University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Relationship Among Differentiated Cognitive Abilities, Field Dependency, Achievement, And Rated Classroom Behavior Of Ninth Grade Junior High School Students

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The Relationship Among Differentiated Cognitive Abilities, Field Dependency, Achievement, And Rated Classroom Behavior Of Ninth Grade Junior High School Students

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Content THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG D IFFERENTIATED COGNITIVE ABILITIES, FIELD DEPENDENCY. ACHIEVEMENT, AND RATED CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR OF NINTH GRADE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS by Telford Ira Moore A D issertation P re s e n te d to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a rtia l Fulfillm ent of the R equirem ents for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) F eb ru ary , 1971 71 - 16,426 MOORE, Telford Ira, 1944- THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG DIFFERENTIATED COGNITIVE ABILITIES, FIELD DEPENDENCY, ACHIEVEMENT, AND RATED CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR OF NINTH GRADE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1971 Education, psychology University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by under the direction of /iiJ5 Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of .m E Q R P ...m ..M Q Q R £ . D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean •Dtfte...Npyember._9j„l970 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE DEDICATION This d issertatio n is dedicated to m y father, Ira Telford Moore, M. D. , and to m y aunts and uncles: M rs. June Billman, Mr. Stuart Moore, Mr. Thom as Moore, Mr. R obert Moore, M rs. Dorothy Wright, M rs. M ildred Burdette, and Mr. J a m e s Moore. This d is sertation and the subsequent degree are as m uch yours as they could ever be mine. ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS The w rite r w ishes to ex p ress his sincere appreciation to the D issertation C om m ittee for its guidance throughout the planning and writing of the dissertation: to Dr. J a m e s B irre n for his discerning and consonant appreciation of the the o re tic al construct; to Dr. C. E. M eyers for providing a m odel of and a deep appreciation for scholar- liness; and to Dr. J a m e s M agary for his incom parable help in r e f e r ring to appropriate re so u rc e s, for his expertise in editing this docu ment, and for his consistent unconditional positive regard. A ppreciation is also extended to Dr. F ran k Fox and Dr. Robert Smith who provided invaluable assistance and final approbation for the statistical analyses of the data. A v ery special appreciation is extended to Dr. H arry Handler whose superlative qualities demand em ulation and who nurtured a perspective of the doctoral p ro g ra m which "put it all together" in a profoundly meaningful way. Recognition is given to Dr. A lbert M arley and to the faculties and staffs of the junior high schools in the R iverside Unified School D istrict, R iverside, California for their support and help in obtain ing the n e c e ss a ry data. A special note of recognition is given to Mrs. Janet Utz and M rs. Louise Bailey for th e ir unparalleled assistan ce in iii typing and producing this dissertation. TA B LE O F CO NTENTS P ag e D ED ICA TIO N ............................................................................................ ii ACKN OW LEDGM ENTS....................................................................... iii LIST OF T A B L E S ................................................................................ vli LIST OF F IG U R E S ................................................................................ viii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE S T U D Y .................................. 1 Background of the S t u d y .......................................... 2 Objective of the S t u d y .............................................. 16 II. REVIEWING THE L I T E R A T U R E .................................. 18 Review of the L i t e r a t u r e .......................................... 19 C h a ra c te ristic I: T eacher attitude . . . . 19 C h a rac teristic II: P a re n t-c h ild r e l a t i o n s h i p s .................................................. 21 C h a rac teristic III: Cognitive abilities in the learning e n v i r o n m e n t ................. 25 Linguistic A b i l i t y .............................................. 31 Spatial A b i l i t y ....................................................... 34 C e re b ra l F un ctio n in g .......................................... 47 Cognitive S t y l e ....................................................... 59 III. PROCEDURES OF THE S T U D Y ...................................... 64 Statem ent of the P r o b l e m ...................................... 65 A s s u m p t i o n s ................................................................... 67 D e f i n i t i o n s ....................................................................... 67 Statistical H y p o t h e s e s .............................................. 68 V ariables ............................................................... 68 R e se a rc h h y p o th e s e s .......................................... 69 Null h y p o t h e s e s .................................................. 71 M e t h o d ................................................................................ 73 S u b j e c t s ................................................................... 73 D e s i g n ....................................................................... 74 M aterials ............................................................... 74 P r o c e d u r e ....................................................................... 74 v C h ap ter P a g e IV. R E PO R T AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS . . 76 Statement of the H y p o t h e s e s .................................. 76 Analysis of V a r i a n c e .................................................. 85 Chi Square A n a l y s i s .................................................. 96 Analysis of Covariance .......................................... 96 Interpretation of the D a t a ...................................... 97 V. SUMMARY, RESULTS, AND SUGGESTIONS . . . 106 S u m m a r y ........................................................................... 106 V a r i a b l e s ................................................................... I l l Null h y p o th e s e s ...................................................... 112 Subjects ................................................................... 114 D e s i g n ....................................................................... 114 M a t e r i a l s ................................................................... 115 P ro ced u re ............................................................... 115 R e s u l t s ............................................................................... 115 S u g g e s tio n s ....................................................................... 116 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................. 117 vi LIST OF TA B LES Table P a g e 1 Mean, Median, and Range of Each of the ITPA Subtest Raw Scores (Pilot S tu d y ).............................. 7 2 ITPA P rofile of Language Age D eterm ined by Mean Raw Scores (Pilot S tu d y ).................................. 8 3 Mean and Range of Each of the WISC Subtest Scaled Scores (Pilot S tu d y ).......................................... 9 4 M ajor Dimensions of P are n t-C h ild Relationships . 22 5 D escriptive Statistics and A nalysis of V ariance of the Data for Hypotheses 1, 2, 4, and 5 . . . 81 6 Chi Square Analysis of the Data for Hypothesis 3 ....................................................................... 84 7 Analysis of Covariance of the Data for Hypothesis 6 ....................................................................... 86 8 Significant D ifferences among the Three Groups from the Analysis of V a r i a n c e .................................. 98 9 Coefficients of C orrelation for 50% or More of the Variance Between V ariables Within Each G r o u p ........................................................................... 100 vii F ig u re 1 LIST OF FIGU RES S earch Model for Reviewing the L ite ra tu re P ag e 18 viii CH APTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY It has been observed that students whose spatial abilities are b e t te r than th e ir linguistic abilities achieve less well in academ ic sub je cts and b e tte r in non-academ ic subjects than do students whose lin guistic abilities a re equal to or better than their spatial abilities. More specifically, it was found that eighth and ninth grade students, whose linguistic abilities as m e a su re d by stanine sc o re s from the D ifferential Aptitude T ests (DAT) (Bennett, Seashore, and Wesman, 1961) of V erbal Reasoning (VR) w ere two o r m o re stanines below th e ir spatial abilities as m e a su re d by stanine s c o re s from DAT Ab s tra c t Reasoning (AR), Spatial Relationships (SR), and M echanical Reasoning (MR), achieved less well in academ ic subjects and better in non-academ ic subjects as determ ined by te ach er grade re p o rts than did those students whose linguistic abilities as m e a s u re d by DAT VR stanines w ere equal to o r b e tte r than their spatial abilities as m e a sured by DAT AR, SR, and MR stanines. This study attem pts to ex am ine a num ber of intervening variables which m ay help to explain this discrepant academ ic perform ance. 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY As a counselor for eighth grade students during the 1967-1968 academ ic year and for ninth grade students (the sam e students) d u r ing the 1968-1969 academ ic year in a junior high school, an interest developed in a phenomenon that had firs t been observed at the end of the Fall, 1967 S em ester. Namely, those students whose DAT VR scores w ere two o r m o re stanines below th e ir AR, SR, and MR scores achieved less well in academ ic subjects (English, math, and history) and better in non-academ ic subjects (P. E. , wood, crafts, home econom ics, boy's cooking class, typing, and art) than did stu dents whose DAT VR sco res w ere equal to or b etter than their AR, SR, and MR scores. This trend continued throughout the ninth grade and in m any c a se s prevented the completion of junior high school graduation requirem ents. Many counseling sessions w ere held with these students on an in dividual and group basis, with and without p aren ts, and with and with out te ach ers. Some group counseling was conducted with the p aren ts. As a result of these contacts with the students, th e ir te a c h e rs, and parents, sev eral observed c h a ra c te ristic s w ere found. Those ob served c h a ra c te ristic s have been grouped according to the individuals to whom they seem ed to relate most: te a c h e rs, p aren ts, and stu dents: i A. O bserved c h a ra c te ristic s relating to te a c h e rs 1. A cadem ic te a c h e rs had m uch m o re difficulty understand ing the kinds of p ro b lem s these students p resen te d than did non-academ ic te ach ers. 2. More re fe r r a ls for disciplinary action w ere m ade by academ ic te a c h e rs than by non-academ ic te a c h e rs of this group of students. 3. A cadem ic te a c h e rs tended to view these students as d is ruptive, negativistic, and unproductive. 4. N on-academ ic te a c h e rs tended to view these students as frequently disruptive, but certainly productive. B. O bserved c h a ra c te ristic s relating to p arents 1. The fathers worked in a job requiring the ability to deal with spatial contents and operations (e. g. , aeronautics; electronics; engineering technicians, p ro g ra m e rs , and developers; telephone c irc u itry and design; m echanical operations and design). 2. The fathers w ere very quiet m en and interacted in fre quently with others. 3. The m o th ers tended to be v ery verbally active; frequent ly hostile, negativistic, and naggingly caustic. O bserved c h a ra c te ristic s relating to students 1. The students w ere generally quiet individuals. They would respond in a conversation, but would not display any u n n ece ssary verbal behavior. They w ere pleasant, friendly, and a lert. They displayed no observable sym p tom s com monly found among low ability a n d /o r re ta rd e d students (apathy, d isin terest, non -resp o n siv en ess, etc.). 2. The students appeared to have v ery low self opinions about th e ir ability to achieve in school, but did not con sider th em selves to be unacceptable o r to p o s se ss nega tive c h a ra c te ristic s com monly found among students whose overall school achievem ent is below average ("stupid," "d u m b ," "b ad ," "w on't w o rk ," " la z y ," etc. ). 3. The students freely adm itted th e ir difficulty with lan guage ability by such statem ents as " I don't understand what m y te a c h e rs a re talking about," "I don't understand what you said ," " I don't like reading (but can do it), " etc. 4. The students ex p ressed g re a t in te re st in and en thusiasm for any kind of topic that dealt with spatial m edia. 5. The g irls w ere acknowledged as being the better d re s s e d g irls on cam pus, utilizing color and design for a m ost attractive appearance. 5 6. The boys w ere acknowledged to be the better a rtis a n s, draftsm en, and d esig n ers on cam pus. 7. The te a c h e rs perceiv ed the students as serious m a n ag e m ent p ro b lem s after the students had been confronted by te ach ers' com m ents (interpreted as derogatory by the students and m otivational by the teachers). Subsequent ly, the students would frequently m anifest behavior to establish personal integrity but also which defied te ach er authority. A pilot study was conducted with a sam ple of twenty-nine boys and sixteen girls who exhibited the DAT differentiated profile as d e scribed above to determ ine what kinds of psy ch o m etric patterns could be obtained on other standard m e a su re s. It seem ed reasonable to a s sum e that differentiations might occur on the W echsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) (W echsler, 1949) and the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA) (M cCarthy and Kirk, 1961). To the p aren ts of each of the forty-five students a letter was sent and la te r a p erso n al conference was held during which the study was explained. Of the forty-five selected for the pilot study, the p aren ts of only nine boys and six girls consented to the testing and participation in the study. Each student was ad m in istered the WISC and the ITPA, in that order, on the sam e day, one student p e r day. T here was a twenty minute re s t break between the two te st adm inistrations. All of the te sts w ere given in the morning between 8:30 and 11-30 A. M. During the testing period, it was em phasized to each studant that the purpose of the study was to attem pt to discover reasons why they w ere experiencing difficulty in school. Since many of the students felt very insecure about the te sts and frequently asked if they w ere " re ta rd " tests, it was n e c e s s a ry to encourage them continually and em phasize the fact that if valid reaso n s could be found for their school difficulties, something might be done to help them. They seem ed to respond positively to this latter statement. The resu lts proved interesting. Table 1 shows the mean, m e d i an and range of each of the ITPA subtest raw scores. In only two of the subtests was the ceiling score reached: Auditory-V ocal A sso cia tion and A uditory-V ocal Automatic. In these cases, the median m ay be m o re meaningful than the m ean even though their values are v irtu ally the sam e. Table 2 shows the ITPA profile of Language Age d e te rm in ed by m ean raw scores. T here a re four a re a s w herein the m ean sco re values w ere at levels below the Language Age ceilings of ten year old children: V isual-M otor Association, Vocal Encoding, Motor Encoding, and Auditory-V ocal Automatic. V isual-M otor A ss o ciation is the ability to relate meaningful visual symbols. Vocal E n coding is the ability to ex p re ss one's ideas in words. Motor Encod ing is the ability to e x p re ss one's ideas in gestures. A uditory-Vocal R A 1 SCI 39 38 37 36 35 3i| 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 2k 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 11; 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 k m e " me: 7 TAB IE 1 MEAN, MEDIAN, AND RANGE OF EACH OF THE ITFA SUBTEST R A W SCORES (FILOT STUDY) 1 2 3 U 5 6 7 8 9 AUD VIS AUD- V IS - VOCAL M OTO R AUD- AUD- VIS- DEC DEC VO C M O T ENCOD ENCOD VO C VO C M O T ASS ASS AUTO SEQ, SEQ, TOTAL ITFA RAW SCORES 232 231 230 229 228 227 226 225 221+ 223 222 221 220 219 218 217 216 215 2114. 213 212 211 210 209 208 207 206 205 201+ 203 202 201 200 199 198 197 32.6 1 9 .1 2U .9 2 3 .3 2 1 .2 1 8 .5 2 0 .1 3 3 .2 2 2 .8 2 1 5 .8 6 3 3 .2 1 9 . U. 21+.9 2 3 .3 2 1 .3 1 9 .3 2 0 .7 3U-9 2 9 .7 218 TABLE 2 ITPA PROFILE OF LANGUAGE AGE DETERMINED BY M EAN RAW SCORES (PILOT STUDY) REPRESENTATIONAL LEVEL :AUTOMATIC-SEQUENTIAL 1 DECODING ASSOCIATION ENCODING AUTO SEQUENTIAL 1 1 0 1 1 3 h i 5 j 6 7 8 9 1 | ITPA lAUD | VIS AUD VIS VOC j M O T AUD AUD VIS TOTAL • | VO C ......J M O T ......_.J ENC 1 ENC . . . . i VO C ______ . VO C M O T CA Above W o nil 9 -6 9 -5 9-k 9 -3 9 -2 9 -1 9 -0 8-11 8-10 8 -9 \ A utomatic ability p e rm its one to p red ic t future linguistic events from p a st experience (McCarthy and Kirk, 1961). Table 3 shows the m ean 9 TABLE 3 SCALED SCORE 20 19 18 17 16 15 i h 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 k 3 2 1 M EAN AND RANGE OF EACH OF THE WISC SUBTEST SCALED SCORES (PILOT STUDY) INFO COM P ARITH SIM VOC DIG PIC PIC BLO OBJ CODE M AZE SPA CO M ARR DES ASS MEAN SCORES 8 . 7 8 . 7 8 . 5 1 1 .9 8 . 3 9 . 3 1 1 .1 9 . 9 12 10.1* 11 1 0 .2 and range of each of the WISC subtest scaled sco res. It will be noted that the m ean sco res of all the V erbal subtests with the exception of S im ilarities a re below the scaled score m ean of ten and that the m ean sc o re s of all the P erfo rm a n c e subtests with the exception of P ic tu re A rrangem ent a re above the scaled sco re m ean of ten. It appears that linguistic disabilities m ay be operating among 10 these students. So far as the lim its of the ITPA p e rm it in te rp re ta tion, the Decoding abilities seem to be functioning adequately. De coding is the ability to com prehend auditory and visual symbols (M cCarthy and Kirk, 1961). The Sequencing abilities also seem to be functioning adequately. Sequencing, in the ITPA, is the ability to reproduce co rrectly a s e quence of symbols and is largely dependent upon visual a n d /o r audi to ry m e m o ry (M cCarthy and Kirk, 1961). T herefore it appears that these students receive auditory and visual symbols adequately and that, in addition, they can retain them. In this regard, it is im p o r tant to point out the concept of m e m o ry is not easy to deal with. In the Structure of the Intellect (Guilford, 1967), m em o ry is defined as retention or storage, with som e degree of availability, of inform a tion in the sam e form in which it was com m itted to storage and in connection with the sam e cues with which it was learned. However, the pro b lem of s h o r t- te r m v e rs u s in te rm e d ia te -te rm v e rsu s long te r m m e m o ry still p e rs is ts . It simply is not known what variables and p ro c e s s e s a re involved in the c le a r differentiation of the different types of m em ory. In addition, Guilford pro ffers the factor-analyzed fact that m e m o ry can be differentiated by sense modality. Visual and auditory m e m o ry for figural system s (MFS-V and MFS-A) a re c e r tainly to be considered as p a rt of linguistic sequencing. As m e a su re d by the ITPA, A uditory-V ocal Association, the ability to relate spoken words in a meaningful way (McCarthy and Kirk, 1961), seem s intact. These students apparently can interpret that which is heard. This is an interesting resu lt because one of the m a jo r com plaints of these students is that m ost of the tim e they don't have the slightest idea what their academ ic te ach ers a re talking about. The te ach ers agree that these students don't seem to know what is going on in the class. Also, the p aren ts report that they will tell the children things, ask them if they understand, in some cases even have them repeat it, and five m inutes later, the child seem s to tally oblivious to having been p resen ted with the information. In many ways, this is a typical behavior p attern reported by the students, th e ir te a c h e rs, and p aren ts. It has been dem onstrated (Stover and Guerney, 1968) that p a re n ts are generally not really aw are of the fru stratio n faced by children with perceptual difficulties. This r e search points up the g eneral lack of knowledge, insensitivity, and poor insight p aren ts have in dealing with their problem s. P e rh a p s the reported behaviors in the pilot study are asso ciated with perceptual pro b lem s. V isual-M otor A ssociation does not seem to be fully developed for the m ean level of ability seem s to be occurring at the 8-11 language age. However, this does not seem to concur with the dem onstrated ability in spatial relations. The question then a ris e s , is th e re a sig nificant difference in the type of visual symbols seen? In p artial 12 answ er to this, it was found (M iller and M iller, 1968) that among r e tarded children, "accentuated" visual sym bols w ere m o re readily learned than "non-accentuated" o r conventional symbols. The sy m bols w ere words and the accentuation was the caricaturizing of the printed words to the meaning denoted. F o r example: sociation exist which im pair p ro p erly relating visual symbols. Concerning the a re a of association, a study was done (Mira, 1968) which indicated that differential visual and auditory p re fe re n c e s exist among n o rm al and learning disabled children. Some children will use both m odes equally and sim ultaneously. Some will look, but not always listen. No children w ere found who would listen but not look. Several of the disabled le a rn e rs would look, but not listen. On the basis of this information, it becom es im portant to know which p a t te rn s , if any, exist among these students. If both m odes cannot or a r e not being used simultaneously, or if p a tte rn s exist which might impede the use of the other, much m ight be explained about the diffi culties the child has in class and p erh ap s even at home. If higher sp a tial ability can be interpreted as a differentiated visual pattern, it m ay well be that the p attern s a re intact, and even sim ultaneous to each other, but a re not n e c e ssa rily congruent to the stimuli. That is, how the child receives visual inform ation m ay im pose different in te rp re ta tions on the auditory output inform ation fro m the te a c h e rs a n d /o r T herefore, it m ay well be that differences in visual as- 13 parents. In another study (Withrow, 1968), it was found that language d is o rd ered children (in this case hearing im paired) a re superior to n o r m al children on reca ll of visual stim uli p resen te d simultaneously, but inferior on recall of visual stim uli p resen te d sequentially. Withrow explains this difference as the resu lt of developm ental practice: the n o rm al group having m o re experience in coding and pro cessin g s e quential information. Withrow then states, "It is logical to hypothe size that language im paired groups might be able to learn to p ro c e s s visual stim uli p resen te d sequentially in tim e. . . , since it has been a s sumed that the su p erio r perform ance. . . is a result of learned behav ior. " F ro m this it appears that visual association is a learned p h e nomenon and can be trained. This is not so su rprising when one con siders that all linguistic development m ust be learned. Both Vocal and Motor Encoding a re below language age level for ten year old children. With the inform ation that these students f r e quently encounter verbal outbursts at home and school, the dem on strated reticence to encode is understandable and p erhaps to be e x pected. F ro m an environm ental point of view, the environm ent m ay have fostered, encouraged, o r reinforced linguistic development dif ferentially: supporting decoding development m o re and supporting en coding development less or it m ay have supported development of sp a tial encoding or expression m o re and supported v erbal encoding or 14 expression less. The whole problem of encoding and expression can have several affective results. F o r example, the development of self concept is dependent in large m e asu re on the kinds of feedback and reactions one gets to what one does. Since the school takes som e responsibility for the development of linguistic growth in children, it is im perative that good conceptual formation take place. It has been shown that school adjustm ent is in p art dependent upon self concept (Williams and Cole, 1968). Mumo (1968) found positive and direct correlation between achievem ent in academ ic classes and p e e r acceptance, neglect, and rejection. A chievem ent in p erform ance classes was not as clear cut. Highly accepted students do tend to achieve better than neglected and/ or rejected students, but many rejected an d /o r neglected students do as well as highly accepted students. Consequently, it appears that the p ro p er development of encoding ability is highly dependent upon active sensory engagem ent in the en vironm ent and the success obtained therein. If the verbal passivity of the fathers and the verbal activity of the m others, as e a r lie r indicated, em itted a non-accepting environm ent for the p ro p e r development of en coding ability, and if the self concept incorporated both at home and school w ere negative, poor encoding ability is m o re understandable. A uditory-V ocal Automatic ability is also below the language age level of ten years. So much of this ability is dependent upon what is 15 p racticed and what is heard and constantly being used. Since the stu dents in this study practice less than the norm al as indicated by their encoding abilities and case histo ries, it is to be expected that much of the g ra m m a r would be less articulate. The resu lts of the WISC a re very interesting and a re even more indicative of the nature of the problem . C urrent intelligence tests co rrelate v ery highly with school success. School su ccess is highly dependent upon linguistic development. The m ean WISC scaled s c o re s show that these students have an average intelligence of 100. However, the m ean difference between the Verbal and P erfo rm an c e IQs is eleven points, P g re a te r than V. W echsler (1958) indicates a difference of fifteen as being diagnostically im portant depending on o ne's criterio n of im portance. Cronbach (I960) suggests that when an indicator of school achievem ent is desired, the V erbal IQ is likely to be m o re valuable because w hatever d e p re s s e s it, also d e p re s s e s school achievem ent. Thompson (1962) points out that P erfo rm an c e task s appear to be relatively independent of educational achievem ent. T herefore, it appears that the difference between the V erbal and P e rfo rm a n c e IQ s co res is indicative of some differentiation of abili ties, such differentiation not being favorable to school achievement. It is also interesting to point out that the one Verbal subtest with a m ean score above the mean is Sim ilarities, the ability to handle ab s tra c t reasoning. The one P e rfo rm a n c e subtest with a m ean score 16 below the mean is P ic tu re A rrangem ent, the ability to in terp ret social phenomena. Consequently, the pilot study suggests that there appear to be th ree m a jo r observable c h a ra c te ristic s operating with these types of students: 1) teacher attitudes, 2) p aren t-ch ild relationships, and 3) the student's cognitive abilities in his learning environm ent. It is felt that these observable c h a ra c te ristic s a re the m a jo r variables ef fecting c la ss ro o m achievem ent and p erfo rm an ce for all students and that differences obtained are consequences of the different interaction of them. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The m ajo r objective of this study is to identify common and unique cognitive c h a ra c te ristic s among ninth grade junior high school students. R eitan's (1955a, 1955b, 1956, 1958a, 1958b, 1959a, 1959b, 1959c, 1959d, I960, 1966, 1967, 1969; Reitan and Heineman, 1970; Wheeler and Reitan, 1962) work consistently showed that differential ce re b ra l dysfunctions resulted in differentiations among the language p ro c e s s e s and cognitive abilities as reflected on the W echsler Scales. Left c e r e b ral injuries w ere highly associated with language cognitive functions and lower scores on the W echsler V erbal IQ; right c e re b ra l injuries w ere highly associated with non-language cognitive functions and lower s co res on the W echsler P erfo rm an c e IQ. The results indicated that 17 ce re b ra l s tru c tu re s and functioning influenced language sy stem s and cognitive abilities. Witkin's (1962) work showed that visual-spatial perceptions influ ence one's "cognitive style" as defined by his m e a s u re s of analytical functioning in v isu al-sp atial perceptions. This produced a perceptual index of field dependence-independence. The field dependent subjects had higher sco res on the W echsler V erbal IQ subtests of Information, Comprehension, and Vocabulary. The field independent subjects had higher s co res on W echsler P erfo rm a n c e IQ subtests of P ictu re C om pletion, Block Design, and Object Assem bly. His findings indicated that visu al-sp atial proficiencies are strongly associated with lan guage abilities and cognitive styles. In 1970, Witkin stated that the Embedded F ig u re s Test (EFT) (Witkin, 1969) provides a somewhat " p u rer" m e a s u re of analytical functioning (or field dependence) than any of the three W echsler subtests loading on the analytical factor. CH APTER II REVIEWING THE LITERATU R E The rev iew of the lite r a tu r e w ill p erta in to the o b serv ed c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of tea ch er attitude, p a r e n t-c h ild re la tio n sh ip s, the learn in g en vironm en t, and co g n itiv e d ifferen tia tio n . The sea rch m o d el is p r e sented in F igu re 1. FIGURE 1 SEARCH MODEL FOR REVIEWING THE LITERATURE SPATIAL ABILITY TEACHER ATTITUDE LEARNING THEORIES COGNITIVE STYLE LINGUISTIC ABILITY CEREBRAL FUNCTIONING COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS COGNITIVE ABILITY IN THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 18 19 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE C h arac teristic I: T eacher attitude One of the assum ptions to be draw n and perh ap s hypotheses to be tested fro m the findings of the observed c h a ra c te ris tic s relating to te ach ers is that academ ic te a c h e rs a re le ss tolerant of the behavior m anifested by these students than a re non-academ ic te a c h e rs. A p o s sible reaso n for this is that academ ic te ach ers cognize o r operate m ore linguistically than spatially, that these students cognize or o p e r ate m o re spatially than linguistically, and that consequently, there is a real lack of communication. Swift and Spivack (1969) found thirteen c la ss ro o m behaviors which significantly co rrelated with achievem ent of junior and senior high school students. The behaviors w ere selected by tw enty-six te ach ers of both n o rm al and em otionally disturbed students. T h e re fore, it appears that te ach ers' perceptions of achievem ent related b e havior and a significant co rrelatio n between achievem ent and those b e haviors would be expected. Two of the achievem ent related behaviors w ere v erb al interaction and rapport with the teacher. Since these students a re noticeably disengaged from verbal interaction, the r e s u l tant behavior m ight be contributing to the lack of achievem ent. It is also conceivable that the lack of these achievem ent related behaviors is p erceived by te a c h e rs as rejecting, somehow negativistic or u npro ductive, and thereby the student's achievem ent is graded accordingly. Schmidt and Nelson (1969) showed that te a c h e rs of EM R students a re m ore concerned with p e rs o n a l and social adjustm ent than subject m a tte r acquisition with the im plication that the opposite is true in c lasses without re ta rd e d students. A question arising fro m this would be to find the te ach er expectations of the students. In accord with these findings, Lahaderne, Jackson, and Happel (1966) found that the accuracy of te ach ers' predictions about students' attitudes to w ard satisfaction-dissatisfaction in school is significantly c o rre c t but with these limitations: 1) b e tte r accu racy with satisfied than d is s a tis fied students, 2) b etter acc u racy with satisfied girls and dissatisfied boys, and 3) p ro g re ssiv e ly p o o re r accuracy as IQ d ecre ase s. What appears to be happening is that te ach ers a re m o re co rrectly aw are of satisfied girls, d issatisfied boys, and bright (verbal? ) students. The corollary to that is te ach ers a re not aw are of the p roblem s associated with satisfied (achieving? ) boys, dissatisfied girls, and lower ability students. Bishop (1968) noted that gifted students rated te a c h e rs as m o s t effective when, among other c h a ra c te ristic s, they p o s se sse d fa v o r able attitudes tow ard the students (sensitive to students' m otives and behaviors; attem pted to see things from the students' point of view) and were m o re student centered in their teaching approach (took s tu dents' opinions into consideration). 21 C h arac teristic II: P a re n t-c h ild relationships The possibilities of p arent-child relationships are virtually infi nite, but there seem to be a few dim ensions by which these relatio n ships can be m ore successfully studied. Smith and Hudgins (1964) adapted the work of Champney (1941), Baldwin et al. (1945), and Sy- monds (1939) to show the m a jo r dim ensions of p aren t-ch ild relatio n ships and to indicate how this affects the developing child. Table 4 p re s e n ts a m odel of these dimensions. One dimension concerns control, ranging fro m complete parental control and domination to complete parental subm ission and lack of control. Another dim ension has to do with the nature of concern for the child, ranging fro m overacceptance to rejection. The overaccepting and dominating p aren t is said to be overprotec- tive and dominates the child with affection and solicitousness. The child subsequently becom es subm issive, withdrawing, obedient, a c cepting of authority, dependent, and conforming. He is frequently lacking in curiosity, originality, and fancifulness. The overaccepting and subm issive p aren t is said to be indulgent and inundates the child with overattention, concern, and affection but virtually abandons all of his authority. The child subsequently b e com es controlling, m anipulative, aggressive, rejecting of authority, commanding, bullying, and tyrannical. The dominating and rejecting parent is said to be severely 22 TABLE 1 + MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Type o f C o n tr o l N ature o f C oncern f o r C h ild 0v e r a c c e p ta n c e A cc e p ta n c e R e j e c t i o n . C om plete p a r e n t c o n t r o l or d o m in a tio n O v e r p r o te c tio n P a ren t d om in ates Warm C asu al C r u e lty A g g r e s s i v e , c o m p u ls iv e , d o m in a tin g b e h a v io r Share d c o n t r o l Warm C asual Demo- Demo c r a t i c c r a t i c C om plete p a r e n t su b m is s io n and la c k of c o n t r o l In d u lg e n c e C h ild d o m in a tes N e g le c t Abandonment -::-Adapted from Champney (191+1), B aldw in e t a l . (191+5), Symonds (1939) . In Sm ith an d H udgins (1961+) . 23 punishing, continually criticizing, threatening, and admonishing to reach unattainable standards. The child subsequently becom es r e jecting, aggressive, rebellious, hostile, em otionally unstable, an noying in school, and delinquent. The subm issive and neglecting p aren t is said to be completely r e linquishing of all concern and for all intents and purposes abandons the child to whatever social influences com e his way. The child sub sequently becom es whatever the m ost impinging social forces influ ence him the most. As can readily be seen, the p arent-child relationship is a social izing p ro c e s s by which the child incorporates social interpersonal in teraction according to the p aren tal environm ent afforded him. Upon clo ser inspection, the m odel p resen te d by Smith and Hudgins contains other interesting aspects. F o r instance, as the environm ent provides a la rg e r quantity of control and concern (that is, the m o re protection the p aren ts manifest), the m o re accepting the child becom es of in c o r porating the contents of socialization. As the environm ent reduces the quantity of control and concern and approaches rejection and sub m issio n (that is, the m o re rejected the child is), the less accepting he becom es of incorporating the social content to be transm itted. In addition, it seem s that when the environm ent provides significant and unequal differences between the corresponding quantities of control and concern, rejection of the social content takes place and hostile, 24 non-conform ing behavior ensues. Secord and Backm an (1964) consider the above behaviors to be the resu lt of how the p aren ts handled the phenomenon of dependency. If the dependency w ere trea ted with w arm th and love (concern) and re s tric te d with constructive discipline (control), the child will be psychologically and socially secure enough to te st out and learn a c ceptable behavior. If the dependency w ere tre a te d with a relatively adequate am ount of w arm th and love (concern) but a relatively inade quate amount of constructive discipline (control) or vice v ersa, the child will not be psychologically and socially secure enough to test out and learn acceptable behavior, but will have an insecure and d is torted learning history which will m anifest its consequences through some type of antisocial behavior. It ap p ears then that for appropriate p aren t-ch ild socializing p r o c e s s e s to take place, there m ust be an adequate combination of con cern (love) and control (guidance) and that to the degree that either or both a re insufficient th e re will ensue im pedim ents in the socializing p ro c e s s which may be m anifested in school achievem ent. The p aren t-ch ild relationships operating with non-verbal children a re com plex and p erhaps significant. It is certainly speculative to infer a causative relationship between p aren t-ch ild dim ensions and linguistic development. However, it is known that much of linguistic development is dependent upon practice and verbal interaction with 25 others and that much of this is dependent upon the p re se n c e of adults or significant others who reinforce it (Carroll, 1964). C h a ra c te ristic III: Cognitive abilities in the learning environm ent This variable involves two factors: abilities and learning theory. In attempting to study and review the literatu re of the learning environm ent in which the student finds him self, the multitude of learning th e o ries provides a cum bersom e, if not frequently petty, catacomb of confusion and conflict which can be m ost difficult to d is cuss in operational te rm s . For exam ple, different learning theorists organize th e ir m a te ria l in different ways. McGeoch and Irion (1952) p re se n t th e ir m a te ria l according to the m a jo r concepts of learning. Bugelski (1964) p re se n ts his m a te ria l according to the m a jo r th e o ris ts and th e ir specific theories. Bigge (1964) p re s e n ts his m a te ria l according to philosophical fram ew orks within which the m a jo r le a rn ing theories appear to fit. However, Gagne (1965) p re s e n ts the theo rie s of learning according to the conditions which surround and a r e a p a rt of the learning situation and organizes these conditions into a hierarchy. Hence, G agne1 s h ie ra rch y can be applied to learning situ ations both in an organized m anner and in operational te rm s . Of g reatest significance is that his h ie ra rch y , descriptive of and appli cable to a lm o st all learning situations, provides a sy stem by which the m ajor learning th e o rie s can be explained in educationally o p e ra tional te rm s . 26 Gagne feels that w hatever else learning m ay be, to be observed and m easu red , it m u st be perform ed. Hence, at least two p e r f o r m ances a re req u ired if a change is to be observed. However, it is not the p erfo rm a n ce itself nor the change in p e rfo rm a n ce that a re r e sponsible for learning, but ra th e r the conditions surrounding and im pinging upon the learning situation. That is, the nature of the task, in conjunction with the setting in which the task is to be perform ed, is responsible for the learning a n d /o r degree thereof. These condi tions a r e the re su lt of internal capabilities of the subject and e x te r nal environm ental variables either of which m ay be m o re or less conducive to any outcome. It is because of these qualitative aspects of ra th e r basic and sim ple conditions that the sim plicity is lost and the complexity increased. Hence, a h ie ra rc h y can be form ed from e a s ie r ta sk s to m o re difficult tasks. G agne's h ie ra rc h y of learning conditions is as follows: Type I: Signal L earning (Pavlovian C lassical Conditioning) Type II: S tim ulus-R esponse Learning (Skinnerian Operant Conditioning) Type III: Chaining (Motor Coordination and Sequencing) Type IV: V erbal A ssociation (Verbal Chaining or Linguistic Facilitation) Type V: Multiple D iscrim ination (Piagetian Categorization: P hillips, 1969) 27 Type VI: Concept Learning (Piagetian Classification: Phillips, 1969) Type VII: P rin cip le Learning (Chaining Concepts to P roduce a Relationship) Type VIII: P ro b le m Solving (Combining P rin c ip le s to Solve P r o b l e m s ) T here are so m e interesting c h a ra c te ristic s about Gagne's h ie r archy which should be pointed out. 1) Learning Types I, II, III, IV, and to som e extent V incorporate a good deal of the learning concepts and th e o ries supported by S-R psychologists. That is, they rely h e a v ily upon the external environm ental conditions to which Gagne re fe rs . In addition, they appear to be m ore subject to observation of causal relationships p rim a rily because of their external p ro p e rtie s. 2) Learning Types VI, VII, VIII, and to some extent V incorporate a good deal of the learning concepts and theories supported by cognitive psychologists. That is, they rely heavily upon the internal capability conditions to which Gagne refers. In addition, they appear to be le ss subject to observations of causal relationships p rim a rily because of their internal p ro p erties. 3) In looking at the total hierarch y , it ap p e a rs that the hig h er the level at which an individual is operating, the m ore facile is the tran sferab ility of that which is learned. F o r e x a m ple, th e re is less evidence to show that conditioned learning is t r a n s ferable to non-generalized connections, but there exists appreciable 28 evidence that problem solving is not only tra n sfe ra b le , but virtually req u ire s tra n s fe r in o rd e r to occur. Reynolds (1966) showed that the integration of v erb al and perceptual (spatial) stimuli help to build a "cognitive map" o r structure which im proves tra n s fe r and facilitates sim ple verbal, complex, and conceptual learning. 4) The p ro b lem of m otivation seem s to be related to the herarchy. To the extent that the external conditions m o re directly influence the learning, to that extent can motivation be looked at as an incentive, an elicitor, or a positively valenced object that draw s out behavior ra th e r than p r o duces it. To the extent that the internal conditions m o re directly in fluence the learning, to that extent can motivation be looked at as a m otivator, an em ittor, o r a self-induced drive which pushes out or produces behavior rather than pulling it out. It is assu m ed that G agne's h ie ra rc h y can be applied to both lin guistic and spatial abilities; that is, spatial and linguistic abilities a r e ex erc ised at a ll levels of G agne's hierarchy. This assum ption receives supportive com m entary fro m the work of F erg u so n (1954) and Gagne (I960) who take the position that spatial ability ought to tra n s fe r to the m a s te ry ta sk s calling for spatial tran sfo rm a tio n s of the data. Cronbach (1967) follows with his statem ent that spatial te s ts have had v e ry little power to predict learning, but this m ay be because instruction is so highly verbal. The second factor of V ariable III is that the student brings to the learning situation cognitive abilities which have developed to som e d e g ree of proficiency. According to one's m easuring device, this p r o ficiency or lack of it may be labelled ability o r disability, but that is an a r b itr a r y decision. T here exists a wealth of m easuring devices by which to categorize these abilities (However, Thorndike (1966) has indicated that growth in ability is re stric ted by 1) unreliability of m e a su re s, 2) inequality of units in which m e a su re s a r e ex p ressed , and 3) non-equivalence in what is m e asu re d by different in strum ents and at different levels. ), but in te rm s of the p roblem presented, th e re are two distinct kinds of abilities which seem to be contributing to and are certainly associated with the kinds of difficulties the pilot group students in this study a re having. There exists a m e a su re of linguistic ability a s distinct from spatial ability, however, it is not to be assu m ed that th e se are the only abilities relevant to the academ ic pro b lem p resen te d by the pilot group students. This differential p a t te rn appears to be a distinguishing factor. The histo ry of a s s e s sin g abilities has led to interesting specula tion regarding the interrelationships of abilities within the human o r ganism . A by-product of D arw in's doctrine of evolution (Anastasi, 1958) was the use of com paring sim ila r phenomena in different s p e cies. Galton followed in 1869 with the application of the family h is to ry method in which he tried to dem onstrate the inheritance of specific talents in various fields of work. Binet and Simon (1905) initiated 30 devices for m easu rin g m em ory, im agery, imagination, attention, com prehension, suggestibility, aesthetic appreciation, m o ral senti ment, m u scu lar force and force of will and m otor skill, and judgm ent of visual space. Spearm an (1927) attem pted to simplify and make m ore s ta tis tic a l ly parsim o n io u s and logical the concepts of abilities. He postulated that there is a m ajor, general ability, £, and one o r m ore m in o r s p e cific abilities, j3. Thurstone (1938) proposed his p rim a ry m ental abilities which included: abstraction, verbal, space, form, num ber, num erical reasoning, verbal reasoning, and rote learning. W echsler (1958) developed a s e r ie s of te s ts which attem pted to a s s e s s the ab ili ties of individuals on a V erbal level and a non-verbal or P e rfo rm a n c e level. Vernon (1950) established a h ie ra rc h y of abilities which sum - m ated in a £ factor of general ability, delim ited to a set of m a jo r group factors labelled v:ed for v erb al-num erical-educational and k:m for p ra c tical-m ech a n ical-sp a tia l-p h y sical, and further differentiated into minor group facto rs and these in tu rn to specific factors. P erh ap s the m ost inclusive attem pt to organize and m e a su re abilities is the work of Guilford (1967). In his Structure of the Intel lect, the kinds of inform ation (contents) to be p ro c e sse d by the indi vidual are combined with the kinds of p ro cessin g activities (opera tions) of the individual to form integral units (products). In te rm s of research , th is approach m uch m o re clearly and operationally defines 31 critical variables. It is not the intent of this section to evaluate the various concepts and m e a s u re s of ability but ra th e r to point out that re g a rd le s s of the sophistication and development of the concepts and m e asu re m en ts, virtually all of them contain dim ensions of verbal and non-verbal abilities, and all of the te s ts constructed deal with the p ro b lem of content validity. The question then a r is e s , what a r e those abilities? Linguistic ability The study of linguistic ability has in c re ased trem endously since the publication of Osgood's com m unication model (1957a and 1957b). The ITPA (Kirk, M cCarthy, and Kirk, 1968) was developed using this m odel as its basis and is probably the m ost productive source of re s e a r c h and development available to the fields of psycholinguistics and related cognitive and language development. The model postu lates th re e dim ensions of cognitive abilities: channels of com m unica tion (auditory-vocal and visual-m otor; o th e rs are possible but these a re the m a jo r combinations), psycholinguistic p ro c e s s e s (reception, expression, and organization), and levels of organization (re p re s e n tational; that is, symbolic m ediation, and automatic; that is, language habits). Through the use of this model, psycholinguistic developm ent can be m e a su re d and disabilities identified. W horf (1956) took the position that the way in which we think and p erceiv e is determ ined by our language. The Whorfian hypothesis 32 opposes the concept that human concepts are universally s im ila r and that any difference observed is due to a superficial difference in the language. The Whorfian hypothesis contends that re g ard less of how dependent the development of the language is on m a n 's use of it, in ef fect the language becom es a limiting factor which ultimately shapes the cognitive development of its u s e rs . Manis (1968) describ es the Whorfian hypothesis by saying that the language serv es less as a p a s sive "in te rp re ter" o r "tran slato r" of m ental life, and instead provides an all p ervasive fram ew ork that actively contributes to our thoughts and perceptions. M anis fu rth er sees the Whorfian hypothesis to m ean that language would be a determ inant of cognitive behavior. Another contribution to the relationship between cognition and language is to be found in a re p o rt by M eyers (1948). After com plet ing a study to m e asu re the capacity of dysphasic patients in a m u lti ple-choice situation to solve relativ ely complex problem s of a sort not previously encountered in the p atien t's experience and which called for the ex ercise of d iscrim ination, abstraction, and g e n e ra l ization, M eyers concluded that, The p re s e n t data, if conceded to be valid at all, appear to w arran t the observation that in som e instances both dyspha sic and non-dysphasic subjects reac h solutions co rre sp o n d ing to which they a re incapable of verbalizing a formula, and that for the p ro b lem s here em ployed (in which a consid erable degree of discrim ination, abstraction, and g en era l ization and implicit behavior is requisite) no appreciable disadvantage s e e m s to a c c ru e fro m the pathologic circ u m stance of dysphasia as such. 33 M eyers briefly reflects the behaviorist's view of cognition as e s s e n tially sub-vocal and the m entalistic view as essen tially non-linguistic. However, before a well-defined position can be taken, M eyers ex pects the following questions will have to be an sw ered first: 1) Is there substantial evidence that such verbal o r other language fo rm u lations actually exist whenever a consistent method of solving p ro b lem s of a relatively complicated c h a ra c te r has been reached? Z) If so, a re these the only m eans by which such solutions can be reached for p roblem s of a sim ilar o r higher o rd er of complexity, o r are such form ulations unessential to arriving at the solution, and hence of the nature of m e re verbalizations, em ployed by the subject when obliged (as he often is) to com municate the m anner of solving the p ro b lem to a listener? 3) Do p e rso n s with d iso rd e rs of language m ech an ism s- cen tral or p erip h e ra l, verbal, w ritten, m im etic or g e s tu ra l-re g u - larly exhibit defects in thinking when tested in p ro b lem situations of a relatively n o n -v erb al character; and, if so, can it be defensibly a s serted (even in som e cases) that th e ir thinking defects are indeed sub tended by the d is o rd e r of language p e r se? It is assu m ed that language is a tool by which to facilitate cogni tive functioning. It is further assu m ed that language is a mode of I , , • ** ■ * cognitive functioning which employs a specific symbolic system (let te rs and num bers) to rep resen t it. It is felt that th e re is at least one other mode of cognitive functioning, namely, space which also 34 em ploys a specific symbolic sy stem (figures, persp ectiv e, and m o tion) to re p re s e n t it. Spatial ability A recent com prehensive review of spatial abilities is Smith's Spatial Ability: Its Educational and Social Significance (1964). In it, Smith re c o rd s the general histo ry and development of spatial abili ties. World W ar I generated an im p ressiv e increase in the develop m ent of all kinds of human abilities. The great m ajo rity of intelli gence te sts produced at that tim e w ere clearly verbal in alm ost all resp e c ts. The logic w as that since scholastic success (the hallm ark of intellectual behavior) depended upon verbal facility, then quite r e a sonably, intelligence testing should include predom inantly verbal m a terial. Most psychologists w ere very m uch aw are that illiterate in dividuals w ere obviously biased against, but the logic p e rsisted and dichotomous resu lts w ere obtained. It w as not until the work of Stephenson (1931a, 1931b, and 1931c) that a clear difference between verbal and general ability was esta b lished and consequently there followed intensive r e s e a rc h on differen tiating other possible ability factors. In 1927, S p earm a n 's contribution on m a n 's abilities clearly sup ported the existence of a verbal factor as distinct from a general ability factor but he argued m o s t convincingly that perform ance tests 35 were really nothing m o re than ra th e r unreliable m e a su re s of n o n - v e r bal intelligence, the specification of which was poorly defined. Only gradually was it realized that some of the tests m e a su re a very im portant factor which is sep arate from £. Alexander (1935) in vestigated the problem and was probably the firs t to obtain clean e x p erim ental evidence that p erfo rm an ce te s ts do m e asu re a factor over and above j*. Alexander used T h u rsto n e 's Centroid Method to show the existence of a perform ance te s t factor separate from j*. This fac tor he labelled F an d described a s "concrete" o r p ractical intelli gence. Smith suggests that the te rm s , "concrete" and " a b s tr a c t," to distinguish between spatial and v erb al abilities, w ere ill-chosen b e cause This terminology, which had been used by M cFarlane in her 1925 study, tended to suggest that pupils with exceptional s p a tial ability w ere le ss likely to be capable of a b stra c t thought than verbally gifted children. Such an assum ption, which a p p e a rs to be quite unfounded, may have been responsible for much of the ta rd in ess with which spatial te sts have been con sidered for use in selection p ro c e d u re s by Local Education Authorities. The use of p erform ance te s ts also introduced the factor of m e chanical ability. Mechanical ability w as not considered an intellectu al component, and hence its asso ciatio n and correlation with spatial abilities and p erfo rm an ce tests tended to d iscred it the study of the latter as possible cognitive factors. The studies of m echanical a b il ity, spatial ability, and p erfo rm an ce te sts posited the question of 36 whether the tests involved a special factor, separate from £, but s im ila r to the verbal factor. Smith points out The existence of such a factor w as long denied by Spearman, who claim ed (1950) that the spatial type of te st was originally devised by him for the v ery purp o se of m easu rin g jg. How ever, it seem s to be generally conceded that the factor does exist and num erous A m erican psychologists claim to have found several distinct spatial factors. R e se a rc h on the spatial factor is closely bound up with the m e chanical factor m and the p ractical factor F. Kelley (1928) dealt with the problem and obtained resu lts to show that the spatial factor could be separated into two parts: eta , an ability involving the sensing and retention of geom etric form s (recognition and reca ll of form ) and th e ta, a facility with the m ental manipulation of spatial relationships. E arle, M ilner et al. (1929) and E arle and M acrae (1929) concluded fro m s im ila r experim ents that . . .th e special abilities entering into the perform ance te sts under consideration appeared to be unrelated except in the case of those in which spatial elem en ts enter. . . . These are related by a ra th e r sm all group factor for spatial perception, as well as by the general factor jg. El Koussy (1935) produced probably the m ost significant re s e a r c h to that date on spatial ability. By modifying S p earm an 's T e tra d -d if feren ce Technique, he partialled out the influence of g from the c o r r e lation table by m eans of the sco res in the reference te sts for jg. El Koussy concluded. There is no evidence for a group factor running through the whole field of spatial perception. . . . Spatial te sts a re p r i m a r ily te s ts of jg. But some spatial te s ts involve a group factor 37 over and above their £ - content. This group factor, called the k -facto r, receives a ready psychological explanation in te rm s of visual im agery. Some felt the te rm 1 c originated from the "kurtosis" resulting in his raw data, but Burt (1949) indicated that it stands for the "kinesthetic" im agery required for su ccess in spatial tests. Clarke (1936) wrote a doctoral d issertatio n in an attem pt to find the k factor among girls, with the unstated im plication that a sex dif ference w as operating. Using the T hurstone and Spearm an m ethods of factor analysis, she concluded that the spatial factor found was not k, could not be readily identified, and was inversely related to the clearly defined verbal factor. Smith suggests that in all probability the spatial factor was indeed El K o ssy 's k factor. In 1938, Thurstone (no reference by Smith) published the resu lts of an extensive factor analysis of som e sixty te sts. T hirteen of the te st v aria b les loaded on S, which w as identified as a v isu al-sp atial factor. In essence, this w as something of a combination of k and theta. F u rth e r studies dealt with the p ro b lem with the resu lts g e n e r ally tending to repeat, but not always to support, them selves. F o r exam ple, S la te r's 1940 study concluded that judgm ent of spatial p h e nomena is dependent upon m ental p r o c e s s e s which a re m o re simple than just the manipulation of imagination o r recognition and which in volve both. Essentially, Slater suggests that the m ability is probably a combination or sum m ation of £ and k, but that spatial ability is an 38 independent factor. M oreover, Smith states, A m eric an psychologists claim to have shown that te sts involv ing only manipulation (such as T h urstone1 s C ards, F ig u res or Lozenges) m e a su re a different factor, Spatial Orientation, from those te sts involving recognition which m e a su re the factor, Spatial Visualization, corresponding to the k-factor. Very often both p ro c e s s e s a r e involved in the sam e test. A significant contribution of S later's work was his admonition that non-verbal tests a r e not n e c e ssa rily spatial tests. This is a critical point to be made because spatial abilities a re generally conceded to be specific factors, how ever poorly defined, isolated, o r "real"; and not simply "non-verbal. " It is not enough to suggest that something is not; but m u s t be delim ited to what it is. F ro m E l K oussy1 s 1935 study to 1947, m ost of the re s e a rc h fur th e r defined and explored the known factors. It was not until G uil ford's w ork that extensive p ro g re s s was m ade in isolating spatial abilities and defining their relationships to other variables. Smith s u m m a riz e s G uilford's initial work and includes a com parison with T h urstone's (1950) work. Several spatial factors w ere isolated in the factorial studies c a rrie d out by Guilford and Lacey (1947) as p a r t of the A m e r ican aviation psychology p ro g ra m m e in the Second World War. It was claim ed that th e re w ere th ree spatial relations factors (SI, S2, and S3), a visualization factor (V z), a length estim ation factor, and a p erceptual speed factor P. The firs t spatial factor Sil was found in psychom otor te sts of reaction time and com plex coordination, in instrum ent and dial reading and in certain p ap er-an d -p e n cil te sts. The second spatial factor S2 was involved in T h urstone's Hands and F lags Test. The V isualization factor V_z appeared in m echanical c o m p re hension tests, in a p ap er folding test, in a te st of surface 39 development and in a te st involving the description of painted blocks of cubes. In later a rtic le s, Guilford (1948a, 1948b) identifies the V isuali zation factor with El K oussy's k and re la te s his f ir s t spatial factor SI to the appreciation of spatial directions fro m the body, i. e. an ability to 'm ake discrim inations as to the direction of motion such as up and down, left and right and in and out. ' T hurstone (1950) listed seven factors, th re e of these having to do with visual orientation in space, which he labelled SI, S2, and S3. SI was interpreted as 'the ability to recognize the identity of an object when it is seen from different angles, 1 or as 'the ability to visualize a rigid configuration when it is moved into different positions, ' as in the F lag s Test. S2 was interpreted as representing 'the ability to imagine the m o v e ment o r internal displacem ent among the p a rts of a configura tion. ' This second factor S2 was involved in te sts of m ech an i cal m ovem ent and surface development. The third spatial fac tor S3 was said to re p re se n t 'the ability to think about those spatial relations in which the body orientation of the o b se rv e r is an essen tial p a rt of the problem . ' Thurstone su rm ise d that kinesthetic im a g e ry m ight somehow be involved in his third spatial factor. B orko's (1949) m a s t e r 's thesis was based on the assum ption that p e r form ance on a te st of spatial abilities (G u ilfo rd -Z im m erm an Aptitude Survey, Guilford and Z im m erm an, 1948) is contam inated by v erbal instructions. By building another set of instructions with reduced verbal inform ation and modifying the context of se v e ra l of the te s t item s to in c re ase the use of visualization, Borko significantly in c re a se d the loading on visualization in the subsequent factor analysis. Also in 1949, Z im m e rm a n 's own doctoral d iss e rta tio n asked five questions, one of which was, "How many spatial-visualization factors a r e there? " His conclusion was, " T h e re is am ple evidence of two 40 spatial visualization factors, spatial relations, and visualization, but authentication for two additional space factors (reported by A rm y Air Force psychologists) is lacking. " Unfortunately, although Z im m e rm a n was able to substantiate the existence of two kinds of spatial ability, he was unable to define them cleanly, contrary to the admonitions of Slater. This p roblem of the inability to define what spatial ability is, rath er than what it is not, is the basis for much of the confusion and uncertainty. Z im m e rm an described his "substantiated" facto rs of spatial relations and visu al ization as follows: It is generally agreed that the factor (spatial relations) is a spatial one, but beyond that point there a re divergences of opin ion. Two hypotheses which have been proposed deserve consid eration here. According to one it is an ability to make d is c r i m inations as to direction of motion. The te rm 'discrim ination' here does not c a rry the usual connotations of perceiving sm all differences, for obviously the spatial distinctions called for in the te sts are very gross. The decisions a re frequently m e re ly between up and down, left and right and in and out. Another hypothesis is that the ability is concerned with the general apprehension of spatial relations. E ither stim uli or responses or both in the spatial te sts are a rra n g e d in spatial p atterns, and there is frequently a system atic relationship b e tween o rd e r in the stim ulus and o rd e r in the response. In such a test, therefore, the essence of the spatial factor could be (1) ability to perceive visu al-sp atial arra n g e m e n ts, (2) abil ity to organize m ovem ents in spatially-determ ined order, o r (3) ability to relate specific spatial locus or a rra n g e m e n t w ith in the stim ulus p attern with specific locus o r arra n g e m e n t within the response pattern. The second and third c h a r a c te r istics would apply to the psychom otor tests but not to all printed tests. The first of these three m ust, therefore, be the m ost significant. 41 F ro m the many studies reported in the lite ra tu re there is m ore than am ple evidence for the existence of at least one spatial- visualization factor. The interpretations of the factor a r e not entirely consistent, however. Where one investigator has d e scribed a space factor as representing an ability to appreciate spatial relationships, another has described a s im ila r factor as rep resen tativ e of a facility with spatial im agery. C o r r e spondingly, eith er description might be connected with the la bel visualization. Recent investigators have dem onstrated that the a r e a m ay be sub-divided into as many as three separate factors, thus bringing into relief the question of why T h u rsto n e's original P r im a r y Mental Abilities analysis revealed only one spatial- visualization factor. In Sutton's 1950 m a s t e r 's thesis, an attem pt was m ade to clarify some of the definition p ro b lem s encountered by Z im m e rm an . Sutton was successful in factoring out visualization and defined it as the m ental manipulation of visual im ages. However, she was unsuccessful at factoring out space relations and was unable to p ro ffer a clear defini tion. In 1952, an APA Conference held a sym posium on spatial abili ties. The contributions w ere later reproduced in Educational and P s y chological M easu rem en t (1954). F ru c h te r (1954) outlined the back ground and h isto ry of the p ro b lem s encountered in m e a su rin g spatial abilities. Z im m e rm a n (1954a and 1954b) outlined s e v e ra l hypotheses concerning the nature of spatial factors. Michael (1954) outlined a p o tential p ro g ra m of re s e a rc h to identify the psychological p ro c e s s e s associated with spatial visualization factors. Smith su m m a riz e d the sym posium by concluding, "T he consensus of opinion e x p re s s e d at the 42 \ Y > shington s y m p o s i u m on s p a tia l a b ilitie s s e e m e d to be th at s p a t i a l a b ility is c o m p le x a n d still not w e ll- u n d e r s to o d . " The last m ajor study of spatial abilities was conducted in 1957 by Michael, Guilford, F ru c h te r, and Z im m erm an. The study com pared the results of sev eral factorial investigations, and sought to d escrib e the sim ilarities and differences in the psychological p ro c e s s e s u n d er lying the previously and reasonably w ell-established factors. Their conclusions were that three m a jo r factors exist S R -O , spatial r e la tions and orientation; Vz, visualization; and K, kinesthetic im ag ery (not to be confused with El K oussy's k despite B u rt's contention that k re p resen ts the sam e thing). The definitions of these factors a r e as follows SR-O This factor was thought to enter into the ability to com prehend the n atu re of the arrangem ent of elem ents within a visual stim ulus p attern, p rim a rily with respect to the e x am in ee 's body as the fram e of reference. In a typical test of this factor, as the entire configuration, or a principal component of it, is m oved in to a different position, the objects within the pattern hold e s s e n tially the sam e relationships to one another. Vz T ests of this factor w ere believed to req u ire m ental manipulation of visual objects involving a specified sequence of m ovem ents. The objects appear within a m o re o r less complex stim ulus pattern. The individual finds it n e c e ss a ry m entally to 43 rotate, turn, twist o r invert one or m o re objects, o r parts of a configuration, according to relatively explicit directions as to what the nature and o rd e r of the manipulation should be. The ex am inee is required to recognize the new position, location, or changed appearance of objects that have been moved or modified, within a m ore or le s s complex configuration In some instances he is required to p re s e n t a reco rd of his solution by drawing a p p ro p riate responses (as in the tests of Punched Holes and F o rm - Board). K This highly tentative factor was thought to rep resen t m e re ly a left-right discrim ination with resp ect to location of the human body F or exam ple, in T hurstone's Bolts test, the e x a m inee has to determ in e in which of two directions the bolt has to be turned if it is to be screw ed into a block of wood. Unfortunately, th e re a re no m odels of spatial ability which evalu ate it as a mode of cognition or cognitive functioning. Hence, it is very difficult to com pare it on the sam e basis as linguistic abilities But this is m o re a resu lt of the lack of m odels and m easuring devices ra th e r than the inherent p ro b le m s of the mode itself. F o r example, it would be very difficult to provide o r develop spatial equivalents to cu rren t verbal and linguistic sy stem s, p articu la rly as used in the schools. There a re s ev eral reaso n s for this. F irs t, spatial ability has historically been construed as "non-educational. " Vernon's 44 hierarchy of abilities used paired descriptions of verbal-educational for v:ed and spatial-practical for j<-m. In many re sp e c ts this is to be expected since school cu rric u la up to the development of the A m e r i can land-grant colleges have been alm o st exclusively linguistic and virtually non-spatial in content (B rubacher and Ruby, 1968). Second, the study of spatial abilities in education and child development has concentrated on low ability or non-verbal or m entally defective chil dren with no im m ediate generalizations to n o rm a l child development (Koppitz, 1964). Third, alm o st all the work on spatial abilities was done p rio r to the 1960's (particularly during the tim e surrounding both world w ars and the depression) with an em phasis on vocational and industrial development. Little attention was given to its ed u ca tional a n d /o r cognitive development and application. With the onset of com m unication development, p a rtic u la rly with com puter designed applications, there has been an explosion of re s e a rc h , development, and application of linguistic development. C a rro l (Schiefelbusch, Copeland, and Smith, 1967) d isc u sse s the language code as being com prised of identifiable and distinct aspects. Let us return now to the consideration of the nature of a lan guage code. It is convenient to think of a language code in four distinct aspects: (a) its phonology--the specification of the units of sound (phonemes) which go to com pose words and other fo rm s in the language; (b) its m orphology--the listing of the w ords and other basic meaningful fo rm s (m orphem es) of the language and the specification of the ways in which these fo rm s may be modified when placed in varying contexts; (c) its syntax--the specification of the p attern s in which 45 linguistic form s m a y be a rran g ed and of the ways in which these p attern s may be modified or tra n sfo rm e d in varying contexts, and (d) its se m a n tic s--th e specification of the meaning of lin guistic form s and syntactical p attern s in relation to objects, events, p ro c e s s e s , attributes, and relationships in human ex- pe rience. Schiefelbusch, Copeland, and Smith (1967) point out many of the theo retical positions taken by sev eral investigators. M cCarthy (1964) d is cusses the literature pertaining to linguistic abilities under three headings: "receptive language," "in n er language," and "ex p ressiv e language. " Receptive language (input o r decoding) and expressive language (output or encoding) re p re s e n t listening and speaking behav ior. "Inner language," however, is less apparent and m ore difficult to evaluate. Inner language ability re fe rs to the facility with which linguis tic symbols are m anipulated internally. It has been c h a r a c te r ized as 'thinking w ords' and is analogous to Osgood's 'a s s o c ia tion' (1957a, 1957b). The concept of inner language ability a p p e a r s to be an outgrowth of P ia g e t's (1926) egocentric speech; a so rt of internalized monologue. O sgood's association concept, of course, provides the theoretical b a sis for the auditory-vocal association and the v isu al-m o to r a s s o c ia tion subtest built into the ITPA. M cC arthy's referen ce to P ia g e t's 1926 w ork is less specific and is m ore accurately reflected in F la v e ll's (1966) account: During the p reo p eratio n al subperiod the child is tra n sfo rm e d from an o rganism whose m o st intelligent functions a re sensory- m otor, overt acts to one whose upper lim it cognitions are inner symbolic manipulation of reality. P ia g e t's argum ent is that im itation is a function which supplies the in fant with his first signifiers, signifiers capable of rep resen tin g for him the absent significate. What happens, he believes, is that with the growth and refinem ent of the ability to imitate, the child is even tually able to make "internal" im itations as well as externally visible ones. He is able to invoke in thought im itations m ade in the past. Vygotsky (1962) believed that egocentric speech is the p re c u r s o r of " in n e r speech." He believed that egocentric speech is social in c h a r a c te r and that, as the child gains sufficient p ractice and experience, it is gradually transform ed into a private (inner) language. He fur th e r believed that, when egocentric speech becom es inner speech, significant changes occur. M ost im portantly, speech no longer is tied to a concrete situation o r to a social context. L-uria (1958) r e p o rts another study in which the e x p e rim e n te rs covered candy with red and green covers and conditioned a sim ple discrim ination r e sponse in children. The d iscrim ination was difficult to establish and easy to extinguish (subjects had to re le a rn it each day). Then the colors were nam ed fo r the subjects with the results th a t the d is c r im ination was learned two and a half to three tim e s m o re quickly and the response did not disappear a f te r intervals up to seven days. R eg ard less of the trem endous am ount of r e s e a r c h taking place in linguistic development, it is still v ery difficult to provide or develop spatial equivalents to current verbal and linguistic sy stem s, 47 p artic u la rly as used in the schools. However, th e re has been little or no attem pt to view the two (spatial and linguistic abilities) as concom itant modes of cognition, each with its own symbolic system . C e re b ra l functioning It is difficult to discuss language and spatial developm ent without reflecting on som e of the re s e a r c h which p ertain s to these v aria b les and c e re b ra l functioning. Without getting into the com plexities of physiology and anatomy, and attempting to review r e s e a rc h relevant to the original problem , the work of Reitan and associative studies shed considerable light on the problem . R eitan's initial publications w ere on the relationship between b rain dam age and R orschach te st scores. Eventually, he turned his re s e a rc h efforts to the relationships among aphasia, brain dam age, and perfo rm a n ce on a num ber of scales. In 1954, Reitan studied R orschach test s co res and aphasia. He suggested that v erb al fluency alone m ay be of inappropriately g reat significance in determ ining the obtained results. His resu lts indicated that v erb al expression does not differentiate between aphasic and non-aphasic R orschach test s co res and fu rth er suggested that the R orschach can reflect a "form " of intelligence which is not dependent on verbal ex p ressiv e ability. In a I960 re p o rt of aphasic MMPI p rofiles (Doehring and Reitan), the resu lts indicated that aphasic and non-aphasic brain-dam aged patients do not differ from non-brain-dam aged patients with neurotic symptomatology. Reitan did considerable r e s e a rc h on the T rail Making Test r e ported in A rm itage (1946). In his 195 5b study, Reitan found that the T rail Making T est is a short, inexpensive, and easily adm inistered te s t to differentiate between patients with known brain damage and non-brain-dam aged patients. Because of the sm all num ber of his sam ples (27 in each group) and because th e re a re so many kinds of known brain dam age, Reitan replicated and validated this study in 1958b using 200 brain-dam aged patients and 84 non-brain-dam aged subjects. No attem pt was made to control for lateralization or local ization of damage. The results w ere v ery significant. Reitan hy pothesized that left hem ispheric dam age would result in poorer p e r form ance on P a r t B relative to p e rfo rm a n c e on P a r t A of the T rail Making Test than right h em isp h eric damage. There was no control for handedness. The resu lts w ere significant and positive. The con clusion w as draw n that the Trail Making Test can distinguish between left and right hem isp h eric damage (apparently without controlling for localization). Reitan (1959b) then turned to the relationship between the T rail Making Test and the W echsler-B ellevue Scale. Using 50 Ss in each group of brain-dam aged and non-brain-dam aged patients (42 m en and 8 women in each), he completed P e a r s o n product-m om ent coefficients 49 of co rrelatio n on P a r ts A and B of the T rail Making T est (scored for num ber of seconds to completion), on the three IQs, and on the weighted subtest sco res of the W-B. Only 4 of the 56 coefficients failed significance at the . 05 level and Reitan concluded that the W-B te sts could be an excellent diagnostic te st of b rain dam age when used in conjunction with the T rail Making Test. One wonders about his control for sex, especially with the known sex differentiations on p e r form ances with spatial and verbal tasks. Because of his success with the ability of the Trail Making Test to differentiate lateralized c e re b ra l lesions, Fitzhugh, Fitzhugh, and Reitan (1963) collaborated to study the effect of onset of c e re b ra l le sion on the Trail Making Test and the W-B while still controlling for lateralization. "C urrent" lesions were those recently developed and reported at the Indiana University Medical C enter Neuropsychology Laboratory. "Chronic" lesions w ere those found in p a tie n ts at the New Castle State Hospital. Groups w ere ra th e r sm all (26 or le ss ) for left, right, and diffuse " c u r r e n t." The resu lts indicated significance between "chronic" and "current" on the T rail Making Test, but c o r r e lations between W-B and TMT sco res w ere insignificant. The sugges tion is m ade that the institutionalized patients undoubtedly p e rfo rm m uch differently on any kind of W echsler test, and hence the d iffe r ence in correlation (based on level of im pairm ent) would tend to be not significant. 50 Reitan becam e in terested in H alstead's attem pts to develop tests to differentiate brain-dam aged subjects. In a study reported in 1959a, Reitan exam ined b rain -d am ag ed p erfo rm a n ce on the H alstead Im p air m en t Index and the W-B. Two groups of 50 Ss each, one b ra in -d a m aged, the o th e r non-brain-dam aged, w ere com pared. The resu lts of the Im pairm ent Index w ere significant except three; the resu lts of the W -B were significant with b rain -d a m ag ed Ss perform ing less well than the non-b rain -d am ag ed Ss. (P erso n al com munication fro m Dr. Reitan indicates that the Im pairm ent Index is a clinical tool the con tents of which frequently change depending upon the needs and o b s e r vations of the patient. M oreover, the evanescent quality of the Index has changed significantly over the y e a rs as m o re variance is e x plained by m o r e sophisticated and valid instrum ents. ) Interestingly enough, the P e rfo rm a n c e IQ was not significantly m o re sensitive to b rain -d a m ag ed subjects as is frequently reported elsew here. Reitan concluded that the H alstead Im pairm ent Index is considerably m o re useful than the W-B in evaluating psychological effects of b ra in -d a m aged patients. Doehring and Reitan (1961) and Doehring, Reitan, and Klove (1961) studied homonymous visual field defects on W-B tasks, the TMT, and p a r t of the Im pairm ent Index. F o u r groups w ere c o m pared: right homonymous field defects, left homonymous field d e fects, brain dam age without visual field defects, and a control group with no known defects. The resu lts consistently and significantly showed the control group to be su p erio r to all, the brain dam age with out visual field defects to be inferior to all, the left homonyous field defects to be inferior to the right homonymous field defects on the TMT, the Im pairm ent Index, and the P e rfo rm a n c e IQ of the W-B. The right homonymous visual field defects w ere inferior to the left homonymous visual field defects on the V erbal IQ of the W-B. These results once again strongly suggest an association between spatial ability and the right c e re b ra l hem isphere and between v erb al ability and the left c e re b ra l hem isphere. Since spatial ability s e e m s to be closely associated with the visual channel of perception and since v e r bal ability seem s to be closely associated with the auditory channel of perception, it would seem logical to clarify the relationships among verbal and spatial ability, left and right c e re b ra l h em isp h eres, and auditory and visual channels of perception. Another study by Doehring and Reitan (1962) looked at lateralized c e re b ra l lesions and concept attainm ent on the H alstead Category T est (Halstead, 1947). Three groups of fifty each with left hem isphe ric lesions, right hem ispheric lesions, and n o n -b rain -d am ag ed con tro l subjects w ere com pared. In addition, the W -B was adm inistered. Results showed W-B P e rfo rm a n c e scores for right hem isp h eric le sions to be lower, Verbal scores for left h em isp h eric lesions to be lower, and even, equal and higher, sco res for n on-brain damaged. 52 However, although the n o n-brain-dam aged scored higher on the H al stead concept attainm ent tasks, there was no significant difference between left and right h em isp h eric lesions. This suggests a num ber of possibilities: concepts occur in both hem isp h eres; spatial and v e r bal concepts a re equivocal; the c e re b ra l functioning with abstractions is non- o r tra n s -h e m is p h e ric ; etc. W heeler and R eitan's (1962) study was a ra th e r com prehensive attem pt to clarify the relationship between laterality and brain d a m age based on assum ptions concerning aphasia. Using a modification of the H alstead-W epm an A phasia Screening T est (Halstead and Wep- man, 1949), four criterio n groups (47 Ss with left h em isp h eric d a m age, 57 Ss with right h em isp h eric damage, 54 Ss with diffuse or b i la teral h em isp h eric dam age, and 104 Ss with no evidence of c e re b ra l dam age w ere com pared on the following hypotheses: 1) The frequency of positive signs generated by S in response to the aphasia te s t is a valid p re d ic to r of p re s e n c e or absence of b rain dam age. 2) When the te st variables a r e divided into left c e re b ra l dam age indicators, and right c e re b ra l dam age indicators, a preponderance of positive signs in a given set is a valid p re d ic to r of laterality of c e re b ra l dam age. 3) Equal n u m b e rs of positive signs in both left and right sets of indica to rs a re a valid p re d ic to r of diffuse or b ilateral c e re b ra l dam age. B ecause the norm ing of the H alstead-W epm an A phasia Screening T est did not control for handedness, neither was handedness controlled for 53 in this study. The resu lts w ere significant and positive, but consid ered very tentative and p erhaps even non-generalizable. The resu lts seemed to point out the significance of controlling for kind of brain damage ra th e r than locale for m ore meaningful interpretations. N evertheless, the general feelings w ere that language related tasks are associated with p o o re r levels of p e rfo rm a n c e and that n on-lan guage related task s a r e associated with poorer levels of perfo rm a n ce and right h em isp h eric damage. In 1966, Davis and Reitan hypothesized that, since p a rts of the H alstead-W epm an Aphasia Screening T est differentiated b ra in -d a m aged subjects who w ere low on W-B P e rfo rm a n c e IQ and who had known right h em isp h eric damage, those p arts m ight be successful at differentiating re ta rd ates. The logic seem s difficult to support since th e re was no suggested o r a ssu m ed relationship between in ability and disability. As expected, W -B P e rfo rm a n c e IQ and d raw ing a G reek C ro ss w ere highly c o rrelated for 100 m entally reta rd ed Ss. Among the many v ariab les contributing to the uncertainty of the relationships with c e re b ra l functioning is the concept of quantity v e r sus quality. A re the differences observed m o re or less differing amounts of the same kind of c e re b ra l functioning; o r a re they re fle c tions of actual qualitative differences, the m e a su re m e n t of which is inadequate o r insensitive? Reitan attem pted to clarify this issue and 54 began with his 1956 study by suggesting different kinds of intelligence could be m e a su re d as Halstead (1947) had observed and labelled them. P sy ch o m etric intelligence consisted of "organizational ability, " "judgm ent," " a b s tra c t thinking," and "adequacy of adaptability to new situations." Clinical intelligence consisted of " m e m o r y ," "the ability to form as so c ia tio n s ," and "ab stract" rath er than "concrete" behav ior. Neurological intelligence is associated with the effects of e x p er im ental o r clinical b rain lesions. H alstead p ro p o ses what he calls biological intelligence. In biological intelligence I am trying to d ire c t attention to the 'w isdom of a healthy nervous system . ' It is m y belief that psy chom etric intelligence, a s reflected by the IQ does not a d e quately indicate this 'wisdom. . . . ' Biological intelligence, we believe, with high adaptability is the norm al outcome of the functioning of a healthy nervous system . Reitan im m ediately asked the question, "W hat about apparent ability differences in various individuals all of whom have healthy nervous system s? " R eitan's study w as designed to determ ine the ex tent to which psychom etric and biological intelligence m ay overlap or stand as sep arate entities. Fifty patients with and without b ra in d am age w ere ad m in iste re d the Halstead Im pairm ent Index and the W-B. The resulting differences between P e a r s o n pro d u ct-m o m en t coeffi cients of co rrelatio n w ere com pared. The re su lts indicated that Hal stead's biological intelligence is sim ilarly m e a su re d by W echsler's p sychom etric intelligence. Hence, Reitan concludes that c e re b ra l 55 functioning is generally quantitative rath er than qualitative. In 1958a and 1959d, Reitan published two a rtic le s which specifi cally dealt with the pro b lem of quality v ersu s quantity. In the firs t study which alm ost replicates the 1956 study, the association of brain dam age to quality v e rsu s quantity was examined; in the second, the association of im p airm en t of a b stra c t reasoning to quality v e rsu s quantity was exam ined. "Provided brain dam age im poses a change in kind of m ental functioning upon the individual, one m ight argue that the quantitative differences previously found re p re s e n t qualita tive differences in the groups. " T herefore, ". . . it seem ed re a s o n able to assu m e that if different kinds of abilities w ere used by the b rain-dam aged subjects, the. interrelationships o r correlations b e tween various tests would differ from the in terrelationships between te sts shown by the group without brain dam age. " In both studies the resu lts indicated that the interrelationships between the various te sts w ere sim ila r for the b rain -d am ag ed and the n o n-brain-dam aged groups. Hence, Reitan concludes that the obtained differences w ere quantitative rath e r than qualitative. In another study rep o rted in 1959c, Reitan studied quantity v e r sus quality aspects of brain-dam aged subjects by analyzing p e r f o r m ance sco res on the Seguin-Goddard form board. The resu lts f u r th e r supported the quantitative viewpoint and contradicted the p o s i tion that im pairm ent of adaptive p erform ance asso ciated with b rain 56 dam age cannot be rem edied by ex erc ise a n d /o r that deficits a r e not able to be m e a su re d with quantitative methods. R eitan's work with brain damage and retardation was alluded to e a rlie r, but there w ere se v e ra l contributions in addition which proved interesting. In a 1962 study, Matthews and Reitan studied psychom otor abilities (and inadvertently, psychom otor learning) b e tween b rain -d a m ag ed patients at the Indiana University Medical Cen te r and institutionalized re ta rd a te s at the F o r t Wayne State School on the Seguin-Goddard form board. The resu lts showed that on both the dominant and non-dom inant hand tria ls , the brain-dam aged p e rfo rm e d faster, but when both hands w ere used, the retard ed p e rfo rm e d faster. The im plication is that learning experiences a re cumulative for reta rd ed and confusing o r interfering for brain-dam aged. The sam e authors followed the next y ear (Matthews and Reitan, 1963) with a study on levels of abstraction ability and reta rd ed p e r form ances on the H alstead C ategory Test. The resu lts showed that good abstraction ability allows better p erform ance on p ro b lem solv ing activities re g a rd le s s of experience, and that experience allows b etter p erfo rm an ce on experiential p ro b le m s re g a rd le ss of a b s tr a c tion ability. No inferences w ere m ade relative to brain-dam aged subjects. Davis, Hamlett, and Reitan (1966) did an intensive review of the previous study by using good and poor perform ance on the Category 57 Test, Tactual P e rfo rm a n c e Test, Block Design, Wide Range A chieve m ent Test, Vocabulary, and Information. The te sts w ere then o r dered in a h ie ra rch y from p ro b lem solving ability to experiential background. Good and poor p e rfo rm a n c e s could then be divided into ability at a b stra c t pro b lem solving and functional com petence based on experience. The study is interesting, but since m o st of the te sts have a known high in terc o rre la tio n with verbal ability, the usefulness a n d /o r interpretation was som ew hat dubious. Davis and Reitan (1967) published an article which classified the m ajo rity of independent c r ite r ia of cere b ra l dam age in a study of r e ta rd a tes. The first c la ss consists of neurological and diagnostic in formation. The second class consists of selected diagnostic aids such as the EEG, physical neurological examination, and results of contrast pro ced u res. The th ird class consists of perceptual or b e havioral indices of c e re b ra l dysfunction such a s homonymous visual field defects, dysphasic sym ptom s, constructional dyspraxia, h e m i plegia, and h em ip aresis. The study attempted to investigate the r e lationship of W echsler V erbal and P erfo rm an c e IQs of re ta rd a te s to behavioral c rite ria found to be related to left and right c e re b ra l h em ispheres. Eighty re ta rd e d subjects w ere divided into four groups according to degree of intensity of combinations of dyspraxia and d y s phasia. The resu lts w ere significant with g re a te r dyspraxic im p a ir m ent m anifesting lower P e rfo rm a n c e IQ and g r e a te r dysphasic i m 58 p airm en t manifesting lower V erbal IQ; however, it is pointed out that generalization is severely limited. The final point to be reviewed in discussing cognitive abilities and c e re b ra l functioning is the m a tte r of intellectual manifestation. M cFie and P ie rc y (1952) w rote an excellent sum m ary of the r e search to date on intellectual im p a irm e n t and localized ce re b ra l le sions. Their review included many relevant points some of which w ere incorporated in th e ir study which was reported in the sam e a r t i cle. Ten years later, Reitan (1962) published a thorough review of psychological deficit. Of p a rtic u la r im portance was his section on lateralized and localized brain lesions. Concerning the W echsler Intelligence Scales, num erous studies frequently and consistently support the general finding that the Verbal IQ is significantly associated with left hem isp h eric c ere b ra l function ing and that the P e rfo rm a n c e IQ is significantly associated with the right hem isp h eric c e re b ra l functioning. The m a jo r studies a r e as follows: W-B and localization (Reitan, 1955a); EEG, W-B and Hal stead battery (Klove, 1959); H alstead-W epm an Aphasia Screening Test, localization, and dysphasia (Reitan, I960); WISC and lo caliza tion (Balthazar and M orrison, 1961); c e re b ra l acuteness, W-B, and Halstead N euro-psychological Indicators (Fitzhugh, Fitzhugh, and Reitan, 1962); W -B and lateralization (Matthews and Reitan, 1964); 59 and W-B and Halstead battery (Reed, Reitan, and Klove, 1965). One final note: disregarding the known im pairm ents, a re the ob served differences due to a deficiency or a proficiency? That a lower V erbal or P e rfo rm a n c e score is viewed consistently as a deficiency m ay be reasonable, but it is illogical to d is m iss the possibility that the concomitant c o rre la te m ay be a re a l proficiency. Hence, the d is crepancy m ay be a cognitive p re fe re n c e ra th e r than a cognitive im pairm ent. Cognitive style During the 1950's a trem endous am ount of r e s e a rc h was con ducted by Witkin on differentiations resulting from developed p e r c e p tual experiences. F ro m this work, Witkin, Dyk, F aterson, Gooden- ough, and Karp (1962) attem pted to integrate their observed resu lts into a logical theory. Their the o re tic al approach attem pted to ex plain differences in human psychological and behavioral stru c tu re s and functions. It included p erso n ality variables, sex variables, p a r ent-child variables, and, m o st pertinent, cognitive variables. The theory a s s u m e s that psychological c h a ra c te ristic s are d e veloped differentially according to the perceptual experiences e n countered by the individual. According to Witkin, ". . .differentiation re fe rs to the complexity of a s y ste m 's structure. A less differenti ated sy stem is in a relatively homogeneous stru ctu ra l state; a m o re differentiated system in a relatively heterogeneous state. " As in 60 m ost psychological phenomena, the stru ctu re s are open-ended, and an em phasis is thereby placed on the te rm , "relative. " To clarify Wit kin's concept of differentiation, he states, Specifically, the differentiation hypothesis proposes an a s s o ciation among the c h a ra c te ristic s of g re a te r or m o re limited differentiation, identified in the com parison of e arly and later functioning in each of sev eral psychological a r e a s 1 d e gree of articulation of experience of the world; degree of a r ticulation of experience of the self, reflected p a rtic u la rly in nature of the body concept and extent of development of a sense of separate identity; and extent of development of s p e cialized, structured controls and defenses, im plicit in this hypothesis is the view that g re a te r inner differentiation is a s sociated with g re a te r articulation of experience of the world. One of Witkin1 s lim itations in studying his concept of differentia tion is not that it is based on perception, but that the perception s a m pled occurs largely through kinesthetic a n d /o r visual channels. With that in mind, Witkin developed a P erceptual Index to evaluate a given subject's degree of field dependency. Field-dependency is the degree to which a figure is p erceived to be discrete or continuous with its field. "The person with a m o re field-independent way of perceiving tends to experience his surroundings analytically, with objects ex p erienced as d iscrete from their backgrounds. The p erso n with a m o re field-dependent way of perceiving tends to experience his s u r roundings in a relatively global fashion, passively conforming to the influence of the prevailing field or context. " The P e rc e p tu a l Index is the m ean of the separate indices derived from: rod and fram e test (RFT); tiltin g -ro o m --tiltin g -ch air tests (TRTC) which is com posed of 61 two parts, the body adjustm ent te st (BAT) and the room adjustm ent te st (RAT), and the embedded figures test (EFT). Since the RAT r e sults do not contribute any variance in the index, it is not included and hence the P erceptual Index is the m ean of RFT, BAT, and EFT. Witkin exam ined the p e rfo rm a n c e on the Perceptual Index with in tellectual activities and found se v e ra l interesting results. W oerner and Levine (1950) found a significant relationship between the P e r c e p tual Index and WISC scores of tw elve-year-old children which led to the hypothesis that field dependency is associated with intelligence. F u rth e r studies showed this to be untenable. However, the results did indicate higher correlations with WISC P erfo rm an c e s c o re s and lower correlations with WISC V erbal sco res with the suggestion of possible sex differences (10 y r boys, r with P = . 54**, r with V = . 37*; 12 yr boys, r with P = . 71**, r with V = . 60**; 12 y r girls, r with P = . 70**, r with V = . 06(NS). F acto r analysis was conducted on obtained data from P e rc e p tu a l Index and WISC scores. T hree WISC factors were found. F acto r I: V erbal Com prehension (Vocabulary, Information, and Comprehension), F acto r II; A ttention-Concentration (Digit Span, A rithm etic, and Coding), and F acto r III: Analytic Field Approach (Block Design, P i c ture Completion, and Object A ssem bly). Obviously, Witkin's te rm to d escribe F acto r III clearly indicates its high correlation with field - independence on the P ercep tu al Index. Witkin concludes that WISC 62 F a c to r III is an excellent intellectual index to p arallel his P e rcep tu al Index and that it ". . . lends strong support to the hypothesis that there is a general cognitive style which runs through perceptual and intel lectual functioning. " In a fu rth e r experim ent, Witkin showed resu lts which m anifest high co rrelatio n s between WISC F a c to r III and field- independence and between WISC F a c to r l a n d field-dependence. F u rth e r studies found strong c o rrelatio n s between field-indepen dence and T hurstone's flexibility of closure, G uilford's adaptive flexi bility, P hillip's spatial decontextualization, and Duncker's functional fixedness, all of which involve the ability to overcom e an embedding context. Witkin concludes by calling for fu rth e r re s e a rc h at codifying the various cognitive styles. A final observation should be m ade about field-dependency. As p reviously mentioned, field-dependence is strongly asso ciated with V erbal Com prehension (F acto r I). It is well known that WISC Infor m ation, Com prehension, and Vocabulary s c o re s a re highly c o rre la te d with linguistic facility and a c a d em ic achievem ent. With this in mind, Witkin po sits the suggestion and p erh ap s adm onition that " . . . the ab il ity to overcom e an embedding context in the m edium of language m ay not be related to the ability to do so in the m edium of stim ulus con figurations. " It is not known if he is indicating that field-dependency is a dual continuum along v e rb a l and spatial channels (differing cogni tive m odes) o r that verbal and spatial channels are respective c o rre - 63 lates of field-dependence and field-independence. CH A PTER III PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY As a resu lt of a pilot investigation, it was observed that 8th and 9th grade students, whose D ifferential Aptitude T ests (DAT) (Bennett, Seashore, and W esman, 1959 and 1961) sco res on V erbal Reasoning (VR) are two or m o re stanines below th e ir s co res on A bstract R ea soning (AR), Spatial Relationships (SR), a n d /o r M echanical R eason ing (MR), achieve p o o re r grades in academ ic subjects and better g rades in non-academ ic subjects than do students whose DAT VR sco res a re equal to or better than th e ir DAT AR, SR, a n d /o r MR scores. F ro m these findings a theoretical fram ew ork evolved which is outlined as follows: 1. Cognitive development is m utually dependent upon and is facilitated by a language system . (Whorf, 1956; Manis, 1968 ) 2. The language system is dependent upon a sensory channel input system , an internal referen c e system , and an operable output system (the latter of which provides feedback through the sam e and other sensory channel system s). (Osgood, 64 65 1957a, 1957b) 3. The language sy stem m ay be verbal, spatial, or som e c o m bination thereof. 4. A verbal language system is dependent upon an intact audito ry sensory channel system . (Kirk, M cCarthy, and Kirk, 1968) 5. A verbal language system is closely asso ciated with left ce re b ra l functioning. (Reitan, I960) 6. A spatial language system is dependent upon an intact visual sensory channel system . (Smith, 1964) 7. A spatial language system is closely asso ciated with right c e re b ra l functioning. (Reitan, 1958b) 8. The relationship between the development of the verbal and spatial language sy stem s is associated with cognitive d iffer entiations as found in: a. c e re b ra l functioning (Reitan) b. cognitive style (Witkin) c. educational behavioral m anifestations (Carm ical, 1962; Frankel, I960) STATEM ENT OF THE PRO BLEM The m ajor contention of this investigation is that 1) cognition d e velops through language system s; 2) language sy stem s develop through sen so ry channel sy stem s com posed of receptive, associative, and ex 66 p re ss iv e p ro c e sse s; 3) differentiated cognitive abilities and their ex p re ss iv e m anifestations affect the environm ent which in turn provides feedback to delineate further the language system s and cognitive d e velopment; and 4) differentiated cognitive abilities and their e x p r e s sive m anifestations elicit different perceptions from individuals in the environment. F ro m the re su lts of the pilot study, the cited re s e a rc h , and the th eo retical fram ew ork, it is reasonable to expect students with dif ferentiated cognitive abilities as determ ined by DAT VR and SR sta- nines to obtain differentiated s c o re s on the WISC, EFT, GPA, and the Burks Behavior Rating Scale. Hence, this study will investigate the following problem s: 1. Do students with differentiated cognitive abilities differ sig nificantly from students without differentiated cognitive abil ities on obtained WISC, E FT , GPA, and Burks scores? 2. Do VR> SR students differ significantly from VR cSR stu dents on obtained WISC, E F T , GPA, and Burks scores? 3. When VR s co res a re held constant, do students with obtained sco res on the WISC, E F T , GPA, and Burks vary signifi cantly according to th e ir SR scores? 4. When SR s c o re s a re held constant, do students with obtained sco res on the WISC, E F T , GPA, and Burks vary signifi cantly according to th e ir VR scores? 67 ASSUMPTIONS 1. The DAT VR is a valid m e a su re of cognition for the verbal language system . 2. The DAT SR is a valid m e a su re of cognition for the spatial language system. 3. The GPA is a valid m e a su re of achievem ent. 4. WISC sco res a re valid m e a su re s of cognitive abilities. 5. E F T scores are valid m e a su re s of field dependence-indepen dence. 6. The Burks Behavior Rating Scale is a valid m e a su re of a te a c h e r's observations of behavior. 7. A language system m ay be verbal, spatial, or some com bi nation thereof. DEFINITIONS 1. Academ ic class G PA The grade point average for the Spring S em ester, 1970 for the subjects of English, m ath, so cial studies, science, and foreign language. 2. N on-academ ic class GPA The grade point average for the Spring S em ester, 1970 for the subjects of industrial a rts , home econom ics, a rt, m usic, typing, P. E. , d ram a, speech, and general business. 3. A language system is an o rd ered communication sy ste m of symbolic signs and syntax. A verbal language system em - 68 ploys auditory sounds and visual le tte rs and num bers to sy m bolize concepts. A spatial language system employs visual configurations with static and moving p ro p erties to sym bol ize concepts. a. A verbal language sy stem is operationally defined as the s c o re s obtained on the WISC V erbal IQ, Wit- kin1 s V erbal C om prehension F actor, and Witkin's EFT. b. A spatial language sy stem is operationally defined as the s c o re s obtained on the WISC P e rfo rm a n c e IQ, Witkin's A nalytical Field Approach F acto r, and Witkin's EFT. STATISTICAL HYPOTHESES V ariables 1. The v aria tes a r e the DAT VR and SR stanines. 2. The criterion v a ria b le s are: a. WISC Full Scale b. WISC V erbal c. WISC P e rfo rm a n c e d. WISC Information e. WISC Com prehension f. WISC A rithm etic g- WISC S im ilarities 69 h. WISC Vocabulary i. WISC Digit Span j. WISC Information, Com prehension, and Vocabulary (Witkin's Verbal Com prehension F actor) k. WISC P ic tu re Completion 1. WISC P ic tu re A rran g em en t m. WISC Block Design n. WISC Object A ssem bly o. WISC Coding p. WISC M azes q. WISC P ic tu re Completion, Block Design, and Ob je c t A ssem bly (Witkin's A nalytical Field Approach F a c to r ) r. E F T s. Total GPA t. A cadem ic GPA u. N on-academ ic GPA v. Burks R e se a rc h Hypotheses 1. Using the total N 's (30) for each group (Group 1: VR=SR; Group 2: VR"> SR; Group 3: VR<SR), the following r e s e a rc h hypotheses are made: a. The m ean scores of G roups 2 and 3 are not equal to the m ean sco res of Group 1 for each of the criterio n variables. Hi: The m ean sco res of Group 2 are g re a te r than the m ean s c o re s of Groups 1 and 3 for each of the fol lowing variables: (1) WISC V erbal (2) WISC Information (3) WISC C om prehension (4) WISC Vocabulary (5) WISC Information, Com prehension, and Vo cabulary (6) E F T (7) Academ ic GPA Hi: M. < M >M 1 2 3 The m edian frequency of Group 2 is g re a te r than the m edian frequency of Group 1 and equal to the m e d i an frequency of Group 3 on the Burks. Hi: Mdn, < Mdn = Mdn 1 2 3 The m ean s c o re s of Group 3 a re g re a te r than the m ean sc o re s of Groups 1 and 2 for each of the fol lowing variables: (1) WISC P erfo rm an c e (2) WISC P ictu re Completion (3) WISC Block Design (4) WISC Object A ssem bly (5) WISC P ictu re Completion, Block Design, and Object A ssem bly (6) Non-Academic GPA Hi: M < M > M 1 3 2 e. The m ean sco re of Group 3 is le s s than the m ean sc o re of G roups 1 and 2 on the E F T . Hi: M M < M 1 3 2 2. Using the n 1 s of each group, w here VR is held constant and SR varies, the sam e re s e a rc h hypotheses a re m ade. 3. Using the n 1 s of each group, w here SR is held constant and VR varies, the sam e re s e a rc h hypotheses a r e m ade. Null Hypotheses 1. Using the total N's (30) for each group, the following null hy potheses a r e made: a. The m ean s c o re s of G roups 2 and 3 are equal to the m e a n s co res of Group 1 for each of the c rite rio n variables. Ho: M_ = M - M 2 1 3 b. The m ean s co res of Group 2 are le ss than o r equal to the m ean s c o re s of Groups 1 and 3 students for each of the following variables: (1) WISC V erbal (2) WISC Information (3) WISC Com prehension (4) WISC Vocabulary (5) WISC Information, Com prehension, and Vo cabulary (6) E F T (7) A cadem ic GPA Ho: M 5 : M £ T M 1 2 3 The m edian frequency of Group 2 is le ss than o r equal to the m edian frequency of Group 1 and not equal to the m edian frequency of Group 3 on the Burks. Ho: Mdn ^ Mdn /- Mdn 1 2 3 The m e a n sc o re s of Group 3 a re less than or equal to the m ean s c o re s of Groups 1 and 2 for each of the following variables: (1) WISC P erfo rm a n c e (2) WISC P ic tu re Completion (3) WISC Block Design (4) WISC Object A ssem bly 73 (5) WISC P ic tu re Completion, Block Design, and Object A ssem bly (6) N on-academ ic GPA Ho: M i M £ M 1 3 2 e. The m ean score of Group 3 is g re a te r than o r equal to the m ean sco re of Groups 1 and 2 on the E F T . Ho: M - M - M 1 3 2 2. Using the n 's of each group, where VR is held constant and SR v a rie s, the sam e null hypotheses a re m ade. 3. Using the n 1 s of each group, where SR is held constant and VR v a rie s, the sam e null hypotheses a re m ade. METHOD Subjects The subjects will be ninth grade junior high school students in the R iverside Unified School D istric t who fall into one of th re e groups on the basis of th e ir DAT stanines. The three groups a re: Group 1. DAT VR stanine equal to DAT SR stanine (VR=SR). Group 2. DAT VR three o r m ore stanines higher than DAT SR stanine (VR>SR). Group 3. DAT VR th ree o r m ore stanines low er than DAT SR stanine (VR<SR). F ro m each of these th re e groups (obtained from the total popula tion of ninth grade junior high school students in the R iv e rsid e Uni 74 fied School D istrict), 30 Ss will be random ly selected fro m which the data will be obtained. Design Since this study is a descriptive investigation and will not m a n ip ulate independent v ariab les, no experim ental designs will be e m ployed. However, the obtained data will be interval and ordinal and the variance will be analyzed using univariate analysis of variance, m ultivariate analysis of covariance, and chi square techniques. M aterials The following in stru m en ts will be employed: 1. W echsler Intelligence Scale for Children 2. Witkin's Em bedded F ig u res T est 3. Burks Behavior Rating Scale PROCEDURE Three groups of students, representing the total population of ninth grade junior high school students in the R iverside Unified School D istrict with the designated cognitive differentiations as d e term ined by DAT VR and SR stanines, will be assigned n um bers. F r o m each of these groups 30 Ss will be randomly selected fro m a table of random n um bers. E ach of these students will be ad m in is tered the WISC and the E F T by a qualified, certificated, and c u r r e n t ly employed school psychologist. Each of the te a c h e rs for each of these students will com plete a Burks Behavior Rating Scale. N either the te a c h e rs n o r the school p sy c h o lo g ist a d m in is te rin g th e se in s tr u m e n ts will be cognizant of w hich group the students a r e a ss o c ia te d . T otal, aca d em ic, and n o n -a c a d e m ic G P A 's w ill be com puted fo r eac h of the students for the Spring S e m e ste r, 1970. C H A PTE R IV R E P O R T AND DISCUSSION O F THE FINDINGS This c h a p te r r e p o rts the a n a ly sis of the d ata and d is c u s s e s the im m e d ia te and g e n e ra l in te rp re ta tio n of the findings. STA TEM EN T O F THE H YPOTHESES The h y p o th e ses of co n ce rn in this study w e re as follows: 1. T h ere a r e no sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s am ong the m e a n s c o re s of the cognitively d iffe re n tia te d students (G roups 2 and 3) and the cognitively u n d iffere n tiated students (Group 1) for each of the following v a ria b le s a. WISC F u ll Scale b. WISC V erb al c. WISC P e rfo rm a n c e d. WISC Inform ation e. WISC C o m p reh en sio n f. WISC A rith m e tic g- WISC S im ila ritie s h. WISC V ocabulary i. WISC Digit Span j- WISC Inform ation, C o m p reh en sio n , and V ocabulary 76 (W itkin's V erb al C o m p re h e n sio n F a c to r) k. WISC P ic tu re C om pletion 1. WISC P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t m . WISC Block D esign n. WISC O bject A sse m b ly o. WISC Coding p. WISC M azes q. WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, B lock D esign, and O bject A sse m b ly (W itkin's A n aly tical F ield A pproach F a c to r) r. E F T s. T otal GPA t. A cad em ic G PA u. N o n -acad em ic G PA T his h y p o th esis w as te s te d using an a n a ly sis of v aria n ce technique. When F -v a lu e s w e re significant, the N eum an- K euls te s t (W iner, 1962) w as used to d e te rm in e betw een w hat g ro u p s the significant v a ria n c e lay. The r e s u lts a re re p o rte d in T able 5. The m e an s c o re s of G roup 2 a r e le s s th a n o r equal to the m ean s c o re s of G ro u p s 1 and 3 stu d en ts fo r each of the fo l lowing v a ria b le s: a. WISC V erb al b. WISC In fo rm atio n c. WISC C o m p reh en sio n d. WISC V o cab u lary e. WISC Inform ation, C om p reh en sio n , and V ocabulary f. E F T g- A cad em ic G PA This h y p o th esis w as te s te d using an a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e technique. When F - v a lu e s w e re significant, the N eum an- K euls te s t (W iner, 1962) w as u sed to d e te rm in e betw een w hat g ro u p s th e sig n ifican t v a ria n c e lay. The r e s u lts a re r e p o r t ed in Table 5. The m e d ia n freq u en cy of G roup 2 is le s s than o r equal to the m ed ian freq u en cy of G roup 1 and not eq u al to the m ed ian f r e quency of G roup 3 on eac h of the following v a ria b le s: a. A cad em ic B urks b. N o n -acad em ic B urks c. T o tal B urks T his h y p o th e sis w as te s te d using the m e d ia n te s t fo r k - s a m p le s (Siegel, 1956). The r e s u lts a re re p o rte d in Table 6. The m e an s c o re s of G roup 3 a r e le ss than o r equal to the m e a n s c o re s of G ro u p s 1 and 2 fo r e a c h of the following v a ria b le s: a. WISC P e rfo rm a n c e b. WISC P ic tu re C om pletion c. WISC Block D esign d. WISC O bject A ssem b ly e. WISC P ic tu re C om pletion, Block D esign, and O bject A sse m b ly f. N o n -acad em ic GPA T his h y p o th esis w as te ste d using an a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e technique. W hen F -v a lu e s w e re significant, the N eum an- K euls te s t (W iner, 1962) w as u sed to d e te rm in e betw een which g ro u p s the significant v a ria n c e lay. The r e s u lts a r e re p o rte d in Table 5. The m ean s c o re of G roup 3 is g r e a te r than o r eq u al to the m ean s c o re of G roups 1 and 2 on the E F T . This h y p o th esis w as te ste d using an a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e technique. W hen F -v a lu e s w e re significant, the N eum an- K euls te s t (W iner, 1962) w as u sed to d e te rm in e betw een which g ro u p s the significant v a ria n c e lay. The r e s u lts a re re p o rte d in Table 5. Holding c o n stan t the c o v a ria te v alu es of the DAT, VR, SR, AR, and MR s c o re s , th e re a r e no significant d iffe re n c e s am ong the m e a n s c o r e s of the cognitively d iffe re n tia te d s tu d ents (G roups 2 and 3) and the cognitively u n d iffere n tiated stu d en ts (Group 1) fo r each of the following v a ria b le s: 80 a. WISC F u ll Scale b. WISC V e rb a l c. WISC P e rfo rm a n c e d. WISC In fo rm atio n e. WISC C o m p re h en sio n f. WISC A rith m e tic g. WISC S im ila ritie s h. WISC V o cabulary i. WISC D igit Span j. WISC Inform ation, C o m p reh en sio n , and V ocabulary k. WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion 1. WISC P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t m . WISC Block D esign n. WISC O bject A sse m b ly o. WISC Coding p. WISC M azes q. WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, Block D esign, and O bject A sse m b ly r. E F T s. T o tal G PA t. A cad em ic GPA u. N o n -a c a d e m ic G PA T his h y p o th esis w as te ste d using an a n a ly sis of c o v arian ce 81 TABLE 5 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE DATA FOR HYPOTHESES 1, 2, 1+, AND 5 big. Variable. Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F - Value o f q N=30 N=30 N=30 d f= 2 ,8 7 Academic GPA _ _ 2.1+07 2 .6 7 0 1 .8 2 0 9.818-::--::- 1=2 NS SD = 0 .6 6 5 0 .7 3 5 0 .8 6 8 1 /3 SX 7 2 .2 1 8 0 .1 0 5J+.60 2 /3 ** Non-academic GPA M = 3.260 3 . 11+3 2.1+23 8 . 222- : : - 1=2 NS SD = .633 .867 1.01+6 17*3 EX = 9 7 .2 9 91+.29 7 2 .6 9 2 /3 ** T o t a l GPA M = 2 .7 6 3 2 .8 3 7 2 .1 1 3 9.701+** 1=2 N S SD = 0 .9 6 0 0 .6 8 8 0 .8 2 7 1 /3 ** Z x = 82.89 85.11 63.39 2/3 ** WISC Tnformati on M~= 18.233 1 9 .7 6 7 16.300 9.31+3** 1~2 N S SD - 3 .2 0 2 2 .9 0 9 3.218 1 /3 - : : - EX = 5U 6.99 5 9 3 .0 1 1+89.00 2 /3 WISC C o m p r e h e n s i o n ----------- _ _ 1 5. 50O 1 2 .8 0 0 i+.562* 15^2 SD = 3.661+ 3.21+6 3.621+ 1=3 NS •X = 31+7.01 1+65.00 38I+.00 2 /3 ** W I S C A r i t h m e t i c M"= 11.367 12.233 1 0.200 7.608-::-::- 1=2 NS SD = 2 .1 2 5 1 .8 1 3 2.121+ 1/3 * ■_X = 31+1.01 3 6 6 .9 9 3 0 6 .0 0 2-/3 ** W I S C S i m i l a r i t i e s M - =~ 16.1+00 1 7 .8 6 7 11+ .1+33 1=2 NS SD = 3 .2 0 1 2 .9 5 6 2 .9 9 1 1/3 * ■X = 1+92.00 5 3 6 .0 1 1+32.99 2 /3 ** TABLE 5 (co n tin u ed ) 82 V a ria b le Group 1 N=30 WISC V ocabulary M = SD = LX = WISC D ig it Span M = SD = I X = WISC In fo rm a ti on , C om prehension, and V ocabulary M = SD = ZX = WISC V erbal M = SD = EX = WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion M = SD = EX WISC P ic tu r e Arrangement M = SD = Z,X = wise B lock D esign M = SD = Lx = (4 .6.467 6 .766 1391+ .01 10.900 1.807 327.00 Group 2 N=30 5 1 .6 6 7 6 .6 7 1 1550.01 11.800 2.52U 354-00 79.267 11.516 2 3 7 8 .0 1 117.933 15.UU7 3 5 3 7 .9 9 1 3 .3 0 0 2.I8I4. 3 9 9 .0 0 3 3 .5 6 7 8 .7 5 2 1007.01 3 7 .3 6 7 10.601 1 1 2 1 .0 1 Group 3 N=30 8 6.933 9.868 2 6 0 7 .9 9 128.733 1 2.407 3 8 6 1 .9 9 13.833 2 .1 3 5 4H+.99 3 4 .0 0 0 6 .5 7 1 1020.00 3 7 .1 3 3 11. 14.1 1 1 13.99 F-V alue d f=2 , 87 S i g . o f q 4 0 .2 6 7 I 8 . I 8I-::-::- 1^2 8 .4 2 4 1^3 1208.01 2^3 10 .6 6 7 1.900 320.01 2.433NS 69-433 17.835-: 1 2 .5 8 3 2 0 8 2 .9 9 1 0 4.667 20 . 328- : 1 5 .8 3 6 3140.01 1 3 .5 6 7 2.528 4 0 7 .0 1 3 1 .6 3 3 10.842 9 4 8 .9 9 40.200 9.611 1206.00 1^2 1^3 2^3 1^2 1^3 2^3 0.407NS 0.602NS 0.797NS TABLE 5 (co n tin u ed ) 83 V a r ia b le Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-Value N=30 N=30 N=30 d f =2,87 WISC O bject Assembly M = SD = LX = WISC Coding M = SD = LX = WISC Mazes M = SD = EX = WISC F ic tu r e C o m p letio n , B lock D e s ig n , and Ob.ject Assembly M = SD = LX = 25 .2 6 7 5 .1 5 9 7 5 8 .0 1 61+. 700 9 .5 7 8 191+1.00 1 7.233 2 . 2 5 1+ 5 1 6 .9 9 75.933 15-1+72 2 2 7 7 .9 9 2 5 .6 3 3 3 .2 1 1 7 68.99 6 3 .3 6 7 9 .1 9 0 1901.01 17.300 2 . 181+ 5 1 9 .0 0 7 6 .9 3 3 13.511+ 2 3 0 7 .9 9 26.600 3.61+5 7 98.00 6 2 .3 3 3 13.O6O 1 8 6 9 .9 9 17.300 2 . 2 1 + 6 5 1 9 .0 0 80 .3 6 7 1 3. 8 1 + 0 21 +11.01 0 . 350NS 0 .3 6 5 ns 0.009NS 0.793NS WISC Performance M = SD = LX = 191.1+33 26.250 571+2.99 191.600 1 6 .7 3 2 571+8.00 191.8 3 3 21.91+5 5751+.99 0.002NS WISC F u l l S c a le M = SD ; rx = 309.366 3 5 . 911+ 9280.98 319.333 2 1 .7 7 7 9579 .9 9 291+.500 3 2 .5 6 8 8835.00 1+. 976-::-::- EFT M SD LX 867.300 1+1+9.625 26289.00 8 0 6 .1 3 3 801+.233 3 1 9 .2 6 2 1+30.367 21+183.99 21+126.99 0.237NS S i g . o f q 1=2 NS 1=3 NS 2^3 ** 84 TABLE 6 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF THE DATA FOR HYPOTHESIS 3 T o ta l Burks Raw S cores Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 T o ta l Above Median fo = 9 f e = l 5 fO=ll+ f e = l 5 f o=23 f e = l 5 U5 Be low Median f o=21 fe=l$ f o = l6 f e = l 5 fo = 7 f e = l 5 1+5 T o ta l 30 30 30 90 x2 ( T o ta l T o ta l) : df =2, = 13.1+7*-::- x2 (T o ta l Group 1) : d f=1, = 1+. 80-::-::- x2 (T o ta l Group 2) : d f =1, = 0.13NS X2 (T o ta l Group 3) : d f =1, = 8 . 53-::--:; - Academic Burks Raw S cores Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Tota! Above Median fo = 9 f e = l 5 f o =20 f e = l 5 f o=l6 f e = l 5 1+5 Below M e di an f o=21 f e = l 5 f o=10 f e = l 5 f o=ll+ f e = l 5 1+5 Tot a l 30 30 30 90 X2 (T o ta l T o ta l) : df=2, = 8 .27-::- x2 (T o ta l Group 1) : d f =1, = 1+. 80- : : - X2 (T o ta l Group 2) : d f=1, = 3-33NS X2 (T o ta l Group 3) : d f =1, = 0.13NS TABIE 6 (co n tin u ed ) 85 Non-Academic Burks Raw Scores Group 1 Group 2 Group.3 Tot a l Above Median f 0=1 1 4 . f o = l l f o=20 1+5 f e = l5 fe = l5 fe = l5 Below Median fo = l6 fo=19 f o=10 1+5 f e= l5 f e = l5 f e = l5 T otal 30 30 30 90 X2 (T otal T otal) : df=2, = 5. 60NS = p .05 = p .01 technique. The r e s u lts a r e re p o rte d in Table 7. The .05 confidence level w as re q u ire d to re je c t the n u ll hypotheses. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE F ro m an ex am in atio n of T able 5, the significant F - r a ti o s su p p o rt the re je c tio n of th e ir re s p e c tiv e null hyp o th eses. The n o n -sig n ific a n t F - r a ti o s su p p o rt th e a cc ep tan c e of th e ir re s p e c tiv e null hypotheses. T h ere is a v e ry significant d iffe re n c e (. 01) am ong the m e a n s of the th re e g ro u p s w ith G roup 2 being g r e a t e r than G roups 1 and 3 and G roup 1 being g r e a te r than G roup 3 fo r each of the following v a r i ables: 1. A cadem ic G PA 2. T otal G PA 3. WISC Inform ation 86 TABLE 7 A N A L Y S I S O F C O V A R I A N C E O F T H E D A T A F O R H Y P O T H E S I S 6 V ariab le C o v a ria te Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-V alue N=30 N=30 N=30 d f= 2 ,8 6 Academic GPA M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 2.1+57 2 3 .9 6 7 2 .3 8 7 22.500 2 .0 5 3 2.011NS Non-academic GPA 2 3 .9 6 7 3 .1 7 7 2 3.967 3 .0 1 0 22.500 2.61+0 2.563NS M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT VR T o ta l GPA M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) — DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 2 .7 0 7 2 3 .9 6 7 2 .6 5 3 22.500 2 .3 5 3 1.763NS WISC In fo rm a tio n M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 18 .3 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 1 8 .0 6 7 22.500 1 7 .8 6 7 0.097NS WISC Comprehension M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 11*.1+33 2 3 .9 6 7 13.933 22.500 11*. 500 0.372NS WISC A r ith m e tic M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 1 1 .1 0 0 2 3 .9 6 7 11.1*33 2 2 .5 0 0 1 1 .2 6 6 0.296NS WISC S i m i l a r i t i e s M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 1 6 .7 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 16 .0 6 7 22.500 1 5 .8 6 7 0.586NS W I S C V ocabulary M (C o v a ria te) M (V a ria b le) - DAT VR 2 3 .9 6 7 1*6.767 23.967 U5.1+33 22.500 1*6.200 0.521+NS WISC D i g i t Span 2 3 .9 6 7 11.1*00 2 3.967 11.300 22.500 1 0 .6 6 7 0 . 81+1+NS M (C o v a ria te) M (V a ria b le) DAT VR TABLE 7 (co n tin u ed ) 87 V a r ia b le C o v a ria te Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-Value N=30 N-30 N=30 d f = 2,86 W I S C I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p r e h e n s i o n , a n d V o c a b u l a r y M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C V e r b a l M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C P i c t u r e C o m p l e t i o n M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C P i c t u r e A r r a n g e m e n t M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C B l o c k D e s i g n M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C O b j e c t A s s e m b l y M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C C o d i n g M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 2 2 .5 0 0 7 9 .5 6 7 7 7 .5 0 0 78 .5 6 7 D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 22 .5 0 0 1 1 8 .7 3 3 1 1 6 .2 3 3 1 1 6 .3 6 7 D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 2 2 .5 0 0 1 3 .5 0 0 1 3 .1 6 7 lip - 033 D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 2 2 .5 0 0 3 3 .6 6 7 3 3 .8 3 3 3 1 .7 0 0 D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 2 2 .5 0 0 3 7 .0 6 7 3 8 .7 0 0 3 8 .9 3 3 D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 5 .5 3 3 2 3 .9 6 7 2 5 .3 3 3 22.500 2 6 .6 3 3 D A T V R 2 3 .9 6 7 2 3 .9 6 7 2 2 .5 0 0 6U.733 63.700 61.967 0.530NS 0.361NS 1. 328ms 0 .U33NS 0.31+2NS 1 .0 8 8 ns 0. i4.l4.7NS A c a d e m i c G P A M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = D A T S R 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 28.767 M ( V a r i a b l e ) = 2.14-57 2 .3 8 7 2 .0 5 3 2.137NS TABLE 7 (con tin u ed ) 88 V a r ia b le C o v a r ia te Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-Value N=30 N=30 N=30 d f = 2 ,8 6 N o n - a c a d e m i c G P A M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = ~ " D A T S R M ( V a r i a b l e ) = T o t a l G P A M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = D A T S R M ( V a r i a b l e ) 25 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 2 8 .7 6 7 2.799NS 3 .1 7 7 3 .0 1 0 2.61+0 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 28.767 1.981+NS 2 .7 0 7 2 .6 5 3 2 .3 5 3 W I S C I n f o r m a t i o n M ~ T C o v a r i a t e ) M ( V a r i a b l e ) = D A T SR 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 2 8 .7 6 7 0.236NS 18.367 1 8 .0 6 7 1 7 .8 6 7 W I S C C o m p r e h e n s i o n M ( C o v a r i a t e ) M ( V a r i a b l e ) = wise A r i t h m e t i c M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C S i m i l a r i t i e s M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C V o c a b u l a r y M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C D i g i t S p a n M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = W I S C = D A T S R D A T S R D A T S R D A T SR D A T S R I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p r e h e n s i o n , a n d V o c a b u l a r y M ( C o v a r i a t e ) = M ( V a r i a b l e ) = 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 28 .7 6 7 0.209NS Ii4 -.i4.33 13 .9 3 3 1U.500 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 2 8 .7 6 7 0.187NS 1 1 .1 0 0 11.1+33 11 .2 6 6 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 2 8 .7 6 7 0.671+NS 1 6 .7 6 7 1 6 .0 6 7 1 5 .8 6 7 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 28 .7 6 7 0.165NS 1+6.767 1+5-1+33 1+6.200 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 28 .7 6 7 1.119NS 11.1+00 11.300 10 .6 6 7 D A T S R 2 5 .9 0 0 2 7 .2 0 0 2 8 .7 6 7 0.171+NS 7 9 .5 6 7 7 7 .5 0 0 78 .5 6 7 TABLE 7 (co n tin u ed ) 89 V a ria b le WISC Verbal M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) WISC P ictu re Completi on M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) WISC P ic tu r e Arrangement M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) WISC C o v a ria te Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-Value N=30 N=30 N=30 d f = 2,86 B lock D esign M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC O bject Assembly M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le WISC Coding M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT SR 2 5 .9 0 0 27 .2 0 0 2 8 .7 6 7 118.733 116.233 116.367 = DAT SR = DAT SR = DAT SR DAT SR DAT SR 2 5 .9 0 0 13.500 2 5 .9 0 0 3 3 .6 6 7 2 5 .9 0 0 37 .0 6 7 25 .9 0 0 25 .5 3 3 2 5 .9 0 0 61+. 733 27.200 13.167 27.200 3 3 .8 3 3 27.200 38.700 27.200 2 5 .3 3 3 27.200 63.700 28.767 11+. 033 28.767 3 1 .7 0 0 28.767 3 8 .9 3 3 28.767 2 6 .6 3 3 28.767 6 1 .9 6 7 0.193NS O.988NS 0.51+1+NS 0 . 115NS 0 . 61+5NS 0 .5 8 8 ns Academic GPA M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT AR Non-academic GPA M (C o v a r ia te ) =~ DAT AR M (V a r ia b le ) T o ta l GPA M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 2 . 1+57 2 9 .7 0 0 3 .1 7 7 3 3 .0 6 7 2.387 33.067 3.010 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 2 .7 0 7 2 .6 5 3 30.800 2 .0 5 3 30.800 2.61+0 30.800 2 .3 5 3 2.1+23NS 3.028NS 2 .1 3 5 ns TABLE 7 (co n tin u ed ) 90 V a r ia te C o v a ria te Group 1 Group 2. Group 3 F-Value N=30 N=30 N=30 d f =2,86 WISC In fo rm a tio n M ( C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC Comprehension M (C o v a r ia te ) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC A r ith m e tic M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC S i m i l a r i t i e s M (C o v a r ia te ) = M (V a r ia b le ) = wise V ocabulary M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC D i g i t Span M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC I n fo r m a tio n , C om prehension, and Vocabulary M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) : WISC Verbal M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a ria b le) - DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 3 0 .8 0 0 1 8 .3 6 7 1 8.067 1 7.867 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 30.800 lll.lj.33 13.933 11+. 500 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 33.067 30 .8 0 0 1 1 .1 0 0 11.1+33 11.266 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 30 .8 0 0 1 6 .7 6 7 16 .0 6 7 15 .8 6 7 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 30 .8 0 0 1+6.767 1+5-1+33 1+6.200 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 3 0 .8 0 0 11. 1+00 11.300 10.667 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 33.067 3 0 .8 0 0 7 9 .5 6 7 77.500 78.567 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 3 .0 6 7 30.800 118.733 116.233 116.367 0 . 760NS 0.507NS 0.010NS 1.726NS 0.617NS 1 . 11+9NS 0 . 792NS 0 .9 8 5 ns TABLE 7 (con tin u ed ) 91 V a r ia te C WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a ria b le) = WISC P ic tu r e Arrangement M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC B lock D esign M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le = WISC O bject Assembly M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = WISC Coding M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = ■3HH* Academic GPA M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a ria b le) = T o ta l GFA M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a ria b le) = WISC In form ation M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a ria b le) o v a r ia te Group 1 N=30 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 13.500 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 33.667 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 3 7 .0 6 7 DAT AR 2 9 .7 0 0 25.533 DAT AR 29.700 6J+. 733 DAT M R 1*0.500 3 -177 DAT M R U0.500 2 .7 0 7 DAT M R 1*0.500 18 .3 6 7 Group 2 Group 3 N=30 N=30 3 3 .0 6 7 30.800 1 3 .1 6 7 11*. 033 3 3 .0 6 7 30.800 33 .8 3 3 31 .7 0 0 33.067 30.800 38.700 38 .9 3 3 3 3 .0 6 7 30.800 25 .3 3 3 2 6 .6 3 3 33.067 30.800 6 3 .7 0 0 61 .9 6 7 1*0.1*33 1 *2.500 3 .0 1 0 2.61*0 1*0.1*33 1 *2.500 2 .6 5 3 2 .3 5 3 1*0.1*33 1*2.500 18 .0 6 7 1 7 .8 6 7 F-V alue d f = 2,86 1.336NS 0 .5 0 5 ns 0.200NS 1.3l*8NS 0.652NS 2.350NS 2.081NS 0.387NS TABLE 7 (co n tin u ed ) 92 V a ria b le WISC Comprehension M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) WISC A r ith m e tic M (C o v a ria te) M (V a ria b le) wise S i m i l a r i t i e s M (C o v a ria te) M (V a r ia b le ) WISC V ocabulary M (C o v a ria te) M (V a ria b le) C o v a ria te Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-V alue N=30 N=30 • N=30 DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0 .1+33 1+2.500 ll4..i4-33 1 3 .9 3 3 11+.500 DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 1+2.500 11.100 1 1 .1+33 11.266 = DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 1+2.500 16.767 16.067 15.867 DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 1+2.500 1 +6.767 1+5433 1 +6.200 WISC D ig it Span M (C o v a ria te) = DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 1+2.500 M (V a r ia b le ) = 11.1+00 1 1 .3 0 0 10 .6 6 7 WISC I n fo r m a tio n , Com prehension, and V ocabulary M (C o v a ria te) = DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 M (V a r ia b le ) = 1 +2.500 7 9 .5 6 7 7 7 .5 0 0 78 .5 6 7 WISC V erbal M (C o v a ria te) = DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 1+2.500 M (V a r ia b le ) = 1 1 8 .7 3 3 1 1 6 .2 3 3 116.367 WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion M (C o v a ria te) = DAT M R 1+0.500 1+0.1+33 1+2.500 M (V a r ia b le ) = 1 3 ,5 0 0 1 3 ,1 6 7 11+.033 d f= 2 ,8 6 0.183NS 0 . 206NS 0.933NS 0.201NS 1.1+21NS 0 . 211+NS 0.31+8NS 0.716NS TABLE 7 ( co n tin u ed ) 93 V a ria b le C o v a ria te Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 F-Value N=30 N=30 N=30 d f =2,86 WISC P ic tu r e Arrangement M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT M R 1 +0.500 33 .6 6 7 1+0 .i+33 3 3 .8 3 3 i+2 . 500 31.700 0.758NS WISC B lock D esign M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a ria b le) DAT M R i+o .500 37 .0 6 7 [+0.1+33 38.700 1 +2.500 3 8 .9 3 3 0 . 266NS WISC O bject Assembly M (C o v a r ia te ) = M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT M R U0.500 25 .5 3 3 1+0.1+33 2 5 .3 3 3 i+2 . 500 2 6 .6 3 3 0.369NS WISC Coding M (C o v a ria te) = M (V a r ia b le ) = DAT M R 1 +0.500 61+. 733 i+0.1+33 6 3 .7 0 0 1 +2.500 61 .9 6 7 0.1+71NS ::-W ISC Mazes; WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, B lock D e s ig n , and O bject Assembly; WISC Performance; WISC F u ll S c a le ; and EFT v a r i a b l e s were not s u b je c te d to the a n a l y s i s of co - v a r ia n c e te ch n iq u e becau se the computer job order card in c lu d e d a d ata s e t page l i m i t which was reached a f t e r WISC C oding. I t i s f e l t t h e s e rem aining WISC v a r i a b l e s would have been found to be i n s i g n i f i c a n t . With th e cu rren t in fo r m a tio n , no c o n c l u s io n can be drawn c o n c e r n in g th e EFT 4. WISC A rith m e tic 5. WISC S im ila ritie s 6. WISC V ocabulary 7. WISC Inform ation, C o m p reh en sio n , and V o cab u lary 8. WISC V erb al 9. WISC F u ll Scale T h e re is a significant d iffe re n c e (. 05) am ong the m e a n s of the th re e g ro u p s with Group 2 being g r e a t e r than G ro u p s 1 and 3 and G roup 1 being g r e a te r than G roup 3 fo r eac h of the following v a r i ables: 1. N o n -acad em ic G PA 2. WISC C o m p reh en sio n T h e re is a v e ry significant d iffere n ce (. 01) betw een the m e a n s of G ro u p s 1 and 2 with G roup 2 being g r e a t e r than G roup 1 fo r ea c h of the following v a ria b le s: 1. WISC C o m p re h en sio n 2. WISC V ocabulary 3. WISC V e rb a l T h e re is a significant d iffe re n c e (. 05) betw een the m e a n s of G ro u p s 1 and 2 with Group 2 being g r e a te r than G roup 1 fo r the fo l lowing v a ria b le : WISC Inform ation, C o m p re h en sio n and V ocabulary. T h e re is a v e ry significant d iffere n ce (. 01) betw een the m e a n s of G ro u p s 1 and 3 w ith Group 1 being g r e a t e r than G roup 3 fo r eac h of the following v a ria b le s : 1. A cadem ic G PA 2. N on-A cadem ic G PA 3. T otal G PA 4. WISC V ocabulary 95 5. WISC Inform ation, C o m p reh en sio n and V o cabulary 6. WISC V e rb a l T h e re is a sig n ifican t d iffere n ce (. 05) betw een the m e a n s of G roups 1 and 3 w ith G roup 1 being g r e a t e r than G roup 3 fo r eac h of the following v a ria b le s : 1. WISC In fo rm atio n 2. WISC A rith m e tic 3. WISC S im ila ritie s T h e re is a v e ry sig n ifican t d iffere n ce (. 01) betw een the m e a n s of G roups 2 and 3 w ith G roup 2 being g r e a t e r than G roup 3 fo r eac h of the following v a ria b le s : 1. A cad em ic G PA 2. N o n -acad em ic G PA 3. T otal G PA 4. WISC Inform ation 5. WISC C o m p reh en sio n 6. WISC A rith m e tic 7. WISC S im ila ritie s 8. WISC V ocabulary 9. WISC Inform ation, C o m p reh en sio n and V ocabulary 10. WISC V e rb a l 11. WISC F u ll Scale 96 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS F ro m an ex am in atio n of T able 6, the sig n ifican t Chi sq u a re v a l ues su p p o rt the re je c tio n of th e ir re s p e c tiv e null h y p o th e ses. The n o n -sig n ific a n t chi sq u a re v alu es support the a c c ep tan c e of th e ir r e sp ectiv e null hyp o th eses. T h e re is a v e ry sig n ifican t d iffere n ce (. 01) am ong the fre q u e n c ie s falling above and below the m ed ian to tal B u rk s s c o r e s fo r the th re e groups. T h e re is a v e ry sig n ifican t d ifferen ce (. 01) betw een the fre q u e n c ie s falling above and below the m edian to ta l B u rk s s c o r e s fo r G roup 3. T h e re is a significant d iffere n ce (. 05) betw een th e fre q u e n c ie s falling above and below the m e d ian to tal B u rk s s c o re s fo r G roup 1. T h e re is a significant d iffere n ce (. 05) am ong the fre q u e n c ie s falling above and below the m e d ia n a c a d e m ic B u rk s s c o r e s fo r the th re e groups. T h e re is a sig n ifican t d iffere n ce (. 05) betw een the fre q u e n c ie s falling above and below the m e d ian ac a d e m ic B u rk s s c o r e s fo r G roup 1. ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE F r o m an ex am in atio n of T able 7, th e re a r e no sig n ifican t F - r a tio s and consequently the a cc ep tan c e of the re s p e c tiv e null h y p o th e ses is supported. 97 IN T E R P R E T A T IO N OF THE DATA The a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e re fle c ts the tre m e n d o u s im p o rta n c e of v e rb a l sk ills in d iffere n tiatin g the th re e groups. A m o re e a sily re a d s u m m a ry of th e se d iffe re n c e s is found in Table 8. The m o st notable o b s e rv a tio n of th e se data is the com plete a b sence of any of the n o n -v e rb a l c r ite r io n v a ria b le s. The only c r i t e r i on v a ria b le s w hich re fle c te d a significant d iffere n ce am ong the groups w ere the WISC V e rb a l su b te sts. So g re a t w as the v a ria n c e in the su b te sts, th a t w hen the a n a ly sis includes the n o n -sig n ific a n t v a r i ance fro m the P e rfo rm a n c e su b te sts , the to tal v a ria n c e am ong the g ro u p s is still v e ry sig n ifican t at the . 01 level. G ranted, th is o v e r all significance is, in fact, lim ited to the d ifferen ce betw een g ro u p s 2 and 3; n o n e th e le ss it p o in ts up the tre m e n d o u s im p o rta n c e of v e rb a l sk ills and the influence of d iffe re n tia te d cognitive a b ilitie s. The fa c t th a t the sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s a re r e s tr ic te d to the v e r bal su b te s ts e lic its sp ecu la tio n concerning sam pling c r ite r ia , con s tru c t validity of the testin g in s tru m e n ts , a n d /o r the ratio n ale for the r e s e a r c h effort. The students w ere ch o sen on the b a s is of th e ir obtained s c o r e s on the DAT VR and SR su b te sts . The re s u lts of th is study m ight su g g e st th at th e se DAT su b te sts do not d iffe re n tia te am ong th o se fa c to rs exam in ed by the te s t s a d m in iste re d . P e rh a p s w h atev er is te ste d by the DAT SR is so highly c o rre la te d w ith the DAT VR th a t the c r ite - 98 TABLE 8 S I G N I F I C A N T D I F F E R E N C E S A M O N G T H E T H R E E G R O U P S F R O M T H E A N A L Y S I S O F V A R I A N C E Variable Ivs2 lv s3 2vs3 S ig . of F Academic GPA NS .01 .01 .01 Non-academic GPA NS .01 .01 .05 T otal GPA NS .01 .01 .01 WISC Information NS .05 .01 .01 WISC Comprehension .01 NS .01 .05 WISC A rithm etic NS .05 .01 .01 WISC S i m i l a r i t i e s NS .05 .01 .01 WISC Vocabulary .01 .01 .01 .01 WISC Inform ation, Comprehension, and Vocab'uiary .05 .01 .01 .01 WISC Verbal .01 .01 .01 .01 WISC F u ll Scale NS NS .01 .01 rio n v a ria b le s cannot d istin g u ish am ong them . B ennett, e t al. (1966) show the m e a n in te rc o rre la tio n co efficien t fo r both boys and g ir ls to be . 58. T his only acco u n ts for le s s than 36% of the v a ria n c e betw een the two su b te sts and su p p o rts the a ssu m p tio n th at d iffe re n t sk ills a re being te sted . In addition, the sig n ifican t d iffere n ce in G PA found am ong the G roup 3 students d e m o n s tra te s a s s o c ia te d a c a d e m ic c o n se quences. This in v e stig a to r fe e ls th at the sam pling c r it e r ia re fle c t re a l 99 c o g n itiv e /lin g u is tic d iffe re n c e s and th a t th is study d oes not su g g est invalid sam pling c r ite r ia . The valid ity of any te s t can be called into q u estio n depending u p on its a p p licab ility to and a p p ro p ria te n e s s fo r a given study. The r e s e a rc h and e m p iric a l evidence fo r the ap p licab ility and a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of the c r ite r io n v a ria b le s fo r th is study have b een p re s e n te d in the rev ie w of the lite ra tu re . The q u estio n of the validity of the v e r b a l su b te s ts is not m oot fo r th e re e x is ts a m u ltitu d e of r e s e a r c h w hich e s ta b lis h e s the stro n g p o sitiv e re la tio n sh ip betw een v e rb a l sk ills and school functioning. T his study did not find sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s am ong n o n -v e rb a l v a ria b le s but d o es show the e x iste n c e of im p o rta n t c o rre la tio n s am ong the v a r ia te s and c r ite r io n v a ria b le s w hich acco u n t fo r 50% o r m o re of the v a ria n c e betw een v a ria b le s w ithin each group. A s can re a d ily be se e n fro m Table 9, th e re a r e m any n o n -v e rb a l v a ria b le s w hich a r e clo sely re la te d w ithin the g ro u p s but w hich, as the a n a ly sis of c o v a ria n c e show s, do not d iffe re n tia te betw een the g ro u p s. C o n se quently it is conceivable th a t n o n -v e rb a l c o g n itiv e /lin g u istic a b ilitie s can d iffe re n tia te w ithin g ro u p s but not betw een. H ow ever, the fact th a t only the v e rb a l su b te sts d iffe re n tia te d betw een th e g ro u p s should not p re c lu d e the p o ssib ility th a t the n o n -v e rb a l su b te sts can also d if fe re n tia te , but p e rh a p s not w ith a c a d e m ic c r ite r ia . In th is re s p e c t, the in sig n ifican t a n a ly sis of c o v a ria n c e in d icate s 100 TABLE 9 COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION ACCOUNTING FOR 50% O R MORE OF THE VARIANCE BETWEEN VARIABLES WITHIN EACH GROUP V a r ia b le s Group 1 Group 2 DAT VR and DAT SR .93 .8ij. DAT VR and DAT AR .71 DAT VR and WISC V ocabulary .77 DAT VR and WISC In fo r m a tio n , Comprehension, and V ocabulary .55 DAT VR and WISC Verbal .7 9 DAT SR and DAT AR DAT SR and WISC In fo rm a tio n .70 DAT SR and WISC V ocabulary .7 2 DAT SR and WISC In fo r m a tio n , Comprehension, and Vocabulary .73 DAT SR and WISC Verbal .75 Academic GPA and Non-academic GPA . 70 Academic GPA and T o t a l GPA .93 *92 Non-academic GPA and GPA . 8J + .75 WISC In fo r m a tio n and WISC V ocabulary .81 WISC In fo rm a tio n and WISC In fo r m a tio n , Comprehension, and V ocabulary .8 8 .70 WISC In fo r m a tio n and WISC Verbal .81^ Group 3 .88 .70 .90 .91 .73 .83 .88 TABLE 9 (co n tin u ed ) 101 V a r i a b l e s WISC S i m i l a r i t i e s and WI-SC I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p r e h e n s io n , and V o c a b u la r y WISC S i m i l a r i t i e s and WISC V e r b a l WISC V o c a b u la r y and WISC I n f o r m a t i o n , C o m p r e h e n s io n , and V o c a b u la r y WISC V o c a b u la r y and WISC V e r b a l WISC I n f o r m a t io n , C om prehen s i o n , and V o c a b u la r y and WISC P u l l S c a l e WISC V e r b a l and WISC F u l l S c a l e WISC B lo c k D e s ig n and WISC P i c t u r e C o m p le tio n , B lo c k D e s i g n , and O b je c t A s s e m b ly WISC B lo c k D e s ig n and WISC P e r fo r m a n c e WISC B lo c k D e s ig n and WISC P u l l S c a l e WISC B lo c k D e s ig n and EFT WISC O b je c t A s s e m b ly and WISC P i c t u r e C o m p le t io n , B lo c k D e s i g n , an d O b je c t A s s e m b ly WISC O b je c t A s s e m b ly and WISC P e r fo r m a n c e WISC O b je c t A s s e m b ly and EFT WISC C od in g and WISC A r i t h m e t i c , D i g i t S p a n , and C o d in g Croup 1 Group 2 Group 3 •7k .79 .93 .90 .93 .90 .81+ .89 .70 .75 .91; .96 .95 .81; .71; .80 - . 7 2 -.71; .81+ .76 .82 .72 - .7 0 .95 .93 .96 TABLE 9 (co n tin u ed ) 102 V a r ia b le s Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, Block D e sig n , and O bject A ssem bly and WISC Performance .88 .72 WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, B l o c k D e sig n , and O bject Assembly and EFT - .7 8 WISC Performance and WISC F u l l S ca le .92 . 814 . .91 WISC Performance and WISC A r i t h m e t i c , D i g i t Span and Coding .7b th a t the r e s u lts of the u n iv a ria te a n a ly sis a r e not co n tam in ated by p o s sible v a ria n c e due to c o rre la tio n . W hen the c o v a ria te s a r e held c o n stan t a c r o s s the g ro u p s, the lack of sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s su p p o rts the concept of d iffe re n tia te d cognitive a b ilitie s and p u ts in re lie f the r e s u lt th at the sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s a r e a function of the g ro u p s r a th e r than a function of the c o v a ria te s . T his c e rta in ly lends c r e dence to the ra tio n a le of the study. An im p o rta n t point of d is c u s s io n c o n c e rn s the level and p a tte r n of the students w ithin and betw een the g ro u p s. The stu d en ts in G roups 2 and 3 w ere ch osen on the b a s is of the d iffe re n c e betw een th e ir DAT VR and SR stan in es. A stu d e n t's in c lu sio n in th o se g ro u p s w as d e te rm in e d by a d iffere n ce of a t le a s t th re e stan in es. By definition then, G ro u p s 2 and 3 a re b ia sed and skew ed g ro u p s w hich m ad e m o re p la u sib le the r e s e a rc h hy p o th eses for the ex p ected p a tte r n s of obtained s c o r e s on the c r ite r io n v a ria b le s . At the sam e tim e th e se b ia se d and skew ed g ro u p s contain unequal re p re s e n ta tio n a t the h ig h e r and lo w er stanine le v e ls w hich m ig h t re s u lt in d iffe re n c e s in le v e ls of ability. At f ir s t it w as thought n e c e s s a r y to c o n tro l fo r th is skew ing in the a n a ly sis of c o v a ria n c e by using only s c o re s of th o se su b je c ts w hose DAT VR s t a n in e s w e re a t the a v e ra g e range (4, 5, and 6) and reru n n in g the data w ith the s c o re s of those su b je c ts w hose DAT SR stan in es w ere at the a v e ra g e ran g e (4, 5, and 6). T his d e c isio n w as re je c te d on the b a s is of co n su ltatio n fro m the U n iv ersity of S outhern C alifo rn ia C om puter S erv ic e C en ter fo r the following re a s o n s : 1) the n 's would be too sm all; 2) the n 's would be unequal, th e re b y reducing the p o w er of the te st; and 3) in a ll p ro b a b ility the re je c te d s c o r e s would not m ake m o re p o w erfu l n o r m o re significant the r e s u lts of a second a n a ly sis of co- v a ria n c e . C onsequently, w h a te v e r e r r o r v a ria n c e is accounted fo r by the con tam in atio n of the skewing of the g ro u p s, it w as not felt to be of any s ta tis tic a l significance. C oncerning the ra tio n a le fo r the r e s e a r c h effort, it would be e a s y enough e ith e r to d is m is s it a s in su fficien tly sup p o rted o r to d e fend it by c ritic iz in g u n co n tro llab le v a ria b le s . The fact re m a in s how e v e r th a t c o g n itiv e /lin g u istic a b ilitie s a r e re fle c te d in sta n d a rd iz e d te s ts and ac a d e m ic ach iev em en t and do have d ir e c t and in d ire c t e f fe c ts on them . T his study w as in itia ted on the b a s is of a c o n s tru c t o r m odel 104 w hich d e a ls w ith c e r e b ra l, cognitive, lin g u istic, and s e n s o ry p r o c e s s e s and which w as thought to explain m o re a c c u ra te ly the o b se rv e d b eh av io rs and obtained s c o re s . None of the r e s u lts of th is study su p p o rts the ab so lu te validity of the c o n s tru c t, fo r the r e s u lts a re lim ite d to b e h a v io ra l a ss o c ia tio n s (c rite rio n v a ria b le s ) and not to m anipulable independent v a ria b le s w ithin an e x p e rim e n ta l design. H ence, the m odel h as b een n e ith e r v alid ate d n o r invalidated. How e v e r, it is felt th at the r e s u lts of th is study a r e co m p atib le w ith the p o ssib le validity of the c o n s tru c t and th e re fo re it is still open fo r e x p e rim e n ta tio n . To su p p o rt and v alid ate the c o n stru c t, h e u r is tic e x p e rim e n ta l stu d ies a r e re q u ire d at a ll le v els of the m odel. V ery definitely th is study re e m p h a s iz e s the r e s u lts of m a n y p r e vious stu d ies re g a rd in g the sin g u la r im p o rta n c e of v e rb a l sk ills with a c a d e m ic v a ria b le s . At the sam e tim e , it is hoped th a t th is study has d e m o n stra te d (m o st obviously by its lack of sig n ifican t re s u lts ) the n e c e s s ity of d e te rm in in g w hat n o n -v e rb a l a b ilitie s a re . Any study, w h eth er e x p e rim e n ta l o r a s s o c ia tio n a l, m u s t be able to define its v a ria b le s . To study c o rre la tio n s and effects on no n -d efin ed v a r i a b le s is p re s u m p tu o u s at b e st, even though it m a y be the only c u r r e n t choice. It is the opinion of th is in v e stig a to r th a t n o n -v e rb a l co g n itiv e/ lin g u istic a b ilitie s a r e m o re than not som ething. They a r e s o m e thing; they do effect and a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith c o g n itiv e /lin g u istic 105 functioning. B efore m eaningful in v e stig atio n of this study can be p u r sued, the d e te rm in a tio n of w hat n o n -v e rb a l a b ilitie s a r e m u s t be m ade. The r e s u lts of the chi sq u a re a n a ly sis show th at c la s s r o o m b e h a v io r, a s p e rc e iv e d by a ca d em ic and n o n -a c a d e m ic te a c h e r s com bined and m e a s u re d by the B u rk s, is significantly m o re a c c e p ta b le am ong G roup 1 students and v e ry significantly le s s acc ep tab le am ong G roup 3 students. A pp aren tly th e re is no d iffe re n c e am ong G roup 2 stu dents. T his su p p o rts the contention th a t b eh av io r is a function of d if fe re n tia te d cognitive a b ilitie s w ith m o re high v e rb a l stu d en ts behaving m o re acc ep tab ly and m o re high sp atial students behaving le s s a c c e p t ably. This would su g g est th at p e rc e iv e d a n d /o r ac tu a l student b eh av io r is a function of v e rb a l facility as d e m o n stra te d by te a c h e r ach iev em en t e x p ec tan cies. C o n v ersely , student d e m o n stra tio n of v e rb a l facility m a y p a r tia lly d ic tate the o b se rv e d b e h a v io rs and in flu ence the te a c h e r p e rc e p tio n s th e re o f. H ow ever, a c a d e m ic te a c h e rs see m o re G roup 1 students behaving sig n ifican tly le s s acc ep tab ly and no d iffere n ce am ong G roup 2 and 3 students. N o n -acad em ic te a c h e r s see no d iffere n ce am ong any of th e students. C H A P T E R V SUMMARY, R E SU L T S, AND SUGGESTIONS Thig c h a p te r p r e s e n ts a rev iew of the study, the r e s u lts obtained, and suggestions fo r fu rth e r study. SUMMARY It w as o b se rv e d th a t students w hose sp a tia l a b ilitie s a re b e tte r than th e ir lin g u istic a b ilitie s ach iev e le s s w ell in a c a d e m ic su b jects and b e tte r in n o n -a c a d e m ic su b jects than do stu d en ts w hose lin g u istic a b ilitie s a r e equal to o r b e tte r than th e ir sp a tia l a b ilitie s. M ore sp e cifically, it w as o b se rv e d th a t eighth and ninth g ra d e stu d en ts w hose lin g u istic a b ilitie s a s m e a s u re d by stanine s c o re s fro m the D iffe re n tia l A ptitude T e s ts (DAT) (B ennett, S e a sh o re , and W esm an, 1961) of V erb al R easoning (VR) w e re two o r m o re sta n in e s below th e ir sp a tia l a b ilitie s a s m e a s u re d by stanine s c o re s fro m DAT A b s tra c t R e a so n ing (AR), S patial R elatio n sh ip s (SR), and M ech an ical R easoning (MR), achieved le s s w ell in ac a d e m ic su b jects and b e tte r in n o n -a c a d e m ic su b jects a s d e te rm in e d by te a c h e r g ra d e r e p o r ts than did th o se stu dents whose lin g u istic a b ilitie s as m e a s u re d by DAT VR sta n in e s w e re equal to o r b e tte r than th e ir sp a tia l a b ilitie s a s m e a s u re d by DAT AR, SR, and MR stan in es. T his study a ttem p ted to ex am in e a 106 107 n u m b e r of in terv en in g v a ria b le s which m a y help to explain th is d i s c re p a n t a c a d e m ic p e rfo rm a n c e . A p ilo t study w as u n d e rta k e n to ex am in e the p o s sib ility of d iffe r en tiate d p s y c h o m e tric p ro file s w hich would re fle c t cognitive and lin g u istic a b ilitie s . The r e s u lts su p p o rted th e indication fo r high s p a tia l students to have h ig h e r WISC P e r f o r m a n c e s c o re s and lo w er WISC V e rb a l and IT P A s c o re s . The m a jo r objective of th is study w a s to identify com m on and unique cognitive c h a r a c te r is tic s am ong ninth g ra d e ju n io r high school students. R e ita n 's (1955a, 1955b, 1956, 1958a, 1958b, 1959a, 1959b, 1959c, 1959d, I960, 1966, 1967, 1969; R e ita n and H einem an, 1970; W h eeler and R eitan , 1962) w o rk co n siste n tly showed th a t d iffe re n tia l c e r e b ra l dysfunctions re s u lte d in d iffe re n tia tio n s am ong the language p r o c e s s e s and cognitive a b ilitie s a s re fle c te d on the W e c h sle r S cales. L eft c e r e b r a l in ju rie s w e re highly a s s o c ia te d with language cognitive functions and lo w er s c o re s on the W e c h sle r V e rb a l IQ; rig h t c e r e b r a l in ju rie s w e re highly a s s o c ia te d w ith non-language cognitive functions and lo w er s c o re s on the W e c h sle r P e rfo rm a n c e IQ. The r e s u lts in dic ated th a t c e r e b r a l s tr u c tu re s and functioning influenced language sy s te m s and cognitive a b ilitie s. W itkin1 s (1962) w o rk show ed th a t v is u a l-s p a tia l p e rc e p tio n s in fluence o n e 's "cognitive sty le " a s defined by h is m e a s u r e s of a n a ly t 108 ic a l functioning in v is u a l-s p a tia l p e rc e p tio n s . T h is p ro d u ced a p e r ceptual index of field d ep en d en ce-in d ep en d en ce. The field dependent su b jects had h ig h e r s c o re s on the W e c h sle r V e rb a l IQ su b te sts of In fo rm atio n , C o m p reh en sio n , and V ocabulary. The field independent su b jects had h ig h e r s c o r e s on W e c h sle r P e rfo rm a n c e IQ su b te sts of P ic tu r e C om pletion, B lock D esign, and O bject A ssem b ly . His find ings indicated th a t v is u a l-s p a tia l p ro fic ie n c ie s a r e stro n g ly a s s o c i ated with language a b ilitie s and cognitive sty le s. In 1970, W itkin stated th at the E m bedded F ig u re s T e st (E F T ) (Witkin, 1969) p ro v id e s a som ew hat " p u re r" m e a s u r e of an a ly tic a l functioning (o r field d e p e n dence) th an any of the th re e W e c h sle r su b te sts loading on the a n a ly t ic al facto r. A rev iew of the lite r a tu r e w as m ad e con cern in g o b se rv e d c h a r a c te r i s tic s of te a c h e r attitu d e, p a re n t-c h ild re la tio n s h ip s, the learn in g en v iro n m en t, and cognitive d iffere n tiatio n . The s e a rc h m odel is p r e sented in F ig u re 1. F ro m th e se findings a th e o re tic a l fra m e w o rk evolved w hich is outlined a s follows: 1. Cognitive d ev elo p m en t is m u tu ally dependent upon and is fac ilita te d by a language s y ste m . (W horf, 1956; M anis, 1 9 6 8 ) 2. The language s y ste m is dependent upon a se n so ry channel input sy ste m , an in te rn a l re fe re n c e sy stem , and an o p e r- 109 able output sy ste m (the la tte r of w hich p ro v id e s fe e d b ack thro u g h the sam e and o th e r se n s o ry channel s y s te m s ). (Osgood, 1957a, 1957b) 3. The language sy ste m m a y be v e rb a l, sp atial, o r som e com bination th ereo f. 4. A v e rb a l language s y ste m is d ependent upon an in ta c t au d ito ry se n s o ry channel sy ste m . (K irk, M cC arthy, and K irk, 1968) 5. A v e rb a l language sy ste m is c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith left c e r e b r a l functioning. (R eitan, I960) 6. A sp a tia l language s y ste m is d ependent upon an in tact v isu a l se n so ry channel sy ste m . (Sm ith, 1964) 7. A sp a tia l language sy ste m is c lo se ly a s s o c ia te d w ith rig h t c e r e b r a l functioning. (R eitan, 1958b) 8. The rela tio n sh ip betw een the d ev elo p m en t of the v e rb a l and s p a tia l language s y ste m s is a s s o c ia te d w ith cognitive d iffe re n tia tio n s a s found in: a. c e r e b r a l functioning (R eitan) b. cognitive style (Witkin) c. ed u catio n al b e h a v io ra l m a n ife s ta tio n s (C a rm ic a l, 1962; F ra n k e l, I960) The m a jo r contention of th is in v estig atio n w as th a t 1) cognition d evelops through language sy ste m s; 2) language sy ste m s develop 110 through s e n s o ry channel s y ste m s com posed of re c e p tiv e , a sso c ia tiv e , and e x p re s s iv e p r o c e s s e s ; 3) d iffere n tiated cognitive a b ilitie s and th e ir e x p re s s iv e m a n ife s ta tio n s affect the e n v iro n m e n t w hich in tu rn p ro v id e s feedback to d e lin e a te fu rth e r the language s y s te m s and co g nitive developm ent; and 4) d iffe re n tia te d cognitive a b ilitie s and th e ir e x p re s s iv e m a n ife sta tio n s e lic it d iffe re n t p e rc e p tio n s fro m individu a ls in the en v iro n m en t. F r o m the r e s u lts of the p ilo t study, the cited r e s e a r c h , and the th e o re tic a l fra m e w o rk , it w as re a so n a b le to ex p e c t stu d en ts w ith d if fe re n tia te d cognitive a b ilitie s a s d e te rm in e d by DAT VR and 3R s t a nines to o btain d iffe re n tia te d s c o re s on the WISC, E F T , GPA, and the B u rk s B eh av io r R ating Scale. H ence, th is study in v e stig ated the following p ro b le m s: 1. Do stu d en ts w ith d iffere n tiated cognitive a b ilitie s d iffer sig n ifican tly fro m stu d en ts w ithout d iffe re n tia te d co g n i tive a b ilitie s on obtained WISC, E F T , GPA, and B u rk s sc o re s? 2. Do VR>SR students d iffe r significantly fro m VR<SR s tu d en ts on obtained WISC, E F T , G PA , and B u rk s s c o re s ? 3. When VR s c o r e s a r e held constant, do stu d en ts with ob tain ed s c o r e s on the WISC, E F T , G PA , and B urks v a ry sig n ifican tly acc o rd in g to th e ir SR sc o re s? 4. When SR s c o r e s a r e held constant, do students w ith ob I l l ta in ed s c o r e s on the WISC, E F T , GPA, and B u rk s v a ry sig n ifican tly acc o rd in g to th e ir VR sc o re s? V a ria b le s 1. The v a r ia te s w e re the DAT VR and SR stan in es. 2. The c r ite r io n v a ria b le s w ere: a. WISC F u ll Scale b. WISC V e rb a l c. WISC P e rfo rm a n c e d. WISC In fo rm atio n e. WISC C o m p reh en sio n f. WISC A rith m e tic g. WISC S im ila ritie s h. WISC V o cab u lary i. WISC Digit Span j. WISC Inform ation, C o m p reh en sio n , and V o cab u la ry (W itkin1 s V e rb a l C o m p reh en sio n F a c to r) k. WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion 1. WISC P ic tu r e A rra n g e m e n t m . WISC B lock D esign n. WISC O bject A ssem b ly o. WISC Coding p. WISC M azes 112 q. WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, Block D esign, and O bject A sse m b ly (W itkin1 s A n aly tical F ie ld A p p ro a c h F a c to r) r. E F T s. T otal G P A t. A cadem ic GPA u. N o n -acad em ic G PA v. B urks Null H ypotheses 1. Using the to tal N 's (30) fo r eac h group, the following null h y p o th e ses w e re m ade: a. The m e a n s c o re s of G roups 2 and 3 a r e eq u al to the m e a n s c o re s of G roup 1 fo r each of the c r i t e rion v a ria b le s . Ho: M =M = M„ 2 1 3 b. The m e a n s c o re s of G roup 2 a r e le s s than o r equal to th e m e a n s c o r e s of G roups 1 and 3 for eac h of the following v a ria b le s: (1) WISC V e rb a l (2) WISC In fo rm atio n (3) WISC C o m p re h en sio n (4) WISC V o cab u la ry (5) WISC Info rm atio n , C o m p re h en sio n , and V o cab u lary (6) E F T (7) A cadem ic G PA Ho: M, - M - M 1 2 3 The m ed ian fre q u e n c y of G roup 2 is le s s than o r equal to the m e d ian freq u en cy of G roup 1 and not eq u al to the m e d ia n freq u en cy of Group 3 on the B u rk s. Ho: Mdn - Mdn / Mdn 1 2 3 The m e an s c o r e s of G roup 3 a r e le s s than o r eq u al to the m e a n s c o r e s of G roups 1 and 2 for ea c h of the following v a ria b le s : (1) WISC P e rfo rm a n c e (2) WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion (3) WISC Block D esign (4) WISC O bject A sse m b ly (5) WISC P ic tu r e C om pletion, Block D e sign, and O bject A sse m b ly (6) N o n -acad em ic GPA Ho: M. - M„ - 13 2 The m e a n s c o re of G roup 3 is g r e a te r than o r eq u al to the m e a n s c o re of G ro u p s 1 and 2 on the 114 Ho M - M - M 1 3 2 2. Using the n 1 s of eac h g ro u p , w h e re VR is held co n stan t and SR v a r ie s , the sam e null h y p o th e ses w ere m ade. 3. Using the n 1 s of ea c h g roup, w h ere SR is held co n stan t and VR v a rie s , the sa m e null h y p o th e ses w ere m ade. Subjects The su b jects w ere ninth g ra d e ju n io r high school stu d en ts in the R iv e rsid e Unified School D is tric t who fell into one of th re e groups on the b a sis of th e ir DAT stan in es. The th re e g ro u p s w ere: G roup 1. DAT VR stanine equal to DAT SR Stanine (VR=SR). G roup 2. DAT VR th re e o r m o re sta n in e s h ig h e r than DAT SR stanine (VR>SR). G roup 3. DAT VR th re e o r m o re sta n in e s low er than DAT SR stanine (VR<SR). F r o m eac h of th e se th r e e g ro u p s (obtained fro m the to ta l population of ninth g ra d e ju n io r high school stu d en ts in the R iv e rsid e Unified School D istric t), 30 Ss w ere ran d o m ly se le c te d fro m which the d ata w as o b tained. D esign Since th is study is a d e sc rip tiv e in v e stig atio n and did not m a n ip u late independent v a ria b le s , no e x p e rim e n ta l d e sig n s w ere em ployed. H ow ever, the obtained data w e re in te rv a l and o rd in a l and the v a ria n c e w as analyzed using u n iv a ria te a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e , m u ltiv a ria te a n a l 115 y s is of c o v a ria n c e , and chi sq u a re tech n iq u es. M a te ria ls The following in s tru m e n ts w e re em ployed: 1. W e c h sle r Intelligence Scale fo r C h ild ren 2. W itk in 's E m bedded F ig u r e s T e s t 3. B u rk s B eh av io r Rating Scale P r o c e d u re T h re e g ro u p s of students, re p re s e n tin g the to ta l population of ninth g ra d e ju n io r high school stu d en ts in the R iv e rsid e Unified School D is tric t w ith th e d esig n ated cognitive d iffe re n tia tio n s a s d e te rm in e d by DAT VR and SR sta n in e s, w ere a s sig n e d n u m b e rs . F ro m each of th e se g ro u p s 30 Ss w e re ran d o m ly s e le c te d fro m a tab le of ran d o m n u m b e rs. E ac h of th e se stu d en ts w as a d m in is te re d the WISC and th e E F T by a q ualified, c e rtific a te d , and c u rre n tly e m ployed school p sy ch o lo g ist. E ac h of the te a c h e r s fo r eac h of th e se stu d en ts co m p leted a B u rk s B eh av io r Rating Scale. N e ith e r the te a c h e r s n o r th e school p sy c h o lo g ist a d m in iste rin g th e se in s tr u m e n ts w ere co gnizant of w hich group the stu d en ts w e re a sso c ia te d . T otal, a c a d e m ic , and n o n -a c a d e m ic G P A 's w e re com puted for each of the students fo r the Spring S e m e s te r, 1970. RESU LTS T ab les 5 th ro u g h 9 re p o rte d the s ta tis tic a l r e s u lts of the te s ts fo r sig n ifican ce of the null h y p o th eses. Significant d iffe re n c e s w e re 116 found am ong WISC V e rb a l s u b te s ts with G roup 2 obtaining hig h er m e a n s c o r e s than G roups 1 and 3, and G roup 1 obtaining hig h er m e a n s c o r e s th an G roup 3. A lso, w ith the c la s s r o o m b e h a v io r m e a s u re d by the B u rk s, G roup 1 students re c e iv e d m o r e low s c o r e s than high and G roup 3 stu d en ts re c e iv e d m o re high s c o r e s th a n low. Finally, w hen th e c o v a ria te s w ere held co n stan t a c r o s s the g ro u p s, th e re w e re no sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s found. SUGGESTIONS The r e s u lts of th is study advocate the following suggestions fo r f u r th e r r e s e a rc h : 1. A p o sitiv e ly defined d e te rm in a tio n should be m ade of w hat sp atial o r n o n -v e rb a l a b ilitie s a r e . 2. R eplication of th is study should be m ad e a t se v e ra l g ra d e le v e ls to d e te rm in e if o b s e rv e d d iffe re n c e s a r e p a r tia lly a function of age and g ra d e range. 3. 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Creator Moore, Telford Ira (author)

Core Title The Relationship Among Differentiated Cognitive Abilities, Field Dependency, Achievement, And Rated Classroom Behavior Of Ninth Grade Junior High School Students

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

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Advisor Magary, James F. (committee chair), Birren, James E. (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-467800

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Rights Moore, Telford Ira

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