Changes In Professional Preparation Of Elementary Teachers Proposed By Selected California Colleges And Universities: The Approved Program Approach To Certification 1969-1970

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Content CHANGES IN PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION
OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS
PROPOSED B Y
SELECTED CALIFORNIA COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
The Approved Program Approach to Certification
1969-1970
by
Joanne Woods
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
January 1971
I
I
71 - 16,444
WOODS, J o a n n e , 1 9 3 1 -
CHANGES IN PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF
ELEMENTARY TEACHERS PROPOSED BY SELECTED
CALIFORNIA COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES:
THE APPROVED PRO GRAM APPROACH TO CERTIFICATION,
1 9 6 9 -1 9 7 0 .
U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Ph.D., 1971
E d u c a tio n , t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g
University Microfilms, A X ERO X Company , Ann Arbor, M ichigan
© Copyright by
JOANNE WOODS
1971
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
t h e g r a d u a t e s c h o o l
UNIVERSITY PARK
L O S ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
J o a n n e Woods
under the direction of hQ£ Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION C O :
tairman
A
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES...................... . ......................................................... v
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION............................................................... 1
Background of the Problem
The Problem
Design of Study
Need for the Study
Definitions of Term s
Organization of the Dissertation
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................... 25
Sources of Change in Teacher Education
Certification
Accreditation
The Approved Program Approach to
Teacher Certification
The Teaching-Learning Process
Programs of Teacher Preparation
Changes: Trends and Recommendations
III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE APPROVED
PROGRAM APPROACH TO TEACHER
CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA ............................ 150
Credential structure reform
Interpretations of legal requirements
Program changes
Issues
Objectives of the approved program approach
ii
C hapter Page
IV. DESIGN AND PROCEDURE............................................ 165
Design of the Study
Procedure
V. DESIRED PROGRAM CHANGES: ANALYSIS
OF INSTITUTIONAL D A TA ............................................. 176
Introduction
Teacher Preparation Programs in
Private Colleges
Teacher Preparation Programs at
State Colleges
Teacher Preparation at Private Universities
Teacher Preparation at State Universities
Chapter Summary
VI. COMPARISON OF PROGRAM CHANGES IN
CALIFORNIA TO TRENDS OF CHANGE IN
THE UNITED S T A T E S .................................................. 313
Recommended Changes in the United States
Trends of Change in Teacher Preparation
in the United States
Implications
Chapter Summary
VII. ANALYSIS OF PROGRAM CHANGES IN
CALIFORNIA IN RELATION TO THE OBJECTIVES
OF THE APPROVED PROGRAM APPROACH 361
Objectives of the Approved Program Approach
Achievements of the Approved
Program Approach
Extent of Realization of Objectives of the
Approved Program Approach
Implications
iii
C hapter Page
VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................... 382
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . ................. . . . . ........................................... 406
APPENDIXES ......................................................................................... 430
APPENDIX A ................................................................................ 431
APPENDIX B ................................................................................ 434
APPENDIX C ................................................................................ 437
APPENDIX D ...................................1 ............................................ 440
APPENDIX E ................................................................................ 443
iv
LIST OF .TABLES
Table Page
1. Summary of Reported Changes in Private Colleges 317
2. Summary of Reported Changes in State Colleges . 322
3. Summary of Reported Changes in Private
U n iv ersities.................................................... 326
4. Summary of Reported Changes in State
U n iv ersities............................................................. 331
5. Summary of Reported Changes in Private and
State C olleges........................... 335
6. Summary of Reported Changes in Private and
State Universities ............................................... 336
7. Summary of Reported Changes in Private
Institutions Compared to Public Institutions . . 343
8. Summary of Reported Changes in All
Institutions............................................................... 350
9. Changes Reported by All or by All But One
of the Private and State Universities
and the Private and State Colleges ................... 352
10. Comparison of Reported Changes With
National Trends of Change, by Institution
Type, Group, and Total Group of
Selected California Institutions ......................... 354
v
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Problem
Efforts to reform teacher education in the United States
since 1960 have been the object of political debate in the legislatures,
and the object of professional debate in the professional organiza
tions, the schools, and the institutions of higher education. By 1965
teacher education reform had become a public issue related to large
social issues of equal opportunity for education and employment and
the civil rights movement. By 1970 teacher education reform had
also become a declared objective of the radical student Left,
Public expectations of the effect of education on the develop
ment of the intellectual, social, economic, and political powers of the
person and of groups were a quantum leap away from the quality of
teaching and learning in the classroom s of the public schools (49:104).
Ineffective teaching was suggested as a contributing cause for the
increasing violence and disruption in secondary schools and
universities (195:10).
1
2
New knowledge about the intellectual growth and development
of young children (45), and of the effects of the social environment on
learning (27), which was made public through the media, stimulated a
public demand for new educational program s and new skills of teach
ing. Model teacher preparation programs were proposed to
incorporate new knowledge and to meet identified needs of children
(26).
Changes in teacher preparation were a continuing p re
occupation of state legislatures, state boards of education,
professional organizations of teachers, accreditation agencies, local
education agencies, and institutions of higher learning. Changes in
program s required a legal base, professional sanctions, and
institutional implementation. The degree and kind of changes were
often a product of the degree of sim ilarity of objectives and the
coalition of power enjoyed by two or more of the agencies concerned
with change.
The demand for change had accelerated since the cool and
reasoned recommendations made by Conant in his famous study of
1963 (19). Conant had called for significant changes in the quality of
professional preparation, describing a clinical approach to learning
to teach. And he had called for a cooperation among the agencies
controlling the education of teachers as a basis for planning change.
The "approved program approach" was modified by Conant to become
an instrument for reform of programs for the education of teachers
(19).
Changes in the form and substance of program s designed to
prepare effective teachers were made difficult during the early part
of the 1960s due to over-specific legislated requirements and board
interpretations in California.
Nationally, the trend had been away from specification of
course and unit requirem ents. By 1967 some form of the approved
program approach was in use in forty-six states. By 1969 California
had adopted the approved program approach to the certification of
teachers (126). In an approved program, candidates for certification
were expected to dem onstrate specific teaching competencies, at
given levels of m astery, during student teaching. When the prepar
ing institution found the prospective teacher's work acceptable, it
would then recommend the person for certification to the State
Department of Education.
The combination of influences from public opinion, the new
knowledge about teaching-learning processes, the system s approach
to program design and competency assessm ent, and the approved
program approach to teacher certification made institutional change
in teacher preparation program s a concrete possibility in 1969-70.
Institutions were further encouraged to change by state and national
accreditation groups who identified areas for change in their guide
lines. For example, preparation to teach in culturally and economic
diverse situations is specifically mentioned in the 1970 state and
national accreditation guidelines (165:4).
Thus, in 1970 the question was: Would the institutions of
higher education, which prepare teachers, have the energy,
imagination, and power within their own communities to develop
reasoned and relevant new program s for the professional preparation
of teachers? The decade from 1960 to 1970 was marked with a
phenomenal confusion about the purpose of higher education ranging
from Pusey's position regarding the autonomy and special character
of the university (47), to K err’s notion of the "multiversity"
committed to and entangled in service obligations (33). During this
period, as well, there was a phenomenal growth in attacks upon the
institution of higher learning as an institution. Whether, in such a
climate it would be possible for institutions to respond to the need
for reform in one of their numerous functions, was an open question
and a central question of this study.
Alternative institutions had been proposed for the pro
fessional education of teachers and service personnel for the public
schools. These institutions would be autonomous and would be in
competition with colleges and universities (51:91).
However, colleges and universities in the United States have
traditionally been the agencies for preparation of those going into the
professions. Professional education has required a delicate synthesis
of the research, teaching, and service functions of the institution,
and therefore, the reform of teacher education may be one of the
many tests of the vitality of an institution and its ability to achieve
that delicate balance of purpose.
The Problem
The problem under study in this dissertation had two
dimensions: (1) to determine the objectives of the approved program
approach to teacher certification in California; and (2) to identify
proposed changes in the professional preparation of teachers in
selected California institutions, stimulated by the approved program
approach, and compared with national patterns of change.
The research approach used was one of descriptive analysis.
The study involved (1) identification of reform objectives of the
approved program approach; (2) identification of proposed changes
in program s in selected institutions of four types as perceived by
deans and directors of teacher education; (3) identification of patterns
of change in teacher preparation program s in the United States
between 1960 and 1970; (4) comparison of proposed changes in
California with actual and recommended changes nationally;
(5) determination of the directions of change, which then assisted in
(6) the evaluation of the extent to which the approved program
approach was meeting its objectives in California.
In other words, was the approved program approach
stimulating changes in colleges and universities, and were those
changes, if any, comparable to recommended changes.
Questions to be answered
Specifically, answers were sought to the following questions:
1. What are the reform objectives of the approved
program approach in California?
2. What positive changes in the professional studies
component are recommended by research and
authoritative opinion in the United States?
3. What do the deans and directors of teacher
education in California institutions perceive to
be optimum positive changes toward an ideal
program of professional teacher preparation?
4. How do the proposed California changes compare
with the proposed and actual changes in different
parts of the nation?
7
5. To what extent does the approved program
approach achieve its objectives and thus stimulate
and facilitate change?
Expectations
The m ajor purposes of this study were to identify objectives
of the approved program approach in relation to proposed changes in
teacher preparation, and to identify patterns of change in the
profession at large.
A review of the literature produced the objectives and
patterns used in the study as instrum ents of analysis. Expectations
stated for the study were not related to formal hypotheses, but
rather to specific aspects of the professional preparation of teachers
in which change might be found. Specific objectives were derived
from approved program objectives and the nature of the professional
component of teacher preparation. Objectives for teacher prepar
ation changes were:
Curricula for the education of teachers should be designed
by the individual college o r university. - -It was expected that changes
would be seen in (1) the sources of required experiences or courses,
(2) the content of curricula, and (3) the sequence or pattern of
curricula.
Within statutory limitations, colleges and universities
should determine the form and substance of their teacher preparation
program s. —Changes were expected in (1) the form o r design of
program s and (2) the substantive content of all experiences encom
passed by the program .
Institutions should have greater flexibility in program
design. —Changes would be expected in the use of (1) time, (2) setting,
(3) sequence, (4) content, (5) grouping, and (6) evaluation.
Institutions should exercise greater individuality imagination
and innovation in program planning. - -Expected changes would include
(1) program s unique to institutional resources and purposes;
(2) imaginative use of media and environment; (3) imaginative re
thinking of aspects of program such as assumptions, pupil needs,
teacher roles, o r processes of teaching the adult learner; and
(4) new modes of planning and incorporation of new groups in plan
ning.
Through self-study, institutions should develop alternative
approaches to the professional preparation of teachers. --It was
expected that changes would be found in (1) the number of program s:
planned, (2) the kinds of programs being developed, (3) the degree of
autonomy of the participant in making choices within a program,
(4) basic assumptions about what is required to prepare a teacher,
and (5) basic assumptions about what elementary pupils will need to
9
learn.
Scope and delimitations
of the problem
The focus of the study was restricted to changes in the
professional studies component of the elem entary teacher education
program s in fifteen indicator institutions of higher education in
California. The study was particularly concerned with changes
proposed and desired as a result of the approved program approach
to teacher certification, which was adopted in California in June,
1969.
Data for the study were collected in June and July, 1970, a
year after the approved program approach made program develop
ment an open possibility for the preparing institutions. Baseline data
from which changes could be identified were the accredited elemen
tary teacher credential programs in each institution in 1969. While
all of the accredited program s automatically became "approved
program s" with the 1969 adoption of the policy, they did not reflect
changes at that time.
Institutions were selected to represent the public and
private colleges and universities in the state. Large and small
institutions of each category were chosen. All institutions studied
were in the radius of one of the three largest metropolitan areas in
10
the state. An attempt was made to select a balanced sample of the
kinds of institutions which train teachers in California.
The study reviewed the events during the decade 1960 to
1970, which had bearing upon the reform of teacher education.
Thus, the topics of certification, accreditation, the approved pro
gram approach to certification, the teaching-learning process, and
model teacher education programs were reviewed to build a back
ground for comparison with the data collected.
Design of Study
A series of seven processes were used to design and
conduct the study: (1) selection of the problem, (2) selection of the
research approach, (3) identification and selection of categories for
data collection, (4) collection of data, (5) analysis and interpretation
of data, (6) discussion and recommendations regarding the findings,
and (7) internal and external criticism .
Need for the Study
While there was general agreement that the professional
preparation of teachers needed to be improved in order to equip a
beginning teacher with the skills and knowledge he needs to teach
children in the seventies, there was no agreement at all as to why the
11
improvement did not occur. Institutions which prepare teachers have
felt unable to make changes due to the over-specific and ever-
changing requirem ents mandated by the state. Officials at the state
level who deal with teacher education are amazed and disconcerted
with the length of time it takes to change curriculum in a university—
three years was not an unusual length of time. Schools, out of
patience with waiting for change from the institution or the state,
asked for and got perm ission to train teachers themselves. The
"D istrict Internship" program in California was one example (175).
Both the academic professors and the education professors
have been found guilty of using the legislature to promote particular
kinds of reform (19:11-12). The 1969 decision to adopt the "approved
program approach" to the certification of teachers put the responsi
bility of bringing change squarely on the shoulders of the academic
and professional departments of colleges and universities. Deans
and directors of teacher education were specifically asked by the
state to establish committees to form proposals for submission
during the 1969-74 period of implementation. It was a chance to
demonstrate institutional energy toward reasoned and appropriate
changes in the teacher education program s.
Parallel with the advent of the approved program approach
was an extensive battle in legislature over an assembly bill, which
12
sought to legislate specific changes on a statewide basis (118). Most
deans and directors felt that such legislation was inappropriate to the
profession and, in fact, jeopardized institutional autonomy. With the
newly given freedom to design unique program s, came the uncertainty
due to impending legislation--an annual occurrence in California
which threatened to demand changes of another type.
From records in the State Department of Education, it was
not possible to assess the degree to which the approved program
approach freedom had been accepted and acted upon with vigor. Few
new proposals had been submitted. Considering the time it takes to
carefully think through and plan a new course of action, in addition to
the regular commitments of time and energy a faculty has, it was not
reasonable to expect finished proposals in the first six, nine, or
twelve months. A condition of the approved program approach was
that the entire faculty of the college or university would, through
regular means, approve the program. All-university approval of
any new program is not characteristically a smooth and speedy
process. Thus, it did seem necessary to find out what institutions
were doing in response to the opportunity afforded by the approved
program approach, and to analyze it against professional criteria for
needed change. Were the institutions responding, taking initiative,
attempting needed improvements, or were they, as their critics
13
accused them of being, suffering from hardening of the arteries and
general apathy?
Professional studies include the practice of teaching which is
the event in a preparation program during which teaching and
learning—which are the processes teachers are being trained to
instigate--are visible and m easurable. The quality of the academic
and professional experiences leading to the practice of teaching, and
that practice itself, are generally considered to be powerful
determ iners of the prospective teacher's quality of teaching. Thus,
the professional studies component seemed a good choice of a
critical point in the teacher education continuum at which to identify
program changes.
Wilhelms, Executive Secretary of the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, speaking to the national
conference of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education (AACTE), urged dram atic changes in both the academic
and the professional preparation of teachers. Of professional
training, and specifically of the student teaching experience and its
contribution to the development of a teacher, he was sharply critical:
The basic fact of a student teacher's life is that he is
captive. The typical cooperating teacher subscribes im plic
itly to the trade school ethic. Student teaching, in his view,
is not for exploration; it is for practice, for the perfecting
of skills.
14
And so, in what ought to be the greatest learning experience
in the young professional’s life, what is really happening is
the start of an unremitting indoctrination into the very system
we are all trying to break out of. When the young professional
ought to be finding his own unique self, he is instead warped
by someone else’s style and being. (3:10-11)
Silberman, member of the board of editors of Fortune
magazine, conducted a study for the Carnegie Corporation of New
York on the education of teachers (105). In pre-publication excerpts
from the study, he described elem entary classroom s which he had
visited, and kinds of teaching which he had observed. Speaking of
the junior schools in England, he told of the teacher and the climate
for learning, contrasting it with what he had found in all but a few
places in the United States. That the professional training of the
elementary teacher needs modification and change was a clear
implication of the contrast he presented. Visiting a "free day"
program in an English junior school, he spoke of the great variety of
simultaneous activity and, in the midst of it all, the teacher's
presence:
. . . the teacher seems always to be in contact with the
children--talking, listening, watching, comforting, chiding,
suggesting, encouraging—although from time to time she
stops for a minute to jot down a comment in the record book
she keeps for each child.
One becomes aware, too, of the sense of structure,
ease and informality, for all the child-centeredness, there
is no ambivalence about authority and no confusion about
roles. And yet control is rarely harsh or punitive. An
American visitor is struck, for example, by the atmosphere
of civility that prevails; teachers are as polite to the children
15
as they are to the visitors.
What im presses an American the most, however, is the
combination of great joy and spontaneity and activity with
equally great self-control and order. The joyfulness is
pervasive: in almost every classroom visited, virtually
every child seemed happy and engaged. One sim ply does not
see bored or restless o r unhappy youngsters, or youngsters
with the glazed look so common in American schools.
(106:85)
Silberman described four programs in the United States
which were training teachers as facilitators of learning in open
classroom s sim ilar to those he saw in England: (1) the New School
of Behavioral Studies in Education in the University of North Dakota,
(2) a program at New York City College, (3) the Learning Center
project of Lore Rassmussen in Philadelphia, and (4) the Marie Hughes
program of Early Childhood Education in eighteen school districts
across the country. With the exception of the New School program,
all are placing emphasis upon the in-service reeducation of teachers.
The effectiveness of the four program s in terms of the learning and
achievement of children suggests a need to incorporate such
approaches to teacher education into the basic accredited programs of
colleges and universities (106:86-97). The program s referred to
have been developed in black ghetto, Mexican b arrio , Indian reserva- :
tion schools, midwestern rural schools, and schools in Appalachia.
Evidence from such program s, coupled with the demands for
relevance of teacher preparation to the great social issues and human
16
needs in the nation, described in the AACTE study, Teachers for the
Real World, would indicate a need for different kinds of teacher
preparation program s to be designed to develop teachers who were
effective with the disadvantaged child, the minority group child, or
the alienated child in the urban school (49).
There was a need to determine whether or not changes of
this magnitude were occurring or being planned for in the colleges
and universities serving the great metropolitan centers of Oakland-
San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego.
Information regarding the trends of change in teacher
preparation institutions in California did not seem to exist in a
comprehensive form. The study was encouraged by individuals in
the California Council on the Education of Teachers, and by the
Director of the Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification.
However, it was independently designed and conducted.
Definitions of Terms
In order to give precision to the language of the disserta
tion, the following definitions of term s are offered:
Accreditation. - -Three kinds of accreditation affect teacher
education: (1) accreditation of the college or university as an
institution, which is accomplished by a regional association;
17
(2) accreditation of the teacher education function of the total institu
tion, which is made by the National Council for the Accreditation of
Teacher Education for a ten-year period; and (3) accreditation by the
State Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification of specific
program s of teacher education in an approved institution. The latter
form of accreditation by the state constitutes the "approval" given in
the approved program approach to teacher certification.
Approved program approach. - -An approach to the certifica
tion of teachers through the State Department of Education, Bureau of
Teacher Education and Certification (the approved program approach),
requires each institution of higher education to invent its own pro
gram , within statutory limits, specifying the general or liberal,
academic, and professional education content and process. It must
win all-institution approval. The program may then be submitted to
the state for approval. C riteria are adopted by the State Board of
Education for the approval of program s, and programs which meet
these criteria are "approved" or have state "accreditation. " This
means that upon the recommendation of the institution, a candidate
may be given a teacher's certificate. Institutions thereby guarantee
that teachers have undergone a substantial, integrated program of
professional development rooted in acceptable general and academic
preparation. The approved program approach discourages direct
18
application of the candidate to the state for a certificate. It also
makes possible interstate agreements of reciprocity.
Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification. --The bureau
adm inisters the certification of teachers and processes approximately
1200 applications per day. The bureau coordinates accreditation
visits from the three sources described above and recommends
institutions for state accreditation.
Certification. --The certification process is the licensing of
teachers upon presentation of credentials so that they may demon
strate to an employer that they have professional competency in a
given specialization.
Clinical experiences. - -Developed in the Conant study (19),the
idea of clinical settings, clinical experiences, and clinical pro
fessors refers to a sequence of specific training experiences for the
teacher with real o r simulated situations. The clinical setting may
be a public school o r a laboratory room in a public school o r on a
college campus. The clinical approach is one of observation, re
analysis, diagnosis, prescription, action, and analysis. It is inter
active with the people and the situation.
Content. —The content of professional education curriculum
refers to the subject m atters of the profession of teaching. Content
may be knowledge or process.
19
C riterion-referenced performance objectives. —Perform
ance objectives are those decisions made about what a teacher is
expected to do that is observable. These performance objectives are
referred to a criterion, a decision about how well the teacher should
do it, in term s that may be observed and measured.
Credential. —A teaching credential refers to the document
or enabling device which makes it possible to issue a certificate to
the teacher.
Direct application. - -Teachers who have prepared them
selves by taking selected courses at selected institutions, but who
have not gone through a continuous program of training, have applied
directly to the Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification, and
have been granted certificates on the basis on meeting course
requirem ents. Out of state persons who are teachers, and wish to
teach in California have used direct application to gain California
credentials.
Performance objectives. —Decisions may be made about
what the outcome behavior might be as a result of an experience. If
the behavior were observable, its performance could be identified
and perhaps m easured o r quantified in some way. The decision
about the behavior which specifies it in term s that are observable, is
the objective; the behavior, when it happens, is the performance.
20
Practicum . - -In the sense in which it is used in this d isser
tation, practicum refers to the practice experiences of all types
which have as their objective putting the prospective teacher in
contact with children and teachers engaged in the process of learning.
Student teaching is one kind of experience in the practicum. A
teacher preparation program could have an approved practicum
which includes no student teaching.
Process. - -Learning to learn is a process. This process
may become part of the content of a series of practicum experiences.
Process objectives allow processes to become content in training
program s.
Professional education. — A generic term referring to the
collegiate and graduate education of the teacher, professional educa
tion would include academic education which has been specially
designed for the student who wishes to become a teacher, as well as
the professional studies component of teacher preparation.
Professional studies component. --A part of the total
professional education of the prospective teacher, professional
studies includes the education foundation courses of sociology,
psychology, history of education, and philosophy; the courses in
school curriculum subject m atter and the methods of teaching them;
and the practicum.
21
Student teacher. —In this study, student teacher refers to
the college or university student who is undergoing the experience of
teaching pupils in order to develop his competencies as a teacher. It
may or may not be an exploratory and experimental time as well.
Student of teaching. --A student of teaching is the person in
a preparation program who is actively studying the teaching-learning
process through observation, analysis, and participation in the
process through teaching and learning from research.
Self-initiating learn ers. - -The term refers to a person
capable of identifying what he needs to learn next and choosing and
starting the appropriate learning experiences.
Staff. —In a discussion of a clinical setting such as a student
teaching center, the staff would refer to the college professors, the
school personnel involved in teacher education on any level, and any
other personnel involved in the training process.
Systems analysis. —The process of analyzing something in
term s of its parts and its functions, all in relation to each other and
in relation to the whole, so that systems are identified, cause-effect
relationships may be identified, and predictions may be made.is the
process of systems analysis.
Teacher education program s. - -In California, the teacher
education program would refer to the entire collegiate and graduate
22
program over a five-year period. It is a generic term describing
the total process of developing a professional teacher.
Teacher preparation program s. - -The part of the teacher
education program devoted directly to preparing the teacher to
teach--in which he develops knowledge, attitudes, skills, and
com mitment--is referred to as teacher preparation.
Teacher training program . - -Integrated sets of experiences
through which a prospective teacher develops specific behaviors to a
specified level of competency are called training experiences; thus,
the teacher training program would be the parts of the teacher
preparation program in which specific skills are developed.
Teaching-learning. - -In the attempt to describe the in ter
active process or happening between a teacher and a learner in a
situation, teaching-learning has been used as a term for want of
better process words in the English language.
Organization of the Dissertation
The introductory chapter defines the problem within a
larger context of the need for change in teacher education. The
scope and importance of the problem are discussed and the methods
of research are described. The design and procedure of the study,
the organization of the report, and the terminology used are
23
explained.
Chapter II sum m arizes the results of a review of the
literature. Its purpose is to provide an orientation to the complexity
of the process of change in teacher education, and to develop a
criterion instrument for evaluating changes reported in the data.
Chapter III reviews the history of attempts to modify the
requirem ents for certification of elementary teachers in California
between 1954 and 1970. Its purpose is to give perspective to the
approved program approach to certification and to identify its
objectives.
In Chapter IV the instruments for analysis developed in
Chapters II and III are presented with a discussion of their use.
Chapter V presents the data collected from each institution,
identifies changes, and categorizes them by kind of change and by
institution type.
In Chapter VI there is a discussion of the kinds of changes
found, comparing them to the change criteria developed from the
review of the literature as a test of validity.
Chapter VII consists of an analysis of the changes being
attempted by the institutions in relation to the objectives of the
approved program approach to certification to determine the extent
to which those objectives are being achieved.
24
A summary of the changes, comparisons, and discussions
are made in Chapter VIII, along with conclusions and recom
mendations about the relationship of institutional program change and
the approved program approach to teacher certification in California.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
During the decade of credential revision and reform in
California (1960 to 1970), education became a major focal point of
national public concern. Educational program s in the schools and
institutions of higher education came under severe criticism from
the public, the students, and the profession. In particular,
elem entary education became the stimulus for extensive w ritin g -
popular and professional--intensified by beliefs about the relationship
of education of the young child to equality of opportunity and the civil
rights movements. A 1965 Gallup poll indicated that "improving
public education" was the nation's most important task (146:40).
Stimulated by m assive funding from federal, state, and
foundation sources, educational research, development, and planning
increased geometrically. In 1961 John C arroll reported few studies
on teacher preparation (19:259); in 1963 the American Educational
Research Association published the Handbook of Research on
25
26
Teaching, which reviewed research on teaching in fourteen cate
gories in 1172 pages (28). By 1970 the ERIC Clearing House on
Teacher Education, established in 1968, was processing about 600
documents per year on the education of teachers; and the ERIC
system as a whole was generating bibliographies from 15,000 journal
articles per year and publishing about 864 abstracts of educational
research per month (79:100-1; 80-235-37). In addition to this
m assive avalanche of information, there have been numerous official
documents, published books, and research documents made available
over that period.
For the purposes of this study, information about actual and
recommended changes in the professional education of elementary
teachers has been found in (1) documents such as State Department of
Education guidelines (126), university faculty documents (121), and
minutes from meetings of professional organizations (12Q); (2) such
published studies as Conant's, The Education of American Teachers
(19), and Hazard's, The Tutorial and Clinical Program (30);
(3) journals; and (4) unpublished letters. These m aterials were
made available through the professional libraries and records of
professors at the University of Southern California, from the
Education Library at that university, from correspondence with state
officers of certification, and from officers of professional organi
zations.
The following review is designed to meet two of the objec
tives of the study: (1) to identify objectives of the approved program
approach to teacher education and (2) to identify recommended
changes in teacher preparation in the United States.
Five general areas of concern which affect the professional
training of the elementary teacher were selected as categories from
which the literature could be reported, and in which issues, trends
of change, and recommendations for change could be identified and
discussed. These trends and recommendations will be used (1) to
identify the objectives of the approved program approach to teacher
certification in California and (2) to compare with the desired
changes reported by the participants in the study.
The specific headings include an introductory statement
which discusses the relationship of the legal and professional centers
of control of teacher education within which changes occur, and
which describes the official frameworks in which program s of
teacher education are created, accredited, and approved at local,
state, and national levels. The review then provides a resum e of
literature pertaining to the following topics:
1. Certification and licensure of teachers.
2. Accreditation of teacher education institutions.
28
3. The approved program approach.
4. The implication of the teaching-learning process
for the preparation of elementary teachers.
5. Programs for teacher preparation with special
reference to the professional studies component.
The review provides brief but hopefully representative
resum es of the literature related to the first four topics. The major
portion of the review is concerned with the fifth topic which is the
central focus for the study.
Sources of Change in Teacher Education
The law and teacher preparation
programs
Under the provision of the United States Constitution,
education is a state function. State legislation provides for a State
Department of Education, a State Board of Education, in some states
a Professional Board of Certification and Licensing, and a Superin
tendent of Public Instruction (19:34).
Legislation provides statutory requirements related to the
preparation and certification of teachers and other professional
education personnel. It is the function of the State Board of Education
to adopt rules and regulations which interpret statutory requirem ents.
These rules and regulations are found in Title 5 of the California
29
Administrative Code (117). The State Department of Education
implements the rules and regulations and makes recommendations to
the State Board of Education (36:16).
The State Department of Education, headed by the Super
intendent of Public Instruction, maintains a Bureau of Teacher
Education and Certification. This bureau adm inisters die rules and
regulations regarding certification. It recommends candidates to the
state board which then issues certificates. The Chief of the Bureau
is responsible for developing procedures of credentialling, certifi
cation, accreditation by the state, and program approval under the
approved program approach. The state board formally authorizes
accreditation, certification, and program approval (36:17).
The State Department Bureau is composed of professional
educators; the state board is composed of lay m em bers. Tradition
ally the legislature is expected to provide broad general requirements
and to delegate to the state board detailed specification (19:223). And,
traditionally, the state board is expected to consider recommenda
tions from the professional groups in the state as well as from lay
groups.
The intent of the law is to provide a legal framework under
public control, and which supports professional decision making in
educational m atters. This is consistent with the balance of power
30
strategies in the design of United States governmental structures.
The professional education
framework
Teacher preparation is a professional concern to a variety
of professional education organizations and institutions of higher
education.
The teacher preparation institution—a college or a uni
versity--is a legally constituted community of scholars, which,
through self determination by peer control, may create departments,
program s, and courses for the preparation of teachers under the
governance pattern of a lay board and a professional administrator.
Deans, directors, and professors involved in teacher preparation
are concurrently members of a total institution, a professional
school, and professional organizations on local, state, and national
levels.
Such professional educators have had to demonstrate an
expertise in research and practice in specific fields of education and
related sciences in order to be appointed as members of the college
o r university community. Such a scholar is accountable to an
institution, a profession, and a body of substantive knowledge
developed through theoretical and scientific processes.
The professional organizations closely related to teacher
31
preparation include the Association for Student Teaching (AST);
renamed in 1970 the Association for Teacher Education (ATE); the
state affiliate of the National Education Association, California
Teachers Association (CTA); the California section of the American
Federation of Teachers (AFT); the California Council on the Educa
tion of Teachers (CCET), sponsored by the State Department of
Education and comprised of leaders in teacher education from all the
accredited institutions and professional organizations; the National
Association of State D irectors of Teacher Education and Certifica
tion (NASDTEC); and the National Commission on Teacher Education
and Professional Standards (NCTEPS).
Professional accreditation groups include the regional
councils—for California, the Western Association of Schools and
Colleges (WASC); and national groups—the American Association of
Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE), an advisory group to the
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE);
and the National Commission of Accrediting, which approves
accrediting groups.
Professional committees and commissions are formed to
make recommendations to the State Board of Education on m atters
pertaining to teacher education.
In summary, the professional control of quality kind of
32
teacher education program may operate through (1) the college or
university school o r department, (2) the professional organizations
representing the schools and their teachers, (3) the regional and
national accreditation groups, (4) professional councils, commis
sions, and committees at the state level formed by the State
Department of Education, and (5) state and national professional
subject-m atter groups and learned societies (19:15-41).
The interrelationship among these groups might be analyzed
by identifying differences in their functions. 'Die preparing institu
tions must operate the program of preparation and recommend the
candidate for certification. The professional groups representing
the schools are the client groups and/or the products themselves of
these program s. The accreditation groups are composed of both the
institution and the school personnel, but NCATE is sponsored by one
of the teacher organizations and WASC is independent. The profes
sional councils, committees, and commissions which advise the
State Department of Education are financed by the state and include
representation from all three of the preceding groups. The subject-
m atter specialist teacher organizations are affiliated with the national
teacher organizations but are committed to special concerns.
In relation to teacher education the significant difference
among the professional groups would be that some professional
33
groups are clients or recipients of the products of teacher prepara
tion programs and the other groups are program designers and
directors. This producer-client relationship is a crucial issue in
teacher education reform . In California, the D istrict Internship
Program calling for a new type of training program jointly designed
by institution and school is a recent example of the legal pressure on
the profession to communicate with itself across the producer-
client boundary (133, 175).
A deep division within the professional group at the prepar
ing institutions has been formed by the continuing argument among
the academic professors and the professional education professors.
Conant described the process by which professors encouraged
legislators to create laws which controlled the one group and favored
the other (19:1-14).
Kinney described the California credential revision episode
and related it to the argument between the academic subject m atter
proponents and the professional education establishment. The 1961
Fisher Bill marked a defeat of the professional educators (36:96-113).:
The academic curriculum reform movement of the 1960s
in which conceptual frameworks were developed for the teaching of
mathematics, science, social sciences and English, provided
professional education with another challenge to change program s to j
34
develop teacher competencies in the knowledge of and teaching of
such subjects (84). Academic professors (who consider themselves
"educators") involved in these reform s created further pressure for
change in the teacher preparation institutions. Change in staffing
patterns—joint appointments--and change in course content were two
positive effects, although the course content changes in mathematics
and reading in California were initiated by specific legislation (123).
Within this melieu of professional interests there existed
diversity and controversy. It is not unexpected, since continuing
challenge, discussion, and search for truth are functions of
education. However, Conant suggested that the California struggle
within the profession was in fact a power struggle in that it lacked a
basis in theoretical speculation and fact (19:1). Neither the search
for truth, nor scholarly debate lends itself to contest with the
political function of the legislature, and herein lies the central issue
in teacher education program development which the approved
program approach attempted to recognize.
Relationship of legal framework
to professional framework
C ritics of institutional teacher education program s who
maintain that minimum program s would p ersist without legal
pressures to enforce change acted to develop legislation which is
35
highly prescriptive. This reduced the initiative of the institution and
infringed upon its academic freedom (19:224).
C ritics of institutional teacher education program s, who
maintain that minimum programs persist due to overspecific legis
lation and regulation from the state, acted to develop legislation
which supports an approved program approach. This was expected
to increase institutional initiative and accountability (19:225-28).
The wide range of kinds of approved program approaches
described in Conant's study demonstrate a dependence upon state
prescription through "guidelines" at one extrem e, and a dependence
upon prescription by following NCATE standards closely at the other
extrem e (19:227).
In the final analysis, those who control certification control
teacher preparation program s. Conant found in every state studied
that the politics of teacher certification "revolved around an alliance
composed . . . of organized teacher and adm inistrator groups,
professors of education and State Education Department officials, "
and that their influence tended to dominate decisions (19:23).
Certification
Certification has long been regarded by the public and the
teaching profession as the safeguard of teaching quality for
A m erica's boys and girls. (82;vi)
36
Certification had its roots in the emergence of the state
systems of public schools. County certification began in 1825 and
continued through 1900. Kinney noted that the state function of
certification arose during the period between 1830 and 1850 when a
m ajority of states created the office of the chief state school official.
As the state system developed an administrative system , a trend
toward state certification began. At the turn of the century, certifi
cation was a function of local districts, counties, and states. A
variety of patterns arose and the variety persists (36).
Certification was influenced by the impact of curriculum
development on the requirements for teaching. Kinney noted that the
number of subjects taught in schools doubled between 1880 and 1900
(36:73).
Examinations, which had been used to determine candidacy
for a certificate, failed to change with the new curriculum (36:74).
Evidence of professional preparation in a college o r a normal school
first became acceptable for certification in lieu of examination in
New York State in 1849 (36:55). By 1900 there were about 180 state
normal schools and about 100 private normal schools for the prepara
tion of elementary teachers. Also 771 public and private high schools
offered courses of teacher preparation. By 1925 professional train
ing was required for certification in forty-eight states (36:76-77).
37
Kinney suggested that the civil service movement in the
early part of the twentieth century had influenced the concepts of
those developing certification processes (36:78). The classification
of positions, selection procedures, and external regulation which
characterize the civil service system also came to characterize the
emerging certification system s. Kinney noted that autonomy in self-
discipline, characteristic of a profession, was unknown in civil
service and, unfortunately, in some certification system s (36:79).
State centralization during the first half of the twentieth
century brought with it the abandoning of the examination system for
certification. In its place, college preparation was accepted and
became highly specified by certification regulations. Encouraging
this trend was a trend in the profession which recognized special
needs of teachers for service in the secondary school, the kinder
garten, and the vocational trades. This led to the specialization of
certification and to further specification of teacher preparation
courses. Kinney noted that the preparation program had become "an
adjunct of the credential structure, subject to control of the state
certification agency" (36:80). Certification was controlled by the
state exclusively in forty-one states by 1937 (36:70). Kinney further
noted that the Council of Chief State School Officers had, by 1954,
accepted as m ajor responsibilities (1) teacher education, (2) legal
38
accreditation of institutions and program s, and (3) certification.
Impact of professional organization. - -Kinney cited, as the
first strong professional response to the problems of teacher
education, the work of the 1907 Committee of Seventeen on the
Professional Preparation of High School Teachers. In its report, the
committee urged strong academic preparation, pedagogic prepara
tion in psychology, and practice teaching. In addition, it recom
mended that high school teachers be cognizant of the problems of
administration, the history of education, and the issue of academic
versus vocational training at the secondary level (36:90).
A later professional response was from the National
Education Association, when it created the National Commission on
Teacher Education and Professional Standards (TEPS) in the post-
World War II era. The professional standards movement, which
grew from this comm ission's activities, focused the profession's
attention on certification and teacher education program s in the
institutions of higher education (36:90-91).
Conant, in his study of the certification process, found that
in every state the TEPS representative had direct and active contact
with the state certification official (19:17).
Changes during this period include an increasing emphasis
on academic preparation of elem entary teachers. By 1961 the A. B.
39
degree was required in forty-four states. A fifth year of professional
training was being recommended or required for certification (36:83).
Significant activities of TEPS included the initiation of the
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE)
in 1952 (36:91). By 1958 TEPS had begun the task of specification by
the profession of standards for accreditation, certification, and
teacher education (36:91-92).
The TEPS report on its objectives for achieving self-
direction in the profession was published in 1961. The New Horizons
Task Force report recommended legislation to create a professional
standards board responsible for professional licensure (36).
Conant contended that the m ajor thrust of TEPS was to seek
acceptance of NCATE accreditation (19:18). TEPS backed the
approved program approach to teacher certification so effectively
that between 1957 and 1961 twenty-five states had begun to incor
porate the approach--a total of forty-three states (19:17).
Conant cautioned that in some states the approved program
approach had not relieved certification of its over-specificity, nor of
its domination by legal requirem ents (19:49).
Impact of colleges and universities. —Taylor was not
convinced that certification requirem ents need inhibit change. In a
1968 study of the certification question in relation to teacher
40
education, he reported that
the certification officers do not believe that state require
ments are blocking educational progress, but that the
colleges and universities do their own blocking by the way
they deal with their own requirem ents. (53:199)
Taylor argued that while the educators considered state certification
requirem ents to be inhibiting to change, and the state officers
contended that their regulations, developed by educators, allowed
for changes at the initiative of the colleges. It was closer to the
truth that the educators in the colleges failed to allow change to
become a normal part of their planning. They were unable to
develop institutional support for new program s and could only react
to legislated changes in certification regulations (53:199-200).
Taylor was of the opinion that when real efforts were made
by institutions to establish new effective program s of teacher
education, the state regulations did not prevent it--a belief substan
tiated by his own experience as president of Sarah Lawrence College
(53:209). Taylor defended the state departments and recommended
that they (1) observe their counterparts in other states, (2) accept
as interns advanced degree students in teacher preparation institu
tions, and (3) invite faculty members to join the state department for
one sem ester to study the current needs and make recommendations
(53:214-17).
Taylor concluded that reform required a careful strategy
41
which would focus professional attention on the changing needs of the
younger generation and the contemporary society, and which would
arouse the initiative of leadership in the public sector. In his
opinion, certification was not the limiting factor in the reform of
teacher education (53:222).
Impact of learned societies. —An interesting development,
which may signify a trend in certification expertise, was the partici
pation of the National Association of State D irectors of Teacher
Education and Certification (NASDTEC) in a joint project with the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS),
funded through the National Science Foundation. In 1963 they pro
duced Guidelines for Science and Mathematics in the Preparation
Program of Elementary School Teachers (1). In 1969 Preservice
Science Education of Elementary School Teachers was published by
AAAS with cooperation from NASDTEC. For the latter volume,
AAAS expressed the expectation that it would be of value to NCATE
evaluation teams (2:3).
Guidelines were sta te d normatively and supported by
evaluation questions and program objectives stated in performance
term s. A "suggested program ” of preservice training includes a
detailed specification of content objectives and process objectives
related to the entire scope of a teacher's competencies (2:23-32).
42
Developed by scientists, science educators and teachers,
this effort may be representative of the impact of academic and
education professors upon teacher education through certification
and accreditation channels.
Impact of school district patterns. --The trend toward
differentiated staffing in the schools has created a need for differ
ential training patterns and indicated a need for certification differ
entiating among levels of competencies and kinds of tasks. Edelfeldt
referred to the certification regulations developed by the states of
Washington, M assachusetts, Maryland, and Pennsylvania to cope with
developments in differentiated staffing. He cited the eighty-five staff
development schools sponsored by the National Education Association
to model kinds of differentiated staffing patterns (24:7-8).
Stinnett predicted revolution in certification due to the
impact of staff differentiation patterns, teacher performance effec
tiveness studies, and increasing teacher power at the classroom
level. He recommended support for development of state patterns of
certification rather than national patterns, a shift in position which
he related to his belief that the national accreditation process had
accomplished its goal of providing a fairly uniform minimum
standard for teacher preparation. He predicted that the 1970 edition
of A Manual on Certification Requirements for School Personnel in
43
the United States, which he was preparing at the time of his speech,
would show that all states were at the minimum level (110:11-12).
Trends in certification. - -Trends in certification have been
toward (1) less specificity from legislation, (2) more flexibility in
meeting general requirem ents, (3) increasing use of the approved
program approach to certification (19:32), (4) an increasing impact
from NCTEPS and NCATE on requirements (110), (5) a multiplicity
of credentials due to specializations (36:30), and (6) an increase in
reciprocity contracts among states (91).
Trends in California have been in conflict with each other.
One trend during the period from 1950 to 1970 has been toward
increased legislated specificity; in the latter part of that period,
toward a new proliferation of special certificates for special pro
grams; and toward a reinstatem ent of the examination system for
appraising teacher competencies (118).
Another trend has been the growing feeling on the part of
the preparing institutions and the state department that it is not
possible to reform teacher education--each finding cause in the other
(53, 120).
A counter trend was that toward using the approved program
approach to certification to put the responsibility for change upon the
colleges and universities. Adoption of the approved program
44
approach in 1969 marked a significant shift in the direction of change.
The approved program approach had been proposed and supported by
TEPS since 1959 (19, 127); CCET, in 1964 (150); and by Larson,
Chief of the Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification, in 1969.
It was introduced by Larson for recommendation by the California
Council of the Education of Teachers. With the support of TEPS, the
proposal was adopted by the State Board of Education that year to
become fully effective by 1974 (117).
Trends in professional opinion have been toward the
approved program approach; and trends in legislature, toward
increased specificity and toward the use of examinations.
Issues. - -C ritical issues in certification, identified in the
literature, included the following fist:
1. Professional versus civil-service licensure (36).
2. Certification, a result of or determ iner of
approved program s of teacher preparation (19, 116).
3. Basis of certification: course requirem ents or
perform ance (19).
4. Degree of professional control of requirem ents (120).
5. Institutional recommendation or state examination
to determine performance effectiveness (36:108; 128).
6. Identification of professional competencies re le
45
vant to needs of pupils and society (53).
The approved program approach is, in itself, a major and significant
issue in the certification field. It is closely related by definition to
the accreditation process and ties certification closely to accredita
tion. This raises new issues of appropriate controls of the
accreditation process to assure the public of high quality teachers,
and to protect the public from "the encrusted, inflexible professional
lore that tends to resist all change, that fails to adjust to emerging
needs of society" (110:12).
Recommendations. - -Recommendations for certification
policy and procedure from the education professional groups have
included the following: (1) use of restricted approved program
approach based upon a teacher's student teaching performance (19);
(2) use of the approved program approach supported by accreditation
(91, 203); (3) general legislation allowing functional criteria for
approval of programs at the state level, and institutional specifica
tion of the requirem ents;(4) study of the needs of the pupil and of
society to determine kinds of teacher preparation programs needed
for certification of teachers (53); (5) development of state profes
sional boards of licensure (38); (6) use of teacher behavior assess
ment techniques for granting approval ( 38); and (7) certification
policy changes to accommodate differentiated staffing (24).
46
Specific recommendations regarding the professional studies
component included Conant's fairly detailed proposal that practice
teaching become the focus for state certification. Arguing that
student teaching was the point in a preparation program when the
integration of subject-m atter knowledge, theory, and practice could
be observed and evaluated, Conant suggested criteria for designing,
staffing, and financing clinical centers for student teaching for such
a purpose (19:62-64).
Accreditation
In the 1930s, after certification of teachers in most states
came to depend upon completion of professional course work rather
than upon examinations, and after teachers* colleges had become
the main source of professional training, an association of teachers*
college people was formed to improve the standards of preparation
(133:20).
During this time, diverse and numerous accreditation
associations, whose purposes w ere the accreditation of colleges and
universities, w ere coming under severe criticism . Inflexibility,
quantitative c rite ria , duplication of effort, and excessive cost were
among the charges reported by Brubacher. More serious was the
resultant conformity which discouraged individuality and experimenta-
47
tion (16:344-45). This was to become a fam iliar criticism of
accreditation and certification practices in relation to teacher
education in years to come.
The American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education
(AACTE) developed out of the desire to create some uniformity in the
preparation of teachers. Their concern was to establish minimum
requirem ents for certification (133:20).
While medical education had undergone drastic reform due
to actions in response to the Flexner Report of 1911, and the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching had published
their report, The Professional Preparation of Teachers for American
Public Schools in 1920, basic changes were to occur in the quality of
teacher education at a later time (16:208).
AACTE, a national voluntary association organized for the
improvement of teacher education program s, adopted the role of
accreditation only to be challenged by the National Commission on
Accrediting (NCA) who were attempting to raise the standards of the
accreditation process, and to reduce the number of accrediting
agencies and the overlapping of their work (133;21).
In response to refusal of recognition from NCA, AACTE
determined to create an independent accrediting body and worked with
chief state school officers, TEPS, and the National School Boards
48
Association to found it. By 1952 it was evident that an accreditation
group with some power of enforcement was needed (129:21).
In 1954 the decision was made to create the National Council
for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) (18), and it
received recognition from the NCA in 1956. This recognition was
rescinded in 1963 and re-instituted in 1965. NCATE's purpose has
been to conduct accreditation using standards prepared by AACTE
with advisement from professional education groups and learned
societies (5).
By 1969 Rolf Larson, NCATE D irector, could say with
confirmation from Stinnett (110) that about 82 per cent of the teachers
certified today come from institutions accredited by NCATE. Since
all but four of those institutions operated undergraduate program s,
Larson raised the question whether accreditation of undergraduate
institutions had not been accomplished, and should not the energies
of NCATE be deployed elsewhere (129).
Maul directed the National Commission on Accrediting study
of NCATE in 1969 and reported a substantial rejection of that notion.
Among his general findings were some which reflect the nature and
value of accreditation and for that reason are reported here (101).
The Chief Administrative Officers of institutions surveyed
in the NCA study found that NCATE was making a substantial contri
49
bution to the advancement of teacher education. Accreditation
procedures were found by 79 per cent of the group (1) to recognize
experimentation and innovation; and (2) to actively stimulate improve
ment in teacher education, by 80 per cent. More than 75 per cent
found that participation in NCATE accreditation was useful in
strengthening department and school status in the institution, in
aiding interpretation of program to sources of financial support, and
in strengthening relations with other institutions of teacher prepara
tion (98:52).
In a discussion of problems faced by NCATE, its director,
Rolf Larson, pointed out the concern over the possibility of
institution-dominated accreditation, and identified two sources of the
danger: the composition of the council, and the new emphasis on
institutional control of program design (under the approved programs
approach) (133). Davies (75) and Stinnett(120) added their cautions
and called for a checks-and-balances system which would keep the
profession and the public from dominating teacher education. The
1970 accreditation stipulation that programs need to be designed
cooperatively by institution and school district had its origin in this
concern (75:3).
Accreditation processes operating concurrently with NCATE
and of critical importance to teacher education programs are the
50
regional accreditation of institutions and the state accreditation of
teacher education programs in institutions.
In California, cooperation between NCATE, the Western
Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) and the State Department
of Education is coordinated through the efforts of C arl A. Larson,
Chief of the Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification.
Nationally, with the advent of the approved program approach,
state program accreditation had become the basis for certification.
In some states, accreditation at the state level became a specific set
of guidelines closely resembling NCATE guidelines and considered
by Conant to be less valuable than the m ore general criteria used in
other states (19).
In California, interim guidelines were prepared in 1969 for
use in program approval. They were general, functional, and aimed
toward support of institutional initiative in the improvement of
teacher education (126).
Davies, Assistant United States Commissioner of Education,
noted that the certification process and the accreditation process had
merged to beomce a single process, focused upon the product and the
impact of the teacher on the product (learner) (229).
In the guidelines used corporately by WASC and the
California State Department of Education, purposes of the accredita-
51
tion process were described to be ones of judgment and of service,
of providing encouragement to institutional growth, and of encourag
ing diversity of approach to the education of teachers by avoiding
"state patterns” (148).
Self-study at the institution being accredited, coupled with
visitations from teams of peers, are the means of determining
accreditation. In the decade following 1960, the accreditation
process evolved toward a maturity of effectiveness which raised
issues for study. Since accreditation is the power to which the
preparing institution is accountable when it wishes to change its
teacher education program , it is of importance to this study to
identify issues, trends of change, and recommendations for change
in the accreditation process. It will be helpful to discuss their
implications for designing new program s of teacher preparation so
that recommendations for change from deans and directors reported
in this study may be properly evaluated.
Issues. - -T hree kinds of issues emerge from the literature
on accreditation which have direct relation to the professional
component of teacher preparation program s. They a re issues
relating to the purpose, function, and operation of accreditation. For
example, should the purpose of accreditation be to determine
minimum standards and apply them to institutions, o r to stimulate
52
change through forcing standards upward? Rolf Larson (133) noted a
swing toward the "stim ulative" role of NCATE by 1969; Carl Larson,
at the state level indicated support for the "stimulative" role of
board accreditation in its concern with maximums as well as mini-
mums. The State Board of Education and TEPS advocated stronger
state accreditation procedures (91).
Issues related to the function of accreditation are products
of these questions:
1. Who should do it?
2. What should be accredited--program , department,
school, or institution?
3. What power should there be for enforcement?
4. How can it be done so that it doesn't maintain the
status quo at the expense of improvement?
. California combined state and regional accreditation by 1963
(65) and later included NCATE accreditation in the sam e visits and
reports. The state accredited the program s of professional prepara
tion; the regional association accredited the total institution; and
NCATE accredited the total institution only in relation to teacher
education. This activity was coordinated by the state. It necessi
tated two or three separate reports but allowed them to be made at
the same time.
53
Rolf Larson pointed out the difficulty a state may have in
saying ” 1 1 0” to its own institutions as a major reason for having
multiple accreditation (133:26). He reported that the state list of
accredited institutions is larger than the regional list, which in turn
is larger than the NCATE list. To what extent this was due to
limited invitations to NCATE to accredit or due to the proportion of
regionally accredited institutions which do not prepare teachers was
not explained. The important difference was the difference between
state and NCATE lists--both focused on teacher preparation.
At the state level, a further question of who should do it
exists. CTA-TEPS supported formation of a professional licensing
board apart from the State Board of Education to accredit programs
for certification purposes. Proposed legislation then called for
creation of such a board composed of classroom teachers and
professors from teacher training institutions (118). California
Council on the Education of Teachers discussed the question, and its ;
members reported support for continuing the Commission for
Accreditation formed by the Board of Education as a means of keeping;
control in lay hands (120).
The related functional issue--should the accreditation be
made of program , department, or total institution--was a complex j
one in which the problem and the answer to a balance of power may j
54
be found. Composition of accrediting boards was significantly differ
ent between the three groups. NCATE was caught between pressure
from its accrediting group; the NCA, which advocated greater
representation from institutions; and the teaching profession, which
wanted greater classroom teacher representation (133:20). WASC
had heavy representation from the academic professors compared
with the education professors (120:37). The state level Commission
for Accreditation was composed of representatives from institutions
and organizations closely concerned with teacher education. The
issue of what to accredit is a function of (1) the purpose of the
organization; (2) the closeness of the relationship between accredita
tion and certification; and (3) the depth and scope of teacher educa
tion, teacher preparation, and teacher training in the context of an
institution of higher learning.
For any level of accreditation and in relation to what is
accredited, the concern of how to keep accreditation from killing the
impulse toward growth and change is important. It is probably a
question of personal and institutional integrity of purpose and intent.
When asked that question during a session at the 1970 CCET confer
ence, Davies responded that to keep accreditation from supporting
the status quo, "we who control it should set out to devise plans to
see that it doesn't happen. I don’t know how" (229). Davies, at that
55
time, through the Education Professions Development Act office,
administered program s directly concerned with making effective
changes in teacher preparation. He applauded changes in accredita
tion standards which made the evaluation of teacher performance and
learner performance the test of program design.
Operational issues involved the source and kind of criteria,
the means of evaluation, and the role of the institution being
accredited.
Sources for criteria for national and state evaluation have
included learned societies and professional organizations (1:2; 4),
the Associated Organizations for Teacher Education, the Association
for Student Teaching, the AACTE, and TEPS. Their recommenda
tions have been developed through research, conference, and field-
testing over a period ranging from one to three years (11, 3, 12).
Specific functional criteria have taken precedence over
quantitative criteria during the last half of the decade. Performance-
based, criterion-referenced behavioral objectives for teacher and
teaching have aided this change toward functional criteria. Other
kinds of criteria include quantitative statem ents regarding teaching
loads of faculty and the need for a fifth year of professional training
(3). C riteria for content of knowledge and performance of tasks are
found in combination in the statements of standards of NCATE.
56
Examinations have been proposed by some (110, 118) and
rejected by others (119, 120).
The role of the participating institution remains constant in
all three kinds of accreditation: that of conducting a self-study and
then demonstrating its program to visitors (148). The question of
the shift of power to the institution is the heart of this issue and was
referred to above in relation to accreditation in general (75; 110;
127:1). It remained to be seen what the institutions in California
would initiate to improve teacher education as a result of the added
power and responsibility placed upon them by the approved program
approach to accreditation and certification.
T here is some question about what does initiate change in
college and university program s--in fact it became a central issue
among students, faculty, and trustees in 1970.
Confrontation strategies were successfully employed by
student groups with faculty support to initiate new programs of
ethnic studies. New programs in urban ecology have been initiated
by presidential fiat and foundation funding. Whether the clim ate in
the colleges and universities in 1969 and 1970 was one in which
imaginative and creative program development could be conducted by
a faculty and dean remained a question throughout this study.
T rends. - -During the decade of the 1960s trends of change
in accreditation were toward:
1. Approval of programs as well as institutions
2. State accreditation of programs plus national
accreditation of institutions
3. Functional criteria for approval of programs
4. Development of perform ance-based specifications
5. The use of state accreditation (approval) of
programs to replace legislated certification require
ments
6. A stimulative role to heighten the minimum
standards (133:25)
7. Use of curriculum standards for accreditation by
the state, created jointly in two cases by NASDTEC
and professional specialist groups (44:38)
8. A greater role for teachers in decision making
about teacher education program s
The AACTE document which proposed new standards and compared
them to form er NCATE standards (1967) summarized directions and
kinds of changes. They found that standards had become more
specific; had developed a greater emphasis upon (1) the quality of the
faculty and students, (2) the evaluation of classroom performance,
(3) the content and process of professional education, and (4) the
58
quality of the graduate program (5:7-8).
Further, a new emphasis was placed upon (1) evaluation of
graduates, (2) the quality of instruction, (3) the role of research,
(4) the need for long-range planning, and (5) requirem ents for direct
or sim ulated experience in advanced programs of professional
preparation (5:8-9).
Recommendations. - -Professional reaction to these trends
produced recommendations in the literature which related accredita
tion to teacher education. Reactions from the academic sector and
the legislative sector also provided recommendations.
While generally agreeing that accreditation of programs by
the state (the approved program approach) should be developed in
California, the professional groups and the legislative groups dis
agreed in two m ajor ways. The professional groups recommended
employment of functional criteria by the state and performance
c rite ria and institutional assessm ents of knowledge by the institution
(91, 119, 120).
By 1970 the legislative groups had recommended the use of
state examinations to determine performance and knowledge compe
tencies and proposed highly specific criteria for approval (118). Both
groups recommended self-study.
Stinnett recommended that NCATE become a coordinating
59
body for accreditation and an advisory group (110). Rolf Larson
concurred with the need for coordination but questioned NCATE's
capabilities for doing so (133). State coordinating efforts were
recommended by NASDTEC as an appropriate means of preserving
state autonomy (44). TEPS recommended a more equitable re p re
sentation on accrediting boards for the classroom teacher. Profes
sional determination of criteria was recommended and supported by
all accrediting groups. Legally constituted professional licensing
boards, separate from the State Board of Education, were recom
mended by the legislative groups and by teachers groups.
Interstate certification through the use of NASDTEC stand
ards for accreditation was recommended, supported, and in part
achieved by that group (44).
In California, the approved program approach was recom
mended and adopted by the State Board of Education in 1969 (91).
Discussion. - -Professional and legal activity in the realm of
accreditation has in effect begun to (1) redefine teacher preparation
experiences (NASDTEC), (2) identify teacher competencies and levels
of competencies (NCATE), (3) identify training objectives and
processes (NASDTEC), and (4) identify educational goals (75).
In relation to program design, the activity has (1) challenged
the authority of professional educators, (2) polarized discussion
60
either around issues of control or around issues of content and
process, and (3) made accountability to the public a central issue in
term s of pupil performance and teacher performance.
The accreditation concern, in relation to professional
initiative has (1) professionalized evaluation through system atic
specification (NCATE), (2) created a "wait and see" attitude in
institutions due to the frequency of changes, (3) opened the way
within the profession for teachers to take more part in determining
the quality of teacher preparation, and (4) created a need for
cooperation between schools and institutions for joint planning,
implementation, and evaluation of preparation program s.
In relation to differentiation of staffing and of staff training,
the accreditation-certification debate has (1) defined new kinds of
professional positions and training requirem ents, (2) defined levels
of competencies in relation to these, (3) distinguished between
licensing for specialists and generalists (NASDTEC specifications for
mathematics specialists as opposed to specification for a high school
teacher, for example) (133:25).
In relation to the process of accreditation itself, the debate
has (1) raised the issue of "stimulative" accreditation versus
"applicatory" accreditation in the context of identified needs of
teachers and learners, and (2) included professional organizations
61
and learned societies in the process of determining criteria for
evaluating teacher preparation program s. It is possible that the
accrediting groups have greater access to this expertise than do
student teachers in the institutions represented by the experts.
The Approved Program Approach
to Teacher Certification
At the time of Conant's m ajor study of the education of
teachers, fourteen of the sixteen states in which he worked were
employing some form of the approved programs approach (19:48).
Noting the tendency in some states to substitute specificity
and control in the approval of programs by the state for the form er
specificity by law, Conant called for a "restricted approved programs
approach" which would lim it its activities of evaluation to the
practicum portion (student teaching) of the program (19:59). His
recommendation was that institutions would certify that candidates
had successfully completed student teaching In a state department
approved situation (19:60). His recommendation of 1963 contained
basic notions which were to be explored in the following years by
institutions and accrediting agencies:
5. The state should approve programs of practice teaching.
It should, working cooperatively with the college and public
school authorities, regulate the conditions under which
practice teaching is done and the nature of the methods
instruction that accompanies it. The state should require
62
that the colleges and public school system s involved submit
evidence concerning the competence of those appointed as
cooperating teachers and clinical professors. (19:65)
A comparison of this statem ent to the 1970 NCATE guidelines (3), or
the 1968 model program proposals (26) would seem to indicate that
the recommendation was being accepted.
Six states and the approved
program approach
Shambaugh's correspondence with the directors of teacher
education and certification of six states, for the purposes of this and
a related study, was the source of information about the variety of
applications of the approved program. The state officers reported
sim ilar objectives, as may be seen from an analysis of the inform a
tion.
Arizona. - -The Director of Certification in Arizona reported
that the approved program approach had resulted in experimentation
and innovation and brought about m ore cooperative planning between
the local school districts and the universities. New programs in
specialized areas, such as guidance and adm inistration, were seen
to be the m ost frequent changes in program s. The State Department
of Public Instruction held that teacher preparation had improved due
to the approved program approach, since "rigid, arbitrary rules and
regulations" had previously had an inhibiting effect on the processes
63
of change in an institution (172).
New York. - -In a statem ent of policy, New York State held
that certification has become a constraining device through excessive
specificity of courses. It was felt that this inhibited the exercise of
professional judgment in assessing the candidate’ s total preparation
for teaching. In New York, as in other states where it had been
possible to create new kinds of teacher preparation program s, few
institutions had done so. The approved program approach and its
related certification requirem ent changes had forced colleges "to
reexamine their program of preparation, its relation to the con
temporary needs of the schools they serve, and the results achieved
by their graduates” (135:42). New York required twenty-four
sem ester hours in the professional study of education and a college
supervised student teaching experience beyond the baccalaureate
degree. Specifications were also given for the academic work within
the collegiate experience (135:43-44). In an explanation of the
regulations, it was stated that
. . . college supervised student teaching experience is
required in addition to the specific amount of professional
education course work, not included among the required
courses. The amount of time spent in student teaching and
the credit awarded are no longer specified in regulations
inasmuch as the quality of the student teaching experience is
of greater moment than m ere quantity. Specific features of
a college's provisions for student teaching will be m atters
for special scrutiny by the Bureau of Teacher Education in
its program review process. (135:46)
64
The policy document further cautioned that while the changes were
intended to foster imaginative program planning and experimentation,
they also set the stage for requiring institutions to define program
objectives in clear, m easurable behavioral term s which allowed for
evaluation of results (135:47). Thus, the responsibility for account
ability for quality in teacher education programs was shifted from
legislature or the state board, to professional educators in institu
tions of higher education.
The University of the State of New York, the State Education
Department, amended certification regulations in 1968 "to make it
easier for colleges to devise program s capitalizing on their own
strength as well as to apply imaginative approaches which might not
otherwise be attempted in view of stringent com m issioner's regula
tions. " They have attempted to avoid using specific criteria for
acceptance of proposals, fearing that they would "harden, in practice,
into law and re stric t the application of imagination" (147). Guide
lines were designed to give institutions an indication of the kinds of
quality sought. Boyd, Chief of the Division of Teacher Education and
Certification in the Bureau of Teacher Education, reported that the
process of acceptance, which includes site visits, had enabled them
to "push the institution toward greater cooperative effort with
cooperating public schools and to assist toward development of
65
quality in preparatory program s" (147)- It was his belief that their
greatest impact had been in achieving cooperation between the
education faculty and the academic faculty and in "developing coherent
program s as opposed to agglomerations of separate courses" (147).
Two major objectives of the approved program approach
were reached to some degree: (1) development of programs to
replace collections of courses and (2) development of the all
institution approach in program planning and implementation.
Boyd reported that New York State was attempting to move
from approval of curricular pattern to an examination of perform
ance as a basis of certification (147).
In New York, guidelines for acceptance of approved
program s were offered as "bench m arks" against which programs
would be measured. Recognizing the dynamic nature of education,
the State Department of Education, avoided standards that were
"exhaustive or static" and aimed at guides which would stimulate
quality in programs.
Nothing . . . should be interpreted as intended to suppress
initiative for innovation toward genuine quality. . . .
Proposals for experimental program s will receive careful
consideration. (180:10)
The tone of the New York guidelines was one of care and reason and
determination to ra ise the issues of quality for the institutions to
consider. The rationale for each guideline was offered in context of
66
the whole set of guides and the objectives of the approved program
approach. When specific criteria were outlined, an explanation
followed which attempted to dispell any over-reliance on prescription
on the part of a planner (180).
North Carolina. --In 1962 North Carolina adopted the approved
program approach of teacher education and made a basic change in its
approach to certification. Guidelines for approval of programs listed
competencies needed by the teacher in place of traditional listings of
course requirements. Taylor reported that "the basic shift in the
program was to require the institution to take responsibility for the
planning of the teacher education program and to recommend its
graduates upon completion of the program" (190:1). He said that the
approved program approach was felt to have brought "considerable
improvement" in the teacher training institutions, citing improved
scores on the National Teacher Examination score for institutions
which had been doing less well as evidence.
In North Carolina, guidelines for the preparation of
elementary teachers at the graduate level intend that the fifth year be
a planned extension of work at the undergraduate level, and end in a
m aster's degree. The five guidelines given state that the program
should develop understandings, skills, and abilities of teachers
regarding the purpose and role of the schools, the nature of the
67
learner and the learning process, the design and use of research,
and skills and knowledge in teaching elementary curriculum. The
fifth guideline, which should structure about 40 per cent of the
program , requested concentrated study in one or more instructional
areas in the elementary curriculum (136:54-55).
State control over professional preparation, specifically the
practicum, was demonstrated.
An approved institutional program of teacher education shall:
1. Include a statem ent of purposes and objectives of
the program of professional laboratory experiences,
including student teaching. (136)
North Carolina, highly specific in the standards and guidelines for
approval of program s at the state level, required, for example, in
the area of professional laboratory experiences, that the institution
state objectives for the program , develop criteria for admitting a
student to direct teaching experiences, criteria for selection of off-
campus sites, criteria for selection of supervising teachers; further
the standards prescribe the extent of student teaching, the ratio of
supervisory staff to students, and require a certificate for the
supervising teacher (136:7-8).
In North Carolina, the approved program approach had as
its stated objectives that institutions will accept greater responsibility
(1) in the selection and retention of prospective teachers, (2) in the
68
preparation of their teacher candidates, and (3) in the recommenda
tion of their graduates in teacher education for certification by the
state.
Features of their approved program design included
(1) strengthening requirem ents in general education and subject-
m atter preparation; (2) stating standards of preparation as guide
lines, rather than course requirem ents; (3) making sure that teacher
education is an institution-wide effort; and (4) treating teacher
education as dynamic rather than static, providing for modification,
or change in response to identified needs, research, and experience.
A m ajor characteristic of the North Carolina effort was to offer
guidelines consistent with NCATE guidelines, but stated in a way that
assured institutions of some flexibility in using its resources to
develop program s. Statewide cooperation among institutions in
evaluating program s was seen to be a continuing value of this
approach (136:v-viii).
Georgia. - -The Georgia subcommittee which developed
criteria for accepting approved programs was cautioned to "not
focus on certification requirem ents" and was charged with the task of
developing c riteria which would (1) "preserve the autonomy of the
institution and (2) encourage initiative and creativity on the part of
those responsible for program design and development (130:17). A
69
third objective was to foster cooperative planning between the school
and the institutions of higher education preparing teachers for the
schools. A fourth objective was to establish sequential program s of
teacher training with inner articulation as the chief means of
preparing teachers, thus offering the prospective teacher a continuum
of related experience which will develop teacher competencies (130).
The relationships between program approval and certifica
tion requirem ents w ere stated:
The approved program approach to teacher education in
Georgia became operational in 1948. The State legislature
made teacher education a function of the State Board of
Education. The Board with the advisement of the Georgia
Teacher Education Council developed criteria for approval
of institutional program s of teacher preparation. C ertifi
cation requirem ents are derived from these criteria.
Prospective teachers after completing a four-year planned
program of teacher preparation are recommended for
certification by the Dean of the College of Education.
(130:viii)
In Georgia, criteria outlined in the sections on professional
education and laboratory experiences for the elementary teacher
varied in specificity. Professional education criteria called for
provisions to be made for the development of understandings of the
America public school, communities, human growth and development,
curriculum , and teacher performance in school. Graduate programs
should have provision for experience in using education research and
advanced studies in "the nature of the learner, the school in the
70
social order, problems of the school, and problems of teaching"
(130:14). The curriculum criteria specified the development of
understandings, attitudes, and skills essential to "the use of the
problem approach in teaching. "
C riteria for laboratory experiences called for sequenced and
directed observation, participation, and student teaching in campus
facilities and in off-campus centers for student teaching. Quality of
supervisory staff, of m aterials available, and of educational program
in the off-campus centers and schools was specified. A minimum of
one full quarter of student teaching was required, and staff roles
were assigned. Observation, recording, and analysis of behavior was
specifically required. Special preparation for supervisory personnel
was also required (130:15).
Michigan. --In Michigan, identified functions of the Approved
Program System were to
1. Accommodate the authority structure of the State Board
of Education.
2. Complement the adm inistrative responsibilities of the
Department of Education.
3. Share the responsibility for individual professional
judgments required for the issuance of certificates
with the institution sponsoring each candidate. (179:1)
Michigan*s Certification Code defines specifically two kinds
of experimental programs of teacher education which may be
initiated: The first deviates from the certification requirem ents and
71
the second deviates from the approved program patterns at the
institution. In either case, it was required that the proposal be
designed to test specific theories or hypotheses relating to teacher
education. Consortia of institutions preparing teachers were
specifically urged and guidelines for developing such arrangem ents to
share resources were specified.
Michigan, with thirty years of experience with the approved
programs approach, had no basis of comparing it with other
approaches. The director, Pfau, reported that in his judgment the
approved program system encouraged innovation, change, and
improvement in program s (182:2).
California— In California, Carl Larson presented the
approved program approach to the California Council on the Education
of Teachers in 1969 and raised the following questions with the deans
and directors of Teacher Education:
. . . will institutions be willing to run only one program
rather than two program s for each credential?--That is, an
accredited program and one that really is a direct application
program? Will institutions be willing to discipline themselves
to keep subject m atter and professional education concentra
tions within the realm of reality? Will institutions and school
districts be willing to work together in the development of
program s which m eet the needs of today's youth? Will
institutions be willing to revise programs as needs indicate
without the detailed and prescriptive Title 5 requirements
which in the past prohibited changes except within certain
lim its? (91:30)
72
Larson identified objectives for the approved program
approach to certification as (1) elimination of direct application
program s, (2) encouragement of "yes" answers to the questions
stated above, and (3) improvement of the quality of teachers in
California.
Referring to quality control in the institution under the
approved program system , he said:
The quality of a teacher education program can be measured
by the quality of its school of education or department of
education. A strong education faculty with capable leader
ship will engender a strong quality program. (91:31)
After the adoption of the "approved program approach, the
following Title 5 requirem ents were considered to be the simplified
version:
Competencies at a level of the grade of "C" or better must
be demonstrated for (1) subjects to be taught, (2) credential courses,
and (3) directed teaching. Audio-visual education must be part of the
credential program.
Programs must be designed as "five-year" program s, as
opposed to a "fifth year" program only. A fifth year must be offered
in order to recommend for a life credential. Major and minor
requirem ents were maintained. Completion of all statutory require
m ents was essential. Partial credential requirem ents may be based
upon a four-year program, a fact which colleges made use of in
73
program design.(117).
Interim criteria adopted by the State Board of Education for
the approval of programs of teacher education were organized around
three kinds of concern: (1) institutional rationale for education of
teachers and other professional school service, (2) curricula and
programs for teacher education, and (3) supportive services for
teacher preparation. (165).
Institutional rationale must include statements of objectives,
an analysis of the institutional environment, a defense of means of
assessing competencies of teachers prepared there, an analysis of
faculty and administration in relation to objectives, a statement of
long- and short-range plans for teacher preparation, an analysis of
institutional response to society's need for teachers of multi-
economic and ethnic groups, and an outline of evaluation procedures
to study teacher effectiveness.
Specifically, in the wording of the guidelines, strong
encouragement to institutions was given for "purposeful innovation,"
and for "inquiry and creative thinking" (126). A strong element in
the guidelines was that of competency evaluation of prospective
teachers, of faculty, and of adm inistration, using performance-
based criteria related to stated objectives. A third specification was
the request to demonstrate how the proposed program prepared
74
teachers for schools serving all economic and ethnic groups in
society.
The professional component was not referred to in the
guidelines, except perhaps in the generality of credential program.
Institutions were asked to demonstrate how they provided for
individual differences in student teachers and how they provided
alternatives.
Settings for professional preparation such as off-campus
centers, libraries, and learning centers must demonstrate program
objectives consistent in kind and quality with institutional objectives.
No mention was made of specific professional experiences such as
practicum work in laboratory or school settings. Reference was
made to satisfaction of statutory requirem ents for credential
programs (126).
Statutory requirem ents for the education of elementary
teachers in the simplified Title 5 rulings included requirements
concerning age, loyalty oath, a course on the United States Consti
tution, a bachelor's degree with a m ajor/m inor combination other
than education in an academic subject-m atter area, and the following j
specification regarding program s. Programs emphasizing academic j
I
and subject-m atter preparation, professional education, and student I
teaching were specified. Student teaching must be in the upper
75
division of course offerings. An upper division course in reading
which shall include phonics was required, and a fifth year of post
graduate work was required- (126).
In effect, an approved program must be designed by an
institution to accept persons with bachelor's degrees having a m ajor
or minor in the academic subject-m atter areas. The program must
provide for professional education and student teaching at the upper
division or graduate level, must provide a special reading methods
course, and must provide a fifth year graduate level program in order
to recommend candidates for the standard credential. While no
curriculum specifications other than reading w ere given, the time
framework within which programs may be designed was closely
specified.(126).
Objectives of the approved program approach. - -In summary,
objectives of the approved program approach in California were:
1. Credential curricula for the education of elementary
and secondary school teachers should be designed
by the individual college or university.
2. G reater flexibility in program design should be
provided for the preparing institutions.
3. Within statutory limitations colleges, and
universities should determine the form and sub-
stance of their program s of preparation for the
standard elementary or secondary teaching
credentials.
4. California State Board of Education approval
should be the means of authorizing institution
programs.
5. Program accreditation would be the basis of
issuing credentials.
6. Through self-study, institutions should "engage
in critical evaluations of existing program s, "
and "develop new programs in a context of
alternatives" (126).
7. Individuality, imagination, and innovation in
program planning for the improvement of teacher
education should be encouraged.
The Teaching-Learning Process
A vast literature on the operational area in education
called "teaching-learning" provides a set of issues, kinds of new
knowledge, implications for teacher education, and applications to
teacher preparation programs.
To facilitate the review of this portion of the literature, a
77
simple framework has been designed within which teaching-learning
may be discussed and within which elements may be identified.
Identified elements fall into two categories: (1) process of
teaching-learning and (2) content of teaching-learning. These
categories and their elements are used to classify content and
process in teacher preparation program s. This classification system
is then used in developing the criterion instrument for classification
of the data collected indicating changes in teacher preparation
programs.
Comparisons may then be made between changes being
effected in selected California colleges and universities and changes
recommended by research and authoritative opinion from the dis
ciplines related to the teaching-learning process.
Thus, literature was selected in relation to the function of
teaching, rath er than in relation to the discipline of educational
psychology or of educational sociology. L iterature pertaining to the
process or function of teaching-learning is interdisciplinary.
Teaching-learning framework. - -Beginning at the point in the
teaching-learning process, where the teacher has initiative for
behavior, we could identify the following four elements:
1. Teacher Knowledge (TK)
2. Teacher Skills (TS)
78
3. L earner’s Learning Skills (LL)
4. L earner Knowledge (LK)
The four elements are related to each other in a linear
fashion: Teachers need to know TK such that teachers can perform
TS such that learners can perform LL such that learners can know
LK.
Each of the elements can be further specified in a way which
identified elements of a teacher preparation program.
Teacher Knowledge (TK) could include (1) knowledge about
the subject m atter (TKsm), (2) knowledge about teaching strategies
(TKts), (3) knowledge about learning strategies (TKls), (4) knowl
edge about environmental design--social and physical (TKed), and
(5) knowledge about the teacher as a developing person (TKpd).
Teacher .'Skills (TS) could include competencies of
(1) observing and analyzing a child’s behavior (TSoa), (2) setting
objectives for a teacher’s learning and a learner's learning (TSso),
(3) using different communication strategies (TScs), (4) designing
effective social and physical environments for learning (TSed), and
(5) designing and using evaluation procedures for teaching and
learning (TSep).
Teacher Knowledge. - -The "curriculum reform movement"
made clear the need for teachers to develop more powerful tools for
79
understanding and using knowledge. The conceptual framework of a
discipline and understanding of the modes of inquiry in that discipline
have been two of the tools developed (116).
Jerome Bruner wrote in 1964 that
. . . not only must a teacher know a subject, but know it or
recognize it in term s of its alternative renderings; that is,
know all of the ways it can be taught and learned. (64:98)
He called for a liberal arts program for teachers which was devoted
to "the conversion of knowledge into new curricula. " He proposed a
new psychology which kept the study of learning tied to the subject
m atter being learned. It would deal with the way the human mind
works with conceptual tools--such as commutivity, or the m etaphor--
in the actual subject m atter which needs to be taught and learned
(64:98).
Bruner recommended that teachers be taught in a setting
where the scholar, the media specialist, the psychologist, the
inventor of games, the m aster teacher, the teacher of teachers--all
put their respective skills together to create new strategies and new
curriculum patterns (64).
Knowledge about teaching strategies is necessary for a
teacher who would be able to "recognize knowledge in all its
renderings" (64). Worthen reported findings from an experimental
study contrasting the expository and the inductive methods of
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teaching, which showed a significant difference between them on two
variables--the inductive strategy being more effective (115).
The inquiry mode of teaching-learning has been a subject for
study by many and teacher training m aterials have been developed
and demonstrated effective by S trasser and his associates with the
Northwest Regional Laboratory (52).
Teacher knowledge about strategies of learning children
use would be exemplified by the works of Jean Piaget, whose later
works have made plain the kinds of reasoning abilities children have
and the developmental sequence of these abilities. Piaget said,
The principal goal of education is to create men who are
capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what
other generations have done--men who are creative,
inventive and discoverers. The second goal of education is
to form minds which can be critical, can verify, and not
accept everything they are offered. . . . We need pupils
who are active who learn early to find out by themselves,
partly by their own spontaneous activity and partly through
m aterials we set up for them. (77:78)
A recently developed concern is that of how teachers learn
m ost effectively. Recent emphasis on individualization of teacher
preparation program s in the nine model programs for preparing
elementary teachers (26) originated in the hypothesis that teachers
a re individuals with different aptitudes, needs, styles, values, and
preferences. Teachers College designed a program with alternative
means for student teachers to receive evaluation (34). Pittsburgh's
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model program allows for individualization of pace and route through
numerous modules of experiences (55).
Environments for teaching-learning have been the concerns
of social-psychologists, Lippett and Fox, who have developed means
for assessing pupil attitude toward and preference for kinds of social
environments in which learning happens (27). Factors contributing
to those environments have been isolated, contributing to the
knowledge of how to design environments. The British junior school
movement, influenced by Piaget, placed great emphasis on the
learning environment of manipulative m aterials, activity, and
authority patterns (13).
Knowledge about curriculum design, particularly in relation
to the curriculum reform movement, became an increasingly
essential factor for teachers who must learn to incorporate the other
kinds of new knowledge into the school program. California Project
Talent produced a series of curriculum designs, each based on the
research of Bruner (17), J. P. Guilford (29), or Bloom (14).
Teachers demonstrating those curriculum designs used courses of
study which were structured around the theoretical frameworks
proposed by each of the authorities. The teacher needed knowledge
of the domains, operations, and products of Guilford's "Structure of
Intellect" model, and used such knowledge daily to set objectives,
82
frame questions, and assess results.
A teacher's knowledge about himself in relation to teaching
has become an increasingly important field for investigation. Maslow
(41), Rogers (10.4), and George Brown (63) have presented theories
and experiments concerning the effect of teaching interactions on the
adult personality. Jersild reported a study of the development of
self-understanding in teachers concerning anxiety, hostility, lone
liness, compassion, and the search for meaning (32). Ashton-
W arner's writings emphasized the importance of the teaching rela
tionship to the child, and the influence of the teacher's being on the
child (9). A teacher's knowledge of himself and his ability to develop
greater knowledge reach a critical point during student teaching and
the first year of service. Joyce identified the alienation experienced
by a student teacher during his first exposure to a large impersonal
bureaucratic system --his student teaching experience (88). Wilhelms
term ed it "an unremitting indoctrination into the very system we are
all trying to break out of" (3:11).
The teacher's knowledge of the nature and purpose of his
task is of vital importance to the development of the teacher and his
skill. Pullias stated,
The teaching-learning process involves a spirit of learning
which includes in intimate, intricate relation the teacher (the
presumably somewhat m ore mature learner), the student
(the somewhat less mature learner), and the whole of life.
83
[Emphasis added. ] (46:10)
Caught in the web of daily, immediate demands, the teacher
may never have asked, or may have long since ceased to
ask, what he is really attempting to do and why. (46:19)
Pullias and Young presented a process analysis of teaching within a
definition of teaching and learning which recognizes its science and
its art. The process of teaching was compared by Pullias to the
Homeric idea of the journey. The teaching-learning relationship was
analyzed in its dynamic sense--education: the leading out; curricu
lum: the course to be run.
To an increasingly process-conscious profession, a process
treatm ent of teaching is welcome as it makes possible an ecological
study of the teaching-learning phenomenon. That is, teaching-
learning may be studied, not only by measurement of products of
learning in people, but also by analysis of a living system of settings,
contexts, and dynamics of growth and change in all the participants.
It enables one to study the impact of the whole on the particular and
the particular on the whole.
Teacher skills. - -Teacher skills are options of behavior
which a teacher can control and use with judgment. Teaching skills
are the behaviors-in-action.
Observation and analysis of a child's behavior on a continu
ing basis is a skill upon which depends the teacher's ability to apply
84
knowledge of subject m atter, of learning, of teaching strategies, of
environmental design, and of curriculum design, as well as knowl
edge of himself. Observation of a child's manipulation of colored
cuisiniere rods and his verbal responses to questions about them tell
a teacher whether or not a child is able to conserve number (45).
Observation and analysis of a child's behavior with a group gives
the teacher information about how he learns, what he values, what
he knows, and what he doesn't know--important in setting objectives
and designing learning environments. An analysis of the kinds of
verbal and non-verbal communications between teacher and child tells
the teacher something about how the child learns, how the child
responds to that teacher's teaching, and how the teacher behaves (8).
A teacher’s ability and skill in setting objectives which are
appropriate to the learner's need and development, and which can be
used for assessm ent by both the teacher and the learner determines
what chance a child has to learn for mastery. Bloom's research on
teaching strategies for m astery is based in this ability (62).
A further dimension of objective-setting skill is a teacher's
ability to set for himself learning objectives in teacher knowledge and:
teacher skill areas. The ability to become a self-initiated learner
assures the teacher of growth in the profession. This much neglected:
area may be a key to renewal of the profession on a continuing basis. ;
85
A teacher's skill in using different strategies, such an
inquiry, problem-solving, or information giving, in order to create a
learning experience might be developed experimentally during student
teaching. He must have experience with deciding when to use what
strategy with which learner(s), for what purpose. And he needs to
know which strategies he uses well, which he needs to develop
further competence in, and which he cannot use because they are
incompatible with his own personal style.
S trasser's work in learning to teach toward inquiry objec
tives developed a series of training modules to help a teacher identify
appropriate responses to learn ers1 behaviors in order to facilitate
inquiry (52).
Skills in communication with learners of different ages,
aptitudes, language backgrounds, cultures, and races are priority
skills recommended by Smith and others in Teachers for the Real
World in which they attempt to describe new roles for the teacher
(49:7).
Practice in designing effective environments would enable a
teacher in training to determine the effect of different environments
on different learners. No studies w ere reported in a two-year period
(1968-69) in The Journal of Teacher Education, which tested the
effect of teachers' skills in arranging the physical environment for
86
teaching on the learning process. Major work seems to have been in
the area of the social environment.
F rost and Rowland stated the need for teacher skills within
the human environment:
The teacher of the seventies will necessarily come to term s
with the essential humanity of students. He will realize that
his own humanity is threatened only when he is himself
insensitive to the needs and fears, pains and joys which
youngsters experience when they learn. Sensitivity develop
ment will certainly become a vital part of the education of
teachers. (83:1)
A teacher's skill in designing and using evaluation pro
cedures is different from a teacher's knowledge of tests and
m easurem ents. What are the conditions under which skill is devel
oped in deciding what kind of evaluation to use to determine a learner's
growth in knowledge, skill, efforts, or to determine what he needs to
learn next? To what level of competency is a teacher in training
expected to develop?
Grades and test scores have controlled a major part of the
life of a learner in the American schools. Charles Silberman,
representative of the concerned critics who writes for the public
press, conducted a three-and-a-half-year study (1970) of the educa
tion of educators for Carnegie Corporation of New York. In his
report he urged that educators think about what they are doing and
why they do it. He identified major problems in the schools as
87
(1) preoccupation with order and control, (2) confusion of ends with
m eans, and (3) preoccupation with evaluation. Silberman noted that
evaluations were rarely diagnostic issuing in a prescriptive approach
to helping a learner learn. Rather, he found that
. . . the purpose of evaluation is rating--to produce grades
that enable adm inistrators to rate and sort children--to
categorize them so rigidly that they can rarely escape. The
assault on the student's self-esteem and sense of self is
frequently overt, with teachers virtually demanding failure
from some children. (105:89)
Silberm an1 s point has interesting implications for the
evaluation of student teachers, a point to be discussed in the follow
ing section.
Relationship of teacher-learning process to teacher
preparation program s. - -In the brief resum e of issues and research
about teacher knowledge and teacher skills, an attempt was made to
identify and organize some m ajor dimensions of the teaching-learning
process, as viewed from the perspective of teacher preparation. In
assessing changes in teacher preparation program s (a central
problem of this study), it will be possible to identify and compare
changes in programs with the recommended and implied changes
reported above.
F o r example, Bruner recommended a psychology component
which dealt with learning in the content of the conceptual structure of
particular knowledges. A student teacher would learn about learning,
88
about how children learn, by experiencing kinds of learning himself;
and all of this would be within the discipline of m athematics, or
m usic, or an ecological study of the urban environment.
The change would be simply stated as a change from
separate educational psychology of learning courses and a teaching of
arithm etic courses to a psychology of teaching and learning m athe
m atics courses (or a set of modules or whatever organizational
pattern is desired).
Thus, if an institution reports a nine-week period of learning
psychology taught in a clinical center in a school and jointly staffed
by a psychologist and a mathematics specialist, for which credit was
given toward psychology, curriculum , and methods requirem ents, the
change reported would be comparable to change recommended by
authoritative sources.
A discussion of the nine model program s appears in the
following section on teacher education program s. While each model
is a powerfully designed and documented proposal and specifies in
varying degrees appropriate teaching and learning knowledges and
skills, each model will be of m ost value to this study as a proposed
program of teacher preparation.
89
Programs of Teacher Preparation
Discussion of research and opinion related to program
design and implementation for the preparation of teachers begins with
teacher preparation in its larger contexts.
Research studies are then reported as are recommendations
from professional organizations and learned societies. Follow
ing this is a review of the nature and structure of the model programs
for the education of elementary teachers supported through the
United States Office of Education. Finally, there is an analysis of
the kinds of teacher preparation programs in which issues, trends of
change, and recommended changes will be identified.
The recommended changes are used as criteria and
presented as an instrument for analysis in Chapter IV. It is used to
analyze the data collected for the present study.
In the review which follows, the m ajor emphasis is upon the
professional studies component of teacher preparation program s for
elementary teachers: the program design, professional foundations
for teaching, the practicum, the settings in which both occur, and
evaluation procedures.
The professional studies component. —Defined within the
A ACTE recommendations for NCATE accreditation, the professional
studies component consists of (1) content for the field of specialization
90
and (2) the theoretical-practice component (3:13).
Content for the field of specialization, elementary teaching
in this instance, included content to be taught to pupils; and teacher
knowledge about that content needed to communicate it effectively.
Theoretical-practice component elements were (1) human
istic and behavioral studies, (2) educational theory with laboratory
and clinical experience, and (3) practice.
Conant’s study in 1962 found four common elements in the
institutional program s studied: (1) educational psychology,
(2) methods, (3) the study of the relationship of school and society,
and (4) practice teaching (19:125).
In California, the 1961 legislation and subsequent in ter
pretations and modifications specified numbers of units to be acquired
in (1) the sociology, history, or philosophy of education; (2) educa
tional psychology; and (3) curriculum and instructional procedures
and m aterials used in the schools. In addition, a specified number of
hours of practice teaching was required ( ' ,:14). The context within
which these requirem ents was also set by law, to be during a fifth
year of higher education if an academic major and minor could be
demonstrated and within a five-year period following the Bachelor of
A rts Degree.
91
Social contexts for teacher
preparation programs
The nuclear position and function of a university within a
society--the conservation of the particular characteristics of that
society, and the generation of new growth in the people, institutions,
and culture of the society--m ake it a natural home for the education
of m em bers of the professions.
The professions, geared to service in the society, need the
complex resources of a university as a base for growth. They also
need the new knowledge from research as it applies to professional
work. The university as a home base for professional education has,
inherent in its nature, both the rich base of security which an excel
lent home provides, and the communication problems, the sources of
conflict, and the potential isolation from the world which homes also
provide.
Teacher education, as a focus for professional education
conducted within a university or college, enjoys the securities, the
nourishment, the communication problems, the conflicts, and the
isolation from the world.
Reforms in teacher education programs reflect attempts to
overcome one or several of these problems. Roald Campbell, Dean I
of the Graduate School of Education at The University of Chicago,
spoke of the need for relevance to the great social issues, to the
92
community of scholars itself, and to the students in the schools of
education. Campbell noted the increasing pressures put on education
by society:
The schools and colleges are supposed to turn out sensitive,
flexible, analytical, and responsible individuals and, at the
same time, serve as a ladder in our mobile society, foster
our economic health, and contribute to our social well
being in general. (68:499)
He acknowledged that schools and colleges could not do this, but he
argued that they needed to be responsible for their part of such a
commission. Specifically, Campbell called for the professional
schools to take up the serious study of how to extend the knowledge
and improve the practice of education. In other words, both scholars
and ‘'students of practice" were needed to prepare m ore effective
practitioners (68:500).
The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education recommended
in 1970 that in order to promote equal opportunity in higher education
"universities and colleges must concentrate greater resources in the
development of new curricular m aterials and teaching techniques to
reach m ore heterogeneous classroom populations" (128:6).
The commission commended the work of Teacher Corps in
training teachers sensitive and skilled in meeting needs of dis
advantaged children. It called for intensive research to find effective
methods of teaching and methods for teaching teachers. Specific
93
suggestions were made for the content of teacher preparation.
Teacher education has become a critical pressure point within the
university or college--a target for reform of the service function of
the institution.
In a m ajor metropolitan campus of the University of
California, faculty and students of the radical Left have proposed,
had funded, and been allowed to develop a unique teacher education
program for training twenty teachers.
It can be seen that, within the m ajor national areas of
reform , and within the university campus areas of concern and
reform , teacher education is a major focus. Critics propose changes
in control, changed in content and process, and changes in objectives.
Assuming that some proposed changes are appropriate and that
institutions have been planning changes made possible by the approved
program approach, a review of the literature about teacher prepara
tion programs will attempt to identify kinds of changes recommended
and trends of changes reported.
Kinds of changes in professional preparation program s are
identified in four general areas: (1) design, (2) process elements,
(3) content elements, and (4) evaluation procedures. Each area will
be further specified, and the resulting list is presented in Chapter IV.
Analysis of program types. - -A preparation and training
94
program is designed within a particular set of concepts about teacher
education. Leinwand identified four views of the teacher education
process (1) as apprenticeship, (2) as graduate study, (3) as under
graduate study, and (4) as advanced professional study (96:305-10).
The apprenticeship view, according to Leinwand, based on a liberal
arts foundation, considered methods, psychology, and the study of
education to be unnecessary, and placed emphasis on learning on the
job or internships. The graduate study view held that teachers need
special skills which are taught in a structured program. This inclu
ded professional on-the-job experience, studies of related disciplines,
and clinical experiences. It required an academic major and one or
two years of graduate work. The undergraduate study concept
provided a bachelor's degree in education. Training programs begin
in the freshman and sophomore year. Liberal arts are a strong
component. Teacher education in an advanced professional institute
would be community and service based, provide graduate and under
graduate training, training for paraprofessionals, and a variety of
professional education careers.
Within any of these categories, program development
involves a design of experiences which help a student learn to teach.
Bruce Joyce, in a planning conference in 1967 concerned with
developing model programs, identified six types of frames of
95
references from which programs were then being developed:
(1) socialization to the established school, (2) academic reform
(3) the teacher as researcher, (4) emphasis on the teaching maneuver,
(5) method as self-expression, and (6) performance models and
system s (88:510-15).
Joyce presented evidence to support his theory that the most
commonly used fram e of reference was the socialization of new
teachers to the established school. Citing (1) that the methods
courses taught reflected current curriculum in use in the schools;
(2) that methods courses were organized around curriculum topics,
not teaching strategies; (3) that observation is used to help the young
teacher to model after behaviors of the experienced teacher; (4) that
methods courses are concurrent with or precede student teaching,
which requires the young teacher to "fit in" and adapt to the current
school in a fairly uncritical fashion (88:510-11). Within this fram e
work, there is little application of new knowledge to teaching; and the
school d istrict's policies dominate the content of the programs.
The academic reform fram e of reference uses a methods
course which stresses the organizing concepts and modes of inquiry
in the academic disciplines. Teachers are taught to implement a
curriculum reform project. Such projects (in elementary science or
mathematics, for example) provide training m aterials and films which
were developed by the project. The psychology and philosophy
involved in the approach of that curriculum project forms another
part of the training program . Student teaching includes application of
the new curriculum- and methods in the classroom. The teacher
preparation program requires careful academic preparation and often
requires the actual m aterials pupils use as a setting in which teachers
can learn concepts and strategies of teaching. Often the inductive
methods which various projects require are high level skills requiring
m ore hours of practice than a methods course can provide (88:512-13).
Programs in which the teacher is seen as a researcher, are
premised on the notion that school is a place of inquiry. Joyce cites
Schaefer's work which formed a m ajor part of the Teachers College
proposal from Columbia University. Interaction analysis as a
research tool for teachers to use with themselves and each other to
find out about how they teach is another characteristic of programs
developed from this fram e of reference (88:513).
Joyce cited microteaching studies which have provided the
laboratory situation in which the teacher as a m aneuverer can
develop skills. Teaching maneuvers were modeled, attempted,
analyzed by video-tape playback, remodeled, reattempted, and r e
analyzed. Joyce and Hodges have developed an integrated feedback
system which combines analysis with practice (90). A sensitivity
97
training program was developed by Joyce, D irr, and Hunt in which
children are trained to sim ulate problems for the teacher to learn to
cope with (89). Video-taped feedback is used to analyze learner
behavior and provide a basis for diagnosis.
In his study of teaching maneuvers, the prospective teacher
develops a repertoire of responses to a variety of situations providing
him with flexibility and skill.
If a teacher’s development of his self-concept and personality
is of critical importance, the preparation program will include
methods courses with this emphasis. Boyce cited Brown's work at the
University of Santa Barbara (63) and the model proposed by Arthur W.
Combs, reviewed elsewhere in this chapter (18), as significant
efforts in this category. The development of personal style, creativ
ity, originality become m ajor objectives in the preparation of
teachers.
Teacher preparation programs reflecting the cybernetic
process of systems development make use of feedback system s,
games, decision-making strategies, performance goals and criteria,
simulations of reality, to develop specified behaviors in a teacher,
develop his ability to analyze his own behavior, and to become self
regulating. Joyce cited Popham and McNeill, who have used system s
designed to develop a set of instructional system s for teaching
98
teachers to frame behavioral objectives (183). The University of
Pittsburgh Model Program made use of systems design in devising an
entire teacher education program (55).
Professionals concerned with teacher competencies and
accountability look with hope toward the specificity offered by
system s approaches. However, the question Joyce raised was, "Can
we develop systems that give teachers the power to create as well as
to perform?" (88:515)
In his discussion of the question, Joyce proposed a concept of
professional training which had three stages: (1) identification of
areas of reality in the profession over which the teacher must develop
control so that he is effective, creative, self-renewing, and capable
of renewing the educational process; (2) development of curricular
system s which develop such control; and (3) integration of such
system s into a program which has coherence, interdependence, and
structure. In such a training program , Joyce observed, the methods
course would probably not exist as an entity (88:516).
Areas of reality, Joyce proposed, included (1) shaping the
school, (2) instructing, (3) the self. These areas were to become
m ore fully explored and were developed into the Teachers College
Model Program in 1968 and 1969 (34).
Joyce argued for a combination of technical capacity and
99
conceptual ability and imagination in the design of teacher preparation
program s. He cited his own experience of having designed an
intricate and effective system which he found he was incapable of
teaching to his faculty despite the fact they wanted to learn (88:519).
Joyce, in identifying the kinds of teacher preparation
program s, provided a means for identifying major emphases in
current program and proposed changes.
Problems and issu es. - -Some problems and issues derive
from the social contexts of a mobile, m ulti-cultural, m ulti-racial
society in which equality of opportunity is at issue in the educational
and economic spheres.
Other issues a re program issues stemming from the
institutions which prepare teachers, the schools which employ them,
and the legislated requirem ents which govern both.
A third set of issues might be term ed operational issues
which have to do with how knowledge about learning and teaching is
incorporated into training programs.
In the development of an approved program, an institution
must consider what kinds of teachers are needed, by whom, and
prepared to do what kinds of things. F or example, a guideline in the
California statement of criteria for accepting approved programs
states that teachers need to be prepared to work in the diverse
100
settings of a m ulti-cultural society. A major problem and issue has
been how to train teachers for urban and ru ral disadvantaged youth.
In 1969 AACTE published Teachers for the Real World (49),
which outlined a program of teacher preparation, in its process and
product, relevant to the social issues of alienation, deprivation, and
racism . It proposed to prepare teachers aware of the world of work,
the nature of democratic institutions, the working of law --teachers
who are vigorous intellectually and widely involved in all aspects of
the culture. The chief problem identified was how to train teachers
for the disadvantaged, such that teachers do not drop out of schools
in the disadvantaged areas, but stay and invigorate school programs
there (4:11, 32).
Bush, Director of the Center for Research and Development
in Teaching at Stanford University, said,
Given the urgency of the tim es, no longer can we afford the
luxury of being taught badly or amateurishly. For young and
old alike, the im perative of excellence in teaching has
become absolute.
The shrill cry for "relevance” in teaching can be heard
all the way from the ghetto pre-schools to the ivory towers
of the graduate departments, from local city halls and
education board rooms to the halls of Congress in Washington.
The charge is one of obsolescence in method and in content.
Students, their parents, and citizens spurred by a profound
dissatisfaction with the education provided in schools and
colleges have been more and m ore pointing an accusatory
finger at teachers and teaching. ( 65:1).
Research and development projects at Stanford reflected the press of
101
social problems on education: language development problems of
minority students, and a cost-effectiveness analysis of what char
acteristics in teachers are related to effective teaching of the
disadvantaged (65).
The impact of technology upon society is felt in teacher
preparation. The problem of how to train teachers to use kinds of
technologies for instruction is analyzed and researched in H ess's
project at Stanford (65:7). Application of technology to design and
implementation of programs is typified in the University of Pittsburgh
and the Michigan State proposals of model program s (55,; 31).
Program issues and problems were identified in the Conant
study. Based upon the need for accountability, Conant identified the
constraints upon program development emanating from over specific
legislation and national accreditation. He suggested that the problem
of accountability and its twin, certification, might be best met during
the part of the program in which all the training elements are put to
the test--practice teaching. The problem then became to create
clinical settings and clinical instrum ents which would enable profes
sionals to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching (19:65).
Hazard, whose study was parallel in time to Conant's,
identified the problems of irrelevance of education courses to teach
ing, the need for accountability, the problem of the theory-practice
102
gap, the need to use inductive approaches to learning how to teach,
the need for cooperative planning with schools, the need for inte
gration of experiences as opposed to separate course offerings, the
continuing need for all-institution involvement, and the need for a
clinical approach to learning to teach (30:v-vi). Hazard's program ,
developed and tested during 1963 to 1970, reflected attempts to solve
these problems (30).
Combs, in a program proposal for teacher preparation
developed from a perceptual psychology base, identified the crucial
problem of the human development of the teacher as a person. Impli
cations of his proposal included reorganization of the professional
studies around the learner, rather than around subject m atter (18).
The issue of whether a teacher should be a scholar or a
practitioner was raised by Conant (19), Hazard (30), Combs (18), and
Joyce (88).
Wilhelms, presenting the 1970 Hunt Lecture to the AACTE
national conference, emphasized the issue of how to prepare the
teacher as a person, rather than as a set of potential behaviors and
responses. He felt that the student teaching experience, which
traditionally is the term inal experience in a program , should
precede and accompany theory courses, as a means of closing the
theory- practice gap. He spoke also of the need to involve the student
103
in decision making about his own training program --a point Combs
developed carefully (18).
The problem of flexibility--of time, of content, of procedure,
and of initiation of experiences was identified by Combs (18) and
underlined by Wilhelms (3).
Problems of program operation, content, and evaluation are
a next order of concern in the literature. Four m ajor sources of
such issues and problems are (1) research in teacher education;
(2) model programs being tested; (3) professional organization
recommendations; and (4) accreditation standards, 1969-1970
versions which have deliberately included criteria incorporating
research findings.
The Multi-State Teacher Education Project (M-STEP),
representing seven state departments of education and the United
States Office of Education, colleges and universities, school system s,
and professional organizations of teachers, was developed in 1966 to
find ways to improve teacher education. In a 1969 publication the
following issues and needs related to laboratory experiences (includ
ing student teaching) were identified: (1) better settings for student
teaching, (2) better quality of supervision, (3) integration of
laboratory and theory experiences, (4) m ore effective use of media,
(5) a clearer task analysis of teaching, and (6) cooperation among all
104
agencies involved in practicum (15:104-8).
The M-STEP project reported success in working toward
solutions to these problems in a variety of ways.
Professors Bruner, Zacharias, and Grennan, in 1964 as
m em bers of a symposium considering the impact of academic reform
on teacher education, identified several issues related to professional
preparation. In fact, it will be seen that two m ajor developments
affecting teacher education had their beginnings in those discussions.
Grennan, then Vice-President of W ebster College and now
President of Hunter College, called for an apprenticeship.
Preservice teacher education must be built upon a sound base
of liberalizing education skillfully integrated with a m ajor
field and an apprenticeship in teaching, the entire program
being designed and taught in the mode of discovery of
structure. (84;100)
She suggested that teacher preparation be carried on in the atm os
phere of research and development. Tying teacher education reform
to the reform of the schools, she said,
It is imperative that intensive, well-designed operating
models be created immediately, in advance of the "m ass
production" which will necessarily follow shortly. To invent
and sustain such models will require a high degree of
inventiveness, tru st, and cooperation which has not always
been characteristic of academia. The fragmented nature of
the enterprize makes it terribly difficult to create a new
kind of system s approach, each element of which is
determined by its potential contribution to the system
being developed. ( 8,4:101)
Models, such as those described, were developed through funds made
105
available by the United States Office of Education in 1968. The nine
model elementary teacher preparation program s resulting, attempted
to identify and bring toward solution basic problems in teacher
education.
For example, the Northwest Regional Educational Labora
tory identified the problems of creating "independent self-directed
learners" who could teach in any situation, of accountability to the
profession and to a pluralistic society, and of relevance to the student
in the program in term s of unique needs and potentials ([54). . Florida
identified the problem of how to train teachers for the tw enty-first
century, using forecasting techniques to determine possible and
probable characteristics of schools and teachers in the future (23).
Teachers College, Columbia University, identified the need for
developing teachers who could be self-renewing, who could create
institutions, and who could be students of teaching, in addition to
being effective with pupils (34 ). In 1969 and 1970 the models
received wide distribution and attention in the literature.
The second need identified in the panel in 1964 was described
by Zacharias as the need for "teachers of teachers of teachers" who ;
were specially skilled in the preparation and re-education of !
teachers (116 :107).
The Education Professions Development Act was a recog- |
106
nition of the importance of teacher preparation as a key to positive
change in education. One of the provisions of that act funds "Triple
T" program s for teachers of teachers of teachers, which focuses
on the development of m ore effective teacher preparation, through a
program of study for the college and school people in charge of
teacher education. Zacharias* notion of a communication chain
illustrated a critical need in teacher training--the need to keep all
participants in the process apprised of the new knowledges being
discovered (116).
Among the professional organizations and the accrediting
groups, who raised issues and problems, was the California Council
on the Education of Teachers. Its Commission on Teaching in 1970
established as principal concerns the following issues:
(1) a need to establish goals and objectives of teacher-
education,
(2) a need to assess behaviors and skills needed by teachers
to function in today's world,
(3) a need to concern ourselves with schools of the future
which will require changing our entire concept of teaching
as we now perceive it. (229)
The Association of Classroom Teachers of the NEA raised
the following issues: (1) coordination of methods and practice
teaching, (2) the role and training of cooperating teachers, and
(3) cooperative planning between schools and colleges. Recommenda
tions were made for national, state, and local action (10:10).
107
The Association for Student Teaching identified the needs for
(1) integration of teacher preparation experiences, (2) application of
theory and principle to teaching, (3) individualization of the program s
for prospective teachers, (4) provision for flexibility in sequence and
content related to assessed needs of student teachers, (5) provision
for differentiated career opportunity and training, and (6) encour
agement of cooperative control and decision making (12:10-27).
Recommendations for NCATE guidelines were made by
AACTE (1969), and those recommendations indicated a concern for
the following issues: (1) application of new media to clinical training;
(2) the orientation of humanistic and behavioral studies to the prob
lems of teaching and learning, curriculum , and other educational
problems; (3) the incorporation of research findings; and (4) the use
of appropriate means for the study and practice of teaching and
learning theory (4). Also supported were the guidelines prepared by
professional curriculum groups and learned societies, raising the
issue of implementation of curriculum research in teacher prepara
tion.
Summary of issues. - -A summary of the problems and
issues deriving from the social context would include (1) the need for
relevance to teaching the disadvantaged, alienated, and racially
different; (2) the potential for excellence in teaching and m astery in
108
learning; (3) the need for appropriate use of technology in education;
(4) accountability for productiveness of teaching; (5) the quality of
person needed to teach; and (6) learning to learn to teach in the
future.
Program problems and issues fall in two categories:
(1) program planning, and (2) program content and objectives.
Program planning issues included (1) the need for coopera
tive planning and decision making among all the agencies involved in
teacher preparation; (2) all-institution planning at the college or
university; (3) student participation in planning and implementing
the program; and (4) a continuing growth in the knowledge and skills
of the professors, clinical professors, and supervising teachers.
Program content and objectives were the focus of the
following issues: (1) differentiation of teaching careers; (2) teacher-
scholar versus teacher-practitioner; (3) creation of a self-renewing
teacher who is a self-initiated learner; (4) individualization of
program ; (5) internal relevance of program experiences to each
other, to teachers, and to tasks; (6) reorganization of program
around the learner instead of subject m atter; (7) closing the theory-
practice gap; (8) integration of foundations of education with the
practicum; (9) a need for specification of teacher behaviors required;
and (10) implementation of research about teaching and learning.
109
A summarization of the operational issues identified would
include (1) the need to find an inductive means to discover the
structure of teaching--as a preparation to teach; (2) need for a
clinical approach to develop specific teaching behaviors; (3) evalu
ation of performance; (4) flexibility of program time and sequence to
meet student teacher needs; (5) supervision by trained supervisors;
and (6) a means for communicating new knowledges about teaching
and learning to all participants in teacher education.
Assuming that this list of issues is representative and not
exhaustive of those raised in program development, it will be possible
to determine whether or not proposed programs consider issues on
this list. Recognizing that problems arise from different ways of
looking at the preparation of teachers, it would be useful to identify
approaches to planning programs and kinds of teacher preparation
program design.
Program development efforts. - -In order to evaluate the
changes proposed and desired by the deans and directors of
California teacher preparation institutions, it is necessary to review
briefly the recent program proposals and working models.
A selection has been made from numerous program designs
of ten fully developed models which represent the widest range of
alternatives and the widest application of research to program
110
design. In addition, two working models were selected: one operant
in a four-year setting, the other operating at a planning level in a
m ulti-state corsortium of institutions.
Arthur Combs' proposal was based in principles of percept
ual psychology. He defined the teacher as "a unique human being who
has learned to use himself effectively and efficiently to carry out his
own and society's purposes in the education of others" (18:9).
Effective teachers were described as being well informed,
having accurate perceptions about people and their behavior, good
concepts of self, accurate perceptions about the purposes and
process of learning, and having a variety of appropriate methods of
teaching (18:20-23).
Learning to teach effectively requires the teacher to have a
commitment and involvement with ideas, program , children, the
profession, and his peers. Conditions for effective learning would
require (1) developing in the student specific needs for understanding,
(2) creating a climate in which it is possible to explore personal
meanings, and (3) encouragement to explore and discover meaning
(18:31-32).
Content for a teacher preparation program would be
selected with regard to the implications of the information explosion,
the developing needs of society, and the relevance of information to
i n
the teacher, the learner, and society (18:40-43).
Psychology to be learned by prospective teachers would be
selected for its value in developing a teacher's beliefs about people.
Combs’ list is chosen from topics in perceptual psychology and
supports the criteria related to effective teaching and learning.
Qualities in the teacher's perception of self included
(1) feeling identified with people, not alienated; (2) feeling adequate,
rather than inadequate; (3) feeling trustworthy, rather than untrust
worthy; (4) feeling wanted, rather than unwanted; and (5) seeing
oneself as worthy, rather than unworthy. Interaction of the student
teacher and the program staff would aim to encourage these feelings
and perceptions and to help the prospective teacher to grow towards
such criteria (18:71-81).
Good teachers were found to work toward the following kinds
of purposes: (1) to free, rather than control students; (2) to be
concerned with larger, rather than sm aller issues; (3) to be self-
revealing, rather than self-concealing; (4) to be involved, not
alienated; and (5) to be concerned more with process than with
achieving goals (18:85). Combs recommended a problems approach,
rather than a course approach to the development of beliefs and
purposes in the teacher. Thus, Combs would substitute an on-going
sem inar organized around the problems approach for the traditional
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separate courses in psychology, sociology, philosophy, or anthro
pology (18:88-90).
To operate such a program , the supervising teacher and the
college supervisor would themselves model the processes described.
They would focus on causes, rather than results; feelings, percep
tions, and beliefs, rather than only the resulting behaviors. The
practicum would include a personally selected variety of contacts with
teachers and teaching styles and with learners. The trainee would
take increasing responsibility and become increasingly involved in
teaching. His practicum would end in an internship in which he would
be in complete charge of pupils for a four-month period. The
curriculum laboratory would provide a personalized setting for
exploration and discovery (18:98-111, 125).
The program Combs described would be organized around
the processes of teaching and learning, rather than around the
informational content. Thus, the learner, rather than subject
m atter, was the organizer for the curriculum and program experi
ences (18:113-14). The design calls for a flexibility in time and in
selection of experiences. It would provide simultaneous rather than
sequential experiences. In other words, it is a systems design,
rather than a linear design (18:115). Students will need to take part
in the decision making regarding their own program on a continuous
and daily basis (18:117).
The organizational pattern would consist of (1) a sem inar to
which students are permanently assigned and which becomes their
base for counselling, friendship, critique, and exploration; (2) a
selection of lectures, special workshops, group presentations,
exhibits, and trips from which the student gains information and
ideas; and (3) a sequence of practical experience designed uniquely
for each student, using a curriculum laboratory and the public
schools and terminating in an internship (18:118-27).
Combs' plan is a radical departure from traditional
accredited teacher preparation program s. Its focus on the teacher as
a person, a decision-m aker, and a designer or cause of learning is
in sharp contrast to program s emphasizing the teacher as a set of
behaviors o r as a knower.
The next nine models were designed under conditions of
national competition, conditions aimed to stimulate creativity,
imagination, and action in the schools and colleges of education
across the United States. As a first phase of the Elem entary Teacher
Education Project, sponsored by the United States Office of Education,
nine proposals for the preparation of elem entary teachers were
chosen for development from eighty proposals submitted (102:326).
The nine proposals which were developed represented two
114
consortia of institutions, four state universities, and three private
universities. The extensive collection of specifications and position
papers were drawn from major scholars of teacher education from all
parts of the country.
Each proposal was unique in its objectives, design, and
development. While none were blueprints for immediate implementa
tion, feasibility projects in eight universities have been funded by the
United States Office of Education to test implementation. (102:326).
A brief description of each model follows, identifying its
goals, professional studies components at the preservice level, its
concept of the teacher, and significant characteristics.
Florida State University, prepared a forecast of the
elementary school in 1978; and from that, identified four teaching
behaviors as major training objectives. Teachers would (1) plan for
instruction by formulation of behavioral objectives which are m ea
surable by observation, (2) select and organize content appropriate to
the logic of the knowledge and the psychological characteristics of the
learner, (3) use appropriate instructional strategies, (4) evaluate
outcomes as behavioral changes, and (5) accept professional
responsibilities and leadership.
The professional studies preservice component begins in the
junior year. It is characterized by five features: self-paced
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experiences, criterion referenced performance evaluation, sequenced
theory-practice laboratory experiences, means for a progressive
synthesis of experience, and computerized management with a feed
back system. There is no student teaching nor internship as such.
Teaching tasks are designed such that an increase in level of skill and
degree of complexity is demanded. Trainee and instructor make joint
decisions about the nature and sequence of the program for that
trainee. A retraining of the faculty in teacher education is required.
The teacher is a functionary with a competence in a variety
of teaching tasks. Behavioral change in the teacher in relation to
specified teaching tasks is the outcome of the program.
Unique features include an integration of preservice and in-
service training. A great degree of individualization in training is
possible through the computerized management system (23:7-21).
Michigan State University developed a program with two
goals. The first was to develop a new kind of teacher who is involved
in teaching as a clinical process, who understands human learning,
and who becomes a responsible agent of social change. The second
goal was to develop a new kind of training program with a laboratory
and clinical base.
The preservice professional phase is based in the behavioral
sciences and combines an analytical study of teaching with a super
116
vised internship year. Elements of the program are (1) the
professional use of knowledge; (2) human learning; and (3) clinical
and field experiences which include tutorial work, a career decision
sem inar, intensive clinical analysis of teaching and learning, and the
internship. There is no formal student teaching to socialize the
student teacher to the school. Rather, the teacher in training
develops competencies which may be used in any school. Over 2700
key punched modules of instruction have been prepared, covering
various phases of the five-year program.
The teacher is a functionary who develops competencies and
a clinical behavior style.
Special features of the program include its capacity for
individualizing instruction and the differentiation of instruction for
different levels and specialties in teaching. C ross-cultural studies
are included, and performance objectives are specified for profes
sional and academic work (31:27-49).
The Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory presented a
program developed in cooperation with a consortium of colleges and
universities. Goals of the program were stated in term s of six
outcomes for the teacher:
1. Teachers should demonstrate specified behaviors
in specified settings at acceptable levels prior to
certification.
2. Teachers "should be able to demonstrate prior to
certification that they are independent, self
directing learners and that they can adapt to new
situations that demand new patterns of behavior"
(54:55).
3. Teachers should participate in the design of the
teacher education curriculum.
4. Teachers should find the curriculum relevant to
themselves, their styles, objectives, and rates
of learning.
5. Teachers should be trained to work in a variety of
social contexts.
6. Teachers should be trained in programs developed
with community participation (54:51-83).
The professional studies content were selected against four
criteria: (1) relevance to bringing change in pupils, (2) relevance to
non-instructional tasks, (3) relevance to developing interpersonal
competencies need for 1 and 2, and (4) contribution to the personal
ization of the first three.
The teacher who develops in this training program would be
a manager of instruction and an independent self-directed learner who
118
continues to learn to teach throughout his career.
Unique in the Northwest Laboratory proposal is the combi
nation of a system s design, created around instructional tasks and
the means for personalizing the program. It offers itself as a model
system for program development. It combines campus controlled
laboratory work, with field-based practicum experiences. The
instructional techniques employed in the program model the instruc
tional behaviors it teaches (54).
Syracuse University developed a model which attempts to
"educate teachers to confront change, to react to it responsibly, to
guide it constructively for the welfare of the individual and society,
and to initiate change in the institutions and communities in which they
will teach" (57:90).
Its goals are to develop teachers as individuals who will
(1) become increasingly perceptive, (2) have a positive
concept of themselves as teachers, (3) come to term s with
themselves in respect to their motives for becoming teachers,
and (4) develop a system of professional values and skills
consistent with their personal integrity and the demands of
the education profession. (57:9-10)
The professional component is designed as an "intent-action-
feedback process model” (57:90). It is composed of five sections:
(1) curriculum and methods, (2) child development, (3) teaching
theory and practice, (4) professional sensitivity, and (5) social
cultural foundations. Within this fairly traditional structure, the
119
model redefines the content and process of each segment.
Five areas of curriculum in the elementary school form a
setting for a "problem-resolution" approach to teaching the skills of
instruction. As problems a re resolved, new ones develop from the
resolution process and must be acted upon. It is this process which
is continuous, which characterizes the teaching process.
Child development is studied through a sequence of modules
in the junior year which involve the student in describing and analyz
ing child behavior. The aim is to develop a value for and skill in
observation and analysis prerequisite to a professional response.
Teaching theory and practice is an area of study in which
teaching is looked at as a decision-making process, and prospective
teachers are given training in the various aspects of that process.
Professional sensitivity and awareness of self is a continuing
process guided by modules of experiences.
Social cultural foundation enables the teacher in training to
understand the social structures and processes of educational
institutions; to understand the social, political, and economic forces
which shape schools; to develop skills in analyzing social situations;
to develop skills in analysis of language and its functions; and to
develop skills in making value judgments related to educational
problems.
120
A self-directed component enables the student to design and
conduct an experience in his own training. Its focus must be on
training him self to accomplish a specified change in the behavior of a
child.
Seminars with a staff advisor formed the social and
psychological base for the prospective teachers in their training and
development.
The junior year is a pre-professional one in which sim u
lations, microteaching, and tutoring experiences are offered. The
senior year is devoted full time to professional study. Teaching
centers in the schools provided a clinical base for practical experi
ence.
The teacher is defined as an effective person able to change
his own behavior to influence change in the learner. He is a decision
maker and an instrum ent for creating the conditions for learning.
Unique features of the Syracuse Model are the use of a
systems model to design a program which places such a degree of
emphasis upon development of the individual and the openness of that
system, which allows the student teacher to reconstruct his experi
ence and initiate his own learning toward professional goals
(57:87-103).
Teachers College, Columbia University proposed a model
121
sim ilar to the one proposed earlier by Joyce. In fact, Joyce was a
m ajor author of the Teachers College Model. Unlike other models,
the Columbia Model provided a broad, general theoretical structure
within which specifics may be later defined. The goals of the
program , stated as roles for the teacher were four. The program
sought to develop the teacher as (1) an institution-builder, (2) an
interactive teacher, (3) an innovator, and (4) a scholar. The spirit
of the program was one of inquiry into teacher education.
Professional training was a product of the four goals and
four general elements: (1) inquiry groups of student teachers,
(2) a differentiated training model, (3) a laboratory school for inquiry,
and (4) the contact laboratory. The program would be generated
from the matrix formed by these two sets of variables.
Within an atmosphere of a community of scholar-teacher,
individual differences in personality development were taken into
account and students were permitted to set their own pace. The
inquiry sem inar was a permanent group of twelve students with a
faculty adviser, which worked through all phases of the program
together. For example, in the laboratory school for inquiry, the
sem inar teams researched, planned, and implemented an educational
program for children under supervision of, and accountable to, the
staff. Skills of inquiry and invention were promoted in the beginning
122
teacher prio r to his exposure to the current mode of school.
The contact laboraotry was the setting for six sequenced and
differentiated practicum experiences. First, the four- to eight-week
apprenticeship in public school classroom introduced the teacher to
the current situation, to the experience of working in an institution,
and to the effects of that experience upon himself. Feelings of
alienation encountered while working in a bureaucratic institution
were dealt with, for example.
Second, a sm all group or tutorial experience lasting from
ten to twenty weeks gave the teacher a chance to experiment with
different teaching strategies. Following this, the student prepared
and taught a four- to eight-week unit with a team from his inquiry
group.
The fourth and fifth experiences would take place in the
inquiry school on campus. The students as a team would participate
in the school program and then conduct the school program they have
proposed and designed.
The sixth phase of the contact laboratory was the internship—
a paid teaching experience in which, ideally, teams work together in
the schools.
Generally, the program was characterized by a study of
alternatives and an inquiry into teaching. Nine teaching models were
123
drawn from C he works of Taba, Thelen, Bruner, Rogers, Hunt,
Suchman, Skinner, and Maslow. The prospective teacher studies
this range of theoretical approaches to teaching. He also studies
alternative teaching maneuvers and can carry them out.
The teacher was seen as an innovator of educational program,
a builder of institution, an effective interactor with learners, and a
scholar. He was not a functionary, but rather a growing, inquiring,
professionally trained person.
Unique characteristics of the program were the inquiry
school in which to try out ideas, the inquiry group with whom to
learn, and the definition of the professional teacher as scholar-
practitioner (34:105-57).
The University of Georgia proposed and developed a model
with goals to develop teaching behaviors which satisfy individual and
societal needs and which reflect established principles of learning.
The professional sequence was organized around the subject
m atter traditionally used in teacher education program s. Modules of
tasks were organized within each discipline. Performance objectives
were specified and levels of perform ance were identified according to
Bloom’s and Krathwohl’s taxonomies (14, 33). Differentiation of
training was provided for the teaching assistant, the certified
teacher, and the specialist. Different levels of competencies were
124
specified for each. Performance modules are self-directed. A
sem inar ran parallel to the use of the modules. Practicum included
three six-week laboratory experiences in school settings and a ten-
week internship. Micro teaching and programmed instruction
techniques were used.
The teacher was selected for personal characteristics and
attained one or more of three professional career levels.
Unique features of the program include highly developed
student teaching centers with role and task definitions for all partici
pants, staggered registration in the program —making it a twelve
month operation, and the freedom from time limits for achieving
m astery (33:159-96).
The consortium working through the University of Toledo,
which consists of twelve state-supported universities in Ohio, sought
to define new contexts for the development of teacher education
program content. The five contexts identified were: "instructional
organization, educational technology, contemporary learning process,
societal factors, and research!' (59:201). Contexts were further
defined as areas and topics. Specifications, derived from behavioral
objectives, were developed within the contexts.
In the professional component within a given context a
specification with behavioral objectives will identify treatment,
m aterials, and evaluation for meeting the objectives. Alternative
treatm ents are specified across a range from traditional through
mediated to computer-controlled.
Professional training is tied to the idea of conducting an
"exemplary instructional program " in the elem entary school and is
related to the in-service component of the model (59:203).
The Toledo Model laid great importance upon in-service
professional training and differentiation of roles within a changing
system.
The teacher is a functionary, with a role in a differentiated
staff.
Unique characteristics of the program were the attempt to
redefine the contexts within which teacher education program s may
be designed and its attempt to create an interrelated training program
for all the professional personnel in a school (59:197-209).
The University of M assachusetts, concerned with the future,
designed a program which attempted to institutionalize change. Its
goals were also to provide a differentiation of training for different'
roles and to provide multiple program alternatives for the student
teacher.
Professional preparation experiences were generated from
three sets or criteria: (1) cornerstone criteria, (2) content criteria,
and (3) service criteria. Cornerstone criteria identified human
relations and behavioral skills as content. Content criteria identified
the school curriculum areas of science, mathematics, foreign
languages, language a rts, aesthetics, social studies, and the p re
school as subjects for study. Service criteria produced evaluation,
media, supervision, technology, and decision making as subjects for
concern in the training program. A hierarchy of teaching compe
tencies was composed of subject-m atter competency, presentation
competency, and professional decision-making competency. Student
teaching is not identified as a component of the program. Different
students will practice teaching at different times according to
identified needs. Simulation, microteaching, and sm all group work
would be used to develop skills in decision making—a m ajor focus in
the training program . The program was tim e-free and performance-
based. It could accommodate the training needs of a specialist or a
generalist in elem entary education by manipulating the levels of
competencies in any given area.
The program sought to produce the fully human teacher,
a person who m eets the human criteria of warmth or human
understanding, is capable of rigorous thinking, is in control
of his own behavior, and is in a constant pattern of growth.
(20:223)
Unique about the program were the features of training for
differentiated staffing and the attempt to define criteria which should
127
be met prior to credentialling and prior to tenure (20:211-31).
The University of Pittsburgh developed a program around
three goals: (1) the individualization of instruction, (2) the integration
of the learner into the planning and decision making, and (3) speci
fication of goals and minimum expectations for the teacher in training.
Professional preparation was part of a clinical sequence of
activities which the student chooses with the assistance of an adviser.
Pupil contact increased through a sequence of tutoring, assisting, and
student teaching. Student teaching was done in a team situation. The
student teacher was held accountable for an increasing variety of
tasks. An internship was the final phase of the sequence. Each
phase was continued as long as required to achieve m astery of the
objectives.
Self-development through flexibility of program and schedule
was a m ajor concern in the Pittsburgh Model. Taking time to learn
for m astery was a means of assuring self-development. Clinical
settings developed through cooperation with the schools and communi
ties provided the environment for training.
The teacher was a self-initiating learner of teaching
functions.
Unique features were the utilization of individualized
instruction to develop skills in self-directed learning in the partici-
128
panes and the well-developed criteria for effective clinical settings
(55:233-74).
Of the several critiques of the nine models which have
appeared in journals (72, 94, 102), after their publication in 1968,
Olsen's analysis of the implications for teaching from the models is of
most value for this study.
Writing in the journal Social Education, Olsen discussed six
implications for the preparation of social studies teachers. The first
had to do with the fact that all models made use of the performance
module as a basic unit of instruction. This meant that the student in
such a program must be active and m ust be able to demonstrate an
application of his knowledge, rather than demonstrate his knowledge
on an examination. Pre-testing to diagnose needs of the teacher in
training and to prescribe the next appropriate module is a significant
difference from the non-diagnostic course outline which the whole
group follows. The performance module functions to individualize the
training, meeting special needs for experience and time of each
participant.
Second, the specification of behaviors to be demonstrated by
the trained teacher is characteristic of the models. Corporately, the
nine models provide thousands of behavioraUy-stated objectives.
Objectives were written for the academic components as well as the
129
professional ones. Thus, the models focus the issue for teacher
preparation program s of deciding what the actual qualities and
behaviors are of the teacher they expect to train (102:327).
Olsen's third point was that the models indicate concrete
possibilities of individualizing instruction to make the m ost of the
potential of the student teacher. In addition, the individualization,
due to performance modules with behaviorally-stated objectives,
gives the student teacher control over his program sequence. It
also enables him to specialize in unique ways and to move at his own
pace. Thus, m astery of learning is no longer linked so closely with
time but becomes m ore dependent upon clarity of objectives and
initiative of the student.
The fourth implication for teacher education program design
was that of the enormously varied and extensive practicum. No
longer confined to observations and student teaching, practicum
experiences are m ore specific in objective and utilize media, simu
lation, game theory, and group learning to achieve skills in teaching.
With a full repertoire of training possibilities, the teacher trainer
has m ore options of how to teach various prospective teachers. Using
the school-based clinical center as a setting for the practicum, the
student is able to have greater amounts of specific practice in the
skills he most needs to develop, and in a greater variety of ways.
130
Fifth, instructional media has come into its own as an
elegant tool in creating simulation, in providing instant feedback, in
storing experience--all of which support the flexibility and precision
of the training program s.
Olsen's final point was that the trend toward an analytical
study of teaching was emphasized to the benefit of the effectiveness of
program s. Since the individual teacher controls his own behavior,
his skill in analyzing it will aid him in making positive changes.
Since teachers are decision m akers, the. analytical tools developed to
determine consequences of decisions aid the prospective teacher in
relating decisions to pupil needs. Analysis of teaching maneuvers
assists the teacher in developing a variety of skills to choose from.
Finally, analysis of the teaching-learning process enables a teacher
to develop his own style of teaching. In general, in the future,
teacher education programs will be concerned with assisting teachers
to become students of teaching (102:326-28, 344).
The models have all been designed from an analysis of what
effective teachers do o r have done to bring about learning and from a
reaction to the scheduling and other management problems inherent
in a theoretical-practical training program . Missing, seemed to be
an analysis of appropriate educational goals for schools in the
seventies and an analysis of the nature and the values of the college
131
student whom they propose to train. Also, one noticed a lack of
clarity about what children are capable of learning, what they already
know upon entry in school and what they will need to know to live in
the twenty-first century as adults.
Harold Taylor, discussing colleges for teachers in The
World As Teacher, reported his findings about the nature of college
students he had interviewed in his study:
They are responsible critics of the society and its educational
system, and the best of them have a political sophistication
and social energy which is in advance of many of those
appointed to educate them. In short, by their acts of engage
ment, their work in society, and their intellectual commit
ments, they have shown that they are already teachers.
They have taught themselves to be. (53:106)
One senses in the models a preoccupation with system and plan and,
with the possible exception of the Columbia Model, a neglect of the
capacities and motivations of the college student and an equal neglect
of the larger issues of education in the world.
A teacher education profession in touch with the student
world during the campus crisis years of 1968 to 1970 might be
expected to consider application of Peace Corps efforts and Teacher
Corps efforts to basic teacher training program s.
A training program for teachers in early childhood education
might be expected to reflect a concern for the global as well as the
national problem. It was reported in 1970 that two-thirds of the
132
w orld's population of pre-school children suffer permanent damage to
health and retardation to development due to chronic hunger. A
teacher preparation program that cares and acts about that problem,
and the problems of urban and ru ral children in the United States
would be expected to have greater appeal to the serious college
student in die 1970s (111:18).
New program s in operation. - -The Tutorial and Clinical
Program of Teacher Education at Northwestern, under the leadership
of Hazard, was implemented in 1966 as an approved program of the
state of Illinois. Developed to reflect the all-institution responsi
bility for, and involvement in, teacher education within a four-year
liberal arts framework, the program introduced professional
preparation in the freshman year. Each of the four years had a
professional sem inar with a focus on one of the foundations areas and
a practicum which increased yearly in length and sophistication.
Designed around tutorials and clinical experiences, the program was
a radical departure from tradition (30).
M-STEP, a seven-state cooperative project, developed new
patterns in laboratory experiences. One was to make student
teaching the core activity of the teacher preparation program.
Specific teaching skills and understandings were identified, arranged
in priorities and sequences, and distributed across the four years of
133
college program. They were integrated with course work, seminars,
and discussion. Thus, a long period of time is made available to the
prospective teacher for developing the skills and understandings
needed.
Student teaching centers, cooperatively planned and staffed
by the district and the college, were the setting in which M-STEP
operated. Courses were taught there for teachers, children learned
there, and the staff of the center school developed new skills as well.
A large number of students were centered there and assigned for
different lengths of time to different teachers. The center was richly
equipped with m aterials and media. Supervision operated from the
center and tended to be more frequent and more effective. Super
vision in M-STEP centers was done by school personnel, rather than
college professors (15:123-24).
West Virginia developed a pilot center which coordinated
State Department of Education, school, and college efforts in student
teaching. It functioned not as a physical center, but as an admin
istrative framework for developing student teaching program s
(15:86-101).
Woodruff in Utah conceptualized the student teaching center
as a setting for the integration of theory with practice. He recom
mended that they be exemplary but not experimental in the education
134
programs they demonstrated, be staffed by school and college
persons, and be used as workrooms for students learning to teach.
Utah developed plans which would eventually provide for twenty such
centers (15:129).
M aryland's Teacher Education Center was designed for the
"student of teaching" and it provided for laboratory experiences for
student teachers and in-service training for the supervising teachers
and staff. Training was designed along intensive and extensive
dimensions, using a variety of models. Focused observation and
analysis of teaching provided training experiences for supervising
teachers and for teachers in training. The aim was to develop skills
in supervising teachers such that they would conduct the major
portion of the training program of the student. College staff worked
intensively with the supervising teacher instead of with the student
teacher. Evaluations have shown that teachers trained in the center,
compared to those trained in the traditional program, used a greater
variety of instructional approaches, become less closed-minded,
apathetic and resistant to change, ask more divergent and elaboration
questions while teaching, and participate in the total school program
m ore widely (217).
M-STEP in Florida implemented the change in guidelines for
approval of teacher education program s. The State Department of
135
Education and the Teacher Education Advisory Council developed
guidelines which are performance-based, rather than course require
ment-based. M-STEP activities in Florida have been at the state and
college level, conducting research, and conference about various
aspects of professional education and certification, rather than
focused on program design and implementation.
The foregoing proposed and actual programs are representa
tive of the scope of attempts to reform teacher education during the
1960s. An analysis of the trends and recommendations for change
illustrated by these programs will be made to facilitate an analysis of
the proposed new programs in California institutions studied.
Changes: Trends and Recommendations
Research and authoritative opinion; statements from
accreditation agencies, state departments of education, professional
organization, and learned societies; and model programs developed
by institutions of higher learning are sources from which the follow
ing trends of change and recommendations for change were derived.
Changes reported are limited to those of objectives, process, and
content of the professional education component in a teacher prepara
tion program.
Conant's recommendations for the education of American
teachers, made in 1963, include the following items related to
professional education:
1„ The state should approve program s of practice
teaching, regulating the conditions and methods
of instruction with cooperation from the public
schools and the colleges (19:64).
2. Students should demonstrate competent perform
ance as teachers during the practice teaching
experiences as a prerequisite to credentialling
(19:60).
3. Cooperating teachers and clinical professors
should develop clinical experiences for the
studwnt teacher such that methods and teaching
experience are concurrent (19:61-62).
4. Psychology is "necessary" for preservice
training of elementary teachers; possibly not for
secondary teachers (19:136).
5. Practice and theory must be combined in methods
courses (19:141).
6. Teachers in prim ary grades should have prepara
tion in content and methods of teaching of all
subjects taught in the school.
137
7. Teachers in the upper elementary grades should
have preparation in depth in one area of the
subjects taught and introductory preparation in
the other subjects taught in the elementary school
(19:155).
8. Courses should be taken in the senior year con
currently with experience in the classroom.
9. Courses in content and method should be taught by
a team of clinical faculty with experience in the
practice and theory of teaching (19:156).
10. Three sem ester hours in the teaching of reading
should be required (19:156).
11. Practice teaching would extend over a period of at
least eight weeks, with a minimum of three hours
per day spent in the classroom. Three weeks of
full responsibility for the class would be given the
student teacher under supervision of cooperating
teacher and clinical instructor (19:162).
Conant’s report proposed a curriculum for elementary
teachers with thirty sem ester hours of professional education
including child growth and development; a selection from the history,
philosophy, or sociology of education; the teaching of reading;
138
intensive workshops in content and methods of elem entary subjects;
and a year long practicum (19:159).
Conant's recommendations may identify the beginning of a
trend toward a clinical approach to teacher preparation which gained
greater impetus in the latter part of the decade.
Six papers presented at the conference honoring Florence B.
Stratem eyer identified trends of change in teacher education at that
time. Hermanowicz (85) discussed a proposal for using an inquiry
approach in the training of teachers in a clinical setting such that
a direct analytical study of on-going teaching could be made. He
reported the possibility of an emerging theory of teaching which
would shed light upon the relationship of psychology, sociology, and
philosophy to educational process. He predicted the development of
substantive content of the professional education of teachers.
Lawrence called for a critical examination of the dissonance
between what teacher preparation programs attempt and what society
expects them to attempt. Alternative programs for educating the
disadvantaged and for developing paraprofessional personnel were
discussed (93).
O'Brien recommended that programs individualize experi
ences, provide early direct contact with communities and schools,
and identify appropriate content for the coursework in programs
139
designed to prepare teachers for the disadvantaged (100).
Manolakes recommended that the following changes be
made:
1. The diagnostic decision-making elements of
teacher behavior should be stressed.
2. The interactive aspect of teaching should be
analyzed.
3. Instructional components should be developed to
enable teachers to fit instruction to individuals
in groups.
4. Four types of laboratory experiences would
replace observation and student teaching and
would include development of basic tools of
instruction, diagnosis, and analysis of teaching,
implementation of diagnoses with students, and
practice teaching (97).
The increasing shift toward a clinical approach was reflected
in response to a survey of opinion made by a subcommittee of the
Teacher Education Committee of the Board of Regents for the
University of Georgia (142). Respondents from seventeen institutions
in the university system found that priority attention should be given
to professional laboratory experiences and to pre-school education.
140
E. Brooks Smith proposed state support for the cooperative
development of clinical teaching centers, identifying the classroom
teacher as the principal instructor of the student teacher. He
expanded the notion of student teaching to that of a practicum which
was a diverse set of laboratory and clinical experiences. He
encouraged the study of teaching (108).
Richard B. Smith proposed an inquiry model for teacher
education built upon the conceptual structures being defined in areas
of the curriculum and upon theories of learning. He regarded the
new curricula, and the methods of inquiry relevant to it, a major
reason for changing the mode of instruction of the teacher to an
inquiry mode (109).
Edelfeldt developed the notion of differentiated staffing and
the required differentiating of training which it implies. The trend
toward differentiation and career ladders in teaching was given
impetus during the development of program s to train teachers for the
disadvantaged (25).
Edelfeldt reported that Washington, Massachusetts,
Maryland, and Pennsylvania had certification regulations by 1968 to ,
cope with differentiated staffing. He re ferred to the eighty-five
Staff Development Schools to model different staff differentiation
patterns which were sponsored by the NEA (25:7-8).
141
Bloom, in developing his notion of learning for m astery,
recommended changes in assumptions, use of time, effort, and help
to the pupil, objectives, and program design. He called for a
program built upon the assumption that about 95 per cent of a group
could achieve m astery at learning tasks if given time enough,
appropriate help, and if the student made adequate effort. The shift
in objectives in teaching was from learning for recall to learning to
learn. The quality of instruction would be varied to fit the pupil's
needs and aptitudes. A variety of instructional methods and kinds of
grouping would be used. Achievement criteria would be set so that
teachers and learners would recognize when learning had occurred.
Absolute standards were set for achievement, and time was framed
to suit the learn er's individual pace (62).
By 1969 research was producing theoretical models, such as
Ladd's curriculum theory for teacher education (174) and Teachers
for the Real World (49), specially concerned with education for the
disadvantaged.
Trends were toward the teacher becoming a specialist in the
nature of learning, rather than in content; toward differentiated
staffing and career development structures. Teachers for the Real
World predicted that in the schools of the future, teaching staffs
would include
142
research associates, learning diagnosticians, visual literacy
specialists, com puter-assisted instruction specialist,
system s analysis and evaluation experts, specialists in
simulation and gaming techniques, information system and
data-base designers, community resource and liaison
specialists, learning process facilitators, and professional
negotiators (73:139)
Acceptable programs would be those which were relevant "directly to
the prim ary issues of our time . . . " (73:10); which were planned
in cooperation with school and community, with state and local
administration; and which dealt directly with racism and alienation of
the young (73:10).
Dean Corrigan, in reviewing that study made by AACTE,
felt that the scholars participating ignored the need for changes in the
school program s in order to achieve recommended changes in the
teacher preparation program s (73:136).
Harold Taylor, reporting research done for AACTE in
The World and the American Teacher and later in his book, The
World As Teacher, was critical of the lack of involvement of teacher
educators in the discussion of the social and political issues of the
late sixties. In that they failed to respond to student concern for the
"Negro revolution, " for the war in Vietnam, and for the war on
poverty, they were planning program s irrelevant to the students
expected to enter them. Citing the Teacher Corps, the Peace Corps,
Head Start, and the civil rights movement, among other, Taylor
143
argued that the energy invested there by activist youth could and
should be invested in the reform of American schools. He found that
educators who prepare teachers were less concerned with that than
with the professionalization of education, its place in the university
structure, and the professional status and treatment of the teachers
it trains (53:35-42).
He found a trend toward training the teacher professionally
to fit into the existing system effectively. (53:43). Innovations were a
means to increase effectiveness, not indications of substantive
changes in teacher education or in school program (53:44).
Taylor recommended a wide range of experiences in other
cultures and countries for the American teacher--overseas training
experiences in teaching which would enable the American teacher to
understand people in the world, and reflect those understandings in
his teaching of American children. He recommended that returning
Peace Corps volunteers, through approved programs and other
means, be allowed to count their teaching experience toward creden
tial requirements, to extend their knowledge and skills gained
overseas to the American public. Generally, he recommended a
component of international studies in teacher education which would
relate the study of teaching to the concerns of the college student and
serve to facilitate international studies in the schools (53:198).
144
As parts of a teacher's professional preparation, Taylor
suggested courses in anthropology, comparative education, develop
ment education, and courses enriched by presentations from students
from overseas and by work-study sessions overseas. American
teachers should have exposure to students from other cultures during
their training in order to gain concepts of the function of education in
a world setting (53:209-11).
Taylor recommended study of the works on education of
scholars such as Nevitt Sanford, James Coleman, and David Riesman
as part of the foundation's studies for teachers (53:212).
Recognizing that change was not forthcoming from a faculty
trained to teach traditional courses, nor from the state departments,
he saw program change in teacher education coming from one of three
groups: students, faculty members who take initiative in their own
courses, and deans and chairmen of departments who have clearly
thought out directions of change and make faculty appointments to
facilitate them (53:213).
Melbo, Dean of the Graduate School of Education at the
University of Southern California, wrote, in 1969, about teacher
education as the critical task of the coming decade. Melbo identified
ten trends--trends toward (1) differential training program s;
(2) training of specialists; (3) individualization of instruction using
145
diagnostic and prescriptive techniques; (4) clinical and laboratory
settings for training; (5) interdependent content and methods com
ponents; (6) content changes due to the knowledge explosion in the
behavioral sciences; (7) an emphasis on means of assessing teacher
productivity, (8) university-school cooperation in program planning
and implementation; (9) selection of students for potential, and
employment based upon competencies demonstrated; and (10) an
increasing emphasis upon elementary teaching (42:18-32).
In a position paper, Dean and Kennedy, Michigan State
University, represented views of the Deans, Directors of Teacher
Education, and Directors of Student Teaching in Michigan universities
and colleges. This group made the following recommendations for
program design: (1) program flexibility so that individual differences
in student teachers could determine the specific program for each to
follow; (2) multiple experiences of student teaching for each candidate,
providing contact with varying styles of teaching; (3) inclusion of
varieties of non-instructional school tasks; and (4) involvement of
practicing teachers in cooperative design of training program s
(15:165-66).
The Michigan deans and directors further recommended that
(1) students spend full time student teaching in cluster groups
assigned to a center school; (2) students should tutor, visit homes
146
and communities, and work with social agencies and special services
for pupils; (3) students have individualized schedules aimed to
develop professional, personal, social, and academic competencies;
(4) students should have practicum experiences which are graded in
complexity and duration; and (5) students should have seminars with
academic specialists in the center schools (15:167 - 68).
Late in 1969 Davies, Director of Education Professions
Development Act programs in the United States Office of Education,
outlined trends of change being supported by his programs. Teacher
education was moving (1) from being university dominated to being
dominated by the local education agency; (2) from a course and
lecture format to a clinical setting; (3) from programs which
specified means to programs which specified performance criteria
and objectives; (4) from remedial programs to programs creating
change; (5) from short-term , college-based programs to long-term
continuing programs run by schools and colleges; and (6) from
limited specific preparation programs to programs in priority fields
such as Teacher Corps, differentiated staffing, and critical shortage
fields (75:131-33).
Generally, trends identified by research and informed
professional opinion were toward (1) cooperative planning,
(2) clinical settings and experiences, (3) foundations courses more
147
reflective of social issues and new knowledge in psychology,
(4) toward an extended and differentiated practicum, and (5) toward a
specification of competencies which can be assessed by performance
criteria. Other trends were toward differentiation and individualiza
tion of training program s.
Accrediting agencies' recommendations concurred with these
trends. A ACTE and AST recommendations for new guidelines for
NCATE detailed criteria for laboratory and clinical work, for
individualization, for a differentiated practicum, for foundations
courses which stressed m ulti-cultural understandings, for contact
experiences with students from a variety of backgrounds, and for
clearly stated performance objectives by which the program and the
teacher could be evaluated (4*-12).
NASDTEC guidelines supported those trends and the
incorporation of recommendations from learned socieites and
professional societies in curriculum areas (44).
Institutions of higher education were surveyed by Johnson
(15) in 1968, who identified innovations in student teaching in
institutions in each state. In California, thirty institutions reported
changes—five of which are included in the present study.
Innovations reported and number reporting each were:
(1) team teaching, 3; (2) internships, 4; (3) group student teaching, 2;
148
(4) professional courses concurrent with student teaching, 4;
(5) m icro teaching, 1; (6) community study, 1; (7) video-taping, 2;
(8) modular scheduling, 2; (9) teacher assistantship, 1 (15:174-75).
Johnson reported frequencies by innovation type (33). The
ranking of types reported twenty-one or m ore times was:
1. Uses television equipment with student teachers.
2. Provides unusual o r extensive pre-student teaching
laboratory experiences.
3. Employs a professional sem ester.
4. Employs a student teaching center concept.
5. Provides student teaching experience in dis
advantaged areas.
6. Places student teachers in team teaching and/or
non-graded situations.
7. Employs an internship concept.
8. Utilizes a block program concept.
These trends represent the responses of 847 institutions in the United
States.
The model program s for preparation of elementary teachers
indicated strong support for the trends listed.
A further analysis of trends and recommendations for change
produced a taxonomy, presented in Chapter IV. It will be used in
the analysis of kinds of changes reported by the California institutions
studied.
CHAPTER III
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE APPROVED
PROGRAM APPROACH TO TEACHER
CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA
In California, a "credential" is a document issued by the
State Department of Education declaring that an individual has met
legal requirem ents and may be employed by a public school district
to render specified services. The legal requirem ents are deter
mined b y the legislature, are interpreted by the Governor-appointed
State Board of Education or by decisions of the courts or the Attorney
General, and are implemented by the State Department of Education.
The credential itself must be filed with the county superintendent of
schools who "certifies" that the contracted employee may be paid out
of tax funds to perform the duties desired by the district.
The "approved program approach" to teacher certification in
California emerged from fifteen years of public, professional, and
legal study and debate over credential revision. Kinney, in a study of
teacher certification practices, cited the California attempts at
150
151
credential reform as a classic example of the process (36). A brief
resum e of these attempts during the period from 1954 to 1970 may
lend perspective to this analysis of the approved program approach
and of the degree to which its objectives were currently being met, as
indicated by the kinds of institutional changes reported as a part of
this study.
Credential structure reform
In 1953 the California State Board of Education recognized
fifty-seven different credentials. Their overly specific provisions
and limitations on assignments authorized had become a problem for
employing school districts. Local authority for staff assignments
seemed to be too restricted. Insititutions were over-committed in
their attempts to provide preparation for so many narrowly defined
specializations. There was evident need for revision, and the
m atter was taken under study by the California Council on the
Education of Teachers in that same year (36:98).
A year later, the Superintendent of Public Instruction
requested the California Council on the Education of Teachers (CCET)
to initiate a long-term study of the credential problem. A committee
was appointed which in 1955 cited four m ajor problems in the
credential structure: (1) multiplicity of credentials, (2) over
specificity of credential requirem ents, (3) over-specification of
152
authorization for practice, and (4) a by-pass of institutional
preparation program s through the direct-to-state application method
of becoming certificated (36:98-99).
The committee believed the following conditions perpetuated
and aggravated these problems:
1. Professional assignments were controlled by
certification.
2. Quality of preparation was controlled through
specification of patterns of preparation.
3. Certification included both professional and non
professional groups.
In relation to these conditions, the committee re-defined certification
as a process of professional licensure of a person trained in an
approved institutional program of professional studies (36:99).
Three principles by which revision might be accomplished
were identified in the committee report. The "Principle of Profes
sional Responsibility" held the profession accountable for maintaining
standards; the "Principle of Feasibility" provided a differentiation of
roles for participating groups involved in certification; and the
"Principle of Interdependence of Processes" alluded to the coordination
and integration of efforts necessary.
Also, in 1958, the California Teachers Association prepared
153
a sim ilar set of recommendations. The State Department of
Education studied the CTA proposal and the CCET proposal, made
changes, published its own report, and circulated it widely for study.
The State Department of Education, however, defined certification as
a process of authorization for employment, rather than as a process
of professional licensing. It recommended five general types of
proposals which perm itted a new classification of the existing ones,
rather than achieving a real reform . Kinney noted that the difference
in assumptions about the nature and purpose of certification in a
profession was at the heart of the difficulty in the revision activities
(36:103).
After a two-day hearing on the State Department of Educa
tion recommendations, the State Board of Education approved the
proposal. Members of the State Legislature's Joint Interim Com
mission on the Public Education System were prominent at the
hearings, having developed recommendations sim ilar to those of the
State Department of Education. In fact, their recommendations
became the substance of subsequent legislation (Senate Bill 57) which
was later, in amended form, to become law (36:104).
In the ensuing debates in legislature over the credential
reform —debates which were highly political (19), amendments were
made which in effect nullified recommended reform s and, in fact,
154
served to increase the specificity of credentials, authorizations, and
prescription of programs of preparation (36:104-5); to develop
program s, certification requirements, and a credential structure
which would assure high professional standards (36:99-100).
The committee recommended a statewide study of the
problem and posed three questions:
1. What are the purposes of certification?
2. What are its difficulties?
3. What is the nature of an effective credential
structure? (36:100)
After discussion and debate in institutions and professional groups
across the state, the results of the study were published in 1956, and
recirculated for further study. In 1957 a final report was published
which made the following recommendations: (1) four separate
credentials in place of fifty-seven, (2) credentials for professional
personnel only, (3) more general authorization for practice, and
(4) appointment of a committee on professional standards which would
establish procedures to assure accountability (36:101-2, 191).
The State Department of Education published the report and
circulated it for reaction. The CCET appointed a second committee
to clarify the proposals and make revisions as needed. Regional
meetings w ere held in 1958 to determine professional opinion (151).
155
Results of a year of study indicated agreem ent on the four recom
mendations, plus two additional proposals: a fifth year for the
preparation of elem entary teachers which could be completed during
the first five years of service and general specification of program
requirem ents, leaving detailed specifics to the preparing institutions
(36:102-3).
Interpretations of legal
requirements
In 1961 Senate Bill 57 became law, and the State Board of
Education was faced with the task of developing regulations to
implement the law. To translate legislation into regulations to
govern the preparation of credentialed personnel, three committees
made recommendations to the State Board of Education. They were:
(1) a coordinating committee from the professional organizations
and preparing institutions, (2) a State Department of Education
committee, and (3) a State Board of Education committee (36:106-127,
131).
In 1962 the committee representing professional organiza
tions undertook a statewide study which developed recommendations
for program s of study. Issues were debated in the faculties of each
institution, as well as in professional organization meetings (221,222)
Recommendations were published in a final report in 1962 and taken
156
under study by the State Department of Education. This group
revised the recommendations, adding greater specificity. A State
Board of Education committee accepted both reports for study,
reduced the specificity somewhat, defined some ambiguous term s,
and established criteria for program planning. The final report of
the State Board of Education Committee was published in 1963 and
adopted in May of that year to become part of Title 5 of the
Administrative Code (36:105-7).
The resulting credential structure, effective in 1964, was,
in Kinney's analysis, found to be more complex, more specific, and
more limiting to institutions than had been the original structure.
The notion of approved program s in institutions had been lost and so
had the hope of professional licensure (36:108).
Differences in philosophy between the professional groups
and the legislative groups were even more polarized and were to
persist in the years to come. Kinney noted that the professional
groups favored (1) growth and development of the professional
standards of preparation as opposed to legally controlled minimum
standards; (2) exploratory and developmental program s, rather than
prescribed ones; (3) local control, as opposed to state control; and
(4) professional licensure which assured competency, rather than
civil service authorization for employment (36:108).
157
The principles as above received, and the contradictory
sources of power which developed, set the stage for continuing
controversy over teacher preparation—much of it centered around
the general and academic education components, rath er than around
requirem ents for strictly professional study. Conant characterized
the conflict over the reform of teacher certification in California as a
continuation of the conflict between academic professors and educa
tion professors projected to a state level. It was complicated by the
fact that the reform became a political issue which was exploited by
the Governor, the State Board of Education, and leaders in the
legislature. Conant noted that the new law was a sharp defeat for
the professional educators--ironic, in that they had initiated the
original effort toward reform (19:25).
Program changes
In the period from 1964 to 1969, institutions were thus faced
with the need to redesign their programs. Elementary teachers were
required to have five years of training, the fifth year at the graduate
level. Specificity in academic m ajors and minors further compli
cated program development, and such m ajors and minors were
especially difficult to define for the elementary teacher. A teacher
shortage during the period stimulated a rash of crash program s to
put minimally trained teachers into classroom s on "partial"
158
credentials. "Internship" program s provided a minimum of
professional training and a year of supervised apprenticeship, while
course of study requirements were being completed. One overall
effect of the additional year of preparation required was a significant
drop in enrollments in elementary programs leading to the full
credential (189),
During this period, the impact of federal funds for teacher
training programs was to further complicate the picture. Paid
internships, often initiated and designed by employing districts, were
evidence of the rising concerns within the client groups in the
profession. Special legislation was enacted to provide for these
district internships—part of the effort to force institutions to develop
changes in teacher preparation program s (163). Institutions were
spending increasing amounts of energy reforming their program s to
match legal requirements, rather than to match them with identified
needs in the schools and in the profession.
Institutional autonomy, state control, and accountability to
the public became issues in conflict with one another. In response to
the conflict and confusion, new bills were introduced into the
legislature (118, 119).
Professional preparation of teachers became an issue, not of
principle but of power. lin e s of power and control seemed to be
159
even more clearly drawn. In 1969 a means of modifying the effect
of conflict on teacher education was introduced by the State Depart
ment of Education. It was the approved program approach to teacher
certification. The approach was adopted as a simplification of the
Title 5 regulations by the State Board of Education in 1969, to become
fully effective in 1974 (117). C arl Larson, Chief of the Bureau of
Teacher Education and Certification, had proposed the approved
program approach, calling it a "Magna Carta" in teacher credential-
ing. It dealt effectively with both the issues of power and of principle
in teacher preparation (117).
The "approved program " approach provided for control by
general legislated requirem ents and by State Board of Education
accreditation of institutions' program s. It provided for professional
control through the accreditation procedure utilizing professional
peer judgment. It provided for institutional control by placing the
authority for determination of specific program content and process
in the hands of the professional and academic professors in the
colleges and universities. All-university approval of program s was
required. It also placed some m easure of control in the hands of the
local school districts, in that it specified that program s must give
evidence of having been designed in collaboration with members of
the profession serving in the school districts. Deans of schools of
160
education or directors of teacher education were requested by the
state to form committees and begin the provess of program develop
ment. Interim approval of existing accredited programs was granted,
and interim guidelines for accepting new program s for approval were
formed (124).
At the same moment, new legislation was proposed which
would again highly specify preparation requirem ents, and which
would require an examination system to prove competency. While
using the term "approved program approach, " Assembly Bill No. 122
actually represented the trend toward legal control of specifics to
the detrim ent of institutional autonomy. As the bill moved through
the assembly and the senate, plans on campuses were going forward
to redesign programs under the old law. A genuine question existed
as to the wisdom of spending time and money to design a profession
ally sound program which might be legislated out of existence in six
months (118).
A rival effort, Senate Bill No. 835, proposed to set broad
minimum standards and guidelines within which institutions could
design unique program s. This effort failed to get out of committee,
however, and the assembly bill was referred to the Governor for
signature (119).
It was in this climate of complex, uncertain, and difficult
161
debate that the deans or directors of teacher education were inter
viewed to determine the kinds of changes being proposed in their
teacher preparation program s. And it was in this climate of
professional, political, and public concern that changes were being
planned.
Issues
Several issues were focused in the continuing evolution of
California's teacher preparation program s. Those issues pertinent
to this study include (1) locus of control; (2) principles of teacher
preparation program development; (3) roles of participating groups;
(4) integration of power, principles, and participation to make it
possible to implement program s; (5) institutional diversity; and
(6) minimum standards versus optimum standards.
The positions of the legislature seemed to favor (1) legal
control; (2) minimum standards; (3) specification of roles, rules,
and designs; (4) institutional uniformity; and (5) centralized leader
ship coordinated by the legislature through a licensing board (118).
The professional organization position seemed to favor
(1) professional control at (a) the local level and/or (b) the state
level; (2) optimum standards; (3) diversity of roles through d istri
bution of power; (4) institutional uniformity; and (5) leadership
centralized in professional groups (4, 12, 120, 69, 70, 110).
162
The college and university positions seemed to favor
(1) institutional control of program s, (2) application of principle to
design of program s, (3) differentiated roles for groups and distribu
tion of power, (4) institutional diversity of function in teacher
education, and (5) optimum standards of preparation (26, 166, 222,
221).
The public opinion of the period demanded (1) higher quality
of teaching, (2) central control, (3) optimum standards, and
(4) accountability in term s of pupil achievement (105).
Objectives of the approved
program approach
The approved program approach to teacher certification,
initiated in this atmosphere and with this spectrum of public, legal,
and professional forces at work upon it, was expected to achieve the
following objectives in relation to the teaching profession, in relation
to institutions preparing teachers, and in relation to their program s of
preparation. Objectives related to the teaching profession
envisaged the encouragement of the following:
1. Quality program s of teacher preparation,
evaluated by professional criteria.
2. Professional control of preparation design and
curriculum.
3. Professional accountability for teacher competencies.
4. Professional response to new knowledge relevant to
teaching and learning.
With reference to institutions, the objectives of the approved
program approach were so stated as to encourage:
1. All-institution planning and implementation.
2. Institutional initiative and academic freedom.
3. Responsibility for effective changes.
4. Unique program s utilizing unique resources.
5. Cooperative planning with school districts.
Objectives which dealt specifically with program development were
designed to insure:
1. Coherent, integrated program s.
2. Knowledge- and perform ance-based program s.
3. Specialization.
4. Differentiation of training program s.
5. Cooperatively implemented program s.
6. Programs relevant to pupil and participant needs.
7. Optimum professional standards of preparation.
To what extent these objectives were being met, in the brief
period (one year) of trial by selected colleges and universities, was a
major question posed by this study. Chapter VII analyzes identified
164
kinds of changes proposed or operational in relation to these three-
dimensional objectives of the approved program approach.
CHAPTER IV
DESIGN AND PROCEDURE
Design of the Study
A series of seven processes were used to design and
conduct the study: (1) selection of the problem, (2) selection of the
research approach, (3) identification and selection of research
questions which provided categories for data collection, (4) collec
tion of data, (5) analysis and integration of data, (6) discussion and
recommendations regarding the findings, and (7) internal and external
criticism .
Selection of the problem
The problem selected was of interest for two reasons:
(1) preparation of elementary teachers had become a nationally
significant issue in the profession and in public opinion by 1970 and
(2) professional involvement in the process of preparing elem entary
teachers in the university had developed into a keen personal concern
for change in that process.
165
166
In California, during 1969-70, a number of pressures from
specially funded federal and state programs, from bills introduced
into the state legislature, from student criticism of existing pro
gram s, and from concerns within the profession, combined with
pressures from the schools and communities to create a climiate of
both hope and uncertainty. The adoption of the approved program
approach to teacher certification in 1969 provided institutions with
the opportunity to design new program s to meet identified needs in
college students, schools, and the communities. It seemed necessary
to find out whether o r not the adoption of that approach had had any
effect upon the institutions which prepare teachers. Were plans
underway toward developing appropriate program s which were
designed to meet those needs? Specifically, what were changes in the
professional studies of teachers which would enable them to teach
m ore effectively? It was with these questions in mind that the
research was designed.
Personal involvement of the investigator in professional
preparation of teachers contributed its influence in making the choice.
During the decade from 1960 to 1970, experiences had included being
a participant in an internship training program ; teaching in the
Mexican-American barrio in E ast Los Angeles, where daily confron
tation with the needs of bilingual and bicultural children who were
167
poor made it obvious that teacher preparation programs needed more
relation to the school programs they served, and a later experience
with a m ulti-cultural group of pupils as a demonstration and training
teacher for California Project Talent in which current research was
applied to curriculum development; and the teaching of the intellectu-.
ally gifted child. The resulting teacher training m aterials--film s and
courses of study—increased the interest in teacher education (121).
An opportunity to design teaching strategies and m aterials
for teaching reading in a learning center classroom for Southwest
Indian, Spanish, and Anglo students underlined the need for alterna
tive kinds of teacher preparation program s.
An invitation to join the Department of Teacher Education in
the School of Education at the University of Southern California, as an
instructor for the newly-formed Teacher Corps, provided experience
in teaching curriculum and methods courses and supervising student
teaching in the Los Angeles County ghetto and barrio areas. This
experience both confirmed the need for change in teacher prepara tion
program s and afforded an opportunity to create alternatives.
The initiation and direction of the Teacher Learning Center
concept, as an outgrowth of the Teacher Corps program in 1967 and
1968 made it possible to attempt clinical approaches to the practicum,
and provided experience in implementing change in a basic accredited
168
program. Explorations with Teacher Learning Centers at elemen
tary, junior high school, and senior high school levels illustrated the
potential and the problems of university/school district cooperation
at a clinical level. As Teacher Learning Centers became established
in the Basic Elementary Program at the University of Southern
California, it was possible to explore new approaches to integration
of the practicum with curriculum and methods courses, and to involve
academic professors in the Learning Center program.
The present position of D irector of Research and Evaluation
for Teacher Corps-Urban and concurrent responsibilities for program
development with the school districts and the university provided
further experience and information about the process of change and
its possibilities for professional training program s. As a result,
this dissertation draws upon personal experience and concern for
teacher preparation program development, as well as on professional
literature and institutional resource m aterials.
The study was written during the sum m er months of 1970, at
the end of a moementous and difficult year for the colleges and
universities in the United States. In California, each of the institu
tions studied had observed "days of concern" o r had been "on strik e --
shut down" during the first part of May, 1970. The impact of these
i
events upon the communities of higher learning had been deep and far ■
169
reaching. The climate of feeling toward education in general and
higher education specifically was one which ranged from doubt to .
outright hostility from the public. Deep questions were raised about
institutional autonomy, policy, and accountability—especially in state
institutions. Budget cutbacks and scarcity of federal funding made
program development difficult. In short, all factors seemed to be
working against a climate in which institutions could produce well-
designed and thoughtful long-term plans for change. It is against the
background of these realities which institutional plans reported in this
study should be viewed. It was a time of c risis—a crisis of
institutional purpose and character. Teacher education departments
held unique positions of being in the cro ss-fire of criticism from an
increasingly militant teaching profession, a dissatisfied public, and a
searching student generation.
Procedure
Research approaches
Published or unpublished research m easuring the impact of
the approved program approach to teacher certification on the
preparation programs for teachers was found to be scarce. A request
for such research sent to the state directors of teacher education and
certification of eight states noted for their progress in the field
170
failed to produce a single reference (147, 171, 172, 182, 190).
Subjective judgments of the effectiveness of the approved program
approach were given by some directors and several requested a
report of the findings of this study.
Teacher preparation is a process contributed to by legal,
professional, institutional, and public school groups. The vast
number of variables making impact upon institutional change and
program change make experimental research difficult. Initiatives
for reform from legal and professional sectors have characteristic
ally not been based on an experimental approach. Institutional
changes are sometimes based upon administrative considerations or
philosophical bases. For these reasons, a descriptive analysis was
chosen as a research approach.
An historical analysis of the events leading to the adoption
of the approved program approach was made to determine the
context for and the objectives of the approved program approach to
teacher certification in California.
An analysis of changes made and recommended in teacher
preparation in the United States produced criteria for change against
which the data collected about preparation programs in California
institutions could be described, analyzed, and compared. The
results of this descriptive analysis and comparison became the basis
171
for the conclusions and recommendations of the study.
Selection of institutions
Institutions for the study were selected by the following
criteria: (1) organization type, (2) geographical location, and
(3) size. Organization types were Private Colleges, California State
Colleges, Private Universities, and campuses of the University of
California. Institutions were chosen in each of the three m ajor urban
complexes: San Francisco-Oakland, Los Angeles, and San Diego.
Large and sm all campuses of each type were selected.
Letters were sent to the deans or directors of teacher
education at each institution describing the study, enclosing letters
of recommendation and an outline of subject areas for an oral
interview (Appendix E), and requesting an appointment for the
interview. Fifteen out of sixteen institutions designated were able to
respond.
No attempt was made to select a sample appropriate for
statistical analysis, as the intent of the study was to identify and
describe plans and changes, not to m easure significance. Profes
sional judgment of a committee was exercised to confirm the
selection of institutions.
A list of the institutions appears in Appendix A.
172
Categorization of the data
Five categories for data collection were derived from the
accreditation criteria proposed by the American Association of the
Colleges for Teacher Education (5) to examine the professional
studies component of teacher preparation programs (see Appendix B).
These categories were further specified through a review of the
literature reporting recommended changes in professional prepara
tion of elem entary teachers, and this specification resulted in a
fifty-one item instrument for analysis of the data (see Appendix C).
Another set of categories--objectives of the approved program
approach—was identified through a review of literature (Appendix D),
and the recommended changes reported in California institutions
were further analyzed in relation to these categories to find out to
what extent the objectives were being realized.
Collection of data
Data were collected from the following sources: (1) inter
views with the dean or director of teacher education at each
institution studied, (2) accreditation documents from the institutions,
(3) program planning documents from the institutions, (4) co rre
spondence with state directors of teacher education and certification,
and (5) books and documents made available through university
libraries and private professional libraries.
173
Interviews were tape-recorded conversations exploring
issues and plans related to the five categories of (1) program design,
(2) the professional sequence, (3) the practicum, (4) settings for
training, and (5) means of evaluation of training program and of
participant. Each person interviewed responded to questions in each
area, identifying the current program, the proposed changes, and
critical issues. Each person structured the interview and the time in
a way compatible to his style. The thirty-m inute appointment often
extended itself to a two-hour period as the issues developed. The
generosity with time and information was only one evidence of the
great courtesy with which the study was received. All but one of the
interviews was accomplished between June 17 and July 9, 1970,
during which visits were made to the various campuses, an itinerary
of over 2, 200 m iles. Information in mimeographed and printed form
was collected to supplement the information from the interviews. All
tape-recorded information was to be kept confidential; and for this
reason, the institutions have not been identified in the study. A list
of institutions visited appears in Appendix A.
Analysis, interpretation, and
recommendations"
The data collected were analyzed to determine what changes
were being undertaken. Those changes were compared to changes
174
recommended in the profession at large, as identified from a review
of model programs and proposed program s. A further analysis was
made to determine kinds of changes in relation to kinds of institutions
studied to determine differences. Trends of changes in California
private and public colleges and universities studied were then
identified and reported.
The results of these analyses were then related to the five
research questions, posed in Chapter I, to determine tentative
answers.
Validity of the kinds of proposed changes in teacher
preparation program s in California indicator institutions was estab
lished by their comparison to the nationally recommended changes.
To gain assurance of validity of the conclusions and the recommenda
tions of the study, the documentation used in the study was submitted
to internal and external criticism .
Instruments of analysis
From a review of the literature on the teaching-learning
process and on program development and design for teacher
preparation, fifty-one item s were selected which identify kinds of
changes in program type, design, process, content, and evaluation.
Each of the private and public colleges and universities studied,
reported information about the current and proposed program s such
175
that changes could be identified. In reporting the data from each
institution, statements were made regarding current program ,
proposed program , and changes. Changes were summarized for each
institution type group. The information was then tabulated by
institution type and for the whole group of fifteen institutions.
Institutions were identified by letter throughout the study. Patterns
of change within an institution, within an institution type, and within
the total group may be seen by inspection.
The fifty-one item analysis instrument, used in Chapters V
and VI, appears in Appendix C.
CHAPTER V
DESIRED PROGRAM CHANGES: ANALYSIS OF
INSTITUTIONAL DATA
Introduction
Institutions of higher education which were the subjects of
the present study were grouped according to four types: (1) private
colleges, (2) state colleges, (3) private universities, and
(4) University of California campuses. Each institution is identified
by a letter designation.
Information collected about the present and projected
program s of elem entary teacher preparation was analyzed in the
following categories: (1) design, (2) process, (3) content,
(4) outcomes, (5) program type, and (6) planning strategies.
Tape-recorded interviews, informal papers, and documents
were analyzed as sources of data. Each institution's process of
planning and unique characteristics in relation to teacher education
were discussed. Data in the six categories are presented in such a
176
177
way that by comparing current programs with desired changes, kinds
of changes may be identified.
A summary of kinds of changes concludes each section
describing an institution type. A general summary of kinds of
changes concludes the chapter and provides a basis for further
analysis of (1) relationship of California changes to recommended
changes derived from the literature and (2) the extent to which the
approved program approach seems to be fulfilling its objectives in its
first year of operation in California.
Teacher Preparation Programs in
Private Colleges
Institutional characteristics
The four private colleges studied ranged in institutional
objectives from an emphasis upon liberal arts studies with provision
for preprofessional and advanced degree programs (A, C, D) to an
emphasis upon professional preparation through a graduate school
highly related to undergraduate liberal arts studies (D). Two
colleges were church-related and two were independent. Of the
church-related colleges, one was Protestant and the other, Roman
Catholic. Finance issues were identified as critical constraints to
program development in the private colleges.
Private College A
A highly selective liberal arts college which values "men and
women who have the energy to search for personal and intellectual
values and the capacity for developing an awareness of the world
about them" (College Catalogue), College A offered professional
studies in the junior and senior years and a fifth year of graduate
internship and course work. Its stated objectives were to develop
quality and relevance in the experiences of teacher preparation. The
campus is surrounded by a multi-ethnic community, a Mexican-
American barrio, and located near a m ajor urban black community in
the metropolitan area.
Planning the approved program. —The current program had
been developed by an all-college committee on teacher education and
the faculty of the department of education. The proposed program
was being planned with those groups, students at the college, m aster
teachers from several school districts, and two university research
professors. Changes were toward cooperative planning from all
affected by the program .
Design. - -The current program was designed in a linear
sequence of courses to meet Title 5 requirem ents for professional
studies. It was designed to fit the quarter system, to allow under
graduates to complete enough requirements to teach on an intern
179
credential during the year following graduation. School personnel
carried the main burden of daily instruction during student teaching.
College coordinators visited, evaluated, and conferenced with student
teachers. Requirements for the Standard Credential were taken in
the summers following the intern year. The internship was super
vised jointly by college and districts.
The new program was designed to offer freshmen and
sophomores a contact course in the study of teaching. Participation
in urban schools at this time was expected to focus career choice.
Its design enabled the college to offer a two-track program: prepara
tion for the generalist elem entary teacher and for the specialist in
urban teaching. The urban track would require urban studies in the
academic component, and possibly conversational Spanish, as pre
requisites to professional studies. The foundations courses would be
modified to relate to urban problems. Phase I of the new program
would begin in 1972; Phase II, the following September. Two
research studies were in progress to help determine acceptable
changes in sequence of the practicum and its relationship to founda
tions courses. Individualization of pace according to need would be a
feature of parts of the new program . Changes were toward special
ization; toward a new relationship between practicum; and toward the
foundations, curriculum , and methods components. Curriculum and
180
methods would remain discrete courses offered by faculty specialists
in subject m atter areas.
Process. —The current program used campus lecture rooms,
supervisors' offices, and school classroom s as settings for training.
The new program would use experim ental schools in the metropolitan
area for observation, a variety of classroom s for participation
experiences leading to student teaching, and self-contained and team-
teaching settings at two levels for student teaching. Internships were
full-time teaching assignments, paid at a partial rate in the public
schools.
The sequence of experiences in the current program
required methods courses prior to student teaching. Student teaching
was the term inal training experience: 180 hours accomplished prior
to internship. Following the internship year, the social foundations
course and remaining curriculum and methods courses were to be
taken. Five more academic courses were required to meet the fifth
year of graduate work requirem ent in California.
The new sequence will include a freshman course as a
career-decision offering, required courses in urban studies and
language, the possibility of methods courses concurrently taught with
the student teaching experience, and m ore practicum, experiences in
the psychological foundations. Block-time might be scheduled for
181
foundations courses In order to increase the opportunity for
practicum experiences as part of those courses. A suggestion of
increasing the difficulty of the practicum was made in the idea of
assistant teacher experiences as an introduction to student teaching.
Instructional strategies in the current program were
lecturing, demonstration, sem inars, and individual conferences.
The sm all program allowed for individual differences. Most experi
ences were professor-directed and evaluated. Pupil achievement was
indirectly used to m easure effectiveness. Behavioral objectives for
teacher performance were not specified by m aster teachers or
college supervisors.
The new program would continue the individual conferences,
be more tutorial, make more use of field work, and involve students
in setting their own objectives.
The practicum in the current program consisted of a thirty-
hour segment of observation and participation in a classroom during
and as part of a curriculum course. It provided an introduction to
the classroom in the context of an area of the curriculum. Following
this was 150 hours of student teaching taken in two quarters in the
senior year. A third type of practicum experience was contained
within other curriculum course, for example, one would be required
to tell a story to some children in relation to the course in children's
182
literature. The practicum experiences did not seem to have an
integral relationship with each other in term s of the student teacher's
growth in specific skills.
Practicum experiences in the new program would be at the
freshman preprofessional level, hopefully during the professional
sequence as experiences in the foundations courses, as assistant
teacher, and finally as student-teacher. A contemplated change was
toward full day student teaching.
Changes in the settings were toward greater variety of
school program s for observation and participation, greater use of
special settings in barrio and ghetto.
Changes in the sequence included an e a rlie r introduction to
the practice of teaching--the freshman course—and the possibility of
concurrent methods and student teaching, dependent upon research
results.
Changes in the practicum were toward specialization in the
urban teaching problems, more pupil contact in the foundations
courses, and an increase in intensity of the student teaching exper
ience—from half-day to all-day.
Content. - -The current program offers foundations of
educational psychology prior to student teaching and social foundations
of education following student teaching and prior to the intern year.
The new program will offer a field-based and urban
problem-focused psychology and will require academic courses
relating to the urban situation as well as the social foundations. The
new freshman course is to be a study of teaching, and of education in
society through personal involvement in schools and communities.
Curriculum and methods courses in the current program are discrete
courses based upon faculty expertise and school curriculum require
ments. The social sciences course includes thirty hours of student
teaching.
In the new program the urban emphasis may be expected to
influence-content of these courses, but they will remain sim ilar in
form. Methods of teaching are tied more to curriculum than to
instructional strategies or particular teacher needs o r styles.
Changes are toward the urban emphasis as a selector of topics in the
foundations and possibly also in the curriculum courses. The
content of teaching, itself, has little apparent emphasis in either the
current or the proposed program. The psychology course will
possibly offer knowledge and practice in the process of teaching in
urban settings.
Evaluation. - -Currently, the College A program was using
ratings by training teachers and supervisors, observation visits by
supervisors as the means for evaluating teacher competencies, and
184
diagnosing needs. The proposed program evaluation system s were
not described. The rating sheets dealt with six areas of personal
qualities and ten areas of professional competencies, such as plan
ning skills, instruction skills, management of environment, and so
on. Nine levels of competence in any area could be identified, but
competencies were not specified in behavioral, observable term s.
Weekly rating sheets from the college supervisor enabled the student
teacher to identify areas of strength and weakness. Conferences
provided for remediation.
Summary of kinds of changes in College A. - -Generally, the
program was one of socialization to the existing school program s,
apparently designed to accommodate the mandatory fifth year of
graduate work for elem entary teachers but remaining sim ilar in
nature to the undergraduate program s. Changes reported in the
planning stages were generally changes of emphasis, extensions of
time, of the composition of the planning team, and of the relationship
of the practicum to the coursework in the foundations.
1. Design of professional studies was less linear
and more system atic, relating parts to the whole;
and it provided for m ore individual pacing through
m ore differentiated practicum experiences. s
Students and m aster teachers were added to the j
1
. - _ . ...... I
185
planning team.
2. Changes in process elements were toward diversity
of settings for pre-student teacher experiences, a
more flexible sequence, individualization of
program , greater continuity of practicum experi
ences, and a practicum which was more in ter
penetrated with course work and which was graded
in intensity from assistant teacher to half-day
teaching in full-day student teaching.
3. Content changes were related to the emphasis upon
producing a high quality teacher for m ulti
cultural urban schools and were toward increased
substantive knowledge about the urban setting and
increased experience in it.
4. Changes in evaluation procedures were not
reported, although a revision of the rating sheets
was intended.
College A reported severe constraints in time and staff for
planning and implementation. They sought aid from the professional
graduate school of education at a university in the area. College A
had outstanding specialists in curriculum o r academic fields, who
were of service to teacher education, but perhaps not specialists in
186
chat field. The question was how to incorporate the expertise of a
professor into a service program to the enhancement of both professor
and program. Overspecification of preparation requirem ents seemed
to make it difficult for a sm all private institution to have the latitude
to employ its special features--top scholars, departments with top
reputations--in program s of teacher preparation.
The time requirements of a full year of graduate work for
prospective elem entary teachers were fulfilled by a series of
sum mers of w ork--perhaps an artificial pattern for a liberal arts
college and of questionable professional and pedagogical value.
Institutional organization and legal requirem ents combined to offer
the institution little choice.
The approved program approach seemed to offer the college
an opportunity to define its lim its in teacher preparation, not have to
be all things to all requirem ents, and to encourage it to identify its
special strengths. Urban studies was one of them and its incorpora
tion into teacher preparation seemed a promising move.
Private College B
Using the world as their campus, College B encouraged
students "to design their own independent learning experience, to be
creative, to try the unusual, to challenge the mundane" (College
Catalogue) during the two, one-month term s each year provided for
187
such efforts. Students are also encouraged to spend a year off
campus, in individually designed relevant experiences for which
credit is given. Graduate study in professional education is designed
around state credential requirements and also to provide a M aster of
A rts in Teaching. Some independent study was available but was not
a significant feature of the credential programs, which were highly
technical expressions of curriculum designed to meet course credit
requirements mandated by legislation and code interpretations.
Planning the approved program . --Numerous meetings with
teachers and principals in several cooperating districts had permitted
the staff to develop a new curriculum for teacher preparation.
Participating teachers were within their first five years of experi
ence. Among the college faculty, conferences and conversations
(frequent and informal) provided opportunities for planning. Two
faculty (full time) were appointed for the summer, to develop the new
program which would begin in the fell of 1970. At that time, the
college would have no approved program and would apply for approval
of the new one.
Design. - -The director referred to the current program as a
"lock-step of formal courses" which was linear and designed around
legal requirements, rather than teacher performances. A college
and a district internship were alternatives to the standard program.
188
Internships were graduate program s offering summer workshops and
student teaching prior to a one- o r two-year internship during which
professional courses were to be taken. Student teaching was done in
self-contained classroom s, evaluated by the training teacher--for a
total of 225 hours.
In the new program a systems design for a five-year
sequence was employed to provide for distributed practicum experi
ences and performance criteria-based professional experiences
offered in block-time segments; individual pace and flexibility of
design was employed to meet the needs of teachers and school
program s. The design was based upon the assumption of a success-
oriented school program and upon cooperation between college and
school.
Process. - -The traditional program used lecture halls and
school rooms as settings. The lock-step sequence of courses
insured curriculum and foundations courses as prerequisites for
student teaching. Some use of video tapes was made in instruction.
Student teaching and supervised internships constituted the practicum.
The new program will use pupil classroom s and other space
in carefully selected schools as the setting for all the professional
studies. The sequence may begin with the freshman sem inar held in ;
the school, which requires thirty hours of participation in classroomsj
189
and related work in human growth and development of the elem entary
level child. Seminars will be taught by the school principal, selected
by the college and the district for expertise in that subject. Later in
the sequence comes the ten-unit block-time experience in which
twenty students and one staff member combine theory and practice in
psychology, curriculum, and instructional strategies. A full-time
experience, the work is scheduled in the schools and includes student
teaching. The courses integrated into the block are designed by
behavioral objectives in sequence. A student may proceed at his own
pace through the objectives, demonstrated competence at given levels
being the criteria for selecting next experiences.
Instructional strategies were changing from self-contained
lectures and discussions to the use of m icro-teaching, video-taped
instructional sequences and individual counselling by college and
school staff to determine sequence of objectives and degree of
m astery.
The practicum proposed was a practice-based block of
professional studies which incorporated foundations and curriculum
and methods experiences. It was designed by performance criteria,
based on six roles of a teacher identified in a professional education
document from the California Teachers Association, and it integrated,:
knowledge and skills from the foundations and curriculum subject
190
areas. C riteria were sequenced to provide for a gradual induction
into full-time student teaching. The practicum provided flexibility
for individualization in content and in pace in contrast to the discrete,
term inal student teaching practicum in the old program.
Content. —At College B, the old program required founda
tions courses in psychology and sociology of education work in
curriculum and methods of teaching, child psychology and develop
ment, audio-visual education, and student teaching.
The new program designs foundations courses so that
content is appropriate to level of pupil, to practicum experiences,
and to specific school settings. Curriculum and methods rem ain the
same in content, but performances a re specified somewhat. Organ
ization is around school subject m atter more than around the
principles of teaching and learning. A state text prescribing the
physical education program is used, with specified behaviors
identified in broad term s; for example, "each class member will
lead a game for their chosen grade level" (Course Outline).
Evaluation. - -Grades and rating sheets formed evaluation
processes in the old program; the new program was designed from
performance objective, often criterion-referenced, such that
m astery was possible on an individual basis. Thus, evaluation was
diagnostic, assisting the student to know what was needed. Self-
191
evaluation was provided for in a rating sheet related to course
objectives and with criteria specified.
Summary of kinds of changes in College B. --Generally, the
college seemed to be moving toward a program which provided early
entry, used the one-month term s for special professional courses,
defined professional competencies, was field-based, and allowed for
individualization. It was developing a five-year professional
program with opportunities for early professional work. In this, the
college seemed cognizant of the need expressed by the mature
college student for early involvement in "the real w orld"--a need
ignored by the requirement that professional education be offered
only in a fifth year.
1. Changes in design were toward an integrated
system, with individual pacing, and were
developed through extensive cooperative planning
with schools and en route planning with college
students.
2. Changes in process were toward off-campus
settings for simultaneous, integrated, block-time
courses providing for a continuous and graded
practicum. Changes in instructional strategies
included use of performance objectives, of video
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simulation, micro-teaching, and flexibility of
schedule within a self-contained group located at
a given school setting. Practicum changes
included sequenced performance objectives for
the practicum , differentiated experiences over
the five years, and joint supervision by college
and school staff.
3. Changes in content included selection of topics in
psychology to match grade levels taught and
integration of curriculum and psychology of human
growth and development in a practicum setting.
4. Changes in evaluation procedure were toward full
use of perform ance-based, criterion-referenced
objectives in all phases of the program. Self-
evaluation by rating sheets were to be used diag-
nostically. Subjective evaluation was to comple
ment performance criteria evaluation.
The director spoke strongly of the problems of a private
college attempting program change in a state where requirem ents are
legislated so specifically. He said,
I resist state legislature determination of what teacher
education should do. In California, institutions have comfort
ably adapted to that, saying, there's nothing we can do--this
is die law. (Interview)
193
He spoke of "living with the threat of AB122" and the impossibility of
long-range planning:
Why spend one or two o r five thousand dollars developing a
community education oriented program with the notion that
that money is going down the drain. . . . By November we
will have to do it all over again. (Interview)
He advocated change from within the institution and noted that the
proposed changes had come from specially selected faculty, implying
that a change in faculty produced viable changes in program . All
staff had had recent experience in classroom s in schools.
College B emphasized procedural and design changes, but
little emphasis seemed to be given to the content of the experiences--
a change which would arise from a redefinition of teaching and
learning, or from a review of college resources in relation to
teacher preparation. One wondered at the apparent lack of the use of
the unique off-campus month in professional preparation which called
for independent learning experiences, the unusual, and "a challenge
to the mundane. " Such aims for professional teacher preparation
would not seem to be out of order in a profession undergoing dynamic
change and self-appraisal.
Private College C
The Department of Education at College C identified its
m ajor function to be that of preparing teachers for the schools in
194
California. Its objective was "to offer professional training to the
securing of teaching credentials, with special emphasis given to the
needs in the state of California" (Catalogue). A definition of
professional education suggested program criteria:
The department regards professional education as compre
hending within its scope the development of social and
personal attitudes and responsibilities, ethical standard,
and ideals of service. In providing both cultural and
scientific backgrounds it aims to promote an appreciation of
the institutions and traditions of a free society, to foster
attitudes of critical observation and judgment, and to equip
the prospective teacher with the knowledge and skills
involved in the more technical aspects of the education
process. (College Catalogue)
Located in a black community at the heart of a metropolitan complex,
surrounded by transition areas of complex socioeconomic and
racial composition, the college prepares teachers for the m etro
politan school system . That school system is struggling to solve
urban education problems through federally financed innovative
program s. It provided teacher education coordinators who had joint
appointments with colleges and universities in the area.
The influence of the school district was found to be very
strong, perhaps typified by the fact that the director of the depart
ment requested that the district coordinator give the interview from
which these data were reported. The coordinator was closely tied to
the college faculty but did not have a regular tenured appointment.
The student body is recruited from sm all town and ru ral
195
areas, suburban areas in the metropolitan complex, and from the
black community in which it is located. The community is one in
*
transition and was seen to be a valuable setting for some experiences
in teacher preparation.
Planning the approved program . —Plans for accreditation
visits had superceded plans for new program s. Modifications of the
current program were reported. A teacher training committee
composed of all department chairmen in the college worked with the
department to develop program s.
A State Department of Education consultant had met with the
committee to discuss the approved program approach. The dean of
the school of education at a state college had met with them as well.
Discussions had begun, but there were no changes as yet to report.
The two critical issues for planning which were reported were
(1) the need for an urban emphasis in teacher preparation to meet the
needs of the black and brown students in the inner-city schools, and
(2) the effect of a teachers' strike on the student teaching program
and beliefs about the profession held by student teachers.
Design. - -The current program was designed in a linear
course sequence to meet state requirem ents. The initial course was
offered in the junior o r senior year in the social foundations of
education. Students entering the elem entary program after this
196
course were required to take two sem esters of curriculum and
methods which included intensive observation and participation in
classroom s, each student was assigned to a training teacher two
mornings p er week. In the afternoons campus-based sem inars were
held in curriculum areas of language arts, mathematics, social
sciences, and science. Form al observation reports were required.
Students taught individuals, sm all groups, and large groups during
these courses. A unit for teaching social studies was prepared and
taught during one course.
Three psychology courses were required: (1) child
psychology, (2) educational psychology, and (3) tests and m easure
ments. Student teaching was supervised by the district coordinator
for one full school sem ester, all day, five days per week. An
internship year satisfied the remaining half of the student teaching
requirem ents.
A new program might include training for the paraprofes-
sionals used in the district schools. Planning of process and content
seemed to be directed by the school member of the college-school
team, with the involvement of the all-college committee.
Process. - -The current program used city school class
rooms and campus classroom s as settings for observation and
practicum experiences. Teachers for the observation phase were as
197
carefully selected as were the supervising teachers for the student
teaching phase.
A new program could involve the students in jobs in the
community stores and banks to enable them to gain understanding of
the black community in which the schools were located. Non-
instructional tasks in the community schools might be used to develop
understanding of the school as an institution in the community. Self-
contained classroom s would remain the principal settings for student
teaching.
Separate courses offered in linear sequence characterized
the current program . The practicum was graded by amount and kind
of involvement in teaching. A heavy emphasis was placed upon being
in the classroom . The new program would maintain this sequence.
Instructional strategies used in teacher preparation were
lectures, sem inars, private conferences, and individual visits to the
student teacher's classroom . The training teacher demonstrated for
the student teacher and determined what experiences he should
attempt. Video-taped evaluation of teaching and conferences follow
ing evaluation, provided diagnostic help. The ratio of one observer
to one teacher provided for individualized help.
The practicum was designed to enable the student to live
through a school calendar sem ester. Emphasis was placed upon
198
learning what to do the first day, and on classroom management
organization, control, and the parent-teacher relationship. The
sem inar conducted fay the coordinator held concurrently with student
teaching provided the setting for such discussions. There they were
counseled about the technical details of credential application and
prepared for the district teacher's examination. The student was
required to spend ten weeks of the student teaching component in each
of two levels of elem entary classroom s.
A m ajor concern expressed was that of enabling students to
"fit into the pattern" of the public school, to learn how to work for the
public under public pressures, and to become enculturated to the
school culture. Extensive and intensive personal attention was given
each candidate in the program to attain these objectives. Since the
present program was found to be highly efficient in reaching these
objectives, further changes were not contemplated at this time.
Content. - -In the current program social foundations of
education are offered by the department of education and psychology
courses are offered by the department of psychology. History or
philosophy of education are options. In a new program m ore
emphasis upon the urban setting was planned. Curriculum and
methods courses were designed to match pupil programs in the
schools. Emphasis was upon lesson planning and identification of
199
behaviorally stated Instructional objectives. Courses were field-
based for observation, with an on-campus workshop following each
morning of observation and participation. The methods of teaching
were derived from current practice in the classroom in relation to
specific curriculum. No differentiation of teaching strategies, in
relation to conceptual structures in a curriculum area, was reported.
Evaluation. - -Evaluation of observations and of detailed
lesson plans was used. Rating sheets were used by the district
training teacher and coordinator. Personal conferences and individual
attention provided the means for on-going evaluation. Specification
on a pupil lesson plan of objective, conditions for learning, and
performance criteria provided a framework for evaluation of lesson-
giving. A sim ilar specificity for the training program of the teacher
was not reported.
College C was planning to open a Learning Center to augment
the library and to provide the community with evidence that special
concerns were held for education of the children of the community.
The Learning Center would be used for simulation experiences in
teacher preparation. A m ajor purpose would be to serve as a contact
point with the community. It would also be used for the retraining of
college teachers in new methods and staffing patterns.
The need for a required general education course in the
200
role of the schools in society was a suggested change. Paraprofes-
sional involvement in the freshman and sophomore years was
expressed as a desired change.
C ritical to the program was the selection and training of the
supervising teachers, their continued improvement of teaching, and
their skills in working with college students.
Summary of kinds of changes in College C. - -While the
professional sequence was considered to be effective and changes
were not anticipated, the following kinds of changes were predicted
toward (1) more involvement in the community, (2) m ore emphasis
on the sociological foundations, (3) m ore work with the para-
professionals, and (4) development of leadership in working with
adults as one of the teacher's roles.
1. No changes in program design were reported in
the areas of organization, time, and participation
in planning. Linear design was maintained.
2. Process changes proposed included using the
community in new ways as settings for learning.
The proposed Learning Center would serve as a
kind of setting for experiences.
3. Content changes were toward a sociological study
which emphasized the urban cultures. Art,
201
music, and physical education would be reinstated.
4. Changes in evaluation procedures were undeter
mined.
College C was an example of an institution whose programs
were successful in socialization of the new teacher to the existing
school program . The district's policies about lesson plans, class
room organization, m aterials, instruction methods, and discipline
and control were determ iners of the college program. Generally,
College C was found to model its programs after guidelines from the
state and the school district, out of a service function; and in so
doing, it gave more emphasis to socialization of students to given
methods and program s, and less emphasis upon developing a sense of
inquiry in prospective teachers about teaching. There was no study
of alternative kinds of teaching o r pupil program or alternate
approaches to staffing, planning, and evaluation. The intent was to
develop a high level of competence in teachers in currently accepted
educational practices so that they could offer a high level of service
to cooperating districts.
Private College D
A sm all college located in the heart of a metropolitan area,
College D encouraged inquiry, individuality, and responsibility in its
students. Interdisciplinary sem inars considered topics such as
202
structure, discovery, or identity as they related to various dis
ciplines. It called for participants, not spectators:
The student's responsibility is twofold. He m ust assume
partial or proportionate responsibility for the effectiveness
of the College. He must assume final and total responsibility
for himself.
Sllltlll******!******
This responsibility is urged upon him in the orientation
sem inars, in academic counseling, and in the atmosphere
of a campus created by a faculty and student body who have
experienced the techniques of basic encounter and have
experimented with incorporating these techniques into the
learning experience. (College Catalogue)
Requirements for entering the program for the preparation of
teachers include:
1. Substantial academic achievement
2. A demonstrated interest in people, particularly boys
and girls of school age
3. Good health
4. Reasonably at peace with the world
5. A venturesome spirit. (Program Announcement)
Objectives for the students' collegiate experiences are
. . . to initiate the student at the level of mature inquiry to
the open-ended tentative nature of the results of the life
long activity known as learning . . . by seeking to develop
the person, acutely conscious of self and able to use that self
to take the m easure of all that he perceives about him, a
man or woman who has learned how to learn and has come to
understand what it means to know. (College Catalogue)
It was found that the proposed teacher preparation program imple-
nmentedthese objectives in developing the person as teacher.
Planning the approved program. —Planning was undertaken
by a steering committee composed of students, the academic dean,
203
representatives from the metropolitan school district, a biologist, a
foreign language professor, an economist, and two professional
education professors. Planning was guided by the one principle—to
do that which develops the self-initiated and self-directed learner.
The planning model used was an organizational development model—
an organic planning model, in which the planners as well as those
planned for self-initiate and thus create, rather than manage the
program.
Design. - -The current program was designed in linear
fashion to provide the required courses in foundations, curriculum
and methods, and practice teaching. It was designed to prepare for
the partial credential through an internship.
The new program was being designed by using an organic
planning model in order to develop a process, rather than a
curriculum. The process was developmental, changing, and enabled
students to (1) identify and commit to learning goals, (2) develop his
own learning program , and (3) help design and participate in the
evaluation procedure for that program. The organizing principle of
the design was to create self-autonomy in the prospective teachers.
The expression of the design would vary with the participant. The
design choice was derived from an analysis of societal and personal
needs:
204
We are working toward a kind of education which will make
it possible for the student to grow in self-autonomy. We
see that as an urgent need in the culture in a post-industrial
society in which we are moving toward a service economy
and in which we are moving also toward a man-machine
world. The individuals who are not self-autonomous are
going to get swallowed by the system and by the machine.
(Interview Quotation)
The program was created around two seminars which served as
focal points for activities and discussions about activities:
"Explorations in Learning" and "Other Explorations. " They were
open to all levels and implied varying amounts of varying activities
in order to prepare the person to teach.
Process. - -The traditional program used classrooms as
settings for student teaching and the campus as settings for lectures,
sem inars, and discussions. The sequence permitted the senior to
graduate with requirements toward a partial fulfillment credential.
The practicum was traditional student teaching conducted in neighbor
ing metropolitan schools or a two-year supervised internship.
In the new program, the program itself was the process and
modeled the processes of teaching valued. The settings were all the
possible schools and classes that could be visited, the total life of the
prospective teacher in relation to his learning, and the self as a
setting for learning and developing learning styles. Elementary or
high schools were appropriate settings for learning experiences. Any
situation in which the human learns was used as a setting.
205
The traditional program used a linear course sequence.
The new program used an organic sequence of experiences chosen
cooperatively by student and staff with the purpose of testing and
extending the students1 boundaries. Specific sequences of experi
ences were to be developed for each student. The initial experience
was the seminar. "Explorations in Learning, " which was focused on
introspection about one's own learning styles and observation of
other learners and their environments--ten to twenty visits to
schools.
Instructional strategies in the new program were modeling
the learning behaviors, the autonomy, the self-initiation, and self-
direction; rigorous concern with creating structures and forms
within which students could (1) identify goals, (2) develop programs,
(3) develop criteria for excellence, and (4) develop and use an
evaluation process. The counselling process was called a "searching-
decision-making process" in which the students were helped to
develop their own rationale for their programs. The strategies
which promoted the development and growth of the person were as
deep a concern as that for the development of professional compe
tencies.
The whole training process was identified as a "methods"
course in teaching. The institution collaborates with the student who
206
takes full responsibility for his own learnings. An "irritant quality"
in experiences was valued and encouraged as it encouraged a
rigorous involvement in the search for truth about teaching and
learning.
The practicum traditionally was limited to directed teaching
in the elementary school.
In the new program the practicum has total flexibility of
design, can involve experiences at both levels, and can vary in
length and nature to meet the learning needs of individuals.
Practicum experiences include work in the theater arts
department, in body movement and theater games, and other depart
ments were being invited to offer their contributions to the develop
ment of effective teachers. Student teaching may or may not be an
element. Generally, experiences of tutoring, practice teaching, and
apprenticeship were possibilities. The practicum evolves from a
commitment to boundary testing and extending and thus would be as
various as are the boundaries of the participants.
Video-taping of interaction with pupils was used to see if a
person's teaching style were consistent with his beliefs about teach
ing. Analysis of interaction provided clues to next kinds of practicum
experiences. The practicum also aimed to extend a person's aware
ness of alternative modes of teaching and learning behavior and to
207
give him experience in those modes.
Content. --M ajor dimensions of content in the new program
were learning as a life activity and modeling and encouraging self
initiated and self-directed learning in others. The rigor and richness
of the experiences of the staff determined the quality of the sem inar
experiences. Extensive reading and learning from all academic
departments was a part of the content of this experience. Compe
tency for self-direction was the key to content. Thus, a participant
could choose to learn how language develops in young children and
could initiate experiences to provide knowledge and skills in this
area. The a rt department, the theater arts department, and the
English department might all become sources for such experience for
that participant. It was expected that all currently required content
areas could be included and identified in the program.
Evaluation. - -The student determined and used evaluation
procedures based upon the goals and program designed. The degree
to which boundaries of experience widen and to which motivation
exists act as assessm ents of growth. A key issue expressed was that
credits in coursework do not qualify a person to teach. The person
was qualified when he could demonstrate his qualifications in a
practical setting. Content analysis of the activities in the sem inar
provide another form of evaluation.
208
College D was an example of a scholarly community's
approach to the teacher preparation problem. It was from within the
community--its nature, purpose, and comm itment--that the program
was derived. The program was thought of and allowed to develop
from an organic community context. The source of teaching
behaviors--the person or the self--w as the focus for preparation,
rather than the focus being upon the resultant behaviors alone.
The college began its planning with the sim ple questions:
Why have a school? What are the expectations for a child's learning
at a given age? Why use grading system s? In exploring those
questions, the principles of self-initiation and self-direction were
derived. The program was unique in that it was created around
principle, rather than task and provided for growth and change,
rather than perfected implementation in its original form. An
organic planning model is self-initiating, also, and is unpredictable
in the forms it generates.
Summary of kinds of changes. —
1. Changes in planning were from involvement of
professional educators to involvement of academic
faculty and community people and students.
2. Changes in design were from linear to an organic
system s approach.
209
3. Changes in process were in definition of settings
to include total variety of schools, and the self,
as a setting for learning about learning. Thus,
the total environment has potential as a learning
center. Changes in sequence were from linear
and graduated practicum experiences to organic
and topical experiences decided for each student.
The practicum became continual, block-time
planning and problem-focus sequences were used.
4. Strategy changes were from instructor-initiated
and directed to learner-initiated and directed.
The instructor and college became collaborative,
modeled desired behaviors, used multiple media,
and used techniques of encounter. Responsibility
for demonstration of competence rested with the
student and not the teacher.
5. Changes in the practicum were toward unique
practicum experiences to implement the rationale
and goals developed by the prospective teacher
under the guidance of the staff and interaction with
peers. Practicum experiences focused on the
competency of self-directed learning for the
210
teacher and the pupil,
6. Content changes were toward full involvement of
academic disciplines in teacher preparation—in
professional preparation, as well as academic
preparation. The content of teacher preparation
became "the learning process. " Methods were
the process itself--tied to the psychology of
learning, not the content of curriculum. C urricu
lum was encountered in term s of conceptual inquiry
indigenous to it. The sociological study of the
school was a part of the explorations sem inar and
a requisite to a student's development of a rationale
about teaching and learning to teach.
6. Changes in evaluation were toward self-initiated
perform ance criteria and knowledge criteria;
toward program evaluation from a steering com
m ittee appreciated for their "tough mindedness. "
College D could demonstrate to the state and to accrediting
boards a high quality of teacher preparation according to their
evaluation structures, but it was not attempting to design its program
to m eet those tests.
As a liberal arts college, it had built a program from a
211
redefinition of the nature and purpose of school and a reevaluation of
the role of the college student in his own educational program. A
very high quality of faculty involved in teacher preparation made a
rigorous program possible. The program was realistic in its
assessm ent of the challenges of a post-industrial affluent society and
aimed to develop a quality of living in persons who become teachers
which will enable them to create, contribute, give to, and renew
institutions and society.
Clarity of principle upon which the program is based and is
developing is its chief strength. It was one of the few programs •
studied which had articulated its ideas about the nature and needs of
the human in relation to how to prepare a teacher. It is based upon
development of the unique person, rather than upon development of a
minimum acceptable level of performance in a teacher. The program
does not socialize teachers to the school system but does encourage
them to develop styles, alternatives, and to make choices about
kinds of authority under which they will serve.
Teacher Preparation Programs
at State Colleges
Institutional characteristics
Four of the nineteen campuses of the California State
College System were visited for the study. The State Colleges j
212
have a current enrollment of approximately 212,000 students. They
represent the largest system of public higher education in the
western hemisphere and one of the largest in the world (67).
While each college has developed its own institutional
character, all have a prim ary commitment to teacher education as a
service to the state and mandated by state law. The m ajor teacher
preparation institutions in California are State Colleges (189), with
from 600 to over 1,000 students in teacher preparation programs at
a given time. San Jose State College, in 1965, was reported to have
recommended the largest number of elementary teachers for certifi
cation of any institution in the country--m ore than 800 that year. In
1963 two-thirds of the 19,000 new teachers employed in California
schools were trained in the State Colleges (189:18). One of the four
institutions studied offered only a fifth year program; the other,
undergraduate and graduate program s.
State College E
For many years the only m ajor institution of higher educa
tion in a metropolitan community of 1,250,000 people, State College E
prepared teachers for all of the area's school districts. About 700
elementary teachers were recommended for certification each year.
The dean characterized the School of Education as one in
which the faculty maintained a "spirit of continual search for
213
appropriate program s. " Interviews with various of the faculty
confirmed the fact that they were encouraged to explore new pro
cedures, try pilot program s, develop new structures within the
existing framework. The approved program approach of 1969 was
believed to have had psychological impact upon the institution, but
growth and changes in program were already in motion.
Planning the teacher preparation program . —For twelve
years, the institution had had a Teacher Education Advisory Council
representing the total institution and working together on the general,
academic, and professional education components.
The faculty, which dealt with elementary education and
teacher training, were encouraged to and did, in fact, develop unique
treatm ents of the professional sequence which reflected community
concerns--for example, developed a bilingual program; involved
school personnel in planning; and utilized unique combinations of
faculty expertise and interests.
New program s were being planned under federal funding
which perm itted school and college personnel to have three-day
planning sessions. Among the elements considered in their planning
were an analysis of . '
1. What knowledges and skills are needed by the
contemporary teacher?
214
2. What kinds of professional experiences are best
offered in a laboratory setting?
3. What is a proper sequence of gradual induction
into teaching which erases the line between pre-
service and in-service education?
Design. - -The current program of professional preparation
is designed in three block courses which perm it integration of
foundations, curriculum and methods, and practicum. The practicum
increases from one hour per day each day in a public school class
room to two hours the second block and four hours the third block.
For fifth-year students, the same amount of work is offered in two
blocks--each a sem ester long. Professors of curriculum courses
also have supervision assignm ents. Forty-five per cent of the
faculty to full-tim e supervision. All members of the faculty do some
supervision of the practicum. Staff for each block experience are
able to work together with the thirty to thirty-five students in that
block. Since the college had as many as fifteen sections of a given
block, it is possible for a group of professors to decide to locate
their program in a public school and not meet on campus at all. Two
such pilot efforts were reported.
Anticipated changes in design included m ore diverse
program s at the initiative of the faculty, a greater use of the
215
laboratory-centered approach, perhaps toward m ore differentiation
of laboratory experiences, making m ore use of m icro-teaching as a
means, and toward searching out new ways to use size to an advan
tage. (Multiple sections of block courses provide flexibility in
p ro c ess.)
Process. - -The current program used campus classroom s
for laboratory sessions with curriculum m aterials and methods, used
the campus laboratory school for observations of new approaches,
and used self-contained classroom s in schools in the neighboring
districts. Some use was made of a Compensatory Education Program
as a site for student teaching.
Proposed changes in settings were a wider use of empty
classroom s in schools as centers for student teaching and a greater
use of the laboratory school as a setting for exemplary teaching
program s from the districts.
Sequence in the current program was determined by the
commitment to a laboratory-centered program . The notion of
spaced practice in the practicum was favored over m assed practice.
The sequence provided for three sem esters of supervised contact
with children in the schools under the direction of training teachers.
The sequence was designed to prepare teachers for an entry-level
degree of competence.
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In relation to the oversupply of teachers in 1970, it was
suggested that a sound program of the future might be one which
required a two-year sequence of professional preparation, doing
away with the apprenticeship type intern program s, and avoiding the
unnecessary pressures of time. It was also suggested that early
identification of future teachers—even as early as junior high
school—and certainly by the sophomore or junior year in college
would provide the continuity of time needed to provide prospective
teachers with experience and an opportunity to develop skills.
Strategies of instruction in the current program included
extensive orientation m aterial to induct the student into the school
system, the use of one hour of lecture-discussion to two hours of
laboratory workshop in the curriculum and methods courses, and
joint supervision by college and school teachers. The kinds of
relationships between students, between supervising teacher and
student, between college coordinator and student and supervising
teacher were reported as the key concern. It was identified as a
critical issue due to the size of the institution. The block course
system provided opportunity for such relationships to develop. A
twenty-three page document listed the recommended experiences for
an elementary teacher, providing a checklist for each block level.
Guides for supervising teachers and for college supervisors also
217
identified means for instruction and served to coordinate college
curriculum coursework with the practicum. No new strategies were
reported.
Practicum experiences were directed, mandatory observa
tions at the demonstration school, directed lessons under supervising
teachers in the public school classroom s, and a gradual increase of
responsibility until the student taught half-day for one sem ester. A
variety of grade levels and social-cultural settings were provided.
New form s for the practicum were being piloted. One was
the use of rooms in a public school for a college classroom , with a
professional library, and instant access to the classroom s for
observation and m icro-teaching purposes. The block of thirty
students and three staff maintained the program in the school every
morning for one sem ester.
Concern was expressed for the danger of shallow exposure
to urban education problems and a need for continuous and in-depth
study of the barrio and the inner city.
In general, changes would be toward m ore directed contact
with children during the entire program.
Content. - -In the current accredited program , the founda
tions, curriculum , and methods content were designed to meet
Title 5 requirem ents. An outstanding arrangem ent had been made
218
with the academic mathematics department to offer two p re
professional courses in mathematics for teachers which were designed
with the professor who taught the methods of teaching mathematics.
The sequence of three, uniting academic and professional preparation,
could be taught by members of the education faculty.
Ghanges in content were stimulated by student requests for a
bilingual teacher training program. It was designed with the students
and initiated. It was difficult to find enough participants, but it will
continue. It offered cultural studies—La Raza and methods of
bilingual teaching of Spanish and English.
Evaluation. - -Specified competencies are rated during and at
the end of each of the three sem esters. Three areas of professional
competence are identified, with a total of twenty-six specific items.
College supervisor and supervising teacher prepare evaluations
which become part of the permanent file for each teacher. Written
comments complement the rating. Conferences are held with the
student teachers after each evaluation is filled out. Evaluation of
classroom visits in written or oral form provided diagnostic assess
ment for the student teacher. No changes were anticipated.
Summary of kinds of changes in State College E. —Generally,;
the program was of the type which aimed to socialize the student into j
well-defined tasks and roles in the school program. General changes j
219
were toward better means of doing this, redeploying the time and
staff resources. A slight shift toward developing new kinds of
program s related to indigenous minority population needs was
observed.
1. Changes in design were elaborative, rather than
substantial. Different expressions of the
laboratory-centered, block system were proposed.
2. Process changes included pilot use of the total
school setting as a site for sem inar and student
teaching, a different use of the laboratory school
to model exemplary program s from the districts,
and a desire for a longer practicum period.
3. Content changes were in the foundations area in
relation to a bilingual, bicultural pilot program.
4. Evaluation changes reported were none.
It was the opinion of the dean of this college that the impact
of the approved program approach would be mainly upon the academic
and general education components. He reported that foundations and
curriculum courses were not over-specified but were in fact what
they, with the participation of the school districts, chose.
The critical issues for teacher preparation which this dean
raised were (1) the teacher oversupply; (2) the need for an unhurried,
220
long-term program for teachers with early selection to the program ;
and (3) the need to unite preservice with in-service preparation.
In the discussion the metaphor or the assem bly line arose
more than once. The notion that training in current excellent
practice demonstrated by the schools appeared to typify the institu
tion's commitment. It was not inquiry nor research-oriented. It
did apply with rigor the accepted best identified by the segment of the
profession in the schools.
This institution was deeply involved in maintaining its
enormous program; and cost, lack of time, and logistics problems
were definite factors limiting change.
State College F
Ranking as one of the ten largest colleges and universities
in the W estern United States, State College F is located in a
metropolitan area characterized by diverse and m assive ethnic
communities. One of its founding purposes was to train teachers for
the schools in California. Of its 22,000 students, 600 per year are
recommended for elem entary teaching certificates. Responding to
the shortage of elem entary teachers between 1961 and 1970 and to
the provisions of the 1961 changes in requirements for credentials,
the college developed program s to adm it graduates and accelerate
their training program s. Off-campus sites were used for instruction.
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This led to more exploratory program s designed to meet specific
school district needs--districts in the black communities and
districts with bilingual pupils. Program development depended upon
faculty initiative and was encouraged by the administration.
Generally, the special programs developed new settings, processes,
and content for teacher preparation. The approved program approach
to teacher certification was reported to have made it possible to
incorporate new patterns into the basic accredited program for
elem entary teachers.
Planning the approved program . - -All-college planning and
approval of the teacher preparation programs was a feature of the
college. Cooperative planning with districts served had become a
feature of the teacher preparation effort. Specific district needs
could be met through group and individual contracts between the
district and the college to prepare teachers with special competen
cies. In one district tenure is dependent upon completion of a
college program for the full credential and includes special courses
on urban education problems. Superintendents of districts served
are visited regularly by the dean, who recommended forming an
alum ni-adm inistrator advisory council for the School of Education.
Planning for the new program s was centered around kinds of
experiences and where and when they should occur, rather than
222
around linear course sequences. A need for a task analysis of
teacher behavior was identified, which would enable college
professors to identify desired perform ances and set performance
objectives for their program s. The planning faculty was reported to
have developed skills in team planning and team teaching which
facilitated program development.
Design. - -The new program s would be designed around
identified performance objectives for the elem entary teacher. The
means developed to facilitate achievement of those objectives would
vary with the faculty, the school district, and the participant. The
college faculty would initiate the means for objective achievement in
cooperation with school personnel. A highly individualized program
could resu lt--fo r the student, the faculty, and the district.
Process. - -Settings for training in the public schools had
been increasingly used by the faculty. Two experimental program s
had offered all the professional coursework in the school setting--in
integrated block-time sessions. Rejecting model and demonstration
schools, the dean recommended the creation of two- and three-room
centers for student teaching attached to the school campuses in
neighboring districts. These centers would then become settings in
which teams of faculty would create and conduct unique teacher
preparation program s within the framework of the agreed-upon
223
performance objectives. A variety of settings for specific purposes
such as teaching bilingual children, teaching foreign language, and so
on, would be provided.
The sequence of professional education would be a function of
the performance objectives selected and the unique design developed
cooperatively by school, college, and student personnel. Block-time
integrated courses combining foundations of education, curriculum
and methods, and the practicum were proposed. These courses
would be conducted in the clinical setting of the student teaching
center.
Strategies of instruction included team staffing—an education
psychology professor, an education sociology professor, and a
coordinator of student teaching—to facilitate interrelationship of
theory and practice in the school setting. Increasing responsibility
was put on the student teacher to make decisions regarding his own
training program. A need was expressed for professors with
doctoral training as teacher trainers and college teachers.
The practicum in the current program was a term inal
experience in the professional sequence. A m ajor change in the
approved program would be early laboratory experiences which
continued with increasing sophistication throughout the entire training
sequence. The final phase of the practicum would require the
224
candidate to demonstrate to the satisfaction of his professors,
competencies at a level acceptable for recommendation for the
certificate of teaching. Practicum experiences would be individually-
designed and facilitated in the centers by the team of instructors. A
team of three instructors would work with a group of thirty full-time
students taking the equivalent of fifteen quarter units of work. This
would be a five-twelfths load assignment for each professor. Each
team could select itself from among the faculty and could develop
specific programs to meet special needs.
Content. - -The foundations of education courses would
become field-based and focus upon problems of urban education as
selectors of topics. The curriculum and methods experiences would
be parallel to the curriculum taught in the schools, and the methods
would be those cooperatively chosen by the district and the college.
New methods of teaching could be introduced by corporate decision.
Development of the teacher's self would be a function of the relation
ships created in each program. Sensitivity training was reported to
be a desired feature of the new program.
Evaluation. --Evaluation of the new program would be on the
basis of performance objectives with criterion references. They
would provide on-going evaluation and serve as diagnosis for the
student teacher. Thus, multiple programs with different specific
225
features could be accredited on the basis of defensible performance
objectives.
Summary of kinds of changes. - -State College F reported
that the proposed approved program would incorporate kinds of
changes being explored during the 1965 to 1970 period. Changes
would depend upon a needed task analysis of teacher behaviors
necessary to the elementary teacher. Further changes, within the
framework of that analysis, would depend upon faculty interest and
expertise, district need, and student participation. A high degree of
faculty autonomy was reported. Fourteen specially funded programs
were awarded to faculty members between 1965 and 1970 which
involved elem entary teacher preservice o r in-service training. In
1970 four non-funded special program s were operating under
contract with d istricts, each focused upon special instructional
needs. A summ ary of the kinds of changes to be established within
the approved program framework follows.
1. Changes in design were toward development of a
variety of program forms based upon a single set
of performance objectives developed from a task
analysis of teaching the elem entary child.
Individualization through cooperative planning and
management with the schools and the students in
the program was proposed.
Changes in the process included increasing use of
off-campus student teaching centers in a variety
of communities as settings for training. Sequence
of experiences would vary with the specific program ,
limited only by the full range of performance
objectives to be met. Individual sequences could be
planned for individual students. Block-time inte
grated courses would be offered in the centers.
Team staffing from educational sociology and
psychology as well as curriculum and methods
would provide an integrated experience for the
student teachers. Self-direction would be encour
aged in the student teacher, the staff acting as
facilitators. The practicum would begin immedi
ately with laboratory experiences in teaching as
well as in observation in the district schools.
Performance objectives would determine kinds of
experiences required.
Changes in content would include the addition of
special courses in urban education at the request
of contracting district o r of student. Foundations
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courses would be field-based and operational rather
than theoretical. Methods of teaching would be
those of the cooperating d istrict o r methods which
they chose to incorporate. All content courses
would be integrated with the practicum.
4. Changes in evaluation would be toward the use of
performance objectives to assess competency. A
proposal was made that the faculty team become the
recommending group in that they have firsthand
experience with the candidate. Qualification for
recommendation could be demonstrated at the
learner's pace. Diagnostic evaluation of the student
teacher would be a function of the staff team.
Changes in State College F 's teacher preparation program
for elem entary teachers appeared to be stimulated by faculty
initiative and district initiative. D istricts regarded the college as a
service institution in education and made specific demands upon the
college to train teachers for special settings, roles, and programs.
The college responded through a diversity of program s with a central
core of performance objectives which defined professional training.
State College G
State College G is located in a rapidly growing metropolitan
228
area in which industry is moving out to the suburbs and into which a
rapidly growing minority population is moving. Students at the
college come from the state university (60 per cent) and are also
graduates of the college (40 per cent). The only program offered for
elem entary teachers is the fifth-year graduate program. A major
inner-city teacher training program has been conducted by the
college to prepare minority teachers for service in ghetto and barrio
schools. Intensive efforts are made to recruit prospective teachers
from m inority groups, and they are in demand by the school districts
--due to the quality of the program . Other innovative program s have
moved the training experiences into the schools and out into the
community agencies. The director and the faculty acknowledge a
"revolution in teacher education" in which the colleges must move in
new ways with the districts in order to maintain the function of
teacher education. The all-college approach to teacher education met
with great difficulty on this campus, and plans were reported which
were aimed a t creating an all-college involvement in developing new
program s.
Planning the approved program . - -Weekly meetings of the
faculty of sixty in the teacher education department had developed a
rationale for a new approved program . Members of the student body
and teachers from cooperating districts m et with the faculty to plan.
229
The rationale developed proposed performance criteria, based upon a
task analysis of teaching behaviors related to different areas of the
curriculum. A faculty committee had accomplished this analysis, and
the various committees of the whole faculty had developed prelim inary
performance objectives in cooperation with members from academic
departments. Meetings were to continue to refine the objectives so
that they might be presented to a curriculum committee in the fall of
1970-
Design. --The current programs were designed to fit all the
state requirements into one year of training prior to employment.
Block courses were team taught by two staff professors who worked
with a group of thirty-five for the entire year. Different sections,
located in different areas for student teaching, operated in special
ways according to faculty expertise. The pre- curriculum block
included foundations courses in psychology and sociology which were
abstract lecture discussion courses. The curriculum block included
observation and some practicum experiences. The student teaching
was conducted in district schools of various organizational patterns.
The new design was based upon the following rationale:
(1) learning may be intrinsic or extrinsic; (2) conditions which
promote intrinsic learning require set limits within which to explore
and a teacher who can diagnose and prescribe on the adult level and
230
who can relate to a child on his level of concept development. Favor
ing the teacher who can promote intrinsic learning, the faculty-
developed rationale identified three aspects of how such a teacher
may be selected: (1) performance in an interview which indicates
qualities needed by a teacher, (2) satisfactory responses on attitude
tests, and (3) early performances in practicum situations indicating
positive experiences with children. Based upon the observations
made in the selection process, individual program s would be
prescribed. The prospective teacher's performance in the "trial
practicum ," which is a video-taped simulation to determine inter
personal skills, begins training and develops further prescription.
Other practicum experiences follow. Performance criteria were
developed in relation to curriculum, classroom interaction, behavior
modification, planning for individual differences, team teaching,
group dynamics, organizational grouping, and the writing of
behavioral objectives.
Process. - -Settings for training have included public school
classroom s for student teaching, community neighborhood action
groups, and college classroom s. The new program would involve
the students in a variety of simulated and re al practicum experiences
in the schools. The community would serve as a setting for concrete
experiences in sociology--neighborhood surveys, store-front
231
tutoring, or work with political action groups.
A sequence would be developed for each student on the basis
of his performance. A sequence of simulation exercises, inter
spersed with a sequence of practicum experiences, provide training
in interpersonal skills, administration, individual and sm all group
teaching, and student teaching.
Strategies to be used include team teaching by college
faculty, multi-media simulation, role-playing and micro-teaching.
Interaction analysis will be used as a training tool. The general
strategy is to identify minimal performances possible to be devel
oped in the one year provided for professional education, assuming
that in-service training will continue a teacher’s development to
optimum levels.
Practicum experiences are designed to meet the needs of
entering students for extensive behavior with children in learning
situations. The practicum begins with planning in simulation
exercises which is then implemented with children. Increasingly,,
complex, the simulation-practicum combination is repeated with
larg er groups of children. Student teaching performances were
identified in general term s, such as "build self-esteem , self-
concept. " F urther specification is being made in the seven areas of
diagnostic and interaction behaviors. Competency in methodological
232
skills is specified for each curriculum area and will be demonstrated
in the practicum.
Content. - -Content for the current program was developed to
meet Title 5 course specifications. The new program will have
content which is selected around performance objectives for teacher
behaviors. Content specifications develop as the faculty determine
kinds of behaviors needed. Classroom interaction becomes a content
area which is interdisciplinary. Faculty interaction becomes
another content area in which interactions among teachers are the
focus--such as in team teaching. All the content for the teacher
preparation program is organized according to tasks, according to
products identified by Guilford's levels of products of intellectual
operations, or according to levels of objectives as defined by Bloom.
Content is specified as tasks to be done within given conditions.
Foundations courses, curriculum and methods, and interaction
elements are all specified in behaviors.
Evaluation. - -Grades and evaluations were used in the
traditional program. In the new program evaluation is "built in" to
the performance objectives. Individualization assures each student
of developing acceptable (minimal) levels of competency in required
areas.
Summary of kinds of changes. - -State College G accepted
233
the legislated restriction on time and on units of professional
education and instead of developing courses developed analyses of
teacher behaviors, a rationale for a training program , and perform
ance objectives with criteria references for the m ajor kinds of
teacher behaviors required to teach elem entary children.
1. Changes in design were from linear to systematic,
from blanket requirements to individualized
program s, and from planning by professional
educators alone to planning with academic
professors and teachers from the schools.
2. Changes in process were from lecture discussion
to integrated blocks of work designed around
performance modules. The practicum was highly
specified and interrelated with methodology and
with curriculum. Sequences were individually
designed. Settings were to be in schools and
demonstration centers.
3. Changes in content included identifying process
knowledge- -interaction in the classroom and with
adults--as areas of content. Sociology experi
ences were to become concrete experiences with
children in their community in and out of school.
234
Psychology was to be taught in relation to the
practicum. The development of the teacher's self-
concept and style was an objective.
4. Evaluation changed from rating to performance
objective fulfillment for individuals.
State College G had, in a year's time under the approved
program approach, developed a rationale with prelim inary perform
ance criteria and had engaged itself in a strenuous effort to specify
performance objectives and criteria in all areas of teacher behavior
requiring professional development. This work had been done with
academicians and school personnel during weekly meetings and
periodical retreats.
State College H
A large urban institution drawing students from a m ulti
racial population, State College H reported an increase in the number
of teachers recommended for certification of 125 per cent in the two-
year period from 1967-68 to 1969-70. The School of Education was
organized into three m ajor departments: (1) administration and
counselling, (2) behavioral sciences in education, and (3) teacher
education. The new program of teacher education was highly
developed and implementation had begun. The dean of the School of
Education reported the following information, having been personally
235
involved in the development of the teacher education concept with the
faculty.
Planning the approved program . - -Planning for the new
teacher preparation program was initiated by the dean with members
of the faculty, student body, community groups, and school re p re
sentatives. Planning received stimulation from several federally
funded innovative projects. Models, developed within these projects,
became incorporated in the design. A concept basic to all planning
was that teaching and instruction were generic behaviors which could
be taught toward, monitored, and modified on a continuing basis.
Thus, the program was centered in the process of teaching, rather
than the content of subject m atter and united preservice with in-
service training.
Design. - -The current program offered was designed to meet
specific Title 5 credential requirem ents. It was organized as a five-
year program with undergraduate or graduate level professional
studies. Sem ester courses provided instruction in foundations of
education and curriculum and methods. Student teaching required a
concurrent enrollment in a sem inar concerned with the problems of
teaching. There was no internship program.
The new program was designed as a three-sem es ter process
which offered system atic introduction to and participation in teaching.
236
It was based upon the practicum and designed so that the theoretical
knowledge in the foundations areas could be developed through a
participant's experience of the teaching process. It was designed so
that students in the program could choose individual paths through the
experience modules, directing their own program with advice from
college and school staff. The program was designed to operate in
Centers located in six different school districts; it was cooperatively
planned with school personnel, who were involved in the program
both as teachers and as learners.
The direction of change was toward clinically-based,
individualized, continuous, differentiated practicum experiences,
self-directed by the participant and team staffed by college and school
personnel.
Process. - -The current program had been using campus
classroom s for sem inars and self-contained classroom s in schools
for the student teaching experience. The new program would offer
intergrated experiences of theory and practice in the setting of a
Center, which could be one or several schools. Experiences as
teacher aides, teaching assistants and tutors, and experiences with
simulation, observation, and analysis of behavior would all be
available in the Teaching Center Schools under supervision. Special
curriculum m aterials for teaching pupils would be made available to
237
instructors from the college curriculum library and could be located
in the Centers for a full sem ester. Brief experiences in the com
munity near the school would be included in the practicum. Special
centers on campus were available for experience with teaching
mathematics, teaching science, and teaching the young child.
Proposed changes in settings for teacher preparation were
toward greater use of school environments, greater scope of
experience--from kindergarten to senior high school and toward
diversity of experiences with cultural and ethnic communities.
Sequence in the current program was linear and determined
by course offerings. In the new program the sequence began with a
first sem ester practicum in the school where, through observation
and participation, the student would study individual differences,
theories of learning, classroom organization, and would observe a
variety of learning styles and teaching styles in a variety of settings.
The second sem ester would offer block experiences in psychological
foundations, instruction, and curriculum concurrent with work in the
social foundations in any of six general areas in which credentials
are offered. Thus, specialization in elem entary teaching of the
culturally different child could be a choice made by the student. There
were no prescribed courses during this sem ester; and each candidate,
with his adviser, designed his program on a contract basis. One-
238
half day per week would be spent in the schools working in relation to
the methodology of various subject m atters. Methodology would be
taught in terms of teaching strategies appropriate logically and
psychologically to given subject m atter areas. The third sem ester is
a full-time practicum in the Teaching Centers, with an emphasis
upon using observation and analysis, micro-teaching, and simulation
to develop skills in analysis and monitoring of the student teacher's
teaching behavior. Student teachers will be working with college
students at the other two levels in the Center. That is, he will work
with a differentiated staff of paraprofessional aids (first sem ester
college practicum students), and specialists (second sem ester
college students), as well as with his training teacher. Also in the
Centers will be graduate assistants, administrative interns, and
education counselor interns from the college. Due to the high degree
of individualization, the practicum in the third sem ester is graded to
meet identified needs of the student teacher.
Changes are toward block-time courses in curriculum and
methods and the foundations courses, with performance modules in
the practicum.
Strategies of instruction in the new program included the
modeling of teaching strategies by the college professors in the
curriculum and methods components, the use of multi-media for
239
simulation and for monitoring teacher behavior, and the intensive use
of performance objectives to structure training. Other strategies in
operation would be team staffing to achieve integration of coursework
and individualization of training, based upon development of skills of
self-initiated and self-directed learning on the part of the student in
the program.
Changes in strategies were toward cooperative responsi
bility for instructional decisions, toward more self-direction from
the learners, toward team staffing, and toward using the different
levels in the training sequence as a built-in opportunity to give
training in working with a differentiated staff.
Practicum . - -The current practicum was a traditional type
of student teaching, with a sem inar in which to discuss teaching
problems jointly supervised by school and college staff. The new
practicum had two major sections: Practicum A, observation and
participation in teaching; and Practicum B, student teaching.
Practicum A was designed around performance objectives dealing
with individual differences in pupils, theories of learning, learning
styles, instructional strategies, classroom organization, and
paraprofessional activities. The practicum was the same for
elem entary and secondary teachers and was offered in various
"Mini Centers" in the school districts. Assignments were made
240
through a counselling and advisement process so that individual
interests and needs could influence decisions. The m ajor objective
of Practicum A was to study schools and relationships between kinds
of teaching and kinds of schools. Between Practicum A and B, a
sem ester of integrated coursework also required practicum
experiences in instructional strategies related to curriculum.
Another kind of practicum experience at this point was the task of
taking a sociological focus and pursuing it in a community setting.
Practicum B, the student teaching sem ester, required the candidate
to develop a relatively high degree of skill at observing and analyzing
pupil behavior so that it becomes a source of input for making
instructional decisions. Also, a system of interaction analysis will
be learned by the student teacher to give him a tool for monitoring
and modifying his own behavior. Performance objectives will be
specified for the practicum and will be system atically sequenced by
the developmental needs of the teacher being trained. Self-direction
at this level will be achieved, as it assures the teacher of continuing
education during service. At the Center schools, the school staff
and the student teachers participate in in-service training sessions.
Major changes in the practicum are toward specification by
performance objectives, extensive and sequential practicum experi
ences, the use of interaction analysis tools and media to a ssist
241
teachers to monitor their own behaviors, toward working as a
differentiated team of learners in a clinical setting, and toward
differentiated training for different paraprofessional roles.
Content. - -In the foundations of education courses, as
typically offered at the college, students conduct a study of education
and of teaching. In the new program , which is designed around
practicum experiences, educational sociology will offer a conceptual
framework through which to view education and the school itself.
Theoretical knowledge will be developed out of experience with the
school in society. Psychology will deal with diagnosis and analysis
of learning behaviors as they occur in the experience of the student
teacher, rather than with normative data about learning o r abstract
exercises of contrasting theories of learning. Both sociology and
psychology will perform operational functions in the curriculum. An
emphasis upon the culturally different and upon the disadvantaged
learner will characterize a part of the foundation offering. The
foundations will be integrated with curriculum and methods in the
second sem ester and organized around the following emphases:
early childhood, elementary, secondary, educationally handicapped,
culturally different, and mental retardation.
Curriculum courses will be based upon the conceptual
frameworks of the related discipline and emphasize the acquisition of
242
a conceptual understanding of the subject m atter to be taught.
Curriculum functions as content to the main process--teaching,
which the training program emphasizes. In other words, State
College H has designed a process curriculum for teacher preparation
in which teaching is the central content and curriculum, a secondary
one. The public school curriculum is the source of content for
curriculum and method experiences.
Methods of teaching in the new training program are
specified as teaching strategies and are explored in application to
different logical system s of knowledge. For example, inquiry is
learned as a strategy for instruction and learned in relation to
science, mathematics, social sciences, and language. In the
proposed program at State College H, teaching per se --its practice,
its purposes, its evaluation--is the central theme of the entire
program . Thus, methodology assumes an importance in its own
right, not just as a general subject nor as an adjunct to a curriculum
area. As a result, skills and knowledge generic to the teaching
process have been identified and are taught toward in the program.
A teacher would be taught the logic of inquiry, the psychology of
inquiring, the sociology of a situation where conditions for inquiry
exist, and the philosophical bases for the inquiry process; and all of
this would be taught as the student teacher experiences the p ro cess.
243
of inquiring and the process of teaching toward inquiry.
The development of the teacher's self-concept as a self-
directed learner was stressed, and the development of his style was
facilitated through the wide variety of models observed and the
training in self-monitoring of teaching behavior.
Changes were generated by the principle of designing
experiences around the needs of the teacher and in relation to the
process of teaching.
Evaluation. - -Course credits and grades were the means of
determining whether o r not to recommend a student teacher for
certification in the old program. In the new program, while legal
requirem ents will be fulfilled by appropriate course offerings, the
teacher must dem onstrate through his performance of teaching
pupils that he has competencies at an acceptable level for recom
mendation. The performance objectives identified for the modules of
experience in the practicum make this possible.
Summary of kinds of changes in State College H. --The new
proposed program reported was based upon the concept that teaching
is a process which can be specified and in which a person can be
trained. Interest was reported in research toward a science of
instruction, based upon analysis of possible and probable learner
responses to teaching acts. The program , therefore, is designed
244
around the needs of the adult-becoming-teacher and the process of
teaching. The process curriculum for teacher preparation demon
strated the following changes:
1. Changes in design were from linear course
sequences to an organic systems design providing
for individual pacing and cooperative planning.
2. Process changes developed from a shift to a
clinical center for m ore than two-thirds of the
program. A combination of block-time integrated
courses and performance modules was used. The
program was individualized and self-directed within
a counselling-contract system. The practicum was
extensive, continuous, graded, sequenced from
participant needs, and used a full range of media
feedback systems to operate real and simulated
training sessions. A m ajor change was toward
developing skills at monitoring one’s own teaching
behavior and modifying it, using the pupil as a
m ajor source of input.
3. Content changes in the foundations were away from
presenting normative data in psychology and
sociology and toward teaching the application of
245
knowledge from those fields. Theoretical
knowledge was expected to evolve out of direct
experience under the guidance of college teachers.
Curriculum would be taught as conceptual stru c
tures of knowledge in relation to teaching strategies.
Strategies would be taught in reference to the effect
upon the learner's perform ances. Teachers were
expected to develop styles based upon their own
ability to monitor their behavior in relation to the
learner.
4. Changes in evaluation procedures were to use
performance objectives as the means of designing
the practicum and as the final determinant for
recommendation of the teacher for certification.
Advisement provided for diagnosis of the needs
of the student teacher in relation to the program .
Teacher Preparation at Private Universities
Institutional characteristics
The three institutions selected for this group offered
doctoral degrees and two of them maintained three or more profes
sional graduate schools. All were organized as universities and
246
were private institutions. All three held national reputations in
various aspects of preparation for the education profession. They
ranged in size of student body from 968 to 18, 692, according to a
1968 report (56). Two institutions offered bachelor's degrees in the
science of education in addition to graduate program s for preparing
elementary teachers; the other, graduate program s only. In each
of the institutions, the directors identified finance as the crucial
issue in program development. While all institutions valued research,
teaching, and service as institutional objectives, two identified
service as prim ary determ iners of program and one emphasized
research.
Private University I
University I offered both a regular and an intern credential
program for elem entary teachers. The intern program was one of
the oldest in the state, according to the director. Concerns
expressed about objectives for preparation program s included (1) the
need to prepare teacher-leaders who could create more effective
pupil program s for disadvantaged youth, (2) the need to explore
alternate ways of preparing teachers, and (3) the need to identify new
kinds of teaching positions and to develop appropriate training
programs in relation to them. The orientation was toward bringing
change to school program s through preparation of teachers with skills
247
in new means of teaching and in bringing change. Preparing teachers
for the current school program was rejected as a long-range purpose.
A related concern was to provide entry into the profession for mid
career persons from other fields who could make a contribution to
education.
Planning the approved program . --A recently funded program
for training teacher-leaders for the disadvantaged was described as a
prototype for one kind of program which might be offered for approval.
Planning was done with school personnel such as the director of
personnel at the d istrict, with university faculty, and with form er
interns. Feedback from students currently in the prototype program
was useful in planning. Reference was made to Bruce Joyce’s work
in the Teachers College Model Program (34). Selection of the
emphasis for the program , education of the disadvantaged, was in
relation to the need in the profession for knowledge and trained
professionals committed to the search for more effective patterns of
education for the disadvantaged. The setting of the university
provides a natural laboratory for such inquiry.
Design. - -C urrent program s provided a student teaching
sequence for undergraduates and an intern teaching sequence for
recent graduates and m id-career people. Block programs a re
organized in cooperation with one of three neighboring districts.
248
Through campus coursework and district-based observation,
participation, and student teaching, candidates are prepared to fit
into the school d istrict's current pattern. Supervision from the
university and training from m aster teachers complement each other.
The new program is designed around the objective of
preparing mature persons for leadership and permanent commitment
to the profession. The program is designed with a four-part struc
ture offering work in the social sciences, the behavioral sciences, in
curriculum development and teaching strategies, and in the "learning
community. " In addition, field work in the community is a prominent
part of the design. The emphasis on the teaching of disadvantaged
youth serves as a selector for experiences in the social sciences, the
learning community, and the field work. A further dimension of the
design is that training experiences are pupil-referenced, rather than
teacher ^referenced, for the most part.
Process. - -Settings for the current intern and student
teaching programs included a wide variety of schools to be visited for
observation and participation for each candidate. From this range
of experiences, he would then select a classroom in which he would
student teach. Courses were held on campus. In the new program
settings ranged from community agencies, welfare rights groups,
families, schools and classroom s, campus classroom s, and facilities
249
to a setting which the participants create them selves--a store
front school. This school is temporary, is experimental, is based
upon careful study and research during the year, and is designed by
individuals and/or groups within the program as a possible alterna
tive school program . It serves as a place to try things. The
director stressed that in the training program the place was not as
crucial as the psychological setting or fram e of mind which permitted
cooperation among people and stimulated study, evaluation, and
change of behavior.
The sequence of expriences in the intern program began with
an observation-participation component which the candidate designed
for him self from a set of options. Concurrent with this was course-
work in school curriculum . The second phase was student teaching
with concurrent work in principles of psychology applied to class
room situations. Further work in curriculum accompanied the intern
teaching phase, and a final sum m er allowed completion of require
ments.
The new program involves coursework selected from social
science offerings in Brown and Black Studies, in race relations, in
the effect of urbanization on the personality, and in "black literature."
Concurrent with this are studies in the behavioral sciences. A
laboratory course in curriculum development and teaching strategies
250
is concurrent with development of the "learning community, " a state
of being among the participants which provides a peer reference
group for inquiry and for development of the tria l school as a final
project. Field work accompanies a ll phases.
Strategies of instruction in the traditional program s are
lecture-discussion, demonstration, individualization of program for
each candidate, supervision, and practice. A special list of
demonstration and training teachers exists in which each teacher has
identified his philosophy, his strengths, his interests, and his
concerns. From this list, prospective teachers and supervisors plan
observation and participation as well as student teaching. Super
visors are doctoral students in the university, and they m eet with the
interns in seminar regularly.
Strategies in the new program are based in group process,
in modeling a wide variety of teaching strategies, in using the video
tape feedback system for analysis of learning behaviors, and in the
continuing development of the learning community among the partici
pants. Another strategy being tried out is an electronic intercom
munication system between a supervising teacher and an intern
providing for instant intervention during teaching. It is used to help
the trainee expand his perceptual horizon while in action.
Practicum in the current program s is a sequence of self-
251
initiated observation and participation experiences under supervision,
followed by student teaching which consists of a sequence of tasks to
be perform ed.
In the new program, the practicum is intimately involved in
the behavioral sciences, the field work, the learning community
component, and the store-front school. Since the intent of the
program is to avoid socialization into the current form of public
schools, the practicum is as much as possible conducted outside that
institution. Experience within die institution is analyzed in term s of
how a bureaucracy operates and what effect it has on teachers and
learners. In the prototype program conducted in 1969-70, candidates
worked with the Department of Social Services for several hours per
week for six weeks, worked with welfare rights organizations, with
Head Start program s, and one candidate lived in a home for two
months in the area where he was planning to teach.
Content. - -The intern and student teaching program s
required coursework in "behavioral science and education, " in
curriculum study, and in a series of practicum workshops combining
internship teaching with curriculum. F urther courses were given in
curriculum and other credential requirem ents.
In the new program the foundations areas are developed
around the special emphasis of the program --education for the
252
disadvantaged. The social sciences component is drawn from
university courses in other departments which deal with urbanization
and multi-ethnic studies. The behavior sciences sequence has the
following objectives: (1) to discover one's own motivation for working
with disadvantaged, (2) to become aware of one’s effect on others,
(3) to learn to work with sm all groups, (4) to learn how people work
in a bureaucracy, (5) to learn how organizations function, and (6) to
learn how to function in an organization in order to bring change.
Curriculum development includes theory of curriculum
building and organization. A study of the teaching strategies
identified by Joyce (34), observation of video tapes modeling those
strategies, and video-taped attempts to use those strategies com
prise the laboratory course in teaching strategies.
A new content area was identified (in term s of this analysis)
which was the development of a "learning community" within the
program. Specific efforts were made to develop skills in working as
a team, in inquiry, in critical analysis of the learning process. The
task given this community of learners was to determine what
alternate courses of study might be invented for pupils and what
alternate forms of education might be designed and attempted. The
mini-schools were the outcome of this segment of the training
program.
253
Concern for the self as teacher and as learner was
incorporated in the study of the behavioral sciences and in the learn
ing community experience. However, the focus of the program was
to develop flexibility within a teacher so that he might use many
means to facilitate learning for the child. Development of the child's
self as learner was more the ultimate objective than development of
the teacher's self as teacher.
Evaluation. - -Course grades and ratings were evaluation
m easures in the old program s. In the new program course grades
a re used, and the mini-school provides a kind of evaluation for each
participant of his unique program. Product criteria related to the
pupil and process criteria related to the teaching are both used.
Mutual evaluation by supervisor-student or peers through analysis of
behavior were the basis of the em pirical study of teaching which the
program sought to encourage.
Summary of kinds of changes in University I. --The
university displayed a commitment to inquiry about teaching, train
ing of teachers, and problems of teaching special groups. Programs
reflected research concerns over differentiated staffing, education
for the disadvantaged, and internships for m id-career persons.
Alternatives in program s were being explored. Program changes
were stimulated by the task of bringing more effective practices to
254
the educational programs of pupils and creating a teacher with new
kinds of skills for a changing profession.
1. Changes in design included involvement of special
coursework from other academic departments;
creating a human setting--the learning community--
as a training base; more use of laboratory experi
ences with technology systems; a general move
away from school programs as settings for training,
although they w ere settings for study; and the use
of mini-schools to test ideas.
2. Changes in process were toward the use of group
process as a training tool, toward creating a
psychological setting for inquiry, toward creating
alternative settings for teaching, toward further
individualization of the program , toward a labora
tory in curriculum and teaching using process and
product objectives referenced to learner behavior
criteria. The practicum had moved out of the
school and into laboratory and community working
with families, community agencies, and welfare
rights groups.
3. Changes in content were, in the foundations
255
courses, a decision to make available specialized
courses in the university which were relevant to
the education of the disadvantaged learner. In the
behavioral sciences a study of the person, the
institution, and the interaction of both to perm it
change were specified aims. Curriculum theory
was taught to enable participants to construct
alternate courses of study for the m ini-schools.
A variety of teaching strategies were taught to
provide a teacher with flexibility in his teaching.
4. A new dimension was added to evaluation practices
through the mini- school which was tem porary and
an opportunity to implement researched ideas and
alternatives. Evaluation of that effort played a
m ajor part in the program. Mutual evaluation, as
opposed to self-evaluation, was used for critique,
to gather inferences, and to plan next moves.
Analysis of the new program at University I was restricted to one
alternate program offered there. It does not represent the single
approved program being offered for accreditation. State require
ments were not perceived to be limiting upon program development
and change. Finance was reported to be the limiting factor. T here
256
fore, specialization characterized the institution's interst in program
development, in the reported case, specialization in teaching the
disadvantaged. Also, through a special program, the institution was
attempting to identify generic job clusters in the teaching profession,
and to prepare training packages appropriate to them. Clusters
identified were: learning diagnostician, media specialist, skill
specialist, subject area specialist, curriculum specialist, evaluation
specialist, and an instructional specialist. Implied were differenti
ated training program s for each specialty.
Private University J
Teacher education program s at University J have evolved
into graduate credential program s due to the increasing emphasis
upon the liberal education of teachers. The university supports
international program s for teachers and has developed a program for
recruiting minority teachers and training them to work in disadvan
taged areas.
C ritical issues identified by the dean included (1) inability to
change programs due to domination of the legislature's specifications
for teacher preparation, (2) the need to involve academic professors
m ore directly with teacher preparation, and (3) the need for longer,
continuous, supervised involvement in schools on a teaching assistant-
ship basis.
257
Planning the approved program . - -The University’s Council
on Teacher Education, the Directed Teaching Committee, and the
Education Alumni Council were involved in planning and validating
plans. Two sources of change in the planning of new program s were
the Teacher Corps Program and the University of Toledo Model
Program (59). It was emphasized that planning was not immediate
for the approved program because of "a lack of trust in the legisla
ture” and a fear that any changes from the institution would be
legislated out of existence. There was, however, a plan for a five-
year period of "retooling” the teacher preparation program through
an application of the Toledo Model and perhaps the use of elements
from the Michigan Model (31) and from the Syracuse University
Model (57). Teacher Corps had demonstrated the value of community
involvement in the preparation of teachers, and it was planned to
incorporate this type of field work in the regular program. Due to
the im possibility of giving adequate time to planning by an already
fully committed faculty, it was suggested that use be made of the
extensive planning available in the models financed by the United
States Office of Education (26).
Design. - -The current student teaching and intern program s
are designed to m eet the state certification requirem ents. Founda
tions of education courses are followed by curriculum and methods
258
courses which are in blocks and which include some practicum
experiences. Directed student teaching is the term inal experience.
In the future it is hoped that the foundations courses could
include participation in the schools and the community and that a
four-sem es te r practicum could be planned which puts students into
the schools as teacher assistants and eventually as student teachers.
The length of time and the continuity were found to produce benefits
for the beginning teacher in the Teacher Corps Program.
Process. - -Supervision from the university in the classroom s
of the student teacher characterized the regular program . A variety
of socioeconomic settings were used. In the future it is hoped that
central locations might be found in which university professors and
supervisors, training teachers and students at different stages of
training, might all be located for training program s. The differenti
ation of teaching roles automatically provided by different training
levels would require differential training.
The current programs used one-to-one assignments of
students and training teachers. In the future teams of student
teachers would be assigned to a team leader who would make a
variety of experiences available to the team and would individualize
training within that framework. Student teaching would be all day
for one sem ester as a final experience, a condition which exists in
the current program.
Content. --A recent change (1970) in the old program was in
the foundations courses. Sociological foundations were expanded to
include a practicum experience of two hours per day, four days per
week. A one-hour sem inar enabled the students to develop a
theoretical base from which to view their practicum experiences.
Independent study was encouraged. The projection for the future was
an increase in community involvement as well as school involvement,
a less form al treatm ent of the course, and allowance for m ore
independent study.
Curriculum courses were taught in two blocks, one of which
involved supervised participation in the schools and both of which
provided instruction in the m ajor school curriculum areas. Method
ology was not identified as a separate content area, nor was the
development of the teacher's self-concept--or teaching style.
Teacher Corps had set objectives for a training program and
had sent them to the University of Toledo, where they were analyzed;
and a computer print-out was returned, specifying pre-planned items
from the Toledo Model. Alternatives were also suggested according
to the kind of technology to be used in program management. Thus,
the director had specifications for training segments all prepared in
relation to stated objectives of the program.
260
Evaluation. - -Course grades and supervisors' ratings were
used for evaluation in the current program s. The use of perform
ance criteria generated from models would allow for some evaluation
in the new program to be made on a performance basis.
Summary of changes in University J. - -The general trend of
change seemed to be toward m ore community-based and field-based
practicum experiences, toward the use of model specifications to
achieve program objectives, and toward the extension of the
practicum time through a teacher assistant approach. All changes
reported were desired changes and had not been incorporated into a
plan at the time of the interview, nor did they represent faculty
consensus at that point in time.
1. Changes in design were toward a longer program
in which teacher assistantships preceded student
teaching and toward m ore involvement in the
community and the school.
2. Changes in process elements were toward a wider
variety of settings and toward centralized settings
for practicum.
3. Changes in content areas included a community-
and experience-oriented social foundations course
as an initial experience and toward m ore practicum
261
experiences in the curriculum components.
4. Evaluation structures were expected to change
toward performance criteria m easures when the
program began to use performance objectives
generated by the Toledo Model (59).
It was stated in the interview that the actions of the legislature were
perceived to inhibit program development and change. Continual
prescriptions and changes in prescriptions from the legislature had
discouraged response to the approved program . Faculty attendance
at the regional meetings for the American Association of Colleges
for Teacher Education had stimulated the desire to change, and a
two-day faculty meeting with the dean of the School of Education from
the University of Toledo had introduced the notion of referring to
that program for assistance.
University J found it feasible to employ the researched
expertise displayed in the model programs (26) in lieu of financial
resources to research and plan programs from within the institution.
Constraints operating upon the planning of new program s
were (1) fear of the legislature’s actions, (2) lack of finances, and
(3) impending accreditation visits.
Proposals made by Teacher Corps at University J, but which
were not necessarily reflective of the directions in which the basic
262
program s were moving, include the following: (1) development of a
demonstration school to model staffing patterns and teaching
strategies appropriate to low-income children; (2) to develop a
community-based education program which would involve parents and
other community people in the design and implementation of school
program s; (3) to involve school personnel in the teaching of curricu
lum and methodology on a cooperative basis with university persons;
(4) to select a community school as a team teaching school for use in
a training program ; and (5) to design a teacher preparation program
to become a regular program in the university, which would prepare
teachers specifically for education of low income children.
Private University K
Located in a metropolitan inner-city area, University K
operates a variety of credential and degree program s in professional
education. Teacher education is one of several foci for the School of
Education. Serving the school districts in the counties surrounding
the university, the teacher preparation program s are developed
closely with the cooperating school districts. Two major types of
program exist: one is the basic accredited program and the other is
a set of special program s designed to meet special objectives.
Federal and state funding have stimulated change in the special and
the basic program s. An emphasis has been upon the training of
263
teachers to meet the special needs of pupils in the rural and m etro
politan low-income areas. All programs have attracted students of
high ability with commitment to becoming professionals in the field of
education.
Planning the approved program. --A committee from the
School of Education, appointed by the dean, has been charged with
finding out whether it would be appropriate to develop a new approved
program for accreditation. At the department level, a committee
has met weekly to identify aspects of teacher preparation which
should become part of a new approved program. A regular monthly
meeting of the Department of Teacher Education with an advisory
council which represents each of the school districts involved with
the university in training programs has addressed itself to planning
in such areas as the identification of supervising teachers, the
development of clinical centers, and the kinds of field experiences
appropriate for teacher assistants. Planning also involves members
of the community and members of the university's student body. The
proposed program reported by the director had evolved through
changes proposed and explored by various members of the depart
ment. Planning involved finding the means for integrating those
changes into the basic program. Innovations designed and imple
mented in the training programs of special projects were also
264
incorporated into the proposed program . Thus, an evolving design
for teacher preparation was in the process of being realized.
Design. - -In the current program undergraduates could
complete student teaching and graduate with a partial credential to be
completed during the school year, and graduate students could enter
a fifth year professional program in which a credential might be
earned. Intern program s and programs which began with paid
teacher assistantships and developed into intern program s were
available for the graduate. Another design was that of the specialist
teacher who, in graduate professional work, could complete a
credential and a m aster of science of education degree within two
years study as an intern teacher.
The proposed design would offer an initial involvement
experience in teaching at the sophomore level. It would be an
action-oriented exploratory course dealing with the community in
relation to program s of teaching and learning. Students such as the
more than three hundred volunteer tutors among the undergraduate
population would find the course a means to discover something about
the nature of teaching and perhaps be moved toward career decisions.
The new program would (1) integrate the curriculum and
practicum elements; (2) develop a clinical experience in the
behavioral sciences in relation to teaching and learning; (3) shift the
265
emphasis in the program to participation under supervision such that
content and a theoretical base in the foundations areas, or in the
curriculum areas, are formed developmentally from experience.
The behavioral science element would run concurrently with special
curriculum courses, general curriculum and methods courses, and
student teaching. The entire program would be based in clinical
centers in public schools. University courses would be taught in the
centers, and clinical instructors who were specialists in teacher
supervision would work with the professors to develop clinical
experiences related to the course specialization.
Process. - -Settings for the preparation of teachers were
university classroom s, a university preschool, a university teaching
laboratory, and clinical teaching centers in several public schools.
Student teaching and assistant teaching were located in public school
classroom s of varying organizational patterns and staffing patterns.
In the new program participation in pupil program s would
begin in the introductory course and in the initial professional
courses in social foundations and behavioral sciences in education.
F urther experiences in the behavioral sciences and in curriculum
and methodology of special subjects (reading and mathematics) would
take place in the clinical centers under joint supervision and direction
of university professors and clinical instructors from the district.
266
Simulation, micro-teaching, and m ini-lessons would be used with a
variety of educational media to develop competencies in the teachers.
Student teaching would be divided between clinical experiences in the
center and directed teaching in classroom s during the first sem ester.
Full day student teaching in classroom s in the center school and
satellite schools would constitute the second sem ester of practicum.
The sequence in the old program was to require courses in
the foundations areas as initial courses, curriculum and methods
courses prior to student teaching, and a general methods course and
sem inar concurrent with student teaching. This provided a tutorial
relationship between sm all groups of student teachers and super
visors. In the new program the sequence would be modified to bring
the foundations courses into more of a practicum design and to offer
the curriculum courses concurrent with a clinical sem ester of
student teaching in the center. General methods, which emphasize
management concerns in classroom s, would accompany the second
sem ester of full-tim e student teaching. Methodology would be a
common concern of the behavioral sciences course, the curriculum
courses, the clinical work in relation to both, the general methods
course, and the student teaching segments. A two-year counselling
period was recommended for candidates, providing for work toward
a m aster's degree.
267
Strategies in the old program s included demonstration,
observation and participation, supervised practicum with individual
conferences, daily conferences with supervising teachers, use of
video-taped playback for evaluation, and some use of simulation.
Clinical modules of student teaching were designed for individual
students in special subject areas such as the teaching of English as a
second langauge or using discovery strategies in teaching mathe
m atics. Students taught a series of m ini-lessons to sm all groups of
pupils in the center laboratory rooms. The experience was coopera
tively designed and evaluated by the student and the clinical instructor.
Individualization in content and pace were made possible.
In the new program an increased use of this strategy will
enable student teachers to practice specific teaching tasks in relation
to curriculum areas. Clinical instructors will teach and evaluate in
cooperation with university professors. Thus, the practicum in the
new program will be continuous, differentiated between clinical and
classroom experiences, specialized according to curriculum and
management areas of concern, and cumulative in full-day student
teaching.
Content. - -Foundations courses in the traditional program
were designed to meet credential requirem ents. A sequence was
available which allowed system atic investigation of the relationship
268
between the school and society, the school and the learner, and the
learner and learning. Two sem esters of curriculum block courses
accompanied student teaching. Two levels of experience were given
in each of the elem entary school curriculum areas. In addition,
state requirem ents in mathematics and in reading were given.
Instructional media were integrated into the curriculum courses.
The university-required coursework in a rt, music, and physical
education in the elementary school.
In the new program curriculum would be introduced in an
early course in relation to psychology and sociology of teaching and
learning. The foundations would become an integrated block course
with a practicum dimension. The content of the curriculum courses
would be determined from school subjects currently taught, and
methodology would reflect current practice, but the successful
practice of both would become a part of the content of the course.
Evaluation. - -Course grades and ratings from supervisors
constituted the means for evaluation in the current program. In the
new program it was agreed that the identification of specific perform
ance objectives was necessary in program design and evaluation, but
the concern was expressed that such a method, rigorously held to,
was limiting. Further, the relationship of evaluation by performance
criteria to the developing emphasis on program budgeting systems
269
could, if not appropriately balanced by other means of evaluation,
evolve into a situation where the test would dominate; and content of
pupil program s and teacher preparation programs would be deter
mined by cost effectiveness rather than intrinsic value.
Summary of changes in University K. - -Changes in design
were toward more intensive and extensive use of clinical centers for
integration of curriculum and methods with the practicum. The
emphasis on the clinical, participative approach to teacher prepara
tion was a general feature.
1. Design changes were toward integration, block
time programming, individualization, and
increasing involvement of school personnel in
planning and teaching. Professional preparation
would be extended downward into undergraduate
years, and upward through a two-year counselling
program leading to a m aster's degree and a
credential.
2. Process changes included more extensive use of
the centers for practicum in curriculum and
methods, and of the satellite schools for involve
ment during the behavioral sciences block of work.
Instructional strategies are including more
270
simulated and real clinical experiences and
longer practicum experiences. The practicum
would change to be m ore specified, more extensive,
more integrated with curriculum and behavioral
sciences, would be differentiated in special
program s through a teacher assistantship program,
and would use various technologies for evaluation
of competencies.
3. Content changes were to derive content and theoreti
cal base from practical involvement under super
vision and to integrate behavioral sciences with
curriculum through supervised clinical encounters.
4. Changes in evaluation were being considered in
favor of specified perform ance criteria but with a
concern for the limitations of that approach.
The new program s were evolving from the old ones as a function of
the impact of school d istrict needs upon teacher preparation and the
impact of innovative teacher preparation efforts of the university on
school program s. The institutional trend was toward specialized
teacher preparation program s such as those for the disadvantaged,
for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL),
and for teachers of bilingual students. Such program s were custom-
271
designed to fill existing needs in specific districts and to prepare
teachers with specialties which were in demand. In the regular
program the trend was toward a combined credential and advanced
degree program to prepare professional leadership in teaching.
Teacher Preparation at State Universities
Institutional characteristics
The M aster Plan of Higher Education for California specifies
that teacher education must be one of the functions of the Graduate
School of Education on each campus of the University of California.
The dean of the Graduate School of Education at one campus visited
estim ated that the university may recommend for certification as
few as 3,000 teachers in a year--from all nine campuses. One
California State College may produce as many as 1,000 per year.
The institutional commitments in their sim ilarities and differences
should be considered in evaluating such information. The University
of California is committed to excellence in teaching as well as to the
advancement of knowledge through research. This dual commitment
expressed in a Graduate School of Education through faculty choice
and activity and through program development provides the capacity
for a research and development dimension to the education of
teachers. It was suggested by one dean (1) that ways should be found
272
for the university to work with state colleges and (2) that research-
based training treatm ents generated at the university might be field-
tested in the colleges with the vast numbers of students in training.
He identified the need for system atically checking the effects of given
training program s on the competencies of teachers and the perform
ances of pupils. The lack of this type of activity and information was
identified by him as a m ajor factor in the conflict between the
legislature and the profession. The profession had not done its
homework and lacked the professional wisdom with which to inform
the legislature. The university had the resources in faculty to
initiate such research and to relate it to teacher preparation pro
gram s, he maintained. On another campus the director held the
view that due to the special nature of the students accepted by the
university--the top 7 per cent of the population intellectually—the
program s should be specially designed around the competencies of
the entering students and their possible contributions to the profession.
He reported no consensus among those directing and developing
teacher preparation program s in the university system. In fact, he
noted that the persons involved were not necessarily acquainted with
each other nor fam iliar with each other's program s. This, while
consistent with the unique nature and program of each campus, is of
interest in considering the development of the professional education
273
of teachers as a college-university process increasingly monitored
by the legislature.
State University L
One of the largest of the University of California campuses,
University L prepares teachers through its Graduate School of
Education. The school is committed to the idea that teaching and
research complement each other in the training of teachers. Thus,
both clinical and theoretical approaches are stressed in the curricu
lum. The education of teachers is a function of the university by
decree of the California M aster Plan for Higher Education. The
faculty chosen to plan and implement the program s of teacher
preparation are committed to teaching and to research in relation to
the education of teachers, and the evolving program s at that campus
have a research and development base.
Assumptions underlying program development were (1) the
belief that the individual is "the most priceless resource in society,"
(2) that teaching is a highly personal act, (3) that the quality of
human relationships within the program s are of central importance,
and (4) that human diversity was to be given high value.
Emphases in the program relating to these assumptions
were creating awareness of self in the teacher and developing his
self-concept in relation to the roles of a teacher. The concepts and
274
values developed in the teacher would be observable in his perform
ance of the competencies identified as training goals of the program.
Planning the approved program . - -Under the leadership of
the dean, planning has been conducted with the faculty and school
adm inistrators against the background of concern for the broad
picture of education reform in the nation and the deep need to develop
new knowledge through research about processes of teacher training,
kinds of effective pupil programs, and the effectiveness of one on the
other. Plans were made to make significant changes in the selection
process of supervisors and students, the program structure, the
participants in instruction, and the instructional content and sequence.
Results of research and program evaluation by scholars and by
participants have been utilized in the planning process. Attempts
have been made to identify critical issues which were (1) the
selection and formal training of supervising staff from the university
and the schools and (2) the need to minimize the cultural conflict
students experience when they attempt to apply to the school culture
the knowledge gained in the university.
Design. --The current program was designed as a linear
sequence of courses offered in the graduate year. Foundations of
education courses precede curriculum and methods courses. Both
are completed prior to student teaching. A change prior to the
275
approved program genesis caused the professional preparation
sequence to begin with coordinately offered curriculum, methods,
and student teaching, deferring the foundations courses to the second
and third quarters. The approved program design reflected a
g reater emphasis upon field experiences, more student options in
designing and directing his program --a sequence which integrates
curriculum and methods with student teaching and which redesigns
the content of the foundation courses. Feedback systems from the
field experiences were designed to provide data for program modi
fication.
Performance criteria will be the basis for content and
process design. Course patterns were believed to be incompatible
with the development of a range of skill performances in the training
component.
The program was conceptualized within a structure which
designated teacher preparation as the global task, the education of
teachers as the area of concern about how teachers learn the content
they teach, and the training of teachers being the experiences which
develop special skill competencies in the teacher.
The m ajor and significant aspect of the design was the
sequential and interrelated training program for the supervising
teacher in the schools.
276
Process. --U niversity classroom s and school classrooms
for student teaching have been the settings for the old program. The
new program being presented for approval was field-based in
Educational Training Centers. Centers consisted of a school in
which the adm inistrator and training teachers were closely involved
in the student teaching program. They were to be trained as clinical
supervisors, and the school would offer clinical experiences in
student teaching and in curriculum and methodology as well.
The general notion of "what is best done at the university
should be done there and what is best done at the school should be
done there" guided the use of settings. Since one of the aims of the
program was to change school patterns, it was possible to create new
kinds of instructional program s in the schools as settings for
training. School districts invited the university to do so.
The old sequence of the program was designed by university
schedule and course structure. The new sequence was based upon
the school schedule and integrated university work with work in the
schools. Another kind of change was internal in which the practicum
began with the opening of public school for a two-week period and
then incorporated curriculum experiences in all areas on a rotating
basis. At the same time, their supervising teachers were attending
curriculum instruction with the same professor. This process
T il
continues when the university opens in October, providing simul
taneous training for student and supervisor. Classes will be held in
elementary schools. Student teaching experiences will be correlated
to these experiences. Foundations courses were changed to be a
"foundations of elementary education" component designed with
experiential, operational, and intellectual inputs. Thus, the
practicum was extended through the entire sequence in varying forms.
Changes in strategies of conducting the new program were in several
dimensions:
1. Instructional tasks were identified corporately
for the university faculty and the public school
faculty.
2. Students were expected to learn to diagnose their
own needs and participate in program decisions.
3. University and school supervisory staff was used
for social modeling of teaching roles.
4. Performance criteria might be met in diverse ways
and in times appropriate to individual students.
5. Teams of students were to be assigned to teams of
supervisors, and sm all groups in the program
stayed together for the year's training sessions.
These strategies made it possible to highly individualize teacher
278
training experiences based upon assessm ents of students' competen
cies and needs as they entered the program. Feedback systems in
use throughout the program made it possible to adjust the program to
the changing needs of individuals. The relationships among the
people at all levels was considered key, and training in the founda
tions area was given to develop sensitivities and skills at building
such relationships.
The practicum in the old program was a student teaching
experience with a concurrent sem inar. In the new program, a
practicum experience is included in the selection process as an aid
to diagnosing the potential and the training needs of the candidate.
The initial experience in the program is a practicum in the schools
prior to the opening of classes at the university. The practicum
continues with the curriculum component, the foundations of
elementary education component, and the student teaching. As
competencies are identified and specified for the elementary teacher,
they will become the organizers for practicum experiences. A lter
nate patterns through the practicum sequences are possible for
individuals. The need was identified for both laboratory and field
experiences, and the clinical centers were to be the settings for both.
Simulation was used exclusively in the foundations component to
enable students to study the sociological dynamics of a school system
279
in a community. Through setting situations, role playing, and
improvisation students were able to grasp the cultural, political,
sociological, and psychological dynamics of the public school in
relation to its constituency.
The key to the nature of the practicum was the notion that it
was wrong to ask student teachers to be the chief carriers of cultural
change in education and that it was, therefore, necessary to retrain
teachers in the school in new approaches which the student teachers
were learning.
The key to the content of the practicum was an analysis of
competencies needed by teachers entering service. Another aspect
of the practicum was a proposed program for systematic induction
of new teachers into the schools, as a formal, continuous training
program during the first year of service.
Content. --The foundations of education segment in the old
program consists of courses in educational psychology and educational
sociology which tended to confront policy issues rather than perform
ance issues, it was reported. In the new program foundations were
redesigned to be the "foundations of elementary education" and as
such include personal experience, operational training, and intel
lectual inputs. The experience component was developed in three
phases beginning with attempts at self-awareness and other-aw are-
280
ness, developing sensitivity to the affective dimension in curricular
areas in relation to other-awareness and emerging in experiences
dealing with the affective dimension in children. The integration of
these phases of experience was to develop."confluence, " a term used
in research originating with a professor at the university, which
refers to the flowing together of the affective and the cognitive
domains in learning. Intellectual components of the course brought
together knowledge of the schools as social system s, as parts of
political complexes, and as reflectors and reform ers of society, with
knowledge about learning theory, counselling and guidance, tests and
measurements, and student evaluation. The course was staffed by
two professors who had developed it.
Curriculum courses in the new program were centered in
learning, rather than in knowledge about subject areas. The courses
were taught in the public schools through demonstration and m icro
teaching sequences. Emphasis was on teacher knowledge about the
skills of teaching subject areas, as well as teacher knowledge about
decisions related to when and under what conditions to use teaching
approaches.
Methodology in the new program would be taught by the
clinical supervisor in the public school through demonstration and
modeling and would be learned by the student in the Educational
281
Training Centers through a variety of practicum experiences such as
simulation, laboratory micro-teaching, and student teaching.
The development of the teacher as a person received major
attention in the selection, program planning, and practicum
processes. Small groups of students participating in the foundations
component focused activities toward this end in specific task assign
ments. The team of two student teachers assigned to one clinical
supervisor provided another group in which teachers developed
positive self-concepts, and teaching styles. The fact that supervisor
and student were all learners in the curriculum courses offered in
the schools was aimed to develop the concept of the teacher as
learner.
Evaluation. —The identification of criterion-referenced
performance objectives provided an evaluation design for the student.
In that the developmental sequence of skill acquisition in any given
performance area is not defined, performance profiles may be a
possible way to describe a candidate's competencies. The need
exists to determine acceptable levels of minimal perform ances.
Program evaluation was through long-range research studies to
assess the impact of training on teachers' leadership abilities,
effectiveness in bringing change, and abilities as learners. Student
evaluation of courses were used by professors for program
modification.
Summary of changes for State University L. - -The approved
program approach was seen as a means of presenting the State
Department of Education with a .contract which described the compe
tencies and the means for developing those competencies in
elem entary teachers. The program changes were based upon
research and development results and professional judgment, rather
than upon accreditation guidelines or state legal requirem ents. The
questions of what should be taught to students, who should teach it,
how should teacher performance effectiveness be evaluated, and how
will increasing reenforcement of desirable teaching practices be
achieved were questions guiding planning and generating changes.
Changes chould be summarized in the following way:
1. Changes in design were from a linear course
sequence to a program of experiences in which
theoretical input, knowledge input, and the
practicum were integrated. The key change was
the development of a formal sequential training
program for the supervising teacher. The design
was aimed to create changes in school practice.
2. Changes in process included the establishment of
"Educational Teaching Centers, " or public schools
committed to the training function and staffed
with trained supervising personnel. Another
change was toward totally individualizing the
sequence of experiences for each student. Problem-
foci were used to sequence simulation experiences;
the foundations were incorporated into an integrated
block-time segment; and the practicum was
continuous, sequential, and graded in complexity.
Micro-teaching and analysis were used. Partici
pants were grouped in teams. There was an
emphasis upon learning to learn, and upon develop
ing the self as a teacher. Strategy changes included
the incorporation of the supervising teacher as a
learner in the program, the use of feedback systems
for the field to provide information for program
design and implementation, team staffing, and the
modeling of teaching behavior by the staff for the
students.
Content changes in the foundations area were made
to incorporate knowledge from sociology and
psychology of education within an experiential
setting through assigning tasks. Curriculum
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courses were integrated with the practicum and
taught in the schools to the students and to the
supervising teachers. Methodology was linked to
curriculum areas and included training in decision
making regarding instruction. Clinical experi
ences provided the training. Content in teacher
development as self, as learner, and as teacher
was provided.
4. Changes in evaluation were toward the use of
criterion-referenced, behaviorally-stated perform
ance objectives related to a task analysis of the
work done by elementary teachers. Research was
designed to assess the impact of the training
program on teachers in a follow-up study. Student
self-diagnosis contributed to assessm ent and
program development for the individual. Student
evaluation of experiences provided for feedback for
program modification to be made by individual
professors.
State University M
One of the major campuses of the University of California,
University M operates a relatively sm all teacher preparation
285
program, offering three programs for the prospective elementary
teacher: early childhood education, the regular program, and an
intern program. The intern program is designed to teach teachers of
the disadvantaged youth, and has pioneered new patterns of field-
based experiences for training teachers. The university has a
unique staffing pattern, having employed school personnel with no
academic rank to do the non-theoretical preparation activities.
Theoretical parts of the program are taught by regular professors,
who are reported to prefer teaching and research to field work
necessary to teacher preparation. Divisions of opinion exist in the
institution regarding effective means for teacher preparation, and
alternatives have been proposed for programs, staffing, and
institutional design. Programs were linked to the cooperating
districts and their policies and to management possibilities at the
university.
Planning the approved program. - -Individual expertise among
faculty members seems to have been the source of planning the
internship program s and the early childhood program. The basic
program was planned by a committee which meets every two weeks
to make decisions and to direct the regular program. It has
"combined the planning abilities of students, classroom teachers,
adm inistrators, supervisors, and professors. " Planning has been
286
toward "flexibility, team teaching, tim eliness, and relevance."
Supervising teachers were involved in the on-going planning through
enrollm ent in extension courses. The m ajor focus of planning was
reported to be to relate experiences to the needs of individual
students in the program.
Design. - -The old program was designed with a linear,
course sequence pattern, which provided for one course each in
educational sociology and psychology, courses in curriculum , and
three experiences in student teaching, graded in intensity from two
days per week to four days per week.
The new program was developed in blocks taught in
laboratory o r field schools. Curriculum courses are taught on
campus in the afternoons, concurrent with student teaching in the
morning. Training in interaction analysis was included, as was
time for individual conferences. All curriculum areas are taught
during a given week, each by a different instructor. Psychological
foundations content was included such as "application of learning
theory to the classroom . " A weekly two-hour general sem inar was
included. During the second five weeks of a quarter, student
teaching is increased to three full days per week. Students are
assigned to two different schools during the year.
Another pattern proposed for the new program was an
287
intensive, field-based, team staffed block program, in which a
group of thirty students and three staff (one each from the foundations
and curriculum fields) would be located in a public school and would
create their program from the problems identified through super
vised participation in the school program. The university staff
would be able to plan with the school to develop exemplary pupil
program s which modeled desired teaching behaviors. Supervising
teachers would be specially trained. Problem-foci and faculty
expertise in knowledge and teaching would be the sources of content,
sequence, process, and evaluation. Performance criteria would not
be the basis of design. The organizing idea would be to develop
experiences which enable the student to "keep one foot in the real
world of direct experience of the teacher and the learner, and the
other foot in theoretical considerations. " This continuum would be
guided by the staff in such a way that "theory would explicate
experience, and experience would bring meaning to theoretical
knowledge. " The intensive involvement of the students and the
professors who would work and eat and play together on a first-nam e
basis, would break down the b arriers between student and faculty,
and would constitute a learning experience for both. Rotation of
faculty out of the program after one o r two years would provide for
renewal of the faculty and of the program.
288
Process. - -Settings for the old programs were university
classroom s and public school classroom s. In the new block program ,
centers have developed for laboratory experiences and field schools
are used for student teaching. In the alternate proposal, the setting
would be center schools and intensive involvement in the community
through its agencies and organizations to inform the student of the
world and concerns of the clients of the public schools.
The sequence changed from discrete courses in the e a rlie r
program to block-time programing with discrete sem inars in a
variety of subject areas. The alternate proposal would provide for
an open structure of time in which a professor of educational
sociology, educational psychology, and elementary curriculum and
methodology would, with their students, identify problems and
integrate relevant content. The practicum in the new regular
program alternated from mornings to full days of time, utilizing
interaction analysis to develop an increasing level of skill in self-
direction of teaching behaviors.
The strategies used for instruction in the old program a re
lecture and discussion in the theoretical subjects and apprenticeship
supervision in the field work. In the block program , strategies
included team planning if not team staffing, an increased attention
given to teaching performances and to self-analysis as a strategy
289
for changing teaching behaviors. In the block program, the super
vising teacher undergoes training in supervision techniques,
curriculum practices, evaluation, individual differences, and skills
at working with children and parents. Strategies in the alternate
proposal included team staffing, a self-contained group in the
program, and use of problem -foci to initiate learning. The stress
was on developing the self-initiating learner who is responsible for
the consequences of his own behavior in teaching.
The practicum in the old program is divided into three
segments. The first is a general introductory sem inar with two full
days per week of student teaching. The second section is a two-
full-day-per-week component of supervised student teaching, and
the final section is of supervised student teaching for four days per
week. Supervision is done by the university staff. In the block
program, student teaching will occur in the mornings and curriculum
seminars in the afternoons. The practicum will alternate between
four mornings per week and three full days per week across the five-
week sections of the schedule. The alternate proposal would provide
a graded practicum beginning with experience in the "real world" of
the school and, early in the sequence, training sessions using
simulation and micro-teaching to assess the teachers' performances.
Demonstration would be a function separate from student teaching and
290
both would be offered in cooperating schools. In both proposals the
quality of the practicum experiences would be designed to meet
student needs.
Content. - -Foundations courses in the old program offer a
choice between the sociology of a school as a system, or the sociology
of the school in society; and between a system atic course in
educational psychology or a course in learning theory and the learner.
The latter is offered for either secondary or elementary candidates.
The block program included sem inars in topics from the psychologi
cal foundations of education and required a course in a field-based
sociology of education course. The alternate proposal recommended
that the foundations would be a series of sem inars taught in the field
and developed from the experiences the students were involved in.
The expertise of the faculty would be the crucial element in selection
of content.
Curriculum components seemed to be sim ilar in each of the
program s--the old one and the two new ones. The block program
attempted to integrate curriculum and practicum in the sense that
they happened concurrently and included the training teacher. Thus,
it would be possible to have the practicum related to the curriculum
sem inar. The alternate proposal placed the choice of curriculum
inputs in the hands of the faculty team, one of whom was a specialist
291
in curriculum. A spiral approach to curriculum organization would
characterize the new program s as the student teacher returned to
curriculum areas throughout the year of training. Methodology was
derived from school practice and faculty expertise. The development
of the teacher as a person was a concern in the block program in that
its aim was to provide the student with self-analysis tools. In the
alternate program , where a closer relationship between student and
faculty was predicted, the tutorial and group interaction elements
would focus on teacher development of self-concept and style. It was
seemingly not a m ajor operational focus in either program .
Evaluation. --T he "pass/not pass" grading system is used
for all courses in the old and the new program s. Self-analysis
system s were emphasized as evaluation instrum ents. The alternate
proposal identified the need for hard data in relation to pupil per
formance in relation to teaching'behavior, personality, attitudes,
and academic achievement.
Summary of changes in University M. - -In the block program,
changes related to management operations were stressed; in the
altem al proposal, changes in content and process. A basic change
was toward a training program for the supervising teachers some
what integrated with the curriculum courses of the student teachers.
The two proposals differed in organization and in assumptions about
appropriate means of developing competencies in teachers. In
summary:
1. Changes in design were toward block time and
team staffing. Attempts were made to individual
ize the pacing through the program. Regular
cooperative planning with the school personnel was
a feature.
2. Changes in process were toward increasing use of
Center schools for laboratory experiences, and
field schools for student teaching experience. One
program considered increased use of the com
munity as a setting for training. Changes in
sequence in the block program seemed to integrate
psychology topics with curriculum topics and to
rotate amounts of student teaching to accommodate
laboratory and curriculum experiences. The
alternate program used problem-foci to sequence
training. Strategies of instruction had changed
toward team staffing, use of a self-contained group
for feedback and training, and toward the use of
interaction analysis for teaching and evaluation.
The practicum had changed from apprenticeship
student teaching supervised by university staff to
a differentiated practicum involving some
laboratory experiences. Self-analysis was used
to help self-direct the practicum. Simulation and
m icro-teaching were identified as training means.
Content changes in the foundations were to create
a field-based sociology course, to include the
psychology of learning in the curriculum sem inar
sequence, and, in the alternate proposal, to
integrate the foundations with the practicum through
team staffing of block-time, problem -centered
experiences in teaching. Changes in curriculum
were in scheduling. A spiral sequence of sem inars
in each curriculum area was scheduled concurrently
with student teaching allowing for integration.
Methods were modeled in laboratory situations, or
in demonstrations, and derived from the school
practice of cooperating districts.
Changes in evaluation were to include interaction
analysis as a basis for assessm ent of teaching
performance. The alternate proposal recom
mended evaluation of teaching performance,
294
attitude, personality, and academic performance.
In general, changes were of the nature of reorganization of
the existing program into a new pattern, which attempted to encour
age team teaching among the faculty and to encourage a kind of
instruction which would be related to the needs of students. Planning
with school and student representatives every two weeks during the
program was meant to facilitate this.
State University N
One of the sm aller campuses of the University system,
University N has a recently established School of Education which is
seeking new patterns of operation. Rather than discussing reorgan
ization, the faculty are debating kinds of organization patterns, kinds
of program s, and kinds of functions which they would like to initiate.
It is located in a sm all metropolitan area surrounded by rural
communities and has a variety of cooperating school districts to work
with. A search is on for effective kinds of involvement in teacher
preparation for the schools.
Planning the approved program . —Under the leadership of
the dean, task forces have been organized, using the Delphi
technique to inquire into possible purposes and program s in the
preparation of teachers. A series of "What vould happen if . . . "
topics have been introduced to focus discussion and planning. Five
such papers raised issues about the appropriate role of the university
in teacher preparation through introducing ideas which were
presented in a functional form to give a picture of what people would
do, given certain aims and settings. The task forces include m em
bers of the school districts and university faculty. One "what if"
idea proposed that the university locate faculty and students in the
teacher preparation program in one school for the year and that the
school be selected because the faculty and administration were
dissatisfied with the status quo and were asking fundamental questions
about the teaching and learning process. These questions would
become the focus for inquiry and learning for students, professors,
school teachers, and adm inistrators. Divisions between preservice
and in-service would disappear and all would become involved in the
theoretical and practical aspects of the problems.
Another idea proposed that all professional training programs
be first approved by a "four house" legislative group: academic
professors, professors and supervisors in education, public school
teachers and adm inistrators, and students. A third idea concerned
a new concept for the foundations of education and curriculum and
methods. It was suggested that three panels of professors be
organized from education and academic departments: the social-
philosophical area, the psychology area, and the curriculum area.
296
Lecture series involving a variety of professors, tutorial sessions,
and tutorial projects would provide students with information and
experience. Each panel would certify competence and recommend to
the university students for certification. Other ideas involved the
departmental structure of the school and the notion of preparing a
new kind of professional person.
Design. - -The current program at the university for
elem entary teachers offers a choice between a student-teaching
pattern and an intern teaching pattern. Title 5 requirem ents are met
in foundations courses, curriculum courses, and student teaching or
intern teaching.
The new design considered would be built from a clinical
base in a public school which had committed itself to inquiry and
change. A saturation of the school with university professors of
sociology, psychology and curriculum, and university students at
different levels of preparation would release teachers for study. A
typical problem focus identified by the school and university might be
the question of grouping practices in a desegregated school. The
question would be investigated from the dimensions of sociology,
psychology, curriculum, and teaching methodology. Alternatives
would be researched, proposed, and tried out for evaluation. Each
level of participant would bring his kind of expertise to the problem -
297
all learning with and from each other. Systematic instruction in
sociology would be offered at the center. A totally flexible schedule
would be possible into which academic professors could be invited at
appropriate times for special contributions. The continuous work
shops and practicum would develop teaching compentencies in the
novice and experienced teachers. Checklists of tasks might be
specified which were basic to teaching—such as skills in using audio
visual equipment. The task list notion might be extended through
other areas, making the course and unit system unnecessary. The
guiding principle in development of the design was related to the
nature and purpose of the university in society--that it should be a
center of inquiry and function as a change-agent.
Process. - -The old program used university lecture
discussion rooms and school classroom s as settings. The new
design would base the program in a clinical school totally devoted to
inquiry and training. Specially selected staff would participate. All
processes in the school would be open to question and study. This
was envisioned as an itinerate center, changing schools each year or
so.
Sequence in the old pattern was linear, providing a sem inar
in conjunction with student teaching. In the new pattern the sequence
would derive organically from the problems studied and the needs of
298
the students. It would be planned in progress.
Instructional strategies in the old program are lecture and
discussion to groups and field supervision. Training teachers
induct students into the status quo teaching program s. In the new
program the main strategy was of cooperative inquiry into actual
school problems. Individualization, team staffing, team learning,
and flexibility would be natural outcomes dictated by the lines of
inquiry and the needs of people.
The practicum in the old program includes some hours of
teacher assistantship p rio r to full student or intern teaching. In the
new program the practicum would be designed around teaching tasks,
using tutoring, micro-teaching, team teaching, lectures, demon
strations, projects, and whatever means were appropriate. The
practicum would be designed for individuals as the work progressed
and would enable prospective teachers to conduct a full school pupil
program which they had had a hand in designing.
Content. - -In the old program the sociological foundations
and psychological foundations are given as system atic courses.
Curriculum and methods are based in pupil curriculum structures.
In the new program the professors of sociology would offer system -
atic instruction in the center related to the topics of inquiry.
Professors of psychology would operate in a sim ilar manner. Both
299
would be involved in the same problem areas and with the same
people, effecting a kind of team staffing.
In the curriculum area professors would teach the structure
of the disciplines from which school curriculum derives, and in
general, curriculum would be related to the larger problems being
investigated--grouping, changing perceptions people hold of a child,
o r learning problems. No particular emphasis was placed upon the
development of the self-concept of the student as teacher.
Evaluation. - -Evaluation would be handled through satis
factory performance of kinds of tasks and through evaluation by the
professors and teachers who would have intimate and extensive
contact with the prospective teacher. It was felt that in some
instances, the attempt to specify behaviors developed into the
problems of m easurem ent and resulted in objectives which were too
narrow or too limited.
Kinds of changes in University N. —Changes were based
upon a clearly defined role of the university in relation to the schools.
Rather than replicate existing models of teaching, it was thought that
the university should innovate new kinds of teaching, professional
roles, and training program s. Functioning as a change-agent, the
university would--with cooperating school districts--investigate
problem s, create new alternatives, inquire, and stimulate change.
Changes in design were from linear C o an
ecological system in which all participants learned
together from each other in relation to identified
problems.
Changes in process were from inducting a teacher
into the current system through supervised directed
teaching through a linear sequence of practicum
experiences and theoretical courses to developing
a new kind of teacher who is innovative, sees
teaching as an on-going process of questioning,
attempting and evaluating, and is able to teach that
way due to being trained in that way. Changes were
toward individualized, flexible sequencing and a
differentiated practicum created around problem
solving and people's needs.
Changes in content included a redefinition of cur
riculum, specifications for which were being
developed, and an interrelationship of foundations
and curriculum content and experiences. Ways were
sought to involve academic specialists as resource
persons at appropriate moments. The clinical
setting provided a base for content offerings.
301
4. Changes in evaluation would be from course credit
to certification by a panel of professors who
operated a clinical program and who had super
vised scholarly, practical, and project work.
Lists of tasks which students needed to accomplish
would be used to evaluate. Tutorial relationships
facilitated evaluation.
The general pattern of change was toward tutorial, unique, inquiry-
based program s to create an innovative teacher and to impact the
schools with the relevant expertise from the university. The aim was
to identify problems, search out possible solutions, attempt alterna
tives, and stim ulate change.
State University O
A m ajor metropolitan campus in the university system with
a major teacher preparation program, State University O is nation
ally recognized for pioneering work in system s for preparation and
training of teachers. Research-based training program s have
attracted outside funds which have aided long-term development of
program s. A recently formed "Teacher Education Laboratory" with
department status includes professors from all parts of the university
who will spend one-third of their time working corporately with
issues underlying appropriate teacher training program development.
302
C ritical issues in teacher preparation identified by the director are:
1. Can there be academic freedom when there is a
program which requires special competencies and
instruction?
2. Should there be single o r alternative programs and
kinds of teachers prepared?
3. In a time of teacher oversupply, is certification
based upon demonstrated minimal perform ance--
"A" o r "F, ” "pass/no pass”--a feasible system
from the standpoint of the employer, who must
select, o r for the institution which trains teachers?
Planning the approved program . - -Four types of elementary
program s are offered at the university, each with different objectives.
One trains change-agent teachers for the urban b arrio , one trains
change-agent team leaders to bring innovations to the schools, one is
designed to prepare teachers for the metropolitan schools, and the
fourth one is designed to retrain the training teachers and to produce
students of teaching who can generate their own strategies and
em pirically test their effectiveness in terms of pupil behavior.
Planning is done within the faculty, within the "laboratory, " and with
school personnel in cooperating districts. The last two programs
mentioned are reported here.
303
Design. - -The current program was designed to meet state
requirements and offers courses in psychological foundations,
sociological foundations, curriculum and methods, with student
teaching a term inal experience. The first quarter of student teaching
overlaps with the last quarter of curriculum. In the new program
reported and in its first phase of implementation, the design is built
around an aim which is to restrain the m aster teachers in observa
tion and analysis of learning behavior, making inferences, teaching
student teachers, planning, and in new curriculum and strategies of
teaching. A center school is the location of the program. Student
teachers move through four phases of objectives, and m aster
teachers are trained to facilitate this. A team of three student
teachers is assigned to a m aster teacher. Competencies are identi
fied and students are free to move at their own pace. Training
teachers and student teachers m eet in curriculum sem inars three
days per week in practicum and in evaluation sem inars in groups of
twenty students and seven m aster teachers. M aster teachers also
meet in classes with university professors in the same curriculum
areas. The design locates a large number of teachers in a school,
which perm its one-third of the training teachers to be released from
teaching assignments to participate in training sem inars in observa
tion and in planning. M aster teachers teach one-third of the time on
304
a rotating basis. Credentialed people are always in contact with
pupils, either as teachers or observers. Experiences in the program
are all referenced to child behavior; teacher behavior is a means to
that end. The design closes the communication loop between the
university-based professor and student and the school-based training
teacher by involving all three in training programs which have
sim ilar foci, and in which performance objectives are stated for the
student teacher in term s of pupil performance. That is, the m aster
teacher has specified outcomes for his students--the student
teachers, which in turn specify that the student teachers shall have
specified outcomes with pupils.
Process. - -Prior to this program , over one hundred class
rooms with one hundred m aster teachers were the settings for
student teaching--typical of a traditional program in California, To
avoid the unevenness of training which such a system engenders, the
new program identifies schools as training centers and saturates the
school with university personnel and students. Supervisory staff for
the university are hired jointly by the university and the district and
are district personnel. M aster teachers in the school will teach one-
third time, analyze and plan with student teachers one-third time,
and learn one-third time. Thus, the m ajor emphasis in a center
school is the study of teaching by all levels of professional persons.
305
Sequence for the old program was linear and curriculum was
unrelated to student teaching. In the new program the curriculum
sem inars are conducted by the m aster teacher under whom student
teaching is done. There is a four-phase practicum with specified
tasks for student teachers. Two phases--the objective setting phase
and the assisting phase--last for about two weeks, followed by a
teaching with assistants phase and an independent teaching phase.
Three student teachers move through the practicum with one m aster
teacher. Flexible scheduling allows each student teacher to teach
full time in all areas by the end of the session. Success is measured
in terms of pupil performance and by retention tests.
Sequence of curriculum is as follows: reading is the focus
for training and sem inar one day per week; mathematics and science,
one day per week; and social studies, a third day per week. Morn
ings are spent in observing, analyzing, planning, and teaching;
afternoons are spent in sem inars, groups learning new content and
methodology. The remaining two days per week are spent on campus
taking coursework in the foundations and related subjects.
Strategies for instruction are based upon a retrained
m aster teacher who is able to train student teachers to specified
performances. Observation and analysis aid the teachers in planning
strategies to achieve objectives with pupils. Student teachers are
306
held accountable for pupil performance. M aster teachers are held
accountable for student teacher perform ances. M ini-lessons are
used to teach strategies and to make attempts toward achieving
objectives. Data from m ini-lessons are analyzed and used by the
team to plan strategies for teaching. The team members all learn all
the roles in analysis and act as a reference group for each other.
The practicum in the old program was based in an
apprenticeship approach to inducting a student teacher into ways of
behaving as a teacher. In the new program the practicum is based
upon certain competencies which the student teacher must acquire in
order to successfully complete the program . He is trained to assess
his own competencies, to formulate behavioral objectives, to provide
criterion m easures for pupils, to do these things with a team --all
within a conceptual framework of the role and function of a teacher.
In the assisting phase of the practicum, he will, for example, "be
able to diagnose an individual learn er's discrepancies in a particular
content area. " Related to this, he will prepare a task analysis of the
objective, identifying prerequisite skills, assess pupil status in
relation to them, and formulate objectives which will enable the pupil
to achieve and therefore to no longer exhibit discrepant behavior.
The teaching with assistants' phase of the practicum
provides a reference group to appraise and analyze a student teacher's
307
effectiveness in eliciting pupil behavior and to present him with
inferences to consider. The m ini-lesson is the context within which
this happens. A full performance cycle is identified, and the student
teacher displays competency in all parts of it.
The independent teaching phase requests the teacher to
extend his teaching through a day and in a long-term dimension as
well. The final two phases require a total of eight weeks; the first
two phases run concurrently through the first two weeks.
Content. —The sociological foundations courses are taught by
a variety of professors, some of whom attempt to create a field-
based, action-oriented experience. Others provide system atic
theoretical instruction. The trend is toward the field-based program.
Psychology is taught on campus in a systematic way in both
the old and the new programs.
Curriculum courses are taught in the school by the m aster
teacher who is taking instruction in new methods and m aterials at the
sam e time. Subjects are rotated through the week and intimately tied
to the practicum. Methodology is various, and alternate strategies
of teaching are learned to provide an extensive repertoire for the
student teacher. The focus in the new program is on pupil achieve
ment, whatever the means the teacher employs. Analysis is not of
teacher behavior but of pupil behavior, from which inferences are
made for future teacher behavior.
Development of the self-concept of the teacher, or of the
teacher's style, is not an issue in the program . The training is
pupil-centered, not teacher-centered in that respect.
Evaluation. - -The student teacher in the old program passed
courses to gain recommendation for certification. In the new
program the student teacher displays given competencies in the
classroom , and when all required competencies are in evidence--
whether at the end of ten or twenty weeks of training--the teacher is
recommended for certification. (Other state requirem ents are met
through coursework.) In the process the student learns evaluation
techniques to guide his planning and teaching. Assessm ent is con
tinuous and integral to the training program design. Objective
criteria are used. Teaching fairs are proposed in which in experi
mental settings, competent teachers--products of the program --
compete with each other to gain rank in specified competencies.
This was a proposed solution to the problem of competition for
teaching positions in an oversupply period. The aim and effect of
the program is to create "students of teaching" who can evaluate
their own competencies from em pirical data and who plan their
teaching by such means.
Summary of changes in University Q. - -The trend is toward
309
training the m aster teacher who will then be prim arily responsible
for the student teacher’s learning experiences. In this training new
curriculum and methods are introduced to the training teachers who
model them for student teachers. Student teachers are accountable
for their behavior as measured by pupil performance. Skills of
assessm ent, analysis, setting objectives, task analysis, and design
ing strategies which are implemented are the content of the teacher
training program . Curriculum and methodology become content for
the practicum process in the school.
1. Changes in design are from linear sequences for
isolated participants to a system of sequences for
teams of novice and experienced teachers working
with university professors.
2. Changes in process are from decentralized training
in the practicum to the use of center schools as a
base for training. The sequence has changed to
simultaneous and integrated experiences in content
and process elements. Strategies are being used
which develop skills in team membership which
facilitate training, which organize a large group of
teachers so that m aster teachers are released from
teaching in order to learn and to plan. M ini-lessons
are used as contexts within which to observe,
analyze, and develop inferences about the effect
of strategies on pupil behavior. Self-assessm ent
and self-direction are features. Changes in the
practicum are toward giving the training teacher
objectives for the student teacher for whom he is
accountable, as well as giving the student teacher
objectives for which he is accountable. Mini
lessons facilitate learning in the curriculum areas
in relation to pupil learning. Student teaching is
an outgrowth of a sequence of competencies which
m ust be m astered.
Content: Process content has been identified for
the training sessions for m aster teachers and for
the training sessions for student teachers. Method
ology is a function of observation, analysis, and
strategic planning within a curriculum area for
given, pre-assessed pupils. Psychology and
sociology remained system atic campus-based
courses.
Evaluation changes were from course-based
competencies to field-based competencies which
311
must be displayed by a student teacher prior to
recommendation for certification. Evaluation
techniques were an integral part of the training
process and were used as a means of assessing
pre- and post-intervention competencies in pupils.
Objective criteria were used.
The programs at University 0 were unique among the sample in that
they were built upon a pupil-referenced system in which teachers
studied pupil behaviors in relation to teaching, as opposed to a
teacher-referenced program in which study was made of teacher
behaviors in relation to pupil learning. In their system the teacher
behavior options were open and were not training objectives in them
selves, but only in relation to the teacher's function with children.
A special feature was the concentration on training m aster teachers
for which major resources would be deployed. A division of opinion
existed in the faculty over the role of the university in teacher
preparation. One group held that experimentation and innovation was
the central role; the other group held that the special type of student
who enters the university was the focus. How should he be trained,
to do what, for and in the profession? If credential programs are not
offered in the university, designed for that type of highly intelligent,
verbal, analytical person, the profession would lose him. Such an
312
issue lay at the heart of program development in University O.
Chapter Summary
The data collected through interviews with deans and
directors of teacher education in each of the fifteen institutions have
been presented in sections identifying institution type. Current
programs and proposed new program s were described in the following
term s: planning the approved program, design, process, content,
and evaluation. Kinds of changes were identified for each institution.
Due to the agreem ent to keep the information collected
confidential and to not identify institutions or persons by name, some
quotations appear from documents and people which were not re fe r
enced to the Bibliography. Those documents are listed in the
Bibliography, however, to give the reader an idea of the kinds of
sources which are available for reference.
Chapter VI, which follows, contains an analysis of the kinds
of changes reported in relation to the fifty-item list of identified
recommended changes derived from the review of the literature in
Chapter II.
CHAPTER VI
COMPARISON OF PROGRAM CHANGES IN CALIFORNIA
TO TRENDS OF CHANGE IN THE UNITED STATES
In an attempt to answer the research question, "How do
proposed program changes in California institutions of teacher
preparation compare to proposed and actual changes in the United
States?" institutions are analyzed by (1) type, (2) college or
university status, and (3) private or public status. Patterns of
sim ilarities and differences are discussed to determine possible
implications of selected changes and patterns of change. An attempt
is made to determine institution type characteristics in relation to
kinds of teacher preparation programs.
In interpreting the tables and comparisons, it should be kept
in mind that within the constraihts of this study there is no hierarchy
of value placed upon kinds o r numbers of changes. Identified changes
are not ordered in relation to each other. It is assumed that
institutional autonomy im plies a freedom of choice about kinds and
numbers of program changes appropriate to implement a given set of
313
314
objectives. It is farther assumed that within the broad objectives of
higher education in the United States, each institution is free to define
its unique commitments in the areas of inquiry, teaching, and service
and that such institutional commitments would be reflected in program
development in professional education. Therefore, no value is given
to one type of program over another. Comparisons are made of
kinds of changes, not of institutions. For example, it would not be a
proper use of the data tables to infer that because a given institution
reported thirty changes and another, sixteen, that one institution is
m ore o r less correct in its program development. It would be a
proper use of the data tables to infer that because a given kind of
change was reported by 80 per cent of the institutions, that it is a
common change and that the institutions as a group are reflecting a
national trend.
A further caution is given. Changes reported were planned
o r desired changes and do not necessarily represent an exhaustive
list of changes from any given institution. Reported changes do
represent perceptions of leaders in the field of teacher preparation as
to the kinds of changes considered, proposed, planned, and in
process of being implemented in their respective institutions.
The central question to which this study is addressed was to
determine if changes were being made in teacher preparation
315
programs in institutions through the approved program approach to
teacher certification. A comparison of identified changes to national
changes was a means for determining the professional relevance of
California changes. With relevance established, validity was assumed.
Recommended changes in the United States
A review of the literature in Chapter II generated a list of
kinds of changes in teacher preparation programs in colleges and
universities. Those kinds of changes were categorized under the
following headings: (1) program type, (2) design, (3) process,
(4) content, and (5) evaluation. Fifty-one items comprise the list
which is used in tabular form to record identified changes for types
of institutions. Institutions are identified by capital letter, and the
number of institutions reporting a kind of change is totaled in the
right margin of the table. In a cumulative table (Table 8) institutions
reporting changes are identified, totals given, and percentages of the
total group recorded for each kind of change.
The fifty-one item inventory represents specific kinds of
changes related to major trends of change reported by Melbo (42);
Olsen (102); B. Othanel Smith, and Others (49); and Richard B.
Smith (109), discussed in Chapter II and summarized below.
316
Trends of Change in Teacher Preparation
in the United States
A major change in planning programs was the inclusion of
the district school personnel and of members of the communities
served by the teachers. Changes in design were toward the use of
systems design and management to facilitate differentiation of train
ing, flexibility of programing, and individualization of preparation.
Changes in the content of preparation programs were toward an
emphasis upon urban studies in the foundations areas, toward the use
of performance modules in curriculum and methods areas, and
toward an integration of content with the practicum. Changes in
process were toward greater use of clinical settings in the schools,
toward flexible, individualized sequences of experiences, toward the
analytical study of teaching and learning, and toward a varied and
extensive practicum. Changes in evaluation were toward the use of
mediated feedback systems for self-analysis, and toward the use of
criterion-referenced performance objectives to establish competence
in teaching (see Table 10).
Comparison of California-desired
program changes to trends of
change in the United States
Private Colleges. - -Changes reported by the four private
colleges are identified in Table 1. It can be seen that each institution
317
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN PRIVATE COLLEGES
Kinds of Changes ^ n^ t^t^ nS Number
Socialization A C 2
Academic reform
Self-as -instrum ent D 1
Teaching maneuvers
Performance criteria based B 1
Teacher as inquirer-researcher
Design
Cooperative planning A B C D 4
Systems design A B D 3
Individual pacing A B D 3
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories c 1
Off-campus coursework A B D 3
D iversity in off-campus settings A c D 3
Clinical settings off campus B 1
Community settings, non-school c D 2
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses A 1
Block-time integrated courses B D 2
Problem-foci sequencing D 1
Continuous, graded practicum B c D 3
Performance modules B 1
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed A D 2
Team staffing A B D 3
Self-contained program groups B 1
Staff modeling of teaching modes D 1
Multiple-media feedback system s B c D 3
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher A B D 3
pupil
TABLE 1 --Continued
318
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N = 4)
Number
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training A B C 3
K through 12 experience D 1
Developmental, sequences,
continuous B D 2
Teachers learn to learn D 1
Clinical experiences B 1
Performance objectives B C 2
Simulation and games 0
Micro-teaching and analysis B D 2
Self-direction in practicum B D 2
Teams of student teachers 0
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature
of education, field based A B C D 4
Urban emphasis in sociology A C D 3
Field-based psychology B D 2
Integration with curriculum and
methodology B D 2
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach D 1
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered B D 2
New curriculum subjects 0
Integrated with practicum A B . C D 4
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies B D 2
Decision-making skills B D 2
Teacher Personal Development
Self-concept development D 1
Style development D 1
Evaluation
Self-evaluation B D 2
Criterion referenced, performance objectives B 1
Diagnostic evaluation of student teacher needs B D 2
319
presented a unique pattern of planning, of objectives, of means, and
of values. In the group as a whole critical constraints upon program
building were the need for finance and for staff. College D had
created its design within those constraints by choosing objectives for
teacher preparation in which the entire faculty could participate.
In the group the m ost frequently reported changes were
cooperative planning in designing the program; process changes
which used a diversity of off-campus settings for coursework and
practicum; individualization of program s; a continuous, graded
practicum; team staffing; the use of objectives based upon teacher
behavior referents, and a differentiated practicum. Changes in
content m ost frequently reported were in the foundations area of
sociology with a field-based, urban emphasis. All institutions
reported an integration of curriculum with practicum experiences.
Half the number were planning an integration of curriculum and
methodology with the foundations, greater use of self-evaluation, and
of diagnostic evaluation of student teacher needs. More than half of
the institutions reported increasing use of multi-m edia feedback
systems and half of a developmental, sequenced, and continuous
practicum.
Changes which were not reported by the Private Colleges
include (1) objectives based on pupil behavior referents, (2) the use
320
of simulation and games, (3) teams of student teachers in practicum
experiences, and (4) incorporation of new curriculum subjects for
pupils. All other changes were being considered, planned for, or
implemented by one o r more of the four colleges studied.
Institutions differed widely in program type. College D was
implementing an organic systems developmental program which was
expected to exhibit continuous changes in specifics. College C had a
highly developed program in which specifics were prescribed to
meet d istrict and college objectives. This would seem to suggest
that institutional differences in philosophy would generate highly
unique program s in design, process, content, and evaluation.
Teachers prepared in College D would be students-of-teaching who
had learned to develop themselves and environments in order to
facilitate learning. Teachers prepared in College C would be able to
maintain the current school program at a high level of competence.
It could be assumed that both types of teachers are needed in the
public schools, and that they would display different competencies.
Such differences would imply a difference in the criteria used to
evaluate each program , and would imply that overspecific require
m ents--whatever the source: legal or professional—could inhibit
program growth.
State Colleges. - -Changes reported in program s for teacher
321
preparation in response to the approved program s approach to
teacher certification in the California State Colleges visited are
recorded in Table 2. It can be seen that two of the institutions, F
and G, were developing program s built upon a system atic use of
performance criteria. College H had emphasized development of a
repertoire of teaching maneuvers in the training elements, using
performance criteria to some extent. College E had designed its
program s to prepare teacher to fit specific task specifications
identified by districts.
All of the State Colleges were intensifying cooperative
planning with the school districts and with community m em bers. All
were moving to m ore off-campus coursework in a diversity of
settings, such that block-time integrated courses and a continuous,
graded practicum could be team -staffed by college and district
personnel. Training objectives in all State Colleges were based upon
behavioral referents of teacher behavior. All four colleges were
planning an urban focus in the sociological foundations area, and were
attempting ways of integrating curriculum courses with the practicum.
As a group, Colleges F, G, and H reported sim ilar changes which
were not reported by College E. College E did not report a change
in program type, as did Colleges F, G, and H.
Changes not reported by State Colleges, or reported by only
322
TABLE 2
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN STATE COLLEGES
Kinds of Changes Number
Program type
Socialization E 1
Academic reform
Self-as-instrum ent
Teaching maneuvers H 1
Performance criteria based F G 2
Teacher as inquirer-researcher
Design
Cooperative planning E F G H 4
Systems design F G H 3
Individual pacing F G H 3
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories E 1
Off-campus coursework E F G H 4
Diversity in off-campus settings E F G H 4
Clinical settings off campus E F H 3
Community settings, non-school G H 2
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses 0
Block-time integrated courses E F G H 4
Problem-foci sequencing 0
Continuous, graded practicum E F G H 4
Performance modules G H 2
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed H 1
Team staffing E F G H 4
Self-contained program groups E F 2
Staff modeling of teaching modes H 1
Multiple-media feedback systems G H 2
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher E F G H 4
pupil
323
TABLE 2 - -Continued
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N = 4)
Number
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training F G H 3
K through 12 experience G H 2
Developmental, sequences, continuous E G H 3
Teachers learn to learn H 1
Clinical experiences E F H 3
Performance objectives F G H 3
Simulation and games 0
M icro-teaching and analysis G H 2
Self-direction in practicum G H 2
Teams of student teachers 0
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature
of education, field-based F G H 3
Urban emphasis in sociology E F G H 4
Field-based psychology F G H 3
Integration with curriculum and
methodology F G H 3
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach H 1
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered G H 2
New curriculum subjects 0
Integrated with practicum E F G H 4
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies G H 2
Decision-making skills G H 2
T eacher personal development
Self-concept development G 1
Style development F G H 3
Evaluation
Self-evaluation F G H
3
C riterion referenced, performance
objectives F G H 3
Diagnostic evaluation of student
teacher needs F G H
3
324
one included: use of campus laboratories; sequencing of program by
either simultaneous discrete courses o r by selection of problem -
foci for inquiry; self-initiated, self-directed learning on the part of
the teacher, staff modeling of teaching modes as a means of instruc
tion; instruction pointed toward teaching teachers to learn; die use
of teams of student teachers; a conceptual inquiry approach to
teaching school curriculum; and the development of a teacher's self-
concept in relation to teaching.
Generally, State Colleges had large program s of teacher
preparation which formed main sources of personnel for cooperating
districts. They reported their task to be that of training teachers to
meet competency requirem ents related to current school program s.
They did not see their task as one of innovation but rather one of
offering exemplary standards of teaching within the established
framework of the public school program . Changes tended to be the
kind which increase efficiency in a preparation program --efficiency
in use of time and finance to achieve given objectives. The program s
were more specified and less exploratory. Explorations were in the
areas of program management, rather than in basic changes in
program design. Changes reported indicated an agreement with
proposed changes nationally. Two institutions had undertaken m ajor
faculty study of a desired approved program and had developed
325
rationale and specifications reflecting professional knowledge
reported in the research and professional opinion in 1970.
Private Universities. - -Changes in response to the approved
program approach to teacher certification, which were reported by
Private Universities in the study, are found in Table 3. Two of the
universities were planning program s which would socialize teachers
to the existing o r changing school cultures in the districts which they
served. One reported a different intent, which was to develop a
teacher-leader, capable of being an inquirer-researcher who could
invent new educational program s as well as work within existing
ones.
All of the Private Universities were increasing cooperative
planning with school districts and with the community. All were
moving toward individualization of program for the student. Off-
campus coursework in diverse settings which included the community
as well as the school reported changes in all institutions. Simul
taneous discrete courses with a continuous, graded practicum were
reported changes. Strategies of instruction reported as changes by
all three institutions were: team staffing, multiple-media feedback
system s for evaluation, and the identification of behavioral objectives
referenced to teacher behavior. The practicum would include differ
entiation of training for differentiated teaching roles and the use of
326
TABLE 3
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N = 3)
Number
Program type
Socialization
J K
2
Academic reform
Self-as-instrum ent
Teaching maneuvers
Performance criteria based
Teacher as inquirer-researcher I 1
Design
Cooperative planning I
J K
3
Systems design
Individual pacing I
J
J K
I
3
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories
J K
2
Off-campus coursework I
J K
3
Diversity in off-campus settings I
J K
3
Clinical settings off campus K 1
Community settings, non-school I
J K
3
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses I
J K
3
Block-time integrated courses K 1
Problem-foci sequencing I 1
Continuous, graded practicum I
J K
3
Performance modules I
J
2
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed I I
Team staffing I
J K
3
Self-contained program groups
J K
2
Staff modeling of teaching modes
Multiple-media feedback system s I
J K
0
3
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher I
J K
3
pupil I 1
327
TABLE 3 - -Continued
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N = 3)
Number
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training
I J K
3
K through 12 experience I K 2
Developmental, sequences, continuous
I J K
3
Teachers learn to learn I 1
Clinical experiences I K 2
Performance objectives
I J
2
Simulation and games I K 2
M icro-teaching and analysis
I J K
3
Self-direction in practicum I 1
Teams of student teachers
I J
2
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature
of education, field-based
I J K
3
Urban emphasis in sociology
I J K
3
Field-based psychology K 1
Integration with curriculum and
methodology
I J K
3
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach I 1
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered I K 2
New curriculum subjects I 1
Integrated with practicum I J K 3
Methods of teaching
V ariety of strategies I K 2
Decision-making skills I 1
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development I 1
Style development I 1
Evaluation
Self-evaluation K 1
C riterion referenced, performance
objectives
I J
2
Diagnostic evaluation of student
teacher needs I K 2
328
m icro-teaching and analysis to create a developmental, sequenced,
continuous practicum.
In the content of a teacher preparation program all Private
Universities reported changes to field-based foundations of education
courses, an urban emphasis in sociological foundations of education,
and an integration of the foundations with curriculum and method
ology. All three institutions were attempting to integrate curriculum
studies with the practicum.
Only one of the fifty-one changes listed was not reported by
at least one of the Private Universities: staff modeling of teaching
modes. A11 other changes were being considered or implemented
by one or more of the Private Universities.
In general, the Private Universities were moving their
program s into the field and were preparing teachers to work within
existing school program s. Beyond that, Private University I was
attempting to define new teaching roles and prepare teachers to be
leaders of change. All were responding to the need for teachers in
urban settings by creating special program s to develop teaching
skills in working with the disadvantaged youth. Private Universities
J and K tended toward developing service program s in response to
district needs, while Private University I tended toward research and
inquiry into projected needs in the profession. Unique resources in
329
each institution were being incorporated into program changes: an
international dimension at J and K; an intensive urban studies
component at I and K; and the unique community settings of the
institutions at all three.
Unique features of institutions in this group included the
proposed change by institution I to create and teach new school
curriculum subjects. It was the only institution in the study rep o rt
ing such a plan to introduce new areas of curriculum into the public
school program which would be appropriate, in this case, to ghetto
and barrio children. That same institution was unique in being the
only one to teach toward decision-making skills, self-concept devel
opment, and style development of individual teachers.
C ritical issues identified by deans or directors in the
Private Universities w ere the problems of finance and of the time
constraints of a fifth-year program. Changes proposed were of the
kind that make the best possible use of time and financial resources
to develop a high level of competency in individual, highly selected
students. Also, changes placed m ore emphasis upon using the
public school as a training site and developing paid or unpaid teacher
assistantship positions in the schools to extend the training time and
provide for adequate and continuous practicum.
The variety of special program s for teachers reported in
the institutions implied that the Private University may move toward
developing unique specialized programs to meet special needs for
teachers, rather than continue to mount large general program s.
Special program s reported by Private Universities 1, J, and K were
contracted with school districts and received outside financial
support. Private University K had been able to incorporate special
campus resources in academic faculty to develop specialized
program s to prepare mathematics teachers, teachers of the
bilingual child, teachers of English to speakers of other languages,
and teachers for the black o r brown urban poverty communities or
ru ral m igrant communities. It is possible that such diversification
is a trend for the future of the private institution.
State U niversities. - -Changes reported by State Universities
for teacher preparation program s are found in Table 4. Of the four
institutions, one prepared teachers for the current school program s,
although a division of opinion existed regarding that choice; and two
prepared teachers in program s which were based in highly specified
performance criteria and which were designed to develop students-of -
teaching. The fourth institution sought to develop teachers who were
inquirers and researchers but chose a less specified perform ance-
based approach to it. All four institutions reported a view of their
role in teacher preparation as being innovative, stimulative of
331
TABLE 4
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN STATE UNIVERSITIES
Kinds of Changes Number
Program type
Socialization M 1
Academic reform
Self-as-instrum ent
Teaching maneuvers
Performance criteria based *L O (2)
Teacher as inqu irer-research er L N O 3
Design
Cooperative planning L M N O 4
Systems design L N O 4
Individual pacing L M N O 4
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories 0 1
Off-campus coursework L M N O 4
Diversity in off-campus settings L O 2
Clinical settings off campus L M N O 4
Community settings, non-school M 1
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses M N O 3
Block-time integrated courses L M N O 4
Problem-foci sequencing M N 2
Continuous, graded practicum L N O 3
Performance modules O 1
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed L N O 3
Team staffing L M N O 4
Self-contained program groups M N O 3
Staff modeling of teaching modes L O 2
Multiple-media feedback systems L M N O 4
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher L M 2
pupil N O 2
♦Performance criteria were tools for inquiry and research.
TABLE 4 - -Continued
332
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N - 4)
Number
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training L N 0 3
K through 12 experience N 1
Developmental, sequences, continuous L M N 0 4
Teachers learn to learn L N 0 3
Clinical experiences L N 0 3
Performance objectives L N 0 3
Simulation and games L M 2
M icro-teaching and analysis L M N 0 4
Self-direction in practicum L M N 0 4
Teams of student teachers L 0 2
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological
nature of education, field-based L M 0 3
Urban emphasis in sociology M 0 2
Field-based psychology N 1
Integration with curriculum and
methodology L N 2
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach L N 2
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered L N 0 3
New curriculum subjects 0
Integrated with practicum L M N 0 4
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies L N 0 3
Decision-making skills L N 0 3
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development L 1
Style development L 1
Evaluation
Self-evaluation L M N 0 4
C riterion referenced, performance
objectives L 0 2
Diagnostic evaluation of student
teacher needs L N 0 3
333
change, unique among program s in the higher education institutions
in the state, research-based in design, and selective and small.
Cooperative relationships with other institutions for the purpose of
research, inquiry, program testing, and development of new
program s was suggested at each institution.
All four State Universities reported a change toward
intensive cooperative planning with professionals in the schools. On
the operational level of a program , such planning was accomplished
in three institutions through intensive training program s for m aster
teachers. Off-campus coursework and the use of clinical centers in
schools characterized all four institutions. Block-time integrated
courses were preferred, team staffed, and using multiple-media
feedback systems for analysis. Two universities developed teacher-
referenced training objectives; and two, child-referenced objectives.
All four institutions reported changes toward o r increased use of
m icro-teaching and analysis of pupil or teacher behavior which
allowed for self-direction in the practicum. The practicum was
developmental, sequenced, and continuous in all four reports.
All State Universities reported a change toward integration
of curriculum courses with the practicum. All were incorporating
self-evaluation system s in the training program s.
Only one of the fifty-one changes listed was not reported by
334
at least one of the State Universities: the incorporation of new
curriculum subjects for pupils. All other identified changes were
being considered o r implemented by the State Universities studied.
As a group, the State Universities were research-oriented,
were basing program development upon research studies, were
moving toward field work as a setting for inquiry, and were cost,
cemed with the need to invent new forms of education for the public
school. All of them wanted to work in public schools and saw
themselves as resources for the schools who wanted to find alterna
tive ways of educating children. In contrast, Private Universities
and State C olleges--also wanting to work m ore intensively in public
schools--saw themselves as service agents in the schools. The
State University group sought schools where new program s could be
generated; the other group sought schools where current training
program s could be given more relevance and more direct contact
with pupils and school staff. The form er group operated as change-
agents; the latter, with the exception of Private University I, as
exem plars.
Comparison of colleges to universities. —Table 5 presents
the kinds of changes reported in private and public colleges, and
Table 6 presents kinds of changes reported by public and private
universities.
TABLE 5
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN PRIVATE AND STATE COLLEGES
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N = 8)
Number
Program type
Socialization A C E 3
Academic reform
Self-as -instrum ent D 1
Teaching maneuvers H 1
Performance criteria based B F G 3
Teacher as inquirer-researcher
Design
Cooperative planning A B C D E F G H 8
Systems design A B D F G H 6
Individual pacing A B D F G H 6
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories C E 2
Off-campus coursework A B D E F G H 7
Diversity in off-campus settings A C D E F G H 7
Clinical settings off campus B E F H ' 4
Community settings, non-school C D G H 4
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses A 1
Block-time integrated courses B D E F G H 6
Problem-foci sequencing D 1
Continuous, graded practicum B C D E F G H 7
Performance modules B G H 3
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed A D H 3
Team staffing A B D E F G H 7
Self-contained program groups B E F 3
Performance modules
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed
Team staffing
Self-contained program groups
Staff modeling of teaching modes
Multiple-media feedback systems
Objectives based on behavior referents: teacher
pupil
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training
K through 12 experience
Developmental, sequenced, continuous
Teachers learn to learn
Clinical experiences
Performance objectives
Simulation and games
Micro-teaching and analysis
Self-direction in practicum
Teams of student teachers
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature of education,
field-based
Urban emphasis in sociology
Field-based psychology
Integration with curriculum and methodology
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach
Curriculum course, learning strategy centered
New curriculum subjects, schools
Integrated with practicum
B
G H 3
A D H 3
A B D E F G H 7
B E F 3
D H 2
B C D G H 5
A B D E F G H 7
0
A B C F G H 6
D G H 3
B D E G H 5
D H 2
B E F H 4
B c F G H 5
H 1
B D G H 4
B D G H 4
0
A B C D F G H 7
A C D E F G H 7
B D F G H 5
B D F G H 5
D H 2
B D G H 4
0
A B c D E F G H 8
0 3
0 3
cn
TABLE 5 --Continued
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N = 8)
Number
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies B D G H 4
Decision-making skills B D G H 4
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development D G 2
Style development D F G H 4
Evaluation
Self-evaluation B D F G H 5
Criterion referenced, performance objectives B F G H 4
Diagnostic evaluation of student teacher needs B D F G H 5
TABLE 6
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN PRIVATE AND STATE UNIVERSITIES
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N =7)
Number
Program type
Socialization
Academic reform
Self-as-instrum ent
Teaching maneuvers
Performance criteria based
Teacher as inquirer-researcher
J K
M
*L
L
*0
N O
(2)
4
Socialization
Academic reform
Self-as -instrument
Teaching maneuvers
Performance criteria based
Teacher as inquirer-researcher
Design
Cooperative planning
Systems design
Individual pacing
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories
Off-campus coursework
Diversity in off-campus settings
Clinical settings off campus
Community settings, non-school
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses
Block-time integrated courses
Problem-foci sequencing
Continuous, graded practicum
Performance modules
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed
Team staffing
Self-contained program groups
Staff modeling of teaching modes
Multiple-media feedback systems
Objectives based on behavior referents: teacher
pupil
*Performance criteria were used as tools of inquiry.
J
K M 3
*L *0
(2)
L N 0 4
J
K L M N 0 7
J
L N 0 4
J
K L M N 0 7
K 0 3
I J
K L M N 0 7
I J
K L 0 5
K L M N 0 5
I J
K M 4
I J
K M N 0 6
K L M N 0 5
M N 3
I J
K L N 0 6
I J
0 3
L N 0 4
I J
K L M N 0 7
J
K M N 0 5
L 0 2
I J
K L M N 0 7
I J
K L M 5
N 0 3
CO
CO
O '
TABLE 6 - -Continued
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N =7)
Number
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training
I J K
L N O 6
K through 12 experience 1 K N 3
Developmental, sequenced, continuous 1 J K L M N 0 7
Teachers learn to learn I L N O 4
Clinical experiences I K L N O 5
Performance objectives
I J
L N O 5
Simulation and games I K L M 4
Micro-teaching and analysis
I J K
L M N 0 7
Self-direction in practicum I L M N 0 5
Teams of student teachers
I J
L 0 4
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature of education,
field-based
Urban emphasis in sociology
Field-based psychology K N 2
Integration with curriculum and methodology
I J K
L N 5
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach I L N 3
Curriculum course, learning strategy centered I K L N 0 5
New curriculum subjects, school I 1
Integrated with practicum
I J K L M N 0 7
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies
I K L N 0 5
Decision-making skills I L N 0 4
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development I L 2
Style development I L 2
J K
J K
L M
M
O
0
6
5
Decision-making skills
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development
Style development
Evaluation
Self-evaluation
Criterion referenced, performance objectives
Diagnostic evaluation of student teacher needs
I L N O 4
I L 2
I L 2
K L M N O 5
I J L O 4
I K L N 0 5
CO
GO
" J
338
Colleges reported program types which sought to socialize
the teacher into the existing school program or program s which were
based in performance objectives derived from task analyses and
designed into a total system. Six of the eight institutions reported
some form of system s design in program development. All but one
institution reported planning with the districts in order to mount off-
campus coursework either in the field o r in centers in the schools.
All but one of the colleges reported changes toward continuous,
graded practicum, team staffing, training objectives based on
teacher behavior referents, an urban emphasis in the foundations
courses, and a diversity of training settings. All colleges were
attempting to integrate curriculum into practicum experiences.
Only three of the colleges were initiating changes aimed to
help teachers to become self-initiating learners; two used social
modeling as a means of teaching teachers instructional strategies,
and two had incorporated performance objectives which required the
teacher to learn how to learn. None of the colleges placed student
teachers in teams, although three colleges reported self-contained
program grouping. Two of the college group were teaching curricu
lum courses which stressed the conceptual inquiry of the related
disciplines. Two stressed self-concept development of the teacher.
Universities reported program types which either socialized
339
the student teacher into the prevailing school culture and process,
or which developed the teacher as an inquirer and student of teaching.
Two universities were committed to performance criteria as
organizers of the program --one program was at the planning stage,
the other at the implementation stage. Three of the state universi
ties had shifted to training m aster teachers in the skills of training
student teachers, and their preparation program s were organized
around this emphasis. Training teachers were seen as the key to the
kind of training which had impact upon the student teacher.
All the universities reported the following changes: cooper
ative planning, individual pacing in program s, off-campus course
work, team staffing, multiple-media feedback system s, develop
m ental sequenced continuous practicum, m icro-teaching and
analysis of behavior, and the integration of curriculum with the
practicum.
Off-campus work, team staffed and using instruments and
technologies of analysis of teaching behavior, typified the changes in
the university program s. However, unlike the colleges, the
universities reported research and development reasons for making
the move off campus.
The trend toward community involvement in both the
colleges and the universities seemed to be a response to the social
340
issues of the time. The reason for involvement was improvement of
established practice or innovation of new forms of teaching and
learning.
It is possible that such dual motivation for cooperative
efforts between higher education and the schools in the m atter of
teacher preparation implies the development of two substantially
different teacher preparation program types: one which prepares
teachers to minimum competency for entrance into the profession
and which is open to a wide spectrum of students; another which is
open to the highly selected students of the university and which
prepares analytical scholars and practitioners in teaching who will
make another kind of contribution to the profession.
If such a diversity exists among program s, criteria for
program approval or for accreditation of program or institution
would need to be developed which would encourage both types of
program s to develop. Detailed specification of teacher education
curriculum probably could not be made by legislature o r by pro
fessional organization which would serve both kinds of program s.
The objectives of the approved program approach seem to
imply that either kind of program would be acceptable.
Another kind of implication arises relating to the concern
over criterion-referenced perform ance objectives. One college and
341
one university reported highly developed efforts to (1) make task
analyses of what teachers do and (2) create performance specifica
tions related to those tasks. Performance objectives may be reached
through a wide variety of training procedures. It is possible that an
institution might create a set of performance criteria and be
accredited for those, rath er than for a specific program implementa
tion design. Thus, the program could change in its process
elements from year to year to accommodate to constraints and
resources, but the objectives would remain the same and the
institution would be accountable for the objectives being met as
evidenced by competencies displayed by teachers recommended for
certification.
Another kind of implication related to the use of perform
ance criteria is the danger that in the desire to m easure levels of
competencies, only easily observed and measured performance
objectives would be selected. In the attempt to specify competen
cies, an over specification can occur which could dehumanize a
program o r force individuals into patterns. In other words, the a rt
of teaching might be lost to the science of teaching--admitting both
as necessary aspects of professional service.
Comparison of public with private institutions. —Private
colleges and universities in the study differed from public colleges
342
and universities in the study in their comparison to two national
trends of change. Two private institutions reported the use of
clinical settings for training, and all but one of the public institutions
were planning to use them. Also, three of the private institutions
had accepted a change toward the use of performance criteria, while
six of the public institutions reported that change. In the other m ajor
areas of national trends of change, both groups were sim ilar. Only
three members of each group had adopted the use of performance
modules in program design. All members of both groups were
attempting the integration of content fields with the practicum. All
but one institution in each group had identified individualization as a
desired change. The varied and continuous practicum was a
reported change in six of the seven private institutions and in all of
the eight public institutions. In all other factors a m ajority of the
group had identified changes relating to the m ajor trends of change
(Table 7).
It can be seen that both public and private institutions had
responded to the approved program approach by planning or imple
menting changes in teacher preparation which were reflective of
effective practice reported in research, in model program s, and in
professional opinion gathered from the entire nation.
Private institutions reported less change in the use of
343
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS
COMPARED TO PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
Private Public
(N = 7) (N = 8)
Program type
Socialization 4 2
Academic reform
Self-as-instrum ent 1
Teaching maneuvers 1
Performance criteria based 1 4
Teacher as inquirer-researcher 1 3
Design
Cooperative planning 7 8
Systems design 6 7
Individual pacing 6 7
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories 3 2
Off-campus coursework 6 8
Diversity in off-campus settings 6 6
Clinical settings off campus 2 7
Community settings, non-school 5 3
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses 4 3
Block-time integrated courses 3 8
Problem-foci sequencing 2 2
Continuous, graded practicum 6 7
Performance modules 3 3
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed 3 4
Team staffing 6 8
Self-contained program groups 3 6
Staff modeling of teaching modes I 2
Multiple-media feedback system s 6 6
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher 6 6
pupil 1 2
344
TABLE 7 - -Continued
Institutions
Kinds of Changes Private Public
(N = 7) (N = 8)
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training 6 6
K through 12 experience 3 3
Developmental, sequenced, continuous 6 7
Teachers learn to learn 2 4
Clinical experiences 3 .6
Performance objectives 4 6
Simulation and games 2 1
Micro-teaching and analysis 5 6
Self-direction in practicum 4 6
Teams of student teachers 4 4
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature of
education, field-based 7 6
Urban emphasis in sociology 6 6
Field-based psychology 3 4
Integration with curriculum and methodology 5 5
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach 2 3
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered 4 5
New curriculum subjects 1 0
Integrated with practicum 7 8
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies 4 5
Decision-making skills 3 5
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development 2 2
Style development 2 4
Evaluation
Self-evaluation 3 7
Criterion referenced, performance
objectives 3 5
Diagnostic evaluation of student
teacher needs 4 5
345
performance criteria and clinical centers for training than did the
public institutions. Costs of developing a performance criterion-
referenced program and of equipping, staffing, and maintaining
clinical centers were reported as crucial issues in the private
institutions.
Institutional characteristics and program diversity. --A
question exists whether or not state colleges and universities should
have comparable large teacher preparation program s due to their
mandated commitment to professional education. A related question
asks whether or not colleges and universities should expect to have
sim ilar teacher preparation program s--sim ilar in purpose and in
form. The following discussion explores these questions which have
relevance to the process of approval or accreditation of program s by
the state and relevance to the kinds of prescriptions which may and
may not be specified by law. In other words, if there is a substantial
difference between appropriate program s of high quality at a college
and at a university, then what are requirem ents which are common
to both without controlling either? Or, what are criteria for approval
which will allow for institutional difference in content and process of
teacher preparation? A program designed by an institution com
mitted to an organic system of development of the person will
probably not be designed by predeterm ined performance criteria.
346
Private College D would be an example. Whereas, a State College
program designed to prepare 800 teachers a year, in a clearly
defined set of teaching tasks, would use performance criteria. State
College G would be an example. Does institutional character and
role exert a significant influence upon the types of teacher prepara
tion program s developed under the approved program approach?
Of the four types of institutions studied, the State Universi
ties were clearest in their expression of what they felt their unique
role in teacher preparation was to be in relation to that of other
institutions. At each institution visited the notion was expressed
that the university had a particular role which was to inquire into the
issues of teaching and learning, of innovation and change in school
program s, and of preparing unique teachers. The latter point was
made in relation to the fact that the university accepts only the top 7
per cent of the population m easured by intelligence. It was felt that
among this special group of highly verbal, analytical, and critical
students a special kind of program , differing from those designed to
m eet the. needs of the m ore general student in the State Colleges,
should be designed in order to provide entry into the profession for
this group of people. At another university the notion was expressed
that a university should be the research and development partner of
the other institutions of higher education which prepare teachers. It
347
was found that the State Universities were (1) making valid changes
in teacher preparation program s according to national trends of
change and (2) displaying unique institutional characteristics in the
kinds of program s being planned for approval. With the exception of
one university in this group, all were incorporating changes in the
basic elem entary credential program. State Colleges chosen for
this study appeared to be of two types. One type had completely
reconceptualized the teacher preparation programs through faculty
participation over a year's time. The other type had elaborated upon
existing program s to make them more effective in the socialization of
teachers to existing school practice. All the State Colleges had
initiated changes which reflected national trends; two of them had
consolidated the changes into a different kind of program than had
form erly been in operation. Those program s were in stages of
planning and early implementation.
State Colleges seemed to identify a special role for them
selves which was the m assive implementation of program changes
for the training of large numbers of teachers to fill the annual vacant
positions in the state. They were finding ways to individualize
program s for large numbers of students either through using
performance modules in the training program s or through team
staffing of self-contained sm aller groups. All were moving toward
348
an accountability based upon teacher performance at a level of
competence at identified tasks. Careful study and hard work had
been invested in task analyses and the writing of performance
criteria.
Private Universities were found to have initiated changes
which reflect national trends and local needs for change. Special
ization seemed to be a characteristic of these institutions' programs
of teacher preparation. Each institution had a unique conception of
its role in professional preparation, different from other institutions
of its type. In this group individual institutional character was a
determ iner of program type to a greater extent than in the other
groups. Programs reflected institutional resources and strengths
and community resources.
Private Colleges were found to exhibit a diversity of
institutional character and of teacher preparation program s. The
undergraduate commitments at each college in relation to students
admitted, institutional objectives and philosophy, and type of
academic program were reflected in the kinds of teacher preparation
program s. The service-oriented community reported changes
which made service more relevant to the community and the
profession. The inquiry-oriented community offered an inquiry-
based teacher preparation program . In all cases it was found that
349
the Private Colleges were initiating changes in the program s which
reflected national trends of change in teacher preparation.
Total group patterns of change. - -In relation to the total
group of institutions, Table 8 dem onstrates that over half (twenty-
nine) of the kinds of changes were reported by over half o r more
(53 to 100 per cent) of the institutions. Thirteen of the kinds of
changes were reported by 80 per cent or more of the institutions.
Those changes reported in the top quintile of frequency were:
(1) cooperative planning; (2) individualized pacing; (3) off-campus
coursework; (4) diversity of off-campus settings; (5) continuous,
graded practicum; (6) multiple-media feedback system s; (7) team
staffing; (8) training objectives based upon teacher behavior referents;
(9) differentiation of roles and training; (10) an urban emphasis in
training; (11) field-based foundations of sociology courses;
(12) curriculum courses integrated with the practicum; and (13) a
developmental, sequential practicum.
Table 9 indicates the high frequency changes in teacher
preparation program s reported by universities compared to colleges.
Fifteen changes were identified as reported by all o r all but one of
each group of institutions. Generally, the kinds of changes reported
m ost frequently by both the universities and the colleges indicate a
shift toward greater involvement with schools and communities in
350
TABLE 8
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES IN ALL INSTITUTIONS
Kinds of Changes
Number of
Institutions
(N = 15)
Per
Cent
Program type
Socialization 6 40
Academic reform 0 0
Self-as -instrum ent 1 7
Teaching maneuvers 1 7
Performance criteria based 5 33
Teacher as inquirer-researcher 2 13
Design
Cooperative planning 15 100
Systems design 10 67
Individual pacing 13 87
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories 5 33
Off-campus coursework 14 93
Diversity in off-campus settings 12 80
Clinical settings off campus 9 60
Community settings, non-school 8 53
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses 7 47
Block-time integrated courses 11 73
Problem-foci sequencing 4 27
Continuous, graded practicum 13 87
Performance modules 6 40
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed 7 47
Team staffing 14 93
Self-contained program groups 8 53
Staff modeling of teaching modes 4 27
Multiple-media feedback systems 12 80
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher 12 80
pupil 3 20
TABLE 8 - -Continued
351
Number of
Kinds of Changes Institutions Per
_________________________________________________ (N = 15) Cent
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training 12 80
K through 12 experience 6 40
Developmental, sequences, continuous 12 80
Teachers learn to learn 6 40
Clinical experiences 9 60
Performance objectives 10 67
Simulation and games 5 33
M icro-teaching and analysis 11 73
Self-direction in practicum 9 60
Teams of student teachers 4 27
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature of
education, field-based 13 93
Urban emphasis in sociology 12 80
Field-based psychology 7 47
Integration with curriculum and methodology 10 67
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach 5 33
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered 9 60
New curriculum subjects 1 7
Integrated with practicum 15 100
Methods of teaching
V ariety of strategies 9 60
Decision-making skills 8 53
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development 4 27
Style development 6 40
Evaluation
Self-evaluation 10 67
C riterion references, performance
objectives 8 53
Diagnostic evaluation of student
teacher needs 10 67
352
TABLE 9
CHANGES REPORTED BY ALL OR BY ALL BUT ONE OF THE
PRIVATE AND STATE UNIVERSITIES AND THE
PRIVATE AND STATE COLLEGES
Kind of Changes
Universities
(N =7)
Colleges
(N =8)
Design
Cooperative planning 7 8
Individual pacing 7
Process
Off-campus coursework 7 7
Team staffing 7 7
Multiple-media feedback systems
Developmental, sequenced,
7
continuous practicum 7
M icro-teaching and analysis 7
Continuous graded practicum
Differentiation of roles and
6 7
training 6
Simultaneous, discrete courses 6
Diversity in off-campus settings
Content
7
Curriculum integrated with
practicum
Field-based social-philosophical
7 8
foundations 6 7
Urban emphasis 7
Evaluation
Behavior referenced objectives for
diagnosis or evaluation 6 7
353
program planning, design, and implementation. Training technol
ogies and system s are being adopted. Integration of theory with
practice seems to be a trend. Accountability based upon performance
objectives used either diagnostically or as term inal competence
m easures was a direction of change. The nature of the changes
reported with high frequency would seem to imply a concern for
developing program s related to social issues as they have impact
upon education through an increasing amount of contact with the
client groups. Also, changes would imply an increasing concern for
precision in training program s.
Summary of changes compared
to trends
Twelve general trends were identified in the review of the
literature reporting changes in program design. Table 10 compares
institutional types and groups reporting changes with trends of
change. Ten of the twelve trends were reflected in changes reported
by three-fifths o r more of the institutions. Eight out of twelve
trends were reflected by changes reported by two-thirds or m ore of
the groups. Six trends of change in teacher preparation programs
were reflected in changes made by four-fifths of the group of
colleges and universities studied. Two trends were matched by all
institutions.
TABLE 10
COMPARISON OF REPORTED CHANGES WITH NATIONAL TRENDS OF CHANGE, BY INSTITUTION
TYPE, GROUP, AND TOTAL GROUP OF SELECTED CALIFORNIA INSTITUTIONS
Number of Institutions
Trend PC
(N=4)
SC
(N=4)
PU
(N=3)
SU
(N=4)
P-S C-U
(N=7) (N=8) (N=8) (N=7)
Total
(N=15)
Cooperative planning 4 4 3 4 7-8 8-7 15
Clinical settings 1 3 1 4 2-7 4-5 9
Foundations relevant to social issues 3 4 3 3 6-7 7-6 13
and to new knowledge in psychology 2 3 2 3 4-6 5-5 10
Extended, differentiated practicum
Competency specification,
3 4 3 4 6-8 7-7 14
performance criteria 1 3 2 3 3-6 4-5 9
Differentiation of staff and training 3 3 3 3 6-6 6-6 12
Individualization of training programs 3 3 3 4 6-7 6-7 13
Analytical study of teaching and learning 2 2 3 4 5-6 4-7
354
i- H
i — (
TABLE 10--Continued
Number of Institutions
Trend PC
(N=4)
SC
(N=4)
PU
(N=3)
SU
(N=4)
P-S
(N=7) (N=8)
C-U
(N=8) (N=7)
Total
(N=15)
Flexible sequencing due to
instructional technology 1 2 3 1 4-3 3-4 7
Performance modules of
instruction 1 2 2 1 3-3 3-3 6
Integration of content with
practicum 4 4 3 4 7-8 8-7 15
Key: PC--Private College
SC--State College
PU--Private Universities
SU—State Universities
P-S--Private compared to State
C-U--College compared to Universities
w
cn
u i
356
The four trends which were matched by changes with the
losest frequencies were (1) flexible sequencing due to instructional
technology, (2) clinical settings for training, (3) competency
specification through performance criteria, and (4) performance
modules.
A m ajority of the institutions studied reported changes
related to ten out of twelve m ajor trends of change in teacher prepara
tion in the United States. F or the purposes for this study, the
validity of proposed changes as determined by matching them to
national trends of changes was found to be acceptable.
Accepting these changes as valid, the analysis proceeds to
relate the institutional changes to the objectives of the approved
program approach to teacher certification.
Implications. - -An analysis of the data gathered by its
comparison to professionally recommended changes in teacher
preparation program s suggests that state colleges and state universi
ties have developed rationales, program objectives and designs, and
concepts of their respective roles in teacher preparation which are
substantially different from one another. Institutional differences in
purpose and function in relation to teacher preparation imply diver
gence in the types of program s being developed and in the competen
cies of the teachers being prepared. State colleges tend to prepare
357
training program s for large numbers of students. Programs imple
mented optimum professional standards of knowledge and practice
of teaching. In contrast, the universities were found to develop
program s which were exploratory, which were based upon a search
for new kinds of knowledge and practice, and which prepared teachers
to be inquiry-oriented leaders in the teaching profession. Well-
researched rationales were presented by both groups. The im plica
tion here may be that both functions should be recognized in program
approval and accreditation standards.
The emphasis upon performance criteria as means for
program design, training, and evaluation--particularly in state
colleges and in one university—implied a concern for teaching
competence as an effectiveness m easure for program s. However,
some institutions recognized the limitations of basing an entire
program upon such a system. The lack of knowledge about
appropriate competencies and the unobservable nature of some
kinds of learning were offered as arguments against an over
reliance upon performance objectives and criterion referents in
preparation program s. The implication was that overspecification,
from any source, tends to distort the possibility of developing
optimum program s. The need for performance objectives related to
specific skills was unquestioned, but the lack of information from
358
task analyses and the serious questions raised about the quality of
current school program practice, questioned blind acceptance of the
notion of performance criteria as determ iners of preparation
program design and content. Performance objectives as process
elements in training programs seemed m ore acceptable than as
determ iners for content selection.
Cost factors seemed to limit program redesign in private
institutions to a greater extent than in public colleges and universities.
Impending legislation tended to depress program change in some
private colleges and universities. Public institutions seemed to take
action regardless of probable changes from legislation. The
implication may be that a combination of factors such as program
cost, size, and institutional commitment produce a caution in
private institutions not shared by public ones. Exceptions were found
to exist in each group. The m ost divergent program type reported
was being developed in a private college. One of the programs
showing least change was that of a state university.
It seemed clear from the analysis that the public school
would become the setting for teacher preparation in the professional
studies component. Whether the relationship with the schools was
for training purposes for the institution or for search and inquiry
purposes for the institution to invent new modes of teaching and
359
training teachers, the relationship was deepening, becoming elab
orated, and was creating new forms of liaison within the profession.
If a creative balance were maintained between college and university
roles and school district roles in preparation program s, the liaison
would seem to be one in which the functions of each agency would be
clarified, enhanced, and become m ore effective. The danger implied
was that of abdication, rather than negotiation in assigning roles and
tasks. Pressures of finance, public and professional opinion, and
staff time make abdication inviting for some and negotiation difficult
for all.
The extent to which proposed changes in California teacher
preparation programs in relation to the professional studies com
ponent matched the professionally recommended changes in the United
States seemed to indicate that in the one year of trial, the approved
program approach to teacher certification had stimulated valid
changes in a m ajority of selected California public and private
colleges and universities. It would seem that the approved program
approach had provided a basis for program change which was
effective, in spite of adverse pressures from probable legislated
changes, campus unrest, and public dissatisfaction with public
education.
360
C hapter Sum m ary
A comparison has been made between reported changes in
selected California institutions of teacher preparation and recom
mended changes derived from review of the literature. Comparisons
were made by institution type by college or university status, by
private or public status, and for the total group. High frequency
changes were identified. Institutional patterns were identified and
discussed.
Twelve trends of change identified in the literature were
used as references for California changes in teacher preparation
professional studies reported in this study. Ten of the twelve trends
of change were reflected in the changes reported by from 60 to 100
per cent of the institutions. Based upon this relationship, reported
changes in the teacher preparation programs of California colleges
and universities were accepted as valid changes.
Implications of the findings were discussed in relation to
institutions and program s.
CHAPTER VII
ANALYSIS OF PROGRAM CHANGES IN CALIFORNIA IN
RELATION TO THE OBJECTIVES OF THE APPROVED
PROGRAM APPROACH
The central purpose of the study was to find out if the
approved program approach to teacher certification in California, in
the first year of its application, was achieving its objectives in
relation to the profession, the institutions which prepare teachers,
and the teacher preparation programs.
Data were collected and analyzed to determine kinds of
changes being initiated by selected colleges and universities in their
teacher preparation program s, relating to the professional studies
component. Reported changes were then compared to nationally
recommended kinds of changes and trends of change. It was estab
lished that changes in teacher preparation programs in selected
California institutions w ere valid changes by their favorable
comparison to identified trends of change.
The question rem ains, "Do the reported changes in teacher
361
362
preparation in California institutions, initiated in response to the
approved program approach, indicate that the approved program
approach's objectives are being met?"
Objectives of the approved program approach were of three
types: (1) objectives relating to the profession, (2) objectives
relating to the institution, and (3) objectives relating to teacher
preparation program s. In the following analysis reported changes
will be related to each objective, to determine the extent to which
the objective was being m et in 1970.
Achievements of the Approved
Program Approach
Objectives relating to
the profession
Four objectives were cited: three dealt with program
quality and design; one, with professional competencies.
Professional criteria to judge program quality. - -The use of
professional recommendations from organizations (B) and learned
societies, of program models and their specifications (I, J), and of
professional knowledge derived from research (A, Df H, L, O)
indicated a substantial reliance upon professional criteria to establish
program quality.
Professional control of program design and content. —
363
Institutions reported changes in design toward a systems approach,
toward cooperative professional planning between institutions and
districts (fifteen institutions), and toward individualized flexible
programing (thirteen). However, the institutions as a group lacked
control over the time factor in preparation due to legal requirements
calling for five years of work with one graduate year. Attempts to
redesign program s of professional studies for the undergraduate
years were encountering difficulty. Team staffing and integration of
content courses with the practicum were reported by fourteen and
fifteen institutions, respectively. Control over content was exer
cised by institutions A, D, I, K, and N. Task analyses of teaching
and development of performance criteria in m ore than half of the
institutions were indications of professional control over the content
of the program .
Professional accountability for teaching competence. - - Eight
of the fifteen institutions were developing o r using performance
criteria to demonstrate teaching competence. One institution (O) had
developed performance objectives for the m aster teacher to use in
training the student teacher as well as objectives for the student
teacher in relation to the pupil. Most of the institutions identified
program objectives in behavioral term s on evaluation instrum ents.
More than half were using criterion-referenced performance
364
objectives as diagnostic and training tools. Proposals were made by
universities and colleges for accreditation based upon demonstrated
teaching competence (D, G, H, L, N, and O).
Professional response to new knowledge of teaching and
learning. - -Eleven of the fifteen institutions reported new program s
which would incorporate some m easure of the analytical study of
teaching and learning. The means reported varied from institution
D's use of self-analysis of the learning process to the use of in ter
action analysis to identify, diagnose, and/or evaluate teacher
behaviors. In spite of the recent emphasis upon the human ability to
learn how to learn, few institutions reported training objectives
aimed to teach teachers to be better learners. Also, only seven
institutions reported objectives related to helping the teacher become
a self-initiated and self-directed learner either while in training o r
as an outcome of training. Response to the use of clinical settings
for learning how to teach was indicated by nine insititutions. All
institutions reported changes in the integration of the practicum with
other professional studies such that teaching skills might be devel
oped in concert with teacher knowledge about the learner and the
learning process. Universities indicated strong preference for
program s which undertook the analytical study of new ways to apply
knowledge of teaching and learning.
365
Objectives relating
to institutions
Five objectives were identified which relate to institutional
role, institutional process, and institutional relations with the
clients.
All-institution planning and implementation of program s- -
Prim arily, this objective relates to the general education and
academic m ajor and minor question in teacher preparation. It also
has some relevance to the content area of the professional studies
component. Team staffing with academic professors in the curricu
lum subject areas was reported by institutions A, D, I, K, and N,
The urban emphasis in some institutions resulted in professional
credit given to academic courses in urban studies in lieu of founda
tions courses (A and I). The willingness of academic professors
who teach disciplines related to the foundations of education courses
to teach field-based sociological foundations courses was another
evidence of all-institution cooperation. In six institutions, all-
institutional involvement was considered to be a critical problem in
the professional studies component.
institutional initiative and academic freedom. --A ll institu
tions reported initiation of changes in response to the approved
program. State universities took initiative to develop unique,
research-oriented programs designed for the university student.
366
Two private colleges were developing programs substantially different
in nature from preceding ones. A diversity of programs being
developed by two private universities indicated initiative which led in
directions most appropriate to each institution's resources. The
issue of academic freedom was raised at a state university by the
question whether academic freedom exists for a professor in a
prescribed program which requires a certain kind of emphasis in
psychology, for example. Alternate programs at the institution
solve the problem, but the issue is debated. It may mean that over
specific prescription which requires a special set of knowledge or
skills--w hether it originates in law or university department--will
tend to raise the issue of academic freedom and autonomy.
Responsibility for effective changes. —Effectiveness of
program and of teacher were concerns in all institutions. One group
was concerned with creating more effective pupil programs in the
schools and training new kinds of teachers (D, I, L, and N). The
other group was concerned with creating more effective training
program s to produce m ore effective teachers who could improve
existing programs. Original work was being done in both groups.
Institutions D and N were planning inquiry-based programs to search
out new forms of education and new competencies in teachers.
Institution N was thinking about a totally new kind of teacher-
367
specialist in relation to a school’s problem s in racial integration.
Institution G had undertaken a task analysis of teaching as a basis for
program design. Institutions L and O had identified m aster teachers
as the potential change-agents in effectiveness levels in student
teachers and had designed programs to teach m aster teachers to be
training teachers. All institutions initiated planning with cooperat
ing districts, community persons, and students to make programs
which would be more effective in preparing teachers who, in turn,
would be m ore effective with pupils. Only two institutions based
effectiveness studies on pupil products, however (O and N).
Unique program s utilizing unique resources. - -Unique
faculty resources, institutional commitments, and community
settings influenced program design in all but three institutions.
Academic resources influenced program uniqueness in K, N, I, D,
and A. The nature of the student community and the institutional
commitment seemed to be a source of the very unique—to this group
studied—program s at D, N, and O. The relationship of institution to
its surrounding community was viewed as a resource and influenced
planning in A, B, C, F, H, I, K, and N.
Cooperative planning with school districts. —All institutions
reported changes in the direction of m ore intensive planning with
school districts on all levels. Two kinds of institutional motivation
368
prompted such cooperation. One kind, expressed by state universities
and two private institutions, was to develop with the districts a study
of teaching and learning which would initiate changes in pupil p ro
grams and in teaching. These institutions responded to identified
needs in the public schools and saw themselves as resources to bring
researched change. The other kind of motivation, expressed by
state colleges, two private universities, and three private colleges,
was to cooperatively plan with districts how to better prepare
teachers to fit into the district program effectively. Clinical centers
were a means for doing this in the colleges. In the universities,
clinical centers served the exploratory, clinical study of teaching
purpose.
Objectives relating to
program development
Seven objectives of the approved program approach to
teacher certification were identified which had to do with program
type, program planning and program design, content, process, and
evaluation. Objectives were designed to encourage institutions to
develop program s with certain qualities and characteristics.
Coherent, integrated program s. - -Instead of a collection of
courses designed to m eet unit requirements prescribed by law, it was
the hope that programs would be developed to m eet certain objectives
369
and that the program s would have an internal consistence with those
objectives. Legal requirem ents would be met within an organic
system of experience which would develop competencies in teachers.
All institutions reported changes which would integrate experiences
designed to develop teacher knowledge and skills in the sociological
and psychological foundations of the teaching learning process with
the practice of teaching. Also, all institutions favored an integration
of curriculum content and methodology with practicum experiences
with pupils to facilitate the interrelationship of theory and practice.
Programs geared to socialization of the teacher to the current
educational program tended to be modifications of a form er course
sequence design. The nine institutions which were developing
program s to develop the self as teacher, or to identify and train for
performance criteria, o r to develop the student of teaching tended to
propose program s more organically consistent with identified
principles which guided.design. Three institutions, D, G, and N,
were totally free of requirem ent sequences and had developed
concepts for coherent, highly integrated program s, and the other
five proposed or were developing programs with a high degree of
coherence and integrity in relation to institutional objectives and
beliefs about teacher preparation.
Knowledge and performance based program s. - -To know
370
about teaching and learning and to be able to teach and facilitate
learning effectively are twin objectives of the approved program
approach. The im plicator here was that demonstrated competencies
would replace grades in courses. Seven institutions were incorporat
ing into programs discrete courses which presented knowledge
systematically--knowledge teachers need in relation to competent
practice. Such courses were designed to run simultaneously with
content-practicum experiences in curriculum and instruction. Eight
institutions were developing varying degrees of use of specified
performance criteria as instructional objectives in the practicum.
Fifteen institutions reported changes which would increase the inte
gration of the practicum with curriculum so that a teacher's
competence in instruction in a subject field could be diagnosed,
developed, and evaluated.
Specialization of preparation program s. --Institution K
offered special teacher preparation program s for teachers of special
groups, such as the urban and ru ra l disadvantaged, the bilingual, or
the speaker of English as a second language. Institution I was
developing program s to identified staff roles differentiated by tasks
and program s for teachers of the disadvantaged. Institution D was
developing a teacher as a learner and inquirer; institution O and L,
program s for m aster teachers. Institution N wanted to create a
371
special saturation program for a desegregated school and to train a
new kind of teacher, and institution F developed special program s
designed to meet specific district needs for personnel.
Differentiation of training. - -Staff teacher roles differentiated
by level were incorporated into program s in institutions A, H, J, K,
and L. Student teachers entered the program s as aides, later
became assistants, and moved up into full-time student teachers.
Different tasks were assigned at different levels, but they were
general instructional and some clerical tasks. In contrast,
institution I was developing a differentiation of roles based upon
special skills, such as media assistant, learning diagnostician, or
instruction evaluator. Training packages were being developed for
each. Another kind of differentiation of training was suggested by
two of the state university directors. University students are highly
selected and bring certain attributes to a training program. It was
argued that a different training program was appropriate for the
highly verbal, intelligent, and analytical university student.
Cooperatively implemented program s. - -M aster teacher
training program s at institutions O and L insured intimate coopera
tion between institution and district at the student contact level.
Clinical centers in nine institutions, varying in size from one room
to a cluster of schools, gave a special serving for cooperative
372
program implementation. Team staffing in all but one institution
included teaming between professor and m aster teacher.
Programs relevant to pupil and participant needs. --Students
were included in planning programs in nine institutions. Individual
ization of training programs were proposed to make experiences
individually relevant to the prospective teacher. Institution H
offered a choice of routes through the program; D, an emphasis upon
development of the self as learner and teacher with total individual
ization. Institution N offered the university student choice in
identifying problems and conducting research as part of his prepara
tion. Relevance to pupil need was a chief feature of the new m aster
teacher training program at University O; N identified a sim ilar
concern in using pupil needs as a source of researchable problems in
teaching. Institution I developed special curriculum to meet pupil
needs in the disadvantaged areas. While efforts were made to
include the student in the management of his own learning, it could
not be said that the need for it or the potential of it had been fully
confronted by the total group of institutions. Self-initiation and self-
direction of learning in adults are notions in earlier stages of
infancy than sim ilar notions in relation to a child.
Optimum professional standards of preparation. - -Three
kinds of evidence indicate that the approved program approach was
373
encouraging institutions to establish and implement optimum, rather
than minimum standards for preparation. F irst, institutions
expressed the need for more time for professional training. Some
would extend it downward into undergraduate years, with the hope of
early identification of potential teachers. Such institutions were
D, E, B, and J. Others would extend the time upward, requiring a
two-year counselling period for credential candidates, combining
work toward a m aster's degree, such as K, I, and F proposed.
Second, the analytical study of teaching and learning, through mini
lessons, m icro-teaching, simulation, games, and mediated inter
action analysis, was aimed at developing a prospective teacher's
potential to as high a level of competence as could be done. In some
institutions, minimum competence requirem ents were identified and
used for training, however. The issue was raised at University O,
whether minimum competence recorded by A or F was valid at a
time when teachers competed for positions. At institution K the point
was made that an over-reliance upon minimum competencies and
effectiveness tests could limit what is taught to teachers and
structure program s around tests. Institutions which had reconceptu
alized their notions of teaching and teacher preparation tended to
strive for optimum standards. Institutions, which had made
elaborative or reorganization changes, tended'to strive for minimum
374
entry-level competencies. The third kind of evidence that optimum
standards were being employed was in the institutions which wanted
their students to become students of teaching. In program s contem
plated at institution O, the standard was limited only by the quality of
the student--who comes from the top 7 per cent of the population of
college and university students in the United States. It was expected
that optimum employment of such a student's capacities for inquiry
and analysis would create a high standard of preparation.
Extent of Realization of Objectives of the
Approved Program Approach
The first three objectives relating to the profession were
found to be being met by the actions taken in planning new program s.
Institutions were using professional criteria derived from model
program s, research, and professional judgment to design program s.
Professional control over design and curriculum was being attempted
in good faith, but the time requirem ents specified by law constituted
a m ajor difficulty for many institutions. Professional accountability
for teacher competence was demonstrated by eight institutions in
term s of teacher behavior and by the re st in term s of behaviorally
stated program objectives. As task analyses were developed, it
was expected that the ability to specify appropraite competencies
would develop and play a m ajor role in program design. The fourth
375
objective, application of new knowledge of teaching and learning, was
perhaps being met by individual institutions such as two of the state
universities. Surprisingly little evidence was found that theories of
teaching and learning were being fully applied to the problem of
teaching teachers and learning to teach. Outstanding exceptions
exist in institutions D, L, and H. One could not say that reported
changes indicated an extensive realization of this objective.
Of the five objectives related to the institution, four seemed
to be supported by the reported changes; two less than the others.
Cooperative planning had been a m ajor feature of all institutions'
reports. It varied in intensiveness and extensiveness but in all
cases was found to be a critical concern. The development of unique
program s seemed to be stimulated by the approved program approach.
Uniqueness was in relation to time and cost restraints but also in
relation to institutional strengths in academic studies (urban studies,
for example) and to unique institutional commitments to their own
objectives or to the communities in which they existed. Another
source of unique program s was the need in pupils in the urban and
ru ral areas. Responsibility for effective changes was being taken by
institutions. Standing, working committees on the approved program
approach were in evidence; entire faculties were meeting to discuss
changes, develop task analyses and performance criteria in three
state universities, two private colleges, and two state colleges.
Changes made were in relation to the concept of teaching, to program
design, and to increased efficiency of training elements. Only two
institutions reported changes based upon pupil needs o r on an
analysis of what pupils needed to learn. There is some evidence that
the institutions consider teacher preparation in isolation from
intensive and imaginative consideration of what pupils can learn and
need to learn. The objective of all-institution planning was being
partially m et in relation to the professional studies component, but
not in general in the group of institutions. Smaller institutions
(A, D, I, and N) tended to report success in this area. It could not
be said that this objective was being m et to any great extent at the
time of this study.
Of the seven objectives related to program development,
four seemed to be in the process of being realized by m ost of the
institutions studied. Two were being reached to a lesser extent and
one, not to any great extent. Institutions were developing coherent,
integrated program s either around identified principles and concepts
of teaching or around program efficiency concerns. Specialization
was a definite trend, which could be extended to m eet identified pupil
needs in the schools related to several institutions. Cooperatively
implemented program s were being developed by all institutions, and
377
three-fourths of the institutions were developing optimum standards
rather than minimum standards. Objectives less well realized were
the development of knowledge-based and perform ance-based program s
and differentiation of training program s. The form er objective
implies an enormous investment of time and money to develop
perform ance criteria for the several aspects of professional studies.
One institution decided to use those generated by one of the model
program s. Five institutions were generating their own, one through
hiring extra staff. Limitations of time and budget may have
depressed the extent to which this objective was being reached at the
time of the study.
The objective that aimed to make the program s relevant to
the needs of the student teacher and to the needs of the pupil, was an
objective with slight evidence suggesting that it was being met by the
institutions studied. Many institutions involved students in faculty
meetings. Few designed program s which a student teacher could
take an active part in managing. Outstanding exceptions were
institutions D, H. I, L, and O. The subject of relevance to the pupil
seemed largely unexplored except at institutions D, I, N, and 0. It
could not be said that this objective was being reached to any great
extent by the total group. Only one institution reported the possi
bility of choosing new curriculum for the pupil.
378
In summary, eleven of the sixteen objectives were being
realized in some substantial m easure; three objectives were being
met to some extent; and two objectives were being approached by
some institutions but, by most, not substantially.
Responses to the approved program
It was found that institutions were planning in response to
(1) the approved program approach and (2) anticipated legislated
requirem ent changes.
As a group, the universities were divided in their reactions
to the approved program approach and to the problems of require
ment specification by legislation. The State Universities took the
position of creating an excellent program , submitting it, and defend
ing it--w hatever the requirem ents. The private universities took
■ the position of waiting to see what the legislation would be and
accommodating their program s to it. Private University I tended to
respond m ore like the State Universities than did the other two
private universities.
All of the State Colleges referred to the approved program
approach in their planning documents and interviews. The private
colleges responded to it variously: two worked toward new program s
and two developed new program s or improved existing ones, but with
great reservations about the pending legislation. The issue at hand
379
was the cost of program changes, whether in response to the
approved program or in response to legislated changes.
Implications
All objectives relating to the institution showed evidence of
being met to a substantial extent, except the all-institutional planning
and implementation objective. This objective is historically one of
great prom ise and great problems; and, of course, what has not been
accomplished in ten years of legislation and recommendations toward
that end should probably not be expected to be accomplished in one
year's tria l of the approved program approach. The strength shown
by institutional changes in relation to these objectives may indicate
that with the approved program system, institutions could be expected
to develop unique, effective, cooperative program s and to extend the
quality of such programs upward.
Institutions indicated a strong move toward the program
objectives of coherent, integrated program s, specialization,
cooperatively implemented program s, and optimal standards for
preparation. Less strength was in evidence in relation to the
objectives encouraging perform ance-based program s (eight institu
tions), differentiation of training, and program s relevant to students
and pupils. A performance-based program is expensive in tim e and
380
money to design. The low number (but m ore than half) of the
institutions reporting such changes may be partly due to lack of
finance for some and to alternative ideas about design and evaluation
for others. Serious questions were raised about the implications of
program s totally based upon performance criteria--questions of
quality of program and of control of program.
In relation to the professional objectives it would seem that
professional criteria, professional control, and professional
accountability were strongly supported by changes in teacher prepara
tion program s reported by institutions in the study. However, the
professional response to new knowledge relevant to teaching and
learning, will be fully developed in some institutions, and less
developed in others. This may be a function of leadership commit
ments and experience--in five institutions the deans were specialists
in teacher preparation and highly involved therefore in institutional
planning for teacher preparation program changes.
Generally, about three-fourths of the objectives of the
approved program approach are being realized by the institutions.
Of the objectives related to programs and institutions, eight out of
twelve showed substantial realization within the one-year period,
1969-70, in which the approved program approach had been in effect.
This, in turn, may be interpreted to mean that the approved program
approach to teacher certification had achieved a large proportion of
its objectives in stimulating institutional change, program develop
ment, and professional standards in teacher preparation. If this
were true, it would imply that the openness of the approved program
approach was effective in bringing change to teacher preparation
through the institutions. This would question the need for specific
program design, content, process, and evaluation regulations
through the legislative process.
CHAPTER VIII
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The problem
Efforts to make the preparation of teachers more effective
have been central concerns of professional organizations and groups,
state legislators, academicians, accrediting agencies including the
California State Department of Education, and colleges and universi
ties which prepare teachers.
A fter a decade of legislated specifications aimed at bringing
change to teacher education, the State Board of Education adopted the
"approved program approach" to teacher certification, simplifying
former requirem ents (220). In the first year of adoption of the
approach, 1969-70, institutions w ere invited to present new programs
of teacher preparation for approval. Interim guidelines were
prepared at the state level to be used to determine acceptability of
382
p ro g ram s (165).
The problem of this study was to find out what changes, if
any, were being planned or enacted in teacher preparation program s
during the first year of the approved program approach to certifica
tion. In other words, were the objectives of the approved program
approach being met?
Specifically, answers were sought to the following questions
1. What are the reform objectives of the approved
program approach to teacher certification in
California?
2. What positive changes in the professional studies
component of teacher preparation are recommended
by research and professional opinion in the United
States?
3. What do the deans and directors of teacher educa
tion in selected private and public colleges and
universities in California report as desired,
planned, o r implemented changes toward optimum
program s of teacher preparation with special
reference to the professional studies component?
4. How do the proposed California changes compare
to the recommended changes from the profession
384
at large?
5. To what extent do the reported changes indicate that
the approved program approach is achieving its
objectives in its first year of operation in California?
Expectations for the study were related to specific aspects
of the professional preparation of teachers in which change might be
found. Research objectives were derived from approved program
approach objectives as related to the nature of the professional
component of teacher preparation. Objectives and expectations were:
Curricula for the education of teachers should be designed by
the individual college or university. - -Changes were expected in
(1) the sources of required experiences o r courses, (2) the content
of curricula, and (3) the sequence or pattern of curricula.
Within statutory limitations, colleges and universities
should determine the form and substance of their teacher preparation
program s. - -Changes were expected in (1) the form o r design of
program s and (2) the substantive content of all experiences encom
passed by the professional studies component.
Institutions should have greater flexibility in program
design. —Changes would be expected in the use of (1) tim e,
(2) setting, (3) sequence, (4) content, (5) grouping, and (6) evalu
ation.
385
Institutions should exercise greater individuality,
imagination, and innovation in program planning. - -Expected changes
would include (1) program s unique to institutional resources and
purposes, (2) imaginative use of media and environment,
(3) imaginative rethinking of aspects of program such as assumptions,
pupil needs, teacher roles, and processes of teaching the adult
learner, and (4) new modes of planning and incorporation of new
groups in planning.
Through self-study, institutions should develop alternative
approaches to the professional preparation of teachers. —It was
expected that changes would be found in (1) the number of programs
planned, (2) the kinds of program s being developed, (3) the degree
of autonomy of the participant in making choices within a program,
(4) basic assumptions about what is required to prepare teachers,
and (5) basic assumptions about what elem entary pupils will need to
learn.
Research procedure
A series of seven processes were used to design and
conduct the study: (1) selection of the problem, (2) selection of the
research approach, (3) identification and selection of the categories
for data collection including the institutions from which data were
collected, (4) collection of data, (5) analysis and interpretation of
386
data, (6) discussion and recommendations regarding the findings, and
(7) internal and external criticism .
The research approach used was one of descriptive analysis.
The study involved (1) identification of the reform objectives of the
approved program approach; (2) identification of recommended
changes in teacher preparation with special concern for the profes
sional studies component of elementary teacher preparation programs;
(3) identification of proposed changes in program s in selected
institutions as perceived by deans and directors of teacher education
at those institutions; (4) comparison of proposed changes in
California to nationally recommended changes; and (5) inferring from
the foregoing analyses the extent to which reform objectives of the
approved program approach to teacher certification were being met
in relation to the profession, the institutions, and teacher prepara
tion program s.
A review of the literature pertaining to certification,
accreditation, the approved program approach to certification, the
teaching-learning process, and model elementary teacher preparation
program s was made to generate (1) a fifty-one item list of recom
mended changes in the professional studies component for elem entary
teacher preparation, (2) a list of trends of change, and (3) a list of
sixteen reform objectives of the approved program approach.
387
A i^ /iew of the history of credential reform in the decade
preceding the 1969 adoption of the approved program approach in
California was made to develop perspective for the study.
Institutions to be studied were identified through an applica
tion of the following criteria: (1) variety in size, (2) variety in
geographic location, (3) equal numbers of state and private institu
tions, and (4) equal numbers of colleges and universities. The
selection was confirmed by a committee of professors concerned
with teacher preparation. There was no attempt to select a random
sample. Instead, professional judgment was exercised in order to
select as varied a sample as possible. Fifteen institutions were
studied.
Five categories were chosen from the Standards and
Evaluative C riteria for the Accreditation of Teacher Education
proposed by the American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education (5) which outlined the professional studies component of
teacher preparation. Questions were designed in relation to these
categories for the puipose of an oral interview with the dean or
director of teacher education in each institution. Letters were sent
enclosing copies of the questions and requesting an interview.
Prompt and courteous reception of the study made it possible to
complete the majority of the interviews between June 17 and July 1,
388
1970. Tape recordings of the interviews facilitated information
retrieval and analysis. Documents were collected when possible and
appear in the Bibliography. Due to the need to preserve anonymity
for the institutions, quotations appear in the presentations of the data
which are not referenced to the Bibliography, when it seemed
desirable to use exact words of a respondent or a document. A list
of the institutions appears in Appendix A.
Changes reported in the interviews were described and then
compared with recommended changes on the fifty-one item analysis
instrument. Patterns of change were discussed for institutions and
institution types. Comparisons were made with national trends of
change.
Institutional changes were then compared to the objectives of
the approved program approach to determine to what extent those
objectives were being reached in 1970.
Conclusions are drawn in the present chapter, based upon
these analyses. Recommendations are then made in light of the
conclusions.
Findings
A review of appropriate literature generated three instru
ments used for analysis: (1) a summary sheet of recommended
changes, (2) a list of twelve trends of change, and (3) sixteen reform
objectives of the approved program approach.
Using these instruments to analyze the data collected from
the fifteen institutions which participated in the study, the following
general findings are reported:
1. Changes in California institutions reflected recom
mended changes. Twenty-nine recommended
changes were reported by eight o r m ore of the
fifteen institutions. Twelve o r m ore institutions
reported substantial changes in thirteen item s. No
value was put upon numbers of changes, since they
were related to different program types with differ
ing rationales. The intent was to establish validity
of proposed changes in term s of professionally
recommended changes. Universities recom
mended changes which matched m ore trends than
did the colleges; there was no difference between
public and private institutions in this respect.
2. Changes reported by California institutions were
toward: cooperative planning and individual pacing
in program design; a diversity of off-campus
settings for off-campus coursework; team staffing;
a continuous, sequenced, developmental practicum;
the use of micro-teaching and analysis as a training
or evaluation tool; curriculum studies integrated
with the practicum; field-based social-philosophical
foundations courses; an . empha sis upon urban
studies; the use of behavioral objectives for program
design; and the evaluation of teacher competencies
and differentiated training for differentiated teaching
roles.
Different institution types tend to propose different
teacher preparation programs. Differences were
in rationale, objectives, design, and size. State
universities, with the exception of one, defined the
role of the university as that of change agent in
teacher preparation--proposing to develop teachers
who were inquirers, innovators, and students of
teaching demonstrating high level competencies
as teachers. State colleges defined their role to
be one of implementing exemplary existing programs
and developing effective and efficient training
patterns. One group of institutions reconceptual
ized teaching and teacher preparation; the other,
elaborated upon and redesigned existing notions.
391
4. Reported changes reflected a m ajority of profes
sionally recommended trends of change and
indicated that about three-fourths (eleven) of the
sixteen objectives of the approved program
approach were being realized by the m ajority of
institutions studied. Three objectives were being
m et in minimal ways and two objectives had not
been reached to any substantial extent by the group
of institutions studied, although individual institu
tions had made progress toward meeting them.
Specific findings in relation to the objectives outlined for
this investigation are stated below.
1. Changes were found as expected in relation to the
general objective of the approved program approach
that curricula for the education of teachers should
be designed by the individual college or university.
New sources in academic departments and in the
communities surrounding the university were found
for courses and experiences. The content of
teacher preparation curriculum had been changed
to include urban studies and subjects related to
teaching the disadvantaged. The analysis of
teaching and learning had become a content area.
New sequences and divergent patterns of program
design were reported. A redefinition of the
"foundations of education courses" was generally
reported. A move away from course requirem ents
toward performance specifications was a trend.
Changes were found as expected in relation to the
objective which stated that within statutory lim ita
tions colleges and universities should determine
the form and substance of their teacher preparation
program s. A variety of program designs based
upon a diversity of rationales were found. Sub
stantive changes in content of professional
education experiences were reported in a m ajority
of institutions, particularly in relation to the
foundations and the practicum components. A few
institutions were reconceptualizing what it means
to prepare a teacher and were developing original
forms of preparation, substantially different from
current program s designed under the Title 5 (117)
regulations.
Findings indicated changes expected in relation to
the goal that institutions should have greater
flexibility in program design. A variety of
patterns were reported in content, sequences,
grouping for instruction, settings, and evaluation
procedures due to institutional uniqueness and to
cooperative efforts with school districts to m eet
specific district needs. Flexibility was severely
limited by time regulations. Fifth year graduate
programs in institutions with large proportions of
transfer students were limited in design possi
bilities. Undergraduate programs reported the
limitation of time for professional studies due to
(a) requirem ents for academic m ajors and m inors,
(b) late selection of teaching as a vocation, and
(c) problems of offering undergraduate and lower
division professional training due to institutional
regulations. Institutions of different types were
found to offer different kinds of programs.
The findings indicated expected changes related to
the notion that institutions should exercise greater
individuality, imagination, and innovation in
program planning. Programs in ten institutions
were uniquely designed around institutional commit
ments and special resources. All program s
reported some use of media. About half of the
institutions created or made use of special
environments for training. Imaginative rethinking
of assumptions, pupil needs, teacher roles, and
processes of teaching and learning for the adult
learner was an outstanding feature of six institu
tions (D, G, I, L, N, and O). But less change was
found here than expected. Less change than
expected was reported concerning the use of new
modes of planning and of incorporating new groups
in planning. Exceptions were institutions N, D, L,
H, G, and 0).
The study found that changes were being made
relevant to the concern that through self-study,
institutions should develop alternative approaches
to the professional preparation of teacher. Institu
tions varied in the number of alternative programs
being developed. Alternative kinds of program s
were reported, based upon variations in (a) entry
level of student, (b) specialization in teaching,
(c) aptitude of student, (d) differentiation of
teaching roles in differentiated staffs, and
(e) individual students. Programs in institutions
tended to be either inquiry-based to develop
students of teaching who could teach well, or
competency-based program s to prepare teachers
to function efficiently in existing school programs.
Expected changes were not substantial in relation
to permitting the student to develop or exercise
autonomy in the program . Few institutions identi
fied self-initiation and self-direction as objectives.
In a few institutions formal study was reported of
the basic assumptions about what is required to
prepare teachers. Changes in this area in the
group of institutions fell short of expectations.
Very few institutions reported changes in assump
tions about what elementary pupils need to learn.
Conceptual inquiry as an approach to teaching
curriculum subjects was reported by only five
institutions, for example. Little application of
the results of academic curriculum reform
seemed to be incorporated into new program s, due
396
to time and cost factors. School curriculum was
an accepted guide to selection of content in the
curriculum and methods component of professional
studies in m ost of the institutions studied.
Conclusions
In relation to the question of whether or not the approved
program approach was meeting its objectives of facilitating desired
changes in teacher preparation program s, with special reference to
the professional preparation of elem entary teachers, it may be
concluded on the basis of findings of this investigation, that selected
California colleges and universities were making substantial
professionally recommended changes in teacher preparation programs
and that the objectives of the approved program approach were in
the process of being m et in the first year of trial.
Specific conclusions related to institutions, program s, and
professional issues may be drawn from the data and include:
1. Different kinds of institutions demonstrate
different kinds of assumptions, rationales, and
programs of teacher preparation, suggesting
that state colleges and state universities, for
example, have different roles to play in the
preparation of teachers.
The increasing cooperation between school districts
and institutions which prepare teachers tends to
place emphasis upon the operational requirem ents
of existing patterns of preparation instead of
emphasizing the search for theoretical possibilities
for developing new patterns. Whether this kind of
cooperation will stimulate change toward more
effective pupil program s and teacher preparation
program s is a question.
The need for staff retraining in both institutions of
higher education and in schools is a crucial factor
in planning change in teacher preparation program s.
It raises the question, "Does the department of
teacher education have a concept of teacher prep
aration which focuses areas for study, change,
innovation, and research o r is the department
responding to demands upon it from within the
institution and profession and from the districts
which employ their graduates ?"
Emphasis upon the integration of theory with
practice seems to create more concern for
398
methodology than for the principles of program
design and management and for the principles of
teaching and learning as they apply to prospective
teachers and to pupils. Institutions in which such
principles are being searched for and weighed are
developing program s with coherence and integration.
5. Management problems and changes to m eet those
problems overshadow concerns for new concepts
of teacher preparation.
6. Problem-centered planning in reaction to the status
quo takes precedence over planning to initiate new
form s or new applications of theory and research
to the task of preparing teachers.
7. There seems to be a neglect of the study of and
provision for experience in conceptual inquiry,
discovery approaches to learning, and the whole
area of learning to learn. It would seem that unless
teachers experience and become skilled at new ways
of learning, they will not value these processes,
nor be able to facilitate their growth in pupils.
8. The teacher is often envisioned prim arily as a
functionary in a system , rath er than as a person
399
who can function in a system but who can also
initiate, invent, facilitate change, and manage
unique and appropriate learning situations for
pupils. This tends to become a force for the
depersonalization of the teacher who is prepared
to perform at given levels of proficiency without
careful enough regard as to what his individual
optimum level of proficiency might be.
9. An overriding concern for preparing teachers to
teach the disadvantaged pupil was found to exist.
There was considerably less concern for recruit
ing representatives from the black and brown
communities into the teacher preparation program s.
Problems related to the lack of m inority students in
teacher preparation programs included the selectivity
of universities and colleges, high school counselling,
financial needs, and motivation,
10. little emphasis was given to rethinking the educa
tional program of pupils. Rather, the current form
of elementary education was accepted by most
institutions as the form into which teachers would
be prepared to serve. It raises the question, "Is
400
the redesign and imaginative planning of appropriate
pupil program s part of the responsibility of the
teacher o r are others in the field of education
expected to do it? A re teachers being prepared
professionally to participate in encouraging the
growth and change of institutions in which they
serve?"
11. The increasing emphasis upon specification of
requirem ents for teacher preparation from legis
lation, the professional organizations and groups,
the accrediting agencies, the California State
Department of Education, and the institutions
themselves raises the issue of "who decides" to
prominence over the issue "what is decided."
When the issue is one of power, rather than princi
ple or when the question of who decides dominates
the concern for what is decided, danger exists to
professional standards and to institutional auton
omy. Those institutions studied that had clearly
defined principles of teacher preparation around
which they were designing program s, tended to
demonstrate freedom from pressure and concern
401
over Che impending legislation. On the basis of
growth and change reported, it seems to be unwise
to attempt to specify detailed patterns of prepara
tion on a statewide basis. Whatever the source of
specification, if it were external to the group of
professionals directly involved with teacher
preparation, those specifications tend to be viewed
as sources of problem, rather than stimulants to
quality in the program .
Recommendations
Based upon the study of fifteen diverse institutions which
prepare teachers and were found to be planning and implementing
changes comparable to those indicated by professional research and
opinion for the professional studies component of preparation
program s for elem entary teachers, it is recommended that the
approved program approach to teacher certification, which had
stimulated planned changes, be continued. Further, it is recom
mended that the approved program approach be defined broadly to
include institutional, program, and professional objectives and
functional, open criteria for program acceptance. Specification of
teacher preparation curriculum and process should be made by
402
professional educators from institutions, school districts, and
professional organizations, rather than be stated specifically in the
law.
It is recommended that in the process of designing approved
program s institutions undertake a reconceptualization of pupil
learning and the tasks of teaching which show evidence of a profes
sional response to research and professional opinion related to the
teaching-learning process for both pupils and prospective teachers.
An ecological systems analysis of teacher preparation is recom
mended.
The finding that institutions define divergent roles for
themselves in teacher preparation would suggest the recommendation
that consortia of institutions be encouraged so that efforts might be
coordinated and divergent program s would complement each other.
Universities might undertake research to determine effective training
procedures in colleges. One such arrangem ent was reported between
two institutions in the study.
The working relationships between school districts and
professional preparation institutions were found to be developing in
depth and complexity. It is recommended that these relationships be
critically and imaginatively examined to identify optimum roles for
each agency which would support the inherent purposes of each and
403
enhance their respective functions, thereby avoiding either domi
nation or abdication on the part of either.
It seem s reasonable to recommend that in the effort to
integrate curriculum studies and the practicum reported by most
institutions, serious study be given as to appropriate means for the
application of conceptual inquiry and the products of academic
curriculum reform movements to teacher preparation programs.
Teacher preparation includes great public issues—the
development of human potential, the nature and process of public
education, the reform of the elementary school, the expenditure of
the major portion of a tax dollar, and the equality of economic and
social opportunity engendered by education. Public money and public
law determine the framework of teacher preparation. It is recom
mended that public presentation be made of the issues in professional
preparation of teachers through a series of dialogues and filmed
visits to preparation program s televised to a general audience.
Deans and directors interviewed presented issues in the context of
public concern for the child, for money, for opportunity, and for
social change.
It is recommended that legislation be introduced which
would specify that the approved program approach, as developed in
California in 1969, be continued for a period of five years and that
404
other legislation specifying requirements in teacher education not be
introduced for three years.
Recommendations for further research include the proposals
that
1. Analyses be made of appropriate educational
programs for pupils to determine (a) kinds of
teachers needed and (b) kinds of competencies
needed by those teachers.
2. Analyses be made of differences in kinds of
institutions to determine kinds of teacher prepara
tion programs most appropriate to institutional
objectives and professional standards and that
these findings be considered when criteria for
accepting approved programs are developed.
3. Effectiveness studies be made of teacher prepara
tion programs in relation to either inquiry-change
agent objectives or to implementation objectives,
recognizing the inherent differences in each and
taking care not to confuse effectiveness (results)
with efficiency (skill in producing results). It is
possible to efficiently prepare teachers for
ineffective pupil programs I
A Deans and Directors of Teacher Education
Conference series be held to hear papers
presenting new programs and to identify and
confront critical issues.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
406
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________ . "Evaluation of Student Teaching. " Santa
Barbara, California, 1970. (Mimeographed.)
"General Expectations. " Information for M aster
Teachers. Santa Barbara, California, 1970.
(Mimeographed.)
"Harper Valley. " Materials for simulation.
Santa Barbara, California, 1970. (Mimeographed.)
"New Approaches to Teacher Education
(tentative). " Santa Barbara, California, 1969.
(Mimeographed.)
"Proposal Summary. " Santa Barbara, California,
1969. (Mimeographed.)
"Proposal to the Ford Foundation. " Santa
Barbara, California, 1969. (Mimeographed.)
428
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
University of California, Santa Barbara. "Standard
Elementary Teaching Credential. " Information sheet.
Santa Barbara, California, 1970. (Mimeographed. )
________ . "Student Teacher Progress Report. " Rating
sheet. Santa Barbara, California, 1970.
________ . "The New UCSB Elementary Program, 1970-1971."
Program outline. Santa Barbara, California, 1970.
(Mimeographed.)
University of Maryland. The Teacher Education Center.
University of Maryland (n. d. (Microfiche. J
University of the Pacific. "Teacher Corps, Cycle 6—Rough
Draft. " M aterials for proposal development.
Stockton, California, 1970. (Mimeographed. )
________ , "Teacher-to-Teacher. " Program announcement.
Stockton, California, 1970.
________ . "The Elem entary Internship Program. "
Stockton, California, 1970. (Mimeographed.)
University of Southern California, Council on Teacher
Education. "Report to the President and the Faculty
Senate." Los Angeles, California, May 1, 1962.
(Mimeographed.)
University of Southern California, School of Education,
Department of Teacher Education. "Committee on
Credential Requirement Revision. " Los Angeles,
California, February 26, 1962. (Mimeographed. )
"Los Feliz Teacher Learning Center Schedule. "
Los Angeles, California, 1969. (Mimeographed.)
________ . "Summary of Teaching Credential Discussion. "
Los Angeles, California, 1961. (Mimeographed,)
"Teacher Education. " Los Angeles, California,
1969.
429
226.
227.
228.
229.
University of Southern California, School of Education,
Department of Teacher Education. "Tentative Faculty
Statement Re: Credential Revision. " Los Angeles,
California, 1958. (Mimeographed.)
________ . "The Teacher-A ssistant. " Los Angeles,
California, 1968. (Mimeographed,)
________ . "Overview of Teacher Education Programs. "
Los Angeles, California, April, 1965.
(Mimeographed.)
Woods, Joanne. Conference notes and tape recordings.
California Council on Education of Teachers. Santa
Barbara, California, 1970.
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
LIST OF INSTITUTIONS VISITED
431
Name of Institution Enrollment
1. California State College at Hayward
Hayward, California
2. California State College at Los Angeles
Los Angeles, California
3. Sacramento State College
Sacramento, California
4. San Diego State College
San Diego, California
5. University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, California
6. University of California, Los Angeles
Los Angeles, California
7. University of California, Riverside
Riverside, California
8. University of California, Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, California
9. Immaculate Heart College
Los Angeles, California
10. La Verne College
La Verne, California
11. Occidental College
Los Angeles, California
12. Pepperdine College
Los Angeles, California
7,855
22,287
12,033
22,355
28, 863
29,070
4,183
12,201
1,109
762
1,714
3,718
433
Name of Institution Enrollment
13. Claremont University Center
Claremont, California 968
14. University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California 18,692
15. University of the Pacific
Stockton, California 3,757
APPENDIX B
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR
TEACHER EDUCATION
434
435
(EXCERPTS)
1. 2 The Professional Studies Component
The professional part of the curriculum designed to prepare
teachers is to be distinguished from the general studies
component: the latter includes whatever instruction is deemed
desirable for all educated human beings, regardless of their
prospective vocation; the form er--professional component--
covers all requirements that are justified by the work of the
specific vocation of teaching. In the standards that follow
(1. 2 to 1.7) it is assumed, therefore, that whether a study is
to be called general education o r professional education does
not depend on the name of the study or the department in which
the instruction is offered; it depends rath er on the function the
study is to perform , viz., whether it is to be part of general
education or of specialized vocational preparation.
The ingredients (not courses necessarily) of the professional
studies component may be classified as follows:
The professional studies component Standard 1,2
Content for the field of specialization Standard 1. 3
Content to be taught to pupils
Supplementary knowledge from the subject
m atter field(s) to be taught and from allied fields
that are needed by the teacher for perspective
and flexibility in teaching
Theoretical-practice component
Humanistic and behavioral studies Standard 1.4
Educational theory with laboratory
and clinical experience Standards 1. 5 and 1.6
Practice Standard 1.7
The nature and function of these ingredients will be
specified in separate sections
The Standard
436
1.2 The professional studies component of the curriculum includes
the following ingredients combined in a rationally designed
pattern of instruction: (a) content for the field of specialization
--content to be taught to pupils and supplementary knowledge
from the subject m atter field(s) to be taught and from allied
fields that are needed by the teacher for perspective and
flexibility in teaching; and (b) theoretical-practice component--
humanistic and behavioral studies, educational theory with
laboratory and clinical experience, and practice.
Source: American Association of Colleges for Teacher
Education (AACTE). Recommended Standards for
Teacher Education. The Accreditation of Basic and
Advanced Preparation Programs for Professional
School Personnel. Washington, D. C ,: AACTE, 1969,
pp. 12-13.
APPENDIX C
SUMMARY OF REPORTED CHANGES
437
438
Kinds of Changes
Institutions
(N - )
Number
Program type
Socialization
Academic reform
Self-as -instrum ent
Teaching maneuvers
Performance criteria based
Teacher as inquirer-researcher
Design
Cooperative planning
Systems design
Individual pacing
Process
Settings
Campus laboratories
Off-campus coursework
Diversity in off-campus settings
Clinical settings off campus
Community settings, non-school
Sequence
Simultaneous discrete courses
Block-time integrated courses
Problem-foci sequencing
Continuous, graded practicum
Performance modules
Strategies
Self-initiated, self-directed
Team staffing
Self-contained program groups
Staff modeling of teaching modes
Multiple-media feedback system s
Objectives based on behavior
referents: teacher
pupil
439
Kinds of Changes ^ n ^ i^U C ^ 0ns Number
Practicum
Differentiation of roles and training
K through 12 experience
Developmental, sequenced, continuous
Teachers learn to learn
Clinical experiences
Performance objectives
Simulation and games
Micro-teaching and analysis
Self-direction in practicum
Teams of student teachers
Content
Education foundations
Philosophical and sociological nature
of education, field-based
Urban emphasis in sociology
Field-based psychology
Integration with curriculum and
methodology
Curriculum
Conceptual inquiry approach
Curriculum course, learning
strategy centered
New curriculum subjects
Integrated with practicum
Methods of teaching
Variety of strategies
Decision-making skills
Teacher personal development
Self-concept development
Style development
Evaluation
Self-evaluation
Criterion referenced, performance
objectives
Diagnostic evaluation of student
teacher needs
APPENDIX D
OBJECTIVES OF THE APPROVED PROGRAM
APPROACH TO TEACHER CERTIFICATION
440
O bjectives R elated to the T eaching Profession
Quality programs of teacher preparation shall be evaluated by
professional criteria.
Professional control of teacher preparation program design and
curriculum shall be exercised.
Professional accountability for teacher competencies shall be
demonstrated.
There shall be a professional response to new knowledge
relevant to teaching and learning evidenced by appropriate
changes in teacher preparation program s.
Objectives Related to the Institutions
Which Prepare Teachers
A11-institution planning and implementation shall be evidenced.
There shall be institutional initiative in program planning and
academic freedom.
Institutions shall take responsibility for making effective
changes in teacher preparation program s.
Institutions will be encouraged to create unique programs
utilizing unique resources.
Cooperative planning with school districts will be evidenced.
442
Objectives Related to Teacher Preparation
Program Development
1. Coherent, integrated programs will be developed.
2. Programs will be based upon specifications of knowledge and
performance.
3. Specialization in programs will be encouraged.
4. Programs will offer differentiated training for differentiated
roles in teaching.
5. Programs will be cooperatively implemented.
6. Programs will show relevance to pupil and participant needs.
7. Programs will use optimum professional standards of
preparation.
APPENDIX E
QUESTIONS FOR ORAL INTERVIEW
443
What changes in the professional sequences for elem entary
teachers would you advocate?
a. Behavioral Sciences
b. History and philosophy of education
c. Curriculum and methods of teaching
d. Media and m aterials
e. Other content areas
f» Process curriculum: Prescriptive teaching, inquiry,
professional response.
What changes in the professional practicum experiences for
elem entary teachers would you advocate?
a. Tutoring
b. M icro-teaching
c. Clinical experience
d. Student teaching
e. Internships
f. Other.
What changes in the kinds of settings in which teachers learn
would you advocate?
a. University classroom
b. University lab schools
c. Community study
d. School centers for student teaching
e. Experimental schools
f. Other.
What changes in program design for elem entary teacher
preparation would you advocate?
a. Course sequence changes
b. Perform ance- -criterion based modules
c. Inquiry group structured program
d. Individualized program
e. Articulation with in-service
f. Staff retraining: Teachers of teachers of teachers.
445
5. What changes in evaluating teacher competencies would you
advocate?
a. Examinations
b. Performance criterion based objectives
c. Grades and interaction analysis
d. Self-evaluation
e. Pupil--product m easures
f. Teacher attitude changes.
6. What other kinds of changes in professional preparation of
elem entary teachers would you advocate?

Asset Metadata

Creator Woods, Joanne (author)

Core Title Changes In Professional Preparation Of Elementary Teachers Proposed By Selected California Colleges And Universities: The Approved Program Approach To Certification 1969-1970

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee chair), Kimizuka, Sumako (committee member), Wilson, Donald E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-471132

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Legacy Identifier 7116444

Dmrecord 471132

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Woods, Joanne

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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