The Relationship Of Selected Variables To The Ability Of First-Grade Children To Read And Interpret Maps

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Content 71^ 12,409 PLUMLEIGH, Jr., George Elwood, 1930- THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELECTED VARIABLES TO THE ABILITY OF FIRST-GRADE CHILDREN TO READ AND INTERPRET MAPS. University of Southern California, Ed.D.,1970 Education, theory and practice University Microfilms, A X ER O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELECTED VARIABLES TO THE ABILITY OF FIRST-GRADE CHILDREN TO READ AND INTERPRET MAPS A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION by George Elwood Plumleigh, Jr. August 1970 This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of D octor of Education. Date. Dean Guidance Committee Chairman TABLE OF CONTENTS i Chapter Page LIST OF TABLES............................. iv I. PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM............... 1 The Problem Organization of the Remaining Chapters II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................... 7 The Symbolic Nature of Maps The Introduction of Symbols to Young Children The Instructional Program of Map Skills in the Primary Grades Research Studies on Children's Abilities to Use Map Symbols Chapter Summary III. DESIGN AND PROCEDURES FOR THE STUDY .... 47 I IV. | Part I: An Analysis of Single Predictors and Their Relationships to the Two Criterion Variables Part II: An Analysis of the Step-Wise Regression Program for Selecting the Best Set of Predictors of Achievement on Both Criterion Variables Part III: Summary of Analysis of Variance, Control vs. Experimental Groups Chapter Summary _____________________ ii ■ _________ The Design of the Study The Testing Program The Instructional Program Statistical Analysis of the Data Chapter Summary ANALYSIS OF DATA........................... 67 Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . 100 Summary Findings from the Analysis of Data Findings from the Multiple Regression Program Conclusions Recommendations Recommendations for Further Study Other Remarks BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 118 APPENDIX A. Test of Symbol Relationships ........ 132 APPENDIX B. Test of Inferences 137 APPENDIX C. Test Map 150 !APPENDIX D. The Instructional Unit 152 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Beginning and Final Enrollments in the Classes of the Sample..................... 49 2. Description of the Sample Based Upon Chrono logical Age in Months.......... ......... 50 3. Ages and Years of Teaching Experience of the Teachers Selected ......................... 51 j j 4. Means and Standard Deviations for All | Variables................................... 69 i 5. Correlation Matrix: Control Boys (N=41) . . . 70 6. Correlation Matrix: Control Girls (N=40) . . 71 7. Correlation Matrix: Experimental Boys (N=62) . 72 8. Correlation Matrix: Experimental Girls (N=70) 73 9. Correlation Matrix: All Cases (N=213) .... 74 10. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement in Symbol Relationships for All Cases (N=213)......................... 83 ! 11. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Inference Test: All Cases (N=213)............................. 84 12. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Symbol Relationship Test: Control Boys (N=41) ...... ...... 85 13. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Inference Test: Control Boys (N=41) ..... ..................... 86 iv Table Page 14. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Symbol Relationship Test: Control Girls (N=40) 87 15. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Inferences Test: Control Girls (N=40) 88 16. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Symbol Relationship Test: Experimental Boys (N=62)........... 89 17. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction i of Achievement on Inference Test: Experimental Boys (N=62) 91 | 18. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction i of Achievement on Symbol Relationship Test: j Experimental Girls (N=70) ................. 92 I 19. Best Combination of Variables for Prediction of Achievement on Inference Test: Experimental Girls (N=70) ................. 93 20. Analysis of Variance Data Symbol Relation ships: Control vs. Experimental Boys . . . 94 21. Analysis of Variance Data: Inferences— Control vs. Experimental Boys............... 95 i | 22. Analysis of Variance Data: Symbol Relation ships— Control vs. Experimental Girls . . . 95 23. Analysis of Variance Data: Inferences— Control vs. Experimental Girls ................... 96 v | CHAPTER I ! I I | i i I PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM | i I The reading and interpreting of maps has long been j i j an important skill to be developed in the elementary j ( j | school. Maps are a major aid to the understanding of j i i i i interrelationships between the natural conditions of our j i ! ; i I environment and human activities. Yet in the view of j ! I ! James, ". . .if there is any one phase of public educa- ! i : ; I | tion that has been seriously neglected by the teachers of Jsocial studies, it is the understanding of maps" (106:62). ! Other educators (127;128;9;91) have felt that i i textbooks and courses of study have too often introduced map study in the middle elementary grades with complex maps jrequiring levels of sophistication too difficult for many students. They have urged the inclusion of map skills instruction in the beginning elementary grades. A review of the literature dealing with the development of map skills and understandings shows little 1 difference of opinion as to their importance in the educa- i tion of elementary school pupils. It is surprising, , | therefore, to discover the limited amount of research j I ; concerning children's abilities in using maps in the early ! i !grades. j I ' The present study was designed to provide informa- ! j tion regarding the ability of first-grade children to use , i and interpret map symbols in the belief that the data thus | acquired would prove of importance to curriculum makers in > ! the construction of better instructional programs for I ! I : I developing map skills in the primary grades. i I I ! The Problem i Statement of the Problem j i The major purpose of this study was to determine i i the extent of relationships among selected factors and j j first-grade children's abilities to see relationships j between map symbols and to make inferences from map symbols.; More specifically, answers to the following questions were i sought: 1. What relation exists between the ability of first-grade children to infer meaning from map symbols and IQ, reading, logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, verbal concepts, and memory? 2. What relation exists between the ability of first-grade children to understand relationships between map symbols and IQ, logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, verbal concepts, and memory? 3. Can a combination of factors be identified which will be a better set of predictors of achievement in understanding relationships between map sym bols than for any single factor? 4. Can a combination of factors be identified which will be a better set of predictors of achieve ment in drawing inferences from maps than any single factor? 5. Are there significant differences in achievement in map symbol understanding between samples of pupils who have participated in a special twelve-week instruction program in map skills and those who have participated only in a "normal" first-grade instructional program? Importance of the Problem Information about the abilities of young children to read and interpret maps is quite limited. The avail- abilitv of additional information about these abilities 4 ! i could assist the development of improved instructional j programs in geography and the social studies. I | ! A significant emphasis in the study was its attempt; j i - to go beyond consideration of children's abilities in j I location skills and to determine their abilities to see relationships and make inferences. These abilities are often listed as objectives for students to attain but are j I seldom tested, particularly with children of the age group : I f i of those in this study. I j i The determination of specific factors of intelli- j i | I gence and reading which may be highly related to map j I ! I | ! reading could provide vital information to develop improved] ! i instructional programs in map skills. Such knowledge, too, could help our understanding of abilities of first-grade pupils to reason from symbolic data and could be of signif icant value in improving the quality of the entire first j grade social studies program. | Data provided by this study could assist curriculum planners in establishing realistic objectives in the development of inquiry-conceptually based social studies curriculum programs in geography and social studies. Delimitations i i i 1. The study was conducted in eight first-grade j i | | classes. i j 2. The classes were located in three schools in a | ! I single, middle-class school district in Southern | California. 3. The experimental instructional unit was limited j to a period of twelve weeks. ! Limitations of the Study 1. Teacher variables, such as personality, were j | not controlled. However, the investigation | i was not concerned with a particular teaching methodology. | 2. Interpretations based on results of the study j | must consider the limited nature of the sample t used. j 3. Motivation and interest of teachers and children involved could have influenced the outcome. Definitions Symbol relationships.— Based on Bloom's (XX) category 2.10 Translation: "The ability to translate rela tionships expressed in symbolic form, including 6 i ! illustrations, maps, tables, diagrams, graphs, and mathe matical and other formulas, to verbal form and vice versa." I I Inferences.— Based on Bloom's category 2.30 j I Extrapolation: "The ability to deal with the conclusions of| I a work in terms of the immediate inferences made from the | explicit statements." j i Organization of the Remaining Chapters | ! The remaining chapters of this study have been ■ i ! ; I organized as follows. i I I I S Chapter II contains a review of significant j j i research studies relating to map skills development, as well as literature pertaining to objectives and the I instructional program in map skills. i Chapter III presents the design and procedures for ! I i | | the study, including development of tests, a description j i | ; of the sample, and statistical techniques used. j Chapter IV is concerned with an analysis of data i obtained from the study. Computer programs provided data in the form of simple correlations, multiple-regression correlations, and + scores. Chapter V provides a summary of the procedures and findings, as well as the conclusions and recommendations. j CHAPTER IX I ' REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The literature dealing with map skills development, ! | I jwhile extensive in quantity, is limited in scope and specificity. Research studies dealing with map skills | ! development are few in number and are generally limited in j i i quality. The bulk of the written material on the topic of map skills development consists of how-to-teach articles in j journals or generalized scope and sequence outlines. | i In this chapter the emphasis is on reporting sig- ! !nificant research studies and summarization of generally j |accepted points of view regarding curricular practices for | I map skills development in the primary grades. The chapter is organized under the following head- ings; 1) "The Symbolic Nature of Maps," 2) "The Instruc tional Program of Map Skills in the Primary Grades," 3) "Research Studies on Children's Abilities to Use Map 7 Symbols," and 4) "Related Research Studies." j The Symbolic Nature of Maps ! ! | Map reading, as is reading the printed word, is highly symbolic in nature. Most of the concepts expressed I by map symbols are quite abstract with very little resem- j l blance to actual physical geographic features. Symbols may; jrepresent "real" physical geographic features, but they , ;often represent ideas that do not exist as physical real- ! i \ jity, such as city and state boundaries, time zones, I I ! j rainfall data, or representation of industrial production. | The abstract nature and complexity of map reading ! ; i should not be underestimated. Not only is a map itself a j I symbolic representation of a portion of the earth's surface, but it utilizes other symbols— line, shape, and color— to represent a "reality" that is often symbolic. Whittemore describes the complexity of the symbolic | nature of maps in this manner: A map is itself a symbol and is interpreted through the use of other symbols. "City" is expressed on a map by a dot, "river" by a line, "between five and ten inches of rain" by a color. Such map symbols are not so numerous as word symbols, but in many ways they are more complex. (115:114) Even simple pictorial maps used in early elementary grades require the child to make an association between a symbol and the physical reality the symbol is intended to represent. However, the complexity of map reading goes far beyond mere understanding or association of a symbol with reality. As in the reading of words, identification of a symbol is only the beginning, with an understanding and interpretation necessary if the learner is truly able to "read" maps. This requirement is clearly stated by i |Hanna: The fact that the language of maps is highly symbolic and requires arbitrary associations with the realities which they represent is only one aspect of the difficulty. The effective use of maps is also dependent on the ability of pupils to under stand the ideas behind a combination of symbols since the map employs a complex scheme of conven tions. (9:26) In a context of much broader scope than just map |reading or map symbols, Bloom stresses the essential i i 1 requirement of learning and understanding meaning of sym- |bols before one can work in any specialized field. | Each field contains a large number of symbols, either verbal or non-verbal, which have particular referents. These represent the basic language of the field— the shorthand used by the workers to express what they know. In any attempt by workers to communicate with others about phenomena within the field, they find it necessary to make use of some of the special symbols and terms they have devised. In many cases it is impossible for them 10 I to discuss problems in their field without making use of some of the essential terms of that field. Quite literally, they are unable to even think about many of the phenomena in the field unless they make i use of these terms and symbols. (2:64) j It is not an overstatement to say that children are j S i "unable to even think about" maps without a knowledge of ; symbols and their accepted definitions and meanings. The Introduction of Symbols to Young Children Because of the abstract complexities of map sym bols, curriculum specialists insist that any introduction I to map reading must begin with geographic features with j I I which the children have had experience. ! Parker expresses the position of most curriculum specialists when she writes: j Children should not be allowed to get their first ideas of the appearance of a given kind of j feature from the map . . . Introducing symbols of | features children have not seen in real or pictured S landscapes is one of the chief causes of failures to learn to read maps— that is, to read through them to the realities the map symbols represent. (15:6) Generally, geographic features that are "real" or with which children have had experience are those in their immediate environment. The introduction of maps is thus most often done through a study of the local landscape— the school and immediate neighborhood. It should be noted, ! 11 ! however, that what is known, or "real," to children under ! today's circumstances of comprehensive, rapid communica tion, particularly television, is not necessarily the same , i as things that are in near, physical proximity. Fischer j i (120) and Goldstein (121), among others, have noted the j effect of television on children's concepts of geographic j features. I i i The concept that map study begins with the "here 1 i and now" was stressed by Saboroff in her doctoral disser tation at Stanford. As she summarizes this notion: I i : | In summary, basic to any understanding of maps j j is the ability to translate maps into landscape j | imagery. This ability is developed by observation j and study of the landscape of the immediate environ ment in the primary grades, when a child then j develops the symbols for mapping what he himself has seen, he is able to translate these symbols from a map drawn by others back into the landscape images he has built in these earlier years. Educators and geographers who have worked with children agree: primary children start with concrete experiences— j observation in the immediate environment; mapping ! and map interpretation follow bit by bit as meanings for the symbols to be used slowly develop. (127:16) The use of symbols is not unfamiliar to young chil dren. For example, they begin using blocks and toys to represent "real" things long before attaining school age. However, it is important that map symbols which are intro duced be based on concepts which have some meaning for children. This is not to say that the concept behind a !map symbol must be completely developed before it is intro- jduced, since concepts are refined and meaning is added as related experiences are achieved. Hanna expresses the accepted viewpoint of authors in the field when he states: Symbols, as we have emphasized, should not be taught apart from the development of the concept of the object. Symbolizing a geographical element, I either physical or cultural, is not an adjunct to, ! but an integral part of conceptualization. (9:28) i ; The development of the ability to read and under- !stand the symbolic language of maps is a difficult process i |beginning with simple conceptions based on children's knowledge of their environment and proceeding to the more difficult. Symbols should not be taught apart from the concept of the object. Hanna proposes these principles as guides in devel oping children's abilities to use symbols: Map symbols can be recognized with the aid of the key. | The symbol and not the name indicates the location. The vertical scale for relief symbols is exag gerated in relation to the horizontal scale. The symbols representing roads, streets, rivers, and so on are greatly exaggerated on most maps. Map symbols may represent ideas and facts that are visible or invisible on the surface of the earth. 13 The size and use of symbols depend on the scale of the map. A variety of symbols may be used to depict the i spatial distributions of the basic human activities. | A map is a systematic arrangement of symbols j j representing the earth's surface. ! The importance of places often may be denoted | j either by the size of the symbol or by the size of ' j the lettering which gives its name. (9:29) i i Odell, writing in the Twenty-Ninth Yearbook of the | i National Council for the Social Studies, expresses the ( i ! j importance and difficulty of map symbolization: ! j Map symbolization, including symbols, colors, j and words used on globes and maps, is the language ! of maps, and is just as difficult for the student ! | to comprehend as a foreign language. The student ! must be introduced to the language of maps just as j 1 carefully as he would be to some foreign language. (111:202) The Instructional Program of Map Skills in the Primary Grades | As a shorthand statement of a mass of geographic knowledge, a map serves an indispensible function in enabling the learner to understand his world. Maps provide | the best means to reduce the complexities of the world's human and physical features to a manageable size and form. If the skills required to use maps effectively are not well developed, students will be cut off from a major source of information and understanding. The major purpose for map study is well stated by Anderzhon: 1 4 ! 1 People do not study maps to understand maps. j They study maps to understand the earth and its i inhabitants. A map symbol does not stand for a j word. The student has not learned the meaning of j a symbol when he has learned to name it. Every map ; symbol stands for something real (though not neces- | sarily visible) on the earth. A student has truly j learned the meaning of a map symbol when he under- j stands the real thing it stands for. With every new map symbol . . ., the student gets a new understand ing of the earth and man. (l:iv) i Readiness for Map Reading , The concept of readiness for learning is as j I ! ; ! {applicable to the map reading skills as it is to any other j i ! subject in the school curriculum. To be ready for a j i I i I !learning activity, a child must have had an appropriate j | \ experiential background. In spite of the general accept- J ance of the concept of readiness, it usually has been insufficiently incorporated into instructional programs of i I map skills. As Munroe indicates: ! Maps are the most essential tool of geography, yet research has proved that instruction in map j reading in the elementary school is too often out ! of harmony with the facts of child growth and development. In spite of the widely accepted prin ciple that readiness on the part of the learner is ! required for actual learning, pupils are frequently faced from the outset with the fully developed map. Map symbols presented in the elementary school are so numerous, so varied, and so incidentally taught, that many of them can be interpreted only by the exceptional child. (14:502) 15 A planned sequential readiness program is necessary ! ito provide an experiential basis for children so that they I will be able to deal successfully with the complex symbolic■ I i nature of a complete map. Symbols are without meaning if i the thing represented is unknown to the viewer. Thus, j children need real experiences before they can deal with ' I the symbolic. j Capitalizing on children's imagination and ability j to make-believe as part of the readiness program for the introduction of map symbols is suggested by Barton: | i In his play the six year old child repeatedly uses one object to represent or symbolize another. He may use a plastic automobile from a ten cent | store, for instance, as a symbol for a milk truck, j moving van, laundry truck, racer, bus, or any other j vehicle. With this background he readily can see i how a small house symbol may be used to represent a dwelling whether constructed of wood, brick, or stone; whether it is large or small, or whether it includes a single family unit or multiple family i j unit. Consequently, the transition to using a dot I 1 to represent a house or a ton of hay or a thousand i | hogs is not as great as may be supposed at first, providing the teacher makes use of the child's experience by beginning with the object in reality and then helps him to select an appropriate symbol to represent it. (97:285) Saboroff summarizes the need of children to have appropriate experiences in this way: . . . basic to any understanding of maps is the ability to translate maps into landscape imagery. 16 This ability is developed by observation and study of the landscape of the immediate environment in l the primary grades. When a child develops the sym- j bols for mapping what he himself has seen, he is | able to translate these symbols from a map drawn by ■ others back into the landscape images he has built j in these earlier years. Educators and geographers j who have worked with children agree: primary chil dren start with concrete experiences— observation on j the immediate environment; mapping and map interpre tation follow bit by bit as meanings for the symbols | to be used slowly develop. (127:16) i | There is apparent unanimous agreement among writers j in the field that map experiences in the early years should: be closely related to a child's experiences. Suggested ! i beginning experiences often include a drawing of the class- i i room, "mapping" the school with building blocks after a | walking tour, and large simple neighborhood floor maps. A I stress on careful observation is generally made, with Anderzhon's comment providing useful guidance to teachers: "Do not underestimate what children can do. Do not over estimate what they know" (1). Whipple lists the following skills as preparatory I to children's map reading. The child: A. Identifies common landscape features seen in the immediate environment and on trips taken (e.g., forests, valleys, various farm animals, men at 17 ! work in different occupations, irrigation i i ditches, gullies, means of transportation). i B. Interprets pictorial diagrams, identifying j objects shown, locating them in reference to one ! i another, and roughly distinguishing relative , sizes and distances. | C. Finds a place in the neighborhood by following given instructions. D. Finds the cardinal directions on the globe; also i the in-between directions— northeast, northwest, j i i southeast, southwest. j i i E. Shows on a globe that the equator divides the earth into a northern and a southern hemisphere; shows the eastern and western hemispheres. F. Interprets a beginner's map key (e.g., symbols for land and water). j G. Identifies major features of the earth repre sented on beginner's globes (e.g., continents, islands, rivers, the ocean). H. Uses simple map terms with accuracy and under standing (e.g., mountain range, plain, equator, continent, island, ocean). 18 : I. Makes maps of simple familiar areas, such as the j ground plan of the school room and the layout of i i j j j the immediate neighborhood; indicates the i j cardinal directions; makes big things big and i j small things small. (114:121) The need for readiness in map reading is succinctly1 described by Whittemore as follows: All those who have analyzed the steps by which children are introduced to maps and map reading agree that children need many understandings and j some skills before maps will have meaning for them. Just as there is need for reading readiness before j the child begins to read the printed pre-primer, so ■ is there need for map reading readiness before I introduction is made to conventional maps. (115:119) j The literature strongly and unanimously emphasizes | i the need for a readiness program for map reading. Indica tions are that many of the difficulties children have with map reading could be overcome with a well planned map i ! readiness program followed by a sequential organized pro- ! ' ' gram of instruction. Objectives of a Program of Map Skills Development Lists of objectives for map skills development, often stated in terms of understandings, attitudes, or skills to be developed, have been formulated by a number of , 19 i specialists in the fields of geography, cartography, or curriculum. I From an analysis of studies in child growth and development and their implications for the primary grade j program in map making and map interpretation, Saboroff developed four basic objectives for the primary grades: 1 I A. Ability to observe thoughtfully: development of a spirit of inquiry-purposeful exploration of the i j common, everyday conditions in their immediate j i i environment. B. Ability to reason about things geographic: devel opment of the child's potential to understand j i behavior of people within his zone of contact in terms of the conditions (both natural and cultural) in which he observes them. C. Ability to reorganize the "raw material" gain in observation and present it in some map form— from three dimensional, crude, very simple relations in space to increasingly more refined and more accu rate pictorial, semi-pictorial, and abstract representations. D. Ability to read through the symbols of maps made by others to the landscape and realities they represent, and then to understand some of the simplest, most direct relationships thus revealed. I (127:105) . . i Saboroff also formulated ten map skills and under- j i standings as part of her doctoral dissertation at Stanford | University: ! 1. Ability to observe thoughtfully. j 2. Ability to orient self and note direction. j 3. Ability to use scale and estimate or measure j I I distance. j ! 4. Ability to locate on maps and globes. | 5. Ability to recognize and express relative location. 6. Ability to understand symbols and associate the symbol with imagery of the landscape for which it stands. 7. Awareness of natural-cultural relations. 8. Ability to understand time relations. 9. Ability to recognize physical features. I i 10. Ability to recognize the globe as a model of the earth on which we live. (127:106-20) Writing in the Twenty-Fourth Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies, Kohn stated: Instruction in the use of maps and globes 21 i should be definitely planned. Special efforts must be made to develop particular skills at the time when the student is mentally capable of understand ing a certain concept. Too often, maps are intro duced before the child can comprehend the realities which are symbolized. Thus, it is desirable to j teach map reading skills in proper sequence and at i the proper time. (109:146) j i Kohn indicated that success in map interpretation ! was dependent upon an individual's ability in the following i skills: | 1. Orient a map and note directions. | I 2. Recognize the scale of a map and compute distances. 3. Locate places on maps and globes by means of grid systems. j j 4. Recognize and express relative locations. 5. Read symbols and look through maps to see the realities for which the symbols stand. 6. Correlate patterns that appear on maps and make inferences concerning the association of people and things in particular areas. (109:146-47) Kohn developed an instructional scope and sequence for each of these skills, including suggestions for teach ing procedures. 22 Scope and Sequence for Map Skills in the Primary Grades J There is little agreement in the literature regard- iing sequencing or grade placement of map skills. Most i I | writers agree on the need for a readiness program in the ■ primary grades and an instructional program beginning with i j concepts familiar to children. Beyond these points there is a wide disparity of opinion as to when map skills should be introduced. One of the prestigious writers in the field of geographic education, Clyde Kohn, says this about map study in the primary grades K-3: Much can be done in the primary grades to develop readiness for map reading. First grade children can be taught to express direction and distance on rela tive terms. (109:174) By the time the child has completed the third grade he should be familiar with a few symbols— lines for streets, squares for home and the like. (109:174) In regard to map symbols, Kohn continues: It is also in grades 4, 5, and 6 that many symbols and terms used on maps can be taught. In doing this children should come to understand that every map symbol stands for a given feature. They should be given opportunity to visualize and describe the real landscape as depicted on maps. At this level pictorial and semi-pictorial symbols should be used whenever possible, but abstract symbols can be introduced. (109:175) i 23 I The 1962 Social Studies Framework for the Public :Schools of California suggests the following map and globe I | |skills for first-grade students: I * I i | 1. Makes and uses floor maps. i 2. Makes and uses picture maps. | 3. Learns about wall maps and what they represent. I I I 4. Locates community on maps and globes. j i 5. Locates places of vital current interest in the j community, state, nation, or world. ! i 6. Realizes that friends and relatives live in i various places in the community, state, other j states, and other parts of the world. (98:20) j The California framework reserves mention of map symbols until grade three, where it suggests that a student "learns map symbols— water areas, land areas, directions" J j (98:32). It is difficult to see how the skills suggested for first-graders in the California framework could be accomplished if pupils do not learn to distinguish between land and water areas until grade three. The need for a planned program of map skills instruction in the primary grades is illustrated by the results of a recent (1965) study by Thomas (128) at 24 ' Stanford. He investigated the effectiveness of three ! approaches to map skills instruction with fourth-grade - students, but achieved no significant results. Thomas I concluded that fourth-grade students had far less than the ( I I anticipated degree of sophistication in map understandings.! He believed, therefore, that the successful teaching of a I I geographic unit in the fourth grade is predicated upon the | ! existence of a systematic program of instruction in the j ] lower grades. While American researchers appear to agree that j elementary school age children have the ability to work j i with maps on both factual and critical thinking levels, i the conflict with the monumental research of Piaget should be acknowledged. Piaget's contention that children of the age of those in the primary grades are not capable of critical thinking is in conflict with the objectives of the present study. In Piaget's view, a child does not acquire the concept of a map until about age eleven. In deed, a conclusion of a recent English research by Satterly based on Piaget's work was that, "Some doubt must be cast on the value of map work in the junior school and in early classes of the secondary school" (81:263). It should be noted, however, that this study was based on children's abilities in using highly complex military ordnance-survey ! i jcontour maps, and there was no indication as to the extent j i i of pretraining, if any. j Whittemore and Svec (137) developed a gradation of j I map skills in which they attempted to show appropriate j I sequencing from kindergarten through grade six. Their j suggested sequence for the teaching of symbols begins with picture maps (little or no perspective) which impart some sense of relative location, the use of toys and blocks as symbols, floor maps, and on through progressively difficult concepts up to the introduction in upper elementary school grades of color-band maps to show elevation and other j complex symbolization. They developed a similar sequential gradation for the topics of horizontal scale, location and direction, projections, and subjects (content). A number of specialists have developed sequential programs for map skills instruction, many including specific grade level recommendations. Kohn (109), Witucki (116:196-205), and Thralls (19:19-75) are among those who have developed scope and sequence designs for map skills instruction. Perhaps the most comprehensive plan for primary grades was developed by Saboroff (127) as her 26 | 1 doctoral dissertation at Stanford. She developed a i detailed program for the teaching of map skills to children j i j in grades 1-3. Her work did not include experimental j validation of her proposed program but was based on an i extensive review of literature and research available at the time of her study. She makes a strong case for the j ability of primary grade children to function effectively j with maps and map skills following a planned, sequential instructional program. j i j i Geography and Map Skills in an Inquiry- I Conceptual Social Studies Program j I I The social studies curriculum of the elementary j I i school, like the curriculum of mathematics, English, and science, has been under examination to determine effective ness, appropriateness, and relevancy in a rapidly changing society. The acquisition of a large amount of factual information no longer is adequate for students when factual information is accumulated in dizzying amounts far beyond the capacity of any individual to learn. The new social studies curriculum proposals generally incorporate the use of conceptual tools used by social scientists in the belief that by mastering these tools and skills students will be equipped for life-long understanding of society. 27 | l In a progress report of the California State-wide i Social Science Committee, the new curriculum is summarized | I i as follows: j This approach is not new to education, but what is new in the following curriculum is the shift in emphasis from the acquisition of knowledge to the | development of skill in using the processes of ! inquiry. This is in accord with an increasing con- | viction by many educators that knowledge is most ! useful, meaningful and easily attained and remembered | when it is the product of active inquiry on the part j of the student. This program in the studies of man j ! is, therefore, an inquiry-conceptual program. This j is to say that the fundamental organizational struc- j ture of the program is on a series of inquiry ! processes to be practiced and a series of conceptual tools students are to learn to use in inquiry rather than being organized in terms of content in the sense of times, places, events to be covered, or the con tent of particular disciplines. (100:3) i The study of geography, because of its integration of natural and social science, seems particularly important in an inquiry-conceptual social studies program. The study of geography provides opportunities for direct observation | in local areas, for the application of mathematical skills, and gives the student organized and systematized informa tion about the world in which he lives. The Geography Advisory Panel to the California State-wide Social Sciences Study Committee lists three categories of research techniques under the heading of "Techniques of Inquiry": techniques involving mapping, those involving observation and classification, and those concerned with analyses and evaluation of data. The report states: The discipline of geography lends itself readily to those modes of instruction identified as involv ing inquiry or inductive-deductive methodology. The j most effective way of creating understandings about | the structure of geography is by means of posing J problems concerning the location and distribution of | things, using the concepts and generalizations of geography as the source of hypotheses. These hypotheses should be tested in a problem solving sit uation using real or simulated data. i The instructional process can make use of most of the research techniques used by geographers to solve j problems, though it is recognized that many of the I techniques must of necessity be simplified for class- j room use. Such tools or methods as mapping tech- | niques, flow charts, scatter diagrams, and graphic j analysis can certainly be applied in the classroom situation. (99:16) The inquiry-conceptual methodology, with its problem-solving approach, requires an ability to use and compare data from multiple sources. Thus the requirement for children to master skills in map usage is likely to expand and assume increasing importance. Research Studies on Children's Abilities to Use Map Symbols The number of research studies dealing with map skills development is quite limited, and there are few 29 1 I studies emphasizing children's abilities in the use of map symbols. Available studies tend to deal with multiple map skills including location skills, scale, and direction, as well as reading symbols. However, without the fundamental understanding of the symbolic meaning of the line, shape, ( and color of a map, none of these skills is achievable. | ! A series of studies by McAulay represents some of the most wide-ranging research on children's abilities to | read maps. He conducted a study of the abilities of 214 j i second-grade children to locate places in space. Each j l i child was given a picture map of his home community, the larger community containing the home community, a part of f the United States in relation to the Far East, and a map representing the earth in space. The children were asked to solve problems related to each map. McAulay concluded that second-grade children: J 1. Could successfully use maps to obtain information about the local community and an extended unknown area. 2. Could visualize, through maps, an unfamiliar environment. 3. Were able to make comparisons and judgments in simple map work. 30 4. Were able to understand map concepts in consider ing a distant environment as well as for the immediate environment. (68:3-9) While this study provides some insight into capa bilities of second-graders, the "maps" used were very simple drawings and there was no instructional program provided. In a study involving seventy-four fourth-grade students in Pennsylvania, McAulay (64:123-27) sought answers to these questions: 1. Are fourth-grade children sufficiently mature in ability and social experience to learn map skills early in the school year? 2. Can fourth-grade children understand social studies content more effectively through the use of maps rather than through the use of reading materials? 3. Can particular map skills be assimilated in conjunction and in association with a social studies unit? 4. Have fourth-grade children acquired map knowledge through travel and mass media? The study compared the relative success of two classes, one of which used maps as reference only, while the other class completed a series of maps. At the end of a three-month period, both groups of children were given three tests. Two tests of geographic knowledge related to their social studies unit and the third test was given to j I determine the degree to which pupils could secure social | i i studies information from a map. McAulay's conclusions j from the study were: j j 1. Fourth-grade students are capable of using map J skills. 2. Maps are helpful in learning social studies content. I 3. Map skill can be acquired in conjunction with j social studies. 4. Incidentally acquired map skills need coordina tion through social studies. In an article describing his study, McAulay states that map study as part of the social studies is valuable if "the children are systematically taught how to use sym- J bols and interpret such symbols to secure particular i I information" (64:127). This study might be criticized as attempting to do too much over too short a period of time. It does, how- ! ever, offer clues as to the capabilities of fourth-grade students and the need for instruction of students in map symbols. A narrower focus was used in a study by Rushdoony (71:70-75) in 1960. He used the map test from the Iowa i l Test of Basic Skills as the basic instrument to assist in i i i !finding specific map skills recommended for children in ! I I fourth and fifth grades which could be learned by children j in the third grade. The study was also designed to deter- , I ! ! mine the relationship between achievement in map reading I I and factors of reading, arithmetic, and intelligence. The ■ | I sample group of 129 third-grade students had a fifteen-week ! training period in map skills, with pre- and post-testing, j i ; j Rushdoony concluded that third-grade children couldi I ! learn many of the map skills typically taught in grade five.l j He also indicated that high positive linear relationships existed between map reading and intelligence, reading achievement, and arithmetic achievement. This study was significant in its use of a stand- ■ I !ardized map skills test following a planned course of study j ; i j and its attempt to relate achievement on this test to j i I factors of achievement in other curricular areas and |intelligence. The standardized test provided a much i clearer definition of what the investigator considered "map skills" than had previous studies, while the correlation of achievement in map skills to intelligence, reading, and arithmetic provided a beginning understanding of factors 33 I which might be significant in the map skills instructional | program. The relationship between selected capacity and j I performance factors of 168 sixth-grade students and the j i I ability to read and interpret maps was also explored by j Fischer in a doctoral study at the University of Southern California. He developed and used a test which incorpor- ! ated two hypothetical maps to measure what he called higher j i level map skills. These were defined as "the ability to | I seek and show relationship between two or more facts pre sented on maps and to draw inferences based on the relationship between these facts" (120). ! i I The students in the study were given an eleven- j week program of instruction based on the SRA Map and Globe Skills Kit. Pre- and post-testing was done with standard ized achievement tests as well as the map tests developed J I by Fischer. Data about IQ and reading were also obtained from standardized test instruments. Statistical treatment of data included both simple and multiple correlations. In his findings, Fischer determined that, while there were strong relationships between map reading ability and reading achievement and intelligence, the best pre dictor of achievement of success in using map skills was a 34 | map skills pre-test. As he indicated, "There appears to be! ! no clear-cut evidence regarding the abilities necessary to being a good map reader." He also states, "Many yet unknown factors related to the ability to read and inter- j pret maps are still to be identified." j Additional conclusions of Fischer's study included: j I 1. The need for a systematic development program of j | instruction in elementary schools. i I 2. The need for greater emphasis on instruction which will develop abilities of students to see rela tionships between data presented by maps and to draw inferences from these relationships. j j 3. There is a hierarchical relationship between fact finding, locational skills, and the ability to see relationships and draw inferences, and each level of skill is necessary in order to perform at the i i j next level of skill. Fischer's research is important in that it focuses on the problem of map reading and interpretation clearly. Its differentiation between location and interpretation skills is especially useful in defining the scope and com plexity of map reading instruction. A study related to Fischer's was conducted by 35 i (124) a year later. General procedures and intent were j Iquite similar to Fischer's. The children in the study were fourth graders, rather than sixth, and new criteria tests were developed. However, the purpose, as in Fischer's study, was to determine the factors of intelligence and reading which were most closely related to ability to learn and read maps. I The 192 boys and girls were given seven weeks of | I instruction, with teachers following carefully structured i lesson plans. Pre- and post-tests were used, including j t standardized tests and map tests developed by Kilman. Single and multiple correlations between test factors and map reading were obtained. Kilman*s conclusions were similar to and reinforced those of Fischer. He was unable to find any single factor or combination of factors of intelligence or reading that were closely enough related to j ability in reading and interpreting maps to serve as a significant predictor of map reading success. The Fischer and Kilman studies appear to support the position that map reading is a special skill which needs to be taught in a planned, systematic manner. No factor of intelligence or general achievement was correlat ed highly enough to map achievement to serve as a predictor 36 i j of success. In both Fischer's and Kilman's studies, the j best predictor was a map pre-test. Both authors, not surprisingly, also emphasize the need for teachers to spend more time helping children see relationships and develop understandings of geographical principles in addition to j instruction in factual information and locational skills. i I j Fischer suggests that: i It may be concluded that more verbalization j about facts found on maps and their relationship j would not only be a desirable practice in teaching i map skills, but could be of considerable help in | developing students1 abilities to draw inferences from map data. (120:135) Status Studies of Geography and Map Skills Early studies in the social sciences tended to focus on what pupils knew at various age or grade levels. Hall's pioneering study in 1891 of "The Contents of Chil dren's Minds on Entering School" (52) has been followed by many studies designed to determine children's knowledge and understanding of general information, history, geography, and other subject content. Generally, these studies have shown that children have rather extensive gaps in their knowledge of "commonplace" concepts. For example: over half the children in Hall's study did not know what a woods, beach, or island is. In the early 1930's Lacey (110) studied social j I - studies concepts of primary-grade children and concluded that concepts of things in their immediate environment were! fairly clear, while concepts of items distant in time and space were full of errors. Similar conclusions were reached by La Due (61) and Lowry (125). Probst (69) studied kindergarten children and determined that children knew familiar things and could i answer such questions as "What do apples grow on?" or "What do we use to cut meat?" They had difficulty with questions about less immediate objects, such as, "From what does leather come?" or "How are trees made into boards?" Recent Status Studies The normative or status study designed to determine children's knowledge at a given age or grade level has j continued to be stressed by researchers in recent years. In separate studies Goldstein (121) and Sheridan (82:82-86) tested children's knowledge of land forms. These studies provide a valuable contrast to similar earlier studies in that they appear to demonstrate the effect of modern com munications media on children's concepts. Earlier researchers had noted the effect of proximity in the 38 immediate environment to the quality of children's under standing of geographical features. Both Goldstein and Sheridan noted that first-grade children were able to identify geographic features with which they had had only vicarious experience. An interesting conclusion of Sheridan's study, again supported by Goldstein, was that children had clearer concepts of things not present in the immediate environment than concepts which were a close part of their near sur roundings. He cited a better awareness by children of distant phenomena, such as volcano, hurricane and tornado, than supposedly immediately physically available concepts such as cloud, valley, and river. Sheridan attributes this difference to television, believing that it makes children aware of striking natural phenomena. It would appear that adults' understanding of what is in a child's "immediate environment" will have to be modified. As Goldstein indicates, "Teachers must not make assumptions about what children know or do not know" (121:210). In his doctoral dissertation, Goldstein (121) attempted to find answers to these questions: 1. To what extent is the development of concepts of landforms and waterforms influenced by travel i experiences? ! 2. To what extent is the development of concepts of landforms and waterforms influenced by fac tors of chronological age, sex, and intelligence? 3. What misconceptions about landforms are found among first-grade children? Data for the study, which involved 77 first-grade children, were obtained from a picture identification test, individual tape-recorded interviews, and a parent ques tionnaire. The picture identification test was to determine the extent of the children's knowledge of twenty-three landforms. The interview was used to ascertain how much the child knew about the particular landscape feature. The parent questionnaire provided information regarding the extent of the children's travel experiences. i I Among the conclusions reached by Goldstein were the following: 1. First-grade children have a more extensive knowledge of landforms than commonly expected. Some of these concepts, however, are confused and inaccurate. 2. The concepts first-grade children have on entrance 40 ! i I to school range beyond the immediate home and ! I t community. Goldstein concluded that the six- j I year-old child appeared to be ready to investi gate the broader city, the community, the state, j i and the world. 3. While boys apparently had more concepts of land scape features than girls, knowledge of landforms was not closely related to age or intelligence. 4. Travel experiences were not related to the extent and depth of information first-grade children possessed about landscape features. 5. Children apparently acquired a great deal of j information from television, and some of this information is incorrect. In a study related to those reported above, focus ing on the expanding environment theory of scope and sequence in social studies, Smith and Cardinell concluded it was: . . . clearly indicated that children do have interests in things beyond their immediate environ ment; that television does have a great influence on children's outlooks; that there is a need for more effective instruction concerning geographic terms at an earlier grade level; and that children even in kindergarten have distinct, if often erroneous, concepts of some terms used in social studies. (84:143) Two studies under the auspices of Project Social j Studies at Northwestern University were reported by Lee andj Stampfer (62:627-28). The significant feature of these studies is that they illustrated a wide discrepancy between what teachers said they taught and what children actually learned. After 350 teachers were polled as to geographic I I skills and understandings taught in their classrooms, j i \ follow-up testing of a student sample was conducted at one,j i ' two, and three-year periods. A comparison was obtained at j 1 these intervals between actual pupil attainment and teacher] J reports and expectations, as well as pupil retention levels. Even though, for example, primary grade teachers had con- i sistently indicated that they had "taught" pupils to distinguish between "up" and "north," this distinction was a problem to 39 per cent, 52 per cent, and 42 per cent of fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students, respectively. The study points up a fundamental problem of education— the difference between "teaching" and "learning." The authors concluded that grade-to-grade continu ity in the geography program is highly important and that "success or failure depends as much upon how the program is implemented as upon its content ...” (62:628). Studies Incorporating Systematic Instruction in Geography and Map Skills i The normative or status study provides important data regarding what children know at a particular point in time. This type of study, however, can only indicate what has been learned from whatever sources have been available to a particular child. It fails to indicate the extent to which a given group of children could learn following a period of planned, systematic, instruction. Experimental studies incorporating planned learning experiences which will indicate children's abilities to learn under known circumstances are necessary to provide curriculum makers with data required for effective, mean ingful curriculum planning. One of the first studies in the area of geographic skills incorporating systematic instruction was conducted by Howe as a follow-up to an earlier study of children's knowledge of directions (55:298-304). In the first study (54) he found that children did not know directions well and that this knowledge was not acquired in incidental fashion outside of school. Howe then attempted to see if children in early grades could learn directions in space. He developed and implemented a j ten-week instructional program for nearly 300 children in grades one through three. The results were positive, and i Howe concluded that "children can systematically and accurately acquire a clear concept of directions in space” (55:209-10). Since Howe's efforts, there has been a slowly growing emphasis by researchers on attempting to determine i what children could learn as the result of systematic instruction. i | Ammons and Goodlad (21:374) summarize much of the J early research in this area and conclude that the evidence i is contradictory. Some researchers point to children's abilities to think geographically at an early age, while others indicate that children in grades five through eight lack geographic concepts. i After reviewing the researches cited by Ammons and Goodlad, Saboroff (127:68-69) concluded that this apparent contradiction is caused by confusing studies, those which J describe a condition which may be altered and those where f children have evidenced the ability to understand geo graphic concepts following a planned instructional program. She concluded, "Overwhelmingly, the research agrees that early foundational experiences are needed in order to 44 make the later, more abstract, learning successful" (127:69). I j Summary of Research j A comprehensive summary of research in map reading I i jwas published by Rushdoony in 1968 (71:213-22). Without I detailing individual studies, he summarized map reading research as to type and location prior to and since 1960. He found that prior to 1960 there were few studies which !could be classified as experimental and only two at the j |level of the primary grades. In the period since 1960, !some thirty-seven research studies were related to chil dren's abilities to read maps. Sixteen of the studies were of a survey nature, while twenty-one involved some experi mentation. From data obtained in this summary, Rushdoony concluded that the following limitations in map reading .research prevail: 1. Lack of extensive research, especially in map reading, per se. 2. Lack of any longitudinal research. 3. Few studies involving multiple classes engaged in study for one to two semesters. 4. Comparative lack of research from the southern 45 i portion of the United States. (71:214) I Rushdoony also made the following tentative conclu sions regarding children's abilities to read maps: 1. There tends to be a grade-to-grade progression in children's ability to read maps. 2. Children's errors and misconceptions tend to be, at least in part, related to the lack of any | extensive systematic teaching of map-reading. 3. There tends to be a stress on what children know or do not know, rather than on what they can learn through systematic instruction. (71:214) I j Rushdoony's four limitations in map reading research are supported by the review of the literature. Since 1968 there has been a modestly increasing emphasis on studies which have attempted to determine children's abilities to learn map skills under given circumstances. The studies i of Fischer (120), Lee and Stampfer (62), and Kilman (124) ! are examples of this kind of study. Chapter Summary The literature concerning itself with map skills development is quantitatively extensive but rather modest in scope. Consistent themes present include agreement as 46 to the value of map skills for school children, agreement as to the need for a systematic program of instruction (including a readiness period), and the need for additional research as to children's capabilities. The greatest por tion of the writing in the field concerns itself with the instructional program of map skills, including scope and sequence outlines, objectives, and specific teaching methodology. i ! Research in the area of map skills development is ] i jlimited in amount, with early researchers concerning them- i |selves with attempting to measure what children knew at a particular point in time. In recent years, a greater emphasis has been given to the determination of what chil dren can learn under given circumstances, with the evidence generally indicating that they are more capable than has been the expectancy of the school program. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND PROCEDURES FOR THE STUDY Included in this chapter are the design of the | study and the procedures followed. The chapter is organ- ! ized under the following headings: 1) "The Design of the i jStudy," 2) "The Testing Program," 3) "The Instructional J 'Program," 4) "Statistical Analysis of the Data," and 5) "Chapter Summary." The Design of the Study Restatement of the Problem The major purpose of this study was to determine, i : using single and multiple correlations, the extent of the I relationship between selected factors and first-grade pupils' abilities to see relationships between map symbols and to make inferences from map symbols. Factors of ability used as independent variables were the subtests of logical reasoning, numerical reason ing, verbal concepts, and memory, obtained from the _______________________________47____________________________ 48 California Test of Mental Maturity/ 1963 S Form. The i primary reading section of the Stanford Achievement Test provided an additional independent variable. Data for criterion variables of symbol relations and inferences were obtained from tests developed as part of the study. The Sample The sample was selected from the first-grade i classes of an elementary school district located in western I | Orange County, California. In the judgment of school officials, the district population was relatively homo geneous in terms of socio-economic status, as indicated by housing type, family income, and parental education, and. could be characterized as a suburban, middle class "bed room" community. A high proportion of the fathers were professional men (engineers, college professors, lawyers). Racial minority composition of the district was approxi mately 3 per cent. Selection of the pupils and teachers who were involved in the study was made in cooperation with the principals of the school district. Beginning teachers, teachers who were rated as less than average, and teachers who, in the principal's judgment, would not participate 49 freely in the study were eliminated. Eight first-grade classes were chosen for the study. Table 1 shows the number of boys and girls at the beginning and end of the investigation. The table reveals a total of 232 boys and girls in the initial group, with a final sample of 213 after excluding pupils who moved, those from whom complete data were not received, and those who had limited participation in the study because of illness. TABLE 1 BEGINNING AND FINAL ENROLLMENTS IN THE CLASSES OF THE SAMPLE Class Number Beginning Enrollment Final Enrollment Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1 12 17 29 10 16 26 2 14 14 28 12 10 22 3 14 15 29 14 14 28 4 13 17 30 13 17 30 5 14 16 30 13 13 26 6 14 15 29 13 15 28 7 14 15 29 14 12 26 8 14 14 28 14 13 27 Total 110 122 232 103 110 213 The Pupils The 213 pupils in the final sample included 103 boys and 110 girls. Table 2 shows the mean chronological 50 age and standard deviation of each of the four groups. Of the eight classes involved, three were assigned as compari son or "control" classes and five as experimental. The assignment was made on a school basis so that all first- grade classes at a given school were either control or experimental. This procedure was adopted to minimize contact and interaction between the two groups. Comprehen sive data describing the sample in terms of age and intel- i I ligence are included in Chapter IV. i TABLE 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE BASED UPON CHRONOLOGICAL AGE IN MONTHS No. of Pupils Mean S.D. Exp Boys 62 83.32 5.92 Control Boys 41 82.68 4.93 C.A. Exp Girls 70 81.98 4.7 Control Girls 40 81.67 4.00 The Control Group The boys and girls of three classes participating in the study were designated as "control groups." Their function was to provide comparative or normative data from pupils who had had the benefit of the "normal" instruc 51 tional program of the district but not the twelve-week instructional program provided the experimental group of the study. The term "control group" was used as a conveni ent descriptor although not precisely correct in the more usual meaning in an experimental study with pre- and post testing. The Teachers j The eight teachers who participated in the study i iwere rated as average or better in competency by principals and district records. All teachers involved were women. TABLE 3 AGES AND YEARS OF TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF THE TEACHERS SELECTED Teacher No. Age Years of Teaching 1-5 6-10 11-15 Experimental 1 40 X Teachers 2 25 X 3 26 X 4 44 X 5 35 X Control 6 23 X Teachers 7 29 X 8 27 X As may be seen in the above table, teaching 52 experience of the teachers selected for the study ranged i from 3 to 11 years and averaged 4.6 years. It was stressed to the teachers that they were considered experienced and successful and that it was not a purpose of the study to measure teacher effectiveness. The Testing Program This section of the chapter describes the tests I I used, the development of the map reading test, and the i schedule followed in the test administration. Testing for the Independent Variables The study design required tests which would yield independent variables relating to intelligence and reading. Appropriate intelligence tests which can be administered to large numbers of first-grade children and which have appro priate subtest scores are few in number. The California Test of Mental Maturity 1963 S Form was selected as most suitable. This test incorporated subtests which provided appropriate data, and was available in machine scored form. The reading test used was the one required under the California state testing program— the Primary Reading section of the Stanford Achievement Test. 53 Development of Tests for Dependent Variables Since a review of available tests determined that no map tests were available for first-grade students, it was necessary to develop tests specifically for this study. The test was based on a hypothetical map developed by the researcher to utilize desired map symbols and to present sufficiently varied geographic features to provide data for inferential questions. A number of hand-drawn trial ver- I j sions of the map were used with individual first-grade I students not included in the study sample. The final i version was prepared by a graphic artist. The Symbol Relationship Test.— The concept of the test of symbol relationships was defined by Bloom's (XX) category 2.10, Translations "The ability to translate rela tionships expressed in symbolic form, including illustra tions, maps, tables, diagrams, graphs, and mathematical and other formulas, to verbal form and vice versa." In this test (see Appendix A), the students were asked to mark sites on the test map whose location was defined by two or more symbols. They were required to find "a bridge over a railroad track"— not just "a bridge." The assumption was made that if a first-grade student could mark such locations he was demonstrating the ability to see 54 or "translate" the relationship between the two symbols on the simplest level. The test was administered in its entirety to groups of ten students with two adults present. Test administra tion was not a problem with either control or experimental groups. The Test of Inferences.— This test (Appendix B) was based on Bloom's category 2.30, Extrapolation: "The ability to deal with the conclusions of a work in terms of the immediate inferences made from the explicit statements." Students were asked to use their "best thinking" and choose the answer that "makes sense" and that "answers the question best." Each question referred to a separate map transparency projected with an overhead projector. Students made their choice of the best answer from four locations marked with colored numbers. Questions included the words "probably" or "least likely." The test was administered in two parts to groups of ten students by two adults. Separate answer sheets were used for each part of the test. A much greater difficulty in administration of this test was anticipated than actually occurred. The use of overhead transparencies, which were relatively novel to these first-grade students, captured their attention, and 55 the small-group testing permitted individual attention to pupils and prevented the mechanics of testing from inter fering with test answers. Test Procedures Since the study involved first-grade students with no experience with standardized testing, careful attention was given to test procedures. The following test procedure I I criteria were used: I j 1. Test instructions and response requirements must be simple and clear. 2. The test requires no reading. All directions and test items were read to pupils. 3. Test administration could be conducted in short increments because of the limited attention span of first-grade students. Pilot Testing Because of the age and the limited test experience of the pupils in the study, several trial versions of the map test were informally administered to five individual first-grade students not otherwise involved in the study. A preliminary version of the test was developed based on this experience. The preliminary test of 65 items was 56 administered consecutively to three groups of ten students from a first-grade class not involved in the study. Revi sions were made following each administration of the test. This was an invaluable experience since test procedures first used proved to be too complex for many students and several test items required revision or elimination. Revision of the Test Following the pilot study, a number of revisions ! were made in the test and testing procedures. 1. The services of a graphic artist were used to prepare the final map in a form that was artistic, simple, clear, and contained a minimum of ex traneous and confusing material. The final form of the map is shown in Appendix C. 2. Individual test items were revised. Study of ' test items following each administration during I I pilot study indicated that several items were confusing to the children, were not understood, or were ambiguous. Test items which caused dif ficulty were rewritten or eliminated following each pilot administration of the test. The form developed following the third administration was revised and used as the final form. 3. The number of items used in the test was reduced. The major reason for reducing the final test to 50 items was to bring the testing time within acceptable limits for the age of the pupils involved. The final version required one and one-half hours of testing time in three one-half hour sections. Considering factors of pupil i ! fatigue and attention span, this was felt to be i I j a maximum testing time by the teachers involved i in the study as well as the investigator. 4. The inference test was presented to pupils using a color-marked map on an overhead projector transparency. The trial test had referred to numbers on an individual pupil map, with the pupils marking answers on an answer sheet. This proved to be very confusing to pupils. The use of transparencies was stimulating to pupil inter est and proved to be a simple and effective means for test administration. 5. Test items were reviewed by a curriculum special ist to determine appropriateness, clarity of language, and relevance to the instructional 58 program. The Testing Schedule The criterion tests of the study were administered by the investigator and his wife, a former elementary school teacher. Test groups were limited in size to ten, with the two adults present at each of three half-hour sessions. The California Test of Mental Maturity was adminis tered by the investigator with the assistance of the classroom teachers. The reading tests were administered by the class room teacher, who had received training in test administra tion from the school district. The tests were administered on the following schedule: 1. California Test of Mental Maturity was given in January, 1969, prior to the instructional program. 2. Tests of symbol relationship and inference were given in April, 1969, following the twelve-week instructional program. 3. Stanford Achievement Test, Primary Reading, was given in May, 1969. 59 Test Scoring ; The California Test of Mental Maturity was machine scored by the California Test Bureau. The criterion tests of symbol relationships and inferences were scored by the investigator. The reading tests were scored by the teach ers as a part of the California state testing program. Test Reliability i Reliability coefficients for the two criterion I j tests were calculated using the Kuder-Richardson Formula 21. The coefficient for the symbol relationship test was .81. The coefficient for the test of inferences was .76. The Instructional Program The Teaching Unit The instructional program for the experimental sample was conducted over a twelve-week period from January to April, 1969. An average daily instructional period of 40 minutes was used. A series of six one-hour training sessions was given to teachers to detail the purposes of the study, to demonstrate the material available, and to provide them with background data for the instructional program. Each teacher was given copies of Hanna's Geography in the 60 Teaching of Social Studies, excerpts from a map skills unit developed for the Santa Monica City Schools, and Contra Costa Social Studies units for grades 1, 2, 3. Weekly meetings for review and evaluation were held with the experimental teachers during the twelve-week instruction program. The researcher visited each class weekly to observe the program in operation and was available on a daily basis if required. r | A detailed unit plan of instruction (Appendix D) was prepared and discussed. The unit provided the basic framework for the instructional program. The unit was similar to, and made reference to, several good social studies teaching units. It was, how ever, somewhat narrower in scope than the usual social studies unit in that it concentrated on developing under standing about maps and map symbols. The teachers were I j told that the unit was not to be considered as limiting or | restrictive, and they were encouraged to add materials, techniques, and procedures to the instructional program when they believed they could enhance the children's learning. 61 Objectives of the Teaching Unit The following general objectives were designated to provide the focus for every activity of the instructional unit. Each activity should be aimed at developing the child's ability to: 1. Observe carefully and thoughtfully. 2. Reason about things geographic, with particular emphasis on inferences from map symbols. 3. Map in some form what was observed. 4. Read through symbols of maps to realities repre sented. Teaching Procedures Teaching procedures followed a similar sequence throughout the unit. 1. A firsthand experience with carefully guided and planned observation. Questions to be answered by discovery as a part of the experi ence. 2. Reorganization of the experience through dis cussion and/or dramatic play, using floor maps, student-made maps, and other materials and 62 activities. 3. Mapping experiences in three dimensions, using pictorial, semi-pictorial, and abstract symbols representing previous observation. 4. Opportunity through discussion to discover rela tionships and to make inferences from maps and experiences. Five geographic areas of the community were consid ered in sequence and a detailed, planned study trip was made for firsthand observation in each area. Areas studied were the school, the neighborhood residential areas, shop ping centers and highway commercial areas, industrial areas, recreational areas, and governmental service areas. As part of the study trips, students were guided to observe land use, land forms patterns, and types of man-made geographical features. Each teacher was provided with a written sequential unit containing references for background reading or for children's use, suggested activities under the headings of Firsthand Experience, Reorganization of Experience, Mapping Experiences, and Discovering Relationships and Making Inferences. 63 Instructional Materials Instruction materials made available as a part of the twelve-week instructional program were numerous and varied to provide multiple learning experiences. The Los Alamitos Naval Air Station supplied a series of 20" x 30" aerial photographs of the community which were very successful teaching aids and most interesting to the chil dren. A 36" x 48" aerial photograph taken in 1960 was used to provide contrast and comparison with the more recent aerial photographs provided by the Navy. A series of lessons was placed on tape cassettes with a cassette tape recorder and 8-station listening post placed in each classroom. These lessons were made avail able to students as follow-up or file time activities as well as for general class use. The resources of the county film library were utilized, and special arrangements were made so that films and filmstrips could be available for extended periods of time. More than 25 films and filmstrips were ordered for the use of teachers as part of the instructional program. Collections of appropriate books were prepared by the district librarian and placed in each classroom. Additional titles and copies were ordered so that equal collections 64 were available to all experimental classrooms. A series of specially prepared individual pupil, wall, and floor (5' x 8') maps dealing with the local community was provided. Teacher comments regarding the quality, quantity, and variety of materials were highly favorable. Study Trips Study trips, or field trips, were incorporated into ! i the instructional program as a fundamental procedure. A I study trip guide prepared by the Santa Monica City Schools (135) provided an excellent outline, and the objectives from that guide were incorporated into the instructional unit. Study trip objectives were that children should learn to: 1. Look at and see their surroundings. 2. Analyze what they see. 3. Formulate questions. 4. Make hypotheses as to the reasons things are as they are. Study guides were provided for each field trip; the guides requested that each trip be preplanned with the children, and contained suggestions for reconstructing (reorganizing) the experience through map activities and 65 extensive discussion by the children as to what they saw on the trips. The following areas were visited on a planned study trip: 1. The school area. 2. The immediate neighborhood. 3. An industrial area. 4. A shopping center. j 5. Civic center and park areas. 6. A total community tour of all of the above. Statistical Analysis of the Data The study was designed to determine by the use of single and multiple correlation statistics the extent of the relationship between certain independent variables, considered both singly and in combination, and two crite- i rion variables. Data obtained from the study were processed at the Computer Sciences Laboratory of the University of Southern California utilizing three computer programs as recommended by a statistician. The programs used were the BMD02R, BMD02D, and BMD1V. The BMD02D program provided data regarding single 66 predictor variables and the significance of relationships to achievement on the two criterion variables of inferences and symbol relationships. The BMD02R step-wise regression program provided information regarding the best combination of independent variables to predict success on the criterion map tests. The intelligence subtests of logical reasoning, numerical i reasoning, verbal concepts, and memory, as well as the i ! total reading scores, were included as predictor variables, j Comparative success of the control and experimental | groups was measured by a one-way analysis of variance design utilizing the BMD1V computer program. Chapter Summary Presented in this chapter were 1) a restatement of the basic problem of the study, 2) a description of the i | sample, 3) characteristics of teachers and their role in the study, 4) a description of the testing program and the development of the criterion tests, 5) a description of the methods and materials of the instructional program, and 6) a description of statistical procedures used in the study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA PART I: AN ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PREDICTORS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS TO THE TWO CRITERION VARIABLES Introduction This section of the chapter presents an analysis of the factors used as single predictor variables and their relationship to the criterion variables. The four subtests of the California Test of Mental Maturity 1963 S Form and the reading section of the Stanford Achievement Test were used as predictor (independ ent) variables. The subtests were logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, verbal concepts, and memory. Tests developed by the investigator were used as criterion (dependent) variables. These tests were titled Symbol Relationships and Inferences. 67 68 Relationship of Factors to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps Table 4 presents the means and standard deviations for each of the predictor and criterion variables. Tables 5 through 9 present correlation matrices for control boys, control girls, experimental boys, experimental girls, and all cases. Guilford's (8:145) classification for interpre tation of "r" is used, with correlation coefficients between .20 and .40 described as low correlations having a definite, but small, relationship. Correlations of .40 to .70 are interpreted as moderate, having a substantial relationship. Relationship of IQ to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps An analysis of the mean scores in Table 4 and the correlation matrices in Tables 5-9 indicated a positive relationship between total IQ, as obtained from the California Test of Mental Maturity, and ability to read and interpret maps, as tested by the two criterion tests. There was a substantial relationship evident between total IQ and the test of symbol relationships for experimental girls, control boys, and control girls. For the inference test there was a small relationship for all groups, with MEANS AND STANDARD TABLE 4 DEVIATIONS FOR ALL VARIABLES Variables Control Experimental Boys (N=41) Girls (N-40) Boys (N=62) Girls (N=70) £ S.D. X S.D. 3T S.D. X S.D. Independent CA 82.68 4.93 81.68 4.01 83.32 5.93 81.98 4.71 MA 92.17 8.87 90.40 7.77 92.23 9.50 92.15 8.64 Language IQ 110.37 14.29 109.38 13.65 109.84 13.85 111.10 12.15 Non-Language IQ 112.73 12.83 112.23 10.82 111.23 12.07 113.13 10.27 Total IQ 112.73 13.89 111.75 12.49 111.13 12.31 112.99 11.05 Logical Reasoning 28.24 4.03 27.88 3.57 27.40 4.54 28.08 4.02 Numerical Reasoning 14.59 3.69 15.00 3.23 15.58 2.82 15.34 2.72 Verbal Concepts 20.20 2.33 19.88 2.78 19.56 3.56 19.71 2.62 Memory 8.88 3.04 8.00 2.11 9.08 2.95 9.16 2.67 Reading 38.44 16.90 42.48 13.44 40.56 15.50 47.84 15.18 Dependent Symbol Relationship 16.32 4.96 15.15 5.29 19.15 3.55 18.06 4.30 Inferences 11.59 3.02 10.98 2.79 14.29 3.70 14.74 6.05 C T i VO 70 TABLE 5 CORRELATION MATRIX: CONTROL BOYS <N=41) Variables CA MA Lang. IQ NonLang IQ Tot. IQ Log. Reas. CA 1.0000 -0.0039 -0.4697 -0.3154 -0.4209 -0.1382 MA 1.0000 0.7717 0.7340 0.8181 0.7322 Lang IQ 1.0000 0.7249 0.9390 0.4819 NonLang IQ 1.0000 0.9145 0.7560 Tot. IQ 1.0000 0.6604 >Log. Reas. 1.0000 Num. Reas. Verb Cone. Memory Reading Sym. Rel. Infer. Num. Verb Sym. Log. Reas. Cone. Mem. Reading Rel. Reas. CA 0.0338 -0.3780 -0.1776 0.0215 -0.0674 -0.0847 MA 0.7348 0.5996 0.7700 0.4712 0.5801 0.6459 Lang IQ 0.4868 0.7324 0.8305 0.3308 0.3791 0.6275 NonLang IQ 0.5265 0.5554 0.5491 0.5013 0.5917 0.6294 Tot. IQ 0.5488 0.7096 0.7580 0.4395 0.5132 0.6727 Log. Reas. 0.3771 0.4429 0.4143 0.5053 0.7157 0.5618 Num. Reas. 1.0000 0.2807 0.4231 0.4354 0.3835 0.3999 Verb Cone. 1.0000 0.5262 0.2445 0.3067 0.4928 Memory 1.0000 0.2431 0.3258 0.5118 Reading 1.0000 0.5509 0.4367 Sym. Rel. 1.0000 0.5089 Infer. 1.0000 71 CORRELATION TABLE 6 MATRIX: CONTROL GIRLS (N=40) Lang. NonLang. Tot. Log. Variables CA MA IQ IQ IQ Reas. CA 1.0000 0.0570 -0.4540 -0.5094 -0.5063 -0.0818 MA 1.0000 0.7460 0.6704 0.8048 0.7525 Lang. IQ 1.0000 0.6301 0.9338 0.4731 NonLang. IQ 1.0000 0.8594 0.8109 Tot. IQ 1.0000 0.6768 Log. Reas. 1.0000 Num. Reas. Verb Cone. Memory Reading Sym. Rel. Infer. Num. Verb Sym. Reas. Cone. Memory Reading Rel. Infer. CA -0.487 - ■0.0795 -0.0818 -0.0370 0.0603 0.0796 MA 0.7215 0.7163 0.6378 0.5814 0.5630 0.3192 Lang. IQ 0.6233 0.7525 0.7388 0.3644 0.4639 0.1424 NonLang IQ 0.6645 0.3966 0.3421 0.5549 0.3627 0.3223 Tot. IQ 0.7072 0.6607 0.6524 0.5050 0.4595 0.2393 Log. Reas. 0.4812 0.4036 0.3675 0.5762 0.4585 0.3272 Num. Reas. 1.0000 0.4253 0.3574 0.4476 0.3633 0.2195 Verb Cone. 1.0000 0.4665 0.3696 0.5579 0.1384 Memory 1.0000 0.0948 0.3417 0.1132 Reading 1.0000 0.3302 0.2276 Sym. Rel. 1.0000 0.4347 Infer. 1.0000 72 f CORRELATION TABLE 7 MATRIX: EXPERIMENTAL BOYS (N—62) Lang. NonLang Tot. Log. Variables CA MA IQ IQ IQ Reas. CA 1.0000 0.4017 -0.2296 -0.3367 -0.3290 0.1152 MA 1.0000 0.6766 0.5456 0.7293 0.6333 Lang. IQ 1.0000 0.4406 0.8753 0.2127 NonLang. IQ 1.0000 0.8106 0.7702 ! Tot. IQ 1.0000 0.5490 Log. Reas. 1.0000 Num. Reas. Verb Cone. Memory Reading Sym. Rel. Infer. Num. Verb Sym. Reas. Cone. Memory Reading Rel. Infer. CA 0.2073 0.1324 0.2310 0.0353 0.0936 0.1457 MA 0.7131 0.5932 0.6426 0.4769 0.4079 0.4489 Lang. IQ 0.4311 0.7258 0.6783 0.3030 0.4660 0.3561 NonLang. IQ 0.5778 0.0873 0.1128 0.4845 0.1137 0.2053 Tot. IQ 0.5844 0.5150 0.4969 0.4680 0.3577 0.3404 Log. Reas. 0.4479 0.0658 0.1703 0.5055 0.0095 0.2183 Num. Reas. 1.0000 0.2278 0.2072 0.3463 0.2651 0.3634 Verb Cone. 1.0000 0.4581 0.2065 0.5352 0.2841 Memory 1.0000 0.1710 0.3858 Sym. Rel. 1.0000 0.3848 Infer. 1.0000 73 TABLE 8 CORRELATION MATRIX: EXPERIMENTAL GIRLS (N=70) Variables CA MA Lang. IQ NonLang. IQ Tot. IQ Log. Reas. CA MA Lang. IQ NonLang. IQ Tot. IQ Log. Reas. Num. Reas. Verb Cone. Memory Reading Sym. Rel. Infer. 1.0000 0.3690 1.0000 -0.2805 0.6629 1.0000 -0.2341 0.6734 0.5012 1.0000 -0.2855 0.7812 0.8868 0.8392 1.0000 0.2344 0.7792 0.3194 0.8154 0.6348 1.0000 Num. Verb Sym. Reas. Cone. Memory Reading Rel. Infer. CA 0.0944 0.1256 0.2217 0.0308 0.0995 0.1633 MA 0.6632 0.6889 0.7013 0.3541 0.5613 0.3826 Lang. IQ 0.5164 0.7036 0.6571 0.3226 0.4723 0.2327 NonLang. IQ 0.5643 0.3444 0.3049 0.3172 0.3947 0.2722 Tot. IQ 0.6199 0.6302 0.5818 0.3637 0.5118 0.2915 I Log. Reas. 0.3871 0.3454 0.4351 0.3030 0.3825 0.3514 Num. Reas. 1.0000 0.3319 0.2422 0.3344 0.4059 0.3564 Verb Cone. 1.0000 0.4550 0.2244 0.5717 0.1895 Memory 1.0000 0.2626 0.4018 0.1732 Reading 1.0000 0.4796 0.1565 Sym. Rel 1.0000 0.2478 Infer. 1.0000 74 TABLE 9 CORRELATION MATRIX: ALL CASES (N=213) Log. Reas. Num. Reas. Verb Cone. Memory Sym. Reading Rel. Infer. Log.Reas. 1.0000 0.402 0.259 0.323 0.441 0.327 0.293 Num.Reas. 1.000 0.284 0.296 0.378 0.367 0.330 Verb Cone. 1.000 0.451 0.226 0.443 0.196 Memory 1.000 0.210 0.377 0.269 Reading 1.000 0.370 0.278 Sym.Rel. 1.000 0.386 Infer. 1.000 75 the relationship on this test for control group boys being substantial. Relationship of Mental Age to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps Correlations between the map tests of inferences and symbol relationships and mental age were substantial for all groups with one exception. For control girls, the i correlation of .31 between MA and the inference test would 1 i ! be considered as small. t Relationship of Chronological Age to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps Correlations between chronological age and ability to read and interpret maps for all groups were very low and both positive and negative, indicating no meaningful rela tionship existed. 1 Relationship of Logical Reasoning to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps Logical reasoning was considerably more closely related to success, on both the tests of inferences and symbol relationships, for control groups than for experi mental groups. Logical reasoning developed the highest correlations in three of four situations for control groups. In the fourth case, the symbol relationships tests 76 for control girls, it produced the second highest correla tion. In contrast, logical reasoning was much less of a factor for experimental groups. It developed the lowest correlation in three of four situations for experimental groups. In the fourth situation, the inference test for control girls, it produced the second highest correlation. The highest and lowest single correlations in the j I study were obtained between logical reasoning and the test j of symbol relationships. The correlation on the symbol ! relationship test for experimental boys of .009 indicated a negligible relationship while the correlation of .72 for control boys indicated a high relationship. A substantial relationship, with a correlation of .56, was also found between logical reasoning and the inference test for con trol boys. The correlation of .46 between logical reason ing and the symbol relationships test for control girls would be considered substantial. With the exception of the correlation for control boys indicated above, correla tions for all groups between logical reasoning and the test of inferences would be considered definite but small. 77 Relationship of Numerical Reasoning to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps An analysis of the data indicated a definite, but small, correlation between numerical reasoning and the ability to read and interpret maps for all groups. Relationship of Verbal Concepts to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps The verbal concepts subtest of the California Test of Mental Maturity showed a substantial correlation to ability on the symbol relationship test for all groups except control boys, where a small relationship was indi cated. The correlation with the inference test varied from negligible for experimental girls and control girls, to small for experimental boys, to moderate for control boys. Relationship of Memory to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps A consistent small correlation between memory and the test of symbol relationship was indicated by the data for all groups. Data for the inference test showed varied correlations, with indication that a substantial relation ship existed between inferences and memory for control boys, a small correlation for experimental boys, and a negligible correlation between these tests for both girls' 79 substantial, with moderate correlations. I Summary of Single Predictor Variables Showing Most Significant Relationships to Achievement on the Two Criterion Variables Predicting Achievement in Symbol Relationships Best predictor: control boys.— The highest correla tion between a subtest of the CTMM and symbol relationship for control group boys was with logical reasoning. The t i correlation of .72 could be considered a high relationship. Best predictor; control girls.— The highest corre lation between a subtest of the CTMM and symbol relation ship for control group girls was with verbal concepts. The correlation of .55 could be considered as indicative of moderate relationship. Best predictor: experimental boys.— The highest correlation between a subtest of the CTMM and symbol rela tionship for experimental group boys was with verbal concepts. The correlation of .53 could be considered as indicative of a moderate relationship. Best predictor: experimental girls.— The highest correlation between a subtest of the CTMM and symbol rela tionships for experimental group girls was with verbal 78 groups. Relationship of Reading to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps A test of reading, as measured by the reading sec tion of the Stanford Achievement Test, which was comprised of subtests of word reading, paragraph meaning, vocabulary, and work study skills, revealed inconsistent relationships. A substantial relationship was shown between the test of symbol relationships and reading for experimental girls and control boys. A small relationship was indicated for control girls, and a negligible relationship was indicated for experimental boys. The relationship between reading and the inference test was substantial for control boys, slight for experi mental boys and control girls, and negligible for experi mental girls. Relationship Between Map Tests The correlation matrices shown in Tables 5 through 9 indicate that a definite relationship existed between the tests of symbol relationships and inferences for all groups. The relationship for experimental boys and girls was small while the relationship for control boys and girls was 80 concepts. The correlation of .57 could be considered as ! indicative of a moderate relationship. Predicting Achievement in Inferences Best predictor: control boys.— The highest correla tion between a subtest of the CTMM and inferences for control boys was logical reasoning. The correlation of .56 could be considered moderate, j Best predictor; control girls.— The highest corre- i lation between a subtest of the CTMM and inference for control group girls was logical reasoning. The correlation of .33 could be considered a small relationship. Best predictor: experimental boys.— The highest correlation between a subtest of the CTMM and inferences for experimental group boys was numerical reasoning. The correlation of .36 could be considered a small relation ship. Best predictor: experimental girls.— The highest correlation between a subtest of the CTMM and inferences for experimental group girls was with numerical reasoning. The correlation of .37 could be considered a small rela tionship . 81 PART II: AN ANALYSIS OF THE STEP-WISE REGRESSION PROGRAM FOR SELECTING THE BEST SET OF PREDICTORS OF ACHIEVE MENT ON BOTH CRITERION VARIABLES The Step-wise Regression Program Description of the Program Data from the study were analyzed with the use of a computerized, step-wise regression program. This pro- ! gram (BMD02R-Step-Wise Regression, July 18, 1968 revision I ! Health Sciences Computing Facility, UCLA) considers variables in combination permitting the selection of the best set of variables for predictive purposes. This selection of the best combination of variables is designed to reduce the total number of variables to a lesser number which could be used to predict achievement on the criterion variables with nearly the effectiveness obtained when the total number of variables is used. In the BMD02R program, the variable with the larg- i est single correlation with the criterion is selected first and additional variables are added singly, not necessarily in order of size of the simple correlations. When a variable which has been added is no longer significant, it is removed from the equation. The relevance of a variable is determined by its simple correlation with the criterion, 82 its correlation with the other variables, and their corre lation among themselves. All variables are considered, and when no variable remains that can make a significant con tribution to the R, the process is ended. The Selected Variables for Analysis by the BMD02R Step-wise Regression Program The four subtests of the California Test of Mental Maturity, verbal concepts, numerical reasoning, memory, and I ! logical reasoning were submitted for analysis. The reading section of the Stanford Achievement Test was also included. I Data are presented in summary form indicating the best combination of two variables as well as the best com bination when all variables are considered. Tables 10 through 19 summarize the statistical data for each group. Best Combination of Variables for All Cases for Prediction of Achievement in Symbol Relationship Best combination of two variables.— As indicated in Table 10, the combination of scores from verbal concepts and reading produced a multiple R of 0.52. These items would appear to indicate that language factors weigh heavilj in achievement on the symbol relationship test. Best combination of variables.— Utilization of 83 scores from all five independent variables produced a mul tiple R of .57. However, the addition of factors after step 2 does not result in a substantial increase in R. For practical purposes, the highest R is obtained with the com bination of verbal concepts and reading which produces a relationship that is substantial. TABLE 10 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT IN SYMBOL RELATIONSHIPS FOR ALL CASES (N=213) Maximum number of steps 14 F - level for inclusion 0.010000 F - level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level 0.001000 F Value Step No. Variable Entered Removed R RSQ Increase in RSQ to Enter or Remove 1 Verbal concepts 0.4432 0.1964 0.1964 51.5841 2 Reading 0.5227 0.2732 0.0768 22.1804 3 Num. Reas. 0.5492 0.3016 0.0284 8.4924 4 Memory 0.5666 0.3210 0.0194 5.9532 5 Log. Reas. 0.5691 0.3239 0.0029 0.8754 Best Combination of Variables for All Cases for Prediction of Achievement in Inferences Best combination of two variables.— Table 11 indi cates that the combination of scores from numerical 84 reasoning and memory produced a multiple R of .38. Language factors appear to be considerably less important in this case than was shown for symbol relationships. However, none of the correlations obtained is substantial and gen eralization is difficult. Best combination of variables.— Utilization of scores from all five independent variables produced a mul tiple R of .41. However, the increase in R after step 3 is slight with an R of .40 attained at that point. Using Guilford's classification, an R of .40 would be considered moderate but substantial. TABLE 11 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON INFERENCE TEST: ALL CASES (N=213) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance Level 0.001000 F Value Step No. Variable Entered Removed R RSQ Increase in RSQ to Enter or Remove 1 Numerical reas. 0.3298 0.1088 0.1088 25.7566 2 Memory 0.3755 0.1410 0.0322 7.8806 3 Reading 0.4029 0.1624 0.0213 5.3221 4 Logical reas. 0.4140 0.1714 0.0090 2.2614 5 Verbal concepts 0.4144 0.1717 0.0004 0.0887 85 Best Combination of Variables for Control Boys for Prediction of Achievement in Symbol Relations Best combination of two variables.— Table 12 indi cates that the combination of scores from logical reasoning and reading produced a multiple R of .75. Logical reason ing was a strong factor for control boys on both criterion tests. TABLE 12 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON SYMBOL RELATIONSHIP TEST CONTROL BOYS (N=41) Maximum number of steps F - Level for inclusion F - Level for deletion Tolerance level 14 0.010000 0.005000 0.001000 F Value Step No. Variable Entered Removed R RSQ Increase in RSQ to Enter or Remove 1 Logical reas. 0.7157 0.5122 0.5122 40.9454 2 Reading 0.7485 0.5603 0.0481 4.1593 3 Numerical reas. 0.7508 0.5637 0.0034 0.2878 4 Verbal concepts 0.7512 0.5643 0.0006 0.0533 5 Memory 0.7514 0.5646 0.0003 0.0204 Best combination of variables.— Utilization of scores from all five independent variables produced a mul tiple R of .75. Since nearly the same correlation was achieved at step 2 as at step 3, the addition of factors 86 beyond this point would serve no practical purpose in pre dicting success. This correlation would be considered as high and indicating a strong relationship. Best Combination of Variables for Control Boys for Prediction of Achievement in Inferences Best combination of two variables.— The combination of scores from logical reasoning and memory produced a multiple R of .64. Logical reasoning again was a major factor for control boys, although the correlation obtained was not high. TABLE 13 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON INFERENCE TEST CONTROL BOYS (N=41) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance Level 0.001000 Step Variable No. Entered Removed RSQ F Value Increase to Enter in RSQ or Remove 1 Logical reason. 0.5618 0.3156 0.3156 17.9838 2 Memory 0.6400 0.4096 0.0940 6.0527 3 Reading 0.6607 0.4365 0.0269 1.7666 4 Verbal concepts 0.6790 0.4610 0.0245 1.6347 5 Numerical reason. 0.6820 0.4651 0.0041 0.2677 87 Best combination of variables.— Utilization of scores from all five independent variables produced a sub stantial multiple R of .68. Inclusion of factors after step 2 increased R in gradual steps to the highest level, indicating relatively equal contribution to the R by these factors. Best Combination of Variables for Control Girls for Prediction of Achievement in i Symbol Relationships i Best combination of two variables.— The combination of scores from verbal concepts and logical reasoning pro duced a multiple R of .61, indicating a substantial relationship with the symbol relationship test. TABLE 14 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON SYMBOL RELATIONSHIP TEST CONTROL GIRLS (N=40) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level 0.001000 Step No. Variable Entered Removed R RSQ Increase in RSQ F Value to Enter or Remove 1 Verbal concepts 0.5579 0.3113 0.3113 17.1734 2 Logical reason. 0.6134 0.3763 0.0650 3.8584 3 Numerical reason. 0.6153 0.3785 0.0022 0.1298 4 Memory 0.6160 0.3795 0.0009 0.0530 88 Best combination of variables.— The combination of I scores of logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, verbal concepts, and memory produced a multiple R of .62. After step 2 the increase in R was negligible and, for practical purposes, the highest R was obtained at that point. Best Combination of Variables for Control Girls for Prediction of Achievement in Inferences Best combination of two variables.— Table 15 indi- i | cates that the combination of scores from logical reasoning and numerical reasoning produced a multiple R of .33, indicating a definite but small relationship. Logical reasoning appears to be the strongest factor, since R in creases only slightly as other factors are added. TABLE 15 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON INFERENCES TEST CONTROL GIRLS (N=40) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level 0.001000 Step No. Variable Entered Removed R RSQ Increase in RSQ F Value to Enter or Remove 1 Logical reason. 0.3272 0.1070 0.1070 4.5550 2 Numerical reason. 0.3348 0.1121 0.0050 0.2093 3 Reading 0.3363 0.1131 0.0010 0.0412 4 Verbal concepts 0.3368 0.1134 0.0003 0.0131 89 Best combination of variables.— The combination of ' scores of logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, verbal concepts, and reading produced a multiple R of .34. The increase in R from step 1 to step 4 is negligible. Best Combination of Variables for Experimental Boys for Prediction of Achievement in Symbol Relationships Best combination of two variables.— As shown on i Table 16, the combination of scores from verbal concepts I I and memory produced a moderate multiple R of .56, indicat ing a substantial relationship. Verbal factors were of more significance for experimental groups than for control groups. TABLE 16 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON SYMBOL RELATIONSHIP TEST EXPERIMENTAL BOYS (N=6 2) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level_____________ 0.001000______________________ F Value Step No. Varied) le Entered Removed R RSQ Increase in RSQ to Enter or Remove 1 Verbal concepts 0.5352 0.2865 0.2865 24.0909 2 Memory 0.5576 0.3109 0.0244 2.0890 3 Numerical reason. 0.5724 0.3276 0.0168 1.4450 4 Logical reason. 0.5847 0.3419 0.0142 1.2325 5 Reading 0.5883 0.3461 0.0042 0.3602 90 Best combination of variables.— The utilization of i scores from all five independent variables produced a multiple R of .59. Minimal increases are produced after step 3, and, for practical purposes, the first two factors of verbal concepts and memory developed an R that would be as meaningful as that developed through inclusion of all factors. !Best Combination of Variables for Experimental Boys for Prediction of Achievement in Inferences Best combination of two variables.— Table 17 indi cates that the combination of scores from reading and numerical reasoning produced a multiple R of .46. This correlation is considered moderate, but substantial, in Guilford's terminology. Best combination of variables.— The utilization of iscores from all five independent variables produced a multiple R of .51. Nearly this same level is developed at step 3, however, with the combination of reading, numer ical reasoning, and memory reaching an R of .50. Increases beyond that point are negligible. 91 TABLE 17 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON INFERENCE TEST EXPERIMENTAL BOYS (N=62) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level 0.001000 Step Variable iNo. Entered Removed RSQ F Value Increase to Enter in RSQ or Remove 1 2 3 4 5 Reading 0.3858 Numerical reason. 0.4571 Memory 0.4984 Verbal concepts 0.5073 Logical reason. 0.5103 0.1489 0.2089 0.2484 0.2573 0.2604* 0.1489 0.0600 0.0395 0.0089 0.0030 10.4953 4.4761 3.0482 0.6862 0.2297 Best Combination of Variables for Experimental Girls for Prediction of Achievement in Symbol Relationship Best combination of two variables.— As shown on Table 18, the combination of scores from verbal concepts and reading produced a substantial multiple R of .67. Verbal factors were of importance for success of experimen tal girls on the symbol relationship test. Best combination of variables.— The utilization of scores from all five independent variables produced a multiple R of .70. For practical purposes, a nearly 92 equivalent level was reached at step 2 when the R for verbal concepts and reading reached .68. TABLE 18 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON SYMBOL RELATIONSHIP TEST EXPERIMENTAL GIRLS (N=70) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level 0.001000 Step Variable No. Entered Removed R RSQ F Value Increase to Enter in RSQ or Remove 1 Verbal concepts 0.5717 0.3269 0.3269 33.0220 2 Reading 0.6759 0.4569 0.1300 16.0354 3 Numerical reason. 0.6888 0.4745 0.0176 2.2101 4 Memory 0.6942 0.4819 0.0075 0.9349 5 Logical reason. 0.6966 0.4852 0.0033 0.4095 Best Combination of Variables for Experimental Girls for Prediction of Achievement in Inferences Best combination of two variables.— The combination of scores from numerical reasoning and logical reasoning produced a multiple R of .42. The R of .42 could be con sidered to be a moderately strong correlation showing substantial relationship between the inference test and the combination of numerical reasoning and logical reasoning. 93 Best combination of variables.— The combination of scores from numerical reasoning, logical reasoning, and verbal concepts produced a multiple R of .43. The addition of the third factor increased R only slightly, however, and essentially the highest R was produced by step 2. TABLE 19 BEST COMBINATION OF VARIABLES FOR PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT ON INFERENCE TEST EXPERIMENTAL GIRLS (N=70) Maximum number of steps 14 F - Level for inclusion 0.010000 F - Level for deletion 0.005000 Tolerance level 0.001000 Step Variable No. Entered Removed RSQ F Value Increase to Enter in RSQ or Remove 1 Numerical reason. 0.3564 0.1270 0.1270 9.8915 2 Logical reason. 0.4249 0.1806 0.0536 4.3812 3 Verbal concepts 0.4253 0.1809 0.0003 0.0271 PART III*. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, CONTROL vs. EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS While the study was not designed to demonstrate differences between teaching methods or the effect of instruction on the experimental groups, a control group was included to provide information regarding abilities of 94 first-grade pupils who had no special instruction in map skills. A one-way design of analysis of variance (BMDOIV computer program) was utilized to determine whether the experimental groups achieved significantly better on the tests of symbol relationships and inferences. Comparisons were made between experimental and control boys, and experimental and control girls for the two tests. In every case the experimental groups achieved significantly better ! ' than the control groups at the .01 level. | Tables 20 and 21 show analyses of variance data for control and experimental boys when compared by their achievement on the tests of symbol relationships and infer ences. Tables 22 and 23 show analyses of variance data for control and experimental girls when compared by their achievement on the tests of symbol relationships and infer ences. 1 TABLE 20 J ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA SYMBOL RELATIONSHIPS; CONTROL VS. EXPERIMENTAL BOYS Control Experimental n: 41 62 Ms 16.3171 19.1452 SD: 4.9570 3.5475 Source df S.S. M.S. F Between groups 1 197.3902 197.3902 11.3886 (.01) Within groups 101 1750.5610 17.3323 Total 102 1947.9512 95 TABLE 21 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA: INFERENCES CONTROL VS. EXPERIMENTAL BOYS Control Experimental n: 41 62 M: 11.5854 14.2903 S.D. : 3.0164 3.7037 Source df S.S. M.S. F iBetween groups 1 180.5754 180.5754 15.1893 (.01) | Within groups 101 1200.7187 11.8883 Total 102 1381.2939 TABLE 22 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA: SYMBOL RELATIONSHIPS CONTROL VS. EXPERIMENTAL GIRLS Control Experimental | n: 40 70 M: 15.1500 18.0571 S.D: 5.2942 4.3033 Source df S.S. M.S. F Between groups 1 215.1286 215.1286 9.7998 (.01) Within groups 108 2370.8621 21.9524 Total 109 2585.9905 96 TABLE 23 ANALYSIS OP VARIANCE DATA: INFERENCES CONTROL VS. EXPERIMENTAL GIRLS Control Experimental n: 40 70 M: 10.9750 14.7429 S.D.: 2.7872 6.0474 Source df S.S. M.S. F Between groups 1 361.3713 361.3713 13.8087 (.01) Within groups 108 2826.3364 26.1698 Total 109 3187.7078 97 CHAPTER SUMMARY I i This chapter has been concerned with the analysis o£ the data obtained in the investigation. Independent variables were analyzed and considered both singly and in combination to determine their value as predictors of achievement on the two criterion variables. The extent of the difference of achievement between the control and experimental groups was also considered. I The best single predictor for achievement on the test of symbol relationships particularly for experimental groups was the verbal concepts subtest of the California Test of Mental Maturity. This factor had the highest correlation for three of the four groups: control girls, experimental boys, and experimental girls. It also achieved the highest correlation when all cases were con sidered as a group. The relationship between verbal concepts and symbol relationships could be considered as moderate. It should be pointed out that the highest correlation obtained in the study (.72) was between the symbol relationship test and logical reasoning for control boys. In predicting achievement on the test of infer ences, there was a distinct difference between control and 98 experimental groups. The best single predictor for the inference test for control boys and girls was logical reasoning, with correlation coefficients of .56 and .33, respectively. The best single predictor for experimental groups was numerical reasoning, with correlation coeffi cients of .36 and .37, respectively. The conclusion to be reached is that there is no single predictor which is significantly better able to i ; predict success for all groups on the two criterion tests. i However, when control and experimental groups are consid ered separately, logical reasoning was the best predictor for control groups, while language factors and numerical reasoning were better for experimental groups. It appears that the twelve-week instructional program influenced the factors that related to success on the criterion tests. There was no combination of variables in the multiple regression studies that was consistently superior as a predictor for success on the criterion tests. The variables appearing most often in the best combination of variables for predicting achievement in symbol relation ships were verbal concepts, numerical reasoning, and reading. The variables appearing most often in the best 99 combination of variables for predictors of achievement in 1 inferences were numerical reasoning, memory, and reading. The data obtained from the one-way analysis of the variance program indicated that the experimental groups achieved significantly better than the control groups at the .01 level. The following chapter presents a summary of the procedures and findings, as well as the conclusions reached I ; and recommendations made as a result of the investigation. i i CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Included in this chapter is a summary of the , procedures involved in the study, the findings of the ! investigation, the conclusions reached, and recommendations for further study. Summary Statement of the Problem The purpose of the study was to determine the extent of the relationship between selected factors and { first-grade children's abilities to see relationships I \ between map symbols and to make inferences from map f { symbols. The Sample The sample was obtained from eight first-grade classes in an elementary school district in western Orange County. The sample consisted of 213 students: 103 boys 100 ____ 101 and 110 girls. Out of the total sample, a control group of 41 boys and 40 girls was used. All groups— control and experimental, boys and girls— were closely comparable in chronological age and total intelligence. Mean reading scores for girls were higher than for boys. Procedures of the Study The study was conducted during a twelve-week period | in the winter and spring of 1969. i | ! Standardized test instruments used in the study were the California Test of Mental Maturity, 1963 S Form, and the reading tests from the Stanford Achievement Test, Form W Primary 1. Tests of symbol relationships and inferences were developed for the study by the investigator. Test instruments and procedures were checked in a ! pilot study and then modified. Samples of test items and the hypothetical maps used in the study are included in Appendices A and B. A twelve-week study unit was conducted in the experimental groups. The unit was prepared by the investi gator. Teachers were provided with numerous extra teaching materials, including aerial photographs, a variety of 102 specially prepared maps, and many audio-visual aids. The map tests were administered only at the conclu sion of the twelve-week study unit to both control and experimental groups. The control groups provided base line data regarding performance of students in a regular first- grade social studies program. Statistical Treatment of the Data i Three computer programs were utilized in the I ! statistical treatment of the data which were obtained from four groups: control boys, control girls, experimental boys, and experimental girls. The BMD02D program provided simple r for each independent variable. Mean scores and standard deviations were obtained for all groups. The BMD02R step-wise regression program was used i 1 to select the best combination of variables for prediction | of success on the dependent variables. The BMD1V program provided data as to the compara tive success of the control and experimental groups by means of a one-way analysis of variance design. 103 Findings From the Analysis of Data Relationship Between Factors of Ability in Symbol Relationships An analysis of the correlations between factors of IQ and ability to understand symbol relationships led to the following findings. Tables 5 through 9 list complete correlations for control and experimental groups and boys and girls. The terminology used by Guilford (8:145) to I ! indicate strength of relationship is used to describe these findings. Relationship Between Logical Reasoning and Ability in Symbol Relationships and Inferences 1. For control group boys, the relationship was substantial for symbol relationships and moderate for inferences. 2. For control group girls, the relationship was i | moderate for symbol relationships and small for inferences. 3. For experimental group boys, the relationship was not significant for symbol relationships and small for inferences. 4. For experimental group girls, the relationship was small for both symbol relationships and 104 inferences. 5. For all cases, the relationship was small for both symbol relationships and inferences. Relationship Between Numerical Reasoning and Ability in Symbol Relationships and Inferences 1. For control group boys, the relationship was small with both symbol relationships and inferences. 2. For control group girls, the relationship was small with both symbol relationships and inferences. 3. For experimental group boys, the relationship was small with both symbol relationships and inferences. 4. For experimental group girls, the relationship was small with both symbol relationships and inferences. 5. For all cases, the relationship was small for both symbol relationships and inferences. Relationship Between Verbal Concepts and Ability in Symbol Relationship and Inferences 1. For control group boys, the relationship was small 105 for symbol relationships and moderate for inferences. 2. For control group girls, the relationship was moderate for symbol relationships and not sig nificant for inferences. 3. For experimental group boys, the relationship was moderate for symbol relationships and small for inferences. 4. For experimental group girls, the relationship i was moderate for symbol relationships and not significant for inferences. 5. For all cases, the relationship was moderate for symbol relationships and not significant for inferences. Relationship Between Memory and Ability in Symbol Relationships and Inferences | 1. For control group boys, the relationship was small for symbol relationships and moderate for infer ences. 2. For control group girls, the relationship was small for symbol relationships and not signifi cant for inferences. 3. For experimental group boys, the relationship was 106 small for both symbol relationships and inferences. 4. For experimental group girls, the relationship was moderate for symbol relationship and not signifi cant for inferences. 5. For all cases, the relationship was small for both symbol relationships and inferences. Relationship Between Reading and Ability in Symbol Relationships and Inferences 1. For control group boys, the relationship was moderate for both symbol relationships and inferences. 2. For control group girls, the relationship was small for both symbol relationships and inferences. 3. For experimental group boys, the relationship was not significant for symbol relationships and small for inferences. 4. For experimental group girls, the relationship was moderate for symbol relationships and not significant for inferences. 5. For all cases the relationship was small for both symbol relationships and inferences. 107 The Best Single Predictor of Achievement on the Symbol Relationships Test An examination of the correlations for independent variables with performance on the symbol relationship test indicated the following findings. 1. The best single predictor for control group boys was logical reasoning, with a correlation of .715. 2. The best single predictor for control group girls was verbal concepts, with a correlation of .558. 3. The best single predictor for experimental group boys was verbal concepts, with a correlation of .535. 4. The best single predictor for experimental group girls was verbal concepts, with a correlation of .572. 5. The best single predictor for all cases was verbal concepts, with a correlation of .443. The Best Single Predictor of Achievement on the Inference Test An examination of the correlations for independent variables with performance on the inference test indicated the following findings. 1. The best single predictor for control group boys 108 was logical reasoning, with a correlation of .561. 2. The best single predictor for control group girls was logical reasoning, with a correlation of .327. 3. The best single predictor for experimental group boys was reading, with a correlation of .386. 4. The best single predictor for experimental group girls was numerical reasoning, with a correlation of .356. It should be noted that the correlation with logical reasoning was .351. 5. The best single predictor for all cases was numer ical reasoning, with a correlation of .330. Findings from the Multiple Regression Program The multiple regression program was utilized to consider independent variables in combination to determine the best set of variables for predictive purposes. The subtests of the California Test of Mental Maturity and the Stanford Reading Test scores were used as independent variables. Best Combination of Predictors of Achievement on the Symbol Relationships Test 1. The best combination of predictors for control group boys was the four IQ subtests and reading, 109 resulting in an R of .751. 2. The best combination of predictors for control group girls was the four IQ subtests, resulting in an R of .616. 3. The best combination of predictors for experimental group boys was the four IQ subtests and reading, resulting in an R of .588. 4. The best combination of predictors for experimental group girls was the four IQ subtests and reading, resulting in an R of .697. 5. The best combination of predictors for all cases was the four IQ subtests and reading, resulting in an R of .569. Best Combination of Predictors of Achievement on the Inference Test 1. The best combination of predictors for control group boys was the four IQ subtests and reading, resulting in an R of .682. 2. The best combination of predictors for control group girls was logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, reading, and verbal concepts, resulting in a correlation of .337. 3. The best combination of predictors for experimental 110 group boys was the four IQ subtests and reading, resulting in an R of .510. 4. The best combination of predictors for experimental group girls was logical reasoning, numerical reasoning, and verbal concepts, resulting in an R of .425. 5. The best combination of predictors for all cases was the four IQ subtests and reading, resulting in i | an R of .414. Conclusions From the Review of Related Literature Conclusions obtained from the review of literature related to the study included the following. 1. Writers in the field were unanimous in belief as to the importance of map skills as a part of the school program. I 2. A planned, sequential program of instruction, including readiness activities in the early grades, was deemed vital for successful use of complex maps. 3. Research in the field was limited in quantity and scope, but that which was available appeared to Ill support the need for a planned program of map skills development and children's abilities to achieve as a result of such a program. From the Study 1. There was no difficulty among first-graders in understanding the concept of "map symbol." They readily made a connection between symbols used on the hypothetical map used in the study and real objects which they represented. The control group boys and girls, even without benefit of the instructional program, had minimal difficulty with the use of symbols. 2. From the correlations obtained for the sample of this study, it would appear that language factors, such as verbal concepts, memory, and reading, were more closely related to success on the test of symbol relationships than for the test of infer ences for both groups. This was particularly evident for the experimental groups, and it seems reasonable to conclude that this difference between groups was a result of the effects of the twelve-week instructional program. 112 3. From the correlations obtained between the inde pendent and dependent variables, it may be concluded that logical reasoning, as defined by the subtest of the CTMM, is an important factor in the ability to read and interpret maps, especially when first-grade children have had limited instruction in map skills. The CTMM subtest of logical reasoning produced the highest correlation with both the map tests of symbols and inferences for control boys. For control girls, logical reasoning produced the highest correlation for the test of inferences and was second to verbal concepts for the test of symbol relations. 4. Correlations between intelligence factors and reading and the test of inferences were generally lower than for the test of symbol relationships. From the correlations obtained, however, it may be concluded that reasoning factors were related to success on the inference test. Either logical reasoning or numerical reasoning produced the highest correlation with the inference test for control boys and girls and experimental girls. 113 For experimental boys, numerical reasoning was second to reading in strength of relationship. The high correlation of these factors with scores on the inference test would appear to offer evidence to support the validity of the « inference test, since it was designed to test students' abilities to develop a logical response through the application of inferential reasoning to data obtained from map symbols. 5. The data obtained in this study do not indicate any specific factor or combination of factors which are highly predictive of ability to read and interpret maps. However, it may be concluded that opportunity to use and develop both logical and numerical reasoning would prove of importance in developing children's abilities to reach conclu sions from data presented in map form. Since scores from both the logical reasoning and numer ical reasoning subtests were consistently high, a greater emphasis on types of instruction which will develop the ability of pupils to see rela tionships and to draw inferences from these relationships should prove of value. 114 The best predictor of success in reading and interpreting maps would be participation of the pupil in a strong program of instruction in map skills. First-grade students are capable of using map symbols and concepts at a level of difficulty not generally expected in the early primary grades. A high level of interest in maps was displayed by both boys and girls, and they were able to make inferences and utilize higher level thought processes. A concentrated period of instruction in map skills enabled students in the experimental groups to achieve significantly better in map skills than the control groups. Recommendations The findings of the study would appear to indicate that a planned instructional program in map skills is feasible for first-grade pupils. Serious con sideration should be given by curriculum makers to inclusion of a specific map skills program in the first grade. The success of the children in this study in making 115 inferences from map symbols seems to support a recommendation to curriculum planners that con sideration be given to the inclusion of oppor tunities to use and develop such an inquiry process in the first-grade program. Recommendations for Further Study 1. Additional research is needed to determine the effects of a similar map skills program on first- grade children of other intellectual levels and from other school systems. 2. A long-range study to determine the effects of a comprehensive first-grade program in map skills instruction on children's achievement in follow ing grades would be of value. 3. Research on the effect of training in making inferences from map symbols on children's abili ties to do inferential thinking from other data would be of importance. 4. The effect of generalized training in inferential thinking on children's abilities to make infer ences and see relationships from map symbols should be studied. 116 5. A similar study should be made to determine the abilities of kindergarten pupils to read and interpret maps. 6. A study of first-grade children's abilities to read and interpret maps of different types from that used in this study should be made. Other Remarks i | The instructional program used in this study proved to be highly motivating to first-grade pupils, especially boys. The opportunity to work with simple measurement, map drawing, and observations of natural and man-made geographic features was more appealing to boys than the more typical first-grade social studies program. The use of a wide variety of instructional materials and expe riences, including aerial photographs, field trips, and i | audio-visual aids, was valuable and is highly recommended for similar programs. The ability to read and interpret maps is a complex skill, dependent on several factors of achievement and intelligence. Map reading skills should be taught as a part of a continuous, developmental program through the grades, with an emphasis on providing children in the 117 early grades opportunities to utilize reasoning skills, i Children have a great deal of factual data available to them, and any map skills program should provide children with the opportunity to develop abilities to translate from the symbolic to the verbal, to note relationships between symbols, and to make inferences from map data with respect to consequences, implications, and effects. 118 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Anderzhon, Mamie Louise. Steps in Map Reading: A Map Reading Workbook. 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Anderson, Howard R. "Evaluation of Basic Skills in the Social Studies." Evaluation in the Social Studies. Thirty-fifth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1965. 97. Barton, Thomas F. "Geographic Instruction in the Primary Grades." Geographic Approaches to Social Education. Nineteenth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1948. 98. California State Department of Education. Social Studies Framework for the Public Schools of California. Sacramento: 1962. 99. California State Department of Education. Report of the Geography Advisory Panel. Sacramento: 1967. 100. California State Department of Education. Progress Report of the Statewide Social Sciences Study Committee. Sacramento: 1968. 101. Carpenter, Helen M., ed. Skills in Social Studies. Twenty-fourth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1953. 102.__________ . Skill Development in Social Studies. Thirty-third Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1963. 103. Chausow, Hymen M. "Evaluation of Critical Thinking in the Social Studies." Evaluation in the Social Studies. Thirty-fifth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1965. 104. Dunfee, Maxine. "Evaluating Understandings, Atti tudes, Skills and Behaviors in the Elementary School Social Studies." Evaluation in the Social Studies, Thirty-fifth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1965. 128 105. 106. 107. | 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. Howe, George F. "A Study of the Ability of Elemen tary School Pupils to Read Maps." The Teaching of Geography. Thirty-second Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. James, Preston E., ed. "New Viewpoints in Geography." New Viewpoints in the Social Sciences. Twenty- eighth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1958. James, Preston E., ed. New Viewpoints in Geography. Twenty-ninth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1959. Kohn, Clyde F., ed. Geographic Approaches to Social Education. Nineteenth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1948. Kohn, Clyde F. "Interpreting Maps and Globes." Skills in Social Studies. Twenty-fourth Year book, National Council for the Social Studies, 1953. Lacey, Joy M. "Social Studies Concepts of Children in the First Three Grades." Contributions to Education. No. 548. New York: Bureau of Publi cations, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1932. Odell, Clarence B. "The Use of Maps, Globes and Pictures in the Classroom." New Viewpoints in Geography. Twenty-ninth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1959. Peace, Barbara A. "Published Tests in the Social Studies." Evaluation in the Social Studies. Thirty-fifth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1965. Thralls, Zoe A.; Hart, Isabelle; and Grassmuck, Erna. "Geography in the Elementary School." Teaching of Geography. Thirty-second Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. 129 114. Whipple, Gertrude. "Geography in the Elementary Social Studies Program: Concepts, Generaliza tions, and Skills to be Developed." New View points in Geography. Twenty-ninth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1959. 115. Whittemore, Katheryne. "Maps." Geographic Approach es to Social Education. Nineteenth Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1948. 116. Witucki, Lillian G. "Skills and Processes in the Social Studies: Map Reading Skills." Social Studies in the Elementary Schools. Thirty- second Yearbook, National Council for the Social Studies, 1962. Unpublished Materials 117. Bemis, James Richard. "Geography in the Elementary School Social Studies Program." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1966. 118. Carmichael, Dennis. "Developing Map Reading Skills and Geographic Understandings by Means of Con ceptual Teaching Methods." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, 1965. 119. Douglass, Malcolm P. "Interrelationships Between Man and the Natural Environment for Use in the Geographic Strand of the Social Studies Curric ulum.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1954. 120. Fischer, Paul. "The Relationship of Selected Vari ables to the Ability to Read and Interpret Maps." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1968. 121. Goldstein, Phineas. "Concepts of Landforms and Waterforms of Children Beginning First Grade." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1966. 130 122. 123. 124. ! 125. i 126. 127. I I 128. I 129. 130. Greenblatt, Edward L. "An Exploratory Study of the Development of Selected Generalization in Social Studies." Unpublished dissertation, University of Southern California, 1963. Huck, Charlotte. "The Nature and Derivation of Young Children's Social Concepts." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, 1955. Kilman, Marvin D. "Some Factors Related to Map- Reading Ability of Fourth Grade Pupils." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1969. Lowry, Betty L. "A Survey of the Knowledge of Social Studies Concepts Possessed by Second Grade Chil dren Previous to the Time These Concepts Are Taught in the Social Studies Lessons." Disser tation Abstracts, XXIV (December, 1963), 2324. McAulay, John D. "Trends in Elementary School Geography, 1928-48." Unpublished doctoral dis sertation, Stanford University, 1948. Sabaroff, Rose. "A Framework for Developing Map Skills in Primary Grade Social Studies." Unpub lished doctoral dissertation, Stanford Univer sity, 1957. Thomas, Eric H. "The Contribution of Selected Teaching Materials Towards the Understanding of Geographic Concepts and Generalizations." Dissertation Abstracts, XXVI (1965), 6641. Other Sources California Test Bureau. California Short-Form Test of Mental Maturity, 1963 S-Form Level 1, Monterey, California. Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc. Stanford Achieve ment Test, Form W, Primary I, Reading Tests. New York, 1965. 131 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. ! 136. I j 137. Office of the Superintendent of Schools, Contra Costa County, California. First Grade Social Studies, 1963. ________ . Second Grade Social Studies, 1964. Third Grade Social Studies, 1963. Rhodes, Dorothy. How to Read a City Map. Los Angeles: Elk Grove Press, 1967. Santa Monica Unified School District. Independent and Small Group Activities for Social Studies in the Primary Grades, 1968. Taba, Hilda, and Hills, James. Teacher Handbook for Contra Costa Social Studies, Grades 1-6. San Francisco: Hilda Taba, 1965. Whittemore, Katheryne, and Svec, M. Melvina. Grada tion of Map Skills, A Chart. Tentative Edition. Buffalo: New York State College for Teachers, 1947. i I ! APPENDIX A TEST OF SYMBOL RELATIONSHIPS 132 SYMBOL RELATIONSHIPS TEST This test was administered to groups of ten stu dents with supervision by two adults. Answers were marked directly on the test map (Appendix C). Careful control of the test environment was attempted so that there was a min imum of pupil distraction and difficulty with the mechanics of test administration. No time limit was used in administration of the |test, and sufficient time was allowed so that each child could mark an answer for each test item. After materials were distributed to each child (test maps and pencils), the following directions were used: You each have a map that shows many different places. I am going to name some places that are found on the map and would like to have you find them on the map. When you have found the place that I name, I would like to have you write a number by that place to show that you have found it. We'll find the first place together. Find the airport. Mark it with the number 1. Following a check and individual pupil assistance, as required, the test was continued as follows: Place number 2. Find a bridge over a railroad track. Mark it with the number 2. 133 134 Part I Example 1. 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. I 9* 10. 11. Find an airport. Mark it with the number 1. Find a bridge over a railroad track. Mark it with the number 2. Find a street intersection with two gas sta tions. Mark it with the number 3. Find a bridge over a mountain stream. Mark it with the number 4. Find a tunnel where a street goes under a railroad. Mark it with the number 5. Find where the river goes into the ocean. Mark it with the number 6. Find an apartment block. Mark it with the number 7. Find the street nearest the ocean. Mark it with the number 8. Find a block of houses. Mark it with the number 9. Find a building at the airport. Mark it with the number 10. Find a parking lot for a store. Mark it with the number 11. 135 12. Find a bridge over a river. Mark it with the number 12. 13. Find a railroad tunnel through the mountains. Mark it with the number 13. 14. Find the factory closest to the park. Mark it with the number 14. 15. Find a freeway on-ramp. Mark it with the number 15. 16. Find where the railroad goes under the free way. Mark it with the number 16. 17. Find the intersection of a dirt road and a street (where they cross). Mark it with the number 17. 18. Find a school by (next to) a church. Mark it with the number 18. 19. Find a school surrounded by houses. Mark it with the number 19. 20. Find a mountain stream which cannot be reached by road. Mark it with the number 20. 21. Find a dead-end street by a park. Mark it with the number 21. 22. Find a parking lot near the beach. Mark it 136 with the number 22. 23. Find an island in a lake. Mark it with the number 23. 24. Find the school closest to the city hall. Mark it with the number 24. 25. Find a planted field nearest the dirt road. Mark it with the number 25. APPENDIX B TEST OF INFERENCES 137 INFERENCE TEST The Inference Test was divided into two parts to facilitate administration and to hold testing time within limits of first-grade pupils' interest span. No time limit was used in administration of the test and sufficient time was allowed so that each child could mark an answer for each item. Part I In administering Part I of the Inference Test, transparencies of the test map (Appendix C) were projected on a large screen with response alternatives marked in I color for pupil selection. Following introductory remarks and demonstration of the projected transparency, materials were distributed and the following explanation was used: i ! Boys and girls, I'm going to read you some sentences j that tell a short story that needs to be finished. Each story can be finished by finding a place on the map. You should use your best thinking, because you will have to choose the best place to complete the story place from four that I will show you. Your answers will be marked on the boxes on the answer sheets which you have. We'll do the first story together. Bob's dad is a teacher. He probably works at site... 1. 2, 3, 4. 138 The numbers were marked in color on the trans parency . In Box A of your answer sheet, circle the number of the place that you think best completes the story. The test continued as follows: B. There is probably a crossing guard at intersec tion ... 5, 6, 7, 8. In Box B, circle the number of the place that you think best completes the story. 140 Part I Example A B C | i l D E F Bob's dad is a teacher. He probably works at site (1) 19 (2) 10 (3) 5 (4) 3 There is probably a school crossing guard at intersection (1) 25 (2) 15 (3) 13 (4) 14 The best spot for Bill's dad to build a new gas station is probably site (1) 20 (2) 7 (3) 16 (4) 6 The street intersection that probably has four-way traffic signals is (1) 4 (2) 12 (3) 31 (4) 23 Tom's dad wants to start a furniture factory. He probably should buy site (1) 4 (2) 8 (3) 38 (4) 34 The city wants to build a new police station. It probably will be at site (1) 11 (2) 17 (3) 16 (4) 5 A large department store would probably be located (found) at site (1) 37 (2) 30 (3) 18 (4) 9 141 H. The best place to build a new elementary school is probably site (1) 40 (2) 1 (3) 35 (4) 16 J. Mary goes to a church school. She probably goes to a school at (1) 36 (2) 10 (3) 29 (4) 30 K. Fred's dad wants to start an over-night camp for children. Probably the best site would be near site (1) 3 (2) 1 (3) 33 (4) 7 L. Which one of these sites would you be least likely to visit on a Sunday afternoon? (1) 3 (2) 7 (3) 16 (4) 33 M. The street with the lowest speed limit is probably (1) 35 (2) 21 (3) 1 (4) 26 N. The street that would probably have many cars parked on it on sunny summer weekends would be (1) 28 (2) 22 (3) 40 (4) 25 O. The street with the highest speed limit is probably (1) 24 (2) 15 (3) 22 (4) 21 142 P. The street with the most people living on it is probably (1) 41 (2) 24 (3) 35 (4) 25 14 3 ANSWER SHEET: INFERENCE TEST, PART I NAME_________________________ TEACHER A F K 1 5 1 2 6 2 3 7 3 4 8 4 B G L 5 1 5 6 2 6 7 3 7 8 4 8 C H M 1 5 1 2 6 2 3 7 3 4 8 4 D I 5 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 E J 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 8 144 Part II Part II of the Inference Test was similar to Part I, except that a place was selected on the map transparency and the children were asked to select and circle the best answer on an answer sheet. The possible answers were read aloud several times to prevent a difficulty with reading. I jThe introductory statement was: Boys and girls, I'm going to read you some sentences i that tell a short story that needs to be finished, j Each story is about a place on the map that we'll show you. You should choose the best answer from four words in the box on your answer sheet and then circle the word that best completes the story. The story for Box 1 is: 1. The best way to get to site 2 is probably by A. car; B. boat; C. airplane; D. walking. In Box 1 circle the word that best completes the story. 145 Part II !Example 1 2 I 3 Find site 2. The best way to get to site 2 is probably by A. car B. boat C. airplane D. walking Find site 8. A train stopping near site 8 is probably loading A. people B. oil C. fruit D. factory goods Find site 9. Anne's mother works at site 9. She probably is not a A. sales lady B. librarian C. store manager D. waitress Find site 1. The road between 1 and 4 is probably used most often by A. fishermen B. workers 146 C. farmers D. travelers 5. Find site 6. If you put your toy boat in the river at the bridge marked (6) it would float toward A. the lake B. the island C. the dock D. the ocean 6. Find site 1. John's father works near site 1. His job could be A. farmer B. factory worker C. forest ranger D. airplane pilot 7. Find site 19. Bill's father works at location 19. He probably is not A. an airplane pilot B. a mechanic C. a teacher D. a ticket agent 147 8. Find site 3. The kind of boats that you would not find at the dock near site 3 are A. sail boats B. water ski boats C. fishing boats D. navy boats 9. Find site 16. A new building at site 16 would probably be be A. a factory B. a school C. a store D. a church 1 site 17. The best A. a gas station B. a factory C. a cabin D. a store 11. Find site 35. A good use for site 35 would be to build A. houses B. a factory 148 C. a farm D. an airport 12. Find site 34. A good use for site 34 might be A. a park B. a school C. a shopping center D. store 13. Find site 7. Ralph's dad works every day at site 7. He could be a A. postman B. policeman C. truck driver D. gardener 149 ANSWER SHEET: INFERENCE TEST, PART II i NAME______________ TEACHER 1. A. car B. boat C. airplane D. walking 6. A. farmer B. factory worker C. forest ranger D. airplane pilot 11. A. park B. school C. shopping center D. store 2. A. people B. oil C. fruit D. factory goods 7. A. airplane pilot B. mechanic C. teacher D. ticket agent 12. A. houses B. factories C. farm D. airport 3- A. clerk B. librarian C. store manager D. waitress 8. A. sail boat B. water ski boat C. fishing boats D. navy boats 13. A. postman B. policeman C. truck driver D. gardener 4. A. fishermen B. workers C. farmers D. travelers 9. A. factory B. school C. store D. church 5. A. lake B. island C. dock D. ocean 10. A. gas station B. factory C. cabin D. store APPENDIX C TEST MAP 154 % 13 APAPTMEHT □ HOUSE STORE D t R T f i p A D W A T E R 3 E A C U £ □ F r e e w a y Highway STREET 22 APPENDIX D THE INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT 152 153 UNIT OVERVIEW The major purpose of this study is to determine children's abilities in using map symbols— specifically, to see the extent to which they can see relationships and make infer ences from maps where symbol reading is required. The teaching unit is similar to and, in fact, makes refer ence to good social studies units. It is, however, some what narrower in scope than the usual unit in that it concentrates on developing understandings about maps and map symbols. It is not the purpose of the unit to measure teacher effectiveness or to test a particular teaching I technique or method. Only experienced, successful teachers ! will be selected to participate in the study. ! The unit, too, should not be construed as a limiting factor. Teachers are encouraged to add materials, tech niques, and procedures to the unit when they feel that they have something which will enhance the child's learning. GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING UNIT The following general objectives (from Hanna, ejt al.) should provide the focus of every activity of the learning unit. Each activity should be aimed at developing the child's ability to: (1) Observe carefully and thoughtfully (2) Reason about things geographically with particular emphasis on inferences from map symbols (3) Map in some form what has been observed (4) Read through symbols of maps to realities repre sented TEACHING PROCEDURES Teaching procedures follow a similar sequence throughout the unit. Each area proceeds as follows: 154 (1) A first-hand experience with carefully guided j observation and questions (2) Reorganization of the experience through discus sion and/or dramatic play using floor maps, student maps, and other materials and activities (3) Mapping experiences in three dimensions, pic torial, semi-pictorial, and abstract, using symbols representing previous observation (4) Opportunity through discussion to discover rela tionships and to make inferences (if-then) from maps of various types There are some strong similarities in this teaching unit to j a community study with the local community providing the i source of information and experiences to be utilized in ' providing experiences with map symbols. j ' Study trips will provide first-hand experiences in each of the following areas: (1) The school j (2) The neighborhood— residential areas I (3) Shopping centers (4) Industrial areas (5) Recreational areas As a part of these study trips, students will also observe and discuss: (1) Transportation (including kinds of streets, traffic patterns, etc.) (2) Land forms (3) Governmental services (fire, police, etc.) (4) Land use In effect, the unit takes those parts of the program described in Hanna's Chapters 4-6 which relate to map sym bols and inferences (a program for grades 1-3) and com presses it into a 10-12 week program for first graders. It is similar, too, to parts of the Contra Costa grade 1-2 program. A program at Santa Monica is also similar. 155 MAP SYMBOL UNIT School Area FIRST-HAND EXPERIENCE Activities References 1. Orientation to Hanna, p. 126-129 Classroom Review and discuss physical aspects of classroom— how much are pupils aware of lighting, heat sources, how controlled? Why? Encourage questions about location and function. 2. Trip Around School Could use "opener" p. 9 Contra Costa. Children prepared to make diagram after tour (Hanna, p. 129-131). If tour was made earlier, might have children list things they remember and tour again to check on memories, etc. Hanna, p. 129-132 Contra Costa I, p. 9-12 Santa Monica, p. 7-9 Materials 156 School Area REORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCE Activities References Materials Classroom Observation 1. Reproduce model of classroom, guide children to observe relative locations/ help place in proper relations, etc. Hanna, p. 127 Kindergarten blocks 2. Have small group make diorama. Contra p. 10 Costa I, Cardboard box shoe box 3. Draw sketch of room. Contra p. 11 Costa I, Art materials 4. Use ladder to give children "bird's eye view" in preparation for mapping experi ences. Hanna, p. 128 Ladder School Tour 1. Discuss what they saw in reference to things they were to look for. Contra p. 9 Costa I, 2. Make chalk outline of school on floor and take imaginary trips. Contra p. 10 Costa I, 3. Make floor map with blocks. "Where in the World Do You Live/" p. 30-41 Kindergarten blocks 4. Draw pictorial repre sentation of school and its grounds. Hanna, p. 131 Art materials 157 School Area - Reorganization of Experience (Cont'd) Activities School Tour (Cont'd) 5. Have each child choose one room they have visited and draw picture. Have other children guess which room. References Contra Costa I, p. 10 Materials Art materials 158 School Area MAPPING EXPERIENCES Activities References 1. Have each child draw Hanna, p. 132 "map" of classroom. Idea of symbols for furniture, etc. can be introduced. 2. Draw school in sand area on playground. 3. Draw school in chalk on floor. Hanna, p. 132 Hanna, p. 132 4. Group of children draw map of school on paper or individ ual children draw picture maps of school. '•Where in the World Do You Do You Live," p. 34-38. 5. Add symbols (agreed upon by group) to map above. 6. Each child draw his own school map. 7. Each child use adult Santa Monica, made practice outline p. 7 maps of school (a) locate buildings & rooms (b) draw routes to various locations (c) add features, playground equip ment, trees, etc. (use agreed upon symbols). Materials Dittoed prac tice maps 159 School Area - Mapping Experiences, Cont'd Activities References 8. Show film, "Maps of Our School." 9. Use aerial photo to begin discussion and comparison of dif ferent schools. Materials 160 Neighborhood Residential Area MAPPING EXPERIENCES Activities References 1. Neighborhood rep lica using floor map and blocks or other materials "Where in the World Do You Live," p. 42 2. Pictorial represen tation on floor map. 3. Begin floor map using representation (semi-abstract and abstract symbols). Hanna, p. 178- 179. Hanna, p. 180 4. Use aerial photos. Hanna, p. 181 Materials Floor map Floor map U.S.N. photos 161 Neighborhood Residential Area REORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCE Activities References 1. Construct replica of neighborhood using floor map. Contra Costa II, p. 48 Hanna, p. 174- 175 2. Use questions in Santa Monica resi dential area material. 3. Dramatic play expe riences using floor map. Hanna, p. 174- 175 4. Use aerial photos Materials Art materials Floor map U.S.N. Photos 162 Neighborhood Residential Area FIRST-HAND EXPERIENCE Activities Reference 1. Use "opener" p. 46 Contra Costa II, 2nd grade Contra p. 46-47 Costa. 2. Ask children to tell Hanna, p. 167- what they saw on way 168 to school. See if they can recall how many streets they crossed, etc. as per p. 167, Hanna. 3. Take short walk around the school neighbor hood. Use questions p. 168, Hanna, and Santa Monica - "Resi dential Zone." Contra Costa II p. 47-48 Santa Monica, "Residential Zone " Hanna, p. 167- 168 4. Use aerial photos, locate school, houses, streets, and land marks. Materials Picture map of neighborhood U.S.N. aerial photos 163 School Area DISCOVERING RELATIONSHIPS AND MAKING Activities References 1. When using all maps stress "why" questions and answers. Why are buildings located where they are? 2. Compare schools on aerial photo. i | 3. Have students draw map Santa Monica, of imaginary school. p. 7 4. Have children add "new" buildings to school. Decide where the best location should be. Add classrooms, multi use, cafeteria, other rooms suggested by children. 5. Introduce "key" and symbols. 6. Show aerial photo of "old" Rossmoor. Dis cuss changes and why. INFERENCES Materials Aerial photos Large aerial photo 164 Neighborhood Residential Area DISCOVERING RELATIONSHIPS AND MAKING Activities References 1. Adult made practice maps introduced— children add symbols. Locate stop signs, crosswalks, crossing guards, etc. Discuss why located at those spots. Are additional stop signs and cross ing guards needed? 2. Land use discussed. Why different buildings, streets, etc. located where they are. 3. Oil company maps, etc. Hanna, p. 184 introduced. 4. Maps made by others used for: (Hanna, p. 184) (a) To observe relative, size or extent of any feature or area. (b) To observe relative location of features of concern in a given lesson (c) To locate features pre viously observed (d) To study relative dis tances between features (e) To serve as a guide in planning a trip (f) To guide them on a trip (g) To make inferences that have been developed or INFERENCES Materials Various scaled maps 165 Neighborhood Residential Area - Discovering Relationships and Making Inferences (Cont'd) Activities References made possible in previous work. (h) To recognize certain physical features and their relation to selected cultural features that are within their under standing. Materials 166 Neighborhood Shopping Center and String Commercial Zone FIRST-HAND EXPERIENCE Activities References Materials 1. Opening discussion Santa Monica of shopping center. Shopping Center See how many dif- Booklet ferent stores can be named. Make list for comparison. Other than Rossmoor Center, what other shopping areas are in the community? Can chil dren locate on map? Aerial photos? 2. Bus trip to Rossmoor Santa Monica Route map Center. Start at Material, center "map" sign "Educational showing location of Field Trips" stores. Have adult made route map to follow. 3. Trip (perhaps at same time as above) to view stores on Los Alamitos Blvd. and on Katella (string com mercial) . Have chil dren count and enumerate different kinds of stores. (Perhaps small groups could be assigned to count different kinds of stores, gas stations, restaurants, markets, etc.) Other features: streets, stop signs, etc. should be noted. 167 Neighborhood Shopping Center and String Commercial Zone REORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCE Activities 1. Share results of information. Dis cuss reasons for locations of various stores. Need for stop signs, kinds of stores, etc. 2. Add stores to floor map, agreed upon symbols (see Santa Monica materials pages 12-13). 3. Films, "Our Commun ity" and "Streets and the Community," used to provide comparison through discussion. 4. Use aerial photos. See if children can pick out things seen— stores, shopping center. 5. Discuss why stores are where they are. 6. Make newsreel or use Santa Monica, other suggestions. p. 18-19. References Santa Monica, p. 16-17 Santa Monica, Materials 168 Neighborhood Shopping Center and String Commercial Zone MAPPING EXPERIENCE Activities References 1. Film, "Maps of Our Locality" (1079). 2. Add drawings of stores to floor map, or 3. Add symbols (Santa Monica, p. 12-13) 4. Use adult made practice map and dittoed sheet of symbols. Place sym bols in appropriate place. 5. Draw in routes to vari ous stores on practice maps - Santa Monica, p. 22 Materials 169 Neighborhood Shopping Center and String Commercial Zone DISCOVERING RELATIONSHIPS AND MAKING INFERENCES Activities References Materials 1. Discuss why stores located where they are. Ask children if there are any kinds of stores which might be needed in the area. Where should they be located? Why? Where are most gas stations located? Why? What are relationships between residential and commercial areas? On what kinds of streets are commercial areas located? Why? 2. On practice map have children paste symbols to locate new stores in "best" or "most likely" locations. Have them tell why spot chosen. 3. Have them put in stop signs/signals and tell why located there. 170 Industrial Area FIRST-HAND EXPERIENCE Activities References "openers" Several could be used such as "survey" of where children's fathers work although prob ably most do not work in Los Alamitos. A list of kinds of industries which the class has made through discussion could be "checked" in the field to see if they are present in Los Alamitos. Contra Costa II, p. 56-58 Study trip: Los Ala mitos industrial area (around district office there is a variety of industrial activity). Note also transportation (a "truck count" could be made by one group), location of railroad and freeway. Detailed plans for their trip will be developed. Contra Costa II, p. 56-58 Santa Monica "Industrial Zone” Contra Costa II, p. 56, item 16 Materials 171 Industrial Area REORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCE Activities 1. Use discussion questions p. 56 Contra Costa 2. Draw picture of one plant seen. Have other children guess as to what it represents. References Contra Costa II, p. 56-57, item 17 3. Use aerial photos to locate route and locations. Materials 172 Industrial Area MAPPING EXPERIENCE Activities References 1. Add pictures of industrial plants to community map. 2. Agree upon symbols and add to other community map. 3. Trace route on | practice map. I j 4. Add symbols to adult i made practice map. Materials 173 Industrial Area DISCOVERING RELATIONSHIPS AND MAKING INFERENCES described on p. 58, item 18, Contra Costa. | 2. Discuss alternative i sites for a new ! factory. Decide why or why not build in such areas as vacant j land in Rossmoor i Center, industrial j area, etc. i ! 3. Have children "cut and paste" symbols on practice map to locate industrial plants. Activities References Materials 1. Use the "change- effect" situation Contra Costa II p. 58 174 OTHER GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES TO BE OBSERVED There are many geographic features in the community to be observed and included in mapping activities. Many of these features may be observed as part of one of the other study trips or, as the unit develops, the need for addi tional study trips may become evident. At one time or another the following should be observed by the students: vacant land various types of streets, including freeways Los Alamitos Naval Air Station power lines and power plants San Gabriel River agricultural use of land (along freeway, by Race Track, on Ammunition Depot, etc.) El Dorado Park golf course governmental services - library, city hall, fire stations, police station, schools possibly Leisure World, the ammunition depot, and the Seal Beach Saturn missile plant 175 TOTAL AREA STUDY TRIP ROUTE AND THINGS TO OBSERVE LOS ALAMITOS TO KATELLA notice gas stations, commercial buildings "one deep" along Blvd. Old Laurel School on corner will be sold. Have children speculate as to a good use for this property, go around Laurel School; point out Post Office. KATELLA TO 605 FREEWAY note trailer park on right side, more commercial use. - City Hall and police department. can see Oak Junior High behind City Hall. - open space next to City Hall to freeway is school site. Could discuss whether this is a "good" or "bad" place to have school. - at Freeway, note bridge under freeway, on- and off-ramps, signs, etc. FREEWAY TO EL DORADO PARK i !- all the property west of the freeway is part of the park. The land next to the freeway (on the right side of street) is going to be a camping area. Note the many trees and the small lake. Note the Coyote Creek Bridge and the creek, concrete lined. Why? On the left (the driver should be able to stop past the Coyote Creek bridge) you can see power lines, land used for agriculture. - You'll go over a second bridge over the San Gabriel River. Should have some water in it for a change. 176 EL DORADO PARK - You may want to stop at the park. Note "lake" (duck pond?) An interesting way to return would be to continue past El Dorado Park on Studebaker Road. Go all the way to 2nd Street (Westminster Blvd.) to Los Alamitos Blvd. and return. Things to note (roughly in order of appearance): - San Diego Freeway (you'll go under it) - Long Beach State College (on right on hill) - Hill Junior High I - Los Cerritos Channel View of freeway as you go over 7th Street bridge Electric power plants |- Oil wells |- North American plant (Saturn missile used in Apollo I flight) !- Leisure World j- Navy ammunition depot I - San Diego Freeway (on a clear day a nice view of the golf course and the Naval Air Station) - "home" 177 INDUSTRIAL AREA STUDY TRIP See page 13 of Map Unit for references. Please review the Santa Monica material, "Educational Field Trips.” It is important to pre-plan all field trips with the children, then reconstruct the trip afterward. The children could be divided into groups and assigned things to look for to report later, such as different kinds of transportation seen, different types of streets, number of signal stop signs, kinds of stores, kinds of factories or industries. A mileage check with the bus driver to see distance traveled should be included. I | A general discussion of things to look for should include j the above plus land use (stores, homes, vacant lots, etc.), j new construction, why things might be located where they i are— lots of questions should be raised before the trip. ROUTE AND THINGS TO OBSERVE FROM WEAVER (Foster to Main Way; left to Montecito) stop signs cross walks Rush school FROM RUSH & WEAVER (Main Way to Montecito) I - vacant land in shopping center j- Rossmoor Townhouses along Los Alamitos Boulevard gas stations on corners left turn lanes - signals and intersections churches shopping center - Los Alamitos & Farquhar 178 along Farquhar change from stores to homes and apartments vacant land naval air station homes being built on air station apartments apartment construction along Katella Arrowhead Products (have guess of men working there — 600 — share guesses when returned to school) large amount of vacant land (How could this be used? How should? What's most likely use? Etc.) large lumber yard church commercial buildings on south side Los Alamitos School Hospital along Cherry and into industrial section Water Company numerous businesses along Catalina & Reagan railroad box factory lumber yard (cars unloading, probably) railroad crossing Merit Metal (a good view from the bus area of the dis trict office) district office vacant land back of district office old green workers' houses factory; other land use in this varied area visit district office to see model of Wilson School (should be done in groups of 15 or less, if possible) Return to school along Hedwig & Foster Road school site (Wilson) Lee School Weaver School

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Creator Plumleigh, George Elwood, Jr. (author)

Core Title The Relationship Of Selected Variables To The Ability Of First-Grade Children To Read And Interpret Maps

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Naslund, Robert A. (committee chair), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-460458

Unique identifier UC11362288

Identifier 7112409.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-460458 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7112409.pdf

Dmrecord 460458

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Plumleigh, George Elwood, Jr.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses