Application Of The Micro-Counseling Method Using Video-Tape Recordings Tothe Training Of Teachers In Basic Counseling Techniques

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Content APPLICATION OF THE MICRO-COUNSELING METHOD USING VIDEO TAPE RECORDINGS TO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN BASIC COUNSELING TECHNIQUES bY R o b e r t A l l e n K e r r e b r o c k A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d t o th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ( E d u c a tio n ) F e b r u a r y 1971 71 - 21,470 KERREBROCK, Robert Allen, 1936- APPLICATION OF THE MICRO-COUNSELING METHOD USING VIDEO-TAPE RECORDINGS TO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN BASIC COUNSELING TECHNIQUES. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1971 Education, guidance and counseling U niversity Microfilms, A XEROX Company , A nn Arbor, M ichigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 0 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by B .o k £ £ £ . ................. under the direction of h.is..... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date J.une...J,3.7.1............... DISSERTATION C jbM MITTEE . n k (L , 2. . ................... Chairman I PREFACE " M i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g " i s a v i d e o m ethod o f t r a i n i n g i c o u n s e l o r s i n b a s i c s h i l l s o f c o u n s e l i n g w i t h i n a s h o r t i p e r i o d o f t im e . T h is r e s e a r c h e x am in e s t h e e f f e c t s o f j j m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e s upon e i g h t e e n h i g h j i s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . T h ree d i f f e r e n t s k i l l s - - " a t t e n d i n g j \ I b e h a v i o r , " " r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g , " and " e x p r e s s i o n o f I | fe e l i n g " - - a r e th e f o c u s o f r e s e a r c h . ; j T h re e c o u n s e l o r s i n d i v i d u a l l y " t r a i n " s i x t e a c h e r s ; I i n th e t h r e e s k i l l s . An e v a l u a t i o n o f e a c h t e a c h e r ' s p r o f i c i e n c y i n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e s k i l l s i s t h e n made by i " c o u n s e l i n g e x p e r t s " a f t e r , v ie w in g a f i v e - m i n u t e v i d e o t a p e d s e c t i o n o f e a c h s k i l l . S i g n i f i c a n c e i s j u d g e d by c o m p a rin g v i d e o - t a p e r e c o r d i n g s o f a c o n t r o l g ro u p t h a t h a s r e c e i v e d no t r a i n i n g . In a d d i t i o n , h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s c o m p le te a s e m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l - t y p e s c a l e on e a c h t e a c h e r i n th e s t u d y i n o r d e r t o a p p r a i s e th e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE i i C h a p te r I . INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1 The P rob lem S t a te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m V a r i a b l e s H y p o th e s e s Im p o r ta n c e o f th e S tu d y A s su m p tio n s and D e l i m i t a t i o n s A s su m p tio n s D e l i m i t a t i o n s D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms O r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e R e m a in in g C h a p te r s I I . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE I n t r o d u c t i o n M odel R e in f o r c e m e n t M o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g S i m i l a r i t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e s F e e d b ac k R eview o f r e s e a r c h on fe e d b a c k M ic r o - T e a c h in g M i c r o - C o u n s e l i n g Lay C o u n s e lin g C h a p te r Summary AND RESEARCH 12 iii Chapter Page I I I . IV. SOURCE OF DATA, PROCEDURES, AND METHODOLOGY................................................................................ 70 N a tu re o f th e Sample D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e Sample D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e C o u n s e lo rs D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e E quipm ent t o be Used D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e P r o c e d u r e an d T re a tm e n t The P ro c e d u re The T re a tm e n t Week One Week Two Week T h ree Week F ou r Week F iv e Week S i x D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e I n s t r u m e n t s Used S c a le o f " A tte n d in g B e h a v i o r " (SAB) S c a le o f E x p r e s s i o n o f F e e l i n g (SEF) S c a le o f R e f l e c t i o n o f F e e l i n g (SRF) The S c o r i n g o f th e SAB, SEF, and SRF C o u n s e lo r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a le (CES) S e m a n tic D i f f e r e n t i a l S c a le The D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e B a s ic R e s e a r c h D e s ig n and S t a t i s t i c a l T e c h n iq u e Employed Summary FINDINGS: RESULTS OF STUDY ................................ 88 I n t r o d u c t i o n P r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e f i n d i n g s The n u l l h y p o t h e s e s D i s c u s s i o n o f th e f i n d i n g s Summary iv Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................ 103 Summary P u rp o s e o f th e s t u d y T r e a tm e n t a n d m ea su rem en t p r o c e d u r e s S t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s Summary o f th e f i n d i n g s C o n c lu s io n s R ecom m endations B IB L IO G R A PH Y ........................................................................................... 108 A P P E N D IC E S ................................................................................................ 119 A p p e n d ix A: T a b l e s ..................................................................... 120 A p p e n d ix B: M anuals f o r T r a i n i n g S k i l l s . . . 128 A p p e n d ix C: M easurem ent S c a l e s ....................................... 144 A p p e n d ix D: R a t i n g S c a l e o f C o u n s e lo r E f f e c t i v e n e s s ................................................ 150 A p p e n d ix E: I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e C .E .S . . . . 153 v I I CHAPTER I ! l ! ! INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY | t The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f l e x i b l e s c h e d u l i n g t o th e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l h a s h e lp e d a d v a n c e t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n . P r im a ry g a i n s have b e e n i n th e a r e a s o f s m a l l - g r o u p i n s t r u c t i o n an d d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f s u b j e c t s . ; ! One o f th e m a jo r p ro b le m s t h a t h a s d e v e lo p e d i s t h a t j c e r t a i n s t u d e n t s become l o s t i n t h e i r n e w ly - f o u n d s e l f - ! ! d i r e c t i o n and freedom and f a l l b e h in d i n t h e i r s t u d i e s i f ; [ no one s e e s them r e g u l a r l y en o u g h t o m o n i t o r t h e i r i p r o g r e s s . Some t e a c h e r a d v i s o r s have b e e n e f f e c t i v e i n m in im iz in g t h i s c o n f u s i o n ; h o w e v e r, many t e a c h e r s f e e l u n c o m f o r t a b l e when p l a c e d i n t h i s " c a r i n g " r o l e and f i n d i i t d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t w i t h t h e i r a d v i s e e s . ! The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s i s p r o p o s e d a s a r e l a t i v e l y p r o m is in g way o f t e a c h i n g 1 a d v i s o r s t h e b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g m ethods i n a s h o r t p e r i o d of! t im e . The P ro blem Most o f th e r e s e a r c h t h a t has b e e n c o m p le te d t o d a te i n t h e a r e a o f m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g h a s b e e n c o n d u c te d i n U n i v e r s i t y C o u n s e l o r - E d u c a t i o n p ro g ra m s . The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e g ro u p s h a s c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y o f c o u n s e l o r s - i n - t r a i n i n g who had a s p e c i f i c n e e d t o l e a r n ' c o u n s e l i n g s h i l l s . In t h e s t u d i e s p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d , no c o n t r o l g ro u p s w ere u t i l i z e d t o d e te r m in e th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e t r a i n i n g . T h is makes i t d i f f i c u l t to g e n e r a l i z e th e r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h t o th e la y c o u n s e l o r - t r a i n e e . j The c o n c e rn o f th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , h a s b e e n t o a p p ly th e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m ethod t o t h e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s i n b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s . S t a te m e n t o f t h e Problem The m a jo r o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , s t a t e d i n i g e n e r a l t e r m s , was t o d e te r m i n e w h e th e r b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s c a n be t a u g h t t o t e a c h e r s u s i n g a m i c r o c o u n s e l i n g a p p r o a c h . 3 More s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o s e e k a n s w e rs t o t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : 1. I s t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t e a c h e r s who w ere t r a i n e d i n c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s u s i n g v i d e o t a p e m e th o d s , an d t e a c h e r s i n a c o n t r o l g r o u p , a s m e a s u re d by v a r i o u s s c a l e s . 2. A re th e t e a c h e r s who r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g i n c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s s e e n by t h e i r s t u d e n t s a s b e i n g more e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e l o r s t h a n a r e t e a c h e r s i n th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . V a r i a b l e s The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s to be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s s t u d y w ere th e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m e th o d s . The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere s c o r e s on v a r i o u s s c a l e s t o be c o m p le te d by e x p e r t s i n c o u n s e l i n g a f t e r v ie w in g v i d e o t a p e s and one p a p e r - p e n c i l i n v e n t o r y . The f o l l o w i n g s c a l e s w ere u s e d : 1. S c a l e o f " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r " ( 4 4 ) . 2. S c a le o f " r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g " ( 7 4 ) . 3. S c a l e o f " e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g " ( 7 4 ) . 4 . " C o u n s e lo r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e " ( 4 3 ) . 4 H y p o th e se s I i To s t u d y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e i n d e p e n d e n t ■ an d d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , th e f o l l o w i n g m a jo r h y p o t h e s e s w ere f o r m u l a t e d : I 1. T e a c h e r s l e a r n i n g c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s u s i n g a m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g a p p ro a c h w i l l have s c o r e s on t h e s c a l e t o f " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r " t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o f th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . 2. T e a c h e r s l e a r n i n g c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s u s i n g a m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l have s c o r e s on th e s c a l e o f " r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g " t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r I ! t h a n th o s e o f th e c o n t r o l g r o u p . 3. T e a c h e r s l e a r n i n g c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s u s i n g a m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l h av e s c o r e s on th e s c a l e : I o f " e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g " t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r j ! i t h a n t h o s e o f t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . j I i 4 . T e a c h e r s l e a r n i n g c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s u s i n g a m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g a p p r o a c h w i l l b e r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r by s t u d e n t s on th e " c o u n s e l o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s s c a l e " t h a n w i l l t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . Im p o rta n c e o f th e S tu d y Even a c u r s o r y r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n r e v e a l s a d i v e r s i t y o f o p i n i o n r e g a r d in g th e a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g and r o l e f u n c t i o n o f th e p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l i n c o u n s e l i n g . The a p p a r e n t c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t s , n o t from any a rg u m e n t s u r r o u n d i n g t h e n e ed f o r s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l , b u t r a t h e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o th e f u n c t i o n , r o l e d e f i n i t i o n an d r o l e l i m i t a t i o n s p l a c e d upon th e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n th e c o n t e x t o f a p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l p o s i t i o n . The A m e ric an P e r s o n n e l and G u id an ce A s s o c i a t i o n (APGA) (5) h a s p r o p o s e d s e v e r a l g u i d e l i n e s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l . I t s u g g e s t s t h a t t r a i n i n g be s p e c i f i c and c o n c r e t e , o f l i m i t e d d u r a t i o n and aim ed to w a rd s u p p o r t i n g , n o t u s u r p i n g , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e c o u n s e l o r . F o r e x a m p le , APGA s u g g e s t s t h a t s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l m ig h t o p e r a t e u n d e r t h e a e g i s o f b o t h d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t h e l p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . D i r e c t h e l p i n g r e l a t i o n s w ould b e i l l u s t r a t e d by i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r v i e w i n g o f a p r e d o m i n a n t l y f a c t u a l and i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g n a t u r e , p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o th e 6 c o u n s e l o r , t h e f o l l o w up o f c l i e n t s , an d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f i n i t i a l c l i e n t r a p p o r t w i t h th e c o u n s e l i n g s t a f f . F u r t h e r , s t r u c t u r e d d i s c u s s i o n g ro u p l e a d e r s h i p , o b s e r v a t i o n and i n i t i a l r a p p o r t b u i l d i n g w i t h a g ro u p a r e s e e n a s p o s s i b l e a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t i e s f o r s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l by APGA. I n d i r e c t h e l p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e v o l v e more a ro u n d p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l d u t i e s s u c h a s d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s , p r e p a r a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , e t c . , w h ic h m ig h t be p e rf o r m e d a d e q u a t e l y by t h e p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l . The m a j o r i t y o f a u t h o r s who h av e fo und o c c a s i o n t o comment upon t h e t r a i n i n g o f p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l s h av e s u p p o r t e d t h e g u i d e l i n e s o f APGA, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o th e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e d e f i n i t i o n s f o r s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l and t h e m a in te n a n c e o f c o u n s e l o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and s u p e r v i s i o n (3 7 , 4 0 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 8 3 ) . G u i d e l i n e s a s i d e , t h e e v id e n c e f o r th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l i s e q u i v o c a l . A c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f l i t e r a t u r e e x i s t s i n c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n w h ic h s u g g e s t s t h a t l a y p e r s o n n e l c a n b e t r a i n e d t o f u n c t i o n q u i t e a d e q u a t e l y w i t h i n t h e r o l e o f c o u n s e l o r (1 9 , 2 1 , 4 4 , 5 8 , 5 9 ) . Assumptions and Delimitations A s su m p tio n s 1. I t was assum ed t h a t th e C o u n s e lo r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a le (CES) i s a n a p p r o p r i a t e m e a su re f o r d e t e r m i n i n g c o u n s e l i n g a b i l i t y . T h is a s s u m p t io n i s b a s e d on p r e v i o u s u s e o f t h i s s c a l e , and f i n d i n g s r e g a r d i n g r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y a r e r e p o r t e d i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y . 2. I t was assum ed t h a t th e s c a l e s " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r , " " r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g , " and " e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g " a r e a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u re s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g m a s te r y o f t h e s e s k i l l s . T h is a s s u m p t io n i s b a s e d on a p r e v i o u s u s e o f t h e s e s c a l e s t o m e a su re s u c h s k i l l s . F i n d i n g s r e g a r d i n g r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y a r e r e p o r t e d i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h i s r e p o r t . 3. I t i s assum ed t h a t no d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d b e tw e e n th e two g ro u p s on th e c r i t e r i o n m e a s u re s p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h is a s s u m p tio n i s b a s e d on th e f a c t t h a t a l l s u b j e c t s w ere ran d o m ly a s s i g n e d . D e l i m i t a t i o n s 1. The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y im p oses a l i m i t a t i o n on i t s f i n d i n g s w h ic h a r e a p p l i c a b l e o n ly t o t e a c h e r s an d s e c o n d a r y s t u d e n t s o f l i k e e t h n i c h e r i t a g e . | 2. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e f u r t h e r l i m i t e d ; i n t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s in v o lv e d i n t h e s t u d y w ere a l l i j v o l u n t e e r s . j i D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms M i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g . A v i d e o m eth od o f t r a i n i n g c o u n s e l o r s i n b a s i c s k i l l s o f c o u n s e l i n g i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t im e . A t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . The c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l d e s i g n e d t o make t h e a d v i s o r more a t t e n t i v e t o th e s t u d e n t t o whom he i s t a l k i n g an d t o com m unicate t h i s j I a t t i t u d e o f i n t e r e s t t o th e s t u d e n t . I E x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g s . The c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l w h ic h a i d s th e s t u d e n t i n e x p r e s s i n g h i s f e e l i n g s i a c c u r a t e l y t o th e c o u n s e l o r . j R e sp o n d in g t o f e e l i n g s . The c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l o f b e i n g a b l e t o r e f l e c t t o t h e s t u d e n t t h e e s s e n c e o f w hat he h a s com m u n icated i n a n a t t e m p t t o i n d i c a t e t h a t you have u n d e r s t o o d w h at he h a s s a i d , how he f e e l s , e t c e t e r a . A d v i s o r . A s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r tw e n ty s t u d e n t s . T h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s h o u l d be b a s e d on a ’’ c a r i n g " r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h ic h c a n v a r y from a m in im a l " c l e r i c a l f o l l o w i n g " t o g e n u in e c o n c e r n . T r a i n e r . One o f t h r e e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r s who have v o l u n t e e r e d t o h e l p t r a i n a d v i s o r s i n b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s f o l l o w i n g th e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g f ra m e w o rk. 1 C o u n s e l o r - E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a le (CES ) . The CES i s j a s e m a n t ic d i f f e r e n t i a l - t y p e s c a l e d e v e lo p e d by Iv ey (43) | I t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n e f f e c t i v e and i n e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e l o r s . T h is s c a l e was c o m p le te d by h i g h s c h o o l i s t u d e n t s t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r a d v i s o r s ' c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s . " A tte n d in g B e h a v i o r " s c a l e . A s c a l e w h ic h m e a s u r e s t h e c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l o f a t t e n d i n g o r l i s t e n i n g t o a s t u d e n t , b o t h v e r b a l l y and n o n - v e r b a l l y , and c o n t a i n s t h e s e t h r e e su b s c a l e s : (1) v e r b a l f o l l o w i n g , (2) eye c o n t a c t , and (3) p o s t u r e . T hese v a r i a b l e s a r e m e a su re d by a 5 - p o i n t c o n s t a n t r e s p o n s e , L i c k e r t - t y p e s c a l e . A nchor s t a t e m e n t s a r e p l a c e d a t t h e p o s i t i v e an d n e g a t i v e en d s o f 10 th e c o n tin u u m ( a b b r e v i a t e d SAB). T h is s c a l e was u s e d by " C o u n s e lin g E x p e r t s " t o e v a l u a t e a d v i s o r s ' v i d e o t a p e s . " E x p r e s s io n o f F e e l i n g 1 1 s c a l e . A s c a l e a d a p t e d by H aase (38) from C a r k h u f f (74) w h ic h m e a su re s th e a b i l i t y o f th e s t u d e n t t o e x p r e s s how he r e a l l y " f e e l s " a b o u t a s u b j e c t . I t h a s much t h e same d e s i g n a s th e abov e s c a l e , i s a b b r e v i a t e d SEF, and was u se d by " C o u n s e lin g E x p e r t s " to e v a l u a t e a d v i s o r s ' v i d e o t a p e s . " R e f l e c t i o n o f F e e l i n g " s c a l e . A s c a l e d e s i g n e d much t h e same a s th e above two w h ic h a t t e m p t s t o m ea su re th e i d e a , " I am w i t h y o u . . . . I c a n a c c u r a t e l y s e n s e th e w o r ld a s you f e e l i t . " T h ere i s a c o m m u n ic a tio n o f e m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g . The s c a l e i s b a s e d on a l i n e a r c o n tin u u m from 1-14 and r e q u i r e s t h e a s s u m p tio n t h a t r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g a s a c o n s t r u c t i s l i n e a r l y o r d e r e d from c o n t e n t t h r o u g h d eep a f f e c t ( a b b r e v i a t e d SRF). " C o u n s e lin g E x p e r t s " u s e d t h i s s c a l e t o e v a l u a t e a d v i s o r s ' v i d e o t a p e s . 11 O r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e R em ain in g C h a p ters Chapter II w i l l provide a review o f the lit e r a t u r e and research which covers r e la te d to p ic s o f Model- R einforcem ent, Feedback, M icro-counseling; and Lay- co u n selin g , and M icro-teaching. Chapter I I I w i l l present the source o f data, procedures and methodology used in the study. The ou t comes o f the in v e s t ig a t io n w i l l be presented in Chapter IV. A summary o f the research w i l l be presented in Chapter V, as w e ll as a d is c u s s io n o f the fin d in g s , con clusions and recommendations. CHAPTER XI REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH I n t r o d u c t i o n The r e v i e w o f r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e th e b a c k g ro u n d an d l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e s t u d y o f m ic r o - ! c o u n s e l i n g a s a m ethod f o r t r a i n i n g t e a c h e r s i n b a s i c I c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s . The l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h o f v i d e o ta p e f e e d b a c k i n c o u n s e l i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y new. The su d d e n b r e a k t h r o u g h i n p r i c e and s i z e o f e q u ip m e n t h as c a u s e d i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e u se o f v i d e o t a p e i n c o u n s e l i n g and i s b e g i n n i n g t o g e n e r a t e more r e s e a r c h i n i t s u s e . S in c e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g i s an a p p r o a c h t o th e t e a c h i n g o f a s p e c i f i c s k i l l , i t s u s e i s b a s e d on v a r i o u s 12 p r i n c i p l e s . G e n e r a lly , the approach u ses feedback and m odeling to change b eh a v io r. This chap ter w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e the r e se a r c h in r e la t e d areas o f feedback and m odelin g-*-rein forcem en t. In a d d it io n , the b a s ic con cep ts o f m ic r o -te a c h in g w i l l be ex p lo r e d . F i n a l l y , a b r i e f d is c u s s io n o f r e se a r ch on M lay| i c o u n s e l i n g " w i l l c o m p l e t e t h e r e v i e w o f r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e . j | j Model R einforcem ent ! i 1 Mode 1 - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c a n b e d e f i n e d a s a p r o c e d u r e j i n w h ic h s u b j e c t s a r e e x p o s e d t o m o d e ls a n d a r e t h e n r e i n f o r c e d f o r e n g a g i n g i n i m i t a t i v e b e h a v i o r . T h is t e c h n i q u e m akes u s e o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f s o c i a l l e a r n i n g ( 1 1 ) , a n d o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g ( 6 7 ) . j T h e re a r e r e l a t i v e l y few s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a - ! t u r e u t i l i z i n g t h e c o m b in e d t e c h n i q u e s o f m o d e l i n g an d r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n a c o u n s e l i n g o r c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g o u t s i d e o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y . j A l a b o r a t o r y s t u d y i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c a c y o f o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d m o d e l i n g p r o c e d u r e s i s r e p o r t e d b y B a n d u ra a n d M cDonald ( 1 0 ) . T h is 14 experim ent d e a lt w ith P ia g e t 's sta g e theory o f moral developm ent. A ccording to P ia g e t, one can d i s t i n g u i s h two c l e a r - c u t s ta g e s o f moral o r ie n t a t io n s a t approxim ately seven y ea rs o f age. In the f i r s t s t a g e , d efin ed as o b je c t iv e m o r a lity , c h ild r e n judge the g r a v ity o f a d ev ia n t a c t in terms o f the amount o f m a te r ia l damages and d isre g a rd the i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f the a c t io n . By c o n t r a s t , during the second or s u b j e c t iv e m o r a lity s t a g e , c h ild r e n judge conduct in terms o f i t s in t e n t r a th er than i t s m a te r ia l con sequ en ces. In t h is experim ent c h ild r e n who e x h ib it e d predom inately o b je c t iv e or s u b j e c t iv e moral o r ie n t a t io n s were a ssig n e d to one o f three ex p erim en ta l c o n d it io n s . One group o f c h ild r e n observed a d u lt models who ex p ressed moral judgments which ran cou n ter to the grou p's own o r i e n t a t i o n . The c h ild r e n were then r e in fo r c e d w ith approval for ad op tin g the m o d e ls ' e v a lu a t i v e resp o n ses and were a l s o s o c i a l l y r e in fo r c e d . A second group observed the m odels, but the c h ild r e n r e c e iv e d no rein forcem en t for m atching the models 1 b eh a v io r. In b oth o f the m odeling treatm ent c o n d it io n s , the model and the c h ild were a d m in iste r e d , a l t e r n a t e l y , d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f stim u lu s item s w ith the model r e c e iv in g 15: t h e f i r s t i t e m , t h e c h i l d t h e s e c o n d o n e , a n d s o o n . The t h i r d g r o u p h a d n o e x p o s u r e t o t h e m o d e l s , b u t e a c h s u b j e c t was r e i n f o r c e d w h e n e v e r he e x p r e s s e d m o r a l j u d g m e n ts t h a t r a n c o u n t e r t o h i s d o m in a n t e v a l u a t i v e ; j t e n d e n c i e s . T h u s , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n p e r m i t t e d a | i t e s t o f t h e r e l a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f d i r e c t s o c i a l r e i n f o r c e - j m en t a n d o f b e h a v i o r o f m o d e l s , a n d t h e s e two f a c t o r s c o m b in e d i n h e l p i n g s h a p e c h i l d r e n ' s m o r a l j u d g m e n t s . The p r o v i s i o n o f m o d e ls was fo u n d t o b e h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e i n a l t e r i n g t h e c h i l d r e n ' s j u d g m e n t a l r e s p o n s e s . O b j e c t i v e c h i l d r e n m o d i f i e d t h e i r m o r a l o r i e n t a t i o n s to w a r d s u b j e c t i v i t y ; s u b j e c t i v e c h i l d r e n becam e i c o n s i d e r a b l y m ore o b j e c t i v e i n t h e i r j u d g m e n t a l b e h a v i o r ; ! a n d t h e c h i l d r e n m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r a l t e r e d o r i e n t a t i o n s i n a new t e s t s i t u a t i o n w hen m o d e ls a n d s o c i a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t w e re a b s e n t . C h i l d r e n who w e re n o t r e w a r d e d f o r e m i t t i n g i m a t c h i n g r e s p o n s e s t h a t p r o d u c e d p o s i t i v e s o c i a l r e i n - ’ f o r c e m e n t s f o r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m o d e l s , d i s p l a y e d a s i m i l a r r a t e o f m a t c h i n g b e h a v i o r a s s u b j e c t s w hose i i m i t a t i o n was c o n t i n u a l l y r e i n f o r c e d . T h e se f i n d i n g s a r e ] I som ew hat a n a l a g o u s t o e v i d e n c e fro m i n f o r m a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n o f t e n p e r s i s t i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o i m i t a t e c h i l d - p r o h i b i t e d , a d u l t - r o l e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e o b s e r v e d t o b e h i g h l y r e w a r d i n g t o p a r e n t a l m o d e l s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g a l o n e p r o d u c e d s l i g h t , b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , i n c r e a s e s o f r e s p o n s e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f th e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e . In t h e o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g g r o u p s , : t h e s u b o r d i n a n t r e s p o n s e s o c c u r r e d so i n f r e q u e n t l y t h a t [ t h e r e was l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n f l u e n c e them t h r o u g h t r e i n f o r c e m e n t . j I I G e l f a n d a n d H a rtm a n n (3 4 ) r e v i e w e d t h e e x i s t i n g | r e s e a r c h on b e h a v i o r t h e o r y w i t h c h i l d r e n . T h e i r a r t i c l e r e f l e c t e d t h e g e n e r a l n e g l e c t t o d a t e o f t h e u s e o f j i m o d e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s i n c h i l d t h e r a p y ; h o w e v e r , p u b l i s h e d | r e p o r t s o f o p e r a n t a p p r o a c h e s t o c l i n i c a l p r o b le m s a r e ; b e c o m in g m ore n u m e ro u s . ! R e c e n t l y , s e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t s o f m o d e l i n g on c l i n i c a l p r o b l e m s . B a n d u ra a n d M enlove (9 ) c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y w i t h t h i r t y - t w o g i r l s a n d j s i x t e e n b o y s from t h r e e t o f i v e y e a r s o l d who w e re a f r a i d ! o f d o g s . T h e se c h i l d r e n w e re a s s i g n e d t o t h r e e g r o u p s . The c o n t r o l g r o u p was show n m o v ie s t h a t c o n t a i n e d no 5 c a n i n e c h a r a c t e r s . The s i n g l e - m o d e l e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p o b s e r v e d a f e a r l e s s p e e r m o d e l e x h i b i t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y 17 more in tim a te and a s s e r t i v e i n t e r a c t io n s w ith a s i n g l e dog. The m u ltip le-m o d e l ex p erim en ta l group observed s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t models in t e r a c t w ith s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t d ogs, v a ry in g in s i z e and a c t i v i t y l e v e l . The m u ltip le models showed in c r e a s in g ly h ig h er l e v e l s o f a s s e r t i v e n e s s and in tim acy w ith the v a rio u s dogs. The s u b je c ts viewed | a t o t a l o f e ig h t d i f f e r e n t th ree-m inu te movies in groups o f three or four. The c o n tr o l group showed no improvementj ! from p r e t e s t , to p o s t t e s t , to fo llo w up. Both o f the j j m odeling groups improved markedly between p r e t e s t to p o s t t e s t . Only the m u ltip le m odeling treatm ent weakened the j i fe a r s o f the c h ild r e n s u f f i c i e n t l y to enab le them to perform p o t e n t i a l l y th r e a te n in g i n t e r a c t io n s w ith dogs. , In summarizing t h e ir r e s u l t s , Bandura and Menlove j concluded: "The th e r a p e u tic e f f e c t o f sym bolic m odeling j i appears s u f f i c i e n t l y prom ising to warrant fu r th er d e v e l o p - ! ment o f t h i s treatm ent a p p r o a c h ." A n o t h e r r e c e n t c l i n i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f m o d e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o come o u t o f B a n d u ra 's l a b o r a t o r y i s a s t u d y | r e p o r t e d by R i t t e r (6 0 ) who s e l e c t e d t w e n t y - e i g h t , e l e v e n - y e a r - o l d s who e x h i b i t e d s n a k e p h o b i a s . The s t u d y u s e d t h r e e g r o u p s : (1 ) c o n t a c t d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n , (2) v i c a r i o u s 18 I d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n , an d (3) c o n t r o l . In b o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s , two t h i r t y - f i v e - m i n u t e t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s w e re c o n d u c t e d a w eek a p a r t . F o r t h e c o n t a c t d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n g r o u p , t r e a t m e n t was c a r r i e d o u t i n g r o u p s o f s e v e n t o e i g h t c h i l d r e n who s a t i n c h a i r s a r r a n g e d i n a c i r c l e . i The e x p e r i m e n t e r s t o o d i n f r o n t o f them h o l d i n g a n d p e t t i n g a s n a k e . The m ore a s s e r t i v e c h i l d r e n w e re e n c o u r a g e d t o make a d v a n c e s to w a rd t h e s n a k e a n d w e re j g i v e n v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s w h ic h t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h o u g h t t h e y w o u ld be a b l e t o c a r r y o u t . I n t h e v i c a r i o u s d e s e n s i-j t i z a t i o n c o n d i t i o n , f i v e p e e r m o d e ls w e re s e l e c t e d fro m a i i i I p o o l o f " f e a r l e s s " b o y s a n d g i r l s a n d w e re u s e d a t e a c h ! s e s s i o n . The e x p e r i m e n t e r h a d t h e m o d e ls d e m o n s t r a t e 1 i n c r e a s i n g l y a s s e r t i v e b e h a v i o r s to w a r d t h e s n a k e , b u t th e ! s u b j e c t s w e re n o t a l l o w e d t o c a r r y on a n y o f t h e b e h a v i o r s j w h ic h t h e y w e re o b s e r v i n g . The c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s w e re n o t j c o n t a c t e d b e tw e e n t h e a s s e s s m e n t t e s t s . The d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n s u b j e c t s d e c r e a s e d a v o i d a n c e b e h a v i o r s to w a rd s n a k e s j m ore t h a n d i d t h e v i c a r i o u s d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n g r o u p , b u t j ! b o t h d e s e n s i t i z a t i o n g r o u p s show ed a g r e a t e r d r o p i n j I a v o i d a n c e b e h a v i o r t h a n d i d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . | i 19; The s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d a b o v e f o c u s e d on s p e c i f i c p h o b i a s , b u t few c h i l d r e n a r e r e f e r r e d f o r t h e r a p y b e c a u s e o f a s i n g l e d i s c r e t e p h o b i a . T h u s , t h e r e i s n e e d t o s t u d y t h e u s e o f m o d e ls t o t r e a t c l i n i c a l c a s e s w h ic h a r e m ore i r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f c h i l d r e n ' s p r o b l e m s . P e r h a p s t h i s t e c h n i q u e w i l l b e m o st e f f e c t i v e i n s h a p i n g b e h a v i o r j ! e s s e n t i a l t o m in im a l l i v i n g i n t h e m o st s e v e r e l y d i s a b l e d p o p u l a t i o n . M odel-reinforcem ent C ounseling j An amalgamation o f operant and m odeling p r i n c i p l e s ! in to a c o u n s e lin g approach c a l l e d "m odel-reinforcem ent c o u n se lin g " has been formed and a p p lie d to sc h o o l i I p r o b l e m s . T h is t h r u s t h a s come a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y from S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y an d i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h J o h n K ru m b o ltz a n d h i s s t u d e n t s . i V ie w in g i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g a s e s s e n t i a l i n m aking! w i s e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d v o c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s , K r u m b o ltz a n d j S c h r o e d e r (4 8 ) t e s t e d t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g i n i n c r e a s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r . F i f t y - f o u r h i g h s c h o o l j u n i o r s w e re s t u d i e d who h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y l w a n te d a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i s c u s s t h e i r f u t u r e p l a n s w i t h 20 a s p e c i a l c o u n s e lo r . R e in fo rc e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g was a p ro c e d u re i n w hich th e c o u n s e lo r i n v i t e d t t i e s t u d e n t to d is c u s s h i s p la n s and the k in d o f i n f o r m a t i o n h e needed in o r d e r to be a b le to make h i s d e c i s i o n s _ T h e c o u n s e l o r ; J t r i e d to be a l e r t to c o u n s e le e c o m m e n t s a n d s t a t e m e n t s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t he w anted more i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t to ! v o c a t i o n a l or e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n s , o r w a s s e e k i n g o r i n t e n d in g to seek su c h i n f o r m a tio n . Such v e r b a X i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k in g b e h a v io r was r e i n f o r c e d by c o u n s e X o r comments i n d i c a t i n g a p p r o v a l , a g re e m e n t, o r i n t e r e s t . The c o u n s e lo r a l s o employed n o n v e rb a l b e h a v i o r , s u c h a s a nod o r a s m ile , f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The m o d e X — r e i n f o r c e m e n t j i c o u n s e lin g was th e same e x c e p t t h a t p r i o r t o t h e a c t u a l ! c o u n s e lin g s e s s i o n , a ta p e r e c o r d i n g o f a r o l e - p l a y i n g i c o u n s e lin g s e s s i o n was p la y e d , w h i c h p r e s e n t e d a m ale j i s t u d e n t d i s c u s s i n g d e c i s i o n s he w o u l d h a v e t o m ake, and j j h i s need f o r in f o r m a tio n on w hich t o b a s e h i s d e c i s i o n s . i The model c o u n s e lo r r e i n f o r c e d th e s t u d e n t ’ s v e r b a l j i n f o r m a ti o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r , le d t h e s t u d e n t t o c o n s id e r j o t h e r r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a ti o n , and m a d e s u g g e s t i o n s a s to j I p o s s i b l e o t h e r s o u rc e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o u n s e lo r th e n c o n tin u e d th e s e s s i o n i n t h e sam e manner i 22 t o c o n t r o l f o r th e H aw thorne e f f e c t w h ic h th e p r e v i o u s s t u d y d i d n o t p r o v i d e . As i n th e e a r l i e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s t u d y w ere e l e v e n t h - g r a d e boys and g i r l s w ho had v o l u n t e e r e d f o r s p e c i a l c o u n s e l i n g t o h e l p them I j w i t h t h e i r v o c a t i o n a l an d o c c u p a t i o n a l p l a n s . R e i n f o r c e - i i j m e n t c o u n s e l i n g and m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g w ere t h e n c o n d u c te d i n th e same m anner a s i n th e K rum bo ltz and i S c h r o e d e r s t u d y , e x c e p t t h a t i n th e g ro u p s e s s i o n s th e j I c o u n s e l o r s t a t e d t h a t s i n c e t h e g ro u p members e x p r e s s e d s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s a b o u t f u t u r e p l a n s , th e y m ig h t be a b l e t o make h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s to e a c h o t h e r . Two a c t i v e j c o n t r o l g ro u p s i n v o l v i n g i n d i v i d u a l an d g ro u p s e s s i o n s I j w e r e s e l e c t e d . In t h e s e c o n t r o l g r o u p s , th e c o u n s e l o r j a t t e n d e d t o th e s u b j e c t s w i t h o u t e n g a g in g i n r e i n f o r c e - i m e n t p r o c e d u r e s . F ilm an d f i l m s t r i p s w ere u s e d , i n j i t h e s e s e s s i o n s , an d th e c o u n s e l o r s t a t e d t h a t he f e l t t h a t I v i e w i n g and d i s c u s s i n g s u c h m edia m ig h t be h e l p f u l . The t i e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s h ad two s e s s i o n s , w h ile th e a c t i v e i c o n t r o l g ro u p s had b u t o n e. A t h i r d g ro u p was a n j I i n a c t i v e c o n t r o l made up o f s u b j e c t s who had n o t b e e n | c o n t a c t e d by t h e c o u n s e l o r i n any way. As i n th e j | p r e v i o u s s t u d y , c r i t e r i a f o r t h i s s t u d y w ere th e 23 f r e q u e n c y an d v a r i e t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r . K r u m b o ltz a n d T h o r e s e n (4 7 ) r e v e a l e d t h e s e f i n d i n g s : (1 ) B o th m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t an d r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g r e s u l t e d i n m ore i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g t h a n d i d a c t i v e o r i n a c t i v e c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s ; (2 ) M o d e l- j r e i n f o r c e m e n t was m ore e f f e c t i v e t h a n r e i n f o r c e m e n t ! i c o u n s e l i n g f o r t h e b o y s , b u t n o t f o r g i r l s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e t h e m o d e ls w e re m a l e ; (3 ) R e i n f o r c e m e n t a l o n e was m ore e f f e c t i v e f o r g i r l s t h a n f o r b o y s , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e f i v e o f t h e s i x s p e c i a l c o u n s e l o r s w e re f e m a l e ; a n d (4) On t h e a v e r a g e , g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g was a s e f f e c t i v e a s i i i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g ; h o w e v e r , f o r b o y s , m o d e l- r e i n f o r c e m e n t was b e t t e r i n g r o u p s , w h i l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t j a l o n e was m ore e f f e c t i v e i n i n d i v i d u a l s e t t i n g s . I | A f t e r n o t i n g t h e f i n d i n g b y V a r e n h o r s t (7 6 ) t h a t t h e r e w e re n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e f f e c t s j p r o d u c e d by a m o d e l c o u n s e l o r w hose p r e s t i g e an d a t t e n t i v e n e s s w as v a r i e d , H o s f o r d (4 2 ) w i s h e d t o e x p l o r e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s o f s t u d e n t s o c i a l m o d e ls c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f a t h l e t i c , s o c i a l , a n d a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s . He a l s o e x p r e s s e d f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n l e a r n i n g w h e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s s t u d e n t m o d e ls w o u ld h a v e d i f f e r e n t 2 4 ; e f f e c t s on o b s e r v e r s who v a r i e d i n t h e i r s e l f p e r c e p t i o n s o f c o m p e te n c y i n t h e same a r e a s . M ale h i g h s c h o o l j u n i o r s who h a d v o l u n t e e r e d f o r s p e c i a l c o u n s e l i n g w e re a s s i g n e d t o t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s , a n d t h e c r i t e r i o n was i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g , a s i n t h e s t u d i e s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d . H o s f o r d 's m a jo r f i n d i n g s w e r e : (1) t h e d e g r e e o f a c a d e m ic j o r s o c i a l s u c c e s s o f t h e m o d el d i d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y j | a f f e c t i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g , w h i l e t h e d e g r e e o f a t h l e t i c j s u c c e s s o f t h e m o d e l d i d a f f e c t i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g a t o n e ! i s c h o o l b u t n o t a t a n o t h e r ; (2 ) s i m i l a r i t y o f m o d e l t o j s u b j e c t an d t h e k i n d s o f s u c c e s s ( a c a d e m ic , s o c i a l , o r J a t h l e t i c ) d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e c r i t e r i o n b e h a v i o r ; (3 ) among s u b j e c t s who p e r c e i v e d t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g a j low d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s , t h o s e who a s p i r e d t o a h i g h e r s u c c e s s l e v e l s o u g h t m ore i n f o r m a t i o n a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o j I low o r medium m o d e ls t h a n a f t e r h i g h m o d e l s , w h i l e t h o s e j who w e re s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r s t a t u s w e re m ore a f f e c t e d i l b y h i g h o r m edium m o d e l s ; (4) i n t h e s c h o o l w h ere a l a r g e r J l c o n t r o l g ro u p c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d , m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t j p r o d u c e d m ore i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g t h a n e x h i b i t e d by c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e re n o t j fo u n d i n s c h o o l s w i t h s m a l l e r c o n t r o l g r o u p s ; an d (5 ) i n 25 t h e s c h o o l h a v i n g c o u n s e l o r s o f b o t h s e x e s , t h e m a le c o u n s e l o r p r o d u c e d m ore i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r . T h o r e s e n , K ru m b o ltz a n d V a r e n h o r s t (7 3 ) t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e s e x f a c t o r a s i t a f f e c t s r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d t h e s o c i a l - i m o d e l i n g p r o c e d u r e a n d p r e p a r e d f o u r m o d e l t a p e s p r e s e n t - j i i i n g d i f f e r e n t s e x c o m b i n a t i o n s : m a le c o u n s e l o r w i t h m a le | s t u d e n t ; fe m a le c o u n s e l o r w i t h f e m a le s t u d e n t ; fe m a le j c o u n s e l o r w i t h m a le s t u d e n t ; a n d f e m a le c o u n s e l o r w i t h I fe m a le s t u d e n t . E ach o f t h e s e m o d e ls was p r e s e n t e d t o b o y s a n d t o g i r l s by m ale a n d by fe m a le c o u n s e l o r s . i R e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t ! was m ore e f f e c t i v e w i t h b o y s t h a n was a n a c t i v e c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e , b u t t h i s was n o t t r u e w i t h g i r l s . F u r t h e r , m a le c o u n s e l o r s w e re g e n e r a l l y m ore e f f e c t i v e w i t h g i r l s i t h a n w e re f e m a le c o u n s e l o r s . ; I The p u r p o s e o f a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n by S m ith (6 8 ) was i t o t e s t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t , m o d e l s , a n d j I m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t on i n c r e a s i n g w o r k - o r i e n t e d a c t i v i t y ! o f h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s d u r i n g u n s c h e d u l e d tim e i n s c h o o l s j w i t h f l e x i b l e s c h e d u l i n g . T h i s s t u d y d i f f e r e d from t h e i i p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t 26 c o u n s e l i n g i n s e v e r a l w a y s: (1 ) t e a c h e r s w e re t r a i n e d t o a c t a s c o u n s e l o r s ; (2 ) c o u n s e l i n g was d i r e c t e d to w a rd a d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r a l c r i t e r i o n ; (3) s u b j e c t s w e re n i n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s r a t h e r t h a n e l e v e n t h g r a d e r s ; a n d (4) t h e m o d e l u s e d was a t a p e r e c o r d i n g o f g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g , j i r a t h e r t h a n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g s e s s i o n . S m ith ! fo u n d t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t a l o n e , e x p o s u r e t o m o d e ls w i t h o u t s u b s e q u e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t , a n d m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g w e re a l l e f f e c t i v e i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e tim e s p e n t i n w o r k - o r i e n t e d a r e a s . In a d d i t i o n , h e fo u n d t h a t m o d e l- r e i n f o r c e m e n t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore e f f e c t i v e t h a n was i t h e m o d el a l o n e , b u t i t was n o t s u p e r i o r t o r e i n f o r c e m e n t J a l o n e . R e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t fro m e x p o s u r e t o m o d e ls i n i n f l u e n c i n g t h e j c r i t e r i o n b e h a v i o r . None o f t h e t r e a t m e n t s c h a n g e d \ a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s c h o o l , e i t h e r a s r e p o r t e d by s t u d e n t s , o r a s p e r c e i v e d b y t e a c h e r s . t h e e f f e c t s o f g r o u p m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g , g ro u p j i i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g , a n d no c o u n s e l i n g on o v e r t a c h i e v e m e n t b e h a v i o r o u t s i d e t h e c o u n s e l i n g s e t t i n g . I t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g w o u ld A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y b y B e a c h (1 2 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d 27 r e s u l t i n m ore o v e r t a c h i e v e m e n t b e h a v i o r s , h i g h e r g r a d e s , h i g h e r s e l f c o n c e p t , an d b e t t e r a t t i t u d e s to w a r d s c h o o l t h a n w o u ld i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g o r n o c o u n s e l i n g . From a p o o l o f u n d e r - a c h i e v i n g s t u d e n t s a t f o u r d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s , a n d b y g r a d e l e v e l an d s e x , s e v e n t h a n d e i g h t h - i I I g r a d e s u b j e c t s w e re ra n d o m ly s e l e c t e d a n d a s s i g n e d t o j j m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t , i n s t r u c t i o n a l , a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s . j One h u n d r e d a n d n i n e t y - t w o s u b j e c t s w e re i n v o l v e d . Boys j w e re c o u n s e l e d by m a le c o u n s e l o r s an d g i r l s by fe m a le c o u n s e l o r s . M o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t g r o u p s w e re c o u n s e l e d f o r one c l a s s p e r i o d w e e k ly o v e r a s e v e n - w e e k p e r i o d . A t t h e s t a r t o f e v e r y m e e t i n g a f i v e - m i n u t e t a p e r e c o r d i n g o f a m o d e l g ro u p c o u n s e l i n g s e s s i o n w as p l a y e d . The a c h i e v e m e n t - o r i e n t e d r e s p o n s e s o f t h e e i g h t h - g r a d e m o d e l s t u d e n t s w e re v e r b a l l y r e i n f o r c e d by t h e m o d e l - c o u n s e l o r . A f t e r t h e t a p e was o v e r t h e c o u n s e l i n g s e s s i o n s c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e c o u n s e l o r r e i n f o r c i n g an y a c h i e v e m e n t - o r i e n t e d v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s made by t h e s u b j e c t s . The i n s t r u c t i o n a l g r o u p s a l s o m et w e e k ly f o r t h e same s e v e n - w e e k p e r i o d . I l M e e tin g s c o n s i s t e d o f t h e c o u n s e l o r p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on s t u d y t e c h n i q u e s t h r o u g h l e c t u r i n g , s h o w in g f i l m s t r i p s , a n d p l a y i n g t a p e r e c o r d i n g s o f t a l k s on why a n d I t 28 how to s tu d y , w ith s tu d e n t d is c u s s io n f o l l o w i n g . I n a c t i v e c o n tr o l groups did n o t have m eetings d u rin g t h e s e v e n - w e e k p e rio d . Beach found the fo llo w in g : (1) For b o y s b o t h m o d el-rein fo rcem en t and i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g r e s u l t e d in s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r grade p o in t a v erag es a t t h e e n d o f the sch o o l y e a r than were o b tain ed by the c o n t r o l g r o u p . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the two types o f c o u n s e l i n g w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . (2) Among the g i r l s t h e r e w a s n o d if f e r e n c e between the GPA's o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l a n d c o n t r o l groups a t the end o f the schoo l y e a r , w hile b o t h t h e s e groups were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r io r to the m o d e l - re in fo rc e m e n t group. (3) P o s t-tre a tm e n t GPA d i f f e r e n c e s were con fin ed to the e ig h t- g ra d e s u b j e c t s ; a m o n g e i g h t - grade boys b o th m o d el-rein fo rcem en t and i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n se lin g produced h ig h e r p o s t- tr e a tm e n t GPA's t h a n n o c o u n s e lin g , w hile among e ig h t- g r a d e g i r l s i n s t r u c t i o n a l co u n selin g and no c o u n se lin g were s u p e r io r t o m o d e l - rein fo rce m en t c o u n se lin g . There were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s fo r e i t h e r sex a t the s e v e n t h - g r a d e l e v e l . (4) The only s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in f o l l o w - u p G P A ' s was found among e ig h th -g ra d e boys. The s u b j e c t s w h o h a d 29 r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g had h i g h e r GPA's th a n th e mode 1 - r e i n f o r c e m e n t and c o n t r o l g ro u p s . (5) I n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s e l f - c o n c e p t s am ong e i g h t h - g r a d e g i r l s and boys t h a n d id m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t o r no c o u n s e l i n g . (6) The a t t i t u d e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g p ro d u ce d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y j g r e a t e r i m p r o v e m e n t on e i g h t h - g r a d e boys tow ard s c h o o l ! th a n d i d m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t o r no c o u n s e l i n g . No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e found among s e v e n t h - g r a d e boys n o r among e i t h e r s e v e n t h o r e i g h t h - g r a d e g i r l s . ! I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e n e r a l i z e from th e f i n d i n g s o f| i th e r e s e a r c h o n m o d e l- r e in f o r c e m e n t c o u n s e l i n g . Much o f th e r e s e a r c h i s couched in a d e c is io n - m a k in g frame o f r e f e r e n c e w i t h s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n b e in g fo c u s e d on r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r . In t h i s c o n t e x t , c o m b i n i n g t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s o c i a l m odels w ith v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t m a y be more p o w e rfu l i n i n f l u e n c i n g b e h a v io r I i th a n e i t h e r m o d e l s o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t a l o n e . B oth r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t may be a s e f f e c t i v e i n a grou p s e t t i n g a s i n an i n d i v i d u a l s e t t i n g . The s e x o f th e s t u d e n t , o f t h e c o u n s e l o r , and o f th e m o d e ls, seems t o be i an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g th e d e g re e t o w hich > b e h a v i o r w i l l be m o d i f i e d . As t h e v a r i o u s s t u d i e s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , t h e u s e o f m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n a c l i n i c a l o r c o u n s e l i n g s e t t i n g h a s b e e n l i m i t e d (1 ) i n t h e nu m b er o f s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d , an d (2 ) i n t h e t y p e s o f p r o b le m s t r e a t e d e f f e c t i v e l y . C l i n i c a l l y , m o d e l i n g h a s b e e n t r i e d w i t h s p e c i f i c f e a r s o r i j p h o b i a s . I n c o u n s e l i n g , m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t h a s b e e n u s e d i n a d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n - s e e k i n g fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . i S i m i l a r i t y o f P r o f e s s i o n a l R o le s I t may be m e a n i n g f u l t o c o n c l u d e w i t h a v ie w o f \ c o u n s e l i n g i d e n t i f i e d w i t h K ru m b o ltz (4 8 ) w h ic h d rew a p a r a l l e l b e tw e e n t h e r o l e s o f d o c t o r s a n d l a w y e r s , a n d t h o s e o f c o u n s e l o r s . When a c l i e n t comes t o a d o c t o r o r ; J l a w y e r , he b r i n g s a p r o b le m he c a n n o t s o l v e w i t h o u t h e l p . ; i l He h a s a g o a l o r e n d r e s u l t i n m in d . When t h e p r o f e s - ! s i o n a l man a c c e p t s t h e c l i e n t , he a c c e p t s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h e l p i n g t h e c l i e n t a c h i e v e h i s g o a l s . The c o u n s e l o r i s i n t h e same p o s i t i o n . The c l i e n t c h o o s e s the] e n d r e s u l t . The c o u n s e l o r c h o o s e s t h e m e th o d u s e d t o g a i n t h e o b j e c t i v e . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , p e r h a p s f u t u r e r e s e a r c h w i l l v e r i f y t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f m o d e l - r e i n f o r c e m e n t a s a 31 m e th o d t o g a i n X n u m b er o f s p e c i f i c g o a l s . F e e d b a c k The te r m " f e e d b a c k " h a s b e e n u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n t h e f i e l d o f e l e c t r o n i c s a n d c y b e r n e t i c s i n s t u d i e s o f s e n s o r y an d m o to r s k i l l s , v i g i l a n c e , t r a c k i n g a n d f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m . B e rk e d e f i n e d i t a s thej i I " t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a f r a c t i o n o f t h e o u t p u t o f a m a c h i n e , j s y s te m o r p r o c e s s t o t h e i n p u t , t o w h ic h t h e f r a c t i o n i s I ! a d d e d o r s u b t r a c t e d . T h is p r o c e d u r e c a n r e s u l t i n s e l f - j | c o r r e c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o c e s s " ( 1 4 ) . i The a n a l o g y t o f e e d b a c k i n human c o m m u n ic a tio n seem s v e r y c l o s e . F e e d b a c k o f t e n a s s i s t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o c o r r e c t o r make a more a p p r o p r i a t e a d j u s t m e n t i n b e h a v i o r . E n g l i s h a n d E n g l i s h d e f i n e i t a s "k n o w led g e o f i j r e s u l t s , " " c o e n e s t h e s i a , " " p r o p r i o c e p t i o n , " o r " k i n e s t h e s i a " ( 2 9 ) . Human c o m m u n ic a tio n r e q u i r e s f e e d b a c k , : i b u t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e o f t e n u n a w a re o f t h e d e g r e e t o w h ic h | t h e y d e p e n d u p o n i t . I n c o u n s e l i n g , w h ic h h a s a s i t s j f o c u s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s a t t e m p t i n g t o l e a r n J I m ore a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , f e e d b a c k i s e s s e n t i a l . L e a r n i n g , a b o u t s e l f i s d i f f i c u l t , b u t i t c a n b e e n h a n c e d i f t h e ; 32 f e e d b a c k i s m e a n i n g f u l a n d r e l a t e d t o w h a t i s h a p p e n i n g a t t h e t i m e s . S u c h f e e d b a c k h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y W h i t a k e r an d L ie b e rm a n a s a s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n d i s t i n c t from i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d o f s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n . They m ea n , ' b o t h t h e r e a c t i o n s a p a t i e n t ' s b e h a v i o r e l i c i t s from o t h e r s a n d t h e i r v e r b a l r e p o r t s o f s u c h r e a c t i o n " ( 8 1 ) . T h e i r p a ra d ig m f o r f e e d b a c k i s t h i s : " I f e e l t h i s i n r e s p o n s e t o y o u r b e h a v i o r an d c o m m e n ts ," a s o p p o s e d t o , " T h is i s w h a t yo u a r e d o i n g . " The l a t t e r i s i n t e r p r e t i v e , w h e r e a s t h e f o r m e r i s m ore r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o whom t h e f e e d b a c k i s s u p p l i e d . T h u s , a n i n d i v i d u a l may b e t t e r e v a l u a t e h i s i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i f he h a s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th em . C o m m u n ic a tio n , a n d t h u s f e e d b a c k a s a n e le m e n t o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , c a n b e v e r b a l o r n o n - v e r b a l . G offm an (3 6) a n d H a l l (3 9 ) h a v e b o t h w r i t t e n a b o u t n o n - v e r b a l com m uni c a t i o n an d i t s im p a c t on human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . R u e s c h a n d K ees (6 3 ) h a v e c o m p i l e d a b o o k o f p i c t u r e s a n d w o rk s f o r m in g a c o n c e p t u a l fra m e w o rk f o r n o n - v e r b a l b e h a v i o r . K agan (4 5 ) a n d C a r k h u f f (22) h a v e p e r c e i v e d n o n - v e r b a l b e h a v i o r a s one v a r i e t y o f n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a ti o n , a n d 33 b o t h h a v e s t u d i e d n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n ic a tio n i n r e l a t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e h a v i o r i n c o u n s e l i n g . B o th fo u n d t h a t p e o p l e c a n d e v e l o p a n a w a r e n e s s o f n o n - v e r b a l b e h a v i o r , b u t c a n a l s o l o s e i t s m e a n i n g f u l n e s s t o th em . j F e e d b a c k i s c o m m u n ic a tio n w h en : (1) i t i s t h e , e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e m a n n e r i n w h ic h one p e r s o n r e a c t s t o a n o t h e r , (2) i t i s a p t t o b e m ore u s e f u l , a n d (3) a n i n d i v i d u a l w i l l h a v e m ore d i f f i c u l t y i n i g n o r i n g i t ( 2 2 ) . Added m e a n i n g f u l n e s s i s g i v e n t o t h i s t y p e o f e x c h a n g e o f c o m m u n ic a tio n w hen i t c a n b e w i t n e s s e d v i a t h e i m p e r s o n e l medium s u c h a s v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k . Feedback as part o f the group ex p er ien ce was in v e s t ig a t e d by the N a tio n a l T raining L a b o ra to ries in the j j development o f the T-Group. They d efin e d i t a s : F e e d b a c k , a s u s e d h e r e , s i g n i f i e s v e r b a l an d i n o n - v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s from o t h e r s t o a u n i t o f I b e h a v i o r p r o v i d e d a s c l o s e i n tim e t o t h e j b e h a v i o r a s p o s s i b l e , a n d c a p a b l e o f b e i n g j p e r c e i v e d a n d u t i l i z e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i n g I t h e b e h a v i o r . (15) ■ These authors fu r th e r r e co g n ize d the importance o f the j f e e d b a c k o c c u r r i n g i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e r e s p o n s e t o t w h ic h i t i s made a n d s t a t e d : " I n l e a r n i n g a b o u t t h e j e f f e c t o f h i s b e h a v i o r on p e o p l e , t h e l e a r n e r n e e d s t o h a v e some m ore o r l e s s im m e d ia te r e p o r t o f t h e e f f e c t s o f 34- h is response on Che o th e rs " (15). Video tap e o f f e r s t h i s immediate a v a i l a b i l i t y through i t s cap a city f o r in stantaneou s feedback. Stoller pointed out the necessity for p r e s e n t i n g information to the individual in a comprehensible a n d usable manner. Whitman stated, "Feedback im p lie s n o t o n l y understanding what has been said. The cru cia l t e s t o f understanding is whether the person can u t i l i z e w h a t l i a s been said to create new thought or insight" ( 1 5 ) . S e l f - l learning is the most d iffic u lt form of learning and o n e o f ; the main objectives of group counseling. If i t i s t o t a k e i place, the defenses of the individual need to be p i e r c e d . Stroller pointed out that the contribution o f f e e d b a c k t o self-learning is enhanced i f the feedback has a c l e a r format. In elaborating even further, he sta te d : A response to a group member may be v a l i d but is useless i f it is not given in usable f a s h i o n . Insofar as it is his own behavior, recently- perpetuated, an individual seeing himself on video tape is receiving the clearest, le a s t distorted, and the most comprehensible feed b a ck possible. The ease with which the behavior c a n be shown over and over again, i f necessary, a l s o highlights the clarity with which the s e l f - j information is presented. (71) j i I As presented previously in two q u otations f r o m t l i e ! | work of Bradford, Gibb, and Benne (15), feedback i s j 3 5 c o n s i d e r e d a m e th o d o f a c c e l e r a t i n g a n d a d d i n g a n u r g e n c y t o b e h a v i o r a l a n d a t t i t u d i n a l c h a n g e s . H o w ev e r, t h i s t y p e o f f e e d b a c k g e n e r a t e s from a n o t h e r p e r s o n a n d o u r r e c e p t i o n o f i t i s i n f l u e n c e d by o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h a t p e r s o n . L e a v i t t r e f e r s t o t h i s a s co m in g t h r o u g h " t h e p e r c e p t u a l i j f i l t e r s o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n " ( 6 1 ) . ! 1 R o b in s o n (6 1 ) h a s c o n c l u d e d t h a t v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k r e d u c e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s f o r m o b i l i z i n g h i s r e s i s t a n c e t o new l e a r n i n g o r t o r a t i o n a l i z e o r den y t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t e r r o r s he i s m a k in g . I t c r e a t e s c o g n i t i v e d i s s o n a n c e w i t h w h ic h t h e i n d i v i d u a l m u s t d e a l a n d may be d e f i n e d a s t h e " e x i s t e n c e o f n o n f i t t i n g r e l a t i o n s among c o g n i t i o n " ( 3 2 ) . The i n d i v i d u a l i i s a w a re t h a t t h e r e i s a d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n h i s o p i n i o n r e g a r d i n g s o m e th i n g a n d t h e k n o w le d g e he h a s r e g a r d i n g j I t h a t s o m e t h i n g . T h is " i n c o n s i s t e n c y " w i l l m o t i v a t e t h e f i n d i v i d u a l t o c h a n g e s o a s t o r e d u c e t h e d i s c o m f o r t w h i c h j i t h a s c r e a t e d . He may e i t h e r a t t e m p t t o d i s c r e d i t t h e j I j c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e s o u r c e o f s u c h c o n f l i c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o r may c h a n g e h i m s e l f i n some way i n o r d e r t o b e m ore 1 c o n s o n a n t , o r " c o n s i s t e n t " w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e j ( 3 2 ) . The i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h i s f o r v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k i s | 3 6 ; that: there i s l e s s chance fo r the in d iv id u a l to d i s c r e d i t the so u r c e , i f in r e a l i t y , the in form ation g iv en the in d iv id u a l i s v a l i d . In a d d it io n , i f the in form ation feedback i s a n o th e r 's e x p r e s s io n o f h is f e e l i n g s in r e s p o n s e t o t h a t i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o r , r a t h e r t h a n a n ; ! i n t e r p r e t a t io n which may be i n v a l i d , the in d iv id u a l i s l e f t only one a l t e r n a t i v e by which he may reduce h is d i s sonance, in some way change h im s e lf . V ideo- tape feedback j r e q u ir e s th a t the i n t e r p r e t a t io n be made by the v ie w e r . I n g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n i s g e n e r a l l y u n s t r u c t u r e d , a n d i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n t o c o v e r a w id e s p e c t r u m o f t o p i c s . F e e d b a c k may o c c u r w h ic h w o u ld b e b e n e f i c i a l t o a member o r m em b ers, b u t i t may b e ; l o s t b e c a u s e o f t h e v a s t am ount o f a c t i o n t h a t i s g o i n g onj i n t h e g r o u p . T u l l y e x p r e s s e d t h i s f a c t i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e | c o n c l u s i o n s o f a p i l o t s t u d y u s i n g v i d e o t a p e i n c o l l e g e g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g . When he v ie w e d t h e t a p e s o f t h e s e s s i o n he was s t r u c k by a l l t h a t w as h a p p e n i n g ( 7 5 ) . A r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d g r o u p m em ber w o u ld m is s m uch w h ic h c o u l d b e a l e a r n i n g e x p e r i - ! e n c e f o r h im . I f t h i s i s t o b e a v o i d e d w i t h v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k , t h e n i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o f o c u s t h e v i d e o - t a p e 3 7 f e e d b a c k . S t o l l e r t h e o r i z e d t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e f o c u s i n g o f f e e d b a c k i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t o b e p r o v i d e d w i t h t h e m o st e f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n . He d e f i n e d i t a s , " th e c e n t e r i n g o f p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a t t e n t i o n on t h a t a s p e c t o f v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k w h ic h w o u ld seem t o be m o st r e l e v a n t f o r b e n e f i c i a l b e h a v i o r a l c h a n g e " ( 7 0 ) . U n le s s t h e f e e d b a c k i s f o c u s e d on a p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v i o r , he c o n t i n u e s , i i t i s p o s s i b l e t o g i v e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o o much i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d r e d u c e h i s a b i l i t y t o a s s e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n . F o c u s e d f e e d b a c k , t h e r e f o r e , d i r e c t s t h e i i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t e n t i o n t o s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r a n d l e s s e n s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r him t o a v o i d i t , t h u s t h e r e i s m ore j o p p o r t u n i t y f o r l e a r n i n g t o o c c u r . i Review o f R esearch on Feedback | The review o f re se a r c h has been organ ized in t o the: fo llo w in g s e c t i o n s : v e r b a l feed back , a u d io -ta p e feedback, a n d f i l m a n d v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k . T e c h n iq u e s f o r p r e s e n t - j ! ing v a r io u s kinds o f feedback in c o u n s e lin g are as y e t in i t h e ir in fa n c y . Only r e c e n t ly has th ere been an attem pt made to s tu d y , d e sc r ib e and s y t e m a t ic a lly i n v e s t i g a t e feedback o p e r a tio n s , and to measure and e v a lu a te the 38 e f f e c t s o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s ( 6 1 ) . Verbal feedback. In t h is s e c t i o n r e se a r c h w i l l be p r e s e n t e d w h ic h h a s d e a l t w i t h t h e u s e o f v e r b a l f e e d b a c k w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f some t y p e o f e l e c t r o n i c r e p r o d u c t i v e d e v i c e . A s t u d y c o n d u c t e d by G e rg e n (35 ) s o u g h t t o f i n d t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l f e e d b a c k ( r e l a t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) an d no f e e d b a c k i n c r e a s e d t h e i r p o s i t i v e s e l f d e s c r ip t i o n s . In a r e la t e d stu d y , Backman, Secord and P ier ce (8) in v e s t ig a t e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s e lf - c o n c e p t to feedback and found th a t the g r e a te r the number o f s i g n i f i c a n t o th e rs who approve and agree in t h e ir p ercep t io n o f some a s p e c ts o f a p e rso n 's s e l f , the g r e a te r w i l l be t h a t p e r s o n ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o c h a n g i n g t h a t p a r t o f h i m s e l f . L i f t o n (4 9 ) u s e d s o c i o m e t r i c r a t i n g s t o f e e d b a c k t o p e o p l e . He u s e d s p e c i f i c e x a m p le s o f b e h a v i o r w h ic h i l l u s t r a t e d t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e d i s p a r i t i e s w h ic h a p p e a r e d b e tw e e n t h e s u b j e c t ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d t h e way o t h e r s p e r c e i v e d h im . A f t e r g i v i n g t h e p e o p l e t h e i r r a t i n g , a s e s s i o n was h e l d s o t h a t t h e y c o u l d d i s c u s s t h e r a t i n g . 39 P in n e y (7) d e v e l o p e d a p r o c e d u r e by w h ic h he r e a d v e r b a t i m t h e n o t e s o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e s s i o n t o g r o u p p s y c h o t h e r a p y p a t i e n t s who h a d b e e n d i a g n o s e d a s s e v e r e l y i l l , r e l a p s i n g s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r fo u n d , l a r g e c h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o r a s a r e s u l t o f h i s e m p lo y in g j feedback te ch n iq u e s. Pinney had a l s o been c a r e f u l to read! the m a te r ia l during the s e s s i o n becau se he had concerns th a t i t might s t i f l e spontaneous m a te r ia l i f read a t the i b e g i n n i n g o f a s e s s i o n , b u t G o ln e r (7 ) fo u n d t h i s n o t t o 1 b e s o . B o th i n v e s t i g a t o r s b e l i e v e d i t im p ro v e d t h e | p a t i e n t s ' s e l f o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n an d r e a l i t y t e s t i n g . j A s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s by W o lf f (8 2 ) made u s e o f v a r i o u s fo rm s o f p e r s o n a l i t y e x p r e s s i o n s u c h a s o n e 's v o i c e , h i s h a n d w r i t i n g , a n d h i s m a n n e r o f w a l k i n g . A f t e r o b t a i n i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n fro m s u b j e c t s , th e y w e re a s k e d | i to e v a lu a te s e v e r a l o f th e se forms o f p e r s o n a lity e x p re s- ; s i o n , w ithout knowing whose e x p r e s s io n s they w ere. Three i r e s u l t s from t h i s r e s e a r c h show ed t h a t s u b j e c t s : j j (1) h a d g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y i n i d e n t i f y i n g j t h e i r own v o i c e s t h a n i n r e c o g n i z i n g an y o t h e r form o f p e r s o n a l i t y e x p r e s s i o n , b u t (2) th e y e v a l u a t e d t h e i r own u n r e c o g n i z e d v o i c e s m ore | n e a r l y c o r r e c t , m ore e m o t i o n a l a n d m ore j p e n e t r a t i n g t h a n t h e j u d g m e n t s made by o t h e r s , i a n d (3) t h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e m o s t j n e a r l y c o r r e c t j u d g m e n t s o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s \ o c c u r r e d w hen s u b j e c t s e v a l u a t e d t h e i r own v o i c e s . G ordon L i p p e t t (1 5 ) s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f f e e d b a c k on c h a n g e s i n i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r . He f i r s t c o l l e c t e d d a t a a b o u t t h e ways e a c h p e r s o n was p e r c e i v e d by| I h is fe llo w members and the ways they would l i k e him to change in terms o f h is frequency o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n , the degree to which he welcomed or r e s i s t e d the id ea s o f o t h e r s , and the e x te n t to which he sought a t t e n t i o n or avoided r e c o g n it io n . Seven matched p a ir s were then s e l e c t e d from each T-Group. Both members o f a p a ir were I a l i k e in the way they were d e sc rib ed by o th ers and in the j e x te n t and d ir e c t io n o th ers would lik e them to change. i One member o f the p air was g iv en feedback about the i r a t in g s he had r e c e iv e d and the way h is fe llo w members I would l i k e him to change and the oth er member o f the p a ir r e c e iv e d no feedback. N o n -p a rticip a n t o b serv ers r a te d the b eh avior o f a l l s u b je c ts b e fo r e and a f t e r the feedback p erio d . When the members rep eated t h e ir r a t in g s o f one another toward the end o f the T-Group s e s s i o n , t h ir t e e n out o f the fo u r te en persons who r e c e iv e d feedback changed in the d i r e c t i o n the group wanted them to change, w h ile only e ig h t out o f the fo u r te e n who r e c e iv e d no feedback 4-1 showed change. Summarizing a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s in th e m o n o g i r a p i n , "Defense L evel and I n f lu e n c e P o t e n t i a l i n Sm all G r o u p s , ' ' i t was d e m o n s tra te d t h a t groups w hich r e c e i v e d f e e d b a c k d i f f e r e d from th o se w hich d id n o t in t h a t fe e d b a c k m e m b e r s f e l t more f a v o r a b le tow ard th e g ro u p s , d i s p l a y e d a h i g h e r r l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e i r group and e x p r e s s e d m o r e n e g a t iv e f e e l i n g s . This w i l l i n g n e s s to e x p re s s m o re n e g a tiv e f e e l i n g s i s co n clu d ed as r e f l e c t i n g th e f r e e e x p r e s s io n w hich m ight have b een e n g in e e re d b e c a u s e o f t t i e fe e d b a c k . F u r t h e r , i t was f e l t t h a t t h i s i n c r e a s e d f r e e dom made the group e x p e rie n c e a l e s s f r u s t r a t i n g o n e a n d le d to in c r e a s e d p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s . Stone (72) p e r m itte d th e o c c a s i o n a l " r e h a s h " o j c d i s c u s s i o n s e s s i o n s a f t e r th e group m e e tin g s and f o u n d them to be o f some u s e . A u d io -ta p e f e e d b a c k . I t i s n o te d t h a t w i t h t h e e x te n s i v e use made o f ta p e r e c o r d e r s , and b e f o r e t h a t t h e o t h e r a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s , t h a t r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e r e s e a r c h has b e en p u rsu ed r e g a r d i n g t h e i r use a s a t h e r a p e u t i c d e v ic e . S tu d ie s have been c o n d u c te d n o t i n g th e u s e f u l n e s s o f r e c o r d e d s e s s i o n s as fe e d b ac k t o t h e 42 : c o u n s e lo r, b u t l i t t l e feedback h a s r e a c h e d t h e c l i e n t . The use o f m echanical d e v i c e s t o r e c o r d c o u n s e lin g s e s s io n s was re p o rte d in the e a r l y f o r t i e s . R o g e r s (62) used re c o rd in g s made on a c e ta te d i s c s a n d m a g n e t i c w ire re c o rd e rs to analyze and te a c h c l i e n t - c e n t e r e d p sy cho th e ra p y . Covner (25) r e p o rte d t h e u s e o f s e l f - i c o n f r o n ta tio n tech n iq u es in c o u n s e l i n g p r a c t i c e and r e s e a r c h . I P o ssib ly the f i r s t A m e r i c a n t h e r a p i s t t o r e p o r t j the use of sound re c o rd in g s as a n a d j u n c t t o n o r m a l j psychotherapy was Freed (33). A p a t i e n t ' s s t a t e m e n t s i were played back on the a c e t a t e o r w i r e r e c o r d i n g s : im m ediately a f t e r they were m ade, a n d e a c h p a t i e n t ’s r e a c tio n s to t h i s s e l f - c o n f r o n t a t i o n w e r e d i s c u s s e d . This; was found to be p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i n p l a y th e ra p y w ith c h ild r e n and in the t r e a t m e n t o f c h a r a c t e r d i s o r d e r s . | A udio-tape re c o rd in g h a s b e e n u s e d b y A rm strong in; i i group th era p y w ith n o n -p s y c h o tic a l c h o l i c s a s a s p r in g - j board fo r f u r t h e r d is c u s s io n . I n h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s he found t h a t t h i s technique which i n v o l v e s t h e e n t i r e group in the a n a ly s is o f b e h a v io r ". . . m a k e s d e n i a l a l l but im p o s sib le " (7 ). K idorf (46) f o u n d i n a n o t h e r stu d y t h a t 43 a u d i o - t a p e f e e d b a c k h e l p e d p a t i e n t s t o r e c o g n i z e c e r t a i n t r a i t s a n d f e e l i n g s w h ic h p r e v i o u s l y h a d b e e n r e s i s t e d ( 4 6 ) . G roup t h e r a p y c o n d u c t e d by K i d o r f (4 6 ) w i t h d e l i n q u e n t b o y s , a n d w i t h a g r o u p o f women w i t h s e v e r e n e u r o t i c sy m p to m s , made u s e o f a u d i o - t a p e t o p l a y b a c k p r e v i o u s s e s s i o n s . K i d o r f saw w h a t he c o n s i d e r e d t o b e w i t h one b o y . . . a r e a l b r e a k i n g down o f h i s d e f e n s e ' . . . n o w o n d e r I c a n ' t g e t a l o n g w i t h a d u l t s . I l o o k e d l i k e a r e a l w i s e g u y . i ' l l b e t I ' v e b e e n t a l k i n g l i k e t h a t a l l a l o n g , a n d t h e y d o n ’ t l i k e me f o r t h e way I t a l k , an d d o n ' t e v e n l i s t e n t o w h a t I s a y . ' (46) K i d o r f f u r t h e r c i t e d v a r i o u s e x a m p le s from b o t h g r o u p s w h e re p l a y b a c k f a c i l i t a t e d i n s i g h t i n t o p a t i e n t s ' own t r a i t s a n d f e e l i n g s - - i n s i g h t s w h ic h t h e y h a d p r e v i o u s l y r e s i s t e d . I n l o n g - t e r m p s y c h o t h e r a p y g r o u p s , N. E. Cam eron fo u n d t h a t r e p e a t e d p l a y b a c k s o f a u d i o - t a p e s made i n p r e v i o u s s e s s i o n s . . . r e s u l t e d i n b o t h t h e p a t i e n t s ' an d t h e r a p i s t s 1 b e i n g a b l e t o p e r c e i v e a n d u n d e r s t a n d m e a n in g s i n c o m m u n ic a tio n w h ic h t h e y c o u l d n o t d e t e c t when t h e m a t e r i a l was p l a y e d b a c k f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . (18) 44 F ilm a n d v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k . F i l m , a n d now v i d e o t a p e , h a v e b e e n u s e d a s a t r a i n i n g d e v i c e . B o th t h e m i c r o - t e a c h i n g done a t S t a n f o r d w h ic h u s e d v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k i n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g (3) a n d t h e s t u d y by W alz j a n d J o h n s t o n (7 7 ) u s e d v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k i n t r a i n i n g c o u n s e l o r s . I m p o r t a n t t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s f e e d b a c k i s t h e d e g r e e t o w h ic h t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t e n t i o n ! c a n be d i r e c t e d t o t h a t w h ic h i s i m p o r t a n t f o r him t o l e a r n . An e a r l y s t u d y (8 2 ) i n t h e f o r t i e s u s e d p h o t o g r a p h s o f s u b j e c t s ' c l a s p e d h a n d s , f a c i a l s i l h o u e t t e s a n d ; o t h e r f e a t u r e s d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y . S a m p le s o f h a n d - j I I w r i t i n g an d v o i c e s , w e re s e c u r e d a n d m o v ie s t a k e n o f t h e s u b j e c t s w a l k i n g o r p e r f o r m i n g . T h e s e w e re d i s g u i s e d t o ! i p r e v e n t d e f i n i t e r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d t h e s u b j e c t s w e re l a t e r I j | a s k e d t o j u d g e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s from t h e u n i d e n t i f i e d j f i l m s o r r e c o r d i n g s . A lm o st n o n e o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s r e c o g n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e re d i d o c c u r , h o w e v e r , a i t e n d e n c y on t h e i r p a r t t o r e v e a l s u b l i m i n a l j u d g m e n t s o f t h e m s e l v e s by a t t r i b u t i n g c e r t a i n t r a i t s t o t h e p e r s o n v ie w e d o r h e a r d . A s u b j e c t o f t e n sh o w ed a m ark e d i n c r e a s e i n u n f a v o r a b l e r a t i n g s w hen u n k n o w in g ly r a t i n g a s p e c t s o f h i m s e l f . I n F r a n c e , C a r r e r e (1 6 ) u s e d f i l m s o f a l c o h o l i c s u n d e r g o i n g d e l i r i u m tr e m e n s a n d t h e n show ed t h e f i l m s t o t h e p a t i e n t s a f t e r t h e y had r e c o v e r e d fro m t h i s a c u t e ! i i s t a g e . T h is s e l f - c o n f r o n t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e r e s u l t e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f s u c c e s s o v e r s t a n d a r d m e t h o d s . The r e s p o n s e s o f p s y c h o t i c p a t i e n t s a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e i r p s y c h o t i c s t a t e s a s a r e s u l t o f w h a t was c a l l e d " s e l f - i m a g e e x p e r i e n c e s , " was i n v e s t i g a t e d by C o r n e l i s o n a n d A r s e n i a n ( 2 4 ) . I t was n o t a ran d o m s a m p l e , b u t s i m p l y i n c l u d e d s e v e n f e m a le s a n d n i n e m ale p a t i e n t s . Of t h e I s i x t e e n , t w e lv e w e re d i a g n o s e d a s a c u t e s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . j T h e s e p a t i e n t s w e re s e l e c t e d fro m t h o s e who w e re a c u t e l y i i l l , b u t w i t h no g r o s s o r g a n i c i m p a i r m e n t , w i t h o u t r e c e n t e l e c t r o s h o c k t h e r a p y , a n d w i t h o u t d r u g t h e r a p y i n th e j c u r r e n t h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n . A l l b u t t h r e e o f t h e p a t i e n t s j h a d m ore t h a n one a d m i s s i o n t o a h o s p i t a l . The p r o c e d u r e t h e y f o l l o w e d was t h i s : (1) a p i c t u r e was t a k e n o f t h e p a t i e n t u s i n g a P o l a r o i d Land C a m e ra , a n d (2) t h e p h o t o - | g r a p h was show n t o t h e s u b j e c t , h i s r e s p o n s e w as o b s e r v e d j j a n d d i s c u s s e d w i t h h im . The p a t i e n t s se em e d t o p ay m ore 46 I a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e l f im a g es t h a n t h e y o r d i n a r i l y g a v e t o : o b j e c t s o u t s i d e t h e m s e l v e s . E v e ry s u b j e c t r e c o g n i z e d h i m s e l f w hen f i r s t show n t h e p i c t u r e . R e a c t i o n s t o th e p i c t u r e s " v a r i e d fro m a b r u p t l y e n h a n c e d i m p a s s i v i t y t o e m o t i o n a l o u t b u r s t s : e . g . , one woman c r i e d ' t e r r i b l e , j j t e r r i b l e , t e r r i b l e . 1 A l l r e s p o n s e s c o n v e y e d a n e x p r e s s i o n o f s u d d e n p s y c h i c s h o c k " ( 2 4 ) . Women d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s i n t h a t th e y e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e c o s m e t i c a s p e c t s o f t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e , w h i l e men w e re m ore c o n c e r n e d w i t h q u a l i t i e s o f s t r e n g t h o r w e a k n e s s i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h s . Women w e re m ore i n t e n s e i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e p i c t u r e ; ! two o f t h e women t o r e up t h e i r p i c t u r e s a n d f o u r women j a s k e d f o r c o p i e s , b u t n o n e o f t h e men d e s t r o y e d t h e j p i c t u r e s a n d o n l y one a s k e d f o r a c o p y . I Of t h e s i x t e e n p a t i e n t s s t u d i e d by C o r n e l i s o n a n d A r s e n i a n ( 2 4 ) , e i g h t im p ro v e d a f t e r t h e s e l f - c o n f r o n t a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . M ost becam e m a r k e d ly l e s s d i s h e v e l e d , c h a n g e d j i f a v o r a b l y i n a f f e c t , an d R o r s h a c h , D r a w - a - P e r s o n , a n d s e n t e n c e c o m p l e t i o n m e a s u r e s i m p r o v e d . I t was fo u n d t h a t t h o s e p a t i e n t s w i t h a h i g h l e v e l o f i n n e r t u r m o i l , a p p r e h e n s i o n , o r a n x i e t y b e n e f i t e d t h e m o st from t h e s e l f - i c o n f r o n t a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e . 47 ' | As p a r t o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d t h e r a p y , S e r o t o h a s v ie w e d home m o v ie s o f h i s p a t i e n t s ' c h i l d h o o d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e se a c c o m p a n y in g p a t i e n t s ' v e r b a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . . . s h e d a d d i t i o n a l l i g h t on e v o l v i n g b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s s u c h a s a f f e c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , c o m m u n ic a tio n w i t h o t h e r s , a n d m o t i l i t y a n d i t s m a s t e r y , a s w e l l a s e a r l y s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s , a n d s e r v e s t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s made from p s y c h o a n a l y t i c d a t a . (6 5 ) I n f a m i l y t h e r a p i e s , S p i t z e r a n d J a c k s o n h a v e u s e d j v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k a n d f e e l i t h a s a tre m e n d o u s i m p a c t on t h e p a t i e n t ' s r e s i s t a n c e a n d a b i l i t y t o d e f e n d a n e r r o n e o u s s e l f c o n c e p t . They r e p o r t a b o u t t h e p a t i e n t : ", . . how | i h e b e h a v e s w h i l e t h e t h e r a p e u t i c s e s s i o n i s s t i l l v i v i d i s j i I w o r t h e n d l e s s h o u r s o f a t t e m p t i n g t o d e s c r i b e a n o n - v e r b a l j | e x p r e s s i o n , a n d i s m uch m ore c o n v i n c i n g . . . . " The p l a y - j I b a c k was t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f e f f e c t i v e t h e r a p y ( 6 9 ) . j j A l s o w o r k i n g w i t h f a m i l i e s , A l g e r a n d H ogan (2 ) j i u s e d v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k w i t h i n t h e g r o u p s e s s i o n . They s e e v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k a s a m eans o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e c o m m u n ic a tio n c h a n n e l s o p e n t o t h e g r o u p m em b ers. T hey i f i n d t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n i t i a l "im age i m p a c t " w h i c h one e x p e r i e n c e s when f i r s t c o n f r o n t e d by t h e p l a y b a c k s e g m e n t , i b u t t h i s s h i f t s t o r e a c t i o n s t h a t m ig h t o c c u r d u r i n g t h e 48| r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p l a y b a c k s e g m e n t a n d , f i n a l l y , t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e . T h e se i n v e s t i g a t o r s a l s o saw t h e v a l u e o f v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t p e r m i t s t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s e c o n d c h a n c e a t w a t c h i n g a n u n f o l d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o lo o k a t i t i m ore o b j e c t i v e l y . R e s e a r c h b y M o o rs, C h e r n e l l a n d W est (5 3 ) i s one I o f t h e few w h ic h u t i l i z e d some k i n d o f c o n t r o l g r o u p . j T h re e s a m p le s w i t h e i g h t y c o n s e c u t i v e p a t i e n t s w e re a d m i t t e d t o a n e u r o p s y c h i a t r i c u n i t ; m o st r e p r e s e n t e d d e p r e s s i v e r e a c t i o n s o r w e re s c h i z o p h r e n i c . E ac h s u b j e c t h a d a s t a n d a r d i z e d i n t e r v i e w w h ic h l a s t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e l v e m i n u t e s . A l t e r n a t e p a t i e n t s w e re a l s o show n a i r e p l a y o f t h e i n t e r v i e w i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r i t was h e l d . F o l l o w - u p s e s s i o n s w e re t h e n h e l d a t w e e k ly i n t e r v a l s . B o th g r o u p s o f p a t i e n t s r e c e i v e d t h e same t r e a t m e n t s i i e x c e p t t h a t one r e c e i v e d t h e s e l f - c o n f r o n t a t i o n i e x p e r i e n c e . The r e s u l t s w e re som ew hat c l o u d e d ; h o w e v e r , j i b e c a u s e i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p s y c h i a t r i c j I i r e s i d e n t s d o i n g t h e r a t i n g o f t h e two g r o u p s o f p a t i e n t s | knew w h ic h h a d r e c e i v e d t h e p l a y b a c k s e s s i o n s a n d w h ic h h a d n o t . F i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h e g r o u p o f p a t i e n t s who viewed them selves were " m a x i m a l l y i m p r o v e d , " w h i l e only 12 p er c en t o f th e n o n -v ie w e d g r o u p r e c e i v e d t h i s r a t i n g . In l i g h t o f th e p re v io u s l i m i t a t i o n s a n d t h e f a c t t h a t p a t i e n t s who viewed t h e m s e l v e s h a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e | h o s p i t a l , on the a v e r a g e , t w e n t y - f o u r d a y s l o n g e r th an the o th e r grou p, the a u t h o r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i r lo n g e r i 1 s ta y s m ight be due to g r e a t e r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e r a p y , b ro u g h t about by the s e l f c o n f r o n t a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s . R esearch in " S tu d ie s i n Human I n t e r a c t i o n : I n t e r p e r s o n a l Process R e c a ll " h a d b e e n c o n d u c t e d b y K agan, K rathw ohl, and o th e r s (45) a t M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . T h e ir p r o c e s s , I n t e r p e r s o n a l P r o c e s s R e c a l l ( I P R ) , used v id e o - ta p e playback to a l l o w t h e c l i e n t a n d t h e t h e r a p i s t | an o p p o r tu n ity to r e l i v e t h e i r t h e r a p y s e s s i o n . The p l a y back o c c u rre d im m ediately a f t e r t h e t h e r a p y s e s s i o n and i both the c lie n t and the t h e r a p i s t had h i s o w n "interrogator" or "recall w o r k e r . " T h e a u t h o r s b elieved that the addition of this t h i r d p e r s o n i s b a s i c to obtaining sig n ific a n t data an d l e a r n i n g f r o m th e process of video r e c a ll. The in t e r r o g a t o r a t t e m p t e d t o keep the j c lie n t focused on the f e e l i n g s or c o n t e n t o f th e o rig in a l j relationship and to help the c l i e n t r e l i v e t h e o r ig in a l 50 c o u n s e l i n g e x p e r i e n c e . A t t e n t i o n w as a l s o d i r e c t e d t o t h e T .V . m o n i t o r r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e i n t e r r o g a t o r , f o r i t was t h e i n t e r r o g a t o r who w as m o st c o n c e r n e d w i t h t e a c h i n g t h e c l i e n t how t o i n t e r r o g a t e h i m s e l f a n d how t o g a i n i n s i g h t ; t h r o u g h t h e " s e l f - c o n f r o n t i n g " e x p e r i e n c e a f f o r d e d b y t h e i v id e o ta p e . In a d d it io n , i t was he who tended to push the| c l i e n t f o r g r e a t e r c l a r i t y i n d e s c r i b i n g a n d u n d e r s t a n d - j ! i n g s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r s t h a n t h e c o u n s e l o r a n d t o 'f o c u s ' 1 t h e v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k a s a d v o c a t e d b y S t o l l e r ( 7 0 ) . j T h is r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n e d i t s e l f w i t h t h e s e a s p e c t s o f c o u n s e l i n g : (1 ) t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e IPR p r o c e s s , j (2 ) new p r o c e d u r e s i n t h e e d u c a t i o n o f a c o u n s e l o r , (3) a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f e m p a th y , (4) t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e c l i e n t ' s p r o g r e s s i n c o u n s e l i n g , (5 ) n o n - v e r b a l b e h a v i o r a s a m eans o f c o m m u n ic a tin g " a f f e c t , " a n d (6 ) s t u d i e s i n t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g ( 4 5 ) . M icro-T eaching j M icro -tea ch in g i s a r e c e n t e d u c a tio n a l d e v e lo p ment which p ro v id es a m in ia tu r e , c o n t r o lle d te a c h in g j | s i t u a t i o n which c o n ta in s a l l o f the elem en ts o f the teach -j 1 i in g a c t . The uniq u en ess o f m ic r o -te a c h in g c o n s i s t s o f two| 51 c o m p o n e n ts : (1 ) t h e e a s e w i t h w h ic h t h e t e a c h i n g s i t u a t i o n c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d a n d m a n i p u l a t e d , a n d (2 ) t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f im m e d ia te f e e d b a c k f o r t h e s t u d e n t t e a c h e r . I A t S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y t h e f i n d i n g s from f o u r m i c r o - t e a c h i n g (N -4 5 9 ) c l i n i c s c o n d u c t e d , d u r i n g t h e su m m ers, fro m 1963 t o 1 9 6 6 , y i e l d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n : E x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g ro u p s w e re fo rm e d . i I C o n t r o l g r o u p s w e re g i v e n f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e a n d a l s o a c t e d a s t e a c h e r - a i d e s . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p h a d t h r e e m i c r o - t e a c h i n g s e s s i o n s p e r w eek f o r e i g h t w e e k s . j T e a c h i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f m em bers o f b o t h g r o u p s was e v a l u a t e d by t h e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s who a c t e d a s t h e m i c r o - c l a s s a n d b y t h e S t a n f o r d s u p e r v i s o r s . The i n s t r u m en t s e l e c t e d w as t o r a t e p e r f o r m a n c e on e i g h t ite m s a l o n g a f i v e - p o i n t s c a l e . B o th t h e m i c r o - s t u d e n t s a n d j t h e s u p e r v i s o r s r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g i n t h e u s e o f t h i s i n s t r u m e n t . The f o l l o w i n g a r e t h e r e p o r t e d f i n d i n g s o f j t h e s t u d y : 1. C a n d i d a t e s t r a i n e d t h r o u g h m i c r o - t e a c h i n g J t e c h n i q u e s o v e r a n e i g h t - w e e k p e r i o d a n d s p e n d i n g l e s s j t h a n t e n h o u r s a w eek i n t r a i n i n g , p e r f o r m e d a t a h i g h e r 52 l e v e l o f t e a c h i n g c o m p e te n c e t h a n a s i m i l a r g r o u p o f c a n d i d a t e s r e c e i v i n g s e p a r a t e i n s t r u c t i o n an d t h e o r y w i t h a n a s s o c i a t e d t e a c h e r - a i d e e x p e r i e n c e - - i n v o l v i n g a tim e r e q u i r e m e n t o f b e tw e e n t w e n ty a n d t w e n t y - f i v e h o u r s p e r w eek . 2 . P e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e m i c r o - t e a c h i n g s i t u a t i o n I p r e d i c t e d s u b s e q u e n t c l a s s r o o m p e r f o r m a n c e . 3. O ver a n e i g h t - w e e k p e r i o d , t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e c a n d i d a t e ' s s e l f p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s t e a c h i n g p e r f o r m a n c e t h r o u g h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f w e a k n e s s e s a s w e l l a s s t r e n g t h s . 4 . C a n d i d a t e s who r e c e i v e d s t u d e n t a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s im p ro v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore i n t h e i r t e a c h i n g p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n c a n d i d a t e s who d i d n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o s u c h f e e d b a c k . i 5 . R a t i n g s o f v i d e o t r a n s c r i p t i o n s o f t e a c h i n g e n c o u n t e r s c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w i t h l i v e r a t i n g o f t h e same e n c o u n t e r s . ! i 6 . T r a i n e e s ' a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e v a l u e o f m i c r o - J t e a c h i n g i s h i g h . j 7 . M i c r o - s t u d e n t s ' r a t i n g s o f t e a c h i n g . j p e r f o r m a n c e a r e m ore s t a b l e t h a n a n y o t h e r - - i n c l u d i n g i t h o s e o f s u p e r v i s o r s . 8 . T h r e e s k i l l s s u b j e c t e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m en t i n m i c r o - t e a c h i n g p r o d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f i n t e r n t e a c h e r s ( 1 7 ) . E l e m e n t a r y s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s a t H u n t e r C o l l e g e w e re c o m p a re d o v e r a s e m e s t e r p e r i o d a s t o g a i n s i n o b s e r v e d p e r f o r m a n c e o f t e a c h i n g . I t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t s u p e r - i v i s i o n w h ic h u t i l i z e d k i n e s c o p e r e c o r d i n g s (made from o r i g i n a l v i d e o t a p e s ) o f t h e s t u d e n t t e a c h e r ' s p e r f o r m a n c e ; ! w o u ld f a c i l i t a t e h i s g r o w th m ore t h a n s u p e r v i s i o n p r o c e d u r e s w h ic h r e l i e d on v e r b a l r e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h re e s o u r c e s o f d a t a w e re t h e s e : (1) a n a l y s i s ofj s c o r e s on a c l a s s r o o m o b s e r v a t i o n s c h e d u l e , (2 ) r e c o r d e d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s , a n d (3) r e a c t i o n s o f th e! s t u d e n t t e a c h i n g s u p e r v i s o r s . The f o l l o w i n g f i n d i n g s r e l a t e d t o m i c r o - t e a c h i n g w e re r e v e a l e d : j OSCAR ( t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s c h e d u l e d e v e l o p e d f o r t h i s p r o j e c t ) s c o r e s d i d n o t f i n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s | i b e tw e e n s u p e r v i s o r y s t y l e s - - n o p r e f e r e n c e f o r k i n e s c o p e s , j i i The a u t h o r s o f t h e s t u d y m i t i g a t e t h i s f i n d i n g b y j s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s e e l e m e n t s j e o p a r d i z e d t h e i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h : (1 ) l i m i t e d e x p o s u r e o f t h e s t u d e n t t e a c h e r t o t h e t r a i n i n g m e th o d , a n d (2 ) l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s c h e d u l e , OSCAR. i i B o th s t u d e n t s a n d s u p e r v i s o r s e x p r e s s e d p o s i t i v e i o p i n i o n s a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f k i n e s c o p e s i n t r a i n i n g s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s . S u p e r v i s o r s a d d i t i o n a l l y c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i r own p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e t e a c h i n g p r o c e s s was s h a r p e n e d a n d t h a t t h e im m e d ia cy o f t h e r e c o r d e d e x p e r i e n c e a i d e d t h e i r j e f f o r t s t o a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t t e a c h e r ( 1 7 ) . Some 200 m i c r o - t e a c h i n g s e s s i o n s w e re c o n d u c t e d j w i t h s t u d e n t s i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n a t B rig h a m Young ! U n i v e r s i t y s i n c e t h e s p r i n g s e m e s t e r , 19 66. T h e se a r e t h e j f i n d i n g s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s a t t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n : 1. S t u d e n t s r e a c t p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e t e c h n i q u e . N i n e t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h o s e who h a v e r e c e i v e d m i c r o - t e a c h i n g t r a i n i n g j u d g e t h e e x p e r i e n c e t o b e " v a l u a b l e " o r " v e r y v a l u a b l e . " 2 . S t u d e n t s do n o t s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s p e r f o r m i n g a t y p i c a l l y b e c a u s e o f t h e " t h r e a t e n i n g " n a t u r e o f t h e m i c r o - t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n c o n c u r s w i t h 551 t h a t o f t h e m i c r o - t e a c h i n g i n s t r u c t o r s : a n x i e t y r e a c t i o n s among m i c r o - t e a c h e r s a t B rig h a m Y oung U n i v e r s i t y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y n e g l i g i b l e . O nly i n t h e i n i t i a l e x p e r i e n c e , a n d r a r e l y t h e n , i s e v i d e n c e o f p e r f o r m a n c e - d i s t o r t i n g r e a c t i o n f o u n d . 3 . S t u d e n t s who h a v e r e c e i v e d m i c r o - t e a c h i n g r a t e t h e m s e l v e s a s m ore n e a r l y l i k e t h e " i d e a l t e a c h e r " t h a n do s t u d e n t s who h a v e n o t r e c e i v e d m i c r o - t e a c h i n g . i 4 . E x p e r i e n c e a t B rig h a m Young U n i v e r s i t y c o r - j r o b o r a t e s t h e c o n c l u s i o n s u g g e s t e d by t h e S t a n f o r d r e s e a r c h : o b s e r v i n g a t r a i n e e ' s t e a c h i n g p e r f o r m a n c e g l o b a l l y i s much l e s s v a l u a b l e t h a n o b s e r v i n g , a n d h e l p i n g him t o o b s e r v e , one o r tw o s p e c i f i c , d i s c r i m i n a b l e a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e t e a c h i n g a c t . F u r t h e r , t h e m i c r o - t e a c h e r m u s t j p r e p a r e h i s b r i e f l e s s o n t o a c h i e v e a s i m i l a r l y s p e c i f i c s k i l l o r c o m p e te n c y ( 7 8 ) . j I A c h i s o n ( 1 ) , i n a s t u d y o f t h e E f f e c t s o f F e e d - i b a c k fro m T e l e v i s i o n R e c o r d i n g s a n d C o n f e r e n c e s w i t h t h e j T e a c h e r , fo u n d t h a t c o m b in in g t e l e v i s i o n f e e d b a c k w i t h s u p e r v i s o r y c o n f e r e n c e s , p r o d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r j c h a n g e s i n t e a c h e r - v e r b a l b e h a v i o r t h a n s u p e r v i s i n g | c o n f e r e n c e s w i t h o u t t e l e v i s i o n f e e d b a c k ( 1 ) . 5 6 ! O l i v e r o (5 4 ) s t u d i e d t h e u s e o f v i d e o r e c o r d i n g s a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r l i v e o b s e r v a t i o n i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d fo u n d t h a t t r a i n e e s who r e c e i v e f e e d b a c k make g r e a t e r c h a n g e s on s e l e c t e d b e h a v i o r s . Some b e h a v i o r s a r e m ore s u s c e p t i b l e t o im m e d ia te c h a n g e a s a r e s u l t o f t h e n a t u r e ; o f f e e d b a c k t h a n o t h e r s . U n i v e r s i t y s u p e r v i s o r s a r e a b l e j t o p r o d u c e g r e a t e r c h a n g e s i n s e l e c t e d b e h a v i o r s t h a n s c h o o l s u p e r v i s o r s . V i d e o , p l u s v e r b a l f e e d b a c k , p r o d u c e s g r e a t e r c h a n g e s i n s e l e c t e d b e h a v i o r s t h a n v e r b a l f e e d b a c k a l o n e ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s no c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t v i d e o r e c o r d i n g s c a n b e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r l i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n ( 5 4 ) . M i c r o - C o u n s e l i n g j i M icr o -c o u n se lin g i s an e x te n s io n o f the m icro- j j t e a c h i n g m o d e l i n t o t h e a r e a o f c o u n s e l o r t r a i n i n g . The j a p p l i c a t i o n t o c o u n s e l i n g i s v e r y new a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e l i m i t e d . The m a in r e s e a r c h a v a i l a b l e was c o n d u c t e d b y i i Iv e y (4 4 ) a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s w h e re he j d e f i n e d m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g a s a 'V i d e o m e th o d o f t r a i n i n g c o u n s e l o r s i n b a s i c s k i l l s o f c o u n s e l i n g w i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . " T h i s r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t s 57 o f m ic r o -c o u n s e lin g t r a in in g procedures upon th r ee groups o f b eg in n in g c o u n s e lo r s . Three d i f f e r e n t s k i l l s , " attend in g b e h a v io r ," " r e f le c t i o n o f f e e l in g " and "summarization o f f e e l i n g , " were the focu s o f s t u d i e s . C en tral to a l l r e se a r c h was a tte n d in g b eh avior which i s the c o u n s e lin g s k i l l o f a tte n d in g or l i s t e n i n g to a c l i e n t , b oth v e r b a lly and n o n - v e r b a lly . These s t u d ie s su g g e st th a t a tte n d in g b eh a v io r and i t s r e la t e d concept may be d e sc r ib ed in b e h a v io r ia l terms m eaningful to b eg in n in g c o u n s e lo r s . Im p lica tio n s o f the a tte n d in g b eh a v io r and m icro c o u n s e lin g frame-works were d is c u s s e d . A tten d in g b e h a v io r, r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g , and summ arization o f f e e l i n g are viewed by the authors (11) as d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f r e i n f o r c e r s . A tten d in g b eh a v io r is sim ply "being w ith" the c l i e n t b oth p h y s i c a lly and v e r b a lly to r e in f o r c e the c l i e n t fo r "being h i m s e l f . " R e f le c t io n o f f e e l i n g i s seen as s e l e c t i v e l y a tte n d in g to the f e e l i n g or em otion al a s p e c ts o f an in d i v i d u a l ' s comments during an in te r v ie w , thus r e in f o r c in g on ly c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f the c l i e n t ' s r e s p o n s e s . F i n a l l y , summ arization o f f e e l i n g in v o lv e s the f i r s t two dimen s io n s y e t a l s o r e q u ir e s the c o u n se lo r to in t e g r a t e and f i n d common e l e m e n t s i n d i v e r s e c l i e n t r e s p o n s e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e s e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s k i l l s , was fo u n d t o r e p r e s e n t a m ore c o m p le x p r o c e s s t h a n r e w a r d o f d e s i r e d c o u n s e l o r b e h a v i o r ; t o i n v o l v e c u e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i m o d e l s , t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s , a n d c o u n s e l o r s u p e r v i s o r c o m m en ts; a n d t o i n c l u d e t h e p o s i t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f i o p e r a n t s by t h e s u p e r v i s o r t h r o u g h r e w a r d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e j a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . I n s h o r t , t h e t r a i n i n g p r o c e s s was j I d e s i g n e d t o m o d e l t h e b e h a v i o r a n d t h e n r e i n f o r c e t h e b e h a v i o r o n c e i t h a d o c c u r r e d . T h u s , B a n d u ra a n d W a l t e r s (1 1 ) h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f a s o c i a l l e a r n i n g m o d e l a n d h a v e i n c l u d e d a d i s c u s s i o n o f some o f t h e j t e c h n i q u e s e m p lo y e d i n t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A l l e n (4 ) I a l s o p r e s e n t e d a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m i c r o - t e a c h i n g 1 c o n c e p t . A t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r f u r t h e r o f f e r s a new a p p r o a c h t o many o t h e r e x i s t i n g c o u n s e l i n g p r o b le m s (4 4 ) f o r i t c a n b e t a u g h t o s a t e c h n i q u e a n d , u n l i k e p u r e t e c h n i q u e ( " s a y i n g t h e c l i e n t ' s name a t l e a s t t h r e e t i m e s " ) , a t t e n d i n g i m p l i e s r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n . The p e r s o n m u st l i s t e n c a r e f u l l y t o c o n t e n t i n o r d e r t o e n g a g e i n t h e a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r o f f o l l o w i n g c o n t e n t by r e l e v a n t s t a t e m e n t s . To f o l l o w c o m m u n ic a tio n o f f e e l i n g b y a p p r o p r i a t e c h a n g e s i n v o i c e t i m b r e an d q u a l i t y , a s w e l l a s by a p p r o p r i a t e s t a t e m e n t s , o ne m u st a t t e n d t o t h e f e e l i n g t h a t i s b e i n g c o m m u n ic a te d . The p e r s o n who i s i n c o n g r u e n t w i l l l i k e l y b e u n a b l e t o a t t e n d , y e t a t t e n d i n g seem s t o be s e l f r e i n f o r c i n g o n c e i t i s i n i t i a t e d a n d may e v e n p r o v i d e a n a p p r o a c h w h ic h c a n b e u s e d w i t h t h o s e g r o u p s t h a t R o g e rs s e e s a s r e q u i r i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e R o g e r i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i n i t i a t e m ovem ent. T r a i n i n g w h ic h e m p lo y e d t h e a t t e n d i n g , b e h a v i o r - t r a i n i n g m o d e l w as t r i e d on a n a i v e s e c r e t a r y o u t s i d e o f a n y o f t h e a c t u a l e x p e r i m e n t s ( 4 4 ) . A f t e r t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n , h e r l a c k o f a t t e n t i o n was p o i n t e d o u t an d s h e was g i v e n i n s t r u c t i o n s on how t o p ay b e t t e r a t t e n t i o n . She r e t u r n e d t o r e i n t e r v i e w t h e s t u d e n t a n d , a f t e r a b r i e f moment o f a r t i f i c i a l i t y , b e g a n t o r e s p o n d e f f e c t i v e l y t o t h e " c o u n s e l i n g " s h e r e c e i v e d . In f a c t , s h e f u n c t i o n e d l i k e a n e x p e r i e n c e d c o u n s e l o r an d r e t u r n e d t o t h e o f f i c e t h e f o l l o w i n g Monday a n x i o u s t o t e l l a b o u t h e r " a t t e n d i n g " t o p e o p l e o v e r t h e w e e k e n d . She becam e m ore e x i c t e d a n d i n v o l v e d w i t h p e o p le i n new w a y s , an d t h e c h a n g e was e v e n 60 a p p a r e n t t o h e r h u s b a n d . T h is i n c i d e n t may s u g g e s t t h e u t i l i t y o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s f o r t h i s s t u d y f o r p r e t r a i n i n g c l i e n t s f o r c o u n s e l i n g , a s a n a d j u n c t t o c o u n s e l i n g an d t h e r a p y i t s e l f , a n d a s a r e s e a r c h p a ra d ig m t o e x am in e I c o u n s e l i n g p r o c e s s . i I f t h e a t t e n t i o n f a c t o r i s a s i m p o r t a n t a s h a s | i b e e n i n d i c a t e d , i t may p r o v i d e a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th e s u c c e s s a n d v a l i d a t i o n o f c e r t a i n v a r i e t i e s o f c o u n s e l i n g a n d t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e d u r e s . F o r e x a m p le , i t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a n a n a l y t i c c l i e n t d re a m s i n F r e u d i a n s y m b o l s , a J u n g i a n c l i e n t i n m y t h o l o g i c a l s y m b o lis m , a n d a G e s t a l t c l i e n t i n a w h o l i s t i c f a s h i o n . C o u ld i t be t h a t th e t h e r a p i s t s i m p l y h a s s e l e c t i v e l y a t t e n d e d t o th e c l i e n t ' s v e r b a l i z a t i o n s a n d , c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i r e i n f o r c e d m a t e r i a l o f a c e r t a i n n a t u r e ? The c o u n s e l o r J may a l s o a t t e n d t o t h e c l i e n t i n a f a s h i o n t h a t f i t s i n t o h i s own t h e o r e t i c a l fra m e w o rk . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e ' j i n a b i l i t y o f some b e g i n n i n g c o u n s e l o r s t o p r o v i d e a t t e n t i o n i n t h e i n t e r v i e w may w e l l e x p l a i n why t h e i r i n t e r v ie w s a r e f r e q u e n t l y v e r y s h o r t . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , c o u n s e l i n g i s n o t a r e i n f o r c i n g p r o c e s s , b u t a c t u a l l y a n e x t i n c t i o n s e r i e s . ' 61 T h u s , i t w o u ld seem e s s e n t i a l t o c o n s i d e r t h e t r a i n i n g m o d e l u t i l i z e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i t i s m o st a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t e a c h i n g a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . I s t e l e v i s i o n t h e k e y f a c t o r i n m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g , o r i s i t s i m p ly | c l e a r a n d a c c u r a t e s u p e r v i s i o n ? M cD onald, A l l e n , a n d i ! Orme (5 1 ) v a r i e d t h e m e th o d s o f t r e a t m e n t i n t r a i n i n g t e a c h e r s i n a p a r t i c u l a r r e i n f o r c e m e n t s k i l l a n d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t maximum f e e d b a c k c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i i j u s e d i n t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n y i e l d e d t h e m o st e f f e c t i v e t r a i n i n g r e s u l t s . T h is p r o c e d u r e was fo u n d t o be " t h e m o st ' c o s t l y ' i n t h a t i t r e q u i r e d t h e a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r t o d e s c r i b e s a l i e n t c u e s a n d t o s u g - j g e s t w ays t h e s u b j e c t c o u l d u s e t o r e i n f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i n g ! b e h a v i o r . " I n f o r m a l o b s e r v a t i o n a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t some i i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n e e s r e s p o n d e d b e t t e r i n d i f f e r e n t t r a i n i n g : s i t u a t i o n s t h a n o t h e r s ; h o w e v e r , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h on t h e I m e th o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e i m p a c t o f t h e m e d ia seem s i w a r r a n t e d . S t o l l e r (7 1 ) a n d F a r s o n (3 0 ) h a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t e l e v i s i o n e q u ip m e n t d i d n o t m o d if y g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n . I A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h e m o st u s e f u l I t y p e o f c o u n s e l - r e c o u n s e l c y c l e . C l i n i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n : j o v e r t h e s e s t u d i e s h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i d e a l t e a c h i n g format i s r e p r e se n te d by a fiv e -m in u te b a s e - l i n e s e s s i o n which i s fo llo w ed by in s t r u c t io n and feedback and then a second fiv e -m in u te s e s s i o n . This should be fo llo w ed by more in s t r u c t i o n and feedback, and a f i n a l fiv e -m in u te s e s s i o n again fo llo w ed by feedback. S im ila r o b se r v a tio n s j have been made by A lle n and h is a s s o c i a t e s in co n n ectio n w ith m ic r o -te a c h in g . Experim ental ev id en ce i s la c k in g on j l t h i s p o in t , however. j Most c o u n se lo r ed u cators have spent long hours J t r a in in g b eg in n in g and practicum co u n selo r s in the s k i l l s o f c o u n s e lin g , and most would agree that t r a in in g neophyte c o u n selo r s in th e se s k i l l s i s a d i f f i c u l t and ta x in g ta s k . ; M icro -co u n selin g t r a in in g would seem to provide a v ia b le framework to make p r o f e s s io n a l co u n selo r t r a in in g and the t r a in in g o f la y co u n se lo r s more m eaningful and e f f e c t i v e . I f i t i s p o s s ib le to tea ch a co u n selo r complex s k i l l s o f c o u n s e lin g w it h in a two-hour b lock o f tim e , i t should be f e a s i b l e to d evelop an in te g r a te d c o u n se lo r ed u ca tio n j i ! program based on m ic r o -c o u n se lin g p r i n c i p l e s . S im i la r l y , j i the co n cep ts o f a tte n d in g , s e l e c t i v e a t t e n d in g , and summ arization are not only an in t e g r a l p art o f c o u n se lin g j but may become a fo rce capable o f e x e r t in g a tremendous j 63 im p a c t up o n t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r , a n d t h e s t u d e n t s . The m i c r o - t e a c h i n g a n d m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g f ra m e w o rk s may b e t h e s o u g h t - a f t e r v e h i c l e s f o r t e a c h i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s k i l l s o f l i v i n g . Lay C o u n s e l i n g | One o f t h e e a r l i e s t s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e j e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f l a y - c o u n s e l i n g was c o n d u c t e d by R i o c h , | e t a l . (5 9 ) i n a N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h p i l o t s t u d y f o r t r a i n i n g m e n t a l h e a l t h c o u n s e l o r s . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n d e s c r i b e d t h e f i r s t y e a r ' s w ork i n a n e x p e r i m e n t d e s i g n e d t o t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d , m a t u r e p e o p l e c a n b e t r a i n e d w i t h i n two y e a r s t o do p s y c h o t h e r a p y u n d e r l i m i t e d c o n d i t i o n s . E i g h t f o r t y - y e a r - | o l d m a r r i e d women w i t h c h i l d r e n w e re t r a i n e d t h r o u g h a | i v e r y p r a c t i c a l p r o g r a m , a n d t h e r e s u l t s w e re r e p o r t e d a s j g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e . i C a r k h u f f a n d T r u a x (2 2 ) i n s i m i l a r r e s e a r c h u s e d t r a i n e d l a y h o s p i t a l p e r s o n n e l , p r i m a r i l y a t t e n d e n t s who h a d b e e n t r a i n e d i n a m e th o d i n t e g r a t i n g a d i d a c t i c a p p r o a c h w h ic h e m p h a s iz e d t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e r a p i s t i | i b e h a v i o r w i t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h w h ic h f o c u s e d u p o n j 64: t h e r a p i s t d e v e lo p m e n t a n d " g r o w t h . " A t t h e e n d o f t h e t h r e e - m o n t h p e r i o d , s i g n i f i c a n t im p ro v e m e n t w as n o t e d i n t h e w a rd b e h a v i o r o f t h o s e r e c e i v i n g t r e a t m e n t w hen c o m p a re d w i t h t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . Magoon ( 5 0 ) , i n a s i m i l a r , y e t m ore r e c e n t s t u d y t h a n t h a t b y R i o c h ( 5 9 ) , u t i l i z e d a NIMH p i l o t t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m w h ic h a im e d a t a l l e v i a t i n g t h e s h o r t a g e o f p s y c h o - ! t h e r a p e u t i c h e l p t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g m a t u r e , b r i g h t , j s o c i a l l y - s e n s i t i v e women. The r e s u l t s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e s e women c a n p r o v i d e c r e d i t a b l e p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g and p s y c h o t h e r a p y . i In A u s t r a l i a , m a r r i a g e c o u n s e l i n g s e r v i c e s a r e ! m a i n l y s t a f f e d by n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s who a r e j c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d a n d t r a i n e d a n d h a v e a h e a l t h y m o t i v a - i t i o n f o r t h e w o rk . E f f e c t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h i s s o u r c e | o f m anpow er e n a b l e s a w i d e r u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d n um ber o f \ p r o f e s s i o n a l l y - e d u c a t e d p e r s o n s i n t h e c o m m u n ity . The j s u c c e s s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e i n A u s t r a l i a h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r o t h e r c o m m u n itie s f a c e d w i t h a s h o r t a g e o f c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e f i e l d s o f m e n t a l h e a l t h ( 4 1 ) . A few s t u d i e s h a v e a c t u a l l y c o m p a re d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l l y - t r a i n e d l a y - c o u n s e l o r s a n d h a v e ! j y i e l d e d some i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s . F o r e x a m p le , C a r k h u f f (2 0 ) fo u n d t h a t w i t h o r w i t h o u t t r a i n i n g a n d / o r s u p e r v i s i o n , t h e p a t i e n t s o f l a y c o u n s e l o r s do a s w e l l o r b e t t e r t h a n t h e p a t i e n t s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s . Su ch r e s u l t s m u st b e c o n s i d e r e d , a n d t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s w h ic h p o i n t t o w a r d t h e n e e d f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s w h ic h i n c o r p o r a t e a n e m p h a s is a n d a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e s i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s k i l l s . P o s e r (5 8 ) , i n e x a m in i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e r a p i s t s ' t r a i n i n g , a s s e s s e d t h e c o m p a r a t i v e e f f i c i e n c y o f t r a i n e d a n d u n t r a i n e d t h e r a p i s t s . T h o se who h a d n o t r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g w e re u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s w i t h n o p r e p a r a t i o n o r e x p e r i e n c e i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y . In c o m p a r is o n w i t h t h e u n t r e a t e d c o n t r o l g r o u p , t h e l a y t h e r a p i s t s w e re fo u n d t o a c h i e v e s l i g h t l y b e t t e r r e s u l t s t h a n t h e p s y c h i a t r i s t a n d p s y c h i a t r i c - s o c i a l w o r k e r s d o i n g g ro u p t h e r a p y w i t h s i m i l a r p a t i e n t s . C a u t i o n was u r g e d i n e x t e n d i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e r e s u l t s b e y o n d g r o u p t h e r a p y w i t h s c h i z o p h r e n i c p a t i e n t s . One m i g h t a s k ''w hat a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l a y - c o u n s e l o r s w h ic h make them e f f e c t i v e ? " The f o l l o w i n g s t u d i e s s u p p l y some p o s s i b l e a n s w e r s : M i l l e r (5 2 ) made a n e f f o r t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o p e r c e i v e h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r . T h i r t y - t h r e e m a le u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s w i t h no f o r m a l t r a i n i n g i n t h e h e l p i n g p r o c e s s made up f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l s a m p l e s . A p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e was u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e i n d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a r i a b l e s . The c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e , : i p e r c e i v e d - h e I p i n g b e h a v i o r , was d e t e r m i n e d b y a r a t i n g ! s c a l e d e v e l o p e d from t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from u s e o f th e c r i t i c a l i n c i d e n t t e c h n i q u e . The r e s u l t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s b e tw e e n c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f u n t r a i n e d i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e way t h e y a r e j p e r c e i v e d by o t h e r s a s e x e m p l i f y i n g h e l p o r n o n - h e l p i n g . F a c t o r s w h ic h made p e o p l e m ore h e l p f u l w e re s u r g e n c y , e n t h u s i a s m , a n d f r a n k t a l k a t i v e n e s s ; o t h e r s c i t e d w ere j b e i n g c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y r e s p o n s i b l e a n d d e m o n s t r a t i n g a ' s i n c e r e i n t e r e s t i n p e o p l e . j I n a s i m i l a r a r t i c l e , B eck (1 3 ) made a n e f f o r t t o | j d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o l l e g e c a s e - a i d e j i v o l u n t e e r s . R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e c a s e - a i d e j v o l u n t e e r s ' a p p r o a c h w as d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a f f i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e a s : (1 ) l o o s e n e s s 6 7 ! o f r o l e d e f i n i t i o n a l l o w s f o r b o t h m em bers t o e n g a g e i n a w i d e - r a n g e o f a c t i v i t i e s ; a n d (2) v o l u n t e e r s e x t e n d e d t h e i r a c t i v i t y b e y o n d t h e w a l l s o f t h e h o s p i t a l , h e l p s g e t j o b s , e t c e t e r a . F i n a l l y , a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d b y C a r k h u f f a n d T r u a x (2 3 ) i n w h ic h a d i d a c t i c - i n t e l l e c t u a l a p p r o a c h , w h ic h e m p h a s iz e d t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e r a p i s t ' s b e h a v i o r , w as c o m b in e d w i t h a n e x p e r i e n t i a l a p p r o a c h , w h ic h f o c u s e s u p o n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d g r o w th o f t h e t h e r a p i s t . The p ro g ra m was im p le m e n te d w i t h i n a g r o u p [ o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d w i t h a \ g r o u p o f l a y h o s p i t a l p e r s o n n e l i n c l u d i n g t h r e e a t t e n d a n t s , a v o l u n t e e r w o r k e r , a n d a n i n d u s t r i a l J t h e r a p i s t . The p r o g ra m r e l i e d h e a v i l y up o n s c a l e s w h ic h i n p r e v i o u s a n d e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a d b e e n p r e d i c t i v e o f p o s i t i v e p a t i e n t outco m e i n e s t i m a t i n g l e v e l s o f t h e r a p i s t j j e m p a th y , p o s i t i v e r e g a r d , c o n g r u a n c e a n d p a t i e n t d e p t h o f ; i s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n . I t was fo u n d t h a t t r a i n e e s c o u l d b e i b r o u g h t t o f u n c t i o n a t l e v e l s o f e f f e c t i v e t h e r a p y q u i t e ; c o m m e n s u ra te w i t h t h o s e o f m ore e x p e r i e n c e d t h e r a p i s t s i n | i i l e s s t h a n one h u n d r e d h o u r s o f t r a i n i n g . 68! Chapter Summary The f o l l o w i n g c o n c e p t s d e r i v e d fro m t h e l i t e r a t u r e h a v e h e l p e d t o b u i l d t h e c o n c e p t u a l fra m e w o rk w i t h i n w h ic h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y was d e v e l o p e d . 1. The u s e o f m o d e ls was fo u n d t o b e h i g h l y j e f f e c t i v e i n a l t e r i n g b e h a v i o r . ! ] I 2 . C o m b in in g t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s o c i a l m o d e ls | w i t h v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s more p o w e r f u l i n i n f l u e n c i n g ' b e h a v i o r t h a n e i t h e r m o d e ls o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t a l o n e . | 3. F o c u s e d v i d e o - t a p e f e e d b a c k d i r e c t s t h e j i i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r a n d l e s s e n s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r him t o a v o i d i t . T h u s , t h e r e i s m ore o p p o r t u n i t y f o r l e a r n i n g t o o c c u r . 4 . O b s e r v i n g a t r a i n e e ' s p e r f o r m a n c e g l o b a l l y i s ■ l much l e s s v a l u a b l e t h a n o b s e r v i n g , a n d h e l p i n g him t o J i o b s e r v e , one o r two s p e c i f i c , d i s c r i m i n a t e a c t i o n s w i t h i n ; t h e c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l . j I t 5 . A t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r , r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g , a n d e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g a r e v ie w e d a s d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f r e i n f o r c e r s . ! 69 6 . The t r a i n i n g f o r m a t i s d e s i g n e d t o m o d e l t h e b e h a v i o r v i a v i d e o t a p e a n d t h e n t o r e i n f o r c e t h e b e h a v i o r on ce i t h a s o c c u r r e d . 7 . The a t t e n t i o n o f p e o p l e i s r e i n f o r c i n g b e c a u s e i t i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r o t h e r r e i n f o r c e m e n ts fro m th em . I n g e n e r a l , o n l y p e o p le who a r e a t t e n d i n g t o u s r e i n f o r c e o u r b e h a v i o r . 8 . The m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g t r a i n i n g a p p r o a c h t o t e a c h i n g c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s p r o v i d e s a v i a b l e fra m e w o rk t o make t h e t r a i n i n g o f l a y c o u n s e l o r s m ore m e a n i n g f u l a n d m ore e x p e d i e n t . CHAPTER I I I SO U RCE OF D ATA, PROCEDURES, AND METHODOLOGY T h e purpose of this chapter w as to present a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the sample, the method of treatment, the i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d to measure, and the research design i n v o l v e d i n t h i s study. The major components of the c h a p t e r a r e t h e s e : (1) a description of the sam ple p o p u l a t i o n , ( 2 ) a description of procedures and treatment, ( 3 ) a d e s c r i p t i o n of the instruments to be used, and a d e s c r i p t i o n of the basic research design and s t a t i s t i c a l techniques to be used. Nature of the Sam ple T h e participants in the study consisted of t e a c h e r s f r o m two schools: (1) a western suburban, four- y e a r s e n i o r h i g h school, and (2) a two-year intermediate 70 71! s c h o o l l o c a t e d i n a n a r e a w h ic h i s p r e d o m i n a t e l y A n g lo - S a x o n . The s o c i o - e c o n o m i c l e v e l o f t h e two c o m m u n itie s i n w h ic h t h e s e two s c h o o l s a r e l o c a t e d i s m id d l e c l a s s . A l l t e a c h e r s a r e C a u c a s i a n . j D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Sam ple The s a m p le f o r t h i s s t u d y c o n s i s t e d o f t h i r t y - s i x t e a c h e r s who w e re a l m o s t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e tw e e n t h e tw o g e n d e r s a n d w e re o b t a i n e d from among a t o t a l p o s s i b l e i p o p u l a t i o n o f n i n e t y t e a c h e r s . A l l w e re v o l u n t e e r s who h a d e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e t o l e a r n t h e b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g j s k i l l s t o e n h a n c e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s a d v i s o r s . The ! t e a c h e r s w e re r a n d o m ly a s s i g n e d t o t h r e e c o u n s e l o r s . I D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e C o u n s e l o r s The c o u n s e l o r s s e l e c t e d h a d e x p r e s s e d a n i n t e r e s t i i n h e l p i n g t r a i n t e a c h e r s i n b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d , w hen a p p r o a c h e d b y t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r , t h e y v o l u n t e e r e d ; p r o m p t l y i n o r d e r t o be a p a r t o f t h e s t u d y . I T h re e p r o f e s s i o n a l c o u n s e l o r s w e re u s e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d w e re a s s i g n e d r a n d o m ly t o t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s a n d t h r e e c o n t r o l g r o u p s . The c o u n s e l o r s 72 c o n s i s t e d o f two men a n d one woman, who h e l d p u p i l p e r s o n n e l c r e d e n t i a l s a n d h a d b e e n e m p lo y e d i n a c o u n s e l i n g r o l e on a s e c o n d a r y l e v e l f o r a t l e a s t t h r e e y e a r s . P r e v i o u s t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r (1 ) m et w i t h t h e c o u n s e l o r s f o r t e n , t w o - h o u r s e s s i o n s a n d o u t l i n e d t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s t u d y , (2 ) p r a c t i c e d u s i n g t h e v i d e o - t a p e e q u i p m e n t , a n d (3) d i s c u s s e d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e r e s e a r c h . D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e E q u ip m e n t t o b e U sed The r e c e n t b r e a k t h r o u g h i n v i d e o - t a p e r e c o r d i n g e q u ip m e n t h a s n o t o n l y made t h i s t y p e o f e q u ip m e n t a c c e s s i b l e t o m ore p e o p l e , b u t i t h a s a l s o i n c r e a s e d t h e num ber a n d t y p e s o f e q u ip m e n t a v a i l a b l e . A Sony 2200 v i d e o - t a p e r e c o r d e r was u s e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n c e i t h a d b e e n p u r c h a s e d b y t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . W ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c l o g g i n g o f t h e v i d e o h e a d b e c a u s e o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n fro m t h e u s e d t a p e , t h e e q u ip m e n t o p e r a t e d e f f i c i e n t l y . 731 D e s c r ip tio n o f the Procedure and Treatment The Procedure i From the c o u n s e lo r 's s i x groups o f te a c h e r s , three were randomly a ssig n e d to r e c e iv e ex p erim en ta l treatm ent and th ree were randomly a ssig n e d as the c o n tr o l groups for the stu d y . i 1 Upon the re q u e st o f the te a c h e r s who had v o lu n - j i te e r e d , the in v e s t i g a t o r met w ith the v o lu n te e r s to e x p la in the equipment. In a d d it io n , the importance was s t r e s s e d o f not having the ex p erim en ta l group d is c u s s i t h e i r f e e l i n g s w ith the c o n tr o l group. In order to tr y to compensate fo r sh eer exposure to the equipm ent, both ex p erim en ta l and c o n tr o l groups were v id eo taped fo r the [ same amount o f tim e; however, the c o n t r o l group was not a llow ed to view the t a p e s , and i t was to be ex p la in ed to ; ! the tea ch ers th a t the c o n tr o l group would r e c e iv e the samej treatm ent as the ex p erim en ta l groups a f t e r the r e se a r c h i had been com pleted. The T r e a t m e n t The t r e a t m e n t u s e d w as m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g a s was d e f i n e d i n C h a p t e r I , a n d d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r I I . The c o u n s e l o r s , d u r i n g t h e s i x s e s s i o n s o f f i f t y m i n u t e s e a c h w e re t o p r e s e n t t h e i r t h r e e b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s t o t e a c h e r s ( a d v i s o r s ) . T h ese t h r e e k e y s k i l l s a r e : (1) a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r , (2 ) e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g , a n d (3) r e s p o n d i n g t o f e e l i n g . E ac h o f t h e s e s k i l l s was t h e n w oven i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l " T r a i n i n g F o r m a t . " 1. I n i t i a l d i a g n o s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e a d v i s o r a n d a s t u d e n t u t i l i z i n g t h e v i d e o t a p e . 2 . A m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m a n u a l d e s c r i b i n g an d i l l u t r a t i n g t h e s k i l l was r e a d b y t h e a d v i s o r (A p p e n d ix B ) . 3 . VTR m o d e ls o f b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e s k i l l s w e re show n t o t h e a d v i s o r a n d d i s c u s s e d . 4 . The a d v i s o r ' s o r i g i n a l t a p e w as r e v i e w e d a n d d i s c u s s e d w i t h t h e c o u n s e l o r . 5 . A s e c o n d f i v e - m i n u t e v i d e o - t a p e d i n t e r a c t i o n w as c o m p l e t e d b y t h e a d v i s o r . 6 . The f i n a l t a p e was r e v i e w e d j o i n t l y b y t h e a d v i s o r a n d c o u n s e l o r t o s h a r p e n t h e b e h a v i o r s k i l l s o f t h e a d v i s o r . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p r e c e i v e d a l l s e c t i o n s ( 1 - 6 ) o f t h e t r a i n i n g f o r m a t . The c o n t r o l g r o u p r e c e i v e d o n l y s e c t i o n s (1 ) a n d (5 ) w h ic h w e re t h e v i d e o - t a p e d e x p e r i e n c e s . The c o n t r o l g r o u p r e c e i v e d no i n s t r u c t i o n i i n t h e s k i l l s a n d w e re a s k e d t o " t a l k w i t h t h e s t u d e n t , j i I a n d g e t t o know him o r h e r . " j The e x a c t p r o c e d u r e was t h e f o l l o w i n g : i I j Week One | P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n s 1 -3 o f t r a i n i n g f o r m a t f o r a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n (1) t o t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . i Week Two P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n s 4 - 5 o f t r a i n i n g f o r m a t f o r ! i a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . S e c t i o n ( 5 ) , t h e f i n a l f i v e - m i n u t e i I v i d e o t a p e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p i n t e r - i ! a c t i o n w as k e p t t o be e v a l u a t e d b y " C o u n s e l in g E x p e r t s . " i Week T h re e j P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n s 1 - 3 o f t r a i n i n g f o r m a t f o r l e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g t o e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n (1 ) t o t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . Week Four P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n s 4 - 6 o f t r a i n i n g f o r m a t f o r e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g . S e c t i o n ( 5 ) , t h e f i n a l f i v e - m i n u t e v i d e o t a p e o f e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n , was k e p t t o b e e v a l u a t e d b y " C o u n s e l i n g E x p e r t s . " j i Week Five P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n s 1 -3 o f t r a i n i n g f o r m a t f o r r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g t o e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n (1 ) t o t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . Week S ix — ' — ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - j P r e s e n t e d s e c t i o n s 4 - 6 o f t r a i n i n g f o r m a t f o r r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g . S e c t i o n ( 5 ) , t h e f i n a l f i v e - i ! m i n u t e v i d e o t a p e o f e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n , was k e p t t o b e e v a l u a t e d by " C o u n s e l in g E x p e r t s . " D e s c r ip tio n o f the Instrum ents Used S c a le o f "Attending B ehavior" (SAB) The SAB was u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e o f t h e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s w h ic h w as t h e l e v e l o f a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r r e f l e c t e d by t h e t e a c h e r . 77 T h e SAB, a n o u t g r o w t h o f r e s e a r c h by Iv e y e t a l . , h a s t h r e e s c a l e s : (1) v e r b a l f o l l o w i n g , (2) e y e c o n t a c t , a n d (3) p o s t u r e . A s i m p l e , f i v e - p o i n t c o n s t a n t r e s p o n s e , L i c k e r t - t y p e s c a l e was u s e d . A n c h o r s t a t e m e n t s w ere i n c l u d e d a t o n l y t h e p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e e n d s o f th e c o n ti n u u m . T h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s c a l e s was b a s e d on i n t e r j u d g e r e l i a b i l i t y . R e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e SAB i s 0 . 8 4 ( 4 4 ) , a n d f a c e v a l i d i t y a p p e a r s a d e q u a t e u p o n i n s p e c t i o n . O t h e r a s p e c t s o f v a l i d i t y a l s o a p p e a r t o be s u p p o r t e d b y t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e s c a l e s a r e r e l a t e d t o a v a r i e t y o f c l i e n t - t h e r a p e u t i c o u tco m es ( 7 4 ) . The s c a l e o f a tte n d in g behavior is completed by a judge a f t e r v ie w in g a co u n selin g s e s s io n or fo llo w in g h is l i s t e n i n g t o a v id eo -ta p e record in g. About three minutes are r e q u i r e d t o complete the SAB. S cale o f E x p r e s s io n o f F e e lin g (SEF) T h e SEF was u s e d t o m e a s u re t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e o f t h e t h i r d h y p o t h e s i s w h ic h d e a l t w i t h th e am ount o f e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g p r e s e n t e d by t h e s t u d e n t t o t h e t e a c h e r . The SEF i s a s c a l e w h ic h was d e v e l o p e d b y C a r k h u f f (7 4 ) a n d l a t e r m o d i f i e d b y H aase ( 3 8 ) . C a r k h u f f ’s o r i g i n a l s c a l e was c a l l e d " F a c i l i t a t i v e g e n u i n e n e s s i n I n t e r p e r s o n a l P r o c e s s e s . " The r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e SEF i s 0 , 8 0 ( 3 8 ) , a n d t h i s h a s b e e n fo u n d c o m p a r a b le t o t h a t o f t h e SAB w h ic h was r e p o r t e d a n d s u m m a riz e d i n T r u a x an d I C a r k h u f f ( 7 4 ) . S c a l e o f R e f l e c t i o n o f F e e l i n g (SRF) | The SRF was u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t j I v a r i a b l e o f t h e s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s w h ic h i s t h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a t e r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g b y t h e t e a c h e r - i n - t r a i n i n g t o becom e a c o u n s e l o r . T e s t r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y was r e p o r t e d a s 0 .9 2 by Iv e y ( 4 4 ) . The v a l i d i t y was fo u n d t o b e c o m p a r a b le t o t h a t o f t h e SEF. j i I The S c o r i n g o f t h e SAB. SEF. a n d SRF The three jud ges used in s c o r in g the SAB, SEF and | l j SRF w e re s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y w e re p e r s o n s who h a v e b e e n w o r k i n g f u l l tim e i n some a r e a o f s e c o n d a r y p u p i l p e r s o n n e l w o rk . A l l t h r e e w e re e x p e r i e n c e d , c r e d e n t i a l e d j c o u n s e l o r s who a r e a l s o c r e d e n t i a l e d s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s . 79 B e f o r e j u d g i n g t h e t a p e s , e a c h o f t h e t h r e e was g i v e n t h r e e h o u r s o f t r a i n i n g b y t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r i n u s i n g t h e s c a l e s . To d e t e r m i n e i n t e r - j u d g e r e l i a b i l i t y , a n d i f a n e e d w e re t o d e v e l o p f o r f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g , t h e r a t i n g s o f t h e t h r e e j u d g e s w e re t e s t e d by u s i n g t h e K e n d a l l C o e f f i c i e n t o f C o n c o r d a n c e . To a s s u r e t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t a g r e e m e n t d i d e x i s t , t h e t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f W was c o n d u c t e d a s d e s c r i b e d by S i e g e l (6 6 ) who p r o v i d e d t h e 2 f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a : X * = ( n - 1 ) W. S i g n i f i c a n c e b e y o n d t h e .0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e w as d e s i r e d a n d w o u ld mean t h a t i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o a ssu m e t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t among t h e j u d g e s d i d e x i s t i n r e g a r d t o w h a t t h e y r a t e , and t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t was n o t due t o c h a n c e . The j u d g e s w e re n o t t o b e t o l d w h e t h e r t h e y w e re s e e i n g a n e x p e r i m e n t a l o r c o n t r o l g r o u p , n o r w e re t h e y t o b e in f o r m e d a s t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t was b e i n g t e s t e d u n t i l a f t e r a l l t a p e s w e re r a t e d . T a p e s w e re t o be p r e s e n t e d i n a ran d o m m a n n e r , u s i n g a random t a b l e o r n u m b e rs . The e n t i r e f i v e - m i n u t e s e c t i o n f o r e a c h t e a c h e r was show n. 80 The j u d g e s w e re i n s t r u c t e d n o t t o d i s c u s s a n y t a p e d u r i n g t h i s s h o w in g n o r b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l r a t i n g o f t e a c h e r s . The f i n a l s t e p t a k e n was t h a t o f p r o d u c i n g a " c o n s e n s u s s c o r e . " The i n v e s t i g a t o r a s k e d e a c h member t o g i v e h i s n u m e r a l s c o r e t o e a c h s t a t e m e n t . One s c o r e r e s u l t i n g from t h e t h r e e s c o r e s was e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e " c o n s e n s u s s c o r e , " a n d was o b t a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r : I f two o f t h e t h r e e j u d g e s g a v e a n i t e m a p a r t i c u l a r s c o r e , t h a t s c o r e was a c c e p t e d . I f t h e r e was a l a r g e r d i s a g r e e m e n t t h a n one p o i n t , t h e n t h e i t e m was d i s c u s s e d an d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e one d e v i a n t s c o r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d c l a r i f i e d . To a s s u r e t h a t t h e " c o n s e n s u s s c o r e " was r e l i a b l e , b a s e d on t h e p o o l i n g o f t h e j u d g e s ' i n d e p e n d e n t s c o r e s , a K e n d a l l C o e f f i c i e n t o f C o n c o rd a n c e (W) was e m p lo y e d . S i g n i f i c a n c e b e y o n d t h e .0 1 l e v e l f o r c h i s q u a r e was s o u g h t . 81 C o u n s e l o r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e (CES) The c o u n s e l o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s s c a l e was u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e o f t h e f o u r t h h y p o t h e s i s w h ic h was t h e l e v e l o f g e n e r a l c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l a t t a i n e d by t h e a d v i s o r s a s m e a s u r e d by t h e i r s t u d e n t s . T h ese s t u d e n t s w e re n o t i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e i r a d v i s o r s w e re i n v o l v e d i n a n y t r a i n i n g a n d , t h e r e f o r e , w e re e v a l u a t i n g o n l y " g e n e r a l c o u n s e l i n g a b i l i t y . " S e m a n tic D i f f e r e n t i a l S c a l e The u s e o f t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l t o m e a s u r e c h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o r i s n o t new, E n d l e r (2 8 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i t c o u l d m e a s u r e c h a n g e s r e s u l t i n g from c o u n s e l i n g ; Webb a n d E i k e n b e r r y (7 9 ) u s e d t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l t o m e a s u r e c h a n g e s i n g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g w i t h a c t i n g - o u t p r e a d o l e s c e n t s ; a n d Webb a n d H a r r i s (80) u s e d i t i n a s t u d y o f c o u n s e l o r s i n a n NDEA i n s t i t u t e . As a m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e , C ro n b a c h (2 6 ) s p o k e o f i t s u s e f u l n e s s , and A n a s t a s i p o i n t e d o u t " t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s a s t a n d a r d i z e d an d q u a n t i f i e d p r o c e d u r e f o r m e a s u r i n g c o n n o t a t i o n s o f a n y g i v e n c o n c e p t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l " ( 6 ) . C o n v i n c i n g 82 e v i d e n c e was r e p o r t e d b y O sgood (5 5 ) i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i t p o s s e s s e s o b j e c t i v i t y , r e l i a b i l i t y , v a l i d i t y , s e n s i t i v i t y , c o m p a r a b i l i t y , a n d u t i l i t y . The CES f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d a s a r e s u l t o f r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d b y I v e y (4 3 ) a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s C o u n s e l i n g C e n t e r . P a r a l l e l fo rm r e l i a b i l i t y was c o m p u te d b e tw e e n Form 1 a n d Form 2 o f t h e s c a l e a n d y i e l d e d a v a l u e o f + 0 . 9 7 5 . I n t e r - r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y was c o m p u te d u s i n g K e n d a l l ' s C o e f f i c i e n t o f C o n c o r d a n c e : W. K e n d a l l ' s W a l l o w s one t o o b t a i n a m e a s u r e o f a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n K j u d g e s who h a v e made N o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h is N ( N - l ) o b v i a t e d t h e n e e d t o c o m p u te c o m b i n a t i o n s o f 2 c o e f f i c i e n t s b e tw e e n i n d i v i d u a l j u d g e s a n d t h e n e e d t o a v e r a g e th em . K e n d a l l ' s W y i e l d e d a v a l u e o f + . 3 7 , w h ic h i s s i g n i f i c a n t b e y o n d t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e ( 4 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o I v e y : t h e u s e o f two r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t m o d e ls o f c o u n s e l o r s a l l o w e d f o r a t e s t o f v a l i d i t y o f t h e two s c a l e s b y m eans o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n a r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d good m o d e l a n d a r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d b a d m o d e l o f c o u n s e l o r b e h a v i o r . 83 The d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e s c a l e s w e re a b l e t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e s e two m o d e ls a l l o w e d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o e s t i m a t e t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s c a l e s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n mean r a t i n g s o f m o d e l 1 a n d m o d e l 2 w e re s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 0 1 l e v e l ( 4 3 ) . I t a p p e a r e d , a t l e a s t t e n t a t i v e l y , t h a t t h e s c a l e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o m e a s u r e c o u n s e l o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s was a p r o m i s i n g l y r e l i a b l e a n d v a l i d i n s t r u m e n t ( A p p e n d ic e s D an d E ) . The p a i r i n g o f a g i v e n c o n c e p t was a g i v e n s c a l e c o m p r i s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g : P olar Polar te r m te r m X Y ( 1 ) (2 ) (3) (4) (5 ) ( 6 ) (7) The s c a le p o s it io n s were d e fin e d fo r the s u b je c t in the t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s a s fo llo w s : (1) v e r y X (5 ) som ew hat Y (2) q u i t e X (6 ) q u i t e Y (3) som ew hat X (7 ) v e r y Y (4) N e i t h e r X o r Y 84 The D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B a s i c R e s e a r c h D e s ig n an d S t a t i s t i c a l T e c h n iq u e E m ployed T h re e o f s i x g r o u p s w e re r a n d o m ly a s s i g n e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s . The o t h e r t h r e e w e re t o a c t a s c o n t r o l g r o u p s . The t r e a t m e n t p e r i o d was s i x w e ek s d u r i n g w h ic h b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s m et o n c e a w eek f o r f i f t y m i n u t e s . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p r e c e i v e d t h e e n t i r e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g t r e a t m e n t , w h i l e t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p was o n l y v i d e o t a p e d , w i t h no f e e d b a c k . The l a s t f i v e - m i n u t e s e c t i o n from a t e n - m i n u t e i n t e r v i e w w i t h a s t u d e n t was k e p t f o r r a t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e s k i l l s . To d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t a s m e a s u r e d by t h e t h r e e s c a l e s (SAB, SRF, SEF) a p o s t - t e s t o n l y c o n t r o l g r o u p , r a n d o m iz e d b l o c k d e s i g n ( m o d i f i e d ) was u s e d ( s e e p ag e 8 6 ) . The m o d i f i c a t i o n was t h a t t h e f i r s t f i v e - m i n u t e v i d e o - t a p e r e c o r d i n g w o u ld b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e c o n t r o l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s b e c a u s e i t was p a r t o f t h e t r a i n i n g f o r m a t . I t was n o t 85 t o b e a n a l y z e d i n t h e f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n . O nly t h e s e c o n d v i d e o t a p i n g f o r e a c h s k i l l was a l s o t o b e a n a l y z e d u s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e (SAB, SRF, S E F ). (S ee t r a i n i n g f o r m a t on p a g e 7 4 . ) The s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e t o t e s t h y p o t h e s i s 1 -3 was t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e ( 2 x 3 ) . (N o te s t a t i s t i c a l d e s i g n on f o l l o w i n g p a g e . ) H y p o t h e s i s 4 was t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e by u s i n g a t t e s t , l a r g e s a m p l e , c o r r e l a t e d . In e v a l u a t i n g h y p o t h e s i s 4 , e a c h t e a c h e r r e c e i v i n g t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g t r a i n i n g was a s s i g n e d t o w o rk w i t h a n a d v i s o r y g r o u p . S i x o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s w e r e ra n d o m ly s e l e c t e d a n d - r e q u e s t e d t o c o m p l e t e t h e CES on t h e i r a d v i s o r . T h is m e a n t t h a t t h i r t y - s i x s t u d e n t s w e re t o c o m p l e t e t h e CES i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a n d t h i r t y - s i x s t u d e n t s w e re t o c o m p l e t e t h e CES i n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . S t a t i s t i c a l D e s i g n u s e d w i t h SAB, SEF, an d SRF R * ( 0 ) X 0 R * ( 0 ) 0 * M o d i f i c a t i o n - - f i r s t f i v e m in u t e v i d e o - t a p e r e c o r d i n g was a d m i n i s t e r e d b e c a u s e i t i s p a r t o f t h e t r a i n i n g f o r m a t . I t was n o t a n a l y z e d . Exp. C o n t i . Cl 6 6 C 2 6 6 C 3 6 6 Exp. - E x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p C o n t i . - C o n t r o l g r o u p C - l - C o u n s e l o r # 1 , e t c . 6 - Number o f t e a c h e r s r e c e i v i n g t r a i n i n g p e r c o u n s e l o r 87 Summary I n t h i s c h a p t e r t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e s t u d y w e re p r e s e n t e d an d t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e s c r i b e d . The p r o c e d u r e s e m p lo y e d w e re g i v e n i n d e t a i l and t h e s t e p s f o l l o w e d i n p r o v i d i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t w e re o u t l i n e d . The m e th o d s u s e d i n r a t i n g t h e v i d e o t a p e s w e re g i v e n , a n d t h e c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e d w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n and t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s u s e d . CHAPTER IV FINDINGS: RESULTS OF STUDY I n t r o d u c t i o n P r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e F i n d i n g s The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r e s e n t t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s t u d y . I t w as t h e i n t e n t o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o e x a m in e t h e u s e o f v i d e o - t a p e r e c o r d i n g s i n t h e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s i n b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s . The v a r i a b l e s m e a s u r e d w e re s c o r e s on v a r i o u s s c a l e s t h a t w e re c o m p l e t e d b y e x p e r t s i n c o u n s e l i n g a f t e r v i e w i n g v i d e o t a p e s , a n d one p a p e r - p e n c i l i n v e n t o r y . T h e s e v a r i a b l e s w e re t h e n s t a t e d i n f o u r n u l l h y p o t h e s e s . The l e v e l f o r t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s was s e t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l . 88 89 The N u l l H y p o th e s e s 1. T h e re i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l e v e l o f " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r " b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p . S i n c e " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r " i s co m p o sed o f t h r e e c o m p o n e n ts , e a c h w i l l be e v a l u a t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y . a . T h e r e i s n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l e v e l o f " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r - v e r b a l f o l l o w i n g " b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p . T h is h y p o t h e s i s w as t e s t e d by c o m p a r in g t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s c o r e s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l an d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s . To t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w as u s e d , a n d t h e v a l u e f o r F w as fo u n d t o b e 1 .1 8 4 5 (p was 0 . 2 8 5 0 ) a n d was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l . The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , was n o t r e j e c t e d . D a ta u s e d f o r t h i s c o m p a r is o n a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b le 1 ( s e e A p p e n d ix A ) . The d a t a f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e 2 . b . T h e r e i s n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l e v e l o f " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r - - e y e c o n t a c t " b e t w e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s was 90 t e s t e d t t > e sam e a s £ a b o v e. The v a lu e o f F was found t o be 1 . 2 0 0 1 ( p was 0 .2 8 1 8 ) and was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e 3___ The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , was n o t r e j e c t e d - T he d a ta u se d f o r t h i s com parison a p p e a r in T ab le 1 . T t i e d a ta f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e a p p e a r in T ab le 3 - c . T here w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e 3 L e v e l o f " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r - - p o s t u r e " betw een th e e x p e r i m e n t a l and th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . T his h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d t i n e same a s £ and b abo v e. The v a lu e o f F was fo und t o t > e 2,3700 (p was 0 .1 3 0 6 ) and i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e - 0 5 l e v e l . The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , was n o t r e j e c t e d . The d a ta used f o r t h i s com parison a r e e x h i b i t e d i n T able 1. The d a ta f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e a r e d i s p l a y e d i n T able 4. 2 _ There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e l e v e o f " a c c u r a te re s p o n s e t o f e e l i n g " betw een th e e x p e r i m e n t a l and th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . U s i n g a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d , and th e v a lu e f o r F was found to be 6.0494 (p w a s O - 0 1 8 9 ) w hich i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . The n u l l I n y p o t h e s i s may be r e j e c t e d , and i t i s co n clu d ed 91 t h a t a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s f o r t h i s v a r i a b l e d o e s e x i s t . T a b le 1 d i s p l a y s t h e d a t a u s e d f o r t h i s c o m p a r i s o n , a n d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e a r e fo u n d i n T a b le 6. 3. T h e re w i l l b e n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e l e v e l o f " g e n u in e e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g " b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s . U s in g a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s w as t e s t e d , an d t h e v a l u e f o r F was fo u n d t o be 4 .8 0 0 2 w h ic h i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l w i t h 1 a n d 30 d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m . T h u s , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s may b e r e j e c t e d , an d i t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p f o r t h i s v a r i a b l e d o e s e x i s t . T a b le 1 d i s p l a y s t h e d a t a u s e d f o r t h i s c o m p a r i s o n a n d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e a r e f o u n d i n T a b le 7 . 4 . T h e re w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s a s r a t e d b y s t u d e n t s . To t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s a t - t e s t w as e m p lo y e d . The o b t a i n e d t was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l . The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , w as n o t r e j e c t e d . 92 A tten d in g b eh avior i s composed o f th ree s u b s k i l l s . It would appear th a t the most d i f f i c u l t s k i l l fo r tea ch ers to le a rn was v e r b a l f o llo w in g . This s k i l l req u ired th a t tea ch er s "stay w ith the s t u d e n t ," ,lnot s h i f t the t o p i c ," and "not lead the s tu d e n t ." A l l o f th ese procedures are d e f i n i t e l y not the p erceiv ed tea ch er r o l e . It a l s o req u ired them to s h i f t from a c t i v e l y d is p e n s in g inform a t io n to outwardly p a s s iv e ly ab sorb in g and r e f l e c t i n g what has been s a id by the stu d en t w ith o u t adding any new in fo r m a tio n . A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e s 6 a n d 7 , b o t h t h e s k i l l s o f r e s p o n d i n g t o f e e l i n g a n d g e n u i n e e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g r e c e i v e d F v a l u e s w h i c h w e re s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l . A c t u a l l y , t h e b e s t l e a r n e d s k i l l a p p e a r s t o b e a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e t o f e e l i n g . T h e s e l a s t two s k i l l s a r e m o s t e a s i l y t a u g h t v i a t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m e th o d , a n d a r e e a s i l y l e a r n e d by t e a c h e r s . Some s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n was o b s e r v a b l e i n f a c t o r AB ( s e e T a b l e s 2 a n d 5 ) . I t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t f o r c o u n s e l o r 1 , t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p a p p r o a c h was m ore e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h f o r s u b s k i l l v e r b a l - f o l l o w i n g i n a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . I t i s d i f f i c u l t 93 t o i s o l a t e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . I t i s t h e m o st d i f f i c u l t s u b - s k i l l o f a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r t o t e a c h , an d i t w i l l l a t e r be show n t h a t t h e c o u n s e l o r s t e n d e d t o b e m ore e f f e c t i v e a s r a p p o r t a n d e x p e r i e n c e g re w . D i s c u s s i o n o f t h e F i n d i n g s F o u r h y p o t h e s e s w e re r a i s e d i n r e g a r d t o t h e u s e o f t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l. The f i r s t t h r e e d e a l t w i t h t h e p r o f i c i e n c y o f t e a c h e r s ' c o u n s e l i n g a b i l i t y a s m e a s u r e d b y " c o u n s e l i n g e x p e r t s , " a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g one d e a l t w i t h t h e p r o f i c i e n c y o f t h e t e a c h e r s ' c o u n s e l i n g a b i l i t y a s m e a s u r e d by t h e s t u d e n t s , u s i n g a s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l - t y p e s c a l e . The f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s a p p e a r p e r t i n e n t . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a p p e a r e d t o im p ro v e i t s c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s a s t h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r e s s e d . The f i r s t m e a s u r e o f e x p e r i m e n t a l an d c o n t r o l g r o u p a b i l i t y w as " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . " T h e r e was n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e fo u n d b e tw e e n t h e c o n t r o l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p ; h o w e v e r , a s t h e t r a i n i n g p r o g r e s s e d , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s d i d 94 a p p e a r . I t i s f e l t t h a t t h e am o u n t o f t r a i n i n g may b e c u m u l a t i v e an d a b e t t e r m e a s u r e m ig h t h a v e b e e n made f o r a l l t h r e e s k i l l s a t t h e en d o f t h e e n t i r e t r a i n i n g r a t h e r t h a n a t t h e en d o f e a c h s k i l l . The s e c o n d o b s e r v a t i o n c o n c e r n s h y p o t h e s i s f o u r . The e x a m in e r f e e l s t h a t t h e u s e o f t h e " C o u n s e l o r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e " (CES) i s s t i l l a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s k i n d o f s t u d y , e v e n t h o u g h i t d i d n o t show a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l . A f a c t o r w h ic h was d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l was t h e am ou nt o f f a m i l i a r i t y a n d num b er o f c o n t a c t s made b e t w e e n t h e s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r t e a c h e r . Some o f t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t m e t o f t e n w i t h t h e i r a d v i s o r y g r o u p s a n d some m e t s e ld o m . I t w as a n t i c i p a t e d b y t h e e x a m in e r t h a t r a n d o m i z a t i o n w o u ld h a v e c o n t r o l l e d t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y . A n o t h e r f a c t o r w h ic h may h a v e h a d some e f f e c t on t h e o utcom e w as t h e d i f f i c u l t v o c a b u l a r y o f t h e CES f o r j u n i o r a n d s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . L a s t l y , t h e CES was a d m i n i s t e r e d b y t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o u n s e l o r s a n d some v a r i a t i o n i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n may h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t w h ic h c o u l d n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d b y r a n d o m i z a t i o n . 9 5 The m o d e l t a p e s w e re p r e p a r e d l o c a l l y a n d w e re o f q u e s t i o n a b l e v a l u e . I n f a c t , i t was fo u n d t h a t r o l e p l a y i n g w as a m ore e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e i n some i n s t a n c e s . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e m o d e l t a p e s b e p r e p a r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y a n d b e q u i t e " c l a s s i c a l " i n i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e s k i l l i n q u e s t i o n . The u s e o f t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l i s new , t h e c o u n s e l o r s h a d n o t h a d e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i t p r e v i o u s t o t h e t im e o f t h e s t u d y . T h is now i s r e c o g n i z e d a s a m a j o r w e a k n e s s i n t h e s t u d y d e s i g n , a n d t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w o u ld recom m end i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g f o r a l l c o u n s e l o r s who m ig h t u s e t h e m o d e l, a n d t h a t s u c h t r a i n e d c o u n s e l o r s b e e m p lo y e d i n f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . Gazda (7 0 ) r a i s e d c o n c e r n s a b o u t r e s e a r c h i n g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g t h a t a p p e a r r e l e v a n t t o t h i s s t u d y . He i n d i c a t e d t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s i n c o u n s e l i n g r e s e a r c h . He saw t h e l e n g t h a n d d u r a t i o n , i n t e n s i t y o f t r e a t m e n t , i n s t r u m e n t o f e v a l u a t i o n , a n d t e s t s t a t i s t i c s a s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e i n c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t s w h ic h i s common i n c o u n s e l i n g r e s e a r c h ( 7 0 : 6 4 ) . T h e s e w e re s e e n b y t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r a s f a c t o r s t o c o n s i d e r i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y . 96 In a d d i t i o n , t h e g r o u p s i z e was s m a l l . The p o p u l a t i o n was t h i r t y - s i x a n d a c e l l n o f s i x . I t i s n o t known w h a t t y p e o f b i a s t h i s s m a l l s a m p le may h a v e i n t r o d u c e d . As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h e s t u d y i was c o m p r iz e d o f t h i r t y - s i x j u n i o r an d s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s who w e re a l l C a u c a s i a n , T h is l i m i t e d a n y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n w h ic h m ig h t be made t o a l i k e p o p u l a t i o n , i n a m e ly t o s e n i o r a n d j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s o f t h e j ! same e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n . A t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r , r e f l e c t i o n o f f e e l i n g , a n d i e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g a r e v ie w e d a s d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s o f r e i n f o r c e r s . A t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r i s s i m p l y " b e i n g w i t h " i t h e c o u n s e l e e b o t h p h y s i c a l l y a n d v e r b a l l y a n d , t h u s , I r e i n f o r c i n g t h e c o u n s e l e e f o r " b e i n g h i m s e l f . " R e f l e c t i o n ! o f f e e l i n g i s s e e n a s s e l e c t i v e l y a t t e n d i n g t o t h e f e e l i n g ! o r e m o t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s com m ents d u r i n g a n : i i i n t e r v i e w , t h u s r e i n f o r c i n g o n l y c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e c l i e n t ' s p r o d u c t i o n s . E x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e c o u n s e l e e f e e l c o m f o r t a b l e e n o u g h t o b e h i m s e l f . The t r a i n i n g o f t h e t e a c h e r s i n t h e s e r e i n f o r c e m en t s k i l l s r e p r e s e n t s a m ore c o m p le x p r o c e s s t h a n r e w a r d | 97 of d e s ire d coun selor b e h av io r. I t inv o lv ed cue d is c rim in a tio n through the p r e s e n ta tio n of m odels, t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a ls , and te a c h e r s u p e rv iso r comments. I t involved the p o s itiv e reinfo rcem en t o f o p eran ts by t h e s u p e r v is o r through rew arding a p p ro p ria te a tte n d in g b e h a v i o r . In i s h o r t , the t r a i n i n g process was designed t o model the | i i b eh av ior and then r e in f o r c e the behavio r o n ce i t had j occurred. The s o c i a l le a rn in g model of Bandura and | W alters (11) has provided an e s p e c ia lly r e l e v a n t d is c u s sio n of some of the techniques employed in t h i s study . j A llen (4) has a ls o provided a d e ta il e d d i s c u s s i o n o f th e j m icro -te ac h in g framework. A ttending b ehavior o f f e r s a new a p p ro a c h to many problems. I t can be tau ght as a technique b u t , u n lik e pure technique ("say the c l i e n t ' s name a t l e a s t th ree ! tim e s " ), a tte n d in g im p lies r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n . In ord er t o ; engage in the a tte n d in g b ehav io r of fo llo w in g co n ten t by r e le v a n t s ta te m e n ts , the person must l i s t e n t o c o n te n t. To follow communication o f f e e lin g by a p p r o p r i a t e changes i in voice timbre and q u a lity -- a n d by a p p r o p r i a t e s t a t e - j i m en ts, one must a tte n d to the f e e lin g t h a t i s being j communicated. I t Is l ik e l y th a t the p e rs o n who is ! 98 ; in c o n g ru e n t w i l l be u nable to a t t e n d , b u t a t t e n d i n g seems to be s e l f - r e i n f o r c i n g once i t i s i n i t i a t e d , and may even pro v id e an ap p roach w hich can be used w ith th o se groups t h a t Rogers (62) se e s as r e q u i r i n g o t h e r th an the j R ogerian r e l a t i o n s h i p to i n i t i a t e movement. I f a t t e n t i o n i s th e im p o rta n t f a c t o r t h a t t h i s s u g g e s ts , i t m ight p ro v id e an e x p la n a tio n fo r th e su c ce ss and v a l i d a t i o n o f v a r i e t i e s o f c o u n s e lin g and t h e r a p e u t i c p ro c e d u re s . For exam ple, i t has been su g g e ste d t h a t an a n a l y t i c c l i e n t dreams in F re u d ia n sym bols, a Ju n g ia n c l i e n t i n m y th o lo g ic a l symbolism, and a G e s t a l t c l i e n t i n a w h o l i s t i c f a s h io n . Might i t be t h a t the t h e r a p i s t | I sim ply has s e l e c t i v e l y a tte n d e d to the c l i e n t ' s v e r b a l i z a - j t i o n s and c o n s c io u s ly o r u n c o n sc io u s ly r e i n f o r c e d m a t e r i a lj I o f a c e r t a i n n a tu r e ? S i m i l a r l y , i t seems r e a s o n a b le t h a t i th e c o u n s e lo r a t t e n d s to the c l i e n t in a f a s h io n t h a t f i t s s i I i n t o h i s own t h e o r e t i c a l framework. The i n a b i l i t y o f some| b e g in n in g c o u n s e lo rs to p ro v id e a t t e n t i o n in the in te r v ie w may e x p la in the s h o r t in te r v ie w s they f r e q u e n t ly have. In! ! t h i s c a s e , c o u n s e lin g was n o t a re in fo rc e m e n t p r o c e s s , but! a c t u a l l y an e x t i n c t i o n s e r i e s ' 99 I t m ig h t b e h e l p f u l t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r t h e t r a i n i n g m o d e l u t i l i z e d i s m o st a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t e a c h i n g a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . I s t e l e v i s i o n t h e k e y f a c t o r i n m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g , o r i s i t s i m p l y c l e a r a n d a c c u r a t e s u p e r v i s i o n ? M cD onald, A l l e n a n d Orme (5 1 ) v a r i e d t h e m e th o d s o f t r e a t m e n t i n t r a i n i n g t e a c h e r s i n a r e i n f o r c e m en t s k i l l . T hey fo u n d t h a t maximum f e e d b a c k c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n t h i s s t u d y p r o d u c e d m o st e f f e c t i v e t r a i n i n g . They n o t e d t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s " t h e m o st ' c o s t l y ' i n t h a t i t r e q u i r e s t h e a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r t o d e s c r i b e s a l i e n t c u e s a n d t o s u g g e s t w ays o f r e i n f o r c i n g p a r t i c i p a t i n g b e h a v i o r t h a t t h e s u b j e c t c o u l d u s e . " H o w ever, i n f o r m a l o b s e r v a t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t some i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n e e s r e s p o n d e d b e t t e r i n d i f f e r e n t t r a i n i n g s i t u a t i o n s t h a n o t h e r s . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h on t h e m eth o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e im p a c t o f t h e m e d ia seem s w a r r a n t e d . S t o l l e r (7 1 ) a n d F a r s o n (3 0 ) h a v e o b s e r v e d t h a t t e l e v i s i o n e q u ip m e n t d i d n o t m o d if y g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n . Another im portant c o n s id e r a tio n i s the most u s e f u l type o f c o u n s e l- r e c o u n s e l " c y c le ." C l i n i c a l o b se r v a tio n over th ese s t u d ie s su g g e sts th a t the id e a l te a c h in g format 100 i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a f i v e - m i n u t e b a s e l i n e s e s s i o n f o l l o w e d by i n s t r u c t i o n a n d f e e d b a c k a n d t h e n a s e c o n d f i v e - m i n u t e s e s s i o n . T h is i s f o l l o w e d by m ore i n s t r u c t i o n a n d f e e d b a c k , a n d a f i n a l f i v e - m i n u t e s e s s i o n a g a i n f o l l o w e d by i feedback. S im ila r o b se r v a tio n s have been made by A lle n i i i (3) and h is a s s o c i a t e s in c o n n ectio n w ith m ic r o -te a c h in g , j Experim ental evid en ce i s la c k in g on t h i s p o in t , however. A q u e stio n which might be r a is e d i s , how w e ll w i l l the tea ch er t r a in e e s o f t h is study remember what they have learn ed . It i s b e lie v e d th at the m a te r ia ls learned in th e se s t u d ie s w i l l probably fo llo w u su a l le a r n in g i p r i n c i p l e s . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d by M cD onald, A l l e n , a n d j Orme (51) t h a t l e a r n i n g from m i c r o - t e a c h i n g t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e s t e n d s t o f o l l o w u s u a l l e a r n i n g c u r v e s . T h u s , we w o u ld t e n d t o p r e d i c t e x t i n c t i o n o f l e a r n i n g i n t h i s | m a s s e d - p r a c t i c e s t u d y , b u t i n t e r m i t t e n t p r a c t i c e a n d ! r e i n f o r c e m e n t a d m i n i s t e r e d d u r i n g c o u n s e l i n g t r a i n i n g i should again b r in g about a rap id r i s e in em itted b eh a v io r. Most co u n se lo r ed u cators have spen t long hours 1 t r a i n i n g b e g i n n i n g a n d p r a c t i c u m c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e s k i l l s j o f c o u n s e l i n g , a n d m o st w o u ld a g r e e t h a t t r a i n i n g n e o p h y t e j i c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e s e s k i l l s i s a d i f f i c u l t a n d t a x i n g t a s k . | M ic ro -c o u n se lin g t r a in in g would seem to provide a v ia b le framework to make p r o f e s s i o n a l co u n selo r t r a in in g and the t r a in in g o f te a c h e r -c o u n s e lo r s more m eaningful and e f f e c t i v e . I f i t i s p o s s ib le to tea ch a tea ch er complex s k i l l s o f c o u n s e lin g w ith in a two-hour b lo ck o f tim e, i t should be f e a s i b l e to d evelop an in te g r a t e d c o u n se lo r - j i te a c h e r ed u c a tio n program based on m ic r o -c o u n s e lin g j i p r i n c i p l e s . S im i la r l y , the con cep ts o f a t te n d in g , s e l e c - j t i v e a t te n d in g , and summarization may have broader j I im p lic a tio n s than c o u n s e lin g p r a c t ic e . These may be s k i l l s which are e q u a lly important to the a d m in istr a to r and the s tu d e n t. The m ic r o -te a c h in g and m ic r o -c o u n se lin g framework may be a v e h i c l e by which the developm ental s k i l l s o f l i v i n g may be tau gh t, | Summary | j This ch ap ter has rep orted the e f f e c t s o f the m ic r o -c o u n s e lin g model in t r a in in g e ig h te e n tea ch er s in ! I b a s ic c o u n s e lin g te c h n iq u e s . Four n u l l h ypotheses were j | s t a t e d and two were found to be s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5 j j l e v e l . 102 The f i r s t , s e c o n d a n d t h i r d h y p o t h e s e s w e re t e s t e d by u s i n g a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , a n d t h e f o u r t h h y p o t h e s i s w as t e s t e d by t h e u s e o f a t - t e s t . The f i n d i n g s o f t h e s t u d y w e re d i s c u s s e d . CHAPTER V i ! SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I T h is c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s a r e v i e w o f t h e s t u d y , j I j s t a t e s t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d , a n d p r e s e n t s t h e recom m en-j i d a t i o n s w h ic h r e s u l t fro m t h e c o n d u c t o f t h i s s t u d y . Summary j P u r p o s e o f t h e S tu d y j I t was t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y t o e x p l o r e t h e ! u s e o f t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m e th o d u s i n g v i d e o - t a p e | i | r e c o r d i n g s t o t r a i n t e a c h e r s i n b a s i c c o u n s e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s . F o u r n u l l h y p o t h e s e s w e re s t a t e d . The f i r s t j t h r e e c o n c e r n e d t h e d e g r e e o f c o u n s e l i n g p r o f i c i e n c y j j o b t a i n e d by t h e t e a c h e r s a s j u d g e d b y t h r e e " c o u n s e l i n g | e x p e r t s . " The l a s t h y p o t h e s i s was c o n c e r n e d w i t h a 103 104 s t u d e n t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r s ' c o u n s e l i n g a b i l i t y . T r e a t m e n t a n d M e a su re m e n t P r o c e d u r e s J u n i o r a n d s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s w ere ra n d o m ly a s s i g n e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s , j In a d d i t i o n , t e a c h e r s w e re a s s i g n e d r a n d o m ly . B o th t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s w e re v i d e o - t a p e d s i x d i f f e r e n t t i m e s . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p r e c e i v e d t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g t r a i n i n g f o r m a t , t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p j ! r e c e i v e d n o t r a i n i n g . The f i r s t , s e c o n d a n d t h i r d h y p o t h e s e s w ere i m e a s u r e d b y h a v i n g " e x p e r t s i n c o u n s e l i n g " r a t e v i d e o I t a p e s u s i n g a s c a l e a d a p t e d fro m T r u a x a n d C a r k h u f f ( 7 4 ) . I i T h r e e j u d g e s w e re t r a i n e d t o r a t e t h e t a p e s . A " c o n s e n s u s i s c o r e , " o b t a i n e d fro m e a c h j u d g e ' s i n d e p e n d e n t r a t i n g s o f j ! a g r o u p , was s t a t i s t i c a l l y t e s t e d . i The f o u r t h h y p o t h e s i s was t e s t e d by t h e " C o u n s e lo r ; ! | E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e " (C E S ), a s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a 1 - t y p e I s c a l e d e v e l o p e d t o m e a s u r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n j I e f f e c t i v e a n d i n e f f e c t i v e c o u n s e l i n g . The s c a l e was a d m i n i s t e r e d a s a p o s t - t e s t m e a s u re m e n t t o a r a n d o m ly | s e l e c t e d g r o u p o f s t u d e n t s from e a c h t e a c h e r ' s a d v i s o r y 105 g r o u p . S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s The f i r s t , s e c o n d a n d t h i r d h y p o t h e s e s w e re t e s t e d u s i n g a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e . A t - t e s t was u s e d i n t e s t i n g h y p o t h e s i s f o u r . Summary o f t h e F i n d i n g s 1. Of t h e t h r e e s k i l l s t a u g h t , two o f them r e a c h e d t h e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . B o th " r e s p o n d i n g t o f e e l i n g " an d " e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g " w e re a r e a s w h e re s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e re n o t e d b e tw e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d c o n t r o l g r o u p s . 2 . The s k i l l " a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r , " w h ic h i s com p osed o f t h r e e s u b - s k i l l s - - v e r b a 1 f o l l o w i n g , p o s t u r e a n d ey e c o n t a c t - - d i d n o t r e a c h t h e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e re w as n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e a p p r o a c h u s e d w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p c o m p a re d t o t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p . 3. T h e re was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p a n d t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p a s m e a s u r e d by a s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a 1 - t y p e s c a l e c o m p l e t e d by s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . 106 Conclus ions 1. The m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l a p p e a r s t o h a v e p r o m is e a s a m eth o d f o r i n t r o d u c i n g b e g i n n i n g c o u n s e l i n g s k i l l s t o t e a c h e r s . I t i s a r a p i d p r e s e n t a t i o n and s t i m u l a t e s tre m e n d o u s i n t e r e s t . 2 . The C o u n s e l o r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e a s p r e s e n t l y d e s i g n e d an d a d m i n i s t e r e d i s n o t a n a p p r o p r i a t e t o o l f o r m e a s u r i n g s t u d e n t e v a l u a t i o n o f c o u n s e l i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s , a n d r e q u i r e s c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o f i t t h e n e e d s o f th e p o p u l a t i o n t o be m e a s u r e d . Recommenda t i o n s The f o l l o w i n g r e c o m m e n d a tio n s a r e o f f e r e d a s h e l p s t o e d u c a t o r s who may be a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e u s e o f t h e m i c r o c o u n s e l i n g m o d el i n t h e i r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s : 1. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h b e c o n d u c t e d c o n c e r n i n g th e u s e o f t h e m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g m o d el i n a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s e t t i n g . 2 . I t i s recom m ended t h a t f u n d s s h o u l d be s o u g h t f o r a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t w h ic h c o u l d e x a m in e m ore e x t e n s i v e l y t h e u s e o f v i d e o t a p e i n s c h o o l c o u n s e l i n g a n d g u i d a n c e t r a i n i n g . 3. R e s e a r c h be c o n d u c t e d i n t h e u s e o f t h e m ic r o c o u n s e l i n g m o d el w i t h o t h e r e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n s , an d g r a d e l e v e l s . 4 . The C o u n s e l o r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e b e m o d i f i e d t o f i t th e v o c a b u l a r y o f a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n m ore a p p r o p r i a t e l y . 5 . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f m i c r o - c o u n s e l i n g b e s t u d i e d i n r e l a t i o n t o g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g . I I I i B I B L I O G R A P H Y i i I i i i 108 BIBLIOGRAPHY A c h e so n , K. E. "The E f f e c t s o f F e e d b a c k f r o m T e l e v i - j s i o n R e c o r d in g s and T h ree T ypes o f S u p e r v i s o r y T r e a tm e n t on S e l e c t e d T e a c h e r B e h a v i o r s . " j U n p u b lis h e d r e p o r t , S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1964. ■ (Mime o g ra phe d . ) ] A l g e r , Ia n a n d P e t e r Hogan. "The U se o f V i d e o t a p e R e c o r d in g s i n C o n j o i n t M a r i t a l T h e r a p y . " The A m e ric an J o u r n a l o f P s y c h i a t r y , 1 2 3 : 1 4 2 5 - 1 4 2 9 , 1967. ! A l l e n , Dw ight W. " M ic ro - T e a c h in g : A N e w F ram ew ork f o r I n - s e r v i c e E d u c a t i o n , " S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1966. (M im eo g rap h ed .) A l l e n , D. W. e d . M ic r o -T e a c h in g : A D e s c r i p t i o n . j S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a : S t a n f o r d T e a c h e r E d u c a ti o n ! P ro g ra m , 1967. [ j A m erican P e r s o n n e l and G u id an ce A s s o c i a t i o n . "S up port; p e r s o n n e l f o r th e c o u n s e l o r : t h e i r t e c h n i c a l an d ] n o n - t e c h n i c a 1 r o l e s and p r e p a r a t i o n . 1 1 P e r s o n n e l and G u idance J o u r n a l , 4 5 , 8 5 7 - 6 1 , A p r i l , 1967. A n a sta si, Anne. P sy ch o lo g ica l T e s t i n g , S eco n d E d i t i o n . New Y o rk : The M a c m i l l a n C o m p a n y , 1961. A r m s tr o n g , R. G. " P la y b a c k T e c h n iq u e i n G ro u p Psychotherapy." P sy ch ia tric Q u a r t e r l y Supplement. 3 8 , 2 4 7 -2 5 2 , 1964. Backman, C a r l W. , a n d P a u l F. S e c o r d . " L i k i n g S e l e c t i v e I n t e r a c t i o n , an d M i s p e r c e p t i o n i n C o n g ru e n t I n t e r p e r s o n a l R e l a t i o n s . " S o c io m e t r y , 2 5 : 3 2 1 - 3 3 5 , 1962. 110 9 . 1 0 . 11. 1 2. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Bandura, A ., and F. L. Menlove. 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"An Experim ental Comparison o f Nonverbal F actors in D eterm ining the E f f e c t iv e n e s s o f Models in C o u n s e lin g ." Unpublished D o cto ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , S tanford U n iv e r s it y , 19 64. W altz, Garry R . , and Joseph A. Johnston. "Counselors Look at Themselves on Video Tape." Journal o f C oun selin g P sy ch o lo g y , 1 0 : 2 3 2 - 2 3 5 , 1 96 3 . W ebb, C l a r k D. " P r o g r e s s R e p o r t on a n E x p e r i m e n t i R e d u c in g I n - c l a s s S t u d e n t T e a c h i n g a n d S u b s t i t u t - ! i n g M i c r o - T e a c h i n g S e s s i o n s . " P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e ! U ta h Academy o f A r t s , S c i e n c e s , a n d L e t t e r s . I V o l. XLTV, P a r t 1 , L o g a n , U t a h , p p . 2 1 8 - 2 2 2 , j A p r i l , 1 9 6 7 . I Webb, A lla n P ., and John E ikenberry. "A Group C oun selin g Approach to the A c tin g -o u t Pre a d o le s c e n t ." P sychology in the S c h o o ls , 1 : 3 9 5 - 4 0 0 , 1 9 6 4 . I i Webb, A lle n P ., and John T. H a r r is. "A Sem antic ; D i f f e r e n t i a l Study o f C ounselors in an NDEA I n s t i t u t e . " P ersonn el and Guidance J o u r n a l, j 2 6 0 - 2 6 3 , November, 1 9 6 3 . 118 8 1 . W h i t a k e r , D o r o t h y S . , and M. A. Liebertnan. P s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d Group Process . New Y ork: A t h e r t o n P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 - . 8 2 . W o l f f , W. T h e Express io n P e r s o n a lit y . New York: H arper and Brothers , 1 9 4 - 3 . 8 3 . W r e n n , C . G. " C r i s e s in C ounseling: A Commentary in M c G o w a n , J . F . ( e d . ) , Counselor- developm ent in A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y : con feren ce recommendation from i n v i t a t i o n a l conference on governm ent----university relations in the p r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n a n d employment of c o u n s e lo r s . Colum bia, M issouri: j University of M i s s o u r i , 1 9 6 5 - A P P E N D I C E S 1 1 9 APPENDIX A TABLES I 120 121 TABLE 1 TABLE OF MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR ALL MEASURES IN THE STUDY Group____________________ A t t e n d i n g B e h a v i o r V e r b a l F o l l o w i n g E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n t r o l Eye C o n t a c t E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n t r o l P o s t u r e E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n t r o l A c c u r a t e R e f l e c t i o n o f F e e l i n g E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n t r o l G e n u in e E x p r e s s i o n o f F e e l i n g E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n t r o l C o u n s e l o r E f f e c t i v e n e s s S c a l e E x p e r i m e n t a l C o n t r o l N T o t a l 18 55 18 49 18 67 18 61 18 60 18 54 18 44 18 30 18 58 18 46 18 15456 18 15602 Mean S .D . 3 .0 5 6 0 . 9 3 8 2 . 7 2 2 1 .1 2 7 3 .7 2 2 1 .0 1 8 3 .3 8 9 0 . 8 5 0 3 .3 3 3 0 . 6 8 6 3 .0 0 0 0 . 9 5 4 2 .4 4 4 0 .9 2 2 1 .6 6 7 1 .0 2 9 3 .2 2 2 0 . 8 7 8 2 .5 5 6 0 .9 2 2 8 5 8 .6 6 7 8 8 .7 0 7 8 6 6 .7 7 8 7 6 .4 2 0 TABLE 2 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN METHODS, COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES, AND THE INTERACTION OF METHODS X COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES WITH REGARD TO THE VARIABLE OF THE JUDGE'S RATINGS OF ATTENDING BEHAVIOR (VERBAL FOLLOWING) SKILL OF ADVISORS S o u r c e —= 1 - 3 ^ = 3 - B ■ j _ 3 d f MS F E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethod (A) 1 1 .0 0 0 - I n d i v i d u a l C o u n s e l o r D i f f e r e n c e s (B) 2 0 .5 2 8 - A X B 2 5 .0 8 3 6 . 0 1 9 * W i t h i n Ss 30 0 .8 4 4 T o t a 1 35 1 .0 7 3 *p < .0 1 . TABLE 3 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN METHODS, COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES, AND THE INTERACTION OF METHODS X COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES WITH REGARD TO THE VARIABLE OF THE JUDGE'S RATING OF ATTENDING BEHAVIOR (EYE CONTACT) SKILL OF ADVISORS S o u r c e d f MS F E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethod (A) 1 1 .0 0 0 - I n d i v i d u a l C o u n s e l o r D i f f e r e n c e s (B) 2 1 .3 6 1 - A X B 2 1 .0 8 3 - W i t h i n Ss 30 0 .8 3 3 T o t a l 35 0 .8 8 3 TABLE 4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN METHODS, COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES, AND THE INTERACTION OF METHODS X COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES WITH REGARD TO THE VARIABLE OF THE JUDGE'S RATINGS OF ATTENDING BEHAVIOR (POSTURE) SKILL OF ADVISORS S o u rc e d f MS F E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethod (A) 1 1 .0 0 1 — I n d i v i d u a l C o u n s e l o r D i f f e r e n c e s (B) 2 0 .0 8 4 - A X B 2 0 .5 8 3 - W i t h i n Ss 30 0 .4 2 2 T o t a 1 35 0 .4 2 9 125 TABLE 5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN METHODS, COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES, AND THE INTERACTION OF METHODS X COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES WITH REGARD TO THE VARIABLE OF THE JUDGE'S RATINGS OF ATTENDING BEHAVIOR (TOTAL) SKILL OF ADVISORS S o u rc e d f MS F E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethod <A) 1 8 .9 9 9 I n d i v i d u a l C o u n s e l o r D i f f e r e n c e s (B) 2 3 .0 2 7 - A X B 2 1 6 .0 8 5 3 ,3 6 7 * W i t h i n Ss 30 4 . 7 7 8 T o t a l 35 5 .4 4 5 *p < .05. 126 TABLE 6 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN METHODS, COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES, AND THE INTERACTION OF METHODS X COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES WITH REGARD TO THE VARIABLE OF THE JUDGE’S RATIONGS OF ACCURATE REFLECTION OF FEELING SKILL OF ADVISORS S o u r c e d f MS F E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethod (A) 1 5 . 4 4 4 6 . 0 4 9 * I n d i v i d u a l C o u n s e l o r D i f f e r e n c e s (B) 2 0..528 A X B 2 2,, 194 W i t h i n Ss 30 0.,900 T o t a l 35 1.,083 *p < .05. 127 TABLE 7 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BETWEEN METHODS, COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES, AND THE INTERACTION OF METHODS X COUNSELOR DIFFERENCES WITH REGARD TO THE VARIABLE OF THE JUDGE'S RATINGS OF GENUINE EXPRESSION OF FEELINGS BY THE COUNSELEES S o u r c e d f MS F E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethod (A) 1 4 .0 0 0 4 . 8 0 * I n d i v i d u a l C o u n s e l o r D i f f e r e n c e s (B) 2 0 .6 9 5 - A X B 2 0 .5 8 3 - W i t h i n Ss 30 0 .8 3 3 - T o ta 1 35 *p < .05. APPENDIX B MANUALS FOR TRAINING SKILLS 128 129 T r a i n i n g S k i l l No. 1 T r a i n i n g i n A t t e n d i n g B e h a v i o r : T r a i n e e I n s t r u c t i o n s . The t r a i n i n g y o u a r e t o r e c e i v e i s d e s i g n e d t o make yo u m ore a t t e n t i v e t o t h e s t u d e n t w i t h whom y ou a r e t a l k i n g . T h is a t t e n t i v e n e s s on y o u r p a r t w i l l h e l p y o u t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e s t u d e n t , an d w i l l a l s o c o m m u n ic a te y o u r a t t i t u d e o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e s t u d e n t . Y o u r a t t e n t i v e n e s s i s a p o w e r f u l t o o l ; i t c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s e l f - r e s p e c t , a n d s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y t h a t t h e s t u d e n t t a l k i n g w i t h you h a s , an d i t c a n a l s o s e r v e a s a p o w e r f u l r e i n f o r c e r a n d f a c i l i t a t o r o f c o m m u n ic a tio n . Y o u r p r a c t i c i n g o f t h i s s k i l l w i l l h e l p you i n d e v e l o p i n g goo d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h s t u d e n t s , a n d m ore g e n e r a l l y , may c o n t r i b u t e b e n e f i c i a l l y t o a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h ic h yo u t a k e p a r t . T h e r e a r e t h r e e k ey i d e a s t o k e e p i n m in d , a s y ou a r e l e a r n i n g t h e s k i l l o f a t t e n d i n g b e h a v i o r . The f i r s t o f t h e s e , a l t h o u g h i t may so u n d s t r a n g e , i s t o r e l a x p h y s i c a l l y . You w i l l f i n d t h a t i f yo u a r e s e a t e d i n a c o m f o r t a b l e , r e l a x e d p o s i t i o n , yo u w i l l b e m ore a b l e t o l i s t e n t o t h e p e r s o n w i t h whom you a r e t a l k i n g , t h a n i f 130 you are overly s t i f f or te n se . A lso, i f you a re r e l a x e d p h y s ic a lly , your p ostu re and movements w i l l be n a t u r a l , and you w i l l have a sense of "being y o u r s e l f " as y o u t a l k . This f e e lin g of com fortableness w i l l help you in b e i n g fre e to a tte n d , and w i l l communicate to the o th e r p e r s o n your re a d in e ss to do so. Secondly, use eye c o n ta c t, to help you to f o c u s upon the o th e r person, and to communicate to the o t h e r person th a t you are l i s t e n i n g . You need not gaze fix e d ly , or w ith undue i n t e n s i t y ; a v a rie d use o f e y e c o n ta c t w i l l be most e f f e c t i v e . . . th a t i s , a t t i m e s you w i l l want to look a t the person as you t a l k , a t t i m e s you may glance down as you th in k about something t h e o th e r person is say in g , and then r e t u r n your g a ze , e t c . T h ird ly , s e t fo r y o u r s e lf the ta s k o f " f o l l o w i n g ” what the o th e r person i s saying . F it your comments o r q u e stio n s in to the co n tex t being provided. Stay w i t h t h e to p ic th a t is introd uced by the o th e r person, and h e l p him to develop i t , r a t h e r than "to p ic jumping" from s u b je c t to s u b je c t. As you take your cues from t h e p e r s o n w ith whom you are t a l k i n g , and pursue t o p i c s , b o t h t h e c o n te n t o f what you a re sa y in g , and your voice q u a l i t y , 131 c a n c o m m u n i c a t e to that person that you are "with him" as t h e t w o o f you talk. I n summary, your goal is to listen attentively, a n d t o communicate the attentiveness through a relaxed p o s t u r e , u s e of eye contact, and verbal responses which i n d i c a t e t o the other person that you understand what he i s c o m m u n ic a tin g , Specific behaviors which you may want j t o u t i l i z e are: 1 . Relax physically; feel the presence of the c h a i r a s y o u are sittin g in it, 2 . Let your posture be comfortable and your m o v e m e n t s n a tu r a l; for example, if you usually move and g e s t u r e a good deal, feel free to do so at this time also. 3 - Use eye contact, by looking at the person with w hom y o u a r e talking. Vary your gaze rather than staring f i x e d l y . 4 . "Follow" what the other person is saying, by t a k i n g c u e s from him. Stay with the topic that is intro d u c e d , r a t h e r than jumping from subject to subject. 5 . Let your responses indicate to the other person t h a t y o u a r e "with him" as he talks. Try to "get inside ( h i s s h o e s " and let him know that you understand what he is I e x p e r i e n c i n g and feeling. 132 PLEASE DO NOT DISCUSS THIS STUDY WITH YOUR FELLOW TEACHERS UNTIL IT HAS BEEN COMPLETED. RETURN THIS INSTRUCTION BOOKLET BEFORE YOU LEAVE TODAY. IF YOU WOULD LIKE A COPY FOR YOUR F IL E S , THEY WILL BE AVAILABLE ONCE THE STUDY HAS BEEN COMPLETED. (R e p ro d u c e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n o f A l l e n I v e y , K e t t e r i n g M i c r o - C o u n s e l i n g R e s e a r c h , 1967) 133 T r a i n i n g S k i l l No. 2 E x p r e s s i o n o f F e e l i n g : How c a n you g e t t h e m o st o u t o f y o u r c o u n s e l i n g e x p e r i e n c e ? T h e re a r e p r o b a b l y s e v e r a l t h i n g s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o a s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p e r i e n c e f o r you i n co m in g i i t o t h e c o u n s e l i n g c e n t e r . Y o u r c o u n s e l i n g i s d e p e n d e n t i j up o n a p r o c e s s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h a t i s , t h e b e t t e r you a n d y o u r c o u n s e l o r c a n t a l k w i t h , and s h a r e f e e l i n g s w i t h | one a n o t h e r , t h e b e t t e r t h e c h a n c e s t h a t y o u r c o u n s e l i n g j i e x p e r i e n c e w i l l b e a r e w a r d i n g a n d f r u i t f u l o n e . One t h i n g t h a t h a s b e e n fo u n d t o b e v e r y b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e c o u n s e l i n g p r o c e s s i s th e e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g . S t u d e n t s i n c o u n s e l i n g u s u a l l y f i n d t h a t t o be a b l e t o a c c u r a t e l y e x p r e s s t h e f e e l i n g s t h a t t h e y a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g i s q u i t e h e l p f u l i n h a v i n g t h e c o u n s e l o r u n d e r s t a n d them an d h e l p them t o r e s o l v e t h e c o n c e r n s t h a t s t u d e n t s o f t e n b r i n g t o a c o u n s e l o r . The e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g d u r i n g c o u n s e l i n g i s | i a p p r o p r i a t e a t an y t i m e . T h i s a l s o a p p l i e s t o t h e k i n d of; i f e e l i n g s t h a t m ig h t b e e x p r e s s e d , i . e . , p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , a m b i v a l e n t , e t c e t e r a . 134 The t r a in in g you w i l l r e c e iv e today w i l l focus on h e lp in g you to a c c u r a te ly exp ress your f e e l i n g s to your c o u n se lo r . There are two major a s p e c ts th at we would lik e to h elp you le a r n . F ir s t is the d if f e r e n c e between e x p r e ssin g co n ten t (what you are sa y in g to your co u n selo r ) and the e x p r e s s io n o f f e e l i n g s (the em otional r e a c tio n s you exp erien ce about what you are s a y i n g ) . The second a sp ec t i s designed to teach you to pay a t t e n t i o n to the way you f e e l . Although you ex p erien ce f e e l i n g s about w hatever you ta lk about w ith a c o u n s e lo r , you may have to r e a l l y pay a t t e n t io n to the f e e l i n g s you are e x p e r ie n c in g a t the moment. Although the e x p r e s s io n o f how you f e e l i s a very important part o f c o u n s e lin g , i t i s o fte n very easy to o v er lo o k . Often the stu d en t i s so in v o lv ed in t e l l i n g the co u n selo r the con ten t o f what brought him to the c o u n s e l ing c e n t e r , he ign ores the u n d erly in g f e e l i n g s , or perhaps i s not aware o f them. To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s , look at the two examples o f stu d en t sta tem en ts to a co u n selo r p resen ted below: Example la : "I came to the c o u n s e lin g c e n te r to see i f I cou ld r e a l l y find out what I'm i n t e r e s t e d in a c a d e m ic a lly . So fa r I 'v e had two majors chat r e a l l y d id n 't i n t e r e s t me. But th en, maybe I won't be in t e r e s t e d in anyth in g and g o o f up the whole d e a l a g a in ." Example lb : "I came to the c o u n se lin g c e n te r to see i f X can fin d out what I'm r e a l l y in t e r e s t e d in a c a d e m ic a lly . So fa r I'v e had two majors and h a v en 't been in t e r e s t e d in e i t h e r one. I t ' s p r e tty d is a p p o in tin g . I guess I'm a fr a id th a t i f I pick another major, that w i l l be a l l wrong to o . I r e a l l y d o n 't have too much co n fid e n ce in m y se lf to be ab le to make a good ch o ice o f a m ajor." N otice the major d if f e r e n c e s between the s tu d e n ts ' comments in the f i r s t and second exam ples. In the f i r s t example the stu d en t i s communicating the co n ten t o f h is concert}, but only p a r t i a l l y e x p re sse s h is f e e l i n g s about the problem. In the second example the stu d en t not only conveys the co n ten t o f what concerns him, but he has a c t i v e l y d esc rib ed the u n d erlyin g f e e l in g s th a t go alon g w ith th at con cern. The second statem ent which e x p r e sse s the essen ce o f the s t u d e n t 's f e e l i n g s o f d isap p oin tm en t, fea r o f ch oosin g a new major, and f e e l i n g s o f lack o f co n fid en ce in h is a b i l i t y to make a good c h o ic e i s the type o f communication which make i t e a s i e r for the co u n selo r to understand the stu d en t and to h elp him move toward a r e s o lu t i o n o f the problem. 136 An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o rem em b er i s t h a t w h a t you s a y t o y o u r c o u n s e l o r i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e m e s s a g e b e i n g c o m m u n ic a te d . How you s a y i t an d how you c o m m u n ic a te th e f e e l i n g s t h a t go a l o n g w i t h w h a t y o u a r e s a y i n g i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t . See i f yo u c a n p i c k o u t t h e m a in d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n E x am ples 2a a n d 2b . E xam ple 2 a : " E v e r s i n c e I came t o t h i s u n i v e r s i t y I { r e a l l y h a v e n ' t b e e n a b l e t o make many f r i e n d s J I h a d l o t s o f f r i e n d s i n h i g h s c h o o l , b u t i t j u s t seem s l i k e t h e p e o p l e h e r e a r e n ' t v e r y f r i e n d l y . " | Exam ple 2 b : " S in c e I ' v e b e e n a t t h i s u n i v e r s i t y I j u s t h a v e n ' t b e e n a b l e t o make f r i e n d s . I u s e d t o h a v e l o t s o f f r i e n d s i n h i g h s c h o o l . I d o n ' t ! know w h a t i s w r o n g , b u t I am v e r y l o n e l y h e r e . I r e a l l y f e e l o u t o f t h i n g s a n d a l l a l o n e . " You h a v e p r o b a b l y b e e n a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e m ain d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n e x a m p le s 2a a n d 2 b . In e x a m p le 2 a , t h e s t u d e n t s t a t e s t h e f a c t s a b o u t why he came t o t h e c o u n s e l in g c e n t e r , b u t he o n l y i m p l i e s t h e f e e l i n g s he h a s b e c a u s e o f t h e s e f a c t s . I n e x a m p le 2b t h e s t u d e n t h a s b e e n a b l e t o lo o k i n t o h i m s e l f a n d d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e m a in f e e l i n g he h a s , a n d c a n e x p r e s s , i s t h e f e e l i n g o f l o n e l i n e s s a n d b e i n g l e f t o u t o f t h i n g s . E x am p le s 2a a n d 2b i l l u s t r a t e two t h i n g s . F i r s t , | o u r p r e v i o u s i d e a o f c o m m u n ic a tin g t h e f e e l i n g s t h a t go a l o n g w i t h a t o p i c a s w e l l a s th e t o p i c i t s e l f ; t h e s t u d e n t i n e x a m p le 2b was a b l e t o e x p r e s s h i s f e e l i n g s a s w e l l a s c o m m u n ic a te t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h ic h t h e y o c c u r . A s e c o n d i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e t o rem em b er i s t h a t f e e l i n g s a r e v e r y much a p a r t o f t h e p e r s o n . I t b eco m es i m p o r t a n t f o r yo u t o a c t i v e l y pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e way you a r e f e e l i n g . O f t e n you may h av e a v a g u e i d e a t h a t you f e e l a c e r t a i n way a b o u t w h a t y o u a r e e x p r e s s i n g , b u t c a n ' t q u i t e p u t y o u r f i n g e r on w h a t i t i s . A t p o i n t s s u c h a s t h i s , i t c a n be h e l p f u l t o s t o p , r e f l e c t a moment on y o u r s e l f - - p a y a t t e n t i o n t o y o u r s e l f a n d t r y t o e x p e r i e n c e a n d l a b e l w h a t yo u a r e f e e l i n g . Once you a r e a b l e t o do t h i s , yo u c a n t r a n s l a t e y o u r f e e l i n g s i n t o w o rd s an d a c t i v e l y e x p r e s s t h e s e f e e l i n g s t o y o u r c o u n s e l o r . In sum m ary, h e r e a r e t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o rem em b er an d t h i n g s you may w a n t t o p r a c t i c e : 1. Remember t h a t m e r e l y t a l k i n g a b o u t a t o p i c d o e s n o t a lw a y s d e s c r i b e t h e way you f e e l a b o u t i t o r t h e f e e l i n g s you a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g . The m e s s a g e y ou com m uni c a t e t o y o u r c o u n s e l o r i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y w h a t yo u a r e s a y i n g , b u t a l s o how y o u f e e l a b o u t w h a t yo u a r e s a y i n g . 2 . Pay a t t e n t i o n t o t h e way you f e e l a s w e l l a s w h a t y o u a r e s a y i n g t o y o u r c o u n s e l o r . You may h a v e t o s t o p o c c a s i o n a l l y a n d r e f l e c t u p o n y o u r s e l f a n d w h a t you a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g . T h is c a n be v e r y h e l p f u l i n h e l p i n g you i d e n t i f y y o u r f e e l i n g s a n d t h e n t r a n s l a t i n g th em i n t o v e r b a l s t a t e m e n t s . 3 . C o n c e n t r a t e on w h a t y o u r c o u n s e l o r s a y s . He i s t h e r e t o h e l p you a n d c a n o f t e n h e l p you t r a n s l a t e th e f e e l i n g s y o u a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g i n t o w o r d s . PLEASE DO NOT DISCUSS THIS STUDY WITH YOUR FELLOW STUDENTS UNTIL IS HAS BEEN COMPLETED. ( R e p ro d u c e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n o f R, H a a s e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M ass. C o u n s e l i n g C e n t e r ) 139 T r a i n i n g S k i l l No. 3 R e s p o n d in g t o F e e l i n g : How c a n you h e l p a n o t h e r p e r s o n t o e x p r e s s t h e c e n t r a l c o n c e r n s t h a t he i s e x p e r i e n c i n g ? One e x c e l l e n t way i s t o l i s t e n f o r , a n d r e s p o n d t o t h e f e e l i n g s o f th e c l i e n t . By c o m m u n ic a tin g M 1 c a n a c c u r a t e l y s e n s e t h e ' w o r l d a s you a r e f e e l i n g a n d p e r c e i v i n g i t , " y o u c a n f a c i l i t a t e t h e c l i e n t ' s m ovem ent t o w a rd m ore c o m p l e t e I s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a n d s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g . | i B e in g a l e r t t o , a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e f e e l i n g b e i n g e x p r e s s e d , r a t h e r t h a n a t t e n d i n g s o l e l y t o t h e c o n t e n t o f w h a t t h e p e r s o n s a y s i s t h e s k i l l w i t h w h ic h we a r e p r e s e n t l y c o n c e r n e d . What t h e c l i e n t i s s a y i n g i s t h e c o n t e n t p o r t i o n o f t h e m e s s a g e b e i n g c o m m u n ic a te d . One m u st a l s o l i s t e n t o how t h e c l i e n t s a y s w h a t he d o e s , i F o r e x a m p le , t h e c l i e n t may s p e a k m ore q u i c k l y when com m u n i c a t i n g e n t h u s i a s m , m ore s l o w l y when c o m m u n ic a tin g d i s c o u r a g e m e n t , e t c e t e r a . I t i s t h i s f e e l i n g p o r t i o n o f ; t h e c o m m u n ic a tio n t o w h ic h y o u a r e t o pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n . 140 B e in g a l e r t t o , a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e f e e l i n g s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d i s a s k i l l w h ic h i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t any t i m e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f e e l i n g ( p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e , o r a m b i v a l e n t ) r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d i r e c t i o n o f e x p r e s s i o n ( t o w a r d s e l f , o t h e r s , t h e c o u n s e l o r an d c o u n s e l i n g s i t u a t i o n , e t c e t e r a ) . In t h e e x a m p le s b e l o w , y o u w i l l h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e l e c t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e w h ic h i n d i c a t e s t h a t yo u i u n d e r s t a n d t h e c l i e n t ' s a t t i t u d e , t h e s i t u a t i o n a s i t • I a p p e a r s t o t h e c l i e n t - - t h e a l t e r n a t i v e w h ic h i s s p o k e n t o , i i t h e c l i e n t w o u ld be m o st l i k e l y t o e v o k e a r e s p o n s e o f , " T h a t 's r i g h t . ' 1 '. E xam ple 1: "So I'm w o n d e r in g i f y o u c a n h e l p me t o f i n d a new m a j o r . " ( p a u s e ) " I s u p p o s e i f I d i d f i n d o n e , I 'd ! j u s t b u n g l e t h i n g s a g a i n . . . . ’’ 1. A re you s u r e t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o l e a v e t h e m a j o r yo u a r e now i n ? 2 . You f e e l t h a t i t ' s p r e t t y f u t i l e t o t r y a g a i n . 3. What m a j o r s h a v e you b e e n c o n s i d e r i n g ? i l I n t h e f i r s t e x a m p le , r e s p o n s e s one a n d t h r e e s e e k ; a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n fro m t h e c l i e n t , w i t h o u t g i v i n g a d e q u a t e r e c o g n i t i o n t o c l i e n t f e e l i n g s . R e s p o n s e two a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s t h e f e e l i n g b e i n g e x p r e s s e d . 141 Example 2: "What do y ou t h i n k I o u g h t t o d o - - jump o f f a b r i d g e , o r lo o k f o r a n o t h e r c o l l e g e t o f l u n k o u t o f ? " 1. T h e re j u s t d o e s n ' t seem t o b e a n y way o u t.' 2 . Have y o u a p p l i e d t o o t h e r s c h o o l s ? 3. Have y o u t h o u g h t a b o u t t r y i n g a j u n i o r c o l l e g e w h e re t h e r e w o u ld b e a l i t t l e l e s s c o m p e t i t i o n ? I n t h i s e x a m p le , r e s p o n s e one a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s c l i e n t f e e l i n g , w h e r e a s r e s p o n s e s two a n d t h r e e p r o v i d e s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o w h a t t h e c l i e n t m ig h t d o , w i t h o u t g i v i n g , a d e q u a t e r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e f e e l i n g o f d i s c o u r a g e m e n t w h ic h t h e c l i e n t i s e x p e r i e n c i n g . E xam ple 3: "You know , i t ' s a fu n n y t h i n g , b u t w hen I go i n f o r a n o r a l q u i z , I j u s t f e e l s h a k y a l l o v e r . '" " I t ' s t h e s i l l i e s t t h i n g . ' " "Why s h o u l d I do t h a t ? " 1. A re y o u a n a n x i o u s p e r s o n i n many s i t u a t i o n s ? 2 . How s h a k y do y o u becom e? 3. T h is r e a c t i o n p u z z l e s a n d c o n c e r n s .' H e r e , r e s p o n s e s one an d tw o s e e k a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , w h e r e a s i n r e s p o n s e t h r e e , t h e g i s t o f t h e c l i e n t ' s e x p r e s s i o n i s c a u g h t , a n d r e p h r a s e d i n f r e s h w o r d s . B e h a v i o r s You May Want t o T ry : X. L i s t e n i n g f o r F e e l i n g . Remember t h a t w h a t t h e c l i e n t i s s a y i n g i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e m essa g e b e i n g c o m m u n ic a te d t o y o u . How he s a y s w h a t h e s a y s i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t . A c h a n g e i n b r e a t h i n g o r i n t h e s p e e d o f t a l k , a s i g h , a b l u s h , a s ta m m e r, a n d e x t r a e m p h a s is upon a p a r t i c u l a r w o r d - - a n y o f t h e s e c a n be i m p o r t a n t c u e s a s t o f e e l i n g s o f t h e c l i e n t . 2 . T im in g Y our Comments. Do n o t t r y t o r e s p o n d t o e v e r y comment by t h e c l i e n t . You may s i m p ly w an t t o s m i l e , n o d , s a y "Mm M hm ," e t c . , u n t i l t h e r e i s a n o c c a s i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e f l e c t f e e l i n g s o f t h e c l i e n t . 3. R e f l e c t i n g F e e l i n g . As you l i s t e n f o r , a n d f i n d i n s t a n c e s o f c l i e n t e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g , r e f l e c t t h i s f e e l i n g , by r e s t a t i n g w h a t t h e c l i e n t i s e x p e r i e n c i n g , i n y o u r own w o r d s . I f t h e c l i e n t s h o u l d s a y , " I w i s h I c o u l d t a l k t o my dad a b o u t t h i n g s l i k e t h i s , b u t I n e v e r seem t o g e t up t h e n e r v e , " yo u m ig h t r e s p o n d , 'You a r e a l i t t l e b i t a f r a i d o f 143 y o u r d a d ? ’’ Y our g o a l i s t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e c l i e n t i s e x p e r i e n c i n g , a n d t o com m u n icate t o t h e c l i e n t t h a t " I am w i t h y o u " - - I c a n a c c u r a t e l y s e n s e t h e w o r ld a s you a r e f e e l i n g a n d p e r c e i v i n g i t . " (R e p ro d u c e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n o f A l l e n I v e y , K i t t e r i n g M ic ro - C o u n s e l in g R e s e a r c h 1967) APPENDIX C MEASUREMENT SCALES 144 145 ATTENDING BEHAVIOR 1. V e r b a l f o l l o w i n g : The c o u n s e l o r ' s a b i l i t y t o " s t i c k w i t h " th e t o p i c o f t h e c l i e n t . The a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e v e r b a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c l i e n t w i t h o u t c h a n g in g t o p i c s o f " t a k i n g o v e r " t h e i n t e r v i e w . 1 2 3 4 5 p o o r m o d e r a te good v e r b a l v e r b a l f o l l o w i n g f o l l o w i n g 2 . Eye c o n t a c t w i t h c l i e n t : p o o r eye c o n t a c t m o d e r a te good eye c o n t a c t 3. P o s t u r e : The e x t e n t t o w h ic h t h e c o u n s e l o r i s r e l a x e d and a t e a s e i n t a l k i n g w i t h t h e c l i e n t . 1 t e n s e r e l a x e d 146 MEASUREMENT OF ACCURATE RESPONSE TO FEELING CONTENT (U sed i n M i c r o - C o u n s e l i n g S tu d y No. 3) 1. I n a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e s t o c o n t e n t . 2 . S l i g h t l y a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e t o c o n t e n t 3 . O f t e n a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e s t o c o n t e n t . 4 . A lw ay s a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e s t o c o n t e n t . CONTENT a n d FEELING 5 . I g n o r e s o b v i o u s f e e l i n g s . 6 . I n a c c u r a t e r e s p o n s e s t o o b v i o u s f e e l i n g s . 7 . S l i g h t a c c u r a c y to w a r d o b v i o u s f e e l i n g s . 8 . O f t e n a c c u r a t e to w a r d o b v i o u s f e e l i n g s * 9 . A lw ay s a c c u r a t e to w a r d o b v i o u s f e e l i n g s * FEELING 1 0 . C a n ' t r a t e c o n c e r n i n g d e e p e r f e e l i n g s . 11. C o n c e r n w i t h d e e p e r f e e l i n g s a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y a c c u r a t e w i t h r e g a r d t o them . 12. F r e q u e n t l y a c c u r a t e to w a r d d e e p e r f e e l i n g s . 13. A lm o s t a lw a y s a c c u r a t e t o w a r d d e e p e r f e e l i n g s . May o c c a s i o n a l l y h e s i t a t e o r e r r b u t c o r r e c t s q u i c k l y a n d a c c u r a t e l y . 14. U n e r r i n g l y a c c u r a t e a n d u n h e s i t a n t t o w a r d d e e p e r f e e l i n g . 147 GENUINE EXPRESSION OF FEELING A S c a l e f o r M e a su re m e n t L e v e l 1 The c l i e n t ' s v e r b a l i z a t i o n s a r e c l e a r l y u n r e l a t e d t o w h at he i s f e e l i n g a t t h e m om ent, o r h i s o n l y g e n u in e r e s p o n s e s ; a r e n e g a t i v e i n r e g a r d t o t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d a p p e a r t o h a v e j a t o t a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t u p o n t h e t h e r a p i s t . E x a m p le : The c l i e n t may be d e f e n s i v e i n h i s i n t e r - j a c t i o n w i t h t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d t h i s d e f e n s i v e n e s s may bei d e m o n s t r a t e d I n t h e c o n t e n t o f h i s w o rd s o r h i s v o i c e i q u a l i t y a n d w h e re he i s d e f e n s i v e he d o e s n o t em p lo y | h i s r e a c t i o n a s a b a s i s f o r p o t e n t i a l l y v a l u a b l e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . j I n sum m ary, t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s - ! c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e c l i e n t ' s i n n e r e x p e r i e n c i n g a n d h i s j c u r r e n t v e r b a l i z a t i o n s o r w h e re t h e r e i s n o d i s c r e p a n c y , t h e c l i e n t ' s r e a c t i o n s a r e e m p lo y e d s o l e l y i n a d e s t r u c t i v e ; f a s h i o n . L e v e l 2 The c l i e n t ' s v e r b a l i z a t i o n s a r e s l i g h t l y u n r e l a t e d t o w h a t I h e i s f e e l i n g a t t h e moment o r w hen h i s r e s p o n s e s a r e ! g e n u in e t h e y a r e n e g a t i v e i n r e g a r d t o t h e t h e r a p i s t a n d t h e c l i e n t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o know how t o em plo y h i s n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n s c o n s t r u c t i v e l y a s a b a s i s f o r d e v e l o p - I m en t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . E x a m p le : The c l i e n t may r e s p o n d t o t h e t h e r a p i s t i n a j m an n e r t h a t h a s a r e h e a r s e d q u a l i t y o r a q u a l i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e way a c l i e n t " s h o u l d " r e s p o n d I n t h a t s i t u a t i o n . j I n sum m ary, t h e c l i e n t i s u s u a l l y r e s p o n d i n g a c c o r d i n g t o j h i s p r e s c r i b e d " r o l e " r a t h e r t h a n t o e x p r e s s w h a t h e ! p e r s o n a l l y f e e l s o r m eans a n d when he i s g e n u i n e h i s 148 r e s p o n s e s a r e n e g a t i v e a n d h e i s u n a b l e t o em ploy th em a s a b a s i s f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . L e v e l 3 The c l i e n t p r o v i d e s no " n e g a t i v e " c u e s b e tw e e n w h a t he s a y s a n d w h a t he f e e l s , b u t he p r o v i d e s n o p o s i t i v e c u e s t o i n d i c a t e a r e a l l y g e n u in e r e s p o n s e t o t h e t h e r a p i s t . E x a m p le : The c l i e n t may l i s t e n a n d f o l l o w t h e t h e r a p i s t b u t com m its n o t h i n g m ore o f h i m s e l f . In sum m ary, t h e c l i e n t a p p e a r s t o make a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e s w h ic h do n o t seem i n s i n c e r e , b u t w h ic h do n o t r e f l e c t a n y r e a l i n v o l v e m e n t e i t h e r . T h is l e v e l c o n s t i t u t e s t h e m in i m a l l e v e l o f g e n u i n e e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g . L e v e l 4 The c l i e n t p r e s e n t s some p o s i t i v e c u e s i n d i c a t i n g a g e n u in e r e s p o n s e ( p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e ) i n a n o n d e s t r u c t i v e m a n n e r t o t h e t h e r a p i s t . E x a m p le : The c l i e n t ' s e x p r e s s i o n s a r e c o n g r u e n t w i t h h i s f e e l i n g s a l t h o u g h he may b e som ew hat h e s i t a n t a b o u t e x p r e s s i n g th em f u l l y . I n summary t h e c l i e n t r e s p o n d s w i t h many o f h i s own f e e l i n g s a n d t h e r e i s n o d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r h e r e a l l y m eans w h a t h e s a y s a n d he i s a b l e t o em p lo y h i s r e s p o n s e s w h a t e v e r t h e e m o t i o n a l c o n t e n t a s a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Level 5 The c lie n t is freely and deeply himself i n a n o n - d e f e n s i v e rela tio n sh ip with the th era p ist. Example: The c lie n t is completely s p o n t a n e o u s i n h i s in te ra c tio n and open to experiences o f a l l t y p e s , b o t h pleasant and h u rtfu l; and in the e v e n t o f a h u r t f u l response the c l i e n t 's comments allow f u r t h e r e x p l o r a tio n and development of the i n t e r p e r s o n a l re la tio n sh ip . In summary, the c lie n t is cle arly being h i m s e l f a n d y e t using his feelings and th e ir genuine e x p r e s s i o n t o e x p l o r e and develop w ithin the rela tio n sh ip . APPENDIX D RATING SCALE OF COUNSELOR EFFECTIVENESS 150 151 R a t i n g S c a l e o f C o u n s e l o r E f f e c t i v e n e s s s e n s i t i v e _ r e l e v a n t n e r v o u s c o n f i d e n t _ s k i l l e d _ a t t e n t i v e _ i o m f o r t a b l e i n t e r e s t i n g _ c o n fu s e d ^ c o n f i d e n t g lo o m y _ calm_ i n t e l l i g e n t _ i r r e s p o n s i b l e _ s i n c e r e _ a p a t h e t i c _ t e n s e c o l o r f u l _ b o r in g _ fo rm ed i n s e n s i t i v e i r r e l e v a n t _ca lm h e s i t a n t u n s k i l l e d u n a t t e n t i v e u n c o m f o r t a b l e d u l l s e n s i b l e _ d o u b ts h i s a b i l i t y c h e e r f u l j i t t e r y u n i n t e l l i g e n t r e s p o n s i b l e i n s i n c e r e e n t h u s i a s t i c r e l a x e d c o l o r l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g f o r m l e s s u n r e a l s o c i a b l e s h a l l o w c a r e l e s s p o l i t e real u n s o c i a b l e d e e p c a r e f u l r u d e APPENDIX E INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE C .E .S . 1 5 3 154' INSTRUCTIONS T h is i s a s t u d y o f how w o rd s a r e u s e d t o d e s c r i b e p e o p l e . I t i s n o t a t e s t , a n d t h e r e a r e n o r i g h t o r w ro n g a n s w e r s . You w i l l b e a s k e d t o d e s c r i b e a p e r s o n , u s i n g a , s e r i e s o f d e s c r i p t i v e s c a l e s . Y o u r d e s c r i p t i o n s w i l l b e b a s e d on y o u r f e e l i n g s , a n d s o m e tim e s y o u may h a v e t o u s e y o u r i m a g i n a t i o n a l i t t l e . T h is i s f i n e . A t t h e t o p o f e a c h p a g e o f t h i s b o o k l e t i s a name o f a p e r s o n t e l l i n g who y o u a r e t o : d e s c r i b e a n d b e n e a t h ! t h i s a s e r i e s o f 25 s c a l e s t h a t h a v e w o rd s o f o p p o s i t e j m e a n in g a t e a c h e n d . You a r e t o i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n yo u a r e d e s c r i b i n g seem s t o y o u t o b e m ore l i k e : one o f t h e s e w o rd s o r m ore l i k e t h e o t h e r . F o r e x a m p le , t h e f i r s t p e r s o n y o u m ig h t d e s c r i b e , i s JOE. You w i l l b e d e s c r i b i n g w h a t JOE i s l i k e i n y o u r j e x p e r i e n c e a s e s t i m a t i o n . The f i r s t s c a l e o f t h e l i s t i s : ! C r u e l : : : : : : : K ind I f y o u f e e l t h a t JOE i s v e r y c r u e l , o r i f y o u f e e l t h a t JOE i s v e r y k i n d , y o u w o u ld i n d i c a t e y o u r d e s c r i p t i o n b y c h e c k i n g t h e s c a l e c l o s e t o t h e w o rd t h a t d e s c r i b e s JO E, a s f o l l o w s : C r u e l X : : : : : : : K ind C r u e l : : : : : : X : K ind I f you f e e l th a t JOE i s q u ite c r u e l or q u ite k in d , you would check a l i t t l e fu r th e r away from one word or the o th e r , as fo llo w s : Cruel _____ : X :_____ :_____ : _____ : ______:______ : Kind Cruel ______ : : : X : : Kind 155' i I f you f e e l th a t JOE i s somewhat c r u e l or somewhat kind , you would check as fo llo w s : Cruel _____:_____ : X :______:______:______:_____: Kind Cruel : : : : X : : : Kind I f you f e e l t h a t JOE I s n e i t h e r c r u e l n o r k i n d , y ou w o u ld c h e c k t h e m id d l e p o i n t on t h e s c a l e a s f o l l o w s : C r u e l : : : X : : : : K in d P l e a s e b e s u r e t o p l a c e y o u r c h e c k m ark s on t h e s p a c e s , n o t on t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e tw e e n s p a c e s . Be s u r e t o c h e c k e v e r y s c a l e - do n o t o m it a n y . N e v er p u t m ore t h a n one c h e c k m ark on a s i n g l e s e a l e . Make e a c h i t e m a s e p a r a t e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t j u d g m e n t. I t i s y o u r f e e l i n g s a n d i m p r e s s i o n s t h a t a r e i m p o r t a n t .

Asset Metadata

Creator Kerrebrock, Robert Allen (author)

Core Title Application Of The Micro-Counseling Method Using Video-Tape Recordings Tothe Training Of Teachers In Basic Counseling Techniques

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, guidance and counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Carnes, Earl F. (committee chair), Fox, Frank H. (committee member), Shafer, Carl M. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-510970

Unique identifier UC11362952

Identifier 7121470.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-510970 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7121470

Dmrecord 510970

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Kerrebrock, Robert Allen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA