lowli est of domestic occupations, that of servant. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 199 Is filled by the untouchables (pariahs). 3.25 Caste is not all Hinduism. It operates across all religions. 3.26 Migration from villages to cities is sy stematic in that each caste tends to locate in specific areas, but the nature of cities is breaking down the caste complex. Ex tended kinship group relationships are getting disturbed in the move from villages to cities. 3.27 With education and demands for education, skills, not castes, are becoming more impor tant in occupational fulfillment. 3.28 There are few true joint families with three generations living together. The kinship relations between joint families is not broken, however. There may be three kitchens instead of one, three locations instead of one, but if help is needed, the direction is toward the family. Generally production is as one, as well as consumption. 3.29 There is ambivalence among "nouveau riche" families. Their attitude might be, "I can Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 200 date before marriage but my sister can't." 3.30 Tradition discourages a member of the high Brahman caste from engaging in agriculture. Religious tradition determines who will plow the land and who will not. 3.31 Urbanization has increased from 10.8 per cent in 1901 to 18 per cent in 1961. Because of redefinition of urbanization, the 1971 percentage is 17.8 per cent. Cities of 100,000 are up forty-eight per cent and the overall growth was twenty-six per cent. 3.32 There is change and the change is in direc tion and pace. It is physical and psycho logical. It is the assimilating of tradition but not the losing of tradition. 3.33 The major problem of Indian education lies in a weak based, antiquated obsolete system in herited from British colonial rule. The British system had two goals: (1) teach the child his natural language as an elementary student and (2) switch him to learning the English language as a secondary school stu dent. Many only learned the English, "Yes, Master." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 201 3.34 The Indian educational system has had only twenty years to change and spread. The growth has been rapid and like any rapid change some things have been changed for the better and some have not. 3.35 Education under the Indian system has been decentralized and is a function of state government. Therefore, twenty-one systems are in operation, each having different pay scales, curriculum, etc. However, Indian education is judged on the basis of external exams by a state board. 3.36 In addition to having teachers teach to the state examinations, eleven states have school boards and ten states have none. 3.37 The pre-school age (3 to 6) children usually attend private schools. Because these are not federally funded schools, tuition forms the basic source of operational income. Therefore, only those families of money (usually the upper class), can afford an education at that age. About one per cent of that age group goes to school. However, in 1971, a new federal law declared that Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 202 States have to provide public educational opportunities for poor people. This should swell the ranks of pre-school children an additional one per cent. The total for private and public is about 300,'000 pre school children, 3.38 Elementary education lasts about seven to eight years and is a function of the state. In 1947, there were 200,000 elementary schools. By 1971, 600,000 elementary schools existed for the approximately 800,000 villages of India. Ninety-seven per cent of the elementary aged children have a school within one mile of their homes. 3.39 Although free universal compulsory education is applied theoretically at the elementary level, little is done to enforce school attendance. Out of one hundred six-year-old students (the first year of school) only eighty go to school ... a twenty per cent drop-out before school has started. At age fourteen, only twenty-five of the original one hundred students remain in school. The largest group not to attend schools is girls Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 203 because of their usefulness in the home. The need for laborers in the field also contributes to the ranks of the uneducated as do the landless who have developed little in terms of value attitudes. 3.40 The average school life of a student is three years. After that time, he has become a valuable supply for labor because hunger takes over as a prime drive. Another factor affecting Indian education is that many schools are not of quality and the curri culum calls for learning reading and writing, not skill building for the small craft industrial society that India has and that was recommended by Gandhi. 3.41 The secondary school system has changed little from the patterns introduced under the British. The secondary school term is relatively short, lasting from a minimum of three years to a maximum of five years. The curriculum is a "paper curriculum" basically, although current courses that reflect the needs of society are becoming increasingly evident. The greatest change in secondary Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 204 school is its increase in numbers of students attending class — about twenty- seven million were enrolled according to 1969 statistics. 3.42 Education is completed early in India (age sixteen) but compulsory employment laws are a hindrance to employment seekers. Conse quently, out of one hundred and ten students who complete secondary school, eighty-five go on to the university. Education in India has become a substitute for employment rather than a requirement. 3.43 Medicine and engineering are the best paying professions in India, but those pursuing agricultural learnings are making in-roads because of the "Green Revolution." 3.44 The problems of higher education are five fold: (1) placing enormous numbers of in coming students, (2) stabilizing the re quirements, (3) defining the role of an educated woman in the Indian society, (4) finding solutions to facilities shortages, (5) producing an educational product that meets the needs of society. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 205 The language of the state is the language of the classroom, but these languages do not contain the necessary words to get along in a technological world. 3.46 There is student unrest in higher education, but it is never directed at national or international issues. It is always con nected with the higher educational environ ment. The biggest complaint (1970-71) has been that the students have no say in the decision-making policies and that the pressures at external examination time are tremendous. In order for the student to insure himself of employment, he must score sixty per cent on the state examinations, the cut-off point for placement in the highest classification. 3.47 India is one of the few countries suffering from brain overflow. Many specialists seek and find successful employment overseas. 3.48 With education being made available to many Indians of the working caste, many of the farmers' children no longer want to continue in the traditional ways of their parents. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 206 Education has not only liberated the indivi dual from his traditional occupation, but has also caused him to be dissatisfied with his prescribed role. Not only are India's edu cated youths eager to ignore the caste rela tionships and restrictions governing social relationships, but they are also unwilling to accept the political authority assigned to the elders. At times political relationships are extremely tense since traditions in India have always demanded that the young respect age almost unquestionable. 3.49 In every village the younger educated ele ments tend to form a separate exclusive group. Communication of ideas or values is limited between them and the rest of the population, although this youth element is certainly in the minority. Youth is more prone to challenge traditional values than his parents. India's youth today is ques tioning the validity of traditional senti ments . 3.50 Indian society, because of its caste mono poly on employment and the scarcity of large Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 207 industrial cities, applies enormous pressure for social conformity. "Pamilialism" rather than individualism, still prevails. 3.51 The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 established the legal age for marriage at eighteen for the boy and fifteen for the girl, but be trothals often take place much earlier. 3.52 The traditional marriage is usually arranged through a go-between with little concern for the prospective couple's wishes. The wedding is often celebrated with elaborate ceremonies, 3.53 The first rule for the Indian wife is obedience to her husband. According to traditional social law often followed in the villages, the wife must look upon her husband as her "god," whether he is a drunkard or a lunatic. The wife must eat only after the husband has finished and must fast when he decides to fast. Traditional custom also forbids the wife to address the husband by name because such behavior is considered highly disrespectful. When spoken to by her husband, the wife must keep her eyes lowered to show her humility. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 208 These traditions are changing but the role of the Indian wife is definitely subservient to the husband. 3.54 The modern Indian woman, particularly the urbanized woman, is in many cases educated and gainfully employed. She is no longer shackled to the home and wholly dependent on the decisions of others. The absolute obedience of the wife is no longer exacted as it had been for centuries. The tradi tional regulation that marriage be within the same caste has been relaxed also. II. PROJECTIVE SYSTEMS (Expressive systems) 1. BELIEF SYSTEMS (Need to understand, to know, etc; philosophy, magic, religion, science, etc.) 1.1 In no other country has religion played such a dominant role as it has in India. Hinduism, the origins of which go back 4,000 years, claims 437 million followers in India, Paki stan, Burma and Ceylon. The followers of Hinduism believe it to be the world's oldest religion and the source of all other reli gions . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 209 In theory Hinduism is relatively simple be cause its objective is to achieve union with the eternal spirit which the Hindus call Brahman, instead of God, and who is repre sented by the sacred syllable "om." Yet its rituals are almost incomprehensibly complex and often times gross. The purpose of its theology is to define Brahman — a task of infinite magnitude because Hindu theologists believe that Brahman cannot be defined or debated. Yet their efforts have been fantastic in this endeavor because one single epic, the Mahabharata, is three times the length of the King James version of the Bible. In it is attempted a description of the divine and its relationship to the world. Hinduism has so many sects, each following its own beliefs and rituals, that it seems more a stream of religions than a single faith, Hinduism may be interpreted one way in one community and yet a different way in a different community. And at different times in Indian history it has meant dif ferent things. Yet tradition and a way of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 210 life (the Indian genius for synthesis) gives it unity which holds it together. 1.5 The ancient religious wisemen came to a number of conclusions, notable of which are: all things in the world eventually disinte grate and disappear; individual lives are born and reborn in a series of reincarna tions until they are pure enough to return to their spiritual source, the invisible source of all things; since the physical world is temporal and our desires in the world are destined to frustration, it is the frustration which causes suffering; real peace can be found only in the control of desire which is done by turning the mind to ultimate reality, brahman. These conclusions make the Hindu probably the most religious people on earth. Every act of the orthodox Hindu involves some religious ritual. The essential thing for the Hindu is religion not politics. 1.6 India has had almost every shade and kind of religious belief the world has ever known. Even today, besides Hindus, India can boast Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 211 of Christians, Moslems, Jews, Sikhs, Jains, Parsis, and Buddhists, Even animism is practiced and is found amongst the Indian aboriginies of the jungles of south and central India. However, eighty per cent of India's population are Hindu. 1.7 Hindusism is more easily defined as a way of life. Defined this way it affects human behavior and sets up many values as models of good behavior. The good Hindu should; do his duty (dharma), each caste having different duties; acknowledge inequalities among all things; tolerate other people’s beliefs; protect animals; accept the in evitable; follow religious leaders without question; meditate upon his relationship to the universe; and avoid absolute choice. 1.8 The Hindu has many religious beliefs that justify the above models of behavior. Some of these are that he believes : in the trans formation of souls; in spirits to be feared; in repeated incarnation of God in human form; and that all things are one in Brahman, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 212 1.9 Because of India's genius for synthesis, Hinduism is impossible to define as a religion. Few Hindus agree or can agree about common doctrines of their faith. They do not have a Pope, bishop or other national leader nor do they have conferences to inter pret or authorize interpretations of scrip ture, Hinduism lacks a church and clearly defined body of dogma. 1.10 Some common doctrines that have reached con sensus by most Hindus are: they all recognize the system of caste and the preponderance of Brahman; they venerate the cow ("The cow is a poem of piety. She is mother to millions of Indian mankind," — Mahatma Gandhi); they accept the law of Karma and the transmigra tion of souls, The soul before the body and the future life, not the present, are of prime importance, 1.11 In Hindu mythology. Brahman, the divinity, appears in three forms : the god Brahma used to create the universe; the god Vishnu used to sustain the universe; the god Shiva used to destroy the universe. Brahman is somewhat like the Christian God except that Brahman Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 213 creates each universe out of eternally exist ing material, not out of "nothing" like God does according to the Judeo-Christian tradi tion . For the Hindus, nothing which really exists is ever destroyed absolutely. In stead, things merely change form. For the Hindu life, like the universe, passes through three progressive stages: creation, conserva tion, and destruction. 1.12 In addition to the three great gods of Hinduism, Indian mythology teems with 330 million gods. Some of the dieties have several manifestations. For example, Shiva is called Gangadhara, Mahadeva, Ishwara, Nilakantha and Nataraja. Each diety either refers to a mythical incident in which he plays a part or to a particular incident in his life or to both. Some of the divinities might be called angels or devils; some are heavenly bodies while others are simple mascots. Many are beasts of the forest and birds of the sky. For the Hindu, there is no essential difference between an animal and a man. The animal, like man, has a soul, and all are in the same system of karma and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 214 reincarnation. 1.13 Each diety has a wife who is usually wor shipped along with her husband. The wife, just as the god, has many forms. Not only are they both worshipped, but also their children and the particular animal or bird that they ride. Shiva, for instance, rides the bull, Nandi. 1.14 While the intellectual Hindu concentrates on the writings of the Upanishads and Bagavad- gita and other important writings, the layman finds religious expression by observing the rules of pollution and purity or else he prays as required by family and caste tradi tion. Additionally, he celebrates religious festivals, listens to public readings of religious stories, and goes on pilgrimages to sacred rivers and shrines. The astrologer is consulted at every major incident in a person's life (like marriage) and at every crisis. 1.15 Part of Hinduism is involved with caste. Caste, like Hinduism is difficult to define. As Hindu thought divides life into higher and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 215 lower forms, Hindu society divides its people into higher and lower castes. The Sanskrit word for caste is varna and means color. In ancient times, light skinned Aryans from the north swept into the Indus River Valley, captured the dark skinned inhabitants and imposed their authority on them. Four castes emerged with the Brahmins, or priestly, caste on top. Next in descending order came the warriors, merchants, and laborers. The dark skinned people became "out-castes," not even part of the caste system, and were also tabbed with the name of "untouchable." How ever, because of complex reasons like divi sion of labor within communities, the four castes were subdivided until some 3,000 castes resulted. For religious Hindus, caste is a function of karma, the divine cosmic law of cause and effect. According to karma, inequalities amongst men are not of divine doing but are a result of man's own doing as worked out by the process of reincarnation. Man's birth is a direct result of his past life. Everyone should attempt to live an exemplary existence so that there will be advancement in the next Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 216 life. Brahmins enjoy the highest status in society because they believe that they earned their position in earlier reincarnations. The ultimate goal of a Hindu is release from the cycle of reincarnation and absorption into the world soul. 1.16 The Sikh religion was founded by Nanak (1469-1539), first of the great Sikh gurus. Nanak's faith was monotheistic. He taught the worthlessness of religious vestments, ostentatious prayer, and penance, and of pilgrimages. He believed that all men had a right to search for knowledge of God, ir respective of caste. He was a humanitarian who aimed at combining Hindus and Moslems into one brotherhood. He abolished caste distinctions, sought to introduce simplicity of faith and purity of morals, and to induce Hindus and Moslems to live in harmony. 1.17 The principles of Sikhism are a synthesis of Hindu doctrines and Islamic tenets. Major beliefs include that the soul at death passes into another body or successive bodies and that the soul of Nanak lived again in his successors. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 217 1.18 Nanak was succeeded by Guru Angrad who carried on the humanitarian teachings of his predecessor. Guru Angrad compiled the Granth (book) Sahib (holy) in which he embodied what he had learned from Guru Nanak and added some of his own reflections on life. 1.19 The sacred temple or Golden Temple of the Sikhs is at Amritsar, India, and was built on a site granted by the Emperor Akbar. 1.20 The tenth and last Guru was Gobind Rai who took the affix Singh (lion) in lieu of Rai and remodeled the Sikh organization. He made the Sikh initiation a rite of admittance into a militant order. In that rite, sugar is stirred with a two-edged dagger in water that is then drunk by the inductee. He then utters the Sikh war-cry vowing adherence to the Sikh's tenets. From then on he must wear the unshorn hair, the drawers reaching only to the knee, the iron bangle at the wrist, the sword or small dagger, and the hair comb. Of these, the first four have military uses. For example, the long hair rolled around steel rings serves as a helmet. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 218 But they also have spiritual meaning. The drawers symbolize self-restraint, the bangle, obedience, and the comb, purity of mind. The use of flesh and liquor is permitted to a warrior but tobacco is prohibited. 1.21 The Sikhs have a communion at which flour mixed with butter and sugar is eaten by all castes together. 1.22 Jainism is a religion founded in the sixth century B.C., by Mahavira (Great Hero) Jina (Conqueror). He was the son of a chieftain and he led a worldly life until his parents died when he was thirty. He was so concerned and upset by the seriousness of life that he left his wife and relatives and wandered naked as a homeless ascetic. For twelve years he practiced the severest austerities with deep meditation and was never moved to anger, though often beaten. In this way he became the Jina (Conqueror) and Kevalin (Perfect Sage). 1.23 Jain tradition claims a far greater antiquity than Sikhism. Mahavira was preceded by twenty-three saints who had attained nirvana Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 219 and who were also called Jinas. 1.24 Jainism may be described as lacking an abso lute Godhead. Sharing in the theoretical pessimism of the Buddhist, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies, it aims at the goal of libera tion from transmigration of the soul. All substances are divided into lifeless things and souls (or lives). There are many vows and the first is not to kill. The strict Jainist covers the mouth with a cloth so nothing in the air will be injured. Vermin must be removed not killed, A Jain house is kept very clean. Monastic discipline is very strict and includes chastity, abstinence from alcohol, flesh, honey and roots. The monas tic discipline also includes mental disci pline, purity of thought, contemplation, con fession, and repentance. 1.25 One of the strengths of Jainism is that a layman may make vows after he has made suffi cient progress, though he does not have to enter an order or take its full obligations upon him. While suicide is a sin, both ascetics and laymen may hasten death by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 220 Voluntary methods, but this is only per missible to the layman in old age. 1.26 The weakness of Jainism is that it is essen tially a creed of cultivated classes from which the masses are excluded. 1.27 The Jain monk attains deliverance for his spirit from the bonds of flesh by following the three tenets : knowledge, faith and vir tue, Knowledge teaches that the world con sists of eternal spirits and eternal atoms, without any supreme being. Faith is found in the word of their master, Mahavira, and the declarations of their scriptures, thé Agamas. Virtue consists of the five-fold conduct that results from such knowledge and such faith, as : (1) to kill nothing what soever, (2) not to lie, (3) not to steal, (4) to abstain from sexual pleasures, and (5) to renounce all attachments to the senses. 1.28 The Parsis follow the ancient religion of Iran as performed by their prophet Zoroaster. After their arrival in India the Parsis spread to most of the trading ports and com Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 221 mercial centers. In physical appearance, a Parsi differs from a Hindu in his olive- colored skin, sharp acquiline features, well- formed chin, dark eyes and hair. Being chiefly traders, the Parsis constitute one of the wealthiest and most prosperous com munities in India. 1.29 The Parsi prays at sunrise and at sunset. On festival days he goes to the fire temple and prays before the sacred fire which is kept constantly burning. The fire, fed by sandalwood, is tended by priests who approach it with covered faces and sacerdotal instru ments . 1.30 Marriages with persons of other creeds and castes are met with disapproval and polygamy is forbidden, 1.31 The Parsi dead are not buried but are placed in the Tower of Silence to be eaten by vul tures . 1.32 The ethical code of the Zoroastrians can be stated with the words : good thoughts, good words, good deeds. The Parsi scripture's re- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 222 quire the last ten days of the year to be spent in doing deeds of charity. Their religion teaches them benevolence and they practice it with liberality. 1.33 In mid-winter a feast of six days is held in commemoration of the six periods of creation. On the vernal equinox, about March 21, a feast is held in honor of agri culture, when planting begins. 1.34 The priestly office is hereditary and no one can become a priest who was not so born. 2. ESTHETIC SYSTEMS (Need for beauty and the expression of one's individuality and group membership; art, dance, drama, music, literature, etc.) 2.1 Much of ancient Indian art may be described as religious, and it has remained so down through Indian history. Early people are portrayed as reflections of the inner self on portraits. Painting was and still is used to show the divine nature of the gods as well as to instruct men in the truths of religion. Modern art reflects the influence Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 223 of Western painting. 2.2 Indian images are abstractions of the human form. The nude is not used in Indian art for its own sake but in order to suggest the sensuality of the fertility spirits. In every period of Indian art painters and sculptors showed the fullness of the body by abstracting the feminine form, 2.3 The Indian artist represented parts of the body and features in shapes suggested by similar forms in the world of nature, such as the loti-form eyes of the dieties. Ad ditionally, Indian gods were always displayed as supermen. The many heads and arms of Hindu divinities were necessary to display the many attributes of their power. 2.4 The Ajanta caves stand as a masterpiece of painting. Although much has been lost to the ages, the paintings and sculpturing reflect an extraordinary era in art. The painting and sculpturing was done, or at least begun, by Buddhist monks. Other unknown artists added to the story of Buddha that is told on the walls of the caves, but they added Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 224 facets of their own lives and civilization. It is estimated that the caves were being worked on between the second and seventh centuries A.D, The paintings of Ajanta are done in a fresco style. 2.5 Indian culture must have had a continuous history from pre-historic times. Rough chipped stone implements have been found in southern India. Neolithic implements, both chipped and polished, have been found all over India. Primitive riddle paintings have been found in various parts of north central India and have been regarded as of Neolithic or perhaps Paleolithic date. Those of the Mirzapur district include a representation of a rhinoceros hunt. This animal is now extinct in India. The hunters are shown with barbed spears, suggesting certain ancient copper weapons. The paintings at Singanpur show a horse and a deer of extraordinary resemblance to the Paleolithic paintings of Cogul in Spain. In the Indus Valley culture of the third millenium B.C., there is natu ralistic art on scale with figures of the bull, the eleghant and the rhinoceros. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 225 Sculptures in marble (from the Indus sites) include a bust of a man, possibly a shaman, and a bearded man wearing a skullcap. The heads have a masklike quality like those from Mesopotamia, In this early period they even had personal ornaments of finely wrought gold, silver, and copper gilt jewelry. At the Indus sites there was found wheel-made pottery of various shapes, but vessels with handles were rare. The painted designs were usually in black on a dark red slip and had geometric patterns and occasional figures of animals. 2.6 The historic period of Indian sculpture be gan in Asoka's time. Asoka erected a number of columns to honor the law. On top of each column he had a capital orncunented with naturalistic animal figures. Asoka's column at Sarnath had at its top not the figure of the Buddha, but a wheel, the symbol of eternal and infinite truth, 2.7 Fascinating sculpturing can be seen at the Ellora caves not far from Aurangabad, Un like the Ajanta caves, the Ellora caves were dug out of solid rock. Many of them date Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 226 back to the 7th century A.D., a date that seems to indicate that the builders of the Ajanta caves abandoned that site and began sculpturing at Ellora. This date also marks the wane of Buddhism and is why Hindu and Jain caves are also found at Ellora. Of the thirty-four caves, twelve reflect the Buddhist culture, seventeen center ones re flect the Hindu styles, and the five to the north are definitely of the Jain expression. 2.8 One feature of Hindu sculpture found in Western civilization is the erotic element. It is not limited merely to naked women but shows varying acts of physical intercourse and examples of phallic symbols, 2.9 Indian dance and drama are closely related. Accompanying the dance and drama is music, both instrumental and vocal. Drama which contains plot, lyric stanzas, music and dancing is generally called nataka. The purpose of a dance or a dramatic piece is to evoke an aesthetic experience in the specta tors. Four techniques are used to convey this in the act of dancing. There are: (1) expression through the posture of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 227 body and through hand and body gesture, (2) expression through the spoken word, al though the vocal is often supplied by the musicians, (3) expression through costume, (4) expression through facial expression. 2.10 Dance has a long history in India. It is mentioned in the Vedas and has religious overtones. India has a god who dances. One of Shiva's forms is Nataraja, the king of dancers who creates the rhythm of the universe. 2.11 Indian music is an ancient art and one of tradition. The most outstanding charac teristics of Indian music is that it is purely melodic. It netiher implies or needs harmony. The melody is made up of notes which are related only by their continuity. There is no such thing as exact tones, one of the reasons why keyboard instruments don't exist. There is no absolute pitch in Indian music. Music seems to be the most abstract of all the arts. 2.12 The Ramayana and Mahabharata, great Indian epics, have not been equalled since their Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 228 conception. The great tradition of writing in India lies in the fields of the epic, romantic drama and poetry. 2.13 Kalidasa, the Sanskrit poet of the sixth century, has not been surpassed in his poetry or dramas. 2.14 Although Indian history does not show a profusion of great writers and productions, the various regions of India have contributed much to Indian literature. 2.15 The novel and short story are only recent developments on the literary scene but with fourteen different languages, it is difficult to assess the literary developments in these areas of writing. 2.16 One of the reasons that the novel and short story, along with the critical essay are so popular is that Prime Minister Nehru set up an Academy of Letters for writing and trans lating that which was already written. Ac cording to Mr. Singh, all Indian literature of the modern period should be judged in terms of mediocrity. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CONCLUSION Although much material has been written about India, many of the authors have never visited that country and therefore have drawn erroneous conclusions con cerning information that was not gathered empiri cally. The authors of this opuscule have visited India and have attempted to gather data objectively and report their findings unbiasedly. It is hoped that the reader will find this report useful in his quest for knowledge of India. - 229 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX V INDIA: CURRICULUM COMPONENT Presented to Dr. Edward Berman Dr. Elizabeth Simpson Mr. Vasisht Malhotra In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the India Project Summer 1971 by Esther N. Deines January 8, 1972 — 230 — Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CURRICULUM UNIT: UTILIZATION OP RESOURCES Objectives : 1. The learner will begin to grasp the concept of utilization of resources by seeing that family groups produce and consume goods and services, for they depend on one another. 2. The learner will increase his grasp of utiliza tion of resources by observing how family groups are influenced by their cultural and natural environment. Content: This curriculum compenent is based on a cross- cultural approach to develop generalizations in regard to the Utilization of Resources. Concepts developed are: 1. Man utilizes his environment to secure basic needs. 2. Man interacts to utilize available resources. Processes : This unit pulls together the slides, 8mm films, realia, and data from many cultures into a multimedia presentation to initiate the processes of inquiring, observing, identifying, defining, comparing and con- - 231 - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 232 trasting that will ultimately lead to predicting, developing models, formulating hypotheses, testing hypotheses and eventually making decisions. Observing: given a picture, the learner can identify the features they observe by pointing to them as they name them. Identifying: given their own listing of items identified from the picture, the students can group together similar items and label the categories they have created. Defining: given the categories which have evolved from the listing, grouping, and labeling experiences, students can formulate a definition of each category which permits the inclusion of the items that are instances and refutes items which are not instances. Comparing and Contrasting; given a set of cri teria adequate to the purpose, students will describe similarities and differences between two (or more) examples. Generalizing: given similarly organized observa tions (representing two or more contrasting content samples, with the data grouped according to identical categories) students will draw inferences and formu late generalizations of wide applicability. Predicting: given the generalizations the students have formulated previously, students can Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 233 predict the relationship which will be found in novel settings or at a future point in time, or at a point in the past which the students have not previously considered. Verifying Predictions ; given the predictions they have made, the students will justify their pre dictions by logical thinking or by locating data which will support or refute the predictions. Developing Models: given generalizations developed earlier and modified sufficiently to sur vive the predictions and verification steps, students will develop models or diagrams depicting the dy namics of the relationships involved. Formulating Hypotheses : given diagrams, models, or case studies depicting the inter-relationships between the dynamic factors involved in the model or system depicted, the student will formulate the rela tionships observed into statements of hypotheses. Testing Hypotheses: given the hypotheses formu lated, students will demonstrate the universality of the hypotheses by testing each of them in a variety of settings. Making Decisions: given a problem which requires a solution, and relevant hypotheses which the students have formulated deem preferable as a result of their study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 234 Value Analysis and Application: Processes — observing that all people have similar needs. Analyzing that people use the resources available for their basic needs. Inferring that people make choices as they use their resources. Predicting that choices are made as a result of culture and natural environment. Setting ; Africa, Asia, and North America are the settings for this intercultural approach to the study of the utilization of resources. The emphasis is centered in Ghana, India, and the United States of America for the purpose of contrast and comparison. Key Concept: People utilize the resources available to them to satisfy their basic needs. Sub-Concept: People living in under-developed areas are more dependent upon their immediate environ ment for their basic needs than are people living in more technologically developed areas. Sources of Information: Books Deines and Wynn, Data Book, India Summer Project Cooke, Dera. A Village in India. Dar. Costumes of India and Pakistan. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 235 Persh. India and South Asia. Fersh. Story of India, Gidal, Sonia and Tim, My Village in India, Hare. Tasty Dishes of India. Mehta. Masterpieces of Indian Textiles. Rice. Mother India's Children. Acquaye. Children of West Africa. Evans. All About Us (African Children). Allen. Africa. Ames. Nkrumath of Ghana. Vavra. Anna and Pula. Bernheim. From Bush to City. Bernheim. A Week in Aya's World. Caldwell,! Let's Visit Middle Africa. Caldwell. Let's Visit West Africa. Zemba. Ghana in Pictures. Larsen. Boy of Dahomey. Duee. Boy of Liberia. Schloat. Boy of Ghana. Olden. Getting to Know Ghana. Olden. Getting to Know Liberia. Buehr. From Farm to Home. Lenski, The Little Farm. Collier. Who Goes There in My Garden. Schloat. Milk For You. Wormser. About Silkworms and Silk, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 236 Crocker, Betty Crocker's New Boys and Girls Cookbook. Freeman. Fun With Cooking. McDonald. Cooking Fun. Waller. Clothing. Beim. Tim and the Tool Chest. Benenson. How A House Was Built. Filmstrips and Slides Newhall School Intercultural Laboratory Slides — Africa Asia U.S.A. SVE 211-SATC, The Foods We Eat, U.S.A. SVE 203-S, Food, Clothing, Shelter, U.S.A. SVE 204-S, How We Get Our Clothing, U.S.A. SVE 205-S, How We Get Our Homes, U.S.A. F-85, Village in India, Asia. H-67, Faces of African Children, Africa. H-72, African Farm Children, Africa. 8mm and 16mm Films 02811 How Clothing is Made — Story of Production, C 16mm, U.S.A. 04142 Behind the Scenes at the Supermarket, C 16mm, U.S.A. 03031 Cloth Fiber to Fabric, C 16mm, U.S.A. 05435 Clothes We Wear, C 16mm, U.S.A. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 237 05698 Community Bakery, C 16mm, U.S.A. 05954 Pood for the City — Wheat and Flour, C 16mm, U.S.A. 01075 Homes Around the World, B 16mm, Africa, Asia, U.S.A. 03009 Boy of Bombay, C 16mm, Asia 02945 Natural Resources of Southeast Asia, C 16mm, Asia (Very Advanced) 07503 Family of Ghana, B 16mm, Africa Newhall School District Intercultural Laboratory 8mm, Africa, Asia, U.S.A. 8 Loops 87-0162 FL Africans of the River Niger, C 8-Loop, Africa (Building a House). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 238 CONCEPT: MAN UTILITZES HIS ENVIRONMENT TO SECURE HIS BASIC NEEDS Learning Environment: Pictures of Land and Man are used to develop the concept with the Intercultural Media Slides No's AS-I-8; Af-G-8; U.S.-C-8. Description; The Intercultural Media Slides listed for use in the development of this concept are composed of slides showing Land, Man's Use in Africa, Asia, and the United States as a setting to develop the con cept; Man utilizes his environment to secure basic needs. They are designed to be a part of the Newhall School District Intercultural Laboratory. These units consist of sets of single concept slides each depict ing a different culture. The sets of slides may be shown: (1) simultan eously on a triple media screen to stimulate obser vation, comparison, generalizations, and decision making, or (2) each set of slides may be shown separately to test theories and to serve as a data source. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 239 Hypotheses : Family groups throughout the world live in different environments. Geographic features of the Earth affect man's behavior. Concept: Man utilizes his environment to secure basic needs. Unit Synopsis; In his earlier school years, the learner's conceptual focus in social studies has been on the fundamental knowledge of the nature of man. He has studied man in relation to his family and community. He is now ready to assume the task of broadening his under standing of complex communities to the degree that a comparison of several communities can be made. The emphasis of the study will focus on how men in various communities adapt to change and develop their culture and ways of living in relation to their natural environment. The cross-cultural study of Africa, Asia, and the United States pro vides an opportunity for the learner to consider the similarities and dissimilarities of each culture. The dissimilarities exhibit the unique characteris tics of the groups, while the similarities emphasize Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 240 those aspects which are common to the whole human race. Teaching Objective: Concept : The learner gains an awareness that the geographic features of the Earth affect man's be havior. At the end of the unit, the learner shall be able to analyze how man, influenced by his cul tural and natural environment, has adapted or changed the land to meet his needs. Valuing : The learner begins to understand how man should use his environment to secure his basic needs. The learner observes that man prefers to adapt his environment to secure basic needs. At the end of the unit, the learner shall be able to compare and contrast geographic settings in countries studied and describe and analyze the inter-relationships between man and how man has affected his environ ment. Process : Observing, analyzing all available data, comparing the intercultural slides showing the three cultures studied. Inferring basic similarities and differences. Making and testing hypotheses and making decisions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 241 Developing the Concept; Confronted by a problem, the teacher will use her knowledge of the inquiry approach to guide the students through the various levels of thinking. The intercultural slides are one tool that may be used as the teacher elects for a data source or as a tool of inquiry. Slide Presentation: Show all slides without comment, then ask questions — review slides to get responses. Slide 1 Africa: Undeveloped land U.S.A.: Undeveloped land Asia: Undeveloped land Slide 2 Africa; Landscape Very few build ings Inquiry T. What do you see? C. A country scene, i.e., trees, scrubs, wild flowers. T. What gives you reason to think that man has been here? C. There is a trail, a fence post. T. Look at these pictures very carefully and remember what you see. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Slide 2 U.S.A.; Landscape Housing in distance Asia: Landscape Slide 3 Africa: A village U.S.A: A tract house development Asia; A village Slide 4 Africa: Village in distance U.S.A.; New shopping center surrounded by a wheat field Asia: Village 242 Inquiry T. Look at these pictures very carefully and remember what you see. T. I asked you to remember what you saw in the last picturees. This U.S.A. picture was taken in the same place as the last one only eight years later. The others al though different loca tions show the same thing. What do you think has happened? C. Man has built buildings. T. What do you see? C. A field with shops in the distance. A village, vegetable gardens. T. What do you think is happening to the fields and gardens? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 243 Slide 4 Slide 5 Africa; City scene U.S.A.! Same as slide #4 eight years later Asia: City scene Inquiry C. Man is building on them. T. Why? C. Because they need homes, stores, factories, etc. T. Look carefully at the U.S.A. picture. Do you think there is any re lationship between this one and the last one? C. I think it is the same place only more stores. T. What else? C. A park, better street, more scrubs, patio wall. T. What makes you think that the same thing might have been happen- in Africa and Asia? C. The villages in this picture are larger than the ones in the last one, T. Why do you think man is doing all this? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Slide 5 244 Inquiry C. People need these things. There are more people. They need houses, stores and land. Slide 6 Africa: City scene T. Ifhat else does man need? U.S.A.: City scene C. Hospitals, gasoline Asia: City scene station, shoe stores. schools, churches, etc. Slide 7 Africa : Utility Poles T. Look at these pictures U.S.A.: Power Lines and tell me what makes Asia: Utility Poles you think man needs something else. c. Power poles and wires. T. What do you think these poles and wires do? c. Bring electricity and telephones to your house. T. Does everyone have poles and wires on their street? C. No, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Slide 7 245 Inquiry T. Does everyone have electricity and tele phones? C. Yes. Almost. T. How can they when there are no poles for the wires? C. (They are underground.) If the class cannot answer this will be a research for further study problem. T. Are there utility poles in Africa and Asia? C. Yes, sometimes. Just like U.S.A., sometimes. T, Do you think we need to do some research? T. What do we need to know more e&out? Problems : 1. How does man utilize his environment to secure basic needs? 2. How do family groups throughout the world live Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 246 in different environments? 3. In what ways do geographic features of the earth affect man's behavior? Extensions : The class will continue its investigation of the subject. They may divide into groups with speci fic data to be researched. Suggestions ; 1. Invite a speaker from one of the public utility companies to talk to the class. 2, Let a group go to the resource center for data. 3. Let a group chart a cross-culture study on how man secures the basic needs in each culture. 4, Let a group transfer and/or apply generali zations to a new culture. Evaluation : At the end of the unit, the learner shall be able to analyze how man, influenced by his culture and natural environment, has adapted or changed the land to meet his needs as demonstrated by designing a model environment. Criteria: Did the learner plan for all the needs of the family group? Were adaptations made? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 247 CONCEPTS MAN INTERACTS TO UTILIZE AVAILABLE RESOURCES Learning Environment: Pictures of Markets and Marketing — implemented with the Intercultural Media slides No's. AS-I-1; Af-G-1; U.S.-C-l Description : Each set of slides is composed of transparencies showing markets and marketing in Africa, Asia, and the U.S.A. as a setting to develop the concept: Man interacts to utilize available resources. It is designed to be part of the Newhall School District Intercultural Laboratory. These units consist of sets of single concept slides each showing a dif ferent culture. The sets of slides may be shown: (1) simultan eously on a triple media screen to stimulate obser vation, comparison, and generalizations, or, (2) each set of slides may be shown individually to test theories and to serve as a data source for decision making. Hypotheses ; Man interacts to supply his basic needs. Trading is a means of sharing resources. Human energy is a resource. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 248 Concept : Man interacts to utilize available resources. Unit Synopsis: In his earlier school years, the learner's con ceptual focus in social studies has been on the fundamental knowledge of the nature of man. He has studied man in relation to his family and community. He is now ready to assume the task of broadening his understanding of complex communities to the degree that a comparison of several communities can be made. The emphasis of this study will focus on how men in various countries interact to supply their basic needs. The cross-cultural study of Africa, Asia, and the United States provides an opportunity for the learner to consider the similari ties and dissimilarities of different cultures. The dissimilarities exhibit the unique characteristics of the groups while the similarities emphasize those aspects which are common to the whole human race. Teaching Objectives: Concept : The learner gains an awareness that man utilizes his resources to secure basic needs through adaptive behavior of the larger group. The learner gains deeper awareness of the interdependence by further insight into the importance of skills and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 249 services. The learner will observe that people provide goods that are in demand, inferring that people develop skills and provide services that are in demand. At the end of the unit, the learner shall be able to analyze how man, influenced by his culture and basic needs, interacts to utilize available resources. Valuing; The learner begins to develop an appre ciation for the diverse ways people meet their basic needs. At the end of the unit the learner shall be able to compare and contrast marketing in the countries studied, also to describe and to analyze how man interacts to secure his basic needs. Process ; Observing the slides, comparing the cross- cultural similarities and dissimilarities. Generaliz ing basic similarities and differences. Testing hypotheses and valuing or making decisions. Developing the Concept; Confronted by a problem, the teacher will use her knowledge of the inquiry approach to guide the students through the various levels of thinking. The intercultural slides are one tool that may be used as the teacher elects for a data source or as a tool of inquiry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 250 Slide Presentation: Show all slides without comment, then ask questions — review if necessary to get desired responses. Slide 1 Africa: Market Scene U.S.A.: Grocery Store Asia: Market Scene Slide 2 Africa: Market Scene U.S.A.: Shopping Center Asia; Market Scene Inquiry T. What do you see? C. People, cars, buildings, signs, bushes. T. Looking at all three pictures what else do you see? C. Roads, parking lot, shopping cart, baskets, T, What do you see? C. Stores, cars, signs, vegetables, baskets, people, buildings. T. Why do you think these buildings and people are all in this one place? C. So people can come and buy things, mothers don't have to go to so many places to get things they need. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 251 Slide 3 Africa: Close-up market scene U.S.A.: Inside the food market Asia; Close-up market scene Slide 4 Africa: Close-up market scene U.S.A.: Produce department Asia: Close-up market scene. Inquiry T. What do you see? C. Food, carts, people, things to buy. T. What else do you see? C. Meat price signs, people. T, What are the people do ing? C. Talking, looking, select ing things, shopping. T. What do you see? C, Inside the store, people, fruits, vege tables. T. Do you see anything else? C. Carts. T. What do you think the man in the center pic ture is doing? C. Working, sorting fruit. T. What makes you think that he is a worker and not a shopper? C. He wears an apron. He does not have a shopping Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 252 Slide 5 Africa : Bartering U.S.A.! Check-stand Asia: Bartering Inquiry cart. T. Why do you think the work he is doing is important? C. The shelves would get empty. He has to keep fruit fresh. People can't buy the things they need if he does not put out for sale. T. Tell me what do you see? C. People, check-stand, signs, food, T. What do you think the people are doing? C. Talking, checking, put ting things in the sack and boxing, buying, and selling. T. What makes you think that everyone in the picture is a part of what is happening? In other words, could they get along without someone? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 253 Slide 6 Africa: Market Scene U.S.A.: Check-stand Asia: Market Scene Inquiry Why? 0. The buyer cannot buy without someone to sell to. The checker must add up the cost of the items. Someone must put the items in something to be able to take them home. T, What do you see? C. Check-stand, checker woman, signs, cash register. T. What do you think each woman at the check-stand is doing? C. Checking, paying, talking. T. What do you think they are doing in the Africa and Asia pictures? C. Buying, selling, trading. T. What do you think would happen if no one came to buy? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Slide 7 Africa : Other sellers U.S.A.; Another store Asia: Other sellers 254 Inquiry C. People could not get the things they need. The store would have no business and close. Workers would have no jobs and would not earn money to buy things. T. What do you think would happen if there were no checker at the stand when you came to buy? C. You wouldn't know how much to pay. You could n't pay for the groceries, T. Why do you think we need markets to provide for these resources? C. So people can come together to exchange the resources they have for the ones they need and want. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 255 Problems ; 1. How does man interact to provide available resources? 2. What are some of the ways in which resources are shared? 3. What are some of the ways in which human energy is a resource? T. Do we need additional data before we can make a decision? Extensions : The class may continue by planning further study. Divide the class into groups for additional activities. Suggestions : 1. Invite resource people to come and talk, 2. Let a group go to the resource center for data. 3. Let a group do some role playing depicting the three cultures studied. Make sure they show the interaction processes of the cultures. Evaluation: At the end of the unit, the learner shall be able to analyze how man, influenced by his culture and basic needs, interacts to utilize available re sources as demonstrated by the following activity : Conduct a poll of the needs of the members of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 256 the class and set up a means or system of supplying these needs of this simulated community. Criteria; Did they provide for all the needs? Did the learner interact to provide these needs? Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Creator Malhotra, Vasisht Kumar (author)

Core Title A Critical Analysis Of An Intercultural Institute For Personnel And Curriculum Development On India

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor O'Neill, William S. (committee chair), McGregor, Edgar Russell (committee member), Wilbur, Leslie (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-808789

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Document Type Dissertation

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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