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Content Analysis Of Fifty-Three High School Basic Speech Texts, 1899-1969
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Content Analysis Of Fifty-Three High School Basic Speech Texts, 1899-1969
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CONTENT ANALYSIS OP FIFTY-THREE HIGH SCHOOL
BASIC SPEECH TEXTS» 1899-1969
by
Lawrence Calvin Osborn
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Speech Conrounlcation)
September 1971
72- 11,949
OSBORN, Lawrence C a lv in , 1914-
CONTENT ANALYSIS OF FIFTY-THREE HIGH SCHOOL
BASIC SPEECH TEXTS, 1899-1969.
U n iv e r s it y of S o u th ern C a l if o r n ia , Ph.D., 1971
Speech
University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor. Michigan
C opyright Q by
LAW RENCE CALVIN OSBORN
1971
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THK O RA DUA TI SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS A N G I L n , CALI FORNIA * 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
........ JwA.Yfx.&n££..£^xui.A«JfeQxn..........
under the direction of hia... Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The G radu
ate School, in partial fulfillm ent of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
'(/
D a e x * . . 1 9 . 7 . J l
PLEASE NOTE:
Some Pages have i n d i s t i n c t
p rint* Filmed as received.
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the following Individuals,
whose assistance helped to make this dissertation possible:
Dr. Milton C. Dickens, Chairman of my Dissertation Committee,
for his skillful guidance, assistance, patience, and encouragement
throughout the study;
Dr. William B. McCoard and Dr. Edward Borgers, the other
members of my Dissertation Committee, for their counsel and special
help;
My wife, Jeannie, for providing Inspiration, faith, and
courage;
Russell Osborn, the author's brother, who secured material
from the Library of Congress, without which the study would have been
well-nigh impossible;
Gary Shearer and the Library staff at Loma Linda University
(La Sierra Campus) for their cooperation in obtaining numerous disser
tations and books from various libraries;
Darlene Franke, for typing the dissertation and providing much
assistance in editing the manuscript;
and, finally, to all my friends whose kind words and confidence
cheered me on to finish the task!
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES................................................ vii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION.............................................. 1
The Problem............................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ............................ 1
Significance of the Problem.......................... 1
Delimitations of the Study........................... 2
Definitions of Terms .................................. 3
Preview of Remaining Chapters . . . ..................... 4
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..................................... 5
Sources ................................................. 5
Role of Textbooks in American Education................ 6
Textbook Analysis as a Type of Graduate Research . . . 10
Studies Especially Relevant to the Present Inquiry . . 13
Summary................................................. 15
III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY....................................... 17
Research Methods Used.................................. 17
Terminal Dates for S t u d y .............................. 17
Selection of Textbooks for Analysis .................... 19
Choice of Sampling Techniques ........................ 19
The Early Period, 1899-1921 ......................... 21
111
Chapter Page
The Middle Period, 1922-1964 21
The Late Period, 1965-1969 24
Application of the Polling Technique ................. 25
Total Siee of Sample................................ 29
Application of the Content Analysis Technique ......... 30
Choosing the Content Categories ...................... 31
Devising the Tool for Measuring..................... 32
IV. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA (1899-1969) . . . 40
Major Trends in Speech Education During the
Nineteenth Century ................................... 40
Characteristics of Speech Education During the
First Quarter of the Nineteenth Century........... 42
Developments In Speech Education (1825-1855) .... 43
Trends in Speech Education (1855-1880) 45
Emphases in the Last Two Decades (1880-1900) .... 46
Major Trends in Speech Education from 1899-1969 .... 47
Speech in General..................................... 55
Speech Delivery ....................................... 57
Speech Content ....................................... 59
Other.................................................. 59
Additional Interpretation of the Data Vertically
by Decades, 1899-1969 ................................ 61
Abbreviations U s e d ................................... 64
First Decade (1899-1909).............................. 64
The Teens (1910-1919) ................................ 67
The Twenties (1920-1929).............................. 70
The Thirties (1930-1939).............................. 72
iv
Chapter Page
The Forties (1940-1949) .............................. 74
The Fifties (1950-1959) .............................. 75
The Sixties (1960-1969) .............................. 78
V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, AND DISCUSSION ....................... 82
Sumnary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Findings............................................... 84
Discussion............................................. 85
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................... 90
APPENDIX A ........................................................ 93
APPENDIX B ........................................... 100
APPENDIX C ........................................................ 101
APPENDIX D ........................................................ 102
APPENDIX E ........................................................ 103
APPENDIX P ........................................................ 107
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Results of Poll of Experts Regarding 'tfost Widely
Used" Textbooks......................................... 28
2. Data S h e e t......... 33
vl
37
56
58
60
62
63
65
68
71
73
76
77
79
LIST OF FIGURES
Example of Superimposed Measuring Device Applied
to a Printed Page .......................................
Speech in General .........................................
Speech Delivery ...........................................
Speech Content ...........................................
Other ........ ..................................
Composite Illustration of the Four Major Speech Areas . .
First Decade (1899-1909)..................................
The Teens (1910-1919) ....................................
The Twenties (1920-1929)..................................
The Thirties (1930-1939)..................................
The Forties (1940-1949) ..................................
The Fifties (1950-1959) ..................................
The Sixties (1960-1969) ..................................
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The Problem
It seems reasonable to assume that to a significant degree,
speech texts reflect the teaching and learning in courses where they are
used. Gray said it this way: "The changes . . . in American speech
education are revealed, finally, in the character of the textbooks that
were written and studied."^ Although speech textbooks are not followed
slavishly by the teacher in the classroom, it is probable that Gray was
right in implying that they are the best available indices to what
happens in the classroom. This study began with that supposition.
Statement of the Problem
The general purpose of this study was to provide a systematic,
empirical, and historical description of speech education in American
high schools during the modern era. More specifically, the problem was
to analyze selected textbooks In high school fundamentals of speech,
published from 1899*1969, to discover similarities, differences, and
trends.
Significance of the Problem
^Giles Wllkeson Gray, "Some Teachers and the Transition to
Twentieth-Century Speech Education," History of Speech Education in
America. ed. Karl R. Wallace (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,
1954), p. 424.
1
The study was thought to be significant for several reasons;
1. The importance of spoken communication in the social,
vocational, and personal lives of American citizens is self-evident.
2. The type and amount of speech education received by high
school students almost certainly Influence their subsequent speech
proficiency.
3. An understanding of recent historical changes and trends in
speech textbooks should provide teachers and advanced students with a
better understanding of textbooks of today.
4. A better understanding of today's textbooks may contribute
to the efficiency with which they are used.
5. Writers of new speech textbooks may profit from having an
historical frame of reference from which to deduce future educational
needs in the field of oral communication.
Delimitations of the Study
The study was limited to high school basic speech texts.
College texts were excluded; likewise, specialized secondary school
texts, such as those in drama or debate.
Second, the study was restricted to the period of 1899-1969.
One reason for this choice was that the period of the nineteenth
2
century was previously studied by Borchers and Wagner. Another reason
for the chosen dates was that preliminary research suggested that
^Gladys L. Borchers and Lillian R. Wagner, "Speech Education in
Nineteenth-Century Schools," History of Speech Education in America,
ed. Karl R. Wallace (New York; Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954),
pp. 277-300.
3
several Important trends occurred during the first half of the present
century.
A third delimitation was dictated by a desire to systematize
methodology--the problem was focused upon a search for similarities,
differences, and trends.
A final major delimitation was mentioned in the opening of this
chapter--the study assumes that speech textbooks provide the best avail
able data regarding what goes on in the speech classroom. Of course, as
Oberle remarked:
It is Impossible to know to what extent individual teachers
will add supplementary materials by means of lecture and collateral
reading to the theory presented in the book. Therefore textbook
analysis does not necessarily give an accurate picture of what
theory material is taught. It is also impossible to know whether
or not the teacher omits certain chapters or units from a given
book because of the pressure of time, Individual preference, or
attitude toward the information expressed that constitute a value
judgment of the material.
Nevertheless, the weight of the evidence indicates that textbooks
provide the most valid available measurement of what the teachers teach.
Definitions of Terms
Basic speech texts. This term was operationally defined to
mean those texts which dealt with elements common to all oral communica
tion, e.g., voice, pronunciation, language, gestures, etc. Characteris
tically, they included sections or chapters on a variety of different
types of spoken communication.
Content analysis. This term was operationally defined to apply
^Marcella Oberle, "A Critical Study of the Speech Content in
High School English Non-Literature Textbooks'* (unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1965), p. 16. i
4
to a research technique for objective, systematic, and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication.^
The following commonly used research terms were defined by
Dickens as follows:
A research design is a detailed plan for undertaking to solve
a research problem.
A research technique is a tool used in gathering or analyzing
research data.
A research procedure is what an Investigator does (his
behavior) while using a research technique.
A datum is the report of an observation of a phenomenon.
Conclusions (or Pindings or Results) are inferences drawn
directly from the data and within the limits Imposed by the
design of the study, the statement of which proposes answers to
the question comprising the investigator's problem.
Implications are inferences based upon the data but not
necessarily confined within the limits imposed by the design of
the study, the statement of which suggests possibilities for
practical application or for further research.
Interpretations are statements that describe or explain how
the researcher reasoned from his data to his conclusions and
implications.
Preview of Remaining Chapters
Chapter II Is concerned with a review of the literature;
Chapter III, with the design of the study; Chapter IV, with presents
tion and interpretation of the data; and Chapter V, with summary,
findings, and discussion.
4
Bernard Berelson, Content Analysis in Cosnunicatlon Research
(Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1952), p. 3.
^Milton Dickens, "Tentative Definitions of Some Comnon Research
Terms" (Los Angeles, Calif.: University of Southern California, 1970).
(Mimeographed.)
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Sourcea
Customary bibliographical indexes were consulted, Including the
following:
1. Index to American Doctoral Dissertations
2. Doctoral Dissertations Accented by American Universities
3. Dissertation Abstracts
4. Education Index
5. Table of Contents of Southern Speech Journal. Western
Speech. Central States Speech Journal, and Today* a Speech
6. Table of Contents of Quarterly Journal of Speech. Speech
Monographs, and Speech Teacher
7. Cumulative Book Index
Special attention was given to Franklin Knower's annual listing
entitled Graduate Theses; Index of Graduate Research in Speech and Cog
nate Fields, published annually in Speech Monographs. from 1935 to date.
Other sources included the card catalogs at the University of
Southern California, University of California at Los Angeles, Los
Angeles City Library, and Los Angeles State and Redlands University
Libraries; and personal correspondence and discussions with various
speech teachers, textbook authors, and publishers' representatives.
The most productive single source, especially for finding speech text*
books published during the early years of the century, was the Library
of Congress. The writer's brother, who resides In the Washington,
D. C., area, secured materials from the Library of Congress, without
which the study would have been well-nigh Impossible.
Role of Textbooks In American Education
As previously Indicated, this entire study required the assump
tion that textbooks provided a reasonably valid Index of what transpires
in classes where those textbooks are used. The key role of textbooks In
modern American education has been commented upon by various experienced
educators. Some representative examples of such writing during the past
half century are provided in this section.
Hall-Quest, an early authority in the field of modern education,
In 1918 explained the role of the textbook in terms of its purpose and
value. He felt that the textbook has an important place In education
and declared that it has eight major functions:
1. It holds a central place In schoolwork because It offers
a compact arrangement of materials. It formulates the schemes of
training and is responsible for the scope, quality, and accuracy
of material offered in the course.
2. It is a ready reference after formal training Is completed.
3. It provides for a uniform education throughout the country.
4. It insures an orderly pursuit of the subject matter.
5. It is a definite help to correct studying through its
syllabi, summaries, and outlines for further readings.
6. It supplies directions for the application of the subject
and saves the teacher time In preparing drills.
7. It is a record of the subject development.
8. It has the possibility of determining, administratively,
7
the various levels of school systems and the progress of pupils.^
Ha11-Quest also pointed out that 'Snost teaching today [1918]
2
revolves around the textbook."
Cubberley, In 1927, stated his view on the Importance of the
textbook In American education;
Partly because of the peculiar teaching needs we have had to
meet, partly because of the absence here of any European type of
standardization and uniformity of instruction and instructional
tools, and partly because of the resulting open competition In
the preparation and production of textbooks, the business of
preparing textbooks for use in the schools has become a great
American business. . . ,
In no country are there more teachers engaged in the work of
textbook-making, and nowhere are textbooks in preparation subjected
to such a severe trying-out process before publication. In no
country, moreover, are the textbooks in use revised more frequently
to keep them abreast of he progress in knowledge and the best
educational thought.^
In 1931, The Thirtieth Yearbook of the National Society for the
Study of Education noted: "The significant position of textbooks in the
program of American education is so generally recognized that the
Society seems to be fully justified in sponsoring a yearbook on the
theme 'The Textbook.1
Quillen summarized the analyses of textbooks from 1917 to 1948
by stating:
^Alfred L. Hall-Quest, The Textbook (New York: Macmillan Co.,
1918), pp. 6-9.
2
Ibid. , p. 40.
3
Ellwood P. Cubberley, The Textbook Problem (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1927), p. 4.
4
The Textbook in American Education. The Thirtieth Yearbook of
the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Bloomington,
Illinois; Public School Publishing Co., 1931), p. 1.
8
The work In textbook analysis and improvement carried on in the
United States since 1917 is Impressive. It Involves many different
people and organizations and a wide variety of types of research
projects. Prominent social scientists and businessmen, leaders in
women's organizations and peace groups, American and foreign uni
versity students working for graduate degrees, and leading educators
are among those who have participated in textbook analysis and
improvement. Research studies have been conducted under the spon
sorship of national and International organizations and have been
supported by individual, group, and governmental grants of funds.
Studies have Included the Investigations of the treatment of war
and peace, other nations, civic attitudes, and inter-American and
inter-group relations in school textbooks and other types of teach
ing materials. Most of the studies have been confined to teaching
materials used in the United States, but a few of them have Involved
the comparison of the treatment of the same events in the textbooks
of the United States and other nations.^
According to Cronbach, the textbook still occupied a dominant
role in the American schools in the 1950's. He declared:
At the center of the present-day educational scene in America
Is the textbook. It takes a dominant place In the typical school
from the first grade to the college. Only the teacher--and perhaps
a blackboard and writing materials— are found as universally as the
textbook in our classrooms.^
In the 1960's, the textbook continued to be central in American
education. Gagne reiterated its importance and value when he stated:
Assuming that the student possesses the necessary prerequisite
knowledge, instruction by means of a book is usually a remarkably
rapid and efficient process. Although no figures are available,
the amount of time required for oral communication must surely be
three or four times as much as that needed for instruction by means
of a book. Por the vast range of subject matter that is taught
following the primary school years, printed communication can
certainly be the major medium of instruction, and often Is. . . .
At this level of schooling, in fact, whatever ineffectiveness books
possess as instructional media may often be attributed to difficul
ties that are not inherent in the medium Itself: Either the student
^1. James Quillen, Textbook Improvement and International Under
stand Inc (Washington, D. C,: American Council on Education, 1948), p. 57*
^Lee J. Cronbach, Text Materials in Modern Education (Urbane:
University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 3.
9
has not acquired the necessary background knowledge or he has not
learned how to read, or both.?
Carpenter, In 1963, stated that in spite of the new Inventions,
such as motion pictures, television recordings, and radio, our educa
tional system was still dependent upon the teacher and the printed page:
Within our era the printed text has been supplemented here and
there by inventions such as motion pictures, radio, phonograph
recordings, and television, and we hear a great deal about these
things. We may well ask whether these new inventions will displace
the schoolbook. There seems to be but one answer--as remarkable as
the inventions are, and notwithstanding their Impact upon our time,
they have made no such decisive headway as an accepted and integral
portion of the educational system as to threaten the displacement
of the book. Our educational system at present is still dependent
upon the teacher and the printed page, and they must continue to be
the chief means of imparting knowledge, just as has been the case
through century after century. We, of course, should use any
product of scientific genius to the extent that it is useful, but
we must always remember that children are human beings and that
education is a humanistic process.**
As recently as 1968, Blount and Klausmeler said:
Textbooks, as well as belles-lettres, can produce growth in
behavior or learnings. They can and do teach well, in part,
because they are often written specifically for students at various
levels of schooling in terms of what is known of format, interest,
up-to-date content, readability, learning theory, and so on. They
present subject matter in a logical arrangement to achieve specified
alms. They more or less guarantee to cover Important concepts,
principles, or other content of a subject sequentially. They
contain many teaching aids: suggestions for further reading, test
items, discussion questions, vocabulary sections, and so on.
However, as a tool in teaching, the textbook does have its
values. To the extent that one goal of teaching might be coverage,
the standard textbook does attempt to cover important materials
sequentially. All students are exposed to a common body of know
ledge. Textbooks can arouse curiosity and can motivate. Textbooks
can help guide thinking and can help the student assess his learn
ings. The textbook provides material that the classroom teacher
7Robert M. Gagne", The Condition of Learning (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Wineton, 1965), pp. 276-277.
8
Charles Carpenter, Histoinr of American Schoolbooks (Philadel
phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963), p. 278.
lacks time to create. If a student reads well and brings a suffi
cient background of knowledge to his reading, a textbook can
instruct.^
There are no longer a few well-established textbooks that domi
nate the secondary school curriculum. Textbooks are now available
with many emphases, many shades of opinion. They are excellent
tools and resources for teaching and for learning.
The quotations given on the several preceding pages appeared to
be representative of the conclusions reached by various authorities in
the field of education. They were chosen to indicate that "the text
book was king" throughout the period covered by this study. Of equal
Importance was the fact that In sampling appropriate educational litera
ture, the investigator found no negative evidence.
In addition to reviewing educational literature, the writer
personally interviewed several professors of education, all of whom
agreed that the textbook was probably the best available index to what
has been taught, and how It has been taught, in American high schools
during the past seventy years.
Textbook Analysis as a Type of Graduate Research
Oberle reported in 1965 that she had found nearly one hundred
doctoral studies focused on textbook analysis during the previous
twenty years. She gave illustrative examples of these studies from a
variety of fields--history, English, mathematics, music, zoology,
9
Nathan S. Blount and Herbert J. Klausmeier, Teaching in the
Secondary School. 3d ed. (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1968),
pp. 294-295.
11
etc.^ The field of speech education has been no exception to this
general research trend.
This writer found a substantial number of theses and disserta
tions Involving various types of analysis of speech textbooks at various
grade levels. Plfteen of these studies provided Ideas that were used
either directly or indirectly In accomplishing the present research.
These fifteen were as follows:
Archer, Russell B. "An Analysis of Some Books on Speech and Public
Speaking for the Secondary School." Unpublished Master's thesis,
Cornell University, 1937.
. "A Comparative Quantitative Analysis of Selected Basic
College Speech Textbooks." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation,
Pennsylvania State University, 1953.
Brown, Kenneth L. "An Analysis of the Speech and Listening Content of
Selected Pupil Textbooks in Language Arts for the Elementary
Schools: Grades Three Through Six." Unpublished Doctor's disserta
tion, School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1965.
Cushman, Helen V. "An Examination of the Treatment Accorded Speech by
English Textbooks Used in Pennsylvania High Schools." Unpublished
Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 1942.
Erickson, Marceline Louise. "Speech Training in the Cannon Schools,
Academies and High Schools from 1785-1885 as Revealed by a Study of
the Books Used in the Schools." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation,
University of Wisconsin, 1948.
Evans, Marguerite S. "An Analysis of Four Textbooks in Dramatic Art for
Secondary Schools." Unpublished Master's thesis, State University
of lowa, 1940.
Holmes, Olivette. "A Comparative Study of Early and Recent Textbooks
in Interpretative Speech." Unpublished Master's thesis, State
University of Iowa, 1940.
Marcella Oberle, "A Critical Study of the Speech Content In
High School English Non-Literature Textbooks" (unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1965), p. 9.
12
Lee, Lois A. "An Analysis of the Speech Content of Junior and Senior
High School English Textbooks Published from 1935 Through 1938."
Unpublished Master's thesis, School of Education, State University
of Iowa, 1939.
Link, Alma T. "A Critical Analysis of Nine College Debate Texts."
Unpublished Master's thesis, State University of Iowa, 1928.
Lusty, Beverly Loraine. "An Analysis of the Speech Content of Selected
Pupil Textbooks in Language Arts: Grades Seven and Eight." Unpub
lished Doctor's dissertation, Northwestern University, 1966.
Luthmer, Lorraine. "A Comparative Study of Six Current Textbooks in
Speech Pathology." Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Iowa,
1929.
Mote, Olema. "A Critical Study of Eight High School Textbooks in
Argumentation and Debate." Unpublished Master's thesis, A. B. Penn
College, 1925.
Oberle, Marcella. "A Critical Study of the Speech Content in High
School English Non-Literature Textbooks." Unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1965.
Posz, Conrad. "A Critical Analysis on the Theory of Arrangement in
Selected American Textbooks on Public Speaking Since 1900."
Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Iowa, 1946.
Pruls, John. "A Study of Concepts Concerning General Speech Training
in the Elementary School." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation,
School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1951.
The above studies, plus others, were individually reviewed by
12 13 14
Oberle, Lusty, and Archer. The present writer found no serious
disagreement with previous reviews; therefore, to avoid unnecessary
repetition, he chose to coimnent only upon the ones which directly
12Ibid., pp. 8-9.
13
Beverly Loraine Lusty, "An Analysis of the Speech Content of
Selected Pupil Textbooks in Language Arts: Grades Seven and Eight" (un
published Doctor's dissertation,Northwestern University, 1966), pp. 19-21.
14Ru ssell B. Archer, "A Comparative Quantitative Analysis of
Selected Basic College Speech Textbooks" (unpublished Doctor's disserta
tion, Pennsylvania State University, 1953), pp. 33, 424.
influenced the present dissertation.
Studies Especially Relevant to the Present Inquiry
Only two of the dissertations listed in the preceding section
had a strong and direct influence on the present study--those of Archer
and Oberle. A third Influential previous research was that of Borchers
and Wagner, which was reported as Chapter 13 in History of Speech Educa
tion in America.^
Borchers and Wagner's article provided background information
that was relevant to this study. It was felt that an overview of the
previous century, in terms of trends and emphases In subject matter, was
important for a more complete understanding of this investigation of the
present century. In general, one could say that the present study
"picked up and continued the story" at the approximate time where
Borchers and Wagner left off. In their words, "The forms and methods
of reading and speaking in nineteenth-century schools were to be shaped
and channeled into courses and activities labeled 'speech' in the
16
twentieth-century public school. Therefore, the findings of Borchers
and Wagner will be discussed in greater detail later in connection with
interpretation of twentieth-century data, which are the focus of the
present study.
The second previous research which was Influential in the design
Gladys L. Borchers and Lillian R. Wagner, "Speech Education
In Nineteenth-Century Schools," History of Speech Education In America,
ed. Karl R. Wallace (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954),
pp. 277-300.
14
of this study was the dissertation by Archer. His research dealt with
college textbooks in basic speech, which is in contrast, of course, to
the present study of secondary school speech textbooks. However,
Archer's methodology appeared to provide a model which could be suitably
adapted to this present study. In the first place, Archer demonstrated
the possibility of a technique for selecting the textbooks to be
analysed. Second, he provided a set of categories which proved useful
in applying his particular type of content analysis. In the third
place, he demonstrated one technique for quantifying his data in terms
of page count.Adaptations and changes from Archer's methodology are
discussed in Chapter III.
The third especially relevant study was that of Oberle. This
study was thought to be relevant because even a superficial review of
pertinent literature revealed that on the high school level speech
training in some schools is provided as a part of the customary courses
in written English; whereas, in other schools, such training is provided
in separate courses titled "speech," "spoken communication," etc.
Oberle stated the purpose of her dissertation in these words:
It is evident from an examination of the writing of the leaders
in the field of secondary English that the field of English is
preoccupied with instruction of some kind in the discipline of
speech. This fact, together with the recognized absence of a
standardized curricular program in speech in the high school, leads
to the conclusion that at the secondary level, the field of speech
is dependent to a great extent on the field of English for curricu
lar Instruction in speech theory and practice. For this reason,
from the point of view of speech education, it is important to know
what speech content is offered in the textbooks used in these
courses. The purpose of this study was to examine high school
English non-literature textbooks to determine both the amount and
^Archer, op. cit. . pp. 32-73.
15
18
kind of speech Information they contain.
The second problem of the study concerned determining the
speech content to be sought In the English books. High school
speech texts and speech methods books were examined for the purpose
of discerning the speech theory and practice to be taught to high
school students.
Since speech content is found in English as well as speech text
books, and since both disciplines complement each other In the area of
speech, It seemed that a complete picture must explore both the speech
content In English and speech textbooks.
Sunmary
Investigation into research in the area of the role of the text
book in education revealed that the textbook is Inherently an Important
part of the classroom experience. This Is evidenced both by the consen
sus among educators and by the amount of research done In this area.
However, very little research of this nature has been completed in the
field of speech. Therefore, in view of the absence of any substantial
research done in basic speech textbooks on the secondary level, this
study has sought to fulfill a need by making a significant contribution
to the knowledge of speech instruction in the secondary school.
This research was enhanced by a number of studies in textbook
analysis at various grade levels. Two of these— Archer and Oberle--had
a strong influence in the development of this investigation. Archer's
study provided a basis for comparison of college and high school basic
speech texts. Oberle made a comparison of speech content in high school
English texts with those of speech texts. To complete the mosaic,
18 19
Oberle, op. clt.. p. 6. Ibid. . p. 17.
16
Borchers and Wagner's article supplied the foundation for a comparison
of speech textbooks used In the nineteenth century with those of the
twentieth century.
CHAPTER III
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Research Methods Ueed
The term "method" was used In this research to mean the general
plan for undertaking the solving of research problems. Two research
methods were chosen for the purposes of this study--the historical and
the critical. Dickens has defined these methods as follows:
Historical method is a research plan to describe the relation
ships among past events occurring during a given period of time by
means of controlled observation of the records of past observers.
Critical method is a research plan to evaluate contemporary
or historical events by applying selected criteria to the direct
or reported observations of those events.1
Thus* historical (descriptive) and critical (evaluative)
methods were combined in this study; the researcher blended the func
tions of reporter and critic.
The term "design of the study" was understood to mean the
detailed plan for solving a problem. The major techniques and proce
dures are described in this chapter; other details are explained at
appropriate points during the remainder of this dissertation.
Terminal Dates for Study
The choice of the terminal dates for the present study* 1899-
*Mi lton Dickens, "Tentative Definitions of Some Cannon Research
Terms," (Los Angeles* Calif.: University of Southern California* 1970).
(Mimeographed.)
17
18
1969, turned out to be * more difficult problem than was first realized.
In formulating the research problem, the writer first chose 1915 as the
initial year for reasons similar to those given by Archer.^ This was a
landmark year because of the founding of the National Association of
3
Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, which immediately sponsored the
publication entitled The Quarterly Journal of Public Sneaking.^ In
searching bibliographic sources, however, the writer discovered two high
school texts published in 1913 and another in 1914; a rapid perusal of
these three books suggested that they contained features which might be
of historical interest. So it was decided to begin the list with them
and identify the initial date of this research as ca. 1915. These three
books also aroused the writer's curiosity regarding possible immediate
predecessors. Since the work of Borchers and Wagner, as previously
mentioned, covered high school speech texts for most of the nineteenth
century, it seemed reasonable to change the starting date of the present
inquiry from 1915 to 1900. The Cumulative Book Index listed no appro*
priate entires for 1900, 1901, or 1902; however, it listed Practical
Public Speaking, by S. H. Clarke and F. H. Blanchard, for 1899, a book
which was later found to be a secondary school text. In this fashion,
then, the new opening date of 1899 was chosen. Several likely titles
2
Russell B. Archer, "A Comparative Quantitative Analysis of
Selected Basic College Speech Textbooks" (unpublished Doctor's disserta
tion, Pennsylvania State University, 1953), p. 48.
3
Subsequently renamed The National Association of Teachers of
Speech and, again, in 1945, The Speech Association of America; recently,
in 1970, The Speech Communication Association of America.
4
Subsequently renamed Quarterly Journal of Speech Education and
finally, in 1928, The Quarterly Journal of Speech.
19
were listed in the Cumulative Book Index for the period 1899-1913. The
problem was to secure copies of these early works, and the solution
turned out to be the Library of Congress. Some of the titles published
during these years were found upon examination to deal with speech, but
not speech for the high school classroom; a few of them were indeed
almost Impossible to classify. However, the writer was able to find
and identify a total of 16 relevant books for the period 1899-1921. As
will be presently explained, none of these early books were widely known
among speech teachers polled in 1970; the first "best seller" appeared
to be Woolbert and Weaver's Better Speech in 1922.5 Thus, the practical
considerations provided good reason for calling 1899-1921 "the early
period," as covered by this study.
The polling data also indicated that 1964 would be the logical
date for concluding what might be termed the "middle period" of this
study, namely 1922-1964. This matter is further discussed in the
section below dealing with the polling technique.
The "late period" begins with 1965 and extends through 1969,
which was the terminal date of this survey.
Selection of Textbooks for Analysis
Choice of Sampling Techniques
The next major decision concerned the choice of a sample of the
secondary school speech textbooks published during the period 1899-1969.
A random sample of all the texts of this period was not what was
^C. Woolbert and A. T. Weaver, Better Speech (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1922).
20
desired. For the purposes of this study, the desired sample could be
described by such terms as ’Snost widely used," "most important," or
'Wist influential." In other words, the objective was to choose a
sample of texts that might provide the best available index to what was
happening in high school classrooms. Vfhat were the trends in high
school speech education, as revealed by selected "leading" textbooks of
the era?
It might seem that the best way to select a sample of the
"leading" textbooks would be to secure from publishers the statistics
on numbers of copies sold. Conferences were held with representatives
of several leading publishing houses. None of them was willing to
provide the requested information. It became apparent that such data
were considered as "trade secrets," which must be Jealously guarded.
Oberle reported a similar experience in trying to secure sales figures
6
from publishers. Likewise, Lusty reported sending a questionnaire to
ten publishers, including one question regarding "sales and/or adoption
lists." Nine of the ten publishers answered the questionnaire, and all
nine of them said that sales figures are confidential.7 Therefore,
other procedures had to be found; in fact, a different procedure was
chosen to apply to each of the three time periods discussed in the
preceding section.
Slarcella Oberle, "A Critical Study of the Speech Content in
High School English Non-Literature Textbooks" (unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1965), p. 12.
7Beverly Loraine Lusty, "An Analysis of the Speech Content of
Selected Pupil Textbooks in Language Arts: Grades Seven and Eight" (un
published Doctor's dissertation, Northwestern University, 1966), p. 26.
The Earlv Period. 1899-1921
As previously discussed, the writer's search for high school
speech texts published during the early years of the century unearthed
a total of only sixteen. It was finally decided to include all of these
books for four major reasons: (a) the total number was small enough to
be manageable; (b) no feasible system for choosing a sample could be
devised; (c) the lack of research covering these early years was
especially conspicuous; and (d) in evaluating these books, allowance
could be made for the probability that some of them were more widely
used than others.
The Middle Period. 1922-1964
During the middle period, the total number of relevant textbooks
published was rather large for making detailed analyses of all of them.
More importantly, the writer hypothesized that some of these books were
widely used, while others were not; for purposes of this study, the
former classification should be analyzed and the latter avoided.
To a limited degree, the most widely used texts were probably
indicated by the numbers of revised editions. Obviously, publishers
would not issue these revisions unless the book was selling enough
copies to return a reasonable profit. But such a measurement would be
gross and would be contaminated by several variables; e.g., each edition
of one book might sell 10,000 copies, while each edition of another book
might sell 200,000 copies.
Another technique for establishing a list of leading texts is
that of polling the opinions of a panel of qualified judges. The feasl*
bility of this technique was attested to by several previous researchers
22
8 9 10
such as Archer, Oberle, and Posz. The polling procedures used by
Archer were Judged to be rather closely suited to the needs of the
present study. Archer forwarded a bibliography of eighty-nine basic
college speech books to twenty-three leading teachers, writers, and
administrators in speech, requesting their opinions on the most widely
used books. Archer reported remarkably high agreements among his
twenty-three experts regarding which of the eighty-nine college books
were most and/or least widely used. This rather striking consensus
argued strongly in favor of the feasibility of his procedures and, more
importantly, the validity of his data.
Archer was asking an impossible question, since none of the
panel could possibly know the actual sales figures. Nevertheless,
Archer's indirect approach appeared to have been acceptable to his panel
of experts and had resulted in the rather remarkable consensus mentioned
in the preceding paragraph. Perhaps the explanation of the apparent
paradox is that when the panelist tries to make an estimate of '^widely
used" he finds that his estimate is a convenient way of synthesizing a
gestalt comprising numerous details--e.g., which names of authors has
he encountered most frequently, which book titles seem most familiar,
etc.
It might seem that the best way to establish a list of the most
influential or most important textbooks would be to ask the panel of
8 9
Archer, op. clt., pp. 47-65. Oberle, op. cit.
10Conrad Poaz, "A Critical Analysis on the Theory of Arrangement
in Selected American Textbooks on Public Speaking Since 1900" (unpub
lished Master's thesis, University of Iowa, 1946), pp. 5-6.
experts a question focusing directly on the characteristic to be
measured. For example, the researcher might ask the panel to specify
which books were the "most important," the 'Vnost significant," the ’taost
influential," or the "leading" books In the high school field, etc.
This technique would require a choice to be made among approximately
synonymous terms, most of which are of necessity ambiguous, and this
researcher recognized the difficulties of making this kind of choice.
Archer got around this difficulty by asking the panel to choose the
'faost widely used" (a less ambiguous term). In light of the facts
mentioned at the beginning of this section, one might suppose that the
panel would select book titles which sounded the most familiar, etc.
Regardless of such explanations, the present writer decided to begin by
trying Archer's technique; if the early returns showed that the percent
age of replies was reasonably high, and if they also showed evidence of
a consensus, then additional questionnaires would be sent, using
Archer's terminology. On the other hand, if the eerly returns were
contradictory to Archer's results, then the wording of the criterion
could be changed. Fortunately, the returns were in agreement with the
experience reported by Archer; therefore, the key phrase 'Wat widely
used" was included In all questionnaires in the present study.
As previously indicated, one could scarcely expect the members
of the panel to have any leads at all regarding the books published
during the early period. The average age of teachers active in 1970
would preclude the possibility of very much information regarding the
textbooks during the early period. As already indicated, most of these
early books had become extremely difficult to secure— some of them mlghtj
24
be described as rarities or even curiosities. There was, In fact,
little reason to suppose that the panelists had valid knowledge concern
ing anything about secondary school speech teaching during this period,
since apparently (as shown In the preceding chapter) no research dealing
with that era had been reported.
The above hypotheses were supported by the fact that none of the
books published prior to 1922 received more than a scattering of check
marks on the questionnaire. By contrast, the 1922 text by Woolbert and
Weaver received a large number of votes; therefore, this book seemed to
provide a cleancut operational definition of the initial date at which
the polling technique became meaningful for the teachers who replied to
the questionnaire. These statistics showed that this apparent feasi
bility and validity of the questionnaire technique extended from 1922-
1964.
However, to make the sample more comprehensive, the voting
statistics were supplemented by statistics relative to the number of
revised editions for each text during the middle period.
In the foregoing fashion, thirty books were chosen as the 'Hnost
widely used" (or influential) during the years of 1922-1964. Later in
this chapter, additional details regarding distribution of the panel's
voting are presented in the section describing application of the
polling technique.
The Late Period. 1965-1969
The questionnaire data showed that there was a marked drop in
votes for several of the books published in 1965 through 1969. The
investigator decided that probably these sost_ recent texts had not been
25
in use long enough to hsve become widely used or talked about, in
comparison with the books of the previous era. Therefore, it was
decided that the questionnaire technique was not suited as an evaluative
instrument In the case of very recent publications; e.g., in January or
February 1970, the panelists would have had almost no opportunity to
judge a book published, say, in November 1969.
One solution to the difficulty could have been to make 1964 the
terminal date of the study. It was decided, however, to Include all
seven of these recent books and to apply a different Interpretative
treatment to them; I.e., the investigator would look for the presence
or absence of any new or unusual features, as compared with past texts.
Such evidence would be interpreted in the limited sense of indicating
possible future trends that might or might not stand the test of time.
Application of the Polling Technique
For reasons discussed above, the polling technique was applied
only to the middle period, 1922-1964. Detailed development of the
writer’s reasoning with regard to this polling technique Involved
several complexities; therefore, discussion of these details was
reserved for the present section.
A bibliography entitled Survey of High School Textbooks In Baaiq
Speech, consisting of 115 speech texts from 1913 to 1969, was compiled, 1
chronologically arranged, and forwarded to 107 leading teachers,
writers, and administrators.^ The list of panelists comprised repre
sentatives of thirty-four states, including authors of college and high
^Copy of the bibliography is Included as Appendix A.
26
school textbooks and professors of distinction. They were asked to
check those texts which in their opinions "were the most widely used
during the years Immediately following their dates of publication.1 1 and
to "list additional high school texts In basic speech."
A letter accompanied the bibliography which asked the panelist:
(a) to read the list and indicate by check marks the most widely used
textbooks; (b) to make note in the margin of texts intended primarily
for college use; and (c) to note on the back page of the bibliography
12
any high school texts which were not Included in the bibliography.
Approximately one month later, a reminder-letter was sent to
13
those who had not yet replied to the bibliography. A final total of
67 percent of replies was achieved, a percentage which was judged to be
14
exceptionally high.
Seventy-two panel members returned their copies of the question
naire with their judgments indicated by check marks, as requested. In
addition, seventeen letters were received explaining why the question-
15
nalre had not been checked as requested.
12
See Appendix B for complete letter.
13
See Appendix C for complete letter.
14
Names of panelists who replied are supplied in Appendix D.
l^Of these, one suggested that the writer should examine school
records. Three vigorously refused to respond on the grounds that the
requested information should be secured from publishers' sales records,
etc. Thirteen panelists felt they were not qualified or well enough
acquainted with the textbooks to pass Judgment.
Of special interest was a letter from Wilhelmina 6. Hedde, in
which she said, "I'm afraid I shall not be of too much help to you,
because 1 am biased about my Llppincott Book. . . . 1 haven't checked
your questions because I'm not too versed in the use of these books."
27
The distribution of the panelists' votes is presented as Table
1. Analysis of this table showed several important features: (1) As
expected, many of the books received extremely few votes--almost half of
them fell into the 0 to 1A range. (2) At the other end of the scale, a
much smaller yet substantial number of texts reflected by strong consen
sus the leading or most influential ones. In a few of these cases, the
book might be checked by as high as 55 to 59 percent of the respondents.
(3) In Table 1, the numbers of votes are combined (for convenience) into
intervals of five to assist In gaining an overall perspective. These
Intervals were also combined into three (0 to 19, 20 to 39, AO to 59).
The resulting cumulative totals, from least to most popular, provided a
picture of what was thought to be the most logical expectation--namely,
a distribution closely resembling an inverted pyramid. In other words,
a common-sense prediction might be that among more than one hundred
published texts, only a few would attract a large amount of support and
acclaim, a medium number would achieve a medium-sized success, and a
relatively large number would attract only a small following. The
results In Table 1 graphically support the foregoing logic; the lowest
third (0 to 19 votes) comprised 60 of the 115 texts; the middle third
(20 to 39 votes) included 33; and the most successful third (A0 to 59
votes) consisted of 22 texts (several of which were different revisions
of the same work). (A) A most important decision was, of course,
anticipated namely at what point in the frequency of votes could a cut
off point be chosen to establish exactly how many and which textbooks
would be selected as the 'taost widely used11? In other words, this
decision would determine the sample of textbooks, each of which would
TABLE 1
RESULTS OF POLL OF EXPERTS REGARDING
'fcOST WIDELY USED" TEXTBOOKS
Votes Number of texts Authors*
0- 4 19
5- 9 22
10-14 11
15-19 8
20-24 13
25-29 8
30-34 10
35-39 2
40-44 6
45-49 9
50-54 4
55-59 3
40 + 2 Woolbert and Weaver
40 + 1 Craig
40 + 10 Hedde and Brigance
40 + 6 Sarett et al.
40 + 1 Weaver and Borchers
40 + 2 Borchers
*
The authors listed received 40 or more votes.
29
be subjected to detailed analysis.
Table 1 showed a conspicuously low point--only two books
received 35 to 39 votes. This feature of the data appeared to provide
what might be called an operational definition of the cut-off point:
those receiving 40 or more votes appeared In the table to constitute
the books which could be accurately described as the "most widely used."
The number In this sample was 22. However, there were 8 texts which
received fewer than 40 votes which had gone through three or more edi-
tlons. For reasons presented earlier, it was decided to add these to
the sample In order to Increase the likelihood that all of the most
influential works were analyzed.
Total Size of Sample
As previously explained, the objective of this study was not to
secure a random sample, but a highly selective one. The intention was
to secure and analyze all of the ’ Snost widely used" or 'Snost influen
tial" texts and at the same time to exclude all of the "least used" or
"least influential." This differentiation, as already explained, could
not be accomplished for the earliest and latest periods; therefore, the
samples could be described as including all relevant books that the
writer was able to find. Probably the sixteen works for 1899-1921 and
the seven recent books for 1965-1969 represent well above 50 percent of
the populations. Unfortunately, for reasons already discussed, it was
impossible to establish a distinction between the 'taost and least
influential" texts for either the early or the late period. It was
hoped that this difficulty could be overcome by imposing appropriate
constraints upon the interpretation and evaluation of these two periods..
30
In treating the middle era, it was believed that the sampling
objectives were achieved by means of the combined techniques of the
polling of experts and the application of the facts regarding the number
of revised editions. Thus, the voting results shown in Table 1 indi
cate the strong probability that all of the noninfluentla1 works were
eliminated. The probability Is less strong regarding the inclusion of
all the 'Snost influential." If any of these were excluded, however,
the number must have been small, and the validity of this study was
protected by using an exceptionally large percentage of the theoretical
population. That Is to say, of all the texts receiving 20 or more
votes and/or achieving three or more revisions, approximately one half
fell into the upper eschalon of books from 1922-1964.
Thus, the final sample comprised S3 high school textbooks--16
from the early period, 30 from the middle period, and 7 from the latest
years.
Application of the Content Analysis Technique
As suggested several times earlier in this report, a variation
of the technique of content analysis was utilized In the present study.
As stated In the first chapter, this technique was defined as the objec
tive, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content
of communication. The technique has been so widely employed in conmuni-
cation research in recent years as to require but little general
explication.
The system of content analysis was devised as a technique for
*^For a list of these books, see Appendix E.
31
studying the communication of human experience in such media as news
papers, books, movies, magazines, and letters. It provides a method for
describing various aspects of communication content relevant to a
particular study In quantitative fashion.
In explanation and clarification of this method of research,
Berelson stated three general assumptions which apply to all studies of
content analysis:
1. Content analysis assumes that Inferences about the rela
tionship between Intent and content or between content and effect
can validly be made, or the actual relationships established.
2. Content analysis assumes that study of the manifest content
is meaningful.
3. Content analysis assumes that the quantitative description
of communication content is meaningful.
In further clarification, Berelson noted:
The classification into a single set of categories of similar
samples of consnunicatlon content taken at different times provides
a concise description of content trends, In terms of relative
frequencies of occurrence. Such descriptions of trends are often
useful in themselves; in addition, they provide data which can be
correlated with corresponding changes on the part of the communica
tor or the audience.
In applying content analysis to this study of high school speech
textbooks, two major steps were required: (1) the developing of a set
of categories (or topics) appropriate for the textbooks' contents; and
(2) the devising of a practical tool for measuring the quantity of
printed materials dealing with the chosen topics.
Choosing the Content Categories
17Bernard Berelson, Content Analysis in Communication Research
(Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press Publishers, 1952), pp. 18-20.
18Ibld., p. 29.
32
Once the final sample of high school textbooks had been
received, the next step was to formulate criteria which could be used
in analyzing the texts. Thus, the writer proceeded to formulate a
data sheet which would Incorporate all of the items of subject matter
in basic speech textbooks from 1899 to 1969. This Involved several
processes.
The first process was to select categories and topics that would
adequately represent the areas of speech content in the textbooks to be
examined. A general examination of approximately thirty textbooks was
made and topics of common occurrence were noted. From this survey of
textbooks, several preliminary check-sheets containing categories and
19
topics were formulated and finally crystallized into a data sheet.
The second process was to define the categories and topics so
there would be minimum misunderstanding as to what was included in each
item. These operational definitions (or guidelines) are included in
the data sheet, Appendix F.
As the third process of recording the data progressed, it
appeared that the topics were adequate in systematically covering the
materials in the textbooks analyzed. Thus, the data from each book
were recorded on a separate copy of the data sheet. However, for the
reader's convenience and to provide better perspective, the rather
lengthy data sheet was condensed into the briefer form presented as
Table 2.
Devising the Tool for Measuring
19
See Appendix F for a sample of the data sheet.
33
TABLE 2
TITLE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER YEAR TOTAL PAGES
AUTHOR PUBLISHER
Categories and Topics Pages Percent
Category I - SPEECH IN GENERAL
Category II - DELIVERY
A. Vocal
1. Voice and articulation
2. Pronunciation and phonetics
B. Visual
1. Use of body and gestures
2. Other
C. Verbal
1. Language (style, vocabulary, semantics,
grammar, practicing aloud)___________
2. Other
D. Delivery in General
E. Speaker’s Personality
Category III - SPEECH CONTENT
A. Choosing a Topic
B. Speech Purpose
C. Researching the Speech
D. Planning and Organising the Speech
34
TABLE 2 (continued)
Categories and Topics Pages Percent
Category III - SPEECH CONTENT (continued)
1. The Audience____________ _______________
a. Analyzing Audience___________________
b. Adapting to Audience (psychology of)
2. Outlining (choosing main points)_________
a. Traditional Choices (introduction,
body conclusion, chronological,
spatial, topical, etc.)____________
b. Stock Outlines or Formulas
3. Developing Main Points (forms of
support, etc.)_________________
Category IV - OTHER
A. Speeches with Special Purposes
1. Speeches to Entertain____
2. Speeches to Inform
3. Speeches to Influence. Convince. Persuade
4. Speeches to Inspire. Stimulate. Impress
B. Group Processes
1. Conversation
2. Group Discussion_______
3. Parliamentary Procedure
4. Interviewing
S. Debate
C. Electronic Media
1. Radio
TABLE 2 (continued)
35
Categories and Topics Pages Percent
Category IV - OTHER (continued)
2. Televiiion
3. Telephone
4. Other
D. Oral Interpretation or Reading Aloud
1. Story Telling
2. Declamation (expression, elocution)
3. Choric Activities
4. Other
E. Dramatics
1. Puppetry
2* Flay
3. Acting
F. Speeches for Special Occasions
G. Extra-Curricular Speaking
H. Listening
36
In planning the details of content analysis, the question arose
as to what quantitative unit of measurement should be used; e.g.,
number of words, inches of type, etc. In 1953, Archer applied the page
unit for measuring the content of college speech texts. He stated:
The entries under each topic on the check-sheets were computed,
and the total number of pages derived from this computation was
divided by the total number of pages in the text to determine the
proportion for each topic.
The number of pages assigned to each topic under each category
was added, and the total pages for each category were divided by
the total number of pages in each book to determine the proportions
of the total book devoted to each category. This figure was also
used to check the final computations for each category against the
sum total of subject matter proportions assigned to each topic. ®
Because the page unit was considered to be sufficiently accurate
(and practical), it was applied to this present study, and a measuring
Instrument was devised for this purpose. The instrument was constructed
of clear plastic to measure the perimeter of the printed content of each
page. This plastic sheet was divided into one hundred 1-percent blocks
so that certain blank space could be measured and deducted from the
actual printed content of the page. Figure 1 shows the appearance of a
printed page after superimposing the plastic measuring device.
Regarding exactly what should be included and excluded on a
page, several questions unexpectedly arose. For example, since there
is a difference in form of poetry and prose on a page, should the blank
space at the beginning and ending of each line of poetry be deducted?
Suppose that blank space between lines and within drawings also be
subtracted from the content of a page? What then constituted 1 percent
of "content"7 Should the printed matter cover the entire unit or just
20
Archer, op. cit., p. 40.
37
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Fig. 1.--Example of Superimposed Measuring Device
Applied to a Printed Page.
38
a major part to constitute 1 percent7 Should 1 percent be deducted
only If the entire space were blank? After experimenting with such
questions by actually applying the plastic sheet to two books, It was
decided that most attempts to achieve extreme precision were not
feasible (and in same Instances would result In a spurious type of
accuracy).
It was then decided that all the content in whatever form it
occurred on the page within the context of the natural boundaries of
the printed part of the page would be considered as part of a page. If
pictures went beyond this margin (the 'bleeding" technique), this por
tion was not included as a part of the page.
The plastic instrument was retained and used to measure from
top to bottom and horizontally across the page. The instrument was
particularly helpful when subject matter changed within a page, and
also at the beginning and end of chapters where there were only portions
of a page to measure. A half page or less was considered a half page,
and more than a half page was considered a full page.
This measuring sheet was placed on the page, and the subject
matter content noted earlier was measured and entered on data sheets.
This unit was applied to each book, excluding title pages, forewords,
tables of content, and indexes, as they are not considered "teaching
units." Textual material included activities, exercises, charts,
graphs, illustrations, figures, etc., which are integral to the know
ledge to be imparted. The entries under each topic on the data sheets
were computed, and the total number of pages derived from this computa
tion was divided by the total number of pages in the text to determine
the percentage for each topic.
CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA (1899-1969)
Maior Trends In Speech Education Purina
the Nineteenth Century
No satisfactory evaluation of speech education trends during
the twentieth century can be made without first presenting highlights
of the previous century or more. These background materials were
thought necessary in order to understand the status quo as of ca. 1900;
likewise, developments during the twentieth century seemed more meaning
ful when viewed as a continuing evolution of a continuously ongoing
process. Fortunately, Borchers and Wagner have provided an Insightful
and thoroughly documented analysis of nineteenth century speech educa
tion. Therefore, this definitive source is heavily relied upon,
First of all, the fact should be stressed that practically all
early American education during the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries was initiated and carried on by the churches. Early training
of the child, especially in the northeastern colonies and states,
focused on moral training and preparation for participation in his
particular denomination; college training was largely restricted to
preparation for the ministry.
During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, some of the
educational implications of the political structure of this new American
nation began to be recognised by a sufficient number of our leaders so
that the school system introduced soma broadening changes. In the words
40
41
of Borchers and Wagner:
With the extension of suffrage to all men, rich and poor, came
the realization that education was necessary to train men as citi
zens, and not merely as members of the Church or for the ministry
or because they belonged to a particular class.*
A second revolutionary change in American education occurred
during the period of 1825 to 1855, namely the long, but eventually
successful, struggle for the establishment of free (i.e., tax-supported)
public schools for all children. Spearheading this campaign was the
organization of the Lyceum movement, which originally consisted mostly
of the scheduling of lectures and other oral activities for the primary
purpose of promoting the cause of "education for everybody."
During the remainder of the nineteenth century (1855-1900), no
other major radical changes were made In the total educational policies
in American schools. There were, of course, a good many changes of
apparently less universal significance, such as the addition of the
kindergarten, the establishment of the U. S. Comnlssloner of Education,
the broadening of curricula, and a rapidly increasing emphasis upon the
use of printed materials (including a notable increase in the number of
libraries and the development of the Dewey decimal system).
The above brief summary of major educational developments
affecting the nineteenth century provided a general framework for the
consideration of fundamental changes in speech education during that
period.
Gladys L. Borchers and Lillian R. Wagner, "Speech Education in
Nineteenth-Century Schools," History of Speech Education In America,
ed. Karl R. Wallace (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954),
p. 285.
42
Characteristics of Speech Education During
the First Quarter of the Nineteenth Century
The chief emphasis in speech education in the common schools
during the period of 1800*1825 consisted mainly of oral reading. The
method of teaching oral reading was mechanical. The student was gauged
not by his ability to convey the meaning of the text, but by his talent
to "speak out loud" and to mind the stops and starts; pausing at a comma
for one count, two at a semicolon, three at a colon, and four at a
period. Apparently, the thought or mood of a selection was of little
or no concern. In addition to oral reading, the curriculum consisted
of reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic.
The secondary schools had a bit more extensive variety of sub
jects than the common schools. Grizzell quoted an advertisement of the
headmaster of Woburn Academy (1815) as follows:
It Is his humble and pleasing object to instruct young Lads
in a regular and genteel behaviour, and in the various branches
of literature, viz: Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Geography,
Bookkeeping, English Grammar, Rhetoric, Composition, and the
Latin and Greek Languages. Likewise--Astronomy, Navigation or
Surveying, to such as may wish to acquire a knowledge in each
of these branches. . . .
Borchers and Wagner Indicated that there was an emphasis on
oral reading at the secondary level. Perhaps it was not as mechanical
as the elementary because the teachers were better trained and the
academy produced a 'Snore utilitarian type of speech training."^
E. D. Grizzell, Origin and Development of the High School in
New England before 1865 (New York: Macmillan Co., 1923), p. 33.
3
Borchers and Wagner, op. cit. . p. 284.
43
According to Erickson’s study, which examined 152 readers in
the cannon schools, academies, and high schools, a large number of
readers stressed pronunciation and voice.^
In the first quarter of the century, the emphasis was placed on
the oral aspects of reading, with a heavy accent on the mechanical phase
in the common schools, and perhaps in a lesser degree in the secondary
schools.
Developments in Speech Education (1825-1855)
Vast strides in speech education were made from 1825-1855, due
largely to the social changes that were taking place; such as, the
population shift from the rural to the urban areas, the development of
nonsectarianism in a democracy, the Lyceum movement and its development
of libraries and promotion of discussion, the growth of American litera
ture, and the new interest and value put on the person as an individual.
These circumstances provided widening opportunities for practical speech
as it saw man as a citizen, speaking In a democracy, rather than in the
framework of a church-oriented society. All of these factors and forces
gave a new impetus to education in speaking and reading.
According to Cubberley, Pestalozzl's philosophy also had a
marked Influence on the education of children and youth in the early
nineteenth century in providing a new concept in speech pedagogy. He
declared that:
4
Marceline Louise Erickson, "Speech Training in the Common
Schools, Acadamlea, and High Schools from 1785-1885 as Revealed by a
Study of the Books Used in the Schools" (unpublished Doctor's disserta
tion, University of Wisconsin, 1948).
44
. . . education was an individual development, a drawing-out
and not a pouring-in; that the baala of all education exlsta in
the nature of man, and that the method of education la to be
aought and conatructed. These were his great contributions.
These ideas fitted in well with the rising tide of individualism
which marked the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries,
and upon these contributions the modern secular elementary school
has been built.
These ideas led Pestalozzl to emphasize sense perception and
expression; to formulate the rule that in teaching we must proceed
from the concrete to the abstract; and to construct a "faculty
psychology" which conceived of education as "a harmonious develop
ment" of the different "faculties" of the mind.5
Pestalozzl*s idea of sense perception and expression 'tlind the
sense; read the sense" took the place of the mechanical approach of
"Hind your stops," etc. His philosophy, along with other social factors,
mentioned above, Influenced both class method and procedures and indi
cated a trend "toward speech training in a broader and more practical
sense than that implied In the teaching of oral reading and declama
tion. 1,6
While the schools maintained their former Interest in oral read
ing (articulation, enunciation, pronunciation) during this period, there
was a new stress on the understanding and coomunication of thought,
rather than the mechanical process of presenting the words and pauses.
Other changes in the secondary speech education became a part of
the curriculum; e.g., spelling became an adjunct of reading; there was
greater emphasis on oral and written language; discussion designed to
develop the ability to think appeared; habits of "good listening*1 were
emphasized; and elocution, declamation, rhetoric (written composition)
^Ellwood P. Cubberley, The History of Education (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920), p. 747.
6
Borchers and Wagner, op. clt.. p. 286.
45
courses In "criticism1 1 of the best English authors, and conversation
emerged during this period.7 In order to meet the demands of the times,
the speech education program from 1825-1855 became broader to Include
areas as mentioned above.
Trends in Speech Education (1855-18801
The third quarter of the century revealed a number of emphases
in the high schools. First of all, there was the emphasis upon speak
ing, which centered in two phases:
For this period, then, most of the school emphasis upon speaking
seems to have centered in two classes— the object class, paying
particular attention to the expression of ideas, and the grammar
class, dwelling upon correct usage. Where conversation classes were
taught, both correct usage and adequate expression of ideas were
Included among the goals. There were still criticisms of the too
prevalent dependence upon rules and some educators blamed the hlgh-
school admission tests for this emphasis.&
In the secondary classroom, reading remained oral, although
voice and pronunciation continued to be paramount. Various educators
continued to emphasize the need for conveying the meaning and sentiment
of the author. Wells, president of the National Teachers Association,
expressed his faith in the future of "actual speaking" in the following
words:
The time will never come when analysis and parsing will be
dispensed with; but the time will come surely when instruction in
"the art of speaking" will consist mainly of lessons which embrace
actual speaking; of exercises designed to cultivate the art of
conversation, of narration, and other forms of speech, by constant
and careful practice in the use of these forms.9
7Ibid., pp. 288-290. 8Ibld., p. 292.
9
W. H. Wells, 'Methods of Teaching English Grammar," American
Journal of Education. XV (1865), 149.
46
During this period, elocution wee promoted through the McGuffey
Eclectic Readers. The Fourth and Fifth Readers were especially adapted
to meet the needs of the academies and high schools in 1844 and 1857.^
The Readers were "truly" elocutionary. McGuffey's chief contri
bution was his stress upon the meaning of the passage rather than upon
mechanical rules and elocutionary display.
McGuffey's primary contribution to speech education lay in his
constantly stressing the meaning that must be conveyed to an audi
ence. He points out that effective reading Is in proportion to the
value or worth of the speaker, that the speaker's character is
formed by reading--through perseverance, practice, and adherence to
the literature and moral lessons included in the Readers. Oral
reading should be for the purpose of communicating either the
reader's or author's thought, utilizing only those properties of
voice and gesture as required for common speech.^
These more than two and one-half decades then continued on the
same pattern as the era that preceded it. Speech education in the third
quarter continued in terms of previous emphaseB of expression of ideas,
along with grammar, oral reading, conversation, and the "new elocution."
Emphases in the Last Two Decades (1880-1900)
As the century came to a close, oral reading as an elementary
classroom subject was virtually eliminated from the curriculum, and
silent reading was increasing. Debate was on the increase, but still
appeared to be extra-curricular. During this time, there was a separa
tion between reading and elocution in the high school:
In this period, also, It seems evident that reading and its
methods were set off from elocution. The Cyclopedia of Education
and the Dictionary of Education and Its Instruction agree with
*®Gail Jordan Tousey, ’McGuffey's Elocutionary Teachings,"
Quarterly Journal of Speech. XXXIV, 1 (1948), 80.
U Ibld.. p. 87.
47
others who differentiate reading from elocution by limiting read*
ing to certain methods (the alphabetical, word, phonic, and pho
netic) while they list articulation, pronunciation, emphasis,
voice inflection and tones for elocution.H
At this same time, there was also a demand for practical public
speaking, with its varied aspects of conversation, discussion, etc.
Clark and Blanchard spoke of this interest:
During the past few years there has developed a marked increase
of interest in public speaking. Nearly all the leading Institutions
of learning have established chairs of oratory, or forenslcs, and
many high schools and normal schools are devoting considerable
attention to the subject. The great number of intercollegiate and
inter-preparatory school contests in so many of the States is an
additional sign of the growth of interest in public speaking.
Mai or Trends in Speech Education from 1899-1969
The preceding section on the nineteenth century, as promised,
was a type of prologue to the main focus of this study on the twentieth
century. The first task, therefore, was to examine the status of speech
education during the first decade of the present century (actually
eleven years, due to the Inclusion of Clark's text). This was done in
order to Judge the extent to which this status quo at the beginning of
the present century was a natural outgrowth of the Immediately preceding
trends of the nineteenth century.
The status quo, as of the first decade of the present century,
was established by a content analysis of four high school speech texts
(Clark and Blanchard, 1899; Pertwee, 1902; Shurter, 1903; and Shurter,
1908), which were the only relevant works located by this researcher.
Borchers and Wagner, op. cit., p. 295.
13S. H. Clark and F. M. Blanchard, Practical Public Speaking
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1901), p. ix.
48
The most outstanding characteristic of these four books collectively
was that they devoted 70.2 percent of their pages to matters ordinarily
called "dellvery., , For example, lengthy treatment is given to voice,
articulation, pronunciation, bodily action, etc.; likewise, many pages
of selections of speeches were provided for student practice--Shurter
devoted 50 percent to such "exercises" for practice including speeches
such as "The Gettysburg Address," "The Philippine Question," "The New
South," "England and the American Colonies," etc.^
A review of the highlights regarding training in speaking and
reading, presented in the preceding section, appeared to account for
the foregoing heavy emphasis upon delivery as of 1899-1909. As is
shown later, these early textbooks devoted little, if any, space to
what is now called "speech content." A large number of modern topics,
such as small group interaction or electronic media, simply did not
exist at the turn of the century. The status of the field in these
first decades is treated in greater detail in the succeeding section.
Retaining the trend of the latter part of the preceding century,
American education in the twentieth century was carried on by the state
rather than the church. The trend away from religious domination for
American education, which began in the middle of the nineteenth century,
continued to the present time. This was due largely to social changes
and the necessity of training youth to fit into a fast-growing democ
racy. However, parochial (religious or denominational) schools which
met the standards set up by the state were considered legal alternatives
14
Edwin DuBois Shurter, Public Speaking (Boston and Chicago:
Allyn & Bacon, 1903), p. vii.
49
and became an adjunct In accomplishing the purposes of the public
schools as well as their own. This was also true of the Independent
(private but not religious) schools. Van Til so noted:
Both independent and parochial schools which meet the legal
requirements of a state, when such requirements exist, have been
adjudged legal alternatives to public schools. In other words,
approved independent and parochial schools are deemed able to
achieve the same goals that public schools achieve while accom
plishing their own characteristic objectives.^
In contrast, then, the religious and independent schools which
were in the majority were now in the minority but played an important
part in the American educational system.
The parochial schools which once trained students solely for the
ministry and religious aims in the early nineteenth century still main
tained their religious objectives, but in the twentieth century they
broadened their scope of education to prepare citizens to fit into a
democratic society. Although the first amendment does not permit finan
cial support per se for the parochial schools, yet there has been a
close, cooperative relationship, as is evidenced by the following state
ment :
Sectarian instruction in a public school system, or the expendi
ture of public funds in support of sectarian instruction, is unlaw
ful. The mere wearing of religious garb by public school teachers
does not constitute sectarian instruction. Ordinarily, boards of
education may permit school buildings to be used as places of
worship, subject to board regulations, so long as such use does not
conflict with the primary purpose of using school buildings as
places of instruction. Religious groups, however, cannot enter
upon public school property while school is being conducted, and
give religious instruction to the pupils. On the other hand, the
pupils in a public school during the school day, may be permitted
to be released to attend religious exercises conducted off the
^William Van Til, Education: A Beginning (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1971), p. 175.
50
school premises, presuming that public funds are not used for such
purposes.^
Closely connected with the question of religious or secular
dominance In American education was the endeavor to provide education
for all. The very nature and purpose of a democracy--a government "of
the people, by the people, and for the people"--would naturally seek to
educate and develop each Individual for participation in that society.
Hahn and Bidna affirmed:
The purpose of democracy is so to organize society that each
member may develop his personality primarily through activities
designed for the well-being of his fellow members and of society
as a whole.
Consequently, education in a democracy, both within and without
the school, should develop in each individual the knowledge,
interests, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his
place and use that place to shape both himself and society toward
ever nobler ends. . . .
One of the strongest forces in American education to accomplish
education for all was the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary
Education (CRSE), appointed by the National Education Association in
1913. The purpose of this 27-member group was to "embrace, coordinate,
and review the work of a number of previously organized groups already
18
dealing with various facets of the secondary program." The Commis
sion's report in 1918, entitled ''Cardinal Principles of Secondary
Education," came forth with seven primary educational objectives:
16
Robert L. Drury and Kenneth C. Ray, Principles of School Law
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965), pp. 36-37.
^Robert 0. Hahn and David B. Bidna, Secondary Education:
Origins and Directions (New York: Macmillan Co., 1965), p. 170.
*®Stan Dropkln, Harold Full, and Ernest Schwarcz, Contemporary
taerlcan_Educatlon (2d ed.; New York; Macmillan Co., 1965), p. 146.
51
health, comnand of fundamental processes, worthy horoe-membershlp, voca
tion, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. This
new emphasis dealt in terms of broad areas of living rather than
subject-matter orientation, such as so many units of mathematics,
19
English, Latin, etc., that dominated secondary education before 1900.
Among the most important assumptions of this report is that
education should be for all:
Further, and of the greatest Importance, the report maintains
that secondary education should be for all, that it should be
closely articulated with elementary schooling as part of a continu
ous educational experience in the life of every child, that entry
into the secondary school should be governed by age rather than by
academic accomplishment, and that the colleges should modify their
entrance requirements to enable graduates of such secondary schools
freely to attend.20
From 1918 throughout the next 50 years, the work of National
Comnissions kept reaffirming the objective of education for all.
Prominent among them was the Educational Policies Commission (1944),
which published Education for All American Youth, an effective treatment
of the common needs of all youth, and the Conant report, which advocated
.21
the provision of a "general education curriculum for all students.
While nineteenth-century education for all was greatly influ
enced by the establishment of free public schools and the Lyceum move
ment, the twentieth century American education was predominantly
Influenced by the Interest and work of various educational commissions.
19
Myron S. Olson and Edward C. Kelly, Secondary Education. A
Resource Syllabus (Rev, ed.; Los Angeles, Calif.: College Book Store,
1966), p. 4.
^®Dropkln and others, op. cit., pp. 147-148.
^L. 0. Taylor, Don R. McMahill, and Bob L. Taylor, The Ameri
can Secondary School (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, I960), p. 21. !
52
In contrast with the nineteenth century, a good many changes
took place:
(1) The high schools greatly increased in attendance, as
revealed by the table on page 53. In 1900, the enrollment in public
high schools was 519,251, in contrast with 8,880,000 in 1959. The
enrollment was more than doubled in each decade to 1930. Beyond that,
there was a marked increase in attendance, with the exception of 1950,
which was possibly due to the "boom" from 1945-1950 in business and
industry, when demand exceeded supply and hence high wages had more
appeal to teenagers than did high school attendance. The Increase in
attendance in the high schools led to the inclusion of the lower half
of the students in capability, thus the necessity of broadening the
curriculum to meet the practical needs of the 'taasses," as well as the
"selected few.1 1
(2) A change in emphasis from subject-matter orientation to the
broader areas of living to meet the needs of the whole child and place
him in society.
(3) The entrance of electronic media and mass coamunication gave
a new emphasis to speaking and listening, as well as to reading and
writing, Hedde, Brlgance, and Powell, speaking of the influence of this
factor, corroborated this idea when they stated:
The old foundations of education, which necessarily were baaed
on reading and writing, have been replaced with new foundations
based on speaking and listening. Education must now Include train
ing in speaking and listening as well as in reading and writing.
This training must prepare future cltlsens for living in a society
where spoken communication is more influential than written
53
Growth in Enrollments in the High School, 1880
22
to 1958-59
Year
Number of
students
enrolled
Youth population
of the United States
aged 14 to 17
Per cent of
youth aged
14 to 17
enrolled
1880 110,277 4,056,867* 2.7
1890 202,963 5,119,653) 3.9
1900 519,251 6,116,795) 8.4
1910 915,061 7,220,298) 12.6
1920 2,181,216 7,736,000)** 28.2
1930 4,399,422 9,341,000) 47.0
1940 6,545,981 9,720,000) 67.3
1950 5,664,907 8,710,000) 65.3
1959 8,880,000 9,260,000*** 95.3
*
Estimated (Warren S. Thompson and P. K. Whelpton,
Population Trends in the U.S.A., New York [McGraw-Hill Hook
Co., 1933], p. 1)
The Statistical Abstracts of the United States. 1895,
1910, 1930, and 1952 (Washington, D. C., Government Print
ing Office, dates indicated).
***,'Growth in School Enrollments.1 * NEA Research Bulletin
36:124-5 (December, 1958); "45 Million in School." School
Life 41:8 (September, 1958).
22Ibid.. p. 11.
54
23
communication.
Thus, the factors of Increase In attendance, with its challenge
of meeting new needs of the student, the plausibility of the education
of the whole child, and the appearance of electronic media and mass
communication in the setting of a democratic society greatly affected
the concepts of American education.
In the nineteenth century, the necessary data (basic high
school textbooks) were not available for a quantitative analysis. In
addition to this, there had been a broadening of categories and topics
in the speech field, thus necessitating a more comprehensive and
broader investigation of the areas in the secondary school. In apply
lng content analysis to the twentieth-century period, It was necessary
to develop a set of appropriate categories and topics in order to
examine the content of the speech texts both horizontally and verti
cally. Thus, this section, which presents and Interprets data horizon
tally, as revealed In selected high school speech textbooks from 1899-
1969, will Include four broad categories of speech, which are defined
as follows:
(1) Speech in General (Speech in a Democratic Society, Basic
Principles, Values of Speech, Communication Theory, Ethics of Speaker,
Stage Fright, History of Public Speaking, Methods of Delivery [impromp
tu, extemporaneous, manuscript, memorized], and Rhetorical Criticism;
(2) Speech Delivery (Vocal, Visual, Verbal Aspects, Delivery in General,
2^Wllhelmlna G. Hadde, William Norwood Brlgance, and Victor M.
Powell, The New American Speech (3d ed.; Philadelphia: J. B. Llppincott
Co., 1968), p. vil.
55
and Speaker's Personality); (3) Speech Content (Choosing a Topic,
Speech Purpose, Researching the Speech, Planning and Organizing the
Speech [with such subtopics as analyzing and adapting to the audience],
Outlining, and Forms of Support); and (4) Other (Special Purposes,
Group Process, Electronic Media, Oral Interpretation, Dramatics, and
Miscellaneous [speeches for special occasions, extra-curricular speak
ing, and listening]).
The treatment of data is presented by graphs. As already men
tioned, the first decade (an eleven-year period) is designated as the
"First Decade." The remaining decades will customarily be designated a4
the "Twenties, Thirties, Forties, Fifties, and Sixties."
In the following paragraphs are given descriptions of the trends)
and emphases of the most influential basic texts.
Speech in General
Figure 2 indicates the horizontal trends in Speech in General.
There is little change in the space allocated from the Teens through
the Sixties. This may be due to at least two reasons: (1) on some of
the topics under Speech in General, such as speech in a democratic
society, basic principles, stage fright, and values of speech, it seems
there is little to say that is relevant to a high school course; and
(2) such subjects as ethics of a speaker, history of public speaking,
and rhetorical criticism are of such a nature as to require analytical
sequential treatment and would not be too meaningful for a basic high
school course in speech. Perhaps it would apply more to the college
level.
A casual glance at the subtopics listed on the data sheets
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
12.3
4.4 3.8 3.9 49 4.5 6j3
I _____ I _____ I _____ I _____ I I
1899-1909 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69
Fig. 2.— Speech in General. m
O '
57
under Speech Content revealed that basic principles (aims, purposes,
objectives, etc.) and values of speech included by far the highest
percentage of any of the other subtopics, thus diminishing the percent
age of Speech in General in the total space. Usually, this area was
merely Introductory to speech and was not involved in the mainstream of
significance in the teaching of secondary speech.
Speech Delivery
The remarkable decline in emphasis in the space devoted to
Speech Delivery is shown in Figure 3. This deemphasis is probably
indicative of a trend that began with an overemphasis on elocution in
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This prominence of
elocutionary emphasis may have been due to the fact that speech to a
great extent was in the hands of professional elocutionists, such as
Trueblood and Clark. Both were authors of high school texts in the
early part of the twentieth century and although both emphasized the
"academic and thought" portions of elocution, their Influence as elocu
tionists no doubt had great Impact in the early twentieth century. The
theory that WHAT IS SAID is more Important than HOW IT IS SAID then
seems to have Influenced speech theory quite strongly. What was
thought to be the science of speaking in the first two periods of this
study now received little attention. Through the decades, there had
been an overall tendency to derogate Speech Delivery; however, the
leveling off of the curve during the past twenty years would definitely
suggest that a plateau was reached by about 1950.
This decline and resulting plateau may have been caused by
several factors; (1) to some extent, the authors may have been
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
70.2
50.3
36.5
30.1
26.1
13.0
14.1
1899-1909 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69
Fig. 3.— Speech Delivery.
0 0
59
overreacting to criticisms from colleagues and the general public, thus
relegating speech delivery to an undefensible, low-status level; (2)
the feeling that in the general teaching of speech a minimum amount
should be devoted to "skills'1 or "techniques"; and (3) an overall
tendency to reject speech delivery because of its previous identifica
tion with elocution and its eventual unsavory reputation.
Speech Content
One might suppose that the decline in Speech Delivery would be
offset by an Increase in Speech Content. Figure 4 does not reveal such
a corresponding shift, but rather a sharp Increase in Other. Neverthe
less, this shift in emphasis over a period of seventy years showed a
steady rise, punctuated by a sudden, brief upward spurt during the
Twenties, when Speech Content reached a temporary peak of 24.7 percent.
The sharp drop of 13.3 percent in the Thirties may reflect
several things: (1) more attention was being given to radio; (2) the
sharp rise of Interest in public discussion, group discussion, group
dynamics, and similar topics; and (3) people were sufficiently dis
traught and puzzled over the depression and wanted to get together to
talk things over. Closely tied to the depression was the policy of
Franklin Delano Roosevelt with his fireslde-chat emphasis on "we,"
"us," and "our common problems." The temper of the times seemed to
create a great deal of interest in the community group, which may have
been reflected in a sudden Interest In group discussion techniques (in
contrast to interest in traditional "platform speaking").
Other
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
24.7
17.1
lS.2
11.4 11-
6
6.4
I
1899-1909 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69
Pig. 4.— Speech Content. g
61
A horizontal view of the category Other shows a trend upward,
with a sharp increase in the Teens, Thirties, and Fifties. For the
last forty years of the period, Other occupied 60 percent of the space
dedicated to the textbooks. This large emphasis on Other may have been
due to at least two factors: (1) Other included the large number of
areas of speech which had become specialized and popularized, such as
group process, oral interpretation, drama, and electronic media, and
(2) the times demanded a shift from the "oratorical" platform style to
a more practical life situation in which the student was involved daily
in such matters as interviewing, telephoning, talking in small groups,
listening, organizing clubs, etc.
A comparison of the First Decade with the Sixties showed that
Other occupied an average of 45.7 percent of the space in the texts
examined, apparently taking the space that was devoted to Speech
Delivery (see Figure 5). A more detailed interpretation is given in
the next section. Figure 6 reveals a composite picture of the previous
four figures combined.
Additional Interpretation of the Data
Vertically by Decades. 1899-1969
This section presents and interprets the data "vertically" by
decades to discover additional trends and interpretations. Whereas in
the previous section the attempt was to emphasize long-range horizontal
possibilities and probabilities, in this section the emphasis is upon
special features of each decade. Thus, the two approaches are essen
tially differences in emphasis. The present section also deals with
specifics rather than broad trends.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
67.3
62.5
54,6
57.4
39.2
35.0
8.5
1899-1909 1910-19 1920-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69
Fig. 5.— Other. O'
Speech in
General
Speech
Delivery
Speech
Content
Other
64
The following categories are Included: Speech In General.
Speech Delivery. Speech Content, and Other. Topics listed under Other
(Group Process, Electronic Media, Oral Interpretation, Dramatics,
Special Purposes, and Miscellaneous— Speeches for Special Occasions,
Listening, and Extra*Curricular Speaking) are also Included In the
descriptive and Interpretative processes.
Abbreviations Used
SG-I Speech in General
DEL-11 Speech Delivery
SC-III Speech Content
0-IV Other
GP Group Process
EM Electronic Media
OT Oral Interpretation
DR Dramatics
SP Special Purposes
Ml SC Miscellaneous
First Decade (1899-1909)
Figure 7 shows that over two-thirds of the content of the four
books analyzed was dedicated to the category of Speech Delivery.
Speech In General, Speech Content, and Other were nearly equally
divided In terms of percentage of remaining space.
This First Decade was a part of the transition period In the
development of American speech education. During this time, many basic
facets of speech--such as speech delivery, debate, discussion,
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
70.2
12.3
SG-I
9-° 8.5 8.5
DEL-II SC-III O-IV GP EM OX DR SP MISC.
Pig. 7.— Pirst Decade (1899-1909). &
in
66
conversation, oral reading, and elocution--had not yet been congealed
into any organized pattern of what we now know as "speech." Such
subjects as Special Purposes and Group Process were not included In the
curriculum. Dramatics, heretofore considered an extra-curricular
24
activity, was brought back into the classroom. Electronic Media had
not come into being. Speech Delivery was now being "elevated from the
mechanized systems growing out of the philosophies of Diderot, Engel,
Walker, Austin, Rush, and Delsarte, and made an integral aspect of the
study of speech. Pronuntiatlo again became the fifth canon of
rhetoric. ”2^
Speech Delivery during this period meant something more than
the exaggerated elocution. Gray declared:
In the oral reading of literature the mechanical, artificial,
and exaggerated elocution of the nineteenth century was abandoned
for the more rational and restrained interpretation of the twen
tieth. 26
Oral Interpretation was the only '^Other" subtopic that was
incorporated In the texts analyzed. This was probably due to the influ
ence of Clark, a coauthor of Practical Public Speaking, the first text
analyzed in this study. He "was largely responsible for the adoption of
the concept of interpretation--and the term— to replace the outworn and
discredited elocution.”27 Although Clark did teach elocution, it was
the "new elocution," which taught that technique was important, but it
24
Giles Wilkeson Gray, "Some Teachers and the Transition to
Twentieth-Century Speech Education," History of Speech Education in
America, ed. Karl R. Wallace (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,
1954), p. 422.
25Ibld. 26Ibld. 27Ibld.. p. 430.
67
must be subservient to thought. His 1899 textbook on public speaking
seemed to exemplify this transition, since 34.5 percent of his textbook
was dedicated to Oral Reading and the rest to Speech Delivery.
The Teens 11910-1919)
All of the categories and topics of speech examined in this
study are represented by some space in this period, except Electronic
Media. According to Figure 8, there was a significant rise of 30.7
percent in Other, which was destined to fill the vacancy left by the
decline in Speech Delivery.
It seemed that this period, as illustrated by Figure 8, was
still within the throes of formulating and developing a system of
American speech education, and it reflected individualistic concepts of
speech rather than a curriculum that was developed by an organized
group of professional teachers. This was reflected in the books
analyzed; e.g., Trueblood, one of the authors of Essentials of Public
Sneaking. stressed Speech Delivery, allotting 93.1 percent of his text
book to this area. Speaking of the above volume, he stated:
The aim of the authors .... is ... to present sufficient
instruction for practical purposes, and not to overburden the
student with too extended discussions of the philosophy of expres
sion. It has been our endeavor to discuss briefly the essential
elements of good delivery, to give short illustrations for apply
ing the principles, and to provide whole selections for practice,
. . . While the treatment is brief It will be observed that the
plan, embracing a study of the speaker, his delivery, and the
speech, is inclusive, and alms to furnish all the text material
necessary for a full oral English course In secondary schools. 8
Clark, along with other authors, helped to perpetuate the canon
28
Robert I. Fulton and Thomas C. Trueblood, Essentials of Publl
Speaking (2d ed.; New York: Ginn & Co., 1910), p. ill.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50.3
39 2
21.1
8.4
6.4 5 5
4.1
| 1
I 3.6
1
1 0
0.6 1 1
1 1___
SG-I DEL-II SC-III O-IV GP EM 0T DR SP MISC.
Fig. 8.— The Teens (1910-19).
O '
oo
69
of delivery and the "new elocution" throughout the Teens.
MacMurray expounded the philosophy that the "teaching of elemen
tary Public Speaking should be inspirational rather than critical.
It was his concept that the student should develop a style of his own
before studying masterpieces. He said, "In the teaching of Extemporan
eous Speaking we are not trying to develop orators, but rather practi
cal, effective public speakers. What the pupils need above all else is
30
constant practice." The concept was to deal with the discussion of
significant issues.
Ward stated her philosophy of preparing students to speak in
everyday life in these words:
The chief purpose of oral composition is to aid in preparing
pupils to stand when occasion demands, and say naturally, fear
lessly, and agreeably, as well as simply and clearly, whatever
they have to say. Since everybody is called on, at some time,
to do this, it is high time that everybody be prepared to meet
this demand as he meets other demands and duties in life.
Knowles reflected the emphasis on debate, which began to emerge
32
in the last two decades of the nineteenth century.
The various concepts above seem to indicate that, aside from
the emphasis on "new elocution" and speech delivery, a variety of
philosophies crept into the Early Period.
29
Arthur MacMurray, Practical Lessons in Public Speaking (Ames,
Iowa: Iowa State College, 1910), p. 3.
30lbld.. pp. 6-7.
31
Cornelia Carhart Ward, Oral Composition (New York: Macmillan
Co., 1914), pp. v-vi.
32
Antoinette Knowles, Oral English (New York: 0. C. Heath & Co.,
1916), p. v.
70
The Twenties (1920-1929)
The period of Che Twenties revealed some significant changes.
Speech Delivery had now dropped from 70.2 percent to 36.5 percent, a
total of 33.7 percent. While Speech Content reached its peak at 24.7
percent, an increase of 15.7 percent over the Teens, Speech in General
was at its lowest ebb— 3.8 percent. Other reached 35 percent and took
up approximately one-third of the space in the basic texts (see Pigure
9).
The outstanding fact in this period is that Speech Content rose
to its highest point during the entire 70-year span. This could be
partially due to the influence of Winans1 Public Speaking, which came
out in 1915, and to Woolbert's Fundamentals of Speech, which appeared
in 1920. Speaking of Winans' Public Speaking. Gray declared:
From 1915 on, no textbook on public speaking which was intended
to be taken seriously could omit specific consideration of the
psychological principles Involved in the processes of Influencing
human thought and human behavior. Winans* Public Speaking was one
of the few modern books to which the teacher or student of public
speaking could turn for authoritative instruction on spoken dis
course. It provided a body of principle, both theoretical and
practical, that set the pattern for dozens of lesser books that
were soon to follow. It may well be said that by 1920 his writings,
with their strong psychological as well as rhetorical basis, had
contributed largely to the restoration to academic status of the
theory and practice of public speaking.^3
Speaking of Woolbert's full development of his theory of persua-;
slon, Gray said; "One of the results of his development was a reconsid
eration of the 'general ends' of speech, which Phillips had discussed
in his Effective Speaking in 1908."-^
It is reasonable to believe that the rhetorical theories of
^Gray, op. clt. , p. 436. ^Ibid. , p. 438.
Percent 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
36.5
35.0
30
24.7
20
14.3
10
0
SG-I DEL-II SC-III 0-IV GP EH 0T DR
Fig. 9.— The Twenties (1920-29).
72
Phillips, Winans, and Woolbert (which Included psychological aspects
and purposes of speech) Influenced the marked Increase of Speech Content
in this decade. The high level of Speech Content may also have been due
to the speech philosophies of the authors of basic high school speech
texts during this period. Woolbert and Weaver felt the need for better
speech and consequently placed emphasis on Speech Content:
The fundamental tenets of this book are: (1) Speech training
to be effective should proceed according to principles and rules.
(2) These principles must be evolved from careful observation of
human behavior, that is, from the science of psychology. (3)
Psychology shows us that speech is not instinctive, that it is
learned just as all other habits are learned. (4) Host children
learn their speech under unfavorable circumstances--at home, on
the street, on the playground, (5) The only way in which this
faulty training can be corrected by the school is through a study
of what speech is aimed to accomplish, a knowledge of what its
elements are, and through well-directed exercises in turning poor
speech into better speech. (6) The ultimate object of training
for better speech should be to give the pupil a knowledge of how
to improve himself and a will to put this knowledge into practice;
in other words, to make the pupil an intelligent self-critic.^
In 1920, Stratton devoted 55.9 percent of his speech text to
36
Speech Content. The author apparently had a desire to get away from
the elocutionary and "artificial" aspects and wished to emphasize the
practical life-sltuation speaking occasions. In addition to this, it
*/ is impossible that the organization of speech departments, with their
high standards, had some influence in the high rise of speech content.
The Thirties (1930-1939)
In the Thirties, Figure 10 reveals that Speech Delivery had
^Charles Henry Woolbert and Andrew Thomas Weaver, Better
Speech (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1922), pp. iv-v.
36Clarence Stratton, Public Speaking (New York: Henry Holt &
Co., 1920), pp. 37-218.
Percent
100
90
80
70
60
54.6
40
30.1
30
19.3
20
16.6
11.4
10
0
SG-I DEL-II SC-III O-IV GP EM OT DR SP
Fig. 10.--The Thirties (1930-39).
^ 4
u>
74
dropped to 30,1 percent. Speech Content was now at 11.4 percent,
having declined 13.3 percent from the prior period.
A significant increase was found In Group Process. As
mentioned In the previous section, this sharp rise in public discussion
could be directly related to the worldwide depression. People had time
and felt it necessary to discuss their comnon problems.
The trend in the secondary speech field seemed to be moving
toward the category of Other t which now occupied over 50 percent of the
space In the basic speech text. Electronic Media began to appear, and
Drama, along with Oral Interpretation, increased steadily. This may
have been Indicative of several things: (1) an increased variety of
different speaking situations came into existence to meet the needs of
the "whole child"; (2) the extensive appearances of extra-curricular
activities had likely influenced the emphasis on Oral Interpretation
(declamation, oral reading) and Dramatics; and (3) the realization of
the need for better speech, which in turn would help a person both
financially and culturally.
Hedde and Brigance affirmed this in the following statement:
"Better Speech, Better Business," has been a discovery of this
century. . . . To those, therefore, who seek culture or financial
success, or mayhap both, speech training and speech improvement
are matters of vital concerg. This text is an attempt to aid
those who are so concerned.
The Forties (1940-1949)
The Forties showed a continued decline in Speech Delivery and a
37
Wilhelmlna G. Hedde and William Norwood Brigance, Speech
(Philadelphia: J. B. Llpplncott Co., 1935), p. vil.
75
slow rise in Speech Content and Other (see Figure 11). The significant
factors were that Other rather than Speech Content was gradually filling
the textbook space formerly occupied by Speech Delivery. Nearly half of
the space allotted to Other was occupied by Oral Interpretation. It may
be that Oral Interpretation was taking the place of Speech Delivery,
which In this period were virtually equal. One reason for the continued
ascendancy of Other may have been because authors who were the "most
popular" in the Thirties were the same authors whose books were analyzed
in the Forties, with the exception of Sarett et al. The writer noticed,
comparing revisions of the various texts, that the basic concepts and
philosophies were about the same, with a few improvements here and there
to update the books and relate them somewhat to the times; e.g. , inclu
sion of Electronic Media as it appeared and perhaps an addition of an
area like Listening, which may have been brought about by a change in
mass comnunlcatlon. The Forties seemed to follow the pattern of the
Thirties, due largely to the same writers and also to the attempt to
meet the needs of a vast number of high school students whose attendance
was now in the millions.
The Fifties (1950-1959)
Figure 12 suggested a unique discovery: The category of Other
and three of its subtopics— Group Process, Electronic Media, and Miscel-:
laneous (Speeches for Special Occasions, Extra-Curricular Speaking, and
Listening)--reached their pinnacles in percentages.
For fifty years, there had been a steady drop in Speech
Delivery. It reached Its lowest ebb of 13 percent In this decade,
which probably indicated a trend away from the elocution. For the
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
57.4
26.1
22.8
16.0
11.6
4.9
7.0
SG-I DEL-II SC-III O-IV GP
3.9
_L
EM OT DR
2.9
_L
SP
4.9
_L
MISC.
Fig. 11.— The Forties (1940-49)
O'
100
90
80
70
60
50
AO
30
20
10
0
67.3
4.5
20.1
17.
15.2
.0
8.0
1
10.3
7.7
3.8
_L
SG-I DEL-II SC-III O-IV GP EH OT DR SP MISC.
Fig. 12.--The Fifties (1950-59).
78
first time since 1899, Speech Delivery wss surpassed by Speech Content
in terms of space allotment. Group Process rose to its highest peak of
20.1 percent.
In view of the fact that only a minute percentage of students
would perform on radio, 8 percent represented a point of view which
said, "Let us keep up with the times, although it is not too relevant
to us. Let us call attention to it as a source for listening. Since
radio was introduced in the Thirties, it seems that an up-to-date course
in speech would likely Include Electronic Media." The emphasis seemed
to be a movement from the subject-centered approach to the life-situa-
tlon approach to meet the needs of the community, as well as the
interests and needs of the student. Perhaps the pendulum had swung too .
far in the direction of Other and the topical coverage was getting too
broad for the teacher to do an effective job. In this period, it was
evident that speech education was being adapted to meet the political,
cultural, and social changes and was doing its best to fit the student
into a democratic society. This period revealed that speech education
saw the Importance of training students in speaking and listening, as
well as in reading and writing.
The Sixties (1960-1969)
The trends In the Sixties showed that Speech Content, Special
Purposes, and Dramatics reached their highest points (see Figure 13).
For the first time in sixty years, Speech Delivery began to rise.
Perhaps a renewed emphasis on nonverbal communication (visual stimuli,
facial expression, posture, and gesture movement) and verbal communica
tion (change in pitch, rate, and loudness) was of Importance in this !
Percent
100
90
80
70
62.5
60
50
40
30
17.1 17.8
20
14.1
13.0
10.4
10
0
SG-I DEL-II SC-III GP EH O-IV DR
Fig. 13.— The Sixties (1960-69).
80
age of modem electrical devices and mass conmunlcation. It may be
that Speech Delivery and Speech Content will find renewed emphasis.
However, the tabular data for the Sixties must be Interpreted
with extreme caution, especially since seven of the textbooks analyzed
were published during 1965*1969, as was discussed in Chapter 111. Only
one of these seven received as many as forty votes by the panelists.
This was expected because the recency of these books would almost
certainly mean that they had not had sufficient time to become widely
known or widely used. This expectation was reinforced by the fact that
one book out of the seven was the tenth revision (by Hedde and Brlgancejy
which was apparently by far the most widely used book during a period of
almost thirty-five years; hence, the panelists might well be voting for
it on the ground of familiarity and long-established popularity.
The remaining six books were arbitrarily included in the sample
only because they might indicate coming changes or trends. In other
words, evaluative comments about these books differed from previous
discussion in terms of established historical trends and influences.
With the above facts in mind, the latest six texts (Robinson and Lee,
1965; Elson and Feck, 1966; Irwin and Rosenberger, 1966; Lamers and
Studacher, 1966; Allen, Anderson, and Hough, 1968; and Hanks and Ander
sen, 1969) may be analyzed and a few speculations may be ventured.
One might suppose that the six authors (including four new
authors not yet used in this study) would indicate in their texts a
change in the speech pattern during the last thirty or forty years,
but this is not the case. The six texts were almost entirely tradi-
I
tlonal in their emphasis. Perhaps it was because basic speech is basic I
81
and fundamental and therefore unchanging in principle throughout each
decade.
In spite of this overall trend, there were a few tributaries and
deviations from the mainstream which apparently related to the changing
philosophies and discoveries of the Sixties. Specifically, there were
two slight changes: (1) there was a tendency to move in the direction
of the psychological aspects of the audience, such as audience adapta
tion, adjustment, motivation, and attention; and (2) there was a leaning
toward the audience-centered as well as the message-centered approach ini
public speaking. This was especially evident in the textbooks by Allen
et al. (1968) and Hanks and Andersen (1969). Allen devoted 3.8 percent
to this psychological, audience-centered aspect, and Hanks dedicated
6.8 percent to the same area.
In addition to these changes, both of these texts were responsi
ble for over 50 percent of the rise in Speech Content In the Sixties, as
well as approximately 36 percent of the sustained plateau of Speech
Delivery. Interestingly enough, while the other texts of this period
mentioned communication in general, Allen and Hanks were the only ones
who discussed speech communication theory or the process of communica
tion per se. The above seemed to indicate that there was a possible
trend toward combining the old with the new--the psychological with the
logical, and the audience-centered with the subject-centered message.
CHAPTER V
SIM4AKY, FINDINGS, AND DISCUSSION
Summary
The general purpose of this study was to provide a systematic,
empirical, and historical description of speech education in American
high schools during the modern era. More specifically, the problem was
to analyze selected textbooks in high school fundamentals of speech,
published from 1899-1969, to discover similarities, differences, and
trends.
The study was limited to high school basic speech texts.
College texts were excluded; likewise, specialized secondary school
texts were excluded, such as those in drama and debate. This entire
study required the assumption that textbooks provide a reasonably valid
index of what transpires in classes where those textbooks are used.
Only two dissertations had a strong and direct influence on the
present study— those of Archer and Oberle. A third Influential previous
research was that of Borchers and Wagner, whose article provided back
ground information that was relevant to this study.
Archer's research dealt with college textbooks in basic speech,
which Is in contrast, of course, to the present study of secondary
school speech textbooks. However, Archer's methodology appeared to
provide a model which could be suitably adapted to this present study.
Oberle's study was thought to be relevant because the field of speech
is dependent to a great extent upon the field of English, and therefore
82
83
u complete picture must explore the speech content in both English and
speech textbooks.
Two research methods were chosen for the purposes of this
study--the historical (descriptive) and the critical (evaluative).
Thus, the researcher blended the functions of both reporter and critic.
Selection of the textbooks for the study involved a choice of sampling
techniques. Rather than choosing a random sample of all the texts, it
was decided to adhere to the following principles: (1) all of the
books in the early period (1899-1921) were analyzed; (2) a panel was
chosen and a polling technique was used to discover the most widely
used textbooks for the longest or middle period (1922-1964); and (3)
most of the textbooks were selected for analysis during the late period
(1965-1969).
An application of the polling technique included a compilation
of a bibliography, which was sent out to speech teachers, professors,
and authors in colleges and high schools. The results were tabulated,
and a list of fifty-three basic high school speech textbooks was
compiled.
Content analysis was applied to this study of high school speech
textbooks, which required two major steps: (1) the developing of a set
of categories (or topics) appropriate for the textbooks' contents; and
(2) the devising of a practical tool for measuring the quantity of
printed matter dealing with the chosen topics.
The unit of the page was used throughout the procedure of con
tent analysis, and the measuring Instrument (special plastic sheet) was
designed to measure the data which were later placed on corresponding
84
data sheets.
Findings
1. Trends In the early nineteenth century revealed that practl
cally all American education was Initiated and carried on by the
churches. The latter half of the century showed a drift away from
religious domination, as education was provided for "everybody" through
the Lyceum movement and the growth of public schools. Continuing the
trend of the latter half of the preceding century, American education
in the twentieth century was almost completely dominated by the state,
and education for all was now provided mostly by the public schools,
with religious and Independent schools playing a minor role.
2. The first major horizontal trend in the twentieth century
related to Speech in General, which apparently changed very little
throughout the seventy-year period.
3. Speech Delivery revealed a sharp decline from 70.2 percent
in the First Decade to 13.0 percent in the Fifties, maintaining a pla
teau for the last twenty years.
4. Speech Content showed a steady rise over the period of
seventy years, punctuated by a sudden, brief upward spurt to 24.7 per
cent in the Twenties.
5. Other topics showed a sharp trend upward for most of the
period, occupying 60 percent of the space dedicated to the textbooks
during the last forty years.
6. The vertical trends considered by decades revealed several
Important factors: (a) The Twenties showed that Speech Delivery had
now dropped to 36.5 percent* while Speech Content reached its highest
peak; (b) the Fifties Indicated that Other had reached Its highest point
of 67.3 percent, and, for the first time, Speech Delivery was surpassed
by Speech Content; and (3) the Sixties, in spite of four new authors,
continued in the pattern of traditional basic speech; however, there
was an indication of a slight trend toward the uniting of the subject-
matter emphasis with the needs of the audience.
Discussion
This section will briefly discuss (1) implications for speech
education on the secondary level in terms of Speech in General, Speech
Delivery, Speech Content, and Other; (2) general observations emerging
from the study, and (3) recommendations for the Speech Communication
Association of America and future research.
Speech in General was usually an introductory section in the
textbooks and was not involved in the mainstream of significance in the
teaching of speech. However, it is possible that in the future there
will be an increase of space devoted to this area, which includes
Communication Theory, Speech in a Democratic Society, Ethics of a
Speaker, and Rhetorical Criticism. Perhaps these facets (plus new
i
topics involving speech-as-a-whole) will become increasingly important
l
in a democratic society and in the setting of mass communication involve
ing speaking and listening.
Speech Delivery reached a plateau during the last twenty years
and “held its own." Does this indicate that we can now take a look at
it in the framework of a new perspective? Shall it now be viewed more !
in the light of nonverbel communication and its effect on the audience
rather than the speaker's "just be natural” approach? If nonverbal _ i
86
expressions on radio, television, and the movies "say much without say
ing anything," would this not apply to the speaker on the platform? Is
it not also true that the tone of the voice has much to do in affecting
the audience? Should this not be investigated in the light of current
psychological studies? Should not the language of conmunlcation be
reviewed? Maybe Burke's theory of identification, including a special
emphasis on style, is, important in relating to the youth of America who
are constantly inventing new phrases and words that have a meaning all
their own.
Speech Content, with its Important facets of organizing and
developing the speech, in terms of psychological as well as logical
arrangement, may need added attention if the future leaders of democ
racy are to say something meaningful, worthwhile, and relevent. Perhaps
the new speech patterns— cause to effect, problem-solving, motivated
sequence, etc.— should find ample space along with the traditional in
order to reach, Inform, and persuade audiences to participate in the
democratic way of life and to enable the speaker to think and relate in
a more effective way.
Other topics, which evolved to include an ever-widening sphere
of speech areas, may have broadened too much to be continued in the
basic course. Many of these areas, such as group discussion, debate,
and oral Interpretation, have become "specialties" in their own rights.
Are we trying to cover too much material in the basic speech course?
Could we, for example, deal with speech purposes briefly under the
general purpose of a speech, since in essence there is such an overlap
ping and because the purposes are, in reality, only "within the speaker^
87
mind"? Could we not combine some areas In Other? Does listening need
to be taught as a separate subject? Could it not be Included In
"critical thinking"? Could not the problem-solving-small group discus
sion pattern be transferred to development and delivery of speeches?
Could the facets of Other be used as a means of mastering the essentials
of voice, language, pronunciation, etc.? Do we need to include radio
and television in basic speech?
In addition to the specific considerations of topics, a few
general observations have been revealed as a result of this study: (1)
a dearth of knowledge concerning existing high school textbooks, (2) a
need to correlate and consolidate the variety of philosophies revealed
in the textbooks examined, and (3) a danger of including too much in |
the basic speech texts as scientific, technical, and psychological know
ledge increases.
In view of the foregoing conditions relative to both the specif
ic and general observations revealed above, it seems that certain
recommendations would be appropriate and helpful.
Perhaps the Speech Conmunlcation Association of America should
set up a Secondary Speech Education Conmlssion, similar to the "Commis
sion on the Reorganisation of Secondary Education," to review the entire
speech education program on the secondary level in terms of practices,
needs, and philosophies. Perhaps another committee could be organized
to study and evaluate all available high school basic speech texts to
discover where we have been and where we are going in secondary speech
education. In addition to this suggestion, further research might
include the following studies. ]
1. A comparative study of high school and college textbooks to
discover trends, similarities, differences, and relationships.
2. A new analytical approach to the subject matter of basic
textbooks to verify the findings of this study.
3. Further studies In high school speech textbook analysis to
discover:
a. To what extent have ideas come from psychology and been usedj
in high school textbooks on fundamentals of speech?
b. How well do the texts take care of the need for the high
school teacher of speech? j
i
c. To what degree do texts require supplementary work? How 1
are they supplemented?
j
d. How have the texts reflected the trends of the times?
e. Are the texts suitable and adequate?
f. How have the texts reflected the philosophies of speech
since 1900, such as Woolbert, Winans, Phillips, etc.?
g. Are the philosophies, goals, and objectives for speech in
the high school sound?
I
h. Do classroom teachers supplement the textbook with audio
visual material, such as filmstrips, tape recordings, video tape, and
!
closed circuit television?
1. Are the texts keeping up with the practices?
j. How do the texts reflect the Recommendations of the Speech j
Consnunlcatlon Association of America? j
I
k. Do the texts in common use meet the expectations of the
I
teachers? Are they Inadequate?
89
In conclusion, it seems thet the future of secondary speech
education will progress as it continues to fulfill one of the main
purposes of education*-the ability to think, as well as to communicate.
Its success in the future will probably be dependent upon building new
concepts on the foundations already established.
\
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Archer, Russell B. "A Comparative Quantitative Analysis of Selected
Basic College Speech Textbooks.'1 Unpublished Doctor's dissertation,
Pennsylvania State University, 1953.
Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Glen
coe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1952.
Blount, Nathan S., and Herbert J. Klauameier. Teaching in the Secondary
School. 3d ed. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1968.
Borchers, Gladys L., and Lillian R. Wagner. "Speech Education in
Nineteenth-Century Schools," History of Speech Education in America,
ed. Karl R. Wallace. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.
Carpenter, Charles. History of American Schoolbooks. Philadelphia;
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963.
Clark, S. H., and P. H. Blanchard. Practical Public Speaking. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1901.
Cronbach, Lee J. Text Materials in Modem Education. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1955.
Cubberley, Ellwood P. The History of Education. Boston: Houghton
Hlfflin Co., 1920.
________ , The Textbook Problem. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927.
Dickens, Milton. "Tentative Definitions of Some Common Research Terms."
Los Angeles, Calif.: University of Southern California, 1970.
(Mimeographed.)
Dropkln, Stan, Harold Full, and Ernest Schwarcz. Contemporary American
Education. 2d ed. New York: Macmillan Co., 1965.
Drury, Robert L., and Kenneth C. Ray. Principles of School Law. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965.
Erickson, Marcellne Louise. "Speech Training in the Comon Schools,
Academies, and High Schools from 1785-1885 as Revealed by a Study
of the Bodes Used in the Schools." Unpublished Doctor's disserta
tion, University of Wisconsin, 1948.
Fulton, Robert I., and Thomas C. Trueblood. Essentials of Public
Speaking. 2d ed. New York: Ginn & Co., 1910.
90
91
Gagne, Robert M. The Condition of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1965.
Gray, Giles Wllkeson. "Some Teachers and the Transition to Twentieth*
Century Speech Education." History of Speech Education In America,
ed. Karl R. Wallace. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.
Grizzell, E. D. Origin and Development of the High School in New
England before 1865. New York: Macmillan Co., 1923.
Hahn, Robert 0., and David B. Bidna. Secondary Education: Origins and
Directions. New York: Macmillan Co., 1965.
Hall-Quest, Alfred L. The Textbook. New York: Macmillan Co., 1918.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna G., and William Norwood Brlgance. Speech. Philadel
phia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1935.
. William Norwood Brlgance, and Victor M. Powell. The New
American Speech. 3d ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1968.
Knowles, Antoinette. Oral English. New York: D. C. Heath & Co., 1916.
Lusty, Beverly Loraine. "An Analysis of the Speech Content of Selected
Pupil Textbooks in Language Arts: Grades Seven and Eight." Unpub
lished Doctor's dissertation, Northwestern University, 1966.
MacMurray, Arthur. Practical Lessons in Public Speaking. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State College, 1910.
Oberle, Marcella. "A Critical Study of the Speech Content in High
School English Non-Literature Textbooks." Unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, School of Speech, Northwestern University, 1965.
Olson, Myron S., and Edward C. Kelly. Secondary Education. A Resource
Syllabus. Rev. ed. Los Angeles, Calif.: College Book Store, 1966.
Fosz, Conrad. "A Critical Analysis on the Theory of Arrangement in
Selected American Textbooks on Public Speaking Since 1900."
Unpublished Master's thesis. University of Iowa, 1946.
Quillen, I. James. Textbook Improvement and International Understand
ing. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1948.
Shurter, Edwin DuBols. Public Speaking. Boston and Chicago: Allyn &
Bacon, 1903.
Stratton, Clarence. Public Speaking. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1920.
Taylor, L. O,, Don R. McMahill, and Bob L. Taylor. The American
Secondary School. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1960.
92
Textbook In American Education. The* Thirtieth Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Bloomington, Illinoia:
Public School Publishing Co., 1931.
Tousey, Gall Jordan. 'ftcGuffey's Elocutionary Teachings.1 1 Quarterly
Journal of Speech. XXXIV, 1 (1948), 80.
Van Til, William. Education: A Beginning. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Co., 1971.
Ward, Cornelia Carhart. Oral Composition. New York: Macmillan Co.,
1914.
Wells, W. H. 'Methods of Teaching English Grammar," American Journal
of Education. XV (1865), 149.
Woolbert, Charles Henry, and Andrew Thomas Weaver. Better Speech.
New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1922.
APPENDIX A
SURVEY OF HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS IN BASIC SPEECH
L. Calvin Osborn
University of Southern California
Instructions: Please check ( ) those texts which in your opinion were
the most widely used during the years immediately
following their dates of publication.
( ) Smith, William P. Oral English for Secondary Schools. New York:
Macmillan, 1913.
( ) Watkins, D. E. Public Speaking for High Schools. Chicago:
American Book Co., 1913.
( ) Ward, Cornelia Carhart. Oral Composition. New York: Macmillan,
1914.
( ) Fowler, N. C. Art of Speech Making. Sully and Klelnteich, 1915.
( ) Robinson, Frederick B. Effective Public Speaking. La Salle
Extension University, 1915.
( ) Winter, Irvah Lester. Public Speaking: Principles and Practice.
New York: Macmillan, 1915.
( ) Lewis, Calvin L. American Speech. Scott, Foresman Co., 1916.
( ) Pelsma, J. R. Lessons in Public Speaking and Oral Reading.
Gatmnel, 1916.
( ) Merry, G. N. Fundamentals of Public Speaking. Iowa City, Iowa:
Ln.n.], 1917.
< ) Woolbert, C., and Weaver, A. T. Better Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1920.
( ) Merry, G. N. Principles of Speech. Second Edition. Iowa City,
Iowa: Clio Press, 1921.
( ) Woolbert, C., and Weaver, A. T. Better Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1922.
( ) Pelsma, J. R. Essentials of Speech. Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1924
94
) Drummond, A. N., Compiler and Editor. A Course of Study in Speech
Training and Public Sneaking for Secondary Schools. New York:
The Century Co., 1925.
) Craig, Alice. The Speech Arts. New York: Macmillan, 1926.
) Nattkemper, L. G., and McCay, W. V. Junior Speech Book. Wagner,
Harr, 1926.
) Doll, W. Art of Public Speaking. Second Edition. Lyons and
Carnahan, 1927.
) Painter, Margaret. Eaae in Speech. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co.,
1928.
) Woolbert, C., and Weaver, A. T. Better Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1929.
) Gough, Harry B., and others. Effective Speech. New York:
Harper & Row, Fubl., 1930.
) Avery, Elizabeth and Coffin, Cisabelle E. SeIf-Expression in
Speech. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1931.
) Israel, Ray Keeslar. Public Speaking for High Schools. Wahr,
1931.
) Lockwood, Francis C., and Thorpe, Clarence DeWltt. Public
Speaking Today. New York: Benjamin H. Sanborn and Co., 1931.
) Raublcheck, Let!tla, and others. Voice and Speech Problems.
New York: Prentice-Hall, 1931.
) Winans, A., and Hudson, H. H. A First Course in Public Speaking:
With Debating and Oral Reading. New York: Century, 1931.
) Avery, Elizabeth, and Coffin, Cisabelle E. Self-Expression in
Speech. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1933.
) Craig, Alice. The Junior Speech Arts. New York: Macmillan, 1934.j
) Pelsma, J. R. Essentials of Speech, Revised. Thomas Y. Crowell !
Co., 1934.
) Hayworth, Donald. Public Speaking. New York: Ronald Press Co.,
1935.
i
) Hedde, Wilhelmina, and Brlgance, William N. Speech. Philadel
phia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1935.
) Raublcheck, Letltia, and others. Voice and Speech Problems. j
New York: Prentice-Hall, 1935. J
Craig, Alice. The Junior Speech Arte. New York: Macmillan, 1936
Rousseau, Lousene, and Cramer, Mary E. Effective Speech. First
Course. Harper and Bros., 1936.
Whitney, Leon. Directed Speech. Boston: Ginn, 1936.
Craig, Alice. The Speech Arts. Revised. New York: Macmillan,
1937.
Gough, Harry B., and others. Effective Speech. New York: Harper
& Row, Pub., 1937.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. Speech. Chicago:
Lippincott, 1937.
Painter, Margaret. Ease In Speech. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. ,
1937.
Weaver, A. T., and others. The New Better Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1937.
Borchers, Gladys L. Living Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World, Inc., 1938.
Watson, A. Speak Out!. Revised and Enlarged. Harrap, 1939.
Weaver, A. T., and others. The New Better Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1939.
Craig, Alice. The Junior Speech Arts, Revised. New York:
Macmillan, 1940.
Dodd, Celeste V., and Seabury, Hugh F. Our Speech. Austin,
Texas: The Steck Co., 1940.
Seely, H. F., and Hackett, W. A. Experience in Speaking. New
York: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1940.
Atkinson, W. K., and Nelson, Theodore. Personality Through
Speech. Chicago: Benjamin Sanborn, 1941.
Borchers, Gladys L. Living Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World, Inc., 1941.
Craig, Alice. The Junior Speech Arts, Revised. New York:
Macmillan, 1941.
Craig, Alice. The Speech Arts. Second Edition. New York:
Macmillan, 1941.
96 !
Staith, Harley, and others. Everyday Speech. New York: American
Book Co., 1941.
Craig, Alice. The Speech Arts. Revised. New York: Macmillan,
1942.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. American Speech.
Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1942.
Painter, Margaret. Ease in Speech. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co.,
1943.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A High Schoo1 Course. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1943.
Craig, Alice. The Junior Speech Arts. Revised, Reissue. New
York: Macmi1lan, 1944.
Port, Lyman M. Speech for All. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1944.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A High School Course. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1944.
Weaver, A. T., and Borchers, Gladys L. Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1945.
Fort, Lyman M. Speech for All. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1946.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. American Speech.
Revised. Chicago: Lippincott, 1946.
Raublcheck, Letitla, and others. Voice and Speech Problems. New
York: Prentice-Hall, 1946,
Weaver, A. T., and Borchers, Gladys L. Speech. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1946.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. American Speech.
Revised. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1947.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A High School Course. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1947. |
Drummond, A. M., Compiler and Editor. A Course of Study In Speech
Training and Public Speaking for Secondary Schools. New Yoxk:|
Macmillan, 1948.
Gough, Harry B., and others. Effective Speech. Revised Edition.
New York: Harper & Row, Pub., 1948.
Borchers, Gladys L. Living Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World, Inc., 1949. J
97
I
Craig, Alice. The Junior Speech Arts, Second Edition. New York: !
Macmillan, 1949.
Gough, Harry B., and others. Effective Speech. Revised Edition.
New York: Harper & Row, Pub,, 1949.
Watkins, Rhode, and Frost, Eda B. Your Speech and Mine. Chicago:
Lyons and Carnahan, 1949.
Buehler, E. C. You and Your Speeches. Revised. Allen Pub., 1950.
Fort, Lyman M. Speech for All. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1950.
Fessenden, Seth A., and Thompson, Wayne N. Basic Experiences in j
Speech. Second Edition. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. American Speech.
Third Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1951.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A Hlah School Course. Revised.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951.
Elson, E. F., and Peck, Alberta. The Art of Speaking. Boston:
Ginn and Co., 1952.
Barnes, Harry G., and Sfcnlth, Loretta Wagner. Speech Fundamentals.
New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1953.
Painter, Margaret. Ease In Speech. Boston: D. C. Heath and Co.,
1954.
Gilman, Wilbur E., and others. Fundamentals of Speaking. New
York: Macmillan, 1954.
Brown, Charles. Introduction to Speech. Boston: Houghton &
Mifflin Co., 1955.
Elson, E. F., and Peck, Alberta. The Art of Speaking. Boston:
Ginn and Co., 1955. I
Fessenden, Seth A., and Thompson, Wayne N. Basic Experiences in j
Speech. Second Edition. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955. |
Griffith, Francis, and others. Your Speech. New York: Harcourt, |
Brace and World, Inc., 1955.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. American Speech.
Fourth Edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1955.
Masten, Charles, and Pflaum, George R. R. Speech for You.
Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson, and Co., 1955.
98
Adams, Harlen Martin, and Pollock, Thomas Clark. Speak Up. ' New
York: Macmillan, 1956.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A High School Course. Revised.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956.
Weaver, A. T., and others. Speaking and Listening. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1956.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. The New American
Speech. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1957.
Weaver, A. T., and Ness, 0. 6. The Fundamentals and Forms of
Speech. New York: Odyssey Press, 1957.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A High School Course. Revised.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1958.
Fort, Lyman M., and Markett. Speech for All. Revised. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, 1959.
Horkan, and Okey. Guide to Speech for High Schools. New York:
Noble and Noble, Pub., 1959.
Griffith, Francis, and others. Your Speech. Revised. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960.
White, E. E. Practical Speech Fundamantala. New York: Macmillan,
1960.
Irwin, John V., and Rosenberger, Marjorie. Modern Speech. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1961.
John, E. Winston. A Guide to Effective Speech. New York:
Longmans, Green and Co., 1961.
Weaver, A. T., and Ness, 0. G. An Introduction to Public Speak
ing. New York: Odyssey Press, 1961.
Brandes, Paul D., and Staiith, William S. Building Better Speech.
New York: Noble and Noble Pub., Inc., 1962.
Buehler, E. C., and Llnkugel, W. A. Speech: A First Course.
New York: Harper & Row Pub., 1962. “
Mudd, Charles S., and Sillars, Malcolm 0. Speech: Content and
Communication. San Francisco: Chandler Pub. Co., 1962.
Painter, Margaret. Ease in Speech. Fourth Edition. Indianapolis:
D. C. Heath and Co., 1962.
■ 'I
99 :
) Grande 11, S. Judson, and others. Speech: A Course in Tmid*m^ntals|
Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1963.
) Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N., and Powell, Victor M.
The New American Speech. Revised. New York: Lippincott, 1963.
) Robinson and Lee. Speech in Action. New York: Scott, Foresman
and Co,, 1963.
) Scott, R. L. , and Thompson, D. W. Speech Dll lion
Press, 1963.
) Weaver, C. H., and Strausbaugh, W. L. rnnri»m«nral* of Speech
Conaaunicqtion. Chicago: American Book Co., 1964.
) Hlbbs, Fessenden, Larson, and Wagner. Speech for Today. St.
Louis: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Webster Div., 1965.
) Elson, E. F., and Peck, Alberta. The Art of Speaking. Boston:
Ginn and Co., 1966.
) Irwin, John V., and Rosenberger, Marjorie. Modern Speech. Revised*
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966.
) Loners, William M., and Staudacher, Joseph M. The Speech Arts.
Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan, Inc., 1966.
) Buehler, E. C., and Linkugel, W. A. Speech Communications: A
First Course. New York: Harper & Row, Pub., 1968.
) Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and Brlgance, William N. The New American
Speech. Chicago: Lippincott, 1968.
) Irwin, John V., and Rosenberger, Marjorie. Modern Speech. Revised.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968.
) Hanks, L. D., and Andersen, Martin P. From Thought to Speech.
Indianapolis: D. C. Heath and Co., 1969.
nstructlons: Please list additional high school texts in basic speech.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
OEPARTM ENT OF SPEECH
APPENDIX B
January 8, 1970
Nr. Arthur U. Moore
1321 Mathews
Lakewood, Ohio 44107
Dear Mr. Moore:
Let me Introduce myself. I am a doctoral candidate at the Univer
sity of Southern California, gathering data for my dissertation under
the direction of Professor Milton Dickens. We want to analyse high
school textbooks in basic speech from about 1910 to the present time.
We think that a study of changes and trends during these approximately
sixty years In secondary school textbooks should provide significant
Information for the field of speech.
1 am writing this letter to ask for your help in choosing the text
books to be analyzed. Enclosed Is a fairly complete list of high school
texts divided for convenience Into decades. Would you be so kind as to
read the list and indicate by check marks those textbooks which. In your
opinion. were the most widely used during the years imnedlately follow
ing their dates of publication.
If you notice any texts intended primarily for college rather than
high school, please make a note in the margin. If you know of any high
school texts which I have failed to include In the list, would you
please note such items in the space provided on the last page.
This letter is being sent to a small but carefully selected sample
of speech teachers; therefore, your response Is important.
In appreciation for your help, I will be glad to send you an
advanced copy of the results of this poll.
Sincerely yours,
L. Calvin Osborn
LC0:kw
Enclosure
100
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7
DEPARTM ENT O F SPEEC H
APPENDIX C
February 5, 1970
Mr. Arthur W. Moore
1321 Mathews
Lakewood, Ohio 44107
Dear Mr. Moore:
If you could find the tine in your busy schedule to check and
return the list sent to you earlier Jist month in regard to the most
widely used high school basic speech texts, I would greatly appreciate
it.
Thank you for your kindness.
Very sincerely yours.
L. Calvin Osborn
LCO:kw
101
APPENDIX D
LEADERS IN THE FIELD OF SPEECH WHO RESPONDED
TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY QUESTIONNAIRE
Ahrendts, Harold L.
Anapol, Halthon M.
Anderson, Martin P.
Archer, Russell B.
Arnold, Carroll C.
Baccus, Mrs. Joseph
Baird, A. Craig
Ballew, Leighton M.
Bane, C. Laverne
Barr, Charles W.
Barrett, G. Harold
Bloemker, Linda L.
Boles, Mrs. Jean E.
Borchers, Gladys L.
Boren, Robert R.
Boressoff, Bernard
Brackln, Martin
Braden, Waldo W.
Bradley, Bert E.
Brandes, Paul D.
Brown, Charles T.
Brown, Kenneth L.
Bucholtz, Arden
Burmelster, Barbara J.
Burns, Kenneth
Carr, Elisabeth B.
Chastain, Harold D.
Densmore, G. E.
Eubank, Wayne C.
Frank, Allan D.
Gilman, Wilbur E.
Glosser, Miss Holly
Golly, Jane M.
Gray, Giles W.
Grlnde, Dorothy L.
Gunderson, Robert G.
Hall, Robert N.
Hance, Kenneth G.
Hanks, L. Day
Harper, Floren
Harris, Mary I.
Harrison, A. Cleveland
Henderson, Bill
Hicks, Vivian H.
Higgins, Leon F.
Hunslnger, Paul
Hunt, Carolyn
Joyce, Maxine P.
Kaye, Thomas P.
Konlgsberg, Evelyn
Kuntselman, James G.
Leahy, Muriel G.
Lent, John E.
Levenson, Stanley T.
Loy, Harold W.
McBurney, James H.
Metcalf, Marguerite P.
Mlnnlck, Wayne C.
Moore, Arthur
Murray, Elwood
Ness, Ordean G.
Nichols, Marie H.
Niles, Doris S.
Ratliffe, Sharon A.
Raublcheck, Letltla E.
Rosenberger, Marjorie
Scott, Robert L.
Seabury, Hugh F.
Weaver, Carl H.
Weirlch, Mrs. Dorothy
Willmlngton, S. Clay
Wlrkus, Thomas E.
102
APPENDIX E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1899-1921
Clark, S. H. , and F. M. Blanchard. Practical Public Speaking. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1899.
Pertwee, Ernest. The Art of Sneaking. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,
1902.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois. Public Sneaking. Boston and Chicago: Allyn &
Bacon, 1903.
Shurter, Edwin DuBois. Extempore Sneaking. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1908.
Fulton, Robert I., and Thomas C. Trueblood. Essentials of Public
Speaklna for Secondary Schools. New York: Ginn & Co., 1910.
MacMurray, Arthur. Practical Lessons In Public Speaking. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State College, 1910.
Smith, William P. Oral English for Secondary Schools. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1913.
Watkins, D. E. Public Speaking for High Schools. Chicago: American
Book Co.,1913.
Ward, Cornelia Carhart. Oral Composition. New York: Macmillan Co.,
1914.
Winter, Irvah Lester. Public Speaking: Principles and Practice. New
York: Macmillan Co., 1913.
Knowles, Antoinette. Oral English. New York: D. C. Heath & Co., 1916.
Lewis, Calvin L. American Speech. Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co.,
1916.
!
Brewer, John M. Oral English. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1916. I
r i 1
Merry, G. N. Fundamentals of Public Speaking. Iowa City, Iowa: In.n.] , i
1917. >
Stratton, Clarence. Public Speaking. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1920.
Merry, G. N. Principles of Speech. 2d ed. Iowa City, Iowa: Clio Press,
1921.
103
104 ;
|
1922-1964
Woolbert, C., and A. T. Weaver. Better Speech. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & Co., 1922.
Craig, Alice, The Speech Arts. New York: Macmillan Co., 1926.
Woolbert, C., and A. T. Weaver. Better Speech. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, 1929.
Gough, Harry B., Lousene Rousseau, Mary E. Cramer, and J. Walter Reeves.
Effective Speech. New York: Harper & Row, 1930.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and William N. Brlgance. Speech. Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott, 1935.
Raublcheck, Letitla, and others. Voice and Speech Problems. New York:
Prentice-Hall, 1935.
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Craig, Alice. The Speech Arts. Rev. ed. New York: Macmillan Co.,
1937.
Gough, Harry B., and others. Effective Speech. New York: Harper & Row,
1937.
Painter, Margaret. Ease in Speech. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1937.
Weaver, A. T., Gladys Louise Borchers, and Charles Henry Woolbert.
The New Better Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1937.
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delphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1942.
Painter, Margaret. Ease in Speech. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1943.
I
l
Sarett, Lew, Trufant Foster, and James H. McBumey. Speech: A High
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Prentice-Hall, 1946.
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Weaver, A. T,, and Gladys L. Borchers. Speech. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, 1946.
Craig, Alice. The Speech Arts. 2d rev. ed. New York: Macmillan Co. ,
1948.
Gough, Harry B., and others. Effective Speech. Rev. ed. New York:
Harper & Row, 1948.
Borchers, Gladys Louise. Living Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace &
Co., 1949.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and William N. Brlgance, American Speech. 3d ed.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1951.
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Macmillan Co., 1956.
Sarett, Lew, and others. Speech: A High School Course. Rev. ed.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956.
Hedde, Wllhelmlna, and William N. Brlgance. The New American Speech.
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1957.
Elson, E. F., and Alberta Peck. The Art of Speaking. Rev. ed. Boston
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1965-1969
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APPENDIX F
DATA SHEET
TITLE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER YEAR TOTAL PAGES
AUTHOR PUBLISHER
Categories and Topics
Category I - SPEECH IN GENERAL
A. Speech In a democratic society
B. Basic principles of speech
C. Values of speech
D. Communication theory
E. Ethics of speaker______________
F. Stage fright
G. History of public speaking____
H. Imnronmtu. extemporaneous, manuscript, memorised
Pages
■■ ■ i
i
I. Rhetorical criticism
Categories and Topics
Category II - DELIVERY - THE SPEAKER
A. Vocal_________________________
1. Voice and articulation (mechanism, pitch, quality,
time, force, emphasis, resonatlon)
a. Exposition, description, explanation
b. Exercises
2. Pronunciation (phonetics)
a. Exposition, description, explanation
b. Exercises
B. Visual
1. Use of body (gestures)
a. Exposition, description, explanation
b. Exercises
2. Other visual aids (handling notes, objects)
a. Exposition, description, explanation |
— ' — ■ . — |
— i i i. i ... i
b. Exercises________________________________________________.
C. Verbal
1. Language (style, vocabulary, semantics, grammar,
practicing aloud) (
a. Exposition, description, explanation (
— . . . ■ ■ j
— ... . i . i — — i i
b. Exercises ________ l
0. Dalivary In General
109
Categories and Topics
E. Speaker * s Personality
Category III - SPEECH CONTENT - THE SPEECH
A. Choosing a Topic
B. Outlining the Speech (Introduction, body, conclusion,
transitions, logic)
1. Exposition, description, explanation
2. Exercises
C. Developing the Speech (forms of support, ethical,
logical, emotional, proof)
1. Exposition, description, explanation
2. Exercises
D. Researching the Speech (dictionary, library, note-taking,
indexes, sources, observation, reading, conversation, books!
1. Exposition, description, explanation
2. Exercises
Category IVAUDIENCE AND OCCASION
A. Analyzing Audience (age, sex, background, characteristics,
needs, attitudes, types)__________________________________
1. Exposition, description, explanation
110
Categories and Topics
2. Exercises
B. Psychology of Audience (adapting, adjusting, motivation,
attention)
1. Exposition, description, explanation
2. Exercises
Category V - TYPES OF SPEAKING SITUATIONS
A. In Terms of Special Purposes
1. Speeches to entertain
2. Speeches to inform
3. Speeches to Influence, convince, persuade
4. Speeches to inspire, stimulate. Impress
B. In Terms of Croup Activities
1. Conversation
2. Group discussion
3. Parliamentary practice
Ill
Categories and Topics
4. Interviewing
C. In Terms of Electronic Media
1. Radio
2. Television
3. Telephone
4. Public address systems
5. Motion pictures, sound films
6. Video tape
7. Phonograph record
D. Oral Interpretation
1. Reading aloud
2. Story telling
3. Declamation (expression, elocution)
112
Categories and Topics
4. Poetry
5. Choric activities
6. Drama
7. Puppetry
8. Theater
9. Plav
10. Acting
11. Exposition, description, explanation
12. Exercises
E. Speeches for Special Occasions
1. Exposition, description, explanation
2. Exercises
Category VI - LISTENING (Techniques. Skills)
1. Exposition, description, explanation
2. Exercises
113
Categories end Topics
Category VII - MISCELLANEOUS
A. Appendix
B. Bibliography
C. Model Speeches and Outlines
D. Glossaries
REMARKS:
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Osborn, Lawrence Calvin
(author)
Core Title
Content Analysis Of Fifty-Three High School Basic Speech Texts, 1899-1969
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Speech Communication
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
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(digital)
Tag
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Language
English
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Dickens, Milton (
committee chair
), Borgers, Edward W. (
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), McCoard, William B. (
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