Urban Executive Leadership Development For Black Professionals: A Research Evaluation Of An Applied Behavioral Science Program

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Content 70-25,04-0 JOHNSON, Ellsworth Evans, 1937- URBAN EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT FOR BLACK PROFESSIONALS: A RESEARCH EVALUATION j OF AN APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE PROGRAM. ! University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 i Political Science, public administration I University Microfilms, A X ER O X Com pany, Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by ELLSWORTH EVANS JOHNSON 1970 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED URBAN EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT FOR BLACK PROFESSIONALS: A RESEARCH EVALUATION OF AN APPLIED BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE PROGRAM by Ellsworth Evans Johnson A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Public Administration) June 1970 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TH E GRA DUATE SCH O O L U N IV ERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES, C A LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ......EllsworthEvans. .Johnson...... under the direction of h.is... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, tit partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean June 1970 DISSERTATi MMITTEE Chairman PREFACE In the half century of its existence as a discipline, public administration has experienced an "identity crisis" caused by a dual concern for applied and basic research problems. This has been evident in the celebrated exchanges of Waldo and Simon, the formats of Public Administration Review and the Administrative Science Quarterly and in the curriculum designed to meet the needs of both practioners and scholars. In the last decade this "crisis" has deepened as social problems have intensified and threatened to rent the fabric of society. This study is a reflection of the continuing debate in public administration on the issues of relevance versus rigor and action versus research. It had two sets of problems. The first set was substantive and applied— a concern for the urban crisis, the need for effective self-renewing executive leaders in all sectors of the urban community and the development of an executive leadership seminar for Black professionals as one strategy to help meet this need. The second set of problems was theoretical and empirical. They involved developing a construct for analyzing the values and attitudes of self-renewing, effective executive leaders, identifying operational instructors, selecting experimental and control groups, and interpreting before-after and follow-up test scores. Either set of problems is of sufficient magnitude for a doctoral dissertation. I included both in this study because a dual process of innovation and evaluation is important in meeting the problems faced by society. Innovation without research evaluation can be aimless and frustrating, while research evaluation without innovation too often becomes sterile and irrelevant. Together, they can lead to important advancements in social problem solving. The attempt, however, to obey the separate stand ards of social relevance and scientific rigor continually raised questions about my responsibility to the reader and the study. The result was a compromise of both relevance and rigor. In exploring the substantive and applied problems, for example, significant gaps were encountered in the 111 theory and empirical research available to solve these problems. Primary examples of these gaps were (1) in sufficient research on the role of the executive, particu larly in relationship to the community; (2) a paucity of studies on the attitudes, values, skills and behavior which characterize effective, self-renewing executives; (3) a lack of theoretical integration of learning and human development theories; and (4) inadequate conceptual clarity and empirical evidence on the value-attitude nexus and their relationship to behavior. Since it was beyond the purpose of this study to fill these gaps, it was. necessary to rely on assumptions and conjectural writings from the literature. In so doing, I have tried always to alert the reader to the need for additional research. Where the theory and research footing is more sound, findings have been synthesized in the text and the reader is directed to summary works or bibliographies for detail. To have elaborated each theory and its empirical support would have resulted in the study becoming a compendium of behavioral science research, considering the number of areas and topics covered in the design and iv evaluation of this applied behavioral science program. Relevance was compromised in the study by limiting the research evaluation primarily to changes in attitudes and values measured by standardized scales. Additional evidence of the seminar's impact on participants and the community observed in the course of the project has been omitted intentionally to preserve objectivity in recogni tion of my bias as an officer in the organization which ir j' conducted the seminar. In so doing, however, some impor tant perspectives were sacrificed. The study can be conveniently read in two parts. Chapters I through III deal with the substantive problems, an analysis of seminar planning, curriculum and pedagogy, and a detailed description of each seminar session. The second half of the study, incorporating Chapters IV through VIII, concerns the research evaluation and consists of a review of the literature, description of the research design and presentation and interpretation of results. For the reader who finds it burdensome to digest the entire study, a quite comprehensive summary is contained in Chapter IX. This study was made possible by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York to PEDR Urban Associates, a nonprofit urban consulting firm in Los Angeles. 1 acknowledge a debt of gratitude to both organizations for providing the opportunity and resources for the study. My particular thanks are extended to Dr. Kent Lloyd and Dr. Kendall 0. Price, executive officers of PEDR and the seminar leaders who designed and conducted the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar, for their continued support and counsel. I wish to gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance of Dr. William Larsen and Garst Reese of the Gerontology Center, University of Southern California, for providing computer facilities and technical advice on statistical methodology. My appreciation is also extended to Gail Gullekson for her editorial assistance and to Jean Imamura, Noreen Rex and Joan LeFevere, who did the typing. Finally, I express sincere thanks to my parents and some very special friends without whose moral support and constant encouragement, this study would likely not have been completed. Ellsworth E. Johnson TABLE OP CONTENTS PREFACE......................... .................. LIST OF TABLES .................................. Chapter I. EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP EDUCATION FOR BLACK PROFESSIONALS: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................... Executive Leadership Needs in the Black Community The Urban Crisis: Problems and Approaches Role of Executive Leaders Leadership Resources in the Black Community Executive Leadership Education for Black Professionals A Summary Analysis of Management Education Programs Summary II. TOWARD AN INTEGRATED MULTIDIMENSIONAL EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP PROGRAM DESIGN: PLANNING, CURRICULUM AND PEDAGOGY Program Planning Community Involvement Nomination and Selection of Participants Curriculum Program Objectives Program Content Pedagogy: Integrating Theory and Methodology Chapter Page Humanistic Theory and Teaching Techniques Attitude Change Theories and Teaching Techniques Consistency Theory Social Reinforcement Theory Summary III. DESCRIPTION OF SEMINAR CONTENT AND GROUP DYNAMICS...................................76 Seminar Content ' Session 1— Orientation, Evaluation, and Opening Banquet Session 2— Personal Awareness and Professional Values Session 3— Personal, Professional and Social Values Session 4— Group Building and Social Values Session 5— American Democratic Values Session 6— The Effective Use of Time Session 7— Behavioral Science Perspec tives on Management, Individual Behavior Session 8— Interpersonal Relations Session 9— Group Dynamics Session 10— Organization and Management Session 11— Organizational Change Session 12— "Operation Empathy" Session 13— Intergroup Relations Session 14— Behavioral Science Perspec tives : Intergroup Relations Session 15— The Black Community Session 16— The Executive Leader and Community Change Session 17— Group Project Report, Summary and Evaluation viii Chapter Page Seminar Group Dynamics Phase I— Black versus White Phase II— Black versus Black Phase III— Group Structure IV. PROBLEMS IN EVALUATING EXECUTIVE AND MANAGE MENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................... What Is to Be Evaluated? Studying the Training Process The Assessment of Worth Values and Attitude Studies Evaluating Behavior Change Changing Organization Performance How Is It to Be Evaluated? Classical Design Evaluation Instruments The Meaning of Effectiveness Who Is to Evaluate? Summary V. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . Toward a Theoretical Model for Evaluating Executive Leadership Programs View of Self View of Others View of the Environment General Study Hypotheses Methodology Instruments Limitations of Pretest— Posttest Design Statistical Tests Experimental and Control Groups Administration of Instruments Evaluator Bias Summary ix 124 167 Chapter Page VI. VIEW OF SELF..................................193 General Hypothesis I Hypothesis 1.1 Hypothesis 1.2 Hypothesis 1.3 Hypothesis 1.4 Summary VII. VIEW OF OTHERS AND VIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENT . 247 General Hypothesis II Hypothesis II.1 Hypothesis II.2 Hypothesis II.3 Summary General Hypothesis III Hypothesis III.l Hypothesis III.2 Hypothesis III.3 Summary VIII. A FOLLOW-UP RETEST: ATTENUATION VERSUS SELF-DEVELOPMENT ......................... 307 General Hypothesis IV Summary IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...................... 329 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................... 369 APPENDICES............................................ 392 A. Advisory Committee ................... 393 B. Application Form (Sample)................397 C. Position and Organizational Affiliation of Experimental and Control Groups . 399 x i i Page APPENDICES D. Books and Articles Distributed to Participants ................... E. Pretest-Posttest and Follow-Up Test Scores on Evaluation Instruments For Experimental and Control Group Members ........................ F. Responses to Follow-Up, Open-ended Questionnaire ................ 402 404 421 xi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Comparison of Selected Social Background Characteristics of Experimental and Control Groups ......................... 185 2. Before-After Mean Score Differences on Self-Perception Dimension of the POI for Experimental and Control Groups . . 203 3. Before-After Mean Score Differences on Seven Subscales Related to Self-Direction for Experimental Group and Control Group . 217 4. A Comparison of Experimental Group Mean Scores with General Adult Norms on the Indicators of Self-Direction .... 220 5. Before-After Mean Score Differences on the Sherwood Self-Report vAch Scale for the Experimental Group and Control Group . 232 6. Before-After Mean Score Differences on the SIV Leadership Scale and Five Additional Scales for the Experimental and Control Groups ............................ . 239 7. Before-After Group Mean Scores on the Experimental Group Compared with the Group Mean Scores of Several Occupational Samples on the SIV Leadership and Benevolence S c a l e.................. . 240 8. Changes in the Before-After Mean Scores on the Nature of Man (Nc) Subscale of the POI for the Experimental Group and Control Group . 255 xii Table Page 9. Before-After Mean Score Differences on Scales Related to Interpersonal Attitudes for Experimental Group and Control Group ......................... 263 10. A Comparison of the Experimental Group Before-After Mean Scores on GPI Personal Relations with Group Means for Other Comparable Groups .................... 265 11. Before-After Mean Score Differences on the HGP (L) For Experimental and Control Groups............................... 276 12. A Comparison of Experimental and Control Group Mean Scores on HGP-L with National Group Mean for Managers in the United States............................... 277 13. A Comparison of Experimental and Control Group Pretest Mean Scores on Dogmatism with Various Other Groups ............. 290 14. Before-After Mean Score Differences on the Dogmatism (E) Scale for the Experimental Group and Control G r o u p ............. 291 15. Before-After Mean Score Differences on the GPI Original Thinking (0) for the Experimental Group and Control Group . 292 16. Comparison of Experimental Group Scores on the GPI (0) Scale with Other Occupational Groups............... 293 17. Before-After Mean Score Differences on Selected POI Scales Related to Emotional Flexibility for Experimental Group and for Control G r o u p ................... 297 xiii Table 18. Comparison of Adult Norms for (Fr), (S) , (C), and (A) Scales of the POI with Experimental and Control Groups* Before- After Mean Scores ...................... 19. Before-After Mean Score Differences on Selected POI Scales Related to Value Flexibility for Experimental Group and for Control Group ...................... 20. Mean Scores for t^, and t on the POI for Experimental Subgroup ............. 21. Mean Score Differences for t„t and t t 12 13 on the POI for Experimental Group 22. Mean Scores for t^, tg, and tg on the FIRO-B for the Twelve-Member Participant Subgroup 23. Mean Score Differences for t^tg and t-^tg on the FIRO-B for Participant Subgroup . 24. Mean Score Differences for t^tg and t-j_tg on the vAch Scale for Participant Subgroup 25. Evaluation Scale Matrix Showing Mean Score Differences, Statistical Significance, and Predicted Direction of Change of All Variables for the Experimental and Control Groups.................................. Page 298 302 314 315 317 318 319 340 xiv CHAPTER I EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP EDUCATION FOR BLACK PROFESSIONALS: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The mold within which this study is cast has been accurately described by Kenneth Clark, a noted Negro social psychologist, who has dedicated much of his life to the problems of the ghetto. In the introduction to his book, Dark Ghetto, he asserts that the appropriate technology of a serious and relevant social science would have as its prime goal helping society move toward humanity and justice with a minimum of irrationality, instability and cruelty.^ From another discipline, David Easton reiterates Clark's position in a recent presidential address to the annual meeting of the American Political Science Associa tion: A new revolution is under way in American political science. . . . Its battle cries are relevance and 1 Kenneth B. Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1965), pp. xxi- xxii. action. . . . The task . . . is to break the barriers of silence . . . and to help political science reach out to the real needs of mankind in a time of crisis.^ Whereas the major challenges of the fifties were economic and technological, the sixties witnessed the achievement of sustained affluence and the development of an unprecedented technological capability. This was accompanied by a re-awakening of America's social con science caused by the actions of militant minority and youth groups. It seems, therefore, that the main challenge of the seventies is to fashion innovative social and political mechanisms and to develop new behavioral skills in order to harness the enormous wealth and tech nical resources of this nation in realizing the American dream of social justice and equality of opportunity for all citizens. The technical aspects of this challenge fall to the behavioral scientist. He must direct more of his energy toward the search for pragmatic answers and assist executive leaders in all sectors of society 2 David Easton, "The New Revolution in Political Science," The American Political Science Review, Vol. LXIII, No. 4 {Dec. 1969), 1052. including the minority communities to perform more adequately their responsibility of mobilizing and co ordinating society's resources for social problem solving.^ One vehicle through which social and behavioral science research can be translated for the practioner is the short-term training and education programs which have emerged over the past two decades. Through modern educa tional and training techniques, traditional attitudes and values can be re-examined, new skills developed and new knowledge gained that can help executive leaders devise and implement more effective strategies for social action. If short-term education programs are to become a major tool for social change, however, there is a need to concentrate professional effort in improving curricu^ lums and learning technology. There is also an acute need to develop more adequate ways of evaluating their 3 For a discussion of this advisory role in a con temporary context, see Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Crisis of Confidence: Ideas, Power and Violence in America (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1969), pp. 41-75. effectiveness. This study attempts to contribute to both needs. First, it describes a multidimensional executive educa tion ; format adapted to the needs of Black professionals which includes an integrated behavioral science curricu lum on the role of the executive leader, and unifies traditional teaching methodology with newer techniques emerging out of humanistic psychology. Second, it suggests a three-dimensional construct of fundamental attitude and value orientations by which the impact of executive education programs in behavioral science can be evaluated. Executive Leadership Needs in the Black Community The Urban Crisis: Problems and Approaches The term "urban crisis" is almost a cliche in our society, but the human condition which it represents is tragic rather than trite. America is having to cope with problems peculiar to urban culture, social organization and physical ecology with much less experience than older societies. As a result, cities which are less than one hundred years old have blighted commercial centers, deteriorating and overcrowded residential neighborhoods, polluted air and water, strangled transportation arteries, and serious social disorganization including high crime rates, unstable families, racial unrest and violence— all taking place in a period of unprecedented affluence. The urban situation has been further exacerbated by the American society's unwillingness to face its cultural hypocrisy and resulting social crimes against 4 underprivileged minorities and the poor. The Kerner Commission5 linked the economic, social and physical dissolution of the American central city to the treatment accorded the Black and, in many cases, the Spanish speaking minority. "White racism is essentially respon sible for the explosive mixture which has been accumulating 4 This generalization has been most thoroughly documented in two studies: Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York: Harper & Row, Inc., 1944); and The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1968). 5 The abbreviated name of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, following traditional patterns, is taken from its chairman, Governor Otto Kerner of Illinois. c in our cities since the end of World War II , 1 1 the report stated. Included in the mixture are: (1) attitudes of prejudice which have led to segregation in housing, education, and public accommodations; (2) discriminatory practices in job training and employment which have resulted in poverty level incomes or unemployment for a high percentage of Blacks and Mexican-Americans; (3) in adequate and poorly devised social services which have encouraged rather than broken the poverty cycle; (4) repressive police attitudes and tactics which have aggravated intergroup relations; and (5) the flight of white middle-class residents and businesses to the suburbs leaving the central city without sufficient resources for renewal.^ Approaches to the urban-racial crisis have included a wide variety of new policies and programs. At the federal level, for example, there has been the Economic Opportunity Act or "war on poverty" emphasizing g Report on Civil Disorders, pp. 10, 283. 7 Ibid., p. 8. youth, education, and community action programs with "maximum participation" of the poor; the Manpower Develop ment Training Act (MPTA) focused on job training for the unemployed adult; and Civil Rights legislation establish ing legal rights to vote, attend school, and secure housing for all citizens regardless of race and color. On the other hand, new ideas and approaches in urban renewal, employment, neighborhood stabilization, and decentralized education have been launched at the local level in cities such as Philadelphia, New Haven, Cleve land, Los Angeles, and New York. In addition to policy and programmatic innova tions , there have been experiments with new community structures and processes for bringing together the multi plicity of metropolitan jurisdictions. Typical examples of the institutional and community interest group alliances that have been created to stimulate and co ordinate urban problem-solving are the economic opportu nity agency boards, community action project boards, welfare planning agencies, the urban coalition, and many others. Brought together in these structures are differ ent combinations of public, private and voluntary agency and organization representatives along with elected members from the disadvantaged communities who analyze problems, coordinate federal program funds, and mobilize local resources for solving urban problems. A third dimension of the planned change strategies which could be added to those of program and structure are the advancements in technology and systems analysis which have made significant contributions to the planning and forecasting ability of urban problem-solvers. Tools such as the Program Planning Budgeting System (PPBS), the Planning Evaluation Review Technique (PERT), and related planning systems growing out of computer tech nology provide valuable assistance in urban communities and institutions in understanding and managing the inter related complex of variables that constitute the urban crisis. As executive leaders and staff become better equipped with the technical skills to take full advantage of these tools, the impact on urban planning should be dramatic. An evaluation of how well each of these strategies has succeeded in bringing about meaningful solutions to the crises facing the cities reveals, however, an urgent need for leadership in their implementation. Modern advances in technology, systems planning and operations research, for example, have not been rapidly assimilated by urban institutions, due partly to the lack of prepara tion and skills among executives to initiate the effi- Q cient and creative use of these tools. * - Studies of programmatic approaches to planned change indicate a similar deficiency in leadership. The lackadaisical enforcement of civil rights legislation by federal and state authorities and the corresponding irresponsible and short-sighted reaction of affected institutions, neither of whom anticipated the moral and political implications of their intransigence in imple menting these laws, probably sowed the seeds for much of 9 the racial violence in the cities over the last decade. 8 Other obstacles include the lack of resources, and the natural lag between invention and adaptation to the particularistic needs of specific institutions. g This is a conclusion read commonly in popular media but for a more scholarly analysis of this problem among Fair Employment Practices Commissioners, see Kent Lloyd, "Solving an American Dilemma: The Role of the State Civil Rights Official" (unpublished Ph.D. disserta tion, Stanford University, 1963). 10 The naivete of poverty program designers and administrators also contributed to minority group frus tration as they assumed that self-interest-seeking public and private institutions and community groups comprising the urban society could be reconstituted into a new harmonious order simply by providing federal funds and program guidelines. Daniel P. Moynihan, who helped draft the legislation, and Peter Marris and Richard Rein, who were appointed to evaluate its consequences, concluded that poverty programs failed in their objectives for want of viable problem-solving and priority-setting processes in the local communities. Marris and Rein further con cluded that "no movement of reform in American society can hope to supplant the conflicts of interest from which policy evolves. The experience of new structural solutions in the urban city seem to support this observation by Marris and Rein. Many of the regional planning authorities have , Peter Marris and Martin Rein, Dilemmas of Social Reform (New York: The Free Press, 1969) , p. 189; see also, Daniel P. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstand ing (New York: The Free Press, 1969), p. 189. 11 suffered from a reluctance on the part of member jurisdictions to give up decision-making prerogatives for the common good.1' * " The urban coalition concept is another example where the unwillingness of key groups to forego self-interest has been a major obstacle in the search for solutions to common problems. Lloyd and Price have suggested, however, that part of the problem has been caused by a lack of under standing, experience and skill among executive leaders in building coalitions. In Los Angeles, for example, business and minority community representatives have failed to establish relationships of trust even though both groups are committed to the concept of an urban coalition.12 The ineffectiveness of major planned change strategies in American cities seems, therefore, to be This point was made strongly by the present director of the Southern California Association of Govern ments (SCAG) in an interview for the Los Angeles Times, February 1, 1970, p. 3. 12This conclusion was given in interviews with both Dr. Kent Lloyd and Dr. Kendall 0. Price. See, Facing Urban Leadership: Greater Los Angeles Urban Coalition Executive Committee Leadership Conference Retreat (a Sum mary Report to the Executive Committee by PEDR Urban 12 partly explained by deficiencies in executive leaders who are met with urban conditions which their previous professional training and experience has not prepared them to manage effectively. Recognizing this problem, the Kerner Commission stated: Finally, there remains the issue of leader ship. Now as never before, the American city has need for the personal qualities of strong democratic leadership. Given the difficulties and delays involved in administrative reorgan ization or institutional change, the best hope for the city lies in this powerful instrument. Thus, the development of urban leadership is among those priorities essential to the renewal of the city. Role of Executive Leaders The word, executive, like manager and administra tor, is vague and ambiguous in the lexicons of both layman and the academician. Until the present decade, most scholars defined "executive1 ' in terms of functions or role. Barnard, for example, defined an executive as one Associates, November 1968). 13 Report on Civil Disorders, p. 298. (Emphasis added by the author.) 13 who has responsibility for the maintenance and survival 14 of the organization. More recently, Peter Drucker has given the term a professional connotation and describes an executive as a "knowledge worker" who is recognized by the fact that he controls his own time and actions, works in areas of his strength and interest, and expects to be 15 judged by his ability to perform and to obtain results. A leadership role, in contrast to the work of the executive, goes beyond the achievement of results for the organization and carries with it the added function of articulating to employees and the public the social value of an enterprise whether public, private or voluntary, and of assuming responsibility not only for its actions in the community but for its role in solving community problems. Values afford meaning for commitment to action and justify confidence and risk taking in the face of social 14 Chester A. Barnard, The Functions of the Execu tive (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1938), p. 21. ■^Peter F. Drucker, The Effective Executive (New York: Harper & How, Publishers, 1966), pp. 5, 25, 17. 14 disorganization and violence or institutional decay and rigidity. John Gardner has been the most convincing, perhaps, in pointing out the desperate need for leader ship in society and its urban communities to clearly outline the values upon which priorities and social programming can be built. In a speech appropriately entitled, "The Anti-Leadership Vaccine,” Gardner compli ments the educational system for turning out superb technicians and specialists but laments the failure to develop leaders.^ As a result, Gardner asserts that society and its various institutions and enterprises are lacking in vision and purpose and the will to renew themselves to meet the serious challenges of this era.*^ The executive leader, therefore, is an individual who combines professional preparation and skill in 16 John Gardner, "The Anti-Leadership Vaccine" {Carnegie Corporation of New York, Annual Report, 1965), reprint, pp. 9-10. 17 This is the major point in John Gardner, Self- Renewal The Individual and the Innovative Society (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 19 63) . 15 managing organizational resources to obtain results with a commitment to clearly defined social values and an ability to articulate those values in ways that illuminate critical problems, clarify priorities, and motivate action toward problem-solving activity. Beyond the identification and articulation of values, Gardner has noted additional requirements essen tial to dealing with the challenges in the urban environ ment. The first is the need for more creativity and innovation in the response of institutions and communities to the urban crisis. Executives must personally demon strate, as well as cultivate in others, a constant flow of new ideas out of which superior approaches to new 18 problems can be fashioned. But innovative ideas are useless if the leaders of organizations, institutions and communities in the urban complex have not established the mechanisms and processes by which these new ideas can be assimilated. Better techniques and mechanisms must be found to overcome the fragmentation of community and institutional power 1 f t Gardner, Self-Renewal, pp. 27-42. 16 required to make decisions and reduce resistance of established bureaucratic routine to new priorities and approaches. Executive leaders must be prepared to advance innovative approaches and to develop skills in the processes of intergroup problem-solving and coalition building among the interest groups and jurisdictions that influence institutional and community decision- 19 making. Finally, the successful implementation of programs within organizations requires a high degree of administra tive and technical skill in establishing and adapting new patterns, routines, and management tools required for more efficient operation. Commitment and articulation of social values, cultivation of creativity and assimilation of innovation, promotion of intergroup problem-solving, and the efficient administration of organizations are suggested, therefore, as four priorities required of executive leaders to cope with the urban crisis. 19 Ibid., pp. 75-85. 17 Leadership Resources in the Black Community An added requirement of effective urban problem solving, however, is the development and involvement of executive leadership from all sectors of the community, including the minority areas. In pointing to the grave need to harness the resources of the city through "a new working concept of democracy," the Kerner Commission recognized, particularly, the need to involve the leader ship of minority communities. As one of four aspects of a comprehensive strategy for urban problem-solving, the Commission recommended that there be "expanded opportu nities for indigenous leadership to participate in shaping decisions and policies which affect their community."20 This raises the question, however, of what elements in the Black community can provide this leadership. In a study of Black politics in four major cities, James Q. Wilson characterizes the development of Black leadership in three phases.^ First, is the period on Report on Civil Disorders, pp. 288, 299. ^James Q. Wilson, Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1960), pp. 312-15. 18 of "compatible elites'* which were composed of upper middle-class Black ministers, lawyers, doctors, and businessmen who had "arrived" financially and occupa tionally. Wilson saw their civic activity motivated by the "prestige, access, and limited influence” available in such responsibility. The second stage, Wilson calls the "pattern of diverging elites." Having attained political and civic leadership, the "old order" of elites sought to preserve the status quo whereas the young elites, made up principally of middle-class professional agency people, challenged the inaction and accommodation of the "old order" and insisted on more than token gains in desegregated schools and housing, fair employment, and improved health and welfare services. Emerging from the new elites came the vigorous legal activities of the NAACP, the business and employment-focused work of the Urban League, and later the marches and demonstrations of organizations like the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), the Congress for Racial Equality (CORE), and the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In describing the third phase, Wilson saw a "new merger” of the old and new orders negotiated by a rapidly 19 growing, politicized middle-class around "good government" campaigns. He did not anticipate, however, the rapid ascendance of the Black militant movement based in the ghetto which wrested the leadership of the revolution away from the middle-class professionals when poverty programs and civil rights legislation failed in their promise. With the rise of Black nationalist groups, there now exist three general sources of potential leadership in the Black community: the upper middle-class Negro elite, the middle-class Black professional, and the ghetto-sponsored Black radical. Social scientists, Black and white, have been less than optimistic about the capability of any one of these three groups to achieve lasting solutions to the problems of the Black community. Wilson, for example, observes that upper middle- class Negroes do not lack "ability t6 create and sustain organizations" but their "principal function(s) [are] social," and their "civic or political purposes are typically secondary."22 Frazier, in his analysis of the 22 Ibid., p. 307. 20 "Black bourgeoise," is even more severe in his indictment as he describes the affluent Negro society's attempt to mirror the facade of the white middle class as "delusions of wealth and power. Kenneth Clark, in his analysis of the Black militant movements, concluded that they engage in activi ties which have the appearance but not the substance of power. Clark has labeled these activities as "pseudo power," and describes the results as a "cartharsis without 24 observable and meaningful progress." Clark does not repudiate militancy. On the contrary, he argues for effective demonstrations, organized and directed at a specific target with realistic and visible objectives to achieve,^ and followed up with intelligent and patient negotiations to convert the psychological leverage gained by the demonstration into lasting progress in social 23 E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoise: The Rise of the Middle Class (New York: The Free Press, 1957), p. 237. ^Clark, Dark Ghetto, p. 200. 25Ibid., p. 209. betterment. This calls for leadership which is skilled, patient, and capable of purposeful planning and execution of action in all aspects of the Black movement from the demonstration to the administration of social action programs in public and private organizations. The civil rights movement probably provided the most successful examples of well disciplined effective leadership in the Black community. The legal victories in the courts made possible by the disciplined sit-ins, boycotts, and marches were examples of the commitment, skill, and intelligent planning of which Clark is speaking and were achieved, as Wilson states, by the middle-class professional. Since the fifties, the size of the Black middle class has constantly expanded. Between the years of 1950-1960, the percentage of non-whites employed in technical and professional jobs rose from 10.2 percent to 20.8 percent with commensurate increases in percentages of non-whites attending college.^ The 1970 census undoubtedly will reveal even greater percentages of non- Report on Civil Disorders, p. 282. 4 22 whites entering professional and technical occupations. Thus, the Black college-educated professional constitutes a growing resource of trained and experienced people and is probably the most skilled leadership potential in the Black community. Historically, the Black middle-class professional has found encouragement in both Black and white societies for attaining high levels of education and seeking top positions in government and business. It has been a source of great pride for him to break the social barriers in white corporations and in policy levels of government. But the eruption of Black militancy, ironically, has made of these victories something of a liability to those professionals who still identify with their Black origins. Since the civil rights movement of the fifties, Black militants have taken the initiative of the Black revolution from the Black middle class and with the support of the youth have isolated the Black professional from the new center of political activity, the ghetto. Thus, while Black professionals are being given the opportunity of holding positions of significant respon sibility in government and business, they are ostracized 23 by militants and labeled "Uncle Toms" in the Black community. Describing this unfortunate loss of talent and creativity, Clark states: This would suggest the general principle that as the Negro succeeds in mobilizing and directing his energies on larger problems and is accepted and regarded as successful in competition in the larger arena, his usefulness and his ability to function within the dynamics of the ghetto de cline. The ghetto appears to weed out individuals of certain levels of interests and competence, excluding them from effectiveness in the ghetto and thereby contributing to the self-perpetuating pathology of the ghetto itself.27 Consequently, the committed professional finds himself in serious internal conflict over the mixed expectations of his environment. This conflict is especially damaging because it reinforces his negative self-concept— feelings of shame and self-hatred which 28 are the legacy of every Black man in America. 27 Clark, Dark Ghetto, p. 194. 2 8 Ibid., pp. 63-80; also, William H. Grier and Price M. Cobbs, Black Rage (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1968) , pp. 18-31. 24 If Clark's predictions are accurate, however, the time will soon come when the liabilities of the Black radical strategy will become so apparent that the Black movement will seek new leadership. The Black professional is the most promising source of this new leadership. This suggests the need for Black professionals to come together, confront their identity as Blacks, and design an aggressive strategy of positive action for meeting the needs of their community. Executive Leadership Education for Black Professionals One approach to encouraging this process is through 9Q executive leadership seminars. Short-ternr ^ executive and management education programs have become a popular method in both private and public enterprises for helping managers and executives to retool and adapt to changing social and technological environments. The techniques and materials developed in these programs could materially 29 "Short-term" refers to nonacademic or nondegree seeking educational programs, which last from a few days to several weeks. 25 assist Black professionals in the process of discussing personal identity and a community leadership role. In addition, behavioral science perspectives and skill development on organization, management and community development could be offered to upgrade participant leadership capability. A Summary Analysis of Management Education Programs Short-term education programs for management are a phenomenon of the last twenty-five years. They emerged first in business and later in government in response to several factors: a growing awareness that management skills could be taught, a need to prepare personnel more quickly to assume management responsibility in fast- growing organizations, and a recognition that management personnel needed to retool because of the increasing complexity of their work caused by a rapidly changing 30 social and technological environment. For a historical review of management training and education in the public service, see Arthur D. Kallen, "Training in the Federal Service— 170 Years to Accept," Public Administration Review, 19:1 (Winter 1959)? Ward Stewart and John C. Honey, University Sponsored Executive Development Programs in the Public Service, U.S. Depart- Most programs are conducted at the supervisory and middle management levels, but in the last fifteen years, an increasing number of programs have been designed and conducted for upper levels of management and top executives. Short-term education programs for all levels of management, supervisory through top executives, vary in content and technique largely in accordance with the variations in responsibility at each of these levels. For example, the supervisory role is narrow and- more defined than upper management. Supervisory programs, therefore, tend to be training oriented or focused on specific skills, routines and approaches to a set of well 1 defined tasks. Their objective is to fit the individual to his position, and help him perform with increased efficiency. In addition, program content deals almost ment of Health,Education and Welfare, Office of Education (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 19 66) U.S. Civil Service Commission, Annual Report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949- ). For a review of programs in business, see Kenneth R. Andrews, The Effectiveness of University Management Development Programs (Boston; Division of Research, Graduate School of Business, Harvard University, 1966), pp. 16-49. 27 exclusively with internal processes of the organization, with little information given about the organization's environment.31 At upper levels of organizations, where roles are less defined and decision-making responsibility increased, management programs tend to be more broadly educational and deal with concepts, ideas and information from a wider perspective. The purposes of the program shift from an emphasis on efficiency to a concern for effectiveness or the ability to achieve results. Since effectiveness is so often a matter of individual style, there is less importance given to role definition and position duties. Finally, since executives are responsi ble for successfully adapting the organization to the environment, a greater stress is placed upon understand- ing and coping with forces external to the organization. For an excellent sampling of these programs, review issues of the Training and Development Journal, published by the American Society of Training Directors. 32 See Stewart and Honey, University-Sponsored Programs, pp. 35-63, and Andrews, Effectiveness of Uni versity Programs, pp. 279-294. 28 A useful way of categorizing executive leadership programs is by their objectives. Most programs are designed to provide information and improve understnading. These knowledge programs inform executives of the latest concepts and findings of the management sciences, expose them to experts who analyze current problems facing government and business, and demonstrate new technology for improving organization performance. Most knowledge programs are conducted by universities, professional associations, or special institutes which have access 33 to the academic authorities in various fields. A second type of program gaining in popularity with executives is sensitivity training and other forms of T-group training. The purpose of these programs is to change attitudes toward self and others through group interaction and thus improve interpersonal management skills.3^ 33Ibid. 3^The most famous laboratory is the National Training Laboratories at Bethel, Maine (NTL). For descrip tions and research on these programs, see issues of the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, published by the NTL Institute of Applied Behavioral Science associated with the NEA. 29 A third category of programs still in the experimental stage is organization development which uti lizes the interpersonal skills laboratory as an applied behavioral science technique to improve the performance of work groups and management teams. It is designed to free communication, develop trust and improve problem- 35 solving relationships. Surveying the objectives, content and teaching methodology currently utilized in the design and presents tion of executive education programs and comparing them with the needs faced by present or potential executive leaders who in some way are or will be expected to cope with the problems of this society, one comes to the same conclusion reached by Gardner in his evaluation of the entire system of higher education: there is little attempt being made to prepare the executive leader. Organization development laboratory commonly called "ODL" in the training literature is an applied behavioral science approach to organization change which is gaining in importance. For an outstanding description and research evaluation of such a program at the top management level, see Chris Argyris, Interpersonal Com petence and Organizational Effectiveness (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1962). 30 Relatively few programs are conducted for executives in comparison with the number of middle management and supervisory programs, even when the fact that there are far fewer potential participants is con sidered. This means the development of curriculum and educational methods for executive programs has not expanded much beyond.the traditional university classroom methods. Most executive education programs do not focus on attitude changes and almost none involve an analysis of personal, professional and social values. Both atti tudes and values, however, are critical variables in successful adaptation to social and technological change and probably represent the most common barrier to effec tive urban problem-solving. In addition to these deficiencies in the prepara tion of leaders, executive education programs also exhibit other weaknesses which lessen their effectiveness. For example, the content and presentation of executive educa tion programs often lacks continuity, which diminishes its impact. Usually a series of guest lecturers with an occasional management game or exercise interspersed and 31 coordination by a nonprofessional administrator, consti tute the program format. Another drawback is in teaching methods, where the traditional lecture-discussion is most heavily relied on because the program objective is transfer of informa tion and the lecturers are guest professors. Another reason for this unimaginative pedagogical approach may be the lack of time and resource provided for planning and for involving those who make presentations in the design of the program. Finally, rigorous research evaluation of program effectiveness is seldom conducted. A satisfaction ques tionnaire administered to participants at the end of the program is the most common method of assessment. As a result, little has been discovered about the effectiveness 36 of various educational formats and techniques. These conclusions are based on a rather thorough review of management programs in public and private organizations as reported in training and personnel jour nals and as surveyed by students of management develop ment, such as Stewart and Honey, Andrews and Kallen. 32 In summary, an analysis of executive education programs indicates that generally they are designed to transfer knowledge and information through traditional teaching methodology with the objective of helping the executive obtain a better conceptual grasp of his prob lems. The exception is the T-group— sensitivity training programs which, though very useful, are limited in scope. On the basis of this review, it appears that short term educational programs can be a helpful device in preparing executive leaders but will require innova tions in objectives, curriculum and pedagogy to be most effective. Summary An applied behavioral science problem in urban leadership has been reviewed in this chapter. The problem was defined as a need to recruit and develop executive leaders from all sectors of the community to meet the growing urban crisis. These are individuals who can skillfully command organizational or institutional resources and are committed to solving problems of the city. 33 Leadership in the Black community was selected as the particular segment of urban leadership to be focused upon in the study and characteristics of three sources of Black leadership were discussed. They included the Black upper middle-class, the radical intel lectuals of the Black Nationalist movements, and the Black middle-class professionals. The latter were identified as the most likely source of leadership for the task of building the institutions needed in the Black community. An executive education seminar then was suggested as one strategy for assisting Black professionals to develop a more effective leadership role in the community. The characteristics of executive education programs were analyzed and their appropriateness evaluated for the task of preparing executive leadership. It was concluded that short-term educational programs hold promise as one approach to recruiting and developing executive leaders but that present short-term executive education program formats require innovations if they are to be an effective tool for this purpose. CHAPTER II TOWARD AN INTEGRATED MULTIDIMENSIONAL EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP PROGRAM DESIGN:. PLANNING, CURRICULUM AND PEDAGOGY The design of a multidimensional executive education program for Black professionals in Los Angeles is described in this chapter. Entitled the Urban Execu tive Leadership Seminar, the program design gradually evolved out of experience which seminar leaders gained conducting similar seminars for white and Black executives *1 in Southern California. The program is "multidimensional1 1 For information on previous work in community leadership seminars, refer to the following pjiblications: Kent Lloyd, Kendall 0. Price, Ellsworth E. Johnson and William J. Williams, Planned Community Development Through Executive Leadership Seminars: A Pilot Project in University-Urban Intergroup Relations in Los Angeles (Los Angeles, School of Public Administration, University of Southern California, 1967); K. 0. Price, K. Lloyd, E. Johnson, and M. LeBaron, Air Force Police Management: Professional Education and Field Studies (Los Angeles: Center for Training and Career Development, Civic Center Campus, University of Southern California, 1966); 34 in that it focuses on several levels of learning and development including values and skills, and covers a comprehensive behavioral science curriculum ranging from individual behavior to community development. In developing the seminar design, emphasis has been placed on achieving a close integration and continuity among all elements of the program. The manner in which this was done is described in this chapter which has been organized into three major sections: program planning, which includes community (clientele) involvement and selection of participants; curriculum, including seminar objectives and content; and pedagogy, which involves both educational methodology and the human development and learning theories which underly it. K. 0, Price and K. Lloyd, Improving Police-Community Relations Through Leadership Training: A Behavioral Science Approach (Inglewood, Calif. PEDR Urban Associates 1967), E. Johnson, K.O. Price and K. Lloyd, Police Train- ing in A Changing Society: Report of the 5th, 6th and 7th Police Administration Institute for U. S. Air Force Security Police Officers, No. 9 (Los Angeles, Calif.: Center for Training and Career Development, Civic Center Campus, University of Southern California, 1967); K. Lloyd, K. 0. Price, V. D. Merrell, E. E. Johnson, The Church Executive (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, Inc., 1967.). 36 Program Planning Community Involvement Three prerequisites to effective social action programs are adequate financial resources, professional competence, and community or clientele participation and support. Involvement of the client in the planning and implementing of social change is considered by some 2 authorities to be the most essential of the three. The seminar model used here requires that the clientele make significant contributions to its planning and implementa tion. Two steps were taken to involve the Black commu nity early in the project. First, the purpose and objectives of the seminar were discussed with key politi cal, business, and grass-roots leaders in the Black Actual involvement may be total or token, depend ing upon the nature of the change required and the style of approach of the professional change agent. The impor tant factor is that the plan for change has been accepted by the client so that resistance is minimized. See Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson, and Bruce Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1958) . community together with various intergroup relations professionals in Los Angeles, each of whom indicated their support of the project. Included among these leaders were a Black State Senator, a Black City Councilman, a Black member of the Los Angeles Board of Education, several leading Black business executives servicing the Watts area, representatives of the various Black nationalist groups which belong to the Black Congress, several busi ness and professional community leaders in the white community, and leading intergroup relations professionals in Los Angeles. Each of these community leaders was asked to serve on an advisory committee and be responsible for nominating qualified participants. In addition, selected leaders were asked to serve as an executive committee which helped in the general planning of the program and in the final selection of participants. As a second step, a qualified and experienced Black professional was selected to fill the role of Execu tive Secretary to the Advisory Committee and Seminar Coordinator. His responsibilities were to act as liaison between the professional seminar staff and subcommittees of the Advisory Committee, assist in the identification 38 and selection of Advisory Committee members and partici pants for the seminars, and help to plan and coordinate seminar activities.^ Nomination and Selection of Participants The objective of the selection process was to identify the emerging leadership in the Black community— those individuals who seem to have the education, skills, experience, commitment to personal and community values, and the associations with the established leadership which would make them likely candidates for important leadership positions in the next five or ten years. To identify these “new elite" a set of minimum criteria were developed based upon a deductive set of assumptions about their 3 Selected as Executive Secretary to the Advisory Committee and as Seminar Coordinator for the seminar was Mr. Baltimore Scott. Presently the Vice President for Industrial Relations, Monogram Industries, Inc., Mr. Scott was formerly the assistant to the chairman of the Manage ment Council for Merit Employment through which he became thoroughly familiar with community problems, Negro and white leadership (particularly in the economic and employ ment areas) as well as becoming influential among young professionals interested and involved in the community. See Appendix A for list of Advisory Committee. 39 characteristics. They were as follows: 25-35 A resident of Los Angeles for one year. A bachelor's degree, and preferably an advanced or professional degree. Two years or more in a super visory or management position. An understanding of and experience in helping to solve community problems. Recommendation from three professional community leaders. Ability to articulate per sonal skills and values together with a commitment toward solving community problems. The assumption upon which these criteria are based is that effectiveness in community leadership requires values, skill, experience, and access to estab lished leadership. Skills and experiences can be deter mined, to a significant extent, by the level of formal education, the college or university at which it was acquired, and by employment and personal activity resumes Personal values and commitments are less tangible and, Age: Residency: Education: Professional experience: Community experience: Reputation: Personal qualifications: therefore, more difficult to identify. For the purposes of the project, the following indicators were operational ized in the application form:^ (1) statement of four or five most important values or ethical beliefs; (2) state ment regarding the nature of the urban crisis and the role of Black leadership in Los Angeles; (3) hobbies, reading interests and organizational memberships; (4) com munity experience; (5) professional field of study; (5) professional goals; and (6) personal recommendations. The nature of personal contacts and associations is the most difficult qualification to assess. To provide some assurances that the participants in the program had access to positions of influence in the community, three steps were taken. First, nomination for the program by a member of the Advisory Committee was required. Second, three letters of recommendations were requested of each candidate; and finally, each nomination was screened by a panel from the Advisory Committee who, with few excep tions, had personal knowledge of every individual For application specimen, see Appendix B. 41 nominated.5 Of the one hundred applications mailed to nominees, fifty-two responded, twenty-five were selected as participants, twenty started the program, and all successfully completed the seminar experience. In summary, participants for the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar were hand picked from among the most qualified Black professionals in Los Angeles and came to the program on their own volition, making a commitment to participate in every session. Curriculum Education and training experts stress that curric ulum objectives should combine general purposes of the program (supervisory skills, management education, etc.) 5 The panel included an intergroup relations executive, a prominent Black public relations executive, a prominent leader in the Black community, an advisor to the Black Congress, a Black professional who helped 0 organize Black businessmen, and the seminar co-directors. For a list of the organizations and positions of members of the experimental and control group, see Appendix C. 42 g with specific needs of the clientele group or student. Objectives then provide the guidelines for the develop ment of curriculum content. Program Objectives The general purpose of the seminar for Black professionals was to assist them in a process of self renewal and development toward becoming more effective executive leaders in their community. Several priorities for the development of executive leaders were identified in Chapter I as: clarification and articulation of social values, development of problem-solving skills and mecha nisms at organizationalr institutional and community levels, promotion of innovation and renewal at each of these levels, and maintenance of efficient administrative systems for program implementation. The peculiar needs of the Black professional were assessed from the literature and with the aid of the community advisory committee. Most important were the need to strengthen personal identity and self-concept, g Rolf P. Lynton and Udai Pareek, Training for Development (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1967), pp. 77-105. 43 and clarify the role of the Black professional in the Black community. Priorities for general executive leadership development were integrated with particular needs of Black professionals into a set of objectives which were approved by the Advisory Committee. They were as follows: 1. To assist participants in achieving a more positive, integrated self-identity by inducing an individual confrontation and synthesis of per sonal, professional, and community values. 2. To share current applications of behavioral science research findings and to assist in related skill development for participants on six levels: individual behavior, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, organization and management, intergroup relations, and planned community development. 3. To provide participants the opportunity to build a professional and personal relationship with leading business, professional and political leaders of the community. 4. To guide participants in the development of a positive role in the community through the plan ning of a community development project and to provide them information and experience in manipu lating the economic, political and social factors salient to community problem-solving. 5. To encourage the founding of an ongoing informal association among the participants for the purpose of reinforcing personal aspirations and goals and providing support and resources for future community development projects. 6. To publicize in influential media— both white and Black— the selection and activities of 44 the participants, and to publish in leading pro fessional journals a description and a scientific evaluation of the program. Program Content The Urban Executive Leadership Seminar was organ ized into approximately seventeen 6-hour sessions held over three weeks and four weekends, beginning with a two- day retreat out of the city. Seminar sessions were held in the executive conference rooms of various institutions in Los Angeles to provide appropriate settings for discussions of community leadership.^ The conceptual format for the curriculum content contained three basic components. The first component included an examination of personal, professional and social values. Terms such as values, ethics, morality, and integrity were defined to provide a framework for 7 These included the University of Southern Cali fornia, the Los Angeles County Hall of Records, the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce, the Los Angeles Police De partment, the University of California at Los Angeles, Westminster Neighborhood Association in Watts, the Mayor's Conference Room in the Los Angeles City Hall, the National Jewish Federation, and the National Federation of Labor (AFL-CXO Headquarters). discussion of classic and contemporary situations of value conflict. These discussions then were related to the participants* behavior and personal commitments by a human development scheme which led participants to evolve an individualized effective use of time plan for achieving a balanced, personal, professional and community life style. The second component of the curriculum content was focused more directly on the role of the executive leader. Behavioral science concepts, research findings and skill building were introduced on six levels of human interaction and social organization. The first level dealt with research findings on individual behavior including such concepts as identity, self-concept, atti tudes, perception, learning, and creativity. The informa tion presented at the second level consisted of concepts related to interpersonal relations such as interaction, role expectations, influence, motivation, communication (verbal and nonverbal), and empathy. The third level, concerned with group dynamics, focused on group cohesive ness and conflict, reference groups and norms, leadership, group problem-solving, and team building. A fourth level of analysis on organization and management included discussion of such topics as the executive role, organiza tional authority, management systems, and the evaluation of organizational performance. Intergroup relations in the United States, the fifth level, traced the history of the Civil Rights movement, the recent rise of Black nationalism, and the interrelationship of race problems and the problems in the cities. Classic studies in prejudice, discrimination, and ghetto living along with leading reports of the urban crisis also were reviewed. Finally, a discussion on community development dealt with such areas as political socialization, community power, approaches to decision-making in a pluralized system, and strategies for helping to provide community leader ship. Outside reading materials for each of these levels were used to prepare participants for discussions and training exercises.® The third component included two elements that related to discussions of behavioral science perspectives Specific reading assignments are listed in con nection with each seminar session in the next chapter. They are also contained in Appendix D. on executive leadership to the situation faced by Black professionals in Los Angeles. First, executive leaders of various organizations and institutions in the city were invited as guest speakers to discuss their role in solving urban problems and the roles they perceived participants being able to play, individually or collectively, in the community. In the second element, participants planned a community project through which they could contribute as a group to the community. The planning involved them in discussions of their resources and potential, community problems and needs, the activities of Black organizations in the community, and strategies by which they could have the most impact. Through these three components, participants were expected to clarify personal identities and value commit ments, sharpen executive leadership knowledge and skill, and devise a strategy to make their increased capability available to the community. Pedagogy: Integrating Theory and Methodology Pedagogy, as defined by Webster, includes both the principles (theory) and methods of teaching. Short- 48 terra management and executive training and education programs, as they are reported in the literature, however, seldom integrate curriculum objectives and teaching methodology with established theories of learning and human development. This and Lippitt ascribe this failure 9 to the lack of sophistication among training directors. It may also be due, however, to problems which exist in the theories themselves. In a post-program analysis of the theories which seem to underlie the educational methods employed in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar, for example, several obstacles were encountered. The first problem was to clearly translate program objectives into the kinds of learning and development expected. In this regard. This and Lippitt list four levels of training in order of the difficulty with which they are achieved. At the simplest level we have the skills of motor responses, memorization and simple condi tioning. Next, we have the adaptation level where 9 Leslie E. This and Gordon L. Lippitt, “Learning Theories and Training," Training and Development Journal, XX, No. 4 (April 1966), 2-11. 49 we are gaining knowledge or adapting to a simple environment. Third, is the complex level, uti lized when we train interpersonal understanding and skill, look for principles in complex prac tices and actions, or try to find integrated meaning in the operation of seemingly isolated parts. At the most complex level we deal with values of individuals and groups. This is the most subtle, time-consliming, and sophisticated train ing endeavor.10 The objectives of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar have little relationship to levels one and two. They are mainly focused on the last two levels, with emphasis on attitude and value change. When an attempt was made to identify theories which relate to these objectives, it became apparent that there are several major areas of theory in the social sciences which apply generally to learning and human development. But they have not been integrated into a general theory for convenient reference by program coordinators. In psychology, for example, there are three major schools of thought which contribute to an understanding of learning and human development. Koestler has 10 Ibid. distinguished between two, cognitive psychology and S-R or behaviorist psychology. S-R theories, notes Koestler, treat learning as a "gradual trial and error" process where "chained responses are stamped in bit by bit" through conditioning to produce "habits and skills.1 1 There is an emphasis on "discrete stimuli, on parts and perceptual elements," and motivation is derived from "need or drive-reduction, or anticipation thereof." In contrast, cognitive theories, as summarized by Koestler, view the learning process as a "patterned, flexible response adapted to total situations" to produce "cogni tive structures." There is an emphasis on "relation patterns, wholes, perceptual Gestalten" and "insight." Motivation originates from an "exploratory drive or its combination with other primary drives."^ A third school in psychology, how beginning to have important implications for learning theory, is the humanistic. Its writers have "disavowed as inadequate" the "mechanomorphic" man implicit in behavioristic theory. 11 Arthur Koestler, Act of Creation (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964), pp. 561-562. 51 expanded the thinking man of the cognitive theorists and have evolved a systematic concern for the total man. "The humanistic psychologist," observes Bugental, tends to look to those ways in which humans dis tinguish themselves from objects, from animals and from one another: conceptual thinking, vicarious experiencing, imagination, communica tion, invention and discovery, mystical concern and inquiry, artistic creation.- * - 2 Szasz defined the humanistic view of man as "moral" in the sense that man has freedom of decision and the capacity 13 for a self-directed, intentional, and unique life. From these major schools of psychology also have emerged the socialization and attitude change theories in social psychology, which have drawn upon the fundamental concepts of both S-R and cognitive psychology and have derived a myriad of postulates related to attitude and value formation and transformation. Insko has loosely 12 James F. T. Bugental, "The Challenge that is Man," in James F. T. Bugental, ed., Challenges of Human istic Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19 67), p. 8. 13 Thomas S. Szasz, "Moral Man: A Model of Man for Humanistic Psychology," in Bugental, Challenges of Humanistic Psychology, p. 46. 52 organized, attitude change theories into two categories: consistency theories which explain attitude formation and change through the principle of equilibrium, and social reinforcement theories which are based on the principle of need reduction.^ Finally, from social psychology has come also the group dynamics movement focused on the relationship of small group structure and processes to influence and social control. From this has come the group training methods and techniques for teaching interpersonal and leadership skills.^ A cursory analysis of these theories suggests that some relate more readily to one level of learning than another. S-R theory, for example, seems clearly applic able to levels one and two where simple skills and problem solving are involved. Cognitive theories, including "^Chester A. Insko, Theories of Attitude Change (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), p. 347. ^Probably the most current review of selected works in the field is reprinted in Dorwin Cartwright, ed.. Group Dynamics: Research in Theory (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1968; 3d ed.). certain aspects of attitude change and group theory, relate to the complex learning and skill development in level three. Finally, value and attitude development seem best explained by humanistic psychology, socializa tion and attitude change theory. These relationships are approximate, however. There are overlaps at each level. But it is suggestive of the need which exists for extensive study and research to construct an integrated paradigm. In addition to problems confronting the program coordinator by this array of nonintegrated theory, is also the fact that little systematic work has been done to translate even specific theoretical efforts into applied methods which can be used in the design of adult education and development programs. Though programmed learning is an exception to this generalization, in more complex levels of cognition such as attitude and value development, there remains a significant need for applied behavioral research to expand the tools available to education and training institutions for the enormous task of assisting adults to accommodate a changing social, cultural and occupational world. 54 Faced with these obstacles, seminar leaders did not attempt to systematically articulate theories to support the numerous teaching methods and techniques which they utilized. Three factors did emerge in seminar plan ning, however, which were acknowledged as being important in the development of methodology.^ First, seminar leaders indicated a philosophical and theoretical prefer ence for humanistic theories of human behavior, learning and development. This factor coincides with the emphasis placed on self-development in the program and suggested heavy reliance on these theories for selection of teaching techniques and exercises. Second, participants were college educated and experienced professionals, and thus, were relatively independent and self-directed individuals before entering the seminar. This factor encouraged reliance on personal initiative in the seminar. It suggested the use of teaching techniques which rely on the individual1s ability to ascertain the personal worth of new information, ideas IS These factors were derived from several dis cussions with seminar leaders and from observations of seminar planning by the author. 55 and experiences and to change attitudes or alter values where he feels it appropriate. The third major factor which affected teaching methodology was the "group" approach taken in the seminar. Beginning in the planning phase, in which participants were selected from among a population of professional peers, group-oriented teaching methods were integrated into the seminar design, partially for pedagogical reasons but also to help build closer personal and professional ties among Black professionals and facilitate their effectiveness in the community. In the following analysis, pedagogical methods employed in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar are related to theoretical postulates extant in humanistic psychology and attitude change theory. The analysis has been limited to these theories to make the task manage able, and because they relate most closely to the three factors discussed above and to the primary purpose of the seminar— to assist participants in a process of self renewal and personal development with a focus on the role of the executive leader. An additional analysis of group dynamics that occurred in the seminar is included in the 56 next chapter in connection with the description of each seminar session. It is recognized that other schools of learning and socialization theory, alluded to earlier, are also applicable to some teaching techniques used in the seminar but they are not discussed here. Humanistic Theory and Teaching Techniques Humanistic psychology, as it has emerged in the writings of Rogers, Maslow, Bugental, Jourard and many others,^ is preoccupied with the problem of understanding the whole, fully functioning, self-actualizing, self- realizing, joyful man. Although the field has had little to say directly about learning theory and pedagogy, the implications of humanistic psychology for educational programs are highly significant. The basic premise of humanistic psychology, as suggested earlier, is that man is profoundly an independ ent, self-determining organism with an inherent, unique 17 Two insightful books of readings which capture the varied interests and directions being pursued by humanistic psychologists are Bugental, Challenges of Humanistic Psychology, and Herbert A. Otto, ed., Explora tions in Human Potentialities (Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1966). 57 potential. Humanistic psychologists, therefore, are concerned with developing ways to release or free this potential. Schutz summarizes the aim in his framework for achieving joy: Joy is developed through the levels of body- structure, personal functioning, interpersonal relations, and organizational relations. Joy is the feeling that comes when one realizes his potential for feeling, for having inner freedom and openness, for full expression of himself, for being able to do whatever he is capable of, and for having satisfying relations with others and with society. A central postulate, from which hundreds of experimental techniques have been developed to release human potential, is that it is achieved to the degree that the individual can become open and sensitive to himself, to others and to the environment. Techniques are designed, therefore, to encourage the individual to release unnatural inhibitions toward his body, his thoughts and emotions, people he interacts with, and the physical world in which he resides. A corrollary to this postulate is that openness is achieved in an atmosphere X8 William C. Schutz, Joy: Expanding Human Aware ness (Hew York: Grove Press, Inc., 1967). 58 of mutual trust with others. Consequently, most experi mentation has been conducted in interpersonal counselling or small groups in which relationships of trust can be developed and maintained over a sustained period and where interactions can be monitored by a trained profes- 19 sional. In the seminar, an attempt was made to create an atmosphere of trust and openness within which the entire learning experience would be conducted. Seminar leaders emphasized this from the beginning. Several exercises were conducted to facilitate trust building, including several nonverbal group exercises where participants touched one another's face and hands, rubbed each other's back, fell backwards into each other's arms, and partici pated in nonstructured sensitivity sessions. Within this atmosphere of trust, self-awareness exercises also were conducted. They included meditation, expressions of self-perception and identity through drawings and colorings, identifying personal values and a concise and informed statement of group centered techniques, their history and approach, see Carl R. Rogers, "The Process of the Basic Encounter Group," in Bugental, Challenges in Humanistic Psychology, pp. 261-286. 59 designing a plan for personal and professional develop ment. Each of these exercises will be described within the context of the entire seminar schedule in the next chapter. This brief listing, however, provides a summary of the humanistic approaches used to help participants become more open and sensitive to basic values, attitudes, abilities, talents, self-concept and personal identity; and to design plans for personal development in self- determined directions. Attitude Change Theories and Teaching Techniques Experimental approaches to attitude change have been highly productive since Hovland's pioneering work 20 during World War II. Insko notes that since Hovland's studies, "an increasingly large amount of the published research has been explicitly related to stated theoretical 21 orientations." He further observes that "the theories 20 Carl I. Hovland, A. Lumsdaine, and F. Sheffield, Experiments on Mass Communication (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949). 21 Insko, Theories of Attitude Change, p. 1. 60 are characterized by one or both of two emphases, the importance of reward, reinforcement or need reduction and 22 the importance of consistency.' Consistency Theory The consistency approach to learning theory rests on the assumption that an individual will tend to strive for logical integrity between and among the parts of his cognitive* affective and conative systems. Festinger, for example, has studied the results of conflict between "knowledge elements" in his theory of cognitive dis- 23 sonance. McGuire, on the other hand, has developed a series of propositions having to do with the consistency among beliefs, and between beliefs and desires or values.2^ Rosenberg and Abelson have explored the inter- 22Ibid., p. 347. 2^Leon A. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dis sonance (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957); idem., ed., Conflict, Decision and Dissonance (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964). 2^William J. McGuire, "Cognitive Consistency and Attitude Change," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 60:345-353 (1960). McGuire's theory relates cognitive elements to each other and to attitudes. For a discussion of cognitive and attitude change related to values, see 61 dependent relationship between cognitive and affective 25 components of attitudes, while Rokeach and Rothraan have postulated a tendency for the belief system to maintain 2 6 congruency in its development. Each of these theoretical approaches postulates that the individual will try to avoid or eliminate con- sciously-perceived conflicts or inconsistencies within or between his cognitive, affective and conative systems. This suggests, therefore, that if a participant in the seminar receives information or takes part in an experience which introjects or reveals a contradiction in one of these systems, he will attempt to eliminate it. Of the several propositions which have grown out of these various aspects of consistency theory, the follow ing two were most closely related to the design and Milton R. Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, Inc., 1968). 2^Milton J. Rosenberg and Robert P. Abelson, "An Analysis of Cognitive Balancing," in Carl I. Hovland and Milton J. Rosenberg, eds., Attitude Organization and Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960), pp. 112-163. 2^Milton R. Rokeach and Gordon Rothman, "The Prin ciple of Belief Congruence and the Congruity Principle as Models of Cognition Interaction," Psychological Review, 72:128-172 (1965). 62 presentation of the seminar. They are presented in tandem because they are closely related. Proposition. Attitudes, values, beliefs, and opinions tend to be related in a logical manner within the individual. When logical inconsistencies are dis covered, there is a tendency for change to occur in the least valued area in order to restore logic or integrity 27 to the system. Proposition. Changes in cognitive elements (beliefs, opinions, knowledge) tends to produce changes in related affective elements (feelings and emotions) and n q vice versa. In combination, the preceding two propositions provide the theoretical basis for the most pervasive edu cational procedures utilized in the seminar, the lecture- discussion and the training exercise. The lecture- discussion method is designed to provide participants For research evidence to support this proposi tion, see McGuire, "Cognitive Consistency and Attitude Change." 28 For an-elaboration of this thesis, see Rosenberg and Abelson, "An Analysis of Cognitive Balancing." 63 with new ideas and information, which tend to create or uncover areas of inconsistency in the participant's belief system. The process of reconciling these inconsistencies, the theory suggests, also will influence the participant's affective system and ultimately his behavior. The train ing exercise, on the other hand, reverses the process. Role playing, sensitivity training, self-awareness exer cises and group problem-solving involve the participant in new behavioral experiences which, according to the theory, then will affect his cognitive and affective systems, resulting in attitude and value change. Research has been inadequate to shed very much light on the processes by which these transfers occur. It is known, however, that individuals often block trans fer through the use of ego defense mechanisms, such as repression, suppression, projection and denial. Effective attitude learning, therefore, requires educational techniques which reduce the participant's opportunity to resort to such defenses and facilitate his conscious encounter of new ideas and experiences. One important way to encourage this encounter lies in the cogency of content presentation and the atten- tion given to the progress of each participant. To achieve a high level of continuity and consistency in the presentation of concepts and experiences in the seminar, two seminar leaders, often together, conducted all sessions, made possible by their combined academic credentials in psychology, social psychology, socialogy, organization theory and behavior, intergroup relations, and political science, together with several years of teaching and executive education experience. It also allowed each seminar leader to become intimately acquainted with each participant and to monitor individual develop ment. Guest lecturers were brought in only as information resources on various perspectives of the community. Thus, it was possible to avoid the smorgasbord pattern typical of traditional training programs where seminar sessions are closely integrated by title but often only loosely integrated in content. A second method for inducing participants to confront new ideas and attitudes is through the process of group dynamics, where noncontent-oriented behavior and reactions are acknowledged and explored by the group. Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats were among the first to 65 theoretically distinguish between "task" or "content" oriented discussion and "group maintenance" or "process" oriented interaction.29 The latter refers to expressive- emotional reactions of participants to the manifest content or tasks being pursued by the group. The clues to individual defenses and blocks to attitude change often are found embedded in these verbal and nonverbal reactions. In the seminar, a group consciousness was developed among participants by sensitizing them to each other and to the difference between "content” and "process” responses. As group members developed skill in identify ing and deciphering these clues, they provided helpful feedback to the seminar leaders and to each other on the personal and interpersonal dynamics that were impeding 29 This theoretical dichotomy between "process" and "content" or "task" aspects of group discussion devel oped by Kenneth D. Benne and Paul Sheats was first reported in "Functional Roles of Group Members," Journal of Social Issues, IV, No. 2 (Spring 1948), 42-57. They used the terms "task" and "group maintenance" to describe the various roles played by members in group discussions. For further elaboration of these concepts, see Robert F. Bales, Interaction Process Analysis (Cambridge: Addison and Wesley, 1951), chap. ii. 66 the learning process. Team teaching was used to further promote "process analysis,1 1 with one discussion leader concentrating on the presentation of content material while the other evaluated participant response patterns and fed his perceptions back to the discussion leader and the group. This technique was particularly relied upon early in the seminar when group development was in its fragile stage. A third proposition, less fundamental than those above, but related to an important aspect of the seminar, suggests that dissonance aroused as a result of voluntary commitment is most likely to be reduced by changing ele ments other than those related to the commitment.^ To establish a firm commitment to the program in the minds of the candidates, they were required to pay a ten-dollar application fee and sign a statement guarantee ing their attendance at all sessions before they were qualified to participate. This commitment was intensified 30 For a discussion of studies related to this prop osition, see Jack William Brahm and Arthur Robert Cohen, Exploration in Cognitive Dissonance (New York: John Wiley and Sonsy Inc., 1962). 67 at the first regular session when participants agreed to several "rules of the game" which legitimated conflict and required everyone's active involvement. With these psychological anchors set, participants encountering affective or cognitive conflict or dissonance during the program tended to resolve it within the context of the seminar rather than withdraw, physically or psycholog ically. Social Reinforcement Theory The set of theories classified here as social reinforcement theory are characterized by a common assump tion that attitude change occurs in response to the satisfaction of social needs by external stimuli. The validity of these theories inheres in the premise that man is dependent upon his social and physical environment for psychological and physiological survival. The inclusion of reinforcement theories among those guiding the seminar might seem to contradict the previously stated bias towards humanistic theory. This is true to the degree such theories are implemented covertly. When openly discussed, however, they become tools or supports which individuals may exploit or reject. 68 If, for example, an individual wants to cease smoking cigarettes because he is convinced it is injurious to his health, he would be foolish not to elicit the help of friends and family in sustaining his resolve. Conversely, in the face of social pressure which runs contrary to his independent judgment, his awareness of these pressures renders him better able to withstand their effects. Four propositions extant in various reinforcement theories were found to be particularly relevant to the seminar and are listed below along with the related educational methods employed. Proposition. Attitudes tend to change in direct relationship to the credibility of the communication 31 source. The use of authoritative sources is a common method of persuasion and was utilized in the seminar in This hypothesis is among the few which have been well verified by empirical study. See Carl I. Hovland, Irwin L. Janis and Harold H. Kelly, Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies of Opinion Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953). 69 three ways: First, the professional credentials of the seminar leaders and the organization they represent were emphasized to participants in application literature and in the orientation session of the seminar, where seminar leaders were introduced along with the purpose and objec tives of the seminar; second, a set of readings by authori ties in the field were provided each participant and assignments were made for most seminar sessions. Third, prominent Black and white community leaders were brought in as guest speakers to provide a broader level of experi ence and information about the community. Proposition. Attitudes tend to change in the direction of those held by the peer group, particularly if adopting the new attitude results in verbal reinforce- 32 ment from the group. 32 Variously termed by the 'functional theorists' of attitude formation this socialization function of cer tain attitudes occurs as a result of social needs. The function is recognized in the theories of Mortimer B. Smith, Jerome S. Bruner and Robert W. White, Opinions and Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956); and Herbert C. Kelman, "Compliance, Identification and Inter nalization: Three Processes of Attitude Change," Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2:51-60 (1958) . 70 The social power of peer groups as an aid to learning and attitude change has been universally recog nized as an effective vehicle through which change in social institutions as well as in individuals can be realized. Since the ubiquity and influence of groups in all aspects of social intercourse have been empirically documented, there has been a major movement toward the development and utilization of groups and group theory for organization building, community development and any 33 number of other social functions in society. Except for the lecture-discussion technique, the process of group building received the most attention by seminar leaders. They conferred after each session to evaluate the dynamics of group interaction and to consider appropriate changes which would capitalize on the rate of group development For an excellent summary of group theory and research, see Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, Group Dynamics: Research and Theory (Evanston, 111.: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1968); Abraham Zaleznik and David Moment, The Dynamics of Interpersonal Behavior (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964); Edward Schein and Warren Bennis, Personal and Organizational Change. 71 and the capacities and resources of individual group members. Group discussions were used to reinforce cogni tive materials; group dynamics, sensitivity, training, and role playing sessions helped develop and reinforce affective changes in interpersonal relations; and a group project provided social rewards for practicing the applica tion of seminar concepts in actual problem-solving and proposal writing. The group project also became a catalyst in reinforcing the seminar experience through post-seminar meetings held for several weeks after the formal conclu sion of the program. In the last section of this chapter- on seminar dynamics, a theoretical analysis of the dynamics involved in building this group is presented to provide the reader a better understanding of this technique. Proposition. Attitudes will tend to be adopted if they are related to increased success in areas of greatest ego attachment.^ The support of ego needs is a function of atti tudes hypothesized by Smith, Bruner, and White, Opinions and Personality; and Kelman, "Compliance, Identification and Internalization." A related implication of this theory is that when the personality structure changes 72 Assuming that participants were attracted to the seminar because they saw themselves as community leaders (actual or potential) and as executives with a relatively high level of competence, seminar leaders related all materials and activities to improving participants1 "effective performance" in these self-admitted areas of ego involvement. Their need to excel in mastering and demonstrating competence in seminar exercises, therefore, would become for amny of them an indication of their competence in their self-appointed roles. Proposition. Cognitive and affective changes which are reinforced through practice tend to be more q c permanent than unpracticed changes. Though limited time prevented practicing the implementation of new attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and values as much as desired, several techniques were em ployed. First, the group project gave participants the opportunity to apply ideas and attitudes from the seminar (self-concept, for example), attitudes reinforcing the old structure are dropped in lieu of attitudes consistent with the new structure. ■^Hovland et al.. Communication and Persuasion. in the formulation of objectives, organization structure, and action steps for the implementation of a community project. Second, various skill building exercises were used in demonstrating effective use of time, interpersonal communication, motivation and empathy, group dynamics, rapid reading and others. A third technique involved a seminar schedule which allowed participants time to handle job-related responsibilities of high priority during the seminar, thus providing a laboratory for application of new concepts and the integration of new habits and attitudes during the course of the seminar. It also tended to reduce the adjustment which is often required when participants are isolated from their full-time work situation for an extended period. This model represents a compromise between a full time intensive study in an isolated location popular among many seminar leaders, and the "extension" type one night per week education programs 3 6 common at formal educational institutions. 36 This approach is not to imply that there are not important advantages to the "cultural island" approach to education and training. Its advantages were achieved in this seminar by holding the opening two-day retreat out- of-town to provide a protected environment in which per sonal values could be examined and where the participant 74 Summary In this chapter, an integrated design for the planning, curriculum and pedagogy of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar was described. The design represents an attempt to overcome many of the drawbacks of tradi tional executive and management education programs which result from a lack of integration in program design and implementation. In planning, an advisory committee of leaders from the Black community met together with those who were to present the program to determine participant needs and select participants who could best benefit from the experience.- A curriculum was developed which integrated execu tive leadership development criteria and participant needs into six program objectives and a 17-session seminar. Content of the seminar combined information on personal, professional and social values with a behavioral analysis of the executive role at six levels— individual behavior, could pass through the initial stages of small group formation without interrupting the process by ordinary life pressures or influences. 75 interpersonal relations, group dynamics, organization and management, intergroup relations, and community develop ment. Pedagogically, seminar teaching methodology was selected on the basis of three factors: the bias of seminar leaders for humanistic concepts of man, the professional training and experience of participants, and the group-building purposes of the seminar. These factors, combined with the seminar's general purpose of assisting participants in a personal and professional self-renewal, resulted in a concentration of techniques which stressed the importance of personal initiative and responsibility in the change process. Propositions from humanistic psychology and attitude change theory were selected to summarize the theory guiding the learning processes employed in the seminar. Each proposition was followed by a description of the educational methods and techniques utilized in the seminar that related to it. CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF SEMINAR CONTENT AND GROUP DYNAMICS The purpose of this chapter is to expand the outline of seminar content given previously and to provide the reader with more detailed information about the experimental variable. The first section contains a description of each seminar session while Section II analyzes selected dynamic aspects of the group's learning process. Seminar Content Session 1— Orientation, Evaluation, and Opening Banquet In the orientation- session, participants were introduced to the professional staff by the Seminar Coordinator and were given a brief introduction about the purpose and objectives of the program. The method for evaluating the seminar was explained and instructions given for filling out the evaluation instruments. 76 77 After the testing, members of the control group were excused while the participants reassembled to receive reading assignments for the remainder of the seminai?’ sessions. To assist them in completing these assignments an intensive thirty-minute lecture-discussion in rapid reading and effective study techniques were conducted. That evening, participants came together with their spouses at an opening banquet. After informal discussion and dinner, the seminar leaders held a unique discussion about the planning of the seminar, its purpose and objectives, and what participants could expect to gain from the experience.^ The interview then was opened to general discussion and questions. Afterward, the group was addressed by Frank Stanley, Executive Director of the Los Angeles Urban League. He explained that the role of the Urban League was to improve the economic and Labeled the "public interview" this technique is an adaptation of a news media technique which combines the advantages of large group communication with the intimacy and openness of an interpersonal conversation. It involves the seminar leaders interviewing each other in front of the group, but as if they were alone, thus promoting more candor and less formality in the discus sion. 78 employment opportunities in the Black community, through working with white employers in a cooperative way. He contrasted this role with that of militant organizations whose role is to challenge and attack the system and pointed out the need to develop with these organizations a coordinated strategy for change. He summarized by challenging the members of the seminar to make their professional skills available to the Black community. Session 2— Personal Awareness and Professional Values^ The seminar leadership explained to participants and guest, Fritz Mosher of the Carnegie Corporation, that the objectives of the two-day retreat were to develop a common language, to build an integrated group, to promote intrapersonal and interpersonal insight and sensitivity, and to examine personal, professional, and social values.. Ground rules for guiding the interactions for the two days also were presented. Participants were told that conflict was legitimate, experimentation Sessions 2 through 5 inclusive were conducted at a two-day retreat site where they were isolated from contact with their normal professional and personal environs. 79 expected, involvement by everyone required, and openness and honesty hoped for, if the retreat objectives were to be achieved. After consensus had been reached on the objectives of the retreat and "rules of the game," a series of exercises designed to increase personal awareness and interpersonal sensitivity was conducted. A short meditation session was held in an effort to help each participant get more in touch with himself. Afterward, participants were asked to record in their personal journals what they thought and felt. Participants then engaged in nonverbal communication exercises by milling around the room looking at each other, shaking hands, and then with eyes shut, passing from individual to individual using only the sense of touch. To finish this set of exercises, participants divided into triads with each participant taking a turn falling backwards into the arms of the other two. These nonverbal encounter and sensitivity exer cises were conducted to assist the participants in becoming acquainted as rapidly as possible. Without the benefit of words, they were less able to hide behind 80 articulated facades and more likely to reveal something of their true selves. Thus, a basis for trust and honest communication was provided. To facilitate further the process of sharing self-insight, participants were given art paper and crayons and asked to draw and color the image they had of themselves. From these pictures, each individual was then asked to introduce himself to the group. Formal titles were avoided in order to p'romote the development of more authentic attitudes and expectations about each other.^ ' Session 3— Personal, Professional and Social Values^ In the afternoon a scheme describing individual growth and professional effectiveness was presented. Labeled the “Stages of Personal Development,1 1 it consists All but the last of these exercises were adapted from ideas being experimented with at the Easlen Center under the direction of Dr. Fred Schwartz, from techniques employed by Dr. Jack Gibb at the 1969 meetings of the American Association of Humanistic Psychologists in San Francisco, and from Schutz, Joy: Expanding Human Aware ness. The last exercise was a suggestion by Dr. Kent Lloyd, one of the seminar leaders. ^For this session, the group had been assigned to read the classic play, Antigone by Sophocles. 81 of two basic elements— skills and values— which were identified as a basis for the professional development process. (See diagram.) STAGES OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT Professional- Contri- Socialization ization Integration bution Skills Inter- Identity Independence Dependence .dence Values The first stage, beginning with birth, is called socialization, and is characterized by an individual's dependence on social institutions for direction in value and skill development. At the end of adolescence, a second phase is entered entitled the professionalization stage in which an individual achieves independence from childhood relationships, selects a career field, source education and training, becomes employed, and is married. Between the ages of twenty-five and thirty-five, a person begins to refine a set of skills which he uses to achieve his personal goals. The successful merging of values and skills usually occurs after age thirty-five and is termed the integration stage, when an individual achieves his identity. At this point he is able to answer the ques tions: What can I do? What do I stand for? Who am I? Having achieved identity, the individual faces a fourth stage of development in which he desires to make a con tribution in a field which he considers important. In selecting organizations and institutions through which to make this contribution, he maintains his own identity by assuming a posture of inter-independence, which allows him personal independence while being interrelated with others. This diagram summarizes a vast amount of research findings on human growth and development. It is not intended as a sophisticated research model but as a dramatic teaching tool for highlighting certain charac teristics of an effective professional. With this tool, such concepts as inner and other directedness, integrity 83 self-actualization and self-renewal can be lucidly explained.^ The seminar leader pursued the question of values and defined for the group such terms as ethics, morality, values, conduct, and integrity in order to provide a common framework for group discussion. Participants then discussed the classic story of Antigone by Sophocles, in which social values are brought into confrontation with personal values in the persons of Creon, the King, and Antigone, sister of a dishonored brother. In a theater game atmosphere participants assumed the roles of princi pal characters in the play and personally confronted the timeless dilemma of man against the state. In the evening the entire group, including leaders, attended the movie, The Graduate (Twentieth Century Fox), to look for value conflicts and character development and relate these to the earlier discussion of values. 5 This model was developed by Dr. Kent Lloyd and Dr. Kendall 0. Price in connection with executive leader ship seminars conducted under the auspices of PEDR Urban Associates, a professional executive consulting firm, which they organized and now head. 84 Session 4— Group Building and Social Values This session began with a discussion of the movie seen the night before. The purpose of the discussion was to reinforce the concepts presented the previous day and to clarify the difference between objective and subjective analysis. Participants were first asked to give an objective description of the plot, its meaning from the director's point of view, and to analyze the behavior and personality of the characters in terms of the discussion on definitions and professional development of the day before. They were allowed then to voice their own subjective views of the movie. Besides reinforcing concepts discussed the previous day, this exercise was designed to teach participants the difference between objective and subject analysis. Following this discussion, the seminar leaders once again utilized the "public interview" technique and discussed the group's progress toward the objectives of the retreat. Participants were encouraged to ask ques tions and challenge the leaders1 perceptions as a way of providing them feedback. To continue the process of group building, 85 participants were asked to anonymously record two items of personal information: something about themselves that they wanted others to know, and something about themselves that they did not want others to know. These statements were collected and read back to the group to demonstrate the extent to which people share the same problems and aspirations. Subsequently, the group was handed a written statement informing them that in the next hour, there would be no formal leader of the group; they were to use the time learning more about themselves, and how they relate to each other. 7 Session 5— American Democratic Values In the last session of the two-day retreat, the seminar leader discussed certain values fundamental to For a summary description of the dynamics that emerged in this more traditional sensitivity training sessions, see section II of this chapter, "Seminar Group Dynamics." 7A modern critique of dissent and the rule of law in the United States by former Associate Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas, entitled Concerning Dissent and Civil Disobedience {New York: New American Library, 1968), was assigned for this session. the American democratic system. Using the interest group concept developed in Madison's Federalist Paper Number 10, he demonstrated that pluralism was the fundamental assump tion underlying the American political system. Pluralism, he asserted, is protected in the Constitution by a system of checks and balances that effectively prevents any one interest group from acquiring control. Pragmatism and incremental problem solving rather than a closed ideology and a central system of planned social behavior is the process, he suggested, by which the American system attempts to guarantee "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" to its citizens. Finally, the group discussed the function of dissent in open political system and wrestled with the problem of civil disobedience described in Abe Fortas' Concerning Dissent and Civil Disobedience, as a legitimate way to remind the system of breaches in its integrity. This led to an analysis of contemporary activities among black militants and student groups. Participants were asked to encounter these issues and make personal decisions about the use of the technique of civil disobedience. g Session 6— The Effective Use of Time 87 The focus of this session was time management and its relationship to personal values and effective per formance. The seminar leader proposed that one needs to identify personal values such as family, profession, religion, community, self, and friends, and then convert these values into a set of balanced roles (father, vice- president, deacon, etc). For each role, one can outline a set of balanced objectives (new car, 20 percent increase in sales, $25,000 for church recreation center, etc.) on the basis of which a set of balanced activities are planned. Once planned, the activities can then be organ ized into a time plan which becomes the tool for estab lishing priorities and evaluating one's effective perform ance. Participants then were asked to develop time plans in this fashion to improve their own effective perform ance. As an aid to this process, they were encouraged 8 Chapters I and II in Drucker, The Effective Executive, were assigned for this session. 88 to take thirty minutes each morning to develop more creative ways to achieve their own objectives. Two guest speakers were invited to discuss the problem of effective performance from different perspec tives. Herbert Carter, Executive Director of the Los Angeles County Human Relations Commission, described the need for strategy among Black activists so that meaning ful progress could be made in solving the problems of the Black community. He deplored the ineffectual outbursts of Black emotionalists and challenged the group to develop the skills and commitment necessary to achieve results. He was followed by D. Richard McFerson, certified public accountant, who presented a system of personal financial management. His presentation related to the earlier discussion of time management and was described as a second method for evaluating effective performance. Session 7— Behavioral Science Perspectives on Management, Individual Behavior9 The seminar leader introduced the first session on the application of behavioral science to executive Participants were assigned to read: Charles D. Elory, ed., Managers for Tomorrow (New York: The New 89 work with a discussion about the nature of science. Science was described as being tentative, systematic, empirical, self-correcting, objective and self-conscious— a method of seeking truth with "no holds barred." Several levels of behavioral analysis then were described as the focus for the balance of seminar lecture discussions. They were individual behavior, inter personal relations, group dynamics, organization and management, intergroup relations, and community change. The importance of executive leaders having skills at each of these levels was emphasized. The lecture-discussion on understanding individual behavior began with a summary of three main assumptions underlying various psychological themes about the nature of man. The stimulus-response (S-R) model which views man as a complicated mechanism primarily controlled by American Library, 19 65) , Chapter IV; Clark, Dark Ghetto, Chapters I, II, and IV; John Gardner, Self-Renewal, Chapters I-VI, IX and X; and Leavitt, Managerial Psychol ogy, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958, 2d. ed.) Part I. 90 external stimuli, was compared with the human relations stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model suggested by Elton Mayo's work.^ The latter suggests more variability in man's response to environmental stimuli than the S-R model, but nevertheless, views man's behavior as primarily a product of his environment. Finally, the behavioral models of the existential and humanistic psychologists attribute to man more independence and creativity in initiating behavior in contrast to simply responding or reacting to the behavior of others as in the S-R and 1 0 S-O-R models. In the discussion that followed, there was emphasis on the third model termed the organism- ^Known as the "behaviorist school," this approach to human behavior as applied to the organizational setting is best typified by the motivational theory in Frederick Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., 1911). 11 Elton Mayo, The Human Problems of An Industrial Civilization (New York: Macmillan and Co., Inc., 19 33). 12 For an interesting review of these differences and a broad representative review of thinking from the humanistic school, see James F. T. Bugental, ed., Challenges of Humanistic Psychology (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., 1967. 91 response (O-R) theory of human behavior, but it was made clear that each model was useful in explaining aspects of man's behavior. Following the discussion of basic theories, the seminar leader presented several concepts important to understanding the behavior of individuals. He discussed values and attitudes, their origins and the effect they have on the way an individual perceives himself, the way he perceives others, and the way he perceives subjects, ideas and events that happen around him. Differences in perception were used to help explain why people behave differently. The personal characteristics of the effec tive executive, such as independence and creativity, were discussed. As a supplement to the discussion on understanding oneself, Clark Rex, a marketing and advertising specialist, presented material on the creation and projection of a personal image through physical appearance— grooming, clothes, personal style, and physical exercise. He emphasized the importance of integrating one's personal identity with his personal image so that what people see is a true reflection of what exists. 13 Session 8— Interpersonal Relations The topic of interpersonal relations was approached by pairing the participants and asking each pair to read together a ten-page summary of the subject. The group members then related their experiences in performing this task to the interpersonal theory being presented. Expanding on their observations, the seminar leader pointed out the relevance of problems in communi cation, conflict, authority and task role definitions to the problems existing in most organizations and communi ties. Emphasis was placed on the importance of learning how to cope with conflict rather than avoiding it, and of learning to communicate openly and authentically so that authority relationships can be cooperative rather than punitive or threatening. Motivation was related to earlier discussions of independence and personal 13 Participants were assigned to read Part IX of Leavitt, Managerial Psychology titled, "People, Two at a Time," for this session on interpersonal relationships. 14 Kendall 0. Price,"Interpersonal Relations" (unpublished outline, mimeographed). 93 values, and participants were advised that if they desire to motivate someone, they should discover what his needs and values are and indicate how the desired behavior would help satisfy them. Guest for the evening was Robert Jones, Executive Director of the National Conference of Christians and Jews, Los Angeles Chapter, who discussed the problems facing intergroup relations professionals in Los Angeles. He noted the reluctance of public officials to use inter group relations professionals in attempting to develop solutions to the serious race problems in the city, and described his participation along with other executive leaders in the formation of the Urban Coalition of Greater Los Angeles. 15 Session 9— Group Dynamics One of the objectives of the seminar was to guide the group in the planning of a community project. To 15 Participants were assigned to read Part III of Leavitt, Managerial Psychology titled, "People in Threes to Twenties," and Kendall 0. Price, "Group Dynamics" (unpublished outline, mimeographed). 94 begin the planning process, participants were given the rules of 'brainstorming1 and asked to develop ideas for the project. These ideas were recorded for a later session when one would be selected. Next, the theory and steps of group problem stating and solving were discussed with the group. Particularly accented in this discussion were the atti tudes necessary for effective interpersonal relations 16 in problem solving, adapted from work by Dr. Jack Gibb. The most productive attitudes include equality rather then superiority; spontaneity rather than strategy; tentativeness rather than certainty; empathy rather than neutrality; description rather than evaluation; and finally, an orientation toward solving problems rather than controlling people. A summary of the basic concepts of small group behavior including process analysis, structure, norm building, communication nets, and goal setting provided an opportunity for the seminar participants to consider 16 Jack Gibb, "Defensive Communication," ETC A Review of General Semantics, XXII, No. 2 (June 1965), 221-231. 95 whether they actually constituted a group or were just a collection of people. The subsequent group building exercise was a modified sensitivity session in which art drawings were used to aid participants in talking about feelings they had toward themselves and others. As they worked alone and together, first painting and then analyzing what they were attempting to project with the various shapes and color tones used, participants became intensely involved. The object of the exercise was to close the gap between what a participant thought about himself and what other group members thought about him. 17 Session 10— Organization and Management The focus of the first half of the session was on the role of the executive. Barnard's definition of executive functions as setting goals, organizing communi- 17 Participants were assigned Part IV of Leavitt's book on "People in Hundreds and Thousands: Problems in Organizational Design"; Drucker, Effective Executive, Chapters III-VII, concerned largely with executive style, priorities, and effective decision-making; and a handout on organizational effectiveness adapted from James L. Price, Organizational Effectiveness (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968), p. 205. 96 18 cation systems/ and motivation were explored and supple mented by three additional functions: research evaluation of organizational performance, the development of the executive staff, and representing the organization to the environment. The executive was described as a 19 "knowledge-worker" who first needs accurate information about his organization and the environment, and then the conceptual skill to manipulate communication symbols for effective decisions. To help participants better understand the human factor in organizations, management theory was described in three stages. These included the scientific management stage, the human relations stage, and a third titled the "problem solving" or "organizational effectiveness" stage. The central variable distinguishing each of these stages was the particular view of man implied in the theories of each stage. In the scientific management theory, man was viewed basically as a machine; in the human relations 18 Barnard, Functions of the Executive. 19 Drucker, Effective Executive, p. 2. 97 theory he was viewed as a more complicated organism who, if understood, could be manipulated; while in the problem solving theory of management, man was viewed as a more inner-directed, creative person with initiative and desire to make a contribution. The seminar leader then presented evidence from empirical studies to indicate the compara- tive usefulness of each theory in terms of personal growth and organizational effectiveness. This helped establish how relevant an executive's view of man is to the style of management he develops for himself. The session concluded with a discussion of methods and tools for evaluating organizational performance. Effectiveness was contrasted with efficiency as a measure of performance, the former being oriented toward external goal achievement and the latter focusing on the ratio of products sold or services rendered to resources expended. Participants were reminded that organizations, like indi viduals, may be efficient without effectively achieving their goals. For excellent summary discussions of effective ness and efficiency, see Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organiza tions (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964), pp. 8-9. 98 Session 11— Organizational Change Two matters of group business occupied the first half of the session. First, participants were given the assignment of planning a community role-playing experience for the next meeting. The second matter of business involved developing a group project. After a lengthy discussion, participants selected two alternatives and delegated to various group members the responsibility of gathering information that would help them decide which of these would be most useful to the Black community. Guest speaker, Gene Brooks, architect and Execu tive Director of the Los Angeles Urban Workshop, discussed the unique advantages a Black community redevelopment organization working in the ghetto has over the large architectural firms located in downtown Los Angeles. He pointed out that organizations like his can be more "in touch" with the community and can develop plans that would be more in harmony with community wants and desires and, therefore, would be supported by grass-roots citizens. Following the guest speaker, a discussion of alternate strategies for organizational change was ini tiated by the seminar leader. He presented and elaborated 99 various options such as introducing new technological processes, changing the organization structure, modifying programs, and finally, improving the leadership style of the executive staff through executive education and con- suiting. This latter strategy is called organizational 21 development. Session 12— "Operation Empathy” Empathy is an interpersonal skill difficult to acquire. To assist participants in developing this skill, 22 a learning technique entitled "Operation Empathy" was For a summary discussion on these four strate gies and an excellent bibliography on organizational change, see Harold J. Leavitt, "Applied Organizational Change in Industry: Structural, Technological and Human istic Approaches," in James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations {Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1965), pp. 1144-1170. 2 2 'Operation Empathy" is a training technique titled and developed by the seminar staff. It was based on a similar technique used in the Vista Program in Denver, Colorado, where volunteers assumed the life style of the poor for several hours to gain deeper insight into their problems. See Howard Higman, Robert Hunter and Wm. T. Adams, The Colorado Story: An Evaluation Report on the University of Colorado Employment Security Institute on the Management and Operation of Youth Opportunity Pro grams (Boulder, Colo.: University of Colorado Extension Division, Bureau of Sociological Research, Institute of Behavioral Science, Report No. 251965, 1965). 100 devised. The objective of the exercise is to adopt the role or life style of another person in a real environment and attempt to feel as he does, seeing the world through his eyes. Perhaps the most dramatic and well-known example of the use of this technique was the experience of John Griffin, a white journalist, who dyed his skin and became a "black man" for several months. In this exercise, each participant was allowed to select the role he would like to assume. Members of the group were encouraged, however, to adopt the life styles of people with whom they work or in whom they have an interest in order to make the experience more relevant to their problems as executives. Participants spent the afternoon and evening in the community acting out their roles, then met and gave an account of their.experiences. Four members of the seminar became hippies. Dressed in appropriate clothing, they walked for several hours on Sunset Strip visiting the shops and clubs, and making acquaintances with those who live in the area. 23 John H. Griffin, Black Like Me (New York: Signet Paperbacks, 1961). 101 One participant placed cotton gauze, tape and sunglasses over his eyes and became "blind" in downtown Los Angeles. He described how helpful people were, and yet how reluctant they were to talk with him because he was blind. One woman in the seminar who was a teacher by profession became a pupil for a day, encountering students in another high school who had problems. Some could not read, and others were hungry, having to come to school without breakfast. She described the importance to her of once again seeing the educational system from the point of view of a student. Another participant, who is a supervisor in a social action agency in Watts, dressed in the clothes of "a man on the street" and visited a welfare agency to seek job training. He described the frustration of being asked to return three different times during the day because the counselors were in meetings, and the indif ference with which he was treated. One male group member attempted to join a country club in a white suburban neighborhood in Los Angeles. He related how awkward and embarrassed people seemed to be 102 and the difficulty with which they explained that he could not join because he was a Black. These are a few examples of the roles participants assumed in the seminar. They were asked to record the experience in their private journals as a way of reliving and reinforcing the thoughts and feelings they had en countered.^ Session 13— Intergroup Relations The literature of intergroup relations was sum marized to give participants a broad, historical perspec tive of Black problems in America.2^ Various approaches to the problem were discussed including the layman's approach, the legal approach, and the approaches of the behavioral sciences including psychology, sociology, These "operation empathy" experiences attracted the attention of Channel 2, KNX-TV (CBS), who televised throughout the Los Angeles area for a three-evening series during the 6:00 P.M. and 11:00 P.M. news hours. 2^Dr. Kent Lloyd, the seminar leader who presented this session is an intergroup relations specialist and has studied and written on the subject for ten years since completing his doctoral dissertation on the effectiveness of state fair employment practices commissions in the United States. See Lloyd, "Solving an American Dilemma." 103 social psychology/ political science, economics, and anthropology. To give participants further experience with each of these approaches, the seminar leader brought to the class copies of the thirty leading books in the field of intergroup relations from his own library. Allowing each participant to select one, he had them briefly preview the book and give a short report of its high lights to the other class members. Speaking on the "Negro Revolution in America," guest speaker, Billy Tidwell, Executive Director of the Sons of Watts, analyzed the role of the Black militant in redressing social injustices in society. He spoke of the need for militancy to awaken in the white man a more immediate and vivid sense of his social crimes against minority groups. The closing discussion of this session considered alternative strategies to seeking solutions for the Black- white confrontation in America. The history and methods of the civil rights movement were contrasted with the present contemporary militant movement and its approach to dissent and civil disobedience. 104 Session 14— Behavioral Science Perspectives: Intergroup Relations (Continued) Participants reviewed and discussed the National Advisory Commission Report on Civil Disorders, each participant reporting on one chapter. The evening's guest, Victor Palmisri, a former Deputy Executive Director of the Commission, gave the group insight into the behind- the-scenes dynamics of the Report's development. He described the various personalities on the Commission and their individual contribution to the form and content of this famous document. During the balance of the session, participants formally organized their group project by choosing officers. They elected to create a Black research and development organization along with a Black philanthropic foundation and decided to continue their existence informally after the seminar to develop other projects in the community. Readings assigned for this session included: Report of the Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders; "The Negro in America: What Must Be Done," Newsweek (November 20, 1967), pp. 32-65; and Kent Lloyd, "The Com munity Response to Urban Race Riots," The Educational Forum (November 1967), pp. 19-25. 27 Session 15— The Black Community The socioeconomic conditions of the ghetto were explored using Clark's Dark Ghetto as a guide. The Black's self-concept was proposed by the seminar leader as the intervening variable to explain changes in Black attitudes and behavior, from apathy to militancy. It was explained that historical conditions of economic, political, and social injustice and deprivation had resulted in a negative self-concept among Blacks which caused them to remain servile and apathetic. Legal victories in the fifties, plus high expectations for changes given the Black in the early sixties by the poverty programs, gave rise to expectations and feelings of worth, especially among the Black youth and young adults. When the Vietnam War, white backlash attitudes, and administrative difficulties at the federal and local levels drained the War on Poverty of its resources and inspiration, many Blacks turned to militancy to vent their frustration and disappointment. In the evening, members of the group were invited to dinner by Chad McClellan, Chairman of the Management 2 7 Participants were assigned to read the balance of Clark, Dark Ghetto, for this session. 106 Council for Merit Employment, and a member of the Execu tive Committee of the Los Angeles Urban Coalition. He showed a film illustrating the Management Council's attempts to secure employment opportunities for unemployed Blacks. He called upon members of the group to develop new and creative approaches to solving the problem and promised he would help them in finding funds for such projects. Session 16— The Executive Leader and Community Change^1 3 ~ During the first part of this session, partici pants were divided into three working subgroups to plan various aspects of the group project. Seminar leaders circulated among the work groups giving feedback on group processes and consulting on problems of organizational structure, role development, budgeting, and overall strategy. Each work group was encouraged to be self- 2 8 The group was assigned the following readings for this session: Gardner, "The Anti-leadership Vaccine," and Desmond Anderson, Kent Lloyd, and Kendall O. Price, "Crisis in the Education of American Public Executives," International Review of Administrative Science, XXXII, No. 2 (1966), 3,45-152. 107 conscious about its processes and to examine them in light of concepts presented in the seminar. Later, the seminar leader presented materials on the political socialization of community elites. He explained how leaders of different groups view the commu nity differently, based upon their training and interests, father's occupation, parental values, education (level and field), occupational choice, reading habits, voluntary association memberships, and friends. Three leadership types or roles in the community were identified: trustees, missionaries, and profes- 29 sionals. Trustees were described as seeing themselves as guardians of the various subsystems in society, eco nomic, political, and social. Missionaries, on the other hand, become deeply involved in helping people? they are cause oriented and work constantly for social evolution. The professional, in contrast, is technically oriented and concentrates on the development of programs to achieve specified objectives. As the seminar leader pointed out, This typology was proposed by Kent Lloyd, "Solving an American Dilemma," pp. 176-202. 108 these types exist in all the institutions of society: political parties, governmental bureaucracies, business organizations, etc. A person's view of the community and its problems is shaped partly, therefore, by the particular role he has selected and the institution he represents. Two major theoretical models of community power were presented: the sociological approach of Mills and Hunter, who view power as concentrated at the top of a 30 social pyramid in the hands of a "power elite"; and the view of political scientists like Dahl and Presthus, who see power diffused into a plurality of interest groups in society.^ More recent studies, it was pointed out, have shown that the structure of power in communities apparently varies depending upon the nature of the "^C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite {New York: Oxford University Press, 1956); Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure (Chapel Hill: University of No. Carolina Press, 1953). 31 Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961); Robert Presthus, Men at the Top: A Study in Community Power (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964). i 109 community, its governmental structure, and its economic 32 and social base. The evening was devoted to consideration of five strategies for community change: research and writing, protest and civil disobedience, public office, economic power, and the recruitment and education of new leaders. Historical analysis has identified great leaders as those who possess vision, technical skill, interpersonal relations skills, a positive view of man, discipline, courage, creativity, and a sense of personal identity and destiny. Each participant was challenged to acquire these characteristics by strengthening his personal commitments, furthering his professional development, and taking increased responsibility for the task of building a better community. Session 17— Group Project Report, Summary and Evaluation The group worked in three task forces to complete the group project, then with the help of the seminar 32 Robert E. Agger,- Daniel Goldrich and Bert E. Swanson, The Rulers and the Ruled (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), 110 leader, summarized the entire executive leadership program in terms of content material, skills acquired, values identified, teaching techniques utilized, and the rationale for books, assignments and meeting locations. Later, evaluation instruments were administered to the participants and members of the control group. To conclude the seminar, members of the seminar and their partners gathered for a closing banquet which had been planned by a committee of seminar participants. Each participant was awarded a certificate of completion and a small hour glass for his desk as a symbolic reminder of the critical relationship between personal values, effective use of time, and the need to use his professional skills in solving the problems of the Black community. Seminar Group Dynamics Over forty years ago, Elton Mayo discovered in his study at the Hawthorne Western Electric Company that human relations is not simply a problem in one to one relation ships, but frequently involves working with small groups Ill which develop their own norms, patterned activities and 33 identity. With that discovery, the study of groups and group dynamics has become an important tool in changing not only management practices but all forms of human activity where groups are involved in working together, including education and training. Developing a cohesive group as an aid to the educational process of the seminar, therefore, was one of the foremost objectives of the seminar leaders. Primary emphasis was placed on achieving this objective in the first nine sessions of the seminar. Participants were involved in exercises and discussion to assist them in learning the difference between the "content" and "process" of interpersonal and group relationships and the need for devoting attention to the process of group interaction for the purpose of building trust so that the achievement of common tasks was facilitated.^ While 33 Mayo, Human Problems. For an excellent review of group theory and research, see Darwin Cartwright and Alvin Zuncei, Group Dynamics: Research and Theory (Evans ton, 111.; Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., 1968). 34 This theoretical dichotomy between "process" and "content" or "task" aspects of group discussion was devel oped by Kenneth D. Benne and Paul Sheats and first 112 consciously building the group, the seminar leaders also attempted to establish an attitude of personal independence and integrity among participants in order to counter dysfunctional group pressures and to allow for self- determined decisions about attitude change. The group of Black professionals seemed to pass through three phases in the seminar. The first phase, titled "Black versus White," was characterized by par ticipants testing white seminar leaders for evidence of trust. In the second phase, called "Black versus Black,” participants tested the potential for trust among each other. In the third and final phase, participants appeared to achieve a sense of group identity through the selection of a group project and the election of group officers. reported in "Functional Roles of Group Members," Journal of Social Issues, IV, No. 2 (Spring 1948), 42-57. They used the terms "task" and "group maintenance" to describe the various roles played by members in group discussions. See, also Robert F. Bales, Interaction Process Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison & Wesley, 1951), chapter II. Phase X— Black versus White The first incident in Phase I occurred in the initial session after the purpose of the seminar and the need for a two-hour battery of personality and attitude tests had been explained. Several of the participants challenged this explanation and wanted to know the "real" objectives of the program. Particularly vocal was a psychiatric social worker who wore a recently acquired natural hairstyle— symbol of her pride in Blackness and a declaration of her independence from white middle class America. She demanded to know what gave the discussion leaders the right to try to affect values and attitudes of her or anyone else. This issue was raised once again two days later when seminar leaders described the objectives of the two-day retreat as developing a common language, promoting personal, interpersonal, and group sensitivity, building a cohesive group and examining personal and community values. A tense, emotion-filled discussion ensued when one of the participants argued that the attitudes of Blacks did not need changing by a white man. Another suggested that white men's attitudes were the ones 114 needing changes. Using the conflict engendered by this discussion, the seminar leaders related it to ground rules for seminar participation including the legitimacy of verbal conflict, the need for experimentation, and the expectation that all participants would remain open and flexible to new experiences, become involved, be honest about their attitudes, and allow matters of process (emotional- expressive interaction) to take precedent over matters 35 of content or task (rational-goal oriented interaction). Sensitivity over the lack of Black-white trust continued as one of the dominant underlying themes in the two-day retreat activities, periodically emerging in emotionally-laden, verbal and nonverbal interactions. At one of the refreshment breaks, a lively discussion broke out between one of the white discussion leaders and three participants over whether he, being white, could ever be accepted by them as a "soul brother." 35 Benne and Sheats, "Functional Role of Group Members." 115 In the later afternoon, during the discussion on personal and social ethics, participants continued in their reluctance to discuss their own personal values and conflicts among each other. Instead, they focused the discussion on the observed immorality of the white society. This focus persisted into Sunday morning's discussion of the movie, The Graduate, which they had seen the night before. Most of them commented that the movie only expressed what they had already known, that middle class America is bankrupt of meaning, and is focused on sex and affluence. It was apparent that the Black-white confrontation had shifted away from the seminar leaders to society in general. Trust had begun to develop between the group and the staff, but the participants made it quite clear that this had not affected their attitudes about whites in general. Phase II— Black versus Black Evidence that participants had developed trust in the seminar staff became apparent later Sunday morning, as the group moved to a leaderless sensitivity training session. One would have expected the participants to be o reluctant to engage each other openly if they had still 116 lacked trust in the seminar leaders. However, they encountered one another almost immediately. They challenged the unstated myth that they were all "brothers and sisters” who trusted each other. Some participants criticized others in the group for attempting to dominate the discussion. Still others expressed impatience with the time spent on feelings and emotions. ("We can do this crap anytime; we are executives and ought to act like it.1 ') This attitude was countered strongly by another participant who felt the reason why they were there was to work out the problems of trust and openness so they could work more effectively together in the community. During the week following the retreat as the seminar leaders introduced the topics of individual, i interpersonal, and group behavior, they relied heavily upon the participants' outside reading for content back ground so that in the seminar sessions more time could be devoted to emotionally experiencing the leadership concepts at a personal level. Participants explored with each other questions of their own identity and personal relationships, particularly as they related to their being Black. During the Saturday session on group dynamics, as 117 they painted pictures portraying their personal feelings about themselves and about the group, it was apparent from their drawings that a group consciousness had developed. Both discussion leaders remarked at the end of the first week that they felt that much of the respon sibility for discipline and motivation had been lifted from them and had shifted to the group. Phase III— Group Structure In the first two phases, participants were involved in a process which Zaleznik and Moment^ describe as "defining the situation." This process involves reaching consensus among the members of the group regarding the purpose of their being together, the moti vations of the various members, the attitudes and values which they share in common, and the level of trust and openness which can be exhibited without fear of reprisal or embarrassment. In the third phase, the group moved into a process referred to by Zaleznik and Moment as Zaleznik and Moment, The Dynamics of Inter personal Behavior (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964) , p. 27. 118 "structuring." In this process, patterns of authority and influence become established, communication or inter action networks become set, subgroups form, role patterns emerge, along with a pattern of interpersonal likings and sentiments.^ These are patterns which can be observed and measured; they are not things existing simply in the minds of group members. Five different elements make up the properties of group structure: patterns of authority and influence; communication-interaction networks; subgrouping; patterns of role taking; and patterns of interpersonal sentiment. Though each of these elements is amenable to sophisticated 38 analysis, only a limited number of examples will be given here to illustrate ways in which this process occurred in the executive leadership seminars. Group identity, like individual identity discussed 39 earlier, can be seen as a function of the integration 37Ibid., p. 67. 38 Ibid., p. 66. 39 See earlier discussion on this subject in this chapter. 1X9 of values (purpose and goals) and skills. If a group is to be effective, it should have a consensus on values and specific objectives and have developed internal systems of influence, communication, role playing, divi sion of labor, and evaluation which will enable it to achieve its general purpose. During the first week, participants learned something about each other's attitudes, commitments, and personalities. As this process of interaction took place, individuals found more things in common with certain members and as a result developed subgroups. Those with experience in business organizations, for example, interacted together more often and on at least one occasion acted in concert to affect a group decision. In larger group discussions several specialized roles developed. One male participant who had been exposed to group training previously became gatekeeper, calling down others who attempted to dominate discussion and bringing out those who tended to remain silent. Another participant who did not share many of the ethno centric attitudes of the group became a "gadfly." Though branded an "Uncle Tom," he held his own rather easily and 120 provoked certain seminar members into a closer examina tion of their own personal prejudices. The group project provided a dramatic test of how thoroughly the group had identified its values and skills and had integrated them into a commitment to long-range group action. It was stated explicitly by the leaders that this assignment was to be an exercise in group planning and problem solving. There was no attempt whatsoever to set expectations that the group should implement the project. Any long-range activity was some thing left purposely to group initiative. Early in the planning process, disagreement over the feasibility of two major alternative projects developed between their authors. These two participants happened to be among the most powerful members of the group, and both were members of the 'business oriented* subgroup. Their full support of whatever proposal decided on was necessary if the project were to become a reality. Preceding the meeting where the final vote on the selection of a project was to occur, a third influential group member had dinner with authors of the disputed 121 projects and worked out a compromise combining the two into a single project. Following agreement on a project, the group formalized authority and influence patterns by electing a chairman and other officers. The fragile nature of the group's structure and identity, however, was borne out after the seminar was completed. Several meetings were planned in which the proposal was to be sharpened and action begun on its implementation. Only a few people attended the first meeting and as a result, motivation and commitment of those participating began to waver. At the second meeting, more of the group appeared and assignments were made for completing the proposal. During the third week, the project chairman resigned because of a pressing work schedule. By this time, three members of the "business" subgroup had become inactive either because of conflicting schedules or because they had lost faith in the group's capacity to carry out the project. Finally, by the fourth week the group had ceased to meet and the proposal was never completed. The group's failure to persist in the planning and implementation of the project after the seminar had 122 terminated demonstrates the difficulty of building viable organizations, particularly when motivation is principally normative and rewards are highly uncertain. To have succeeded, the group would have, at least, required the support of the seminar structure and resources over a longer period of time. Even then, they would have had great difficulty in launching their ambitious venture. Their experience suggests that in future programs of this kind, either the group decrease its aspirations or seminar leaders provide more time and resources to help build the new organization. That the group did not implement the community project does not detract, however, from the contributions that the group building process made to the success of the seminar. In phases I and II, participants achieved a level of trust and openness which facilitated discus sions on seminar topics and, more important, allowed group members to explore together their self-concept and identity as professionals and as Blacks. In phase III, they learned more about the interpersonal skills of each other through an examination of the roles each played in group processes; they also had the opportunity to develop 123 more effective work relationships through planning and developing the project. For these reasons, the group building process is viewed as a major teaching method accounting for the impact of the seminar on participants. CHAPTER IV PROBLEMS IN EVALUATING EXECUTIVE AND MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A review of the literature on the evaluation of management and executive education and training programs can be summarized with two conclusions: (1) there is an acute need to discover the value received for the steadily increasing resources being committed to this form of executive development; and (2) research evaluation theory and methodology are improving but have yet to emerge from their infancy. Planty and Freeston suggested in 1954 two impor tant reasons why there has been reluctance to evaluate management training and education programs: There seem to be two principal reasons. The demand for evaluation of training comes largely from production, engineering, and scientific man agement groups, made up of people who like to deal in figures, but training can seldom be evaluated precisely. Training men, therefore, are unwilling to attempt the impossible, and are reluctant to bring forth approximate subjective evaluations 124 125 which will be rejected as being unscientific or used with blind faith. We must also remember that training is one kind of education and that educators in general have not been called upon to prove the exact value of their wares. No one questions the value of reading, writing, and arithmetic; no one asks for evaluations to prove the value of ability to think well, speak clearly and forcefully, or reason soundly. Similarly no one doubts that schooling educates more effectively than hit or miss, un organized learning. If we accept all these things on faith, as part of the wisdom derived from human experience, the training man sees no reason why he should have to prove the value of his particular methods and accomplishments.1 Recent surveys show that organizations and insti tutions conducting executive and management education and training programs still are reluctant to vigorously 2 evaluate them. Earl G. Planty and J. Thomas Freeston, Developing Management Ability (New York: Ronald Press, 1954), p. 422. 2 See, for example, Dr. P. Hesseling, Strategy of Evaluation Research (Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum & Co., 1966); Warren S. Blumenfeld, "Attitude Change as a Cri teria in Training," Training and Development Journal, XX, No. 10 (October 1966), 26-31; Ralph F. Catalanello and Donald L.Kirkpatrick, "Evaluating Training Programs— the State of the Art," Training and Development Journal, XXII, No. 5 (May 1968), 2-9; V. Dallas Merrell, "Executive Development: An Overview and Critique of Executive Devel opment Activity, Contents and Training Methods" (unpub lished graduate paper, School of Public Administration, University of Southern California); J. G. Hunt, "Another Look at Human Relations Training," Training and Develop- 126 The most significant reason for the lack of such studies is the nature of the evaluation task. Miles observes that "research on any form of treatment is classically difficult, unrewarding, and infrequent." Bereiter, commenting on the theoretical and statistical problems inherent in the field of change evaluation, acknowledges that some of his colleagues "admit to having abandoned major research objectives solely because the statistical problem seemed insurmountable.1,4 In making a similar observation regarding the evaluation of manage ment education, Argyris stated that "understanding and measuring the impact of a laboratory program upon the participants is an extremely.difficult task. To ment Journal, XXII, No. 2 (February 1968), 2-10; and Michael I. Valiquet, "Individual Change in a Management Development Program," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, IV, No. 3 (July-September 1968), 313-25. 3 Matthew B. Miles, "Changes During and Following Laboratory Training: A Clinical Experimental Study," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, I, No. 3 (July- September 1965), 215. 4 Carl Bereiter, "Some Persisting Dilemmas m the Measurement of Change," in Chester A. Harris, ed., Prob lems in Measuring Change (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), p. 11. 127 understand its impact upon the remainder of the organiza tion seems almost impossible."^ In face of these discouragements, however, more interest and activity is being generated in research evaluation from two directions. First, training pro fessionals are becoming more aware of the responsibility they have for justifying their products to business, industry and government. This is evident in the increased number of evaluative studies being reported in the Training and Development Journal, official organ of the American Society for Training Directors, and in the Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, published by the National Training Laboratories. Second, many training evaluation studies have recently originated in the field of organizational change and development through laboratory training, where the program is conducted entirely within the same organiza tion. The advantages of this setting for research evalua tion will be discussed later. 5 Chris Argyris, Interpersonal Competence and Organizational Effectiveness (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1962), p. 219. 128 h survey of the literature on problems and progress of management education and training evaluation can conveniently be organized around three questions. They are: What is to be evaluated? How is it to be evaluated? Who is to evaluate it? A discussion of each question follows. What Is to Be Evaluated? Deciding what should be evaluated is the first problem requiring attention in any evaluation study. Lynton and Pareek suggest two major categories of answers to this question. The first category includes evaluation of the educational program itself; the second, an evalua- g tion of its impact or results. Studying the Training Process Regarding the first of these categories, Hesseling points out that evaluation "is an intrinsic part of the g Rolf P. Lynton and Udai Pareek, Training for Development (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1967), pp. 312-13. 129 7 training process itself." Trainers need objective feedback throughout the training process to help them assess the progress of the group. This and Lippitt con ceptualize a training seminar as the product of constant interaction among three variables: (1) Training Experi ences Design (techniques and methods), (2) Training Goals (training outcome desired), and (3) Knowledge of Training Q Theory. They seem to be moving toward a systems approach for evaluation that would help the trainer understand the total training process. Lynton and Pareek have suggested the need for study of the planning process where education and training needs are assessed, and expectations and motivations Q developed in participants to prepare them for the program. 7 Hesseling, Strategy of Evaluation, p. 78. SLeslie E. This and Gordon L. Lippitt, "Learning Theories and Training," Training and Development Journal, XX, No. 5 (May 1966), 10-17. 9 Lynton and Pareek, Training for Development, pp. 15-29, 77-107. 130 In this regard, for example. House and Tosi studied the effect of management climate and certain participant characteristics on the impact of a management education 10 course. Several studies have analyzed the differential effects of various training formats. House compared participant reactions to leader-centered versus student- T 1 centered methods of training; Kohn examined the impact 12 of learner participation on trainee satisfaction; Wilson analyzed participant reactions to a sensitivity workshop and compared them to reactions in an organization training 13 laboratory; Bass evaluated attitude change resulting ■^Robert J. House and Henry Tosi, "An Experimental Evaluation of a Management Training Program," Academy of Management Journal, VI, No. 4 (December 1963), 303-315. ■^Vera Kohn, An Assessment of Participants1 Reac tions to Management Development Meetings (New York: American Foundation for Management Research, Inc., 1968). ■^Robert J. House, "Managerial Reactions to Two Methods of Management Training,“ Personnel Psychology, XVIII, No. 3 (Autumn 1965), 311-319. ^-3 J o h n e . Wilson, Donald P. Mullen, and Robert Morton, "Sensitivity Training for Individual Growth— Team Training for Organization Development?" Training and Development Journal, XXII, No. 1 (January 1968), 47-53. 131 from T-Group training with and without a well-known training film;"^ Bunker and Knowles compared the results 15 of programs of different time duration; and Boyd and Elliss correlated results from T-Group training with a 16 program using the case method. Kenneth Benne, on the other hand, focuses on the need to study the different adaptional responses of par ticipants re-entering the organizational environment, as sources of information for refining the training process.^ An example of a study focused on this aspect was Harmon and Glickman's analysis of the effects of a post-training 14 Bernard M. Bass, “Reactions to Twelve Angry Men as a Measure of Sensitivity Training,*' Journal of Applied Psychology, XLVI, No. 2 (April 1962), 120-124. ^^Douglas R. Bunker and Eric S. Knowles, "Compari son of Behavioral Changes Resulting from Human Relations Training Laboratories of Different Lengths," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, III, No. 4 (October-November- December 1967), 505-524. ■^J. B. Boyd and J. D. Elliss, Findings of Re search into Senior Management Seminars (Hydro-Electric Commission of Ontario, Toronto, 1962). 17 Kenneth Benne from remarks given at a theory session of the National Training Laboratories for School Executives (July-August, 1961, Washington, D.C.), quoted in Lynton and Pareek, Training for Development, p. 300. 132 reinforcement program.^ ® In summary/ there are a number of areas where studies can and should continue to improve our understand ing of the educational and training process and the effects of different formats. The Assessment of Worth The second category of evaluation studies concerns the assessment of value or worth. This is determined by establishing and analyzing program objectives. Evaluation goals and objectives fall into five general categories, listed and described in ascending order of evaluative complexity and difficulty: (1) satisfaction of partici pants and sponsors, (2) cognitive learning or the effec tiveness by which knowledge is transferred, (3) attitude and value change referring either to the adoption of new attitudes and values or more often to the strengthening of those already formed, (4) behavioral change presumably in areas which will result in increased effective 18 Francis L. Harmon and Albert S. Glickman, ’ ’ Managerial Training: Reinforcement Through Evaluation," Public Personnel Review, XVI, No. 4 (October 1965), 194- 198. 133 performance on the job, and (5) system impact which refers to the improvements in organizational performance resulting from the program. Most executive and management education and train ing courses are evaluated with some form of satisfaction questionnaire. These questionnaires are easily constructed and the information gained from them satisfies most clients. Catalanello and Kirkpatrick confirm this general practice in a survey of supervisory and middle management programs in 154 companies. Andrews and Merrell drew the same conclusion from their surveys of university and other 20 institution programs for upper levels of management. Some programs, on the other hand, attempt to show change in participants1 understanding of the concepts and principles taught. Hariton's study of the improvements 19 Catalanello and Kirkpatrick suggest four cate gories, REACTION, LEARNING (both cognitive and attitudi- nal), BEHAVIOR, and RESULTS. See Catalanello and Kirk patrick, "Evaluating Training Programs," p. 2. 2QIbid., p. 9. Kenneth R. Andrews, The Effective ness of University Management Development Programs (Boston: Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Adminis tration, Harvard University, 1966); Merrell, "Critique of Executive Development," pp. 9-10. 134 in knowledge of modern supervisory practices resulting from human relations training for foreman in a public 21 utility was among the first studies of this kind. Values and Attitude Studies Satisfaction questionnaires and knowledge tests, however, are generally recognized as inadequate indica tions of future improvements in performance. Consequently, increased emphasis has been placed on measuring changes in attitudes and values. Tyler's study of the impact of human relations training on employee morale was a pioneer ing study,22 but it failed to show significant change. Most studies of value and attitude changes result ing from supervisory, management and executive training and education programs have been conducted largely in the past ten years. The majority of these studies are of human relations training programs for supervisors and 21 Ted Hariton, "Conditions Influencing the Effects of Training Foreman in Human Relations Principals" (un published Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1951), reported in Norman R. F. Maier, Principles of Human Relations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1952), pp. 184-91. 22 B. B. Tyler, "A Study of Factors Contributing to Employee Morale" (unpublished Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1949). 135 middle managers. The purpose of these programs is to develop basic leadership skills such as communication, motivation, sensitivity, and conflict management, through the use of various methods including role playing, sensitivity training, encounter groups and other interactional tech niques. Proponents of these techniques have felt obligated to demonstrate their effectiveness because they depart from traditional forms of education. In 1964, Carron published a study of T-Group training for research and development managers. He found that participants significantly changed their attitudes 23 toward styles of leadership behavior. Harrison con ducted a study in 1965 of the effects a sensitivity workshop had on interpersonal and intrapersonal processes and found that participants increased their use of con cepts dealing with feelings, attitudes and emotions, a finding that was also correlated with the degree of 23 Theodore J. Carron, "Human Relations Training and Attitude Change: A Vector Analysis," Personnel Psychology, XVII, No. 4 (Winter 1964), 403-424. 136 participant involvement.^ In the same year, Oshry and Harrison reported the results of a second study involving 25 T-Group training of forty-six middle managers. The results indicated that participants became more aware of personal and interpersonal needs and saw a clearer con nection between these factors and work accomplishment. Other studies showing attitude changes resulting from T-Group or sensitivity training laboratories include those 2fi by Bass, Wilson, and Lawshe. During the same period, studies were published of more traditional supervisory and management programs including evaluation of programs using the case study 24 Roger Harrison, "Cognitive Change and Participa tion in a Sensitivity Training Laboratory," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXX, No. 6 (December 1966), 517-20. 25 Barry I. Oshry and Roger Harrison, "Transfer from Here-and-Now to There-and-Then: Changes in Organiza tional Problem Diagnosis Stemming from T-Group Training," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, II, No. 2 (April- May-June 1966), 185-198. 26Bass, "Reactions to Twelve Angry Men"; Wilson et al., "Sensitivity Training for Individual Growth"; C. H. Lawshe, Robert A. Bolda, and R. L. Brune, "Studies in Management Training Evaluation: II. The Effects of Exposures to Role Playing," Journal of Applied Psychology, XLIII, No. 5 (October 1959), 287-292. 137 method,2^ a traditional lecture discussion course,28 the oq , . 30 Management Grid, and a supervisory practices training. In each of these programs, results showed significant changes occurring in such attitudes as personal respon sibility for self-development, stronger orientation toward a style of supervision emphasizing production, and per ceived increase in influence of subordinates. A final example that points out the variety of research evaluation studies concerned with attitude and value change is the analysis of a program in management training for nursing supervisors made by McLemore and 27 Thomas A. Mahoney, Thomas H. Jerdee, and Abraham Korman, "An Experimental Evaluation of Management Develop ment," Personnel Psychology, XIII, No. 1 (Spring 1960), 81-98. 28 House and Tosi, "An Experimental Evaluation." 29Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, "Some Effects of Managerial Grid Seminar Training on Union and Management Attitudes Toward Supervision," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, II, No. 4 (October-November- Deceraber 1966), 387-400. ■^Aurelius A. Abbatiello, "An Objective Evaluation of Attitude Change in Training," Training and Development Journal, XXI, No. 11 (November 1967), 23-34; Bernard H. Baum, Peter F. Sorensen, Jr., and William S. Place, "Organ izational Effects of Supervisory Human Relations Training; An Evaluative Technique," Personnel Journal, XLV, No. 3 (March 1966), 148-152. 138 Along with behavioral and cognitive indicators of change, they employed three attitudinal instruments to establish before-after movement among three different orientation measured by Riecken's democracy scalea functional orientation toward hospital structure measured 33 by a revision of a scale by Seeman and Evans, and finally, two attitudinal constructs from Fleishman*s LOQ titled "initial structure" and "consideration."^ Statis tically significant changes in predicted directions were 31 S. Dale McLemore and Richard J. Hill, Manage ment-Training Effectiveness: A Study of Nurse Managers (Austin, Texas: Bureau of Business Research, University of Texas, 1965). •^Henry W. Riecken, The Volunteer Work Camp: A Psychological Evaluation (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison- Wesley Press, Inc., 1952), p. 34. 33 Melvin Seeman and John W. Evans, "Stratifica tion and Hospital Care: I. Performance of the Medical Intern," American Sociological Review, XXVI, No. 1 (Febru ary 1961), 67-79; idem, "Stratification and Hospital Care: II. The Objective Criteria of Performance," American Sociological Review, XXVI, No. 2 (April 1961), 193-204. ■^Edwin A. Fleishman, Edwin F. Harris, and Harold E. Burtt, Leadership and Supervision in Industry, Mono graph No. 33 (Columbus, Ohio: Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University, 1955) . 139 recorded for all three groups on all but the variable of "cons ideration." Among the first attempts to scientifically eval uate value and attitude changes in an executive education program was a study by Viteles in 1960 of a "liberal arts" program for AT&T top management personnel conducted at *3 t? the University of Pennsylvania. The study was duplicated later by Gruenfeld in an analysis of the liberal arts program at the Wabash Institute. Using the Allport- Vernon Study of Values, the Edward Personality Profile Scale (EPPS), the Purdue Adaptability Test, and Adorno's F Scale, both Viteles and Gruenfeld showed change on only two dimensions, a rise in the Aesthetic Scale and a drop in the Economic Scale on the Allport-Vernon Study of Values. Perhaps the leading example of a study which attempts to measure value and attitudinal changes in a 35 M. S. Viteles, "'Human Relations' and 'Humani ties' in the Education of Business Leaders: Evaluation of a Program of Humanistic Studies for Executives," Personnel Psychology, XII, No. 1 (Spring 1959), 1-28. Leopold W. Gruenfeld, "Management Development Effect on Changes in Values," Training and Development Journal, XX, No. 6 (June 1966) , 18-26. 140 traditional, university-based executive development program is Schein1s evaluation of various classes gradu ating from the Sloan School of Management, a study referred to earlier. Schein developed a 100-item ques tionnaire which used an agree-disagree five-point scale to measure ten value dimensions having to do with man, the organization and society, and the ways in which they interrelate. The instrument was administered before and after with no control group. Summarizing the before-after results, Schein notes that each group of graduates tested became "less accepting of classical management principles, less conservative, more accepting of change and career movement, more trusting of workers, more accepting of group incentives and decision making, and more inter- 37 personally oriented." Another less known but important study of value 37 Edgar H. Schein, "Attitude Change During Management Education," Administrative Science Quarterly, XI, No. 4 (March 1967), 617. For additional studies of attitude change arising from university based executive development courses, see Don R. Sheriff and James D. Benson, "Executive Development: Planning and Organizing a University Sponsored Program," Training Directors Journal, XIX, No. 11 (November 1965), 24-29. 141 38 and attitude change was conducted by Croft. He hypothesized that educational administrators attending a laboratory training program in Canada would become more flexible and adaptive to change and develop more positive and democratic attitudes toward others with whom they work. He adapted an instrument entitled Philosophic 39 Mindedness by Smith and Felker to test flexibility, and utilized Blake and Mouton's Managerial Values Scale 40 as an indicator of democratic attitudes. Using before- after measures and a matched pair control group, Croft recorded statistically-significant changes on both instru ments for the experimental group and no changes for the control group. 38 John C. Croft, "Change in Flexibility and Super visory Attitudes of Educational Administrators," Report to the Canadian Council for Research in Education, Univer sity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1968. (Mimeographed). 39 Donald W. Felker and Phillip G. Smith, "The Measurement of Philosophic Mindedness of Flexibility," Indiana School of Education Bulletin, XLII, No. 1 (January 1966), 1-138. 40 Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, University Training in Human Relations Skills (Austin, Texas: Uni versity of Texas, 1960). 142 Although there have been an increasing number of research evaluation studies of attitude and value changes in executive and management education programs, the large majority have measured some aspect of interpersonal or human relations. Only rarely have other factors been included such as attitudes toward self or towards a changing environment. This may be due to the limited number of programs concerned with such topic areas and to the lack of testing tools to measure such attitude changes. In any case, there is a significant need to develop the theory and operational tools required to expand attitude measurement beyond its presently narrow focus and thus allow rigorous research evaluation in situations where resources or circumstances prevent a study of the impact programs make on either individual behavior or organizational performance. Evaluating Behavior Change Supervisory and management human relations train ing programs also were the first to be evaluated for their effects on behavior and performance. Among the earliest attempts was Fleishman's famous study at International Harvester where he developed a Leadership Opinion 143 Questionnaire to systematically gather the perceptions of superiors and subordinates of changes in trainee's 41 supervisory behavior. This study showed no statis tically significant change as a result of the training, however, Handyside was among the first to record signifi cant impact of human relations training in a study of participants in a fourteen-week (one day per week) super visory training program. He found they increased produc- 42 tion. On other indicators such as job satisfaction, decrease in turnover, absenteeism, or tardiness, however, no change occurred. In a later study, Tarnopol found that the greatest change in leadership behavior was induced by a training technique that involved supervisors in 43 feedback sessions with their work groups. In the past ten years, several more important and thorough research evaluations have been made of 41 Fleishman et al., Leadership and Supervision. 42 John D. Handyside, "An Experiment with Super visory Training," NIIP Report Mo. 12, 1956. 43 Lester Tarnopol, "Training Supervisors by 'Feed back,'" Personnel Journal, XXXVI, No. 3 (July-August 1957), 92-96. 144 behavioral change resulting from interpersonal relations programs. In I960, Miles published his study of behavior al change among high school principals attending labora- 44 tory training at the National Training Laboratories. This study was one of the first to include a follow-up evaluation months after trainees had returned to work. It showed that changes recorded soon after the program terminated tended to attenuate after trainees returned to their former environment. In 1959, Buchanan and Brunstetter conducted one of the first studies of an organization development pro- : gram where 224 managers in one department were exposed 45 to an intraorganizational laboratory programs. Managers (N-133) in another department were used as a control group. A questionnaire was administered three to seven 44 . Matthew B. Miles, "Human Relations Training: Processes and Outcomes," Journal of Counseling Psychology VII, No. 4 (1960), 301-06. 45 Paul C. Buchanan and Philip H. Brunstetter, "A Research Approach to Management Improvement: II. Method- odology and Results of Evaluation," Journal of the American Society of Training Directors, XIII, No. 2 (February 1959), 18-27. 145 months after the program to subordinates of both groups. The experimental group showed a greater number of changes in predicted directions than the control group. Possibly the most exhaustive and ambitious research evaluation of an intraorganizational interpersonal rela tions program was conducted by Chris Argyris for a large corporation in the Midwest.^® An organization-wide assessment of managerial attitudes preceded the program and provided a set of hypotheses about the nature of interpersonal relationships among managers. The hypoth eses became the dependent variables for an extensive action research study in organizational development. The experimental variable was primarily a series of T-Groups supplemented with lectures, role playing and other laboratory techniques. The program's objective was to explore the interpersonal problems and conflicts among management personnel, uncovered by the earlier survey, and to attempt to work out patterns for solving them on a continuing basis. Argyris employed a variety of instruments to measure the impact of the program including 46 Argyris, Interpersonal Competence, p. 219. ' ■ 146 open-ended interviews and standardized rating scales. He found that behavioral change had taken place in the experimental groups and that it had resulted in improved working relationships, increased problem solving capacity, and higher morale. In the last few years, important studies such as those by Bunker, Asquith, Golembiewski, Friedlander, 47 Valiquet, Schwarz, and Schutz have expanded the reper toire of training techniques and evaluation methodology 47 Douglas R. Bunker and Eric S. Knowles, "Compari son of Behavioral Changes Resulting from Human Relations Training Laboratories of Different Lengths," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, III, No. 4 (October-December 1967), 505-23; Ronald H. Asquith and Dalva E. Hedlund, "Laboratory Training and Supervisory Attitudes," Psycho logical RReports, XX, No. 2 (April 1967), 618; Robert T. Golembiewski and Arthur Blumberg, "Confrontation as a Training Design in Complex Organizations: Attitudinal Changes in a Diversified Population of Managers," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, III, No. 4 (October-December 1967), 525-547; Frank Friedlander, "A Comparative Study of Consulting Processes and Group Development," Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, IV, No. 4 (October-December 1968), 377-399; idem, "The Impact of Organizational Train ing Laboratories Upon the Effectiveness and Interaction of Ongoing Work Groups," Personnel Psychology, XX, No. 3 (Autumn 1967), 289-308; Valiquet,"Individual Change in a Management Development Program," 313-25? Fred C. Schwarz, William P. Stilwell and Burt K. Scanlan, "Effects of Man agement on Manager Behavior and Subordinate Perception," Training and Development Journal, XXII, No. 4 (April 1968), 38-50; William Schutz and Vernon L. Allen, "The Effects of a T-Group Laboratory on Interpersonal Behavior," Journal 147 for engendering and assessing behavioral changes among management and supervisorial personnel participating in these programs. Some of these studies will be commented upon later in discussions about evaluation methodology. It is interesting to note, however, that all but two were "organization development" programs. This setting is most ideal for evaluation purposes because participants and those with whom they work are conveniently available for interviewing. Consequently, the most significant advances in evaluating change in behavior and performance have been made in their setting. Changing Organization Performance Of added interest, however, is the evaluation of management education and training effects on organization performance made possible by organizational development programs. Hillman, for example, studied the effects of a company training program on turnover, absenteeism, accidents, Workmen's Compensation costs, etc., and found that the program preceded a drop in turnover and accident of Applied Behavioral Science, II, Wo. 3 (July-August- September 1966), 265-286. 148 rates.48 The author cautions, however, that the effect of intervening variables is unknown. Blake, Mouton, Barnes and Griener showed before-after improvements in company net profit and productivity in a famous study 49 of the impact of Management Grid training. Finally, Parker has explored the results of a program designed to diffuse a set of management concepts throughout an entire 50 organization through a system of management briefings. The study extended over an eighteen-month period. Results indicated a dramatic increase in sales and managers placed more emphasis on delegating authority, planning, communi cation, role clarification, and objective performance indicators. 48 Harry A. Hillman, "Measuring Management Training — A Case Study," Journal of the American Society of Training Directors, XVI, No. 3 (March 1962), 27-31. ^Robert R. Blake, Jane S. Mouton, L. B. Barnes, and L. E. Greiner,' "Breakthrough in Organization Develop ment," Harvard Business Review, XLII, No. 6 (November- December 1964), 133-155. ^Treadway C. Parker, The Anatomy of Organization Development (New York: American Foundation for Management Research, Inc., 1968). 149 In summary, what is evaluated seems to depend upon objectives of the training, theoretical interests of the evaluators, expectations of the sponsors and participants, and methodological limitations inherent in the training situation. Programs in the traditional, university-based educational model seem to carry the least expectation for scientific evaluation whereas some newer behavioral train ing models are expected to demonstrate effectiveness in order to establish their legitimacy. A review of evaluation studies shows that research evaluation has been most adequate in studies of the human relations laboratory training, principally because of the emphasis placed on training and evaluation in this area over the last two decades. In some cases, theoretical models have guided the construction of a questionnaire such as Fleishman's Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ). In other instances, the research design is inte grated into the training model, best exemplified in Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid. Less theoretical work has been done, however, in the evaluation of more extensive multidimensional executive and management programs. This is probably due to the lack of theory building in the entire area of 150 51 management and executive attitudes and behavior, beyond the subject of leadership style. A second factor is the reluctance of program directors to evaluate multidimen sional programs. The reason, however, may be the lack of adequate instruments and the time and resources to develop them. The lack of evaluation models also may reflect the lack of coherence in the planning and imple mentation of many such programs. Goal setting and objec tive stating are often for promotional and not evaluation purposes in executive education programs. Whatever the reasons, there is need to improve the conceptual design of research evaluation studies and to strive for generalized evaluation models that can be used in a wider spectrum of programs. How Is It to Be Evaluated? An integral aspect of the question, "What to evaluate?" is the more difficult question, "How is it to 51 Lyman Porter and Edward B. Lawler, III, Mana gerial Attitudes and Performance (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968), pp. 5-6. 151 be evaluated?" Unquestionably, the reason most organiza tions and training institutions rely on the simple satis faction questionnaire is because of the expense and resources required to obtain more objective indicators of success. The satisfaction questionnaire, if carefully constructed and pretested can provide valuable informa- 52 tion, as demonstrated in the study by Andrews. Its importance should not be underestimated. But regardless of its construction, its results are not generally accepted as scientifically derived. The need for a more rigorous approach to determine the effectiveness of management and executive education is a common theme in the training literature. Classical Design One of the liveliest areas of discussion among students of change evaluation questions the classic research design's applicability to evaluate training and Andrews, Effectiveness of Management Programs. 5 3 education programs. The classic research design has four requisites for evaluating change: (1) an experimen tal group which is exposed to the variable (training program, therapy, etc.); (2) a control group which is not exposed to the variable; (3) random selection (or matching) of experimental and control groups to control for extra neous variables; and (4) valid and reliable instruments to operationalize the dependent variables, usually admin istered before and after the introduction of the experi mental variable. There are several variations on this simple scientific research design employed when more than one dependent variable is being tested in which case more experimental groups are added, or when extra precaution is taken to control intervening variables in which case extra control groups are usually required. The basic design, however, is constructed to yield objective, unbiased data which usually are analyzed by statistical tests for significant differences between the experimental See, for example, Herbert H. Hyman, Charles R. Wright and Terrence K. Hopkins, Applications of Methods of.Evaluation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962) , p. 19. 153 group and the control group. On the basis of these tests, the null hypothesis of no change can be accepted or rejected and inference can be made regarding the experimental variable. In the decade from 1950 to 1960, it is estimated on the basis of two different surveys that fewer than fifteen research evaluations studies were conducted of executive, management or supervisory training and educa tion programs in which the essential elements of a 54 classical design were followed. In almost every case, these studies were of programs conducted within one organization where control groups could be arranged more easily. In programs where participants come from a long distance, or where limitations in staff, additional costs, insufficient numbers of clientele or public rela tions problems interfere, the use of a control group or the random selection of the experimental group is often impossible. Carron, "Human Relations Training and Attitude Change," 403-24; Blumenfeld, "Attitude Change as a Cri terion,1 1 26-31. 154 Two innovative techniques for overcoming this difficulty have been utilized. Bunker,^ and Valiquet,^ in their studies, for example, required participants to identify counterparts from their own organizations to whom the testing instruments could be sent. Hyman, Wright and Hopkins pretested participants in the Encampment for Citizenship before they arrived and again upon arriving, assuming that the results of the pretest interval would act as a control on the program pretest and posttest results.^ In assessing the extent to which training evalua tions meet the rigorous requirement of the classic design, Lazarsfeld makes the following observations: This classic design has been a model available to all experimenters and evaluators for many decades. ... A paradox worth pondering is that, although the design has been attractively displayed for sale, very few evaluators have actually "bought" it, and among those who have, the product has usually been found deficient. The rejection of this 55 Bunker and Knowles, "Comparison of Behavioral Changes." 56 Valiquet, "Individual Change in a Management Development Program." C * 7 Hyman et al., Methods of Evaluation, p. 19. 155 design should not be interpreted as negligence. Often it means that the design cannot be trans lated into proper practice in evaluation studies because of conditions inherent in the operation of the programs. These conditions usually pre vent obtaining an equivalent control group. The control groups that tend to be employed are poor simulations and the results consequently mislead rather than illuminate. At other times the prac tical priorities of the action program override the goals of evaluation and bar the evaluator’s access to a good control group. In all such instances, slavish insistence on a control-group designs is unwise. The purist attitude may defeat any attempt to evaluate planned programs, or it may create false confidence in the results of poorly designed evaluations which only simulate an equiv alent control group, while undue skepticism is attached to the results of well-designed evalua tions which employ reasonable and sound alterna tives to the classic design.^8 Evaluation Instruments A second problem even more critical than the question of a control group, is to find or develop reliable and valid instruments to evaluate anticipated change. Instrument development is a demanding process in which few organizations and education and training institutions have the professional expertise, financial resources, and time 58 Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Milton J. Rosenberg, eds., The Language of Social Research (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1955), pp. 15-16. 156 to engage. Though many instruments have been successfully developed, they are seldom applicable to the specific objectives of other programs, particularly in executive and management education seminars where the objectives are multidimensional and vary greatly from program to program. In addition, their reliability is in question unless pretests are performed on the specific population to which they will be administered. Standardized attitude-value instruments, in particular, have several disadvantages or weaknesses. First, their reliability and validity must be challenged when they are used to measure change over a short interval, a function for which few were designed. The items in many instruments, for example, ask the individual to respond on the basis of his general adult experience and seldom are oriented specifically to an organizational context. It is quite likely that an individual's attitudes and values change from one social role to another. Since role behavior is to a large extent the result of the expectations of others involved with him, a person who is independent in his personal life may be quite dependent at work. Or a person who is unassuming with his friends may be aggressive and even authoritarian as a supervisor. 157 In these two hypothetical situations, how would the individual respond to a typical questionnaire item such as: "I like to do things in my own way" or "I attempt to dominate"? Attitude and value research and instrument development could profit, it seems, from being more role specific, when the focus of the research is a particular social situation. A second and related weakness of standard atti tude instruments is that they often are not suitable for before-after studies of change. The item eliciting the response often refers to past experience and is, there fore, less sensitive to attitudinal changes in the present. These disadvantages, characteristic of most standardized attitude and value scales, result from the fact that most were.designed for guidance counselling or personnel selection where the objective is to understand the personality rather than analyze ways it has changed. The vigorous interest of the behavioral sciences in planned social change suggests the need for more precise tools that can evaluate modest alterations in the attitude and value structures of the nonpathological personality. A third problem area of standard attitude-value 158 instruments is that they are transparent for the most part and subject to faking. Although less a problem in evaluating education programs than in job placement where the individual's responses affect future employment, subjective response bias is an intervening variable of continual concern to the evaluator. For these reasons, few standardized tests are used in evaluating management education programs except in the area of supervisory and interpersonal relations training where format and objectives have become more 59 standardi zed. In lieu of adequate standardized tests, evaluators use other testing techniques. Schwarz used "critical incidence" analysis in his study of a management program 59 Standardized tests currently used to evaluate human relations and supervisory leadership courses include: Edwin A. Fleishman, Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ); Donald Kirkpatrick, Supervisory Inventory on Human Rela tions; R. N. Stogdill and C. L. Shartle, Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire; Frank Friedlander, Group Behavior Inventory; Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, Managerial Values Scale; William C. Shutz, Funda mental Interpersonal Relations Orientation. 159 6 n for an insurance company; Abbatiello adapted Osgood's Semantic Differential to measure changes resulting from a 61 supervisory leadership program? open-ended question- 62 * naires were employed by Miles, Valiquet, and Bunker in their studies, while Argyris relied significantly on 6 3 interviewing. other techniques commonly used are atti tude scales,6^ trainer ratings,^ role set ratings, ^^Schwarz at al., "Effects of Management on Manager Behavior." 61 Abbatiello, "An Objective Evaluation of Attitude Change," 23-24. 6 2 Miles, "Changes During and Following Laboratory Training"; Valiquet, "Individual Change in Management Development Program"; Bunker and Knowles, "Comparison of Behavioral Changes.” 6 3 Argyris, Interpersonal Competence. 64John W. Slocum, Jr., "Sensitivity and Self- Awareness Changes: An Empirical Investigation," Training and Development Journal, XXII, No. 9 (September 1968), 38-47. ®^Ralph M. Stogdill and Carroll L. Shartle, Methods in the Study of Administrative Leadership (Bureau of Business Research, Research Monograph No. 80, Ohio State University, 1955) . 6 6 Fleishman et al., Leadership and Supervision; Miles, "Changes During and Following Laboratory Training." 160 case problem-solving,®"^ and simulated decision-making.®® The Meaning of Effectiveness Another unresolved problem is to define the meaning of worth or effectiveness for education and training pro grams. Except where the results can be measured in dollars and cents, a rare instance, the answer to this question is usually subjective. In more rigorous studies, statistical tests of significance usually are the measure of effec tiveness.®® Pre-set standards or goals for evaluating the strength or amount of change are seldom established. Directly affecting the assessment of worth is the decision of when to make the evaluation. Should it be 67 Thomas A. Mahoney, "Evaluation of Training," Personnel Journal, XXXVIII, No. 9 (February 1960) , 344-45. 6 Q Lee Thayer, studies in the Development of Admin istrators: An Experimental Training Program (Wichita, Kans.: College of Business Administration, Wichita State University, 1964). 69 Hyman, Wright and Hopkins discuss the limita tions of using significance levels as the indicator of change and suggest that a more reassuring approach is to test the reoccurrence of change patterns in a series of programs. Hyman et al., Methods of Evaluation, pp. 69-71. 161 immediately after the program, six months later or perhaps after a year? Some studies suggest the impact of executive and management development programs are not felt for several months or even years.Other studies indicate attitude, value and skill changes measured imme- 71 diately following the program tend to decline over time. Clearly associated with the problem of setting standards for effectiveness is the more esoteric question of the reliability of test scores. Carl Bereiter asks, for example, "When scores on a test are observed to change how can one tell whether it is the person who changed or 72 the tests?” The suspicion is that test items are inter preted differently by the respondent in posttesting than in pretesting so that scores are no longer comparable. 7n Andrews, Effectiveness of Executive Programs; Harrison, "Cognitive Change and Participation.” 71 Friedlander, ”A Comparative Study of Consulting Processes"; Carron, "Human Relations Training and Attitude Change”; Hariton, "Conditions Influencing the Effects of Training Foreman.” 72 Bereiter, "Some Persisting Dilemmas in the Measurement of Change," p. 11. 162 Dilemmas such as these are causing research methodologists to re-examine testing procedures. Other important, but less significant, problems surrounding the question of how to evaluate change in executive education and other types of management educa tion and training are explained more thoroughly in the 7 3 works cited. Enough highlights have been presented here, however, to indicate that major obstacles face evaluators as they attempt to develop research designs for evaluating training objectives. Alternate methods for controlling extraneous variables have been used and an increasing number of instruments are being developed to test a wider variety of phenomena, all of which suggest hopeful progress in the pursuit of answers to the difficult problem of evaluation methodology. Who Is to Evaluate? There are several alternate answers to the question of who is to evaluate. Lynton and Pareek argue that 73 Particularly thorough are Hyman et al., Methods of Evaluation; and Hesseling, Strategy of Evaluation. 163 "evaluation of training objectives is the responsibility of the work organization."^ However, most organizations do not have the necessary expertise. Hesseling, on the other hand, maintains that an independent evaluation by experts should be employed to insure objectivity in ' 7 5 developing the-instruments and interpreting results. He admits, however, that this involves substantial costs which may be beyond most program budget limitations. In reality, the training institution usually conducts the evaluation and this raises the question of bias and selectivity in the interpretation of results. Hesseling notes, however, that this bias is minimized if standardized instruments and a control group are used in 7fi the research.0 As in the case of deciding what to evaluate and how to evaluate, deciding who should evaluate is a matter ^Lynton and Pareek, Training for Development, p. 319. 7 c Hesseling, Strategy of Evaluation, p. 65. 164 of the ideal versus what is practically possible given all the situational restraints. Though not unusual for social scientists who always have been faced with meas uring variables difficult to control, the fact provides little consolation to the conscientious researcher striving to be systematic and rigorous in obtaining objec tive results for his efforts. Summary A review of the research evaluation literature for management and executive leadership programs justifies several conclusions. First, the vast majority of programs conducted are not vigorously evaluated. Some form of open-ended satisfaction questionnaire or transparent rating scale is the most common method employed to deter mine the worth of the experience. Second, research evaluation studies are most prevalent in the newly-emerging interpersonal relations or group training areas. Rigorous research activity yielding some relatively generalizable results has been stimulated in these areas by the presence of applied behavioral science research organizations such as the 165 National Training Laboratories, the need to demonstrate the usefulness of this nontraditional approach to manage ment development, and the fairly standardized training techniques which these programs employ. Third, one of the most promising trends in manage ment education evaluation is emerging in the area of organization development. In these programs, all partici pants come from the same organization. This not only makes them easily accessible to the researcher but means the impact of their collective changes in attitudes and behavior is focused on one organizations. These two factors have made possible rigorous evaluation of changes in both participant behavior and organizational perform ance resulting from management education and training programs. Finally, a review of the literature has revealed that theory building and instrumentation for evaluating executive and management education and training are inadequate, particularly in programs which are multi dimensional both in content area and teaching techniques. In the next chapter, the outlines of a construct for evaluating value and attitude change among participants in an executive leadership program is presented as part of the research evaluation design employed in the study. The construct was designed specifically for the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar but its elements are generic and applicable to all programs which focus on basic personality characteristics related to effective behavior in management and executive leadership roles. CHAPTER V RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The research evaluation of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar was conducted to test, primarily, value and attitude changes among participants during the seminar and in a two-month period following its conclusion. In addition, some indicators of behavioral changes were also 1 obtained in the follow-up testing. The review of executive education evaluation literature in the last chapter revealed a paucity of theoretical constructs which have been developed and operationalized for testing value and attitude change in multidimensional executive leadership programs. A major concern of this study, therefore, has been the develop ment of an evaluation model which would have general The situational restraints present in the timing and funding of the project prevented a before-after study of behavioral and performance changes. 167 16 8 applicability in programs of this kind. Toward a Theoretical Model for Evaluating Executive Leadership Programs In designing a construct to conveniently cate gorize the attitude and value changes anticipated in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar, the aim was to find a scheme which would join aspects of personality related to the role and responsibilities of the urban executive leader to the more fundamental processes involved in 2 self-renewal and self-realization. The resulting con struct is composed of three interrelated attitude and value clusters: view of self, view of others, and view of the environment. Theoretically, each view is a funda mental orientation of the human personality, and for this reason is applicable to all human behavior. The orienta tion is made specific to the role of the executive leader by the variables selected to operationalize it. The orientations are only briefly described in this chapter. 2 Credit is given writers such as John Gardner, Abraham Maslow, and Chris Argyris, who inspired the unit ing of concepts about psychological health with the role of the executive. 169 A detailed description of the specific values and atti tudes which operationalize the orientation and which become the research hypotheses bested in the study will accompany the results in Chapters VI and VII. View of Self The view a person has of himself, his "self picture" or his self-conception includes a kaleidoscope of perceptions he has of his abilities, attitudes, goals, values, beliefs, and prejudices. Brownfain refers to it as a "system of central meanings""* one has in reference to himself. Once formed, the view of self becomes a "framework or guide with which to make sense out of experiences in life."^ It affects how one acts toward others, and how he interprets the acts and communications others direct at him. "In short," concludes Argyris, "we tend to adopt those ways of behaving that are consistent 3 John J. Brownfain, "Stability of the Self-Concept as a Dimension of Personality," in Don Hamachek, ed., The Self In Growth, Teaching and Learning (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), pp. 269-287. 4 Chris Argyris, Executive Leadership: An Appraisal of a Manager in Action (New York: Harper and Row, Pub lishers, 1953), p. 176. 170 with, or in agreement with, the picture we already have of ourselves."^ The self-concept, therefore, is the source of energy and direction for personal achievement. As such, it is the cornerstone of the personality and a factor of prime importance in self-development. On the basis of these observations, it is apparent that to be effective, an executive leader must have a positive, confident perception of himself as a leader with appropriate skills and abilities, and a commitment to a set of carefully deliberated personal and social values.® For Black professionals the importance of self- concept is accentuated. According to social psycholo gists, the self-concept is a social construct derived 7 from interactions with one's social environment. In Chapter I, it was noted that prejudice and segregation 5Ibid. g Charles D. Flory, ed., Managers for Tomorrow (New York: The New American Library, 1965) , pp. 59-75. "^Julius Gould and William Kolb, "Self-Conception" in Dictionary of the Social Science (New York: The Free Press, 1964), p. 630. 171 encountered by Blacks in growing up leaves scars of self- Q doubt and tendencies toward self-recrimination. This legacy, combined with the rejection by the militant leadership in the ghetto, has resulted in anxiety and confusion among many Black professionals regarding their personal identity. Consequently, a major goal of the program was to provide Black professionals an environment in which to confront these perceptions, and hopefully, to achieve a more positive sense of personal direction and self-worth. View of Others In western democratic society, the individual is a supreme value and the end as well as the means of all worthwhile social achievement. In this culture, executive leadership must share this value and justify all social enterprise by this standard. Moral integrity also requires that the executive strive to design and manage the instruments of social achievement— organizations and Q See also, Abram Kaudiner and Lionel Ovesey, "On the Psychodynamics of the Negro Personality," in Chad Gordon and Kenneth J. Gergen, The Self in Social Inter action Vol. I; Classic and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968), 259-266. 172 institutions— in ways that promote the welfare and best interests of those working in them. It is his responsi bility, according to McGregor: to arrange organizational conditions and methods of operation so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives. This is a proc ess primarily of creating opportunities, releas ing potential, removing obstacles, encouraging growth and providing guidance.9 Empirical research in the last three decades tends to confirm this management ideal in practice. Students of leadership behavior agree that interpersonal relation ships and social organizations that are most productive tap the creative potential, initiative, and contributions of those individuals involved. This requires a leadership style which creates a positive, trusting, problem-solving environment in which the individual's worth is respected, he is allowed to participate in solving meaningful prob lems, communication flows freely and evaluation is based 9 Douglas McGregor, Leadership and Motivatxon (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1966), pp. 15-16. 173 10 on indicators of effective performance. It is evident, therefore, that both from a moral and an empirical point of view, the values and attitudes which the executive leader has with respect to others are of basic importance to his success. View of the Environment A third fundamental orientation underlying effective human behavior is the attitudes and perceptions which characterize an individual's view of his environ ment . One way of judging positive mental health or personal effectiveness is to observe how realistically an individual perceives the environment and manipulates its symbols, and how creatively he adapts to change and brings new order out of an infinite variety of stimuli. Although the variables affecting how well this is done are only partially understood, research has shown that individuals with open, flexible perceptual systems tend These aspects of democratic leadership theory are more thoroughly discussed in Chapter VII. For a scholarly work on the subject, however, see Chris Argyris, Integrating the Individual and the Organization (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964). 174 to be more effective in finding creative solutions to environmental problems than those with closed, rigid systems which by definition are limited to only a few alternatives.^ In the metropolitan area where a diversity of ideas and cultures is combined with rapid economic, tech nological and social change to create a highly complex environment, executive leadership, to be effective, must be unencumbered by disabling biases and narrow ideologies. Their responsibility include creating consensus out of plurality and instituting changes in organizations that will allow them to successfully adapt to the changing environment. These functions imply an accurate perception of reality, an appreciation of ideological and cultural plurality, and a flexible, pragmatic approach to problem solving. View of self, view of others and view of the environment, therefore, are three fundamental orientations For a provocative exploration of the relation ship of positive mental health, flexibility and problem solving, see Marie Johoda, Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1958); see also Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1958), p. 63. 175 which summarize a cluster of attitudes and values under- girding effective executive leadership behavior. Though analyzed and presented as being related separately to executive performance, it should be noted that these three views also are interrelated. Changes in one tend to effect changes in the others. Articulating the nature of this interrelationship, Chris Argyris has suggested that "manifestations of self-esteem (positive view of self) are the predispositions to enlarge the awareness of one's self and others and to enlarge the acceptance of 12 self and others." Studies have seemed to bear out this relationship. Bennis, Schein, Bunker, and others, for example, have documented the positive impact which im proved interpersonal relationships have upon the degree of self-esteem, self-acceptance, and self-awareness of 13 participants in T-Group and sensitivity training. •^Argyris, Integrating the Individual, p. 26. ■^Warren G. Bennis, Edgar H. Schein, David E. Berlew, Fred I. Steele, Interpersonal Dynamics (Homewood, 111.: The Dorsey Press, 1964). (See, particularly, Part III, "Personal Change Through Interpersonal Relationships," pp. 357-394); Douglas Bunker, "The Effect of Laboratory Education Upon Individual Behavior,1 ' in Edgar H. Schein and Warren G. Bennis, eds., Personal and Organizational Change Through Group Methods (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967), pp. 255-267. 176 The relationship between a positive view of others and flexibility in the environment has also been studied. Croft, in a study of educational administrators who had participated in an interpersonal relations laboratory, found significant changes in both flexibility and attitudes toward others as a result of the training. In his study, flexibility was defined as freedom from psychological rigidity, ability to evaluate ideas apart from source, seeing issues as many sided, maintaining tolerance for tenta tiveness and suspended judgment, and a willing ness to take action in ambiguous situations.-*-^ MacKinnon, in a study of creativity and self-esteem, found positive correlations between highly creative architects and strong self-concepts which stressed "independence, individualism, industriousness, and inventiveness." Less creative individuals emphasized qualities not usually associated with a strong self-concept such as "reliability, 14 John C. Croft, "Change in Flexibility and Super visory Attitudes of Educational Administrators," paper written for the Canadian Council for Research in Educa tion, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg (June 10, 1967, mimeographed). 177 1 R dependability, sincerity and responsibility." On the basis of these sample studies, it can be tentatively concluded that the view an executive has of himself, others, and his environment is an interrelated system of values both intrapsychically and interpersonally so that changes in one part of his value system not only affects other parts, but also affects the value systems of others around him. General Study Hypotheses Each of the three interrelated attitude-value orientations is a major dependent variable in the research evaluation design. Participants will be expected to change their view of themselves, others, and the environ ment as a result of the seminar. In addition, it is expected that participants will persist in these changes over time as an indication that they have internalized these values and are engaged in self-initiated renewal. 15 Donald W. MacKinnon, "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent," in Harold J. Leavitt and Louis R. Pondy, eds., Readings in Managerial Psychology (Chicago: Uni versity of Chicago Press, 1964), pp. 90-109. 178 The following four hypothetical statements, therefore, became the guidelines for the research evaluation design of the seminar. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS I: Black professionals will develop a more positive "view of self" as a result of participation in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS II: Black professionals will develop a more positive, trusting and democratic view of others as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS III: Black professionals will develop a more flexible view of the cultural and social environment as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS IV: Black professionals will continue to experience positive strengthening of attitudes and values associated with a positive view of self and others and with a flexible view of the environment after the seminar has been completed. Methodology The research format used in this study is a pre- test-posttest design with one experimental group and one control group, and a follow-up testing two months after the seminar. Each of the four study hypotheses has been reduced to a set of subhypotheses which are operationalized by scales from seven standard paper and pencil value/ 179 attitude instruments. Traditionally, these hypotheses and operational definitions would be stated here. A departure from this format is desired, however, because of the number of variables being explored and the added convenience to the reader of having them in closer juxtaposition to the interpretation of results. Con sequently, they are given in the next two chapters along with the data. Instruments Instruments used in the study include the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) by Everett L. Shostrom,^ the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) and Gordon Personal Inventory (GPI) by Leonard V. Gordon,^ the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Inventory-B (FIRO-B) by William P. 16 Everett L. Shostrom, Personal Orientation Inventory; An Inventory for the Measurement of Self- Actualization (San Diego, Calif.: Educational and Indus trial Testing Service, 1966). 17 Leonard V. Gordon, Survey of Interpersonal Values and Gordon Personal Inventory (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1960). 180 Schutz,^ a leadership attitude questionnaire (HGP-L) adapted from a study by Mason Haire, Edwin E. Ghiselli 1 Q and Lyman W. Porter, the Dogmatism scale by Milton Rokeach,^ and finally, a self-report achievement motiva- 21 tion scale validated by John J. Sherwood. i In the next two chapters, the reliability and validity of these instruments will be discussed and portions of them will be set forth as operational defini tions of the subhypotheses. Limitations of Pretest— Posttest Design There are several limitations to a research design using the same instruments before and after, some 18 William P. Schutz, FIRO: A Three Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior (New York: Holt, Rine hart and Winston, Inc., 1958). 19 Mason Haire, Edwin E. Ghiselli and Lyman W. Porter, Managerial Thinking: An International Study (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966). 20 Milton R. Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind: Investigations into the Nature of Belief Systems and Per- sonality Systems (New York: Basic Books, 1960). 21 John J. Sherwood, "Self-Report and Projective Measures of Achievement and Affiliation," Journal of Con sulting Psychology, 30:4 (1966), 329-337. 181 of which were discussed in Chapter IV. To briefly summarize: It is difficult to control the potential bias occurring if the pretest interacts with the experimental variable; tests may not measure the same attitudes after the program as before; and finally, such tests often need to be validated with the particular group being tested. There is no indication, for example, that Black profes sionals were involved in any of the validity and reliabil ity studies performed on the seven standard instruments. Several alternatives are suggested in the litera ture on methodology which help avoid the possibility of bias resulting from the interaction between the pretest and the experimental variable. First, a second set of posttest instruments which reliably replicate pretest instruments could be used. Second, an "after-only" design, where the instruments are administered only once to both groups, could be employed. Finally, Solomon's four-group design could be implemented, where the experi mental group and one control group receive both pretest and posttest, neither of the additional control groups receives the pretest, both receive the posttest and one is exposed to the experimental variable. 182 The first alternative is untenable in this study because a substitute set of instruments does not exist. The second and third alternatives both require random selection of experimental and control groups/ or careful matching, an impossible procedure given the unknown nature of the population and the limited number of executives available to participate in the program. Insko observed, however, after summarizing the evidence related to this problem, that studies have failed to find conclusive evidence to "invalidate the before- 22 after design." In fact, in all studies where this problem has been raised, the experimental variable is seldom more complicated than a mental health film, or piece of literature. None involved anything so compli cated as a six-week, intensive program in executive development. Until better information is available, it can only be assumed that the before-after design remains a viable research evaluation tool. Regarding the second problem.of reliability, it has been observed that this objection is considered 22 Chester A. Insko, Theories of Attitude Change (New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, 1967), p. 5. 183 serious only in situations when there are long time intervals between testing (one year or more). ^ The prob lem is minimal in this study because it takes place over a period of less than three months. Perhaps the most unsatisfactory resolution of problems in the research design involved the possibility of the evaluation instruments being "culture bound" to white groups. It was assumed, however, that participants, being middle-class Blacks educated in white secondary and higher educational institutions and employed as executives in white-dominated organizations, would interpret the semantics and concepts contained within the instruments similarly to white professionals. Statistical Tests The major statistical test used in the study to determine significant before-after change is the Student t Carl Bereiter, "Some Persisting Dilemmas in the Measurement of Change," in Chester A. Harris, ed., Problems in Measuring Change (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967) , pp. 3-5. 184 9 4 calculation for dependent samples. Occasionally, the sign test for small samples is used to supplement Student t or to establish probability of predicted movement over a number of scales.The level of significance accepted for the study is .05. Near significant results are reported, however, to show tendencies of predicted change. Experimental and Control Groups Selection procedures for participants in the seminar, described in Chapter II, which were required by the nature of the project, prevented the random selection of an experimental and a control group from the general population of Black professionals. There was an attempt made, however, to assure that, first, those selected for both groups would be broadly representative of a number of institutions such as education, government, business, the professions, and that all would be similarly qualified as to educational attainment. Table 1 indicates that 24 Hubert M. Blalock, Social Statistics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960), p. 179. 2^Sidney Siegel, Non-Parametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1956) , pp. 68-75. 185 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF SELECTED SOCIAL BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Category Item Experimental Groupa Control Group*3 20-30 15% 15% 31-35 30 20 Age 36-40 25 30 41+ 30 35 M 75 80 Sex F 25 20 Married 80 75 Marital Single 5 5 Status Divorced 15 20 College (some) 5 5 College graduate 40 45 Educational Graduate School 25 20 Attainment Master*s degree 15 30 Professional degree 15 0 Law Education 10 0 Occupation Medicine 5 0 Public employment 35 25 * ! Business employment Management (public & 40 55 private) Supervisor (public & 60 50 Position private) 15 Self-employed (business 10 and professional) Professional (staff specialists and 20 0 teachers) 5 40 186 TABLE 1 (continued) Category Item Experimental Groupa Control Group13 Political Party Democratic 75 85 Republican 15 5 Independent 10 10 Liberal 90 80 Political Conservative 5 10 Philosophy Moderate 5 10 ®N = 20. bN = 20. 187 participants in both groups came from a variety of institutions with a disproportionate number from business. The table also shows that all but one member in each group had at least a college degree. Members of the experimental group were selected from among those who applied for the seminar on the basis of how well they matched the criteria for selection set down in Chapter II, which included their willingness to attend all sessions of the seminar. Those who qualified but could not attend because of conflicts in their schedule agreed to act as a control along with other qualified individuals who had not formally applied for 9 c the first seminar but who volunteered because of an interest in the project and a desire to be considered for a second seminar. All members of the control group, therefore, met the criteria for participation in the seminar. The result was a twenty-member group that matched the experimental 26 These were individuals who had heard of the programs too late to be screened for acceptance, or who disqualified themselves before applying because they could not attend all sessions. 188 group quite closely on a number of variables. Data in Table 1 indicates that both groups had similar profiles in age, sex, marital status, political party membership and political philosophy. Based on this comparison, we can assume that both groups were approximately matched in terms of social background when they took the "before" testing instruments, and that they would be exposed to approximately the same environmental factors during the course of the seminar. Significant changes in experimen tal group attitudes and values which occurred during the seminar but did not occur in the members of the control group, therefore, can be attributed to the seminar experience. Administration of Instruments The purpose and nature of the research evaluation were explained to participants in a pre-seminar testing session. They were familiarized with the general charac teristics of personality tests and assured tha£ individual results of these tests would be kept in strictest confidence. They were guaranteed that no evaluation of individual test scores would be made except at the request of the respondent. With this assurance, they 189 were asked to be absolutely candid in their responses. The following written outline of test instructions was given to each participant: TESTING INSTRUCTIONS 1. Please take each test in the order in which it appears in the packet. 2. Please read the instructions on each test carefully before proceeding. 3. Please place a four-digit number on each test as well as on the packet. Make sure it is a familiar one (driver's license, social security) because you will be required to use it again at the end of the seminar. 4. Please answer each item on each test. Too many unanswered questions render the whole test useless. 5. Move through each question rapidly. Your first impression is almost always your true feeling. 6. After finishing, check each test to see that it is complete. In the introduction and testing periods, all questions from both groups were answered by the evaluator. Questions regarding procedures were answered by referring the questioner back to the instructions given on the test. Private questions regarding the ambiguity of specific test items all were given the same response: "Answer the question according to your best understanding and in the way that you, personally, react to it," or words to that effect. 190 On the basis of these testing instructions and procedures, there is no reason to believe that any sys tematic bias entered into participant responses. Evaluator Bias A final caveat regarding the procedures of this study concerns the relationship of the evaluator to those conducting the program. As earlier indicated, Hesseling has cautioned about members of training institutions conducting the evaluation due to a bias toward positive results.^ Since the evaluator in this study is an officer in the training institution which conducted the seminar, the possibility of this bias is acknowledged. Steps taken to counter evaluator bias include use of standardized attitude-value scales rather than open-ended questionnaires, reporting of all data to the reader for his own interpretation, and restricting the role of the evaluator during the seminar to the activities of observation and reporting. Hesseling, Strategy of Evaluation Research (Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum & Co., 1966), pp. 61-66. 191 Summary Three fundamental value orientations related to effective human behavior were introduced in this chapter as the outlines of a model format to evaluate attitude changes among participants in the Urban Executive Leader ship Seminar. These orientations are view of self, view of others, and view of the environment. It is predicted that the seminar designed to assist Black professionals in a process of self-renewal and executive leadership development in the community must have a positive impact on each of these fundamental and interrelated orientations, and that this impact must persist over time. The study employs a pretest-posttest and follow- up test design with one control group. Scales from seven standardized value and attitude instruments are used as indicators of predicted change. Although the experimental and control groups were not individually matched, they were sufficiently similar in social background to control for bias from intervening variables in the environment. This means that statistically significant changes 192 occurring only in the experimental group can be attributed to the program. CHAPTER VI VIEW OF SELF The first of four general study hypotheses will be tested and the results presented and discussed in this chapter. Four hypotheses and fourteen value and attitude scales are employed to operationalize participants1 "view of self." The content and teaching techniques perceived as affecting each of these dimensions in the seminar also is presented. Implied in each hypothesis is the assumption that if participants change according to the hypothesis, they will become more effective executive leaders. Since these assumptions are not tested in the study, summaries have been included of behavioral science research findings that support them. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS I: Black professionals will develop a more positive "view of self" as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar The following four hypotheses were developed to 193 194 evaluate seminar impact on participants' "view of self": Hypothesis 1.1; Black professionals will experience an increase in self-esteem as a result of participat ing in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Hypothesis 1.2: Black professionals will become more self-directed as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Hypothesis 1.3: Black professionals will experience an increase in achievement motivation as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Hypothesis 1.4: Black professionals will increase the value they place on being in a leadership role as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. In choosing the dimensions of the "view of self" for evaluation in the seminar, the aim was to select dependent variables significantly related to the renewal of participants both as persons and as executive leaders. Self-esteem and self-direction are primary elements of the personality. Achievement motivation and leadership, on the other hand, are not necessarily attributes of all persons but tend to be more role specific than self esteem and self-direction. They were selected for this study from many variables related to the self-concept of the successful executive leader because of their relation- •Q 195 ship to his primary role which is to mobilize human and capital resources for the achievement of significant goals and objectives. Prerequisite for executive leader ship, therefore, is to see oneself as a leader and to be motivated by a strong desire to achieve results. Hypothesis 1.1: Black professionals will experience an increase in self-esteem as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Whereas the self-conception is composed of all perceptions one has of himself, self-esteem is an appraisal of self regarding one’s worth. It is a primary indicator of psychological health. Maslow, for example, sees self esteem as a basic need. His studies of high-performing superior individuals indicate that high self-esteem is an integral part of their personalities. Argyris, after reviewing the literature on psychological health and perforraance, states that "the potential energy an individ ual has available to him will be a function of the degree of self-esteem: the higher the self-esteem, the greater ^Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1954). 196 the potential.2 Relating this proposition to studies of effective managers, Maslow concludes, "The best managers under the American research conditions seem to be psycho logically healthier people than the poorer managers in 3 the same researches." Experimental Variable Several elements of the seminar were directed at improving participants' self-esteem. First, each par ticipant's perception of himself as a community leader was enhanced by his selection for the seminar. It implied he was among the most qualified Black professionals in the city and viewed by others as having leadership potential. This perception was later supported by discussions with seminar leaders and guests about community problems and strategies participants might employ to solve them. 2 Chris Argyris, Integrating the Individual and Organization, pp. 8-9. 3 Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management (Homewood, 111.; Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1965), p. 75. 197 A second element was the information, ideas and exercises designed to enhance problem-solving ability and to give the participant a greater sense of mastery over his personal, professional and community life. To some degree, the entire seminar was designed to help participants become more successful. Sessions on effec tive use of time, the executive role and the group project probably were most effective, however, because they included exercises and workshops where participants related new concepts to real problem situations. Self-awareness and group development sessions were a third major strategy to increase self-esteem. In this kind of training, individuals usually find support from peers in being more authentic and thus overcome feelings of inadequacy that are the source of interpersonal facades. An important part of these sessions involved the question of "Blackness" and the necessity of accepting race and color as an integral part of self-identity. Operational Definition The instrument selected to measure self-esteem was the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) by Everett L. 198 4 Shostrom. He describes it as "an inventory for the measurement of self-actualization." The term, "self- actualization" (popularized by Abraham Maslow), is defined as the degree to which individuals are "fully functioning, utilizing their unique capabilities and potentialities free of inhibitions and emotional dis- 5 turbances.1 The POI consists of 150 two-choice comparative value and behavior judgments. The items are scored twice, first for two basic scales of personal orientation— inner directed support (127 items) and time competence (23 items)— and second, for ten subscales which measure conceptually important elements of self-actualization.6 4 Everett L. Shostrom, Manual: Personal Orienta tion Inventory: An Inventory for the Measurement of Self-Actualization (San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1966). 5Ibid., p. 5. ^Reliability and Validity of the POI: The POI, normally used by counselors and therapists, has also been used to measure changes in client attitudes and behavior as a result of therapy. Shostrom and Knapp ("The Rela tionship of a Measure of Pathology [MMPI] to Therapeutic Growth," American Journal of Psychotherapy, 20 (1966), 193-202) administered the POI to two groups of outpatients, one a group of 37 beginning patients and the other a 199 Two of the ten subscales yield a general measure of self-esteem. The first measures "self-regard" and the other measures "self-acceptance." Together, they indicate the ability to like one's self because of one's strengths as a person, and to accept one's self in spite of one's sample of 39 patients in advanced states of psychothera peutic progress. Analysis of the POI scores showed all 12 POI scales differentiating between the criterion groups at the .01 confidence level or higher. In a study using a pre and posttesting design, Gade and Weir ("The Use of a Measure of Self-Actualization in the Outpatient Treatment of Alcoholics and Their Spouses," Journal of Alcohol Studies, in press) report significant differences in scores between a group of alcoholics having individual therapy and a group not having individual therapy. All pre and posttest score changes for the individual therapy group were in the direction of greater self-actualization. Several other studies have further validated the POI as measuring effective behavior. Murray ("An Explora tion of the Relationship of Self-Actualization to Teacher Success" [unpublished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 19663) related higher scores on the POI to independent measures of effective teachers. Fox ("On the Clinical Use of the Personal Orientation Inventory [POI],n mimeographed report, 1965) differentiated between one hun dred hospitalized psychiatric patients, a normal adult group, and a clinically determined self-actualizing group. Zaccaria and Weir ("A Comparison of Alcoholics and Selected Samples of Non-Alcoholics in Terms of a Positive Concept of Mental Health," Journal of Social Psychology, 1966 [in press]) administered the POI to a group of alcoholics, a normal adult group and a clinically-nominated, self- actualized sample and found that the alcoholics scored significantly lower than the normal adult group on all scales but one. Correlating scores on the POI and the MMPI (Minne sota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) using a beginning 200 7 weaknesses and deficiencies. Both aspects are important to self-esteem. For example, a person may regard his strengths highly but be so intolerant of his weaknesses that psychic energy is depleted, either by attempts to mask them when threatened by exposure or by self-punishment and depression. This often occurs when there is a large gap between one's "ideal self" and one's perceived "real self," a condition Bonner labels as "neurotic idealization." Describing it, he states: and an advanced therapy group, it was found that signifi cant correlations occurred between the POI and MMPI scales measuring attributes which are important in developing harmonious interpersonal relations (Social I.E. Scale) among "normal" populations and in tapping the area of "emotional morale." Test-retest reliability studies using 48 college students produced correlation coefficients ranging from .55 to .85. A second study done by Ilardi and May on a group of student nurses with a year's interval between testing yielded coefficients somewhat lower ranging from .32 to .74 which the authors found comparable with the results from other psychological tests. ("A Reliability Study of Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory," Journal of Humanistic Psychology [Spring 1968] , pp. 68-78) . For a more complete summary of the Validity studies, see Shostrom, Manual. 7 Shostrom, Manual, p. 20. 201 Neurotic idealization is a condition of self- deception. The individual in this condition strives to appear, to be what he is not. It is important for him that others believe that he is a certain type of individual, even though he may deviate markedly from the image of himself which he is trying to project. Normally speaking, the neurotic person is hypocritical or insincere— "inauthentic,1 1 as the existentialists would say. He is a slave to the image which he compulsively projects, and he wastes his psychological energies in trying to be faultless, a condition he cannot reach. In him the anxiety which is the lot of all of us is a function not of his awareness of life's imperfecti- bility or of the awesomeness of human choice, but of the fear that others will see through his counterfeit self.® The POI and other personality tests in conjunction have successfully documented this inverse relationship. A study correlating the POI with Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), for example, indicates a high negative correlation (-.52) between "self-regard (Sr)" as measured 9 by the POI and "neuroticism" as measured on the EPI. In a similar study using the MMPI, self-regard and self acceptance scales both correlated over -.40 with the Q Hubert Bonner, "The Proactive Personality," in James F. T. Bugental, ed., Challenges of Humanistic Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967), p. 64. 9 Shostrom, Manual, p. 30. depression scale (D) on the MMPI which is a measure of retroflexiveness and intropunitiveness.1® Results Table 2 shows that mean score differences on (Sr) and (Sa) were in the predicted direction for the experimental group and were of sufficient magnitude to reject the null hypothesis of no change at the .05 level for (Sr) and the .005 level for (Sa). Differences in the control group were not significant for either scale indicating no change occurred. These statistics take on added significance when experimental group before-after scores are compared with general adult norms of the POI.^ The pretest score on Sr for example was 12.95 or approximately a point above the POI norm of 11.90. On Sa, by contrast, the pretest score was 16.45 and below the POI norm of 17.20. After the seminar, group mean on Sr rose to 13.7 or almost two points above the norm and Sa rose to 18.65 or approxi mately one and one-half points above the norm. 10Ibid., p. 29. •^Ibid., p. 10. TABLE 2 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON SELF-PERCEPTION DIMENSION OF THE POI FOR EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Group Subscales Mean Scores Before After xd SD t P N Exp e riment a1 Self-regard (Sr) 12.95 13.70 +0.85 2.01 1.846 .05* 20 Group Self-acceptance (Sa) 16.45 18.65 +2.20 2.58 3.716 .005* 20 Control Self-regard (Sr) 13.32 13.32 0 3.31 0 — 19 Group Self-acceptance (Sa) 17.05 17.32 +0.27 3.11 .359 — 19 Explanation of symbols: Xd— mean difference or change in before-after group mean scores. sD— standard deviation of the differences. t — student t calculation. p — probability that the mean difference occurred by chance. NOTE: In all tables, an asterisk will indicate the rejection of the null hypothesis. Conclusions and Discussion On the basis of results described above, the null hypothesis is rejected for the experimental group on both indicators and it is concluded that Black professionals experienced an increase in self-esteem as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. A second conclusion relates to the quality and relationship of the two scores. It appears that prior to the seminar, participants in the seminar tended to suffer from symptoms of "neurotic idealization" as indi cated by the gap between self-acceptance and self-regard. This confirms the hypothesis in the literature that Blacks generally have a socially-inflicted sense of inferiority about skin color even when they have developed profes sional skills and capability. Although the gap was not closed entirely during the seminar, participants became more self accepting than the normal adult suggesting a decrease in the sense of inferiority. According to Argyris, Maslow and others cited earlier, this increase in self-esteem means participants should have to spend less energy for internal maintenance of defenses and therefore have more energy for achievements. Participants 205 presumably will have less fear of revealing their self- perceived weaknesses and thus be willing to take more risks in their environment. Hypothesis 1.2: Black professionals will become more self-directed as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Self-direction is defined in this study as the act of directing one's own life— to independently form values, beliefs and attitudes and otherwise govern per sonal decision-making and self-development processes. Students of human development seem clear that an individual provided proper rearing by parents and schools will pass through a dependent stage and gain his independ ence in adolescence, consummated with marriage and occupational choice. Bugental asserts that this independence then becomes uthe basis on which he (man) builds his identity . . . through having purpose, through valuing, and through 12 creating and recognizing meaning.1 1 Maslow sees independ 12 James F. T. Bugental, The Search for Authentic ity (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), p. 12. 206 ent appraisal and choice as the requisite for self- 13 actualization. In the literature, the self-directed man has often been contrasted with his opposite, the socially directed man. Freud and others have observed that the independent- dependent behavior modes are opposing tendencies found in every man, the latter representing a longing to return to the womb, the former a need to be active and acquire competence in challenging the environment.Reisman sees the dependent ("other directed") man as one without "self" who "shines in . . . reflected light," and is the 1 ^ "satellite" of others, even those he dominates. Hoffer calls the dependent man who derives his identity from groups and movements as the "true believer" capable of participating in mass atrocity because his judgment is 13 Abraham Maslow, "Self-Actualization and Beyond," in Bugental, Challenges of Humanistic Psychology, pp. 279-286. 14Ernest G. Schachtel, Metamorphosis on Develop ment of Affect, Perception, Attention and Memory (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959), pp. 7-8. ■^Davie Reisman, Selected Essays from Individual ism Reconsidered (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1954), p. 30. 207 social rather than moral.-*-® The independent-dependent dichotomy is also significant in Dah^s characterization of the democratic and authoritarian personalities, the former described as having personal autonomy and a certain distance or distrust of authority, whereas the latter, by contrast, is seen as "rigidly adhering to convention,” and being "submissive and uncritical of idealized moral authorities of the ingroup."^ The concept of self-direction as an independent variable affecting performance within organizations has been studied from several perspectives. A multitude of studies on leadership style, for example, seem to indicate that individuals work more effectively, other things being equal, when they have a relative degree of autonomy in planning their work and in showing initiative and 16 Eric Hoffer, The True Believer (New York: Harper and Bros., 1951), pp. 59-60. 17 Robert A. Dahl, Modern Political Analysis (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), pp. 91-92. 208 1 f t responsibility for its accomplishment. ° The implication of these studies is that self-direction is not only a key to good supervision but also a characteristic of effective employees. This conclusion is supported more directly by studies of professional behavior which show that an individual requires increased opportunity to direct his own work as he attains higher levels of knowledge and skill.^ Self-directed persons are not always the most productive employees within all organizational contexts. Presthus points out, for example, that the self-directed individual often is stymied and frustrated because of the tendency in many organizations to reward conformity.20 In at least one study, however, a positive correlation 18 For a review of studies related to this hypoth esis, see Rensis Lickert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961), pp. 20-25; and Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1957). 19 See comments on these studies by Amaltai Etzioni in A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations (New York: The Free Press, 1961), pp. 51-52. 20 Robert Presthus, The Organizational Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962). 209 was shown between self-directed attitudes of executives 9 1 and organizational rewards. Presumably the relationship was due to the self-directed employee's increased value to his employer. Insufficient studies have been conducted to establish the exact characteristics of the positive relationship between self-direction and effective per formance among executives. Consequently, it will be assumed, in this study, that the relationship is linear. Experimental Variable Several aspects of the seminar experience were specifically designed to strengthen self-direction among participants. Among them were self-awareness exercises, group encounters and discussions designed to promote a re-examination of values, exposure to a scheme of personal development designed to stimulate the setting of personal goals, reorganization of social roles (family, profession, community), and finally, the presentation of techniques Lyman Porter and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performances (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968), pp. 148-149, 116-117. 210 for the allocation of time to reduce conflicts between role priorities by integrating them into a personal plan for goal achievement. Operational Definition. Three instruments were used to measure the concept of self-direction, the POI, the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) by Gordon, and the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO-B) by Schutz. One of the two basic scales from the POI, the Inner-directed I scale, was selected to measure self- direction. Describing the concept of self-direction measured by the POI scale, Shostrom states; The inner-directed person appears to have incor porated a psychic "gyroscope" which is started by parental influences and later on is further influ enced by other authority figures. The inner-directed man goes through life apparently independent, but still obeying this internal piloting. The source of direction for the individual is inner in the sense that he is guided by internal motivations rather than external i n f l u e n c e s . 2 2 This definition, of inner-directedness does not exactly parallel the definition of self-direction employed 22 Shostrom, Manual, p. 17. 211 in this study. The difference lies in the source of the direction. Inner-directedness implies parentally-injected rather than self-determined values and attitudes, in which case the individual becomes a subconscious servant to the preferences of his elders and will have difficulty in adapting to changing environments. The self-directed person, by contrast, can adapt because he consciously controls attitude and value formation. Shostrom*s POI (I) scale items, however, do not distinguish between the.inner and self-directed respond ent. Several typical statements from this instrument which correlate highly with inner-directed support are presented below: 21. I do what others expect of me. *21. I feel free to not do what others expect of me. 41. I must justify my actions in the pursuit of my own interests. *41. I need not justify my actions in the pursuit of my own interests. 44. I live by the rules and standards of society. *44. I do not always need to live by the rules and standards of society. 46. Reasons are needed to justify my feelings. *46. Reasons are not needed to justify my feelings. 61. I only feel free to express warm feelings to my friends. *61. I feel free to express both warm and hostile feelings to my friends. 212 71. I will continue to grow only by setting my sights on a high-level, socially approved goal. *71. I will continue to grow best by being myself. 91. People should always control their anger. *91. People should express honestly felt anger.23 High scores on the (I) scale, therefore, do not necessarily mean that the respondent is "inner-directed"; they could as well mean he is ”self-directed." More important, if participants increase scores on this scale after the seminar, the likelihood is that it will have been caused by an increase in self-determination rather than a resurgence of parental influence. A second POI scale selected is the Self-Actualizing Value (SAV), one of ten subscales of the basic (I) scale containing items which measure the degree to which indi viduals live in terms of their preferences and values and find self-fulfilling experience in their work.24 The Survey of Interpersonal Values by Leonard Gordon is a forced choice instrument in which the respond ent selects one statement which means most to him and one 23Ibid., p. 18. *Asterisk denotes inner-directed response. 24Ibid., p. 20. 213 statement which means least to him. These statements are factored into six subscales, four of which have been 25 judged as relevant to the concept of self-direction. These four scales are: Support (S): Being treated with understanding, receiving encouragement from other people, being treated with kindness and consideration. Conformity (C): Doing what is socially correct, following regulations closely, doing what is accepted and proper, being a conformist. Recognition (R): Being looked up to and admired, being considered important, attracting favorable notice, achieving recognition. 2 5 The Survey of Interpersonal Values by Gordon has mainly been employed as a tool for personal, marital, occupational counselling. Validity studies have con firmed: the factorial consistency of the SIV with other related instruments, a lack of correlation between various measures of intelligence and each of the six scales, the high correlation between scale scores and self-ratings on each of the six traits, the predicted correlation of each scale with related scales in other instruments, and finally the ability of the scale to discriminate meaningfully between different occupational groupings. Reliabilities established both by test-retest coefficients and the Kuder-Richardson formula on large college samples are of sufficient magnitude to be acceptable. For detail on validity and reliability studies, see Leonard V. Gordon, Manual for Survey of Interpersonal Values (Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1960) ; Gordon, Research Briefs on Survey of Interpersonal Values (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1963, Rev.). 214 Independence (I): Having the right to do whatever one wants to do, being free to make one's own decisions, being able to do things in one's own way. The first three scales (S, C, and R) measure the value placed on receiving support, direction and attention from the environment. It is assumed that individuals who score high on these scales will tend to be other-directed, requiring a high level of social sustenance. Conversely, it is assumed that lower scores indicate self-reliance and an increase in self-direction. The Independence scale, on the other hand, is assumed to be positively related to self-direction. It is predicted, therefore, that participants will increase their scores on the (I) scale and decrease their score on the (S), (C) and (R) scales. The Fundamental Orientation Inventory {FIRO-B) is an instrument designed to test three basic human needs in interpersonal relations: “affection, inclusion, and control."^ To establish the comprehensive nature of 26 Three aspects of Validity are discussed by Schutz in his study of the FIRO-B. The first is “content validity" which is determined by showing how well the content of the test represents or samples the class of situations or subject matter about which conclusions are 215 these orientations, Schutz relates them to three major themes in psychological analysis: Freudian psychology, which emphasizes the libinal impulse centered around the sex drive and need for affection; Jungian psychology, which finds its main thrust in two characteristic behav ioral modes, extroversion and introversion (inclusion); and Adlerian psychology, which emphasizes the "will to power" and overcoming feelings of inferiority through self-discipline (control). Schutz also has related his drawn. Schutz points out that the content validity of the FIRO-B depends upon an acceptance of the theory underlying the use of the Guttman Scales. "Concurrent validity," a method for evaluating an instrument, measures test scores of the FIRO-B correlated with related measures of performance. Studies show that the FIRO-B correlated in predicted directions with measures of political attitudes, occupational choice, and students' major academic subjects at the .05 level of significance. In a study reported in Gordon, Research Briefs, p. xxiia, moderately negative intercorrelations were found between the six FIRO-B scales and the Independence scale on the SIV. Finally, Schutz reports the findings of studies where the FIRO-B is used to predict behavior. Though less convincing, test results predicted past parent-child rela tionships of adults and roommate choice (assuming com patibility as the major decision factor) for fraternity groups. Test-retest reliability studies revealed coeffi cients ranging from .71 to .82 on groups of 57 to 126 in number indicating acceptable stability on each scale. For more information on this instrument, see: Schutz, FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior, pp. 34-56. 216 scheme to the work of other scholars in the field such as Fromm, Horney, Benne, Corsini, Harris, Lippitt, and 71 others. In each of these interpersonal need areas, the FIRO-B tests two dimensions, wanted (w) behavior from others and behavior desired to be expressed (e) to others. The instrument, thus, is composed of six Guttman scales of ten items each which theoretically encompass an indi vidual's basic interpersonal orientation. Three of the FIRO-B scales are seen to be related to self-direction. They are the wanted (w) dimensions of Affection, Inclusion, and Control. Schutz describes individuals who score high on these scales as "socially compliant," "submissive," and 28 personally compliant." Results Table 3 shows that in the experimental group, mean score differences on all scales with the exception of Conformity (SIV) were in the predicted direction. ^ Ibid. , pp. 34-56. ^^Ibid.r p. 60. TABLE 3 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON SEVEN SUBSCALES RELATED TO SELF-DIRECTION FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP Group Subscales Mean Scores Before After (h) Xd SD t P N (POI) Inner directed (POI) Self-actualizing 88.30 92.05(+) +3.75 7.48 2.214 .05* 20 Experi value 20.70 21.75{+} +1.05 3.53 1.297 .15 20 mental (SIV) Support 13.65 11.76(-) -1.89 3.48 2.164 .025* 17 Group (SIV) Conformity 8.24 8.59(-) + .35 3.36 .420 — 17 (SIV) Recognition 10.94 9.82(-) -1.12 2.61 1.173 .15 17 (SIV) Independence 17.18 18.65<+) +1.47 6.14 .881 — 17 (FIRO-B)(w) Inclusion 3.79 1.74(-) -2.05 2.76 3.153 .01* 19 (FIRO-B)(w) Affection 4.16 3.53(-) - .63 2.12 1.582 .10 19 (Firo-B)(w) Control 4.11 3.89(-) - .22 1.20 .747 — 19 (POI) Inner directed 88.58 90.00 +1.42 5.91 1.021 — 19 Control Group (POI) Self-actualizing value 21.11 21.47 + .36 1.78 .877 __ 19 (SIV) Support 14.44 14.78 + .34 3.23 .425 — 19 (SIV) Conformity 8.28 8.00 - .28 1.94 .591 — 19 217 TABLE 3 (Continued) Group Subscales Mean Scores Before After xd SD t P N (SIV) Recognition 9.50 9.06 - .44 2.81 .651 19 Control (SIV) Independence 17.33 17.56 + .23 4.40 .208 — 19 Group (FIRO-B)(w) Inclusion 2.45 2.50 + .05 2.54 .085 — 20 (FIRO-B)(w) Affection 3.15 3.70 + .55 2.04 1.177 20 (FIRO-B)(w) Control 4.25 4.25 0 2.47 0 20 Explanation of Symbol: (h) Symbol to indicate predicted direction of mean score difference. 218 219 while in the control group, four of the nine scales had mean score differences opposite the predicted direction or had no movement at all. The probability that mean score differences would be in the predicted direction on eight of nine scales is sufficient to reject the null 29 hypothesis at the .02 level of significance. A separate examination of the scales in Table 3 shows the Inner Directed (I) scale from the POI posted a mean difference of +3.75, sufficient to reject the null hypothesis of no difference at the .05 level. The con trol group did not change significantly. Of the remaining eight scales, two (SIV-Support and w-Inclusion from the FIRO-B) posted significant mean score differences in the predicted direction. The control group, on the other hand, showed no significant change on either. Experimental group mean score differences on three additional scales, Self-Actualizing Value (POI), Recognition (SIV), and (w) Affection (FIRO-B), showed strong tendencies to change in the predicted direction, 29 The statistical test used was the sign test for small samples. 220 nearly sufficient to reject the null hypothesis. The control group, by contrast, showed neither significant or nearly significant change on these scales. To add a comparative dimension to the before-after changes recorded in Table 3, pretest and posttest scores on six of the eight scales measuring self-direction for the experimental group were compared with general adult norms provided in the testing manuals for the POX and SIV.*^ Table 4 shows that on POI Inner Directed (I) and TABLE 4 A COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEAN SCORES WITH GENERAL ADULT NORMS ON THE INDICATORS OF SELF-DIRECTION Experimental Group Experimental Group Scale Pretest Norm Posttest POI— Inner directed 88.30 87.00 92.05 Self-Actualizing Value 20.70 21.00 21.75 SIV— Support 13.65 15.00 11.76 Conformity . 8.24 14.80 8.59 Recognition 10.94 11.20 9.82 Independence 17.18 16.90 18.65 30 Shostrom, Manual, p. 10; Gordon, Research Briefs, pp. 23-24. 221 Self-Actualizing Value (SAV) Scales and on the SIV(I) Scale, experimental group pretest scores were approximately the same as adult norms. Posttest scores, however, rose substantially above these norms, and in the case of inner- directedness the increase was statistically significant (see Table 3). On SIV scales of Conformity, Support and Recognition, experimental group pretest mean scores were below adult norms and scores on the latter two scales dropped even lower in the predicted direction during the seminar. The conformity scale failed to change probably because it was exceptionally low in the pretest. Conclusions and Discussion It can be inferred from pretest results that Black professionals became more self-directed as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. They strengthened their sense of inner-directedness as measured by the POI and became less dependent upon social support and being included in the activities of others. In addition, they tended to require less recognition and affection from others after the seminar and increased their desire to pursue values and activities of their own choosing. 222 There is some evidence that the dramatic decrease in participants' need for inclusion was not a direct result of the seminar, however. The temporary anxiety normally felt when entering a strange group may have been responsible for the high pretest score of 3.79, consider ing the control group score of 2.45. As experimental group members became acquainted, their anxiety may have diminished, resulting in a lower posttest score on the need for inclusion. The fact that the posttest score for the experimental group is substantially lower than the control group score (1.76 compared to 2.5) suggests, how ever, that both the seminar and the dynamics of temporary anxiety may have caused the change. One of the more interesting results in the study was participants' exceptional deviation from adult norms on the SIV Conformity scale. This deviation suggests a strong tendency among Black professionals to reject the standard mores and regulations of society, a finding which tends to confirm an earlier diagnosis of the study, that the Black professional is seeking a clearer sense of identity. Lloyd has suggested that many minority group 223 professionals pass through three stages in this process. When first conscious of his cultural difference, the Black professional accepts it and the inferior status imposed by society; later in this stage, he transfers the dependence by rejecting cultural identity and attempt ing to imitate the behavior and life style of the larger society. In the second or independent stage, the profes sional accepts his own cultural origins but rejects the inferior status which society has placed upon it. Con sequently, he is often defensive and oversensitive toward members of other minority groups as well as the dominant culture. This tendency is overcome in the interindepend ent phase when he is able to relate effectively as an individual with his own and all other cultures."^ Many members of the experimental group seem to be passing from the second to the third stage. The seminar apparently had the effect of intensifying this movement This theory was presented in a lecture- discussion to a group of Mexican-American professionals. See, Ellsworth Johnson, Kent Lloyd, Kendall 0. Price, and Richard Amador, eds., La Causa; Executive Leadership Development for Mexican-American Professionals (A Summary Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York by PEDR Urban Associates and the Institute of Executive Training, 1970), p. 8. 224 by encouraging self-direction and independence. The results should emerge in the work situation where partici pants will tend to be more sensitive and challenge author ity figures regarding organizational commitments to the advancement of their community. They also will tend to request more control over their own activities and will be less inclined to conform to the expected unless they are clear about its utility in achieving a significant goal. Though more demanding of superiors, participants in return will tend to use more self-initiative in per forming their responsibilities and will be more likely to make significant contributions in their work. The response of superiors and community leaders— who will be white in most cases— to these signs of per sonal growth and professional maturity will be important. It suggests a need for educational programs for white management and community leaders to improve their under standing of these developmental processes and to provide increased skill in dealing effectively with minority professionals and other personnel who may be going through these phases. 225 Hypothesis 1.3: Black professionals will experience an increase in achievement motivation as a result of par ticipating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Defined as a need to set and attain high goals and objectives for the intrinsic satisfaction gained in their accomplishment, "achievement motivation" has been empirically distinguished from "affiliation motivation" and "power motivation" where achievements are pursued for extrinsic rewards such as social acceptance and con trol.32 Behavioral studies and observations by executive consultants support the generalization that effective executives share the need for achievement and self- fulfillment. A study of over 100 executives indicated that the successful ones "show drive and achievement desire." They conceive of themselves as hardworking and achieving persons who must accomplish to be happy. The areas in which they work are clearly different, but each 32 David C. McClelland, J. W. Atkinson, R. A. Clark, and E. E. Lowell, The Achievement Motive {New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953). 226 3 3 feels the drive for accomplishment. Those conducting the study were careful to distinguish this achievement orientation from the type of "pseudo-achievement drive in which the glory of the end product alone is stressed." McClelland, in his famous studies, has correlated the need for achievement with entrepreneurial behavior and success as a business executive.^4 Pellegrin and Coates have observed from their studies that executives often begin by wanting money, power, and prestige. "Once acquired, however, they value accomplishments, a job well done, O C developing others, etc., as the source of satisfaction." 33 William E. Henry, "Psychodynamics of the Execu tive Role," American Journal of Sociology, 54:4 (January 1949), 286-291. For an excellent description of conflicts in executive motivation leading to ineffectiveness, see Zaleznik and Moment, The Dynamics of Interpersonal Behavior, pp. 440-443. 34 David C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1961). For an excellent, readable synopsis of this work and its relationship to executive behavior, see McClelland, "Business Drive and National Achievement," Harvard Business Review, XL, No. 4 (July-August, 1962), 99-112. ^Roland J. Pellegrin and Charles H. Coates, -"Executives and Supervisors: Contrasting Definition of Career Success," Administrative Science Quarterly (March 1957), pp. 506-517. 227 Studies of middle management by Porter and Myers have shown that high performing managers are motivated by "opportunity for personal growth and development and 3 a opportunity for independent thought and action,1 1 and by "a challenging job which allows the feeling of achieve ment, responsibility, growth, advancement, enjoyment of work itself, and earned recognition,"8^ rather than strictly by economic reward. To explain the reasons for the variety of wants and needs motivating people, Maslow has proposed a theoretical hierarchy of five basic needs, each of which must be satisfied before primary attention can be given the next. These five needs, in their prepotent order, are physiological safety, social (love), self-esteem, and self-actualization.88 Irwin and Langham have proposed 36 Porter and Lawler, Managerial Attitudes, p. 149. 37 Scott Myers, “Who Are Your Motivated Workers," Harvard Business Review, 42 (January-February 1964), 83. Maslow, Motivation and Personality. 228 this hierarchy as a basic theory to account for motiva tional differences between levels of an industrial organi zation.^ They hypothesize that the worker level is dominated by physiological, safety and social needs, management levels with social and esteem needs and the executive level by self-esteem and self-actualization needs. Harry Levinson, prominent consulting psychologist to business executives, has grouped these needs into three categories and suggested that the executive is motivated by the opportunity offered by the organization to "master" himself and his environment in contrast to other employees who see the organization either as "ministering" to their basic needs for pay, recognition, and social support or providing the opportunity for "maturation” through growth and development.^ On the basis of these theoretical constructs and study findings, the normative model for executive behavior Patrick N. Irwin, Prank W. Langham, Jr., "The Change Seekers," Harvard Business Review, 44, No. 1 (Janu- ary-Pebruary 1968), 81. 40 Harry Levinson, The Exceptional Executive: A Psychological Conception (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni versity Press, 1968). 229 advanced in the seminar assumes that the effective executive is motivated principally by a need for self- actualization and personal mastery, satisfied by the intrinsic rewards of high achievement. Experimental Variable Elements of the Seminar designed to increase achievement motivation included several previously men tioned as. affecting self-direction. Perhaps most important were workshops and discussions, which involved participants in setting high goals in their professional and community work, and the tools given them to facilitate their achievement such as the time use plan and the group project. In addition, discussions of community change strategy and the attributes of leaders who create change, plus the challenge given each professional to develop these attributes and provide the community with the leadership it needs also were designed to increase motivation. Operational Definition The classical studies of achievement motivation conducted by McClelland, Atkinson, Feather and others traditionally have relied on projective instruments such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) for measuring the intrinsic need to achieve.^ The administration and scoring of projective tests in field research situations is awkward and time consuming, however. A simpler self- report achievement questionnaire (vAch) which uses three 7-point, bipolar rating scales was used in this study. This nonprojective scale has been validated by John J. 42 Sherwood in a study which found moderately high cor relations (.35) between scores on the nonprojective questionnaire and the projective TAT. Correlations be tween the nonprojective motivational measure and actual behavior also produced significant correlations of .48 and .45 in two separate studies compared with correlations of .56 and .51 for projective measures in the same studies. For a thorough and up-to-date review of achieve ment motivation theory, see John W. Atkinson and Norman T. Feather, eds., A Theory of Achievement Motivation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966). 42 John J. Sherwood, "Self-Report and Projective Measures of Achievement and Affiliation,1 1 Institute Paper No. 110 (Institute for Research in the Behavioral, Eco nomic, and Management Sciences, Herman C. Kraunert Gradu ate School of Industrial Administration, Purdue Univer sity) . 231 Using both the projective and nonprojective measurements, multiple correlations of .63 and .57 were obtained, suggesting that self-report and projective measurements are probably measuring slightly different aspects of motivational behavior. Sherwood cautions that the validity of the self- report scale depends on the respondent's ability to rate himself candidly. Because of its transparency, the test must be administered carefully to assure the respondent that his answers will be held in confidence. Achievement motivation as measured by self- report instruments is not necessarily a reflection of an intrinsic need to achieve. High scores can result from a desire to overcome feelings of inferiority or to justify one's self in the eyes of significant others, such as parents, teachers, superiors, friends, etc. On the other hand, if accompanied by other indicators of a high self-regard and a healthy acceptance of feelings, vAch scores can be accepted as an indicator of the need for the intrinsic satisfaction of achievement. Results Table 5 shows that the mean score of the 232 experimental group increased by 1.5, which is sufficient to reject the null hypothesis of no difference at the .01 level of significance. By contrast, members of the con trol group experienced no significant rise in mean score even though both experimental and control groups had similar mean pretest scores. TABLE 5 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON THE SHERWOOD SELF-REPORT vAch SCALE FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP Group Mean Before Scores After Xd SD t P N Experi mental Group 15.61 17.11 +1.5 2.19 2.821 .01* 18 Control Group 15.74 15.11 - .63 3.33 .805 — 19 Conclusion and Discussion This result indicates that the seminar was responsible for participant changes on the vAch scale. When viewed within the context of other findings in this chapter— that participants developed higher self-esteem and more self-directed values during the seminar— the increase in vAch probably reflects the strengthening of participants' need for the intrinsic satisfaction afforded in the pursuit of personal, professional and social values. There are no adult norms available to provide a comparative perspective on participant vAch scores. Before-after scores of 15.61 and 17.11, however, were well above the scale mean of 10.50. It appears, there fore, that this group of Black professionals are achieve ment oriented. The relatively high mean score on vAch probably reflects the exposure which Black professionals have had to white middle-class education as well as their success in an often alien and always competitive economic and occupational system. 234 Hypothesis 1.4: Black professionals will increase the value they place on being in a leadership role as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar Role theorists have postulated that effective performance is directly affected by the degree to which a role is clearly understood and internalized by its occupant.43 Role commitment acts much like a magnifying glass; it focuses the energy and capacities of the indi vidual on specific tasks and objectives. If uncertain about his role, an individual's energy becomes diffused and his effectiveness diminishes. Role was not specified in the previous three hypotheses tested. Each of the three variables— self- For theoretical development of the role concept and its relationship to organizational performance, see Robert L. Kahn, Donald M. Wolfe, Robert P. Quinn, J. Dietrick Snoak, and Robert A. Rosenthal, Organizational Stress; Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964). For specific reference to executive behavior and a theoretical attempt to combine identity development and role theory in the context of organization and executive relationships, see Richard C. Hodgson, Daniel J. Levinson, and Abraham Zaleznik, The Executive Role Constellation: An Analysis of Personality and Role Relations in Management (Boston: Harvard Uni versity, Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, 1965), pp. xi, 27-61. 235 esteem, self-direction and achievement motivation— could apply to a number of social roles. In this hypothesis, however, there is an attempt to become role specific to determine if the Seminar had a significant effect in helping Black professionals to strengthen their identity as leaders. Experimental Variable Since the seminar was an executive leadership program, it was expected that its major impact would be to motivate participants to become more effective leaders. Certain sessions, however, were more specifically directed at this topic than others. Session 6 on effective use of time, for example, gave participants opportunity to evolve a personal role in the community, set objectives, list activities, and finally, allocate time each week to operationalize their plans. In session 10, functions of the executive were analyzed and participants were encour aged again to see themselves as executives, either in their organizations or in the community, and to determine how effectively they allocate time to these functions. In the next session, they discussed how organizations change and become more effective as a result of effective 236 executive leadership. In discussions on the history of the civil rights movement and in an analysis of community power and urban leadership, participants were informed of the various strategies for achieving social change and were challenged to become successful leaders in implementing these strat egies. At the same time, the group project gave them opportunity to evolve strategy and develop specific leadership roles in their community. In these ways participants were encouraged to increase the personal value they placed on playing a leadership role and to operationalize the role more con sciously in their personal time plans. Operational Definitions An indication of the direction in which partici pants tended to focus their generalized role development during the seminar is provided by the Survey of Inter personal Values. The SIV presents six alternate inter personal values in a forced choice format. Three choices indicate the respondent seeks various kinds of assurances, recognition and guidelines for behavior from others; the other three are indicators of external roles or desires to direct energies outward toward either self-oriented achievements, benevolent activities, or to providing leadership and direction for others. Gordon describes individuals who score high on leadership as original thinkers, energetic, self-assured and assertive. In more than fifty studies reported in the SIV Manuals, consider able evidence is presented to support Gordon's summary description. Groups which tended to score highest on the Leadership scale were salesmen, management personnel, and military officers; individuals scoring lowest, by contrast, were prisoners, students, nurses, and teachers.44 The leadership scale will serve, therefore, as an indicator for measuring change in participants' view of themselves as leaders. Results of the five additional scales from the SIV will be included to provide added perspective. Since the SIV is a forced choice instrument, results from these scales reflect interpersonal values which partici pants de-emphasized in order to increase their scores on Leadership. 44 Gordon, Research Briefs, pp. 23-24. - 238 Results As predicted, the experimental group increased the value it placed on leadership as shown in Table 6. The mean difference was significant at the .02 level allowing rejection of the null hypothesis. The control group also increased its scores on leadership during the same period, but not sufficient to be statistically significant. Scores on the five additional SIV scales indicate that participants de-emphasized interpersonal values of support, recognition and benevolence in order to give increased importance to leadership and independence. To indicate the relative degree of importance participants place on being in a leadership role, experimental group mean scores were compared with other population norms gathered by Gordon. They are reported in Table 7. These scores indicate the experimental group before-after mean scores were substantially above the norm for general adults. 45Ibid. TABLE 6 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON THE SIV LEADERSHIP SCALE AND FIVE ADDITIONAL SIV SCALES FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Group Subscales (h) Mean Scores Before After Xd ' SD t P N Leadership (+) 21.82 24.12 +2.30 3.73 2.334 .02 17 Experi Benevolence (=) 17.95 17.25 - .70 4.15 .397 — 17 mental Indep endenc e (+) 17.18 18.65 +1.47 6.14 .881 — 17 Group Support {-) 13.65 11.76 -1.89 3.48 2.164 .025 17 Conformity (-) 8.24 8.59 + .35 3.36 .420 — 17 Recognition (—) 10.94 9.82 -1.12 2.61 1.173 .15 17 Leadership 19.88 21.22 +1.40 4.24 1.349 — 18 Control Benevolence 20.11 19.33 - .78 3.49 .919 — 18 Group Independence 17.33 17.56 + .23 4.40 .208 — 18 Support 14.44 14.78 + .34 3.23 .425 — 18 Conformity 8.28 8.00 + .28 1.94 .591 — 18 Recognition 9.50 9.06 - .44 2.81 .651 18 to w 240 TABLE 7 BEFORE-AFTER GROUP MEAN SCORES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP COMPARED WITH THE GROUP MEAN SCORES OF SEVERAL OCCUPATIONAL SAMPLES ON THE SIV LEADERSHIP AND BENEVOLENCE SCALE Group Experimental Group (Pretest) Experimental Group (Posttest) General Adult Teachers (H.S.) Engineers (supervisors) Department Managers Infantry Lieutenants Advanced ROTC Group Mean Sample (L) (B) Size 21.8 18.0 20 24.1 17.3 20 16.1 15.8 213 16.8 16.9 25 20.5 14.2 71 20.5 12.7 25 23.6 14.6 60 26.4 16.3 19 Conclusions and Discussion The findings reported in Table 6 indicate that by participating in the Seminar, Black professionals significantly strengthened the value they place on being in a position of leadership. The results also show the group reduced its scores on Support and Recognition in order to increase the emphasis on Leadership. This suggests that participants became less dependent on their social environment, and by contrast more concerned with taking an active, initiating role with others. The results of the comparative analysis of experimental group scores on the SIV with those of other groups showed that participants entered the seminar with leadership already a primary interpersonal value. In addition, participants scored higher on Benevolence than any group listed in Table 7. Control group scores on Benevolence were even higher (see Table 6), though they were slightly lower on Leadership. These scores tend to confirm the success of procedures employed in selecting potential community leaders for the Seminar and indicate that Black professionals in the program desire not only a leadership role but also to aid the disadvantaged. These scores suggest, therefore, the Black professional 242 is an important source of leadership for the Black community. A second aspect of these comparative scores, however, raises a provocative question. In all the studies reported by Gordon, only military groups scored higher on leadership than the Black professional partici pants. Only one group— Advanced ROTC cadets— had a score higher than participants' posttest score. Since the military leadership style is characteristically authori tarian, a question is raised concerning the motives of leadership possessed by the Black professional. Do par ticipants tend to be authoritarian in their approach to leadership? The SIV Leadership scale does not distinguish motives, and though some of its items might be inter preted as authoritarian (for example: "To direct others in their work," and "To take charge of a group of people.11), they are not manifestly authoritarian; they depend on perceptions of the respondent for their meaning. In the case of participants, their high scores on Benevolence have been noted already as evidence that a service ethic accompanies the desire to lead. Other 243 evidence that clarifies their motives will be presented in the next chapter on view of others, including an analysis of leadership style and interpersonal attitudes. Summary The first part of a three-dimensional analysis of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar, entitled the "view of self," has been presented in this chapter. It was hypothesized that because of participating in the seminar, Black executives would esteem themselves more highly, become more self-directed, and strengthen their motivation to achieve and their desire to assume a leadership role in the community. Behavioral science studies summarized in this chapter established the importance of the self-concept in developing effective executive leaders, particularly in the disadvantaged minority communities where feelings of inferior worth and potential are common. The first objective of the seminar, therefore, was to help Black professionals strengthen their self- concepts. Three strategies were employed. Seminar leaders first provided participants an opportunity to 244 gain increased self-awareness through exercises in per sonal introspection in the introductory retreat session. In later sessions, Clark's writings on the self-concept of the ghettoized Black were discussed and thorough review of the civil rights movement in America was presented. In these sessions, seminar leaders tried to confront each participant with the necessity of accepting fully the implications of being Black rather than suppressing, ignoring or being defensive about it. The second strategy was to give each participant tools to plan and evaluate his own self-development. These tools were provided mainly in the session on effective use of time. Participants were guided through a process of clarifying personal and professional values, roles and objectives, and were helped to develop a plan for organizing activities and allocating time. Seminar leaders recognized that to be successful is a necessary ingredient of self-esteem. Finally, seminar leaders consciously worked to build a functional group where open, authentic inter action would provide reinforcement to changing self- concepts. Group building activities included modified 245 interpersonal sensitivity workshops, group discussions in an informal circle arrangement, and a group project assignment in which participants could assume leadership. Seminar leaders felt that through self-understand ing the use of effective tools for self-development, and reinforcement from peers, participants would be able to develop more positive self-concepts as leaders in their community. Thirteen scales from four standard instruments were used to operationally define the four aspects of "view of self." Twelve scales changed in the direction hypothesized for the experimental group and seven posted mean score differences sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level of significance or better. Among the seven scales showing statistically significant change were included the two indicators selected to measure self-esteem, three out of the seven scales selected to measure self-direction, and the single indicators of achievement motivation and leadership. In the control group, seven scales should mean differences in the direc tion predicted for the experimental group, and six either remained the same or changed in the opposite directions; 246 none of these changes were significant at the .05 level. These results seem to demonstrate clearly that the strategies described above helped Black professionals develop a more positive view of themselves. In strengthening self-esteem/ there was evidence that participants clearly moved toward closing the gap between self-acceptance, which was below, and self-regard, which was above adult norms on the pretest. The increased self-acceptance score, rising from below adult norms in the pretest to substantially above these norms in the posttest, could very possibly reflect participants' more positive acknowledgment of their identity as Blacks in a predominantly white society. The higher self-esteem was accompanied by the development of a stronger sense of self-direction so that participants also moved from scores near general adult norms to positions clearly beyond these norms. In addi tion, they increased their motivation to achieve, particu larly in a leadership role. Together, these results indicate increased confidence in taking the risks implicit in providing effective leadership for the Black community. CHAPTER VII VIEW OF OTHERS AND VIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENT Elaboration of a model for evaluating the executive development seminar continues in this chapter with the testing of two general hypotheses regarding expected changes in participant's "view of others" and "view of the environment." As in Chapter VI, each general hypothesis is divided into subhypotheses operationalized by one or more attitude scales. Each subhypothesis is accompanied by a brief synopsis of behavioral science studies supporting the implied relationship to effective executive behavior and by a summary of content and tech niques used in the seminar to bring about the predicted attitude change. Results of the evaluation then are presented and conclusions drawn about the predictions. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS II: Black professionals will develop a more positive, trusting and democratic view of others as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar 247 248 The second of six program objectives set forth in Chapter II for the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar states: To share current applications of behavioral science research findings and to assist in related skill development for participants, on six levels: indi vidual behavior, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, organization and management, intergroup relations and community development. For thousands of years, philosophical and theo logical delates have raged over the question of man's nature and the implications for social organization and leadership. In this century, the outlines for a behav ioral theory of effective leadership have emerged, though many aspects of the theory have not yet been empirically tested. Three dimensions of this theory, stated below in hypothetical terms, form the dependent variables that will be tested to determine the seminar's effect on participants' view of others. Hypothesis II.1; Black professionals will develop a more positive philosophy of man's nature as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Hypothesis 11.2: Black professionals will develop increased attitudes of trust in people and will have less desire to control others as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. 249 Hypothesis II.3: Black professionals will develop more democratic leadership attitudes as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Each of these three hypotheses has its logical roots in the preceding hypothesis. A positive philosophy of man's basic nature would tend to engender trust, sympathy, tolerance and love, and mitigates against the desire to control or dominate man. For an individual placed in a position of leading others, the logical con sequence of holding these basic values and attitudes would be a democratic approach to decision-making. Hypothesis II.1: Black professionals will develop a more positive philosophy of man's nature as a result of par ticipating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. The first behavioral management theorist to clearly articulate the importance that basic assumptions about man have to management systems and their effectiveness was MacGregor, who said, "Behind every managerial decision or action are assumptions about human nature and human behavior."^ Cartwright, noting that MacGregor cites no 1 Douglas MacGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960), p. 33. 250 empirical evidence for his assertion admits, however, that his general point is well taken. One's philosophy of human nature may indeed affect expectations con cerning the success of various means and thereby influence the choice among means.2 Three views of man's nature have been reflected in the evolution of management theory. The first view, implicit in the scientific or classical theory of manage ment, saw the employee as a capital resource who, like a machine part, could be cast in a training mold and inter changed in a complex system of positions and job descrip tions. Except for the moral and rational elite who managed organizations, man was viewed as irrational, primarily motivated by economic rewards, lazy, irrespon sible, and in need of control to assure that his activi ties conform to the best interests of the organizations goals.J 2 Dorwin Cartwright, "Influence, Leadership, Con trol," in James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organization (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1965), p. 14. 3 For discussion of assumptions underlying classi cal management theory, see Amitai Etzioni, Modern Organiza tions (New York: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964), pp. 20-31; and Joseph L. Massie, "Management Theory," pp. 387-422. 251 A second view of man underlies the human relations movement in management. Scott notes that in this view "the motivational horizons of management extended beyond the economic to the social and psychological."^ Through empirical studies rather than deductive logic, industrial psychologists developed a view of man as a social animal motivated by needs for acceptance and personal identity. These needs were accentuated in the industrial revolution where work often lost its meaning in the monotony of the assembly line, and the worker lost his identity in the masses crowding into the urban centers. Management, it was suggested, could induce cooperation among employees by supplying these needs; creating work groups and teams, emphasizing a friendly and economically secure work environment, and providing social and recreational activ ities outside of work to promote the feeling of family C and community in the company. 4 William G. Scott, "Organization Government: The Prospects for a Truly participative System,1 1 Public Admin istration Review, 29:1 (January-February, 1969), 44. 5 Etzioni, Modern Organization, pp. 32-49. 252 In the third view of man's nature, reflected in contemporary theories of management, man is viewed as a growing, developing, intentional organism striving toward self-fulfillment. In so doing, the motivational mechanism of man demonstrates a variety of needs, desires and atti tudes encompassing and going beyond the simple views of the classical and human relations theories. Cantril, for example, has compiled ten motivational characteristics of man based upon the "data of psychology and by the observa tions sensitive observers have made of the way people live their lives.”6 They-include the needs or desires to survive, to be secure, to have order, to conserve, to hope, to choose, to be free, to have identity and integ rity, to feel a sense of worth, and to aspire. Maslow reconciles this diversity of man's motiva tions by proposing a hierarchy of prepotent needs which begin with the physical and economic, advance to the social and ego, and end with something akin to the spiritual— 6 Hadley Cantril, "A Fresh Look At the Human Design,” In James F. T. Bugental, Challenges of Humanistic Psychology. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967), pp. 13-18. 253 the pursuit of altruistic values (justice, beauty, 7 equality, etc.) for their own intrinsic worth. Maslow argues that every individual provided the environment and education necessary to satisfy each of these need levels, can and will progress toward self-actualization and a state where the primary motivation is the higher value. Although Maslow*s theory has not been empirically vali dated, the assumption that man is basically good, with unlimited potential and the capacity for continued self- development, is consistent with contemporary findings Q about human behavior. Experimental Variable The third view of man was presented to partici pants in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar as a basic value in American political philosophy and as the keystone of government's role in society. The positive philosophy *1 Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1954), pp. 80-106. See earlier discussion of this same point in Chapter VI • Q Chris Argyris, Integrating the Individual and the Organization (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 19 64), pp. 20-34. 254 of man's nature was also introduced as a fundamental assumption underlying contemporary theories of effective interpersonal relations, group dynamics, and organiza tional leadership. Finally, it was impressed upon par ticipants that this view of man is a value characteristic of great leadership in Western society. Operational Definition One of ten subscales in the POI entitled "Nature of Man-Constructive" (Nc) is composed of sixteen items. Shostrom describes the individual who scores high on this scale as one who "sees man as essentially good" and understands and appreciates the dichotomies and differ ences in man's nature.® 9 For specific results of validation and reliability studies for the Nc scale of the POI, see Everett L. Shos trom, Manual: Personal Orientation Inventory (San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1966), pp. 27, 31, and Ilardi and May, "A Reliability Study of Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inventory," Journal of Humanistic Psychology (Spring 1966), pp. 68-78. 255 Results Table 8 contains the mean score difference for both experimental and control groups on the POI Nature of Man-Constructive (Nc) scale. Although neither group recorded statistically significant changes, the experi mental group increased its mean score as predicted. The probability the increase occurred by chance was .15. TABLE 8 CHANGES IN THE BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORES ON THE NATURE OF MAN (Nc) SUBSCALE OF THE POI FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP Group Mean Scores Before After Xd SD t P N Experi mental Group 12.40 13.05 + .65 2.29 1.239 .15 20 Control Group 12.32 12.32 0 2.27 0 19 256 Comparing before-after group mean score of participants with general adult norms given for the Nc scale by Shostrom shows they were approximately equal before the seminar. Afterward, however, the experimental group mean score of 13.05 rose above the adult norm of 12.30.10 Conclusions and Discussion A definite conclusion cannot be made concerning the impact of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar on the participating Black professional's philosophical view of man's nature, as measured by the Nc scale of the POI. A trend toward a more positive view emerged but the increase in the mean scores was not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level. The comparison of group mean scores from the seminar with established general adult norms showed the experimental group had before scores approximating adult norms but after the seminar recorded scores above these norms toward more self-actualizing levels. This indicates Shostrom, Manual, p. 10. 257 that Black professionals began the seminar with a view of man comparable with white adults, a finding which is surprising in view of the Blacks1 treatment in this society. The score may reflect the impact of professional education and experience on participants or represent a mature adjustment to the obstacles which they have successfully overcome. In any event, it is an encouraging finding. Hypothesis II.2: Black professionals will develop im proved interpersonal attitudes by increasing a feeling of trust in others and decreasing the desire for control over others as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Trust is probably the central element in healthy and functional interpersonal relationships. Webster defines trust as "reliance on another's integrity" and "assured anticipation."^ To rely on another's integrity and anticipate his behavioral response patterns requires a mutual sharing of values and attitudes in open and authentic communication and a willingness to behave in ways consistent with these values. Trust also requires ^ Websters New Collegiate Dictionary {New York: G. and C. Merriam Co., 1961). 258 the willingness of those involved to tolerate experimen tation with new ideas and values without fear of suspicion or reprisal, and in fact will encourage creativity and inquiry. It has been observed that as trust increases in relationships, communication becomes more efficient and problem solving more effective. In addition, the secondary effects of such relationships are positive and confirming to the. self-esteem and identity of those involved and the conflicts which emerge in complex organizational settings tend to be resolved with minimum recourse to repressive authority, manipulation or other forms of external pressure.^ In a real sense, most organizations are like nonzero sum games where the cooperative behavior of the players is required for all to benefit at a maximu. However, as Deutsch points out, such cooperation exists only when common interests are perceived and the players 12 Jack R. Gibb, "Pear and Facade: Defensive Management," in Richard Farson, ed., Science and Human Affairs (Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1965), pp. 197-214. 259 develop a sense of mutual trust that each will play the game. Where trust is absent in interdependent relation ships, the natural tendency is for those involved to protect self-interest by exercising control over others. Many individuals, however, attempt to exercise control out of psychological need. In most of these cases, they justify their action in altruistic terms. The paternalist, for example, claims a desire to protect while the authori tarian cites his obligation to enforce the rules. Regardless of the motive, however, the desire to control the thoughts and actions of others is usually dysfunctional to productive interpersonal relations. It undermines trust, impedes open and free expression, and thereby suppresses creativity, mutes internal motivations, and prevents effective problem-solving. 13 Morton Deutsch, "Cooperation and Trust: Some Theoretical Notes,” in Warren G. Bennis, Edgar H. Schein, David E. Berlew and Fred I. Steele, Interpersonal Dynamics (Homewood, 111.: The Dorsey Press, 1964), pp. 564-582. Experimental Variable A capacity for trust and an unwillingness to control others were attitudes upon which substantial portions of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar were focused. Through interpersonal relations exercises, group sensitivity, and lecture discussions, participants were led to experience as well as understand the concept of trust as an essential lubricant to effective inter personal relationships and leadership. The deleterious effects of a control-oriented approach to dealing with others, were illustrated by seminar leaders with several techniques including the dramatization of paternal and authoritarian behavior from a classic Greek play (Anti gone) , a group sensitivity session where participants could mutually give and receive feedback on reactions to controlling behavior, and lecture discussions wherein behavioral science findings on the comparative effective ness of various interpersonal relations styles were dis cussed. Operational Definition Two scales from separate instruments have been identified to measure the trust and control dimensions of 261 interpersonal relations. The first is from the Gordon Personal Inventory (GPI) and is titled "Personal Relations" (P) and the second is the "(e)Control" scale from the FIRO-B. The Gordon Personal Inventory is a forced choice instrument composed of twenty sets of tetrads. The respondent must select one of four statements in the tetrad which is most like himself, and one statement least like himself. The author feels this forced choice method has advantages over the conventional questionnaire format because it is theoretically less susceptible to distortion.^ In the description of this instrument {Leonard V. Gordon, Gordon Personal Inventory: Manual [New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1963, Rev.]), Gordon defends the validity of the GPI from three points of view: first, the use of a forced choice format which he claims is more likely to elicit responses most like the respond ent's true perceptions of himself; second, the factoring process by which an original instrument of 210 items was reduced to its final form of the 120 most discriminating items; and third, the intercorrelation with other scales and measures such as the Survey of Interpersonal Values and Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey which have yielded moderate but predictable coefficients. The Per sonal Relation Scale, for example, has been found in various studies to correlate positively with the con sideration dimension of the Leadership Behavior Descrip- 262 The "Personal Relations" (P) scale tests general ized interpersonal relationships. According to research studies by Schutz, individuals who score high on (e)Con trol tend to have a need to dominate.^ It is predicted, therefore, that participant scores will decrease on the (e)Control scale. Results Table 9 shows that mean score differences for PPersonal Relations and (e)Control scales were both in the predicted direction. The change on (e)Control was tion Questionnaire (.17), successfully differentiate between upper and lower management, correlate negatively with successful selling, correlate positively with the Benevolence scale of the SIV (.29), and correlate highly with the Objectivity (.41), Emotional Stability (.39), and Personal Relations (.37), scales of the Guilford- Zimmerman Temperament Survey. Reliability of the GPI was determined for these different groups using split-half corrected by Spearman- Brown, and Kuder-Richardson methods. Correlations coeffi cients ranged between .77 and .84. For additional information on validity and reli ability studies, see the GPI manual cited above. 15 For validity and reliability studies, see William C. Schutz, FIRO-B, Three Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior (New York; Rinehart and Co., Inc., 1958). TABLE 9 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON SCALES RELATED TO INTERPERSONAL ATTITUDES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP Group Mean Before Scores After SD t P N Experimental Group Personal Relations 24.47 25.82 + 1.35 4.12 1.315 .10 17 (e)Control 5.79 4.95 - .84 2.15 1.971 .05* 19 Control Group Personal Relations 26.71 25.18 -1.53 3.90 1.630 — 17 (e)Control 3.25 3.55 + .30 1.73 .753 — 20 to m u> 264 sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level and the mean score increase on Personal Relations was nearly significant. In fact, an examination of individual ,c scores shows that of seventeen respondents whose tests were properly completed, twelve scored an increase on the (P) scale, three decreased and two remained the same. The probability that these changes occurred by chance is .018 using the sign test. In the control group, by contrast, mean score differences moved in directions opposite to the hypothesis on both scales. % A comparison of participant (P) scores with various white occupational groups as shown in Table 10 indicates that before the seminar, participants tended to trust people less than similar executive and manager groups and more nearly like military officers and college men. This relative mistrust does not appear in the mean score of the control group, however, which indicates that the lower mean score of the experimental group is not necessarily characteristic of all Black professionals. It may suggest that the experimental group's pretest score was affected by apprehension about entering a seminar controlled by white instructors. After the 265 TABLE 10 A COMPARISON OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORES ON GPI PERSONAL RELATIONS WITH GROUP MEANS FOR OTHER COMPARABLE GROUPS Group Mean Scorea Mean Score s N Seminar Participants 24.5 25.8 17 Seminar Control Group 26.7 25.2 17 Executives (white) 26.5 6.7 123 First Level Managers 27.7 5.4 588 Navy Company Commanders 23.3 7.0 90 College Man 23.0 5.9 2017 a Mean scores for occupational groups are taken from Gordon Personal Inventory Manual, p. 8. Mean scores of experimental and control groups after the seminar. Explanation of symbol: s— standard deviation. 266 seminar, the participant group mean score is nearly the same as other similar groups. Conclusions and Discussion Together, the statistics resulting from the application of the Student t test of mean difference and the Sign Test of movement to the experimental group data justify rejection of the null hypothesis for changes on both scales. The control group meanwhile did not change significantly on either scale. It can be concluded, therefore, that participation in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar significantly increased the Black pro fessionals ' trust and tolerance of others, from levels below that of similar white groups to a level approximat ing the mean scores of these groups. At the same time, the seminar resulted in reduced need to control and dominate others in interpersonal relationships. In addition to the positive impact of the seminar on interpersonal attitudes of participants, another interesting conclusion which can be tentatively drawn is that Black professionals have substantially more faith and trust in people than popular stereotyping might predict, a conclusion which is also supported by participant scores on the POI Nc scale previously reported and discussed. Scores on the P scale, in fact, seem more affected by age and occupation than by racial or ethnic background insofar as the available data indicates. These are encouraging findings, though tentative, because they indicate that the Black professional has maintained a healthy attitude toward people in an environment of prejudice that justify much less tolerant views. It adds credence to an assertion made in the first chapter that the professionally-trained Black is a promising source of leadership both in the white community as well as his own, because of the humanistic values and attitudes which he holds. Hypothesis II.3s Black professionals will develop more democratic leadership attitudes as a result of partici pating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Leadership has been defined in three ways— as a process or function where intentional influence has suc cessfully led to goal achievement,^ as a formal role 16 Irving R. Weschler and Fred Massarik, Leadership and Organization: A Behavioral Science Approach (New York McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961), p. 24; Abraham Zalznik and David Moment, Dynamics of Interpersonal Behavior (New York John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964), p. 414. 268 affixed to certain positions in society and particularly 17 in complex organizations, and as characteristics or qualities of certain individuals known as "leaders.1 1 Theoretical discussions of the process of leader ship in organizations and society generally focuses on two basic issues: authoritarian versus democratic styles of control, and production versus people emphasis in supervision and management. The first issue, historically a debate in politi cal philosophy, is now a major problem facing management of public and private bureaucracies. In 1948, Daniel Bell observed that ultimately, the problem of leadership is shaped by the fact that while we live in a society of politi- 17 In the formal or classical model of organization, the leadership role is synonymous with authority which designates responsibility for directions and control of organizational resources. 1 8 The individual or "traitist" approach to leader ship study has been summarized in Alvin W. Gouldner, ed., Studies in Leadership (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), pp. 31-35. The definitions of the executive leader contained in this study unites all three of these theo retical positions. See Chapter I, p. 24. 269 cal democracy, almost all basic social patterns are authoritarian and tend to instill feelings of helplessness and dependence . . .19 In the twenty years since Bell made his observa tion, rapid social and cultural change— brought on by higher living standards, increased mobility, higher levels of educational attainment, and a social revolution among minority groups and youths— has resulted in great pressure being brought to bear on social institutions to broaden the base of their control. The problem during this era of transition seems to be . . weaving authority and participation effectively together,"^ as stated by Whyte. The second issue, people versus production, has its roots in the epistomology of management theory and has grown out of the empirical research of the last thirty-five years. This research has demonstrated the importance and complexity of the human variable in 19 Daniel Bell, "Securing Leaders in a Democracy," Commentary, V, No. 4 (April 1948), 375. 20 William F. Whyte, "Leadership and Group Partici pation," Bulletin 24 (New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, May 1953), p. 40. 270 organizational performance. Most management theorists who have explored this issue have suggested there is no inherent conflict between the two orientations— that they are really complementary and when fused result in higher performance.^ From these studies and discussions about major issues in the leadership role have emerged several problem areas or variables around which the discussion of leader ship revolves. From these variables several have been selected in this study as central to the development of democratic leadership attitudes. They are the work environment, goal setting, and decision making, communi cation , and evaluation. The work environment or organizational "climate" as Gibb terms it, is a product of the assumptions and attitudes the executive leader acts out in his relation ships with those with whom he works. Negative assumptions characterized by "low trust" result in a defensive, 91 This premise is the central theme of several approaches to management. See, for example, Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, The Managerial Grid (Houston, Tex.: Gulf Publishing Co., 1964); and Argyris, Integrat ing the Individual, pp. 146-163. 271 protective and distorted atmosphere in which working relationships are impaired. A positive, trusting climate of openness, experimentation, acceptance of conflict, recognition of individual needs, and respect for individ ual worth and dignity, sets the fetage for development of functional approaches to the processes of task achieve- 22 ment. Goal setting and decision making processes tra ditionally have been suggested as the primary function of the executive. Behavioral studies have discovered, however, that goals established through effective collab oration significantly increases motivation and a sense of responsibility and facilitates role definitions and the delegation of decision-making functions.^ This principle of participative or democratic leadership must be flexible, however, to account for intervening variables 22 Gibb, "Fear and Facade: Defensive Management." 23 Zaleznik and Moment, Dynamics of Interpersonal Behavior, p. 431. such as personality and culture.24 An essential requisite for participative goal setting and situational decision making is open and unrestricted flow of information pertinent to all aspects of goal achievement or organizational tasks. This refers not only to the availability of information from other levels of the organization or from the environment, but also to the effective two-way flow of information, ideas, and criticisms between work team members on issues related 25 to group processes and task functions. Finally, evaluation of individual and group per formance is an essential function which, in traditional systems, is conducted by the leader in a manner that too often is seen in the employee as subjective, personalized, and thus, threatening. Management theorists who have observed the negative effects of traditional evaluation procedures have suggested another approach more in harmony with both organizational goal achievement and individual Victor H. Vroom, Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation (Englewood Cliffs^ N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1960} , p. 425. 2^Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961), pp. 105, 111, 166, 167. 273 and group development and satisfaction.^® The approach is based on a “depersonalized" evaluation process where the individual and the group develop indicators of effec tive performance. Thereafter, the indicators evaluate and control performance, not the leader. His function is to facilitate the process by which the performance 27 indicators are developed and communicated to the group. Studies have shown that approaches to management which employ (or at least are moving toward) a partici pative model similar to the one outlined above result in less waste, increased production, more satisfaction, higher morale, less dysfunctional conflict, and greater 2 8 adaptability to technological and social change for all levels of the organization, including management 2 6 For a discussion of the dysfunctional effects of traditional evaluation procedures, see Argyris, Inte grating the Individual, pp. 241-268. 27 For an elaboration of this approach, see, Likert, New Patterns of Management, pp. 193-194, 218. 28 For reviews of these studies, see Ibid., pp. 5- 26; Argyris, Integrating the Individual, pp. 164-191. n Q personnel. 5 274 Experimental Variable Several aspects of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar were oriented to help participants develop more democratic leadership attitudes. Some have been mentioned already in connection with the previous two subhypotheses. Xn addition, lecture discussions on the three stages of management theory (Scientific, Human Relations, and Problem-Solving) included a summary of behavioral science studies of leadership showing the advantages of a demo cratic style of leadership. Participants were given opportunity to demonstrate this style working as teams on a group project. They were instructed to examine the processes of leadership, influence, and motivation exhibited during the project sessions and to prepare a report describing them. It was believed this assignment 29 See Lyman W. Porter and Edwin E. Ghiselli, "The Self-Perceptions of Top and Middle Management Personnel," Personnel Psychology, 10:4 (Winter 1957), 400-402; Ralph M. Stogdill and Ellis L. Scott, "How Does Top Management's Conception of Its Own Responsibility and Authority Influ ence Behavior Down the Line?" Industrial Relations Hews (June 8, 1957), pp. 1-2; Norman R. F. Maier and John J. Hayes, Creative Management (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962). 275 would increase their understanding of the leadership dynamics involved and would reinforce the attitudes and behavior required by the team approach to management. Operational Definition Leadership style is measured in this study by a Leadership Questionnaire (HGP-L) developed by Mason Haire, Edwin E. Ghiselli, and Lyman W. Porter.30 The question naire was constructed to test agreement with basic assumptions of the participative approach to the manage ment of people and is composed of eight items with a five-point agree-disagree scale. The questionnaire contains four dimensions or assumptions the manager makes about his employees: (1) the average person's capacity for leadership and initiative; (2) the need for sharing information and objectives; (3) the advantages of participation; and (4) the need for internal controls and sanctions. 30 For an elaboration of this questionnaire and its success in discriminating between the management population of various countries, see: Mason Haire, Edwin E. Ghiselli, and Lyman W. Porter, Managerial Thinking: An International Study (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966). Results The results, reported in Table 11, show that participants increased their scores as predicted. The null hypothesis is rejected at the .01 level. The control group did not change during this same period. TABLE 11 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON THE HGP (L) FOR EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Group Mean Scores Before After Xd SD t P N Experi mental Group 27.10 28.60 +1.50 2.80 2.256 .01 20 Control Group 26.00 25.53 - .47 3.33 .603 19 A comparison between the experimental group mean score and the mean score of more than four hundred managers in the United States, shown in Table 12, indi cates that participants were below the national norm bevore the seminar began; after the seminar, however, 277 participants' mean score rose to a position approximating the national norm. TABLE 12 A COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP MEAN SCORES ON HGP-L WITH NATIONAL GROUP MEAN FOR MANAGERS IN THE UNITED STATES Group Before After U.S. Norma Experimental Group 27.10 28.60 28.48 Control Group 26.00 25.53 aBased on a sample of 464 managers from business drawn from different levels of management, geographical areas, sizes, of companies, and kinds of industry. See Haire et al., Managerial Thinking, p. 22. Conclusions and Discussion The results show clearly that Black professionals, as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar, developed more participative and democratic leadership attitudes. According to the HGP (L) scale operational definition, participants developed a 278 more positive view of people’s capacity to take responsi bility and show initiative; they were more inclined toward group problem-solving and participative goal setting, more ready to explore and accept nonmonetary and nonpunitive techniques for motivating others, and acquired more positive attitudes toward openness and information sharing with subordinates. The comparative data also indicates Black profes sionals held leadership attitudes slightly less demo cratic than their white counterparts in management. Although the difference is not large, it may reflect a lag between white and minority segments in society in understanding and accepting democratic theories of leader ship. One could speculate that fewer Black professionals have been exposed to modern management theories because of the number being educated in Black Southern colleges where these theories may be less prevalent, or because fewer Blacks are selected by companies for management and executive seminars where these theories are commonly dis cussed. A second cause might be a psychological reaction of Blacks to the extra hardships which many endured in achieving their present status and a tendency to exploit 279 their organizational position and authority to bolster a feeling of self-doubt. The before scores on Self- acceptance from the POI reported in Chapter VI lend some support to this position. The fact that participants developed democratic leadership attitudes during the seminar commensurate with other managerial groups may reflect both an increased understanding of these principles gained in the seminar and the strengthening of their self-concept which would diminish the dependence upon position and status for self-acceptance. Summary All four indicators employed to measure partici pant's view of others yielded mean score differences in the predicted direction: three mean score differences were sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level of significance. In the control group, none of the mean score differences were significant at the .05 level. In cases where comparative data was available, it indicated that Black professionals came into the seminar with slightly less trust, patience and faith in others and a less democratic philosophy of leadership than other management and executive groups, but after the seminar, their scores were either commensurate with or above the scores of these groups. It is concluded, therefore, that the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar successfully helped Black professionals develop a more optimistic philosophy of man's nature, increased their degree of trust and faith in others, reduced the degree to which they desired to control and dominate other people, and increased their preference for a participative, democratic style of leadership. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS III; Black professionals will develop a more flexible view of the cultural and social environ ment as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar The third and final "view" hypothesized as funda mentally affecting executive performance is that of the cultural and social environment. It involves the way the executive perceives and relates to ideas, ideologies, social objects, events and happenings in his environment. Social psychologists state that people see their 281 environment through filters. Bruner, for example, has noted the effect of personal needs, values, cultural background, and interests on perception.33- Cantril has described perceiving as a “transaction" in which the perceptual product is the result of a series of inter actions between perceived and perceiver.33 Emotional sets and expectations also have been recognized as important and such words as "stereotype," "halo effect," and "selected perception" describe various distorted effects caused by perceptival bias.33 Relating perception and bias to administrative work, Simon states that the higher we go in the administrative hierarchy, and the broader becomes the range of social values 31 Jerome S. Bruner, "Social Psychology and Per ception,” in Eleanore E. Maccoby, Theodore M. Newcomb, and Eugene L. Hartley, eds., Readings in Social Psychology (3d ed.; New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969), pp. 85-94. 32 Hadley Cantril, "Perception and Interpersonal Relations," American Journal of Psychiatry, CXIV, No. 2 (August 1957), 119-26. 3^Sheldon S. Zalkind and Timothy W. Costello, "Perception: Implications for Administration," in Harold J. Leavitt and Lewis R. Pondy, Readings in Managerial Psychology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964) , pp. 35-40. that must come within the administrators'1 purview, the more harmful is the effect of valuational bias, and the more important is it that the admin istrator be freed from his narrower identifica tion. 34 Bennis states, with regard to effective organizations, that the characteristics of adaptability and flexibility "coincide with problem-solving ability" or the power to 35 "actively master the environment." Maier, in describing the steps of problem-solving, includes testing reality through broad informational gathering for the purpose of being able to understand and state a problem, and then suggests the importance of suspending judgment in the creative process of searching for alternative solutions. The effectiveness of such techniques as "brainstorming," he notes, depend on the capacity to allow the mind and emotions to range widely and act spontaneously.3® Mac Kinnon confirmed this conclusion in his research when he 4 34Herbert Simon, Administrative Behavior (New York The Macmillan Co., 1961), p. 14. 3®Warren G. Bennis, Changing Organizations (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966), p. 52. 3®Maier and Hayes, Creative Management, pp. 147- 168. 283 found creative individuals preferred complexity to simplicity, were open to mental and emotional experience of a wide variety, and tended to be more perceptual than 07 judgmental in relating to phenomena in the environment.^ Two of the most significant sources of research on man1s view of the environment and its behavioral con sequences are Rokeach1s work on the concept of dogmatism and the work of Adorno and others on the authoritarian personality. Rokeach describes mental and emotional openness and flexibility as the extent to which the person can receive, evalu ate, and act on relevant information received from the outside on its own intrinsic merits unencum bered by irrelevant factors in the situation arising from within the person or from the outside.38 He found that dogmatic or rigid belief systems and mental processes prevent individuals from dealing with their environments effectively. It is most crippling perhaps 37 Donald W. MacKinnon, "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent," in Leavitt and Pondy, Readings in Man agerial Psychology, pp. 90-109. 38 Milton Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960), p. 57. 284 as a trait in community leaders who must deal in a milieu of differences in attitudes, values and interests in seeking consensus on critical issues. Consensus, dialogue, compromise— all are impeded by dogmatic thinking. The studies by Adorno and others found the "authoritarian" personality characterized by a willingness to submit to authority, and concomitantly, by a need to use authority. Other characteristics included exaggerated perceptions of unsavory and illegitimate activities in one's environ ment, a tendency toward superstition and stereotype, and a need to be tough-minded and strong.39 Each of these traits retards perceptual objectivity and conceptual agility in analyzing problems and prescribing solutions; more important, they often prevent the development of necessary relationships, the creation of critical alli ances, and the execution of coordinated action on common problems with representatives of diverse interest groups. For this reason, they are particularly dysfunctional for 39 T. W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, D. J. Levinson, and R. N. Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1950). 285 executive leaders in organizations and in the community. For the purposes of this study, a flexible view of the cultural and social environment is defined in terms of three dimensions: mental flexibility, emotional flex- ibility, and value flexibility. When operationalized, they provide indicators for the evaluation of participant change in the seminar. Experimental Variable Of the three views being measured in the study, the view of the environment is the least directly related to seminar content. Whereas most of the dimensions operationalizing view of self and view of others were specifically discussed by seminar leaders, the same was not true for the three dimensions of participants' view of the environment. It was expected, for example, that problem-solving exercises and group project coupled with the general academic content of lecture discussions and reading would positively affect measures of mental flexibility. These elements are less directly related to this dimension, however, than if the seminar had conducted discussions in logic, evidence and mental gymnastics. 286 With regard to emotional flexibility, the seminar was expected to help participants become less inhibited in groups and to facilitate their ability to relate to each other emotionally through the various group encoun ters, T-group training exercises, and self-awareness techniques. Finally, participants were led to confront their personal, professional and social values. Self-determina tion of values rather than acceptance of socially-dictated values was stressed as essential to effective performance. At the same time, understanding and tolerance of values held by others was suggested as being necessary to build productive problem-solving relationships. Discussions and exercises were also conducted to demonstrate the importance of integrity or consistency among values, and between values and behavior in personal and executive effectiveness. This concept later was reinforced in workshops on the use of time where partici pants were required to translate their values into a time plan, or guide to behavior. 287 Hypothesis III,It Black professionals will develop more open and objective mental attitudes toward their cultural and social environment as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Operational Definition Two scales were selected to measure the cognitive aspects of participants1 view of their cultural and social environment. They are the Dogmatism (E) Scale by Rokeach and the Original Thinking (0) Scale of the Gordon Per sonality Inventory. The revised Dogmatism (E) Scale■ used in this study is an instrument developed to measure significant aspects of flexibility. According to Rokeach, "It was designed to measure individual differences and the extent to which belief systems are open or closed. 40 Rokeach and his students have found statis tically significant correlations between low (open-minded) scores on the scale and nonextremist political attitudes, flexible thinking and creative problem-solving, higher acceptance of new ideas and experiences, and a low level of anxiety. For a more thorough elaboration of validity studies, see Milton Rokeach, Open and Closed Mind (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960). (See especially Chapter II for a thorough discussion of the theory.) 288 The "closed system" it measures is described by Rokeach as one where the individual sees the world as threatening, and himself as impotent; where external sources of authority are few in number; where attitudes and beliefs often are isolated and unrelated, containing contradictions and misperceptions of relationships; and where beliefs are relatively undifferentiated, lacking richness and articulation, and are narrow and restricted to a minimum of environmental phenomena. 4 The second scale selected to measure mental flexibility is the GPI Original Thinking (0) Scale. Gordon describes persons who score high on this scale as "liking to work on difficult problems, intellectually curious, and entertained by thought-provoking questions and discussions."4^ Persons of this type are expected to be less dogmatic and judgmental and are more apt to develop a tentative and open cognitive system. Conse quently, participants in the seminar are expected to increase their scores on this scale and decrease their 41Ibid. 42 Gordon, Manual— GPI, p. 3. 289 scores on the Dogmatism scale. Results To compare Black professionals with other groups on dogmatism, the mean scores of several sample popula tions used by Rokeach in his reliability studies of the Dogmatism (E) Scale are shown in Table 13 along with pretest scores of both the experimental and control groups from the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. These re sults indicate the Black professionals' scores approximate the scores of student groups from Ohio State University and the New York colleges are substantially lower than mean scores for a group of less educated, older English workers, but are higher than scores of a group of indi viduals judged low on dogmatic thinking by a peer group. Since the experimental group and control group were all college educated, these findings seem to support Rokeach's hypothesis that education is a major factor in opening A O a person's belief system. According to the study hypothesis, participants are expected to become less "dogmatic" as a result of the ^Rokeach, Open and Closed Mind, p. 91. 290 TABLE 13 A COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP PRETEST MEAN SCORES ON DOGMATISM WITH VARIOUS OTHER GROUPS Group3- Pretest Mean Score N Seminar Experimental Group 144.7 20 Seminar Control Group 138.9 20 Ohio State University Students 142.4b 158 New York Colleges— Catholics 147.4 46 Protestants 138.3 24 Jews 139.5 131 Low Dogmatic Group (students) 101.1 10 High Dogmatic Group (students) 157.2 10 English Workers 175.8 60 a See Rokeach, pp. 90-112 for a discussion of these scores in relationship to other variables and for a more complete description of the groups. This is a combined score of five student groups tested separately for reliability purposes. See Rokeach, p. 90. 291 seminar and, therefore, their scores are expected to decrease. Group mean score differences recorded in Table 14 were in the opposite direction, however, though not statistically significant, for both experimental and control groups. TABLE 14 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON THE DOGMATISM (E) SCALE FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP Group Mean Before Scores After Xd SD t P N Experi mental Group 145 150 +5.00 19.57 .857 20 Control Group 139 144 +5.00 12.49 1.762 20 That the mean score difference of the control group was more nearly significant than the difference for the experimental group suggests that the change was more widespread in the foamier. Though it is impossible to determine whether some external factor caused this 292 unpredicted change, it is apparent the seminar was not a factor except as it may have acted to ameliorate the widespread impact of the intervening variable on the experimental group. Mean score differences of experimental and control groups on the Original Thinking (0) Scale as shown in Table 15 indicate the experimental group tended to increase their scores, but not sufficiently to reject the null hypothesis. The change, however, was nearly signifi cant and of greater magnitude than control group change. TABLE 15 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON THE GPI ORIGINAL THINKING (0) FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP Group Mean Before Scores After Xd SD t P N Experi mental Group 31.06 32.12 +1.06 2.67 1.588 .10 17 Control Group 30.18 30.53 + .35 4.71 .299 — 17 293 Experimental group scores compared to scores of other groups with various executive and managerial experience indicate that at the beginning of the seminar, participants were well above the mean scores of these groups with the exception of engineering executives, as shown in Table 16. This may partially explain why the seminar did not have more significant impact upon this variable. TABLE 16 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUP SCORES ON THE GPI (0) SCALE WITH OTHER OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS Group Mean Scores N Seminar Experimental Group 31.la 17 Seminar Control Group 30.18 17 High Level Executives 28.1 123 Executives (Eng.) 31.3 22 Executives (Mfg.) 27.3 24 Low Level Managers 26.9 588 aPretest scores. Conclusions and Discussion On the basis of results from the Dogmatism (E) Scale and the GPI (0) Scale, it is concluded that the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar did not have a statis tically significant impact on the qualities of openness and interest in problem-solving among participants in the seminar. Some trend appeared in the experimental group, however, toward increased interest in mental problems as reflected in the near significant increase on the 0 scale. The comparative data is clear, however, that Black professionals already possess high interest in mental problem solving and therefore seem attitudinally prepared at least to design sophisticated strategies for meeting the complex problems facing the Black community in society's urban centers. Hypothesis III.2; Black professionals will develop more emotional freedom and flexibility in relating to their social environment as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Operational Definitions Emotional flexibility is defined as the capacity of a person to be aware of his emotions and to feel con fident enough in his environment to be relatively 295 uninhibited in giving healthy expression to them. Four scales have been chosen from the POI to operationalize this subvariable in participants' view of the environment. They are: Feeling Reactivity (Fr), which measures one’s sensitivity to his own feelings? Spontaneity (S), which indicates one’s ability to be uninhibited; Acceptance of Aggression (A), which measures "ability to accept anger or aggression within one’s self as natural"; and Capacity for Intimate Contact (C), which measures the ability to develop meaningful relationships with other human beings.44 These scales are positively interrelated with correlation coefficients ranging from .30 to .64, suggesting they measure related yet somewhat different dimensions of an individual's emotional characteristics.4^ It is predicted that participants will increase their scores on each of these scales. For detailed information on the reliability and validity of these scales, see Shostrom, Manual, and Ilandi and May, "A Reliability Study of Shostrom’s POI." 45 Shostrom, Manual. Results Mean score differences for participants on all scales/ as shown in Table 17, were in the predicted direction. On one scale. Capacity for Intimate Contact (C), the mean difference was significant at the .025 level. By contrast, the control group showed random changes in mean differences with two scales moving in directions opposite to that predicted for the experimental group and no significant changes. A comparison of the before scores of the experi mental and control groups with adult norms in Table 18 shows that both groups of Black professionals scored above the adult norm on all four scales. Conclusions and Discussion Results recorded on four operational indicators of emotional flexibility indicate the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar tended to result in participants developing a greater emotional capacity to interact freely with the environment. This trend is supported by the fact that all four indicators of emotional flexi bility changed in predicted directions with one indicator, Capacity for Intimate Contact, changing significantly. TABLE 17 BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON SELECTED POI SCALES RELATED TO EMOTIONAL FLEXIBILITY FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND FOR CONTROL GROUP Group Subscales Mean Before Scores After xa SD t P N POI (Fr) 16.90 17.20 + .30 3.04 .574 20 Experimental POI (S) 12.55 12.90 + .35 2.17 .701 — 20 Group POI (C) 19.55 20.90 +1.35 2.53 2.156 .025* 20 POI (A) 17.55 17.95 + .40 3.35 .520 — — 20 POI (Fr) 16.63 17.05 + .42 2.26 .792 ------ 19 Control POI (S) 13.11 13.00 - .11 1.29 .345 - 19 Group POI (C) 19.00 18.63 - .37 4.81 .325 ----- 19 POI (A) 17.37 18.05 + .68 1.84 1.580 19 to VO - 4 298 TABLE 18 COMPARISON OF ADULT NORMS FOR (Fr), (S)r (C)r AND (A) SCALES OF THE POI WITH EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS' BEFORE-AFTER MEAN SCORES Scale Experimental Group Before Control Group After POI Adult Norma POI (Fr) 16.90 16.63 15.6 POI (S) 12.55 13.11 11.7 POI (C) 19.55 19.00 18.8 POI (A) 17.55 17.37 16.5 aSee Shostrom, Manual POI, p. 8. 299 The results also correspond to the general movement of all POI scales toward higher self-actualizing levels for the experimental group. One of the reasons why participants failed to change more conclusively on these scales may have been their high pretest scores. Apparently, emotional freedom and flexibility are characteristic of Black professionals, and probably Black people in general. Black fashions, music, and dance styles, for example, are more free and flamboyant than those of the white culture suggesting an uninhibited, more natural expression of emotion. This may also explain why Black participants became so easily involved in seminar exercises which required free expression. The sensitive artistic rendi tions which they made of themselves in the first session on self-awareness, for example, and the ease and quickness with which they encountered each other in the group sensitivity session are evidence of this characteristic.^ In fact, their ability to develop close relationships quickly was reflected in the one significant mean score 46 See Chapter III, pp. 76-78. 300 difference on the Capacity for Intimate Contact Scale. Interpersonal openness, spontaneity and sensitiv ity to and acceptance of personal feelings are qualities which were suggested in Chapter II as primary indicators of mental health and personal growth potential.^ These personality traits facilitate interpersonal relationships, stimulate creativity, aid accurate perception of reality and allow easier adaptation of change. Black profes sionals, therefore, seem to possess important character istics for personal self-renewal and effective action in meeting the crises of social disorganization and violence in the urban centers of society. Hypothesis III.3: Black professionals will develop more flexible attitudes in adapting their values to the en vironment as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. Operational Definition The dependent variable referred to above reflects whether an individual perceives his values as flexible and subject to change or alteration as conditions in the 47 See Chapter II, pp. 56-59. 301 environment change and as new information is made avail able; or whether he perceives them as rigid, to be applied similarly in all situations and to remain unaffected by new knowledge and information about the social and cul tural environment. Two POI subscales were selected to measure the characteristics of participants' value and belief struc tures. They are the Existential (Ex) scale which measures "one's flexibility in applying values and principles to one's life.- It is a measure of one's ability to use good judgment in applying these general principles"; and the Synergy (Sy) scales which measure the "ability to see opposite values in life meaningfully related," such as 48 work-play, lust-love, selfishness-selflessness. Results Table 19 shows mixed results on the two scales for the experimental group with Sy having a mean difference in the predicted direction and Ex in the opposite direc tion, neither being significant. Mean score differences 48 * Validity and reliability studies and descrip tions of these scales are given in Shostrom, Manual, and Iliandi and May, "A Reliability Study ..." TABLE 19 BEFORE-APTER MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES ON SELECTED POI SCALES RELATED TO VALUE FLEXIBILITY FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND FOR CONTROL GROUP Group Subscales Mean Before Scores After x a SD t P N Experimental POI (Ex) 21.15 21.05 - .10 2.62 1.66 — 20 Group POI (Sy) 7.30 7.50 + .20 1.37 .793 — 20 Control Group POI (Ex) 21.16 21.32 + .16 3.22 .208 — 19 POI (Sy) 7.32 8.32 +1.00 1.19 1.882 .05* 19 CO o to 303 for the control group, by contrast, both were in the predicted direction with Sy significant at the .05 level. A comparison of experimental group before mean scores with adult norms showed Black professionals approx' 49 imately equal to the norm on Ex (21.8) and Sy (7.3). Conclusions and Discussion The results indicate that participants in the seminar failed to develop more flexible, insightful value systems, measured by the Ex and Sy scales of the POI, as a result of participating in the Urban Executive Seminar. A possible explanation for this lack of change may have been the seemingly contradictory nature of seminar com ponents regarding value systems. For example, partici pants were exposed at the weekend retreat to exercise designed to help them identify their values, gain insight into each other's values, consider new values and recog nize the need for value flexibility in solving problems in the American pluralistic political, social and cul tural system. At the same time, they also engaged in exercises and discussions that stressed the need for 49 Shostrom, Manual, p. 10. decisions on personal values and the importance of integ rity between values and behavior as the key to personal identity and effectiveness. Being asked to reconsider values and become more flexible in applying them while at the same time encouraged to make decisions about personal commitments and to develop a consistent plan of action probably diffused the impact of both objectives. An alternative would be to discuss personal integrity at the beginning of the seminar and wait until the end, in sessions on intergroup relations and community develop ment, to discuss pluralism and the need for value flexi bility. Participants should also receive more assistance at this time in reconciling these two concepts. In this connection, the "effective use of time plan" needs to be redesigned with more emphasis on leaving it open to new values and flexible in its application to new situations. Summary Before-after results of scales measuring mental, emotional and value flexibility indicate the Urban Execu tive Leadership Seminar had less statistically significant impact on participants * view of the environment than 305 either of the other views. The experimental group showed change in the predicted direction on six of eight scales with one mean difference significant at the .05 level. The control group had mean differences in predicted directions on five of eight scales of which one was also significant. The null hypothesis of no change, therefore, was not rejected. Three possible factors were explored as explana tions for the lack of significant impact made by the seminar on dimensions of view of the environment. First, the operational indicators were not as directly related to the traits being measured as those testing dimensions of view of self and others. This suggests a need to explore other scales or developing new scales for this purpose. A second reason may have been the seminar itself. Seminar components expected to affect these indicators were the least emphasized of the ten dimen sions measured in the evaluation. They were also less related to the scale items used to measure their impact than measures of other dimensions. Third, participants scored above adult norms on more scales measuring view of the environment than on indicators of either view of 306 self or view of others. Participants, therefore, had less apparent need to change on this fundamental orienta tion. These seemed to be the principle reasons for the lack of significant change on indicators of mental, emo tional and value flexibility. The last reason, however, suggests that the emphasis on these qualities was not needed in the seminar. Black professionals, according to comparative data, possess emotional strengths and flexibility, and interest in mental problem-solving substantially superior to aver age adults in society and in some cases above other professional groups. Research summarized earlier indi cated that these qualities are important prerequisites to effective social problem-solving. Thus, on these dimensions, at least, Black professionals seem well pre pared to offer effective executive leadership to the urban community. CHAPTER VIII A FOLLOW-UP RETEST: ATTENUATION VERSUS SELF-DEVELOPMENT A re-occurring theme in evaluation literature is the need for follow-up studies to determine the lasting effects of short-term training and education programs. Training, in the traditional sense, is a process of overcoming internal resistance to new ideas and skills caused by previously learned patterns, and "stamping in" through repetition and reinforcement a new set of chained responses.^- The effectiveness of traditional training processes is evaluated by indicators of how much the trainee has absorbed and retained. This is also largely true of formal education where rewards are based on the student's ability to comprehend and repeat back assigned reading and lecture materials. The follow-up study, 1Arthur Koestler, The Act of Creation (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1964), pp. 549-550. 307 308 therefore, is important because it tests the degree of learning attenuation over time as evidence of the pro gram's success or failure. Though traditional training and educational methods have an important role in the development of modern man, the contemporary problems of adapting to change faced by individuals, organizations and institu tions in this society have revealed the limitations of these learning processes and the need for new approaches to training and education.^ in this study, the format of an educational program designed to assist individuals, and particularly executive leaders, to develop values, attitudes and skills required for self-renewal and strategies for helping institutions and the community to respond to change, has been presented and evaluated before and after. In contrast to traditional training and education processes which are based on the S-R model of man, the seminar was developed from a humanistic view which sees man as a pro-active, self-determining organism 9 See Chapter X where this problem is elaborated. 309 capable of self-development.^ This has major implications for evaluation of such programs. First, participants are assumed to internalize some things and not others depend ing on self-determined needs. Second, values and atti tudes are more important than rote learning or specific skills because they are the motivation for continued self-development. Third, if the program is successful, participants will continue to change after the learning experience is over. Rather than be concerned about learning attenuation, therefore, the evaluation format for a self-development program must test attitudinal indicators of continued growth and development in areas where participants have felt a need during the seminar. GENERAL HYPOTHESIS IV: Black professionals will continue to experience positive strengthening of attitudes and values associated with a positive view of self and others and with a flexible view of the environment after the seminar has been completed. Experimental Variable Several aspects of the seminar were designed specifically to stimulate self-development. The majority ^See Chapter II for the assumptions and learning theory underlying program design. occurred in the first seven sessions, and included (1) self-awareness exercises where participants were encouraged in personal introspection by drawing impres sions of themselves with crayons; (2) an examination of commitment to social values and the rights of citizens in a free society; (3) presentation of a personal develop ment scheme by which participants analyzed their level of value and skill development and stage of personal identity; (4) a self-development workshop where partici pants identified a balanced set of personal, professional and community values, roles, objectives and future activi ties, and designed a plan for allocation of time; and (5) a discussion of the self-concept and individual uniqueness. In addition to these sessions and follow-up assignments on the use of time, seminar leaders gradually transferred responsibility to the group for individual motivation and seminar direction and assigned a group project for which participants took complete responsibil ity. To complement these activities, participants were introduced to John Gardner's Self Renewal, as a text espousing the philosophy of individual and institutional revitalization. 311 The experimental group was invited to return for retesting eight weeks after the program. This interval was selected to allow sufficient time for trends to appear in participants' long-term response to the program. The control group was not invited to return. As volunteers, it was felt that they had been inconvenienced enough by the before-after testing. In addition, it was felt that any major bias from intervening variables would have become apparent during the pretest-posttest interval. Three of the original seven instruments which had shown the most significant change in the before-after testing were selected for the retest. They were the Personality Orientation Inventory, the FIRO-B and the V Achievement scale. In addition to these attitude scales, an open-ended questionnaire was administered to gather participants' perceptions of changes they attributed to the seminar.^ 4 The number of instruments were limited to four to accommodate the busy schedules of participants and to allow time for an open-ended discussion and reinforcement of professional and personal relationships. Unfortunately, this restricts the range inferences to be drawn from the results. 312 Problems were encountered in testing the final evaluation hypothesis of this study. Most serious was that only twelve of the original twenty participants returned for retesting. Since there is no way to insure that those retested are representative of the original group, the term "Black Professionals" in this hypothesis will be interpreted to mean the subgroup of twelve who returned. Of less importance was the fact that partici pants did not all take the tests on the same day. All returned within five days, however, minimizing the possi bility of bias due to a time differential. The Student t statistical test was employed to test the significance of changes on all scales for the subgroup. In addition, the sign test was used to estab lish trends on the movement of scores over the entire scale spectrum. Results Results of the follow-up testing are reported below by instrument rather than by the abstracted dimen sions reported in Chapters V and VI. Reference will be made to those dimensions in the conclusion and discussion of results. All results in each table, including before- 313 after and follow-up mean scores, are from the twelve- member subgroup only. Personal Orientation Inventory (POI).— Subgroup mean scores on the POI for the pretest (t^), posttest (t^)i aucl follow-up test (tg) are recorded in Table 20. The first important result to note is that in all cases, the mean scores at tg have increased over t2 as predicted. Using a Binomial one-tailed test of sign movement, the null hypothesis that this movement occurred by chance can be rejected at the .02 level. In Table 21, mean score differences of the sub group for t^ and t^ are compared with mean score differ ences for t-^ and tg. Two of the twelve scales (Inner- directedness and Self-acceptance) were significant at the .05 level in the first testing interval, t^t2» In the longer interval of t^tg, however, four scales (Inner- directedness, Self-acceptance, Nature of man and Capacity for Intimate contact), yielded mean score differences significant at the .05 level. Five additional scales yielded mean score differences in t-^tg which were nearly significant. 314 TABLE 20 MEAN SCORES FOR tlf t2, AND t3 ON THE POI FOR EXPERIMENTAL SUBGROUP Scale 4 Mean Scores fc2 *3 Time Competence 17.00 17.83 18.25 Inner Directedness 87.83 91.83 95.25 Self-actualizing Value 21.25 22.00 22.42 Existentiality 20.33 20.25 22.08 Feeling Reactivity 17.83 17.92 18.75 Spontaneity 12.25 12.75 13.25 Self-regard 12.75 13.25 13.92 Self-acceptance 15.50 17.75 17.83' Nature of Man 12.58 13.00 13.92 Synergy 7.33 7.58 7.66 Acceptance of Aggression 18.17 18.50 18.66 Capacity for Intimate Contact 19.50 20.83 22.08 NOTE: All mean scores are predicted to increase in t2 and t3. TABLE 21 MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES FOR t1t2 AND tjt3 ON THE POI FOR EXPERIMENTAL SUBGROUP Scale xd tlt2 SD t P xd tlt3 SD t P Time Competence + .83 2.96 1.215 +1.25 2.52 1.645 .10 Inner Directedness +4.00 7.25 1.830 .05* +7.42 11.69 2.175 .05* Self-actualizing Value + .75 2.28 1.092 — +1.17 2.48 1.562 .10 Existentiality - .08 3.02 .183 — +1.75 3.97 1.394 .10 Feeling Reactivity + .09 3.01 .642 — + .92 2.86 .289 — Spontaneity + .50 1.98 .838 — +1.00 2.97 1.116 — Self-regard + .50 2.14 .775 — +1.17 2.67 1.448 .10 Self-acceptance +2.25 2.81 3.046 .01* +2.33 4.13 1.874 .05* Nature of Man + .42 1.98 .699 — +1.34 1.37 3.218 .01* Synergy + .25 .83 1.000 — + .33 .75 1.483 .10 Acceptance of Aggression + .33 2.69 .411 — + .49 2.96 .560 — Capacity for Intimate Contact +1.33 3.04 1.635. .10 +2.58 2.79 3.364 .01* NOTE: All mean score differences are predicted to read (+) in t^t2 and tit3. u> i-1 0 1 316 FIRO-B.— Comparing mean scores on the FIRO-B for the subgroup in t , t , and t , Table 22 shows that scores 1 2 3 continue to change in predicted directions on three of four scales employed. The exception was Control(e), on which there appeared to be a slight regression. Mean score differences of and t^t^ are recorded in Table 23. They indicate that in the before- after Peri°dr (w) Inclusion was significant at the .025 level, with (e)Control nearly significant. In the longer interval of t-^tg, however, the (w)Affection scale also posted a significant mean score difference. Achievement Motivation (vAch).— The third scale administered to the returning subgroup was the Self Report Achievement Motivation (vAch). Comparing the t t mean score difference with the t^t^ mean score difference, shown in Table 24, an attenuating effect seemed to occur on this dimensional. However, the t^t^ mean score difference remained sufficient to show significance at the .05 level. 317 TABLE 22 MEAN SCORES FOR tlr t2 r AND t3 ON THE FIRO-B FOR THE TWELVE-MEMBER PARTICIPANT SUBGROUP Mean Scores Scale (h) fc2 fc3 Inclusion (e) (=) 5.00 4.75 4.42 Inclusion (w) (-) 3.42 1.42 .92 Affection (e) (—) 3.58 3.25 2.83 Affection (w) 3.92 3.25 2.58 Control (e) (-) 6.42 5.17 5.66 Control (w) ( — ) 4.50 4.25 4.00 (h) Predicted direction of change for and t^. TABLE 23 MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES FOR txt2 AND t]t3 ON THE FIRO-B FOR PARTICIPANT SUBGROUP Scale (h) xa tlt2 SD t P Xd ^ 3 SD t P Inclusion (e) (=) - .25 2.17 .383 — - .58 1.71 1.134 — Inclusion (w) (-) -2.00 2.94 2.253 .025* -2.50 2.22 3.739 .005' Affection (e> (=) - .33 2.42 .456 — - .75 1.48 1.682 — Affection (w) (-) - .67 2.84 .486 — -1.34 2.21 2.00 .05* Control <e) (-) -1.25 2.61 1.584 .10 - .76 2.18 1.396 .10 Control (w) ( — ) - .25 1.233 .672 — — - .50 1.50 1.292 —— 318 319 TABLE 24 MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES FOR tAND ON THE VAch SCALE FOR PARTICIPANT SUBGROUP Scale Xd tlt2 SD P Xd tlt3 SD t P vAch +1.84 1.52 4.005 .005* 1.34 2.13 2.072 .05* Conclusions and Discussion In summary, of the sixteen scales employed in the follow-up test of General Hypothesis IV, fourteen mean score differences increased in directions established in the before-after testing. In addition, the number of scales posting significant changes increased from four to seven in the longer period 0n ^asis of these results, it can be tentatively concluded that the twelve member subgroup in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar experienced positive strengthening of attitudes and values for which the direction of change had been established during the seminar. 320 From the results, it is apparent that participants continued to strengthen their self-concept after the seminar. Their self-esteem continued to rise on both indicators, POI-Sr and Sa scales. They also became more self-directed; all indicators of this trait showed increased mean differences including the major indicator POI (I), on which the mean difference almost doubled. These results are perhaps the most encouraging of all follow-up scores. Studies in human behavior reviewed earlier indicated that high self-esteem and a strong sense of self-direction are prerequisites for effective personal development and self-renewal. In light of the ambivalence which Black professionals were suggested to have been experiencing in role identity, these results suggest that the seminar probably helped prepare partici pants to reconcile their ambivalence and to establish a clearer sense of personal identity. Retest scores also indicated a strong tendency among participants to increase in value flexibility. This is an important finding because the POI indicators of this dimension of view of the environment were the only POI scales which either did not rise above the adult 321 norms during the seminar or were well above these norms in the pretest. With the increase on Ex and Sy, the profile of participants on the POI is well into the self- actualizing range on all indicators. Only on (e)Control from the FIRO-B and vAch did the twelve-member subgroup experience attenuation. Both scales still showed significant mean differences in the t^t^ interval, however. It is probable that those who returned for the retesting were among those with the most positive response to the seminar and its leaders, and thus, are not a representative sample of the original group. Caution must be used, therefore, in making inferences about the entire group from this data. But the fact that a majority returned and gave evidence of continued self-development suggests that the impact of the program was widespread. Follow-up Open-ended Questionnaire As a way of checking the validity of attitudinal changes recorded in the before-after and follow-up test ing, and as a method for obtaining some indications of changes in performance resulting from the seminar, an open-ended response questionnaire was also administered 322 to the subgroup. Five questions were asked: 1. Have there been any changes in your employment situation since the seminar ended? (job change, promotion, commendation, etc. Please describe.) la. Do you personally ascribe any aspect of the change to the effects of the seminar? 2. Did your attitude toward yourself change as a result of the seminar? In what way did it change? 3. Did your attitude toward other people change as a result of the seminar? In what way did it change? 4. Do you feel you are more effective as a person since completing the seminar? In what ways are you (less— more) effective? 5. Are there any other changes in your attitude or behavior which you believe have occurred as a result of the seminar? Please describe. Results Regarding question numbers 1 and la, exactly half of the subgroup members said they had experienced some change in their employment situation after the seminar; five of the six ascribed important aspects of these changes to the seminar. Participants reported such changes as promotions, increased responsibility, commendations and new employment. Two additional respondents who answered "no" gave evidence in the 323 related question (la) of impending change; one said he had received many excellent offers of jobs and the second indicated that he was thinking seriously of changing 5 jobs. Both indicated that the seminar was significantly responsible. In response to question number 2, regarding atti tude toward self, ten of twelve gave positive responses. Their answers included such comments as "increased strength and confidence," "more motivated," "self-image and esteem has risen," "became more introspective," "I demand more of myself," and "greater sense of personal worth.1 1 ® None of the twelve subgroup members gave positive answers to question number 3 concerning attitude toward others. Responses to this question included: "I evaluate (rather than) judge (others)." "I became less precipitant in my appraisals (of others)." In later contacts with these two individuals, the first decided not to change employers while the second did change positions. complete text of all responses to each ques tion are found in Appendix F. 324 "More interested in involvement with representatives of white power structure." “Less critical of deficiencies in others." "Changed some generalized concepts about the aware ness or lack of awareness of Black problems among Black people." "More aware of the other person in terms of his . . . behavior as (it) relates to his values." "More relaxed and calm when disagreements arise between myself and others." To the fourth question concerning changes in personal effectiveness, eleven of the twelve stated that they had become more effective as a result of the seminar. Five members indicated that they had become more effec tive in their use of time. Closely related were the responses of three others who indicated being better organized. The other major observation involved better relationships with superiors, subordinates and people in general which were noted by four of the twelve respond ents. Other comments included more effective analysis of problems, increase in peace of mind and happiness with family, and a clarification of personal values. The last question, less directed than the previous one, asked subgroup members for an appraisal of any other changes in attitudes or behavior which they would ascribe 325 to the seminar. Some respondents used this question to summarize previous comments while others introduced new perceptions at this point. For example, one individual noted his regular use of the "creative half-hour" suggested during the seminar which he utilized for "planning and prayer." Another indicated that he involved his family in more of his activities. For the most part, however, respondents summarized generalized changes such as feeling more confident and committed to developing their potential, sensing an improved attitude and ability in dealing with others, and being more aggressive, better organized and more highly motivated to achieve. Conclusion It is acknowledged that open-ended, transparent questionnaires are the least reliable instrument commonly in use for gathering evaluation data. Intervening variables such as the respondents like or dislike for the seminar leader, his enjoyment of others in the group, his appreciation for being away from work, or the desire to rationalize his decision to join the seminar— all can bias a respondent's answer to such questions. For example,^one respondent who had the misfortune of being 326 hospitalized shortly after the seminar said in answer to question number 4: "I think {the seminar has made me more effective) but it has been hard to tell since I was laid up for a month." On the other hand, .it is important to note that the responses to this questionnaire do tend to mirror the results of the less transparent set of value and attitude instruments. Even the emphasis seemed to be highly cor related with the largest percentage of responses focused on an increasingly positive attitude toward self, and improved attitudes toward others. Most significant, however, were the number of actual behavioral changes reported in the questionnaire. These are more valid evidence of change even though the degree to which the seminar was responsible is unclear. In four cases where actual results from behavioral change are evident, the indicators were promotion, commendation, or acknowledged increase in influence. These cases all involved improved professional performance which could have resulted from changes on any of the three dimen sions— view of self, view of others, or view of the environment. In the four remaining cases where evidence 327 showed participants pursuing new employment opportunities .or improved working conditions, it is apparent that the major factor responsible was probably a more positive sense of self-worth and confidence to pursue personal values at some risk. In all cases, the behavioral results seem to indicate an increased effectiveness and determination to fulfill personal potential. These results, therefore, corroborate strongly the conclusions arrived at on the basis of data obtained from the attitude scales. Summary The results of the retesting are very encouraging in light of the seminar objective to promote a personal and professional renewal among participants. Although just twelve members of the experiment group were retested eight weeks following the seminar, the results were so conclusive as to warrant consideration. They showed that participants continued to change in positive directions or fourteen of sixteen scales, a strong indication that the process of self-renewal had been internalized by Black participants. This was particularly evident in 328 their inclination to increase in self-esteem and strengthen self-direction which are primary factors in personality expansion and development. Finally, the responses of the returning twelve participants to an open-ended questionnaire corroborated the findings from the scales as participants told of job changes r promotions, commendations, and other tangible changes which they ascribed to the seminar. These results were evidence that self-renewing attitudes had for many resulted in corresponding changes in behavior and performance. CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study has been concerned with three kinds of problems. The first is substantive and involves the lack of executive leadership in America's cities, par ticularly the minority communities, to meet the growing urban crisis. The second is an applied problem of developing an executive leadership education program for recruiting potential leaders in the Black community and increasing their capacity to serve the urban community. The third problem is methodological and concerned with designing a research evaluation format to determine the effectiveness of the executive leadership program. The substantive problem, executive education program and research evaluation design and results are summarized in this chapter. Observations will be offered about ways to improve both the program and the research design employed to evaluate it. Lastly, suggestions will be made of other applied behavioral science services 329 330 required if the needs of urban communities are to be met. The Crisis in Urban Leadership The migration of an expanding population to the urban centers, the accompanying disintegration of tradi tional family and community structure, the uprising of the segregated and discriminated, the demands of youth for a new morality and the threat of a volatile militant radicalism are social forces which have combined with polluted air and water, strangled transportation arteries and decaying neighborhoods to strain the responsive capacity of social institutions. As a prerequisite to meet these challenges, Gardner has called for the "self-renewal" of America’s leadership. He defines self-renewal as a continuing process of self-development characterized by increased i self-awareness, motivated by love and commitment to basic values, and sustained by risk taking and the courage to fail. Through self-renewal, the executive leader becomes personally prepared to help organizations and institu tions adapt to a changing environment and together with other executive leaders, to find solutions to problems that constitute the urban crisis. 331 An Applied Behavioral Science Strategy Social scientists have become increasingly aware of the need to utilize contemporary behavioral science knowledge and techniques in developing executive leaders and assisting them in the challenge of renewing society. There are many ways this assistance might be offered. One convenient vehicle is the short-term education and training program which has emerged in recent years. It has the advantage of being adaptable to demanding schedules and particular needs without concern for the formalities of curriculum committees and credits that characterize college and university training. A review of executive and management education programs reveals, however, that the majority are not concerned with participant values, attitudes, identity and other concepts central to the process of self-renewal. With the limited exception of T-group and sensitivity training sessions, most executive education programs are conducted in conjunction with a university or college where presentations generally are made by regular faculty whose expertise is the development of an idea, not an executive. Personal development is left largely 332 unexplored. In the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar evalu ated in this study, two behavioral scientists attempted to design a program which would be addressed to the whole person, with a focus on the role of the executive leader. As defined in the study, the role of the executive leader is first, to redefine social values and clearly articulate institutional priorities; second, to participate in the creation of more effective urban problem-solving mecha nisms that will prepare communities and institutions to respond more quickly and with broader support to the crises with which they are confronted; third, to design more innovative approaches to urban problems; and finally, to provide for the assimilation of these innovations into more efficient and effective administrative and management i systems for implementation. The target group selected to participate in the program was the Black professional. A review of leader ship needs in the Black community indicated that the skills of the Black who has obtained a college or profes sional degree and has had management or professional responsibility qualify him as the most promising source 333 of leadership. In the past# the Black professional has been hampered in assuming this role by a confusion in personal identity— torn between his ambition to be suc cessful in white-dominated institutions and his felt need to identify in some way with the Black revolution. Consequently, in program planning, the needs of the Black professional were combined with the role of the executive leader in a set of curriculum objectives. Briefly stated, these objectives were to help Black pro fessionals clarify their self-identity through a reapprais al and synthesis of personal, professional and social values, broaden their management knowledge and improve executive skills through exposure to contemporary behav ioral science perspectives on the human dimensions of organizations and communities, and more concisely define i and strengthen their role in the Black movement through discussions of community development strategies and formation of professional alliances and working relation- i ships with peers and other community leaders both white and Black. The seminar consisted of seventeen 4-hour sessions held over a three-week period, beginning with a two-day 334 retreat and continuing two afternoons and evenings, plus all day Saturday each week. Sessions 1 through 6 focused on the development of small group relationships and trust to facilitate the learning process, a re-examination of professional identity and social values, and the design of a personal and professional plan for effective use of time. These six sessions laid the foundation for the presentation of executive skill exercises and management concepts at six behavioral levels. Participants read assignments, entered into discussions and participated in exercises designed to teach them more about individuals, help them become more skilled in interpersonal relations, improve their understanding of group dynamics and strengthen team building skills, provide them with modern concepts of organization structure, processes and evalua tion, expand their appreciation and knowledge of inter- group relations, particularly the Black civil rights movement, and finally, to clarify the nature of the American pluralistic system and discuss approaches to planned community change and development. Integrated into the eleven sessions on the behavioral levels were several hours of team building in 335 which the group employed problem-solving steps to design and begin implementing a community project. To provide them additional perspectives on the community and a broader range of professional relation ships r the group hosted several guests representing various institutions and expertise in both the Black and white communities. They included Frank Stanley# Executive Director of the Urban League; Robert Jones# Executive Director of the National Conference of Christians and Jews, Los Angeles Chapter; Gene Brooks# architect and executive Director of the Los Angeles Urban Workshop; Billy Tidwell, Executive Director of the Sons of Watts; Chad McClelland, Chairman of the Management Council for Merit Employment; and Victor Palmieri, former Deputy Executive Director of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. An analysis of the pedagogy utilized in the seminar indicated that three factors guided the seminar leaders1 selection of educational methods: first, their philosoph ical and theoretical preference for humanistic theories of man's nature and behavior; second, the assumption that participants in the program, being college educated, were 336 relatively independent and self-directed individuals; and third, the peer group focus of the program and the desire to build problem-solving relationships among participants. Seminar leaders, therefore, selected teaching methods rooted largely in humanistic psychology, attitude change theory and group dynamics. Emphasis was placed on building an attitude of trust in the group where par ticipants could share the benefits of personal introspec- tion and self-awareness exercises with each other. Attitude change was further initiated through the use of lecture discussion and role-playing exercises which depend for their effectiveness upon the individual and his need to reconcile new ideas, value conflicts, and emotional experience with his present system of atti tudes. This process of achieving integrity between and among values, attitudes and behavior was supported and encouraged through social reinforcement from the group, the attention given to individual development by seminar leaders throughout the seminar, and in the reading assignments. In these ways, seminar leaders operational ized consistency and reinforcement theories of attitude 337 change. Finally, throughout group discussions and problem- solving sessions, participants were made aware of the interactions leading to their development as a small group. They learned to differentiate between task- oriented interactions and the emotional expressive symbols of trust or fear which signal the building or impeding of problem-solving attitudes and relationships. Research Evaluation Design A review of the research evaluation literature for management and executive leadership programs was conducted to identify effective designs for conducting a research evaluation of the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar. The survey revealed that most programs are not vigorously evaluated. Some form of open-ended ques tionnaire or transparent rating scale is the most common method employed. Theory building and instrumentation for evaluating executive and management education pro grams was found to be meager, particularly if the program is multidimensional in curriculum and pedagogy. In developing a research evaluation design, therefore, a new theoretical construct was devised to 338 guide the formation of testable hypotheses and the selec tion of appropriate instruments. The construct contains three fundamental and interrelated value/attitude orien tations. They are the view one has of himself— his self-concept and personal identity; his view of others— both man in general and those with whom he interacts; and his view of the environment— the cultural, ideological and experiential world about him. These three views bring together, into a simple conceptual structure, many of the findings of behavioral scientists about mature, self-renewing individuals. It was predicted that Black professionals, through participation in the seminar, would develop a more positive view of self and others, and a more flexible view of the environment. To evaluate these predicted changes, the.study employs a pretest-posttest design with one control group. Seven standard instruments were used as operational indicators. They were the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) by Shostrom, the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) and Gordon Personal Inventory (GPI) by Leonard V. Gordon, the Fundamental Inteprersonal Relations Inventory (FIRO-B) by Schutz, a leadership attitude questionnaire (HGP-L) by 339 Haire, Ghiselli and Porter, the Dogmatism scale by Rokeach and a self-report achievement motivation scale validated by Sherwood. Scales from these instruments were cate gorized into dimensions of the three fundamental orienta tions for interpreting scores on these instruments. Although the experimental and control groups were not individually matched, they were sufficiently similar in social background to control for bias from intervening variables in the environment. In addition to before-after testing, selected instruments were administered two months later to a twelve-member subgroup to test a fourth hypothesis: that participants would continue to change these three views in directions established during the seminar as an indi cation that a self-renewal process had been initiated. An open-ended questionnaire also was used to provide data on self-perceived behavioral change as additional evidence of attitude-value changes and self-development. Evaluation Results Results obtained from the seven instruments and twenty-six scales selected to measure three fundamental value-attitude orientations are summarized in Table 25. 340 TABLE 25 EVALUATION SCALE MATRIX SHOWING MEAN SCORE DIFFERENCES, STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE, AND PREDICTED DIRECTION OF CHANGE OF ALL VARIABLES FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Scales Experimental Group Xd P h Control Group Xd P View of Self POI Inner-directed +3.75 .05* <+) +1.42 — Self-actualizing +1.05 .15 (+) + .36 — Self-regard + .85 .05* (+) .00 — Self-acceptance +2.20 .005* (+) + .27 — SIV Support -1.89 .025* {-) + .34 — Conformity + .35 — (-) - .28 — Recognition -1.12 .15 (-) - .44 — Independence +1.47 — (+) + .23 — Benevolence - .70 — {-) - .78 — Leadership +2.30 .02* (+) +1.40 -- vAch +1.50 .01* (+) - .63 — FIRO-B Inclusion (w) -2.05 .01* (-) + .05 — Affection (w) - .63. .10 (-) + .55 — Control (w) - .22 — (-) 00 — View of Others POI— Nature of Man + .65 .15 (+) 00 — GPI— Personal Relations +1.35 .10 (+) -1.53 — HGP— Leadership +1.50 .01* (+) - .47 — FIRO-B— Control (e) - .84 .05* (-) + .30 TABLE 25 (Continued) Scales Experimental Group xd P h Control Group Xd P View of the Environment Dogmatism +5.00 (-) +5.00 GPI— Original Thinking +1.06 .10 (+) + .35 POI— Feeling Reactivity + . 30 —— (+) + .42 Spontaneity + .35 (+) - .11 -- Acceptance of Agression + .40 — (+) + .68 Capacity for Intimate Con tact -1-1.35 .025* (+) - .37 Existential - .10 (+) + .16 -- Synergy + .20 (+) +1.00 .05* I Explanation of symbols: — mean difference or change in before-after group mean scores. p — probability that the mean difference occurred by chance. h — predicted direction of change. 342 They show that before-after mean scores changed in the predicted direction on twenty-three of twenty-six scales, and ten changes were significant at the .05 levels. The control group, by contrast, showed mean score differences in the predicted direction on thirteen of twenty-six scales, with only one significant at the .05 level. These statistics give clear evidence that the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar was successful in helping participants to re-evaluate themselves on a broad spectrum of attitudes and values related to a view of themselves, others and the environment. View of self.— Four dimensions of the view executives have of themselves were singled out as indi cators for measuring the impact of the seminar on this fundamental value orientation. They were self-esteem, self-direction, achievement motivation, and perceived identity as a leader. The degree to which a person holds himself in high esteem is a factor which most psychologists agree is fundamental to mental health and personal effective ness. Two scales from the POI, Self-regard (Sr) and Self-acceptance (Sa), were selected to measure this 343 dimension of the self-concept. It was hypothesized that the seminar would have a positive effect on both aspects of participants' self-esteem. Mean score differences supporting the hypothesis were significant at the .05 and .01 level respectively while the control group showed no significant change. Self-direction, defined in the study as the ability of an individual to form his own beliefs, values and attitudes, has been recognized by students of human development as the basis on which personal meaning and identity are established. Nine scales from three separate instruments were selected to operationalize this concept. They included the Inner-directed and Self-actualizing scales from the POI; the Support, Conformity, Recognition, and Independence scales from the SIV; and the (w)Inclu sion, (w)Affection and (w)Control scales from the PIRO-B. Three of the nine scales had before-after mean score differences significant at the .05 level or better, including the primary indicator, the Inner-directed scale from the POI. In addition, all but one scale posted mean score differences in the predicted direction. Achievement motivation is defined as the need for 344 attainment, of high goals and significant achievements for the intrinsic satisfaction in their accomplishment. It is theoretically differentiated from other types of motiva tions which provide extrinsic rewards for achievement such as social acceptance, monetary reward, or political power. Sherwood's Self-Report vAch scale was used to test this variable. Over the course of the seminar, participants increased their scores significantly while the control group remained static. Since the seminar was focused on executive leadership, one important aspect of a participant's "view of self" expected to increase in strength was his per ception of himself as a leader. The Leadership scale from Gordon1s SIV was employed to measure change on this factor. The group mean score difference was significant at the .02 level, while the control group showed no significant change. Of thirteen scales selected to measure partici pants' view of themselves, therefore, twelve showed group mean score differences in the predicted direction, and seven were significant at the .05 level or better. In the control group, seven of thirteen scales changed 345 in a positive direction but none were statistically significant. These results seem to demonstrate the seminar developed a more positive view of self among the group of Black professionals who participated, by increas ing their self-esteem, self-direction, achievement motivation and leadership orientation. View of others.— The view executives have of others also was separated into three dimensions for measurement purposes. The first dimension was partici pants' philosophical view of man's nature, measured by the POI scale entitled Nature of Man— Constructive (Nc). The second dimension encompassed the interpersonal atti tudes participants felt were important in relating to others. These were measured by the Personal Relations scale contained in the Gordon Personal Inventory, and by ! j the (e)Control scale of the FIRO-B. The Personal Rela tions scale measured the degree of trust, faith and patience respondents expressed towards others, and the (e)Control scale measured the degree to which respondents saw themselves as needing to control and dominate others. The third and final dimension of participants' view of others was leadership style and measured the 346 degree to which they accepted such well-known aspects of democratic leadership as group problem-solving, broad access to information, reciprocal influence between superior and subordinate, allowance for personal initia tive and responsibility, and reliance on intrinsic moti vation for work achievement. Each of these three dimensions was assumed to be related to the effectiveness with which executives co ordinate the work of others. Studies indicate that organizations characterized by a positive, respectful and optimistic view of the nature and potential of employees, which adopt management styles that promote an atmosphere of trust, support, and personal growth while requiring high levels of achievement, will experi ence higher production with less turnover, waste, and | dysfunctional conflict. I It was hypothesized that as a result of the seminar, participants would increase their scores on the four scales selected to measure a view of others. Of the four scales, three were significant at the .05 level. They were the FIRO-B— (e)Control, GPI— Personal Relations scale, and the HGP-L scale. Although the POI-Nc scale 347 was not significant, the mean score difference was in the predicted direction. The control group, by contrast, showed no significant movement on these four scales. It seems, therefore, that the seminar was successful in helping participants increase the degree of faith and trust they place in others, reducing their desire to control and dominate those with whom they relate, and strengthen their preference for a participative, demo cratic style of leadership. View of the environment.— The third orientation is the participants* view of the environment. It involves the attitudes and perceptions which characterize the way an executive relates to the ideas and ideologies, informa tion and occurrences, and social and cultural objects he encounters in his surroundings. The aspect of this relationship selected for measurement was flexibility. Studies were cited suggesting that successful accommoda tion to the environment requires flexibility in adapting knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to changing situations for effective problem-solving action. Three types of flexibility were measured. Emotional flexibility is the capacity to be open and 348 sensitive to the personal and interpersonal world of feeling; mental flexibility is a facility for engaging and manipulating ideas and information; value flexibility is the ability to adapt personal and professional values to different situations and the willingness to change them in the face of new perceptions. Eight scales were selected to measure these three dimensions of personal flexibility. Rokeach's Dogmatism scale, measuring open and closed mindedness, and the GPI, Original Thinking scale, were selected as indicators of mental flexibility. The POI scales of Peeling Reactivity (Fr), Spontaneity (S), Acceptance of Aggression (A), and Capacity for Intimate Contact (C) were employed as indi cators of emotional flexibility. The Existential (Ex) and Synergy (Sy) scales from the POI were utilized as indicators of value flexibility. It was hypothesized that participants would increase their scores on each of these scales, or decrease in the case of Dogmatism, as a result of the seminar. Although mean score differences were in the predicted direction on six of the eight scales, only the group mean difference on (C) scale from the POI was statistically significant at the .05 level. 349 From this data, it was concluded the seminar had only a minimal impact on participants' view of the environment. Follow-up retest.— Eight weeks after the seminar, a follow-up test was conducted to determine if value- attitude changes recorded immediately after the seminar had persisted as an indication that participants were experiencing self-renewal. Twelve of the original twenty-member experimental group accepted invitations to return for retesting. The control group was not invited. Three of the original seven instruments which had recorded the most significant change, the POI, FIRO-B and vAch, were administered to this subgroup. The results of the testing were remarkable. Only the mean scores on the vAch and (e)Control scales decreased over the two-month period. All fourteen other | scales continued to move in directions predicted in the study hypotheses. While four of the sixteen scales had shown mean score differences significant at the .05 level in before-after testing, the number of significant changes rose to seven in follow-up testing. In addition, mean score differences on all but three scales of the POI were significant at the .10 level or better. 350 Among other scores which showed significant increases were five scales employed as indicators of participants' view of the environment. These scales had failed to show significant gains immediately following the seminar. In the longer interval, however, two scores changed sufficiently to be significant at the .10 level. They were the Existential!ty (Ex) and Synergy (Sy) scales, both measures of value flexibility. Although further study is required to verify these results with larger groups and in a controlled experimental design, there is sufficient evidence to tentatively conclude that the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar was successful in helping many participants pass through a threshold of "self-renewal" where personal change became self-sustaining and self-perpetuating. To corroborate the validity of these indicators o of attitude change and attempt an exploration of their implications for behavioral change, an open-ended ques tionnaire was administered to the twelve-member subgroup. The results reflected approximately the same attitude changes recorded from the instruments, but more important, eight of the twelve participants reported tangible, 351 verifiable changes in their personal and professional lives which they ascribed to the impact of the seminar. These changes included promotions, commendations, job changes, and reallocations of personal time use. In summary, the seminar was successful in pro viding participants with an experience which substantially altered their attitudes toward themselves and others in ways predicted to make them more effective leaders. In addition, the experience tended to provide many partici pants with a capacity for self-sustained development which has resulted in manifest behavioral improvements in their personal and professional lives. Measuring attitude change magnitude.— One of the major deficiencies in research evaluation of management and executive education programs is the lack of attention paid to measuring the magnitude or quantity of change. Most studies measure change only in terms of its statis tical significance, probably because methodologists have not developed instruments which demonstrate change magnitude. This evaluation also has relied mainly on statis tical evidence of change. In addition, however, there was 352 an attempt, where possible, to make comparisons between experimental group scores and the norms of adult groups. These comparisons revealed some interesting results. On the POI, for example, experimental group scores were compared with the scores of self-actualizing and nonself-actualizing groups. A summary of these compari sons is shown in a before-after group profile in Figure 1. I Shostrom indicates that as scores generally move toward line 60, the respondent is exhibiting attitudes charac teristic of self-actualizing people. Results show that Black professionals, through participating in the seminar, made consistent progress toward more self-actualizing life styles. . . . . . The most encouraging changes, however, was the dramatic rise on the Self-acceptance scale of the POI. The below norm pretest score tended to reflect a basic insecurity and anxiety underlying an otherwise healthy attitude profile. This anxiety could very well be attributed to participants' self-concept as Blacks. After the seminar, however, self-acceptance scores rose above adult norms as shown in Figure 1 suggesting a much more positive outlook on self and possibly a greater acceptance 60 60 50 40 40 SAV Ex Fr Sr Sa Nc Sy Figure 1.— Before-After Profile of the Experimental Group on the POI MOTEi For translation of scores on POI scales to standard norms in this Figure, see Everett L. Shostrom, Manual, Personal Orientation Inventory: An Inventory for the Measurement of Self-Actualization. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1966, p. 10. U1 L l> 354 of racial origin and color. Although there is no direct evidence to indicate that this was the area in which their self-concept improved, it is likely since it received emphasis during the seminar. On the Gordon's Survey of Interpersonal Values, participants' pretest scores on three scales (Support, Recognition and Independence) resembled those of other adult management groups. On the Conformity scale, Black professionals scored markedly lower than similar white groups, and on Benevolence and Leadership, their scores were somewhat higher. During the seminar only Leadership changed significantly, rising to a level higher than all but one group recorded in previous studies using the SIV. Participants also scored above the norm on Gordon's GPI— Original Thinking scale. Combined, these pretest scores provide an interest ing profile of the Black professional. The abnormally low score on Conformity indicates they reject social norms and conventional practices, but scores on Leader ship, Benevolence and Original Thinking suggest a strong desire to play a leadership role in solving complex problems in areas that will help the disadvantaged. 355 Together, these results tend to describe individuals with potential for generating innovative approaches to complex social problems. Since this is a pretest profile, we might further assume that Black professionals desired to participate in the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar because of these values and out of a need to improve their capacity to meaningfully contribute to their community. Perhaps it was also an expression of a need for something additional, for a firmer sense of personal identity and assurance that they could successfully implement their values. This may also explain the low pretest scores on self-acceptance and, at the same time, cast more light on the significance of positive changes on self-esteem which occurred during and after the seminar. Although these comparisons are helpful, they are not entirely satisfactory as evidence of change magnitude. There are no norms for Black groups, for example, and the norms available are not always applicable in terms of occupation, age, and education. It would have been desirable to have selected and tested a group of Black executive leaders in the community who represent the 356 models or ideals for those in the seminar. Their scores would have provided a more relevant norm against which to compare participant scores. Obviously, there are diffi culties in selecting a sample and eliciting cooperation from those identified. These difficulties, however, should not preclude this as a possible approach in future programs. Value and attitude studies of various executive leadership groups would be invaluable not only for com parison purposes but also for validating assumptions made in the literature about the attitude and value orienta tions of effective executive performance. Another comparative approach to analyzing atti tude change scores resulting from intensive educational seminars is to correlate results of programs designed to achieve similar objectives. Though only a relative measure, this type of comparison could be helpful. Literature surveys of research evaluation studies reveal, however, that measurement of change induced by laboratory or field educational programs are insufficient both in quantity and variety to provide meaningful comparisons. With the exception, again, of sensitivity training, there has been a lack of replication in evaluative studies, 357 particularly, for multidimensional executive education programs. A third method for analyzing the relative sig nificance of attitude change is to calculate the ratio of actual change to possible change. Using the possible score on each scale as the basis for the ratio, approxi mate calculations indicate, for example, that for those scores which showed statistically significant change in the seminar, the magnitude of change tended to range between 10 and 35 percent. Since absolute scores are not necessarily desirable, the gains made toward what might be determined as an "ideal” score could be sub stantially greater. If it can be assumed that recorded changes stabilized at post-seminar levels, gains of this magnitude seem rather impressive. Future research effort might well be fruitfully spent in establishing "ideal" scores for instruments used for evaluating program objec tives. Fixing such standards would give closer approxi mations of "real" gains achieved by educational programs. The most satisfac:ory evidence that attitude changes are of significant magnitude is if they result in noticeable improvements in performance. For this reason, 358 before-after studies of behavioral change are generally considered preferable to studies of attitude change. Rigorous behavioral change studies require peer ratings, however, and are more expensive and involved than attitude studies, particularly when participants belong to different organizations or come from long distances. This argues for studies to determine the correlation between attitude and behavioral changes so that more accurate inferences can be drawn from the simpler and less expensive attitude studies. Isolating the Independent Variable Another major limitation in research evaluation studies of multidimensional management and executive education programs is the absence of a convenient empiri cal way to isolate aspects of the program responsible for recorded and observed changes or lack of changes in par ticipants. An analysis of these factors must, of neces sity, rely upon deductive reasoning, relating the descriptions of program content and learning techniques to expected results. In the study, each hypothesis or dependent variable was accompanied by a brief synopsis of the 359 program content and pedagogy (independent variables) expected to affect it. Many of these elements are not uncommon to management programs and have been previously successful in altering a limited range of attitudes. Some aspects of the seminar, however, were significant departures from traditional program formats and may provide the reader insight into variables which have caused the wide range of attitude changes recorded in the study. Three of these are summarized briefly below as probably being the most important. One relates to project planning, a second involves an aspect of the curriculum while a third represents an innovation in pedagogical procedure. Selection of participants.— In most executive and management education programs, there are only minimum criteria for participation and often individuals are directed to attend by their superior rather than volun teering. Consequently, group members vary widely in background, experience and motivation. The twenty-five individuals selected for the Urban Executive Leadership Seminar, however, were recom mended by a member of the project's advisory committee, 360 obtained three additional recommendations from respected sources, and were chosen as the most qualified of fifty applicants on criteria which emphasized educational preparation, professional experience, personal values and commitment to the community, and overall potential as a community leader. Because of this procedure, all partici pants were outstanding individuals and highly motivated. Emphasis on self-renewal.— A major objective of the seminar was to assist participants in a process of self-renewal toward becoming more effective, fully- functioning human beings. The focus of the program, of course, was on the executive role, but significant elements of the seminar content were oriented toward helping Black professionals develop a clearer sense of self-identity and direction in life. Seminar leaders drew upon techniques from humanistic psychology to encourage self-awareness and create a growth-oriented group atmosphere; they introduced their own schemes of professional development and effective use of time as tools participants could use to plan self-development; and they raised classic examples of value conflicts for discussion to stimulate introspection and motivate 361 participants to develop a consistent set of values around which to build personal integrity. Finally, seminar leaders invited participants to encounter their Blackness through discussions of the civil rights movement and the impact of prejudice and segregation on the self-concept. Group members thus were encouraged to accept being Black at a deeper psychological level, without self-recrimina tion or false pride. The result of this emphasis on the attitudes of self-renewal was reflected in evaluation results, where attitude and value changes were most heavily concentrated on the fundamental orientation, view of self. By contrast, traditional executive education programs rarely discuss personal values and self-develop ment. Even in sensitivity training, which is meant to increase self-knowledge, lack of structure usually prohibits systematic attention being given to an indi vidual's total development. Team teaching.— A third significant departure from traditional program formats was the use of only two seminar leaders to make all presentations and conduct all training exercises. By avoiding the "smorgasbord" 362 pattern of guest lecturers typical of most programs, seminar leaders were able to tightly integrate seminar content and still remain flexible— to capitalize on the rate of group development, the capacities and resources of individual group members and their own continuing insights, ideas and development of materials— to intro duce changes that would enhance the learning process. In becoming well acquainted with group members, seminar leaders also provided individual attention to help insure an even movement in group learning. The team teaching approach coupled with the seminar leaders' experience and skill as behavioral scientists and professional trainers were factors which greatly enhanced the effectiveness of all aspects of the program. Other elements of the seminar which contributed importantly to its success include: the "levels" v approach to behavioral science perspectives on the execu tive role which provided participants an integrated framework to guide their development of knowledge and skill; the group's community project which gave partici pants an opportunity to apply newly acquired skills in 363 working together; "operation empathy" an innovation in role playing that deepens insight into other life styles; the seminar-work schedule that allowed participants to test new ideas in the work situation and provide feedback to seminar leaders; and finally, guest executive leaders from a spectrum of institutions in the city who provided a variety of perspectives on community leadership needs. The reason is directed to Chapters II and III for more complete descriptions of these elements. Based on evaluation results, the least effective aspects of the seminar were those related to participants' view of the environment. Posttest scores failed to reveal significant change on all but one indicator of this fundamental orientation. One explanation for this lack of change is that group mean scores on scales measuring emotional and mental flexibility were substan tially above adult norms prior to the seminar, suggesting that participants felt less need to change on these two dimensions. This explanation is given support by indi cators of value flexibility which were below adult norms on the pretest, and though failing to move on the post test, did show near significant gains on the follow-up 364 test. Indicators of other dimensions in the research design, however, changed significantly even though they were above adult norms in the pretest; the Leadership scale from the SIV and Self-Regard scale from the POI are examples. This suggests that other variables also affected the lack of change on view of the environment. An analysis of seminar content and pedagogy which were designed to encourage flexible attitudes and values indicate at least two areas where important improvements could be made. First, it could prove fruitful to invite participants from a range of cultures or subcommunities to participate in the seminar. This would provide a microcosm of the urban environment in which participants could learn to appreciate and work with different value structures and ideologies. A group may be more difficult to develop in this situation, but the end results would probably outweigh this disadvantage. The group project provides a second area in need of improvement. Because it was not implemented, partici pants did not have the opportunity to learn from the many problem-solving experiences they would have encountered 365 had the project succeeded. A future seminar probably should provide the financial and professional resources necessary to substantially increase the chances for the project's success. This would not only enhance learning but would also contribute resources to the community and provide visual justification for future seminars. Obviously, many other aspects of the seminar model could be improved. Seminar leaders felt a particular need, for example, to develop more exercises and tech niques to replace lecture discussions, particularly in areas dealing with human behavior and relationships where attitudes and emotions are such an important part of skill building. Participants’ major complaint, on the other hand, was not having sufficient time to digest seminar material and complete reading assignments, or to explore subjects more fully. From a more abstract point of view, the most important advancement which needs to be made is to move closer to a theory of learning and self-development which can more systematically guide the design, selection and evaluation of seminar components. 366 Conclusion The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a short-term executive education seminar as one method for developing executive leadership in the urban community. Research evaluation results showed the seminar was successful in stimulating attitude and value change among participants on a broad range of indicators related to self-renewal and effective leadership. These results justify a major effort in research and experimentation to further explore the potential of this applied behavioral strategy for renewal of institutional leadership. The study also demonstrates a need to know more about the concept of self-renewal and the values, atti tudes and behavior which underlie effective executive leadership in periods of dramatic change. So few studies bear on this subject that developing a seminar to meet these needs is an heuristic endeavor at best. The necessity for this applied research effort is immediate. Experience is proving that the desperate need for improved problem-solving methods in society can not be met with structural changes alone. Administrative reorganizations, urban coalitions, community boards and 367 regional planning agencies, for example, are all important steps to achieve more efficiency and improve coordination of institutional and community resources in solving urban problems. But so often the results are disappointing. Carefully-designed reorganizations become painful and costly because status and position are threatened, infor mal communication and influence patterns are disrupted and routines and methods are replaced causing conflict, disorganization and inefficiency. Coalitions and commu nity boards are created on the lofty ideals of represen tation and participation in solving mutual problems but fail from the twin evils of mistrust and selfish protec tion of vested interests. Regional planning organizations are established to bring order to growth and development but instead become innocuous advisors and supernumerary staff to local jurisdictions who are unwilling to allocate responsibility and resources to an agency which may be unresponsive to their local interests and needs. In these examples as with many of the programs designed in response to the urban crisis, the major limitation is the human factor. 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The Executive Role Constellation: An Analysis of Personality and Role Relations in Management. Boston: Harvard University, Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Adminis tration, 1965. 375 Hoffer, Eric. The True Believer. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951. Hovland, Carl I.; Irwin Li Janis; and Harole H. Kelly. Communication and Persuasion: Psychological Studies of Opinion Change. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953. ________; Arthur A. Lumsdaine; and Fred 0. Sheffield. Experiments on Mass Communication. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949. Hunter, Floyd. Community Power Structure. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953. Hyman, Herbert H.; Charles R. Wright; and Terrence K. Hopkins. Applications of Methods of Evaluation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962. Insko, Chester A. Theories of Attitude Change. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967. Johoda, Marie. Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1958. Kahn, Robert L.; Donald M. Wolfe; Robert P. Quinn; J. Dietrick Snoek; and Robert A. Rosenthal. Organ" izational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964. Kardiner, Abram and Lionel Ovesey. "On the Psychodynamics of the Negro Personality.1 1 The Self in Social Interaction, Vol. I: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives. Ed. by Chad Gordon and Kenneth J. Gergen. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968. Katz, Daniel and Robert L. Kahn. The Social Psychology of Organization. New York: John Wiley and Sons, i Inc., 1966. i j j Koestler, Arthur. The Act of Creation. New York: The j Macmillan Co., 1964. 376 Kohn, Vera. An Assessment of Participants1 Reactions to Management Development Meetings. New York: American Foundation for Management Research, Inc., 1968. Lazarsfeld, Paul F. and Milton J. Rosenberg, eds. The Language of Social Research. Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1955. Leavitt, Harold J. "Applied Organizational Change in Industry: Structural, Technological and Human istic Approaches." Handbook of Organizations. Ed. by James G. March. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1965. Levinson, Harry. The Exceptional Executive: A Psycho logical Conception. Cambridge: Harvard Univer sity Press, 1968. Likert, Rensis. New Patterns of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961. Lippitt, Ronald; Jeanne Watson; and Bruce Westley. The Dynamics of Planned Change. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1958. Lippitt, Robert. Training in Community Relations * New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1949. Lloyd, Kent; Kendall 0. Price; V. D. Merrell; and Ellsworth E. Johnson. The Church Executive. Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, Inc., 1967. Lynton, Rolf P. and Udai Pareek. Training for Develop ment. Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1967. MacKinnon, Donald W. "The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent." Readings in Managerial Psychology. Ed. by Harold J. Leavitt and Louis R. Pondy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. 377 Maier, Norman R. F. and John J. Hayes. Creative Manage ment. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962. _______ . Principles of Human Relations. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1952. Marris, Peter and Martin Rein. Dilemmas of Social Reform. New York: Atherton Press, 19 67. Marrow, Alfred J.; David G. Bowers; and Stanley E. Seashore. Management by Participation: Creating - a Climate for Personal and Organizational Develop ment. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1967. Maslow, Abraham H. Eupsychian Management. Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1965. ________. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 19 54. ________ . “Self-Actualization and Beyond." Challenges of Humanistic Psychology. Ed. by James F. T. Bugental. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967. Massie, Joseph L. "Management Theory." Handbook of Organizations. Ed. by James G. March. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1965. Mayo, Elton. The Human Problems of an Industrial Civili zation. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933. McClelland, David C.; J. W. Atkinson; R. A. Clark; and E. E. Lowell. The Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953. ________ . The Achieving Society. New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1961. McGregor, Douglas. Leadership and Motivation. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1966. i t ________ . The Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1960. 378 McLemore, S. Dale and Richard L. Hill. Management- Training Effectiveness: A Study of Nurse Managers. Texas: Bureau of Business Research, The University of Texas, 1965. Mills, C. Wright. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956. Moynihan, Daniel P. Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding. New York: The Free Press, 1959. Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma. New York: Harper and Row, Inc., 1944. Otto, Herbert A., ed. Explorations in Human Potentiali ties . Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1966. Parker, Treadway C. The Anatomy of Organization Develop ment. New York: American Foundation for Manage ment Research, Inc., 1968. Planty, Earl G. and J. Thomas Freeston. Developing Management Ability. New York: Ronald Press, 1954. Porter, Lyman W. and Edward E. Lawler, III. Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968. Presthus, Robert. Men at the Top: A Study in Community Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964. ________ . The Organizational Society. New York: Allred A. Knopf, 19 62. Reisman, David. Selected Essays from Individualism Reconsidered. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1954. Riecken, Henry W. The Volunteer Work Camp: A Psychologi cal Evaluation. Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Press, Inc., 1952. 379 Rokeach, Milton R. Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968. ________ . The Open and Closed Mind: Investigations into the Nature of Belief Systems and Personality Systems. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960. Rosenberg, Milton J. and Robert P. Abelson. "An Analysis of Cognitive Balancing." Attitude Organization and Change. Ed. by Carl I. Hovland and Milton J. Rosenberg. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960. Schachtel, Ernest G. Metamorphosis: On Development of Affect, Perception, Attention and Memory. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1959. Schein, Edgar H. Organizational Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965. ________ and Warren G. Bennis, eds. Personal and Organ izational Change Through Group Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967. ____ and ________ . Personal and Organizational Change Through Group Methods: The Laboratory Approach. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 19 65. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. The Crisis of Confidence: Ideas, Power and Violence in America. New York! Houghton Mifflin, 1969. Schutz, William C. Joy: Expanding Human Awareness. New York: The Grove Press, Inc., 1967. ________. FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Inter personal Behavior. New York: Rinehart and Co., Inc., 1958. Severin, Frank T. Humanistic Viewpoints in Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965. Shostrom, Everett L. Manual, Personal Orientation Inven tory: An Inventory for the Measurement of Self- Actualization. San Diego: Educational and ________ Industrial Testing Service, 1966._________________ 380 Siegel, Sidney. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behav ioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1956. Simon, Herbert. Administrative Behavior. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1961. Smith, Mortimer B.; Jerome S. Bruner; and Robert W. White. Opinions and Personality. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956. Stogdill, Ralph M. and Carroll L. Shartle. Methods in the Study of Administrative Leadership. Bureau of Business Research, Research Monograph No. 80. Ohio State University, 1955. Szasz, Thomas S. "Moral Man: A Model of Man for Humanis tic Psychology." Challenges of Humanistic Psy chology. Ed. by James F. T. Bugental. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967. Tannenbaum, Robert; Irving R. Weschler; and Fred Massarik. Leadership and Organization: A Behavioral Science Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1961. Taylor, Frederick W. The Principles of Scientific Manage ment. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1911. Vroom, Victor H. Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1960. Wilson, James Q. Negro Politics: The Search for Leader ship. New York: The Free Press, 1960. Zaleznik, Abraham and David Moment. The Dynamics of Interpersonal Behavior. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1964. Zalkind, Sheldon S. and Timothy W. Costello. "Perception: Implications for Administration." Readings in Managerial Psychology. Ed. by Harold J. Leavitt and Louis R. Pondy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Pages 32-47. 381 Publications of the Government, Learned Societies, and Other Organizations Gardner, John. "The Anti-Leadership Vaccine." Annual Report (reprint). Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1965. Handyside, John D. "An Experiment with Supervisory Training." National Institute of Industrial Psychology Report, No. 12 (1956). Johnson, Ellsworth E.; Kendall 0. Price; and Kent Lloyd. Police Training in a Changing Society: Report of the 5th, 6th, and 7th Police Administration Institute for U.S. Air Force Security Police Officers. No. 9. Los Angeles, Calif.: Center for Training and Career Development, Civic Center Campus, University of Southern California, 1967. ________ ; ________ ; ________ ; and Richard Amador, eds. LaCausa: Executive Leadership Development for Mexican-American Professionals. A Summary Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York by PEDR Urban Associates and the Institute of Executive Training, 1970. Lloyd, Kent; Kendall 0. Price; Ellsworth E. Johnson; and William J. Williams. Planned Community Develop ment Through Executive Leadership Seminars: A Pilot Project in University-Urban Intergroup Relations in Los Angeles. Los Angeles: School of Public Administration, University of Southern California, 1967. PEDR Urban Associates. Redressing the Balance: Urban Executive Leadership Education for Black Profes sionals . Final Report, Carnegie Corporation of New York. Inglewood, California, 19 69. 382 Platt Report: Issues in Management Education. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop ment, 1963. Price, Kendall 0. and Kent Lloyd. Improving Police- Community Relations through Leadership Training: A Behavioral Science Approach. Inglewood, Calif.: PEDR Urban Associates, 1967. ________ ? ; Ellsworth E. Johnson; and Melvin LeBaron. Air Force Police Management: Profes sional Education and Field Studies. Los Angeles: Center for Training and Career Development, Civic Center Campus, the University of Southern California, 19 66. Stewart, Ward and John C. Honey. University Sponsored Executive Development Programs in the Public Service. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966.' Sherwood, John J. "Self-Report and Projective Measures of Achievement and Affiliation." Institute Paper No. 110. Institute for Research in the Behavioral, Economic, and Management Sciences, Herman C. Krannert Graduate School of Industrial Adminis tration, Purdue University. The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1968. (The abbreviated name of the Commission, following traditional patterns, is taken from its chairman, Governor Otto Kerner of Illinois.) U.S. Civil Service Commission. Annual Report. Washing ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1949- 383 Whyte, William P. "Leadership and Group Participation-" Bulletin No. 24. New York State School of Indus trial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, May 1953. Articles and Periodicals Abbatiello, Aurelius A. "An Objective Evaluation of Attitude Change in Training." Training and Development Journal, XXI, No. 11 (November 1967) 23-34. Asquith, Ronald H. and Dalva E. Hedlund. "Laboratory Training and Supervisory Attitudes." Psychologi cal Reports, XX, No. 2 (April 1967), 618. Bartlett, Alton C. "Changing Behavior as a Means to Increased Efficiency." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 3:4 (1967), 381-403. Bass, Bernard M. "Reactions to Twelve Angry Men as a Measure of Sensitivity Training." Journal of Applied Psychology, XLVI, No. 2 (April 1962), 120-124. Baum, Bernard H.; Peter F. Sorensen, Jr.; and William S. Place. "Organizational Effects of Supervisory Human Relations Training: An Evaluation Tech nique." Personnel Journal, XLV, No. 3 (March 1966) , 148-152. Bell, Daniel. "Securing Leaders in a Democracy." Commentary, 5:4 (April 1948), 375. Benne, Kenneth D. and Paul Sheats. "Functional Roles of Group Members." Journal of Social Issues, 4:2 (Spring 1948), 42-57. 384 Blake, Robert R. and Jane S. Mouton. "Some Effects of Managerial Grid Seminar Training on Union and Management Attitudes toward Supervision." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, II, No. 4 (October- December 1966), 387-400. L, B. Barnes; and L. E. Greiner. "Breakthrough in Organization Development." Harvard Business Review, XLII, No. 6 (November- December 1964), 133-155. Blemenfeld, Warren S. "Attitude Change as a Criteria in Training." Training and Development Journal, 20:9 (October 1966), 26-31. Buchanan, Paul C. and Philip H. Brunstetter. "A Research Approach to Management Improvement: II. Method ology and Results of Evaluation." Journal of the American Society of Training Directors, XIII, No. 2 (February 1959), 18-27. Bunker, Douglas R. and Eric S. Knowles. "Comparison of Behavioral Changes Resulting from Human Relations Training Laboratories of Different Lengths." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, III, No. 4 (October-December 1967) , 505-524'. Cantril, Hadley. "Perception and Interpersonal Rela tions." American Journal of Psychiatry, CXIV, No. 2 (August 1957), 119-26. Carron, Theodore J. "Human Relations Training and Atti tude Change: A Vector Analysis." Personnel Psychology, XVII, No. 4 (Winter 1964), 403-424. Catalanello, Ralph F. and Donald L. Kirkpatrick. "Evaluating Training Programs— The State of the Art." Training and Development Journal, 22:5 (May 1968), 2-9. Easton, David. "The New Revolution in Political Science." American Political Science Review, LXIII, No. 4 (December 1969), 1052. 385 Felker, Donald W. and Phillip G. Smith. "The Measurement of Philosophic Mindedness of Flexibility." Indiana School of Education Bulletin, XLII, No. 1 (January 1966), 1-138. Friedlander, Frank. "A Comparative Study of Consulting Processes and Group Development." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, IV, No. 4 (October- Decerober 1968), 377-399. ________ * "The Impact of Organizational Training Labora tories Upon the Effectiveness and Interaction of Ongoing Groups." Personal Psychology, 20:3 (Autumn 1967), 289-308. Gade, E. M. and W. R. Weir. "The Use of a Measure of Self-Actualization in the Outpatient Treatment of Alcoholics and Their Spouses." Journal of Alcohol Studies (in press). Gibb, Jack. "Defensive Communication." ETC.t A Review of General Semantics, XXII, No. 2 (June 1965) , 221-231. Golembiewski, Robert T. and Arthur Blumberg. "Confronta tion as a Training Design in Complex Organiza tions: Attitudinal Changes in a Diversified Population of Managers.1 1 Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, III, No. 4 (October-December 1967), 525-547. Gruenfeld, Leopold W. "Management Development Effect on Changes in Values.1 1 Training and Development Journal, XX, No. 6 (June 1966), 18-26. Harmon, Francis L. and Albert S. Glickman. "Managerial Training: Reinforcement Through Evaluation.1 1 Public Personnel Review, XVI, No. 4 (October 1965), 194— 98. Harrison, Roger. "Cognitive Change and Participation in a Sensitivity Training Laboratory." Journal of Consulting Psychology, XXX, No. 6 (December 1966), 517-520. 386 Henry, William E. "Psychodynamics of the Executive Role." American Journal of Sociology, 54:4 (January 1949), 286-291. j Hillman, Harry A. "Measuring Management Training— A Case Study." Journal of the American Society of Training Directors, XVI, No. 3 (March 1962) , 27-31. Hoffer, Eric. "Negroes' Greatest Need: Pride." Los Angeles Times. Syndicated column appearing January 21, 1968. House, Robert J. "Managerial Reactions to Two Methods of Management Training." Personnel Psychology, XVIII, No. 3 (Autumn 1965), 311-319. _________ and Henry Tosi. "An Experimental Evaluation of a Management Training Program." Academy of Management Journal, VI, No. 4 (December 1963) , 303-315. Hunt, J. G. "Another Look at Human Relations Training." Training and Development Journal, 22:2 (1968) , 2-10. Ilardi, Robert L. and W. Theodore May. "A Reliability Study of Shostrom's Personal Orientation Inven tory." Journal of Humanistic Psychology, VIII, No. 1 (Spring 1968), 68-78. Irwin, Patrick N. and Frank W. Langham, Jr. "The Change Seekers." Harvard Business Review, 44:1 (January- February 1968), 81. Kallen, Arthur D. "Training in the Federal Service— 170 Years to Accept." Public Administration Review, IXX, No. 1 (Winter 1959), 36-46. Katz, Daniel. "The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes." Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, No. 2 (Summer 1960), 163-204. 387 Kelman, Herbert C. "Compliance, Identification and Internalization: Three Processes of Attitude Change." Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2:1 {March 1958), 51-60. Lawshe, C. H.; Robert A. Bolda; and R. L. Brune. "Studies in Management Training Evaluation: II. The Effects of Exposures to Role Playing." Journal of Applied Psychology, XLIII, Mo. 5 (October 1959), 287-292. Mahoney, Thomas A. "Evaluation of Training Personnel." Personnel Journal, XXXVIII, No. 9 (February I960), 344-45. ________; Thomas H. Jerdee; and Abraham Korman. "An Experimental Evaluation of Management Development." Personnel Psychology, XIII, No. 1 (Spring 1960) , 81-98. McClelland, David. "Business Drive and National Achieve ment." Harvard Business Review, XL, No. 4 (July-August 1962), 99-112. McGuire, William J. "Cognitive Consistency and Attitude Change.1 1 Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 60:3 (May 1960), 345-353. Miles, Matthew B. "Changes During and Following Labora tory Training: A Clinical Experimental Study." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1:3 (July- September 1965) , 215. ________ . "Human Relations Training: Processes and Outcomes." Journal of Counseling Psychology, VII, No. 4 (1960), 301-306. Myers, Scott, "who Are Your Motivated Workers." Harvard Business Review, 42 (January-February 1964), 73-89. 388 Oshry, Barry I. and Roger Harrison. "Transfer from Here- and-Now to There-and-Then: Changes in Organiza tional Problem Diagnosis Stemming from T-Group Training." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, II, No. 2 (April-June 1966), 185-198, Pellegrin, Roland J. and Charles H. Coates. "Executives and Supervisors: Contrasting Definition of Career Success." Administrative Science Quarterly (March 1957), pp. 506-517. Porter, Lyman and Edwin E. Ghiselli. "The Self-Percep tions of Top and Middle Management Personnel." Personnel Psychology, 10:4 (Winter 1957), 400-402. Ridley, Dennis R. and Robert C. Birney. "Effects of Training Procedures on Creativity Test Scores." Journal of Educational Psychology, 58:3 (June 1967), 158-164. Rokeach, Milton R. and Gordon Rothman. "The Principle of Belief Congruence and the Congruity Principle as Models of Cognition Interaction." Psychologi cal Review, LXXII, No. 2 (March 1965), 128-172. Schein, Edgar A. "Attitude Change During Management Education: A Study of Organizational Influences of Student Attitudes." Administrative Science Quarterly, 11:4 (March 1967), 601-628. Schutz, William and Vernon L. Allen. "The Effects of a T-Group Laboratory on Interpersonal Behavior." Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, II, No. 3 (July-August 1966), 265-286. Schwarz, Fred C.; William P. Stilwell; and Burt K. Scanlan. "Effects of Management Development on Manager Behavior and Subordinate Perception." Training and Development Journal, 22:4 (April 1968), 38-50. 389 Scott, William G. "Organization Government: The Pros pects for a Truly Participative System." Public Administration Review, 29:1 (January-February 1969),.44. Seeman, Melvin and John W. Evans. "Stratification and Hospital Care: II. The Objective Criteria of Performance." American Sociological Review, XXVI, No. 2 (April 1961), 193-204. Sheriff, Don R. and James D. Benson. "Executive Develop ment: Planning and Organizing a University Sponsored Program." Training Directors Journal, XIX, No. 11 (November 1965), 24-29. Shostrom, Everett L. and Robert R. Knapp. "The Relation ship of a Measure of Pathology MMPI to Therapeutic Growth." American Journal of Psychotherapy, 20:1 (January 1966), 193-202. Slocum, John W., Jr. "Sensitivity and Self-Awareness Changes: An Empirical Investigation." Training and Development Journal, XXXI, No. 9 (September 1968), 38-47. Stogdill, Ralph M. and Ellis L. Scott. "How Does Top Management's Conception of Its Own Responsibility and Authority Influence Behavior Down the Line?" Industrial Relations News (June 8, 1957), pp. 1-2. Tarnopol, Lester. "Training Supervisors by 'Feedback,'" Personnel Journal, XXXVI, No. 3 (July-August 1957) , 92-96. This, Leslie E. and Gordon L. Lippitt. "Learning Theories and Training." Training and Development Journal, 20:4 (April 1966), 2-11. ________ and_________ . "Learning Theories and Training." Training and Development Journal, 20:5 (May 1966), 10-17. 390 Valiquet, Michael I. "Individual Change in a Management Development Program." Journal of Applied Behav ioral Science, 4:3 (1968), 313-25. Viteles, M. S. "'Human Relations' and 'Humanities' in the Education of Business Leaders: Evaluation of a Program of Humanistic Studies for Executives." Personnel Psychology, XII, No. 1 (Spring 1959), 1-28. Wilcox, Herbert G. "Hierarchy, Human Nature and the Participative Panacea." Public Administration Review, 29:1 (January-February 1969), 53-64. Wilson, John E.; Donald P. Mullen; and Robert Morton. "Sensitivity Training for Individual Growth: Team Training for Organizational Development?" Training and Development Journal, XXII, No. 1 (January 1968), 47-53. Zaccaria, J. S. and Weir, W. R. "A Comparison of Alcohol ics and Selected Samples of Nonalcoholics in Terms of a Positive Concept of Mental Health." Journal of Social Psychology (in press). Unpublished Materials Croft, John C. "Change in Flexibility and Supervisory Attitudes of.Educational Administrators." Paper written for the Canadian Council for Research in Education, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg (June 10, 19 67). Mimeographed. Fox, J. "On the Clinical Use of the Personal Orienta tion Inventory (POI)." Mimeographed report, 1965. Hariton, Ted. "Conditions Influencing the Effects of Training Foremen in Human Relations Principles." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1951. 391 Lloyd, Kent. "Solving an American Dilemma: The Role of the State Civil Rights Official." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1963. Merrell, V. Dallas. "Executive Development: An Overview and Critique of Executive Development Activity, Contents and Training Methods." Unpublished paper, 1967. Murray, M. E. "An Exploration of the Relationship of Self-Actualization to Teacher Success." Unpub lished Master's thesis, Pennsylvania State University, 19 6 6. Tyler, B. B. "A Study of Factors Contributing to Employee Morale." Unpublished Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1949. Other Sources Benne, Kenneth. From remarks given at a theory session of the National Training Laboratories for School Executives (July-August 1961, Washington, D.C.). Quoted in Lynton and Pareek, Training for Develop ment, p. 300. APPENDICES 392 APPENDIX A ADVISORY COMMITTEE Baltimore Scott, J.D. Executive Secretary, Advisory Committee Administrative Associate Management Council Richard Allen, President American Tape Duplicator Sigmund Arywitz, Executive Secretary-Treasurer Los Angeles County Federation of Labor AFL-CIO The Honorable Thomas Bradley Los Angeles City Councilman The Honorable Yvonne Brathwaite, Assemblywoman 63rd District, California Herbert Carter, Executive Director Los Angeles County Human Relations Commission The Honorable Mervyn Dymally, Senator 29th District, California i The Honorable Robert H. Finch Lieutenant Governor of California George Foos, Executive Vice President Merchandising and Sales Promotion May Company Robert Gordon, President Los Angeles Area Chamber of Commerce Executive Vice President Bank of America 393 394 Al Hampton, President Family Savings and Loan Association The Honorable Augustus Hawkins United States Congressman, 21st District, California Tom Hawkins, Executive Vice President Bishop/Hawkins & Associates, Inc. Los Angeles Lakers Norman Hodges, President Green Power Foundation, Inc. Rev. James E. Jones, President Los Angeles City Board of Education Robert Jones, Executive Director National Conference of Christians and Jews Chairman, Southern California Chapter NAIRO Louis J. Johnson, Principal Jefferson High School The Honorable Gilbert Lindsay Los Angeles City Councilman Kent Lloyd, Ph.D. President, PEDR Corporation | Larry Lucks, Southern Regional Director California State Fair Employment Practices Commission Ella Kay Mays, Secretary Board of Directors Greater Los Angeles Urban League Horace Mays, D.D. Executive Director Los Angeles Council of Churches The Honorable Ross Miller, M.D. Compton City Councilman 395 The Honorable Billy Mills Los Angeles City Councilman Victor Palmieri, LL.B. Advisor, Institute of Government and Public Affairs University of California at Los Angeles Kendall 0. Price, Ph.D. Executive Vice President, PEDR Corporation The Honorable Leon Ralph, Assemblyman 55th District, California Thomas Sheridan, Attorney at Law Former Executive Director, McCone Commission The Honorable Vaino Spencer, Judge Los Angeles Municipal Court Frank L. Stanley, Jr., Ed.D. Executive Director Greater Los Angeles Urban League Billy J. Tidwell, M.S.W. Advisor for the Sons of Watts Ed Tillmon, President Bank of Finance The Honorable Jesse M. Unruh Speaker of the Assembly, California State Legislature Leon Waley, Executive Director Los Angeles City Human Relations Bureau William J. Williams, D.P.A. Assistant Professor, School of Public Administration University of Southern California Charles Wilson, Ph.D. Vice Chancellor, University of California at Los Angeles 396 Charles Wilson, Ph.D. Vice Chancellor University of California at Los Angeles Leon Woods, General Manager Watts Manufacturing Benjamin N. Wyatt, J.D. Attorney at Law APPENDIX B Application Form (Sample) 1. Name 2. Birthplace and where raised as a child 3. Marital status and number of children 4. Address 5. Telephone 6. Age 7. How long have you been a resident of the greater Los Angeles area? 8. Present occupational position and job title A. Name of organization B. Years in this position C. Brief job description 9. Previous supervisory, management or leadership positions held. 10. What are your two most well developed skills? 11. Education A. Present degree(s) held. B. Colleges or universities attended. C. Field(s) of study and years Bachelor; Master's; Doctorate; Others D. Indicate the name and address of the universities you have requested to send transcripts to the i Project Office. Indicate here ( ) if the request j was.made prior to August 19. 12. List the four or five values or ethical beliefs which you consider the most important to your philosophy of life. What were the. major sources of these values j or beliefs? 113. In two or three sentences, briefly describe your view ! of the urban crisis in America. 14. What is the role of Black leadership in the future of Los Angeles? 397 398 15. List the two or three most important religious, social, fraternal, political or professional groups or organizations you belong to and enjoy participat ing in the most. 16. In order of preference list three of your hobbies or interests. 17. What three or four magazines do you read regularly? 18. Which two or three books have you read in the past year that were most meaningful to you? 19. What are your two or three major occupational objectives in the next year? Next five years? Next ten years? 20. What important community problems have you per sonally worked on during the last year and a half? 21. In not more than three sentences briefly describe yourself as you see yourself. 22. Briefly indicate why you would like to participate in this program. 23. List the names, titles and telephone numbers of the three people whom you are asking to write letters of recommendation for you. 24. "If I am selected for this program, I will attend all seminar sessions unless excused because of an emergency, and will complete all reasonable assign ments to the best of my ability." (Your signature) (Date) Application should be in Project office by Monday, August 19th PEDR Urban Executive Leadership Program Seminar I Suite 303 3311 West Manchester Blvd. Inglewood, California 90305 APPENDIX C POSITION AND ORGANIZATIONAL AFFILIATION OF EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Experimental Group Employment Representative, McDonnell Douglas Corporation Assistant Director, Long Beach Unified School District Director, Social Service, Westminster Neighborhood Asso ciation , Inc. Home Economics Teacher, Los Angeles District Attorney, District Attorney's Office, County of Los Angeles President, Cunningham and Short Associates OJT Coordinator-Supervisor, U.S. Equal Employment Oppor tunity Commission Supervisor, Production, Lever Brothers Co. Lieutenant, Los Angeles Police Department Job Development Supervisor, Step, Inc.— YTEP Member, Professional Staff, TRW Systems Group Medical Doctor Secretary, Greater Los Angeles Urban League Administrative Director, Kedren Community Mental Health Center 399 400 Savings Section Head, California Federal Savings and Loan Association Intergroup Relations Specialist, San Diego State College Executive Vice President, Employment Research Bureau Manager, Watts Federal Credit Union Elementary School Teacher, Raymond Avenue School Control Group Community Resource Development, Delta Head Start Program Social Work Consultant, Crippled Children's Society Master Teacher, Enterprise City Schools School Teacher, Enterprise City Schools Employment Representative, Mattel, Inc. Operations Manager, American Tape Duplicators President, Family Savings and Loan Senior Design Engineer, Northrop Corporation, Norair Div. ! Programmer, Burroughs Corporation j Wage and Salary Specialist, Hughes Aircraft ! Principal, Jefferson High School Vice Principal, Jordan High School Price/Cost Analyst, TRW Systems Wage and Salary Technician, Lockheed Aircraft Company Assistant City Manager, City of Inglewood 401 Social Worker, YWCA, etc. District Supervisor, L. A. City Department of Recreation Personnel Manager, Watts Manufacturing Director, Special Services, ABC-TV Assistant District Supervisor, L. A. City Department of Recreation APPENDIX D BOOKS AND ARTICLES DISTRIBUTED TO PARTICIPANTS Anderson, Desmond L.; Lloyd, Kent M.; and Price, Kendall 0. "Crisis in Education of American Public Execu tives ." International Review of Administrative Sciences, XXXII, No. 2 (1966), 145-152. Clark, Kenneth B. Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1965. Corrigan, Robert W., ed. Sophocles. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1965. Drucker, Peter F. The Effective Executive. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1967. Flory, Charles D., ed. Managers for Tomorrow. New York: The New American Library, 1967. Fortas, Abe. Concerning Dissent and Civil Disobedience. New York: The New American Library, 1968. Gardner, John W. "The Anti-leadership Vaccine," a reprint from The 1965 Annual Report of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. New York: The Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1965. ________. Self-Renewal. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1964. Grier, William H. and Cobbs, Price M. Black Rage. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1968. Leavitt, Harold J. Managerial Psychology. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. 402 403 Lloyd, Kent. "The Community Response to Urban Race Riots." The Educational Forum, November 1967, pp. 19-25. ________ . "Solving an American Dilemma." Personnel Administration, May-June 1967, pp. 38-53. The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. New York: The New York Times Company, 1968. "The Negro in America: What Must Be Done." Newsweek, November 20, 1967. Ruder and Finn, Inc. Conference Room Quotations and Sculptures. New York: The Publication Section, Inc. APPENDIX E PRETEST-POSTTEST AND FOLLOW-UP TEST SCORES ON EVALUATION INSTRUMENTS FOR EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP MEMBERS 404 GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS FOR SCALES IN APPENDIX E Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) I— Inner-Directed SAV— Self-Actualizing Value Ex— Existentiality Fr— Feeling Reactivity S— Spontaneity Sr— Self-Regard Sa— Self-Acceptance Nc— Nature of Man— Constructive Sy— Synergy A— Acceptance of Aggression C— Capacity for Intimate Contact Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) S— Support C— Conformity R— Recognition I— Independence B— Benevolence L— Leadership Gordon Personal Inventory (GPI) C— Cautiousness 0— Original Thinking P— Personal Relations V— Vigor Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientations- (FIRO-B) el— expressed Inclusion wl— wanted Inclusion eA— expressed Affection wA— wanted Affection 405 406 FIRO-B (Continued) eC— expressed Control wC— wanted Control D— Dogmatism Scale HGP-L— Leadership Scale by Haire, Ghisell and Porter vAch— Self-Report Achievement Motivation Scale APPENDIX E-l EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE SCORES ON THE PERSONAL ORIENTATION INVENTORY No. I SAV Ex Fr S Sr Sa Nc Sy A C 1 80 19 18 16 11 15 14 9 7 18 16 2 100 22 27 19 11 15 20 15 9 19 21 3 73 18 16 12 11 14 12 12 7 11 16 4 87 17 23 17 11 8 18 11 7 17 24 5 96 24 25 19 13' 13 16 13 9 21 23 6 79 22 14 19 11 11 13 10 8 19 17 7 84 18 22 21 10 11 11 13 5 18 21 8 86 24 22 15 12 15 16 11 8 20 20 9 97 23 23 16 17 16 19 12 7 16 20 10 95 22 21 18 14 16 17 15 8 18 20 11 100 22 23 20 17 14 19 14 6 20 23 12 75 22 18 15 10 9 11 12 8 15 17 13 67 16 15 7 9 9 10 14 6 9 13 14 93 21 21 17 14 14 19 13 6 16 19 15 86 8 27 14 13 10 23 7 4 18 24 16 78 24 16 16 11 12 9 15 9 16 16 17 103 25 28 17 17 14 22 13 9 20 21 18 94 22 23 18 12 14 21 12 7 16 22 19 96 23 21 19 12 14 20 14 8 22 20 20 97 22 20 21 15 13 19 13 7 22 20 NOTE: The identification number is consistent for each experimental group member on all tables. ^ There are discrepancies, however, in identification numbers for control group members. o APPENDIX E-2 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEMBER AETER SCORES ON THE PERSONAL ORIENTATION INVENTORY No. I SAV Ex Fr S Sr Sa Nc Sy A C 1 97 21 21 16 13 15 20 13 8 21 21 2 96 22 22 20 10 15 17 14 9 17 22 3 75 19 15 12 12 14 11 12 6 11 16 4 91 19 23 20 13 10 21 11 7 19 23 5 92 21 25 18 12 15 21 16 8 18 24 6 89 23 15 20 12 14 14 14 7 20 19 7 80 23 15 13 11 14 14 14 7 14 15 S 95 25 22 18 12 13 20 13 8 21 21 9 95 23 23 16 16 16 19 15 8 14 21 10 96 25 23 17 14 16 16 13 9 18 24 11 103 21 21 19 16 14 21 15 6 16 24 12 86 24 21 16 14 13 18 11 8 19 17 13 80 19 14 15 12 13 14 13 7 19 19 14 87 17 23 17 12 10 20 11 7 17 22 15 104 21 27 18 13 14 25 13 8 22 26 16 99 24 25 17 12 14 21 13 9 19 20 17 103 25 25 18 13 15 22 14 9 19 22 18 93 20 19 20 12 13 21 13 6 20 21 19 89 24 18 19 14 12 15 14 9 20 20 20 92 19 24 14 15 14 23 9 4 15 21 >> o 00 APPENDIX E-3 CONTROL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE SCORES ON THE PERSONAL ORIENTATION INVENTORY No. I SAV Ex Fr S Sr Sa Nc Sy A C 1 90 21 25 15 15 11 19 10 8 18 19 2 99 24 25 18 15 14 19 13 9 20 24 3 79 20 21 16 10 13 17 12 6 16 16 4 102 24 22 20 16 16 19 14 8 20 21 5 79 19 17 14 . 12 13 12 12 6 16 16 6 96 21 - 22 20 16 16 17 12 8 23 22 7 77 19 18 16 13 13 11 12 5 13 15 8 90 21 20 17 14 13 15 15 8 17 21 9 94 21 22 20 14 14 17 10 7 21 22 10 83 21 22 14 12 13 14 14 7 17 16 11 100 21 24 17 1^ 13 18 15 7 18 19 12 81 19 21 15 10 10 20 10 7 15 14 13 94 21 21 19 13 14 22 12 8 20 21 14 95 17 27 20 14 13 20 11 6 17 24 15 76 22 15 14 10 13 16 11 9 14 16 16 89 22 23 14 14 13 20 13 7 18 18 17 78 23 18 14 11 14 11 14 8 10 17 18 96 22 24 14 13 15 20 13 8 17 20 19 85 23 15 19 12 12 17 11 7 20 20 o VO Y- t APPENDIX E-4 CONTROL GROUP MEMBER AFTER SCORES ON THE PERSONAL ORIENTATION INVENTORY No. I SAV Ex Fr S Sr Sa Nc sy A C 1 95 18 27 18 15 13 18 9 6 18 26 2 95 24 20 17 15 14 17 13 9 20 22 3 86 20 16 14 10 14 19 11 8 19 18 4 103 23 25 19 17 15 20 13 8 19 6 5 79 20 18 17 12 14 15 13 8 17 17 6 90 21 22 20 15 13 13 9 9 21 21 7 87 20 17 17 11 15 18 19 7 12 16 8 91 22 17 17 14 17 19 13 7 18 17 9 92 22 23 21 12 11 16 11 9 21 22 10 94 23 25 17 14 14 20 12 8 18 21 11 102 24 25 20 18 13 18 14 9 21 17 12 81 21 17 15 10 14 15 13 7 18 15 13 103 23 25 21 14 15 18 13 8 20 22 14 99 20 28 18 13 15 21 13 7 20 25 15 77 18 19 15 9 12 15 10 9 18 21 16 92 22 20 17 14 2 21 12 6 19 18 17 64 22 16 9 9 15 9 11 7 7 8 18 91 23 23 16 12 12 20 13 9 18 20 19 89 22 22 16 13 15 17 12 8 19 22 I —1 O APPENDIX E-5 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE - AFTER SCORES ON THE SURVEY OF INTERPERSONAL VALUES No. S C BEFORE R I B L S C AFTER R I B L 1 2 14 10 8 25 20 13 17 7 8 20 18 20 3 — — — — — — — — — — — — 4 18 9 3 16 29 15 15 5 5 16 23 26 5 10 2 7 26 16 29 5 8 6 25 20 31 6 10 8 11 16 20 25 8 6 9 23 19 25 7 14 5 13 27 3 28 15 . 8 17 10 11 29 8 19 13 12 13 26 7 22 8 11 17 25 7 9 11 8 14 5 22 28 13 15 12 3 19 26 10 17 8 8 22 20 15 14 6 9 26 15 20 11 15 2 14 16 13 30 11 3 10 19 15 32 12 10 9 14 9 17 31 11 9 9 14 15 32 13 13 3 20 8 14 32 6 4 18 13 17 32 14 10 11 5 18 25 21 8 11 1 27 17 26 15 11 15 6 16 19 19 10 20 7 17 23 13 16 10 8 13 14 19 27 13 9 15 11 14 28 17 21 3 17 27 8 14 15 5 15 28 12 15 18 — — — — — — — — — — — — 19 16 9 15 12 19 19 8 6 9 23 19 25 20 13 17 6 21 15 18 9 16 6 22 16 21 ^ i —1 -----1 —L APPENDIX E-6 CONTROL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE - AFTER SCORES ON THE SURVEY OF INTERPERSONAL VALUES No. S C BEFORE R I B L S C AFTER R I B L 1 23 2 10 14 22 19 20 3 11 15 15 26 2 18 6 11 23 11 21 15 5 13 24 11 22 3 20 11 20 10 3 26 15 10 20 11 3 31 4 14 3 12 19 19 23 11 2 11 21 15 30 5 13 15 10 6 21 22 13 17 6 10 25 19 6 11 3 8 15 22 31 16 3 9 14 19 29 7 15 9 11 23 23 6 19 8 12 24 21 6 8 13 17 10 15 19 16 13 16 9 6 19 27 9 13 2 7 28 22 18 17 4 6 23 20 20 10 13 4 14 17 20 20 15 4 4 25 28 14 11 24 6 14 10 26 10 23 8 15 5 27 12 12 13 4 4 29 22 18 15 1 6 30 20 18 13 11 8 7 21 19 24 18 7 7 15 22 21 14 8 10 10 20 14 28 8 12 10 20 9 31 15 13 17 4 9 30 17 12 19 7 13 27 12 16 13 19 8 13 19 18 10 15 6 21 19 19 17 13 4 8 18 27 20 11 5 9 20 23 22 18 12 9 3 22 23 21 15 5 2 19 25 24 H to APPENDIX E-7 EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE - AFTER SCORES ON THE GORDON PERSONAL INVENTORY AFTER BEFORE No 31 32 31 21 24 38 28 31 30 32 31 21 32 31 11 28 13 21 21 35 36 20 27 18 18 32 APPENDIX E-8 CONTROL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE - AFTER SCORES ON THE GORDON PERSONAL INVENTORY No. C BEFORE 0 P V C AFTER 0 P V 1 25 37 30 28 22 36 25 25 2 27 35 28 30 22 34 27 35 3 30 25 25 28 30 28 19 27 4 20 33 24 35 21 25 28 34 5 26 23 26 31 29 24 20 31 6 23 37 18 33 23 38 17 32 7 24 35 32 27 21 37 29 31 8 26 30 29 33 20 32 30 30 9 21 21 27 33 22 36 25 32 10 19 33 25 31 22 36 25 32 11 23 37 24 28 23 36 23 34 12 22 25 25 27 26 22 27 23 13 26 30 25 29 25 31 18 27 14 21 30 33 32 23 30 33 30 15 35 28 26 26 26 27 32 27 16 17 26 24 31 13 26 25 28 17 18 28 34 32 19 21 25 31 } - > APPENDIX-9 i i EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE-AFTER SCORES ON THE FIRO-B No. el wl BEFORE eA wA eC wC el wl AFTER eA wA eC wC 1 4 3 3 1 9 2 3 0 2 0 4 1 2 5 0 3 5 3 4 4 0 3 5 7 3 3 6 3 6 6 2 2 7 1 5 5 0 3 4 8 5 4 6 0 3 6 1 5 5 1 3 3 S 4 1 * 1 4 3 6 0 2 0 6 3 6 7 9 8 9 9 2 7 4 4 5 9 1 7 7 4 1 5 7 7 8 7 5 9 7 8 8 6 4 8 8 5 7 5 0 4 2 3 6 9 8 9 5 4 4 4 7 3 4 1 3 2 10 3 0 2 4 5 4 3 0 3 6 2 3 11 4 6 3 8 9 6 2 2 3 5 9 5 12 5 4 5 1 8 6 5 0 3 1 9 8 13 8 9 9 8 9 1 9 5 9 9 9 1 14 6 0 2 0 4 4 3 0 4 0 0 6 15 3 4 1 4 6 4 5 0 3 3 3 4 16 2 6 3 0 9 5 2 0 0 0 7 3 17 6 6 3 7 1 4 6 7 5 7 0 3 18 5 0 2 1 8 3 6 0 2 0 4 2 19 9 0 2 5 5 3 9 3 3 4 4 4 20 3 0 1 0 9 4 2 0 1 0 7 5 i —1 in APPENDIX E-10 CONTROL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE-AFTER SCORES ON THE FIRO-B No. el wl BEFORE eA wA eC wC el wl AFTER eA wA eC wC 1 6 1 6 5 4 4 3 0 8 3 5 5 2 2 3 3 5 3 5 4 0 4 5 4 0 3 6 0 6 6 2 1 8 6 2 3 5 6 4 7 5 5 1 7 5 8 0 6 5 2 5 5 7 7 9 1 2 1 4 3 6 0 3 5 6 2 4 6 1 4 9 8 9 9 4 2 1 7 4 7 2 2 5 5 3 5 0 5 7 7 8 6 3 3 5 4 1 6 3 1 4 5 5 9 4 5 9 1 2 4 2 6 2 3 1 5 10 7 1 6 3 3 5 5 4 5 3 3 7 11 4 0 3 6 3 5 5 6 3 7 5 6 12 1 0 2 4 2 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 13 3 0 2 2 1 0 4 0 3 4 1 0 14 5 0 5 3 2 5 3 0 4 5 0 0 15 3 0 0 2 0 4 2 0 0 1 3 4 16 4 1 2 3 6 8 7 4 3 7 8 6 17 4 1 4 3 4 4 6 0 7 3 7 7 18 4 1 4 3 3 5 3 2 2 1 2 5 19 5 7 7 2 3 6 6 2 7 6 3 6 20 5 3 8 5 5 8 5 0 4 4 3 5 APPENDIX E-ll EXPERIMENTAL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE - AFTER SCORES ON DOGMATISM, HGP-L AND vAch SCALES BEFORE AFTER No. D HGP-L vAch D HGP-L vAct 1 150 19 11 150 24 13 2 126 35 14 144 36 15 3 211 24 3 195 21 9 4 130 24 18 137 26 19 5 141 29 21 171 32 18 6 121 30 20 141 31 21 7 174 30 17 148 29 21 S 141 30 14 145 31 15 9 142 28 21 148 31 21 10 117 30 13 109 32 18 11 170 23 16 136 26 18 12 172 27 17 171 29 20 13 182 26 17 168 22 20 14 162 24 9 151 28 11 15 64 27 15 114 30 13 16 181 23 18 195 26 19 17 141 24 18 167 22 19 18 126 26 18 145 32 19 19 121 35 16 119 31 10 20 136 28 15 131 32 14 417 APPENDIX E-12 CONTROL GROUP MEMBER BEFORE - AFTER SCORES ON DOGMATISM, HGP-L. AND vAch SCALES AFTER BEFORE vAch vAch No HGP-L HGP-L 175 137 121 158 132 131 144 158 147 145 139 167 161 149 147 175 105 134 135 102 138 155 152 141 123 125 170 170 30 138 128 136 153 157 123 123 141 173 160 22 21 32 co APPENDIX E-13 SUBGROUP FOLLOW-UP TEST SCORES ON THE PERSONAL ORIENTATION INVENTORY No. I SAV Ex Fr S Sr Sa Nc Sy A C 1 108 23 28 19 14 16 23 13 8 23 26 2 90 21 22 19 9 15 16 14 8 18 22 4 103 22 27 19 15 13 24 13 7 19 25 6 89 21 16 19 14 15 13 13 8 17 18 7 104 22 23 21 15 16 18 16 7 20 21 8 91 25 23 16 12 15 15 12 8 21 22 10 96 24 19 18 13 16 19 15 8 15 21 11 101 21 20 19 17 14 17 15 6 17 24 12 93 24 24 19 15 12 16 13 8 20 23 14 84 17 21 17 10 79 20 14 7 15 21 16 94 26 21 20 13 12 16 15 9 20 20 20 93 23 21 19 12 14 17 14 8 19 22 H VO APPENDIX E-14 SUBGROUP FOLLOW-UP BEFORE-AFTER SCORES ON THE FIRO-B AND vAch No. e! wl eA wA eC wC vAch 1 3 0 1 1 4 2 10 2 4 0 3 5 7 3 18 4 7 1 4 4 0 3 15 6 6 7 8 8 9 3 21 7 7 3 1 1 4 6 18 8 4 0 5 1 2 5 15 10 4 0 3 4 5 3 18 11 5 0 3 5 9 5 16 12 5 0 1 1 6 3 20 14 1 0 1 1 4 7 9 16 2 0 2 0 9 3 21 20 5 0 2 0 7 4 17 420 APPENDIX P RESPONSES TO FOLLOW-UP, OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE Have there been any changes in your employment situation since the seminar ended? (job change, promotion, commendation, etc. Please describe.) No, but I plan to change jobs after the 1st of • the year. Yes, job change and promotion from business manager of Spacecraft Electrical Systems Design on direct project, to staff of Vice President and Director of Industrial Relations with assignment on Equal Opportunities Programs (employment, education, community affairs, and free enterprise in the disadvantaged population and locations). No. Yes, I have been elected Chairman of the Super visory Group to act as their representative and spokesman at all executive meetings. Yes, commendation. Added two services and working on a third. Potential for going into business also materializing. I want to read more— learn more. Yes, position paper for change of focus of agency was approved as basic policy for agency by the Board of Directors. Have been asked to accept another broader job. 421 422 Yes. I have received increased program respon sibility and authority— been made privy to "inner" corporate operations, plans, and func tions . I have been placed in a direct advisory capacity to my director and assigned to a program development team working in conjunction with IBM. No, but many, many offers— education, business, industry. Yes, promotion to supervisor of 4 interviewers and 6 clerks. This change was initiated prior to the seminar. No. No. No, other than the fact that a partnership— business relationship has progressed to a corporate (inc.) situation. Do you personally ascribe any aspect of the change to the effects of the seminar? Yes, because I can't really be myself. Yes, the seminar provided the theory foundation and formal/technical basis for the philosophy and policies I had been practicing with no apparent basis. Definitely, YES1 Yes, confidence in myself in spite of limited amount of assistance from others, who should be cooperating but don't know how. Yes, better awareness of myself and my ability. The meditation helps me to look outside of myself and not get caught up in the ghetto pathology. Have gained more confidence in my ability— more creative thinking. 423 Yes, increased assertiveness, better understanding and control of my prime job responsibility and function. Yes; (1) Goal setting; (2) Ambition; (3) Increased Confidence; and (4) Availability of opportunities. No. N/A No, but the seminar provided me with additional strengths within my business/or to possibly make it more successful. 2. Did your attitude toward yourself change as a result of the seminar? In what way did it change? Yes. It started me thinking more about my life and where I was headed. Yes. I thought I was a fair organizer prior to the seminar; my attitude completely changed after measuring my effectiveness of organizing. Yes. I value my time allocations more and make better use of time. I am more motivated to study for advancement. % Yes. My self-image and esteem has risen steadily. Yes. I am less sure of my emotions and now depend on facts, figures before making a final judgment. I demand more of myself, plan better keep my mind on the task. Yes. More self-confidence, occasionally softer in my approach; maybe, a bit more tolerant of white liberals. Yes. I gained a greater sense of personal worth, capability, and value. 424 Yes. Re-enforced my positive self-image. Gave me information on why minorities do not realize their potentials. Yes, became more introspective; became aware of degree of isolation from Black community problems. Definitely became more humble towards both lower and middle class Blacks. (No longer the "know it all.11) No. No. Yes, (1) strength, (2) confidence (reassurance of original thinking), and (3) new ideas and perspective. Did your attitude toward other people change as a result of the seminar? In what way did it change? No. Yes. The seminar caused me to be less critical of deficiencies I saw in others. I have become more understanding. Yes. I think I am a little more open-minded and accept others more easily. Yes. I am much more aware of the other person in terms of his actions and reactions (behavior) as they relate to his values. Yes. I demand more of others by giving more of myself. I tolerate more in others than I did before the seminar but I, likewise, say no to that which is not to my way of thinking or way of life. I try to show others— or inspire others the best way. Yes. More interested in involvement with repre sentatives of white power structure. 425 Yes. I became less precipitant in my appraisals and more analytical as to the basis of my atti- tudinal responses and feelings. Yes. I now evaluate, not judge them. 1 have a better concept of leadership. I know what evidence is. Yes, became more discerning toward some white as to motives behind behaviors towards myself and other minorities. Also changed some generalized concepts about the awareness/lack of awareness of black problems among black people. Being black does not automatically qualify one to think black or to understand cause and effect of black problems. No. No. Yes. I will not assume the responsibility for others problems; empathize, yes. More relaxed and calm when disagreements arise between myself and others. Do you feel you are more effective as a person since completing the seminar? In what ways are you (less- more) effective? Yes. I think so, but it has been hard to tell since I was laid up for one month. Yes. More effective analytically at sizing a situation accurately. Yes. I*feel more confidence in myself resulting in my being more decisive. Yes. Budgeting of my time and in becoming more productive in my various roles. 426 Yes, (1). daily accomplishments; (2) goal achieve ment within the allotted time; (3) peace of mind socially, financially and with my wife, co-workers and relatives. Yes, better use of time, more effective and directed in community activities and better able to meet intergroup relations. Yes. I am now able to make better use of my time (although not as much as I desire). I am utiliz ing my staff more effectively. I am more effective in working with upper management. Yes. (a) Organization— get things done faster/ better. (b) Others seem to respond to me even better. (c) I have become more polite I Yes. Definitely more effective because of clari fication of values. Tools acquired/sharpened are being utilized in both professional/civic involve ment. Marriage was good but is improving due to alignment of personal goals with family/spouse's goals. Yes. (1) Clear assessment and analysis of personal roles. (2) Clearer system of evaluating people and their possible motivations. (3) Historical perspective of the Civil Rights movement and how it pertains today in thrust. No. Yes. More cognizant of time, planning and strategy for decision making. Able to symbol manipulate better. 5. Are there any other changes in your attitude or behavior which you believe occurred because of the seminar? Please describe. I think I draw within and think too much for my wife and I read too much for her also. She feels X don't spend enough time with her or praise her ________enough.______________________________________________ 427 The seminar has brought me closer to God. The executive half hour for some has been a period for planning only; for me, it is a period of planning and prayer. I have found that prayer comes much easier for me during this time. I think my values were better identified for me, and I have rearranged their priorities. I include my family more in my activities. (1) I have become much more aggressive in my work and family life. (2) I participate in discussions much more freely than before. (3) I have always respected the rights of others maybe through force of habit, but now I know why I do it and why it should be done. (4) I am very conscious of my values and the need for recognizing them for what they are. (1) I refuse to fail in anything X attempt. (2) I think through situations and problems a lot more thoroughly. (3) I evaluate my past, my present and the future with a degree of reality that never before had been done— or even tried. (4) X enjoy life in its entirety— good and bad experiences— without making excuses, justifica tions, fault-finding but with a better understand ing of everyone's human emotions. More concerned about providing growth experience for myself and my staff. Better able and less cautious about meeting and working with people I feel are more powerful than I. I am less unwilling to say no to requests that distract from priority responsibilities. I am more confident in my understanding, interrelation ships with my staff, boss, and family; minor problems no longer upset me to the degree they did formerly. 428 Yes. I now believe I can realize my full potentials. I feel that priorities in my own life are-clearer. Also, my problem-solving abilities have improved and my interpersonal relations with top administrators has greatly improved. I feel that our society can be improved without a violent revolution. Interests have broadened. I have become more schedule oriented. I have become better geared to continue self-renewal. No. The results of the seminar as reflected in my behavior and/or attitude toward other people is somewhat intangible. I do believe, however, that I am more sensitive toward the feelings of other people. That is, not so much how they feel about me but that I am more careful not to offend their feelings. I believe that I am more organ ized. I have generally been pretty well organized but there was some reinforcement in this directionJ Pretty much the same can be said for the use of time. Perhaps the greatest change is yet to come as I am presently seriously reassessing my pro fessional direction. Yes, overall a more positive attitude of myself. The seminar was a positive element, i.e., use of time, decision making, goal setting, personal values, other values, etal. i

Asset Metadata

Creator Johnson, Ellsworth Evans (author)

Core Title Urban Executive Leadership Development For Black Professionals: A Research Evaluation Of An Applied Behavioral Science Program

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Public Administration

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Political Science, public administration

Language English

Advisor Storm, William Bruce (committee chair), [Reese, Garst] (committee member), Gardner, Neely (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-427099

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Johnson, Ellsworth Evans

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses