University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Study Of Factors Related To Police Diversion Of Juveniles: Departmentalpolicy And Structure, Community Attachment, And Professionalization Of Police

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A Study Of Factors Related To Police Diversion Of Juveniles: Departmentalpolicy And Structure, Community Attachment, And Professionalization Of Police

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Content A STUDY O F FA C T O R S R E L A T E D TO P O L IC E DIVERSION O F JU V EN ILES: D E P A R T M E N T A L PO LICY AND ST R U C T U R E , COMM UNITY A TTA C H M E N T , AND PR O FE SSIO N A LIZ A TIO N O F P O L IC E by R ic h a rd A llen Sundeen, J r . A D is s e rta tio n P r e s e n t e d to the F A C U L T Y O F TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY O F SOUTH ERN CA LIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of the R e q u ire m e n ts fo r the D egree D OCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY (Sociology) J a n u a ry 1972 72-11,961 SUNDEEN, J r . , R ic h ard A lle n , 1938- A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATED TO POLICE DIVERSION OF JUVENILES: DEPARTM ENTAL POLICY A N D STRUCTURE, CO M M U N ITY ATTACHMENT, A N D PROFESSIONALIZATION OF POLICE. U n iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia , Ph.D., 1972 S o c io lo g y , crim in o lo g y University Microfilms, A XEROX Company , Ann Arbor, Michigan (C) Copyright by RICHARD ALLEN SUNDEEN, JR. 1971 UNIVERSITY O F SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SC H O O L UN IV ERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES, C A LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ..............Richsx.d.Allm.S.uu£le.e.u,..J.i:ic............ under the direction of his..... Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean D ate F A k fu a ry . 1972 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman PLEASE NOTE: Some pages have indistinct print. Filmed as received. UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ish to thank the following p e rs o n s fo r th e ir a s s is ta n c e in this r e s e a r c h en d ea v o r: D r. M a lc o lm Klein, c h a ir m a n of m y d is s e r ta tio n c o m m ittee, who p ro v id ed p atien t c r itic is m , en th u sia stic support, and a g re a t deal of tim e ; the o th er c o m m itte e m e m b e r s — D r. H e rm a n T u rk and M r. H erb S igurdson — for th e ir su g g estio n s; M r. Ron W eber, E xecutive O fficer of the Los A ngeles County Sub- R egional A d v iso ry B oard of the C alifo rn ia Council on C rim in a l J u stic e , for providing funds fo r r e s e a r c h p u rp o s e s ; M r. Ronald B ates, M iss Susan Labin, and M r. R ic h a rd M itchell, fellow g r a d uate stu d en ts, who a s s is te d in the data collection; D r. R o b e rt C a r t e r , D ire c to r of the D elinquency C ontrol Institute, U n iv ersity of Southern C alifornia, and the F ifty-S econd C la ss of the D elinquency C ontrol Institute fo r a s s is ta n c e in the co llectio n of data; the chiefs, juvenile o ffic e rs, and o th e r p e rs o n n e l of the f o r ty -s e v e n police d e p a rtm e n ts p a rtic ip a tin g in the r e s e a r c h p ro jec t; and R o s e m a ry , R ic h a rd , and M ark , f r o m w hom I w as d iv e rte d too m uch of the tim e . TA BLE OF CONTENTS P age A CK N O W LED G EM EN TS ............................................................... ii LIST O F T A B L E S .................................................................................... vi LIST O F F I G U R E S .................................................................................... viii Chapte r I S T A T E M E N T O F THE P R O B L E M AND R E L E V A N T V A R I A B L E S .......................................... 1 The G e n e ra l P r o b l e m . . . . . 1 The Specific P r o b l e m . . . . . 3 V a ria b le s R e lev an t to P olice Studies . . 4 Ju v en ile D isp o sitio n s and C h a r a c te r is tic s of Ju v en ile O ffenders . . . . . 8 Juvenile D isp o sitio n s and C h a r a c te r is tic s of the P o lic e . . . . . . . 10 II D E V E L O P M E N T O F A M O D E L AND H Y PO TH ESES 16 The M odel — C oncepts and R ationale . . 16 H y potheses . . . . . . . 25 III O PE R A T IO N A L IZ A T IO N O F C O N C E PT S . . 26 P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . . . . . 26 C o m m u n ity A tta c h m e n t . . . . 33 R elatio n sh ip B etw een C o m m u n ity A tta c h m e n t and P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . . . 38 V alidity of P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and C om m unity A tta ch m en t . . . . 39 D iv e rsio n f r o m the Juvenile J u stic e S y s te m . . . . . . . . 40 D e p a rtm e n ta l P o lic y . . . . . 42 B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol . . . . . 44 O p e ra tio n a l H y potheses . . . . 45 iii C hapter P age IV M ETH O D O LO G IC A L FRA M EW O RK . . . 48 Selection of Sam ple . . . . . . 48 C ollection of D ata . . . . . . 49 In s tru m e n ts U sed . . . . . . 51 P r e p a r a t io n of D ata . . . . . 53 S ta tis tic a l T echniques . . . . . 53 V TH E FINDINGS ............................................................... 56 P r e d ic t e d and O b se rv e d C ounsel and R e le a s e R a te s . . . . . . 56 T e s t of H ypothesis One . . . . . 60 T e s t of H ypothesis Two . . . . . 68 S u m m a r y of H ypothesis T e s ts . . . 73 D isc u s sio n . . . . . . . . 73 C o m m u n ity A tta c h m e n t and P r o f e s s i o n a lizatio n as S ep arate Independent V a ria b le s . . . . . . . 74 Five P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and Five C o m m u n ity A tta c h m e n t In d ica to rs . . . 81 The A sso c ia tio n A m ong Indicators of the S am e C oncept . . . . 83 Z e ro O r d e r A sso ciatio n s and Specification of R elationships . . 87 P a r t i c u l a r i s t i c and L ocal O rie n ta tio n s . . . . . . 91 S pecification of T h re e A sso ciatio n s w ith C ounsel and R e le a se Rate . . 95 S u m m a ry . . . . . . . . 99 VI SUMMARY AND IM PLICATION S O F FINDINGS 101 S u m m a r y of F indings . . . . . 101 Im p licatio n s for T h e o ry and R e s e a r c h . 105 P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . . . . 105 The G e m e in sc h a ftlic h and G e s e ll- sc h a ftlic h O rien ta tio n s . . . 108 A lte rn a tiv e T h e o rie s . . . . I l l A dditional F u tu re R e s e a r c h . . . 113 P r a c t i c a l Im p licatio n s of F indings . . 114 iv Page A PP E N D IX E S I. P ro file of Ju v en ile O fficers In Sam ple . 116 II. The Ju v en ile O fficer Q u estio n n aire . 124 III. D e s c rip tio n of C ities and D e p a rtm e n ts of S am ple . . . . . . . 141 IV. S ele cted T ab les w ith C u rv ilin e a r R elatio n sh ip s . . . . . . 150 R E F E R E N C E S 155 W V LIST OF TABLES Table III. 1 III. 2 V. 1 Y. 2 V. 3 V. 4 V. 5 V. 6 V. 7 V. 8 V. 9 V. 10 P age I n t e r - i t e m C o rre la tio n s fo r P r o f e s sio n alizatio n Scale . . . . . . 32 I n te r - i te m C o rre la tio n s for C om m unity A tta ch m en t Scale . . . . . . 37 O b se rv e d and E xpected T ric h o to m iz e d C ounsel and R e le a s e R a te s . . . . 59 O b se rv e d and E x p ec ted D ichotom ized C ounsel and R e le a s e R a te s . . . . 61 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate (D ichotom ized) by C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y . . . 63 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate (D ichotom ized) by C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y When Holding C onstant B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol . 64 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y . . . . . . 66 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y W hen Holding C onstant B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol . . . 67 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by D e p a rtm e n ta l O rien ta tio n When Holding C onstant Coun s e l and R e le a s e P o lic y A m ong D e p a rtm e n ts w ith Low B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol . . . 69 C ounsel and R e le a se R ate by D e p a rtm e n ta l O rie n ta tio n . . . . . . . 71 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by D e p a rtm e n ta l O rie n ta tio n When Holding C onstant B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol . . . . . 72 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by C o m m unity A tta c h m e n t and P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n : Z e ro O r d e r and Specified A sso c ia tio n s . 75 V I I I T able V. 11 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by D e p a r t m e n ta l O rien ta tio n : P e rc e n ta g e D istrib u tio n s . . . . . V. 12 C ounsel and R e le a se R ate by D e p a r t m e n ta l A ctivity L evel V. 13 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by A ctivity L ev e l W hen Holding C onstant B u r e a u c ra tic C o n tro l . . . . . V. 14 I n te r - i te m A sso c ia tio n s A m ong P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n In d ica to rs V. 15 I n te r - i te m A sso c ia tio n s A m ong C o m m unity A tta ch m en t In d icato rs V. 16 M e a s u r e s of A sso c ia tio n Betw een C om m unity A tta c h m e n t and P r o f e s sio n alizatio n In d ic a to rs V. 17 C ounsel and R e le a se R ate by P r o f e s sio n alizatio n In d ic a to rs : Z e ro O r d e r and Specified A sso ciatio n s V. 18 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by C o m m u n ity A tta ch m en t In d ic a to rs: Z e ro O r d e r and Specified A sso c ia tio n s . . . . . Y. 19 A sso c ia tio n B etw een P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a tion In d ic a to rs and P a r ti c u la r i s t ic O rie n ta tio n s . . . . . V. 20 A sso c ia tio n B etw een C om m unity A tta c h m e n t and L ocal O rien tatio n s V. 21 C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate by P o lic e O rg a n iz a tio n s , A ctiv ities, Juvenile T rain in g , and E s tim a te of F rie n d s Who a r e L o ca l P eo p le : Z e ro O r d e r and Specified A sso ciatio n s P age 77 79 80 84 85 86 88 89 92 93 96 LIST OF FIGURES F igu re II. 1 P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n D im e n sio n by C om m unity A tta ch m en t D im e n sio n III. 1 R e p re s e n ta tio n of H ypotheses V. 1 D epiction of S uccessful P re d ic tio n s of Counsel and R e le a s e R ate by all P o s s ib le C om binations of In d e pendent V a ria b le s . P age 23 47 57 viii C H A P T E R I ST A T E M E N T O F THE P R O B L E M AND R E L E V A N T VARIABLES The G e n e ra l P r o b le m The g e n e ra l a im of this study is to ex p lo re fa c to rs re la te d to the role of the police in the " d iv e rs io n " of juveniles f r o m the juvenile ju s tic e s y s te m . To d iv e rt the juvenile is to r e tu r n h im to the c o m m u n ity — the fam ily o r, p o ssibly, a co m m u n ity agency for guidance o r tr e a tm e n t — r a th e r than send h im to an official s a n c tio n ing agency, e . g . , the p ro b a tio n d e p a r tm e n t (cf. C a rte r, 1968; E is n e r, 1969; and L e m e r t, 1971, re g a rd in g d iv e rsio n and c o m m u n ity ab so rp tio n of ju v en iles). With r e s p e c t to the l a r g e r context of d e v i ance th e o ry , d iv e rs io n is re la te d to labelling th eo ry . A ccording to one of the ch ief proponents of labelling theory, . . . deviance is not a quality of the a c t the p e rs o n c o m m its , b ut r a t h e r a consequence of the application by o th e rs of ru les and san ctio n s to an "o ffen d er." The deviant is one to w h o m ! that label has su c c e ss fu lly been applied; deviant b eh av io r is j b e h a v io r th a t people so la b e l (B eck e r, 1963:9). In this context, to d iv e rt a juvenile is to re m o v e h im f r o m a la rg e I p a r t of this labelling p r o c e s s and, consequently, d e c r e a s e the p o s - i sibility of the dev elo p m en t of a d ev ian t se lf-c o n c e p t and c a r e e r . j j A lso, as E is n e r (1969:131) c o m m e n ts , d iv e rs io n m a y be j r e la te d to the g e n e ra l alien atio n of a c o m m u n ity 's youth: The g r e a t e r a c o m m u n ity 's ability to a b s o rb delinquency, the le s s alien atio n w ill be fo rc e d onto the youth of the c o m m unity, and the le ss they w ill find it n e c e s s a r y to seek s a tisfa c tio n of th e ir needs in ways w hich d am ag e the c o m m unity. The m o r e the com m unity m u s t r e s o r t to fo rm a l p r o c e s s e s to c o n tro l the b e h a v io r of its youth, the m o r e boys and g irls w ill be p e rm a n e n tly alien ated and the m o re they w ill r e s o r t to a n tiso c ia l activity to fulfill th e ir psy ch o lo g ical n eed s. The im p o rta n c e of the police in this p r o c e s s has b een s u g g ested by L e m e r t (1971:54), when he w rite s that through a r r e s t s and c o u rt r e f e r r a l s the police have the " s tra te g ic pow er to d e te rm in e w hat p ro p o rtio n s and w hat kinds of youth p ro b le m s b eco m e official and w hich ones a r e a b s o rb e d back into the com m unity. " B esides this "gate k e e p e r " function, the police m a y also have a labelling effect on the juvenile. F o r in sta n ce, W attenberg and Bufe (1963:475) concluded that "the re la tiv e ly b rie f co n ta c t betw een a boy o r his f a m ily and a police officer m a y be highly influential on a future 'c a r e e r ' in delinquency. " They found that c e r ta in o ffice rs had a h ig h e r p r o p o rtio n of n o n - r e p e a te r s am ong boys fo r w hom they w e re the initial police contact. T h ese o ffice rs w ere d e s c r ib e d independently by th e ir s u p e r v is o r s in m o r e p o sitiv e te r m s than w e re the officers with a lo w er p ro p o rtio n of n o n - r e p e a t e r s . A lso re la te d to the im p a c t of a p p re h e n sio n by police is a study by Gold (1970). He m a tc h e d ju veniles who had been caught w ith those un d etected but who h ad c o m m itte d the s a m e offense a t about the s a m e tim e and had c o m m itte d the s a m e n u m b e r of offenses p r i o r to that tim e . E leven out of tw enty ap p reh e n d ed went on to c o m m it m o r e offenses than the u n ap p reh e n d ed y o u n g s te rs while in four c a s e s the a p p reh e n d ed c o m m itte d le s s and in five c a s e s they c o m m itte d the s a m e n u m b e r. Gold a ttrib u te d the d iffe re n c e s betw een the two groups to w h e th e r o r not they w e re a p p reh e n d ed . T h e re fo re , the b eh av io r of police co n cern in g juveniles m e r i t s fu r th e r study. The Specific P r o b le m Specifically, the a i m of the study is to explain the v aria tio n am ong police ju ris d ic tio n s within Los A ngeles County in juvenile d is - j positio n s — in p a r ti c u la r , v a ria tio n in the counsel and r e le a s e r a t e s , j T hat is, once a juvenile has b een taken into custody (technically, in | I I C alifo rn ia ju v e n iles a r e not a r r e s te d ) , the police have v a rio u s options| in p ro c e e d in g w ith the y o u n g s te r. G en erally , th e se a lte rn a tiv e s in- i elude the following: (1) to handle w ithin the d e p a rtm e n t ( i . e . , to c o u n se l and r e le a s e ); (2) to r e f e r to a co m m u n ity agency; (3) to r e f e r to a n o th e r official agency (such as an o th er police ju risd ictio n ); o r (4) to r e f e r to the juvenile c o u r t th rough the p robation d e p a rtm e n t. The f i r s t two ite m s w ould be in s ta n c e s of d iv e rsio n , the la tte r two of " in s e rtio n " into the ju s tic e s y s te m . W ithin Los A ngeles County, th e re a r e f o r ty -s e v e n in d ep en d en t police a g e n c ie s , s e v e n te e n p re c in c ts of the Los A ngeles P olice D e p a rtm e n t, and fo u rte e n statio n s of the Los A ngeles County S h eriff's D e p a rtm e n t. R ecently, K lein (n .d . ) found that the counsel and r e le a s e r a te s ra n g e d f r o m two p e r c e n t to eighty-tw o p e r c e n t am ong th e se police a g e n c ie s. (A pparently, such a ran g e is not unusual. B o rd u a (1967:160) re p o r te d a ran g e of c o u rt r e f e r r a l ra te s f r o m nine p e r c e n t to eighty p e r c e n t in a review of studies co v erin g th irte e n c o m m u n itie s and a s i m i l a r ran g e in an o th er study of 2, 369 police a g e n c ie s .) T h ese v a ria tio n s a c r o s s all d e p a r tm e n ts in d icate that th e re a r e a p p a re n t d iffe re n c e s co n ce rn in g the police ro le in the d i v e r sion p r o c e s s . A lso, they su g g e s t som e fru itfu l lines of in q u iry into the p ro b le m . V a ria b le s R elev an t to P o lic e Studies E x p lo ratio n of the so cial scien c e li te r a t u r e co n c e rn in g the j police re v e a ls that the studies and th e ir findings a n d / o r v a ria b le s can be c a te g o riz e d under s e v e r a l r u b r ic s , all of th e m m o r e o r le s s r e - ! i lated to the police d e c isio n co n cern in g d iv e rs io n . The following is j one a tte m p t a t su ch a c la ssific a tio n : i A. The c o m m u n ity context in w hich the police o p e ra te has v a rio u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e la te d to police d e c isio n m aking, su ch as c o m m u n ity size, h o m o g e n eity or h e te ro g e n e ity with r e s p e c t to c la ss and r a c i a l c o m p o sitio n (G oldm an, 1963; W ilson, 1968b), and p o litic al c u ltu re (W ilson, 1968b; Skolnick, 1969). B. P o lic e o rg an iz atio n and p o lic y , such as the extent of c e n tra liz e d d e c isio n m a k in g (W ilson, 1963, 1968a), the extent of p r o fe s sio n a liz a tio n (W ilson, 1963, 1968a and b; C ico u rel, 1968; W alsh, 1970), the fit betw een d e p a rtm e n ta l p o licies and in fo rm a l n o rm s , and " s ty le s " of police activity (W ilson, 1968b), a p p e a rs to be an i m p o r t ant v aria b le in c o n s id e ra tio n s of police a c tio n s. C. S e v e ra l w r ite r s have d e a lt w ith the iso la tio n of the p o lic e , such as the lack of in te g ra tio n of police into the co m m u n ity (C lark , 1969), p e rc e p tio n s of c itize n h o stility (W estley, 1953; W ilson, 1963, 1967), the d a n g e r and a u th o rity involved in police w o rk leading j to s u sp ic io u s n e s s and iso la tio n (Skolnick, 1966; N ied erh o ffer, 1967), | the low statu s and r e w a rd s of police w ork, and s tr a in e d re la tio n s b e - | tw een police and o th e r c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s and a g e n c ie s (R eiss and B ordua, 1967). D. P o lic e s o lid a r ity , an o th e r g e n e ra l topic of police s tu d ie s, has been affected by fa c to rs such as po litic izatio n (Skolnick, j j 1969), s e c r e c y (W estley, 1956), s u b c u ltu ra l codes (W ilson, 1963; j j B o rd u a and R e iss , 1966; Stoddard, 1968), and a s e n s e of m o r a l j I rig h tn e s s vis a vis o th e r c r im in a l ju stic e and p riv a te a g e n c ie s (R eiss j and B ordua, 1967). I E . The situation of en co u n ter and tr a n s a c tio n w ith s u s p e c ts often o c c u rs in the field and re s u lts in d ecisio n s being m a d e on the b a s is of such fa c to rs as the d e m e a n o r of the s u s p e c t (P iliav in and B r ia r, 1964; B lack and R e is s , 1970), the juvenile o f fic e r's p e r s o n ality t r a i ts and style of in te ra c tio n (W attenberg and Bufe, 1963), the p r e s e n c e of a c itize n co m p lain a n t (B lack and R e is s , 1970; Black, 1970), the ideology o r th e o ry of delinquency held by the o ffice r j (C irc o u re l, 1968; Stoll, 1968), the validation of p e r s o n a l a u th o rity and p o w er by the a r r e s t i n g officer (T a u b e r, 1967), and se le c tiv e e n f o r c e m e n t of law on the b a s is of s p e c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s u s p ect, e . g . , s e r io u s n e s s of offense, n u m b e r of offenses (M c E a c h e rn and B au ze r, 1967), o r r a c e (B lack and R e is s , 1970). F . B esid e s the above g e n e ra l a r e a s of police stu d ie s, s e v e r a l typologies of the police function, g e n e ra lly s im ila r , have | b een c o n s tru c te d to p ro v id e a th e o re tic a l f r a m e w o r k for the study of j i police in the com m u n ity . B ittn er (1967:700), b o rro w in g f r o m j 6 Banton (1964:6-7, I27ff. ), su g g e sts th a t "two r e la tiv e ly independent do m ain s of police activ ity " e x ist. In one in sta n ce, the police function as "law o f f ic e r s " and "th eir m e th o d s a r e c o n s tra in e d by the p r o s p e c t of the future d isp o sitio n of a c a s e in the c o u r ts . . . . " In the o th e r dom ain, that of the "peace o ffice r, " the police " o p e ra te u n d er som e o th e r c o n s id e ra tio n and la rg e ly w ith no s tr u c tu re d and continuous outside c o n s tra in t. " This la tte r ro le in clu d es all police activity th a t j is not " d ire c tly re la te d to m a k in g a r r e s t s . . . . " He then goes on to c a te g o riz e the kinds of c i r c u m s ta n c e s found on a "skid ro w " w hich do not re q u ire invoking the law n o r p e r ta in d ire c tly to " c o n s id e ra tio n s of legality th a t d e te rm in e law e n fo rc e m e n t. " In his p e a c e -k e e p in g functions, the officer u tiliz es p r a c tic a l skills as he a tte m p ts to a c q u ire p e r s o n a l knowledge of his beat, a cts to w ard p e r s o n s on the b a s is of p e rc e iv e d r is k s r a th e r than guilt, and a tte m p ts to re d u ce the a g g re g a te n u m b e r of tro u b le s in the a r e a (1967:714). T hus, in p e a c e -k e e p in g , "he is m a k in g d e c isio n s w hile being attuned to the r e a l iti e s of c o m p lex situ atio n s about w hich he has im m e n s e ly d e ta ile d know ledge" (1967:715). W enninger and C la rk (1967:162-167) s u g g e s t two p e r s p e c tiv e s on lo cal police d e p a r tm e n ts . One is th a t of value m a in te n a n c e , the o th e r is goal a tta in m e n t. The f o r m e r c o n c e rn s the " so c ia l cohesion of a c o m m u n ity " and the police a r e view ed as "an a n c illa r y aid to the value m a in tain in g p r o c e s s e s and as a sy m b o lic ag en cy of so c ia l c o n t r o l . " The la tte r p e r s p e c tiv e , goal a tta in m e n t, c o n c e rn s the ends of ! g o v e rn m e n t and view s the police "as the e n fo rc e m e n t a r m of g o v e r n m e n t — that is, as an in s tr u m e n ta l agency of so c ia l c o n tro l. " 7 ! I I S im ilarly , W ilson (1968b: 16) d istin g u ish e s betw een m a in - j i taining o r d e r and enforcing the law, and s u g g e sts that the "police help p e r f o r m two of the functional im p e ra tiv e s of any so ciety — w hat j T alco tt P a r s o n s calls 'goal atta in m e n t' (p a rt of w hat is law e n f o r c e m e n t as h e r e defined) and 'p a tte rn m a in te n a n c e ' (here called o r d e r ! I I m a in te n a n c e ). " O r d e r m a in tain in g c o n c e rn s situations of d i s o r d e r ! w hich involve "a dispute ov er w hat is 'rig h t' o r 's e e m ly ' conduct o r o v e r who is to b lam e for conduct th a t is a g re e d to be w rong o r u n - j s e e m ly . " In c o n tra s t, enforcing the law is w hat the p a tro lm a n does I j w hen th e re is no d isp u te . "Guilt is at is s u e in both o rd e r - m a in ta in in g and la w -en fo rcin g situ atio n s, but b lam e is a t is s u e only in the f o r m e r " (1968b:17). In c o n tra s t to enforcing the law, the o r d e r - m a in te n a n c e o rien tatio n involves "handling a situ atio n " (1968b:31). In a study of eight c o m m u n ities, W ilson (1968b) o b s e rv e d th a t d e p a rtm e n ts v a rie d in te r m s of th e ir c o m m itm e n t to o r d e r - m a in te n a n c e o r la w -e n fo rc e m e n t acc o rd in g to the extent of p r o f e s sional o rien tatio n and d e g re e of a d m in is tra tiv e c o n tro l o v e r the d ecisio n s of p a tro lm e n . The re s u lts of th e se d iffe re n c e s yielded th re e types of police sty le s : (1) "w a tc h m a n , " (2) " leg alistic, " and (3) " s e r v i c e . " The "w atch m an " style ( 1968b: 140-171) w as c h a r a c te r i z e d by a c o n c e rn fo r o rd e r - m a in te n a n c e w h ere m in o r violations w e re ig n o red , to le ra te d , o r tr e a te d in fo rm a lly . A lso, d e p a rtm e n ts in this c a te g o ry placed little e m p h a sis on police p ro fe s s io n a l d o ctrin e and h ad in fo rm a l o r re la tiv e ly n o n - b u re a u c ra tic m e a n s of a d m in is tra tio n . The " le g a lis tic " style d e p a rtm e n ts (1968:1:72-199) w e re c o n c e rn e d i w ith law enforcing; that is, they tended to "handle c o m m o n p lac e situations as if they w e re m a t t e r s of law e n fo rc e m e n t r a th e r than o r d e r m a in te n a n c e . " This police style r e q u ire d s tro n g a d m i n i s t r a tive c o n tro ls and efforts to induce the p a tro lm e n to a c t a g g r e s s iv e ly in enforcing the law . Consequently, th e re w as a high c o m m itm e n t to p r o f e s s io n a lis m (1968b:178) and b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l and efficiency I ( 1968b: 184ff. ). The " s e r v ic e " style d e p a rtm e n t tended to "take s e r - j io usly all re q u e s ts fo r e ith e r law e n fo rc e m e n t o r o r d e r m a in te n a n c e J (unlike police w ith a w atchm an style) but a r e le s s likely to re s p o n d by j m ak in g an a r r e s t o r o th e rw ise im p o sin g f o rm a l sanctions (unlike ! police w ith a le g a lis tic style)" (1968b;200). In terv en tio n by the police w as freq u en t, but not f o rm a l. T h ese d e p a rtm e n ts tended to be sm a ll (or la rg e and d e c e n tra liz e d into p re c in c ts ) and highly p r o f e s s io n alized . A lso, "the extent to w hich p e r s o n a l fa c to rs a r e taken into account in m a in tain in g o r d e r and enforcing the law p ro b ab ly lies so m e w h e re b etw een the e x t r e m e s found in the [o th e r two ty p e s ]. . . " (1968b:219). Juvenile D ispositions and C h a r a c te r is tic s of Juvenile O ffenders The a b o v e .c a te g o rie s of re le v a n t v a ria b le s and concepts s u g g e s t s e v e r a l ap p ro a c h e s that can be taken in a study of the police. Now we w ill tu rn b rie fly to specific studies w hich have b een co n c e rn e d w ith police disp o sitio n s of juveniles on the b asis of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the offender (though not lim ited only to the point in the d ec isio n m a k ing p r o c e s s that involves c o u r t r e f e r r a l s ) . M any of the studies have b een conducted by d ir e c t o b s e rv a tio n . F o r ex am p le, P ilia v in and B r ia r (1964) o b s e rv e d that in the field the m o s t s e rio u s d isp o sitio n i i ( a r r e s t) w as a s s o c ia te d with the ju v e n ile 's d e m e a n o r o r how c o o p e ra - J tive he w as and how he w as d r e s s e d . A lso, ra c e of the s u s p e c t w as j found to be im p o rta n t. W e rth m a n and P iliav in (1967) found th a t fa c - i to rs involved in police d isp o sitio n s included m agnitude of offense, i p rev io u s contacts with police, type and quality of p a r e n ta l control, i i and attitude of the boy. B lack and R e is s (1970) found th a t s e rio u s n e s s ! i l of offense, the p r e s e n c e of the c itiz e n com plainant, the juvenile being j black, and undue r e s p e c t o r d i s r e s p e c t by the juvenile i n c r e a s e d the j p ro b ab ility of a r r e s t . ! The findings of G oldm an (re p o rte d in B ordua, 1967), Bodine \ (re p o rte d in B ordua, 1967), T e r r y (1967), and M c E a c h e rn and B a u z e r (1967) tend to a g re e on the n a tu re and s e r io u s n e s s of offense as being im p o rta n t f a c to rs . G o ld m a n 's findings su g g ested s e rio u s - I n e s s , being black, m a le , and o ld e r as c r i t e r i a for m o r e s e v e re police d e c is io n s . Bodine found r e p e a te r s and petty thieves to be a s s o c ia te d with h ig h e r c o u r t r e f e r r a l r a te s . T e r r y 's (1967:177) c o m p a ris o n of police, pro b atio n , and c o u r t re a c tio n s to deviance show ed th a t at the "police le v e l of s c re e n in g " , s e r io u s n e s s of offense, n u m b e r of p re v io u s offenses, and age of the juvenile w e re a s s o c ia te d w ith s e v e r ity of sa n c tio n s. M c E a c h e r n and B a u z e r 's findings s u g g ested that while s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the individuals w e re r e lated to w h e th e r o r not the police re q u e s te d a petition to be filed ( i . e . , r e f e r r a l to juvenile court), o th e r c o n sid e ra tio n s involving c h a r a c t e r is tic s of the police a r e im p o rta n t, too. They concluded: 10 T hese d a ta and a n a ly sis su g g e s t that police do re sp o n d to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of individuals, but that th e ir d isp o sitio n s a r e ju s t as m u c h a function of who the police a r e as of w hat the delinquent is like. Two of the m o s t im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of individuals, sex and ethnicity, w ere found to have re la tiv e ly little re la tio n s h ip to w h eth er o r not a petition w as re q u e s te d . O th e rs w ere rela ted , but none so m a rk e d ly as the n a tu re of the offense, o r the police d e p a rtm e n t. . . , o r the police officer. . . . [T h e re fo re ] delinquency m u s t be thought of as i n t e r a c tions betw een individuals and agents of society which d e fine th e ir d ev ian ce (1967:151). Juvenile D ispositions and C h a r a c te r is tic s of the P o lic e Thus, it is p o ssib le that the d iffe re n c e s in d iv e rs io n r a te s — at w h a te v e r stage in the d e c isio n m ak in g p r o c e s s of the police — m a y be a function of d iffe re n tia l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the police in ste a d of, j o r as w ell a s, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the offen d ers. U nfortunately, as M artin , F itz p a tric k , and Gould (1968:145) have noted, th e re have been r e m a r k a b ly few stu d ie s on the d ec isio n m a k e r s : A lm o st all of the r e s e a r c h in c r im e and delinquency has focused on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of offenders and offenses they c o m m it and not upon the d e c isio n -m a k in g p r o c e s s and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of d e c isio n m a k e r s th e m s e lv e s in the field of c r im in a l ju s tic e . i This section w ill be devoted to stu d ies which focus sp ecifically on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the police and w hich m a y s e r v e to in t e r p r e t the d if f e re n c e s in d iv e rs io n r a te s am ong police ju ris d ic tio n s . In h is study of a w e s te r n and an e a s te r n police d e p a rtm e n t, W ilson (1968a) found th a t the f o r m e r tended to " p r o c e s s " or take I I official cognizance of a l a r g e r p ro p o rtio n of the city 's juvenile popu- j lation as s u sp e c te d o ffen d ers and, of those they p ro c e s s e d , brought f o r m a l action a g a in s t a l a r g e r p ro p o rtio n . On the b a s is of a c o m p a r - 11 ative — though s o m ew h at im p r e s s i o n is tic — an a ly sis of the two d e p a r t - ! m e n ts , W ilson a s s e r t s th a t the m o s t im p o rta n t d iffere n ce w as that the | i w e s te r n city police d e p a r tm e n t w as highly p ro fe s s io n a liz e d while the e a s t e r n city d e p a r tm e n t w as not. H is " g e n e ra l an aly tic a l definition" j w hich includes the " p a r tic u la r a ttrib u te s of the police that p r o f e s - ! ! s io n a lis m im p lie s " c o n s is ts of the following: j A " p ro fe s sio n a l" police d e p a r tm e n t is one g o v ern ed by j v a lu e s d e riv e d f r o m g e n e ra l, im p e r s o n a l r u le s w hich bind ; all m e m b e r s of the o rg a n iz a tio n and w hose re le v a n c e is i n d ep en d e n t of c i r c u m s ta n c e s of tim e, p lace o r p e rs o n a lity . A n o n -p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a r tm e n t (which w ill be c alled a " f r a te r n a l " d e p a rtm e n t), on the o th e r hand, r e li e s to a g r e a t e r extent on p a r ti c u la r is tic ju d g m en ts — th a t is, ju d g m e n ts b a s e d on the significance to a p a r ti c u la r p e r s o n of j h is p a r ti c u la r re la tio n s to p a r tic u la r o th e r s . The p r o f e s s io n al d e p a r tm e n t looks o utw ard to u n iv e rs a l, e x te rn a lly valid, enduring s ta n d a rd s ; the n o n p ro fe ssio n a l d e p a r tm e n t looks, so to speak, in w a rd a t the in fo rm a l s ta n d a rd s of a s p e c ia l group and d is tr ib u te s the r e w a r d s and p e n altie s a c c o rd in g to how w ell a m e m b e r c o n fo rm s to th e m (W ilson, 1968a: 11). The p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a r tm e n t tended to r e c r u i t p e rs o n n e l on the b a s is of a c h ie v e m e n t r a t h e r than a s c rip tiv e c r it e r ia ; it e n fo rced the law im p a r tia lly and im p e rs o n a lly , r a th e r than w ith f a v o r itis m o r in fo rm a lly . The o ffic e rs of a p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a r tm e n t w e re fo rm a lly tra in e d and c o m m itte d to a g e n e ra liz e d p ro fe s s io n a l n o rm , while f r a te r n a l d e p a r tm e n t r e p r e s e n t a tiv e s re c e iv e d le s s f o r m a l tra in in g and tended to be c o m m itte d to m o r e p a r ti c u la r is tic n o r m s . A uthority w ith a p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a r tm e n t lies in the ro le , w h e re a s in the n o n p ro fe s sional d e p a r tm e n t it r e s id e s in the in c u m b en t. A lso, in c o n t r a s t to i the n o n p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a rtm e n t, the p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a r tm e n t of W e s te rn City had new buildings and equipm ent, its o ffice rs tended to j | have b e e n b o rn and r e a r e d in o th e r cities and had attain e d h ig h e r 12 I lev els of education. Although the p r o fe s s io n a l d e p a r tm e n t o ffic e rs tended to have m o r e c o m p lex attitu d es to w a rd delinquency than th e ir m o r e m o r a lis tic colleagues in the n o n p ro fe s sio n a l d e p a rtm e n t, as noted e a r l i e r , the j p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a rtm e n t was m o r e likely to com e in co n tact with ju - j veniles and, once in contact, to a r r e s t o r cite than give a re p r im a n d . W ilson a ttrib u te d the d iffe re n c e s in f o r m a l co n tacts and f o r - J i m a l actions b etw ee n the two d e p a rtm e n ts to the d iffe re n c e s in the two f o r c e s ' "ethos, " i. e . , "the o rg a n iz a tio n a l a r r a n g e m e n ts , co m m u n ity j a tta c h m e n ts , and in stitu tio n a liz e d n o rm s w hich g o v ern the daily life ! of the police o ffice r h im s e lf . . .(1 9 6 8 :2 1 )." T h ese fa c to rs , a c c o r d ing to W ilson, d e te r m in e the ethos of the p ro fe s s io n a l fo rc e and the ethos of the f r a t e r n a l fo rc e . In t e r m s of o rg a n iz a tio n a l a r r a n g e m e n ts , the p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a rtm e n t tended to be highly c e n tra liz e d , as c h a r a c te r i z e d by its r e c o r d keeping and r e p o r ts , its single h e a d q u a r te r s , c e n tra liz e d c o n tro l by the chief, and highly sp ecific r u le s w hich tended to leave little d is c re tio n in the h ands of the o ffic e rs. On the o th e r hand, the f r a te r n a l d e p a rtm e n t w as hig h ly d e c e n tra liz e d . It o p e ra te d w ith p r e cin cts, and o ffic e rs w e re allow ed a w id e r range of d is c re tio n in dealing with ju v e n ile s. C e n tra liz a tio n also influenced d e p a rtm e n ta l n o r m s . F o r e x am p le, in the p r o f e s s io n a l d e p a rtm e n t, w ith its c e n tr a l juvenile ! b u re a u and p r o fe s s io n a l juvenile o ffic e rs, a p e e r cu ltu re developed j j am ong juvenile o ffic e rs w hich in su la te d th e m f r o m p a tro lm e n and j i d e te c tiv e s who felt th a t a r r e s t i n g a juvenile w as not a "good pinch. " In the f r a te r n a l d e p a rtm e n t, the juvenile officer w o rk ed in the p r e cin cts in close a s s o c ia tio n w ith and not in su la ted f r o m o ffic e rs who ! tended to d is c r e d i t h is w o rk . With r e g a r d to co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n ts , the f r a t e r n a l fo rce o ffice rs tended to be lo cals fr o m low er o r lo w e r - m id d le - c la s s b a c k g ro u n d s. T hus, they w e re f a m ilia r not only w ith the a r e a , but the j | s t r e e t life of p o ten tial and actu al delin q u en ts. On the o th e r hand, j | o ffic e rs f r o m the p ro fe s s io n a l fo rc e tended to com e f r o m a r e a s o u t- j side of the city and had not been exposed, as youth, to the n o rm s and ; values of lo w e r - c l a s s c u ltu re . A m ong fu r th e r d iffe re n c e s in c o m - | m u n ity a tta c h m e n t w as the lack of foot p a tro lm e n in the city w ith the p r o fe s s io n a l fo rc e and th e ir p r e s e n c e in high c r im e r e s id e n tia l a r e a s of the e a s t e r n city. Thus, the f r a t e r n a l d e p a r tm e n t officer had a sp ecific, p a r tic u la r , and p e r s o n a l know ledge of the neighborhood and delinquency and the o rg a n iz a tio n of the d e p a rtm e n t tended to re in fo rc e | I and m a in ta in th e s e p a r ti c u la r is tic and p e r s o n a l re la tio n s betw een j | police and citiz e n s and am ong p o lice. The p ro fe s s io n a l d e p a rtm e n t j officer tended to have a g e n e ra liz e d and im p e r s o n a l know ledge of the c o m m u n ity and delinquency w hich p ro v id e d the b a s e s for his d e c isio n s re g a rd in g delinquent youth (W ilson, 1968a:21-26). In a c o m p a ra tiv e study of Illinois and B ritis h police, C la rk (1969:126-128) a s s e r t e d th a t am ong the fo rc e s w hich con trib u te to the iso la tio n of the police f r o m the c o m m u n ity a r e . . . p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n to the point of being g ra n te d lic e n se j to d e te rm in e the co n ten t of policing [an d ] . . . the g e n e ra l p o licy (official and unofficial) of policing o rg an iz atio n s . . . i [that o ffic e rs ought] . . . to iso la te th e m s e lv e s f r o m c e r ta in j [u n d e sira b le ] s e g m e n ts of the public. . . . 14 In d is c u s s in g the negative co n seq u en ces of police iso latio n , C lark cites G oldm an (1963) who found that the m o r e in te g ra te d the police w e re into the com m unity, the g r e a t e r the n u m b e r of " a r r e s t s " of j u veniles that o c c u rre d , but the le s s freq u en tly th e ir c a s e s r e s u lte d in j official action. C la r k 's c o m m e n ts on G o ld m a n 's findings a r e re le v a n t to the p ro b le m being a d d re s s e d : This conclusion [of G oldm an] su g g ests that the juvenile d e - j linquency ra te (as m e a s u r e d f r o m c o u rt s ta tis tic s ) m a y be j m o r e a m e a s u r e of police iso la tio n than the m is b e h a v io r of y o u n g s te rs . A pparently, the in te g ra tiv e s tr u c t u r e betw een the police and other face ts of the local c o m m u n ity p ro v id e s i avenues of in fo rm a l a d ju stm e n t am ong the offender, the of- | fended, and the p o lice. W hen such ro u te s a r e not available, th e re is little tim e (and p e rh a p s d e s ir e ) to e s ta b lis h th e m and f o rm a l channels a r e m o r e likely to be u tilized . Once official channels have been activated, official d isp o sitio n I is often im m in e n t. T h e re fo re , if red u ctio n of the official j juvenile delinquency ra te is a so c ia l goal, police iso la tio n | is dysfunctional (C lark , 1969:134). C ic o u rel (1968) also m a k e s s e v e r a l c o m m e n ts re g a rd in g c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the police and d isp o sitio n s of ju v e n ile s. He points out (1968:64-65) that the p ro fe s s io n a l o rie n ta tio n of police d e p a r t - i m e n ts " e m p h a s iz e s so cial c o n tro l and an efficient a d m in is tra tiv e o p eratio n . . . [and] does not include the allo catio n of tim e fo r a 'tr e a tm e n t- o r ie n te d ' a p p ro a c h to 'helping' youth. " C ic o u re l concluded (1968:330): O rg a n iz a tio n a l p o lic ie s and th e ir a rtic u la tio n with a ctu al c a s e s , via the back g ro u n d e x p e c ta n c ie s of o ffic e rs d iffe re n tially au th o riz e d to d e a l w ith ju v en iles, d ire c tly changed the siz e of the " la w -e n fo rc e m e n t net" fo r reco g n izin g the p r o c e s s in g juveniles view ed as delinquent, and d e te rm in e d the l size and conception of the " so c ia l p ro b le m . " j The next sectio n will involve the d ev e lo p m e n t of a co n cep tu al m o d el. It w ill take into c o n s id e ra tio n the findings and im p r e s s i o n s 15 re p o r te d in the p re c e d in g sectio n on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the police in explaining d iv e rs io n of ju v e n iles f r o m the ju stic e s y s te m . C H A P T E R II C O N C E PT S, M OD EL, AND THEORY The ra tio n a le fo r the m o d e l to be developed is th a t d iv e rsio n of ju veniles is a function of d e p a rtm e n ta l policy and s tr u c t u r e as w ell as ro le o rie n ta tio n s s te m m in g f r o m the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and c o m m unity a tta c h m e n t of its juvenile o ffic e rs . The c h a p te r w ill include the dev elo p m en t of a m o d e l in the f o r m of sev en s ta te m e n ts in p ro p o - j sitio n al fo r m . E a c h s ta te m e n t will be a c c o m p a n ie d by a d is c u s sio n j re le v a n t to the co ncepts contained the p ro p o s itio n . The M odel — C oncepts and R ationale 1. The le s s im p le m e n te d is a d m in is tra tiv e policy re g a rd in g d is p o s i tions of juveniles, the m o r e will d is p o s itio n d ecisio n s be m ade on the b a s is of the juvenile o ffic e r's d i s c r e t i o n . T h at d isp o sitio n d e c isio n s re g a rd in g ju v en iles, e . g . , to r e f e r to p ro b atio n or to co u n se l and r e le a s e , depends upon a d m in is tra tiv e policy of a p a r ti c u la r police d e p a r tm e n t is p ro b le m a tic . F o r e x a m ple, a chief o r o th e r a d m in is tra tiv e o ffice r m a y not p rovide a c le a rly sta te d policy; and in the e v en t that one e x ists and is c o m m u n ic a te d it s till m a y not be im p le m e n te d b e c a u se of the n a tu re of the b u re a u c ra tic s tr u c tu re , e.g. , d e c e n tra liz e d d e c isio n m ak in g a n d / o r in fo rm a l (as opposed to f o rm a l and w ritte n ) c o n tro ls . In such c a s e s , w h e re s p e - | cific policy guidelines a r e not available o r im p le m e n te d , the d e c isio n i I 16 i then b e c o m e s a function of the juvenile o ffic e r's d is c re tio n . A lso, it j | m a y be that the "official" policy is to allow the juvenile o ffice r to use ! j his d isc re tio n ; that is, to m a k e the d isp o sitio n d ecisio n on the b a s is j | of his own ju d g m en t in o r d e r to in c re a s e o r m a in ta in efficient use of i p e rs o n n e l and r e s o u r c e s (cf. G oldstein, I960 re g a rd in g police d i s cretio n ). | 2. D isposition d e c isio n s m a d e on the b a s is of the o ffic e rs ' d i s c r e - J tion depend on the juvenile o ffic e rs' ro le o rie n ta tio n to w ard ju v e n ile s , i It has been su g g ested that the d ecisio n s re g a rd in g dispositionj of juveniles w hich a r e m a d e on a d is c r e tio n a r y b a s is a r e a function of! | an " eth o s" (W ilson, 1968a) that p e rv a d e s the juvenile division o r group of juvenile o ffice rs of a police d e p a rtm e n t. Such an ethos is a j re fle c tio n of the collective o rien tatio n s of the juvenile o ffice rs with j r e s p e c t to th e ir occupational ro le s . W ilson's typology of " p ro fe s sio n a l" and " f r a te r n a l " d e p a r t m e n ts p ro v id es the b a s is fo r d im e n s io n s along w hich the ro le o r i e n t a tions of juvenile o ffice rs m a y lie. C onceptually, one m a y note a s im ila r ity b etw een the " p r o f e s s i o n a l" - " f r a te r n a l " distin ctio n and I (1) the G e m e in s c h a ft-G e s e llsc h a ft typology and (2) the c o s m o p o lita n - 2 lo cal typology. On the one hand, the role o rie n ta tio n s of o ffic e rs of ^The e s s e n c e of G e s e lls c h a ft re la tio n s includes ratio n ality calculation, fo rm a lity , specificity, and the a b sen ce of em o tio n and r e g a r d for o th e r p e r s o n s . In c o n tra s t to G e se llsc h a ft, G e m e in sc h a ft re la tio n sh ip s a r e view ed as ends in th e m s e lv e s r a th e r than m e a n s to en d s. G em ein sc h aft types of re la tio n s h ip s a r e " c h a r a c t e r iz e d by a high d e g re e of cohesion, co m m u n ality , and d u ra tio n in tim e ," while G e s e lls c h a ft types of re la tio n s h ip s a r e "tenuous, loose, and le s s deeply ro o ted in a lle g ia n c e s o r c o m m itm e n ts (N esbit, 1970:105-106). j 2 I In his 1947 e x p lo ra to ry study of c o m m u n ity influentials ! 18 the " p ro fe s s io n a l" d e p a rtm e n ts a r e c h a r a c te r i z e d by fo rm a lity and j I ; I : u n iv e rs a lis tic application of im p e r s o n a l r u le s , i. e . , c o sm o p o lita n o r j 1 G e se lls c h a ftlic h . On the o th e r hand, the ro le o rie n ta tio n s of the " f r a te rn a l" d e p a rtm e n ts a r e c h a r a c te r i z e d by in fo rm a lity and p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c ju d g m en ts and c o n c e rn s , i . e . , local o r G em ein sc h aftlich , Although not id en tical w ith the o rig in al m ean in g of the t e r m s j (T oennies, 1957), this p a p e r will utilize G e se llsc h a ftlic h and G em ein -j sc h a ftlic h as concepts to d is tin g u ish betw een the two role o rie n ta tio n s | j of juvenile o ffic e rs to w a rd juveniles as noted above. \ | 3. Role o rie n ta tio n s of juvenile o ffice rs a r e a function of m e m b e r - j i ship in, p a rtic ip a tio n in, o r identification with r e f e r e n c e groups re le v a n t to that role, e . g . , p r o fe s s io n a l and c o m m u n ity g r o u p s . An o rie n ta tio n underlying a ro le is not the r e s u lt of p e r s o n a l id io s y n c ra c ie s , but in s te a d is a re fle c tio n of the in dividual's a t ta c h m e n ts to s o c ia l s t r u c t u r e s . Thus; , M e rto n (1957) found that d if f e r en ce s in b a sic o rie n ta tio n s am ong lo cal and c o sm o p o lita n influentials M e rto n (1957:387-420) identified two ty p e s'o f influentials on the b a s is of th e ir o rie n ta tio n to w a rd the c o m m u n ity — local and co sm o p o litan . T h ese t e r m s w e re adopted f r o m a tr a n s la tio n of T o e n n ie s 1 concepts G e s e lls c h a ft (cosm opolitan) and G e m e in sc h a ft (local). The c o s m o politans tended to be o rie n te d to w a rd e x tra c o m m u n ity p ro b le m s and a c tiv itie s, while the lo cal influentials w e re o rie n te d to w a rd local c o m m u n ity p ro b le m s and a c tiv itie s . M o re re c e n tly , the t e r m s lo cal and c o sm o p o lita n have been u s e d m o s t often in r e s e a r c h to d e s c r ib e c o m m itm e n ts and o rien tatio n s of m e m b e r s of w o rk o rg a n iz a tio n s (G ouldner, 1957, 1958; Bennis e£ a l , 1958; G la z e r, 1963; G oldberg, B a k e r and R ubenstein, 1965). Thus, local has com e to co n cep tu alize a loyalty to the o rganization, while co sm o p o lita n r e p r e s e n t s a c o m m itm e n t, in ste a d , to o n e 's p r o fe s s io n . H ow ever, the concepts in this p a p e r a r e applied quite dif- j fe re n tly , although underlying m e an in g s (G em ein sc h aft and Gesellschaft)! m a y be s i m i l a r . w e re linked w ith a " v a rie ty of d iffe re n c e s, " e . g . , d iffere n ces in | (1) s tr u c t u r e s of so cial re la tio n s , (2) the use of statu s, and (3) c o m - j m u n icatio n s b e h a v io r. (Also, cf. G ouldner, 1957, re g a rd in g the dif- ! fe re n tia l im p a c t of la te n t o rg a n iz a tio n a l ro le s — local and c o s m o politan — on b eh a v io r in o rg a n iz a tio n s. ) A useful co n ce p t with r e s p e c t to the groups o r a g g re g a te s | w hich s e rv e as a so u rc e of n o r m s , attitudes, and values and thus | I j p ro v id e a b a s is for ro le o rien tatio n s is that of n o rm a tiv e r e f e r e n c e j I group. Such g roups, to which an individual m a y belong o r identify, j p ro v id e s ta n d a rd s for b e h a v io r and attitudes (Kelly, 1952; M erto n , j 1968:278-440; H ym an and Singer, 1968). Shibutani's sp ecificatio n of a re fe re n c e group as " . . . that group whose p e rs p e c tiv e co n stitu tes the fra m e of r e f e r e n c e of the a c to r . . . " s e e m s a p p ro p ria te in a d is c u s s io n on ro le o rie n ta tio n s . He a s s e r t s th a t " . . . through d ir e c t o r v ic a rio u s p a rtic ip a tio n in a group one co m es to p e rc e iv e the j w o rld f r o m its standpoint" (1955:563). Thus, re f e r e n c e groups m a k e j | up the " s t r u c tu r e of ex p ectatio n s im puted to so m e audience for w hom j one o rg a n iz e s his conduct" (Shibutani, 1955:566). 4. The g r e a t e r the p ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n , e . g . , m e m b e r s h ip in p r o fe s s io n a l a s s o c ia tio n s and identification with and c o m m itm e n t to p ro fe s s io n a l n o r m s , the m o r e G e se llsc h a ftlic h will be the juvenile o ffic e rs ' o rie n ta tio n to w ard ju v e n ile s . i Although the police m a y not be p ro fe s s io n a ls in a " p u re " j | s e n s e (cf. M atza,( 1964:144) who r e f e r s to police w ork as a " m a rg in a l | p ro fe s s io n ;" B ordua and R e iss (1967:289-290) who outline changes in j ! the o rg a n iz a tio n of d e p a rtm e n ts that m ilitate a g a in st the p r o f e s s io n a l- izatio n of the line o fficer; and C um m ings (1968:181-182) who r a te s police as a lo w er le v el p ro fe s s io n a l), it a p p e a r s that v a ria tio n does e x is t am ong th e m in t e r m s of the extent of th e ir p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and p r o fe s s io n a l striv in g (W ilson, 1963, 1968a, 1968b; W alsh, 1970, 1971). | j S e v e ra l w r i t e r s have noted the im p a c t of p ro fe s s io n a l groups j on its m e m b e r s (Goode, 1957; G reenw ood, 1957; Hughes, 1963; Hall, 1968; W alsh, 1970, 1971). F u r t h e r , as pointed out by W alsh ! (1970:706): j | On the b a s is of o th e r r e s e a r c h in the p ro fe s s io n s , so c io lo - { gists can a rg u e that v a ria tio n s in p ro fe s s io n a l s ta tu re and j positio n lead to v a ria tio n s in attitudes and b e h a v io r. j The m a in th e m e s of p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n have been noted by vario u s w r i t e r s ( P a r s o n s , 1954:41ff. ; Blau and Scott, 1962:60ff; Hughes, 1963). They include d e ta c h m e n t and u n v e rs a lis tic o rien tatio n s in I o n e 's w ork, an e m p h a s is on the th e o re tic a l, and changes in sta tu s, j su c h as obtaining m o r e independence, recognition, and p o w er. Thus, the police can be c o n s id e re d p ro fe s s io n a liz e d to the extent to w hich they a r e c o m m itte d to u n iv e rs a lis tic n o r m s , s p e c ia liz e d e x p e rtis e , affective n e u tra lity in re la tio n s w ith clients (such as s u sp e c ts o r n o n s u s p e c t public), ach iev ed s ta tu s, the b e s t in te r e s ts of the client, and 3 c o n tro l by c o lleag u e s (cf. B lau and Scott, 1962:60-63). Although re la tio n sh ip s within p ro fe s s io n a l g roups, i . e . , am ong m e m b e r s , m a y be G e m ein sc h aftlich , the o rie n ta tio n tow ard c lien ts w ill s till be G e s e lls c h a ftlic h . 5. The g r e a t e r the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n ts , e . g . , m e m b e r s h ip in j i lo cal a s s o c ia tio n s and o rg a n iz a tio n s, identification with local n o r m s , | and p e r s o n a l re la tio n s h ip s w ith lo cal c itiz e n s, the m o r e G e m e in - ! s ch aftlich w ill be the juvenile o f f ic e r s 1 o rie n ta tio n to w ard ju v e n ile s . ! The a s s u m p tio n h e r e is that the m o r e the officer p a rtic ip a te s in the life of the lo c al com m unity, e s p e c ia lly on a v oluntary b a s is , the m o r e his p a r ti c u la r is tic types of re la tio n sh ip s and o rien tatio n s w ill | i be re in fo rc e d . W a r r e n (1963:270) points out that the h o riz o n ta l p a t- j t e r n of a c o m m u n ity s y s t e m (that is, in te ra c tio n am ong local unit j a c to rs ) is " c h a r a c t e r iz e d by sen tim en t, in fo rm ality , lack of planning,: and diffuse, in fo rm a l, and ad hoc s tru c tu rin g of an e s s e n tia lly non- j b u r e a u c ra tic n a t u r e . " E ls e w h e re (1963:283) he notes that b eh av io r I I in the v e rtic a l p a tte rn s (along e x tra - c o m m u n ity linkages) m a y be j i c h a r a c te r i z e d in the following way: j . . . "following the ru le s , " [while] the h o riz o n ta l is c h a r a c - j te riz e d by "m aking e x c e p tio n s," by being "hum an" r a t h e r j than m e r e ly im p a rtia l, by p e r s o n a l re la tio n s h ip s r a th e r than c a te g o ric a l. T h e re is so m e evidence th a t c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p r o fe ss io n a liz a tio n a r e b ip o la r c o n s tru c ts of a un id im en sio n a l sc a le . F o r e x am p le, W a r r e n (1963:231) su g g e sts that the extent of p r o f e s sio n alizatio n of a p a r ti c u la r o rg a n iz a tio n p osition " . . . is a m e a s u r e of the d e g re e to w hich the in c u m b e n t m a y be c o n tro lled by su ch e x t r a co m m u n ity p ro fe s s io n a l re f e r e n c e g r o u p s ." K e r r and Siegel (reported, in Blau and Scott, 1962:200) found th a t union m e n w hose w o rk iso la te s th e m f r o m the n o r m a l s o c ia l life of the c o m m u n ity tend " . . . to f o r m an iso la ted m a s s w ith stro n g union so lid a rity , w h e re a s w o r k e r s ! who a r e in te g ra te d into the l a r g e r c o m m u n ity do not. " With reference; to police and occupational identity, P fiffn er (1964:15) d e s c r ib e s a ! i " se n se of iso lation fro m the co m m u n ity " by the police b e c a u s e of j j feelings of being in a d istin ctiv e and unique occupation. This in tu rn j c r e a te s "a s e n se of re je c tio n which is c o m p e n sa te d fo r by a guild | s p ir it su p p o rted by s tro n g in -g ro u p tie s . " A cco rd in g to N ie d erh o ffer j j (1967:95) the police face the th r e a t of an o m ie in th e ir w o rld . The j s o u r c e s of anom ie include the r e p la c e m e n t of the values of the old j police re g im e s with those of the p ro fe s s io n a lly -o rie n te d p o lice. j B o rd u a and R e iss (1969:201) point out th a t occupational c u ltu re , i n cluding c o m m itm e n t to f o r m a l vo lu n tary p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s, e m p h a s iz e s the dista n ce betw een police and the g e n e ra l c o m m u n ity . Skolnick (1966) noted that the e le m e n ts of d a n g e r and a u th o rity in police w ork tend to iso la te the officer not only f r o m c r im in a l types but also f r o m the conventional c itiz e n ry . Thus, o ccu p atio n al c o m m i t m e n t m a y be an tith e tic a l to c o m m u n ity in te g ra tio n and tie s , and if d iffe re n tia l occupational c o m m itm e n t am ong police r e p r e s e n t s v a r i a - ! j tion in the ex ten t of p ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n , then p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t m a y be in v e rs e ly re la te d . While the evidence c ited above s u g g e s ts that co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n m a y be the opposite ends of the s a m e continuum , th e re is also evidence to the c o n tra r y — e s p e c ia lly w ith r e s p e c t to o rien tatio n s su ch as lo c a l-c o s m o p o lita n . F o r ex am p le, i I G rim e s and B e r g e r (1970:413) concluded the following f r o m th e ir r e - ; view and c ritiq u e of the use of the lo c a l-c o s m o p o lita n c o n s tru c t: "The j e m p ir ic a l ev idence in d icate s th a t the s im p lis tic b ip o lar conceptualiza-j tion of the c o n s tru c t should not be u sed . " Thus, in c o n t r a s t to W il so n 's m odel, w hich im p lies a un id im en sio n al concept ( f r a te r n a l- p ro fe ss io n a l) to r e p r e s e n t d e p a rtm e n ta l o rien tatio n , fo r the p u rp o s e s of this r e s e a r c h , p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t can be s e e n as two d im en sio n s of o rie n ta tio n of the sa m e d e p a rtm e n t. C onsequently, in ste a d of a bipolar, un id im en sio n a l typology, th e re can be p u re and m ix ed o rien tatio n s by using the two d im en sio n s (cf. G la z e r, 1963; and G oldberg, B ak er, and R ubenstein, 1965, fo r f u r th e r d is c u s s io n of the m u ltid im e n s io n a l use of local and c o s m o p o l itan). F ig u re II. 1 illu s tr a te s this typology. P ro fe s sio nalization C om m unity A ttach m en t High Low High M ixed O rien ta tio n P u r e G e s e lls c h a ftlic h O rie n ta tio n Low P u r e G em e ins chaftlich O rien ta tio n M ixed O rie n ta tio n FIG U RE II. 1 PR O FESSIO N A LIZA TIO N DIMENSION BY COMMUNITY DIMENSION 6. The g r e a t e r the G e se llsc h a ftlic h orien tatio n , the m o r e the juvenile o ffice rs w ill send juveniles into the official ju stic e s y s t e m . The im p lic atio n of the G e s e lls c h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n is th a t the juvenile o ffice rs m a k e th e ir d isp o sitio n d e c isio n on the b a s is of g en - ! i e r a liz e d and im p e rs o n a l knowledge of delinquency and delin q u en ts. j i They have little c o n c e rn with d istinctions of p e r s o n s and a r e s u b je c t | | to few p a rtic u la riz in g in flu en ces. In th e ir a tte m p t to be im p e rs o n a l, unbiased, and c o r r e c t , they a r e m o r e likely to r e f e r youths u n ifo rm ly to juvenile co u rt, r a th e r than tr e a t th e m d iffere n tially . This o r ie n t a - j : j ! tion also is likely to r e f le c t the p ro fe s s io n a l p o lic e m e n 's attitude of j " re a lly doing police w o rk " in that they a r e doing m o r e than c r im e | p re v e n tio n and d etectio n (W alsh, 1970:707) o r s o c ia l w ork. In this s e n s e , the p ro fe s s io n a l p o lic e m a n m a y be view ed as wanting to m a k e "good" a r r e s t s and to p a s s offenders on to the o th e r com ponents of I the ju stic e s y s te m (cf. p. 14 of this text fo r quotations by C ic o u re l on \ this topic). j 7. The g r e a t e r the G e m e in sc h a ftlic h o rien tatio n , the m o r e the ju v e - j riile o ffice rs will d iv e rt juveniles f r o m the official ju stic e s y s t e m . The juvenile o ffice rs with this o rie n ta tio n use as the b a s is for th e ir d ecisio n s sp ecific and p e rs o n a l knowledge of delinquency and delinquents in the co m m u n ity . R a th e r than u n ifo rm ly or routinely applying f o r m a l ru le s , they a r e m o r e likely to t r e a t ju veniles on the b a s is of p e r s o n a l ju d g m en ts and thus be w illing to m a k e exceptions or "give the kid a b r e a k " b e c a u s e of his c i r c u m s ta n c e s . Also, b e c a u se of th e ir p e r s o n a l know ledge of the youth and the com m unity, they m a y feel that it is in the b e s t in te r e s ts of the juvenile to keep h im in the c o m m u n ity r a th e r than expose h im to the p o s sib le d e trim e n ta l in flu en ce s of juvenile h all and p ro b atio n c a m p s . F o r e x am p le, one ju v e nile o ffice r who happens to w ork in a d e p a rtm e n t w ith a high d iv e rs io n ra te in tim a te d to this w r i t e r th a t he saw juvenile w o rk s i m i l a r to the j l p a re n ta l ro le; that is, he said, j I t r e a t juveniles like I t r e a t m y own son. I try to talk w ith th e m and r e a s o n with th e m . S o m etim e s we talk things o v e r b efo re o r w ithout even going through the f o rm a l things like read in g th e m th e ir rights . H ypotheses The following p ro p o sitio n s m a y be d e riv e d f r o m the d i s c u s sion and m o d e l p r e s e n te d in this section: 1. The m o r e a d e p a r tm e n t im p le m e n ts a policy to d iv e rt, the h ig h e r will be the d iv e rs io n ra te ; and the m o r e a d e p a r tm e n t im p le m e n ts a policy not to d iv e rt, the low er w ill be the d iv e rs io n rate, 2. The le s s a d e p a rtm e n t im p le m e n ts its fo rm u la te d policy, the m o r e w ill the lev el of d iv e rs io n be a s s o c ia te d w ith the ro le o r i e n tations of the d e p a r tm e n ts ' juvenile o ffic e rs, e . g . , A. The m o r e the G em e in sc h a ftlic h o rien tatio n , the h ig h e r w ill be the d iv e rs io n rate ; B. The m o r e the G e s e lls c h a ftlic h o rien tatio n , the low er w ill be the d iv e rs io n rate ; C. The m o r e m ix e d the orien tatio n , the c l o s e r w ill be the d iv e rs io n r a te s to the a v e ra g e of all d e p a r t m e n ts , The p u rp o se of this c h a p te r w as to put fo rth a m o d e l and concepts fr o m w hich could be d e riv e d a s e r i e s of h y p o th e ses dealing w ith d e p a rtm e n ta l s tr u c t u r e and o rie n ta tio n s and d iv e rs io n r a t e s . The next c h a p te r w ill involve the o p eratio n a liz a tio n of the co n ce p ts in o r d e r to e m p ir ic a lly te s t the h y p o th e se s . CHAPTER III OPERATIONALIZATION OF CONCEPTS The r e a d e r w ill r e c a ll that the g e n e ra l concepts of G e m e in s ch aft and G e s e lls c h a ft w e re actu ally com binations of p r o f e s s io n a l ization and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t. C onsequently, the two w ill be t r e a te d s e p a ra te ly in th e ir o p e ra tio n a liz a tio n . P r o f e s sionalization In the ra tio n a le , it w as a s s u m e d that the concept of p r o f e s sio n alizatio n is som ething like an ethos w hich tends to p e rv a d e a v a rie ty of s e p a r a te , but re la te d , a s p e c ts of police w o rk . In d e v e lo p ing the m e a s u r e m e n t in s tru m e n t, the following a s p e c ts w e re s p e c if ic ally included: (1) p a rtic ip a tio n in police p ro fe s s io n a l o rg an iz atio n (eleven item s); (2) f o r m a l education and police tra in in g in juvenile m a t t e r s (four ite m s ); (3) p olice c u ltu re , such as p a rtic ip a tio n in o ccu p atio n al frie n d sh ip s and co m m u n ic a tio n s netw orks (four item s); and (4) p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n s to w a rd w o rk w ith juveniles (eleven ite m s ). W alsh (1970:720) has em ployed a s im i la r m e a n s by w hich to o p e ra tio n a liz e p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n of police: The p r o f e s s io n a lis m s c o r e w as b a se d on the following ite m s : (1) rank, (2) m e m b e r s h ip in p ro fe s s io n a l police o r g a n iz a tions, (3) re a d in g of p ro fe s s io n a l police publications, (4)the n u m b e r and freq u en cy of jo u rn a ls read , (5) "co sm o p o litan " v e r s u s "lo cal" ro le identity, (6) self-ad ju d g ed p ro fe s s io n a l s ta tu s, and (7) a c a d e m ic train in g in pblice w o rk . Code 26 i 27 j c a te g o rie s w e re n u m b e re d low to high on e a c h it e m and the p r o f e s s io n a li s m s c o r e w as obtained by adding the codes of the sev en ite m s . ! The ta s k of developing the s c a le s involved th re e d istin ct s te p s, w hich o c c u r r e d n e a rly s im u lta n e o u sly . F i r s t , the relationship! i b etw ee n ite m s belonging to the s a m e c a te g o ry w as e x a m in e d . Second,! the re la tio n s h ip s betw een c a te g o r ie s w e re e x am in ed . T h ird , on the j b a s is of the p re v io u s two s te p s a d ec isio n was m a d e as to w hich item s! should be included in the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n s c a le , and a re lia b ility c o efficien t (H oyt's v e rs io n of the K u d e r-R ic h a rd s o n te st) w as c o m puted. T h e se step s yielded a s ix - it e m s c a le . The d e ta ils of this pro-j j c e d u re follow. j j I I E x a m in a tio n of Item s W ithin Sam e C lu s te r | | 1. P a rtic ip a tio n in police p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s w as j I m e a s u r e d by ask in g the su b je c ts to lis t the police p r o fe s s io n a l o rg a n - j I iz atio n s they belonged to and a n s w e r a s e r i e s of q u estio n s c o n ce rn in g p a rtic ip a tio n in each o rg a n iz a tio n (see Q. 11 — Q. 16). The m e a n of s > the tw enty-one i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n s ( P e a r s o n ia n r) w as .79. The m e a n of the c o r r e la tio n s betw een total n u m b e r of p ro fe s s io n a l o r g a n i zation m e m b e r s h ip s and the five o th e r ite m s w as . 84. 2. T o tal n u m b e r of juvenile tra in in g p r o g r a m s attended w as not re la te d to f o r m a l education le v el (r = . 10) as ex p ec ted . T h e re w as a high c o r r e la tio n b etw ee n total n u m b e r of tra in in g p r o g r a m s and im p o rta n c e of tra in in g to juvenile w o rk (r = .73). j 3. While the ability to nam e a police jo u rn a l o r m a g a z in e j im p o r ta n t to o n e 's w ork and an e s tim a te of r e a d e r s h i p of that publication w e re r e la te d (r = .80), the m e a n of the i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e lations am ong police c u ltu re ite m s , e . g . , jo u rn a l re a d e rs h ip , so cial j frie n d s who a r e police, c o m p a r is o n of se lf w ith o th e rs re g a rd in g p a rtic ip a tio n in police o rg a n iz a tio n s, w as only .1 0 . 4. The m e a n of i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n s for the following th re e questions c o n ce rn in g a p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c o rie n ta tio n to w ard ju v e - j i nile w o rk w as .4 7 . T h e se questions a r e five point s c a le s (strongly i a g re e to s tro n g ly d is a g re e ) w ith five being given fo r the re sp o n se w hich c o rre s p o n d s to p a r t i c u l a r i s m . Q. 78 In m y w o rk I have found that, give o r take a few m i n o r d iffe re n c e s , m o s t juvenile d elinquents can be tr e a te d the s a m e . Q. 79 A lthough a kid m a y b re a k a law, it re a lly is n e c e s s a r y to u n d e rsta n d h im p e rso n a lly — his m o tiv a tio n s, fam ily life and c i r c u m s ta n c e s — b e fo re you can decide w h eth er to send h im to the p ro b atio n d e p a rtm e n t o r juvenile c o u rt o r r e le a s e h im . Q. 80 One way to e n s u re adequate police h a n d ling of kids is to t r e a t th e m a c c o rd in g to th e ir deeds r a t h e r than a c c o rd in g to w hat th e ir " p ro b le m " m ig h t be. E x a m in a tio n of R e latio n sh ip s B etw een C a te g o rie s and C o n stru c tio n of Scale In c o n s tru c tin g the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n scale , a fte r e x a m in ing the i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n s w ithin e a c h s u b - a r e a , the next step w as to m a k e som e in itia l d e c isio n s as to w hich ite m s to include in the s c a l e . B eca u se of the high i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a ti o n am ong the p r o f e s sional o rg a n iz a tio n ite m s it w as decided to allow two of the ite m s to r e p r e s e n t the w hole d im e n s io n . They w e r e : (1) to tal n u m b e r of j 1 29 i o rg a n iz a tio n s belonged to and (2) w h eth er the o ffice r held an office in i the o rg a n iz a tio n s . T h e ir re s p e c tiv e m e a n c o r r e l a ti o n s w ith the o th e r ! ; police o rg a n iz a tio n ite m s w e re .8 4 and .86. A lso th e se two ite m s | ; I w e re r e la te d in the ex p ec ted d ire c tio n (in v e rse ) w ith two of the th re e \ : i p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n ite m s . j It w as d e cid ed to exclude the ite m re la te d to juvenile training! f r o m the sc a le fo r two r e a s o n s : (1) f r o m o b s e rv a tio n s and knowledge | of juvenile tra in in g p r o g r a m s in S outhern C alifo rn ia it a p p e a re d th a t | th e ir content and o rie n ta tio n did not fit the m o d e l of the p r o f e s s io n a l- '• iz ed p o licem a n , i . e . , u n iv e rs a lis tic , im p e rs o n a l, and in te r e s te d p r i m a r i ly in m ak in g a "good a r r e s t " (a b e tte r m e a s u r e m ig h t have b een j all the police tra in in g r a t h e r than that lim ite d to juvenile m a tte r s ) ; j and (2) the tra in in g ite m w as in v e rs e ly re la te d to the n u m b e r of police o rg a n iz a tio n s and d ire c tly a s s o c ia te d w ith the p a r ti c u la r is tic o r i e n t a tion i t e m s . Thus, it a p p e a rs that train in g in juvenile m a t t e r s is a s e p a ra te d im e n sio n and not re la te d to p ro fe s s io n a l group c o m m itm e n t i and u n iv e rs a lis tic (the in v e rs e of p a r tic u la r is tic ) o rie n ta tio n s to w ard the tr e a t m e n t and handling of ju v e n iles. Two ite m s w e r e s e le c te d to r e p r e s e n t w hat had o rig in ally been c a te g o riz e d as police c u ltu re: (1) the ability to n am e a police jo u rn a l o r m a g a z in e w hich the officer r e a d and c o n s id e re d im p o rta n t, land (2) an e s tim a te of the n u m b e r of frie n d s who w e re p o lic e m e n . Although the two a r e not r e la te d to ea c h o th e r (r = .09), they have I i p o sitiv e a s s o c ia tio n s with total n u m b e r of o rg a n iz a tio n s (r = .15 w ith j jo u rn a ls and r = . 33 w ith n u m b e r of police frie n d s ). Two of the th r e e p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n ite m s w e re ' s e le c te d b e c a u se they w e re in v e rs e ly c o r r e l a te d w ith the above i t e m s . (Also, as pointed out above they w e re d ire c tly c o r r e l a te d with t r a i n ing in juvenile m a t t e r s w hich w as, in tu rn , c o r r e l a te d in v e rs e ly w ith j p ro fe s s io n a l group c o m m itm e n t. ) Thus, the following ite m s w e re included in the p r o f e s s io n a l izatio n scale : 1. The m e a n n u m b e r of police p ro fe s s io n a l o rg an iz atio n s toj w hich the juvenile o fficers in a d e p a rtm e n t belong. * 2. The m e a n n u m b e r of offices held in p ro fe s s io n a l o r g a n i zations du rin g the la s t five y e a rs by the juvenile o ffice rs in a d e p a r t m e n t. 3. The m e a n n u m b e r of jo u rn a ls o r m a g a z in e s re la te d to w o rk w ith ju v en iles and felt to be im p o rta n t liste d by juvenile o ffic e rs in a d e p a rtm e n t. 4. The m e a n s c o re of an e s tim a te of the p ro p o rtio n of th e ir I so cial frie n d s who a r e also police o ffice rs by juvenile officers in a I d e p a rtm e n t. | 5. The m e a n s c o r e of juvenile o ffic e rs in a d e p a rtm e n t on the following p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n ite m (with five being given fo r stro n g ly a g re e and one given for stro n g ly d is a g re e ): "Although a kid m a y b r e a k a law, it re a lly is n e c e s s a r y to u n d e rs ta n d h im p e r - i sonally — his m o tiv a tio n s, fam ily life, and c i rc u m s ta n c e s — before you can decide w h e th e r to send h im to the p ro b atio n d e p a rtm e n t o r juvenile c o u rt o r r e l e a s e h im . " See page 53 ( " P r e p a r a ti o n of D ata") fo r d is c u s s io n on use of d e p a rtm e n ta l m e a n s . 6. The m e a n s c o re of juvenile o ffic e rs in a d e p a r tm e n t on the following p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n i t e m (with one being given fo r j stro n g ly a g re e and five given fo r stro n g ly d is a g re e ): "One way to e n s u r e adequate police handling of kids is to t r e a t th e m a c c o rd in g to th e ir d eed s r a th e r than acc o rd in g to w hat th e ir 'p ro b le m ' m ig h t b e. " Table III. 1 contains the i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n s ( P e a r s o n ia n ! i r) for the raw s c o r e s of the above sc a le it e m s . As the r e a d e r w ill j ' I | note, the re la tio n s h ip s a r e all in the c o r r e c t d ire c tio n in t e r m s of | [ being c o n siste n t, but g e n e ra lly a r e not s tro n g . The m e a n of the fif- j te e n c o r r e la tio n coefficients is . 24. The Hoyt v e r s io n of the K u d e r - j i R ic h a rd s o n re lia b ility coefficient (a m e a s u r e of in te rn a l co n siste n c y ) j I w as . 53 (and w as obtained a fte r s e v e r a l a tte m p ts a t com bining, a d d - ; | ing, su b tra c tin g the above and o th e r ite m s re la te d to the co n ce p t of p ro fe ss io n a liz a tio n ). In spite of th e se a p p a re n t s h o rtc o m in g s , the ra tio n a le on w hich the sc a le c o n s tru c tio n is b a s e d and the g e n e r a l j i (though w eak) c o n siste n c y of the ite m s m a k e s the s c a le a p p ro p ria te fo r this initial in v estig atio n . P r o c e d u r e fo r C om putation of P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n Score E a c h of the v a ria b le s w as d ichotom ized, using the m e d ia n as the cutting point and s u m m e d into a six point s c a le . T his, in tu rn ,w a s d ic h o to m ized into high and low, using the m e d ia n a s the cutting point. F ifte e n d e p a rtm e n ts , w ith s c o r e s f r o m fo u r to six, w e re c la s s ifie d as high in p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and tw en ty -e ig h t d e p a r tm e n ts , w ith s c o r e s f r o m z e ro to th re e , w e re c la s s ifie d as low in p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . i (The o th e r p o ssib le cutting point would have r e s u lte d in tw enty-six 32 T A B L E III. 1 IN T E R -IT E M CO RRELA TIO N S* FOR PR O FESSIO N A LIZA TIO N SCA LE 1 2 3 4 5 i. N o . P o lic e O rgs . 2. No. Office H olders .96 3. P o lic e J o u rn a ls . 16 . 19 4. P o lic e F rie n d s . 33 . 28 .09 5. P a r t i c u l a r i s t i c #1 - .2 5 -. 19 - .0 7 -. 18 6 . P a r t i c u l a r i s t i c #2 12 - .0 7 -. 10 -. 14 - .5 3 N = 45 * P e a r s o n ia n r. highs and sev en te en lo w s .) C o m m unity A tta ch m en t The co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t scale was c o n s tru c te d in e s s e n tia lly the s a m e m a n n e r as the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n s c a le . The five g e n e ra l c a te g o rie s o r a s p e c ts of c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t w e re the following: (1) p a rtic ip a tio n in c o m m u n ity o rg an iz atio n s (eleven item s); (2) p a r ticipation in m a jo r co m m u n ity events and activ ities (five item s); (3) r e s id e n c e in the c o m m u n ity (six item s); (4) knowledge of the local c o m m u n ity (six item s); and (5) local o rie n ta tio n s to w ard the city in w hich the d e p a rtm e n t is located (eleven ite m s). B ollens and S ch m an d t (1965:216) have s u g g e ste d th a t id e n tific a tion w ith and c o m m itm e n t to a com m unity, though difficult to m e a s u re , m a y be m a in fe s te d in n u m e ro u s w ays — actu al p a rticip a tio n , m o n e ta r y in v e stm en ts in the a r e a , long t e r m re s id e n c y , s u p p o rt of o r m e m b e r s h ip in local o rg a n iz a tio n s and institutions, e x p re s s io n s of p rid e in the a re a , in v o lv em en t in neighborhood a c tiv itie s, o r sim p ly voting. M e a s u r e s of so m e of th e se p o s sib le c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t, su ch as voting o r length of re s id e n c e , a r e re la tiv e ly sim p le to obtain, while o th e rs a r e m o r e difficult. E a c h of th e m s e p a ra te ly p ro v id e s a d iffe re n t p e r s p e c tiv e on in v o lv em en t in and identification with the lo c al c o m m u n ity , while com bined they r e p r e s e n t an o v e r - a l l m e a s u r e of c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t. (F o r f u r th e r d is c u s s io n re g a rd in g co ncepts such as co m m u n ity a ttach m en t, co m m u n ity involvem ent, and c o m m u n ity in te g ra tio n and ex am p le of sp ecific m e a s u r e m e n t s of th e se co n cep ts, cf. S m ith and T u rk (1966a, 1966b); Jan o w itz (1967); and M ille r (1970:272-288, 289-302). E x am in atio n of Item s W ithin Sam e C lu s te r I j 1. The total n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s belonged j to w as highly re la te d to the ite m s c o n ce rn in g the n a tu re and d e g re e | of p a rtic ip a tio n in the o rg a n iz a tio n s . The m e a n of the tw enty-one | i n t e r - i t e m c o rre la tio n s w as . 83 and the m e a n of the c o rre la tio n s of \ J to tal n u m b e r of o rg an iz atio n s to the five o th e r ite m s was .88. Con- | I sequently, to tal n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s w as s e le c te d to i r e p r e s e n t that s e t of it e m s . j 2. P a rtic ip a tio n in local events had a m o d e ra te c o r r e la tio n j (r = .42) w ith p a rtic ip a tio n being vo lu n tary . The m e a n of the c o r r e l a tions betw een w h eth er one lived in the lo cal city and (1) length of r e s idence, (2) h o m e o w n ersh ip , and (3) voting in the la s t m u n ic ip a l electio n w as .99. The m e a n of the six i n t e r - i t e m c o rre la tio n s was .98. 3. The knowledge of the lo cal c o m m u n ity included ite m s such as nam e of local n e w s p a p e r and an e s tim a te of the fre q u e n c y of r e a d e rs h ip , knowledge of c o m m u n ity r e f e r r a l r e s o u r c e s , a c q u a in t ance w ith local youth p r io r to official contact, and an e s tim a te of the p ro p o rtio n of s o c ia l frie n d s who w e re lo cal c o m m u n ity people. The ite m s c o n ce rn in g the local n e w s p a p e r w e re not useful in that th e re w as no v a ria n c e am ong d e p a rtm e n ts and th e se ite m s w e re th e re fo re dro p p ed . Knowledge of c o m m u n ity r e f e r r a l r e s o u r c e s and e s tim a te of the fre q u e n c y of the use of such r e s o u r c e s w e re highly c o r r e l a te d (r = . 78). A cquaintance w ith lo cal youth p r i o r to official c o n tact was in v e rs e ly or not re la te d to the o th e r item s in this s e t and, th e re fo re , w as excluded. The ite m e stim a tin g frien d s who a r e lo c als w as r e lated to knowledge of co m m u n ity r e f e r r a l r e s o u r c e s (r = .37) and use of r e s o u r c e s (r = . 38) and not re la te d to acquaintance w ith lo cal youth ' ( = .09). C onsequently, it w as reta in e d since it w as c o n s is te n t with the o th e r two highly re la te d ite m s . j I 4. T h e re w e re th re e ite m s co n ce rn in g local o rie n ta tio n | w hich had fa irly stro n g positive i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n s and the m e a n of th e se th re e w as . 54. T hese ite m s w e re the following: Q. 68 The s u c c e s s of a p o lic e m a n does not d e pend on how m u c h a p a r t of the c o m m u n ity he feels h im se lf to be. Q. 70 To w o rk effectively with juvenile p ro b le m s in this city it is b e s t not to get too involved in the life of the com m unity. Q. 75 M e m b e r s h ip in local o rg an iz atio n s and groups re a lly has no u sefu ln ess to m y w ork. E x am in atio n of R elationships B etw een C a te g o rie s and C o n stru ctio n of Scales A fter selectin g item s to r e p r e s e n t the p a r ti c u la r a s p e c ts of co m m u n ity attach m en t, the next step w as to e x am in e the i n t e r - c o r r e la tio n of th e se ite m s . Two p ro b le m s o c c u r r e d . The r e la tio n ship betw een the to tal n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity events and the o th e r ite m s tended to be low except in the c a s e of total n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s. It w as decid ed to re ta in the ite m b e c a u se of its face validity; that is , it s e e m e d that p a rtic ip a tio n in local events and activ ities that tend not to be re q u ir e d in d icates a local c o m m itm e n t. j | The seco n d p ro b le m involved the local o rie n ta tio n ite m s . They tended 36 to be d ire c tly re la te d to the ite m s r e p re s e n tin g the other a s p e c ts of c o m m u n ity a ttach m en t, in s te a d of an expected in v e rs e re la tio n s h ip (because of th e ir negative p h ra sin g ). Consequently, they w e re e x cluded and an o th e r it e m w hich was a s s o c ia te d in ex p ected d ire c tio n w as included. It is it e m n u m b e r six on the lis t below. A fter m a k in g the above d ecisio n s, the following ite m s w ere included in the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t scale: 1. The m e a n n u m b e r of co m m u n ity o rg an iz atio n s to w hich the juvenile o ffice rs in a d e p a r tm e n t belong. 2. The m e a n n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity events in w hich the juve nile o ffice rs in a d e p a r tm e n t p a rtic ip a te . 3. The m e a n re s id e n c e s c o r e of the juvenile o ffice rs in a d e p a rtm e nt. 4. The m e a n n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity r e f e r r a l r e s o u r c e s n am ed by the juvenile o ffice rs in a d e p a rtm e n t. 5. The m e a n s c o r e of an e s tim a te of the p ro p o rtio n of th e ir s o c ia l frie n d s who a r e local people by the juvenile officers in a d e - ■ p a rtm e n t. 6. The m e a n s c o r e of juvenile o ffice rs in a d e p a rtm e n t on the following lo cal o rie n ta tio n ite m (with five being given fo r stro n g ly a g re e and one given fo r stro n g ly d is a g re e ): " F o r a p o licem a n who d eals with youth, it re a lly is a good idea to live in the city w h ere he w o r k s ." Table III. 2 p ro v id e s the r e a d e r w ith the i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a tions (P e a rs o n ia n r) of the raw s c o r e s of the above item s se le c te d for the s c a le . The Hoyt v e rs io n of the K u d e r-R ic h a rd s o n re lia b ility 37 T A B L E III. 2 IN T E R -IT E M CORRELATIONS* FO R COMMUNITY A TTA C H M E N T SCA LE 1 2 3 4 5 1. No. C om m unity O rg s . 2. No. C om m unity E vents . 46 3. R e sid e n c e in City . 00 -. 08 4. No. C om m unity R e s o u rc e s .42 .21 . 12 5. L o ca l F rie n d s .45 . 03 . 37 . 37 6. L o c a l O rien ta tio n . 37 . 10 . 56 . 22 .34 N = 45 * P e a r s o n ia n r. 38 coefficient w as . 65. I P r o c e d u r e for C om putation of C om m unity A tta ch m en t Score The s a m e op eratio n s w e re p e r f o r m e d on the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t ite m s as w e re done on the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n it e m s . V a ria b le s w ere d ich o to m ized a t the m e d ia n and su m m e d into a six i point sc a le w hich w as d ic hotom ized into high and low c o m m u n ity j a tta c h m e n t. T w enty-one d e p a rtm e n ts had s c o re s of four to six and j w e re c la s s ifie d as high in c o m m u n ity attach m en t, while tw enty-tw o ! I d e p a rtm e n ts had s c o r e s of z e ro to th re e and w e re c la s s ifie d as low in c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t. I R elatio n sh ip B etw een C om m unity A tta ch m en t and P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n It was a s s e r t e d e a r l i e r that co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p r o fe ss io n a liz a tio n w e re c o n s id e re d to be s e p a ra te d im e n sio n s of a d e p a r tm e n t's juvenile b u re a u or detail, and that the co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te m u s t be a function of th e ir com bined effect. T h e re fo re , if they a r e s e p a ra te a s p e c ts of a d e p a rtm e n t they should not be s ta tis tic a lly r e la te d o r a s s o c ia te d w ith ea c h o th e r. Two te s ts of this a s s o c ia tio n w e re m a d e : (1) a Pfearsonian c o r r e la tio n b etw een the two six point s c a le s, and (2) a c r o s s tabulation of the d ic h o to m ized o rie n ta tio n s c a le s . With r e s p e c t to the f i r s t test, the c o r r e la tio n coefficient w as . 01 (N = 43, p < .47). F ifte e n out of tw en ty -e ig h t in the high p r o f e s - t sio n alizatio n c a te g o ry w e re also in the high c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t j c a te g o ry and eight of the fifteen in the low p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n c a t e - ! gory w e re also in the low c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t c a te g o ry . A s s e s s in g 39 the d e g re e of a s s o c ia tio n on the b a s is of S o m e r s ' D (s y m m e tric )* y ielded a value of . 07 ^ = . 0 1 , df = 1, p < . 46 (one tail) j. The co n clu sio n th a t th e se re s u lts yields is that co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n a r e independent or s e p a ra te d im e n - i sions of a juvenile b u re a u . This is in c o n tra s t to W ilso n 's typology w hich su g g ested that the " p ro fe s s io n a l" d e p a rtm e n t tended to be low in! c o m m u n ity in te g ra tio n and highly p ro fe ss io n a liz e d , while the " f r a t e r n al" d e p a rtm e n t w as high in c o m m u n ity in te g ra tio n and low in p r o f e s sio n alizatio n . T h ese d ata c o n firm an e a r l i e r s u sp icio n that such a typology is o v erly s im p lis tic . V alidity of P ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n and C o m m unity A tta ch m en t As a m e a n s of checking the validity of the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n 2 and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t s c a le s , nine of the p a r ti c u la r is tic ite m s 3 and ten of the local o rie n ta tio n ite m s in the q u e stio n n a ire w e re u ti l ized . A g re e m e n t w ith the local ite m s was in te r p r e te d as indicating a positive o rie n ta tio n to w a rd the specific co m m u n ity in w hich the r e spondent w orks as w ell as having g e n e ra liz e d feelings that local inv o lv em en t en h an ces juvenile w ork. S y m m e tric D ( h e re a fte r shown as D) is b a s e d on S o m e r s ' d)yX and dxy m e a s u r e s of a s s o c ia tio n and is s im i la r to K en d all's Tau B in th a t the d e n o m in a to r includes tie s on both the independent and dependent v a ria b le . (See d is c u s s io n on s ta tis tic s in C h ap ter IV .) 2 Q uestions 77, 78, 81-87 in Juvenile O fficer Q u estionnaire (cf. Appendix I). 3 Q uestions 67-76 in Juvenile O fficer Q u estio n n aire (cf. A p pendix I). i 40 j The c o r r e la tio n coefficient (r) betw een the six point c o m m u n - ! i I ity a tta c h m e n t s c a le and the ten point local o rie n ta tio n sc a le w as .4 4 . ! ; U sing the s a m e s c a le s, but d ichotom ized, S y m m e tric D was .31. i T h ese coefficients give m o d e ra te su p p o rt to the validity of the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t s c a le . j ■ i I A g re e m e n t with the p a r ti c u la r is tic ite m s was in te r p r e te d as j i an o rie n ta tio n to w ard p e rso n a liz in g police w o rk w ith ju v e n ile s. The re la tio n s h ip betw een p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta - j i tion w as ex p ected to be negative; h o w ev er, the c o r r e la tio n coefficient! i shows no re la tio n s h ip (r = -.0 1 ) betw een the six and nine point s c a le s ! and a v e ry s lig h t in v e rs e a s s o c ia tio n betw een the d ic h o to m ized s c a le s (S y m m e tric D = -. 10). C onsequently, in te r m s of the use of the nine p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n ite m s u sed in the q u e s tio n n a ire the validity of the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to r is p ro b le m a tic . D iv e rsio n f r o m the Juvenile J u s tic e S y s te m This co n cep t w as o p e ra tio n a liz e d by use of the 1969 co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s of the d e p a rtm e n ts u n d er study. T h ese w e re c o l le cted f r o m ea c h d e p a r tm e n t as p a r t of the in itia l s u rv e y of police d e p a rtm e n ts c a r r i e d out by K lein (n .d . ). The in fo rm a tio n involved in com puting the ra te is contained in a v a rie ty of d e p a r tm e n ta l s ta tis tic s and r e p o r ts to the F . B . I . and the C alifo rn ia B u re a u of C rim in a l S ta tis tic s . The ra te is co m p u ted by dividing the to tal n u m b e r of ju v e niles " a r r e s t e d " (in C alifo rn ia, juveniles a r e not a r r e s t e d , but detained) into the total n u m b e r of juveniles c o u n sele d and r e le a s e d j | (technically r e f e r r e d to as "H andled within the D e p a rtm e n t" ). | The validity of such a ra te , as w ith m o s t police r e c o r d s is p ro b le m a tic , cf. C ic o u re l (1968), B lack and R e iss (1970) r e g a rd in g ! police re c o rd in g . The m a jo r is s u e s and p ro b le m s with such a ra te j I a r e the following: 1. Do all d e p a rtm e n ts have the sa m e o p e ra tio n a l definition j of the t e r m a r r e s t ? Some d e p a rtm e n ts m a y c o n s id e r a juvenile a r - j r e s te d fo r re p o rtin g p u rp o se s if he is detained, o th e rs m a y c o n s id e r h im a r r e s t e d only if he is fo rm a lly c h a rg e d and booked. The i m p li cation for the co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te is that if a d e p a rtm e n t has a " lib e ra l" a r r e s t definition (that is, it a r r e s t s juveniles for m in o r o ffenses, but d o e s n 't book them), then it m a y have a h ig h e r counsel and r e le a s e r a te . On the o th e r hand, d e p a rtm e n ts with s trin g e n t a r r e s t definitions — a r r e s t i n g only s u sp e c ts of m a jo r c r im e s and r e p e a te rs — m a y show a low co u n sel and r e le a s e rate b eca u se they handle only c a s e s w hich a r e likely to be r e f e r r e d to juvenile c o u rt. 2. It is p o s sib le that so m e d e p a rtm e n ts m a y e n te r into th e ir annual r e p o r t not only ju v e n iles a r r e s t e d (re g a rd le s s of o p e ra tio n a l definition), but also m a y include juveniles who have been in te rro g a te d in the field and r e le a s e d . At the tim e of data collection fo r this study it w as not known how in ju rio u s th e se p o s sib le d iffe re n tia l p ra c tic e s m ight be to the v alidity of the co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . H ow ever, a t the tim e of this w riting, a pilot study of re c o rd in g p r a c tic e s of eighteen d e p a rtm e n ts j (the nine h ig h e s t and the nine low est counsel and r e le a s e ra te d e p a r t - j j m e n ts ) shows th a t th irte e n out of the eighteen have s im ila r definitions of juvenile a r r e s t s fo r re c o rd in g p u rp o s e s . In th e se in sta n c e s, those ! 42 ju v e n iles r e c o r d e d as co u n se le d and r e le a s e d would be youth b ro u g h t into the station, but for w hom a petition to juvenile c o u rt w as not r e - i q u ested . Thus, on the b a s is of this initial ex am in atio n , th e re appearsj ! to be m o d e ra te c o n s is te n c y in re p o rtin g p r a c t i c e s . j With r e s p e c t to the re lia b ility of the co u n sel and r e le a s e i r a te s o v er tim e , th e re a r e enco u rag in g s ig n s . A P e a r s o n ia n c o r r e - j lation coefficient betw een the 1969 and 1970 co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s j i show ed an e x tre m e ly high a s s o c ia tio n (r = .97). i The m e a n 1969 counsel and r e le a s e ra te fo r the f o r ty - th r e e j d e p a rtm e n ts c o n s id e re d in the an a ly sis if 56. 2 and the m e d ia n is 56.8. The ran g e is f r o m nineteen p e r c e n t to eighty-tw o p e rc e n t. F o r p u rp o s e s of a n a ly sis the d is trib u tio n of r a te s was dich o to m ized and tric h o to m iz e d . U sing the m e d ia n as the cutting point for the d ic h o t om y, th e re a r e tw enty-one low co u n se l and r e le a s e d e p a rtm e n ts and tw enty-tw o d e p a rtm e n ts in the high c a te g o ry . As fo r the trich o to m y , the low co u n sel and r e l e a s e c a te g o ry includes elev en d e p a rtm e n ts w hose r a te s ran g e f r o m nineteen to fo rty -e ig h t p e rc e n t; the m e d iu m c a te g o ry includes eig h teen d e p a rtm e n ts w hose r a te s ran g e f r o m fifty to six ty -o n e p e rc e n t; and the high c a te g o ry includes fo u rte e n d e p a r t m e n ts whose r a te s ran g e f r o m six ty -fiv e to eighty-tw o p e rc e n t. D e p a rtm e n ta l P o lic y A ccording to the ratio n ale , the co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te m a y be a re fle c tio n of a c o n sc io u sly invoked and im p le m e n te d d e p a r t m e n ta l policy. In o r d e r to obtain in fo rm a tio n co n c e rn in g the d is p o sition policy of ea c h d e p a rtm e n t, the chief of ea c h d e p a rtm e n t was 43 ask ed in an in terv iew the following question: We a r e in te r e s te d in talking w ith you about juvenile m a t t e r s , su ch as d is p o s itio n s. It can be said th a t th e re a r e g e n e ra lly j th re e a lte rn a tiv e p o licies re g a rd in g the d isp o sitio n of a ju - j venile. They a r e to co u n se l and r e l e a s e the juvenile, to r e f e r the juvenile to the p ro b atio n d e p a r tm e n t o r the c o u rt, o r to m a k e the d ec isio n on the b a s is of the individual c a s e [ r a th e r than a defined r e le a s e o r p etition policy] . Which of th e se p o licies does y o u r d e p a r tm e n t tend to fa v o r? O r, is j th e re no s p e cifically s ta te d policy? A fter the f i r s t few in te rv ie w s it was a p p a re n t that the chiefs would not! publicly c o m m it th e m s e lv e s to one o r the o th e r d isp o sitio n p o licies and would in s te a d opt for the individual d e c isio n . C onsequently, ea c h | in te rv ie w e r w as a sk ed to rate his im p r e s s i o n of the d e p a rtm e n ta l policy b a s e d on the total in terv iew w ith the chief. The in te rv ie w e rs w e re given the following policy options by w hich to check th e ir im p r e s s i o n s : e x p licit policy to co u n sel and r e le a s e ________ im p lic it policy to co u n sel and r e le a s e ________ d ec isio n actu ally m ade on individual conditions ________ im p lic it policy to r e f e r to pro b atio n ex p licit policy to r e f e r to p ro b atio n The re s u lts w e re the following: fo u r ex p lic it counsel and r e le a se ; tw e n ty -th re e im p lic it co u n sel and r e le a s e ; six te en individual conditions; th re e im p lic it probation; and one e x p licit pro b atio n . This sc a le w as d ic h o to m ized using the b r e a k b etw een im p lic it counsel and i j r e le a s e p o licy and d ecisio n m a d e on individual conditions as the c u t- j i ting point. Thus, ea c h d e p a r tm e n t could be c la s s ifie d a c c o rd in g to a r e la tiv e ly high o r low c o u n se l and r e l e a s e policy fo r ju v e n ile s. B ased on the m e th o d ju s t d e s c rib e d , tw e n ty -s e v e n d e p a rtm e n ts w ere c a te g o riz e d as having a high co u n sel and r e le a s e policy and six te en d e p a rtm e n ts w e re c a te g o riz e d as having a low co u n sel and r e le a s e policy. B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol j It is a s s u m e d th a t a policy w ill have g r e a t e s t effect on actual | p r a c tic e (and r a te s ) only if the policy is im p le m e n te d . C onsequently, ; I ; I it was n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e the d e g re e of c o n tro l that the d e p a r t- j i 1 m e n ta l a d m in is tr a t o r s e x e r c is e o v er the d isp o sitio n d ecisio n s m a d e j | I by the juvenile o ffic e r. F o r this p u rp o s e , in fo rm a tio n w as obtained I j f r o m the juvenile o ffice rs by asking the following question: ! W hat kinds of p ro c e d u re s a r e u se d to im p le m e n t the policy; that is, m u s t the d isp o sitio n d e c isio n be approved, review ed, o r ev a lu a te d by a s u p e r v is o r ? E xplain. The w ritte n a n s w e rs to this question w e re grouped by d e p a r t m e n ts and all a n s w e rs of a d e p a rtm e n t p laced on a s e p a ra te c a rd . (The I d e p a rtm e n t could not be id e n tifie d .) Two judges, one of th e m being i | this w r ite r , ra te d e a c h d e p a rtm e n t as to w h eth er the r e s p o n s e s indi- | | c ated a high or low d e g re e of b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l o v er the d isposition d ecisio n s of the juvenile o ffice r. The judges a g re e d on fo rty -tw o out of f o r ty - th r e e c a s e s , and a th ird judge m a d e the d e c isio n on the single c a s e of d is a g r e e m e n t. U tilizing this m ethod, nineteen d e p a rtm e n ts w e re c la s s ifie d as high in b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l and tw en ty -fo u r d e p a rtm e n ts w e re c la s s ifie d as low in b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. An ex am p le of a d e p a r tm e n t judged as having high b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l is the following s e t of a n s w e r s to the above question: 1. "D ecisio n a p p ro v ed p r io r to d ecisio n [a c tio n ]. " i 2. "New o ffice r — need to a sk . " 3. "All d isp o sitio n s rev ie w e d by L t. " 4. "A pproved by s u p e r v is o r . " A n sw e rs su ch as "T otal d is c re tio n " o r " O c casio n al re v ie w " a re e x a m p le s of d e p a rtm e n ts judged to be low er in b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l. O p e ra tio n a l H ypotheses B ased on the above o p era tio n a liz a tio n s of m a jo r co n cep ts, j the h y p otheses to be te s te d a r e the following: j 1. If b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is high, then d e p a rtm e n ta l policy is d ire c tly re la te d to co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te ; th a t is, u n d er high ! b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, the h ig h e r the co unsel and r e le a s e policy, the h ig h e r w ill be the co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te and, c o n v e rse ly , the low er the co u n sel and r e le a s e policy, the low er w ill be the co u n sel and r e le a se r a te . 2. If b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l is low, then co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te w ill depend on p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t lev els of the d e p a rtm e n t; that is, A. If b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l is low and if co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is high and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is low, then co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te w ill be h ig h e r than any o th e r com bination of the two v a ria b le s . B. If b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is low and if c o m m u n ity a t ta c h m e n t is low and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is high, then co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te w ill be low er than any j ! o th e r co m b in atio n of the two v a r ia b le s . | 46 C. If b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is low and (1) if co m m unity a tta c h m e n t is high and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is high o r (2) if c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is low and p r o f e s sio n alizatio n is low, then co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te w ill be lo w er than condition A and h ig h e r than condition B. F ig u re III. 1 contains a r e p r e s e n ta tio n of all of the h y p o th e se s in te r m s of all the p o ssib le com binations of the v a ria b le s and th e ir re s p e c tiv e p re d ic te d co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s . T his c h a p te r d e s c r ib e d the p ro c e d u re s involved in the o p e r a tio n alizatio n of the m a j o r concepts and p r e s e n te d the o p eratio n al h y p o th e ses to be te ste d . The next c h a p te r will be devoted to a d i s c u s s io n of the r e s e a r c h m e th o d s utilized in the study. D e p a rtm e n ta l O rientations P re d ic te d D e p a rtm e n ta l B u re a u c ra tic H ypothesis C*. n n t i c o l anr? Policy- C ontrol P r o f e s s i o n a l Com m unity wU vlllD C 1 dllLL R e le a se ra te N u m b er ization A ttach m en t High High H ighest 1 High High Low H ighest 1 Low High H ighest 1 High Low Low H ig h est 1 Counsel and R e le a se High High M iddle 2-C( 1) Low High Low L ow est 2-B Low High H ighest 2-A Low Low Middle 2-C(2) High High L ow est 1 High High Low L o w est 1 Low High L ow est 1 Low Low Low L o w est 1 C ounsel and R e le a se High High Middle 2-C(l) Low High Low L o w est 2-B Low High H ighest 2-A Low Low M iddle 2-C(2) FIG U R E III. i R E P R E S E N T A T IO N O F HYPOTHESES CHAPTER IV M ETH O D O LO G ICA L FRA M EW ORK This c h a p te r d e s c r ib e s the r e s e a r c h m eth o d s em p lo y ed in the study, e . g . , se lec tio n of sa m p le , co llectio n of data, in s tru m e n ts utilized, p re p a r a tio n of data, and s ta tis tic a l techniques. i S election of Sam ple l j In the definition of the p r o b le m it w as stated that a v a ria tio n w as found in d iv e rs io n r a te s am ong s e v e n ty -e ig h t police d e p a rtm e n ts and ju risd ic tio n s within Los A ngeles County. In o r d e r to rule out e x tra n e o u s s o u r c e s of v aria tio n , such as the a p p a re n t d iffere n ces in d e p a rtm e n ta l size, o rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c tu re , and policies that e x ist b etw een the fo r ty - s e v e n independent d e p a rtm e n ts , on the one hand, and the Los A ngeles P olice D e p a rtm e n t and the Los A ngeles County S h eriff's D e p a rtm e n t, on the other, and for c o n s id e ra tio n s of tim e , it w as decided to r e s t r i c t the study to the group of fo rty -s e v e n . Since c o u n se l and r e le a s e ra te data was not available for two d e p a rtm e n ts and two o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts did not have a s e p a ra te juvenile o p eratio n o r juvenile o ffice rs, the actu al size of the sa m p le was red u ce d to f o r ty - th r e e . In m a n y r e s p e c t s , b e c a u se the sa m p le w as not s e le c te d ra n d o m ly and b e c a u se it w as not s e le c te d f r o m a w id er population, this group of d e p a rtm e n ts can be view ed as a population. City p o p u lation, n u m b e r of sw o rn p e rs o n n e l, and annual am o u n t of ex p e n d itu re s 48 49 for police s e r v ic e s fo r each d e p a rtm e n t m a y be found in Appendix III. I I i i C ollection of D ata As the m o d e l and ra tio n a le c o n c e rn e d police d e p a rtm e n t i | p olicies as w ell as juvenile o ffic e rs' o rie n ta tio n s, it was decided to j I obtain in fo rm atio n f r o m the chief of each d e p a rtm e n t as w ell as its i juvenile o ffic e rs. The chiefs w e re in te rv ie w e d by m e m b e r s of a j i r e s e a r c h staff, while the juvenile o ffice rs filled out a q u e s tio n n a ire , j In o r d e r to e n lis t and en co u ra g e p a rtic ip a tio n in the study by the police d e p a r tm e n ts ' p e rso n n e l, a stra te g y , which included the following step s, w as d evised: 1. The d ir e c to r of the reg io n a l office of the state council on c r im in a l ju stice w ro te each chief, b riefly d e s c rib in g the r e s e a r c h p r o je c t and asking fo r full c o o p era tio n by the d e p a rtm e n t. S p ecific ally, he a s k e d the chief to be available for an in te rv ie w and that he m a k e his juvenile o ffice rs available for fo rty -fiv e m in u tes on one of two d esig n ated afte rn o o n s in o r d e r to co m p lete the q u e stio n n a ire . 2. The ch ief's in terv iew p re c e d e d the co n tact w ith the ju v e nile o ffic e rs. The ra tio n a le h e re w as th a t if r a p p o rt could be e s t a b lish ed and p o te n tial s u s p ic io u s n e s s of u n iv e rs ity r e s e a r c h e r s allayed a t the top of the o rg an iz atio n , then our la te r e n try at the juvenile officer level would be e a s e d . 3. The F ifty -S eco n d C la s s of the D elinquency C ontrol Institute — a p p ro x im a te ly th irty -fiv e police o ffic e rs, m a n y of w hom w e re juvenile o ffic e rs — was m a d e available fo r two aftern o o n s to s e rv e as q u e stio n n a ire a d m in is tr a t o r s . The officers w e re p r e p a r e d { 50 for this e x p e rie n c e by co m p letin g the q u e s tio n n a ire th e m s e lv e s and | I having the opportunity to d is c u s s it. O r a l and -written in s tru c tio n s ; w e re given to th e m c o n ce rn in g the g e n e ra l a u sp ic e s under w hich the r e s e a r c h w as being c a r r i e d out and how to d eal with p ro b le m s a ris in g f r o m a d m in is te rin g the q u e stio n n a ire . A lso, with the intention of | i u n d e rs c o rin g the s e r io u s n e s s of the task, it was in c o rp o ra te d into the field study a s p e c t of the tra in in g p r o g r a m . T hus, a fte r a d m in is te rin g the q u estio n n aire, the o ffice rs (who w ent in p a irs ) w e re en c o u ra g e d toj I d is c u s s w ith the re sp o n d en ts co m m o n p ro b le m s of police w ork. A s h o rt p a p e r was r e q u ire d of ea c h te a m d e s c rib in g the d e p a rtm e n t it i v isited. B e c a u se not all of the q u e s tio n n a ire s could be a d m in is te re d ! during the two afte rn o o n s, this w r i t e r a d m in is te re d q u e stio n n a ire s to o ffice rs in se v e n d e p a r tm e n ts . Using the above s tra te g y , all but one of the p e r m a n e n t chiefs consented to be in te rv ie w e d . In this single c a s e , the chief d esig n ated a cap tain to be in te rv ie w e d in ste ad . In two d e p a rtm e n ts , the chiefs w e re on extended m e d ic a l le av es of a b se n c e and cap tain s r e p r e s e n te d th e m in the in terv iew s as they did in a ll o th e r official functions. In an o th e r d e p a rtm e n t, a newly appointed acting chief re q u e ste d th a t a captain (a f o r m e r juvenile b u re a u lieutenant) be p r e s e n t during the in terv iew . With r e s p e c t to the juvenile o ffic e rs, 130 juvenile officers and s u p e r v is o r s co m p lete d the q u e s tio n n a ire . This included th irte e n l lieutenants, tw enty s e r g e a n ts , and the r e m a in d e r d etectiv es and o ffic e rs. F o u rte e n of the 130 w e re p o licew o m en . In fo rty -fo u r d e p a rtm e n ts , at le a s t o n e -h a lf of the juvenile | 51 o ffic e rs (or o ffic e rs a s s ig n e d to juvenile w ork) co m p lete d the q u e s - I tio n n a ire . It is ro u g h ly e s tim a te d that this includes eighty p e r c e n t of the total n u m b e r of juvenile o ffice rs of the fo rty -fo u r d e p a r tm e n ts . In the fo rty -fifth d e p a rtm e n t, th e re a r e fo rty -n in e sw o rn p e rs o n n e l j i a s s ig n e d to the juvenile b u re a u . H ow ever, this figure includes u n i- | i fo r m e d p a tro lm e n and night shift p e rs o n n e l n e ith e r of w hom m a k e j j d isp o sitio n (counsel and r e le a s e o r r e f e r to probation) d e c isio n s . The I i ten who co m p le te d the q u e s tio n n a ire included only day shift p e rs o n n e l and seven s e rg e a n ts who a r e p r i m a r i l y re s p o n s ib le fo r the d isp o sitio n d e c i s i o n s . In s tru m e n ts Used As noted above, d^ta c o n ce rn in g d e p a rtm e n ta l p o licies w ere co llected by in terv iew in g the chief (or his re p r e s e n ta tiv e ) of ea c h d e p a rtm e n t. The in te rv ie w schedule contained ite m s for a n o th er, but re la te d , r e s e a r c h p r o je c t and included both o p en -en d e d and fo r c e d - choice q u estio n s. The in te r v ie w e r s included this w r ite r , a p r o f e s s o r of sociology, and th r e e r e s e a r c h a s s is ta n t s . This w r ite r c a r r i e d out tw e n ty -th re e of the in te rv ie w s , the sociology p r o f e s s o r conducted fif teen, and the th r e e r e s e a r c h a s s is ta n t s c a r r i e d out the r e m a in d e r . The q u e s tio n n a ire fo r juvenile o ffice rs c o n siste d of eig h ty - nine ite m s . It can be divided a c c o rd in g to the following a r e a s of r e s e a r c h in te re s t: (1) p e r s o n a l in fo rm atio n , (2) p a rtic ip a tio n in police p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s, (3) p a rtic ip a tio n in juvenile t r a i n ing, (4) p a rtic ip a tio n in police c u ltu re , (5) p a rtic ip a tio n in c o m m u n ity and civic o rg a n iz a tio n s, (6) p a rtic ip a tio n in c o m m u n ity ev en ts and | activ ities, (7) re s id e n c e in and know ledge of the local com m unity, (8) d e p a rtm e n ta l p o licies re g a rd in g d is p o sitio n and a d m in is tra tiv e j i p ro c e d u re s , (9) lo c a l-c o s m o p o lita n o rie n ta tio n s, and (10) p a r t i c u l a r - i is tic - u n iv e r s a lis tic o rie n ta tio n s . The length of tim e tak en fo r filling out the q u e stio n n aire ra n g e d f r o m fifteen m in u te s to o v e r an h o u r and i a half. The a v e ra g e tim e w as a p p ro x im a te ly fo rty -fiv e m in u te s . The in te rv ie w schedule and the q u e s tio n n a ire w e re p re-te sted ! j in a lim ited w ay in th re e m u n ic ip a l police d e p a rtm e n ts in South C aro - i lina du rin g the C h ris tm a s h o lid ay s. The p r i m a r y p u rp o s e of this pre-j te s t was to give the r e s e a r c h e r the opportunity to ev alu ate the. g e n e ra l utility of the in s tru m e n ts , e . g . , length of tim e to a d m in is te r the in s tru m e n ts , c la rity of qu estio n s, and e a s e in following the q u e s tio n n a ire f o rm a t. This p r e - t e s t r e s u lte d in a sig n ifican t change in the f o r m a t of the q u e s tio n n a ire in the se c tio n s p e rta in in g to o rg a n iz a tio n a l | m e m b e r s h ip and a c tiv itie s . j | The re v is e d q u e stio n n a ire w as a d m in is te re d to the m e m b e r s | of the F ifty -S eco n d C la ss of the D elinquency C o n tro l In stitu te. An extensive an a ly sis of the d ata w as not p o s sib le b e c a u se of an inflexible tim e schedule for a d m in is te rin g the q u e s tio n n a ire s to the o ffic e rs of the d e p a rtm e n ts . (The Institute students w e re available only on two afternoons w hich follow ed s h o rtly a fte r the p r e - t e s t . H ow ever, it w as p o ssib le to ex am in e the fre q u e n c y d is trib u tio n s of the ite m s and a lim ited n u m b e r of i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e l a ti o n s . It a p p e a re d th a t m o s t of the item s w e re useful in d is c rim in a tin g am o n g the o ffic e rs . In a few in sta n c e s , ite m s w e re e ith e r d ro p p e d o r re w o rd e d . ! 53 P r e p a r a t i o n of D ata The b a s ic unit of a n a ly sis for the study was the d e p a rtm e n t. T h e re w e re two r e a s o n s for this choice: (1) the dependent v a ria b le — the counsel and r e le a s e ra te — is a d e p a rtm e n ta l r a te and (2) th e re a p p e a rs f r o m d i r e c t o b se rv a tio n to be a su b sta n tia l a m o u n t of in f o r m a l in te ra c tio n betw een juvenile o ffice rs w ith r e g a r d to handling c a s e s , the r e s u lt of w hich m a y be th a t d isp o sitio n d ecisio n s a r e the p ro d u c t of a group c o n s e n s u s . In o r d e r to p r e p a r e the data so that they would r e p r e s e n t this unit of an a ly sis, the d e p a rtm e n ta l m e a n for each item , b a s e d on the individuals within e a c h d e p a rtm e n t, w as calcu la ted . S ta tis tic a l T echniques The null hy p o th esis — that two v a ria b le s a r e s ta tis tic a lly independent of e a c h o th e r — was te ste d by em ploying the chi sq u a re te s t to e s ta b lis h the p ro b a b ility of any such a s s o c ia tio n . A so m e w h a t " lib e ra l" level of significance — that of . 10 — will be u tilized as the lim it for failing to r e je c t the null hypothesis of independence b e c a u se this is an e x p lo ra to ry study w ith a s m a ll s a m p le . A lso, w ith d i r e c tional h y p o th e ses, o n e -ta il te sts of significance w ill be em ployed w hich r e q u ir e s that chi s q u a re significance be divided by two. With r e s p e c t to s m a ll s a m p le size, fo r two by two tables, F i s h e r 's ex ac t te st, w hich yields e x a c t p ro b a b ilitie s of o b s e rv e d d i s trib u tio n s, is applied when th e re a re fe w e r than tw enty-one c a s e s . Y a te s ' c o r r e c t e d chi s q u a re is applied for all o th e r two by two ta b le s. B esid e s chi s q u a re , d e s c rip tiv e s ta tis tic s w e re also c o m - 54 i ; puted for all of the h y p o th e siz e d re la tio n s h ip s . T h e re a r e n u m e ro u s p e r s u a s iv e a rg u m e n ts that one c o n s id e r the sub stan tiv e a s s o c ia tio n of : a re la tio n s h ip as w ell as the independence betw een v a ria b le s (Siegel, 1956:47; Blalock, 1960:214-218; Duggan and Dean, 1968). i In in sta n c e s w h ere one v a ria b le is o rd in a l and the o th e r is nom inal, a theta coefficient (6) o r the "coefficient of d iffere n tiatio n " j w as com puted. j A ccording to F r e e m a n (1965:112), 0 is a m e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n betw een a nom inal and an o rd - ! inal s c a le . It m a y v a ry b etw een 0 and 1 and its m agnitude m a y be in te rp re te d in te r m s of c o m p a ris o n s of rankings of individuals in d iffere n t nom inal scale c l a s s e s . 9 is the d if fe re n c e betw een the p ro p o rtio n of c o m p a ris o n s in which m e m b e r s of one c la ss p re d o m in a te and the p ro p o rtio n in w hich m e m b e r s of a n o th e r p re d o m in a te . A nother way to state the in te rp re ta tio n is that the co efficien t is the p e r c e n t of the c o m p a ris o n s m ade in which su b jects in the nom inal c a te g o rie s show s y s te m a tic o r c o n s is te n t d iffe re n c e s in the o rd in al v a l u e s . In in sta n c e s w h ere both v a ria b le s a r e o rd in a l in m e a s u r e m e n t, S o m e rs ' d w as co m p u ted , 'd is a m e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n yx r yx b etw een two o rd in a l s c a le s and m a y v ary b etw ee n - 1 .0 and 1 .0 . It is a s y m m e tr ic w h ere x is the independent v a ria b le and y is the d e p en d en t v a ria b le . The s ta tis tic g e n e ra lly has two o p e ra tio n a l i n t e r p re ta tio n s . The in te r p r e ta tio n o rig in a lly su g g ested by S o m e rs j (1962:804) is as follows: j It e x p r e s s e s the p ro p o rtio n a te e x c e ss of c o n c o rd a n t p a irs j o v e r d is c o rd a n t p a irs am ong p a irs not tied on the independ- j en t v a ria b le . . . [o r it] is the d iffe re n c e betw een c o n d i- j tional p ro b a b ilitie s of like and unlike o r d e r , under the j condition that we ig n o re tie s on the independent v a ria b le ! 55 (although they w ill be p r e s e n t, in g en era l, on the d e p e n d ent v aria b le). A nother useful o p e ra tio n a l in te rp re ta tio n which has b een a ttrib u te d to ^ y X i s th a t of a p ro p o rtio n a l red u ctio n in e r r o r m e a s u r e \ (S o m ers, 1968); that is, d r e p r e s e n t s the p ro p o rtio n of e r r o r I yx w hich is red u ce d when p re d ic tin g o r d e r of all p o ssib le p a i r s of units f r o m a c h a r a c te r i s t ic of the independent v a ria b le , in ste ad of p r e d i c t ing o r d e r without knowledge of the independent v a ria b le , su c h as by ra n d o m d raw ing of p a i r s of units. The e r r o r t e r m is m e a s u r e d by the p ro p o rtio n of all re le v a n t e s tim a te s that a re e rro n e o u s (C o stn er, 1965:344). With r e s p e c t to 'd > e rro n e o u s p re d ic tio n includes not only untied p a i r s w hich a r e not o rd e re d , but also all p a irs tied on the dependent v aria b le without being tied on the o th e r. Thus, unlike the c a s e of G oodm an and K r u s h a l's s ta tis tic G am m a, w hich c o n s id e rs all tie s as n o n rele v an t, o r as m e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r s , and th e re fo re to be ignored, c o n s id e rs ties on the dependent v aria b le as re le v a n t and, th e re fo re , negative evidence while ties on the independent v a ria b le | a r e c o n s id e re d as n o n re le v a n t (S o m ers, 1968; C o stn e r, 1968). C H A P T E R V | THE FINDINGS In this c h a p te r the findings of the an aly sis a r e p r e s e n te d . j F i r s t , an o v e ra ll d e s c rip tio n of the m o d e l in te r m s of o b s e rv e d and I ex p ected fre q u e n c ie s , o r the s u c c e s s r a te of p re d ic tio n s , is p ro v id ed . ! Then, findings re le v a n t to the two m a j o r h y p o th eses a r e p r e s e n te d followed by a d is c u s s io n and p re s e n ta tio n of a r e v is e d a n a ly s is . P r e d ic t e d and O b se rv e d C ounsel and R e le a s e R ates F ig u re III. 1, w hich a c c o m p a n ie s the o p e ra tio n a l h y p o th e ses, m a y be filled in with the fre q u e n c ie s of each condition in o r d e r to illu s tr a te the findings. Also, it p ro v id es a te s t of the o p e ra tio n a l s y s te m by ex am in in g the " s u c c e s s r a t e " of p re d ic tio n s ; th a t is, given the policy, the d e g re e of b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, and o rien tatio n s of a d e p a rtm e n t, one can p la ce the d e p a r tm e n t in the p re d ic te d c o u n s e l and r e l e a s e r a te level. In this s e n s e , f o r ty - th r e e p re d ic tio n s can be te ste d . A lso, by using a contingency table containing the p re d ic te d c o u n se l and r e le a s e r a te lev els by the o b s e rv e d counsel and r e le a s e r a te levels, it is p o ssib le to d e te rm in e the d e g re e of d e p a r tu r e that the d ata has f r o m the ex p ected m o d e l. F ig u re V. 1 disp la y s the v ario u s com binations of the th re e j v a ria b le s (colum ns A - C) and th e ir p re d ic te d co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te lev el (colum n D fo r tric h o to m iz e d ra te and colum n G fo r 56 T ric h o to m iz e d CR Rate D ichotom ized CR R ate B u re a u - P o licy c ra tic ^ ,. 1 „ , , P r o f e s - C ontrol . , sio n al- ization O rien tatio n C om m . A tta c h . N P re d ic te d C ounsel and R e le a se R ate S uccess - ful P r e dictions Su ccess P r e d ic te d Rate CR Rate Succes s - ful P r e dictions S uccess Rate High C ounsel and R e le a s e (N=27) High (N= 13) High High Low High High Low Low Low T otal 3 3 2 5 13 High High High High 1 1 0 1 3 3/13 High High High High 2 0 2 4 8 8/13 Low (N=14) High High Low High High Low Low Low Total 2 1 4 7 14 M ed. High Low M ed. 0 0 1 1 2 2/1 4 DNA High Low DNA 0 1 I 1/5 Low C ounsel and R e le a se (N=16) High (N=6) High High Low High High Low Low Low T otal 1 4 1 0 6 Low Low Low Low 0 1 0 I 1/6 Low Low Low Low 0 1 3 4 4/6 Low (N=10) High High Low High High Low Low Low Total 2 2 3 3 10 M ed. High Low M ed. 1 0 0 2 3 3/10 DNA High Low DNA 3 2 5 5/5 Total % 9/4 3 20 .9 Total % 18/29 62. 1 (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) FIG U RE V. 1 D EPICTIO N O F SUCCESSFU L PRED ICTIO NS O F COUNSEL AND R E L E A SE R A T E BY A L L POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS O F IN D E PE N D E N T VARIABLES U 1 -o 58 d ic h o to m ized ra te ), the n u m b e r of s u c c e s s fu l p re d ic tio n s fo r each co m bination of v a ria b le s (colum n E fo r tric h o to m iz e d ra te and c o l u m n H for d ic h o to m ized ra te ), and the s u c c e s s ra te (colum ns F and I). The tric h o to m iz e d co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s r e p r e s e n t a m o r e s trin g e n t te s t of the o p e ra tio n a l s y s te m . As the r e a d e r w ill note at the b o tto m of c o lu m n F, the s u c c e s s ra te is low; that is, given the knowledge of the th re e v a ria b le s (policy, co n tro l, and orientation) fo r the f o r ty - th r e e d e p a r tm e n ts , it is p o ssib le to p r e d ic t the c o r r e c t co u n se l and r e l e a s e ra te lev el for 20.9 p e r c e n t of the d e p a r tm e n ts . In t e r m s of p re d ic te d and o b s e rv e d co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s , Table V. 1 a lso in d ic a te s that the to tal m o d e l is not useful in p re d ic tin g co u n sel and r e le a s e r a t e s . Using d^x as a m e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n th e re is a slig h t negative a ss o c ia tio n betw een p re d ic te d and o b s e rv e d c o u n s e l and r e le a s e r a t e s . A le ss s trin g e n t te s t of the o p e ra tio n a l s y s te m is to use d ic h o to m ized c o u n s e l and r e le a s e r a te as the dependent v a ria b le . B e s id e s being le ss strin g e n t, it does not m a k e use of the whole o p e r atio n al s y s t e m sin ce u n d er conditions of low b u r e a u c ra tic control, r e g a r d l e s s of policy, the co m b in atio n of like e x tre m e s in o rien tatio n s ( e . g . , high and high o r low and low) p re d ic ts a m e d iu m co u n sel and r e l e a s e ra te le v el. C onsequently, th e se four types a r e excluded and the n u m b e r of d e p a rtm e n ts d e c r e a s e s to tw en ty -n in e. U sing the d ic h o to m ized c o u n se l and r e l e a s e ra te , the s u c c e s s ra te for p r e d i c tions im p ro v e s c o n s id e ra b ly as opposed to the use of the tr ic h o to m iz e d counsel and r e le a s e r a te . It is p o ssib le to p r e d ic t the c o r r e c t T A B L E V. 1 O BSERV ED COUN SEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY P R E D IC T E D COUN SEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E WHEN TR ICH O TO M IZED O b se rv e d C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate High 3 (18.8) 6 (42. 8),• 5 (38.4) 14 (32.5) M ed iu m 8 (50.0) 4 (28.6) 6 (46.2) 18 (41.9) Low 5 (31.2) 4 (28.6) 2 (15.4) 11 (25.6) Total 16 (100) 14 (100) 13 (100) 43 (100) 60 lev el fo r 62. 1 p e r c e n t of the d e p a r tm e n ts . W hen p re d ic te d and o b s e rv e d co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s a r e c r o s s ta bulated the m e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n in d icate s a s tro n g e r r e l a tionship w hen the d ic h o to m ized r a t h e r than tric h o to m iz e d r a te s a r e used (cf. Table V. 2). H ow ever, chi s q u a re is not s ta tis tic a lly s ig n if ican t. C onsequently, this is s till not a p a r tic u la r ly high su c c e s s r a te j and su g g ests caution in p re d ic tin g f r o m the com bination of o p e ra tio n a l in d ic a to rs as conceived h e r e . The next step is to ex am in e the e v i dence re g a rd in g ea c h of the h y p o th e ses m o r e closely. T e s t of H ypothesis One The f i r s t h y p othesis sta te s that d e p a rtm e n ta l policy is d i re c tly re la te d to co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te , if b u re a u c ra tic c o n tro l is high; that is, u n d er high b u r e a u c ra tic control, the h ig h e r the counsel and r e le a s e policy, the h ig h e r w ill be the counsel and re le a s e ra te and, c o n v e rs e ly , the low er the co u n se l and r e le a s e policy, the low er will be the co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te . (F o r this p a r ti c u la r hypothesis the an aly sis w as ru n with both d ic h o to m ized and tric h o to m iz e d c o u n s e l and r e le a s e r a te . ) As the h y p o th e ses specify the condition (high b u r e a u c ra tic control) u n d er w hich policy is re la te d to ra te , it would be of so m e use to p r e s e n t the z e r o o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een policy and ra te f ir s t. In this w ay it is p o s sib le not only to ex am in e the p re d ic te d r e la tio n ships, but also to ex am in e the effect of b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l on the o rig in a l re la tio n sh ip betw een policy and ra te by c o m p a rin g zero o rd e r! and f i r s t o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n s (cf. K endall and L a z e rs fe ld , 1950 j T A B L E V. 2 O B SER V ED CO UN SEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY P R E D IC T E D COUN SEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E WHEN D ICH O TO M IZED O b s e rv e d C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate P r e d ic te d High (%) C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate Low T otal (%) (%) High 11 (64.8) 5 (41.7) 16 (55.2) Low 6 (35.2) 7 (58.3) 13 (44.8) Total 17 (100) 12 (100) 29 (100) d = . 60 yx = .69^ df = 1, p < . 20 (one tail) ' C o r r e c te d 62 j re g a rd in g m o d e s of elab o ratio n ). Table V .3 p r e s e n ts the zero o r d e r j i re la tio n s h ip and Table V .4 p r e s e n ts the re la tio n s h ip betw een policy j and ra te , while co ntrolling for the effects” of b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. We would e x p ec t that u n d er high b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l, the a s s o c ia tio n ; i b etw een policy and rate will in c re a s e b e c a u se policy is being im p l e m e n te d . On the o th er hand, u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic control, we wpuldj expect the o rig in a l a ss o c ia tio n to d is a p p e a r sin ce policy is not being I im p le m e n te d and is a s s u m e d to be a function of d e p a r tm e n ta l o r ie n t a - i tions, e . g . , G e m e in sc h a ft and G e se llsc h a ft. Since th e se o rie n ta tio n s j a r e not co n tro lled in Table V. 4 th e ir effects should b alan ce each o th e r out. An ex am in atio n of the m e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n in Table V. 3 shows th a t th e re is a slight positive re la tio n sh ip b etw een counsel and 2 r e le a s e policy and ra te , while the X fails to r e je c t the null h y p othesis of independence. Table V. 4 sp ecifies the condition u n d er w hich a re la tio n s h ip e x is ts . U nder the condition of high b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l th e re e x ists a m o d e ra te positive a ss o c ia tio n betw een p o licy and r a te , w hich is an in c re a s e ov er the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n . U nder the condition of low b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, as expected, th e re is no re la tio n s h ip betw een policy and r a te . Thus, this evidence tends to s u p p o rt the h y p othesis that policy, w hen im p le m e n te d through c e n tra liz e d con tro l, is d irec tly re la te d to co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . It le av es open fo r fu rth e r e x a m ination the ex p ectatio n th a t under low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l ra te depends upon o rie n ta tio n . H ow ever, in t e r m s of negative ev idence, j | F i s h e r 's ex a c t te s t and chi s q u a re in d icate th a t the null hy p o th esis of | 63 TA B L E V. 3 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E (DICHOTOM IZED) BY COUNSEL AND R E L E A SE PO LICY C ounsel and R e le a se R ate C ounsel and R e le a s e Policy- High Low T otal High 15 7 22 Low 12 9 21 Total 27 16 43 = .19, d f= l, p<. 33 (one tail) 64 T A B L E V. 4 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E (DICHOTOM IZED) BY COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E P O L IC Y WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT BU REA U CR A TIC CO N TR O L B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol C ounsel and R e le a se Rate High Low Counsel and R e le a se P o lic y C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y High Low T otal High Low T otal High 8 2 10 7 5 12 Low 5 4 9 7 5 12 Total 13 6 19 14 10 24 d _ yx .28, pv< . 26 d =0.0 yx X 2 = . 17, df = 2, p< . 34 (one tail) F i s h e r 's E x a c t T e s t independence fails to be re je c te d under e ith e r condition of b u r e a u c r a tic co n tro l. B e c a u se the other h y potheses sp ecifically call fo r tric h o to - m iz e d co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s , we next tu rn to an ex am in atio n of the re la tio n s h ip betw een policy and ra te , when ra te is tric h o to m iz e d . Table V. 5 shows the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een policy and t r i ch o to m ize d ra te (ct = -. 13) w hich d iffers in d ire c tio n f r o m the c a s e ' yx ’ of the d ic h o to m ized r a te (:d = . 12). H ow ever, the slight negative yx a s s o c ia tio n b etw ee n policy and ra te is n e ith e r high nor c l e a r - c u t . In Table Y. 6, w h e re the sa m e a s s o c ia tio n is ex a m in e d while con tro llin g for the effects of b u r e a u c ra tic con tro l, th e re is no a s s o ciatio n b etw een policy and r a te u n d er high co n tro l. C onsequently, h y p othesis 1 does not re c e iv e s u p p o rt w hen using tric h o to m iz e d c o u n s e l and r e le a s e r a te . A lso, u n d e r low b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, th e re is a c u rv ilin e a r re la tio n s h ip w h e re high and low co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s , but not a v e ra g e r a te s , a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith high co u n sel and r e l e a s e policy. One can th e o riz e that th e se findings tend to s u p p o rt the ex p ectatio n th a t under low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l, d e p a rtm e n ta l n o rm s b a s e d on o rie n ta tio n s have som e effect on r a te . T h at is, a c c o rd in g to the th e o ry w hen th e re is d e c e n tra liz e d d e c isio n m a k in g and a high co u n sel and r e le a s e policy, the d e p a rtm e n ts with the G e se llsc h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n to w a rd juveniles tend to a cc o u n t fo r the low ra te s and the d e p a rtm e n ts w ith the G e m e in sc h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n s a cc o u n t fo r the high r a te s . This p o s sib ility m a y be te s te d by c r o s s ta bulating o rie n ta tio n by co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te while holding c o n s ta n t co u n sel and r e le a s e 66 T A B L E V. 5 COUN SEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E PO LICY C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate C ounsel High and R e le a s e P o lic y Low T otal High 9 5 14 M ed iu m 9 9 18 Low 9 2 11 Total 27 16 43 ft = - .1 3 yx X 2 = 2.9 8 , cf = 2, p <. 11 (one tail) 67 T A B L E V. 6 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E P O L IC Y WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT B U R EA U C R A TIC C O N T R O L B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate High Low C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y C ounsel and R e le a s e P o lic y High Low T otal High Low T otal High 3 1 4 6 4 10 M ed iu m 7 4 11 2 5 7 Low 3 1 4 6 1 7 T otal 13 6 19 14 10 24 d =0.0 yx X 2 = . 28, df = 2, p < . 44 (one tail) d = -• 17 yx X 2 = 4. 72, df = 2, p < . 05 (one tail) policy and b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. (In Table V .7 d e p a r tm e n ta l o rie n ta tio n is p r e s e n te d as a co n tinuum along w hich G e m e in sc h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n s m a y lie, i . e . high co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and low p r o f e s sio n alizatio n indicates high G em ein sch aft, the co m b in atio n of high and high o r low and low is c o n s id e re d m e d iu m , and low co m m u n ity a t t a c h m e n t and high p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n r e p r e s e n t s low G e m e in sc h a ft — o r high G e se llsc h a ft. ) Although the N is re la tiv e ly sm a ll, the d ata s u p p o rt the ra tio n ale that d e p a rtm e n ta l o rien tatio n , under low b u r e a u c ra tic control, influences co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . H ow ever, in c o n tra s t to w hat was p re d ic te d , G e m e in sc h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n is i n v e r s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e r a t e . T h e se findings a r e re la te d to hypothesis two, to w hich we now tu rn . T e s t of H ypothesis Two H ypothesis two is b ased on the a ss u m p tio n that if b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is low, then co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te will depend upon the levels of d e p a rtm e n ta l p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and co m m u n ity a t t a c h m ent; thus, (A) if b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is low, and if c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is high and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is low, then co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te will be h ig h e r than any o th e r com bination of the two v a ria b le s ; (B) if b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is low, and if co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is low and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is high, then co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te will be lo w er than any o th e r com bination of the two v a ria b le s ; and (C) if b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is low and (1) if c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is high and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is high o r (2) if co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is low and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is low, then co u n se l and i 69 T A B L E V. 7 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY D E P A R T M E N T A L O RIEN TA TION WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E PO LICY AMONG D E P A R T M E N T S WITH LOW B U R E A U CRATIC CO N TRO L Low B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate C ounsel and R e le a s e Policy- High Low Ge m e in s chaftlich O rie n ta tio n GemeirLs chaftlich O rien tatio n i High M ed iu m Low T otal High M e d iu m Low Total j High 0 4 2 - 6 0 2 2 4 M ed iu m 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 5 Low 1 4 1 6 1 0 0 1 T otal 1 9 4 14 2 5 3 10 d = -. 44 yx d = - .5 2 yx 70 r e le a s e ra te w ill be lo w er than condition A and h ig h e r than condition I B - D e p a rtm e n ta l o rie n ta tio n s, or the co m b in atio n of co m m u n ity I a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe ssio n a liz a tio n , r e p r e s e n t qu alitativ e r a th e r than quantitative d iffere n ces am ong d e p a rtm e n ts . C onsequently, the above s e t of hy p o th eses include a com bination of an o rd in a l v a ria b le (the tric h o to m iz e d co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te le v els) and a n o m in al v a ria b le | : i, (the four o rien tatio n s) and, th e re fo re , cannot use an o rd in a l m e a s u r e j i of a ss o c ia tio n . T heta (explained in the p re c e d in g c h a p te r) is a s t a t i s tic that can be u sed fo r a com bination of n om inal and o rd in a l s c a le s . Table V. 8 p ro v id e s the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een o rie n - 2 tations and counsel and r e le a s e r a te . The X is not significant and the T heta is . 18. Table V .9(B ) depicts the re la tio n s h ip betw een d e p a r tm e n ta l o rie n ta tio n and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te u n d e r the c o n d i tion of low b u re a u c ra tic co n tro l. B e sid e s the specific colum n d istrib u tio n s unfavorable to e ac h of the h y p o th esized re la tio n s , with r e s p e c t to the e n tir e table — Table V .9(B ) — we fail to r e je c t the null hypothesis of independence using the . 10 level of significance. H ow ever, the th eta coefficient u n d er the condition of low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l ( 0 = . 27) did in c re a s e o v er the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n (Q = . 18) as expected. T hat is, the a ss o c ia tio n betw een o rie n ta tio n and ra te , w hen using the theta c o e f ficient, m a y be specified u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. H ow ever, as the findings in Table V .7 sug g est, the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n s betw een the o rien tatio n s and ra te a r e not found. TABLE V. 8 COUNSEL AND R E L E A SE R A T E BY D E P A R T M E N T A L ORIENTATION C ounsel and R e le a se Rate D e p a rtm e n ta l O rientation P ro f. C .A . G em ein sch aftlich M ixed Low High Low High High Low Ge sells chaftlich High Low Total High 4 4 4 2 14 M ed iu m 5 4 6 3 18 Low 4 0 5 2 11 Total 13 8 15 7 43 6 = . 18 X 2 = 3. 69, df = 6, p < . 36 (one tail) P r o f . = P ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n C .A . = C om m unity A ttach m en t TABLE V. 9 COUNSEL AND R E L E A SE R A T E BY D E P A R T M E N T A L ORIENTATION WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT BUREAUCRATIC CONTROL C ounsel and R elease Rate B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol High Low D e p a rtm e n ta l O rien tatio n G em ein - , G e s e ll- „ , . schaftlich 1X6 s chaftlich ° a P ro f. Low High Low High C .A . High High Low Low D e p a rtm e n ta l O rientation G em ein - , ,. , G e se ll- . . , * M ixed , r ... , Total schaftlich schaftlich Low High Low High High High Low Low High M edium Low Total 2 1 1 0 4 3 3 3 2 11 2 0 1 1 4 2 3 3 2 10 2 1 3 1 7 2 0 4 1 7 7 4 5 3 19 6 4 10 4 24 0 = .18 = 2.62, df = 6, p < .4 3 (one tail) (A) 0 = . 27 = 3.27, df = 6, p < .3 9 (one tail) (B) P ro f. = P ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n C .A . = C om m unity A tta ch m en t 73 S u m m a ry of H ypothesis T e s ts H ypothesis One | Using d as the m e a s u r e of a sso c ia tio n , hypothesis one re c e iv e d m o d e ra te s u p p o rt when counsel and r e le a s e ra te was i d ichotom ized; that is, th e re does a p p e a r to be a d ire c t, but s t a t i s tically in sig n ifican t rela tio n sh ip betw een policy and r a te when b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is high. When the counsel and r e le a s e ra te w as t r i chotom ized, hypothesis one did not re c e iv e s u p p o rt using the m e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n . U nder low b u re a u c ra tic con tro l, th e re was a c u r v i lin e a r a ss o c ia tio n betw een policy and ra te w hich w as s ta tis tic a lly significant. One p o ssib le explanation (and p a rtia lly su p p o rted by the data) of this a s s o c ia tio n is that d e p a rtm e n ta l o rien tatio n s tend to e x plain the e x tre m e r a te s . H ypothesis Two H ypothesis two re c e iv e d p a rtia l s u p p o rt in that the o rig in al z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een o rien tatio n and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te could be sp ecified u n d e r low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l when the th eta coefficient w as used. H ow ever, none of the tab les dealing w ith this h y p othesis yielded a s ta tis tic a lly significant chi s q u a re . D isc u ssio n S e v e ra l fa c to rs h a m p e re d the above a n a ly s is . F i r s t , a s a m p le size of only fo r ty - th r e e m a k e s it difficult to hold co n stan t even a single v a ria b le and obtain m eaningful r e s u lt s . T hat the in d e pendent v a ria b le had th re e p o ssib le conditions added to the d ifficulties. [ 74 i i I B e c a u se of the low in te rn a l co n siste n c y of the s c a le s and the e x p lo ra - ! to r y n a tu re of this study it would s e e m p ru d e n t to avoid such a com pli- i ca te d com bination. One way to re d u ce the n u m b e r of contingency | table ce lls and sim plify the independent v a ria b le is to c a r r y out the an a ly sis without com bining the two o rie n ta tio n v a r ia b le s . F u r th e r , it m ig h t be helpful to s e le c t c e r ta in ite m s which c o m p ris e the sc a le s and use th e se as the independent v a ria b le s . This kind of d is s e c tio n j I m ig h t p ro v id e clu es re g a rd in g the p ro b le m s of re lia b ility of the sc a le s as w ell as the la ck of a s s o c ia tio n w ith the dependent v a ria b le . C om m unity A tta c h m e n t and P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n as S e p a ra te Independent V a ria b le s The p u rp o s e of this sectio n is to p r e s e n t the findings of an a n a ly s is using the d ic h o to m ized c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p r o f e s sio n alizatio n s c a le s as independent v a ria b le s and the tric h o to m iz e d c o u n s e l and r e le a s e ra te as the dependent v a ria b le . The hypotheses m a y be d e riv e d f r o m the ra tio n a le p r e s e n te d e a r l i e r and a r e s im ila r ; to the h y p o th e se s of the p re v io u s section. It is h y p o th esized that u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n w ill be in v e rs e ly re la te d to co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te and co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t will be d ire c tly re la te d to counsel and r e le a s e r a te . Table V. 10 p ro v id es the ; d/yX coefficient and chi s q u a re significance levels fo r the zero o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n s and w hen th e se a s s o c ia tio n s a r e specified. With r e s p e c t to the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een the in d e pen d en t v a ria b le s and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te (section I of Table V. 10), c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is re la te d slightly (&1 = • 17) i-n the I ex p ec ted d ire c tio n . P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n shows a positive r a th e r than 75 TABLE V. 10 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY COMMUNITY A T T A C H M E N T AND PR O FE SSIO N A LIZ A TIO N : ZERO O R D E R AND S P E C IF IE D ASSOCIATIONSa N C om m unity A ttach m en t P r o f e s s i o n alization I. Z e ro O r d e r A ss o c ia tio n with C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate 43 . 17 .21 II. Specified A sso ciatio n s High B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol 19 . 17 0. 0 Low B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol 24 . 19 . 37 High P r o f e s s io n a liz a tio n 15 . 36 / / Low P r o f e s s io n a liz a tio n 28 . 05 / / High C o m m u n ity A tta c h m e n t 21 / / .35 Low C o m m u n ity A tta c h m e n t 22 / / .05 X 2 * p < .1 0 , * * p < .0 5 , ***p < . 01 (one tail) 2 None of the a s s o c ia tio n s yielded sig n ifican t X a M e a s u re of a s s o c ia tio n is d yx the h y p o th e sized negative a s s o c ia tio n (,'d = .21). yx W hen b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is held c o n stan t (Table V. 10, S ection II), th e re is no effect on the o rig in a l a ss o c ia tio n betw een c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . Thus, r e g a r d le s s of d e p a rtm e n ta l s tr u c tu re , c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t is p o sitiv ely a s s o c ia te d w ith counsel and r e le a s e r a te . The a s s o c ia tio n betw een p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te , ho w ev er, is s p e c i fied. T h at is , under high b u r e a u c ra tic control th e re is no r e la tio n ship b etw een the two v a r ia b le s . U nder low b u re a u c ra tic control, the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n o rie n ta tio n c o m e s into play, though not at a level of s ta tis tic a l sig n ifican ce. T hese findings point up the fact that w h e th e r a d e p a r tm e n t is a p ro fe s s io n a liz e d one o r not does m a k e a d iffere n ce with r e s p e c t to d iv e rs io n only when d ecisio n m ak in g is d e c e n tra liz e d . The im p lic a tio n h e r e is that p ro fe s s io n a ls , when given d is c re tio n , r e ly on group n o rm s for m ak in g disp o sitio n d e c is io n s . W hen c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe ss io n a liz a tio n a r e held co n sta n t for e a c h o th er, the re s u ltin g a s so c ia tio n s w ith co u n sel and r e l e a s e ra te a r e the s a m e . This su g g ests that a counsel and r e le a s e r a te w ill be h ig h e st am ong d e p a rtm e n ts with hig h er p r o f e s s io n a li z a tion and h ig h e r c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and low est am ong those with n e ith e r. This p o s sib ility w as te ste d by exam ining the p e rc e n ta g e d istrib u tio n s of the a s s o c ia tio n in T able V .8 betw een d e p a rtm e n ta l o rie n ta tio n s and co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . Table V. 11 shows s u p p o rt in th a t the d e p a rtm e n ts w ith the h ig h e st p e rc e n ta g e of high counsel and r e le a s e r a te s a r e those h ig h e st in co m m unity a tta c h m e n t and TABLE V. 11 COUNSEL AND R E L E A SE R A T E BY D E P A R T M E N T A L ORIENTATION: P E R C E N T A G E DISTRIBUTIONS C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate P ro f. C .A . D e p a rtm e n ta l O rientation G em ein sc h aftlich M ixed Low High Low High High Low (%) (%) (%) Ge sells chaftlich High Low (%) Total (%) High 30.8 50.0 26.7 28.6 32. 6 M ed iu m 38. 8 50.0 4 0 .0 42.9 41.9 Low 30. 8 0 .0 33.0 28.6 25. 6 T otal 100. 0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. 0 (N=13) (N=8) (N=15) (N=7) (N=43) P r o f . = P ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n C .A . = C om m unity A ttachm ent -v ] -vj 78 p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . F u r t h e r m o r e , the d e p a rtm e n ts w ith the la r g e s t p e rc e n ta g e of low co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s a r e those lo w e st in c o m m unity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . T h ese findings su g g ested an a lte rn a tiv e ra tio n a le w hich could explain the d ata; th a t is th a t p a rtic ip a tio n o r activity in c o m m u n ity and p r o fe s s io n a l r e f e r e n c e groups is re la te d to a lo cal and p a r t i c u l a r istic o rie n ta tio n in dealing w ith juvenile o ffen d ers. C o n v e rse ly , the ra tio n a le is that the m o r e " a p ath e tic " a d e p a r tm e n t is, the m o r e likely it is th a t the p ro b a tio n d e p a r tm e n t and juvenile c o u r t w ill be given the re s p o n s ib ility fo r dealing w ith the youths. This group activity concept w as o p e ra tio n a liz e d by c a te g o riz in g the d e p a rtm e n ts into th re e le v e ls . High activ ity le v el includes the co m b in ed c o m m u nity a tta c h m e n t and high p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n le v els, m e d iu m activity level includes the com b in atio n s of unlike o rien tatio n s (high and low o r low and high), and low activ ity lev el includes the co m bined low c o m m unity a tta c h m e n t and low p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n le v e ls . The a s s u m p tion that activ ity lev el is d ire c tly re la te d to p a r ti c u la r is tic and local o rie n ta tio n s w as only p a r tia lly su p p o rte d by the following coefficients:; A ctivity lev el and p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n (S y m m e tric D = -.0 4 ); A ctivity lev el and local o rie n ta tio n (S y m m e tric D = -.2 4 ). ! i The z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een activity lev el and coun- i | se l and r e le a s e ra te p ro v id e s so m e s u p p o rt for the ra tio n a le (of I Table V. 12). As in the p re v io u s a n a ly se s, the a s s o c ia tio n b etw ee n j I activ ity level and ra te is ex a m in e d while holding c o n sta n t the effects j of b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. Table V. 13 in d icate s th a t the re la tio n s h ip | i is specified u n d er low b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l w hich s u p p o rts the j 79 TABLE V. 12 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY D E P A R T M E N T A L ACTIVITY L E V E L C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate High A ctivity L ev e l M e d iu m Low T otal High 4 6 4 14 M ed iu m 4 8 6 18 Low 0 6 5 11 Total 8 20 15 43 d = . 20 yx = 3.6 5 , df = 2, p < .2 3 (one tail) i 80 T A B L E V. 13 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY ACTIVITY L E V E L WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT BU REA U CR A TIC CO N TRO L C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol High Low A ctivity L ev e l A ctivity L evel High M e d iu m Low T otal High M ed iu m Low Total High 1 2 1 4 3 4 3 10 M ed iu m 3 5 3 11 1 3 3 7 Low 0 3 1 4 0 3 4 7 T otal 4 10 5 19 4 10 10 24 d = . 10 yx X 2 = 1.58, df = 4, p< . 20 (one tail) d = .29 yx X 2 = 3. 00, df (one tail) t - H V n 8 i a lte rn a tiv e ra tio n a le . H ow ever, none of the a s s o c ia tio n s w ere s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t as m e a s u r e d by chi s q u a r e . The value of the a n a ly sis lies in the fact that the m o r e c o m plex the independent v a ria b le (the co m b in atio n of the two o rien tatio n s in c o n t r a s t to the use of th e m sin g u larly ) p ro v e d u seful in explaining the data. F u r t h e r c o m m e n t on the th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s of th e se findings w ill be p r e s e n te d in the final c h a p te r . F iv e P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and F iv e C om m unity A tta c h m e n t In d ic a to rs Although the p re c e d in g a n a ly sis does show that p r o f e s s io n a l iz atio n u n d er low b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l p ro v id e s g r e a t e r p ro p o rtio n a te re d u ctio n in e r r o r in p re d ic tin g co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te level than c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t, it does not shed light on why the two v a ria b le s w e re not a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te as hy p o th esized . The following s e c tio n w ill be a d d r e s s e d to that p r o b le m by sim plifying the in d ic a to rs of the m a j o r c o n ce p ts. The a n a ly sis w ill include five p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs and five c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs . The p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n indi- c a to rs a r e the following: (l) p o lic e p r o fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n activi tie s v b (2) the n u m b e r of tra in in g p r o g r a m s in juvenile m a tte rs ;" ''' (3) an e s ti - v b » b I m a te of the p ro p o rtio n of s o c ia l frie n d s who a r e police o ffic e rs ;' ‘ j (4) level of f o r m a l education;"”1 ' and (5) r e a d e r s h i p of police jo u rn a ls .*** j ' B ased on s ix ite m s , the m e a n of the i n t e r - i t e m c o r r e la tio n (r) w as .79. See questions 11-15 plus to tal n u m b e r of o rg an iz atio n s . i Single ite m s — questions 21, 6, and 27 re s p e c tiv e ly . I * * ! B ased on two ite m s , the c o r r e l a ti o n (r) w as .8 0 . See q u es-j tions 90 and 91. 82 The five c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs include the following: (1) co m m u n ity o rg an iz atio n activities;"5 (2) local resid en ce;* "5 (3) the n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity ev en ts p a rtic ip a te d i n ; 1 '" ' (4) an e s tim a te of the p ro p o rtio n of so c ia l frien d s who a r e local p e o p l e a n d (5) * 1 knowledge of and e s tim a te of use of local r e f e r r a l re s o u rc e s ." '" 5"'* T h ese ten v a ria b le s w ere s e le c te d b e c a u se they r e p r e s e n t so m e of the b asic fa c to rs involved in the conceptual fra m e w o rk and a r e som e of the ite m s u se d in co n stru c tin g the o rig in a l s c a le s . B a se d on the th e o ry the following re la tio n s h ip s would be expected: (1) p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs p o sitiv ely a s s o c ia te d w ith e a c h o th e r and in v e rs e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e l e a s e ra te ; (2) c o m m u n i ty a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs p o sitiv ely r e la te d w ith each other and also w ith counsel and r e le a s e ra te ; and (3) p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d icato rs negatively a s s o c ia te d w ith p a r ti c u la r is tic o rien tatio n s and co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs p o s itiv e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith local o rie n ta tio n s. The r e m a in d e r of this se c tio n w ill be devoted to an ex am in atio n of th e se an ticip ated re la tio n s h ip s . B ased on six ite m s , the m e a n of the i n t e r - i t e m c o rre la tio n s i (r) w as .83. See questions 31-35 plus the to tal n u m b e r of co m m unity | o rg a n iz a tio n s. >\< ' B ased on four ite m s c o n ce rn in g re s id e n c e , hom e o w n e r ship, and voting, the m e a n of the i n t e r - i t e m c o rre la tio n s w as .96. See questions 45-48. | Single ite m s — questions 41a and 56 re s p e c tiv e ly . j K j s j B ased on two ite m s , the c o r r e la tio n w as .78. See question ; 54, i . e . , the n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity r e s o u r c e s and an e s tim a te of th e ir use. ; ^The single ite m s w e re d ic h o to m ized at the m e d ia n into high j and low. F o r those s c a le s w ith m o r e than one item , the item s w e re | s u m m e d and then d ic h o to m ized again. j The A ss o c ia tio n A m ong In d ica to rs of the Sam e C oncept Since th e se ten in d ic a to rs a r e not ex ac tly the sa m e ones w hich c o m p ri s e d the o rig in a l s c a le s i n t e r - i t e m c o n siste n c y was again e x am in ed . Table V. 14 shows that the ex p ec ted positive a s s o c ia tio n betw ee n in d ic a to rs of p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n does not m a te r ia liz e in any d r a m a tic fashion. O ut of ten p a i r s four of th e m a r e in v e rs e ly re la te d . Only one of the a s s o c ia tio n s (betw een juvenile train in g and jo u rn al read in g ) is s tro n g . In c o n t r a s t to the in c o n siste n c y am ong p r o f e s sio n alizatio n in d ic a to rs , the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs a r e all re la te d in the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n (see Table V. 15). F u r th e r , the coefficients am ong four of the p a irs a r e fa irly stro n g . Thus, we m a y conclude that p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is a m u c h m o r e c o m p le x concept than su g g ested by W ilson (1968a) o r u tilized in this study and it a p p e a rs that m o r e than one d im e n sio n m a y be involved in th e se in d ic a to rs . In an e a r l i e r se c tio n it w as s u g g e s te d that W ilson's a s s e r t i o n that p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t a r e in v e rs e ly r e lated m a y be too s im p le . Table V. 16 s u p p o rts the findings f r o m the e a r l i e r an a ly sis that th e re is no single o r c o n s is te n t tre n d betw een the in d ic a to rs of the two c o n c e p ts. Local r e s id e n c e is in v e rs e ly re la te d i to four of the five p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs but this is only in a v e ry w eak fash io n . T h e re is only one s tro n g coefficient in the a n tic i- ! pated d ire c tio n w hich is b etw een police frie n d s and co m m unity o r g a n iz a tio n s . 84 T A B L E V. 14 I N T E R -IT E M ASSOCIATIONS AMONG P R O F E S SIONALIZATION INDICATORS3- 1 2 3 4 5 1. F o r m a l E d ucation 2. Juvenile T rain in g . 12 3. Social F r ie n d s who a r e P o lic e -. 16 - . 12 4. P o lic e O rg a n iz a tio n s . 12 . 02 . 16 5. P o lic e J o u rn a ls -. 10 ■ n . 11 .21 x 2 *p<. 10, * * p < .0 5 , ** vp< • 01 (one tail) ct Measure of association is Symmetric D. 85 TA B L E V. 15 IN T E R -IT E M ASSOCIATIONS AMONG COMMUNITY A T T A C H M E N T INDICATORS3- 1 . N u m b er of C om m unity Events 2. S ocial F r ie n d s who a r e L ocal . 12 People 3. C o m m unity O rg an izatio n s . 12 . 17 4. L ocal R esid e n ce . 07 . 30 ••I- <P . 12 5. C om m unity R e f e r r a l .4 4 .42 .30 .17 R e s o u r c e s •.*> vU ?,•» i \ < jjc T* 2 s '- > ;< * > ;< > ; < X ‘ p <. 10, p < .0 5 , p c . O l (one tail) c L Measure of association is Symmetric D. 86 TABLE V. 16 M EA SU RE O F ASSOCIATION B E T W E E N COMMUNITY A T T A C H M E N T AND PR O FE SSIO N A LIZ A TIO N INDICATORS* Police O r g a n iz a tions Juvenile T raining P o lic e J o u rn a ls F o r m a l E ducation P olice F rie n d s C om m unity O rg a n iz a tio n s . 17 .07 . 13 .20 - .3 2 Local R esid e n ce - .0 7 - .0 7 -. 13 - .0 2 .02 C om m unity R e f e r r a l R e s o u rc e s .03 .40 .09 .25 - .0 7 L o ca l F r ie n d s .07 - .0 3 . 19 .23 ; 26 N u m b e r of C om m unity E vents .21 .21 . 17 .07 .21 r j. t . 1 # k L j X '‘p < .1 0 , '" > < . 0 5 , " 01 (two tail) c L M e a s u re of a ss o c ia tio n is S y m m e tric D. 87 Z e ro O r d e r A sso c ia tio n s and S pecification of R elatio n sh ip s T ab les V. 17 and V. 18 p r e s e n t the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n coefficients b etw een the ten v a ria b le s and the co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te . Also, the re la tio n s h ip s a r e e x a m in e d when b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l is held c o n sta n t. The r e a d e r will r e c a l l th a t this w as the b a s ic m o d e l being te ste d in the o rig in a l a n a ly sis ; th a t is, u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t w ould be p o sitiv ely a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n would be negatively a s s o c ia te d w ith the co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te . F i r s t , one w ill note that all of the in d ic a to rs a r e not a s s o ciated in the h y p o th e sized d ire c tio n . Only one of the p r o f e s s io n a li z a tion in d ic a to rs has a z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n in the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n . (Ironically, this is tra in in g in juvenile m a t t e r s w hich w as d eleted f r o m the o rig in a l p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n s'cale. ) A lso, the d ata do not fit the m o d e l w ith r e s p e c t to the effects of low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l e x cept in the c a s e of juvenile tra in in g . T h re e of the c o m m u n ity a t t a c h m e n t v a ria b le s (Table V. 18) a r e p o sitiv e ly re la te d to co u n sel and r e le a se ra te and two fit the m o d e l w ith r e g a r d to b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. Thus, juvenile train in g , e s tim a te of frie n d s who a r e lo cal people, and local re s id e n c e tend to fit the o rig in a lly h y p o th e sized re la tio n s h ip s . It m a y be th a t juvenile o ffic e rs who live in the co m m u n ity and c o n s id e r th e m s e lv e s to have n u m e ro u s local so c ia l contacts feel th a t the lo cal c o m m u n ity can d eal b e tte r w ith ju v en iles than can the ju s tic e j i s y s te m . On the o th e r hand, o ffic e rs tr a in e d in juvenile m a t t e r s m a y | p r o c e s s juveniles d is p a s s io n a te ly and u n ifo rm ly in the s e n s e of being j 88 T A B L E V. 17 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY P R O F E S SIONALIZATION INDICATORS: ZERO O RDER AND S P E C IF IE D ASSOCIATIONS3- C O a o • I - 1 0 a) 5P n J C O N F o rm a] Educati Juvenil Trainin P o lic e F rien d : P o lic e Organi: P o lic e J ournal I. Z e ro O r d e r A ss o c ia tio n s w ith C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate ! 43 . 23 -.3 1 •X. -L. •V * « T » . 23 . 30 - .0 3 * II. Specified A sso c ia tio n s High B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol 19 . 16 17 . 34 . 33 0 .0 Low B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol 24 . 24 - .4 0 ** . 19 .26 95 > ;< x 2 vp < . 10, w p < .0 5 , V w p < . 01 (one tail) ct M e a s u re of a s s o c ia tio n is d yx 89 T A B L E Y. 18 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY COMMUNITY A T T A C H M E N T INDICATORS: ZERO O R D E R AND S P E C IF IE D ASSOCIATIONS2 1 C O N N o. C om m . Events Local F rie n d s C om m unity O rganizatio Local R esid e n ce R e f e r r a l R e s o u rc e s I. Z e ro O r d e r A sso c ia tio n w ith C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate 43 -. 11 .31 s t- ■ V - . 0 4 L 11 . 15 II. Specified A sso ciatio n s High B u re a u c ra tic C o ntrol 19 -. 38 . 17 0 .0 0. 0 . 19 Low B u re a u c ra tic C o n tro l 24 . 07 .41 ❖ - .0 5 . 19 . 17 X 2 *p<- 10, * * p < .0 5 , ***p<. 01 (one tail) a M e a s u re of a s s o c ia tio n is d yx 90 u n iv e rs a lis tic o r they m a y be tra in e d to believe that the juvenile ju stice s y s t e m is effective in dealing w ith individuals in a p a r t i c u l a r istic s e n s e . Also, it should be pointed out that th e re a r e th r e e s t a t i s tically significant c u rv ilin e a r re la tio n s h ip s in the two ta b le s . In Table V. 17, although the coefficient betw een police jo u rn a ls and co unsel and r e le a s e ra te (in the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n and under low b u r e a u c ra tic control) indicates no o r little a ss o c ia tio n , the c o n tin gency tables (T ables A and B of Appendix IV) d isp la y U -sh a p e d d istrib u tio n s . This re la tio n sh ip m a y be sta te d in the following m a n n e r: high and low co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s depend upon w h e th e r d ecisio n m aking is d e c e n tra liz e d or not and w h e th e r the m e m b e r s a r e in fo rm e d through rea d in g police jo u rn a ls . A pparently, being fr e e d f r o m both d e p a rtm e n ta l guidelines and p ro fe s s io n a l n o r m s tends to p ro d u ce co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s above and below the a v e r a g e . T h e re is a s i m i l a r coefficient in Table V. 18 w ith r e s p e c t to the a s so c ia tio n betw een co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te and n u m b e r of c o m m unity events attended w hen holding c o n stan t b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. Although the coefficient is only .07, the contingency table (T able C in j A ppendix IV) shows a c u rv ilin e a r re la tio n sh ip w hich is s ta tis tic a lly | sig n ifican t as m e a s u r e d by chi s q u a re . The d ata s u g g e s t that d e p a r t - j m e n ts which allow juvenile officers m o r e d is c re tio n in d isp o sitio n d ecisio n s and w hich a r e not in te g ra te d into the c o m m u n ity in t e r m s of j events and a ctiv ities tend to yield h ig h e r and low er co u n sel and r e - j I I le a s e r a te s but not a v e ra g e r a t e s . In both of th e se in s ta n c e s of curvi-[ .lin e a r re la tio n sh ip s, it a p p e a rs that iso la tio n f r o m d e p a r tm e n ta l j c o n tro ls and im p o rta n t re fe re n c e groups p ro d u c e d e x tre m e co unsel and r e le a s e r a te s . 2 3 P a r ti c u la r i s t ic and L o ca l O rien ta tio n s The an ticip ated negative re la tio n sh ip betw een p r o f e s s io n a li zation in d ic a to rs and p a r tic u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n is found in T ables V. 19 and V. 20 only with r e s p e c t to police p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s . This in d icato r, the r e a d e r will r e c a ll f r o m Table V. 17, is positiv ely a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te (d = . 30). On the o th e r hand, juvenile train in g , w hich is negatively a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te (D = -^.31), has the s tro n g e s t positive a s s o c ia tio n w ith p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n s of the five p r o f e s s io n a li zation in d ic a to rs . This p ro v id e s som e su p p o rt for the sp ecu latio n r a is e d in the p re v io u s sectio n th a t o ffice rs tra in e d in juvenile m a t t e r s a r e p a r tic u la r is tic in th e ir c o n c e rn s and feel that the juvenile c o u rt is i a p p ro p ria te fo r r e f e r r a l of youth. A lso, although the coefficients a r e not la rg e and the d if f e r en ces a r e not v e ry g re a t, th e re a p p e a rs to be an in v e rs e tr e n d betw een ! p a r t i c u l a r i s m and d iv e rs io n . The two v a ria b le s with the h ig h e st posi-j i tive a s s o c ia tio n w ith p a r tic u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n also have negative | a ss o c ia tio n s with co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . On the o th e r hand, the | o th e r th re e v a ria b le s a r e p o sitiv ely re la te d to co u n sel and r e le a s e j 2 See questions 77-87 in the Juvenile O fficer Q uestionnaire, A ppendix II. 3 See questions 66-76 in the Juvenile O fficer Q uestionnaire, A ppendix II. 92 T A B L E V. 19 ASSOCIATION B E T W E E N PR O FESSIO N A LIZA TIO N INDICATORS AND PA R TICU LA RISTIC O R IEN T ATIONSa C O a o • H a J N < D ♦ H C J u (tf • H 1 — 1 b l) o fH ft O b O d co r-H a u pH rj n° ° f t i - i < U o n ) a o ft ft c o •|-H cc! o 2 "d C O tJ a < u o d ft ft P a r t i c u l a r i s t i c 12 16 _ Q (? Q5 oy O rien ta tio n s ‘p c . 10, ‘ ‘ p< . 05, ‘ ‘ ‘p < .0 1 (one tail) cL M e a s u re of a s s o c ia tio n is S y m m e tric D. 93 TABLE V. 20 ASSOCIATION B E T W E E N COMMUNITY A TTA C H M E N T INDICATORS AND LO C A L ORIEN TATIONSa Com m unity O rg an izatio n s L ocal R esidence R e f e r r a l R e s o u rc e s L ocal F rien d s No. C om m . Events L o c a l O rien tatio n s .45 . 30 .31 . 54 .21 > ,< ** ** ✓ l o j o j c 2 > ! « > ! < » 1 t X p < . 10, p < .05, *p<. 01 (one tail) a M e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n is S y m m e tric D. r a te and include the two lo w est p o sitiv e a s s o c ia tio n s with p a r t i c u l a r istic o rie n ta tio n and the negative a s s o c ia tio n w ith p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n . This su g g e sts that the h ig h e r the a s s o c ia tio n b etw een p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs and co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te , the low er w ill be the a s s o c ia tio n betw een p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs and p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n s . Although th e re is a negative z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n betw een p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te ('& = — - 15), w hen the effects of p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n a r e c o n tro lle d only one s p e cificatio n (police jo u rn a ls ) am ong the five in d ic a to rs show s m u c h change. Thus, the a s s o c ia tio n s betw een the o th e r four in d ic a to rs and co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te a r e not su b sta n tia lly affected by p a r t i c u l a r istic o rie n ta tio n . With r e s p e c t to the a s s o c ia tio n betw een the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs and local o rie n ta tio n , all of th e m a r e a s s o c ia te d in the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n . H ow ever, th e re does not a p p e a r to be any d is c e rn ib le tr e n d b etw ee n a s s o c ia tio n w ith local o rie n ta tio n and with co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . This is p ro b a b ly due to the fact th a t the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n b etw ee n lo c a l o rie n ta tio n and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te is negligible Cd = -.0 4 ). yx Thus, f r o m the findings p r e s e n te d in the p re v io u s th re e s u b se c tio n s, it a p p e a rs that only one v a ria b le — e s tim a te of frie n d s who a r e local people — c o rre s p o n d s to a ll of the p re d ic te d p a tte r n s . It has a p o sitiv e a s s o c ia tio n w ith the o th e r c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t v a ria b le s , a p o sitiv e z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n with co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te w hich is f u r th e r sp e c ifie d u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, and a positive 95 a s s o c ia tio n w ith local o rie n ta tio n . (Also, the r e a d e r w ill note that 2 m o s t of th e se a s s o c ia tio n s yield X w ith significant lev els at le a s t at . 10). Although a p o s t fa c tu m o b se rv a tio n , this is sig n ifican t in t e r m s of the co n ce p tu al f r a m e w o r k b e c a u se the v a ria b le is p ro b a b ly the " p u re s t" index of lo cal and p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n s. Although they do not fit the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n s , police o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s and juvenile tra in in g show c o n s is te n tly stro n g a s s o c ia tio n s throughout the a n a ly sis . They show the h ig h e st co e ffi cients in the i n t e r - i t e m an a ly sis of p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs and they have the h ig h e s t — th ro u g h in the opposite d ire c tio n — z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te , w ith juvenile tra in in g sh o w ing so m e in c re a s e under low b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l. A lso, they yield the h ig h e st co efficien ts with p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n s, although ag ain in the opposite d ire c tio n . Specification of T h re e A sso c ia tio n s w ith C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate The la s t step in this sectio n w ill be to e x am in e re la tio n sh ip s ; of the th re e v a ria b le s ju s t d is c u s s e d with co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te w hen holding c o n s ta n t e a c h o th er, as w ell as local re s id e n c e and i f o r m a l ed u ca tio n (which yielded the next h ig h e st a s s o c ia tio n s with co u n se l and r e l e a s e r a te u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic con tro l). In T able Y. 21 the z e ro o r d e r a ss o c ia tio n s betw een police ' i o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te and b etw een localj : | frie n d s and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te show the g r e a t e s t in sta n ce of s p e cificatio n u n d er high local r e s id e n c e . Thus, it a p p e a rs that if the | I ties to the local a r e a am ong d e p a rtm e n ta l m e m b e r s a r e in ten se, then 96 TABLE V. 21 COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY P O L IC E ORGANIZATION A CTIV ITIES, JU V E N IL E TRAINING, AND ESTIM A TE O F FR IEN D S WHO A RE LO C A L P E O P L E : ZE R O ORDER AND S P E C IF IE D ASSOCIATION Sa N Police O rganizations Juvenile T raining Local F rie n d s Z e ro O r d e r A ss o c ia tio n with 43 . 30 - 31 3 1 C ounsel and R e le a s e Rate ❖ Specified A sso c ia tio n s High P o lic e O rg an iza tio n s 21 -.6 0 .4 4 Low P o lic e O rg an iza tio n s 22 - .0 6 . 18 High Juvenile T ra in in g 21' .08 . 19 Low Ju v en ile T rain in g 22 .49 .35 •4* High L o ca l F r ie n d s 19 .47 - .4 7 Low L o ca l F r ie n d s 24 . 17 -. 15 High L o ca l R e sid e n c e 20 .6 4 -.2 1 .72 Low L o ca l R e sid e n ce 23 T* -V 0 .0 -.3 9 -. 15 High F o r m a l E ducation 24 . 28 -.5 8 . 15 Low F o r m a l E ducation 19 .31 -.0 1 .49 * p < . 10, > ,< > :< p < .0 5 , VWp < .0 1 (two tail) a M e a s u r e of a s s o c ia tio n is d yx 97 p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s and lo cal frien d sh ip s m a k e a d iffere n ce in explaining co u n sel and r e le a s e r a t e s . A lso, th e se two a s s o c ia tio n s a r e sp e c ifie d under low juvenile train in g , i . e . , police o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s and local frien d s a r e positiv ely re la te d to co u n sel and r e l e a s e r a te only if juvenile tra in in g is low. Thus, am ong d e p a rtm e n ts w hich have not been fo rm ally so c ia liz e d sp ecifically for juvenile w ork, lo cal and p ro fe s s io n a l ties do m a k e a d iffere n ce in d e te rm in in g co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . On the o th e r hand, this does not apply w ith r e s p e c t to the am o u n t of g e n e ra l f o rm a l education w ithin a d e p a rtm e n t, e . g . , in te r m s of s ta tis tic a l significance e d u c a tion does not sp ecify the two z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n s as does juvenile tra in in g . The z e ro o r d e r a ss o c ia tio n betw een juvenile tra in in g and co u n sel and r e l e a s e r a te is specified by police o rg an iz atio n a c tiv itie s and f o r m a l education, e . g . , juvenile tra in in g is negatively a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n sel and r e l e a s e ra te if police o rg an iz atio n a c tiv itie s a r e high o r if f o r m a l ed u ca tio n is high. This finding is highly p ro v o cativ e and i difficult to e x p lain in t e r m s of th e o ry and the p rev io u s findings in this j i study. P o lic e o rg a n iz a tio n a ctiv ities and f o r m a l education a r e both i p o sitiv ely r e la te d to c o u n s e l and r e le a s e ra te , yet strongly, negative j a s s o c ia tio n s b etw ee n juvenile tra in in g and counsel and r e le a s e ra te I a r e sp ecified u n d er the conditions of high police o rg an iz atio n a c tiv i- j ties and high f o r m a l education. One p o s sib le ex p lan atio n a s s u m e s that the te s t fa c to rs (policej o rg a n iz a tio n o r f o r m a l education) o c c u r p r i o r in tim e to the independ-J i ent v a ria b le and sp ecify the conditions under w hich juvenile train in g isj negatively a s s o c ia te d w ith d iv e rs io n . F o r ex a m p le , high in v o lv em en t in o rg a n iz a tio n a l activ itie s w ith o th e r police m a y s e t the stage for juvenile train in g to have a " c o n v e rsio n " effect on b eh av io r re le v a n t to juvenile d isp o sitio n s. T h at is, o ffic e rs highly active in police p r o f e s sional groups and, a c c o rd in g to the data, not p a r tic u la r is tic in th e ir attitudes to w a rd ju v e n iles, m a y be m o r e likely than those not active in police o rg a n iz a tio n s to e x p e rie n c e a significant change in th e ir attitudes and b e h a v io r to w ard ju veniles as a r e s u lt of fo rm a l juvenile train in g . This sug g ests th a t as p o lic e m e n a r e m o r e fo rm a lly s o c i a l ized into the ro le of juvenile o ffic e rs, the m o r e likely they a r e to b e com e p a r tic u la r is tic in th e ir c o n c e rn s , and, c o n tra r y to w hat has b een h y p othesized, p r e d is p o s e d to r e f e r the juveniles to the p ro b atio n d e p a rtm e n t. This p o s sib le p a ra d o x will be d is c u s s e d fu rth e r in the next c h a p te r. If the t e s t fa c to r is a s s u m e d to o c c u r betw een the independent and dependent v a ria b le then the ex p ected re la tio n sh ip is contingent upon the te s t fa c to r. H ow ever, it is not as likely fo r police o ffice rs to b eco m e involved in m o s t p ro fe s s io n a l o rg an iz atio n s a fte r having e x p e rie n c e d juvenile tra in in g as it is p r io r to such train in g . The te m p o r a l seq u en ce of f o rm a l education and juvenile train in g cannot be as e a s ily a s s u m e d as in the c a s e of police o r g a n i z a tion a c tiv itie s . It is likely th a t they m a y o c c u r n e a rly sim ultaneously.; At any ra te , am ong d e p a rtm e n ts with ed u cated juvenile o ffic e rs, juve-j j nile tra in in g m a k e s a d iffere n ce w ith re s p e c t to co unsel and r e le a s e j i ra te w h e re it d o e s n 't am ong d e p a rtm e n ts with le s s educated juvenile j ; o ffic e rs. One can s p ecu la te that the p r o c e s s e s o r content of f o rm a l 99 education e . g . , lib e ra l a r ts , c r e a te s a m o r e g e n e ra l o penness to the ideas and o rie n ta tio n s p ro m u lg a te d by train in g p r o g r a m , c o n c e r n ing juvenile w ork. The a s s o c ia tio n betw ee n juvenile train in g and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te w hen holding c o n sta n t the effects of lo cal frie n d s yielded a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t c u r v ilin e a r re la tio n s h ip under low local frie n d s (Table D in A ppendix IV). Thus, am ong d e p a rtm e n ts that a r e not in t e g ra te d into the local c o m m u n ity through frie n d sh ip ties, high o r low co u n se l and r e l e a s e ra te depends upon w h e th e r the juvenile o ffice rs have re c e iv e d juvenile tra in in g o r not. A pparently, iso la tio n f r o m p r i m a r y so c ia l re la tio n s h ip s w ithin the c o m m u n ity and no f o rm a l tra in in g in the ro le of juvenile o ffice rs tends to p ro d u ce co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s w hich a r e d iv e rg e n t f r o m the a v e ra g e . Again, this s u g g ests that co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te s w hich tend to d iv e rg e f r o m the a v e ra g e a r e a function of so m e v a r ia n t of iso la tio n . This w ill be d i s c u s s e d in the following c h a p te r. S u m m a ry The a i m of this c h a p te r has b een to p rovide the findings of the ! a n a ly sis . Upon finding little ev idence in s u p p o rt of the h y p o th e ses, I the o rig in a l a n a ly sis w as s im p lifie d by exam ining the h y p o th e ses using: c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n s e p a ra te ly . Some sup-j p o r t w as found fo r p a r ts of the o rig in a l m o d e l but not in the p re d ic te d j i d ire c tio n s . C onsequently, five in d ic a to rs of the two m a in concepts — j c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n — w e re sele c te d and i j a n aly zed in t e r m s of th e ir a s s o c ia tio n with the dependent v a ria b le . j 100 Only one of the ten in d ic a to rs — an e s tim a te of so c ia l frie n d s who a r e lo cal people — fit all of the p re d ic te d p a t te r n s . Two o th e r v a ria b le s — police o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s and juvenile tra in in g — yielded high c o efficien ts, b u t not in d ire c tio n s p re d ic te d . W hen the z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n s of co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te with the th re e v a ria b le s w e re specified, the h ig h e st p o sitiv e co efficien t w as w ith local frie n d s when ■ sp ecified under high lo cal r e s id e n c e . The h ig h e s t negative coefficient w as with juvenile tra in in g u n d e r the condition of high police o rg a n iz a tio n s. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND IM PLICATION S The p u rp o s e of this c h a p te r is to s u m m a r iz e the findings b rie fly and to d is c u s s the im p lic atio n s of the findings for so cio lo g ical . theory, fu tu re r e s e a r c h , and p r a c t ic a l m a t t e r s . S u m m a ry of F indings 1. On the b a s is of th e o ry and p r i o r r e s e a r c h c o n ce rn in g p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and c o m m u n ity a ttach m en t, in d ic a to rs w e re s e le c te d to r e p r e s e n t th e se m a jo r co n c e p ts. Only re la tiv e ly low i n t e r - i t e m c o n s is te n c y w as obtained in c o n stru ctin g the p r o f e s s i o n a lizatio n and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t s c a le s . 2. The c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t s c a le and the p r o f e s s io n a liz a tion sc a le w e re found to be u n re la te d . When the five in d ic a to rs of each co n ce p t w e re c r o s s tabulated w ith ea c h other th e re w e re no co n - ; s is te n t p o sitiv e or negative re la tio n s h ip s . ! I 3. The o rig in a l h y p o th eses b a s e d on a m o d e l w hich called for the com bination and p e rm u ta tio n of the four m a jo r s c a le s (policy, b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, c o m m u n ity atta c h m e n t, and p ro f e s s io n a liz a tio n ) ! re c e iv e d little su p p o rt. U sing a d ic hotom ized co u n sel and r e le a s e j r a te , th e re w as so m e in dication that policy and d iv e rs io n a r e p o s i- j I tively re la te d if d e c isio n m ak in g is c e n tra liz e d . A lso, th e re w as very! i slight evidence indicating that d e p a rtm e n ta l o rie n ta tio n m a k e s so m e j i 101 I 102 d if f e r e n c e w ith r e s p e c t to co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te when d ecisio n m aking is d e c e n tra liz e d as opposed to c e n tra liz e d . 4. B e sid e s the im p r e c is e s c a le s , the s m a ll size of the sa m p le h a m p e r e d the te s t of the p ro p o s itio n s. In a ttem p tin g to s i m plify the a n a ly sis and d e c r e a s e the n u m b e r of cells in p a r ti a l a s s o c i a tion tables, s e p a r a te a n a ly se s w ere c a r r i e d out using the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t sc a le and the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n sc a le as independent v a ria b le s . C o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t w as a s s o c ia te d with co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te in the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n (positive), but the a s s o c ia tio n was not f u r th e r specified u n d er low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l. P r o f e s sionalization, on the o th e r hand, w as a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te in a p ositive in ste a d of the p re d ic te d negative d ire c tio n and the a s s o c ia tio n w as f u r th e r sp ecified u n d er low b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tr o l. Thus, in the c a s e of p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n being tr e a te d s e p a ra te ly , the d ata fit the ra tio n a le in th a t the a s s o c ia tio n w as specified u n d e r low b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, but the d ire c tio n of the a ss o c ia tio n w as not a n ticip a ted . T hat is, when d e p a rtm e n ta l co n tro l o v er d is p o sition d e c isio n s is left up to the juvenile o ffic e rs, w h e th e r o r not the o ffice rs a r e p ro fe s s io n a liz e d has an effect on the co u n sel and r e le a s e j ra te . j 5. The a n a ly sis w as f u r th e r re v is e d by se le c tin g five p r o fe ss io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs and five c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs . | As noted above, the i n t e r - i t e m a s s o c ia tio n s am ong the in d ic a to rs of j | p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n w e re not c o n s is te n tly p o sitiv e . On the o th e r hand, j the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs a ll show ed positive a s s o c ia tio n J 103 w ith one an o th e r. F u r t h e r , the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs w e re not u n ifo rm ly a s s o c ia te d w ith e a c h o th e r in a positive or negative d ire c tio n . 6. The z e ro o r d e r a s s o c ia tio n s betw een the ten in d ic a to rs and co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te and the sp ec ific a tio n of th o se a s s o c i a tions, w hen c o n tro llin g fo r b u r e a u c ra tic co n tro l, w e re e x a m in e d . A m ong the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs , the am o u n t of juvenile train in g and police p r o f e s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s show ed m o d e ra te ly s tro n g a s s o c ia tio n s with co u n se l and r e l e a s e r a te . The n e g ative a s s o c ia tio n b etw ee n juvenile tra in in g and co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te w as fu r th e r sp ecified under low b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l. The p o s i tive a s s o c ia tio n b etw ee n police o rg a n iz a tio n s and co u n se l and r e le a s e ra te r e m a in e d e s s e n tia lly the s a m e u n d er high and low b u r e a u c r a tic co n tro l. As fo r the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs , e s tim a te of so cial frie n d s who a r e lo c al people was a s s o c ia te d w ith co u n se l and r e le a s e r a te w ith the s a m e in ten sity as juvenile tra in in g and police org an iz atio n s in a positive w ay. The a s s o c ia tio n w as slightly s p e c i fied u n d er low b u r e a u c r a tic c o n tro l. 7. One of the m a jo r p ro p o s itio n s involved in the c o n s t r u c tion of the m o d e l w as that p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n is c o m m e n s u r a te with u n iv e rs a lis tic o rie n ta tio n s w hich leads the d e p a r tm e n t to p r o c e s s juveniles u n ifo rm ly into the ju s tic e s y s t e m w ithout any c o n s id e ra tio n | of th e ir individual needs and p r o b le m s . On the o th e r hand, it w as i ] held that c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and lo cal o rie n ta tio n s a r e is o m o rp h ic j | and co n trib u te to d e p a r tm e n ta l p re d is p o s itio n to fav o r the c o m m u n ity [ | as a place to live and w o rk and, co nsequently, as a p la ce w h e re a | 104 juvenile m a y be helped (in c o n tra s t to the juvenile ju stice s y s te m ). As a m e a n s of validating th e se a s su m p tio n s, s e v e r a l p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n ite m s and local o rien tatio n ite m s w ere included in the q u e stio n n a ire . Although both the co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t scale and the five in d ic a to rs a r e all p o sitiv ely a s s o c ia te d with the lo cal o rie n ta tio n sc a le , the local o rie n ta tio n is not re la te d (in e ith e r d irec tio n ) to c o u n s e l and r e le a s e ra te . P a r t i c u l a r i s t i c o rie n ta tio n is p ositively a s s o ciated with co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te (as expected), but is negatively a s s o c ia te d w ith only one of the five p ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs (police o rg a n iz a tio n s). T h e re a p p e a rs to be a slight tre n d betw een a ss o c ia tio n w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te and a ss o c ia tio n with p a r t i c u la ris tic o rie n ta tio n am ong the five p ro fe s sio n a liz a tio n in d ic a to rs . It m a y be sta te d in the following t e r m s : the g r e a te r the a ss o c ia tio n am ong p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n ite m s w ith p a r tic u la r is tic orien tatio n , the low er the a ss o c ia tio n w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . 8. F inally, s e v e r a l sp ecifications of z e ro o r d e r a ss o c ia tio n s w e re e x a m in e d to d e te rm in e if c e r ta in conditions could be specified for the a ss o c ia tio n betw een counsel and r e le a s e ra te and th re e v a r i - , ables (police o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s , juvenile train in g , and local frie n d s). The use of police o rg a n iz a tio n a ctiv ities as the independent I v aria b le under the condition of high local re s id e n c e p ro d u ced the h ig h e st p o sitiv e a s s o c ia tio n w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . The hig h - i e s t negative a ss o c ia tio n w ith co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te was w ith ju v e nile train in g under the condition of high f o r m a l education. E s tim a te j of lo cal frie n d s — w hich is p ro b ab ly the " p u re s t" in d icato r of p a r ti c u - j la ris tic and local o rie n ta tio n s — w as the only ite m in the e n tire j 105 a n a ly sis that fit all of the p re d ic tio n s of the m o d e l. Im p licatio n s for T h e o ry and F u tu re R e s e a r c h P ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n The re s u lts of this study w a rn a g a in st the convenient a p p lic a tion of tra d itio n a l m o d e ls of p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n to the police o c c u p a tion, in g e n e ra l, and sp ecifically to juvenile o ffic e rs. The in d ic a to rs often used fo r m e a s u r in g p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n , e . g . , f o r m a l education, train in g , p ro fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n ac tiv itie s, jo u rn a l re a d e rs h ip , u n iv e rs a lis tic attitudes to w ard clie n ts, and frie n d s h ip ties w ith o th e r m e m b e r s of the o ccupational group, w ere not c o n siste n tly re la te d to e a c h o th e r in this study. As noted e a r l i e r , s e v e r a l w r i t e r s (M atza, 1964; B o rd u a and R e is s , 1967; and C um m ings, 1968) have c o m m e n te d on this a r e a and concluded that the police as an occupational, group do not constitute a p ro fe s s io n as defined by m o s t m o d e ls of p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n . Consequently, w hat is needed is fu r th e r r e f i n e m e n t and sp ecificatio n co n c e rn in g how m e m b e r s of "su b -p ro fessio n al", g roups, su ch as the police, c o m p a r e on c r i t e r i a c o n s id e re d im p o rta n t to that group. H ow ever, this does not m e a n that p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in d i- i c a to rs a re not useful in d is c rim in a tin g am ong police d e p a r tm e n ts . F o r e x am p le, the data of this su g g e s t that th e re m a y be th re e types of juvenile o ffic e rs with c o n tra s tin g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . j The Juvenile S p ecialist One type is p ro fe s s io n a liz e d in the s e n se of having train in g 106 and e x p e rtis e in juvenile m a t t e r s . It is in r e f e r e n c e to this type that W heeler, C ottrell, and R o m a sc o (1967:418) w rite: . . . the c u r r e n t tre n d s to w ard p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n in the field of delinquency p re v e n tio n and c o n tro l s e r v ic e s m a y lead to w ard a b r o a d e r c a te g o ry of p e r s o n s being defined as "in need of s e r v ic e " than in the p a s t. It is the v ery feeling of confidence in the s o p h is tic a te d techniques of m o d e rn in terv en tio n m e thods that m a y s e r v e as ju s ti f ic a tion for placing c h ild re n in s p e c ia l th e ra p e u tic settin g s, in re s id e n tia l c e n te rs , and in in stitu tio n s thought to be b en eficial for them . This explains the negative a s s o c ia tio n b etw ee n juvenile tra in in g and co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te and, yet, the p o sitiv e a s s o c ia tio n betw een juvenile train in g and p a r tic u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n . This is f u r th e r s u p p o rte d by the s tro n g positive a s s o c ia tio n (D = .40) b etw ee n juvenile train in g and knowledge of c o m m u n ity r e f e r r a l r e s o u r c e s and e s tim a te of r e f e r r a l s . (N early o n e -h a lf of all r e s o u r c e s n a m e d by the re s p o n d ents w e re v ario u s kinds of p s y c h ia tric clin ics and tr e a tm e n t c e n t e r s . ) Also, as pointed out in the p re v io u s ch a p te r, the d ata su g g e st that w hen juvenile o ffice rs who have b een highly involved in police o r g a n i zations undergo f o r m a l tra in in g for juvenile w o rk they b e c o m e m o r e likely to r e f e r y o u n g ste rs to the p ro b atio n d e p a rtm e n t. T h ese findings a r e in co m m o n w ith those of W h e e le r e t al.(1968) who found th a t am ong judges, those with m o r e tra in in g in b e h a v io ra l s c ie n c e s and, consequently, w ith m o r e th e ra p e u tic a lly o rie n te d attitu d es w e re m o r e > likely than o th e rs to c o m m it ju v e n iles to in stitu tio n s. T h e re is also evidence in the d ata th a t s u g g e sts th a t this type | of police p ro fe s s io n a l is tra in e d and e x p e rie n c e d in c o m m u n ity , re la - i ti o n s . Thus, we find in Table V. 16 p ositive a s s o c ia tio n s betw ee n | juvenile tra in in g and c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n a c tiv itie s (D = .07) and I 107 n u m b e r of c o m m u n ity ev en ts p a rtic ip a te d in (D = . 21). Both of th e se a r e , like juvenile training, in v e rs e ly re la te d to co unsel and r e le a s e ra te . The fact that th e re is a slight negative a ss o c ia tio n betw een j u venile train in g and local re s id e n c e and local frie n d s in d icates that while these p ro fe s s io n a ls m a y be active in the o rg an iz atio n al life of the c o m m u n ity they do not have re s id e n tia l o r frie n d sh ip ties within the com m u n ity . T h ese d ata p o r tr a y a juvenile b u re a u with som e of the s a m e c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of W ilso n 's " p ro fe s s io n a l" ethos, i . e . , p e rs o n n e l who a r e highly tra in e d and so p h istic a te d in the a r e a s that re la te m o s t to th e ir w ork, and who a r e v isible in the c o m m u n ity as police officers r a t h e r than as r e s id e n ts . H ow ever, the m a jo r d iffere n ce lies in the fact th a t th e se data do not s u p p o rt W ilso n 's contention of police who do not have p a r ti c u la r is tic c o n c e rn s . On the c o n tra ry , the p a r t i c u la ris tic c o n c e rn s found am ong the juvenile s p e c ia lis ts in this study m a y be underlying m o tiv atio n for low er co u n sel and r a t e s . The P o lic e G e n e ra lis t Not included in the juvenile s p e c ia lis t type a r e police o r g a nization activ itie s, police frie n d s , and f o r m a l education. Although i f o r m a l ed u catio n is a s s o c ia te d p o sitiv ely with juvenile train in g , c o m m u n ity o rg a n iz a tio n s, and c o m m u n ity events, it m o s t stro n g ly a s s o ciated w ith local frie n d s and co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te . This su g g ests] the b a s is of a second police type which in c o rp o ra te s the idea of j b ro a d ly e d u ca ted officer highly in te g ra te d into the c o m m u n ity on an ! | o rg a n iz a tio n a l lev el as w ell as via frie n d sh ip tie s . In c o n tra s t to the j 108 juvenile s p e c ia lis t, the police g e n e r a lis t does not have as m u c h ju v e nile tra in in g . F u r th e r , it would be ex p ec ted th a t d e p a rtm e n ts c h a r a c te r iz e d in this w ay a r e likely to have h ig h e r d iv e rs io n ra te s than d e p a rtm e n ts w ith juvenile s p e c ia lis ts . The F r a t e r n a l Police The th ird type of p ro fe s s io n a l tends to be o rie n te d to w a rd the occupational c u ltu re as a re fe re n c e group. In so m e ways it c o r r e sponds to W ilson's " f r a te r n a l " e th o s. The evidence f r o m T ables V. 14, V. 15, and V. 16 indicate a d e p a rtm e n t o r b u re a u w hose m e m b e r s a r e active in police o rg an iz atio n s and, in c o n t r a s t to the second type, have a la rg e p ro p o rtio n of s o c ia l frien d s who a r e police o ffic e rs . A lso, th e re tends to be le s s tra in in g in juvenile m a t t e r s , a h ig h e r p ro p o rtio n of local frie n d s, and le ss jo u rn a l re a d in g than in the f i r s t type. This type of d e p a r tm e n t would be likely to have high d iv e rs io n r a t e s . The above d e s c rip tio n s r e p r e s e n t f u r th e r re fin e m e n t of W ilso n 's typology of d e p a rtm e n ta l e th o s. It is up to additional r e s e a r c h to o p e ra tio n a liz e these concepts and te s t th e ir re s p e c tiv e effects on the d iv e rs io n of juveniles, as w ell as d iffere n tiate am ong j police d e p a r t m e n t s . J The G em e in sc h a ftlic h and G e s e llsc h a ftlic h j O rien ta tio n s I The ra tio n a le for this study w as th a t am ong d e p a rtm e n ts withj d e c e n tra liz e d d e c isio n m aking, d isp o sitio n d ecisio n s would be influ- j en ced by ro le o rien tatio n s pro v id ed by identification w ith and 109 p a rtic ip a tio n in co m m unity and p ro fe s s io n a l r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s . The o rien tatio n s re le v a n t to d isp o sitio n d ecisio n s w e re a s s u m e d to be s im i la r to the kinds of re la tio n s h ip s c i r c u m s c r ib e d in the G e m e in - s c h a ft-G e s e lls c h a ft (or lo c a l-c o s m o p o lita n ) typology. G rim e s and B e r g e r (1970), r e f e r r e d to e a r l i e r , have w a rn e d a g a in s t two pitfalls with re s p e c t to the use of the lo c a l-c o s m o p o lita n c o n s tru c t which a r e applicable h e r e . The f i r s t p r o b le m — that of a b ip o lar c o n s tru c t w h ere one is e ith e r local o r co sm o p o lita n — w as avoided. In stead of a b ip o la r use of G em ein sc h aft and G e s e lls c h a ft, it was a s s u m e d that the o rie n ta tio n w as b a s e d on two d im e n s io n s — co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n — and, th e re f o r e , could include m ix e d as w ell as p u re types of o rie n ta tio n s. A lso, the fact th a t the P e a r s o n ia n coefficient betw een the co m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t and the p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n s c a le s was .01 tended to d isco u n t the p o s s i bility th a t the two d im en sio n s w e re in terd ep en d en t. The seco n d p r o b le m involved in the use of the lo c a l- c o sm o p o lita n c o n s tru c t, a c c o rd in g to G rim e s and B e r g e r (1970), is i that of the o p e ra tio n a liz a tio n of the co n ce p ts. H e re th e re is le s s c e r - l tainty that the p r o b le m w as avoided. F o r e x am p le, although the p r o - | fe s sio n a liz a tio n and c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t s c a le s w e re not re la te d , they w e re both re la te d s e p a r a te ly to counsel and r e le a s e r a te in a - p o sitiv e d ire c tio n . If, in fact, a G em ein sc h aftlich o rien tatio n , i . e . , p a r tic u la r is tic c o n c e rn fo r ju v en iles, is re s p o n s ib le fo r high d i v e r - j sion r a te s , it is p o s sib le that the ite m s c o m p ris in g both s c a le s j actu ally r e p r e s e n t G e m ein sc h aftlich o rie n ta tio n s. O r it m a y be the c a s e that of the five p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n 110 in d ic a to rs se le c te d fo r the re v is e d an a ly sis (cf. Table V. 17), only juvenile tra in in g and police jo u rn a ls a r e adequate in d ic a to rs of the G e s e llsc h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n . Of the o th e r th re e in d ic a to rs, f o rm a l education m a y not be re le v a n t with r e s p e c t to o rie n ta tio n s to w ard juveniles, while so c ia l frie n d s who a r e police and police o rg an iz atio n a ctiv ities m a y p rovide the setting fo r G em e in sc h a ftlic h re la tio n sh ip s w hich c a r r y o v er into attitudes to w ard dealing w ith ju v e n iles. F o r ex am p le, police o rg a n iz a tio n activ ities m a y p rovide G em ein sc h aftlich o r G e s e llsc h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n s depending upon w hat o th e r fa c to rs , such as train in g , a r e involved. With r e s p e c t to the five in d ic a to rs of c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t (cf. Table V. 18), so cial frie n d s who a r e locals and local re s id e n c e m a y be the only adequate in d ic a to rs of G em ein sc h aftlich re la tio n sh ip s . As su g g e ste d e a r l i e r , lo cal frie n d sh ip s s e e m s to be the " p u re s t" o p e ra tio n a liz a tio n of p a r ti c u la r is tic and local c o n c e rn s . On the other hand, p a rtic ip a tio n in c o m m u n ity o rg an iz atio n s and events, as w ell as know ledge of and use of r e f e r r a l r e s o u r c e s , m a y not r e fle c t th e se p a r ti c u la r is tic c o n c e rn s but only the c a r r y in g out of a s s ig n m e n ts th a t 1 happen to be in the c o m m u n ity . T hat is , it m a y be m u c h m o r e " f r a - i te rn a l" to belong to police o rg an iz atio n s with o th e r police o ffice rs I than it is to attend civic o rg a n iz a tio n m e etin g s with re p r e s e n ta tiv e s ; of o th e r a g e n c ie s (none of w h o m m a y be re s id e n ts of the city). ! The conclusion th a t can be d raw n f r o m these e x a m p le s is th a t i the use of in d ic a to rs for the o rie n ta tio n s m u s t be b e tte r u n d ersto o d in t e r m s of th e ir re la tio n s h ip to the b e h a v io r and attitudes of juvenile i o ffic e rs re le v a n t to the d iv e rs io n p r o c e s s . At this point, if one w e re j I l l to re p lic a te this study, it would be of value to use s im p l e r in d ic a to rs of the o rie n ta tio n s, such as juvenile train in g and local frie n d s and re s id e n c e , and a tte m p t to d ev ise b e tte r attitude sc a le s to te s t the validity of the in d ic a to rs . Of c o u r s e , the p ro b le m s w hich a r o s e in this r e g a r d m a y not be due to inadequate o p eratio n a liz a tio n of concepts, but r a th e r to i n a p p ro p ria te th e o ry o r co n cep tu al fra m e w o rk by w hich to explain the d ata. Thus, it m a y be that G em ein sc h aftlich o r G e se llsc h a ftlic h o rien tatio n s to w ard dealing w ith juveniles do not d e riv e f r o m p a r t i c i pation in c o m m u n ity and p ro fe s s io n a l r e fe re n c e groups o r do not play a p a r t in d e te rm in in g d isp o sitio n d e c isio n s. This leads to p o s sib le a lte rn a tiv e explanations of the data. A lte rn a tiv e T h e o rie s The data su g g e st v a rio u s a lte rn a tiv e ex planations to the o rig in a l one that G em e in sc h a ftlic h and G e s e lls c h a ftlic h o rie n ta tio n s d e te rm in e d iv e rs io n level w hen d e c isio n -m a k in g is d e c e n tra liz e d . F o r ex am p le, the r e a d e r will r e c a ll that am ong d e p a rtm e n ts w ith d e - c e n tra liz e d d e c isio n m aking, identification with and p a rtic ip a tio n in both c o m m u n ity and p r o fe s s io n a l re fe re n c e groups tends to m ake a i d iffere n ce in d e te rm in in g d iv e rs io n r a te s . T hat is, in c o n t r a s t to the 1 a s su m p tio n that c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t o r p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n m a k e s aj d iffere n ce, it is total activity level that is p o sitiv ely r e la te d to counsel and r e le a s e ra te when holding b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l c o n stan t (c f. T ables V. 12 and V. 13). One cam sp ecu la te that the lack of d e p a r t m e n ta l c o n tro ls co m b in ed with a se n se of iso latio n f r o m im p o rta n t 112 r e fe re n c e g roups p ro d u ces a kind of anom ie within juvenile d iv isio n s. Having no f i r m guidelines as to w hat should be done with ju v e n iles, r e f e r r a l to the p ro b atio n d e p a rtm e n t m a y r e p r e s e n t a v e ry c o n c re te m e a n s by w hich to deal with y o u n g s te rs , i . e . , get som e o th e r agency to take the re s p o n sib ility fo r them . R elated to the idea of iso latio n and lack of n o rm s fo r dealing w ith juveniles, the four s ta tis tic a lly significant c u rv ilin e a r r e l a t i o n ships (cf. T ables V. 17, V. 18, and V .21) d is c u s s e d in the p re c e d in g c h a p te r su g g est an a lte rn a tiv e explanation to the one ju s t o ffered. In stead of iso la tio n being negatively re la te d to d iv e rsio n , th e se data yield a c u rv ilin e a r a s s o c ia tio n . Thus, in d e p a rtm e n ts w ithout g u id e lines (low b u r e a u c ra tic control), high o r low counsel and r e le a s e r a te s a re a s s o c ia te d w ith low police jo u rn a l re a d e rs h ip . A v erag e c o u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s a r e a s s o c ia te d with high jo u rn a l r e a d e r ship. This su g g ests the following pro p o sitio n : the g r e a t e r the c o m m itm e n t to the p ro fe s sio n , the g r e a t e r the co n fo rm ity to the n o r m fo r d iv e rs io n , ( i . e . , m o d e ra te o r av e ra g e ra te s ); and c o n v e rse ly , the le s s the c o m m itm e n t to the p ro fe s s io n , the g r e a t e r the d iv e rg e n c e f r o m the n o r m ( i . e . high o r low r a te s ) . A s im ila r ra tio n ale could be ; developed for the c u rv ilin e a r a ss o c ia tio n betw een p a rtic ip a tio n in co m m u n ity events and co u n sel and r e le a s e ra te under the condition of , I j low b u r e a u c ra tic c o n tro l and the c u rv ilin e a r rela tio n sh ip betw een ; juvenile train in g and d iv e rs io n u n d e r the condition of low local frie n d s l It can be fu rth e r sp ecu la ted that fo rm s of iso lation r e s u l t in j n o r m l e s s n e s s and lack of guidelines with r e s p e c t to the tr e a t m e n t of j ju v e n ile s. A cco rd in g to S eem an (1959:788) this j 113 . . . anom ic situ atio n . . . m a y be defined as one in w hich th e re is a high exp ec tan cy that so cially u n approved b e h a v io rs a r e r e q u ir e d to achieve given goals A pplied to the d iv e rs io n of ju v e n iles, the so cially d e sig n ated goal would be the curbing of juvenile delinquency (and p a r ti c u la r ly juvenile re c id iv is m ). T o w ard this end, d e p a rtm e n ts with the e x tre m e co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s (high o r low) m a y be those who a r e utilizing so cially u n ap p ro v ed b e h a v io rs ; that is, the tendency to handle m o s t young s t e r s w ithin the d e p a r tm e n t o r, c o n v e rs e ly , to file a petition on m o s t y o u n g s te rs is to engage in a fo rm of deviant b eh av io r as opposed to the n o r m or a v e ra g e ra te — in o r d e r to achieve so cially p r e s c r i b e d g oals. This is s i m i l a r to M e rto n 's "in n o v ato r" (1938) who a c c e p ts the c u ltu ra l goals but lacks the in stitu tio n alized m e a n s and, thus, r e s o r t s ! J to innovative b e h a v io r to r e a c h the goal. The p ro p o sitio n th a t e x tr e m e ly high o r low d iv e rs io n of youth m a y be c o n s id e re d d ev ian t b e h a v io r on the p a r t of police is a tte s te d to by the tenacious r e l u c tance on the p a r t of the chiefs and juvenile o ffice rs to d e c la r e that th e ir d e p a rtm e n ts w e re c o m m itte d to e ith e r a high or low d iv e rs io n ! policy. A dditional F u tu re R e s e a r c h B e sid e s the questions r a i s e d re g a rd in g p ro fe s s io n a liz a tio n of; police and juvenile o ffice rs and the p o ssib ility of th e o rie s b a s e d on a | i ra tio n a le which c o n s id e rs iso la tio n and n o r m l e s s n e s s of police, future! r e s e a r c h ought to c o n s id e r the d iffe re n tia l effects on d iv e rs io n fa c - \ t o r s such as the co m m u n ity p o litic a l p r e s s u r e s im pinging upon the j police d e p a rtm e n t, the av ailab ility of tim e on the p a r t of the juvenile j 114 o ffic e rs, and v ario u s d e m o g ra p h ic and eco lo g ica l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the co m m u n ity . A lso, one p a r tic u la r ly in te re s tin g and needed study would be to ex am in e the s e p a r a te and com bined effects of c h a r a c t e r is tic s of offenders and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of police d e p a rtm e n ts on d iv e rsio n . P r a c t i c a l Im p licatio n s of F indings Although the findings a r e le ss than conclusive with r e s p e c t to explaining the v a ria tio n am ong co u n sel and r e le a s e r a te s of the f o r t y - th re e d e p a rtm e n ts , they do r a is e som e p e rtin e n t questions w ith r e s p e c t to the a d m in is tra tio n of juvenile ju s tic e . The c o n siste n tly n e g a tive a s s o c ia tio n betw een a m o u n t of train in g in juvenile m a t t e r s and c o u n sel and r e le a s e ra te ought to be the topic of fu rth e r th e o re tic a l r e s e a r c h in t e r m s of explaining d iv e rs io n f r o m the ju stic e s y s te m . H ow ever, the findings should also ra is e questions for p la n n ers and policy m a k e r s w ith r e s p e c t to the p u rp o s e s , content, and effects of juvenile tra in in g for police o ffic e rs . F o r ex am p le, if a juvenile o ffice r is tra in e d to have a p a r ti c u la r is tic o rie n ta tio n does he then a u to m a tic a lly utilize the m o s t available and convenient tr e a tm e n t : p r o g r a m , i . e . , the juvenile c o u r t and p ro b atio n d e p a rtm e n t p r o - ' g r a m s , r a th e r than c o m m u n ity a g e n c ie s w hich a r e often difficult to | I w o rk with on a r e f e r r a l b a s is ? Beyond this a m o re im p o rta n t q u e s - | j tion should be ra is e d w ith r e s p e c t to the im p lic atio n s of p a r ti c u la r - j I istic o rie n ta tio n s in juvenile w ork; that is, m ig h t not individualized j tr e a tm e n t p a tte rn e d a fte r the m e d ic a l m o d e l of tr e a tm e n t h a s te n the I p r o c e s s by w hich the juvenile b e c o m e s defined by o th e rs and self as 115 delinquent? T h ese is s u e s cannot be fully re s o lv e d w ithout an adequate t e s t of labelling th e o ry ; that is, w hat kinds of e x p e rie n c e s , if any, ac tu a lly fo s te r the delinquent self concept and c a r e e r ? One o th e r a r e a of p r a c tic a l c o n c e rn w hich this study has touched upon tan g en tially is that of c o m m u n ity c o n tro l of p o lice. T hat is, so m e of the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs ?..nd the local o r i e n tation sc a le a r e re la te d to the is s u e of w h e th e r police a r e a p a r t of the c o m m u n ity w h ere they a r e em ployed. T h ese d ata su g g e st that the c o m m u n ity a tta c h m e n t in d ic a to rs — ex ce p t for an e s tim a te of o n e 's frie n d s who a r e lo cal people — a r e not v e ry m ean in g fu l in explaining d iffe re n c e s in d iv e rs io n of ju v e n ile s . Thus, to develop e la b o ra te c o m m u n ity re la tio n s p r o g r a m s w ithout n u rtu rin g p r i m a r y tie s and p a r ti c u la r is tic c o n c e rn s w ith the re s id e n ts m a y be m is s in g the point f r o m the p e rs p e c tiv e of the people living in the c o m m u n ity and affected by police b e h a v io r. A PPE N D IX I P R O F IL E O F JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S IN S A M P L E 116 117 T A B L E A AGE O F JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S Age N % 21-25 3 2. 3 26-30 15 11.5 31-35 25 19. 2 36-40 38 29 .2 41-45 26 20. 0 46-50 13 10. 0 51-55 5 3 .8 56-60 3 2 .3 60+ 2 1.5 130 9 9 .8 T A B L E B N U M BER O F YEARS ON P O L IC E F O R C E O F JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S Y ears N % 0-5 19 14. 5 5-9 40 30. 8 10-15 34 26 .2 15+ 37 28. 5 130 100. 0 118 TABLE C L E V E L O F EDUCATION OF JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S H ig h est E d ucational L ev e l A ttained N % 1 1th g ra d e (1) 0 0. 0 12th g rad e (2) 11 8. 5 1 y e a r — college (3) 31 23.8 2 y e a r s — college (4) 52 40. 0 3 y e a r s — college (5) 19 14. 6 4 y e a r s — college (6) 11 8. 5 1 y e a r — g ra d , study (7) 4 3. 1 2 y e a r s — g ra d , study (8) 2 1.5 130 100. 0 M ean = 4. 06 S tan d a rd D eviation = 1. 26 M edian = 3. 94 T A B L E D F A T H E R 'S O CCUPATION OF JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S 1 O ccupational G rouping N % 1. ExecutivteSy j M a jo r P r o f e s s io n a ls 5 4 .5 2. M a n a g e rs 13 11.6 3. A d m in is tra tiv e , P e r s o n n e l 13 11.6 4. C le r ic a l and Sales 18 16. 1 5. Skilled Manual"" 39 34.9 6. M achine, S em i-S k ille d 17 15. 2 7. U nskilled 7 6. 3 112 100. 0 ❖ Includes 4 p o lic e m e n (3.6%). .-B ased on H ollingshead Oc c upational Scale. 119 TABLE E NUMBER OF POLICE ORGANIZATIONS BELONGED TO BY JUVENILE OFFICERS N u m b e r of O rg an iza tio n s N % 0 15 11.5 1 19 14.6 2 31 23.8 3 32 24.6 4 22 16.9 5 8 6.2 6 3 2.3 130 100.0 M ean = 2. 49 S ta n d a rd D eviation =1.50 M ed ian = 2. 50 T A B L E F N UM BER O F JU V E N IL E TRAINING PROGRAM S A T T E N D E D BY JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S N u m b e r of P r o g r a m s N % 0 62 47.7 1 44 33.8 2 11 8 .5 3 11 8 .5 4 2 1.5 130 100.0 M ean = .82 S ta n d a rd D eviation =1.01 M edian = . 57 120 TABLE G NUMBER OF POLICE JOURNALS MENTIONED AS READ BY JUVENILE OFFICERS N u m b e r of J o u rn a ls N % 0 60 4 6 .2 1 38 29. 2 2 16 12. 3 3 11 8 .5 4 3 2. 3 5 2 1.5 130 100.0 M ean = .96 S tan d a rd D eviation M edian = . 63 1 ! h - k - 00 T A B L E H PR O PO R T IO N O F JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S ' SOCIAL FRIEN DS WHO A RE P O L IC E O F F IC E R S P ro p o rtio n N % None (1) 9 6.9 F ew (2) 47 3 6 .2 Som e (3) 43 33. 1 M o st (4) 30 23. 1 All (5) 1 .8 130 100.0 M ean =2 .7 5 S tan d a rd D eviation = M edian = 2.71 .92 121 TABLE I NUMBER OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS BELONGED TO BY JUVENILE OFFICERS N u m b e r of O rg an izatio n s N % 0 60 46. 2 1 30 23. 1 2 14 10.8 3 11 8 .5 4 7 5 .4 5 5 3 .8 6 1 0.8 7 2 1.5 130 100.0 M ean =1.2 6 S tan d a rd D eviation =1.65 M edian = . 67 T A B L E J NUM BER O F COMMUNITY EV EN TS P A R T IC IP A T E D IN BY JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S N u m b e r of E vents N % 0 96 73.8 1 21 16.2 2 4 3. 1 3 5 3 .8 4 4 3. 1 130 100.0 M ean = . 46 S tan d a rd D eviation M edian = 0 .0 = .96 122 TABLE K LO CA TIO N O F R ESID EN C E O F JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S N % W ithin City 66 51. 2 O utside City 63 48. 8 129 100. 0 T A B L E L L E N G T H O F R ESID EN C E IN CITY BY JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S N u m b e r of Y e a rs N % 0-1 0 0. 0 1-5 4 6. 1 5 -io 13 19. 7 10+ 49 74.2 66 100. 0 T A B L E M IF YOU LIV E WITHIN THIS CITY, DO YOU OWN (OR A R E YOU BUYING) YOUR HOME? N % Yes No 57 __8 65 87.7 12.3 100. 0 123 TABLE N IF YOU LIVE WITHIN TH E CITY, DID YOU VOTE IN THE LA ST M U N IC IPA L E L E C T IO N ? N % Yes 63 95 .5 No _3 4 .5 66 100. 0 T A B L E O PR O PO R T IO N O F JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R S ' SOCIAL FRIENDS WHO ARE LO CA L PERSONS P ro p o rtio n N % None (1) 10 7 .7 Few (2) 23 17.7 Som e (3) 48 36.9 M any (4) 46 3 5 .4 All (5) 3 2 .3 130 100.0 M ean =3. 07 S tan d a rd D eviation M edian = 3.17 = .97 A PP E N D IX II TH E JU V E N IL E O F F IC E R QUESTIONNAIRE 124 C a l i f o r n i a C o u n c i l C r i m i n a l J u S T I C K R C G IO * S H E R IF F PE T E R J. PITCHESS CHAIRM AN L O S A N G E L E S C O U N T Y SUB -H EG IO NA L ADVISORY BOARD 37 1 7 S O U T H G R A N D A V E N U E • L O S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA B 0 0 0 7 • T E L E P H O N E 74 6 -6 0 7 3 R O N A L D F . W E B E R E X E C U T IV E O F F IC E R JUVENILE OFFICER QUESTIONNAIRE This questionnaire you are about to complete is part of the criminal justice planning operation being carried out by the Los Angeles Regional Planning Board of the California_ Council or. Criminal- Justice in conjunction with the Public bystems Kesearcn institute or tne University or southern California. This particular study is being conducted by one of the ten task forces set up by the Council to aid in planning for criminal justice in L03 Angeles County. Chiefs and juvenile officers of over forty police departments are participating. Please try to answer all of the questions as thoroughly as possible. The answers you give will be kept confidential and will not be identifiable in the grouped results. Many of the questions require a check mark next to an answer that most appropriately fits your situation. In instances where you must fill in the answer, try to be brief, while still providing the necessary information in a complete way. Thank you for your cooperation. 1. J u v e a l l a O f f i c e r Q u e s tio n n a ir e C ity _ Name o f O f f i c e r Q u e s tio n n a ir e A d m in is tr a to r D a te 1 . W hat I s y o u r o f f i c i a l ra n k a n d t i t l e ? 2 . How o l d a r a y o u ?______ 3 . A re y o u p r e s e n t l y m a r r ie d ? ye a no 4 . Z f y o u h a v e c h i l d r e n , how m any? U hat l a th e r a n g a o f t h e i r a g e s ? 5 . How many y e a r s h a v e y o u r w o rk e d o n t h i s p o l i c e f o r c e ? 0 - 1 1 - 2 2 - 3 3 - 4 4 - S 5 - 9 10 - 15 15 a n d a b o v e 6 . P l e a s e c h ec k t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n y o u h a v e c o m p le te d . g r a d e 11 g r a d e 12 1 y e a r o f c o l l e g e 2 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e 3 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e 4 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e 1 y e a r o f g r a d u a te s c h o o l 2 o r m o re y e a r s o f g r a d u a te s c h o o l 6 b . A re y o u now e n r o l l e d £n a c o l l e g e c o u r s e o f s t u d y ? y e s no 7 . U h a t d e g r e e ( s ) d o y o u h o ld ? 8 . W hat I s / w a s y o u r f a t h e r ' s p r im a r y o c c u p a tio n ? 127 2. 9 . P le a s * l i s t t h e p o l i c e p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a s s o c i a t i o n s , a n d c lu b s o f w h ic h y o u a r e a m em ber. I f y o u do n o t b e lo n g t o a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e p o l i c e p r o f e s s i o n go on t o q u e s t i o n D1 9 . 1 0 . B r i e f l y d e s c r i b e i n a s e n te n c e o r tw o t h e p u rp o s e a n d a c t i v i t i e s o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( s ) . 3. P l e a s * w r i t e t h e name o f e a c h p o l i c e a s s o c i a t i o n , c l u b , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f w h ic h a r e a m em ber I n t h e v e r t i c a l c o lu m n s im m e d ia te ly h e lo w a n d th e n o n t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g th e m . I f y o u d o n o t b e lo n g t o a n y , o n t o 0 1 9 . _________________________ __ e o •H 4 J m U -t N O -H c q i a e m m w S t O i 1 1 . How a c t i v e i s y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( a ) ? e x tr e m e ly a c t i v e v e r y a c t i v e som ew hat a c t i v e n o t v e ry a c t i v e n o t a c t i v e a t a l l 1 2 . Bow m any h o u r s p e r m onth do y o u s p e n d i n a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n on t h e a v e r a g e ? 0 - 1 1 - 5 5 - 1 0 10 - 15 o v e r IS 1 3 . How m any o f th e l a s t 4 m e e t i n g s h a v e a tte n d e d ? n o n e 1 2 3 4 1 4 . H ave y o u h e l d a n o f f i c e I n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n I n t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s ? y e s n o 1 5 . How many y e a r s h a v e y o u b e e n a m em ber? 0 - 1 1 - 2 2 - 3 3 - 4 4 - 5 o v e r 5 129 4. g *4 U « . H ' a) r a § B s : o I n te r m s o f y o u r j o b I n t h i s d e p a r tm e n t, I s m e m b e rsh ip I n t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d h i g h l y recom m ended s u g g e s te d m akes n o d i f f e r e n c e d is c o u r a g e d P l e a s a c h e c k how I m p o r ta n t y o u r m em b ersh ip I n t h i s o r g a n - , i z a t l o n I s t o y o u i n y o u r w o rk d e a l i n g .w ith j u v e n i l e s . e x tr e m e ly I m p o r ta n t v e r y I m p o r ta n t som ew hat I m p o r ta n t n o t v e r y im p o r ta n t n o t im p o r ta n t a t a l l I S . O f a l l Che p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o w h ic h y o u b e lo n g , w h ic h . I f a n y , l a t h e m o s t I m p o r ta n t t o y o u r w o rk w i t h y o u th ? 1 9 . A re t h e r e a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o r g ro u p s r e l a t e d t o y o u r w o rk t h a t y o u w o u ld l i k a t o j o i n ? P l e a s a l i s t . * 2 0 . x f y e s t o U19, why w o u ld y o u I l k a t o b e a m em ber? P l e a s a r a n k t h e f o ll o w i n g p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s l a o r d e r o f y o u r p r e f e r e n c e . ( P la c e th e #1 n e x t t o t h e a n s w e r w h ic h m o s t a c c u r a t e l y f i t s y o u r f e e l i n g s , 02 t o t h e a n s w e r w h ic h i s s e c o n d i n y o u r p r e f e r e n c e , e t c . ) t o o b t a i n I n f o r m a tio n a n d g u i d e l i n e s f o r w o rk t o e n jo y s o c i a l f e l l o w s h i p w ith o t h e r p o l i c e o f f i c e r s t o i n c r e a s e c h a n c e s f o r p ro m o tio n o t h e r ( f i l l I n a n s w e r i f o t h e r th a n a b o v e) 130 5. 21* P le a a * l i s t t h e t r a i n i n g p ro g r a m s s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o j u v e n i l e m a t t e r s . w h ic h y o u h a v e b e e n I n v o lv e d I n a s a t r a i n e e d u r in g t h e l a s t f o u r y e a r s I n th e v e r t i c a l c o lu m n s I m m e d ia te ly b e lo w a n d th e n a n s w e r t h e q u e s ti o n s * I f t h i s d o e s n o t a p p ly t o y o u , g o o n t o q u e s t i o n if 24* . . . . . . . .. . . bd • ■ c •H -S < 0 . SI 2 2 . - l a C a m s o f y o u r j o b I n t h i s d e p a r tm e n t, w as t h i s r e q u i r e d h i g h l y recom m ended s u g g e s te d made n o d i f f e r e n c e d i s c o u r a g e d 2 3 . I n te rm s o f y o u r w o rk w ith j u v e n i l e s , how im p o r ta n t w as t h i s t r a i n i n g e x p e r i e n c e ? e x tr e m e ly im p o r t a n t ____ v e r y i m p o r t a n t ____________________ ■ ________ __ ___________ s om ew hat im p o r ta n t n o t v e r y i m p o r t a n t _________ ■ • ________________ _______ _ n o t i m p o r t a n t a t a l i i 1 , 1 I 2 4 . A re t h e r e a n y j o u r n a l s o r m a g a z in e s r e l a t e d t o y o u r w o rk t h a t y o u f e e l a r e Im p o r ta n t? I f y e s , p l e a s e l i s t th e t i t l e s . 2 5 . I f y e s t o 5 2 4 , how f r e q u e n t l y w o u ld y o u e s t i m a t e t h a t y o u r e a d them ? ' e x tr e m e ly f r e q u e n t l y ve r y f r e q u e n t l y s om ew hat f r e q u e n t l y n o t v d ry f r e q u e n t l y n o t f r e q u e n t l y a t a l l j 2 6 . . How w o u ld y o u co m p are y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l i c e p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ith t h a t o f y o u r c o - w o r k e r s ( o t h e r j u v e n i l e o f f i c e r s ) ? t h e y a r e m ore a c t i v e o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s a b o u t t h e sam e th e y a r e l e s s a c t i v e 131 6. 2 7 . S o n s p e o p le s p e n d c o n s i d e r a b l e tim e w ith t h e i r c o -w o rk e rs I n l e i s u r e o r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , o t h e r s do n o t . How w o u ld y o u e s t i m a t e th e o f f - d u ty . o r s o c i a l c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r m em bers o f p o l i c e d e p a r tm e n ts ? al l o f my s o c i a l f r i e n d s a r e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s mo s t o f my s o c i a l f r i e n d s a r e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s s ome o f my s o c i a l f r i e n d s a r e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s few o f my s o c i a l f r i e n d s a r e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s n o n e o f my s o c i a l f r i e n d s a r e p o l i c e o f f i c e r s 2 8 . P l e a s a l i s t a l l o f t h e c o m u n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( c h u r c h , c i v i c a s s o c i a t i o n s , f r a t e r n a l g r o u p s , y o u th s e r v i n g a g e n c i e s , e t c * ) l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h i s . c i t y o f w h ic h you a r e a member* I f y ou d o n o t b e lo n g t o a n y , go t o #41* 2 9 . B r i e f l y s t a t e I n a s e n te n c e o r tw o t h e p u rp o s e and a c t i v i t i e s - o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . 132 7. 30. P l e a s e w r i t e t h e n a m e ( s ) o f th e c o ia n u n ity o r g a n i z a t i o n ( s ) o f w h ich y o u a r e a m em ber I n th e v e r t i c a l c olum ns Im m e d ia te ly b e lo w a n d th e n a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n in g them b y c h e c k in g th e a p p r o p r i a t e b o x e s . i f y OU j o n o t b e lo n g t o a n y , go on t o 0 4 1 . c o ■ ■H w N 0 -rt 01 C O E Hi < 0 W z c 3 1 . How a c t i v e l a y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n I n t h e o r g a n l z a t i o n ( s ) ' e x tr e m e lv a c t i v e v e r v a c t i v e so m ew h a t a c t i v e n o t v e r v a c t i v e n o t a c t i v e a t a l l 3 2 . P l e a s a e s t i m a t e t h e num ber o f h o u r s p e r m o n th y o u s p e n d I n a c t i v i t i e s o f th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o n t h e a v e r a g e . 0 - 1 1 - 5 5 - 1 0 10 - 15 o v e r 15 3 3 . How' m any o f t h e l a s t 4 m e e t i n g s h a v e y o u a tte n d e d ? n o n e ..... 1 2 ' « 3 4 34 . H a v e y o u h e l d a n o f f i c e I n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s ? y e s n o 3 5 . How many y e a r s h a v e y o u b e e n a m em ber? 0 - 1 1 - 2 2 - 3 3 - 4 4 - 5 o v e r 5 133 8. e o *4 S 0 * r 4 c 0 1 ( 9 § e 2: o 3 6 . I n te rm s o f y o u r j o b i n t h i s d e p a r tm e n t, i s m em b ersh ip i n t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d h i g h l y recom m ended s u g g e s te d m ak e s n o d i f f e r e n c e d i s c o u r a g e d 3 7 . P l e a s e c h e c k how im p o r ta n t y o u r m e m b e rsh ip i n t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i 3 t o y o u i n y o u r w o rk d e a l i n g w ith j u v e n i l e s . e x tr e m e ly im p o r ta n t v e r y im p o r ta n t so m ew h at im p o r ta n t n o t v e r y im p o r ta n t n o t im p o r ta n t a t a l l 3 8 . A re y o u a llo w e d t i m e - o f f o r p a i d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ? y e s n o 3 9 . I n te r m s o f y o u r m e m b e rsh ip i n t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , w o u ld y o u c o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f f o r e m o s t a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f : .th e p o l i c e . v o u r s e l f a s a c i t i z e n c a n ' t s e p a r a t e them 4 0 . W hich o f t h e a b o v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i f a n y , d o y o u c o n s i d e r t o b e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o y o u r w o rk w ith y o u th ? 134 4 1 . B e s id e s com m unity o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h ic h y o u m ig h t b a a m em ber o f , p l e a s a l i s t any m a jo r com m unity e v e n t s o r a c t i v i t i e s o f t h i s c i t y I n w h ic h you p a r t i c i p a t e , e . g . , s p o r t s , fu n d r a i s i n g , y o u th p ro g r a m s . P la c e them l a th e v e r t i c a l c o lu im s Im m e d ia te ly b e lo w a n d a n s w e r th e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e m . I f y o u do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e I n a n y , go o n t o # 4 5 . 4 1 b . I n t a r n s o f y o u r jo b I n t h i s d e p a r tm e n t, i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n c; re q p lp q d h ltth J.v recom m ended s u g g e s te d m akes n o d i f f e r e n c e • d is c o u r a g e d 4 2 . P l e a s a c h e c k how I m p o r ta n t ' y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s t o yo u I n y o u v p o l i c e w o rk d e a l i n g w i t h j u v e n i l e s . e x tr e m e lv lm n o r ta n t v e r y lm n o r ta n t som ew hat im D o rta n t n o t v e r v im o o r ta n t n o t I m p o r ta n t a t a l l 4 3 . A re y o u a llo w e d t l m e - o f f o r p a i d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n ? ■r ■ y e s no 4 4 . I n te r m s o f y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n I n t h i s a c t i v i t y , w o u ld y o u c o n s i d e r y o u r s e l f f o r e m o s t a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f : * • t h e D o lic e y o u r s e l f a s a c i t i z e n c a n ' t s e p a r a t e them 135 10. 4 5 . Do y o u l i v e w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f t h i s c i t y ? n o (go t o q u e s t i o n # 4 9 ) 4 6 . I f y e s t o # 4 5 , how many y e a r s h a v e y o u l i v e d i n t h i s c i t y ? 0 - 1 1 - 5 5 - 10 over 10 4 7 . I f y e s t o # 4 5 , do y o u own ( o r a r e y o n b u y in g ) th e h o n e i n w h ic h y o u l i v e ? y e s n o 4 8 . I f y o u a r e a r e s i d e n t o f t h i s c i t y , d i d y o u v o te i n t h e l a a t m u n ic ip a l e l e c t i o n ? y e s no 4 9 . I f n o t o q u e s t i o n # 4 5 , i n w h a t c i t y d o y o u l i v e ? 5 0 . T he d e p a r tm e n ta l p o l i c y c o n c e r n i n g r e s i d e n c e w i t h i n t h i s c i t y i s t h a t i t i s r e q u i r e d recom m ended ■ _ ma k e s no d i f f e r e n c e d is c o u r a g e d p r o h i b i t e d 5 1 . W hat i s th e name o f th e l o c a l co m m u n ity new sp ap er, o f t h i s c i t y ? 5 2 . W ould y ou s a y t h a t y o u r e a d i t e x tr e m e ly f r e q u e n t l y v e r y f r e q u e n t l y som ew hat f r e q u e n t l y n o t v e r y f r e q u e n t l y n o t f r e q u e n t l y a t a l l 5 3 . Do y o u r e c a l l who won th e l a s t s c h o o l b o a rd e l e c t i o n i n t h i s c i t y ? P l e a s e w r i t e t h e n a m e (s ) . 5 4 . P l e a s e l i s t th e com m unity r e s o u r c e s ( e x c lu d in g t h e j u v e n i l e c o u r t an d t h e p r o b a t i o n a n d w e l f a r e d e p a r tm e n ts ) t o w h ic h y o u m ig h t r e f e r j u v e n i l e s , a n d e s t i m a t e how o f t e n y o u u s e e a c h r e s o u r c e . ' F r e q u e n c y H I Ir. 136 XI. 5 5 . I n y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n .the l i f e o f t h i s c i t y you n a y o r n a y n o t h a v e th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n e i n c o n t a c t w ith J u v e n i l e s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s b e f o r e t h e j u v e n i l e beco m es a s u s p e c t o r a c t u a l d e l i n q u e n t . How w ould y o u e s t i m a t e t h e num ber o f k i d s y ou know p r i o r t o " o f f i c i a l " c o n t a c t s you h a v e w ith them ? a l l o f them m any o f them som e o f them few o f them n o n e o f them 5 6 . C o n c e rn in g y o u r s o c i a l a n d l e i s u r e tim e a c t i v i t i e s , how w o u ld yo u e s t i m a t e y o u r o f f - d u t y o r s o c i a l c o n t a c t s w ith o t h e r p e r s o n s who l i v e h e r e i n th e c i t y ? a l l o f my f r i e n d s a r e l o c a l p e o p le m o s t o f my f r i e n d s a r e l o c a l p e o p le • s eme o f my f r i e n d s a r e l o c a l p e o p le few o f my f r i e n d s a r e l o c a l p e o p le n o n e o f my f r i e n d s a r e l o c a l p e o p le 5 7 . P l e a s e t a k e a l l o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d com m unity o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h ich y o u h a v e named a s b e in g a member o f a n d ra n k them a c c o r d in g t o t h e Im p o r ta n c e th e y h a v e f o r y o u i n c a r r y i n g o u e y o u r w o rk a s a j u v e n i l e o f f i c e r ( o r i n w o rk in g w ith J u v e n i l e s ) . P la c e them i n o r d e r w ith th e m o st i m p o r ta n t f i r s t a n d th e l e a s t I m p o r ta n t l a s t , e t c . 137 12 I n t h i s s e c t i o n we w o u ld l i k e t o o b t a i n a o n e i n f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g d e p a r tm e n ta l p o l i c y a n d p r o c e d u r e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o " c o u n s e l and r e l e a s e " o f j u v e n i l e s . 3 8 . P o l i c y I n t h i s d e p a r tm e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f a j u v e n i l e a t th e p o i n t o f s e n d in g th e j u v e n i l e t o p r o b a t i o n o r j u v e n i l e c o u r t o r r e l e a s i n g h im I s t h a t g e n e r a l l y v s a r e t o s e n d o n to p r o b a t i o n o r c o u r t ( f i l e a p e t i t i o n ) (g o on t o q u e s ti o n 1 6 3 ) c o u n s e l a n d r e l e a s e (g o t o q u e s t i o n 163) m ake th e d e c i s i o n o n th e b a s i s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f e a c h I n d i v i d u a l c a s e (g o t o q u e s t i o n 162) t h e r e I s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d p o l i c y (go t o q u e s ti o n 159) 5 9 . I f t h e r e i s no p o l i c y , d o e s t h i s m ean t h a t th e d e c i s i o n I s l e f t up t o th e t o t a l d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e j u v e n i l e o f f i c e r ? y e s (g o t o q u e s t i o n 161) no (g o t o q u e s t i o n 1 60) - 6 0 . I f n o t o 1 5 9 , i s t h e d e c i s i o n o f t h e j u v e n i l e o f f i c e r a p p ro v e d , r e v ie w e d , e v a l u a t e d b y a s u p e r v i s o r ? e x p l a i n . (T hen go t o q u e s t i o n 161) 6 1 . W hat a r e t h e f a c t o r s w h ic h u s u a l l y d e te r m in e th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e c a s e ? ( A f t e r a n s w e r in g , g o t o q u e s t i o n 166) 6 2 . W hat a r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h d e te r m in e th e d e c i s io n ? (go t o q u e s ti o n 163) 6 3 . W hat k in d s o f p r o c e d u r e s a r e u s e d t o Im p lem e n t th e p o l i c y ; t h a t l a , m u s t t h e d i s p o s i t i o n d e c i s i o n b e a p p r o v e d , r e v ie w e d , o r e v a l u a t e d b y a s u p e r v is o r ? E x p l a in . ( A f t e r a n s w e r in g , go t o q u e s t i o n 164) 6 4 . How much d i s c r e t i o n do yo u f e e l y o u h a v e i n m ak in g d i s p o s i t i o n d e c i s io n s ? ■ a g r e a t d e a l s ome v e r y l i t t l e 6 5 . H ave t h e r e b e e n a n y m a jo r c h a n g e s I n d i s p o s i t i o n p o l i c i e s o f t h i s d e p a r tm e n t r e c e n t l y ? I f s o , p l e a s e e x p l a i n . 138 13. I n th a f o ll o w i n g s t c t l o a p l e a s a c i r c l e Che re s p o n s e w h ic h bcsC f i t s y o u r f e e l i n g . 6 6 . F o r a p o lic e m a n who d e a l s w ith y o u t h , I t r e a l l y l a a good I d e a t o l i v e I n t h e c i t y w h e re h e w o rk s . S t r o n g l y A g rea U n d e cid e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 6 7 . R e a l f r i e n d s a r e h a r d t o f i n d I n t h i s c i t y . S t r o n g l y A g re a U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e ■— D is a g r e e 6 8 . T he s u c c e s s o f a p o lic e m a n d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n how much a p a r t o f t h e ■ com m unity h e f e e l s h im s e lf t o b e . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e cid e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 6 9 . T h e ra a r e n o t m any c i t i e s a s n i c e a s t h i s o n e . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e cid e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 0 . To w o rk e f f e c t i v e l y w ith j u v e n i l e p ro b le m s i n t h i s c i t y i t 13 b e s t n o t t o . g e t to o in v o lv e d i n t h e l i f e o f th e co m m unity. S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 1 . G e n e r a ll y I f e e l t h a t I am a r e a l p a r t o f t h i s com m unity. S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 2 . T h i s com m unity 13 a b l e t o d e a l w ith a n d s o lv e I t s d e lin q u e n c y p ro b le m s . m o s t o f t h e tim e w i t h o u t h a v in g t o u t i l i z e th e c o u r t s an d p r o b a t i o n . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re a ' . D is a g r e e - 7 3 . I f i n d my r e l a t i o n s w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of- o t h e r a g e n c ie s I n t h i s co m m u n ity v e r y s a t i s f y i n g . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re a D is a g r e e 7 4 . T h e l e s s tim e I h a v e t o s p e n d I n t h i s c i t y t h e b e t t e r . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 5 . M em b ersh ip I n l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d g ro u p s r e a l l y h a s no u s e f u l n e s s t o my w o rk . S t r o n g l y A g ree U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 139 14. 76. T h i s i s o n e c i t y w h ic h g i v e s a g r e a t d e a l o f s u p p o r t t o i t s p o l i c e f o r c e . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 7 . O ne o f t h e t h i n g s w ro n g w ith J u v e n i l e w o rk t h e s e d a y s i s t h a t to o many k i d s e s c a p e p u n is h m e n t f o r t h e i r la w b re a k ln g a c t s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 8 . I n my w o rk 1 h a v e fo u n d t h a t , g iv e o r t a k e a few m in o r d i f f e r e n c e s , m o s t j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t s c a n b e t r e a t e d t h e sam e. S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 7 9 . A lth o u g h a k id may b r e a k a la w , i t r e a l l y i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s ta n d h im p e r s o n a l l y - h i s m o t i v a t i o n s , f a m ily l i f e an d c ir c u m s ta n c e s - b e f o r e y o u c an d e c i d e w h e th e r t o s e n d h im t o t h e p r o b a t i o n d e p a r tm e n t o r j u v e n i l e c o u r t o r r e l e a s e h im . S t r o n g l y A g re e • U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e . D is a g r e e 8 0 . One w ay t o e n s u r e a d e q u a te p o l i c e h a n d lin g o f k i d s i s t o t r e a t them a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r d e e d s r a t h e r th a n a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t t h e i r "p ro b le m " m ig h t b e . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 8 1 . G e n e r a l l y t h e r o l e o f th e p o l i c e w ith r e s p e c t t o j u v n i l a s an d th e com m unity i s r e a l l y t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r r a t h e r th a n e n f o r c e th e l a v . S t r o n g l y A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A s r e e D is a g r e e 8 2 . I n p r o v i d i n g a b a s i s f o r a r r e s t i n g o r r e l e a s i n g a y o u t h , f a m i l i a r i t y w ith g e n e r a l t h e o r i e s o f d e lin q u e n c y a n d i t s c a u s e s i s p r o b a b ly th e m o st i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . S t r o n g l y A g re e “ U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 8 3 . G e t t i n g t o b e p e r s o n a l l y a c q u a in te d a n d i n v o lv e d w i t h j u v e n i l e s u s p e c t s a n d o f f e n d e r s o n ly h a m p e rs t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e s y s te m . S tr o n g ly A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 8 4 . A go o d p r i n c i p l e t o f o ll o w i s t h a t a n o f f i c e r s h o u ld a lw a y s re m a in im p e rs o n a l i n d e a l i n g w ith j u v e n i l e s u s p e c t s . S tr o n g ly A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g re e D is a g r e e 8 5 .W ith th e r e c e n t c o u r t d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n in g th e r i g h t s o f J u v e n i l e s u s p e c t s , i t i s b e s t t o d e a l w ith a l l j u v e n i l e s b y l e t t i n g th e p r o b a tio n d e p a r tm e n t o r J u d g e d e c i d e w h a t t o d o w i t h th e k i d . S tr o n g ly A g re e U n d e cid e d A g re e D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly D is a g r e e 140 1 5 . 8 4 . I n p r o v id i n g a b a a l s f o r a r r e s t i n g o r r e l e a s i n g a y o u t h , f a m i l i a r i t y w ith t h e I n d i v i d u a l d e l i n q u e n t l a p r o b a b ly t h e m o a t im p o r ta n t f a c t o r . S tr o n g ly A g re e Un d e c i d e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g ree D is a g r e e 8 7 . I n my w o r k I h a v e fo u n d t h a t , g iv e o r t a k a a few m in o r d i f f e r e n c e s , m o s t j u v e n i l e 'd e l i n q u e n t s a r e t h e sam e o r v e r y n e a r l y s o . S tr o n g ly A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g ree D is a g r e e 8 8 . I n t h i s d e p a r tm e n t t h e p o s i t i o n o f j u v e n i l e o f f i c e r h a s a h ig h d e g re e o f p re B tlg e . S t r o n g l y - A g re e U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g ree D is a g r e e 89 . As a g e n e r a l p o l i c y , I t i s a d v i s a b l e t o f o llo w o n e 's p e r s o n a l ju d g m e n t c o n c e r n in g t h e j u v e n i l e r a t h e r th a n a n e s t a b l i s h e d s e t o f fo r m a l r u l e s I n m a k in g a d e c i s i o n c o n c e r n in g h i a d i s p o s i t i o n . S tr o n g ly A g ree U n d e c id e d D is a g r e e S tr o n g ly A g ree D is a g r e e to u h a v e c o m p le te d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h an k y o u f o r y o u r tim e an d c o o p e r a t i o n . A PPEN D IX III D ESC R IPTIO N O F CITIES AND D E P A R T M E N T S OF S A M P L E 141 142 T A B L E A 1970 PO PU LA TIO N OF 47 CITIES: T O T A L AND BY R A C E* City Total P opulation White B lack O ther A lh a m b ra 62, 125 60,278 197 1, 650 A rc a d ia 42, 868 42,608 32 228 A zusa 25,217 24, 588 22 607 Baldwin P a r k 47, 285 45 ,7 6 6 248 1, 271 Bell 21, 836 21,399 21 416 B ell G ard en s 29,308 28,109 31 1, 168 B e v e rly Hills 33, 416 32, 751 348 317 . B urbank 88, 871 87,769 60 1, 042 C la re m o n t 23, 464 22, 536 353 575 Compton 78, 611 20,776 55, 781 2, 054 Covina 30, 380 2 9,802 133 445 C ulver City 31, 035 29,580 131 1, 324 Downey 88, 445 87, 190 128 1, 127 E l Monte 69,837 67,958 114 1, 765 E l Segundo 15, 620 15,468 19 133 G ard en a 41, 021 29,565 1, 475 9, 981 Glendale 132, 752 130,460 84 2, 208 G lendora 31, 349 30,999 73 277 H aw thorne 53, 304 49 ,6 8 6 1, 727 1,891 H e rm o s a Beach 17, 412 17, 190 39 183 Huntington P a r k 33, 744 32, 816 65 863 Inglewood 8 9,985 77, 331 10, 066 2, 588 Irw indale NA NA NA NA La V erne 12, 965 12,713 84 168 Long B each 358,633 329,0 8 4 18, 991 10,558 Lynwood 43,353 4 2,387 160 806 : M anhattan B each 35, 352 34, 917 35 400 M aywood 16, 996 16,526 12 458 143 T A B L E A (continued) 1970 P O P U L A T IO N O F 47 CITIES: TO T A L AND BY RA CE* City Total Population White B lack O th er M o n ro v ia 30, 015 26, 758 2, 878 379 M ontebello 42, 807 4 0,000 20 2, 787 M o n te re y P a r k 49,166 40, 953 111 8, 102 P a lo s V e rd e s E s ta te s 13, 641 13,529 13 89 P a s a d e n a 113, 327 9 0 ,4 4 6 18,256 4, 625 P o m o n a 87, 384 74, 940 10, 648 1, 796 Redondo B each 56, 075 54, 954 56 1, 065 San F e rn a n d o 16, 571 15, 975 85 511 San G abriel 29, 176 28,362 39 775 San M arino 14, 177 14,068 24 85 Santa M onica 88, 289 81, 935 4, 218 2, 136 S i e r r a M ad re 12,140 11, 874 12 254 Signal Hill NA • NA -NA NA South Gate 56, 909 55, 913 40 956 South P a s a d e n a 22, 979 22, 052 117 810 T o rra n c e 134, 584 129, 154 199 5, 231 V ernon NA NA NA NA W e st Covina 68, 034 65,775 1, 271 988 W hittier 72, 863 71, 561 256 1, 046 S ource: U .S . D e p a rtm e n t of C o m m e rc e (1971A). 144 TABLE B 1970 AND 1960 POPU LA TIO N S O F 47 CITIES AND P E R C E N T CHANGE* City 1970 1960 P e r c e n t Change A lh a m b ra 62, 125 54, 807 13.4 A rc a d ia 42,868 41, 005 4. 5 A zusa 25,217 20, 497 23. 0 Baldwin P a r k 4 7,285 33, 951 39. 3 B ell 21, 836 19,450 12. 3 Bell G ardens 29,308 NA NA B e v e rly Hills 33, 416 30, 817 8 . 4 B urbank 88,871 90, 155 - 1 . 4 C la re m o n t 2 3 ,4 6 4 12,633 85. 7 Com pton 78,611 71, 812 9 .5 Covina 30,380 20, 124 5 1 .0 C ulver City 31, 035 32, 163 -3. 5 Downey 88,445 82, 505 7. 2 E l Monte 69,837 13, 163 430..6 E l Segundo 15,620 14, 219 9 .9 G a rd e n a 41, 021 35, 943 14. 1 G lendale 132,752 119,442 11. 1 G lendora 31,349 £0, 752 51. 1 H aw thorne 5 3 ,3 0 4 33, 035 6 1 .4 H e r m o s a B each 17,412 16, 115 8. 0 Huntington P a r k 33, 744 29, 920 12.8 Inglewood 89,985 63, 390 42. 0 Irw indale 784 1, 518 - 4 8 .4 La V erne 12, 965 6, 516 99. 0 Long B each 358,633 344, 168 4. 2 Lynwood 43,353 31, 614 37. 1 M anhattan B each 35,352 33, 934 4. 2 M aywood 16,996 14, 588 16. 5 145 TABLE B (continued) City 1970 1960 P e r c e n t Change M o nrovia 30,015 27,079 10. 8 M ontebello 42 ,8 0 7 32, 097 3 3 .4 M o n te re y P a r k 49 ,1 6 6 37, 821 30. 0 P a lo s V erd es E s ta te s 13, 641 9, 564 42. 6 P a s a d e n a 113,327 ■ 116,407 -2. 6 P o m o n a 87, 384 67, 157 30. 1 Redondo B each 56, 075 46, 986 19. 3 San F e rn a n d o 16, 571 16, 093 3. 0 San G ab riel 29, 176 22, 561 29. 3 San M arino 14, 177 13,658 3 .8 Santa M onica 88,289 83, 249 6. 1 S i e r r a M a d re 12, 140 9, 732 24. 7 Signal Hill 5, 582 4, 627 20. 6 South Gate 56, 909 53,831 5. 7 South P a s a d e n a 22,979 19,706 16.6 T o rra n c e 134, 584 100, 991 33. 3 V ernon 261 229 14. 0 W est Covina 68 ,0 3 4 50, 645 34. 3 W hittier 72, 863 33, 663 116.4 S ource: U .S. D e p a rtm e n t of C o m m e rc e (197 IB). 146 TABLE C MEDIAN V ALUE O F A L L O C C U PIED HOUSING UNITS FO R 47 CITIES, 1970* City M edian A lh a m b ra $23,500 A rc a d ia 36, 700 A zusa 17,500 Baldwin P a r k 17, 200 Bell 20, 000 B ell G ardens '1 8 ,0 0 0 B e v e rly Hills 50,000+ B urbank 26, 300 C la re m o n t 29, 100 Com pton 17,700 Covina 24, 000 C u lv e r City 28,700 Downey 25, 800 E l M onte 19, 700 E l Segundo 30, 100 G ard en a 25, 500 G lendale 30, 400 G lendora 24, 300 H aw thorne 24, 900 H e r m o s a B eac h 28,900 Huntington P a r k 28,700 Inglewood 25, 000 Irw in d ale NA L a V erne 21, 300 Long B each 23, 000 Lynwood 19,500 M anhattan B each 31, 100 M aywood 17,700 TABLE C (continued) 147 City M edian M o nrovia $21, 600 M ontebello 26 ,1 0 0 M o n te re y P a r k 27,600 P a lo s V e rd e s E s ta te s 50,000+ P a s a d e n a 2 6,300 P o m o n a 17,500 Redondo B each 24, 000 San F e rn a n d o 19,300 San G a b rie l 25, 100 San M arino 50,000+ Santa M onica 3 6,300 S i e r r a M ad re 3 0,400 Signal Hill NA South Gate 19,200 South P a s a d e n a 3 2,000 T o rra n c e 2 9,500 V ernon NA W est Covina 23 ,2 0 0 W hittier 24, 300 S o u rce: U .S . D e p a rtm e n t of C o m m e rc e (1971C). 148 T A B L E D P O L IC E PE R S O N N E L AND E X PE N D IT U R E S FO R 47 CITIES* City A u thorized F u ll T im e Sworn P e r s o n n e l (D e c e m b e r 1970) F i s c a l Y ear 1969-70 E x p e n d itu re s A lh a m b ra 86 $1, 253, 412 A rc a d ia 68 1, 053, 243 A zu sa NA 961, 107 B aldw in P a r k 53 848, 566 Bell 28 338,286 B ell G ardens 30 599,653 B e v e rly H ills 94 1, 387, 823 B u rb an k 141 2, 855, 301 C la re m o n t 21 386, 681 Com pton 131 1, 967, 867 Covina 41 672, 489 C ulver City 56 1, 039, 317 Downey 103 1 ,8 0 8 ,4 4 0 E l Monte 77 1, 191, 668 E l Segundo 58 917, 717 G ard en a 71 889,722 Glendale 163 2, 508, 081 G lendora 38 580, 668 Hawtho rne 57 857, 911 H e r m o s a B each 31 616, 526 H untington P a r k 52 772, 344 Inglewood 132 2 ,4 1 7 ,8 8 2 Irw indale 14 230, 657 La V erne 16 266, 943 Long B each 702 10, 359, 776 Lynwood 51 776, 758 M anhattan B each 53 730, 533 TABLE D (continued) 149 < < City A u th o rize d F u ll T im e Sw orn P e r s o n n e l (D e c e m b e r 1970) F i s c a l Y e a r 1969-70 E x p e n d itu re s M aywood 21 $ 272, 175 M onrovia 51 814, 520 M ontebello 57 838, 413 M o n terey P a r k 61 891, 558 P a lo s V erd es E s ta te s 20 274, 212 P a s a d e n a 191 3, 150, 788 P o m o n a 118 2, 171, 479 Redondo B each 67 1, 258,973 San F e rn a n d o 30 482, 512 San G ab riel 46 600, 113 San M arin o 29 4 1 7,493 Santa M onica 136 2, 545, 274 S i e r r a M ad re 16 242, 751 Signal Hill 23 291, 701 South Gate 94 1, 304, 662 South P a s a d e n a 32 495, 601 T o rra n c e 186 3, 220, 018 V ernon 64 867, 778 W est Covina 74 1, 149, 029 W h ittier 87 1, 497, 862 Source: C alifo rn ia D e p a rtm e n t of J u s tic e . B u re a u of C rim in a l S ta tis tic s (1971). A PPEN D IX IV S E L E C T E D TA BLES WITH CURVILINEAR RELATIO N SHIPS 150 TABLE A COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY P O L IC E JOURNALS C ounsel and R e le a s e R ate High P o lic e J o u rn a ls Low Total High 4 10 14 M ed iu m 11 7 18 Low 3 8 11 T otal 18 25 43 d = -.0 3 152 T A B L E B COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY P O L IC E JOURNALS WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT B U R E A U CRATIC CO N TRO L C ounsel and B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol High Low R e le a s e Rate P o lic e Jo u rn a ls P o lic e J o u rn a ls High Low Total High Low Total High 2 2 4 2 6 8 M ed iu m 5 6 11 6 1 7 Low 2 2 4 1 8 9 Total 9 10 19 9 15 24 d =0.0 yx X 2 = .04, df = 2, p< . 50 (one tail) d = -.0 5 yx X 2 = 9. 86, df = 2, p < .0 0 4 (one tail) TABLE C COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY PA R T IC IP A T IO N IN COMMUNITY EV EN TS WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT BU REA U CR A TIC CO N TRO L C ounsel and B u re a u c ra tic C ontrol High Low R e le a s e R ate C om m unity E vents C om m unity E vents High Low Total High Low T otal High 2 2 4 3 7 10 M ed iu m 7 4 11 5 2 7 Low 4 0 4 1 6 7 T otal 13 6 19 9 15 24 d = -.3 8 yx X 2 = 2. 59, df = p< . 14 (one tail) 2 , d = .07 yx X 2 = 5. 29, df = 2, p< . 04 (one tail) 154 TABLE D COUNSEL AND R E L E A S E R A T E BY JU V E N IL E TRAINING WHEN HOLDING CONSTANT E S T IM A T E O F FRIEN DS WHO A RE LO CA L P E O P L E L ocal F r ie n d s High Low Juvenile T rain in g Juvenile T rain in g High Low Total High Low Total High 2 6 8 1 5 6 M edium 5 4 9 7 2 9 Low 2 0 2 4 5 9 Total 9 10 19 12 12 24 d = - .4 7 d 15 yx yx X 2 = 4. 07, df = 2, X 2 = 5 . 56, df = 2, p < . 13 (two tail) p <. 06 (two tail) i i t REFERENCES 155 REFERENCES Banton, M ich ae l 1965 The P o lic e m a n in the C om m unity. 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Asset Metadata

Creator Sundeen, Richard Allen, Jr. (author)

Core Title A Study Of Factors Related To Police Diversion Of Juveniles: Departmentalpolicy And Structure, Community Attachment, And Professionalization Of Police

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, criminology and penology

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Klein, Malcolm W. (committee chair), Sigurdson, Herbert R. (committee member), Turk Herman (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-570254

Unique identifier UC11362906

Identifier 7211961.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-570254 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7211961.pdf

Dmrecord 570254

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sundeen, Richard Allen, Jr.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA