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An Evaluative Study Of A Pontoon Transitional Design

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An Evaluative Study Of A Pontoon Transitional Design

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Content I
I '
I
71-16,397
ABBOTT, Frank, 1931-
AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF A PONTOON TRANSITIONAL
DESIGN.
University of Southern California, Ed.D., 1971
Education, theory and practice
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED ECACTLY AS RECEIVED
AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF A PONTOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN
A Dissertation
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
by
Frank Abbott
January 1971
This dissertation, written under the direction
of the Chairman of the candidate's Guidance
Committee and approved by all members of the
Committee, has been presented to and accepted
by the Faculty of the School of Education in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Education.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES...................................... V
LIST OF FIGURES...................................... ix
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM.................................. 1
Introduction
Research Problem
Purpose of the Study
Research Hypotheses
The Research Setting
Delimitations
Limitations
Assumptions
Definition of Terms
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE............... 21
Introduction
Specific Teacher Roles Made Possible by a
Flexible Structure
Problems Which Have Prevented Teachers
from Assuming the New Roles
Chapter Summary
III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY..................... 64
Introduction
The Student and Teacher Samples
Selection of Subject Matter Areas to Be
Included in the Study
• •
li
Chapter Page
Instrumentation
Statistical Treatment
Chapter Summary
IV. FINDINGS RELATED TO STUDENT GROWTH IN THE
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE DOMAINS ........... 101
Introduction
The Cognitive Domain
The Affective Domain
Chapter Summary
V. FINDINGS RELATED TO THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER . 119
Introduction
Teacher Observation Scale
Teacher Record of Activities
Chapter Summary
VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 143
Introduction
Summary
Conclusions
Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . .................................... 163
APPENDICES........................................... 177
A. Lorge Thorndike Raw Score Distributions for the
Experimental and Control Groups on the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two-Sample T e s t .......... 178
B. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Raw Score Distributions on
the Mathematics Section of the STEP Pretest
for Both the Experimental and Control Groups 180
C. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Raw Score Distributions on
the Social Studies Section of the STEP
Pretest for Both the Experimental and Control
Groups...................................... 182
• • •
1X1
Chapter Page
APPENDICES
D. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Raw Score Distributions on
the Writing Section of the STEP Pretest for
Both the Experimental and Control Groups . . 184
E. Rundguist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale .......... 186
F. Rundguist-Sletto Data and Analysis.......... 190
G. The Teacher Observation Scale: Matrix .... 201
H. The Teacher Observation Scale: Pad........... 203
I. Teacher Record of Activities ................. 205
J. Comments from Principal of Experimental School
Regarding Selection of Teachers and Students
Involved in the Total Sample ........... 208
K. Comments from the District Administration of
the Experimental District ................... 210
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two-Sample
Test on the Lorge Thorndike I.Q. Scores of
the Pontoon Transitional Design Group and
the Conventional Control Group ............. 68
2. Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two-Sample
Test on the Mathematics Pretest Raw Scores
of the STEP Test of Both the Experimental
and Control Groups......................... 69
3. Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two-Sample
Test on the Social Studies Pretest Raw
Scores of the STEP Test of Both the
Experimental and Control Groups ........... 70
4. Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Two-Sample
Test on the Writing Pretest Raw Scores of
the STEP Test of Both the Experimental and
Control Groups .............................. 71
5. Specific Qualifications of the Teachers
Involved in the S t u d y ................... . 75
6. Instrumentation and Data Analysis Used to
Investigate Student Variables in the
Cognitive Domain ............................ 80
7. Instrumentation and Data Analysis Used to
Investigate Student Variables in the
Affective Domain ............................ 86
8. Specific Dates, Days, and Week When Teacher
Observations Were Made..................... 91
v
Table Page
9. Time Periods Used During Each School Month for
Self-Administered Teacher Record of
Activities.................................. 94
10. Instrumentation and Data Analysis Used to
Investigate Teacher Behavioral Variables . . 95
11. Means for Pretest and Posttest and Standard
Deviation for Posttest on the STEP Test,
Level 3A, in Mathematics................... 103
12. Results of Analysis of Covariance of Scores
on the STEP Test, Level 3A, in Mathematics 103
13. Means for Pretest and Posttest and Standard
Deviation for Posttest on the STEP Test,
Level 3A in Social Studies........... 105
14. Results of Analysis of Covariance of Scores on
the STEP Test, Level 3A, in Social Studies . 105
15. Means for Pretest and Posttest and Standard
Deviation for Posttest on the STEP Test,
Level 3A, in Writing................. 107
16. Results of Analysis of Covariance of Scores on
the STEP Test, Level 3A, in Writing .... 107
17. Rundguist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale Mean and
Standard Deviation for the Experimental and
Control Groups ............. 108
18. Results of the Rundguist-Sletto Attitudinal
Scale Analysis of Variance.................. 108
19. Rundguist-Sletto Item Eight Data and Analysis 110
20. Rundguist-Sletto Item Eleven Data and Analysis 112
21. Rundguist-Sletto Item Twenty Data and Analysis 112
22. Over-All Data and Analysis on the Twenty-Two
Item Rundguist Sletto Attitudinal Scale . . 113
vi
Table Page
23. Attendance Patterns Mean and Standard Devia
tion for the Experimental and Control Groups 115
24. Results of Analysis of Variance on Attendance
Patterns................................... 115
25. Teacher Observation Data on the Experimental
and Control Mathematics Teachers in the
Teacher-Initiated Areas ................... 122
26. Teacher Observation Data on the Experimental
and Control Social Studies Teachers in the
Teacher-Initiated Areas ................... 124
27. Teacher Observation Data on the Experimental
and Control English Teachers in the
Teacher-Initiated Areas ................... 125
28. Over-All Teacher Observation Data on the
Experimental and Control Teachers in the
Five Teacher-Initiated Areas Used for
Statistical Comparison ..................... 126
29. Teacher Observation Data on the Experimental
and Control Mathematics Teachers in the One
Student-Initiated Area Used for Statistical
Comparison.................................. 128
30. Teacher Observation Data on the Experimental
and Control Social Studies Teachers in the
One Student-Initiated Area Used for Statis
tical Comparison........................... 129
31. Teacher Observation Data on the Experimental
and Control English Teachers in the One
Student-Initiated Area Used for Statistical
Comparison.................................. 131
32. Teacher Observation Data on the Over-All
Experimental and Control Teachers in the
One Student-Initiated Area Used for Statis
tical Comparison ................... 132
• »
Vll
Page
134
136
137
139
viii
Table
33. Teacher Self-Assessment Data on the Experi
mental and Control Mathematics Teachers in
the Ten Areas of the Teacher Record of
Activities ................................
34. Teacher Self-Assessment Data on the Experi
mental and Control Social Studies Teachers
in the Ten Areas of the Teacher Record
of Activities ............................
35. Teacher Self-Assessment Data on the Experi
mental and Control English Teachers in the
Ten Areas of the Teacher Record of
Activities................................
36. Over-All Teacher Self-Assessment Data on the
Experimental and Control Teachers in the
Ten Areas of the Teacher Record of
Activities ................................
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Schematic of Teacher Participation in the
Design of the S t u d y .................... 73
2. Levels of the STEP Reading, Writing, Social
Studies, Science and Mathematics Test . . . 78
3. Available Alternatives and Corresponding Time
Allowances for the Administration of the
STEP Tests (Time Allowances Are Expressed
in Minutes)............................ 79
4. Schematic for Instrumentation Used for
Obtaining Student Data in the Affective
Domain.................................. 82
5. Schematic of Instrumentation for Assessing
Experimental and Control Teacher Behavior . 87
ix
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
In the summer of 1969 the educational system of the
nation was taken to task by the Conference of Midwestern
Governors. The conference charged the system with failing
to keep up with a changing world, thus creating young
iconoclasts. Governor William G. Millikan of Michigan
said, "School systems have not changed greatly since the
turn of the century, while the world has changed greatly."
He further stated, "To cope with this changed and changing
world, innovations, imagination, creativity, and dedication
are required" (73:23).
Certainly this past decade has seen many attempts
to effect educational change. However, a number of leading
innovators in the field of education have indicated that,
at best, most attempts at change have met with only
mediocre success. J. Lloyd Trump, Director of the NASSP
Model Schools Program, stated, "Teaching methods have not
1__________________________________
2
basically changed, just some superficial trappings have
been altered— and in most cases at considerable effort and
expense" (102:2). William Georgiades, co-director of the
NASSP Model Schools program, has indicated that the best
master plan is useless unless it results in an improvement
in the classroom (89:1). Innovation in and of itself has
failed to produce significant changes in pupil learning
(46:4). Beggs asserted that little will happen unless the
teacher wants something better and different to occur
(4:34). In his book Self Renewal, John Gardner stated:
In essence, organizations are forever growing old and
those that seek only better ways to do the same thing
are headed for extinction. (12:68)
Recent research in the field of innovative prac
tices has indicated that changes in teacher behavior must
take place if the goals of innovative practices are to be
reached. Educators such as Trump, Taba, Georgiades, and
Shaefer have written that the goals which must be accomp
lished will evolve with the development of new concepts
created by a society of inner-directed people who will not
only transmit knowledge but will also produce it. Trump
said that, in order for the student to become motivated
toward being self-directed, the role of the teacher must be
altered. He stated further that, in order for these new
3
roles to be attained, teachers must undergo extensive on-
the-job re-education (105).
The literature pertaining to educational innovation
has indicated vividly that, in order for teachers to assume
new roles successfully, a new and more flexible structure
must be made available to them. However, the idea that
flexible structure is only a means and not an end is
implicit in these writings. Howard stated, "Organizational
change cannot solve the problems of curriculum.' Organiza
tional change can only remove the rigidities which may
impede progress toward a solution" (47:89). Trump said
that computerized schedules have tended to cause super
ficiality in curriculum (63:95). In a speech to the
western area NASSP Model School principals, Georgiades
stated that a school is flexibly scheduled when it
possesses the following:
1. Variable use of time.
2. Variable assignments of persons and responsibili
ties .
3. The opportunity for students to progress at their
own rate.
4. Multiple provisions for meeting specific goals.
4
Trump indicated that flexible schedules accompanied
by changed teaching and learning methods will improve the
school's productivity. However, if a so-called flexible
schedule succeeds only in producing additional periods or
more courses, it is still as rigid as the traditional
schedule (24:46). The goal of flexible scheduling is "to
return to the teachers as much freedom as possible in the
use of time, space, numbers, and content for instruction
and learning" (102:2).
In recent years numerous school districts through
out the country have made attempts to break the lockstep
schedule. A large number of the attempts were undertaken
with the assistance of computers. Notable for their work
in this area are Dwight Allen and Robert Bush, at Stanford
University, who contributed to the development of the
modular schedule. Brookhurst Junior High School in
Anaheim, California developed a daily demand schedule in
an attempt to break the traditional lockstep method.
Another major effort to individualize instruction
by breaking down the scheduling rigidities was the develop
ment of the Pontoon Transitional Design. The Pontoon
Design, which was the basis for this study, was developed
by William Georgiades at the University of Southern
5
California. This schematic allows for not only variable
time modules, different size learning groups, and team
teaching, but it also provides for an opportunity to inter
relate subject matter. The fragmentation of subject
matter has been a common criticism of school programs
(89:3).
Research, although quite limited, has indicated
that changes in structure have failed to produce signifi
cant changes in learning (81, 82, 84, 92, 94, 95, 96,
100, 118). The literature has indicated the need for more
thorough evaluation of new programs. Taba wrote that edu
cators have failed to evaluate innovation. She went on to
state that innovation, for the most part, has taken place
because it is the fashionable thing to do (23:23). Trump
stated:
Evaluation needs to consider and report honestly and
directly:
1. What students know and can do.
2. Desirable changes, such as communicating effec
tively with others, thinking critically, solving
problems, and developing personal responsibility
for learning.
3. Quality of work done in special projects as part of
independent study. (101:3)
Innovative programs must provide for comprehensive
evaluation programs based upon previously stated behavioral
objectives (23:184).__________________________________________
6
The educational literature expresses very clearly
the importance of evaluating innovative programs. It
specifically points out that teachers and administrators
must become accountable for the improvement of learning.
In order for this improvement to take place, according to
Taba, evaluation must be stated in behavioral terms (23:87).
Robert Mager, who has done extensive work in the develop
ment of behavioral objectives, stated, "If you don't know
where you're going you could end up somewhere else and not
even know it" (16:vii). Trump said, "Teachers need to
state their most important purposes in pupil performance
terms that can be quantified, measured, and reported”
(23:214).
Research Problem
During the 1969-70 school year at Washington Junior
High School in the Bellflower, California, Unified School
District, a Pontoon Transitional Design was implemented at
the eighth grade level incorporating the subjects of
mathematics, social science, and English. According to
William Georgiades, a Pontoon Transitional Design is an
interdisciplinary schematic in which two or more teachers
participate cooperatively in the learning environment
7
within a block of time generally equal to two or more con
ventional class periods (89:2). A typical design might
include three subjects, three teachers, one aide, ninety
students, and a three-hour block of time.
The problem in this study was to compare both
cognitive and affective educational results found in
approximately ninety students involved in the experimental
Pontoon Transitional Design at Washington Junior High
School with results found in a control group of approxi
mately ninety other students at that school who were taking
the same subjects (eighth grade mathematics, social
science, and English) in a conventional structure. Stu
dents in both the experimental and control groups were of
average ability and were randomly selected. The cognitive
comparisons were accomplished by the administration of a
standardized pretest and posttest. Attendance patterns,
discipline referrals, and results obtained from administra
tion of a standardized attitudinal survey to both groups
were used in making affective comparisons. In addition,
the study sought to determine whether the role of the
teachers in the Pontoon Transitional Design was signifi
cantly different from the role of the teachers in the
conventional control group. This comparison was
8
accomplished through the use of a critical incident measur
ing device and a self-administered teacher record of
activities. The teachers in both groups were selected on a
voluntary basis.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine through
objective evaluation whether there is any significant
difference in the cognitive and affective growth of stu
dents in a flexible Pontoon Transitional Design as compared
with that of students taking the same subjects in a more
rigid conventional structure.
The study also sought to determine, by analyzing
the roles of teachers in both the Pontoon and conventional
structures, whether a flexible structure succeeds in pro
moting changes in teacher behavior.
Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses were subjected
to statistical analysis:
1. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will show significantly greater
academic gains in writing than will the students in the
9
conventional control structure, as measured by the STEP
test.
2. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will show significantly greater
academic gains in social science than will the students in
the conventional control structure, as measured by the STEP
test.
3. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will show significantly greater
academic gains in mathematics than will the students in the
conventional control structure, as measured by the STEP
test.
4. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will maintain significantly better
attendance records than will the students in the conven
tional control structure, as measured by the official
school attendance records.
5. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will have significantly fewer disci
pline referrals than will the students in the conventional
control structure, as measured by the official school
discipline referral records.
10
6. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will develop a significantly more
positive attitude toward the value of an education than
will the students in the conventional control structure, as
measured by the Rundguist-Sletto attitudinal scale.
7. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will talk significantly less than will
the teachers in the conventional control structure, as
measured by the Teacher Observation Scale and the self
administered Teacher Record of Activities.
8. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will spend significantly more time
with students in small groups (less than fifteen) than will
the teachers in the conventional control structure, as
measured by the Teacher Observation Scale and the self
administered Teacher Record of Activities.
9. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will spend significantly more time
with students on a one-to-one basis than will the teachers
in the conventional control structure, as measured by the
Teacher Observation Scale and the self-administered Teacher
Record of Activities.
11
10. Teachers in the experimental Pontoon Transi
tional Design will employ a significantly greater number of
teaching techniques than will the teachers in the conven
tional control structure/ as measured by the Teacher
Observation Scale and the self-administered Teacher Record
of Activities.
11. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will initiate significantly more
educational activities than will the students in the con
ventional control structure, as measured by the Teacher
Observation Scale and the self-administered Teacher Record
of Activities.
The Research Setting
At the time of this study, Washington Junior High
School in the Bellflower Unified School District was a
medium-size seventh and eighth grade school of approxi
mately 975 students. It was one of two junior high schools
in the district.
The facility was rebuilt in 1950 and converted from
an elementary school into an intermediate school. In 1956,
it became a junior high school.
12
The community was basically residential. The
growth of the community appeared to be very stable. A
large percentage of the residents worked at aircraft indus
tries in the neighboring areas.
The school was a conventional facility with a
cafetorium which had also served as a large-group instruc
tional area. The school had been provided with an adequate
library.
The professional staff was well prepared and very
stable. The certificated staff included the following
people:
1. Thirty-five classroom teachers.
2. Three teachers of educable mentally retarded
children.
3. Two teachers of emotionally handicapped children.
4. One librarian.
5. Two counselors.
6. One assistant principal.
7. One principal.
Forty-five per cent of the certificated staff held
master's degrees. One of the three teachers in the experi
mental Pontoon Transitional Design held a master's degree,
while two of the three conventional control teachers held a
13
master's degree. Without exception, teachers had been
assigned on the basis of either major or minor areas of
preparation.
The low percentage of turnover in professional
staff gave a good indication that the school was quite
stable. During the past five years the teacher turnover
had been approximately 10 per cent. The stability was even
more positively indicated in the long service records of
the administrative and counseling staff. The principal had
served the school for twenty years, the assistant principal
for eight years, one of the counselors for twenty-three
years and the other counselor for eight years.
Class size had been related to the 28-to-l over-all
district policy for junior high schools. Three full-time
aides were hired during the 1969-70 school year and were
assigned to the following areas: 1) Pontoon, 2) Control
Group, and 3) Special Education Program. These aides were
assigned in addition to the regular staffing ratio. All of
the aides were future teachers in either the junior or
senior year of college.
Because of the stability of the administrative and
teaching staffs, there appeared to be an exceptionally high
degree of cooperation and morale in the school. It was
14
quite apparent that both of these groups were working
diligently in seeking ways to improve the instructional
program. Their enthusiasm was certainly apparent during
the 1969-70 school year as the Pontoon was implemented.
Plans for 1970-71 called for the continuance of this
Pontoon, plus the implementation of a seventh grade Pontoon
incorporating the disciplines of English, social science,
and general music.
Delimitations
1. This study was delimited to 87 randomly-
selected eighth grade students who were assigned to the
experimental Pontoon Transitional Design and a correspond
ing control group comprised of 86 randomly-selected eighth
grade students. The students in both the experimental and
control groups were assigned by the school counselors.
2. The study was confined to the teachers assigned
to the experimental and control groups.
3. The assessment of teacher roles was made by
using one observation scale and a teacher record of daily
activities.
4. The number of teachers involved in the compari
son of teacher roles was confined to three teachers in the
15
experimental group and three teachers in the control group.
5. The students were compared from a standpoint of
cognitive academic achievement through the use of one
standardized test.
Limitations
1. The size of the sample, consisting of both
experimental and control groups, was restricted to approxi
mately 170 eighth grade students, each of whom was taking
mathematics, social science and English.
2. The selection of the students was determined on
a random basis in order to minimize the ability factors
within each group. (All of the eighth grade students in
the school were taking mathematics, social science, and
English, and, therefore, were eligible for inclusion in
this study.)
3. The study was limited to classes taught by five
teachers. There were three teachers in the experimental
group and two teachers in the control group. One of the
teachers in the control group taught both social science
and English.
4. There was a limitation in the number of atti-
tudinal measuring devices available that were relevant for
16
eighth grade students. Therefore, the validity and reli
ability of the measuring instruments may be subject to
question.
5. The findings of the study were restricted in
accordance with the methods used in this study.
6. The judgment of the observer administering the
teacher observation scale may be subject to question.
7. The accuracy of the teacher record of activi
ties may be subject to question.
8. The results of the study in the cognitive and
affective domains were obtained over a nine-month period
of time, with the exception of the results of the observa
tion scale, which was confined to a five-month period.
Assumptions
The study was based on the following assumptions:
1. The curriculum involved in the study was repre
sentative of a typical junior high school and, therefore,
was a suitable model for the study.
2. The school, its plant operation, its community
involvement, and other such factors would not alter the
nature of the study.
17
3. The experimental and control groups would have
similar testing conditions.
4. There was no significant difference in the
ability factors of students in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design and the corresponding control group as
measured by the state mandated Lorge-Thorndike test.
5. There was no significant difference in the
quality of the teachers in either the experimental or the
control groups.
6. Prior to implementation of the program, the
three teachers who volunteered to participate in the exper
imental Pontoon Transitional Design were aware of the
flexible possibilities inherent within that schematic.
7. The STEP Test is a valid instrument for drawing
conclusions regarding student growth in the cognitive
domain.
8. The Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale, daily
attendance patterns, and disciplinary referrals are valid
instruments for making comparisons regarding student growth
in the affective domain.
9. The Teacher Observation Scale and the Teacher
Record of Activities are valid measuring devices for
making comparison of teacher roles.
18
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined according to their
usage in this study.
Pontoon Transitional Design. According to
Georgiades, a schematic which interrelates two or more sub
jects under the leadership of teachers from different
disciplines in a block of time during which each would
ordinarily operate independently (89:2). (Throughout the
study the term Experimental Program is used interchangeably
with Pontoon Transitional Design.)
Conventional. The typical pattern of school
organization in which a teacher operates independently
within a certain number of equal-length time blocks
throughout a school day.
Control group. A group of randomly-selected
average ability eighth grade students taking the same three
subjects as the Pontoon Transitional Design students but in
a conventional structure. This group was subjected to the
same measuring devices as were the Pontoon students for the
purpose of comparing growth in the cognitive and affective
domains.
19
Cognitive domain. Those objectives which deal with
the recall or recognition of knowledge and development of
intellectual abilities and skills (6:7).
Affective domain. Those objectives which emphasize
a feeling, tone, an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or
rejection (14:7).
Teacher roles. The customary functions, including
activities and techniques, used by teachers in creating
the learning environment for students.
Traditional schedule. Operational plan used by a
school which controls time limitation and usage for both
teachers and students (83:15).
Variable schedule. An operational plan which pro
vides for the opportunities of controlling the learning
environment as it relates to group size and length of time.
Emphasis is placed upon the tasks to be accomplished. This
term is often used synonymously with Flexible Schedule.
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
Chapter II is devoted to a review of the pertinent
educational literature related to the changing role of the
20
teacher in a changing world. Objectives of the writers in
the field who are urging the development of a new kind of a
teacher for the next decade are reviewed. Opportunities
for new teaching roles, made possible by the development
of variable time schedules, are explored. Problems which
have prevented teachers from assuming new behavior patterns
are discussed. Finally, implications of the educational
literature are reviewed, evaluated, and discussed.
Chapter III presents the methods and procedures
utilized in the research study. Selection methods of
student and teacher participants are reviewed. Each
device used for assessment of teacher roles and measurement
of ability in both cognitive and affective domains is
reviewed in light of statistical procedures.
Chapter IV describes the cognitive and affective
findings of the research data. Chapter V deals with the
research data regarding teacher roles or behavior patterns.
The statistical evidence in Chapters IV and V is presented
for comparative analyses as it relates to the stated
hypotheses.
Chapter VI is devoted to a summary of the findings
and conclusions resulting from the study. Recommendations
based upon the findings conclude the chapter.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
Change in education is evident. The ever-
increasing demands of students and the lay public for a
system that will enable students to become self-directed,
responsible citizens have become loud and clear. The
professional literature has clearly pointed out that the
changes needed must not be superficial in nature, nor
merely a re-tread of past practices. James Russell, in his
book, Change and Challenge in American Education, stated:
The great change of the modern age is not a repetition
of an earlier phenomenon. It is novel. And it has
brought in its train novel ways of thinking. As a
consequence part of the past can no longer said to be
prologue in any meaningful sense. Irrelevant is a
better word. (19:133)
Robert Finch, former Secretary of Health, Education
and Welfare, said that all too often educational programs
are stuffing the heads of the young with products of
earlier innovation rather than teaching them how to
21
22
innovate (9:21). Friedenberg, in his Coining of Age in
America, offered a very personal interpretation of present
day schools when he concluded that these schools and their
staffs are dreary, tasteless representatives of the "lumpen
bourgeoisie" conspiring to crush excellence and individ
uality wherever they may arise (20:30).
During the past decade educators throughout the
country have responded to the charge for change in many
ways and in varying degrees. For the most part, the
attempts have not produced significant change in learning.
The large majority of innovative practices have been
centered around curriculum content and structural design.
An overwhelming majority of the research studies dealing
with structural change in the form of flexible or variable
time schedules have indicated no significant difference in
learning occurred as compared with learning that occurred
in the conventional or traditional structure (82, 84, 86,
92, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 118). However, some of the
studies have revealed growth in the affective domain. This
may be due, in part, to the "Hawthorne Effect" of the new
structure. Further, a large number of the studies con
cluded that the major reason new structural designs have
failed to produce changes in learning has been the
23
inability of teachers to assume the new roles inherent in
the variable time schedules. Trump said that, unless
teachers and pupils actually work in new ways, progress
does not occur. He went on to say that it is possible to
make major organizational changes, like the introduction of
team teaching, and yet leave the basic methods of teaching
untouched and unaltered (62:1).
Current literature and research studies are calling
upon teachers, students, and administrators to assume new
roles. Georgiades stated, "Teaching as it is typically
practiced is more likely to cultivate alienation rather
than identification” (90). The rigidity which many
teachers have exhibited in the past has been a greater
barrier to the educational program than has ignorance
(80:1). According to Halsey Taylor, what the teacher does
is the most important factor in determining the quality of
education (77:28).
The 1969 IDEA Kettering Foundation Report indicated
that the teacher of the future must become a "new kind of
person" (70:3) and will be asked to assume roles that are
new and different from the ones he now has. Robert Shaefer
stated, "We need a new breed of teacher who would fly under
the banner of those who are committed to generating and
24
testing responsible ideas. The school must become a pro
ducer as well as a transmitter of knowledge (20:14).
Laurence Cremin, in his work. The Genius of Educa
tion, said:
Education is too significant and dynamic an enterprise
to be left to mere technicians; and we might as well
begin with the prodigious task of preparing men and
women who understand not only the substance of what
they are teaching but also the theories behind the
particular strategies they employ to convey that sub
stance. A society committed to the continuing
intellectual, aesthetic, and moral growth of all of its
members can ill afford less on the part of those who
undertake to teach. (8:57)
If pupil learning is to become a reality, teachers
working toward implementing innovation must be cognizant of
these new, desirable, behavioral patterns as being quite
different from their previous deportment (62:2). These
new and different roles should allow the student to develop
a responsibility for his own learning. According to Trump,
the teacher should become dispensable as soon as possible
(25:83).
In order to foster creative thinking and under
standing of conceptual themes, a reversal of teacher role
is necessary. The conventional expository teaching is no
longer effective (71:13). The professional educational
writers challenge teachers to develop new perceptions of
25
themselves, thus resulting in the development of new atti
tudes toward the teaching-learning process. They must
seek to project the student into the role of "active
participant" (56:246). Hopefully, they will then be able
to recreate in school what is happening outside in the
real world (56:243). The teacher no longer has to, or
should be, the sole source of learning for the pupils; his
major role becomes that of a facilitator (30:36).
Innovative practices should lead to a change in
relationship between the teacher and the student concerning
active learning (24:78). Unfortunately, many innovative
practices have been abandoned because no significant differ
ence in learning has occurred. Trump and Georgiades
postulated that this high rate of abandonment was pri
marily due to the following factors:
1. Innovative practices were done in isolation within
the framework of a traditional setting, thus pro
viding teachers and administrators an unrealistic
situation for valid measurement of the practice.
2. Evaluation, when done, has been inadequate. In most
cases base line data have not been gathered; there
fore, growth has been impossible to measure.
Finally, most of the evaluative procedures have been
based upon "input" rather than the final product.
26
3. In their design very few, if any, innovative pro
grams have specifically interpreted the teacher
roles. Most often these behavioral patterns are
assumed.
In an attempt to provide a program which would provide sig
nificant differences in learning, Trump and Georgiades,
working through the National Association of Secondary School
Principals, developed a model which incorporates a com
pletely new structure within a school, evaluates in-depth
pupil progress in both the cognitive and affective domains,
and specifically defines the new roles that the teachers are
being challenged to assume. This NASSP Model Schools pro
gram has been partially funded by the Danforth Foundation,
St. Louis, Missouri, and currently involves thirty-four
schools throughout the world (42:106-107).
The large majority of educational writers surveyed
for this study were in agreement that a flexible structure
is a necessary ingredient if schools are to change. How
ever, they were quick to add that a new and flexible design
is only a vehicle which will allow the participants in the
educational drama an opportunity to assume new and more
relevant roles. Unfortunately, little attention has been
given to how innovation will affect the role of the
teacher (57:4).
In 1968 a seminar on Flexible Modular Scheduling,
27
sponsored by the Kettering Foundation, concluded that
teacher roles and learner roles have remained unchanged
even though organizational changes have been extensive
(35:2). Trump and Baynham, after reviewing innovative
practices during the early part of the last decade, con
cluded that flexible or variable time schedules had often
only succeeded in increasing the number of periods, while
leaving teaching and learning as rigid as the traditional
schedules. They further indicated that the major reason for
the failure was that teacher roles had not changed (24:64).
teacher behavioral change as a result of the implementation
of a flexible structure was the West York, Pennsylvania,
study. The findings of that study indicated that a flexible
schedule had failed to produce any significant changes in
teacher roles. Specifically, the study measured the per
centage of time teachers spent in the following roles:
One of the more significant studies dealing with
Role Per Cent of Time
1. Small-group discussion
(2-15 students)
18%
2. Traditional classroom
(approximately 30 students)
42%
3. Section plus one-half
(approximately 45 students)
28%
4. Large-group presentation
(60 or more students)
12%
28
Items 2 and 3, which are most closely related to the tradi
tional roles, encompassed 70 per cent of the teacher's
time, while items 1 and 4, which were reflective of new
role possibilities, were limited to 30 per cent (72:7).
In 1968, the California Association for Secondary
School Administrators published a report entitled, Educa
tion Now for Tomorrow's World. The charge presented to the
committee that developed this report was to produce
curriculum objectives for the 1970's which would be rele
vant until the year 2000. One of the major theses that
came out of this study was that a flexible schedule which
maintained the same classroom teaching attitudes really
provided nothing very significantly different in the
experiences of pupils (71:7).
A recent research study by Daniel Burke, on the
effects of a variable time schedule on learning, indicated
that a new structural design made very little significant
difference in learning. The researcher concluded that one
of the major reasons for this finding was failure of
teachers to change their roles. He specifically stated:
If teaching and learning are not enhanced by a particu
lar structural design, the cause may be inappropriate
teacher behavior practiced in the design. (83:102)
In summary, the professional literature has pre
sented a very positive case for the necessity of teachers
29
to change their roles. Further, there was a wealth of
information in these writings regarding the changed teacher
behavioral patterns necessary for improvement of learning.
Finally, there was an indication that innovation should be
explored beyond structural design into the realm of the
specific roles of teachers. The following section of this
chapter pursues, in depth, the specific roles that teachers
might assume as a result of a flexible design.
Specific Teacher Roles Made Possible by
a Flexible Structure
The NASSP Model Schools program provided a very
all-inclusive list of roles the "new kind of teacher"
should assume (42, 62). The related literature revealed
that the role definitions projected by writers other than
Trump and Georgiades (developers of the NASSP Model) were
consistent with the NASSP Model even though different
terminology might have been employed. Following is a
composite list of new teacher roles. This list was
developed after careful study of the current, pertinent
literature. The terminology used is consistent with that
of the NASSP Model Schools program, but, as was mentioned
previously, the role definitions represent a cross-section
of the literature surveyed:
30
1. Large-group presentor (including motivator,
facilitator, and catalyst).
2. Discussion consultant.
3. Teacher-counselor.
4. Resource person for independent study.
5. Diagnostician and prescriber.
6. Evaluator.
7. Director of supportive personnel.
8. Decision-maker (including director of accountabil
ity, learning strategist, and team member).
9. Participant in a continuing in-service education
program.
10. Curriculum writer (including intellectual model)
(42:110-113).
Large-Group Presentor
Historically, the lecture has been the major method
of teaching. Its primary function is to disperse factual
knowledge which the students at some later date are to feed
back to the teacher. Flexible schedules have made possible
the large-group presentation where a teacher may make one
presentation instead of the five that he would ordinarily
make in a conventional lock-step schedule. However, as
31
indicated earlier in this chapter, the responsibility for
learning should rest with the student. This concept
therefore makes the lecture, as it has been typically prac
ticed, obsolete. The Model Schools program envisions the
large-group presentation as primarily a motivational device.
The only factual knowledge that should be presented is that
information which is not readily available to students
elsewhere. Finally, the model views the large-group pre
sentation as a time for the making of assignments which
are not otherwise specified in writing (42:115).
According to C. M. Lindvall, education can no
longer afford classroom situations where more than 50 per
cent of the students may be listening to a teacher make a
group presentation on a topic they have already mastered
(51:37). Shaefer said that schools can no longer serve as
educational dispensaries charged with the distribution of
information and skills for the immature. They must become
centers for inquiry into issues (20:32).
The large majority of educational writers are in
agreement that the amount of time devoted to the presenta
tion must be drastically reduced. Both B. Frank Brown and
Trump have specified that the presentation should not con
sume more them 20 per cent of the time a student devotes
32
to a subject (7, 103). Trump stated further that. Ideally,
a presentation should be thirty-five minutes in duration
(62:6).
The preparation of a large-group presentation
requires that the teacher assess the students' past
achievement and interest in the topic. Further, since the
primary goal of the presentation is to stimulate students
to pursue the topic in greater depth during independent
study, the presentation should be delivered with great
commitment and in an intriguing manner (25:389). "The
presentation should whet the students' appetites, not
overstuff them" (101:4).
Motivational presentations should create situations
in which intelligent questions are likely to be asked
(74:2). As motivators, teachers must stimulate pupils to
become active participants in the learning environment
(71:9).
Brian Frieder concluded that the role of a motiva
tor would be greatly enhanced if the teacher knew what he
was motivating the students to learn. Many times students
are motivated to learn things that the teacher did not
intend for them to learn (37:29). Learning theorists have
made great strides in analyzing motivation as an isolated
33
learning variable. Unfortunately, educators have done
little toward integrating such findings into the educa
tional system as a specific component (37:33).
Lloyd Homme1s recent study of the role of the
teacher as a motivational manager can be summarized in ten
basic rules of contingency contracting. The first five
refer to the use of reward in contracting, while the last
five describe characteristics of proper contracting that
the teacher should employ:
1. Reward immediately.
2. Reward small approximations.
3. Reward frequently with small reinforcers.
4. Reward accomplishment rather than obedience
5. Reward the performance after it occurs, not
6. Be fair.
7. Be clear.
8. Be honest.
9. Be positive.
10. Use contracting systematically. (69:10-12)
Concomitant to the role of motivator is the role of
catalyst. The teacher should function in the role of a
catalyst by creating situations where the student will take
the initiative by asking a question. The teacher then can
34
serve as an intellectual model, as someone to talk with
regarding the intriguing, interesting, and challenging
ideas which cannot be handled by the routine aspects of the
conventional instructional program (53:11).
In summary, the literature views the teacher func
tioning as a motivator. One of the major ways in which
this role can be accomplished is through the large-group
presentation. The large-group presentation as it should be
practiced does not resemble its predecessor, the tradi
tional lecture.
Discussion Consultant
The new flexible structural designs have made
possible the small-group discussion as a setting for
learning. The purposes of a small group discussion are
1) to enable students to develop attitudes and values by
probing critical issues with their peers; 2) to develop
competence in discussion techniques; 3) to become a member
of a group and experience the dynamics of group relation
ships (104:1).
The teacher can also help stimulate independent
study through small-group discussions by scheduling
occasional brief reports for students engaged in exciting
35
topics (25:287).
In the NASSP Model Schools design the teacher will
be scheduled with approximately 14-16 small groups per
week, each about thirty minutes in length. The size of
the group will be at least eight, but no more than fifteen,
students (42:110-16).
The literature revealed that the role of the
teacher in the small-group discussion was the key to its
success. Teachers must strive to assume a nonparticipatory
role in the small-group discussion. They must learn to
handle the role of listener and advisor (25:282). The
West York, Pennsylvania, Study found that the major func
tions of the teacher in small groups were 1) to listen to
students in an attempt to detect their perceptions; 2) to
stimulate student discussion without monopolizing it; 3) to
make suggestions for resources; 4) to help students connect
old ideas to new ones (72:9).
According to Trump, as the teacher functions in the
roles of consultant and resource person to the small group,
he has a major responsibility for analyzing the group and
helping the leader make necessary adjustments (25:286).
As teachers participate with groups as consultants they
bring with them specific information and experiences that
36
other members of the group may not possess. Teachers are
also responsible for correcting misinformation. Finally,
teachers meet periodically with the leader, recorder, and
observer of the group to help each grow in his responsi
bilities (104:3).
During small-group discussions teachers are
responsible for teaching oral communication skills and good
personal relationships. To do this, the teacher should
periodically 1) raise a question or a problem; 2) help
focus the discussion on an issue; 3) remind the group that
it is off the subject; 4) correct an error of fact;
5) summarize (101:5).
The teacher also has a responsibility for the
organization of the group. The composition of a group is
critical if the goals of small-group discussion are to be
attained. Teachers should work with professional counsel
ors in determining the make-up of a group. Further, the
teacher should change the composition of the group as
frequently as necessary (25:283).
Teacher-Counselor
How will the NASSP Model Schools be different from
the secondary schools of today? Trump and Georgiades have
37
said that the NASSP Model Schools will be more "humane"
schools because each individual will receive more attention
(42:107). In an effort for schools to become more humane,
each student in school will be known by someone as a total
human being (112). In an attempt to accomplish this goal,
each teacher in the Model Schools project will serve as a
teacher-counselor for approximately thirty-five pupils. He
knows the pupils as total human beings, collects informa
tion about them from their various teachers, from standard
ized tests and inventories given by the school. The
teacher also learns about the pupils' home situations. He
does not regularly meet with the pupils as a group. The
teacher-counselor serves as a liaison between the parent
wanting a comprehensive appraisal of the student's progress,
and the different teachers of the student. The role of
teacher-counselor is basic to the guidance function of the
school (62:124, 25:361).
The literature surveyed for this study, apart from
the material that dealt with the NASSP Model Schools pro
gram, did not specifically call for the development of the
teacher-counselor. However, the writings were consistent
in assessing the need for extended guidance services.
Lindvall said:
38
When the teacher is freed from the task of serving as a
continuous dispenser of learning content, he then has
the opportunity of devoting his energies to more
important functions. He can become a counselor, a
diagnostician, and a prescriber of individual learning
experiences. (51:41)
Edgar Dale wrote: "Teachers need to be released
more time to see that all parts of the student's education
fits together . . . more time for individual discussion and
creative interaction" (32:133). A California Association
of Secondary School Administrators study pointed out that a
major role of the school should be the involvement of
students in planning their own programs. The study indi
cated that, in order to accomplish this goal, there is a
critical need for more and better guidance (71:3). Janet
Cross and John Nagle indicated that the schools of the next
decade will have a need for more student-oriented teachers
and fewer content-oriented teachers, and that the schools
have a responsibility for establishment of a role for this
purpose (31:82).
According to Poirier, future teachers must get*to
know students from many different aspects. In order to do
this, they must acquire greater expertise in the area of
human relations (56:87). In a recent editorial appearing
in Transitions, the student newspaper at the University of
39
California at Riverside, a plea was made that somewhere in
our schools there be someone who is willing to listen to
students— not just hearing the words, but perceiving,
understanding, and knowing what the students feel (78:4).
In order to know the students as total human beings,
the teacher-counselor should, among other things, system
atically meet with students and record the following data:
1. Things that motivate the pupil.
2. Personal responsibilities.
3. Sudden changes in goals.
4. Traumatic experiences. (25:344)
Resource Person for Independent Study
Over 1900 years ago Quintilian stated that the
large portion of the learner's time should be devoted to
private study (42:108). The current professional litera
ture has continued to place major emphasis on private
study, or (as it is more commonly called) independent study.
Kimball Wiles, in his book, The Changing Curriculum of the
American High School, saw the larger portion of a student's
day spent in individualized elective education (26:65).
The previously mentioned CASSA study on curriculum
for now and the future revealed that students of tomorrow
40
will spend less time in the formal classroom environment
(71:26). Lipson expressed the belief that much of the
ritual of the school has tended to foster and maintain a
condition of dependency in children. He stated:
The school should, in my opinion, foster mature,
independent, and creative behavior; and any forces
which promote dependency and child-like behavior are a
problem for the school and its teachers. (53:8)
Fenwick English, in reviewing innovative practices
throughout the country, said, "The overwhelming impression
of our current school systems was the absence of options
or alternatives for students, teachers and parents" (34:24).
Georgiades stated, "There is an inverse relationship
between time spent in the formal classroom and learning"
(90) .
Trump, in defining independent study, said that it
is what students do when the teacher stops talking (25:77).
According to Carl Rogers, "the educated man is the person
%
who has learned how to learn” (18:242).
The teacher has been asked to assume a multiplicity
of roles during independent study. Some of the roles
described by the professional writers are active ones;
however, the majority of the roles are passive in nature.
Both Trump and Lipson aver that teachers should become
41
dispensable as soon as possible (25, 53:8). Taba said that
the school, through its teachers, has a responsibility to
develop inner-directed people (23:296).
The NASSP Model Schools project envisioned the role
of the teachers during independent study in the following
ways:
1. Prepare guide sheets and work sheets to direct
the study of essential matters.
2. Stimulate creativity and depth inquiry.
3. Select paperbacks, other books, pamphlets, tapes,
filmstrips, slides, and films for pupil use.
4. Prepare sequential materials related to the minimum
levels of achievement, essential knowledge, and
enrichment projects.
5. Obtain base line data on pupils.
6. Evaluate individual pupil progress. (101, 42, 25)
Alexander and Hines in their book. Independent
Study in the Secondary Schools, revealed that the teacher
had six major responsibilities in planning a curriculum for
independent study and seven instructional activities
directly related to the independent study program. Major
responsibilities in planning a curriculum were said to
consist of:
42
1. Structuring the independent studies.
2. Interpreting the program.
3. Organizing materials and facilities.
4. Consulting with students.
5. Structuring the content and activities of the
program.
6. Evaluating the program.
Instructional activities related to the independent study
program were listed as:
1. Planning individual studies.
2. Directing the learning skills necessary to carry
out the approved independent study plan. (Note:
The literature and research studies surveyed by the
investigator in this study were explicit in the
view that independent study was not "free time."
Most of the material indicated that a student plan
is necessary, and that the student should be held
accountable for the completion of such a plan.)
3. Counseling of independent study students.
4. Working with small groups.
5. Encouraging experimentation.
6. Evaluating student progress.
43
7. Providing for general supervision as needed.
(1:121-30)
A great deal of the supervision, counseling, and
directing of students can be done by qualified, carefully
selected instructional assistants. These people should
be available to students in the designated independent
study centers. The teachers should avoid association with
pupils during independent study so there will be no tempta
tion to oversupervise. It is the responsibility of the
teacher to monitor the work of the instructional assistants
during independent study time (25:270). However, the
teacher should be available to students when he is needed
to function in the role of a resource person. "During
independent study, the teacher acts as a resource person,
directs students, and holds students accountable" (72:12).
Lindvall and John Bolvin concluded that the teacher can
play an important role in developing a desirable learning
atmosphere by being an agent for selective reinforcement of
desirable types of activities (51:41). The teacher should
be a source of both selective knowledge regarding instruc
tional strategies and information of direct use to students
(53:10).
44
The role of the teacher in independent study must
be designed to enhance the development of those persons who
seek opportunities for learning. The behavior of the
instructor should also provide students with opportunities
to set their own goals, plan their own instructional pro
gram, and evaluate and monitor their own activities as
learning progresses (51:36-38).
Diagnostician and Prescriber
Instruction should begin with the examination or
diagnosis of a problem situation. It should conclude when
the problem has been resolved and reliable knowledge has
been attained (71:16). The CASSA study, Education Now for
Tomorrow1s World, projected that, in order to accomplish
this task, teachers of the future will become diagnosti
cians (71:12). In 1968, an IDEA seminar on The Flexibly
Scheduled School of 1980 said that the schools of the
future have a responsibility for developing appropriate
teacher roles which will help them become effective
diagnosticians and prescribers (35:7). Trump and
Georgiades view the teacher functioning both as a diagnos
tician and a prescriber (42:108). Robert Schaefer holds
the teacher responsible for making professional decisions
45
about what should be taught, subsequently making a sophis
ticated diagnosis of learning difficulties (20:37).
The Model Schools project saw the teacher, in his
role as diagnostician and prescriber, evaluating students
in relationship to their own past achievements in a variety
of educational goals, and then subsequently providing them
with relevant learning alternatives designed to effect
progress (42:12). "Desirable characteristics for the
teacher of the future are the ability to observe and assess
student behavior, and then to arrange appropriate contin
gencies for that behavior" (53:5). According to John
Goodlad, teaching, as it should be practiced, must be
characterized by efforts to determine where the student is
at the outset of instruction. His attainments and problems
should then be diagnosed, and the subsequent instruction
should be based on this diagnosis (46:5).
Teachers must be prepared to interpret test data
and apply the new findings (20:25). John Jackson stated,
"The teacher in his role as a diagnostician must determine
the student's expectancy level, and then prescribe learning
activities accordingly" (48:196).
Homme and Tosti, colleagues at the Behavior Systems
Division of the Westinghouse Learning Corporation,
46
developed a classification model in an attempt to teach
children. The primary emphasis throughout this model is
diagnosis and prescription. They call their model OD PRIME:
0 - Formulations of objectives of learning activities.
D - Diagnosis of learners' instructional needs.
PR - Prescription of instructional activities for the
learners.
1 - Instruction of the learner.
M - Motivation of the learner.
E - Evaluation of the learner's degree of achievement
of objectives. (37:28-32)
The professional literature concerning the teacher
role can best be summed up by a statement made by
Georgiades to the Western Area Conference of NASSP Model
School Principals in 1969: "Teachers must plan for diagno
sis of the pupil, and the subsequent prescription of
learning activities" (90).
Evaluator
A large portion of the literature reviewed by the
investigator dealt with the dissatisfaction of legislators
throughout the country regarding the results of education.
In his February, 1970, message on educational reform
47
President Nixon stated, NWe have too long avoided thinking
of the productivity of schools" (61:132). According to
Schwartz, legislators at the national level are asking for
evidence that education is better as a result of all the
money invested in it during the last twelve years. The
results that the teachers have reported, through the
National Education Association, have been regarded as
unsatisfactory. The results reported by the teachers have
been "input-oriented" rather than "product-oriented"
(61:131-33).
Trump stated, "If we believe in individualized
instruction then individualized evaluation is axiomatic"
(101:4). Georgiades said, "The purpose of evaluation must
be established before an evaluation system can be estab
lished" (90).
Research studies have shown that evaluation of most
educational innovation has failed to reveal significant
differences in learning (101:3). As was previously men
tioned in this chapter, a major reason for this finding was
that the roles of the teachers remained unaltered. How
ever , several of the studies indicated that the lack of
conclusive evaluation data was also a factor that contrib
uted to the lack of any significant difference in learning.
48
Robert Hardenbrook found that evaluation in innovative
programs was usually weak and poorly planned (91:162).
Grant Thayer's study revealed that only one school involved
in his survey study of innovative practices reported
extensive evaluation and feedback (100:173).
According to Georgiades, evaluation must 1) reflect
individual growth, 2) reflect all factors of the individual,
and 3) have multiple channels of assessment (90).
A difficulty in evaluation has been that teachers
have failed to describe their educational goals in terms
that are measured by the tests they gave (101:1).
"Teachers need to state their most important purposes in
pupil performance terms that can be quantified, measured,
and reported" (25:356). Richard Jones said that teachers
must begin to think in terms of goals, performance criteria,
and behavioral objectives (49:339). The emphasis in
evaluation in the NASSP Model Schools program is measure
ment of individual pupil progress— that is, what the pupil
actually knows and can do compared with his own past
achievement instead of against the group (42:116). Charles
Wilson said that if students were evaluated against them
selves teachers would automatically change. They would
seek to use all the "tricks” necessary to motivate every
49
single individual (65:67).
The teachers, as they perform in the role of
evaluator, are charged with the responsibility of determin
ing whether diagnosis, prescription, and instruction are,
in fact, resulting in student achievement of objectives.
The role of the evaluator is a valid one when the objec
tives are clearly stated; little is gained in attempting
to achieve a precise evaluation of vague objectives
(37:31). Taba stated, "A comprehensive evaluation program
is based upon previously stated behavioral objectives"
(23:224). Frieder pointed out that teachers must decide
what it is, exactly, that children should learn; what it is
that children already know; and how they can best teach
what is not known (37:28).
As evaluators in the Model Schools project, the
teachers provide continuous feedback for directing further
improvements. They are responsible for cognitive evalua
tion, and evaluation of the in-depth work for quantity and
quality. Finally, there should be occasional evaluation
of something in the affective domain (90, 42:116).
The West York, Pennsylvania, study concluded that
teachers must evaluate students based upon how well they
have done in terms of their own interest, potential, and
50
development at a given stage (72:16).
The teachers should use or develop indicators of
student performance, student attitudes, and student motiva
tion during the times that the student is not in direct
interaction with the teacher. The teacher should evaluate
the entering behavior of students, and should assess what
the students learn outside of school. Teachers should
adjust their evaluations as the students' interests and
goals change (53:10-11).
Director of Supportive Personnel
Teachers must enlist the help of aides who, under
their supervision, can take over certain tasks which now
consume one-third or more of the teaching day (62:3).
The NASSP Model Schools program suggested that the
teachers monitor and work with three kinds of supportive
personnel:
1. Instructional assistants— housewives, upperclassmen
in teacher education programs and retired teachers,
each with the equivalent of about two years of
college training in the subject field in which they
are to help. These people will supervise inde
pendent study areas, help with preparing materials.
51
and assist in evaluating pupil progress. They are
part-time workers, usually ten to thirty hours per
week. The Model program ideally suggests twenty
hours per week for each professional teacher on the
staff.
2. Clerks— high school graduates with skills in
typing, duplicating, record-keeping and the like.
Ideally, these employees would serve ten hours per
week for each professional teacher on the staff.
3. General aides— housewives lacking training in a
subject field or clerical skills. These people
would be responsible for getting materials out and
putting them away, selling tickets, supervising
nonstudy areas, and the like. Ideally, they would
serve five hours per week for each professional
teacher on the staff (42:110-11; 62:10).
"The teacher should use the out-of-school environ
ment as a resource for learning activities. The parents
should be used as a source of adult time to conduct
individualized activities" (53:11). The teachers need to
discover what they can do for themselves and what can be
done by less costly clerks and instructional assistants
(25:23).
52
In addition to the role of supervising part-time
assistants, the teachers should have available to them as
a service group the following:
1. Psychologists.
2. Psychometrists.
3. Content-area experts.
4. Research and development personnel
5. Media experts.
6. Graphic artists. (53:9)
Decision-Maker
If the teachers of the future are to accept the new
roles which have been projected for them, they, in turn,
must have a new range of autonomous decisions in a decen
tralized administration (53:8). Lipson envisioned teachers
with increased autonomy and control of resources. However,
they, in turn, would be expected to pass on more autonomy
to students and parents (53:5).
Wayland’s examination of the roles of teachers in
the decision-making process led him to conclude that there
is wide discrepancy between the degree of freedom the in
training teacher is assured he will have and the actual
autonomy that the system allows (79:41).
53
Trump stated, "The goal of flexible scheduling is
to return to teachers as much freedom as possible in the
use of time, space, numbers, and content for instruction
and learning" (24:62). The teacher should be the person
who does the following:
1. Select processes to which the students are exposed.
2. Design learning experiences to make effective use
of these processes.
3. Realign the subject matter so that it complements
the total instructional strategy and thereby
becomes a tool to be used in the process (71:13).
Delbert Clear stated, "Teachers must assume a major
role in the decision-making processes of the school"
(29:262). As education moves forward there will be a
greater demand for participation in the decision-making
process by both teachers and students (43:36). According
to Eugene Howard, "A flexible school is one in which the
people are free enough to make important decisions affect
ing the quality of their work" (47:90). John Duncan's
study projected the teacher as the director of the learning
process (86:143).
The actual decisions of an organization are a
reflection of the consideration of many diversified and
54
specialized groups within the organization, including
teachers of many types and with varying specialized compe
tencies. Effective decision-making allows autonomy at the
lowest level (34:26).
Some primary decision-making functions expected of
teachers in the NASSP Model Schools program are in the
areas of curriculum, learning, strategy, and accountability
(42:106-16). The decisions regarding curriculum content
are based on what is mandatory (minimum levels of achieve
ment), what is essential, and what is enriching and of
interest to a particular student (62:12-13).
Georgiades identified the following teacher
decision-making roles in relationship to planning of learn
ing strategy:
1. Pre-Strategy.
1.1 Identify targets.
1.2 Analyze audience.
1.3 Analyze professionals.
2. Strategy.
2.1 Identify activities.
2.2 Develop sequence.
2.3 Structure feedback.
55
3. Post-Strategy.
3.1 Analyze feedback.
3.2 Adjust strategy. (90)
Teachers must adjust the time to fit the task with
a continual variation of instructional techniques.
Teachers must also decide the size of the learning groups
by the goals which teachers and pupils have identified
(42:120-21).
Teachers are accountable for the learning of
students. The Model Schools project has asked teachers to
identify the minimum levels of achievement and then to be
accountable that students will learn and maintain these
levels of performance. It is projected that this will be
accomplished through the development of a continuous prog
ress curriculum relating to the minimum levels of achieve
ment and through periodic maintenance assessments (42:109-
13).
Teachers have a responsibility to hold students
accountable for independent study activities. One of the
ways this task might be accomplished would be for the
student to maintain a daily record of activities and
resources used during his independent study time (72:14).
The teacher of the future must provide a curriculum of
56
basic and depth education arranged logically and sequen
tially for each student. Subsequently, the teacher would
be accountable for student learning in this type of a
program (24:26).
Participant in a Continuing
In-Service Program
Robert Schaefer, in his Ninth Annual John Dewey
Society Lecture entitled, The School as a Center of Inquiry,
stated:
At this very moment when our society finally seems to
be taking education seriously should certainly be the
time when teachers should be discovering more about the
yet unrevealed mysteries of their craft. (20:26)
John Goodlad said:
We are finding that effecting change while 'school
keeps' is enormously difficult. Teachers do not aban
don long-standing practices because they read about
innovations or attend an inspiring lecture. (45:2)
The NASSP Model Schools project envisioned teachers
participating in a continuing individualized in-service
education program. The two key words that the Model
projects for progress are self-study and professionalism.
Conversely, the following long-standing methods of in-
service training are de-emphasized:
1. Visits to other schools.
2. Use of outside consultants for motivating change.
57
3. Purchase of externally developed technology and
materials.
However, communications among the schools with similar
interests and problems are encouraged to further the goals
of self-study and professionalism. The underlying premise
for in-service education in the NASSP Model is that past
practices are not sufficient for new ways (42:113-18).
According to Myron Lieberman, "In-service education
should be conducted on the "firing-line" rather than in the
sterility of college classrooms" (15:25). In-service
education should be conducted within the teachers' normal
forty-hour week (53:9). Trump asserted that teachers need
to be freed about half of the school day so they might
have time for their own further education and preparation
of new teaching methods which innovations will require
(62:3). "In order for teachers to accept new roles there
must be in-service programs designed to develop a sensitiv
ity toward the need for change" (10:18).
Two of the research studies reviewed in preparation
for this study specifically pointed out the importance of
in-service training for the implementation of innovative
programs. Gerald Speckhard's study revealed that teachers
need assistance in the use of new methods and the adoption
58
of new roles (99). Hawkins found that one of the factors
that contributed to successful innovation was the continu
ing graduate studies of teachers (92:150).
Schaefer believes that at this point in education,
there is the change to free the teacher to become the
constant learner it has always been claimed he is or should
be (20:57). The teacher should be involved in a continuous
in-service education and development program in which there
is an emphasis on case histories from the school as a basis
of instruction and assignments (53:9). "There needs to be
a massive re-orientation of teachers to a deeper under
standing of individual differences" (53:3).
In-service programs should not only provide
teachers with opportunities to upgrade themselves individ
ually; they should also provide situations where peers may
meet together. The purposes of these sessions are for
planning and working together to solve common problems
(42:121). Professional teachers have an obligation to
spend considerable time keeping up to date, conferring with
their professional colleagues, and improving their prepara
tion for teaching (25:23). Trump stated:
59
Teachers need to meet regularly in teaching teams
with other teachers to plan what each may do best, and
to give each the privilege of doing it. (25:24)
Curriculum Writer
The NASSP Model has provided teachers with approxi
mately 50 per cent of their day unscheduled. During this
instructional time the teacher is expected to perform a
multiplicity of tasks, not the least of which is that of
preparing continuous progress materials. Each pupil in
this new design will be expected to cover the required
content, using specially prepared materials. These
materials prepared by teachers are organized to provide
self-direction, self-motivation, and self-evaluation by
pupils themselves. The materials may be used by students
during independent study time (42:110-15).
In preparing logical and sequential material, the
teacher needs to define what he expects pupils to accomp
lish in terms that can be measured. Every aim of the
teacher should be quantifiable if stated properly (25:356).
"Teachers should be able to write or select performance
objectives which can represent the curriculum” (53:10).
By assuming the responsibility for writing curricu
lum, the teacher is more readily projected by students into
60
the very important role of intellectual model. Schaefer
expressed the importance of this role when he said.
Our schools should be staffed, gradually if you will,
by scholar-teachers in command of the conceptual tools
and methods of inquiry requisite to the investigation
of the learning process. (20:5)
Lipson concluded that "teachers should be intellectual
models and knowledge sources for students" (53:5).
Problems Which Have Prevented Teachers from
Assuming the New Roles
The professional literature included a wealth of
material regarding the new roles which teachers are being
asked to assume. Concurrently, the literature and the
research student pointed out that the role changes are not
occurring at a very rapid pace. The material previewed for
this study revealed that structural design, and not role
change, has been the primary emphasis in innovative pro
grams. According to experts such as Trump, Georgiades,
Brown, Schaefer, and Goodlad, the major purpose of a
flexible design is to permit the teacher to do things new
and to do them differently (25, 39, 7, 20, 62). "Often
times flexible schedules just increase the number of
periods offered, and the teaching and learning remain as
rigid as the traditional" (24:83).
61
Hawkins and Thayer concluded that another problem
which contributes to slow the rate of change in teacher
roles has been the lack of any in-depth evaluation of the
effects that teacher roles have had upon learning (92, 100)
Numerous other studies revealed little significant differ
ence in learning as a result of the implementation of a new
structural design (118, 83, 96, 95, 94, 98).
A final problem which Trump and Georgiades believe
contributes heavily to the reluctance of teachers to
assume new behavior patterns is the inability of teachers
to think in new and different ways (42). Gardner said that
those organizations which are just attempting to do the
same things in a more efficient manner are headed for
extinction (12:68).
Chapter Summary
The literature pertinent to this study has been
reviewed in this chapter. The major focus of the review
was the changing role of the teacher within the new
flexible schedules which are currently in use.
Selected professional literature and research
studies were reviewed in an effort to determine why it
is necessary that teachers alter their present roles.
62
The second phase of the review dealt with specific
roles that teachers are being encouraged to assume. The
following roles were discussed in detail:
1. Large-group presentor (including motivator,
facilitator, and catalyst).
2. Discussion consultant.
3. Teacher-counselor.
4. Resource person for independent study.
5. Diagnostician and prescriber.
6. Evaluator.
7. Director of supportive personnel.
8. Decision maker (including director of account
ability, learning strategist, and team member).
9. Participant in a continuing in-service education
program.
10. Curriculum writer (including intellectual model).
The final portion of the review pointed out the
following major problems that have prevented teachers from
assuming the roles that were discussed in the second phase
of the review:
1. Too much emphasis has been placed upon structural
design rather than alteration of behavioral
patterns.
63
2. There has been a lack of well-planned in-depth
evaluation of learning as it related to innovative
practices.
3. Teachers are still attempting to adjust their roles
to past practices instead of thinking of new and
different ways.
Perhaps the most significant aspect of the litera
ture reviewed in this chapter was the strong consensus that
new structural designs are only vehicles to assist teachers
to change their roles. Of almost equal importance was the
emphasis placed upon the need for more in-depth evaluation
of student learning.
According to the literature, the important tasks
which lie ahead are:
1. To create situations that will enable the teacher
to do things new and do them differently.
2. To provide on-the-job programs to assist the
teacher in assuming new roles.
3. To develop measuring devices which will provide
teachers with information regarding individual
student learning.
CHAPTER III
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to delineate the
design and methodology of the study. The chapter is
divided into three parts: 1) description of the student
and teacher samples, and the methods used to obtain them;
2) description of the instruments used to measure the
variables under investigation; and 3) the research design
used to analyze the data.
The Student and Teacher Samples
The district administration of the Bellflower
Unified School District was contacted during the summer of
1969 regarding the possibility of conducting a research
study at Washington Junior High School from September
through May of the 1969-70 school year. An additional
request was made through the district office in November of
1969 for on-site classroom visitations on a twice-per-month
64
65
basis during the last five months of the 1969-70 school
year. Both of the requests were granted.
The Student Samples
At the outset of the study, 173 eighth-grade
students were selected to participate. One group consisted
of 87 students randomly assigned to the Pontoon Transi
tional Design. The second group was made up of 86 students
who had been assigned randomly to the control group teach
ers. The particular sections used as the control group
were randomly selected by the school counselors. The
student sample was selected at random from the entire
eighth-grade class, since all eighth-graders at Washington
Junior High are required to take mathematics, social
studies, and English. Students were scheduled on a random
basis into the Pontoon Transitional Design. The method
used for assignment to the experimental program was the
designation of every fifth eighth-grader into the design.
It was impossible to carry this method out completely
because of student conflicts. The reasoning behind this
scheduling method adopted by the counseling staff was based
upon the fact that there were approximately 490 eighth-
grade students, and that by selecting every fifth student
66
the desired number of 90 could be obtained.
The final sample identified for the study consisted
of 121 students— 69 in the experimental Pontoon Transi
tional Design, and 52 in the conventional control group.
The final N was representative of those students who had
participated and completed all of the instrumentation
employed by this study.
In order to determine whether the two independent
samples selected for the study were drawn from the same
population (or from populations with the same distribution),
the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test was applied on the
following data:
1. The Lorge Thorndike I.Q. series of the students in
the final sample. The Lorge Thorndike test is the
selected examination administered to all students
in California at the eighth and twelfth grade
level. All eighth graders at Washington Junior
High took this test in October, 1969.
2. The three areas of the STEP Pretest. This test is
discussed in detail later in this chapter. The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov is a two-tailed test and is
sensitive to any kind of difference in the distri
butions from which the two samples were drawn—
67
differences in central tendency, in distribution,
in skewness, etc. (22:127-36).
If the two samples have in fact been drawn from the
same population distribution, then the cumulative distribu
tions of both samples may be expected to be fairly close
to each other, inasmuch as they both should show only
random deviations from the population distribution. If the
two sample cumulative distributions are "too far apart" at
any point, this suggests that the samples come from
different populations.
The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample
test performed on the two groups that participated in this
study are found in Tables 1 through 4.
Care was taken to enable both teacher and student
to respond freely regarding all measurement devices. Prior
to the implementation of the study, several meetings with
all the participating teachers were held regarding the
measuring devices that were to be employed. During the
conferences it was emphasized that any teacher data
gathered would be used for the sole purpose of benefitting
the school district and the educational profession. Hence,
measured teacher roles in no way had an effect on profes
sional evaluation.
68
TABLE 1
RESULTS OF THE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TWO-SAMPLE TEST ON
THE LORGE THORNDIKE I.Q. SCORES OF THE
PONTOON TRANSITIONAL DESIGN GROUP AND
THE CONVENTIONAL CONTROL GROUP
D Value Probability of Occurrence
1.197452® 0.11
aThe D value obtained from the application of the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test on the Lorge Thorndike
raw scores indicated that two distributions such as these
would occur approximately 11 times out of 100. Since the
significance level was set at .05, the two groups are
similar in distribution. Based on this criteria, the
results can be compared. (See Appendix A for raw score
distributions.)
69
TABLE 2
RESULTS OF THE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TWO-SAMPLE TEST ON
THE MATHEMATICS PRETEST RAW SCORES OF THE STEP TEST
OF BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
D Value Probability of Occurrence
1.197452® 0.146
aThe D value obtained from the application of the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test on the raw pretest
scores from the mathematics section of the STEP test indi
cated that two distributions such as these would occur
approximately 14 times out of 100. Since the significance
level was set at .05 the two groups are similar in distri
bution. Based on this criteria the results in mathematics
can be compared. (See Appendix B for raw score distribu
tions .)
70
TABLE 3
RESULTS OF THE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TWO-SAMPLE TEST
THE SOCIAL STUDIES PRETEST RAW SCORES OF THE
STEP TEST OF BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
ON
D Value Probability of Occurrence
1.616332a 0.010
aThe D value obtained from the application of the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test on the raw pretest
scores from the social studies section of the STEP indi
cated that two distributions such as these would occur
approximately 1 time out of 100. Since the significance
level was set at .05 the two groups are not similar in
distribution. Based on this criteria the results in social
studies cannot be compared. (See Appendix C for raw score
distributions.)
71
TABLE 4
RESULTS OF THE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TWO-SAMPLE TEST ON
THE WRITING PRETEST RAW SCORES OF THE STEP TEST
OF BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
D Value Probability of Occurrence
1.252088a 0.086
aThe D value obtained from the application of the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test on the raw pretest
scores from the writing section of the STEP test indicated
that two distributions such as these would occur approxi
mately 8 times out of 100. Since the significance level
was set at .05 the two groups are similar in distribution.
Based on this criteria the results in writing can be
compared. (See Appendix D for raw score distributions.)
72
The Teacher Samples
Two teacher groups were used in the study. The
first group involved three teachers who were teaching
eighth-grade mathematics, social studies, and English,
respectively, in a Pontoon Transitional Design. The second
teacher group was represented by two teachers who were
also teaching eighth-grade mathematics, social studies, and
English, but in a conventional design. Figure 1 shows the
schematic of the five teachers participating in the study.
One of the teachers in the second group was teaching both
social studies and English.
The three Pontoon Transitional Design teachers
volunteered to teach in this type of experimental structure.
These three teachers participated in a limited in-service
training program during the second semester of the 1968-69
school year and again at the beginning of the first semes
ter of the 1969-70 school year. The purpose of these
training sessions was to acquaint the teachers with the
flexible opportunities of the experimental design. The
principal of the school and the Director of Curriculum of
the district conducted the in-service sessions. All three
of the Pontoon Transitional Design teachers are tenured.
They are considered to be highly qualified in their
73
FIGURE 1
SCHEMATIC OF TEACHER PARTICIPATION
IN THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Pontoon Mathematics . Social Studies . English
Transitional
Design Teacher . Teacher Teacher
Conventional
Mathematics Social Studies English*
Design
Teacher Teacher Teacher
*Same teacher is teaching both social studies and
English in the control group.
74
respective areas of mathematics, social studies, and
English.
The two teachers in the control group also volun
teered to participate in the study. Since they were
tenured and had several years of experience, it was
unnecessary to provide an in-service program for them.
Table 5 indicates the specific qualifications of
the teachers involved in the study. Both the district
administration and the school administration consider these
people to be very competent instructors. (See Appendices
J and K.)
Selection of Subject Matter Areas to Be
Included in the Study
The subject matter areas of mathematics, social
studies, and English were selected for the study. This
selection was made after determining that all eighth-grade
students were taking these three subjects. The only other
subject which all eighth-graders were taking was physical
education. Since all eighth-grade students were taking
mathematics, social studies, and English, the opportunity
for similarly structured groups was much greater than if
the selected sample was the only group eligible to
TABLE 5
SPECIFIC QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHERS INVOLVED IN THE STUDY
Years of No. of Years Teaching College College
Teaching Years at Present Subject Major Minor Highest
Teacher Experience Washington Assignment Area Area Degree
Pontoon Mathematics
Mathematics 9 6 6 Education and
Soc. Science
MA
Pontoon
Soc. Studies
15 13 13 History English BA
Pontoon
English
14 9 8 English History BA
Control
Mathematics
11 11 7 History Mathematics MA
Control
Soc. Studies
8 8 6 English History MA
Control*
English
8 8 8 English History MA
♦Control Social Studies and Control English are the same person.
U 1
76
participate in the study.
In addition, this scheduling design presented a
wide selection of teachers available to volunteer for both
the control and experimental groups, thus providing a
better opportunity for equalizing the quality of instruc
tion.
Instrumentation
Cognitive Domain
The primary concern of the study focuses upon the
cognitive and affective growth of students. The Sequential
Tests of Educational Progress (STEP), Level 3A, were
administered to both groups involved in the study for the
purpose of obtaining cognitive growth data.
Since the study was concerned with the subject
areas of mathematics, social studies, and English, the
corresponding STEP tests were selected. The STEP writing
test was used to obtain cognitive data in the area of
English, as it was more closely related to the eighth-grade
English curriculum than was the reading section of the STEP.
The STEP tests were developed by the Educational
Testing Service in 1957 (76). There are four levels of the
STEP in the areas of reading, writing, social studies,
77
science, and mathematics. There are two alternate tests
at each level. Figure 2 indicates the various levels of
the STEP and the appropriate groups with which each test
should be used (76:3).
In order to obtain cognitive growth data, the STEP
test was administered to both the experimental and control
groups in October, 1969, and again in June, 1970. Direc
tions were followed exactly in accordance with the
examination manual (76). The researcher chose the one-
session alternative for administering both the pretest and
posttest. Figure 3 illustrates the administration alter
natives available and the time allowance for each (76).
A summary of the instrumentation and data analysis
used to investigate student variables in the cognitive
domain is given in Table 6.
Affective Domain
An additional concern of this study was the assess
ment of the students' attitudinal change in the affective
domain. In order to determine student attitudes toward
school and education in general, data were obtained from
three specific sources: 1) Rundquist-Sletto attitudinal
survey; 2) daily attendance patterns of students; and
78
FIGURE 2
LEVELS OF THE STEP READING, WRITING, SOCIAL STUDIES
SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS TESTS
Level
Alternate Appropriate Examinee
Tests Group
1 A, B College Freshmen and Sophomores
2 A, B Grades 10, 11, and 12
3 A, B Grades 7, 8, and 9
4 A, B Grades 4, 5, and 6
79
FIGURE 3
AVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES AND CORRESPONDING TIME
ALLOWANCES FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE
STEP TESTS (TIME ALLOWANCES ARE
EXPRESSED IN MINUTES)
Alternative 1
Two Sessions
Alternative 2
One Session
First Second
Distributing materials 5 5 5
General directions 5 5 5
Directions for Part One 5 5 5
Part One 35 35
Recess 5
Part Two 35 35
Totals 50 50 90
80
TABLE 6
INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS USED
TO INVESTIGATE STUDENT VARIABLES
IN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Instrumentation Analysis
STEP: Mathematics
STEP: Social Studies
STEP: English
Analysis of Covariance
Analysis of Covariance
Analysis of Covariance
81
3) discipline referrals to the vice-principal. Figure 4
provides a schematic of the instrumentation used to obtain
data in the affective domain.
Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale. This twenty-
two item, Likert-type scale was developed by Rundguist and
Sletto in 1936 (21:232-34). The purpose of the scale was
to measure attitudes toward the value of education or of
being educated. The items are broad in content, ranging
from the effects education has upon leisure time to the
conflict between education and work. Even though the
scale is somewhat dated, none of the items required alter
ation or elimination (see Appendix E).
The Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale was admin
istered in April, 1970, to both the Pontoon Transitional
Design students and the conventional Control students in a
large-group setting. Some of the items on the scale were
positively weighted, while others were negatively weighted.
Students were asked to respond to each item by underlining
one of the following choices of response which were
provided: "strongly agree," "agree," "undecided,"
"disagree," "strongly disagree." Scoring on the
positively-weighted items ranged from 5 (strongly agree) to
82
FIGURE 4
SCHEMATIC FOR INSTRUMENTATION USED FOR OBTAINING
STUDENT DATA IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Instrument
Groups
Included
Time Period for
Obtaining Data
Rundquist-Sletto
Attitudinal Scale
Experimental
and
Control
Administered to both
groups in April, 1970
Daily attendance
patterns
Experimental
and
Control
September, 1969 to May,
1970; data obtained from
school attendance
records
Discipline
referrals
Experimental
and
Control
September, 1969, to May,
1970; data obtained from
the official records of
the vice-principal
83
1 (strongly disagree). The scoring was reversed on the
negatively-weighted questions. High scores indicated
positive attitudes toward the values of education.
Rundquist and Sletto reported split-half reliabil
ities (corrected) of .82 and .83 based upon samples of 500
males and 500 females, respectively. They also reported
test-retest reliabilities of .84 for a sample of seventy
males and .85 for a sample of seventy-five females
(21:233). The authors of the scale also reported some
correlates with other measuring instruments which may be
construed as evidence of some concurrent validity.
Daily attendance patterns of students. The pattern
of daily attendance has been used historically by public
schools as an indicator of students' attitudes toward
school and the value of education. If the program of the
school is important and relevant to students, it follows
that they will make more concerted efforts to attend.
Thus, if the Pontoon Transitional Design (or indeed, any
innovative practice) created a situation resulting in more
favorable attendance patterns, it must be considered a
significant factor.
84
Daily attendance patterns were compiled for both
the Pontoon Transitional Design and control groups from
September, 1969, through May, 1970. The data used for the
study were taken from the official attendance records of
school supplied by the Bellflower Unified School District
Data Processing Center. An analysis was made of these
data for comparative purposes.
Discipline referrals. Valid judgments can be made
regarding student attitudes toward school by assessing
their conduct while at school. As a rule, pupils who are
interested in their school work do not become discipline
problems. Therefore, comparing the data of the two groups
in the study regarding discipline referrals to the adminis
tration can be considered a significant evaluative factor.
At Washington Junior High it is standard procedure
for teachers to refer to the vice-principal students who
are discipline problems. Handling misconduct problems is
the vice-principal's major role. Teachers were instructed
that each time a student created a problem which in their
judgment disrupted the educational process, they should
submit a report in writing to the vice-principal. These
discipline referral reports are kept on file in the
85
vice-principal's office.
For the purpose of obtaining data for this study,
the discipline referral reports were reviewed from
September, 1969, through May, 1970 in order to determine
the number of referrals for students in both the experi
mental and control groups.
A summary of the instrumentation and data analysis
used to investigate student variables in the affective
domain is given in Table 7.
The Role of the Teacher
Two measuring devices were selected in order to
assess and compare the roles of the Pontoon Transitional
Design and the conventionally scheduled control teachers.
The instruments employed to assess the roles of the teacher
were The Teacher Observation Scale (see Appendix 6), and
the self-administered Teacher Record of Activities (see
Appendix I). Figure 5 provides a schematic of the instru
mentation used in assessing the experimental and control
teachers' behavior patterns.
The Teacher Observation Scale. The Teacher Obser
vation Scale, observation pad, and matrix were developed
by Donald C. Clark, Director of Curriculum, Monrovia
86
TABLE 7
INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS USED TO
INVESTIGATE STUDENT VARIABLES IN
THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Instrumentation Analysis
Rundquist-Sletto
Attitudinal Scale
Chi-square
Daily attendance patterns t test
Discipline referrals t test
FIGURE 5
SCHEMATIC OF INSTRUMENTATION FOR ASSESSING EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL TEACHER BEHAVIOR
NO. Of . ,
Scale Groups Data Separate Tlme penod of
Included Obtained By Recordings Observations
Teacher
Observation Scale
Experimental
and
Control
Observer 10 January, 1970
to May, 1970
Teacher Record of
Activities
Experimental
and
Control
Self-
Administration
45 September., 1969
to May, 1970
Five times per
month
oo
s]
88
Unified School District, Monrovia, California (85).
Assisting Clark in the development of this instrument was
Winston Janes, Science-Mathematics Specialist, Monrovia
Unified School District, and William Georgiades, University
of Southern California. The Teacher Observation Scale was
developed in 1969 for the primary purpose of measuring and
comparing variations of methodologies employed by teachers
utilizing the Pontoon Transitional Design with those used
by teachers in conventional programs. The scale was also
used to determine whether the Pontoon Transitional Design
teachers vary their methods of instruction with the
flexibility of different sizes of groups.
The Teacher Observation Scale draws on the princi
ples utilized by Flanders and Amidon in the development of
interaction analysis (66). The scale, however, is basic
ally the outgrowth of the work done by E. Wayne Roberson
at the EPIC Evaluation Center, Tucson, Arizona (75). The
categories of Teacher methodology have been drawn from the
methods section of his instrument for Coding Teacher Verbal
and Non-Verbal Classroom Behavior. Roberson's scale has
been modified to include the category of quiet. Also
added were the columns indicating teacher or student
initiation. The three categories of classroom organization
89
consisting of presentation, discussion, and study represent
the terminology now being utilized by Trump and Georgiades
in the National Association of Secondary Schools Model
Schools Project to describe large-group, small-group, and
independent study (107, 109, 110).
As was previously mentioned, teacher behavior was
measured in the teacher-initiated the student-initiated
areas. The ten specific roles or behavior patterns of
teachers that were being measured were in the following
areas: 1) lecture, 2) question-answer, 3) demonstrate,
4) direction, 5) mastery, 6) problem-solving, 7) clarify,
8) inquiry, 9) dialogue, and 10) quiet.
The utilization of this scale calls for the
systematic observation and recording of classroom behavior
by an observer. Using the observation pad, the observer
indicates teacher behavior at thirty-second intervals. At
the end of the observation period, which for the purpose
of this study was thirty-five minutes, the behaviors are
plotted on the matrix. This gives a graphic illustration
of teacher behavior for that period of time and serves as a
basis of comparison of the behaviors of the experimental
Pontoon Transitional Design teachers and the control
teachers.
90
The experimental and control teachers in the study
were observed ten times between January, 1970, and May,
1970 (five months). The observations were made by the
investigator and were completed on a twice-a-month basis.
There was an attempt on the part of the observer to vary
the observation days. In this way there was more of an
opportunity to obtain a cross-sectional view of teaching
patterns. Table 8 indicates the specific dates, days, and
weeks of the observations.
The length of each observation period was thirty-
five minutes. Teacher behavior was recorded every thirty
seconds, thus providing seventy observations per visit,
and a total of 700 observations for the five-month period.
A copy of the first observation matrix was sent to
the teachers several days after the visit. The purpose of
this was to acquaint the teachers further with the instru
ment and technique being used. Questions that were raised
after reviewing the matrix were discussed during the second
observation.
During all conferences held with the teachers the
observer refrained from placing value judgments on any of
the behavior patterns listed on the Teacher Observation
Scale.
91
TABLE 8
SPECIFIC DATES, DAYS,
TEACHER OBSERVATIONS
AND WEEK WHEN
WERE MADE
Month and Year
of Observation
Dates of
Observations
Days of
Observation
Week of
the Month
1 January, 1970 13 Tuesday 3
2 January, 1970 28 Wednesday 5
3 February, 1970 3 Tuesday 1
4 February, 1970 26 Thursday 4
5 March, 1970 10 Tuesday 2
6 March, 1970 31 Tuesday 5
7 April, 1970 7 Tuesday 2
8 April, 1970 24 Friday 4
9 May, 1970 4 Monday 2
10 May, 1970 14 Thursday 3
92
Teacher Record of Activities. The Teacher Record
of Activities was developed in 1969 by Howard Roop,
Director of Curriculum, Bellflower Unified School District,
Bellflower, California (97). This instrument asked
teachers to self-assess the percentage of time they spent
on a given day in the following categories:
1. Individual student help.
2. Discussion (small student group).
3. Class discussion (regular class).
4. Presentation (large group).
5. Presentation (regular class).
6. Informal learning experience (teacher assisted).
7. Planning (individual).
8. Planning (with other teachers or teacher assist
ants) .
9. Clerical and administrative activities.
10. Other activities of the teaching day.
Roop indicated that the writings of Trump, Georgiades, and
Brown had a great deal of influence in the development of
the categories used in the Teacher Record of Activities
instrument.
Prior to the opening of the 1969-70 school year,
the principal requested that the teachers involved in the
93
research study fill out the Teacher Record of Activities
for one week (five days) each school month of the 1969-70
school year. Teachers were specifically requested to
complete the measuring device at the conclusion of each
school day rather than waiting until the end of the week.
It was believed this method would give a more accurate
assessment of teacher behavior. Finally, the teachers
involved in the study were asked to select one week per
month for completing the Teacher Record of Activities. All
teachers were to complete the instrument during the same
week. It was suggested that the weeks be varied in an
attempt to obtain a better cross-section of teacher
behavior. Table 9 provides a graphic illustration of the
time periods used for self-administering the Teacher Record
of Activities.
A summary of the instrumentation data analysis used
to investigate teacher behavioral variables is given in
Table 10.
Statistical Treatment
A description of the statistical treatment used in
the study is included in this section of Chapter III.
Analyses of data pertinent to student cognitive measure-
94
TABLE 9
TIME PERIODS USED DURING EACH SCHOOL MONTH
FOR SELF-ADMINISTERED TEACHER RECORD
OF ACTIVITIES
School Month
Inclusive Dates
of Assessment
Week of
the Month
October, 1969 20-24 4
November, 1969 17-21 3
December, 1969 8-12 2
January, 1970 26-30 5
February, 1970 16-20 3
March, 1970 16-20 3
April, 1970 13-17 3
May, 1970 11-15 2
June, 1970 1- 5 1
95
TABLE 10
INSTRUMENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS USED TO INVESTIGATE
TEACHER BEHAVIORAL VARIABLES
Instrumentation Analysis
Teacher Observation Scale Chi-square
Teacher Record of Activities Chi-square
96
ments, student affective measurements, the behavioral
patterns of teachers, and level significance factors are
included. A description of the specific statistical
designs used in the study can be found in j. P. Guilford's
book, Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education
(13:248-49, 301, 183-84).
Cognitive Domain
Sequential Tests of Educational Progress (STEP).
9
The data obtained from the three areas of the STEP pretest
in mathematics, social studies, and English were initially
subjected to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test.
Tables 1 through 4 on pages 68 through 71 indicate the
results of this analysis. The purpose of applying the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was to determine whether the two
independent samples selected for this study were drawn
from the same population, or populations with the same
distribution. An earlier section of this chapter described
the capabilities of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and its
uses in this study.
At the conclusion of the experiment the STEP test
data gathered from both groups involved in the research
design were analyzed by analysis of covariance. The
97
purpose of this analysis was to determine whether there
was a significant difference in cognitive growth between
the students in the experimental and control groups.
Affective Domain
Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale. Each of the
twenty-two items on the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale
was subjected to a chi-square for the purpose of determin
ing whether the two groups were independent of experimental
and control conditions.
A chi-square was also performed on the over-all
scale for each group involved in the study. This analysis
provided a comparison of the experimental group and the
control group on the total scale.
Daily attendance patterns of students. Student
attendance patterns were analyzed for purposes of compari
son. A t test was used to compare the number of days
absent in the experimental group with the number of days
absent in the control group.
Discipline referrals. The number of discipline
referrals to the vice-principal were computed for each
group for purposes of comparison. A t test was employed to
98
compare the number of discipline referrals in the experi
mental group with the number of discipline referrals in
the control group.
The Role of the Teacher
Teacher Observation Scale. A chi-square was per
formed on the data obtained from the Teacher Observation
Scale. The purpose of this particular statistical treat
ment was to determine whether observed teacher behavior is
independent of experimental and control conditions.
Specifically, a chi-square test was performed on both the
experimental and control teachers in the individual subject
areas of mathematics, social studies, and English. In
addition, a chi-square was used for an over-all comparison
of the experimental teachers with the control teachers.
Teacher Record of Activities. The teachers' self
perception of their roles, as measured by the Teacher
Record of Activities, was analyzed by performing a chi-
square on the mean percentage for each of the ten areas
included in the instrument. This made possible a compari
son of the experimental teachers with the control teachers
in like subject areas. A chi-square was also used to
99
obtain an over-all comparison of the Pontoon Transitional
Design teachers with the conventional control teachers.
Significance Level
A 5 per cent risk of making a Type I error was
accepted; consequently, this significance level was set as
the maximum probability at which the null hypotheses could
be rejected.
Chapter Summary
This chapter has presented a description of the
sample, the instrumentation utilized, and the statistical
treatment employed in the study. The section dealing with
the sample included steps taken to obtain school district
approval, methods used for selection of student and teacher
participants in the study, and selection of subject areas.
Statistical analysis to determine whether the experimental
and control groups were like populations was also explained.
A section of the chapter was devoted to instru
mentation. This included a rationale, administrative
procedures, and a description of the ten measuring devices
used in the study.
100
The chapter concluded with a section that described
the statistical treatment employed on the instruments that
measured the cognitive growth of students, affective
growth of students, and the roles of teacher.
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS RELATED TO STUDENT GROWTH IN THE
COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE DOMAINS
Introduction
The major focus of this study was to compare the
cognitive and affective growth of experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design students with that of conventional
control students. Findings derived from the research data
which enabled such comparisons are presented in this
chapter.
The Cognitive Domain
Data relating to the cognitive growth of students
were obtained through administration of the Sequential
Tests of Educational Progress (STEP), Level 3A, in the
areas of mathematics, social studies, and writing. As was
previously mentioned in Chapter III, the writing section of
the STEP test was used to compare student cognitive growth
in the area of English. The statistical analysis performed
101
102
on the student cognitive data was completed for comparative
purposes in the following areas: 1) experimental mathemat
ics with control mathematics; 2) experimental social studies
with control social studies; and 3) experimental writing
with control writing. Tables 11, 13, and 15 reveal the
pretests and posttests means in each of the subject areas
compared, plus the standard deviation for the posttests.
These tables do not show standard deviations for the pre
tests, since the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test analy
sis, presented in Chapter III, indicated like population
distributions for the two groups; therefore, it was unnec
essary to compute standard deviations on the pretest means.
Experimental Mathematics
with Control Mathematics
In order to compare the cognitive academic gains
of the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design students
and the conventional control students, an analysis of
covariance was performed on the STEP test data acquired
from both groups. Table 11 shows that the experimental
students achieved a higher mean score on the STEP test in
mathematics. Table 12 indicates, statistically, that the
mathematics scores of the experimental students were
significantly higher than those of the control students.
TABLE 11
MEANS FOR PRETEST AND POSTTEST AND
DEVIATION FOR POSTTEST ON THE STEP
LEVEL 3A, IN MATHEMATICS
103
STANDARD
TEST,
Experimental Control
Item Group Group
(N=69) (N=52)
Pretest Mean 22.49 20.48
Posttest Mean 26.49 22.34
Posttest SD 5.73 7.44
TABLE 12
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SCORES ON
THE STEP TEST, LEVEL 3A, IN MATHEMATICS
Results
Source
SS df MS F
Between
Within
Total
233.00
3231.81
3464.81
1
118
119
233.0
27.38
8.50
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 3.93.
104
The F value between the two groups, which was obtained from
the analysis of covariance, was 8.50. A value of 3.93 was
necessary for significance at the .05 level; therefore, the
F value represented a decided difference between the two
groups in cognitive mathematics achievement in favor of
the experimental students.
Experimental Social Studies
with Control Social Studies
The results of the analysis of covariance performed
on the data obtained from both groups on the STEP test in
social studies are presented in Table 14. The F value
between the two groups was .99. Since a value of 3.93 was
needed in order for the difference to be significant at
the .05 level, the difference reported was not statis
tically significant. While the statistical analysis was
not significant, Table 13 reveals that the experimental
Pontoon Transitional Design students had higher mean scores
on both the pretest and the posttest.
Experimental Writing
with Control Writing
The results of the analysis of covariance applied
to the data obtained from the STEP test in writing are
105
TABLE 13
MEANS FOR PRETEST AND POSTTEST AND STANDARD
DEVIATION FOR POSTTEST ON THE STEP TEST,
LEVEL 3A IN SOCIAL STUDIES
Item
Experimental
Group
(N*69)
Control
Group
(N=52)
Pretest Mean 39.72 34.63
Posttest Mean 43.97 39.48
Posttest SD 7.33 9.60
TABLE 14
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE
STEP TEST, LEVEL 3A, IN SOCIAL STUDIES
Results
source
SS df MS F
Between 42.57 1 42.57 ,99a
Within 5030.18 118 42.62
Total 5072.25 119
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 3.93.
106
presented in Table 16. This statistical analysis revealed
no significant difference between the experimental and
control students in cognitive academic achievement in
writing. The obtained F value was .07. In order for the
difference to be statistically significant at the .05
level, a value of at least 3.93 was needed. However,
Table 15 shows that the experimental students achieved
higher mean scores on the STEP writing test than did the
control students.
Affective Domain
The measuring devices employed to obtain affective
data were 1) the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale,
2) daily attendance patterns, and 3) discipline referrals
to the vice-principal.
Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale
A posttest on the Rundquist-Sletto was administered
to the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design students
and the conventional control students. Means and standard
deviations were computed for both groups and are shown in
Table 17. The results of the analysis of variance are
presented in Table 18.
TABLE 15
MEANS FOR PRETEST AND POSTTEST AND
DEVIATION FOR POSTTEST ON THE STEP
LEVEL 3A, IN WRITING
107
STANDARD
TEST,
Experimental Control
Item Group Group
(N«69) (N=52)
Pretest Mean 25.71 23.28
Posttest Mean 29.30 28.05
Posttest SD 7.34 7.55
TABLE 16
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SCORES ON
THE STEP TEST, LEVEL 3A, IN WRITING
Results
Source --------------------------------------------
SS df MS F
Between 2.75 1 2.75 .07
Within 4581.12 118 38.82
Total 4583.87 119
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 3.93.
108
TABLE 17
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ATTITUDINAL SCALE MEAN AND
STANDARD DEVIATION FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUPS
Item
Experimental
Group
(N*=69)
Control
Group
(N=52)
Mean 79.98 82.98
SD 9.94 10.87
TABLE 18
RESULTS OF THE RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ATTITUDINAL SCALE
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Source
Results
SS df MS F
Between 266.03 1 266.03 2.48a
Within 12759.85 119 107.22
Total 13025.89 120
®Value required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 9.49.
109
The results of the statistical analysis performed
on the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale data revealed no
significant difference between the two groups on the over
all raw scores. The analysis of variance revealed an
F value of 2.48, and a value of 9.49 was needed to be
significant at the .05 level. Table 17 did reveal that the
mean raw scores of the control students were slightly
higher, but not significantly so.
In addition to the analysis of variance performed
on the total raw scores of the experimental and control
students, a chi-square analysis was applied to the
responses of the experimental and control groups to each of
the twenty-two individual items on the Rundquist-Sletto
Attitudinal Scale.
The analyses revealed that differences on three of
the twenty-two items were statistically significant. These
were items eight, eleven, and twenty. Chi-square analysis
of the data pertaining to the other nineteen items revealed
that differences were insignificant. The data on item
eight, which stated, "A high school education is worth all
the time and effort it requires," are shown in Table 19.
The significant chi-square of 13.41 indicated a tendency
for the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design students
110
TABLE 19
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM EIGHT DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly e Undecided Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
Experimental 29 35 3 2 0
Control 21 18 7 5 5
Chi-square 13.41*
*P < .05.
Ill
to select the agreement responses more often than did the
control students.
The statistical analysis of item eleven is shown
in Table 20. This item stated, "Education only makes a
person discontented." The significant chi-square for this
item was 11.28, indicating a greater tendency on the part
of experimental students to disagree with this negatively-
worded statement, as compared with control students.
Table 21 presents the statistical results on item
twenty, which stated, "Education is more valuable than
most people think." The analysis revealed a significant
chi-square of 10.02. The experimental students tended to
agree more often with statement twenty than did the control
students.
Finally, a chi-square was performed on the over-all
responses of the experimental and control groups on all of
the twenty-two items of the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal
Scale. The statistical results, which are presented in
Table 22, revealed a significant chi-square of 11.05. This
significant value indicated a tendency on the part of the
experimental Pontoon Transitional Design students to
select positive responses more frequently than did the
conventional control students.
112
TABLE 20
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM ELEVEN DATA AND ANALYSIS
Group
No. of Responses
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 2 2 14 39 12
Control 0
Chi
6 8
-square 11.28*
19 18
*P < .05.
TABLE 21
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM TWENTY DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 25 33 9 0 2
Control 28 17 4 3 0
Chi-square 10.02*
*P < .05.
113
TABLE 22
OVER-ALL DATA AND ANALYSIS ON THE TWENTY-TWO ITEM
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ATTITUDINAL SCALE
Group
No. of Responses
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 230 288 275 286 228
Control 215 247 183 281 211
Chi-square 11.05*
*P <
m
in
o
•
114
Daily Attendance Patterns
Daily attendance patterns were also used to assess
changes in the affective domain with respect to experi
mental Pontoon Transitional Design students and conven
tional control students. Daily attendance data were
acquired from the official school attendance records
between the months of September, 1969, through May, 1970.
An analysis of variance was performed on the attendance
data, and the results are shown in Table 24. A F value
of .38 was found and was not significant, since a 3.95
value was required for significance at the .05 level.
Table 23 reveals the mean and standard deviation for each
group regarding daily attendance. The results indicated
that the control students had slightly fewer absences than
did the experimental students; however, as can be seen,
the difference was not statistically significant.
Discipline Referrals
It was impossible to compute a statistical analysis
on the discipline referral data because of the few referrals
reported. The experimental group had seven discipline
referrals while the control group had five. These numbers
were considered insufficient for statistical analysis.
115
TABLE 23
ATTENDANCE PATTERNS MEAN AND
FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
STANDARD DEVIATION
CONTROL GROUPS
Item
Experimental
Group
(N=69)
Control
Group
(N*52)
Mean 6.24 5.50
SD 6.20 6.97
TABLE 24
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE ON
ATTENDANCE PATTERNS
Source
Results
SS df MS F
Between 16.51 1 16.51 0.38a
Within 5095.80 119 42.82
Total 5112.31 120
^alue required to achieve
at the .05 level was 3.95.
statistical significance
116
Therefore, this variable was not used to measure affective
growth between the experimental and control students.
Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to determine stu
dent growth in the cognitive and affective domains.
Student members of the experimental Pontoon Transitional
Design and the conventional control group were the subjects
for this particular portion of the study.
The measurement devices employed to ascertain
student cognitive growth were the Sequential Tests of
Educational Progress, Level 3A, in mathematics, social
studies, and writing. The tests were administered on a
pretest-posttest basis over a nine-month period of time.
An analysis of covariance was applied to the
cognitive data obtained in each student area. The statis
tical analysis performed on the mathematics data revealed
that the experimental students achieved significantly
greater cpgnitive gains than did the control students.
However, when the analysis of covariance was performed on
the social studies and writing data the results indicated
no statistical difference between the cognitive growth of
117
the experimental and control students in either subject
area.
Three instruments were used to acquire affective
data from the experimental and control students. These
instruments were 1) the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale,
2) daily attendance patterns, and 3) discipline referrals
to the vice-principal.
An analysis of variance was performed on the raw
scores obtained from the experimental and control students
on the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale. The results
revealed no statistical significance between the two groups.
A chi-square analysis was performed on the
responses of the students to each individual item on the
twenty-two item Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale. The
results revealed that, with the exception of items eight,
eleven, and twenty, no statistical differences appeared
between the responses of the experimental and control
groups. The results indicated that, as compared with
control students, the experimental students had a greater
tendency to agree with items eight and twenty, and to
disagree with item eleven.
A chi-square analysis was applied to the over-all
Rundquist-Sletto responses. The results were found to be
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
118
statistically significant.
The statistical analysis performed on the nine-
month daily attendance patterns revealed no significant
difference between the experimental and control groups.
The lack of sufficient data in the area of student
discipline referrals made it impossible to use this
variable to measure affective student growth.
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS RELATED TO THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER
Introduction
Presented in this chapter are the findings of the
study that pertain to the role of the teacher. These find
ings are discussed in two major sections, entitled as
follows: 1) "Teacher Observation Scale," and 2) "Teacher
Record of Activities."
The data in Table 1, located in Chapter III, reveal
that the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design teachers
and the conventional control teachers had similar prepara
tion and teaching experience. The district administration
and the principal of the school involved in the study
testified that both the experimental and control teachers
were highly competent and had similar qualifications (see
Appendices J and K). These sources substantiate the
assumption at the outset of this study that the two teacher
samples used were drawn from like populations.
119
120
Teacher Observation Scale
The Teacher Observation Scale is divided into two
sectionss Teacher-initiated behavior, and Student-
initiated behavior. Observations in each of these two
sections were made in relation to the following ten teacher
roles:
1. Lecture.
2. Question-Answer.
3. Demonstrate.
4. Direction.
5. Mastery.
6. Problem-solving.
7. Clarify.
8. Inquiry.
9. Dialogue.
10. Quiet.
Teacher-Initiated Behavior
In only five areas were sufficient data obtained
for analysis of the Teacher Observation Scale results per
taining to teacher-initiated behavior. These areas were:
1. Lecture.
2. Question-Answer.
121
3. Direction.
4. Clarify.
5. Quiet.
Results obtained from the Teacher Observation Scale
with regard to teacher-initiated behavior are shown in
Tables 25, 26, 27, and 28. The data are presented in terms
of over-all experimental and control teachers in each
subject area involved.
Experimental mathematics with control mathematics.
The results obtained from the Teacher Observation Scale
pertaining to teacher-initiated behavior in mathematics are
shown in Table 25. The chi-square analysis indicated
statistically significant differences in the five areas of
the scale containing sufficient data for analysis. The
analysis revealed that, as compared with the control
teacher, there was a tendency for the experimental mathe
matics teacher to lecture more, to engage in more question-
and-answer sessions, and to provide more direction. The
control mathematics teacher tended to clarify more than did
the experimental mathematics teacher.
Experimental social studies with control social
studies. Results obtained from the Teacher Observation
122
TABLE 25
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL MATHEMATICS TEACHERS IN THE
TEACHER-INITIATED AREAS
Area
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Lecture*3 b 41 5.8 0 0
Question-Answer 114 16.3 22 3.1
Demonstrate 6 .8 0 0
V
Direction 156 22.3 66 9.4
Mastery 26 3.7 0 0
Problem-solving 39 5.5 0 0
Clarify*3 107 15.3 342 48.8
Inquiry 0 0 0 0
Dialogue 0 0 0 0
Quiet*3 95 13.5 56 8.0
Chi-square 272.25a
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 9.49.
k Areas where sufficient data were obtained to allow
a chi-square analysis to be performed.
123
Scale with regard to teacher-initiated behavior in the
area of social studies appear in Table 26* A chi-square
was performed in the five areas reflecting adequate data.
This analysis revealed that the experimental social studies
teacher tended to lecture significantly more than did the
control social studies teacher; however, the experimental
teacher was also quiet a significantly greater portion of
the time.
Experimental English with control English. Results
obtained from the Teacher Observation Scale with regard to
teacher-initiated behavior in English are shown in Table 27.
The chi-square test revealed a tendency on the part of the
experimental English teacher to lecture significantly more
and to participate in a significantly greater amount of
question-and-answer sessions than did the control English
instructor.
Over-all analysis. The over-all results in the
teacher-initiated section of the Teacher Observation Scale
appear in Table 28. The chi-square analysis of the data
produced statistically significant findings for the five
areas which contained sufficient data. The analysis
revealed a strong tendency on the part of the experimental
124
TABLE 26
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS IN THE
TEACHER-INITIATED AREAS
Area
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Lecture*5 170 24.3 4 .5
Question-Answer 100 14.3 102 14.7
Demonstrate 0 0 0 0
Direction*3 85 12.1 102 14.7
Mastery 0 0 0 0
Problem-solving 0 0 0 0
Clarify*5 42 6.0 72 10.3
Inquiry 0 0 0 0
Dialogue 0 0 0 0
Quiet*3 304 43.4 95 13.5
Chi-square 173.06a
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 9.49.
^Areas where sufficient data were obtained to allow
a chi-square analysis to be performed.
125
TABLE 27
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL ENGLISH TEACHERS IN THE
TEACHER-INITIATED AREAS
Area
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Lecture1* b 63 9.0 4 .5
Question-Answer 103 14.7 102 14.7
Demonstrate 0 0 0 0
b
Direction 82 11.7 102 14.7
Mastery 0 0 0 0
Problem-solving 0 0 0 0
Clarify15 57 8.1 72 10.3
Inquiry 0 0 0 0
Dialogue 0 0 0 0
b
Quiet 265 37.8 304 43.4
Chi-square 58.39®
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 9.49.
Areas where sufficient data were obtained to allow
a chi-square analysis to be performed.
126
TABLE 28
OVER-ALL TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL TEACHERS IN THE FIVE TEACHER-INITIATED
AREAS USED FOR STATISTICAL COMPARISON
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Lecture 274 13.1 8 .1
Question-Answer 317 15.1 226 10.7
Direction 325 15.3 270 12.8
Clarify 206 9.8 486 23.1
Quiet 601 28.6 664 31.1
Chi-square 386.14a
aValue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 9.49.
127
teachers to engage in more lecturing than the control
teachers.
Student-Initiated Behavior
The question-answer item was the only one of the
ten areas in the student-initiated section of the Teacher
Observation Scale that reflected sufficient data for
analysis. Tables 29, 30, 31, and 32 present the data and
subsequent statistical analyses relative to the student-
initiated observations.
Experimental mathematics with control mathematics.
The results of the statistical analysis on the student-
initiated question-answer item of the Teacher Observation
Scale in mathematics are shown in Table 29. The z test
performed revealed a statistical significance in favor of
the control mathematics teacher.
Experimental social studies with control social
studies. The findings of the student-initiated question-
answer item of the Teacher Observation Scale in the area of
English appear in Table 30. The control social studies
teacher's 12.4 per cent was significantly greater than the
128
TABLE 29
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ONT THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL MATHEMATICS TEACHERS IN THE
ONE STUDENT-INITIATED AREA USED FOR
STATISTICAL COMPARISON
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Area
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Question-Answer 145
z
20.7
a
4.5
209 29.8
aValue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 1.96.
129
TABLE 30
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS IN THE
ONE STUDENT-INITIATED AREA USED FOR
STATISTICAL COMPARISON
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Area
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Question-Answer 69 9.8
2. 2.6a
87 12.4
aValue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 1.96.
130
9.8 per cent for the experimental social studies teacher
as reported by the z test analysis.
Experimental English with control English. Results
of the student-initiated question-answer item of the
Teacher Observation Scale are reported in Table 31. The
findings revealed statistically significant differences.
The z test analysis indicated that the control English
teacher engaged in the student-initiated question and
answer behavior pattern 12.4 per cent of the time, which
was significantly greater than the 8.7 per cent reported
for the experimental English teacher.
Over-all analysis. Table 32 presents the over-all
results of the student-initiated question and answer item
of the Teacher Observation Scale. The z test analysis
revealed a statistical significance in favor of the control
teachers.
Teacher Record of Activities
The self-administered Teacher Record of Activities
contained the following teacher roles:
1. Individual student help.
2. Discussion (small student group).
131
TABLE 31
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL ENGLISH TEACHERS IN THE
ONE STUDENT-INITIATED AREA USED
FOR STATISTICAL COMPARISON
Area
Number’ and Per Cent of Observations
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Question-Answer 61
•
00
87 12.4
z 3.7a
^alue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 1.96.
132
TABLE 32
TEACHER OBSERVATION DATA ON THE OVER-ALL
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL TEACHERS IN
THE ONE STUDENT-INITIATED AREA USED
FOR STATISTICAL COMPARISON
Number and Per Cent of Observations
Area
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
Question-Answer 275 13.1
c ia
z 5.1
383 18.2
aValue required to achieve statistical significance
at the .05 level was 1.96.
133
3. Class discussion (regular class).
4. Presentation (large group).
5. Presentation (regular class)*
6. Informal learning experience (teacher assisted).
7. Planning (individual).
8. Planning (with other teachers or teacher
assistants).
9. Clerical and administrative activities.
10. Other activities.
Sufficient data were obtained for analysis of all of the
ten teacher roles. Statistical analysis of the data was
performed in terms of 1) experimental mathematics teacher
and control mathematics teacher; 2) experimental social
studies teacher and control social studies teacher;
3) experimental English teacher and control English teacher;
and 4) over-all experimental and control teachers. Results
of these analyses are presented in Tables 33, 34, 35, and
36.
Experimental Mathematics
with Control Mathematics
Table 33 reported the mathematics data and analysis
from the Teacher Record of Activities. The results of the
chi-square analysis indicated a statistical significance.
134
TABLE 33
TEACHER SELF-ASSESSMENT DATA ON
CONTROL MATHEMATICS TEACHERS
THE TEACHER RECORD OF
THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
IN THE TEN AREAS OF
ACTIVITIES
Area
Mean Percentage of
Teacher Time Recorded
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
1. Individual student help 45 15.8 45 64.2
2. Discussion (small
student group) 45 7.7 45 1.1
3. Class discussion
(regular class) 45 12.6 45 6.6
4. Presentation (large
group) 45 14.0 45 5.1
5. Presentation (regular
class) 45 32.2 45 5.3
6. Informal learning
experience (teacher
assisted) 45 7.3 45 3.1
7. Planning (individual) 45 2.6 45 5.5
8. Planning (with other
teachers or teacher
assistants) 45 .2 45 .2
9. Clerical and adminis
trative activities 45 1.3 45 9.5
10. Other activities
Chi-square
45
71
6.4
. 87a
45 1.3
at
Value required to achieve
the .05 level was 16.92.
statistical significance
135
The experimental mathematics teacher tended more to make
presentations, and to engage in discussions than did the
control mathematics teacher. However, the control mathe
matics teacher tended more to engage in clerical and
administrative activities than did the experimental
mathematics teacher.
Experimental Social Studies
with Control Social Studies
The chi-square analysis relating to the experi
mental and control social studies teachers is shown in
Table 34. The analysis revealed statistically significant
differences. The experimental social studies teacher
tended more to employ the presentation method than did the
control social studies teacher. The control social studies
teacher tended more to spend time in planning and in
clerical and administrative activities than did the experi
mental social studies teacher.
Experimental English
with Control English
The data and analysis of the experimental and
control English teachers on the Teacher Record of Activi
ties are revealed in Table 35. Results of the chi-square
test revealed statistically significant differences. The
136
TABLE 34
TEACHER SELF-ASSESSMENT
CONTROL SOCIAL STUDIES
OF THE TEACHER
DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
TEACHERS IN THE TEN AREAS
RECORD OF ACTIVITIES
Area
Mean Percentage of
Teacher Time Recorded
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
1. Individual student help 45 18.0 45 11.5
2. Discussion (small
student group) 45 4.2 45 .7
3. Class discussion
(regular class) 45 10.0 45 7.0
4. Presentation (large
group) 45 4.9 45 2.7
5. Presentation (regular
class) 45 25.1 45 12.5
6. Informal learning
experience (teacher
assisted) 45 31.6 45 32.0
7. Planning (individual) 45 3.6 45 12.2
8. Planning (with other
teachers, teacher
assistants) 45 .2 45 .7
9. Clerical and adminis
trative activities 45 2.6 45 18.7
10. Other activities 45 .9 45 2.0
Chi-square 27.32a
at
a
Value required to
the .05 level was 16.92.
achieve statistical significance
137
TABLE 35
TEACHER SELF-ASSESSMENT DATA ON THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL ENGLISH TEACHERS IN THE TEN AREAS OF
THE TEACHER RECORD OF ACTIVITIES
Mean Percentage of
Teacher Time Recorded
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
1. Individual student help 45 1.8 45 17.7
2. Discussion (small
student group) 45 1.3 45 3.1
3. Class discussion
(regular class) 45 7.9 45 12.4
4. Presentation (large
group) 45 13.3 45 2.4
5. Presentation (regular
class) 45 13.8 45 17.1
6. Informal learning
experience (teacher
assisted) 45 62.2 45 17.3
7. Planning (individual) 45 2.6 45 13.5
8. Planning (with other
teachers and teacher
assistants) 45 0 45 0
9. Clerical and adminis
trative activities 45 1.3 45 13.8
10. Other activities
Chi-square
45
71.
.4
85a
45 2.2
at
a
Value required to achieve
the .05 level was 16.92.
statistical significance
138
experimental English teacher tended more to spend time
assisting students in informal learning experiences than
did the control English teacher. Conversely, the control
English teacher tended more to provide individual student
help, to spend time planning on an individual basis, and to
engage in clerical and administrative activities than did
the experimental English teacher.
Over-all Analysis
Statistically significant differences between the
control and experimental teachers were revealed by analyses
of data appearing on the Teacher Record of Activities used
in the study. Over-all results of the analyses are shown
in Table 36. As can be seen in that table, the experi
mental teachers tended more to make presentations and to
assist students during informal learning experiences than
did the control teachers. The control teachers tended more
to provide individual student help, to spend a large por
tion of their time in planning, and to perform clerical and
administrative activities than did the experimental
teachers.
139
TABLE 36
OVER-ALL TEACHER SELF-ASSESSMENT DATA ON THE
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL TEACHERS IN THE
TEN AREAS OF THE TEACHER RECORD
OF ACTIVITIES
Area
Mean Percentage of
Teacher Time Recorded
Experimental Control
No. Per Cent No. Per Cent
1. Individual student help 45 11.9 45 31.1
2. Discussion (small
student group) 45 4.4 45 1.6
3. Class discussion
(regular class) 45 8.5 45 8.7
4. Presentation (large
group) 45 10.7 45 3.4
5. Presentation (regular
class) 45 23.7 45 11.6
6. Informal learning
experience (teacher
assisted) 45 33.7 45 17.4
7. Planning (individual) 45 2.9 45 10.4
8. Planning (with other
teachers and teacher
assistants 45 .1 45 .1
9. Clerical and adminis
trative activities 45 2.6 45 1.8
10. Other activities
Chi-square
45
35
2.6
.3ia
45 1.8
at
aValue required to achieve
the .05 level was 16.92.
statistical significance
140
Chapter Summary
Teacher Observation Scale
The three teachers performing in the experimental
Pontoon Transitional Design and the three teachers fulfill
ing the roles in the conventional control group were the
subjects of the findings reported in this chapter.
The statistical analyses of the Teacher Observation
Scale data followed a five-month observation period. The
*
observations were made on a twice-a-month basis.
A chi-square test was performed on the teacher-
initiated sections of the Teacher Observation Scale in the
three subject areas used for this study— mathematics,
social studies, and English. In addition, a chi-square
test was performed on the over-all results involving the
experimental teachers and control teachers. The findings
revealed significant differences in the five areas which
contained sufficient data for analysis. These areas were
lecture, question-answer, direction, clarify, and quiet.
The over-all statistical analysis indicated that the
experimental teachers tended more to lecture than did the
control teachers.
141
Only the question and answer area of the student-
initiated section of the Teacher Observation Scale con
tained sufficient data for analysis. Since there was an
insufficient number of categories containing adequate data,
it was not feasible to perform a chi-square analysis. The
two groups were compared in each subject area and on an
over-all basis by using the £ test. The over-all results
indicated a statistically significant difference in this
one area in favor of the control teachers.
Teacher Record of Activities
The data obtained from the self-administered
Teacher Record of Activities were acquired over a nine-
month period of time. Sufficient data were reported in
each of the ten areas of the Teacher Record of Activities
to enable statistical analysis. The data gathered from the
Teacher Record of Activities were subjected to a chi-square
test in both the three individual subject areas (mathe
matics, social studies, and English) and the over-all
experimental and control teacher groups.
The results of the analyses performed on the
Teacher Record of Activities data revealed statistically
significant differences in each case. There was an
142
over-all tendency on the part of experimental teachers to
make more presentations and spend more time assisting
students during informal learning experiences than did
the control teachers. Control teachers tended more to
provide individual student help, to spend a greater amount
of time planning, and to engage in clerical and administra
tive activities than did the experimental teachers.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
If the necessary educational changes are to become
a reality during this decade, educators must delve, to an
ever-increasing depth, into the teaching-learning process.
The professional educator has a responsibility for acquir
ing knowledge on how children learn, and under what circum
stances. The primary purpose of educational innovation
should be to provide situations which enhance the learning
process.
The teacher of the "Seventies'* must be aware of the
results of educational research concerning how children
learn, and should be committed to the development of
innovations which can implement recommendations growing out
of such research. The "new professional" should be able to
develop curricular content and subsequent structural
designs which will be reflective of the learning research.
143
144
Summary
The major purpose of this study was to compare
students in a flexible design with students in a conven
tional structure in the areas of cognitive and affective
growth. There was a sincere desire on the part of the
school district, the administration of the school involved
in the study, and the individual teachers participating in
the study, to examine innovative alternatives that provide
possible opportunities for enhancing the teaching-learning
process.
The statistical results of the study in the
cognitive and affective domains revealed only slight differ
ences in growth between the experimental Pontoon Transi
tional Design and the conventional control group. Factors
which may have contributed to the insignificant differences
were as follows:
1. The structural design may not have been consistent
with the curricular objectives of the school and,
therefore, may have impeded cognitive and/or
affective gains.
2. The staff may not have been aware of the opportu
nities for individualizing instruction inherent in
________the experimental design.---------------------------
145
3. There may not have been sufficient planning time or
in-service training and re-training for the experi
mental teachers involved in the study.
4. The behavior of the teachers in the Pontoon
Transitional Design may not have been appreciably
different from that of the teachers in the conven
tional control structure.
5. The nine-month period of this study may have been
too limited for the appearance of significant
cognitive or affective changes.
The study also sought to compare teacher behavior
in an experimental flexible design with that of teachers in
a conventionally structured design. Certainly, changing
teacher behavioral patterns could have an effect on student
cognitive learning and student attitudes.
Two treatment groups were used in the study for
comparative purposes: the experimental group (the Pontoon
Transitional Design) and the conventional control group.
At the onset of the study each group had approximately 90
students, three teachers, and a teacher aide.
For comparative purposes in the cognitive and
affective domains, 69 experimental Pontoon Transitional
Design students and 52 conventional control students were
146
used for statistical analyses. These two samples repre
sented the total number of experimental and control
students who completed all of the tests.
A pretest-posttest schematic was employed on the
Sequential Tests of Educational Progress (STEP), Level 3A,
in the areas of mathematics, social studies, and writing
for the purpose of obtaining cognitive data. As was pre
viously mentioned in the study, the STEP writing test was
used to assess cognitive academic gains in English because
it was more reflective of the school's English curriculum
than was the STEP reading test. Students in the experi
mental and control groups were compared statistically in
each subject by an analysis of covariance. Earlier in the
study (Chapter III) the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test
analysis revealed that the two student groups involved were
from like population distributions.
Affective data were obtained on a posttest basis.
The three measuring instruments used to obtain affective
information were 1) the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale,
2) daily attendance patterns, and 3) discipline referrals
to the vice-principal of the school. Student raw scores
acquired from the Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale were
subjected to an analysis of variance for purposes of
147
determining which group had a more positive attitude toward
the value of education. The higher the raw score, the more
positive the attitude was toward the value of an education.
The total responses of each group on the individual items
of the twenty-two item Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale
were subjected to chi-square analyses, as were the over
all responses of each group. Only three of the twenty-two
items showed a significant chi-square. The over-all
responses of both groups also revealed a significant chi-
square .
The data on the daily attendance patterns of
students in both the experimental and control groups were
analyzed by an analysis of variance. These data were
obtained from the official school attendance records. It
was impossible to compare the discipline referrals of the
experimental and control groups because the amount of data
obtained Were considered insufficient for statistical
analysis.
Two measurement instruments were employed in order
to compare the roles of teachers for the purpose of
obtaining supporting data: a Teacher Observation Scale and
the self-administered Teacher Record of Activities. A
chi-square analysis was applied to the teacher-initiated
148
section of the Teacher Observation Scale, while a £ test
was performed on the student-initiated data obtained from
the same instrument. A chi-square analysis was also per
formed on the data acquired from the self-administered
Teacher Record of Activities. The chi-squares performed
on data from both the Teacher Observation Scale and the
Teacher Record of Activities revealed that the two
variables under study were not independent but that there
was a dependency; therefore, trends and tendencies could be
discerned.
Following the statistical analyses from standpoints
of the different variables involved in the study, a .05
level of significance was used to determine acceptance or
rejection of the stated hypotheses.
The study tested the following eleven research
hypotheses:
1. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will show significantly greater
academic gains in writing than will the students in
the conventional control structure, as measured by
the STEP test.
2. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will show significantly greater
149
academic gains in social studies than will the
students in the conventional control structure, as
measured by the STEP test.
3. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will show significantly greater
academic gains in mathematics than will the
students in the conventional control structure,
as measured by the STEP test.
4. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will maintain significantly
better attendance records than will the students
in the conventional control structure, as measured
by the official school attendance records.
5. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will have significantly fewer
discipline referrals than will the students in the
conventional control structure, as measured by the
official school discipline referral records.
6. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will develop a significantly
more positive attitude toward the value of an
education them will the students in the conven
tional control structure, as measured by the
150
Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale.
7. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will talk significantly less
than will the teachers in the conventional control
structure, as measured by the Teacher Observation
Scale and the self-administered Teacher Record of
Activities.
8. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will spend significantly more
time with students in small groups (less than
fifteen) than will the teachers in the conventional
control structure, as measured by the Teacher
Observation Scale and the self-administered
Teacher Record of Activities.
9. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will spend significantly more
time with students on a one-to-one basis than will
the teachers in the conventional control struc
ture, as measured by the Teacher Observation Scale
and the self-administered Teacher Record of
Activities.
10. Teachers involved in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will employ a significantly
151
greater number of teaching techniques than will
the teachers in the conventional control structure,
as measured by the Teacher Observation Scale and
the self-administered Teacher Record of Activities.
11. Students enrolled in the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design will initiate significantly
more educational activities than will the students
in the conventional control structure, as measured
by the Teacher Observation Scale and the self
administered Teacher Record of Activities.
Conclusions
On the basis of the findings of the study, the
following conclusions are presented.
1. Hypothesis 1 dealt with student cognitive
academic gains in writing as measured by the Sequential
Tests of Educational Progress (STEP), Level 3A, in writing.
The study failed to identify any significant difference
between the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design stu
dents and the conventional control students with regard to
cognitive academic gains in the area of writing; therefore,
the statistical evidence supported the rejection of
Hypothesis 1. The statistical analysis in the cognitive
152
writing area, although not statistically significant,
revealed that the experimental English students scored
slightly higher on the writing test. Since the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov two-sample test indicated that the students in both
groups were from like samples, it might possibly be con
cluded that a flexible schematic did have a slight influ
ence on student cognitive learning in writing.
One possible reason for the statistically insig
nificant results might have been that the control and
experimental English students were subjected to similar
teaching techniques.
2. Hypothesis 2 was concerned with student
cognitive gains in the area of social studies as measured
by the Sequential Tests of Educational Progress (STEP),
Level 3A, in social studies. This hypothesis was also
rejected because the statistical analysis performed on the
STEP test in social studies revealed no significant gains
between the two groups in social studies cognitive achieve
ment.
The mean score of the experimental social studies
students on the STEP test was slightly higher when compared
with the mean score of the control group, but the differ
ence was not significant.
153
The social studies students from both groups were
also from like distributions, as indicated by the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov two-sample test. A conclusion might
possibly be drawn that experimental students scored higher
on the STEP test in social studies, although not statis
tically better, than did the control social studies
students.
3. Hypothesis 3 was involved with comparing
cognitive academic achievement of the two student groups in
mathematics. The statistical evidence indicated that the
experimental mathematics students made significantly
greater cognitive academic gains than did the control
students; therefore, hypothesis 3 was accepted.
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test disclosed that the two
mathematics groups used for the study were from like
distributions. Chapter V, regarding the roles of the
teachers involved in this study, revealed that the experi
mental mathematics teacher employed a greater variety of
teaching techniques than did the control mathematics
teacher; therefore, it might possibly be concluded that the
flexibility inherent in the Pontoon Transitional Design
provided teachers with greater opportunities to vary
teacher roles, resulting in significant gains in cognitive
154
mathematics achievement.
Measurement of the three cognitive areas covered by
the study (writing, social studies, and mathematics)
revealed a statistically significant difference in one
area: mathematics. No significant differences appeared in
the other two areas (social studies and writing); however,
the analysis did reveal that, in both areas, the experi
mental students scored slightly higher than did the control
students. This could possibly lead to the conclusion that
the flexible Pontoon Transitional Design had a positive
influence on student cognitive academic achievement.
4. Hypothesis 4 was concerned with a comparison of
the daily attendance patterns of students in the experi
mental design with that of the control students. These
data were used for affective comparisons.
The statistical results, obtained from data
gathered from September, 1969, through May, 1970, indicated
no significant difference between the attendance patterns
of the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design students
and the conventional control students; therefore.
Hypothesis 4 was rejected. The attendance data, although
not significant, did indicate that the control students
exhibited slightly better attendance patterns than did the
155
experimental students.
5. Hypothesis 5 related to discipline referrals to
the vice-principal. The data obtained in this area were
insufficient for statistical analysis; therefore, it was
not possible to draw any conclusions regarding
Hypothesis 5.
6. Hypothesis 6 dealt with student attitudes
regarding the value of an education as measured by the
Rundquist-Sletto Attitudinal Scale. The over-all statis
tical analysis which compared the raw scores of the
students (a higher score indicating a more positive atti
tude toward education) revealed no significant difference
between the experimental and control students.
Statistical treatment was also performed on
responses to each individual item on the twenty-two item
instrument. Statistically significant differences were
found on three of the items. The differences indicated a
tendency for the experimental students to possess a more
positive attitude toward the value of education. The
over-all response data on the twenty-two test items were
statistically significant. This significance revealed a
tendency on the part of the experimental students to select
positive responses toward the value of education more
156
frequently than did the control students. Even though the
statistical analysis would reject the stated hypothesis,
there was a strong tendency for the experimental Pontoon
Transitional Design students to select responses which
were positive toward the value of education more often than
the conventional control group. Since the Rundquist-
Sletto Attitudinal Scale was administered to both groups on
a posttest basis, it might possibly be concluded that a
flexible Pontoon Transitional Design had an influence on
the experimental students selecting the most positive
response.
The affective data obtained from Hypotheses 4 and 6
indicated no significant difference between the experi
mental students and the control students, although the
experimental students tended more to possess a positive
attitude toward the value of education.
7. Hypothesis 7 dealt with the amount of time the
experimental teachers spend talking as compared with the
control teachers. Pertinent data were obtained from a
Teacher Observation Scale and a self-administered Teacher
Record of Activities. The statistical analysis revealed a
tendency on the part of the experimental Pontoon Transi
tional Design teachers to talk more than the conventional
157
control teachers. Since Hypothesis 7 stated that the
experimental teachers would talk less than the control
teacher. Hypothesis 7 was rejected.
8. Hypothesis 8 was concerned with the amount of
time the teachers involved in the study spend working with
small groups (less than fifteen students). The analysis
performed on the data revealed no statistically significant
difference between the two groups with regard to the amount
of time spent working with small groups, although the
experimental mathematics teacher tended more to spend time
with small groups than did the control mathematics teacher.
It might possibly be concluded that this tendency was
somewhat responsible for the acceptance of Hypothesis 3.
The statistical evidence did not support Hypothesis 8.
9. Hypothesis 9 related to the amount of time the
experimental and control teachers spent with students on a
one-to-one basis. The statistical analysis performed
through the use of a Teacher Observation Scale, which
measured individual work with students, revealed no signif
icant difference, although the control teachers tended more
to spend time with students on a one-to-one basis than did
the experimental teachers.
158
Data obtained from the Teacher Record of Activities
revealed that the experimental teachers tended to spend a
greater portion of time assisting students during informal
learning activities than did the control teachers. This
tendency appeared to indicate that the experimental
teachers were taking advantage of the flexible opportuni
ties inherent in the Pontoon Transitional Design.
The over-all statistical evidence from the two
measuring devices employed for obtaining data did not sup
port Hypothesis 9.
10. Hypothesis 10 was concerned with the number of
teaching roles assumed by the teachers involved in the
study. The statistical analysis performed on data obtained
from the teacher and student initiated sections of the
Teacher Observation Scale and Teacher Record of Activities
indicated that the experimental Pontoon Transitional Design
teachers employed a greater number of teaching techniques
than did the conventional control teachers. It might be
concluded that the Pontoon Transitional Design provides an
opportunity for implementing a greater variety of teaching
roles than does the conventional control structure.
The statistical evidence would support acceptance
of Hypothesis 10.
159
11. Hypothesis 11 dealt with student-initiated
teacher activities. Data pertaining to this aspect of the
study were practically nonexistent. Only the student-
initiated question and answer section provided adequate
data for comparative purposes. The analysis performed on
this section indicated a statistically significant differ
ence in favor of the control teachers. Data acquired from
the Teacher Record of Activities revealed no significant
difference between the two groups regarding student-
initiated activities. The statistical analysis therefore
rejected Hypothesis 11.
The lack of student-initiated data would suggest
that the learning activities which occurred in both the
Pontoon Transitional Design and the conventional control
group were primarily teacher-initiated.
Recommendations
Based upon the findings and conclusions of this
study, several recommendations appear appropriate. The
following recommendations are therefore offered in the hope
that they will provide guidance and purpose for those
attempting to improve the teaching-learning process.
160
1. School districts should develop a master plan
for the purpose of continually up-grading the teaching-
learning process. Curricular content, structural design,
expected teacher behavior, and evaluation should be
included in a district-wide plan for improvement of
instruction. It is further recommended that such a design
should encourage the practicing professionals to step
beyond the limits of conventional structure, content, and
behavior into an arena where they may convert research and
theory into an exciting practice. Incorporated in this
master-plan should be a new type of in-service program
which will provide those persons who are on the "firing-
line" with continuous assistance.
2. Efforts should be undertaken to provide
technical expertise to teachers in order that more sophis
ticated cognitive measuring devices might be developed.
These new instruments should be more closely related to
the actual curriculum. The new devices should not preclude
the continuing use of standardized tests.
3. The assessment of students in the affective
domain may well be the most important area of evaluation.
The attitudes that a student possesses regarding education
are considered by many educational theorists as the most
161
important factor in learning; therefore, more sensitive
instruments need to be developed in the affective areas.
A large portion of the affective instruments surveyed prior
to the implementation of this study were somewhat superfi
cial and irrelevant. This recommendation specifically
encourages the development of affective measuring devices
which are based upon the goals of the Pontoon Transitional
Design.
4. The over-all statistical results of this study
in the cognitive and affective domains were not consistently
significant; however, the study did produce enough favor
able significances and tendencies toward the experimental
Pontoon Transitional Design to merit the continued use of
that concept. It is further recommended that the concept
be expanded with continuous evaluation remaining as an
integral part of the design.
5. The results of the limited assessment of
teacher roles completed in this study suggest that more
in-depth studies in this area should be forthcoming. The
results obtained in this study revealed that teacher roles
do not necessarily change because the structural design
becomes more flexible. A specific recommendation would be
that an in-depth study regarding the roles of teachers be
162
undertaken using a larger N than was used in this study.
6. Finally, it is recommended that school dis
tricts provide resources, both financial and physical, for
continuous research and development. A commitment should
be forthcoming on the part of the community, administra
tion, and teaching staff toward the development of programs
that will offer better ways of teaching children.
The statistical evidence produced in this study
would indicate that the Pontoon Transitional Design
revealed strong tendencies toward being a program that
offers better ways of teaching children. The implications
of this study would support the continued use of the
Pontoon Transitional Design.
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163
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APPENDICES
177
APPENDIX A
LORGE THORNDIKE RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR THE
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ON THE
KOLMOGOROV—SMIRNOV TWO-SAMPLE TEST
178
179
LORGE THORNDIKE RAN SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR THE
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS ON THE
KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TWO-SAMPLE TEST
Experimental Control
Group Group
77.0 95.0 106.0 75.0 95.0
81.0 95.0 107.0 80.0 95.0
82.0 96.0 108.0 81.0 95.0
83.0 96.0 108.0 82.0 96.0
83.0 96.0 108.0 83.0 96.0
83.0 96.0 108.0 84.0 96.0
86.0 97.0 109.0 85.0 96.0
88.0 97.0 109.0 85.0 97.0
88.0 98.0 111.0 86.0 97.0
88.0 98.0 113.0 86.0 101,0
88.0 99.0 113.0 87.0 102.0
90.0 99.0 116.0 87.0 102.0
90.0 99.0 118.0 87.0 102.0
91.0 100.0 120.0 87.0 103.0
91.0 100.0 125.0 87.0 105.0
91.0 100.0 125.0 87.0 105.0
92.0 100.0 88.0 106.0
92.0 101.0 88.0 109.0
92.0 102.0 88.0 109.0
93.0 102.0 89.0 113.0
93.0 102.0 90.0 114.0
93.0 102.0 91.0 116.0
93.0 103.0 91.0 123.0
93.0 103.0 92.0 124.0
93.0 104.0 92.0 126.0
94.0 104.0 93.0
94.0 105.0 93.0
94.0 105.0 93.0
APPENDIX B
KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE
MATHEMATICS SECTION OF THE STEP PRETEST FOR
BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
180
181
KOLMOGOROV—SMIRNOV RAH SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE
MATHEMATICS SECTION OF THE STEP PRETEST FOR
BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
Experimental
Group
8.0 20.0 27.0
13.0 20.0 27.0
13.0 20.0 28.0
13.0 21.0 28.0
13.0 21.0 29.0
14.0 22.0 29.0
15.0 22.0 29.0
15.0 22.0 29.0
15.0 22.0 29.0
15.0 23.0 30.0
15.0 23.0 30.0
16.0 23.0 30.0
16.0 23.0 31.0
16.0 24.0 31.0
17.0 24.0 33.0
17.0 24.0 33.0
17.0 24.0 33.0
17.0 25.0 36.0
18.0 25.0
18.0 25.0
19.0 26.0
19.0 26.0
19.0 27.0
19.0 27.0
19.0 27.0
20.0 27.0
20.0 27.0
Control |
Group |
— !
i
l
i
10.0 19.0
10.0 19.0
12.0 19.0
13.0 19.0
14.0 20.0
15.0 20.0
15.0 20.0
15.0 20.0
16.0 21.0
16.0 21.0
16.0 22.0
16.0 22.0
17.0 23.0
17.0 23.0
17.0 24.0
17.0 24.0
17.0 25.0
17.0 25.0
17.0 25.0
17.0 27.0
17.0 27.0
17.0 29.0
18.0 30.0
18.0 32.0
18.0 32.0
18.0 34.0
APPENDIX C
KOLMOGOROV* SMI RNOV RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE
SOCIAL STUDIES SECTION OF THE STEP PRETEST
FOR BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
182
183
KOLMOGOROV—SMIRNOV RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE
SOCIAL STUDIES SECTION OF THE STEP PRETEST
FOR BOTH THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS
Experimental Control
Group Group
20.0 36.0 45.0 16.0 34.0 46.0
23.0 36.0 46.0 18.0 34.0 51.0
27.0 36.0 46.0 18.0 34.0 52.0
27.0 36.0 46.0 22.0 34.0 52.0
27.0 37.0 46.0 22.0 34.0
28.0 38.0 46.0 25.0 36.0
29.0 38.0 46.0 26.0 37.0
29.0 39.0 47.0 27.0 37.0
31.0 39.0 48.0 27.0 38.0
31.0 39.0 48.0 27.0 38.0
31.0 40.0 49.0 27.0 39.0
32.0 40.0 49.0 28.0 39.0
32.0 41.0 50.0 28.0 39.0
33.0 41.0 50.0 28.0 40.0
33.0 41.0 50.0 29.0 40.0
33.0 41.0 51.0 30.0 41.0
34.0 42.0 51.0 31.0 41.0
34.0 42.0 51.0 31.0 43.0
35.0 42.0 56.0 32.0 43.0
35.0 43.0 56.0 32.0 43.0
35.0 43.0 58.0 33.0 43.0
35.0 43.0 34.0 44.0
35.0 44.0 34.0 45.0
35.0 45.0 34.0 45.0
!
i
APPENDIX D
KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE
WRITING SECTION OF THE STEP PRETEST FOR BOTH
THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
184
185
9.0
15.0
15.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
17.0
19.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
21.0
21.0
21.0
21.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
24.0
KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS ON THE
WRITING SECTION OF THE STEP PRETEST FOR BOTH
THE EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS
Experimental Control
Group Group
24.0 30.0
24.0 31.0 11.0 22.0
24.0 31.0 12.0 22.0
24.0 31.0 14.0 23.0
24.0 31.0 15.0 25.0
25.0 31.0 15.0 25.0
25.0 32.0 16.0 25.0
25.0 32.0 16.0 26.0
25.0 32.0 16.0 26.0
26.0 33.0 17.0 26.0
26.0 33.0 17.0 26.0
26.0 34.0 17.0 26.0
26.0 35.0 18.0 27.0
26.0 35.0 19.0 27.0
27.0 40.0 19.0 28.0
27.0 41.0 19.0 28.0
27.0 42.0 19.0 28.0
27.0 20.0 28.0
27.0 20.0 29.0
27.0 20.0 30.0
28.0 20.0 30.0
29.0 20.0 31.0
29.0 21.0 31.0
29.0 21.0 31.0
30.0 21.0 33.0
30.0 22.0 34.0
APPENDIX E
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ATTITUDINAL SCALE
186
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ATTITUDINAL SCALE
A man can learn more by working four years than by
going to high school.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
The more education a person has the better he is
able to enjoy life.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
Education helps a person to use his leisure time
to better advantage.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
A good education is a great comfort to a man out
of work.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
Only subjects like reading, writing, and arithmetic
should be taught at public expense.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
Education is no help in getting a job today.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
Most young people are getting too much education.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
A high school education is worth all the time and
effort it requires.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
188
9. Our schools encourage an individual to think for
himself.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
10. There are too many fads and frills in modern
education.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
11. Education only makes a person discontented.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
12. School training is of little help in meeting the
problems of real life.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
13. Education tends to make an individual less conceited.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
14. Solution of the world's problems will come through
education.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
15. High school courses are too impractical.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
16. A mem is foolish to keep going to school if he can
get a job.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
17. Savings spent on education are wisely invested.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
189
18. An educated man can advance more rapidly in business
and industry.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
19. Parents should not be compelled to send their
children to school.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
20. Education is more valuable than most people think.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
21. A high school education makes a man a better citizen,
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
22. Public money spent on education during the past few
years could have been used more wisely for other
purposes.
Strongly Agree Agree Undecided
Disagree Strongly Disagree
APPENDIX F
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO DATA AND ANALYSIS
190
191
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM ONE
DATA AND ANALYSIS
*
No. of Responses
Group Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 2 4 10 40 12
Control 1 8 9 23
Chi-square 4.08
9
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM TWO
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 20 16 10 8 5
Control 22 20 7 3
Chi-square 6.41
0
P < .05.
192
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM THREE
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 12 29 14 12 0
Control 12 23 10 7
Chi-square 0.79
0
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM FOUR
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 20 21 11 12 3
Control 19 12 6 13
Chi-square 2.87
1
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM FIVE
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 3
Control 4
7 13 28
6 10 15
Chi-square 2.72
16
17
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM SIX
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
_ Strongly
Group Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 0 4 2 10 53
Control 1 0 0 11 39
Chi-square 6.62
194
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM SEVEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
GrouP Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 3 5 6 30 25
Control 0 2 6 25
Chi-square 3.25
18
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM NINE
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
GrouP Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 14 30 16 9 0
Control 12 24 8 6
Chi-square 1.08
0
P < .05
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM TEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 4 15 14 21 15
Control 2 8 11 12
Chi-square 3.25
18
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM TWELVE
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Gro"P Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 8 19 10 21 11
Control 5 7 9 15
Chi-square 5.93
16
P < *05.
196
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM THIRTEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 2 8 24 25 8
Control 2 8 18 17
Chi-square 0.56
7
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM FOURTEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 16 29 12 5 7
Control 16 19 5 10
Chi-square 7.16
2
P < .05.
197
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM FIFTEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 2 6 21 30 10
Control 0 3 12 25 12
Chi-square 3.77
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM SIXTEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree Agree Undecxded Dxsagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 3 7 7 29 22
Control 1 3 2 25 21
Chi-square 3.62
ns
A
.
o
Ul
.
i
1
1
I
i
t
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM SEVENTEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree A9ree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 14 27 16 7 5
Control 19 13 13 5
2
Chi-square 5.30
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM EIGHTEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group St][gree^ A9ree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 26 32 7 4 0
Control 29 15 4 3 1
Chi-square 6.00
P < .05
199
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM NINETEEN
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 10 16 13 19 9
Control 6 15 7 13
Chi-square 2.30
11
P < .05.
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM TWENTY-ONE
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Strongly
Group Agree Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 8 26 19 15 1
Control 10 12 17 9
Chi-square 4.40
2
P < .05.
200
RUNDQUIST-SLETTO ITEM TWENTY-TWO
DATA AND ANALYSIS
No. of Responses
Group
Strongly
Agree
Agree Undecided Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Experimental 7 7 24 19 12
Control 5 8 10
Chi-square 3.96
17 12
P < .05.
APPENDIX 6
THE TEACHER OBSERVATION SCALE: MATRIX
201
TEACHER
PONTOON_____ CONTROL
Minutes
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Lecture
f
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Mastery . (
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Mastery
Problera-Solving
t
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i
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Oulet
i
SUMMARY
202
SUBJECT
TEACHER OBSERVATION SCALE
Date,
__________ORGANIZATION-PRES.
Time
DISC.
_pbserv.#_
STUDY
CONTROL
Minutes
CHANGES
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(over)
me leaciier uosetvauiun ocaj.e was ueveiopea m tne mil ot 1707 ana win ue usea to
measure and compare Che variations of methodologies employed by teachers utilizing
the pontoon transitional design against those used by teachers in conventional pro
grams. The scale will also be used to determine if pontoon teachers vary their method
of instruction based on the size of the group.
The scale draws on the principles utilized by Flanders and Amidon in the development
of Interaction Analysis. The scale, however, is basically an outgrowth of the work
done by Dr. E. Wayne Roberson at the EPIC Evaluation Center, Tucson, Arizona. The
categories of teacher methodology have been drawn from the methods section of his
Instrument for Coding Teacher Verbal and Non-Verbal Classroom Behavior.
Dr. Roberson's scale has been modified to include the category of quiet. Also added
were the columns indicating teacher or student initiation. The three categories of
classroom organization consisting of presentation, discussion, and study represent
the terminology now being utilized in the Trump - N.A.S.S.P - Danforth Foundation
Model Schools Project to describe large group, small group, and independent study.
The utilization of this scale calls for the systematic observation and recording of
classroom behaviors by an observer. Using the observation pad, the observer indicates
teacher behavior at thirty second intervals. At the end of the observation period
(25 to 35 minutes) the behaviors are placed on the matrix. This gives a graphic
illustration of teacher behavior for that period of time and serves as a basis of
comparison against the behaviors of pontoon and non-pontoon teachers.
The Teacher Observation Scale, observation pad, and matrix was developed by Donald
C. Clark, Director of Curriculum, Monrovia Unified School District, Monrovia, Cali
fornia. Assistance was received from Dr. Winston Janes, Science-Mathematics Specialist,
Monrovia Unified School District, and Dr. William Georgiades, Professor of Education,
University of Southern California.
APPENDIX H
THE TEACHER OBSERVATION SCALE: PAD
203
204
Date_________ Time,
TEACHER OBSERVATION
Teacher_
Subject_
Pontoon______________ Control
GROUP ORGANIZATION
Presentation Discussion Study__
Teacher initiated Student initiated
_____ LECTURE _____
_____ QUE STION—ANSWER _____
_____ DEMONSTRATE _____
_____ DIRECTION _____
____ MASTERY _____
_____ PROBLEM SOLVING _____
_____ CLARIFY _____
_____ INQUIRY _____
_____ DIALOGUE _____
_____ QUIET______________ _____
APPENDIX I
TEACHER RECORD OF ACTIVITIES
205
206
TEACHER RECORD OF ACTIVITIES
NAME________________________________
DATE________________________________
SUBJECT_____________________________
DATE________________________________
Please check the appropriate percentage of time
i
devoted to a specified activity as listed below. Any
other type of activity that you believe to be significant,
denote by completing the last question. (All figures are
i in percentages.)
| 1. Individual student help ....
10__20___ 30___4 0__50____60___7 0___8 0___9 0___100__
2. Discussion (small student group) ....
10__2 0____3 0___4 0__5 0____6 0___7 0___8 0___9 0___10 0__
3. Class discussion (regular class)
i
i
| 10___20___30___40___50___60___70___80___90___ 100__
i
4. Presentation (large group)
10__20___ 30___40__50____60___70___80___90___100__
5. Presentation (regular group)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
207
6. Informal learning experience (teacher assisted)
10__20___30___40___ 50__60___ 70___ 80__90___100___
7. Planning (individual)
10__20___30___40___ 50__60___ 70___ 80__90___100___
8. Planning (with other teachers or teacher assistants)
10__20___30___40___ 50__60___ 70___ 80__90___100___
9. Clerical and administrative activities
10__2 0___30___4 0___ 5 0__6 0___ 7 0___8 0__9 0___10 0___
10. Other activities of my teaching day________________
APPENDIX J
COMMENTS FROM PRINCIPAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOL
REGARDING SELECTION OF TEACHERS AND
STUDENTS INVOLVED IN THE
TOTAL SAMPLE
208
W. norman Wampler
Superintendent
b e l l f l o w e r. California
Bellflower Unified School District ^
To Whom It Hay Concern:
Students selected to participate in the control and experimental
pontoon organization in this school were of average ability and
selected at random. However, the teachers requested to work with
the groups were instructors with better than average teaching
ability and more than five years teaching experience. While
their methods and approaches differed markedly, their teaching
performances were about on the same level of competence.
In setting up this program we were attempting to determine how
effective the change of the teacher role and organization would
be on the attitude, interest and learning ability of the two
groups of students.
W A S H IN G T O N J R . H IG H S C H O O L
9725 EAST JEFFERSON AVENUE
T O R R E V 9*9 0 1 1 , EXT. 3 t 6
R O B E R T D. SCOLES
VICE-PRINCIPAL
HOUSTON C. ROBERTS
PRINCIPAL.
24 June 1970
Respectfully
209
To Whom It Hay Concern:
Students selected to participate in the control and experimental
pontoon organization in this school were of average ability and
selected at random. However, the teachers requested to work with
the groups were instructors with better than average teaching
ability and more than five years teaching experience. While
their methods and approaches differed markedly, their teaching
performances were about on the same level of competence.
In setting up this program we were attempting to determine how
effective the change of the teacher role and organization would
be on the attitude, interest and learning ability of the two
groups of students.
Respectfully,
Houston C. Roberts
Principal
APPENDIX K
COMMENTS FROM THE DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION OF
THE EXPERIMENTAL DISTRICT
210
W. NORMAN WAMPLER
SUPERINTENDENT
b e l l f l o w e r . C a l i f o r n i a 9 07 00
Bellflower Unified School District
D IR E C T O R OF IN S T R U C T IO N
HOWARD ROOP
C O N S U L T A N T S
C H A R M A Y N E B O H M AN
C U R T IS R. SMITH
A D M IN IS T R A T IO N B U IL D IN G
1S703 SO UTH C L A R K A V E N U E
T O R R E Y 0-0011
July 27, 1970
Hr. Frank J. Abbott, Principal
La Canada High School
La Canada, California 91011
Dear Mr. Abbott:
During the 1969 - 1970 school year an experimental study was conducted at
Washington Junior High School concerning achievement in the cognitive
domain and the affective domain. This study involved the students and
teachers identified as a pontoon transitional design which combined classes
in English, 8th grade American History and Mathematics. A number of students
enrolled in identical courses and the teachers teaching thoseclasses were
utilized as the control group for the study.
A review analysis and observance of both the experimental and the control
teachers indicated that the teachers were comparable in all areas. The back*
ground training and experience of the control teachers compared very favorably
with that of the experimental teachers.
Evaluations by the principal of all of the teachers indicated that each was
ahflve avpranp or better in the aualitv of Derformance. Therefore, it can be
July 27, 1970
Nr. Frank J. Abbott, Principal
La Canada High School
La Canada, California 91011
Dear Mr. Abbott:
During the 1969 * 1970 school year an experimental study was conducted at
Washington Junior High School concerning achievement in the cognitive
domain and the affective domain. This study involved the students and
teachers identified as a pontoon transitional design which combined classes
in English, 8th grade American History and Mathematics. A number of students
enrolled in identical courses and the teachers teaching those classes were
utilized as the control group for the study.
A review analysis and observance of both the experimental and the control
teachers indicated that the teachers were comparable in all areas. The back
ground training and experience of the control teachers compared very favorably
with that of the experimental teachers.
Evaluations by the principal of all of the teachers indicated that each was
above average or better in the quality of performance. Therefore, it can be
stated that the instruction received by both the experimental and the control
group of students was of equal high standard based upon the above factors.
Sincerely yours,
Howard Roop
Director of Instruction
HR/meb
211

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Asset Metadata

Creator Abbott, Frank (author)

Core Title An Evaluative Study Of A Pontoon Transitional Design

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Georgiades, William (committee chair), DeSilva, Lionel (committee member), Wilbur, Leslie (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-463292

Unique identifier UC11362070

Identifier 7116397.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-463292 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7116397.pdf

Dmrecord 463292

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Abbott, Frank

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA