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The Design And Development Of A Programed Individual Presentation System

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The Design And Development Of A Programed Individual Presentation System

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Content THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
OF A
PROGRAMED INDIVIDUAL PRESENTATION SYSTEM
by
Richard Joseph Tuber
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Cinema)
February 1972
INFORMATION TO USERS
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University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education Company
I
I
72-17,520
TUBER, Richard Joseph, 1930-
THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A PROGRAMED
INDIVIDUAL PRESENTATION SYSTEM. [Pages 189-221,
"Norelco, PIP Audio-Visual Systems Data", not
microfilmed at request of author. Available
for consultation at University of Southern
California LibraryJ.
University of Southern California, Ph.D.,
1972
University M ic ro film s ? X ^ 1 ^ ^ o m ^ a n y , Ann Arbor, Michigan
© 1972
RICHARD JOSEPH TUBER
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
U N IVE R S ITY O F S O U T H E R N C A LIF O R N IA
T H E G R A D U A TE S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PARK
LO S A N G E LE S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Richard Joseph Tuber
under the direction of h% 3.... Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The G rad u
ate School, in p artial fulfillm ent of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
D a te F e b ru a ry ... 197.2...
DISSERTATION C O M M IT T E E
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
indistinct print.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS........
Introduction
The Problem
Definitions
Limitations of the Study
Organization of the remainder of this study
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE....................
Psychology and Physiological of perception
Books and Texts
Journals and Professional Publications
Existing audiovisual devices
Taxonomies and Books
Reports and Trade Journals
Effectiveness of Audiovisual Media
Books
Research Studies and Monographs
Theses and Dissertations
Journals
III. BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ................
Audiovisual Materials
Generic Aspects of Audiovisual Materials
Inherent Principle in All Materials
Design Concept Number One
Audiovisual Projection Equipment
Generic Aspects of Audiovisual Equipment
Inherent Principle in All Equipment
Design Concept Number Two
IV. DESIGN CRITERIA ............................
Interrelationship of Design Concepts
Hardware Design Criteria
Individualizat ion
Variable Speed Projection
Subsidiary Design Problems and Criteria
General Design Desiderata
i i i
Software Design Criteria
Pre-Production
Production
Post-Production
Conversion
Laboratory
V. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS .......................... 63
Individualization
Variable Speed Projection
Double System
Projection of Film
Elimination of Flicker
VI. SYSTEM PROTOTYPE FABRICATION..................... 77
Exterior Design
Pre-Fabrication Research
Patentability
Manufacture of the Prototype
Criteria for Selecting a Manufacturer
Philips Electric
Agreement with Philips
Delivery of the First Prototype
Prototype Characteristics
Design Specifications
Specifications Not Included
Utility of the Prototype
VII. SOFTWARE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT..................... 98
Script and Storyboard
Objectives
PIP Program Structure
Preparation of the Script
Production of Materials
Original Photography
Conversion of Existing Materials
Summary of Sequences
Recording of Narrative
Post-Production
Film Materials
Sound Materials
Q Track Materials
Laboratory
Film Materials
i v
VIII. PRELIMINARY FINDINGS..............................116
Parameters for Findings
Hardware
Operational Characteristics
Electromechanical Characteristics
Design and Packaging Characteristics
Software
Experiential Findings
IX. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......... 134
Summary
Review of the Literature
Basic Design Considerations
Design Criteria
Design Specifications
System Prototype Fabrication
Software Program Development
Conclusions
Basic Concepts
Recommendat ions
Present PIP Configuration
Future PIP Configuration
APPENDICES
A. Summary of Patents............................ 162
B. PIP Program Development Outline............ } 56
C. Demonstration Program Script..................179
D. Pulse Generator Specifications................188
E. Norelco Advertising.Literature............... 191
F. Philips Descriptive Literature............... 213
G. Philips Promotional Literature............... 216
BIBLIOGRAPHY 222
V
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Summary of Sequences in Demonstration Program . . 109
2. Animation Conversion Efficiency............. 132
3. Live Action Production/Conversion Efficiency. . . 133
v i
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Y
1. Relationship of Frames and Pulses.............. 46
2. Original Artist's Conception of PIP ............ 79
3. Photo of First PIP Prototype.................... 90
4. Photo of Prototype Film Cassette................ 94
5. Photograph of Prototype PIP System.............. 97
6. Sample Storyboard Panel......................... 127
7. Parallel Branching Schematic..................... 157
CHAPTER
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
I. INTRODUCTION
The conception of new ideas in the field of audio
visual presentation, the development of an equipment con
figuration embodying those ideas, and the refinement and
utilization of resultant materials and techniques ideally
should be a synthesis of hardware and software require
ments. The objective of such a synthesis should be to
minimize constraints and maximize efficiency, according to
an established criteria set.
A hardware-software synthesis represents an audio
visual presentation system whose purpose should be to aid
the user in the advancement towards or the attainment of
stated educational or training objectives. Such a pre
sentational system is part of a larger instructional sys
tem which includes feedback, evaluation, and counseling
functions, among others. Specification of an optimum
audiovisual learning environment results in a checklist of
desirable equipment and materials, and the way in which
they can be used: capability to mix various audiovisual
formats and programs; individualization for user pacing
and interaction; high information storage capacity; random
1
2
access to various formats; and so forth. If one measures
system efficiency on a cost/effectiveness basis, then
existing "systems" may rank high in achieving a given be
havioral objective, but extract an economic penalty of
high per-user cost. Computer-assisted instruction and
study carrels, and their required programs and wide range
of materials, exhibit such a lop-sided cost/effectiveness
ratio: they may be very effective in doing what they were
designed to do, but they simply cost too much.
On the other hand, many audiovisual devices, and the
materials they use, are relatively low in cost, but have
a correspondingly limited or specialized effectiveness as
a teaching tool. Widespread use of low-cost individualized
film and filmstrip projectors, for example, have favorably
affected the cost factor but have not appreciably altered
the effectiveness portion of the ratio. They merely pre
sent the old audiovisual techniques in new packages. New
production, packaging and marketing techniques by equipment
manufacturers still have not changed the inherent limita
tions of the media: a filmstrip cannot incorporate motion
when needed, and a motion picture remains a highly struc-
turalized instructional material which through its inherent
characteristic may distract rather than attract attention,
and may present content incomprehensibly rather than clari
fy it. (22:133 et seq.)
3
Therefore, at a corollary to the fund of studies ex
amining the comparative effectiveness of existing audio
visual devices, a new appraisal is needed to specify a
systems approach to the design and use of audiovisual
devices. Rather than having an arsenal of various machines
and varied film formats, cannot the operational character
istics of the devices and the generic formats of the film
materials they use be synthesized not only to sirjiify equip
ment configuration and economize on materials cost, but
more importantly, to provide a new tool--a system— to per
mit new directions to be explored in the study of audio
visual effectiveness? If indeed, as Finn suggests (12:1-
13), the educational capital overhead (inventory of audio
visual devices in schools) and the technological state
of mind (introduction of programed learning) do exist,
then the principal preconditions for a technological revo
lution in education--a take-off— also exist.
II. THE PROBLEM
Statement of the purpose. It was the purpose of this
study to develop and apply a systems analytic approach to
the problem of audiovisual presentation, in order to iso
late, identify and restructure both the hardware and soft
ware elements of the audiovisual learning experience.
Analysis of presentation techniques was performed in terms
of hardware operational characteristics, and software pro-
A
duction and display requirements. The resultant systems
specifications were manifest in a functioning hardware-
software device which represented a synthesis of analytic
results. As such, the new audiovisual system exhibited a
versatility and a flexibility heretofore unattainable in
any single existing device under consideration. Cost/
effectiveness was equal to, or higher, than that obtain
able with any of the audiovisual machines subjected to
analysis, either individually or in combination.
The resultant audiovisual system was designed pri
marily as a research tool, to give to communications and
media specialists and researchers a single manipulative
device with a wide latitude of applications in audiovisual
presentation techniques and learning situations. The sys
tem ideally would have capabilities for presenting visual
images accompanied by sound that would be greater than the
sum of its parts, its parts being the basic operating
characteristics and materials of other individual audio
visual devices in existance.
The overriding purpose of this study, then, was to
design a system which was both versatile and flexible,
giving to the program developer and producer as wide a
range of audiovisual and programing techniques as possible
within the bounds of economic reality.
A secondary purpose of this study was to develop a
system that not only could be of value to the researcher
5
in the laboratory, but to the user in the educational en
vironment .
Finally, it was the purpose of this study to develop
a methodology for the production of new audiovisual pro
grams, or the adaptation of existing materials, so that
proven content validity and effectiveness could be synthe
sized, regardless of the original incompatibility of the
content format or method of presentation.
Statement of the problem. The fundamental problem of
this study was to develop with precision and to articulate
with clarity a systems analytic methodology for audiovisual
presentation. Further, it was necessary to validate the
analytic method by designing and constructing a fully oper
ating, demonstrable system based upon the initial design
concepts. This study, therefore, was basically one of
design; as such, the study was primarily a mental activity
in its initial stages. However, the purpose of design is
to establish and define solutions to and pertinent struc
tures for problems not solved before, or new solutions to
problems which have previously been solved in a different
way. (7:1151)
The problem was organized into three basic steps:
1. Beginning with an idea and ending with concepts.
The idea, or "felt need" was that there must be underlying
principles inherent in the diversity of audiovisual de
6
vices and materials currently in use. It was further
reasoned that if the basic principles could be identified,
then perhaps theoretically, if not mechanically, the
principles could be combined into a single device which
would exhibit these principles and, in consequence, incor
porate the combined effectiveness of the separate devices.
All major audiovisual media were analyzed in terms of their
operational hardware characteristics and generic software
materials. These were reduced to a common denominator,
resulting in basic concepts— operating principles and
software requirements— that were clearly and unambigously
stated.
2. Develop a design structure and give form to the
system. The second phase in the design process was to
weigh the possibilities and alternatives of applying the
basic concepts derived from the first phase. It was fur
ther necessary to clarify all influences affecting the
system structure, both in terms of hardware and software
production technology. The problem of developing a design
structure so that a system configuration may begin to
emerge, was basically one of conversion of the initial
concepts into structural form, and of defining limits as
well as capabilities of the idealized system. Although
still in an "idealized" or theoretical state, operational
specifications for the hardware component, and developmen-
7
tal specifications for the software component were stated.
3. Final definition and fabrication of the system in
its last detail. The final problem phase of this study was
to specify and construct the resultant hardware and soft
ware components of the system, and to describe system per
formance. In so doing, it was necessary to adjust the
emerging system to realities and advances in the state-of-
the-art of hardware technology, software production tech
niques and materials, and other areas considered to be
relevant. The influence of this third phase on the quality,
function, and economy of the resultant system was critical.
For the mental and analytic activity of the preceeding
phases could be validated, if not justified, only by a
successful transfer and incorporation into a physical,
working system. In the final analysis, success had to be
measured by a realistic performance criteria set which
also included the original design specifications and con
cepts.
III. DEFINITIONS
It was not considered necessary for this study to re
print a glossary of common audiovisual terms, definitions,
or equipment descriptions. Common terms which were rede
fined, or new terms which were derived as a result of this
study, included the following:
8
Versatility. This was an attribute of the hardware
component of the audiovisual system which imparted the
capability of the system to perform the functions of two
or more separate audiovisual devices; for example, pre
senting a frame at a time (as a filmstrip projector) and
sets of multiple frames in rapid sequence (as a motion
picture proj ector).
Flexibility. This was an attribute of the software
component of the audiovisual system which permitted the
restructuring of an audiovisual presentation by means of
changing, modifying, or varying either the sound or picture
component of the presentation, independent of each other;
for example, retaining the picture component of the pre
sentation while changing the sound component and replacing
it with another language, grade level, or content.
Hardware. This term was used to define the physical
equipment required to contain the audiovisual program ma
terials, transport the materials in a manner to ensure the
reproduction of the sound and the projection of the image.
Software. This term was used to define the physical
materials onto which the content of the presentation was
recorded, either photochemically or electronically, to
gether with the subjective content of the materials and
any electronic control signals required for proper fun
ctioning of the hardware transport mechanism. Examples of
software included film (photo-chemically recorded) and
9
audio tape (electronically recorded). Electronic recording
of images (videotape) was not considered in the category
of software.
System. This was the functional entity composed of
the hardware component and the software component, in
which there was an interaction of both components which
resulted in the presentation of a projected image and the
reproduction of recorded sound.
Cassette. A cassette was defined as a compact, en
closed, self-contained carrier for recorded information,
either tape or film, which transported the recorded medium
from a supply reel to a take-up reel in a reel-to-reel
manner.
Program. The combination of motion picture film,
audio tape narration, and audio tape control pulses was
given the generic name "program." A program constituted
the software component of the system.
"Q” Track. The "Q" or control track was defined as
a train or set of electronic pulses (cues) recorded on one
channel of an audio tape, and which served the function of
advancing the film drive mechanism of the hardware.
P.I.P. This was the abbreviation for the name "Pro
gramed Individual Presentation" system, an audiovisual
system vrtiich was designed and constructed by the researcher
in order partially to fulfill the requirements of this
study.
10
Conversion. The process involved in adapting audio
visual materials of varied formats into a single, compatible
strip of film material for use in the PIP system was called
"conversion.”
Double System. Separation of sound from film, as
opposed to a composite sound-on-film configuration, was
termed "double system." A double system, in the software
sense, consisted of separate film and separate narrative
audio tape. Both elements comprised a program.
IV. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The many electro-mechanical, optical, and electronic
components, design specifications, and configurations of
existing audiovisual presentation devices present a plethora
of overlapping, proprietary, and redundant operational data.
From the audiovisual materials standpoint, the diverse film
materials, gauges, formats and packaging techniques also
appear to be non-standard and incompatible with other pro
jection machines for which they were not specifically pro
duced. The process of logical induction which lead to the
analysis and specification of design criteria did not con
sider every device and its schematic diagram, but only
large classes of devices. This study was limited to only
those audiovisual devices which projected an image through
an optical system onto a reflecting or transmitting surface,
with a light source and its resultant modified beam consti
11
tuting the primary channel of picture transmission.
Electronic picture recording, videotape, and tele
vision transmission or reception were not considered to
represent the preponderance of existing audiovisual hard
ware for educational and training purposes. Further, the
electronic media frequently serve as channels of distri
bution for audiovisual materials produced on or for the
projection media, such as motion pictures. Three-dimen
sional models, displays and sound recordings similarly did
not fit the criterion for projectable materials.
Basic assumptions. It was a basic assumption of this
study that despite new materials packaging techniques,
equipment configurations, or the emergence of electronic
devices, long-accepted audiovisual projection techniques
such as filmstrips, slides, overhead projection and motion
pictures continue to maintain validity and will continue
to have currency for some time to come.
It was further assumed that the present catalogue of
film materials and the techniques for producing them, rep
resented an extremely large investment by the educational
community and that they would not be replaced or made obso
lete by major breakthroughs in audiovisual technology for
the foreseeable future.
Finally it was assumed that any study directed
towards the systemization of such an audiovisual resource
could have practical benefits for the media specialists
12
and users in terms of a theoretical construct at least,
and a unique audiovisual system at most.
Significance of the study. The growth and impact of
instructional technology has been documented thoroughly,
in terms of inventory (12), media comparison (8), and com
munications content (1:115-129). These hundreds of studies
and reports have covered the fields of audiovisual content
design, development, production, and presentation. Experi
mental findings have been reported on content and media
effectiveness. Generally, such studies were concerned with
existing audiovisual presentation techniques, devices and
methods, combinations of media in multi-media configura-^
tions, or emerging extensions of existing media, such as
closed circuit television or computer assisted instruction.
Systems analytic techniques and methodology have been ap
plied to content or curriculum development and multimedia
presentations. Significantly, no major effort has been
directed towards the development of a new audiovisual sys
tem based upon common attributes--principles--inherent in
and shared by the universe of media.
The present study was an attempt to fill the void by
adopting a systems approach that did not consider existing
hardware configurations or software formats. It was an
attempt to "wipe the slate clean" and to build a theoreti
cal construct upon a firm set of inductive premises, which
could be translated readily into practical reality. The
13
reality of the system was directed towards attainment of
as universal a unit of hardware and as flexible a set of
software as possible, within the framework o f a cost/effec
tiveness goal.
V. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THIS STUDY
Chapter II was a brief review of the literature.
Fields of emphasis included visual perception, multi-media
studies, and taxonomies of audiovisual equipment.
Chapter III described a unique taxonomy for both hard
ware and software aspects of audiovisual technology. Pro
jection hardware and software materials were considered
separately, and generic aspects of both were delineated.
Two basic design concepts were articulated, in terms of
system design.
Chapter IV examined the interrelationship of the basic
design concepts in terms of their functions within a system.
The objective of this chapter was to describe what was to
be accomplished by the system. Criteria lists were de
veloped for both the hardware and software components of
the system.
Chapter V was devoted to a detailed description of
how the system goals described in the previous chapter
were to be accomplished. The design criteria developed in
Chapter IV were translated into design specifications which
described the electro-mechanical and software production
14
requirements for system performance.
Chapter VI was a chronology of prototype development,
together with a detailed description of the initial system
prototype characteristics and functioning.
Chapter VII presented an evaluation of the function
ing of the hardware component of the system, a discussion
of experience in preparing software programs, and general
experience with the system.
Chapter VIII presented and discussed preliminary
findings for both the hardware and software components of
the system.
Chapter IX contained a summary and conclusions, to
gether with recommendations and implications for further
research and application of the PIP audiovisual system.
All relevant documentation on hardware and software
development, configurations, manufacturing and production
data, cost considerations and manufacturer's promotional
literature were organized into a series of Appendixes at
the end of this document.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Normally a review of literature should be relevant
to expected results of a study and to the method of ap
proach. Such a review should show what has been done In
the field to date. But the literature of system analysis
and design Is distributed through many fields, and covers
many scientific and quasi-scientific disciplines. A
thorough, systematic application or codification of ana
lytic and design techniques to the field of audiovisual
education does not exist as a coherent body of literature.
That is not to say that articles, papers and re
search reports have not been published which deal with
problems and solutions of designing audiovisual presenta
tions, if hot the devices themselves. As the present re
view of literature indicated, many valuable studies and
publications did exist tthich treated special areas or em
phasized particular aspects of the audiovisual experience.
No systematic interrelationship was established among the
components of content, equipment and perceptual capabili
ties and limitations, with the goal of designing a new
approach to audiovisual presentation.
It was the purpose of the present review to investi
gate those seemingly diverse and unrelated fields, and their
15
16
publications, in terms of the expected results of the study
--a new audiovisual system--rather than to the method of
approach— design methodology. Indeed, it was one of the
purposes of the study itself to develop such a methodology
in order to fill partially the void in literature pertain
ing to audiovisual systems analysis and design, and to
present a practicable embodiment of the results.
For purposes of a coherent, rather than ecclectic
and random literature search, a simplified model was
structured, based upon the classical communications model:
(1) how something is perceived, (2) as presented by what
means, (3) and to what effect. Classification of areas of
literature along the lines of this model yielded the follow*
ing logical and sequential categories for review: (1) psy
chology and physiology of perception, (2) existing audio
visual devices, their taxonomy, electro-optical principles
and configurations, and use, (3) comparative effectiveness
of audiovisual media.
Each category of literature— books, texts, journals
and reports--was searched for fundamental or epitomizing
data and guidelines.
17
I. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PERCEPTION
Books and Texts
It was not the purpose of the literature review to
cover in detail all aspects of perception* or to become
diverted into philosophical and theoretical realms worthy
of an advanced degree in another field of study. What was
sought were basic principles of visual perception which
would indicate as much the human limitations as well as the
possibilities of manipulating* accomodating and stimulating
the perceptual phenomenon. Allport's Theories of Percep
tion and the Concept of Structure (4) was a cornerstone of
critical analysis and review of major theories of percep
tion and the processes by which structure is derived from
stimuli. The basic discussion of the problem of perception
and its methodology (Chapter 2* p. 14 et seq.), and subse
quent examination of specific factors influencing percep
tion* gave a basic overview of the phenomena involved in
perception. Of special interest for purposes of the pre
sent study, were discussion of phi-phenomena and related
visual perceptual processes.
Gibson's (13) work was devoted exclusively to visual
perception and presented practical illustrations of the
variables and cues involved in "seeing" objects and their
"movement."
In a work more pertinent to the problem of designing
18
stimuli for the eye, Arnheim (5) discussed the manipulatory
possibilities and effects, together with design principles
of balance, shape, form, space, movement and other related
factors in visual content design.
A rich source of reports on experimental design and
findings was Vernon's (21) compilation. Many of the en
tries were in effect experimental validations or manipula
tions of Arnheim's theories, especially in terms of form,
space, distance, constancy, and movement--both apparent
and causality.
Review of major works in psychology and physiology of
perception, together with bibliographical references, pro
vided a general context and frame of reference for further
research into applied aspects.
Journals and Professional Publications
Applications of experimental findings and theoretical
constructs, as well as updated reports beyond the publica
tion dates of the books and texts, were found in key pro
fessional journals. Psychological Abstracts and the Jour
nal of Applied Psychology (American Psychological Associa
tion) and Science (American Association for the Advancement
of Science) were major sources of psychological and physio
logical studies, although it was recognized by the resear
cher that many other valuable and equally authoritative
journals existed which could have provided similar or
19
additional data. Science in particular contained reports
not only on basic physiological and biological factors in
fluencing perception, but also material on basic design
considerations irrespective of subject or content area.
Review of key journals covered the years 1950-1970. It
was felt that prior to 1950, significant studies and find
ings would have been incorporated in the major books and
texts vrtiich had been reviewed on the subject up until that
date.
II. EXISTING AUDIOVISUAL DEVICES
Taxonomies and Books
A major source of descriptions of audiovisual equip
ment was The Audio-Visual Equipment Directory. (24) This
guide to current models of audiovisual equipment contained
basic technical data on all major projection equipment in
use.
A basic guide from the engineering standpoint was
compiled by Luxenberg and Kuehn (18), and proved valuable
not only for content, but also for a taxonomy on display
systems design which could be inferred from the biblio
graphical entries. In particular, the discussion of film-
based projection systems by Vlahos (23) provided a founda
tion for existing parameters, and a basis for extrapola
tion.
20
Dozens of books treat the subject of human engineer
ing requirements for equipment design. Woodson's (25)
reference was a source of guidelines and general parameters,
but more pertinent data were derived from specialized re
ports.
Reports and Trade Journals
Of the many privately sponsored and Government sup
ported studies, the one that seemed most pertinent to the
present study, and which presented a virtual checklist of
considerations in designing visual presentation systems,
was the Baker and Grether (6) study.
Utilization of audiovisual equipment— principles,
practices and problems--similarly was described in a wide
range of industry, trade and educational journals in the
field of audiovisual technology. A prime source of basic
technical data on equipment configuration and use was the
Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television
Engineers. Audiovisual Instruction (Department of Audio
Visual Instruction, National Education Association) empha
sized the user's application of media, while Photographic
Applications in Science, Technology and Medicine, a journal
directed towards practicioners, emphasized new techniques
inherent in new photographic equipment. The journal
stressed emerging state-of-the-art which subsequently would
be discussed in many other publications relevant to the use
of audiovisual equipment in business, industry and educa
tion.
III. EFFECTIVENESS OF AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA
Books
Studies of mass communication in the United States,
particularly of films, have contributed to social science
research and the development of effective audiovisual com
munications. As such, a review of major studies in com
munications was undertaken to provide a matrix of appli
cation, a documentation of measurable effects, and a basis
of multi-media comparison. While not expected to provide
technical data for the design of a new audiovisual system,
an overview of the efficacy of existing media and content
was expected to contribute to the development of a set of
operational and learning objectives which any resultant
system should accomplish.
A comprehensive body of studies was conducted under
the auspices of a Special Committee of the Social Science
Research Council, which investigated social psychology dur
ing World War II. Volume III of the series described ex
perimental evaluations of the effectiveness of various pro
grams in the field of mass communication, with emphasis
upon the film medium. This work by Hovland, Lumsdaine and
Sheffield (14) has become a landmark contribution, and was
22
used for the present study to review major systematic
studies relevant to audiovisual communication.
Research Studies and Monographs
Additional details were required on experimental de
sign, especially concerning multi-media comparative effec
tiveness experiments. For such background the Rapid Mass
Learning studies (8) sponsored by the Department of the
Navy, Office of Naval Research, brought together findings
growing out of the many and widely scattered investigations
in the area of training through motion pictures. As such,
the results of the studies served as valuable guicfe lines
in practical situations of training film planning, produc
tion and utilization, and in the planning and design of
new audiovisual techniques.
Of more specific, and current, value was a study per
formed by Allen and Weintraub (3) which investigated the
motion variable upon the learning of cognitive information.
The comparative effectiveness of three visual presentation
modes was studied: motion pictures, sequenced still pic
tures simulating movement, and single still pictures show
ing the principal points of the action. Further determi
nation was made of the relationships between performance
on the different modes of visual presentation and attitude
toward the stimulus presentation.
Allen et al (2) earlier had investigated the problem
23
of discovering how the teaching of perceptual-motor skills
for dental operative techniques and the cognitive know
ledge of these techniques could be accomplished by mechani
cal means. In the machine aspect of the study, repetitive
8mm silent motion picture film loops, and a teaching ma
chine that projected colored slides augmented by audio
directions served as stimulus. This study was valuable for
the literature search not for the findings as much as for
descriptions of procedures that were used to present the
still and motion variables. References within the study
to other related studies also proved to be of value.
Two documents, occasional papers derived from the
Technological Development Project of the National Education
Association, were used as reference and an estimate of
trends in audiovisual instrumentation and programed learn
ing. Occasional Paper No. 6 (12) provided information
which readily could have been considered earlier in this
review, under the subject of Existing Audiovisual Devices.
However, the paper was more fundamental than a mere listing
of equipment. Rather, it presented an analog model of
growth and development, and was concerned more with the
effectiveness of media— and their potentialities— than with
inventories of devices. As such, it was believed that such
a study would provide insights into the development of an
audiovisual system which would synthesize existing devices
and extend,--and hopefully converge--their growth curves.
Occasional Paper No. 3 (11) provided a survey of the
individualized learning industry, together with an illus
trated taxonomy of audiovisual machines for self-instruc
tion. These data, while also fulfilling the criterion of
describing existing devices, more significantly presented
documentation on operational requirements and effectiveness
of the individualized approach to audiovisual instruction.
Theses and Dissertations
Literature of a more current nature, or presenting
fuller details than would have been obtained in books or
research summaries, was found in dissertations. Rather
than review additional media comparisons, what was sought
were mode comparisons; that is, the relative effectiveness
or significance of motion versus still, or various combi
nations within a given presentation. Vetter provided an
extensive summary of such studies, and extended the studies
to an analysis of the motion variable in educational films.
Since the resultant audiovisual system to be derived from
the present study would incorporate within a given presen
tation all possible modes, findings relating to the sig
nificance of one mode compared with another were of par
ticular importance. Vetter’s study (22), in essence, con
firmed earlier studies which indicated that in a given
filmic presentation, more than half of the content contains
non-movement. This observation, and experimental confirms-
25
tion, had implications for system design in terms of built-
in flexibility to transition from still pictures to move
ment in order to effect maximum efficiency, effectiveness,
and economy.
Journals
Audio-Visual Communication Review (Department of
Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association)
was considered by the researcher to be the scholarly jour
nal most pertinent to the needs of the present study. It
contained articles, reports, research reviews and designs
on conceptual and applied communications which were felt
to be relevant background information to the present study.
CHAPTER III
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
I. AUDIOVISUAL MATERIALS
The development and presentation of audiovisual stim
uli represents a complex series of events, ranging from the
specification of behavioral objectives to the physical pro
duction and presentation of the materials embodying the
conceptualized content and eventuating in the desired ter
minal behavior. The content, distilled and crystalized in
to the form of images flashed upon a screen, and sounds
transmitted through a reproduction system, represent the
audiovisual stimuli which are perceived by the viewer.
The perception of an audiovisual event is in itself
a complex series of psychological and physiological inter
actions, and has been described adequately in the litera
ture. (19) However, for purposes of this study-develop
ing a basic design for a new audiovisual presentation sys
tem to deliver the stimuli to a viewer--the factors and
variables inherent in, and influencing aural and visual
perception were held to be constant. To be sure, research
and experimentation in the fields of perception, with em
phasis upon visualization, have produced far-reaching theo
retical insights into operant behavior (e.g., the phi phe-
26
27
nomenon), and have lead to successful applications of means
to structure audiovisual events (e.g., peripheral-stimula
tion by means of ultra-widescreen techniques).
Nevertheless, while audiovisual presentation equip
ment can be redesigned to be made more efficient and effec
tive, human perception processes cannot be modified so
readily. Therefore, only the physical audiovisual materi
als, and the equipment required to project those materials,
were considered in the preliminary design phase of this
study. The range of human perceptual capabilities and limi
tations was accepted intuitively as the operating paramatexs
for basic design considerations.
Generic Aspects of Audiovisual Materials
An accepted procedure for consciously developing
unique design specifications in a given field is to survey
existing design characteristics in that field as a necessary
first step. Once the observational phase has been completed
and a sufficiently large and representative sample of cases
has been assessed, the crucial analytical phase can begin.
It is this phase that triggers the idea and, under ideal
and rare conditions, results in identifying a series of
cause-and-effect relationships that can be articub&ted into
a concept. In later phases of design, the concept is trans
lated into specifications, and the specifications themselves
into a working entity.
28
Assessing the massive inventory of existing project-
able audiovisual materials was a simple experiential and
observational exercise. With but minor variations, all
projectuals fell within four families of materials:
1. Slides. Transparent slides were primarily in a
35mm format, although 2" by 2" format has gained
wide acceptance, while 3%" by 4" "lantern" slide
format is obsolescent.
2. Filmstrips. Usually in 35mm format on strips of
film containing normally about 50 frames of pic
ture (with a frame area usually half the size of
35mm slides), filmstrips recently have become
available in 16mm and 8mm gauge with increasingly
greater frame storage capacities.
3. Overhead Transparencies. The overhead projector
employs large sheets of transparent material,
ranging in size from that of a page of a book to
8" by 10" and larger. Endless rolls of clear
material also can be used in overhead projection.
4. Motion Picture. Motion pictures have been pro
duced in gauges ranging from 70mm and 35mm for
theatrical projection, to 16mm, 8mm and Super
8mm for small audience and classroom presenta
tion. Length variations in time and footage
range from a short single concept loop to a
29
feature film lasting several hours.
While it may appear as an oversimplification, or re
statement of the obvious, the classification of all pro
jected materials into four families was necessary to elimi
nate irrelevant variables and to permit analysis to uncover
their basic, generic characteristics.
Within each family of materials, variables exist.
Slides may be mounted in cardboard, plastic, metal or
glass, and their physical size may vary. Filmstrips, in
addition to various film widths, differ in lodding or mount
ing techniques for projection, and in screen format. Vari
ables for overhead projactuals include methods of mounting
and sequencing individual overlays, and application of
masking or polarization. For motion pictures, in addition
to various film gauges, differences are evident in packag
ing of the film itself, as in cartridge loaded, endless
loop or reel-to-reel. Common variables among all members
of this class are the chemical composition of the emulsion
and base material, and whether or not the materials are in
color or monotone, accompanied by sound, and so forth.
For purposes of articulating a specific idea leading
to a basic design concept, similarities, not differences,
were sought. It was reasoned that all variables influenc
ing the physical configuration of the materials--size, for
mat, film gauge, and even chemical composition--were ir
30
relevant to their true nature. The true nature of the
class of audiovisual materials was a storage medium for a
recorded optical Image. The image, and the material onto
which it was recorded* was subsequently mounted, housed or
contained in such a manner that light shining through the
material, and through a lens system, projected a recon
structed analog of that image upon a reflecting surface.
Inherent Principle in All Materials
The determining characteristic, therefore, of all
audiovisual projection materials was that an image is re
corded in some manner upon a light-transmitting medium.
All family specifications or physical qualities of the
material were irrelevant.
Design Concept Number One
All images to be recorded as part of an audiovisual
presentation can be reduced to, and reproduced onto, a
single strip of transparent material of uniform guage.
II. AUDIOVISUAL PROJECTION EQUIPMENT
In the mental process of identifying generic charac
teristics of all audiovisual projection materials and media
(as a prerequisite for the further analytical process of
evolving a basic systems design), the classic philosophical
31
argument of form-versus-content had to be acknowledged.
The temptation of simplistic reasoning) augmented by
intuitive conclusions, tended to reduce the argument to a
question of whether or not the content of an audiovisual
presentation dictated the format of the material. An ob
vious conclusion was that if the content exhibited or
necessitated motion sequences, for example, then a motion
picture format was required (and hence, a motion picture
projector). (The choice of film gauge, color or monotone,
sound or silent were ancillary considerations.) Carried a
step further, however, the simplistic approach evoked equi
vocal responses to the question of whether or not a static,
non-moving content required a slide, a filmstrip or an
overhead project format.
Evaluation of the form and content of audiovisual
materials, in terms of designing a basic audiovisual sys
tem, required consideration of another integral variable:
The medium of presentation. A significant relationship
was felt to exist among the audiovisual materials them
selves (including both their form and content) and the me
chanical means for projecting those materials. Identifi
cation of generic characteristics among both materials and
equipment was undertaken within such a frame of relation
ship. Indeed, it was believed that ultimate viability of
the resultant system would not be a function of the validi-
ty of independent operational principles, and the working
parts or subsystems into which they had been translated;
cm the contrary, the system would be a logical result of
the interdependence of those principles. If such basic
design elements were really nothing more than isolated or
self-functioning subsystems, then their integration would
not result in a system which was greater than the sum of
its parts, but merely in a conglomeration of working parts
based on principles, no one of which was crucial to over
all system performance. The multi-media presentation is
such an example.
As a consequence, then, of analyzing the relationships
among all major objective components of the audiovisual
experience (hardware and software), more meaningful rela
tionships were identified among generic features of the
materials, and generic features of the equipment employed
to present those materials. Meaningfulness, or relevancy,
here had been defined in terms of an operational systems
description; that is, the integrated functioning or rela
tionship of hardware (the equipment) and software (the
materials).
Generic Aspects of Audiovisual Equipment
An excellent source of technical data on audiovisual
projection equipment was The Audio-Visual Equipment Direc
33
tory (24). The Directory categorized, pictured, and de
scribed major electro-mechanical and optical features of
all available audiovisual equipment marketed in the United
States.
For purposes of this study, the class of audiovisual
projection devices was grouped into three families, based
upon their operational characteristics, not upon the kinds
of materials (slides, filmstrips, etc.) that they used.
1. Still Image Projection. The format requirement
for projecting a still or static picture content
was represented by slides or filmstrip materials.
Functionally, both the slide projector and the
filmstrip projector were grouped within the famity
of still image projectors. In operation, both
kinds of projectors accomplished the same objec
tive: to present a still picture upon a screen
for any specified duration of time, until the
picture was replaced by another static display
(frameof picture). Basically, it was of no con
sequence whether the still frame of picture was
embodied in a 35mm mounted single frame, or in a
continuous strip of still frames.
2. Additive Image Projection. A second family of
projectors fulfilled the requirement of present-
ing an image in a controlled structuring or build
up from a simple-to-a-complex configuration, or
by masking or unmasking images or portions of
images by means of overlaying projactuals upon
each other. The overhead projector belonged to
this family, although it also had the capability
of presenting static images, and of providing the
user with a means of directly writing or drawing
upon the materials being projected.
Motion Image Projection. Finally, the require
ment to present a photographic reconstruction or
representation of movement has been satisfied by
the motion picture projector. In actuality, the
"motion" picture projector is a special modifica
tion of the "still" projector, having the mechani
cal and optical ability to present in rapid suc
cession a series of still photographs containing
images that are linearly progressive and time-
sequenced. The psycho-physiological structure
of human visual perception imparts the illusion
of continuous motion to such a series of still
frames. As had been explained earlier in this
study, such human perceptual capabilities had
been accepted as an operating parameter for systBD
design, although puristically considered,
35
"motion" pictures, and hence "motion" picture
projectors did not exist as unique entities.
A wider range o£ variables did exist, however, in
the class of audiovisual equipment; more so than had been
found among the audiovisual materials. Differences existed
in method of materials storage in slide projectors (trays,
carosel, stacks)* methods of loading the stored slides
(top, side, internal); and techniques of feeding the slides
into the projector (manual, automatic, gravity, timed se
quencing) . Fewer differences existed among overhead pro
jectors, primarily because of the simplicity of the machine.
Size of the stage, focussing adjustments, and sequencing
of projectuals were minor variations. Filmstrip projectors
varied, for example, according to threading requirements
of the strips (manual or automatic; spooled or unwound) and
the gauge of the strip (35mm, 16mm or 8mm). A greater
range of variation existed among motion picture projectors.
Film gauge, threading (manual or automatic), soundtrack
configuration and composition (optical or magnetic) were
among the differences apparent in the external and func
tional designs of the projectors. Front screen projectors
differed measureably from projectors which incorporated
rear screen capability. Storage and handling of film ma
terials ranged from open reels to endless loops housed in
cartridges. Even among cartridge-loaded 8mm rear-screen
36
film projectors, sufficient differences existed in cartridge
design and soundtrack configuration (optical-magnetic,
frame pulldown requirements and sound-advance) that a given
cartridge was incompatible with other similar projectors,
and sometimes even among models produced by the same manu
facturer.
Common variables among all members of the class of
audiovisual projection equipment included electromechanical
design and circuit configuration, light output and effi
ciency, materials storage, handling and transport, sound-
tape or track components, lens systems and resolving power,
and so forth. However, such differences were insignificant
and irrelevant to an assessment of the generic element
among all projection equipment. The operational capability
which differentiated among still, overhead and motion pic
ture projectors was found to be the duration of transit of
the film materials as they passed through the projection
gate or light-lens system.
Inherent Principle in All Equipment
What made the filmstrip or slide projector different
from the motion picture projector, for instance, was funda
mentally that a slide or strip projector placed a single
frame in the projection mode (until manually or automati
cally replaced by another single frame), while the motion
37
picture projector placed twentyfour single pictures in the
projection mode for every second of time, in an automatic
and continuous sequence. The overhead projector was a
special case of the still projector, with each overlay
representing a single frame of picture. The basic charac
teristic common to all audiovisual projection, therefore,
was that film material passed through the light beam, and
its associated optical transport media, and remained po
sitioned in the projection mode for a specified duration
of time. The capability, and usefulness, of each audio
visual projector w&s a function of the speed of transport,
or replacement cycle, of the film materials passing through
the optical system of that equipment.
Design Concept Number Two
Operational effectiveness of audiovisual equipment is
a function of the transit and dwell duration of film ma
terials in the projection mode.
CHAPTER IV
DESIGN CRITERIA
The next major phase in the development of a pro
gramed individual presentation (PIP) system was specifica
tion of design criteria. It was important to differentiate
between the intuitive reasoning phase and empiricism that
resulted in basic design concepts, and application and
elaboration of these concepts by developing design criteria
for the system.
Basic design considerations had sought to identify
fundamental operational (not perceptual) principles under
lying all audiovisual projection materials and equipment.
The resultant basic concepts represented irreducible, ge
neric characteristics of both materials and equipment. As
such, the concepts formed the basis for further system de
velopment .
The second major phase of the study was the system
development activity: developing basic system design cri
teria based upon, and elaborated from, the concepts which
evolved from the first part of the study. In effect, a
system operational definition had to be developed. Major
possibilities, problems and alternatives were evaluated in
order that the initial concepts could be translated into a
38
39
design structure, or criteria list. It was anticipated
that subsets of specific design problems would emerge as
a result of applying the generalized design concepts.
Successful solutions to these problems would make possible
the realistic translation of an idealized, theoretical sys
tem idea into a practicable system configuration.
Design criteria therefore had to incorporate the
basic system concepts, and to relate them and their permu
tations into a criteria set that then could be defined
and fabricated into a system in its last detail.
I. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF DESIGN CONCEPTS
The operational approach to system design that was
adopted for this study held that, by definition, a system
consisted of components, or subsystems, which were fully
integrated both functionally and conceptually. The system
could not function as a system should one of the subsystems,
and hence its basic concept, be omitted from system design.
As a corollary, a component could not function independent
ly of the whole; its function and purpose would be meaning
less by itself. Consequently, the two basic design con
cepts developed as the basis of a programed individual pre
sentation system were interrelated, integrated with the
over-all system, and essential to the development and oper
ation of the system.
40
Design concept number one specified a common carrier
of all visual images, regardless of their format or time-
motion sequencing. The second design concept specified
the variable speed projection of the film material, or
common carrier.
Variable speed projection ordinarily would be un
necessary for any existing audiovisual materials because
they either incorporated sequences that were entirely
static in nature (slides and filmstrips) or were motion
pictures designed to be projected at a constant speed.
Further, when all film materials were reduced to a common
gauge and format, to be projected on a single equipment,
and when stills, over-lays and motion were intermixed, the
only practicable method of projecting the material to a-
chieve their intended effectiveness was by various frame
repetition rates according to the time-motion sequence of
the frames of picture. Neither the first design concept,
specifying the audiovisual materials, nor the second con
cept, describing the projection equipment, could be applied
independently of the other.
II. HARDWARE DESIGN CRITERIA
Individualization
An increasing body of experimental evidence supported
the belief that a one-to-one teacher-student ratio gener-
41
ally resulted In Increased learning. In an early review of
the field, Silberman (20) described not only educational
advantages of self-teaching devices but outlined basic
techniques of developing programs for them. Leverenz and
Townsley (16) addressed the basic questions of how instruc
tional equipment has been designed in the past, and how
if should be designed in the future. The first viewpoint,
that of Leverenz, emphasized basic human factors involved
in the design of instructional equipment. Commonality of
concern among designers, teachers, and administrators was
stressed, and a case was made that all existing items of
equipment (including motion pictures, stills, and teaching
machines) were "definitely too many and too complicated
for any one teacher to master thoroughly enough to use
with confidence and with the serenity that induces recep
tiveness and confidence in learners." (16:20-21) From
the user's standpoint it was concluded that what was needed
was equipment that was quickly accessible, versatile, flex-
ibile, reliable, and under the control of the user.
In a second point of view, Townsley examined the
economic and organizational factors involved in designing
instructional equipment. Systems engineering, it was felt,
provided an increasing ability to "look at the whole prob
lem of education and to fit the elements into a system,
thther than looking at each development in isolation."
42
(16:41* italics added) Financial resources were seen to
act as a stimulant for both contact and research in teach
ing and communication. As a result, some funds were going
directly to the development of new devices while the bulk
of monies properly were being spent for more fundamental
problems of content and organization.
Clearly* a systems approach was a valid one in terms
of developing a versatile, flexible and cost-effective de
vice that also would be relatively simple for the user to
operate. The pedagogical value of human factors design for
individualized presentation and instruction was one factor
to be considered; the other was the economic implication of
vast catalogues of existing audiovisual materials and the
costs of duplicating* augmenting or replacing them for any
new device. Consequently* one of the major objectives of
the present study had been not only to investigate the
possibilities of developing a low-cost, simple individual
ized audiovisual presentation device* but also to provide
in the system design the capability--and techniques— for
adapting or converting all existing audiovisual materials
for the PIP system* regardless of original format of those
materials. The development of design criteria had been
undertaken from the start with a view towards making the
system an individualized one which would enable the pro
gram producer to intermix, or program* audiovisual presen
tations for maximum effectiveness.
43
Variable Speed Projection
Frame Repetition Rate. Only the motion picture pro
jector has a fixed frame repetition rate. Universal sound-
on- film standards are a frame rate of 24 frames per second
(f/s). Variation exists for projection of silent films
(16 f/s), and some 8mm sound-on-film and silent projectors
(18 f/s). Special purpose projectors, such as the Kodak
Analyst, the L-W Photo-Optical Data Analyzer, and the
Percepto-Scope, have some speed variation capability. How
ever, these machines were not general purpose projectors
capable of use for a wide range of existing subjectmatter,
or with accompanying sound at non-standard frame rates.
The widely accepted general purpose motion picture pro
jectors, including the variants for silent and 8mm pro
jection, had constant speed, continuous motion capabilities
only.
Although still projectors (slides and filmstrips) may
be sequenced automatically for specific presentations, and
the amount of dwell per frame can be varied even within a
given program sequence, their rate is basically on a frame-
at-a-time mode of operation.
The overhead projector provided only a manually-oper
ated mode for overlay build-up.
44
Criterion One: Frame Rate. The PIP system shall be
capable of projecting film material at a continuous frame
repetition rate ranging from one f/s to 24 f/s* including
any integral rate within that range, and single frame ad
vance. It must be possible to intermix sequences of differ
ing frame rates, and to stop on a given frame of picture
for any desired duration of dwell.
Advantages of Variable Frame Rate. It was expected
that a significant amount of versatility would inhere in the
PIP system, based upon the capability of variable speed pro
jection. Versatility, as defined earlier, was the ability
to perform the functions of two or more audiovisual devices.
The capabilities of advancing a film a frame-at-a-time (slide
and filmstrip projection), and of advancing rapidly from
frame-to-frame to simulate overlays or build-ups (an impor
tant characteristic of the overhead projector), and to pro
ject continuously at any frame rate up to, and including,
24 f/s (motion pictures), would effectively duplicate the
operational characteristics of several kinds of audiovisual
proj ectors.
Criterion Two; Automatic Sequencing. Variable speed
projection shall be accomplished and controlled by automatic
sequencing, or programing, through the means of a control
(Q) track. The program shall consist of a train of electron
45
ic pulses, arranged in a sequence to correspond with the
sequence of frames of picture on the audiovisual film ma
terial. One pulse shall be assigned to one frame of pic
ture. The temporal spacing of the pulses shall be an
analog of the frame rate projection requirements of the
film material; that is, the linear sequence of the frames
of picture. For example, advance of the film material at
a frame rate of 12 f/s shall require a pulse train of 12
pulses per second (p/s) for the duration of the motion
sequence. There shall be an equal number of electronic
pulses and frames of picture for such a sequence. The
film material shall remain in the projection mode and shall
not advance until a given pulse is sensed. In the example,
each frame dwells for 1/12 second.
Single frame advance shall be accomplished by a
single pulse; the duration of dwell upon the single frame
in the projection mode shall be measured by the distance
or spacing of successive triggering pulses. Sensing of
another pulse shall advance the film by a single frame.
A schematic representation of the relationship between
pulses and frames of picture is shown in Figure 1.
Advantages of Automatic Sequencing. The principal
advantage of using a train of pulses, recorded on a medium
(&f. Chapter V, Design Specifications) as a control, or Q,
track was one of flexibility. Restructuring of the Q track,
FILM MOVEMENT (VARIABLE SPEED, CONTROLLED BY PULSES)
FILM
FRAME
IT
\
Q Track
Singlej jPulseflfl R f l %ilg (e.g. 24 f/sj
n
i
Q Track Movement (Constant Speed)
Figure 1* RELATIONSHIP OF FRAMES AND PULSES
ON
47
and hence the visual presentation, was possible. The
amount of dwell could be changed merely by varying the
spacing between pulses. A pulse train could be interrupted
and, for example, a non-pulsed space inserted for any de
sired duration, so that a motion sequence could be stopped
on a given frame for further study. Standard frame rate
motion pictures could be projected at slow motion speeds
by the programing of a Q track containing a pulse train of
fewer than 24 p/s. Where it was desired to bypass certain
frames, perhaps for the purpose of eliminating them as
inappropriate visual cues for a given viewer, automatic
sequencing made it possible to insert the number of pulses
corresponding to the number of frames to be bypassed, and
to program the pulses at a high rate of 24 f/s. Effective
ly, each unwanted frame would be bypassed at a speed of
1/24 second exposure per frame, much below the threshold of
perception. For example, a long sequence, consisting of
24 single frames, could be skipped in one second of time.
The bypassed sequence, under control of a different Q track,
could be restructured for still another viewer so that each
frame could be given any other desired duration of dwell,
rather than being bypassed.
Criterion Three: Synchronous Sound. It was desired
to have the capability of synchronous soundtrack to accom
pany the visual presentation. The advantages of a sound
48
track were many and obvious* and needed no further justifi
cation. Sound was an Integral part of the audiovisual ex
perience* and was indispensible in areas of learning \rtiere
sound and picture correlation provided optimum learning
cues (e.g.* music and speech lessons). The PIP system
shall have the capability of presenting a soundtrack which
will be in synchronism with the accompanying picture (and
hence with the Q track) regardless of the frame repetition
rate of the film material and the Q track program.
Subsidiary Design Problems and Criteria
Straightforward translation of major design criteria
into technical specifications for the construction phase
of the PIP system was not possible. Although they were
more fully developed than the conceptual statements of
system design* the design criteria presented problems when
carried through to application. Such problems basically
were electromechanical and optical in nature. Therefore,
a subset of design criteria was developed* based upon the
initial criteria, in order to rectify, ameliorate or re
solve deficiencies or contradictions in operational capa
bilities or functions. The problems* and their solution
criteria, were formulated as follows:
Heat Problem. The PIP system was designed, in part*
to function both as a motion picture projector and a still
49
picture projector. In standard motion picture projection,
when a malfunction or jamming occured causing the film
movement to stop and a frame to be held in the projection
gate, that frame of film was quickly burned by the action
of the heat (from the projection lamp) passing through it.
For manually-caused "freeze-framing" of a motion picture,
a heat absorbing filter normally was automatically dropped
between the light source and the frame of picture, thus
preventing burning of the film. The consequence of this
filtering, however, was to reduce the amount of light which
passed through the picture frame, thus darkening the pro
jected image. Refocussing usually was necessary, to com
pensate for the change in depth-of-image.
The program producer for the PIP system would have
the option to program a freeze frame at any location in a
motion sequence, in addition to intermixing single frames
of non-sequential or non-serial content throughout the pre
sentation. Therefore, it was considered undesirable to
utilize a heat absorbing filter for such single or freeze
frame inodes. The effect of such filtering would be to de
crease screen illumination at all single frame sequences,
while motion projection would produce a brighter image.
Further, increasingly slower frame rates below 24 f/s
would result in each frame of picture remaining in the pro
jection mode for increasingly longer periods of time.
50
Variables of color saturation and contrast ratio of picture
content would produce differential heat absorbing character
istics from frame-to-frame, and from sequence-to-sequence.
It would not be possible to anticipate at which frame rate,
and for what kind of photographic content, application of
a filtering device would be necessary to prevent heat
damage to the film. Constant refocussing, necessitated by
use of a filter, also would be intolerable on the part of
the user.
Criterion Four: Film Protection and Illumination
Constancy. The PIP system shall be capable of projecting
any frame repetition rate up to and including 24 f/s, to
gether with still frame projection for any desired dura
tion, without causing heat damage to the film material.
Heat damage was defined as burning, warping, or bleaching
of the chemical dyes in the emulsion of the film material.
In addition, variable speed projection shall not cause re
sulting dimunition of light intensity or screen lumens, or
produce a noticeable focus drift which would necessitate
refocussing of the image by the viewer.
Flicker at Various Frame Rates. The capability of
projecting film materials at various rates (one f/s, 2 f/s
. . . 24 f/s) was expected to provide a maximum of effi
ciency and cost-effectiveness in the use of film materials
themselves, and to be verifiable by subsequent experimental
51
and empirical means. In addition* a high degree of flexi
bility in programing (e.g.* intermixing still and motion
sequences) was anticipated. It was also expected* however*
that variable speed projection would introduce image flick
er. Further* such flicker could be expected to increase
as frame repetition rates decreased.
The flicker fusion phenomen has been described in the
literature of perceptual physiology* both at the theoreti
cal and experimental levels. Ives, in an early study*
applied Fourier analysis to flicker* investigating the
fluctuating luminance (quantitative level of brightness) of
a stimulus. Luminance was considered to be separable into
both constant (the time-average of the luminance) and vari
able (sinusoidal) components. (15:6,343) Ives had calcu
lated that for a given average luminance* the fusion fre
quency for various wave forms (or in cinematographic terms,
shutter rate) depended upon the amplitude of the fundamen
tal sinusoidal component of the flicker wave form* for
frequencies above about 10 hertz (or in cinematographic
terms* frames-per-second* the equivalent to 1/10 second of
time). Later studies by deLange (10:48, 777, 51, 415) re
lated curves of visual flicker sensitivity to frequency,
rather than to luminance. DeLange produced both square
and sinusoidal stimulus wave forms at constant average
luminance. The so-called deLange curves indicated the ex
treme steepness with which sensitivity dropped for fre
52
quencies above 15 hertz.
The basic findings of studies of flicker fusion phe
nomena in terms of the physiological process indicated
that rapid flicker was attenuated many times over by re
peated temporal summation before it was perceived. (17:21-
28) The implications for the electromechanical and optical
development of PIP were obvious. Perceived flicker in
film projection was a function of shutter speed and lumi
nance, not of frame repetition rate. In actuality, the
projected film frame was presented as a still or static
stimulus, with a given amount of luminance, regardless of
the repetition rate of individual frames in sequence.
Rapid replacement of one still frame for another, even at
a rate of 24 still pictures per second, was accomplished
during the "blanking" or pull-down period, in \rttich the
projector shutter blacked out the image, permitting "pull
down" of the film so that the next frame of picture was in
position for projection. During standard projection of
motion pictures at a rate of 24 f/s, using a 180° shutter,
the temporal duration of the blanking period was equal to
the duration of the projected image. Normally, flicker
was not perceptable at such frame rates. Decreasing the
frame rate was in effect an increase in the duration that
each projected image remained on the screen. The blanking
period also was increased, so that the screen remained black
53
for longer Intervals. Flicker consequently Increased.
Criterion Five; Flicker Attenuation. The PIP system
shall not exhibit flicker at any frame repetition rate,
regardless of the amount of luminance of the project image,
or during a transit from one frame to another.
Handling and Threading of Materials. The audiovisual
materials that were designed to be used with the PIP sys
tem consisted of (1) a uniform strip of film material onto
which all images were recorded by photographic means; (2) a
control or Q track onto which all triggering pulses con
trolling the film movement were recorded electronically;
and (3) a synchronous sound track which contained narrative
and other sound cues meant to be heard by the user, and
which were recorded electronically. Each of these material
would have to be mounted, inserted, loaded into, or other
wise threaded into their appropriate carriers within the
housing of the PIP system chassis. Under ideal conditions,
threading of a standard motion picture projector presented
difficulties to the user. To compound this problem by re
quiring the threading or loading of three audiovisual ma
terials onto a machine was intolerable.
Criterion Six: Materials Handling. All audiovisual
materials to be used as part of the PIP system shall be
configured in such a way as to simplify as much as possible
54
their handling, insertion into the system, their removal
and storage, and to reduce undue damage and wear.
General Design Desiderata
A number of other generally accepted goals of good
design also were considered, but primarily as given objec-
tives rather than as part of a basic system design. Such
generalized criteria could not be given in absolute, but
only in relative, terms. They applied to a wide range of
equipment design objectives, regardless of the conceptual
development of the equipment. Therefore, they were not
itemized and rationalized as part of the system develop-
and were listed briefly:
1. Light in weight
2. Low in cost
3. Reliable in operation
4. Durable in construction
III. SOFTWARE DESIGN CRITERIA
Development of design criteria for the equipment com
ponent of the PIP system resulted in a set of electrome
chanical-optical values and objectives which readily could
be translated into technical specifications. Development
of software criteria, on the contrary, yielded no discrete,
objective set of criteria. To attempt to specify objec
tives in the planning and development of software for the
55
PIP system would have Involved documentation of the entire
spectrum of activity from the academic to the photographic.
The planning and execution of audiovisual materials was a
complex set of interactions, and only in those cases where
such activity was modified, eliminated, changed or other
wise influenced by the conceptual and operational nature
of the PIP system, would documentation have been relevant
and necessary.
Nevertheless, if the concepts and criteria of the
PIP system were translatable into a working audiovisual
system, the system would present to the program developer
a range of production capabilities that was intended to
be more than a mere accumulation and intermixing of estab
lished audiovisual presentation techniques. Therefore,
software design criteria were developed as a systematic
outline of the major areas of the planning and execution
of new programs, and the adaptation of existing materials
for the PIP system requirements. With few exceptions, it
was believed that beyond these general guidelines there
would be little need to translate software criteria into
technical specifications describing actual production of
audiovisual programs. The exceptions where technical
specifications were required included the generation of
the PIP Q track, and laboratory and equipment requirements
for conversion of existing audiovisual materials from
various formats into the PIP film format. These were de-
56
scribed in Chapter Seven.
The general software design criteria were divided
into five logical steps, or categories, indicating a se
quential development of materials through the production
cycle: (1) Pre-production; (2) Production; (3) Post-pro-
duct ion; (4) Conversion; (5) Laboratory. Specific design
criteria were not listed; it was the general objective of
software design criteria to present to the software pro
ducer the means or guidelines to produce programs utiliz
ing the same basic creative, production and laboratory
processes required for other existing audiovisual media.
However, the additional capabilities and range of possi
bilities arising out of the flexibility inherent in the
PIP system were discussed in Chapter Seven.
Pre-Production
This phase of software production was considered to
be the most important. It was during this activity that
the resources of the system were brought to bear in de
velopment of detailed requirements. In addition to the
accepted procedures of research, planning, scheduling,
cost estimating, and liaison, the PIP system would give to
the program developer the capabilities of selecting and
using only those audiovisual techniques most suited to the
educational objectives. Motion sequences could be used
57
only where and when needed) without the commitment of
putting the entire presentation on motion picture film
merely to accomodate selected sequences which required
motion. Still frame sequences could be Incorporated Into
the presentation without the limitations of the slide or
filmstrip media) which heretofore prohibited the inclusion
of motion sequences on the same film material and projec
tor. The producer would have, at his option» freedom to
select whatever audiovisual technique best fulfilled his
needs and objectives at any given moment in the presenta
tion.
There would be, however, a major constraint--albeit
a positive one--on the producer. In writing the script
and developing the storyboard, more planning and careful
thought would have to be given to each element or sequence
of the presentation, in terms of which mode— motion, stills
or overlay--was most appropriate or effective in achieving
the educational goals. The choice would be wide, but se
lection and transition from one mode to another would re
quire more planning than normally might be expected by a
producer working in only one medium of presentation at a
time. All audiovisual capabilities, when used in a single
presentation, would have to be integrated carefully, and
the transitions from one mode to another would have to be
developed and specified at the conceptual level of program
development; that is, at the pre-production phase. The sub*
jective reaction of a viewer to the audiovisual program
should not include perception of abrupt visual transitions
from one mode to another, nor the impression that a hybrid
film-filmstrip presentation was being viewed.
Production
The production phase of PIP program development would
include the physical filming of live action and animation
drawings, and the recording of accompanying soundtrack ma
terials. In all production activities, no constraints could
be placed on techniques, equipment or materials normally
used in audiovisual production. Solely from an economic
standpoint, the necessity of acquiring or developing new
tools for film production would be unfeasible.
Filmstrip, slide and motion picture production tech
niques would be the same for PIP program production as for
standard productions; artwork for overhead transparencies
would be photographed as flat artwork similar to animation,
with each overlay photographed in sequence as with anima
tion cels. Motion photography, however, could be accom
plished at various film rates depending upon the ability
of the motion picture camera to adjust to the various rates
below 24 f/s. A motion picture camera using a "wild" motor
and a rheostat control would be required for slower frame
rates.
All photographic and recording equipment ordinarily
59
used in audiovisual production would be utilized in PIP pro
gram production. Materials or film used in PIP production
would be standard film gauge and emulsion, capable of being
processed and mass printed by laboratories which normally
handle such materials. Standard recording equipment for
sound, and the materials they use also would be utilized
in the recording phase of PIP production. In sum, all
existing audiovisual production equipment, materials, and
laboratory procedures would be used in PIP production,
but only in different ways.
Post-Production
The post-production phase consisted of the assembly,
editing, and re-editing of film and tape materials. Exist
ing editing equipment for film and tape, together with
standard materials and viewer/playback units would be em
ployed in the post-production phase of PIP program develop
ment. A singular exception would be the requirement for
an automatic Q track generator, which would be developed
to provide continuous pulses in a sequence to correspond
with the edited film and soundtrack portions of the pro
gram. Technical details of the PIP pulsing unit were given
in Appendix E.
Conversion
Conversion was defined as the rephotographing or
60
photocopying of various film materials onto a single film
format. As such, original films, slides or other optically-
recorded images or flat artwork could be intermixed and
resequenced in the process of translating them optically
to a new film negative or printing master. In addition,
much redundancy or "dead" footage could be removed from
existing materials, resulting in reduced footages and re
lated laboratory costs. For example, a sequence of ani
mation normally is photographed in a fashion known as
"on two's." In this process every animation cel or drawing
is photographed by the animation camera twice, for subse
quent projection at 24 f/s. The purpose of this procedure
is to reduce the number of individual drawings while still
providing a visually smoothe image when the film is pro
jected. For conversion to the PIP format, however, the
original animated sequence can be rephotographed so that
only every other frame is copied; this procedure is known
as "skip printing." Structurally, there would remain half
as many frames of picture, although no action or individual
cels were eliminated, only their duplicates. Theoretically,
with half as many pictures being presented on the screen,
each remaining picture should then remain on the screen
for a duration that would be twice as long as normal. Thus,
instead of being projected at a rate of 1/24 second per
frame, the converted sequence would be projected at 1/12
second, in order that the duration of the sequence will be
61
equal to that of the original version. Economically, the
cost of a copy of film for motion sequences in animation
could be reduced by 50 per cent without affecting the
quality and running time of the original. The full range
of animation and motion picture conversion efficiency was
described in Chapter Eight.
In all cases, a new printing master film material was
produced which represented the PIP program film material.
Standard optical printing techniques would be used to take
the existing audiovisual materials and translate and re
photograph them to the PIP format, or selectively to print
desired frames or sequences into a composite PIP printing
master.
Laboratory
The processing, duplication and mass copying of both
film and tape materials were activities normally performed
by existing laboratories. As such, all standard procedures,
chemicals, and techniques were to be utilized in the labora
tory phase of PIP program production. Specific require
ments for quality control were expected to be uncovered
and articulated as a result of experience. For example,
color correction of single frame sequences within a motion
sequence, extremely short optical fades and dissolves,
optical timing or printing light adjustments for short se
quences, and integrity of pulse track frequencies were a
few areas of laboratory activity which were to be unique
to the PIP production cycle. However, they were not ex
pected to cause serious deviation from normal laboratory
practices, other than imposing stricter quality control
methods.
CHAPTER V
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Development of design criteria for both software and
hardware components of the PIP system had represented the
link between theory and practice, between the basic con
ceptual framework of the system and its practicability.
The statement of design specifications was the test of such
practicability. The development of design specifications
derived directly from the design criteria and was a measure
of the feasibility of translating an optimal system con
figuration into a practical, working hardware-software
unit. This next phase, therefore, had to be developed
within existing state-of-the-art parameters for the audio
visual field. There could be no specification which would
require new breakthroughs, or heretofore untested or un
defined technology. Modification or restructuring of exist
ing audiovisual techniques and equipment, on the otherhand,
was undoubtedly necessary.
It was not considered feasible— operationally or
economically--to impose strict requirements on equipment
fabrication that went beyond "off-the-shelf" availability,
just as it was not realistic to require software production
procedures and techniques that were wholly outside the
realm of professional experience of film producers. The
63
64
purpose of listing design specifications was not to develop
or elaborate the concepts, but rather to state technical
requirements and to relate them to existing specifications
for audiovisual hardware and software so that they may be
applied and/or modified to fit the general system design
criteria.
I. INDIVIDUALIZATION
Thorough analyses of programed learning and auto
tutorial and instructional devices (11) provided accurate
descriptions of the types, variety and capabilities of
auto-instructional devices. In addition, short-term trends
in plans, design and development for both equipment and
materials, and a comparative analysis of the data were de
scribed. The Finn and Perri'n study was used largely as a
basis for technical specification of individualization for
the PIP system. The author's professional experience as
a research associate on various studies of programed in
structional devices and techniques while an employee of
System Development Corporation of Santa Monica, Califomnia,
added further insights into the value of auto-tutorial de
vices and to some of the major design specifications and
techniques for programing materials for them.
In their review of visually-projected media, Finn and
Perrin (11:27) found that the key response mode was ad
judged to be more popular than automated answer tapes.
65
Such audiovisual machines were also found to be particular
ly useful for industrial assembly operations in the form
of a production prompter or performance aid. Modification
of many such devices to include response mechanisms was
thought to extend their usefulness in meeting school re
quirements .
Specifications for individualization of the PIP sys
tem were outlined as follows:
1. Auto-tutorial Mode
a. Key response: remote control input from key
board of up to four buttons (Coxco Respondex,
or equivalent). In addition to a 4-choice
answer code, 3-choice (A, B, or C) and 2-
choice (True-False) codes can be selected.
Answers would serve as a remote control elec
trical activation or restart signal to the
PIP Q track. Restart of the Q track would
cause the next sequence of the film to be
presented, in accordance with the appropriate
pulse or pulses on the track. The Respondex
System (9) was designed as a remote control
activator unit for slide, filmstrip or motion
picture projectors. In addition to providing
a choice of four possible answers, the Coxco
Respondex unit recorded responses by perfora
ting a data-process card. Upon pressing of
the correct button, the carriage automatically
advanced to the next question. As an input
to the PIP system, a device such as the Re-
spondex also would automatically re-start the
projection unit through activation of the Q
track.
b. Auto-stop mode: at a desired decision point
where a response is required from the stud
ent, it will be possible to insert a pulse
on the Q track to cause the movement of the
Q track (and hence its control of film ad
vance) to stop. Upon receiving the restart
signal from the remote input, the Q track
shall restart, thus causing the correct re
sponse to be seen on the viewing screen, and
the correct audio response to be heard if
such a response is incorporated into, and de
signed to be synchronous with, the over-all
presentation.
c. Free or constructed response: auto-stop and
remote start may be used in conjunction with
free or constructed response. A clear plas
tic overlay can be placed directly over the
screen of the PIP unit, and answers or re
sponses drawn directly onto it by means of a
marking pen or similar instrument. Upon com-
67
pletion of the constructed response (such as
finishing a diagram, circling correct items
on a drawing, and so forth), the restart
button can be depressed either on the remote
unit, or on the keyboard of the PIP unit it
self. Activating the Q track will cause the
film to advance to the next sequenced frame
of picture, appearing directly beneath the
plastic overlay screen and the student re
sponse which was constructed thereupon. Di
rect comparison by superimposition will give
the advantage of immediate feedback of re
sults. An indelible pen can be used for
making a permanent record of the response,
making it difficult for the student to re
structure the response once the correct
answer has been shown.
2. Design and Construction
a. Screen size: an optimum screen size shall
conform to human engineering standards of a
viewing distance of 2.5 times screen width
for individual viewing. A screen size of
4.5" by 6" shall provide for such viewing.
b. Screen material: an unbreakable, high gain,
high contrast daylight rear-view screen ma
terial (Polacoat, PPM, or equivalent). Wide
viewing angle is not critical due to the
individual nature of the system.
Unit housing: a high-impact plastic housing
shall be used to eliminate shock hazard,
reduce weight, and to increase durability
for individual use and handling (PVC plastic,
or equivalent).
Reduction of ambient light: a mask extending
around the screen, serving as a hood to re
duce or eliminate all angular ambient light
ing from falling upon the screen and attenu
ating screen luminoscity.
Unit weight: a gross weight of less than 20
pounds was adjudged to be portable for most
students, if portability were required, or if
frequent transport of the unit were desir
able.
Transport: a carrying handle, recessed in
the top of the unit, aligned with the North-
South axis (perpendicular to the viewing sur
face of the screen), and located in the ap
proximate center of gravity of the unit.
69
g. Viewing angle: a touch-release tilt eleva
tion control leg to permit adjustment of
vertical viewing angle up to 12° to accomo
date differences in height of users when
seated in front of the unit.
3. Operating Controls
a. On-off: a single on-off switch.
b. Volume: a single volume control located on
the side of the unit to prevent inadvertant
adjustment.
c. Individualized listening: a double headset
outlet, automatically shunting the speaker
when headsets are inserted.
d. Film controls; fast forward, fast rewind,
and single frame advance piano-key type
switches, front-mounted.
e. Tape controls: fast forward, fast rewind,
start, and stop piano-key type switches,
front-mounted, to control the movement of a
composite Q track and narrative audio mater
ial.
II. VARIABLE SPEED PROJECTION
70
1. Film Advance
A continuously operating pull-down claw would
function during all "on" modes of the system,
Including various motion sequences and still
frame mode. Engagement of the claw with the
sprocket holes of the film would be upon command
of a pulse from the Q track. By having a con
tinuously operating claw, even when film Is not
being advanced, excessive wear on the film would
be reduced by eliminating Inertial resistance of
the claw against the film sprocket hole edge on
start-up. Further, maximum efficiency in image
registration from frame-to-frame would be adiieved
by eliminating intertial drag as the pull-down
mechanism obtains operating speed, as is the
case with standard intermittant pull-down.
2. Pulse Signals
Variable speed film advance shall be accomplished
by a 1000 Hz subaudible tone which will activate
the claw mechanism and drive, thus advancing the
film one frame for every pulse received from the
Q track of the tape.
71
III. DOUBLE SYSTEM
1. Film Component
a. Film material: super 8mm gauge film in si
lent format shall be used to store all pic*
ture information.
b. Film storage: housing shall be in a closed
cassette designed to hold auper 8mm gauge
film. Reel-to-reel configuration will fa
cilitate loading of film onto cores, permit
random access in fast forward or fast re
verse (rewind) speeds, and reduce film wear
as compared with endless loo|), self-rewinding
cartridges.
c. Capacity: a maximum of 50 feet of super 8mm
(tri-acetate base) or 80 feet (3.5 mil thick
polyester base). Fifty feet of standard
super 8mm film represented the average load
capacity of super 8mm film cameras (cartridge
loaded unexposed rawstock) and single con
cept loops, two of the most widely used forms
of super 8mm film.
Tape Component
a. Sound carrier: ferrous oxide audio tape,
low-print type, shall be used to store all
narrative and pulsing information.
b. Tape storage: the tape component shall be
the standard Philips (N. V. Philips' Gloei-
lampenfabrieken, Electro-Acoustical Labora
tories, Eindhoven, Netherlands— developer
of the audio cassette) audio cassette con
figuration. Tape speed shall be standard
1 7/8 inches-per-second (i.p.s.), with nor
mal four-track recording-playback configura
tion.
c. Capacity: maximum of one-hour of tape, uni
directional to account for Q track configura
tion (C-120 cassette).
d. Track configuration: utilizing standard con
figuration, Tracks 1 and 2 shall contain
narrative and other sound-track information;
Track 3 shall serve as a separation and safe
ty zone track; Track 4 shall contain pulse
tones, and shall serve as the Q track. Re
cording of narrative and Q tracks unidirec-
tionally shall restrict the playback position
73
of the cassette to one side only, thereby re
ducing total indicated playback time to one-
half (e.g., a C-120 cassette normally plays
for 120 minutes: an hour per side; in the
PIP configuration, only 60 minutes, or one
side, shall be possible).
3. General
a. Loading cassettes for playback: both the
Vilm cassette and the tape cassette shall be
loaded into the PIP playback unit by means
of manually inserting each cassette into its
appropriate sleeve or bracket. Each cassette
bracket shall be hinged permanently to the
insert area of the PIP casing, and shall be
of the appropriate size so as to admit only
the proper cassette without possibility of
erroneously inserting the wrong cassette in
to the wrong bracket.
b. Playback frequencies (Hz): state-of-the-art
quality standards for recording and playback
of audio tape cassettes (80 - 16,000 Hz)
shall apply to the audio component of the
PIP system.
IV. PROTECTION OF FILM
74
1. Burning of Film
Through experimentation it was found that 5 watts
of light output was sufficient to obtain a satis
factorily bright image (10 - 20 foot Lamberts).
Variables included the screen material* configu
ration of the folded closed optical path and
lens focal length* and reduced ambient light.
A 75 w. quartz-halogen lamp (Philips type 6853*
12 V) was voltage-regulated to 5 w. At such
wattage* in combination with a silver-surfaced
shutter on its rear reflecting side* heat from
the lamp was reduced to a negligable amount.
Burning* bleaching and warping of the film were
thus eliminated* and no heat-absorbing filters
were found to be necessary.
2. Reduction of Handling
Housing of the film within a reel-to-reel cassette
wss expected to eliminate handling of filmstoclc*
and reduce contanimation by dust, scratching,
fingerprint acid* and so forth.
V. ELIMINATION OF FLICKER
75
1. Shutter Speed
Shutter configuration was a 180° half-silvered
disc which rotated continuously, even in still
picture mode, at a rate of 3,240 revolutions per
minute (more than twice the rotational speed of
standard motion picture shutters). The effect
of such rotary speed was the division of the
blanking period into more, but shorter, inter
vals. Pull down of the film occured during the
shorter blackout period, thus attenuating screen
blackness. This was perceived as an average
luminoscity without apparent flicker; the level
of flicker-free projection was maintained regard
less of frame repetition rate, or on hold or
freeze frame.
2. Registration of Images
The visual effect of rapid shutter rotation, and
the continuously operating claw was to maintain
flickerfree image projection and stability.
Thus, sequencing from one still frame to another,
where additive information was presented on the
subsequent frames, gave the illusion that only
the new information was being added to the exist-
ing image. Image smearing, or "travel ghost"
on high contrast (color against a black back
ground) also was eliminated.
CHAPTER VI
SYSTEM PROTOTYPE FABRICATION
The development of design specifications resulted in
a list of specific guidelines Which were to be used as the
basis for fabrication of the hardware system components.
Software productions were less precise* and could be de
veloped accurately only as a result of actual experience
with the hardware. Software production experience was dis
cussed in Chapter Seven* and an outline of software tech
nology was developed and was included as Appendix B.
Exterior Design
In the statement of design specifications* only the
functions of the hardware* and the means by which those
functions could be achieved* were emphasized; external de
sign and housing of the hardware components were tangential
considerations. Specification of screen material* screen
masking and hood, and containment of the film and tape ma
terials (in cassettes)* on the contrary, were instances
where form could not be separated from content.
In order to effect an orderly arrangement and loca
tion of operating controls, and to aid in visualization of
the shape and general appearance of the total external sys-
tme configuration* a sketch was made of an idealized PIP
77
78
system (cf. Figure 2). Only the size of the screen (4%M x
6") was given; other measurements, such as the screen hood
and housing, slope angle of the housing, dimensions of the
case, mounting base, control keys, and so forth, were not
considered to be critical at that early stage of develop
ment. Such measurement data were relative to, and limited
by, the basic screen and cassette sizes. In effect, the
remainder of the physical system--*the housing, base, etc.--
could be built around the critical dimensions of screen
and cassette sizes.
I. PRE-FABRICATION RESEARCH
Patentability
All basic design concepts, specifications, equipment
and control system sketches, descriptions and schematics
were believed to have formed the basis for the investiga
tion into the feasibility and the validity of acquiring a
United States patent. The purpose of applying for a U. S.
patent for the PIP system was twofold: first, and most
important, the process of applying for patent protection
required a thorough search of existing patents in the rele
vant field. This service, usually performed by qualified
patent attorneys, uncovered a wealth of technical data and
details describing existing audiovisual systems which con
ceive ably would be identical or similar to the PIP system.
Figure 2. ORIGINAL ARTIST'S CONCEPTION OF PIP
80
Such knowledge could circumvent many electro-mechanical
problems which could arise in physical construction of the
hardware by detailing how similar problems were overcome.
Secondly, filing of a patent application established a
disclosure and assigned a priority date to the development,
should it later be necessary to seek assistance from an
interested third party in completing the expected costly
fabrication of the hardware aspect of the system, and the
production of initial demonstration software programs. The
protection afforded by having filed a patent application
was expected to provide any needed incentive or motivation
to such a third party, whose resources might be used to
augment those of the researcher.
The legal firm of Herzig & Walsh (9465 Wilshire
Boulevard, Beverly Hills, California) was engaged to con
duct the patent search. As a result, those technical de
tails of existing state-of-the-art in audiovisual technolo
gy were outlined which had a direct bearing on the develop
ment of PIP.
Generally, it was concluded by the patent attorneys
(letter dated October 22, 1965) that none of the 26 related
existing patents describing prior audiovisual technology
had disclosed operational characteristics which were simi
lar to the functions of the proposed PIP system. Several
relevant patents were reported.
81
Two patents had been granted to Mr. Fred Waller
(patent numbers 2,503*083 dated April 4, 1950 and patent
number 2,606,476 dated August 12, 1952) and were scheduled
to expire on their anniversary dates in 1957 and 1969, re
spectively. Both of the patents disclosed a device wherein
a tape record provided control signals to operate the show
ing of pictures from a film strip, together with associated
sound. The film advancing mechanism for the film projector
was connected through a one-turned clutch to a continuously
operating motor. The clutch was caused to operate by a
solenoid. Each actuation of the solenoid caused the clutch
to operate the film advance mechanism to move the film a
single frame length forward; the clutch then automatically
disengaged itself. Repeated or continuous actuation of the
solenoid kept the clutch engaged and caused the film to
advance continuously at a predetermined rate.
The device, as described and fabricated by Waller,
combined the showing of single film frames with the showing
of motion pictures from continuously moving film. Further,
the sound record controlled the movement of the film and
also provided associated sound. However, motion-movement
of the Waller device was predetermined and not variable;
movement sequences were obtained at normal cinematographic
speeds. No variation within the spectrum of frame repe
tition rates (0 to 24 f/s) was possible.
Another pertinent patent was filed by S. A. Platt
82
(patent number 2,930,285 dated March 29, 1960, and patent
number 3,022rj707 dated February 27, 1962). These patents
disclosed the combination of still pictures with action or
motion pictures together with coordinated sound accompani
ment. Instead of advancing the film continuously even at
slow rates to provide motion, the patent described a method
for periodically (i.e., every three seconds) moving the
film a single frame at a very rapid rate. This was claimed
to create the effect of motion picture projection. The
three second time interval was stated as being substantially
longer than the time of the average person's persistence of
vision and substantially shorter than the time required
for the viewer to "appreciate an apparent halt" in the
action portrayed by the pictures. In the Platt patents,
each frame was two or three times the physical length of
an ordinary film frame, and the picture movement was co
ordinated with the sound by having the rapid change of
frames controlled by the physical movement of the sound
tape.
A final relevant patent (W. F. Wolfner, patent number
2,575,203 dated November 13, 1951) described a device which
used a sound track and higher frequency control track for
moving a film strip a single frame at a time or "several
frames in quick succession to present an animated action
in the film" (cf. Column 12, lines 67 through 73).
83
No difficulties of infringement were foreseen by the
patent attorneys in the filing of an application describing
the F1F audiovisual system. All additional relevant pa
tents were grouped into two areas: (1) devices for advanc
ing picture film a single frame at a time, in coordination
with and generally controlled by associated sound means;
and (2) the synchronization of motion picture projecting
with associated sound. A summary of all relevant devices,
together with their patent references, was given in Appen
dix A.
As a result of the patent search, it was determined
that the filing of a United States patent for the PIP sys
tem could proceed. This would provide protection under
patent law, and serve the practical purpose of stimulating
interest and financial support from a third party in fur
thering and completing the fabrication of a prototype PIP
system and the production of its related demonstration
software program.
The patent search was undertaken in November 1965;
the application for a United States Patent was filed on
May 16, 1966 and was given Serial Number 550,294 by the
U. S. Patent Office.
II. MANUFACTURE OF THE PROTOTYPE
Criteria for Selecting a Manufacturer
The commitment to undertake development and fabrica-
84
tion of the working prototype of a relatively sophistica
ted, untried electro-mechanical audiovisual device was at
best a challenging and a costly one. To be sure, design
specifications and requirements had been thought out and
had been articulated, with emphasis on utilization of basic
off-the-shelf hardware and state-of-the-art applications;
nevertheless, the requirements in engineering time, re
duction of design specifications to electronic and optical
specifications and circuits, tool and die making, and the
dozens of ancillary requisites and operations of machine
design were items which would result in a large total cost
--in terms of time, energy, and money.
Prior to any serious consideration of filing patents
on the basic PIP system, and nearly one year before a
patent search was initiated, it had been decided to try
to secure a Federal grant for funds with which to construct
and test the prototype system. An application was developed
and submitted to the Commissioner of Education, Office of
Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel
fare. The request was for a grant to support a research
project under provisions of Title VII of the National De
fense Education Act of 1958 (P. L. 85-864).
The application was endorsed by the then Chairman
of the researcher's doctoral guidance committee, Dr. James
D. Finn. The amount of $4,881.00 was requested for the
fiscal year 1965. The development of the prototype system
85
(it as yet had not been named by the researcher as the
Programed Individual Presentation system) was correlated
with simultaneous development of a research vehicle--a
visualized course of instruction in the written Chinese
language.*
As was expected, the proposal was rejected on the
grounds that it over-emphasized the hardware aspect of the
study. Therefore, alternative avenues of funding were
sought, especially after the initial modest financial re
quirements were re-evaluated and found to be grossly in-
adequate for the requirements.
The most immediate priority then had become the se
lection of a manufacturer who either would be contracted,
or who would undertake on a self-sponsored basis, to fabri-
The author had acquired a working knowledge of the
basic Chinese language for purposes of the proposed study.
Briefly, the "software" aspect of the study entailed use of
multi-media techniques to show the etymological development
of the written language, from the original plctograph,
through some 3,000 years of developmental history, to the
present ideographic form of the language. Animation, pop-
ons, overlays, and still picture techniques were to be usecl
together with a free response mode in which the subject
could trace the completion of a character directly onto a
plastic overlay sheet on top of the viewing screen.
The original budget estimate assumed gratituous do
nations of equipment and materials from local audiovisual
dealers. In addition, the equipment complex would be mere
ly a "lash-up" of separate units of hardware, rather than
their combination into a single functional unit. Further,
no fabrication would be performed on specialized compo
nents, such as the film cassette.
86
cate the prototype. It was at this point, in order to
attract an entrepreneural funding agency into participating
in the applied aspects of the study, that an investigation
of the feasibility of securing patent protection had been
initiated.
Once the patent application had been filed, it was
decided that the time had come to try to interest a manu
facturer in developing the PIP prototype. Criteria for
selection of such a manufacturer were few and simple: a
record of accomplishment in the audiovisual, electronic,
and allied fields; a reputation for pioneering efforts
and quality products in such fields; and the financial and
engineering resources for the initiation and completion
of the project.
Many corporations met such standards; however, among
the leading international industrial companies to whom so
licitation could be made, only one stood out in the re
searcher's mind as having exemplary qualifications which
would maximize chances for success of the project: Philips
Electric Company of Holland.
Philips Electric
N. V. Philips' Gleeilampenfabrieken, Eindhoven,
Nederland, had developed the audio cassette. Because of
the company's desire to set a standard for audio tape cas
settes, free license arrangements had been offered to other
87
manufacturers willing to maintain quality and technical
specifications. As a result* the compact audio tape cas
sette had become the standard of the tape industry (as
measured by annual sales compared with four- and eight-
track tape cartridges). The philips company, with national
organizations in some 55 countries of the world, was also
large and universally situated to ensure adherence to the
cassette standards. Further, Philips was the largest manu
facturer of cassette playback units. The cassette player
itself would be an integral component of PIP; it readily
provided all necessary audio and pulse control track play
back requirements.
An initial contact by letter was made to the Manager
of the Electro-Acoustical Laboratory (ELA) Division of
Philips, in Eindhoven, Holland. The ELA Division was di
rectly responsible for technical development of audiovisual
and electronic product for the corporation. A meeting was
arranged with the Manager of ELA's Educational Products
and Systems Department, Mr. C. Wols. Mr. Wols had the re
sponsibility for education and training applications of
various lines of Philips electronic and audiovisual equip
ment.
Sever&i months had elapsed before a preliminary meet
ing in Eindhoven was coordinated. In January 1968, some
20 months after patent applications were filed, the meeting
took place. Because patents were still pending, it was
88
counseled by the patent attorneys that no premature dis
closure should be made of patent specifications and claims
at the first meeting. Therefore, it was to be an explora
tory one only, seeking whether or not the Philips company
would be interested in proceeding further with the project
after having heard only an oral description and discussion
of system concepts. No written data had been brought to
that first meeting.
As a result of that first meeting, however, a firm
commitment was made to the researcher by the Philips manage
ment to proceed immediately not only with the development
of a single prototype machine, but with a total of 14 such
machines. Further, it was stated by Philips' management
that if the system functioned according to expectations,
the company would desire to acquire the patent application
and all subsequent manufacturing rights to the PIP system.
The investment in this first exploratory trip by the re
searcher, which had been met with unrestrained enthusiasm,
had returned unexpected dividends. Funds also were to be
extended for production of several software programs which
would be used to validate the equipment and design con
figuration and principles.
Agreement with Philips
Even before the prototype was completely fabricated,
it was evident to the Philips management that PIP should be
89
come one of their audiovisual products. Therefore, on
September 13, 1968 a General Assignment Agreement was exe
cuted between the researcher and the Philips national
organization for the United States, North American Philips
Company (Norelco). Simultaneously, a two-year Consulting
Agreement was executed wherein the researcher would be
free to develop programing techniques and to advise the
Philips companies in other countries on the application
of the PIP system in various educational and training dis
ciplines. All funding obstacles had been eliminated both
for prototype fabrication and software development.
Delivery of the First Prototype
After the signing of the General Assignment Agree
ment, nine months and as many trips to Holland were to
elapse before the first of the 14 prototype systems was
completed. (Cf. Figure 3) The prototype that was de
livered to the New York offices of North American Philips
Company in June 1969 represented the one external configu
ration selected from several iterations of external housing
design. Several months prior to delivery of the prototype,
a script and storyboard were prepared as a first approxi
mation of a software program. Production on the demonstra
tion program began after approval of the script, and a
schedule was established so that the completed program
would be available for use in the prototype. A description
wn • o i • wn
90
Figure 3. PHOTO OF FIRST PIP PROTOTYPE
91
of the first demonstration program was given In Chapter
Seven of this study; the script was Included as Appendix C.
III. PROTOTYPE CHARACTERISTICS
Design Specifications
Individualization. The original design specifica-
tions for individualization had been carried out in terms
of size, weight* and external configurations. Controls
for operation of both the audio and visual portions were
located in the front of the unit* and utilized the same
type of switches* markings* and location as were used on
standard cassette playback units. Audio control switches
were on the left-hand side of the unit, and consisted of
(from left to right) ’'REWIND," "START," "FAST FORWARD,"
and "STOP." Visual cassette controls were located in a
row with, and to the right of the audio controls. Mark
ings, and operations, were "REWIND," "SINGLE FRAME ADVANCE,"
and "FAST FORWARD."
No provisions wan made on the first prototype for
remote input and restart (cf. Chapter Five, p. 66 et seq.).
It had been decided, based upon both technical and economic
considerations, that the auto-tutorial mode would not be
incorporated in the prototype configuration. A modifica
tion of the free response mode, however, was possible.
The user would be required to stop the tape manually upon
92
command from the sound track (thus stopping the film ad
vance) . Performance of the free response task by writing
directly upon the screen, filling in a work book or the
like, would ensue while the machine was in the "off" mode,
although the picture upon the screen remained in the "pro
ject" mode. Upon completion of the free response, the
user would be required to restart the system merely by
depressing the "on" or "start" switch. This would start
the tape and, upon receipt of the appropriate cueing pulse,
the film would advance to show the appropriate visual re
sponse in synchronism with the audio track.
Headsets. No provision for dual headset outlets was
made in the prototype. The reason was that such a capa
bility was incidental to the purpose of validating the
operational principles inherent in theprototype.
Specifications Not Included
In addition to the auto-tutorial mode of operation,
several other design specifications were not included in
the prototype configuration. Primarily, the reasons were
that such specifications represented state-of-the-art, and
therefore were obtainable; the dollar and time cost in
incorporating them into the prototype were considered
neither relevant nor necessary to an over-all evaluation of
the performance of the prototype. Those specifications
93
which were not included in the £irst prototype were as
follows:
1. Screen material. A simple Fresnel-type plastic
material) frosted on the viewing sidey was pro
vided as interim screen material.
2. Cassette loading. No sleeves or brackets were
provided for acceptance of the film and tape
cassettes. The film cassette was a prototype,
fashioned by hand from a solid block of plastic
and therefore did not have close tolerances to
permit reliable encasement within a loading
bracket. A simple hinged sleeve was made to
keep both cassettes joined (cf. Figure 4)
3. Playback frequencies. A simple three-inch mag
netic speaker was incorporated into the proto
type as a convenience. It was known that the
playback frequencies of the Philips compact
cassette player (Model EL-1000) were 80 - 10,000
Hz, and that these frequencies were practical
for all future models of PIP, since the basic
cassette player deck formed the core of the audio
and control tape components for PIP.
4. Carrying handle. The plastic case, or "skin" of
the prototype was fashioned from separate pieces
of hand-molded plastic which were glued together
94
Figure 4. PHOTO OF PROTOTYPE FILM CASSETTE
95
at the seams by means of epoxy cement. It was
felt that such a sectionalized construction would
not be strong enough to support the entire weight
of the unit (18 pounds) if a carrying handle were
inserted in the top portion of the prototype. A
recessed integrated carrying handle was planned
as a part of any subsequent production model
machine.
Utility of the Prototype
With a working prototype PIP system having been fab
ricated according to most of the design specifications,
subsequent stages of the study were implemented. These
stages emphasized the software aspects of system utiliza
tion. In general it was necessary to ascertain system
capabilities by developing programing concepts and pro
ducing actual program material. Further, an analysis had
to be made of the validity of the PIP program material in
terms of its cost-effectiveness, design and production re
quirements, and the advantages and limitations of PIP pro
grams, if any. Chapter Seven described the major steps in
the development of a prototype PIP software program, and
the interaction between the software and the hardware com
ponents of the system. Specific recommendations and sug
gestions for program development, and guidelines for pro
gram production were given in Chapter Eight and various
96
Appendixes of this study. Figure 5 is a photograph of the
prototype model of the PIP system.

CHAPTER VII
SOFTWARE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT
I. SCRIPT AND STORYBOARD
Objectives
The basic objectives of the software development
phase of the study generally were to gain experience in
PIP program production requirements and techniques, and
to produce a physical film-tape configuration which could
be presented in the hardware component as a means for ob
taining a face validity of system performance.
More specifically, a script and storyboard were de
veloped to explore and permit documentation of several
objectives.
PIP Hardware Performance. The fundamental question
of whether or not the hardware component of the PIP system
would operate according to design specifications could
only be answered by loading both film and tape cassettes
into the unit and pressing the start button. Such equip
ment performance validation, however, was not independent
of software program structure. In order for the projection
unit of the system to display operationally the results of
the original design specifications (e.g., variable speed
98
99
projection and double system synchronism), it was necessary
to design a software program which would incorporate a
wide range of techniques and capabilities. A measure of
face validity could then be obtained for the electro-me-
chanical-optical performance of both the hardware and soft
ware components of the PIP system.
PIP Software Production Techniques. The PIP system
had been designed to incorporate and exhibit, among other
desiderata, the display characteristics of basic audio
visual projection devices. Therefore, it could be ex
pected that basic production techniques for PIP software
would represent an admixture of existing audiovisual tech
niques. Criteria and guidelines for production of film
strip presentations, for example, were to apply to the
PIP software program for those sequences where single
frame presentation was used. Similarly, motion picture
production techniques would apply to those portions of a
PIP program where motion was to be incorporated. Pro
gressive build-up from simple to complex visual displays,
such as were normally achieved in overhead transparency
projection, were to be achieved by successively photo
graphing each overlay, and subsequently projecting the re
sultant sequence on a frame-by-frame basis.
Although PIP software program development and pro
duction generally was to be a selection and mixture of
100
existing audiovisual techniques, it was expected that the
total audiovisual capability of the PIP system--and hence
the software development and production requirements—
might represent more than merely the sum of its parts.
In other words, the PIP system had separable sound and
picture components, permitting simple interchange of sound
tracks to accomodate various uses of the same picture;
selective programing of various audio or Q tracks would
permit restructuring of any given visual sequence, per
mitting the program designer to dwell longer on, or skip
entirely, any desired frame or sequence of frames rapidly
enough (l/24th of a second per frame) so that the content
is not perceived; motion picture projection could be ac
complished at any speed below the standard 24 f/s without
flicker, light loss or burning of film; and the PIP system
was designed to present these capabilities at the individu
al level, with the options of user interactive modes. The
totality of such system capabilities, then, was expected
to present a range of inherent software development, pro
duction and presentation techniques and effectiveness here
tofore not achieved in a single equipment configuration.
Any measure of such results could be ascertained only after
initial experience in making programs for the system, and
in subsequent controlled evaluative experiments.
The first step, therefore, was to develop and produce
a software program that would enable the machine component
101
to function.
PIP Program Structure
It was not the objective of Initial program develop
ment and production to control all variables, to elaborate
an experimental variable, or to define limitations and
capabilities of the system in fine detail. Beyond basic
audiovisual techniques for producing various kinds of film
materials, it simply was not known by the researcher just
what were the limitations, advantages or range of vari
ables. At this early stage of software development, no
controlled experimental environment was planned for the
resultant PIP software program. The software was developed
not only to permit the hardware component to be operated
with audiovisual materials designed specifically for its
use, but more fundamentally to permit documentation of
normative data, and to aid in specification of future ex
perimental studies. Recommendations for further research
and application on the PIP system, and suggestions for
quantification of system validity and experimental relia
bility were described in Chapter Eight of this study.
New Audiovisual Material. The initial PIP software
program was designed to include the following audiovisual
techniques:
1. Single frame: continuous frames and single
102
frames interspersed with other sequences
2. Pop-ons and overlays
3. Motion: standard frame rate (24 f/s); one-half
standard (12 f/s); and one-third standard
(8 f/s)
Existing Audiovisual Material. In order to investi
gate the problems, effectiveness and costs of converting
existing audiovisual materials into the PIP format, the
following catagories of existing materials were incorpor
ated into the PIP program:
1. Filmstrip
2. Overhead transparencies
3. Motion picture animation
Sound Synchronization. For purposes of the initial
program, sound synchronization was limited to a voice-over
narration technique; no lip synchronization was planned.
It was recognized that technical modification of the camera
and/or recorder may be necessary for photography of live
action lip synchronous sequences at frame rates less than
24 f/s.
Auto-tutorial Mode. The initial program was developed
primarily to investigate and gain experience in general
audiovisual programing requirements and techniques of in
tegrating various capabilities into a unified PIP format.
103
Therefore, no remote or programed linear response modes or
other sophisticated teaching machine techniques were in
corporated into the program. A free response sequence,
however, was included in order to indicate the individual
behavioral characteristics attainable with the system.
In the free response mode, the student would use a marking
pen to draw directly upon a clear plastic overlay covering
the viewing screen of the PIP unit. Completion of a com
pound drawing or a diagram could then be compared by direct
superimposure with the correct response, which would be
presented on the next frame of picture.
Preparation of the Script
Standard script writing procedures were followed in
developing an outline and several drafts of the script.
No limitations were placed upon the kinds of audiovisual
techniques to be employed: a complete and unrestricted
mix of still and motion sequences was possible. The nar
rative portion of the program presented no problems in
terms of the allowable or maximum amount of time permitted
for the presentation. Up to one full hour of sound was
possible through the use of a C-120 tape cassette. There
was a limitation, however, in terms of the amount of film
available to use in illustrating the narrative. Fifty
feet of super 8mm film contained 3,600 individual frames
(72 frames per foot). The total storage capacity, then,
104
was 3)600 frames, to be used as needed, either continuously
for motion sequences (at various speeds), consecutively
for overlay sequences, or Intermittently for still pictures.
(Using 80 feet of 3.5 mil polyester base film would yield
5,760 frames.)
Script Format. The completed script incorporated
left-hand verbal descriptions of the visual content, rather
than a fully developed and separate storyboard. Since
many sequences were to be converted from other sources,
it was not deemed necessary to replicate the visual con
tent of such materials in storyboard format. The script
for the first PIP demonstration program was included as
Appendix C of this study.
Pulse Code Indications. A format was devised to
permit notation of where, and how many at what frame rate,
pulses were required for the generation of the Q track.
Bu putting the pulse indications directly upon the script,
it was possible to correlate the narrative with the picture
in terms of running time or duration of dwell for each
frame and sequence of picture. For example, for a motion
sequence of 120 frames total, with a frame rate of 12 f/s,
it became a simple matter to ascertain the screen time for
the sequence (in this case, 10 seconds). Correlation with
the length of the appropriate or accompanying narration al
so became possible.
105
II. PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS
Original Photography
All original photography was accomplished either
through use of a standard 35mm Arriflex camera with vari
able speed motor, or through use of a 35mm Oxberry anima
tion stand. Conversion of existing materials was accom
plished through use of an optical step printer.
Cinematography. The 35mm Arriflex motion picture
camera, together with a tripod and standard lenses and
accessories, was rented from a camera rental store in
Los Angeles.
Film Stock. Eastman Kodak Color Negative (5254) was
used in all phases of the production, including live and
animation photography. The purpose of using 35mm film was
to give the researcher professional picture quality, and
to permit the editing out or insertion of single frames
in the final printing negative. Because of a wide frame
line in the 35mm format, it was possible to make splices
in original negative without the splices appearing in the
print made from that negative. In 16mm format, on the
otherhand, the frame line is of smaller width. Therefore,
it is necessary to edit 16mm negative in an A and B or
"checkerboard" configuration so that the resultant print
will not have visible splices in it. In such an editing
configuration, it is not possible to insert single frames.
For purposes of producing the first PIP demonstration pro
gram, as wide a latitude as possible was sought to enable
insertion or deletion of single frames of picture when
necessary.
Animation Photography. An Oxberry animation stand,
with accessories, was rented on an hourly basis from a
Los Angeles production company. All single frame, over
lay, pop-on, and limited animation sequences were photo
graphed on the animation stand. Single pictures, trans
parencies for the overhead projector, and all other art
work and titles were mounted on Acme-punched boards for
accurate registration. Similarly, 35mm color negative
film was used in production of all animation photography
sequences.
Conversion of Existing Materials
Motion. Adaptation or conversion of existing film
material was accomplished through use of an optical step
printer, available at an optical printing company in Los
Angeles. The sequence selected for conversion was an ani
mated cartoon produced by EMC Corporation of Los Angeles.
A copy of the original soundtrack on quarter-inch tape,
together with a 16mm A-wind positive print were used as
107
master materials. Instructions that were given to the op
tical printing company were to print every other frame
("skip"print) from the 16mm printing master* in order to
produce a new 35mm negative. By printing every other
frame, all redundant frames were removed from the original.
Projection at a rate of 12 f/s was expected to produce
exactly the same result as would have been observed through
projection of the original film at 24 f/s. The new dupli
cate negative, in 35mm format, was to be incorporated into
the completed PIP demonstration negative materials.
Stills. Various pieces of still artwork, drawings,
and photographs were mounted on Acme-punched boards or
animation cels, and merely re-photographed in sequence on
the animation stand. Several black frames were used as
"slugs" to separate single frames where motion or other
materials later were to be inserted during the editing
process.
Overhead Transparencies. A sequence of existing
transparencies was prepared for the animation stand so
that they could be photographed, in registration and in
sequence. In order to maintain uniform image density,
clear acetate animation cels were used so that as each over
lay was added to the basic image, a cel could be removed.
In this manner, which was standard animation procedure,
there was no change in image density (caused by increasing
108
thicknesses of overlays) as each transparent overlay was
added to the previous one.
Filmstrip. Several frames from an existing filmstrips
originally produced by EMC Corporation for Ginn and Com
pany, were selected for incorporation into the demonstra
tion program. A 35mm duplicate negative was supplied for
five frames of the filmstrip. This material was to be
edited into the demonstration program negative without any
other change in the materials whatsoever.
Summary of Sequences
Table 1 lists all major sequences developed and used
in the demonstration program. The sequences included
original photography, conversion of motion and still
(filmstrip and overhead) sequences, together with an indi
cation of limited animation and an auto-tutorial free re
sponse sequence. A full description of all sequences was
included in the final shooting script for the demonstration
program, and appears as Appendix C to this study.
Implications of various frame rates, and their effec
tiveness in different kinds of subject motion are listed
in Chapter Eight (Table II and III) of this study.
TABLE I. SUMMARY OF SEQUENCES IN DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
I
DESCRIPTION OF SEQUENCE CONTENT MODE (PHOTOGRAPHY & PROJECTION)
MOTION (New Photography)
A man sells a Mexican hat to a woman (Spanish lesson) 12 f/s
A man repairing automobile carburetor 12 f/s
Automobile traffic on a freeway 24 f/s
Jet aircraft taking off 12 f/s
A woman mixing flour to bake a cake 8 f/s
A girl applying eye make-up 8 f/s
109
TABLE 1--Continued
MOTION (Conversion)
Animated cartoon of astronaut hurtling through space
(original 24 f/s)
LIMITED ANIMATION
Dance lesson showing feet movement for four positions
STILLS (Conversion)
Overhead transparency set (pregnancy)
FILMSTRIP (Existing Material)
"Mark Twain" segment of 35mm filmstrip, used in existing
format
12 f/s
4 single frames
4 overlays
5 contiguous frames
110
I l l
Recording of Narrative
All narrative portions of the demonstration program
were recorded on a standard quarter-inch tape recorder at
a speed of 7.5 inches-per-second. Sound effects and musi
cal segments for the introduction and closing portions of
the program were obtained from the music and effects li
brary of the EMC Corporation in Los Angeles. A quarter-
inch transfer of the music and effects was made for subse
quent mixing or incorporation, in the final narrative tracts.
III. POST-PRODUCTION
Film Materials
All resultant film materials, including original
photography, conversion, and animation photography were
produced in 35mm color negative format. A 35mm color work
print was obtained from the original negative for editing
purposes.
Standard editing techniques and equipment were em
ployed in the post-production phase of the demonstration
program development. Editing of single, or several frames,
was accomplished during the post-production phase. Stills,
pop-ons, overlays, and motion sequences were intermixed.
Notations were made on the work print of the exact frame
number of single or several frame sequences. This nota
tion referred to the edge or key numbers which appeared on
112
all negative films and prints made from them. They served
as a guide to the editor when he cut and assembled the
original negative to correspond with the edited work print.
Ordinarily, such key numbers appeared in sequence on every
foot of film; however, for sequences shorter than a foot
(16 frames in 35mm format), separate notations had to be
made.
A single edited work print was prepared, edited in
accordance with the shooting script. A careful count was
made of the exact number of frames in each sequence, includ
ing motion sequences. The frame count was then indicated
upon the script. The script would then serve as a guide
for the development of the Q track. The answer print,
which resulted from printing the edited negative, was then
compared with the edited work print to make certain that
there had been no variation in frame count due to mis-
editing of the negative or malfunctioning of the laboratory
printer.
Sound Materials
The quarter-inch narrative and music-effects tapes
were edited according to standard editing techniques, to
remove errors in narration, to tighten or expand the
rhythm of narration. Both tapes were combined into a ccm=
posite tape during a "mixing" session, in accordance with
normal procedure. The result was a single quarter-inch
113
tape containing narration, with music and sound effects
incorporated at their appropriate places in the narration.
Q Track Materials
A corresponding quarter-inch Q track was now re
quired. The Q track would contain all cueing pulses re
quired for each segment of the demonstration film. The
pulses would then cause the film to advance at the proper
rate in synchronism with the narrative track. The anno
tated shooting script containing sequence descriptions,
narration, and pulse indications (total number of pulses
for each sequence, the rate at which the pulses should
appear, and the key word underlined at which the pulsing
should begin) was then compiled (cf. Appendix C).
The script, together with the quarter-inch master
narrative tape was shipped to the Educational Products and
Systems Division of N. V. Philips in Eindhoven, Nederland.
It was necessary to generate the series of pulses at the
proper frequency and repetition rates to cause the hard
ware unit of the PIP system to advance the film appro
priately. No electronic equipment existed to do this,
although the Philips organization, in anticipation of the
subsequent need, had developed a temporary configuration
for the generation of pulses for PIP. (Specifications for
an automatic pulsing unit were developed as a result of
this study, and were included as Appendix D.
114
The resultant tape which was received from the Philips
organization in several weeks was a quarter-inch dual
channel tape recorded at 7.5 i.p.s. Channel A contained
the combined narrative-music-effects track which had been
sent to them originally; Channel B contained the appro
priate pulses, recorded physically in parallel with the
narrative track. In this manner, the pulses would acti
vate the film drive mechanism of the PIP hardware unit
precisely at the correct location in the narrative. The
recording of both the narrative and Q tracks on a single
master ensured positive synchronism at all times.
The master tape containing both narrative and pulsing
information was transferred by a local audio services com
pany into a compact audio cassette. Tracks one and two
contained the narrative information; track four contained
the pulsing information. The total running time of the
narrative portion of the PIP demonstration program was
12:11.
IV. LABORATORY
Film Materials
Reduction Printing. Standard reduction requirements
were fulfilled during the reduction of the 35mm edited
color negative to the super 8mm format. From the 35mm
edited single strand negative an answer print was produced
115
to permit evaluation of the sequences, color balance, tim
ing, and frame count. Upon approval of the 35mm answer
print, a 16mm reduction Intemegatlve was produced. The
16mm reduction negative served as the printing master for
the super 8mm copies.
One dozen super 8mm color release prints were made
for the demonstration program, to be used with a similar
number of audio cassettes. The film copies were loaded
into prototype film cassettes which had been received from
the Philips organization, together with their shipment of
the pulse track. The total linear measure of super 8mm
film for the first PIP demonstration program was 27 feet.
At a normal film consumption rate (at 24 f/s for super
8mm film) of 20 feet per minute, the resultant film copy
ordinarily would have a projection time of slightly over
one minute. In the PIP format, together with the audio
tape cassette, it would have a total running time of over
12 minutes.
Both the film and tape cassettes were ready for in
sertion into the prototype PIP machine for viewing.
CHAPTER VIII
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
I. PARAMETERS FOR FINDINGS
No rigorous experimental controls were imposed upon
the testing phase of either the hardware or software com
ponents of the PIP system. Because the system existed in
prototype stage only, it was thought that a series of
controlled experiments would yield little data valuable
for subsequent implementation in the field of a standard
ized or production-line model of the system. Primarily,
laboratory tests were performed to determine, on the basis
of a face validity, whether or not the hardware unit func
tioned according to specifications (e.g., projected the
film at variable speeds, without flicker or burning of the
film; sync pulses reliably effected the film transport;
and so forth). Such findings were obtained simply by oper
ating the hardware, together with the software program,
repeatedly for a total of at least 87 times during which
careful observation of system performance was made.
Functioning of the software component of the system
was observed concurrently with the operation of the hard
ware. Observational data were obtained by means of simple
unstructured field tests made among randomly selected sub
116
117
jects. Criteria for face validity were simply whether or
not an admixture of audiovisual techniques were obtained.
Techniques of software development and production, of
course, determined whether or not the resultant program
represented an integrated audiovisual or multi-media pro
gram. Findings for such development and production tech
niques also were obtained experientially. No performance
criteria were developed for trials of the system with sub
jects in the field. The prototype nature of the system
introduced variables (e.g., the temporary structure of the
cassette loading configuration, interim sound reproduction
system and viewing screen) which would restrict the repli
cability and hence the reliability of controlled experi
ments.
All findings, therefore, were based upon observed
data on the performance of both the hardware and software
components operating as a system. Findings were considered
preliminary only; suggestions for further research, using
a production model PIP system, were summarized in Chapter
Nine of this study.
II. HARDWARE
Operational Characteristics
The development of the hardware component of the PIP
system had been based upon the design specifications ar
118
ticulated from the basic design concepts. The first pro
totype hardware component was fabricated by the N. V.
Philips company of Holland. The projection unit, and the
film cassette, were constructed by hand and exhibited no
precise tolerances of fitted parts as would be expected in
a machine-made unit. A total of 14 prototype units was
made; the researcher was given one such prototype for pur
poses of this study, and to develop and produce the first
software program.
Variable Speed Projection. The PIP system, in its
prototype configuration, was capable of displaying images
at any pre-determined rate of presentation. Full cine
motion was shown in the software program at 24 f/s. Other
cine motion sequences incorporated into the program ex
hibited action at 12 f/s and 8 f/s. Single frames were
interspersed among other sequences. The system was capable
of stopping on any pre-selected single frame for as long
as was required for the accompanying commentary. Rapid
advance from frame-to-frame also was achieved. With the
elimination of observable flicker, and the maintenance of
exact registration, the visual effect of the rapid frame
change was the overlaying or popping-on of additional data
while the underlying visual information appeared stationary.
It was found that any number of sequences could be
combined, intermixed, and included for playback projection
119
at any fsame rate.
Double System. Many existing slide-film machines
had long used the principle of double system; that is, a
separate sound track (on phonograph records or tape) con
taining pulsing signals to advance the filmstrip from
frame-to-frame. In the PIP system, the introduction of
cine motion required further sophistication of the double
system principle. Film advance for PIP was not merely on
a single frame-by-frame basis; it would include rapid and
continuous advance of film at standard motion picture rates
(24 f/s). Further, PIP capabilities would include inter
mixing, and the requirement for smoothe transition of a
full range of frame rates, from 0 to 24 f/s. Immediate
transition from one end of the operational spectrum to the
other (e.g., from single frame to 24 f/s, or from 24 f/s
to a stop on a single frame) also was a requirement of the
hardware operational capabilities. Each sequence of the
film portion of the software program had to be transported
through the hardware (by means of the pulses on the tape)
on a frame-at-a-time basis for the exact frame rate, and
for precisely the total number of frames. Any given se
quence had to be terminated on precisely the last frame of
the sequence (or the first frame of the next sequence,
whichever were desired), regardless of how fast the film
was being transported through the system.
120
It was found that the double system, in which a
separate tape carried both narrative and pulsing informa
tion, provided exact synchronism at all times, at all
frame rates, and permitted instant transition from one
film speed to another, and consistent and reliable stopping
of the film on any pre-selected frame (either single frame
sequences or any frame at the beginning, middle or end of
a motion sequence).
Electromechanical Characteristics
The operational characteristics of the PIP hardware
unit were based upon design concepts, but were achieved
by means of the functioning of the electromechanical com
ponents of the hardware.
Film Advance and Pulsing. Achievement of variable
speed projection capabilities were the result of the pul
sing code and the continuously operating pull-down mecha
nism. It was found that a pulsing frequency of 1000 Hz +
5 per cent was satisfactory as a standard. This standard
had been specified by the Philips company as being com
patible with their standards and electronic design of their
existing cassette systems. Frequencies below 1000 Hz were
felt to be subject to random electrical and static charge
influences, and would therefore affect the reliability of
triggering.
121
The code for pulsing itself was one 1000 Hz signal
per frame of picture. The following data were found* by
means of experimentation and coordination with existing
data* by the Philips corporation* and applied to the re
cording and configuration of PIP control signals:
Tape Speed: 1-7/8 inches per second
Tape Width: 0.150 inches
Track Configuration:
(viewed on coated siden TRACK 4 Control Signals
<
TRACK 1 TRACK 1 with Track 1
TRACK 2 Audio, combine
TRACK 3 Spacing
Guard Sand
Recording Levels: Audio (tracks 1,2) 12dB nomi
nal mean level
Control (track 4) 3 + 3dB
(reference flux level OdB =
25mMx/mm (250nW/m) at 333 Hz)
Equalization Time Constants:
normal tapes t^ - 1590 pS, t£ - 120 pS
high performance t^ - 3180 pS, t£ - 70 pS
Control Signals:
frequency 1000 Hz + 5%
duration 32.5mS + 8%
122
Flicker Attenuation, No flicker was observed by any
subject regardless of frame rate, contrast ratio of the
image, and at a luminance level generated by a pre-focused
Quartz-halogen lamp (75W) utilizing a 5W output.
Film Damage and Handling. No damage was found on
any frame of picture as a result of heat. No damage was
found to have been caused to the sprocket holes of the
Super 8mm film as a result of instantaneous transport of
the film at a rest position, to the maximum rate of 24 f/s,
or at any combination of transport-stop speeds.
Both film and tape materials were enclosed within
cassettes. The audio tape cassette was a standard, com
mercially- available product; the film cassette was a
specially engineered, hand-fabricated plastic package.
Contamination was found on the film in the form of dust
and lint. This was found to have been caused by the hand-
loading of the film. A static charge, generated during
the manually winding procedure of the film onto the take-up
reel, attracted dust and lint particles in the air. The
resultant image on the screen showed a random sprinkling
of dirt upon some of the frames of picture.
A potential source of film damage was observed in the
loading of the cassette into the film gate of the projection
unit. In the film cassette, approximately 1.5 inches of
film are exposed between the points where the film passes
123
from the supply reel to the take-up reel. At this gap,
the film is unsupported except by tension between the reels.
Upon Insertion of the film cassette into the cassette well,
the exposed film slips over the aperature plate which holds
the film in position for the projection mode, and for con
tact with the claw advance mechanism. Improperly inserted,
the film cassette and the exposed film material will not
slip inbetween the aperature plate and the film gate,
causing crinkling or shearing and breaking of the film.
It was found that undue care had to be exercised in insert
ing the film cassette into the machine, and that the cas
sette itself would have to be redesigned to eliminate the
potential damage to the film.
Design and Packaging Characteristics
Individua1ization. The size and location of the
viewing screen, its size in relation to the viewer or user,
and the simple piano-key control buttons caused no compli
cation for individual use of the controls. Further it was
found that direct writing upon the surface of the screen,
as in a free or constructed response mode, was satisfactory.
Construction. The first prototype PIP projection
unit weighed 18 pounds. Although this was relatively light
in weight, permitting the unit to be carried easily, the
absence of a carrying handle made it awkward for transport.
124
Future design considerations were to incorporate a recessed
carrying handle (cf. Chapter V, p. 68).
Durability and Reliability. No system malfunction
or electromechanical breakdown or lack of synchronization
occurred at any time during the running of a program on
the PIP unit. However, this was not taken as an index of
system durability or reliability, but as a measure of the
success of fabrication of a prototype. Reliability of
components was a matter for factory analysis and the accu
mulation of field tests and experience under all kinds of
operating conditions. Similarly, the durability of any
component of the PIP system under extremes of use, was a
function of such extended use and abuse. Therefore, it
was considered that any valid measure of system durability
in terms of construction, and reliability in terms of per
formance of various components was to be the subject of
extensive future evaluation and testing.
III. SOFTWARE
Experiential Findings
Findings in terms of methods, techniques, problems
and requirements in the development and production of soft
ware were gained solely through the researcher's actual
experience in planning and constructing the program, to
gether with his extensive background and experience in the
125
audiovisual production field. Generally, findings were
that no special problems arose in producing materials for
the PIP format, as compared with producing materials for
any other audiovisual format.
Specific guidelines in all phases (from production to
laboratory) were developed and were included as Appendix
B of this study. The generalized findings were briefly
summarized:
Pre-Production. All standard pre-production activi
ties, including research, outlining, script writing and
storyboard development were found to comply with the re
searcher's previous experience in such activities. How
ever, more precise planning was required in order that the
program developer take advantage of the wider range of
flexibility offered by the PIP system. Selection of the
proper multi-media techniques for a single unit of projec
tion equipment at once removed many constraints previously
experienced by the producer of filmstrips, for example,
who could have used motion capabilities in order to achieve
a clearer presentation for a sequence. Motion picture pro
ducers would be able, in their planning, to specify various
frame rates to economize in production and copy costs, and
to maximize teaching effectiveness (cost-effectiveness).
For example, specification of a single frame could be made
for titles and graphics. However, a build-up of graphics
126
from simple-to-complex could be achieved without animation
techniques, but merely with simple overlays on a frame-by-
frame basis.
Flexibility and a wide selection of techniques im
posed restraints and new sets of requirements upon the
program planner. The pre-production phase required know
ledge of a wider range of audiovisual techniques than might
be possessed by a specialist in just one audiovisual tech
nique. Transitions from sequence to sequence had to be
planned carefully, to preserve visual continuity or achieve
smoothe transfer of images and ideas.
A major constraint in planning and executing a P1F
software production was the maximum storage capacity of
the film cassette: 50 feet of film (3,600 individual
frames). All planning had to be done within the limits of
this storage capacity. In the storyboard phase of planning,
an approximate frame count for each sequence had to be
estimated, particularly for motion sequences. A sample
storyboard, developed for the PIP production cycle, is
shown in Figure 6.
The Demonstration Program contained a total frame
count of 1,963. This was equivalent of 27.25 feet of Super
8mm film. The duration of the narration was 12:11. It was
found that the Demonstration Program represented a high
degree of cost-effectiveness. The effectiveness of com
bining multi-media techniques in a single unit of presen-
t?pjp’! t^ x’ TE P S PEH.ACEB 1 Y , s
"SYS'IEJ-5 ” II) 8 IA.NCUA.CES ON
VOICE n2
Ihat’s the key word, no irat'cer what lanruafie
you say it Iru
Figure 6. SAMPLE STORYBOARD PANEL
128
tation was augmented by the reduction in footage (and
hence copy costs) by 90 percent. An equivalent production
on continuous-motion Super 8mm film would have required
nearly 250 feet of film; the PIP version was little more
than 25 feet in linear length.
Production. The researcher has had practical experi
ence in the production of all types of audiovisual materi
als. It was found that in the production of the PIP soft
ware » techniques and costs were identical to those of
existing production requirements for similar media and
content. In addition, the standard array of production
equipment was utilized: cameras, recording equipment,
editing equipment, and so forth. However, it was found
that such equipment had to be used in a different manner
from normal use. Finally, it was found that wider latitude
was possible with respect to film speed, or ASA rating,
making possible the photography of sequences at less than
optimum lighting conditions. For example, the effective
speed of emulsion is doubled when action is photographed
at 12 f/s; corresponding increases of film speed applied
with decreases of frame rate.
Post-Production. It was in the post-production, or
editing phase of the production of the PIP Demonstration
Program that the greatest differences were found between
the standard procedures and the new PIP procedures. Editing
129
of single frames was found to be the most difficult aspect
of post-production.
Editing of a PIP film, however, often necessitates
single frame sequences to be inserted between or among
motion sequences. Single frame editing is not possible at
the 16mm level. This was one of the main reasons why the
first demonstration program was photographed (live action
and animation) in 35mm film. The frame line on 35mm film
is thick enough to enable the splice to be made, even at
a single frame level, without the overlap protruding into
the picture area.
It was found that standard editing equipment, materi
als and supplies could be used in the post-production phase
of PIP program development. Nevertheless, a significant
number of new techniques in the use of the equipment had
been learned, and were outlined in Appendix B of this study.
Conversion. In the planning of the first PIP Demon
stration Program, it was decided to incorporate some se
quences which would represent an adaptation or conversion
from their original audiovisual format, into the PIP for
mat. Two kinds of conversions were accomplished: in the
first, a simple re-copying or rephotographing of the ma
terial was done, either by using original artwork or draw
ings, or by reprinting the original film material. The
second kind of conversion involved the selective removal
130
of all static, non-moving elements from the original. The
animation sequence in the demonstration program represen
ted such a case. The sequence had been photographed
originally according to standard industry practice of
photographing twice each cel or drawing (for subsequent
projection at 24 f/s). A 35mm color intemegative of the
original was obtained. An optical printing company was
engaged for the purpose of taking the negative and, by
means of its optical printer, producing a new printing
master, or negative. The new master was made by rephoto
graphing from the original materials that were supplied,
every other frame. In reality, the second, or redundant
frame was eliminated. The result was to cut in half the
actual amount of film footage required for the sequence,
while not reducing any frame of action. With half as many
frames of picture, the frame rate for projection also was
to be halved. In essence, half as many pictures on the
screen required each picture to remain twice as long as
normal, or 12 f/s. It was found that the effect to the
observer was precisely the same as the original: all move
ment seemed smoothe, because the same amount of movement
remained as was in the original. But the cost of each copy
was reduced by 50 per cent. Tables of conversion effec
tiveness and efficiency were developed (Tables II and III).
It was found that neweterminology would have to be
developed for specifying requirements and procedures to
131
technical personnel of the laboratories and optical com*
panies (cf. Appendix B).
Laboratory. Standard laboratory procedures were
followed throughout the entire development of the software
program. No special film stock or handling requirements
had been imposed upon the laboratory or the producer. A
potential problem was found, however, in the occasional
requirement for color correcting and exposure timing of
the print during the laboratory process.
TABLE II
ANIMATION CONVERSION EFFICIENCY
Every
Frame A
Filmed
Every
Other B
Frame
Filmed
Every
Third C
Frame
Filmed
Every
Fourth D
Frame
Filmed
i
h ... —
i 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10
1 0 \
Standard animation photography: each cel of action photographed twice
----->
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 1
Reduced
Footage
= 50 %
Lost
Action
( 0 % )
1 2 4 5 7 8 10 < 66 2/3 % ( 33 7 o )
75 %
TABLE III
LIVE ACTION PRODUCTION/CONVERSION EFFICIENCY
Standard frame rate for all motion
24f/s
B
For all fast human and mechanical mo-
tion (walking, cars, planes, sports,etc.’
12 f/s = 50 %
For normal human move
ment (sewing,talking,etc.]
8 f/s = 66 2/3 %
For detailed manual
movement (close-up
of hands repairing,
soldering, etc.)
6 f/s = 75 %
133
CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
I. SUMMARY
A systems analytic approach was sought to the problem
of audiovisual presentation in order to synthesize existing
proven and valid techniques of presenting audiovisual ma
terials. The original and primary goal of the study was
to develop a research tool which would give to audio
visual educationalists a single manipulative device with
a wide range of uses.
Additionally, it was desired to investigate the tech
nical requirements and feasibility of developing and fabri
cating a unit of hardware, together with required software
programs, that would combine existing audiovisual tech
niques into a flexible and versatile system for the user
in an educational environment.
The goals of the study were stated in terms of de
veloping a normative approach towards producing software
for such a system, and a methodology for the conversion of
existing incompatible software formats into a single for
mat for use in the new system.
The problem was delineated as basically one of design:
(1) to begin with an idea and to end with concepts; (2) to
134
135
develop a design structure based upon the concepts and to
give form to the system; and (3) to articulate technical
specifications for the fabrication of the system in its
last detail, and to accomplish the fabrication.
Review of the Literature
Literature was searched primarily in the fields of
psychological and physiological perception, audiovisual
technology, and human factors design of equipment.
The review yielded descriptive data on existing au
diovisual devices, their use and limitation, and taxonomy.
Basic parameters of the perceptual processes also were re
viewed to provide base-line studies and both limitations
and capabilities of the perceptual phenomena, particularly
vision. Design data on individualized equipment, together
with assessments of programed instructional devices con
tributed to a review of literature in terms of the expected
results of the study, rather than on design methodology.
It had been a fundamental objective of the study to develop
a unique design methodology— a systems approach— for the
audiovisual field.
Basic Design Considerations
A system designated as a Programed Individual Pre
sentation (PIP) system was conceived, and was based upon
two design concepts.
136
The first design concept derived from the observation
that all projectable audiovisual materials inherently were
similar with respect to the photo-optical method of pre
sentation; that is, all such materials contained an image
recorded on transparent material, through which a light
was shone. The resulting light beam then passed through
a lens system and onto a viewing surface. Therefore, it
was reasoned that all images to be recorded and utilized
as part of an audiovisual presentation could be reduced to,
and reproduced onto a single, uniform strip of transparent
material of a given gauge.
The second design concept derived from a study of a
taxonomy of audiovisual equipment. All audiovisual pro
jection equipment, it was concluded, basically were similar
in terms of presentation characteristics; that is, in the
requirements for transporting the program material through
the equipment, and the duration of dwell for each frame of
picture on the material during the projection stage.
Therefore, it was reasoned that the operational effective
ness of audiovisual equipment was a function of the transit
and dwell duration of film materials as they were being
projected.
Design Criteria
The second major phase of the study was the system
development activity: developing basic system design cri-
137
terla based upon, and elaborated from, the two basic con
cepts. An operational system definition was developed,
representing the second design step.
An individualized configuration was specified in or
der to obtain optimum effectiveness in an instructional
mode.
Hardware Design Criteria. Variable speed projection
was specified as a means for utilizing efficiently the
common carrier of pictorial information (the single format
derived from die first design concept). The hardware unit
was required to transport and project the single strip of
film material at whatever speed was necessary to achieve
the desired audiovisual effect. The result of such a hard
ware design capability was expected to be versatility; that
is, a single unit of equipment could simulate the opera
tional characteristics of a slide or filmstrip projector
(single frame projection), a motion picture projector
(rapid sequences of frame rates), and an overhead projector
(rapid single projection to simulate overlays and pop-ons).
Six basic criteria were developed for the hardware
design phase: (1) variable speed projection of a single
projectable material; (2) automatic sequencing by elec
tronic pulses in order that any frame rate (from 0 to 24
f/s) could be programed; (3) synchronous sound which would
continue even during still or hold frame sequences, to be
accomplished by means of separate sound and separate pic
138
ture components; (4) protection of film from damage by heat
during still frame sequences and maintenance of constant
illumination at any rate of film projection; (5) elimina
tion of observable flicker at any frame rate; and (6) sim
plified handling of separate film and sound materials.
General design requirements for hardware included
light weight, reasonable cost, reliability in operation
and durability in construction.
Software Design Criteria. It was a requirement for
the development and production of the software component
of the PIP system, that the required techniques would not
differ significantly from existing standards and procedures
for producing motion pictures, filmstrips, overhead trans
parencies or similar audiovisual materials.
Design Specifications
The final stage in the systems design approach was
the specification of technical requirements for the system,
and the fabrication of the system in its last detail.
Specifications were written which detailed an indi
vidualized mode of operation for the system. Hardware
aspects of screen size and materials, film transport mecha
nisms, and operating controls were specified.
The variable speed projection mode, and its accom
panying criteria list, required specifications for the
film advance mechanism, and the pulsing signals or code
139
for an audio tape carrier.
The double system component of the system required
specifications for the gauge, storage, and capacities of
the super 8mm film material, and the separate audio tape.
Both components were to be housed in cassettes. The sound
component, carrying both narrative track and pulse, or
Q track, were to utilize a standard audio cassette and
standard four-track configuration. The film cassette re
quired special development, but would be similar to the
audio cassette in terms of reel-to-reel configuration, en
closure of materials, and simplicity of use.
Specifications for the protection of film included
a reduced light level to eliminate burning or warping of
the film at a hold-frame mode, and the storage and play
back of the film in an enclosed cassette to eliminate the
need for film threading and to reduce possible damage which
may be caused by handling of the film.
Elimination of flicker was specified by means of a
continuously rotating high speed shutter and a continuous-
action film advance claw to maintain exact picture regis
tration regardless of frame rate.
System Prototype Fabrication
Basic patents were filed on the PIP system after an
extensive review of existing patents indicated novelty in
the design and execution of the PIP concepts. In efforts
140
by the researcher to secure financial and technical support
for the fabrication stage of the study, the N. V. Philips'
Gloeilampenfabrieken of Eindhoven, Nederland was contacted.
The Philips company was the developer of the audio cas
sette, and were world leaders in audiovisual equipment de
sign and manufacture.
After a personal meeting with factory directors, an
agreement was subsequently made whereby the Philips or
ganization would finance production of a number of proto
types according to the design specifications developed as
part of this study. Support also was obtained for pro
duction of a first software program.
The resultant prototype exhibited most of the design
specifications, with the exceptions of minor structural
and circuit details (e.g., no carrying handle, no headset
outlets or auto-stop mode, etc.).
Software Program Development
It was the objective of the software development
phase of the study to gain experience in program production
problems and techniques for the PIP system, and to develop
a set of normative guidelines for future program develop
ment and production.
A script and storyboard were developed to incorporate
several audiovisual techniques into a single program.
Single frame presentation, motion sequences (24 f/s, 12
141
f/s, and 8 f/s), overlay and pop-on techniques, and con
version of existing materials (motion and still sequences)
were utilized. An auto-tutorial mode of free constructed
response by drawing directly upon the PIP screen also was
incorporated into the program.
A format was devised to facilitate the marking upon
the script, and the insertion onto the audio cassette, of
pulses which controlled the sequence of frame rates.
The physical planning, production, and editing of
the elements of the software program were performed in
accordance with accepted standards in the audiovisual
fields of motion picture, filmstrip and transparency pro
duction. Existing laboratory facilities were employed.
The generation of the Q track required a sophistication
heretofore not required in the cueing of existing audio
visual presentations. Actual pulsing of the materials was
accomplished at the factory of the N. V. Philips company
because of the lack of pulse generating equipment which
would generate the exact number of pulses and their spe
cific frame rate for many of the motion sequences (e.g.,
345 frames at 8 per second).
II. CONCLUSIONS
An inescapable conclusion that the physical PIP sys
tem configuration— and the design concepts and criteria
from which it had been developed, if not the design metho-
142
dology itself— was practicable and valid was the full com
mitment by a large manufacturing organization to the manu
facture, sale and distribution of the unit which evolved
from this study. (Cf. Appendix E for the first advertising
statement of PIP in the United States by the North American
Philips Corporation; and Appendixes F and 6 for the descrip
tive literature by the N. V. Philips company of the Neder-
lands.)
It was not the purpose of the present study, certain
ly, to develop a system--a hardware unit and the means for
producing software for it--as an item for sale in the audio
visual marketplace. The extent of the ready acceptance of
the PIP concept and design by an organization devoted pri
marily to a profit motive, however, can be interpreted as
one kind of acceptance of the viability and utility of the
PIP system. To be sure, such validation of the PIP system
concepts should be judged independent of whether or not the
Philips-Norelco PIP becomes a successful product.
In terms of the present study, however, conclusions
were based upon observation, experience, and other empiri
cal evidence acquired in the development and fabrication
of the PIP system hardware and software components. A face
validity was sought; further measures of reliability (in
terms of equipment functioning and experimental replica
tion) were encouraged in recommendations for further re
search, and were deemed subjects of integral research
143
studies in themselves.
Basic Concepts
It was concluded that it was technically and economi
cally feasible to:
1. combine all existing audiovisual projectable ma
terials, in terms of their picture content, into
a single uniform gauge carrier; and to
2. develop an independent carrier of sound and pulse
information which would reliably control the se
quencing of the frames of picture while main
taining narrative synchronism.
Hardware Concepts. The following conclusions were
drawn from experience in developing the hardware component
of the PIP system:
1. variable speed projection of sequences on a
single strip of film was feasible, wherein the
strip of film contained an admixture of audio
visual techniques;
2. a single unit of hardware was capable of pro
jecting all audiovisual sequences (motion at
various frame rates, still frames, and rapid
sequences of single frames to simulate pop-ons
and overlays) by means of variable speed pro
jection, together with means for protection of
144
the film from heat damage, elimination of flick
er, and maintenance of a constant level of illu-
a . i t in 1 ion,
3. a double system consisting of separate film and
audio components each housed in separate cas
settes was a practical means for storing and
handling the audiovisual materials;
4. use of a double system allowed the flexibility
of restructuring the audiovisual program by
changing and/or modifying either the narrative
or the pulse code, or both, while keeping the
same picture information;
5. development of a pulsing code which specified
one pulse for one frame of picture was a simple
and reliable means for obtaining and maintaining
synchronism between the sound and picture com
ponents of the program; and that
6. individualization of such a hardware-software
system was economically feasible for single users
in an auto-tutorial mode.**
3
A single unit retail sales price for the PIP system,
as manufactured and marketed by North American Philips Cor
poration (Norelco) in the United States is $375.00. Costs
of a copy of a software program, although determined by the
producer or distributor, will be based, among other factors,
on a maximum of 50 feet of silent, color super 8mm film
and a single audio cassette.
145
Software Concepts. Experience in the development
and production of the initial demonstration program, to
gether with the researcher's experience in all phases of
audiovisual production, enable the following conclusions
to be drawn:
1. no significant difference exists in the prepa
ration and execution of a PIP program than for
any other audiovisual medium, singly or in com
bination;
2. extensive pre-planning is required, however, in
terms of deciding the optimum mix of audiovisual
techniques and in working within the limits of
the available film storage capacity of 3,600 in
dividual frames;
3. any existing audiovisual materials, in any for
mat, can either be reduced, converted or repho
tographed into the single PIP format;
4. any mix of audiovisual techniques can be accom
plished, and the transition from one technique
(e.g., motion) to another (e.g., stills) can be
achieved during the editing process and can be
programed during the pulse code generation pro
cess;
5. generation of the Q track, or pulse code, re
quired a highly sophisticated piece of special
equipment to enable the programer to dial in the
146
precise number of frames for a given sequence,
multiplied by the number of frames per second,
and to generate a signal output thereof;
6. editing and laboratory processes and equipment
can be utilized in the production of PIP software
as they presently exist; and that
7. a PIP program can be structured for individual
participation at the free response level by di
rect writing upon the screen.
III. RECOMMENDATIONS
It had been a primary purpose of the study to pro
vide the researcher and practitioner in audiovisual com
munications with a versatile and flexible tool with which
to pursue independent research and study. That the tool--
the PIP audiovisual system--exists as a commercial product
is not alone evidence of either the successful outcome of
the study or the viability of the methods and results of
the study.
Further research and experimentation are needed to
establish the parameters of system application, and to un
cover new uses, modifications and capabilities of the
initial design effort. The entire spectrum of audiovisual
research was felt to be the range and scope of further re
search; its documentation, however, was felt to be too
large an undertaking for the present study. Indeed, even
147
a satisfactorily large listing of future studies with PIP
would tax even the keenest of imaginations and the widest
of experiences.
Nevertheless, a number of areas of application and
study were deemed by the researcher to be significant, and
especially applicable to employment of the PIP system, in
its current stage of development and— more importantly--
with some attendant modification of the hardware (and as
a consequence, software) configuration. Areas which were
considered were grouped into those which could utilize the
PIP system as presently configured; and those which would
require some modification of the existing hardware con
figuration.
Present PIP Configuration
A wide range of applications for the present con
figuration of the PIP system had been articulated, from
the commercial standpoint, by the N. V. Philips organiza
tion, and are included as Appendix G. However, it was
felt to be more appropriate for purposes of this study,
and for future development of applications, to investigate
and to recommend the academic and research uses of the
PIP system.
Individualization. The following areas of investi
gation were recommended for the present configuration of
148
the PIP system:
1. Free Response: a series of programs should be
developed to investigate the free or constructed
response mode of the presently-configured PIP
system. A clear plastic overlay sheet can be
placed directly over the screen; instructions
can be given to the student to use a marking
pen to complete a drawing, schematic, diagram,
or otherwise mark upon the image appearing on
the screen directly under the overlay sheet. A
timed response interval, or an open-ended re
sponse period (wherein the student is instructed
to stop the machine, make the response, and then
restart the machine) can be used. Immediate
feedback of results would be achieved by advanc
ing the film to the next frame, by means of a
pulse on the Q track. The new frame would pre
sent the completed image, permitting the student
to compare his constructed response with the
correct configuration by means of superimposition
of his response over the image on the screen.
2* Linear Programing: programs can be developed
which utilize the sequence of individual frames
and the interaction of the audio cassette. A
start-stop mode of manual intervention can be
149
utilized. Use of the single frame advance can
serve as the program trigger for a visually ori
ented program, with instructions or stimuli com
ing from a text rather than from the audio com
ponent .
3. Skip-Programing: a technique called "every
other frame" can be investigated as a variation
or refinement of the linear program cycle. Al
ternate frames of picture data may contain stimu
li or responses to one mode of operation; the
other frames may contain contrary or quasi**
branching information. Configuration of the
pulse track and interaction with the manual
single frame advance key can offer a limited
branching, or skip-programing capability by
enabling the skipping of frames, depending upon
the student response.
4. Thru-Vu Technique: a number of novel applications
of the auto-tutorial mode of the present PIP
system are possible, and should be investigated.
A semi-silvered or two-way mirror can be placed
directly over the viewing surface of the PIP
unit. This would enable the user to see the
image being projected, and to see his own image
reflected in the surface of the mirror. Appli-
cation can be made in the field of speech therapy
A major requirement of therapeutic programs in
this field involves the correct lip, tongue and
mouth formation of vowels and consonants. A
close-up film of the teacher correctly enunci
ating the lesson can be presented as the visual
portion, together with the appropriate audio
portion of the program. The user, seeing his
own image superimposed over that of the teacher,
can correctly align his lips over the image of
those of the teacher, and to match the appro
priate lip movements of the teacher. The ad
vantages of immediate and continuous feedback
of results should be obvious: constant re-en-
forcement and self-correction.
The fields of dental hygiene, use and applica
tion of theatrical or personal make-up and hair
styling, and public speaking are other examples
of the use of a "thru-vu" technique in the use
of the PIP system.
Media-Mix, Since the PIP system offers the opera
tional capabilities of existing projectable audiovisual
media, studies can be structured to investigate, or re
investigate, media relationships based upon a new concept
of controlled variables: all presentation techniques can
151
be accomplished by a single unit and a uniform set of ma
terials.
1. Comparative Effectiveness: unique experimental
designs can be developed which compare the ef
fectiveness of various media (film vs. film
strip, for example) while the viewing environ
ment and equipment variables can be controlled
by using a single unit.
A novel series of experiments can introduce the
motion factor into a static presentation (i.e.,
converting a slide set or filmstrip). The new
photoanimation or filmographic version can be
compared with the original, without introducing
the variables of different machines and viewing
conditions.
2. Cost-Effectiveness: quantification is required
to document the relative costs (in time and
money) of producing a program for the PIP system
as compared with standard techniques. The cost
factor must be measured against the presumed
effectiveness gained from the versatility in
herent in the system. Over-all costs relative
to producing large numbers of copies, and in the
substitution of several individual machines with
a single system are practical considerations
152
for wide-scale use of the PIP technique.
3. Since it will be possible to eliminate the need
for separate motion picture and still projectors
in a multimedia presentation for individual use,
new criteria must be established for the elimi
nation of motion, the reduction of motion to
slower frame rates, or the substitution of motion
by key frames of stills. Production techniques
must be documented for the conversion or trans-
. lating of audiovisual materials from various
formats into the PIP format. A guide to such
conversion activities was included in Appendix
B.
Multi-Level Programs. The double system capability
of the PIP system gives the flexibility of manipulating
or restructuring either the sound or picture component of
the software program, independent of the other. The same
film can be used, for example, while changing the audio
portion; the audio can contain a different level of detail
for different grade levels, another language, or a new Q
track to skip past portions of the visual component when
not applicable to the audience at hand.
1. Program Interchange; controlled experiments can
be designed to introduce a new variable (for
153
example, a new audio portion of the program)
while controlling the visual portion. Studies
of comparative effectiveness can be made to
quantify results.
2. Reprograming: restructuring of the visual portion
of the program can be examined. Key pictorial
sequences can be skipped rapidly by means of re
structuring the Q track, so that one audience
for a program (e.g., medical patients) will not
"see" those sequences intended for another audi*
ence (viz, doctors). Criteria for the develop
ment of such universally applicable visual stimu
li should be established, and can be a logical
outcome of such investigations.
3. Language Length Differentials: the flexibility
of the PIP double cassette system is expected
to permit the simple substitution of an audio
cassette in one language for that of another
language, thus permitting an efficient and in
expensive modification of languages for a given
program. However, the efficiency of such an
exchange should be examined because reprograming
of the Q track may be necessary. Due to syn
tactical and grammatical structures, it usually
takes a longer amount of time to express words
154
In one language (or a shorter time) as compared
with English. Restructuring the Q track can
have the effect of "stretching" the film; for
instance, dwell times on single frames can be
extended, and motion sequences can be pulsed to
run slightly slower to account for the language
length differential of, for instance Spanish,
as compared with English.
Future PIP Configuration
Within the parameters of the existing electromechani
cal-optical configuration, modifications were considered
technically and economically feasible. Such modifications,
however, were dependent upon future uses and expected re
quirements. Changes in software production techniques
were expected to be made as users became familiar with the
existing system, and were not expected to require corres
ponding changes in the hardware component. Actual changes
in the hardware configuration, as implied or suggested
below, were expected to be within the capabilities of a
minimum commitment of support at the university or college
level. Incorporation of modifications to the hardware
component at the manufacturing level were considered to
be strictly a function of the anticipated market for such
new hardware configurations by the N. V. Philips
company.
155
Individualization. The following aspects of modifi
cation of the individualized mode are currently being in
vestigated by the researcher and the manufacturer, and
were felt to be within the range of feasibility in terms
of the existing configuration of the system:
1* Auto-Stop: original design specifications (cf.
Chapter Five, "Design Specifications") had in
cluded an auto-tutorial mode for remote input
and auto-stcp. The auto-stop mode would function
to stop the tape cassette upon the given pulse
code (which differed in frequency from the film
advance code), while the picture would remain on
the screen. The tape (and hence the Q track
program) could be restarted by the user either
by depressing the "start" key on the console of
the hardware, or by depressing or activating the
correct response button on a device such as the
Respondex unit (cf. infra, Chapter Five, p. 65 ).
The second generation of production models of
the PIP system, as manufactured by the Philips
organization, is planned to incorporate such
capabilities. Studies in remote response for
linear programing modes could then be under
taken .
Audio-Active Comparative: a student record track
can be introduced by the separation of the com
bined audio cassette tracks 1 and 2, and the
specification of one of the tracks as a record
ing track for student oral response. A "record"
mode, and accessory circuitry would be required,
together with means for preventing inadvertant
erasure or re-recording of the "teacher" track.
Existing products of the Philips company (the
LCH-1001 Language Laboratory) offer this capa
bility; inclusion of audio-active comparative
capability in the PIP audio component is feasibly
and would offer further investigative possibili
ties in the areas of language learning, speech
therapy, and so forth.
Parallel Branching: a possibility for introduc
ing a branching capability for both sound and
picture components of a PIP program is suggested
in Figure 7. Technically, the requirements would
be to superimpose the Q track for one branch of
the program upon the narrative track for another.
Filtering of the triggering frequency from the
narrative range of frequencies would be necessary
to prevent inadvertent and false triggering by
random matching signals from the narrative. Up
Reads
Narrative
Decision
?
Frame
Answer
1
Answer
2
FILM
' ■ "»' ^
Answer
3
y\
Answer
4
/ \
Advance Film
TRK 1 Narrative response (Pulses for Trk 3 -Tin-TL) ^—
TRK 2. Narrative response (Pulses for Trk 4-n_rLrLrL)
TRK 3. Narrative response (Pulses for Trk 1 )
TRK 4. Narrative response (Pulses for Trk 2 -TL-TL. )
TAPE
'©@0®
Response Buttons
EXAMPLE;
Pushing Response Button #3 actuates
narrative response on Trk #3 and its
corresponding Pulse Code on Trk #1,
thus advancing Film three frames to
appropriate Visual Response.
Figure 7. PARALLEL BRANCHING SCHEMATIC
157
to four branches would be possible, each branch
utilizing one of the four tracks on the audio
cassette. Visual branching would be, in effect,
linear progression through sequences to reach
the visual which corresponded to the response.
The response mechanism can be a four-button de
vice (such as the Respondex unit), with each
button activating its appropriate audio track
(and hence Q track and its appropriate picture).
Introduction of an in-line "head" for the third
unused track of the cassette, in addition to
filtering and other electronic modifications
would be necessary. Development of programing
techniques could then be undertaken, together
with their experimental investigation.
Computer Compatibility: an investigation could
be made to determine the requirements for the
PIP system to receive an external triggering
pulse that could be generated by a computer. It
is considered to be technically feasible to ob
tain a computer output signal at the level of
1,000 Hz, which would then serve as a triggering
input to the PIP system. The computer output
could be generated in response to keyboard input
responses to the computer. An appropriate visual
portion of the individualized learning program
would then be triggered and advanced to the pro
per pictorial stimulus, under computer control.
Counting of the number of frames in the visual
portion which must be advanced in response to
the computer input (student responses) is possible
within present computer technology, and requires
essentially that the computer generate the cor
rect number of pulses (and at the proper frame
rate, if necessary) to advance the film to the
desired location. Further investigation of ran
dom search and display by using the PIP hardware
component then would be possible.
Group Projection. Although the original intent of
developing the PIP system was to emphasize individualized
presentation, the possibilities and capabilities of a group
mode of presentation should not be overlooked.
1. Dual Capability: a front projection mode is
possible in the present configuration. Require
ments would be to detach the rear module of the
internal projection cone from the base of the
unit (the section housing the mirror). This
would enable the light path to continue through
the rear portion of the unit, onto a front re
flecting surface. Refocussing of the picture
160
would be necessary, together with the determina
tion of how much, if any, and to what maximum
degree the light intensity of the projection lamp
must be increased. The degree of room darken
ing, audience size, and optimum screen surface
also must be investigated and measured.
2. CCTV Input: the possibility exists with the
present PIP hardware component of training a
television camera upon the PIP screen and feed
ing the image into a closedcircuit television
system. The audio track can be input to the
sound system. Comparative studies could then
be conducted to measure the effectiveness of the
individualized presentation of a program as
compared with a "broadcast" version via CCTV.
The range of techniques for developing, producing,
and utilizing individualized multi-media audiovisual pro
grams seems to be limited only by the skill, imagination,
and resourcefulness of the researcher and by the avail
ability of a versatile, flexible and economically practi
cal system for the presentation of such programs. It was
for the purpose of investigating the possibilities and
technical practicability of providing the researcher and
audiovisual specialists with such a systems approach--and
a resultant tool--that the Programed Individual Presenta-
tion (PIP) system had been designed and developed.
APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF PATENTS
162
SUMMARY OF PATENTS
GROUP A: devices for advancing picture film a single
frame at a time, in coordination with and generally con
trolled by associated sound means* or
GROUP B; the synchronization of motion picture pro
jecting with associated sound.
Sampson* 2*985*069* (Group A) illustrates the use of
a tape having one sound track and one control track to con
trol the indexing of slides.
Coutelen* 2,581,079, (Group A) discloses the use of
notches 9 on a picture film strip to control the length
of time for which individual picture frames are shown.
The Supitilov patents, 2,551,349 and 2,526,516 (Group; A)
also show control means on the film strip itself to con
trol movement of the strip.
Patent references in Graoups A and B are summarized
briefly below:
GROUP A:
Shields, 2,975,672, shows a slide projector con
trolled by a control track on a tape which also provides
associated sound.
Eash, 2,666,358, shows the use of a control tape
107 to control both the single frame indexing of a film
strip 19 and the operation of a disc sound record.
Jakobs, 2,699,089, shows the use of slots 88 in a
sound tape to control the change of picture slides in
synchronization with the sound.
Castedello, 3,001,444, discloses an apparatus for
showing a picture from one portion of the film strip while
reproducing associated sound from another portion of the
film strip. The apparatus indexes the film strip for suc
cessively showing pictures, and reproducing associated
sound.
Sampson, 2,985,069, shows the use of a tape having
one sound track and one control track to index slides in
coordination with the sound.
163
164
Cook, 2,993,408, discloses an apparatus which Indexes
a picture slide projector each time a predetermined length
of sound tape has been played.
Coutelen, 2,581,079, shows the control of slide pro
jecting apparatus by notches 9 on the film strip to show
each still picture for a different length of time in syn
chronization with a sound track.
Schwartz, 3,033,077, shows an apparatus for using a
cartridge to provide successive still picture slides and
associated sound.
Loughner, 2,281,943, discloses a slide projector
which is controlled to advance a film strip frame by frame.
The control signal is provided on a sound record with the
signal being beyond the audio range.
Coleman, 2,498,070, shows a slide projector operated
in coordination with sound by a sound signal of a fre
quency out of the audio range.
Davis, 2,100,434, shows a phonograph record which
includes silent portions for controlling either a slide
projector or a motion picture projector.
Supitilov, 2,551,349 and 2,526,516, both of which
are assigned to Operadio Manufacturing Co. of Illinois,
both show apparatus for the frame-by-frame advance at
regular intervals of a film strip in coordination with a
sound recording. The means controlling the advance are
formations on the film strip itself, but each formation is
spaced along the length of the film from the frame the
projection of \dtiich it controls.
GROUP B:
Kuhnert, 2,988,954, discloses the synchronization of
tape recording or playing with the taking or projecting of
motion pictures.
Midlash, 3,160,888, shows apparatus to permit the
synchronization of operating of a home tape recorder to
that of a home movie projector.
Shigeru, 2,932,235, shows an apparatus for producing
sound and motion pictures, which apparatus is self monitor
ing to keep both sound and picture in synchronization.
165
Eddy, 2,354,583, discloses synchronizing sound to
motion picture by reference marks on the picture film.
Williams, 2,604,321, shows apparatus for synchroni
zing a sound program with a motion picture presentation.
Angelo, 2,961,919, shows apparatus for synchronizing
sound with home moving pictures.
APPENDIX B
PIP PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT OUTLINE
166
PIP PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT OUTLINE
1.0. PRE-PRODUCTION
1.1. Administrative
1.1.1. Introduction and scope of activities
1.1.2. Operational parameters, agreement
and relationships
1.1.3. Specification of objectives, purpose,
audiences
1.1.3.1. foreign language programing
1.1.3.2. address and retrieval pat
tern (PIP-point)
1.1.3.3. flexibility for future
modifications
1.1.4. Assignment of review and approval
authority
1.1.5. Preliminary scheduling
1.1.6. Evaluation milestones and procedures
1.1.7. PIP liaison, supervisory personnel
and authority
1.2. Research
1.2.1. Identification of content sources
1.2.2. Analysis of objectives and goals
1.2.3. Identification and specification of
tasks
1.2.4. Specification of content
1.2.5. General application of training
analysis procedures
1.3. Development
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
Content outline
1.3.1.1. criteria for budget esti
mate
1.3.1.2. scheduling for principal
cine and artwork
Script
1.3.2.I. format requirements and
specification
1.3.2.2. draft cycle
1.3.2.3. qualitative evaluation of
PIP mode
1.3.2.4. specification of PIP mode
1.3.2.5. script marking of PIP mode
167
168
1.3.2.6. estimation of frame count
1.3.2.7. indication of transitions:
audio/visual
1.3.2.8. mid-program synchronization
points
Storyboard
1.3.3.1. format requirements and
specification
1.3.3.2. specification of detail
level
1.3.3.3. qualitative evaluation of
PIP mode
1.3.3.4. specification of PIP mode
1.3.3.5. storyboard marking of PIP
mode
1.3.3.6. estimation of frame count
1.3.3.7. indication of transitions:
audio/visual
2.0. PRODUCTION
2.1. Cinematography
2.1.1. Basic equipment requirements
2.1.1.1. camera and accessories
2.1.1.2. sound and recording
2.1.1.3. lighting
2.1.1.4. PIP-compatible modifica
tions and requirements
2.1.1.5. miscellaneous and accesso
ries
2.1.2. Basic personnel requirements
2.1.2.1. camera crew
2.1.2.2. sound and recording crew
2.1.2.3. lighting crew
2.1.2.4. production manager
2.1.2.5. PIP production coordinator
2.1.2.6. assistants
2.1.3. Facilities
2.1.3.1. studio
2.1.3.2. recording
2.1.3.3. location requirements
2.2. Animation photography
2.2.1. Equipment requirements
2.2.1.1. basic camera
2.2.1.2. complete accessory pack
2.2.1.3. underlight unit with dif
fuser
169
2.2.2. Personnel requirements
2.2.2.1. art director
2.2.2.2. storyboard designer and
layout artist
2.2.2.3. animator, inker, painter
2.2.3. Facilities
2.2.3.1. animator's room
2.2.3.2. supporting tools and equip
ment
2.2.3.3. varityper or equivalent,
with supplies
2.2.3.4. consumable supplies and
materials
2*3. PIP production techniques
2.3.1. Cinematography
2.3.1.1. lip synchronization at
various modes
2.3.1.2. live photography require
ments
2.3.1.2.1. for program
integration
2.3.1.2.2. angle:speed:
mode ratios and
limits
2.3.1.2.3. point-of-view
characteristics
2.3.1.3. slating procedures and in
dications
2.3.1.4. camera movement s
2.3.1.4.1. limitations
2.3.1.4.2. speed:angle
ratio
2.3.1.5. lighting
2.3.1.5.1. exposure densi
ties and timii£
2.3.1.5.2. strobe effects
and control
2.3.1.6. optical transitions
2.3.2. Animation photography
2.3.2.1. field chart specification
2.3.2.2. framing limitations and
safe area determination
2.3.2.3. integration of live action,
slides, filmstrips, art
work and titles
2.3.2.4. color balancing
2.3.2.5. density requirements for
single frame timing
170
2.3.2.6. cyclic requirements for
technical animation
2.3.2.7. cyclic requirements for
character animation
2.3.2.8. animation Q-sheet design
and completion
2.3.2.9. preparation of 35mm trans
parencies for integration
2.3.2.10. reshooting false starts
2.3.2.11. incorporation and execution
of optical effects
2.3.2.12. optical transitions
2.3.2.12.1. specification
of effects on
Q-sheet
2.3.2.12.2. multi-media
simulation
2.3.2.13. use of overlays and titles
2.3.2.14. determination of static
display cycle for single
frame/multiple frame pre
sentation
2.3.2.15. "quarter-frame rule"
2.3.2.15.1. for titles
2.3.2.15.2. for motion se
quences
2.3.2.16. "PlP-point" sequencing for
foreign visual versions
2.3.2.17. accutance guidelines
2.3.2.17.1. density/reso
lution for
printed data
2.3.2.17.2. optimum con
trast ratios
and values
2.3.3. Sound recording
2.3.3.1. narrative timing
2.3.3.2. script marking
2.3.3.3. recording levels» materials
and speeds
3.0. POST-PRODUCTION
3.1. Film editing: action
3.1.1. Screening of dailies or rushes
3.1.1.1. one-lite workprint
3.1.1.2. variable-speed approxima
tion in projection
3.1.1.3. notation against script
171
3.1.2. Initial breakdown
3.1.2.1. preference marking
3.1.2.2. frame protection in cutting
3.1.3. First assembly
3.1.3.1. in accordance with shooting
script
3.1.3.2. indication of additional
operations
3.1.4. Rough cut
3.1.4.1. preparation of film for
artwork, titles and stock
footage incorporation
3.1.4.2. determination of frame
count for titles and art
work
3.1.4.3. slugging for missing se
quences
3.1.4.4. preliminary evaluation of
roughcut
3.1.4.5. screening and review pro
cedures and equipment
3.1.4.5.1. interlock re
quirements
3.1.4.5.2. script-film
correlation
3.1.5. Final cut
3.1.5.1. content evaluation
3.1.5.2. integration of all elements
3.1.5.3. final frame count related
to pulse train
3.1.5.4. compatibility requirements
for film wind position
3.2. Film editing: animation, stills and stock
3.2.1. Specifications to lab for compati
bility of elements
3.2.2. Specification of "working handles" on
film segments
3.2.3. Intercuting of action with animation
or stills
3.2.4. Intercuting of action with stock
footage
3.2.5. Replacement of slugs in rough cut
with animation or stills
3.2.5.1. re-evaluation of frame
count and pulse specifica
tion
3.2.5.2. margin for error in making
splices
172
3.2.5.3. the single-frame splice:
problems and possibilities
3.2.6. Single-frame timing instructions to
lab
3.2.7. Minimum standards for single frame
sequences
3.2.7.1. editing
3.2.7.2. laboratory
3.2.7.3. PIP pulsing
3.2.7.4. slating or identification
prior to editing
3.2.7.5. coding for negative cutting
3.3. Sound and narration editing
3.3.1. Transfer requirements and instruc
tions for N-track
3.3.1.1. from quarter-inch master
3.3.1.2. 16mm dupe master, cutting
copy
3.3.1.3. transfer speed
3.3.1.4. production of composite
N-track
3.3.1.5. protection copy require
ments
3.3.2. Pre-editing requirements at quarter-
9 inch level
3.3.3. Direct marking of sequences on 16
cutting N-track
3.3.3.1. correlation with script
3.3.3.2. correlation with rough
and final cuts of picture
3.3.4 Dubbing, looping and mixing require
ments
3.4. Q-track editing
3.4.1. Pulse train generation requirements
and instructions
3.4.1.1. correlation with script
3.4.1.2. correlation with rough and
final cuts of picture
3.4.2. Use of pulse track generator
3.4.2.1. control of input and se
quencing of modes
3.4.2.2. generation of output sig
nals and product
3.4.2.2.1. quarter-inch
tape level
3.4.2.2.2. 16mm tape level
173
3.4.2.2.3. "zero cut"
production of
Q-track
3.4.3. Preparation of Q-track
3.4.3.1. from "zero cut" original
3.4.3.2. protection requirements
3.4.3.3. correlation with N-track
3.4.3.4. correlation marking with
N-track
3.4.3.5. splicing requirements for
Q-track
3.4.3.6. handling false pulses
3.4.3.6.1. at quarter-
inch level
3.4.3.6.2. at 16mm level
3.4.3.6.3. before and af
ter transfer
3.4.4. Synchronization of N- and Q-tracks
3.4.4.1. prior to compositing
3.4.4.2. use of multi-gang synchro
nizer
3.4.4.3. marking of edited film to
correlate with tracks
3.4.4.4. use of frame/mode/time
reference guide
3.4.4.5. start mark for editor's
sync at head ends of tapes
3.4.5. Laboratory instructions for composite
master from N-, Q-tracks
3.4.5.1. cassette track configura
tions
3.4.5.2. production of half-inch
master
3.4.5.3. production of answer-cas-
sette
3.4.5.4. sync pulse monitoring for
modulation, width and
frequency (Hz) integrity
3.5. Re-editing of N- and Q-tracks
3.5.1. At quarter-inch level
3.5.2. At 16mm level
3.5.3. Splicing requirements
3.5.4. Exact replacement of edited tracks
3.6. Negative cutting
3.6.1. For cine sequences (16mm and 35mm)
3.6.2. For animation sequences (16mm and
35mm)
174
3.6.3. For single frame or low frame se
quences
3.6.3.1. handling the single frame
splice
3.6.3.2. the "quarter frame" rule
3.6.3.3. minimum frame count for lab
printing
3.6.3.4. timing problems for lab
printing
3.6.4. Use of key and code numbering
3.6.4.1. for animation and cine
motion
3.6.4.2. for single or low frame
sequences
3.6.5. Specifications to lab for one-lite
print
3.6.5.1. correlation with original
edited work print
3.6.5.2. inspection of splices
3.6.5.3. colorometer and densito
meter readings
3.6.5.4. special timing instruc
tions to single or low
frame sequences
3.7. Laboratory specifications for multiple print
runs
3.7.1. Estimation of eventual print require
ments
3.7.2. Specification of intemeg production
3.7.3. Looping for S8mm quadra-printing
3.7.4. Multiple copy pricing and discount
break-points
3.7.5. Final approval of answer prints
prior to multiple runs
3.8. Material storage
3.8.1. Identification procedures
3.8.1.1. for action prints, trims*
outs and negative
3.8.1.2. for animation, stills, and
stock
3.8.2. Storage problems and requirements
3.8.2.1. access and retrieval
3.8.2.2. temperature-humidity con
trol
3.8.2.3. safety of original materi
als
175
3.8.3. Ordering of replacement copies or
duplicates
3.8.3.1. coding scheme and format
3.8.3.2. catalog and indexing scheme
and format
3.8.4. Handling of original materials
3.8.4.1. film
3.8.4.2. tape
3.8.4.3. hard-copy
4.0. LOADING AND FINAL ASSEMBLY
4.1. Laboratory instructions
4.1.1. Film materials
4.1.1.1. print orders, S8mm
4.1.1.2. emulsion position on re
lease prints
4.1.1.3. core winding instructions
4.1.1.4. leader lengths, head and
foot
4.1.1.5. core capacity
4.1.1.6. 16mm negative preparation
and handling
4.1.1.7. inspection of answer prints
4.1.1.8. photo-diode spotting and
marking of break-points
4.1.1.9. looping for high copy runs
4.1.1.10. special instructions and
requirements for polyesther
release printing
4.1.2. Soundtape materials
4.1.2.1. composite N- and Q-tracks
4.1.2.2. handling of master
4.1.2.3. track assignments
4.1.2.4. duping from quarter-inch
4.1.2.5. duping from 16mm master
4.1.2.6. cassette multiple copying
4.1.2.7. answer tape inspection
4.1.2.8. verification of interlock
with S8mm film copy
4.2. Film loading
4.2.1. V-cassette specifications
4.2.1.1. capacity range limits
4.2.1.2. spooling
4.2.1.3. film-feed configuration
176
4.2.2. Semi-automatic loading
4.2.2.1. equipment configuration
4.2.2.2. capacity
4.2.2.3. loading speed limits
4.2.3. Break-point sensing
4.2.3.1. equipment design and con
figuration
4.2.3.2. film sub-assembly at nega
tive cutting stage
4.2.4. Cutting, splicing and threading
4.2.4.1. cutting at positive print
level
4.2.4.2. splicing positive separa
tions
4.2.4.3. cassette threading
4.2.4.4. spool attachment
4.2.5. Discrete start-point focus position
ing
4.2.5.1. purpose
4.2.5.2. materials
4.2.5.3. procedures ■
4.2.6. Non-contamination requirements
4.2.6.1. workspace
4.2.6.2. atmospheric
4.2.6.3. material ionization
4.2.6.3.1. tri-acetate
cellulose stat
ic
4.2.6.3.2. polyesther
static charac
teristics
4.2.6.3.3. emulsion hard
ness and sensi
tivity
4.3. Assembly-line techniques and coordination
4.3.1. Film loading
4.3.1.1. personnel output ratios
and quotas
4.3.1.2. equipment requirement s
4.3.2. Total packaging of V- and A-cassettes
4.3.3. Labeling configuration and placement
4.4. Special handling
4.4.1. Shipping and packaging
4.4.2. "no-en" treatment of film
4.4.3. long-term inventory storage
4.4.4. Short-term storage
17 7
4.5. Special packaging
4.5.1. Cassette container
4.5.2. Special accessories for additional
A-cassettes
4.5.2.1. for various languages or
programs
4.5.2.2. correlative marking of
complete sets
5.0. CONVERSION
5.1. Definitions and purposes
5.1.1. Conversion
5.1.2. Adaptation
5.1.3. Modification
5.2. Reduction analysis - •';,f • .
5.2.1. Initial criteria
5.2.1.1. live action
5.2.1.2. animation: technical
5.2.1.3. animation: character
5.2.1.4. titles
5.2.1.5. opticals: fades, dissolves,
wipes
5.2.2. Screening techniques: preliminary
5.2.2.1. required materials: pic
ture
5.2.2.2. required materials: sound
5.2.2.3. first-pass projection
5.2.2.4. correlation with script
transcript
5.2.2.5. step-by-step screening
5.2.3. Screening techniques: detailed
5.2.3.1. equipment requirements
5.2.3.2. analytical markings
5.2.3.2.1. on film
5.2.3.2.2. on track
5.2.3.2.3. on script
5.3. Preparation of Q-sheet
5.3.1. Purpose
5.3.2. Format
5.3.3. Criterial for estimating PIP mode
5.3.3.1. guide for evaluating mode
effectiveness
178
5.3.3.2. maintenance of original
visual integrity
5.3.3.3. limitations of V- and A-
cassettes
5.4. Preparation of Q-track
5.4.1. establishing positive correlation
5.4.1.1. between N-track and script
5.4.1.2. between N-track and origi
nal picture
5.4.2. Generation and editing of Q-track
5.4.2.1. end product requirements
5.4.2.2. synchronization of N- and
Q-tracks
5.5. Preparation of new PIP negative
5.5.1. Selection of negative materials
5.5.2. Printer requirements
5.5.2.1. equipment configuration
5.5.2.2. equipment limitations
5.5.3. Special problems
5.5.3.1. false starts
5.5.3.2. malfunction into program
5.5.3.3. incorporation of editing
points
5.5.3.4. f , UM splicing
5.5.4. Special laboratory instructions
5.5.4.1. based on negative materials
5.5.4.2. timing requirements
5.5.4.3. source materials
5.5.4.4. degradation of quality
5.5.4.5. copy materials
5.5.4.6. liquid gate method
5.6. Reconstitution at PIP level
5.6.1. Inspection of 16mm answer print
5.6.2. Correlation with Q-sheet
5.6.2.1. accurate frame/sequence
count
5.6.2.2. completion of Q-sheet and
use as guide in Q-track
editing
5.6.3. Q-track editing (See Section 3.4.
above)
5.6.4. Interlock screening
5.7. Re-editing and fine cutting (See Section 3.5.
above)
APPENDIX C
DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM SCRIPT
179
DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM SCRIPT
(MUSIC)
NARRATOR
It's a big. . . wide. . . colorful world! Filled with
millions of people . . . who are also big. . . and small
. . . wide. . . and thin. . . and equally as colorful.
Millions of people, each with special hopes and desires,
important wants and needs: The endless need for education
— such as learning to communicate with fellow man . . .
(SPANISH LESSON SEQUENCE)
La mujer esta comprando un sombrero.
El sombrero esta grande.
El sombrero grande esta hecho de paja.
(CHINESE LESSON SEQUENCE)
You have seen how the Chinese pictograph for the
word "eye" developed into the modern ideograph.
With this ideograph as your radical element, use
your marking pen and draw on the clear plastic over
lay the compound character meaning "to look at."
Push the start button when you are ready to compare
your results with the correct answer.
NARRATOR
. . . and studying fellow man to keep him healthy . . .
180
181
(MEDICAL SEQUENCE)
As the embryo grows, its need for nutrients will in
crease. Therefore, the villi will branch out and
get thicker, forming an organ known as a "placenta."
The ’stalk' that leads between the embryo and the
villi will evolve into the "umbilical cord."
NARRATOR
. . . and even the need to learn how to repair the tools
and devices that serve man . . .
(CAR REPAIR SEQUENCE)
. . . and then carefully remove the valve control
stem from the barrell housing of the carburetor.
Use your screwdriver to make the fine adjustment on
the control stem itself. When you are finished,
replace the spring on the rod, and refit the barrell
housing.
NARRATOR
Millions of people all over the world, hungry to learn . . .
and equally hungry to be entertained, regardless of age.
(CARTOON SEQUENCE: NO DIALOG)
(MARK TWAIN FILMSTRIP SEQUENCE)
Sam Clemens became a licensed pilot in 1858 at the
age of twenty-three. He came to know the river so
182
well that he was to chart its every mood in the book,
"Life on the Mississippi." The Civil War suspended
commerce along the Mississippi. It was a sad turn
of events for Sam Clemens, who had hoped to pilot
the river for the rest of his life. Many friends
and memories were to be left behind . . . "In that
brief, sharp schooling I got personally and familiar
ly acquainted with all the different types of human
nature that are to be found in fiction, biography,
or history. When I find a well-drawn character in
fiction or biography, I generally take a warm per
sonal interest in him, for the reason that I have
known him before— met him on the river." After a
short enlistment in the army, as a Confederate Lieu
tenant, he would start West, seeking other adven
tures, other worlds. He was to travel far from the
Mississippi, but it would always remain near his
thoughts. Behind, Sam Clemens left the world of
the river from which he took a name and returned to
it immortality. Behind remained the towns and people
with which he filled five-sevenths of his later
books. Behind remained the past of Samuel Langhorne
Clemens. . . but ahead lay the future of Mark Twain.
NARRATOR
183
And today there is the growing need to combine entertain
ment with education . . .
(DANCE LESSON SEQUENCE)
This dance step is a simple one-two, one-two move
ment.
NARRATOR
Millions of people . . . each with different forms of self
development and enrichment, hobbies and recreation . . .
(COOKING DEMONSTRATION)
. . . and then measure three cups of flour into the
mixing bowl. Next, rub the flour between your hands
to remove all lumps. When you are finished, the
next step will be to add water and milk . . .
(MAKE-UP APPLICATION DEMONSTRATION)
Use the number two eyebrow pencil in short, quick
strokes, carefully arching outwards, from the bridge
of the nose to the temples. In applying the eyeliner
itself, care must be taken to build up the pigment
in gradual layers to avoid flaking. You will notice
that the color hues can be controlled more precisely
in this manner . . .
184
NARRATOR
To help meet these varied needs, and desires, a new world
of communications was developed: audiovisual techniques .
. . bringing the worlds of education and entertainment,
reality and recreation, to mass audiences through the
universal language of pictures. Pictures, in the form of
35mm color slides . . . filmstrips . . . overhead trans
parencies . . . and, with the added gift of movement,
motion pictures.
Each of these techniques served a special— though limited
-- purpose: 35mm slides were low cost, but gave no motion,
and could easily be mixed-up or lost. Filmstrips kept
pictures together and were still relatively inexpensive,
but they gave no motion to the picture. The overhead pro
jector added the effect of movement by use of overlays,
but the equipment was bulky and costly, and manual use was
limited— and not foolproof. The motion picture gave exact
sequencing, or programming, plus motion and synchronized
sound . . . but at a very high price for equipment and
production of the film materials. Each of these techniques
requires special tools; special projectors and film ma
terials. Some projectors are small and relatively inex
pensive, but are not versatile. Versatile equipment, on
the other hand, is heavy, bulky, and expensive. And they
all vary in complexity of use and in cost of their film
185
materials. To use the advantages of each audiovisual tech
nique, it would be necessary to carry an arsenal of equip
ment and a storehouse of different film materials.
But today the world's peoples are on the move ... by
every imaginable means, and to every accessible place.
And tomorrow's audiovisual techniques and tools must keep
pace with these audiences ... to go with them wherever
they go, regardless of the availability of electric power
... or a darkened room ... no matter how strong the
user is, or how great his ability to operate complex equip
ment.
The world's peoples are on the move, sparking a new revo
lution in audiovisual techniques: away from the old con
cept of mass communications, where a single tool is used
for a limited technique to reach a mass, impersonalized
audience. The trend is clear! Witness the explosive growth
of soft-bound books, transistor radios, portable record
and tape players, and personalized television sets. A new
technology is reaching out to millions of people, not on
an impersonal, mass basis, but on a personalized basis, to
deliver a multitude of tailor-made messages, for entertain
ment and education, using a multitude of established audio
visual techniques, each selected to serve a special pur
pose. . .
186
NARRATOR (continued)
. . . and now combined for the first time into an entirely
new technique: one system that programs a presentation
for the individual, wherever he might be. The PIP System:
Programmed Individual Presentation System . . . Complete
ly portable, using simple and quick cartridge loading . . .
low in cost and maintenance . . . and offering unlimited
flexibility and versatility based on a new concept: vari
able speed projection . . . where each presentation is
first analyzed to remove all static, non-moving elements,
reducing it to its basic audiovisual form. Then, by se
lective programming of frame repetition rates, only the
most efficient and economical technique is used to communi
cate the message. The techniques range from a single
frame, to various multiple frame rates--whatever is needed
to most effectively convey the content . . . The advan
tages of all the existing audiovisual techniques . . .
available on one simple, inexpensive machine, using a car
tridge of Super 8mm film.
The cartridge itself is a dramatic departure from existing
techniques, since sound and picture are separated . . .
giving a unique and flexible cartridge. The tape portion
of the cartridge contains programming signals for precise
film control, together with accompanying soundtrack. This
permits the simple interchange of various other sound-
187
tracks and programming sequences: for different languages,
varying levels of detail or lengths of presentation— merely
by changing the tape, while keeping the same pictureI The
PIP System— Programmed Individual Presentation System . . .
newly conceived, designed, and developed to personalize
the message ... to individualize instruction ... to
concentrate the entertainment ... to exploit to their
fullest the valuable techniques of audiovisual presenta
tion . . . and to zero-in on the precise target: every
one of those millions of people throughtout this big . . .
wide . . . colorful world.
(MUSIC AND END TITLES)
THE END.
Running Time: 11:12
APPENDIX D
PULSE GENERATOR SPECIFICATIONS
188
PLEASE NOTE:
Pages 189-221, "Norelco, PIP
Audio-Visual Systdras Data" ,
(c)l971 by North American Phillips
Corporation, not microfilmed at
request of author. Available for
consultation at University of
Southern California Library.
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
222
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Asset Metadata

Creator Tuber, Richard Joseph (author)

Core Title The Design And Development Of A Programed Individual Presentation System

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Cinema

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Kantor, Bernard R. (committee chair), Allen, William H. (committee member), Knirk, Frederick G. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-483588

Unique identifier UC11362356

Identifier 7217520.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-483588 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7217520

Dmrecord 483588

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Tuber, Richard Joseph

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA