A Study Of Philosophy Curriculum Dissonance In Selected Colleges And Universities In California

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Content STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY CURRICULUM DISSONANCE IN SELECTED
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN CALIFORNIA
by
Robert Bruce McLaren
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
February 1972
I
(
72- 11,939
McLa r e n, Robert Bruce, 1923-
A STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY CURRICULUM DISSONANCE
IN SELECTED COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN
CALIFORNIA.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972
Phtlosophy
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company. Ann Arbor. Michigan
C.c >' Copyri *51 by
ROBERT BRUCE Me LAKE;:
1971
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RN IA
T H E G R A D U A TE S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K
L O S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA S 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Robert. .Bruce „Mc.kajrgj&...........
under the direction of A X s . . . Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O CTO R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Utmm
Date....Qs.%,Qb.ZX...\A,...151±
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages have indistinct
print. Filmed as received.
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Words always seem too frail as vehicles for carrying
the freight when we most need them to convey special
meaning. In this instance, the communication of apprecia
tion is long overdue, and words will have to suffice.
To Dr. Earl V. Pullias must go my first thanks, for
his patient discipline and encouragement, and for
illuminating the broad field of higher education with
special insight.
Second, though ordinal scaling is not implied, I
express my gratitude to Dr. William S. O'Neill, who went
beyond the requirements of his teaching role both in
superlative pedagogy and in support during the preparation
of this study, but also in sharing his unique comprehension
of philosophical systems; to Dr. Leslie Wilbur, for
sustained literary inspiration; to Dr. John Cantelon,
whose scholarship and personal integrity have been for
years a kind of paradigm; to Dr. Robert Brackenbury, whose
challenge to excellence has been a watchword.
Allocating my priorities, I owe paramount thanks
to my wife and children who have suffered and rejoiced
with me every step of the way.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM................................. 1
Statement of the Problem
Statement of the Larger Problem
Statement of Purpose
Questions to be Answered
Hypotheses
Scope of the Study
Basic Assumptions
General Procedures
Definition of Terms
Organization for the Remainder of the Study
II. SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE.................22
Literature on the Role of Philosophy as
an Academic Discipline
Literature on the Place of Philosophy as
a Discipline in General Education
Literature on the Presentation of
Philosophy at the Junior College Level
Literature on the Presentation of
Philosophy in the State Colleges
Literature on the Presentation of
Philosophy at the University Level
Literature on the Presentation of
Philosophy in Independent Colleges
Literature on the Present Lack of
Consensus in the Curriculum for
Introductory Courses in Philosophy
Chapter Summary
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES....................... 49
Securing Endorsements
Review of the Literature
Delimiting the Study
Structuring a Format for the Study
Preparation of the Questionnaire
Distribution and Recovery of the
Questionnaire
Organization of the Responses
in
Chapter
Tabulation and Assessment of Responses
Chapter Summary
IV. FINDINGS: PRACTICES RELATED TO THE
CURRICULUM............................... 59
Chapter Summary
V. FINDINGS: PRACTICES RELATED TO
ARTICULATION ............................. 82
Summary of Chapter
VI. FINDINGS: PRACTICES RELATED TO STUDENTS . . 100
Chapter Summary
VII. FINDINGS: GENERAL ATTITUDES.............. 119
Chapter Summary
VIII. FINDINGS: THE NATURE OF THE INSTITUTION . . 136
Chapter Summary
IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......................153
Purpose
Research Procedure
Findings
General Information and Practices Related
to the Curriculum
Practices Related to Articulation
Practices Related to Students
General Attitudes
The Nature of the Institution
Disposition of Hypotheses
X. IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............ 171
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... 183
APPENDICES............................................ 190
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Question 1: Is there a "Department of
Philosophy" called by that name in your
institution? ............................... 61
2. Question 2: Are the philosophy courses
grouped together within a larger department
(e.g.. Social Science, Humanities, etc.)? . 62
3. Question 3: How many students (in round
numbers) enro11 in the introductory
course(s) in philosophy each year? ......... 64
4. Question 4: Is the introductory course a
one or two semester (quarter) course? . . . 65
5. Question 5: How many professors are engaged
in teaching the introductory course
sections?................................... 66
6. Question 6: With regard to emphasis, how is
your introductory course structured? For
example, what percentage is given to the
study of the history of philosophy;
systems (idealism, pragmatism, etc.);
problems (free will, the meaning of history,
love, war, etc.); realms (axiology,
epistemology, ontology)? ................. 68
7. Question 7: In the selection of reading
materials, is the preference in your
department for a standard text, books of
readings, or primary source materials? . . . 71
8. Question 8: If you assign a textbook, please
name the title and author................. 73
9. Question 9: Is the introductory course an
absolute prerequisite for enrolling in all
other courses in philosophy in your
department?............................... 75
v
Table Page
10. Question 10: For purposes of evaluating
students, what is the general practice
regarding tests: (a) pop quizzes, (b)
weekly quizzes (c) monthly quizzes (e)
mid-term examination and (f) final
examination............................... 76
11. Question 11: Do you require term papers
to be written?........................... 78
12. Question 12: If term papers are required,
are students given freedom to select their
own topics, and conduct research according
to their own design?..................... 80
13. Question 13: Is the content of the
introductory course in philosophy
influenced by the content of introductory
courses offered in other institutions of
higher learning in the state?.............. 84
14. Question 14: Is the content influenced by
the curriculum practices of junior or
community colleges in the state? ......... 85
15. Question 15: Is the content influenced by
curriculum practices of the state colleges
in the state?............................. 86
16. Question 16: Is the content influenced by
curriculum practices within the state
university system? ....................... 88
17. Question 17: Is the content influenced by
curriculum practices of the independent
colleges in the state?................... 89
18. Question 18: Does your philosophy
department, through representatives,
engage in articulation conferences with
representatives from other colleges and
universities? ............................. 90
19. Question 19: Does the department, through
representatives, engage in articulation
conferences with representatives from
secondary schools? ....................... 92
vi
Table
20.
21.
22 .
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
26.
29.
Page
Question 20: Do philosophy majors
ordinarily receive transfer credit for
the introductory course in philosophy
when transferring to other colleges and
universities within the state? ............ 93
Question 21: Does your department accept
transfer credit for the introductory
philosophy course from all other accredited
colleges and universities within the state?. 94
Question 22: Does your department offer a
different introductory course in philosophy
for philosophy majors from that offered
for non-majors?..............................95
Question 23: Are courses offered in your
department for philosophy majors arranged
in a sequential pattern to articulate
with programs in philosophy departments
in other institutions of higher education
in the state?................................96
Question 24: Does your department allow a
waiver of the introductory course in
philosophy on the basis of an examination? . 98
Question 25: Do non-philosophy majors have
an open choice of philosophy courses? . . . 101
Question 26: Are freshmen discouraged
from declaring themselves as philosophy
majors during their first year in college? . 103
Question 2 7: Are all students who seek a
baccalaureate in your institution,
required to take a course in philosophy? . . 104
Question 28: Are all Liberal Arts students
seeking a baccalaureate in your
institution required to take a course in
philosophy?.................................106
Question 29: Is it possible for a student
to earn a baccalaureate degree in
philosophy (Ph.B.) in your institution? . . 107
vii
108
109
110
112
113
114
116
121
122
124
125
Question 30: Is it possible for a student
to earn a baccalaureate degree (A.B. or
B.S.) with a major in philosophy in your
institution? .............................
Question 31: Are College Entrance Board
Examination results used to place students
initially in philosophy courses? ........
Question 32: Are former students encouraged
to return to the college to discuss their
experience in transferring to other
colleges? ...............................
Question 33: Is a special counselor
assigned to meet with and advise
students majoring in philosophy? ........
Question 34: Are philosophy majors advised
to take a common set of courses in a
fixed sequence? .........................
Question 35: Do you believe there is a need
for devising a unique type of philosophy
curriculum for your kind of institution? .
Question 36: Are students granted General
Education credit for the introductory
course in philosophy? ...................
Question 37: Do you believe the introductory
course in philosophy should be a one or
two semester course? ...................
Question 38: Do you believe that the
introductory course in philosophy should
be a three or four unit course (or if
two semesters, should be required, a six
or eight unit course)?.................. .
Question 39: Do you believe there is a
need for statewide planning in the
development of the philosophy curriculum?.
Question 40: Do you believe there is a
need for some consensus in higher
education as to the content of the
introductory course in philosophy? ....
viii
Table
41.
42 .
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
Page
Question 41: Do you believe that special
courses should be designed for the
training of philosophy instructors, for
the task of teaching philosophy courses
at the college and university levels? . . . 127
Question 42: Do you believe the broad,
survey-type course is desirable for
philosophy majors in order to serve as
prerequisite for the more specialized
courses in value theory, epistemology,
and the study of philosophers and their
historic periods? ......................... 129
Question 43: What would you establish as
prerequisites for undergraduate students
who wish to enroll in their first course
in philosophy?........................... 130
Question 44: Apart from prospects for
becoming teachers of philosophy, what do
you hold before your students as possible
values in majoring in philosophy? Please
list in order of preference................ 131
Question 45: Is yours a single campus
institution or multiple campus? .......... 138
Question 47: What is the nature of the
community in which your institution is
located? (1) inner city, (2)
metropolitan, (3) suburban (4) small
town, (5) rural............................ 140
Question 48: What minimum training is
considered acceptable for a teaching
position in your department? (1) B.A.
or B.S.; (2) M.A. or M.S.; (3) Ph.D.;
(4) other (specify); (5) no degree is
required. ............................... 141
Question 49: What training is considered
necessary to the gaining of tenure
in your department? (1) B.A. or B.S.;
(2) M.A. or M.S.; (3) Ph.D.; (4) other
(specify); (5) no degree is required . . . 143
ix
Table Page
49. Question 50: What is considered the
special responsibility of your institution
in the teaching of philosophy? (a)
Provide courses which contribute to the
general education of non-philosophy
majors; (b) provide courses for philosophy
majors; (c) provide courses for the
community through adult or continuing
education; (d) other (specify) ............ 144
50. Question 51: Are there more or fewer
students enrolling in philosophy courses
now than ten years ago in your
institution? ............................. 146
51. Question 52: Are there more or fewer
students enrolling in philosophy courses
now than five years ago in your
institution? ............................. 147
52. Question 53: Is philosophy becoming more
or less popular as a subject for students
to elect as a major?..................... 148
53. Question 54: What particular trends do
you note in the demands of students,
which may influence the content and
design of the philosophy curriculum in
the future?............................. 150
x
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
The college and universities of California
constitute a unique development of the democratic concept
of higher education. With more than 5 percent of its
population attending, the nearly 20 million people of the
state (19,953,134 as of the 1970 census) support their
public institutions of higher learning with nearly $750
million annually. Approximately 988,000 students are
enrolled in these tax supported schools, while another
106,000 attend private institutions (47:1). While great
diversity in programs and course offerings exists among
the 190 campuses scattered across the state, articulation
is remarkably good, being insured largely by the effec
tiveness of the California Coordinating Council for
Higher Education, created by the Donahoe Act, in 1960,
and by traditional voluntary cooperation in accreditation
procedures.
For more than a century, higher education has been
a major concern of the people of California. The
University of California founded in 1868, is considered
"by many evidences, the greatest state university in the
1
2
world" (8:48). The designers of the California
Constitution (1879), assured the independence of the Board
of Regents by inscribing:
The University of California shall constitute a
public trust, and its organization and government
shall be perpetually continued in the form and
character prescribed by the organic act creating the
same passed March 23, 1968 (and the several acts
amendatory thereof), subject only to such legislative
control as may be necessary to ensure cunpnance with
the terms of its endowments and the proper investment
and security of its funds.
A 1933 amendment to the Constitution of California
(Article XIII, Section 15) guaranteed generous financial
support to augment the gift of legal, administrative and
academic autonomy:
Out of revenues from state taxes for which provision
is made in this article, together with all other state
revenues, there shall first be set apart the monies
to be applied by the state to the support of the public
school system and the State University.
The present 98,500 students are enrolled among the nine
campuses from Davis to San Diego, and are virtually global
in representation. They come seeking credentials, certifi
cates, and degrees in all the major disciplines from the
A.B., to the Ph.D.
The California State Colleges, nineteen in number,
scattered across the state from Humbolt in the north to
San Diego in the south, serve more than 241,550 students
(48). With a larger enrollment thatn the university, but
a smaller budget ($288,194,000 as opposed to $329,828,000
for the 1969-1970 fiscal year), the state college system
3
is permitted by law to offer only baccalaureate and masters
degrees* They are nevertheless dedicated to rigorous
academic standards, having long since outgrown the
"teachers' college" image in which they were founded, and
accepting only the upper third of secondary school
graduates in terms of grade point average. Responsibility
for the state colleges resides with a board of trustees
appointed by the Governor of the state and the Chancellor.
The trustees and the Chancellor set the policies, but
delegate the major responsibilities for implementation to
the administrators at the local college level. The more
than 10,000 faculty and administrative staff members on
the nineteen campuses elect a statewide Academic Senate,
to serve as a consultative body to the Chancellor in
academic matters.
Although the Junior College concept was enunciated
in Michigan, in 1851 by Henry Tappan (38:44), and first
implemented in Illinois, in 1892 by William Rainey Harper
("to separate the first and last two years of the new
University of Chicago into . . . 'junior college' and
'senior college"') (39:47) there is a real sense in which
"California was the leader in the development of the two
year college" (8:48). Since 1910, when the first Junior
College became a reality in Fresno (Fresno High School
being the first in the state to take advantage of the 1907
California junior college law making post high school
4
classes legal), more than ninety two-year post secondary
schools have been developed. “Junior colleges have
multiplied and progressed In California as in no other
state or nation. . . . By 1960, enrollment reached
145,000. In 1961, the state projection indicated that
there would be 300,000 junior students in California by
1966, whereas there are in fact 459,400 students enrolled
in junior colleges that year" (14:201). This number had
increased to nearly 600,000 by 1970. Because the junior
or community colleges were designated in the Donahoe Act
as part of public higher education, these colleges received
$114,000,000 in 1970 from state funds. However, because
they were also designated, in a 1963 amendment, as an
extension of the secondary school system, the community
colleges receive the major part of their funding and
administrative direction from the local, community-based
community college district. Bach college is to offer
instruction "through but not beyond the fourteenth grade
level.1 1
The private colleges and universities were the real
pioneers in higher education in California, as elsewhere
throughout the nation. The University of the Pacific was
founded in 1851, by the Methodists; The University of
Santa Clara, was founded that same year by the Jesuits.
Literally hundreds of colleges followed, including
Durant's Contra Costa Academy (founded in 1853 by
5
Congregational and Presbyterian ministers, and given over
to the State of California with 140 acres of land, to
become the University of California, at Berkeley, in 1868).
Among all these, only about thirty remain as accredited
colleges and universities, enrolling a little more than
106,000 students, or about 12 percent of the current total
for all California higher education. The impact of
independent colleges on educational standards, faculty
salaries, and curriculum articulation has been out of
proportion to their size; not only did they provide Dr.
Arthur Coons, president of the California Council for
Higher Bducation and co-author of the famous Donahoe Act,
but they have served to limit the financial structure of
the state colleges and university as well.
M. M. Chambers suggests:
The outcome of this is to restrict the expansion of
higher educational opportunity . . .all this adds up
to the spectacle of a minority of private college
representatives exercising a very influential hand in
the shaping of plans and often in the formulation of
mandates directed at the public institutions, but from
which their own private institutions are entirely
immune. (8:62)
Statement of the Problem
Philosophy as an academic discipline has an ancient
and honorable history. Before Plato pronounced philosophy
as "that dear delight," Socrates had intoned that "the
unexamined life is not worth living," and that such
examination was the central business of philosophy. The
6
word "philosophy" has, according to Fuller, been rather
loosely used even from the beginning. "Apparently it, or
rather the word 'philosopher,1 was coined, or at least
first given publicity by the Greek philosopher Pythagorus,
in the sixth century B.C., who spoke of himself as a
'philosophis,’ or lover of wisdom" (17:1). Ortega y Gasset
on the other hand, points to Heraclitus, Parmenides, and
Xenophanes, as "the founding philosophical thinkers" (33:
108). During the earliest centuries of Christendom
philosophy was regarded with uneasiness by some churchmen,
fearing with Tertullian, that it might undermine theology.
But with Boethius (470-525 A.D.), whose Consolations of
Philosophy was widely read and admired, philosophy was
re-enthroned. Haskin's tells us of its central place in
the curriculum of the medieval university (22:30ff), and
it has remained an academic staple ever since.
In California's institutions of higher education,
philosophy courses have invariable been an accepted and
expected part of the curriculum. An intrinsic part of
general education requirements in most schools, philosophy
classes are generally well attended and regularly attract
a small percentage of students who eventually declare
philosophy as their "major." With so ancient a tradition
behind them, it is not surprising that these courses are
among the most easily transferred from one institution to
another Whenever a student migrates from school to school.
7
Almost without exception, the introductory course in
particular may be acceptable to the new school whether its
credits were earned at a junior college, four year college
or university.
Herein lies the heart of the problem here to be
explored: can it be assumed that any course titled
"Introduction to Philosophy," or its equivalent, taken at
any given college or university, will indeed be comparable
to its counterpart at another post secondary school?
Within this issue are several component questions:
1. Is there a consensus among the professors in the
several kinds of colleges and universities, as to what
constitutes the study of philosophy?
2. Is there a consensus among the professors in
the several schools as to what constitutes a sound and
comprehensive introductory course in philosophy?
3. Are the goals and methods in each introductory
course offered at the several colleges and universities,
sufficiently well defined and implemented to insure
transferability, not only of credits but also of the
quality of knowledge and understanding?
4. Is the current curriculum in philosophy at the
introductory level, sufficiently comprehensive to provide
the terminal student a broad understanding of the field,
and the continuing student an adequate foundation on which
to build future course work in philosophy?
8
Implicit in all these questions is the query: Is
there any real correlation between the introductory courses
offered on the many campuses, or is there evidence to
substantiate the rumor that students are "the ultimate
victims" of professor's predilection for promoting
selected aspects of philosophy (e.g. history, one system
as against the many alternatives, or even one particular
philosopher such as Aristotle or Marx) to the neglect of
the broad requirements of an introductory course?
Statement of the Larger Problem
The introductory course in philosophy represents a
unique pedagogical problem. Centuries of precedent have
favored first one and then another approach to the
subject. Some professors have emphasized ontological
problems, others epistemological, still others axiological
or metaphysical. Some prefer the "problems" approach,
while others favor the historical. Library shelves are
crowded with excellent books on all these areas, but few
can be used with complete satisfaction because in every
class there will be some students who will elect to major
in philosophy, which for the majority this may be the only
course in philosophy they will ever take.
A more important facet of the problem, however,
resides in the fact that the same course, "Introduction to
Philosophy," may be taught so differently on one campus as
9
compared with another, that a student transferring to a
different college after his introductory course may find
himself at a serious disadvantage. One would not expect
to encounter thiB problem in most disciplines; there is
much common material in all courses of "Beginning
Chemistry," or "First Year Physics." The problem in
philosophy may well be unique, despite centuries of
familiar employment; why is this the case, and need it be
so?
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this dissertation is to survey the
introductory philosophy courses offered on selected
campuses of California's junior colleges, state and private
colleges, and three campuses of the University of
California; to discover the goals of knowledge and
performance expected of students, the methods of their
setting forth, and the rationale for these as expressed by
the professors; to review the appropriate literature in
the field under investigation; to recommend guidelines and
criteria for the development of more successful presenta
tion of philosophy at the college and university level.
Questions to be Answered
Answers are sought to the following questions:
1. What are the practices in curriculum development
and presentation, in the introductory courses in philosophy
10
among the selected colleges and universities in California?
2. What are the practices in articulation and
sequential planning in the philosophy curriculum?
3. What are the practices in relation to the
students, both those majority in philosophy and those who
are not?
4. What are the general attitudes of students and
faculty with regard to the philosophy curriculum,
especially in reference to the introductory course?
5. What are some standards, criteria and/or
paradigms for the creation of a viable curriculum in
philosophy, which is suggestive for the content and
methods employed in the introductory course?
Hypotheses
This study has been based on the following
hypotheses:
1. There is no consensus among the chairmen of
departments of philosophy as to what constitutes a sound,
comprehensive, and transferrable introductory course in
philosophy.
2. There is no consensus among those who teach the
introductory courses in philosophy as to whether there
should be a common body of materials, concepts, or ideas
taught.
3. There is little relationship between the
11
introductory course in philosophy taught on any one campus
and on any other campus in California.
4. There is no consistent pattern in attitude
about the appropriate curriculum for philosophy majors.
5. There is no consistent pattern in attitude
about the appropriate curriculum for the non-major in
philosophy.
Scope of the Study
The scope of this dissertation was delimited in
the following way:
1. Only twelve colleges were included in the study,
divided among four categories with three examples of each:
three junior colleges; three state colleges; three private
four-year colleges (though each included a fifth year for
educational credential candidates and for master's degree
candidates); three University of California campuses.
2. Only the department head or chairman in each
philosophy department was interviewed for this study.
3. The time factor embraced only the 1970-71
academic year.
Basic Assumptions
During this study certain basic assumptions were
made:
1. The information profferred by philosophy
department chairmen during interviews can be accepted as
12
indicative of the actual curricular practices on their
campuses.
2. While curriculum dissonance may exist from one
campus to another, a certain degree of uniformity may be
expected to justify sequential planning and articulation.
3. A great variety of interpretations exist
concerning the nature, content and goals of the philosophy
curriculum.
4. Instructional improvement in the presentation
of philosophy can be made.
General Procedures
1. A preliminary survey of the literature was
conducted among books, periodicals, and dissertation
abstracts for descriptions, definitions, goals and methods
employed in the designing of the philosophy curriculum in
institutions of higher learning across the nation.
2. Approval was requested for this study from the
central administrative office of the junior college
districts, the California State Colleges, and from each
campus of the private institutions and campuses of the
state university.
3. A questionnaire was designed to expose the
concerns delineated in the "Questions to be Answered"
section of the first chapter of this dissertation.
4. A telephone conversation was initiated with
13
the chairman of the philosophy department on each of the
twelve campuses, to secure permission for a personal
interview.
5. The questionnaire was submitted in person to
each philosophy department chairman, as agreed upon during
the telephone conversation, and discussed, point by point,
with a tape recorder on the chairman's desk to record
accurately all the responses.
6. A subsequent study of the results made possible
a determination of the nature of the philosophy curriculum
on each campus, with special reference to the introductory
course.
7. Findings and recommendations were then possible
on the basiB of the study.
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of the present study, certain
terms were employed:
Axloloav.— The study of theories of value or, more
simply, the study of values themselves. Traditionally,
axiology has been divided into the study of ethics and of
esthetics. Problems of axiology fall into four groups:
the nature of value; types of value; criterion of value;
the metaphysical status of value.
14
Contrapletal.— The complementary relationship of
two apparent opposites; paradoxical; harmony of opposites.
Curriculum.— A specified course of study. The term
is sometimes defined to include every experience offered
under the auspices of a department or a school; here it
is used in the more narrow sense of the first definition.
Empirical.— That which relates to experience.
Empiricism.— That theory of knowledge which makes
propositions about the origin of ideas, the nature of
knowledge, tests of truth and validity all within the
framework of experience, usually sense experience.
Epistemology.— The study of the Bources, methods,
nature, structure, and validity of knowledge.
Essentialism.— The philosophical system or position
which asserts that "essence precedes and determines
existence;" that the essence of things or propositions
may be studies apart from their existence; e.g., the
truth of "2 + 2 equals 4" is irrefutable whether we are
talking about "two apples plus two apples," or "two
pencils plus two pencils" or any other objects.
Esthetics.— [aesthetics] The study of the nature
of beauty, or of the beautiful. It differs from art
criticism in seeking an understanding of the nature of
15
those qualities which critics hope to find and evaluate in
the work of art itself. Not limited to art, it proposes
that mathematics, politics, tragedy, and many experiences
totally unrelated to art per se, may have esthetic
qualities, or aspects.
Ethics.— The study of moral principles vriiich can be
reduced to laws; sometimes equated with those laws or
customs, the term belongs more precisely to the discipline
which is the expression of moral convictions.
Existentialism.— A point of view or "posture"
rather than a system, existentialism views the world of
affairs from the conviction that existence precedes and
determines essence. For some existentialists, this means
that man is bom into a world which is "absurd, " and
devoid of meaning until man himself provides the meaning.
Gestalt.— Configuration or organization of parts
which make possible the comprehension of the whole, rather
than a mere collection of units.
Idealism.--A system or doctrine which posits that
the essence of a thing is ideational; e.g., no one has
ever seen a perfect circle because it is both mechanically
and mathematically impossible to inscribe one; neverthe
less one can have an idea of a circle because its true
nature is a mental concept. The "ideal" circle therefore
16
differs from the "actual" circle, and is in a real sense,
superior to it. The good, true, and beautiful are "ideal"
concepts which are only imperfectly made "real" in the
actual world of experience.
Logic.— The study of the structure of propositions,
and of the tests by which propositions can be evaluated as
valid or invalid. Formal logic has found it necessary to
create a special symbolic language, more exact than
ordinary verbal language, and sometimes called a
"propositional calculus."
Metaphysics.— The study of "the true nature" of
things; traditionally called "the science of being, as
such." The nature, as well as the causes of things,
however, come under investigation, and where it is
suspected that these lie beyond the study of the material
composition or causation, the meta (beyond) physical
concepts must be explored. Cf. Idealism.
Monism.— As opposed to dualism (which holds that
distinctions must be made between the reality of a thing
and our perception of it, and between mind and body,
et cetera), monism proposes that there is one fundamental
reality; perception and conception are one in the
knowledge relationship.
17
Morals.— Codes of conduct evolved within society
(or presumed to have been handed down by a deity),
enjoining duties and prohibitions of fairly specific
application. The study of moral convictions regarding
such specific behavior, becomes the province of ethics.
Naturalism.— The system of philosophy which asserts
that "nature is all there is;" the universe requires no
metaphysical explanations of supernatural causation, but
is self-contained, self-sufficient.
Neo-Platonism.— A school of philosophy begun in the
2nd century A.D., in an effort to re-establish the
Idealism attributed to Plato, in which the human soul was
considered immaterial and immortal, superior to the body
which encases and distracts it. The system failed as a
major movement with the ascendency of the Christian
concept that the person is comprised of both the physical
and spiritual, and that God established both as good;
evil thus arises not from the body but from a perverse
will. Neo-Platonism nevertheless enjoys periodic
resurrection.
Neo-Thomism.— A contemporary re-statement of the
realism of Thomas Aquinas, who denied Plato's separation
of things into essences and existences, and asserted that
the essence of a thing is that it must exist. The very
is
fact that we can conceive of the reality of goodness, for
example, implies that goodness must have reality. It is
our task to seek it, and find or give expression to it.
This is possible through the discipline of creative
intuition and rational action.
Ontology.— The study of the nature of being, it
differs from metaphysics in that it does not assert that
the ultimate nature of a thing must necessarily be sought
beyond the physical realm. The term was first introduced
by Wolff (c. 1754), who clarified the distinction, though
the concept was known to Aristotle.
Phenomenology.— The system which begins with the
person and his consciousness, and seeks to provide a
descriptive analysis of the subjective processes by which
experiences are known.
Pragmatism.— Defining truth as that which has
workable and/or satisfactory consequences, this system has
its roots in Protagorus1 dictum that "man is the measure
of all things," but only became a system of philosophy
around the turn of our century through the work of James
and Dewey.
Rationalism.— A theory in which the criterion of
truth is intellectual and deductive rather than sensory.
It holds that the mind can comprehend some truths which
19
are logically prior to experience, e.g., mathematical
propositions.
Realism.— Considered to be Aristotle'a reaction to
Plato's Idealism, this is the doctrine that the objects
of our awareness exist independently of our thought or
perception of them.
Science.— (1) A body of knowledge systematically
acquired; (2) the method by which knowledge and informa
tion is acquired inductively; (3) a collective term for
the many sciences such as anatomy, astronomy, biology,
et cetera.
Scientism.— The view that science is the only
valid way of knowing one's world and ordering its
processes; a virtual idolizing of science.
Teleology.— The study of ends or purposes, based
on the assumption that conscious design operates behind
and through the processes of nature.
Theology.--The study of the nature, purposes and
activities of God. This differs from philosophy, which,
while not affirming or denying the reality of God, is more
concerned with examining the arguments of theology, and
with the possibilities that the object of the argument
might be affirmed.
20
Universals.— Terms or symbols which can be applied
throughout the universe of things, while being directly
or necessarily related to them. Beauty, for example, has
no concrete reality of its own, but is a concept applica
ble to such unrelated items as a painting, a sunset, or
a person. Mathematical symbols (two plus two) may be
applied to apples, people, and stars, et cetera. In
Medieval thought, universals were "natural” signs which
the mind could not help forming, yet did not correspond
to anything ontological.
Weltanschauung.— A compound German word meaning
"world view" or perspective on life; it has become
widely accepted as a term for a philosophical view of the
universe.
Organization for the Remainder
of the Study
Chapter II presents a review of the literature
pertaining to the philosophy curriculum used in selected
junior colleges, state colleges, private colleges, and
three campuses of the state university in California.
These campuses are listed in the Appendix. This chapter
will also include a review of literature related to the
desirability of, and criteria for the creation of the
introductory course in philosophy for institutions of
higher education.
Chapter III describes the procedure followed in
conducting the study, collecting and evaluating data.
Chapters IV through VIII present the results of the
survey, including evaluation of the data gathered from the
questionnaire and interviews.
Chapter IX is comprised of a summary and conclusions
with their implications and recommendations.
Chapter X presents recommendations for the creation
of a comprehensive curriculum for the introductory course
in philosophy, in institutions of higher education.
CHAPTER II
SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE
While it is certainly true that the literature of
philosophy is extensive* and its centuries of accumulation
have secured for philosophy a place in almost every
liberal arts college and university* there is nevertheless
a paucity of works devoted to its teaching or to the
construction of a philosophy curriculum.
One might wish to account for the lack of published
materials on the teaching of philosophy, as does Hugh G.
Petrie* of Northwestern University* by reference to "the
widespread suspicion of pedagogy which runs deeply through
most liberal arts professors" (60:2) . But thi±>* though
it might account for current reluctance of scholars to
commit themselves verbally* would account only for the
current meagemess of instructional materials* and
overlook its almost total neglect throughout the history
of the discipline. It is not within the scope of this
treatise to explore for reasons underlying this phenomenon.
Our task* now that we have acknowledged the fact* is to
review the literature in current use among philosophers
and students of philosophy* with special reference to those
22
23
laboring in the colleges and universities selected for our
study.
Literature on the Role of
Philosophy as an Academic
Discipline
The institutionalizing of education during the 4th
century B.C., brought that informal discipline of discourse
to which Plato referred as "the dear delight, philosophy"
into a curriculum context. The Sophists then comprised
the most prominent "school" of philosophy, and it was
during those Hellenistic days that the informal teaching
of the Sophists gave way to institutionalized schools for
advanced education in philosophy and rhetoric as repre
sented by the Academy founded by Plato, the Lyceum founded
by Aristotle, the school of Cynics founded by Antisthenes,
and the rhetorical school founded by Isocrates (7:38).
During the first century B.C., although the Romans
had less use for formal schooling than had the Greeks,
private academies continued to draw large numbers of
students if they could show evidence that they could
produce successful orators. Cicero was among the few Who
insisted that the task of education must be broader than
such practical demands indicated. He recommended the
reading of Plato, Aristotle, Chrysippus, Pericles and
Isocrates. But philosophy was not merely a matter of
reviving arguments and counter-arguments of the ancients.
24
Rather it was a means for getting the orator involved in
life's deepest problems and of giving him a foundation
from which he may make eloquent pronouncements about the
burning issues of the day (34:178).
The declining years of Rome, and the rise of the
Christian era witnessed a near demise of formal learning,
with an accompanying diminution of the role of philosophy.
Many of the leaders of the churches acquiesced in the
implied negative of Tertullian's challenge: "What has
Jerusalem to do with Athens?" and, except for Boethius'
Consolations of Philosophy there was little written on the
subject. Indeed, as Fuller points out: "there are few
names of philosophic significance to note anywhere in
Christendom from the fifth to the ninth century" (17:359).
To be sure, monasteries continued to educate those who had
access to them, and the Palace School of Charlemagne,
offered a minimal curriculum of studies, but this did not
include philosophy. By the twelfth century, Christendom
would learn that philosophy had not died out in the region
of Byzantium, nor, more importantly, among the Moslems.
But Haskins reminds us that "only in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries do there emerge in the world those
features of organized education with which we are
familiar" (19:2).
Perhaps the most salutary feature of the medieval
curriculum was the arts course, with the emphasis on logic
25
and philosophy. Haskins notes that with grammar and
rhetoric reduced to a subordinate position and the studies
of the quadrivium receiving but scant attention, the arts
course was mainly a course in logic and philosophy, plus
so much of the natural sciences as could be apprehended by
the scholastic study of the "natural books” (22:33).
From the Renaissance forward, Aquinas' lead in
correcting the scholastic approach to philosophy was
followed by corrections on his approach, and by subsequent
corrections or modifications of each successive effort.
Thus, as Ortega y Gassett observes, "the history of
philosophy is simultaneously an exposition of systems and,
unintentionally, a critique of them" (33:19). Surprising
ly, the teaching of how-to-teach philosophy continued to
be largely neglected. Many would take their opportunity
to discuss pedagogy in general, and men like Mulcaster,
Rousseau, and Pestalozzi, have enriched our understanding
of what education in general might be at its best. Some
even began, as did Luther and Calvin, during the
Reformation years, to comment on the method for teaching
specific subjects like the Bible, and the Catechism. But
philosophy, it seems, was regarded as a discipline Which
one learned to teach as he learned to think philosophically
and to share his new found knowledge, however informally.
This situation has not changed significantly, if at all,
even unto our own time.
26
The German university of the nineteenth century was
the locus of what became perhaps the most important
influence on the shaping of the philosophical curriculum in
the western world. With its twin emphases on Lernfreiheit
(freedom of learning), and Lehrfreiheit (freedom of
teaching), it stimulated both a rigorousness of intellect
and an independence of thought unmatched elsewhere. The
essence of the German university system, as Brubacher and
Rudy point out, was the concept that an institution of true
higher learning should be able to be above all, the
workshop of free scientific research. The seminar, the
specialists lecture, the laboratory, and the monographic
study were introduced as indispensable means of training
scholars. The Philosophical Faculties were the first to be
remodelled along these lines, and by the middle of the
nineteenth century had become "the scientific faculty par
excellence" (6:171-172). They conclude that the impact of
the German university on American higher education is one
of the most significant themes in modern intellectual
history.
Philosophy as a discipline, seems to be enjoying
something of a renaissance at the introductory level.
Oressel makes special note of this fact (11:18) and his
observations are substantiated by reports of chairmen of
philosophy departments with whom I have personal conversa
tions.
27
What is the value of retaining philosophy on the
curriculum? Will it perhaps share the fate of Latin, as a
"dead language?" The late Nels Ferre (after returning from
Europe as a Travelling Fellow from Harvard), observed:
During three decades of teaching graduate students in
a cognate subject, 1 cam increasingly to the conclusion
that as a whole those who had studied philosophy in
college were better equipped to handle advanced
thinking than those who had not. After a few years
the faculty made such study a prerequisite either in
college or during the first year of graduate study.
(53:220)
Noting that all fields in the curriculum deal in some way
with meaning, what facts mean, what experiences mean, what
words and relations mean, Ferre stresses that philosophy
provides a critical and creative examination by reason of
all that man can experience, know, imagine, hope and know.
Logic, he points out, is "the study of meaning par
excellence," and proffers the most cogent means of
exacting from statements and propositions their validity
(53:223). Through logic, epistemology and the study of the
history of philosophy, the discipline extends to the total
field of human knowledge, and thus provides perhaps the
most needed aspect of the curriculum: an interdisciplinary
cohesive.
Literature on the Place of
Philosophy as a Discipline
in General Education
If, as it has been affirmed, the subject matter of
philosophy provides an interdisciplinary cohesive, and a
28
way by which the whole spectrum of human knowledge and
experience can be evaluated, its place in general education
would seem critical. Yet Warner Wick, writing two decades
ago, observed that “philosophy, at least in its familiar
forms beyond the introductory level, is losing ground in
general education" (50:116). His findings then have been
more recently echoed and substantiated by Paul Dressel
(10:19) with particular reference to liberal arts and
Church-related colleges. The continuing erosion has not
gone unnoticed by professional organizations: in 1971, the
American Philosophical Association instituted a National
Registry of Philosophers, to aid new graduates in the
field to find teaching positions (50).
It has often been noted that everyone has some kind
of philosophy, some perspective from which to view life
and other points of view, and some kind of value system by
which to make choices. The question must be raised,
however, as to whether this “philosophy" has been derived
by means of careful thought, or merely haphazardly. Wick
comments:
The least we can do for the ordinary student in
general education is to make him aware of the
consequences and alternatives of his own philosophy.
Perhaps the most we can do in general education is to
help students understand issues about which experts
and psudo experts argue. This they can do if they
recognize, through having worked with samples of them,
the kinds of principles at work in the competition of
ideas. (55:120)
29
Aa students engage in a course in philosophy, their
daily encounter with "the kinds of principles at work in
the competition of ideas," is supposed to sharpen their
perception of logical fallicies employed in common
parlance, in political speeches, in the press and news
media. To be fully effective in strengthening the general
educational program of the student, however, the
introductory course in philosophy must satisfy at least
three requirements. First of all it should generate
within the mind of the students, questions which otherwise
might be evaded, avoided, or simply ignored. While the
average citizen may acquiesce rather uncritically in the
social, economic and political affairs of his generation,
the thinking students will probe for reasons for the state
of affairs, and be prepared to challenge or defend them on
reasonable grounds.
A second requirement for the introductory course in
philosophy is that it should lead students to philoso
phize. Philosophy is, after all, not merely a body of
accumulated reflection or doctrine, but a special kind of
intellectual process. Zt is a process governed by certain
principles. As Wick puts it:
What is generally characteristic of philosophy in all
its branches and varieties is a concern with
principles— principles of inquiry and knowledge, of
action and choice, or evaluation, of reality— by which
thinking can be regulated and tested. (55:118)
30
The third, and perhaps most elusive requirement has
to do with mood. Nels Ferre expressed it well when he
wrote:
There is a distinguishing mood which characterizes the
subject. The mood comprises three emphatic aspects:
wonder, humility, and openness. (53:227)
Elton Trueblood echoes this in his comment:
The mood must be critical without being condescending,
and it must demonstrate humility without adoration.
Though we must always refer to the great philosophers
of the past and present, we must never be satisfied
with a merely literary study of what they have written.
This was first recognized by Epictetus, in the first
century A.D., when he wrote, "If I study philosophy
with a view only to its literature, I am not a
philosopher but a man of letters. (42:preface)
It is likely that a great number of professors of
philosophy would agree with Ferre, that he who lacks a
sense of wonder as he confronts the mystery and majesty of
the world about him, cannot be a philosopher} but for he
whom all of life is an awe-inspiring challenge has begun,
at least, to be an educated man (53:228).
Literature on the Presentation
of Philosophy at the Junior
College Level
In most junior colleges, the introductory course in
philosophy is taught within a department or division of
social sciences. Thornton points out that:
Junior college courses in the social sciences share
two major objectives with their counterpart courses
in the four-year colleges. They are expected to
contribute to the development of responsible and
intelligent citizenship on the part of the student; at
the same time, they must be planned so as to provide
31
a foundation for further study to the small proportion
of each class who will later specialize in any one of
the social disciplines. (39:224)
To be sure, the responsibility to provide a broad and
helpful educational experience for those who do not plan
to transfer at all, may complicate the problems of cur
riculum developers. For approximately 60 percent of
students who enroll in an introductory course in
philosophy, there will be no further opportunity for formal
study of the subject. It is imperative, therefore, that
this one course shall be as strong a course as possible.
In each case of the chairmen of community college
philosophy departments interviewed, the gravity of the
above mentioned concerned was fully appreciated. Indeed,
when the subject of hiring practices was mentioned, the
first response might be characterized by the comment of
one of the respondents:
We have only one opportunity with most of these
students, so we have to make the most of it. We are
eager to hire only those teachers who are also aware
of this, and whose concern is first of all with good
teaching, and only second with writing or research.
In a sample of thirty public junior colleges, James
W. Thornton, Jr., of San Jose State College, discovered
that:
. . . every one of the thirty colleges studied offers
two-semester courses in American history and in
political science. . . . In general, a similar
pattern of an introductory two-semester course is
indicated also in geography, philosophy, and
anthropology. (38:224)
32
Six of the colleges offered only six units in philosophy;
eleven of them offered between seven and twelve units;
three offered between thirteen and eighteen units. Only
one offered more than eighteen units (39:225).
In Orange County, three junior colleges were
selected for this study. College A offers nine units, six
of which are introduced in the catalog as "Philosophy 6 A,"
and "Philosophy 6 B," and are considered as introductory
even though they may be taken independently and neither is
required as a prerequisite to the other. The remaining
three units are listed as "World Religions" (67:207).
College B, administered under the same junior college
district though in a city ten miles distant from College A,
presents a much fuller offering, providing seventeen units.
Of these, Philosophy A and B are again listed, with
similar description as to content, but with Philosophy A
being specified as a prerequisite to Philosophy B, unless
a two-unit Philosophy 51 course, listed as "Elementary
Philosophy" had been taken; this latter is designed
essentially as a credit/no credit course for non-transfer
students. The remaining units are divided among Logic (3),
Ethics (3), and World Religions (3) (66:146-149).
College C, located in one of the oldest cities in
Orange County, provides twelve units of philosophy, with
Philosophy A being devoted to a study of philosophical
systems and problems (which was also true of the course
33
with the same designation in colleges A and B) and being
specified as a prerequisite to enrolling in Philosophy B.
The latter course is listed as "Historical Survey.” This
feature is interesting because neither of the other
colleges provided such a clear title for the course, and
colleges A and B describe the course in their catalogs as
emphasizing the ''problems" approach. In the course
description. College C notes that the course provides "A
survey of major trains of thought as exemplified by the
world's great philosophers from Thales to William James"
(69:170).
It is of interest that while all three junior
colleges used the same textbook for a number of years,
Harold Titus' Living Issues in Philosophy (40), only
College A continues to use it. Instructors at College B
are looking for books for this next year's classes which
will emphasize logic and metaphysics, while the chairman at
College C is hoping to replace Titus' text with his own,
soon to be published.
Literature on the Presentation of
Philosophy in the State Colleges
M. M. Chambers has noted that while in California
there has been for more than a decade "a strong doctrinaire
obsession that no other institution than a junior college
should perform a junior college function," there remains an
"ambivalency as to terminology" (8:56). What, after all,
34
can be meant by such limitations, when clearly those
entering a state college directly from secondary school
must enroll in introductory courses which parallel those
offered at junior colleges?
College D, a rapidly growing state college in
southern California, provides a three-unit course titled
"Introduction to Philosophy," described in the catalog as
"An introduction to the nature, methods and some of the
main problems of philosophy" (62:356). The preferred text
book for this course as recommended by the chairman of the
department, is a newly published book of "readings"
exerpted from the writings of major philosophers across
the centuries, introduced and edited by Bierman and Gould
(1). Thirty-four courses are provided by the department,
leading to a Bachelor's degree in philosophy, with five
full-time professors teaching the courses. All professors
are required to teach at least one introductory course
each year.
College E provides a statement of policy with
regard to the department of philosophy and its require
ments. It will be useful for our study to quote this
statement in its entirety:
The philosophy curriculum is designed for two
purposes: (1) To make available to students the
opportunity of meeting the general education require
ments. To this end, generic lower division and upper
division courses are designed to contribute to the
general education of the student. They are intended
to give practice in reflective thinking and aid the
35
student in formulating his own philosophy of life. The
student is introduced to the basic problems of
philosophy, and opportunity is given for his under
standing of representative approaches to their solution.
Appropriate emphasis is placed upon practical and
current problems. And, (2) To make available to
students the opportunity of meeting the requirements
for a major in philosophy. To this end, in addition
to generic courses, specialized courses are designed
to acquaint the student with the history of philosophy
and related areas. These courses are intended for
those who are seeking a liberal arts degree and/or
those who plan to teach philosophy, for pre-profession
al students in such areas as theology and law, and as
a foundation for graduate studies in the areas of
library science, social science, diplomacy, theoretical
physical science, and specialized historical studies.
MAJOR IN PHILOSOPHY FOR THE BACHELOR OF ARTS DEGREE
A minimum of 36 units in philosophy divided as follows:
Lower Division: A minimum of 12 units in philosophy,
including Philosophy 100 or 160, 170 or 2 70, 203 and
204.
Upper Division: A minimum of 24 units in philosophy
442, 463, 482; and at least 6 units chosen from 413,
414, 421, 422, 423, 424; and at least 3 units chosen
from 304, 313, 403, 407, 418, 419, 420, 426. The
required 6 units remaining are to be selected from
philosophy courses with the advice and consent of the
student's departmental adviser. (63:357)
Sixteen professors comprise the department, with an
opportunity for all of them to teach introductory sections.
The catalog lists a total of forty-six available courses.
College F is located in the heart of a major
metropolitan area, and offers forty-three courses in
philosophy. The catalog statement concerning the degree
program in philosophy is confined to the graduate level,
leading to a Master's Degree in Philosophy (which is not
36
available at either of the other two state colleges
studied). Here the introductory course focuses on "major
issues of philosophical interest" with the course title
being "Philosophical Ideas." In this it closely resembles
the introductory course in the other two colleges, with
the difference that here it is a four unit course, while
at colleges D and E it is a three unit course. This
discrepancy is nowhere explained in print. The discrepancy
is perhaps best explained by what Paul Woodring notes as
the earnest effort of state college professors and
administrators to find new and different patterns of
curriculum design to avoid becoming mere "pale imitations
of great universities or expanded versions of small
private colleges" where standardization has long been a
bugbear (46:30).
Literature on the Presentation
of Philosophy at the University
Level
Alfred North Whitehead defined speculative
philosophy in such a way as to identify it as the special
concern of those engaged in the processes of the higher
learning most frequently associated with the task of the
great universities:
Speculative philosophy can be defined as the endeavor
to frame a coherent, logical, necessary system of
general ideas in terms of which every element of our
experience can be interpreted. (44:222)
37
University G, in its general catalog, provides a statement
concerning the task of its department of philosophy, which
is clearly in the Whitehead tradition:
Philosophy addresses itself to questions that arise
insistently in every area of human experience and in
every discipline within the University. Each disci
pline inevitably poses problems concerning the nature
of the standards appropriate to it and the place of its
subject matter within the total framework of human
knowledge. If we are to understand science or art or
literature, or such human practices as morality and
religion, we are bound to address ourselves to
philosophical issues relating to their nature, the
uses of reason appropriate to them, and the contribu
tions they make to our understanding and appreciation
of ourselves and the world in which we live.
Instruction in philosophy relies essentially upon
discussion in which students are active participants.
Wherever possible, therefore, classes are severely
limited in size in order to permit sustained dialogues
between student and instructor. (70:83)
The introductory courses are three in number, any
one of which may be taken to satisfy the usual "intro
ductory*' prerequisite for further course work. The first
is listed in the catalog as: 5. Problems of Philosophy,
focusing primarily on problems of metaphysics and
epistemology. The second course is, 15. Introduction to
Ethics, and the third (to which the chairman referred in
conversation as "baby logic"), is listed as 50. Elements
of Logic. The selection of books is left to the individual
instructors assigned to teach, but the preference is for
inexpensive reprints of original source materials such as
Descartes' Meditations. Aquinas' Summa. essays by Locke,
Montaigne, et cetera.
38
University H lists two courses in its catalog as
introductory, the first being numbered 6. Introduction to
Philosophy, consisting of three hours of lecture and one
of discussion, focusing on problems of value, ethics,
political philosophy, and philosophy of art. The second
course is listed as 7. Introduction to Philosophy, with
the same distribution of hours, attention being given to
metaphysics, theory of knowledge, philosophy of science,
and philosophy of religion. It is specifically noted that
"Course 6 is not a prerequisite" (62:432).
The chairman of the department, in a personal
interview, stressed that “complete democracy" prevails in
the selection of textbooks, and that no “typical" single
text or list of books is required by any professor. The
preference, he said, is for having students read
inexpensive reprints of original sources "such as the
writings of Plato, Aristotle, Bacon, Hobbes, and the like."
University I, belonging to the same state system
with universities G and H, provides a single course with
the title Introduction to Philosophy. The catalog
description reads:
An introductory exploration of some fundamental
questions in philosophy, with emphasis on the scope
and limits of knowledge, on the nature of reality,
and on problems of human existence.
There is no prerequisite for this course, nor is it a
prerequisite for other courses in the curriculum.
39
During our interview, the chairman stressed the
"complete freedom: of professors to select the texts they
preferred, noting that some favor a book like Harold
Titus" Living Issues in Philosophy (40), or Melvin
Rader's The Enduring Question (37), while others prefer
books of readings like John Hosper's Readings in
Introductory Philosophical Analysis (25) . Still others,
he said, avoid standard texts and books of readings,
requiring their students to read more or less lengthy
works of philosophers, such as Plato's Republic, Aquinas'
Summa Theologica. Descartes' Meditations. along with the
writings of such contemporary figures as A. N. Whitehead,
and Bertrand Russell.
Literature on the Presentation
of Philosophy in Independent
Colleges
Philosophy has been a part of the curriculum ever
since higher education began in the United States, with
the founding of Harvard, the first private, independent
college— indeed, the first college of any kind in
America. Brubacher and Rudy point out that:
In the day before electives when the curriculum was
tightly prescribed, a college generation took the
whole four-year curriculum as a single class.
Everybody took the same subjects at the same time of
day in the same room under the same tutor. . . . It
would not be at all unusual, for instance, to find
the same man teaching mathematics, natural philosophy,
astronomy and geography. (6:60-81)
A relaxing of curriculum restrictions after the
40
Revolutionary War, was challenged by many, though perhaps
by no one more vigorously than Jeremiah Day, in his famous
"Yale Report" of 1828. By this time, however, Thomas
Jefferson had already established the University of
Virginia, and while he had no intention of removing
philosophy from the curriculum, or even minimizing its
importance, he sought to make the curriculum more
inclusive.
Jefferson desired that all subjects useful to modern
times should be taught. The sciences, history,
politics, and the modem languages should be put on
an equality with the classics, mathematics, and
philosophy. (7:505-506)
Private colleges, encouraged by the Dartmouth Case
of 1819, to feel secure in experimenting with curriculum
as well as governance, followed Jefferson's lead (33:580).
Oberlin, and Antioch colleges, both founded in 1833, were
considered courageously innovative, and at Brown:
The most effective theory of higher education in the
middle of the nineteenth century was formulated by
President Francis Wayland. (7:507-508)
The concept of a liberal education was widened in
Wayland*s proposal for putting the physical and social
sciences on a par with the traditional subject matter,
met with temporary defeat, but found its successful
recapitulation in the reforms of Charles W. Eliot, at
Harvard.
The staying power of philosophy as a curriculum
staple in independent colleges is noted by Paul Dressell,
41
who comments that despite all the liberalizing reforms
that have been going on for the past two centuries:
The practice of teaching philosophy as a part of an
integrated course, remains stable. (11:19)
College J is a liberal arts college with approxi
mately 2,000 students enrolled. Its philosophy department
published the following statement concerning philosophy as
presented by its faculty:
Philosophy attempts to synthesize knowledge by a
coherent world view. The department aims to acquaint
students with the chief problems and answers that have
appeared in this quest. Original thinking is
encouraged, but students are expected to be aware of
the historical movements of thought. (65:120)
The introductory course is designated clearly:
Phil. 1 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
and carries the following description:
The world, man's place in the world, major types of
philosophy, realms of value, social scene (May fulfill
requirement in philosophy for graduation). (65:120)
The parenthetical addition is significant because it
reveals that in this church-related college, unlike the
situation in any of the other colleges studied, a course
in philosophy is required for graduation. This particular
course is the prerequisite for taking any other courses in
the philosophy department.
The favored textbook, according to the chairman of
the department, is Harold Titus' Living Issues in
Philosophy (40), supplemented by the book of readings
edited by Titus, titled the Range of Philosophy (41).
42
Because of the structure of the introductory
course, it is clear that its comprehensive nature is
intended to serve both the philosophy major and non-major,
and represents the foundation upon which everything else
in the department's curriculum is built. *niis observation
was substantiated by the chairman, who expressed pleasure
in knowing that the intent was so clear.
College K is a private, church-related liberal arts
college, enrolling approximately the same number of
students as College J, and a like number of students in
introductory courses in philosophy each year (from 175-
200). The college catalog introduces the department of
philosophy with a paragraph which reads:
Philosophy seeks to discover and to evaluate the
general principles used by men in all fields of
knowledge. For example, philosophers are concerned
with distinguishing between good and bad conduct,
beautiful and ugly experiences, factual statements
and value judgments, real and unreal phenomena, valid
and invalid arguments, and meaningful and meaningless
sentences. They often incorporate the results of
their investigations in systems of world views which
comprehend wide areas of knowledge and experience.
The major in philosophy, in addition to training for
professional work in philosophy, provides excellent
preparation for careers in many fields, but
particularly in law, the social sciences, the
humanities, and religion.
MAJOR: Nine courses, including Philosophy 25, 101,
102, 103, 123, 125, 190, and two courses chosen from
Philosophy 1, 13, 73, 104, 126, 127, 131, 132,
Political Science 146, 147, 148.
A major in this department may, in consultation
with his adviser, choose an Area Studies emphasis.
(68:146)
43
The Introduction to Philosophy (Philosophy 1), need
not be taken as a prerequisite to other courses, although
this is the usual practice among students. The catalog
description of the course is brief:
The terms, concepts and problems of philosophy.
Practice in the philosophica method.
No standard text is used, the preference among the
professors being the assignment of such original source
materials as Plato's Republic, and Montaigne's Essays.
College L is a private institution, formerly church
sponsored but with only the most tenuous links with its
parent denomination lingering, so that it can proclaim
itself non-sectarian. Enrolling about the same number of
students as the other two private colleges studied, it has
half again or more taking courses in philosophy (usually
upwards of three hundred each year), due to its being
combined with religion.
The catalog of College L is quite explicit in its
description of the department's offerings and requirements
for majors in philosophy and religion:
Major in Philosophy: Philosophy 16, 17 and twenty-
four approved upper division credits in philosophy.
Major in Religion: Religion 1, 5-6 and twenty-four
approved upper division credits in religion.
Major in Philosophy and Religion: Religion 1, 5-6,
Philosophy 16 or 17, and twenty-four approved upper
division credits selected equally from philosophy and
religion.
44
Group Major in Philosophy and Religion: Religion 1 or
5-6, Philosophy 16 or 17, fifteen approved upper
division credits in either philosophy or religion and
nine additional upper division credits selected from
a related department.
Minor in Religion; Religion 1 or 5-6 and twelve
approved upper division credits in religion.
Minor in Philosophy; Philosophy 16 or 17 and twelve
approved upper division credits in philosophy.
The Department of Philosophy and Religion aims to
assist students in (1) the development of an adequate
philosophy of life, (2) the appreciation of their
cultural heritage, (3) the gaining of necessary
background for lay service and professional careers
in the ministry, religious education, youth work and
related fields, and (4) the obtaining of prerequisite
courses for graduate study leading to teaching in
philosophy, religion and the humanities. (73:70)
The course called Introduction to Philosophy is
actually not the first course to be offered; it is listed
in the catalog with the numerical order of 17, while a
course titled Issues in Philosophy is number 16.
Philosophy majors must take both courses, while those
enrolled for a double major of Philosophy and Religion,
may select either one or the other of the two courses. A
minor in philosophy is free to choose either 16 or 17,
while a religion major need take neither.
The introductory course, which bears that name
carries the description:
A consideration of the purposes, methods and values
of philosophy. A survey of the major problems of
philosophy, together with the major proposals for
their solution.
The text used by the chairman (who considers that course
45
his own special responsibility), is Joseph Brennan's The
Meaning of Philosophy. This text contains the statement
that older definitions of philosophy as "the knowledge of
things generally" was much too ambitious, and needs to be
modified to include the study of basic assumption about
things generally, those that people take for granted in
ordinary life, as well as those assumed in systems of
organized knowledge (5:1). The book is designed to
embrace within its scope logic and language, problems of
knowledge, metaphysics, and problems of value.
Literature on the Present Lack
of Consensus in the Curriculum
for Introductory Courses in
Philosophy
Anthony Nemetz, in discussing the problem of
communication in philosophy, notes that:
. . . traditional definitions and descriptions of
philosophy invariably emphasize the freedom of the
discipline. (54:193)
We have observed the exercise of freedom in the curriculum
offerings of philosophy in the several kinds of schools
studied, and found some reason for disquiet. In some
colleges where the emphasis is on logical analysis, the
pupil may gain an acceptable skill in that branch of the
discipline but remain unaware of the contributions of such
key figures as Aristotle, Aquinas, or Whitehead. If such
a student were to transfer to another college for
advanced work, where the history of philosophy was the
46
focuB for the introductory course, and a necessary
background for advancement, he would be at a grave
disadvantage.
The fact that a professor, Fred Westfall, can
insist that because philosophy is "primarily an activity,"
logical analysis should be the emphasis in the beginning
course (43:4), while Ferre enthuses over the central role
of history (53:223), which Wick almost denegrates (55:118),
further illustrates the lack of consensus.
If students are not to be victimized by the whims
and predilections of professors whose preferential
approach to the curriculum has resulted in a philosophical
potpourri, some kind of consensus as to the content of the
introductory course would seem required. Yet clearly any
effort at a mandated curriculum would stiffle the
creativity of both professors and students in their quest
for enlightenment, and would meet with a deserved
rejection.
Most philosophy texts provide a rationale for the
emphasis the author believes will comprise the most
effective introduction to philosophy. Thus Hunter Mead
states that:
. . . despite its several advantages, the historical
approach appears to be losing ground today as a first
introduction to philosophy. The alternative method
is built around a study of either the types of
philosophy . . . or a study of the basic problems of
the field. (31:Freface, viii)
47
Harold Titus' Living Issues in Philosophy, the most
popular single text in current use among the several
colleges studied, asserts that the introductory course
should address itself to "issues closely related to
life . . . religion, art, morality, education, and social
policy" (40:Preface, v).
In the course of our study, we will examine other
points of view, with special attention to the opinions
of those who chair the several departments of philosophy,
to discover whether among them we may gain some sense of
commonality upon which to build a proposal for a curri
culum more satisfactory to all, than those now in use.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to review the
literature relating to the teaching of philosophy in
higher education, with special attention to its
presentation in a sampling of junior college, state
colleges, universities, and private colleges in southern
California.
The first section focused on the role of philosophy
as an academic discipline in higher education, and in the
general education curriculum in particular.
In succeeding sections, attention was given to the
way in which departments of philosophy in each of the four
kinds of institutions named, present the subject matter
48
at the introductory level. Their stated rationale as
found in the college catalogs was noted, and the textbooks,
readings, and required study materials were given.
In the final part of the chapter, the present lack
of consensus in the curriculum for philosophy courses, was
commented upon, references from current literature
providing documentation. Both books and journal articles
substantiate the contention that there is very little
correlation from one school to another as to the content
of the introductory course.
CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The conduct of this study of the introductory
philosophy curriculum on selected campuses of the
University of California, the California State Colleges,
California Community Colleges, and Independent Colleges,
included the following steps; (1) securing endorsements,
(2) review of the literature, (3) delimiting the study,
(4) structuring a format for the study, (5) preparation
of the questionnaire, (6) distribution and recovery of
the questionnaire (7) organization of the responses (8)
tabulation and assessment of the responses.
This chapter describes the above methods and
procedures in detail.
Securing Endorsements
There are a number of men in key positions in
higher education whose support and approval I was eager
to secure in the persuance of this task. These included
Dr. Gerald Cresci, Assistant Chancellor for Academic
Student Affairs for the California Community Colleges;
Dr. Gerhard Friedrich, Dean of Academic Planning for the
California State Colleges; Dr. Angus Taylor, Vice
49
50
President of Academic Affairs, for the University of
California. Because there was no one person serving a
parallel role for the independent colleges in California,
I had to confine my guest for endorsement to the chairmen
of the philosophy departments in each of the private
colleges included in the study. An expressed concern for
preserving the academic freedom and independence of these
departments cautioned me against "going over their heads"
to secure endorsement from the academic deans in these
institutions. I did, however, address a letter to Dr. John
Wisdom, the President of the American Philosophical
Association, Pacific Division, and found his interest in
the project to be enthusiastic and supportive. The
Appendix to this dissertation contains copies of the
responses of each of the above persons.
Review of the Literature
The literature for this study, though severely
limited in the specific area of curriculum wherein I had
hoped to find a large quantity of material, was reviewed
in a number of specific areas: (1) the role of philosophy
as an academic discipline, (2) the place of philosophy in
general education, (3) the presentation of philosophy at
the junior college level, (4) the presentation of
philosophy at the university level, (6) the presentation
of philosophy in private colleges, and (7) the present lack
51
of concensus as to what constitutes a sound curriculum for
the introduction of philosophy in institutions of higher
learning.
Books studied were very general in their treatment
of the subject in any of its above areas, while a
thorough search through the dissertation abstracts since
1938 revealed not a single comparable study in philosophy
curriculum in the more than three decades covered by
published surveys and summaries. Periodicals too were
meager in their coverage, despite the hundreds of
published works by professional philosophers each year.
The fact that so few have turned their attention to the
matter of the philosophy curriculum, while thousands of
students enroll annually in philosophy courses, is in
itself a phenomenon of importance for this present study.
This was noted in the first chapter and will be the
occasion of a special comment in the final chapter.
Of greater value were certain unpublished
materials, particularly a master's thesis by John Day, for
the University of Southern California (58), a doctoral
dissertation by Mahmood Ul Hasan Butt, for Indiana
University (58), and a paper presented by Hugh G. Petrie,
to the philosophy faculty of Northwestern University (60).
Of greatest value, however, were the catalogs of
the colleges studied. Each set forth in some detail the
aims and goals of the department of philosophy, with some
52
statement about the methods used in achieving them. Every
course within the curriculum was given a title, and a
number revealing its place in the sequence. In most
cases, a clear indication was provided as to whether the
introductory course was a prerequisite to other courses,
and whether it could stand alone as a part of the
institution's general education requirements. The
content of each course was also provided in greater or
lesser detail, making it clear what kind of emphasis
might be expected.
Delimiting the Study
Having taught philosophy at three community
colleges in California, as well as at the state college
and university levels elsewhere, my initial review of the
activities of various philosophy departments brought me
to the decision to confine my study to the introductory
course as provided by a select number of each kind of
institution. Because California has a "Master Plan" for
higher education which includes independent colleges as
well, a number of these colleges were also studied, the
number being equal to each of the other kind of college.
The limits include (1) three community colleges,
three state colleges, three campuses of the University of
California, and three independent colleges; (2) the
chairman of each philosophy department served as the
53
source of data; (3) the time element was limited to the
academic year 1969-71, because in some cases catalogs are
published only every second year.
Structuring a Format for
the Study
The questionnaire was developed only after a review
of the literature, and after conferences with members of
various faculty groups on a number of campuses. A draft
of the proposed questionnaire was presented to the
following:
1. Dr. Earl Pullias, Professor of Higher Education,
University of Southern California.
2. Dr. Nelson Pike, Chairman of the Department of
Philosophy, the University of California, Irvine.
3. Dr. Paul Hayner, Chairman of the Department of
Philosophy, California State College, Fullerton.
4. Mr. Russell Graham, Chairman of the Department
of Philosophy, Fullerton Junior College.
Valuable suggestions came from each of these men,
and these suggestions were used in modifying the proposed
questionnaire. When completed, it consisted of fifty-five
items, covering five broad areas of inquiry.
Preparation of the Questionnaire
Questions which were deemed most important to
explore for the purpose of this study fell quite
54
naturally into five categories:
I. Practices Related to the Curriculum
II. Practices Related to Articulation
III. Practices Related to Students
IV. General Attitudes
V. The Nature of the Institution
In the first category, the questions sought to
disclose the nature of the department, the number of
students it attracted, the kinds of books required or
recommended, the emphasis of the introductory course in
philosophy, and the nature of the evaluation process in
current use.
In the second section, questions were designed to
probe the relationship of the department in the college
being studied with departments in other colleges. In
addition, there was an effort to learn how the introductory
course in each of the schools was articulated with other
courses in the philosophy curriculum; whether it was a
prerequisite to others, or could be taken without
particular reference to other courses by both majors and
non-majors.
The third area for concern was related to the
students themselves. Such questions as: do non
philosophy majors have the same choice of taking the
introductory course as declared majors, or must they take
a separate and different kind of course; if the college
55
offers a baccalaureate degree, is the student able to earn
a specific degree in philosophy (e.g., the Ph.B.); must
all philosophy majors take the same sequence of courses?
Fourth in order, though not necessarily in
importance, were questions about general attitudes in the
department toward the role of philosophy in the
curriculum; whether it should be a required subject;
whether age prerequisites should be imposed; what kinds
of goals are held before a philosophy major as to the
values, practical application or uses he might find for
what he has learned.
Finally, the broad nature of the institution in
which the department and its students have to live and
learn, became the object of inquiry. Is the institution
in a metropolitan center or rural environment, small town
or suburban; what requirements are placed upon the
faculty to teach in this institution; does the college
consider the responsibility of the department to extend
beyond the purely academic one of educating students in
the history and disciplines of philosophic thought, or are
community relations considered germaine?
Distribution and Recovery of
the Questionnaire
Because respondents selected for the study were
chairmen of philosophy departments, it was not always an
easy matter to reach them. Early in March, 1971, a phone
56
call was made to Dr. Nelson Pike, of the University of
California, Irvine. His cordial welcome made the first
interview not only a particular pleasure, but deceptively
easy in that it led to the expectation that all others
would be as readily accomplished. This proved untrue, as
illness and unexpected schedule changes in the busy
routines of many other chairmen forced the postponement of
several other appointments. The interview with Dr. Pike
was fruitful in another respect, however, in revealing
that some questions can be handled better in personal
interviews than others, but that most questions could be
framed in such a way as to make a written questionnaire
preferable to an oral one for expediency's sake.
The frank invitation of one chairman was simply
this: "Look, time is expensive for both of us. Send me
a written questionnaire I can fill out in a few minutes,
then let'a get together over the phone to plug up any
gaps left open. O.K.?" This somewhat inelegant, but
friendly candor was echoed by three other chairmen When I
called to explain the project and ask for their aid.
Confirmed in their earnestness, I could not but conclude
that this was indeed the best strategy. Not once did I
meet with a negative response, and all seemed genuinely
interested not only in helping, but also in my keeping
them informed of results and conclusions. All but two
questionnaires were returned to me within a week of my
57
mailing them out, each having been accompanied with a
self-addressed and stamped envelope. One apologized when
I called to inquire, asking for a second copy since he had
misplaced the first; the other had suffered a severe
illness in the interim, but completed the questionnaire
within a few more days. These details are mentioned only
to underscore my impression of the openness of these men
to a project in which their attitudes and practices might
be examined to their own benefit or detraction. Each had
been assured that the findings would be kept confidential,
and that they would each receive a copy of the findings
and conclusions.
Organization of the Responses
The information gleaned from the questionnaires was
organized in such a way that each of the five sections
comprise a chapter, and each chapter takes the questions
within its assigned section seriatim.
Each question was then stated at the tope of a
page, and responses revealed according to the category of
college, i.e., community college, state college,
university, or private college, and each college
identified by its assigned alphabetical designation as
used in Chapter XI.
At the conclusion of each page, a majority opinion,
an apparent consensus, or significant discrepancy was
noted if such comment was appropriate.
56
Tabulation and Assessment of
Reaponeea
To complete the study, responses to the question
naire were reviewed and summarized in terms of
implications, conclusions, and recommendations.
Chapter Summary
The present study was endorsed by representatives
of the California community colleges, California state
colleges, the University of California, department
chairmen of three private independent colleges, and the
president of the American Philosophic Association.
The study consisted of (1) personal interviews with
a department chairman from each of the four types of
colleges, as well as the chairman of the department of
higher education at the University of Southern
California; (2) telephone interviews before and after the
distribution of the questionnaires; and (3) a five part
questionnaire consisting of fifty-five separate items.
The study was undertaken to provide philosophy
professors and other educators with information as to
current practices in philosophy departments at the
several kinds of colleges studied, and to offer
recommendations for coordination, articulation, and possi
ble revision of the curriculum at the introductory level.
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS: PRACTICES RELATED TO
THE CURRICULUM
The purpose of this study was to examine the
philosophy curriculum in selected colleges and universi
ties in California, with special attention to the
introductory course offered in each type of institution.
The primary instrument used in conducting the study was a
questionnaire comprised of five areas of concentration
including: (1) practices related to the curriculum, (2)
practices related to articulation, (3) practices related
to students, (4) general attitudes, and (5) the nature of
the institution.
The data for this study were derived from the
questionnaire, supplemented by interviews with heads of
the departments. Some responses will be registered in
accord with verbal comment from personal interviews.
Chapters V through VIII report the responses to
the questionnaire for Sections II through V. Chapter IX
provides the summary and conclusions, implications and
recommendations.
The tables used in each of the chapters IV through
59
60
VIII are designed to provide a summary of the responses.
Of the twelve colleges studied, all but two have
philosophy departments called by that name. Of these, one
is a community college wherein philosophy is taught within
the Division of Social Science. The instructor serving as
"chairman'' for philosophy serves in an advisory capacity
within the division.
In the second instance of the independent college
without a distinct department of philosophy, there exists
rather a "Department of Philosophy and Religion." Here
the student may major in philosophy and minor in religion,
or vice versa. Or, a student may elect to take a "group
major" in philosophy and religion, with a nine unit upper
division minor in a related field. (See Table 1)
While one must be cautious in interpreting small
samples, it would appear clear in this instance that while
"senior" colleges protect the independence of the
philosophy department as a discrete unit, "junior"
colleges prefer to establish larger administrative
contexts within which related academic disciplines may be
coordinated (Table 2). The exception to this in our
study is college C, which has dropped the "Junior" from
its title (which the other two community colleges have
retained). The reason for this exception became clear
when, during discussion with the chairman of the
61
TABLE 1
Question 1: Is there a "Department of Philosophy" called
by that name in your institution?
Yes No
Communitv Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L 1
62
TABLE 2
Question 2: Are the philosophy courses grouped together
within a larger department (e.g.. Social
Science, Humanities, etc.)?
Yes Ho
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
1 1
IndeDendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
63
department at College C, it was disclosed that this
particular college has consciously and actively resisted
being classified as a junior college, and has sought to
organize its departments in the way characteristic of
senior institutions.
As shown in Table 3, fewer students take Introduc
tion to Philosophy at the university, in proportion to the
total student body, perhaps because the majority who enter
the department have transferred from other institutions
where they took the course at a lower level.
As in the case with Table 2, all the "senior"
colleges hold to the same pattern, and the one community
college which has resisted the title "junior college"
follows the pattern set by the senior campuses. The
explanation for the difference in the provision of a two
semester course for the junior colleges, was given by the
chairman of College A.
We are trying to insure a thorough grounding in
philosophy, so our transfer students will be not only
as well prepared, but better prepared, for advance
work than their colleagues who started out at a senior
college.
He did volunteer the information, however, that "most
students take only the first semester. It is designed to
be complete by itself." {See Table 4.)
Table 5 shows that at the community colleges, where
the curriculum is limited, it is common for all the
professors being involved in teaching the introductory
64
TABLE 3
Question 3: How many students (in round numbers) enroll
in the introductory course(s) in philosophy
each year?
Total
Philosophy Institutional
Enrollment Enrollment
Community Colleges
A 850 14,420
B 700 6, 774
C 600 6, 700
State Colleaes
D 500 9, 923
E 2,200 26,101
P 1,600 22,000
University of California
CamDuses
G 375 2,600
H 375 28,300
I 225 5,300
Indeoendent Colleaes
J 175 3,600
K 200 1,724
L 300 2,545
65
TABLE 4
Question 4: Is the introductory course a
semester (quarter) course?
one or two
One Two
Community Colleqes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleqes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Indeoendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
66
TABLE 5
Question 5: How many professors are engaged in teaching
the introductory course sections?
Numbers of
Professors
Community Colleaes
A 4
B 3
C 3
State Colleaes
D 5
E 7-10
F 12
University of California Campuses
G 3
H 4
1 1
Independent Colleaes
J 2
K 3
L 2
67
course sections. At College At for example, three of the
four on the staff teach only the introductory course. The
chairman alone teaches the World Religions course, in
addition to the introductory course.
In each of the state colleges studied, the practice
of having every professor teach at least one of the
introductory sections each semester, is sustained.
At the university level there appears to be more
of a voluntary aspect involved with each professor being
invited to teach an introductory course if he wishes, in
addition to his specialty; the exception is University I,
where one professor was hired essentially to handle all
the introductory sections.
The private colleges studies follow the state
college pattern, recommending, though not requiring, that
each member of the staff hold at least one section of
introductory course work each semester.
In terms of emphasis (Table 6) there is neither
consistency among the colleges of similar constitution
(none of the community colleges, for example, offer the
same emphasis), nor correlation from one kind of college
to another.
Among the community colleges studied, the
professors in College A strive to provide an equal amount
of emphasis on all possibilities. College B omits
Systems altogether, giving equal attention to Problems and
TABLE 6
Question 6: With regard to emphasis, how is your
introductory course structured? For example,
what percentage is given to the study of the
history of philosophy; systems (idealism,
pragmatism, etc.); problems (free will, the
meaning of history, love, war, etc.); realms
(axiology, epistemology, ontology)?
History Systems Problems Realms
Communitv Colleqes
A 25 25 25 25
B 10
—
45 45
C 20 10 50 20
State Colleqes
D 20 10 35 35
E
— — —
100
F 90 10
University of
California CamDuses
6
_ _
100
—
H 33-1/2 - 33-1/3 33-1/3
I 20 20 30 30
Independent Colleaes
J
—
33-1/3 33-1/3 33-1/3
K — —
50 50
L 10 30 30 50
69
Realms, but only 10 percent to History of Philosophy.
College C gives fully half the course to the study of
Problems, distributing the rest of the course almost
equally, but with Systems getting the least attention.
State College E gives its entire course over to the
study of Realms, while F gives only 10 percent to Realms
and 90 percent to Problems. Problems and Realms share 70
percent of the course at College D, with History getting
20 percent and Systems the remaining 10 percent.
At the university level the faculty at G focus
entirely on Problems, while H divides attention equally
among History, Problems, and Realms. University I
provides 60 percent of its term for the study of Problems
and Realms, dividing the remaining 40 percent between
History and Systems.
Private colleges studied tend to omit the History
of philosophy (J and K altogether, L giving it only 10
percent of course time), focusing primarily on Realms,
though no more than 50 percent at any college. College J
divides the semester equally among Systems, Problems and
Realms.
Greater similarity exists among private colleges,
and among community colleges, than among state colleges or
campuses of the university system. This is an interesting
discovery because private colleges lack coordinating
headquarters which state colleges and universities have.
Community colleges tend also to be more independent and
community oriented than either of the other branches of
tax supported higher education.
Whatever congruities can be identified seem to be
strongest between community College B and independent
College K; between state College D and University I;
between independent Colleges J and L. The coincidences
appear to have arisen without conscious effort; the
chairman disavowed any intentional design.
As shown in Table 7, among the community colleges,
all use a standard text, while College A supplements the
text with a book of readings and has each student select
one book of primary source materials, such as Plato's
Apology, Pascal's Pensees. or some other relatively brief
work.
At the state college level, only 0 uses a standard
text, while all three utilize books of readings and only
F supplements with the requirement of original source
materials.
None of the university philosophy departments make
use of a standard text. University 6 uses only original
sources, while H uses these plus a book of readings, and
1 uses only books of readings.
Among the independent colleges studied, J uses a
text plus a book of reading; K uses only original sources
and L uses all three kinds of reading materials.
71
TABLE 7
Question 7: In the selection of reading materials, is the
preference in your department for a standard
text, books
materials?
of readings. or primary source
Standard
Text Readings
Primary
Sources
Communitv Colleaes
A 1 1 1
B 1
- -
C 1
State Colleaes
o 1 1
E
-
1
-
F —
1 1
University of California
Campuses
G
_ —
1
H
-
1 1
1 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1 1
K
— •
1
L 1 1 1
72
Community colleges are consistent in that all use
standard texts. The state colleges are consistent in that
all use books of readings. The universities are consistent
in that none of the three use standard texts but in no
other particular do their requirements resemble each other.
No consistency appears among the independent colleges.
The only congruities appear when comparing community
College A with independent College L, both of which use
all three kinds of materials; or comparing University G
with independent College K which depend entirely on
original source materials.
Table 8 shows the most popular single text to be
Harold Titus' Living Issues in Philosophy, published in
1964. It is used by two of the community colleges and
one independent college. The other books listed as being
used, share in common the omission of historical material,
except for an occasional reference to the dates of a
philosopher whose contribution is being cited (e.g.,
Descartes, 1596-1650). Like Titus, who devotes eighteen
of his twenty-eight chapters to the major problems of
philosophy, Brennan, Halverson, and Hocking are essen
tially problem oriented. Titus' text is more comprehen
sive in that it includes six chapters to the major system
of philosophy, and three to the areas of eppistamology
(sources, nature, and tests of knowledge), and one to
axiology. Two other chapters on value are clearly
Question 8: If you assign a textbook
TABLE 8
, please name the title and author.
Author Title No. in
Bibliography
Community Colleqes
A Titus Living Issues in Philosophy (38)
B Halverson A Concise Introduction to Philosophy (21)
C Titus Living Issues in Philosophy (38)
State Colleqes
D Hocking Types of Philosophy (24)
E No Text
F No Text
University of
California Campuses
6 No Text
H No Text
I No Text
Independent Colleges
J Titus Livino Issues in PhilosoEhy (38)
K No Text
L Brennan The Meaning of Philosophy (5)
74
problem-centered chapters.
In answer to the question as to why the once
popular standard text has been given a secondary place to
the kinds of reading that involve the student in problem
solving, all twelve chairmen employed the word "relevance."
Problem solving has the appeal of immediacy in a generation
grown impatient with systems of thought and rehearsals of
the past.
Among the twelve colleges studied, only one.
University H, and one independent college, L, requires
that all students who take advanced work in philosophy
must have taken the introductory course (Table 9). The
chairman of community College A, however, stated during a
personal interview, that the introductory course was
strongly urged. His rationale was echoed in conferences
with the chairmen of University H, and independent College
L, who said that the whole function of an introductory
course is to prepare a foundation for advanced philosophi
cal thinking. The responses of the other chairmen were
in essential accord with one who said "we can take the
students where they are, and if they are mature, we can
begin at almost any point in the curriculum."
Table 10 shows the most common practice among the
colleges studied is to hold a mid-term examination and
a final examination— eight of the twelve follow this
practice. All but one of the institutions use a final
75
TABLE 9
Question 9: Is the introductory course an absolute pre
requisite for enrolling in all other courses
in philosophy in your department?
Yes No
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
76
TABLE 10
Question 10: For purposes of evaluating students, what is
the general practice regarding tests: (a)
pop quizzes, (b) weekly quizzes (c) monthly
quizzes (e) mid-term examination and (f)
final examination.
a b c d e f
Consnunitv Colleaes
A 1 1
B 1 1
C 1 1 1
State Colleaes
D 1 1
E 1 1
F 1 1
Universitv of California
CaniDUses
G 1 1
H 1 1
I 1 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1 1
L 1 1
77
examination for evaluation of the students, that one being
independent College J, which uses only the monthly
examinations (along with weekly essays, as we will note
in Table 11).
The community colleges all use monthly quizzes
along with the final examination. Only community College
C, of all twelve colleges studied, makes use of the pop
quiz.
The state college and university departments of
philosophy concur in the use of only mid-term examinations
and final examinations.
Two of the independent colleges, K and L employ
the same examination practice as the state colleges and
universities, with the already noted exception of J.
The once popular device among professors for
providing students an opportunity to explore a given topic
or theme and demonstrate their proficiency in research and
writing the term paper is passing from common usage.
Professors in nine of the twelve institutions have
discontinued its use (Table 11).
The chairman of community College A stated his
preference for having students write four or five reading
reports. The chairmen at the other two campuses depend on
the examinations and classroom participation for evalua
tion of the students.
The chairman at state College D said students may
78
TABLE 11
Question 11: Do you require term papers to be written?
Yes NO
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleqes
D 1
E 1
P 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
79
write a paper on an "optional" basis if they wish to
improve their grades. No comments were made by the other
chairmen.
At University G, the chairman expressed his
preference for a weekly paper, the subject for which is
assigned by the professor. Universities H and I require
term papers to be written.
None of the independent college philosophy
departments include a term paper assignment, the chairman
of College J stating his insistance on a weekly paper "of
at least 500 words."
As shown in Table 12, state College E and
University 1 provide a great deal of latitude to their
students in the selection of topics and execution of
research and writing. The chairman at University H
observed "we run a tight ship," in commenting on the fact
that the topic for the term paper is assigned, and the
technique for research as well as the outline for
presentation is prescribed.
Chapter Summary
Consonance is significantly lacking in curriculum
practices among the colleges and universities studied for
the purposes of this dissertation.
Departments*of philosophy in the community college*
state colleges, universities, and independent colleges
80
TABLE 12
Question 12: If term papers are required, are students
given freedom to select their own topics,
and conduct research according to their own
design?
Yes No
Community Colleges
A
B
C
State Colleges
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
J
K
L
81
differ among themselves almost as much as they differ
from each other. There appears to be no norm, but each is
distinct as to organization along departmental lines; as
to whether their introductory course should be of one or
two semester duration; the emphasis given to history,
systems, problems or the realms of epistemology, axiology,
and ontology; the use of textbooks, and tests and assigned
papers for purposes of evaluation.
The greatest dissonance was noted in the area of
curriculum emphasis. While some colleges try to provide
an introduction to the whole spectrum of philosophy,
including the history of philosophy, the development and
content of systems of thought, problems, and the three
disciplinary realms of epistemology, axiology and
ontology, other colleges may emphasize one or more of
these aspects to the partial or total neglect of the
others.
The chairmen of some departments expressed active
distaste for some aspects of the curriculum, which they
therefore intentionally minimized or omitted. Because in
ten of the twelve colleges, the introductory course is not
a prerequisite to further course work, a number of the
chairmen disavowed any necessity for the introductory
course providing the broad base once thought important,
in order to make it a valid "introduction to philosophy."
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS: PRACTICES RELATED TO
ARTICULATION
Section II of the questionnaire was designed to
determine to what extent and how articulation has been
achieved among philosophy departments of community
colleges, state colleges, campuses of the University of
California, and independent colleges.
Twelve questions were framed in an effort to
discover the actual extent of curriculum articulation that
now exists, and what may be anticipated. Some items seek
to reveal overt influences which some institutions may
exercise over others. Other questions inquire about
efforts made by representatives of the several institu
tions to cooperate in the dove-tailing of course materi
als. Still other questions probe for the transferability
of courses taken at one college when the student seeks to
continue his academic career elsewhere. Again, there is
an effort to discover, through these questions, if the
philosophy majors enroll in the same or a different kind
of course at the introductory level, from the students who
have not declared themselves a philosophy major.
82
83
Two community colleges, one state college, two
universities, and all three of the independent colleges
report that their departments of philosophy conduct their
curriculum and program without being influenced by
activities undertaken in their sister departments on other
campuses (Table 13). Community College A, while reporting
negatively, qualified the response with "not directly,"
and the chairman of independent College K, in private
conversation added "maybe indirectly a little." The four
colleges reporting affirmatively made no comment, with
the exception of state College D which appended to the
questionnaire the words, "but only generally."
Only one of the twelve colleges studied reported
being influenced by the community college curriculum, and
that one. College A, qualified the response with the
words: "mainly from influence of discussion with other
instructors." (See Table 14.)
Table 15 shows that while two community colleges
affirmed an influence on their philosophy curriculum from
the state college level, only one state college did so.
No other college studied admitted to being influenced at
all by the curriculum of the state colleges.
The same community college which affirmed being
influenced by curriculum offerings at other community
colleges and by the state colleges, affirmed also that the
curriculum at the university level was important in its
84
TABLE 13
Question 13: Is the content of the introductory course
in philosophy influenced by the content of
introductory courses offered in other
institutions of higher learning in the
state?
Yes No
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
P 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
85
TABLE 14
Question 14: Is the content influenced by the curriculum
practices of junior or community colleges
in the state?
Yes NO
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Camouses
G 1
H 1
I 1
IndeDendent Colleaes
J 1
K
1
L
1
86
TABLE IS
Question 15: Is the content influenced by curriculum
practices of the state colleges in the state?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California Camouses
G 1
H 1
I 1
IndeDendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
87
planning (Table 16). In the same manner, the state
college which acknowledged the influence of other state
colleges, attested to the importance of the pace set by
the universities. In addition, community College B and
University H reported an influence of the university
system's other campuses.
The independent colleges maintained the same
disinterest in the curriculum plans for the state
university as expressed toward the community and state
colleges.
Community College A and state College E remain
consistent in their openness to influence from curriculum
practices of senior institutions of higher learning. The
other ten institutionsf including the independent colleges
themselves, reported no influence from the programs of
the independent colleges in California (Table 17).
Community College C and state College F both of
which disavowed any influence by other institutions of
higher learning on their curriculum, nevertheless are the
only two of the twelve colleges studied which make a
practice of seeking conferences with representatives of
other institutions for the purpose of articulating their
course offerings (Table 18). There being presently no
official meetings held for such purposes, such confer
ences are perforce voluntarily sought, and often in
conjunction with other meetings such as Phi Delta Kappa,
88
TABLE 16
Question 16: Is the content influenced by curriculum
practices within the state university
system?
Yes Mo
Community Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
89
TABLE 17
Question 17: Is the content influenced by curriculum
practices of the independent colleges in the
state?
Yes No
Communitv Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleqes
0 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Camouses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
90
TABLE 16
Question 18: Does your philosophy department, through
representatives, engage in articulation
conferences with representatives from other
colleges and universities?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
91
American Association of Higher Education, American
Association of University Professors, or American
Philosophical Association.
At the present time no effort is made on the part
of any of the twelve institutions of higher learning to
seek conferences with representatives from secondary
schools, to discuss the philosophy curriculum (Table 19).
Table 20 shows that all philosophy majors receive
transfer credit for their philosophy courses when trans
ferring to other colleges within the state.
All colleges except state College F answered
affirmatively; independent College K added a qualifying
comment: "1 suppose there might be some exceptions.'1
(See Table 21.)
Hone of the institutions studied offers a course
for non-majors that is different from the course provided
for philosophy majors (Table 22).
The chairman of state College D commented at this
point in the interview, that the introductory course does
not apply toward the total number of units required for a
major in philosophy. There would be no need, therefore,
to create a different kind of introductory course.
The responses to question 23 (Table 23) are
particularly significant in relation to question 13, for
while in response to question 13 colleges B, D, E, and H
affirmed the influence of other institutions on their
92
TABLE 19
Question 19: Does the department, through representatives,
engage in articulation conferences with
representatives from secondary schools?
Yes No
Comniunitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Camouses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Indeoendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
93
TABLE 20
Question 20: Do philosophy majors ordinarily receive
transfer credit for the introductory course
in philosophy when transferring to other
colleges and universities within the state?
Yes No
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
94
TABLE 21
Question 21: Does your department accept transfer credit
for the introductory philosophy course from
all other accredited colleges and
universities within the state?
Yes No
Communitv Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
Z 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
95
TABLE 22
Question 22: Does your department offer a different
introductory course in philosophy for
philosophy majors from that offered for
non-majors?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
0 1
E 1
P 1
University of California CamDUses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Indeoendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
96
TABLE 2 3
Question 23: Are courses offered in your department for
philosophy majors arranged in a sequential
pattern to articulate with programs in
philosophy departments in other institutions
of higher education in the state?
Yes NO
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
97
curriculum, A and J denited it. Yet A and J respond
affirmatively to question 23, along with B, E, and H, to
the effect that they do arrange their philosophy courses to
articulate with other institutions. College D, which was
affirmative on question 13, denies that the courses are
articulated with those in other institutions, having
earlier attested to the influence of other such institu
tions .
The reason for such discrepancies was suggested by
the chairman of state College E: 11. . . the courses are
not articulated self-consciously, but they do articulate."
There is an even division in the number of colleges
which provide a waver-by-examination practice (Table 24).
Summary of Chapter
While a third of the respondents affirmed an
influence of other institutions' curriculum practices on
their own, only one community college acknowledged the
influence of other community colleges. Two community
colleges and one state college noted the influence of state
college practices. The same community colleges and the
same state college, plus one university, concurred in the
influence of the university curriculum elsevAiere, on their
own. One community college and one state college agreed
to the influence of the offerings of independent colleges.
The independent colleges denied being influenced by anyone,
98
TABLE 24
Question 24: Does your department allow a waiver of the
introductory course in philosophy on the
basis of an examination?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
99
or even by each other.
None of the twelve institutions acknowledged
seeking articulation of their curriculum with secondary
schools. Only two institutions, a community college and
a state college, seek to have representatives meet with
representatives of other institutions of higher learning,
for the purpose of discussing the articulation of courses.
While all twelve respondents affirm that their
introductory course is transferable to all other
institutions in the state, one state college chairman
confirmed that not all such courses taught elsewhere,
even at accredited schools, would be acceptable to his
department. He declined the invitation to be specific.
CHAPTER VI
FINDINGS: PRACTICES RELATED TO STUDENTS
Section III of the questionnaire was designed to
inquire into the regulations and the policies which
underlie them, governing the students' academic program.
Questions asked in this section range from
restrictions on enrollment for those not majoring in
philosophy, to the possibility of a philosophy major
earning a specific degree in the discipline (e.g., the
Ph.B. at the undergraduate level). They also include the
matter of academic advisement and the appropriateness of
designing a special type of philosophy curriculum to fit
each kind of institution, whether community junior
college, state college, university, or private liberal
arts college.
The responses to these questions are of great
importance in developing criteria for the recommendations
Which climax this study.
Ten of the twelve colleges maintain an open
policy toward allowing any student to enroll in courses
for which he has the prerequisites, whether he is a
philosophy major or not (Table 25). Indeed this appears
100
101
TABLE 2 5
Question 25: Do non-philosophy majors have
of philosophy courses?
an open choice
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Indeoendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
102
to be the case even with the two whose chairmen responded
negatively, because they qualified their answers with
"upper division courses require prerequisites," in one
case, and "enrollment in some is forestalled by pre
requisites." If a particularly mature student acquired
all the prerequisites, he would not, according to both
chairmen, be disbarred from enrolling. This point was
clarified in follow-up interviews.
All respondents answered no to question 26 (Table
26), but the chairman of the department in state College
D demurred, saying he felt it unwise for most freshmen
to set an academic course too early. Parental pressures
or a stimulating and overly impressive professor can
sometimes influence a hasty and unwise decision according
to this respondent.
Only one institution retains what was once a
standard requirement for graduation, a course in
philosophy (Table 2 7). It happens that this particular
institution, University H, has the largest department of
philosophy of any of the twelve schools included in this
study, and haB consciously maintained both the most
traditional and the most advanced points of view
simultaneously.
Of interest was the disclosure by the chairman of
the department of philosophy at independent College J,
that the practice was, until the current year, to require
103
TABLE 26
Question 26: Are freshmen discouraged from declaring
themselves as philosophy majors during their
first year in college?
Yes No
Conununitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
0 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
104
TABLE 27
Question 27: Are all students who seek a baccalaureate
in your institution, required to take a
course in philosophy?
Yes No
Conununitv Colleqes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleqes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California Campuses
G 1
H
1
1 1
XndeDendent Colleqes
J 1
K 1
L 1
106
TABLE 28
Question 28: Are all Liberal Arts students seeking a
baccalaureate in your institution required
to take a course in philosophy?
Yes No
Communitv Colleqes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
107
TABLE 29
Question 29: Is it possible for a student to earn a
baccalaureate degree in philosophy (Ph.B.)
in your institution?
Yes No
Communitv Colleqes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleqes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
IndeDendent Colleqes
J 1
K 1
L 1
108
TABLE 30
Question 30: Is it possible for a student to earn a
baccalaureate degree (A.B or B.S.) with a
major in philosophy in your institution?
Yes No
Communitv Colleqes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
O 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California Cammises
G 1
H 1
1 1
indeoendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
109
TABLE 31
Question 31: Are College Entrance Board Examination
results used to place students initially in
philosophy courses?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
P 1
Universitv of California CamDuses
6 1
H 1
I 1
XndeDendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
110
TABLE 32
Question 32: Are former students encouraged to return
to the college to discuss their experience
in transferring to other colleges?
Yes No
Community Colleges
State Colleges
Universitv of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
Ill
other question. Of the seven who responded in the
negative, one said flatly, "we don't bother to follow our
students."
Among the community college respondents, all of whom
answered in the negative, one observed that their
institution provides counselors for the broader division
like Social Science, and these do the counseling for
academic as well as other kinds of problems.
In each of the other three situations the
respondents replied that individual faculty members take
on the job of counseling as need arises— no special
counselors are available.
The twelve colleges studied were evenly divided on
the question of requiring philosophy majors to take
courses in a fixed sequence (Table 34). One respondent
who answered in the negative affirmed it would probably
be desirable "but impossible to require." Another who
answered in the affirmative, added "but only to a certain
degree, with much flexibility." On the other hand, there
was no ambiguity or ambivalence in the response of the
chairman of University G who said "we run a tight ship."
Only three of the twelve respondents replied that
there is a need for a unique type of philosophy course
for his type of college (Table 35). The chairman of
community College C was quite adamant in affirming the
need, noting that for junior college students, their
112
TABLE 33
Question 33: Is a special counselor assigned to meet with
and advise students majoring in philosophy?
Yes No
Conununitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Indeoendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
113
TABLE 34
Question 34: Are philosophy majors advised to take a
common set of courses in a fixed sequence?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
Universitv of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
XndeDendent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
114
TABLE 35
Question 35: Do you believe there is a need for devising
a unique type of philosophy curriculum for
your kind of institution?
Yes No
Community Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L
115
introductory course may be all the philosophy they will
ever have because fewer than 40 percent will go beyond the
junior college. The course therefore needs to be broader
and more of a "sampler" course than one would expect to
find at a university, he declared.
Only one respondent, the chairman from independent
College L refused to take a stand on either side of the
issue, and abstained from commenting.
Of the twelve respondents, nine confirmed that
General Education credit is given for the introductory
course in philosophy; one said no; and two others replied
that they did not know (Table 36).
Inquiry by the writer at the Admissions Office in
each of the colleges where the matter of General Education
credit was in doubt (Community College A, and University
I), disclosed that the introductory course in philosophy
is accepted for such credit at the former, but not at the
latter if the student is a philosophy major. At that
university, students who do not major in philosophy may
receive general education credit for the introductory
course.
Chapter Summary
While no student is discouraged from declaring
philosophy as a major in any of the institutions studied,
non-philosophy majors may still enroll in virtually all
116
TABLE 36
Question 36: Are students granted General Education credit
for the introductory course in philosophy?
Yes No
Community Colleqes
A Don't know
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
1 Don't know
Independent Colleqes
J 1
K 1
L 1
117
philosophy courses available, providing they have
satisfactorily passed the prerequisite courses.
Only in one of the universities are students
required to take at least one course in philosophy in
preparation for the baccalaureate degree. None of the
institutions offers a special philosophy degree (Ph.B.);
only the B.A., or B.S. degrees are available for the
undergraduate philosophy major.
College Entrance Board Examination results are used
in one of the community colleges to placing students in
philosophy classes. None of the other colleges or
universities studied use the examination results in this
way.
In half the institutions studied, former students
are encouraged to return on occasion to discuss their
experiences in transferring to other colleges.
Special counselors are available to philosophy
majors in half the institutions studied. In the other
half, the practice is for philosophy professors to serve
as counselors to their own students.
The twelve colleges were evenly divided on the
question of requiring philosophy majors to take courses in
a fixed sequence.
While there is great diversity in the kinds of
experiences and emphases provided by the different
institutions, the community colleges differing widely from
118
the universities, and the state colleges differing from
the independent colleges, et cetera, only three of the
twelve respondents replied affirmatively to the need for
a unique type of philosophy course to meet the needs of the
students in their kind of institution.
In nine of the twelve institutions, the introductory
philosophy course is available for General Education credit
while in one it is not. Of interest was the fact that two
department chairmen did not know whether or not their
philosophy courses were acceptable for General Education
credit.
t
CHAPTER VII
FINDINGS: GENERAL ATTITUDES
The attitudes of those engaged in teaching
philosophy may be expected to vary, not only because each
professor is "an individual" with personal convictions
about the proper content and form which a course should
take, but also because no consensus has been reached which
might serve as a guideline even if he were receptive.
Further, there is disagreement over the appropriate
preparation for a teacher of philosophy. Each man comes
with a unique set of credentials , having a background and
form of training which can never be quite duplicated even
by his former classmates. He therefore brings to the task
of teaching a different set of expectations from those of
his colleagues.
The questions designed for the portion of the survey
which is central to this chapter are intended to probe for
the differences in attitudes held by those who teach
philosophy. The focus of the inquiry moves from the most
desirable length of the introductory course, to concerns
for content and whether regional or statewide planning
conferences should be held to help standardize the
119
120
curriculum in the introductory course. The final questions
ask about the instructor's conviction as to the background
a student should bring to the experience of studying
philosophy, and what uses the instructor feels there are
for a student's having majored in the discipline.
Community college respondents and those from the
state colleges favored a one semester course over the two
semester course by two to one (Table 37). The university
respondents favored the two semester over the one semester
course at the same ratio. Two independent college
respondents followed the pattern of the community and
state college respondents, but the chairman at College K
answered "either could be valuable."
The trend appears clearly in favor of the single
semester or single quarter assignment of time for the
introductory course in philosophy.
As shown in Table 38, among those respondents who
favored a one semester course for philosophy, all but one
registered preference for a three unit designation.
However, of those preferring a two semester course, only
the community College B would assign six units. State
College E would provide only four units, while
universities 6 and H would offer eight. Independent
College K responded "no preferences."
One state college and one private college affirmed
the need for statewide planning. Of the ten respondents
121
TABLE 37
Question 3 7i Do you believe the introductory course in
philosophy should be a one or two semester
course?
One Two
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleqes
J 1
K Either
L 1
122
TABLE 38
Question 38: Do you believe that the introductory course
in philosophy should be a three or four unit
course (or if two semesters, should be
required, a six or eight unit course)?
Three Four Six Eight
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Independent Colleges
J
K
L
1
No preferences
1
123
the chairman of community College A answered vehemently:
"Nol State 'planning' means State dictation in an area
which cannot be standardized." The chairman of community
College B was less adamant, writing "not especially" on his
questionnaire.
At the university level, while all three answered in
the negative, the chairman of university 1 added "I doubt
that it is necessary." (See Table 39.)
While there is an even division of six in favor of
arriving at some concensus as to the content of the
introductory course in philosophy, the division was not
equally distributed among the four kinds of institutions
(Table 40). The community colleges and the state colleges
each had two in favor and one against, while the univer
sities and independent colleges had one for and two against.
Interestingly, the state college which in question
39 favored the statewide planning in the philosophy
curriculum, was the one which did not agree that there is
need for consensus, while the other two state colleges
(G and F) took exactly the opposite view from College D
on both questions.
The respondent from University G had registered
negatively to question 39, on the matter of statewide
planning, but positively to the question of concensus.
His answer was accompanied, however, with the remark "but
how we would achieve it, I couldn't imagine."
124
TABLE 39
Question 39: Do you believe there is a need for state
wide planning in the development of the
philosophy curriculum?
Yes No
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
125
TABLE 40
Question 40: Do you believe there is a need for some
consensus in higher education as to the
content of the introductory course in
philosophy?
Yes NO
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleqes
126
An even number of positive and negative responses
were made to question 41 (Table 41), but respondents from
the community colleges and from the private colleges were
two to one in favor of special training for philosophy
teachers, while the state colleges and university
respondents were two to one against it. Inasmuch as these
respondents are department chairmen, and with the exception
of those from the community colleges are directly involved
in the hiring of professors, the comments accompanying
their responses are instructive.
From community College A came the comment, "Yes, a
course on 'how to teach philosophy* would be helpful, but
should be elective."
The respondent from community College B noted: "An
excellent idea!"
The chairman of state College D said, "Yes, but
perhaps not in a specific course. Supervision of T.A.s
might do the job." (Supervision of Teaching Assistants
is, in fact, now being advocated at Northwestern University;
Cf. Petrie, Philosophy Graduate Student Teaching
Internship #60 in the bibliography to this dissertation.)
The chairman of university I expressed "I doubt
it," while the other respondents merely indicated their
preference with a simple yes or no.
127
TABLE 41
Question 41: Do you believe that special courses should be
designed for the training of philosophy
instructors, for the task of teaching
philosophy courses at the college and
university levels?
Yes NO
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
P 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
128
One community college, one university and one
independent college registered a negative response to
question 42 (Table 42), although the chairman of
independent College L responded with "not necessarily,"
instead of a clear negative. Nine respondents were clearly
in favor of the broad survey course as providing good
preparation for advanced work in philosophy.
Table 43 shows that most of the respondents declined
to set limits and the most that was required by way of
grade point average was 2.0.
Reasons given for not setting prerequisites revealed
some of the attitudes sought throughout this part of the
survey. For example, the respondent for community College
C wrote, "None. An open mind, a willingness to think and
grow."
The chairman of the philosophy department at state
College E commented, "I would not wish to see fixed
conditions here."
The other respondents left the question blank or
write, "None" or "no prerequisites'* in the margin.
In reference to question 44 (Table 44), forty-one
separate responses were given to this question with some
duplication.
Listing the responses which comprise the first order
of preference for the colleges we find the followingt
129
TABLE 42
Question 42: Do you believe the broadf survey-type course
is desirable for philosophy majors in order
to serve as prerequisite for the more
specialized courses in value theory,
epistemology, and the study of philosophers
and their historic periods?
Yes No
Community Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
Independent Colleges
130
TABLE 43
Question 43: What would you establish as prerequisites for
undergraduate students who wish to enroll in
their first course in philosophy?
Please answer in terms of age, grade point
average, year in college, and number of
units to have been achieved.
Age GPA Year Units
Communitv Colleaes
A 1.5
B 2.0
C ___ ___
1st
1st
---
State Colleaes
D
E ___ ___
F ___ ___
----
----
Universitv of California
Campuses
G
H 2.0
I ___ U.C.
Entrance
1st
----
Independent Colleaes
J
K
L
----
131
TABLE 44
Question 44: Apart from prospects for becoming teachers of
philosophy, what do you hold before your
students as possible values in majoring in
philosophy? Please list in order of
preference.
Community Colleges
A a. Teaching remains the primary value.
b. Major in philosophy for graduate work in
philosophy or theology.
c. The major complements a second major in science
or related field.
B a. Learning the tools to evaluate philosophical
claims.
b. Enrichment of the mind.
c. Acquire a basis for profound thinking.
d. Understanding the world we live in.
e. Develop critical ability to evaluate beliefs,
especially in regard to religion, ethics and
politics.
C a. Personal growth which would include:
1. awareness of life and human behavior:
2. a larger, synoptic framework for thinking;
3. skills for clearer thinking;
4. knowledge of other points of view;
5. knowledge of some specific facts.
State Colleges
D a. Developing a philosophical attitude toward issues
and facts.
b. Acquaintance with the best thinking that has been
done about human concerns.
c. Acquiring an appreciation for the cultural
heritage.
E a. Gain ability to deal more astutely with all
disciplines.
b. Gain ability to manage one's life more rationally.
c. Professional preparation: teaching, law, etc.
d. Enrichment of life.
e. Enrichment of leisure.
TABLE 44 (Continued)
132
F a. Professional preparation, e.g., pre-law.
b. Preparation for study in theology.
c. Preparation for study in logic and scientific
methodology.
University of California Campuses
6 a. Preparation for more rational adult life.
b. Preparation for any social profession, such as
the ministry, politics, social work.
H a. Professional preparation: law, etc.
b. Public service.
X a. Education.
b. Personal satisfaction.
c. Preparation for a profession.
Independent Colleges
J a. Pre-professional preparation— e.g., ministry, law.
b. Liberal education; ultimate issues are
philosophical.
c. Classification of one's own thinking; development
of a philosophy of life.
K a. Articulating one's own beliefs, and the reasons
for and against them.
b. Organising fundamental thoughts into a coherent
whole.
c. Learning some of the important ideas that have
been held on philosophical topics.
L a. Philosophy as a discipline that lays the ground
work for all the sciences.
b. To train the mind to comprehend problems
intelligently.
c. To become a wiser man.
d. To become a better person.
133
1. Three respondents listed professional prepara*
tion for law, ministry or social service as being of first
importance. These included state College F# University H,
and independent College J.
2. Three respondents listed the development of a
philosophical attitude toward life for more rational
handling of problems as having priority. These included
state College 0 and state College E, and University G.
3. Two respondents answered in terms of personal
growth and mental enrichment. These were from community
College C and University Z.
4. One respondent placed the development of
critical tools for evaluation of issues at the head of his
list. He represented community College B.
5. One respondent stressed developing the ability
to articulate one's beliefs and paramount. He is chairman
of independent College K.
6. One respondent noted that the discipline of
philosophy is the basis for science and stated this fact as
a reason for urging students to major in philosophy. This
respondent is at independent College L.
7. One respondent, refusing to be "put off" by the
phrasing of the question, insisted that teaching
philosophy continues to be the most important goal for any
philosophy major.
134
8. In addition to the three respondents who listed
professional preparation for law, the ministry, et cetera,
as their priority, the other nine respondents included
this item as at least second or third choice.
9. Personal growth, or some such variation as "to
become a wise person" or “to be able to manage life and
leisure" was the third most popular response, with five
respondents placing it on their lists in addition to the
chairman of community College C, who had given it first
priority.
No clear pattern emerged by which one could identi
fy a typical community college response, or one which
would characterize any of the other kinds of institutions.
Perhaps the one omission of interest was that of profes
sional training, absent from the list of priorities for
any of the community colleges. It did, however, appear as
the second reason for urging a student to major in
philosophy at community College A, where the respondents
mentioned graduate work in theology specifically.
Chapter Summary
Among the twelve institutions studied, respondents
from eight expressed a preference for a one semester,
three unit course for the Introduction to Philosophy. One
community college respondent preferred a two semester, six
unit course; a state college respondent opted for a two
135
semester, four unit course; two university chairmen
responded with an inclination toward a two quarter, eight
unit course.
Ten of the twelve respondents indicated they were
opposed to the concept of statewide planning in the
development of a philosophy curriculum, yet half of them
agreed that some consensus should be reached concerning
the content of the introductory course. To the proposal
that some form of special training might be devised in the
preparation of philosophy teachers, six of the twelve
affirmed that this would be helpful, but resistance was
expressed to the prospect that it should take the form of
a required course.
Broad survey courses are favored by nine of the
twelve respondents, but only the state college chairmen
were unanimous in their support. One respondent in each
of the other categories disavowed their value.
All of the respondents were opposed to setting age
limits or specific added academic prerequisites for
enrolling in the introductory course in philosophy. Four
suggested grade point average minimums (1.5 and 2.0), or
University of California Standard Entrance Requirements.
All of the respondents listed professional
preparation for law, ministry, or other career as a reason
for encouraging students to major in philosophy, apart
from the prospects of teaching the subject.
CHAPTER VIII
FINDINGS: THE NATURE OF THE
INSTITUTION
In an effort to understand the nature of the
institutions being studied, questions were designed to
clarify such considerations as the physical and
administrative complexity of the campuses, as well as
their politan and demographic settings; whether they were
single or multiple campus schools, and whether located in
metropolitan settings, in suburbs small towns or rural
areas.
It was also considered important to discover the
degree of training considered acceptable for faculty
members to be hired, retained and promoted. In addition,
it seemed desirable to know how the administrative staff
and faculty viewed the role of philosophy, as a subject
area, not only in relation to student needs but also to
the community beyond the campus which might respond to
extension classes and adult education.
Still another concern was to learn how students
have responded to opportunities to take philosophy courses
and consider philosophy as their major field of study.
136
137
over the past ten years. Has enrollment increased,
decreased, or remained approximately the same? What
demands by students tend to influence the content and
direction of the philosophy curriculum?
All twelve respondents indicated that theirs is a
single campus institution, notwithstanding the fact that
the community colleges, the state colleges, and the
universities, are responsible to coordinating central
offices (Table 45). The community colleges are inter
related through a chancellor's office in Sacramento; the
state colleges are related through a chancellor's office
in Los Angeles; the nine campuses of the University of
California are structurally held together by a president
and board of regents headquartered in Berkeley. Each
community college has a president, as does every state
college, and each campus of the University of California
is presided over by a chancellor.
There is a considerable amount of autonomy on the
campuses of California's higher education complex, thus
justifying the claim of each being a single campus
institution.
Each of the independent colleges studied is a
single campus institution.
Question 46 stated: If yours is a multiple-campus
institution, is there a separate department of philosophy
on each campus? Because none of the institutions studied
138
TABLE 45
Question 45: Is yours a single campus institution or
multiple campus?
Single Multiple
Community Colleqes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
139
were of the multi-campus structure, this question did not
apply. However, the question will reveal valuable
information when used in a study which includes multi
campus institutions. While this lies outside the scope of
the present study, the question is included here because
it was a part of the questionnaire, its responses being at
the outset impossible to predict.
Six of the institutions are located in metro
politan centers: one community college, two state
colleges, one university, and two independent colleges.
All others are located in suburban communities with the
possible qualification of independent College L, whose
respondent said he was uncertain whether the "small town"
designation might have been more appropriate. (See Table
46.)
All three community colleges, one state college and
one independent college, according to their respondents,
hold to a Master1s Degree as being a minimal requirement
for any teacher wishing to join their faculty (Table 47).
All three respondents from the universities, as
well as two from the state colleges, and two from
independent colleges, specified the Ph.D. as being the
basic requirement. In practice, however, each admitted
that an outstanding candidate for a teaching position who
has a Master's Degree and is en route to the Ph.D., may
be considered for a teaching position.
140
TABLE 46
Question 47: What is the nature of the community in which
your institution is located? (1) inner
city, (2) metropolitan, (3) suburban (4)
small town, (5) rural.
1 2 3 4 5
Community Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
X 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L 1 1
141
TABLE 47
Question 48: What minimum training is considered
acceptable for a teaching position in your
department? (1) B.A. or B.S.; (2) M.A. or
M.S.; (3) Ph.D.; (4) other (specify); (5)
no degree is required.
1 2 3 4 5
Community Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L 1
142
Among the twelve colleges studied, respondents from
only four indicated the Masters degree as being sufficient
for the gaining of a tenured position (Table 48). These
included the three community colleges and one independent
college. All the other respondents signified the require
ment of a Ph.D. for the attainment of a tenured position
on the faculty.
Despite the stress implied in the question upon the
special responsibility, only four of the twelve respondents
limited their answers to single items. In each of these
cases, the special concern was for providing philosophy
courses for philosophy majors. This concern, however,
appeared as well on all the other questionnaires for the
twelve schools as at least one of the options, with the
exception of community College B (Table 49}.
All three of the community colleges1 respondents
affirm the responsibility of their departments for serving
the community beyond the campus, while two university
respondents did so, but none of the respondents from the
state or independent colleges.
The one clear emphasis, second only to the
responsibility for providing courses for philosophy majors,
was that of providing courses for non-majors, which
responsibility was held to be primary among the community
colleges, and for two of the independent colleges.
143
TABLE 48
Question 49: What training is considered necessary to the
gaining of tenure in your department? (1)
B.A. or B.S.; (2) M.A. or M.S.; (3) Ph.D.;
(4) other (specify); (5) no degree is
required.
1 2 3 4 5
Community Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L 1
144
TABLE 49
Question 50: What is considered the special responsi
bility of your institution in the teaching
of philosophy? (a) Provide courses which
contribute to the general education of non
philosophy majors; (b) provide courses for
philosophy majors; (c) provide courses for
the community through adult or continuing
education; (d) other (specify).
a b e d
Community Colleges
1
1
1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1 1
University of California Campuses
G 1 1 1
H 1 1 1
I 1 1
Independent Colleges
1 1
1
1 1
J
K
L
145
Recalling the observations of Drs. Dressel and
DeLisle, based on their research for Undergraduate
Curriculum Trends, that a slight increase is noted in the
number of institutions requiring one term or one year of
philosophy (11:18), it is significant to note that while
none of the twelve institutions studied for this disserta
tion maXe philosophy a requirements, ten of the twelve
report an increase in enrollment over the past decade
(Table 50). The two exceptions are the largest of the
universities located in a metropolitan center, and an
independent college located in a suburb.
The increasing enrollment in philosophy courses in
ten of the twelve institutions studied was emphasized by
three of the respondents (all from community colleges)
with heavy underscoring of their answers on the question
naire (Table 51). The chairman of College A added a
personal note: "More apply than we have room for. All
classes are over registered."
University H and independent College J noted a
decline in enrollment in philosophy courses over the past
five years. They are the same respondents which noted a
decline over the past ten years.
As shown in Table 52, with one exception, all of
the institutions which reported an increase in enrollment
for the past five and ten years in philosophy courses,
also noted an increase in the popularity of philosophy as
146
TABLE 50
Question 51: Are there more or fewer students enrolling
in philosophy courses now than ten years
ago in your institution?
More Fewer
About
the Same
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California
Camouses
G 1
H 1
1 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L 1
147
TABLE 51
Question 52: Are there more or fewer students enrolling
in philosophy courses now than five years
ago in your institution?
More Fewer
About
the Same
Communitv Colleges
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleges
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California
Campuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleges
J 1
K 1
L 1
148
TABLE 52
Question 53: Is philosophy becoming more or less popular
as a subject for students to elect as a
major?
More Less
About
the Same
Communitv Colleaes
A 1
B 1
C 1
State Colleaes
D 1
E 1
F 1
University of California
CamDuses
G 1
H 1
I 1
Independent Colleaes
J 1
K 1
L 1
149
a major subject. The exception is independent College K.
University H, which was reported to have noted a
decline in enrollment in philosophy courses for the past
five and ten year periods, nevertheless affirmed that the
popularity of philosophy as a subject in which a student
might major remains about the same.
Independent College K, which had reported through
its respondent an overall decline in enrollment in
philosophy courses for the past five and ten year periods,
also noted a decline in the popularity of philosophy as a
major subject.
While the respondents of community College A and
state College F were aware of no student demands (Table
53), the respondents from the other institutions reported
some definite demands which they believed to have a direct
influence on the curriculum.
At two of the community colleges, students are
reported to have been insistent on emphasizing practical
problems such as war, politics, life, death, and
"situation ethics."
At the state colleges, social and political
philosophies, metaphysics, and value theories were
stressed, along with a broad emphasis on general educa
tion .
Respondents from two of the universities
registered students' demands with the single word
150
TABLE 53
Question 54: What particular trends do you note in the
demands of students, which may influence
the content and design of the philosophy
curriculum in the future?
Communitv Colleges
A No demands.
B Practical problems such as war, politics, life,
death, situation ethics.
C Practical approach to life's problems.
State Colleges
D Social and political philosophies, metaphysics, and
value theories.
E Emphasis on general education.
F No demands.
University of California Campuses
G Relevance
H Relevance
I Practical problems, ethics, existentialism.
Independent Colleges
J Non-western philosophies.
K Non-western philosophies.
L Personal problems, identity, and relevant issues.
151
"relevance," the word being underscored on both
questionnaires. The third respondent both wrote and spoke
about his students' insistence on discussing practical
problems, ethics, and on exploration of existentialism,
both as a system of philosophy and as a point of view.
This last point was of special interest, inasmuch as many
philosophers deny that existentialism can be systematized.
On two of the independent college campuses,
students are reported to demand more study of the non
western philosophies. One chairman, in an effort to ex
plain this pointed out that his college is attended by a
large number of oriental students and also by upper
middle class students whose parents provide them generous
vacation allowances to travel abroad.
If a single set of demands were to be sought, by
which to discern a major trend, it would have to be
identified in the demand for a study of practical
problems with the word "relevance" being the key.
Chapter Summary
The twelve institutions studied are all single
campus schools, their locations being limited to
metropolitan and suburban areas.
Among the institutions, all respondents indicate a
minimum standard for employment being the holding of a
Master's Degree, while seven strongly urge the attainment
152
of the Ph.D. degree. Eight of the twelve, all but one
being above the community college level, state the
requirement of the Ph.D. degree for gaining tenure.
Respondents from all three community colleges
affirm the responsibility of their departments to serve
the community beyond the campus. Two university
respondents also included community service as a
responsibility of their departments, but none of the state
college or independent college respondents did so.
While eleven of the respondents state that
providing courses for philosophy majors is a responsi
bility of the department, all three community colleges
and two of the independent colleges make this secondary
to the providing of courses for non-majors.
Philosophy courses are clearly gaining in impor
tance among students on at least ten of the twelve
campuses, both for majors and non-majors, a trend which
has been noted for ten years.
Student demands that philosophy be taught in a
"relevant" manner, has started a trend toward empha
sizing such practical matters as politics, war, death,
the meaning of life, and the problems of values. An
awakened interest in metaphysics is paralleled by an
inquiry into non-western philosophies for solutions to the
manifold problems of life.
CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
Purpose
This study has been undertaken to discover and
examine the practices of selected colleges and universities
in California related to the curriculum of the introductory
course in philosophy. The curriculum is conceived here to
encompass not only course outlines, textbooks and lectures,
but also by implication the subtle yet profoundly
important expectations of both professors and students
which govern the content and direction of the course. Of
special concern has been the matter of emphasis given in
each college to the history of philosophy, systems of
thought, and the realms of epistemology, axiology, and
ontology, and whether there is any correlation between the
emphasis in any given college with any other.
Closely related to the problem of emphasis is the
question of whether professors of philosophy seek to
articulate the introductory course with other courses in
the philosophy department, and whether they believe they
should seek articulation between their own departmental
153
154
offerings and that of other colleges and universities.
Of further concern have been the questions of
attitudes and practices related to students, both
philosophy majors and non-majors; those related to
colleagues, with special attention to the kind of academic
training considered necessary to become a professor and
to achieve tenure; those involving the kind of training
expected of those who plan to become professors.
The nature of each school studied was clarified in
Chapter VIII, in an effort to establish whether location
and type of school (whether community college, state
college or university, or independent institution), could
be demonstrated to have had an effect on the conditions
and attitudes revealed in the earlier part of the study.
Research Procedure
Review of the literature.— For the purposes of this
study selections were made from the vast literature of
philosophy and categorized: (1) the role of philosophy
as an academic discipline, (2) the place of philosophy in
general education, (3) the presentation of philosophy at
the community college level, (4) the presentation of
philosophy at the state college level, (5) the presenta
tion of philosophy at the university level, (6) the
presentation of philosophy in the independent colleges,
and (7) literature on the present lack of consensus in the
155
curriculum for introductory courses in philosophy.
It was found that from as early as the 4th century
B.C., philosophy has held an honored place in the
curriculum of formal education, but that its influence
was almost somnolent during the declining years of Rome
and during the first six centuries of the Christian era.
After the Moslems published their discoveries of
Aristotle's works and those of other ancients, and these
came to Christendom, a renaissance in interest in
philosophy was experienced. This played no small part in
the university movement during the Middle Ages , and
contributed directly to the period known officially as
the Renaissance, when philosophy replaced theology as the
Queen of Science.
For some seven centuries, philosophy has been
considered almost synonymous with "general education,"
even though the term is fairly new. Meanwhile, in the
past half century, philosophy has suffered a decline in
prestige. Curiously, through all these eras, there has
been a paucity of books on the pedagogical aspects of the
subject; books on "how to teach philosophy" are virtually
non-existent. Nor have courses been instituted for the
training of philosophy professors, a situation apparently
lamented by no one, or at least by no one who has
published his complaint.
To be sure, there are expressions to be found in
156
prefaces to introductory textbooks, concerning the authors'
hopes that their writings will be properly presented.
College catalogues also provide some clues to the
expectations of professors and administrators regarding
the way students will handle course materials as laid out
before them. More recently, amid the wave of student
demands for "relevance" in the curriculum, there has been
a sudden flood of books analyzing, criticizing, and
recommending changes in the curriculum. So far only a
very small number of articles can be found dealing
directly with the introductory courses in philosophy in a
prescriptive manner.
Gathering of original data.— The content of
Chapter III delineates methods and procedures required by
the study. They include: (1) securing endorsements, (2)
review of the literature, (3) delimiting the study, (4)
structuring a format for the study, (5) preparation of the
questionnaire, (6) distribution and recovery of the
questionnaire, (7) organization of the responses, (8)
tabulation and assessment of responses.
The conclusions reached during the course of this
study have been based upon: (1) personal interviews with
chairmen of the philosophy departments of the institutions
selected, (2) professional literature in the field of
philosophy, (3) catalogs, bulletins, manuals, and hand
157
books from the community colleges, state colleges,
universities, and private independent colleges selected,
and (4) questionnaires designed and submitted by the
author to chairmen of the departments of philosophy in the
institutions selected.
A six page questionnaire was developed and taken in
person to the chairmen of four philosophy departments,
one of each of the four kinds of institutions selected.
Upon consultation with these men, the questionnaire was
modified, and reduced to five pages. The questionnaire
was then mailed, after telephone confirmation, to the
chairmen of the philosophy departments in all twelve
institutions selected. All twelve questionnaires were
returned, answered in full and with written comments
added to most. The results were tabulated and became the
contents of chapters dealing with each category of
findings.
Findings
In Chapters IV through VIII, the information
gleaned from the questionnaires was reported. The
problems posed and accounted for included curriculum
practices and activities (1) related to the philosophy
curriculum, (2) related to articulation, (3) related to
students, (4) related to general attitudes, and (5)
related to the nature of the institution.
158
Following are the major findings developed from
the questionnaire.
General Information and Practices
Related to the Curriculum
1. All of the twelve institutions selected for the
study responded by being open to personal interviews with
department chairmen, and by these chairmen being
respondents on the questionnaire.
2. Ten of the twelve institutions studied have
departments of philosophy called by that name. One
institution combines Philosophy and Religion into a single
department; the other lists Philosophy as a division
within Social Science.
3. Two of the twelve institutions group philosophy
courses within the broader context of Social Science,
these two being community colleges. The other ten
institutions list philosophy courses autonomously under
Philosophy, as a departmental designation.
4. The annual enrollment of students for the
various institutions differs according to the nature of
the institution, with state colleges enrolling the most,
independent colleges enrolling the fewest. The average
for the community colleges studied is 716; for state
colleges the average annual enrollment is 1,433; for the
universities, 325; and for the independent colleges, 225.
5. Except for two of the community colleges which
159
maintain a two semester introductory course, all
institutions studied hold to the more traditional one
semester introductory course in philosophy.
6. On most of the campuses studied all of the
professors teach at least one section of Introduction to
Philosophy, or its equivalent.
7. At the community college level it is customary
to provide, in the introductory course in philosophy, a
broad survey of history, systems, problems, and of the
traditional “realms" of axiology, epistemology, and
ontology. Only one each of the state colleges, universi
ties, and independent colleges do so. History is the
most neglected area, while problems (e.g., free will,
love, war) , get the most attention.
8. While all three community colleges use a
standard textbook, only one of the state colleges does so,
none of the universities does so, while two independent
colleges do. The greatest popularity appears to be for
books of readings (used also as supplementary by one of
the community colleges and both of the independent
colleges which use a standard text). Primary sources are
most popular at the universities and independent colleges.
9. The most popular single text in use among the
institutions studied is Harold Titus * Living Issues in
Philosophy (38) used by two community colleges, and one
independent college. One community college uses
160
Halverson's A Concise Introduction to Philosophy (21),
one state college uses Hocking's Types of Philosophy (24),
one independent college has selected Brennan1s The Meaning
of Philosophy (5).
10. In ten of the twelve institutions studied, the
introductory course in philosophy is not a prerequisite to
enrolling in other courses in the philosophy department—
only in one university and one independent college is this
prerequisite sustained.
11. Eight of the twelve philosophy departments
utilize a mid-term examination and a final examination for
purposes of evaluating students' learning. Three community
colleges prefer monthly quizzes plus the final examination,
while one independent college uses only the monthly
examination.
12. Term papers are required by only one state
college department and two of the university departments
of philosophy. The other nine institutions recorded a
discontinuance of the practice of assigning term papers.
13. In the three institutions requiring term
papers, one state college and one university responded
affirmatively to the question whether students are free to
select their own topics. The remaining university answered
in the negative: "No, we run a tight ship."
161
Practices Related to Articulation
1. Eight of the twelve institutions studied
recorded that they were not influenced by curriculum
practices in other colleges or universities*
2. Eleven of the twelve institutions denied being
influenced in curriculum planning by community college
practices. The single exception was a community college.
3. Nine of the institutions denied being influenced
by curriculum practices of state colleges. The exceptions
were two community colleges and one state college.
4. Eight of the institutions denied being
influenced by curriculum practices of the universities.
The exceptions were the same community colleges and the
state college noted in the immediate proceeding finding,
plus one university.
5. Ten of the institutions denied being influenced
by the curriculum practices of the independent colleges.
The exceptions were one community college and one state
college.
6. Ten of the twelve institutions denied any effort
to engage in articulation conferences with representatives
from other institutions to be guided in curriculum
decision.
7. None of the twelve institutions seek to engage
in articulation studies with representatives from
secondary schools.
162
8. All of the twelve institutions studied grant
transfer credit for the introductory course in philosophy
for students coming from other institutions.
9. Philosophy majors from all twelve institutions
affirm that they receive transfer credit for their
introductory course when transferring to other colleges
and universities within the state.
10. None of the twelve institutions offer an
introductory course for philosophy majors which differs
from the introductory course for non-majors.
11. In seven of the twelve institutions studied,
courses offered for philosophy majors are arranged in a
sequential pattern to articulate with programs offered in
other institutions of higher education in the state.
12. Six of the philosophy departments maintain a
policy of allowing a waiver of the introductory course on
the basis of an examination. These include all three of
the state colleges and one each of the community colleges,
universities and private colleges.
Practices Related to Students
1. In ten of the twelve institutions studied,
non-philosophy majors have an open choice of philosophy
courses; the exceptions are two state colleges.
2. In none of the colleges are freshmen discour
aged from declaring themselves as philosophy majors during
163
their first year in college.
3. In only one of the twelve institutions studied,
are all students required to take at least one course in
philosophy for completion of baccalaureate requirements.
That one institution is a university. In none of the
other institutions is philosophy a requirement for
graduation.
4. In only one of the twelve institutions studied
are all Liberal Arts students required to take at least
one course in philosophy to complete baccalaureate
requirements. That one is the same university which
responded affirmatively in the immediately preceeding
question.
5. In none of the twelve institutions studied is
it possible to earn a special Ph.B. degree as a
baccalaureate in philosophy.
6. Among the twelve institutions it is possible
to earn a baccalaureate degree (A.B. or B.S.) in
philosophy, in all but the three community colleges.
7. In only one of the twelve institutions are the
College Board Examinations used to place students ini
tially in philosophy courses. That one is a community
college.
8. The practice of encouraging former students
to return to discuss their experiences in transferring to
other colleges is engaged by only five of the twelve
164
institutional respondents.
9. No special counselor is assigned to meet with
and advise students majoring in philosophy in any of the
community colleges studied. The practice is, however,
maintained in two of the three institutions in each of the
other three categories.
10. Philosophy majors are not generally advised
to take a common set of courses in a fixed sequence in
the conxnunity or state colleges (one out of three in each
case), but the practice is sustained in two out of three
institutions in each of the other categories— universities
and independent colleges.
11. Only three of the twelve respondents replied
that a need exists for a special type of philosophy
curriculum to fit his kind of institution. These included
a community college, a state college, and an independent
college.
12. Nine of the twelve institutional respondents
affirmed that students receive General Education credit
for the introductory course in philosophy. One independ*
ent college respondent answered in the negative. One
community college chairman and one university chairman did
not know.
165
General Attitudes
1. In seven of the twelve institutions the position
is maintained that the introductory course should be a one
semester course. In one community college, one state
college, and two universities, a two semester course is
preferred. One independent college respondent replied
"either would be satisfactory."
2. Among those favoring a one semester course, all
but one registered preference for a three unit designation.
Of the four preferring a two semester course only one
community college would assign six units. The state
college would provide only four units, while the universi
ties would require eight units.
3. Only two respondents of the twelve indicated
the desirability of a statewide planning in the development
of the philosophy curriculum. These included a state
college department chairman and one from an independent
college. All others were opposed.
4. Concerning the need for consensus as to the
content of the introductory course in philosophy, there was
more support from the community colleges and state colleges
(two to one in each case), than from the universities and
independent colleges (two to one against).
5. With regard to the training of teachers for
philosophy courses, respondents from the community
colleges and independent colleges were two to one in favor
166
of special training. Respondents from the state colleges
and universities were two to one against special training.
6. Most of the institutions studied prefer the
broad survey type courses at the introductory level. The
three negative votes came from a community college, a
university, and an independent college.
7. All respondents declined to set age limits for
students enrolling in their first course in philosophy,
and the most required in the way of grade point average
(by only two respondents) was 2.0.
8. The twelve respondents provided a total of forty
possible responses as to what goal other than becoming a
philosophy teacher, might be set before students as a
reason for majoring in philosophy. No clear pattern
emerged by which one could identify a "typical1 1 response
from any of the institutions, but the most popular
responses as a whole were expressed in terms of profes
sional preparation for law, ministry, or social service,
and in terms of developing a mature attitude toward life.
The Nature of the Institution
1. All twelve respondents replied that theirs is a
single campus institution.
2. The campuses are evenly divided between
Metropolitan and suburban locations with one respondent
undecided as to whether the suburban or small town
167
designation was more appropriate. Technically, his
response in favoring the suburban description turned out
to be accurate.
3. All three community college respondents, one
state college respondent, and one independent college
respondent concurred that the Master's Degree should be the
minimum requirement for a teaching position in philosophy.
The other seven held to the Ph.D. degree as minimal.
4. All three community college respondents agreed
that the Master's Degree should be a requirement for the
gaining of tenure on the part of a teacher of philosophy.
One independent college respondent agreed. The other
eight respondents concurred that the Ph.D. degree should
be achieved before a teacher is granted tenure.
5. The most important single concern of members of
philosophy departments, according to eleven of the twelve
respondents, is to provide courses for philosophy majors.
The second most important concern agreed upon by nine of
the twelve respondents, is to provide courses which
contribute to the general education of non-philosophy
majors.
Providing courses for the community beyond the
campus, through adult or continuing education, was
registered as a special concern by five of the twelve
respondents, including all three community colleges and
two universities. All five of these institutions now have
168
strong adult education programs under way.
6. Ten of the twelve respondents indicated that
more students are enrolling in philosophy courses today
than were doing so ten years ago. The exceptions were
one university, second oldest and largest of the three*
and one independent college, oldest and smallest of the
three.
7. The same ten who responded that more students
are enrolling in philosophy courses today than ten years
ago also answered that more are enrolling today than was
the case five years ago. The same two who noted a decline
in ten years, noted a decline for the past five years.
8. Nine of the respondents noted that philosophy
is becoming more popular as a subject for studentB to
elect as their major. Of the exceptions, one independent
college which had earlier affirmed that more students were
enrolling than five or ten years ago said the subject's
popularity as a major remained about the same. This same
comment was appended by the university which had noted a
decline in enrollment. The private college respondent who
noted a decline in attendance, also affirmed a decline in
the subject's popularity as a major field.
9. While two of the respondents denied any aware
ness of students demands which might influence the trend
of curriculum offerings in the future, ten respondents
were very positive in their answers. The word "relevance"
169
headed the list of demands, while specific emphases were
on practical problems such as war, politics, life and
death and situation ethics; social and political
philosophies; the non-western philosophies; personal
problems such as identity: "Who am 17" and "Where am I
going?"
Conclusions
Disposition of Hypotheses
On the basis of these findings the following
disposition may be made of the hypotheses set forth in
Chapter 1, which constitute the conclusions of this study.
Hypothesis 1.— Accepted— There is no consensus
among the chairmen of departments of philosophy as to what
constitutes a sound, comprehensible and transferrable
introductory course in philosophy.
Hypothesis 2.— Accepted— There is no consensus
among those who teach courses in philosophy as to whether
there should be a common body of materials, concepts, or
ideas taught. This acceptance has a tentative quality
about it because some professors appear to assume such a
common body of materials, et cetera, to exist, though they
do not in fact articulate it in the course of their own
classroom presentations (as is evident from Table 6). Nor
do they believe it necessary to inquire whether other
170
departments in other schools are doing so (as is evident
from Tables 13-18). But the need for consensus was
recognized by half the respondents (Table 40).
Hypothesis 3.— Accepted— There is little relation
ship between the introductory course in philosophy taught
on any one campus and on any other campus.
Hypothesis 4.— Accepted— There is no consistent
pattern in attitude about the appropriate curriculum for
the philosophy major.
Hypothesis 5.— Accepted— There is no consistent
pattern in attitude about the appropriate curriculum for
the non-major in philosophy.
CHAPTER X
IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
While it is always presumptuous and on some
occasions even a bit dangerous to extrapolate conditions,
practices and attitudes for a whole population on the
basis of findings among any selected group or sampling,
it is the accepted task of any researcher to take such
risks under certain circumstances. In the present
instance, the responses to a carefully prepared question
naire and to questions posed during personal interviews
with philosophy department chairmen in selected institu
tions of higher education, provide a sound basis for
drawing a number of implications.
On the pedestal of these implications, support or
rejection of the hypotheses stated in Chapter I must be
determined. Recommendations which follow must then be
predicated on the fate of the hypotheses.
Implications
First I should note a refreshing openness on the
part of department chairmen in all twelve institutions
studied, to discussing their programs, attitudes and
problems. There was almost none of the defensiveness
171
172
which I had been led by certain colleagues to expect.
Among the primary implications to be drawn from the
study itself would be those having to do with the autonomy
of the departments of philosophy. In ten of the twelve
institutions studied, the philosophy department is
designated by that name and has an acknowledged chairman
with administrative responsibilities including interviewing
teaching candidates, student majors and in setting the
curriculum for each semester. On the remaining two
campuses, the autonomy is a shared one— on one, a community
college, the term is somewhat spurious because philosophy
is really a branch of the Social Science Division and the
chairman has no real assigned duties except to meet with
other "heads" of similar branches. In the other case,
the title. Department of Philosophy and Religion, provides
the independent college in question with two department
"heads" each with a considerable freedom in determining
curriculum matters and personnel for his particular branch
of the department.
The autonomy in each situation where it exists
provides certain advantages. It gives to the discipline
of philosophy a certain sovereignty, identifying it as an
area of academic and professional status on a par with
other disciplines dignified by a department of its own.
It affords a distinct major field in which a student may
earn a degree. It challenges students and faculty in
173
other disciplines in a way, to take philosophy seriously,
as both an adjunct to the total educational enterprise,
and as a colleague in the sense of sharing its forward
movement. It carried, by implication, a sense of rivalry
too, in that philosophy competes with other disciplines
for the students' attention as a prospective major.
In this latter implication it is worth noting how
philosophy fares on the various campuses by attracting
numbers of students to its introductory courses.
Among the community colleges, the average annual
enrollment of students in the introductory course in
philosophy is 716, or 7.7 percent of the total average
enrollment of the student body.
Among the state colleges, the annual average
enrollment is 1,433, comprising 7.4 percent of the average
of total annual enrollment for the colleges.
Among the universities studied, only 325 were
recorded for average enrollment in the introductory
course in philosophy, for a figure of 3.6 percent of the
total average enrollment for the schools.
The independent colleges enroll an average of 225
students annually in their introduction to philosophy
courses, comprising 8.6 percent of total average enroll
ments for the colleges.
These percentages— 7.7, 7.4, 3.6 and 8.6
respectively for community colleges, state colleges.
174
universities, and independent colleges, would seem to
indicate that the independent colleges attract the
greatest number of students to philosophy, while the
universities attract the least. This conclusion,
however, must be weighed in light of the fact that a
large number of students attending the universities,
attended community or state colleges, or perhaps
independent colleges, before transferring. The
possibility of their having already taken their
introductory course in philosophy is great in view of the
large numbers already revealed in each of these institu
tions. On the other hand, many students have attended
community colleges before attending the more expensive
independent colleges too, so that the larger percentage
of enrollment in the introductory course in these
independent colleges, must be viewed as a significant
phenomenon.
Among the more serious and possibly negative
implications of the autonomy of the philosophy depart
ments, is the lack of concensus among them as to what
constitutes a sound foundation for the curriculum, and an
apparent lack of interest in seeking consensus. There
is, for example, no agreement among the twelve
institutions as to whether the emphasis or major
concentration for the introductory course should be on
the history of the discipline, the major systems of
175
thought that have developed, the realms of axiology,
epistemology and ontology, or the great problems which
have intrigued and vexed philosophers across the centuries.
The great diversity in emphasis among the many
institutions is reflected in the wide variety of books
selected for student use. Some prefer a standard text
which others would eschew in favor of books of readings,
while others insist on having students read only from
original sources.
Nor is there apparent interest in seeking
articulation with other institutions. The majority of
chairmen interviewed indicated positive disinterest in
discussions of curriculum with representatives from other
colleges and universities. Furthermore, they disavowed
any influence upon their own curriculum decisions, being
due to practices in sister schools.
To the question whether they 1 1 followed up" their
students who transferred to other schools, to learn
whether their own course experience transferred in a
helpful way, there was almost a universal negative. The
chairmen affirmed that course credit was given to their
students elsewhere, and that they granted course credit
to students who transferred into their departments from
other schools where the introductory philosophy course
was concerned. But they were not concerned with
"shepherding" students through their pilgrimage.
176
There being no consensus, then as to the content
and emphasis of the introductory course in philosophy,
and no agreement as to the best books to be used, and no
effort to articulate the curriculum with that of any other
schools, can it be said that the professors themselves
provide the common cohesive and sense of direction for the
students? And if so, should there be some agreed upon
program of training for one who wishes to become a
philosophy professor? To this question there came a
divided response. While one respondent replied it might
be "an interesting idea," some were shocked and one said
he was repelled by the very idea. Respondents from the
community and independent colleges were two to one in
favor of it, however, while those from the state colleges
and universities were two to one against it.
While all of the twelve institutions are located in
either metropolitan or suburban Bettings, each of the
community colleges and independent colleges began in what
can only be described as "small towns." The composition
of their student bodies, therefore, quite predictably,
represent a broad spectrum of society. Further, each
draws upon a different part of that society, since the
community colleges must, by law, accept all who are
eighteen years old or older and who can show evidence that
they can profit by higher education. The universities, on
the other hand, are highly selective, accepting only the
Ill
top 12-1/2 percent of high school graduates. State
colleges will accept the top 33-1/2 percent while the
independent colleges, varying in their grade point average
requirements for admission, are selective by virtue of
their higher cost. Yet in the face of all these
differences, the chairmen of the philosophy departments,
almost to a man, said there was no reason why the curricu
lum in philosophy should be designed in any way different
from one institution to another. "There is a standard
body of knowledge and a given set of human problems to be
solved," said one, "so the course should be the same
everywhere." This clearly Essentialist assumption should
be kept in mind while reviewing the above observations on
the lack of consensus for the content of the introductory
course, its emphasis, or the appropriate materials to be
studied.
Perhaps the most serious implication, because of
its negative intimation, relates to the matter of
articulation. While none of the institutions studied
engage in efforts to articulate their courses with those
of other institutions through representatives (Table 19),
and only four indicated they are in any way influenced by
the course contents of other institutions (Table 13), yet
seven of the respondents claimed their courses do indeed
articulate with the sequential planning of other
institutions.
178
A final implication in a more positive vein,
relates to the willingness of those engaged in teaching
the introductory courses in philosophy, to be influenced
by student requests or "demands," and by the trend of the
times. Except for two who expressed they were unaware of
any student demands, all registered an interest in the
clamor for "relevance," and for more discussion of non
western philosophies such as Zen, Hindu mysticism, and the
oriental concept of "Li," or law-beyond-the-law.
Recommendations
Arising from a review of this study, its conclu
sions and implications, several specific recommendations
may not be proffered:
1. There must be a clear understanding that in the
teaching of philosophy, as in the teaching of any subject,
the content to be communicated and the questions to be
raised, must be so presented as to meet the needs and
capabilities of the student. They must meet his needs
both now and later when he seeks to apply what he has
learned. These conditions require that: (a) the
introductory course must inevitably, and therefore
consciously, be designed differently for the community
college (which by law must accept every applicant eighteen
years old or more) from the course designed for the
University of California (which accepts only the top
179
12-1/2 percent of each high school graduating lcass) as
judged by their achievement; and (b) the introductory
course must be structured in full recognition of the fact
that for the majority, this will be the only course in
philosophy they will ever take. It is imperative that it
be the best taught, most comprehensive introduction
possible.
2. Because of the communication of ideas, and the
strengthening of intellectual skills is the very stock-
in-trade of philosophy, annual meetings should be fostered
on a statewide, or at least region-wide basis for the
purposes of providing philosophy professors (a) oppor
tunities to share and discuss course outlines, goals and
methods of presentations; (b) opportunities to examine
and evaluate textbooks, books of readings and of trans
lations of source materials; (c) seminars with colleagues
and with students for exploration of new ideas and
trends; and (d) mutual intellectual and cultural
stimulation through sharing original papers and research
innovations.
3. There should be a conscious effort to
articulate course materials among community colleges,
state colleges, universities, and private institutions of
higher learning, so that students who take their
introductory course in one school may transfer their
credits elsewhere without fear of serious gaps and
X80
deficiencies that might cripple future work.
4. Some consensus must be reached as to the
content of the introductory course in philosophy so that
students are not victimized by the professors' predil-
lection for specific areas, systems, or even individual
philosophers (one professor admitting for example, that
the focus of his introductory course was Karl Marx, to the
complete neglect of Plato, Aquinas, Whitehead, or any of
the other major figures to whom the students should be
introduced during this first course).
5. In order for the introductory course to be
truly comprehensive and introductory, the following
divisions and subdivisions are suggested as appropriate
for a typical eighteen week semester:
Unit One: Cultural and Historic Background
First week: Hellenic and Roman Thinkers
Second week: Light in Dark Ages
Third week: The Renaissance: Renascence of
Philosophy
Fourth week: The Ages of Reason and Revolution
Fifth week: The Nineteenth Century
Sixth week: The Twentieth Century and Prospects
Unit Two: The Recurring Problems
Seventh week: Ontology: What is Reality?
Eighth week: Epistemology: How do you know?
Ninth week: Axiology: What is Good and What is
Beautiful?
Tenth week: Is Man Free?
Eleventh week: Does our History Have Meaning?
Twelfth week: What is Our Destiny in Eternity?
181
Unit Three: Schools and Systems of Thought
Thirteenth week: Idealism
Fourteenth week: Theism
Fifteenth week: Naturalism and Materialism
Sixteenth week: Pragmatism and Existentialism
Seventeenth week: Analytic Philosophies
Eighteenth week: The New Humanism
6. Because not all textbooks provide a useful
glossary of terms which students need to comprehend, each
professor should provide such a glossary. To assist in
such a task, a brief suggestive list of thirty terms can
be found in the first chapter of the present treatise.
7. The introductory course in philosophy should be
the prerequisite for all further course work in philosophy.
8. An examination should be designed for the
benefit of advanced students who wish to "challenge"
themselves, and thus qualify for having the introductory
course waved, in their case, for advanced placement.
9. The Chancellor's offices for the community
colleges and the state colleges and the office of Academic
Affairs at the state level for the University of
California might well assist in the articulation of
curriculum planning by publishing jointly a list of new
and used films, tapes, and charts available through a
central office to all colleges, including the independent
institutions pertinent to the field of philosophy and
cultural history.
10. Opportunities should be sought through the
182
American Philosophical Society, to expand the possibili
ties of articulation of the introductory course in
philosophy, on a nationwide basis.
11. Overtures should be made to enlist the aid of
Schools of Education, in setting up courses for the
training of philosophy teachers in both clear methods of
subject matter preparation and presentation, and in the
structuring of meaningful instruments of evaluation.
To be sure, even the most pertinent set of
recommendations would have to undergo constant revision
to meet changing needs. Every alert professor will
recognize the wisdom of Earl Pullias' injunction:
Whatever ceases to grow dies and withers in his
hand. The tendency to break camp is greater than to
stay at this safe, known spot [now, quoting Tennyson's
reference to Camelot] . . . 'Lest one good custom
should corrupt the world.' (36:156-157)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
183
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Bierman, A. K., and Gould, J. A. Philosophy for a
New Generation. New York: The Macmillan Co.,
1970.
Blanshard, Brand. On Philosophical Style.
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Bobik, Joseph. The Nature of Philosophical Inquiry.
Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,
1970.
Brackenbury, Robert L. Getting Down to Cases. New
York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1959.
Brennan, Joseph Gerard. The Meaning of Philosophy.
New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1953.
Brubacher, John S., and Rudy, Willis. Higher
Education in Transition. New York: Harper
and Row Publishers, 1958.
Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Western
Education. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.,
1955.
Chambers, M. M. Higher Education in the Fifty States.
Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers
and Publishers Inc., 1970.
Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York:
The Macmillan Co., 1916.
________. How We Think. New York: D. C. Heath Co.,
1933.
Dressel, Paul, and DeLisle, Frances. Undergraduate
Curriculum Trends. Washington, D.C.:
American Council on Education, 1969.
Durant, Will. The Storv of Philosophy. New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1953.
185
13. Edman, Irwin, and Schneider, H. W. Landmarks in
Philosophy. New York: Rey and Hitchcock,
1941.
14. Falk, Charles. Development and Organization of
Education in California. New York: Harcourt,
Brace and World, 1968.
15. Frost, S. E. Basic Teachings of the Great Philoso
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1942.
16. Fuller, B. A. G. The History of Greek Philosophy.
New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1945.
17. . The History of Greek Philosophy. New
York: Henry Holt and Co., 192 3.
18. Garrison, Winfred E. An Invitation to Philosophy.
Houston: The University of Houston Press,
1970.
19. Gilson, Etienne. History of Philosophy and
Philosophical Education. Milwaukee: Marquette
University Press, 1948.
20. Glenn, P. J. The History of Philosophy. New York:
B. Herder Book Co., 1941.
21. Halverson, W. H. A Concise Introduction to
Philosophy. New York: Random House, 1967.
22. Haskins, Charles Homer. The Rise of Universities.
Ithaca: Cornell University PreBs, 196 7.
23. Hocking, W. E. Preface to Philosophy. New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1941.
24. . Types of Philosophy. New York: Charles
Scribners Sons, 1959.
25. Hospers, John. Readings in Introductory
Philosophical Analysis. Englewood cliffs.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.
26. Jarrett, J. L., and MacMurrin. Contemporary
Philosophy. New York: Henry Holt and Co.,
1954.
186
27. Joad, C. E. M. Guide to Philosophy. London: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1936.
28. Johnstone, Henry W., Jr. What is Philosophy? New
York: The Macmillan Co., 1965.
29. Kaufmann, Walter. Philosophic Classics. 2 vols.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1968.
30. Koch, Adrienne. Philosophy for a Time of Crisis.
New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1960.
31. Mead, Hunter. Types and Problems of Philosophy.
New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1946.
32. O'Neill, William F. Selected Educational Heresies.
Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Co.,
1969.
33. Ortega, Jose y Gassett. The Origin of Philosophy.
Translated by Toby Talbot. New York: W. W.
Norton and Co., 1967.
34. Power, Edward. Main Currents in the History of
Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1970.
35. Pullias, Earl V. A Search for Understanding.
Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Co.,
Publishers, 1965.
36. ________. A Teacher is Many Things. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1968.
37. Rader, Melvin. The Enduring Questions. New York:
Henry Holt and Co., 1959.
38. Tappan, Henry P. University Education. New York:
G. P. Putnam Sons, 1851.
39. Thornton, James W. The Community Junior College.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966.
40. Titus, Harold H. Living Issues in Philosophy. New
York: American Book Co., 1964.
41. ________ . The Range of Philosophy. New York:
American Book Co., 1964.
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42. Trueblood, D. Elton. General Philosophy. New York:
Harper and Row, Publishers, 1963.
43. Westfall, Fred A. The Activity of Philosophy.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1969.
44. Whitehead, Alfred North. Adventures of Ideas. New
York: The Macmillan Co., 1961.
45. . The Aims of Education. New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1957.
46. Woodring, Paul. The Higher Learning in America: A
Reassessment. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1967.
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Learned Societies
47. 1969 Statistical Abstract. Washington, D.C.:
Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
1970.
48. 1970-71 Statistical Report #2. Los Angeles:
Division of Institutional Research, California
State Colleges, March 6, 1971.
49. Educational Policies Commission. Education of the
Gifted. Washington, D.C.: National
Education Association of the United States,
and the American Association of School
Administrators, 1950.
50. Jobs in Philosophy #1. Washington, D.C.: American
Philosophical Association, 1971.
51. United Nations Publications. Teaching in the Social
Sciences. Geneva, Switzerland: UNESCO, 1954.
Periodicals
52. Cohen, J. W. "The Role of Philosophy in General
Education." The Journal of Philosophy. XLIV,
No. 18 (August 28, 1947), 477-485.
53. Ferre, Nels. "The Place of Philosophy in the
Curriculum." International Philosophical
Quarterly. X (June, 1970), 220-231.
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Nemetz, Anthony. "The Problem of Philosophic
Communication.*' International Philosophical
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Wick, Warner A. "Teaching the History of Philosophy
in General Education." Journal of General
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Unpublished Materials
Abdel-Halim, Ahmed El-Madhi. "An Intersystem Model
for Curriculum Theory and Practice." Unpub
lished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State
University, 1965.
Allen, M. S. "An Exploratory Study of Reflective
Thinking." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation.
The University of Southern California, 1942.
Butt, Mahmood Ul Hasan. "Conceptions of Structures
of Knowledge and Their Bearings on Curriculum
Planning." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Indiana University, 196 7.
Day, John Lee. "An Analytical Study of Responses
Given by Students of University and Junior
Colleges to a Philosophy Survey.” Unpublished
Master's thesis. The University of Southern
California, 1957.
Petrie, Hugh G. “Philosophy Graduate Student
Teaching Internship." A paper presented to
the faculty of the Department of Philosophy,
Northwestern University, 1969.
Scott, Harry V. "Cognitive Analysis of a Curriculum:
An Application of Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives.” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Columbia University, 1967.
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189
63. California State College at Long Beach Bulletin.
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64. California State College at Los Angeles Catalog.
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65. Chapman College Catalog. 1968-70. Orange,
California: Chapman College, 1968.
66. Cypress Junior College Catalog. 1971-72. Cypress,
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67. Fullerton Junior College Catalog, 1970-71. Fullerton,
California: North Orange County Junior
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68. Occidental College Catalog, 1971-72. Los Angeles,
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69. Santa Ana College Catalog. 1971. Santa Ana,
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Whittier College, 1970.
APPENDICES
190
APPENDIX A
COVER LETTER
191
192
CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGE
FULLERTON
800 North State College Boulevard
Fullerton, California
Date
Dear Sir,
Enclosed is the questionnaire which we discussed on the
telephone.
As I indicated at the time, this questionnaire is the
product not only of a required research design for a
Ph.D. dissertation, but of my own mounting concern to
discover whether there is indeed a consistent pattern
among our colleges and universities, in the presenting of
the subject matter and questions of philosophy.
I am pleased to learn that you share my concern, and even
more so that you are willing to share valuable time in
responding to questions designed to shed light on the
problems involved.
Ab origine fidus.
Robert Bruce McLaren
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
193
I. PRACTICES RELATED TO THE CURRICULUM
194
1. Is there a "Department of Philosophy" called by
that name in your institution? Yes No__
2. Are the philosophy courses grouped together within
a larger department (e.g.. Social Science,
Humanities, etc.)? Yes No__
3. How many students (in round numbers) enroll in the
introductory course(s) in philosophy each year?
4. Is the introductory course a one or two semester
(quarter) course? _____
5. How many professors are engaged in teaching the
introductory course sections? ____
6. With regard to emphasis, how is your introductory
course structured:
Percent of time: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
History of
Philosophy__________________________________________________
Systems(Idealism
Pragmatism, etc.)___________________________________________
Problems: Free will
meaning of history
(love, war, etc.)___________________________________________
Realms of Philosophy:
axiology, epistemolo-
gy. ontology
7. In the selection of reading materials, is your
preference for a standard text . books of
readings , primary source readings (e.g., Plato's
Utopia, Essays of Montaigne, etc.)
8. If you assign a textbook, please name the title
and author:
9. Is the introductory course an absolute prerequi
site for enrolling in all other courses in
philosophy in your department? Yes No___
195
10. For purposes of evaluating students, what is the
general practice regarding tests? Pop quizzes
weekly quizzes , monthly quizzes , mid-term
examination , final examination
11. Do you require term papers to be written? Yes__
No__
12. If term papers are required, are students given
freedom to select their own topics and conduct
research according to their own design? Yes___
No___
II. PRACTICES RF.TATED TO ARTICULATION
1. Is the content of the introductory course in
philosophy influenced by the content of intro
ductory courses offered in other institutions
of higher learning in the state? Yes No__
2. Is the content influenced by the curriculum
practices of Junior or Community Colleges in the
state? Yes No___
3. Is the content influenced by curriculum practices
of state colleges in the state? Yes No___
4. Is the content influenced by curriculum practices
within the state university system? Yes No__
5. Is the content influenced by curriculum practices
of the independent colleges in the state? Yes__
No___
6. Does your philosophy department, through repre
sentatives, engage in articulation conferences
with representatives from other colleges and
universities? Yes No___
7. Does the department, through representatives,
engage in articulation conferences with repre
sentatives from secondary schools? Yes No
8. Do philosophy majors ordinarily receive transfer
credit for the introductory course in philosophy
when transferring to other colleges and univer
sities within the state? Yes No
196
9. Does your department accept transfer credit for
the introductory philosophy course from all other
accredited colleges and universities in the
state? Yes No__
10. Does your department offer a different intro
ductory course in philosophy for philosophy
majors, from that offered for non-majors?
Yes No__
11. Are courses offered in your department for
philosophy majors arranged in a sequential pat
tern, to articulate with programs in philosophy
departments in other institutions of higher
education in the state? Yes No__
12. Does your department allow a waiver of the
introductory course in philosophy on the basis
of an examination? Yes No
III. PRACTICES RELATED TO STUDENTS
1. Do non-philosophy majors have an open choice of
philosophy courses? Yes No
2. Are Freshmen discouraged from declaring them
selves as philosophy majors during their first
year in college? Yes No__
3. Are all students seeking a baccalaureate in your
college, required to take a course in philosophy?
Yes No__
4. Are all L.A.S. students seeking a baccalaureate
in your college required to take a course in
philosophy? Yes No
5. Is it possible for a student to earn a bacca
laureate degree in philosophy (Ph.B.) in your
institution? Yes No__
6. Is it possible for a student to earn a bacca
laureate degree (A.B. or B.A.) with a major in
philosophy in your institution? Yes No__
7. Are College Entrance Board Examination results
used to place students initially in philosophy
courses? Yes No
197
8. Are former students encouraged to return to the
college to discuss their experience in transfer
ring to other colleges? Yes No__
9. Is a special counselor assigned to meet with and
advise students majoring in philosophy? Yes__
No__
10. Are philosophy majors advised to take a common
set of courses in a fixed sequence? Yes No_
11. Do you believe there is a need for devising a
unique type of philosophy curriculum for your
kind of institution? Yes No_
12. Are students granted General Education credits
for the introductory course in philosophy?
Yes No
IV. GENERAL ATTITUDES
1. Do you believe the introductory course in
philosophy should be a one or two semester
course? One Two
2. Do you believe that the introductory course in
philosophy should be a 3 unit course, or a 4
unit course (or if two semesters should be
required, a 6 unit or 8 unit course)?
3. Do you believe there is a need for statewide
planning in the development of the philosophy
curriculum? Yes No
4. Do you believe there is need for some consensus
in higher education as to the content of the
introductory courses in philosophy? Yes No__
5. Do you believe that special courses should be
designed for the training of philosophy
instructors, for the task of teaching philosophy
courses at the college and university levels?
Yes No__
6. Do you believe that broad survey type courses
are desirable for philosophy majors in order to
serve as prerequisites for the more specialized
courses in value theory, epistautology, and the
study of specific philosophers and their historic
periods? Yes No__
198
7. What would you establish as prerequisites for
undergraduate students who wish to enroll in
their first course in philosophy? Age___
G.P.A. Year in College Number of Units___
8. Apart from prospects for becoming teachers of
philosophy, what do you hold before your students
as possible values for majoring in philosophy?
Please list in order of preference:
a. ______________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
e. ______________________________________________
V. THE NATURE OF THE INSTITUTION
1. Is yours a single campus institution or multiple
campus? Single campus Multiple campus___
2. If yours is a multiple campus institution, is
there a separate department of philosophy on each
campus? Yes No__
3. What is the nature of the community in which the
institution is located? Inner City__
Metropolitan Suburban Small Town Rural__
4. What training is considered acceptable for a
teaching position in your department? B.A. (or
B.S.)___, M. A. (or M.S.) Ph.D. , Other
(please specify) no degree required
5. What training is considered necessary to the
gaining of tenure in your department? B.A. (B.D.
or B.S.)___, M.A. (or M.S.) . Ph.D. # no
degree required
6. What is considered the special responsibility of
your institution in teaching of philosophy?
a. Provide courses which contribute to the
general education of non-philosophy majors
b. Provide courses for philosophy majors___ .
c. Provide courses for the community through
adult or continuing education .
d. Other_______________________________________ .
199
7. Are there more or fewer students enrolling in
philosophy courses now than ten years ago in your
institution? More , Fewer , About the
same
8. Are there more or fewer students enrolling in
philosophy courses now than five years ago in
your institution? More , Fewer , About
the same .
9. Is philosophy becoming more or less popular as a
subject for students to elect as a major?
More , Less , About the same .
10. What particular trends do you note in the demands
of students, which may influence the content and
design of the philosophy curriculum in the
future? _____________________________________
APPENDIX C
A LIST OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES WHOSE
DEPARTMENTS OF PHILOSOPHY WERE STUDIED
FOR THIS DISSERTATION
200
201
Community Colleges
A Fullerton Junior College
B Cypress Junior College
C Santa Ana College
State Colleges
D California State College at Fullerton
E Long Beach State College
F California State College at Los Angeles
University of California Campuses
G Irvine
H Los Angeles
I Riverside
Independent Colleges
J Chapman College
K Occidental College
L Whittier College

Asset Metadata

Creator Mclaren, Robert Bruce (author)

Core Title A Study Of Philosophy Curriculum Dissonance In Selected Colleges And Universities In California

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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Advisor Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee chair), Cantelon, John E. (committee member), O'Neill, William S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-566750

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses