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Social And Political Aspects Of The Mexican Revolution As Seen Through The Writings Of Mariano Azuela

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Social And Political Aspects Of The Mexican Revolution As Seen Through The Writings Of Mariano Azuela

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Content SOCIAL A N D POLITICAL ASPECTS OF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION AS SEEN TH RO U G H THE WRITINGS O F M ARIANO AZUELA by F e lic ia n o R ivera A D is s e r ta tio n P resen ted t o th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In I b r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree D OCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (L a tin A m erican S tu d ie s ) A ugust 1970 71 - 16,433 RIVERA, Feliciano, 1931- SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ASPECTS OF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION AS SEEN THROUGH THE WRITINGS OF MARIANO AZUELA. [Portions of Text in Spanish]. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 History, modern University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan C opyright © by FELICIANO RIVERA 1971 THTfi nTSSERTATTON HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA S 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ...................... EfiU£ianja..Ri.Y.fcj:3................................ under the direction of h is Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of DOCTOR OF PH ILO SO PH Y .......... / I Dtan Date Aug.uak..l.2Zi)............. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman / ..... ...... PREFACE Im portance o f This Study I t i s im p o rta n t to know more a b o u t th e M exican R ev o lu tio n b ecau se i t i s th e o u ts ta n d in g f e a tu r e o f modem M exico. The R ev o lu tio n has a f f e c t e d n o t o n ly M exico's own developm ent, b u t th e th in k in g and developm ent o f o th e r l a t i n A m erican n a tio n s a s w e ll. The g r e a t n o v e lis t o f t h i s Mexican R e v o lu tio n , M ariano A zuela, was c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to th e R e v o lu tio n , in b o th a p e rso n a l and l i t e r a r y way. Thus, t h i s stu d y o f A zuela i s an added p e rs p e c tiv e o f t h i s im por t a n t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t, and a n exam ple o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f p e rio d l i t e r a t u r e t o illu m in a te h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts . L im its o f This Study T his stu d y does n o t a tte m p t s p e c if ic a n a ly s is o r judgm ent o f A z u e la 's e a r l y w orks—t h a t i s , th o s e p re v io u s t o M aria L uisa (1 9 0 7 ). I n c id e n ta l r e fe re n c e s w i l l be made to them , f o r some o f them in d ic a te s i g n i f i c a n t d ir e c tio n s i i i n A z u e la 's th in k in g . The same i s tr u e o f th e m inor w orks— s k e tc h e s , sp e e c h e s, in te r v ie w s , e t c . A n o tew o rth y excep t i o n w i l l be A zuela*s c r i t i c a l w r itin g , C ien afios de n o v ela m e v ir a ^ (1947), "A zares de mi n o v ela 1 Los de a b a jo , w hich d e f i n i t e l y c a s t l i g h t on A zuela*s l i t e r a r y purposes and p ro c e d u re s. T his work w i l l c o n fin e i t s e l f to th e more s i g n i f i c a n t themes, th o se w hich perm eate th e work o f th e n o v e lis t and c o n s t it u t e a r e a l p re o c c u p a tio n w ith him. A com plete a n a ly s is o f A z u e la 's l i t e r a r y te c h n iq u e s and d e v ic e s w i l l n o t be found in t h i s stu d y . One o f th e m ost im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n s o f t h i s s tu d y , how ever, w i l l be to p ro v id e a f r e s h e s tim a te o f A zuela*s w orks and t h e i r v a lu e to h i s t o r y . A c k n o w le d g m e n ts I t i s an in a d e q u a te m easu re, b o th o f th e d eb t in c u rre d and o f th e se n se o f o b lig a tio n f e l t , sim p ly t o name th o se who c o n trib u te d t o th e su c c e ss o f t h i s p r o je c t th ro u g h t h e i r i n t e r e s t , d i r e c ti o n , d is c e rn in g c r i t i c i s m , and g enerous encouragem ent. N e v e rth e le s s , I m ust make an a tte m p t to e x p re ss my g r a t i tu d e . H i F i r s t , my s in c e r e th an k s t o Dr. Manuel S e rv ln , Chairm an o f th e G raduate Com m ittee. 1b th e members o f th e Com m ittee, D rs. R obert E. C u r tis , Manuel G u erra, D orothy McMahon, and H ector O rju e la , I am a l s o in d e b te d . For h is illu m in a tin g comments on th e Church, I am g r a t e f u l to F a th e r f r a n c is P. G u est, O.F.M. M y g r a te f u ln e s s e x te n d s t o my f r ie n d s H ector C6r- dova, Rosemary H o lsin g e r, A rlen e Ja c o b s, and Ben Bonnech f o r t h e i r d is c e rn in g c r i t ic i s m s and in v a lu a b le s u g g e s tio n s . And f i n a l l y , t o my w if e , M aria E len a, who rem ained a n i n s p i r a t i o n t o me, 1 m ust e x p re s s my a p p re c ia tio n f o r h e r p a tie n c e and u n d e rs ta n d in g . iv TABLE O F C O N TEN TS ftige HffiFACE................................................................................................. i i INTRODUCTION................................................................................... 1 C hapter I . PRECONQUEST TO THE REVOLUTION................................... 8 I I . HIGHLIGHTS OF THE REVOLUTION.................................. 27 I I I . AZUELA'S VIEW OF THE CHURCH...................................... 62 IV. SOCIOPOLITICAL DILEMMAS................................................ 103 V. ECONOM IC DETERMINANTS.................................................... 134 V I. AZUELA'S COMPANIONS IN C H A O S.................................. 159 V II. AZUELA: THE M A N , HIS TIME, A N D HIS W O RK S . . 190 CONCLUSION....................................................................................... 231 APHSNDIX A. C hronology o f A z u e la 's P r in c ip a l Works and C o in cid en t D a t e s ....................... 236 APHSNDIX B. A C hronology o f A z u e la 's Works by A ib lic a tio n D a t e .............................................. 238 APHSNDIX C. C hronology o f M ajor E v e n t s ....................... 239 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................... 246 v INTRODUCTION M ariano A zuela, a p o s tle o f th e poor and o p p resse d , was n o t a p ro f e s s io n a l w r i t e r , y e t he succeeded w here pro f e s s io n a l w r ite r s f a i l e d In d ra m a tiz in g th e suprem e a n g u ish o f th e Mexican p e o p le . W ith u n u su a l s e n s i t i v i t y A zuela d e p ic te d th e s p i r i t o f th e m a s se s--th e l i f e o f th e ne6n w ith a l l I t s h a rs h n e s s , p r iv a tio n , d a rk n e ss, and d e s p a ir - - th e scene d u rin g h i s own tim e . For th e m iddle c la s s A zuela f e l t in d if f e r e n c e ; f o r th e a r i s to c r a c y , d is d a in . The c le r g y , th e m i l i t a r y , and th e o lig a r c h ie s - -M e x ic o 's p r iv ile g e d groups from th e tim e o f C o rte s— f e l t th e s t i n g o f th e s a t i r i c a l pen o f t h i s d o c to r - tu m e d - w r ite r , who w ro te f o r n e ith e r p le a s u re n o r fam e, b u t r a t h e r t o re c o rd th e " b lo o d -a n d -h o rro r y e a rs " o f th e M exican R e v o lu tio n . His g r e a t com passion f o r th e u n d er p r iv ile g e d , uneducated M exican m asses w ould n o t p e rm it him t o w r ite o th e rw is e , f o r he was n o t c o n te n t t o show h is re a d e rs th e s u f f e r in g o f th e tim e s i n an o b je c tiv e o r 1 d is p a s s io n a te way; r a t h e r he in te n d e d t o r e l a t e th e t r a g i c f a t e o f M exico's p o o r. In d ig n a tio n an d com passion m o ti v a te d h is pen; an d th ro u g h o u t h i s w o rk s, in h i s theme o f s o c i a l c o n f l i c t , A zuela fo u g h t th e c a u se o f th e o p p resse d . From th e b e g in n in g o f h is l i t e r a r y c a r e e r in 1896, u n t i l h is d e a th o n March 1 , 1952, A zuela re c o rd e d th e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and econom ic changes ta k in g p lac e in M exico. He d e ta il e d p re -R e v o lu tio n a ry c o n d itio n s ; he d e s c rib e d th e c o n fla g r a tio n i t s e l f ; an d he c h a r a c te r iz e d th e s o c i a l u p h e av a l fo llo w in g th e s t r i f e . His works q u a li f i e d him f o r th e t i t l e " N o v e lis t o f th e R e v o lu tio n ." A zuela was w e ll p re p a re d f o r th e ta s k o f re v e a lin g th e M exican s o u l and d e p ic tin g th e R e v o lu tio n . Bom in 1873 i n la g o s de Moreno, J a l i s c o , A zuela t e l l s us in h is Hlafcoria de M aria L uisa (1907) how i n h i s e a r l y l i f e beh in d th e c o u n te r o f a sm a ll g e n e ra l s t o r e , he l is te n e d to th e o elad o s c h a t t e r an d th e com adres g o s s ip as he s tu d ie d them . * His n e x t s te p was ta k e n when he l e f t f o r G uadala j a r a t o stu d y m ed icin e . The s o l i tu d e t h a t th e la rg e c i t y ^T his s k e tc h w i l l se rv e o n ly a s an in tr o d u c tio n o f M ariano A zuela to th e re a d e r . In c h a p te rs w hich fo llo w a more com plete a n a ly s is o f A z u e la 's involvem ent in th e R e v o lu tio n w i l l be docum ented. o ffe r e d him p le a s e d him. He w ould fo llo w f o r h o u rs any ty p e o f c h a r a c te r t h a t cau g h t h is a t t e n t i o n , and n o th in g w ould s to p him u n t i l he had found o u t th e i d e n t i t y o f th e in d iv id u a l. A fte r a few y e a rs th e r e was h a rd ly a ty p e t h a t d id n o t form p a r t o f h is ran g e o f c h a r a c te r s , l a t e r , a s a d o c to r in th e m ost famous m e tro p o lita n slum d i s t r i c t ( B s r a l v il l o ) he c o n tin u e d h is stu d y o f hum ankind, coming in to c o n ta c t w ith th e h a b itu a l d ru n k a rd , th e m arihuano. and o th e r ty p e s . His v a c a tio n s w ere sp e n t a t th e fa m ily ran c h w here he had th e o p p o rtu n ity t o g e t f i r s t hand knowledge o f th e ran ch ero s* sp e ec h , m anners, and custom s. A zuela knew th e M exican R ev o lu tio n a t f i r s t hand. He was v i o l e n t l y a n ti- D ia z , and upon th e su c c e ss o f Madero*s r e v o lu tio n he became th e p o l i t i c a l le a d e r o f h is home town. He l a t e r se rv e d in th e R e v o lu tio n ary arm ies t h a t fo u g h t a g a in s t th e H uerta governm ent, and a f te r w a r d s , i n 1915, became D ire c to r o f R ib lic E d u catio n f o r th e s t a t e o f J a l is c o . When C arranza came to power in 1915 A zuela f l e d t o E l fe so , T exas, w here he p u b lish e d Los de A balo i n s e r i a l form in a lo c a l new spaper. He r e tu rn e d t o Mexico C ity in 1917, w here he d e d ic a te d h im s e lf to m ed icin e and w r itin g w ith o u t ta k in g f u r t h e r p a r t i n p o l i t i c s . A part from h is c a r e e r in m e d ic in e , he p u b lish e d more th a n one dozen n o v e ls , numerous n o v e le tte s , and works o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . For many y e a rs he liv e d in ob s c u r i t y , b u t f i n a l l y , in 1925, h is w ork, p r im a r ily Los de A balo. came to th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e c r i t i c s . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s d is c o v e ry , A zuela became known a s a g r e a t w r i t e r , and h is m a s te rp ie c e was t r a n s l a t e d in to many f o r e ig n la n guages , in c lu d in g E n g lish , in w hich i t a p p e a re d under th e t i t l e o f The Underdoes (1 9 2 9 ). M ariano A zu ela, c o n sid e re d by some c r i t i c s a s M exico's g r e a t e s t n o v e l i s t , was aw arded M ex ico 's h ig h e s t h o n o r, th e N a tio n a l L L tera ry A rize, in 1949. A c tiv e to th e l a s t , M ariano A zuela d ie d o f a h e a r t a tt a c k on March 1, 1952, a t th e age o f s e v e n ty -n in e . However d ark and t r a g i c M exico's h i s t o r y has b e en , M ariano A zuela co n cern ed h im s e lf n o t w ith condemning an ignom inious p a s t b u t in p r o te s tin g b i t t e r l y a g a in s t th e m a lig n ity o f th e s o c ie ty w hich he knew from p e rs o n a l ex p e rie n c e . B om , r e a r e d , and e d u c a te d d u rin g th e o p u le n t days o f B o rfirio D iaz, A zuela w itn e s se d th e p a ssin g scene in h is c o u n try o v e r a long p e rio d o f tim e w hich in c lu d e d one o f M exico'8 lo n g e s t in te r lu d e s o f peace a s w e ll a s i t 8 g r e a t e s t p e rio d o f bloody s t r i f e , i n t e r n a l d is s e n s io n , and s o c i a l r e v o lu tio n s in c e 1810. He i s th e a p o s tle , n o t o f th e eco n o m ic ally and s o c i a l l y p r iv ile g e d g ro u p --th e h acen- dadoa. c a c iq u e s . b is h o p s , and p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s —b u t o f " lo s de aba jo " who l i v e and work to e n ric h a ty r a n n ic a l m a s te r w h ile " lo s de a b a jo " s in k low er and low er in to a b je c t p o v e rty . He b i t t e r l y condemns a s o c ie ty w hich im p o v erish es and e n s la v e s th e common m asses i n o rd e r t h a t a sm a ll, s e l e c t g ro u p may l iv e in lu x u ry and in d o le n c e . Not le s s b i t t e r l y does he accu se th e R e v o lu tio n a ry le a d e rs who, w ith th e im plem ents in t h e i r hands f o r g r e a t l y a m e lio ra tin g th e human s u f f e r in g o f t h e i r c o u n try , have in v o lv e d t h e i r p eo p le in e n d le s s d e s tr u c tio n and chaos w ith o u t having a d e f i n i t e program o f refo rm an d c o n s tr u c tio n f o r th e b e n e f it o f th e p e o p le . That A zuela was g e n u in e ly in sym pathy w ith th e Revo lu tio n a r y p r in c ip le s a s s e t f o r t h by th e i d e a l i s t Madero i s e v id e n ce d by h is work o f propaganda i n fa v o r o f th e l i b e r a l movement d u rin g th e R e v o lu tio n a n d , l a t e r , by h is a c tiv e o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e movement a g a in s t M adero*s a s s a s s in . 2 H ariano A zu ela, Cbras Com oletas de M ariano A zuela. P rologue by F ra n c is c o M onterde (M exico: Fondo de C u ltu ra That he d id n o t condone th e R ev o lu tio n o f l a t e r y e a rs in i t s m ost b a rb a ro u s a s p e c ts i s w itn e s se d by h is condem nation in h is w r itin g s o f th e v i c e , l u s t , p i l f e r i n g , m u rd er, and c o v eto u sn ess w hich sw ept th e c o u n try a s one u n p rin c ip le d R e v o lu tio n ary le a d e r su cceed ed a n o th e r. Throughout th e p e a c e fu l y e a rs d u rin g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f D ia z 's r u l e —th e tum u ltuous y e a rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n , and th e s o c i a l u p h eav al fo llo w in g c lo s e upon th e h e e ls o f th e R evolution'*’■A zuela's pen moves t i r e l e s s l y , re c o rd in g th e s tr u g g le s o f a n op p re s se d people f o r an e lu s iv e peace and p r o s p e r ity . A zuela c r i e s o u t a g a in s t th e a g e -o ld v ic e s t h a t have long a f f l i c t e d h is p e o p le . He denounces contem porary e v i l s and th o se who a re re s p o n s ib le f o r them . Not o n ly does he p re s e n t th e m ajo r s tr u g g le s o f h i s n a tiv e la n d , b u t he d e p ic ts a ls o th e v a rio u s s t r a t a o f s o c ie ty w hich form com posite M exico, in c lu d in g th e d i f f e r e n t phases o f t h e i r e x is te n c e ; he e sp e c i a l l y em phasized " lo s de a b a jo " whose p lig h t moves him Bconfimica, V o ls. I , I I , 1958; V ol. I l l , 1960), I I I , 1078- 1079. F or th e purpose o f t h i s in v e s tig a tio n I w i l l u se A z u e la 's l i t e r a r y w orks w hich a re a v a ila b le in book form . These a r e l i s t e d i n Appendix B, c h ro n o lo g ic a lly , by pub l i c a t i o n d a te . A ll o f h is w orks may be found in th e c o l l e c t i o n e n t i t l e d Qbras Com pletes de M ariano A z u ela . In fo o tn o tin g , th e in d iv id u a l books w i l l be q u o ted a s s o u rc e s ; th e volume and page numbers w i l l be from th e c o ll e c t io n . to a deep c o n ce rn and in d ig n a tio n . M ariano A zuela re c o rd e d th e s e e v e n ts in h is w orks. But m ost o f a l l he p re s e n te d th e r e a l h e ro e s o f th e Revolu t i o n - - th e M exican p e o p le --" th o s e unsung, f a c e le s s tho u san d s who fo u g h t th ro u g h a t e r r i b l e p re s e n t to e sca p e an i n t o l e r a b le p a s t" so t h a t th e y m ight re a c h an u n c e r ta in f u t u r e . CHAPTER I HtECONQUEST TO THE REVOLUTION The a n c e s to r s o f to d a y 's b u ild e r s o f c i t i e s , c u l t i v a to r s o f c o rn and w h eat, te n d e rs o f h e rd s , m in ers o f g o ld , s i l v e r and c o p p er, tr a d e r s and much m ore, w ere people from A sia , Europe, and A fric a . The f i r s t and m ost dom inant o f th e s e w ere th e In d ia n s who o v er a p e rio d o f m ille n ia m i g ra te d from A sia to Mexico v i a th e B ering S tra it.* " Very l i t t l e i s known ab o u t th e a n c ie n t h is t o r y o f M exico. Of th e th o u san d s o f known a rc h e o lo g ic a l s i t e s o n ly a few have been in v e s tig a te d by s c i e n t i s t s and o n ly a hand f u l o f th e s e have had f a i r l y in te n s iv e stu d y . S e v e ra l th o u sands o f y e a rs b e fo re C h r is t, man began to d ev elo p a complex c u ltu r e in M exico. In Y ucatan and Guatem ala th e Mayan c i v i l i z a t i o n em erged from t h i s a n c ie n t c u lt u r e , and f a r t h e r to th e n o rth th e r e developed a n o th e r c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h a t o f ^C hapter I i s m eant to se rv e o n ly a s a b r i e f sum m ary o f th e R re-C onquest and C o lo n ia l P erio d s and as an in tr o d u c tio n t o th e N a tio n a l P erio d o f M exico. th e Z apotecs. In th e g r e a t c e n t r a l p la te a u a s e r i e s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n s w ere developed by th e T e o tih u a c a n o s, th e T o lte c s , and l a s t l y th e A z tec s. The A ztecs w ere a ls o known a s th e M exicas—th e word from w hich we d e riv e th e name t h a t was e v e n tu a lly a p p lie d to th e c o u n try s o u th o f th e U nited S ta te s and t o i t s p e o p le . These e a r l y in h a b ita n ts o f Mexico w ere v e ry c r e a t i v e , h ard -w o rk in g p e o p le s , b u ild in g g r e a t c i t i e s l ik e TeotihuacA n (n o rth o f Mexico C ity ) , T e n o c h titlA n (to d ay Mexico C ity ) , Monte AlbAn in Oaxaca, an d C hichen ItzA in YucatAn. A rc h e o lo g is ts th e o r iz e t h a t T eotihuacA n and T en o c h titlA n w ere p ro b ab ly th e la r g e s t c i t i e s o f th e w orld i n t h e i r day, w ith s e v e r a l hundred th o u san d in h a b ita n ts e a c h . These a n c ie n t M exicans w ere o u ts ta n d in g a s w a r r io r s , e n g in e e rs , a r c h i t e c t s , a stro n o m e rs, a r t i s t s , m etalw o rk e rs, an d c ra ftsm e n . They w ro te s e n s i t iv e p o e tr y , w ere concerned w ith p h ilo s o p h ic a l q u e s tio n s , and had complex and h ig h ly o rg a n iz e d r e l i g io u s sy stem s. They w ere a ls o v e ry a c tiv e i n tr a d in g a l l th ro u g h c e n t r a l and s o u th e rn M exico, a lo n g th e p e rim e te r o f th e G ulf o f M exico, and a s f a r so u th a s C e n tra l Am erica and Buiama. By th e end o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu ry th e g e n e ric language o f th e s e p e o p le , N a h u a tl, had become more o r le s s 10 th e lin g u a fra n c a in a w ide a re a o f M iddle A m erica. This was th e r e s u l t o f A ztec co n q u est o f a la rg e re g io n t h a t ex ten d ed to Guatem ala in th e so u th and to th e c o a s t on th e e a s t and w e s t. T his c o n q u e st, how ever, d id n o t e x te n d v e ry f a r to th e n o rth because th e A ztecs had been u n a b le to con q u e r th e f i e r c e Chichlxnecs. To th e n o rth o f th e Chichim ecs liv e d v a rio u s w a rlik e and more p r im itiv e t r i b e s : th e Y aquis, T arahum aras, A paches, and Comanches, to m en tio n a few. The S panish C onquest In 1519 HernAn CortAs landed on th e sh o re s o f Mexico and in a s h o r t tim e th e "Age o f C onquest" began. This r a p id co n q u est was p o s s ib le la r g e ly because o f CortAs* In d ia n a l l i e s , e s p e c ia lly th e T la x c a la n s, and th e v a rio u s te c h n ic a l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l a d v an tag e s th e S p an iard s pos- 2 s e s s e d . 2 The fire a rm s and h o rse s o f th e S panish arm ies proved to be th e d e c is iv e needed m i l i t a r y a d v a n ta g e . A lso , th e In d ia n s w ere weakened p s y c h o lo g ic a lly th ro u g h t h e i r s u p e r s t i ti o n s w hich f o r e t o l d d e fe a t a t th e hands o f s tr a n g e r s —w h ite , b e ard ed s tr a n g e r s from th e e a s t , and th e leg en d o f th e g o d -k in g Q u e tz a lc o a tl, who had prom ised to r e t u r n o u t o f th e w a te rs o f th e E ast t o re c la im h is th ro n e a s r u l e r o f th e A z tec s. The S paniards* p o lic y o f m aking a l l i a n c e s w ith th e In d ia n s a l s o c o n tr ib u te d to t h e i r s u c c e s s . These a ll i a n c e s u s u a lly r e f l e c t e d p r e - e x is tin g h o s t i l i t i e s w ith in In d ia n 11 The f i n a l c o n tr ib u tin g f a c t o r to S panish su c c e s s w as, p e rh a p s, th e g r e a t e s t In o v e r a ll v a lu e . "Ia M a lin e h e "—c a l le d Dona M arina by th e S p a n ia rd s—was th e d a u g h te r o f an A ztec c h i e f t a i n , who had been s o ld in to s la v e r y y e a rs e a r l i e r . CortAs a c q u ire d " la M alinche" in YucatAn and from th e n on sh e se rv e d him w e ll a s m is tr e s s , c o u n s e lo r, and i n t e r p r e t e r . R evealing a l l sh e knew o f th e A ztec em p ire, and u sin g h e r flu e n c y in N a h u atl, Maya, and S p an ish , sh e soon became in d is p e n s a b le to C ortA s. B v e n tu a lly th e S panish c o n q u est h a lte d th e spon tan eo u s e v o lu tio n o f th e A ztec in th e p re -H isp a n ic w o rld . There su rv iv e d a fte rw a rd , d u rin g c o lo n ia l tim e s, o n ly th e v e s t ig e s , la r g e ly in c o h e re n t, o f w hat had been an im pres s iv e c u ltu r e . Four hundred y e a rs l a t e r th e Mexican people w ould i n i t i a t e a s o c i a l movement to r e d is c o v e r t h e i r ro o ts in th e a n c ie n t p a s t. s o c ie ty . In th e c o n q u est o f Mexico th e S paniards b e n e f ite d from th e lo n g -e s ta b lis h e d h o s t i l i t y o f T lax caIan s tow ard th e A z te c s, and made an a l l i a n c e w ith th e fo rm er. Fray Diego DurAn, The A z te c s: The H isto ry o f th e In d ie s o f New S nain. e d . an d t r a n s . by D oris Heyden and Fernando H orca- s i t a s (New York: O rion f t e s s , 1964), p. 264. 12 The A fterm ath o f S panish C onquest A f te r th e co n q u est a v a r i e t y o f I n d iv id u a ls , g ro u p s, and c la s s e s w ith e q u a lly v a r ie d I n t e r e s t s r i v a l e d fo r con t r o l o f w hat had been co n q u ered . However, th e In d ia n was ex clu d ed from th e c o m p e titio n and from th e n on would be h e ld s u b o rd in a te . In a d d itio n , th r e e c o n f l i c t i n g elem ents in s o c ie ty a ro s e a f t e r th e c o n q u e st. The f i r s t was th e encom endero c la s s w hich c o n s is te d o f fo rm er c o n q u is ta d o re s , le a d in g c o lo n i s t s , and o th e r p r iv ile g e d S p a n ia rd s --a 11 o f whom e x e rc is e d t h e i r power in th e i n s t i t u t i o n known as encom ienda. ^ The encom ienda was a p o s s e s s io n , n o t a p ro p e rty . The e a r ly encom enderos w ere p e rm itte d to e x tr a c t b o th com m odity t r i b u t e and la b o r from th e In d ia n s th e y " h e ld ." In r e t u r n , th e encom enderos w ere re q u ire d t o p r o te c t and C h r is tia n iz e th e In d ia n s com m itted to t h e i r c h a rg e , and to re n d e r m i l i t a r y su p p o rt f o r d e fe n se o f th e p ro v in ce in 4 w hich h is e n c o m ie n d a r e s id e d . 3 The i n s t i t u t i o n o f encom ienda w i l l be d is c u s s e d in C hapter V. ^ C h a rle s G ibson, The A ztecs Ih d e r S panish Rule (S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd U iiv e r s ity P re ss, 1964), p . 58. A lso see C h ap ter V. i 13 The second elem ent o f s o c ie ty a p p e a rin g a f t e r th e c o n q u est was th e c o lo n ia l Church, d e d ic a te d to c o n v e rtin g th e In d ia n to C h r i s t ia n i ty , and p re v e n tin g In d ia n e x p lo i t a t i o n . The Church a ls o had th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h in g a C h r is tia n s o c ie ty .'* The t h i r d elem ent t o a p p e a r fo llo w in g th e c o n q u e st, was th e S panish s e c u la r s t a t e w ith i t s expanding c o lo n ia l b u re a u c ra c y and i t s in s is te n c e on s t a t e c o n tr o l o v e r a l l p erso n s in America.** A nother elem ent o f S p an ish co n q u est t h a t ap p ea re d e a r ly in th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d was c u l t u r a l b le n d in g . The number o f S p an iard s who came to Mexico was n e v er g r e a t and from th e v e ry b eg in n in g th e r e was a p h y s ic a l and c u l t u r a l b le n d in g . The m in g lin g o f In d ia n and S panish b lood began when C o rtis and h is s o l d i e r s f i r s t a r r iv e d in M exico. B esid es t h i s th e S panish c o lo n is ts in tro d u c e d dom estic a n i m a ls, farm ing im plem ents, to o ls o f ir o n and s t e e l , th e w h e e l, and f l o r a p re v io u s ly unknown to th e In d ia n s . On th e o th e r hand, S paniards found many a s p e c ts o f M exican c u ltu r e ■*The Church w i l l be d is c u s s e d in d e p th in Chap t e r I I I . ^C hapters IV and V d e a l w ith th e s e c u la r s t a t e . 14 s u p e r io r to t h e i r own and r e a d i ly a d o p te d th o se t h a t w ere c o m p a tib le . In th e b eg in n in g th e S p an iard s co n v in ced them selves t h a t th e y w ere making headway in changing th e c u ltu r e and way o f l i f e among th e conquered, b u t in t r u t h , th e In d ia n s d id n o t lo s e t h e i r c u lt u r e o r t h e i r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y . The co n q u est by Spain d id n o t e lim in a te v i t a l i t y and c r e a t i v i t y o f th e M exicans. I n s te a d , a new c u ltu r e and man w ere b ein g produced from th e f u s io n o f In d ia n and S panish b lo o d . This c re a te d th e m e s tiz o , th ro u g h th e b le n d in g p ro c e ss known as m e s tiz a le . l a t e r , N egroes w ere in tro d u c e d i n to New Spain as s la v e s , a p r a c tic e c o n tin u e d th ro u g h o u t th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d . I n i t i a l l y u sed a s a rep lacem en t f o r In d ia n la b o r , th e y l a t e r became th e c h ie f so u rc e o f la b o r , e s p e c i a l l y in th o se a re a s in w hich in te n s iv e a g r ic u ltu r e demanded v a s t numbers o f w o rk e rs. Soon com binations o f th e th r e e d i s t i n c t p e o p le -- In d ia n , S panish, and Negro—began to a p p e a r in th e f i r s t c o lo n ia l g e n e ra tio n . This new g e n e ra tio n a c q u ire d th e names o f m e s tiz o , w hich has a lre a d y been m entioned; m u la to . a co m b in atio n o f European and Negro; zambo and c o v o te . 15 co m b in atio n s o f In d ia n and N egro; an d C a sta, w hich was used to s ig n i f y any In d iv id u a l o f lew c a s t e . Because th e m e stiz o w ould l a t e r b e Im p o rtan t In c r e a tin g th e Mexican n a tio n , I t I s n e c e s s a ry t o to u ch b r i e f l y upon h is b e g in n in g s an d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H ubert H errin g d e s c rib e s th e m e stiz o In s e n s i t i v e te r m s : The r e s t l e s s m eatfan , a p ro d u c t o f I l l i c i t love o f th e co n q u ero r f o r th e In d ia n woman, em erged a s a n e x p lo s iv e s o c i a l f o r c e . . . . O ffsp rin g o f b o th w h ite and In d ia n w o rld s , th e m e s tiz o was a c c e p te d w hole h e a r te d ly by n e it h e r . His s o u l was to r n on th e one hand by p rid e In h is f a t h e r 's pow er, and on th e o th e r by re se n tm e n t o f th e s l i g h t a g a in s t h is m o th er. . . . He was d en ied f u l l p r iv ile g e s i n e i t h e r th e In d ian o r th e w h ite conm unity. S p i r i t u a l l y and m a t e r i a ll y , he was an o u tc a s t, com pelled t o c r e a te h is own new w o rld , o b lig e d to l iv e by h is w i t s . 7 The m ost com prehensive and o b je c tiv e a cc o u n t o f th e m e stiz o and m e s tiz a le . how ever, can be re a d i n P ro fe sso r Magnus M H m er's d e f i n i ti v e w ork, Race M ixture i n th e H is- tffEY oft M t taPE lPfi-8 7H ubert H e rrin g , A H is to ry o f L a tin Am erica (New York: A lfre d A. ftio p f, 1968), p . 237; a l s o se e C. H. H aring, S p an ish Empire in AynofM(New York: O xford Uni- * v e r s i t y f r e e s , 1947), pp. 210-217. 8Magnus M Sm er, Race M ixture In th e H is to ry o f (B oston: L i t t l e , Brown and C o., 1967). 16 I t i s o£ th e m e s tiz o t h a t M ariano A zuela w r ite s w ith deep com passion. In th e s e v e n te e n th and e ig h te e n th c e n tu r ie s a n o th e r r a c i a l elem ent came i n to b e in g . S p an iard s b o rn in th e c o lo n ie s w ere c l a s s i f i e d a s c r i o l l o s and th o se b o rn in S pain became known a s p e n in s u la r e s . o r d e ro g a to ry term s su ch a s cach u n in o r c h a n e td n . A keen c o m p e titio n developed betw een th e p e n ln s u la re s and th e c r i o l l o s . e ach o f whom th o u g h t h im s e lf s u p e r io r to th e o th e r . C o nsequently, con- Q f l i c t s ov er c la s s s u p e r i o r i t y d ev elo p ed . I n te r n a l r i v a l r y a ls o o c c u rre d betw een th e v a rio u s r e l i g io u s o rd e rs (F ra n c is c a n s , D om inicans, A u g u s tin ia n s , and J e s u i t s ) . I t was e s p e c i a l l y b i t t e r betw een th e o rd e r p r i e s t s and th e s e c u la r c le r g y . At th e b a s is o f t h i s con f l i c t was th e s tr u g g le o v e r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l j u r i s d i c t i o n and sa c ra m e n ta l p r i v i l e g e , w hich in some a re a s l a s te d down t o th e n in e te e n th c en tu ry .* ® q The c a s te sy stem i s d is c u s s e d i n C hapter V. 10C h arles G ibson, Spain i n Am erica (New York: H arper and Row H ib lis h e r s , I n c ., 1966), p . 78; H arin g , S panish B aplre in A m erica, p . 187; a ls o C hapter I I I o f t h i s w ork. 17 N e v e rth e le s s , th e r e w ere many e p ic f ig u r e s among th e e a r l y m is s io n a r ie s . The Dominican f r i a r s , Bartolom £ de la s Casas and A ntonio de M ontesinos, In t h e i r denouncement o f th e c r u e l ty and ty ra n n y d ir e c te d a t th e I n d ia n s , a r e th e fo rem o st exam ples o f t h i s gro u p . The F ra n c is c a n , Juan de Zum&rraga, f i r s t B ishop o f M exico, was a n o th e r b rav e d e fe n d e r o f th e In d ia n s . A rriv in g in Mexico in 1528, he im m ediately became in v o lv e d i n th e p o l i t i c s o f th e p e rio d . A ttem p tin g to re s o lv e th e problem s o f th e a u d ie n c ia . he came in to d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w ith th e id e a s o f Nuno de Guzm£n (th e p re s id e n t o f th e a u d ie n c ia ) and was a c c u sed o f underm ining th e p o l i t i c a l body. S u b seq u en tly r e c a l l e d to Spain to fa c e h is a c c u s e r s , B ishop Zum&rraga was d u ly a c q u itte d in 1534. He re tu r n e d to Mexico and w ith th e h e lp o f V icero y A ntonio de Mendoza, th e f i r s t V ic ero y o f M exico, 1535, a c h ie v e d many re fo rm s. V icero y Mendoza s e t good exam ples f o r h is fo llo w e rs . Im p o rtin g th e f i r s t p r in tin g p re s s on th e e n t i r e A m erican c o n tin e n t and th e found ing o f sc h o o ls f o r n a tiv e c h ild r e n w ere a few o f h is many accom plishm ents. B ishop Zum&rraga p lay ed a n im p o rta n t r o l e w ith V icero y Mendoza an d to g e th e r th e y cham pioned th e cau se o f 18 th e In d ia n . Had I t n o t been f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s , th e In d ia n s o f Mexico m ight p o s s ib ly have had a d i f f e r e n t h is to r y . N o tw ith stan d in g th e p o s itiv e work o f th e e a r ly r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f th e C hurch, a lam en ta b le f e a tu r e o f th e c o lo n iz a tio n p e rio d was th e e x te n s io n o f th e S panish In q u i s i t i o n i n to New S p ain . The o b je c t o f th e Holy O ffic e was t o a b o lis h h e re sy and u p h o ld th e C a th o lic F a ith . The I n q u is ito r s a r r iv e d in Mexico and began t o p r a c tic e in 1570. H is to r ia n Lewis A. ’ Lambs d e s c rib e s t h i s e v e n t: T b n o ch titlA n , o r Mexico C ity , was chosen in 1570 a s th e s e a t o f th e Holy O ffic e in New S p ain . A ctin g u n d er th e a u th o r i ty o f a r o y a l c d d u la . d a te d Janu a ry 2 5 , 1569, M adrid is s u e d In s tru c e io n e s p la c in g th e A udiencla o f Mexico an d th e d io c e se s o f Oaxaca, New G a lic ia , MichoacAn, T la x c a la , YucatAn, G uatem ala, C h iap as, V e ra c ru z , H onduras, and N icaragua tinder .t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f th e I n q u i s i ti o n in Mexico C ity . 1 The t r ib u n a l made denouncem ents d a ily . Iteople w ere q u e s tio n e d , im p riso n e d , t o r t u r e d , and bu rn ed a l i v e . In d i v id u a ls w ere p e rs e c u te d f o r n o t a tte n d in g Mass on Sundays. O thers w ere pronounced h e r e t ic s b ecau se th e y p ro fe s s e d th e Lew i s A. Iam bs, "The I n q u i s i ti o n in E ig h te e n th C entury M exico," The A n e rtc a s . XXII (1 9 6 5 -6 6 ), 167. 19 P ro te s ta n t o r Jew ish f a i t h . C en so rsh ip was Imposed on a l l l i t e r a t u r e a r r i v i n g in New S pain. Not o n ly d id th e I n q u is itio n a f f e c t th e o rd in a ry c i t i z e n , b u t many o f th e se n te n c e s Imposed w ere upon 1 2 p r i e s t s who d ish o n o re d th e Holy O ffic e . N e v e rth e le s s , th e I n q u is itio n was w e ll a c c e p te d and p o p u la r when i t was f i r s t In tro d u c e d i n New S p ain . How e v e r, by th e end o f th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d i t had become an Im p o rta n t f a c to r c o n tr ib u tin g to a n t i c l e r i c a l i s m . SBalii, . 8 . _ D e . q i i n £ . Spain had u n d e rta k e n a p ro d ig io u s a d v e n tu re in w an tin g to conquer and c o lo n iz e Mexico and South A m erica. T hroughout th e e a r l y c o lo n ia l e r a Spain r u le d suprem e a s th e m ost pow erful n a tio n i n th e w o rld . . By th e y e a r 1810, how ever, th e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n S pain was v e ry u n s ta b le . S pain was u n d erg o in g a d r a s t i c p o l i t i c a l change. N apoleon I , a t th e h e ig h t o f h is pow er, s e e in g S pain i n d e c lin e , im posed h is w i l l upon h e r 1 2 Tombs, "The I n q u is itio n in E ig h te e n th -C e n tu ry M exico," pp. 170-171. 20 w ith l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . In New S p ain , S panish s u b je c ts p an ick ed , and open h o s t i l i t y was provoked betw een c r l o l l o s and n e n in s u la r e s . And so began th e d i s i n te g r a t i o n o f New S pain. The u n c e r t a i n t ie s and th e w eakness o f S panish governm ent s p u rre d th e new l i b e r a l elem en t t o a c tio n . On Septem ber 16, 1810, th e In su rg e n t Cause in Mexico s t a r t e d on i t s way to v i c t o r y . At f i r s t th e Independence Movement was dom inated by F a th e r H idalgo; a f t e r h is d e a th , le a d e r s h ip was assum ed by F a th e r JosA M aria M orelos. W ith th e c a p tu re and e x e c u tio n o f M orelos in l a t e 1815, th e M exican r e v o l t was red u ced to g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , c a r r ie d on by sm a ll i s o l a t e d groups o f r e v o lu tio n a r ie s o f S outhern M exico. E vents in S pain, how e v e r , soon changed th e s i t u a t i o n . In 1820, th e r e v o l t o f C olonel R a fa e l Riego a t CAdiz I n i t i a t e d a movement t h a t fo rc e d th e King o f S pain to a c c e p t th e l i b e r a l C o n s titu tio n o f 1812. The C onserva t i v e e le m e n ts in Mexico became alarm ed a t t h i s tu r n o f e v e n ts . They saw th e new c o n s t it u t io n a s a t h r e a t to t h e i r p r i v il e g e s . The r e s u l t was a c o n s e rv a tiv e c o u n te r r e v o lu tio n headed by a r o y a l i s t c r i o l l o M exican o f f i c e r , 21 A g u stln de I tu r b id e , who jo in e d w ith th e rem nants o f th e e a r l i e r movement. E a rly in 1821, t h i s a ll i a n c e d e c la re d Mexico in d e p e n d e n t. A y e a r l a t e r , I tu r b id e was in a u g u ra te d em peror o f Mexico a s A g u stln I . His r e i g n , how ever, was s h o r t; in 1823 he was deposed by a re p u b lic a n re v o lu tio n a r y g ro u p . The th ir ty - tw o y e a rs fo llo w in g th e f a l l o f I tu r b id e w ere m arked by f u t i l e e f f o r t s to d e v elo p a c o n s t it u t io n a l governm ent. They w ere y e a rs o f c o n g re sse s w hich w ere form ed and q u ic k ly d is s o lv e d ; o f th r e e s e p a ra te c o n s t it u tio n s ; o f v i o le n t s tr u g g le betw een L ib e r a l- F e d e r a lis ts an d C o n s e r v a tiv e - C e n tra lis ts . D e sp ite th e c o n s id e ra b le s t r i f e on th e is s u e o f F e d e ra lism v e rs u s C e n tra lism , th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1824 rem ained in e f f e c t u n t i l 1835. In 1835, how ever, a s th e r e s u l t o f a s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l t le d by A ntonio L6pez de S anta Anna, a new c o n s t it u t io n was d r a f te d . The p ro m u lg atio n o f t h i s document in 1836 le d t o w id e sp rea d r e v o l t th ro u g h o u t M exico. L ib e r a l- F e d e r a lis ts v e rsu s, CgB fisrY fltiY e-cgntrallgifi. The L ib e ra ls w ere in and o u t o f th e R e s id e n c y w ith some d eg ree o f r e g u l a r i t y f o r th e f i r s t tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs o f Independence, b u t i t was n o t u n t i l th e m iddle o f th e c e n tu ry t h a t th e p a rty a c h ie v e d any s o r t o f dom inance. T his to o k p la c e when V a le n tin Gomez E ar la s reassum ed th e R e s id e n c y in 1846 and b ro u g h t back p r in c ip le s o f F e d e ra l ism . In a d d itio n , when th e w ar w ith th e U nited S ta te s ended, new L ib e ra l a d m in is tr a tio n s began to ta k e p la c e in 13 many M exican s t a t e s . Alarm ed by th e re s u rg e n c e o f L ib e ra lism , th e Con s e r v a tiv e s b ro u g h t back Santa Anna in 1853 t o r e a s s e r t o r d e r . He was fa c e d , how ever, w ith a new g e n e ra tio n o f L ib e ra ls who had grown t o m a tu rity th ro u g h many w ars and r e v o lu tio n s . This new g e n e ra tio n o f L ib e ra ls was d e te r m ined t o e lim in a te th e c y n ic s who had p e rm itte d S anta Anna t o r e tu r n to M exico, an d to lo s e o n e -h a lf o f th e n a tio n a l t e r r i t o r y . The L ib e r a ls , w ith th e Flan o f A y u tla , c a lle d f o r a new c o n s t it u t io n and a new governm ent. S anta A ina, u n ab le t o c ru s h th e r e v o l t , f l e d th e c o u n try in 1855 and th e L ib e ra ls assum ed c o n tr o l o f th e R ep u b lic. The l i b e r a l s 13Luis A lb e rto S in c h ez , H is to r la de Am erica (Buenos A ire s : E d i t o r i a l L osada, 1965), pp. 365-366. 23 w ere now read y to im plem ent th e Flan o f A y u tla , and In 1856 th e y c a l l e d a c o n s titu e n t assem bly to d r a f t a new c o n s t it u t i o n . The C o n s titu tio n o f 1857 was n o t a r a d i c a l docu m ent. I t was th e f u l f il l m e n t o f th e L ib e ra ls * g o a l—th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a L ib e ra l b o u rg eo is r e p u b lic w ith f e d e r a l p r i n c i p le s . The new Reform C o n s titu tio n in te n d e d to la y th e fo u n d a tio n f o r a m odem p o l i t i c a l s t a t e b ased in a g e n e ra l way on th e C o n s titu tio n o f th e U hlted S ta te s . Under th e new c o n s t i t u t i o n , Ig n a c io Comnonfort was e le c te d R e s id e n t and B en ito Ju d rez V ice- P r e s id e n t. Com- m o n fo rt's r u le was b r i e f . In h is e f f o r t s t o c o n c i li a te o p p o n e n ts, he was renounced by h is p a r ty and was d riv e n from th e c a p i t a l . The L ib e ra ls d e c la re d t h a t he had v io la te d h i s o a th o f a lle g ia n c e t o th e c o n s t i t u t i o n and t h a t B en ito Ju d re z was th e l e g a l s u c c e s s o r t o th e P re sid e n cy . M eanw hile, th e o p p o s itio n , backed by th e Church and th e Army, h a d chosen a n o th e r P re s id e n t, G en eral M iguel Miram6n, who to o k p o s s e s s io n o f th e c a p i t a l . Ju d re z and h is c a b in e t e sca p ed t o V e ra c ru z , and f o r th r e e y e a rs co n d u cted h is l i b e r a l governm ent from th e p o r t c i t y . F in a lly , th e L ib e r a ls , by h o ld in g th e p o rt o f V eracru z, w ith i t s p o rt 24 d u t i e s , w ere a b le to f i g h t t h e i r way back to th e c a p i t a l . By December, 1860, th e C o n se rv ativ e f o r c e s , d iv id e d among th e m se lv e s, w ere d e fe a te d ; th e fo llo w in g m onth B en ito Ju d re z re tu rn e d t o th e c a p i t a l . Unable t o g a in v i c t o r y on t h e i r own m e r its , th e C o n se rv a tiv e group made one l a s t a tte m p t to a s s e r t C e n tra l ism i n M exico. H unting to f o re ig n in te r v e n tio n th e y a lig n e d th em se lv e s w ith N apoleon 111 and Archduke Maxi m ilia n o f A u s tria whose p la n s o f a n em pire in Mexico g a in e d t h e i r i n t e r e s t . By th e end o f May, 1862, Ju d rez and h is governm ent were fo rc e d o u t o f th e c a p i t a l by th e F ren ch , and once a g a in Ju d rez became a w andering P r e s id e n t. By th e end o f 1863, h e , how ever, had i n s t a l l e d h is governm ent in th e b o rd e r town o f E l Ifeso, known to d a y a s Ciudad Ju d re z . Here he was a b le to r e u n ite h is ele m e n ts and re c e iv e a id 1A from th e U nited S ta te s . M axim ilian, m eanw hile, a f t e r b e in g i n s t a l l e d a s B nperor d is a p p o in te d th e C o n se rv a tiv e s by r e f u s in g to acced e t o t h e i r demands. F u rth e rm o re , th e arm ies o f th e Emperor w ere hav in g d i f f i c u l t y in p a c ify in g th e c o u n try . ^ C h a r le s A lle n Sm art, Viva Ju d re z (New York: J . B. L ip p in c o tt C o., 1963), p . 293. 25 In 1866 th e U nited S ta te s , in v o k in g th e Monroe D o c trin e , inform ed N apoleon I I I t h a t F rench tro o p s m ust le a v e M exico. T his u ltim atu m and th e f a c t t h a t he was fa c e d by a m i l i t a r y f r u s s ia p re p a rin g f o r w a r, fo rc e d N apoleon I I I t o abandon M ax im ilian . M axim ilian rem ained in Mexico and in June o f 1867, B en ito Ju d rez had him e x e c u te d .^ W ith th e d e a th o f M axim ilian th e f e d e r a l R epublic was r e s t o r e d , and th e L ib e ra ls a tte m p te d t o b r in g o rd e r to th e c o u n try . E le c te d to h is t h i r d term i n December, 1867, Ju d re z t r i e d to govern a s a tr u e d em o crat, in a c tio n a s in th e o r y . The problem s o f r e c o n s tr u c tio n , how ever, fo rc e d him to become more and more d i c t a t o r i a l i n h is m ethods. His r u le c o n tin u e d t o e m b itte r meiribers o f h is p a rty . N e v e rth e le s s , he was r e - e l e c te d t o a f o u r th term in December, 1871, d e s p ite th e no r e - e l e c t i o n c la u s e o f th e C o n s titu tio n . Ju d rez once a g a in t r i e d to e s t a b l i s h a s tro n g governm ent, b u t h is p o s itio n was c h a lle n g e d by th e th e n L ib e ra l B a r fir io D iaz, who le d an u n s u c c e s s fu l r e v o l t a g a in s t h is governm ent. W ith th e D iaz r e v o l t c ru sh e d , 15S n a rt, V iva Ju d re z . pp. 376-381 J u ir e z p re p a re d t o put h is id e a s in to o p e ra tio n . But in J u ly , 1872, he d ie d and a n e r a d ie d w ith him . S e b a s tia n Lerdo de T ejada assum ed o f f i c e and se rv e d u n t i l 1876 when B o rf irio D iaz, c la im in g a new e r a o f " e f f e c tiv e s u f f r a g e and no r e - e l e c t i o n ," drove him o u t. The e r a o f B e n ito Ju £ rez te rm in a te d and th e e ra o f B o rfirio D iaz began. C H A PTER I I HIGHLIGHTS OF THE REVOLUTION The M exican R e v o lu tio n , w hich began i n 1910, rem ains one o f th e m ost im p o rta n t and m ost rem ark ab le r e v o lu tio n a ry movements i n tw e n tie th c e n tu ry L a tin A m erica. Both a s e r i e s o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts and a phase o f p e rp e tu a l s tr u g g le t o mold Mexico i n to a u n if ie d n a tio n , " i t m ight w e ll be c o n sid e re d th e p ro to ty p e and even th e m odel f o r n a t i o n a l i s t i c r e v o lu tio n a r y s o c i a l change, n o t o n ly in la t i n Am erica b u t in o th e r u n d erd ev elo p ed p a r t s o f th e w o rld . E f fe c tiv e Independence Through R e v o lu tio n The R e v o lu tio n o f 1910 s ta n d s a s th e m ost profound e v e n t i n M exico's o b ta in in g in d ep en d en ce. I t a c t u a l l y ^ S ta n le y R. R oss, I s th e M exican R e v o lu tio n Dead? (New Y ork: A lfre d A. Knopf, I n c ., 1 9 66), p . 3; F lo re n c io B. F u e n te s , H is to r ia de l a R eyolucl6n M exicans (MSxico, D .F .: I n s t l t u t o N aclo n al de E stu d io s de l a R evoluci6n M exicans, 19 5 5 ), pp. 11-24. 27 28 d a te s back to th e movement o f 1810, w hich r e s u lte d in p o l i t i c a l s e p a r a tio n from S pain. A f te r in dependence, th e c o lo n ia l economy rem ained; th e r e was l i t t l e change in th e u n d e rly in g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . The In d ia n s and th e m e stiz o s rem ained th e la n d le s s m asses w ith th e d if f e r e n c e t h a t th e y 2 no lo n g e r had th e p r o te c tio n o f th e S p an ish Crown, d o u b t f u l b e n e f it t h a t i t w as. Much b lo o d was y e t to flow b e fo re th e "underdogs" g a in e d t h e i r r i g h t s , b e fo re th e bondage was b ro k en . The s i t u a t i o n t h a t th e M exicans s e t o u t to change in 1910 was t y p ic a l o f much o f th e w o rld o u ts id e Europe and th e I h ite d S ta te s d u rin g th e e r a . Grouped in a few c i t i e s , th e r u lin g e l i t e , composed o f b u r e a u c r a ts , i n t e l l e c t u a l s , i n d u s t r i a l i s t s , and n a tio n a l la n d lo rd s (fo re ig n e n tr e p re n e u rs ), c o n tr o lle d th e p o l i t i c a l power and se m ic o lo n ia l econom ic system f o r t h e i r own b e n e f i t . A p art from t h i s r u lin g c liq u e was a p e a sa n t group who liv e d a m ise ra b le e x is te n c e on la rg e lan d ed e s t a t e s o r who liv e d in is o l a t e d c l u s t e r s th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try . T h is s i t u a t i o n had e x is te d 2 E y le r N. Sim pson, The E lid o . M exico’s Wav Out (C hapel H i l l , N .C .: U n iv e rs ity o f N orth C a ro lin a ifcess, 1 9 37), p . 4; a ls o F rank Taimenbaum, Peace b v R ev o lu tio n (New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity R re ss, 1 9 33), p. 138. 29 i n Mexico f o r many c e n t u r ie s , and i t was n o t u n t i l th e up r i s i n g o f 1910 t h a t th e s i t u a t i o n was somewhat a l l e v i a t e d . The Ifax B o rfiria n a The u p r is in g o f 1910 was d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e a d m in is tr a tio n c o n s tru c te d and governed by B o rfirio D iaz. T his d i c t a t o r s h i p , w hich came t o a sudden and unexpected 3 e n d , i s th e m ost rem ark ab le i n th e h i s t o r y o f M exico. Don B o rfirio dom inated Mexico f o r t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s . He came t o power in 1876, and w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e p e rio d 1880-1884, when Manuel G o n z ile z , a re c o g n iz e d t o o l o f D iaz, was p la c e d in th e P re sid e n c y ,^ he rem ained in power u n t i l 1911. These t h i r t y - f i v e y e a rs w ere th e m ost c o n s tru c tiv e i n th e hundred y e a rs o f th e r e p u b lic w hich ended w ith th e o v erth ro w o f th e g o v ern m en t.'’ Mexico had sp e n t th e f i r s t ^C h arles Cum berland, M exican R ev o lu tio n (A u stin : U n iv e rs ity o f Texas P re s s , 1952), p. 3; Frank R. Branden b u rg , The Making o f Modem Mexico (Ehglewood C l i f f s , N .J .: % e n tic e - H a ll, 1964), pp. 3 7 -4 2 . ^Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , p . 3; C u rtis W ilgus, H isto ry o f I a t i n A m erica (New York: Barnes and N oble, 1946), p . 157. ^Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , p . 3 . 30 f i f t y y e a rs o f h e r independence showing th e w o rld th e in ad eq u acy o f h e r le a d e r s . B o r fir io Diaz gave Mexico a long p e rio d o f p eace. ftrio r to D iaz, Mexico claim ed an a v erag e o f more th a n one governm ent p e r y e a r . ® W ith p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y and in te r n a l o rd e r came econom ic developm ent. Mexico e n te r e d a p e rio d o f grow th n e v e r b e fo re e x p e rie n c e d i n i t s e n t i r e h i s t o r y . 7 D ia z' econom ic system was based on an a g r i c u l t u r a l economy g e a re d c h ie f ly tow ard th e p ro d u c tio n o f e x p o rt c ro p s . He prom oted and p r o te c te d th e fo rm a tio n o f la rg e e s t a t e s , h a c ie n d a s, an d p e rm itte d th e hacendados t o s t r i p communal la n d s from v i l l a g e s . S anford Mosk d e m o n stra te s t h i s p o lic y when he s t a t e s t h a t th e e s t a t e s were e n la rg e d o r new ly c re a te d by d e p riv in g In d ia n v i ll a g e s o f la n d s w hich th e y had p o sse sse d s in c e b e fo re th e C onquest; th e m ost s p e c ta c u la r developm ent o f t h i s k in d to o k p la c e in Mexico d u rin g th e regim e o f B o r fir io D iaz, when th e M exican governm ent gave e n couragem ent and a s s is ta n c e t o th e hacendados in s t r i p ping In d ia n v i l l a g e s o f t h e i r la n d s . A v a r i e t y o f 6I u is A r a q u is ta in , l a R evoluci6n M exicana (S a n tia g o de C h ile : E d lcio n es Ulam, 1930), pp. 46-48; Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , p . 6. 7B randenburg, The Making o f Modern M exico, p. 42; Raymond V ernon, The Dilemma o f M ex ico 's Developm ent: The R oles o f th e P riv a te and R ib lie S e c to r (Cam bridge, M ass.: H arvard U n iv e rs ity R ress, 19 6 3 ), p . 78. 31 m ethods w ere u se d , ra n g in g a l l th e way from te c h n ic a lly le g a l m easures to o u tr ig h t ro b b e ry .” By 1910 o v er 90 p e r c e n t o f th e v i l l a g e s In th e m ost h e a v ily p o p u la te d s e c tio n o f th e c o u n try , th e c e n t r a l q p la te a u , had l o s t t h e i r la n d s . In th e name o f peace and p ro g re s s th e low er c la s s e s in th e M exican p o p u la tio n w ere e x p lo ite d and in some c a se s e lim in a te d . The h acien d a r e s te d on a fo u n d a tio n o f d e b t- peonage, which was a g g ra v a te d and p e rp e tu a te d by d e p lo ra b le wages and th e o p e ra tio n o f th e tie n d a de ra v a (company s t o r e o r p la n ta tio n s t o r e ) . The wages w ere so low (tw elve t o e ig h te e n c e n ts d a il y ) t h a t i t was im p o ssib le fo r th e ne6nes t o s ta y o u t o f d e b t. ^ Debts w ere handed down from g e n e r a tio n to g e n e ra tio n . Even a f r e e la b o r e r c o u ld n o t le a v e th e h acien d a i f he o r h is f a t h e r owed a s in g le cen ta v o t o th e hacendado. The pe6n was b o rn on th e p la n ta tio n Q S anford Mosk e t a l . . "B athology o f Democracy in I a t i n A m erica," Am erican P o l i t i c a l S cien ce Review. XLIV (M arch, 1950), 133-134. Q S ta n le y R. R oss, F ra n c isc o I . Madero (New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity B ress, 1955), p . 31; Frank Tannenbaum, M exico: The S tru g g le f o r fea ce and B read (New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1954), pp. 140-141. 10Ross, F ra n c isc o 1. M adero. p . 31; Tannenbaum, MflSjcp; T he StSM K fO e £QK feft . C . 3 . J ttld J fa S flik P* 1 4 2 • 32 and d ie d on i t . He was t i e d t o th e s o i l by th e t r a d i t i o n o f s la v e r y . As Tannenbaum h a s o b se rv e d , "The p la n ta tio n w ith i t s n a tr6 n and neones. w ith th e c a n a ta z (forem an) betw een . . . has been th e dom inant f e a tu r e o f th e M exican s c e n e ." He f u r t h e r s t a t e s : W hile th e word " s la v e ry " h as a te c h n ic a l s i g n i f i cance t h a t does n o t a p p ly a s a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p o s itio n o f th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n t h a t liv e d and worked on th e p la n ta tio n s In 1910, th e r e l a ti o n s h i p o f th e la b o r e r to th e p la n ta tio n owner was so n e a r ly lik e s la v e r y t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f in d a n o th e r word t h a t f i t s th e s i t u a t i o n so w e ll. B esid es making th e h a c ie n d a u n iv e r s a l in s te a d o f l o c a l , D iaz i n s t i t u t e d o th e r econom ic m easures a s w e ll. He p e rsu ad e d European c a p i t a l i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y French and B r i t i s h , t o p ro v id e u t i l i t i e s and t r a n s p o r t a ti o n netw orks i n th e c e n t r a l and so u th e rn h e a r tla n d . In th e n o r th , U nited S ta te s r a i l r o a d m agnates w ere en couraged to e x ten d t h e i r r a i l r o a d s i n to M exico. By th e end o f th e c e n tu ry 12 n in e th o u san d m ile s o f r a i l had b een l a i d in M exico. F u rth e rm o re , w ith i n d u s t r i a l m e ta ls g r e a t ly in demand ^T um enbaum , Bsace bv R e v o lu tio n , p . 188. 1 2 Howard F. C lin e , M exico: R e v o lu tio n to E v o lu tio n (Hew York: O xford U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1962), p . 22; Ross, F ra n c isc o I . M adero. pp. 2 1 -2 2 . th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld a t t h i s tim e , e s p e c i a l l y In th e U nited S ta te s , f o re ig n m ining co n cern s w ere g iv e n c o n c e ssio n s and s p e c ia l p r iv ile g e s to e x p lo it th e r i c h m ining a re a s o f n o rth e rn M exico. l a t e r , r e v o lu tio n a r ie s w ould i n d i c t Diaz f o r tu r n ing o v e r much o f th e p ro d u c tiv e m achine to f o r e ig n e r s . However, l i t t l e w ould be s a id a b o u t th e a n ti- im p e r ia lis m d o c tr in a ir e t h a t he p r a c tic e d i n h is i n i t i a l p e rio d a s P re sid e n t o f M exico, e s p e c ia lly tow ard th e U nited S ta te s . F u rth e rm o re , th e re v o lu tio n a r y in d ic tm e n t w ould n o t be a b le to e x clu d e th e f a c t t h a t Mexico r e a l l y began i t s econom ic 13 p ro g re ss u n d er th e d i r e c ti o n and te n u re o f D iaz. No one d e n ie d t h a t th e Diaz regim e was a d i c t a t o r s h ip . Even i t s s tr o n g e s t s u p p o rte rs f r e e l y a d m itte d t h a t th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1857 had been p e rv e rte d and t h a t dem ocracy was a term used in d is c r im in a te ly . As F ra n c is c o Bulnes e x p re ss e d i t , th e q u e s tio n was n o t w h eth er Diaz was a d i c t a t o r , s in c e th e M exicans in th e p a s t had p o sse sse d l O D aniel C osio V ille g a s , The U nited S ta te s v e rs u s B o rf irio D iaz, t r a n s . by N e ttie Lee Benson (L in c o ln , N eb.: U h iv e rs ity o f N ebraska f r e s s , 1963). The a p p a re n t in co n s is te n c y i n D ia z ' a t t i t u d e tow ard f o r e ig n in v e s to r s i s a c e n t r a l c o n ce rn o f t h i s stu d y . 34 n e it h e r l i b e r t y n o r dem ocracy, b u t w h eth er he was a good 14 o r bad d i c t a t o r . To m a in ta in o rd e r, Diaz c re a te d a m ounted p o lic e f o r c e , lo s r u r a l e s . r e c r u ite d from form er b a n d its . T h eir r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was t o make Mexico s a fe f o r Diaz and th e M exican p e o p le . Because th e j a i l s w ere a lre a d y o v e r- p o p u la te d , th e r u r a le s to o k few p r is o n e r s . R e sista n c e m e lte d . During th e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a rs o f h is reg im e, Diaz su rro u n d ed h im s e lf w ith lo s C i e n t l f i c o s . These C ie n tlf ic o s w ere young i n t e l l e c t u a l s who so u g h t a governm ent by a c r i o l l o o lig a r c h y . For t h e i r p o l i t i c a l p h ilo so p h y th e y b o r rowed th e p o s itiv is m o f A uguste Comte. One o f th e le a d e rs o f lo s C ie n tlf ic o s was Jos£ L im antour, th e so n o f a F rench im m igrant. Lim antour was a f i n a n c i a l g e n iu s an d was v e ry i n f l u e n t i a l i n d ir e c tin g th e econom ic p o lic ie s o f th e Diaz reg im e. Los C ie n tlf ic o s c o n s titu te d th e f i r s t g e n u in e ly b u r e a u c ra tic c la s s to emerge in Mexico a f t e r Mexican Inde pendence. ^ 14 F ra n c isc o B u ln es, E l V erdadero Diaz v l a R evolu- c i6 n (M exico: G&nez de l a R ie rte , 1920), pp. 2 3 -2 8 . 15Simpson, The E U do. M e x ic o ^ Wav O ut, pp. 4 5 -4 7 . 35 As th e Diaz regim e c o n tin u e d , i t became e v id e n t t h a t more and more M exicans f e l t lik e s tr a n g e r s in t h e i r own c o u n try . O s te n sib ly a l i b e r a l a t f i r s t , Diaz r a p id ly became a sta u n c h c o n s e rv a tiv e in th e o ry an d a d i c t a t o r in p r a c t i c a l a d m in is tr a tio n . French c u ltu r e was g iv e n o f f i c i a l b le s s in g , and lo c a l In d ian t r a d i t i o n s w ere denounced a s p r im itiv e . As tim e p a sse d , how ever, th e grow ing com p l a i n t was t h a t a g in g men c o n tin u e d to ru n th e c o u n try w ith a n tiq u a te d t h e o r i e s . I t was a g a in s t t h i s m ilie u t h a t th e M exican R e v o lu tio n e ru p te d . F ra n c is c o Madero: The A p o stle o f th e. SeyPlUtlQA The f i r s t sp a rk o f th e R e v o lu tio n , in M arch, 1908, was s tr u c k by an A m erican j o u r n a l i s t , James Creelm an who in te rv ie w e d th e M exican P re s id e n t. Diaz announced t h a t th e M exican p eo p le w ere re a d y f o r dem ocracy and t h a t he planned to r e t i r e in 1910; fu rth e rm o re , he s t a te d t h a t he w ould welcome th e fo rm a tio n o f a n o p p o s itio n p a r ty . ^ His words w ere u n d o u b ted ly m eant f o r th e b e n e f it o f th e U nited S ta te s , b u t th e y w ere re c e iv e d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y by many elem en ts 16R o s s, F ra n c is c o I . M adero. p. 50. in M exico. But F ra n c is c o In o cen cio Madero ig n ite d th e f i r s t r e v o lu tio n a r y flam e when he announced h is can d id acy as head o f th e o p p o s itio n p a rty . Madero, who came from a la rg e and w e a lth y fa m ily o f landow ners i n C o a h u ila , n o rth e rn M exico, was n o t a r e v o l u t i o n i s t ; a more u n lik e ly le a d e r o f a re v o l u ti o n co u ld h a rd ly be im agined. ^ M adero, n e v e r th e le s s , s ta g e d a v ig o ro u s cam paign and a d o p te d a slo g a n w hich cau g h t on: " E ffe c tiv e S u ffra g e -- No R e - e le c tio n ." This slo g a n i s s t i l l u se d to d a y , e sp e c i a l l y on a l l o f f i c i a l c o rre sp o n d e n ce . Madero and h is s u p p o rte rs s t r e s s e d th re e sim ple p o in ts in t h e i r cam paign: a n t i c l e r i c a l i s m , dem ocracy, and no r e - e l e c t i o n . They prom ised a g r a r ia n and la b o r refo rm s and a f r e e an d e x te n s iv e e d u c a tio n a l system . M adero's o p p o s itio n a p p eared to o s tr o n g , and he was im prisoned on th e ch arg e o f i n c i t in g th e n a tio n to arm ed r e v o lt a few days b e fo re th e e le c t i o n s . When th e e le c t i o n s o c c u rre d , D iaz won unanim ously. Mean w h ile , Madero was p e rm itte d to e sc a p e and he so u g h t e x ile *^R oss, F ra n c is c o I . M adero. p. 48. i n th e liiite d S ta te s . Once on Texas s o i l Madero is s u e d a m a n ife s to on O ctober 5 , 1910, known a s "The Plan o f San L uis F o to s i," 19 and touched o f f th e M exican R e v o lu tio n . The "P lan " c a l le d f o r a n u l l i f i c a t i o n o f th e J u ly 1910 e l e c t i o n s . I t ask ed th e M exican people to r e v o l t a g a in s t th e governm ent o f D iaz, and i t s e t November 20 a s th e day f o r a mass up r i s i n g . Then Madero named h im s e lf p ro v is io n a l p re s id e n t and prom ised new e le c t i o n s . Overwhelmed by th e v a s t number o f h is s u p p o rte rs , Madero assum ed a p o s itio n f o r w hich he was n e ith e r t r a in e d n o r q u a l i f i e d . By November, 1910, a l l o f Mexico was throw n i n to tu rm o il. Soon th e governm ent tro o p s f e l l b e fo re th e R e v o lu tio n is ts . Oh May 2 5 , 1911, Diaz a t age e ig h ty - f iv e , r e s ig n e d , th e n l e f t th e c o u n try f o r F ra n ce , w here he d ie d on J u ly 2 , 1915 convinced to th e end t h a t he had se rv e d 18 Ross, F ra n c isc o I . M adero. pp. 111-112; Cumber la n d , M exican ReyoJLution.. pp. 117-118. ^ T h e Plan may be found i n F ra n c isc o N aran jo , D ic c io n a rio B iogr& fico R e v o lu c io n a rlo (M exico: Im prenta E d it o r i a l "Cosm os," 1935), pp. 264-268. The Plan was fo rm u la te d to se rv e a s th e id e o lo g ic a l banner o f th e Revo l u t i o n . F e d e ric o G onzilez G arza, Roque E s tra d a , Juan S inchez Azcona, and E nrique Bordes w ere members o f th e com m is sio n who w ro te i t . 38 Mexico we 11.^® A few days l a t e r , June 7, 1911, Madero e n te re d th e c a p i t a l . He was re c o g n iz e d a s p re s id e n t and assum ed th e 21 e x e c u tiv e power in December, 1911. But Madero was u n ab le to i n i t i a t e th e prom ised re fo rm s. He proved weak and im p r a c t i c a l , depending more and more on th e Army f o r s u p p o rt. The r e a l power b eh in d th e a d m in is tr a tio n was F ran - 22 c i s c o 's b r o th e r , G ustavo M adero. G ustavo, w ith a crowd o f r e l a t i v e s , lin e d up a t th e p u b lic tro u g h , and Mexico was soon s u f f e r in g from c o r r u p tio n g r e a te r th a n t h a t o f th e Diaz reg im e. To make m a tte rs w o rse, th e Madero regim e lac k ed th e s t a b i l i t y o f th e Diaz e r a . W hile Madero rem ained i d e a l i s t i c , h is b r o th e r ra n Mexico in th e w e ll e s ta b lis h e d Diaz t r a d i t i o n . The whole c o u n try was soon p r o t e s ti n g , e s p e c ia lly N orthern and Cen t r a l M exico, who ro s e in r e b e l l i o n and demanded th e refo rm s 20 Howard F. C lin e , The U nited S ta te s and Mexico (Cam bridge, M ass.: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P cess, 1963), pp. 124-125. 21 R oss, F ra n c isc o I . M adero. p. 218. 22 Jes6 s S ilv a H erzog, l a R evoluci6n M exicans en C r is is (Mexico, D .F .: E d ic io n e s Cuaderaos A m ericanos, 1944), pp. 11-12; Ross, F ra n c is c o I . Madero. pp. 223-227. 39 prom ised in th e Flan o f San L uis I b to s l. The f i r s t to r e b e l was B m iliano Z ap ata, who e p it o m ized th e I n d ia n s ' y e a rn in g f o r la n d , and had proved a p ow erful f ig u r e d u rin g th e Madero r e v o lu tio n . Z apata was a poor t>e6n who had r i s e n in r e b e l li o n in th e s t a t e o f M orelos a g a in s t th e la rg e landow ners and who now demanded t h a t th e la n d s be r e tu r n e d to t h e i r r i g h t f u l ow ners. Madero a rg u e d t h a t th e land problem was a c o m p lica te d one 23 and t h a t im m ediate a c tio n was im p o s sib le . D is illu s io n e d and e m b itte re d , Z apata is s u e d h is Flan o f A yala on Novem- 24 b e r 2 8 , 1911, w hich c a lle d f o r th e im m ediate r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e la n d s i l l e g a l l y s to le n from th e v i l l a g e s and f o r th e s e iz u r e o f an a d d itio n a l o n e -th ir d o f th e lan d s o f th e hacendados f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n to th e In d ia n s . This r e b e l l io n , how ever, was a lo c a liz e d a g r a r ia n u p r is in g in v o lv in g le s s th a n f i v e hundred p e rso n s. I d e o lo g ic a lly th e movement proved o f g r e a t im p o rtan ce l a t e r , b u t a t th e tim e Z apata was o n ly a c o n s ta n t so u rc e o f i r r i t a t i o n to th e Madero 23 John Womack, J r . , Z apata and th e M exican Revolu t i o n (New Y ork: A lfre d A. K iopf, 1969), p. 90; Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , pp. 172-181. 24Vomack, Z apata and th e Mexica n R e v o lu tio n , pp. 126-127; Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , p. 183. 40 regim e an d c o n tin u e d to be th ro u g h o u t M adero*8 p r e s i- ^ 25 dency. In a d d itio n to th e Z apata u p r is in g , th e r e w ere 26 o th e r s , and a t no tim e was Madero in com plete c o n tro l o f a l l p o rtio n s o f th e c o u n try . These u p r is in g s , how ever, w ere n e v e r as s e rio u s a s Madero p ic tu r e d them ; and i t was a coup d 'A ta t, and n o t a r e v o lu tio n t h a t was u ltim a te ly re s p o n s ib le f o r th e overthrow o f th e Madero governm ent. G eneral V ic to rla n o H u e rta 's A c t i v i t i e s The coup d '& ta t was headed by G eneral V ic to ria n o H u e rta , who had r i s e n to power when Madero had s e n t him to q u e ll th e r e v o l t s t h a t had ta k e n p la c e i n Mexico in 1912. H u erta, a f t e r h is su c c e ss a g a in s t th e a n ti-M a d ero r e b e ls 25 Womack, Z apata and th e M exican R e v o lu tio n . pp. 127-129, 145-146; C lin e , The U nited S ta te s and M exico. p . 125. 26 Ifescual O rozco, e x -M a d e rista g e n e r a l, claim ed t h a t Madero had s o ld Mexico o u t f o r "W ashington G o ld ." B ernardo R eyes, an e x -B o rf ir ia n g e n e r a l, t r i e d t o m o b iliz e a c o u n te r - r e v o lu tio n , b u t f a i l e d an d was Im prisoned w here he was a llo w e d to c o n tin u e t o p l o t . And f i n a l l y th e r e was Don B o r f i r io 's nephew, FA lix D iaz, who a tte m p te d an a b o r t i v e u p r is in g t o r e - i n s t i t u t e th e C ie n tif ic o reg im e. For a d is c u s s io n o f th e s e a tte m p ts , se e Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , pp. 185-207. 41 ( e s p e c ia lly th o se le d by B ascual Orozco In N orthern M exico), had a n ti c i p a te d a rew ard; I n s te a d he was r e t i r e d and th en became an e m b itte re d enemy o f Madero a n d jo in e d fo rc e s w ith G en eral B ernardo R eyes, G eneral FA lix D iaz, an d th e U nited S ta te s Am bassador, Henry la n e W ilson, who e n g in e e re d th e 27 Madero d o w n fa ll. On F eb ru ary 18, 1913, H uerta s e iz e d a n d im prisoned M adero, th e V ic e -P re s id e n t, PLno SuArez, and Madero*s b r o th e r , G u sta v o --th e s tro n g man o f th e P r e s id e n t's c a b l- 28 n e t. G ustavo was tu rn e d o v e r t o s o ld ie r s and to r tu r e d to d e a th . On th e same d a te , w ith th e a id o f FA lix Diaz and U nited S ta te s Ambassador Henry Lane W ilson, H uerta c re a te d th e "Compact o f th e C ita d e l" w hich was a p lan t o re c o n s t r u c t th e M exican governm ent and save M exico. Ambassador 27 For a good a cc o u n t o f H u e rta 's a c t i v i t i e s se e Kenneth J . G rle b , The U nited S ta te s and H uerta (L in c o ln : U n iv e rs ity o f N ebraska P re ss, 1969), e s p e c i a l l y pp. 1-23. A lso Manuel MArquez S te r lin g , Ln« u i^ jmos Dias d e l ftre s l- d e n te Madero (la Habana: Im prenta "El S ig lo XX," 19 1 7 ), p. 405. S te r lin g , Cuban M in is te r to Mexico a t th a t tim e , b e lie v e d t h a t th e c o u n try w ould have been p a c if ie d a lm o st im m ediately had th e F e b ru ary r e v o l t (H uerta co u p ) b een d e fe a te d . He c o n sid e re d W ilson t o have been la r g e ly re s p o n s ib le f o r th e su c c e ss o f th e coup d 'e t a t . See C lin e , The U nited S ta te s an d M exico, pp. 124-134, and Cum berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n , pp. 237-238. 28 A lfo n so T aracena, F ra n c isc o I . Madero y l a Verdad (MAxlco: E d it o r i a l " B o liv a r ," 1 9 3 4 ), p p . 16-17. W ilson th e n p re s e n te d H uerta a s th e s a v io r o f Mexico and u rg ed a l l governm ents t o re c o g n iz e him as th e new head o f th e M exican S ta te . On F eb ru ary 2 2 , 1913, w h ile being t r a n s f e r r e d from one p ris o n to a n o th e r, Madero and h is V ic e -P re s id e n t, Pino 29 S u ire z , w ere re p o r te d ly k i l l e d w h ile tr y in g to e sc a p e . T h eir d e a th s shocked th e M exican people and in tro d u c e d th e w a rrin g p e rio d o f th e R e v o lu tio n , l a s t i n g from 1913 th ro u g h 1917. The War Y e ars: 19.13-3,917 T his p e rio d , 1913-1917, i s th e m ost co m p licated p e rio d o f th e R ev o lu tio n ; i t i s a ls o th e b lo o d ie s t. Not long a f t e r Madero was m urdered, th e R e v o lu tio n a ry fo rc e s u n ite d a s one to d riv e o u t H u e rta . B m iliano Z ap ata, " th e lo n e w o lf" o f th e R e v o lu tio n , whose army u sed th e c ry , " T ie rra y L ib e r ta d ," came up from th e s o u th . M eanw hile, V enustiano C a rra n za , G overnor o f C o ah u ila, announced h is 29 A le ssio R obles, H is to r ia B o litic a de la R evolu- c i6 n (M&xico: E d icio n es B o ta s, 1938), pp. 65-69; D an iel Moreno, F ra n c isc o I . Madero - J o b ! M arla Pino SuA rez. E l o im a n H e l a Bribaiada (Mfocico: L ib ro M ex-Edit o r e s , 1960). pp. 4 5 -5 7 . 43 Plan o f Guadalupe o f March 2 6 , 1913, w hich sim p ly c a lle d f o r th e o verthrew o f H uerta and th e r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e 30 C o n s titu tio n o f 1857. C arranza th e n jo in e d fo rc e s w ith A lvaro Cbreg6n, G overnor o f Sonora, and F ra n c is c o V illa , r e b e l le a d e r o f th e s t a t e o f C hihuahua. This army became known a s th e C o n s titu tio n a l Army, and w ith C arranza a s I t s le a d e r I t sw ept down on th e C a p ita l. As th e people became aw are o f th e r e a l purpose o f th e R ev o lu tio n , th e R e v o lu tio n a ry fo rc e grew . Z ap ata, head o f th e r e b e l army In th e s o u th , g a in e d su p p o rt from th e t e r r i t o r y around C uernavaca. From th e r e he w ent e a s t to A iebla and n o rth to th e s t a t e o f Mexico and I n to th e F e d e ra l D i s t r i c t I t s e l f . C rying " T le rra y L lb e r ta d ," h is ra g g e d , p e a sa n t fo llo w e rs b u rned h a c ie n d a s and d iv id e d th e la n d among th e p e a s a n ts . Because th e Z a p a tis ta s w ere b e t t e r a c q u a in te d w ith th e m ountain c o u n try In th e so u th , H u e rta 's tro o p s found th em selv es In a h o p e le ss p o s itio n , 31 c e r t a i n t o m eet d e f e a t. 30 Lyle C. Brown, "The P o l i t ic s o f Aimed S tru g g le In th e Mexican R e v o lu tio n ," In James W. W ilk ie and A lb e rt L. M ic h a e ls, e d s ., R ev o lu tio n i n M exico: Years o f U pheaval. 1910-1940 (Hew York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1969), pp. 60-72. 31 A x a q u ista in , La R e v o lu c lfa M elicana. pp. 70-74; D an iel Moreno, F le u ra s de l a R evoluci6n M exicana (M exico: E d lc io n e s de A ndrea, 1960), pp. 5 8 -6 2 . M eanwhile, th e U hited S ta te s governm ent, re c o g n iz in g th a t C arranza headed th e c o n s e rv a tiv e power tr y in g to b rin g law and o rd e r to M exico, opened th e b o rd e r f o r 32 shipm ent o f arms t o th e C o n s titu c io n a lis ta s . W ith t h i s a id C a rra n z a 's army was a b le to f i g h t and p ro ceed so u th tow ard th e C a p ita l. 0breg6n fo u g h t h i s way down th e P a c ific c o a s t to G u a d a la ja ra . Rancho V i l la , m eanw hile, sw eeping a l l b e fo re him in v i c t o r y a f t e r v i c t o r y , le d h is tro o p s a c ro s s th e c e n t r a l v a lle y and c a p tu re d T orre6n (a key r a i l c e n te r in th e S ta te o f D urango). Both V illa and 0breg6n w ere tr y in g t o re a c h th e C a p ita l f i r s t to ta k e o v er th e governm ent. When C arran za, how ever, le a rn e d th a t V illa had broken r e l a t i o n s w ith him, he c u t o f f h is c o a l su p p ly needed f o r V i l l a 's tro o p t r a i n s . Hie la c k o f f u e l 33 fo rc e d V illa to s ta y in Z a c a te c a s. 32 C lin e , The U h ited S ta te s and M exico, p . 154; Brown, "The P o l i t ic s o f Armed S tru g g le in th e M exican Revo l u t i o n , " in W ilk ie and M ich aels, R e v o lu tio n i n M exico. pp. 70-71. 33 Brown, "The P o litic s o f Armed S tru g g le i n th e M exican R e v o lu tio n ," in W ilkie an d M ich aels, R e v o lu tio n in M exico, p. 65; W illiam W. Johnson, H eroic Mexico (Garden C ity , N .Y .: D oubleday an d Co., I n c ., 19 6 8 ), p . 217; Donald E. W o rcester and W endell E. S c h a e ffe r, The Growth and Cul tu r e o f (New York: O xford U n iv e rs ity P re ss, 1956), p. 765. 45 By J u ly , H uerta had l o s t a l l hope, and on J u ly 15, 1914, he r e s ig n e d and f le d to V eracruz and th e n to S pain. A y e a r l a t e r he re tu rn e d to Texas w here he d ie d a t th e age o f s i x t y - f o u r . In A ugust, 1914, 0breg6n e n te re d Mexico C ity , c la im in g i t f o r C arran za, who c a lle d a c o n v e n tio n f o r th e purpose o f s e t t i n g up a c o n s t it u t io n a l governm ent. But V i l l a , who c o n s id e re d h im s e lf b e tra y e d , tu rn e d h is arm y a g a in s t C a rra n z a , and f o r a tim e t h e i r s tr u g g le became th e p r in c ip a l c o n f l i c t . T his was November, 1914, and u n t i l A p ril 15, 1915, when he was d e fe a te d a t C elaya by 0breg6n, 35 V illa dom inated th e sc e n e . I t was d u rin g t h i s p e rio d o f s t r i f e among th e Revo lu tio n a r y le a d e r s t h a t th e id e a ls f o r w hich th e R e v o lu tio n sto o d , g r a d u a lly to o k form and c r y s t a l l i z e d in to th e a r t i c l e s o f th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1917. W ith th e form ing 34 G rie b , U hited S ta te s and M exico, p . 191. 35R obert E. Q u irk , The M exican R e v o lu tio n . 1914- 1915: The C onvention o f A e u a s c a lle n te s (B loom ington: In d ia n a U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1960), pp. 221-225. 3^Lyle C. Brown, "M exico's C o n s titu tio n o f 1 9 1 7 ,” in James W . W ilk ie a n d A lb e rt L. M ic h a e ls, e d s . , R e v o lu tio n i n M exico: Y ears o f U pheaval. 1910-1940 (New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1969), p p . 112-115; C lin e , The U hited S ta te s and 46 o f th e c o n s t it u t io n , th e c e n tu ry -o ld s tr u g g le " to fo rm u la te a program f o r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e f e u d a l s t r u c tu r e o f M exico" had come to a c lo s e . A t t h i s p o in t th e s o c i a l r e v o lu tio n b e g in s . C arranza an d th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1917 In th e autum n o f 1916, C arranza o rd e re d th e e l e c t i o n o f a c o n v e n tio n w hich w ould make th e n e c e s s a ry c o n s t i t u ti o n a l ch an g es. From th e c o n v e n tio n , w hich m et a t Q uerdtaro in December, a l l who w ere n o t fo llo w e rs o f th e " f i r s t c h ie f " w ere e x c lu d e d . N a tu ra lly , t h i s m eant th e absen ce o f Z a p a tis ta s , V i l l i s t a s , and C o n v e n tio n a lis ts ; and few doubted t h a t a l l o f C a rra n z a 's own id e a s would sim p ly be e n a c te d .37 As i t tu rn e d o u t, how ever, th e c o n v e n tio n in c lu d e d a more r a d i c a l g ro u p , w hich was le d by G eneral F ra n c is c o M exico. pp. 165-171. The C o n s titu tio n o f 1917 i s b ased on th e Reform C o n s titu tio n o f 1857, b u t makes more r a d i c a l and s p e c i f i c p ro v is io n s f o r r e v is in g th e s o c i a l s t r u c tu r e o f th e c o u n try . I t l a i d th e fo u n d a tio n f o r th e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d s , d e c la re d th e p r in c ip le s t h a t w ere to p ro v id e th e b a s is f o r e x p r o p r ia tio n o f th e o i l com panies, and g ra n te d r i g h ts an d c o n s id e ra b le power t o la b o r . 37Q u irk , The M exican R e v o lu tio n . 1914-1915: The C onvention o f A g u a s c a lie n te s . pp. 135-139. 47 Mugica an d in s p ir e d by " th e i n t e l l e c t u a l f a t h e r o f a g r a r ia n re fo rm , Andr£s M olina E h rlq u e z. C arranza r e a liz e d th a t t h i s group was c a p a b le o f o v erth ro w in g him w henever i t w ish ed . F u rth e rm o re , he was e s p e c ia lly f e a r f u l o f A lvaro 0breg 6n, one o f th e m ost pow erful and p o p u la r g e n e ra ls o f th e tim e.^® N e v e rth e le s s , p ro g re s s d id o ccu r in th e fo llo w in g a re a s ^ a g r a r i a n re fo rm : th e b re a k in g up o f th e la r g e ha c ie n d a s and th e r e tu r n o f communal la n d s to th e v i l l a g e s ; i n p o l i t i c a l re fo rm : e f f e c t i v e s u ff ra g e and th e g u a ra n te e o f c o n s t it u t io n a l r i g h t s ; i n r e l i g io u s re fo rm : a more r i g i d en fo rcem en t o f the Iey e s de Reforma o f th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1857; in s o c i a l and econom ic l e g i s l a t i o n : th e r e v is io n o f m a rria g e law s, laws t o im prove th e c o n d itio n s o f th e w ork in g c la s s e s , an d an a tte m p t to d ev elo p M exico's n a tu r a l 39 r e s o u r c e s . V en u stian o C a rra n za , when e le c te d P re sid e n t in 1917, made no a tte m p t to im plem ent th e more r a d i c a l p ro v isio n s 38 Brown, "M exico's C o n s titu tio n o f 1917," in W ilk ie an d M ic h ae ls, R e v o lu tio n in M exico, pp. 112-113. 39 See fo o tn o te 36 o f t h i s c h a p te r. 48 40 o f th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1917. His a d m in is tr a tio n was c o rru p t and in co m p eten t. Because o f i t s a t t i t u d e tow ard th e a g r a r ia n demands o f th e Z a p a tis ta s , i t was r e s p o n s ib le 41 f o r th e d e a th o f Z apata on A p r il 10, 1919. C arranza n e v e r seemed in c lin e d to g iv e up th e p re sid e n c y even when h is b e s t men abandoned him , in c lu d in g A lvaro 0breg6n. When th e tim e came to e l e c t C a rra n z a 's s u c c e s s o r, C arranza w ith no i n te n t io n o f r e lin q u is h I n g power, t r i e d to impose a "puppet p r e s id e n t" upon th e ele c t o r a t e , th e Mexi can Ambassador to W ashington, Ig n a c io B o n illa s . This I A a tte m p t fo rc e d Cbreg6n and h is s u p p o rte rs t o lau n ch th e ^ H e rz o g , La R evoluci6n M exicans en C r i s i s , pp. 15- 16. 41 Moreno, F ie u ra s de l a R evoluci6n M exicans. pp. 60-62. Of a l l th e f ig u r e s produced by th e R e v o lu tio n , t h a t o f B n ilia n o Z apata i s th e m ost s t r i k i n g . He was th e f i r s t t o s t a t e w hat l a t e r became th e r e a l o b je c tiv e o f th e R e v o lu tio n —a g r a r ia n refo rm . I t i s from h is e f f o r t s , more th a n th o s e o f anyone e l s e , t h a t th e a g r a r ia n c h a r a c te r o f th e R ev o lu tio n i s d e riv e d . From th e tim e he ro s e in r e b e l l i o n t o th e day t h a t he was k i l l e d , he n e v er s u rre n d e re d , n e v e r was d e fe a te d , and n e v e r sto p p e d f ig h tin g . N e ith e r Madero n o r H uerta n o r C arranza c o u ld u n d e rsta n d w hat s o r t . o f r e v o l u t io n i s ts th e Z a p a tis ta s w ere. F in a lly , d e c e it acco m p lish ed w hat v a lo r c o u ld n o t; he was m urdered by C olonel Je s6 s G uajardo whom C arranza rew arded w ith a g e n e r a l 's com m ission. ^ 0 b re g 6 n had th e s u p p o rt o f la b o r, and la b o r had become a pow erful f a c t o r in M exican p o l i t i c s . W ith th e backing o f L uis M orones, th e le a d e r o f th e new ly form ed 49 " r e v in d ic a tin g r e v o l u t io n ." F orced to le a v e Mexico C ity in May o f 1920, C arran za was m urdered betw een th e r e and V eracruz .on May 2 1 , 1 9 2 0 .^ 0breg6n*s A d m in is tra tio n A form er m usic te a c h e r , A dolfo de la H uerta was named P ro v is io n a l P re s id e n t and p re s id e d o v e r th e e le c t i o n o f A lvaro 0breg6n, who became c o n s t it u t io n a l P re s id e n t on 44 December 1 , 1920. O bregon's a d m in is tr a tio n b ro u g h t s t a b i l i t y ; r e c o n s tr u c tio n began and r e v o lu tio n a r y p r in c ip le s s e t in to e f f e c t . The c o u n try became more p a c if ie d th a n i t had e v e r been in th e p a s t d ecad e. P ro g re ss, how ever, h a lte d in December, 1923, when a r e v o lt le d by A dolfo de C o n fed eraci6 n R egional O brera M exicana (CROM), a n a tio n a l f e d e r a tio n o f la b o r u n io n s, Gbreg6n was a b le t o c h a lle n g e C arranza and l a t e r a s P re s id e n t used th e la b o r movement to m a in ta in h im s e lf i n pow er. 43 Moreno, F ig u re s de l a RevoluciO n M exicana. p. 67; R o b les, H is to ria B o litic a de l a R evoluci6n. pp. 239-242. 44 The ta s k o f c o n s o lid a tin g th e R ev o lu tio n an d s e t tin g up th e p ro p er p o l i t i c a l equipm ent f e l l t o th e N o rth ern D ynasty, headed by A lvaro 0breg6n. T his N o rth ern O lig a rc h y was composed o f m i l i t a r y men, i n t e l l e c t u a l s , la b o r le a d e r s , and a g r a r ia n s . From 1920 th ro u g h 1933 th e s e le a d e rs s e t th e c o u rse w hich M exican governm ents w ould fo llo w . 50 l a H uerta b ro k e o u t. ^ H uerta claim ed t h a t 0breg6n had s o ld o u t th e R e v o lu tio n and t r i e d to r e p la c e Obregon. The a tte m p t f a i l e d , and a power s tr u g g le developed betw een Obregon and PL utarco E lla s C a lle s . Rancho V illa was e lim i n a te d from t h i s "power s tr u g g le " when he was a s s a s s in a te d in R a r ra l, Chihuahua on J u ly 2 0 , 1923. V illa was a s s a s s in a te d b ecau se p ro -0 b reg 6 n fo rc e s assum ed t h a t V illa w ould a id th e im pending H uerta r e v o l t . 4 ® G en eral PLutarco C a lles* Rroeram G eneral PLutarco C a lle s succeeded 0breg6n i n 1924. The new a d m in is tr a tio n pushed th e r e v o lu tio n a r y program w ith z e s t and d e te rm in a tio n . C a lle s e n fo rc e d th e r e l i g io u s p ro v is io n s o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n and c a r r ie d o u t an e x te n s iv e program o f e d u c a tio n a l refo rm s an d la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . How e v e r , when C a lle s t r i e d in 1926 t o e n fo rc e th e a n t i c l e r i c a l p ro v is io n s o f th e c o n s t i t u t i o n , th e Church r e b e lle d 45 The r e v o l t o f A dolfo de la H uerta was s e r io u s enough f o r th r e e m onths, b u t in th e end 0breg6n won and was a b le to tu r n th e p re s id e n c y o v e r to P lu ta rc o E lia s C a lle s , th e P re sid e n t e l e c t , on November 3 0 , 1924. See R o b les, H is to r la R p lltic a de l a R ev o lu ci6 n . p . 307. 46Luis A. SAnchez, H is to r ia de M tA rica (Buenos A ire s : E d it o r i a l Lozada, 1965), p . 419; Johnson, H eroic M exico. pp. 372-377. 51 47 and th e o ld c l e r i c a l q u e s tio n f l a r e d up a g a in . The Church became C a lle s ' m ost d eterm ined opponent. By 1926 th e h o s t i l i t y became c r i t i c a l . C a lle s r e p lie d to c l e r i c a l t h r e a t s by d e p o rtin g p r i e s t s and c lo s in g churches and C a th o lic sc h o o ls . R c le sts w ere fo rb id d e n to a p p ear on th e s t r e e t I n c l e r i c a l g a rb , and th e y w ere made to r e g i s t e r w ith c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s a s th e c o n s t i t u t i o n p re s c rib e d . In r e t a l i a t i o n , th e Church c u r t a i l e d r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s fo r 48 th r e e y e a r s . The Church was s u p p o rte d d tirin g t h i s p e rio d 49 by a g ro u p c a lle d C r is te r o s , whose r a l l y in g c ry was " C ris to R ey," " C h ris t th e K ing." The ro o ts o f th e lo n g -e n d u rin g c o n f l i c t betw een th e Church and a n t i c l e r i c a l fo rc e s i n Mexico re a c h in to e a r l i e s t c o lo n ia l tim e s . The s tr u g g le betw een Church and s t a t e sh ap ed th e c h a r a c te r o f M exican h is t o r y th ro u g h o u t th e n a tio n a l p e rio d , and f l a r e d up a g a in d u rin g th e C a lle s reg im e. See J . Lloyd Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin America (C hapel H i l l, N .C .: The U n iv e rs ity o f N orth Caro lin a Ifcess, 1934), pp. 395-501; James W. W ilk ie , "The Mean ing o f th e C r is te r o R e lig io u s War A g a in st th e Mexican R e v o lu tio n ," in A Jo u rn a l o f Church an d S ta te . V III (S p rin g , 1966), 214-233. 48 A ll r e l i g io u s s e r v ic e s c e a se d on J u ly 31, 1926. Due t o th e e f f o r t s o f U hited S ta te s Am bassador Dwight Morrow, a s e ttle m e n t o f th e Church an d s t a t e c o n f l i c t was re a c h e d . On June 3 0 , 1929 th e ch u rc h es w ere opened. 49 B eginning in 1927, th e C r is te r o s w ere armed r e b e ls who com m itted w id esp read a c t s o f d e p re d a tio n s , p u r p o rte d ly i n d e fe n se o f th e Church. 52 O p p o sitio n o f th e Church tow ard C alles* decree r e s u l te d in mass a r r e s t s and e x e c u tio n s . The a s s a s s in a tio n o f 0breg6n on J u ly 17, 1 9 28,5 ® by a r e l i g io u s f a n a t ic , was p o s s ib ly a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h i s s o c i a l turm oil."** I t was in th e c r i s i s fo llo w in g th e a s s a s s in a tio n t h a t C a lle s d is p la y e d h is m ost s ta te s m a n lik e q u a l i t i e s . He announced t h a t t h e r e a f t e r Mexico sh o u ld be governed by law s r a t h e r th a n by men, and t h a t th e r e w ould be no f u r th e r m i l i t a r y c a u d illo s in th e P r e s id e n t's c h a i r . The C ongress, 52 C a ll e s ' s to o g e , e le c te d B n ilio B ortea G il, an O b re g o n ista, t o s e rv e a s p r o v is io n a l p r e s id e n t. A r e t u r n to an arch y was th u s a v e r te d . W ilk ie , "The Meaning o f th e C r is te r o R e lig io u s W ar," p . 220. Many th o u g h t t h a t C a lle s had e n g in e e re d th e a s s a s s in a t io n , b u t i t was n o t p ro v ed . A young C a th o lic c a r t o o n is t, Jos6 de Le6n T o ra l, ap p ro ach ed 0breg6n in a r e s t a u r a n t on th e p r e te x t o f s k e tc h in g him and s h o t him to d e a th in s te a d . "**In 1928 th e q u e s tio n o f p r e s i d e n t ia l su c c e ss io n a g a in th re a te n e d to p r e c i p i t a t e a c i v i l w a r. Many p o l i t i c ia n s saw th e t h r e a t o f a p e rp e tu a l r o t a t i o n o f th e p r e s i dency betw een C a lle s and Obregon and p re p a re d to wage w ar. However, th o se who c h a lle n g e d C a lle s w ere d isp o se d o f , so t h a t 0breg6n was overw helm ingly e le c t e d . See L. V incent B a d g e tt, The M exican P o l i t i c a l System (B oston: Houghton M if f lin C o., 1966), p . 32. 52 B ad g ett, The M exican P o l i t i c a l System , p . 32. 53 But by 1929 many o f th e o ld r e v o lu tio n a r ie s , in c lu d in g C a lle s , view ed th e refo rm s w ith d is p le a s u r e . C a lle s d ir e c te d f o r te s G i l 's a d m in is tr a tio n . He a ls o o rg a n iz e d th e R e v o lu tio n a ry f o r ty , th e f o r tid o N acional 53 R e v o lu c io n a rio (H9R), w hich fu se d th e v a rio u s p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s in to o n e . The B U R h e ld i t s f i r s t c o n v e n tio n in 1929 f o r th e purpose o f nom inating a s u c c e s s o r t o F ortes G il. fo sc u a l O rtiz Rubio, a C a lle s f a v o r i t e , a rra n g e d a lo p s id e d v ic to r y over th e INR's p o p u lar o p p o n en t, Jos6 V asco n celo s. V asco n celo s, M in is te r o f E d u catio n in Obre- g o n 's c a b in e t, re c e iv e d o n ly tw enty th o u san d v o te s out o f a m i l l i o n . ^ The O rtiz Rubio - C a lle s A d m in is tra tio n C alles* c o n tr o l o v er th e Rubio a d m in is tr a tio n ended many r e v o lu tio n a r y re fo rm s, a t l e a s t te m p o ra rily . The 53 R obert E. S c o tt, M exican Government in T ra n s itio n (re v . e d .; llrbana, 1 1 1 .: Ifttiv e rs ity o f I l l i n o i s f r e s s , 1964), pp. 122-123. T his was th e fo re ru n n e r o f th e H artido R ev o lu c io n a rio I n s t i tu c i o n a l (PR I) w hich dom inates p re s e n t- day M exican p o l i t i c s . 54 I t was C a lle s who r a n th e p a rty (W R ), th e p r e s i dency, and th e l e g i s l a t u r e from b eh in d th e sc e n e s from 1928 th ro u g h 1934. A lso n o m in atio n by th e FN R was tantam ount to e le c tio n ; t h i s can a ls o be s a id f o r th e PRI to d ay . See f o d g e tt, The M e a ^ n f r U U s a l System , pp. 3 2 -3 3 . 54 J e fe Mfiximo de l a R e v o lu c i6 n ^ ru le d Mexico by means o f a p r iv a te te le p h o n e l in e from h is p a l a t i a l home in Cuernavaca i n to th e N a tio n a l fh la c e . C a lle s ' le a d e r s h ip was e x e rc is e d th ro u g h h is c o n tr o l o f E l ffertid o N aclonal R e v o lu c io n a rio , w hich in c lu d e d a l l im p o rtan t f ig u re s in M exican p o l i t i c s . The P re sid e n cy o f O rtiz Rubio ended su d d en ly in Septem ber, 1932, one day a f t e r he had a tte m p te d to d ism iss s e v e r a l o f f i c i a l s who happened to be C a lle s ' c o n fid a n ts . C a lle s announced O rtiz R u b io 's r e s ig n a tio n , an d O rtiz Rubio re a d a b o u t i t in th e p r e s s . G eneral A belardo R odriguez, w e a lth y b a n k er and C a lle s ' b u sin e ss p a r tn e r , ste p p e d in to f i n i s h R u b io 's term .^® A belardo R o d rig u ez' P resid en cy The P resid en cy o f A belardo R odriguez t o l e r a t e d pub l i c g r a f t and c o rru p tio n in w hich C a lle s and h is frie n d s ^ S c o t t , M exican Government in T r a n s itio n , p . 123. I t was th e WR t h a t v o te d C a lle s th e t i t l e o f "Supreme C h ief o f th e R e v o lu tio n ." ^ C a l l e s fo rc e d O rtiz R u b io 's r e s i g n a t io n a ls o be c au se o f a new o c c u rre n c e o f p e rs e c u tio n o f th e Church d u rin g 1931 and 1932. For no e x p la in e d re a s o n th e s t a t e g o v ern o rs b eg an to e n fo rc e th e law o f lim itin g th e r a t i o o f p r i e s t s t o th e p o p u la tio n (one to a hundred th o u sa n d ) as s t a te d in th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1917. C a lle s was blam ed fo r th e new p e rs e c u tio n and in o rd e r to prove t h a t he was n o t, fo rc e d O rtiz Rubio to r e s ig n . 55 engaged. I t d id , how ever, r e s p e c t th e RIR, prom ote b u s i n e s s , encourage fo re ig n c a p i t a l , and manage t o keep a n a i r o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . Most im p o rta n t, A belardo R odriguez b ro u g h t a number o f younger men i n to th e governm ent. Mexico b e fo re t h i s tim e had been dom inated a n d governed by v e te r a n s o f th e R e v o lu tio n . A new g e n e ra tio n was now ready f o r le a d e r s h ip , a g e n e ra tio n whose m inds had been form ed by th e R e v o lu tio n and who to o k i t s a s p i r a t io n s s e r i o u s l y . ^ The p e rio d 1928-1934 had been c h a o tic . C a lle s and ■a h is a s s o c ia te s l o s t much o f t h e i r e n th u sia sm f o r refo rm ; t h i s p e rio d saw a sw ing tow ard more c o n s e rv a tiv e p o l ic i e s . lan d d i s t r i b u t i o n , though pushed v ig o ro u s ly u n d er F o rtes 58 G il, was alm o st h a lte d u n d er O rtiz R ubio. The C onfedera- c i6 n R eg io n al O brera M exicana (CROM) form ed i n 1918, lo s t governm ent su p p o rt and r a p id ly d is in te g r a te d b ecau se i t s le a d e rs b e tra y e d i t s i d e a ls . As a co n seq u en ce, a new In clu d ed in t h i s group among o th e rs w ere lA zaro cA rdenas, Chairman o f th e INR, a n ex -G en eral and Governor o f MichoacAn; N arciso B a sso ls, S e c re ta ry of E d u ca tio n in R odriguez* c a b in e t; and V ic e n te Lombardo Toledano, e x u n i v e r s it y p ro fe s s o r who r e p r e s e n te d a new ty p e in M exican la b o r p o l i t i c s . 58 R obert J . A lex an d er, R ronhets o f th e R evolution (New Y ork: The M acm illan C o., 1 9 6 2 ), p . 35. 56 c o n fe d e ra tio n was form ed w hich was c o n s id e ra b ly s u p e rio r t o th e CRO M , b o th in t h e o r e t i c a l fo u n d a tio n s and in u * 59 h o n e sty . By 1934 many M exicans f e l t t h a t th e y and th e Revo l u t i o n i t s e l f had been b e tra y e d . In a lm o st tw e n ty -fiv e years, v i t a l refo rm s had f a l l e n s h o r t o f achievem ent. Soon th e l e f t wing o f th e I h r tid o N acio n al R ev o lu c io n a rio a g i t a t e d f o r change, and d u rin g th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f A belardo R odriguez, th e new l e f t wing o f th e p a r ty th w a rte d many o f th e o b s ta c le s t o refo rm i n i t i a t e d by Calles.**® l e f t Wine Groups P rio r t o th e e le c t i o n o f 1934, th e l e f t wing groups w ith in th e BIR c o n tin u e d t o g a in s tr e n g th , and C a lles r e a l iz e d t h a t in o rd e r to r e t a i n c o n tr o l he w ould have to a c c e p t a c a n d id a te th e y fa v o re d . C a lle s knew t h a t th e R e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te w ould have to be a man b a s i c a ll y 59 R d g e tt , The M exican P o l i t i c a l System , p. 92. 60 R d g e tt , The M exican P o l i t i c a l System , p. 49; Sim pson, The E lid o . M exico*s Wav O ut, pp. 441-443. C a lle s t r i e d t o e lim in a te th e a g r a r ia n program ; he sup p re s s e d la b o r u n io n s , in c lu d in g CROM ; i n s h o r t, C alles* r u l in g group c o n tin u e d t o d is p la y r a d i c a l te n d e n c ie s o n ly in r e l a t i o n to r e l i g i o n . 57 lo y a l t o th e now r e t i r e d r e v o lu tio n a r ie s . The r e s u l t was th e n o m in a tio n and e le c t i o n o f G en eral l l z a r o CArdenas. ^ But i n ch o o sin g I iz a r o CArdenas, C a lle s and C a l l i s t a s of th e RfR u n d e re stim a te d b o th th e man an d th e power o f th e refo rm f o r c e s , f o r th e e le c t i o n o f C ardenas began a new e r a * 62 o f change. C ardenas fo rc e d C a lle s i n to e x i l e an d i n i t i a te d h is re fo rm movement w hich e v e n tu a lly r e v i t a l i z e d th e R e v o lu tio n a ry movement. The R e v o lu tio n had re a c h e d m atu ra t io n . U z a ro C ardenas and th e S ix-Y ear Plan Uhder C lrdenas th e r e v i t a l i z e d R ev o lu tio n moved C a lle s su p p o rte d CArdenas a f t e r th e l a t t e r r e c e iv e d th e n o m in a tio n o f th e RJR a t th e p a r t y 's c o n v e n tio n a t Q uerA taro in December, 1933. B ed g ett, The M exican P o l i t i c a l System , pp. 49-50; Johnson, H eroic M exico. p. 412. 62 A lb e rt L. M ich aels, "M exican P o l i t ic s and n a tio n a lis m From C a lle s t o C ardenas” (u n p u b lish ed Ri.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U h iv e rs ity o f P en n sy lv an ia, P h ila d e lp h ia , 1966), pp. 74-77. In Ju n e , 1935, th e r e was a n open b reak betw een CArdenas and C a lle s a f t e r th e form er ask ed f o r th e r e s ig n a tio n o f a l l h is c a b in e t members ( a l l C a l l i s t a s ) . A fte r a th r e e month v a c a tio n in th e U hited S ta te s ( o f h is own c h o ic e ), C a lle s re tu rn e d to Mexico w here he b eg an to v o ic e h is c o n c e rn o v e r th e r a d i c a l te n d e n c ie s o f th e Car denas governm ent. On th e n ig h t o f A p r il 9 , 1936, C a lle s was fo rc e d i n t o e x i l e . 58 w ith g r e a t e r sp e e d . Uhder th e S ix-Y ear H a n , Cardenas g u id ed th e R ev o lu tio n i n a more r a d i c a l d i r e c ti o n . The new R e s id e n t w ould prove h im s e lf a man o f i n t e g r i t y and a ls o a rem ark ab ly com petent p o l i t i c i a n . D evoting h im s e lf e n t i r e l y t o th e id e a ls o f th e R e v o lu tio n , C ardenas p la c e d v ig o ro u s new em phasis on lan d refo rm . By 1940 he had d i s t r ib u t e d o v e r f o r t y - f i v e m illio n a c re s o f la n d an d by th e end o f h is a d m in is tr a tio n a p p ro x i m ately a t h i r d o f th e p o p u la tio n o f M exico h ad re c e iv e d lan d u n d er th e program i n i t i a t e d by C A rdenas.*^ C ardenas a ls o f u l f i l l e d h is prom ises t o s tre n g th e n th e o rg a n iz e d la b o r movement. At th e tim e o f h is in a u g u ra t i o n th e tr a d e u n ion movement was d iv id e d i n to many c e n t r a l 63 The S ix-Y ear FLan was i n i t i a t e d by th e PNR a t th e co n v e n tio n h e ld a t Q uerA taro in December, 1933. B a s ic a lly i t was a g u id e f o r th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e n e x t p re s id e n t (1934). I t in c lu d e d a renew ed a g r a r ia n program , th e p ro te c ti o n o f th e r i g h t s o f la b o r, and th e "econom ic in d e pendence" o f M exico. See ftid g e tt, The M exican P o l i t i c a l Syg.t.effl, pp. 80-85. 64 Added t o th e la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n betw een 1915 and 1934, t h i s made a t o t a l o f o v er 62 m illio n a c r e s . F or a good a c c o u n t o f t h i s la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n se e C lin e , M exico. R e v o lu tio n t o E v o lu tio n , pp. 209-221. A lso N a th a n ie l and S y lv ia W eyl, The R econquest o f M exico: The Y ears o f I iz a r o CArdenas (New Y ork: O xford U n iv e rs ity H e s s , 1939), p p . 344- 349. 59 la b o r b o d ie s , each o f w hich was m ore co n cern ed w ith f i g h t ing i t s r i v a l s th a n d e a lin g w ith e m p lo y ers. Cardenas to o k s te p s to r e c t i f y t h i s s i t u a t i o n by o rg a n iz in g m ost o f th e e x is tin g la b o r groups i n to a new f e d e r a tio n , th e C onfedera- c io n de T ra b a ja d o re s M exicanos (CTM). He re c e iv e d s tro n g su p p o rt; and a number o f e n t e r p r is e s , in c lu d in g th e r a i l ro ad s in 1937, w ere n a tio n a liz e d an d e n tr u s te d to th e management o f th e w o r k e r s .^ The m ost s p e c ta c u la r of th e s e m oves, however, was th e e x p r o p r ia tio n o f f o r e ig n o i l p r o p e r tie s in March, 1938. The o i l com panies had f a i l e d to com ply w ith governm ent o rd e rs g ra n tin g em ployees h ig h e r w ages and o th e r bene- 66 f i t s . D ire c tin g th e s e p ro c e e d in g s , C lrd en as was n e v e r C&rdenas u se d th e t a l e n t s o f V ic en te Lombardo T oledano, one tim e o f f i c i a l o f CROM , and encouraged him t o tak e th e le a d e r s h ip i n form ing th e new f e d e r a tio n (CTM). C f., A le x an d e r, P rophets o f th e R e v o lu tio n , p. 40; D aniel Moreno, Los B a rtld o s P o litic o s d e l Mexico Contempor&neo ( 1926-1970). e d i t o r . B. Costa-Amie (MSxico. P .P .: 1970). pp. 5 9 -7 3 . I n n a tio n a liz in g th e r a i l r o a d s , Cardenas was a d h e rin g s t r i c t l y t o th e Six-Y ear F lan o f th e TOR (1933). ^ T h e p etro leu m in d u s try was re o rg a n iz e d a s a n autonomous governm ent c o rp o ra tio n , B stro le o s M exicanos. th e to p o f f i c i a l s a p p o in te d by th e P r e s id e n t. The U n ited S ta te s governm ent re c o g n iz e d th e r i g h t o f e x p ro p r ia tio n b u t asked f o r a d e q u a te com pensation; th e B r i t i s h governm ent made a n a n g ry p r o t e s t . F in a lly , by ag reem en ts concluded w ith th e U n ited S ta te s i n 1942 and G re at B r ita in in 1947, 60 q u e s tio n e d on M exico*s r i g h t to e x e r c is e i t s s o v e re ig n ty . I t was a c c e p te d t h a t Mexico had made e v e ry e f f o r t t o honor i t s o b lig a tio n s . T his a c tio n in d ic a te d th a t Mexico had a t l a s t b roken w ith th e p a s t and had f i n a l l y come o f a g e . Through in c o r p o ra tio n o f new g ro u p s, C ardenas a s s u re d th e dom inant p o s itio n o f th e R e v o lu tio n ary R arty . The image o f th e p a r ty a s an in stru m e n t o f th e m asses came a b o u t a s a r e s u l t o f th e em phasis on in c lu s iv e n e s s and th e r e p u ta tio n f o r s o c i a l re fo rm . F o re ig n c a p i t a l no lo n g e r c o n tr o lle d M exican economy; r a t h e r i t c o lla b o ra te d w ith governm ent and M exican p r iv a te e n te r p r is e in one g r e a t e f f o r t tow ard a h e a lth y econom ic developm ent. T here was em phasis on e x p a n sio n o f a M exican c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s d i r e c te d more tow ard c o m p e titio n an d p r o d u c tiv ity th a n tow ard monopoly c o n c e ssio n s t h a t w ould o n ly e x p lo it fe llo w c o u n try men. A ll now f e l t a new p rid e in b e in g M exican, a n d "Mexico f o r th e M exicans" became a r e a l i t y . The people r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e i r c o u n try c o u ld in d eed com pete on an e q u a l b a s is w ith th e g r e a t i n d u s t r i a l c o u n try t o th e n o rth ; an d p e a sa n ts Mexico a g re e d t o pay th e com panies a t o t a l o f $ 175,000,000 i n p r in c ip a l and i n t e r e s t . W illiam Cameron Townsend, I i z a r o Carde n a s . M exican Democrat (Ann A rbor, M ic h .: George Wahr, 1952), pp. 256-259. a s w e ll a s w orkers b e n e fite d . Some econom ic d i f f i c u l t i e s d id d e v elo p , how ever. I n e f f i c i e n t and e x tra v a g a n t management o f many o f th e new c o -o p e r a tiv e e n te r p r is e s was re s p o n s ib le In m ost In s ta n c e s . By 1940 s tro n g p o p u la r e x p re s s io n showed a d e s ir e to r e tu r n to more c o n s e rv a tiv e p o l ic i e s . C ardenas acknow ledged t h i s tr e n d th ro u g h h is d e c is io n to le a v e th e P re sid e n cy a t th e end o f h is term , m a in ta in in g and s tre n g th e n in g th e t r a d i t i o n s e t by M adero. Honoring th e "no r e - e l e c t i o n " p r in c i p l e , C ardenas gave h is su p p o rt to G en eral Manuel A v ila Camacho, a n a d v o c a te o f m o d era tio n . Camacho's In a u g u ra tio n In December 1940 m arked th e b eg in n in g o f a more c o n se rv a t i v e p e rio d In M exican p o l i t i c s . T hese, th e n , a re th e h ig h lig h ts o f th e p o l i t i c a l developm ent o f th e M exican R ev o lu tio n th ro u g h 1940. I t Is w ith in t h i s tim e p e rio d (1910-1940) t h a t M ariano A zuela c o n c e n tra te s h is g r e a t e s t e f f o r t s In h is w r i t in g s . And I t I s o u t o f th e s e complex and m any-sided m ovem ents, o u t o f y e a rs o f b lo o d sh e d , out o f alm o st b lin d g ro p in g f o r j u s t i c e and new s o c i a l o r d e r t h a t M ariano A zuela, an d h is contem po r a r i e s , c r e a te d th e s i g n i f ic a n t "N ovel o f th e R e v o lu tio n ." C H APTER I I I AZUELA'S VIEW OF THE CHURCH The S p an ish Conquest b ro u g h t t o Mexico a new r a c e , a new econom ic and p o l i t i c a l sy stem , an d a new r e l i g io n . The C a th o lic Church w hich came w ith th e co n q u ero rs was bound w ith them s p i r i t u a l l y and se rv e d them i n t h e i r e f f o r t t o subdue and p a c if y th e In d ia n s . In a s h o rt tim e , how e v e r , th e Church became so pow erful t h a t i t began to c h a l le n g e th e s t a t e p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o m ic ally . T his c o n f l i c t betw een th e Church and S ta te in M exico developed i n to one o f th e b lo o d ie s t and m ost t r a g i c is s u e s in M exican h is t o r y —an is s u e w hich c u lm in ated in th e p e rio d o f th e n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry Reform Movement and w hich b u r s t f o r t h a g a in in th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1910. I t was t h i s c o n f l i c t t h a t e v e n tu a lly le d to th e s tr u g g le betw een th e l i b e r a l , a n t i c l e r i c a l fo rc e s and th e c o n s e r v a tiv e , p ro c l e r i c a l groups a n d th a t shaped th e c h a r a c te r o f M exican h i s t o r y th ro u g h o u t th e n a tio n a l p e rio d . 62 63 The ftttro n a to R eal (The Roval fa tr o n a e e ) R obert R icard i n h is w ork e n t i t l e d The S p ir itu a l Conquest o f New Spain (1492-1572) rem arks t h a t th e f i r s t decades o f S panish o c c u p a tio n in th e New W orld e s ta b lis h e d th e s o c i a l and r e l i g io u s p a tte r n s w hich w ere to fo llo w f o r c e n t u r ie s . S panish r u l e and th e Roman C a th o lic Church came to th e New W orld to g e th e r . N e arly a l l e x p e d itio n s t o th e New W orld w ere accom panied by a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e C hurch. The m otives o f th e c o n q u est w ere com plex, and ev en to d ay h i s t o r i c a l s c h o la r s a re n o t in agreem ent c o n ce rn in g th e predom inant p u rp o se. A p re -e m in e n t m o tiv e , however, was t h a t o f c o n v e rtin g th e In d ia n s t o th e C a th o lic f a i t h . In S p ain , p r i o r to th e c o n q u e st, th e u n ion o f Church and S ta te had a lre a d y been form ed.^ The S panish r u l e r s , by 1500, had se c u re d from s u c c e s s iv e popes so many c o n c e ssio n s in e c c l e s i a s t i c a l governm ent t h a t th e Church in S pain had become a lm o st a s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n . The pope, a s head o f th e Church, was acknow ledged and on v a rio u s o c c a sio n s he a s s e r te d h is a u th o r ity ; how ever, f o r th e m ost LJ . Lloyd Mecham, Church and S ta te i n L a tin Am erica (C hapel H i l l , N .C .: The U h iv e rs ity o f N orth C a ro lin a ta e s s , 1934), pp. 1-13. 64 p a r t th e k in g a d n in is te r e d th e Church a s he a d m in iste re d o th e o th e r arm s o f governm ent. W ith th e c o n q u est o f th e New W orld, th e c o n tr o l t h a t th e k in g had over th e Church was a u to m a tic a lly t r a n s f e r r e d to th e c o lo n ia l p o s s e s s io n s . The new t e r r i t o r i e s belonged t o th e C a s t il i a n crow n. The co n q u est was "by and f o r th e crow n, n o t th e S p an ish n a t i o n , " and th e k in g s p o sse sse d n o t o n ly s o v e re ig n r i g h t s b u t p ro p e rty r i g h t s . In th e In d ie s , in c lu d in g M exico, a s im ila r though much b ro a d e r c o n c e ssio n was g iv e n to th e k in g , and was known a s El R atro n ato B eal de In d ia s (Royal R atronage of th e I n d ie s ) . T his c o n c e ssio n was a c q u ire d th ro u g h a s e r i e s 1 o f s p e c if ic g r a n ts by th e Pope, betw een 1493 and 1508, 2 Mecham, Church an d S ta te in L a tin A m erica, p. 12. 3C laren ce H aring, The S p an ish B nnire in America (New York: O xford U n iv e rs ity ftre ss, 1947), p . 180. H aring s t a t e s t h a t F erd in an d an d I s a b e l, in s p i t e o f t h e i r s ta u n c h C a th o lic ism , w ere alw ays v e ry je a lo u s o f p a p a l and o th e r f o r e ig n in flu e n c e s in th e governm ent o f th e Church in S p ain . Soon a f t e r th e d is c o v e ry o f America th e y s o l i c i t e d an d o b ta in e d from Rnpe A lex an d er VI th e g ra n t o f th e e c c le s i a s t i c a l t i t h e s i n a l l th e new -found r e g io n s . The b u ll was is s u e d on November 16, 1501, w ith th e c o n d itio n s th a t th e Spanish so v e re ig n s made th em selv es re s p o n s ib le f o r th e i n s t r u c t i o n and c o n v e rsio n o f th e In d ia n s . In s h o r t, th e t i t h e s w ere t o be used f o r e c c l e s i a s t i c a l purposes b u t u n d e r th e c o n tr o l o f th e crow n. In J u ly , 1508, Ibpe J u liu s I I b y a n o th e r b u l l con f e r r e d on F erd in an d and h i s s u c c e s s o rs th e e x c lu s iv e r i g h t 65 w hich gave th e k in g u n iv e r s a l c o n tr o l, in c lu d in g t i t h e s o f th e Church. These g r a n ts p la c e d th e Church in America u n d er th e d i r e c t c o n tr o l o f th e S panish Crown in a l l m at t e r s e x c e p t d o c trin e and r e l i g i o u s d i s c ip l i n e . Many a s p e c ts o f t h i s power rem ained th e so u rc e o f c o n tro v e rsy a t th e end o f th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d , b ecau se th ro u g h o u t t h i s p e rio d th e Crown t r i e d to e x te n d and s tre n g th e n i t s con t r o l . E s s e n tia lly , th e Ih tro n a to R eal gave th e king e x te n s iv e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v er th e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a f f a i r s o f th e c o lo n ie s an d , in a s e n s e , th e Church became a n o th e r b ran ch o f Spanish c o lo n ia l a d m in is tr a tio n . The Ih tro n a to R eal se rv e d th e Crown in u p h o ld in g c o lo n ia l r u l e s , and a t o f p a tro n a g e i n th e New W orld, i . e . , c o n tr o l o v er th e founding o f c o n s tr u c tio n o f a l l ch u rch es and m o n a s te rie s , and th e d is p o s a l o f a l l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l b e n e fic e s . As th e popes had a d ju d ic a te d th e new ly d isc o v e re d lan d s to th e C a th o lic Kings in o rd e r t h a t th e y m ight p reach and sp re a d th e C h r is tia n r e l i g i o n , a ta s k m a n if e s tly beyond th e ma t e r i a l re s o u rc e s o f th e papacy a lo n e , a s a c o r o lla r y , am ple powers w ere g ra n te d t o th e so v e re ig n s in m a tte rs o f e c c le s i a s t i c a l governm ent and f i n a n c i a l a i d . I t was th e p a p a l c o n c e ssio n s o f 1501 and 1508, and th e r i g h t s and d u tie s s p e c if ie d t h e r e in , w hich made th e k in g in a v e ry r e a l s e n s e th e s e c u la r head o f th e Church i n th e S p an ish In d ie s . 66 th e same tim e i t was a n e f f e c t i v e agency f o r tr a n s m ittin g to th e New W orld th e c i v i l i z a t i o n o f S p a in .^ The B atro n ato R eal a l s o in c lu d e d th e r i g h t to c o l l e c t t i t h e s . In r e t u r n f o r t h i s c o n c e ssio n th e Crown was o b lig a te d t o assum e th e ex p en ses in c u rre d in th e propaga t i o n o f th e f a i t h . T his o b lig a tio n was f u l f i l l e d w ith z e a l, and i t m ust be n o te d t h a t i t was im p re s s iv e ly a c h ie v e d due t o th e re m a rk a b le r e l i g io u s s p i r i t o f th e S p a n ia rd s. The p la n tin g , p r o te c tio n , an d prom otion o f th e C a th o lic f a i t h and th e c o n v e rsio n o f th e In d ia n s w ere acco m p lish ed by th e Crown by endowing ch u rch es and m is s io n s . The g r e a t number o f c h u rc h e s , m o n a s te rie s , c o n v e n ts, and m is s io n s —a s w e ll a s h o s p i t a l s and c h a r ita b le i n s t i t u t i o n s th a t w ere e s ta b lis h e d by th e Church in th e name o f th e " C a th o lic S o v e reig n s"—a l l b e a r te stim o n y to th e f a i t h f u l f u l f il l m e n t by th e Crown o f i t s o b lig a tio n s a s s p e c if ie d in th e Ifetro n ato R eal. ^ C h arles G ibson, S nain in Am erica (New York: H arper and Row, 1966), p . 180. 67 The Church Was an A ll-P o w e rfu l In flu e n c e a t th e Bid o f th e C o lo n ia l f e r io d The s e r io u s is s u e o f Church and S ta te r e l a t i o n s a f t e r Independence was t h a t o f r e s t r a i n i n g th e in flu e n c e and power of th e Church i n th e economic s p h e re . The v a s t w e a lth o f th e Church re p re s e n te d by r e n t a l s from Church* owned la n d s , by c a p i t a l lo an e d a t i n t e r e s t , an d by r e n t a l s from Church-owned b u ild in g s posed a s e r io u s problem . The Church a c q u ire d much o f th e b e s t lan d by means o f b e n e fa c t i o n s , p u rc h a s e s , and f o r e c lo s u r e . A ccording t o Frank Tannenbaum o f Columbia U n iv e rs ity , in M exico a t th e c lo s e o f th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d , th e Church owned o n e -h a lf o f th e t o t a l v a lu e o f a l l p ro d u c tiv e r e a l e s t a t e . ^ The Church was g ra n te d th e r i g h t to h o ld p ro p e rty , to r e c e iv e b e q u e s ts , and t o engage in econom ic e n te r p r is e s . I t was e n t i t l e d to a s p e c ia l c o u rt ( f u e r o s ) in w hich i t s members w ere ju d g e d . The c o n tr o l o f c e m e te rie s and o f th e F rank Tannenbaun, Beace bv R e v o lu tio n (New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1933), p. 54; H a rin g , The Span is h B n n ire in A m erica, p. 191; Mecham, Church and S ta te in 68 r e g i s t r y o f m a rria g e s and b i r t h s was a ls o i n th e hands o f th e C hurch. I t a ls o assum ed th e r o l e o f a banking and c r e d i t i n s t i t u t i o n . I t l e n t money a t low i n t e r e s t r a t e s to landow ners who depended in la rg e m easure upon Church lo an s f o r t h e i r w orking c a p i t a l . On th e o th e r hand, th e Church e s ta b lis h e d m issio n s and c re a te d and managed many o f th e e d u c a tio n a l and c h a r i ta b le i n s t i t u t i o n s . C laren ce H aring, a le a d in g c o lo n ia l h i s t o r i a n , s t a t e s : V ir tu a lly a l l o f th e s o c i a l s e r v ic e s o f th e com m unity in c o lo n ia l days w ere th e p e c u lia r and e x c lu s iv e domain o f th e c le r g y . They c r e a te d and managed th e s c h o o ls , h o s p i t a l s , and a s y lu m s ." F u rth erm o re, th e C hurch, u n d er th e c o n tr o l o f th e Crown, e s ta b lis h e d an d a d m in is te re d th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f th e In q u i s i t i o n , ^ w hich was a m icrocosm o f th e te m p o ra l and * * H arin g , The S panish Empire i n A m erica, p . 192; Mecham, Church and S ta te i n l a t i n A m erica, pp. 4 9 -5 0 . ^The I n q u is itio n was e s ta b lis h e d i n Mexico by P h ilip I I i n 1571 t o prom ote th e e x te n s io n o f th e C a th o lic f a i t h and t o e r a d ic a te h e re s y . T his a c tio n was b ased upon th e b u l l o f Bope S ix tu s IV i n 1478, w hich a u th o r iz e d th e C a th o lic Kings to a p p o in t i n q u i s i t o r s who w ere to have j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r h e r e t i c s . The I n q u i s i ti o n was w e ll a c c e p te d and even p o p u la r when i t was f i r s t in tro d u c e d in th e S p an ish c o lo n ie s ; how ever, by th e end o f th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d i t was opposed by many and h a te d by some; i t had 69 s p i r i t u a l a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Church in S p an ish A m erica. Lewis A. Tambs w r i t e s : The T rib u n a l, a c tin g u n d er r o y a l p r o te c tio n , re ig n e d suprem e o v er m a tte rs ra n g in g from ch u rch d i s c ip l i n e t o blasphem y an d bigamy from th e s i x te e n th to th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y .° Hubert H e rrin g , on th e o th e r hand, s t a t e s : By th e l a s t decades o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , th e I n q u i s i to r s had l a r g e ly l o s t t h e i r c ru sa d in g f i r e a g a in s t h e r e t ic s and c l e r i c a l s in n e r s an d th e Holy O ffic e had become th e w hip used by th e Bourbons to f l a y th o s e who had le a rn e d from V o lta ir e and Rousseau to la u g h a t th e d iv in e p re te n s io n s o f k in g s .9 This in flu e n c e w ith th e p eo p le and th e governm ent gave th e Church an e x tre m e ly predom inant p la c e i n Mexico and th e r e s t o f S panish A m erica. F u rth erm o re, t h i s in flu e n c e was expanded d u rin g th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry when The a c c e s s io n o f th e Bourbon R i il i p V to th e Spanish th ro n e i n 1700 m arked th e opening o f an e ra o f r e b i r t h become a n im p o rta n t f a c t o r c o n tr ib u tin g to a n ti c l e r ic a l i s m . See Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin A m erica, pp. 4 1 -4 2 , 65 - 67 , 71-72; a l s o Lewis A. Tambs, "The I n q u is itio n in E ig h te e n th C entury M exico," The A m ericas. XXII (1965-66), 167-181; an d R ichard G re e n le a f, "The I n q u is itio n and th e In d ian s o f New S p a in ," Amer i c a s . XXII (1965-66), 138- 166. Q Tambs, "The I n q u is itio n in E ig h te e n th C entury M exico," p . 167. 9H ubert H e rrin g , A H isto ry o f L a tin America (New York: A lfre d A. ftio p f, 1968), p . 177. 70 and re fo rm f o r many S p an ish i n s t i t u t i o n s . The In q u i s i t i o n , how ever, a lr e a d y in d e c lin e , was doomed t o s u f f e r a t th e hands o f th e new d y n a sty . The in c re a s in g preponderance o f " r o y a l i s t s , V o lta r ia n s , and Jan sen - i s t s " i n th e S panish governm ent u n d er th e Bourbons c o rru p te d th e Holy O ffic e . I t s c h a r a c te r was g ra d u a lly p e rv e rte d f r a n a r e l i g io u s organ in to a p o l i t i c a l in s tru m e n t. 10 The C hallenge o f Independence Independence, how ever, was t o p re s e n t th e Church w ith th e g r e a te s t te m p o ra l c h a lle n g e i t c o n fro n te d in Span i s h A m erica. During th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d , i n s p ite o f th e many c la s h e s betw een r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f ro y a l and c l e r i c a l i n t e r e s t s , th e Crown was a b le t o p re v e n t a n t i c l e r i c a l fo rc e s from i n f l i c t i n g long l a s t i n g harm a g a in s t th e Church. There came t o be a sym bolic r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e Church and S ta te , w hich w orked t o th e ad v an tag e o f b o th . W ith th e coming o f Independence, how ever, C h u rc h -S ta te r e l a ti o n s underw ent a d ram a tic tra n s fo rm a tio n . The Church c o n tin u e d to e x i s t , b u t w ith o u t th e b ack in g o f th e Crown i t s p o s itio n was c h a lle n g e d . A cco rd in g ly , th e C hurch, in o rd e r to p ro t e c t i t s p r iv ile g e s and r i g h t s , became more d i r e c t l y ■^Uambs, "The I n q u i s i ti o n in E ig h te e n th C entury M exico," p . 169. 71 in v o lv e d i n p o l i t i c s . When t h i s o c c u rre d , a n t i c l e r i c a l groups moved q u ic k ly t o s t r i p th e Church o f i t s tem p o ral power. The c o n f l i c t betw een Church an d S ta te developed f u r th e r when th e Church, a f t e r Independence, a tte m p te d to a b ro g a te th e Ifetronato Real f o r i t s e l f . ^ The S ta te m ain ta in e d th a t i t had pre-em pted a l l o f th e powers o f th e Crown in M e x ic o --m ilita ry , c i v i l , and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l . The Church, how ever, i n s i s t e d t h a t th e p re ro g a tiv e s o v er s t r i c t l y e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a f f a i r s , w hich b e fo re had been e x e rc is e d by th e Crown, had c e a se d s in c e th e y had been a n e x te n s io n o f th e p erso n o f th e m onarch o n ly , not o f th e S t a te . D ispute Over th e F ueros In a d d itio n t o th e s tr u g g le o v e r th e Ih tro n a to R eal 1 2 was th e d is p u te over th e f u e r o s . r i g h t s w hich th e Church ^ C o n tr a r y to th e p o lic y in many of th e o th e r l a t i n Am erican c o u n trie s a f t e r in d ep en d en ce, th e L ib e ra l Mexican governm ents d id n o t i n s i s t upon e x e rc is in g th e r i g h t o f th e Ifetronato R eal. See R obert Q u irk , "The Mexican R ev o lu tio n and th e C a th o lic Church" (u n p u b lish ed Eh.D. d i s s e r t a t io n , H arvard U h iv e rs ity , 1950), pp. 1-10. 12 F u e ro s : A s p e c ia l p r i v il e g e th e Church had was to m a in ta in i t s own system o f c o u r ts . This exem ption from th e c o n tr o l o f th e o rd in a ry tr ib u n a ls was no d i s t i n c t i v e had m a in ta in e d th ro u g h o u t th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d . Hie Church claim ed im m unity from c i v i l a u th o r i ty and w anted to m ain t a i n t h i s r i g h t a f t e r independence. One Mexican b ish o p e x p re ss e d t h i s a t t i t u d e by s t a t i n g : From th e tim e t h a t th e s e th in g s a re d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y c o n se c ra te d to th e s e r v ic e o f th e f a i t h , th e y le a v e th e human dom ain, e n te r i n to th e c a te g o ry o f th in g s c a lle d o f d iv in e r i g h t an d become by t h e i r v e ry n a tu re ex clu d ed from c i v i l j u r i s d i c t i o n . 13 The C h u rch 's d e s ir e to c o n tin u e i t s s p e c ia l fu e ro s and i t s r e f u s a l to accede to th e demands o f th e S ta te in th e m a tte r o f th e R& tronato R eal e v e n tu a lly d e stro y e d th e power o f th e Church i t s e l f . The fu e ro s m eant so much to th e w e lfa re o f th e c le r g y t h a t th e slo g a n "Fueros y R e lig i6 n " was s t i l l b ein g used a f t e r 1910. N o v e lis t M ariano A zuela uses th e slo g a n in Los R recu rso res (1935), when G en eral Manuel Lozada sh o u ts in d efen d in g th e Church in th e War o f th e Reform (1835-1857): Le dan arm as, parque y d in e ro . . . . Le reconocen su g rad o de c o ro n e l . . . s i n o tr o compromiso que e l f e a tu r e o f th e R atro n ato R eal de In d ia s , b u t r a t h e r was borrow ed from custom ary S p an ish p r a c tic e d a tin g back to th e f o u r th o r f i f t h c e n tu ry . See Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin A m erica, pp. 34-36. 13 Tatmenbaum, feace by R e v o lu tio n , p. 50. 73 de g r i t a r con su g e n te por donde q u ie ra que p asen : iVivan R e lig io n y F u e ro s. ^ This slo g a n I s a ls o seen on th e banner c a r r i e d by a p r i e s t , who i s p a r t o f a group o f F e d e ra le s who f i g h t a g a in s t D em etrio M acias in Los de A balo (1915): Encontram os unos c u a n to s f e d e r a le s d is p e r s o s , un pobre d ia b lo de c u ra con un c e n te n a r de 11u s o s , to d o s re u n id o s b a jo la v e tu s ta b an d era de " R e lig io n y F u e ro s ." Eh e l campo, un re q u e ro de m uertos que o s - te n ta b a n en e l pecho un e s c u d ito de b a y e ta r o ja y un l e t r e t o : " jD e te n te I jE l Sagrado Coraz6n de JesGs e s t£ c o n m ig o !" ^ The W ealth o f th e Church The Church accu m u lated a v a s t amount o f w e a lth , much o f w hich was a c q u ire d th ro u g h b e q u e s ts . A z u e la 's n o v e l, Los C aciques (1917) p re s e n ts v a rio u s exam ples o f th e abuse o f p e rso n s who w ant to d o n ate money to th e Church. For exam ple, F a th e r Je rem ies a d v is e s an o ld woman to e n t r u s t h e r money to some r e l i g io u s p erso n who f e a r s th e word o f God: E stoy v i e j a y lle n a de ach aq u es; un d ia con o t r o , Dios N uestro Senor s e acu e rd a de m l, de que la p elo n a ^ M a ria n o A zuela, Los P re c u rso re s in Obras Comnle- t a s de M ariano A zuela (M exico: Fondo de C u ltu re Econ6tnica, 1958-60), I I I , 357-360. 15A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras C om pletes. I , 390. 74 me a g a rre d e sp re v e n id a , a rre g la rA mi m em oria, dando a N u estra Madre I g l e s i a lo s tla c o s que te n g o . Ya hablA con e l p ad re Jerem las d e l L lano; y quedamos en que e l cam ino tn&s seg u ro es e s c r i t u r a r i o to d o a fa v o r de a lg u n a p erso n a acomodada y de buena m o ralid a d ; so b re to d o que te n g a tem or de D ios. 6 And, a g a in , in la LuciArnaea (1 9 3 2 ), A zuela has F a th e r Romero co n v in ce JosA Marla t h a t JosA sh o u ld le a v e h is p o ss e s sio n s to th e Church: "Le a c o n s e jo q u e, p a ra tr a n - q u ilid a d de s u alm a, me e n tre g u e e se d in e ro . En manos de la I g l e s ia no co rrerA p e lig r o . "^ 7 At th e end o f th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d th e Church owned o n e -h a lf o f th e r e a l e s t a t e and c a p i t a l o f th e c o u n try , and 18 m ost o f th e rem a in d e r i t c o n tr o lle d th ro u g h m o rtg ag es. ■^Azuela, Los C aciques in Obras C om pletes. I I , 811. 17 A zu ela, La LuclA rnaea in Obras C om pletes. I , 601. 18 A ccording to one a u th o r ity c o n s u lte d , "The w e a lth o f th e Church had been le g itim a te ly a c q u ire d b ecau se o f th e p ie ty and lo y a lty o f th e p eo p le. T his p ro p e rty , how ever, was n o t ta x e d and w ith o u t an a d eq u a te ta x system th e governm ent c o u ld n o t fu n c tio n . The Church b lin d ly h e ld to h e r p r i v il e g e s . She sh o u ld n o t have. Her f a u l t la y , n o t in p o ss e s sin g th e la n d s , b u t in n o t having o r fo rm u la tin g a p o lic y re g a rd in g i t . O bserving w hat had happened o n ly a s h o rt tim e b e fo r e , i n F ran ce, and w hat had happened d u rin g th e R eform ation, sh e sh o u ld have d isp o se d o f th e p ro p e rty , o r a t l e a s t p a r t o f i t , in some way. Because sh e d id n o t do t h i s , a n t i c l e r i c a l i s m became s tr o n g e r th a n i t o th e rw ise w ould h a v e ." S ta te d by F ra n c is F. G u e st, O .F.M ., Academy o f American F ra n c is c a n H is to ry , in p e rs o n a l c o n s u lta tio n , Ju n e, 1969. 75 The c le rg y had accu m u lated an In c a lc u la b le q u a n tity o f r ic h e s . In 1809 th e t i t h i n g s o f s ix b ish o p s am ounted to f t th e sum o f 2 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e so s. There w ere b ish o p s and a rc h b ish o p s whose s a l a r i e s am ounted to more th a n 100,000 pesos a y e a r. An e s tim a te o f th e an n u al rev en u e o f th e Church j u s t p re v io u s to th e War o f th e Reform r e v e a ls th e enormous 19 fig u r e o f 1 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e so s. This i s th e re a so n t h a t th e C o n se rv ativ e governm ent d u rin g th e War o f th e Reform fo rc e d th e Church to fin a n c e th e c o s t o f m a in ta in in g th e army o f th e C o n se rv a tiv e s. This s i t u a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Los P re c u rso re s (1 9 3 5 ): Su S en o rla s a l i 6 se c re ta m e n te de G u a d a la ja ra , de con un palmo de n a r ic e s a l I n c l i t o Miram6n, porque no s i e n te ta n to lo r e c io c u an to lo tu p id o y v an s i e t e ya lo s p rlsta m o s fo rz o so s que e l g o b ie m o c o n serv a d o r le impone a Su I l u s t r i s i m a . E l S ierv o de D ios, M iguel, f r e n l t i c o por e l d e s a ir e , p re te n d e h a c e r r e g r e s a r a l sen o r o b isp o en m edio de una g ran e s c o lta ; p ero p e r sonas ex p erlm en tad as y m is c o n s c ie n te s lo d isu a d en de ta n pecam inosa id e a , p o r l o que e l jo v en g e n e ra l se lim ita a im poner un p rlsta m o fo rz o so a la I g le s ia de " c ie n m il pesos p o r a h o ra y o ch en ta m il pesos m en su ales, 19 G u tilr r e z de L ara and Edgcumb PLnchon, The Mexi can P e o p le : T h eir S tru g g le f o r Freedom (Mew York: Double day, R iget C o., 1 9 1 4 ), p . 21; B a ilio B ortes G il, The C o n flic t i n Mexico Between th e C iv il Bower and th e C lerg y . 1854-1876 (M exico: Press o f M L nistry o f F o re ig n A f f a i r s , 1935), pp. 61-80. 76 p e rfe cta m e n te g a ra n tiz a d o s , m ie n tra s dura l a g u e rra c o n tra la C o n s titu c i6 n . 0 How f u l l y c o n sc io u s th e p e o p le w ere o f th e g r e a t r ic h e s o f th e Church may be d eterm in ed from th e way th e p o l i t i c i a n s c a p i ta l iz e d upon t h i s s u b je c t when making p r e e le c t i o n sp e e c h e s. A c o g e n t exam ple i s found i n th e P roclam ation o f 1859 o f S ie r r a Gorda in San Luis f b to s l. A deposed g o v ern in g body is s u e d th e p ro cla m a tio n in a d e s p e ra te e f f o r t to g e t back i n to pow er. One o f th e a r t i c l e s r e a d s : El c le r o serA reform ado p a ra m o ra liz a r in d iv id u o s y p ara a rr a n c a r de su s manos e s e poder ta n fo rm id a b le y p e r ju d ic ia l a la s l ib e r ta d e s p fib lic a s, que han te n id o por sus c u a n tio s a s r e n ta s y poca i l u s t r a c i 6 n de la s m asas. D esp ite th e s e a b u s e s , th e Church was perhaps th e o n ly r e a l l y o rg a n iz e d n a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n in M exico. R eg ard less o f how C a th o lic th e n a tio n was in e s s e n c e , n e v e rth e le s s in name i t was th e o n ly th in g th a t th e p eople had in common. I t has been s a id t h a t th e S panish language h e ld t h i s honor; how ever, a g r e a t p a r t o f th e In d ia n 20 A zuela, Los ftre c u rso re s i n Obras C om pletas. I l l , 378. 2 i A zuela, Los Rrecursores in Obras Completas. I l l , 340. 77 p o p u la tio n d id n o t sp eak S panish a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry w h ile th e In flu e n c e o f th e Church was f e l t everyw here. I t was to th e Church, th e r e f o r e , t h a t th e people looked f o r g u id an c e, f o r I t was th e Church, th ro u g h I t s s tro n g tem p o ral s t r u c t u r e , t h a t assum ed th e ro le o f s ta te * s u r r o g a te . The c h a o tic s t a t e o f th e c o u n try a f t e r Inde pendence had l e f t Mexico w ith o u t a s tro n g c e n tr a liz e d governm ent. M oreover, th o se who re p la c e d th e form er governm ent o f f i c i a l s had n o t had any e x p e rie n c e I n th e con d u ct o f s t a t e a f f a i r s . A lso , th e movement f o r s e p a r a tio n from Spain had b u i l t a la rg e arm y, th e e x is te n c e o f w hich cau sed much tr o u b le and succeeded I n f u r t h e r w eakening th e governm ent by sa p p in g , I n w ages, th e slim re s o u rc e s of th e new governm ent. On th e o th e r hand, th e Church c o n tin u e d to g a in power because I t was e n tre n c h e d , n a ti o n a l , and r i c h . Removal o f th e Church from C iv il M a tte rs The p e rp le x in g s i t u a t i o n in w hich th e S ta te found i t s e l f was th e problem o f how to g e t th e Church o u t o f 78 22 c i v i l m a tte r s : hew to s e p a ra te Church and S ta te . In o rd e r to b rea k th e c o n tr o l o f th e Church, th e L ib e ra ls le d b y B enito JuA rez em bodied in th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1857 c e r t a i n p ro v is io n s aim ed a t c u r t a i l i n g th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Church in governm ent.2^ This c o n s t it u t io n , prom ulgated on F ebruary 5 , 1857, r e p r e s e n ts th e f i r s t e f f e c t i v e s te p tow ard l ib e r a t i n g th e common p eople o f Mexico from th e dominance o f th e p r iv ile g e d c la s s e s , e s p e c i a l l y th e C hurch. R obert Q uirk b e lie v e s t h a t The C o n s titu tio n , a s i t was prom ulgated in 1857, was d e f i n i t e l y n o t a r a d i c a l in s tru m e n t. I t was th e f u lf illm e n t o f th e b o u rg e o is r e p u b lic . The f e d e r a l p r in c ip le was a d o p te d f o r th e R epublic, to o b v ia te th e dominance o f th e c a p i t a l . 4 22 In e s s e n c e , t h i s was w hat th e s tr u g g le betw een Church and S ta te m eant in th e f i r s t th r e e - q u a r te r s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . I t was a s tr u g g le betw een p o l i t i c a l id e o lo g ie s and betw een r i v a l p h ilo s o p h ie s among L ib e ra ls an d C o n se rv a tiv e s. L ib e ra lism m eant governm ent by re a s o n , i t m eant l a i s s e z f a i r e betw een governm ent and b u s in e s s , i t m eant s e p a r a tio n o f Church and S ta te . To a c h ie v e th e s e p r i n c i p le s , th e L ib e ra ls w ould ro b th e In d ia n s o f t h e i r e li d o s , r e l i e v e th e Church o f h e r p r o p e r tie s an d remove th e Church from th e body o f th e M exican governm ent. F u r th e r m ore, th e L ib e ra ls had d e f i n i t e id e a s c o n ce rn in g Government and R e lig io n , and th e s e c o n f lic te d w ith th e b a s ic id e o lo g y o f th e Church. 23 A ccording to F r . G u e st, JuA rez, in ta k in g p ro p e rty from th e C hurch, was t r y in g to s o lv e th e f in a n c ia l problem s o f th e governm ent. 24 Quirk, "The Mexican R evolution and th e C ath olic Church," p. 12. 79 I t re c o g n iz e d th e suprem acy o f th e S ta te o v e r th e Church and p ro v id e d f o r freedom o f e d u c a tio n , fo rb a d e th e com p u lso ry f u l f i l l m e n t o f r e l i g io u s vow s, and a b o lis h e d sp e c i a l fu e ro s f o r c le r g y and m i l i t a r y . These p ro v is io n s w ere 25 th e p rim ary c a u se f o r th e War o f th e Reform, o f w hich a p a r t i a l v iew i s se en in Los R recu rso res (1 9 3 5 ): C orre e l afio famoso d e l c in c u e n ta y s i e t e y se p re p a ra l a g ra n lu ch a e n tr e l i b e r a l e s y c o n se rv a d o re s, conocida en la h i s t o r i a de M&xico con e l nombre de la g u e rra de T res Anos. C hinancos y m ochos, l i b e r a l e s y c o n s e rv a d o re s . puros y m oderados: je rig o n z a que Lozada no e n tie n d e . ® N e v e rth e le s s , when th e c o n s t i t u t i o n was proclaim ed th e Church fo u g h t to r e t a i n h e r t r a d i t i o n a l r i g h t s ( f u e r o s ) and p ro p e rty . The i n i t i a l t h r u s t was made by th e b ish o p s o f Mexico who condemned th e c o n s t it u t io n and th re a te n e d to excom m unicate th o s e p u b lic o f f i c i a l s who sw ore t o uphold th e c o n s t i t u t i o n . R eactio n by th e Church became more v ig o ro u s when B enito JuArez in 1859 d e cree d th e Reform law s. These laws n a tio n a liz e d a l l Church p r o p e r ty , in c lu d in g th e c h u rc h e s , su p p re ssed r e l i g io u s o r d e r s , p ro h ib ite d 25W alte r V. S c h o le s, M exican Pol i t i c s P u rin a th e (Colum bia, M o.: U n iv e rs ity o f M isso u ri R ress, 19 5 7 ), pp. 132-133. 26 A zuela, .Brgc.ias.raeg. in Obras Completas. I l l , 375. 80 p r i e s t s from w e arin g t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e g a rb in p u b lic , made m a rria g e a c i v i l c o n tr a c t, an d made th e governm ent re sp o n s i b l e f o r th e enforcem ent o f th e c i v i l r e g i s t r y o f b i r t h s , d e a th s , and c o n tr o l o f ch u rch c e m e te rie s . As a r e s u l t of th e s e law s, Church p ro p e rty was c o n fis c a te d and s o ld . O p p o sitio n t o th e c o n f is c a tio n by th e Church le d to th e e x il e o f th e A p o s to lic D e le g a te , th e A rchbishop o f Mexico 27 and fo u r o th e r b ish o p s. Rape Pius IX r e a c te d , and condemning b o th th e c o n s t i t u t i o n and th e Reform Laws, w ro te to th e Mexican p e o p le : Thus we make i t known to th e f a i t h in M exico, and to th e C a th o lic u n iv e rs e , t h a t we e n e r g e t i c a l ly con demn e v e ry d e cree th a t th e M exican Government has e n a c te d a g a in s t th e C a th o lic r e l i g i o n , a g a in s t th e Church, an d h e r sa c re d m in is te r s and p a s to r s , a g a in s t h e r law s, r i g h t s and p r o p e rty , and a ls o a g a in s t th e a u th o r i ty o f th e Holy S ee. W e r a i s e o u r P o n tif ic a l v o ic e w ith a p o s to lic freedom b e fo re you t o condemn, re p ro v e , and d e c la re n u l l and v o id , and w ith o u t any v a lu e , th e s a id d e c re e s. ® At t h i s ju n c tu r e , th e C h u rc h -S ta te c o n f l i c t re a c h e d an im passe and r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f e a c h group became more 27 Hardy C a llc o tt, L ib e ra lis m i n Mexico (S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd U h iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 3 1 ), pp. 3 6 -4 0 . 28 A rtu ro M. E lla s , The M exican People and th e Church (New Y ork: A rtu ro M . E ll a s , 1926), p. 12. 81 extrem e In d efen d in g t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p o s itio n . F u rth e r m ore, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to a s c e r t a i n w hat p a rty o r f a c tio n was r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e t r a g i c s i t u a t i o n . Viewing th e C h u rc h -S ta te c o n f l i c t in i t s e n t i r e t y , R obert Q uirk s t a t e s : Viewed in i t s e n t i r e t y , th e C h u rc h -S tate c o n f l i c t d id n o t v i o l a t e th e te n e ts o f L ib e ra lism . I f th e L ib e ra l governm ents a t tim e s w ent beyond a s t r i c t p o lic y o f s e p a r a tio n and e n a c te d m easures d e sig n e d a s harm ful to th e Church, i t was n o t b ecau se th e y w ished th e S ta te to d o m inate, b u t b ecau se th e Church was l o a th t o d iv o rc e i t s e l f from th e M exican c o n s e r v a tiv e s , lo a th to p a r t w ith fu e ro s and p r i v il e g e s . A ll o f th e r e s t r i c t i o n s im posed upon th e c l e r i c s and upon th e Church w ere c u rb s upon te m p o ra l a u th o r ity and in no way h in d e re d th e e x e r c is e o f s p i r i t u a l a u th o r i ty , n o r in f r in g e d upon q u e s tio n s o f dogma. Q u irk 's view i s w e ll made. However, th e L ib e ra ls a ls o have t o be c r i t i c i z e d . la c k in g m o d era tio n in t h e i r a tte m p t to make Mexico a t r u l y re p u b lic a n n a tio n , th e y l e f t to th e f u tu r e o f Mexico a le g a c y o f c o n tin u a l s t r i f e betw een Church and S ta te . In th e r e s u l t a n t s tr u g g le th e Church l o s t m ost of i t s h o ld in g s and power. An a cc o u n t o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s 30 d e s c rib e d in a scen e from Los R re c u rso re s. w h erein a 29 Q uirk, "The M exican R e v o lu tio n and th e C a th o lic C h u rch ," p . 9 . 30 A zuela, Los Rrecursores in Obras Completas. I l l , 374. 82 c o u sin o f one o f th e p r i e s t s o f G u a d ala ja ra who i s a ls o r e l a t e d t o th e b ish o p comes to th e town o f Rivas in o rd e r to o b ta in Manuel Lozada*s s e r v ic e s in th e w ar. The b a n d it, Lozada, has b e en h ir e d t o p r o te c t th e com m ercial i n t e r e s t s o f B arron F orbes y Compafila, an E n g lish company, a g a in s t th e governm ent w h ile i t evades th e law . To s e c u re L ozada's s u p p o rt, he i s t o l d t h a t he sh o u ld s id e w ith th e Church because i t i s d efe n d in g r e l i g i o n s , w h ile th e L ib e ra ls w ant to p u t an end t o f a i t h and to th e name o f God: Ib te d debe r e s o lv e r s e a ju n ta r s e con n u e s tro p a r- t id o , don M anuel. Sepa que lo s c o n se rv a d o re s d e fe n - demos la r e l i g i o n y que lo s l i b e r a l e s q u ie re n a c a b a r con e l l a y h a s ta con e l Santo Nombre de D ios. * Propaganda V ersus L ib e ra lism A zuela*s n o v e l Los F ra c a sa d o s. w r i t te n i n 1908, p re sa g e s much o f th e c o n f l i c t betw een L ib e ra l and C onserva t i v e elem en ts t h a t i s to b re a k i n to open c o n f la g r a tio n two y e a rs l a t e r . The c le r g y and w e a lth y c la s s in M exico, en d eav o rin g to r e s t o r e to th e Church and to th e hacendados th e p r iv ile g e d p o s itio n th e y had long m a in ta in e d , engage 31 A zuela, Los Brecursores in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 375. 83 in th e w ork o f propaganda a g a in s t L ib e ra lism . S e rv a n ts who r e v e a l te n d e n c ie s tow ard L ib e ra lism a re im m ed iately d is - 32 m issed from r e a c tio n a r y households a s dangerous r a d i c a l s . In Los F ra c a sa d o s. f o r exam ple, Dofia R ecareda se e k s ex cu se to g iv e v e n t t o h e r p e t t y je a lo u s n e s s by e j e c t i n g h er s e r v a n t, C o n su ela, from h e r house b ecau se o f h e r e d u c a tio n i n a governm ent s c h o o l. Ebna R ecareda*s re a s o n in g was t h a t o f s h ie ld in g h e r own p io u s d a u g h te rs from th e d a n g er o f c o n ta m in a tio n b y a s s o c ia tio n w ith su c h an abnorm al c r e a t u r e : ”i l a ed u cacio n l a i c a , se n o r c u ra , s i e s c o sa h o r r ib le e n un 33 hombre qu& serA e n una m u jer?" In h e r odious deed Dona R ecareda e x p e c ts j u s t i f i c a t io n from h e r p r i e s t : Estamos a u to r iz a d a s por u s te d , se n o r c u ra , h a s ta p a ra m a ta r a lo s l i b e r a l e s , s i e s to redunda en e l b ie n de n u e s tr a alm a y p a ra mayor g l o r ia de D io s. ^ f trie s ts a s w e l l, whose aim i s " la Vue I t a a l mundo 35 d e l r e in o de D ios y e l t r i u n f o d e l b ie n y de la v i r t u d , " 32A zu ela, Los F racasad o s in Cbras C om pletas. I , 2 3 . 33 A zu ela, In s F racasad o s in Obras C om pletas. I , 66. 34 A zu ela, Los F racasad o s in Obras C om pletes. I , 66. 35A zuela, Ins Fracasados in Obras Com pletas. I , 2 3 . 84 condemn th e a tt a c k on th e econom ic and p o l i t i c a l ascendancy o f th e Church a s a blow a t i t s s p i r i t u a l f u n c tio n s . T h e ir g o a l i s to r e t u r n th e Church to i t s form er suprem acy, c o s t w hat i t may—th e ro o t o f M exico's i l l s th e y b e lie v e l i e s i n th e debasem ent o f th e C h u rch 's p o s itio n . E l t r i u n f o de l a v e rd a d no podia o b te n e rs e mas p o r la sim p le p e rs u a c i6n ; e r a p r e c is o v o lv e r a lo s v i e j o s tie m p o s, p o r la f u e rz a y s 6lo p o r la f u e r z a . No e r a n e c e s a rio in v e n ta r nada; nada c o n s t r u ir de nuevo; sim plem ente d a r un paso a tr& s y poner en su lu g a r lo que SatanAs h ab la t i r a d o de su p e d e s ta l. Hero p a ra l l e g a r a e l l o e ra in d is p e n s a b le una r e b e l i6n ta n s a n g r ie n ta como l a que a r r e b a t6 a la I g l e s ia to d o s su s d e re ch o s. ® T his movement o f th e upper c la s s and th e c le rg y to stam p out L ib e ra lism m a n ife s ts t h e i r im pending f e a r o f a p o t e n t i a l u p r is in g on th e p a r t o f th e low er c l a s s . F u rth e r m ore, th e C hurch, in a tte m p tin g to m a in ta in i t s s t a tu s and by making c l e a r i t s contem pt f o r th e Reform laws and th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1857, h a ste n e d th e im m inent r e b e l li o n o f 37 th e L ib e ra l g ro u p . The Church R egains Bower In 1872 th e D iaz regim e i n i t i a t e d a long p e rio d o f 36 A zu ela, Los F ra c a sa d o s i n Cbras C om pletas. I , 94. 37 Quirk, "The Mexican R evolution and the C ath olic Church," pp. 6 -1 0 . p eace. T h is, how ever, was bought a t a p o l i t i c a l c o s t so h ig h t h a t a m in o rity o f th e M exican p eople f i n a l l y ro s e in r e v o l t a t th e i n j u s t i c e s and o p p re s s io n w hich th e regim e 38 p r a c tic e d . D uring th e Diaz p e rio d th e Church re g a in e d some o f th e p o s itio n i t had h e ld b e fo re th e War o f th e Reform. C o n seq u en tly , a t th e o u tb re a k o f th e R ev o lu tio n (1910), th e Church to o k i t s s ta n d on th e s id e o f w hat ap p eared to be an uncon querable e n t i t y , th e p a r tis a n s o f 39 th e Diaz reg im e. In Los C aciques (1917), A zuela g iv e s an a cc o u n t o f how th e c le r g y s id e d w ith th e p o l i t i c a l b o sse s. F a th e r Je re m la s , b r o th e r o f some c a c iq u e s , a tte m p ts in one o f t h e i r m eetin g s t o have them e s t a b l i s h th e Gran R artido C at6l lc o N a c lo n a l. I t i s th e d e s ir e o f th e b ish o p th a t t h i s p a rty sh o u ld e v o lv e n o t from th e c le rg y b u t from th e laym en: Su Sefiorla I l u s tr ls lm a h a b ria v i s t o con b e n e p lic lto e l que to d a l a p a rte sana de e s t a so c le d a d h u b le ra foxmado p e rso n a lm e n te , en tiA n d a n lo u s te d e s , l a Ju n ta D ire c tiv a de e s t e C entro L o c a l . ^ 38 S ta n le y R. R oss, F ra n c isc o I . Medero (New York: Columbia U iiv e r s ity F re s s , 1955), pp. 20-33. 3 9 R o ss , F ra n c is c o I . M edero. pp. 2 5 -2 6 . 40 A zuela, Los Caciques in Cbras Com pletas. I I , 834. 86 B esid es t h e i r i n d ir e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a m in o rity o f th e c le r g y a l s o to o k an a c tiv e p a r t i n th e f ig h tin g o f th e R e v o lu tio n . R eference has a lr e a d y been made to th e p r i e s t who opposed D em etrio M acias ( in A z u e la 's Los de A baio. 1915). A t th e o u ts e t o f th e R e v o lu tio n th e Church a g a in l o s t a l l o f i t s p ro p e rty ; how ever, i t c o n tin u e d t o have g r e a t p o l i t i c a l and s p i r i t u a l in f lu e n c e o v e r th e p e o p le . Not o n ly d id i t c o n tr o l r e l i g i o n ; i t c o n tin u e d to c o n tr o l e d u c a tio n a s w e ll, in c re a s in g th e c l e r g y 's in flu e n c e over 41 th e p e o p le . Because m ost o f th e p eo p le w ere e x tre m e ly r e l i g i o u s , th e c le r g y found i t a sim p le m a tte r to form p u b lic o p in io n . 41 fb p u la r e d u c a tio n in th e b ro ad se n se was n o t w id e ly known i n Mexico b e fo re th e u p h eav al o f 1910. I l l i te r a c y was v a r io u s ly e s tim a te d from 80 t o 85 p e r c e n t, and r u r a l p u b lic s c h o o ls w ere v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x is te n t. T his s i t u a t i o n e x is te d d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t l e g i s l a t i o n r e q u ir in g com pulsory f r e e e d u c a tio n was p a sse d in 1893. I t i s , th e r e f o r e , n o t d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e rs ta n d why th e Church, w ith i t s long h i s t o r y o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e d u c a tio n , con tin u e d t o dom inate th e lim ite d e d u c a tio n t h a t e x is te d u n t i l 1923. S ee: Howard F. C lin e , M exico: R e v o lu tio n to Evolu t i o n (New York: O xford U n iv e rs ity D ress, 1962), p . 103; R oss, F ra n c is c o I . M edero. p . 31; M a rjo rie C. Johnson, £ & - c a t io n I n Mexico (W ashington: O ffic e o f E d u ca tio n , 1956), p . 26. A zuela and th e R e lig io u s S p ir it o f th e Bsople 87 The r e lig io u s s p i r i t o f th e p eo p le s ta n d s out c l e a r l y i n m ost o f A z u e la 's w orks. F or exam ple, T im o teo 's w ife in Los C aciques (1917) b e lie v e s t h a t th e m ost im por t a n t th in g in l i f e i s th e sa v in g o f th e s o u l: "E te rn a s6lo n u e s tr a alm a y e s de la que debemos de c u id a r . E h tre por su chaqueta, v ie jo raboverde y vAmonos a l rosario a Capu- 42 c h in a s ." And, a g a in , in El ram arada B in to ia (1937) A zuela w r i t e s o f th e p eo p le who swarm to Mexico C ity f o r th e a n n u a l f e s t i v a l o f Our la d y o f G uadalupe, a y e a r a f t e r th e c lo s in g o f th e ch u rch es (1 9 2 6 ). In t h i s same n o v e l, th e w orkers and governm ent o f f i c i a l s who have d em o n strated u n a n im ity i n th e g o v ern m en t's a c tio n s a g a in s t th e Church c o n tin u e t o go to c o n fe s s io n and communion; a t tim es th e C a th e d ra l c o u ld n o t h o ld them a l l . Al ftjrco [C alles] se le estA indigestando su credo filo s d fic o —d ijo e l companero Francisco, llegando a la Catedral, que, incapaz de contener m A s gente, la derra- maba sobre la gran plaza, desde e l a trio hasta m A s allA d el Z6calo— . . . lo m A s rid lc u lo es que los mismos 42 A zuela, Los Caciques in Ofrrflg (ftnplftQ tf, I I , 806. 88 que fuim os a y e r a r e s p a ld a r lo s a c to s d e l Itarco. somos lo s que hoy venim os a c o n fe sa m o s y a co m u lg ar.4* And, f u r t h e r , In l a L uciA m aea (1 9 3 2 ), A zuela c o n s ta n tly r e f e r s to r e l i g i o n . ftrayer s ta n d s o u t a s a v e ry im p o rtan t p a r t o f d a ily l i f e . JosA M aria pray s a t a l l tim e s and f o r a l l r e a s o n s : JosA M aria nada s a b e . A jeno a chism es a j u s t a su v id a a l E v a n g e lic . R ie sto que e l l a pende como de un c a - b e ll o , encaminAmosla a s u f i n 6n i c o : la sa lv a c iA n de n u e s tra alm a. . . . Uh a c to prim o puso a JosA M aria a lo s p ie s de la S an tislm a V irgen; p ero ap en as acab6 su re z o , s i n t i6 la f a l t a de su f i a d o r . ^ In th e same v o rk D io n is io 's w ife C onchita tu r n s c o n s ta n tly to r e l i g i o n and p ra y e r. D io n isio w ants h e r t o b e lie v e t h a t money w i l l b rin g them e v e ry th in g in l i f e , b u t sh e w i l l n o t l i s t e n to him : C onchita d i jo : Lo q u e estA de D ios, y que se haga su S an tislm a v o lu n ta d . . . . D e ja ste a C ie n e g u illa , v i e j a ; pero C ie n e g u illa no se t e a p ea de l a jo ro b a . M ira, a Dios a q u i lo tx a ig o en la b o lsa y nunca me d ic e que no. . . . iD io n is io , no lo hagas p o r m i! . . . jS iq u ie ra p o r A l! jC A lla te ! ^ In y e t a n o th e r w ork, Los de A balo. A zuela has h is 43 A zuela, r.i Cmnarada fo n to la i n Cbras C om pletas. I , 675. ^ A z u e la , l a LuciA rnaea i n Cbras C om pletas. I , 603-605. 45A zuela, t« in Obras Com pletas. I , 641. c h a r a c te r s m en tio n f r e q u e n tly th e name o f God and t h a t o f th e B lessed V irg in . D e m etrio 's w ife rem a rk s, "Madre m la de J a lp a ! " when h e r husband t e l l s h e r t h a t th e y have j u s t k i l l e d t h e i r dog. When A n a sta sio Montands i s b e in g p ra is e d f o r h is v a l o r , he s a y s , "que v iv a D em etrio M acias que e s n u e s tro j e f e , y que v iv a n Dios d e l c i e l o y M arla S a n tislm a !" l a t e r , when two o f t h e i r g roup a re found han g in g from a t r e e , A n a sta s io r e c i t e s th e L o rd 's ftrayer and th e r e s t j o i n him , p ray in g r e v e r e n tly . The In d ia n s in Los de Abaio a ls o a r e c o n cern ed w ith r e l i g i o n . For exam ple, upon th e d e p a rtu re o f D e m etrio 's g ro u p , th e m ountain In d ia n s t e l l them , "{D ios lo s b e n d ig a ! iD ios lo s ayude y lo s lle v e p o r buen cam in o !" The In d ia n c a r p e n te r who has been fo rc e d to j o i n th e f e d e r a l army and le a v e h is in v a lid m other c o n fid e s to a n o th e r s o l d i e r , upon le a rn in g t h a t h is m other had d ie d : Ifero, p o r m i Dios que e s td en lo s c i e l o s , e s to s c a rto c h o s que a q u l me c a rg a n no han de s e r p a ra lo s enem igo8. . . . Y s i se me hace e l m ila g ro (mi m adre S an tlsim a de G uadalupe me lo s ha de c o n c e d e r), s i me le ju n to a V i l la . . . ju r o p o r la sa g ra d a alm a de mi madre que me la han de p a g a r e s to s f e d e r a le s 46 A zuela, Lpg de. Afcfijo in Obras Com pletas. I , 333. A z u ela*8 T reatm ent o f Church C o n tro l o f Thought 90 The e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o n tr o l o f th e th o u g h ts o f th e m iddle an d upper c la s s e s i s e v id e n t in d i f f e r e n t ways in A z u e la 's w orks. In E l Camarada E hntoia (1 9 3 7 ), f o r exam ple, th e p r i e s t i s s a id to have done th e th in k in g f o r Don Bene- d ic to , who was c o n sid e re d to be w ith in th e m iddle c la s s . In Los F ra ca sa d o s (1908), Don Herm6genes i s d e c id e d ly on th e s id e o f th e Church. In i t s d e fe n se he comes to th e c a c iq u e s to se e t h a t in th e in v e s tig a tio n o f th e Godinez 47 le g a c y , th e s h a re d e s tin e d f o r th e Church i s l e f t in - 48 t a c t . In th e same w ork, th e w ife o f th e hacendado (Don A g a p ito ) comes to Don HermAgenes f o r a d v ic e . He can n o t g iv e h e r th e a d v ic e she w ants b u t in s te a d q u o te s from The Godinez le g a c y was c re a te d when: "E l v i e j o m illo n a r io Godinez le g6 a lo s p obres de l a c iu d a d to d a su f o r tu n e , poco a n te s de l a in d ep en d en cia de M exico. De tiem po Ixm em orial lo s mAs l i s t o s d e l p u eb lo se r e p a r tie r o n e l d in e ro d izq u e a t l t u l o de prAstam o; con la s e r i e in in - te rru m p ld a de re v o lu c io n e s , despuAs de l a g u e rra de Inde p e n d e n c ia , e l G obiem o dejA de tom ar c a r t a s en e l a s u n to , y l l e g l tiem po en que n a d ie s a b la e n manos de quiA nes se e n c o n tra b a n lo s d in e r o s , con excepciA n de su s p ro p io s p o se e d o re s. Se lo s d is p u ta ro n lo s g o b ie m o s c i v i l y e c l e s iA s t ic o ." A zu ela, Los de A balo i n Obras C om pletas. I , 75. 48 A zuela, Los Fracasados in Cbras Completas. I, 71-75. 91 a serm on and g iv e s h e r a book t o re a d w hich d e a ls w ith lib e r a lis m a s s i n —a n a c tio n w hich he th in k s w i l l e n lig h te n h e r th in k in g . In s t i l l a n o th e r exam ple, A g u s tin ita in la s T rib u la c io n e s (1918) opposes h e r h u sb a n d 's id e a o f sen d in g t h e i r c h ild r e n to th e U n ited S ta te s f o r t h e i r edu c a t io n , because th e lo c a l p r i e s t has d e f i n i t e l y a d v is e d a g a in s t such a move: IkpA se h a b la empefiado en que F ra n c isc o JosA y yo fuAramos a lo s E stados Unidos a c o m p le ta r n u e s tra i n s t r u c c i6n . Agotados lo s re c u rs o s que e l c a rifio y e l in g e n io le in s p ir a r o n a mamA p ara d e fe n d e m o s de t a l a t r o p e ll o , c o n c ib i6 la id e a de c o n s u lta r e l p a re - c e r d e l seftor O bispo. Los r e s u lta d o s fu e ro n d e c i s i - v o s . M am A reg resA d e l o b isp ad o lle n a de b r l o s . Tom6 l a o fe n s iv a y l e h a b l6 a R rocopio: "Q uiero que me dem uestres en donde estA la s u p e r io rid a d de la s u n i- v e rs id a d e s n o rte a m e ric a n a s so b re e s ta b le c im ie n to s n u e s tro s como, p o r e je m p lo , e l c o le g io de lo s pad res m a ris ta s de Z a c a te c a s. Lo que p re te n d e s e s A nicam ente h a c e r de n u e s tro s h i jo s unos p r o t e s ta n te s , m asones, a te o s . He prevengo que s i a m i me fa 1 t a n ra z o n e s p a ra c o n te s ta r tu s a rg u m en to s, e l sen o r Obispo estA d is - p u e sto a d i s c u t i r c o n tig o . The c l e r g y 's o p p o s itio n t o l i b e r a l id e a s can e a s i l y be tr a c e d in th e w orks o f A zu ela. In Itedro M oreno, e l in s u rg e n te (1934), th e head o f a r e l i g io u s o rd e r and in q u i s i t o r , in a n a tte m p t t o p e rsu ad e Itedro n o t to j o i n th e 49A zuela, Las T tib u la cio n es in O bK ftS Cqmpletflff , I , 462-463. 92 Independence movement a s an i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t , sa y s t h a t su ch a n a c tio n w ould be h e re sy and th a t th e d o c tr in e o f th e s o v e re ig n ty o f th e p eo p le i s condemned by th e t r i b u n a l o f th e Holy I n q u is itio n ; t h a t o bedience and s ile n c e a re th e d u tie s o f th e v a s s a l . ^ And a g a in , in Los F racasad o s (1908), A zuela m entions a p r i e s t a s b ein g th e a u th o r o f a book e n t i t l e d E l L ib e ra llsm o es Recado. The m eaning o f L ib e ra lism i s e x ten d ed by some o f th e f a i t h f u l to in c lu d e a n y th in g w hich to them i s i r r e l i g io u s and u n godly. An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s a p p e a rs i n Los F racasad o s (1 9 0 8 ), in a scen e fe a tu rin g th e Godinez fa m ily (two o ld m a id s), when one o f th e s i s t e r s r e l a t e s how sh e found th e cook and footm an to g e th e r , j u s t lik e two l i b e r - ! 51 a l s . The C lerg y and th e In s u rg e n ts . 1910 The c le r g y to o k a v e ry a c tiv e p a rt a g a in s t th e in s u rg e n ts o f 1910. From th e o u ts e t th e le a d e rs o f th e R ev o lu tio n had been a n t i c l e r i c a l , e s p e c i a l l y b ecau se o f ^ A z u e la , Itedro Moreno in Obras C om pletas. I l l , 257-259. 51 A zuela, Los Fracasados in Obras Com pletas. I , 1 0 1 -1 0 2 . 93 52 th e su p p o rt t h a t th e Church had g iv en Diaz and H u erta. In th e 1 9 2 0 's th e c le rg y o f Mexico fo cu sed th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e w o rld on th e r e l i g i o u s p e rs e c u tio n i n t h a t c o u n try . Through th e a s tu te n e s s o f V en u stian o C arranza and A lvaro 0b reg6n , many o f th e p ro v io n s o f th e c o n s t it u t io n con c e rn in g r e l i g i o n w ere n o t e n fo rc e d . However, th e m ost d ram a tic and c o n s e q u e n tia l Church- S ta te c la s h in tw e n tie th c e n tu ry e ru p te d in 1926 when P re sid e n t PLutarco E lla s C a lle s a tte m p te d t o e n fo rc e th e 53 r e l i g io u s p ro v is io n s o f th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1917. On A p ril 21, 1926, th e Church in a form al d e c la r a tio n s t a t e d t h a t i t was opposed to A r tic le s 3 , 5 , 2 4 , 27, 130, among o th e r s , and t h a t C a th o lic s sh o u ld o rg a n iz e to change th e 54 c o n s t it u t io n . T his a c tio n p r e c i p it a te d a g r e a t p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s and le d P re s id e n t C a lle s t o is s u e a d e cree r e q u ir in g a l l p r i e s t s to r e g i s t e r w ith th e governm ent and g iv in g th e 52C lin e , M exico: Re v o lu tio n to E v o lu tio n , p. 32. 53 Luis A r a q u is ta in , l a R evolucion M exicana (San t ia g o , C h ile : E d ic io n e s Ulam, 1930), p. 185; Tannenbaum, M exico: The S tru g g le f o r Bsace an d B read, p. 132. 54 Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin A m erica. pp. 478-479; Tannenbaum, M exico: The S tru e g le f o r Iteace and B read, p . 133. 94 governm ent powers o f r e p r e s s i o n . ^ On J u ly 3 1 , 1926, in re sp o n se to th e C a lle s d e c re e , th e Church denounced in s tr o n g , b i t t e r term s th e M exican Government, th e s t a t u t e law s, and th e Const i t u- 56 t i o n o f 1917. F u rth e rm o re , th e M exican e p is c o p a te o rd e re d a l l p r i e s t s t o abandon th e ch u rch es and th e s u s p e n sio n o f a l l r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s . The f i n a l r e l i g io u s s e r v ic e s were h e ld on J u ly 3 0 , 1926, and th e fo llo w in g day th e p r i e s t s made in v e n to r ie s o f th e c o n te n ts o f th e c h u rc h e s, removed t h e i r p e rs o n a l b e lo n g in g s, and made fo rm al d e liv e ry o f th e ch u rch es to c i v i l com m ittees on W ithin t h i s d e c re e th e governm ent n a tio n a liz e d a l l Church p ro p e rty ; is s u e d o rd e rs f o r th e a r r e s t and de p o r ta tio n o f a l l f o r e ig n p r i e s t s ; and c lo s e d a l l s c h o o ls , asy lu m s, and c o n v en ts w here r e l i g io u s i n s t r u c t i o n was g iv e n . I t a ls o r e s t r i c t e d th e number o f p r i e s t s who co u ld l e g a l l y fu n c tio n ; by Septem ber, 1926, q u o ta s had been e s ta b lis h e d . F o r a good a c c o u n t o f th e s e e v e n ts , se e Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin A m erica, pp. 481-484. ^ T h e answ er o f th e N a tio n a l League f o r th e Defense o f R e lig io u s L ib e rty in Mexico t o th e a c tio n ta k e n by C a lle s was a n a tio n -w id e b o y c o tt. "The purpose o f t h i s b o y c o tt was t o c r e a te in th e n a tio n a s t a t e o f in te n s e econom ic c r i s i s w hich w ould o b lig e th e governm ent to b rin g t o an end th e s i t u a t i o n o f l e g a l e x p re s s io n u n d er w hich th e C a th o lic Church e x i s t s in t h i s c o u n tr y ." See Mecham, Church and S ta te i n I a t i n A m erica, p. 487. 95 A ugust 1, 1 9 2 6 ."^ The w ith d ra w a l o£ th e p r i e s t s from th e c h u rc h e s, w hich d en o ted th e su sp e n sio n o f th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e sacram en ts in a c o u n try composed o f a p p ro x im a te ly 80 to 90 p er c e n t C a th o lic s , was a d r a s t i c a c tio n w hich c re a te d s e rio u s d is tu rb a n c e s in M exico. In A z u e la 's El Camarada ftm to la (1937) t h i s e v e n t i s d e s c rib e d ; he p o in ts o u t how d i f f i c u l t i t i s f o r th e governm ent to cope w ith th e situ** a tio n , s in c e th e people a r e c lo s e r t o th e Church th a n to th e governm ent. He e x p re ss e s in t h i s n o v el th e id e a t h a t th e p e rs e c u tio n o f th e Church by th e governm ent had e x a c tly th e o p p o s ite e f f e c t to th e one d e s ir e d : Se e n c o n tra ro n de re p e n te e n tr e l a enorme m u ltitu d de o b re ro s y g e n te de tr a b a jo que lle n a b a la s i g l e s i a s , en v ls p e r a de su sp en d e rse lo s c u lto s c a t6l i c o s , por la a g re s iv id a d in s o p o rta b le d e l g o b le m o c o n tra e l l o s . M&xico a p d tic o e in d if e r e n te de su y o , h a b la lo g rad o s a l i r de su m odorra de m£s de m edio s i g l o . En menos ^Since th e ra n k in g p r e la te s o f Mexico f e l t t h a t i t was Im p o ssib le to p r a c tic e t h e i r m in is tr y u n d er th e c o n d itio n s Im posed by C a lle s ' d e c re e s , th e y a g re e d , w ith p a p al a p p ro v a l t o prom ulgate a n a tio n a l i n t e r d i c t ; and, denying t h a t t h e i r conduct c o n s titu te d r e b e l li o n , th e p re l a t e s d e c la re d t h a t th e y w ere em ploying " th e o n ly way open to m a n ife s t nonconform ance w ith th e a n t i - r e l i g i o u s laws o f th e C o n s titu tio n ." However, s in c e th e b o y c o tt was a t o t a l f a i l u r e , th e League r e s o r te d to armed v io le n c e . See Mecham, Church an d S ta te in I a t i n A m erica, pp. 487-488. 96 de una semana se h ic ie r o n y rem endaron m is c re y e n te s que e n c in c o lu s t r o s c o rr id o s . O bispos y c u r a s , r e n - did o s de e c h a r b e n d ic io n e s , re v e n ta b a n de s a t i s f a c c i6n y c o n te n to .^ ® The g o v e rn m e n t's o n ly re c o u rs e was to g e t i t s p e r so n n e l and o f f i c i a l s to back i t s a c t io n . Government p e r so n n e l e i t h e r a d h e re d to th e o f f i c i a l o rd e rs o r w ere f i r e d . Don C hole, a form er m illio n a ir e in l a L uciA raaaa (1932), in one o f th e many d e m o n stra tio n s t h a t to o k p la c e d u rin g t h i s tim e , s a y s , "La c la u s u ra de i g l e s i a s se le ha i n d i- g e sta d o a l g o b ie m o . Ahora n e c e s ita una la v a tiv a s a lv a - In c o n n e c tio n w ith t h i s s i t u a t i o n o f 1926, Don F ra n c isc o in la Camara da B antola (1937) s t a t e s : Al Turco [ C a lle s ] se le e s t£ in d ig e s ta n d o su c re d o f l l o s 6f i c o . PTimero d i jo que a 61 no le q u ita b a n e l sueno lo s p u jid o s d e l Ihpa y a h o ra ya se z u rr a en lo s c a lz o n e s y nos o b lig a n a to d o s lo s o b re ro s como a lo s em pleados d e l g o b ie m o a que hagamos una m a n lf e s ta c i6n de a d h e s l6n a s u p e rso n a, so pena de p e rd e r n u e s tro t r a b a jo . The c o m p lex ity o f th e problem i s seen i n t h i s i n d i v i d u a l 's 58 A zu ela, E l Camarada ftm to la i n Obras C om nletas. I , 675. 59 A zu ela, l a LuciA rnaaa in Obras C om nletas. 1, 638. ^ A z u e la , La Camarada Ih n to la i n Obras C om nletas. I , 675. 97 n ex t s ta te m e n t, "Y lo mis r i d l c u l o e s que lo s mlsmos que fulm os a y e r a r e s p a I d a r lo s a c to s d e l Turco somos lo s que hoy venim os a c o n fe sa m o s y c o m u lg ar." In th e s e sta te m e n ts one can se e how r id ic u lo u s th e p eo p le th o u g h t th e whole s i t u a t i o n w as. Extreme m easures w ere th e n r e s o r te d to by th e governm ent, su ch a s th e k i l l i n g o f C r is te r o s . who w ere o rg a n iz e d r e b e l bands o f f a n a tic C a th o lic neones who th e governm ent th o u g h t w ere o rg a n iz e d by th e Church. In San G a b rie l de V a ld iv ia s (1938) th e re i s an i n t e r e s t i n g com m entary on th e f i g h t a g a in s t armed bands o f C r is te r o s : C lria c o Campos has j u s t come home from governm ent s e r v ic e : — iMuncha p e le a , C iria c o ? — Ibca p e le a , papa. --^ E n to n c e s ? —Mucho m uerto a l enem lgo, pero de puro horcao y f u s i l a o . — &Ansina no m £s? £Sin p e le a ? —Donde uno da con e l l o s , lo s pepena y a l l ! mesmo le s q u ie b ra e l p escu ezo . R e s id e n t C a lle s re fu s e d t o g r a n t t h a t he had added t o th e s e v e r ity o f th e r e lig io u s c la u s e s o f th e C o n s titu tio n . W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e r e g i s t r a t i o n r e q u ire m e n t, t h i s was in f a c t t r u e . C a lle s s t a te d t h a t th e o b je c t o f th e r e g i s t r a t i o n o f p r i e s t s was to e n a b le th e governm ent to know who w ere e n tr u s te d w ith th e ch u rch es and who w ere re s p o n s ib le f o r w hat w ent on in s id e o f them . See Mecham, Church and S ta te in U t l n America,, p. 488. 98 — iQud m alas g e n te s ! i B or qud son t a n n eg ra e n tra n a co n e so s p o b re c ito s , C iria c o ? — B ds p o r c r i s t e r o s , mamd, p o r eao m ero. --£Qu6 mal l e hacen a n a ld e n pa que e l g o b ie m o sea ta n p e rro con e l l o s ? -*81 h u b ie ra n sab id o s i q u i e r a h a c e r un nudo, no se la s e s ta b a co n tan d o , mamfi. M e c l a r i a r o n , me h o rc a ro n , p ero en to d a v la no me to c a b a . SI a lo s f e d e r a le s se le perdonan a v e c e s , lo que e s a un a g r a r i s t a nunca lo d e ja n v iv o .* * I t i s n o te d t h a t C iria c o has no r e a l id e a w hat he i s f i g h t in g f o r , t h a t th e f i g h ts a re o f te n m ere k i l l i n g s , and t h a t C r is te r o f e e lin g s ru n h ig h a g a in s t th e a g r a r ia n r e c r u i t s , l a t e r i n th e n o v e l, when C iria c o ta k e s up arm s a g a in s t th e governm ent-sponsored S a tu ra in o Q uintana ( l i d e r a e r a r i o o f th e com m unity), he form s an a l l i a n c e w ith a C r is te r o band: El c u ra M artinez L6p e z , c a ra de p a sc u a s, lo s acoge con c o r d ia lid a d . Sin mas, a l p rim e r so rb o de choco l a t e , e l c u ra l e s propone e n r o la r lo s a la bandera de C r is to Rev. C iria c o fru n c e l a s c e j a s , o ste n sib le m e n te m oles t o . " A tr o c itie s su c h a s th e f i r i n g upon a number o f C a th o lic s a s th e y came out o f c h u rc h by th e Camisas R o j a s , ^ ^ A z u e la , San G abyjel fle i n Obras Comnle- J ta t, 1, 770. 63. A zuela, Sqij.GfffrrjleA de. VflW yjlftg i n Obras Comple t e s . I , 839. 64 Cfflflffflff Bfrlflg? an o f f i c i a l dependency o f th e D epartm ent o f A g ric u ltu re and known Communist o rg a n iz a tio n , made up o f p u b lic em ployees, whose u ltim a te g o a l was to d is p e l th e r e l i g io u s f a n a tic is m o f th e m asses. See F. Rand M orton, la s H o v e lis ta s de la R ev o lu cl6n M exicans (M exico: E d it o r i a l C u ltu re , 1949), p . 58. 99 can be re a d in Regina Landa (1 9 3 9 ): Los Camisas Rojas . . . aba t i e r on a b a la z o s a muchos c a t6li c o s p a c if ic o s que s a l£ a n de l a m isa de la p a rro - q u ia de CoyoacAn. V ie jo s , m u jeres y n in o s quedaron te n d id o s en c h arco s de s a n g re , so b re la s b a ld o sa s de a trio .® * Church and S ta te in T r a n s itio n The g e n e ra l C h u rc h -S tate s i t u a t i o n in Mexico d u rin g t h i s p e rio d i s p a r t i a l l y sunned up by A zuela a s f o llo w s : E l in s p e c to r de G obiem o que l a s o rp re n d i6 llo ra n d o [a C o n ch ita] d i jo a l m&dico h i g i e n i s t a en e l o ld o : " iQ u ita r le s u r e l i g i6n a l pu eb lo e s in ic u o ! " Y e l m&dico, que tam poco e ra i d i o t a , l e re s p o n d i6 : "EL id e a l de n u e s tro pu eb lo se b if u r c a en dos cam inos: l a i g l e s i a y l a p u lq u e rla . Bor eso le s clausuram os l a s i g le s i a s y l e s h ig le n iza m o s la s p u lq u e r ia s . From th e fo re g o in g exam ples, th e n , i t i s e v id e n t t h a t M ariano A zuela had some f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e d ev elo p m ent o f th e Church and S ta te c o n f l i c t i n n in e te e n th and tw e n tie th c e n tu ry M exico. N e v e rth e le s s , th e r e a r e gaps i n h is p r e s e n ta tio n o f c e r t a i n p e r t i n e n t e v e n ts . His w orks, how ever, in d ic a te t h a t he was aw are o f th e s p i r i t u a l f e e l in g s and a s p i r a t io n s o f th e p eo p le o f th e tim e s . 65 A zuela, La^At i n Obras C o m n letas. I , 875. ^ A z u e la , la LuciArnaga in Obras Com nletas. 1, 650. 100 O n June 2 7 , 1929, m asses w ere h e ld In Mexico f o r th e f i r s t tim e s in c e J u ly 3 0 , 1926. T his was b ro u g h t a b o u t by a com prom ise-agreem ent betw een th e Church and R e s id e n t B n ilio B ortes G il. In r e p o r tin g to th e M exican C ongress, th e P re sid e n t d id n o t m ention t h a t any c o n c e ssio n had been made to th e C a th o lic p r e l a t e s . F u rth erm o re, he d id n o t in fo rm th e C ongress t h a t th e C a th o lic c le r g y r e assum ed t h e i r s p i r i t u a l d u tie s in Mexico on r e c e iv in g o f f i c i a l a ss u ra n c e t h a t th e governm ent re c o g n iz e d th e c o rp o ra te r i g h t s o f th e Church—a s t a tu s d e n ie d by th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1917. The com prom ise-agreem ent was s t r i c t l y a n execu- 68 t iv e m a tte r . One o f th e prim ary aim s o f th e R e v o lu tio n a ry move m ent o f 1910 was to d iv e s t th e Church o f i t s g r e a t i n f l u ence i n th e c o u n try . A m ain m otive in n in e te e n th c e n tu ry Mexico was th e L ib e r a ls ' e f f o r t s to a c h ie v e suprem acy o f th e S ta te o v er th e Church. The a n t i c l e r i c a l n a tu re o f th e le a d e rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n , e s p e c ia lly u n d e r th e governm ents o f PL utarco E lla s C a lle s and lA zaro C ard en as, was i d e n t i c a l . 67Mecham, Church and S ta te i n L a tin A m erica, p . 498. 68 Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin A m erica, p. 498. 101 The change In s t a t u s w ith w hich th e Church was th re a te n e d d u rin g t h i s p e rio d (1821-1940) m eant an in e v ita b le re d u c t io n o f i t s m a te r ia l and tem p o ral s tr e n g th . The s tr u g g le betw een l i b e r a l , a n t i c l e r i c a l fo rc e s and c o n s e r v a tiv e , p r o c l e r ic a l groups was v i o le n t and e x te n d e d . The i n t e n s i t y o f p a r tis a n em otions w hich th e con f l i c t evoked i s in d ic a te d by th e o b s e rv a tio n s o f two M exican h i s t o r i a n s . The l i b e r a l A lfo n so Toro d e c la r e s : The c le rg y had made o f c o lo n ia l s o c ie ty an assem bly o f h y p o c r i t ic a l and s u b s e rv ie n t human b e in g s . Hie p r i e s t s made th e M exicans a s ig n o ra n t a s th e y w e re, a s d i r t y , im m oral and la z y a s th e y w e re. A c co rd in g ly , th e re fo rm e rs have alw ays te n d e d to r o o t o u t th e s e v i c e s , se e k in g to red u ce th e c le r g y t o i t s p ro p e r r o le and to d e p riv e i t o f th e p ro p e rty i t has c o lle c te d and mono p o liz e d to th e d isa d v a n ta g e o f th e people.® * At th e o p p o s ite e x tre m e , FA llx N a v a rre te m a in ta in s : The d e tr a c to r s o f th e Church p re te n d t h a t grounds have e x is te d f o r a s tr u g g le betw een th e Church and th e c i v i l power s in c e th e e a r l i e s t p e rio d o f th e d isc o v e ry o f M exico, and t h a t t h i s f i g h t has alw ays been p ro voked by th e Church. I sa y t h a t grounds f o r t h i s s tr u g g le have e x is te d in Mexico o n ly s in c e 1833, th e y e a r in w hich Masonry provoked i t so a s to b rin g an end to th e in flu e n c e o f th e c le rg y and even to th e c le r g y i t s e l f a g a in s t a tt a c k s . 69 A lfo n so Toro, La I g l e s ia v E l E stado en Mexico (M exico: R ib lic a tio n o f th e A rchivo G en eral de la N aci6n , S e c r e ta r la de G obernaci6n , 1927), p . 4 3 . 70F e lix N a v a rre te , la Lucha B a tre e l Boder C iv il v e l C lero a l a Luz de l a H is to r ia (E l Bsiso, T exas: R e v ista Cat6l i c a f r e e s , 1935), p . 30. 102 The Church c o n tin u e s to be a v i t a l i n s t i t u t i o n in M exico, d e s p ite th e R ev o lu tio n and th e r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t can be e n fo rc e d a g a in s t i t . ^ The d e p a rtu re from a n t i c l e r i c a l i s m seems now to be a fix e d p o lic y o f th e I n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o lu tio n . This r e f l e c t s th e p re s e n t p o lic y o f th e V a tic a n f o r H isp an ic Am erican c o u n tr ie s , under w hich th e Church i s id e n tif y in g i t s e l f w ith more l i b e r a l s o c i a l 7 9 and p o l i t i c a l d o c tr in e s th a n i t su p p o rte d b e fo re . P re s e n tly , th e Church and C h u rc h -S ta te r e l a t i o n s h ip s in Mexico a r e n o t a m ajor p re o c c u p a tio n ; th e re a p p e a rs t o be an in fo rm a l agreem ent on th e p a r t o f e ac h to co o p e ra te in a l l a re a s o f common c o n c e rn . The R ev o lu tio n c o u ld n o t e r a d ic a te fo u r c e n tu r ie s o f C a th o lic h e rita g e in M exico, n o r c o u ld th e Church r e v e r s e th e R ev o lu tio n . The m ost r e c e n t s t a t i s t i c s (1957) show t h a t Mexico had 9 a rc h b is h o p s , 34 b is h o p s , 6 ,0 2 0 p r i e s t s , 1,990 s e m in a r is ts , and 18,560 r e lig io u s s i s t e r s , a t o t a l perhaps l a r g e r th a n a t any tim e in th e c o lo n ia l p e rio d . F u rth e r m ore, th e same s t a t i s t i c s in d ic a te t h a t 97 p e r c e n t o f th e M exicans a r e C a th o lic , few er th a n a m illio n P r o te s ta n ts . See W illiam J . G ibbons, S .J . (c o m p ile r), C a th o lic S ta t i s t i c s f o r L a tin Am erica (V a tic an C ity : Axmuario R onti- f i c i o , 1 9 58), T able 2 . 72 ' R obert E. S c o tt, M exican Government in T r a n s itio n (U rbana: I l l i n o i s U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 232-233. CH APTER IV SOCIOPOLITICAL DIIEMMAS The co n q u est o f Mexico by th e S p an iard s v an q u ish ed th e em pire o f th e A ztecs headed by Moctezuma and imposed upon i t a new form o f g o v ern m en t--a form o f governm ent w hich d id n o t e v o lv e from th e c o lo n is ts b u t from th e m other c o u n try , S p ain . The p e a c e fu l s t a t e o f M exico, d u rin g th e f i r s t th r e e c e n tu r ie s o f c o lo n ia l r u l e , i s due t o th e e x is te n c e o f a s tro n g c e n tr a liz e d governm ent in S pain—a govern m ent w hich d ir e c te d and c o n tr o lle d e v e ry phase o f develop m ent In M exico, e s p e c ia lly i n th e f i e l d o f p o l i t i c s and eco n o m ics. In c e p tio n and Growth o f N a tio n a lism a s S u b je c ts o f A z u e la 's Novels The d e s ir e f o r independence In Mexico o r ig in a te d , n o t from th e e x is te n c e o f a g r e a t n a ti o n a l c o n sc io u sn e ss among th e p o p u lace, b u t from th e d e s ir e o f th e c r i o l l o s f o r 103 104 a g r e a t e r p a r t In th e a f f a i r s o f governm ent—a p a r t w hich was d en ied them tinder S panish r u l e . The movement f o r In d e pendence was n o t a p o p u la r o n e, a s can be se e n in A z u e la 's w ork Itedro Moreno (1934), w h e re in a few t a l k a b o u t rep u b lic a n is m and in dependence, b u t many o th e rs w ant o n ly a sh a re in g o v ern in g th e c o u n try .* Mexico e v e n tu a lly won i t s independence i n 1821 an d , a s a n a tio n , began a s a c o n s t it u t i o n a l m onarchy. O b sta c le s t o Growth o f N a tio n a lism There w ere many o b s ta c le s t h a t p re v e n te d a rep u b l ic a n form o f governm ent from d e v elo p in g in M exico. In a d d itio n to th e r e l a t i v e l y c lo s e d c a s te system a lre a d y men tio n e d , th e r e was th e h a tr e d t h a t e x is te d among th e d i f f e r e n t t r i b e s and p e o p le . For exam ple, Lozada o f A z u e la 's In s ftrec u rso res (1935) p ro p o ses a p la n f o r an in d ep en d en t and so v e re ig n f e d e r a tio n o f th e m o untain In d ia n s , from J a l is c o t o Sonora, b e lie v in g t h a t su c h an o rg a n iz a tio n w ould be s tro n g enough t o re c o v e r t h e i r la n d an d d efen d i t a g a in s t *M ariano A zu ela, Itedro Moreno i n CfrEftg Copgjetflg de M ariano A z u ela . p ro lo g u e by F ra n c is c o M onterde (MSxico: Fondo de C u ltu ra Economica, V o ls. I - I I , 1958; V ol. I l l , 19 6 0 ), I I I , 257-260. 105 fu tu r e a tt a c k s . Lozada speaks t o th e H uicholes w ith o u t s u c c e s s , and th e n p la c e s th e same p r o p o s itio n b e fo re th e T epehuanes. In b o th in s ta n c e s Lozada ends up w ith th e same r e s u l t , b e c a u se : o d io s a n c e s t r a l e s in e x tin g u ib le s d iv id e n a hombres de la misma r a z a : c o z a s c o n tra h u ic h o le s , h u ic h o le s c o n tra tep eh u an es y c o r a s , y h a s ta lo s de una t r i b u son e n e- migo8 ju ra d o s de lo s que no form an p a rte de e l l a . E l o d io que lo s h iz o t r a id o r e s a s u s u e lo y a s u sa n g re y m an latad o8 lo s e n tr e g 6 a l in v a s o r h isp a n o . e s e l tnismo que a h o ra lo s m antlene e n c a t a l e p s i a .2 Toward th e en d o f L ozada's c a r e e r , two o f h is g e n e ra ls q u a r r e l o v e r a woman. Lozada sends one o f th e g e n e ra ls away t o p re v e n t d is c o rd . This o f f i c e r , w ith a c lo s e f r ie n d o f h i s , jo in s th e F e d e ra l fo rc e s w hich a re a f t e r Lozada. In a n o th e r in s ta n c e , th e In d ia n s o f A lic ia , a sm a ll v i l l a g e in N a y a rit, tu r n o v e r th e p u eb lo s o f t h e i r a re a and le a d th e enemy t o t h e i r c h i e f 's h id in g p la c e : Se r e p i t e l a h i s t o r l a : in d io s tr a i d o r e s a su sa n g re y ra z a q u e , p o r s a t i s f a c e r re n c o re s m is e ra b le hunden de nuevo a su s herm anos en su v id a m is e ria e ingno- m in la y cu b ren de la u r e le s a lo s mismos que han de en - g r i l l a r l o s . 2A zuela, Los R recu rso res i n Qfrrflft-QgWFle.tfla., I I I , 377. 3 A zuela, Los Rrecursores in Cfrr«. .OmplfftM* I][I> 404. The s tic c e s s fu l accom plishm ent o f L ozada*8 f e d e r a t i o n i s made d i f f i c u l t , i r o n i c a l l y , because o f th e i d e n t i c a l f a c to r s t h a t made th e co n q u est o f Mexico by th e S paniards c o m p a ra tiv e ly e a s y : t r i b a l c o n f l i c t s e x is te d in Mexico when th e S p a n iard s a r r iv e d , and many In d ia n s tu rn e d a g a in s t t h e i r own p eo p le f o r v a rio u s re a s o n s . Tte. A m y .' jl A m ;m ifcAaa-<a£ -tte . Pe.tieyal. Goyenrgnent The Am y p ro v id e d y e t a n o th e r o b s ta c le t o r e p u b li canism in M exico. The movement f o r independence had r e in fo rc e d m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f th e c o u n try , and betw een 1821 an d 1845 th e Am y d e stro y e d th e F e d e ra l governm ent te n tim e s , n o t c o u n tin g th e innum erable p ro n u n c ia m ie n to s. up r i s i n g s , and r e b e l li o n s t h a t d id n o t su c ce ed , o r th e i n num erable lo c a l u p r is in g s a g a in s t g o v e rn o rs. 4 „A g o lp e s de E stado suben y b a ja n lo s g o b e ra a n te s de M exico: se estA fo rja n d o e l p a t r6n de n u e s tr a g lo r io s a d e m o c rac ia ."^ ^F rank Tarmenbaum, Ifeace bv R ev o lu tio n (New York: Columbia U h iv e rs ity P re s s , 19 3 3 ), p . 54; C h a rle s C tm berland, M exican R e v o lu tio n (A u s tin : U n iv e rs ity o f Texas f r e s s , 1 9 5 2 ), p. 6. 5A zuela, Ipfl. .Qy.ctya.9r e ? in Obras C om nletas. I l l , 339. T hat A zuela f a i t h f u l l y re c o rd e d t h a t w hich was im m ediate and t o p i c a l i s w e ll d e m o n stra te d . One c an fin d ample f a c t u a l b a se s f o r th e e x is te n c e o f th e p r o ta g o n is t, Lozada. Lozada i s th e d ra m a tic sum m ation o f more th a n one h i s t o r i c a l f ig u r e i n M exican h i s t o r y . Lozada i s a c r e a tiv e c o m p ila tio n o f th e s e ; h is l i f e c lo s e ly p a r a l l e l s th e liv e s o f a c t u a l p e rs o n s. H isto ry re c o rd s s i m il a r c a s e s , su ch a s Juan A lv arez dom inating th e m ountains o f G u errero ; M ejia and O lv e ra , Q uerA taro; and Juan M&ndez, S ie r r a de R ieb la; t h i s s i t u a t i o n o f p r o v in c ia l r u l e by w a rlo rd s e x is te d a s l a t e a s 1 8 7 6 .® I b r f i r i o D iaz, when p la n n in g h is r e v o l t a g a in s t JuA rez b e ca u se o f th e l e t t e r 's r e - e l e c t i o n , s o l i c i t s L o zad a's s u p p o rt, b u t Lozada r e f u s e s. 7 Thus A zuela enhanced th e r e a l by a p p ly in g th e f i c t i o n a l , c a u sin g th e r e a l t o become more im m ediate t o th e r e a d e r . A zu ela, a t th e same tim e , f u r th e r s h is b ro a d e r p u rp o se—th e r e v e la t i o n o f th e human c o n d itio n . 6U iis A r a q u is ta in , l a R evoluciAn M eiicana (S a n tia g o de C h ile : E d ic io n e s Ulam, 1 9 3 0 ), pp. 61 -6 2 . A lso , Tannen- baum, Iteace bv R e v o lu tio n , pp. 89-90. 7A zuela, Los Rrecursores in Obras Com nletas. I l l , 399. The C u a rte la z o (B arrack R e v o lt) 108 The c u a r t e l a z o . o r b a rra c k r e v o l t , was v e ry common in M exico. An exam ple o f t h i s and I t s consequences i s to be found I n r-flffflrada B in to la (1 9 3 7 ). G en eral S erran o i s a s s a s s in a te d because h e , w ith th e a i d o f A rn u lfo G6mez, p la n s a c u a r te la z o a g a in s t 0breg6n. The two have planned t o a s s a s s in a t e C a lle s and 0breg6n and th e n ta k e o v er th e Q governm ent. In Los de A balo (1915) a young m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r r e c a l l s th e c u a r te la z o i n w hich Madero i s th e v ic tim o f b e tr a y a l . T his o f f i c e r , a c a d e t a t th e M ilita r y Academy when th e r e v o l t to o k p la c e , s a y s : M e a cu e rd o d e l c u a r te la z o ! . . . Como s u v id a m i l i t a r se re d u c la a la a v e n tu ra en que se v i6 e n v u e lto como alum no de l a E scuela de A s p lra n te s a l v e r i f i c a r s e la t r a i c i 6n a l p r e s ld e n te M adero, siem p re que un m otivo p ro p ic lo se p re s e n ta b a , t r a l a a c o l a c l6n l a hazafia de la C iu d a d e la.9 La a d d itio n t o th e d e s tr u c tio n o f governm ents, th e Army was a d r a in on th e n a tio n a l b u d g e t. The m il i ta r y bu d g et betw een 1821 and 1845 was fo u rte e n tim es th e t o t a l income o f th e governm ent. In o rd e r t o w eaken th e power 8A zuela, El C«»ni»r«*» nrnfrH * in (fr y y Coffip.le.tft.fr,, I , 701-702. 9A zuela, Los de Abalo in Cbras Com nletas. I, 356. 109 o f th e Army, B enito JuA rez red u c ed th e number o f men and o f f i c e r s a f t e r th e War o f th e Reform. T his cau sed g re a t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n among th e o f f i c e r s , In c lu d in g B o rflrlo Diaz, who l a t e r became th e R e s id e n t o f th e c o u n try . Thus I t c a n be se en t h a t no f a c e t o f th e R ev o lu tio n was to o In c o n s e q u e n tia l t o be d e a lt w ith . A zuela d ip s h is pen In to th e f l u i d o f h is to r y and evokes r e a l i t y w ith in h is n o v e ls . The O b stacle o f F o re ig n C oncession The F o reig n C oncession was y e t a n o th e r o b s ta c le t h a t p re v e n te d th e w orking o f a d em o cratic form o f govern ment in M exico. I t prom oted a rm ie s t o p r o te c t v e n a l and c o rr u p t r u l e r s and k ep t h o n e st governm ent in a c h a o tic s t a t e . F o re ig n com panies fu rn is h e d arm s, am m unition, and money; i n r e t u r n th e y w ere p e rm itte d t o evade th e payment o f t a x e s . B arron Forbes and Company o f T ep ic, In Los ftre- c u ra o re a (1 9 3 5 ), makes a n a ll i a n c e w ith Lozada. Lozada Is g iv e n money and arms in o rd e r t o form a n arm y w hich w i l l be u se d t o p r o te c t th e com m ercial i n t e r e s t s o f th e Company. ^T annenbaum , Iteace bv R e v o lu tio n , p . 85. U A zuela, Los P re c u rso re s i n Obras C om nletas. I l l , 370. 110 L uis A ra q u ls ta ln In h is h i s t o r y , la R ev o lu ci6n M e lic an a . s u b s ta n t ia t e s t h i s f a c t . He s t a t e s t h a t in th e Tampico re g io n , o i l com panies had an arm y headed by th e G en erals Ifelaez and E n riq u ez, whose prim ary purpose was th e p rev en - 12 t i o n o f th e c o l l e c t i o n o f ta x e s . The Church a s O b sta cle I f th e Church proved t o be a s p e c ia l t a r g e t o f A zuela*s w r itin g s , i t m ust be remembered t h a t th e Church p lay ed a co n sp icu o u s r o le in th e h i s t o r y o f th e R e v o lu tio n . A zuela, th e h i s t o r i a n , was o b lig a te d to d e t a i l i t s r o le in a s o b je c tiv e a m anner a s p o s s ib le , com m ensurate w ith h is l i t e r a r y p u rp o se . The Church was indeed a n o th e r b a r r i e r w hich p re v e n te d th e p ro p e r fu n c tio n in g o f governm ent. R eg ard less o f how C a th o lic th e Church was i n e s s e n c e , in name i t was th e o n ly th in g t h a t th e p eo p le had i n common. The in flu e n c e o f th e Church was f e l t everyw here; and becau se i t was th e o rg a n iz e d n a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n i n M exico, i t c o n tin u e d to g a in pow er. D uring th e C o lo n ia l Iterio d , th e Spanish Crown ^ A r a q u lsta ln , La R evoluci6n M elicana. p. 195. I l l had managed t o c o n tr o l th e Church; how ever, becau se Inde pendence had l e f t Mexico w ith o u t a s tro n g c e n tr a liz e d governm ent, th e Church assum ed a n even s tro n g e r r o l e . Con s e q u e n tly , when h e r p o l i t i c a l and econom ic p r iv ile g e s w ere c h a lle n g e d , she e n te re d th e p o l i t i c a l a re n a . The p e rp le x in g s i t u a t i o n In w hich th e s t a t e found I t s e l f was how to g e t th e Church o u t o f c i v i l m a t t e r s : t h a t I s t o sa y , how to s e p a r a te Church and S ta te . In o rd e r t o b re a k th e c o n tr o l o f th e Church, th e L ib e r a ls , le d by B en ito J u i r e z , em bodied in th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1857 c e r t a i n p ro v is io n s aim ed a t c u r t a i l i n g th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Church i n g o v e rn m e n t.^ T his c o n s t i t u t i o n , prom ulgated on F ebru a ry 5, 1857, re p r e s e n ts th e f i r s t e f f e c t i v e s te p tow ard l i b e r a t i n g th e common p eo p le i n Mexico from th e dominance o f th e p r iv ile g e d c l a s s e s . 14 I t re c o g n iz e d th e suprem acy o f th e S ta te o v er th e Church, an d r e l i g io u s freedom was g ra n te d t o a l l . These p ro v is io n s w ere th e prim ary cause ^ W a lte r V. S c h o le s, M exican P o litic s P u rin e th e Weg-tme (Colum bia, M o.: U n iv e rs ity o f M isso u ri f t e s s , 19 5 7 ), pp. 132-133; J . Lloyd Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin AmaiHe* (C hapel H i l l , N .C .: The U n iv e rs ity o f N orth C a ro lin a Ifcess, 19 3 4 ), pp. 430-439. ^ S c h o le s , M exican P o l i t i c s , p . 132. 112 fo r th e War o f th e Reform. ^ The m ain lin e s o f th e Reform w ere to make Mexico a tr u e re p u b lic a n governm ent by a b o lis h in g th e s p e c ia l p r iv ile g e s h e ld by th e Church and th e Army. The r e s u l t o f t h i s s tr u g g le was t h a t th e Church l o s t m ost o f h e r h o ld in g s and pow er. An a cc o u n t o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n I s d e s c rib e d In a scen e from Los fre c u rs o re s (1 9 3 5 ), w h erein a c o u sin o f one o f th e p r i e s t s o f G u a d a la ja ra , r e l a t e d a ls o to th e b ish o p , comes t o th e tow n o f R ivas in o rd e r t o o b ta in L ozada's s e r v ic e s i n th e w a r. The b a n d it, Lozada, has been h ir e d t o p r o te c t th e com m ercial i n t e r e s t s o f B arron Forbes y Compania a g a in s t th e governm ent in o rd e r t o e n a b le i t to evade th e law . To s e c u re Lozada*s s u p p o rt, he i s t o l d t h a t he sh o u ld s id e w ith th e Church b ecau se i t i s "d efen d in g r e l i g i o n ," w hereas th e L ib e r a ls w ant to p u t a n end t o f a i t h and t o th e name o f God: liste d debe r e s o lv e r s e a ju n ta r s e con n u e s tro p a r t i do, don M anuel. Sepa que lo s c o n serv a d o res defendem os la r e l i g i o n y que lo s lib e r a le s q u ie re n a c a b a r con e l l a y h a s ta con e l Santo Nombre de D io s. 16 ^ S c h o le s , M exican P o l i t i c s , pp. 132-133; Mecham, Church and S ta te , pp. 439-440. 16A zuela, Los ftecu ra o res in Obras Com nletas. I l l , 375. D uring th e D iaz p e rio d (1877-1911) th e Church r e g a in e d some o f h e r l o s t a u th o r i ty and in flu e n c e , and a t th e o u tb re a k o f th e R e v o lu tio n (1910) i t to o k i t s s ta n d on th e s id e o f w hat ap p ea re d to be an u n co n q u erab le e n t i t y , th e p a r tis a n s o f th e Diaz reg im e. Los C aciques (1917) g iv e s a n a c c o u n t o f how th e c le rg y s id e d w ith th e p o l i t i c a l b o s s e s . F a th e r J e re m la s , b r o th e r o f th r e e c a c iq u e s. a tte m p ts in one o f th e m eetin g s o f th e c a c iq u e s to have them e s t a b l i s h th e Gran R artid o C a to lic o N acio n al. I t i s th e d e s ir e o f th e b ish o p t h a t t h i s p a rty sh o u ld e v o lv e n o t from th e c le rg y b u t from th e laym en: Su S en o rla I lu s tr is im a h a b rla v i s t o con b e n e p ld c ito e l que to d a l a p a r te san a de e s t a so c ie d a d h u b ie ra form ado p e rso n a lm e n te , e n tid n d a n lo u s te d e s , l a Ju n ta D ire c tiv a de e s t e C entro L o c a l . 7 B esides t h e i r i n d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n , th e c le rg y a ls o to o k an a c t iv e p a r t i n th e f ig h ti n g o f th e R e v o lu tio n . In Los de A balo (1915) D em etrio M acias i s opposed by a 18 g roup o f neones le d by p r i e s t s . At th e o u ts e t o f th e R e v o lu tio n th e Church con tin u e d t o lo s e i t s p ro p e rty ; how ever, i t c o n tin u e d to have ^ A z u e la , Los C aciques i n Obras C om pletes. I I , 834. 18A zuela, Los de Abalo i n Obras C om pletes. I , 390. g r e a t p o l i t i c a l and s p i r i t u a l in flu e n c e o v e r th e p e o p le . Not o n ly d id i t c o n tr o l r e l i g i o n , b u t th e f a c t t h a t th e Church c o n tin u e d t o c o n tr o l e d u c a tio n m a in ta in e d th e c le r g y 's in flu e n c e o v er th e p e o p le . O p p o sitio n to P o p u lar E ducation Ib p u la r e d u c a tio n b e fo re 1910 was opposed by many I Q groups in M exico, and th e la c k o f e d u c a tio n i n th e Mexi can p eople i s e v id e n t a s one re a d s th e w orks o f A zu ela. t t i t i l D ia z' tim e p r a c t i c a l l y no a t t e n t i o n had been g iv e n to a program o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n . E d u catio n f o r th e u p per c la s s e s s in c e th e tim e o f th e Spanish C onquest had been alm o st e n t i r e l y u n der th e c o n tr o l o f th e C hurch, w hereas e d u c a tio n f o r th e neones who form ed th e b a se o f th e s o c ia l pyram id in Mexico was c o n sid e re d n o t o n ly u n n eces s a ry b u t u n d e s ira b le b o th by th e Church and by th e w e a lth y on c l a s s . When Diaz came in to pow er, he a tte m p te d to e s ta b l i s h a program o f n a tio n a l e d u c a tio n f o r th e b e n e f i t o f 19Edward R oss, The S o c ia l R ev o lu tio n i n Mexico (New York: The C entury C o., 1923), p . 152. A lso C h a rle s G ibson, The A ztecs Under S p an ish Rule (S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd U h lv e rs lty f r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 382-383. 20 R oss, The S o c ia l R evolu tion in M exico, p. 152. th e w orking c l a s s , b u t h is e f f o r t s to e n lig h te n M exico's ig n o ra n t m asses w ere overshadow ed by h is en d eav o r to 21 a c c e le r a te m a te r ia l p ro g re ss in M exico. In b o th p ro grams , Im p elle d more by th e d e s ir e to im press o th e r n a tio n s th a n to prom ote th e w e lfa re o f th e p e o p le , Diaz c e n te re d h is e x p e n d itu re s f o r w e ll-e q u ip p e d sc h o o ls in th e c a p i t a l . For h is p e rio d D iaz can n o t be c o n s id e re d a s f a i l i n g in th e e d u c a tio n a l a s p e c t. A zuela p r e s e n ts t h i s f a c t v e ry c l e a r l y i n S in Amor a s he d e s c rib e s th e e x c lu s iv e p re -R e v o lu tio n s c h o o l, La S anta E sc u e la . u n d e r Church d i r e c ti o n , w hich a d m its th e 22 c h ild r e n o f o n ly th e m ost prom inent and w e a lth y f a m ilie s . I t s p rim ary purpose in e x is tin g i s n o t r e l a t e d t o th e edu c a tio n o f th e lo w er c l a s s , n o r even i s i t p r im a r ily con c e rn e d w ith th e e n lig h te n m e n t o f th e u p p er c l a s s , b u t in th e p r o te c tin g o f Mexico from th e c o n ta g io n o f new id e a s w hich th r e a te n th e breakdown o f h e r r i c h p atrim o n y , "su s 21 S ta n le y R oss, F ra n c isc o I . Madero (Mew York: Columbia Q iiv e r s lty ftre ss, 1962), p. 28; Howard F. C lin e , M exico: R e v o lu tio n to B ro lu tio n (New York: O xford U niver s i t y F re s s , 1962), p . 193. 22 A zuela, S in Amor in Obras C om nletas. I , 233. T his e x c lu s iv e a d m itta n c e to Church sc h o o ls s t i l l e x i s t s to d a y u n d er th e ERI. 116 .23 g lo r io s a s t r a d lc io n e 8 , la p u reza de n u e s tra s c r e e n c la s ." The w e a lth y c la s s re g a rd e d th e p re -R e v o lu tio n a ry governm ent sc h o o ls w ith dism ay and c o n s te r n a tio n . The governm ent sc h o o ls th re a te n e d th e w e a lth y c la s s n o t o n ly b ecau se th e y m ight a ro u s e th e neones and I n d u s t r i a l w o rk ers from t h e i r s u b ju g a tio n , b u t a l s o b ecau se th e y m ight d isse m in a te h e re - 2 L t l c a l Id e a s among th e low er c la s s e s . A zuela e x p re s s e d h is view t h a t th e I l l i t e r a t e low er c la s s e s , n eo n es. when p e rp le x e d w ith problem s beyond t h e i r u n d e rs ta n d in g , know o n ly to c o n s u lt "una p erso n a de s a b e r ," u s u a lly th e p a r is h p r i e s t , and t o fo llo w b l in d l y h is g u id a n ce . 2 ^ R e v o lu tio n a ry le a d e rs i n E l Camarada B m to la (1937) r e a l i z e th e h a n d ic a p t h a t th e la c k o f e d u c a tio n Imposes upon Mexico*s p ro g re s s a s a s o c i a l i s t i c s t a t e , a s w e ll a s th e e x te n t o f th e power o f th e Church i n t h i s a r e a . Le f a l t a e d u c a c i6 n , le f a l t a i l u s t r a c l 6 n p a ra d e fe n d e rse de su s e te rn o s enem igos y p a ra p r a c t ic a r c o rre c ta m e n te l a dem ocracla. Qud s e r l a de N uestra 23 A zu ela, S in Amor In Obras Com nletas . I , 234. 2^A zuela, S in Amor In Obras C om nletas. 1, 309. 25A zuela, U s Moscas In Obras Com nletas. I I , 886. 117 Oran F a m ilia , s i n o s o tro s no estu v id sem o s a l e r t a slem pre p a ra e s t a r c o rta n d o a In c e s a r l a s cabezas de e se m onstruo que se llam a l a r e a c c i6 n .z ® Los F racasad o s (1908) p re s e n ts a good exam ple o f th e la c k o f e d u c a tio n , n o t o n ly among th e n eo n es. b u t a ls o among th e tefiSndftfo f a m ilie s . In Los F racasad o s Don Aga- p l t o 's le g itim a te c h ild r e n a r e a s c ru d e and awkward a s t h e i r n e o n e s.27 In Mala Yerba (1909) Don J u l l i n , a n h acen - dado. has a fa m ily w hich In c lu d e s a u n ts and u n c le s , a l l 28 v e ry c ru d e and u n e d u ca te d . Since th e consensus Is t h a t a n e n lig h te n e d populace I s n e c e s s a ry f o r a d em o cratic governm ent, th e la c k o f p o p u la r e d u c a tio n I n Mexico may be view ed a s a n o th e r f a c to r t h a t p re v e n te d Mexico from having a d e m o c ratic form o f governm ent. The O b sta cle o f Economics A zuela does n o t f a l l t o t u r n h i s a t t e n t i o n t o th e a re a s o f econom ics and p o l i t i c s . In f a c t , I t I s In th e s e 26 A zu ela, El Camarada R m to la I n Obras C om nletas. I , 730. 27 'A z u e la , Los F racasad o s in Cfrjcflg, Cflagtejfeftg., I , 88-89. 28 A zuela, Mala Yerba in Obras Com nletas. I, 150- 151. 118 a re a s t h a t h i s a r t i s t r y becomes m ost a c u te . C acloulsm o. p o l i t i c a l b o ssIsm , p lay ed a v e ry prom i n e n t r o l e In M exican p o l i t i c s . The c a c iq u e s c o n tr o lle d th e people p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o m ic a lly ; c o n se q u e n tly , th e y had u n lim ite d power w ith in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e a re a s o f con t r o l . D em etrio, o f Los de A baio (1915) sa y s t h a t th e c a c iq u e o f Moyahua, Don M onico, has th e F e d e ra l s o l d i e r s a f t e r him b ecau se he s p a t on Don M 6nico's fa c e f o r m eddling in h is a f f a i r s . The c a c iq u e denounces him a s a M a d erista i n o rd e r to g e t th e F e d e ra le s a f t e r him . D em etrio does n o t know much a b o u t M adero, o n ly t h a t he has been m urdered, and sa y s t h a t i f i t w ere n o t f o r Don M 6nico, he w ould be g e t- 29 t i n g h is equipm ent re a d y f o r sow ing. L uis C e rv an tes, who d e s e r ts th e F e d e ra le s t o j o i n D em etrio, t e l l s him t h a t h e , D em etrio, has a n Im p o rta n t r o le to p la y in th e R evolu t i o n : UBted no comprende to d a v la s u v e rd a d e ra , s u a l t a y n o b ills lm a m is i6 n . UBted, hornbre m odesto y s i n a m b lclo n e s, no q u ie r e v e r e l Im p o rta n t I s Imo p a p el que le to c a en e s t a re v o lu c id n . M en tira que u s te d ande p o r a q u l por don Mfinico, e l caciquism o que a s o la to d a l a naci6n.3® 2^Azuela, Los de Abalo in Cbras Com nletas. I , 346. 30 A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Comnletas. I , 348. 119 The a b s o lu te c o n tr o l t h a t th e c a c iq u e s had over th e p eo p le i s d em o n strated I n Los C aciques (1917), w here th e L lano b r o th e r s , le d by Don Ig n a c io , th e e l d e s t , sw in d le and s ta r v e th e p eople i n t h e i r a r e a , in o rd e r to make them do t h e i r b id d in g . Juan V in a s, th ro u g h t h r i f t and h a rd w ork, has made h is g e n e ra l s t o r e grow and p r o f i t . The c a c iq u e s * f a th e r co n v in ces ViiSas to in v e s t h is money in o th e r e n te r p r is e s . Don Ig n a c io u rg es ViiSas t o b u ild an a p a rtm e n t b u ild in g and say s t h a t th e Llano b r o th e r s w i l l e x te n d him u n lim ite d c r e d i t . ViiSas, overpow ered b y th e c a c iq u e s 1 in f lu e n c e , no lo n g e r th in k s f o r h im s e lf b u t f o l lows t h e i r a d v ic e in e v e ry th in g th e y w ant him to d o . When work on th e b u ild in g i s ab o u t f in is h e d and ViiSas a tte m p ts t o borrow more money f o r i t s c o m p le tio n , he i s re fu s e d by a l l b u s in e s s c o n c e rn s, in c lu d in g t h a t o f Don Ig n a c io , who t e l l s him t h a t h is c r e d i t i s no good, "pero l a s c ir c u n s ta n - Ol c ia s econ6m icas e ra n a d v e rsa s a c u a lq u ie r o p e r a c id n ." l a t e r , Don Ig n ac io t e l l s him: Lo que podemos h a c e r p o r u s te d es to m a rle lo s b ie n e s por l a d ro g a . Todo, se e n tie n d e . . . . La casa l e hace a u s te d un fa v o r . . . un fa v o r que p ara tin 3 1 A zuela, Los Caciques in Obras Completes. I I , 857. 120 co m e rcian te honrado s i g n i f i c a mucho. ^ E n tien d e u s te d ? Lo salvam os de lo p r i n c i p a l , de l a v erg d e n za de . . . una q u ie b r a . 3 Juan V idas c an n o t b e lie v e w hat h as happened, b u t h is w if e , E len a, s a y s : A q u ello s c o m e rc ia n te s ta n f i n o s , t a n £ r a t e m a l e s , t a n a g ra d e c ld o s , ta n h o n o ra b le s , so n de l a misma V idas su b s e q u e n tly d ie s a m is e ra b le d e a th : he has l o s t h is s t o r e , home, and sa v in g s t o th e ULano b r o th e r s , who con tin u e t o e x p lo it ev ery o n e. A c lo s e r view o f caclau ism o a s an o b s ta c le o f re p u b lic a n is m i s found in Los C aciques (1 9 1 5 ). The c h a ra c t e r s i n t h i s n o v el have a c lu b , "E l Club 20 de novietnbre de 1 9 1 2 ." They m eet and nom inate c a n d id a te s f o r th e p o s i t i o n o f m ayor. Tlm oteo i s e le c te d ; and soon a f t e r assum ing o f f i c e , he i s in s u lte d by th e c a c iq u e . Don Ig n a c io . A m eetin g o f th e c lu b i s c a l l e d , and many c lu b members speak o f t h e i r d em o cratic r i g h t s and o f t h e i r h a tr e d o f th e c u a lq u ie ra horda de bandidos de camino The O b sta c le o f P o l i t ic s 32A zuela, Los Cacloues in Cbras Com pletes. I I , 857. 33A zu ela, Los Caciques In Obras Com pletes. I I , 856. 121 p o l i t i c a l b o s s e s . The members, how ever, a r e a f r a i d to sp eak p u b lic ly c o n cern in g t h e i r f e e lin g s a b o u t th e lo c a l c a c ia u e s . One member, R odriguez, i s th e o n ly one who p u b lic ly v o ic e s h is s e n tim e n ts a g a in s t th e c a c iq u e s : £Y lo s c a c iq u e s ? iQue a sc o de g e n te ! H uelen a fan g o , porque en i l n a c ie ro n , lo r e s p i r a n , s e n u tre n de 61 y e n 61 p ro c re a n . Ora en e l p e ri6 d ic o o ra en l a t r i b u n a, an t6 jan sem e sapos escap ad o s de su s c h a rc a s le v a n ta n d o su s cab ezas rep u g n a n te s y su s o jo s m lopes a un s o l que lo s c ie g a . Cuando se s le n te n bafiados de l u z , son d ic h o s o s ; su a c t i t u d e s l a d e l que p id e a p la u s o . No se dan c u e n ta s iq u le r a de que e n to n c e s son m on8truoso8 que cuando perm anecen asomando no m is su s n a r lc e s en s u lodo de a b y e c to s n a to s . . . . iQue v iv a n lo s h ir o e s de l a p a t r i a ! Y que m ueran lo s c a c iq u e s ! Don Tlm oteo, in o rd e r to make th e tr u e p o s itio n o f th e c lu b known, p u b lis h e s a s ta te m e n t: E l Club de 1912 no s e hace s o l i d a r i o de la s id e a s ir r e s p e tu o s a s que p a ra l a S o cled ad , p a ra la R e lig i6 n y g a ra la X fetria. ha e x p re sa d o e n su s d is c u rs o s e l se n o r R o d rig u e z .35 I t i s h a rd to b e lie v e t h a t t h i s i s th e same Tlmoteo who b e fo re had s a i d , "como a lo s f r a i l e s se l e s lle g 6 su d la con don B en ito J u i r e z , a lo s c a c iq u e s se l e s ha lle g a d o e l 36 suyo con F ra n c is c o Madero. 34A zuela, Los C aciques in Obras C om pletes. I I , 836. 35A zu ela, Los C aciques in C bras C om pletes. I I , 841. 36A zu ela, Los C aciques in Obras C om pletes. I I , 805. H i s t o r i c a ll y t h i s d id n o t happen; e . g . , V i l l a , O rozco, Z a p a ta , R eyes, H u erta. 122 In a n o th e r In s ta n c e R odriguez t e l l s th e c ac iq u e s t h a t th e y a r e o n ly th e mud in w hich th e s t a t e and f e d e r a l p o l i t i c i a n s w allow . This in c id e n t b rin g s th e d e a th o f R o driguez, who d a re s s ta n d up t o th e c a c iq u e s: and E sp eran za, R o d rig u ez ' c lo s e f r i e n d , s a y s : R odriguez was r i g h t b e ca u se " l a g e n te pobre no puede g o b e m a rse s o la . F r a c a s a r i l a re v o lu c i6 n . A zuela expounds on th e n e a r " p o lic e s t a t e " n a tu re o f c a c iq u ism o . C aciques r u l e by f e a r , b r u t a l i t y , and in tim id a tio n . The c a c iq u e s w ere v e ry e f f i c i e n t and k e p t w e ll Inform ed a b o u t e v e ry th in g t h a t to o k p la c e w ith in t h e i r a re a o f c o n tr o l. In Los C aciques (1917) a member o f th e "Club 20 de n o v ie m b re ," e l R ierco , o f f e r s to keep th e b o ss e s inform ed a b o u t e v e ry th in g t h a t ta k e s p la c e a t th e 38 m e e tin g s. In Los F racasad o s (1908) th e c le r k in th e o f f i c e o f th e le f e p o l i t i c o t e l l s th e l e f e 's s e c r e ta r y t h a t Don A g a p ito , a c a c iq u e , c o n s ta n tly v i s i t s th e c i t y h a l l , g iv e s a d v ic e and a sk s o p in io n s o v e r a l l m a t t e r s : Rarece uno de lo s p e rs o n a je s m&s in f lu y e n te s de a q u l. . . . 37 A zu ela, Los C aciques in Obras C om pletas. I I , 832. 38 A zuela, Los Caciques in Obras Com pletes. I I , 850. 123 No p a re c e , s in 6 que lo e s , p o r m£s que e so se a una b a rb a rld a d . . . he v l s t o d e s p a b ila r a m is de una docena de hom bres, s 6 lo porque se a tr e v le r o n a e n fr e n ta r s e con don A g ap lto ; m is ta rd a n e n com eter e l s a c r l l e g l o , que e l c a c lc a z g o en r e u n i r s e , i n t r l g a r y e n v ia r lu eg o a l pecad o r con l a c o la e n tr e la s p le m a s .3 9 The f a c t t h a t p o l i t i c s re v o lv e a b o u t th e t r e a s u r y I s b ro u g h t o u t In Los F racasad o s (1 9 0 8 ). R esendez, a young la w y e r, knows t h a t In th e c a p i t a l o f h is s t a t e th e r e i s to o much tam p erin g w ith p u b lic money on th e p a r t o f p u b lic o f f i c i a l s : "e sa g u san era a b y e c ta que se a r r a s t r a de la s r a lc e s a lo s reto ffo s m is tie r n o s d e l e r a r i o . He d e c id e s to e s t a b l i s h h i s p r a c tic e in a sm a ll tow n. He b e lie v e s t h a t c o u n try people a r e f r e e from a m b itio n f o r money and power; how ever, he l a t e r fin d s o u t t h a t p o l i t i c s in th e town re v o lv e a b o u t th e Godinez le g a c y and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f p u b lic w e lfa re o f th e town. The Godinez le g a c y i s alw ays in l i t i g a t i o n ; and th e m ayor, Don A g a p ito , and th e town ju d g e a r e I n t e r e s t e d in i t . When a d e ta il e d r e p o r t o f th e Godinez c a se i s re q u e s te d by th e s t a t e , Don A gapito c a l l s a m eetin g o f th e c a c iq u e s b e c a u se , " s i rec o g en e so s fondos 39A zu ela, Los Fracasados in Obras Com pletes. I, 41. 40A zuela, Los Fracasados in Obras C om pletes. I , 8. 124 m is de una docena vamos a q u e d am o s e n l a c a l l e . " ^ Res6n- d e z , b e lie v in g t h a t he can c l e a r up th e c a s e , t a l k s t o th e ju d g e , who e n co u rag es him t o f i l e s u i t a g a in s t th e g u i l t y p e rs o n s; t h i s , how ever, I s acco m p lish ed w ith o u t p e rm issio n from th e s t a t e , a n d , a s a co n seq u en ce, ResAndez lo s e s h is c r e d e n tia ls and h is p r a c t i c e .43 Los B cecursores (1935) g iv e s a n o th e r exam ple w here i n p o l i t i c i a n s do t h e i r u tm o st to g e t back I n to governm ent p o s itio n s in o rd e r to e x p lo it th e t r e a s u r y . When Lozada form s th e Independent Government o f Ttepic, many p o l i t i c ia n s , accustom ed to e x p lo itin g th e In d ia n , tu r n a g a in s t him : "to d o s lo s gansos que re v o lo te a n s i n c e s a r en t o r no a la s m ig a ja s d e l p re s u p u e s to ." 43 T his e v e n t was co v ered i n a G u a d a la ja ra new spaper. A h e a d lin e a p p e a re d e n t i t l e d "Gran In s u rre c c i6 n en T tepic." In th e a r t i c l e t h a t fo llo w e d , f ra u d u le n t b u s in e s s men, m urderous and t h i e v i s h hacendados and c o rru p t p o l i t i c i a n s , d e p riv e d o f th e b e n e f its o f e x p lo itin g th e In d ia n , speak 41A zu ela, Los F racasad o s In Cqmplnflg* I , 76. ^ A z u e la , Los F racasad o s in Cfrtttf COTp le tft$ , I , 108. 43A zuela, Los P re c u rso re s in Otaflg c9WPltetflg. H I , 400. 125 o u t: " jH a s ta cuAndo, fin a lm e n te , e l g o b le m o g e n e ra l ha de la v a m o s de l a a f r e n t a que s i g n i f ie d Loza da en e l 44 N a y a rit ?" L ozada, how ever, rem ains in power and p re v e n ts th e p o l i t i c i a n s from ta k in g th e r e i n s o f governm ent. The p o l i t i c i a n s em ployed many devious m ethods to e n ric h th e m se lv e s. C a rra n z a 's ftrime M in is te r , B ascual, in l a s T rib u la c io n e s (1918) g r a n ts th e r i g h t t o a c e r t a i n firm t o im port o n e - h a lf m illio n pesos w o rth o f s i l k and o th e r ty p e s o f c lo t h in exchange f o r a b an q u et and pocket 45 money. Ifecheco, in El CmnnrnAl n < n 7 V who was v e ry w e ll lik e d by 0 b reg6n, i s a b le to ta k e h is r e l a t i v e s o u t o f p o v e rty and make them r i c h . He can gamble away f i f t y th o u san d p eso s and n o t com plain b ecau se "con l a con ce s l6 n que tie n e p a ra c o n s t r u ir l a s c a r r e t e r a s de s u E stado tie n e p a ra d a rs e e s e lu jo y m is ." 44 G en eral M ata, in El B m to la (1 9 3 7 ), s t a t e s t h a t 0breg6n owes t e n m illio n pesos t o th e A g r ic u ltu r a l Bank: 44 A zu ela, Los R recu rso res in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 400. 45 A zu ela, U s T rib u la c io n e s i n Obras C om pletes. 1, 519. 46A zuela, U s T rib u lacion es in Obras Com pletes. 1, 700. 126 No t e a p u re s , mano, que p ara eso fundamos n u e s tro Banco A g ric o la . S6lo ml g e n e ra l 0breg6n le debe ya m£s de d le z m lllo n e s de p e s o s. ^ A nother exam ple o f t h i s p o l i t i c a l c o rr u p tio n I s found In A z u e la 's Avanzada (1940). A zuela g iv e s an exam ple o f a le a d e r o f th e A g ra ria n Commission who o f f e r s to r e t u r n Don M iguel*8 h acien d a f o r te n th o u san d p e so s: El C h lca rr6 n se l d e n t l f l c 6 como uno de lo s l id e r e s p r l n d p a l e s de l a s com unldades a g r a r l a s d e l E stado . . . y d l j o : Bor d le z m il pesos puedo a r r e g l a r l e que la g e n te s a ig a inm edlatam ente de su s t i e r r a s . 8 O ther exam ples o f p o l i t i c a l p a r a s ite s and t h e i r v a rio u s m ethods o f g e ttin g r i c h a re found In Las Mbscas (1 9 1 8 ). Juan R io s, who I s a judge u n d er th e D iaz reg im e, and R odolfo, who I s D ire c to r o f Rob11c W elfare u n d er H u erta, m eet and p la n v a rio u s m ethods t o e n ric h th e m se lv e s. R odolfo s a y s : La r e v o lu d 6 n e s m edio c l e r t o de h a c e r f o r tu n a , e l g o b le m o e s e l 6 n lc o de c o n s e rv a rla y d a r le e l Increm ento que a m e rlta ; p ero a s l como p a ra l o prlm ero e s In d isp e n sa b le e l r i f l e , e l o f l d n l s t a lo e s p ara lo segundo.49 I , 699. I , 1041. 47A zu ela, g) Cfonaygfe .frttfo lfl in Cbjcas._Cqaaje.tpA, 48 A zuela, El Camara da B tn to la In Obras C om nletas. AQ A zuela, Las Moscas In Obras Comnletas. I I , 881. 127 When F lo re s M arin, a governm ent o f f i c i a l In Regina Landa (1939) w ants to r a i s e a d d itio n a l money, S an g in d s, h is c le r k , o f f e r s some s u g g e s tio n s : R e a ju ste su e ld o s y d 6 b le se e l suyo. . . . Bara cum- p lim e n ta r n u e s tro s p o stu la d o s id e o l6 g ic o s u s te d n e ce - s i t a cuando m enos, te n e r d o b le nGmero de em pleados por ex ceso de t r a b a jo . . . . UBted e s hombre i n t e l i g e n t e , y un hombre i n te l ig e n te n o a c e p ta un s u e l d i l l o m ise ra b le de g o b ie m o . . . . N u estro J e fe a n t e r i o r te n ia madurado ya un p ro y e c to de refo rm as m a te ria l e s que en menos de un p a r de m eses le d e ja r la n d o s c ie n to s m il p e s o s .*0 From t h e i r c o u n tle s s num bers, th e in c id e n ts o f p o l i t i c a l c h ic a n e ry in A z u e la 's n o v e ls b e tr a y th e n o v e l i s t 's deep, a b id in g in d ig n a tio n a t th e m oral m alfea sa n ce o f p o l i t i c a l power. There w ere no p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s in Mexico a s we know them i n th e U nited S ta te s . B sople ad h ered t o an i n d i v i d u a l , n o t to a p a rty . Such in d iv id u a ls w ere in them s e lv e s p a r t i e s . T h eir fo llo w e rs term ed th em selv es M aderis- t a s , C a r r a n c is ta s , H u e r tis ta s , C a l l i s t a s , depending upon whom th e y chose t o fo llo w . O ffic e w o rk ers and p o l i t i c a l p a r a s ite s f i l t e r e d th ro u g h e v e ry a d m in is tr a tio n . In D o m itilio Q uiere S er D inutado (1918), G eneral C e b o llln o ad m its t h a t he has se rv e d u n d e r Diaz and H u erta, 50A zuela, Regina lands in Cbras Comnletas. I , 915. 128 and t h a t now he la a R e v o lu tio n is t: jlfero quA re b ru to a son su s p a is a n o s , don S ezapio! $Ha v l s t o u s te d cosa mas c h is to s a ? . . . Ries quA d l r l a n e s to s 8olem nes m en tecato s s i s u p ie ra n que yo le s e r v l a H uerta tam bidn y q u e , cuando don I b r f i r i o , yo a g e n te d e l m in is te r lo p ftb lico de Nombre de D ios, h ic e a h o rc a r m is m a d e rls ta s que to d o s lo s que H u e rta , B lanquet y U rru tia ju n to s hayan podido e c h a rs e a l p l a t o ? " D o m itilio * s f a t h e r has done th e same; he has s i f t e d th ro u g h e v e ry o u tg o in g a d m in is tr a tio n and managed to rem ain in o f f i c e . R odolfo, o f Las Moscas (1918), i s a n o th e r exam ple. V i l le g u i ta s , o f Regina Lands (1 9 3 9 ), i s fa v o re d by th e p re s e n t governm ent, a lth o u g h he i s a fo rm er c ac iq u e who fo u g h t a g a in s t th e p re s e n t reg im e. G en eral HernAndez and Cuco, i n AndrAs BSrez (1 9 1 1 ), ex em p lify a n o th e r ty p e o f p o l i t i c a l p a r a s i t e s . The two have been avowed enem ies o f th e M a d e rista s; how ever, when Madero triu m p h s, th e y em brace th e R e v o lu tio n w ith o u t any h e s i t a t i o n : M b quedA e s tu p e f a c to : e l g e n e ra l HernAndez, don Cuco e l p e r lo d i8 ta , lo s enem igos mAs ra b is o s de Madero m llita n d o a h o ra en " n u e s tra s fila s." 5 2 F u rth e r exam ple o f p o l i t i c a l c h ic a n e ry i s e v id e n t i n th e same w ork. The new spaper E l R ieblo p u b lish e d an 51 A zuela, D g w lU U q . Q u l C T * SQ L Pjgrtftfo in C f e $ s s . C om nletas. I I , 948. 52A zuela, AndrAs Barez in Obras Comnletas. I I , 797. 129 a r t i c l e w hich r e a d , "A d m ln lstra c l6 n B o rflrla n a . . . ah o ra v le n e n a e c h a rs e so b re la s p rlm lc la s de la re v o lu c l6 n en t r i u n f o , M and "R ieb lo m exlcano no has tr iu n f a d o , m e n tlra : m le n tra s no sep as a r r o j a r de t l e so s b u l tr e s v o ra c e s . . . 53 t u t r i u n f o e s una q u im e ra ." The g o v ern in g body In Mexico was n o t alw ays th e tr u e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e p e o p le . I t was composed o f d i f f e r e n t e le m e n ts t h a t fo u g h t to s ta y In power to p re s e rv e th e p ro p e rty th e y h ad , a s In th e c a se o f C o v arru b las o f l a s T rib u la c io n e s (1 9 1 8 ),54 o r to a c q u ir e p ro p e rty and pow er, a s In th e c a se o f C o n c h lta 's n o v lo . In R egina Ianda (1 9 3 9 ), who had r i s e n from sandw ich p e d d le r to m illio n a ir e In l e s s th a n f iv e y e a r s : El n o v lo de C o n ch lta, s o c l a l l s t a r a d i c a l , en menos de c in c o anos h a b la a sc e n d ld o , de v endedor de c a m i - t a s a se n ad o r ad nernetuam y a m il l o n a r l o .5^ P tocoplo o f la s Ifclb u lac lo n e s (1918) sa y s t h a t : Desde l a g u e rra de In d ep en d en cla h a s ta l a fe c h a , g e n te s de e s a c a la n a , a s e s ln o s y b a n d ld o s, han s ld o 53 A zuela, AmfrAg Rarez in Obras C om nletas. I I , 799. 54A zu ela, la s T rib u la c io n e s In Cfrygg C qnpletgft, I , 510. A zuela, Rayina landa in Obras Com nletas. I , 932. 130 lo s c lm le n to s de la s s u c e s lv a s a r i s t o c r a c i e s d e l pa I s . The p o w e r-p la y s, th e I n t r i g u e s , th e v e s te d I n t e r e s t s —th e s e r u le d Mexico f o r much o f I t s h i s t o r y . The governm ent was In t r u t h an o lig a r c h y . A zuela had much to sa y o f th e unique c h a r a c te r o f M exican dem ocracy. R eplacem ent o f I d e a ls f o r In d iv id u a l I n t e r e s t The many r e v o l t s t h a t ta k e p la c e d u rin g th e Revolu t i o n a r e co n ceiv ed in good f a i t h , b u t th e Id e a ls t h a t m ost o f them a re b ased on a r e soon p u t a s i d e , and re p la c e d by I n d iv id u a l i n t e r e s t s . Many exam ples o f t h i s human c h a ra c t e r i s t i c a re to be found in A z u e la 's w orks. Such an exam ple o ccu rs In e1 h C rm rada B m to ia (1 9 3 7 ), when a d o c to r , sp e ak in g to a salesm an , sa y s o f th o se who u n d e se rv e d ly r i s e t o h ig h p o s itio n s I n th e governm ent t h a t " l a e v o lu c l6 n l6 g lc a d e l cludadano arm sdo, como d i r l a n u e s tro g lo r io s o m anco, O bregon."^7 The d o c to r I s r e f e r r i n g to th e Moncada S6A zuela, U s T rib u la c io n e s In Obras C om nletas. I , 421. 57A zuela, E l Camggijfl. .jfrntftlft in Qfegftg. QfflBlfctftg, I , 704. 131 b r o th e r s , one a n h a cien d a forem an and th e o th e r a groom b e fo re th e R e v o lu tio n , b o th now a g e n e ra l and a congressm an. JosA M arla, o f la Luci& rnaga (1932), speaks o f H ila c h a s, who was g iv en t h i s name b e c a u s e , a s a c h il d , he s o ld ra g s to a p ap er f a c to r y , and now i s c i t y c le r k . F u rth erm o re, h is b r o th e r s , "con l a r e v o lu c i6 n : uno e s g o b em ad o r de un E stad o d e l G olfo, o tr o d ip u ta d o a l Congreso de la t t i i 6 n . " ^ F u rth e r exam ples o f th e rep la ce m e n t o f id e a ls by In d iv id u a l i n t e r e s t s a re found in Los F racasad o s (1908). In t h i s n o v e l th e la c k o f e f f i c i e n t management o f govern m ent a f f a i r s i s e v id e n t. ResAndez has been to se e h is f u tu r e b o s s , th e p o l i t i c a l c h ie f o f th e tow n, and upon le a v in g , n o tic e s a m u ltitu d e o f people who have been w a it in g a l l m orning f o r a n a u d ie n c e , a n g r ily tu rn e d away by a C Q c le r k who has been engaged in i d l e t a l k a l l m orning. 7 In a n o th e r in s ta n c e , an o ld man who t r i e s t o f i l e s u i t a g a in s t Don A g a p ito 's forem an f o r b e a tin g h is son i s j a i l e d by Don A g a p ito , th e c a c iq u e , who s t a t e s t h a t a ne6n h as no r i g h t s . 60 58A zuela, t« TjfgiArnaga in Obras C om nletas. I , 598. 59A zuela, Los F ra ca sa d o s i n Obras C om nletas. I , 9 . 60A zuela, Los F racasad o s i n Obras C om nletas. I , 39. 132 In Regina lan d a (1939), th e r e a r e numerous o f f i c e w orkers w ith n o th in g to do; o f f i c e s an d p o s itio n s a r e c re a te d f o r them : T entas y ta n ta s d ependencias o f i c i a l e s , c re a d a s ex clu siv am e n te p a ra c u b r ir compromisos p o l i t i c o s . F iltr a c io n e s y a f lu e n te s a l a c a t a r a ta de d in e ro que d e s p ilf a r r a n lo s g o b ie m o s s i n p ie d a d : ham bre, m i** s e r i a , d o lo r y t r a b a jo d e l v e rd a d e ro p ro d u c to r, a l que se l e d esp o ja d e l f r u t o de su s a fa n e s p ara n u t r i r a m illa r e s de m illa r e s de p a rA sito s que se llam an lo s " re d e n to re s d e l p r o le ta r ia d o . There a r e many more exam ples w hich c o u ld be c i t e d h e re , however th e s e a r e s u f f i c i e n t to i l l u s t r a t e th e p o in t. One m ust keep in mind t h i s phenomenon o f g o a l d isp lac em e n t i s n o t unique t o th e M exican, b u t i s a common o c cu rren c e i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f a l t r u i s t i c o b je c tiv e s o f m ost s o c i a l movements. Thus, A zuela*s w orks do no more th a n d e p ic t w hat a c t u a l l y to o k p la c e d u rin g t h i s tim e . The la c k o f Freedom o f Speech and Bress Freedom o f sp eech and o f th e p re s s was v e ry lim ite d in Mexico d u rin g th e tim e o f a c tu a l c o n f l i c t . One exam ple o f t h i s c e n s o rs h ip o f th e p re s s i s th e case o f AndrAs R&rez, a new spaper r e p o r te r in AndrAs B&rez (1911). B&rez i s 6 lA zuela, Regina landa in Obras Comnletas. I , 909. denounced a s a M ad erista and p e rs e c u te d by th e p o lic e , b ecau se he spoke f r a n k ly to h i s em ployer a b o u t th e r e a l 62 c o n d itio n s o f Mexico d u rin g th e d i c t a t o r s h i p o f D iaz. A nother exam ple o f c e n so rin g freedom o f sp eech i s when R o d rig u ez, o f Los C aciques (1 9 1 7 ), lo s e s h is jo b and i s 63 f i n a l l y k i l l e d f o r o p en ly c r i t i c i z i n g th e lo c a l c a c iq u e s . To sum m arize, i t i s e v id e n t a f t e r re a d in g A zuela*s w orks t h a t many o b s ta c le s h in d e re d th e developm ent o f a d e m o c ratic form o f governm ent in M exico, p r i n c i p a l l y th e fo llo w in g : th e la c k o f n a tio n a l c o n sc io u s n e ss ; th e r o le o f th e Army in p o l i t i c s ; th e C h u rch 's power; th e c a c iq u e s ' c o n tr o l o v er th e p e o p le ; th e la c k o f freedom o f sp eech ; p o l i t i c a l g r a f t ; and f i n a l l y th e la c k o f p o p u la r e d u c a tio n . T hese, th e n , a r e th e o b s ta c le s t h a t A zuela p o in ts o u t a s b e in g th e p r in c ip a l re a so n s f o r th e la c k o f re s p o n s ib le governm ent b e fo re and a f t e r th e "w arrin g y e a rs " o f th e R e v o lu tio n (1910-1917). 62A zuela, Andrds B&rez in Obras C om nletas. I I , 777. 63A zu ela, Iflg. in Cbras C om nletas. I I , 832. CHAPTER V ECONOM IC DETERMINANTS As I t does to d a y , a g r i c u lt u r e p la y e d a dom inant r o l e i n th e economy o f Mexico b e fo re th e coming o f th e S p a n ia rd s. The n a tiv e M exican had no work a n im als to a id him i n th e c u l t i v a t i o n o f h is la n d ; he h a d , th e r e f o r e , to r e l y upon h is own s tr e n g th f o r a l l w ork. T his l i m i ta t io n may w e ll have been one o f th e prim ary re a so n s f o r th e system o f la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t e x is te d b e fo re th e con q u e s t. la n d H olding System o f E a rlv The S p an iard s found th e Mexican In d ia n s liv i n g u n d er a w e ll-d e f in e d system o f la n d te n u r e . A s t a b le system w ith r i g h t s , p r i v i l e g e s , and o b lig a tio n s t h a t w ere w e ll d e fin e d and w e ll e n fo rc e d , th e la n d system was c lo s e ly i n t e r r e l a t e d w ith th e s o c i a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e In d ia n s . The In d ia n s w ere o rg a n iz e d a s t r i b e s and d iv id e d i n to 134 135 k in s h ip groups known a s c a l w l l i w hich u n ite d and form ed v i l l a g e s . W ith in th e p e rim e te r o f th e la n d im m ediately su rro u n d in g th e v i l l a g e , e ach o f th e c a l n u l l i c u ltiv a te d i t s own s e c tio n . In e ach k in s h ip group th e heads o f f a m ilie s w ere th e t i t u l a r owners o f th e v a rio u s p l o ts . Ownership o f a p lo t c a r r ie d w ith i t th e r i g h t s o f perm anent te n u re and in h e r ita n c e . In a d d itio n to th e p lo ts h e ld by th e fa m ily , th e r e w ere la n d s s p e c i f i c a l l y s e t a s id e f o r o th e r p u rp o se s: f o r th e m aintenance o f l o c a l o f f i c i a l s , f o r th e payment o f t r i b u t e , and f o r r e l i g io u s t i t h e s . These p lo ts w ere t i l l e d in common by p eo p le o f th e v i l l a g e s . B esides t h i s , th e r e e x is te d a w id e ly sp re a d system o f bound s e r f s and la r g e e s t a t e s b e lo n g in g to th e n o b i l i t y .* Both o f th e s e system s have made t h e i r c o n tr ib u tio n s to th e c h a r a c te r o f la n d h o ld in g in Mexico th ro u g h o u t i t s h i s t o r y . When Mexico became New S p ain , th e i n i t i a l compensa t i o n o r rew ards t o th e c o n q u ero rs n o rm ally to o k th e form 1F ra n p o ls C h e v a lie r, Land and S o c ie ty in C o lo n ia l M exico, e d . by L e sle y Byrd Sim pson, t r a n s . by A lv in E u s tis (B e rk e ley : U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia ftre ss, 1963), pp. 16- 19; C h a rle s G ibson, The A ztecs Uhder S panish Rule (S ta n f o rd : S ta n fo rd U n iv e rs ity R ress, 1964), pp. 257-270. 136 2 o f g r a n ts o r encom ienda. L a te r, o th e r rew ards fo llo w ed : g r a n ts o f la n d , g ra z in g r i g h t s ; and s t i l l l a t e r , m ining r i g h t s ; b u t th e encom ienda was th e f i r s t s t e p . In r e l a t i o n to o th e r S panish i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t was th e f i r s t to e s ta b l i s h i t s e l f in a p o s itio n o f power and became th e m ost e x p lo i t a t iv e i n s t i t u t i o n d u rin g th e f i r s t f i f t y y e a rs o f S p an ish r u l e . However, In d ia n s o c ie ty was d e stro y e d by th e encom ienda.3 An encom ienda was b a s i c a ll y th e r i g h t t o demand t r i b u t e , and i n i t i a l l y la b o r a l s o , from th e In d ia n s o f a s p e c if ie d d i s t r i c t . T e c h n ic a lly th e term encom ienda r e f e r r e d t o th e c o n d itio n s o f th e t r u s t u n d er w hich In d ian s 2 The encom ienda system was n o t new; i t had e x is te d i n S pain in t e r r i t o r y ta k e n from th e M oors, and in th e Canary Is la n d s ; i n th e West In d ie s gro u p s o f n a tiv e s w ere a ll o c a t e d to le a d in g s e t t l e r s f o r u se a s la b o r e r s o r p e r s o n a l s e r v a n ts . In th e is la n d s th e s e a ll o c a t io n s w ere o r i g i n a l l y known a s r e p a r tlm ie n to s . d iv is io n s ; b u t when th e p r a c tic e sp re a d to th e populous and s e t t l e d a re a s o f th e m ainland th e o ld e r te rm , encom ienda. w ith i t s Im p lic a tio n o f d u tie s came to be p r e f e r r e d . J . H. B arry, The S panish Seaborne B nnire (New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1 9 6 7 ), p . 100; C h a rle s G ibson, S pain in Am erica (New York: H arper and Row, 1966), pp. 50-52; C h e v a lie r, le n d and S o c ie ty i n C o lo n ia l M exico, pp. 3 6 -3 8 . 3E y le r N. Simpson, The E lid o —M exico's Wav Out (C hapel H i l l : The U n iv e rs ity o f N orth C a ro lin a B ress, 19 3 7 ), pp. 16-17; G ibson, The A ztecs Ifader S panish R ule, p . 58. 137 w ere g ra n te d ; th e y w ere e n tr u s te d to th e encom endero's ( g ra n te e '8 ) c a re a s a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , I n r e tu r n f o r m i l i t a r y and r e l i g i o u s o b lig a tio n s on h is p a r t . The encomen- d ero was r e q u ir e d to p r o te c t and C h r is tia n iz e th e In d ian s com m itted t o h is c h a rg e , and to c o n tr ib u te to th e m il i ta r y d e fe n se o f th e p ro v in c e In w hich h is ancnmiandA r e s id e d .^ A g r a n t o f encom ienda c o n fe rre d no lan d ed p ro p e rty o r j u d i c i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n . I t was a p o s s e s s io n n o t a prop e r t y . * * F u rth e rm o re , encom iendas w ere n o t fe u d a l m anors; th e e a r ly encom enderos w ere n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y in te r e s te d in la n d o r a g r i c u lt u r e ; how ever, th e y w ere concerned ab o u t a la b o r su p p ly . C onsequently, la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n d u rin g t h i s p e rio d was made w ith a view tow ard d i s t r i b u t i o n o f In d ia n s , 4 D e fin itio n s o f encom ienda a r e a l l a f t e r th e e v e n t. As w ith many o th e r h i s t o r i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e developm ent o c c u rre d b e fo re any need to d e fin e i t was re c o g n iz e d . The e a r l y encom ienda was f r e q u e n tly c a lle d r e p a r tlm ie n to ( d is t r i b u t i o n , d i v is io n , o r a llo tm e n t) . F. A. K irk p a tric k , "R ep artlm ien to -E n co m ien d a," H isp an ic A m erican H is to r ic a l Review . XIX (1 9 3 9 ), 372-379; f e r r y , The S panish Seaborne B n p ire. pp. 100-107. ^ O rig in a lly c o u ld be revoked by th e crow n, b u t th e r e was a ten d en cy t o e x te n d g ra n ts to l a t e r g e n e r a tio n s — i n 1536 f o r two g e n e ra tio n s ; in 1559, to th e t h i r d g e n e ra tio n ; in 1607, to th e f o u r th ; and f i n a l l y , in 1629, to th e f i f t h . See C h e v a lie r, la n d and S o c ie ty in C o lo n ia l M exico, pp. 36-38; G ibson, The A ztecs Ifader Span is h R ule, pp. 80-81. 138 r a t h e r th a n la n d . E a rly In th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry th e Crown took s te p s to b re a k up th e encom lendaa and to c o n f is c a te la r g e h o ld in g s . A b o litio n o f encom lendas began w ith a ro y a l d e c re e In J u ly o f 1720, b u t th e p ro c e ss was n o t com pleted u n t i l th e end o f th e c e n tu r y .^ At th e end o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , A lexander Humboldt, a f t e r o b se rv in g th e h a c ie n d a system In M exico, s t a t e d : A ll v ic e s o f th e fe u d a l governm ent have p assed from one hem isphere to th e o th e r ; and in Mexico th e s e a b u ses have been so much th e more dangerous In t h e i r e f f e c t s , a s I t h as b een more d i f f i c u l t t o th e suprem e a u th o r i ty to remedy th e e v i l and d is p la y I t s en erg y a t an immense d is ta n c e . The p ro p e rty o f Hew Spain, l ik e t h a t o f Old S p ain , Is In g r e a t m easure In th e hands o f a few pow erful f a m ilie s , who have g ra d u a lly a b so rb ed th e s m a lle r e s t a t e s . I n America a s w e ll a s In E urope, la r g e commons a r e condemned to th e p a s tu re o f c a t t l e , and to p e rp e tu a l s t e r i l i t y . ' Many encom lendas. on b e in g a b o lis h e d , w ere t r a n s form ed i n to h a cien d a s and la n d c o n tin u e d to be c o n c e n tra te d 6George M cBride, The la n d System o f Mexico (New York: A m erican G eo g rap h ical S o c ie ty , 19 3 3 ), pp. 60-62; G ibson, S pain i n Aqwrigft* p p - 66-67. A le x a n d e r de Humboldt, P o l i t i c a l E ssay on th e Kingdom o f New S pain (London: 18 1 1 ), I I I , 101, a s q u o ted by W illia m H. D usenberry In The M exican M esta (ttrb a n a : U n iv e rs ity o f I l l i n o i s P re s s , 1963), p . 181. 139 Q In th e hands o f r e l a t i v e l y few p e rso n s. Through th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry many h a c ie n d a s rem ained i n t a c t an d d u rin g th e e ra o f B o rfirlo Diaz (1876** Q 1910), In c re a s e d i n s i z e . The h a c ie n d a s w ere n o t o n ly v a s t in a r e a , b u t a ls o com plete s e ttle m e n ts in th e m se lv e s. They w ere a l l named and in c o rp o ra te d a s u n its o f lo c a l governm ents. The hacen- dado p re s id e d o v er th e s e v a s t e s t a t e s w ith p a te rn a lis m and a b s o lu te pow er. He was p a tr i a r c h to a l l in d iv id u a ls on th e h a c ie n d a , and a l l looked up t o him a s t h e i r natr& n. The p e o n e s. on th e o th e r hand, w ere bound t o th e h acien d a by th e w e ig h t o f t r a d i t i o n and a d eb t system ; d e b ts w ere handed down from g e n e ra tio n to g e n e ra tio n , keeping th e peones i n perm anent bondage and fo rc in g them to rem ain on th e h a c ie n d a s to w hich th e y b elo n g ed . 8 M cBride, The la n d System s o f M exico, pp. 5 8 -5 9 , 62-64; C h e v a lie r, Land_and S o c ie ty in C o lo n ia l M exico, pp. 279-280. 9 McBride e s tim a te s t h a t e a r l y in th e tw e n tie th cen tu r y some 300 M exican h a c ie n d a s c o n ta in e d 25,000 a c r e s eac h ; 116 had 62,500 a c r e s each ; 51 a p p ro x im a te ly 75,000 a c r e s e a c h ; and 11 o v er 250,000 a c r e s e ac h . M cBride, The la n d Systems o f M exico, p . 25. 10McBride, The Land Systems o f M exico, pp. 2 8 -2 9 , 3 0 -3 1 . 140 Through th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry and e a r ly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry th e hacendado dom inated s o c i a l c o n d itio n s and a ls o p o l i t i c a l l i f e in M exico. T ogether w ith th e c l e r i c a l g ro u p , th e y c o n s titu te d th e c o n s e rv a tiv e elem ent and opposed m ost a g r a r ia n refo rm movements and o th e r m easures i n i t i a t e d by th e l i b e r a l s th ro u g h o u t th e n in e te e n th c en tu r y . The Church, a s has a lr e a d y been s t a t e d , had ta k e n p o s s e s s io n o f a g r e a t d e a l o f la n d , n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e law o f Emperor C h arles V, w hich fo rb a d e th e s a le o f lan d s to c h u rc h e s, m o n a s te rie s , o r th e c le r g y , and s t a te d t h a t such s a le s w ere v o id . T hat t h i s law was n o t obeyed by th e Church i s ev id en ced by th e s tr u g g le t h a t to o k p la c e d u rin g th e m iddle o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . During t h i s p e rio d , u n der th e a u th o r ity o f th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1857, th e S ta te c o n tin u e d to a p p ro p r ia te Church la n d and p ro p e rty , su p p o sed ly f o r th e b e tte rm e n t o f th e la n d le s s ; how ever, th e la n d le s s rem ained " la n d le s s " b ecau se th e la n d , a f t e r g o ing to th e S t a te , rem ained in a b o u t th e same number o f la y hands a s i t had been i n e c c l e s i a s t i c a l ones.**1 F u rth e rm o re , 11J . Lloyd Mecham, Church and S ta te in L a tin America (C hapel H i l l : U n iv e rs ity o f N orth C a ro lin a ftre s s , 1934), pp. 436-439. 141 t h i s a c tio n by th e S ta te I n i t i a t e d th e long and b i t t e r s tr u g g le betw een th e Church and th e S ta te —a s tr u g g le th a t was t o re a c h a c u lm in a tio n I n th e 1 9 2 0 's . The S ta te Laws o f 1856 A g a in st th e Church The Law o f D is a m o rtiz a tio n o f E c c le s i a s t ic a l E s ta te s o f 1856 was aim ed a t b re a k in g up th e h acien d as and c r e a tin g many sm a ll p ro p e rty ow ners. I t p ro h ib ite d c i v i l a s w e ll a s e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o rp o ra tio n s from owning r e a l e s t a t e ; th e form er c a te g o ry In c lu d e d th e p u eb lo . The p u r pose o f t h i s law was to g iv e t o e a c h v i l l a g e r h is p ro p o r t i o n o f th e e l i d o . The e ll d o was a g r a n t o f la n d , a b o u t a sq u a re lea g u e in s i z e , w hich had e x is te d b e fo re co n q u est and was su b s e q u e n tly r a t i f i e d by th e King o f Spain (1 5 6 7 ), and w hich, a c c o rd in g to th e c o n tr a c t h e ld by each v i l l a g e , 1 2 c o u ld n e v e r be s o ld , c o n f is c a te d , o r g iv e n away. The Law o f D is a m o rtiz a tio n was n o t in te n d e d t o a p p ly to th e e l i d o . N e v e rth e le s s , th e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t was f e l t in th e p u e b lo s. U hprepared, th e In d ian s l o s t t h e i r p o rtio n s to u n scru p u lo u s Simpson, The E lid o —M ex ico 's Wav Out, pp. 15-16; Edward B oss, The S o c ia l R e v o lu tio n i n Mexico (New Y ork: The C entury C o ., 1923), p . 62. 142 s p e c u la to r s and rem ain ed , a s b e f o r e , l a n d le s s . The n e t r e s u l t was to open th e way f o r f u r t h e r e x p lo i t a t io n o f th e In d ia n and an in c re a s e o f la n d m onopoly. The r e s is ta n c e o f th e Church to th e p o in t o f c i v i l w ar— i n w hich i t d id lo se much o f i t s w e a lth —and th e su b seq u en t o n sla u g h t o f f o r e ig n in te r v e n tio n w ith i t s chaos h e lp e d to n u l l i f y Ley L e r d o .^ The Tragedy o f th e R e g is tr a tio n o J E land .(Arftlfo) D uring th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry th e a v a l6 o was i n i t i a t e d . T his system was th e r e g i s t r a t i o n o f la n d w hich A zuela has V ic e n te , th e c a n a ta z . speak o f in AndrAs t t r e z , M ad erista (1 9 1 1 ): Hies ha de s a b e r e l p a tr6 n que e s a h a cien d a e ra una c o n g re g ac l6 n donde m is p a d re s y c in c o de m is t i o s te n la n su s p ro p ie d a d e s, v in o don I b r f l r l o y su le y de re v a ltio y a to d o s nos e c h a ro n de n u e s tr a s c a sa s y de n u e s tr a s t l e r r a s como p e rro s a je n o s . The a v a l6 o was I n i t i a t e d by th e D iaz regim e and i t s purpose was t o c la im a l l i d l e la n d by buying i t a t a low 13Simpson, The E lid o —M ex ico 's Wav O ut, pp. 2 4 -2 5 . 14M eriano A zuela, AndrAs BArez. M a d e rista in CfaqUL Com nletas de M ariano A zuela. p ro lo g u e by F ra n c is c o M onterde (M exico: Fondo de C u ltu re EconAmica, V o ls. I - I I , 1958; V ol. I l l , 1960), I I , 784. 143 p r ic e . Those who c o u ld n o t prove l e g a l ow nership o f prop e r t y l o s t i t . la n d a p p ro p ria te d by t h i s p ro c e ss was s o ld by th e governm ent, u s u a lly to th e a lr e a d y r i c h lan d o w n ers. The r e s u l t o f t h i s program was t h a t i t e n sla v e d ov er 80 p e r c e n t o f th e M e x ic a n s .^ Unable t o buy la n d o f t h e i r own, th e M exicans had to rem ain on h a c ie n d a s and l iv e th e l i f e o f a pe&n. One o f th e g r e a t economic problem s o f Mexico has been th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d and w e a lth . la n d , we may w e ll presume from th e p e rc e n ta g e o f neones a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e p re s e n t c e n tu ry , was c o n c e n tra te d i n th e hands o f a sm a ll m in o rity o f th e p o p u la tio n . The p i t i f u l c o n d itio n o f t h i s g r e a t mass o f th e M exican p o p u la tio n i s n o te d and re c o rd e d by A zuela. The o ld Cora In d ia n o f Los P recu rao rea (1935) t e l l s Lozada t h a t th e c o n q u is ta d o r and th e encomen- d ero and l a t e r th e hacendado (buscan a l in d io p a ra despo- j a r l e de l a s m is e ra b le s t i e r r a s que l e han d e ja d o , p ara r o b a r le e l m e ta l de su s s i e r r a s . ^ J o s e p h H. R e tin g e r, T ie rra M exicana (London: The W h ite f ria rs B ress, 1926), p . 69. S ta n le y R oss, F ra n c isc o I . Madero (Hew York: Columbia Ik iiv e r s ity B re ss, 1962), p. 3 1 , s t a t e s t h a t o v e r 90 p e r c e n t l o s t t h e i r la n d s and became t i e d t o h a c ie n d a s. 16A zuela, Los Brecursores in Obras Comnletas. I l l , 370. 144 The R e d is tr ib u tio n o f Land: Colla p s e o f th e H acienda System W ith th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1910 th e b rea k in g up o f th e h acien d a system and th e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f lan d was u n d e r ta k e n . AndrAs H&rez, i n th e work o f th e same name, i s q u e s tio n e d by some In d ia n s a s to th e v a l i d i t y o f th e prom ises made by Madero c o n ce rn in g th e b e tte rm e n t o f wages and th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d . ^ T h eir e a g e rn e ss to know su ch th in g s and t h e i r w h o le h e a rte d su p p o rt o f Madero shows how s e rio u s th e econom ic s i t u a t i o n had become. V ic e n te and o th e r In d ia n s come to o f f e r t h e i r h e lp in fa v o r o f M adero, th in k in g t h a t Andrds i s a M a d e ris ta : V icen te e l mayordomo me ha o fre c id o acompafiarme cuando s a ig a de p aseo "porque £ l s e r l e de l a g e n d a r- m erla r u r a l . " Los e s c r i b i e n t e s me sa lu d a n con una s o n r is a de so b re te n d id o y alg u n o s h a s ta se c u ad ran en a c t i t u d m i l i t a r y me d ic e n : Buenos d la s j e f e .18 In La L ucldrnaga (1932) th e r e i s ev id en ce o f th e e x p ro p r ia tio n o f la n d by th e p eople th em se lv e s. The Zapa t i s t a s , whose le a d e r , B n ilia n o Z ap ata, r u le s th e s t a t e o f 17A zuela, A ndres B arez. M a d erista in Cbras .Comple- t a s . I I , 787. 18 A zuela, AndrAs BSrez . M aderista in Obras Comole- t a s . I I , 778. 145 M orelos by f o r c e , a r e m entioned a s g iv in g la n d to th e 19 p o o r. In th e same work JosA M arla has to s e l l h is la n d to th e governm ent f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o th e p o o r. F lo re s M arin o f Regina Landa (1939) has to g iv e up a v a lu a b le t r a c t o f la n d f o r e l i d o s : Y sep an que yo no soy de lo s re v o lu c io n a rio s de p ic o ; v e in tlo c h o m il p esos s a c rifiq u A a la cau sa . . . p e ro no d i j o que e l g o b ie rn o se lo s h a b la q u ita d o p a ra la d o ta c i6n de un e j i d o . C o rru p t A p p ro p ria tio n o f la n d I t m ust n o t be th o u g h t, how ever, t h a t d u rin g th e R ev o lu tio n (1910) a l l fo r c e s worked t o a id th e p o o r, o r t o remedy t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . In many in s ta n c e s th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d was c a r r i e d o u t s o l e ly f o r th e a c q u is itio n o f p o l i t i c a l pow er, a s e x p la in e d in C hapter IV. The number o f la r g e e s t a t e s d id n o t d isa p p e a r a l t o g e th e r , and th e v a rio u s governm ents t h a t e x is te d d u rin g th e R e v o lu tio n d id l i t t l e to a l l e v i a t e th e s i t u a t i o n . Govern ment and m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s in e v e ry a d m in is tr a tio n 19 A zuela, La L u ciern ag a i n Obras C om oletas. I , 602- 603. 20 A zuela, Racine landa in Obras Com oletas. I , 913. 146 a p p ro p ria te d one o r more h a c ie n d a s, and t h i s p r a c tic e con tin u e d th ro u g h o u t th e h e ig h t o f th e R e v o lu tio n . A zuela p o rtra y s th e exchange, by th e p o o r, o f one m a ste r f o r a n o th e r. In El Camara da B in to la (1937), many g e n e ra ls own a s many a s th r e e h a cien d a s e a c h : A p e s a r de que l e v ie n e n s ir v ie n d o a to d o s lo s g o b le r- nos desde I b r f i r i o D iaz, han s ld o l e a le s a l a re v o lu - c i6n . Hace poco, lo s a n tig u o s p r o p le ta r io s de unas h acien d as que me IncautA en Durango, p re te n d ie ro n despojarm e de e l l a s . Ho h ic e mas que e n c a u z e r e l a su n to a lo s tr ib u n a le s y e l m a g istra d o R£os no s6lo me d l6 s u f a l l o f a v o r a b le , s in o que o b llg6 m is con- tr in c a n t e s a l pago de danos y p e r j u i c i o s. 1 In C&ao a l F in U o r6 Juan B iblo (1 9 1 8 ), B&scual B a il6n , a b a rb e r , and l a t e r a p o l i t i c i a n , g ra b s h is sh a re i n th e form o f an h a cien d a and a r a i l r o a d : B iscu al B a il6n , nuevo C in c in a to , despuds de s a l v a r a l a B r tr ia , s e ha r e t i r a d o a l a v ld a p riv a d a a c u id a r su s i n t e r e s e s , una h a cien d a en M ichoacin y un f e r r o - c a r r i l muy x eg u larm en te eq u ip ad o . These exam ples show t h a t a c o n s id e ra b le amount o f p ro p e rty c o n tin u e d t o rem ain i n th e hands o f a few men. The b e s t la n d s w ere re s e rv e d alw ays f o r a d h e re n ts o f th e 21 A zu ela, bi Cat**™ ** ftm to la in Obygp C qupletgg, I , 696. 22 A zuela, C6mo a l F in U o r 6 Juan te b lo in Q bEflg. C om pletes. I I , 1077. governm ent, th e R e v o lu tio n is ts who liv e d from t h e i r a c tio n s in th e e le c tio n s and m a n ife s ta tio n s o f th e governm ent, people who n e ith e r knew how to work th e lan d s n o r had any d e s ir e s o f doing s o . When th e h a rv e s ts came, how ever, th ey managed t o ro b th e ne6n o f h is y e a r 's w ork. In th e modern v i l l a g e o f Q u in tan a, m entioned in San G a b rie l de V a ld iv ia s (1938), th e r e i s w ork f o r e v e ry man, woman, an d c h il d d u r in g p la n tin g and h a rv e s tin g se a so n s; y e t th e r e i s no c o r resp o n d in g in c re a s e i n th e p r o s p e r ity o f th e la b o r e r s b ecau se th ie v in g p r o p r ie to r s d iv e r t p r o f i t s i n t o c h an n e ls le a d in g to t h e i r own p o c k e ts . Thus th e la b o r e r , d e s p ite h is e f f o r t s in th e R e v o lu tio n , o n ly succeeded in exchanging th e o p p re s siv e hacendado f o r a d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t y o f t y r a n t , th e p o l i t i c a l le a d e r who, even more r u t h le s s and u n scru p u lo u s in h is program o f advancem ent, f in d s in th e ne6n th e m a te r ia l f o r e x p lo i t a t io n , a s d id h is p re d e c e s s o rs f o r hundreds o f y e a rs . Don Ramoncito in San G a b rie l de V al d iv ia s (1938) i n t r e p i d l y v o ic e s th e d is c o n te n t o f th e low er c la s s b ecau se o f th e f r u s t r a t i o n o f th e p r in c ip le s f o r w hich th e y s tr u g g le d in th e R e v o lu tio n : " iHermano cam peslno, 23 A zuela, San G abriel de V a ld iv ia s in Obras Comple t e s . I, 788-789. 148 a c a b a s te con e l hacendado; a h o ra t e f a l t a a c a b a r con e l l l d e r !"24 The Abuse o f th e fe a s a n ts The a b u se s Imposed upon lo s de a b a lo b y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f th e R e v o lu tio n a ry governm ent a r e num erous and o f te n r e i t e r a t e d . Because o f th e c o n tr o l o f th e m arket by th e R e v o lu tio n a ry d i r e c t o r In th e v i l l a g e o f Q u in tan a, g r a in n e v e r r e tu r n s a s much a s o n e -h a lf th e p r ic e t h a t Is se c u re d f o r I t I n any o th e r p a r t o f M exico: Lo que q u ie r e d e c lr q u e , cuando e l m alz v a l l a en c u a lq u ie ra o t r a p a rte de Mexico a c in c o p eso s h e c to - l l t r o , en San G a b rie l no a lc a n z a r la n l l a m lta d de e s e p r e c io . * A nother exam ple was a m odern highway c o s tin g f i v e m illio n p e so s. The c o s t f o r t h i s highway was ta k e n from th e p o ck ets o f unhappy c o n tr ib u to r s and se rv e d l i t t l e purpose o th e r th a n e n a b lin g governm ent m a n ip u la to rs to c a r r y away th e p ro d u c ts o f t h e i r p lu n d e rin g w ith g r e a t e r f a c i l i t y . ° 24 A zu ela, San G a b rie l de V a ld iv ia s in Obras Comnle- t a s . I , 783. 25 A zu ela, San G a b rie l de V a ld iv ia s in Obras Comnle- I , 774. 26 A zuela, SflB G ab riel rife V aldivias. in Obras Comple- J&&, I , 775. 149 Ih ra e l l l d e r y su c a m a rilla de c a n a lla s , la s c a ja s de la t e s o r e r l a de la n a c i6n a b ie r ta s s i n r e s e r v a a lg u n a ; p a ra e l tr a b a ja d o r , la s g a b e la s , e x a c c io n e s , i n j u s t i c i a s e in iq u id a d e s de lo s m andones. Y m ie n tra s e l pueblo v e rd a d e ro no a lc a n z a ya n i a com er, p o r f a l t a de t r a b a jo , l a hez d e l p u e b lo , s e a h i t a , s i n mfts de- b e re s que m an ten erse en su d e sg ra c ia d o p a p e l de c o s a , e n la s m ascaradas o f i c i a l e s . 2 ' Lands d i s t r i b u t e d among th e neones a s a r e s u l t o f th e R e v o lu tio n a re s u b je c t to w ith d ra w a l a t th e c a p ric e o f th e governm ent, w hich i n th e v i l l a g e o f Q uintana i s S a tu r n in e Q uintana; th e f l i m s i e s t p r e te x t s u f f i c e s to ta k e away th e la n d o f th e neones to g e th e r w ith th e la b o r and e x e r tio n t h a t th e y have expended on lan d s t h a t th e y have come to 28 r e g a rd a s t h e i r own. The C urtailm ent: o f A g r ic u ltu r a l Product io n A g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u c tio n was c u r t a i l e d f o r v a rio u s re a s o n s . In th e w ork R 1 ramnre d a B m to la (1937) th e g e n e r a ls and governm ental o f f i c i a l s who have a c q u ire d la r g e e s t a t e s do n o t v a lu e them v e ry much an d lo s e a s many a s 27 A zuela, San G a b rie l de V a ld iv ia s in Obras Comnle- t a s . 1, 776. 28 A zuela, San G abriel de V a ld iv ia s in Obras Comple t e s . I, 784-788. 150 29 two h a c ie n d a s a t a tim e in gam bling. In Avanzada (1940) th o se who own la n d , h a c ie n d a s, o r ranchos a r e d i s co u rag ed from m aking t h e i r la n d s y ie ld to t h e i r f u l l e s t . Don M ig u e lito , f o r exam ple, has to l im i t h is cro p s in o rd e r n o t t o tem pt th o s e who a re hungry f o r la n d . When he f o l lows h is s o n 's a d v ic e on how t o in c re a s e h is p ro d u c tio n , h is p ro p e rty i s c o n fis c a te d by l o c a l o f f i c i a l s who have no i n t e r e s t in w orking th e la n d ; th e y a r e more i n te r e s te d in p o l i t i c s . The new owner o f w hat was once Don M ig u elito * s la n d f a i l s t o s t o r e w a te r, and a s a consequence, th e y e a r 's , , 30 c ro p i s l o s t . A nother cau se o f lim ite d p ro d u c tio n i s th e la c k o f m odern farm m ach in ery . Don M iguel i t o '8 so n , A d o lfo , who has v i s i t e d th e U nited S ta te s , c o n v in c es h is f a th e r t h a t th e y sh o u ld have modern m achinery f o r b e t t e r r e s u l t s . The equipm ent i s th e n b ro u g h t from th e U h ited S ta te s , an d a m echanic from Mexico C ity i s em ployed t o m a in ta in and d e m o n stra te how th e equipm ent o p e ra te s . When Don Mi g u e l i t o 's la n d i s ta k e n from him , th e new ow ners, n o t 29 A zu ela, El Camarada B m to la i n Obras C om nletas. I , 697-699. 30 A zuela, Avanzada in Obras Comnletas. 1, 985. 151 knowing how to o p e ra te th e eq u ip m en t, d e s tro y I t In an a tte m p t t o o p e ra te I t . E x p lo ita tio n o f th e ft?ones The econom ic m a in sta y o£ Mexico has alw ays re q u ire d cheap l a b o r , c o n se q u e n tly th e r e has alw ays been a n abun dance o£ peones e x is tin g a t s t a r v a t i o n w ages. Tannenbaum s t a t e s t h a t th e norm al d a lly wages re c e iv e d In money ab o u t 1887 ran g ed betw een tw elv e and o n e -h a lf c e n ta v o s and s i x te e n c e n ta v o s . and t h a t wages rem ained s t a ti o n a r y from th e 31 b e g in n in g o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry to 1910. F u rth e r m ore, d e s p ite th e g e n e ra l r i s e In w ages a s a r e s u l t o f th e R e v o lu tio n , th e r e e x is te d In Mexico th ro u g h 1940 p la c e s w here th e wages had rem ained s t a t i o n a r y . A zuela in Mela ! Ybrba (1909) g iv e s th e wage o f th e pe6n a t a b o u t tw elv e and o n e -h a lf c e n tav o s a day. G e r tr u d ls , a farm hand, sp eak in g o f th e h acen d ad o s. s a y s : No, setfor Rablo; de e s o tle n e n l a c u lp a no m&s lo s p a tr o n e s . Con su s m is e r i e s , con peones de a r e a l y 31Frank Tennenbaum, The M exican A g ra ria n R ev o lu tio n (W ashington, D .C .: The B rookings I n s t i t u t i o n , 1930), pp. 113-116. The la r g e e s t a t e s r e s t e d on a fo u n d a tio n o f d ebt peonage a g g ra v a te d by p i t i f u l l y low w ag es, tw elv e to e ig h te e n c e n ts d a lly , u s u a lly p a id I n k in d , to k en o r c r e d i t . See R oss, t t r a l f f g P I t Mftferpj P- 3 1 . 152 r a c i 6n , m etlendo e l ganado en c o r r a le s como e s t e , c la r o que e so h a b ia de r e s u l t a r .^2 In Los de A balo (1915) A zuela g iv e s th e d a ily wage a s six * te e n c e n tav o s a day. In A n d ris Bferez (1911) th e wage o£ th e b ra c e ro i s g iv e n a s t h i r t y c e n ta v o s a d ay.34 In Los C aciaues (1917) r e f e r e n c e i s made t o th o se who g e t t h i r t y - 35 seven cen tav o s a day. A nother n e g a tiv e p o in t i s t h a t f r e e commerce was e x clu d ed from th e h a c ie n d a s; th e tie n d a de ra v a ( p la n ta tio n s t o r e o r company s t o r e ) , managed by th e a d m in is tr a tio n , was th e c h ie f and f r e q u e n tly th e o n ly so u rc e o f s u p p lie s . The id e a f o r th e tie n d a de ra v a was to cau se such money a s was p a id o u t in wages to r e t u r n t o th e h a cien d a a t a p r o f i t . T his r e t u r n was n o t d i f f i c u l t t o e f f e c t , f o r i n many h a c ie n d a s p u rch ase a t th e company s t o r e was com pulsory. In Los ftre c u rso re s (1935) one o f th e a r t i c l e s o f th e "E lan P o litic o " makes r e f e r e n c e to th e tie n d a de ra v a and s a l a - r i o a ; "S iguen d is p o s ic io n e s so b re a rre n d a m ie n to s, a lz a de 32A zu ela, Mftk..XffiChft i n frlTftg. CqBRle.tfl9 * I , 139. 33A zuela, Ix>s de Abalo in Obras C om pletes. I , 392. 34A zuela, A n d ris B irez in Obras C om nletas. I I , 164. 35A zu ela, Los C aciques in Obras C om pletes. I I , 824. 153 s a l a r i e s , s u p r e s i6n de la s tie n d a s de ray a y la m is ic a que 36 aun se a co stu m b ra ." M acedonio, a sm a ll farm er in De Mi T ie rra (1938), r e a l i z e s o n ly fo u r and o n e -h a lf p esos from a y e a r 's w ork: I a cosecha fue buena; pero en l a l iq u i d a c i6n no a lc a n z 6 m is que c u a tro pesos y c u a tro r e a l e s , como f r u to de to d o e l tr a b a jo de un afto, de v i v i r pegado a la t i e r r a a s o l y ag u a, de d la y de noche. Esa m alde- c id a t i e r r a que s 6lo e n riq u e c e a lo s am os.3' This s ta te m e n t may s u b s ta n tia te f u r t h e r th e f a c t t h a t n o t o n ly was la n d c o n c e n tra te d i n th e hands o f a few , b u t th e p r o f i t a ls o from th e produce o f th e la n d rem ained i n th o se same few hands. Wages, a f t e r 1910, rem ained s ta tio n a r y ; how ever, th e p r ic e o f com m odities c o n tin u e d t o r i s e . A n d ris, a r e p o r te r f o r th e new spaper E l G lobo. i n A ndris BSrez (1911), t e l l s h is em ployer: Los c e r e a le s han a lc a n z a d o un p re c io s i n p re c e d e n te . E l jo m a l e r o se n u tre de m alz y de f r i j o l . Donde un b ra c e ro gana t r e i n t a y s i e t e cen tav o s d i a r i o s , e l m alz v a le s i e t e pesos h e c t o l i t r o y e l f r i j o l c a to r c e . Ifero e l G obierno g a s t a r i m is de v e in te m illo n e s en l a c o n s tr u c c iin d e l T e a tro N a c io n a l. 38 340. 36A zuela, lo s fre c u rs o re s i n Obras C om pletes. I l l , 37A zuela, D a. J S L In Obras C om nletas. I I , 1033. 38 A zuela, Arafojft in Obras Comnletas. I I , 764. A few y e a rs l a t e r , 1917, in Los C aciques (1917), F a th e r Jerem las e x p la in s t h a t l a p £ rd id a de co sech as d u ra n te dos anos c o n s e c u tiv o s , h a b la determ inado a u ltim a h o ra una a lz a c o n s id e ra b le en lo s a r t l c u l o s de p rim e ra n e c e s id a d , a t a l punto que a lo s jo r n a le r o s que ganaban t r e i n t a y s i e t e c en tav o s d ia r io s no l e s a lc a n z a b a , con e l s u e ld o , n i p a ra coiner m alz y f r i j o l e s . 9 A c tu a lly , th e s e wages w ere th e same a s th o se o f th e l a t e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry . D e sp ite th e change in th e v a lu e o f money, th e new hacendados k e p t th e w ages th e same. In tro d u c tio n o f V a lu e le s s Baner Money A nother d e te r r e n t to econom ic w e ll-b e in g came in to th e p i c t u r e . The in tr o d u c tio n o f p a p e r money, known a s b i li n b l a u e s . f u r t h e r a f f e c t e d a d v e rs e ly th e economy o f th e c o u n try , f o r i t s v a lu e d e p re c ia te d v e ry r a p id ly . The names o f H u e rta , C a rra n za , and V i l la a r e m en tio n ed in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e issu a n c e o f f i a t money, money is s u e d p rim a rily d u rin g th e p e rio d 1911 th ro u g h 1918. The owner o f th e b a r v i s i t e d by D e m etrio 's men j u s t b e fo re t h e i r l a s t b a t t l e t e l l s them : " i lk p e l e s , s i ! . . . {Eso nos han t r a l d o u s te d e s ! . . . jib s e so coman! . . . y en vano lo s j e f e s m u estran su s 39 A zuela, Lpg, Cftgjin Cbrfl.g. CfiBPtetftf., I I , 824. 155 An b o l s i l l o s rev e n tan d o de b i l l e t e s . ' O ther a llu s io n s to f l a t money a r e made by A zuela. D e m etrlo 's gro u p , in Los de A balo. t r y to exchange " b i l l e - t e s de la em iaiS n de H uerta" f o r s i l v e r and a cacique*a fa m ily r e f u s e s t h e i r o f f e r . The f l a t money t h a t V illa is s u e d i s s a r c a s t i c a l l y spoken o f i n Las Moscas (1 9 1 5 ): M arta, a poor widow, th in k s a b o u t a l l th e th in g s sh e i s g o in g to a s k f o r when sh e m eets Bmcho V i l la . When she m en tio n s money, R o sita h e r d a u g h te r a n sw e rs, " iY de qud nos 41 s l r v e su p a p e l s i ya n a d ie lo q u l e r e !" C a rra n z a 's p ap er money i s m entioned in Las T rib u la c io n e s (1918) w h e re in i s s t a t e d t h a t C arranza is s u e s and r e is s u e s f i a t money when e v e r he th in k s i t i s n e c e s s a ry . 42 In e v e ry c a se p eo p le w ere a f r a i d to a c c e p t f i a t money because i t s v a lu e was to o u n s ta b le . An exam ple in c a se i s t h a t o f Josd M arla o f l a L ucidrnaea (1932) when a tte m p ts t o make payment w ith p a p e r money on a m ortgage 40A zu ela, Lpg fe. AfefLto i n P frfflg C qnplgttm , I , 415. 41A zuela, la s Moscas i n Ofrgftg Cqmplftflff, I I . 898. 42A zuela, Las T rib u la c io n e s i n O feffftg. CfflRls.tflg, I , 482-484. w hich, a c c o rd in g t o th e c o n tr a c t , sh o u ld be made in g o ld o r s i l v e r . The owner o f th e m ortgage re fu s e s t o a c c e p t p a p er money; n e v e r th e le s s , he i s fo rc e d to c a n c e l th e m ortgage / 1 by C a rra n c is ta o f f i c e r s . T his s i t u a t i o n was n o t th e e x c e p tio n ; i t to o k p la c e u n d er e v e ry a d m in is tr a tio n d u rin g th e f ig h tin g y e a rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n . Every a d m in is tr a tio n t h a t is s u e d p a p er money fo rc e d th e p u b lic to a c c e p t i t ; th e n , w ith o u t w a rn in g , th e a d m in is tr a tio n w ould a n n u l i t . In l a s T rib u la c io n e s (1918) th e r e i s a good exam ple o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n . The V&zquez ftrados have been l e f t a b a s k e t f u l l o f "p a p e l c o n s t i t u c i o n a l i s t a " and a r e c a lc u la tin g a s t o how long th e n can l iv e on i t ; u n e x p e c te d ly , A rc h ib a ld o , a fa m ily f r ie n d o f th e V&zquez Qrados, a r r i v e s w ith th e l a t e s t new s: "£ S eis m eses? No sefio r, v e in t i c u a tr o h o ra s . A rc h ib a ld o v in o d e s q u ija ra d o y llv id o con la n o t i c i a : Acaba de a p a r e c e r un d e c re to . C arran za a n u la s u pa p e l m o n e d a ." ^ The Burden o f In c re a s in g Taxes The economy, a lr e a d y c ru sh e d by low wages and w o rth le s s p ap er money, was t o s u f f e r y e t a n o th e r blew — ^ A z u e la , t» in Obras Com nletas. I , 602. ^ A z u e la , la s T rib u lacion es In Qbyas Couple tftfl., I , 482. 157 In c re a s in g ta x e s . The b u rden o f heavy ta x e s p re v e n te d many from in v e s tin g t h e i r money i n com m ercial e n t e r p r i s e s . For exam ple, D io n isio , o f la LuciA rnaea (1932), f a i l s in a l l h is b u sin e ss e n te r p r is e s b ecau se o f th e many ta x e s im posed; b u t he f i n a l l y su cceed s by m aking " la Genera la " h is p a r tn e r . Ia G enerala knows how t o k eep ta x c o ll e c t o r s away from t h e i r p la c e o f b u s in e s s . She t e l l s D io n isio , "Y p a ra im- p u e s to s , rn u lta s, in s p e c to r e s y demAs m ordelones c o rre n de mi c u e n ta . " 43 A nother exam ple o f th e e x c e s s iv e and u n eq u al sy stem o f ta x a tio n i s found in AndrAs BSrez (1911). Romualdo L6p e z ' re a so n f o r w a n tin g t o j o i n M adero's army i s t h a t he pays th e same amount in ta x e s f o r a sm a ll p lo t o f la n d a s does G eneral HernAndez f o r h is h a c ie n d a : La v e rd a d e s que ya u rg e que nos q u ite n a don I b r f i r i o y a to d o s lo s b andidos de su g o b ie m o . Soy duetto de una g a r r i t a de t i e r r a que no lle g a n i a dos c a b a l l e r l a s , y pago p o r e l l a de c o n trib u c io n e s ta n to como e l c o ro n e l HernAndez paga p o r l a h acien d a d e l o f r e c e r le d o sc ie n to s c in c u e n ta To summarize th e fo re g o in g , i t may be s a id t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e , a c c o rd in g t o A zu ela, c o n tin u e d to be th e b a s is 43A zuela, La Luciernaea in Obras Comnletas. I, 635. 46A zuela, AndrAs BSrez in Obras Completas. I I , 788. 158 o f econom ic l i f e in Mexico th ro u g h o u t th e R ev o lu tio n and up t o th e 1 9 4 0 's, la n d and th e p r o f i t s from i t rem ained i n th e hands o f a s e l e c t group o f p o l i t i c i a n s and m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s . The problem a f t e r 1910 c o n tin u e d to be th e u n eq u al d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d and w e a lth , w hich k e p t wages and th e p r ic e o f com m odities from k eep in g pace w ith e ac h o th e r . F u rth erm o re, econom ic p ro g re s s was h in d e re d by th e p a p e r money issu e d d u rin g th e p e rio d 1911-1919 and by th e e x c e s s iv e and u n eq u al ta x e s im posed on th o se who had no p o l i t i c a l in flu e n c e . CHAPTER VI AZUELA* S COMPANIONS IN CHAOS A z u e la 's a b i l i t y t o p o r tra y c h a r a c te r i s r i v a l e d o n ly by h is a b i l i t y to d e s c rib e th e s e t t i n g in w hich th e human elem ent f u n c tio n s . Real p eople p a r t i c i p a t e in A z u e la 's n o v e ls . Uhder A z u e la 's pen th e c h a r a c te r s come a l i v e . The r e a d e r i s p r o je c te d i n to th e sc e n e . He f e e l s e v e ry th in g th e c h a r a c te r s a r e e x p e rie n c in g . P lo t i s de c id e d ly seco n d ary in A z u e la 's n o v e ls . Through h is c r e a tiv e power a s an a r t i s t , he d e p ic ts th e r e v o lu tio n th ro u g h a s e r i e s o f an im ated and v ig o ro u s s c e n e s. He a p p r o p r ia te ly s e le c te d Cuadros v e sc e n a s de l a r e v o lu c i6n a s th e s u b t i t l e f o r s e v e r a l o f h is n o v e ls . A zuela bestow ed h is u n lim ite d n a r r a t iv e and de s c r i p t i v e power on th e humble ne6n who, b ecau se o f th e R e v o lu tio n , was tra n sfo rm e d i n to a b a n d it f i g h t e r . Like th e l a t e contem porary M exican a r t i s t , Diego R iv e ra , A zuela g lo r ie d in p o rtra y in g th e ne6n w ith a l l th e b r u ta l r e a lis m 159 a t h is command. Y et, one se n se s th e deep sym pathy t h a t th e a u th o r f e e ls tow ard t h i s humble s o c i a l c l a s s . Time and a g a in th e r e a d e r e n c o u n te rs th e d e sc rip * t iv e p h rase fa z de id o lo a z t e c a . This p h rase g iv e s th e r e a d e r a l l th e p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e pe6n . A zuela e x a lts th e In d ia n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e M exican r a c e . His fa c e i s s t o l i d . He i s ru d e , ro u g h , b r u t a l and a s savage a s a w ild a n im a l. Y et, A zuela lo v es him .* In T rib u la c io nes de ifaa F a m i n e D e c a n ta (1918) th e R ev o lu tio n ary s o l d i e r s a re d re s se d in r a g s . G entes re n e g rid a s de b a rb a s t a l a s y r l s p i d a s , de agudos y b la n c o s c o lm illo s , de s o n r is a i d i o t a y fe ro z a la v e z , que hacen c a l o s f r i a r s e a uno. Cuando busco a lg o muy inmundo con que c o m p a ra rlo s, s 6lo e n c u e n tro l a s in m ed iacio n es d e l Mercado de la M erced. S im ila r ly , D em etrlo, th e outlaw c h ie f o f Los de 1 A balo (1915) i s d e s c rib e d a s having a d ark c h e s t, and le g s t h a t g l i t t e r l i k e o ld b ro n ze . His fa c e , burned and tan n ed by su n and w ind, i s f e r o c io u s ly v i r i l e , and a t tim e s l i g h t s M ariano A zu ela, Las Moscas in Obras Com nletas de M ariano A zuela. p ro lo g u e by F ra n c isc o M onterde (M&xico: Fondo de C u ltu re Econom ics, V ols. I * I I , 1958; V ol. I l l , 1960), I I , 888-889. 2 A zuela, T rib u lacion es de Una Famlll* Decente in Obras Com pletes. I , 441-443. 161 3 up w ith jo y . In th e n a v e ls o f A zuela th e Mexican "m asses" f a l l in to th r e e c a te g o r ie s : common c rim in a ls ; p e a c e -lo v in g c o u n try people t h a t have been d riv e n in to r e b e l l i o n by th e ty ra n n y o f governm ent o f f i c i a l s ; and an a p a th e tic g roup o f .c it i z e n r y to o s p in e le s s to make r e s is ta n c e o f any k in d . A z u e la 's R soole: Cogy^ n la Gtlero M a rg a rito , i n th e n o v e l Los de A balo (1915) i s more th a n a common c r im in a l, f o r a t tim es he e x h ib its c e r t a i n t r a i t s o f th e s a d i s t . He s p a re s th e l i f e o f a p r is o n e r and b rin g s him to camp because he w an ts t o se e th e e x p re s s io n on th e m an 's fa c e when th e noose tig h te n s around h is t h r o a t . Back a t th e encampment he t o r t u r e s th e u n fo r tu n a te p ris o n e r w ith t h r e a t s o f d e a th . He p u lls th e t r i g g e r o f h is r e v o lv e r , th e n d e c id e s to postpone th e e x e c u tio n . As he perform s th e s e a c t s o f t o r t u r e , h is eyes sh in e in a p e c u lia r f a s h io n and h is cheeks a r e c o lo re d w ith a s e n s a tio n o f suprem e v o lu p tu o u s n e s s . This t o r t u r e con tin u e s u n t i l th e p r is o n e r d ie s o f h e a rt f a i l u r e . 4 3A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Com nletas. I , 415. 4A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Comnletas. I , 390- 395. In a n o th e r in s ta n c e , Gtiero k i l l s an o ld man from whom he h as s t o l e n h is w in te r su p p ly o f g r a in . A gain, in an e f f o r t to c h e e r up h is c h ie f , he perform s th e W illiam T e ll a c t , a tte m p tin g to sh o o t th e s to p p e r from a b o t t l e o f t e q u i l a , w hich had been p la c e d on a w a i t e r 's h ead. In s te a d , he sh o o ts o f f th e m an's e a r . 5 When n o t engaged in a c tiv e d u ty , GOero M a rg a rito se ek s o u t th e B a rrio de la s Muchachas (th e b r o t h e l ) . A z u e la 's fe o n le : Those D riven t o R e b e llio n D em etrio M acias, th e c e n t r a l f ig u r e o f Los de Abalo (1 9 1 5 ), i s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th o s e who a r e fo rc e d in to con f l i c t becau se o f governm ent o p p re s s io n . A b s o lu te ly d e v o id o f a m b itio n o r lo v e o f money, h is needs and h is d e s ir e s a r e a s sim p le a s h is c h a r a c te r . An a l t e r c a t i o n in w hich th e l o c a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f law and o rd e r in ju d ic io u s ly i n t e r v en es fo rc e s D em etrio t o th e m o u n ta in s, w here he becomes th e le a d e r o f a sm a ll band o f o u tla w s. His m ajor d e s ir e i s to r e t u r n to h is sm a ll farm ; how ever, h is c o n tr a c t w ith L uis C erv an tes pushes him more and more i n to th e c u r r e n t 5A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Comnletas. I , 401. 163 o f n a tio n a l e v e n ts . "M L j e f e , " C erv an tes sa y s t o him, Us te d no comprende to d a v la su v e rd a d e r a , a l t a y n o b llls lm a m is i6n . Us te d , hombre modes t o y s in am bi- c io n e s , no q u le r e v e r e l Im p o rtan t I s Imo pa p e l que l e to c a en e s t a re v o lu c ld n . M en tlra que us te d ande por a q u l p o r don M 6n ic o , e l c a c iq u e ; u s te d s e ha le v a n ta d o c o n tra e l caciquism o que a s o la to d a l a n a c i6n . Somos elem en to s de un g ra n m ovim lento s o c i a l que t ie n e que c o n c lu ir p o r e l en g ran d ecim ien to de n u e s tr a p a t r l a . Somos in stru m e n to s d e l d e s tin o p a ra l a r e i v i n d ic a c i6n de lo s sa g rad o s derech o s d e l p u e b lo . No peleam os por d e rro c a r a un a s e s in o m is e ra b le , s in o c o n tra la t i r a n l a misma. Eso e s lo que se llam a lu c h a r p o r p r i n c i p io s , te n e r id e a le s . Bor e l l o s lu ch an V i l la , N a te ra , C a rra n za ; p o r e ll o s estam os luchando n oso- t r o s . ® When C erv an tes su g g e sts to D em etrio t h a t th e y have accu m u lated enough b o o ty and sh o u ld r e t i r e i n El Raso and l i v e l i k e g en tlem en , D em etrio a n sw e rs: D gjelo to d o p a ra u s te d . . . . De v e r a s , c u rro . . . . S i v i e r a que no l e ten g o amor a l d in e r o ! . . . iQ u ie re que l e d ig a la v e rd a d ? Hies yo, con que no me f a l t e e l tr a g o y con t r a e r una cham aquita que me c u a d re , soy e l hombre mAs f e l i z d e l m undo.' In D e m e trio 's s o u l b e a ts th e i n s t i n c t o f th e o ld nom adic t r i b e s . He c a re s n o t w here he i s g o in g . His o n ly d e s ir e i s to t r a v e l , to be m aste r o f m ountain and v a ll e y a s f a r a s th e eye can re a c h . At one tim e , he had been happy 6A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Com nletas. 1, 348. 7A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Com nletas. 1, 386. 164 w ith h is p e a c e fu l e x is te n c e ; new th e R e v o lu tio n has t r a n s form ed him I n to a nomad. As lo n g a s he h as a r i f l e and c a r t r i d g e s , he does n o t c a re f o r whom and f o r w hat he Is f i g h ti n g . Dimly, D em etrio a p p re c ia te s th e t r u t h when one o f h is a s s o c ia te s s a y s : i V i l l a ? . . . jO bregdn? . . . & C a rra n z a ? . . . jX . . . Y . . . Z . . . ? iQuA se me da a m l ? . . . Amo l a Revolu- c l 6n como amo a l volcA n que Irru m p e. jAl volcA n porque e s volcA n; a la R evoluci6n porque e s R evolucl6n! . . . Baro l a s p le d ra s que que dan a r r l b a .0 aba j o , despuAs d e l c a ta c lls m o , iquA me Im portan a m l? 8 There I s n o th in g o f th e b u lly In D em etrio. He I s q u i e t , s o f t spoken, cap ab le o f a g en ero u s deed even though r e l e n t l e s s tow ard h is enem ies. He b u m s down th e house o f th e c a c iq u e who has fo rc e d him to become an o u tla w , b u t he does n o t harm th e woman who m urders h is m is tr e s s . The d e a th o f t h i s h ero I s a s g lo r io u s a s one can e x p e c t. D em etrio m eets h is f a t e when h is band o f re v o lu t i o n a r i e s I s d e fe a te d In an ambush. At th e bottom o f an enormous r a v in e , a s s p le n d id a s th e p o r tic o o f a n o ld c a th e d r a l, r i g i d and aim ing h is r i f l e , he d i e s , a h e ro . A l p ie de una re s q u e b ra ja d u ra enorme y su n tu o sa como p A rtlc o de v l e j a c a t e d r a l, D em etrio M acias, con 8A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Com nletas. I , 410. lo s o jo s f l j o s p a ra sie m p re , s ig u e apuntando can6n de su f u s i l . 9 In c o n tr a s t to D em etrio, A zuela p re s e n ts th e i d e a l i s t i c o p p o r tu n is t, L uis C e rv a n te s. L u is, a m ed ical s t u d e n t, j o in s th e g roup w h ile D em etrio i s re c o v e rin g from a r a t h e r s e r io u s wound. He b e lo n g s to th e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a and p ro b ab ly w ould n o t have b een p e rm itte d to rem ain w ith th e group i f , by c u rin g D em etrio, he had n o t proved th e v a lu e o f h is p re s e n c e . He b e lie v e s i n th e id e a ls o f th e R e v o lu tio n . His m i l i t a r y c a r e e r had s t a r t e d w ith th e F e d e r a l is ts , b u t he had d e s e r te d t h e i r ran k s because o f th e d is illu s io n m e n t t h e i r a c tio n s c a u se d . The f a c t t h a t h is r e c e p tio n i n to D em etrio*s band has been f a r from g ra c io u s makes him w onder i f th e id e a ls o f th e R ev o lu tio n a re a c t u a l l y b e in g fo llo w ed by e i t h e r g ro u p . C erv an tes f e e l s t h a t he knows th e re a s o n s f o r th e R ev o lu tio n and u n d e rsta n d s th e i d e a l s . He can n o t u n d e r s ta n d th e r e s ig n a tio n and p a s s iv e n e s s o f th e men o f D em etrio*s band. He t r i e s t o con v in ce them t h a t th e y a r e f ig h tin g t o im prove t h e i r s t a t u s , a lth o u g h th e y r e a l i z e t h a t f a t e has cau sed them to j o i n th e f i g h t . C erv an tes 9A zuela, Iftfr f e AfaLlft in Cbras Completes . I, 418. 166 t e l l s them : Somos In stru m e n to s d e l d e s tin o p ara l a r e iv in d ic a - c l 6n de lo s sa g rad o s d erech o s d e l p u eb lo . No peleam os p o r d e rro c a r a .u n a s e s in o m is e ra b le , s ln o c o n tra l a t l r a n l a mlsma. 10 A fte r r e a l iz i n g t h a t th e men a r e In ca p ab le o f f ig h tin g f o r o r u n d e rsta n d in g th e id e a ls o f th e R e v o lu tio n , he becomes s k e p t i c a l : Su s o n r is a v o lv i6 a v a g a r slg u ie n d o la s e s p i r a l e s de humo de lo s r i f l e s y la p o lv are d a de cada casa d e rrib a d a y de cada te c h o que se h u n d la . Y c re y 6 h a b e r d e s c u b ie rto un slm bolo de l a r e v o lu c i6n en a q u e lla s nubes de humo y en a q u e lla s nubes de polvo que f r a t e r - nalm en te a s c e n d la n , se a b ra z a b a n , se c o n fu n d lan y se b o rra b a n en la n a d a. 11 He th e n b e g in s t o th in k le s s o f th e p r in c ip le s in v o lv e d and more o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f advancing h im s e lf f i n a n c i a l l y . L uis C erv an tes s a c 6 un b o te c ito de f o s f a tin a F a l ll d r e s y v o lc 6 d i j e s , a n i l l o s , p e n d ie n te s y o tr a s mucha8 a lh a ja s de v a l o r . E sc o ja , mi g e n e r a l, d ijo L uis C erv an tes m ostrando l a s jo y a s p u e sta s en f i l a . S i, como p a re c e , e s t a b o la v a a s e g u lr , s i l a Revolts- c i 6n no se a c a b a , n o s o tro s tenem os ya lo s u f l c ie n te p a ra irn o s a b r i l l a r l a una tem porada fu e ra d e l p a ls . 10A zuela, Los de A balo i n Obras C om nletas. I , 348. ^ A z u e la , Los de A balo i n Obras C om pletes. I , 369. 1 2 A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Comnletas. I , 386. 167 A zu ela*8 fe o p le : The Camp F ollow ers No le s s v i v id I s A z u e la 's p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e fem ale camp f o llo w e rs . A g a in st th e background o f th e hom ely, a lm o st I d y l l i c l i f e o f th e se c lu d e d m ountain v i l la g e , o r th e r o a r in g tu rm o il o f th e R e v o lu tio n ary camp, w ith i t s p lu n d e rin g , m u rd erin g , and debauchery, two f ig u r e s s ta n d o u t, La PLntada and C am ila. la PLntada i s o liv e sk in n e d . Her t e e th a r e l i k e iv o ry . She w ears two c a r tr id g e b e l t s a c ro s s h e r b r e a s t . In a c a n tin a D em etrio and l a PLntada m eet f o r th e f i r s t tim e , " se m lra ro n c a ra a c a ra como dos p e rro s desco n o cid o s 13 que se o lf a te a n con d e s c o n fia n z a ." La PLntada co u ld sw ear w ith su ch e n e rg y and n o v e lty t h a t th e b rig a d e w ould 8to p to l i s t e n to h e r i n s u l t s . C am ila, th e c o u n try g i r l , n o t la c k in g in m odesty, c a tc h e s D em etrio*s eye w h ile he i s h id in g o u t in a m ountain v i l l a g e ; from th e f i r s t g la n c e he i s Im pressed, and s t a t e s , "me cu ad ra e l nombre p ero mas l a t o n a d i t a ." W ith p o ig n a n t, s u b t l e , and sy m p a th e tic d e t a i l , A zuela t e l l s th e s t o r y o f C am ila*8 love f o r C e rv a n te s: 13A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Com oletas. I , 372. 168 C am ila, an u n p o lish e d young In d ia n g i r l ; and C e rv an tes, whose o n ly i n t e r e s t in women i s to u se them a s to o ls w ith w hich t o a c c e le r a te h is p o l i t i c a l advancem ent. Subse q u e n tly , C ervantes b e tr a y s h e r in to th e power o f D em etrio, b u t soon sh e c o n fe s s e s h e r lo v e f o r him "pos le voy cobrando v o lu n tA ." A fterw ard , a s tr u g g le betw een Camila and la PLntada d e v e lo p s, w hich ends when l a PLntada s ta b s h e r r i v a l and i s h e r s e l f d riv e n away from th e camp. A z u ela*8 te o n le : la s Moscas At th e o th e r end o f th e s o c i a l la d d e r i s th e group o f p o l i t i c a l p a r a s i t e s t h a t A zuela con tem p tu o u sly c a l l s " la s M oscas" ( f l i e s ) . T his group i s th e r e c i p ie n t o f th e a u th o r 's m ost p o w erfu l in v e c tiv e s and in c is iv e s a t i r e . C lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e f i n a n c ia l c a c iq u e s , some a re u p s t a r t p o l i t i c o s sw ept i n to a p o s itio n o f a fflu e n c e and p o l i t i c a l im portance by th e R e v o lu tio n a ry u p h e av a l. Some a r e su a v e , d e b o n a ir, irre p r o a c h a b le i n t h e i r e x te r n a l a p p earan ce and m anners. The m osca. by d e f i n i ti o n , i s alw ays a form er F e d e ra l and una p erso n a d e ce n te (a re s p e c t a b l e p e rs o n ); many had been a c t iv e in th e form er Diaz reg im e. D islo c a te d b y th e R e v o lu tio n , th e y hunt a b o u t 169 d e s p e ra te ly f o r means to l i v e th ro u g h th e le a n y e a rs u n t i l a c o n s e rv a tiv e r e a c tio n w i l l make th e p o l i t i c a l "fe e d tro u g h " once a g a in a c c e s s ib le . A z u e la 's m oscas p u n c tu a te t h e i r rem arks w ith th e m onotonous "Estam os p e rd id o s , " and "Es p r e c is o que yo v e a a l G obernador inm edia ta m e n te , " w hich i s re p e a te d lik e th e ch o ru s o f some hymn. When th e y u t t e r th e s e rem ark s, th e y r o l l t h e i r e y es in a m ost s i g n i f i c a n t fa s h io n and low er t h e i r v o ic e s t o m y ste rio u s d e p th s . In Andr6s BSrez (1911) he s a y s , th e s i g h t o f them "me da l a s e n s a c i6n de un puntapiA en m lta d d e l e s t 6m a g o .S o m e o f th e s o f t , fla b b y jo b h o ld e rs p re te n d to be w id e ly re a d i n t e l l e c t u a l s , b u t A zuela s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n tr ib u tio n s a r e a to x ic g a s , th e p ro d u ct o f m en tal in d ig e s tio n produced by t h e i r r e a d i n g . ^ T his g ro u p i s c y n ic a lly in s in c e r e in i t s p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n s . The mosca s h i f t s in th e w ind l ik e a w e a th e r- v a n e . The man i n power i s an in d iv id u a l o f "asom broso t a l e n t o . . . de una f in u r a e s c a n d a lo s a , de un v ig o r y una 14A zu ela, AndrAs B&rez i n Obras C om nletas. I I , 783. 15 A zu ela, AndrAs Bferez in Obras Com nletas. I I , 793. 170 v i r i l i d a d e s p a n to s a ." He I s ad o re d by h is em ployees. Women "se m ueren por 4 1 ." Men a r e f a s c in a te d by h is e l e g a n ce . The new spapers r e p o r t t h a t th e p u b lic , w ith t e a r s in i t s e y e s , begs him to a c c e p t p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e . 1 -^ These p o l it i c o s a re th e c a u se o f sudden in s p i r a t i o n . At t h e i r p a s s in g , g e n e ra l e n th u sia sm b u r s ts f o r t h in a p p la u s e . When th e governor i n Las Moscas (1918) a r r i v e s , M a tild e ap p ro ach es him and t e l l s him , "Seflor G obernador, t ie n e us te d la s lin e a s de mi p ad re Cuauhtemoc y lle v a e l alm a de la n o b le ra z a a z te c a . . . V iva M exico! Viva e l se n o r G obernador!" The m oscas t u r n t h e i r f a c e s , o v e r whelmed w ith a d m ira tio n . "{B ravo! {A dm irable!" th e y a l l s h o u t, and th e y tu r n t h e i r heads i n a n e f f o r t to c a tc h th e b e n e fic e n t g la n c e o f th e g o v e rn o r. A zuela v o ic e s h is d is g u s t a t t h i s f l a t t e r y in th e w ords o f " e l d o c to r" o f Las M oscas: iBah! E l in c ie n s o que e s to s b ic h o s queman, mayor tie n e v en en o . Ifero e l l o s no tie n e n l a c u lp a ; son lo que pueden s e r , { claro ! Cuando to d o se su b o rd in a a l a mas lm p e rio sa de n u e s tra s n e c e sid a d e s f i s i o l 6g ic a s , to d o e s t& b ie n . 7 16A zu ela, Andrds Bfcrez i n Obras C om nletas. I I , 783-785. 17A zuela, Ia s M o.?.q*g in Obras Com nletas. I I , 875- 876. 171 There I s one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t i s t r u e o f a l l th e m o scas. a c c o rd in g to A zuela, and t h a t i s in s o le n c e , "Tan in s o le n te s unos como o tr o s ; p ero lo que en lo s p o r- 18 f i r i s t a s e s in d o le n c ia , e s r a b ia en e l c o r r a l i s t a . " The moscas s t y l e th em selv es " tr u e p ro fe s s o rs o f e n e rg y ." They c o n s id e r R e v o lu tio n a ry le a d e rs s tu p id , r a t h e r th a n w icked. They b e lie v e t h a t th e R ev o lu tio n i s a c e r t a i n r o u te to w e a lth , and p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e govern m ent i s th e o n ly means o f c o n se rv in g and en h an cin g o n e 's w e a lth and f u tu r e . F u rth erm o re, la s m oscas p rid e th em selv es on r e p r e s e n tin g th e power o f i n e r t i a . They b e lie v e t h a t i f th e R e v o lu tio n does n o t come in to t h e i r h a n d s, i t s le a d e rs w i l l d e s tro y th em selv es i n a wave o f p u re a n a rc h y . They b e lie v e 19 th e y a r e more n e c e s s a ry th a n r i f l e s . AajPlfl*? BBflple: Tte FSfflftte "F T h e . ..g a u d y . Jk efc And j u s t a s th e R e v o lu tio n a ry army has i t s fem ale camp fo llo w e rs , so th e m oscas have t h e i r q u o ta o f fem inine 18A zuela, AndrAs Bferez in Obras Com pletes. I I , 783. 19 A zuela, Las Moscas in Obras Com nletas. I I , 881. 172 r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s . These a re women who th ro u g h s u c c e s s iv e g e n e ra tio n s have i n h e r i te d governm ent p o s t s : sc h o o l te a c h e r s , o f f ic e w o rk e rs, w ives o f o f f i c e h o ld e r s . They a r e a l l g r e a t o b s e rv e rs o f s o c i a l c o n v e n tio n s , and A zuela s k i l l f u l l y in s in u a te s t h a t perhaps th e y a re n o t above p la c in g t h e i r p e rso n s a t th e d is p o s a l o f i n f l u e n t i a l p o l l- 20 t i c i a n s i n o rd e r to a s s u re th em selv es o f jo b s . The mosca gro u p s in c lu d e c e r t a i n s u b s p e c ie s . Prom inent r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s a re th e dandy and th e p o e t. True r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f t h i s group a re N e f ta l l de l a G arza o f la s Moscas (1918) and R ra n cisc o fra d o o f la s T rib u la c io n e s de Una F a m ilia D ecente (1 9 1 8 ). The f i r s t sp eak s in a d i s mayed v o ic e . His l i p s a r e p a in te d . He has th e ey es o f a m aiden, th e f in g e r s o f a demimonde, and h is h a i r i s m ar c e l le d . He i s r e f e r r e d t o a s "Uho de n u e s tro s m£s e x c e ls o s p o r t a l i r a s ” ; N e f ta l l b e lie v e s t h a t from th e tim e o f "EL Bsnsador M exicano" (pseudonym o f Josd Jo a q u in FernAndez de L iz a r d i, 1776-1827) up t o t h a t o f th e a u th o r o f Santa (F e d e ric o Gamboa, 1864-1939) th e r e has been no s o u l in Mexican c o m p o sitio n s.^1 20 A zu ela, l a s Moscas in Obras C om nletas. I I , 892. 21 A zuela, 1^$ qpscflft in Obras Comnletas. I I , 886. 173 F ra n c is c o Prado, who dreams o f a n a r t a s s e re n e a s th e e t e r n a l snow s, w ants h is v o ic e to be th e murmur o f th e b re e z e w a fte d th ro u g h r e e d s , th e l u l l i n g b a b b le o f th e brook, and h is g e s tu r e to r e f l e c t th e in e f f a b le g ra c e o f a 22 P r a x ite le s s c u lp tu r e . The m ost i n c i s i v e s a t i r e t h a t i s d ir e c te d a t th e M exican dandy i s found in T rib u la c io n e s de Una F a m llia D ecente (1918). The f i r s t p a r t o f th e n o v e l i s w r i t t e n i n th e f i r s t p e rso n , su p p o se d ly by a n a iv e l i t t l e " m o th e r's d a rlin g * " The Vdzquez P rad o s, l i k e so many o th e r re s p e c t a b le f a m ilie s , have been r u in e d by th e R e v o lu tio n . The H uerta coup has been o n ly a n ephem eral dream , t o be f o l lowed s h o r tly by th e t e r r i b l e n ightm are o f th e b lo o d y y e a rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n . The a u th o r o f l a s T rib u la c io n e s . . . (1918) con f e s s e s t h a t had i t n o t been f o r th e few d is a g re e a b le i n c i d e n ts t h a t o c c u rre d t o h is m other on th e s t r e e t , a e s t a s h o ras l l e v a r l a yo, como hace t r e s ad o s en Z a c a te c a s , p a n ta l6n c o r to , m edias de p o p o tillo , c o r- b a ta en p a p i l l6n , p a n e la de p a ja con c in ta i r i s . A lo s v e in te no me p e rm ite m am acita que s a ig a a la 22A zuela, Las T rib u lacion es de ifaa Familla Decente in Obras Comnletas. I , 422. 174 c a l l e s i no e s con e l l a mlsma o con una de m is herm anas. 3 T his u n fo rtu n a te youth had t o undergo su ch p r iv a tio n s t h a t n e a r th e end o f th e n o v e l he was a b le to e x c la im , "Ay L u li, que b e llo e s com er!" In 8peaking o f th e M exican dandy, A ndres R&rez s a y s , "Jiiro p o r Dios v iv o no h a b er tro p e z a d o e n ml v ld a con un e je m p la r de e s t a fau n a s i n s e n t l r e l deseo m is sano y ty / s a n to de v e r lo re v e n ta d o como un s a p o ." A z u ela *8 B ra lu a tlo n o f th e Pfcess Less s a t i r i c a l and more venomous I s A z u e la 's e v a lu a ti o n o f r e p o r t e r s . D uring th e c lo s in g y e a rs o f th e Diaz reg im e, th e p re s s was p a s s in g th ro u g h a r e ig n o f t e r r o r . The s u b s id iz e d p re s s was th e o n ly one allo w e d t o f u n c tio n . O ther p e r io d ic a ls a p p eared one day and d is a p p e a re d th e n e x t. T h eir e d i t o r s w ere j a i l e d and o fte n tim e s a s s a s s i - 25 n a te d . T his had a d is a s tr o u s e f f e c t on t h e i r m o ra le . 23 A zu ela, U s T rib u la c io n e s de Una F a m ilia D ecente i n Obras C om nletas. I , 419. 24A zueU , A ndris Bfcrez , M a d e rista i n Obras Comnle- t a s . I I , 780. 25 A zuela, Andris B irez. M aderista in Obras Comple t e s . I I , 769. 175 In h is w r itin g s A zuela r e f e r s to governm ent- c o n tr o lle d new spaper r e p o r te r s a s cow ards and c h arg es t h a t th e y h id e t h e i r co w ard ice u n der a c lo a k o f s t u p i d i t y . In a b r u t a l a tt a c k , he c a l l s them e ffe m in a te , re p u g n a n t, and d e g e n e ra te —th e r o t t e n p ro d u c t o f a p s e u d o - c iv iliz a tio n . He co n clu d es h is in v e c tiv e s by s t a t i n g : L ite r a to id e s de M dxico, p ia r a de i l o t a s de l a plum a, h inchados de ru in d a d , eunucos 1lo ro n e s de l a p a z , in c a p a c e s de d a r n i una g o ta de sa n g re p o r e l herm ano, n i p o r l a p a t r i a , n i por s u p ro p ia e s p e c ie ; m andrias que se pasan la v id a ln ce sa n d o ete rn am en te a l que l e s lle n a la t r l p a y s e quedan s a tis f e c h o s con que su nombre f ig u r e como una c i f r a mds e n tr e lo s s le r v o s m is e ra b le s y corrom pldos, buenos apenas p a ra c a n ta r a l a s m e s a lin a s de su s am os.* ® Through th e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f Andrds Bdrez in Andrds B drez. M a d e rista (1911) A zuela d e s c rib e s c o n d itio n s a s th e y e x is te d among j o u r n a l i s t s i n Mexico C ity . In th e s t o r y Andrds Bdrez i s s e n t by El G lobo. a D ia z -c o n tro lle d new spaper, to c o v e r a s tu d e n t u p r is in g . A lthough th e s tu d e n ts have been in c e n se d by th e m urder o f a M exican in th e U nited S ta te s , th e y have co n d u cted th em selv es in an o r d e r ly fa s h io n u n t i l th e a r r i v a l o f a p la to o n o f p o lic ia m ontada. A fte r t h e i r a r r i v a l th e r e i s g r e a t c o n fu sio n 26A zuela, Andrds Bdrez . M aderista in C feras, Coqpl e - t a s . I I , 786-787. 176 and b lo o d sh e d . Andrds B lrez f e e l s t h a t th e s c a n d a l has been provoked by th e p o lic e , b u t he r e a l i z e s t h a t such an a r t i c l e w ould n e v er be p u b lis h e d In E l G lobo. A fte r h is r e s ig n a tio n Andrds BSrez e x p la in s th e s i t u a t i o n to h is f r ie n d Tono, ad d in g t h a t th e p eo p le le a r n n o th in g from t h e i r new spapers o f th e u n r e s t , d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , and d i s c o n te n t p re v a le n t In th e c o u n try . A zuela w ants h is re a d e rs to r e a l i z e t h a t th e new spapers a r e c o n tr o lle d by th e f o l low ers o f D iaz: :1a p re n sa ! T& no sa b es que la p re n sa a tr a v le s a una dpoca de t e r r o r . V lolando le y e s y g a r a n tla s e l Goble m o no ha d ejad o s u b s l s t i r s ln o e so s mlsmos p e rld d lc o s a s a la r la d o s p o r d l . Los demds a p a re c e n y v lv e n un d la , porque en se g u ld a su s r e d a c to re s son p u e sto s en p r ls ld n . No ha quedado hue11a a lg u n a de in d ep en d en cia y e sa p ren sa o f l c l o s a , p re n sa a lb a fia l, e s l a m u estra e v ld e n te de lo que pueden l a ln s o le n c la . l a m aldad y e l cin lsm o de lo s e s c r i t o r e s de a l q u i l e r . 2 7 A zuela*s Eteonle: G ente D ecente In th e u p per s o c i a l s t r a t a t h a t A zuela d e s c rib e s w ith su ch p ow erful a n im o s ity , th e r e a r e found a few ad m ira b le c h a r a c te r s t h a t seem to combine b o th i n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent and sound m o ral w o rth . I n Andrds Bferez i t I s 27A zuela, Andrds BSrez In Obras C om pletes. I I , 7 6 9 -7 7 0 . 177 Tcmo R eyes, owner o f an h a c ie n d a , who I s v e ry much In love w ith h i s la n d and d e m o n stra te s p e rs o n a lly to h is em ployees how to u se m odem farm m ach in ery . An a rd e n t l i b e r a l , he lo s e s h is l i f e In one o f th e sk irm is h e s o f th e Madero r e v o l t . Of a l l th e e e n te d e c e n te t h a t A zuela d e s c r ib e s , none I s more a d m ira b le th a n ftrocopio, head o f th e VAzquez ftrado fa m ily , d e sc rib e d In T rib u la c io n e s de Una Eem iH * D ecente (1 9 1 8 ). He I s a p h ilo s o p h e r c a p a b le o f e v a lu a tin g l i f e and m o tiv e s, b u t h is v e ry c a p a c ity to e v a lu a te and a p p r e c ia te m otives has made him a c y n ic . He was one o f th e few landow ners who, b e fo re th e R e v o lu tio n , had made s tr e n u ous e f f o r t s to Improve th e l i f e o f th e neones on h is e s t a t e s . In Los C aciques (1917) R odriguez I s a lo v a b le , e c c e n t r ic , and ro m an tic f i g u r e . His home I s a haven f o r a l l th e hom eless c a ts In th e neighborhood. He I s som ething o f a p o e t, e s p e c i a l l y when he i s w ith th e g i r l he lo v e s . Because o f h is a c t i v i t y in o rg a n iz in g th e w orking c la s s in to a n e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n , he I s a s s a s s i n a te d a t th e tim e o f th e H uerta coup d 'e t a t . Towering above a l l th e o th e r c h a r a c te r p o r tr a y a ls by A zuela i s t h a t o f Rancho V i l l a . A zuela h as l e f t us 178 two n o ta b le d e s c r ip tio n s o f t h i s in d iv id u a l. The b e s t i s in la s Moscas (1918): La p u e rta p o s te r io r d e l R illm an se ha a b ie r to y, en mangas de c am isa , a p a re c e un hombre r e c io de c a rn e s , de hombros anchos y c u ad rad o s, de ru b lcu n d a f a z , p 6 r- pados hinchados t r a s lo s c u a le s b r i l l a n unos o jo s como b r a s a s . E l hombre a v a n z a . De p ie en l a p la ta fo rm a , s u m irada in q u ie ta se desparram a en to rn o ; su g ra n cabeza de p e lo c re sp o se le v a n ta ind6m ita como l a de un le 6 n ; su s m ovim ientos se d ib u ja n ta rd o s y o n d u la n te s como e l lomo de una p a n te ra . 8 The o th e r d e s c r ip tio n i s found in Los de A balo (1 9 1 5 ): V illa e s e l indom able se n o r de la s i e r r a , l a e te r n a v lc tim a de to d o s lo s g o b ie rn o s , que lo p e rs ig e n como una f i e r a ; V illa e s la re e n c a m a c i6 n de la v i e j a le y e n d a : e l b a n d id o -p ro v id e n c ia , que pasa p o r e l mundo con la a n to rc h a lvimlnosa de un i d e a l : jro b a r a lo s r lc o s p a ra h a c e r r lc o s a lo s p o b res! jAh, V illa ! la p a la b ra m&gica. E l g ran hombre que se esb o za ; e l g u e rre ro in v ic to que e je r c e a d is ta n c ia ya su g ra n fa s c in a c ib n de boa. N u estro Napole6n M exicano, e l A g u ila a z t e c a .2* A zuela *s People Drawn From L ife A nother d i s t i n c t i v e f e a tu r e o f A z u e la 's c h a r a c te r s i s t h a t th e y seem t o be drawn from r e a l l i f e . Some o f them , we know, a r e b ased d i r e c t l y on r e a l p e o p le . T his i s 28 A zuela, Las Moscas in Obj I I , 924. 29 A zuela, Los de Abalo in Obras Com pletes. I, 365. 179 t r u e e s p e c ia lly w ith th e c h a r a c te r s o f Los de A balo (1 9 1 5 ). A zuela h im s e lf e x p la in s th e o r i g in o f th e c h a r a c te r s o f Los de A balo. D em etrio M acias, he s a y s , was form ed from th e h i s t o r i c a l p erso n ag es o f Ju llA n Medina and Manuel C a lo c a .3® He e x p la in s h is c o n n e c tio n w ith Medina and ex** p re s s e s h is a d m ira tio n f o r th e l a t t e r by g iv in g a d e s c r ip t i o n o f him : Era e l t l p o genulno d e l ra n c h e ro de J a l is c o , v a l l e n t e , Ingenuo, g e n ero so y fa n fa rr 6 n . No o b s ta n te su t o t a l i n c u l t u r a , pose l a e l don de mando, y muchos j e f e s s u p e r lo re s a A l p o r o tro s c o n c e p to s, con g u s to lo o b e d e c le ro n , reconociA ndole tA citam en te stis f a c u l- ta d e s de co n d u cto r de m asas. Joven to d a v la , c e rc a de lo s t r e i n t a afio s, a l t o , ro b u s to , de fa z b e rm e ja , pArpados un poco c a ld o s , la b lo s g ru e s o s , s i n p e lo de b a rb a , de ademAn le n t o , pero e x p re s iv o y se g u ro , v e s t l a a ju s ta d o p an talA n y ch aq u eta de gamuza de ven ad o , som brero g alo n ead o de la n a , s i n c o rb a ta ; se le h a c la buches en l a c ln tu r a so b re l a c a rtu c h e ra a p re ta d a de t i r o s . No o b s ta n te s u r u s t l c i d a d a g r e s t e , desempenA con d lsc re c lA n y c o rd u ra e l a l t o p u e sto que s e l e c o n flrlA , s i n d e ja r de s e r d e c ld o r, a le g r e , o p tim is ta y c o m u n ic a tiv o .31 A zuela d e s c rib e s Manuel C aloca by s t a t i n g t h a t he was e l mAs jo v e n de una f a m llla de r e v o lu c lo n a rlo s d e l D eul, d e l E stado de Z a c a te c a s , muchacho de menos de 30 A zuela, E l N o v e lls ta v Su Amblente I n Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1079. 31A zuela, El N o v e llsta v Su Amblente In Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1079-1080. 180 v e in te a n o s, a l t o , f la c o , o liv a d o , t i p o un ta n to m ongololde, a le g r e e in trA p id o , de v a lo r te m e ra rio en la p e le a . C aloca had made h im s e lf a c o lo n e l and was confirm ed in t h i s ran k by Medina when th e fo rm e r's fo rc e s jo in e d th o s e o f th e l a t t e r . C aloca was wounded in San Bedro T laquepaque, a s h o r t d is ta n c e from G u a d a la ja ra : Eh un com bate en San Ifedro Tlaquepaque fuA h e rid o g ravem ente. Con o ch en ta hombres lo conduje de T e p a titlA n a C uqulo; seguim os por lo s canones de J u c h ip ila to ca n d o e l ran ch o de Lim6n y l a misma p o b la c i6 n de J u c h ip ila . 3 A zuela o p e ra te d on C aloca In A g u a sc a lie n te s and l e f t him i n th e m i l i t a r y h o s p i t a l in C hihuahua: . . . pasamos lu eg o p o r C a lv illo y en A g u a sc a lie n te s 8 6 lo nos detuvim os l a s h o ras e s t r i c t a s . lo operA en e sa c a p i t a l de E sta d o , en e l s a n a to r io de su s p a rie n - t e s lo s d o c to re s A v ila s , y l a misma t a r d e tomamos e l f e r r o c a r r i l rumbo a l N o rte, oyendo ya e l canoneo de lo s c a r r a n c i s t a s qua unas c u a n ta s h o ra s mAs ta r d e to m a rla n la p la z a . Lo dejA e n e l h o s p i t a l m i l i t a r de Chihuahua y no volvim os a v e m o s s in o e n E l ffeso, T exas, despuAs de la toma de e s t a A ltim a c a p i t a l por e l g e n e ra l T re v in o .3^ 32 A zuela, E l N o v e lis ta v Su Ambiente in Obras C om nletas. I l l , 1080. 33A z u ela , E l N o v e lis ta v Su Ambiente in Obras CfflP-tetflg., H I , 1080. ^ A z u e la , El N o v e lista v Su Ambiente in Obras Com nletas. I l l , 1080. 181 He saw C aloca a g a in i n E l Baso, w here C aloca was one o f th e group to w hich A zuela f i r s t re a d Los de A balo (1915 ) : Una noche de noviem bre de 1915 se l a l e i a un grupo de amigos^ y com pafieros, d e s te rra d o s to d o s , en uno de lo s c u a rto s d e l h o te l donde e stib a m o s a lo ja d o s . E h tre e l l o s se e n c o n tra b a n lo s lic e n c ia d o s E nrique B&rez A rc e , A belardo M edina, E nrique Luna Rom&n y alg u n o s o tr o s p r o f e s io n i s ta s . Cuando lle g u 6 a l p a sa je de D em etrio M acias conducido e n C am illa por lo s canones de J u c h ip ila , Manuel C alo ca, que se e n c o n tra b a tam bi£n e n tr e m is o y e n te s , se re c o n o c i6 a l i n s t a n t e en s u can- c i6 n f a v o r i t a : "En la m ed ian ia d e l cuerpo una daga me m eti6 s i n sa b e r p o r qu6 n i p o r qu& s£ yo."35 In th e same a r t i c l e A zuela e x p la in s t h a t th e c h a ra c t e r o f L uis C erv an tes was b a se d on th e d i s t o r t e d v e rs io n w hich g o s s ip had g iv e n to th e c h a r a c te r o f F ra n c is c o M. D elgado, p r iv a te s e c r e ta r y to J u lid n M edina: L uis C erv an tes e s un t i p o im a g in a rio c o n s tru id o con o tr o t i p o im a g in a rio y r e ta z o s tornados de la r e a l i dad. Los enem igos p e rs o n a le s d e l c o ro n e l F ra n c isc o M . D elgado, s e c r e t a r i o p a r t i c u l a r d e l g o b ern ad o r M edina, por e n v id ia unos, por v i e j o s re n c o re s o t r o s , le f o r - maron una a tm 6 sfe ra muy densa y una ley en d a d e p ri- m ente.^® Because F ra n c isc o Delgado jo in e d a R e v o lu tio n ary band and w ent w ith them th ro u g h th e same t e r r i t o r y t h a t 35 A zuela, El N o v e lis ta y Su Ambiente i n Obras C om nletas. I l l , 1081-1082. 36 A zuela, El N o v e lista v Su Ambiente in Obras Com nletas. I l l , 1082. 182 A zuela tr a v e r s e d , and because h e , l i k e A zu ela, to o k re£uge In El Baso, th e r e Is no doubt t h a t C erv an tes Is p a tte rn e d a f t e r A zuela and t h a t he s h a re s many o f A z u e la 's o p in io n s . From th e liv i n g c h a r a c te r Bsdro Montes (a vaguero tu rn e d s o l d i e r ) , "un mocetAn de t r e i n t a a n o s , r e c io de c a m e s , de c e ja s y b arb a p o b la d a s, buenos o jo s , ra n c h e ro fa n fa rrA n y v a li e n t e y uno de lo s mAs sim pA ticos companeros de M edina," A zuela s t a t e s , "tomA muchos ra s g o s p a ra mi p e r- so n a je A n a sta s io M ontanA s."37 The model f o r Gttero M a rg a rito came p r in c i p a l l y from a w a ite r in th e DelmAnico R e sta u ra n t in Ciudad Ju A rez: Sol la desayunarm e en "D elm A nico," r e s ta u r a n te muy b ie n a te n d id o . A l i i co n o ci a un m esero profundam ente a n tip A tic o : c h a p a rro , c a rirre d o n d o , m o fletu d o y en* cen d id o , su s o jo s in v e c ta d o s a v e r t e r sa n g re . Era sumamente a c t iv o , presum la t u te a r s e con lo s c a b e c llla s mas fam osos y a lo s c i v i l e s nos t r a t a b a con desdAn y a6n con in s o le n c ia . De e se t i p o o d io so n a c i6 e l Gtlero M a rg a rito .’ ® An u n lic e n s e d d o c to r w ith M ed in a's fo rc e s "fu e un c u ra n d ero que lo acompafiA desde su le v a n ta m ie n to en H osto- t i p a q u i l l o h a s ta e l f i n de la cam pana." A zuela s t a t e s t h a t 37A zu ela, El N o v e lis ta v Su Ambiente in Cbras C om pletes. I l l , 1083. 38 A zuela, El N o v e llsta y Su Ambiente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1083. " e j e r c l a en d i s t i n t o s pueb lo s d e l s u r de J a lis c o y se pagaba mucho de su s a b e r. E n tr6 en ml n o v ela con e l nombre de V e n an c lo ."39 La PLntada was "una c h lc a p r i e t a , muy p ln ta d a de l a b o ca, o jo s y c a r r i l l o s " ; she was th e comnanera o f C olonel Maximlano H ernindez. Her d re s s and h e r c h a r a c te r , a s A zuela d e s c rib e s them , c o rre sp o n d to th o se o f La P ln tad a V e s tla f a ld a c o rta de c o lo r v iv o y a b r l l la n t a d o , som brero galoneado y una b lu s a cru zad a por c a rtu c h e r a s r e p l e ta s de t i r o s . L ucia unas h o r r ib le s m edlas de algod6n a z u l con l lg a s s o l f e r l n a s a b a jo de l a r o d i l l a . T enia fama de l6 b r ic a y se co n tab a que h ab la provocado muchos la n c e s s a n g r le n to s . Era l a im lca raujer e n tr e a q u e llo s so ld a d o s. En Los de a b a lo lle v a e l nombre de "La P L ntada."40 The Lagos p o e t, JosA B e c e rra , " tip o p e rfe c to de bohem lo," a g r e a t f r ie n d o f A z u e la 's who needed "desde slem p re e l e s tlm u lo d e l a lc o h o l p a ra v l v l f l c a r s u p en sa- m le n to , que s in Al r a s tr e a b a e l s u e lo ," w as, a c c o rd in g to A z u e la : El t ip o mAs p in to r e s c o , de mas sa b o r y c o lo r ld o , que hube e n co n tra d o en ml v ld a . Bor la am is ta d In tlm a que c u ltlv A con A l, p o r s u v ld a a v e n tu re ra y p o r su s 39A zuela, E l H o v e lis ta v Su Am blente In Obras C om nletas. I l l , 1084. 40 A zuela, El N o v e llsta v Su Aaiblente In Obras Com nletas. I l l , 1084. 184 m aneras e x tr a v a g a n te s , fuA e l hombre que m£s m a te r ia l humano me d i6 , no s 6 lo p a ra m is n a v e la s de la re v o lu - c i6 n , s ln o p a ra muchas a n te r io r e s y p o s te r lo r e s a e l l a . Mucho de Al hay en e l llc e n c la d o ResAndez de Los fra c a s a d o s : mucho tambiAn en e l R odriguez de Los c ac iq u e 8: y en e l V alderram a de Los de abalo. 41 E hncracio o f Los de A baio was b ased on " e l soldado raAs o d lo so y re p u ls lv o de c u a n to s c o n o cl o.ntre l a g e n te de M edina." He w as, a s A zuela s a y s , e l p ite c A n tro p o , e s e t ip o que abund6 ta n to en lo s d la s de l a rev o lu ciA n y q u e, b le n v e s tid o , b le n comldo y b le n b e b ld o , nos slg u e dando ta n ta g u e rra to d a v la . Un m lla g ro de a c i e r t o l e h a b la dado e l nombre de BAr- b aro en la p l l a b a u tls m a l. E ste B a rb a rito lle v a e l nombre de B ancracio e n m l n o v e la .42 Of La C odornlz, E l M anteca, E l Meco, and o th e r seco n d ary c h a r a c te r s , A zuela s a y s : E n tra ro n en la n o v e la con lo s mlsmos ra s g o s y apodos con que l e s c o n o c l. Soldados an6nim os, c a m e de cafiAn, pobre g e n te que no fue duena n l s iq u le r a d e l nombre con que la b a u tlz a ro n . Camlla and th e o th e r s o ld a d e ra s w ere In v en te d "como la s n e c e sitA p a ra l a c o n s tru c c l6 n d e l l i b r o . " 43 41A zuela, E l N o v e lls ta v Su Am blente In Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1084-1085. ^ A z u e la , E l N o v e lis ta v Su Amblente In Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1085. 43A zuela, El N o v e lis ta v Su Amblente In Obras 111 > 3 - 085. 185 A n ita B r e n n e r ^ and F. M . R e r c h e v il l e ^ b o th b e lie v e t h a t R odriguez in Los C aciques (1917) and ResAndez in Los F racasad o s (1908) a r e A zuela. Both o£ th e s e o b s e rv a tio n s seem re a s o n a b le , e s p e c i a l l y in Los F racasad o s w h e rein ResAndez r e a c t s to Alamos much th e same way t h a t A zuela r e a c te d to Ingos de Moreno, h is n a tiv e town, when he r e tu r n s from G u a d a la ja ra in 1900. M arla L u isa, in th e n o v e l by th e same name, was ta k e n from r e a l l i f e : M arla L uisa e r a l a h i j a de l a duefSa de la c a sa de a s i s t e n c ia donde me hospedaba. H ija de l a c a s u a lid a d , cuando so ld a d o s de n u e s tr a s e te r n a s re v o lu c io n e s v e n la n a lo s p u eb lo s manchados de sa n g re de herm anos, s e d ie n to s de p la c e r e s a d a r rev an ch a a su s i n s t i n t o s p o d e ro so s. DespuAs d e l c a n sa n c io de l a m uerte b u sc a- ban e l c a n sa n c io de l a v id a . Y l a v id a se re p ro d u c la p ro d ig io sa m e n te . There i s a ls o e v id e n c e t h a t D r. G a rc ia d ie g o , who le c tu r e s on th e c a se o f M arla L uisa in th e n o v e l, was r e a l l y one o f th e d o c to rs on th e f a c u l ty in th e m e d ic a l sc h o o l in A n ita B ren n er, Id o ls Behind A lta r s (New York: Bayson and C la rk e , 1928), pp. 323-324. 45 F ranc i s M. K e rc h e v ille , "EL L ib e ra lism o en A z u e la ," R e v is ta lbergifl— Ill (May, 1941), 382. 46A zuela, El N o v e lista v Su Ambiente in Obras Com nletas. I l l , 1013-1014. 186 47 G u a d a la ja ra . Bancho, e l C hato, and th e o th e r m edical s tu d e n ts a s w e l l, w ere m odeled from r e a l p e o p le . Thus, I t I s im p o rta n t to n o te t h a t A zuela le a n e d h e a v ily on r e a l p eople f o r h is c h a r a c te r s . His m ain i n t e r e s t in c h a r a c te r iz a tio n has been in d e p ic tin g s i t u a t i o n s and e v e n ts a s th e y r e l a t e t o th e l i f e o f some p erso n and t o th e s o c i a l w hole. For t h i s re a s o n th e r e i s a w ide v a r i a t i o n i n th e ty p e o f c h a r a c te r A zuela p re s e n ts in h is n o v e ls , from s to c k fig u r e s to su p e r-p e rso n a g e s o f e p ic g ra n d e u r. A nother d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t y o f A z u e la 's c h a r a c te r p o r tr a y a l i s t h a t o f d e p ic tin g m ass c h a r a c t e r . This ob s e r v a tio n was f i r s t made by Luis A lb e rto S&nchez in 1933 when he w ro te : Bn "Los de a b a jo " de M ariano A zuela lo s u g e s tiv o no e s e l p e rs o n a je nom inado, s in o e l e s p i r l t u de lo s p e rs o n a je s . ftisa Luis C e rv a n te s, p asan to d o s , s i n d e ja r ap en as h u e lla , porque l a m asa, la g le b a , lo s p e la d o s so n lo s a c to r e s p r in c ip a le s de l a re v o lu c id n 47A zu ela, E l N o v e lis ta y Su Am blente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1015. 48L uis A lb e rto SAnchez, AmArlca. N ovela S in Nbve- l i s t a s (S a n tia g o de C h ile : E d ic io n e s E r e i l i a , 1933), pp. 69-70. 187 I s a b e l Cento Manzo compared A zuela to th e p o st-R e v o lu tio n R u ssian n o v e l i s t s : Como en e l l o s , e l v e rd a d e ro p e rs o n a je e s l a m u lti tude la u lu la n te m u ltitu d q u e v a d e trd s de lo s cau- d i l l o s , la s tro p a s que lle g a n a una c iu d a d , e l tu m u lto de lo s pueblos s i t l a d o s o in v a d id o s , e l £ re n e s l de la g u e r r a . * There i s no doubt t h a t A zuela d e f i n i t e l y had a con c e p t o f mass c h a r a c te r w hich i s e v id e n t i n many o f h is w orks. In Los F racasad o s (1908) and Los C aciques (1917) i t i s th e ominous mass c h a r a c te r o f th e r u lin g c liq u e , who a re n o t developed in d iv id u a lly b u t who fu s e i n to an e n t i t y . In Mala Yerba (1909) t h i s q u a l i t y i s se en in th e p o r tr a y a l o f th e g roup l i f e o f th e p e o n es. I t a p p e a rs in Itedro Moreno, e l In s u re e n te (1934) in th e s o l d i e r s and in th e group l i f e i n th e F u e rte d e l Som brero. In San G a b rie l de V a ld lv ia s (1938) mass c h a r a c t e r i z a t io n i s u sed to d e p ic t th e l i f e o f th e v i l l a g e r s . I t is in Los de Abalo (1915), how ever, t h a t A zuela re a c h e s p e r f e c tio n i n th e p o r tr a y a l o f mass c h a r a c te r . In t h i s r e s p e c t Los de A balo can be com p ared t o su c h g r e a t books a s The Red Badge o f Courage. 49 Is a b e l Cento Manso, La N ovela H i s nano-A m ericana (S a n tia g o de C h ile : E d it o r i a l N asclm ento, 1944), pp. 4 6 -4 7 . Eo£ WlQP .the B eU T o llg , and A ll Q u iet on th e W estern F ro n t. F u rth erm o re, A z u e la 's m a s te rp ie c e Is com parable to E uclydes da C unha's Os S e rto e s . w ith I t s m a s te rfu l mass p o r t r a i t o f th e man o f th e d ry n o r th e a s t re g io n o f B ra z il. The c r e a tio n o f mass c h a r a c te r I s p a r t o f a n o ld t r a d i t i o n In S panish l i t e r a t u r e . I t can be tr a c e d back to th e p o p u la r d em o cratic p la y s o f Lope de Vega, th e m ost n o ta b le o f w hich I s F uente (V eluna In w hich a v i l l a g e Is th e m ain p r o ta g o n is t. R e g ard less o f w here i t a p p e a rs in o th e r l i t e r a t u r e s , A zuela rem ains th e m a ste r in p o rtra y in g mass c h a r a c te r . A zuela acco m p lish ed w hat h i s t o r ia n s and o th e r w r i t e r s have f a i l e d t o do, i . e . , to c a p tu re th e tem per and th e c h a r a c te r o f Mexico d u rin g th e p e rio d o f th e Revolu t i o n . In Los de A balo (1915) A zuela p o in ts t h i s o u t in th e words o f S o ils : la re v o lu c i6 n e s e l huracA n, y e l hombre que se e n tre g a a e l l a no e s ya e l hom bre, e s la m is e ra b le h o ja se c a a rre b a ta d a p o r e l v e n d a v a l . . . jQue herm osa e s l a R ev o lu ci6 n , a6n en s u misma b a rb a r ie ! . . . la p s ic o lo g la de n u e s tr a r a z a , condensada en dos p a la - b r a s : iro b a r, m a ta r. 0 T h is, th e n , i s th e raw m a te r ia l t h a t A zuela shaped 50A zuela, Los de Abalo in Ofrrflg Cqqpletflg> I , 368. i n to h is n o v e ls : p e o n e s. b a n d id o s. g r a f t i n g o f f i c i a l s , and th e innum erable ty p e s o f R e v o lu tio n a ry M exico. His c h a ra c t e r s a re sk e tc h e d p e r f e c t l y . They a r e tra n sfo rm e d from c h a r a c te r s in to t r u e - t o - l i f e in d iv id u a ls , n o t by e x c e ssiv e d e s c r ip tio n s b u t th ro u g h v i v id and r e a l i s t i c d ia lo g u e s . F u rth e rm o re , b ecau se o f t h e i r in d iv id u a l im portance and t h e i r u n i v e r s a l i t y , th e y r e f l e c t th e prom inent mood and l i f e o f t h e i r tim e . Through them he conveys h is p e rso n a l f e e lin g s o f Mexico in r e v o l t . S tu d ie d in d iv id u a lly , A z u e la 's c h a r a c te r s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g p s y c h o lo g ic a l p re s e n ta t i o n s , a l l m o tiv a te d by an i n t r i c a t e p a tt e r n o f em o tio n s. S tu d ied a s a w hole, th e y p ro v id e th e r e a d e r w ith a n added p e rs p e c tiv e o f M exican h i s t o r y d u rin g th o s e c h a o tic days o f th e R e v o lu tio n . CH APTER VII AZUELA: THE M A N , HIS TIME, AND HIS W O R K S M exican l i t e r a t u r e In th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e n in e te e n th and e a r l y p a r t o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry was r e f l e c t in g th e end o f an e r a —th e e r a o f B o r fir io Diaz p a te rn a lis m w ith a l l t h a t i t Im p lied o f European In flu e n c e , conven t i o n a l p a t t e r n s , governm ental p a tro n a g e o f l i t e r a r y men, a t r a d i t i o n o f th e l i t t e r a t e u r w r itin g f o r th e e l i t e , and a t o t a l la c k o f c o n ta c t betw een a r t and r e a l l i f e . T here w ere h o n o rab le e x c e p tio n s — H e rib e rto F r ia s , Tom6chic (1893), Joai L6pez I b r t i l l o y R o ja s, B n ilia n o R abasa, F e d e ric o Gamboa, th e c o n s e c ra te d f ig u r e s in Mexican l i t e r a t u r e d u rin g th e 1 8 8 0 's and 1890*8, b u t who d id n o t w r ite p a s t 1910, th e d a te o f th e o u tb re a k o f th e M exican R e v o lu tio n . T h eir s l i g h t l y fra y e d m an tle f e l l upon th e A teneo de l a Juventud and th e v a rio u s groups in to w hich i t s p l i t o r m etam orphosed. These g ro u p s, th e m ost Im p o rtan t o f them form ed in 1910, 1915, and 1918 u n d e r th e guidance 190 o f A ntonio Caso, A lfo n so Reyes, and o th e r s , a f f e c te d a r e a l re n o v a tio n In M exican l e t t e r s ; b u t th e y d id n o t e lim in a te th e b e l l e t r l s t i c t r a d i t i o n . 1 The r e a l fo rc e was to come from th e M exican Revolu t io n o f 1910 and from a t o t a l l y new group o f w r i t e r s b o m o f i t and having no c o n n e c tio n w ith p re-1 9 1 0 t r a d i t i o n s . foe. M B . I q y fo rte s. s d L .tte M exican Rev o lu tio n The w r i t e r s o f th e R e v o lu tio n d id n o t p re p a re th e R e v o lu tio n , n o r even a n t i c i p a t e i t ; th e y fo llo w e d i t , and a t some d is ta n c e . An o u tsta n d in g e x c e p tio n was M ariano A zuela, whose Los F racasad o s (1908) i s a somber in d ic tm e n t o f th e Diaz regim e and b o u rg eo is s o c ie ty and whose Mala Yerba (1909) d e p ic ts th e econom ic and m oral d e g ra d a tio n o f th e ne6n y e a rs b e fo re th e o u tb re a k o f th e R e v o lu tio n . S e v e ra l o f h is o th e r w o rk s--AndrAs BArez. M ad erista (1 9 1 1 ), Los C aciques ( w r itte n i n 1914 and p u b lis h e d in 1917), JosA L uis M a rtin e z , "Las L e tra s B a tria s — De l a Epoca de l a Independencia a N u estro s D ia s ," MAxico v l a C u ltu re (MAxico: S e c r e ta r ia de EducaciAn F ftb llca, 1946), pp. 430-436. A lso Jaim e T o rres B odet, " B e rsp e c tiv a de la L ite r a tu r a M exicans A c tu a l," C ontem noraneos. I I (Septem ber, 1928), 5 -2 8 , and Emaanuel C a rb a llo , " J u l i o JlmAnez R ueda," MAxico en l a C u ltu re . No. 484, Supplem ent to N ovedades. Ju n lo 22, 1958, p . 3. 192 Los de A balo (1915), and la s Moscas (1918)—a n ti c i p a te by many y e a rs th e f i r s t l i t e r a t u r e o f th e R e v o lu tio n . O ther W rite rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n The m ajor l i t e r a r y e v e n t o f 1928 was th e p u b lic a t i o n o f M a rtin L uis Guzm&n's EL A g u ila v l a S e r n le n te . I t i s th e f i r s t im p o rta n t book a f t e r A zuela *s l a s Msscas (1918) t h a t d e a ls w ith th e R e v o lu tio n . E l A g u ila v la S er- n ie n te i s an a c c o u n t o f th e a u t h o r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith s e v e r a l R e v o lu tio n a ry le a d e r s . The R e v o lu tio n in E l A g u ila v l a S e ro ie n te i s n o t th e p eo p le in m o tio n , b u t th e m anipu l a t i o n o f power. I t d id n o t m a tte r v e ry much i f men lik e D em etrio M acias o f Los de A balo e v e r found o u t w hat th e R e v o lu tio n i s a l l a b o u t. So f a r a s Guzm£n was c o n cern ed , < th e p eo p le w ere r e l a t e d to power o n ly in s o f a r a s th e y c o u ld be used t o im plem ent th e w i l l o f a le a d e r . This p o s itio n d id n o t com prehend th e f u l l m eaning o f th e R e v o lu tio n . In th e e a r l y 1 9 3 0 's th e R e v o lu tio n a c q u ire d some u n ity i n th e m inds o f Mexican w r i t e r s . They d isc o v e re d th e m eaning o f b e in g M exican and th e y began e x p lo rin g and r e view ing e v e n ts r e c e n tly p a s t— th e y view ed th e R ev o lu tio n a s a liv i n g e n t i t y . In 1931 th e r e was n o t one n o v e l o f Im portance pub lis h e d t h a t d id n o t d e a l w ith th e R e v o lu tio n in one way o r a n o th e r. VAmonos con Bmcho V illa (1931), th e f i r s t n o v e l o f R a fa e l Munoz, was one o f th e im p o rta n t w orks o f th e p e rio d . The R e v o lu tio n in VAmonos con Rancho V illa belo n g s t o th e p e o p le , n o t because i t o f f e r s a p r o l e t a r i a n econom ic arg u m en t, b u t b ecau se i t s e e s th e p eo p le a s p a r t i c i p a ti n g in d iv id u a ls in s o c ie ty . P o l i t i c a l id e o lo g y i s n o t im por t a n t ; th e a c tiv e r o le o f th e p eo p le i s w hat m a tte r s . An o u ts ta n d in g n o v e l o f 1931 was G reg o rio L6pez y F u e n te s ' Camnamento w hich i s l e s s a s t o r y th a n an illu m in a t i o n o f a R e v o lu tio n a ry encampment. The a u th o r rep ro d u ces th e r e a l i t y o f a n i g h t, one moment in th e lo n g s tr u g g le . A y e a r l a t e r L6pez y F u en tes p u b lis h e d T ie rra (1 9 3 2 ), a s t o r y o f th e w hole c o u rse o f th e R e v o lu tio n , w ith em phasis on th e Z a p a tis ta movement. T h is i s n o t a profound s tu d y ; how ever, i t i s an a c c o u n t o f w hat happened d u rin g th e p e rio d o f 1910-1920. In 1935 Lopez y F u en tes tu rn e d from th e R e v o lu tio n i t s e l f to th e problem o f th e In d ia n when he p u b lis h e d El In d io (1 9 3 5 ). T his n o v e l became one o f M ex ico 's b e s t known and m ost i n f l u e n t i a l n o v e ls . Recog n i t i o n o f th e I n d ia n '8 s e p a r a tio n from s o c ie ty w as, o f 194 c o u rs e , a p a r t o f th e R e v o lu tio n 's aw akening e f f e c t . L6pez y Fuentes* view o f th e In d ia n i s th e view o f a s o c i a l r e fo rm e r, n o t an e th n o lo g is t, and b a s i c a l l y he s e e s th e problem o f th e In d ia n a s one o f p r e ju d ic e . The In d ia n i s n o t p e r t o f M exican s o c ie ty because he i s re g a rd e d a s " o t h e r .” A nother w r i t e r o f t h i s p e rio d who w ro te on th e R ev o lu tio n was JosA Rub£n Romero. I n 1934 he p u b lis h e d Desbandada w hich i s re m o te ly r e l a t e d to th e R e v o lu tio n . I t i s th e s to r y o f w hat happens when a g roup o f R e v o lu tio n a r i e s sweep th ro u g h th e town w here Romero has a s t o r e . In 1936 he p u b lish e d Mi C a b a llo . Mi f e r r o . v Mi R if le w hich i s an a cc o u n t o f th e a u th o r 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e Revolu t i o n . Romero, how ever, i s more i n t e r e s t i n g f o r h is re g lo n - a l i s t i c v ie w p o in t in a l l h is w r itin g s th a n f o r th e theme o f th e R e v o lu tio n . The p e rs o n a l view o f th e R e v o lu tio n had s e v e r a l v a r i a t i o n s . The n o v e lis t c o u ld w r ite a s a p a r t i c i p a n t In h is own s t o r y , o r he c o u ld w r ite th e a c c o u n t o f w hat o th e rs d id . N e llie C am pobello's C artucho (1931) i s a s e r i e s o f s k e tc h e s t h a t a tte m p t to c a p tu re a c h i l d 's view o f th e R e v o lu tio n . T his work i s im p o rta n t b ecau se i t ta k e s in to 195 acco u n t t h a t , in a d d itio n t o p a r t i c i p a n ts and n o n p a r tic i p a n ts , th e r e a re p eo p le who a c t u a l l y grew up w ith th e R e v o lu tio n I t s e l f . A nother w r i t e r , JosA M an cisld o r, In La Asonada (1931), d e s c rib e d th e R e v o lu tio n from th e s ta n d p o in t o f a p a r t i c i p a n t. T his work I s Im p o rta n t b ecau se o f I t s p a r t i c u l a r view . M a n c is ld o r's l e f t i s t Id eo lo g y I s a p p a re n t, a s I t I s In a l l h is w orks; how ever, he d id n o t d is c la im h is l e f t i s t a t t i t u d e s . In l a A sonada. M an cisld o r e x p re s s e s f e a r t h a t th e R e v o lu tio n w i l l be b e tra y e d by I t s le a d e r s , and th e c au se s o f th e p eople w i l l be l o s t . The C r i ti c s J u s t a s many o f th e w r i t e r s o f th e p e rio d lagged b eh in d e v e n ts , so d id th e c r i t i c s la g b e h in d th e w r i t e r s . In th e p e rio d 1910-1925 th e r e seemed t o be n o th in g f o r th e M exican c r i t i c t o do b u t fo llo w t r a d i t i o n . I t was much s a f e r t o ig n o re th e new v o ic e s —t h i s w ould a s s u r e t h a t th e new v o ic e s w ould n o t g a in much p u b l ic i ty . A rtu ro T o rre s-R lo se c o d is c u s s e s In s u c c in c t term s th e q u e s tio n o f th e f a i l u r e o f th e c r i t i c s t o re c o g n iz e A z u e la 's Los de A halo (1 9 1 5 ), a s an exam ple o f new l i t e r a t u r e : 196 Cabe p re g u n ta r a n te e sa boga fo rm id a b le que a d - q u ie re l a n o v e la ; £ Ib r qud se le h iz o e l s i l e n c io e n tr e 1916 y 1926? Im posible s e r l a d e te rm in e r e l hecho de una m anera c a te g 6 r ic a . Es c o m p re n sib le , s i n em bargo, que la p rim era e d ic i6 n [E l Baso e d itio n s o f 1915 and 1916] haya pasado in a d v e rtid a a cau sa de que e l a u to r e s ta b a en e l d e s t ie r r o y deb id o a que la c iu d a d de E l Ihso no e s un c e n tro i n t e l e c t u a l de n in - gtin e s p e c ie . No se e x p lic a l a in d if e r e n c ia de la c r l t i c a p o r la e d ic i6 n d e l ano v e i n t e . La im p o rta n c ia que se a tr ib u y e a la n o v ela despu6s de 1926 dem uestra l a in c a p a c id a d de lo s c r l t i c o s m exicanos p a ra s e n a la r nuevos v a l o r e s , a su tlm id e z p a ra ju z g a r l a obra re v o - ln c io n a r ia , su f a l t a de normas l i t e r a r i a s y de i n t u i - c i6 n . Muchos de lo s que c e le b ra n a h o ra l a a p a r ic id n de Los de a b a lo co n o clan ya e l l i b r o p ero no se a t r e - v ie r o n a e m i t ir s u j u i d o s in o cuando l a obra h a b la s id o c o n sa g ra d a . la n o v ela se h a b la v en d id o en M lxico por mds de s e l s afios y a n a d ie se le h a b la o c u rrid o p ro c la m a rla la prim e r a n o v ela n a c io n a l de e so s d la s . M ariano A zuela Was Ig n o red f o r Hen Y ears A f te r th e R ib lic a tio n o f Los de A balo No c r i t i c a l w r itin g on th e w orks o f M ariano A zuela a p p e a rs b e fo re December, 1924. This i s in s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t h is m a s te rp ie c e , Los de A balo (w hich h as been t r a n s l a t e d in to s e v e r a l la n g u a g e s), had had f iv e s e p a ra te 2 A rtu ro T o rre s-R lo se c o , Los N o v e lis ta s de la T ie r ra . V ol. I o f G randes N o v e lis ta s de la Amdrlca Hianana (B e rk e le y : U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia P re ss, 1941), pp. 9 -1 0 . 3 E n g lish , F ren ch , German, Ja p a n e se , Y u g o slav ian , Ib rtu g u e s e , C zech o slo v ak ian , I t a l i a n , 9w edish, and Hebrew. 197 A p u b lic a tio n s , th e l a s t o f them in Mexico C ity in 1920. F u rth erm o re, by 1924, M ariano A zuela had p u b lis h e d , b e s id e s e a r ly m inor w orks, s ix f u l l le n g th n o v els^ and s e v e r a l s h o r te r w o rk s. ^ What happened in 1924-1925 to change th e a t t i t u d e o f th e c r i t i c s ? On November 2 0 , 1924, th e r e a p p eared in th e Mexico C ity d a il y , E l U h iv e rs a l. an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " la I n flu e n c ia de l a R evoluci6n e n N u e stra L it e r a t u r e ," by JosA C o rra l RigAn.^ The a r t i c l e s t a t e d t h a t th e M exican R e v o lu tio n had n o t found an a d e q u a te i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in 4 E l Ifeso, T exas, s e r i a l in th e new spaper E l ftiso d e l N o rte . O cto b er, November, and December, 1915; E l Bsiso, T exas, s e p a r a te p u b lic a tio n by El Biso d e l N o rte. 1916; Tsmpico, M exico, s e r i a l in th e new spaper E l Mundo. 1917; Tampico, M exico, s e p a r a te p u b lic a tio n by El Mundo. 1917; Mexico C ity , T ip o g ra fla " R a z a s te r," 1920. 5 Los F ra c a sa d o s. 1908; Mela Y erba. 1909; AndrAs Bferez, M a d e rlsta . 1911; S in Amor. 1912; U s T rib u la c io n e s de Uha F a m ilia D ecente. 1918; U M alhora. 1923. 1907; U s C aciq u es. 1917; Lgs Mogsflft, 1918; D o m itllo Q uiere Ser D iputado. 1918; De Como a l F in jtlasi-jyaa 1 9 1 8 . ^John E. E n g le k irk , "The D iscovery o f U s de Aba t o . " H isn a n U . X V III (F e b ru ary , 1935), 5 5 . E n g lek irk s t a t e s in t h i s a r t i c l e t h a t th e name JosA C o rra l RigAn, a c c o rd in g t o F ra n c is c o M onterde, i s a pseudonym w hich was used in te rc h a n g e a b ly by C arlo s N oriega Hope, A rqueles V ela, and G reg o rio O rtega—th r e e newspapermen o f t h a t tim e . 198 th e n o v e l. T his p re lim in a ry a r t i c l e was fo llo w ed on Decem b e r 2 0 , 1924, by th e f i r s t o f a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s w hich w ere to r e v e a l A zuela t o th e w o rld . On t h i s d a te (Decem b e r 20, 1924) J u lio Jim&nez Rueda p u b lish e d in E l U h iv e rsa l an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "E l A fem inam iento en la L ite r a tu r e M exicana," in w hich he s t a t e d t h a t M exico's w r i t e r s had f a i l e d t o re c o g n iz e th e c a ta c ly s m ic f a c t o f th e R ev o lu tio n and had c o n tin u e d to c u l t i v a t e a r t i f i c i a l i t i e s . In answ er to R ueda'8 a r t i c l e , F ra n c isc o M onterde on December 2 5 , 1924, in E l U h iv e rsa l p u b lish e d a n a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " E x is te Una L ite r a tu r e M exicana V i r l l? " M onterde s t a te d t h a t i t was n o t th e w r i t e r s who had f a i l e d M exico, b u t th e c r i t i c s ; t h a t th e r e d id e x i s t in Mexico a n o rg a n ic l i t e r a t u r e b ased on th e c u r r e n t r e a l i t i e s o f th e c o u n try — a l i t e r a t u r e t h a t was m ere ly a w a itin g p ro p e r re c o g n itio n and d if f u s io n and t h a t th e o u ts ta n d in g exam ple o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e was M ariano A zuela*s Los de A balo. Q F in a lly , A zuela was re c o g n iz e d ; d u rin g th e l a s t p a r t o f th e s e c o n tr o v e r s ia l a r t i c l e s , and im m ediately Q E n g le k irk , "The D iscovery o f Los de A b a lo ." pp. 5 3 -6 2 . E n g le k irk in t h i s a r t i c l e g iv e s a good a c c o u n t o f th e e v e n ts t h a t le d t o th e d is c o v e ry o f M ariano A zuela and h is work Los de A balo. 199 a fte rw a rd , th e r e was a c o rre sp o n d in g f l u r r y o f in te rv ie w s and o th e r p u b lic ity . The aw akening o f i n t e r e s t in A zuela*s l i t e r a r y p ro d u c tio n i s e v id e n t a f t e r 1925 by th e numerous re v ie w s, c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s , and r e p r i n t s o f h is w orks a v a ila b le a f t e r t h i s d a te . A zuela*s Im portance a s a W rite r The im portance o f M ariano A zuela a s a w r i t e r i s due i n p a r t to th e f a c t t h a t he f e l t and t r a n s la te d th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e R e v o lu tio n more v i v id l y and more e x te n s iv e ly th a n any o th e r w r i t e r . His w r itin g p a r a lle le d th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e R e v o lu tio n , and th e r e f o re a c o n tin u ity o f th o u g h t and e x p re s s io n i s d e riv e d from h is w r itin g s . He to o k an a c t iv e p a r t in th e m il i ta r y and p o l i t i c a l p h a se s, and a s a w r i t e r was e x tr a o r d in a r il y s e n s i t iv e t o th e fo rc e s a t work i n th e R e v o lu tio n , from th e days o f Don B o rfirio t o th e program o f s o c ia l a c tio n a s i t con tin u e d down to th e l a t t e r y e a rs o f h is l i f e (1873-1952). A zuela, from th e v e ry b e g in n in g , was d e f i n i t e l y concerned w ith th e tre a tm e n t o f th e oe6n b y th e landow ner. In t h i s c a te g o ry i s De Mi T ie rra (1903). Los F racasad o s (1908) and Mala Yerba (1 9 0 9 ), b o th w r itte n b e fo re th e o u tb rea k o f th e R e v o lu tio n , p re s e n t a s p e c ts o f th e In j u s t i c e and f u t i l i t y o f th e Diaz reg im e. D e f in ite ly con c ern ed w ith th e m i l i t a r y phase o f th e R e v o lu tio n a r e Andrds B lrez. M ad erlsta (1 9 1 1 ), Los C aciques (1 9 1 4 ), Los de Abalo (1915), Las Moscas (1918), and la s T rlb u la c lo n e s de Iha E am llla D ecente (1 9 1 8 ). B esid es s e v e r a l n o v e ls t r e a t i n g th e s o c ia l s t r u c tu r e o f th e second la r g e phase o f th e R ev o lu tio n (1917-1940), th e r e a r e some c o n n ec te d more sp e c i f i c a l l y w ith th e more Im p o rtan t a s p e c ts o f t h i s p e rio d o f M exican h i s t o r y : f o r exam ple, El Cnmara d a B m to la (1937) q c o v ers th e p e rio d o f th e C r ls te r o u p r is in g s and o f th e la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n ; Avanzada (1940), o f la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n and la b o r u n io n s; Regina Lands (1939), o f governm ental b u rea u cra cy u n der L dzaro C drdenas; Nueva B u rc u esla (1941) and l a M uler Domada (1946) o f p o l i t i c a l c h ic a n e ry and 8ophom orlc communism under l i z a r o C ird e n a s. La M erchants (1944) goes back to th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f F lu ta rc o E lla s C a lle s and d e a ls to some e x te n t w ith governm ental c o rru p t i o n , a lth o u g h much more w ith th e vacuous s o c ie ty o f th e q C r ls te r o I s th e name g iv en to th e a d h e re n ts o f th e Church p a rty In th e s tr u g g le betw een th e Church and th e Government d u rin g th e C a lle s reg im e. The name e x ten d ed a ls o t o th e w hole movement. 2 0 1 tim e . Sendee Iterdidas (1949) c o n c e n tra te s more on human b e h a v io r and m o tiv es th a n on any p o l i t i c a l o r s o c ia l phe nomenon. lterhaps th e m ost Im p o rtan t n o ta b le change in A z u e la 's a t t i t u d e o c cu rs in Nueva B urguesia (1941) i n w hich he changes th e p o in t of h is c a s t i g a t i o n from p o l i t i c a l le a d e rs t o th e p eople th e m se lv e s. The book d e a ls la r g e ly w ith th e d i s o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e p r o v in c ia l, th e hum ble, who come t o th e b ig c i t y . A zuela was o b v io u sly d is p le a s e d w ith many o f th e r e s u l t s in p o l i t i c s t h a t th e R e v o lu tio n produced; he was a ls o unhappy w ith th e changing v a lu e s o f th e p e o p le . A lthough he w anted s o c ia l j u s t i c e f o r th e poor in Nueva B u reu esla he shows t h a t th e poor had n o t w a ite d in p ro p e r o rd e r to re c e iv e a l l th e p le a s a n t th in g s o f a b e t t e r l i f e : th e y w ent o u t to c la im th e w o r ld 's m a te r ia l jo y s . He se e s them in a w o rld o f b e a u ty p a r l o r s , m o v ies, chewing gum, and secondhand a u to m o b ile s. His a d v ic e to them i s to go back p h y s ic a lly and p s y c h o lo g ic a lly , to t h e i r b e g in n i n g s .^ The n o v el shows h is obvious b i t t e r n e s s . A ll o f h is 10M ariano A zu ela, Nueva B u rg u esia in Obyftj .Cflnflft- M fa M Pr l «wo A zuela. p ro lo g u e by F ra n c is c o M onterde (M exico: Fondo de C u ltu ra Econ6m ica, V o ls. 1-11, 1958; V ol. I l l , 1960), I I I , 38 -3 9 . 202 n a v e ls from 1941 u n t i l th e posthum ous Ese Sanere (1956) a r e b u i l t on th e r e a c tio n a r y a d v ic e to " tu r n b ack."*’ * Most s a d ly f o r him , he seems t o se e t h a t even g o ing back w i l l n o t remake th e w o rld a s he w ants i t . O ccurrence o f th e Theme o f th e R ev o lu tio n The theme o f th e R e v o lu tio n i n A z u e la 's w orks o c cu p ies a v e ry prom inent p la c e i n h is th in k in g and p u r p o se . I t a p p e a rs a s a re c o g n itio n o f o p p re s siv e s o c ia l c o n d itio n s in a group o f n o v e ls and s t o r i e s w r i t te n b e fo re 12 th e R e v o lu tio n . The b e tr a y a l o f R e v o lu tio n a ry id e a ls by I n t e l l e c t u a l s , p o l i t i c i a n s , and m i l i t a r y le a d e r s , and th e w id e sp rea d p resen c e o f b raz en o p p o rtu n ism a r e v e ry d e f i n i t e l y re c o g n iz e d in th e g roup o f n o v e ls w r i t te n in th e e a r l y y e a rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n , from AndrAa BSrez. M ad erista (1 911) t o 1 m Moscss (1 9 1 8 ). F u rth e r e n th u sia sm f o r th e R e v o lu tio n i s e x p re sse d in Los C aciques (1914) and Los de A balo (1 9 1 5 ). In th e s e w orks one f in d s th e d e s c r ip tio n o f tro o p m ovem ents, th e 11A zuela, fog Sgnffft In Ofrrftg .CgffpJfrtM, I I , 670- 672. 12 See Appendix A. 203 a c t u a l f ig h tin g and many o th e r e p iso d e s o f th e l i f e o f th e arm ed bands w hich d id much o f th e work o f th e R e v o lu tio n . K ao n o v e ls , U s T rih u la c io n e s de lh a F a m ilia D ecente (1918) and Ri C m mura d a U n to la (1927) a r e b o th n o v e ls t r e a t i n g th e e f f e c t s o f th e R ev o lu tio n and a re con c e rn e d w ith th e problem s c re a te d by th e R e v o lu tio n , r a t h e r th a n w ith b ro a d s o c ia l problem s. From U L ucidrnaga (1932) to Nueva B urguesia (1941), and a l s o th e e a r l i e r n o v e ls La M alhora (1923) an d , to a l e s s e r e x te n t, E l D esquite (1 9 2 5 ), th e r e i s a d e f i n i te s o c io lo g ic a l o r ie n t a t i o n —a l l d e p ic t th e s o c i a l c o n d itio n s p re v a le n t d u rin g th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e R e v o lu tio n . A z u e la 's l a s t th r e e n o v e ls , U M erchants (1944), U M uter Domada (1946), and Sendas B ardidas (1 9 4 9 ), show |l e s s d i r e c t r e l a ti o n s h i p w ith th e R e v o lu tio n ; how ever, th e e f f e c t s o f th e R ev o lu tio n a r e em phasized. Ohe u n ify in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s g ro u p i s t h a t th e y d e s c rib e th e s o c i a l changes w hich have ta k e n p la c e a s a r e s u l t o f th e R e v o lu tio n . A nother u n ify in g p r in c ip le i s t h a t th e c h a ra c t e r s in th e s e n o v els a r e v e ry s e n s i t iv e to th e s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t i n w hich th e y l i v e : A zuela seems t o be p a r tic u l a r l y co n cern ed w ith t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . 204 The u n d e rly in g and c o n tin u in g theme w hich u n i f ie s a l l o f A zuela*s w orks i s th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M exican r e a l i t y and e s p e c i a l l y t h a t o f th e M exican R e v o lu tio n . F u rth erm o re, he i s u n e x c e lle d in h is a b i l i t y to e x p re s s th e e sse n c e o f M exican l i f e on th e le v e l o f th e common man. M ariano A zuela*s L ife E x p e rie n c e s: Y ears o f R e v o lu tio n When th e R e v o lu tio n b ro k e o u t in 1910, A zuela had a lre a d y p u b lish e d M arla L uisa (1907), Los F racasad o s (1908), and Mala Yerba (1 9 0 9 ). In th e second and t h i r d o f th e s e , th e cau se s and c o n d itio n s o f th e R e v o lu tio n a re u n m ista k ab ly re c o g n iz e d and p o rtra y e d , a s w i l l be shown l a t e r . In A z u e la 's n e x t f iv e n o v e ls (1911-1918) th e tu r b u le n t phases 13 o f th e s tr u g g le p red o m in ate. His work w hich fo llo w ed c o n tin u e s t o be p reo c cu p ie d w ith th e developm ent o f th e R e v o lu tio n ary movement, e s p e c i a l l y i t s s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c ts . The R e v o lu tio n has been th e p iv o ta l p o in t o f A z u e la 's w r itin g o f f i c t i o n . Hence we may w e ll exam ine b r i e f l y h i s p e rs o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s g r e a t movement. 13AndrAs BSrez. M a d e rista (1911); S jji .Apoy (1912); dffi. A frfl.1.9. (1915); Los C aciques (1917); Mppcpg (1 9 1 8 ). A zuela was p r a c tic in g m edicine in la g o s de Moreno, J a l is c o , th e p la c e o f h is b i r t h , a t th e o u tb re a k o f th e R e v o lu tio n . D uring t h i s tim e he was c lo s e ly w atched by governm ent a g e n ts an d c o n sid e re d s u s p ic io u s b ecau se o f h is books and h is a n tip a th y f o r th e B o rflrlo Diaz governm ent. A f te r th e triu m p h o f th e Madero movement In 1911, he was a p p o in te d le f e p o l i t i c o (a c h n ln ls tra tlv e s u p e rv is o r o f b o th th e town an d th e d i s t r i c t ) o f lag o s de Moreno on Ju n e, u 1917. He h e ld th e p o s itio n two m onths. When A lb e rto G il Robles to o k o f f i c e a s g o v ern o r o f th e s t a t e o f J a l is c o In A ugust o f 1911, A zuela r e a l iz e d t h a t th e Id e a ls o f Madero w ere n o t b e in g r e a l i z e d , and w ithdrew from p o l i t i c s . ^ I t was a t t h i s tim e t h a t A zuela w ro te th e b i t t e r and d i s i l l u sio n e d AndrAs B&rez. M a d erlsta (1 9 1 1 ), r e f l e c t i n g a l l th e d isa p p o in tm e n t o f th e i d e a l i s t b e t r a y e d . ^ D uring V lc to ria n o H u e rta 's a d m in is tr a tio n (F ebru a r y , 1913, to J u ly , 1914) A zuela rem ained in h id in g . 14F. Rand M orton, Los N o v e lis ta s de l a R evoluci6n Mexicana (M&xico: E d i t o r i a l C u ltu ra , 1 9 4 9 ), p. 38. 15A zu ela, E l N o v e lla ta v Su Am biente i n Gfeau. C om pletes. I l l , 1070. 16A zuela, E l N o v e llsta v Su Ambiente in Qfeffift CgfflPlgtftg.. I l l , 1078. 206 A zuela s a y s : Ml p a r tic ip a c i6 n en la r e v u e lta m a d e ris ta y en e l regim en c c m s titu c io n a l que le su c e d l6 fuA e s tr lc ta m e n te p o l l t i c a , p e ro con e l l o £u6 s u f l c ie n te p ara q u e , a l d e rro c a m le n to de Madero, se me tu v ie r a v lg ila d o e s t r e - cham ente, como a to d o s lo s que comprobamos n u e s tr a s Id e a s r e v o lu c io n a r ia s , y e n e s ta d o de te n s l6 n cons- t a n t e . 17 In th e e a r l y m onths o f 1914 la g o s de Moreno was o ccu p ied by F ra n c is c o V i l l a 's arm y. A zuela b e lie v e d a t f i r s t t h a t th e R e v o lu tio n had triu m p h ed and t h a t he w ould be a b le to s e t t l e down t o h i s m ed ical p r a c tic e an d h is w r i t in g . He was d e c e iv e d . The p resen ce o f tro o p s u n der I r r e s p o n s ib le le a d e rs made I t p o s s ib le fo r lo c a l o p p o rtu n is ts t o denounce anyone th e y w ish e d . The s i t u a t i o n became v e ry d i f f i c u l t , and A zuela was f o r tu n a te In fin d in g a way o u t. C oncerning t h i s s i t u a t i o n he s t a t e s : E l d e l l t o no fuA y s e r m a d e ris ta , s ln o c a rra n - c l s t a o v l l l l s t a . Ehtonces lo s su c e so s me a r r a s - t r a r o n y a poco me encontrA m etid o en l a lu ch a a rm ad a.* 8 The way o u t f o r A zuela came th ro u g h J u l i i n M edina, who was a le a d e r o f a group Im prisoned f o r su b v e rsiv e 17A zu ela, E l N o v e lls ta v Su Am biente In Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1078. 18A zuela, El N o v e llsta v Su Ambiente in Cfesafi. C om pletes. I l l , 1080. a c t i v i t i e s in th e tow n o£ H o s to tip a q u illo , lo c a te d in s o u th e rn J a l is c o . In e a r ly 1914 th e g roup broke out o f p ris o n , p ro claim ed Ju liA n Medina a g e n e r a l, and began g u e r r i l l a w a rfa re a g a in s t V ic to rla n o H u e rta 's governm ent. E v e n tu a lly th e y to o k th e town o f T e q u ila , n o rth w e st o f G u a d a la ja ra ; th e r e Jo s4 B ecerra (o f th e Lagos de Moreno g ro u p ), an a rd e n t R e v o lu tio n a ry , jo in e d them . B ecerra and A zuela had been w orking to g e th e r , u n d er c o v e r, a g a in s t H u e rta , and B ecerra t o l d Ju liA n Medina a b o u t t h i s . Subse q u e n tly , Medina a f f i l i a t e d h im s e lf w ith F ra n c isc o V i l l a 's arm y and in th e l a t t e r months o f 1914 a s th e army p assed th ro u g h Lagos de Moreno, Medina in v ite d A zuela to se rv e u n der him in th e s t a t e governm ent (Medina was to become g o v e rn o r ) .19 A zuela a c c e p te d M edina's i n v i t a t i o n to become p a r t 2 0 o f h is g e n e ra l s t a f f , a t I r a p u a to , w here Medina was asse m b lin g h is f o r c e s . A zuela was made c h ie f o f th e m edi c a l s e r v ic e w ith th e ran k o f l ie u te n a n t c o lo n e l. W aiting 19A zu ela, El N o v e lls ta v Su Am biente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1079. 20 Ira p u a to , G u an aju ato , i s an Im p o rta n t r a i l ju n c t io n ; th e r a i l r o a d from G u a d a la ja ra j o in s th e n o rth -s o u th l i n e o f th e M exican C e n tra l h e re . 208 a m onth i n I ra p u a to , Medina and h is fo rc e s moved to Guada l a j a r a , w here Medina assum ed th e g o v e rn o rsh ip and a p p o in te d A zuela S ta te D ire c to r o f E d u catio n on December, 1914. M edina*s governm ent, how ever, b a re ly began to fu n c tio n when p re s s u re from th e C a rra n c is ta s fo rc e d i t to r e t r e a t to 21 Lagos de Moreno. A zuela was l e f t in T ep a titlA n (midway betw een lag o s and G u a d a la ja ra ) i n charge o f a g roup o f wounded men. E v e n tu a lly he to o k them n o rth in to Chihuahua 22 w ith F ra n c isc o V i l la , a f t e r V illa was d e fe a te d a t C elaya. In A p ril, 1915, f u r t h e r re v e rs e s determ in ed more r e t r e a t s ; e v e n tu a lly Medina had to s p l i t h is f o r c e s . Most o f them rem ained w ith G en eral Medina in J a l is c o , w here th e y fo u g h t a g a in s t a m ain elem en t o f C a rra n z a 's arm y. A zuela m eanwhile moved northw ard w ith F ra n c isc o V i l l a 's army d u rin g m ost o f 1915 and e v e n tu a lly a r r iv e d a t Ciudad JuA rez 21 E rn e st R. Moore, B ib lio e r a f la de N o v e lis ta s de la R evoluci6n M exicana (M&xico: E d it o r i a l C u ltu ra , 1941), p. 2 2 . 22 Celaya i s an im p o rta n t r a i l r o a d ju n c tio n in th e s t a t e o f G uanajuato, some f i f t y m ile s s o u th - e a s t o f I r a p u a to . There th e M exican C e n tr a l, from Ciudad JuA rez and El Xhso, T exas, jo in s th e m a in lin e from Nuevo Laredo and L aredo, Texas. On A p ril 15, 1915, G eneral F ra n c isc o V illa was d e fe a te d a t Celaya by th e fo rc e s o f G eneral A lvaro ObregAn. 209 in Septem ber, 1915. P re ssu re from th e C arranza f o r c e s , how ever, fo rc e d A zuela t o c ro s s th e b o rd e r in to El Ifeso, T exas, in th e company o f o th e r V illa men in O ctober, 23 1915. A zuela *8 A ttitu d e Toward B ersonal B art i d e a t i o n in th e Rev o lu tio n A z u e la 's a t t i t u d e tow ard p e rs o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e arm ed s tr u g g le i s m ixed. In h is E l N o v e lls ta v Su Am biente he s t a t e s : Los que no pudimos o no suplm os e se a p a r a tiem po de n u e s tro s t e r r e n o s , s u je to s a un e s p io n a je e x a sp e - r a n t e , no tenlam os m£s p e rs p e c tiv a que la de in c o r - po rarn o s con e l p rim er grupo re b e ld e que se a c e r c a r a . ^ In th e n ex t p a ra g ra p h , how ever, sp e ak in g o f th e a r r i v a l o f F ra n c is c o V i l l a 's tro o p s in la g o s de Moreno, he s t a t e s : Ride c r e e r , con ra z 6 n , que ya p o d rla s e g u ir tr a b a - jan d o con t r a n q u ilid a d e n mi p ro fe s i6 n ya en e l c u ltlv o de m is a f ic io n e s l l t e r a r i a s , a le ja d o en a b s o lu to de 23 A zuela, El fttdre Don A g u stin R ivera in Obras C om nletas. I l l , 510-511. A zuela s t a t e s c l e a r l y in t h i s work t h a t he came up from C elaya w ith th e d e fe a te d V illa f o r c e s . At Le6n, G u an aju ato , th e tro o p t r a i n was d e la y ed and th u s A zuela was a b le t o v i s i t F a th e r R iv era th e r e . 24 A zuela, El N o v e llsta v Su Ambiente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1078. 210 to d a a c tu a c l6 n c i v i l o m l l i t a r . que p o r e l momento h a b la n d e ja d o de in te re s a rm e . l a t e in 1914 A zuela jo in e d th e g e n e ra l s t a f f o f th e Revolu tio n a r y army o f G en eral J u lia n M edina. R egarding t h i s im p o rta n t s te p i n h is l i f e he s t a t e s : "Desde que se i n l c i 6 e l m ovlm iento con M adero, s e n t i un g ra n deseo de c o n v iv ir con a u tA n tic o s r e v o lu c io n a r io s , no de d is c u r s o s , s ln o de 26 r i f l e s . " He i s , how ever, in c o n s is te n t a s he c o n tin u e s , "de s u e r te que e s a s o la c ir c u n s ta n c ia me b a sta b a p ara se n - 2 7 t i r p la c e r y s a t is f a c c l 6 n en mi fo rz a d a a v e n tu r a ." A zuela h im s e lf com pares h is own s i t u a t i o n a t t h i s tim e , a f t e r he has had th e o p p o rtu n ity t o o b serv e th e s e l f i s h n e s s , p e t t i n e s s , an d in tr ig u e s o f many o f h is fe llo w R e v o lu tio n a rie s , t o t h a t o f C a p ta in A lb e rto S o lis , a id to G eneral R S nfilo N atera who was th e le a d e r o f th e Revolu t i o n a r i e s in th e s t a t e o f Z a c a te c a s . A zuela has S o lis rem ark in Los de A balo (1915) when he i s a s k e d , "Why, i f 25 A z u e la , SI N o v e lls ta v Su Ambiente in Obras C om oletas. I l l , 1078. 26 A zu ela, El N o v e lls ta v Su Ambiente in Obras C om oletas. I l l , 1080. 27 A zuela, E l Hovel i s ta v Su AmMgnt-g in Obras C om oletas. I l l , 1080. 211 you a re d is illu s io n e d w ith th e R e v o lu tio n , do you c o n tin u e i n i t ?" And th e famous answ er o f S o l i s : " Barque la re v o lu - c i6 n e s e l h u r a d n , y e l hombre que s e e n tre g a a e l l a no es ya e l hoo& re, s in o la m is e ra b le h o ja se c a a rre b a ta d a por e l v en d av al."^ ® R egarding th e ab o v e-q u o ted rem arks made by S o lis , A zuela s t a t e d : Con to d o , por m is que l a jo rn a d a haya s id o la rg a y p en o sa, nunca me he a rr e p e n tid o de h a b e rla hecho, por que en e l l a e n c o n tr l l a s ensefianzas m is provechosas que me ha dado l a v id a y un co n o cim ien to de lo s hom b re s que jam ls h a b ria a d q u irid o corno m ld ico c i v i l . 9 There i s no doubt a s to th e in tim a te r e l a ti o n s h i p o f A z u e la 's R e v o lu tio n ary a c t i v i t y w ith h is w r itin g . In h i s work E l N o v e lls ta v AmMent-a (1 9 3 8 ), A zuela de s c r ib e s th e v a rio u s elem en ts o f h is m a s te rp ie c e , Los de A balo (1 9 1 5 ), th e a c tu a l p eo p le who se rv e d a s m odels f o r 30 h is c h a r a c te r s , and c irc u m sta n c e s o f co m p o sitio n and p u b lic a tio n . 28 A zuela, E l N o v e lls ta v Su Ambiente in Obras C om p letes. I l l , 1081. 29 A zuela, E l N o v e lls ta v Su Ambiente i n Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1081. 30 A zuela, El N o v e llsta y Su Ambiente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1080-1085. 212 Uh buen d la me e n c o n tr l en lo s E stados Uhidos (El Raso, Texas) con un l l o de p a p e le s , d eb ajo de mi cam i8a de m anta. Dos t e r c e r a s p a r te s de Los de A balo e s ta b a n re d a c ta d a s y e l r e s t o lo e s c r i b l en la misma Im prenta de E l Baso d e l N o rte , donde mi n o v ela comenz6 a p u b lic a rs e en e l f o l l e t i n . ^ l A zuela sta y e d o n ly a few m onths in E l Raso, T exas. When G eneral C a rra n z a 's fo rc e s to o k Ciudad JuA rez d e f i n i t i v e l y , he saw h is chance to g e t back home: AprovechA la c o n fu si6 n de l a s prixneras h o ras p a ra pasarm e a t e r r i t o r i o m exicano, le comprA un pase de f e r r o c a r r i l a un so ld ad o y con JosA G. Montes de Oca regresA a G u a d a la ja ra . Ocho d la s dur6 e l v i a j e con d e s v e ^ d a s , ham bres, tr a b a jo s y m u ltitu d de p e rp ie - c i a s . In May, 1916, A zuela to o k h is fa m ily to Mexico C ity to l i v e . H is R e v o lu tio n a ry a c t i v i t i e s w ere o v e r! A zuela*s Views on th e A ccom plishm ent o f th e R e v o lu tio n In A z u e la 's Cien Attos de Novela M exicana (1947) th e r e a re many re fe re n c e s to th e R e v o lu tio n . Some a r e p e s s i m is t ic o b s e rv a tio n s ; and some s i g n i f i c a n t p assag es re c o g n iz e th e p o s itiv e a c tio n o f th e R e v o lu tio n . Among th e ^ A z u e la , E l N o v e lis ta v Su Am biente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1081. A zuela, El H o v ellsta v Su Ambiente in Obras C om pletes. I l l , 1088. 213 id e a s e x p re sse d in t h i s w ork a r e th o se w hich A zuela advo c a te s th e m ost. He condemns th e l o f ty a t t i t u d e o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s : Tampoco lo s que actuam os en n u e s tr a 6 ltim a g ra n re v o lu c i6 n —a j u i c i o de lo s s a b io s —supim os v e r m is que e l hecho b r u t a l ; una c o r tin a de lig rim a s y de sa n g re , en e f e e t o , nos o c u lta b a la herm osura de id e a l que se h a b la quedado a t r l s . Los s a b io s de e n to n c e s— lo s que hacen la s re v o lu c io n e s desde su s c6modos g a b i- n e te s —q u is ie r o n o to rg a r c a te g o r ia a un pueblo que se s a c r if ic a b a a le g re m e n te . {No te n ia id e a le s ! |No s a b la lo que h a c la ! |No s a b la p o r q u l p e le a b a ! E ntonces e l l o s tom aron p a rte en la c o n tie n d a , como siem pre sefia- lando d e r r o te r o s , d ic ta n d o dogmas. "La re v o lu c i6 n e s F ra n c isc o V i l l a , " d ije r o n u n o s. " la re v o lu c i6 n e s V en u stian o C a rra n z a ," d ije r o n o tr o s . Y la re v o lu c i6 n se d iv id i6 e n dos fa c c io n e s y la sa n g re g e n ero sa d e l pueblo se derram 6 a t o r r e n t e s , con g ra n s a t is f a c c i 6 n de lo s s a b io s . porque le h a b la n ensenado a l pueblo por quA p e le a b a .*3 He a ls o c r i t i c i z e s f a l s e R e v o lu tio n a rie s and r e f e r s to them a s : Los ad v en ed izo s que en a v alan c h a se p r e c ip ita n so b re lo s d esp o jo s o b te n id o s en to d a s la s re v o lu c io n e s , e so s lo g re ro s que ta n b ie n conocemos n o s o tro s , que se dan e l nombre de re v o lu c io n a rio s s i n h a b er sa b id o nunca a lo que h u e le la p 6 lv o ra . p a ra s a c i a r lo s a p e t it o s m is in m o rales e inm undos. ^4 A zuela view s th e R ev o lu tio n a s an in co m p lete 33A zuela, Cjen Anos de Novela M exicana in Ofaatf. C om oletas. I l l , 641. 34A zu ela, C ien Anos de Novela M exicana in Obrflg Cqnplfttflft, H I , 629. 214 achievem ent b u t a d m its t h a t i t was a n e c e s s a ry and p o s itiv e s te p : Hoy ha d ejad o de s e r ta b u e l p ro ced im ien to por e l que a q u e llo s la b o rio s o s y h o n e sto s pequenos p ro p ie - t a r l o s se c o n v e rtla n en o p u le n to s hacendados, y s i a lg o bueno s e l e debe a n u e s tra U ltim a re v o lu c i6 n e s la e x tir p a c i6 n de r a l z de a q u e lla c a s ta . Boco im p o rts que lo s p ro ce d im ie n to s de e n riq u e c im ie n to de hoy se a n p e o re s; de to d a s m aneras nada j u s t i f i e s lo s de a n t e s . 35 A zuela, fu rth e rm o re , shows a g e n e ra l d i s i l l u s i o n a t th e la c k o f r e a l change and s t a t e s th e fundam ental re a so n f o r th a t la c k : Los q u e hoy contam os m is de s e te n ta anos sentim os e s tr u ja d o n u e s tro corazon y la m is am arga t r i s t e z a pensando que a q u e llo s crlm enes que ta n to nos in d ig n a ro n en n u e s tr a ju v e n tu d se sig a n r e p itie n d o hoy como a y e r, con e l a p la u s o de lo s b rib o n e s que siem pre tie n e n en la punta de l a lengua l a s e v a s iv a s h ip 6 c r ita s d e l b ie n com&n, l a s n e c e sid a d e s p o l i t i c a s , l a s a lu d d e l p u eb lo , y o tr a s fa ra m a lla s d e l mismo g in e ro . Con amarga t r i s te z a pensamos que n u e s tro g ra n e r r o r no c o n s i s t i i en h a b er s id o re v o lu c io n a rio s s in o en c r e e r que con e l cambio de i n s t it u c io n e s y no la c a lid a d de hom brea, lle g a rla m o s a c o n q u is ta r un m ejor e s ta d o s o c i a l . ® He a l s o speaks o f th e "m aneras y costum bres de o tr o s r e g l - menes hoy ta n an o rad o s por lo s pocos que quedan de lo s que se b e n e f ic ia r o n con e l l o s y por lo s muchos c in d id o s que 35 A zuela, Cien Anos de Novela M exicana in Obras C om oletas. I l l , 635. 35 A zuela, Cien Anos de Novela Mexicana in Obras Com pletes. I l l , 666. 215 3 7 s 6 lo de o ld o s lo s c o n o ce n ." A lso , "E l caciqulsm o p o r- 38 f i r i a n o , hoy ta n anorado p o r muchos in o c e n te s ," and p u rsu in g th e Is s u e f u r t h e r , he makes a so b e rin g com parison w ith th e p r e s e n t : Que da deshecho e l m en tld ero de lo s que a flrm a n que e l M&xlco de F o r f ir lo Diaz fue tin p a ra is o . VerA que e se regim en fu e e l a n te c e d e n te o b llg a d o de l a s r e v o lu c io n e s de que a h o ra abomlnamos. A parece e l caciqulsm o b r u ta l In s ta u ra d o en lo s p rim er os anos de a q u e l go- b ie m o , a n te s de c o n s o lld a rs e con l a s a e n te s d e c e n te s . por In d lv ld u o s que n l en c a lld a d I n t e l e c t u a l o m oral te n la n a lg o que p u d ie ra n e n v ld la r le s lo s p a lu rd o s con que l a re v o lu c l6 n lo s reem p laz6. A q u ello s como 6 s to s son g e n te de l a hez d e l pueblo y £ s to s como a q u e llo s son tlp o s p r im ltlv o s , p lte c a n tro p o s con p a n ta lo n e s . Con lg u a l v e rd a d a p a re c e n lo s p o l l t l c a s t r o s de p o b lach o , que lo s de l a s pequenas c a p l ta l e s y lo s de l a clu d a d de M&xlco; lo s mlsmos g o bernadores z o q u e te s , I n s o le n te s y a m b lc lo so s, d e s c a llf ic a d o s y a m o ra le s. Y a y e r como hoy y como sle m p re , e l im p erlo de l a fu e rz a b r u ta y e l d in e ro . 9 AzuelaVs A r t i s t i c Q u a litie s Having c o n sid e re d th e m a te r ia l w hich A zuela In c o rp o ra te s In h is n o v e ls , I t I s a ls o n e c e s s a ry to c o n s id e r 37 A zuela, C ien Anos de Novela M exicana In Obras C om oletas. I l l , 636. 38 A zuela, C ien Anos de Novela M exicana In Obras C om oletas. I l l , 645. 39 A zuela, Cien Agos de Novela Mexicana In Obras Com oletas. I l l , 645. 216 th e a r t i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f th e a u th o r h im s e lf. A z u e la 's l i t e r a r y te n d e n c ie s r e p r e s e n t th e f u s io n o f s e v e r a l d iv e rs e e le m e n ts, some o f w hich a re a n ta g o n is tic . There a r e w e ll- m arked tre n d s t h a t r e v e a l th em selv es a s th e a u th o r g a in s m a tu rity . A ll o f A z u e la 's w r itin g s a r e c h a r a c te r iz e d by a r i c h , l y r i c a l q u a li t y . In s p i t e o f th e c r u e l s a t i r e w hich he d i r e c t s a g a in s t p o e ts , he i s , h im s e lf, p o e tic , b u t i t i s a b ran d o f ly r ic is m t h a t i s v i r i l e and e n e r g e tic . This q u a l i t y i s e s p e c ia lly m arked in h is th r e e m a s te r p ie c e s : Los de A balo (1915), la s Moscas (1 9 1 8 ), and La L u c ilrn a e a (1932). A zuela employs p o e tic fan cy in h is d e s c r ip tio n s , and com bines t h i s q u a l i t y w ith e x a c tn e s s o f c h a r a c te r iz a t io n , and r e a l i s t i c d e s c r ip tio n t h a t i s s a t is f y in g to th e r e a d e r . The fo llo w in g e x c e rp t from Los de A baio (1915) i s f a n c i f u l and l y r i c a l , y e t a v e ry com plete p ic t u r e : E l s o l banaba l a a l t i p l a n i c l e en un la g o de o ro . . . p rom inenclas e r i z a s como f a n tA s tic a s cab ezas a f r ic a n a s ; lo s p lta y o s como dedos a n q u ilo sa d o s de c o lo s o . Y e n la a rid e z de la s penas y de l a s ram as s e c a s , a lb e a b a n la s f r e s c a s ro s a s de San Juan como una b lan c a o fre n d a a l a s t r o que comenzaba a d e s l iz a r su s h ilo s de o ro de ro c a en r o c a . ^ A z u e la , Los de Abalo in Obras Com nletas. I , 323. A zuela. th e N a tu r a lis t In h is d e s c r ip tio n o f n a tu re A zuela has fo llo w ed th e M bdernlsta p o e ts . He a p p e a ls to a l l th e s e n s e s , e sp e c i a l l y to s i g h t , sound, and s m e ll. D e s c rip tio n s t h a t a p p e a l to th e eye a re th e f i r s t to show a w e ll- d e fin e d In d iv id u a l i t y . The fo llo w in g e x c e rp t from AndrAs Bferez (1911) e x e m p lifie s h is g ra p h ic d e s c r ip tio n : En V illa lo b o s , e s ta c l6 n de b a n d e ra , e l f e r r o c a r r l l s 6 lo se d e tle n e lo s momentos p re c ls o s p a ra que e l p a s a je ro ponga lo s p ie s en t l e r r a . Yo no pude, p u e s, darme c u en ta to d a v la de la d eso laciA n donde he c a ld o cuando ya la cadena d e l tr e n n e g re a a lo l e j o s , d e s l l - zandose en suaves c u rv a s a trav A s de l a Inmensa sAbana m u e rta ; . . . l a humareda se desvanece y a , como un f u g ltlv o c e la je en la d ls fa n ld a d de la ta r d e t i b i a . De l a Inmensa p la n lc le c lrc u n d ad a p o r le ja n a c r e s t e r l a , A lzase un am biente de p a z . RAfagas de a l r e v le n e n a r e f r e s c a r ml r o s t r o e n cen d ld o , y p a re ce n darme a r e s - p l r a r l a vega m e la n c o lla d e l p a ls a je de o ro e l c u le b re o de l a a rb o le a d a rib e re fia , y b a jo un c le l o a z u l, pelnado de g r i s y de o c re c r e p u s c u la r .^ - The ab o v e-q u o ted e x c e rp t from A z u e la 's f o u r th n o v e l, AndrAs BArez (1911), I n d ic a te s t h a t even in h is e a r l i e r w orks, th e a u th o r d e m o n stra te d e x u b e ra n t ly r ic is m and su p erb a r t i s t r y in word c h o ic e . In Los de A balo (1915) n o t o n ly has A z u e la 's ^ A z u e la , AndrAs BArez in Obras C om oletas. I I , 766. 218 d e s c r ip tiv e power reach ed I t s f u l l developm ent, b u t i t m a in ta in s a to n e o f s u s ta in e d g ra n d e u r. The fo llo w in g e x c e rp ts a re notew orthy f o r t h e i r m u sic a l q u a l i t y : El r l o se a r r a s tr a b a c an tan d o en d im in u tas c a sc a - d as; lo s p a j a r i l l o s p iab an e sco n d id o s en lo s p ita y o s , y la s c h ic h a rra s m o n o rritm icas lle n a b a n de m ls te r lo la so le d a d de l a m ontana. Los s i l b a t o s fu n cio n an s i n c e s a r; g rav e s unos como m ugir de to r o s , aeudos y d e sesp era d o s o tr o s como a la r id o s de dem entes. Su g a rg a n ta se d esg ran a en una e s c a la de n o ta s agudas y su r i s a can o ra slg u e dando n o ta s y t r in o s de p lja r o s l i v e s t r e . ^ Golpe seco de m ach etes, tro n a d e ro de ram as tr o n - c h ad a s, s o y a te s que se agachan, cham arras de gamuza en a rc o , y la s c h a p a rre ra s de cu ero y la s b o ta s de campafia que C h ilia n en lo s g a r a b a t i l l o s . E lem ents o f b o th s ig h t and sound a r e combined in t h i s s e l e c ti o n from Las Moscas (1 9 1 8 ): A lo s p rim ero s ra y o s d e l s o l e l v a l l e se inunda en un t i b i o la g o de o ro y se p e r f i l a n l a s c a s i t a s b la n c a s y o c re s , desparram adas en la c o lin a , como m in ia tu ra s de Noche Buena. En un tram o de la v ia e l t r e n amenora su v e lo c id a d y se v e m ejor e l c a s e r lo y la g e n te ya en ^ A z u e la , Los de Abalo in Obras C om nletas. I , 323. / * 2 A zuela, las Moscas in Obras C om nletas. I I , 868. A zuela, las Moscas in Obras C om nletas. I I , 891. 45 A zuela, Bedro Moreno, e l Insu rgente in Obras Com nletas. I l l , 279. 219 la b re g a . Sobre un a lm la r de r a s t r o j o s un g a llo de c r e s t a r o j a , como c u a ja r6 n de s a n g re , de plumas doradas a fu e g o , irg u e su cabeza m a rc la 1, sacude la s a l a s , y como c l a r i n en campana, le v a n ta su p lc o en un c a n to r l s p i d o , sobreagudo, que d e s g a rra lo s a I r e s . Vacas de tu r g e n te s u b res bratnan, le v a n ta n d o lo s h o c lc o s so b re la s b a rd a s de un c o rra l.^ ® In Los de Abaio (1915) a re found two e x c e lle n t exam ples o f how A zuela a p p e a ls t o th e se n se o f s m e ll. The f i r s t d e s c rib e s a tro o p t r a i n . Humo de c lg a r r o , o lo r p e n e tra n te de ro p as su d a d as, em anaclones a lc o h b llc a s y e l r e s p l r a r de una m u ltltu d de h acln am len to peor que e l de un c a r r o de c e r d o s .^ ' In th e fo llo w in g e x c e rp t th e f lu e n t d e t a i l Is n o te w o rth y . W hile n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y m en tio n ed , th e o lf a c to r y s tim u li m ust have been w e ll m arked: la c e rv e z a regada p a re c la a v lv a r la fe rm e n ta c l6 n d e l b a s u re ro donde rep o sa b a n : un ta p lz de d s c a r a s de n a ra n ja s y p lita n o s , c a m o sa s c o rte z a s de s a n d la , h eb ro so s n ticleo s de mangos y bagazos de c an a , todo re v u e lto .c o n h o ja s de tam ale s y to d o humedo de deyec- c io n e s . A z u ela *8 Moods R e fle c te d in S e ttin g A zuela employs in g en io u s harmony betw een a c tio n and n a tu r a l s e t t i n g , making th e n a tu r a l s e t t i n g r e f l e c t th e 46 A zu ela, la s Moscas in Obras C om nletas. I I , 882. 47 A zuela, Los de Abaio in Obras Comnletas. I, 402. ^®Azuela, Los de Abaio in Obras Com nletas. I , 385. mood o f th e c h a r a c te r s and th e e p is o d e . At tim es he even makes th e c h a r a c te r s e s t h e t i c a l l y c o n scio u s o f th e i n f l u ence o f s e t ti n g on mood, and th u s makes h is d e s c r ip tio n an i n t e g r a l elem ent in p lo t developm ent. This i s r a r e and n o t o fte n e n c o u n te re d in A z u e la 's n o v e ls . The fo llo w in g exam ple i s from Los de Abaio (1915) and i l l u s t r a t e s how A zuela makes h is d e s c r ip tio n o f s e t t i n g r e f l e c t th e mood o f th e e p is o d e w hich in t h i s c a se i s C e rv a n te s ' r e j e c t i o n o f C a m ila 's lo v e . La penumbre ap ag ab a. . . . Soplaba un v ie n to t l b i o en d A b il rum or, m eciendo l a s h o ja s . . . de l a t i e r n a m ilp a e n e l a i r e embalsamado y en la h o ja r a s c a . Cam!la e n c o n tra b a a h o ra a lg o muy e x tra n o : como s i to d a s aq u e- l l a s tu v ie r a n mucha t r i s t e z a . Uha h o ja se ca se desprendiA de la s a l t u r a s d e l t a j o y, balanceA ndose en e l a i r e le n ta m e n te , cay6 como m arip o sa m uerta a su s p ie s . Y rompiA a l l o r a r . E n tre lo s j a r a l e s , l a s ra n a s can tab an la im p la ca b le me la n e o l la de l a h o ra . Me- ciA n d o se en una rama s e c a , una to r c a z llo rA tam biAn. 9 I f in h is d e s c r ip tio n o f s e t t i n g A zuela i s l y r i c a l , in h is c h a r a c te r p o r tr a y a l and p lo t he te n d s more tow ard r e a lis m , even n a tu ra lis m . His p lo ts a re th e s im p le s t a f f a i r s drawn s t r a i g h t from l i f e . I f a t tim e s an e p is o d e has th e h e ro ic o r t r a g i c g ra n d e u r o f a n e p ic , i t i s b ecau se 49 A zuela, Los de Abaio in Obras Com pletas. I , 350- 351. 221 su ch in c id e n ts w ere an e v ery d ay o c c u rre n c e d u rin g th e h e c t ic y e a rs o f th e R e v o lu tio n . In h is b e s t works th e r e i s no e f f o r t to w r ite una n o v ela de i n t r l e a : th e r e i s no d ash in g young hero who f r u s t r a t e s th e c o n s p ira c ie s o f h is op ponents and w ins th e hand o f th e g e n e r a l 's d a u g h te r. I n s te a d , A z u e la 's n o v e ls a r e t r u e m irro rs o f l i f e , b ro ad can v ases on w hich a re p o rtra y e d w ith f i d e l i t y and consum m ate s k i l l , e p iso d e s from th e R e v o lu tio n . A zuela (b o rn In 1873) m ust be c o n sid e re d a con tem p o rary o f B n ile Z ola (b o rn 18 4 0 ). Z o la 's n o v e l, C ontes k Ninon (1864) an d su cce ed in g w orks, La C o n fessio n de C laude (1865), ThArese R aauin (1867), and M adeline F e ra t (1868), e x h ib it a v i o le n t r e a lis m m arked by a m a t e r i a l i s t i c c o n c e p tio n o f l i f e , th e prom inence o f th e p h y s io lo g ic a l e le m e n t, th e c h o ic e o f v ic e and d is e a s e a s o b je c ts o f o b s e rv a tio n , a b r u t a l fra n k n e s s , and o f te n a g r e a t power o f s ta te m e n t. He defended t h i s r e a lis m , w hich he c a lle d " n a tu ra lis m ," w ith g r e a t acrim ony in c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s . Z o la '8 n o v e ls an d h is d e fe n se o f "Z ola re a lis m " g a in e d w o rld -w id e a t t e n t i o n and d eterm in ed a t t i t u d e s and s t y l e s o f w r i t e r s th ro u g h o u t th e l i t e r a r y w o rld . M ariano A zuela m ust have known o f Z ola an d o f th e l i t e r a r y b a t t l e b ein g 222 waged ab ro ad ; h is work d is p la y s a knowledge o f and i n f l u ence by Z o la 's w orks. One i s s tr u c k by c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een Z o la 's Nana (1880) and A z u e la 's M arla L uisa (1896, d a te o f c o m p o sitio n ). One may shew a f u r t h e r com p a ris o n w ith o th e r g r e a t w r i t e r s : l i k e B alzac, A zuela w ro te v o lu m in o u sly ; l ik e V o lta ir e , A zuela was ir r e v e r e n t when h is o b s e rv a tio n s c o n f lic te d w ith h is s p i r i t u a l i t y ; lik e F la u b e r t 's Madame Bovarv (1857), A z u e la 's works in c o rp o ra te n a tu r e a s a v i t a l p a r t o f th e s to r y ; l i k e Hemingway, A zuela draws from th e l o s t , th e e m b itte re d , th e b e w ild e re d , f o r h is h e ro e s and h e ro in e s . A zu ela*8 F i d e l i t y o f Speech The f i d e l i t y w ith w hich A zuela employs th e d i f f e r e n t idiom s o f M exican sp eech r e f l e c t s b o th th e a u th o r 's re a lis m and h is in tim a te know ledge o f th e p eople he de s c r i b e s . The sp eech o f th e u p p er c la s s i s r e p l e te w ith d a in ty d im in u tiv e s . At tim es th e r e i s bom bast. The sp e ec h o f th e low er c la s s e s c a r r i e s th e s tro n g e a r th y f la v o r o f th e M exican m asses, a co m b in atio n o f In d ia n words and su ch a u g m e n ta tiv e s and t h a t a r e common in a l l o f M exico: r e te d e s c o lo r id o . r e b le n , re te m a lo . yejflegp, a s ie 6 n . 223 e m p re sta r. pug. f o r pmede., u n t e p o r a o ru e b e . guen f o r q u ie n . 9L U SX S. f o r q.uiSJP, UBJfci fo r u s te d . 3 2 2 . f o r modo. MS, f o r n ad a. ettevo f o r huevo. d o to r f o r d o c to r, probe f o r p o b re. and many o th e r s . C lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith t h i s f i d e l i t y in r e p r o du cin g th e sp eech o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c la s s e s i s th e a c c u ra c y w ith w hich A zuela r e f l e c t s th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l r e a c tio n s o f th e s e same c la s s e s : th e o v e r s e n s itiv e , somewhat h y s t e r ic a l r e a c tio n s o f th e upper c la s s e s ; and th e s t o l i d , slow r e a c tio n s o f th e lo w er c la s s e s t h a t a r e so i n s e n s i ti v e t o s u f f e r in g . A c tio n has a c c u ra te and re a s o n a b le m o tiv a tio n even i f th e a u th o r does n o t dw ell on t h i s psycho lo g ic a l p h a se. In La L u cid rn aea (1932) A zuela has s u c c e s s f u l l y perform ed an even more d i f f i c u l t f e a t by p ro b in g th e m inds o f h is c h a r a c te r s . He psy ch o an aly zes th e h y s t e r i c a l , p sy c h o p a th ic D L onisio, and th e dying m is e r, Josd M arla, and th e g re e d y , schem ing p r i e s t , Don F e d e ric o . From th e s ta n d p o in t o f pure a r t i s t i c m e r it la L ucidrnaga (1932) may be c o n sid e re d A z u e la 's m a s te rp ie c e because o f i t s s u b tle a n a ly s is o f a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s . 224 In flu e n c e o f N a tu ra lism in A zuela*s W ritin g s I t I s s c a r c e ly n e c e s s a ry t o m ention t h a t a r e a l i s t i c w r i t e r who i s d e a lin g w ith such a m ajo r s u b je c t a s th e Mexi can R e v o lu tio n i s c e r t a i n to w r ite i n th e mood o f th e French n a t u r a l i s t i c s . The c r u e l ty , th e p a s s io n , th e deb au ch ery , th e m is e ry , th e u g ly a s p e c ts o f human e x is te n c e t h a t A zuela p o rtr a y s i s n o t an a f f e c t a t i o n , a l i t e r a r y d e v ic e to p ro duce a p e rv e rte d em o tio n al r e a c tio n in h is r e a d e r s , b u t a tr u e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a l l a s p e c ts o f l i f e d u rin g th e Revo l u t i o n . I f some o f h is c h a r a c te r s seem w arped and d i s t o r t e d , i t i s n a tu r a l t h a t th e y sh o u ld be s o , c o n s id e rin g th e e n v iro n m en ta l f a c to r s t h a t shaped t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s . A zuela m ost d e f i n i t e l y a li g n s h im s e lf w ith th e n a t u r a l i s t s in th e m anner in w hich he bestow s th e same la v is h l i t e r a r y a r t i s t r y in d e s c rib in g som ething t h a t i s r e p u ls iv e a s on t h a t w hich i s b e a u t i f u l . A zuela i s ex tre m e ly s e n s i t iv e to a l l s e n s a tio n s , and a s a w r i t e r he s t r i v e s to p re s e n t them a l l . A c lu e to th e a u th o r 's a t t i tu d e i s re v e a le d in AndrAs HSrez (1 9 1 1 ): i M itu s, e l p e rs o n a je i n f e l i z de V ic to r C atalA , se e n te rra b a una n a v a jita en su s c a rn e s , l a v o lv la y l a r e v o lv la d e stro z a n d o y d is la c e ra n d o l a s f i b r i l l a s 225 m&s s e n s ib le s de su cu erp o h a s ta h a l i a r una v o lu p tu o s i- dad suprem e e n e l espasm o de su d o lo r . Cuando a l m ed io d la, le j o s de la s t l b i a s fa Id a s de M arla o de c u a le s q u ie ra o tr a s de su s a m ig u ita s , me ro d e a n lo s tem ldos p o l i t i c o s , y me a c u e rd o de M itus y , v a li e n t e - m ente, a n te s que n a d ie haya p u e sto la s manos en e l t a p e t e , irru m p o : jY de p o l l t i c a como vamos r Iter haps in th e same way th e a u th o r d e riv e s a con s id e r a b le s a t i s f a c t i o n from a n a ly z in g and re p ro d u c in g th e p r e c is e ele m e n ts o f a r e p u ls iv e s e n s a tio n . An i n t e r e s t i n g m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e in flu e n c e o f n a tu r a lis m in A zuela*s w r itin g s i s re v e a le d in h is t r e a t m ent o f th e lo v e them e. There a r e s e v e r a l i n te r e s ti n g p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e v a rio u s r e la tio n s h ip s t h a t may e x i s t betw een men and women. As a n a t u r a l i s t , A zuela re c o rd s a c c u r a te ly t h i s r e l a ti o n s h i p in a m ost p r o s a ic , m a tte r o f f a c t fa s h io n . There i s none o f th e E n g lish v a r i e t y o f i d e a l i s t i c lo v e t h a t S alv ad o r de M adariaga r e f e r s to a s " t h a t v a s t a re a o f v a g u e ly d e fin e d lan d s w ith an u n h e a lth y damp and warm c lim a te , w hich goes by th e name o f 'ro m an ce' . . . n e c e s s a ry to th e grow th o f some o f th e p e c u lia r love f l o r a . " 51 50A zu ela, Andres BSrez in Obras C om pletas, I I , 778. 51S alv ad o r de M adariaga, "A dm irable V a r ie ty ," A tla n tic M onthly. Septem ber, 1928, pp. 317-331. 226 Q uite t o th e c o n tr a r y , A zuela b a ses h is lo v e s t r i c t l y on b io lo g ic a l m o tiv e s, b u t he p u rp o se ly a v o id s s t r e s s i n g th e n o te o£ e r o tic is m . B an d its lau g h when t h e i r w ives become p reg n a n t a s a r e s u l t o f a d u lte r y . Scheming men u se t h e i r w ives a s an In c e n tiv e to a t t r a c t h ig h e r o f f i c i a l s who can h e lp them advance p o l i t i c a l l y . Yet A zuela a p p e a rs a s tim id a s a h ig h sc h o o l g i r l In m aking any d i r e c t re f e re n c e to th e s e x u a l a c t I t s e l f . Azm pJa1 p. an d .S tew s. A z u e la 's m ajor purpose In w r itin g was s o c i a l ; he f e l t t h a t th e w r i t e r had an o b lig a tio n t o g u id e h is work by s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l r e a l i t i e s . The stim u lu s f o r h is n o v e ls came from h is deep c o n ce rn f o r th e s o c i a l an d c u l t u r a l con d itio n s in Mexico d u rin g h is l i f e t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se y e a rs p re c e d in g th e R e v o lu tio n , d u rin g th e R e v o lu tio n , and th e g e n e ra tio n fo llo w in g i t . D esp ite obvious European in flu e n c e s in h is w r itin g s , h is c o n c e p tio n o f theme i s w ith in th e A m erican t r a d i t i o n . A rtu ro U sla r P t e t r i , a V enezuelan l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , de s c r ib e s th e "A m ericanism " in l i t e r a t u r e a s having th e f o l low ing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : a p re o c c u p a tio n w ith th e e x is tin g 227 scen e and r e c o g n itio n o f th e s tro n g in flu e n c e o f th e n a tu r a l s e t t i n g ; th e r e p u d ia tio n o f th e European n o v e l i s t i c t r a d i t i o n ; and a ten d en cy tow ard th e t r a g i c , th e v i o l e n t , 52 th e p r im itiv e , w ith group o r mass d o m in atio n . A nother c r i t i c , A rtu ro T o rre s-R lo se c o , a C h ilean l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , sp eak s o f th e " d e f i n i te b a la n c e betw een th e n a tiv e s u b je c t m a tte r and th e new w o rld e x p re s s io n " and he p la c e s A zuela among th e w r i t e r s who have m ost s u c c e s s f u lly a c h ie v e d t h i s b a l a n c e .^ A zuela*s C onception o f th e Novel Form Almost a l l o f A z u e la 's l i t e r a r y works w ere produced d u rin g th e i n t e r v a l s o f th e l i f e o f a busy d o c to r and w ere w r i t te n f o r p e rs o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n and w ith no re g a rd to l i t e r a r y ach iev em en t and no c o n cern w ith c r i t i c a l re c e p t i o n . Some o f th e im p o rta n t w orks f o r one re a so n o r a n o th e r do n o t f a l l w e ll w ith in th e c a te g o ry o f th e n o v el a s t h a t term i s g e n e r a lly em ployed. 52 A rt tiro U s la r H e t r i , "Lo C r io llo en la L ite r a t u r e , " Cuadem os A m ericanos. XLIX (Ja n u a ry -F e b ru a ry , 1950), 266-278, e s p e c i a l l y 274. 53 A rtu ro T o rre s-R lo se c o , "Trends in S p an ish - A m erican L i t e r a t u r e ," M ex ican -L ife. XIX (J u ly , 1943), 30. 228 A rtu ro T o rre s-R lo se c o , sp eak in g s p e c i f i c a l l y o f th e n o v e lis ts o f th e M exican R e v o lu tio n , has s a i d : La n o v e la , como c re a c i6 n a r t i s t l e a , le v a n ta d a a c i e r t a a l t u r a de a n i l i s i s p s ic o l6 g ic o , e s tu d io de c a r a c te r e s , p u reza de e s t i l o , no e x i s t e ; y no e x is te a causa de la d e f ic ie n te c u ltu r e l i t e r a r i a de e s to s a u to re s ya que no t r a t a n de i n t e r p r e t a r e l s ig n if lc a d o humano y u n iv e r s a l de la re v o lu c i6 n s i no de d i v e r t i r a l pA blico con lo s d e t a l l e s mas s e n s a c io n a le s de la v id a m i l i t a r . ^ Somewhat s im ila r o b je c tio n s a r e seen by th e fe ru v la n Luis A lb e rto Sanchez: I n s i s t o e n que n u e s tr o c o n tin e n te e s to d a v la "A m erica, n o v e la s i n n o v e l i s t a s ." E l r e l a t o no es n o v e la . Lo s u p e ra , a c a s o , pero no e s n o v e la . Ia n o v ela r e q u ie r e r e a lid a d e n la b ase de o b se rv a c i6 n de la v id a , f a n t a s i a en e l argum ento mismo y e n lo s p e r sona j e s . N o so tro s to d a v la ponemos h i s t o r i a e n uno y en o tr o Ambito y , a v e c e s , in v e r t imos lo s tA rm inos y hacemos p e rs o n a je s r e a l e s y tram a h i s t b r i c a e n escen as f a n tA s tic a s . . . . E u s ta c lo R iv e ra , G tlira ld e s , A zuela, nos o fre c e n ejem p lo s c l a r o s . " Both c r i t i c s n o te d ab o v e, how ever, seem t o o v e rlo o k th e d if fe r e n c e s betw een th e Spanish-A m erican n o v el an d th e ^ A r t u r o T o rre s-R lo se c o , Ia Novela en la AmArica Hisnana (B e rk e ley : U h iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia B re ss, 1939), P- 237. 55 Luis A lb e rto SAnchez, q u o ta tio n i n " L e tra s de M Sxico," R e n e rto rio A m ericano. O ctober, 1937, p. 1. C f. th e same a u t h o r 's AmArica: No v e la S in N o v e lis ta s . th e theme o f w hich i s t h a t man in Am erica has b een l i v i n g a g r e a t n o v e l and has had no tim e to w r ite one. 229 t r a d i t i o n a l European n o v e l. They a re n o t ta k in g in to a cc o u n t t h a t in th e n o v e l o£ th e M exican R e v o lu tio n th e y a r e c o n fro n te d w ith a new developm ent, d i f f e r e n t from an y th in g w hich p reced ed i t . T his i s n o t th e n o v e l fo rm --an d th e r e i s no p a r t i c u l a r re a so n why i t sh o u ld b e . I t i s & novel form —a new n o v el form , s p e c ia liz e d u n d er th e i n f l u ence o f i t s p e c u lia r s u b je c t m a tte r , o f th e ty p e o f w r i t e r who produced i t , and o f o th e r c irc u m sta n c e s su rro u n d in g i t s a p p e a ra n c e . As w ith any new developm ent in a r t , i t m ust be ju d g ed on i t s own m e r its , and n o t by com parison w ith w hat h as gone b e fo re . A zuela was n o t p reo ccu p ied w ith th e m a tte r o f form . He n e v e r th o u g h t o f w r itin g " th e g r e a t A m erican n o v e l," and u s u a lly was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y co n cern ed a b o u t fo llo w in g t r a d i t i o n a l norm s. In h is b e s t w ork, f a r from fo llo w in g norm s, he c re a te d them . As th e i n i t i a t o r o f a new sc h o o l o f w r itin g , A zuela m ust s ta n d th e t e s t o f tim e . W ill h is works and th e w orks o f th e group form ed u n der h is s tim u lu s , a c h ie v e a d e q u a te l i t e r a r y a c c e p ta n c e a s an e x p re s s io n o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r them e— th e R e v o lu tio n ? That i s th e q u e s t i o n w hich o n ly tim e and c r i t i c i s m w i l l f u r n is h th e d e f i n i t i v e answ er. 230 In summary, th e q u a l i t i e s o f A zuela th e w r i t e r a re v a r ie d ; he o b serv es a g r e a t d e a l, i s v e ry s e n s i t iv e , and e x p re s s e s w hat he se e s and f e e l s in b e a u t i f u l p ro se . N a tu ra lly , n o t a l l th e s e q u a l i t i e s a re n o tic e a b le in each o f h is n o v e ls . I t would be u n ju s t to e x p e c t a l l th e works o f a n a u th o r t o r e p r e s e n t th e same h ig h - le v e l o f a c h ie v e m ent. N e v e rth e le s s , A zuela has n a r r a te d h is a c c o u n t o f th e R e v o lu tio n w ith v ig o r and r e a lis m . W ith frag m e n ta ry s t y l e , A zuela p re s e n ts in f u l l c o lo r and l i f e , th e R e v o lu tio n a s he liv e d i t . F in a lly , th e f a s c in a tio n o f A z u e la 's p ro se i s p ro duced by th e co m b in atio n o f ly r ic is m and r e a l i t y w hich a re m a n ife s te d in h is d e s c r ip tio n o f s e t t i n g and p o r tr a y a l o f c h a r a c te r . A zuela has d em o n strated t h a t he i s th e m a ste r o f e v e ry l i t e r a r y d e v ic e w hich can enhance th e s u g g e s tiv e n e ss o f h is d e s c r ip tio n ; to t h i s he h as added a f e e lin g o f warm th w hich g iv e s h is n o v e ls a se n se o f r e a l i t y , w hich a llo w s th e g r e a t human drama o f th e R e v o lu tio n t o s ta n d out p la in and unadorned. CO NCLUSIO N A f te r hav in g done re s e a r c h upon th e h i s t o r i c a l f a c ts o f th e p e rio d in w hich M ariano A zuela liv e d , and a f t e r i n te r p r e t i n g h is c o rre sp o n d in g works d e a lin g w ith th e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l problem s d u rin g h is tim e , th e fo llo w ing c o n c lu sio n s a r e e v id e n t: m i l i t a r y ty ra n n y has p ro fo u n d ly a f f e c t e d th e s o c i a l p a tte r n o f M exico; th e people w ere s la v e s o f th e p o w erfu l, because o f p o l i t i c a l c o rru p t io n , and t h e i r own ig n o ran c e and com placency; when th e slu m b erin g s p i r i t o f th e M exican m asses began t o awaken, th e p eo p le to o k up arms w ith o u t o rg a n iz e d le a d e rs h ip and w ith o u t any d e f i n i t e g o a ls in view ; a t f i r s t th e R ev o lu tio n had n e i t h e r purpose n o r s ig n if ic a n c e b u t o n ly exposed th e deep d is c o n te n t o f th e low er c la s s e s . The works o f A zuela form a c h ro n o lo g ic a l h is to r y o f Mexico d u rin g th o se u n s e ttle d tim e s , and m ixed w ith t h i s h i s t o r y i s th e s to r y o f th e M exican p e o p le —how th e y liv e d , w hat th e y b e lie v e d i n . The a u th o r 's e v e n tf u l l i f e f a m ilia r iz e d him w ith m ost o f th e c la s s e s t h a t c o n s t it u t e d Mexican 231 232 s o c ie ty , and he was a b le to i n t e r p r e t th e s p i r i t o f t h a t s o c ie ty t o h is r e a d e r . He used d ia lo g u e in p re fe re n c e to d e s c r ip t ion**-dialogue t h a t was o f te n c ru d e and f u l l o f c o llo q u ia lis m s . His s i t u a t i o n s w ere n a tu r a l and r e a l i s t i c , th e p lo ts perhaps n o t alw ays w e ll d e fin e d , b u t th e scen es c a r e f u l l y c a rv e d , showing A z u ela *8 i n t e r e s t and knowledge o f th e s p i r i t o f th e p e o p le . A zuela f e l t and t r a n s la te d th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e R e v o lu tio n v i v id l y and e x te n s iv e ly . His w r itin g s p a r a l l e l th e v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e R e v o lu tio n , and c o n ta in a c o n tin u ity o f th o u g h t and e x p re s s io n . He was e x tr a o r d i n a r i l y s e n s i t iv e t o th e fo rc e s a t work i n th e R ev o lu tio n from th e days o f f b r f i r i o Diaz to th e program o f s o c ia l a c tio n a s i t c o n tin u e d down to th e l a t t e r y e a rs o f h is l i f e (1873-1952). He re c o g n iz e d th e n e c e s s ity f o r R ev o lu tio n and b e lie v e d i t i n i t i a t e d some p o s itiv e im provem ents; b u t he was s c o rn f u l o f much o f th e " p ro g re s s " w hich had been c la im e d , and v e ry much c o g n iz a n t o f th e c o rru p tio n and f a l s i t y o f v a rio u s re v o lu tio n a r y governm ents. A zuela began th e p o r tr a y a l o f th e R ev o lu tio n w ith h is n o v el M arla L u isa, a p ic tu r e o f th e l a s t y e a rs o f th e Diaz reg im e. His p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e R e v o lu tio n was 233 g ra p h ic b u t n o t s y s te m a tic . He seemed to be more co n cern ed w ith c h a r a c te r p o r tr a y a l and evoking th e s p i r i t o f th e n a tio n r a t h e r th a n en u m eratin g th e cau se s o f th e Revolu t i o n . A zuela*s n o v e ls a r e h e a v ily charged w ith s o c i a l propaganda. His l i t e r a r y a r t i s l i k e th e m e s s a g e - f ille d m u rals o f Diego R ivera and Jos£ O rozco. Throughout h is w r itin g s he s k i l l f u l l y w eaves th e f a b r ic o f th e R e v o lu tio n , a t tim es th ro u g h th e e lo q u e n t speech o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l , o f te n th ro u g h th e i n a r t i c u l a t e g ro p in g sta te m e n t o f th e humble pe6n. and o c c a s io n a lly he p re s e n ts h is own view s d i r e c t l y . S ta te d in sim ple te rm s, A z u e la 's form ula f o r ex p la in in g th e R ev o lu tio n i s th e c o n f l i c t betw een th e r i c h and th e p o o r. I t s e a r l i e s t m a n if e s ta tio n is th e s tr u g g le betw een th e ne6n and h is m a s te r, a problem t h a t i s a s o ld a s th e Spanish c o n q u e st. In d e s c rib in g t h i s c o n f l i c t , A zuela p re s e n ts th e e m o tio n a l r e a c tio n s o f th e ce6n. b u t does n o t p re s e n t a com plete p ic tu r e o f h is l i f e . He s t r e s s e s th e ty ra n n y o f th e m a ste rs and t h e i r c a llo u s in d if f e r e n c e to th e p e rs o n a l r i g h t s o f t h e i r w o rk e rs. The p o l i t i c a l r o l e o f th e C a th o lic Church i s p re s e n te d , b u t th e em phasis i s h e a v ie r on governm ental c o rru p tio n and commer c i a l a b u ses t h a t a ro s e d u rin g th e Diaz regim e and c o n tin u e d d u rin g th e p e rio d o f th e R ev o lu tio n . A zuela has f a i t h f u l l y d e p ic te d th e human drama o f th e M exican people th ro u g h o u t th e p e rio d o f c o n f l i c t , and th ro u g h h is e f f o r t h as g iv e n us a new p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e R e v o lu tio n . Throughout h is n o v e ls he i s f ig h tin g f o r a c a u s e . S o c ia l c o n f l i c t i s h is them e. He s t r i k e s o u t a t th o se re s p o n s ib le f o r p lu n g in g Mexico in to c i v i l w ar; and he p a in ts a somber p ic tu r e o f p o st-R e v o lu tio n a ry s o c ie ty in th e 1 9 3 0 's and 1 9 4 0 's , more c o rr u p t and d e g e n e ra te th a n b e fo re , because th e R e v o lu tio n has u n le a sh e d new fo rc e s o f e v i l . In d ig n a tio n and concern m o tiv a te d hib w r itin g . He h im s e lf s ta te d t h a t he was n o t a p ro fe s s io n a l w r i t e r : "Le ju r o que no soy l i t e r a t o , " and "Yo e s c r ib o cuando un d o lo r hace re a c c io n a r mi e s p i r i t u . " In s h o r t, A zuela sh a re d th e h a te o f th e ne6n f o r th e p r iv ile g e d few , and was p a s s io n a te ly on th e s id e o f th e e x p lo ite d c la s s e s . His works a r e in s t r i c t harmony w ith th e g e n iu s o f th e M exican p eo p le and th e r e f o r e c o n tin u e to g a in p o p u la r ity . Few M exican w r i t e r s have eq u aled A zuela a t h is b e s t . Hone have su rp a ss e d him . APPENDICES APPENDIX A CH RON O LO GY OF AZUELA* S IRINCIBAL W O R K S A ND COINCIDENT DATES* Date o f R ib lic a tlo n C o in cid en t D ates Date o f C om position 1907 M arla L uisa 1908 Los F racasad o s 1912 S in Amor 1917 Los C aciques 1909 Mala Yerba 1911 Andres Rarez 1915 Los de Abaio 1918 Las Moscas 1918 *'D om itilo ..." 1918 "De Como . .. " 1918 l a s T rib u la c io n e s 1923 La M alhora 1925 E l D esguite 1896 M arla L uisa 1903 "De Mi T ie rra " 1904 "V lctim as de . . . "** 1904 "En D e rro ta " 1905 S in Amor 1906 Los F racasad o s 1907 "Lo Que Se Espunm" 1909 "A vichuelos N egros" 1914 Los C aciques 1922 "E l Ju rad o " 1924 "Y U ltim adam ente" 1927 El Catnn-irada ftm to la 236 APPENDIX A— Continued : a B H B a n n n B B s n n a B s a B a E B C X 3 3 a E a x a 3 3 3 S S S S x s B B a a B a a a B S B a x a x x 8 a s a e a n a B 8 a B e i Date o f H ib lic a tio n C o in cid en t D ates Date o f C om position 1932 I a L uci£rnaza 1934 Itedro Moreno 1935 ftrecur so re s 1937 E l Camarada B antola 1938 "De H i T ie rra " 1938 San G a b rie l 1938 "v£ctim as de . . . " 1938 T ea tro 1938 "En D e rro ta " 1938 " Ia H is to r ia ..." 1938 "Lo Que Se Espuma" 1938 "A vichuelos N egros" 1939 Reeina Ianda 1940 Avanzada 1940 "E ra Un Hombre" 1941 Nueva B u reu esla 1942 A e u stin R ivera 1944 I a M archanta 1945 "E l Ju rad o " 1945 "Y U ltim adam ente" 1945 "Era Uh Hombre" 1946 1947 1949 Ia M uler Domada C ien Anos Sendas fe rd id a s *T his ta b le i s p re s e n te d t o e s t a b l i s h th e f a c t t h a t A zuela co n ceiv ed and w ro te h is w orks a t a tim e c o in c id e n ta l w ith th e e v e n ts a s th e y to o k p la c e , n o t a t a l a t e r d a te . The d a te s o f p u b lic a tio n m ight le a d one t o b e lie v e t h a t h is books w ere w r i t te n in r e t r o s p e c t and a r e o f l e s s v a lu e a s h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts . * *S hortened form s o f t i t l e s a r e used f o r purposes o f sp a c in g . 237 APPENDIX B A CH RON O LO GY OF AZUELA* S W O RK S BY PUBLICATION DATE* 1907 - 1908 - lo s F racasados 1909 - M alaY erb a 1911 - A ndres Iferez. M ad erista 1912 - S in Amor 1915 - Los de A baio 1917 - Los C aciques 1918 - Las Moscas "D o m itilo Q uiere Ser D iputado" "De C6mo a l F in L lo r6 Juan Ih b lo " L a s . j o n e g , Je. Ifts F gnfllja Depen.t.e 1923 - La M alhora 1925 - El D esquite 1932 - Ia lu c ld rn a a a 1934 - Itedro Moreno, e l In s u re e n te 1935 - ftrec u rso res 1937 - El Camarada Bsm tote 1938 - San G a b rie l de V a ld iv ia s T eatro "La H is to r ia de M arla L u isa" "De Mi T ie rra " "V ictim as de la O pulencia" "En D e rro ta " "Lo Que Se Espuma" "A vichuelos N egros" 1939 - Regina Landa 1940 - Avanzada 1941 - Nueva B urguesla 1942 - E l ftidre Don A g u stln R iv era 1944 - La M archanta 1945 - "E l Ju rad o " " . . . Y U ltim adam ente . . . " "E ra Un Hombre Honrado" 1946 ~ I a M uler Domada 1947 - C ien Alloa de Novela M exicans 1949 - Ssndfli ^ r d id a g ~ Mgldi fil faO p u b lish e d posthum ously 1956 - Eaa Sancra ) r * *A11 o f th e above books by A zuela w ere found in A z u e la 's c o ll e c t e d w orks, Obras Com pletes de M ariano A zuela. In f o o tn o tin g , th e in d iv id u a l books a r e q u o ted a s s o u rc e s ; th e volum e and page numbers a re from th e c o ll e c t io n . 239 APPENDIX C CHRONOLOGY OF M AJOR EVENTS 1908 - James C reelm an 's In te rv ie w w ith B o r fir io Diaz in w hich l a t t e r sa y s he would welcome fo rm a tio n o f o p p o s itio n p a r ty ; in te rv ie w p u b lis h e d i n fe a rso n * 8 MMasfaie. The P r e s id e n tia l S u ccessio n in 1910 i s w r itte n by F ra n c isc o 1. Madero; d i s t r ib u t e d th e fo llo w in g y e a r. 1909 - A th o ro u g h stu d y o f th e lan d q u e s tio n , The G reat N a tio n a l Problem s. by Andres M oline E n riq u ez, i s p u b lish e d . 1910 - A n ti- R e e le c tio n is t p a rty nom inates Madero f o r P r e s i dency. Madero and 5 ,0 0 0 o f h is s u p p o rte rs a re a r r e s te d ; Madero im p riso n ed . C e n te n n ia l o f War o f Independence i s c e le b r a te d . M exican C ongress d e c la re s B o rfirio Diaz e le c te d f o r e ig h th te rm . Madero f l e e s to T exas, p u b lis h e s Plan o f San L uis B o to si, c a l l i n g f o r r e v o lu tio n ; f i r s t a tte m p t a t r e v o lu tio n f a i l s . 1911 - R e v o lu tio n a ry fo rc e s v ic to r io u s a t JuA rez. Diaz re s ig n s and goes in to e x il e ; F ra n c isc o Le6n de la B arra becomes P ro v is io n a l P re s id e n t. A fte r w inning th e m a jo rity o f th e v o te in f r e e e le c tio n , Madero becomes P re s id e n t. B m iliano Z apata b re a k s w ith Madero; p u b lis h e s Plan o f A yala. B ernardo Reyes f a l l s t o lau n ch p lan n ed c o u n te r r e v o lu tio n . 240 1912 - R ascual Orozco r e b e ls a g a in s t Madero and I s d e fe a te d by V ic to ria n o H uerta. FA lix Diaz f a l l s In r e b e l li o n a g a in s t Madero g o vern m ent. 1913 - A r e ig n o f t e r r o r in Mexico C ity , Decena T rA elca. ends in H u e rta 's ta k e o v e r o f P re sid e n cy ; Madero and V ic e -P re s id e n t JosA M arla PLno SuArez a r e m urdered. V en u stian o C arranza assum es le a d e r s h ip o f r e s is ta n c e t o H u e rta , draws up Plan o f G uadalupe a s c h a r te r f o r th e C o n s t i t u ti o n a l i s t movement. C a rra n za , a f t e r m i l i t a r y re v e rs e s in C o ah u ila, goes t o Sonora to le a d r e v o lu tio n a ry movement th e r e , a lr e a d y p ro g re s s in g u n der m i l i t a r y d ir e c tio n o f A lv aro 0breg6n. F ra n c is c o V illa v ic to r io u s a t T orre6n, JuA rez, T ie rra B lanca, and O jin ag a. 1914 - C o n s t i t u ti o n a l i s t s a r e a id e d when U n ited S ta te s l i f t s arms em bargo. C arranza le a v e s Sonora f o r Chihuahua; b e g in s r i f t w ith V i l la . U n ited S ta te s tro o p s la n d a t V e racru z; 300 M exicans and 19 A m ericans k i l l e d ; s h ip lo a d o f German muni tio n s f o r H uerta g e ts th ro u g h ; ABC (A rg e n tin a , B r a z il, C h ile ) c o n fe re n c e in an a tte m p t to so lv e M exican - U nited S ta te s c r i s i s . V illa v ic to r io u s a t Z acatecas and Obregdn a t Guada l a j a r a ; H uerta army now d e fe a te d . P re sid e n t W ilson r e f u s e s to re c o g n iz e P re sid e n t H u erta. H uerta r e s ig n s and F ra n c isc o C a rv a ja l becomes Pro v i s i o n a l f r e s id e n t; T orre6n c o n fe re n c e t r i e s to b rin g V illa and C arranza to g e th e r . 0breg6n tak es c o n tr o l o f Mexico C ity . 241 C arran za becomes F i r s t C h ief and c a l l s a g a th e rin g o f g e n e ra ls and g o v ern o rs t o p la n f u t u r e . M ilita r y C onvention o f A g u a sc a lie n te s e l e c t s E u la lio G u tie rre z In te rim P re sid e n t and c a l l s fo r C a rra n z a 's r e s ig n a tio n ; V illa becomes m i l i t a r y e x p e rt o f con v e n tio n . C arran za f le e s Mexico C ity ; V e ra c ru z , now e v ac u ated by U nited S ta te s tro o p s , becomes h is c a p i t a l ; 0breg6n commands C a rra n z a 's f o r c e s . V i l la and Z apata c o n tr o l Mexico C ity . 1915 - C arranza re c o g n iz e s need f o r la n d refo rm ; p re p a re s a m oderate a g ra r ia n d e c re e . E u la lio G u tilr r e z f l e e s Mexico C ity , u n ab le to con t r o l V i l la . 0breg6n ta k e s A iebla, th e n Mexico C ity , th e n d e fe a ts V illa in b a t t l e s o f C elaya; V illa d e fe a te d a t Leon, A g u a s c a lie n te s , Z a c a te c a s, Agua f tr ie ta , H erm o sillo ; by end o f y e a r he i s no lo n g e r a m i l i t a r y fo rc e o f any t h r e a t . C onvention governm ent i s d is s o lv e d . C laim ing c o n tr o l o f s e v e n -e ig h th s o f M exico, C arran za i s re c o g n iz e d on de f a c to b a s is by U nited S t a t e s . 1916 - W ith Santa Is a b e l m assacre and r a i d on Columbus, New M exico, V illa s t a r t s a c r i s i s ; t tiite d S ta te s sends A m itiv e E x p e d itio n i n to M exico. C o n s titu e n t C ongress in Q u e r6 ta ro i s c a lle d by C a rra n za . 1917 - New c o n s t it u t io n w ith r a d i c a l p ro v is io n s f o r lan d re fo rm , la b o r w e lf a r e , e d u c a tio n , c o n tr o l o f Catho l i c Church and s t a t e ow nership o f re s o u rc e s i s w r i t te n by Q u er£ taro C ongress. 242 German d ip lo m at A rth u r Zimmerman in v it e s Mexico (Ja n u ary 19, 1917) t o e n te r in to a ll i a n c e w ith Germany in a w ar a g a in s t th e U nited S ta te s . The German p ro p o sa l i s in te r c e p te d and p u b lish e d by R e s id e n t Woodrow W ilson on March 1, 1917. C arranza e le c te d . 1919 - Lured in to ambush, Z apata i s k i l l e d ; C arranza rew ards h is a s s a s s in . Ambassador Ig n a c io B o n illa s succeeds Z ap ata, chosen by C arran za. 0breg6n announces h is can d id acy ; has d i f f i c u l t y cam paigning. 1920 - 0breg6n, c a l l i n g f o r r e b e l li o n , f l e e s in to G u errero ; C a lle s is s u e s Flan o f Agua ftrie ta disavow ing R e s i dency o f C arran za. C arranza f le e s Mexico C ity , now d e s e rte d by m ost o f h is fo llo w e rs ; he hopes to r e - e s t a b l i s h h is c a p i t a l in V eracru z. At T lax calan to n g o he i s ambushed and k i l l e d . Under In te rim R e s id e n c y o f A dolfo de la H uerta th e r e fo llo w s a p e rio d o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n among R e v o lu tio n a ry f a c t i o n s : V illa a c c e p ts am nesty, r e t i r e s to C a n u tillo . 0breg6n i s e le c te d R e s i d e n t . 1922 - In New York S e c re ta ry o f T rea su ry A dolfo de la H uerta n e g o tia te s Lamont agreem ent re g a rd in g M exican d e b ts . 1923 - 0breg6n i s re c o g n iz e d by U hited S ta te s fo llo w in g c o m p letio n o f B u c a re li p a c t d e a lin g w ith d e b ts , la n d e x p ro p r ia tio n , and o i l . At B a rra l, C hihuahua, V illa i s a s s a s s in a te d . 243 A dolfo de la H u e rta , s u p p o rte d by c o n s e rv a tiv e s and much o f arm y, r e b e ls a g a in s t governm ent, goes in to e x i l e . 1924 ~ C a lle s becomes P re s id e n t, a t f i r s t in a u g u ra te s a m b itio u s program o f la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n , p u b lic w orks, and f i s c a l refo rm . 1925 ~ C a lle s s u p p o rts th e s c h is m a tic M exican C a th o lic A p o s to lic Church. 1926 - C a lle s is s u e s a n ti- C a th o lic d e c re e s ; in r e t a l i a ti o n C a th o lic s suspend ch u rch s e r v ic e s th ro u g h o u t M exico. 1927 - C a th o lic s la u n c h g u e r r i l l a w ar. 0breg6n d e c id e s to ru n f o r P re sid e n cy a g a in ; c o n s t i t u t i o n i s amended by h is s u p p o rte rs to p e rm it h is r e - e l e c t i o n ; th e y e x te n d , a s w e ll, th e P r e s id e n tia l term from fo u r t o s i x y e a r s . F ra n c is c o S erran o and A m u lfo G6mez, P r e s id e n tia l c a n d id a te s , an d t h e i r fo llo w e rs a re m urdered. M iguel Pro, a J e s u i t p r i e s t a c tiv e in th e C a th o lic u n d erg ro u n d , and th r e e o th e r men a r e f a l s e l y accu sed o f bomb a tte m p t on 0 b re g 6 n 's l i f e and a r e e x ec u te d w ith o u t t r i a l . New U nited S ta te s Ambassador Dwight Morrow e x e r c is e s s tro n g p o s itiv e in f lu e n c e , fa v o rin g th e U nited S ta te s , on C a lle s . 1928 - The o n ly c a n d id a te and w in n e r in th e P r e s id e n tia l e le c t i o n , 0breg6n, i s a s s a s s in a te d a t la Bom billa R e sta u ra n t by JosA de Le6n T o ra l, a C a th o lic f a n a t i c . B n ilio F o rte s G il i s named In te rim P re s id e n t; C a lle s , o u t o f o f f i c e , r u l e s a s J e fe Miximo. B u rtid o N acio n al R e v o lu c io n a rio (RfR) i s form ed. 1929 1930 1932 1934 1936 1938 1940 I 1946 244 The in c r e a s in g ly c o rru p t C a lle s d e c la re s b o th a g ra ria n is m and th e R e v o lu tio n f a i l u r e s . E le c te d to com plete ObregAn's R e s i d e n t i a l term i s R ascual O rtiz Rubio; he i s opposed by Jos A Vascon- c e l o s . On h is in a u g u ra tio n day th e r e i s an a tte m p t on th e l i f e o f O rtiz Rubio. A ll v ic tim s o f s tr a n g u la tio n , more th a n one hundred b o d ie s o f V a sc o n ce lo s' fo llo w e rs a r e found in sh a llo w g rav e s a t T o p ile jo . D iscouraged by in te r f e r e n c e o f C a lle s in h is a d m in is tr a tio n , O rtiz Rubio r e s ig n s and le a v e s M exico. A belardo R odriguez, a c o rru p t b u sin e ssm a n -g e n e ra l, i s a p p o in te d to com plete R u b io 's term . R}R a d o p ts th e Six Year Flan a s a program o f govern ment . A young b u t e x p e rie n c e d re v o lu tio n a r y g e n e ra l from MichoacAn, lA zaro CArdenas, i s nom inated by PNR; he cam paigns v ig o ro u s ly and w ins R e s id e n c y . C a lle s i s e x p e lle d from Mexico f o r in te r f e r e n c e w ith C A rdenas' A d m in is tra tio n . FUR becomes H R M (R a rtid o de la R evoluci6n M exicana). Foreign-ow ned o i l com panies a r e e x p ro p ria te d by CArdenas. l a s t o f th e c a u d i ll o s . S a tu rn in o C e d illo , a Revolu tio n a r y g e n e r a l, r e b e ls a g a in s t th e governm ent and i s k i l l e d i n sk irm is h w ith f e d e r a l tro o p s . Manuel A v ila Camacho, a c o n s e r v a tiv e , i s e le c te d ; CArdenas s e t s p re c e d e n t by r e t i r i n g c o m p le te ly from e x e r c is e o f a u th o r ity and power. HIM becomes PRI (R a rtid o R e v o lu c io n a rio I n s t i t u- c io n a l) . M iguel Alem An i s e le c te d R e s i d e n t . 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The in d iv id u a l w orks are h e re l i s t e d in o rd e r o f th e d a te s o f p u b lic a tio n from t h e f i r s t to t h e two po st* htsnously p u b lis h e d . N o v e ls: M arla L uisa (Obras C om pletas. I I , 707-763; h e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as O.C. ). Los F racasad o s (O.C. . I , 3 -1 2 ). Mala Yerba (O.C. . I , 113 -2 2 4 ). Andr6s B lre z . M a d erista (O.C. . I I , 764-800). S in Amor (Q.C. . I , 2 2 5 -3 1 9 ). Los de A balo (Q.C. , I , 3 2 0 -4 1 8 ). Los C acique8 ( O.C. . I I , 801-866). l a s M o se a s (O.C. . I I , 8 67-925). D o m itilo Q uiere Ser D jputado (O.C. . I I , 9 2 6 -9 5 0 ). Las T c ib u la c to n e s de ttia F a m llla D ecente (O X ., I , 419- 5 6 6 ). U M alhora (O X ., I I , 9 5 1 -9 7 7 ). E l D esquite (O X ., I I , 978-1007). U L u cldrnaea (O^C., I , 567 -6 6 7 ). Badro Moren o , e l In s u re e n te (O X ., I l l , 2 3 7 -3 3 5 ). R recu rso res (O X ., I l l , 3 36-419). E l Camarada B antola (O X ., I , 668-766). San G a b rie l de V a ld iv la s . Comu n id ad In d ieen a (O X ., I , 767-861). R egina Landa (O.C. . I , 8 6 2 -9 6 4 ). Ayanzada (O X . . I , 9 6 5 -1 1 2 6 ). Nueva Burguasla (O X ., I I , 9 -1 3 8 ). I a M srchanta (0 * 0 ., I I , 139-228). Ia M uler Domada ( 0 ^ . , I I , 2 2 9 -3 5 0 ). Sendas Iterdidas (OX., I I , 3 5 1 -4 6 3 ). I a M ftldicl6n (OX., II, 4 6 4 -6 0 2 ). Esa Sanere (O.C. . I I , 6 03-704). M adero. B lo g ra fla Itovelada (OX., I l l , 512 -5 6 6 ). S hort F i c t io n , e t c . : In u re s to n e s de Un E a tu d la n te (O X ., I I , 1011-1028). Esbozo (O.C. . I I , 1029-1030). De Mi T le rra (0 J S ., I I , 1033-1035). P tn c elad a s (O X ., I I , 1031-1032). vfct-in^a de la O pulencla (O.C. . I I , 1036-1038). En D erro ta ( 0 ^ . , I I , 1039-1045). N ochlstongo (O X ., I I , 1046). Loco (O.C. , I I , 1047). Lo Que Se Esouma ( 0 ,0 ., I I , 1048-1056). Brochazos (O.C. . I I , 1057). Del A rroyo (O X ., I I , 1058). A ire s C uaresm ales (O X ., I I , 1059). De Rtso (O X ., I I , 1060). l a F l o r l s t a ( O X ., I I , 1061-1062). A vichuelos Negros ( O X ., I I , 1063-1068). N o s ta lg ia s (<LC., I I , 1069). El Caso Lopez Romero (O .C. . I I , 1070-1075). De Como a l F in L lo r6 Juan ftiblo (O .C .. I I , 1076-1080). B stisales de Mi B a rrio (O.C. . I I , 1084-1085). El Ju rad o (O.C. . I I , 1085). Y MfrlmaHflmente (O.C. . I I , 1086-1088). Ih R ebelde (O.C. . I I , 1089-1093). Jos£ M arla (O.C. . I I , 1094-1097). La L eccl6n Que No A prendl en la s A ulas ( O.C. . I I , 1098- 1099). La N o s ta lg ia de Mi C oronel (O.C. . I I , 1100-1102). Aouncios a Linea D espleeada (O.C. . I I , 1103-1105). Era Oh Hornbre Honrado (O .C .. I I , 1106-1112). f e t r o (O iC ., I I , 1113-1117). Ml Amigo A lb e rto (O.C. , I I , 1118-1121). T al S erf la V oluntad de D ios! (O .C. . I I , 1122-1124). Dram a ; Los de A balo. El Buho e n la Noche. Del L lano Hermanos ( & £ ., I l l , 9 -2 3 3 ). B iography: El Badre A gustin Rivera (O^C., I l l , 4 2 0 -5 1 1 ). 255 A u to b io g raphy. C r itiq u e s . E s s a y s : "A lbas y N ublados" (O.C. . I l l , 1 2 4 5 -1 2 4 6 ). C r l t i q u i l l a s (O .C .. I l l , 1 2 4 9 -1251). La N ovela te x ic a n a (O.C. . I l l , 12 5 3 -1 2 5 4 ). Lo Que Nos D ice A zuela de "Los de A bajo" ( O .C . , I I I , 1266- 1267). Bor e l Camino de ftro u st (O.C. . I l l , 1 2 6 7 ). Como E s c r lb l "Los de A bajo” (O.C. . I l l , 12 6 7 - 1 2 6 8 ) . La C o n sig n aci6 n de "Examen" (O.C. . I l l , 1269 > . C u e stlo n e s L i t e r a r i a s (O.C. . I l l , 1 2 6 9 -1 2 7 2 ). De MSdico. Boeta y Loco Todos Tenemos Uh Bj c o (Oj C. , I I I , 1274-1277). lh a N ovela de L uis Spota (O X ., I l l , 12 7 8 ). La H is to r ia de M arla L u isa (O JC ., I l l , 1 0 1 2 -1 .0 4 4 ). My D ebts to Books (O.C. . I l l , 1 2 8 0 -1 2 8 1 ). Boetas de J a l i s c o ; JosA B e ce rra (O .C . . I l l , 7 9 7 -8 0 7 ). T res F ig u re s L aeuenses (O.C. . I l l , 1273-12' a * > . F ra n c is c o Gonz&lez Le6n (O.C. . I l l , 7 8 3 -7 9 0 ). C ien Aflos de N oyela M exicana (Oj C ., I l l , 5 6 9 - 6 6 8 ) . D ivagactones U t e r a r i a s (0 J S ., I l l , 712- 7 9 2 ) . C r i t i c os y C r l t l c a s t r o s ( 0 ^ . , I l l , 1 1 3 6 - 1 1 4 8 ) . A lgo Sobre Wove la M exicana Contem ooranea ( O .C . . I l l , 669- 7 1 1 ). G randes N o v e lls ta s (O^C., I I I , 812-1011). El f t fc.fi, M Y9M (O^C., I I I , 773 -7 7 9 ). Manuel A lv arez d e l C a s t il l o (0*C ., I l l , 7 79-783). A ntonio Moreno Oviedo (CLC., I l l , 7 94-797). E l D octor Rein* (O.C. . I l l , 8 0 7 -8 0 9 ). R afael de Alba (O .C ., I l l , 8 0 9 -8 1 1 ). Manuel M artin ez V aladez (£ * £ ., I l l , 8 0 9 -8 1 1 ). A u to b io g ra fia d e l Otr p (O .C ., I l l , 1178-1194). El N o v e lia ta v Su Ambiente ( I ) ( £ , £ . , I I I , 1012-1111). El -y Sn A rih to n tg ( I I ) ( & £ ., i l l , 1112-1177). 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"A dm irable V a r ie ty ," A tla n tic M onthly. Septem ber, 1928, pp. 317-331. Manso, I s a b e l C ento. La Novels H ispa^«-AmaT»fo a n a . San tia g o de C h ile : E d it o r i a l N ascim ien to , 1934. M a rtin e z , JosA L u is. "Las L e tra s I h t r i a s , de la Epoca de la Independencia a N u estro s D ia s ," MAxico v la C u ltu ra . M exico: S e c r e ta r la de E ducaci6n H jb llc a , 1946. Moore, E rn e st E. B ib llo g r a f la de Novel i s t a s de la R evolu- c io n M exicana. MAxico: E d i t o r i a l C u ltu ra , 1941. M orton, F. Rand. Io s N o v e lis ta s de la R evoluci6n M exicana. MAxico: E d i t o r i a l C u ltu ra , 1949. P L e tri, A rtu ro U s la r. "Lo C r io llo e n la L L te ra tu ra ," C uadem os A m ericanos. XLIX (Ja n u a ry -F e b ru a ry , 1950), 266-278. Sanchez, L uis A lb e rto . A m erica. Novela S in N o v e lis ta s . 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U npublished M a s te r's t h e s i s , N orth Texas S ta te C o lle g e , 1946. G a lle g o s, Abraham. "E l L enguaje P o p u lar e n la s N ovelas de M ariano A z u e la ." U npublished M a s te r's t h e s i s , U ii- v e rs id a d N acional de M exico, 1950. H ashim oto, R en taro . " la T ta y e c to ria L i t e r a r i a de M ariano A z u e la ." U npublished M a s te r's t h e s i s , U n iv e rsid ad N a cio n a l Autonoma de MAxico, 1953. Iw anik, John A. "The Novels o f th e M exican R e v o lu tio n as R e p rese n ted by M ariano A zuela a n d M a rtin L uis Guzm&n." U hpublished M a ste r's t h e s i s , I h i v e r s i t y o f S y racu se, 1944. Kammerer, V io le t G. "Some Modern M exican Problem s Found in th e Works o f M ariano A zuela and M a rtin Guzm&n." U npublished M a ste r's t h e s i s , I h i v e r s i t y o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia , 1939. M ich aels, A lb e rt L. "M exican P o l i t i c s an d N a tio n a lism from C a lle s to C A rdenas." 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"E l Ie n g u a je •b Pui a r a n U s Hove U s de M ariano A z u e la ." Ih p u b lish e d M hst6 r , s t h e s i s , I h iv e r - s i t y o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia , 1945,

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Creator Rivera, Feliciano (author)

Core Title Social And Political Aspects Of The Mexican Revolution As Seen Through The Writings Of Mariano Azuela

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Latin American Studies

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag history, modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Servin, Manuel P. (committee chair), Curtis, Robert E. (committee member), McMahon, Dorothy Elizabeth (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-468826

Unique identifier UC11363162

Identifier 7116433.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-468826 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7116433

Dmrecord 468826

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rivera, Feliciano

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA