University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Soviet Russian Criticism 1960-1969 Of Seven Twentieth Century American Novelists

(USC Thesis Other)

Soviet Russian Criticism 1960-1969 Of Seven Twentieth Century American Novelists

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content SOVIET RUSSIAN CRITICISM I 96O -I969 OP SEVEN
TWENTIETH CENTURY AMERICAN NOVELISTS
by
C h a rle s W illiam Pomeroy
A D i s s e r t a t io n P re se n te d to th e
FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY
(E n g lish )
Ja n u a ry 1971
POM EROY, C harles W illiam , 1935-
SOVIET RUSSIAN CRITICISM 1960-1969 OF
SEVEN TW ENTIETH C E N TU R Y A M ER IC A N NOVELISTS.
U n iv e rsity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , P h .D ., 1971
Language and L ite r a tu r e , modern
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
( £ ) C opyright by
CHARLES WILLIAM PO M E R O Y
1971
THTfi nTRRERTATION HAS BEEN M ICROFILM ED EX A CTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
C harles W illiam Pomeroy
under the direction of h.i-3.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
t
Dta h
Date..1 ^ 9 X 1 .1 9 1 1 .
.TATI
Chairman
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The a u th o r g r a t e f u l l y acknow ledges th e h e lp o f s e v e r a l
p e o p le . Mrs. J a n e t E. PunBton k in d ly s u p p lie d b ib lio g r a p h
i c a l d a ta on a n o v el by A lb e rto M oravia which was r e f e r r e d
to by a R u ssian c r i t i c . Miss Helen W. A zhderian and h e r
B ta f f •li? th e R eferen ce D epartm ent o f Doheny L ib ra ry were
i n d e f a t ig a b le i n s e c u rin g bookB and p h o to c o p ie s th ro u g h th e
i n t e r - l i b r a r y lo an system . And th e a u th o r th an k s h i s d i s
s e r t a t i o n com m ittee: ProfeBBor Anthony M lik o tin , whose
knowledge o f R u ssian l i t e r a t u r e has been a c o n s ta n t s tim
u lu s ; P r o fe s s o r Olga W. V ick e ry , whose s u g g e s tio n s ab o u t
com paring R u ssian and American c r i t i c i s m were in v a lu a b le ;
and P r o fe s s o r David H. Malone, Chairman o f th e com m ittee,
whose encouragem ent and sy m p ath etic c r i t i c i s m im proved th e
stu d y i n c o u n tle s s ways.
11
TABLE OP CONTENTS
C hapter Page
I . INTRODUCTION 1
Approach, Method, Scope
RusBian C r itic is m o f American
L i t e r a t u r e : An Overview
S o v ie t C r i t i c a l Trends in th e S i x t i e s
C la s s if y in g American N o v e lis ts
I I . RECENT SOVIET CRITICISM OP AN AMERICAN
TRAGEDY AND THE GRAPES OP \ t R k T t i T T . . . . 21
E a rly S o v ie t D r e is e r C r itic is m
The S o v ie t Image o f th e American
T w enties
S o v ie t P e r s p e c tiv e s on Clyde G r i f f i t h s
O th er C h a ra c te rs
The D i s t i n c t i v e Approach o f A. P.
Shpakova
D r e is e r and S te in b e c k
S o v ie t S te in b ec k C r itic is m B efo re i 960
E a rly S o v ie t C r itic is m o f The G rapes o f
W rath
The S o v ie t Image o f th e American T h i r t i e s
M endelson B reaks Old Ground
A More Extreme S o c ia l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
M u lia rc h ik , O rlo v a, Fedorov
I I I . FOR W H O M THE BELL TOLLS IN SOVIET CRITICISM
SINCfe 19^0 45
I s s u e s th e Novel R a ise s
G enre, S u b je c t, and Theme
S o v ie t A nalyses o f R o b ert Jo rd an
S o v ie t and American C r itic is m
IV. SOVIET CRITICISM OF WILLIAM FAULKNER 77
The Sound and th e Fury i n S o v ie t
C r itic is m
S o v ie t C r itic is m o f th e Snopes T rilo g y
iii
iv
C h ap ter Page
V. SALINGER, FITZGERALD, UPDIKE................................................105
The C a tc h e r In th e Rye In R ussian
C r itic is m
S o v ie t C r itic is m o f The G re a t G atsby
S o v ie t C r itic is m o f The C entaur
V I. CONCLUSION........................................................................................ 138
Id e o lo g y and C r itic is m
APPENDICES............................................................................................................160
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................169
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
American s c h o la rs sh o u ld now be aware t h a t th e r e i s a
la r g e amount o f R u ssian c r i t i c i s m devoted to American l i t
e r a t u r e . V a le n tin a Libm an's com prehensive 1964 b i b l i o g r a
p h y ,1 r e c e n t l y t r a n s l a t e d and p u b lis h e d in th e U n ited
2
S t a t e s as R u ssian S tu d ie s o f American L i t e r a t u r e , c i t e s
n e a r ly 2500 c r i t i c a l w orks. Her 1969 supplem ent (n o t y e t
t r a n s l a t e d ) f o r th e p e rio d from 1964 to m id-1968 l i s t s more
th a n 500 ite m s .^ Q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , th e n , R u ssian i n t e r e s t in
American w r itin g h as been B iz a b le , and i f a f i f t h a s much
c r i t i c i s m was p u b lish e d in f o u r - a n d - a - h a lf r e c e n t y e a rs as
in th e p re c e d in g c e n tu ry and a h a l f , t h i s i n t e r e s t i s ob
v io u s ly in c r e a s in g .
For in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e n a tu re r a t h e r th an th e quan
t i t y o f R u ssian c r i t i c i s m o f American l i t e r a t u r e , American
s c h o la rs can tu rn to few s o u rc e s . There i s Deming Brow n's
p io n e e r in g , though lim ite d , S o v ie t A ttitu d e s Toward Amer
ic a n W ritin g (P rin c e to n , 1962) . In a d d i t i o n , th e r e a re two
n arro w ly fo cu sed a r t i c l e s , b u t alm o st n o th in g ab o u t d e v e l-
^ 4
opments s in c e i 9 6 0 . The p r e s e n t stu d y i s d e sig n e d to h e lp
1
2
meet th e need f o r in fo rm a tio n ab o u t R u ssian c r i t i c i s m o f
American l i t e r a t u r e in th e I9 6 0 ’ s .
Approach, Method, Scope
Two l i m i t a t i o n s o f Brown’s book p erh ap s were i n e v i
t a b l e te n y e a r s ago. F i r s t , b ecau se he co v ers th e whole
p e rio d from th e 1917 r e v o lu tio n to i 9 6 0, he co u ld say r e l
a t i v e l y l i t t l e ab o u t tre n d s s in c e S t a l i n . ( S ta l i n d ie d in
1953J th e T w en tieth P a rty C ongress a t which Khrushchev d e
nounced th e " p e r s o n a lity c u l t " to o k p la c e in 1956.) Brown
n o te s , f o r exam ple, th e b e g in n in g s in 1955 and 1958 o f So
v i e t F au lk n er c r i t i c i s m b u t w r ite s t h a t as o f i 960 " th e re
was no way o f knowing how F au lk n e r would f a r e in th e S o v ie t
Union" (p. 182). A decade l a t e r i t i s p o s s ib le to know how
F au lk n e r i s " fa rin g " in th e S o v ie t U nion, th e s u b je c t o f
th e p r e s e n t s tu d y 's C hapter IV. Second, having to re a d
la r g e amounts o f c r i t i c i s m p u b lis h e d d u rin g th e p e rio d o f
th e S t a l i n c u l t led Brown to say w ith o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m in th e S o v ie t Union i s in f a c t a form
o f propaganda whose fu n c tio n i s to supplem ent and some
tim es to " c o r r e c t" th e im p re ssio n which th e r e a d e r i s
l i k e l y to d e riv e from a giv en work. (p. 5)
These o b v io u sly a re loaded w ords. "Propaganda" haB o f f e n
s iv e c o n n o ta tio n s in th e U n ited S t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y in a c a
demic l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s . D e s p ite B row n's "in f a c t , " h is
se n te n c e i s , o f c o u rse , o p in io n . Such an a t t i t u d e condemns
i n advance S o v ie t w r itin g on American l i t e r a t u r e , denying
t h a t i t can be viewed as s e r io u s c r i t i c i s m w ith i t s own
3
p re m ise s and m ethods. Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e n , re v ie w e rs o f
S o v ie t A ttitu d e s Toward American W ritin g , fin d in g a p p a r e n t
ly e x p e r t c o n firm a tio n o f t h e i r own Cold War im p re s sio n s ,
recommended t h a t s tu d e n ts o f American l i t e r a t u r e c o n tin u e
to ig n o re R u ssian c r i t i c i s m .
A decade l a t e r one can arg u e d i f f e r e n t l y . To b eg in
w ith , S o v ie t R u ssian w r itin g on American l i t e r a t u r e , in th e
o p in io n o f th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , c l e a r l y i s l i t e r a r y c r i t i
cism , though i t d i f f e r s from A m e ric a n -sty le c r i t i c i s m .
When viewed o b j e c t i v e l y and in term s o f i t s own p rem ises
and m ethods, contem porary R u ssian c r i t i c i s m can be seen to
have an i n t e g r i t y and a v a r i e t y t h a t may have been lesB
v i s i b l e te n y e a r s ago. T his stu d y c o n c e n tr a te s , th e n , on
S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m in th e 1 9 6 0 's and t r i e s to be o b je c tiv e .
I t s fo c u s — c r i t i c i s m o f seven tw e n tie th c e n tu ry American
n o v e l i s t s ( D re is e r, F i t z g e r a ld , Hemingway, F a u lk n e r, S t e i n
b eck , S a lin g e r , and U p d ik e)—resem b les B row n's, th e s to r y
bein g p ic k e d up c h r o n o lo g ic a lly where he leaveB o f f . ^
The convenience o f a m anageable to p ic i s n o t th e o n ly
re a so n f o r fo c u sin g on th e s e seven w r i t e r s . Appendix A
l i s t B th e number o f e n t r i e s by a u th o r and y e a r in th e L ib -
man b ib lio g r a p h ie s from i 960 to m id -1 9 6 8. W hile Mark Twain
and W alt Whitman r e c e iv e more th a n a l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n , th e
above seven p lu s A rth u r M ille r , E rs k in e C a ld w e ll, and Ja c k
London a re th e le a d e r s in number o f s e p a ra te c r i t i c a l
tr e a tm e n ts . The seven form a homogeneous g ro u p — th e y a re
4
a l l n o v e l i s t s whose work b e lo n g s w holly to th e tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry . E x c lu sio n o f M ille r , th e o n ly American p la y w rig h t
a t t r a c t i n g much R u ssian I n t e r e s t , s i m p l i f i e s com parison and
c o n t r a s t ; London i s an e a r l i e r f ig u r e th an th e o th e r s ;
C ald w ell was o m itte d f o r a r b i t r a r y r e a s o n s —h i s work does
n o t a p p e a l to th e w r i t e r o f t h i s s tu d y and American c r i t i c s
do n o t c o n s id e r him a s im p o rta n t a s th e seven.
The b a s ic method in C h ap ters I I , I I I , and V i s to con
c e n t r a t e on S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f one n o v el by each a u th o r.
There a r e s e v e r a l re a s o n s f o r t h i s and f o r making C h ap ter
IV on F a u lk n e r an e x c e p tio n .
1. R ecent c r i t i c i s m o f D r e is e r and S te in b e c k i s f a i r
ly u n ifo rm . Thus, in c lu d in g more th an one work by them
would have been re d u n d a n t. In f a c t , S o v ie t app ro ach es to
th e two w r i t e r s a re so s im i l a r t h a t c r i t i c i s m o f An Amer
ic a n Tragedy and The C rapes o f W rath i s p u t in a s in g le
c h a p te r (I I ) .
2. C h ap ter I I I fo c u se s on R ussian c r i t i c i s m o f For
Whom th e B e ll T o lls b ecau se d eb ate on t h i s n o v el was th e
main ep iso d e i n S o v ie t Hemingway c r i t i c i s m in th e 1960*8.
3. R u ssian F a u lk n e r c r i t i c i s m c l u s t e r s around th e
Snopes t r i l o g y and The Sound and th e F ury; th u s , most o f
C h ap ter IV d e a ls w ith c r i t i c i s m o f th e s e two w orks.
4 . S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f J . D. S a lin g e r , F. S c o tt F i t z
g e r a l d , and John Updike happens to c e n te r on th e one no v el
by each a u th o r t h a t h a s been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o R u ssia n . So
5
C h ap ter V c o n s id e rs c r i t i c i s m o f The C atch e r in th e Rye,
The G reat G atshy, and The C e n ta u r.
5. S tr e s s in g one work p e r a u th o r f a c i l i t a t e s compar
is o n o f S o v ie t and American c r i t i c i s m in th e two c a se s
where i t i s a tte m p te d .
Comparing and c o n tr a s tin g S o v ie t and American c r i t i
cism on For Whom th e B e ll T o lls (C h ap ter I I I ) and The G reat
G atsby (C h ap ter V) i l l u s t r a t e s some o f th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and
d if f e r e n c e s in th e two c r i t i c i s m s . For Whom th e B e ll T o lls
resem b les An American T ragedy, The G rapes o f W rath, th e
Snopes t r i l o g y , and The C atc h e r i n th e Rye in t h i s r e s p e c ts
a good d e a l o f i t s R u ssian c r i t i c i s m i s o f te n too c lo s e to
i d e n t i f y i n g S o v ie t i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s w ith l i t e r a r y i s
su es th an i s a p t to be co m fo rta b le f o r th e A m e ric a n -sty le
academ ic c r i t i c . R u ssian c r i t i c i s m o f The G reat G atsb y ,
on th e o th e r hand, l i k e t h a t o f The Sound and th e Fury and
The C e n ta u r, i s l e s s in flu e n c e d by what Am ericans would c a ll
id e o lo g y and a t tim es re se m b le s th e k ind o f e s t h e t i c a n a l
y s i s f a m i l i a r to r e a d e r s o f American c r i t i c i s m .
In C h ap ters I I ( D re is e r and S te in b ec k ) and I I I (Hem
ingway) a n a ly s is o f c r i t i c i s m o f s p e c i f i c works i s p reced ed
by an in tr o d u c to r y s e c tio n b r i e f l y summ arizing S o v ie t c r i t
ic ism b e fo re i 960 o f each a u th o r. In C h ap ter IV, s in c e
th e r e was l i t t l e R u ssia n F au lk n er c r i t i c i s m b e fo re i 9 6 0, a
s e c tio n on how th e R u ssia n s approach h i s work a s a whole
p re c e d e s a n a l y s is o f c r i t i c i s m o f s p e c i f i c w orks. C h ap ter
6
V ( S a lin g e r , F i t z g e r a ld , and Updike) does n o t have an i n t r o
d u c to ry s e c tio n f o r each a u th o r b ecau se th e y were n o t c r i t
i c i z e d in th e S o v ie t Union b e fo re i 960 and b ecau se a f t e r
i 960 S o v ie t c r i t i c s p a id l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r works
o th e r than The C atch e r in th e Rye, The G reat Q atsby, and
The C e n ta u r.
R u ssian C r itic is m o f American
L i t e r a t u r e : An Overvle'w
From 1829 to 1926 R u ssian c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t in Amer
ic a n l i t e r a t u r e , e x c e p t f o r a s l i g h t in c r e a s e d u rin g World
War I , sta y e d a t a low l e v e l . Thus most o f th e c r i t i c i s m
in R u ssian o f American l i t e r a t u r e h as app eared s in c e th e
e a r l y 1920*8, b u t th e r i s e to a c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h l e v e l o f
i n t e r e s t in th e 1960*s was n o t s te a d y . In f a c t , s in c e th e
e a r l y 1 9 2 0*s th e r e have been two sh arp r i s e s and d e c lin e s
in p u b lis h e d c r i t i c i s m p lu s th e c u r r e n t ste a d y in c r e a s e
which began in th e e a r l y 1950*s . F ig u re 1 assem bles d a ta
from th e two Libman b i b l io g r a p h ie s to Bhow q u a n t i t a t i v e
tre n d s from 1829 to 1 9 6 7.^
7
P ig . 1. Number o f e n t r i e s in L ib r^ n .b ib lio g r a p h ie s
on g e n e r a l s u b je c ts in r e p r e s e n t a t i v e y e a rs
b e fo re i 960 and in each y e a r s in c e i 9 6 0 .
The p r e - r e v o lu tio n a r y p u b lic was i n t e r e s t e d in o n ly
e ig h t American a u th o r s , a l l o f whom rem ain p o p u la r todays
Twain, London, Whitman, Cooper, Stowe, L ongfellow , Poe, and
H a rte . W ithout a t t r a c t i n g l a s t i n g a t t e n t i o n , o th e r s had
ap p eared i n t r a n s l a t i o n a t l e a s t once b e fo re 1917* B ellam y,
F r a n k lin , H awthorne, 0. Henry, I r v in g , Upton S i n c l a i r , and
Thoreau. T h is s i t u a t i o n d id n o t change u n t i l th e New Eco
nomic P o lic y , 1922-1928, when S o v ie t p u b lic a tio n o f fo re ig n
a u th o r s , in c lu d in g many A m ericans, g r e a t l y in c r e a s e d . As
8
F ig u re 1 shows, t h i s in c r e a s e c o in c id e d w ith th e f i r s t su b
s t a n t i a l r i s e in S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f American l i t e r a t u r e .
D uring th e New Economic P o lic y 91 American a u th o r s , 80 o f
them new to R u ssian r e a d e r s , were p u b lis h e d . There were
o v er 900 p r i n t i n g s t o t a l i n g 10,500,000 c o p ie s ; Ja c k London,
0. Henry, and Upton S i n c l a i r were th e most p o p u la r a u
th o rs.®
B eginning in 1924 w ith p u b lic a tio n o f Sherwood Ander
son, John Dob P a sso s, and S i n c l a i r Lew is, R ussian r e a d e r s
were exposed to m ajor American " c r i t i c a l r e a l i s t s , " as
theBe a u th o rs a r e c l a s s i f i e d by S o v ie t c r i t i c s . S ince
th e n , R u ssian c r i t i c s have c o n c e n tra te d on American c r i t
i c a l r e a l i s t s (ad d in g , in th e l a t e 1 9 2 0’s and e a r l y 1930’s,
D r e is e r , Hemingway, S te in b e c k , and C a ld w e ll), on th e above-
m entioned n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a u th o r s , and on such p o l i t i
c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e f ig u r e s as Howard F a s t, Jo sep h Bonosky,
A lb e rt M altz, M ichael Gold, and M itc h e ll W ilson. The surge
o f c r i t i c i s m which Table 1 shows in 1939 r e f l e c t s th e en
t h u s i a s t i c r e c e p tio n g iv en to p r o l e t a r i a n w r i te r s o f th e
T h i r t i e s , a sc h o o l which S o v ie t c r i t i c s b e lie v e i s s t i l l
s e r io u s ly u n d e rv a lu e d in th e U n ited S t a t e s .
A lthough S o v ie t t r a n s l a t i o n p o lic y h as n o t m a t e r ia ll y
changed in th e 1960’s (se e Appendix B f o r a l i s t o f Amer
ic a n works t r a n s l a t e d i n t o R u ssian i n th e y e a rs 1960- 1966) ,
th e r e were o th e r developm ents o f i n t e r e s t to th e American
o b s e rv e r. The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t was th e fo rm atio n o f a
9
group o f S o v ie t A m e ric a n ists , who e n la rg e d th e scope and
r a i s e d th e q u a l i t y o f S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f American l i t e r a
c y
t u r e . These and o th e r c r i t i c s w r ite on many works n o t
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o R u ssian o r in to o t h e r S o v ie t l a n g u a g e s .^
They a ls o d is c u s s , sometimes a t c o n s id e ra b le le n g th , Amer
ic a n s c h o la r ly and c r i t i c a l works and tr e n d s . In d eed , So
v i e t c r i t i c s n o te w ith r e g r e t t h a t t h e i r i n t e r e s t in Amer
ic a n l i t e r a t u r e g r e a t l y exceeds American i n t e r e s t in S o v ie t
l i t e r a t u r e .
S o v ie t C r i t i c a l Trends i n th e S i x t i e s
The p r e s e n t stu d y can be p la c e d in th e c o n te x t o f
American a tte m p ts to su rv ey contem porary S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m
in g e n e r a l. Deming Brown, Nina B erb ero v a, Sidney Monas,
and Edward J . Brown, the f o u r s c h o la rs w r itin g on t h i s sub
j e c t , d i f f e r on what i s w orth a n a ly z in g , on how to go ab o u t
i t , and in t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s . And w ith one e x c e p tio n th ey
ig n o re S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f fo re ig n l i t e r a t u r e . One s tu d ie s
th e f iv e p r i n c i p a l M oscow-Leningrad l i t e r a r y m o n th lies* a
second r e l i e s m ainly on V oprosy l l t e r a t u r y , a more th e o
r e t i c a l l y in c l i n e d monthly* a t h i r d d efen d s th e d e fe n d e rs
o f s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m , the o f f i c i a l p h ilo so p h y o f a r t in
s o c i a l i s t c o u n tr ie s and u s u a ll y s c o ffe d a t by American s t u
d e n ts o f S o v ie t l i t e r a t u r e * y e t a f o u rth a rg u e s t h a t th e
most i n t e r e s t i n g l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s found e lse w h ere th an
in J o u rn a ls and books on l i t e r a t u r e .
10
In a 1964 a r t i c l e "The P re s e n t C o n d itio n o f S o v ie t
C r itic is m " Deming Brown d iv id e s c r i t i c s I n to " c o n se rv a tiv e "
and " l i b e r a l " camps, th e form er ta k in g up most o f th e space
In l i t e r a r y jo u r n a ls . A ccording to Brown th e c o n s e rv a tiv e s
s t i l l v ig o ro u s ly i n s i s t t h a t th e d u ty o f S o v ie t c r i t i c s i s
to see how w e ll l i t e r a t u r e p erfo rm s i t s p a r ty - a s s ig n e d r e p -
o r t o r i a l and d i d a c t i c ta s k s and to h e lp w r i t e r s b e t t e r f u l -
12
f i l l t h e i r Communist d u t i e s . On th e o th e r hand, Brown
s h o r t l y adds a " P o s t s c r i p t " a f t e r a v i s i t in 1964 to th e
S o v ie t U nion. T h is v i s i t co n v in ced him t h a t th e c o n se rv a
t i v e s in th e summer o f 1964 were more on th e d e fe n siv e th an
th e amount o f t h e i r w r itin g would i n d i c a t e and t h a t h a r d ly
anyone pays a t t e n t i o n to th em .1^ I f i t was v a l i d in 1964
to d e s c rib e S o v ie t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s a s " l i b e r a l " and "con
s e r v a t i v e ," p e rh a p s th e s e term s m ight s t i l l ap p ly to c r i t
ic is m o f S o v ie t l i t e r a t u r e which i s p u b lis h e d in th e f iv e
l i t e r a r y m o n th lie s Brown c o n s u lte d (Zvezda, Znamla, Neva,
O k tia b r ’ , and Novyl m l r ) . But th e y do n o t ap p ly to r e c e n t
S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry American f i c t i o n ,
which i s too v a r ie d f o r such te rm s.
The s i t u a t i o n d e s c rib e d in C h a p te rs I I- V o f t h i s s tu d y
more c l o s e ly re se m b le s some o f th e th in g s Nina B erberova
( o f P rin c e to n U n iv e r s ity ) say t i n h e r ram b lin g tw o -p a rt
a r t i c l e " S o v ie t C r itic is m Today" p u b lis h e d i n 1966 and 1967
i n th e New York R u ssian language re v ie w Novyi z h u r n a l. I f
she i s c o r r e c t , th e "thaw" in S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m d a te s from
ab o u t i 9 6 0 . R ely in g m ainly on th e e x te n s iv e d is c u s s io n o f
D ostoevsky s in c e i 960 and on a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s and r e
jo in d e r s on th e l i t e r a r y Image, she co n ten d s t h a t th e So
v i e t c r i t i c a l scene I s d is o r d e r l y and confuBed, a s i t u a t i o n
welcomed by m ost c r i t i c s .
Only a sm all m in o rity o f S o v ie t c r i t i c s does n o t keep in
s te p w ith th e tim es and th u s opposes l i b e r a l i z a t i o n ; th e
r e s t e v id e n tly welcome th e c o n fu sio n , even th e d is o r d e r
and a l l th e e x c ite m e n t t h a t h as r i s e n in r e c e n t y e a r s in
R u ssian c r i t i c i s m . P r a c t i c a l l y nobody now w r i te s t h a t
ev ery c o n f l i c t h as o n ly one r e s o l u t i o n and ev ery q u e s tio n
o n ly one a n s w e r.14
I t i s n o t n e c e s s a ry h e re to acco u n t f o r th e c o n tr a r y empha
ses o f Brown and B erberova ( f o r one th in g , B erberova re a d
m ainly th e more academ ic V oprosy l l t e r a t u r y w h ile Brown
u sed th e l e s s t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n c lin e d J o u rn a ls m entioned
a b o v e). A lthough r e c e n t S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f American l i t
e r a t u r e does n o t ap p e a r " d is o rd e re d " and " c o n fu se d ," th e r e
may be some "e x c ite m e n t" in th e f i e l d , f o r th e r e i s s i g n i f
i c a n t v a r i e t y .
A second p o in t B erberova makes r e l a t e s to S o v ie t t r e a t
ment o f For Whom th e B e l l T o lls and F a u lk n e r ’ s w orks. She
say s t h a t i t h as become common f o r S o v ie t c r i t i c s to d i s
cu ss in d e t a i l and even to d e b a te f o re ig n works n o t a v a i l
a b le to th e p u b l i c . For exam ple, most o f th e s tu d i e s o f
For Whom th e B e ll T o lls which a re a n a ly z e d i n C h ap ter I I I
o f t h i s stu d y ap p eared th r e e o r fo u r y e a r s b e fo re p u b lic a
tio n i n 1968 o f th e R u ssian t r a n s l a t i o n . B erberova sug
g e s ts t h a t a d e b a te , in te n d e d to p r o t e c t th e p u b lic from
12
h arm fu l I d e o lo g ic a l i n f lu e n c e , o f te n p re c e d e s p u b lic a tio n
o f a p r e v io u s ly banned work. She u s e s Kafka a s an exam ple.
The f i r B t s te p was to p r i n t many a r t i c l e s on The T r i a l .
The second, p u b lic a tio n o f "The M etam orphosis," o c c u rre d in
1965. T h ird , c r i t i c s i n t e r p r e t e d Kafka a s a " r e a l i s t " p o r
tr a y in g a r o t t i n g W est, and th e y d e s c rib e d h i s work w ith
th e same term s th e y u se to i n t e r p r e t Z o la , D ickens, and
B a l z a c . ^ The f o u r th s te p , p u b lic a tio n o f The T r i a l , e v i
d e n tly has n o t y e t been re a c h e d , though M ih ajlo M ihajlov
was t o l d by th e p o e t A ndrei Voznezensky in 1964 t h a t "The
T r i a l was a lr e a d y in p r i n t , and th e t r a n s l a t i o n i s e x c e l-
l e n t . " T h is p r o c e s s , in somewhat l e s s crude a form , i s
o c c u rrin g w ith F a u lk n e r. As C h ap ter IV shows in d e t a i l ,
h i s c a r e e r i s i n t e r p r e t e d by many S o v ie t c r i t i c s a s an un
even p ro g re s s io n from modernism to r e a lis m . In f a c t , some
argue t h a t t h i s p ro c e s s b e g in s in one o f h i s most m o d e rn ist
w orks, The Sound and th e Fury, which becomes r e a l i s t i c in
th e l a s t two o f i t s fo u r s e c tio n s . But F a u lk n e r 's r e a lis m ,
c e r t a i n c r i t i c s b e lie v e , does n o t trium ph u n t i l l a t e i n h i s
c a r e e r w ith p u b lic a tio n o f The M ansion, th e t h i r d Snopes
n o v e l. The Snopes t r i l o g y h as been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Rus
s ia n , and i f B e rb e ro v a ’ s f o u r - s t e p th e o ry i s v a l i d , The
Sound and th e Fury m ight ap p ea r soon.
A t h i r d American stu d y p r e s e r v e s th e k in d o f b a la n c e
t h a t p ro b a b ly w i l l be m ost a p p r o p r ia te in f u tu r e s tu d i e s o f
S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m . Sidney Monas, in h i s a r t i c l e "In D efense
13
o f S o c i a l i s t R e a l i s m , r e f u s e s to t a l k in term s o f "con
s e r v a tiv e s " v e rsu s " l i b e r a l s . " He d is c u s s e s , w ith more
s u b t l e t y th an most Am ericans w r itin g on s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m
th in k th e d o c tr in e d e s e rv e s , c e r t a i n o f i t s d e fe n d e rs whom
he c o n s id e rs s e r i o u s , s e n s i t i v e s tu d e n ts o f l i t e r a t u r e
r a t h e r th an o p p o r tu n i s t i c c a r e e r i s t s .
W e commonly assume t h a t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s who ta k e i t upon
th em selv es p r im a r ily to d efen d s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m (i . e .,
p a r ty c o n sc io u sn e ss) a re fu n d a m e n ta lly u n i n t e r e s t e d in
and i n s e n s i t i v e to l i t e r a t u r e a s such, o r t h a t th e y a re
mere v u lg a r c a r e e r i s t s who would do o r say a n y th in g to
make t h e i r way. T h is may be tr u e o f some, b u t I t i s man
i f e s t l y n o t tr u e o f o th e r s who a re s i n c e r e l y and d eep ly
concerned f o r th e f a t e o f s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m (which th ey
i d e n t i f y c l o s e ly w ith th e f a t e o f p a r t y c o n t r o l ) , and who
a re a t th e same tim e w e ll- e d u c a te d , i n t e l l i g e n t , and u n -
u B u ally s e n s i t i v e and re s p o n s iv e to l i t e r a r y v a lu e s ,
though n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in a way t h a t conform s to th e
s ta n d a rd s s e t by sc h o o ls e lse w h e re , (p . 48)
L a te r Monas a rg u e s t h a t th o se p o l i t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d c r i t i c s
who a re s e n s i t i v e to l i t e r a t u r e s in c e r e l y re g a rd th e p a r ty
a s "a s u rr o g a te p e r s o n a l i t y f o r th e p eo p le a s a w h o le," n o t
o n ly f o r th e R u ssian p eo p le b u t f o r "hum anity a t la r g e " (p.
4 8 ). T h is k in d o f J u s t i f i c a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s sa ry in d e a l
in g w ith S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f American l i t e r a t u r e , which
shows s ig n s o f becoming a r e s p e c ta b le academ ic d i s c i p l i n e .
Edward J . Brown, in h i s p a p e r re a d a t th e A p ril 1969
USC Com parative L i t e r a t u r e C o n feren ce, p o in te d to p o s i t i v e
developm ents i n a r e a s p e r i p h e r a l to c r i t i c i s m o f f i c t i o n .
S o v ie t c r i t i c s , he Im p lie d , can w r ite on I s s u e s o f i n t e r e s t
to W estern o b s e rv e rs p ro v id in g th e y do so i n a r t i c l e s f a l l
in g i n c a t e g o r ie s o th e r th a n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . T his o f
14
c o u rse c o m p lic a te s th e ta s k o f anyone w anting a c c u r a te ly to
su rv ey S o v ie t c r i t i c a l t r e n d s . He must s t i l l plow th rough
th e many th i c k l i t e r a r y m o n th lie s and th e academ ic p r e s s
which produce v a s t q u a n t i t i e s o f p r i n t l a b e l l e d l i t e r a r y
c r i t i c i s m . For even th e s o - c a l l e d o rthodox c r i t i c w i l l
sometim es perfo rm e s t h e t i c a n a l y s i s .
P erhaps th e main p o in t em erging from t h i s r a p id su rv ey
o f American o p in io n on contem porary S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m ( in
a d d itio n to th e r e b ein g no co n sen su s on how to go ab o u t
stu d y in g i t ) i s t h a t no s in g le e n t i t y can m e a n in g fu lly be
c a l l e d " S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m . " S o v ie t ap p ro ach es to American
l i t e r a t u r e , and p ro b a b ly to o th e r l i t e r a t u r e s a s w e ll, a c
t u a l l y may have l i t t l e in common w ith c r i t i c i s m o f S o v ie t
l i t e r a t u r e , th e a r e a o f S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m w ith which Deming
Brown ( in h i s a r t i c l e and p o s t s c r i p t ) , B erb ero v a, Monas,
and Edward Brown were p r im a r ily con cern ed .
C la s s if y in g American N o v e lis ts
T his stu d y em phasizes R u ssian p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m .
W hile i t i s n o t n e c e s s a ry to go i n t o S o v ie t l i t e r a r y th e o ry
i n d e t a i l , a b r i e f in tr o d u c tio n to some o f th e term s u sed
i s h e l p f u l. M. M endelson's scheme o f c l a s s i f y i n g tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry American n o v e l i s t s seems to be b ro a d ly a c c e p te d by
o th e r c r i t i c s , though th e b e t t e r c r i t i c s c o n c e n tra te on
p a r t i c u l a r t e x t s and av o id fre q u e n t usage o f such term s a s
" m o d e rn is t," " c o n fo rm is t," " d e c a d e n t," and th e l i k e . Men-
15
d e lso n h im s e lf i s an i n t e r e s t i n g parad o x . H is p r a c t i c a l
c r i t i c i s m , e s p e c i a l l y o f F a u lk n e r's The Sound and th e Fury,
i s n o t n e a r ly so b a n a l a s one might e x p e c t from see in g how
he d e f in e s th e fo u r main te n d e n c ie s in modern American
f i c t i o n .
Mendelson i d e n t i f i e s fo u r groups o f n o v e l i s t s : pseudo-
r e a l i s t i c c o n fo rm is ts , m o d e rn ists, c r i t i c a l r e a l i s t s , and
s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s t s . C onform ists (Herman Wouk, A llen D rury,
and Sloan W ilson, to name a few) t r y to r e f u t e th e f a c t s
ab o u t th e c r i s i s in American l i f e . M o d ern ists may be hon
e s t and s in c e r e , b u t th e y a re e s s e n t i a l l y d e ca d en t w r i t e r s
who see muck and th en u n i v e r s a l i z e , f in d in g a l l hum anity
depraved and o f te n r e ly in g on F reudianism . (Norman M ailer
and many S o u th e rn e rs a re in t h i s c a te g o r y .) M o d ern ists
red u ce man to an an im al. C r i t i c a l r e a l i s t s see th e p ro b
lems o f th e b o u rg e o is o rd e r b u t s t i l l have a h u m a n istic
f a i t h ; th e y la c k a f u l l u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e h i s t o r i c a l
p r o c e s s , b u t th e y see th e s o c ia l b a se s o f e v i l (Hemingway,
S te in b e c k , S i n c l a i r L e w is). Of course th e M a rx ist authorB
se e b e s t o f a l l . T h e ir w r itin g s a re n o t "a l i t e r a t u r e o f
d e s p a ir , b u t o f r a d i a n t hope, a l i t e r a t u r e f u l l o f th e
s p i r i t o f humanism, c a l l i n g people to b a t t l e f o r h a p p i-
18
n e s s ." (The o n ly American M arxist a u th o r to whom Men
d e lso n pays ex ten d ed a t t e n t i o n i s A lb e rt M a ltz .) But Men
d e lso n q u a l i f i e s hiB scheme in saying t h a t th e American
16
l i t e r a r y scene i s com plex, and a t th e h ig h e s t Btage o f com
p l e x i t y a re w r i t e r s in whom s h a rp ly c la s h m o d e rn is tic and
r e a l i s t i c te n d e n c ie s such a s F a u lk n e r, W arren, and McCul-
lerB (p . 24).
Exam ination o f a c t u a l c r i t i c a l t e x t s shows t h a t much
S o v ie t R u ssian c r i t i c i s m i s v a rie d and has an i n t e g r i t y
going beyond c r i t i c i s m by c lic h £ . Those whom I c o n s id e r
th e b e t t e r c r i t i c s in c o r p o r a te e s t h e t i c i s s u e s in t h e i r d i s
c u s s io n s o r make e s t h e t i c is s u e s t h e i r main c o n cern . But
th ey do n o t co m p le tely s e p a ra te " e s t h e t i c " from what I c a l l
" s o c i o - c u l t u r a l" i s s u e s . T his term r e f e r s to th e tendency
o f many c r i t i c s to r e l a t e a l i t e r a r y work b o th to American
s o c ie ty and to American c u l t u r e . I t w i l l be arg u ed , th e n ,
t h a t th e i n t e g r i t y o f r e c e n t R u ssian c r i t i c i s m o f American
l i t e r a t u r e c o n s is t s p a r t l y in th e r e b ein g th o u g h tfu l e s
t h e t i c d is c u s s io n ; b u t th e i n t e g r i t y a ls o c o n s i s t s in much
o f th e s o c i o - c u l t u r a l commentary b e in g p h ra se d in such a
way t h a t , w h ile i t may be " id e o lo g y ," i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
p o l i t i c a l Id e o lo g y . The "C o n c lu sio n ," a f t e r p r o f i l i n g se v
e r a l R u ssian c r i t i c s r e p r e s e n tin g th e te n d e n c ie s d isc o v e re d
i n C h ap ters II-V , t r i e s to e x p la in th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een
"id eo lo g y " and " p o l i t i c a l id e o lo g y " in c r i t i c i s m .
17
NOTES
The t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n system used In t h i s stu d y I s t h a t
o f the L ib ra ry o f C ongress, o m ittin g th e l i g a t u r e s which
show t h a t two o r more L a tin l e t t e r s r e p r e s e n t one C y r i l l i c
l e t t e r .
1. V a le n tin a A. Libman, " B i b l i o g r a f i i a , ” Problemy l s -
t o r l l l l t e r a t u r y SShA [Problem s o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e L i t
e r a t u r e o f th e USAJ (Moscow, 1964), pp. 373-475*
2. C laren ce Gohdes, e d ., R u ssian S tudieB o f American
L i t e r a t u r e (C hapel H i l l , N.C., 1969).
3. V a le n tin a A. Libman, " B i b l i o g r a f i i a , " Sovremennoe
l l t e r a t u r o v e d e n l e SShA: sp o ry ob am erlk an sk o l l i t e r a t u r e
[Contem porary l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s h ip in th e USA: argum ents
ab o u t American l i t e r a t u r e ] (Moscow, 1969) , PP. 306- 3 4 3.
4 . Stephen Jan P a rk e r, "Hemingway's R e v iv a l i n th e
S o v ie t Union 1955-1962," The L i t e r a r y R e p u ta tlo n o f Hemlng-
way in E urope, ed . Roger A 'sselineau [New Y ork, 19&5) > PP.
177-195; J . W. T u t t l e t o n , "S te in b e c k i n R u ssia : The R h e t
o r ic o f P r a is e and Blam e," Modern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 11
(1 9 6 5 ), 79-89.
T u t t l e t o n 's a r t i c l e on S o v ie t S te in b e c k c r i t i c i s m u n
t i l ab o u t i 960 i s b ased e n t i r e l y on E n g lis h language
s o u rc e s . M ainly i t r e - q u o te s th e S o v ie t c r i t i c s Brown
t r a n s l a t e s and q u o te s i n S o v ie t A ttitu d e s Toward American
W r itin g .
5 . M aurice F rie d b e rg p o in ts to B row n's " im p re ssiv e
i n s i g h t i n t o th e p o l i t i c s o f S o v ie t l i t e r a t u r e " (S la v ic Re
view , 22 [ 19 6 3], 372; my i t a l i c s ) . S tu a r t Levine more ex
p l i c i t l y ju d g es th e i n t e g r i t y o f S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m : " I f th e
most approved S o v ie t a r t i s t s a r e n o t r e a l l y a r t i s t s i n our
sen se o f th e word, t h e i r c r i t i c s a re n o t r e a l l y c r i t i c s
e i t h e r " (American Q u a r te rly , 15 [ I 9 6 3L 4 7 1 ). W ith one o r
two e x c e p tio n s , a c c o rd in g to George S ie g e l, th e " s tu d e n t o f
American l i t e r a t u r e " w i l l f in d l i t t l e " t h a t i s f r e s h and
v a lu a b le " i n B row n's book (Modern Language J o u r n a l, 47
[ 1963], 283) . H e rb e rt E. Bowman e m p h a tic a lly s t a t e s thart
"most S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m i s w o rth le s s to any b u t th e p r o f e s
s io n a l S o v i e t o l o g i s t , to whom any S o v ie t document i s 'e v i
d e n c e '" ( C om parative L i t e r a t u r e , 15 [ I 9 6 3 L 368).
18
6 . A f te r some in tr o d u c to r y rem arks on R u ssian i n t e r
e s t in American l i t e r a t u r e , Brown l i m i t s h im s e lf to S o v ie t
c r i t i c i s m o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry American f i c t i o n . He d e
v o te s one o f h i s t h i r t e e n c h a p te r s to th e p e rio d from 1955
to i 9 6 0 . O th erw ise, he c o n c e n tr a te s on S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m
b e fo re th e d e a th o f S t a l i n , w ith i n d i v id u a l c h a p te r s on
John Dos P a sso s, Upton S i n c l a i r , Jack London and 0. Henry
(b o th in one c h a p te r ) , S i n c l a i r Lewis and Theodore D r e is e r
( in one c h a p te r ) , Howard P a s t, and E rn e s t Hemingway. The
rem ain in g c h a p te rs a re on g e n e r a l s u b je c ts : "The N ineteen
T w e n tie s ," "The N ineteen T h i r t i e s , " " P r o l e t a r i a n L i t e r a
t u r e , " "O ther O pinions o f th e N in eteen T h i r t i e s , " "Prom
World War I I to 1 9 5 5 /’ and "C o n c lu sio n ."
7 . Each o f th e Libman b i b l i o g r a p h i e s h as two p a r t s .
P a r t one l i s t s item s on g e n e r a l s u b je c ts ; p a r t two l i s t s
ite m s on i n d iv id u a l a u th o r s . F ig u re 1 i s b ased on t o t a l
e n t r i e s p e r y e a r in p a r t one o f th e two b ib l i o g r a p h i e s .
8. T his p a ra g ra p h and th e f i r s t s e n te n c e o f th e n e x t
p ara g ra p h a re b ased on G lenora W. Brown and Deming G.
Brown, A Guide to S o v ie t R u ssian T r a n s la tio n s o f American
L i t e r a t u r e (New frork, 1954), P. 3» and Deming Q. Brown,
S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s , pp. 20-23.
9. The two most im p o rta n t volumes so f a r p u b lis h e d by
t h i s group o f A m e ric a n ists a re r e f e r r e d to in n o te s 1 and
3 . The 1964 volume, b e s id e s th e Libman b ib lio g ra p h y , i n
c lu d e s th e fo llo w in g e s s a y s :
A. N. N ik o liu k in , "The R ise o f N a tio n a l P o e try During
th e War o f Independence" (pp. 5-73)
I u . V. K ovalev, "Herman M e lv ille : Some A sp ects o f
American Rom anticism " (pp. 73-155)
M. 0. M endelson, "The P o e try o f th e Two Camps in th e
C i v i l War1 ' (pp. 156-204)
A. A. E l i s t r a t o v a , "W illiam Dean H ow ells and Henry James
and American C r i t i c a l R ealism " (pp.
205- 286)
R. M. Sam arin, "The Problem o f N a tu ra lism and th e
Development o f th e American Novel a t
th e Turn o f th e XX C entury" (pp. 287-
346)
l a . N. Z a s u r s k ii, "The O rig in s o f S o c i a l i s t R ealism in
th e U .S .A ." (pp. 347-372)
19
The 1969 volume In c lu d e s th e fo llo w in g e s s a y s ;
M. 0. M endelson, "American l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s h ip in th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry and q u e s tio n s o f th e
c r e a t i v e works o f w r i t e r s o f th e
U.S.A." (pp. 7-48)
A. N. N ik o liu k in , "D isc u ssio n s o f th e n a t i o n a l c h a r a c te r
o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e U.S.A." (pp.
49-79)
M. 0. M endelson, "The c o n f l i c t around th e c l a s s i c a l h e r
i t a g e o f American l i t e r a t u r e " (pp. 80-
158)
M. 0. M endelson, "Van Wyk Brooks and th e d e m o c ra tic t r a
d i t i o n s o f American l i t e r a r y s c h o la r
sh ip " (pp. 159- 22 9)
M. M. K orneeva, "American c r i t i c i s m o f p o s t-w a r drama
i n th e U.S.A." (pp. 230-273)
A. S. M u lia rc h ik , "The developm ent o f th e p o s t-w a r Amer
ic a n n o v e l i n th e l i g h t o f c r i t i c i s m
i n th e U.S.A." (pp. 274-305)
( T i t l e s i n th e 1964 volume a r e c a p i t a l i z e d b ecau se th e y a p
p e a re d t h i s way i n an E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e c o n te n ts
c o n ta in e d in th e volume. But th e 1969 volume c o n ta in e d no
such t r a n s l a t i o n ; t h e r e f o r e , I t r a n s l a t e d th e t i t l e s and
p u n c tu a te d i n acco rd an ce w ith S o v ie t custom .)
10. About h a l f o f th e e n t r i e s i n Ezhegodnlk k n lg l, th e
an n u al l i s t o f books p u b lis h e d in th e USSR, re p re s e n t-h o o k s
p u b lis h e d in R u ssia n , and h a l f r e p r e s e n t books p u b lis h e d in
a l l th e o t h e r lan g u ag es o f th e S o v ie t U nion. N orm ally, i t
seems t h a t th e works p u b lis h e d in th e o th e r lan g u ag es a re
ones a v a i l a b l e in R u ssian a l s o . F a u lk n e r 's L ig h t in Au
g u s t, how ever, i s an e x c e p tio n . Not y e t a v a i l a b l e in Rus
s ia n , i t was p u b lish e d in L ith u a n ia n in 1966.
11. S o v ie t c r i t i c s a ls o th in k t h a t American s c h o la rs
o f te n d i s t o r t S o v ie t l i t e r a t u r e . An example i s R. M.
S am arin ’s " Isk a z h e n ie i s t o r i i s o v e ts k o i l i t e r a t u r y v l i t -
e r a tu r o v e d e n ii SShA" [The d i s t o r t i o n o f th e h i s t o r y o f So
v i e t l i t e r a t u r e in th e l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s h ip o f th e USA] in
th e f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s p u b lis h e d by th e S o v ie t
A m e ric a n ists , Sovrem ennala l i t e r a t u r a SShA [Contem porary
l i t e r a t u r e in th e tJSAJ [Moscow, 19&2), pp. 208-227. A c o l
l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s d ev o ted e n t i r e l y to W estern l i t e r a r y
s c h o la r s h ip , w hich in c lu d e s an e s sa y a tta c k in g American
c r i t i c i s m o f S o v ie t l i t e r a t u r e , i s P r o ti v burzhuaznykh
k o n t s e p t s i i i re v iz lo n iz m a v zarubezhnom l l t e r a t u r o v e ’cTenll
20
[AgainBt b o u rg e o is c o n c e p tio n s and r e v is io n is m in fo re ig n
l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s h ip ] (Moscow, 1959).
12. Deming Brown, "The P re s e n t C o n d itio n o f S o v ie t
C r i t i c i s m ," C om parative L i t e r a t u r e S tu d ie s , 1 (1964), 166-
1 6 8.
13. Deming Brown, " P o s t s c r i p t , " C om parative L i t e r a
tu r e S tu d ie s , 1 (1 9 6 4 ), 3 2 6 .
14. Nina B erb ero v a, " S o v e tsk a ia k r i t i k a s e g o d n ia ,"
Novyl z h u rn a l [New Y ork], No. 86 (March 1967) , pp. 108-109*
l»ty - tr a n s la tio n , a s a re a l l o th e r s i n t h i s stu d y u n le s s i n
d i c a te d o th e rw is e .
15. B erb ero v a, No. 85 (December 1966) , pp. 82-87.
16. M ih ajlo M ih a jlo v , Moscow Summer (New Y ork, 19^5)>
p . 130.
17. Sidney Monas, "In D efense o f S o c i a l i s t R e a lism ,"
Problem s o f Communism, 16 (M arch-A pril 1967) , 44-56.
18. M. M endelson, Soyremennyl a m e rlk a n sk i1 roman [The
contem porary American n o v e lJ (Mbscow, 1964), p . 24.
CHAPTER I I
RECENT SOVIET CRITICISM OP
AN AMERICAN TRAGEDY AND
THE GRAPES OF W RATH
E a r ly 3 * S o v ie t D r e is e r C r itic is m
S o v ie t c r i t i c s have alw ays adm ired D r e i s e r 's " k a le id o
s c o p ic " p i c t u r e o f American s o c ie ty w ith i t s " p a in s ta k in g
c o m p leten ess" and "docum entary a c c u ra c y ," and th e y welcomed
2
D r e i s e r 's th o ro u g h in d ic tm e n t o f c a p ita lis m . For exam ple,
a c r i t i c in 1928 w ro te t h a t An American Tragedy " to rm e n ts,
sh ak es, and i n f e c t s one w ith p a in f o r a man dying in th e
n ig h tm are c o n d itio n s o f American r e a l i t y . in 1952 a r e
p o r t o f a p u b lic d is c u s s io n o f th e work s a id t h a t th e s o
c i a l c o n d itio n s i t d e s c r ib e s a r e so t y p i c a l o f c a p i t a l i s t
America t h a t th e n o v e l "has l o s t n o th in g o f i t s u rg en cy in
th e 27 y e a r s s in c e p u b l i c a t i o n ." ^
However, u n t i l D r e is e r jo in e d th e Communist P a rty in
19^5* S o v ie t c r i t i c s had m ajor r e s e r v a t i o n s ab o u t h i s
w o rk s.^ B efo re 19^5* th e y d i s l i k e d h i s in d iv id u a lis m and
b io lo g ism . They found in d iv id u a lis m in D r e i s e r 's a p p a re n t
a d m ira tio n o f Cowperwood and in h i s tendency to th in k t h a t
th e in d i v i d u a l and s o c ie ty w i l l alw ays be in o p p o s itio n ,
even u n d er s o c ia lis m . A w orse d e f e c t b e fo re 19^5 was h i s
21
22
r e l y in g on b i o l o g i c a l d e te rm in is m , th e b e l i e f t h a t th e i n
d i v id u a l i s th e c r e a t u r e o f b l i n d sex i n s t i n c t and a h e lp
l e s s v ic tim i n th e p u r p o s e le s s s tr u g g l e f o r th e s u r v iv a l
o f th e f i t t e s t . By 1950, on th e o t h e r h a n d , R u ssia n c r i t
i c s re g a rd e d D r e i s e r 's im age o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s th e
m ost p ro fo u n d a v a i l a b l e in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . T h is
was accom panied by a s tr o n g te n d e n c y to d e -e m p h a siz e i n
d iv id u a lis m , b io lo g ls m , and o t h e r i d e a l o g i c a l e r r o r s and
to c o n s id e r h i s n a tu r a lis m ( u s u a l l y condemned by S o v ie t
c r i t i c s ) a d e v ic e f o r show ing th e u n v a rn is h e d t r u t h a b o u t
s o c ie ty i n c o n t r a s t to Z o l a 's s o c i a l i n d i f f e r e n c e . Ac
c o rd in g to Brown, R u s s ia n s a r e " i r r i t a t e d " and som etim es
" i n f u r i a t e d " by s u g g e s tio n s o f A m erican c r i t i c s t h a t
D r e i s e r 's J o in in g th e Communist P a r ty was an " a c t o f h i s
d o ta g e " (p . 265) . M oreover, S o v ie t c r i t i c s in th e e a r l y
1 9 5 0 's , w h ile s t i l l c a l l i n g h i s f i c t i o n c r i t i c a l r e a lis m ,
fo u n d s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s t e le m e n ts i n h i s n o v e ls 1 com passion
f o r th e m a sse s, h a tr e d o f i n j u s t i c e i n f l i c t e d on th e com
mon man, and a d m ira tio n f o r man th e w o rk er and b u i l d e r .
The S o v ie t Im age o f th e A m erican T w en tie s
One way S o v ie t c r i t i c s Judge a l i t e r a r y work i s by
com paring i t to th e im age th e y h av e o f th e p e r io d in w hich
th e work waB w r i t t e n . T h is i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f An Amer
ic a n T rag e d y , f i r s t p u b lis h e d i n 1925. T h e re f o re , i t i s
c o n v e n ie n t to b e g in an a n a l y s is o f r e c e n t S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m
23
o f D r e i s e r ’ s n o v e l by i s o l a t i n g from l i t e r a r y ju d g m en ts th e
im age o f th e A m erican T w e n tie s.
S o v ie t c r i t i c s em p h asize t h a t in th e T w e n tie s th e
U n ite d S t a t e s waB s a t u r a t e d w ith b o u rg e o is c a p i t a l i s m . The
w o rk in g c la sB and o t h e r common p e o p le s tr u g g le d a g a in s t
im p e ria lis m b u t w ere to o weak to s u c c e e d . S m all p e o p le
w ere h e l p l e s s v ic tim s o f an u n j u s t s o c i a l o r d e r . I a . N.
Z a s u r s k ii c a l l e d t h i s c o n d itio n th e t r a g i c a s p e c t o f Amer
ic a n r e a l i t y and th e " le a d in g s u b je c t i n tw e n tie th c e n tu ry
A m erican l i t e r a t u r e . " ^ A cco rd in g to I . A n isim o v , th e
1 9 2 0 's show more c l e a r l y th a n o t h e r p e r io d s th e t r u e n a
t u r e o f A m erican c a p i t a l i s m . The d o l l a r d efo rm s men, k i l l s
c o n s c ie n c e , and le a d s to c rim e , w hich b u i l d s i t s n e s t " in
e v e ry nook and c ra n n y " o f an A m erican governm ent s u b s e r v i
e n t to th e W a ll- S tr e e t o lig a rc h y .* ^ A. P. Shpakova does
n o t r e p e a t theB e c l i c h e s . I n s t e a d , g o in g i n t o m ore d e t a i l ,
sh e d e s c r ib e s th e g ro w th i n th e 1 9 2 0 ’ s o f th e la b o r u n io n
movement and E s ta b lis h m e n t p e r s e c u tio n o f Communist
l e a d e r s . She th e n sp e a k s o f " r e a c tio n a r y " w r i t e r s , who
so u g h t to d i s t r a c t th e a v e ra g e r e a d e r from th in k in g a b o u t
s o c i a l i s s u e s and th u s w ere w elcom ed by c a p i t a l i s t pub
l i s h e r s . The r e a d e r waB e n t i c e d to th in k o n ly o f h i s im
m e d ia te s e l f - i n t e r e s t s in c e t h i s k in d o f th in k in g do es n o t
Q
t h r e a t e n th e c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r .
24
S o v ie t P e r s p e c tiv e s on C lyde G r i f f i t h s
A ll c r i t i c s ap p ro a c h th e n o v e l a s a w hole th ro u g h an
a n a l y s is o f th e c e n t r a l f i g u r e , C lyde G r i f f i t h s . Z a s u r-
s k i i , A nisim ov, and V. N. B o g o s lo v s k ii a g re e on th e b a s ic
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , d i f f e r i n g somewhat in em phasis and i n t h e i r
o c c a s io n a l e s t h e t i c o b s e r v a tio n s . U n lik e m ost A m erican
c r i t i c s , th e y do n o t p i t y C ly d e , and th e y i n s i s t above a l l
t h a t he i s a t y p i c a l A m erican. D r e i s e r 's Bole p u rp o s e ,
d e c la r e s B o g o s lo v s k ii, i s to p o r t r a y " th e f a t e o f a common,
o r d in a r y A m e ric a n ."^ They q u o te D r e i s e r 's p h ra s e a b o u t
C ly d e 's h a v in g "a tem peram ent a s f l u i d and u n s ta b le a s
w a te r ," a llo w in g b o u rg e o is s o c ie ty to m old i t i n t o t h a t
s o c i e t y 's own deform ed l i k e n e s s . One c r i t i c , f o r ex am p le,
s a y s C lyde i s so p a w n -lik e t h a t th e crim e he p la n s c a n n o t
v i o l a t e h i s c o n s c ie n c e ; to C lyde th e c rim e re se m b le s an
o r d in a r y b u s in e s s t r a n s a c t i o n . 10 T h is d e s p ite th e le n g th y
s e l f - t o r t u r e he g o e s th ro u g h b e f o r e R o b e r ta 's d e a th and
th e e n d le s s s o u l- s e a r c h in g a f t e r h e r d e a th a b o u t w h e th e r
o r n o t he r e a l l y i s g u i l t y .
Z a s u r s k ii o b s e rv e s t h a t C ly d e 's i n t e r n a l l i f e i s th e
n o v e l 's n a r r a t i v e c e n t e r . Why, he a s k s , does D r e is e r
m e tic u lo u s ly d e s c r ib e C ly d e ' b f e e l i n g s , id e a s , and d ream s?
In o r d e r t o show t h e i r c a u s e s i n th e e x t e r n a l w o rld . In
t h i s way D r e is e r " u n o b tr u s iv e ly " sp e a k s o f A m erican r e a l i t y
a s i t i s r e f l e c t e d i n C ly d e 's m e d ita tio n s on h i s e x p e r i
e n c e s .
L ik e a s u b tle p s y c h o lo g is t, D r e is e r shows t h a t a l l
a etB o f C ly d e, who i s v e ry s e n s i t i v e to th e in f lu e n c e o f
h i s s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t, w ere prom pted by r e a l i t y . ^
A ll S o v ie t c r i t i c s em ph asize t h a t th e p u rp o se o f th e
n o v e l* s t h i r d p a r t , d e a lin g w ith C ly d e ’ s t r i a l and e x e c u
t i o n , i s to ex p o se th e t r u e n a tu r e o f th e A m erican J u d i c i a l
p r o c e s s . They a r e d is g u s te d by D i s t r i c t - A t t o r n e y M aso n 's
s e iz in g upon th e c a s e to p r o p e l h im s e lf i n t o a Ju d g e sh ip
a t th e n e x t e l e c t i o n . A cco rd in g to A nisim ov, "The mon
s tr o u s c y n ic is m , s t u p i d i t y , and s o u lle s s n e s s " o f C ly d e 's
t r i a l and e x e c u tio n a r e t y p i c a l o f A m erican l i f e a s a w hole
a s i s C ly d e 's becom ing a " p la y th in g " o r "pawn" o f p a r t y
p o l i t i c s (p p . 1 0 -1 1 ). Shpakova and Z a B u rsk ii u s e th e same
w ord aB A nisim ov ( lg r u s h k a : p l a y th in g , to y , pawn) a s a
m etap h o r f o r th e f a t e o f an o r d in a r y p e rs o n i n th e h an d s o f
A m e ric a 's r u l e r s (S hpakova, p p . 4 4 -4 5 ) and in th e p r e -
e l e c t o r a l b a t t l e o f th e two " b o u rg e o is " p a r t i e s ( Z a s u r s k i i ,
p . 186) .
O th e r C h a r a c te r s
M ain ly c o n c e rn e d w ith th e n o v e l 's s o c i a l m essag e,
S o v ie t c r i t i c s , p a r t i a l l y e x c e p tin g S hpakova, do n o t d i s
c u s s o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n d e t a i l , re m a in in g s a t i s f i e d to
d e c la r e them a c c u r a te r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f f a m i l i a r A m erican
p e r s o n a l i t y ty p e s . F or ex am p le, Sam uel and G i l b e r t G r i f
f i t h s a r e lum ped t o g e th e r and d is m is s e d a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f th e c r u e l , e g o t i s t i c fa c to ry -o w n in g c l a s s , d e s p it e th e
26
e l d e r G r i f f i t h s In f a c t b e in g l e s s pompous and s e l f -
r ig h te o u s and more c o n s id e r a te and s y m p a th e tic th a n h i s
so n . F in d in g them ’’open and d is g u s tin g " in t h e i r f e a r o f
th e w o rk ers and i n t h e i r c o n s e q u e n t d e s ir e to i n d o c t r i n a t e
t h e i r em ployees w ith id e a s o f " d e fe re n c e and s e r v i l i t y , "
Z a s u r s k ii s a y s th e y a r e " s la v e s " o f t h e i r own " c l a s s p r e j
u d ic e s and i n t e r e s t s " (p . 1 8 8 ). L ik e w ise , A nisim ov t r e a t s
to g e th e r th e im ages o f D i s t r i c t - A t t o r n e y Mason, C o ro n er
H a lt, and th e d e fe n s e la w y e rs — a l l " v iv id ly i l l u s t r a t e th e
v e n a l i t y o f A m erican J u s t i c e " (p . 23) .
R u s sia n c r i t i c s r e c o g n iz e t h a t M cM illan, th e a p p e a lin g
young m i n i s t e r who o f te n v i s i t s C lyde on d e a th row , i s n o t
a m i n i s t e r o f " o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n , " t h e i r te rm f o r th e e s
ta b l i s h e d d e n o m in a tio n s . B u t th e y say he re m a in s an u n
w i t t i n g t o o l o f th e r u l i n g claB S i n tr y in g to p e rs u a d e
C lyde t h a t h e h im s e lf i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r h i s c rim e when in
f a c t s o c ie ty i s r e s p o n s i b le . M ost c r i t i c s a g re e on w hat
seem s a n arro w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M cM illan’s f i n a l a t t i t u d e .
D r e is e r d e s c r ib e s M cM illan ’ s s t a t e o f mind th u s :
Had he done r i g h t ? Had h i s d e c is io n b e f o re G o v ern o r
W altham b een t r u l y so u n d , f a i r o r m e r c ifu l? S h o u ld he
h av e B aid to him — t h a t p e r h a p s —p e rh a p s — th e r e h ad been
th o s e o t h e r in f lu e n c e s p la y in g on him ? . . . [ s i c ] Was
he n e v e r to have m e n ta l p e a c e a g a in , p e rh a p s? (p . 8 7 1 )-^
In one t y p i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , M cM illan a f t e r th e e x e c u
t i o n saw t h a t C lyde was in d e e d a " v ic tim o f c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i e t y . " 1^
27
R o b e r ta 's p a r e n t s , a c c o rd in g to S o v ie t c r i t i c s , t y p i
f y o r d in a r y A m ericans l i v i n g in i l l u s i o n . And R o b e rta
h e r s e l f , th o u g h m o ra lly p u re and a n a tu r e lo v e r ( s ig n s she
h a s n o t been s p o ile d by c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y ) , i s doomed to
s u f f e r and be d e s tro y e d a s a r e a l l A m erican g i r l s l i k e
h e r . ^
The D i s t i n c t i v e A pproach o f A. P . Shpakova
A. P . Shpakova s h a re s some o f th e above i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n s , b u t sh e a n a ly z e s th e n o v e l 's them e w ith g r e a t e r
c a r e . She s a y s t h a t th e " th o u g h t ru n n in g a l l th ro u g h th e
book" i s t h a t A m erican c a p i t a l i s m a s a s o c i a l sy stem i s
h o s t i l e to th e p e o p le (p . 1 0 ), S o v ie t te rm in o lo g y f o r e s
s e n t i a l l y th e same o b s e r v a tio n made by P . 0 . M a tth ie s s e n :
D r e is e r i n An A m erican T rag ed y "view ed a s o c ie ty i n w hich
th e e q u a l i t y w hereon a lo n e d e m o c ra tic J u s t i c e m ig h t be
b a s e d h a s been d e s tro y e d b y th e o lig a r c h y o f w e a l t h ." 1^
Shpakova c a l l s th e r e l a t i o n s o f c a p i t a l and la b o r in Amer
i c a one c e n t r a l them e and d e v e lo p s t h i s n o tio n a t le n g th ,
a rg u in g in e s s e n c e a s f o llo w s . I n th e G r i f f i t h s ' f a c to r y
we s e e th e " p a r a s itis m and r o tt e n n e s s " t y p i c a l o f A m erican
c a p i t a l i s m . A m erican w o rk e rs l i v e i n h e l p l e s s p o v e r ty and
d ep en d en ce, e x p lo ite d by f a c t o r y ow ners whose so n s and
d a u g h te r s — th e "g o ld e n y o u th " —p a r a s i t i c a l l y d e v o te them
s e lv e s to th e y e a r-ro u n d p u r s u i t o f i d l e p le a s u r e . Sam uel
and G i l b e r t G r i f f i t h s * ^ a r e c a p i t a l i s t a r c h e ty p e s who th in k
28
e x c lu s iv e ly o f t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s . To h e lp an y o n e, th e y
t h i n k , i s to t h r e a te n th e fo u n d a tio n s o f s o c i e t y . ^ Thus
sh e q u o te s p a r t s o f t h i s p a s s a g e , a c h o ic e one f o r Marx
i s t s :
N e ith e r Sam uel n o r G il b e r t G r i f f i t h s c o u ld t o l e r a t e th e
s o c i a l i s t i c th e o ry r e l a t i v e to c a p i t a l i s t i c e x p l o i t a t i o n .
As b o th saw i t , th e r e h a s [ s i c ] to be h ig h e r and h ig h e r
s o c i a l o r d e r s to w hich th e lo w er s o c i a l c l a s s e s c o u ld
a s p i r e . One had to have c a s t e s . One was f o o l i s h l y i n
t e r f e r i n g w ith and d is r u p t i n g n e c e s s a r y and u n a v o id a b le
s o c i a l s ta n d a r d s when one t r i e d to u n d u ly f a v o r any o n e —
even a r e l a t i v e . I t was n e c e s s a r y when d e a lin g w ith th e
c l a s s e s and i n t e l l i g e n c e s below o n e , c o m m e rc ia lly o r f i
n a n c i a l l y , to h a n d le them a c c o rd in g to th e s ta n d a r d s to
w hich th e y w ere accu sto m ed . And th e b e s t o f th e s e s ta n d
a r d s w ere th o s e w hich h e ld th e s e lo w er i n d i v i d u a l s to a
c l e a r r e a l i z a t i o n o f how d i f f i c u l t i t was to come by
money— to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f how v e ry n e c e s s a r y i t was
f o r a l l who w ere engaged i n w hat b o th c o n s id e re d th e o n ly
r e a l l y im p o rta n t c o n s tr u c tiv e w ork o f th e w o rld — t h a t o f
m a t e r ia l m a n u fa c tu re — to u n d e r s ta n d how v e ry e s s e n t i a l i t
was to be d r i l l e d , and t h a t s h a r p ly and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y ,
i n a l l th e d e t a i l s and p r o c e s s e s w hich c o m p rise t h a t co n
s t r u c t i v e w ork. And so to become in u r e d to a n arro w and
a b s te m io u s l i f e in so d o in g . I t was good f o r t h e i r c h a r
a c t e r s . I t in fo rm e d and s tr e n g th e n e d th e m inds and s p i r
i t s o f th o s e who w ere d e s tin e d to r iB e . And th o s e who
w ere n o t s h o u ld be kepb w here th e y w e r e .lo
Shpakova d is c u s s e s C ly d e ’ s c h a r a c t e r m ore s u b tly th a n
do o t h e r c r i t i c s . F o r exam p le, sh e t a l k s i n i n t e r e s t i n g
d e t a i l a b o u t h i s " i n t e r n a l s tr u g g le " when h e d e c id e s n o t to
g iv e h i s m o th er th e money sh e d id n o t know was i n h i s p o ck
e t , money sh e d e s p e r a te ly n eed ed b e c a u se o f h e r unwed
d a u g h te r ’s p re g n a n c y . D r e is e r " v e ry e x p r e s s iv e ly " s t r u c
t u r e s t h i s s c e n e , Shpakova o b s e rv e s . I n h i s a n x ie ty
C ly d e 's t h r o a t g o es d r y , he n e rv o u s ly l i c k s h i s l i p s , and
h e p a s s e s h i s hand o v e r h i s f o re h e a d . D e s p ite b o th t h e i r
29
s u f f e r i n g s C lyde d o es n o t g iv e h i s m o th er th e money sim p ly
b e c a u se h i s d e s i r e f o r p le a s u r e i s to o s tr o n g (p . 2 4 ).
More th a n th e o t h e r c r i t i c s , sh e fo c u s e s on th e d ra m a tic
meanB w hereby D r e is e r d e p i c t s th e i n t e r n a l s tr u g g l e s o f
h i s h e r o .
She a ls o i s th e o n ly S o v ie t c r i t i c to t a l k a b o u t iro n y
i n An A m erican T ra g e d y . She d o es n o t d e a l w ith th e s t r u c
t u r a l i r o n i e s t h a t many A m erican c r i t i c s s t r e s s ; r a t h e r ,
sh e t a l k s a b o u t th e a u t h o r 's i r o n i c a t t i t u d e to w ard h i s
h e r o . H er b a s ic a ssu m p tio n h e re iB s u e s from a m o ra l Ju d g
m ent: a lth o u g h C lyde c o n s id e r s h im s e lf b e t t e r th a n p e o p le
i n h i s c i r c l e and b e t t e r th a n p e o p le engaged i n p h y s ic a l
l a b o r , i n f a c t he i s n o t . M oreover, he
b e lo n g s to t h a t ty p e o f A m erican o f a s h a r p ly lim ite d
f i e l d o f v i s i o n — C lyde u n c r i t i c a l l y ta k e s a p p e a ra n c e f o r
t r u t h even when th e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een a p p e a ra n c e and
e s s e n c e i s c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t. . . . (p . 27 )
She th e n g iv e s a num ber o f ex am ples Bhowing how C ly d e 's
tr o u b l e s stem from h i s i n a b i l i t y to p e r c e iv e r e a l i t y . The
i r o n i c n a tu r e o f D r e i s e r 's a t t i t u d e to w ard C lyde may be
se e n on th e one hand i n h i s Bhowing th e d is c r e p a n c y b e
tw een r e a l i t y and C ly d e 's p e r c e p tio n s o f i t and on th e
o t h e r hand i n h i s sy m p a th iz in g w ith C lyde w h ile summoning
from th e r e a d e r an " i r o n i c s m ile ." T h is s m ile tu r n s to
p i t y when th e r e a d e r s e n s e s how " w ith sym pathy D r e is e r
shows t h a t C ly d e 's s e n s i t i v i t y g r a d u a lly i s tra n s fo rm e d
i n t o s ic k s e l f - l o v e , i n t o eg o ism , i n t o w a tc h in g o u t o n ly
f o r h i s own i n t e r e s t s " (p . 30) . S h p a k o v a 's a n a l y s i s , th e n ,
re se m b le s A m e ric a n -s ty le c r i t i c i s m i n th o se p la c e s w here
she p ay s s e r io u s a t t e n t i o n to s p e c i f i c a l l y l i t e r a r y p h e
nomena .
D r e is e r and S te in b e c k
Most S o v ie t c r i t i c s Judge Jo h n S te in b e c k 's The G rapes
o f W rath w ith th e same c r i t e r i a u s e d by c r i t i c s o f An Amer
ic a n T ra g e d y . A gain th e r e i s a c o n s e n su s , th o u g h n o t q u i t e
so u n ifo rm a s w ith D r e i s e r , and a g a in th e r e i s one c r i t i c
who s t r i k e s o u t on h i s own. S o v ie t c r i t i c s o f te n say t h a t
S te in b e c k 's p u rp o se w as to p o r tr a y th e b e g in n in g s o f th e
A m erican p r o l e t a r i a n r e v o l u ti o n , w hich D r e is e r h ad shown
was so n e c e s s a r y . I n s t e a d o f C lyde G r i f f i t h s , m u tila te d
and f i n a l l y d e s tr o y e d by h i s b o u rg e o is e n v iro n m e n t, many
c r i t i c s se e S te in b e c k ’ s Tom Jo ad becom ing a f u l l - f l e d g e d
r e v o lu tio n a r y . I n s t e a d o f f a c t o r y w o rk ers in a sm a ll town
p a s s iv e ly a c c e p tin g e x p l o i t a t i o n by th e lo c a l c a p i t a l i s t
c l a s s , th e y se e S t e i n b e c k 's m ig ra n ts ty p if y in g m i l l i o n s o f
A m ericans d is p o s s e s s e d i n th e D e p re ss io n e r a b an d in g t o
g e th e r to f i g h t th e c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r i t s e l f . And w h ereas
D r e is e r a lm o st a lw a y s fo c u s e s on C lyde and h i s f e e l i n g s ,
S te in b e c k , to S o v ie t c r i t i c a l a p p r o v a l, ra n g e s w id e ly i n
h i s e x p o s ito r y c h a p te r s to p r e s e n t s o c i a l and econom ic
b ack g ro u n d m a t e r ia l an d to p h ilo s o p h iz e on how t h i s m a te -
31
r i a l r e l a t e s to th e m ig r a n ts ' p l i g h t and to t h e i r se n se o f
s o l i d a r i t y .
S o v ie t S te in b e c k C r itic is m B e fo re i 960
S o v ie t c r i t i c s w ere le d by t h e i r warm r e c e p tio n o f
The g ra p e s o f W rath i n 19^0 and 19^1 (s e e below ) to lo o k
a t h i s e a r l i e r w o rk s. They found th e r e an u n a c c e p ta b le
view o f man and s o c ie ty . " P a th o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r s , m en tal
d e g e n e r a te s , e x c e s s iv e p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith b io lo g y and se x —
th e s e c o u ld n o t be accom m odated to th e p r i n c i p l e s o f r e v o
l u t i o n a r y c r i t i c i s m . j n th e f i r s t p o s tw a r y e a r s S o v ie t
c r i t i c s r e i t e r a t e d th e s e o b j e c t i o n s , a p p ly in g them to
S te i n b e c k 's work s in c e The QrapeB o f W ra th : h i s em p h asis on
m a n 's b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c ts was e x c e s s iv e and C annery Row, f o r
ex am p le, was r e a c t i o n a r y . Deming Brown d e s c r ib e s i n d e t a i l
how th e thaw in S o v ie t S te in b e c k c r i t i c i s m c e n te r e d on The
P e a r l . I n 1953 a S o v ie t c r i t i c c a l l e d t h i s work an a tte m p t
to " s tu p e f y , to make a J a c k a s s o f th e r e a d e r , to p o is o n him
w ith th e venom o f p e ssim ism , to in o c u la te him w ith sc o rn
20
and h a t r e d f o r m an." I n o s t r a n n a l a l l t e r a t u r a p r in t e d
The P e a r l i n 1956 j i n 1958 th e t r a n s l a t i o n a p p e a re d in book
form w ith a com m entary s t r e s s i n g th e a u t h o r 's " re v e re n c e
f o r s im p le p e o p le ," a common s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s t t e s t — th e
n o v e lla a ro u s e d "huge a n g e r a g a i n s t i n j u s t i c e and o p p re s
s i o n ." T h is same c r i t i c , h o w ev er, w h ile p r a i s i n g The
P e a r l , s t i l l co m p lain ed o f "p e ssim ism , e x c e s s iv e s e x u a l i t y ,
32
and la c k o f p r o p e r s o c i a l p r o t e s t In su ch w orks a s Cannery-
Row , Sw eet T h u rsd a y , The Wayward B us, and E a s t o f E d en . "
W ritin g a f t e r Brown, th e S o v ie t c r i t i c I . L evidova
d e s c r ib e s how th e s h i f t r e g a rd in g The P e a r l e v e n tu a lly came
to in c lu d e S te in b e c k ’ s o t h e r p o s tw a r w o rk s. "The h u m a n ist
a n ti- b o u r g e o is e m o tio n a l to n e " o f S te i n b e c k 's work h a s n o t
ch an g ed , b u t th e " p h ilo s o p h ic a l u n d e r c u r r e n t" o f th e p o s t
w ar books r e f l e c t s an im provem ent from s h e e r ly " b i o l o g i c a l
'c o g n i t i o n ' to th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f m a n 's m o ra l r e s p o n s i b i l
i t y . " And th e " u n d e rly in g tr e n d s " o f th e w r i t e r 's " p ro b
i n g s ," c o n tin u e s L e v id o v a , now le a d him to s t r i v e f o r more
21
com plex human c h a r a c t e r . What redeem ed S te in b e c k in th e
S o v ie t U nion was The W in te r o f Our D is c o n te n t, w hich was
t r a n s l a t e d and p u b lis h e d th e r e i n 1 9 6 2 . L ev id o v a acknow
le d g e s th e n o v e l 's " s t r u c t u r a l fla w s " y e t f in d s i t " w e ll
and e n g a g in g ly w r i t t e n " ; th e " l y r i c a l n a tu r e " o f th e h e ro
" illu m in e s " th e w h o le; a " s o f t , l y r i c a l iro n y " h i g h l i g h t s
th e sa d u n d e r ly in g them e, th e " a m o ra l b a s i s o f c a p i t a l i s t
c i v i l i z a t i o n . " She c o n c lu d e s h e r a r t i c l e b y s a y in g t h a t
S te in b e c k 's "p e r s o n a l a n sw e r" to th e a w e - in s p ir in g q u e s
t i o n s o f o u r tim e s i s h i s " f a i t h i n th e m o ra l s tr e n g t h and
c o u ra g e o f man" (p . 13) . A s i m i l a r vague humanism s ta n d s
b e h in d some o f th e p r a i s e o f The G rap es o f W rath i n th e
i 9 6 0 ' s .
33
E a r ly S o v ie t C r itic is m o f The G rap es o f W rath
The " g e n e r a l te n o r " o f th e n o v e l 's 1940-1941 c r i t i c a l
r e c e p tio n was "w arm ly l a u d a to r y ," a c c o rd in g to Brown (p .
7 ^ ) . C r i t i c s p r a i s e d th e s e e le m e n ts: p r e c i s e , u n s e n tim e n
t a l r e a lis m , g r a p h ic s i m p l i c i t y , v i t a l i t y and dram a, a u
t h e n t i c c lo s e n e s s to th e s o i l , hum aneness, and p o e tic
tr e a tm e n t o f n a t u r e . They g r e a t l y ad m ired Ma J o a d 's h e r o ic
s tr u g g l e s to h o ld th e fa m ily t o g e th e r , h e r I n c r e a s in g I d e n
t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e m a sse s, and h e r p r o l e t a r i a n u n d e r s ta n d
in g o f th e I n d i v i d u a l . They a ls o w elcom ed Tom J o a d 's
le a r n in g to t h i n k l i k e a r e v o lu tio n a r y and Jim C a s y 's b e
com ing a g e n u in e r e v o lu tio n a r y p r o p a g a n d is t, a lth o u g h th e r e
was some c o n tr o v e rs y a b o u t th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f O asy.
Brown p h r a s e s th e in f lu e n c e o f dogma t h i s way:
I n q u e s tio n in g w h e th e r i t i s p l a u s i b l e f o r a p r e a c h e r
l i k e C asy to become a m i l i t a n t la b o r l e a d e r w ith o u t a
fu n d a m e n ta l tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f c h a r a c t e r , and i n Ju d g in g
Ma Jo a d n o t f o r w hat sh e I s b u t In te rm s o f th e c l a s s -
c o n s c io u s p r o l e t a r i a n h e r o in e she s h o u ld b e , th e c r i t i c s
w ere p e rfo rm in g s t e r n i d e o l o g i c a l d u t i e s , (p . 7 6 )
C r i t i c s a l s o w ere " p ro fo u n d ly im p re sse d " b y th e e x p o s ito r y
c h a p t e r s . The b o o k 's m ost p o s i t i v e i n g r e d ie n t was th e
"g ro w th o f f i g h t i n g s p i r i t and h e ig h te n e d c o n s c io u s n e s s o f
common c a u se " (p . 7 7 ) . S t i l l , th e s e e a r l y c r i t i c s con
c lu d e d t h a t S te in b e c k 's n o v e l was n o t q u i t e a r e v o lu tio n a r y
w ork. I t d o es show t h a t one d ay th e p e o p le w i l l r i s e u p :
th e n o v e l i s th e " p r e c u r s o r ," sa y s R. M ille r -B u d n its k a y a ,
34
o f a "new ep o s o f th e f u tu r e r e v o lu tio n a r y s tr u g g le " i n
A m erica (q u o te d by Brown, p . 8 0 ).
The S o v ie t Im age o f th e A m erican T h i r t i e s
S o v ie t c r i t i c s see i n th e A m erican T h i r t i e s th e m ost
r e v o lu tio n a r y p e r io d s in c e th e C i v i l War— d u rin g th e De
p r e s s io n e r a th e r e was a movement o f A m ericans l i k e S t e i n
b e c k 's Jo a d fa m ily from in d iv id u a lis m to a h ig h e r , a
c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c io u s n e s s . A cco rd in g to M. M endelson, f o r
ex am p le, i n 1936-1939 th e d r iv in g o f p o o r fa rm e rs from
t h e i r la n d re a c h e d " c a t a s tr o p h i c p r o p o r t i o n s ," w ith m il
l i o n s o f men, women, and c h ild r e n w an d erin g a lo n g th e
c o u n t r y 's hig h w ay s lo o k in g f o r w ork. TheBe d is p o s s e s s e d
began to form w hat t h i s c r i t i c c a l l s " c e n te rB o f r e s i s
ta n c e " ; th e w hole c o u n try was i n a c o n d itio n o f im m inent
22
r e v o l t . A. S. M u lia rc h ik , how ever ( l i k e Shpakova on
s o c i a l c o n d itio n s i n th e T w e n tie s ), i s m ore r e s t r a i n e d . He
r e f e r s to th e th o u sa n d s r a t h e r th a n m i llio n s o f d is p o s
s e s s e d farm f a m il i e s and h a s them g o in g to C a l i f o r n i a
r a t h e r th a n w an d erin g th e w hole c o u n t r y . one S o v ie t
c r i t i c w r itin g i n th e S i x t i e s f e e l s o b lig e d to e x p la in how
th e r e v o lu tio n a r y a r d o r o f th e T h i r t i e s s u b s id e d d u rin g
th e p r o s p e r i t y s in c e W orld War I I . H is s o lu t i o n i s to
acknow ledge t h a t th e c r i s i s o f th e T h i r t i e s i s lo n g p a s t
b u t to i n s i s t t h a t i t s b a s ic c a u s e s re m a in . In d e e d , n e i
t h e r th e pow er o f m o n o p o lies and t r u s t s , n o r A m erican
" p s e u d o - e t h i c s ,” w hich a r e t o t a l l y s u b o rd in a te d to b u s i
n e s s , have b e en d e s tr o y e d ; th e y a r e m e re ly h id d e n behind-
o h
th e " f r a g i l e " fa c a d e o f a te m p o ra ry p r o s p e r i t y .
M endelson B re a k s O ld Qround
W ritin g i n th e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 's , M. M endelson a p p ro a c h e s
S te in b e c k 's n o v e l i n m ost r e s p e c t s l i k e th e 1940-1941 c r i t
i c s . F o r ex am p le, b a s in g th e n o v e l 's g r e a tn e s s on i t s r e l a
t i o n to e x t e r n a l f a c t s , he th in k s th e s ix t e e n e x p o s ito r y
c h a p te r s , in w hich S te in b e c k i n t e r r u p t s th e n a r r a t i v e to
g iv e s o c i a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l b a c k g ro u n d , a r e a lm o st th e
h e a r t o f th e n o v e l. F a r from d i g r e s s io n s d e s tr o y in g th e
a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y o f th e n o v e l, th e s e c h a p te r s g iv e a
" summing u p " and "a fo rm in g o f c o n c lu s io n s " (M e n d e lso n 's
i t a l i c s ) . In them S te in b e c k " c o n tin u e s and d eep en s th e
n a r r a t i v e a b o u t th e f e e l i n g s and th o u g h ts o f th e h e ro e s "
(p . 2 9 1 ). And f i n a l l y ( s i m i l a r to w hat A nisim ov s a y s a b o u t
An A m erican T ra g e d y — s e e p . 2 3 ) by th e end o f th e book w ith
t h e i r h e lp , S te in b e c k " le a d s th e r e a d e r s t r a i g h t to th e
c o n c lu s io n t h a t c a p i t a l i s m h a s no r i g h t to e x i s t , t h a t i t s
b a s i s i s c rim e " (p . 291) . Tom J o a d , who b e g in s to se e t h a t
th e d is p o s s e s s e d m ust u n i t e , who le a v e s h i s own fa m ily f o r
th e l a r g e r f a m ily o f a l l A m erican w o rk e rs , and who r i s e s to
b a t t l e f o r th e w o rk e rs ' f u t u r e , em bodies th e n o v e l 's b a s ic
i d e a . The s tr e n g t h o f S te in b e c k 's n o v e l, M endelson co n
c lu d e s , i s l e s s w hat i t i s a s an a r t i s t i c o b je c t a s w hat i t
36
s a y s a b o u t A m erican s o c i a l c o n d itio n s . I t g iv e s a h i s t o r
i c a l l y v a l i d a c c o u n t o f " th e l a s t s ta g e in th e tra n s f o rm a
t i o n " o f th e A m erican f a rm e r, who fo rm e rly owned h i s own
la n d and h ad more o r l e s s a d e q u a te food and s h e l t e r , i n t o
a " m ig ra n t w ith no p r o p e r ty and w ith no c o n fid e n c e in th e
f u t u r e . " Above a l l , th e " lo g ic o f v i t a l t r u t h f o r c e s
S te in b e c k to p o r tr a y th e f i e r c e re s e n tm e n t o f th e w an d erin g
a g r i c u l t u r a l w o rk e rs a t th e m e r c ile s s e x p l o i t a t i o n to w hich
th e y w ere s u b je c te d " (p . 2 8 9 ) .
A More E xtrem e S o c ia l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
Z a s u r s k ii amends th e M endelson re a d in g o f The G rapes
o f W rath i n th r e e r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , he more i n s i B t e n t l y
s t r e s s e s th e r e v o l u ti o n a r y c h a r a c t e r o f th e book. I t s
t i t l e , com ing from th e " B a t t l e Hymn o f th e R e p u b lic " sung
by th e N o rth e rn s o l d i e r s w h ile f ig h t i n g a g a i n s t th e " s la v e
o w n e rs," i s " r e v o lu t i o n a r y ." C hoosing h i s t i t l e from t h i s
so n g , S te in b e c k "com pares th e w ar a g a i n s t s la v e r y and th e
w ar o f h i s h e ro e s a g a i n s t s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e . " 2-5 S econd,
Z a s u r s k ii c a r r i e s M e n d e lso n 's view o f th e e x p o s ito r y c h a p
t e r s to a l o g i c a l e x tre m e . I t i s th e s e c h a p te r s , h e h o ld s ,
t h a t tu r n th e B to ry o f a s in g l e fa m ily o f fa rm e rs I n to a
" s a g a ," i n t o th e " e p i c a l n a r r a t i o n o f th e s tr u g g le o f th e
A m erican p e o p le a g a i n s t an u n j u s t s o c i a l sy stem " (p . 3 3 2 ).
T h ir d , Z a s u r s k ii g iv e s s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m p a r t i a l c r e d i t f o r
S te in b e c k ’ s a c h ie v e m e n t. S te in b e c k su cceed ed n o t o n ly b e
37
c a u se he was c lo s e to th e p e o p le and b e c a u s e he " fo llo w e d
w ith th e p r o to ty p e s o f h i s h e ro e s th e ro a d from Oklahoma to
C a l i f o r n i a . " More I m p o r ta n tly he su c c ee d e d b e c a u se o f h i s
a b i l i t y to " r i s e to la r g e c o n c lu s io n s ," o f w hich th e l i t
e r a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l r e a lis m was I n c a p a b le . In t h i s he was
h e lp e d by th e m odel o f s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m (p . 3 39) .
M u lia rc h ik , O rlo v a , F edorov
I t was p o in te d o u t above (p . 34) t h a t M u lia r c h ik 's
view o f th e n o v e l 's s o c i a l c o n te x t i s more r e s t r a i n e d th a n
M en d elso n 1s . He d i f f e r s w ith M endelson and Z a s u r s k ii in
o t h e r r e s p e c t s a s w e l l , b e g in n in g w ith h i s tr e a tm e n t o f
c o l l e c t i v e c o n s c io u s n e s s , w hich th e y r e g a r d a s th e n o v e l 's
m ain them e. M u lia rc h ik c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to th e " p a s s i v i t y
and u n d e v e lo p e d s t a t e " o f c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s among th e
f a rm e r s . I n s te a d o f r e f e r r i n g , aB o th e r c r i t i c s d o , to th e
sc e n e i n w hich Ma Jo a d s a y s th e p e o p le w i l l e n d u re sim p ly
b e o a u se th e y a r e th e p e o p le , M u lia rc h ik (p . 39) c i t e s th e
sce n e i n w hich th e J o a d s th e m se lv e s become s t r i k e b r e a k e r s .
Tom, a f t e r le a r n in g th e f a c t s , t e l l s Oasy t h a t Pa w i l l
th in k f i r s t o f h i s d a u g h t e r 's n eed o f m ilk r a t h e r th a n th e
c o l l e c t i v e c o n se q u en ce s o f h i s w orking w h ile o t h e r s a r e on
s t r i k e . M u lia r c h ik 's view o f th e e x p o s ito r y c h a p te r s a ls o
d i f f e r s from th e view o f th o s e c r i t i c s who b e lie v e t h a t
th e y make th e n o v e l an e p i c , c o n tr ib u te th e n e c e s s a ry
" la r g e c o n c lu s io n s ," and cem ent th e n o v e l 's v i t a l co n n ec
38
t i o n w ith r e a l i t y . These c h a p te r s , he w r i t e s , a r e l i k e a
G reek c h o ru s , com m enting on b u t by no m eans d is p la c in g th e
n a r r a t i o n (p p . 4 1 -4 2 ).
The m ain em p h asis o f M u lia r c h ik 's a p p ro ac h I s n o t a t
a l l th e d ev elo p m en t on th e p a r t o f Ma and Tom o f a r e v o lu
t i o n a r y c o n s c io u s n e s s , b u t th e s p i r i t u a l and p h ilo s o p h ic a l
g ro w th o f P re a c h e r O asy, whose id e a s he f in d s c l o s e ly bound
up w ith th e a r t i s t i c w hole o f th e n o v e l, a n o th e r s u b je c t
s c a r c e l y m en tio n ed b y th e o t h e r S o v ie t c r i t i c s . 2^ He
p o i n t s o u t f i r s t t h a t C a s y 's b a t t l e i n th e w ild e r n e s s t h e
m a t i c a l l y r e i n f o r c e s S te in b e c k 's p o r t r a y a l o f th e b an k s a s
m o n s te rs . He shows t h a t C a s y 's d e v e lo p in g i n t o a la b o r
l e a d e r i s n o t p r e s e n te d in s t r i c t te rm s o f M a rx is t i d e o l
ogy (th o u g h I th in k one c o u ld t a l k i n d i a l e c t i c a l term s
a b o u t th e s t r u c t u r e o f C a s y 's e x p e r ie n c e ) . F o r C asy, a c
c o rd in g to M u lia rc h ik , " in th e d e p th o f h i s s o u l" re m a in s
f a i t h f u l to h i s i n n e r , r e l i g i o u s com m itm ent to n o n -
r e s i s t a n c e and s a c r i f i c e . C aB y's f a i t h , M u lia rc h ik t h i n k s ,
h a s l i t t l e to do w ith c o n v e n tio n a l C h r i s t i a n i t y and much to
do w ith a s o r t o f h u m a n is tic p a n th e is m , a t th e c e n te r o f
w hich s ta n d s n o t God o r n a tu r e b u t Bim ply th e w orking man.
He q u o te s p a r t s o f C a s y 's s o l i l o q u i e s , su ch a s th e one i n
w hich h e a s k s h im s e lf i f i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t h a t a l l p e o p le
a r e p a r t o f a g r e a t s o u l and th u s h av e i n th e m se lv e s a p a r t
o f t h i s s o u l. He r e f e r s to C aB y's w ords o v e r th e dead
g r a n d f a t h e r , when th e fo rm e r p r e a c h e r s e a rc h e d f o r th e way
39
to e x p r e s s h i s f e e l i n g s and f i n a l l y s a id t h a t he d o es n o t
know w h e th e r th e dead man had been a good o r a b ad man and
t h a t th e q u e s tio n i s n o t im p o r ta n t—w hat i s im p o rta n t i s
h i s h a v in g b een a l i v i n g man (p p . 3 9 - 4 l ) . T h is s u b j e c t —
th e d i g n i t y and n o b i l i t y o f each man ( o r th e p o t e n t i a l i t y
f o r su ch q u a l i t i e s i f th e en v iro n m e n t w ere h e a l t h i e r ) —
M u lia rc h ik i d e n t i f i e s aB th e m ain them e o f th e n o v e l. The
them e, he s a y s , i s b e a u t i f u l l y em bodied in th e s tr u g g l e s
o f b o th C asy and th e J o a d fa m ily to e n d u re , to overcom e
d e s p a ir and th e f e a r o f d e a th . S te in b e c k " p r a is e s th e
v i t a l i n s t i n c t " o f th e J o a d s and s in g l e s o u t t h e i r m ost
im p o rta n t t r a i t s , " p a s s io n f o r re n e w a l, f o r c r e a t i o n , f o r
w ork" (p . 4 l ) .
The Q rap es o f W rath, h e f in d s , i s a " u n i f i e d , o r g a n ic ,
r e a l i s t i c work" i n w hich th e " id e a s o f th e a u th o r and th e
v e ry m ovem ents o f th e b o o k 's h e ro e s m u tu a lly c o m p le te e a ch
o t h e r , c r e a t i n g a n a t u r a l , s y n th e tic u n ity " (p . 4 l ) . T hese
s ta n d a r d s a r e re m a rk a b ly u n lik e th o s e o f th e p r e v io u s ly
d is c u s s e d S o v ie t c r i t i c s .
R. O rlo v a in c lu d e s i n h e r d is c u s s io n o f The Q rap es o f
W rath a p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l i n s i g h t t h a t re m a in s u n d e v e l
oped a s sh e d e v o te s m ost o f h e r sp a c e to a r e p e t i t i o n o f
th e c o n v e n tio n a l S o v ie t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S te in b e c k , she
a r g u e s , w a n ts to make an in d e p e n d e n t and s e c lu d e d w o rld o f
" u n ra u tila te d " h u m a n ity . B u t h i s a s p i r a t i o n s a r e i n v a in ,
f o r su ch a p a t r i a r c h a l w o rld o f sim p le human t i e s no lo n g e r
4o
e x i s t s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . She b e lie v e s t h a t S te in b e c k
p o rtra y B b o th th e r e s u l t s and th e p r o c e s s o f th e " in e x o
r a b l e a n n i h i l a t i o n " o f h i s i d e a l s . B ut t h i s n o te — S t e i n
b e c k ^ n o s t a l g i a f o r a l o s t w o rld — i s sm othered i n m ost o f
h e r e s s a y , w hich r e p e a t s e a r l i e r c r i t i c s ' e u lo g ie s o f Ma
and Tom Jo a d and t h e i r p r e d i c t i o n o f im m o rta lity f o r th e
book b e c a u se o f i t s " a c t i v e , d eep hum anism ."2^ I n a n o th e r
p a r t o f h e r e s s a y O rlo v a a p p ro a c h e s A lfre d K a z in 's h i s t o r i
c a l l y b a se d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n ly to r e t u r n to h e r vague n o -
28
t i o n o f S te in b e c k 's "hum anism ." The Jo a d s w ere s t r i v i n g
f o r th e same th in g m ost A m erican s w anted! a sm a ll home and
g a rd e n , t h e i r own p ie c e o f la n d , p l e n ty o f fo o d and fa m ily
s o l i d a r i t y . B ut th e n sh e r e t u r n s to S te in b e c k 's t e l l i n g
how man i s " s tr e n g th e n in g " h im s e lf , becom ing " f i l l e d w ith
a h ig h e r p u r p o s e ," and r e a l i z i n g t h a t one m ust s e rv e
o t h e r s (p . 159) .
The m ost r e c e n t c r i t i c o f The Q rapes o f W rath , A. A.
F ed o ro v (s e e n o te 2 4 ), a d d s l i t t l e to O rlova and M u lia r
c h ik . In f a c t , h i s d is c u s s io n o f th e n o v e l to u c h e s a l l
th e them es d e v e lo p e d by th e o t h e r c r i t i c s . He s a y s , f o r
ex am p le, t h a t " a lth o u g h th e c r i s i s o f th e T h i r t i e s i s f a r
in th e p a s t , i t s d eep c a u s e s , d e p ic te d by S te in b e c k , have
n o t d is a p p e a re d " (p . 31) . To p ro v e t h a t th e c a u s e s re m a in ,
he r e f e r s n o t to A m erican s o c i a l c o n d itio n s s in c e th e T h ir
t i e s b u t to S te in b e c k *8 l a t e r n o v e l, The W in te r o f Our P i s -
41
c o n te n t, s a y in g I t Bhows th e same In h u m a n ity o f th e Amer
ic a n way o f l i f e o n ly I n c a lm e r tim e s .
Looking a t r e c e n t S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m a s a w h o le .o f An
A m erican T rag ed y and The G rapes o f W rath , one can make
s e v e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s . Most S o v ie t c r i t i c s o f th e two nov
e l s a r e c o n c e rn e d l e s s w ith th e w o rk s' l i t e r a r y q u a l i t i e s
th a n w ith t h e i r s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . H ow ever, su ch c r i t i c s
a s A n isim o v , Z a s u r s k i i , and M endelson p ro b a b ly w ould deny
th e v a l i d i t y o f s e p a r a tin g th e tw o, f o r th e y p r a i s e th e
n o v e ls ' a c c u r a te r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y . And
Z a su rB k li h o ld s t h a t th e e x p o s ito r y c h a p te r s o f The G rapes
o f W rath , th e c h a p te r s m ost l i k e h i s t o r y and le a B t l i k e
f i c t i o n , tu r n th e s to r y o f a s in g l e fa m ily i n t o an " e p ic a l
n a r r a t i o n . " Y et th e r e i s one c r i t i c o f e a c h n o v e l who n o t
o n ly d e v e lo p s an e s t h e t i c l i n e o f th o u g h t b u t a ls o makes
s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e n o v e ls ' s o c i a l c o n te x t t h a t a r e im
p r e s s i v e l y p r e c i s e and l i m i t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n co m p ariso n
w ith w hat th e o th e r s s a y . T h e re f o re , w h ile i t 1 b te m p tin g
to c l a s s i f y A. P. Shpakova and A. S. M u lia rc h ik a s c r l t l c B
i n so m eth in g l i k e th e A m erican m old, t h i s w ould be in a c c u
r a t e . F o r th e y a c c e p t a s th e m ost b a s ic a c h ie v e m e n t o f th e
n o v e ls th e e x p r e s s in g o f s o c i a l t r u t h , a t r u t h made th e
m ore im p re s s iv e b y b e in g o rg a n iz e d i n t o a s u c c e s s f u l a r t i s
t i c form .
42
NOTES
1 . I u s e " e a r l y ” and " r e c e n t" h e re r a t h e r th a n " p r e -
1960" and " p o s t - 1960" b e c a u s e th e r e I s some m a t e r ia l from
th e l a t e F i f t i e s t h a t Brown d o es n o t c o v e r. He I n c lu d e s a
lo n g d is c u s s io n o f p re -1 9 5 5 S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f The Q rap es
o f W rath b u t s c a r c e l y m e n tio n s p re -1 9 5 5 c r i t i c i s m o f An
A m erican T ra g e d y . Brown d o es n o t d is c u s s S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m
s in c e 1955 o f e i t h e r n o v e l.
2 . Deming Brow n, S o v ie t A t titu d e s Toward A m erican
W ritin g ( P r in c e to n , 1962) , p . 2 5 2 .
3 . Q uoted by Brow n, p . 2 5 3 .
4 . I b i d .
5 . T h is p a ra g ra p h I s b a se d on B row n's d i s c u s s io n , p p .
258- 268.
6 . I a . N. Z a s u r s k i i , T eodor D r a lz e r (Moscow, 1 9 6 4 ),
p . 196.
7 . I . A n isim o v , "A m e rlk a n sk a la t r a g e d l l a 1 T r a g ic h e s -
k a la A m erlka" [An A m erican tra g e d y and I n frra g ic A m e ric a J
( in t r o d u c t o r y e s s a y ) , A m e rlk a n sk a la t r a g e d l l a l t r a n s . Z.
V e rs h in in a and N. Q al (Moscow, 1959)> P~ 5- ^he t i t l e o f
A n isim o v 's I n t r o d u c t i o n to th e 1959 t r a n s l a t i o n o f D r e i
s e r 's n o v e l in c lu d e s two t i t l e s , t h a t o f th e n o v e l i t s e l f
and th e t i t l e o f a n o n - f i c t i o n p ro s e work D r e is e r p u b
li s h e d i n 1932, I n T ra g ic A m erica. T h is second w ork h a s
b een p u b lis h e d i n t r a n s l a t i o n and i s one o f th e few D r e is e r
w orks S o v ie t c r i t i c s h av e r e g a rd e d a s g e n u in e s o c i a l i s t
r e a lis m .
8 . A. P . S hpakova, A m e rlk an sk a la d e l s t v l t e l 'n o s t ' v
lz o b r a z h e n il T eo d o ra D r a lz e r a LAmerlcan r e a l i t y i n th e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f tiie o d o re D r e is e r ] (Moscow, 1959)> PP*
4 -1 1 .
9 . V. N. B o g o s lo v s k ii, "T eodor D ra iz e r" i n I s t o r l l a
z a ru b e z h n o i l l t e r a t u r y X X v ek a [H is to r y o f f o r e ig n l i t e r a
t u r e i n th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y J (Moscow, 1963)* P* 6 4 2 .
10. Anisimov, p. 10.
41
c o n te n t, sa y in g i t shows th e same In h u m a n ity o f th e Amer
ic a n way o f l i f e o n ly in c a lm e r tim e s .
L ooking a t r e c e n t S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m a s a w hole o f An
A m erican T ragedy and The Q rap es o f W rath , one can make
s e v e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s . M ost S o v ie t c r i t i c s o f th e two n o v
e l s a r e co n cern ed l e s s w ith th e w o rk s' l i t e r a r y q u a l i t i e s
th a n w ith t h e i r s o c i a l im p l i c a t i o n s . How ever, su ch c r i t i c s
a s A nisim ov, Z a s u r s k ii, and M endelson p ro b a b ly w ould deny
th e v a l i d i t y o f s e p a r a tin g th e tw o, f o r th e y p r a i s e th e
n o v e l s ’ a c c u r a te r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y . And
Z a s u r s k ii h o ld s t h a t th e e x p o s ito r y c h a p te r s o f The Q rapes
o f W rath , th e c h a p te r s m ost l i k e h i s t o r y and l e a s t l i k e
f i c t i o n , tu rn th e s t o r y o f a s in g le fa m ily i n t o an " e p ic a l
n a r r a t i o n . " Y et th e r e i s one c r i t i c o f e a c h n o v e l who n o t
o n ly d e v e lo p s an e s t h e t i c l i n e o f th o u g h t b u t a ls o makes
s ta te m e n ts ab o u t th e n o v e ls ' s o c i a l c o n te x t t h a t a r e im
p r e s s i v e l y p r e c i s e and l i m i t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n co m p ariso n
w ith w hat t h ; o th e r s s a y . T h e re f o re , w h ile i t i s te m p tin g
to c l a s s i f y A. P. Shpakova and A. S. M u lia rc h ik a s c r i t i c s
i n so m eth in g l i k e th e A m erican m old, t h i s w ould b e in a c c u
r a t e . For they a c c e p t a s th e m ost b a s ic a ch ie v e m e n t o f th e
n o v e ls th e e x p re s s in g o f s o c i a l t r u t h , a t r u t h made th e
more im p re s s iv e by b e in g o rg a n iz e d i n t o a s u c c e s s f u l a r t i s
t i c form .
42
NOTES
1 . I u s e " e a r ly " and " r e c e n t" h e re r a t h e r th a n " p re -
1960" and " p o s t - 1960" b e c a u se th e r e I s some m a t e r ia l from
th e l a t e F i f t i e s t h a t Brown d o es n o t c o v e r. He I n c lu d e s a
lo n g d is c u s s io n o f p re -1 9 5 5 S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f The G rapes
o f W rath b u t s c a r c e l y m e n tio n s p r e -1955 c r i t i c i s m o f An
A m erican T ra g e d y . Brown d o es n o t d is c u s s S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m
s in c e 1955 o f e i t h e r n o v e l.
2 . Deming Brown, S o v ie t A ttitu d e s Toward A m erican
W ritin g ( P r in c e to n , 1962) , p . 2 5 2 .
3 . Q uoted by Brown, p . 2 5 3 .
4 . I b i d .
5 . T h is p a ra g ra p h i s b a se d on B row n's d i s c u s s io n , p p .
258- 2 6 8 .
6 . I a . N.
p . 1 9 6 .
7 . I . A ;
k a la A m erlka
I in tro d u c to ry
V e r s h in in a a
A n is im o v 's 1 1 1
s e r 's n o v e l 1 '
and th e t i t l e
11shed i n 193
b een p u b lis h e d
w orks S o v ie t
r e a l i s m .
D r a lz e r (Moscow, 1 9 6 4 ),
t r a g e d i l a 1 T r a g ic h e s -
In frra g lc A m erica J""
a g e d lla T t r a n s . Z.
pT 5 . ih e t i t l e o f
a n e l a t i o n o f D r e i-
o f th e n o v e l i t s e l f
work D r e is e r p u b -
T h is seco n d w ork h a s
s one o f th e few D r e is e r
a s g e n u in e s o c i a l i s t
8 . A. P . S hpakova, A m erlk an sk ala d e l s t v i t e l 'n o s t ' v
lz o b r a z h e n ll T eo d o ra D r a lz e ra [A m erican r e a l i t y In th e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f T heodore D r e is e r ] (Moscow, 1959) » PP»
4 -1 1 .
9 . V. N. B o g o s lo v s k ii, "T eodor D r a lz e r" in I s t o r l l a
z a ru b e z h n o l l l t e r a t u r y XX veka [H is to ry o f f o r e ig n l i t e r a
t u r e i n th e t w e n tie th c e n tu ry J (Moscow, 1963)* P. 6 4 2 .
10. Anisimov, p. 10.
4 3
11. Z a s u r s k ii, p p . 181- 1 8 3 .
12. T heodore D r e is e r , An A m erican T ragedy (C le v e la n d ,
1 9 4 8 ), p . 8 7 1 . A ll q u o ta tio n s from th e Eng11sn t e x t a re
from t h i s e d i t i o n .
13. B o g o s lo v s k ii, p . 6 4 2 . E a r l i e r c r i t i c i s m o f th e
n o v e l 's en d in g was more v a r ie d . A c r i t i c in 1928 saw th e
e n d in g a s e v id e n c e o f D r e i s e r 's in d iv id u a lis m , th e a u th o r
h a v in g "condemned b o u rg e o is J u s t i c e , b o u rg e o is law , and
b o u rg e o is r e t r i b u t i o n " o n ly to a d v o c a te a " s p i r i t u a l s o lu
t i o n to s o c i a l e v i l . " A n o th er c r i t i c saw i t a s a "p o lem ic
a g a i n s t th e C h r is tia n m essage" in Crim e and P u n ish m e n t. A
t h i r d found th e p r e a c h e r 's "u n c tu o u s serm ons" te n d in g to
" d r a in o f f th e m i l i t a n t f o r c e " o f th e n o v e l a s a w h o le.
(A ll th r e e q u o te d by Brown, p . 2 6 0 .)
14 . S hpakova, p . 3 5 .
15. P . 0. M a tth ie s s e n , T heodore D r e is e r (New Y ork,
1 9 5 1 ), P. 209.
16 . Samuel G r i f f i t h s , ow ner o f th e G r i f f i t h s C o lla r
& S h i r t C o ., I n c . , L y c u rg u s, New Y ork, i s C ly d e 's u n c le ;
G i l b e r t , S a m u e l's so n , i s S e c r e ta r y i n th e company and
h e i r a p p a r e n t.
17 . S hpakova, p p . 1 1 -1 8 .
18. An A m erican T rag e d y , p . 1 9 6 .
19 . J . W . T u t t l e t o n , " S te in b e c k i n R u s s ia : The R h e t
o r ic o f P r a is e and B lam e," Modern F i c t i o n S tu d ie s , 11
( 1965) , 8 2 . T h is a r t i c l e on' S o v ie t S te in b e c k c r i t i c i s m
u n t i l a b o u t i 960 i s b a s e d e n t i r e l y on E n g lis h la n g u a g e
s o u r c e s . M ainly i t r e - q u o te s from Brown th e c r i t i c s he
t r a n s l a t e s .
2 0 . T h is and th e n e x t two q u o ta tio n s o f S o v ie t c r i t
i c s a r e ta k e n from Brown, p . 7 8 .
2 1 . I . L ev id o v a, "The P o st-W ar Books o f John S t e i n
b e c k ," The S o v ie t R eview , 4 ( 1963) , 3 . T r a n s la te d from
V o p ro sy l l t e r a t u r y , N. o ( 1902) .
2 2 . M. M endelson, Soyrem ennyl a m e r lk a n s k ll roman [The
c o n te m p o ra ry A m erican n o v e lJ (Woscow, 19&4), p . 2 9 k .
2 3 . A. S. M u lia rc h ik , T y o rc h e stv o Dzhona S te in b e k a
[The c r e a t i v e w orks o f John S te in b e c k ] (Moscow, 19&3), P«
33.
44
24. A. A. F ed o ro v , Dzhon S te in b e c k (Moscow, 1965) ,
p . 31.
2 5 . I a . N. Z a s u r s k i i , A m e rik a n sk a la l l t e r a t u r a X X
veka [T w e n tie th c e n tu r y A m erican l i t e r a t u r e ] (Moscow,
P . 331.
26 . M u lia r c h ik 's tr e a tm e n t o f Casy re se m b le s t h a t o f
F r e d e r ic k I . C a rp e n te r, "The P h ilo s o p h ic a l J o a d s ," C o lle g e
E n g lis h , 2 ( l 9 4 l ) , 3 1 5 -3 2 5 . C a rp e n te r a rg u e s t h a t The
G rap es o f W rath u n i t e s th r e e t r a d i t i o n a l s tr a n d s in Amer
ic a n th o u g h t:' E m ersonian id e a lis m , Ja m e sia n p rag m atism , and
W hitm an’s e a r th y dem ocracy.
2 7 . R. O rlo v a , Potom ki Q e k lb e rry F in n a [D escen d a n ts
o f H u c k le b e rry F in n ] (Moscow, 1 9 6 4 ), p . 157.
28 . K a zin , i n On N a tiv e G rounds (New Y ork, 1 9 ^ 2 ), p .
397s w ro te :
I n th e l i g h t o f S te in b e c k ’ s s tr o n g se n se o f f e llo w
s h ip , h i s sim p le in d ig n a tio n a t so much s u f f e r i n g , th e
J o a d s , w h ile e s s e n t i a l l y sy m b o lic m a r io n e tte s , d id i l
lu m in a te so m eth in g more th a n th e d e s p e r a tio n o f th e tim e :
th e y becam e a l i v i n g and c h a lle n g in g p a r t o f th e f o r g o t
te n A m erican p r o c e s s io n . Though th e c h a r a c t e r s w ere e s
s e n t i a l l y s ta g e c r e a t i o n s , th e book b ro u g h t th e c r i s i s
t h a t had s e v e re d A m ericans from t h e i r h i s t o r y b ack i n t o
i t b y r e c a l l i n g w hat th e y h ad l o s t th ro u g h i t . I t gave
them a d e s ig n , a se n se o f c o n t r o l , w here o u t o f o th e r
d e p r e s s io n n o v e ls th e y c o u ld g e t o n ly th e aim leB S m ani
a c a l bom bardm ent o f r a g e . The leBSon o f th e c r i s i s , so
o f te n r e p e a te d i n th e p r o l e t a r i a n n o v e l and y e t so l i f e
l e s s in i t , was su d d e n ly lu m in o u s: i t was an e v e n t in
h iB to r y , to be u n d e rs to o d by h i s t o r y , to be tra n sfo rm e d
and rem em bered i n h i s t o r y . I t was a s i f S te in b e c k , o u t
o f th e s i m p l i c i t y o f h i s i n d i g n a t i o n , had b een J u s t p rim
i t i v e enough to c a l l men b a c k to t h e i r h u m a n ity , to r e
mind d e p r e s s io n A m erica t h a t a c u l t u r e i s o n ly th e sum
t o t a l o f th e human q u a l i t i e s t h a t make i t u p , and t h a t
" l i f e can g iv e a p e r i o d i c a l b e a tin g to d e a th any tim e ,"
a s a c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t p u t i t , " i f g iv e n a ch an ce and
some h e l p ."
CHAPTER I I I
FOR W H O M THE BELL TOLLS IN SOVIET
CRITICISM SINCE i 960
T h ere was i n th e S i x t i e s a v a s t o u tp o u rin g o f R u ssia n
w r itin g on E rn eB t Hemingway, a s A ppendix A show s. Much
o f t h i s i s n o t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m b u t m em oirs by p e o p le
who h ad some c o n ta c t w ith him , a c c o u n ts o f h i s t r a v e l s ,
new ly d is c o v e re d l e t t e r s , m is c e lla n e o u s f a c t s a b o u t h i s
l i f e , new a t t r i b u t i o n s , and in fo rm a tio n a b o u t u n p u b lis h e d
m a n u s c rip ts . I n S o v ie t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m o f Hemingway
s in c e i 960 th e c e n t r a l e p is o d e was a le n g th y d is c u s s io n o f
F o r Whom th e B e l l T o IIb , w hich c o n tin u e d u n t i l 1968 when
th e f i r s t R u s sia n t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e n o v e l f i n a l l y was
p u b l i s h e d .1 A f te r b r i e f l y o u t l i n i n g S o v ie t Hemingway c r i t
ic is m b e f o r e i 9 6 0 , t h i s c h a p te r c o n c e n tr a te s on S o v ie t
c r i t i c i s m o f h i s " a n t i - f a s c i s t " n o v e l.
S o v ie t Hemingway C r itic is m B e fo re i 960
S in c e 1955 H em ingw ay's w orks have s tim u la te d a s g r e a t
a c r i t i c a l re s p o n s e i n th e USSR a s i n th e 1934-1939 p e r io d ,
when t h e i r p u b l i c a t i o n and c r i t i c i s m f i r s t a p p e a re d t h e r e .
The r e v i v a l began w ith th e p r i n t i n g i n t r a n s l a t i o n o f The
Old Man and th e S e a , w hich " q u ic k ly becam e one o f o u r f a -
______________________________________ 4 5 ________________________________________
46
v o r i t e w o rk s," w r i te s I . F in k e l s h t e i n , w h ile ev o k in g a m ild
• a
c r i t i c a l d eb ate.-* A seco n d p o s t-1 9 3 9 Hemingway n o v e l,
A c ro ss th e R iv e r and I n to th e T re e s , was s e r i a l i z e d i n i 960
by th e J o u rn a l M oskva, th e o n ly re v ie w d is c o v e re d by
S tep h en Ja n P a rk e r b e in g th e th r e e page i n t r o d u c t i o n to th e
4
f i r s t i n s t a l l m e n t ; s in c e th e n , a s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
th e n o v e l h a s r e c e iv e d s c a n t c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n . B ut Hem
in g w ay ’ s t h i r d p o s t-1 9 3 9 n o v e l, F o r Whom th e B e l l T o l l s , ^
haB r e c e iv e d th e o p p o s ite tr e a tm e n t: u n t i l l a t e 1968 i t was
th e o n ly m ajo r Hemingway w ork u n p u b lis h e d in th e S o v ie t
U n io n , b u t th ro u g h o u t th e 1960's i t was w id e ly d is c u s s e d .
The n o v e l p o se s t h i s c h a lle n g e : th e m ost a m b itio u s work by
th e f a v o r i t e A m erican a u th o r i n th e S o v ie t U nion, i t d e a ls
w ith a s u b je c t c lo s e to v i t a l i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s , and i t
som etim es c r i t i c i z e s C om m unists. In d e e d , b o th Deming Brown
and S tep h en Ja n P a rk e r s p e c u la te t h a t th e s ix te e n y e a r em
b a rg o on Hemingway may h av e b een due to th e way i n FW BT h e
d e p ic te d c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f th e S p a n ish C i v i l W ar, i n w hich
th e S o v ie t U nion had in te r v e n e d on th e R e p u b lic a n s id e to
c o u n te r a c t German and I t a l i a n i n t e r v e n t i o n on th e F a s c i s t
s i d e .
S o v ie t a p p ro a c h e s to FW BT a r e ad u m b rated to some e x
t e n t by S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f o th e r Hemingway w o rk s, b o th i n
th e 193^-1939 p e r io d and s in c e 19 5 5 . In th e e a r l i e r p e r io d ,
a c c o rd in g to Brown, c r i t i c s ad m ired h i s s t y l e and th e r u g -
gedneBS o f h i s a p p ro a c h to l i f e , b u t u n lik e A m erican c r i t -
47
l c s th e y d id n o t w r ite o f th e Hemingway "co d e." They
w ished Hemingway would w r ite more on s o c ia l themes and l e s s
on i s o l a t e d , d e s p a ir in g , d e f e a te d f i g u r e s . They t h e r e f o r e
welcomed h i s p r o t e s t i n g in a 1935 New Masses a r t i c l e th e
American g o v e rn m e n t's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e d e a th s o f war
v e te r a n s s e n t to F lo r id a d u rin g th e h u r ric a n e se a so n . They
applauded To Have and Have Not (1937) as an i n d ic a tio n o f
h i s b e g in n in g to t r e a t B o cia l them es from a sound c la s s
p e r s p e c t i v e . They adm ired h i s goin g to S pain in 1936 and
warmly re c e iv e d The F i f t h Column (1938)> a p la y w r i tt e n in
Spain d u rin g th e C iv i l War and g e n e r a l l y panned by American
c r i t i c s . But th e e a g e rly a w a ite d n o v e l on th e C i v i l War
d is a p p o in te d them in i t s u n f l a t t e r i n g p o r t r a i t s o f c e r t a i n
Com intern f ig u r e s and in th e a p p a re n t f u t i l i t y o f i t s
h e r o 's d e a th .
P a rk e r h as w r i tt e n o f th e 1955-1962 "Hemingway Re
v i v a l , " though he does n o t m ention FWBT c r i t i c i s m b ecau se
most o f i t d id n o t ap p e a r u n t i l a f t e r th e p e r io d he c o v e rs.
C r i t i c s arg u ed ab o u t how o p t i m i s t i c The Old Man and th e Sea
i s , some se e in g an u n d e r c u rr e n t o f pessim ism and d e s p a ir .
They approved o f S a n tia g o 's en durance and en d o rsed Heming
way’ s s o c i a l m essage in S a n t i a g o 's r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith the
b o y .^
48
I s s u e s th e Novel R a ise s
A ll S o v ie t c r i t i c s d is c u s s a t le n g th Hemingway’ s h e ro ,
R obert J o rd a n . They a r e a t t r a c t e d by h i s b e in g a young,
p h y s ic a lly v ig o ro u s American i n t e l l e c t u a l , by h i s s e l f l e s s
d e v o tio n to th e R ep u b lican c a u se, by th e p o s i t i v e , e n t h u s i
a s t i c way he d i s c i p l i n e s h im s e lf to f i g h t th e good f i g h t
d e s p ite c e r t a i n p h ilo s o p h ic a l r e s e r v a t i o n s , by h i s m i l i t a r y
s k i l l s , and by h i s a b i l i t y to lo v e and be a c c e p te d by th e
Spanish p e a s a n ts whose h e lp he needs in blow ing up a b rid g e .
But some c r i t i c s a r e tro u b le d by J o r d a n 's r e s e r v a t i o n s —he
i s n o t a Communist and he c o n s c io u s ly r e j e c t s th e Communist
p o l i t i c a l program . M oreover, h i s d e a th seems f u t i l e —he
knows th e o f f e n s iv e w i l l f a i l and t h a t he and h i s comrades
p ro b a b ly w i l l d i e , y e t he goes th ro u g h w ith h i s m issio n and
i s k i l l e d alo n g w ith some o f th e most a p p e a lin g o f th e
S panish p a r t i s a n f i g h t e r s .
T h is f u t i l i t y iB p a r t o f a second elem en t g iv in g d i f
f i c u l t i e s to many S o v ie t c r i t i c s , th e m o tif o f doom p e r
vading th e n o v e l. P i l a r , th e h a l f Gypsy woman who ta k e s
o v er le a d e r s h ip o f th e g u e r i l l a band from h e r drunken h u s
band P ab lo , r e a d s J o r d a n 's palm e a r l y i n th e book b u t does
n o t t e l l him w hat she s e e s . However, she and o th e r s o f te n
h i n t a t what she saw, though Jo rd a n alw ays d is c la im s b e l i e f
in such " s u p e r s t i t i o n . " Prom many o t h e r exam ples o f t h i s
p a t t e r n o f doom m o tif, I c i t e t h r e e . The n a r r a t o r c a l l s
th e ominous and f r e q u e n tly a p p e a rin g F a s c i s t p la n e s "mech
49
a n iz e d doom." G en eral G olz, In e x p la in in g J o r d a n 's m is
s io n , says he n e v e r can p r o p e r ly p la n an o f f e n s i v e — some
th in g alw ays happens to b o tc h I t . The t h i r d concerns a
group o f g u e r i l l a s le d by E l Sordo, a c h a r a c te r S o v ie t
c r i t i c s g r e a t l y ad m ire . Sordo and h i s men Jo in th e e n t e r
p r i s e to blow up th e b r id g e , b u t th e y a re wiped o u t by
F a s c i s t p la n e s a s Jo rd a n and P i l a r ' s band s i t h e l p l e s s l y
s e v e r a l m ile s away, l i s t e n i n g to th e bombs. T h is p a t t e r n
o f doom m o tif i s r e l a t e d to J o r d a n 's th r e e day love a f f a i r
w ith M aria, a young g i r l re sc u e d from F a s c is t im prisonm ent
by P i l a r ' s band. In g e n e r a l S o v ie t c r i t i c s a re much l e s s
b o th e re d by t h i s lo v e a f f a i r and by th e th in g s Jo rd an says
to M aria th a n a re some American c r i t i c s .
Two rem ain in g c h a lle n g e s to S o v ie t c r i t i c s a re th e
o b v e rse o f one a n o th e r: Hemingway o c c a s io n a lly g iv e s a
sy m p a th e tic p o r t r a i t o f a F a s c is t s o l d i e r o r o f f i c e r and he
o f te n in c lu d e s m a t e r ia l u n fa v o ra b le to th e image R u ssian
c r i t i c s have o f th e R e p u b lic a n s. One example o f th e second
ten d en cy e s p e c i a l l y tr o u b le s S o v ie t c r i t i c s . P i l a r t e l l s
Jo rd a n and M aria a b o u t what happened i n h e r v i l l a g e when
th e r e v o lu tio n b eg an . Pablo i n s p ir e d th e r e b e l s to mas
s a c re a l l b o u rg e o is " F a s c is ts " w h ile he p r e s id e d o v er t h e i r
se n te n c in g a t kangaroo c o u rt p ro c e e d in g s. Each " F a s c is t"
was condemned and fo rc e d to march th ro u g h th e v i l l a g e
Bquare where he was b e a te n to d e a th by th e drunken r a b b le
and thrown o v er th e c l i f f a t th e v i l l a g e edge.
50
T h is, th e n , i s th e c h a lle n g e FWBT p o se s to th e S o v ie t
c r i t i c . The m ost a m b itio u s work o f th e f a v o r i t e contempo
r a r y American a u th o r in th e S o v ie t Union ta k e s a s i t s sub
j e c t an e v e n t i n which th e S o v ie t Union was h e a v ily engaged
b o th m a t e r ia ll y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y . T h is work says p r a c
t i c a l l y n o th in g ab o u t th e main re a so n (from th e S o v ie t
p o i n t o f view) f o r th e R ep u b lican d e f e a t — th e b lin d p o lic y
o f n o n - in te r v e n tio n p r a c t i c e d by F ra n c e , E ngland, and above
a l l by th e U n ited S t a t e s . M oreover, th e work su g g e sts t h a t
th e r e were s e r io u s d e f i c i e n c i e s in h e r e n t in th e R epublican
cau se and some a d m ira b le p eo p le among th e F a s c i s t s . R o b ert
Jo rd a n i s an a p p e a lin g young h e ro ; how ever, he does n o t
u n d e rsta n d Communism and though supposed to be i n t e l l i g e n t ,
he d e l i b e r a t e l y goes to a d e a th he knows to be f u t i l e . F i
n a l l y , a key seco n d ary s u b je c t i s th e S panish p e o p le , r e p
r e s e n te d by a c o l l e c t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n t , courageous
p e a s a n ts f i g h t i n g b eh in d th e F a s c i s t l i n e s in a r ig h te o u s
c a u s e —a cause doomed from th e v ery b e g in n in g .
G enre, S u b je c t, and Theme
P a r t o f th e approach o f s e v e r a l S o v ie t c r i t i c s i s
d e s c r i p t i v e ; th e y t r y to d e f in e th e k in d o f n o v el FW BT i s
and to d is c o v e r i t s s u b je c t and them e. R. O rlova, f o r ex
am ple, q u o te s Marx ("One must n o t demand o f a r o s e t h a t i t
sm e ll l i k e a l i l a c " ) , a rg u in g t h a t one can n o t p r o p e rly
e v a lu a te a r t w ith o u t c o n s id e rin g th e a r t i s t ' s i n t e n t i o n .
She says Hemingway had no i n t e n t i o n o f w r itin g a h i s t o r i c a l
51
e p ic . "H is n o v e l d ev elo p s acco rd in g to th e laws o f a n o th e r
g e n re , th e l y r i c a l e p o s, and a c c o rd in g to th e ’law o f th e
Q
i c e b e r g . ’ " She m ight have been borrow ing from th e l a t e
Ivan K ashkin, th e le a d in g S o v ie t Hemingway c r i t i c and, a c -
Q
c o rd in g to P h i l i p Young, one o f th e b e s t anywhere, who
p o in ts o u t t h a t many R ep u b lican sy m p ath iz e rs ex p ected Hem
ingway to produce th e h e r o ic e p ic o f th e S panish C i v i l War.
Kashkin th en q u o te s t h i s s e n te n c e from D eath in th e A f t e r
noon t "A ll bad w r i t e r s w orship th e e p i c . " A ccording to
K ashkin, Hemingway was a w r i t e r o f a " l y r i c a l " tu rn and
th u s he " r e f r a c t e d t h i s la r g e and complex s u b je c t i n t o th e
s in g le t r a g i c f a t e o f h i s hero."'*'®
P a r t o f what S o v ie t c r i t i c s mean by " l y r i c a l " and
" e p ic " i s i n d ic a te d by A. E l i a s h e v ic h ' s c l a s s i f y i n g th e
work a s a " l y r i c " n o v e l w ith "e p ic " q u a l i t i e s . Hemingway’ B
u se o f o m n isc ie n t n a r r a t i o n i s an " e p ic " d e v ic e a s i s th e
fre q u e n t s h i f t o f fo c u s away from J o r d a n . ^ That i s , Hem
ingway alw ays changes th e p la c e o f a c tio n and o f te n shows
s e v e r a l e v e n ts p ro c e ed in g s im u lta n e o u s ly , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f e p ic n a r r a t i o n . B ut, c o n tin u e s E lia s h e v ic h , th e n o v el
" r e t a i n s th e l y r i c a l q u a l i t y o f alw ays showing r a t h e r th an
t e l l i n g . Here th e r e i s a whole li n e o f l y r i c a l h e ro e s i n -
12
s te a d o f J u s t o n e ."
The s u b je c t o f PW BT i s v a r io u s ly seen . E lia s h e v ic h
say s i t i s th e " l i f e o f an a n t i - f a s c i s t " (p. 122) , w h ile
V. Dneprov sa y s th e s u b je c t i s th e S p an ish r e v o lu tio n t
52
A ll e le m e n ts and m o tiv es o f th e n o v el In t h e i r r e a l i s t i c
o r i g i n a l i t y depend on th e t i e w ith t h i s p o e tic and h i s
t o r i c b a s e , and o u ts id e o f t h i s t i e th e r e i s n o t th e
s m a lle s t p o s s i b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a t them, l e t a lo n e f u l l y
u n d e rsta n d in g them.J-3
O rlova i d e n t i f i e s a more a b s t r a c t s u b je c t, th e p o r t r a y a l o f
c e r t a i n " c o n tr a d ic to r y p re m is e s ." In c o n f l i c t a r e " e l e
m en tal em otions and r e v o lu tio n a r y d u ty " ; duty w in s, n o t
e a s i l y , n o t r a p i d l y , and n o t w ith o u t much s u f f e r in g (p.
208). I f theme i s what a work say s o r p r e s e n ts ab o u t i t s
s u b je c t, th e n S o v ie t ap p ro ach es to theme a ls o v a ry . T.
M otyleva and Dneprov a re q u ic k to argue t h a t Hemingway b e
longs in th e t r a d i t i o n o f W estern w r i t e r s a c t i v e l y h o s t i l e
to what th e y c a l l "m odernism ," f o r which th e y have s e v e r a l
synonyms. M otyleva u s e s o n e, " Jo y c is m ," w h ile i n d i c a t i n g
she f e e l s Hemingway's theme by i t s e l f p u ts FW BT o u ts id e
d ecad en t modernisms
There i s a b s o lu t e l y no b a s i s to in c lu d e u n d er th e r u b r i c
"Joycism " such a s i g n i f i c a n t r e v o lu tio n a r y work a s Hem
in g w ay 's FWBT, which even in i t s b a s ic t h e s i s ("man i s
n o t an i s l a n d " ) a c t i v e l y opposes th e m o d e rn is tic id e a o f
i s o l a t i o n . 1* *
Dneprov, a s p r e s e n t l y I w i l l show i n d e t a i l , f in d s Jo rd an
th e a n t i t h e s i s o f a l l he a s s o c i a t e s w ith h i s b e te n o ir e o f
m o d e rn is tic f i c t i o n , th e "K afkaesque h e r o ."
K ashkin ap p ro ach es th e n o v e l's theme a s do th e Amer
ic a n c r i t i c s C a rlo s Baker and P h i l i p Young, from Heming
w ay 's view s tow ard th e S p an ish War e x p re sse d e lse w h e re .
Kashkin q u o te s o f te n from a 1939 l e t t e r Hemingway w rote to
him, in w hich th e a u th o r i d e n t i f i e d h i s own b e l i e f s w ith
53
J o rd a n ’ s . K ashkin combines Hemingway’ s and J o r d a n ’ s t h in k
in g :
T his b rid g e [ th in k s Jo rd a n ] m ight be th e p i v o t , on which
re v o lv e s th e f a t e o f a l l hum anity. I f we win h e r e , we
w i l l win ev eryw here. I f we a re b e a te n h e r e , we w i l l lo s e
a l l t h a t i s d e a r to u s . And i f you g e t mixed up in a
w ar, i t i s n e c e s s a ry to win; b u t we d id n o t succeed in
w inning [Hemingway s a id in h i s l e t t e r ] . We s u s ta in e d
d e f e a t .15
To Hemingway, w r ite s K ashkin, "th e d e f e a t i n Spain was th e
c o lla p s e o f hope f o r a q u ic k l i q u i d a t i o n o f w orld F ascism ,
and he took i t v e ry h e a v i l y ." He th en q u o te s a famous
se n te n c e o f Hem ingway's, "In S p a in , w h ile we b e lie v e d in
v i c t o r y , was th e h a p p ie s t tim e o f my l i f e , " and goes on to
say t h a t " in Spain Hemingway found h i s own c a u s e —a s a
w r i t e r and a s a f i g h t e r " (p. 198).
In O r lo v a 's view th e theme o f FW BT i s l e s s p e rs o n a l
than h i s t o r i c a l —J o r d a n 's d e a th sym bolizes th e t r a g i c end
o f th e S p an ish R e p u b lic . Jo rd an i s a " t r a g i c h ero i n a
t r a g i c s i t u a t i o n , " she w r i te s (p . 2 11). Because man i s
n o t an i s l a n d , J o r d a n ’s d e a th h as meaning and i s n o t fu
t i l e ; he i s p a r t o f a l a r g e r cause which tra n s c e n d s d e a th .
She i n B i s t s , how ever, t h a t she i s n o t e n d o rsin g tra g e d y i n
l i t e r a t u r e a p a r t from h i s t o r i c a l c irc u m s ta n c e s . The t r a g i c
c o n c lu sio n o f FW BT i s a u th e n tic "o n ly f o r a p e rso n li k e
Jo rd an and nam ely o n ly In th o se c irc u m sta n c e s " (p. 211).
54
S o v ie t A n aly ses o f R o b ert Jo rd an
S e v e ra l c r i t i c s , among whom Dneprov I s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ,
d is c u s s Jo rd an more th an a n y th in g e l s e . For Dneprov, Hem
in g w ay 's hero i s a w holly a d m ira b le , a t tim es b e a u t i f u l
f ig u r e , sta n d in g in s p le n d id c o n t r a s t to c h a r a c te r s in
d ecad en t m o d e rn is tic n o v e ls . U nlike th e h e ro e s o f "K afka
esque a n g u is h ," Jo rd an f in d s what he i s to do, p u t tin g t h i s
h ig h e r c a l l above h im s e lf : "Even in th e d ep th o f h i s so u l
i t i s more im p o rta n t to him than he h im s e lf i s . " Jo rd an
e x p e rie n c e s a " u n ity w ith r e a l i t y " t h a t g iv e s him an " in n e r
s t a b i l i t y and c a p a b i l i t y o f g o verning h i s s o u l o f w hich
th e c o n te m p la tiv e and i n n e r - d i r e c t e d c h a r a c te r s o f modern
l i t e r a t u r e can n o t dream ." C h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f Jo rd a n i n
c lu d e s a
p o e tic m o tif o f la r g e p e n e t r a t i n g power: th e m erging o f
p e r s o n a l i t y w ith th e i n t e g r i t y o f th e w o rld , which p o e tr y
u s u a lly d i r e c t s tow ard c o n te m p la tio n o f t h e i r u n i t y , h e re
i s d ir e c te d tow ard a c t i o n , r e a l i z a t i o n , d e e d .1&
Dneprov r e p e a te d ly t a l k s o f J o r d a n 's r e l a t i o n to " r e a l i t y . "
W ith h i s " in te n s e and sh a rp f e e lin g f o r r e a l i t y " (p . 7 0 ),
Jo rd an i s a " r e a l i s t " :
The need to see th e w orld w ith c l e a r eyes i s f o r Jo rd an
d eep ly o r g a n ic . He i s a r e a l i s t n o t o n ly i n h i s sp ecu
l a t i o n s ab o u t r e a l i t y , n o t o n ly in h i s m en tal p i c t u r e s o f
h im s e lf , b u t a ls o i n th e p ro c e s s o f th e m ost e le m e n ta l
s e n s a tio n s , to such an e x te n t i n them i s c o n ta in e d th e
g e n e r a l form o f m astery o f th e su rro u n d in g w o rld , (p.
72)
What Dneprov m ost ad m ires i n Jo rd an i s s e l f - u n i t y com
b in e d w ith s e l f - c o n t r o l . A t th e tim e o f th e m ajor t r i a l —
55
th e b rid g e d e m o litio n — th e su b c o n sc io u s, " d e s p ite what i s
s a id ab o u t i t by F re u d ia n s and th o se l i k e F r e u d ia n s ," comes
to th e a s s i s ta n c e o f th e c o n sc io u s mind (p. 7 2 ) . He
p r a i s e s J o r d a n ’ s d i s c i p l i n i n g h im s e lf in i n t e r i o r mono
lo g u e s, q u o tin g , f o r exam ple, p a r t o f t h i s one:
L is te n , he t o ld h im s e lf . You b e t t e r c u t t h i s o u t. T his
i s bad f o r you and f o r y o u r work. Then h im s e lf s a id back
to him , You l i s t e n , see? Because you a re doing som ething
v ery s e r io u s and I have to see you u n d e rsta n d i t a l l th e
tim e . I have to keep you s t r a i g h t in th e h ead . (FWBT,
p . 304)
Of t h i s Dneprov sa y s, "In t h i s s p i r i t u a l d i s c i p l i n e th e r e
i s a b e a u ty in no ways l e s s th an in th e most b e a u t i f u l h a r
m onies o f n a tu re " (p . 7 6) .
U sing lo g ic t h a t to a n o n -M arx ist m ight be c o n tr a d ic
t o r y , Dneprov seems to th in k " i n d i v i d u a l it y " c o n s is t s o f
subsuming th e c h a r a c te r u n d e r th e r e v o lu tio n a r y s te re o ty p e
and o f having th e c h a r a c t e r overcome a p e rv e rs e tendency
tow ard s u b j e c t i v i t y . J o r d a n ’ s i n d i v i d u a l i t y , f o r exam ple,
" c o n s i s t s in h i s becoming a r e v o lu tio n a r y , more e x a c tly —
he i s le a r n in g to be a r e v o lu tio n a r y " (p . 7 9)*
Jo rd a n t r i e s to m a ste r th e a r t n e c e s s a ry to a r e v o lu tio n
a ry o f o b j e c t i v e l y e v a lu a tin g p eo p le and c irc u m sta n c e s,
and he i s a b le to d is c o u n t th e h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h in th o se
ap p earan ces which s u b je c ti v e l y a re s tra n g e and even u n
p le a s a n t to him. (p . 8 0)
Dneprov co n clu d es h i s a n a l y s is o f Jo rd an w ith t h i s a s s e r
t i o n : "The developm ent o f p e r s o n a l i t y on th e s id e o f sub
j e c tiv is m and on th e s id e o f r e v o lu tio n is m — t h a t i s in d eed
56
th e m ost im p o rta n t a l t e r n a t i v e in th e l i t e r a t u r e o f th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry " (p . 8 0 ).
Though he echoes Dneprov much o f th e tim e, M. M endel-
son makes s e v e r a l c o n tr ib u tio n s o f h i s own. Jo rd a n , he
o b s e rv e s , i s a man o f a h ig h e r p o l i t i c a l c o n sc io u sn e ss than
o th e r American c h a r a c te r s in Hemingway’ s w orks. To i l l u s
t r a t e t h i s he c i t e s a p assag e f r e q u e n tly quoted by American
c r i t i c s :
He fo u g h t now in t h i s war b ecau se i t had s t a r t e d in a
c o u n try t h a t he lo v ed and he b e lie v e d i n th e R ep u b lic and
t h a t i f i t were d e s tro y e d l i f e would be u n b e a ra b le f o r
a l l th o se p e o p le who b e lie v e d i n i t . He was u n d e r Com
m u n ist d i s c i p l i n e f o r th e d u r a tio n o f th e w ar. Here in
S pain th e Communists o f f e r e d th e b e s t d i s c i p l i n e and th e
so u n d e st and s a n e s t f o r th e p r o s e c u tio n o f th e w ar. He
a c c e p te d t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e f o r th e d u r a tio n o f th e war b e
c a u se , in th e conduct o f th e w ar, th ey were th e o n ly
p a r t y whose program and whose d i s c i p l i n e he co u ld r e
s p e c t. (FWBT, p . 163)
The words o f Jo rd a n b e fo re h i s d e a th , c o n tin u e s M endelson,
r in g " p r o u d ly ," and Hemingway p u ts one o f h i s m ost p re c io u s
th o u g h ts in J o rd a n ’s mouth—p e o p le can overcome i s o l a t i o n .
T h is happens in a v ery moving sc e n e . The "young Communist"
Jo a q u in (a member o f S o rd o ’s b a n d ), remembering h i s p a r e n ts
who were m urdered by th e F a s c i s t s , i s a s s u re d by P i l a r ,
M aria, and Jo rd a n o f t h e i r b r o t h e r l y lo v e . "We a re a l l
b r o t h e r s ," say s J o r d a n .1^
E lia s h e v ic h a ls o rem ains in th e Dneprov sc h o o l, b u t
he i s more s o p h is t i c a t e d than Dneprov o r Mendelson in h i s
h a n d lin g o f J o r d a n ’s p o l i t i c s . A ccording to E lia B h ev ic h ,
Jo rd a n sometim es " lo s e s the ground u n d er h i s f e e t " because
57
he i s p o l i t i c a l l y n a iv e . He c i t e s t h i s p a s s a g e , a ls o
q u o te d o f te n by American c r i t i c s :
Y o u 're n o t a r e a l M arxiBt and you know i t . You b e lie v e
in L ib e r ty , E q u a lity and F r a t e r n i t y . You b e lie v e in
L i f e , L ib e r ty and th e P u r s u it o f H ap p in ess. D o n 't e v er
k id y o u r s e l f w ith to o much d i a l e c t i c s . They a re f o r some
b u t n o t f o r y o u . You have to know them in o rd e r n o t to
be a s u c k e r. You have p u t many th in g s in abeyance to win
a w ar. I f t h i s war i s l o s t a l l th o se th in g s a re l o s t .
(FWBT, p . 305)
E lia s h e v ic h a b s o lv e s th e a u th o r , how ever, o f th e crude
n a i v e t l c h a rg e . Hemingway r i s e s above h i s l y r i c a l h ero
r a t h e r th a n i d e n t i f i e s w ith him a s E lia s h e v ic h th in k s he
does w ith Nick Adams, Jake B arn es, and F r e d e ric k H enry.
A lthough Jo rd a n and Hemingway a re c lo s e " s p i r i t u a l l y , " i t
would be m istak en to say t h a t J o r d a n 's view s a r e th o se o f
th e a u th o r . Alone among th e n o v e l 's c r i t i c s ( in c lu d in g
n o n -S o v ie t) E lia s h e v ic h e le v a te s Karkov, th e Pravda c o r-
lfi
re s p o n d e n t, to the s t a t u s o f a m ajor c h a r a c t e r . He then
q u o te s Karkov to su p p o rt h i s view t h a t Jo rd a n does n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y speak f o r Hemingway:
From th e l i p s o f one o f th e n o v e l 's h e r o e s , th e Communist
K arkov, Hemingway d e c la r e s sh a rp , o b je c tiv e Judgments o f
J o rd a n : "He i s n o t v ery d ev elo p ed p o l i t i c a l l y , b u t he
knows th e S p an ish p eo p le v e ry w e ll and i s a v ery v a lu a b le
man f o r work i n g u e r i l l a d e ta c h m e n ts." (p. 123; i t a l i c s
mine)
But E lia s h e v ic h does n o t p u rsu e th e im p lic a tio n s o f view ing
IQ
Karkov i n p a r t i c u l a r ways, n o r does any o t h e r c r i t i c . ^
However, i n th e f i n a l a n a l y s is E lia s h e v ic h l i k e Dneprov
Judges J o rd a n a c c o rd in g to h i s f i t t i n g th e s te r e o ty p e o f
th e a n t i - F a s c i s t " r e v o lu tio n a r y ." P r a is in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
58
too g e n e r a l to be d is p u ta b le (Jo rd an I s "a convinced a n t i -
F a s c i s t , one who d e fe n d s th e I n t e r e s t s o f a l l p ro g re s s iv e
h u m an ity ," p . 1 20), t h i s c r i t i c , l i k e Dneprov and Mendel
son, s n ip e s a t h e ro e s in d e c a d e n t, m o d e rn is tic n o v e ls .
J o r d a n 's courage i s t h a t o f th e " r e v o lu tio n a r y , n o t th e
courage o f th e i s o l a t e d f ig u r e co n d u ctin g an u n eq u al war
w ith r e a l i t y w h ile b u r ie d in h i s own em otions and p a s s io n s "
(p. 120) .
These c r i t i c s p r a c t i c a l l y b e a t i f y Jo rd a n . However,
R. O rlova and Ivan K ashkin re c o g n iz e th e need to defend
Jo rd an a g a in s t th e ch arg e r a i s e d by many Am ericans o f b e
in g a sim p le to n .
O rlova im p lie s t h a t Hemingway had a sound a r t i s t i c
reaso n f o r n o t making Jo rd an more complex—he d id n o t want
too g r e a t a d is ta n c e betw een h i s American i n t e l l e c t u a l h ero
and h i s S panish p e a s a n t h e r o e s . "Each o f th e [ p a r t i s a n s ]
i s g iv en by th e w r i t e r h i s own complex in n e r w o rld , n o t
l e s s complex th an th e w orld o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l Jo rd a n "
(p. 2 0 9 ). The v i t a l i t y o f th e S panish p a r t i s a n s to a g r e a t
e x te n t does seem i n t e l l e c t u a l ! th e y t a l k a s p ro fo u n d ly o f
t h e i r p a s ts a s J o rd a n th in k s to h im s e lf o f h i s , th e y a re
o fte n more w i t t y th a n Jo rd a n , p e rh a p s more s e n s i t i v e to r e
l a t i o n s h i p s , and th e s e p e a s a n ts have such a r e l a t i v e l y f u l l
u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e R e p u b lic ’ s s tr e n g th s and w eaknesses
t h a t i t i s s u r p r i s i n g S o v ie t c r i t i c s do n o t devote more
space to them. As O rlova im p lie s , th e a u th o r m inim izes th e
59
i n t e l l e c t u a l d is ta n c e between them and th e A m erican, making
J o r d a n 's s u p e r i o r i t y m ainly m i l i t a r y (he can sh o o t, blow
up b r id g e s , and q u ic k ly g iv e a p p r o p r ia te o r d e rs in an emer
gency) .
Kashkin m eets th e sim p leto n ch arg e h ead -o n . He says
t h a t l i k e th e book i t s e l f , th e h ero i s f a r from b e in g one
d im e n sio n a l. In e f f e c t c o n tr a d ic tin g Dneprov, who p r a i s e s
J o r d a n 's s e l f - u n i t y , Kashkin w r ite s t h a t Jo rd an i s a p erso n
d e e p ly d iv id e d who l i v e s co m p lete ly s e p a ra te d day and n ig h t
l i v e s . In d a y lig h t and w ith p e o p le , he a c ts b o ld ly , w ith
o u t r e f l e c t i o n ; B le e p le s s and i n t r o s p e c t i v e a t n i g h t , he
d o u b ts, and t h i s c o n f l i c t betw een day and n ig h t n e v e r
c e a s e s . "And n ig h t th o u g h ts a re n o t f o r th e m orning. The
so b e r n ig h t th o u g h ts o f Jo rd an ab o u t th e f u tu r e a r e no l e s s
p a i n f u l th an th e n ig h t th o u g h ts o f F re d e ric k Henry" (pp.
18 2 -1 8 3 ). M oreover, Kashkin w r i t e s , i n th e l a s t h o u r o f
l i f e ,
i n th e h a l f - f e a r o f imminent d e a th , he w avers, choosing
betw een th e f a t e o f h i s f a t h e r , whom p h i l i s t i n e s le d to
s u ic id e , and th e f a t e o f h i s g r a n d f a th e r , p r e s e r v in g in
h im s e lf th e r e f l e c t i o n o f th e h ero ism o f th e [American]
C i v i l War. (p . 183)
K ashkin does n o t l a b e l FW BT a B1ldungsrom an, b u t l i k e se v
e r a l American c r i t i c s he su g g e sts t h a t though spanning a
mere th r e e d a y s, th e n o v el d e p ic ts th e e d u c a tio n and matu
r a t i o n o f R o b e rt Jo rd a n .
Thus, in th e s h o r t tim e o f h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e "war
f o r a w o rth w h ile l i f e " Jo rd a n goes down th e p a th from
60
i l l u s i o n s , to a r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i s b e in g doomed, and he
f u l f i l l s h i s assig n m en t in a manly way. (p . 185)
Kashkin a ls o d efen d s Jo rd a n a g a in s t th e ch arg e o f b ein g too
i d e a l i z e d , too much th e superhum anly b ra v e and co o l w ar
r i o r .
Hemingway does n o t i d e a l i z e h i s h e ro . He knowB t h a t war
c u l t i v a t e s in a p e rso n th e q u a l i t i e s n e c e s s a ry f o r th e
co n d u ct o f w ar. Hemingway le a d s Jo rd a n th ro u g h th e c r u
c i b l e o f th e H o te l G aylord in o r d e r to r e f i n e away th e
w e ll known n a i v e t l o f a p e rso n n o t v e ry c r i t i c a l o f e x
p e r ie n c e . (p . 194)
In s p i t e o f K arkov’ s Judgment t h a t Jo rd a n was w eakly d e
v elo p ed p o l i t i c a l l y , K ashkin rem inds u s t h a t Karkov a ls o
c a l l e d J o rd a n a v a lu a b le , h ig h ly s k i l l e d p a r t i s a n . F i n a l
l y , K ashkin a s s e r t s t h a t Jo rd a n " J e a lo u s ly sought to p r o
t e c t h i s ’in d e p e n d e n c e ,’ h i s r i g h t to th in k ’o b j e c t i v e l y ’ "
(p . 194).
We s e e , th e n , two S o v ie t ap p ro ach es to Jo rd a n . F i r s t ,
th e c r i t i c s o f th e "Dneprov sc h o o l" f i n a l l y Judge Jo rd an
i n term s o f h i s b ein g a r e v o lu tio n a r y . The second ap
p ro a c h , t h a t o f Kashkin and O rlo v a, presum es c r i t e r i a t h a t
a r e s i m i l a r to th o se i n s ta n d a rd American comment; th e y see
in J o rd a n a f ig u r e o f more th an one dim ension and w ith i n
n e r c o n f l i c t , who d ev elo p s o v e r th e c o u rse o f th e n o v el in
a f i n a l l y c o h e re n t way.
S o v ie t and American C r itic is m
S o v ie t and American c r i t i c i s m d iv e rg e r a t h e r s h a rp ly
on two i s s u e s , th e Jo rd a n -M a ria lo v e a f f a i r and th e con-
61
t r a d i c t i o n s o r Iro n y In th e n o v e l’ s s t r u c t u r e . S o v ie t
c r i t i c s o f th e Dneprov sc h o o l u n i v e r s a l i z e th e s ig n if ic a n c e
o f th e Jo rd a n -M a ria r e l a t i o n s h i p . Dneprov h im s e lf re g a rd s
t h e i r lo v e as a p o w erfu l r e c o n c ilin g fo rc e :
In th e love o f Jo rd an and M arla o p p o s ite s flow i n t o h a r
mony: p a s s io n u n i t e s w ith humane te n d e rn e s s , i n s t i n c t
w ith s p i r i t , wisdom w ith c h i l d l i k e n a iv e te , th e cosmic
w ith th e p e r s o n a l, (p. 68)
E lia s h e v ic h em phasizes th e c o n t r a s t between th e a f f a i r ’s
s p i r i t u a l b e a u ty and th e w o rld ’ b u g lin e s s :
T his love becomes a proud summons to th e w orld o f v io
len ce and e v i l . I t tu r n s o r d in a r y e x is te n c e i n t o man
k in d ’ s most b e a u t i f u l , e le v a tin g f e e lin g and opposes t h i s
to th e bloody c r u e l t y o f w ar. (p . 122)
The h e ig h t o f u n i v e r s a l i z i n g i s K ozhinov’ s d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t
th e lo v e o f J o rd a n and M aria i s much more th an "an o r d i
n a ry , s m a ll- s c a le lo v e t a l e . " I t sym bolizes a "Europe-w ide
c o n f l i c t : th e e x p e rie n c e d American and a sim ple p e a s a n t
g i r l . T h e ir lo v e i s a ls o h i s b a t t l e a g a in s t P ascism j in
20
f a c t i t i s a f u l l and p u re e x p re s s io n o f t h a t s t r u g g l e ."
K ashkin, on th e o th e r hand, w h ile n o t f in d in g f a u l t
w ith th e love s c e n e s , d e v o te s l i t t l e space to them and
c a r e f u l l y q u a l i f i e s h i s judgm ent: M aria s e rv e s to make th e
c h a r a c te r o f J o rd a n more c o n c r e te .
With th e ap p earan ce o f M aria th e d u ty o f Jo rd a n f in d s a
c o n c re te human warmth. . . . (p . 213)
In th e love tow ard M aria i s c o n c e n tra te d a l l th e b e s t o f
what he lo v ed f o r th e l a s t tim e . (p . 203)
A fte r th e second o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts Kashkin q u o te s th e
62
p a ssa g e some American c r i t i c s have tro u b le ta k in g s e r i
o u s ly :
"I lo v e th e e a s I lo v e a l l t h a t we have fo u g h t f o r [ J o r
dan t e l l s M aria in h i s s le e p in g bag t h e i r la B t n ig h t t o
g e t h e r ] . I lo v e th e e a s I lo v e l i b e r t y and d i g n i t y and
th e r i g h t s o f a l l men to work and n o t be hungry. I love
th ee a s I lo v e M adrid t h a t we have defended and a s I love
a l l my comrades t h a t have d ie d . And many have d ie d .
Many. Many. Thou c a n s t n o t th in k how many. But I love
th ee a s I lo v e what I lo v e m ost in th e w orld and I love
th ee m ore. I love th e e v ery much, r a b b i t . More th a n I
can t e l l th e e . B ut I say t h i s now to t e l l th e e a l i t t l e .
I have n e v e r had a w ife and now I have th e e f o r a w ife
and I am happy." ( FWBT, p . 3^8)
S ta n le y Cooperman c a l l s t h i s sp eech " s u r e ly th e most pom
pous d e c l a r a t i o n o f a man to h i s woman in any lo v e -sc e n e o f
pi
modern l i t e r a t u r e . " Lloyd F rankenberg p ro b a b ly speaks
f o r many who f in d th e love a f f a i r u n co n v in cin g : i t i s "one
o f th e moBt i n s i p i d l o v e - s t o r i e s e v e r to escape th e dim e-
s to r e c o u n te r s , which m ight have been la b e le d : 'I n and Out
pp
o f th e S le e p in g Bag w ith P aul and V i r g i n i a . '" S o v ie t
c r i t i c s , how ever, f in d J o r d a n 's d e c l a r a t i o n s d i g n i f i e d and
a p p r o p r ia te r a t h e r th a n "pompous," s in c e Jo rd an i s g iv in g
h i s l i f e f o r th e id e a s he m e n tio n s, and nowhere do th e y
r i d i c u l e th e lo v e sc e n e s. At l e a s t two American c r i t i c s
a g r e e .
Jo se p h W arren Beach j u s t i f i e s J o r d a n ’s "pompous" d ec
l a r a t i o n s , and F. I . C a rp e n te r p e rh a p s too in g e n io u s ly g lo r
i f i e s th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e lo v e s c e n e s . Beach i s
r e p ly in g to Ray B. W est, J r . ' s p r o t e s t t h a t J o rd a n ' b g en
e r a l i t i e s on l i f e and l i b e r t y " a re n o t sh arp enough to
63
c a r r y the e m o tio n a l w eig h t p u t upon th e m ," 2^ b u t i n d i r e c t l y
he r e p l i e s to Frankenburg and Cooperman a s w e ll. A know l
edge o f th e whole novel j u s t i f i e s many d e t a i l s , Beach sa y s,
in c lu d in g J o r d a n 's sim ple and g e n e r a l s ta te m e n ts about what
he b e l i e v e s and why he i s f i g h t i n g . Beach p o in ts o u t t h a t
th e c o n te x t o f J o r d a n 's i n t e r i o r monologue on L if e , L ib e rty ,
and th e P u r s u it o f H appiness (q u o te d on p . 57) > i d e a l s sim
i l a r to th o se in th e "pompous" lo v e d e c l a r a t i o n , r e v e a ls
t h a t Jo rd an i s " a s much aware a s Mr. West t h a t he i s m outh-
24
in g r h e t o r i c a l s te r e o t y p e s ." Beach goes on to say t h a t
" h is em o tio n al a tta c h m e n t to what l i e s b eh in d th e s e conven
t i o n a l symbols in B pite o f t h e i r in ad eq u acy i s a good e x
ample o f th e m u ch -d esid e ra te d iro n y " s in c e Jo rd a n , l i k e
Jak e B arnes and F r e d e ric k Henry, i s " s u s p ic io u s o f th e b ig
ho llo w words" and i s "d e term in ed to b rin g a l l a b s t r a c t i o n s
to th e t e s t o f p r a c t i c a l e x p e r ie n c e ." 2-^
As Beach s u g g e s ts , th e s e a rc h f o r ir o n y i s a c o n sp ic u
ous f e a tu r e o f American FW BT c r i t i c i s m . Some S o v ie t c r i t
i c s a re as much d i s t r e s s e d by what th ey c a l l " c o n tr a d ic
ti o n s " as American c r i t i c s a re d e lig h te d by what th ey c a l l
" c a r e f u l l y b a la n c e d p a t t e r n s o f ir o n y ." The f i r s t c o n tr a
d i c t i o n , i n th e o p in io n o f S o v ie t c r i t i c s , i s th e p re se n c e
in Hemingway's r e v o lu tio n a r y work o f e p iso d e s u n fa v o ra b le
to th e R e p u b lic a n s, such aB th e m assacre d e s c rib e d by P i l a r
which Pablo le d . The second in v o lv e s ta k in g a p o s i t i v e
h ero along w ith r e a l i s t i c , co urageous p e a s a n ts b ra v e ly
64
s tr u g g lin g to g e th e r in a n o b le c a u se , and then dooming th e
s tr u g g le from th e o u t s e t .
Dneprov t r i e s to e x p la in P ablo*s m assacre i d e o l o g i
c a l l y and e s t h e t i c a l l y . The m assacre i s i n c r e d i b l e because
"we, l i v i n g th ro u g h O ctober and th e C iv il War" know t h a t
th e f i r s t a c t o f th e p e o p l e 's r e v o lu tio n i s not an a c t o f
re v e n g e . N e v e rth e le s s , he a c c o u n ts f o r th e i n c i d e n t . The
scene o f mob r u l e d e s c rib e d by P i l a r i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o u tb u r s t o f " p e tty b o u rg e o is elem en ts" i s o l a t e d from th e
main s tr e n g th o f th e r e v o lu tio n in to th e m ost narrow
c i r c l e s . The e p i s o d e 's a r t i s t i c d e f e c t, a c c o rd in g to
Dneprov, i s t h a t b ecau se he d id n o t p u t h i s in v e n te d p i c
t u r e in th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f c l a s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n th e n a
t i o n as a w hole, Hemingway "contam inated th e im ages w ith
l i m i t a t i o n s o f l o c a l c o n te n t, d e p riv in g them o f th e con-
e lu s io n n e c e s s a ry to a g e n e r a l p o e tic id e a " (p. 8 6 ) .
On t h i s i s s u e c r i t i c s in th e Dneprov sch o o l do n o t
echo th e te a c h e r . I . Anisimov and Mendelson d e a l a t le n g th
w ith th e " c o n tr a d ic tio n s " in th e b a s ic t h r u s t o f FWBT,
A n isim o v 's method b ein g th e c ru d e r o f the two. A dm itting
t h a t th e R ep u b lic a n s o c c a s io n a lly may have been g u i l t y o f
u n n e c e ssa ry c r u e l t y , Anisimov says Hemingway goes too f a r
i n tr y in g to e q u a te th e in f r e q u e n t s in s o f th e R e p u b lican s
2 7
and th e s y s te m a tic bloody deeds o f th e F a s c i s t s . ' And
t h i s i s what he haB to say ab o u t th e p a t t e r n o f dooms
65
P e n e tra te d by moods o f in e s c a p a b le p essim ism , th e n o v el
r e v e a ls th e a u t h o r ’s f a i l u r e to u n d e rs ta n d th e h i s t o r i c
id e a o f th e S panish e v e n ts in i t s f u l l d e p th , and a ls o
th e meaning and r o le o f th e n a t i o n a l mass in th e u n f o ld
ing o f th e g ra n d io se s tr u g g le w ith fa sc is m , which was,
as i t w ere, th e p ro lo g u e to World War I I . (p. 242)
Anisimov f e e l s a s i f Hemingway d e l i b e r a t e l y te a s e d th o se
w ith M arx ist s e n s i b i l i t i e s , r a i s i n g t h e i r hopes f o r a genu
in e P r o le t a r i a n n o v el w ith an a t t r a c t i v e American h ero o n ly
to b e tr a y them:
For th e f i r s t tim e i n a n o v e l o f Hemingway and h o ld in g an
im p o rta n t p la c e in th e n o v e l i s a c o n v in cin g p o r t r a i t o f
th e m asses r i s i n g to p r o t e c t t h e i r r i g h t s and t h e i r f r e e
dom. And f ig h t i n g in t h e i r ra n k s i s an American dem ocrat.
A ll t h i s i s p u t u n d er th e Donne e p ig ra p h and th ey go to
meet t h e i r doom. Doom m o tifs do n o t s p o i l th e whole
n o v e l, b u t th e y p re v e n t th e r e v e a lin g o f a new, m ajo r con
te n t in a l l i t s s tr e n g th , (p . 243)
In h is approach to th e n o v e l’ s c o n t r a s t i n g e le m e n ts,
Mendelson p r e s e r v e s a sense o f b a la n c e . The b e s t c h a p te r s ,
he s a y s , a re th e most " r e a l i s t i c " o n e s, in which th e r e a d e r
can see p r a c t i c a l l y w ith h i s own ey es what i s happening,
28
b o th th e sm all and th e la r g e t h i n g s . FW BT i s c lo s e to
th e b e s t t r a d i t i o n s o f " c l a s s i c a l a r t i s t i c p ro se " (p . 165) .
What Mendelson means by t h i s g e t s c l e a r e r when he w r i te s o f
th e c h a r a c t e r s , f o r th e y a f f e c t him so s tr o n g ly t h a t th e y
ta k e p re c e d e n ce o v er th e doom m o tif:
In t h i s n o v el r i s e to t h e i r f u l l h e ig h t h e ro e s who speak,
n o t to c o n c e a l t h e i r th o u g h ts , b u t to e x p re ss th e m se lv e s,
h e ro e s who do n o t s t r i v e to lo c k th em se lv es up in an a r
t i f i c i a l m icrocosm , who do n o t p o u r o u t from th e empty
in to th e e m p tie r in o rd e r to a v o id b ack b reak in g g ra p p lin g
w ith th e problem s o f th e w orld a t larg e * r a t h e r , th e y
b o ld ly go to meet th o se p ro b le m s, (p . 165)
66
In d e e d , Mendelson I s so fond o f th e n o v e l t h a t th e way he
p h ra s e s p a r t o f h i s c r i t i c i s m o f th e p a t t e r n o f doom Im
p l i e s r e c o g n itio n o f a c e r t a i n Hemingway s u c c e s s , a s u c c e ss
th e c r i t i c r e g r e t s . Of P i l a r ' s re a d in g J o r d a n 's palm and
n o t t e l l i n g him what she saw th e r e (a lth o u g h th e r e a d e r
knows th e m issio n In some sen se I s doomed), Mendelson a t
th e end o f a p a ra g ra p h say s t h a t t h i s m o tif " p e n e tr a te s
i n t o th e s o u l o f th e re a d e r" (p . 1 7 0 ). I b such p e n e tr a tio n
a good th in g ? P erhaps n o t, a s th e b e g in n in g o f th e n e x t
p a ra g ra p h s u g g e s ts , b u t I th in k th e comment rem ain s am big
u o u s. The c r i t i c b e g in s h i s n e x t p a ra g ra p h ,
U n fo rtu n a te ly , n o t o n ly th e image o f Jo rd an b u t th e
g e n e r a l to n e o f many c h a p te r s c a r r y th e im p rin t o f t h a t
h o p e le s s n e s s t h a t overpow ered th e w r i t e r a f t e r
Munich. . . . (p . 170)
E lsew here he w r i te s o f e lem en ts which American c r i t i c s
p r a i s e in th e name o f ir o n y . In FWBT Hemingway's t a l e n t
f o r c r e a tin g an e m o tio n a l atm osphere c o n t r a d ic tin g th e
s u rf a c e f a c t s a t tim es p la y s an " in s id io u s " r o l e (p . 169) .
Mendelson c o n t r a s t s th e way J o r d a n 's s to r y i s t o l d w ith
S o r d o 's , th e l a t t e r s u f f e r in g from no f a t a l i s t i c f o re s h a d
ow ing. And he r e g r e t s Hemingway's s u g g e stin g t h a t th e o f
f e n s iv e f o r th e sake o f which J o rd a n was to blow th e
b r id g e , in b e in g doomed from th e o u t s e t , r e f l e c t s th e u l
tim a te f a t e o f th e whole R ep u b lican c a u s e . But u n lik e
Dneprov and Anisim ov, Mendelson d i l u t e s h i s c en su re when
he say s i t i s n a t u r a l t h a t Hemingway would want to u n d e r
67
s ta n d th e so u rc e s o f th e R ep u b lican d e f e a t . F u rth erm o re,
in c o n t r a s t to a 1947 a r t i c l e in which he m ain ta in e d t h a t
Hemingway's tre a tm e n t o f A ndrl M arty and o th e r " i n t e r n a
t i o n a l f i g h t e r s " was " a b s o lu te ly d i s t o r t e d , " 2^ i n h i s 1964
book Mendelson c r e d i t s Hemingway w ith c o r r e c t l y showing
some o f th e weaker s id e s o f th e R ep u b lican camp. The c r i t
i c now say s t h a t in h i s d e p ic tio n o f th e " p e r s o n a lity o f
Andr6 M arty, th e a u th o r w ith i n c r e d u l i t y and sad n ess e n
grav ed some o f th e d a rk te n d e n c ie s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e
p e rio d o f th e c u l t o f p e r s o n a l i t y " (p. 169) .
In c o n t r a s t to o th e r S o v ie t c r i t i c s Kashkin does n o t
dw ell e i t h e r on th e m assacre o f th e F a s c is t s o r on th e
m o tif o f i n e v i t a b l e c a la m ity . Of th e m assacre he makes
th e i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e rv a tio n t h a t i t i s a n o v e lla g r a t u i
to u s ly i n s e r t e d ; i t sh o u ld have been p u b lish e d as a se p
a r a t e work. He a t t r i b u t e s th e c o n tr a d ic to r y o r i r o n i c
s t r u c t u r e o f th e n o v e l to Hemingway's I n te n ti o n o f p o r t r a y
in g b o th s i d e s , th e good and th e bad in th e L o y a lis t camp,
b u t he does n o t condemn th e p a t t e r n o f doom. About th e
n o v el a s a whole he r a t h e r g u a rd e d ly sa y s, "U n o b tru siv e ly
and w ith o u t p r e s s u r e , u s in g a r t i s t i c Images and th e lo g ic
o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , Hemingway p u ts in th e novel one e t h
i c a l problem a f t e r a n o th e r" (p . 201) .
F ar from weakening th e n o v e l, th e doom m o tif and th e
t a l e s o f R ep u b lican a t r o c i t i e s arjd w eaknesses c o n tr ib u te
im p o rta n tly to th e iro n y American c r i t i c s adm iring th e
68
n o v e l u se to su p p o rt t h e i r p o s i t i o n . To th e c r e d i t o f th e
n o v e l, f o r example, R o b ert Penn Warren w r ite s th a t i t s
iro n y i s " s u b tle r " th a n th e iro n y in To Have and Have N ot,
w hich has th e sim ple k in d in " d i r e c t l i n e w ith th e o s te n
s i b l e s u rfa c e d i r e c t i o n o f th e s t o r y . But the more
s u c c e s s f u l iro n y in FWBT ru n s "c o u n te r" to t h i s d i r e c t i o n ,
c o n clu d es W arren. E. M. H a l l i d a y 's f i n a l e s tim a te i s b a se d
s q u a re ly on s u c c e s s fu l u se o f what he c a l l s th e "am b ig u ity
o f i r o n y ." "The n o v el i s Hemingway’s f u l l e s t work so f a r
in scope and a r t i s t i c r e a l i z a t i o n , and to i t s f u l f i l l m e n t
th e am b ig u ity o f iro n y c o n tr ib u te s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t . " ^ 1
To sum up, th e n , S o v ie t c r i t i c s do c o n tr ib u te i n s i g h t s
t h a t should be welcomed by even th o se Americans most unsym
p a t h e t i c to S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m . E lia s h e v lc h o b liq u e ly sug
g e s t s t h a t th e Communist Karkov can be re g a rd e d as a norm
a c c o rd in g to which one can Judge th e a c t i v i t y in th e Gay
lo r d H o te l; Kashkin makes th e i n t e r e s t i n g p o in t t h a t th e
e p iso d e o f P a b lo ’s m assacre co u ld be re g a rd e d as a s e l f -
c o n ta in e d whole g r a t u i t o u s l y i n s e r t e d in th e n a r r a t i v e ;
O rlova o b se rv e s t h a t a sound re a so n f o r J o r d a n 's n o t b e in g
made more complex i s to make c r e d ib le th e i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y
o f th e p e a s a n ts ; K ashkin, a g a in , makes a case f o r view ing
J o rd a n a s more complex th an p e rh a p s O rlova and many Amer
ic a n c r i t i c s a re w i llin g to concede.
M oreover, i n t h e i r approach to th e n o v el as a w hole,
c r i t i c s i n th e "Dneprov sch o o l" a t tim es rem ind one o f
C a rlo s B a k e r's p a n e g y ric . In d eed , a s p e c i f i c resem blance
may be found betw een E lia s h e v i c h ’ s (see p . 5 1) and B a k e r's
d is c u s s io n s o f th e e p i c a l a s p e c ts o f FWBT, t h i s tim e th e
S o v ie t c r i t i c a p p e a rin g more m oderate. For B aker, FW BT i s
n o t o n ly "a p ro se e p ic o f th e S panish p eo p le " and a " liv in g
exam ple" o f how "th e e p ic q u a l i t y must p ro b a b ly be p r o
j e c te d " i n modern tim e s , b u t i t i s "above a l l a t r a g ic
e p ic " w orthy o f com parison w ith th e I l i a d . B a k e r conven
i e n t l y ig n o re s L io n e l T r i l l i n g ’s o p in io n t h a t FWBT i s more
melodrama th an tra g e d y b ecau se o f th e " e s s e n t i a l in n e r
d u lln e s s o f th e h e ro ." ^ 3 Both Iv an Kashkin and P h ilip
Young ta k e a m oderate p o s i t i o n . K a s h k in 's c a r e f u l l y q u a l
i f i e d Judgment o f th e whole was qu o ted on page 6 7 . Young
c a l l s th e book "a v ery good n o v el which d is p la y s th e g i f t s
■ah
t h a t Hemingway a t h i s b e s t alw ays h a d ."-, Young has two
main r e s e r v a t i o n s . Modern r e a d e r s , he sa y s, have " r e g r e t
f u l l y found" t h a t th e " b i t t e r n e s s and c y n icism o f A F a re
w e ll to Arms r in g somehow t r u e r th a n J o r d a n 's e x p re s s io n s
o f f a i t h and b e l i e f , w hich he hopes a re tru e " (p . 106) .
Second, M aria i s so e t h e r e a l , so b e a u t i f u l and charm ingly
su b m issiv e t h a t in Y oung's o p in io n she does n o t come a c ro s s
a s a c h a r a c te r o f whose p h y s ic a l e x is te n c e th e r e a d e r can
co n ceiv e (pp. 10 8 -1 0 9 ). N e v e rth e le s s , p e rh a p s Young and
l e s s c irc u m sp e c t American c r i t i c s lik e Frankenburg and
Oooperman sh o u ld weigh K a sh k in 's s u g g e stio n t h a t M a ria 's
f u n c tio n — a r t i s t i c a l l y —i s to make Jo rd a n a more c o n c re te
c h a r a c te r . One m ight a ls o o b se rv e th e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f
th e 70 h o u rs a c h ie v e d w ith th e h e lp o f th e romance. As to
J o r d a n 's "pompous" sp e e c h e s, th e d ra m a tic s e t t i n g p erh ap s
j u s t i f i e s them. He i s sp eak in g in S p an ish to a sim ple
though f a r from n a iv e S p an ish g i r l , and t h e r e f o r e what he
say s p ro b a b ly sh o u ld n o t be Judged o u t o f c o n te x t in r e l a
t i o n to sp eech es o f o th e r modern h e ro e s .
D e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t h i s t o r i c a l l y th e S p an ish C iv il
War was c l o s e r to S o v ie t i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s th an were
th e s u b je c ts o f An American Tragedy and The Grapes o f
W rath, S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f For Whom th e B e ll T o lls in th e
S i x t i e s was c o n s id e ra b ly more v a r ie d th an c r i t i c i s m o f th e
D r e is e r and S te in b e c k n o v e ls . T h is i s th e more s u r p r is in g
in view o f th e a r t i s t i c c h a lle n g e s posed by For Whom th e
B e ll T o l l s : a n o b le c a u se , an a d m ira b le h e ro , a p p e a lin g
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e p e o p le ; y e t th e cause i s doomed from
th e o u t s e t . The h e ro goes to a d e a th he knows to be f u t i l e ,
and th e p e o p le sometim es a r e a s b a r b a r ic as th e F a s c is t
enemy.
P erhaps th e r e a re e x c e s s e s i n S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f th e
n o v e l, e s p e c i a l l y i n s e v e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Jo rd a n and
th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f h i s a f f a i r w ith Mfcria. But th e s e a re
m atched by th e e x c e s se s o f th o se American c r i t i c s who i n
t e r p r e t J o r d a n 's d e c l a r a t i o n s and th e lo v e scen es o u t o f
c o n te x t. S o v ie t c r i t i c s a r e more r e c e p tiv e to se n tim e n t
th an a re American c r i t i c s , who a r e c o n s ta n tly on th e lo o k -
71
o u t f o r Iro n y , which can be u sed to j u s t i f y what th ey th in k
i s th e se n tim e n ta lis m o f e s p e c i a l l y th e Jo rd an -M aria a f
f a i r . T his p r e ju d ic e a g a in s t s e n tim e n t c a u se s P h ilip Young
to sa y , in th e name o f "modern r e a d e r s ," t h a t th e " b i t t e r
n e ss and cy n icism o f A F a re w e ll to Arms" a r e "somehow t r u e r
th a n J o r d a n 's e x p re s s io n s o f f a i t h and b e l i e f . " Thus Kash-
k i n 's guarded Judgm ent, to th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , r in g s t r u e r
th an Y oung's. K ashkin, i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d , i n a sta te m e n t
t h a t i s more s q u a re ly based on e s t h e t i c s th a n Y oung's,
w ro te t h a t "U n o b tru siv e ly and w ith o u t p r e s s u r e , u sin g a r
t i s t i c images and th e lo g ic o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , Hemingway
p u ts i n th e n o v el one e t h i c a l problem a f t e r a n o th e r ."
72
NOTES
1. Po kom z v o n lt k o lo k o l, ed . E. K alashnikova and
o t h e r s , E r n e s t Khemlnguel: S o b ran ie s o c h ln e n ll [E rn e s t Hem
ingway: C o lle c te d w o rk sJ, 3 (Moscow, 19&8), Io Y -6 l2 .
2. O th er s i g n i f i c a n t S o v ie t Hemingway c r i t i c i s m in
th e s i x t i e s in c lu d e d a book by th e l a t e Ivan Kashkin and
a r t i c l e s by I . F i n k e l 's h t e i n , E. S o lo v 'e v , and V. V. N i
k i t i n . K ashkin was th e le a d in g S o v ie t Hemingway c r i t i c and
h i s book E r n e s t Khemlnguei (Moscow, 1966) , e s p e c i a l l y in
i t s l a s t c h a p te r , "Form— C o n te n t— Form” (pp. 232-275) » p r e
s e n ts h i s c o n s id e re d view s a f t e r t h i r t y y e a r s o f s p e c i a l
iz i n g in Hemingway's w orks. T h is c h a p te r i s n o t o n ly im
p o r ta n t i n S o v ie t Hemingway c r i t i c i s m ; i t s ta n d s o u t i n a l l
S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m s in c e i 960 o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry American
f i c t i o n . Thus, i t i s diB cussed in th e "C onclusion" (Chap
t e r VI) o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . What Kashkin say s a b o u t For
Whom th e B e ll T o lls , o f c o u rse , i s in c lu d e d in t h i s chap
t e r .
F i n k e l 's h t e i n h as p u b lis h e d a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s in
th e s c h o la r ly J o u rn a l o f th e O o r'k o v s k ii P ed a g o g ic a l I n s t i
t u t e o f F o re ig n Languages which I have th u s f a r been u n a b le
to o b ta in . H ere a re th e t i t l e s : " E rn e s t Hemingway's Book
o f S t o r i e s In Our T im e," "On Two S hakespearean M o tifs in
th e C re a tiv e Work o f hem ingw ay," "On Problem s o f th e S to
r i e s o f Hemingway," "On Hemingway's Novel The Sun Also
R i s e s , " "Im ages o f R e v o lu tio n a r ie s i n th e C r e a tiv e Work o f
Hemingway." He a ls o h as w r i t t e n a r t i c l e s which I have re a d
on f o re ig n c r i t i c i s m o f Hemingway and on S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m
o f Hemingway (se e B ib lio g r a p h y ).
S o l o v 'e v 's e s sa y "The C o lo r o f Tragedy; On th e C re
a t i v e Work o f E. Hemingway," Novyl m lr, No. 9 (1 9 6 8 ), pp.
206- 235, c o n c e n tr a te s on s t o r i e s , n o v e ls , and o th e r p ro se
from th e T w enties and T h i r t i e s b u t n o t in c lu d in g For Whom
th e B e ll T o l l s . H is s u b je c t i s th e " m o ra l- p h ilo s o p h ic a l
theme o f Hemingway, th e theme o f man, i n s i s t i n g on h i s d ig
n i t y in c o n d itio n s which i t would seem t o t a l l y e x clu d e i t "
(p . 207).
N ik itin r e c e n t l y p u b lis h e d an a r t i c l e "On Hemingway's
N o v ella The Old Man and th e S e a ," V e s tn lk Moskovskogo u n l -
v e r s l t e t a , No. 1 (19&9)* PP. 41-52" N i k i t i n a rg u e s t h a t
th e " g r e a t in n o v a tiv e s ig n if ic a n c e " o f t h i s work c o n s is t s
in i t s "re so u n d in g w ith a g en u in e hymn to th e w orking man"
73
whereaB b e fo re Hemingway had shown a l e s s e x a lte d though
p e r f e c t l y s in c e r e " r e s p e c t f o r th e av erag e man" (p . 4 2 ).
3. I . F i n k e l *s h t e i n , " S o v e tsk a ia K r itik a o Kheming-
u e" [S o v ie t C r itic is m o f Hemingway], V oprosy l l t e r a t u r y ,
No. 8 (1967)* p . 176. S t a r l k 1 more; p o v e s t' [The Ola Man
and th e Sea; A N o v e lla ] was p u b lis h e d in Moscow, 195b* hy
Pravda p u b lis h in g house a f t e r a p p e a rin g in I n o s tr a n n a la
l l t e r a t u r a , No. 3 (1955)*
4. Stephen Ja n P a rk e r, "Hemingway's R e v iv a l in th e
S o v ie t Union 1955-1962," in Roger A s s e lin e a u , e d ., The L i t -
e ra rg ^ R e p u ta tio n o f Hemingway in Europe (New York, 1965)>
5. F i r s t p u b lis h e d by S c r ib n e r 's in O cto b er, 1940;
h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d to a s FWBT. Q u o ta tio n s from th e E n g lis h
t e x t a r e from t h i s e d i t i o n .
6 . Deming Brown, S o v ie t A ttitu d e s Toward American
W ritin g ( P rin c e to n , 1962) , pp. 297- 3 1 5.
7. P a rk e r, pp. 180-182.
8 . R. O rlo v a, "0 r e v o l i u t s i i i l i u b v i , o z h lz n i i
s m e rti" [On R e v o lu tio n and Love, On L ife and D e a th ],
Zvezda, No. 1 (1 9 6 4 ), p . 207- The law o f th e ic e b e r g , o f
c o u rs e , r e f e r s to Hemingway's o f t- q u o te d s ta te m e n t i n D eath
in th e A fternoon t h a t a w r i t e r may om it what he knows.
L ike an Ic e b e rg , what th e a u th o r knows and o m its w i l l th en
com prise th e s e v e n -e ig h th s o f th e work below th e s u r f a c e .
S o v ie t c r i t i c s r e g a rd t h i s a s a b a s ic p r i n c i p l e in W estern
l i t e r a t u r e o f c r i t i c a l r e a lis m . See D. Z a to n s k ii, " P r i n t -
s ip a is b e rg a " [The ic e b e r g p r i n c i p l e ] i n h i s Vek d v a d t-
s a t y l t zam etkl o l l t e r a t u r n o l forme na Zapade [frhe tw en
t i e t h c e n tu ry : o b s e rv a tio n s on l i t e r a r y f o r m i n th e W est]
(K iev, 1961), pp. 103-138.
9. P h i l i p Young, "Our Hemingway Man," Kenyon Review,
26 (1 9 6 4 ), 694. -----------------------
10. Iv an K ashkin, E r n e s t Khemlnguel (Moscow, 1966) ,
P. 195.
11. No S o v ie t o r American c r i t i c h a s , to my know ledge,
s y s te m a tic a lly examined p o in t o f view i n FW BT in r e l a t i o n
to th e w o rk 's s t r u c t u r e . Such a s tu d y m ight he more th an
a r o u tin e e x e r c is e in r h e t o r i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . For a -
w h ile i n th e n o v el th e n a r r a t i o n p ro ceed s th ro u g h th e con
s c io u s n e s s o f J o rd a n ; su d d en ly (p. 5 8) n a r r a t i o n sw itc h e s
to th e c o n s c io u sn e s s o f P i l a r . T h e r e a f te r i t moves r a t h e r
74
f r e e l y , a t tim es to scen es away from P i l a r ' s band, which
g e n e r a l l y i s a t th e c e n te r . P a r t o f such a stu d y would
a n a ly z e th e r h e t o r i c o f J o r d a n 's i n t e r i o r monologues in
w hich th e n a r r a t i o n p ro c e e d s w ith Jo rd a n a d d re ss in g h im s e lf
i n th e second p e rso n . What would emerge from such a stu d y
would be Wayne B o o th 's im p lie d n a r r a t o r , th e co n cep t n e c e s
s a ry to s e rio u s c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e n o v e l 's s t r u c t u r a l
u n i t y .
12. A. P. E lia s h e v ic h , " C h e lo v e k a n e lz ia p o b e d it:
zam etki o tv o rc h e s tv e E rn e s ta Khemingueia" [Man can n o t be
d e f e a te d : o b s e rv a tio n s on th e works o f E rn e s t Hemingway],
V oprosy l l t e r a t u r y , No. 1 (1 9 6 4 ), p . 124.
13. V. Dneprov, C h erty romana XX veka [ C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry n o v e l] (Moscow and L eningrad,
1965) , p . 68.
14. T. M otyleva, Z arubezhnyl roman segodnla [The
F o re ig n n o v e l to d ay ] (Moscow, 1966) , p . 3 b .
1 5 . K ashkin, p . 1 9 8.
16. Dneprov, p . 71.
17. M. M endelson, Sovremennyl a m e rik a n sk il roman [The
contem porary American n o v e lJ (Moscow, 1964), p . lb b .
18. Karkov u n d e rta k e s th e e d u c a tio n o f Jo rd a n , i n t e r
p r e t in g f o r him th e scen es i n th e G aylord and l a t e r i n th e
n o v e l f o r th e r e a d e r , and he in te r v e n e s on b e h a lf o f An
d r e s . Andres i s th e m essenger tr y in g to g e t J o r d a n 's mes
sage to G eneral Golz so th e o f f e n s iv e w i l l be c a l l e d o f f .
19. C arlo s B aker i n E r n e s t Hemingway: The W rite r a s
A r t i s t (P rin c e to n , 1956) p o in ts o u t t h a t th e fu n c tio n of'
Ans'elmo i s to e x em p lify th e " r i g h t human norm ," "to se rv e
a s a y a r d s t i c k o f human v a lu e s " (p. 2 4 3 ). Karkov can a ls o
fu n c tio n a s a k in d o f norm f o r th e w orld o f th e H o te l Gay
lo r d and f o r th e Communists in g e n e r a l.
20. Y. Kozhinov, "R ealism i d e i s t v i e v sovrem ennoi
l i t e r a t u r e " [R ealism and a c tio n in contem porary l i t e r a t u r e ] ,
I n o s tr a n n a ia l l t e r a t u r a , No. 5 ( 1963)* P. 191.
21. S ta n le y Cooperman, "Hemingway's B lue-eyed Boy:
R o b e rt Jo rd a n and 'P u rg in g E c s t a s y ,'" C r itic is m , 8 ( 1906) ,
93.
75
22. Lloyd F rankenberg, "Themes and C h a ra c te rs In Hem
in g w ay 's L a te s t P e r io d ," S outhern Review, 7 (1 9 4 2 ), 780.
2 3 . Ray B. W est, J r . , " E rn e s t Hemingway: The F a ilu r e
o f S e n s i b i l i t y , " in W illiam Van O 'Connor, e d ., Forms o f
Modern F ic tio n (M in n eap o lis, 1948), p . 95*
24. Jo sep h Warren Beach, "How Do You Like I t Now,
Gentlem en?" in C a rlo s B aker, e d ., Hemingway and H is C r i t
i c s : An I n t e r n a t i o n a l A nthology (New York, 1 9 b l) , p . 2 3 9 .
2 5 . C a rp e n te r, by i d e n t i f y i n g a s e r i e s o f sym bolic
tr a n s f o r m a tio n s , g l o r i f i e s th e lo v e scen es f u l l y a s much a s
do th e S o v ie t c r i t i c s c i t e d above. The su c c e ssio n o f lo v e
e x p e rie n c e s , he s a y s, le a d s Jo rd a n to th in k o f te le s c o p e d
tim e , o f i n t e n s i t y o f e x p e rie n c e r a t h e r than d u r a tio n , a s
th e prim e v a lu e . W ithin t h i s te le s c o p e d e x p e rie n c e o f tim e
C a rp e n te r seeB th e s e tr a n s f o r m a tio n s . M aria sym bolizes th e
m a r io la tr y o f th e S p an ish Church; th e C iv il War becomes a
v e r s io n o f a l l h i s t o r y s in c e th e R eform ation com pressed i n
sym bolic tim e ; J o r d a n 's love f o r t h i s modern M aria th u s b e
comes b o th a f u l f i l l m e n t o f h i s t o r y and a tra n sc e n d e n c e o f
th e o ld , p re -M a ria sense o f tim e a s d u r a tio n . T h is p r o c
e s s , a c c o rd in g to C a rp e n te r, y i e l d s th e r e a l s u b je c t o f
FWBT:
T h is i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f e x p e rie n c e u n d er th e em o tio n al
s t r e s s o f love o r w ar, r e s u l t i n g i n an e c s ta s y t r a n
scending th e t r a d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f tim e and o f s e l f ,
and p ro d u cin g a "system o f b e l i e f " v e rg in g on th e myth
i c a l , i s th e s u b je c t o f FWBT, b o th i m p l i c i t l y and e x p l i c
i t l y .
F. I . C a rp e n te r, "Hemingway A chieves th e F i f t h D im ension,"
in B aker, e d ., Hemingway and H is C r i t i c s , pp. 196- 1 9 9.
26. Hugh Thomas in h i s The S p an ish C iv i l War (New
York, 1961) says t h a t th e m assacre r e l a t e d by P i l a r in FWBT
i s "n e a r to th e r e a l i t y o f w hat happened in th e superb
A n d alu sian town o f Ronda. There 512 were m urdered in th e
f i r s t month o f th e war" (p. 176) .
2 7 . I . Anisim ov, "Khemlnguel i nashe vrem ia" [Heming
way and o u r tim e ], Znamla, No. 9 ( 1965)* P» 243.
28. M endelson, p . 164.
2 9 . Quoted by Brown, p . 311-
76
30. R o b ert Penn W arren, " E rn e st Hemingway," in John
W. A ld rid g e , e d ., C r itiq u e s and E ssays on Modern F ic tio n
1920-1951 (New Y ork, 1952J, p . 453.
31. E. M. H a llid a y , "Hemingway’ s A m biguity: Symbolism
and I r o n y ," in R o b ert P. Weeks, e d ., Hemingway: A C o lle c tio n
o f C r i t i c a l E ssay s (Englewood C l i f f s , 195 2 ;, p . 6 9 .
32. C a rlo s B aker, Hemingway: The W rite r a s A r t i s t
( P rin c e to n , 1956), p . 24Ti
3 3 . L io n e l T r i l l i n g , "An American in S p a in ," The P a r-
t i s a n R ead er, ed. W illiam P h i l i p s and P h i l i p Rahv (New
York, 19^6), p . 640.
34. P h i l i p Young, E rn e s t Hemingway: A R e c o n s id e ra tio n
(U n iv e rs ity P ark , P a ., 1 9 b b ), p. 10b7
C H A PTER IV
SOVIET CRITICISM OP WILLIAM FAULKNER
S o v ie t F a u lk n e r c r i t i c i s m began in 1955 w ith an essay-
on a tim e ly s u b je c t, a n ti- w a r m o tifs in h i s w o rk s .1 I t
c o n tin u e d w ith two e ssa y s in 1958 b u t from th en u n t i l 1964
was lim ite d to a few re v ie w s. S in ce 1964 R u ssian F au lk n er
c r i t i c i s m has rem ained a t a l e v e l o f one o r two essayB a
y e a r , p lu s rev iew s and p a r t s o f books devoted to l a r g e r
s u b je c ts . About h a l f o f t h i s c r i t i c i s m has been on works
t r a n s l a t e d and p u b lish e d i n th e S o v ie t Union: th e Snopes
2
t r i l o g y , I n tr u d e r in th e D ust, and a s s o r te d s t o r i e s .
P robably th e most n o tic e a b le tendency i s to view F a u lk n e r’ s
c a r e e r a s p ro g re s s in g f i t f u l l y tow ard re a lis m and to re g a rd
th e Snopes t r i l o g y ( e s p e c i a l l y The Mansion) as h i s supreme
achievem ent. However, S o v ie t c r i t i c s d is c u s s many o f h i s
o th e r w orks, g iv e c o n c e n tra te d a t t e n t i o n to The Sound and
th e Fury, and in th e d e t a i l s o f t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s con
tin u e to d is p la y th e v a r i e t y t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e d t h e i r c r i t
ic ism o f For Whom th e B e ll T o l l s .
A pproaches to F a u lk n e r’s Work as a Whole
In h e r p a th -b re a k in g d is c u s s io n o f F au lk n er in 1955*
E. Romanova tr a c e s F a u lk n e r 's a t t i t u d e toward war from
77
78
S o l d i e r 's Pay and th e e a r l y s to r y "V ic to ry " to A F a b le , then
h i s l a t e s t p u b lish e d n o v e l. In th e f i r s t two w orks, F a u lk
n e r p o rtra y e d th e o r d in a r y s o l d i e r sim ply as a " t r a g i c v i c
tim " o f an " a ll- p o w e r f u l e le m e n ta l f o r c e ." In A F a b le ,
how ever, th e S o v ie t c r i t i c found a more m ature " p r o t e s t
a g a in s t th e c r u e l and s e n s e le s s b lo o d l e t t i n g " o f World War
I . D e sp ite h i s f re q u e n t m o rb id ity , F au lk n er sought to
" r a is e th e v alu e o f th e human p e r s o n a l i t y in th e ey es o f
h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s, to d efen d th e r i g h t o f man to p e rs o n a l
i n v i o l a b i l i t y ." - ^ Rom anova's approach i s lim ite d , a s Deming
ii
Brown a p p r o p r ia te ly o b s e rv e s , b u t one m ight add t h a t
F au lk n er gave th e c r i t i c o c c a sio n to a s s e r t m an's " r i g h t "
to " p e rso n a l i n v i o l a b i l i t y , " term s which may have seemed
Bomewhat i r o n i c to S o v ie t r e a d e r s in 1955* f o r S t a l i n 's
t e r r o r was n o t to be a tta c k e d u n t i l th e T w en tieth P a rty
C ongress in F e b ru a ry , 1956.^
The n e x t c r i t i c a l p ie c e , fo c u sin g on The Hamlet and
The Town, ad o p ted a more r i g i d s ta n c e , which Brown s u g g e sts
was "p ro b a b ly th e r e s u l t more o f h a b i t th an i n t e n t " (p .
182). In t h i s 1958 a r t i c l e R. O rlova and L. Kopelev argue
t h a t F a u lk n e r 's o u tlo o k i s " i n t e r n a l l y c o n tr a d ic to r y and
e c l e c t i c , " f o r i t com bines v a l i d h u m a n istic id e a s w ith
" b ig o te d , r e t r o g r a d e , p a t r i a r c h a l i l l u s i o n s , " b a s ic m ate
r i a l i s t i c e lem en ts w ith " fe u d a lism and even m y stic ism ."
F a u lk n e r 's tr o u b l e , th e y c o n c lu d e, i s h i s ig n o ra n c e o f " th e
genuine laws o f s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l developm ent, which a re
79
co n sp icu o u s in th e developm ent o f h i s S n o p e se s."^ "In
s h o r t . . . a good co u rse in Marxism would he j u s t th e
th in g f o r W illiam F au lk n er" (Brown, pp. 181-182).
In h i s su rv ey o f S o v ie t F au lk n er c r i t i c i s m u n t i l i 9 6 0 ,
Brown o v erlo o k ed th e second 1958 e s sa y , a p ie c e by th e Hem
ingway s p e c i a l i s t Ivan K ashkin which P. P a l i e v s k i i c a l l s
(a s o f 1964) th e b e s t S o v ie t stu d y o f Faulkner.*^ Kashkin
a p p e a rs to answ er O rlova and Kopelev b e fo re going on to
o u t l i n e h i s own view s. He f i r s t says t h a t F au lk n e r i s i n
t e r e s t e d in th e human s o u l, n o t s o c ie ty . On th e n o v e l i s t ’ s
knowledge o f " th e g en u in e s tr e n g t h s o f human p r o g r e s s ," a
form ula in te rc h a n g e a b le w ith O rlova and K o p e le v 's "genuine
laws o f s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l d ev elo p m en t," K ashkin o b s e rv e s ,
"He does n o t know, does n o t want to know, and i s n o t a b le
to know" th e s e s tr e n g th s (p. 164). I t would seem t h a t
Kashkin d i r e c t s t h i s d e l i b e r a t e o v e rs ta te m e n t a t O rlova and
K o p e le v 's t r i t e fo rm u las.
F or K ashkin th e o v e r a l l purpose o f th e Yoknapatawpha
"e p ic " i s th e a tte m p t to save o r p re s e rv e an " id e a liz e d "
a t t i t u d e tow ard th e p a t r i a r c h a l p e rio d o f th e American
South. From th e p o in t o f view o f an a r i s t o c r a c y p a i n f u ll y
c o n scio u s o f i t s own d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , F a u lk n e r shows th e
S outhern s t a t e s in a l l t h e i r c o m p le x ity . In n o v el a f t e r
n o v e l, a s K ashkin i n t e r p r e t s them, F au lk n er t r a c e s th e c o r
r u p tio n o f su cceed in g g e n e r a tio n s o f S o u th e rn e rs . In t h i s
p ro c e s s he f in d s th r e e them es: th e h i s t o r i e s o f s e v e r a l
g e n e r a tio n s o f w h ite s e t t l e r s and th e l i f e o f Negroes and
80
In d ia n s su rro u n d in g them, th e e n tra n c e o f N o rth ern immi
g r a n t s i n t o th e " s ta g n a n t swamp" o f th e South, and th e
complex r e l a t i o n s o f w h ite s and b la c k s . In e s tim a tin g
F a u lk n e r 's s t a t u r e , Kashkin c a l l s him a w r i t e r " in th e
h i g h e s t d eg ree c a p r ic io u s and u n e v e n ," who can w r ite " l a
c o n ic , i n t e n s e and p o lis h e d " n o v e ls and a t th e same tim e
a llo w h im s e lf to p a s te to g e th e r "fra g m e n ta ry " n o v e ls such
a s W ild Palms from "crumbly" and "long-w inded" s t o r i e s (pp.
1 7 4 -1 7 5 ).
The n e x t th r e e s i g n i f i c a n t p ie c e s o f S o v ie t F au lk n e r
c r i t i c i s m d a te from 1964. W hile th e y fo llo w O rlova and
K opelev in r e g a rd in g th e Snopes n o v e ls a s th e h ig h p o in t
o f F a u lk n e r ’ s c a r e e r , S t a r t s e v g iv e s th e m ost r i g i d i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n , M endelson o f f e r s a p e c u l i a r m ix tu re o f t r i t e n e s s
and le a rn e d a n a l y s is , and P a l i e v s k i i more c o n s i s t e n t l y e s
cap es a narrow dogmatism.
Of a l l S o v ie t c r i t i c s S t a r t s e v ta k e s th e most n e g a tiv e
a t t i t u d e tow ards F a u lk n e r 's 1929-1936 n o v e ls , th e work
W estern c r i t i c s u s u a lly see a s h i s g r e a t e s t c r e a t i v e
a c h iev em en t. B ecause o f th e n a tu r e o f th e American South,
I t i s p a r t l y u n d e rs ta n d a b le , S t a r t s e v a llo w s , t h a t F au lk n er
in th e s e works sh o u ld p o r tr a y l i f e a s " t r a g i c and irre d e e m -
O
a b le c h a o s ." A ccording to th e S o v ie t c r i t i c , th e re g io n
h a s r e t a i n e d many a n te -b e llu m t r a i t s and to t h i s day r e
m ains a c e n t e r o f p e r s e c u tio n and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . F au lk n e r
s e a rc h e s f o r a m oral fo cu s by tr y in g to show th e c o n tr a d ic -
81
t l o n s " l a c e r a t i n g ” l i f e c lo s e to him. But th e n o v e l i s t
ta k e s s a t i s f a c t i o n from h i s "m e ta p h y sic a l e v i l " ( S t a r t s e v 's
q u o te s) and r e f u s e s to seek i t s r e a l so u rc e s in economic
and c l a s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; th u s th e s e n o v e ls show no " s e r io u s
accom plishm ent" (p. 7 ) , M oreover, in t h i s p e rio d F au lk n e r
e x c e s s iv e ly su b o rd in a te d h i s c r e a t i v e im p u lses to form al
e x p e rim e n ta tio n , d em o lish in g th e v i s i b l e w orld o r li m i t in g
i t to th e b o u n d a rie s o f a " c lo s e d - in , o f te n p a th o lo g ic a l
c o n sc io u sn e ss" (p . 8 ) . F a u lk n e r 's p a th o lo g y i s n o t J u s t i
f ie d by S o u th ern r e a l i t y . O rlova and Kopelev a t one p o in t
say t h a t r e a l i t y does p a r t l y redeem th e d a rk s id e o f F a u lk
n e r : "gloomy and t e r r i b l e th e w o rld , gloomy and t e r r i b l e
i t s r e f l e c t i o n s , f o r u n p le a s a n t r e a l i t y can be p e rc e iv e d
"soundly" by a " h e a lth y " a r t i s t such a s Mark Twain. S t a r t -
Bev c o n c lu d e s t h a t F au lk n er was i n f e c t e d by d ecad en t b o u r
g e o is m odernism, w hich s p e c i a l iz e d in p o r tr a y in g co n fu sed ,
a n x io u s, d e s p a irin g p eo p le i n a c h a o tic w o r ld .10
M. M endelson i s th e m ost le a rn e d o f S o v ie t c r i t i c s in
h i s approach to F a u lk n e r, r e f e r r i n g to numerous American
c r i t i c a l works in h i s a tte m p t to u n d e rsta n d F a u lk n e r in
r e l a t i o n to th e S outhern R e n a is s a n c e .11 To t h e i r c r e d i t ,
a c c o rd in g to th e S o v ie t c r i t i c , S outhern R en a issa n ce works
do show d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith c a p i t a l i s t i c A m erica. In d eed ,
much o f F a u lk n e r 's w r itin g p r a c t i c a l l y " b o ils w ith th e
en erg y o f d e n ia l" o f th e c a p i t a l i s t w orld where man h as
l o s t c o n n e c tio n w ith s o c ie ty and h as become a c ip h e r , where
82
e t h i c s a r e d e fin e d in th e scram ble f o r th e d o l l a r , and
where a s norms f o r human b e h a v io r " l i e s e l f - i n t e r e s t , tim e -
12
s e rv in g , and th e p u r s u i t o f s u c c e s s ." Mendelson i s n o t
s u r p r i s e d , th e n , a t how o f te n in S outhern w orks, in c lu d in g
th o se o f F au lk n er and h i s " f o llo w e r s ," o c c u r im ages o f
n e u r o t i c s , f r e a k s , a l c o h o l i c s , s c h iz o p h re n ic s , and se x u a l
p e r v e r t s . F re q u e n tly in t h e i r works man i s th e v ic tim o f
i n v i n c i b l y w icked f o r c e s —he i s i s o l a t e d , h e l p l e s s , p i t i
f u l , and v i l e . Mendelson does n o t doubt t h a t b eh in d such
them es l i e s th e r e a l s t a t e o f th in g s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
where v io le n c e and d e s e c r a tio n o f man a re d e ep ly r o o te d ,
where u n r e s t r a i n e d in d iv id u a lis m i s th e r u l e , and where the
" s p i r i t u a l atm osphere" u s u a ll y i s "m oldy." F i n a l l y , th e
d u a l i t y o r c o n t r a d ic tio n in t h e i r w r itin g i s t h e i r phenom
e n a l s e n s i t i v i t y to th e d e fo rm ity o f American l i f e and a t
th e same tim e t h e i r s h a rin g many a t t i t u d e s o f th e doomed
c l a s s e s i n c a p i t a l i s t i c A m e r ic a .^
L ike m ost S o v ie t c r i t i c s , Mendelson th in k s th e Snopes
t r i l o g y , e s p e c i a l l y The M ansion, F a u lk n e r 's o u ts ta n d in g
a ch iev em en t. To acco u n t f o r F a u lk n e r 's developm ent, Men
d e lso n h y p o th e s iz e s t h a t th e n o v e l i s t became a r e a l i s t
a f t e r overcom ing h i s " in h e re n t c o n fu sio n o f i d e a s ." During
m ost o f h i s c a r e e r up to The M ansion, F a u lk n e r 's d i s p o s i
t io n c o n s is te d o f fo u r e le m e n ts—h o s t i l i t y tow ard th e b o u r
g e o is , p a r t i a l i t y tow ard th e proud S outhern p a s t , con
s c io u s n e s s o f th e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f S o u th ern t r a d i t i o n s ,
83
and a b e l i e f in th e i n s o l u b i l i t y o f th e Negro problem . The
r e s u l t f o r most o f F a u lk n e r 's c a r e e r was a f e a r o f r e a l i t y ,
a " p h ilo so p h y o f h o p e le s s n e s s g iv in g to s e v e r a l o f h i s
books an i n d e l i b l y m o d e rn is tic c o l o r a tio n d e s p ite t h e i r
n 14
r i c h r e a l i s t i c c o n te n t.
P a l i e v s k i i arg u e s t h a t th e b e s t ap p ro ach to th e e a r ly
F a u lk n e r (1929-1936) i s th ro u g h h i s u l t i m a t e l y v ic t o r i o u s
b a t t l e a g a in s t m o d e rn is tic i n f lu e n c e s ; and i f h i s work must
be compared w ith t h a t o f o th e r w r i t e r s , P a l i e v s k i i su g g e sts
t h a t th e most f r u i t f u l com parison i s w ith M ikhail S holo
k h o v 's Q u iet Flows th e Don. T h is c r i t i c ta k e s F a u lk n e r 's
N obel speech and a p p lie s i t to th e e a r l y works: b e lie v in g
man can overcome c irc u m sta n c e s , F a u lk n e r c r e a t e s c h a r a c te r s
f u l l o f "sound and fu ry " tr y in g to b re a k o u t o f th e p r is o n
o f e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y . P a l i e v s k i i u s e s th e speech a g a in s t
c r i t i c s c a l l i n g F a u lk n e r s a d i s t i c . These c r i t i c s , he sa y s,
g e t to o alarm ed ab o u t th e f i l t h and a lle g e d sadism i n th e
e a r l y w orks. They f a i l to see t h a t F a u lk n e r, convinced o f
m an 's p e r s i s t e n c e , i m p l a c a b i l i t y , and r e f u s a l to d e s p a ir
when cau g h t in a p p a re n t b lin d a l l e y s , d e l i b e r a t e l y p u ts h i s
c h a r a c te r s i n n e a r ly h o p e le s s s i t u a t i o n s p r e c i s e l y b ecau se
he i s c o n fid e n t th e y can f i g h t t h e i r way th ro u g h . Some
tim e s , th e R u ssian c r i t i c co n ced es, th e a u th o r was le d by
l i t e r a r y fa s h io n s to such "cheap h o r r o r s " a s th o se i n Sanc
t u a r y . R a th e r th a n compare F a u lk n e r w ith o th e r S outhern
w r i t e r s , a s Mendelson doeB, P a l i e v s k i i compares him w ith
84
Sholokhov. They have s im i l a r them es: Yoknapatawpha and th e
Don, m o th e r-e a rth , th e p o l a r i t y o f l i f e a s ex p ressed In th e
a l t e r n a t i o n o f humor and tra g e d y . T h e ir c o n c lu s io n s , how
e v e r, d i f f e r , Shokokhov's b ein g r e v o lu tio n a r y , F a u lk n e r 's
b e in g a v is io n o f th e d e s tr u c t i o n by c a p ita lis m o f a l l hu-
1S
man v a lu e s . But b o th w r i t e r s th in k man w i l l p r e v a i l .
In h e r 1966 book The F o re ig n Novel Today Tamara Moty-
le v a does n o t say f l a t l y t h a t F a u lk n e r i s f u l l o f c o n tr a
d i c t i o n s ; in s te a d she c a l l s h i s o eu v re a co m p licated "am al
gam ation" i n to which e n t e r " v a r io u s , a p p a re n tly m u tu ally
e x c lu s iv e e le m e n ts ." She seems to be s u g g e stin g h e re
t h a t c o n tr a d ic tio n s in F au lk n er co u ld be more a p p a re n t th an
r e a l . Her d is c u s s io n c o n tin u e s In t h i s d e l i b e r a t e l y am
b ig u o u s mode. On th e one hand, she says th in g s t h a t sound
o rth o d o x ; on th e o th e r hand, she u s u a lly q u a l i f i e s them in
such a way t h a t th e n o n -o rth o d o x , i f lo o k in g f o r co m fo rt,
can f in d i t . For exam ple, w h ile o b se rv in g t h a t S o v ie t
c r i t i c i s m from 1 9 5 5 to 1 9 6 5 h as d isc o v e re d th e g en u in e s i g
n if ic a n c e o f F a u lk n e r— th e "sh a rp and i n c o r r u p t i b l e c r i t i c
o f b o u rg e o is s o c ie ty " — she say s t h a t t h i s h a s been done
"w ith more o r l e s s th o ro u g h n e ss" (p . 177). She a g re e s t h a t
The Mansion i s a "pow erful r e a l i s t i c work" and t h a t th e
n o v e l i s t slow ly b u t s u re ly h as moved from th e pessim ism and
d e fe a tis m o f th e e a r l y books to th e h e a l t h i e r and more hope
f u l w orld view e x p re sse d i n l a t e r works and in th e Nobel
Bpeech. Y et she adds a c a v e a t, a s though to p r o te c t h e r
85
c la im to be in d e p e n d e n t: one n o te s in F a u lk n e r 's work a
" la r g e i n t e r n a l u n i t y " ; one m ust n o t "m ech an ically " se p a -
17
r a t e th e e a r ly works from th e l a t e r .
The Sound and th e Fur y i n S o v ie t C r itic is m
KaBhkin r e f e r s i n p a s sin g to The Sound and th e Fury as
-I O
F a u lk n e r 's most "confused" and " n a t u r a l i s t i c " n o v e l. Or
lo v a and Kopelev say n o th in g ab o u t i t , b u t t h e i r v e rs io n o f
i t s t i t l e p ro b a b ly i n d i c a t e s t h e i r view . I n s te a d o f th e
l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n t h a t h a s become common i n S o v ie t c r i t
ic is m ( Shum i I a r o s t ' ) , th e y r e f e r to i t as S m iaten le 1
19
U zhas—C onfusion and T e rr o r. ^ S t a r t s e v , in h i s s h o rt d i s
c u s s io n o f th e work, s t r e s s e s th e fo rm a lly e x p e rim e n ta l way
i n which F au lk n er c a r r i e s to th e u ltim a te extrem e h i s "game
o r b a t t l e " w ith tim e : he " tra n s fo rm s " h i s p ro se in to a
20
"chaos o f tum bling words and im a g e s." But M endelson,
P a l i e v s k i i , and M otyleva do d is c u s s th e work in some d e t a i l .
M en d elso n 's and P a l i e v s k i i 's tre a tm e n ts o f The Sound
and th e Fury may seem r a t h e r c u rio u s from an American p o in t
o f view , b u t th e y a c q u ire s ig n if ic a n c e when seen in th e
c o n te x t o f S o v ie t c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s tow ard modernism. So
v i e t c r i t i c s g e n e r a lly have to l a b e l a work r e a l i s t i c b e
f o r e th e y can p r a i s e i t , and th e d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n t h i s
su p p o sed ly d ecad en t work r e c e iv e s from th e se th r e e c r i t i c s
seems i n p a r t a g e s tu r e tow ards a p a r t i a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
o f modernism.
86
M endelson's J u d ic io u s approach i s a l l th e more s u r
p r is i n g in t h a t in th e p a s t a s w e ll a s in h i s r e c e n t c r i t
ic is m o f S te in b e c k and Hemingway he h as been among th e more
d o c t r i n a i r e c r i t i c s . He n o te s t h a t m ost American c r i t i c s
th in k The Sound and th e Fury marks F a u lk n e r 's a r t i s t i c ma
t u r i n g , rem ains one o f h i s b e s t w orks, and h e lp s to la y th e
fo u n d a tio n f o r a "new, contem porary" (M en d elso n 's q u o te s)
l i t e r a t u r e . A ccording to M endelson, th e n o v e l i s d i s t i n
g u ish e d by th e i n t e n s i t y o f f e e l i n g s th e r e i n "engraved" and
by th e d e n s ity and r ic h n e s s o f e m o tio n al c o l o r a t io n . Then
he goes i n to a f a i r l y d e t a i l e d a n a ly s is f r e e o f a n t i
modernism s lo g a n e e rin g . At th e b ase o f th e work l i e s a
" s o c i a l them e"— th e f a l l and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f a h i s t o r i
c a l l y condemned c l a s s r e p r e s e n te d by th e Compson fa m ily .
MendelBon g iv e s a q u a l i f i e d a c c e p ta n c e to th e s tr e a m - o f-
c o n sc io u sn e ss te c h n iq u e : c h a r a c te r s speak i n " s p e c i f i c a l l y
F a u lk n e ria n m onologues," an a c c e p ta b le co n v e n tio n i f i t
h e lp s th e a u th o r a t t a i n an a r t i s t i c r e v e l a t i o n o f t r u t h .
O fte n , how ever, F a u lk n e r 's aim i s to plunge th e r e a d e r in to
a w orld o f d e l i r i o u s id e a s and f e e l i n g s . B e n jy 's l a t e n t ,
im p e n e tra b le i r r a t i o n a l i t y a t tim e s c o lo r s th e whole s u r
ro u n d in g w o rld , a s though d e s tro y in g i t from w ith in . Benjy
i s n o t so much a r e a l c h a r a c te r a s a symbol o f n a iv e te ,
p u r i t y , and e stra n g e m e n t from w o rld ly e v i l . At i n t e r v a l s
th e r e a d e r g lim p se s th e c h ild h o o d l i f e o f th e Compson c h i l
d ren and a su b seq u en t l o s s o f some k in d o f Joy. A lthough
the r e a d e r o f te n i s c o n fu se d , says M endelson, th e extrem e
s t r u c t u r a l co m p lex ity o f The Sound and th e Fury comes from
a "co n sc io u s i n c l i n a t i o n tow ard a r e f i n e d form" (p. 209).
Mendelson a s k s , i f th e p r e v a ilin g a t t i t u d e in th e n o v el i s
d e s p a ir , how does th e a u th o r r e l a t e to " r e a l i t y " ? H is d i
lemma, a s M endelson s e e s i t , l i e s in choosing betw een th e
w holly b o u rg e o is Jaso n Compson, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e new
o r d e r, and h i s doomed fa m ily r e p r e s e n tin g th e dying t r a d i
t i o n a l S outh. R e fe rrin g to th e n o v e l’ s new appendix pub
lis h e d in 19^6, Mendelson say s t h a t by th en F a u lk n e r was
changing h i s p h ilo so p h y a s Bhown by h i s making Caddy l e s s
sy m p ath etic and Jaso n a Snopes f ig u r e . Even so , Mendelson
d o e sn ’ t condemn The Sound and th e F u ry . He co n clu d es by
saying t h a t F a u lk n e r m a s te r f u lly re p ro d u c e s th e in n e r w orld
o f a p erso n w ith a m u tila te d psyche and t h a t i n e p iso d e s
from th e l i f e o f th e c h ild r e n one f e e l s " v i t a l p o e tic c o l
o r s . " 21
P a l i e v s k i i , on th e o t h e r hand, s t r e s s e s th e American
a u t h o r ’s u se o f th e s tre a m -o f-c o n s c io u s n e s s te c h n iq u e . I n
t e r p r e t i n g F a u lk n e r 's 1929-1936 n o v e ls in term s o f h i s b e
ing in f lu e n c e d by th e l i t e r a r y fa s h io n s o f th e tim e ,
P a l i e v s k i i a rg u e s t h a t F a u lk n e r wanted to go f a r t h e r w ith
t h i s te c h n iq u e th a n p re v io u s w r i te r s and th u s a c c e p te d th e
view t h a t l i f e ' s chaos r e c e iv e s a p a t t e r n o n ly from w ith in
c o n s c io u sn e s s. To be more e x p e rim e n ta l, th e n , he chose th e
s im p le s t c o n s c io u sn e s s p o s s i b l e — t h a t o f an i d i o t — so t h a t
I t s c o n s ti t u e n t e le m e n ts co u ld be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f o r ob
s e r v a tio n . B enjy can n o t d is c r im in a te tim e b u t o n ly o d o rs,
c o l o r s , and t a s t e s , and th e s e o n ly in to p le a s a n t o r r e p u l
s iv e . In th e l a s t p a r t o f th e n o v e l, acc o rd in g to t h i s
a n a l y s i s , F a u lk n er redeem s th e w hole—he w r ite s from h i s
own ( i . e . , from a c e n t r a l , u n ify in g ) p o in t o f view and
th u s , w ith a s te p tow ard r e a lis m , i n t e g r a t e s th e book.
L ike Jo y c e , F a u lk n e r supplem ents th e stream o f one con
s c io u s n e s s w ith o t h e r s , which P a l i e v s k i i r a t h e r o d d ly say s
amounts to d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e te c h n iq u e I f a stream can n o t
succeed w ith o u t e x t e r n a l a d d i t i o n s , even I f th ey in p a r t
a re o th e r s tre a m s . F a u lk n e r goes f a r t h e r th an Joyce and
o th e r s in th e l a s t s e c t io n , to o , in t h a t he sums up e v e ry
th in g from h i s own p o in t o f view . W ith re g a rd to th e 19^6
ap p en d ix , P a l i e v s k i i c a llB i t a c l a s s i c e v e n t—nobody b e
f o re had d e s c rib e d w ith such p r e c is io n th e b a t t l e o f a
t a l e n t v o l u n t a r i l y ta k in g on th e method o f s tre a m -o f-
c o n s c io u s n e s s . F a u lk n e r had to f i g h t h i s way th ro u g h se v
e r a l v e r s io n s o f th e n o v e l, and th e t i t l e i n d i c a t e s th e
mood g r ip p in g th e a u th o r a s he t r i e d to w r ite th e book w ith
22
th e th en fa s h io n a b le te c h n iq u e .
A f te r d e s c r ib in g th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f The Sound and th e
Fury and summ arizing c r i t i c a l d is c u s s io n s o f i t s "games"
w ith tim e , Tamara M otyleva concedes i t s p a th o lo g ic a l mo
t i v e s and s t y l i s t i c d i f f i c u l t i e s . But she m a in ta in s t h a t
th e d e s tr u c t i o n o f n a r r a t i v e form by th e c le v e r game w ith
89
f i c t i o n a l tim e does n o t ex h au st th e n o v e l 's c o n te n ts , f o r
t h i s game has i t s own id e a . B enjy, Q u en tin , Caddy, and
C addy's d a u g h te r b elo n g to th e doomed: th e f a l l o f th e o ld ,
p a t r i a r c h a l p l a n t a t i o n fam ily a p p e a rs d i f f e r e n t l y i n each
c h a r a c t e r . For them tim e r e a l l y h a s s to p p e d . They connect
a l l t h a t was good i n t h e i r l i v e s w ith memories o f t h e i r
i d y l l i c , " fe u d a l" ch ild h o o d : th e f u tu r e p ro m ises n o th in g .
For J a so n , on th e o t h e r hand, tim e i s r e a l . He can o v e r
come s e tb a c k s , and he i s not em b arrassed by th e means n ec
e s s a r y to s u rv iv e . M btyleva o b se rv e s t h a t h i s a p p e a rin g
os.
d ecad es l a t e r i n The Mansion i s q u i t e a p p r o p r ia te . Seen
in th e c o n te x t o f F a u lk n e r 's c a r e e r , th e n , The Sound and
th e Fury i s more th a n J u s t a l i t e r a r y ex p e rim e n t: th e n o v el
r e f l e c t s r e a l l i f e p ro c e s s e s . A ccording to M otyleva i t was
th e f i r s t d r a f t o f th e " tr a g ic saga" ab o u t th e f a t e o f th e
American South t o l d i n th e r i s e and f a l l o f th e Snopeses.
Thus i t i s too sim p le to say (M otyleva h e re p ro b a b ly h as
M endelson and P a l i e v s k i i in mind though she does n o t men
tio n them) t h a t th e e a r l y F au lk n e r was a t t r a c t e d to " a v a n t-
g a rd ism ," made " in n o v a tiv e ly tu rn e d o u t p r o d u c ts ," and
f i n a l l y became co nvinced o f th e v a lu e s o f realiB m and began
to w r ite more c l e a r l y . Not o n ly does th e s t r u c t u r a l com
p l e x i t y o f A F ab le c o n f l i c t w ith t h i s view , b u t a ls o one
m ust see t h a t F a u lk n e r 's q u a r r e l w ith h im s e lf re v o lv e d
around n o t i s s u e s o f form b u t much more s e r io u s q u e s tio n s :
What i s th e so u rce o f e v i l in man and in th e w orld? Does
90
e v i l s p rin g from i r r a t i o n a l , e t e r n a l l y d a rk fo rc e s o r from
th o se l i v i n g c irc u m sta n c e s in which th e f a t e s and c h a ra c -
24
t e r s o f p eo p le a r e mixed?
S o v ie t C r itic is m o f th e Snopes T rilo g y
Id e o lo g y i s p ro m in en t in S o v ie t Snopes c r i t i c i s m , b u t
s in c e th e th re e n o v e ls a re a c c e p te d a s r e a l i s t i c , c r i t i c s
a r e f r e e to d is c u s s l i t e r a r y i s s u e s . Mendelson and S t a r t
sev (b o th in 1964) o f f e r th e m ost d e t a i l e d ex a m in a tio n s o f
th e t r i l o g y . O rlova and Kopelev (1958) g iv e r o u t i n e l y o r
thodox re a d in g s o f The Hamlet and The Town] O rlova adds
( in 1962) a somewhat l e s s s te re o ty p e d d is c u s s io n o f The
M ansion. 2'* I . L evidova ( a ls o in 1962) c o n t r ib u t e s a v a lu -
26
a b le e s sa y on The M ansion. Most o f th e c r i t i c i s m c e n te r s
on Flem Snopes and th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f Snopesism , on Linda
and h e r husband, and on Mink Snopes.
A ccording to O rlova and K opelev, F a u lk n e r co nceived
th e Snopes c la n a s a d e fo rm ity , a b e s t i a l , b i o l o g i c a l phe
nomenon (which le d him to n a tu ra lis m ) r a t h e r th a n a s a
s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l phenomenon. T his p a th o lo g ic a l c o n c e p tio n
e x p la in s s e v e r a l d ep rav ed , t y p i c a l l y n a t u r a l i s t i c c h a ra c
t e r i s t i c s o f h i s a r t i s t i c method—a s ic k i n t e r e s t i n th e
d e t a i l s o f abnorm al p e r s o n a l i t i e s and in th e b i o l o g i c a l and
e r o t i c a s p e c ts o f human n a tu r e . On th e o th e r hand, th e se
two c r i t i c s argue t h a t F au lk n e r d e s p ite h im s e lf t r e a t s th e
Snopeses w ith enough r e a lis m t h a t th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r w i l l
91
see Snopeslsm a s th e n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f h e a lth y c a p i t a l
is m .2^
S ta r ts e v and M endelson do n o t b o th e r w ith O rlova and
K opelev’ s in v o lv e d argum ent t h a t F au lk n er th o u g h t o f
Snopeslsm one way w h ile a c t u a l l y d e p ic tin g i t a n o th e r .
S t a r t s e v f l a t l y say s t h a t more f u l l y th a n any o t h e r F au lk
n e r c h a r a c t e r s , th e Snopeses r e p r e s e n t tw e n tie th c e n tu ry
A m erica. A c la n o f American s o u th e rn e rs c lo s e ly connected
w ith th e c a p i t a l i s t i c developm ent o f th e South, th e y embody
th e d e s t r u c t i v e , am o ral, anti-hum an a s p e c ts o f c a p i t a l i s t
pO
c i v i l i z a t i o n . From The Hamlet (19^0) to The Town (1957)
and The Mansion (1959) F a u lk n e r, a c c o rd in g to S t a r t s e v ,
m atu res h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f SnopesiBm, a p rim ary d e s tr u c t i v e
fo rc e i n American l i f e . The a u th o r a r t i s t i c a l l y d ev elo p s
Snopeslsm as a p r i v a t e p r o p e r t i e d , m ercenary a c t i v i t y
gu id ed by th e m oral code o f a hyena. S t a r t s e v s u g g e sts
t h a t in e sse n c e R a t l i f f and S tev en s l i v e by th e same p r i n
c i p l e s a s Flem, w hich e x p la in s t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n coping
w ith Snopeslsm . When th e y c r i t i c i z e him th e y can o b je c t
o n ly to h i s a p p ly in g th o se p r i n c i p l e s w ith u n u s u a l d i r e c t
n e s s and v u l g a r i t y . S in ce R a t l i f f i s a m erchant and
S tev en s r e p r e s e n ts th e l e g a l i n t e r e s t s o f th e p r o p e r tie d
c l a s s e s o f J e f f e r s o n , t h e i r c a p i t a l comes from th e same
so u rce a s Flem *s. N e ith e r law yer S tev en s n o r m o r a li s t R a t
l i f f can c a tc h Flem a t th e scen es o f h i s c rim e s, f o r h is
a c t i v i t i e s g e n e r a l l y s ta y w ith in th e bounds o f b o u rg e o is
92
29
l e g a l i t y . ^ M endelson's approach resem b les S t a r t s e v 's .
For exam ple, he a g re e s t h a t Flem embodies in th e most con
c e n tr a te d form p o s s ib le th e power o f money i n a c a p i t a l i s t
s o c ie ty , p lu s sym b o lizin g "b o u rg e o is s o u lle s s n e s s , i n n e r
e m p tin e ss, and a m o r a lity ." In d ee d , th e co rresp o n d en ce o f
F le m 's a c t s w ith th e norms o f th e c a p i t a l i s t way o f l i f e
•an
shows how t e r r i b l e th e s e norms a r e .
S o v ie t c r i t i c s a re a l i t t l e u n c e r ta in ab o u t who more
c l o s e ly r e p r e s e n t s th e " p o s itiv e " p r i n c i p l e in th e t r i l o g y ,
L inda Snopes and h e r husband, o r Mink, F le m 's e x e c u tio n e r .
A ccording to S t a r t s e v , who d is c u s s e s Mink a t g r e a t e r
le n g th , L inda and h e r husband, though a t tim es view ed sk ep
t i c a l l y and i r o n i c a l l y by o th e r c h a r a c t e r s , a re F a u lk n e r 's
means o f ex p o sin g th e fo u n d a tio n s o f S n o p eslsm .^1 O th er
c r i t i c s a ls o seem o b lig a te d to adm ire L in d a. Mendelson
a rg u e s t h a t F a u lk n e r, l i k e B alzac a r e a l i s t , g iv e s p o s i t i v e
t r a i t s to h e r d e s p it e h i s own h o s t i l i t y to Communism. He
p o in ts to N eg ro es' a d m ira tio n o f h e r , h e r z e a lo u s work in
a s h ip y a rd , and h e r Com m unism -inspired " i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y . " ^
In f a c t , he th in k s th e main c o n f l i c t In The Mansion i s b e
tween Flem and L in d a. I r o n i c a l l y , L evidova, w ith th e most
r e s e r v a t i o n s o f any S o v ie t c r i t i c ab o u t The Mansion a s a r t ,
c a l l s L inda a "p ro u d , s t a t e l y , charm ing" woman who rem ain s
g e n u in e ly " h e r o ic , h o n o ra b le , and d eterm in ed " In h e r f a i t h
f u ln e s s to th e memory o f h e r husband and h i s id e a s . P e r
haps th e R u ssian c r i t i c i s h e re w r itin g w ith to n g u e - in -
93
cheek, d isa rm in g th e i d e o l o g i c a l l y v i g i l a n t and tu n in g in
h e r sy m p a th e tic r e a d e r s to r e l a t e h e r n e x t comments to do
m e stic a s w e ll a s f o re ig n d is c r e p a n c ie s betw een r e a l i t y and
th e Communist i d e a l . For L in d a ’ s s tr a n d o f g ray h a i r and
h e r d e a fn e s s sym bolize h e r " fa d in g v a lo r and h e r h e l p l e s s
n e ss" in a w orld o f b e a u t i f u l b u t u n r e a liz a b le i d e a l s . A
Communist in J e f f e r s o n can do n o th in g b ecau se J e f f e r s o n
w ants o n ly to t r a d e , b a r g a in , and sw indle w ith o u t h i n
d ra n c e — such i s F a u lk n e r’ s "d a rk , u n sh ak ab le c o n v i c t i o n ."^3
O rlo v a 's re a d in g o f L inda i s more c l e a r l y i d e o l o g i c a l .
Communists a re B trange and a l i e n to F au lk n er and th e r e f o r e
i t i s to be e x p ected t h a t th e c h a p te r s devoted to L inda a re
weak a r t i s t i c a l l y , s u p e r f i c i a l , and f u l l o f d e t a i l s t h a t
a re sim ply u n tr u e . However, she co n c lu d es, th e a r t i s t i c
sense o f t h i s g r e a t w r i t e r en a b led him to f e e l th e j u s t
n e c e s s ity o f th e Communist th e m e 's r i s i n g to th e s u rfa c e in
■ a 2 l
i t s m oral s tr e n g t h .
M endelson i d e n t i f i e s The M an sio n 's p o s i t i v e p r i n c i p l e
w ith L in d a 's v i c t o r y o v e r Flem, f o r t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p
forms th e n o v e l 's m ajor c o n f l i c t . F le m 's d e a th , t h e r e f o r e ,
i s a v i c t o r y f o r Communists, though n a t u r a l l y a R u ssian
r e a d e r would th in k F au lk n e r r a t h e r clumsy in im plying a
r e a l Communist would need to f i g h t c a p ita lis m w ith m urder
o r co u ld even sto o p to t h a t l e v e l . F a u lk n e r, th e n , sh a rin g
r e g io n a l s te r e o ty p e s ab o u t Communism and th u s w orking w ith
f a l s e n o tio n s o f Communists, n o n e th e le s s s y m p a th e tic a lly
94
shows t h e i r v i c t o r y o v e r Flem Snopes and Snopesism .^5
S t a r t s e v and M endelson, i n t h e i r le n g th y d is c u s s io n s
o f Mink Snopes, see him p r im a r ily a s a v ic tim o f c la s s a n
tag o n ism s and o n ly s e c o n d a rily as a c h a r a c te r i n t e r n a l l y
m o tiv a te d . For exam ple, S t a r t s e v em phasizes th e d e s c r ip
t i o n in th e b e g in n in g o f The Hamlet o f th e Frenchman Bend
p e a s a n tr y . Im p o v erish ed , d e p riv e d o f i n t e g r i t y , p e rs e c u te d
by banks and r i c h landow ners, th e y can n o t f i g h t th e appa
r a t u s o f governm ent which z e a lo u s ly p r o t e c t s th e i n t e r e s t s
o f th e p r o p e r t i e d c l a s s . As v ic tim s th e s e p e a s a n ts r e p r e
s e n t th e American working c l a s s , th e d e e p e s t so u rce o f n a
t i o n a l l i f e . In t h i s en v iro n m en t, th e n , th e t r i l o g y 's
c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t forms betw een Flem and Mink Snopes. Mink
in The Mansion t r i e s to u n d e rs ta n d th e tra g e d y o f h i s l i f e
and f e e l s a c e r t a i n lig h te n in g o f h i s b u rden in t h a t he no
lo n g e r need ab ase h im s e lf in th e s to r e and b e fo re th e la n d
ow ner. The r e a d e r se e s no g e n u in e ly human t r a i t in Mink:
he d i r e c t s h i s lo a th in g a g a i n s t th e c o n d itio n s tu rn in g Mink
i n t o a c o rn e re d b e a s t. F a u lk n e r shows t h a t in th e p e a s
a n t 's n e a r ly sub-human e x is te n c e slum ber u n f u l f i l l e d p o s
s i b i l i t i e s o f human d i g n i t y and paB sion f o r work which a re
condemned to r e c e iv e no d e v e lo p m e n t.^
M endelson allo w s Mink more i n t e r n a l l i f e th an S ta r ts e v
does b u t u l t i m a t e l y he t r a c e s t h i s l i f e to M ink's growing
claBS c o n s c io u sn e s s. Mendelson th in k s t h a t b e fo re The Man
s io n , F a u lk n e r 's c h a r a c te r s o f v i o l e n t f e e l i n g s were i n -
95
ca p a b le o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l grow th. Mink in The M ansion, how
e v e r, i s more th an a " t y p i c a l v i o l e n t l y o b se sse d F a u lk n e r i
an monomaniac from th e p o o r S outhern w h ite c l a s s . " He has
"in d ep e n d e n t i n t e r n a l movement am ounting to p r in c ip l e d
c h a n g e . " ^ One o f M ink's changes i s in h i s a t t i t u d e tow ard
Flem. The d e s t i t u t e Mink comes to see him a s one o f the
owners f o r whom he h as worked a l l h i s w retch ed l i f e and who
n e v e r a llo w ed him to r a i s e h i s head o r to d e c e n tly feed h i s
fa m ily . Mink th u s becomes som ething o f a S te in b e c k f ig u r e ,
sta n d in g f o r th e e x p lo ite d te n a n t farm er doomed to p o v e rty
and s la v e ry who r i s e s up in j u s t w ra th . Whereas i n the
p re v io u s n o v e ls Mink had been sim ply a d e g e n e ra te , in The
Mansion F a u lk n e r g iv e s him a p e n e t r a t i n g , t r a g i c monologue
a d d re sse d to th e e a r t h on which he and th o se l i k e him a re
fo rc e d to work (p . 254).
In h e r b r i e f d is c u s s io n o f Mink, O rlova m erely com
b in e s M en d elso n 's and S t a r t s e v 's a p p ro a c h e s. On th e one
hand Mink i s more th an a b lin d t o o l o f J u s t i c e . H is long
s u f f e r in g in The M ansion, h i s c o n c e n tr a tin g a l l s p i r i t u a l
fo rc e i n t o one g o a l, h i s s im p l i c i t y , h i s la c k in g c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c Snopes egoism and cu n n in g — th e s e add a s ig n if ic a n c e
to Mink h im s e lf . On th e o th e r hand, Mink i s a " t y p i c a l
f ig u r e o f th e American S o u th ," f r ig h te n e d , im p riso n e d , and
shorn o f a l l p r o p e r ty .
Levidova d e v o te s a l o t o f space to Mink b u t, w h ile
acknow ledging th e p o w e rfu l c o n c e p tio n , f in d s l i t t l e adm ir-
96
a b le o r h e r o ic In h i s c h a r a c t e r . He I s guided e n t i r e l y by
" s p i t e , envy, and r e v e n g e f u ln e s s ."3 9 w ith o u t s e l f - p i t y and
i n d i f f e r e n t to h i s f a t e , Mink v ag u ely sen ses t h a t h i s l i f e
co u ld have been d i f f e r e n t i f in th e b e g in n in g he had known
t h a t he was o n ly a h e l p l e s s pawn to be knocked around by
"them "— th e ow ners, p o w erfu l and s e l f - r e l i a n t b ecau se th ey
b elo n g to th e p r iv i l e g e d c l a s s . She then d is c u s s e s th e
changes in th e " r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een F au lk n er h im s e lf" and
Mink o v e r th e co u rse o f tw enty y e a r s , from The Hamlet to
The M ansion. She s t r e s s e s th e " to n g u e tie d tra g e d y o f a
sub-human n u r tu r e d by a c r u e l , g reed y , b e s t i a l , p r im itiv e
environm ent" (p. 267) . Flem and Mink r e p r e s e n t two ty p es
o f Snopesism — in one i s c o n c e n tra te d s p i t e and in th e o th e r
c u p i d i t y , th e two d e s tr u c t i v e s tim u li o f human a c t i v i t y
which F au lk n e r o b se rv e s i n th e l i f e o f h i s c o u n try (p.
268).
W ithout d e b a tin g th e m a tte r, S o v ie t c r i t i c s d is a g re e
somewhat on which n o v e ls in th e t r i l o g y a re s u p e r i o r . Levi-
dova, f o r exam ple, r e j e c t s th e o rthodox p o s it i o n t h a t The
Mansion i s th e summit n o t o n ly o f th e Snopes t r i l o g y b u t o f
th e w r i t e r ’s whole c a r e e r . She se e s a c o n s is t e n t d e c lin e
from Hamlet to M ansion. In d eed , she e s p e c i a l l y f a u l t s th e
Mink s e c tio n s o f M ansion, which a re so weakly co nnected to
th e J e f f e r s o n c h a p te rs t h a t f o r p r a c t i c a l p u rp o ses th ey
e x i s t q u i t e s e p a r a te ly (p . 269) . M endelson, i n c o n t r a s t ,
th in k s The Town th e w eakest o f th e th r e e ; he em phasizes th e
97
r e t r o s p e c t i v e e x c e lle n c e s o f The M ansion, w hich sums up th e
Snopes saga and viewB p a r t s o f i t w ith a f r e s h eye.
The two m ost r e c e n t a r t i c l e s on F au lk n e r d is c u s s I n
tr u d e r in th e D u st, which was p u b lish e d in I n o s tr a n n a la
l l t e r a t u r a (No. 2, 1968) , though n e i t h e r P. P a lie v sk ii^ ®
n o r E. A. T surganova^1 a n a ly z e s th e n o v el in d e t a i l . R a th
e r th e y u se i t a s a s t a r t i n g p o in t f o r g e n e r a l o b s e rv a tio n s
ab o u t F a u lk n e r 's c a r e e r and th e d isa p p e a ra n c e o f " th e Amer
i c a o f Tom Sawyer and H u ck leb erry Finn" ( P a li e v s k i i ) and
ab o u t American New C r i t i c a l th e o ry (T su rg a n o v a ).
P a l i e v s k i i n o te s what 1 b a commonplace i n American
c r i t i c i s m o f th e n o v e l, i t s a f f i n i t i e s w ith The A dventures
o f Tom Saw yer: boys g ra v e d ig g in g in a g r o te s q u e ly humorous
atm osphere, a w ro n g fu lly accu sed m u rd erer, and th e boys
b e in g th e ones who know th e t r u t h . However, P a l i e v s k i i
does n o t purBue th e l i t e r a r y p a r a l l e l s betw een Mark Twain
and F a u lk n e r. He d ev elo p s i n s t e a d th e n o tio n t h a t F a u lk
n e r 's n o v el shows c e r t a i n American im p u lses, a ls o r e f l e c t e d
in Twain, to be s t i l l a l i v e . He b e g in s by a s k in g ,
Where i s th e America o f Tom Sawyer and H u ck leb erry
Finn? Where a r e th o se p e o p le —heads o f f a m ilie s who had
p r i n c i p l e s , to whom th e s w in d le r and th e d ru n k ard co u ld
sayr "Here i s my hand. You can b o ld ly shake i t , g e n t l e
men. Only y e s te r d a y i t was th e hand o f a s c o u n d re l, now
. . . " and th e y b e lie v e d , shook th e hand, and no d ecep
t io n co u ld shake them in t h i s f a i t h ; where i s Aunt P o lly
and th e s e l f - s a t i s f i e d a s s S id , and Rebecca T h a tc h e r and
Mrs. H arper? I s i t p o s s ib le t h a t th e y a re no more, t h a t
th e y have d is a p p e a re d ? I t would seem so; i t i s s a id th e y
have been c o m p le te ly bu rn ed o u t by money. L et u s lo o k ,
f o r exam ple, i n The W in ter o f Our D is c o n te n t, a t S t e i n
b e c k 's America i n o u r own tim e . . ! (p . 2 l l )
98
M argie, th e h e ro in e in S te in b e c k 's n o v e l, was w o rrie d about
th e f a c t t h a t she had to c o n c e a l h e r v i r t u e w hereas most
p eo p le c o n c e a l t h e i r v i c e s . "T his i s what th in g s have come
t o , " says th e R u ssian c r i t i c . " S p i r i t u a l b a n k ru p tcy fo rc e s
a l l p eo p le l i k e h e r to d is s e m b le ." He th e n q u o te s Twain on
what happened to Tom Sawyer and Huck F in n : " L ife tu rn e d o u t
u n s u c c e s s f u lly . E v e ry th in g t h a t th e y lo v e d , e v e ry th in g
th e y c o n s id e re d b e a u t i f u l — none o f t h i s i s l e f t . I t a l l
d i e s . " P a l i e v s k i i th en comments, " E v id e n tly what t o d a y 's
w r i t e r s w r ite i s th e t r u t h . Only som ething su g g e sts t h a t
t h i s iB n o t th e whole t r u t h . " Then he a rg u e s t h a t Chick
M a lliso n , th e tee n a g e h ero o f F a u lk n e r 's n o v e l, c a r r i e s on
th e Twain t r a d i t i o n o f y o u th fu l v i r t u e (p . 211).
In th e r e s t o f h i s a r t i c l e P a l i e v s k i i g iv e s some b i o
g r a p h ic a l f a c t s ab o u t F au lk n er and q u o te s f a m il i a r comments
he made a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f V ir g in ia and in Tokyo about
how he th o u g h t up th e s to r y and why he h a b i t u a l l y w r ite s
i n long s e n te n c e s .
T su rg a n o v a 's main p u rp o se seems to be to d e s c rib e f o r
R u ssian r e a d e r s th e main f e a t u r e s o f th e New C r itic is m .
F i r s t she d is c u s s e s New C r i t i c a l th e o ry i n g e n e r a l, th en
r e f e r s to Andrew L y t l e 's e s sa y -re v ie w o f I n tr u d e r in th e
D u st, a p ie c e o f a n a l y s is which she ta k e s a s t y p i c a l o f
New C r itic is m . Next she summarizes what A lle n T ate and
C a ro lin e Gordon say ab o u t p o in t o f view i n t h e i r book The
House o f F i c t i o n and ends w ith th r e e pages e x p la in in g how
99
" a rc h e ty p a l-m y th c r i t i c i s m " i s th e l o g i c a l e x te n s io n o f th e
main l i n e s o f th e New C r itic is m .
What th e R u ssian c r i t i c say s ab o u t I n tr u d e r in th e
Dust can be summarized b r i e f l y .
1. The " m u ltip le i n t e r l a c i n g " and th e r e v e r s e m otion
o f th e p l o t a re w orth r e s p e c tin g o n ly i n s o f a r a s th e a u th o r
moves tow ard an " im p o rta n t s o c i a l and p h ilo s o p h ic -p s y c h o
l o g i c a l c o l l i s i o n " (p . 2 1 ). T h is c o l l i s i o n forms th e s i g
n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f th e work, i t s " i d e i n a i a p ro b le m a tik a " o r
p h ilo s o p h ic c o m p lic a tio n .
2. Lucas Beauchamp i s a f ig u r e
e x c e e d in g ly c o n tr a d ic to r y and com plex, w idening th e con
t e n t s o f th e n o v e l f a r beyond th e bounds o f th e " p o in t
o f view" o f C h a rle s M alliso n and h i s u n c le , Gavin S te
vens.
Lucas "throw s down a c h a lle n g e to th e whole way o f l i f e o f
S outhern s o c ie ty " (p . 2 4 ).
3. The s u b tly chosen t e c h n i c a l d e v ic e s a r e im p o rta n t;
th e y " n a t u r a l l y and o r g a n ic a lly " r e v e a l th e p ro c e s s o f th e
B o c ia l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l fo rm a tio n o f an a d o le s c e n t who
f e e l s th e " d e p ra v ity " o f th e way o f l i f e su rro u n d in g him.
F a u lk n e r’ s c h o ic e o f form , whereby e v e ry th in g flow s through
th e th in k in g o f th e h ero C h a rle s M a lliso n , i s a " b e a u tif u l
means f o r th e i n c a r n a tio n o f [th e n o v e l 's ] c o n te n ts " (p.
2 4 ).
4 . F i n a l l y , th e image o f C h a rle s M alliso n i s n o t a
symbol o f th e " re - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f d e c e n t S outhern t r a d i -
100
t l o n s " ; M a lliso n i s , r a t h e r , an image o f a " t y p i c a l r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e o f a d e f i n i t e c l a s s o f S o u th ern I n t e l l i g e n t s i a "
(p . 2 7) .
C le a r ly , th e n , S o v ie t c r i t i c s f in d F a u lk n e r 's work a
f a s c i n a t i n g m ix tu re . I t i s a p ro fo u n d c r i t i q u e o f American
c a p i t a l i s t s o c ie ty , and i t c h a lle n g e s th e c r i t i c w ith a
v a r i e t y o f te c h n i c a l c o m p lic a tio n s . The f a c t t h a t The Man
s io n h as a p o s i t i v e l y re n d e re d Communist c h a r a c te r i s not
th e o n ly re a so n many c r i t i c s adm ire i t . In f a c t , th e r e i s
some d isa g re e m e n t on Linda S n o p e s 's r o l e in th e n o v e l.
T h e ir a n a l y s is o f th e h e ro ic p e r s i s t e n c e o f Mink Snopes
l i t t l e re sem b le s what th o se American c r i t i c s say who a ls o
f in d The Mansion a s tr o n g e r work th a n th e second Snopes
n o v e l The Town. (American c r i t i c s em phasize Mink a s a
t r a g i c f i g u r e . A lso, l i k e th e R u ssian Levidova, th e y argue
t h a t The H am let, n o t The M ansion, i s th e b e s t Snopes nov
e l . ) S o v ie t c r i t i c s s t r e s s M ink's e x p l o i t a t i o n by la r g e
landow ners and m erchants and re g a rd him a s t y p i c a l o f th e
sm a ll man i n America s u f f e r in g a t th e hands o f th e r i c h and
p o w e rfu l. They b e lie v e t h a t th e so u rc e o f h i s s i n g l e -
minded d e te rm in a tio n l i e s i n h i s becoming aware o f h i s p r o
l e t a r i a n n a tu r e , o f h i s r e a l i z i n g he i s p o w e rle ss to p r e
v e n t e x p l o i t a t i o n by th e p r iv i l e g e d c l a s s to which h i s
couBin Flem b e lo n g s.
101
D e sp ite t h e i r s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l re a d in g o f th e Snopes
t r i l o g y and o t h e r F a u lk n e r w orks, S o v ie t c r i t i c s d is c u s s
l i t e r a r y te c h n iq u e in The Sound and th e Fury to a f a r
g r e a t e r e x te n t th a n in t h e i r c r i t i c i s m o f An American T rag
edy, The G rapes o f W rath, and For Whom th e B e ll T o l l s . Not
s u r p r i s i n g l y , s e v e r a l c r i t i c s r e f e r in p a s s in g to t h i s
n o v e l as a t y p i c a l d e c a d e n t work. But th e t h r e e c r i t i c s
who a n a ly z e i t in d e t a i l do n o t do so from a p e r s p e c tiv e as
h o s t i l e to modernism a s one m ight e x p e c t. They i n f a c t a d
m ire th e n o v el and d is c u s s a t le n g th i t s u se o f s tre a m -o f-
c o n s c io u sn e s s, i t s ex p e rim e n ts w ith tim e, and i t s s t r u c
t u r e . T his em phasis on F a u lk n e r 's te c h n iq u e hav in g been
e s ta b li s h e d , T su rg a n o v a 's d e t a i l e d e x p o s itio n o f p o in t o f
view in American l i t e r a r y th e o ry th u s seems a f i t t i n g end
to th e f i r s t decade o f S o v ie t F au lk n er c r i t i c i s m .
102
NOTES
1. E. Romanova's a r t i c l e "A ntlvoennye m otivy y t v o r -
c h e s tv e U il'ia m a F o lk n era" [A n ti-w ar m o tifs In th e c r e a t i v e
work o f W illiam F a u lk n e r], I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r e , No. 6
(1955)# PP- 170-176, w h eth er c o i n c i d e n t a l l y o r n o t, was
p u b lis h e d a few weeks b e fo re th e Big Four summit c o n fe re n c e
on p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e . I f i t s ap p earan ce was n o t c o in
c i d e n t a l , th e n lau n ch in g F au lk n er i n th e S o v ie t Union may
have been th e one c o n c re te r e s u l t o f a c o n fe re n c e o th e rw ise
c o n s id e re d in c o n s e q u e n tia l.
2. Sem* ra ss k a z o v [Seven s t o r i e s ] , w ith an a fte rw o rd
by th e Hemingway c r i t i c Ivan K ashkin, was p u b lis h e d in Mos
cow in 1958 by th e K hudozhestvennaia L i t e r a t u r a p u b lis h in g
h o u se. I t was th e f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t sample o f F a u lk n e r 's
f i c t i o n t r a n s l a t e d I n to R u ssia n . Most o f th e seven s t o r i e s
came from Malcom C ow ley's P o rta b le F a u lk n e r (New Y ork,
1946): "A J u s t i c e , ” "Red L e a v e s ," "T hat Evening S un," " P e r
cy Qrimm," and "Smoke." The c o l l e c t i o n a ls o c o n ta in e d
"Barn B urning" and " V ic to ry ."
As to F au lk n e r n o v e ls , The M ansion, l a s t o f th e Snopes
s e r i e s , was s e r i a l i z e d in I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r a in 1961
and p u b lis h e d i n book form in 1965. tfhe f i r s t two Snopes
n o v e ls , The Hamlet and The Town, were p u b lish e d i n 1964.
I n t r u d e r i n th e Dust was p r in t e d in I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r a
i n 1968. L ig h t liTTuguBt app eared i n L ith u a n ia n i n 19& 6 .
3 . Romanova, p . 176.
4. Deming Brown, S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s Toward American
W ritin g ( P rin c e to n , 1962) , p . 180.
5. K h ru sh ch ev 's f i n a l speech to th e T w en tie th P a rty
C ongress h a s n e v e r been p u b lis h e d i n th e USSR, b u t a c c o rd
in g to F r e d e ric k L. Schuman's RusBla S in ce 1917 (New Y ork,
1957) » P* 428, th e t e x t in whole o r In p a r t was re a d by
P a rty spokesmen to m illio n s o f S o v ie t c i t i z e n s In th e
s p rin g o f 1 9 5 6.
6 . R. O rlova and L. K opelev, "Mify i p rav d a a m e ri-
kanskogo Iu g a" [Myths and th e t r u t h o f th e American S o u th ],
I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r a , No. 3 (1 9 5 8 ), pp. 210-211.
103
7. Ivan K ashkin, " F o lk n e r—ra s s k a z c h ik " ( p o s le s lo v ie )
[F a u lk n e r— a h o r t - s t o r y w r i t e r ( a f te r w o r d ) ], Sem’ ra ss k a z o v ,
p . 164. F or P a l i e v s k i i , see n o te 15 on t h i s page.
8. A. S t a r t s e v , " T r i l o g i i a U iliam a F o lk n era" [F a u lk
n e r ’s t r i l o g y ] ( in tr o d u c to r y a r t i c l e ) , U. F o lk n e ra , D ere-
vushka [The H am let] (Moscow, 1964), p . 6.
9. O rlova and K opelev, p . 219.
10. S t a r t s e v , p. 8.
11. M. M endelson, "U iliam F o lk n e r," Sovremennyl a m e rl-
k a n s k ll roman [Contem porary American n o v e l] (Moscow, 1 $ 6 4 ],
pp. 195-268.
12. Mendelson ta k e s t h i s p h ra s e , w ith acknowledgm ent,
from R o b ert Penn W arren, S e le c te d E ssays (New York, 1958),
p . 6 5 . B ut W arren i s ta l k i n g ab o u t " tn e modern w orld"
r a t h e r th a n " th e c a p i t a l i s t w o rld ."
13. M endelson, pp. 196-201.
14. I b i d . , p p . 200-201.
15. P. V. P a l i e v s k i i , " P u t' U. F o lk n era k re a liz m y "
[The p a th o f W. F a u lk n e r to r e a l i s m ] , in I . Anisimov and
o th e r s , e d s ., Sovremennyl problem y re a liz m a 1 modernlzma
[Contem porary problem s o f r e a lis m and modernism] (Moscow,
1965), PP. 255-275.
16. Tamara M btyleva, Z arubezhnyl roman seg o d n la [The
f o re ig n n o v e l to d a y ] (Moscow, 1966), p . 176.
1 7. M otyleva, pp. 177-178.
1 8. K ashkin, p . 1 6 5.
1 9 . O rlova and K opelev, p . 207.
20. S t a r t s e v , p . 7.
21. M endelson, pp. 205-212.
22. P a l i e v s k i i , pp. 261-264.
23.
M otyleva, pp. 179-181.
24. I b i d . , p . 183.
104
25.
a b o u t a
2 6 9.
I . Levidova, "Saga 0 sum rachnoi d i n a s t i i " [Saga
gloomy d y n a s ty ], Novyi M ir, No. 7 ( 1962) , p p . 265-
26. R. O rlova, " ’K o r e n its ia v samol c h e lo v e c h n o s ti
. . . ' " [Based on hum anity i t s e l f ] , i n I . Anisimov and
o t h e r s , e d s ., Sovrem ennaia l i t e r a t u r a za rubezhom [Contem
p o ra ry l i t e r a t u r e ab ro ad ] (Moscow, 1962), pp. 225- 2 2 9 .
C V J
O rlova and K opelev, pp. 211-212.
ro
00
•
S t a r t s e v , p . 10.
29.
I b i d . , p . 19.
30. M endelson, p . 225.
31.
S t a r t s e v , p . 20.
32.
M endelson, pp. 260-261.
33.
L evidova, pp. 265- 2 6 9 .
3^.
O rlo v a, p . 227.
35.
M endelson, p . 262.
36. S t a r t s e v , pp. 17-18.
37.
M endelson, p . 254.
38. O rlo v a, pp. 226-227.
39.
Levidova, p . 2 6 7.
40. "Amerika F o lk n e ra 1 1 (k perevody O s k v e r n ite lia
prak h a) [ F a u lk n e r 's America (on th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f I n
t r u d e r i n th e D u s t)] , I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r a , No. TT"
(i$ 6 8 J ,
pp. 211-214.
4 l . E. A. Tsurganova, " ’N ovaia k r i t i k a ’ i roman F o lk
n e ra O s k v e r n ite l 1 p ra k h a ” [The "New C r itic is m " and F a u lk
n e r ’s n o v e l I n tr u d e r in th e D u s t], V e s tn ik Moskovskogo u n i-
v e r s i t e t a , No. 3 (1969)* PP* 18- 2 9 .
CHAPTER V
SALINGER, FITZGERALD, UPDIKE
Three im p o rta n t American a u th o r s i n a d d itio n to F a u lk
n e r began to r e c e iv e B erio u s a t t e n t i o n from R ussian c r i t i c s
in th e I9 6 0 ’ s . W hile th e r e h as been some commentary on
t h e i r o th e r w orks, c r i t i c i s m h as c e n te r e d on th e s in g le
n o v el by each w r i t e r which h as been t r a n s l a t e d in to R u ssian
( f i r s t y e a r i n d i c a t e s d a te o f o r i g i n a l p u b lic a tio n , second
i n d i c a t e s p u b lic a tio n d a te i n th e S o v ie t U nion): J . D. S a l
i n g e r 's The C a tch e r i n th e Rye (1951* 1 9 6 l) * F. S c o tt F i t z
g e r a l d 's The G reat Q atsby (1925* 19^5)* John U p d ik e 's The
C entaur ( 1963, 19^5)• Each n o v e l r e c e iv e s a d i f f e r e n t
b le n d o f s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and e s t h e t i c c r i t i c i s m . The
C a tc h e r i n th e Rye, p e rh a p s b ecau se i t was f i r s t p u b lis h e d
a t th e h e ig h t o f th e Cold War, i s o f te n re a d as a s o c i a l
document. R u ssian Q atsby c r i t i c i s m re se m b les American c r i t
ic is m o f th e n o v el i n t h a t c e r t a i n m o tifs a re prom inent in
b o th : th e American Dream, G a ts b y 's ro m a n ticism , th e c o rru p
tio n o f American l i f e , th e e d u c a tio n o f Nick Carraway, and
th e n o v e l 's s t y l i s t i c i n t e g r i t y . There i s ample s o c i a l com
m entary on The C e n ta u r, b u t R u ssia n app ro ach es to th e n o v el
c e n te r on th e r e l a t i o n s o f th e r e a l i s t i c and the m yth o lo g -
105
106
l e a l l e v e l s seen m ainly from th e e s t h e t i c p o in t o f view.
B ecause o f t h i s continuum from s o c i o - c u l t u r a l l y to e s t h e t -
i c a l l y o r ie n te d c r i t i c i s m going from S a lin g e r th ro u g h F i t z
g e r a ld to U pdike, S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f th e th r e e n o v e ls i s
a n a ly z e d i n t h a t o r d e r , which happens to c o in c id e w ith the
c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r d e r o f R u ssian p u b l i c a t i o n .
The| C a tc h e r in th e Rye in R u ssia n C r itic is m
Some S o v ie t c r i t i c s b u i l d a heavy e d i f i c e o f c u l t u r a l
commentary on th e r a t h e r s l i g h t b a se o f S a l i n g e r 's n o v e l.
R. O rlo v a, f o r exam ple, a n a ly z e s Holden a t le n g th and u s e s
h e r f in d in g s to g e n e r a liz e b ro a d ly ab o u t American c u l t u r e .
She em phasizes H o ld e n 's "deep, s in c e r e f e e l i n g s , " h i s
" t h i r s t f o r t r u t h and n a tu r a ln e s s i n human r e l a t i o n s . "
Seeking r e a l c o n ta c t w ith p e o p le , Holden ru n s a g a in s t
"d e a f w a l l s ," a g a in s t e v e ry th in g " v u lg a r ly c a l c u l a t e d ,"
a g a in s t l i e s and "m utual a l i e n a t i o n . " Of h i s f i x a t i o n on
c h ild r e n and h i s own c h i l d i s h b e h a v io r she o b se rv e s t h a t in
c o n t r a s t to d ecad en t l i t e r a t u r e ' s d i s p l a y o f th e " f i l t h y
s u b - s o i l in th e c h i l d 's s o u l," S a lin g e r shows an " u n sta in e d
p u r it y " i n th e c h i l d 's a b i l i t y to " se e f i l t h and w ith h o r
r o r rem ain a l o o f ." At tim e s, she co n ced es, H o ld e n 's r e v o l t
i s deform ed and s tu p id , a s in h i s tre a tm e n t o f S a lly ; on
th e o th e r hand, h i s a u th e n tic in n o cen ce i s u n d e r lin e d in
th e h o t e l scene w ith th e p r o s t i t u t e . O rlova s e e s in
H o ld e n 's f e e l i n g s a s tro n g in d ic tm e n t o f American c u ltu r e :
107
he r i g h t l y d e s p is e s th e Pensey H eadm aster and th e o ld g rad
tycoon who r e t u r n s to th e sch o o l to d e l i v e r h i s corny
sp eech es alo n g w ith l o t s o f money; he r i g h t l y h a te s h i s
b r o t h e r 's s e l l i n g o u t to H ollyw ood.1
W hile Holden I s s h a rp ly aware t h a t In America o b je c ts
dehumanize p e o p le , he h im s e lf , acc o rd in g to O rlo v a, i s p a r t
o f th e w orld he lo a th e s : son o f a r i c h law y er, w ith p le n ty
o f p o ck e t money, he grew up where th e r a d io n e v e r s to p s
b l a r i n g , where p e o p le re a d new spapers in s te a d o f books and
ru s h f r a n t i c a l l y from p la c e to p la c e w ith o u t tim e o r i n c l i
n a tio n to th in k i n c o n c e n tra te d wayB. U ltim a te ly th e n o v el
throw s a s tro n g l i g h t on American d ra b n e ss: n o th in g r e a l l y
im p o rta n t e v e r hap p en s, and th e s e t t i n g i s d e p r e s s in g —
c o ld , r a i n , g ra y sky, g ra y homes. In f a c t , th e h o r r o r o f
American r e a l i t y i s th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e n o v e l, a h o r r o r
e x p re sse d w ith th e m a te r ia ls s u p p lie d by "b o u rg e o is e v e ry
day l i f e " i t s e l f (pp. 196- 198) .
E. K nipovich app ro ach es th e n o v e l d i f f e r e n t l y , though
more s u p e r f i c i a l l y . A ccording to t h i s c r i t i c , th e main
is s u e posed i n th e n o v e l i s th e r e l a t i o n o f a u th o r and
h e ro , w hich i n t h i s ca se re sem b le s a b a l l on a ru b b e r
s t r i n g h e ld by S a lin g e r . The h e r o 's " fr e e f l i g h t " i s e x
tre m e ly lim i t e d ; w henever i t i s n e c e s s a ry f o r h i s concep
t i o n , S a lin g e r r e t u r n s h i s h ero to th e d e s ir e d p la c e . What
t h i s c r i t i c im p lie s b u t does n o t say d i r e c t l y 1 b t h a t H ol
den, i f allo w ed to roam f r e e l y in accordance w ith h i s n a -
108
t u r e , p ro b a b ly would tu r n I n to an a c tiv e r e v o lu tio n a r y .
T h is r e l a t i o n o f a u th o r and h e ro , th in k s K nipovich, i s c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c o f much contem porary p ro se in c a p i t a l i s t i c coun
t r i e s . Here i t i s due to th e cunning o f th e a u th o r t h a t
2
th e n a iv e r e a d e r does n o t n o tic e th e s t r i n g .
K nipovich d isa p p ro v e s o f b u t cla im s to be n o t o v e rly
swayed by H o ld en ’s h a b i t u a l ly in g , by h i s many e x p u ls io n s
from s c h o o ls , and by h i s b e in g a n i h i l i s t i n r e l a t i o n to
h i s b o u rg e o is en v iro n m en t. But th e S o v ie t c r i t i c s tr o n g ly
o b j e c t s to what he b e l i e v e s i s H o ld e n 's la c k o f d is c r im in a
t i o n . The h u m ilia tio n o f one p e rso n by a n o th e r o r even
m urder does n o t d i s g u s t S a l i n g e r 's h ero any more th an does
a v u lg a r movie o r th e s i g h t o f too many au to m o b ile s on th e
s t r e e t (p . 2 1 8 ). H is f i n a l o b je c tio n i s f a m i l i a r : H o ld e n 's
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i s p r e s e n te d n o t a s a f a t a l consequence o f
th e c o n t r a d i c t io n s o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c ie ty b u t a s th e o n ly
escap e a v a i l a b l e to a man from th e s e c o n t r a d i c t io n s , a s th e
s o le means o f rem ain in g tr u e to c o n sc ie n c e and to hum anity
(p . 224).
V. N azarenko ta k e s y e t a t h i r d ta c k b u t a ls o h as s e r i
ous r e s e r v a t i o n s ab o u t H o ld e n 's c h a r a c t e r . One o f S a l i n
g e r 's main ach iev em en ts i n th e n o v e l, a c c o rd in g to American
c r i t i c s , i s h i s s k i l l f u l l y re p ro d u c in g th e speech and
th o u g h t p a t t e r n s o f an a d o l e s c e n t . ^ N azarenko, how ever,
s e e s i n H o ld e n 's s te r e o ty p e d speech co n v in cin g ev id en ce
109
t h a t H olden, who c o n s ta n tly com plains about so much b ein g
phoney, 1 b h im s e lf b a s i c a l l y a r t i f i c i a l . And th en he lo o k s
a t H olden’ s b e h a v io r, f in d in g I t no more d i s t i n c t i v e th an
h i s sp eech . "Holden h a s no more w i l l than a w isp h a s ." ^
N ear th e end o f th e n o v e l Holden keeps ru n n in g i n t o o b sc e n
i t i e s scraw led on w a lls where c h ild r e n a re c e r t a i n to see
them, and he s p e c u la te s t h a t i f he were to d i e , someone
would sc ra w l one o f them on h i s tom bstone. Nazarenko f in d s
t h i s th e n o v e l’s le a d m o tif: th e se n sin g o f l i f e and d e a th
l i k e an a b s o lu te o b s c e n ity , a b e l i e f in th e e t e r n a l and u n
changing lo ath so m en ess o f human n a tu r e (p. 181).
A ccording to t h i s c r i t i c , C a tc h e r i s n o t p r o p e rly a
work o f c r i t i c a l r e a lis m a t a l l , a s he says most S o v ie t
c r i t i c s m a in ta in . H is r e a s o n in g h e re i s w orth fo llo w in g .
H o ld e n 's f a t h e r i s a r i c h c o r p o ra tio n law yer; "we a l l know"
how th e y make t h e i r l i v i n g . And Holden h im s e lf i s i n d i f
f e r e n t to w h eth er th e money on w hich h i s fa m ily l i v e s i s
h o n e s t o r n o t . In f a c t , th in k s N azarenko, i n s id e he i s
convinced t h a t th e w orld m ust be d iv id e d i n t o th e r i c h and
th e p o o r, so he r e j o i c e s t h a t he belongB to th e r i c h and
d e s p is e s th e p o o r (p . I 8 l ) . To prove H o ld e n 's a lle g e d
sc o rn f o r th e p o o r, N azarenko r e f e r s to two e p iso d e s t h a t
do in d eed r e v e a l som ething s i g n i f i c a n t ab o u t H o ld e n 's c h a r
a c t e r , b u t n o t what th e S o v ie t c r i t i c th in k s . I t i s w o rth
w h ile to q u o te th e two p a s s a g e s , f o r th ey c l e a r l y show th e
d if f e r e n c e s betw een N a z a re n k o 's re a so n in g and t h a t an Amer-
110
le a n c r i t i c m ight u s e . In th e f i r s t , Holden w alks in New
York b eh in d a m a rrie d couple and t h e i r c h i l d .
I t w asn’t as c o ld as I t was th e day b e f o r e , b u t th e
sun s t i l l w a s n 't o u t, and i t w asn’t too n ic e f o r w alk in g .
But th e r e was one n ic e th in g . T h is fa m ily t h a t you could
t e l l J u s t came o u t o f some church were w alking r i g h t In
f r o n t o f me—a f a t h e r , a m o th er, and a l i t t l e k id ab o u t
s ix y e a rs o ld . They looked s o r t o f p o o r. The f a t h e r had
on one o f th o se p e a r l - g r e y h a t s t h a t p o o r guys wear a l o t
when th e y want to look sh a rp . He and h i s w ife were J u s t
w alking a lo n g , t a l k i n g , n o t p ay in g any a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r
k id . The k id was s w e ll. He was w alking in th e s t r e e t ,
i n s t e a d o f on th e sid e w a lk , b u t r i g h t n e x t to th e c u rb .
He was making o u t l i k e he was w alking a v ery s t r a i g h t
l i n e , th e way k id s do, and th e whole tim e he k e p t s in g in g
and humming. I g o t up c l o s e r so I co u ld h e a r what he was
s in g in g . He was s in g in g t h a t song, " I f a body c a tc h a
body coming th ro u g h th e r y e ." He had a p r e t t y l i t t l e
v o ic e , to o . He was J u s t s in g in g f o r th e h e l l o f i t , you
co u ld t e l l . The c a r s zoomed by, b ra k e s sc re e ch e d a l l over
th e p la c e , h i s p a r e n ts p a id no a t t e n t i o n to him, and he
k e p t on w alking n e x t to th e curb and s in g in g " I f a body
c a tc h a body coming th ro u g h th e r y e ." I t made me f e e l
b e t t e r . I t made me f e e l n o t so d e p re sse d any more.5
N azarenko has chosen a key s e c tio n in th e n o v e l. Here we
see H o ld e n 's lo v e f o r c h ild re n a s w e ll a s th e source o f h i s
f a n ta s y e x p re sse d l a t e r t h a t n ig h t to h i s s i s t e r , t h a t he
would l i k e to be a "C atch er i n th e Rye" who s ta n d s n e x t to
th e p r e c ip ic e and Baves k id s p la y in g i n th e f i e l d when th e y
come too c lo s e to th e edge. But N a za ren k o 's o b s e rv a tio n
(p . I 8 l) i s sim ply t h a t H olden’ s rem ark ab o u t th e f a t h e r ’s
h a t c l e a r l y shows how he f e e l s ab o u t th e p o o r. An American
c r i t i c m ight p a r t i a l l y a g re e , i n t h a t h e re we do le a r n some
th in g o f how Holden f e e l s ab o u t th e p o o r, b u t Nazarenko may
be e x a g g e ra tin g when he la b e l s H o ld en ’s f e e l i n g a s " s c o rn ."
I l l
The second p a ssa g e Nazarenko c i t e s r e v e a ls more ab o u t
H o ld e n 's a t t i t u d e .
W hile b r e a k f a s tin g In New York, Holden se es two nuns,
whose In e x p e n siv e s u it c a s e s rem ind him o f a form er room
m ate. He th e n t e l l s ab o u t th e roommate.
Som ething happened once. For a w h ile when I waB a t
E lk to n H i l l s , I roomed w ith t h i s boy, D ick S la g le , t h a t
had th o se v e ry in e x p e n s iv e s u i t c a s e s . He u sed to keep
them u n d er th e b ed , in s t e a d o f on th e r a c k , so t h a t no-
b o d y 'd see them s ta n d in g n e x t to m ine. I t d e p re sse d h o ly
h e l l o u t o f me, and I k e p t w anting to throw mine o u t o r
som ething, o r even tr a d e w ith him. Mine came from Mark
C ro ss, and th e y were g en u in e cowhide and a l l t h a t c ra p ,
and I g u ess th e y c o s t q u i t e a p r e t t y penny. But i t was
a funny th in g . H e r e 's what happened. What I d id , I f i
n a l l y p u t mjr s u it c a s e s u n d er nw; bed, i n s t e a d o f on th e
r a c k , so tK a t o ld S la g le w o u ld n 't g e t a goddam i n f e r i o r
i t y complex ab o u t i t . But h e r e 's what he d id . The day
a f t e r I p u t mine u n d er my b ed , he took them o u t and p u t
them back on th e r a c k . The re a so n he d id i t , i t took me
a w h ile to f in d o u t, was because he wanted p eo p le to
th in k my b ag s were h i s . He r e a l l y d id . He was a v ery
funny guy t h a t way. He was alw ays say in g s n o tty th in g s
ab o u t them, my s u i t c a s e s , f o r in s ta n c e . He k e p t say in g
th ey were too new and b o u rg e o is . That was h i s f a v o r i t e
goddam w ord. He re a d i t somewhere o r h e a rd i t somewhere.
E v e ry th in g I had was b o u rg e o is a s h e l l . Even my f o u n ta in
pen was b o u rg e o is . He borrow ed i t o f f me a l l th e tim e,
b u t i t was b o u rg e o is anyway. W e o n ly roomed to g e th e r
ab o u t two m onths. Then we b o th asked to be moved. And
th e funny th in g was, I s o r t o f m issed him a f t e r we moved,
becau se he had a h e llu v a good sen se o f humor and we had
a l o t o f fun som etim es. I w o u ld n 't be s u r p r is e d i f he
m issed me, to o . At f i r s t he o n ly used to be k id d in g when
he c a l l e d my s t u f f b o u rg e o is , and I d i d n 't g iv e a damn—
i t was s o r t o f funny, in f a c t . Then, a f t e r a w h ile , you
could' t e l l he w a s n 't k id d in g any more. The th in g i s ,
i t ' s r e a l l y h a rd to be roommates w ith p eo p le i f y o u r
s u it c a s e s a r e much b e t t e r th a n t h e i r s —i f y o u rs a re
r e a l l y good ones and t h e i r s a r e n 't . You th in k i f t h e y 'r e
i n t e l l i g e n t and a l l , th e o th e r p e rso n , and have a good
sen se o f humor, t h a t th e y d o n 't g iv e a damn whose s u i t
c a s e s a re b e t t e r , b u t th ey do. They r e a l l y do. I t ' s one
o f th e re a s o n s why I roomed w ith a s tu p id b a s ta r d l i k e
S t r a d l a t e r . At l e a s t h i s s u it c a s e s were a s good a s
m in e.6
112
Again N azarenko h as chosen an im p o rta n t p a s sa g e . Y et
a l l he say s in p a r t i c u l a r i s t h a t i t i s u n p le a s a n t f o r
Holden to look a t a p erso n i f t h i s person h a s cheap lu g g ag e.
He th en g e n e r a l i z e s in what he c a l l s a " b r i e f p s y c h o lo g ic a l
a n a l y s i s ." B e sid e s n o t b ein g i n t e r e s t e d in where h i s fam
i l y ' s money comes from , Holden r e j o i c e s t h a t he b e lo n g s to
th e r i c h and d e s p is e s th e p o o r. T his i s communicated in
sm all t h in g s , a s "som ething n a t u r a l , " th e c r i t i c rem arks
a f t e r r e f e r r i n g to th e h a t and th e s u i t c a s e s . A ccording to
N azarenko, S a lin g e r does n o t t r y to p s y c h o lo g ic a lly a n a ly z e
Holden e i t h e r aB a r a t h e r s tu p id f a t h e r 's boy o r a s an ado
l e s c e n t p o s se s se d by q u e s tio n s o f c o n sc ie n c e , f o r b o th o f
th e s e a p p ro a c h e s, he a rg u e s , a r e beyond th e bounds o f th e
a u t h o r 's c o n c e p tio n . And t h i s i s s tra n g e , he c o n c lu d e s , i f
one assum es t h a t th e n o v e l i s t h as th e s o c i o - c r i t i c a l i n t e n
tio n s n e c e s s a ry to be c l a s s i f i e d as a " c r i t i c a l r e a l i s t " ;
b u t th e p o in t i s , co n clu d es th e S o v ie t c r i t i c , t h a t th e
a u th o r h a s no such i n t e n t i o n s (p . I 8 l ) .
An American c r i t i c , in c o n t r a s t , m ight o b se rv e t h a t
th e se p a s s a g e s , b e s id e s b e in g f u l l o f im p lie d p s y c h o lo g ic a l
a n a ly s is (th e n a r r a t i v e p o in t o f view p re c lu d e s o b j e c t i v e
a n a l y s i s ) , show a more complex a t t i t u d e tow ard w e a lth th an
Nazarenko a llo w s . On th e one hand, Holden t r i e s to escap e
h i s p a s t and p r e s e n t by im a g in a tiv e ly i d e n t i f y i n g w ith c h i l
d re n ; on th e o t h e r hand, he i s a c r e a tu re o f claBS d i v i
s io n s . S a l i n g e r 's a r t i B t r y , th e n , c o n s is ts in c r e a t i o n o f
113
a con v in cin g and u n i f i e d monologue r e v e a lin g H olden’s lo n g
in g to escape and h i s b e in g c o n tr o lle d by c l a s s v a lu e s and
c o n v e n tio n a l a d o le s c e n t a t t i t u d e s . (Holden o f te n say s he
d e s p is e s th e m ovies, y e t he a tte n d s two movies in th e nov
e l , one a t Radio C ity Music H a ll, th e embodiment o f a l l he
say s he cannot s ta n d , where th e movie was so " p u trid " he
c o u ld n ’ t ta k e h i s eyes o f f i t [p. 1 2 5 ].) One se n se s a con
s i s t e n t l y dev elo p ed c o n t r a s t betw een what H olden’ s a c t s and
speeches r e v e a l to th e r e a d e r and how Holden h im s e lf i n t e r
p r e t s them. Thus th e p u t a t i v e American c r i t i c , in th e name
o f e s t h e t i c a n a l y s i s , shows l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in th e s o c i a l
im p lic a tio n s o f th e s e s c e n e s . And th e S o v ie t c r i t i c goes
to th e o p p o s ite extrem e o f t o t a l l y ig n o rin g n a r r a t i v e p o in t
o f view.
The r e s u l t s o f paying no a t t e n t i o n to th e h a n d lin g o f
p o in t o f view a re e q u a lly obvious in an a r t i c l e by L. S.
K ustova, whose s u b je c t i s m ainly th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f S a l i n
g e r ’s n o v e l. She in tr o d u c e s h e r a r t i c l e w ith a le n g th y
commentary on H olden, d is c u s s in g him n o t in th e c o n te x t o f
a l i t e r a r y work b u t as though he were a r e a l p e rso n . Kus
to v a em phasizes w hat she c a l l s th e " p a s s iv ity " o f H olden.
He d i s l i k e s many a s p e c ts o f American c u l t u r e ; h i s f e e l i n g s
and what he sayB ab o u t h i s environm ent r e v e a l u n p le a s a n t
t r u t h s ab o u t th e U .S. B ut th e r e a d e r should n o t g e t th e
im p re ssio n , c a u tio n s K ustova, t h a t H olden’ s a t t i t u d e i s
a c t i v e , p o s i t i v e r e b e l l i o n . W e a r e n o t to ta k e l i t e r a l l y
114
H olden’s say in g he w ants to go and l i v e by a stream some
where o r h i s th in k in g t h a t i f th e r e i s going to be an atom
i c w ar, he w ants to r i d e th e f i r s t atom ic bomb dropped by
th e U.S. These se n tim e n ts show, alo n g w ith many o th e r a s
p e c ts o f h i s speech and b e h a v io r, t h a t even in h i s f a n ta s y
7
h i s r e b e l l i o n ta k e s a p a s s iv e f o r m .1
The b r i e f e r c r i t i q u e o f M. Gus i s in some ways more
su g g e s tiv e th an th e te d io u s d is c u s s io n s o f K nipovich, Naza
re n k o , and K ustova. H o ld e n 's " s p i r i t u a l c o n d itio n ," w r ite s
Gus, i s a p r o t e s t a g a in s t th e " l i e s , h y p o c ris y , and infam y"
o f American l i f e . Holden h a te s h i s environm ent b ecau se i t
i s an ti-h u m an j th u s he i s t o r t u r e d by th e d e s ir e to se p a
r a t e th e phoney from th e r e a l . Of c o u rse Holden i s ab n o r
mal fro n th e p o in t o f view o f "b o u rg e o is 'h e a lth y th o u g h t'"
s in c e he s t r i v e s f o r th e r e - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f hum aneness,
f o r th e r e b i r t h o f man i n an anti-hum an s o c ie ty . H o ld e n 's
i d e a l may seem r i d i c u l o u s , and in any ca se he i s c l e a r l y
u n a b le to combat th e " l i e s , h y p o c ris y , and infam y" which
he everyw here m eets.
A nother s u g g e s tiv e ap p ro ach i s t h a t o f G. V lad im o v 's,
y e t he too d is c u s s e s Holden w ith o u t e x p l i c i t l y ta k in g in to
acco u n t th e n a r r a t i v e p o in t o f view . Vladimov f in d s Holden
a t once rem ark ab ly m ature and p e n e tr a tin g f o r h i s age and a
c u te , p l a y f u l c h ild whose e v e ry movement i s sp o n tan e o u s.
H o ld e n 's dream ab o u t c a tc h in g c h ild r e n b e fo re th e y f a l l
o v e r th e p r e c ip ic e i s an i l l u s i o n , " o f c o u rs e , b u t a sav in g
115
i l l u s i o n , " which i s more th an j u s t an escap e from th e w orld
he d e s p is e s . U ltim a te ly , i t i s b o th a summons and a g o a l
by w hich he can s a n c t i f y h im s e lf . To a c t in acco rd an ce
w ith t h i s i l l u s i o n r e q u i r e s courage and n o t even S a lin g e r ,
say s V ladim ov, knows w h eth er o r n o t Holden has i t . (Kus
to v a , o f c o u rse , i s su re Holden la c k s i t . ) He o b se rv e s in
c o n c lu s io n t h a t t o d a y 's " v irtu o u s b o u rg e o is" o f te n were in
t h e i r y o u th th e m ost " in n o c e n t dream ers" and t h a t d i s o r
d e r l y r e b e l s o f te n grow up to become "th orough and i n v e t e
r a t e P h i l i s t i n e s . " The " b e a tn ik s " and "angry young men"
p ro b a b ly w i l l s i m i l a r l y grow up, b u t th e main p o i n t , V lad
imov c o n c lu d e s, i s t h a t Holden i s n e i t h e r one n o r th e
o
o t h e r .
The most r e c e n t S o v ie t approach to S a l i n g e r 's n o v el i s
a ls o i n some ways th e most i n t e r e s t i n g , f o r i t does empha
s iz e th e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f p o in t o f view , a r t f u l l y combining
t h i s i s s u e w ith th e n o v e l 's s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l im p lic a tio n s .
" S a lin g e r chose an e x c e e d in g ly d i f f i c u l t form ," w r ite s I u .
I a . L i d s k i i , and r e g a r d l e s s o f th e n o v e l 's r i c h s o c ia l con
t e n t , S a lin g e r co u ld n o t have succeeded w ith o u t making
H o ld e n 's monologue " f o r c e f u l l y and a c c u r a te ly p e r s u a s iv e ."
The r e a d e r p e r c e iv e s th e n a r r a t o r a s a l i v i n g p e rso n and
h i s c o n fe s s io n as a s in c e r e s to r y a d d re ss e d to somebody
d isp o s e d tow ard him i n a f r i e n d l y way. S a lin g e r r e l i e s on
th e f a c t t h a t m en tal a s s o c i a t i o n s seldom a re a c c i d e n t a l ,
116
which h e lp s u n i f y th e n a r r a t i v e th re a d and the many d i g r e s
s io n s . In d e e d ,
d ig r e s s io n s from th e s to r y l i n e n o t o n ly do n o t I n t e r r u p t
I t , th e y com plete I t , making I t more c l e a r and co n v in cin g .
Thus th e n a r r a t o r 's linage, c l e a r l y su g g e ste d on th e f i r s t
p ag e, c o n s ta n tly g e t s more f u l l . 10
The s o c i a l r e a l i t y r e f l e c t e d In th e n o v e l I s , L i d s k ii a r
g u es, re m ark ab ly wide c o n s id e rin g th e n a r r a t i v e form .
Here I s th e system o f e d u c a tio n and c h i I d - r e a r i n g , mov
i e s , th e b u s in e s s c a r e e r , l i t e r a t u r e ( " i d i o t i c s t o r i e s In
m a g a z in e s"), a r t , th e .a rm y , d a l l y l i f e , and a l l po w erfu l
money (" In New York e v e ry th in g i s p o s s ib le w ith money,
t h i s I know "), and th e a ll-e m b ra c in g f a l s i t y w hich th e
a u th o r em phasizes w ith p a r t i c u l a r I n s i s t e n c e , (p . 193)
L i d s k i i , a lo n e among R u ssian c r i t i c s , concedes t h a t
th e r e a d e r m ight th in k he i s b ein g exposed n o t to r e a l i t y
b u t o n ly to th e p e r c e p tio n s o f a "tem p era m e n ta lly p e s s i
m i s t i c , r e f l e c t i v e , w ithdraw n a d o le s c e n t." But th e r e a d e r
" u n c o n d itio n a lly " b e li e v e s Holden, n o t o n ly b ecau se o f h is
"extrem e s i n c e r i t y , " b u t a ls o because o n ly a w orld o f
" l i e s , f a l s i t y , and c r u e lty " could produce such a h e r o . I f
th e n o v e l i s n o t d e a lin g w ith s o c ia l r e a l i t y , i t i s "sim
p ly im p o ss ib le to e x p la in th e appearance o f t h i s c h a r a c te r
and t h i s fram e o f mind" (p. 19^0 .
In summary, R. O rlova c o n t r a s t s th e p u r i t y o f Holden
and th e decay o f h i s en v iro n m en t, h is d e s ir e f o r r e a l con
t a c t w ith p e o p le , and h i s m eeting in s t e a d " d e a f w a lls " and
p h o n in e ss. A ccording to E. K nipovich, S a lin g e r c u n n in g ly
d iB g u ise s h i s com plete c o n tr o l o v er h i s h ero and makes
Holden too i n d i s c r im in a te in h i s r e a c t i o n s . More " a n t i -
117
Holden" i s V. N azarenko, who f in d s him as phoney as Holden
f in d s th e w o rld . In d eed , t h i s c r i t i c f e e l s th a t S a lin g e r
does n o t p s y c h o lo g ic a lly a n a ly z e h i s hero a t a l l . An Amer
ic a n c r i t i c , i t was s u g g e ste d , m ight d is a g r e e , u s in g p o in t
o f view to f in d s u b tle and i r o n i c c h a r a c t e r a n a l y s is . Also
ig n o rin g p o in t o f view, L. S. K ustova condemns H olden’s
" p a s s i v i t y ." M. Gus, on th e o th e r hand, b e lie v e s th a t
Holden does " B triv e f o r th e r e - e s ta b lis h m e n t o f humaneness"
and t h a t h i s s p i r i t u a l c o n d itio n , r a t h e r th an a d e f e c t o f
th e n o v e l, s tr o n g ly p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t th e " l i e s , h y p o c ris y ,
and infam y" o f American l i f e . G. Vladimov d i f f e r s from
th o se c r i t i c s who see th e n o v e l 's e s s e n t i a l c o n t r a s t a s
betw een Holden and h i s en v iro n m en t. He f in d s th e c o n t r a s t
w ith in th e h e ro : he i s u n u s u a lly m ature and p e n e tr a tin g ,
b u t he i s a ls o a spontaneous c h i l d . H o ld e n 's i l l u s i o n
ab o u t r e s c u in g c h ild re n i s a " sa v in g i l l u s i o n , " a g o a l and
summons to s e l f - s a n c t i f i c a t i o n . F i n a l l y , i t was su g g e ste d
t h a t I u . I a . L id s k ii a r t f u l l y com bines a t t e n t i o n to p o in t
o f view w ith e x p lo r a tio n o f th e n o v e l 's s o c i o - c u l t u r a l im
p l i c a t i o n s .
S o v ie t C r itic is m o f The G re a t GatBby
S o v ie t c r i t i c s began w r itin g a b o u t The G reat G atsby in
1965^ and have been somewhat l e s s c u l t u r a l l y o r ie n te d th an
c r i t i c s o f The C atch er in th e R ye. In f a c t , S o v ie t G atsby
c r i t i c s c o n ta c t American c r i t i c s on a number o f p o in ts (and
118
Indeed may have borrow ed from them) w h ile adding s e v e r a l
I n s i g h t s o f t h e i r own.
A. N. G orbunov's approach i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s r e l a t i v e
freedom from f a m i l i a r c l i c h l s and p o s s ib le In d e b te d n e ss to
such American c r i t i c s a s M arius Bewley and A rth u r M izener.
12
Like Bewley, Gorbunov s e e s i n th e n o v e l a p e n e tr a tin g
d i s s e c t i o n o f th e American dream , one o f whose m a n ife s ta
t i o n s i s ra g s to r i c h e s th ro u g h sh e e r w i l l power. In
G a ts b y 's case th e dream u n i t e s w ith h i s v is io n o f D aisy.
U n fo rtu n a te ly , D aisy in th e f l e s h does n o t match th e i d e a l
o f h i s im a g in a tio n ; t h i s b a n k ru p tc y o f h i s dream s i g n i f i e s
th e b a n k ru p tc y o f h i s whole e x is te n c e . Gorbunov, li k e many
o f h i s American c o u n te r p a r ts , se e s a to u c h in g r o m a n tic is t
and dream er g r a d u a lly r e v e a l h im s e lf, who c o n t r a s t s s h a rp ly
w ith th e v u lg a r J a z z Age f ig u r e o f th e e a r l y c h a p te r s .
Somewhat lik e A rth u r M izener, who s t r e s s e s redem ption o f
r ic h e s by im a g in a tio n ,^ ^ Gorbunov h as G atsby s t r i v i n g f o r
th e p o e tr y o f h i s " im p e ris h a b le dream" because he i s u n -
14
s a t i s f i e d w ith th e p ro s e o f h i s environm ent.
M. M endelson's more r o u ti n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in some r e
s p e c ts re se m b le s th e sim ple view e q u a tin g G atsby w ith com
mon s te r e o ty p e s o f th e American tw e n tie s . A ccording to
t h i s c r i t i c , th e n o v el t e l l s " to th e end" th e "dark t r u t h "
ab o u t th e Ja z z Age i n an Am erica drunk w ith r ic h e s and w ith
a " n o isy , h y s t e r i c a l g a i e t y . " F i tz g e r a ld v i v i d l y p o r tr a y s
th e a m o ra lity o f th e " re s p e c ta b le " b o u rg e o is by showing
119
t h e i r i n c l i n a t i o n to v ic e and crim e. In d e e d , th e b ig g e s t
tr a n s g r e s s o r tu r n s o u t to be Tom Buchanan, th e most r e
s p e c ta b le o f th e r i c h and a "d e g e n era te r a c i s t and f a s c i s t . "
Mendelson r i s e s above t h i s le v e l in h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
ic
D aisy , r e c a l l i n g t h a t o f Bewley among o t h e r s . J P a r a l l e l
in g th e c o r r u p tio n o f h e r husband Tom, she had become empty,
e m o tio n a lly c o ld , and in c a p a b le o f lo v e by th e tim e G atsby
t r i e d to r e - e n t e r h e r l i f e . For th e m ost p a r t , th e n , Men
d e lso n draws p r e d i c t a b l e s o c ia l c o n c lu s io n s from th e n o v e l,
say in g l i t t l e ab o u t i t s l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
M ichael L a n d o r's approach resem b les Gorbunov’s , though
he nods i n M en d elso n 's d i r e c t io n and a t tim e s echoes th e
I t a l i a n c r i t i c S e rg io P ero sa . Landor s u g g e s ts t h a t b e fo re
le a v in g f o r th e w ar, G atsby i s p r im a r ily f a s c in a te d by lu x
u ry and w e a lth and o n ly s e c o n d a rily by D aisy h e r s e l f , whose
a p p e a l comes m ainly from h e r r e p r e s e n tin g to G atsby th e
w orld o f th e r i c h . But a f t e r th e war G a ts b y rs ro m a n ticism
r i s e s to h ig h American tra g e d y in th e image o f him s t a r i n g
a c r o s s th e bay a t th e g reen l i g h t . F or G atsby grew up in
a s o c ie ty where r ic h e s a re surrounded by an " a u r e o le ,"
where " i n i t i a l l y th e r e i s no s tin k when in h i s dream money
and p o e tic lo v e u n n a tu r a lly com bine." H is tra g e d y c o n s is t s
o f h i s b e in g i s o l a t e d and then v ic tim iz e d by th e embodiment
17
o f American w e a lth , Tom Buchanan.
A. S t a r t s e v o f f e r s th e most th o ro u g h socio-econom ic
approach to G a tsb y . (Not e v e ry th in g he sa y s f a l l s i n t h i s
120
categ o ry * how ever. For exam ple, he n o te s t h a t th e n o v e l In
one sense I s ab o u t Nick C arraw ay 's e d u c a tio n , f o r whom th e
s h o r t s ix months amount to a "m oral u n i v e r s i t y ." The views
o f I u . I a . L i d s k l i , who d is c u s s e s N ick in more d e t a i l , a re
an a ly z e d below . T racin g th e fu n c tio n o f Nick has been a
p r i n c i p a l p re o c c u p a tio n o f American c r i t i c s in r e c e n t
y e a r s — see n o te 2 1 .) G e n e ra lly f o r S t a r t s e v th e s o c i a l n a
tu r e o f G atsby i s d e fin e d by i t s e v e n ts , c h a r a c te r s , and
baB ic c o n f l i c t d i r e c t l y r e l a t i n g to th e f a t e o f a l l p eo p le
i n th e s o c ie ty which th e a r t i s t d e s c r ib e s . The c r i t i c r e
f e r s to th e " d e s tr u c tiv e n e s s t h r u s t on man by a ly in g c i v
i l i z a t i o n " which i d e n t i f i e s h a p p in e s s w ith m a te r ia l su c c e ss
and s u b o rd in a te s m oral and s p i r i t u a l s tim u li to th e " r e
l i g i o n o f r ic h e B ." The G re a t QatBby, th e n , r a t h e r th an
sta n d in g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p e r io d in American h i s t o r y , ex
p r e s s e s w ith o n ly s l i g h t e x a g g e ra tio n fundam ental and p e r -
manent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f American s o c ie ty . Ja y G atsb y ,
moved by h i s dream o f r e tu r n in g to D aisy , s t r i k e s o u t on
th e s e m i- le g a l ro ad co m p le te ly a c c e p te d i n th e American
system and g e t s r i c h . He su cceed s i n m eeting D aisy a g a in
and f o r a tim e a t t r a c t s h e r by th e s tr e n g th o f h i s f a i t h
f u ln e s s and lo v e . But D aisy , l i k e Tom, r e p r e s e n ts th e
American g o v ern in g c l a s s , th e h e r e d i t a r y owners o f th e
c o u n try . Any a tte m p t to q u e s tio n t h e i r r i g h t s e v e n tu a lly
ru n s up a g a i n s t th e " sto n e w a ll" o f t h e i r " in n e r s o l i d a r
i t y . " They calm ly t o s s G atsby a s id e and a rra n g e f o r h i s
121
m urder; th e n , " f u l l - b e l l i e d , " th e y go t h e i r c r u e l way w ith
eq u a n im ity (p . 176) . S t a r t s e v in c o n clu d in g em phasizes th e
im p o rta n c e o f th e n o v e l 's " m o r a l - l y r i c a l d i g r e s s io n s ," in
w hich F i t z g e r a ld sought to convey th e n o v e l’ s b a s ic im
p u l s e — th e
in n e r s e n s a tio n o f th e f r a g i l i t y and s o c i a l and m oral
g ro u n d le s s n e s s o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n b u i l t on a ly in g p r i n
c i p l e , a s e n s a tio n foreshadow ing t h a t c i v i l i z a t i o n 's soon
to o c c u r m a t e r ia l and s p i r i t u a l c ra c k -u p . (p. 178)
The m ost r e c e n t example o f S o v ie t Q atsby c r i t i c i s m i s
c l o s e r to A m e ric a n -sty le c r i t i c i s m th a n i s S t a r t s e v . I u .
I a . L i d s k li in h i s 1968 book E ssay s on American tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry w r i t e r s h as a long c h a p te r on F i t z g e r a ld in c lu d in g
IQ
a f i f t e e n page d is c u s s io n o f The G rea t G a tsb y . ^ In th e
f i r s t p a r t o f h i s d is c u s s io n , L i d s k li sounds some f a m i l i a r
c h o rd s. F i t z g e r a ld " g iv e s a f u l l p o r t r a i t o f th e m oral
c r i s i s th ro u g h which American s o c ie ty i s going" (p . 9 0 ).
The n o v e l u n co v ers th e " a n ti- h u m a n is tic " n a tu re o f b o u r
g e o is s o c ie ty , d is p la y in g th e " f a l s i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y o f
i t s i d e a l s " (p . 9 2 ). B ut th e S o v ie t c r i t i c ta k e s th e s e
c r i t e r i a and s k i l l f u l l y weaves them i n t o an a n a l y s is t h a t
s t r i k e s o u t i n s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s u n u su a l in S o v ie t c r i t
ic is m . Making e v id e n t th e a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f b o u rg e o is
i d e a l s i s th e c o l l i s i o n o f " r e a l f e e l i n g , deep s p i r i t u a l
movement" and low -grade s u b s t i t u t e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a
" f a l s e c i v i l i z a t i o n " (p . 9 2 ) . Q atsb y , o f c o u rse , r e p r e
s e n ts r e a l f e e l i n g and th e Buchanans and Jo rd a n B aker th e
122
" s u b s t i t u t e s , " b u t L id s k li does n o t s to p w ith t h i s f a m i l i a r
d i s t i n c t i o n . I n s te a d , he c o n s id e rs a t c o n s id e ra b le le n g th
th e s p e c i a l r o l e s o f Nick Carraway and co n clu d es w ith a
d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e n o v e l 's e s t h e t i c w holeness rem ark ab ly i n
agreem ent w ith th e view s e x p re sse d by C h a rle s Thomas Sam-
20
u e l s In h i s r e c e n t e s s a y "The G re a tn e ss o f G a tsb y . "
In d is c u s s in g th e f u n c tio n s o f N ick, L id s k li d ev elo p s
In h i s own way a l i n e o f th o u g h t t h a t p ro b a b ly forms th e
21
dom inant theme in r e c e n t American G atsby c r i t i c i s m . Be
f o re N ick d e c la r e s h im s e lf th e d e fe n d e r o f GatBby a t th e
end, he s u c c e s s f u lly p a s s e s th ro u g h a s e r io u s co u rse in th e
" e d u c a tio n o f f e e lin g " ( L i d s k i i ’ s q u o te s , p . 97)* Like
American c r i t i c s , L id s k li shows how c a r e f u l l y F i tz g e r a ld
c r e a t e s h i s n a r r a t o r : he i s young, n o t a s r i c h a s Buchanan,
and he i s co n n ected i n v a rio u s ways w ith a l l th e m ajor
c h a r a c t e r s . B ut more im p o rta n t th an N ic k 's b e in g an o b
s e r v e r and n a r r a t o r a s w e ll a s a c o n n e c tin g l i n k betw een
th e c h a r a c te r s i s h i s b ein g h im s e lf an a r r e s t i n g f ig u r e
Judging o t h e r s , h im s e lf , and l i f e . In s e v e r a l ways, th e n ,
Nick a s " c e n t r a l c o n n e c tin g image" g iv e s th e n o v el a p a r
t i c u l a r i n t e g r i t y . In th e b e g in n in g he o f f e r s th e r e a d e r
in tr o d u c to r y th o u g h ts ab o u t G atsby and i n th e end s u p p le
m ents them w ith id e a s " in a new way illu m in a tin g th e p e r
s o n a l i t y o f G atsby h im s e lf and th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e n a r
r a t o r " (p . 9 8 ). B ut t h i s "naked" l i n k o f b e g in n in g s and
end, th e " b e lt" t i e i n g up th e n o v e l, i s n o t th e main g u a r
123
a n to r o f th e n o v e l 's w h o len ess. T his comes from an a c h ie v e
ment o f th e h i g h e s t a r t i s t i c e f f e c t , a " s t y l i s t i c i n t e g r i t y
nowhere v i o l a t e d , r e f l e c t i n g in th e developm ent o f th e sub
j e c t th e maximum harm onious r e v e l a t i o n o f th e theme" (p.
9 8 ). Nick g r a d u a lly r e - e v a l u a t e s a l l — s e l f in c lu d e d — and
th u s co m p letes th e s p i r i t u a l t r a in i n g begun by th e w ar.
SignB o f h i s new s e l f a re h i s b re a k in g w ith "n aiv e im ag in
in g s ab o u t th e b e a u ty o f w e a lth ," h i s r u p tu r e w ith Jo rd an
B aker, h i s le a v in g th e banking b u s in e s s , and h i s d e c i s iv e ly
Judging an "am oral s o c ie ty and i t s deform ed s o c i a l r e l a
tio n s h ip s " (p . 9 9 )- Nick becomes an " a c tiv e opponent" o f
Buchanan; how ever, N ic k 's o p p o s itio n i s " u n ex p e c te d ly l e f t
hanging in m id -a ir" (p . 9 9 ).
The s ig n i f i c a n c e o f L i d s k i i 's a n a l y s is i s n o t o n ly
t h a t i t shows S o v ie t c r i t i c s cap ab le o f ta l k i n g in term s
co m p atib le w ith American c r i t i c i s m . L i d s k li goes beyond
p re v io u s c r i t i c i s m o f G atsby in showing how F i t z g e r a ld
" s u b tly u n d e r lin e s " th e " i n s t a b i l i t y i n m oral r e l a t i o n
s h ip s " among th e n o v e l 's c h a r a c te r s by d e l i b e r a t e l y b l u r
r in g th e o u t l i n e s o f even th e most o r d in a ry t h in g s . A
22
s e r i e s o f exam ples Bhows t h i s b l u r r i n g . As in h i s c r i
tiq u e o f The O atoher i n th e Rye, L i d s k i i 's ap p ro ach to
G atsby seems rem ark ab ly s e n s i t i v e to th e n o v e l 's l i t e r a r y
q u a l i t i e s .
124
S o v ie t C ritic iB m o f The C en tau r
■ i ■ ■ ■ ■ .......................... ■ j a a g a a a a a B — a
The d i f f e r e n c e s betw een R u ssian c r i t i c i s m o f th e f i r s t
two n o v e ls c o n s id e re d i n t h i s c h a p te r and The C entaur a re
e v id e n t in th e v e ry f i r s t e s s a y on th e l a t t e r n o v e l . In
t h i s e s sa y D. G ranin iB c o n s i s t e n t l y n o n - id e o lo g ic a l and
from th e b e g in n in g t r i e s to answ er th e q u e s tio n , What s o r t
o f th in g i s th e m ixing o f th e r e a l i s t i c w ith th e m ytholog
i c a l ? I s i t r e a l i t y , a sym bolic dream, o r th e p la y o f th e
f a n ta s y o f (sc h o o l te a c h e r - c e n ta u r ) George C aldw ell him
s e l f ? He say s t h a t th e s e k in d s o f q u e s tio n s b o th e re d him
a t f i r s t b u t th en he came to r e a l i z e t h a t he d id n o t have
th e r i g h t to pose them b ecau se th e a u th o r d id n o t in te n d
to answ er them. The p o in t i s n o t what does a l l th e myth
o lo g y s ig n i f y b u t r a t h e r , how doeB i t h e lp th e r e a d e r u n
d e rs ta n d C ald w ell? The i n s t a n t one lo o k s f o r a l i t e r a l
id e a , e v e ry th in g f a l l s a p a r t (p . 145).
G ranin n o te s t h a t " c u r io u s ly , Greek m ythology does n o t
f o r th e f i r s t tim e [ in C e n ta u r] become a component o f con-
24
tem porary l i t e r a t u r e . " B ut in s te a d o f U ly s se s , he r e f e r s
to I I D isp rezzo by M oravia, and th en say s p r e c i s e l y what he
m ight say i f he had a c t u a l l y r e f e r r e d to U ly s s e s : "The h i s
to r y o f Odysseus c o n s ta n tly becomes in terw o v en w ith th e
h i s t o r y o f th e n o v e l 's h ero " (p . 146). In U p d ik e 's c a s e ,
G ranin Im m ediately s a y s , th e image o f a s u f f e r in g c e n ta u r ,
h a l f man and h a l f h o r s e , c r e a t e s th e h i s t o r y o f a human
125
s o u l p a s sin g i n t o th e i n t e r m i n a b i l i t y o f th e p a s t and f u
t u r e , h e s i t a t i n g betw een heaven and e a r t h , betw een immor
t a l i t y and d e a th , betw een dreams and everyday r e a l i t y (p .
146).
The c e n ta u r , wounded and e x h a u ste d b u t s t i l l a pow er
f u l demigod, roams th e e a r t h i n th e form o f a p i t i f u l , a b
su rd sim p leto n i n a c ra z y b lu e k n i t h a t , which he found in
a sch o o l w aste b i n . G ra n in ’s method can b e s t be d is p la y e d
by a r a t h e r le n g th y q u o ta tio n . In c o n t r a s t to most S o v ie t
c r i t i c i s m , th e s e n te n c e s h e re a r e s h o r t and in fo rm a l, a s I f
th e c r i t i c were c o n d u c tin g a d ia lo g u e w ith th e work. When
he does o b j e c t , he does so as a sy m p ath etic r e a d e r , e a g e r
to apprehend th e a p p a r e n tly u n c o n v e n tio n a l form.
The tra n s fo rm a tio n i s s tu n n in g , a t l e a s t f o r u s . W e
see him w ith th e eyes o f th e son. No, t h i s i s n o t C ald
w e ll, I t I s n o t h e . A la s , i t i s h e , th e v ery same man.
R e c o g n itio n happens g r a d u a lly , p o ig n a n tly . In d eed , th e
s in g le q u a l i t y u n i t i n g th e two— c e n ta u r and te a c h e r ,
myth and man— i s v i r t u e . D uring th e co u rse o f th e whole
n o v el th e p r o je c t io n s fo llo w one a f t e r a n o th e r . Through
th e eyes o f th e son, th ro u g h th e eyes o f su rro u n d in g
p e o p le , th ro u g h th e ey es o f Zimmerman, th ro u g h th e eyes
o f th e now grown son, th ro u g h th e eyes o f C aldw ell him
s e l f and even th ro u g h th e eyes o f th e town. Thus I n
c re a s e s th e n o v e l’s ra n g e , a s i f to u c h in g th e boundary
o f human e x is te n c e . The t r a n s i t i o n s a re sudden; th e y d e
mand an I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f f a n ta s y . A sen se o f d is c o v e ry
se rv e s a s th e rew ard . In th e m ix tu re o f n a r r a t o r s ab o u t
C aldw ell th e r e I s no o r d e r l i n e s s . I t i s Im p o ssib le to
g u ess from whom we w i l l le a r n in th e n e x t c h a p te r . Nor
does t h i s m ix tu re have an i n t e r n a l rhythm . The sequence
I s a r b i t r a r y , w h im sic a l. Sometimes p r o p o rtio n s a re d e
stro y e d J u s t when one b e g in s to f e e l a d e s ig n . T his e c
c e n t r i c , r a t h e r mannered form o f n a r r a t i v e i s n o t managed
w ith o u t l o s s , th e most annoying o f w hich, a s alw ay s, i s
th e lo s s o f i n t e r e s t o r a t t e n t i o n . The q u a r r e l s alo n g
126
th e ro ad become so le n g th y and th e ro a d I t s e l f to sch o o l
so sad t h a t slow ness Beems a l i t e r a r y d e v ic e , and b o r e
dom I s tu rn e d a g a in s t th e a u th o r , (p . 146)
But In e s s e n c e , G ranin d e c id e s , n a r r a t i v e form i s J u s t i f i e d
by th e id e a . C aldw ell i s th e r e f l e c t i o n o f th e leg e n d a ry
C h iro n , who s a c r i f i c e d h im s e lf f o r th e sake o f human im
m o r t a l i t y . C h ap ter a f t e r c h a p te r le a d s one to an u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f t h i s a t f i r s t g la n c e so o r d in a r y , b u t in f a c t
re m a rk a b le , i n im ita b le man. U n d e rsta n d in g i s in c o m p le te ,
how ever, f o r q u e s tio n s rem ain . "But t h i s i s how i t should
b e: th e b e t t e r we know a p e rs o n , th e more we want to u n d e r
s ta n d him" (p . 146).
A ccording to G ranin, nobody s u s p e c ts t h a t Olympian
gods l i v e i n C a ld w e ll’ s s o u l: "H is i n t e r n a l w orld i s b ea u
t i f u l and im m o rta l, l i k e th e g o d s, to whom he b elo n g s" (p.
1 47). Y et he can n o t be a god— he has to be a man in o rd e r
to e a rn money f o r h i s son and h i s w ife . He i s fo rc e d to
r e f u s e h i s im m o rta lity . H is s e l f - B a c r i f i c e lo o k s p o i n t
l e s s ; i t can change n o th in g i n th e e x i s t i n g o r d e r , b u t
n e v e r th e le s s one can J u s t i f y i t . I t i s a r in g in g p r o t e s t
a g a i n s t th e s u f f o c a tin g pragm atism d o m inating th e s p i r i t u a l
l i f e o f American B ociety (p. 1 4 8 ).
Tamara M btyleva adds l i t t l e to G ran in ; i n f a c t she
seems to le a n on h i s a r t i c l e w ith o u t e x p l i c i t l y say in g so:
"The J u x ta p o s itio n w ith a n c ie n t gods e s p e c i a l l y v iv i d l y
s e t s o f f th e i n s ig n if ic a n c e and p e t t i n e s s o f th e p r o v in c ia l
b o u rg e o is among whom C aldw ell l i v e s " ; and "more im p o rta n t;
127
th e Image o f th e c e n ta u r adds a co m p letin g a s p e c t to h is
p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . " 2-^ (G ranin had w r i tt e n t h a t th e
myths "com plete" o r " f u l f i l l " e a r t h l y r e a l i t y [p. 1 4 6 ].)
M otyleva a g re e s w ith G ranin on how th e myth a f f e c t s th e
r e a d e r 's u n d e rsta n d in g o f George C a ld w e ll, h u t she u s e s
more c o n v e n tio n a l S o v ie t c r i t i c a l te rm in o lo g y : myth h e lp s
th e r e a d e r
s h a rp ly f e e l th e t r a g i c d i v i s i o n o f th e h e ro , who i s
drawn tow ard th e h i g h e s t s p i r i t u a l v a lu e s and a t th e same
tim e i s e n sla v e d by th e s ta g n a tio n o f th e b o u rg e o is
w o rld , (p . 335)
Like G ranin she p o in ts o u t th e c o n t r a s t th e m ythology p r o
v id e s w ith th e "w orld in w hich p r a c t i c a l i t y i s triu m p h an t"
(p . 336) s in c e f o r th e e l d e r C ald w ell th e w orld o f m ythol
ogy r e p r e s e n t s th e p o e tr y which he f a i l s to fin d i n h is
a c t u a l e x p e rie n c e .
The one new elem ent M otyleva m entions i s a tw o -la y e re d
iro n y d i r e c t e d in th e f i r s t in s ta n c e a g a i n s t what she c a l l s
th e " s e l f - s a t i s f i e d m ercenary m erch an ts o f l i f e , " to whom
C ald w e ll-C h iro n i s fo rc e d to s u b o rd in a te h im s e lf , and in
th e second in s ta n c e ag ain B t th e c e n ta u r h im s e lf , w ith a l l
h i s " p r i v a t e , s p i r i t u a l l y b e a u t i f u l m y th o lo g izin g d ream i
n e s s" (p . 336) .
For A. E l i s t r a t o v a , a l s o , The C en tau r i s ab o u t th e
"tra g e d y o f th e American s p i r i t , " and th e n o v e l 's main e f
f e c t i s s tro n g iro n y and s a t i r e a t th e expense o f O lin g e r,
P e n n s y lv a n ia .2^ The m ythology c r e a t e s a s u c c e s s f u l con
128
t r a s t betw een th e h e r o ic and th e b a n a l, betw een th e h a r
monious and th e b e a u t i f u l , betw een th e b e a u t i f u l and th e
u g ly . She echoes G ranin when she say s a n o th e r main purpose
o f th e myth I s to show w ith o u t th e h e lp o f " d id a c tic sp e c
u l a t i o n s and r h e t o r i c a l p h ra s e s " th e n o b i l i t y and th e
g r e a tn e s s o f s o u l o f th e somewhat r i d i c u l o u s , p i t i f u l , and
h e l p l e s s f o o l t h a t i s C a ld w e ll, th e o p p o s ite o f th e t r a d i
t i o n a l image o f th e " s u c c e s s f u l, c o n f id e n t, ’r e a l ’ Ameri
can" (p. l 4 l ) .
O rlova adds l i t t l e to th e o t h e r S o v ie t c r i t i c s , though
h e r rem arks on The C en tau r a r e o f i n t e r e s t b ecau se th ey a re
f r e e r from id e o l o g i c a l Jargon th an m ost o f h e r c r i t i c i s m .
In f a c t she b e g in s h e r rev iew w ith som ething o f an a n t i
ja rg o n m a n ife sto : in sp eak in g ab o u t The C entaur
i t i s p o s s ib le to r e t e l l th e s to r y c h r o n o lo g ic a lly , b u t
one can n o t impose an o r d e r on th e work t h a t wayj in a r t
th e whole alw ays changes when one changes th e lo c a tio n o f
th e elem en ts a s w r i t t e n . 2?
She say s t h a t George C ald w ell re se m b le s a f i f t y - y e a r - o l d
Holden C a u lf ie ld and t h a t P e te r , grown u p , became c l o s e r to
h i s now dead f a t h e r and r e g r e t t e d th e c r u e l th in g s in h i s
y o u th he had s a id to him . I t I s now to o l a t e j th u s P e te r
n a t u r a l l y beginB to c r e a t e a myth ab o u t h i s f a t h e r . The
R u ssia n c r i t i c a s k s , " I s n ’t t h i s one o f th e p re m ise s o f th e
n o v el?" (p . 265) . F ollow ing th e example o f many o f h e r
c o lle a g u e s when re v ie w in g American w orks, O rlova tow ard th e
end o f h e r rev iew d e v o te s a s h o r t p a ra g ra p h to th e "d eep ly
129
c o n tr a d ic to r y and I l l o g i c a l " d e s ir e f o r harmony on th e p a r t
o f Updike (p . 263) .
As d id h i s c r i t i q u e s o f The C atch e r In th e Rye and
The G re at G atsb y , I u . I a . L i d s k i i 's d is c u s s io n o f The Cen
t a u r c o n ta in s i n t e r e s t i n g rem arks on th e n o v e l 's form al
28
q u a l i t i e s . A lso a s b e f o re , he r e l a t e s h i s e s t h e t i c con
c lu s io n s to th e n o v e l 's s o c i o - c u l t u r a l im p lic a tio n s In a
r e s o u r c e f u l way. He b e g in s by I d e n t if y i n g The C en tau r as
a n o v e l- f a b le o r " p a r a b o lic n o v e l." The work h a s a form al
co m p lex ity t y p i c a l o f t h i s g e n re , he sa y s, an " u n c o n triv e d
co m p lex ity " which adds a "b eau ty and co h eren ce" to th e
a u t h o r 's " a r t i s t i c - p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s ." Like o th e r
R u ssia n s L id s k li s e e s th e n o v e l's b a s ic c o n f l i c t a s betw een
George C a ld w e ll's v i r t u e and th e d e g ra d a tio n o f h i s e n v i
ronm ent. One o f th e f u n c tio n s o f the myth, th e n , i s " s a -
t i r i c a l - p a r o d y , " p e r m ittin g Updike w ith " s t r i k i n g c l a r i t y "
to show th e " s q u a lo r o f American r e a l i t y " (p . 2 4 7 ). L id -
s k i i addB t h a t " th e whole atm osphere o f th e sm all town, th e
a i r w hich C ald w ell b r e a th e s , i s p o iso n ed by miasmas o f non
th o u g h t and n o n -h u m a n ity ." T his theme i s r e in f o r c e d when
i t seems t h a t even n a tu r e ta k e s up arms a g a in s t man, t o r
m enting him w ith f r e e z in g w e a th e r, w ith w ind, w ith th e
b l i n d c r u e l t y o f e le m e n ta l fo rc e s (p. 2 48).
C ald w ell so f u l l y u n d e rs ta n d s human m o tiv e s, a c c o rd
in g to th e R u ssian c r i t i c , t h a t he n o t o n ly im a g in a tiv e ly
p u ts h im s e lf i n o t h e r s ' s i t u a t i o n s , he a ls o in a sense
130
" r e in c a r n a te s " w ith o u t ren o u n cin g h is own s e l f ; th u s he
p r e s e r v e s th e ten d en cy " to m easure su rro u n d in g circum
s ta n c e s w ith a g i g a n t i c y a r d s tic k " (p. 252) . But v i r t u e
c o u ld n o t save C a ld w e ll.
T his re m ark ab le, s u b t l e , w ise , te n d e r and d e l i c a t e man,
an e t e r n a l t o i l e r , c a r ry in g on h i s s h o u ld e rs th e whole
w eig h t o f th e w o rld , i s worn down and f i n a l l y p e r is h e s
in th e u n eq u al b a t t l e w ith r e a l i t y , (p . 253)
A lthough 0. G. A r s e n t'e v a , i n th e most r e c e n t S o v ie t
e s s a y on The C entaur (s e e n o te 2 4 ), d e v o te s a good d e a l o f
space to echoing what h e r c o lle a g u e s had a lr e a d y w r i tt e n ,
she a rg u e s t h a t myth g iv e s to th e n o v el an o rg a n ic u n i t y .
She su g g e sts t h a t th e m utual p e n e tr a tio n o f th e two w orlds
( r e a l i s t i c and m y th o lo g ic a l) i s n a t u r a l and o rg a n ic even
from th e " s t y l i s t i c " p o i n t o f view ; as e a r l y a s C hapter I ,
b e fo re th e th re e "m y th o lo g ic a l c h a p te r s ," Updike i n t e r
s p e rs e s m etaphors from th e myth and O lin g e r l i f e . C aldw ell
"d escen d s from th e g a llo p in g P e lio n ," and we see th re e
la u g h in g Cyclops in Hummel's workshop, m etaphors which
"g erm in ate" through th e r e a l i s t i c f a b r i c o f th e n o v e l. She
th e n e n la r g e s on t h i s c o n c e p tio n to show how th e m ytholog
i c a l and r e a l i s t i c l e v e l s a re u n i t e d . W ith C a ld w e ll's
" m y th o lo g ic a l a p p reh en sio n " o f th e w o rld , Updike ca u se s him
to " f a n ta s i z e h im s e lf i n th e b e s t sense o f th e w ord," e v i
d e n tly h e r way o f d e s c r ib in g what L id s k ii c a l l s C a ld w e ll's
ten d en cy to " r e in c a r n a te " h im s e lf . But A r s e n t'e v a a ls o h as
i n mind U p d ik e 's hav in g C ald w ell im agine h im s e lf more im -
131
p r e s s iv e than he i s in f a c t - - i n th e myth he becomes the
h ig h ly esteem ed m entor o f y o u th when in r e a l i t y h i s s t u
d e n ts Bhow t h e i r la c k o f r e s p e c t f o r him by c o n s ta n tly
fo o lin g around d u rin g le s s o n s (p. 3 ^ 8 ).
A r s e n t'e v a c o n clu d es t h a t w ith h i s m y th o lo g ic a l te c h
n iq u e s , Updike p e n e t r a t e s th ro u g h th e " e x te r n a l and th e
v i s i b l e , " showing th e g e n u in e ly s p i r i t u a l and t r u t h f u l s id e
o f C a ld w e ll—h i s i n n e r n a t u r e —which i s condemned n o t to
r e v e a l i t s e l f in th e " h e ll" o f O lin g e r, P e n n sy lv a n ia (p.
3 52).
S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f The C en tau r th u s f l u c t u a t e s b e
tween i n t e r p r e t i n g th e n o v e l a s a sym bolic acco u n t o f th e
"human s o u l h e s i t a t i n g betw een heaven and e a r t h , immor
t a l i t y and d e a th , dreams and everyday r e a l i t y " (G ranin) and
a s a s a t i r i c a l acco u n t o f c o n d itio n s in sm all town America
and what th ey do to th e good man (M otyleva, O rlo v a, E l i s -
t r a t o v a ) . The f u l l e s t c r i t i q u e s a r e th o se o f G ran in , L id -
s k i i , and A r s e n t'e v a , who go beyond th e s im p l i c i t y o f
p o in tin g a t th e c o n t r a s t s betw een C a ld w e ll's v i r t u e and h is
e n v iro n m e n t's d e p r a v ity . G r a n in 's method i s h ig h ly u n u su a l
i n th e R u ssian c r i t i c i s m an aly zed i n t h i s stu d y : he con
d u c ts som ething l i k e an in fo rm a l d ia lo g u e w ith th e work,
r e g i s t e r i n g h i s p e r s o n a l re sp o n s e s i n what seems an open
and d i r e c t manner. L id s k li c o n tin u e s to s e n s i t i v e l y com
b in e e s t h e t i c and B o c io - c u ltu r a l i s s u e s in ways t h a t , com
p a red to most S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m , a r e f r e s h and r e s o u r c e f u l.
132
A r s e n t 'e v a 's concern f o r o rg a n ic u n i t y r e p e a ts a theme
t h a t , w h ile n o t conspicuous In R u ssian c r i t i c i s m o f th e
works c o n sid e re d In t h i s s tu d y , o c c u rs o fte n enough to n o t
seem an i s o l a t e d a b b e r a tio n .
133
NOTES
1. R. O rlova, Potomkl Q ek lb erry F lnna [D escendants o f
H u c k le b e rry Finn] (Moscow, 1962)» PP. 193-195•
2. E. K nlpovlch, "L lu d l nad p r o p a s tiu " [People above
th e a b y s s ] , Znamla, No. 6 ( 1961) , p . 216.
3 . A rth u r M izener, f o r exam ple, r e f e r s to th e " v i r
t u o s i t y w ith which S a lin g e r keeps H olden’s monologues going
f o r th e le n g th o f th e e n t i r e n o v e l." A rth u r M izener, "The
Love Song o f J . D. S a l i n g e r ," S a lin g e r : A C r i t i c a l and P e r-
s o n a l P o r t r a i t , e d . Henry A. Grunwald (!New York, 1962), p .
W.
4 . V. Nazarenko, " ' l a ’ i 'm i'" [I and w e], Zvezda,
No. 3 (1 9 6 1 ), p . 180.
5. J . D. S a lin g e r , The C a tc h e r i n th e Rye (New Y ork,
1 953), P- 105. O r ig in a lly p u b lis h e d in 1951.
6 . S a lin g e r, pp. 99-100.
7 . L. S. K ustova, "Roman S e lin d z h e ra Nad p r o p a s tiu vo
r z h l i ego perevod na r u s s k i i ia z y k " [ S a l i n g e r 's n o v el frhie
C a tc h e r i n th e Rye and i t s t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o th e R ussian
la n g u a g e ], V es'tnlk Moskovskogo u n l v e r s l t e t a , No. 1 (1964),
p p . 6 8 - 7 2 .
8 . M. Gus, L i t e r a t u r a 1 epokha [ L i t e r a t u r e and th e
epoch] (Moscow, 1<&3) » PP• 337-339•
9* 0 . Vladimov, " T ri d n ia i z z h iz n i Kholdena" [Three
days i n th e l i f e o f H o ld en ], Novyi m ir, No. 2 ( 1961) , pp.
254-257.
10. I u . I a . L i d s k l i , "Dzh. D. S e lin d z h e r ," O cherkl ob
am erlkanB klkh p l s a t e l 'i a k h XX veka [E ssays on tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry American w r i t e r s J [K iev, 1968) , p . 189.
11. P ro fe s s o r Edward J . Brown t o l d me t h a t he may be
p a r t l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r S o v ie t i n t e r e s t in F i t z g e r a ld . Dur
in g a v i s i t to th e S o v ie t Union i n 1963 he waB asked to
s u g g e s t American w r i t e r s h i t h e r t o o v erlo o k ed by R u ssian
c r i t i c s . He named” F i t z g e r a ld and l a t e r m ailed setB o f th e
134
w r i t e r ’s works to R u ssian a c q u a in ta n c e s . In 1965 a r t i c l e s
on F i t z g e r a ld , em phasizing The G reat G atsb y , began to ap
p e a r, and O atsby i t s e l f was t r a n s l a t e d and p u b lis h e d .
12. A ccording to M arius Bewley, th e theme o f Q atsby
iB " th e w ith e r in g o f th e American dream ."
The American dream, s tr e t c h e d betw een a golden p a s t and
a go ld en f u t u r e , i s alw ays b e tra y e d by a d e s o la te p r e s
e n t —a moment o f f r u i t r i n d s and d is c a rd e d fa v o rs and
cru sh ed flo w e rs .
We re c o g n iz e t h a t th e achievem ent o f t h i s n o v el i s t h a t
i t manages, w h ile p o e t i c a l l y evoking a sen se o f th e good
n e ss o f th e e a r l y dream, to o f f e r th e m ost damaging c r i t
ic ism o f i t in American l i t e r a t u r e .
" S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d ’s C r itic is m o f A m erica," Sewanee Review,
62 (1 9 5 4 ). R e p rin te d in E r n e s t L o c k rid g e , e d ., tw e n tie th
C entury I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f The G reat Q atsby (Englewood
C l i f f s , N .J ., 1968), PP. 4 7 / 48, 53-
13. A rth u r M izener w r i te s t h a t
O atsby i s F i t z g e r a l d ’s m ost b r i l l i a n t image o f h i s d eep
e s t c o n v ic tio n , th e c o n v ic tio n t h a t l i f e untouched by th e
im a g in a tio n i s b r u t a l and i n t o l e r a b l e and t h a t th e im ag
in e d l i f e m ust be made a c t u a l i n th e w orld i f a man i s to
become a n y th in g more th an a s e l f - i n d u l g e n t daydream er.
"F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d , " The American N ovel: From James F e n l-
more Cooper to W illiam Fiaulkner, ed. W allace S te g n e r (New
IISrFTTTonHonT”" p T ~
14. A. N. Oorbunov, "Romany S k o tta F itz d z h e r a ld a 20kh
godov" [The n o v e ls o f S c o tt F i t z g e r a ld in th e T w e n tie s],
V e stn lk Moskovskovo u n l v e r s l t e t a , No. 2 ( 1965) , pp. 27-32.
15. Bewley o b se rv e s t h a t D aisy
e x i s t s a t two w e ll- d e fin e d l e v e l s in th e n o v e l. She i s
what she i s —b u t she e x i s t s a ls o a t th e l e v e l o f Q a tsb y ’ s
v is io n o f h e r . The i n t e l l i g e n c e o f no o th e r im p o rta n t
n o v e liB t h as been a s c o n s i s t e n t l y u n d erv a lu e d a s F i t z
g e r a l d ’ s , and i t i s h a r d ly s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no c r i t i c h a s
e v e r g iv en F i t z g e r a ld c r e d i t f o r h i s superb u n d e rsta n d in g
o f D a is y 's v ic io u s e m p tin e ss. Even F i t z g e r a l d ’s a d m ire rs
r e g a rd D aisy a s r a t h e r a good, i f somewhat s i l l y , l i t t l e
th in g ; b u t F i t z g e r a ld knew t h a t a t i t s m ost depraved l e v -
135
e l s th e American dream m erges w ith th e American debu
t a n t e 's dream— a th in g o f d e a th ly h o llo w n e ss, (p. 44)
16. M. M endelson, "'V to ro y e z r e n i e ' S k o tta F i t z -
d z h e ra ld a " [The "second s ig h t" o f S c o tt F i t z g e r a ld ] ,
Y oprosy l l t e r a t u r y , No. 3 (1965)> PP- 102-125.
IT- M [ich a e l] Landor, "Dar nadezhdy" [The g i f t o f
h o p e ], Novyl m lr, No. 10 ( 1965K PP- 244-247.
A ccording to S erg io P e ro sa , th e c o n f l i c t betw een Q a ts
by *s e x p e c ta tio n s and th e o b je c tiv e s i t u a t i o n
i s n o t sim ply an in n e r c o n f l i c t . In th e [ l a s t fo u r chap
t e r s ] i t becomes a ls o a c o n f l i c t betw een e x te r n a l fo rc e s
and s o c ia l i n t e r e s t s . Q atsby i s r u in e d n o t o n ly because
o f h i s i n a b i l i t y to a c c e p t r e a l i t y a s e q u a l to o r s u f
f i c i e n t f o r h i s dream; he i s a ls o d e f e a te d by Tom's "hard
m alic e " and D a is y 's i r r e s o l u t e c a r e l e s s n e s s .
The A rt o f F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a ld , t r a n s . C h a rle s Matz and
th e a u th o r [Ann A rbor, 1965)* P« 64.
18. A. S t a r t s e v , "Q orkaia s u d 'b a F itz d z h e ra ld a " [The
b i t t e r f a t e o f F i t z g e r a l d ] , I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r a , No. 2
( 1965) , pp. 176-177.
19. O cherki ob am erik an sk ik h p i s a t e l i a k h XX veka
(K iev, 1968), pp. 89-104.
20. "The G re a tn e ss o f Q a ts b y ," M a ssa c h u se tts Review,
7 (1 9 6 6 ), 783-79^. B r i e f l y (to th e p o i n t o f o v e r s i m p l i f i -
c a t i o n ) , Samuels a rg u e s t h a t " in c o n c e n tr a tio n o f meaning,
n uance, and e f f e c t , th e r e a r e few books In any language
w ith w hich to compare" Q atsby (p . 7 9 ^ ). Samuels demon
s t r a t e s t h i s th ro u g h a c l o s e ly re a so n e d d is c u s s io n o f Q a ts
by r a t h e r th an by com paring i t w ith books in o th e r l a n
g u ag es. He co n ten d s: ( l ) " i t s fundam ental achievem ent i s
a trium ph o f language" (p . 7 8 4 ); (2) " th e n o v e l 's second
g r e a t achievem ent [ i s ] i t s management o f p o in t o f view, th e
c r e a tio n o f Nick" (p . 78 4 ); ( 3) " th e economy w ith which
F i t z g e r a ld p r e s e n ts [th e a b o r tiv e ] sorrow s and sh o rt-w in d ed
e l a t i o n s i s a n o th e r o f th e b o o k 's m ajor achievem ents" (p.
7 8 5) ; (4) "Q atsby i s , o f c o u rse , one o f th e m ajor a c h ie v e
m ents" and e x i s t s "as a l i f e fo rc e " (p . 7 8 7) w orthy o f com
p a r is o n w ith Hamlet and Ahab (pp. 7 8 8- 7 8 9) ; ( 5 ) f i n a l l y ,
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Nick and Q atsby i s th e n o v e l 's s u b je c t
and " l i k e e v e ry th in g e l s e in t h i s g r e a t n o v e l, N ic k 's s p i r
i t u a l grow th i s s y m b o lic a lly r e p re s e n te d r a t h e r than d i s
cussed* (pp. 79 0 -7 9 2 ).
136
21. Among many s tu d i e s a n a ly z in g N ic k 's f u n c tio n s In
G atsby, p ro b a b ly th e two b e s t a re James E. M ille r , J r . ' s
"b o a ts A g a in st th e C u rre n t" In h i s F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a ld : H is
A rt and H is Technique (New York, 19b4), pp. 105-126, and
Thomas K anzo’s "The theme and th e N a rra to r o f The G reat
G a ts b y ," Modern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 2 (1957)> I 8 3 - I 9 0 , r e
p r in t e d In F r e d e ric k J . Hoffman, e d ., The G re a t G atsby: A
Study (New Y ork, 1962) , p p . 286- 2 9 6 . O th ers -----
L is c a , "Nick Carraway and th e Imagery o f D is o r d e r ," T w enti
e th C entury L i t e r a t u r e , 13 (1967)* 18-28, and Fred E. C ar
l i s l e ^ "The T r ip le V isio n o f Nick C arraw ay," Modern F ic tio n
S tu d ie s , 11 (1965)* 351-360.
In g e n e r a l S o v ie t c r i t i c s a re much l e s s i n t e r e s t e d
th an A m ericans In th e t e c h n ic a l means F i t z g e r a ld u s e s to
e s t a b l i s h and s u s t a i n N ick a s b o th n a r r a t o r and in v o lv e d
c h a r a c t e r . As I p o in t o u t, however, L id s k li n o t i c e s some
o f th e im p lic a tio n s o f N ic k 's v ary in g r o l e s . P ro b ab ly Sam
u e l s c a r r i e s t h i s concern w ith Nick to i t s l o g i c a l extrem e
when he say s N ic k 's m ost im p o rta n t a c t , th e one f i n a l l y e x
p r e s s in g h i s Judgment o f B e lf, G atsby, and e v e n ts in v o lv in g
them and o t h e r s , i s th e a c t o f w r itin g th e n o v e l. For Sam
u e l s , th e n , Q atsby becom es, among o th e r t h i n g s , a book
ab o u t th e c r e a t i o n o f a book.
22. L i d s k i i 's f i r s t example o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e comes
from th e a p a rtm e n t scene i n c h a p te r two ( q u o ta tio n s from
th e p a p e r e d i t i o n o f The G re at d atB by, New Y ork, S c r ib n e r 's ,
n . d . , f i r s t p u b lis h e d 1925)• The p i c t u r e on th e w a ll, "a p
p a r e n t l y a hen s i t t i n g on a b lu r r e d r o c k , " when looked a t
from a d is ta n c e " re s o lv e d i t s e l f in to a b o n n e t, and th e
countenance o f a s to u t o ld la d y beamed down i n t o th e room"
(p . 29) . In th e n e x t p a ra g ra p h Nick Bays ( L i d s k i i 's i t a l
i c s ) e v e r y th in g t h a t happened t h a t a fte rn o o n "has a dim,
hazy c a s t o v e r i t " (p . 2 9) . He p o in ts in th e same scene
to C a t h e r i n e 's eyebrows "p lu ck ed and th en drawn on a g a in a t
a more r a k i s h a n g le , b u t th e e f f o r t s o f n a tu r e tow ard th e
r e s t o r a t i o n o f th e o ld alig n m e n t gave a b l u r r e d a i r to h e r
fa c e " (p . 3 0) . L ikew ise M yrtle W ilson "seemed to be r e
v o lv in g on a n o is y , c re a k in g p iv o t th ro u g h th e smoky a i r "
(p . 31) . In c h a p te r t h r e e , when Nick sto o d a lo n e w a itin g
f o r J o r d a n 's c o n v e rs a tio n w ith G atsby to end, "co n fu sed and
i n t r i g u i n g sounds" came from a n earb y room (p . 51)• E a te r
i n th e same c h a p te r , " form s lean ed to g e th e r i n th e t a x i s as
th e y w a ite d , and v o ic e s san g , and th e r e was la u g h te r from
u n h eard Jo k es" (p . 5 8) . L i d s k i i 's comment on t h i s phenom
enon i s ,
The " b lu r r in g " o f o u t l i n e s communicates a s p e c i a l atm os
p h e re to th e whole n a r r a t i v e , e x p r e s s iv e ly s e t t i n g o f f
th e t r a g i c s u b s t i t u t i o n , in a w orld where money, v u lg a r -
137
i t y , and i n s i g n i f i c a n c e triu m p h , o f ly in g f o r th e t r u t h
f u l , g e n u in e, and human. ( L i d s k i i , p . 102)
2 3 . D. G ran in , "N esk o l'k o s lo v o K entavre Dzhona Ap-
d a ik a " [S e v e ra l words on John U pdike*s frhe C e n ta u r],
I n o s tr a n n a ia l i t e r a t u r a , No. 2 ( 1965) , p p . l45-l'5fc•
24. One theme in S o v ie t C en tau r c r i t i c i s m 1b th e nov
e l ' s r e l a t i o n to J o y c e 's U ly s s e s . 0. G. A r s e n t'e v a , f o r
i n s ta n c e , arg u e s t h a t w hereas Joyce moves "th ro u g h th e con
tem porary w orld to m yth," Updike moves "th ro u g h myth to th e
contem porary w o rld ." To U p d ik e 's n o v el i s sim ply added a
m y th o lo g ic a l c o lo r j th e c e n t r a l s u b je c t rem ain s a m an's
l o n e l i n e s s . In U ly s se s , c o n tin u e s A r s e n t'e v a , th e p o r tr a y
a l o f " a c tu a l human e x p e rie n c e " i s l o s t . The m y th o lo g ic a l
e lem en ts in Joyce " c o n t r a d ic t r e a lis m ," w h ile in Updike
th e y a s s i s t in th e r e v e l a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r . "Roman D. Ap-
d a ik a K e n ta v r," Uchenye z a p l s k l, L eningrad p e d o g o g ic h is k ii
i n s t i t u t , 3 (I9 b b ) , 351.
A. E l i s t r a t o v a says v i r t u a l l y th e same th in g :
In U ly sses th e a r b i t r a r y m y th o lo g ic a l a s s o c i a t i o n s serv e
th e d e s tr u c t i o n o f a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f th e r e a l w orld,
b u t in The C en tau r th ey a r e c a lle d to s e rv e i t s c l a r i f i
c a tio n in agreem ent w ith th e h u m a n istic s p i r i t o f th e
whole n o v e l.
"T ragicheskoe z h iv o tn o e — ch e lo v ek ; o romanakh Dzhona Ap-
d a ik a " [A t r a g i c a n im al—man; on th e n o v e ls o f John Up
d i k e ] , Sovrem ennaia l i t e r a t u r a za rubezhom, sb o rn ik 2 [Oon-
tem porary l i t e r a t u r e a b ro a d , c o l l e c t i o n ’ 2 ] (Moscow, T 9 6 6) ,
p . 149.
2 5 . Tamara M otyleva, Z arubezhnyi roman seg o d n la [The
f o re ig n n o v el to d a y ] (Moscow, i£ 6 6 ) , p . 3 3 5.
26. E l i s t r a t o v a , p . 137.
2 7 . R. O rlo v a, "Znakomstvo s Apdaikom" [A cquaintance
w ith U p d ik e], Novyl m ir, No. 5 (1965)* P* 2^ 2 .
28. I u . I a . L i d s k i i , "Dzhon A pdaik," O cherkl ob amer-
lk an sk a k h p i s a t e 1 'la k h XX veka [Essays on tw e n tie th c e n tu ry
American w r i t e r s J , pp. 230-2$4.
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
The continuum m entioned i n th e p re c e d in g c h a p te r from
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l l y to e s t h e t i c a l l y o r ie n te d c r i t i c i s m a c t u
a l l y ap p lieB to th e s tu d y a s a w hole. The most c ru d e ly
d o c t r i n a i r e c r i t i c i s m en c o u n te re d waB t h a t on An American
Tragedy and The Grapes o f W rath . For Whom th e B e ll T o lls ,
d e a lin g w ith an e v e n t i n which th e S o v ie t Union was h e a v ily
engaged p o l i t i c a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y , would have been ex
p e c te d to r e c e iv e more r i g i d l y d o c t r i n a i r e tre a tm e n t th an
th e f i r s t two n o v e ls . But S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f th e Heming
way work in f a c t was c o n s id e ra b ly more v a r ie d . R u ssian
F au lk n er c r i t i c i s m s ta n d s a t th e c e n te r o f th e continuum .
The Snopes t r i l o g y , i t i s t r u e , i s d is c u s s e d la r g e l y in
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l te rm s, b u t th e s e term s seem a p p r o p r ia te ,
e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e y a r e a p p lie d w ith more f in e s s e th a n
was th e case w ith D r e is e r and S te in b e c k . The s u r p r i s i n g l y
d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n to The Sound and th e Fury, a "d ecad en t"
m o d ern ist work, c o n s i s t s o f s o p h is t i c a t e d t e c h n ic a l and
e s t h e t i c a n a l y s is . F i n a l l y , th e whole spectrum i s r e p r e
se n te d i n C hapter V: The C a tc h e r in th e Rye, in l e s s crude
a fa s h io n than th e D r e is e r and S te in b e c k n o v e ls, 1 b r e -
1 3 8
139
g a rd ed by most c r i t i c s a s v i r t u a l l y a s o c ia l document; The
G re a t G atsby i s seen in ways p a r a l l e l i n g American ap
p ro a c h e s , which combine s o c i a l w ith l i t e r a r y is s u e s ; The
C en tau r i s viewed la r g e l y in term s o f th e e s t h e t i c problem
o f showing how th e r e a l i s t i c and m y th o lo g ic a l le v e l s form
a s in g le w hole.
A s im i l a r p a t t e r n a p p lie s to th e c r i t i c s whose work
was examined in th e p re c e d in g f o u r c h a p te r s . At one p o le
a r e c r i t i c s l i k e I . Anisimov, I a . N. Z a s u r s k ii, and th e
somewhat l e s s m i l i t a n t Abel S t a r t s e v . Anisimov and Z a su r
s k i i h a b i t u a l l y u s e l i t e r a r y t e x t s a s i d e o l o g i c a l weapons.
I n th e c e n te r a re M. M endelson, R. O rlova, A. P. Shpakova,
and A. S. M u lia rc h ik , who In d i f f e r e n t ways combine a more
ju d ic io u s s o c i o - c u l t u r a l s ta n c e w ith v a ry in g d e g re es o f
e s t h e t i c aw aren ess. At th e o t h e r p o le a re D. G ranin, I u .
I a . L i d s k i i , and Iv a n K ashkin, who, w h ile n o t h e r m e tic a lly
i s o l a t i n g l i t e r a r y from s o c i a l I s s u e s , seem v i r t u a l l y f r e e
o f th e p o l i t i c a l form o f i d e o l o g i c a l in f lu e n c e .
The l a t e I . Anisimov headed th e Moscow G o r 'k ii I n s t i
t u t e , th e c e n te r f o r c r i t i c i s m o f fo re ig n l i t e r a t u r e s .
P erh ap s h i s b u r e a u c r a tic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s acco u n ted f o r the
r i g i d l y d o c t r i n a i r e way he approached An American Tragedy,
w r i t t e n by a man l a t e r to become a Communist. H is b a s ic
p rem ise i s t h a t th e American T w enties were a p e rio d v iv id ly
showing th e tr u e e f f e c t s o f th e American d o l l a r . Money
k i l l s c o n sc ie n c e and c a u ses crim e to n e s t i n ev ery nook
140
and cranny o f a governm ent t o t a l l y u n d e r th e thumb o f th e
W all S tr e e t O lig a rc h y . The J u d i c i a l p ro c e s s a s shown In
D r e i s e r ’s n o v el I s t y p i c a l o f th e c y n ic ism , s t u p i d i t y , and
s o u lle s s n e s s o f American l i f e a s a w hole.
However, Anisim ov was n o t r e a l l y an A m e ric a n ist, a s I s
Ia s e n N ik o la e v ic h Z a s u r s k ll. There a r e s ig n s t h a t Z a su r-
s k i i i s th e m ost I n f l u e n t i a l f ig u r e In S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry American l i t e r a t u r e . He u s u a ll y rev iew s
im p o rta n t S o v ie t e d i t i o n s o f American w r i t e r s in L l t e r a -
t u r n a ia g a z e ta , th e a u t h o r i t a t i v e W r ite r s ' Union w eekly.
He t r a v e l s f r e q u e n tly to th e U n ited S t a t e s , c o n f e rr in g w ith
American e x p e r ts in i n s t i t u t e s f o r th e stu d y o f S o v ie t and
E a s t European a f f a i r s . ^ - (S o v ie t id e o lo g y r e g a rd s th e se
i n s t i t u t e s , p e rh a p s w ith some J u s t i f i c a t i o n , a s a n t i - S o v i e t
propaganda f a c t o r i e s . )
Z a s u r s k i i ’ s main works a re h i s book on D r e is e r , f i r s t
p u b lis h e d in 1957 and r e v is e d i n 1964, and A m erikanskaya
l i t e r a t u r a XX veka [American l i t e r a t u r e o f th e tw e n tie th
c e n tu r y ] , p u b lis h e d in 1 9 6 6. L i t t l e i n t e r e s t e d i n e s
t h e t i c q u e s tio n s , Z a s u r s k ii Judges a l l w r i t e r s a c co rd in g
to t h e i r tre a tm e n t o f th e c l a s s s tr u g g l e . Sympathy f o r th e
USSR i s alw ays a sig n o f s tr e n g th in a w r i t e r , h o s t i l i t y
alw ays a m ajor d e f e c t . These co n cern s a re a l s o e v id e n t in
th e a r t i c l e s he w r i t e s , which c o n c e n tra te on u n e a rth in g and
p r a i s i n g American s o c i a l i s t r e a l i s t s and th o se c lo s e to
s o c i a l i s t r e a lis m . In Problemy l s t o r l l l l t e r a t u r y SShA
l 4 l
(1 9 6 4 ), f o r exam ple, he w riteB on "The O rig in s o f S o c i a l i s t
R ea lism In th e USA," m a in ta in in g t h a t
th e most Im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l l c u l t u r a l l i f e In
th e USA In th e y e a r s Im m ed iately fo llo w in g th e O ctober
r e v o lu tio n was th e developm ent o f a r t e x p re s s in g th e
id e a s o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y w orking c l a s s , (p . 349)
Z a s u r s k ii lik e w is e em phasizes id e o lo g y i n h i s t r e a t
ment o f F a u lk n e r ’s The M ansion. "In th e end o f th e Snopes
t r i l o g y th e e f f e c t i v e c o u n te rw e ig h t to th e Snopeses can
o n ly tu r n o u t to be th e Communist L in d a ." He q u ic k ly says
t h a t t h i s does n o t mean t h a t F au lk n e r had become a Commu
n i s t o r had even s t a r t e d to "sym pathize" w ith CommunistB.
F o r, Z a s u r s k ii p ro p a g a n d iz e s,
th e deep s e a rc h f o r th e s o u rc e s , th e r e a s o n s f o r th e r i s e
o f th e Snopeses le d th e w r i t e r to th e image o f a Commu
n i s t , to th e id e a s o f Communism, f o r o n ly in th e s e
p e o p le , in Communists, co u ld F a u lk n e r f in d th e q u a l i t i e s
w hich would g iv e th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b a t t l i n g w ith th e
S n o p eses. (p . 403)
In th e same camp a s Anisimov and Z a s u r s k i i , though
ed g in g tow ard th e c e n te r o f th e spectrum , i s A bel S ta r ts e v ,
a s p e c i a l i s t s in c e th e T h i r t i e s in American l i t e r a t u r e .
U n lik e many o f h i s c o lle a g u e s who see F a u lk n e r moving
tow ard r e a lis m a s e a r l y a s The Sound and th e F u ry , S t a r t
se v condemns F a u lk n e r ’ s p re-S n o p es n o v e ls on f a m i l i a r a n t i
modernism g ro u n d s. S outhern r e a l i t y may be gloomy, b u t he
say s t h a t a h e a lth y a r t i s t l i k e Mark Twain h a s shown t h a t
f i c t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s need n o t be gloomyt F au lk n er had
sim p ly c o n tr a c te d a bad ca se o f b o u rg e o is modernism.
S t a r t s e v f u r t h e r p la c e s h im s e lf i n th e A nisim ov-Z aB urskii
142
t r a d i t i o n in d e c la r in g t h a t th e Snopeses do much more than
show a t r u t h ab o u t th e S outh— th e y embody th e d e s t r u c t i v e ,
am oral, an ti-h u m an a s p e c ts o f c a p i t a l i s t c i v i l i z a t i o n i t
s e l f . W hile Anisim ov i s fond o f say in g t h a t th e b a s i s o f
American s o c ie ty i s crim e f o s te r e d by c a p ita lis m , S t a r t s e v
p r e f e r s th e " l i e " v a r i a t i o n . The Q reat Q atsby shows th e
" d e s tr u c tiv e n e s s t h r u s t on man by a ly in g c i v i l i z a t i o n " ;
th e n o v el* s b a s ic im pulse i s th e " s e n s a tio n o f th e f r a g i l
i t y and s o c i a l and m oral g ro u n d le ss n e ss o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n
b u i l t on a ly in g p r i n c i p l e " (V, p . 121).
Y et i t i s S t a r t s e v who g iv e s th e most p e n e t r a t i n g
socio-econom ic a n a l y s is o f th e SnopeB t r i l o g y and The Q reat
G atsb y . He a p t l y c i t e s th e e a r l y p a ssa g e i n The Hamlet on
th e r u r a l p r o l e t a r i a n s o f Frenchm an’s Bend and c o n v in c in g ly
ac c o u n ts f o r R a t l i f f and S te v e n s' i n a b i l i t y to d e f e a t Flem
Snopes by t h e i r b ein g a s enmeshed in c a p i t a l i s t ways a s he
i s . L ik ew ise, S t a r t s e v c l e v e r l y fo c u se s on th e h y p o c risy
o f Tom and D aisy Buchanan a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e p r i v
ile g e d , e x p l o i t i n g c l a s s , who, when th e y a re done w ith
G atsby, t o s s him a s id e l i k e a u sed orange r i n d .
M oris O sip o v ich M endelson, th e most p r o l i f i c S o v ie t
c r i t i c o f American l i t e r a t u r e , p r e s e n ts a c o n t r a s t f o r
which th e r e i s no name: d o c t r i n a i r e in th e o ry , he i s p r a g
m atic in p r a c t i c e . H is o rth o d o x y can r e a d i l y be seen in
th e i n t r o d u c tio n to h i s Sovremmenyl a m e rik a n s k ii roman
[The contem porary American n o v e l] (1 9 6 4 ). M endelson b e
g in s by q u i t e c irc u m s p e c tly d is c u s s in g th e q u a l i t y o f Amer
ic a n l i f e s in c e W orld War I I , a s s e r t i n g t h a t many Am ericans
have a f e e lin g o f " d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , lo n g in g , s u f f e r in g "
(p. 7 ) w h ile many o th e r s a r e p ro s p e ro u s , h ard -w o rk in g
p eo p le c o n te n t w ith American r ic h e s and te c h n o lo g ic a l a d
v a n ce s. But dogma q u ic k ly ta k e s o v e r. P o st-w a r American
f i c t i o n e s s e n t i a l l y r e c o rd s a d e g e n e ra tio n in human r e l a
t i o n s ; one s e e s i n th e contem porary American n o v el th e d i s
i n t e g r a t i o n o f long e s ta b li s h e d s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s and th e
f e e l i n g t h a t th e s e p r i n c i p l e s a re doomed (p . 8 ) . W hile th e
USA d e c lin e s , th e USSR, b ased on p r o g r e s s iv e , w o rth y , and
humane s o c ia l p r i n c i p l e s , advances (p . 1 6 ). The more one
lo o k s a t th e r e c e n t American n o v e l, th e more e v id en ce one
s e e s o f th e " i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o ra l, and p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s o f
c a p i t a l i s t s o c ie ty " (p . 1 9) .
M endelson's e s s e n t i a l m o d eratio n i s e v id e n t when one
compares h i s 1947 w ith h i s 1964 approach to S te in b e c k 's
Oannery Row. He h e ld in 1947 t h a t S te in b e c k was "p re a c h
in g th e p u r e s t k in d o f esc a p ism —w ith d ra w a l from l i f e and
i s o l a t i o n from s t r u g g l e ." The cau se o f S te in b e c k 's f a i l
u r e i s h i s n o t u n d e rs ta n d in g th e Second World War and th e
r e l a t i o n s betw een " r e a c tio n a t home and fa sc is m a b ro a d ,"
r e s u l t i n g in h i s b ein g u n a b le to see th e e x is te n c e o f g en
u in e American a n t i - f a s c i s t s . D is c o n c e rte d , t h e r e f o r e , by
th e co m p lex ity o f American r e a l i t y , S te in b e c k r e t r e a t s i n to
144
a s h e l l , c lo s in g h i s eyes to th e w o rld , ta k in g re fu g e In a
2
band o f " s t y l i z e d , p ic tu re s q u e tram ps and e c c e n t r i c s ."
In 1964 Mendelson does n o t com plain about th e n o v e l’ s
n o t b ein g ab o u t fa sc ism . He g iv e s an a p p a re n tly f a c t u a l
a cco u n t o f how S te in b e c k came In 1945 "to w r ite such a book
and th en d e s c r ib e s th e w ork’s form and c o n te n t. In 1964
Mendelson can say t h a t one o f th e b o o k ’ s p u rp o ses I s humor-
oub s a t i r e , In which I t su c c ee d s, o f "contem porary American
r e a l i t y " (Sovremmenyl a m e rlk a n sk li roman, p . 305)- As In
h i s d is c u s s io n o f The Sound and th e Fury (se e pp. 8 6- 8 7)
he d e v o te s h im s e lf In la r g e m easure to an o b je c tiv e d e
s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s is o f th e work.
The dichotom y betw een th e t h e o r e t i c a l frame and th e
r a t h e r s c h o la r ly , d e t a i l e d d is c u s s io n i s a ls o p r e s e n t in
M endelson’s r e c e n t a r t i c l e "American L i t e r a r y S c h o la rs h ip
o f th e T w en tie th C entury and Q u e stio n s o f th e C re a tiv e
Work o f American W r i t e r s . F or in s t a n c e , he says t h a t
American M a rx ist c r i t i c i s m o f th e T h i r t i e s was k i l l e d by
McOarthyism. Then he goes on to summarize, as f a r a s I
know f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n S o v ie t s c h o la r s h ip , th e a p
p ro a ch e s o f s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t f ig u r e s i n American c r i t
ic is m .
A nother c r i t i c moving tow ard th e c e n te r i s R a isa Davy
dovna O rlo v a. In 1958 she Jo in ed L. Kopelev in one o f th e
e a r l i e s t S o v ie t a r t i c l e s on F a u lk n e r: th e y la b e le d him a
n a t u r a l i s t and a u to m a tic a lly produced th e a p p r o p ria te c l i -
145
c h l s . F au lk n er in The Ham let and The Town co n ceiv ed th e
Snopeses a s a deform ed, b e s t i a l , b i o l o g i c a l phenomenon;
more th an a n y th in g he needs a s tro n g dose o f M a rx ist-L e n in -
lsm . However, th e y m odify t h i s by saying t h a t th e n a t u r a l
i s t i c s id e o f F a u lk n e r i s combined w ith " v a lid h u m a n istic
i d e a s , " a f o r e c a s t o f th e r a t h e r vague humanism c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c o f O rlo v a ’ s c r i t i c i s m in th e S i x t i e s . Her main work
i s a 1964 c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s , Potomkl O ek lb erry F lnna
[D escendents o f H u ck leb erry F in n ], a t i t l e ta k e n from Hem
ingw ay’s rem ark t h a t a l l American l i t e r a t u r e d escen d s from
Mark Tw ain’ s n o v e l. She d e v o te s s e p a ra te c h a p te r s to L in
c o ln S t e f f e n s , Hemingway, S te in b e c k , A lb e rt M altz, Soroyan,
A rth u r M ille r , John H ersey, and S a lin g e r , p lu s b r i e f e r s e c
ti o n s to a wide ran g e o f o t h e r w r i t e r s . The t r a d i t i o n o f
Twain, she says in h e r i n t r o d u c t i o n , i s f i r s t o f a l l th e
t r a d i t i o n o f th e " in s e p a r a b le t i e o f humanism and re a lis m "
(PP* 7 - 8 ) . The r a f t o f Huck and Jim i s an " is la n d o f good
in a w orld o f e v i l " (p . 5 ) , and th e descendentB o f Huck
Finn a r e u n ite d i n d e fe n se o f man a g a in s t th e "deadening
f o rc e s o f b o u rg e o is s o c ie ty " (p. 10).
In 1965, how ever, O rlova b e g in s h e r Novyl m ir rev iew
o f U pdike’s The C e n tau r w ith an a n t i - j a r g o n m a n ife s to : r e
t e l l i n g th e s to r y c h r o n o lo g ic a lly would be im posing an o r
d e r on th e work from o u t s i d e , w hereas i n a r t th e whole a l
ways changes when one s h i f t s th e lo c a tio n o f th e elem en ts
a s w r i t t e n . Her m o d eratio n i s lik e w is e re v e a le d in h e r
146
d is c u s s io n o f For Whom th e B e ll T o lls , In which she p r a i s e s
th e " t r a g i c hero In a t r a g i c s i t u a t i o n . " (The o rth o d o x , I t
w i l l be r e c a l l e d , condemned th e d ark and p e s s im is tic e l e
m ents in th e w ork.)
Though he rem ains a c e n t r i s t , A lek san d r S erg eev ich
M u lia rc h ik a p p e a rs to have moved in a d i r e c t i o n o p p o s ite to
t h a t o f Mendelson and O rlo v a. His 1963 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
The G rapes o f W rath d i f f e r s from th o se o f h i s more orthodox
c o lle a g u e s i n two s t r i k i n g r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , he fo c u se s on
th e s p i r i t u a l grow th o f P re a c h e r Casy as th e n o v e l’s main
theme r a t h e r th an on th e r a d i c a l i z i n g o f Tom Jo a d . And u n
l i k e any o th e r o rthodox c r i t i c , he d efen d s th e o rg a n ic i n
t e g r i t y o f a l i t e r a r y work a s a r t . H is p r i n c i p a l r e c e n t
c r i t i c a l works a re a 48-page s e p a r a te ly - p u b lis h e d 1968 e s
say on th e American n o v el in th e T w enties and an e ssa y on
th e p o st-W o rld War I I American n o v el in r e l a t i o n to Amer
ic a n c r i t i c i s m in c lu d e d i n th e 1969 c o l l e c t i v e volume, Sov-
remennoye l i t e r a t u r o v e d e n i l e SShA [Contem porary l i t e r a r y
s c h o la r s h ip in th e USA]. The 1968 e s sa y i s in th e Mendel
son t r a d i t i o n — th o se w r i t e r s r e a l i s t i c a l l y d is p la y in g th e
c o n tr a d ic to r y n a tu r e o f b o u rg e o is l i f e a r e the most s i g n i f
i c a n t . B ut th e tre a tm e n t i s re a s o n a b ly s c h o la r ly and d i s
p a s s io n a te , a p p a re n tly owing a good d e a l to F re d e ric k J .
Hoffman’ s The T w en ties, which M illa rc h ik does n o t m ention
in h i s t e x t b u t does l i s t in h i s recommended b ib lio g ra p h y .
147
Two exam ples from th e second e s sa y w i l l show M u lia r-
c h i k ’ s r e t r e a t to a more d o c t r i n a i r e p o s i t i o n . He e v a lu
a t e s Ihab H a s sa n 's R a d ic a l Innocence a s an i n s u f f i c i e n t l y
c o n c re te l i t e r a r y a n a l y s is in w hich th e " d i a l e c t i c a l u n d e r
s ta n d in g o f th e t i e betw een n a t i o n a l e v e n ts and l i t e r a r y
h i s t o r y i s a b s e n t" (p. 297). H a s s a n 's ap p ro ach , he f in d s ,
i s to a g r e a t e x te n t f o r m a l i s t i c : th e " s t r u c t u r e o f a n o v e l
and th e maBk o f th e h ero in th e f i n a l a n a l y s is mean more to
him th an th e t r u t h f u l c h a r a c te r and th e h i s t o r i c a l c o r r e l a
t i o n o f th e a r t i s t i c image" (p . 297) . Second, a s he a p
p ro a c h e s th e end o f h i s e s sa y he r e f e r s to th e a n a l y s is o f
th e " b e s t work" o f r e c e n t American p r o s e : The M ansion, The
W in ter o f Our D is c o n te n t, and " c e r t a i n n o v e ls" o f U pdike,
B ellow , Malamud, and S ty ro n . Such a n a l y s is Bhows, he
w r i te s , t h a t th e a r t i s t i c method o f th e s e a u th o rs i s n o t a
"new ro m an ticism " a s sometim es i s a l le g e d o r n a tu r a lis m o f
th e p e r s o n a l " s t y l e o f a l i e n a t i o n " v a r i e t y , b u t "good o ld
r e a lis m , s t r i v i n g to a v o id f a l l i n g i n t o n a tu r a lis m and
te n d in g to g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l - e t h i c a l illu m in a tio n o f
r e a l i t y " (p. 301)-
A. P. Shpakova b e lo n g s w ith M endelson, O rlova, and
M u lia rc h ik . H er e x p o s itio n o f th e i r o n i c r e l a t i o n s betw een
n a r r a t o r and h ero i n An American Tragedy s t r i k i n g l y con
t r a s t s w ith th e n o n - l i t e r a r y i n t e r e s t s o f Anisimov and
Z a s u r s k i i 's c r i t i q u e , and h e r s o c i a l commentary i s im p re s
s iv e l y more p r e c i s e and r e s t r a i n e d th an t h e i r s .
148
D. G ranin, w r itin g a t th e h e ig h t o f S o v ie t c r i t i c a l
r e c e p t i v i t y o f American l i t e r a t u r e (se e b elo w ), f r e e s him
s e l f alm o st co m p letely from th e custom ary c l i c h e s . The
r e s u l t i s an i n t e r e s t i n g i f i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c re a d in g o f Up
d i k e 's The C entaur (se e pp. 124-126). In s h o r t, b r i s k se n
te n c e s G ranin d e s c r ib e s h i s re s p o n s e s a s he re a d th e work,
conveying a v i t a l i t y seldom found i n S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m .
Y u r ii L id B k ii's re a d in g o f The G reat Q atsby (se e pp. 121-
1 2 3 ), l e s s i d i o s y n c r a t i c th a n G r a n in 's c r i t i q u e o f C en tau r,
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y in d e p en d e n t to p la c e him beyond th e mod
e r a t e p o le on th e continuum , d e s p it e h i s making a t th e b e
g in n in g o f h i s e ssa y some m ild g e s tu r e s tow ard o rth o d o x y .
He d ev e lo p s s e v e ra l p o in ts s i m i l a r to th o se made by r e c e n t
American c r i t i c s o f th e n o v e l, in c lu d in g g iv in g d e t a i l e d
a t t e n t i o n to th e r o l e s o f N ick Carraway and to o th e r e l e
m ents c o n tr ib u tin g to an e s t h e t i c w h o len ess. To a c o n s id
e r a b le e x t e n t , L id s k ii shows, N ick a s " c e n t r a l c o n n e c tin g
image" g iv e s a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e g r i t y to th e work. The Rus
s ia n c r i t i c f u r t h e r a n a ly z e s a s t y l i s t i c d e v ic e whereby
F i t z g e r a ld u n d e r lin e s th e " i n s t a b i l i t y o f m oral r e l a t i o n
s h ip s " among h i s c h a r a c t e r s . M oreover, he i s th e o n ly Rus
s ia n c r i t i c to r e a l i z e th e s ig n i f i c a n c e o f n a r r a t i v e p o in t
o f view in S a l i n g e r 's The C a tc h e r in th e Rye. He r a i s e s
th e im p o rta n t q u e s tio n o f how tr u s tw o r th y a r e p o r t e r o f
s o c i a l r e a l i t y Holden i s . And in h i s d is c u s s io n o f The
149
C e n ta u r L id s k ii r e s o u r c e f u ll y com bines e s t h e t i c and s o c io
c u l t u r a l I s s u e s .
A ccording to Deming Brown, Iv an K ashkin, " th e b e s t So
v i e t c r i t i c o f American l i t e r a t u r e , " w rote a s a "convinced
M a rx ist who co m p lete ly sh ared th e p o l i t i c a l o p in io n s o f h i s
c o lle a g u e s " ( S o v ie t A ttitu d e s Toward American W ritin g , p .
3 2 2 ). K ash k in ’ s c r i t i c i s m surveyed i n t h i s s tu d y , how ever,
i s v i r t u a l l y a p o l i t i c a l , su g g e stin g t h a t tow ard th e end o f
h i s l i f e (he d ie d in 1963) he was l e s s o b lig e d th an fo rm er
ly to t r o t o u t i d e o l o g i c a l c l i c h e s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e
o n ly n o v e l i s t b e s id e s Hemingway on whom he w rote was F a u lk
n e r (se e pp. 7 9 -8 0 ). And h i s g e n e r a l a r t i c l e on F au lk n e r
shows t h a t Kashkin was n o t s tr o n g ly a t t r a c t e d to h i s work.
As su g g e ste d i n C h ap ter IV, how ever, Kashkin d id i n d i r e c t l y
r e b u t th e dogm atic approach to F a u lk n e r o f O rlova and Kope-
le v . And he d id see F a u lk n e r’s ach iev em en t in c r e a tin g an
e p i c . U n lik e most o th e r S o v ie t c r i t i c s , he d id n o t g l o r i f y
th e Snopes t r i l o g y a t th e expense o f th e e a r l i e r work, con
c e n t r a t i n g i n s t e a d on p o in tin g to th r e e them es b a s ic to
F a u lk n e r ’s whole c a r e e r .
B ut i t was Hemingway f o r whom K ashkin f e l t a s p e c i a l
a f f i n i t y . H is posthum ously p u b lis h e d long e s sa y "S o d er-
z h a n iy e — form a— so d erzh an iy e" [C o n te n t— form — c o n te n t] ,
w hich became th e l a s t c h a p te r o f h i s book on Hemingway pub
l i s h e d in 1966, c o n ta in s h i s m ost m ature view o f Heming
way’ s ach iev em en t. Kashkin b e g in s t h i s e s s a y by a s s e r t i n g
150
th e I n s e p a r a b i l i t y o f form and c o n te n t and r e l a t i n g t h i s
p r i n c i p l e to s t y l e : "The m utual i n t e r - p e n e t r a t i o n o f th e se
two n e c e s s a ry a s p e c ts o f c r e a t i v e works i s e s p e c i a l l y e v i
d e n t i n th e a r t i s t ’s s t y l e . H e th en p ro c e e d s to answ er
th e q u e s tio n , "What i s s ty le ? " a s th e t i t l e o f th e long,
c e n t r a l s e c tio n o f h i s e s sa y i n d i c a t e s . He says th e r e i s
no a b s t r a c t , u n ch an g in g , d o g m a tic a lly lim ite d "Hemingway
s t y l e , " e i t h e r s u c c in c t o r v e rb o se , re s e r v e d o r i r o n i c .
R a th e r, t h e r e i s a " lu c id , s t e a d i l y ev o lv in g approach o f
th e g r e a t m a ste r tow ard th e d i s t i n c t i v e form o f t h a t a r t i s
t i c e sse n c e w hich he so u g h t to e x p re ss i n a g iv en work"
(p. 238) . He i l l u s t r a t e s w ith an a n a l y s is o f "Big Two-
H e a rte d R iv e r" t h a t i s rem ark ab ly s im i l a r to P h ilip
Young’s ,^ in w hich he shows how s k i l l f u l l y Hemingway d e
v e lo p s th e " u n d e r te x t," th e meaning b e n e a th th e s u r f a c e .
A f te r d is c u s s in g what Hemingway h im s e lf s a id ab o u t
s t y l e i n g e n e r a l and h i s own s t y l e in p a r t i c u l a r , Kashkin
d is c u s s e s what he c a l l s " th e p o e t i c s o f th e u n d e r te x t" in
Hemingway's s t o r i e s . U su a lly in th e s t o r i e s one m eets
"p eo p le from th e same c i r c l e , b o i l i n g in t h e i r own p o t so
to sp eak , who e a s i l y u n d e rsta n d one a n o t h e r 's h a lf -w o r d s ."
T h e ir sp eech es a r e f u l l o f a l l u s i o n s , r e s e r v a t i o n s , and
p l a i n s i l e n c e s . Each Hemingway c h a r a c te r seems to t a l k
o n ly w ith h im s e lf , re p ly in g to h i s own th o u g h ts , co n d u ctin g
h i s own form o f i n t e r n a l d ia lo g u e which o th e r c h a r a c te r s
answ er w ith t h e i r own form o f i n t e r n a l d ia lo g u e (p . 253) .
151
B ecause o f th e u n d e r te x t, i t sometimes i s h a rd to u n d e r
s ta n d a s in g le s to r y in i s o l a t i o n . One m ust a tte n d to th e
" c o n te x t," t h a t i s , to o th e r s t o r i e s in o r d e r to d eep ly
u n d e rs ta n d . T h is i s e s p e c i a l l y tr u e in " p s y c h o lo g ic a l
s tu d ie s " and in m ajor works l i k e The Sun A lso R is e s , in
which d i s c r e e t " a llu s io n s and r e tic e n c e s " r e v e a l th em selv es
th ro u g h th e wide c o n te x t o f th e whole n o v el (p. 256). Kash-
k in recommends i n a d d itio n to stu d y in g th e c o n te x t t h a t th e
r e a d e r he s e n s i t i v e to "key p h r a s e s ," o f te n " e x t e r n a l ly im
p e r c e p t i b l e ," in which l i k e a "blood c l o t i s c o n c e n tra te d
th e u n d e r te x t" (p. 256) . The c r i t i c goes on to c o n s id e r
f u r t h e r p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f Hemingway's s t y l e in term s o f
im agery, a d a p ta tio n o f speech to in d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s , th e
o c c a s io n a l u se o f puns, and a m b ig u itie s .
K a s h k in 's m ature views on Hemingway a r e un iq u e in th e
S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m surveyed in t h i s stu d y . Though he t r i e s
to d is g u is e i t w ith hiB t i t l e , h i s ap p ro ach i s alm o st f o r
m a l i s t i c , w hich may a cco u n t f o r th e d e la y i n p u b lic a tio n o f
h i s book s in c e form alism o f f i c i a l l y rem ain s a h e re sy .
(K ashkin p re p a re d th e book f o r th e p r e s s b e f o re h i s d e a th
in November, 1 9 & 3 } i t f i n a l l y was p u b lis h e d in Septem ber,
19 6 6.) K ashkin goes much f a r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l l y th an does
e i t h e r G ranin o r L id s k i i , b u t a s o f 1969 he does n o t ap
p e a r to have m a t e r i a l l y in flu e n c e d S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f
American l i t e r a t u r e .
152
Id e o lo g y and C rltlc lB m
T his h as been a s tu d y o f S o v ie t p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m ,
n o t o f S o v ie t l i t e r a r y th e o ry . A t h e o r e t i c a l problem h as
emerged, how ever, namely how one should go ab o u t s t a t i n g
and e x p lo rin g th e r e l a t i o n s betw een id e o lo g y and l i t e r a r y
c r i t i c i s m . E a r l i e r s tu d e n ts o f S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m such a s
Deming Brown d id n o t concern th em selv es w ith th e m ethodo
lo g i c a l s id e o f t h i s i s s u e , p ro b a b ly b ecau se th e in f lu e n c e
o f id e o lo g y on c r i t i c i s m took a more b l a t a n t l y p o l i t i c a l
form than i n much o f th e c r i t i c i s m examined in C h ap ters
II-V o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . B efo re s u g g e stin g why i t i s
d i f f i c u l t to a n a ly z e r e l a t i o n s betw een id e o lo g y and c r i t
ic ism , I w i l l d is c u s s some ev id en ce t h a t r i g i d a t t i t u d e s
toward American f i c t i o n do p e r s i s t in some q u a r t e r s .
W estern o b s e rv e rs commonly t a l k ab o u t a c u l t u r a l
" fre e z e " s e t t i n g in sometime d u rin g 1965-1966 and c o n tin u
in g u n t i l th e p r e s e n t (1 9 7 0 ). W hile th e r e i s some c o n f i r
m ation o f t h i s in r e c e n t S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m o f American l i t
e r a t u r e , th r e e c a v e a ts a r e in o r d e r . F i r s t , r e a d e r s o f
t h i s stu d y w i l l know t h a t A nisim ov, Z a s u r s k ii, and to a
l e s s e r e x te n t S t a r t s e v n e v e r "thawed" and so co u ld h a r d ly
" r e f r e e z e ." T h is s u g g e s ts , sec o n d ly , t h a t l i k e " l i b e r a l -
c o n s e r v a tiv e ," th e " fre e z e -th a w " term in o lo g y i s n e i t h e r
v ery a c c u ra te n o r v e ry u s e f u l , e x c e p t p e rh ap s i n r e v e a lin g
a t t i t u d e s o f W estern o b s e rv e r s . T h ird , th ro u g h o u t th e l a t e
S i x t i e s essayB in th e academ ic p r e s s c o n tin u e d to examine
American l i t e r a t u r e w ith th e com bination o f e s t h e t i c and
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l aw areness found i n th e b e t t e r c r i t i c i s m
an aly zed i n t h i s stu d y .
N e v e rth e le s s , th e r e was in 1963-1965 a g e n e r a l c o in
c id en ce o f sy m p a th etic a t t i t u d e s tow ard American f i c t i o n
and what W illiam Zimmerman h as c a l l e d th e changing S o v ie t
" p e r c e p tio n s ” o f th e U n ited S t a t e s . B r i e f l y , in th e
Khrushchev e r a S o v ie t t h e o r i s t s r e a s s e s s e d American s o c i
e ty , co n clu d in g t h a t th e US had e n te r e d a ph ase c a l l e d
" s t a t e monopoly c a p ita lis m " r a t h e r th an sim ple "monopoly
c a p i t a l i s m ." The a d d i t i o n a l word s i g n i f i e s , a c c o rd in g to
Zimmerman, t h a t S o v ie t t h e o r i s t s came to acknowledge th e
independence o f th e American governm ent from W all S t r e e t
( a t about th e tim e many American t h e o r i s t s began to doubt
i t ) . The new S o v ie t image resem b led C. W right M i l l s 's
"power e l i t e m odel," w ith th e S o v ie ts b e g in n in g to see
p r e s s u re g roups f u n c tio n in g o u ts id e th e governm ent. How
e v e r, s in c e Septem ber 1965 th e r e h as been a re s u rg e n c e o f
th e more t r a d i t i o n a l i s t view and th e T w e n ty -th ird P a r ty
C ongress i n 1966 e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t e d th e t h e s i s t h a t "un
d e r c e r t a i n c o n d itio n s o f m utual d e te r re n c e th e US was
moving away from i t s p r i o r r e l i a n c e on th e in s tru m e n ts o f
v io le n c e ." In g e n e r a l, 1963-1965 waB th e tim e when th e
S o v ie t p e r s p e c tiv e waB most fa v o ra b ly d isp o se d tow ard th e
U n ited S t a t e s . ^
154
The y e a rs 1963-1965 a ls o happen to be a p e r io d when
American tw e n tie th c e n tu ry f i c t i o n was s y m p a th e tic a lly
c r i t i c i z e d and when some Im p o rta n t American works l i k e
F a u lk n e r 's Snopes t r i l o g y , U p d ik e 's The C en tau r, and F i t z
g e r a l d 's The g r e a t G atsby were p u b lis h e d in t r a n s l a t i o n .
W hile sy m p a th e tic c r i t i c i s m has c o n tin u e d , p u b lic a tio n o f
works l i k e th e s e h as slow ed down. The o n ly F au lk n er work
o f le n g th p u b lish e d from 1965 to 1970 was I n tr u d e r in th e
D ust ( 1968) , even though e a r l i e r i t had looked a s i f th e
s ta g e were b ein g s e t f o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f The Sound and th e
F u ry .
A more obvious c a se o f p o l i t i c a l in flu e n c e on c r i t
ic is m co n cern s John S te in b e c k , long a f a v o r i t e in th e
S o v ie t U nion. He went to V ietnam in 1966 and d e c la r e d h is
su p p o rt f o r American p o lic y . S h o rtly t h e r e a f t e r , a s e r i e s
o f a r t i c l e s app eared in th e S o v ie t p o p u la r p r e s s w ith such
t i t l e s a s "And Now S te in b e c k B reaks H is S ile n c e ," "In
S earch o f What?—J . S te in b e c k i n South V ie tn a m ," "You a re
B an k ru p t, Mr. S te in b e c k !" and "A Pen S u rre n d e re d to th e
P e n ta g o n ." Three o f th e s e a r t i c l e s appeared in Ja n u a ry
1967 and Bince th e n no l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m on S te in b e c k has
been p u b lis h e d .^ The p r e s e n t w r i t e r b e l i e v e s , however,
t h a t S o v ie t academ ic c r i t i c i s m i s l e s s in flu e n c e d by c u r
r e n t p o l i t i c a l tr e n d s th a n i t u sed to be and i s a c q u irin g
th e s t a t u s o f a r e s p e c ta b le d i s c i p l i n e .
155
More d i f f i c u l t th a n m atching p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l
e v e n ts i s a n a ly z in g th e r e l a t i o n s o f id e o lo g y , which i s
l e s s o v e r t ly p o l i t i c a l , and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . For ex
am ple, a s one moves on th e spectrum from Shpakova through
M endelson, O rlova, and M u lia rc h ik to L i d s k i i , K ashkin, and
G ran in , one e n c o u n te rs s ta te m e n ts no more " id e o lo g ic a l"
th a n th e s e by American c r i t i c s : An American Tragedy "m ir
r o r s th e changes" in American " s o c i a l i d e a l s " and in th e
Q
" s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s " o f American l i f e . "For young men grow
in g up in th e ’tw e n tie s and ' t h i r t i e s h e re was a b a s ic a c
co u n t o f th e w orld to which th e y were e x p o se d ."^ D re is e r
i n t h i s n o v el "viewed a s o c ie ty in which th e e q u a l i t y
whereon a lo n e d em o cratic J u s t i c e m ight be b ased had been
d e s tro y e d by th e o lig a r c h y o f w e a l t h . " ^ The G rapeb o f
W rath i s a "propaganda n o v e l, f u l l o f preachm ents and so
c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r l u d e s . 1,11 S ensing w h eth er such s ta te m e n ts
a r e t r u e o r n o t i s one th in g , b u t v a l i d a t i n g them i s an
o t h e r . I f such s ta te m e n ts by American and R u ssian c r i t i c s
a r e " i d e o l o g i c a l ," in o r d e r to a n a ly z e and v a l i d a t e them,
one h a s to know what id e o lo g y i s and how to i n v e s t i g a t e i t s
r e l a t i o n s w ith e s t h e t i c l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .
D efin in g "id eo lo g y " a p p e a rs e q u a lly d i f f i c u l t f o r th e
s o c i o l o g i s t , th e s p e c i a l i s t i n S o v ie t S tu d ie s , and th e l i t
e r a r y s c h o la r , to Judge by r e c e n t e v id e n c e . From th e so
c i o l o g i c a l s id e , C l i f f o r d Geetftz h a s shown t h a t th e r e i s
no c o n c e p tu a l scheme f o r t a l k i n g ab o u t id e o lo g y p a r t l y b e -
c a u se , i r o n i c a l l y , th e s o c i o l o g i s t la c k s th e t o o l s o f th e
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , namely th e a b i l i t y and t r a i n i n g to t a l k
ab o u t m etaphor, sym bolic a c tio n and th e l i k e in a n y th in g
12
b u t sim ple-m inded ways. E v id e n tly , p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n So
v i e t S tu d ie s a re a ls o in th e d a rk . Review ing one o f th e
more r e c e n t books on S o v ie t id e o lo g y (George F is c h e r , e d .,
S cien ce and Id e o lo g y in S o v ie t S o c ie ty [New York, 196 7 ] ) ,
David J o ra v sk y w r ite s t h a t S o v ie t id e o lo g y i s a "v ery
fu zzy and e lu s iv e t h i n g ." He claim s to co u n t fo u r g e n e ra
and s ix s p e c ie s o f th e co n cep t in th e fo u r e s sa y s making
up t h i s book. In Jo ra v sk y * s o p in io n , th e m ost u s e f u l d e f
i n i t i o n i s id e o lo g y a s "th o u g h t t h a t i s d e term in e d by o n e 's
l i f e s i t u a t i o n " b ecau se i t " r e q u ir e s s y s te m a tic ex am in atio n
o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een changing th o u g h ts and changing
s i t u a t i o n s . " 1^ T h is d e f i n i t i o n i s b ro ad enough to in c lu d e
a n y th in g , and one can q u e s tio n th e u s e f u ln e s s o f a d e f i n i
t io n t h a t s u b s t i t u t e s f o r one amorphous unknown, " i d e o l
o g y ," two even more so in " th o u g h t" and e s p e c i a l l y " l i f e
s i t u a t i o n . " No more c l a r i t y comes from th e l i t e r a r y
s c h o la r . F r e d e ric k Crews r e c e n t l y p u b lis h e d a p a p e r, "Do
,,14
L i t e r a r y S tu d ie s Have an Id eo lo g y ?" w hich i s v ery w itty
b u t c o n s p ic u o u sly la c k s b o th a d e f i n i t i o n o f "id e o lo g y "
and exam ples even a s c o n c re te a s th e s ta te m e n ts by S p i l l e r ,
M a tth ie s s e n , and W ilson q u o ted above.
S p e c i a l i s t s i n S o v ie t p o l i t i c s a r e b e g in n in g to shed
term s l i k e " t o t a l i t a r i a n , " " m o n o lith ic Communism," and
"crum bling Communism," which say more ab o u t th e o b s e rv e r
th a n th e o b se rv ed . The tim es seem to be r i p e f o r f re s h
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , in b o th American and S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m , to
see how th e two c r i t i c i s m s i n t e r a c t w ith id e o lo g y . For any
a tte m p t to c o n s id e r th e s o c ia l im p lic a tio n s o f a n o v el i s
g o in g to be i d e o l o g i c a l , though i t need n o t be p o l i t i c a l .
American c r i t i c s in flu e n c e d by th e New C r itic is m have
ten d ed to i s o l a t e th e stu d y o f f i c t i o n from th e r e a l and
p r e s s in g problem s o f American s o c ie ty ; th e y m ight le a r n a
g r e a t d e a l from r e c e n t S o v ie t c r i t i c i s m a b o u t how to a p
p ro ach l i t e r a t u r e a s a v i t a l e x p re s s io n o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y .
158
NOTES
1. See h i s a r t i c l e "D ialogues in Columbia U n iv e r
s i t y , " L l t e r a t u r n a l a g a z e ta , F eb ru ary 25, 1970, p . 14.
2. M. M endelson, S o v ie t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Contem po
r a r y A m erican L i t e r a t u r e , tra n B . Demlng G. Brown and k u fu s
to. MathewBon \ W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1948), p . 17.
3. "Amerikanskoe l i t e r a t u r o v e d e n i e XX veka 1 voprosy
tv o rc h e s tv a p i s a t e l e i SShA," Sovremennoe l i t e r a t u r o v e d e n i e
SShA [Contem porary l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s h ip in th e tJSAJ (Mos-
cow, 1969)> PP. 7 -48.
4 . E r n e s t Khemlnguel (Moscow, 1966) , p . 2 3 2.
5. P h i l i p Young, E rn eB t Hemingway (New Y ork, 1952),
pp. 15- 2 0 .
6 . W illiam Zimmerman, " S o v ie t P e rc e p tio n s o f th e
U n ited S t a t e s , " in A lex an d er D a llin and Thomas B. L arso n ,
e d s ., S o v ie t P o l i t i c s S ince K hrushchev (Englewood C l i f f s ,
N .J ., 19b«), pp. I b 5 -l7 b .
7. V a le n tin a Libman, " S te in b e c k Dzhon," " B ib lio g r a -
f i a , " Sovremennoe l i t e r a t u r o v e d e n i e SShA, p . 333*
8 . R o b e rt E. S p i l l e r , "Theodore D r e is e r ," i n S p i l l e r
and o t h e r s , e d s ., L i t e r a r y H is to ry o f th e U n ited S t a t e s ,
3rd ed . r e v . (New Y ork, 1963) / p . 1205.
9 . F. 0. M a tth ie s s e n , Theodore D r e is e r (New York,
1951), P. 211.
10. M a tth ie s s e n , p . 209.
11. Edmund W ilso n , The Boys in th e Back Room (San
F ra n c is c o , 1941), p . 42.
12. C l i f f o r d G e e rtz , "Id eo lo g y a s a C u ltu r a l S ystem ,"
in David E. A p te r, e d ., Id e o lo g y and D is c o n te n t (New York,
1964), p . 57.
1 3 . David Jo ra v s k y , Rev. o f George F is c h e r , e d . , S c i
ence and Id e o lo g y in S o v ie t S o c ie ty (New York, 1967)#
Slavic heview , 20 (1989), 6b5-6bb.
159
14. PMLA, 85 (May 1970), 423-428.
15. See "H yths, P e r c e p tio n s , P o lic y : A Symposium,"
Problem s o f Communism, 19, No. 1 (Ja n u a ry -F e b ru a ry 1970),
1-67; 19, No. £ (to arch -A p ril 1970), 1-13.
l6o
APPENDIX A
AM OUNTS OP SOVIET CRITICISM IN THE SIXTIES DEVOTED
TO REPRESENTATIVE AMERICAN AUTHORS
F o r c e r t a i n " c l a s s i c " A m erican a u th o r s , to u s e th e S o v ie t
te rm , th e am ounts o f c r i t i c i s m r e c o rd e d a re from th e b e
g in n in g .
Source* Libman b i b l i o g r a p h i e s .
F ig u re s r e p r e s e n t num ber o f e n t r i e s p e r y e a r .
Hemingway D reiser Steinbeck F aulkner Updike
i 960 10 6 1 1 0 i 960
61 12 2 1 2 0 61
62 10
3 9
4 0 62
63 9 3
14
3 3 63
64
17
4 4 1 1 64
65 19
6
7
6
5 65
66
17 3 5
4 6 66
67
16 6
5
2 1
67
mid-68
7 2
Dos Passos F itz g e ra ld
0
Levis
1
C aldw ell S alin g er
1
London
mid-68
i 960 0 1
3
4
3 5
i 960
61 1 0
3
1
3 5
61
62 0 0 4 2 0 4 62
63
1 0
3 5 3
6
63
64 0 1 2
3
1
3
64
65
0
7
2 l
3 5 65
66 0 1 0 4
5
8 66
67
0 1 0
3
4 2
67
mid-68 0 1 0
1 6 1
0 l
3
mid-68
162
Twain Whitman
I960 I960
8 m id-68 1 mid-68
Drama and P o e try
M ille r O 'N e ill Alhee F ro s t Hughes Found E lio t
I960
I 960
mid-68
mid-68
I 6 3
E n trie s on S elected "C lassic" American Authors
from Beginning to m id-1968
M elville James Thoreau Emerson Hawthorne
1 8 1 * 9 1 1881 1 1900 1 1 8 1 * 7
1 1852 1
53
1 90 1 02 1 6 1 * 1
5 1 *
1
54 1
1905
1
03
1 82 1 60 2
19l*6 1 1 * 1 1 10 1
85
1 6 1 * 2
60 1 56 1 1 * 4 1 1900 1 72 1
61
3 63
1 61 1 01 1
79
1
65 1 6 1 * 1 62
3
02 1
97
1
6 1 * 2 65
2
65
l
03
2 1900 1
66 1 66 1 66 1 oi* 1 12 1
67
1 *
67
l 1909
1
13
1
mld-6 8 2 12
1 * 1 *
5 1 *
55
1
1
1
1
57
58
59
63
64
65
66
68
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
E n tr ie s In th e S ix tie s on R e p re se n ta tiv e American
L e f t is t A uthors
Upton S in c la ir A lb ert M altz M itch ell W ilson
I 960 0 0 1 i 960
61 0 1 6 61
62 1 2 2 62
63
1 * 0 0 63
6 1 * 1 0
3
64
65
2 1 1
65
66 0 0 0 66
67
0 1 0
67
mld-68 1 0 0 mld-68
APPENDIX B
AMERICAN AUTHORS TRANSLATED
INTO RUSSIAN 1960-1966
S ource: Ezhegodnlk k n lg l SSSR (Moscow, 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 6 8 ) . # I n d i -
c a te s th e few works n o t lo c a te d in th e N a tio n a l Union C a t
a lo g whose a u th o rs were n o t l i s t e d In Contem porary A u th o rs:
th u s th e E n g lis h t i t l e may n o t he a c c u r a t e . S ince fezhego?-
n lk k n lg l sometimes g iv e s th e s iz e o f th e p r i n t i n g , t h i s
In fo rm a tio n I s in c lu d e d when o f i n t e r e s t . Moby D ick, f o r
exam ple, was f i r s t p r in t e d in 7*000 c o p ie s w h ile flhe* W inter
o f Our D is c o n te n t was p r in te d in 500,000 c o p ie s . A second
p r i n t i n g o f Moby Dick numbered 50,000 c o p ie s .
I960
H a r te : S e le c te d WorkB (1 v .)
0. Henry: S e le c te d Works (2 v .)
M. Dodd: Sowing th e Wind (n o v el)
D r e is e r : An American Tragedy, J e n n ie G e rh a rd t, S i s t e r
C a r r ie
Du B o is: The O rdeal o f M ansart
London: V a rio u s n o v e ls and c o l l e c t i o n s o f s t o r i e s
S i n c l a i r Lew is: Main S t r e e t , K lngsblood Royal
M. Lempel: The Hero*
M e lv ille : Omoo
O 'H ara: A Fam ily P a r ty ( s t o r i e s )
Poe: Three S t o r i e s
John Reed: S t o r i e s and E ssays
Twain: C o lle c te d Works (12 v .)
F a u lk n e r: B arn B urning ( s t o r i e s )
H. F u l l e r : N o v e lla s
Hemingway: S e le c te d Works ( l v .)
164
165
R. H ild re th : The W hite S lave (n o v el)
L. Hughes: S e le c te d Poems
1961
B. Appel: F o r tr e s s In R ice (n o v el)
Stowe: Uncle Ton^s Cabin
London: C o lle c te d Works (14 v . , 350,000 c o p ie s ) , M artin
Eden
A. M altz: The C ross and th e Arrow (novel)
M e lv ille : Moby D ick (7 ,0 0 0 c o p ie s )
A. M ille r : P la y s (5,0 0 0 c o p ie s )
F. Rooney: The R aid o f th e M o to rc y c lis ts ( s t o r i e s ) *
I . S tone: L ust f o r L ife
Twain: Jeanne d»A rc, The A dventures o f Tom Sawyer, The Ad
v e n tu re s o f H u c k le b e rry F in n , and Tom Sawyer Abroad ( in
1 v .)
M. WilBon: M eeting a t a F ar M erid ian (n o v el)
D. B. Heyward: Porgy
Hemingway: A cross th e R iv e r and i n t o th e T re e s, N o v e lla s
and The Sun A lso R is e s , A F a re w e ll to Arms
1262
P. Bonoskyi The Magic Fern ( n o v e l), B urning V a lle y (n o v el)
W. Gibson: Two f o r th e Seesaw
S. Graham: Your Most Humble S e rv a n t (n o v e lla )
R. Kent: Salam lna
Stephen Crane: The Red Badge o f Courage (95,000 c o p ie s )
London: M artin Eden, S t o r i e s
M altz: The Man on th e Road ( s t o r i e s ) *
M e lv ille : Moby D ick (seco n d p r i n t i n g , 50,000 c o p ie s)
R ich ard W right: S to rie B (150,000 c o p ie s)
S te in b e c k : The W in ter o f Our D is c o n te n t (500,000 c o p ie s)
Twain: The A dventures o f Tom Sawyer (100,000 c o p ie s)
M. Hyman: No Time F or S e rg e a n ts
J . Oheever: The Enormous Radio ( s t o r i e s )
166
I . Shaw: The Young L ions
J . W. S c h u ltz : M y L ife a s an I n d ia n , A Lone B ison*s M is
tak e*
12§3.
Du B o ls: ManBart B u ild s a School
C a ld w e ll: Jenny and C lose to Home (2 n o v e ls in 1 v .)
N. Lewis: D arkness V is ib le (n o v el)
J . Marquand: M. H. Pulliam, E sq u ire
D. P a rk e r: B lack and W hite ( s t o r i e s )
S te in b e c k : The P e a r l, The E a rs o f Johnny B ear ( s t o r i e s )
S a lin g e r: A Sad M otive ( s t o r i e s )
Twain: L e t t e r s from th e E a rth , C ap tain S to rm fle ld * a V i s i t
to Heaven
F r o s t: From Nine Books (poems)
1964
A. Azimov: S cien ce F ic tio n S t o r i e s
R. B radbury: S cien ce F ic tio n ( s t o r i e s ) , 451 D egrees F a re n -
h e l t
H. G ernsbek: R alph 124 04l+ (n o v e l a b o u t l i f e in 2660)
Du B o is : W orlds o f C olor
J . K ilty : Dear L ia r
B. C ole: S u b l, th e Volcano
H. Lee: To K i l l a M ockingbird (1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 c o p ie s)
E. Mann: Judge o f Judges*
F. Knebel and C. B a ile y : Seven Days i n May
Twain: Thoughts on R e lig io n
M. W ilson: My B ro th e r, My Enemy (n o v el)
E. Whitcomb: Escape from C o rre g id o r (n o v e lla )
F a u lk n e r: The Hamlet (100,000 c o p ie s , T urnabout ( s t o r i e s )
L. Hughes: S e le c te d Poems
167
I 2 &
R. B radbury: The M artian C h ro n ic le s
H a rte : Q a b rle l Conroy
H aw thorne: N ovels (100,000 c o p ie s)
D r e is e r : An American Tragedy (200,000 c o p ie s)
J . 0. K ille n s : And Then W e Heard th e Thunder
S i n c l a i r Lewis: C o lle c te d Works (9 v . , 350,000 c o p ie s)
H. Nemerov: Homecoming Game
P. Pool and S. C o rn b la t: O p eratio n Venus (n o v el)
S te in b e c k : T ra v e ls w ith C h arley
S a lin g e r : N o v e lla s and S t o r i e s
M. W ilson: American S cience and I n v e n tio n , Live w ith
L ig h tn in g
F i t z g e r a ld : The G reat G atsby (50,000 c o p ie s )
F a u lk n e r: The Town (100,000 c o p ie s ) , The Mansion (100,000
c o p ie s)
Hemingway: A Moveable F e a s t
1966
A. Azimov: The M artian Jo u rn ey ( s t o r i e s )
U pdike: The C entaur
A. B ie rc e : The D e v il’ s D ic tio n a ry and S t o r i e s
H a rte : C o lle c te d Works (6 v .)
E. G i l b e r t: N a tiv e Stone (n o v el)
C apote: B r e a k f a s t a t T i f f a n y 's
C. McCullerB: Clock W ithout Hands
W. M asterson: M idnight Comes Suddenly ( n o v e lla )*
M e lv ille : I s r a e l P o tte r
S. O liv e r: The Winds o f Time (n o v el)
W. Saroyan: The Time o f Your L ife (p la y s )
R. Wormser: Pan S a t l r i s *
Hemingway: S e le c te d Works (2 v .)
168
Joe H i l l : Songs
J . C heever: Angel o f th e B ridge ( s t o r i e s )
R. S h ack ley : P ilg rim a g e to E a rth ( s t o r i e s )

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. M isce lla n e o u s
AniBimov, I . and o t h e r s , e d s. Soyremmenaia l i t e r a t u r e SShA
[Contem porary l i t e r a t u r e o t th e USAJ. Moscow, l£ b 2 .
B erberova, N ina. "S o v e tsk a ia k r i t i k a seg o d n ia" [S o v ie t
c r i t i c i s m to d a y ], Novyi z h u rn a l [New Y ork], No. 85
(December 1 9 6 6 ) , pp. 8 2 -1 0 6 ; No. 86 (March 1967)*
pp. 105-128.
Bowman, H e rb e rt. Rev. o f S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s , Com parative
L i t e r a t u r e , 15 ( 1 9 6 3 )* 368.
Brown, Deming. S o v ie t A t titu d e s Toward American W r itin g .
P r in c e to n , 1962.
"The P re s e n t C o n d itio n o f S o v ie t C r itic is m ,"
C om parative L i t e r a t u r e S tu d ie s , 1 ( 1964) , 165- 173,
3 2 5 -3 2 6 .
_________ and G lenora W. Brown. A Guide to S o v ie t R ussian
T r a n s la tio n s o f American L i t e r a t u r e . New Y ork, 195^.
Demetz, P e te r . Marx, E n g e ls, and th e P o e ts: O rig in s o f
M arx ist L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m . C hicago, 1967.
D r e is e r , Theodore. An American T rag ed y . C lev elan d , 19^8.
F a u lk n e r, W illiam . The H am let. New Y ork, 19^0.
_________ . The Town. New Y ork, 1957.
_________ . The M ansion. New York, 1959.
_________ . I n tr u d e r in th e D u s t. New Y ork, 19^8.
_________ . The Sound and th e F u ry . New Y ork, 19^6.
F i t z g e r a ld , F. S c o tt. The G re a t Q a tsb y . New York, 1925.
F rie d b e rg , M aurice. Review o f S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s , S la v ic
Review, 22 ( 1963) . 372-373-
170
171
i
Q e e rtz , C l i f f o r d . "Id e o lo g y as a C u ltu r a l S ystem ." In
David E. A p te r, e d . , Id e o lo g y and D is c o n te n t. New
Y ork, 1964. ----------- ---------------------------
«
Gohdes, C la re n c e , ed . R u ssian S tu d ie s o f American L i t e r a
t u r e . Compiled by V a le n tin a Libman. T ra n s, by
H oEert V. A lle n . Chapel H i l l , N .C ., 1969.
Hemingway, E r n e s t. For Whom th e B e ll T o lls . New York,
1940.
J o ra v sk y , D avid. Rev. o f S cien ce and Id eo lo g y In S o v ie t
S o c ie ty , S la v ic Review , 2b (1 9 6 9 ), 665- 0 0 6 .
K azin, A lf re d . On N ativ e G rounds. New York, 1942.
Lemon, Lee T. Rev. o f S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s , C o lleg e E n g lis h ,
24 (1 9 6 3 ), 412.
L evine, S t u a r t . Rev. o f S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s , American Quar
t e r l y , 15 (1 9 6 3 b 420-421.
Libman, V a le n tin a A. " B i b l i o g r a f i i a , " Problemy 1 s t o r l l
l l t e r a t u r y SShA [Problem s o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e l i t e r
a tu r e o f “ bhe tJSAJ. Moscow, 1964.
. " B i b l i o g r a f i i a , " Sovremennoe l l t e r a t u r o v e d e n l e
SShA; sp o ry ob am erlk an sk o l l i t e r a t u r e [Contem porary
l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s h ip in th e tiSA: argum ents ab o u t Amer
ic a n l i t e r a t u r e ] . Moscow, 1969.
M a tth ie s se n , F. 0. Theodore D r e i s e r . New Y ork, 1951-
M endelson, M. Sovremennyl a m e rlk a n sk i1 roman [The contem
p o ra ry American n o v e lJ . Moscow, 1964.
. " S o v ie t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Contem porary American
l i t e r a t u r e , " t r a n s . Deming Brown and Rufus Mathewson.
W ashington, D .C ., 1948.
M lzener, A rth u r. "The Love Song o f J . D. S a l i n g e r ." In
Henry A. Grunewald, e d ., S a lin g e ri A C r i t i c a l and P e r
s o n a l P o r t r a i t . New Y ork, 19bz.
P a rk e r, S tephen J a n . "Hemingway's R ev iv al in th e S o v ie t
Union 1955-1962." In Roger A s se lin e a u , e d . , The L i t e r
a r y R e p u ta tio n o f Hemingway In E u ro p e. New York, I 9 6 5 .
S a lin g e r , J . D. The C a tc h e r In th e Rye. B osto n , 1951-
172
Schuman, F re d e ric k L. R u ssia S ince 1917. New Y ork, 1957.
S ie g e l, G eorge. Rev. o f S o v ie t A t t i t u d e s , Modern Language
J o u r n a l, 47 (1963). £b3-2b4.
S p l l l e r , R o b ert E. "Theodore D r e i s e r ." In R o b ert E.
S p i l l e r and o t h e r s , e d s ., L i t e r a r y H is to ry o f th e
U n ited S t a t e s . 3rd ed . reT i New York, 1963.
S te in b e c k , John. The G rapes o f W rath . New York, 1939.
Thomas, Hugh. The S panish C i v i l War. New York, 1961.
T u t t l e t o n , J . W. "S te in b e c k i n R u ssia : The R h e to ric o f
P r a is e and Blam e," Modern F i c tio n S tu d ie s , 11 ( 1965).
7 9 -89.
U pdike, John. The C e n ta u r. New York, 1964.
W ilson, Edmund. The Boys In th e Back Room. San F ra n c is c o ,
1941.
Zimmerman, W illiam . " S o v ie t P e rc e p tio n s o f the U n ited
S t a t e s . " In A lexander D a llin and Thomas B. L arso n ,
e d s . , S o v ie t P o l i t i c s S in ce K hrushchev. New York and
Englewood C liffB , N . J . , 196b.
B. R ec en t S o v ie t C r itic is m o f D r e i s e r 's
An A m erican Tragedy
A nisim ov, I . "A m erlkanskala t r a g e d i l a 1 T ra g lc h e s k a la
Amerika" [An American Tragedy and In flrag lc A m erica] .
In Feodor D r a lz e r, A m erlkanskala t r a g e d i l a . tooscow,
1959.
B o g o s lo v s k ii, V. N. "Teodor D r a lz e r ." In Z. Sh. G razh
dan s k a ia , e d ., I s t o r l l a zaru b ezh n o l l l t e r a t u r y XX veka
[The h i s t o r y o f f o re ig n l i t e r a t u r e in th e tw e n tie th
c e n tu r y ] , Moscow, 1963.
Shpakova, Anna P etro v n a . A m erlkanskala d e l s t v l t e l ' n o s t ' v
iz o b r a z h e n ii Teodora D r a lz e ra : roman A m erlkanskala
t r a g e d i l a LAmerican r e a l i t y i n th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f
T heodore D r e is e r : th e n o v e l An A m erican T ra g e d y ].
Moscow, 1959*
Z a s u r s k i i , l a . N. "A m erlk an sk ala t r a g e d i l a , " T eodor D r a l
z e r . Moscow, 19b4.
173
C. R ecent S o v ie t C r itic is m o f S te in b e c k ’s
Fedorov, A. Dzhon S te ln b e k . Moscow, 1965.
L evidova, J.. "The P o st-w ar Books o f John S te in b e c k ,"
S o v ie t Review, 4 ( 1963) ; 3~13» T ran s, from V oprosy
l l t e r a t u r y , No. 8 ( 1962).
M endelson, M. "Dzhon S te ln b e k ," Sovremennyl a m e rlk a n sk ll
roman [The contem porary American n o v e lJ . Moscow, 1564.
M u lia rc h ik , A lek san d r S erg e e v ic h . T vorchestvo Dzhona
S te ln b e k a [The c r e a t i v e work o f John S te in b e c k J.
Moscow, 1 9 6 3*
O rlo v a, R. "Den’g i p r o t i v c h e lo v e c h n o s ti; sam etki o
tv o rc h e s tv e Dzhona S te in b e k a : [Money a g a in s t hum anity;
o b s e rv a tio n s on th e c r e a t i v e work o f John S te in b e c k ],
I n o s tr a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a , No. 3 ( 1962) , pp. 197- 2 0 8.
. "Gde o n i, r a i s k i e p a s tb is c h c h a ? " [Where a re
th e y , th e h ea v e n ly p a s t u r e s ? ] , Potomkl Q ek k lb erl Flnna
[D escendants o f H u ck leb erry F in n J . Moscow, 19&4.
Z a B u rsk ii, l a . N. "Saga o Dzhoudakh" [The Saga o f th e
J o a d s ] , A m erlkanskala l l t e r a t u r a XX veka [American
l i t e r a t u r e o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y J . Moscow, 1966.
D. R u ssian Hemingway C r itic is m
Anisim ov, I . "Kheminguei i nashe vrem ia" [Hemingway and
o u r tim e ], Znamla, No. 9 (1 9 6 5 )* PP* 2 3 4 -2 4 5 .
Dneprov, V. " P o e tik a romana i d i a l e k t i k a r e v o l u i t s i i " [The
p o e tic o f th e n o v el and d i a l e c t i c o f r e v o l u ti o n ] ,
C h erty romana XX veka [ C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e n o v el in
th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y ] . Moscow and L en in g rad , 1 9 6 5 .
E l ’ia s h e v ic h , A. "Chelovek n e l ’ z i a p o b e d it; zam etki o
tv o rc h e s tv e E r n e s ta Khemingueia" [Man can n o t be d e
f e a te d ; o b s e rv a tio n s on th e c r e a t i v e work o f E rn e s t
Hemingway], Voprosy l l t e r a t u r y , No. 1 (1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 0 7 -
12 7 .
F i n k e l 's h t e i n , I . "V p o isk ak h p o e tic h e s k o i i s t i n y ( z a ru -
b e z h n a ia k r i t i k a o Khemingue)" [In se a rc h o f p o e tic
t r u t h ( f o r e ig n c r i t i c i s m o f Hemingway)], Voprosy
l l t e r a t u r y , No. 4 ( 1 9 6 5 )* PP. 1 4 6 -1 6 8 .
174
F i n k e l ’ s h te i n , I . "S o v e tsk a ia k r i t i k a o Khemingue" [S o v ie t
c r i t i c i s m o f Hemingway], Voprosy l l t e r a t u r y , No. 8
( 1967) , pp. 174- 1 9 0.
Gorbunov, A. "Kheminguei— chelovek 1 p i s a t e l ’ " [Hemingway—
man and w r i t e r ] , Novyl m lr, No. 8 ( 1967) , PP* 251-254.
K ashkln, Iv a n . E rn e s t Kheminguei [E rn e st Hemingway].
M o s cow, 1965"!
K e n c h o sh v ili, I . N o v ella Khemlnguela [The Hemingway
n o v e l l a ] . U npublished d i s s e r t a t i o n . T b i l i s i , 1 9 6 6.
Kozhlnov, V. "Realizm 1 d e i s t v i e v sovrem ennol l i t e r a t u r e "
[R ealism and a c t In contem porary l i t e r a t u r e ] ,
I n o s tr a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a . No. 5 ( 1963) , pp. 184-192.
Levidova, I . "Molodoi Kheminguei" [The young Hemingway],
Novyl m lr, No. 11 (1964), pp. 263- 2 6 6.
M alantz, Z e l ’ma. Chelovek odln ne mozhet [Man can do
n o th in g aloneT i Moscow, 1966.
M endelson, M. "E rn e st K hem inguei," Sovremennyl am e rlk a n sk l
rom an. Moscow, 1964.
N i k i t i n , V. V. "0 p o v e s ti S ta r lk 1 more E. Khemlnguela"
[On E. Hemingway's n o v e lla The OlcT"Man and th e S e a ],
V e s tn ik Moskovskogo u n i v e r s i t e t a , No. 1 (l9t>9)» PP. 4 l -
W -
O rlova, R. " M lfo lo g lia —p ra v d a—g e ro i" [M ythology— t r u t h —
h e r o ] , V oprosy l l t e r a t u r y , No. 11 (19d3 ), pp. 174-177.
. "0 r e v o l i u t s i i 1 l i u b v i , o z h lz n i 1 s m e rti" [On
th e r e v o lu tio n and lo v e , on l i f e and d e a th ] , Zvezda,
No. 1 (1964), pp. 206- 2 1 3.
S o lo v ’e v , E. "T svet t r a g e d i l (o tv o rc h e s tv e E. Kheming-
u e ia " [The c o lo r o f tra g e d y (on th e c r e a t i v e work o f
E. Hemingway], Novyl m lr, No. 9 (1 9 6 8 ), pp. 206-235.
Simonov, K o n s ta n tin . " Is p a n s k a ia tema v tv o rc h e s tv e
Khemlnguela" [The S panish theme in th e c r e a t i v e work
o f Hemingway]. In E rn e s t Kheminguei, E rn e s t Kheming
u e i t S o b ran le s o c h ln e n ll [E rn e st Hemingway: C o lle c te d
W orks]. Moscow, 1 9 6 8.
175
E. C r itic is m In E n g lis h o f F o r Whom th e B e ll ToI I b
A d le r, J a c k . "Theme and C h a ra c te r in Hemingway: For Whom
th e B e ll T o llB ," U n iv e r s ity Review, 30 (1964), 293-299.
Backman, M elvin. "Hemingway: The M atador and th e C ru c i
f i e d , " Modern F i c tio n S tu d ie s , 1 (1 9 5 5 ), 2-11.
B ak er, C arb s. "The S p an ish T rag ed y ," Hemingway: The W rite r
aB A r t i s t . P r in c e to n , 195®.
, e d . E rn e s t Hemingway: C r itiq u e s o f Four Major
W oveIs. New V ork, 196*.
1 e d . Hemingway and H is C r i t i c s : An I n t e r n a t i o n a l
A nth o lo g y . New Y ork, 1961.
Beaoh, Jo sep h W arren. "How Do You L ike I t Now, Gentlemen?"
Sewanee Review, 59 ( l 9 5 l ) j In C a rlo s B aker, e d .,
Hemingway and HIa C r i t i c s : An I n t e r n a t i o n a l A nthology.
M e w Y ork, 1'9E Y .-------------------------- : ------------^
B e s s ie , Alvah C. Rev. o f For Whom th e B e ll T o lls , New
M asses. 37 (November 5 , 1 940)j i n C a rlo s B aker, e d .,
E rnest Hemingway1 C r i t i q u e s o f Four M ajor N o v els.
Mew Y ork, 19o 2 .
Burgum, Edwin B erry . " E rn e s t Hemingway and th e Psychology
o f th e Los G e n e ra tio n ," The Novel and th e W o r ld s
Dilemma. New Y ork, 1947.
C a rp e n te r, F. I . "Hemingway A chieves th e F i f t h D im ension."
In C a rlo s B aker, e d . , Hemingway and H is C r i t i c s : An
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A n th o lo g y ! New Y ork, 19b 1 .
Cooperman, S ta n le y . "Hemingway's B lu e-ey ed Boy: R obert
Jo rd an and ’P urging E c s t a s y , ’ " C r itic is m , 8 ( 1966) ,
87-96.
Eby, C e c il D. "The R eal R o b ert J o rd a n ," American L i t e r a
t u r e , 38 ( 1966) , 38O -3 8 6.
F ran k en b erg , Lloyd. "Themes and C h a ra c te r in Hemingway’s
L a te s t P e rio d ," S o u th ern Review, 7 (1942), 776-788.
GeiBmar, Maxwell. " E rn e st Hemingway: You Could Always
Come B ack." In C a rlo s B aker and John K. M. M cCaffery,
e d s ., E rn e s t Hemingway: The Man and H is Work. C leve
lan d and New Y ork, I 9 5 6.
176
Guttman, A lle n . "M echanized Doom: E rn e s t Hemingway and th e
American View o f th e SpaniBh C iv i l W ar," M a ssac h u setts
Review. 1 ( i 9 6 0) , 541-561.
H a llid a y , E. M . "Hemingway's A m biguity: Symbolism and
I r o n y ," American L i t e r a t u r e , 28 ( 1956) , 1-22.
Hanneman, A ndre. E rn e s t Hemingway, A Comprehensive B ib lio g
raphy . P r in c e to n , 196?.
M cCaffery, John K. M., ed. E rn e s t Hemingway: The Man and
H is Work. C lev elan d and New York, 1950.
M e lle rs , W . H. "The Ox in S p a in ," S c ru tin y , 10 ( l 9 4 l ) , 93-
99.
Moynihan, W illiam T. "The Martyrdom o f R obert J o rd a n ,"
C o lleg e E n g lis h , 21 (1 9 5 9 ), 27-32.
Page, A lex. " P a k i s t a n 's Hemingway," A ntioch Review, 23
( 1963) , 203- 2 1 1.
P a rso n s, Thornton H. "Hemingway's Tyrannous P l o t ,"
U n iv e r s ity o f Kansas C ity Review, 27 ( 1961) , 261- 2 6 5.
S an d ers, D avid. " E rn e st Hemingway's C iv i l War E x p e rie n c e ,"
American Q u a r te rly , 12 ( i 960) , 133- 143.
T r i l l i n g , L io n e l. "An American in S p a in ." In W illiam
P h i l l i p s and P h i l i p Rahv, e d s ., The P a r tis a n R e a d e r.
New Y ork, 1946.
W arren, R o b ert Penn. " E rn e st Hemingway." I n tr o d u c tio n to
th e Modern S tan d ard A uthors E d itio n o f A F a re w e ll to
Arms. New Y ork, 1949. R e p rin te d in John W . A ld rid g e ,
e d . , C r itiq u e s and E ssays on Modern F i c t i o n , 1920-
1951. Kew York','' T952'.' ' ---------------------------
Weeks, R o b ert P ., ed. Hemingway: A C o lle c tio n o f C r i t i c a l
E s s a y s . Englewood C l i f f s , N .J ., 1962.
W est, Ray B ., J r . " E rn e st Hemingway: Death in th e E ven in g ,"
A ntioch Review, 4 (1 9 4 4 ), 569- 5 8 0 .
. " E rn e st Hemingway: The F a ilu r e o f S e n s i b i l i t y . "
In W illiam Van O'Connor, e d . , Forms o f Modern F i c t i o n .
M in n e a p o lis, 1948.
Young, P h i l i p . E r n e s t Hemingway: A R e c o n s id e r a tio n . U ni
v e r s i t y P ark , P a ., 19667
177
Young, P h i l i p . "Our Hemingway Man," Kenyon Review, 26
(1 9 6 4 ), pp. 676-707. i
F. S o v ie t C r itic is m o f W illiam F au lk n e r
Gorbunov, A. "K hoziain i v l a d e l e t s io k n a p a to fy " [M aster
and owner o f Yoknapataw pha] ( re v . o f I n tr u d e r in th e
D u s t) , Novyl m lr, No. 10 ( 1908) , pp. 262-265.
K a sh k in , I . " P o s le s lo v ie " [ a f te r w o r d ] . In U il'ia m F o lk n e r,
Sem' ra s s k a z o v [W illiam F a u lk n e r, Seven S t o r i e s ],
Moscow, 1958.
Landor, M . "W illiam F a u lk n e r: New T r a n s la tio n s and Studies,"
S o v ie t L i t e r a t u r e M onthly, No. 8 ( 1968) , pp. I 8O -I8 5 .
L evidova, I . "Saga o sumrachnoi d i n a s t i i " [Saga about a
gloomy d y n a s ty ], Novyl m ir, No. 7 ( 1962) , pp. 265- 2 6 9.
M otyleva, T. "0 ia v le n ia k h slozhnykh i neodnorodnykh:
U il'ia m F o lk n er" [On co m p lic a te d and u n u su a l phenomena:
W illiam F a u lk n e r], Z arubezhnyl roman s e g o d n la . Moscow,
1966.
M endelson, M. " U il'ia m F o lk n e r," Sovremennyl a m e rlk a n sk ll
roman [The contem porary American n o v e l] . Moscos,
1964.
O rlo v a, R. and L. K opelev. "Mify i p rav d a am erikanskogo
iu g a (zam etki o tv o rc h e s tv e F o lk n e ra )" [Myths and the
t r u t h o f th e American South ( o b s e r v a tio n s on th e
c r e a t i v e work o f F a u lk n e r )] , I n o s tr a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a ,
No. 3 (1958), pp. 206-220.
O rlo v a, R. " 'K o r i n i t s i s v samoi c h e lo v e c h n o s ti. . . ' "
[Based on hum anity i t s e l f . . . ] , Sovrem ennala l l t e r a t u r a
za rubezhom . Moscow, 1 9 6 2.
P a l i e v s k i i , P. V. " P u t 1 U. F o lk n e ra k re a liz m y " [The p a th
o f W. F au lk n er to r e a lis m ] . In I . Anisimov and o th e r s ,
e d s ., Sovremennye problem y r e a llz m a 1 m odernlzm a.
Moscow, 19&5.
_________ . "Amerika F o lk n era (k perevody O s k v e r n ite lia
p r a k h a ) " [The America o f F a u lk n e r (On th e t r a n s l a t i o n
o f I n tr u d e r in th e D u s t], I n o s tr a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a ,
No.' '2 (1 9 6 8 ),"pp." 2 1 1 ^ 1 4 .------------------:
178
Romanova, E. "A ntlvoennye m otivy v tv o rc h e s tv e U il'ia m a
F o lk n era " [A n ti-w ar m o tifs In th e c r e a t i v e work o f
W illiam F a u lk n e r], I n o s tr a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a , No. 6
(1 9 5 5 ), PP. 170-176.
S t a r t s e v , A. " T r i l o g i i a U il'ia m a F o lk n era" [W illiam
F a u lk n e r 's t r i l o g y ] . In U il'ia m F o lk n e r, D erevushka.
[W illiam F a u lk n e r, The H am let. ] Moscow, 1964.
T surganova, E. A. " 'N o v a la k r i t i k a ' 1 roman F o lk n era
O s k v e r n lte l' p ra k h a " [The 'New C r itic is m ' and F a u lk
n e r 's n o v el I n tr u d e r in th e D u s t], V e stn lk Moskovskogo
u n l v e r s i t e t a , No. 3 ( 1969) , pp. 16-29.
G. S o v ie t C r itic is m o f J . D. S a l i n g e r 's
T O ieB i ^ ^ c h e r iiJ;r^the^Rgo
Gus, M . L l t e r a t u r a 1 epokha [ L ite r a tu r e and th e ep o ch ].
Moscow, 1953.
K nipovich, E. "L iudi nad p r o p a s t 'l u " [People o v e r the
a b y s s ] , Znamla, No. 6 ( 1961) , pp. 215-224.
K ustova, L. S. "Roman S e lin d z h e ra Nad p r o p a s t 'l u vo r z h l 1
ego perevod no r u s s k i l ia z y k " [ S a li n g e r 's n o v el 7*he~~
C a tc h e r In th e Rye and i t s t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o th e Rus-
s la n la n g u a g e ], V eB tnlk Moskovskogo u n l v e r s i t e t a , No.1
(1964), p p . 6 8- 8 1 .
L id s k ii, l u . I a . "Dzh. D. S e lin d z h e r ," O cherkl ob a m e rl-
k an sk lk h p l s a t e l 'l a k h XX veka [Essays on tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry American w r i t e r s ] . K iev, 1968.
N azarenko, V. " ' I a ' 1 'My’ " [I and w e], Zvezda, No. 3
(1961), p p . 178-183.
O rlova, R. " M a l'c h ish k a b e z h it i z A m eriki" [A boy escap es
from A m erica], Potomkl G ek lv erry Flnna [D escendants
o f H u ck leb erry F in n ]. Moscow, 1964.
V ladim iv, G. "T ri d n ia i z z h iz n i Kholdena" [Three days in
th e l i f e o f H olden], Novyl m lr, No. 2 ( 1961) , pp. 254-
258.
179
H. S o v ie t C r itic is m o f F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d 's
^ l e G r e a t O a t s ^
Gorbunov, A. N. "Romany S k o tta F i t z d z h e r a l 'd a 20-kh godov"
[S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d 's n o v e ls o f th e T w e n tie s], V e stn lk
Moskovskogo u n l v e r s i t e t a ( f i l o l o g i i a , z h u r n a l i s t i k a ) ,
No. 2 [ 19 b 5 ;, PP. 21-32.
Landor, M. "Dar nadezhdy” [The g i f t o f h o p e], Novyi m ir,
No. 10 (1 9 6 5 ), PP. 244-247.
L id s k i i , l u . I a . " F re n s is S k o tt F i t s d z h e r a l d , ” O cherkl ob
am erlk an sk lk h p l s a t e l l a k h XX veka [E ssays on tw e n tie th
c e n tu ry American w r i t e r s J . K iev, 1968.
M endelson, M . " 'V to ro e z r e n i e ' S k o tta F i t s d z h e r a l 'd a ” [The
'seco n d s i g h t ' o f S c o tt F i t z g e r a ld ] , Voprosy l i t e r a
t u r e , No. 3 (1 9 6 5 ), PP. 102-125.
S ta r ts e v , A. " G o r'k a ia s u d 'b a F i t s d z h e r a l 'd a " [The b i t t e r
f a t e o f F i t z g e r a l d ] , I n o s tr a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a , No. 2
(1 9 6 5 ), PP. 172-180.
I . American C r itic is m o f F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d 's
The^Great^atsbe
Bewley, M arius. " S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d 's C r itic is m o f A m erica."
In E rn e s t L ic k rid g e , e d ., T w entieth C entury I n t e r p r e -
t a t i o n s o f The G reat G atsbyl Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .,
ly b b .
C a r l i s l e , Fred E. "The T r ip le V isio n o f N ick C arraw ay ,"
Modern F ic tio n S tu d ie s , 11 ( 1965)* 351-360.
Hanzo, Thomas. "The Theme and ’ jhe N a r ra to r o f The G reat
Q a ts b y ," Modern F ic tio n S tu d leB , 2 (1 9 5 7 ), 1B3- 1 9 0.
L is c a , P e te r . "Nick Carraway and th e Imagery o f D is o rd e r,"
T w en tieth C entury L i t e r a t u r e , 13 (19o7)> 18-28.
M ille r , James E ., J r . "B oats A g a in st the C u r r e n t," F.
S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d 1 H is A rt and H is Technique. New
Y ork, 1$64.---------------- ------------------------------
M izener, A rth u r. "F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a ld , The G reat Q a tsb y ."
In W allace S te g n e r, e d ., The American Novel from
Cooper to F a u lk n e r . New York, 19&5*
180
P e ro sa , S e rg io . A rt o f P. S c o tt F itz g e r a ld Ann A rbor,
M ich., 1965.
R ic h a rd s, R obert and C h r is . "P e e lin g In The G reat Q atB by,”
W estern H um anities Review, 21 ( 1967)* 257-2b5.
Sam uels, C h a rle s Thomas. "The G re a tn e ss o f Q a ts b y ,”
M assach u setts Review, 7 ( 1966) , 783-794.
S tallm an , R. W . "Q atsby and th e Hole In Tim e," Modern F ic -
tlo n S tu d leB , 1 (1 9 5 5 ), 2 - l6 .
J . S o v ie t C r i t i c i s m o f John U p d ik e 's
^ e ^ C e n t a u r ^
A r s e n t’eva, 0. Q. "Roman Dzh. Apdaika K en tav r" [John Up
d i k e ’s novel The Ce n t a u r ] , Uchenye 'zap'lskl LQPI, 362
(1 9 6 8 ), pp. 337 - 354 .
E l i s t r a t o v a , A. "T rag ich esk o e z h lv o tn o e —cheloved (o
romanakh Dzhona A pdaika)" [A t r a g i c an im a l—man (on
th e n o v e ls o f John U p d ik e )], Sovremennala l l t e r a t u r a
za rubezhom . Moscow, 1966.
Q ranln, D. "N eskol'ko s lo v o K entavre Dzhona Apdaika"
[S e v e ra l words on The C entaur o f John U pdike], In o s
t r a n n a la l l t e r a t u r a , No. 2 ( 1965) , pp. 145-148.
L id s k ii, l u . I a . "Dzhon A pd aik ," O cherkl ob am erlkansklkh
p l s a t e l l a k h XX v e k a . Kiev, 1968.
M btyleva, T. Z arubezhnyl roman s e g o d n la . Moscow, 1966.
O rlova, R. "Znakomstvo c Apdaikom" [A cquaintance w ith Up
d ik e ] , Novyl m lr, No. 5 ( 1965) , PP. 260-264.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

John William De Forest: A Study Of Realism And Romance In Selected Works

PDF

The Significance Of George Meredith'S Revisions Of 'The Ordeal Of Richardfeverel'

PDF

The Dialectics Of Reality In The Fiction Of Robert Penn Warren

PDF

The Game-Play In Twentieth-Century Absurdist Drama: Studies In A Dramatictechnique

PDF

The Marriage Metaphor And The Romantic Prophecy: A Study Of The Uses Of The Epithalamium In The Poetry Of Blake, Wordsworth, And Coleridge

PDF

Studies In The Contemporary American And British Science Fiction Novel

PDF

Point Of View In Thomas Hardy'S 'The Mayor Of Casterbridge' And 'Tess Of The D'Urbervilles'

PDF

Some Imaginative Motifs From Primitive Sacred Myths In The Theater Of Eugene Ionesco

PDF

The Literary Styles Of Jean-Paul Sartre And William Faulkner: An Analysis, Comparison, And Contrast

PDF

An Anatomy Of Humor

PDF

A Critical Study Of Some Early Novels (1911-1920) Of Sir Compton Mackenzie: The Growth And Decline Of A Critical Reputation

PDF

Literary Naturalism And Stephen Crane'S Fiction

PDF

The Relationship Between The Poetry Of T. S. Eliot And Saint-John Perse

PDF

'Guingamor,' 'Guigemar,' 'Graelentmor,' 'Lanval,' And 'Desire': A Comparative Study Of Five Breton Lays

PDF

Cynewulf: The Ascension Of Christ

PDF

Blake, Novalis, and Nerval: the poetics of the apocalypse. A study of Blake's Milton, Novalis' Hymnen an die Nacht and Heinrich von Ofterdingen, and Nerval's Aurelia

PDF

An Analysis Of Selected British Novelists Between 1945 And 1966, And Their Critics

PDF

Organic Wholeness Of Being In Selected Novels Of D.H. Lawrence

PDF

Form As Theme: A Study Of Andre Gide

PDF

Hegel And Dewey And The Problem Of Freedom

Asset Metadata

Creator Pomeroy, Charles William (author)

Core Title Soviet Russian Criticism 1960-1969 Of Seven Twentieth Century American Novelists

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program English

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Malone, David H. (committee chair), Mlikotin, Anthony M. (committee member), Vickery, Olga W. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-468437

Unique identifier UC11362315

Identifier 7116431.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-468437 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7116431

Dmrecord 468437

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Pomeroy, Charles William

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA