An Analysis And Comparison Of The Figure-Ground And Visual Closure Abilities Of Two Preschool Groups Of Children With A Deprived Or Advantaged Language Background

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content AN ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF THE FIGURE-GROUND AND
VISUAL CLOSURE ABILITIES OF TW O PRESCHOOL GROUPS
OF CHILDREN WITH A DEPRIVED OR
ADVANTAGED LANGUAGE BACKGROUND
toy
Edward P ie rc e H all
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P rese n ted to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t of the
Requirements f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Communicative D iso rd ers)
June 1971
INFORMATION TO USERS
This dissertation was produced from a m icrofilm copy of th e original docum ent.
While th e m ost advanced technological m eans to photograph and reproduce this
docum ent have been used, th e quality is heavily dependent upon th e quality of
the original subm itted.
The follow ing explanation o f techniques is provided to help you understand
m arkings or patterns which m ay appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign o r "ta rg et" fo r pages apparently lacking from th e docum ent
photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the
missing page(s) or section, th ey are spliced into th e film along with
adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting th ru an image and
duplicating adjacent pages to insure you com plete continuity.
2. When an image on th e film is obliterated w ith a large round black
m ark, it is an indication th a t th e photographer suspected th a t th e
copy m ay have m oved during exposure and thus cause a blurred
image. You will find a good image of th e page in th e adjacent fram e.
3. When a m ap, drawing or chart, etc., was part of th e material being
p h o to g ra p h e d th e photographer follow ed a definite m ethod in
"sectioning" th e m aterial. It is custom ary to begin photoing a t th e
upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from
left to right in equal sections w ith a small overlap. If necessary,
sectioning is continued again — beginning below th e first row and
continuing on until com plete.
4. T he m ajority of users indicate th a t the textual co n ten t is of greatest
value, however, a som ew hat higher quality reproduction could be
m ade from "p h o to g rap h s" if essential to th e understanding of th e
dissertation. Silver prints of "p h o to g rap h s" may be ordered at
additional charge by writing th e O rder D epartm ent, giving th e catalog
num ber, title, au th o r and specific pages you wish reproduced.
University Microfilms
300 North Z eeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education Company
72-21,675
I HALL, Edward Pierce, 1932-
i AN ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF THE FIGURE-GROUND
AND VISUAL CLOSURE ABILITIES OF TWO PRESCHOOL
I GROUPS OF CHILDREN WITH A DEPRIVED OR
ADVANTAGED LANGUAGE BACKGROUND.
; University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1971
I Speech Pathology
I
? ;
I University Microfilms. A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFO RNIA
TH E GRADUATE SC H O O L
UN IV ERSITY PARK
LO S A N G ELES. C A LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of Ms. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
DOCTOR OF P H ILO SO PH Y
Date........June... .13.7.1.
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
indistinct print.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
ACKNOW LEDGMENT
The a u th o r hereby acknowledges th e guidance and
support of Dr. Samuel Plnneau f o r h i s h e lp in s t a t i s t i c s
and computer programing.
T his i n v e s t i g a t i o n was supported i n p a r t by Research
Grant No. 0EG-4-7-062088-0386.
i i
TABLE OP CONTENTS
C hapter
I . THE PROBLEM .........................................................................
I n tr o d u c tio n
I I . BACKGROUND AND RELATED RESEARCH .........................
V isu al P e rc e p tio n Viewed as a Process
O rg a n iz atio n o f V isu a l S tim u li
S tr u c tu rin g th e V isu a l Percept
I n t r i n s i c Forces
Development of P e rc e p tio n
F igu re-grou nd Research
V isu a l C losure Research
I I I . METHODOLOGY .........................................................................
Overview of th e Problem
C r i t e r i a f o r Sample S e le c tio n
D e s c rip tio n of th e Sample
P e rc e p tu a l T est B a tte r y
Supplemental T est B a tte r y
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ................................................
Overview of th e A nalysis
Phase One—The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
P e rc e p tu a l Types
Phase Two—The I n t e r Sample Comparison
of th e Subject-Types
Phase T h ree—A P e rc e p tu a l and M a tu ra tio n a l
D e s c rip tio n of th e Common Subject-Types
V. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................
Overview of th e Findings
Major R esearch O bstacles
Major R esearch Findings
Im p lic a tio n s f o r F u rth e r Research
REFERENCES..................................................... ......................................
Page
1
7
41
71
113
132
i l l
Page
APPENDIXES................................................................................................. 152
APPENDIX A. The Experim ental B a tte r y . . . . . 154
APPENDIX B. Porms Used f o r Recording
Raw D a t a ...................................................... 159
APPENDIX C. The Major Components of Percep
t i o n f o r I n d iv id u a l
Subject-Types ............................................ 162
APPENDIX D. Means and Standard D eviatio n s
of I n d iv id u a l M a tu ra tio n a l
V a ria b le s f o r Subject-Types
w ith S ig n if ic a n t M u lti
v a r i a t e F R a t i o s .................................. 192
i v
LIST OP TABLES
T ab le Page
1. H ighest C o e f f ic ie n ts of Congruence Between
Subject-Types of Groups A and B
i n th e Deprived Sample ...................... . . . . . . 77
2. H ighest C o e f fic ie n ts of Congruence Between
Subject-Types of Groups A and B
In th e Advantaged S a m p le ............................................ 79
3. Varimax Loadings of H ighest Ranking S u b je c t-
Types of Components Common to Groups A
and B i n th e Deprived S a m p le .................................. 8 l
4. Varimax Loadings of H ighest Ranking S u b je c t-
Types on Components Common to Groups A
and B In th e Advantaged S a m p le ............................. 83
5. H ighest C o e f f ic ie n ts of Congruence Between
Subject-Types of Deprived
and Advantaged Samples ................................................. 87
6. Varimax Loadings o f H ighest Ranking S u b je c t-
Types on Components Common to th e
Socioeconom ically Deprived and
Advantaged Samples . . . . . . ............................. 89
7. Varimax Loadings of th e Subject on T h irte e n
Subject-Types Common to th e Socio
econom ically Deprived and
Advantaged Samples .......................................................... 92
8. Mean Scores of Subject-Types on S e le c te d
V a ria b le s of M a tu ra tio n a l Development . . . 100
9. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 1. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n . . . . . ........................... 162
10. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 1. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ............................................ 163
11. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 2. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ............................................ 164
v
r a b le Page
12. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 2. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n . 165
13. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 3. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ............................................... 166
14. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 3* Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ............................................... 167
15. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 4. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ............................................... 168
16. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 4. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ............................................... 169
17. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 5 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ............................................... 170
18. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 5. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n . . . . . . 171
19. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 6 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n .......................... . . . . . 172
20. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 6 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ............................................... 173
21. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 7. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t t e r n ..................................... 17^-
22. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 7 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ............................................... 175
23. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 7 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 3
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ................................................ 176
v i
T able Page
24. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 8. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ................................................. 177
25. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 8. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n . . . .................................. 178
26. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 9. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ................................................. 179
27. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 9 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t t e r n ........................ 180
28. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 10. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ................................................. l 8 l
2 9. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 10. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ................................................. 182
30. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 11. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ................................................. 183
31. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 11. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t t e r n . ....................................... 184
32. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 12. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n ................................................. I 85
33. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 12. Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a tte r n .................................. . . . 186
34. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type 1 3 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ................................................. 187
35. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r S ubject
Type 1 3 . Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ............................. 188
v i i
T able Page
3 6 . V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type "0". Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 1
Varimax F a c to r P a t te r n ...................................................... 189
37. V isu a l P e rc e p tu a l Components f o r Subject
Type "0". Ordered Loadings f o r F a c to r 2
Varimax F a c to r P a t t e r n ......................................... 190
3 8 . S u b je cts i n Type 2 from th e D isadvantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O r ig in a l Scores . . 192
39. S u b je cts In Type 2 from th e Advantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 193
40. S u b je cts i n Type 3 from th e Disadvantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 194
41. S u b je cts i n Type 3 from th e Advantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O r ig in a l Scores . . 195
42. S u b je cts i n Type 6 from th e Disadvantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 196
43. S u b je cts i n Type 6 from th e Advantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 197
44. S u b je cts i n Type 7 from th e Disadvantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 198
45. S u b je cts In Type J from th e Advantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 199
46. S u b jects In Type 10 from th e Disadvantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 200
47. S u b je cts In Type 10 from th e Advantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O r ig in a l Scores . . 201
48. S u b je cts i n Type "0" from th e Disadvantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 202
49. S u b je c ts i n Type "0" from th e Advantaged
Sample. S t a t i s t i c s f o r O rig in a l Scores . . 203
v i i i
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
In tr o d u c tio n
One o f the most im portant g o a ls In elem entary edu
c a tio n I s fo r every c h ild to develop adequate reading
s k i l l s . When t h i s goal i s not reached* th e re i s cause f o r
concern. There a re many p o s s ib le rea so n s f o r read in g f a i l
u re s : sensory d i s a b i l i t i e s * c o g n itiv e lim ita tio n s * em otion
a l problems o r a lac k o f o p p o rtu n ity to learn* to mention a
few. I f the te a c h e r can a s c e r t a i n the b a s i s of a p a r t i c u
l a r readin g problem* the p ro p er rem edial procedures can be
p re s c rib e d and the go al may s t i l l be o b ta in e d . And i f the
te a c h e r can p r e d i c t the occurrence o f a reading problem in
advance* then time may be saved and unn ecessary f r u s t r a t i o n
may be avoided in the elem entary grades by a program o f r e
m edial tea ch in g a t the p resch o o l l e v e l.
There a re many ways o f p r e d ic tin g or d e te c tin g the
cause o f a read in g problem. For example* s e rv ic e s are o f
ten provided to the schools fo r v is u a l and a u d ito ry sensory
screening* i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t i n g and em otional e v a lu a tio n
f o r c h ild re n w ith suspected le a rn in g problem s. Less a v a i l
1
2
ab le , however, are means f o r a s s e s s in g b a s ic p e rc e p tu a l
a b i l i t i e s , such as fig u re -g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n and v is u a l
c lo su re a b i l i t y . However, in a r e c e n t study by Wood
(1970), a P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y was developed to t e s t the p e r
c e p tu a l development o f p resch o o l and elem entary grade c h i l
dren. This b a t t e r y i s unique in t h a t i t was designed to
y i e l d a "p e rc e p tu a l th r e s h o ld ." Hence, the ed u ca to r can
not only i d e n t i f y c h ild re n who a re below average in p e rc e p
t u a l a b i l i t y , but can a ls o determ ine the e x te n t o f t h e i r
d i s a b i l i t y .
The P e rc e p tu a l B a tte ry by Wood has provided both
q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e in fo rm a tio n concerning p e rc e p
t u a l development. Q u a n tita tiv e ly , i t e s t a b lis h e d norms o f
p e rc e p tu a l performance f o r p re sc h o o l age c h ild r e n . Q u a li
t a t i v e l y , i t re v e a le d s ix independent p e rc e p tu a l s k i l l s ,
c a lle d : F igure-ground, V isu a l Closure I , V isu a l Closure I I ,
Figure-ground Homogeneous and V isu a l C losure Homogeneous I
and I I . These s k i l l s were found to be s tr u c tu r e d along
s e v e ra l dimensions o f m atu ratio n and le a rn in g . One dimen
sion in d ic a te d the dual b a s i s o f p e rc e p tio n - -f ig u re - g ro u n d
and c lo s u re . A second r e f l e c t e d the "depth" o f the p e rc e p
t u a l p ro cess in which a r e s e r v o i r o f support systems a p p a r
e n tly compensate f o r s t r e s s f a c t o r s o c c u rrin g in the v is u a l
in p u t channel. A t h i r d re v e a le d a dichotomy between r e
fle x iv e and l i n g u i s t i c p e rc e p tu a l development. While both
a sp e c ts are undoubtedly a s s o c ia te d w ith m atu ratio n and
3
learning., the l a t t e r appeared to be p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t iv e
to c o r r e l a t e s o f language development.
B esides d e sc rib in g th ese s ix p e rc e p tu a l s k ills ., the
study by Wood (1970) explored t h e i r r e l a t i o n to s e le c te d
psychomotor and language b e h a v io rs. A ll were combined to
form a measure by which the development o f low and high
language expectancy groups o f c h ild re n could be compared.
I t was found t h a t fiv e o f the p e rc e p tu a l th re s h o ld s r e
f l e c t i n g growth and m atu ratio n were s im ila r f o r both groups.
However, a discrep an cy was c l e a r l y e v id e n t f o r the p e rc e p
t u a l dimension a s s o c ia te d most c lo s e l y w ith language d e v e l
opment. The low language expectancy subgroup, in t h i s case,
appeared to have a le a rn in g disadv an tag e o f major p ro p o r
tio n s .
In many r e s p e c ts . Wood's study was t e s t o r ie n te d .
I t was concerned w ith the c o n s tru c tio n o f a t e s t b a t t e r y
and the e x p lo ra tio n o f i t s c a p a b i l i t i e s to r e v e a l group d i f
fe re n c e s in language and p e rc e p tio n . While th ese g o a ls
were accom plished, much o f the " p e rc e p tu a l sto ry " from the
view point o f the ed u cato r rem ains to be e x p lo red . Of p a r
t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t would be a d e ta il e d a n a ly s is o f the c h i l
d r e n 's p e rc e p tu a l resp o n ses w ith in the m in o rity groups s e
l e c te d . Bor example, not a l l o f the c h ild re n in a low
language p r o b a b i l it y subgroup would be expected to have a
p e rc e p tu a l d i s a b i l i t y t h a t was r e l a t e d to language d ev elop
ment, nor would a l l o f the c h ild r e n in a high language sub
4
group ex ce l In th ese p e rc e p tu a l s k i l l s . By the same token,
th e re -would undoubtedly be c h ild re n from b o th subgroups who
experienced d i f f i c u l t i e s along the l i n e s o f p e rc e p tu a l de
velopment a s s o c ia te d w ith m a tu ra tio n .
Statem ent o f th e Problem
In c o n tr a s t to Wood's focus on the components of
the Standard and P e rc e p tu a l B a t t e r i e s , the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i
g a tio n was d ir e c te d a t determ ining the "person c l u s t e r s "
w ith in each subgroup fo r those v a r ia b le s which, in the Wood
study, were in d ic a te d to have adequate r e l i a b i l i t y . Thus,
the c o r r e l a t i o n s were among s u b je c ts r a t h e r than among v a r
i a b l e s . The s u b je c t subgroups or "types" c o n s t i t u t e , then,
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n v a ria b le s which can be compared fo r s e ts o f
m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s . A d e lin e a tio n o f the d i f f e r e n t
"kinds" o f c h ild r e n , and the p a r t i c u l a r a s s e t s and l i a b i l i
t i e s o f th e se groupings would seem to be of c o n sid e ra b le
value to school a d m in is tr a to r s who must a n t i c i p a t e the
needs o f many subgroups o f c h ild r e n ; and to the elem entary
school te a c h e rs who must be s e n s i t iv e to the s tr e n g th s and
weaknesses o f c h ild re n o f a l l ty p e s. Hence, the follow ing
r e s e a rc h q u e s tio n s were r a i s e d fo r t h i s p e rc e p tu a l study:
1. Do c l u s t e r s o f c h ild r e n e x i s t which org an ize p e r
c e p tu a lly a n d /o r respond to v is u a l s tim u li in the
same manner?
2. Are th ese c l u s t e r s unique o r a re they commonly
found in any group o f p resch o o l c h ild r e n s e le c te d
a t random from a socioeconom ically deprived or
advantaged p o p u latio n ?
3- Do c h ild re n from c o n tr a s tin g environm ents w ith in a
c l u s t e r have d i f f e r e n t p a tt e r n s o f m a tu ra tio n a l
I
| development?
1
I
|
R a tio n a le
I
! In comparing t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s a c ro ss the s u b je c ts j
!of a study, as i s done when the components o f s e v e ra l t e s t s
|
jor b eh av io rs a re determ ined, group d if f e r e n c e s t h a t may be j
I j
e x ta n t w ith in the sample of a p o p u latio n may be obscured. j
iThus, w hile u s e f u l in fo rm a tio n concerning the scope o f the |
1
jte s ts as t o o ls o f measurement may be o b ta in e d , in fo rm atio n
i
r e l a t i n g to the s tr e n g th s and weaknesses o f the c h ild re n
may be l o s t . By c o r r e l a t in g the s u b je c ts r a t h e r than the
v a r i a b le s , however, and decomposing t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n m atrix
by component a n a ly s is , the s t r u c tu r e o f th e sample can be
1
brought more c l e a r l y in to focus. For example, in s te a d of
jobtaining the u s u a l c l u s t e r s o f b e h a v io rs, one w i l l d e t e r
mine the o rth o g o n al c l u s t e r s o f c h ild re n who have s im ila r
!
p e rc e p tu a l and c o g n itiv e p a t t e r n s . In determ ining the num
b e r o f c l u s t e r s , i t i s p o s s ib le to become more aware o f the
"types" o r developm ental p a tt e r n s t h a t a re e x ta n t w ith in
the group. In a d d itio n , c l u s t e r s provide in c re a s e d f l e x i
b i l i t y fo r the comparison o f o th e r a t t r i b u t e s such as p e r
6
t a i n to the m a tu ra tio n a l development o f the c h ild . Where
th e re were only six p o s s ib le c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s in the o r i g i
n a l study o f Wood among which the m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s
could be compared, the p r e s e n t study seems to pro v id e con
s id e r a b ly more. This may be an im p o rtan t f a c t o r in d e t e c t
ing r e l a t i o n s between p e rc e p tio n and language which were
o b serv ab le only as tre n d s in the Wood study. Thus, n o t on
ly was new in fo rm a tio n o b tain ed concerning the s tr e n g th s
and weaknesses o f the s u b je c ts w ith in each subgroup, b u t
a ls o i n s i g h t in to the development o f p e rc e p tio n and l a n
guage may have been gained.
CHAPTER I I
BACKGROUND AND RELATED RESEARCH
Unlike v is u a l a c u ity , which can be stu d ie d in r e l a
tio n to a s p e c i f i c body s t r u c t u r e , b oth a n ato m ic ally and
p h y s io lo g ic a lly , p e rc e p tio n i s more o f a t h e o r e t i c a l con
s t r u c t . I t has been stu d ie d both phenom enologically, from
m an's contem plation o f h i s s e n s a tio n s , and e m p iric a lly ,
from a p le th o r a o f d a ta r e l a t i n g the stim u lu s to the r e
sponse. The follow ing d is c u s s io n d e s c rib e s the major r e
search e f f o r t s which have led to the c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f
p e rc e p tio n as an in te rm e d ia te p ro ce ss between se n sa tio n and
c o g n itio n ; and review s the l i t e r a t u r e on r e s e a r c h s p e c i f i
c a l l y r e p o rte d in the a re a o f fig u re -g ro u n d d is c rim in a tio n
and v i s u a l c lo s u re .
V isu a l P e rcep tio n Viewed as a Process
C onsidering v is u a l p e rc e p tio n as a p ro ce ss b rin g s
i n to focus two c o r o l l a r y id e a s : t h a t something more i s ac
complished during p e rc e p tio n than the mere r e f l e c t i o n o f an
image; and t h a t a number o f s te p s a re re q u ire d to accom
p l i s h i t . I f i t i s rea so n a b le to assume t h a t the e n v iro n
ment i s the prim ary source o f knowledge, v is u a l p e rc e p tio n
____________ 7
can be viewed as a means o f e x tr a c tin g u s e f u l in fo rm atio n
from the environm ent. The term u s e f u l i s c r i t i c a l here.,
because the mosaic o f e n e rg ie s t h a t s t r i k e the r e t i n a f a r
exceed the decoding c a p a b i l i t y o f the n eu ro lo g ic system.
There i s a need, th e r e f o r e , to l i m i t and to s e l e c t w ith in
the in p u t channel, the cues which a re most im p o rtan t. The
v is u a l p ro c e ss e s have been d e sc rib e d phenom enologically in
experim ents which have a r r e s t e d the development o f p e rc e p
tio n a t d i f f e r e n t sta g e s o f com pletion (Davies, 1905)•
The f i r s t sta g e can be i d e n t i f i e d as vague aware
ness o f the stim u lu s, s im ila r to the b r i e f se n sa tio n of
l i g h t which i s experien ced m om entarily b e fo re the emergence
o f a n o n d e s c rip t form in the v is u a l f i e l d . This stag e has
been dem onstrated by experim ents in which the d u ra tio n or
the i n t e n s i t y o f the stim u lu s has been reduced to t h r e s h
o ld , o r in which the stim u lu s has been removed toward the
p e rip h e ry o f the v i s u a l range ( Z ig le r , Cook, M ille r &
Wemple, 1930).
The second sta g e can be c a lle d the g e n eric aware
ness o f stim u lu s form. This awareness in v o lv e s a s t r u c t u r
ing o f the v i s u a l f i e l d i n to two a re a s : a c e n t r a l fig u r e in
which p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e s a re a c c e n tu a te d in the c o n scio u s
ness j and a p e r i p h e r a l ground in which the rem aining p ro p
e r t i e s a re suppressed (Freeman, 1929)• I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
the form i s made on the b a s i s o f the s a l i e n t f e a tu r e s o f
the f i g u r e , which i s p o s s ib le only a t the g e n eric le v e l o f
9
accuracy. This p o in t was made through F e h r e r 's (1935) ex
p erim en t, in which a complex lin e drawing was re p e a te d ly
f la s h e d to o b se rv e rs who attem pted to i d e n t i f y i t a f t e r
each exposure. In t h a t study p r e lim in a ry c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
e r r o r s were unstable., in d ic a t i n g t h a t the judgments were
made from a wide range o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
The t h i r d stag e o f v is u a l p e rc e p tio n can be c l a s s i
f i e d as s p e c i f i c awareness, in which the f ig u re co ntin ues
to stre n g th e n and appears to move forward from the f i e l d .
The p a t t e r n o f the form becomes c o n scio u sly complete, but
i t i s s t i l l devoid o f i t s p ro p er s i g n if ic a n c e . In F e h r e r 's
(1935) study, fo r example, in c re a s e in the number o f expo
su re s r e s u l t e d in a s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f e r r o r s . This c o n s is
tency was a t t r i b u t e d to the d is c rim in a tio n o f the f i n e r
d e t a i l s in the f ig u r e , enablin g the o b se rv ers to narrow the
range o f p o s s ib le c a te g o rie s from which they were prone to
guess the i d e n t i t y o f the p e rc e iv e d o b je c t.
The f i n a l stag e o f the v i s u a l p e rc e p tu a l p rocess
can be r e f e r r e d to as the awareness o f meaning or the "I
know what i t i s " f e e l in g . At t h i s p o in t, the fig u r e i s
i d e n t i f i e d w ith a f a i r degree o f accuracy w ith r e s p e c t to
the r e a l o b je c t o r source o f s tim u la tio n in the e n v iro n
ment. There i s , according to B a r t l e t t ( 1 9 1 6), a n a tu r a l
d riv e w ith in man to complete t h i s f i n a l s te p . The ease
w ith which i t i s accom plished, however, v a rie s w ith the n a
tu r e o f the stim u lu s and the exp erien ce o f the in d iv id u a l.
10
In most Instances,, p e rc e p tio n I s completed alm ost immediate
ly upon s tim u la tio n , w ith an a p p aren t lack o f e f f o r t on the
p a r t o f the o b se rv er o r awareness o f the in te rm e d ia te ste p s
in v o lv e d . Simple and f a m i li a r f ig u r e s have been i d e n t i f i e d ,
f o r example, a t exposure r a t e s o f 10 to 30 m illis e c o n d s .
Under l e s s d e s ir a b le c o n d itio n s , however, the p ro ce ss may
be prolonged, w ith c o n sid e ra b le energy being expended con
s c io u s ly a t the lower s ta g e s o f p e rc e p tu a l awareness (C arl,
1933)•
The p e r c e p tu a l p ro c e sse s seemingly invo lve a dual
mechanism f o r the screening and s e l e c ti o n o f incoming stim
u l i . One p a r t o f t h i s mechanism i s anchored to the s t r u c
tu re o f the nervous system which o rg a n iz e s the f i e l d in
o rd e r to reduce the number o f s tim u li, and s t r u c t u r e s the
f ig u r e so t h a t a maximum amount o f in fo rm a tio n can be ob
ta in e d from a minimum amount o f cues. Another p a r t o f the
mechanism i s h e ld w ith in the core o f the c e n t r a l nervous
system, where schematas formed by exp erience d i c t a t e to a
la rg e e x te n t the a l l o c a t i o n o f s tim u li to the fig u re o r to
the ground. The n a t u r a l tendency f o r the nervous system to
s t r u c t u r e incoming s tim u li o p e ra te s throughout the e n ti r e
p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s in g , b u t the in flu e n c e s o f le a rn in g and
exp erien ce in c re a s e from a minimum e f f e c t a t the o n se t to
a major e f f e c t in the f i n a l s ta g e s . This "g ath e rin g o f mo
mentum" e f f e c t su g g ests t h a t p e rc e p tu a l aw areness, a t l e a s t
in the i n i t i a l s ta g e s , i s dependent alm ost e x c lu s iv e ly on
11
the a b i l i t y o f the in d iv id u a l to o rg an ize s tim u li as they
a re transd uced and tr a n s m itte d from the p e rip h e ry o f the
nervous system.
O rg anization o f V isu a l S tim u li
The tra n s d u c e r i t s e l f , by the n a tu re o f i t s s t r u c
t u r e , i s a stim u lu s scree n in g mechanism. I t s e l e c t s only a
f r a c t i o n o f the a v a ila b le energy from the environm ent fo r
conversion in to n e u ra l im pulses. The rods and cones o f the
r e t i n a , fo r example, are s e n s i t i v e only to a sm all band o f
e le c tro -m a g n e tic wave le n g th s (between 400 and 800 m illim i
crons) . The rods have a lower th re s h o ld than the cones and,
t h e r e f o r e , they p la y a g r e a t e r r o le in p e rc e p tio n , as i l l u
m ination d e c re a se s. The rods a re spread throughout the pe
r ip h e ry o f the r e t i n a and a c o n sid e ra b le amount o f o v e r
lapping occurs w ith the f i r s t o rd e r neurons o f the a f f e r e n t
system. As a r e s u l t , d i r e c t fu n c tio n o f the ro d s i s lim
i t e d . The cones, on the o th e r hand, a re s i t u a t e d toward
the c e n te r o f the r e t i n a , f i l l i n g the fovea where th e den
s i t y peaks sh a rp ly a t 147*000 cones p e r square m illim e te r .
In a d d itio n , th e re i s a o n e -to -o n e correspondence between
the cones and the n e u ra l endings so t h a t s p a t i a l re s o lv in g
a b i l i t y i s maximum (Chapanis, 19^9)•
Normal v i s u a l a c u ity i s fundam ental to th e r e s o l u
tio n o f the f i n e r d e t a i l s o f the t h i r d and f o u r th sta g e s o f
v i s u a l p e rc e p tio n , whereby one f ig u r e i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
12
from a n o th e r and u l t i m a t e l y i s i d e n t i f i e d . In th ese l a t t e r
s ta g e s , however, the r e t i n a (w ith i t s ro d s, cones and a f
f e r e n t c o n n e c tio n s), in comparison w ith the h ig h e r c e n te r s
o f the b r a in , p la y s only a minor r o l e in the r e o r g a n iz a tio n
o f v i s u a l cues. I t i s a t the lower l e v e ls o f p e rc e p tio n ,
during the d e te c tio n and d is c r im in a tio n o f b r ig h tn e s s d i f
f e re n c e s , t h a t the tra n s d u c e r ( r e t i n a ) assumes a m ajor ro le
in the s t r u c tu r i n g o f the f i e l d .
The se n s a tio n o f b r ig h tn e s s v a rie s w ith the amount
o f p h y s ic a l energy r e f l e c t e d from the environm ent. When
two o b je c ts a re observed under f l u c t u a t i n g l e v e ls o f i l l u
m in atio n , however, t h e i r r e l a t i v e b r ig h tn e s s e s remain con
s t a n t . This constancy f a c t o r o ccu rs because the p e rc e p tio n
o f r e l a t i v e b r ig h tn e s s depends upon the albedos o f the ob
j e c t s in the f i e l d ( i . e . , the r a t i o o f the l i g h t r e f l e c t e d
from i t s su rfa c e to the le v e l o f the in c id e n t l i g h t in the
e n v iro n m en t). Because the r a t i o i s r e l a t i v e l y c o n sta n t,
the r e l a t i v e b r ig h tn e s s o f o b je c ts under the same f i e l d o f
i llu m in a tio n i s a ls o c o n s ta n t. This p o in t was made in an
experim ent r e p o r te d by Gelb (1929)j in which s u b je c ts ob
served a h ig h ly illu m in a te d b la c k sphere in a darkened room.
Although the s u b je c ts were aware o f the r e a l c o lo r (o r lack
o f i t ) , they r e p o r te d t h a t the sphere was w hite ( i . e . , the
maximum degree o f b r i g h t n e s s ) . When a sm a ller w hite sphere
was in tro d u c e d i n f r o n t o f the b la c k one, the b la c k sphere
appeared to tu rn b la c k and the w hite one was then p e rc eiv e d
13
as w h ite . The r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e between the two was p r e
served by t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e a lb ed o s, su g g estin g the r e f l e x
iv e n a tu re o f p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e . In o th e r words., d e s
p i t e p a s t knowledge and expectancy, the s u b je c ts could not
p e rc e iv e the b r ig h tn e s s o f the sph eres in any way o th e r than
the way they d id . The h ig h e r l e v e ls o f c o r t i c a l c o n tr o l
had not y e t e n te re d i n to th e se l e v e ls o f p e rc e p tu a l aware
ness and the s t r u c tu r i n g o f the f i e l d was l e f t p r im a r ily to
the in flu e n c e o f the tra n s d u c e r and the lower fu n c tio n s o f
n e u ro lo g ic o r g a n iz a tio n .
Not only i s p e rc e p tio n a p ro c e ss o f o rg a n iz a tio n
b u t the s tim u li t h a t impinge upon the r e t i n a from the en
vironm ent a re , in them selves, not w ith o u t a c o n sid e ra b le
amount o f o r g a n iz a tio n . This s t r u c t u r e can and u s u a lly
does f a c i l i t a t e the form ation o f the f i e l d aided by the
s tre n g th e n in g e f f e c t s o f the n a t u r a l b o u nd aries which o c
cur w ith in the environm ent. I t has been dem onstrated ex
p e rim e n ta lly t h a t b o u n d a rie s n o t only in c r e a s e the c l e a r
ness o r a t t e n t i o n value o f a simple form, b u t a lso the
speed w ith which i t i s p e rc eiv e d (Meads, 1915j Woodrow,
1916). When b o u n d a rie s en close a complex form, the i n t r a
s t r u c t u r e o f the stim u lu s becomes a v a ria b le which a f f e c t s
the p e rc e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n o f the f i g u r e . A ttneave (1957)
d e fin e d the com plexity o f a form in terms o f i t s symmetry
and c o n to u r, tak in g in to account b o th the number and degree
o f tu r n s in the boundary. The s t r u c t u r a l q u a l i t i e s o f sym
14
m etry, s i m p lic ity , compactness and c o n tin u ity a ls o f a c i l i
t a t e the o rg a n iz a tio n o f the fig u re in the p e r c e p tu a l p ro c
e sse s (Koffka, 1935)•
I t i s n o t always the case, however, t h a t a stim u lu s
from the environm ent w i l l be s tr u c tu r e d in such a way th a t
i t w i l l p r o j e c t a c lo se d , u n i f i e d simple form a c ro ss the
r e t i n a . In s te a d , th e re may be a mass o f sm all d i s c r e t e
forms o r fragm ented co ntou rs which compete f o r prominence
in the p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f the f i e l d . In th e se i n
s ta n c e s , the i n t r a s t r u c t u r e o f the s tim u li p la y s an impor
t a n t r o l e in determ ining how the mass w i l l be p e rc e iv e d ;
the v a r i a b i l i t y can be accounted f o r in terms o f th re e
s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s : p ro x im ity , s i m i l a r i t y and c o n tin u ity .
A common example o f the p r i n c i p l e o f p ro x im ity i s
the c o n v en tio n a l grouping o f l e t t e r s on the p r i n te d page to
form e a s i l y p e rc e iv a b le word u n i t s ; the p r i n c i p l e o f s im i
l a r i t y can be dem onstrated by the f a m i li a r c o lo r - b lin d t e s t
in which the f ig u r e i s i d e n t i f i a b l e on the b a s i s o f i d e n t i
c a l co lo re d d o ts; the p r i n c i p l e o f c o n tin u ity d e s c r ib e s the
i d e a l q u a l i t y o f a f ig u r e in which the fragm ented contours
a re co n tin uou s, u n in te r r u p te d or deployed in the same gen
e r a l d i r e c t i o n . For example, i f a c a p i t a l i s p r i n te d
in block form on top o f a c a p i t a l "M" so t h a t the p o in ts
a re in c o n ta c t, the r e s u l t a n t f ig u re would be p e rc e iv e d not
as two l e t t e r s b u t as a diamond suspended between two p a r
a l l e l l i n e s .
15
S tr u c tu rin g the V isu a l P ercept
S tim uli from the environm ent, p assed by the r e t i n a ,
provide too many cues f o r the in p u t channel to decode.
jP erceptual e vents which follow the tra n s d u c tio n reduce f u r -
ither the number o f cues by a c c e n tu a tin g some and suppressing
|o th e rs . This r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f the cues i s e v id e n t by the
isecond stag e o f the p e rc e p tu a l p ro ce ss and the v is u a l f i e l d
I |
! i
iis o rganized in to a c e n t r a l f ig u re and a p e r ip h e r a l ground. ;
' !
i j
|The form ation of the f i e l d follow s an o r d e r ly and p r e d i c t - |
iable sequence o f development which has been d e sc rib e d by ;
I
Wever (1927)•
!
The f i r s t stag e i s the d e te c tio n o f a heterogeneous
jq u a lity in the v i s u a l f i e l d , which forms the b a s i s f o r d i - ■
|
|v isio n : the source o f the h e te ro g e n e ity becomes the fig u r e ;
i
jthe rem ainder o f the f i e l d pro v id es the ground. There ap-
j
jpears to be a n a tu r a l tendency fo r the in p u t system to sep-
jara te f ig u r e from ground, and when heterogeneous stim ulu s
{
jupon which to d iv id e i s denied, the f i e l d becomes u n s ta b le .
I
!a " g a n z fe ld ," fo r example, i s a stim u lu s f i e l d which p re -
l
i
isents a uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i g h t energy. An e x p e r i
ence c lo s e ly approxim ating a g a n z fe ld can be c re a te d by
covering the opened eyes w ith the concave h a lv e s o f a ping
pong b a l l .
The p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d o f a g a n z fe ld i s homogeneous
and u n s ta b le . Cohen (1958) has re p o rte d t h a t s u b je c ts , ob
servin g a g a n z fe ld w ith a s a tu r a te d hue, exp erienced a phe
16
nom enological s h i f t a f t e r s e v e r a l m inutes. The hue ap
peared to become u n s a tu r a te d and faded i n to a gray f i e l d ,
the c e n te r o f which was d a rk e r than the r e s t . The c e n te r
o f the f i e l d , moreover, appeared to be c lo s e r to the ob
s e rv e r than the surrounding f i e l d . I f , on the o th e r hand,
a h eterogeneous stim u lu s, such as a sm all sphere o f d i f f e r
e n t i n t e n s i t y , o r hue were in tro d u c e d i n to the f i e l d , the
p e rc e p tio n o f the o r i g i n a l hue o f the g a n z fe ld was main
ta in e d .
The a u to - k i n e t i c e f f e c t a ls o dem o nstrates the need
f o r h e te r o g e n e ity i f s t a b i l i t y i s to be m aintained in the
v i s u a l f i e l d . I f a b r i g h t sp ot i s viewed a g a in s t a n o n i l
lum inated f i e l d , such as a dark room, the l i g h t w i l l appear
to move u n p re d ic ta b ly a c ro ss the homogeneous background.
I f h e te r o g e n e ity i s in tro d u c e d , by p r o g r e s s iv e ly in c re a s in g
the illu m in a tio n in the room so t h a t the background d e t a i l
becomes g ra d u a lly more v i s i b l e , the a p p aren t movement of
the spot d im in ish e s.
O ccurring con co m itantly w ith the d e te c tio n o f h e t
e ro g e n e ity in the f i r s t sta g e i s an awareness o f an a p p ar
e n t b r ig h tn e s s d if f e r e n c e between t h i s a re a and the rem ain
der o f the f i e l d . This d i f f e r e n c e g ra d u a lly in c r e a s e s
u n t i l a d e f i n i t e shape b eg in s to s o l i d i f y and the presence
of co n to u rs can be d e fin e d c l e a r l y . This accommodation
tak e s approxim ately ten m illis e c o n d s to complete (Wever,
1927)•
17
In the second stage,, the emerging f ig u re appears to
stan d out from the f i e l d and assume some q u a l i t i e s o f depth.
The su rfa c e d e t a i l s o f the fig u re become fix e d and c le a r l y
d is c rim in a te d w hile those o f the f i e l d (th e ground) are
film y and vaguely d e fin e d . The s t a b i l i t y o f the fig u re has
been dem onstrated by i t s r e s i s t a n c e to change both in hue
and in b r i g h tn e s s , the c o lo r limen being much la r g e r fo r
the fig u r e than f o r the ground (Gelb & G ra n it, 1923;
Roberts., 1932) . The culm in ation o f t h i s s tr u c tu r i n g p ro c
ess i s the exp erience o f a halo e f f e c t around the f ig u r e .
Wever (1929) r e p o rte d t h a t t h i s second stag e la s te d fo r ap
prox im ately seven m illis e c o n d s in h i s experim ents b u t i t
should be noted t h a t he was u sin g simple tw o-dim ensional
s tim u li w ith c l e a r l y d e fin e d fig u re-g ro u n d dim ensions. The
execu tio n time o f th ese sta g e s i s now known to vary w ith
the com plexity and f a m i l i a r i t y o f the stim u lu s (Leeper,
1935).
The o r d e rly r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f the stim ulus cues i n
to a fig u re -g ro u n d r e l a t i o n i s a p p a re n tly guided by a s e t
o f b e h a v io ra l p r i n c i p l e s which have been d e scrib e d by Ges
t a l t p sy c h o lo g is ts and are subsumed under the Law o f Prag-
nanz. S p e c if i c a l ly , the Law o f Pragnanz s t a t e s t h a t a
fig u re ta k e s the very b e s t form p o s s ib le fo r purposes of
p e rc e p tio n . A good form i s one t h a t i s s ta b le and c le a r l y
defin ed so t h a t i t can be p erc eiv e d q u ic k ly and w ith m ini
mum s t r e s s (Koffka, 1 9 3 5)•
18
Both e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c fo rc e s a re inv olved in
the form ation o f a good form. These can o p e ra te in d ep en
d e n tly o f experience and learning., althou gh th e re i s e v i
dence to suggest t h a t th ese f a c t o r s do p lay a t l e a s t a mi
nor r o le (T hurstone, 19^-4; Mooney, 195^) • The e x t r i n s i c
fo rc e s in clu d e the s t r u c tu r e o f the stim u lu s in the e n v i
ronment which can f a c i l i t a t e o r h in d e r the form ation o f the
f i g u r e . These have been d isc u sse d p re v io u s ly in re fe re n c e
to the o rg a n iz a tio n o f s e n s a tio n . The i n t r i n s i c fo rc e s ,
which a re d e sc rib e d in the d is c u s s io n which fo llo w s, com
p r i s e the in n a te te n d e n cies o f the in p u t channel to modify
the form ation o f the f ig u r e .
I n t r i n s i c Forces
A b a s ic i n t r i n s i c tendency c o n tr ib u tin g to the Law
o f Pragnanz i s the p r i n c i p le o f s i m p l i c i t y . I t has been
h y p o th esized t h a t s im p lic ity c r e a te s s u f f i c i e n t redundancy
in the f ig u r e so t h a t i t can be decoded e f f e c t i v e l y and
s to re d e f f i c i e n t l y in the memory (M ille r, 1956). There i s
evidence to suggest t h a t not only are simple f ig u r e s p e r
ceiv ed more r e a d i l y than complex ones (Razran, 1 9 3 9) j b u t,
a ls o , t h a t the p e rc e p tu a l f ig u r e i t s e l f i s s im p lif ie d over
t h a t which i s r e f l e c t e d on the r e t i n a from the environment
(Fuchs, 1920). This becomes in c r e a s in g l y e v id e n t when the
s t r u c tu r e o f the e x te r n a l stim u lu s i s weakened, th ereb y a l
lowing the i n t e r n a l fo rc e s to e x e r t more in flu e n c e on the
19
form ation of the f ig u r e . T ach isto sco p ic exposure o f a f i g
u re a t high s h u t t e r speeds, fo r example, r e s u l t s in a r e
d u c tio n o f the p e rc e p tu a l form to a c i r c u l a r p a tch o f l ig h t ,
a c i r c l e being the sim p le st p o s s ib le form (Helson & F eg rer,
1932; Wilcox, 1932). Experiments p e rm ittin g a g r e a t e r
abundance of e x te r n a l cues have dem onstrated l e s s e r degrees
o f s i m p li f i c a ti o n , b u t always in the d i r e c t i o n o f symmetry,
r e g u l a r i t y and r e c t i l i n e a r i t y (Hempstead, 1900; P e rk in s,
1932). Even p e rc eiv e d a fte r-im a g e s adhere to the s i m p l i f i
c a tio n p r i n c i p l e , and as the stim ulus becomes more complex,
the amount o f s i m p li f i c a ti o n i n c r e a s e s .
When the stim u lu s i s s c a t t e r e d lo o s e ly a c ro ss the
v is u a l f i e l d so t h a t a sin g le f i g u r a l s i m p li f i c a ti o n i s im
p o s s ib le , a re d u c tio n o f the cues s t i l l may be o b tain ed by
a grouping p ro c e ss . The cues are p e rc e p tu a lly combined to
become the elem ents o f a super-form which develops along
the h e re to fo re mentioned l in e s o f symmetry and r e g u l a r i t y ,
e tc . This grouping p ro ce ss i s based on the p r i n c i p l e s o f
p ro x im ity , s i m i l a r i t i e s , and c o n tin u ity which, although
they have been re p re s e n te d as environm ental in f lu e n c e s , a l
so r e f l e c t the i n t r i n s i c c a p a b il i ty o f the nervous system
to c a p i t a l i z e upon them in the o rg a n iz a tio n o f the p e rc e p
t u a l f i e l d .
C losely r e l a t e d to and p a r t i a l l y dependent on t h i s
grouping a c t i v i t y o f the p e rc e p tu a l system i s a n o th e r im
p o r ta n t p r i n c i p le under the Law o f Pragnanz: the tendency
20
toward c l o s u r e . This r e f l e c t s the d i s p o s i t i o n o f the f o r
ces w ith in the in p u t channel to complete the form ation of
the f ig u r e when the p a t t e r n o f cues from the environm ent i s
d is r u p te d o r in com plete. This phenomenon may be commonly
exp erien ced during a c a su a l glance a t a line-draw n newspa
p e r a d v e rtise m e n t. Although p a r t s o f the p i c t u r e a re f r e
q u e n tly d e le te d , the viewer i s o fte n unaware o f the m issing
b o u n d a rie s, which a re i n t e r n a l l y r e c o n s tr u c te d in the p e r
c e p tu a l p ro c e ss . The tendency toward c lo s u re has been dem
o n s tr a te d e x p e rim e n ta lly w ith se m i-b lin d p a t i e n t s who p e r
ceived a complete g e o m e tric a l form, such as a c i r c l e ,
d e s p ite the f a c t t h a t they were p h y s ic a lly capable o f r e
c e iv in g only p a r t o f the stim u lu s. S u b je c ts w ith normal
v is io n a ls o have been found to c lo se the d isc o n tin u o u s p o r
t io n s o f incom plete p i c t u r e s . In a study by Bobbit (1942),
f o r example, an incom plete t r i a n g l e was t a c h is to s c o p i c a l ly
exposed. Upon each su c c e ssiv e exposure the t r i a n g l e was
g r a d u a lly c lo se d . Before the form was com plete, however,
a th re s h o ld was reached a t which the s u b je c ts p e rc e iv e d the
t r i a n g l e as co ntinu ous.
Even when the i n d iv id u a l elem ents o f a c l u s t e r o f
s tim u li a re und eniably s e p a r a te , the tendency to c lo se them
in to a u n i t a r y m eaningful f ig u re can be observed. Thur-
stone (1944) p re s e n te d s u b je c ts w ith p a t t e r n s o f d o ts
which follow ed the co n to u rs o f symbols, such as the l e t t e r
"A." The p a t t e r n s were i d e n t i f i e d as the symbols they r e -
21
sembled d e s p ite the f a c t t h a t the s u b je c ts re p o rte d an
awareness o f the I n d i v i d u a l i t y o f the d o ts.
The law o f c lo s u re i s h y p o th esized on the prem ise
t h a t a c lo sed fig u r e conforms to the G e s ta lt d e f i n i t i o n o f
a "good" form more than an open f ig u r e does. This concept
has re c e iv e d some i n d i r e c t support from a study by Wulf
( 1 9 2 2) in which s u b je c ts were re q u e ste d to observe l in e
draw ingsj some o f which were incom p lete. When they a t
tempted to reproduce them from memory,, a f t e r an elapsed
p e rio d o f tim e, Wulf found l e s s d i s t o r t i o n among the r e p r o
d u c tio n s o f the c lo sed f ig u r e s than the d isc o n tin u o u s ones.
A study by Bakay and S c h i l l a r (19^8) a ls o suggested an i n
h e re n t p re fe re n c e f o r c lo sed f i g u r e s . In t h i s experim ent
s u b je c ts were asked to change s e v e r a l two-dim ensional d i s
connected forms in w hatever way they wished. The response
o f the s u b je c ts who spontaneously connected the open p o r
t io n s o f the f ig u r e s suggested an attem p t to reduce p e r
c e p tu a l s t r e s s c re a te d by the d i s c o n ti n u i ty of the forms.
Development o f P e rce p tio n
D espite n e u ro lo g ic im m aturity, the i n f a n t i s en
dowed w ith a rem arkable in v e n to ry o f s e n s i t i v i t i e s which
serve to spark the growth o f the p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e ss . P i
a g et ( 1 9 3 2) h y p o th esiz ed , on the b a s i s o f h i s o b se rv a tio n s
o f i n f a n t s , t h a t p e rc e p tu a l b e h av io r i s developed through
the m o d ific a tio n o f simple r e f l e x e s which a re f u n c tio n a l a t
22
the time o f b i r t h o r evolve soon a f t e r , as m atu ratio n oc
c u rs . The o r i e n t in g r e f l e x , fo r example, which has r e
ceived much a t t e n t i o n in R ussian psychology, i s a b a sic
n e u ro lo g ic a l c i r c u i t which a u to m a tic a lly d i r e c t s a tt e n t i o n
to incoming s tim u li. Such simple r e f l e x e s , according to
P ia g e t, a re e la b o ra te d through experience and e v e n tu a lly
a re suppressed by the o v e rrid in g in flu e n c e o f the develop
ing schemata, o r changes in the c i r c u i t . In tim e, t h e r e
f o re , the autom atic response o f the o r ie n tin g r e f l e x i s
su b o rd in a te d to the aufgabe, or the v o lu n ta ry searching fo r
p e rc e p tu a l cues.
Some in n a te resp o n ses o f the v is u a l system are r e l
a t i v e l y s o p h is tic a te d , however, and th e re i s evidence to
su g g est t h a t i n f a n t s are s e n s i t iv e to the same b rig h tn e s s
v a lu e s as a re a d u lts (P e ip er, 1937)• T his, in tu rn , may
r e l a t e to a n o th e r a p p a re n tly complex r e a c tio n inv o lv in g
h e te r o g e n e ity . I t has a lre a d y been noted t h a t the v is u a l
system o f the a d u lt r e q u ir e s h e te ro g e n e ity , such as a
b r ig h tn e s s d i f f e r e n t i a l , f o r the s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f the f i e l d
I t i s l o g ic a l to expect t h a t neonates may a lso have the
same need. This appeared to be the case in a study con
ducted by Fantz ( 1 9 6 3)* who observed the f i x a t i o n s o f i n
f a n t s as young as one week and found t h a t complex p a tt e r n s ,
p re s e n te d in random p a i r s , e l i c i t e d g r e a t e r v is u a l a t t e n
tio n than did homogeneous s t im u li. I t was concluded th a t
i n f a n t s n o t only have the c a p a c ity to p e rc eiv e p a tt e r n s b u t
23
a ls o p r e f e r them to d i f f u s e kinds o f s tim u li. In a d d itio n ,
i t was noted t h a t c h ild re n over two y e a rs a tte n d e d to a
sphere in p re fe re n c e to a f l a t t e n e d d is c . This a ls o was
a t t r i b u t e d to the presence o f p a t t e r n s formed by the
b r ig h tn e s s g r a d i e n ts , or shadows, on the sphere. This e a r
ly a f f i n i t y fo r p a tt e r n s p ro v id es p o s s ib ly an e x p la n atio n
f o r the fre q u e n t o b se rv a tio n t h a t young i n f a n t s a tte n d to
human fa c e s (P antz, 1 9 6 6). I t i s congruous, moreover, w ith
the p h y sio lo g ic re s e a r c h o f Hubei ( i 9 6 0), who recorded
g r e a t e r c o r t i c a l a c t i v i t y in respo nse to s p e c if ic v is u a l
p a tt e r n s than f o r d if f u s e s t im u li. This fin d in g has f a r -
rea ch in g im p lic a tio n s f o r le a r n in g , sin ce p a tt e r n s co n ta in
more in fo rm a tio n about the environm ent than do homogeneous
f i e l d s o f v is io n . And as Fantz ( 1 9 6 6) noted, the s iz e ,
shape and c o lo r o f o b je c ts vary w ith p e rs p e c tiv e , b u t the
p a t t e r n rem ains r e l a t i v e l y the same. Thus, a k e rn e l o f
c o n siste n c y i s a v a ila b le in a p a tt e r n from which re c o g n i
tio n and meaning can evolve.
The fo rego ing d is c u s s io n does not su g g e st, however,
t h a t the i n f a n t responds to a l l o f the numerous p a tt e r n s
which e x i s t in h is su rrou ndings. To the c o n tra ry , th e re
a re lim i ti n g f a c t o r s which e f f e c t i v e l y reduce the f i e l d ;
fo r example, v i s u a l a c u ity in the i n f a n t i s c o n sid era b ly
l e s s e f f e c t i v e than t h a t o f the a d u lt . Gorman, e t a l .
( 1 9 5 7) s u sin g an o p t ic o k i n e t ic response, e stim a te d the acu
i t y o f n eon ates one and o n e -h a lf hours to fiv e days o ld to
24
be 20/670 by S nellen c h a r t s ta n d a rd s. Fantz (1958)., u sing
f i x a t io n te c h n iq u e s, re p o rte d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r v is u a l
perform ance, b u t a t b e s t , n eo nates could re s o lv e p a t t e r n s
no f i n e r than 1 /8 o f an in ch a t a d is ta n c e o f nine in c h e s.
In a d d itio n to a c u ity r e s t r i c t i o n s , p e rc e p tio n ap
p e a rs to be lim ite d by an i n f l e x i b l e s t a t e o f accommodation
t h a t f ix e s the range o f focus to a s p h e r ic a l p lane w ith a
r a d iu s o f e ig h t o r nine in ch es (Haynes, 1 9 6 2), and only
those o b je c ts which are c lo se a re p e rc e iv e d r e a d i l y . Ac
commodation f l e x i b i l i t y i s achieved q u ic k ly , however, which
can be seen in the f a c t t h a t w ith in a m onth's time the i n
f a n t can d is c rim in a te a o n e -e ig h th in ch p a tt e r n ten f e e t
away (Haynes, 1 9 6 2).
C losely follo w in g the c o n tr o l o f accommodation i s
the development o f depth p e rc e p tio n . This a b i l i t y i s e v i
dent in the motor b eh av io r of i n f a n t s a t th re e months and
con tin u es to show improvement i n to the second y e a r (G e se ll,
1949)• This p o in t was dem onstrated most d ra m a tic a lly by
the v is u a l c l i f f study o f Gibson ( i 9 6 0), in which i n f a n t s
o f six months were p lac ed on a tr a n s p a r e n t p la tfo rm under
which h a l f o f the f l o o r was lowered. The i n f a n t s would not
crawl on the p o rtio n o f the p la tfo rm under which the f lo o r
le v e l was d ep ressed . Concomitant w ith the development o f
depth p e rc e p tio n i s a growing a p p re c ia tio n o f s iz e con
stan cy , which alth o u g h i t i s a b sen t b e fo re th re e months,
i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y advanced in the six-m o nth-o ld i n f a n t
25
(Cruickshank, 1 9 4 l) , b u t f o r g r e a t d is ta n c e s , th ese im
provements continue to adulthood.
As the c h ild m atures, d is c r im in a tio n o f simple p a t
te r n s becomes rem arkably a c u te . Under high m o tiv atio n a
c h ild o f 15 months can d i s t i n g u i s h between a c ro ss and a
b lac k square (Munn 8c S te in in g , 1931) j and a c h ild o f two
y e a rs can d e te c t sm all d if f e r e n c e s i n a geom etric form,
such as a t r i a n g l e w ith i t s top removed (Gellerman, 1933)•
Under normal m o tiv a tio n and w ith complex forms, however,
th e re i s a tendency f o r the c h ild to d is re g a rd p a r t s and
d e t a i l s o f a form and to s y n c re tiz e the p a tt e r n in to a
"m eaningful" whole. For example, in an experim ent by Se-
g e rs ( 1 9 2 6), the heads o f p ic tu r e -a n im a ls were sw itched.
Y et, c h ild re n under f iv e f a i l e d to n o tic e the d is c re p a n c ie s
and i d e n t i f i e d the anim als on the b a s i s o f t h e i r body form.
The a b i l i t y o f c h ild r e n to make c lo s u re s on la rg e groups of
s tim u li i s r e p o r te d ly poor (Freeman, 1929); p a r t i c u l a r l y
when the f i e l d i s complex, the c h ild under six may a tte n d
merely s y n c r e t i s t i c a l l y to in d iv id u a l conglom erates of
s t im u li, w ith o u t making any attem p t to r e l a t e them.
I n c lu s iv e , o r grouping, power, which i s im portant
to c lo s u re , i s p a r t l y a fu n c tio n o f c o lo r p e rc e p tio n . Al
though d is c r im in a tio n o f the prim ary c o lo rs has been ob
served i n i n f a n t s as e a r l y as 15 days a f t e r b i r t h (Chase,
1937)j matching o f c o lo r s i s not s i g n i f i c a n t l y developed
u n t i l the age o f two y e a r s , a t which time 45 p e rc e n t accu-
rac y i s achiev ed . This in c r e a s e s to 97 p e rc e n t accuracy a t
six y e a rs (Cook, 1931)• For the tw o -y ea r-o ld , however,
matching b e h av io r i s ru d im entary in t h a t i t has to be r e
le a rn e d b e fo re each new e x p erien c e: th u s, a c h ild might
le a rn to match a blu e toy w ith a blu e box b u t be unable to
apply the p ro c e ss to match a pink toy w ith a pink box w ith
o u t f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g (R o berts, 1932).
As the c h ild g a in s in e x p erien c e, p e rc e p tu a l group
ing becomes i n c r e a s in g ly in flu e n c e d by o th e r i n t r i n s i c f a c
t o r s . For example, the c h ild o f one and o n e -h a lf y e a r s i s
predom inantly i n t e r e s t e d in c o lo r s . The a t t e n t i o n o f the
tw o -a n d -o n e -h a lf-y e a r o ld , however, i s drawn more to p i c
tu r e s o f r e a l o b j e c ts . The in te r im age i s occupied by a
t r a n s i t i o n a l compromise in which m eaningless co lo re d forms
a re p r e f e r r e d to e i t h e r r e a l p i c t u r e s o r p a tc h e s o f c o lo r.
By the age o f th re e y e a r s , i f the s tim u li a re m eaningless
co lo re d forms ( e . g . , geom etric f i g u r e s ) , the c h ild may
match them on the b a s i s o f c o lo r; i f they c a rry symbolic
s ig n if ic a n c e f o r the c h ild , the s tim u li w i l l be matched a c
cording to form (Descoeudres, 191^)•
Although the d is c r im in a tio n o f form i s r a p i d l y de
veloped, i t i s lim ite d in some r e s p e c t s by the l a t e form al
i z a t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n a l c o o rd in a te s in the p e rc e p tu a l f i e l d .
C hildren o f two y e a rs , f o r example, a re n o t able to d i s t i n
g u ish between a p lu s sign and i t s t i l t e d c o u n te r p a r t — the
"X" (Hanfmann, 1933)• This lack o f a b so lu te judgment may
27
r e f l e c t poor body image o r i n s u f f i c i e n t p ro p rio c e p tiv e feed
back. Perhaps as a consequence, many young c h ild re n f a i l
to n o tic e the t r a n s p o s i ti o n o f form s—a d is c rim in a tio n t h a t
i s v i t a l to the development o f re a d in g . Of p a r t i c u l a r im
p o rta n c e , fo r example, a re the commonly reco gnized m irro r
images ( e . g . , "d" and "b") and u p sid e down r e v e r s a l s ( e . g . ,
"q" and "d" o r "q" and "b") . These l e t t e r s p e r s i s t in g i v
ing p resch o o l and f i r s t - g r a d e p u p ils d is c r im in a tio n p ro b
lems d e s p ite the f a c t t h a t c h ild re n o f t h i s age have d e v e l
oped a t l e a s t rudim entary concepts o f v e r t i c a l and
h o r iz o n ta l l in e (Davidson, 1935)• T raining has been found
to h a sten the development o f d i r e c t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n ; how
ev er, m irro r images appear to be more d i f f i c u l t to re s o lv e
than v e r t i c a l r e v e r s a l s (Rudel, 1959)• This may be due to
the dependence o f v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n on p ro p rio c e p tiv e
feedback w hile h o r i z o n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n i s a fu n c tio n o f
l e f t - r i g h t d is c r im in a tio n . The l a t t e r comes w ith the de
velopment o f c e r e b r a l dominance or by the f o u rth o r f i f t h
y e a r .
As a c u ity i s r e f in e d and accommodation becomes more
f l e x i b l e ; as depth p e rc e p tio n evolves and c o o rd in a te s in
the f i e l d are c r y s t a l l i z e d ; as c o lo r and form concepts de
velop and d is c r im in a tio n o f p a t t e r n s becomes more s e l e c ti v e
and p r e c is e ; the p e rc e p ts o f the c h ild are a b le to assume
g r e a t e r symbolic meaning and u t i l i t y . I t i s a p p aren t t h a t
meanings are sensory in n a tu re i n i t i a l l y , c o n s is tin g p r i
28
m arily o f p a t t e r n s formed by co n to u rs o f shades and c o lo rs .
Obviously, th e re I s l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r p e r c e p tu a l i n
fere n ce a t the neonate le v e l and meaning i s r e l a t e d to im
m ediate s e n s a tio n s . Thus a c h ild o f th re e months may
grasp an o b je c t t h a t comes w ith in h i s gaze, and u l ti m a t e l y
p lac e i t in h i s mouth. According to P ia g e t (1952), how
ever, w ith each succeeding ex p erien c e, meaning becomes more
e la b o ra te d and c o n tr ib u tio n s from the p a r t i c i p a t i n g senses
are combined in to a developing schemata which in f u tu re
e vents se rv e s as the core f o r r e c o g n itio n and i d e n t i f i c a
t io n . This p o in t i s e x em p lified by the c h ild a t six months
when he d e l i b e r a t e l y rea ch e s fo r o b je c ts in h i s environment.
Meaning a t t h i s nonverbal le v e l i s extrem ely c o n c re te and
as P ia g e t (1955) p o in ts o u t, a f a m i li a r o b j e c t, such as a
b o t t l e , may n o t be rec o g n ized by a young c h ild when i t i s
p re s e n te d u p sid e down. By the e ig h th and n in th months,
however, meaning becomes more g e n e ra l and c r y s t a l l i z e d .
Not only w i l l the i n f a n t reco g n ize the b o t t l e from every
angle, b u t he w i l l be able to r e t a i n a memory o f i t when i t
i s removed from view. With e x p erien c e, the growing sche-
matas become in c r e a s in g ly i n t e r a s s o c i a t e d so t h a t p e rc e p tu
a l e vents can be r e l a t e d and p e rc e p tu a l e x p e c ta n c ie s can be
form ed.
When v e rb a l u t te r a n c e s a re added to v i s u a l images,
language i s i n t e r j e c t e d in to the p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s . Again,
i n i t i a l a s s o c i a t io n s a re c o n c re te , u s u a lly w ith one name
29
r e p r e s e n tin g one o b je c t. For a c h ild o f one y e a r, the word
"cup" may stand f o r a sm all p ink cup b u t n ot fo r a la rg e
w hite one; by the second y e a r, however, the c h i l d 's vocabu
la r y has developed to a degree where he i s expected to be
able to i d e n t i f y fo u r out o f s ix toy item s (G ra n it, 1921).
This in c re a s e in the use o f l i n g u i s t i c l a b e ls i s accompa
nied by an im p o rtan t in n o v a tio n : the c h ild b eg in s to ab
s t r a c t c e r t a i n f e a tu r e s o f the p e rc e p t and c l a s s i f y th e se ,
perhaps i n a c c u r a te ly a t f i r s t , in to v e rb a l c a te g o r ie s . For
example, he may a t t a c h the t i t l e "dog" to a l l fo u r-le g g e d
anim als; c a te g o r ie s a t the p resch o o l le v e l f r e q u e n tly are
made on the b a s i s o f un im portant lik e n e s s e s , and soon a f t e r
by fu n c tio n or by u se .
Like a pow erful c a t a l y s t , language f a c i l i t a t e s the
p e rc e p tu a l p ro ce ss by m easurably in c r e a s in g the p r e c is io n
o f a t t e n t i o n used to o rg an iz e the f i e l d . L iu blin sk ay a
(1957) noted, f o r example, t h a t c h ild re n could n o t re c o g
nize o b je c ts (e.g., a b u t t e r f l y w ith s t r i p e s ) u n t i l they
were l i n g u i s t i c a l l y re p re s e n te d . The la b e lin g o f v is u a l
images in c r e a s e s the f l e x i b i l i t y o f a t t e n t i o n by s e l e c t i v e
ly stre n g th e n in g the i d e n t i t y o f i n d iv id u a l elem ents which
make up the g e n e ra l p a t t e r n o f the i n c l u s i v e f i g u r e , i . e . ,
the c h ild can a tte n d to the whole fig u r e or to the s p e c i f i c
p a r t s by the r e c a l l o f a p p ro p ria te a s s o c ia te d symbols. The
la b e lin g o f simple f ig u r e s i n c r e a s e s t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e to
masking and l i n g u i s t i c development f a c i l i t a t e s the d i f f e r -
30
e n t i a t i o n and re o r g a n iz a tio n o f p e rc e p ts along l i n e s o f r e l
evance and e x p e c ta n c ie s. This p o in t was made by Ames (1953)
in a study in which tw o -y ear-o ld c h ild re n g lo b a lly p e r
ceived the Rorschach in k b lo t forms; th re e -y e a r-o ld s., how
ev er, in whom language was presum ably more advanced, organ
iz e d t h e i r p e rc e p ts in terms of s p e c i f i c a l l y s e le c te d
f e a t u r e s .
Language a ls o p e rm its g r e a t e r in c lu s iv e n e s s in the
p e rc e p tu a l t r a n s f e r o f in fo rm a tio n by p ro v id in g a conceptu
a l s y n th e s is o f v i s u a l cues. Vernon and Amen (1953) found
t h a t young c h ild re n simply enumerate the names o f o b je c ts
in a complex p i c t u r e , b u t as they become o ld e r , c h ild re n
p e rc e iv e the p i c t u r e s in terms o f a c t i v i t i e s , t h e i r u n d e r
ly in g cause and e f f e c t , and u l ti m a t e l y , t h e i r em otional and
s o c i a l s ig n if ic a n c e . Thus, language c a r r i e s the p e rc e p tu a l
p ro ce ss f a r beyond the realm o f immediate response to sen
s a tio n s or c o n d itio n ed resp o n se s.
Language i s m eaningful, however, only a f t e r the b a
s ic s t r u c tu r e o f p e rc e p tio n i s m astered. In v i s u a l p e rc e p
tio n , i f th e re i s no o rd e rly o r c o n s i s t e n t screen in g of
v i s u a l cues; i f th e re i s no a b i l i t y to draw the elem ents o f
the fig u r e in to a cohesive whole; o r i f p e rc e p tio n i s a c
complished w ith such i n e f f i c i e n c y and e f f o r t t h a t an i n o r
d in a te amount o f time i s re q u ire d , th e re i s l i t t l e oppor
t u n it y f o r symbolic a s s o c ia tio n to occur and the m odality
f a i l s to develop in to an e f f e c t i v e channel f o r communica
31
t io n . Figure-ground d is c r im in a tio n and v i s u a l c lo su re are
o f p a r t i c u l a r im portance to language development.
F igure-ground Research
F igure-ground d is c r im in a tio n r e f e r s to the a b i l i t y
to d i f f e r e n t i a t e f ig u r e s from t h e i r backgrounds when d i f
fe re n c e s between f ig u r e and ground a re minimal. Research
i n v e s t i g a t i n g the r e l a t i o n between fig u r e and ground gen
e r a l l y has follow ed one o f th re e exp erim en tal approaches i n
v o lv in g : the p e rc e p tio n o f ambiguous f i g u r e s , the r e c o g n i
tio n o f hidden f i g u r e s , or the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f masked
fo rm s.
On t e s t s o f ambiguous f i g u r e s , the s tim u li are
s tr u c tu r e d so t h a t the fig u r e and ground can be psycholog
i c a l l y re v e rse d to c re a te a r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t p e rc e p t.
The Necker Cube and the Schroeder S ta ir c a s e are two common
examples (Woodworth, 1938). There i s evidence to suggest
t h a t the r e v e r s a l phenomenon i s lin k e d to m atu ratio n so
t h a t c h ild re n below the age o f six do not experience the
s h i f t (Snyder, 1 9 6 7)• S im ila r ly , a d u lts w ith n e u ro lo g ic a l
impairment e x h ib i t a re d u c tio n in t h i s phenomenon o f fig u re -
ground r e v e r s a l (Spivack, 1957)• For normal a d u lts and
o ld e r c h ild r e n , however, when under v o lu n ta ry c o n tr o l, p e r
formance on the ambiguous f ig u r e s t e s t s i s s im ila r to t h a t
on both the masked and the hidden f ig u r e s t e s t s (Haronian
& Sugarman, 1966, 1 9 6 7)•
32
In the hidden f ig u r e s t e s t , the o b je c t to be p e r
ceiv ed i s p laced p a r t i a l l y o r com pletely w ith in the con
to u rs o f a la r g e r fig u re (W itkin, 1 9 6 5)• The surrounding
s t r u c tu r e must be s e l e c t i v e l y suppressed in to the p e rc e p tu
a l ground b e fo re the r e le v a n t fig u re can be i d e n t i f i e d .
S tim u li such as th ese have been used e x te n s iv e ly in the ex
p l o r a t io n o f " p e rc e p tu a l s t y l e , " and to determ ine i t s c o r
r e l a t i o n w ith a t t r i b u t e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , p e r s o n a lity and
academic achievement.
W itkin ( 1 9 6 5) defin ed two opposing s t y l e s o f p e r
c e p tio n : f i e l d dependence and f i e l d independence. These
p o la r terms r e f e r to a range o f p e rc e p tu a l a b i l i t i e s used
to overcome the in flu e n c e o f c o n te x t, or ground, In the o r
g a n iz a tio n o f the f i e l d . According to W itkin, the c a p a c ity
to d i f f e r e n t i a t e complex stim u lu s f i e l d s and to deploy a t
te n tio n s e l e c t i v e l y toward those a sp e c ts o f the f i e l d are
the r e le v a n t ta s k s . ( i t i s ap parent t h a t W itkin r e f e r r e d
to a fig u re-g ro u n d t a s k .) He developed th re e t e s t s to de
term ine p e rc e p tu a l s t y l e ; two o f th e s e , the body a d j u s t
ment t e s t and the rod and frame t e s t , inv olved p ro p rio c e p
t iv e feedback as w ell as the v is u a l m od ality. The t h i r d ,
the embedded f ig u re s t e s t , r e l i e d e x c lu s iv e ly on v is u a l
c u e s .
The embedded f ig u r e s t e s t was an a d a p ta tio n of
G o t t s c h d a l t ' s hidden f ig u re s t e s t . I t was found to have a
h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n w ith a s im ila r t e s t by Thurstone (1944)
33
designed to e v a lu a te f l e x i b i l i t y o f " c lo s u r e ," and a lso
w ith t e s t s o f g e n e ra l i n t e l l i g e n c e , concept a tta in m e n t and
p e r s o n a l i t y . Some o f the f in d in g s r e s u l t i n g from the use
o f th e se t e s t s were: f i e l d dependent s u b je c ts had poor ana
l y t i c a b i l i t i e s , vague body c o n cep ts, s o c ia l dependency and
• g lo b a l types o f p e r s o n a l i t y d e fe n se s. The o p p o site was
tru e o f f i e l d in dependent in d iv i d u a ls : the body adjustm ent
t e s t e n t a i l s a judgment o f body v e r t i c a l i t y when the sub
j e c t and the t e s t room a re both t i l t e d ; and the rod and
frame t e s t r e q u ir e s the v e r t i c a l adjustm ent o f a t i l t e d rod
when b o th the surrounding frame and the body o f the s u b je c t
are t i l t e d . The c o n clu sio n , t h e r e f o r e , i s t h a t a f i e l d i n
dependent s u b je c t i s one who can q u ic k ly fin d a p a r t i c u l a r
f ig u r e when i t i s enclo sed in a la r g e r form; can a c c u ra te ly
determ ine the c e n te r o f g r a v i t y by d is re g a rd in g the d i s
t o r t i n g in flu e n c e o f the v i s u a l cues; and can c o r r e c t l y ad
j u s t a rod to a v e r t i c a l p o s i t io n by ig n o rin g the t i l t o f
th e fram e.
W itkin ( 1 9 6 5) t e s t e d h i s th eo ry t h a t psychologic
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n was a consequence o f n eu ro lo g ic m a tu ra tio n ,
and re p o r te d a developm ental tre n d which run s from a f i e l d
dependent to a f i e l d independent p e rc e p tu a l s t y l e .
This d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n th eo ry o f W itkin re c e iv e d some
i n d i r e c t support from the work o f Palmer ( 1 9 6 3) ■ » who, a f t e r
e x te n siv e review o f the l i t e r a t u r e on dominance, concluded
3^
t h a t the development o f l a t e r a l i z a t i o n was a consequence o f
In c re a s e d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ., as d e sc rib e d by W itkin.
Other r e s e a r c h u sin g embedded f ig u r e s a ls o i n d i
cated a r e l a t i o n between fie ld -in d e p e n d e n c e and l a t e r a l i z a
tio n development.
But some c o n tro v e rsy has a r i s e n concerning t e s t s o f
hidden or embedded f ig u r e s as to w hether o r n o t the sco res
are a r e f l e c t i o n o f fig u re -g ro u n d p e rc e p tio n or a combina
tio n o f s e v e r a l o th e r b a s ic a b i l i t i e s . S ev eral f a c t o r i a l
s tu d ie s have r e p o r te d t h a t fig u re -g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n
emerges as a stro n g independent f a c t o r ( S i l v e r s t e i n , 1 9 6 5)•
This le d some i n v e s t i g a t o r s (e.g., Ayres, 1 9 6 5) to conclude
t h a t th e re must be a n e u ro lo g ic mechanism s p e c i f i c a l l y r e
sp o n sib le f o r fig u re -g ro u n d p e rc e p tio n . I n d i c a tio n s a re ,
however, t h a t such a mechanism would be m odality s p e c i f i c
sin ce in te r m o d a lity perform ances have been found to have a
weak c o r r e l a t i o n (Cruickshank, 1957)• C onversely, a number
o f f a c t o r i a l s tu d ie s have found evidence to suggest t h a t
the hidden f ig u r e s t e s t e v a lu a te s more than one elem entary
s k i l l (Sprague, 1 9 6 3)• Oakley ( 1 9 6 1), f o r example, found
t h a t the v a ria n ce on the embedded f ig u r e s t e s t i s h ig h ly
loaded on th re e s e p a ra te f a c t o r s : g e s t a l t f l e x i b i l i t y , spa
t i a l p e rc e p tio n and reaso n in g a b i l i t y . I t i s suggested
t h a t com plexity may be circum vented by the use o f a sim pler
fig u re -g ro u n d ta s k such as a masked form t e s t .
35
In a masked form t e s t , the s t r u c tu r e o f the p e rc e p
t u a l t a r g e t i s weakened by the in flu e n c e o f the ground
which a c t s as " v is u a l n o is e ." An extran eo u s p a tte r n or
g r id o f l i n e s i s p laced between and around v is u a l stim u li
to d ecrease the d i f f e r e n t i a l between the f ig u re and the
ground. Thus, the concept o f n o ise , which i s f a m ilia r to
those concerned w ith a u d ito ry p e rc e p tio n , a ls o can be ap
p l ie d u s e f u l l y to the study o f v is u a l p e rc e p tio n (Shannon,
19^8, 1949)•
Numerous r e s e a rc h s tu d ie s have been conducted using
varying degrees o f n o ise w ith v is u a l p a tt e r n s formed by ma
t r i c e s o f sm all l i g h t s o r p r in te d forms. In g e n e ra l, i t
has been re p o rte d t h a t as the s ig n a l to n o ise r a t i o i s de
c re ased beyond c e r t a i n l i m i t s , d is c r im in a tio n becomes le s s
a c c u ra te (Webster, 1 9 6 3). In a d d itio n , v a r ia b le s o th e r
than accuracy may be a f f e c t e d . W ebster, fo r example, found
t h a t a r i s e in the le v e l o f n o ise from 10 p e rc e n t to 50
p e rc e n t was accompanied by an in c re a s e in the response time
a lth oug h d is c r im in a tio n was not a f f e c te d (A rnoult, 1956).
U seful a p p li c a t io n f o r v is u a l n o ise has a ls o been
found in the d ia g n o s is o f nervous system d is o r d e rs , and
s tu d ie s have r e p o r te d a c o r r e l a t io n between b r a in pathology
and fig u re -g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n (G o ld ste in , 1938). Of
p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to the f i e l d o f education i s the r e
se arch in v o lv in g n e u r o lo g ic a lly im paired c h ild re n . Werner
and S tra u s s (1941), f o r example, developed a p ic tu r e t e s t
36
f o r c h ild re n c o n s is tin g o f a s e r i e s o f nine card s w ith
b lac k and w hite l i n e drawings o f f a m i li a r o b j e c ts . These
were masked by a background g r id o f homogeneous l i n e s . Us
ing th ese item s, the i n v e s t i g a t o r s found t h a t b r a in in ju r e d
c h ild re n had a much h ig h e r p e rc en ta g e o f background r e
sponses than did e i t h e r n o n -b rain in ju r e d r e ta r d e d c h ild re n
or normal c h ild r e n . Dolphin and Cruickshank (1951) stu d ie d
fig u re -g ro u n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s among c h ild re n w ith c e r e b ra l
p a ls y and r e p o rte d f in d in g s s im ila r to those o f Werner and
S tra u s s . In a d d itio n , Myklebust and B ru tte n (1953)* ex
p lo r in g the v is u a l p e rc e p tio n o f the d e af, concluded th a t
c h ild re n w ith a p e r i p h e r a l h e arin g lo s s can be d i f f e r e n t i
a te d from those w ith a c e n t r a l p e rc e p tu a l d is o r d e r on t e s t s
o f fig u re -g ro u n d d i s c r im in a tio n . In essen ce, th ese s tu d ie s
p o in t to a stro n g r e l a t i o n between problems in f i g u r e -
ground d is c rim in a tio n and c e n t r a l nervous system dysfu nc
tio n .
V isu a l C losure Research
V isu a l c lo s u re r e f e r s to the a b i l i t y o f the i n d i
v id u a l to respond to the "whole" when only p a r t i a l , and
th e r e f o r e incom plete, c lu e s a re p re s e n te d . Experiments on
v is u a l c lo s u re have been based on the c o n tr o lle d re d u c tio n
o f v i s u a l cues. Two r a t h e r p o pular methods have been used
to achieve t h i s re d u c tio n : the defocusing method, in which
the stim u lu s i s p re s e n te d a t a p o s itio n in the v is u a l f i e l d
37
p e r ip h e r a l to the fo c a l c e n te r o f the o b se rv e rj and the
fragm ented p i c t u r e method, in which the stim u lu s i s exposed
w ith varying degrees o f cues a r t i f i c i a l l y removed. Recog
n i t i o n performance on such ta s k s has been d e sc rib e d by
Thurstone (1944) as a measure o f p e rc e p tio n .
There has been some question., however, as to whether
the concept o f c lo su re r e p r e s e n ts an i n d iv id u a l a b i l i t y o r
m erely r e p r e s e n ts an o th er a sp e c t o f fig u re -g ro u n d d is c rim
i n a t i o n . The defocusing method was used by Gump and W itkin
to study t h i s r e l a t i o n . Gump (1955)j working w ith a d u lt
s u b je c ts , found a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n between c lo su re
and fig u re -g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n , b u t W itkin ( 1 9 6 5)* w ith
c h ild re n , was unable to r e p l i c a t e Gump's r e s u l t s . In an
o th e r study o f the same q u e stio n , Campbell ( 1 9 6 7)* u sin g
the fragm ented p i c t u r e method, a ls o f a i l e d to fin d a r e l a
tio n between c lo su re and fig u re -g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n and
concluded t h a t they were se p a ra te s k i l l s . In a d d itio n ,
S tr e e t (1931)* comparing c h i l d r e n 's sc o res on h i s G e s ta lt
Completion T est and s e v e ra l o th e r a n a l y ti c ta s k s , re p o rte d
a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t io n w ith the Healy P ic tu r e Completion
T est and he concluded t h a t the perform ance re q u ire d on such
c lo s u re ta s k s measured a se p a ra te and s p e c i f i c p e rc e p tu a l
r e s p o n s e .
P a rt o f t h i s confusion stems, p rob ab ly, from the
v a r i a ti o n o f designs w ith in the range o f p i c t u r e com pletion
t e s t s . In one study o f c lo s u re (G o ld ste in , 1 9 6 6), f o r ex
38
ample, the s u b je c ts viewed a lim ite d p o r tio n o f a p hoto
graph o f a f a m i li a r fa c e . This type o f stim u lu s was used
in s te a d o f schem atic-ty p e drawings because., i t was reasoned,
th e se item s p e rm itte d a minimal amount o f extraneous i n t e r
stim u lu s d if f e r e n c e s by which the o b se rv e r could guess the
c o r r e c t response (e.g., th ese item s p rev e n ted the i d e n t i f i
c a tio n o f a p i c t u r e o f a h o rse , as opposed to t h a t o f a
house, on the b a s i s o f g ro ss con ceptu al c lu e s , such as the
awareness o f a l e g ) . This type o f c lo s u re ta s k , however,
r e q u ir e s a high le v e l o f c o r t i c a l a c t i v i t y because c o n sid
e ra b le emphasis i s p laced on memory sin c e th e re i s no ques
tio n t h a t the t o t a l f ig u re cannot be p e rc e iv e d (G iorgi &
C o la iz z i, 1 9 6 6).
A l e s s c o g n itiv e ta s k o f c lo s u re i s embodied in the
th re e dim ensional schem atic r e p r e s e n ta t io n in which p o rtio n s
o f the fig u re a re s e l e c t i v e l y d e le te d . The rem aining voids
and p atch es o f the p i c t u r e must be m en tally f i l l e d in and
combined b e fo re re c o g n itio n i s p o s s ib le ( S t r e e t , 1931)-
This type o f ta s k d i f f e r s from the p h oto grap hic p ic tu r e
method r e f e r r e d to p re v io u s ly , in t h a t the e n t i r e dimension
o f the f ig u re i s p re s e n te d to the o b se rv e r: i . e . , d e le tio n s
a re made uniform ly throughout the photograph so t h a t the
view er can m eanin gfully p e rc e iv e the whole only a f t e r c l o
sure has been made. In some c a se s, t h i s occurs so autom at
i c a l l y t h a t the s u b je c t may n o t even n o tic e the re d u c tio n
o r omiSBion o f v is u a l cues. But ta s k s such as th ese r e
39
q u ire c o n sid e ra b le c o r t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and a c h ild who
has not had p rev io u s ex p erien ce w ith i d e n t i f y i n g p h o to
graphs may not be ab le to respond to a d i s t o r t e d r e p r e s e n
t a t i o n o f one on a v i s u a l c lo s u re t e s t .
A more p r im itiv e type o f c lo s u re ta s k i s one in
which the s u b je c t o b serves a s in g le lin e drawing o f a f i g
u re from which p o r tio n s o f the contour have been removed
uniform ly. These d i f f e r from the th re e dim ensional p h o to
graph or drawing item s in t h a t c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n i s not nec
e ssa ry f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the s in g le l in e drawing.
I n s te a d , matching i s p o s s ib le through a comparison o f one
p erceiv ed item w ith a n o th e r, and perform ance on t h i s ta s k
i s con sidered to be more a measure o f in n a te a b i l i t y than
o f learn ed or c o n c e p tu a liz e d b e h a v io r.
Long and Reid (1952) have re p o rte d t h a t f o r normal
s u b je c ts , d e le tio n s as h ig h as 10 p e rc e n t o f the p a t t e r n
can occur w ith o u t c lo s u re perform ance being a f f e c t e d . Un
der more severe stim u lu s r e s t r i c t i o n s , however, d is c r im in a
tio n appears to vary as a d i r e c t fu n c tio n o f the rem aining
v is u a l cues. In a d d itio n , th e re i s evidence to sugg est
t h a t fo r e x c e p tio n a l c h ild r e n , c lo s u re a b i l i t i e s a re q u a l
i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t depending on the n a tu re o f the n eu ro
lo g ic d e f i c ie n c i e s .
Because c h ild r e n le a rn language in environm ents
w ith v a rio u s d egrees o f i n t e r f e r e n c e — the classroom , the
playground, the hom e--the im portance o f le a rn in g something
4o
about th e se to le ra n c e l e v e ls In young c h ild re n appears e v i
d e n t. C e rta in ly the r e l a t i o n between language p r o f ic ie n c y
and to le ra n c e l e v e ls o f p e rc e p tu a l i n te r f e r e n c e should have
im p lic a tio n s f o r the ed ucatio n o f c h ild r e n w ith language
le a rn in g problem s.
CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY
Overview o f the Problem
Although many p h y s io lo g ic a l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l a t
t r i b u t e s a re involved in the v is u a l p e rc e p tu a l phenomenon*
i t i s a p p aren t t h a t they a l l r e l a t e to two b a s ic p e rc e p tu a l
a c t i v i t i e s : fig u re-g ro u n d and c lo s u re . T ogether th ese form
the core o f the p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e ss and p ro v id e a fo c a l
p o in t f o r the e v a lu a tio n o f the p e rc e p tu a l system.
In the f i e l d o f education* the assessm ent o f p e r
cep tio n i s re c e iv in g in c re a s e d re c o g n itio n as an im p o rtan t
p a r t o f the p re sc h o o l and elem entary grade t e s t i n g programs.
This i s w arranted because fig u re-g ro u n d and c lo s u re a re b a
s i c a l l y the gateway to the c o g n itiv e world o f the c h ild and
when the c a p a c ity o f the v i s u a l in p u t m odality i s r e
s tr ic te d * the a b i l i t y o f the c h ild to le a rn i s a ls o r e
s t r i c t e d .
The degrees by which the p e rc e p tu a l system can be
im paired have not y e t been c l e a r l y e s ta b l is h e d . However*
i t i s b e lie v e d t h a t c h ild re n deprived o f p e rc e p tu a l e x p e r i
ences because o f c u l t u r a l d isa d v an tag e s o r damaged n e u ra l
41
42
systems may s u f f e r some re d u c tio n o f fig u re -g ro u n d and c lo
sure a b i l i t y . Furthermore., i t i s suspected t h a t the i n c i
dence o f such p e rc e p tu a l problems among c h ild re n w ith l a n
guage le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s may be a c u te . Thus, j u s t as
the te a c h e r should be aware o f the c h i l d 's a b i l i t y to see,
i t i s e q u a lly im p o rtan t to know how w ell the c h ild can p e r
ceive t h a t which he i s ab le to see. In o rd e r to i n v e s t i
g a te t h i s l a t t e r need, a s u b je c t o r ie n te d design was s e
le c te d fo r t h i s p e rc e p tu a l study.
C r i t e r i a fo r Sample S e le c tio n
To meet the p a r t i c u l a r g o a ls o f t h i s study, the r e
search p o p u la tio n was s e le c te d according to s e v e ra l b a sic
c r i t e r i a . F i r s t , i t should sample a wide range o f p e rc e p
t u a l d e f i c ie n c i e s e x ta n t in a p resch o o l p o p u la tio n . The
deprived socioeconomic group, in p a r t i c u l a r , o ff e r e d what
i s c on sidered here to be a h i g h - r i s k p o p u la tio n in terms
o f p e rc e p tu a l and le a rn in g problem s. This p r e d i c ti o n was
based on the assum ption th a t th ese s u b je c ts have had r e
s t r i c t e d o p p o r tu n itie s fo r developing the p e rc e p tu a l and
language s k i l l s expected o f the t y p ic a l middle c la s s
c h i l d - - a c o n d itio n conducive to academic confusion and
f a i l u r e . The performance o f t h i s p o p u la tio n was compared
to th a t o f the c h ild re n from a more a f f l u e n t socioeconomic
group to explore the d if f e r e n c e s in fig u re -g ro u n d and c l o
^3
sure p e rc e p tu a l development t h a t may e x i s t between advan
taged and deprived c h ild r e n .
Second., the re s e a r c h p o p u latio n should exclude sub
j e c t s whose p h y s ic a l o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l development was d i s
ru p te d to the e x te n t t h a t they had in c u rr e d sensory, motor,
o r em otional d i s a b i l i t i e s which would re q u ir e c o rr e c tiv e
measures a n d /o r s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n a l c o n s id e ra tio n . Such
h andicaps, f o r example, as a lac k o f v i s u a l a c u ity , a h e a r
ing l o s s , c e r e b r a l p a ls y o r autism would e c lip s e the e f
f e c t s o f more su b tle p e rc e p tu a l d i s a b i l i t i e s and would d i s
t o r t the r e s u l t s o f the p e rc e p tu a l and supplem ental t e s t
b a t t e r i e s .
In a d d itio n , the t e s t p o p u la tio n should in clu d e
c h ild re n from the p re sch o o l-ag e le v e l because t h i s r e p r e
se n ts a c r i t i c a l p e rio d o f le a rn in g in which the c h ild i s
s t i l l a c q u irin g through p e rc e p tu a l ex p erien c es concepts
t h a t w i l l form the b a s i s f o r f u tu r e academic development.
A f i n a l c o n s id e ra tio n , which i s l o g i s t i c a l in n a
tu r e , was the a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f the t e s t p o p u la tio n . I t was
p r e f e r a b le to t e s t groups o f c h ild r e n in a school e n v iro n
ment so t h a t a la rg e number could be reached econom ically
and w ith as l i t t l e inconvenience to the c h ild as p o s s ib le .
To t e s t a ls o the e ff i c a c y o f a d m in iste rin g the p e rc e p tu a l
b a t t e r y under f i e l d c o n d itio n s , only c h ild re n invo lved in
an e d u c a tio n a l program were s e le c te d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
t h i s study.
44
D e s c rip tio n o f the Sample
The r e s e a rc h sample was composed o f two c o n tr a s tin g
groups o f p re sc h o o l c h ild r e n . These were s e le c te d by a
ta b le o f random numbers from two p re sc h o o l systems in sep
a r a te r e s i d e n t i a l d i s t r i c t s o f the c i t y o f Los Angeles.
One group, composed o f 110 s u b je c ts , was o b tain ed from a
pool o f c h ild r e n r e p r e s e n tin g the lower-m iddle and lower
socioeconomic b ra c k e t, w hile the o th e r group, a ls o c o n ta in
ing 110 s u b je c ts , was taken from an upper-m iddle and upper
socioeconomic l e v e l . This dichotomy was based p r im a r ily on
the r e s i d e n t i a l lo c a tio n o f the schools and the income o f
the p a re n ts o r g u ard ian s o f the s u b je c ts . Thus, the f i r s t
group, o r d epriv ed sample, was s e le c te d from the C e n tra l
Los Angeles a re a in which the average income f o r the parents
i s approxim ately $200 a month. Since no fam ily from t h i s
a re a i s ab le to a ff o rd p r i v a t e school expenses, a l l o f
th ese c h ild r e n were s e le c te d from the Head S t a r t program.
The o th e r group, c a l le d th e advantaged sample, was o b tain ed
from a p r i v a t e p resch o o l system lo c a te d in the West Los An
g e le s Brentwood D i s t r i c t , where the incomes o f the p a re n ts
are g e n e r a lly above $1,000 p e r month.
The age range o f b o th samples extended from two and
a h a l f to f iv e and a h a l f y e a r s , w ith the mean age being
fo u r y e a rs and two months. The e th n ic background o f the
deprived sample was e n t i r e l y Negro, w hile t h a t o f the ad
vantaged sample was C aucasian.
45
School h e a lth re c o rd s , In clu d in g audiograms, v is u a l
a c u ity perform ances from the S nellen eye c h a r t, and te a c h
e r s ’ r e p o r t s o f motor and em otional development were
screened fo r each s u b je c t. Only c h ild re n w ith normal v i
sio n , a h e a rin g th re s h o ld b eneath 15 dB ( re . audiom etric
zero by the American Standard) f o r fre q u e n c ie s between 500
and 600 Hz, and w ith no h i s t o r y o f motor a n d /o r em otional
d is tu r b a n c e s which would r e q u ir e s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n a l reme
d i a l p ro ced u res were in clu d ed in the study.
P e rc e p tu a l T est B a tte ry
This study employed the same P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y de
signed by Wood (1970) to e v a lu a te the fig u re-g ro u n d and
v i s u a l c lo s u re a b i l i t y o f p re sc h o o l c h ild r e n . Moreover,
the same t e s t equipment and a d m in is tr a tiv e procedures o u t
lin e d in t h a t p r o j e c t were a ls o used h e re . Although th ese
p ro ced ures a re p re s e n te d in d e t a i l in t h a t r e p o r t , because
t h i s i s a r e l a t i v e l y new t e s t a f u l l d is c u s s io n i s inclu ded
below f o r the p re s e n t study. With the p erm ission o f Dr.
Wood, the t e c h n ic a l d e t a i l s d e s c rib in g the prod uction o f
the g rad u ated fig u re -g ro u n d and c lo s u re s tim u li are p r e
sen ted i n Appendix A.
F igure-ground S u btest
B a s ic a lly , the P e rc e p tu a l T est B a tte r y c o n s is ts o f
two ty p es o f p e rc e p tu a l ta s k s : one t h a t measures f i g u r e -
ground d is c r im in a tio n and the o th e r c lo s u re a b i l i t y . C las
4F
s i c a l l y , fig u re -g ro u n d p e rc e p tio n has been t e s te d by having
a s u b je c t i d e n t i f y a p i c t u r e o f a f a m i li a r o b je c t around
which extran eo u s l i n e s have been i n s e r t e d , u s u a lly in the
form o f a surrounding g r id . I f the s u b je c t i s u nable to
i d e n t i f y the o b je c t (th e f i g u r e ) , he i s assumed to have
been confused by the m isce lla n eo u s l i n e s (th e ground) b e
cause he was unable to suppress them p e r c e p tu a lly . Such a
t e s t , however, i s u s e f u l only as a g ro ss sc reen in g device
because i t i s i n f l e x i b l e and does not provide in fo rm a tio n
concerning the magnitude o f a p e rc e p tu a l d i s a b i l i t y . This
d a ta can o n ly be o b ta in e d by adding a dimension o f range to
th e fig u re -g ro u n d t e s t so t h a t a th re s h o ld o f p e rc e p tio n
can be o b ta in e d . This was accom plished in the P e rc e p tu a l
B a tte r y by g ra d u a lly varying the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the
f ig u r e and the ground in the t e s t s tim u li. For example,
e ig h t d eg rees o f fig u re -g ro u n d were pro vid ed f o r each
p ic t u r e - s ti m u lu s in clu d ed in the fig u re-g ro u n d s u b te s t.
Each s e r i e s p ro g re sse d from a fig u re -g ro u n d r e l a t i o n s h i p in
which the g r id l in e s o f the ground were th ic k e r and more
dense than the contours o f the f ig u r e , to the o p p o site ex
treme in which the ground was com pletely a b se n t from the
p i c t u r e .
The stim u lu s f ig u r e s to be i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s t e s t
c o n s is te d o f simple tw o-dim ensional lin e drawn unshaded and
u n c o lo red r e p r e s e n ta t io n s o f o b je c ts f a m i li a r to young
c h ild r e n . I t must be noted , however, t h a t because the
4 -7
method o f response in vo lv ed a matching ta s k o nly , sem antic
r e c o g n itio n o f the fig u r e was n o t n e c e ssa ry f o r the comple
tio n o f the t e s t resp o n se . N e v e rth e le ss, m eaningful p i c
t u r e s were used in p re fe re n c e to nonsense f ig u r e s in o rd e r
to m aintain the a t t e n t i o n o f the young c h ild re n through the
long t e s t i n g p rocedu re. The p i c t u r e s and t h e i r superim
posed grounds were p rep a red on p h oto grap hic s l i d e s which
could be p r o je c te d t a c h i s t o s c o p i c a l l y on a movie sc ree n .
This method provided the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y w ith a h igh de
gree o f f l e x i b i l i t y . For example, a s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s de
p i c t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r o b je c t could be p re s e n te d e a s i l y to
the s u b je c t in the o rd e r o f in c r e a s in g f ig u r e and d e c r e a s
ing g rou nd--a d i r e c t i o n o f approach from b eneath the t h r e s h
o ld o f v i s u a l p e rc e p tio n . The p e rc e p tu a l th re s h o ld was d e
fin e d h ere as the h ig h e s t l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y a t which the
s u b je c t c o r r e c t l y responded to two co n sec u tiv e s l i d e s .
When the th re s h o ld o f the s u b je c t was reach ed , the rem ain
d er o f the s l i d e s in the s e r i e s was bypassed. This made i t
p o s s ib le to reduce s i g n i f i c a n t l y the time re q u ire d fo r the
a d m in is tra tio n o f the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y . There were in
a l l 15 s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s , each w ith e ig h t degrees o f
fig u re -g ro u n d d i f f e r e n t i a l . Thus, the maximum number o f
s l i d e s which could be p re s e n te d to a s u b je c t was 120 w hile
the minimum was 3 0 •
The response sh e e t f o r each s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s p r o
je c te d on the screen c o n s is te d of a r e c ta n g u la r card ,
48
6 " x 19" j a c ro ss which f iv e p i c t u r e s were h o r i z o n t a l l y p laced .
These response p i c t u r e s , one o f which always matched the
stim ulu s f ig u re p r o je c te d on the screen , were a ls o simple
l in e drawn, unshaded, un co lo red r e p r e s e n ta t io n s o f o b je c ts
f a m ilia r to young c h ild r e n . The p o s i t io n o f the matching
fig u re on each resp onse card was determ ined by random a s
signment through a ta b le o f random numbers. There were 15
response c a rd s--o n e f o r each s e r i e s o f fig u re -g ro u n d stim
u l i . These were d iv id e d i n to two groups, each o f which
formed a s u b te s t on the fig u re -g ro u n d p o r tio n o f the e x p e ri
m ental t e s t b a t t e r y . The f i r s t , which was c a l le d the h e t
erogeneous group, c o n s is te d o f ten response c a rd s, w hile
the second, the homogeneous group, co n ta in e d the rem aining
f i v e . The homogeneous group d i f f e r e d from the h e te ro g e n e
ous group only in th e amount o f i n t r a - v a r i a t i o n among the
p i c t u r e s on the resp onse card . Thus, the g e n e ra l shape of
the response f ig u r e s on a homogeneous card was s im ila r in
r e s p e c t to the g ro ss c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h e ig h t, w idth and
s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n .
V isu a l Closure S u b te st
The g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the response card s
f o r the second p o r tio n o f the P e rc e p tu a l B a t t e r y —v is u a l
c lo s u r e —were s i m il a r to those on the fig u re-g ro u n d s u b te s t.
Each response card had fiv e p i c t u r e s r e p re s e n tin g simple
o b je c ts , one o f which matched the p i c t u r e p r o je c te d on the
49
screen . The c lo s u re response card s were a ls o d iv id e d in to
two subgroups according to the s i m i l a r i t y o f the f ig u r e s on
each card . As in the fig u re -g ro u n d t e s t , the heterogeneous
group had ten c ard s, w hile the homogeneous group had f iv e .
The p r o je c te d stim u lu s fo r the c lo s u re t e s t was a l
so s im ila r to t h a t employed on the fig u re -g ro u n d p o rtio n in
t h a t i t c o n s is te d o f 15 simple tw o-dim ensional, l in e drawn,
unshaded and u n colored p i c t u r e s o f o b je c ts f a m i li a r to
young c h ild re n . U nlike the fig u re -g ro u n d p i c t u r e s , however,
the c lo s u re s tim u li co ntain ed no m isce lla n eo u s ground d i s
t r a c t i o n s . In s te a d , each s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s was graded
along a continuum o f d ecrea sin g c lo s u re in which p o rtio n s
o f the contour were evenly d e le te d from the f ig u r e . There
were seven degrees o f c lo s u re , ranging from a c o n d itio n in
which the e n t i r e contour was v i s i b l e to t h a t in which 95
p e rc e n t o f the f ig u r e was o m itted . This p e rm itte d a maxi
mum o f 105 o r a minimum o f 30 s l i d e s which could be p r e
sented to a s u b je c t during the a d m in is tr a tio n o f the v is u a l
c lo s u re s u b te s t. Each s e r i e s o f s l i d e s was p r o je c te d in
the o rd e r o f in c re a s in g degrees o f contour exposure so t h a t
the d i r e c ti o n o f p r e s e n ta tio n was from beneath the t h r e s h
o ld of r e c o g n itio n . The more d i f f i c u l t o f the f i r s t two
co n secutiv e c o r r e c t resp o n ses was co n sid ere d to be the p e r
c e p tu a l th re s h o ld f o r v i s u a l c lo s u re . This was the p o in t
a t which the s u b je c t was assumed to be a b le to provide p e r
50
c e p tu a lly the m issing p o rtio n s o f the stim u lu s so t h a t the
s t a t e o f r e c o g n itio n could be achieved.
In summary, the t o t a l P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y c o n s is te d
o f two s u b te s ts : a t e s t o f fig u re-g ro u n d and a t e s t o f v i s
u a l c lo s u re . Each s u b te s t y ie ld e d p e rc e p tu a l th re s h o ld s
under two s e t s o f response c o n d itio n s : one in which the r e
sponse f ig u r e s were s im ila r , and the o th e r in which they
were v a rie d . Each heterogeneous c o n d itio n had ten response
cards corresponding to each o f the ten p r o je c te d p i c t u r e s .
The homogeneous c o n d itio n s each had f i v e . For every stim
u lu s p i c t u r e th e re was a graded s e r i e s o f t e s t s l i d e s .
When the p e rc e p tu a l th re s h o ld was reached, the rem ainder o f
the s l i d e s in the s e r i e s was bypassed. Consequently, the
maximum number o f s l i d e s t h a t could be p re s e n te d on the
P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y was 225, w hile the minimum was 6 0 .
T est Equipment
The f ig u r e s f o r both the s l i d e s and the response
cards were drawn by a m edical i l l u s t r a t o r from the County
G eneral Medical H o s p ita l under the advisem ent o f Dr. Wood’ s
p r o j e c t s t a f f . The o r i g i n a l number o f p i c t u r e s was reduced
by a p re lim in a ry screen in g study in which those t h a t were
u n fa m ilia r o r vague to p re sc h o o l c h ild re n from both d e
p riv e d and advantaged socioeconomic environm ents were id e n
t i f i e d and withdrawn. The r e s i d u a l was a t o t a l o f 229
s l i d e s which in clu d ed fo u r dem onstration p i c t u r e s p ro v id in g
51
two degrees o f d i f f i c u l t y f o r each ta s k , and the 225 e x p er
im en tal s l i d e s employed in the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte ry . These
were i n s e r te d in t h e i r p re s c r ib e d o rd e r o f p r e s e n ta tio n i n
to th re e marked s lid e t r a y s . Thus* any s l i d e was e a s i l y lo
cated and mounted on the p r o j e c to r . There were a ls o a t o
t a l o f 32 response cards., two o f which corresponded to the
dem onstration s l i d e s . The response card s were lam inated so
t h a t they could be e a s i l y wiped clean a f t e r every t e s t p e
r io d .
Because the stim u lu s was p re s e n te d by means o f a
p ro je c te d image., the major p iec e o f equipment f o r the P e r
c e p tu a l B a tte r y was a Kodak C arousel s l i d e p r o j e c to r w ith a
S to e ltin g ta c h is to s c o p ic a ttach m en t. These were mounted as
a u n i t on an a d ju s ta b le p h o to g ra p h ic -ty p e tr ip o d . The
ta c h is to s c o p e was capable o f exposure speeds up to 1 /1 0 0 o f
a second. However, p re lim in a ry s tu d ie s had in d ic a te d t h a t
fo r th ese s tim u li, speed d if f e r e n c e s ranging between 1 /1 0
o f a second and one second were not a f a c t o r in the p e rc e p
t u a l performance o f p resch o o l c h ild r e n . Performances a t
exposure speeds below t h a t le v e l were d i f f i c u l t to e v a lu a te
because o f the f l u c t u a t i o n s o f the c h i l d r e n 's a t t e n t i o n
span. Thus* f o r the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y , the exposure speed
was held c o n sta n t a t one second. The stim u lu s s l i d e s were
p ro je c te d on a fo u r-b y -fo u r fo o t nonglare p o r ta b le movie
screen . A tape measure in su re d t h a t the screen was s e t a t
a d is ta n c e o f 12 f e e t from the len s o f the p r o j e c to r a t
52
each t e s t i n g s i t e . In a d d itio n to th ese item s o f equipm ent,
a Photo C e ll l i g h t m eter was used to a s s e s s the illu m in a
tio n le v e l o f the t e s t i n g room. This was n e ce ssa ry to d e
term ine the b rig h tn e s s f l u c t u a t i o n s which could occur over
a p e rio d o f time and between t e s t i n g s i t e s . Also, in o rd e r
to s ta n d a rd iz e the t e s t i n g environment,, a k in d e rg a rte n r e g
u l a t i o n ta b le and c h a ir were used f o r a l l t e s t o c c a sio n s.
Mainly, however, the s l i d e p r o j e c to r w ith i t s t a c h is to s c o p ic
i
jattachm ent, trip o d mount and s l i d e tr a y s ; the response card s
iin t h e i r c a rry in g case; the p o r ta b le movie sc ree n ; the l i g h t
jmeter; and the tape measure c o n s t it u t e d a t e s t i n g k i t which
i
|was brought to each school by the exam iners.
| T est Procedures
| Two examiners formed the re s e a r c h ta s k fo rc e i n
volved in the a d m in is tra tio n o f the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte ry to
the p resch o o l t e s t p o p u la tio n . Both examiners had had p r e
vious experience as p u b lic school te a c h e r s , and had r e
ceived s p e c ia l t e s t t r a i n in g and c a l i b r a t i o n by the Head
S t a r t p sy c h o lo g ic a l examiner.
I
When the examiners a r r iv e d a t a p resch o o l s i t e ,
they were assig n ed to a vacant classroom o r assembly h a l l .
This was e a s i l y adapted fo r t e s t i n g : the movie screen was
e re c te d a d ja c e n t to the w a ll w ith the l e a s t n a tu r a l l i g h t ,
and the t e s t i n g ta b le and c h a ir were arranged so t h a t th ey
were facin g the sc ree n . The c h a ir was lo c a te d e x a c tly 12
53
f e e t from the face o f the screen . Twelve f e e t was s e le c te d
as the viewing d is ta n c e because i t r e p r e s e n ts the u su a l
v i s u a l ex perience o f p re sc h o o l c h ild re n as they view c l a s s
room a c t i v i t i e s and blackboard i l l u s t r a t i o n s . The trip o d
mount su p p o rtin g the p r o j e c to r and ta c h is to s c o p e was p laced
d i r e c t l y over the head o f the subject., e x a c tly fo u r and
t h r e e - f o u r t h s f e e t o f f the ground. This in su re d th a t the
dim ensions o f the p r o je c tio n on the screen were c o n sta n t
from one t e s t s i t u a t i o n to the n e x t.
The response card s were p laced in a sta c k face down
on the t a b l e , and the f i r s t o f the th re e s l i d e tr a y s was
mounted on the p r o j e c to r . The s l i d e s were p rea rran g e d in
the tr a y s according to the p r e s c rib e d sequence o f the t e s t .
By t h i s o rd e r, the ten heterogeneous fig u re -g ro u n d s e r i e s
were p re s e n te d f i r s t , preceded by two sample s l i d e s which
were used f o r tr a i n in g purposes. The fig u re-g ro u n d s l i d e s
were follow ed by the ten heterogeneous c lo su re s e r i e s ,
which were a ls o preceded by two t r a i n i n g s l i d e s . The fiv e
homogeneous fig u re-g ro u n d s e r i e s and the fiv e homogeneous
c lo s u re s e r i e s were p r o je c te d l a s t r e s p e c t i v e l y w ith o u t the
use o f example s l i d e s . This sequence was m aintained
throughout the t e s t i n g program. Since a p i l o t study had
in d ic a te d t h a t the o rd e r o f the s u b t e s t p r e s e n ta tio n had
no e f f e c t on the performance o f the s u b je c ts on the sub
t e s t s , no attem p t was made to vary the o rd e r.
At the beginning o f the t e s t s e s s io n , as the f i r s t
54
examiner escorted, the su b je c t to the t e s t t a b l e , the second
examiner recorded the l i g h t m eter re a d in g s taken a t a p o s i
tio n m idpoint on the screen and again d i r e c t l y over the
response card s on the ta b le . Then the second examiner r e
turned to the l e f t sid e of the t e s t ta b le so t h a t he could
re c o rd the resp o n ses o f the s u b je c t and tu rn the response
cards a t the a p p ro p ria te tim e. In a d d itio n , the second ex
aminer m onitored the eyes o f the s u b je c t to in s u re t h a t the
c h ild was a tte n d in g to the t e s t s tim u li during every expo
sure .
The f i r s t examiner gave i n s t r u c t i o n s to the s u b je c t.
These were as fo llow s:
W e are going to p la y a game c a l le d "look and f in d ."
When I say " re a d y . . . lo o k ," I want you to look a t th a t
movie screen by the w a ll. You w i l l see a p i c t u r e come
on the sc ree n , b u t you w i l l have to look c a r e f u l l y b e
cause i t w i l l only be th e re fo r a l i t t l e w hile and then
i t w i l l go away. A fte r you see the p i c t u r e , I want you
to fin d i t again on t h i s card and p o in t to i t .
Here, the examiner turned over the f i r s t response card
which was a sample t r a i n in g card . When the c h ild had ex
amined i t , the card was turned back, face down, on top o f
the sta c k o f response cards and the examiner continued the
i n s t r u c t i o n s :
Now l e t ' s t r y i t once. Ready. . . look.
At t h i s tim e, the f i r s t examiner, who was h o ld in g the a u to
m atic c o n tr o l sw itch to the p r o j e c to r , turn ed on the f i r s t
s l i d e . This was the f i r s t sample s l i d e which matched one
o f the p i c t u r e s on the sample response card . The f i r s t
55
t r a i n in g s lid e was a t the t h i r d degree o f fig u re -g ro u n d d i f
f i c u l t y so t h a t i t was r e l a t i v e l y easy to i d e n t i f y . Never
th e l e s s , i t provided the s u b je c t w ith a preview o f what to
expect in terms o f the ground s t r u c tu r e o f the s tim u li.
When the p i c t u r e had d isap p eared from the sc ree n , the s e c
ond examiner again tu rned the sample response card over
w hile the f i r s t examiner sig n a le d f o r a response from the
s u b je c t by saying:
Can you fin d the same p i c t u r e on t h i s card?
I f the c h ild was ab le to match a fig u r e on the card w ith
t h a t which was exposed on the screen , he was encouraged to
p o in t to i t w ith h i s f in g e r . This was p r e f e r a b le to a
v e rb a l mode o f response because i t reduced the need fo r
c o g n itiv e judgments. The f ig u r e s on the response cards
were d e sig n a te d on the second exam in er's score sh e et numer
i c a l l y , according to t h e i r p o s itio n on the response card.
Thus, the f ig u r e s could be reco rd ed , s t a r t i n g on the l e f t
hand sid e o f the response card , as p o s itio n s one through
f iv e (see Appendix B ) . R egardless o f the c o rr e c tn e s s o f
the s u b j e c t 's respo nse, however, the examiner commented:
T h a t's f i n e , now l e t ' s t r y i t again.
R ead y .. . look.
At t h i s p o in t, the second sample fig u re-g ro u n d s lid e was
p r o je c te d on the sc ree n . This p i c t u r e was i d e n t i c a l to the
f i r s t , except t h a t i t was a t the second degree o f d i f f i c u l -
56
ty ; t h a t i s , one degree e a s i e r than the f i r s t . A fte r i t
had been exposed, the examiner re p e a te d the q u e stio n :
Now, can you p o in t to the same p ic tu r e on t h i s card?
I f the s u b je c t responded c o r r e c t l y on both sample t r i a l s ,
the fig u re -g ro u n d t e s t s l i d e s were s t a r t e d . However, i f he
m issed e i t h e r o f the sam ples, a d d it i o n a l t r a i n in g w ith the
same t r a i n i n g s l i d e s , follow ing the same p ro ced u res, was
p ro v id ed . I f n e c e ssa ry , the ta c h is to s c o p ic l i m i t a t i o n s
were te m p o ra rily d isc o n tin u e d f o r the tr a i n in g u n t i l the
c h ild gained the concept o f the ta s k . The t e s t s l i d e s were
n o t begun, however, u n t i l the s u b je c t c o r r e c t l y matched the
sample s l i d e s under a c t u a l t e s t c o n d itio n s .
The e n t i r e body o f t e s t s l i d e s was p re s e n te d a c
cording to the i n s t r u c t i o n s d e sc rib e d in the t r a i n in g s e s
sio n . That i s , the examiner gained the a t t e n t i o n o f the
s u b je c t b e fo re each p i c t u r e was p ro je c te d by saying:
R e ad y .. . look.
And a f t e r the p ic t u r e had been exposed, the examiner d i
r e c te d the c h i l d 's a t t e n t i o n to the response card by i n
q u ir in g :
Can you p o in t to the same p ic tu r e on t h i s card?
A fte r each exposure, the second examiner recorded the po
s i t i o n o f the c h i l d 's response and the le v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y
a t which the response was made. He a lso turned the next
su c c e ssiv e respon se card over from the sta c k a f t e r the
f i r s t s l i d e had been exposed. Each s l i d e (degree) was p ro -
je c te d once w ith the e x cep tio n o f those t h a t were om itted
when the th re s h o ld o f the s u b je c t had been determ ined.
When the fig u re-g ro u n d s u b te s t was completed* the
f i r s t two sample s l i d e s on the heterogeneous c lo su re sub-
t e s t were p re s e n te d . The same tr a i n in g p rocedures and
v e rb a l commands were follow ed as were used in the f i g u r e -
ground s u b te s t. When the c h ild had passed the tr a in in g
c r i t e r i a * the c lo su re s u b te s t was con tin u ed . A fte r t h i s
was completed* the homogeneous fig u re-g ro u n d and c lo su re
s u b te s ts were i n i t i a t e d * re s p e c tiv e ly * w ith o u t t r a in in g
s l i d e s or a d d it i o n a l comment by the examiner. When the Per
c e p tu a l B a tte ry was fin ish ed * an o th e r l i g h t m eter read ing
was taken by the second examiner to in s u re c o n siste n c y o f
l i g h t i n g throughout the t e s t p e rio d .
Each s u b j e c t 's perform ance on the P e rc e p tu a l B a t
t e r y was scored by rec o rd in g the upper le v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y
f o r the f i r s t two co n secu tiv e c o r r e c t resp o n ses in each
s e r i e s o f s l i d e s . For example* in the fig u re-g ro u n d sub-
te s t* where th e re were e ig h t l e v e ls o f p e rc e p tu a l d i f f i c u l
ty* the h ig h e s t p o s s ib le score f o r each s e r i e s was e ig h t i f
the f i r s t two s l i d e s were matched c o rre c tly * and zero i f
none o f the s l i d e s were reco g n ized . S im ilarly* on the c lo
sure tasks* where th e re were seven degrees o f d if f ic u lt y *
the h ig h e s t p o s s ib le score was seven and the low est zero.
Thus* a high score r e f l e c t e d a high degree o f p e rc e p tu a l
58
p r o f ic ie n c y , w hile a low score was su g g e stiv e o f a p e rc e p
t u a l problem.
Supplemental T est B a tte ry
To o b ta in some p e rs p e c tiv e o f the fig u re-g ro u n d and
c lo s u re d a ta which were o b tain ed from the P e rc e p tu a l B a t
t e r y , i t was n e ce ssa ry to take in to c o n s id e ra tio n the o v e r
a l l m a tu ra tio n a l development o f the c h ild . I t i s re c o g
n iz e d t h a t the p e rc e p tu a l phenomenon i s a p rod uct o f many
i n t e r n a l s tim u li as w ell as those o r i g in a ti n g from beyond
th e r e t i n a , the tra n s d u c e r f o r the v is u a l m o dality . These
i n t e r n a l s tim u li are g e n erate d , f o r example, by ongoing
co n cep tu al a c t i v i t i e s , in c lu d in g the a c t iv a t io n o f memories
from the sto ra g e a re a s o f the b r a in . These, o f course, are
c o n s ta n tly being enriched through the e x p erien c es o f the
c h ild . E xp eriences, however, a re m ediated by a l l the in p u t
m o d a litie s so t h a t a d e fic ie n c y in one may have a detrim en
t a l e f f e c t on the e f f i c ie n c y o f the o th e r s .
For these re a so n s, measures o f e x t r a - v i s u a l p e rc e p
t u a l and m a tu ra tio n a l development were o b tain ed from an ad
d i t i o n a l group o f t e s t s which were a d m in istere d in conjunc
tio n w ith the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y . This group, which w i l l
be r e f e r r e d to as the Supplemental B a tte r y , in clu d ed gen
e r a l assessm ents o f decoding p r o f ic ie n c y , motor development
and con cep tual growth.
59
C r i t e r i a f o r S e le c tio n
There are a number o f p sy c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s , such as
the WISC, which ex plore in d e t a i l the p e rc e p tu a l and co g n i
t iv e development o f the c h ild . These t e s t s , however, are
in many ways r e s t r i c t i v e in t h a t they must be ad m in istere d
by s p e c i a l i s t s who a re o fte n r e l a t i v e l y u n a v a ila b le in the
school o r c l i n i c s i t u a t i o n . Quite o f te n , the number o f
q u a l i f i e d exam iners, in r e l a t i o n to the number o f p u p ils
who a re w a itin g to be t e s te d , i s such t h a t only the most
se v e re ly r e ta r d e d e d u c a tio n a l cases can be e v a lu a te d . As
a consequence, the l a r g e r body o f m ild ly handicapped c h i l
dren are bypassed o r are d e fe rre d to a time beyond the
c r i t i c a l p e rio d o f need. To f i l l the d ia g n o s tic void,
te a c h e rs them selves have used l e s s comprehensive t e s t s
which a re q u ic k ly ad m in istere d and e a s i l y scored. Since a
go al o f the p r e s e n t p r o j e c t was to ex p lore the u s e fu ln e s s
o f a t e s t o f v is u a l p e rc e p tio n which could be u t i l i z e d in
the classroom by te a c h e rs or t h e i r a id e s , t e s t s o f a sim
i l a r com plexity and a v a i l a b i l i t y were a ls o s e le c te d f o r the
e v a lu a tio n o f the e x t r a - v i s u a l p e rc e p tu a l a t t r i b u t e s . Thus,
the Supplem ental B a tte r y in clu d ed the follow ing t e s t s , most
o f which a re p r e s e n t l y being employed as d ia g n o s tic to o ls
in many speech c l i n i c s and elem entary grade classroom s:
the Peabody P ic tu re V ocabulary T est, the Columbia Mental
M atu rity S c a le , the Geometric Designs Drawing T e s t, a g ro ss
motor r a t i n g and an a r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t .
6o
1. The Peabody P ic tu r e V ocabulary T e s t : Although the
Peabody P ic tu r e Vocabulary T est ( r e f e r r e d to h e r e
a f t e r as PPVT) was designed as a t e s t o f I n t e l l i
gence, I t s deployment in t h i s study was not I n
tended fo r t h a t purpose. Because the two groups o f
s u b je c ts were o b ta in e d from c o n sid e ra b ly d i f f e r e n t
socioeconomic backgrounds in which language values
a re markedly d i s s i m i l a r , vocabulary assessm ent
could n ot be m eaning fu lly t r a n s l a t e d i n to i n t e l l i
gence r a t i n g s p e r s e . However, the PPVT r e p r e s e n ts
a sample o f language c r i t e r i a t h a t a re employed as
a g e n e ra l r u l e in a l l schools r e g a r d le s s o f the so
cioeconomic su rro u n d in g s. I t i s the language, fo r
example, in which a l l textbooks a re based. Hence,
the PPVT may be a s e n s i t iv e i n d i c a t o r , not o f i n
t e l l i g e n c e , b u t of p o t e n t i a l handicaps f o r a c h ild
j u s t ready to e n te r the prim ary g rad e s.
The PPVT was in c lu d e d in the Supplemental B a t
t e r y a ls o because i t p ro v id es in fo rm a tio n concern
ing a u d ito ry decoding as w ell as vocabulary growth
and language c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n . I t has a degree o f
s ta n d a r d iz a tio n and i s fre q u e n tly used by c l i n i
c ia n s and te a c h e r s , so t h a t i t i s f a m i li a r to them.
Moreover, i t I s r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f , re q u irin g in many
cases l e s s than nine m inutes to com plete. This was
co n sid ered to be an im p o rtan t f e a tu r e r e le v a n t to
the e v a lu a tio n o f very young c h ild re n because they
o fte n f a tig u e e a s i l y .
The PPVT was a d m in iste re d according to the n o r
mal o p e ra tin g p ro ced u res d e sc rib e d in the t e s t man
u a l . In b r i e f , the c h ild l i s t e n e d to a stim ulus
word spoken by the examiner and then responded by
p o in tin g to one o f fo u r p i c t u r e s d isp la y e d on a
page o f the t e s t b o o k le t. These p i c t u r e s are u n
co lo re d lin e drawn s k e tc h e s, only one o f which de
p i c t s the meaning o f the a u d ito ry stim u lu s. They
were p a r t i c u l a r l y s u ite d to the needs o f t h i s study
because they are r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f fig u re-g ro u n d
con fusion s and c lo su re d is tu r b a n c e s . Both the
stim u lu s and the corresponding s e t o f p i c t u r e s p r o
g re s s g ra d u a lly from simple co n crete item s to com
plex a b s t r a c t con cep ts. Thus, in the e a r ly sta g es
o f the t e s t , the s u b j e c t 's ta s k i s p r im a r ily i n
volved w ith a u d ito ry decoding, w hile in the l a t t e r
p o r tio n s o f the t e s t , v e rb a l a b s t r a c ti o n and l a n
guage concepts become a m ajor f a c t o r . When the
s u b je c t missed six out o f e ig h t ite m s, the t e s t was
d isc o n tin u e d .
2. Columbia Mental M atu rity S c a le : In many r e s p e c ts ,
the Columbia Mental M a tu rity Scale ( r e f e r r e d to
h e r e a f t e r as CM M S) i s s i m il a r to the PPVT. I t i s a
62
t e s t w ith some degree o f s ta n d a r d iz a tio n t h a t em
p lo y s sim ple p i c t u r e s as a respo nse medium. The
s u b je c ts a re re q u ir e d only to p o in t to one o f th re e
or more f ig u r e s a rra y e d on a respon se card., and the
t e s t i s co ntin u ed only u n t i l a c e r t a i n p e rc en ta g e
o f the re sp o n se s i s i n c o r r e c t . Consequently, in
many in s ta n c e s w ith very young c h ild r e n , the t e s t
can a ls o be completed in l e s s than nine m inutes.
U nlike the PFVT, the CM M S i s a n o n -v e rb a lly o r i
ented t e s t . The s u b je c t makes h i s respo nse on the
b a s i s o f the v i s u a l lik e n e s s e s and d if f e r e n c e s
among the f ig u r e s on the response card . Hence, no
v e rb a l stim u lu s i s in v o lv ed . The t e s t b eg in s w ith
a s e r i e s o f simple d is c r im in a tio n ta s k s between the
a t t r i b u t e s o f c o lo r and shape, and p ro g re s s e s
toward the r e c o g n itio n o f d i f f e r e n c e s based on more
a b s t r a c t q u a l i t i e s . T h ere fo re , t h i s t e s t not only
p ro v id es a measure o f the s u b j e c t 's a b i l i t y to de
code v i s u a l s tim u li under optimum fig u re -g ro u n d and
c lo s u re c o n d itio n s , b u t i t a ls o se rv es as a t e s t o f
n o n -v e rb a l co n cep tual development.
The CM M S was a d m in istere d according to the
sta n d a rd o p e ra tin g p ro cedu res o u tlin e d in the t e s t
manual. B r i e f l y , the examiner tu rn ed each response
card face up one a t a time from a s ta c k o f card s in
f r o n t o f the c h ild , and asked him to p o in t to the
63
fig u re t h a t was " d i f f e r e n t * " o r which " d o e s n 't b e
lo n g ." This simple mode o f response* i . e . * p o i n t
ing* m inim izes n o t only the extraneou s e f f e c t s of
v e rb a l e x p re ssiv e behavior* b u t a ls o motor d e f i
c ie n c ie s .
The CM M S was s e le c te d f o r t h i s study a ls o b e
cause i t a ffo rd e d the examiner an o p p o rtu n ity to
i n t e r a c t w ith the s u b je c ts on a n o n -v erb a l level*
and because i t prov ided a measure o f p e rc e p tu a l and
con ceptu al perform ance which was r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f
v e rb a l development.
3 . Geometric Designs Drawing T e s t : The Geometric De
sig n s Drawing T est ( r e f e r r e d to h e r e a f t e r as GDDT)
was in c lu d e d in the Supplemental B a tte r y as a mea
sure o f v is u a l motor development* s p a t i a l o r i e n t a
tio n and v is u a l r e c a l l . I t was s e le c te d f o r t h i s
study because i t i s simple* b r i e f and g e n e ra lly en
joyable f o r children* y e t i t y i e l d s a p le th o r a o f
d ia g n o s tic in fo rm a tio n .
The GDDT c o n s is ts o f f iv e drawing ta s k s o f i n
c re a s in g d i f f i c u l t y : a c irc le * a cross* a square*
a t r i a n g l e and a diamond. Before each task* the
examiner prov ided the s u b je c t w ith an example o f
the f ig u r e to be drawn and i n s t r u c t e d the s u b je c t
by saying:
64
See t h i s p i c t u r e - - l o o k a t i t very c a r e f u l l y
because I'm going to ask you to draw one j u s t
lik e i t .
A fte r the example f ig u re had been observed f o r fiv e
seconds, i t was re p la c e d w ith a b lan k sh e e t o f p a
p e r, and the c h ild was asked to draw the fig u re
t h a t had j u s t been observed. I f the s u b je c t was
unable to perform the ta s k , th e examiner exposed
the example f ig u r e a g ain , t h i s time tr a c in g the
contour o f the f ig u r e w ith h i s f in g e r so t h a t the
c h ild could observe the p a t t e r n o f the movements.
The tra c in g sequence was always c o n s i s t e n t , being
co u n ter-clo ck w ise f o r the c i r c l e , beginning a t the
top; l e f t to r i g h t and top to bottom f o r the c ro s s;
and co u n te r-clo ck w ise f o r the square, t r i a n g l e and
diamond, beginning a t th e upper le f t- h a n d c o rn e r o r
top r e s p e c t iv e ly . I f the s u b je c t was s t i l l unable
to respond, he was given v e rb a l encouragement by
the examiner, b u t i f t h i s f a i l e d , t e s t i n g on the
GDDT was d isc o n tin u e d .
Those f ig u r e s t h a t were s u c c e s s f u lly completed
by the s u b je c t were e v a lu a te d according to two s e ts
o f c r i t e r i a . This served to in c r e a s e the s e n s i t i v i
ty o f the t e s t . F i r s t , i t was scored according to
the sta n d ard o p e ra tin g p ro ced u res o u tlin e d in the
p u b lish ed i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the t e s t . For example,
f u l l c r e d i t was allow ed f o r the c i r c l e i f the a rc s
65
were jo in e d w ith good c lo s u re and i f the f ig u re was
round o r only s l i g h t l y o v al w ith an a x is l e s s than
one and o n e -h a lf tim es the le n g th o f the s h o rt a x is .
P a r t i a l c r e d i t was given i f the c i r c l e was oval
w ith a long a x is one and o n e -h a lf tim es the len g th
o f the s h o rt a x is , o r i f the f ig u r e was concave or
con tained a n g le s. No score was p e rm itte d f o r h a l f
c i r c l e s , s p i r a l s o r polygons. S im ila r c r i t e r i a
were observed in sco rin g the rem aining fo u r f ig u r e s .
Secondly, a d d it i o n a l w eight was a l l o t t e d to
each score according to the l e v e l o f su p p o rt r e
q u ire d from the examiner b e fo re the response was
executed. Thus, more c r e d i t was added to a score
i f the s u b je c t completed the fig u r e on the f i r s t
t r i a l a f t e r having only p a s s iv e ly observed the ex
ample. Less c r e d i t was allow ed i f the f ig u re was
reproduced by the s u b je c t a f t e r the examiner had
tra c e d the example; o r a f t e r the s u b je c t had r e
ceived v e rb a l encouragement. Hence, n o t only was
the perform ance o f the s u b je c t e v a lu a te d from the
p o in t o f view o f v isu a l-m o to r p r o f ic ie n c y , b u t a lso
in terms o f the sp o n ta n e ity w ith which i t was i n i
t i a t e d .
The GDDT f u l f i l l e d the needs o f t h i s study b e
cause i t embodies a s e r i e s o f ta s k s which a re
matched in d i f f i c u l t y to the le v e l o f motor and
p e rc e p tu a l development o f p resch o o l and k in d e rg a r
ten age c h ild r e n . In a d d itio n , the re p ro d u c tio n o f
th ese f ig u r e s in v o lv e s a number o f psychomotor
s k i l l s which a re b e lie v e d to be r e l a t e d to the de
velopment o f v i s u a l p e rc e p tio n and language. For
example, the GDDT draws upon a b i l i t i e s o f v is u a l
r e c a l l because each f ig u re i s reproduced from memo
ry ; i t i s invo lv ed w ith eye-hand c o o rd in a tio n b e
cause the movements of the hand must be a d ju s te d
r e l a t i v e to the feedback from the v i s u a l m odality;
and i t depends upon the development o f l e f t - r i g h t
awareness and s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n fo r the d i s c r im i
n a tio n o f fig u re d if f e r e n c e s , f o r example, as b e
tween the square and the diamond.
4. Gross motor development r a t i n g s : Data p e r ta in in g
to the g ro ss motor development of the s u b je c ts were
o b ta in e d from the g e n e ra l o b se rv a tio n s o f the
c h i l d 's movements as he approached and d e p arted
from the t e s t room. For example, motor c o o rd in a
tio n was a sse ss e d through a r a t i n g o f the c h i l d 's
manner o f walking as he approached the t e s t ta b le .
An abnormal walk was noted i f the fo o t was r a i s e d
h ig h and the e n t i r e so le was brought down on the
ground a t once ( a ta x ic l i k e ) ; o r i f the le g s were
h e ld to g e th e r and moved in a s t i f f manner so t h a t
the to e s seemed to drag and catch ( s p a s t i c l i k e ) .
A sta g g e rin g motion ( c e r e b e l la r g a i t ) o r a case in
which one fo o t p assed in f r o n t o f the o th e r , p r o
ducing a c ro s s-le g g e d p ro g re s s io n , was a lso con
sid e re d to be an abnormal motor p a t t e r n .
The sta n ce o f the s u b je c t in a stan d in g p o s i
tio n was a lso noted. I f the f e e t were p laced a t j
!
sho u ld er w idth o r w ider, o r i f the b alan ce was un- j
s ta b le so t h a t the c h ild was n o tic e a b ly t o t t e r i n g ,
motor development was c o nsid ered to be abnormal. A
i
r a t i n g was also made o f the s u b j e c t 's p o stu re as he j
s a t a t the t e s t t a b l e . Normal p o stu re was con
s id e re d to be an u p r ig h t p o s itio n w ith the head
h e ld six to e ig h t inches from the p aper. An ab
normal p o s i t io n , on the o th e r hand, was one in
which the body was tw iste d o r extrem ely b e n t, w ith
the head t i l t e d in a skewed p o s i t io n , or h e ld two
to th re e in ch es from the desk. Such p o s tu r e , i f
not i n d ic a t i v e o f abnormal v is u a l a c u ity , may r e
f l e c t poor motor development t h a t can in v o lv e p ro
p r io c e p tiv e feedback. This in tu rn may r e t a r d the
development of body image, s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n and
o th e r v is u a l p e rc e p tu a l s k i l l s .
A r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t : A type o f abnormal motor behav
i o r which has im p lic a tio n s n ot only fo r i t s neuro-
68
lo g i c a l dependency b u t a lso f o r i t s p sy c h o lo g ic a l
and s o c i a l im portance i s an a r t i c u l a t i o n d is o r d e r .
The movements o f speech, which a re so i n t r i c a t e and
ra p id , r e q u ir e a high degree o f n e u ro lo g ic a l con
t r o l . Moreover, they a re unique in t h a t they are
sym m etrically executed along the m idline o f the
body. This sugg ests the need f o r a complex system
o f n e u ra l c o o rd in a tio n between the c e r e b r a l hemi
sp h e res. Thus, a r t i c u l a t i o n i s an im p o rtan t source
o f in fo rm a tio n concerning the development and i n
t e g r i t y o f the c e n t r a l nervous system.
G en erally, the a r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t s employed in
speech c l i n i c s and schools are based upon the p r e s
e n ta tio n o f a v is u a l stim u lus which i s in te n d e d to
evoke a v e rb a l response from the c h ild . However,
f o r the p re s e n t i n v e s ti g a t i o n , i t was a n ti c i p a t e d
t h a t the two groups o f s u b je c ts d i f f e r e d c o n s id e r
ably in t h e i r exp erien ces w ith books and p i c t u r e s .
Hence, an a u ra l- v o c a l a r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t was s e
le c te d f o r the Supplemental B a tte r y . This t e s t
used an a u d ito ry stim u lu s which was re p e a te d by the
s u b je c t. The a u ra l- v o c a l method c o n tain ed a d d i
t i o n a l advantages over the c o n v en tio n al type in
t h a t no in te r - m o d a lity conversion o f the stim u lu s
was n e ce ssa ry f o r the s u b je c t. Hence a minimal
amount o f c o g n itiv e a c t i v i t y was in v o lv ed . An
6 9
a u r a l- v o c a l t e s t could a ls o be a d m in istere d r a p id ly ,
which reduced the chances o f f a tig u e on t h i s and
follo w in g t e s t s .
The a r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t was a d m in istere d c a s u a lly
in the form o f a game. This was done to m aintain
the i n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n o f the young s u b je c ts .
For example, the examiner suggested to the c h ild
t h a t the two o f them p la y a word game c a lle d follo w
the le a d e r. The examiner would say a word which
the c h ild would then t r y to r e p e a t. The s p e c if ic
i n s t r u c t i o n s were as fo llow s:
We a re going to p la y a game lik e follow the
le a d e r . I w i l l say a word and you see i f you
can fo llo w me by saying the same word. R e ad y ...
At t h i s p o in t, the examiner would read each su c ce s
siv e word, pausing only long enough to rec o rd the
response o f the s u b je c t. I f the c h ild d id n o t r e
spond to the stim u lu s, the word was re p e a te d . Af
t e r the t h i r d r e p e t i t i o n , the word was bypassed.
The t e s t took approxim ately ten m inutes to adm inis
t e r .
Three ty pes o f a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s were noted
f o r each p o s i t io n o f a p a r t i c u l a r consonant in the
stim u lu s word. These in clu d ed e r r o r s o f d i s t o r t i o n ,
s u b s t i t u t i o n and om ission in e i t h e r the i n i t i a l ,
m edial o r f i n a l p o s i t i o n s . Vowel sounds were not
covered in t h i s a r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t . As shown in Ap-
pendix B, th e re were 23 words in which the t e s t
consonant was in the i n i t i a l p o s i t io n , 22 in the
m edial p o s i t io n and 21 in the f i n a l p o s i t i o n . A ll
o f the p h o n etic consonant sounds were t e s t e d i n
cluding 13 b le n d s . The e r r o r s reco rd ed f o r each
type of m i s a r t i c u l a t i o n were t a l l i e d to o b ta in the
s u b j e c t s 1 ranking on the t e s t .
In summary, the PPVT, CMMS, GDDT, motor development
r a t i n g and a r t i c u l a t i o n t e s t c o n s t it u t e d the measures t h a t
were in clu d ed in the Supplemental B a tte ry to a s s e s s the
m a tu ra tio n a l development o f the c h ild . Data from th ese
t e s t s were analyzed in c o n ju n ctio n w ith t h a t o b tain ed from
the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y to gain a p e rs p e c tiv e o f the f ig u r e -
ground and c lo s u re a b i l i t i e s o f p resch o o l c h ild re n .
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OP THE DATA
Overview o f the A nalysis
The a n a ly s is o f t h i s p e rc e p tu a l study was conducted
in th re e p hases. In the f i r s t phase., c l u s t e r s (or types)
o f s u b je c ts were d e riv e d s e p a r a te ly from two c o n tr a s tin g
samples, i . e . , from a socioeconom ically deprived sample,
and again from a socioeconom ically advantaged sample o f
c h ild r e n . These types were based on the s u b j e c t s ’ sco res
on the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y designed by Wood (1970). In the
second phase, the typ es which were d e fin e d w ith in each
sample were compared w ith each o th e r to determ ine t h e i r
g e n e r a l i t y ; and in the t h i r d phase, fo r each o f the common
types observed, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a tt e r n o f p e rc e p tu a l
resp o n ses was n oted, and the m a tu ra tio n a l development com
pared between the s u b je c ts o f each sample.
Phase One—The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
P e rc e p tu a l Types
The two major is s u e s explored in the f i r s t phase o f
t h i s a n a ly s is were: Can c l u s t e r s o f c h ild re n who organize
a n d /o r respond to v i s u a l s tim u li in a s im ila r manner be
i d e n t i f i e d ; and would such c l u s t e r s be unique f o r each
11 •
72
group s e le c te d or would they r e p r e s e n t common types t h a t
a re e x ta n t w ith in any group o f c h ild re n drawn a t random
from a s p e c i f i c s t r a t a o f the p o p u la tio n ? Three s te p s were
c r i t i c a l to the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e se i s s u e s : ( l) the s e
l e c t i o n and assignm ent o f s u b je c ts to the i n i t i a l re s e a rc h
groups; ( 2 ) the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s u b je c t- ty p e s fo r each
group; and ( 3 ) the d e te rm in a tio n o f type g e n e r a l i t y w ith in
a p a r t i c u l a r sample.
Step 1—The S e le c tio n and Assignment
o f S u b je cts
As d e sc rib e d in d e t a i l in C hapter I I I , two samples
o f s u b je c ts were o b tain ed f o r t h i s study. One was drawn
from a p o p u latio n g e n e r a lly co n sid ere d to be socioeconom
i c a l l y d e p riv e d , w hile the o th e r was s e le c te d from an ad
vantaged p o p u latio n o f c h ild r e n . One hundred and ten sub
j e c t s were in clu d ed in each sample, being randomly chosen
from the two school systems p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the study.
This was accom plished by a ssig n in g numbers to each p ro sp e c
t i v e s u b je c t and then f i l l i n g the sample requ irem ents by a
ta b le o f random numbers.
From each sample, two subgroups were d e riv e d ( r e
f e r r e d to su bseq uently as Group A and Group B ) . Here again,
the s u b je c ts were a ssig n e d to one group or the o th e r by a
ta b le o f random numbers. Hence, th e re were two random
groups fo r the deprived sample and two f o r the advantaged
sample, w ith each group c o n ta in in g 55 s u b je c ts . The forma-
73
tio n o f th e se groups made the comparison o f p e rc e p tu a l
types w ith in each sample p o s s ib le f o r the d e te rm in a tio n of
type g e n e r a l i t y .
Step 2 —The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f S ubject
Types fo r Each Group
The dependent v a r ia b le s upon which the c l u s t e r s in
each group were determ ined were the 30 v i s u a l matching
ta s k s on the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y designed by Wood (1970).
The q u e stio n here was: Could c l u s t e r s o f c h ild re n who o r
ganize p e rc e p tu a l s tim u li in the same manner be found? The
t y p i c a l procedure in the a n a ly s is o f two o r more v a r ia b le s
i s to c o r r e l a t e the t e s t sc o res a c ro ss the s u b je c ts - - a n R
a n a l y s i s . In the p re s e n t study, the Pearson p roduct moment
c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s were computed f o r a l l p o s s ib le
p a i r s o f s u b je c ts a c ro ss the 30 t e s t ite m s - - a Q a n a ly s is .
Consequently, in s te a d o f t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s being d e riv e d ,
c o r r e l a t i o n s among the s u b je c ts were o b ta in e d .
The i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s among the 55 s u b je c ts in each
group were computed and then decomposed by the p r i n c i p a l
component method to determ ine the b a s ic s u b je c t c l u s t e r s .
As a g e n e ra l r u l e , only components w ith eig e n v alu es having
a value o f 1 .0 0 o r g r e a t e r were c o nsidered to r e p r e s e n t
m eaningful g roup ing s. However, in s p e c ia l in s ta n c e s during
the a n a l y s i s , when group d if f e r e n c e s in the number o f c l u s
t e r s had to be re s o lv e d f o r purposes o f comparison, e ig e n
valu es o f l e s s than b u t w ith in rounding e r r o r o f 1.00 were
a c c e p te d .
The p r i n c i p a l components w ith e ig e n v alu es meeting
t h i s c r i t e r i o n were r o t a t e d by the varimax procedure d e
s c rib e d by K aiser (1958) so t h a t each c l u s t e r could account
f o r the g r e a t e s t amount o f the v a ria n c e . A maximum o f 30
c l u s t e r s was p o s s ib le f o r each group ( i .e .., the s m a lle s t
dimension o f the t e s t by s u b je c t m a trix ), w hile the minimum
was two. As d e sc rib e d below fo r the two groups o f each
sample, a r e l a t i v e l y la rg e number o f types were observed.
Deprived Sample Groups- -
S ubject-T ypes
For Group A o f the deprived sample, 13 eigenv alu es
e q u a lle d o r su rp assed the 1.00 c r i t e r i o n f o r acceptance.
For Group B, 14 e ig e n v a lu e s met t h i s c r i t e r i o n . Since the
l4 th eigenv alue o f Group A was .99 ( i - e . , w ith in rounding
e r r o r o f 1 .0 0 ), i t was in clu d ed among those compared b e
tween the groups in a t e s t o f type g e n e r a l i t y . Consequent
ly , 14 s u b je c t- ty p e s were d efin ed in each group f o r the de
p riv e d sample.
Advantaged Sample Groups—
Subject-T ypes
For Group A o f the advantaged sample, 12 e ig e n v a l
ues were found to meet the c r i t e r i o n fo r accep tan ce. For
Group B, the number was 11. Since the 12th eigenvalue
( . 9 6 ) in Group B was w ith in rounding e r r o r o f 1.00, i t was
75
in c lu d e d among those co n sid ere d in the in te rg ro u p com pari
son. Hencej 12 s u b je c t- ty p e s were i d e n t i f i e d in each group
o f the advantaged sample.
Step 3 —The In te rg ro u p Comparison
o f S ubject-T ypes
The q u e stio n in v o lv ed i n t h i s ste p o f the a n a ly s is
was: Did the c l u s t e r s ( s u b je c t- ty p e s ) i d e n t i f i e d in Group
A o f each sample correspond to those in Group B f o r the
same sample? I f th e re were no evidence o f s i m i l a r i t y , the
ty p es would need to be t r e a t e d as the unique p r o p e r t i e s o f
each in d iv i d u a l group, and no g e n e r a l i z a t io n s could be made.
I f , on the o th e r hand, a common bond were found, the types
could be co n sid ered to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th o se found in
any sample o f c h ild re n s e le c te d from the same s t r a t a o f the
p o p u la tio n . Two measures were a v a i la b l e f o r the in te r g r o u p
comparison o f the s u b j e c t - t y p e s : the c o e f f i c i e n t o f congru
ence (W rigley & Neuhaus, 1955) and component lo ad in g s f o r
the d i f f e r e n t ty p es o b ta in e d in a f u r t h e r a n a ly s is as d e
s c rib e d below. The l a t t e r , when d e riv e d from both groups
combined, i s a measure o f type commonality.
The C o e f f ic ie n t o f Congruence
When the _ z sc o re s f o r the t e s t item s (over the sub
j e c t s ) a re p o st m u ltip lie d by the tra n sp o se o f the pseudo
in v e r s e o f the loadin g m atrix (o b tain ed from the i n t e r c o r
r e l a t i o n s o f the s u b je c ts o f t h a t group), f a c t o r sc o re s f o r
76
the t e s t item s on each s u b je c t-ty p e are o b tain ed . These
f a c t o r sc o res can be c o r r e l a t e d to o b ta in a measure o f sim
i l a r i t y between the types o f the two groups. This i s known
as the c o e f f i c i e n t o f congruence. However., as Pinneau and
Newhouse (1964) have p o in te d o u t, the s e n s i t i v i t y of the
c o e f f i c i e n t o f congruence to component d if f e r e n c e s i s d i
m inished somewhat by the in c u r s io n o f in d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n
ces between the groups. A c o e f f i c i e n t o f in v a ria n c e would
t y p i c a l l y have avoided t h i s d i s t o r t i o n . However, in the
p re s e n t study, a c o e f f i c i e n t o f in v a ria n c e was not p o s s ib le
because the s u b je c ts (which serve as " a t t r i b u t e s o f the
t e s t v a ria b le s " ) were not c o n sta n t from one a n a ly s is to the
n e x t .
As shown by the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f congruence d i s
cussed below, a moderate degree o f r e l a t i o n s h i p was e v id e n t
between the s u b je c t- ty p e s o f Groups A and B in b oth samples.
The deprived sam ple. For the deprived sample, the
h ig h e s t c o e f f i c i e n t s o f congruence between the s u b je c t-
types o f each group ranged from .55 to .26 (see Table l ) .
Five o f the s u b je c t- ty p e s from Group B matched two types
each i n the o p p o site group. Hence, a c o n sid e ra b le degree
o f o v e rla p was ap p aren t in the comparison. D espite t h i s
am biguity, however, enough evidence su g gesting commonality
between the types was o b tain ed to w a rran t f u r t h e r i n v e s t i
g a tio n , as d e sc rib e d below.
7 7
-
TABLE 1
HIGHEST COEFFICIENTS O F C O N G R U E N C E B E T W E E N SUBJECT
G RO UPS A A N D B IN TH E DEPRIVED SA M PL E
-TYPES O F
Group A
Subject-T ype Number
Group B
Subject-T ype Number
C o e ffic ie n t
o f Congruence
1 1
• 55
2
9
.kk
3
10
• 39
4
7a
.kk
5 7a
.26
6 l .50
7 3
.kk
8 8a .k-6
9
2a .50
10 2 .k z
11 l l a .26
12
9 • 37
13
1 2 .ko
Ik 11 .52
£ L
Components have been r e f le c t e d so th a t th e c o e f f ic ie n t s
correspond In s ig n .
78
The advantaged sam ple. In the advantaged sample,
the h ig h e s t c o e f f i c i e n t s between the group ty p es ranged
from .54 to .26 (see Table 2 ). Pour types in Group B were
found to correspond most h ig h ly w ith more than one type in
the o p p o site group. Thus, f o r the advantaged sample a ls o ,
a c o n sid e ra b le degree o f am biguity was r e f l e c t e d by the co
e f f i c i e n t s o f congruence. F u rth e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n was needed
to determ ine which typ es b e s t corresponded between the
g ro u p s .
Type Commonality
Another index o f in te rg ro u p s i m i l a r i t y i s the lo a d
in g s o f the s u b je c t- ty p e s on components common to the com
bined groups. Hence, i f the m atrix o f c o e f f i c i e n t s o f con
gruence i s decomposed by the p r i n c i p a l component method and
r o t a t e d by the varimax p rocedure, components common to the
e n t i r e sample a re o b ta in e d . The lo ad in g s on th e se compo
n e n ts r e p r e s e n t the c o r r e l a t i o n o f the s u b je c t- ty p e s w ith
each component; and the square o f th e se lo ad in g s r e p r e s e n ts
the v a ria n c e they have in common—here r e f e r r e d to as type
comm onality.
The d e p riv ed sam ple. For the d e p riv ed sample, a
maximum o f 28 m eaningful components was p o s s ib le when the
f a c t o r sc o res o f b o th groups were combined. I f 28 indepen
dent c l u s t e r s were o b ta in e d , t h i s fin d in g would have i n d i
cated t h a t the typ es w ith in each group were s t r i c t l y unique.
79
TABLE 2
HIGHEST COEFFICIENTS OF CONGRUENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT-TYFES OF
GROUPS A AND B IN THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
Group A
Subject-Type Number
Group B
Subject-Type Number
Coefficient
of Congruence
1 1 .46
2 1 .36
3
l a .48
4
3a .^5
5 7a • 35
6
3a
.34
7
12a
.49
8 2 .26
9 7a .5^
10 ioa .46
11 4 .48
12 12 .46
9 <
Components have been reflected so that the coefficients
correspond in sign.
80
On the o th e r hand, i f the same c l u s t e r s were re p re s e n te d in
b o th groups, then only h a l f o f the maximum number o f compo
n e n ts would be found. In the p r e s e n t stu dy, the l a t t e r ap
peared to be more n e a rly c o r r e c t . Fourteen e ig e n v alu es f o r
the combined f a c t o r sco res met the c r i t e r i a f o r accep tan ce.
Table 3, fo r example, shows the lo ad in g s o f the two h ig h e s t
s u b je c t- ty p e s on each o f the 14 common components. These
p a i r s r e p r e s e n t the c l u s t e r s w ith the g r e a t e s t commonality.
In each case, one type from each group o b ta in e d the two
h ig h e s t co n secu tiv e lo ad in g s.
I t i s a lso apparent t h a t the am biguity p r e s e n t
among the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f congruence was la r g e ly re s o lv e d
by the component lo ad in g s. In the l a t t e r , only one s u b je c t-
type i s seen to share v a ria n ce w ith more than one type from
the o th e r group. This i s Type 4 from Group A, which c o r
responded to both types 6 and 8 in Group B. Consequently,
Type 1 from Group A f a i l e d to correspond w ith any type in
Group B and must be co n sid ered to be unique to the former
group.
The lo ad ing s f o r the 14 p a i r s o f s u b je c t- ty p e s
c l e a r l y r e f l e c t a commonality between the types o f each
group. T herefore, a f t e r tak in g in to c o n s id e ra tio n the dual
n a tu re o f Type 4, i t was concluded t h a t 14 c l u s t e r s were
common to any group t h a t might be s e le c te d from the de
p riv e d sample.
81
TABLE 3
VARIMAX LOADINGS OF HIGHEST RANKING SUBJECT-TYPES OF COMPONENTS COMMON
TO GROUPS A AND B IN THE DEPRIVED SAMPLE
Group A Group B
Component Subject-Type Subject-Type Subject-Type Subject-Type
Number Number Loading Number Loading
1 7a .49 3a • 95
2 6 .65 1
• 95
3 9a •73
2 .92
4 2a .65 9a
.92
5
l4a • 74 l l a .92
6 4 .60
7a • 93
7
8
• 73
8a • 90
8 4 .kk l4a
• 91
9 3a • 57
ioa .88
10 10a .65 5a .89
11 12a
• 59
ka
.87
12
13a
.78 12a .86
13 5a
.40 I3a • 85
i4 l l a .65 6a .84
£ L
Components have been reflected so that the loadings corres
pond in sign.
82
The advantaged sam ple. For the advantaged sample*
a maximum o f 24 components w ith eig e n v alu es e q u iv a le n t to
o r g r e a t e r than 1.00 was p o s s ib le . However* as In the p r e
vious case* only h a l f o f t h i s number was o b ta in e d . As b e
fore* one s u b je c t- ty p e from each group was Inclu d ed among
the two h ig h e s t ranking v a r ia b le s on each component (see
Table 4 ). In a d d itio n * most o f the am biguity p r e s e n t In
the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f congruence was re s o lv e d . Only two o f
the s u b je c t- ty p e s f o r Group A corresponded w ith more than
one component each. These were Types 4 and 10. Conversely*
Types 3 and 6 in Group A shared no common v a ria n c e w ith any
o f the v a r i a b le s from Group B. Thus* they re p re s e n te d c lu s
t e r s t h a t a re unique in the former group. A f te r tak in g i n
to c o n s id e ra tio n the d ual n a tu re o f Types 4 and 10* the 12
common c l u s t e r s i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s stag e o f the a n a ly s is
were concluded to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s u b je c t- ty p e s from the
advantaged sample.
Phase Two— The I n t e r Sample Comparison
o f the Subject-Types
The m ajor q u e stio n to be exp lored in the second
phase o f the a n a ly s is was w hether o r not the ty pes i d e n t i
f i e d in the d e p riv ed sample were a ls o p r e s e n t among those
observed f o r the advantaged sample. In o th e r words* do
c h ild re n from w idely c o n tr a s tin g p o p u la tio n s s t r u c tu r e
t h e i r v i s u a l world d i f f e r e n t l y w ith r e s p e c t to t h e i r imme
d i a t e experiences* o r do they e x h ib i t tre n d s o f p e rc e p tu a l
TABLE k
VARIMAX LOADINGS OF HIGHEST RANKING SUB JECT-TYPES ON COMPONENTS COMMON
TO GROUPS A AND B IN THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
Group A Group B
Component Subject-Type Subject-Type Subject-Type Subject-Type
Number Number Loading Number Loading
1
if
• 53 3a
.96
2 1 .61 1
• 95
3
9a .72
7 • 9^
if 11
.63 ifa
• 93
5
7a .69
12
• 93
6
ioa
• 55
10 .92
7
2a .66 6a .90
8
if
00
•
5
.90
9
5 .if 7
2 .88
10 8 • 52
a
9
.88
11 12 • 52 8a .88
12 10 • 56 11 .83
a
Components have been reflected so that the loadings corres
pond in sign.
84
o rg a n iz a tio n t h a t a re common to a l l ? Two ste p s were i n
volved in the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h i s q u e s tio n : the r e e v a lu
a ti o n o f the s u b je c t- ty p e s fo r each sample and the compari
son o f the typ es between the samples.
Step 1 —The R eev alu atio n o f Subject-Types
f o r Each Sample
Since common c l u s t e r s had been i d e n t i f i e d w ith in
groups A and B o f b o th sam ples, i t was now p o s s ib le to com
bine the groups w ith in each sample fo r the follow ing i n t e r
sample comparison. The c l u s t e r s were then d e riv e d fo r each
e n t i r e sample. The same p ro ced u res were follow ed as b e fo re
in the a n a ly s is o f the groups, only in t h i s case, the num
b e r o f s u b je c ts was eq u al to 110 fo r each a n a ly s is . I n t e r
c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e se s u b je c ts were computed a c ro ss the 30
p e rc e p tu a l item s in a se p a ra te Q a n a ly s is fo r each sample.
People c l u s t e r s were o b ta in e d from the c o r r e l a t i o n m atrix
by the p r i n c i p a l component method, and those components
common to b oth samples which met the 1.00 c r i t e r i o n were
r o t a t e d by the varimax pro ced u re. For each sample, the
number o f c l u s t e r s o b ta in e d was g r e a t e r than the number o f
ty p es common to the groups o f each sample.
The Deprived Sample—
Subject-Types
For the dep riv ed sample, 23 eig e n v alu es were equal
to o r g r e a t e r than 1.00. Since, however, only 14 had been
found in the f i r s t phase o f the a n a ly s is to be common to
85
any group from the sample, only 14 o f the 23 were r o t a t e d
and r e t a i n e d f o r comparison between the sam ples. These
were the ones which accounted f o r the g r e a t e s t amount o f
the common v a ria n c e . The rem aining s m a lle r c l u s t e r s were
co n sid ere d to r e f l e c t I n d iv id u a l tre n d s o f p e rc e p tu a l b e
h a v io r t h a t were unique to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sample.
The Advantaged Sample- -
S ubject-T ypes
The Q a n a ly s is o f the advantaged sample re v e a le d 20
e ig e n v a lu e s which met the design req u ire m e n ts fo r a c c e p t
ance. Only the 12 l a r g e s t , however., were r e t a in e d f o r the
varimax r o t a t i o n . This number o f s u b je c t- ty p e s had been
found to be common to any group from the advantaged sample
in the f i r s t phase o f the a n a l y s i s . The rem aining compo
n e n ts which accounted f o r p r o g r e s s iv e ly l e s s e r amounts o f
th e t o t a l v a ria n ce were assumed to r e p r e s e n t minor tre n d s
o f b e h a v io r which were unique to t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sample.
Step 2 —-The I n t e r Sample Comparison
o f the Subject-Types
Twelve types had been c a r r i e d over from the advan
taged sample, w hile 14 were r e t a in e d from the deprived
sample. As was the case in the f i r s t phase o f the a n a ly s is ,
two m easures o f correspondence were employed to compare
th e s e ty p es from each sample: the c o e f f i c i e n t o f congruence
and the com m onalities as r e f l e c t e d by the f a c t o r lo ad in g s.
The C o e f fic ie n t o f Congruence
F a c to r sc o re s were o b ta in e d fo r each sample from
the m atrix o f _ z sc o res ( f o r the t e s t item s) p o s t m u ltip lie d
by the tran sp o se o f the pseudo in v e rs e o f the loading ma
t r i x . These f a c t o r sc o res f o r the d i f f e r e n t components
( s u b je c t- ty p e s ) were then c o r r e l a t e d in o b ta in in g the c o e f
f i c i e n t s o f congruence. As shown in Table 5, i n d ic a t i o n s
o f s i m i l a r i t i e s between the s u b je c t- ty p e s o f each sample
were e v id e n t. The c o e f f i c i e n t s ranged from .6 6 to . 2 3 .
Some o v e rla p was u n a v o id a b le , o f course, since only 12
ty pes in one sample were compared a g a in s t 14 in the o th e r.
Consequently, fo u r ty p es in th e advantaged sample (Types
4, 6 , 9 and l l ) corresponded to more than one type in the
dep riv ed sample. N e v e rth e le ss, the c o e f f i c i e n t s were s u f
f i c i e n t l y high to w arran t f u r t h e r i n v e s ti g a t i o n and c l a r i
f i c a t i o n through component a n a ly s is and the d e te rm in a tio n
o f type commonality.
Type Commonality
The i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n ta b le o f the s u b je c t-ty p e f a c
t o r sco res combined f o r both samples was decomposed by the
p r i n c i p a l component method. A maximum o f 26 types was p o s
s i b l e . This would have o c cu rred only i f every type r e p r e
sented a unique p a tt e r n of p e rc e p tu a l b eh av io r fo r each
sample. However, t h i s was n o t the c a s e --o n ly 13 e ig e n v a l
ues e q u a lle d or exceeded 1.00 . Consequently, 13 was taken
87
T A B L E 5
HIGHEST COEFFICIENTS OF CONGRUENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT-TYPES
OF DEPRIVED AND ADVANTAGED SAMPLES
Deprived Sample Advantaged Sample Coefficient
Subject-Type Number Subject-Type Number of Congruence
1
5 .50
2 6a
• 3^
3
4 • 52
4 la .52
5 9a
.28
6
3
.40
7
6 .43
8 11 .43
9
11 .42
10 ioa .66
11
9a • 23
12 6 .30
13
4a .38
14 2a
• 39
S i
Components Have been reflected so that the coefficients
correspond in sign.
88
to be the maximum number o f s u b je c t- ty p e s t h a t was common
to both sam ples. Table 6 p r e s e n t s a summary o f the two
h ig h e s t lo ading v a r i a b le s on th e se 13 common components.
For each component., one s u b je c t- ty p e from each sample was
r e p re s e n te d among th e s e v a r i a b l e s . For example, the f i r s t
row in Table 6 shows t h a t on component 1, s u b je c t- ty p e 1
from the deprived sample and s u b je c t- ty p e 2 from the advan
taged sample were most s i m il a r . The lo ad in g s f o r th e se
typ es were .9 8 and .5 6 r e s p e c t i v e l y . As t h i s ta b le shows,
the lo ad in g s a re r e l a t i v e l y h ig h .
Indeed, t h i s pro cedu re ap p ears to match the s u b je c t-
typ es w ith l e s s am biguity than d id the c o e f f i c i e n t s o f con
gruence. Only one type shared v a ria n c e w ith more than one
type from the o p p o site sample, Type 9- This type in the
advantaged sample was s i m il a r to b o th Types 5 and 11 o f the
d ep riv ed sample. I f the d u al correspondence o f Type 9 i s
a ccep ted , 13 o v e r a l l s u b je c t- ty p e s can be i d e n t i f i e d which
a re common to b oth sam ples.
In summary, th e s e components i n d i c a t e the s u b je c t-
type s which would be expected among any randomly drawn
samples o f c h ild r e n w ith in the Los Angeles a re a , r e g a r d le s s
o f the socioeconomic environm ent from which they were ob
ta in e d . In the t h i r d phase o f t h i s a n a l y s i s , th ese 13
s u b je c t- ty p e s were examined i n d iv i d u a ll y in d e t a i l along
the dim ensions o f p e r c e p tu a l growth and g e n e ra l m a tu ra tio n -
a l development.
89
TABLE 6
VARIMAX LOADINGS OF HIGHEST RANKING SUBJECT-TYPES ON COMPONENTS COMMON
TO THE SOCIOECONOMICALLY DEPRIVED AND ADVANTAGED SAMPLES
Group A Group B
Component Subject-Type Subject-Type Subject-Type Subject-Type
Number Number Loading Number Loading
1 l a .98 2 .56
2 ioa .92 10
.87
3
b
•93
i a .72
k 7 •93 7
.50
5 3a
.88 i+ a .70
6 ii+a
• 79 5
.6b
7
8 .9k 12a .60
8 I3a .88 8
.^5
9
6a
• 95 3a • 51
10 9a • 91
11
• 59
l i 5a
.88
9 • 39
12
2 .81+
7
.50
13
11
.91 9a . 1 + 5
3 <
Components have been reflected so that the loadings corres
pond in sign.
90
Phase Three— A P e rc e p tu a l and Matura-
t i o n a l D e s c rip tio n o f the Common
Subject-T ypes
Whereas th e g o a ls o f the f i r s t and second phases o f
t h i s study were r e l a t i v e l y d e f i n i t i v e - - t o ex plore the q u e s
tio n o f w hether o r n o t common tre n d s o f p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a
tio n e x i s t — the i n t e n t o f the t h i r d phase was more g e n e ra l
in n a tu r e . Here,, the broad is s u e o f s u b je c t-ty p e d e s c r i p
tio n was u n d e rta k en . The q u e stio n was r a i s e d : I f a number
o f s u b je c t- ty p e s were found to be common to any random
sample o f c h ild r e n , what p e rc e p tu a l and m a tu ra tio n a l c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c s might be expected o f the members o f each type?
In the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h i s i s s u e , s u b je c ts were assign ed
to the s p e c i f i c s u b j e c t - ty p e s , and d a ta on th ese s u b je c ts
were analyzed in o rd e r to determ ine the p e rc e p tu a l and ma
t u r a t i o n a l t r a i t s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e them.
Step 1 —The Assignment o f S u b je cts
to S p e c if ic Subject-T ypes
T h irte e n common s u b je c t- ty p e s had been i d e n t i f i e d
w ith in the combined samples on the b a s i s o f p e rc e p tu a l p a t
t e r n s o f b e h a v io r. These types had been d e riv e d from a
p r i n c i p a l component a n a ly s is o f the pooled f a c t o r sc o res o f
both sam ples. A more d i r e c t method o f a n a ly s is would have
been to perform a Q a n a ly s is d i r e c t l y upon the raw sco res
o f the combined sam ples. Had t h i s been p o s s ib l e , s u b je c t
lo ad ing s on each component (type) would have been r e a d i ly
o b ta in a b le . These lo a d in g s, o f c o u rse, were c r i t i c a l to
91
t h i s study because they r e p re s e n te d a measure o f s u b je c t
"belongingness" to each s u b je c t- ty p e . Such a d i r e c t ap
proach., however., would have re q u ir e d a 210 by 210 dimen
sioned m a trix . Dimensions o f t h i s s iz e were beyond the
l i m i t s o f the f a c t o r a n a ly tic program a v a i la b l e f o r the
a n a l y s i s . C onsequently, in the p r e s e n t study a d i f f e r e n t
approach was used to o b ta in the s u b je c t lo a d in g s.
F a c to r sc o res f o r the 30 p e rc e p tu a l v a r i a b le s were
computed on each o f the 13 common s u b j e c t - t y p e s . These
f a c t o r sco res were then c o r r e l a t e d w ith the s u b j e c t s ' raw
sco res on the same v a r i a b le s . The r e s u l t i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s
are lo ad in g s o f the s u b je c ts on the type components. Under
i d e a l c o n d itio n s , i t would have been p r e f e r a b le to in c lu d e
in each s u b je c t-ty p e only those s u b je c ts who o b ta in e d lo a d
in g s g r e a t e r than .70. This would have in su re d t h a t a min
imum o f 50 p e rc e n t o f the common v a ria n ce was shared by the
members o f each ty p e. In the p r e s e n t study, however, b e
cause the number o f s u b je c ts was sm all r e l a t i v e to the num
b e r of ty p e s, s u b je c ts having lo ad in g s sm a ller than t h i s
value were in clu d ed w ith in each s u b je c t- ty p e . This i n
creased the chances t h a t some o f the s u b je c ts would be
p laced in more than one typ e. N e v e rth e le ss, in o rd e r to
make i n t r a t y p e comparisons p o s s ib le , no l e s s than 10 sub
j e c t s were s e le c te d from each sample f o r each ty p e. These
were the s u b je c ts w ith the h ig h e s t lo ad in g s on t h a t type.
As shown in Table 1, the lo ad in g s f o r the s u b je c ts
92
TABLE 7
VARIMAX LOADINGS OF THE SUBJECTS ON THIRTEEN SUBJECT-TYEES COMMON
TO THE SOCIOECONOMICALLY DEPRIVED AND ADVANTAGED SAMPLES
Subject--Type Numbers
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12
13
.86
.83 .67 .68
•77 • 53 .67 .76
• 79 • 75
.74 .65 • 78
.81
• 71 .65 • 55 .65 .50 .61 • 54 • 77 • 54 .65
.62 .66
.80 .70 .61 .44 .64 .50 • 54 • 51 • 65 .48 • 45 •59
• 50
• 79 .56 .61
• 39
.62 .48 •52 • 50 • 54 .44 .44
•57 • 39
.78 .56 • 52 • 39
.62 .44 • 50 • 50 • 52 .42 .40 • 54 • 38
• 77
.48
• 51 .38 • 59 • 39
.44 • 50 .50 .4o
• 39 • 51
.36
• 77 .47 • 51 • 37
• 58 • 38
.42 .50
• 59
.4o
• 39 • 50 • 35
.74 .44 • 50 .36 • 58 • 38 .42 .49 .46
• 37 .38
.49
• 33
• 73
.41 • 50 .36
•57
.36 .40 .48 .43 • 36 .36 .46
• 33
.72 • 38 .48 .36 • 56 .34 .40 .44 .40 • 34 .36 • 45 • 31
.72 .38 .47 .34
• 51 • 32 .4o .40
• 33 • 35 • 45 .31
.72 .34 .47 .30 .50 .30 .38 .43 •39 • 33 • 35
.44 .30
• 72 .34 .47 .30 .50 .30 • 38 .42
• 37 • 33
.34 .44 .30
.72
• 33
.46
•29
.48
• 29 • 35 •39 • 37 • 32 .34 .41
• 29
.72
• 33
.44 .28 .48
• 25 • 35 • 32 .36 • 32 .34 .40
.2 9
.71
.32 .44
•27
.48 .22
• 35
.30 • 34 • 32 • 33 • 39 • 27
•71 .31 .43 .24 .47 .21
• 35
.30
• 33 • 32 • 33 • 39
.22
.70 .31
.42
.23
.46 .21 • 34 • 27 • 32
• 31 • 32 • 3^
.21
.70 .30 .4o .22 .46 .20
• 32 .27 • 32 .30
• 31
.34 .21
.68 .28
• 39
.22
• 45 • 19
.27
•25 • 32 .27 • 29 • 33
.21
93
on the 13 s u b je c t- ty p e s ranged from .86 to .19. Of the 210
s u b je c ts In the study., 46 did n o t o b ta in lo ad in g s h igh
enough to w arran t in c lu s io n in any o f the s u b j e c t - t y p e s .
Seventeen o f th ese were from the deprived sample and 29
from the advantaged sample. These s u b je c ts , who r e p r e
sented alm ost a q u a r t e r o f the combined samples, were con
s id e re d , n e v e r th e le s s , as a s e p a ra te group to r e p r e s e n t the
" ty p e le s s " type o f s u b je c t. Of the rem aining 164 s u b je c ts ,
68 were c l e a r l y members o f a p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c t- ty p e , w hile
96 showed secondary s i m i l a r i t i e s to one (and in s e v e ra l
cases two) o th e r ty p es.
Step 2 —The P e rc e p tu a l and M a tu ratio n a l
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Each Subject-Type
In the a n a ly s is o f the type c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , two
i s s u e s were brought in to focus. These involved an a n a ly s is
o f the major p e rc e p tu a l p a t t e r n s o f b e h av io r and m a tu ra tio n
a l tre n d s t h a t were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each s u b je c t- ty p e ;
and a comparison o f the c o n tr a s tin g samples w ith in each
type f o r s e le c te d m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s .
The C h a r a c te r is ti c Components
o f P e rce p tio n and the Matu
r a t i o n a l Trends fo r Each
S ubject-T ype—Method
o f A nalysis
In the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f those p e rc e p tu a l t r a i t s
t h a t were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each type, a s e r i e s o f R-com-
ponent a n aly se s on the 30 item s o f the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y
94
(cf. Appendix C) was perform ed s e p a r a te ly f o r each o f the
14 ty p e s . As b e fo re , components having eig e n v alu es equal
to o r exceeding 1.00 were r o t a t e d by the varimax p rocedure.
In each c a se , between seven and ten components were d e riv e d .
A comprehensive exam ination o f a l l th ese components, how
e v e r, was n o t w ith in the scope o f the p re s e n t study. Since
i t was the i n t e n t h e re to a s c e r t a i n the major tre n d s , only
the f i r s t two components a re in c lu d e d in the d e s c r ip tio n o f
each ty p e. These, o f course, were the components which a c
counted f o r the g r e a t e s t amount o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e . On
th e se components, moreover, only v a r ia b le s sharing more
than 50 p e rc e n t o f the common v a ria n c e ( i . e . , w ith lo ad in g s
g r e a t e r than . 7 0) were i n t e r p r e t e d as m eaningful r e f l e c
t io n s o f p e rc e p tu a l p a t t e r n s o f b eh av io r.
In the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f m a tu ra tio n a l tre n d s , the
means and sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s o f th e s u b j e c t s ’ sco res on 14
m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s were o b ta in e d f o r each s u b j e c t - t y p e .
These v a r i a b le s were:
1. Sex
2. Age (CA)
3 . CM M S (Raw Score)
4. CM M S (MA Score)
5. CM M S (IQ Score)
6. PFVT (Raw Score)
7. PFVT (M A Score)
8. PPVT (iQ Score)
9. GDDT
10. S u b s t it u t io n s (A rtie)
11. D is t o r t io n s (A rtie)
12. Omissions (A rtie )
13. Gross Motor Dev.
14. D i f f e r e n t i a l (CMMS--PFVT)
95
A Comparison o f S e le c te d Mat
u r a t i o n a l V a ria b le s Between
the D if f e r e n t Samples W ithin
Each S ub ject-T yp e—Method
o f A nalysis
In the comparison o f the m a tu ra tio n a l v a ria b le s b e
tween th e groups in each s u b je c t-ty p e ( i . e . , the deprived
and advantaged sam ples), the number o f v a r ia b le s was r e
duced from t h a t d e sc rib e d above. This i s because the p ro b
a b i l i t y o f d e te c tin g r e a l d if f e r e n c e s between the means in
a m u lt i v a r i a t e t e s t o f s ig n if ic a n c e (such as H o t e l l i n g 's
p
T ) i s d ecreased as the number o f redundant v a r ia b le s i s
in c r e a s e d in the t e s t . Hence, i t i s im p o rtan t to s e l e c t
in dependent measures f o r comparison.
In the p e rc e p tu a l study by Wood (1970)., and again
in the p re s e n t study, high c o r r e l a t io n s (in excess o f . 9 0)
were o b ta in e d between the follow ing m easures: CM M S (Raw
s c o r e ) , CM M S (M A s c o re ), and CM M S (IQ score). The same was
found to be tru e f o r the th re e PFVT v a r i a b le s . Since the
IQ sc o re s o f th e s e t e s t s were the l e a s t r e l a t e d to chrono
l o g i c a l age, they alone were r e ta in e d , w hile the o th e rs
were dropped from the comparison. The d i f f e r e n t i a l sco re,
which had a c o r r e l a t i o n o f -.8 0 w ith the PFVT (IQ score)
was a ls o excluded from the follow ing a n a l y s i s . The th re e
a r t i c u l a t i o n v a r i a b le s , however, were a l l in c lu d e d because
they had appeared to be independent components o f b eh av io r
i n the study by Wood. And, f i n a l l y , the Gross Motor D evel
opment v a r ia b le was o m itted because th e re was a lack of
96
v a ria n c e w ith in the s u b je c t- ty p e s on t h i s measure. Conse
quently., the follo w in g e ig h t measures were compared between
the groups o f each s u b je c t- ty p e :
1. Sex
2. Age (CA)
3. CM M S (IQ Score)
4. PPVT (IQ Score)
5. GDDT
6. S u b s t it u t io n s (A rtie)
7. D is t o r t io n s (A rtie )
8. Omissions (A rtie)
These v a r i a b le s were a d jo in ed in the d a ta m atrix to
a c o n tr a s t v e c to r re p re s e n tin g the independent v a ria b le s
(in t h i s case the c o n tr a s tin g g r o u p s ) . A nalysis of. compo
ne n t v a ria n ce (Pinneau & Ender, 1971; Pinneau & A u lt, 1971)
was then used to a s c e r t a i n whether o r n o t the groups d i f
fe re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . The f i r s t f a c t o r o b ta in e d accounted
f o r the d i f f e r e n c e s due to the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n v a r ia b le ,
i . e . , the between v a ria n c e . The rem aining column v e c to rs
in the loading m atrix c o n s t it u t e d the w ith in v aria n ce of
the dependent v a r i a b le s . When the in v e rs e o f the l a t t e r
m atrix was p r e - m u l ti p l ie d by i t s tra n s p o s e , a w ith in sum o f
sq uares m atrix was o b ta in e d . This was p o s t - and p r e - m u lti-
p l i e d by the f i r s t f a c t o r and i t s tran sp o se r e s p e c t iv e ly
(o m ittin g the f i r s t loading which r e f l e c t e d the c o r r e l a t io n
o f the c o n tr a s t v e c to r w ith the f a c t o r i t s e l f ) . The end
2
p ro d u ct was a s in g le value e q u iv a le n t to H o t e l l i n g 's T
tim es a s c a l e r (N1 + N2)/(N1N2). T his, o f co u rse, i s a
m u lt i v a r i a t e t e s t o f s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e f o r the b e s t
97
l i n e a r com bination o f a l l the dependent v a r i a b le s . H o te l-
2
l i n g ' s T i s co n v erted to a m u lt i v a r i a t e F _ r a t i o when i t i s
m u ltip lie d by the w ith in v a ria n c e degrees o f freedom, i . e . ,
(N1 + N2 - t - l ) , where t_ i s the number o f dependent v a r i
a b le s . This i s r e f e r r e d to in the F ta b le w ith t_ and (N1 +
N2 - t - l) d eg rees o f freedom. In the p re s e n t study,
th e se v a lu e s were 8 and 11 r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r a l l the s u b je c t-
ty p es from 1 to 13; and 8 and 37 fo r "Type 0". The .01
l i m i t was s e t as the le v e l o f confidence f o r s t a t i s t i c a l
s i g n i f ic a n c e . Consequently, the m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o fo r
ty p es 1 to 13 had to equal o r exceed a value o f 4.7 3; and
f o r Type 0, 3.01.
For s u b je c t- ty p e s in which the m u lt i v a r i a t e F was
s i g n i f i c a n t , v a ria n c e r a t i o s fo r each o f the dependent v a r
i a b l e s were computed. While th e se cannot be reg a rd ed as
t e s t s o f s ig n if ic a n c e sin c e they a re not indepen dent, these
r a t i o s do su g g est which v a r ia b le s accounted f o r the s i g n i f
ic a n c e o f th e m u lt i v a r i a t e F 's .
The C h a r a c t e r i s t i c P a tte r n s
o f P e rc e p tu a l and M atura
t i o n a l Development f o r
Each S u bJect-T y pe--
F indings
T h irte e n s u b je c t- ty p e s had been i d e n t i f i e d f o r the
combined samples o f t h i s stu dy. A f o u rte e n th "type" was
in c lu d e d to r e p r e s e n t those s u b je c ts who did n o t belong to
any ty p e. These 14 typ es were examined i n d iv i d u a ll y to de
98
s c rib e the p a t t e r n s o f p e rc e p tu a l and m a tu ra tio n a l dev elop
ment which were unique to each.
Subject-Type 1 . E igh t components were d e riv e d from
the R a n a ly s is o f the p e rc e p tu a l v a r i a b le s in c lu d e d in the
P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y f o r Subject-Type 1. The f i r s t was by
f a r the l a r g e s t , accounting fo r 22 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l
v a ria n c e . As shown in Appendix 0 (Table 9)* t h i s was c l e a r
ly a broad fig u re -g ro u n d component, in c lu d in g a wide v a rie ty
o f fig u re-g ro u n d v a r i a b le s . The second component (see Ap
pendix C, Table 10) appears to be l a r g e ly a homogeneous
f a c t o r which c u ts a c ro s s b oth fig u re -g ro u n d and c lo s u re
b o u n d a rie s. D espite i t s r e s t r i c t i v e scope ( i . e . , having
only th re e v a ria b le s w ith lo ad in g s exceeding . 7 0 ), the s e c
ond component accounted f o r the n e x t h ig h e s t p erc en ta g e o f
the t o t a l v a ria n ce ( l 6 p e r c e n t ) . This i s notew orthy sin ce
none o f the o th e r components f o r t h i s s u b je c t- ty p e reached
h ig h e r than 11 p e rc e n t. Hence, th ese two components t o
g e th e r accounted fo r a c o n sid e ra b le p ro p o rtio n o f the sub
j e c t s ' p e rc e p tu a l b e h av io r.
The a n a ly s is o f the m a tu ra tio n a l measures on t h i s
s u b je c t-ty p e in d ic a te d t h a t t h i s group in c lu d e d the " i n t e l
l e c tu a l s " o f the study. The s u b je c ts o f Type 1 were the
most advanced in v e rb a l development, o b ta in in g the h ig h e s t
mean sc o res on a l l th re e o f the PFVT measures (Type "0" ex
cepted) . They a ls o achieved r e l a t i v e l y h ig h sc o res on the
99
CM M S m easures, which gave them the low est d i f f e r e n t i a l
sc o re s, in terms o f m a tu ra tio n a l age, o f a l l the ty p es from
1 to 13 (see Table 8 ).
The m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o f o r the d if f e r e n c e s b e
tween th e sample means was 3 .9 3 9 --n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . Hence,
fo r t h i s s u b je c t- ty p e the s u b je c ts from c o n tr a s tin g s o c io
economic backgrounds d id not perform d i f f e r e n t l y .
Subject-Type 2 . The second s u b je c t- ty p e o b tain ed
9 components in the R a n a ly s is o f the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y .
The l a r g e s t , as shown in Table 11 o f Appendix C, was a
fig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous/heterogeneous m ixture based p r i
m arily on two item s ( a l l v a ria b le s i n Appendix C n o t l a
b e le d as homogeneous a re understood to be heterogeneous as
d e sc rib e d in Chapter I I I ) . This component accounted f o r 15
p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e . The nex t l a r g e s t was alm ost
e q u iv a le n t in im portance, accounting fo r 13 p e rc e n t o f the
v a ria n c e . This was a f ig u re -g ro u n d /c lo s u re m ix tu re, w ith
fig u re -g ro u n d resp o n ses r e c e iv in g an emphasis (see Appen
dix C, Table 12).
In terms o f m a tu ra tio n a l development, t h i s type
seemed to r e f l e c t a "m entally mature" and g e n e r a lly w e ll
rounded group o f c h ild re n . They achieved the h ig h e s t mean
sco res on the CM M S m a tu ra tio n a l age measure (see Table 8 ).
In a d d itio n , although th ey were a p p a re n tly an o ld e r group,
the s u b je c ts in Type 2 ranked t h i r d h ig h e s t on the CM M S (IQ)
MEM SCORES OF SUBJECT-TYPES OR
TABLE 8
SELECTED VARIABLES OF MATURATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Maturational
Variables
0 1 2
3
4
Subject-Type Numbers
5 6 7 8
9
10 11 12
13
Sex 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.2 1.4 1.6
h i 1-5 1.5
Age (CA)
54.5 53.9
54.4
55.7 53.1
55.2 52.2
55.5 52.5
54.0 54.2 52.8
53.^
53.2
CMMS (Raw Score) 40.5 42.1 38.0
39.5
36.0
37.^
34.5 36.8
31.7
34.0 38.0 31.6
38.5
30.3
CMMS (MA) 62.5 62.0 62.6 61.7 59.8
59.9
58.0
59-3
56.6 58.6 61.8 56.6 60.8 55.8
CMMS (IQ) 115.3 ii4.8 nit-.2 110.2 112.2 108.2 111.2 107.0 108.6 108.2 110.6 108.8 115.O 103.4
PFVT (Raw Score) it-5.0 47.0 43.0 43.8 40.2 42.6 38.8 40.4
37.^
44.0 42.0 40.4 4 l.l 36.1
PPVT (MA)
58.7
56.4 56.8 51.6 53-8 49.2 51.8 48.2 54.6 54.8 52.2 53.2 46.4
PPVT (IQ) 98.2 100.5 95.0 94.4 89.6
92.5
90,2 90.4 87.2 96.8 94.4 93.2 91.4
85.5
GDDT 8.0 8.1 7.0 8.2
7-3 7-3 6.9
8.1 6.4
6.7 7.1
7.6 6.8 7.4
Substitutions 6.6 7.2 6.0 5.6 4.6 6.6 9.4 7.0 8.6 8.0 6.4 8.8 5.6 7.8
Distortions 1.8 1.8 2.2 1.2 2.0 1.2
h i
2.5
2.7 2.3
3-5
1.6 1.0 1.6
Omissions
1-3
1.6 1.4 1.6 1.0
0.9
4.8 2.0
1.5
2.0 2.5 2.2 0.8 1.4
Differential (MA) 3.2
3-3
6.2 4.9 6.4 6.0
8.9 7.8
8.3 3-9
7.0 4.3
7*5
2 A
Differential (iQ)
17.1
14.4 19.2 15.8 22.5 16.0 21.0 16.6
21.3
11.4 16.2 15.6
2^5
18.0
O
O
101
and f o u r th h ig h e s t on the PPVT (IQ) . Hence,, they showed
adequate development In b o th n o n -v erb a l and v e rb a l s k i l l s .
Subject-Type 2* which resem bled Type 1 In I t s high
le v e l o f c o g n itiv e development* d i f f e r e d In one major r e
s p e c t. For the former* the two samples d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i
c a n tly In m a tu ra tio n a l development. The m u lt i v a r i a t e F
r a t i o f o r the two groups w ith in t h i s s u b je c t-ty p e was 6 . 9 8 9 .
An exam ination o f the v a ria n c e r a t i o s f o r the in d iv id u a l
v a r ia b le s su g g e sts t h a t the s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between
the groups was due to d if f e r e n c e s In age* v e rb a l and non
v e rb a l development (PPVT and CM M S IQ scores)* and omission
type a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s (see Tables 38 and 39 in Appendix
D ). The advantaged group was both o ld e r and r e l a t i v e l y
more advanced in c o g n itiv e development. They were a lso
l e s s prone to om ission type a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s than was
the d e p riv ed group.
Subject-Type 3 . From the R a n a ly s is o f the Percep
t u a l B attery* t h i s type o b ta in e d e ig h t m eaningful compo
n e n ts . The la rg e s t* acco untin g f o r 17 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l
variance* was p r im a r ily a v i s u a l c lo s u re component* a l
though i t in clu d ed one fig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous v a ria b le
(see Appendix C* Table 13). The second component accounted
f o r an alm ost equal amount o f the v a ria n c e (15 p e r c e n t ) .
This was a fig u r e - g ro u n d /c lo s u r e m ixture w ith an emphasis
on the fig u re -g ro u n d v a r i a b le s (see Appendix C* Table 14).
102
M a tu ra tio n a lly , t h i s type re p re s e n te d the "se n io r"
group o f the study, having on the average the o l d e s t sub
j e c t s . In a d d itio n , th ese s u b je c ts o b ta in e d the h ig h e s t
mean sc o res on the GDDT (see Table 8 ).
There was a s i g n i f i c a n t m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o
(7.125) between the groups in t h i s s u b je c t- ty p e . An exami
n a tio n o f the i n d iv id u a l v a ria n ce r a t i o s sugg ests t h a t t h i s
s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was due to the v a r ia b le s o f age (CA),
and v e rb a l and n o n -v erb a l c o g n itiv e development as r e
f l e c t e d by the PPVT and CM M S IQ sc o re s . The advantaged
group was b o th o ld e r and r e l a t i v e l y more advanced in cog
n i t i v e development (see Appendix D, Tables 40 and 4 l) .
Subject-Type 4 . Nine components e x tr a c te d from the
P e rc e p tu a l B a tte r y were r o t a t e d f o r the fo u r th type. The
l a r g e s t accounted f o r 15 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e .
This was p r im a rily a fig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous component
d e riv e d from a s in g le v a r ia b le . Included w ith i t , however,
were two v i s u a l c lo s u re item s (see Appendix C, Table 15).
The second component was a fig u re-g ro u n d h e te ro g e n e o u s/
homogeneous m ix tu re. This accounted f o r 13 p e rc e n t o f the
t o t a l v a ria n ce (see Appendix C, Table 16).
M a tu ra tio n a lly , the 20 s u b je c ts o f Type 4 appeared
to c o n s is t p r im a r ily o f " a r t i c u l a t e sp e a k e rs." D espite the
f a c t t h a t they were a r e l a t i v e l y young group (53*1 months
103
mean CA), they had the low est in cid en c e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n
type a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s (see Table 8 ).
The m u lt i v a r i a t e F _ r a t i o f o r the group d if f e r e n c e s
on the m a tu r a tio n a l v a r i a b le s was 4 .0 4 7 --n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Subject-Type 5 « For Type 5* nine p e rc e p tu a l compo
n e n ts were found to be m eaningful. The f i r s t , however,
dominated the r e s t , accoun ting fo r tw ice as much o f the t o
t a l v a ria n c e (20 p e rc e n t) as any o th e r component. This was
p r im a r ily a homogeneous component w ith an emphasis on v is u
a l c lo s u re (see Appendix C, Table 17)* The second compo
n e n t, which accounted f o r 10 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e ,
was c l e a r l y a v i s u a l c lo s u re component (see Appendix C,
Table 18).
M a tu ra tio n a lly , t h i s type appeared to be an average
group o f c h ild re n . Although they were com paratively o ld e r
(55.2 m onths), they d id n o t score rem arkably h igh o r low on
any o f the m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s (see Table 8 ).
N e ith e r d id the groups in t h i s s u b je c t- ty p e d i f f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y on any o f the m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s . The
m u lt i v a r i a t e P r a t i o was 4.146.
Subject-Type 6 . E ig h t components were r e t a in e d in
the varimax r o t a t i o n f o r Subject-Type 6. The f i r s t , which
accounted fo r a c o n sid e ra b le p ro p o rtio n o f the t o t a l v a r i
ance (17 p e r c e n t ) , was p r im a r ily a fig u re-g ro u n d composite
in c lu d in g one v is u a l c lo s u re v a r ia b le (see Appendix C,
10 4
Table 19) . The second component,, which accounted f o r an
alm ost equal share o f the v a ria n ce (15 p e rc e n t) was e x c lu
s i v e ly a fig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f a c t o r . Here., o n ly one
o f a l l the fig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous v a r i a b le s was a b sent
among the v a r i a b le s accoun ting fo r more than 50 p e rc e n t o f
the component v a r i a n c e .
M a tu ra tio n a lly , Type 6 r e p re s e n te d the " in f a n ts " o f
the stu d y . T heir mean age was 52.2 months (see Table 8 ).
In a d d itio n , th ese s u b je c ts had the h ig h e s t in cid en ce of
a l l typ es o f a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s .
The m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o (12.744) was s i g n i f i c a n t
a t the .01 l e v e l o f c o n fid en ce. U n iv a ria te v a ria n ce r a t i o s
re v e a le d t h a t the s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between the groups
was due p r im a r ily to v e rb a l and n o n -v e rb a l c o g n itiv e d e v e l
opment. S u b je c ts from the advantaged group were more p r o
f i c i e n t on b o th the PFVT and CM M S (see Appendix D, Tables
42 and 43).
Subject-Type 7 - E ig h t components were d e riv e d from
the p e rc e p tu a l v a r i a b le s f o r Subject-Type 7. The f i r s t was
n o ta b ly dominant, acco untin g alone f o r 22 p e rc e n t o f the
t o t a l v a ria n c e . This was a f ig u r e - g r o u n d /v is u a l c lo su re
m ixture w ith an emphasis c l e a r l y on the fig u re -g ro u n d v a r i
a b le s (see Appendix C, Table 21). Two components were
matched as the second most im p o rtan t f a c t o r s . Each a c
counted fo r 14 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e ; and b oth were
105
v is u a l c lo su re components (see Appendix C, Tables 22 and
2 3) . Hence, t h i s l a t t e r p e rc e p tu a l s k i l l (c lo su re ) a c
counted f o r 28 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e .
The m a tu ra tio n a l p a t t e r n o f development f o r t h i s
type was very s im ila r to t h a t o f Subject-Type 3 (th e "sen
i o r g r o u p " ) . Type 7 was second only to the l a t t e r in hav
ing the o l d e s t s u b je c ts in the study; and, as was the case
b e fo re , th e se s u b je c ts were p r o f i c i e n t on the GDDT (see
Table 8 ).
Again., as in the case o f Type 3, the m u ltiv a r ia te
F r a t i o f o r Type 7 was s ig n ific a n t., being 6.478. The u n i
v a r i a te v a ria n ce r a t i o s suggested t h a t the m eaningful d i f
fe re n c e s were due to v e rb a l and n o n -v erb al c o g n itiv e d e v e l
opments w ith the advantaged group o b ta in in g the h ig h e r mean
scores (see Appendix D, Tables 44 and 45)•
Subject-Type 8 . Nine components were o b ta in e d from
the e ig h th s u b je c t- ty p e . The f i r s t components which a c
counted f o r 19 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l variances was c l e a r l y
a broad fig u re-g ro u n d f a c t o r (see Appendix Cj Table 24).
H alf o f a l l the fig u re-g ro u n d v a r ia b le s shared more than
50 p e rc e n t o f the common v a ria n ce on t h i s component. The
second l a r g e s t component was a v is u a l c lo s u r e /fig u r e -g r o u n d
homogeneous m ix tu re. The emphasiSs however, was c l e a r l y on
the v is u a l c lo s u re o r g a n iz a tio n a l response (see Appendix
2, Table 2 5) . This component accounted fo r 15 p e rc e n t of
the t o t a l v a ria n c e .
I M a tu ra tio n a lly , Subject-Type 8 resem bled Type 6
(the " in f a n ts " o f the s t u d y ) . I t In clu d ed , on the average,
the youngest s u b je c ts In the study (second only to Type 6 ),
iand ranked t h i r d among th e ty p es having a h igh In cidence of
s u b s t i t u t i o n type a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s . Although I t s mean
age (CA) was s l i g h t l y above t h a t o f Type 6 , Type 8 was d i s
tin g u ish e d by having the low est sc o res on the GDDT (see
jTable 8 ). This I s I n t e r e s t i n g , p erhaps, In view o f the
jfact t h a t t h i s type was composed p r im a r ily o f boys.
1
| The m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o f o r the comparison o f the
jsamples In t h i s type was 3 -950- - n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Subject-Type 9 . Nine components were d e riv e d from
the P e rc e p tu a l B a tte ry in Type 9* D espite the r e l a t i v e l y
la rg e number o f components, the f i r s t accounted f o r a con
s id e r a b le p ro p o rtio n o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e (18 p e r c e n t) .
!
This component was a broad fig u re -g ro u n d f a c t o r , In clu d in g
h a l f of the fig u re -g ro u n d v a r i a b le s among those sharing
i
over 50 p e rc e n t o f the component v a ria n c e (see Appendix C,
Table 26). The second l a r g e s t component, which accounted
f o r 12 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e , was a stron g v is u a l
clo su re f a c to r (see Appendix C, Table 27).
107
With r e s p e c t to m a tu ra tio n a l development, t h i s type
could p o s s ib ly r e p r e s e n t a group o f "v e rb a l over a c h ie v e r s ."
R elevant here I s the low d i f f e r e n t i a l score In terms o f
m a tu ra tio n a l age u n i t s . When t h i s score I s co nverted in to
IQ measurements, Type 9 i s found to have o b ta in e d the low
e s t d i f f e r e n t i a l between the n o n -v erb a l and v e rb a l a b i l i
t i e s . In comparison w ith the o th e r typ es (see Table 8 ),
Type 9 was poor in n o n -v erb al development, ranking t h i r d
low est w ith Type 5- On the o th e r hand, i t had the t h i r d
h ig h e s t mean score on the PFVT (IQ ) j a measure o f v e rb a l
development. This achievement was r e l a t i v e l y h ig h e r than
might have been a n ti c i p a te d from the CM M S (IQ) sc o re s.
In the comparison o f the c o n tr a s tin g samples, the
P r a t i o was 3 . 8 9 8- - n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Subject-Type 10. Nine components were o b ta in e d
from the p e rc e p tu a l scores in the te n th typ e. The two
lead in g components were equal in im portance, each a c c o u n t
ing f o r 15 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e . One was c l e a r l y
a fig u re-g ro u n d homogeneous f a c t o r (see Appendix C, Table
2 8), w hile the o th e r was a c lo su re heterogeneous/hom ogene
ous m ixture (see Appendix C, Table 29).
M a tu ra tio n a lly , t h i s type resem bled Type 5 (th e
"average g ro u p " ) . Both appeared to be near the mean on
most o f the m a tu ra tio n a l measures (see Table 8 ). Two ex
c e p tio n s were the m is a r t i c u l a t i o n om ission and d i s t o r t i o n
108
v a r i a b le s . S u b je cts In Type 10 appeared to have a r e l a
t i v e l y h ig h In cid ence o f th ese types o f a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t in the p e rc e p tu a l study by
Wood, such e r r o r s were thought to be r e l a t e d to d i a l e c t i c
i n f l u e n c e s .
In the o v e r a l l comparison o f sample d if f e r e n c e s in
m a tu ra tio n , the F r a t i o (12.449) was s i g n i f i c a n t . The v a r
ian ce r a t i o s were high fo r th re e i n d iv id u a l v a r ia b le s . Two
o f th ese invo lved the v e rb a l and n o n -v erb al measures o f
c o g n itiv e development. The advantaged group was more ad
vanced in th ese a re a s (see Appendix D, Tables 46 and 47).
The t h i r d inv olved the s u b s t i t u t i o n a r t i c u l a t i o n v a r ia b le .
The in cid en c e o f t h i s type o f m is a r t i c u l a t i o n was h ig h e r
f o r the d eprived group.
Subject-Type 1 1 . Nine components were r o t a t e d f o r
Type 11. The f i r s t was by f a r the l a r g e s t , accounting fo r
16 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e . This was p r im a rily a
fig u re -g ro u n d component alth o u g h i t in c lu d e d one v is u a l
c lo su re v a r ia b le (see Appendix C, Table 30). The next l a r g
e s t component was a v is u a l c lo s u re /f ig u re - g ro u n d m ixture
(see Appendix C, Table 31). This component accounted f o r
10 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e .
M a tu ra tio n a lly , t h i s s u b je c t-ty p e was the c o u n te r
p a r t o f Type 8 (th e "boys' gro u p "). Whereas the l a t t e r was
m ainly composed o f boys, Type 11 in clu d ed p r im a r ily g i r l s
109
(see Table 8 ). S im ila r to Type 8, however, Type 11 i n
cluded on the average the youngest s u b je c ts In the study,
ranking t h i r d only to types 8 and 6 (th e " in f a n t grou p").
For the comparison o f the m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s ,
the m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o was 2 .5 2 8 --n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Subject-Type 1 2 . E ight components were r e t a in e d
f o r the p e rc e p tu a l sc o re s in the tw e lfth ty p e. The f i r s t
component, which accounted fo r 17 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a r
ia n c e , was a fig u re -g ro u n d /c lo s u re m ixture (see Appendix
C, Table 32). Two c lo s u re item s and one fig u re -g ro u n d item
were in c lu d e d among the lead in g v a r ia b le s on t h i s component.
The l a t t e r , however, appears to be dominant, accounting fo r
over 80 p e rc e n t o f the component v a ria n c e . The second com
ponent accounted f o r alm ost as much o f the t o t a l v a ria n ce
as the f i r s t (15 p e r c e n t ) . This was p r im a r ily a homogene
ous f a c t o r w ith an emphasis on fig u re-g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n
(see Appendix C, Table 33)•
M a tu ra tio n a lly , t h i s type appeared to in c lu d e a
group o f "under a c h ie v e r s ." With the exceptio n o f the sub
j e c t s in Type "0 ," th ese were the most advanced in non
v e rb a l development (see Table 8 ). For example, they ob
ta in e d a mean score o f 115.0 on the IQ measure o f the CMMS.
When t h i s le v e l o f development i s compared w ith t h e i r v e r
b a l IQ sc o re s on the PFVT (91.^0 j the h ig h e s t IQ d i f f e r e n
t i a l o f a l l the types i s re v e a le d .
110
No m eaningful d if f e r e n c e s between the samples In
t h i s type were ap p aren t. The m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o was
2 . 3 2 1 .
Subject-Type 1 3 . Type 13 had the l a r g e s t number o f
p e rc e p tu a l components r e t a in e d ( 1 0) fo r the varimax r o t a
t i o n . N e v e rth e le ss, the f i r s t accounted f o r a c o n sid era b le
p ro p o rtio n o f the t o t a l v a ria n ce (17 p e r c e n t ) . This compo
nen t appeared to be a f a i r l y r e s t r i c t e d fig u re-g ro u n d homo
gen eous/heterogeneous m ixture (see Appendix C, Table 34).
The next l a r g e s t component accounted f o r 12 p e rc e n t o f the
t o t a l v a ria n ce and appeared to be a mixed f a c t o r In co rp o
r a t i n g v is u a l c lo s u re , homogeneous, heterogeneous and
fig u re -g ro u n d v a ria b le s (see Appendix C, Table 35)*
M a tu ra tio n a lly , t h i s type appeared to r e p r e s e n t a
body o f s u b je c ts who could b e .p r e d ic te d to have severe
" le a rn in g problem s." D esp ite the f a c t t h a t they were not
a p a r t i c u l a r l y young group, they were the l e a s t advanced o f
a l l the types in v e rb a l and n o n -v erb a l c o g n itiv e develop
ment. This was the case whether the raw sc o re s, m atura
t i o n a l age or IQ sco res were c o n sid ered . In a d d itio n , the
lag in v e rb a l c o g n itiv e development r e l a t i v e to the non
v e rb a l l e v e l, in terms o f m a tu ra tio n a l age d if f e r e n c e s , was
g r e a t e s t f o r th ese s u b je c ts .
The m u ltiv a r ia te F r a t i o f o r the comparison between
the groups in t h i s type was only 2 . 310—n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Ill
Subject-Type " 0 ." The l a s t s u b je c t-ty p e to be d i s
cussed was n ot r e a l l y a type a t a l l but a conglomerate o f
those s u b je c ts who did not appear to belong to any o f the
13 common s u b j e c t - t y p e s . Hence, the s u b je c ts o f t h i s group
tended toward uniqueness in t h e i r p a tt e r n s o f p e rc e p tu a l b e
h a v io r. Due to t h i s h e te r o g e n e ity , the c o r r e l a t io n s tended
to be h ig h e r, and as a group they dem onstrated a c o n s id e r
ab le degree o f p e rc e p tu a l s t r u c t u r e . For Type "0," only
seven components were o b tain ed f o r the varimax r o t a t i o n ,
and two o f th ese were exceed ingly la r g e , each accounting
f o r 20 p e rc e n t o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e . The f i r s t was a
broad and c l e a r l y d e fin e d fig u re -g ro u n d f a c t o r (see Appen
dix C, Table 3 6). The second was a strong v is u a l clo su re
component, in c lu d in g in a d d itio n to th re e c lo su re v a r ia b le s
one homogeneous c lo su re v a r ia b le (see Appendix C, Table 3 7).
D evelopm entally, t h i s "type" appeared to be a ma
tu r e group o f s u b je c ts . They were the second o ld e s t s e t of
s u b je c ts (see Table 8) and ranked above a l l o th e rs in terms
o f n o n -v erb a l c o g n itiv e development (CM M S IQ s c o r e s ) . In
a d d itio n , t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y high le v e l o f v e rb a l development
in terms o f m a tu ra tio n a l age ( PFVT) gave them the s m a lle s t
v e rb a l/n o n -v e rb a l d i f f e r e n t i a l o f a l l the Types.
The m u lt i v a r i a t e F r a t i o between the groups fo r
t h i s "type" was 18.846— s i g n i f i c a n t . The v a ria n ce r a t i o s
f o r th re e o f the in d iv id u a l v a r ia b le s were e s p e c i a l l y high.
These were the v e rb a l and n o n -v erb a l IQ sco res and om ission
112
a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s . In a l l cases* the advantaged group
appeared to be more p r o f i c i e n t (see Appendix D* Tables 48
and 49).
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Overview o f the Findings
As in the case o f many comprehensive s tu d ie s , the
a n a ly s is o f th ese d a ta r a i s e d many q u e stio n s beyond the
scope o f a sin g le d i s s e r t a t i o n . Although unavoidable s h o r t
comings were in h e r e n t w ith in the re s e a rc h design so t h a t
d e f i n i t i v e c o n clu sio n s were not always p o s s ib le , im p ortan t
g a in s were made. These in c lu d e , i f not an in c re a s e d u n d e r
standin g o f the p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s , a number o f im po rtan t
c lu e s as to how to b e s t proceed in the study o f t h i s com
plex phenomenon. Before th e se can be d isc u sse d , however,
the major l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s study should be reviewed.
Major R esearch O bstacles
Although the combined samples in t h i s study t o
t a l l e d 210 s u b je c ts , a major r e s t r i c t i o n in perform ing the
a n a ly s is was the r e l a t i v e l y sm all number o f s u b je c ts a v a i l
ab le fo r s p e c i f i c com parisons. Two elem ents combined to
magnify t h i s problem. One was th e a p p a re n tly la rg e p ro p o r
tio n o f s u b je c ts who could not be c a te g o riz e d in to a p a r-
__________________________________113________________________________
114
t i c u l a r s u b je c t- ty p e (an Im portant fin d in g In I t s e l f ) . This
reduced the number o f s u b je c ts a v a ila b le fo r type c l a s s i f i -
jcatlon by approxim ately 25 p e rc e n t. The o th e r was the r e l
a t i v e l y la rg e number o f ty pes which were found to be common
j
|to both sam ples. Among the 13 s u b je c t- ty p e s , th e re were
l6k s u b je c ts to be d iv id e d . This p e rm itte d approxim ately
i
i
1 12 s u b je c ts f o r each type i f the number o f s u b je c ts was kept
1
i
iequal between the ty p e s, and i f assignm ent to one excluded
membership in a n o th e r.
j In an attem p t to a m e lio ra te t h i s s u b je c t sh o rtag e,
I i
ithe c r i t e r i a f o r type c l a s s i f i c a t i o n were r e la x e d ; i . e . , !
|
jlower lo ad in g s f o r s u b je c ts on common components were a c
cepted, and the assignm ent o f s u b je c ts to more than one
1
itype was n e c e ssa ry . This had two probable consequences.
F i r s t , i t may have p e rm itte d the in c lu s io n in to a type of
some s u b je c ts whose beh av io r was n ot c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
o f t h a t ty p e. This undoubtedly served to mask some o f the
j c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which were unique to a given s u b je c t- ty p e .
Secondly, i t in c re a s e d the number of s u b je c ts who were not
in clu d ed in the " ty p e le s s " c ateg o ry , b u t who would have
been in c lu d e d under more s tr i n g e n t c o n d itio n s . D espite
th e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , evidence was o b tain ed which b e a rs upon
the occurrence o f s u b je c t- ty p e s and the n a tu re o f common
p e rc e p tu a l h a b i t s .
115
Major R esearch Findings
Two major is s u e s were r a i s e d in t h i s study: ( l) Are
th e re c l u s t e r s o f in d iv id u a ls ( s u b je c t- ty p e s ) who o rg an ize
a n d /o r respond to v is u a l s tim u li in the same manner; and
(2) I f they e x i s t , what a re the p e rc e p tu a l and m a tu ra tio n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th ese s u b je c t- ty p e s ?
The Occurrence o f Subject-Types
Perhaps the most d e f i n i t i v e conclusion to be ob
ta in e d in the p re s e n t study i s in answer to the f i r s t major
is s u e r a i s e d : Do s u b je c t- ty p e s e x is t? Prom the a n a ly s is
h e re , i t can be concluded t h a t th e re a re c l u s t e r s o f c h i l
dren who o rganize t h e i r v i s u a l p e rc e p tu a l world in the same
manner. T h irtee n s u b je c t- ty p e s were i d e n t i f i e d which ap
p e ar to be commonly found in both the so cioeconom ically de
p riv e d and advantaged sam ples. E q ually im p o rta n t, however,
was the fin d in g t h a t a la rg e p ercen tag e o f the c h ild re n
were not c l a s s i f i a b l e on the b a s i s o f t h e i r p e rc e p tu a l r e
sponses. Approximately one s u b je c t out o f fo u r appeared to
be r e l a t i v e l y unique in t h i s r e s p e c t . This h e te ro g e n e ity
i n d i c a t e s t h a t the e v a lu a tio n o f p e rc e p tu a l a b i l i t y should
n ot be made on the b a s i s o f a sm all sample o f p e rc e p tu a l
re sp o n se s. Indeed, i t j u s t i f i e s the use o f many item s in
a p e rc e p tu a l t e s t such as the B a tte r y designed by Wood
(1970).
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f 13 s u b je c t- ty p e s r a i s e s two
116
Im portant q u e s tio n s fo r f u r t h e r re s e a rc h : f i r s t , what a re
the Im p lic a tio n s o f s u b je c t- ty p e s f o r the d esign and I n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f p e rc e p tu a l t e s t s ; and secondly, what a re the
Im p lic a tio n s o f th e se ty p es f o r in c re a s e d u n d e rsta n d in g and
improved management o f le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s ? B efore such
q u e s tio n s can be e n te r ta i n e d , some in fo rm a tio n p e r ta in in g
to the n a tu re o f th e se s u b je c t- ty p e s must be o b ta in e d . De
term in in g the unique t r a i t s o f th ese s u b je c t- ty p e s was the
second i s s u e in v e s ti g a t e d in the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s .
The D e sc rip tio n o f the Subject-Types
In the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the s u b je c t- ty p e s , two
s te p s were in v o lv e d : the a n a ly s is o f the p e rc e p tu a l modes
t h a t were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each ty p e, and a d e s c r i p t io n of
the p a t t e r n o f m a tu ra tio n a l development o f the s u b je c t-
ty p es. Before the form er can be d isc u sse d , however, an op
e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f the term " p e rc e p tu a l mode" must be
c o n s id e r e d .
P e rc e p tu a l Mode—An Opera
t i o n a l D e f in itio n
The q u e stio n here i s : How i s a mode o f p e rc e p tu a l
o rg a n iz a tio n measured? In t h i s study, th re e measures from
the R a n a ly s is were used: the number o f components, the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the t o t a l v a ria n c e among th e se components,
and th e p a tt e r n o f the v a r i a b le s accounting f o r the major
p o r tio n o f the v a ria n ce in each component. Only the p a t-
117
te r n s fo r the two l a r g e s t components o f each type were d i s
cussed .
While i t would be im p o ssib le to a s c e r t a i n a l l o f
the in te rv e n in g v a r i a b le s which may have in flu e n c e d the
s u b j e c t s ’ re sp o n se s, some may be i n f e r r e d from a c o n s id e r a
tio n o f the stim u lu s item s th em selv es. Two d i f f e r e n t p e r
c e p tu a l ta s k s were in h e r e n t in the design o f the P e rc e p tu a l
B a tte r y : a fig u re -g ro u n d d is c r im in a tio n ta s k and a c lo su re
ta s k . In a d d itio n , two l e v e ls o f d i f f i c u l t y f o r each ta s k
were in v o lv e d - -th e heterogeneous and homogeneous response
c o n d itio n s . The l a t t e r was the more d i f f i c u l t ta s k . These
c o n s t it u t e d the b a s ic u n i t s o f the p e rc e p tu a l modes. Two
modal types were e v id e n t among the component p a t t e r n s d e
r iv e d in t h i s a n a l y s i s : h a b it u a l modes and mixed modes.
H a b itu a l modes o f p e rc e p tu a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . A h a
b i t u a l mode i s d e fin e d as the case in which one v a ria b le
ta s k ( e . g . , fig u re -g ro u n d o r c lo s u re ) e x c lu s iv e ly r e c e iv e s
high lo ad in g s on a component. Bor example, as shown in
Appendix C, Table 9, the f i r s t component o f Subject-Type 1
"V
in clu d ed e x c lu s iv e ly fig u re -g ro u n d item s among the s ix , a c
counting fo r more than 50 p e rc e n t o f the component v a ria n c e .
Since t h i s component accounted f o r a la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f
the t o t a l v a ria n c e ( i . e . , 22 p e r c e n t ) , t h i s h a b it u a l mode
may be co n sid ered to be a m ajor f a c t o r in the p e rc e p tu a l
beh av io r o f the s u b je c ts i n t h i s type.
118
In some c a se s, a h a b itu a l mode was not a p p aren t in
the p e rc e p tu a l p a t t e r n s o f the c h ild u n t i l s t r e s s was i n
troduced in to the p e rc e p tu a l ta s k . Under such c o n d itio n s ,
homogeneous fig u re-g ro u n d or homogeneous c lo s u re v a r ia b le s
should e x c lu s iv e ly account f o r the component v a ria n c e .
Such was the case on the second component f o r Subject-Type
6, and f o r the f i r s t component o f Type 10 (see Appendix C,
Tables 20 and 28).
Mixed modes o f p e rc e p tu a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . In a ty p
i c a l fig u re-g ro u n d resp o n se , the ground i s p e rc e p tu a lly
suppressed as the f ig u r e appears to emerge in to co n scio u s
n e ss. From the components o b tain ed on the P e rc e p tu a l B a t
te r y , however, i t i s a p p aren t t h a t some fig u re -g ro u n d item s
were responded to as c lo s u re ta s k s . In a l l p r o b a b i l it y ,
the fragm ents o f the contour appearing between the d is r u p
tin g l i n e s o f the ground were p e r c e p tu a lly c lo sed to com
p l e t e the f ig u r e . Thus r e c o g n itio n was achieved w ith o u t a
c o n s id e ra tio n o f the ground in f lu e n c e s . In such c ase s,
fig u re-g ro u n d item s shared common v a ria n ce w ith c lo su re
v a ria b le s in what i s r e f e r r e d to h ere as a mixed mode o f
p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n . For example, on the f i r s t compo
nent o f Subject-Type 12, one fig u re-g ro u n d item was i n
cluded in a c l u s t e r o f c lo s u re v a r i a b le s (see Appendix C,
Table 32). As shown a ls o in the second component o f
Subject-Type 8 (see Appendix C, Table 25), t h i s cro sso v e r
119
In p e rc e p tu a l s t y l e from fig u re -g ro u n d to c lo s u re o ccu rred
sometimes when s t r e s s was encountered In the ta s k .
Conversely, c lo s u re item s were o fte n o rg an ized ap
p a r e n tly as fig u re -g ro u n d ta s k s . The s u b je c ts may have
achieved r e c o g n itio n In such In s ta n c e s by focusing t h e i r
a t t e n t i o n on a p a r t o f the f ig u r e w hile the rem aining f r a g
ments o f the whole were supp ressed . This would e x p la in the
appearance o f c lo s u re Item s In c l u s t e r s o f fig u re -g ro u n d
v a ria b le s as shown In Tables 12, 14, 19 and 30 (see Appen
dix C ). Under c o n d itio n s o f s t r e s s , the p r e f e r r e d s t y l e o f
p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n may a ls o be seen to change. Hence
v is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous v a r i a b le s may share v arian ce
w ith a fig u re -g ro u n d c l u s t e r , as shown In Table 33 (see Ap
pendix C) .
In some I n s ta n c e s , p e rc e p tu a l e q u iv o c atio n may have
occurred in which n e i t h e r technique o f p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a
tio n was dominant. Hence, fig u re -g ro u n d and c lo s u re v a r i
a b le s each accounted f o r ap proxim ately equal sh a res o f the
component v a ria n c e , as shown fo r example on the second com
ponent o f Subject-Type 11 (see Appendix C, Table 31)•
In summary, many examples o f b o th mixed and h a b it u
a l modes o f p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n were e v id e n t among the
v a ria b le p a t t e r n s f o r each s u b je c t- ty p e . The n ext q u e stio n
involved the r e l a t i o n o f th e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c modes to ob
served m a tu ra tio n a l tre n d s .
120
C h a r a c te r is ti c P a tte rn s of
M a tu ratio n al Development
Im portant tre n d s o f m a tu ra tio n a l development were
e v id e n t among the I n d iv id u a l s u b j e c t - t y p e s . These tre n d s
were o b tain ed from the a n a ly s is o f the mean sc o re s o f the
ty pes on the 14 m a tu ra tio n a l v a r i a b le s . I f the extreme
means are taken as trends., I t I s I n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t
alm ost every s u b je c t- ty p e appears to have had a d i f f e r e n t
t r a i t t h a t was s t r e s s e d .
Subject-Type 1 . Subject-Type 1 appeared to be com
posed o f c h ild r e n who were c o g n itiv e ly advanced. As a
group, they o b tain ed the h ig h e s t means on the v e rb a l IQ
measure (PPVT) .
Subject-Type 2 . The s u b je c ts o f Type 2 appeared to
r e f l e c t a high le v e l o f m a tu ra tio n a l development. They
were an o ld e r group c h ro n o lo g ic a lly and achieved the h ig h
e s t mean sco res on the n o n -v erb al m a tu ra tio n a l v a r ia b le
(CM M S) .
Subject-Type 3 . Type 3 was r e f e r r e d to as the
"se n io r" group because i t in clu d ed on the average the o l d
e s t s u b je c ts i n the study. These s u b je c ts were the most
advanced in v isu a l-m o to r c o o rd in a tio n (GDDT).
Subject-Type 4 . Subject-Type 4 appeared to be the
121
most a r t i c u l a t e group* re c e iv in g the low est in cid en c e of
s u b s t i t u t i o n type a r t i c u l a t i o n e r r o r s .
Subject-Type 5 . Type 5 o b tain ed no o u tstan d in g
mean sc o re s . However* i t may have re p re s e n te d a second
c l u s t e r o f o ld e r subjects* having the t h i r d h ig h e s t chrono
l o g ic a l mean age sc o re s.
Subject-Type 6 . The s u b je c ts in Type 6 were c a lle d
'the " in fa n t" group because they in clu d ed on the average the
youngest s u b je c ts in th e study.
i
j
! Subject-Type 7 . Type 7 was not rem arkable f o r any
j p a r tic u la r tr e n d . However* i t may have c o n s t it u t e d a t h i r d
jtype o f o ld e r group* as th ese s u b je c ts had the second h ig h
e s t mean c h ro n o lo g ic a l age sc o re.
Subject-Type 8 . Type 8 was o u tstan d in g f o r the
number o f boys i t in clu d ed in r e l a t i o n to the g i r l s .
Subject-Type 9. Subject-Type 9 obtain ed the lowest
d i f f e r e n t i a l between the v e rb a l and no n -v erb al IQ m easures.
Because o f the r e l a t i v e l y low le v e l o f n on-verbal develop
ment* and the r e l a t i v e l y high PPVT scores* t h i s group was
r e f e r r e d to as a group o f "over a c h ie v e rs ."
Subject-Type 10. No rem arkable tre n d s were apparent
f o r Subject-Type 10.
122
Subject-Type 1 1 . Type 11 appeared to be p r im a r ily
composed o f g i r l s .
Subject-Type 1 2 . Subject-Type 12 had the l a r g e s t
d i f f e r e n t i a l mean score between the n o n -v erb a l and v e rb a l
c o g n itiv e IQ m easures. I f the n o n -v erb a l score can be con
sid e re d to be i n d ic a t i v e o f untapped v e rb a l capacity* th ese
s u b je c ts could be viewed as "v erb a l under a c h ie v e r s ."
Subject-Type 13. Type 13 appeared to r e p r e s e n t a
group o f c h ild re n w ith severe le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s . They
o b tain ed the low est sco res on a l l o f the c o g n itiv e meas
u re s ; and in a d d itio n re v e a le d the g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e b e
tween the n o n -v erb a l and v e rb a l m a tu ra tio n a l age l e v e ls .
I t must be underscored* however* t h a t th ese group
p a t t e r n s cannot be accepted as co n clu siv e evidence o f gen
e r a l m a tu ra tio n a l tre n d s on the b a s i s o f th e p r e s e n t a n a l
y s i s . The question* f o r example* o f the s ig n if ic a n c e fo r
the d if f e r e n c e s between the means has n o t been answered
h e re . This is s u e w i l l be touched upon again in more d e t a i l
below in the im p lic a tio n s f o r f u r t h e r re s e a r c h s e c tio n . Of
i n t e r e s t fo r the present* however* a re the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
modes o f p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n t h a t o c cu rred w ith th ese
m a tu ra tio n a l p a t t e r n s .
123
C h a r a c te r is ti c Modes o f P e r
c e p tu a l O rganization
Unique inodes o f p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n were ob
ta in e d f o r each o f the s u b j e c t - t y p e s . In r e l a t i o n to the
v a r ia b le s o f m aturation,, however, no c le a r tre n d s were e v i
d e n t. N e v e rth e le ss, some I n t e r e s t i n g comparisons were ob
ta in e d which may lead to more d e f i n i t i v e re s e a r c h p la n s .
P e rc e p tu a l modes and v e rb a l developm ent. S u b je c t-
Type 1 was the most v e rb a lly advanced group. The l a r g e s t
p e rc e p tu a l component f o r t h i s type re v e a le d a broad f i g u r e -
ground mode o f p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n . The same was tru e
f o r Subject-Type "0" (the ty p e le s s group), which o b tain ed
the second h ig h e s t mean v e rb a l IQ sc o res; and a ls o f o r the
"over a c h ie v e rs" (Subject-Type 9) j who had the t h i r d h ig h
e s t v e rb a l IQ sc o re s. In c o n tr a s t to th ese was the p e rc e p
t u a l mode o f Subject-Type 13, which Included a group o f
c h ild re n w ith ap parent le a rn in g d i s a b i l i t i e s . This group
o b tain ed a r e l a t i v e l y r e s t r i c t e d fig u re-g ro u n d p a t t e r n as
i t s l a r g e s t component of p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n .
P e rc e p tu a l modes and chronologic a g e . The " se n io r
group" (Subject-Type 3) appeared to have a c lo s u re mode as
i t s l a r g e s t component o f p e rc e p tu a l resp o n se. Under con
d i t i o n s o f s t r e s s , the s u b je c ts o f t h i s group appeared to
apply c lo s u re tech n iq u es to fig u re-g ro u n d ta s k s . In com
p a ris o n to t h i s was Subject-Type 6, the " in f a n t group,"
124
which employed p r i m a r il y a fig u re -g ro u n d mode. The " i n
f a n t s " ap p ea re d to resp o n d to some c lo s u re v a r i a b l e s , m ore-
o v e r, a s fig u re -g ro u n d t a s k s . The sh a rp n e ss o f t h i s con
t r a s t i s le s s e n e d somewhat by th e mode o b ta in e d f o r
S u b ject-T y p e 7, which a ls o a p p eared to r e p r e s e n t an o ld e r
group o f s u b j e c t s . T his group resem bled th e " in f a n ts " more
th an t h e i r age p e e rs w ith r e s p e c t to th e l a r g e s t component
o f p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n . Type 7 d id , n e v e r t h e l e s s , r e
v e a l a s tro n g em phasis f o r c lo s u re s t r u c t u r e on th e second
a ry component; w h ile th e " i n f a n t group" ap p eared to r e t a i n
a s tro n g need f o r a fig u re -g ro u n d mode o f re s p o n se .
P e r c e p tu a l modes and s e x . The "boys' group"
(S u b je ct-T y p e 8) a p p eared to have a c l e a r l y d e fin e d f i g u r e -
ground mode o f p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n on th e f i r s t compo
n e n t. In t h i s r e s p e c t , th ey resem bled th e "ov er a c h ie v e rs "
(S u b je ct-T y p e 9). On th e o th e r hand, th e " g i r l s ' group"
(S u b je ct-T y p e l l ) showed p e rh a p s more p e r c e p tu a l f l e x i b i l i
ty , em ploying fig u re -g ro u n d te c h n iq u e s to some c lo s u re
t a s k s . In t h i s r e s p e c t th ey resem bled th e "under a c h ie v
e rs " (S u b je ct-T y p e 1 2 ).
I t i s a p p a re n t from th e s e d e s c r i p t io n s o f c h a ra c
t e r i s t i c p e r c e p tu a l modes t h a t c o n s id e ra b le o v e rla p e x i s t s
betw een th e s u b j e c t - t y p e s . C o n seq u en tly , In f u tu r e r e
s e a rc h , more th an j u s t th e i n i t i a l components w i l l have to
be c o n s id e re d i n a com parison o f th e s e p e r c e p tu a l b e h a v io r
p a t t e r n s . In term s o f th e com parison o f th e m a tu r a tio n a l
v a r i a b l e s betw een th e d e p riv e d and advantaged s u b je c ts in
each s u b j e c t - ty p e , more d e f i n i t i v e c o n c lu s io n s can be made.
M a tu ra tio n a l D iffe re n c e s
Between th e D eprived and
A dvantaged S u b je c ts
i
S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found betw een th e d e
p riv e d and advantaged s u b je c ts on f i v e o f th e 13 s u b j e c t -
ity p e s. Three o f th e s e ap p eared to r e l a t e p a r t i c u l a r l y to
‘th e v a r i a b le o f ag e. For example., S ubject-T ype 2 o b ta in e d !
j
jthe h ig h e s t n o n -v e rb a l m ental age s c o r e s , S ubject-T ype 6
(appeared to have th e y o u n g e st s u b j e c t s , and S u bject-T ype 3
(was th e " s e n io r g ro u p ." A lthough th e rem ain in g two g ro u p s,
(S u bject-T y pes 7 and 10, ap p eared to be g e n e r a lly a v e ra g e ,
(the form er was th e second o l d e s t ty p e in th e stu d y . In
i
( a l l f i v e c a s e s , v e rb a l and n o n -v e rb a l c o g n itiv e m easures
1
jappeared to c o n tr ib u te most h e a v ily to th e m a tu r a tio n a l d i f
f e r e n c e s . I t may be t h a t when a l l o f th e v a r i a b l e s , w ith
ithe e x c e p tio n o f ag e, a re f a c to r e d o u t i n th e Q a n a l y s i s ,
| ~
j r e a l d i f f e r e n c e s in c o g n itiv e developm ent a re r e v e a le d . In
I
jthe p r e s e n t c a s e , th e d i f f e r e n c e s r e f l e c t e d a la c k o f grow th
f o r th e d e p riv e d sam ple. T h is, o f c o u rs e , i s cause f o r
concern i n term s o f th e p o s s ib le e d u c a tio n a l i m p lic a tio n s .
I m p lic a tio n s f o r F u r th e r R esearch
The d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e p e r c e p tu a l modes and m atu
r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f th e s u b je c t- ty p e s have g e n e ra te d a
126
number o f q u e s tio n s . Some o f th e s e w i l l c o n s t i t u t e th e i s
su es i n v e s t i g a t e d in f u tu r e r e s e a r c h .
P e r c e p tu a l M odes--Q uestions
f o r F u r th e r Study
| V a rio u s modes o f p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n were ob-
jserved in t h i s stu d y . Most o f th e s u b je c t- ty p e s re v e a le d
fig u re -g ro u n d modes as t h e i r m ajor (p erh ap s p r e f e r r e d ) com-
Iponent o f p e r c e p tu a l re s p o n s e . One s u b je e t-ty p e * however* |
I i
^emphasized a c lo s u re mode. In a d d itio n * some o f th e modes j
Iwere h a b i t u a l ( i . e . * c l e a r l y d e fin e d ) w h ile o th e r s were
jmixed* c ro s s in g v a r i a b le ta s k b o u n d a rie s . The a n a ly s is o f
ith ese d a ta in th e p r e s e n t stu d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e s e modes
jare c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e in d iv i d u a l s u b j e c t - t y p e s . How-
|
iever* some q u e s tio n s a r i s e as to th e m ea n in g fu ln e ss o f
i
th e s e modes in term s o f in c r e a s in g o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e
p e r c e p tu a l p r o c e s s . To be m eaningful* th e y sh o u ld r e l a t e
to a re a s o f m a tu ra tio n a n d /o r le a r n in g . The fo llo w in g
q u e s tio n s a r i s i n g from th e p r e s e n t stu d y sh o u ld g e n e ra te
r e s e a r c h in th e s e a re a s :
1. I s th e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e b ro ad modes o f
p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n (a s opposed to r e s t r i c t e d
modes) and m a tu ra tio n and le a rn in g ?
2. I s th e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een fig u re -g ro u n d
modes (a s opposed to c lo s u r e ) as th e p r e f e r r e d
component o f p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n and th e
m a tu r a tio n a l v a r i a b le o f age?
127
3. I s a mixed mode o f p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n an a s s e t
to e f f i c i e n t p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n iz a tio n , r e f l e c t i n g
p e rh a p s a f l e x i b i l i t y to cope w ith im m ediate n eed s;
o r i s i t a l i a b i l i t y r e f l e c t i n g a la c k o f p e r c e p tu
a l s t r u c t u r e and d e c is iv e n e s s ?
4. In e s s e n c e , th e s e q u e s tio n s a l l r e l a t e to th e c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n s o f m a tu r a tio n a l developm ent
t h a t were o b serv ed f o r each o f th e s u b je c t- ty p e s in
t h i s s tu d y . The b a s ic q u e s tio n i s , th e n , w hether
o r n o t th e s e m a tu r a tio n a l p a t t e r n s would be found
to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c h ild r e n c l u s t e r s from
o th e r g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a s . T his r e l a t e s to th e i s
sue o f s i g n i f ic a n c e and r e l i a b i l i t y as d is c u s s e d
below .
M a tu ra tio n a l C h a r a c te r ! s tie s - - S u g g e s tio n s
f o r F u r th e r R esearch
As n o te d above, th e m a tu r a tio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
each s u b je c t- ty p e can not be a c c e p te d c o n c lu s iv e ly on th e
b a s i s o f th e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s . Two a d d i t i o n a l s te p s would
be n e c e s s a ry b e fo re such c o n c lu s io n s can be re a c h e d . These
in v o lv e th e s i g n i f ic a n c e o f s u b je c t- ty p e d i f f e r e n c e s in
m a tu r a tio n a l developm ent, and th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f m a tu ra
t i o n a l tr e n d s .
128
The S ig n if ic a n c e o f S u b je c t-
Type M a tu ra tio n a l
D if fe r e n c e s
B efo re th e m a tu r a tio n a l d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e
s u b j e c t - ty p e s can be a c c e p te d , a t e s t o f o v e r a l l s i g n i f i
cance would be r e q u ir e d . B ecause such a t e s t would e n t a i l
b o th a la r g e number o f s u b je c t-g r o u p s and a v a r i e t y o f d e
p en d en t v a r i a b le s (in th e p r e s e n t case 13 and 8 r e s p e c t i v e
l y ) , o n ly one t e s t would be a p p ro p r ia te - ~ ¥ i I k 1s Lambda.
T his could be o b ta in e d th ro u g h a f a c t o r a n a l y t i c program
fo llo w in g th e p ro c e d u re s o u tlin e d by Pinneau and Ender
(1971) and Pinneau and A u lt (1 9 7 1 ). W ilk 's Lambda could
th en be c o n v e rte d to an F r a t i o by R ao1s ap p ro x im atio n
fo rm u la .
The R e l i a b i l i t y o f M atura
t i o n a l Trends
I f s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were o b ta in e d betw een
th e m a tu r a tio n a l v a r i a b l e s , a second q u e s tio n would be o f
i n t e r e s t : Are th e m a tu r a tio n a l p a t t e r n s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
th o se p r e s e n t in any s e t o f s u b je c t- ty p e s d e riv e d from a
random sample o f p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n from a s p e c i f i e d popu
l a t i o n ? T his q u e s tio n could be b e s t e x p lo re d by f a c t o r in g
th e m a tu r a tio n a l v a r i a b le s to o b ta in a s e t o f in d ep e n d en t
m easu res. F a c to r s c o re s on th e s e m easures f o r d i f f e r e n t
sam ples c o u ld th en be compared throug h an a n a l y s i s o f f a c
t o r in v a r ia n c e (Pinneau & Newhouse, 1964). T his would p r o
129
v id e a c o e f f i c i e n t o f In v a r ia n c e f o r th e m a tu r a tio n a l p a t
t e r n s .
S u b je c t-T y p e s—A Tool f o r F u tu re R esearch
P erh ap s one o f th e m ost Im p o rta n t I m p lic a tio n s to
be d e riv e d from th e p r e s e n t stu d y I s a "new concep t" In r e
se a rc h d e s ig n . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n v a r i a b l e s , f o r exam ple, a re
t y p i c a l l y s e l e c te d by th e I n v e s t i g a t o r on th e b a s i s o f h i s
(h e r) b e s t e d u c a te d g u e ss a b o u t th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e popu
l a t i o n . T his was th e c ase In th e p r e s e n t stu d y when th e
s u b je c ts were d iv id e d I n to two g r o u p s - - th e d e p riv e d and th e
ad v an tag ed sam ples. A nother method o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n su g
g e s te d h e re would be th ro u g h a Q , a n a l y s i s o f th e r e s e a r c h
p o p u la tio n . In t h i s c a s e , th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n v a r i a b le s a re
formed on th e b a s i s o f th e p o p u la tio n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as
th e y a re and n o t a s th e r e s e a r c h e r b e l i e v e s them to be.
The method o f Q a n a l y s i s would seem to be more e f f i c i e n t in
t h a t th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n v a r i a b l e s s e l e c te d would more
c lo s e l y r e f l e c t r e a l i t y . In t h i s r e g a r d , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
to n o te t h a t o v e r h a l f o f th e s u b j e c t - ty p e s in th e p r e s e n t
stu d y f a i l e d to r e v e a l e v id en ce o f group m a tu r a tio n a l d i f
f e r e n c e s . In o th e r w ords, th e e n v iro n m e n ta l in f lu e n c e s a s
sumed by th e i n v e s t i g a t o r were n o t found to e x i s t . I n s te a d ,
th e p a ra m e te rs o f p e rc e p tio n a p p e a re d to be th e dim ension
a lo n g which th e grou ps o f c h ild r e n were d iv id e d . T y p ic a lly ,
th e s e and s i m i l a r p a ra m e te rs a re In d an g er o f b e in g masked
130
by th e p re c o n c e iv e d n o tio n s o f group d i f f e r e n c e s . A Q a n a l
y s i s may p ro v id e a means o f a v o id in g such t r a p s and th u s
may be o f c o n s id e r a b le a id to r e s e a r c h e r s a s w e ll a s th o se
in v o lv e d i n e d u c a tio n a l t e s t i n g and g u id an c e.
131
REFERENCES
A l b r i g h t * M. J . V is u a l p e r c e p tio n i n c h i l d r e n o f r e ta r d e d
and norm al re a d in g a b i l i t y . U npublished d o c to r a l d i s
s e r ta tio n * Fordham U n iv e rs ity * 1 9 6 6 .
A llerhand* M. E. P s y c h o lo g ic a l assessm en t o f th e n o n v e rb a l
c h i l d . In N. E. Wood (E d.)* Language d is o r d e r s i n
c h il d r e n . S o c ie ty f o r R esearch i n C h ild Development*
1950* 25* 4 9 -5 7 .
A llp o rt* F. H. T h e o rie s o f p e rc e p tio n and th e co n cep t of
s t r u c t u r e . New Y ork: Wiley* 1955.
Amen* E. A. I n d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s in a p p e rc e p tiv e r e a c
t i o n : A stu d y o f th e re s p o n se of p re s c h o o l c h il d r e n to
p i c t u r e s . G en etic P sychology M onographs* 1941* 23* 319.
Ames* A. R e c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e o r i g i n and n a tu r e of p e r
c e p tio n . I n S. R a tn e r (E d.)* V is io n and a c t i o n .
New B runsw ick: R u tg ers U n iv e r s ity Press* 1953.
Ames* L. B.* Learned* J .* Metraux* R.* & Walker* R. De
velopm ent o f p e rc e p tio n i n th e young c h i l d as o b serv ed
i n re s p o n se s to th e R orschach t e s t b l o t s . J o u r n a l of
G en etic P sy ch o lo g y , 1953j 8 2 * 183-204.
Ammons* R. B. E x p erim e n tal f a c t o r s i n v i s u a l form p e rc e p
t i o n : I . Review and fo rm u la tio n o f p ro b lem s. J o u r n a l
o f G en etic P sy ch o lo g y * 1954* 84* 3-25.
A rnoult* M. D. F a m i l i a r i t y and r e c o g n itio n o f nonsense
sh a p e s. J o u r n a l o f E x p erim e n tal Psychology* 1956* 51*
26 9- 2 7 6 .
A rnoult* M. D. P r e d i c t io n o f p e r c e p tu a l re s p o n s e s from
s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s tim u lu s . P e r c e p tu a l
and M otor S k i l l s , i 9 6 0* 11, 261-268.
A rnoult* M. D.* & P rice* C. W . P a t te r n m atching i n th e
p re s e n c e o f v i s u a l n o is e . J o u r n a l o f E x p e rim e n ta l P sy
chology* 1 9 6 1* 6 2 , 3 7 2- 3 7 5 .
132
133
A ttn ea v e, F. Some in f o r m a tio n a l a s p e c ts o f v i s u a l p e rc e p
t i o n . P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 1954, 6 l , 183-193.
A ttn e a v e , F. Symmetry, in fo rm a tio n and memory f o r p a t t e r n s .
Am erican J o u r n a l o f P sychology, 1955* 68, 209-222.
A ttn e a v e , F. P h y s ic a l d e te rm in a n ts o f th e judged co m p lex ity
o f sh a p e s. J o u r n a l o f E x p erim e n tal P sychology, 1957*
53, 221-227.
A yres, J . A. P a tte r n s of p e rc e p tu a l-m o to r d y s fu n c tio n in
c h il d r e n : A f a c t o r a n a l y ti c s tu d y . P e r c e p tu a l and
Motor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 5* 20* 335-338.
Bakay, E ., & S c h i l l e r , P. H. M a n ip u la tiv e c o r r e c t i o n of
v i s u a l l y p r e s e n te d f i g u r e s . American J o u r n a l of P sy
cholo gy, 1948, 61, 487-501.
B a r t l e t t , F. Remembering. Cambridge: Cambridge U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1932.
B a r t l e t t , F. C. An e x p e rim e n ta l stu d y o f some problem s o f
p e rc e iv in g and im a g in in g . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of P sy c h o l
ogy, 1 9 1 6, 8, 2 2 2- 2 2 6 .
Bender, M. B ., & T euber, H. L. Phenomena o f f l u c t u a t i o n ,
e x t i n c t i o n and c o m p letio n i n v i s u a l p e rc e p tio n . A r-
c h iv e s o f N e u ro lo g ic a l P s y c h ia tr y , 1946, 55* 6 2 7- 6 5 8 .
B e r e i t e r , C ., & Englemann, S. T eaching d isa d v a n ta g e d c h i l -
d ren i n p r e s c h o o l. Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P r e n t ic e -
H a ll, 1966.
B irc h , H ., & L e ffo rd , A. V is u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , i n t e r s e n -
so ry i n t e g r a t i o n and v o lu n ta ry m otor c o n tr o l . The So
c i e t y f o r R esearch i n C hild Developm ent, 19 6 7* 32, 2.
B o b b itt, J . M. An e x p e rim e n ta l stu d y of th e phenomenon of
c lo s u r e as a th r e s h o ld f u n c tio n . J o u r n a l o f E x p e ri
m en tal P sy ch o lo g y , 1942, 30* 273-294.
B runer, J . S. P e r s o n a l it y dynamics and th e p ro c e ss o f p e r
c e iv in g . In R. R. B lake & G. V. Ramsey ( E d s .) , P e rc e p -
t i o n : An approach t o p e r s o n a l i t y . New York: R onalds,
1951.
B ru n er, J . S ., & Goodman, C. C. V alue and need as o r g a n iz
in g f a c t o r s in p e rc e p tio n . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal S o c ia l
P sy chology, 1947* 4 2 , 33-44.
134
B ru n e r, J . S ., & Postman, L. Symbolic v a lu e as an o r g a n iz
in g f a c t o r i n p e r c e p tio n . J o u r n a l o f S o c ia l P sychology,
1948, 2 7, 203-208.
B ru n e r, J . S ., & Postman, L. T ension and t e n s i o n - r e l e a s e
as o rg a n iz in g f a c t o r s i n p e r c e p tio n . J o u r n a l o f P e r-
s o n a l i t y , 1947, 15, 300-308.
B ru n e r, J . S ., & R o d rig u es, J . S. Some d e te rm in a n ts o f
a p p a re n t s i z e . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal S o c ia l P sychology,
1953, 4§., 17-24.
B runsw ik, E. O rganism ic achievem ent and en v iro n m en ta l
p r o b a b i l i t y . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review, 1943, 50, 255-272.
B u rd ick , A. J . Eye movements d u rin g th e embedded f ig u r e s
t e s t . P e rc e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1965, 21, 726.
B u rg m e iste r, B. Columbia M ental M a tu rity S c a le . New York:
World Book, 19544
C am pbell, D. R ., Dyer, P. N ., & Boersma, E. J . F i e ld d e
pendency and p i c t u r e r e c o g n itio n a b i l i t y . P e r c e p tu a l
and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 7, 25, 713-716.
C arden, J . A. F i e ld dependence, a n x ie ty and s o c io m e tric
s t a t u s in c h ild r e n . U npublished M a s te r 's t h e s i s ,
U n iv e r s ity o f T exas, 1958.
C a rl, H. E xperim ents on th e t a c h is to s c o p i c r e c o g n itio n of
p i c t u r e s . Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P sy c h o lo g ie , 1933, 129, 1-
4 2 .
C a r r e l l , J . A co m p arativ e stu d y o f speech d e f e c tiv e c h i l
d re n . A rch iv es o f Speech, 1936, _1, 179-203.
C hapanis, A. "How we se e : A summary o f b a s ic p r i n c i p l e s .
I n Human f a c t o r s i n u n d e rse a w a r f a r e . W ashington, D .C .:
N a tio n a l R esearch C o u n c il, 1949. Fp". 3 -6 0 .
C hase, W. P. C olor v i s i o n i n i n f a n t s . J o u r n a l o f E x p e ri
m en tal P sy chology, 1937, 20, 203-222.
Cohen, W . S p a t i a l and t e x t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
G a n sfe ld . Am erican J o u r n a l o f Psychology, 1957, 70,
403-410.
Cohen, W . C olor p e rc e p tio n i n th e ch ro m atic G a n sfe ld .
Am erican J o u r n a l o f Psychology, 1958, 71, 390-394.
135
Cohen., W . A pparent movement o f sim ple f i g u r e s i n th e Ganz-
f e l d . P e r c e p tu a l Motor S k i l l s , 1958, 8 , 32.
Cook, W . M. A b i l i t y o f c h ild r e n in c o lo r d i s c r im i n a t io n s .
C h ild D evelopm ent, 1931, 2, 303-320.
C orah, N. L ., & P o w ell, B. J . A f a c t o r a n a l y ti c stu d y of
th e F r o s t i g D evelopm ental T est o f V is u a l P e r c e p tio n .
P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 3, 16, 59-63.
C ru ick sh an k , R. M. The developm ent o f v i s u a l s iz e con
s ta n c y i n e a r l y in f a n c y . J o u r n a l o f G enetic P sychology,
1941, 58, 327-358.
C ru ick sh an k , W . M., B ic e , H. V ., & W allen, N. E. P e rc e p
t i o n and c e r e b r a l p a l s y . S y racu se: S yracuse U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1957.
D a n ilo f f , R ., & M oll, K. L. C o a r ti c u l a ti o n o f l i p r e a d in g .
J o u r n a l o f Speech and H earing R e se a rc h , 1 9 6 8, 11, 707*
D a rle y , E. L ., A ronson, A. E ., & Brown, J . R. D i f f e r e n t i a l
d ia g n o s tic p a t t e r n s o f d y s a r t h r i a . J o u r n a l of Speech
and H earing R e se a rc h , 1969, 12, 246-269.
D avidson, H. P. A stu d y of th e c o n fu sin g l e t t e r s b, d, p,
q. J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sycho log y, 1935, 4 7 , 458-468.
D av ies, A. E. An a n a l y s i s of e le m e n ta ry p sy c h ic p r o c e s s .
Psychology Review, 1905, 12, 166-206.
D escoeud res, A. C o u leu r, form e, ou nombre? R echerches
e x p e rim e n ta le s s u r l e c h o ix s u iv a n t l 'a g e , l e sexe e t
1*i n t e l l i g e n c e . A rch iv es des P s y c h o lo g ie , 1914, 14,
3 0 5 - 3 4 1 .
D ic k s te in , L. S. F i e ld in dependen ce i n concept a t t a i n
m ent. P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 8, 27, 635-642.
D oehring, D. G ., & R o s e n s te in , J . Speed o f v i s u a l p e rc e p
t i o n i n d e a f c h il d r e n . J o u rn a l o f Speech and H earing
R e se a rc h , 1 9 6 9, 12, 118-125.
D o ll, E. A. The O s e re tsk y T e s ts o f M otor P r o f ic ie n c y : A
t r a n s l a t i o n from th e P o rtu g u e se a d a p t a t i o n . M inneap
o l i s : E d u ca tio n T e st B ureau, 1946.
D o lph in, J . E ., & C ruickshan k, W . W . The f i g u r e back
ground r e l a t i o n s h i p i n c h il d r e n w ith c e r e b r a l p a ls y .
J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l P sy chology , 1951, 7, 223-231.
136
D oyle, P. J . The o rg a n ic h y p e r k in e tic syndrome. The
J o u r n a l o f School H e a lth , O ctober 1962, 32, 299-306.
Dunn, L. Peabody P i c t u r e V o cab u lary T e s t . M in n e a p o lis:
Am erican Guidance S e rv ic e , I n c . , 1 9 6 5.
E l l i o t t , R. I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among m easures o f f i e l d
dependence, a b i l i t y and p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s . J o u r n a l o f
Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology, 1 9 o l, 6 3 , 27-36.
F a b ia n , A. A. V e r t i c a l r o t a t i o n i n v is u a l-m o to r p e rfo rm
ance and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o re a d in g r e v e r s a l s . J o u r
n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l P sy cho log y, 1945, 3 6 , 129-154.
F a irb a n k s , G ., and B ebout, B. A stu d y o f m inor o rg a n ic
d e v ia tio n s in " f u n c tio n a l" d is o r d e r s o f a r t i c u l a t i o n :
The to n g u e. J o u r n a l of Speech and H earing D is o rd e rs ,
1950, 15, 348-352.
F a irb a n k s , G ., & S p r ie s te r s b a c h , D. G. A stu d y o f m inor
o rg a n ic d e v ia tio n s i n " f u n c tio n a l" d is o r d e r s o f a r t i c u
l a t i o n : R ate o f movement o f o r a l s t r u c t u r e s . J o u r n a l
o f Speech and H earing D is o r d e r s , 1950, 15, 6 0 - 6 9 .
F a n tz , R. L. P a t t e r n v i s i o n i n young i n f a n t s . P s y c h o lo g i-
c a l R ecord, 1958, 8, 4 3 -4 7 .
F a n tz , R. L. The o r i g i n o f form p e r c e p tio n . S c i e n t i f i c
Am erican, 1961, V (204), 6 6 -7 2 .
F a n tz , R. L. P a t t e r n v i s i o n i n newborn i n f a n t s . S c ie n c e ,
1963, 140, 296-297.
F a n tz , R. L. P a t t e r n d i s c r im i n a t io n and s e l e c t i v e a t t e n
t i o n as d e te rm in a n ts o f p e r c e p tu a l developm ent from
b i r t h . I n A. H. Kidd & J . L. R iv o ire ( E d s .) , P e rc e p
t u a l developm ent i n c h i l d r e n . New York: I n t e r n a t i o n a l
U n i v e r s i t i e s P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 . Pp. 143-173.
F e h re r , E. V. An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e le a r n in g o f v i s u a l l y
p e rc e iv e d form s. Am erican J o u r n a l o f P sychology, 1935,
47, 187-221.
F o rg a y s, D. G. The developm ent o f d i f f e r e n t i a l word re c o g
n i t i o n . J o u r n a l o f E x p erim e n tal Psychology, 1953, 45,
165- 168 . ~
Freem an, G. L. An e x p e rim e n ta l stu d y of th e p e rc e p tio n of
o b j e c ts . J o u r n a l o f E x p erim e n tal P sychology, 1929, 12,
341-358.
137
Freem an, G. L. The e n e r g e tic s o f human b e h a v io r . I t h a c a :
C o rn e ll U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1946.
F r e r e s , G. (E d .) Oeuvres p h ilo s o p h iq u e s de D e s c a r te s , book
I , 1618-1637. P a r i s : R o u tled g e and Kegan P a u l, 1 9 6 3 .
F r o s t i g , M., L e fe v e r, D. ¥ . , & W h ittle s e y , J . R. B. De
v e lo p m en ta l T e st o f V is u a l P e r c e p tio n . (3 rd e d . )
P alo A lto : C o n su ltin g P s y c h o lo g is t P r e s s , 1964.
F uchs, W . U ntersuchung u b e r Sehen d e r H em ianopiker und
H em iam blyopiker. I . V e rla g e ru n g e rsc h e in u n g e n .
Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P s y c h o lo g ie , 1920, 8 4 , 6 7 .
G ardner, R. W., Ja c k so n , D. N ., & M essick , S. J . P e r s o n a l
i t y o r g a n iz a tio n i n c o g n itiv e c o n tr o l s and i n t e l l e c t u a l
a b i l i t i e s . P s y c h o lo g ic a l I s s u e s , i 9 6 0, 2, 4.
G ardner, R. W., and Long, R. I . C o g n itiv e c o n tr o l s o f a t
t e n t i o n and i n h i b i t i o n : A stu d y o f i n d iv i d u a l c o n s i s
t e n c i e s . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P sy cho log y, 1 9 6 2, 53, 3 8 l-
3 8 8 .
G arron, D. C ,, and C h e if e tz , D. I . S tim u lu s r o t a t i o n and
v i s u a l sc an n in g i n s u b je c ts w ith copying d i s a b i l i t y .
P e rc e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 7* 24, 1015-1024.
G ates, A. I . A re a d in g v o c a b u la ry f o r th e p rim a ry g r a d e s .
New York: B ureau o f P u b l i c a t io n s , T eachers C o lle g e ,
Columbia U n iv e r s ity , 1935.
F e lb , A. Die "F arb en k o n stan z" d e r S ehd ing e. Handbook o f
Normal and P a th o lo g ic a l P h y sio lo g y , 1929* 1 2 ( l ) , 594-
678^
Gelb, A ., & G r a n it, R. Die Bedeutung von F ig u r and Grund
f u r d ie F arben sc h w e lle . Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P sy c h o lo g ie ,
1923* 93* 83-118.
G ellerm an, L. W. Chance o r d e r of a l t e r n a t i n g s t i m u l i i n
v i s u a l d i s c r im in a tio n e x p e rim e n ts. J o u r n a l o f G en etic
Psychology, 1933* 42* 207-208.
Gellerman* L. W . Form d is c r im in a tio n in chim panzees and
tw o -y e a r-o ld c h il d r e n . J o u r n a l o f G en etic Psychology*
1933* 42, 3.
G e s e ll, A. The f i r s t y e a r s o f l i f e . New York: H arp er &
Row, 1940^ Pp. 108-188.
138
G e s e ll, A. The d ev elo p m en tal a s p e c t o f c h i l d v i s i o n .
S c ie n c e , 1949, 109, 442.
Getman, G. N ., & K e p h art, N. C. Advanced t e s t s o f v i s u a l
p e r c e p t i o n . L oveland, C o lo .: C h ild c a re C o., 1953.
G hent, L. P e r c e p tio n o f o v e rla p p in g and embedded f i g u r e s
by c h il d r e n o f d i f f e r e n t a g e s . Am erican J o u r n a l of
P sycho log y, 1956, 6 9 , 575-587.
G ibson, E. J . , & Walk, R. D. The " v is u a l c l i f f , , " S c ie n
t i f i c Am erican, i 9 6 0, 202, 64-71.
G ibson, J . J . A c r i t i c a l rev ie w o f th e co n cep t o f s e t in
contem porary e x p e rim e n ta l p sy c h o lo g y . P s y c h o lo g ic a l
B u l l e t i n , 1941, 3 8 , 7 8 1 - 8 1 7 .
G io rg i, A. P ., & C o la iz z i, P. E. C om pletion o f sim ple g e o
m e tric form s as a f u n c tio n o f v a rie d d e g re e s o f incom
p l e t e p r e s e n t a t i o n . P e rc e p tu a l and Motor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 6,
2 3, 1303-1309.
G io rg i, A. P ., & C o la iz z i, P. E. Sim ple g e o m e tric f i g u r e s
and th e p a rt-w h o le problem . P e r c e p tu a l M otor S k i l l s ,
1 9 6 7, 25, 8 8 0 .
G o ld s te in , A. G ., & M ackenberg, E. J . R e c o g n itio n o f h u
man f a c e s from i s o l a t e d f a c i a l f e a t u r e s : A developm en
t a l stu d y . Psychonomic S c ie n c e , 1 9 6 6, 6 , 149-150.
G o ld s te in , K. Language and lan g u ag e d i s t u r b a n c e . New
Y o rk : Grune and S t r a t t o n , 1938.
G o llin , E. S. D evelopm ental s t u d i e s o f v i s u a l p e rc e p tio n
o f in c o m p le te p i c t u r e s . P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s ,
I 9 6 0, 11, 2 8 9- 2 9 8 .
G o llin , E. S. F u r th e r s t u d i e s o f v i s u a l r e c o g n i ti o n o f i n
com plete o b j e c ts . P e rc e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 1,
13, 307-314.
G o llin , E. S. F a c to r s a f f e c t i n g th e v i s u a l r e c o g n i ti o n o f
in c o m p le te o b j e c ts : A co m p a rativ e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
c h il d r e n and a d u l t s . P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s ,
1962, 15, 583-590.
G o llin , E. S. A d e v elo p m e n tal approach to le a r n in g and
c o g n itio n . In L. P. L i p s i t t & C. S p ik e r ( E d s .) , Ad
vances i n C h ild Development and B e h a v io r. V o ls. 2, 4.
New York: Academic P r e s s , 1965.
139
G o llin , E. S. S e r i a l le a r n in g and p e r c e p tu a l r e c o g n itio n
i n c h ild r e n : T raining ., d e la y , and o r d e r e f f e c t s . P e r-
c e p tu a l and Motor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 6, 23* 751-758.
Goodenough, P. L. G-oodenough Draw A Man I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t .
New York: P s y c h o lo g ic a l C o rp o ra tio n , 1957*
Goodenough, R ., & E ag le, C. A m o d if ic a tio n o f th e embedded-
f i g u r e s t e s t f o r u se w ith young c h il d r e n . J o u r n a l o f
G en etic P sy ch o lo g y , 1963* 103* 6 7 -7^-.
Gorman, J . J . , Cogan, D. G ., & G e l l i s , S. S. An a p p a ra tu s
f o r g ra d in g th e v i s u a l a c u i ty o f i n f a n t s on th e b a s i s
o f o p tio c o k in e tic nystagm us. P e d i a t r i c s , 1957* 19*
1088- 1092.
G r a n it, A. R. A s tu d y on th e p e r c e p tio n o f form . B r i t i s h
J o u r n a l o f P sy ch o lo g y , 1921, 12, 223-247.
Gray, C. T. D e f ic ie n c ie s i n re a d in g a b i l i t y . B oston:
H eath, 1922.
Gump, R. R e la tio n o f e f f i c i e n c y o f r e c o g n itio n to p e rs o n
a l i t y v a r i a b l e s . U npu blished d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n iv e r s ity o f C olorado, 1955.
G u ra tsch , W . G ra d a tio n s o f c le a r n e s s i n v i s u a l s e n s a tio n s
u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f v o lu n ta ry a t t e n t i o n . A rch iv f u r
d ie gesam te P s y c h o lo g ie , 1929* 7 0 * 257-310.
Hake, H. W., & Hyman, R. P e rc e p tio n o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e of a random s e r i e s o f b in a ry sym bols. J o u rn a l
o f E x p erim e n tal P sy ch o lo g y , 1953* 4 5 * 6 4 -7 4 .
Hake, H. W., Rodwan, A ., & W eintraub, D. N oise r e d u c tio n
i n p e r c e p tio n . I n R. Hammond (E d .), Egon B ru n sw ik 1s
p sy c h o lo g y . New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt & W inston, 1965.
Pp. 277-316.
H alp ern , H ., H o c h b ert, I . , & R ees, N. Speech and h e a r in g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n f a m i l i a l dysautonom ia. J o u r n a l of
Speech and H earing R e se a rc h , 1 9 6 7* 10* 361-365.
Hanfmann, E. Some ex p erim e n ts on s p a t i a l p o s i t i o n as a
f a c t o r i n c h i l d r e n 's p e r c e p tio n and re p ro d u c tio n o f
sim p le f i g u r e s . P sy c h o lo g isc h e P orschun g, 1933* 17*
319-329.
Harmon, H. H. Modern f a c t o r a n a l y s i s . C hicago: U n iv e r s ity
of Chicago P r e s s , i 9 6 0 .
l4o
H aro n ian , P ., & Sigerm an, A. A. F ie ld independence and
r e s i s t a n c e to r e v e r s a l o f p e r s p e c t iv e . P e rc e p tu a l and
M otor S k i l l s , 196 6, 22, 45.
H aro n ian , P ., & Sugerman, A. A. F ix ed and m obile f i e l d i n
dependence: Review o f s tu d ie s r e le v a n t to W erner’s
dim en sio n . P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e p o rt, 1967* 21, 4 1 -5 7 .
H a r r is , A. J . V is u a l and a u d ito r y p e rc e p tio n i n le a rn in g
t o r e a d . O p to m e trie s, 1959* 50* 2118.
Haynes, H. M. Development o f accommodative b e h a v io r i n
i n f a n t s . P aper r e a d a t C onference on T h e o r e tic a l
Optom etry and V is u a l T ra in in g , S t. L o uis, Ja n u a ry 1962.
Hebb, D. 0 . The o r g a n iz a tio n o f b e h a v io r. New York:
W iley, 1949:
H e id b re d e r, E. P. Problem so lv in g i n c h ild r e n and a d u l t s .
J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sychology, 1928, 35, 522-545.
H elm holtz, H. L. H elm holtz on p e r c e p tio n : I t s p h y sio lo g y
and developm ent^ R. M. W arren, & R. P. W arren ( E d s .) .
New York: W iley, 1 9 6 8.
H elson, H. A d a p ta tio n - le v e l as a b a s is f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e
th e o r y o f fram es o f r e f e r e n c e . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review,
1948, 55, 297-313.
H elson, H ., & P e g re r, E. V. The r o l e o f form i n p e rc e p
t i o n . Am erican Jo u rn a l, o f P sycho log y, 1932, 44, 79-102.
Hempstead, L. The p e rc e p tio n o f v i s u a l form . American
J o u r n a l of P sycholog y, 1900, 12, 1 8 5 .
H e tz e r, H ., Beaumont, H ., & Wiehemeyer, R. S tu d ie s i n p e r
c e p tio n . Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P s y c h o lo g ie , 1929* 113* 268.
Hodgman, C. D. (E d .) C.R.C. s ta n d a rd m ath em a tica l t a b l e s .
(1 2 th e d .) C lev e la n d : Chem ical Rubber Pub. C o., 1959.
Pp. 238-243.
H orrow er, M. Changes i n fig u re -b a c k g ro u n d p e rc e p tio n i n
p a t i e n t s w ith c o r t i c a l l e s io n s . B r i t i s h J o u rn a l of
P sycho log y, 1939* 30* 4 7 -5 1 .
H ubei, D. H ., & W eisel, T. N. R e c e p tiv e f i e l d s , b in o c u la r
i n t e r a c t i o n and f u n c tio n a l a r c h i t e c t u r e i n th e c a t 's
v i s u a l c o r te x . J o u r n a l of P h y sio lo g y , i 9 6 0, 34* 106-
154.
141
Hume, D. Treatise on human nature. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1955.
Hunter, ¥. S. The symbolic process. Psychological Review,
1924, 3jL, 478-497.
Hylan, J. P. The distribution of attention. Psychological
Review, 1903, 10, 373-403.
Irwin, R. B. The effects of speech therapy upon certain
linguistic skills of first grade children. Journal of
Speech and Hearing Disorders, 1 9 6 3, 2 8, 375-381.
Jackson, D. N. Stability in resistance to field forces.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Purdue University,
1955.
Jackson, D. N. Intelligence and reversals of perspective.
American Journal of Psychology, 1956, 6 9 , 484-485.
Jackson, D. N. A short form of Within1s Embedded Figures
Test. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1956, 53,
254-255.
Jackson, D. N. Intellectual ability and mode of perception.
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1957, 21, 458.
Jenkins, E ., & Lohr, F. Severe articulation disorders and
motor ability. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders,
1 9 6 2, 29, 2 8 6- 2 9 2 .
Jones, D. S., Livson, N. H., & Sarbin, T. R. Perceptual
completion behavior in juvenile delinquents. Perceptual
Motor Skills, 1955, 5, l4l-l46.
Kaiser, H. F. The varimax criterion and analytic rotation
in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 1958, 23, 187-200.
Koffka, K. Perception: An introduction to the Gestalt
theory. Psychological Bulletin, 1922, 19, 531-585.
Koffka, K. Principles of Gestalt psychology. New York:
Harcourt, 1935.
Kohler, W. Gestalt psychology. New York: Liverright, 1929.
Kozhevnikov, V ., & Chistovich, L. Speech, articulation and
perception. (English translation from Russian.) Wash
ington, d7C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1 9 6 5.
142
Kroh, 0. F u r th e r c o n tr i b u ti o n s to th e p sy ch o lo g y o f th e
h e n . Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P s y c h o lo g ie , 1927* 103j 203-227.
K ulpe, 0. Y ersuche u e b e r a b s t r a c t i o n . B e r lin I . C ongress
o f E x p erim e n tal P sychology, 1904, 1, 56-68.
L a sh le y , K. S. B ra in mechanisms and i n t e l l i g e n c e . C hicago:
U n iv e r s ity o f Chicago P r e s s , 1929.
L a sh le y , K. S. The mechanisms of v i s i o n , XY p r e lim in a r y
s tu d ie s on th e r a t ' s c a p a c ity f o r d e t a i l v i s i o n .
J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sychology, 1938, 1 8, 123-193.
L epper, A. A stu d y o f a n e g le c te d p o r t io n o f th e f i e l d o f
le a r n in g : The developm ent o f se n so ry o r g a n iz a tio n .
J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sychology, 1935.> 4 6 , 4 2-7 5.
L evine, M., & S pivack, G r. R ate o f r e v e r s a l of th e Necker
cube i n d i f f u s e b r a in i n j u r y . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l
P sy chology, 1 9 6 2, 18, 122-124.
L iu b lin s k a y a , A. A. The developm ent o f c h i l d r e n 's speech
and th o u g h t. I n B. Simon (E d .), Psychology in th e
S o v ie t U nion. London: R outledge and Kegan P a u l, 1957.
Locke, J . L. Q u e stio n a b le assum ption s u n d e rly in g a r t i c u l a
t i o n r e s e a r c h . J o u r n a l o f Speech and H earing D is o rd e rs ,
1968a , 33, 112-115:
L o f lin , M. D. On th e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e v e rb i n a d i a l e c t of
Am erican Negro E n g lis h . W ashington, D .C .: C e n te r f o r
A pplied L i n g u i s t i c s , 1 9 6 7.
Long, E. R ., & R eid, L. S. F a c to rs d e te rm in in g th e l e g i
b i l i t y o f l e t t e r s and words p r i n te d i n d o t p a t t e r n s
w ith d i f f e r e n t i a l b r ig h tn e s s o f th e p a t t e r n s p ro p o r
t i o n a l t o th e amounts o f d e g ra d a tio n . W rig h t-P a tte rs o n
A ir F o rce B ase, Ohio: W right A ir Development C e n te r,
W A D C TR-5923, 1952a.
Long, E. R ., & R eid, L. S. F a c to rs d e te rm in in g th e l e g i
b i l i t y o f l e t t e r s and words p r i n te d i n d ot p a t t e r n s
w ith p u re b la c k and w h ite when th e p a t t e r n s a re d e
grad ed i n v a ry in g am ounts. W rig h t-P a tte rs o n A ir Force
B ase, O hio: W right A ir Development C e n te r, W A D C TR-
5922, 1952b.
L o tz e , R. H. M e d icin isch e p sy c h o lo g ie od er p h y s io lo g ie d e r
S e e le . L e ip z ig : Weidmann, 1 8 5 2.
1 4 3
L u ch in s, A. S. The a u to k in e tic e f f e c t and g r a d a tio n s o f
i l l u m i n a t i o n o f th e v i s u a l f i e l d . J o u r n a l o f G en etic
P sy ch o lo g y j 1954, 50, 29-37.
Mase, D. J . E tio lo g y o f a r t i c u l a t o r y speech d e f e c t s .
No. 921. New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity T each ers C ol
le g e , 1946.
Meads, L. G. Form v s . i n t e n s i t y as a d e te rm in a n t o f a t t e n
t i o n . Am erican J o u r n a l of P sychology, 1915* 26, 150-
151.
M essick, S. J . , & S o lle y , C. M. P r o b a b i l i t y le a r n in g i n
c h il d r e n : Some e x p lo r a to r y s t u d i e s . J o u r n a l o f G en etic
P sy ch o lo g y , 1957* 90* 23-32.
M i l le r , G. A. What i s in fo r m a tio n m easurem ent? Am erican
P s y c h o lo g is t, 1953, 8, 3-1 1 .
M i l le r , G. A. The m agical number seven p lu s o r minus two:
Some l i m i t s on o u r c a p a c ity f o r p ro c e s s in g in fo rm a tio n .
P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review, 1956, 6 3 * 81-97*
M i l le r , G. A. In fo rm a tio n and memory. S c i e n t i f i c A m erican,
1 9 5 6, 195, 4 2 -4 6 .
Mooney, C. M. A f a c t o r i a l stu d y of c lo s u r e . C anadian
J o u r n a l of P sychology, 1954, 8, 51-60.
Mooney, C. M. Age i n th e developm ent of c lo s u r e a b i l i t y
i n c h il d r e n . C anadian J o u rn a l o f P sychology, 1957* H *
2 1 9- 2 2 6 .
Moore, T. V. Image and meaning i n memory and p e r c e p tio n .
P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review Monograph, 1919* 2 7* 73-296.
M u lle r, J . E lem ents o f p h y s io lo g y . V ol. I I . T ran s, by
W . B aly . London: T a y lo r and W alker, 1842.
Munn, N. L ., & S te in in g , B. R. The r e l a t i v e e f f i c a c y of
form and background in a c h i l d 's d is c r im in a tio n of
v i s u a l p a t t e r n s . J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sychology, 1931*
39* 7 3 -90.
M unsinger, H ., & Gummerman, K. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of form i n
p a t t e r n s o f v i s u a l n o is e . J o u r n a l o f E x p erim e n tal P sy
c h o lo g y , 1 9 6 7, 75, 8 1-8 7.
M yk lebust, H. R ., & B oshes, B. P s y c h o n e u ro lo g ic a l le a r n in g
d is o r d e r s i n c h il d r e n . A rchives of P e d i a t r i c s , i 9 6 0,
6, 247-256.
144
M yklebust, H. R ., & B ru tte n , M. A s tu d y o f v i s u a l p e rc e p
t i o n i n d e af c h il d r e n . A cta O to - la r y n g o lo g ic a , 1953,
S uppl. 105, 1-40.
Newbigging, P. L. The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een r e v e r s i b l e p e r
s p e c tiv e and embedded f i g u r e s . C anadian J o u rn a l of
Psychology, 1954, 8 , 204-208.
O akley, J . , & T ik o fsk y , R. S. Perform ance o f b r a in damaged
s u b je c ts on G o tts c h a ld ts Embedded F ig u r e s . P e rc e p tu a l
and Motor S k i l l s , 1961, 12, 179-185.
Ohman, S. N um erical model o f c o a r t i c u l a t i o n . J o u r n a l of
th e A c o u s tic a l S o c ie ty o f A m erica, 1967, 4l, 310-320.
O lson, J . R. A f a c t o r a n a l y t i c s tu d y o f th e r e l a t i o n b e
tw een th e speed o f v i s u a l p e r c e p tio n and th e language
a b i l i t i e s o f d e a f a d o le s c e n ts . J o u r n a l o f Speech and
H earin g R e se a rc h , 1 9 6 7, 10, 354-360.
Oltman, K ., & C apobianco, F. F i e ld dependence and eye
dominance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1 9 6 7, 25, 645-
646. ~
O v erto n , ¥ . , & W iener, M. V is u a l f i e l d p o s i t i o n and word
r e c o g n itio n t h r e s h o ld . J o u r n a l o f E x p erim e n tal P sy c h o l
ogy, 1 9 6 6, 71, 249-253.
Palm er, R. D. Hand d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and p s y c h o lo g ic a l fu n c
t i o n i n g . J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y , 1963, 31, 445-461.
P e ip e r , A. Comments upon J . M. S m ith 's work, The r e l a t i v e
b r ig h tn e s s v a lu e s o f t h r e e hues f o r newborn i n f a n t s .
C h ild D evelopm ent, 1937, 8, 299-300.
P e r k in s , F. T. Symmetry i n v i s u a l r e c a l l . Am erican J o u r
n a l of P sy ch o lo g y , 1932, 44, 473-490.
P i a g e t , J . The language and th o u g h t o f th e c h i l d .
London: R o u tle d g e, 1932.
P ia g e t, J . The o r i g i n s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i n c h i l d r e n . New
York: I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t i e s P re s s , 1952.
P ia g e t, J . The c h i l d 's c o n s tr u c tio n o f r e a l i t y . London:
R ou tled ge and Kegan P a u l, 1955.
P in n eau , S. R ., & A u lt, J . Component a n a ly s is w ith c o v a r i-
a t e s and m u ltip le dependent v a r i a b l e s . U npublished
m a n u s c rip t, San Fernando V a lle y S ta te C o lle g e , 1971.
145
P inneau, S. R ., & E nder, P. Component a n a l y s i s : A fu n c
t i o n a l r e l a t i o n betw een f a c t o r a n a ly s is and a n a l y s i s o f
v a r ia n c e . U npublished m a n u s c rip t, San Fernando V a lle y
S ta te C o lle g e , 1971.
P in n eau , S. R ., L ev in e, A. J . , B ryce, S. C ., & B u t le r , D. C.
A n a ly sis o f f a c t o r v a r ia n c e : One-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1966, 23, 1209-1210.
P inneau, S. R ., & Newhouse, A. M easures of in v a r ia n c e and
c o m p a ra b ility i n f a c t o r a n a l y s i s f o r f ix e d v a r i a b l e s .
P sy c h o m e trik a , 1964, 29, 271-281.
P i t t s , W., & M cCulloch, W. S. How we know u n i v e r s a l s : The
p e r c e p tio n o f a u d ito r y and v i s u a l fo rm s. B u l l e t i n of
M a th em atica l B io p h y s ic s , 1947j 9, 127-147.
Postman, L. Toward a g e n e r a l th e o r y o f c o g n itio n . In
J . H. R o h rer, & M. S h e r if ( E d s .) , S o c ia l psy ch o lo g y a t
th e c r o s s r o a d s . New York: H a rp e r, 1951. Pp. 242-272.
Postm an, L ., B ru n e r, J . S ., & Walk, R. D. The p e rc e p tio n
o f e r r o r . B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P sycho log y, 1951, 42,
1- 10.
P ow ell, J . , & McReynolds, L. A p ro c e d u re f o r t e s t i n g p o s i
t i o n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n from a r t i c u l a t i o n t r a i n i n g .
J o u r n a l o f Speech and H earing R e se a rc h , 1 9 6 9, 12, 629-
E W . ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------
P r i n g l e - P a t t i s o n , A. S. (E d .) John L o c k e 's An e s s a y con-
c e rn in g human u n d e rs ta n d in g . O xford: C larendon P r e s s ,
195T.
R apin, I . The n e u r o lo g is t lo o k s a t th e n o n v e rb a l c h i l d .
E x c e p tio n a l C h ild re n , 1959, 2 6, 4 8 -5 2 .
R appaport, M. The r o l e of redundancy i n th e d i s c r im in a tio n
o f v i s u a l form s. J o u r n a l o f E x p e rim e n ta l Psychology,
1957, 53, 3 -10.
R azran, G. H. S. S tu d ie s i n c o n f ig u r a l c o n d itio n in g . IV.
J o u r n a l o f P sy ch o lo g y , 1939, 7, 3 -1 6 .
R e ic h a rd , S ., e t a l . The developm ent of co ncept fo rm a tio n
i n c h il d r e n . American J o u r n a l o f O rth o p s y c h ia try , 1944,
14, 156.
R eid, T. I n q u ir y i n t o th e human mind on th e p r i n c i p l e s of
common se n s e . E dinburgh: M illa r , 1 7 6 5 .
146
Renshaw, S. V is u a l p e rc e p tio n and r e p ro d u c tio n o f form s by
t a c h is to s c o p i c m ethods. J o u r n a l o f Psychology, 1945,
20, 217- 2 32.
R o b e rts, K. E. The a b i l i t y o f p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n t o so lv e
problem s i n w hich a sim p le p r i n c i p l e of r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
k e p t c o n s ta n t. J o u r n a l o f G en etic P sychology, 1932,
40, 118-135.
R udel, R. G. D is c rim in a tio n o f d i r e c t i o n o f l i n e i n c h i l
d re n . P aper re a d a t E a s te r n P s y c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n ,
A p r il 1959.
R udin, S. A. F ig u re -g ro u n d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n under d i f f e r e n t
p e r c e p tu a l s e t s . P e rc e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 8, 27*
71-77.
S a rto n , G. I n tr o d u c t io n t o t h e h i s t o r y o f s c ie n c e . V ol. I .
B a ltim o re : W illiam s and W illiam s, 1927-
Schw artz, D. W., & Karp, S. A. F i e ld dependence i n a g e r i
a t r i c p o p u la tio n . P e rc e p tu a l and Motor S k i l l s , 1967*
24, 495-504.
S e g e rs, J . E. P e rc e p tio n v i s u e l l e chez I 1e n fa n t ages de 3
a 12 ans e t l e u r a p p l i c a t i o n a 1*e d u c a tio n . J o u r n a l
de P s y c h o lo g ie , 1926, 23, 6 0 8 - 6 3 6 .
Shannon, C. E. A m ath em a tica l th e o r y o f com m unication.
B e ll Systems T e c h n ic a l J o u r n a l, 1948, 27, 379-423,
623-645.
Shannon, C. E ., & Weaver, W . The m ath em a tica l th e o ry of
com m unication. U rbana: U n iv e r s ity o f I l l i n o i s P re s s ,
1 9 W .
S h rin e r , T. H ., Holloway, M. S ., & D a n ilo f f , R. G. The
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a r t i c u l a t o r y d e f i c i t s and sy n ta x
i n sp eech d e f e c t i v e c h il d r e n . J o u r n a l of Speech and
H earing R e se arch , 1969* 12, 319-325.
S ie g e n th a le r , B. M., & G o ld s te in , J . A u d ito ry and v i s u a l
fig u re -b a c k g ro u n d p e rc e p tio n by a d u lt a p h a s ic s . J o u r
n a l o f Communication D is o rd e rs , 1 9 6 7* 1, 152-158.
S i l v e r , A. A ., & Hagen, R. A. Need f o r new te a c h in g p ro c e
d u re s . Am erican J o u rn a l o f O rth o p s y c h ia try , 1964, 34,
95 - 1 0 2 .
147
S ilv erm an , A. J . , A deval, G ., & McGough, W . E. Some r e l a
t i o n s h i p s betw een handedness and p e r c e p tio n . J o u r n a l
of Psychosom atic R esearch , 1 9 6 6, 10, 151-158.
S i l v e r s t e i n , A. B. V a ria n ce components i n th e dev elo p m en tal
t e s t o f v i s u a l p e r c e p tio n . P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s ,
1965, 21, 976.
Sm ith, P. An e x p e rim e n ta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p e rc e p tio n .
B r i t i s h J o u r n a l o f P sychology, 1914, 6_, 321-362.
Snow, K. A. A d e t a i l e d a n a ly s is o f a r t i c u l a t i o n re s p o n se s
o f norm al f i r s t g rad e c h ild r e n . J o u r n a l o f Speech and
H earing R e se a rc h , 1 9 6 3, 6, 277-290.
Snyder, R. T ., & E reud, S. L. R eading r e a d in e s s and i t s r e
l a t i o n to m a tu r a tio n a l u n re a d in e s s as m easured by th e
s p i r a l a f t e r e f f e c t and o th e r v i s u a l - p e r c e p t u a l t e c h
n iq u e s . P e rc e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 7, 25, 841-854.
S o lle y , C. M., & Murphy, G. Development of th e p e r c e p tu a l
w o rld . New York: B asic Books, I960.
S o ln itz k y , 0. D istu rb a n c e s of language f o r m u la tio n and ex
p r e s s io n . G en eral P r a c t i c e , 1956, 14, 8 3 -94.
S p iv ack , G.j & L evine, M. The s p i r a l a f t e r e f f e c t and r e
v e r s i b l e f i g u r e s as m easures o f b r a i n damage and memory.
J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l i t y , 1957, 25, 1-11.
Sprague, R. H. L ea rn in g d i f f i c u l t i e s o f f i r s t g ra d e c h i l
d re n d iag n o sed by th e P r o s ti g V is u a l P e rc e p tu a l T e s ts :
A f a c t o r a n a l y t i c stu d y . U npublished d o c to r a l d i s s e r
t a t i o n , Wayne S ta te U n iv e r s ity , 1 9 6 3.
S te rn , W . P sychology o f e a r l y c h ild h o o d . London: G. A lle n
and Unwin, 1924.
S te w a rt, W. A. Urban Negro sp eech : S o c i o l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r s
a f f e c t i n g E n g lis h te a c h in g . In R. W . Shuy ( E d .), S o c ia l
d i a l e c t s and language l e a r n i n g . Champaign, 1 1 1 .: Na
t i o n a l C o u n cil o f T each ers o f E n g lis h , 1 9 6 5.
S t r e e t , R. P. A G e s ta lt C om pletion T e s t . New York: Colum
b ia U n iv e r s ity , B ureau o f P u b l i c a t io n s , 1931. Pp. 11-
65.
S t u a r t , R. P e rc e p tu a l s t y l e and re a d in g a b i l i t y : Im p lic a
t i o n s f o r an i n s t r u c t i o n a l a p p ro ach . P e r c e p tu a l and
M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 7, 24, 135-138.
148
S t u a r t , R ., B reslow , A ., B re ch n e r, S ., I l y u s , B ., & W olpoff,
M. The q u e s tio n o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l in f lu e n c e on p e rc e p
t u a l s t y l e . P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1965* 20,
419-420.
T em plin, M. G. C e r ta in language s k i l l s i n c h ild r e n : T h e ir
developm ent and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . M in n e ap o lis: U ni
v e r s i t y o f M innesota P r e s s , 1957-
Terman, L. M., & M e r r i l l , M. A. M easuring i n t e l l i g e n c e .
London: H arap, 1937*
T euber, H. L. N europsychology. In M. R. Harrow er ( E d .),
R ecent advances i n d ia g n o s tic p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t i n g .
S p r i n g f i e l d , 1 1 1 .: Thomas, 1950. Pp. 30-52.
T euber, H. L ., & W e in ste in , E. A b i l i t y to d is c o v e r h id d en
f i g u r e s a f t e r c e r e b r a l l e s i o n . A M A A rch iv es of N euro
l o g i c a l P s y c h i a tr y , 1956, 76, 369-379.
T h u rsto n e , L. L. The p e r c e p tu a l f a c t o r . P sy ch o m etrik a,
1938, 3, 1 -17.
T h u rsto n e , L. L. Prim ary m en tal a b i l i t i e s . C hicago: U ni
v e r s i t y o f Chicago P re s s , 1944.
T h u rsto n e , L. L. A f a c t o r i a l stu d y o f p e rc e p tio n . Psycho
m e tric M onographs, 1944, 4 , 1-148.
T ic h n e r, E. B. E x p erim e n tal psychology o f th o u g h t p ro c
e s s e s . New York: M acm illan, 1909.
Tolman, E. C. O p e ra tio n a l b e h a v io rism and c u rr e n t tr e n d s
i n p sy c h o lo g y . P ro c. 25th A nniv. C e le b r. In a u g . Grad.
S tu d . Los A n geles: U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a li f o r n ia ,
1936.
Van de G eer, J . P ., & L e v e lt, W . J . M. D e te c tio n o f v i s u a l
p a t t e r n s d is tu r b e d by n o is e . Q u a rte r ly J o u r n a l o f Ex
p e rim e n ta l P sy chology, 1963* 153 192-204.
V ernon, M. D. A f u r t h e r stu d y o f v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n .
Cam bridge, M ass.: Cambridge U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1952.
W atson, J . B. Psychology as th e b e h a v i o r is t view s i t .
P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review, 1913* 20, 158-177.
W ebster, R. B. P a t t e r n r e c o g n itio n a s a f u n c tio n o f f i l l ,
d i s t o r t i o n and n o is e . P e r c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s ,
1963, 16, 361-376.
149
W ebster, R. B. D i s t o r t i o n f i l l and n o is e e f f e c t s on p a t
t e r n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , B e th e sd a : NIH R eport No. M H O
7938-01, S e p te m b e r 1964.
W ebster, R. B. S tim u lu s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and e f f e c t s o f
f i l l , d i s t o r t i o n and n o is e on p a t t e r n p e r c e p tio n . P e r
c e p tu a l and M otor S k i l l s , 1 9 6 6, 23, 19-33.
Welch, L. The g e n e tic developm ent o f th e a s s o c i a t i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e s o f a b s t r a c t t h in k i n g . J o u r n a l o f G en etic
P sy chology, 1940, 5 6 , 175.
W erner, H ., & S t r a u s s , H. P a th o lo g y o f fig u re -b a c k g ro u n d
r e l a t i o n i n th e c h i l d . J o u r n a l o f Abnormal S o c ia l P sy
c h o lo g y , 1941, 3 6 , 236-2483
W erner, H ., & Wapner, S. Toward a g e n e r a l th e o r y of p e r
c e p tio n . P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review, 1952, 59, 324-338.
W ertheim er, M. U ntersuch ungen z u r L ehre von d e r G e s t a l t .
P sy c h o lo g isc h e F o rsch u n g , 1921, 1, 4 7-58.
Wever, E. G. F ig u re and ground i n t h e v i s u a l p e r c e p tio n o f
form . Am erican J o u r n a l o f P sychology, 1927* 38, 194-
2 2 6 .
W ilcox, W. W . H elson and F e h re r on "The r o l e o f form p e r
c e p t io n ." Am erican J o u r n a l of P sycho log y, 1932, 44,
578-580.
W in te rs, J . , & G erjuoy, I . R. R e c o g n itio n o f t a c h i s t o s c o p i -
c a l l y exposed l e t t e r s by norm als and r e t a r d a t e s . P e r
c e p tio n and P sy c h o p h y sic s, 1959* 5.(1)* 21-24.
W itk in s, H. A. The e f f e c t s o f t r a i n i n g and of s t r u c t u r a l
a id s on p erform ance i n t h r e e t e s t s o f sp ace o r i e n t a
t i o n . C i v il A e ro n a u tic s A d m in is tra tio n , D iv is io n o f
R e se arch , R eport No. 80, 1948.
W itk in , H. A. I n d iv id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n e ase o f p e r c e p tio n
o f embedded f i g u r e s . J o u r n a l o f P e r s o n a l it y , 1950, 19*
1-15.
W itk in , H. A. P s y c h o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and form s o f
p a th o lo g y . J o u r n a l of Abnormal P sychology, 1 9 6 5* 70,
317-336.
W itk in , H. A. Some im p lic a tio n s of r e s e a r c h on c o g n itiv e
s t y l e f o r problem s o f e d u c a tio n . A rc h iv io d i P s ic o lo g -
i a , N e u ro lo g ia e P s i c h i a t r i a , 1 9 6 5* 2E ~ , 27-54.
150
W itk in , H. A ., Dyk, R. B ., P a te r s o n , H. P ., Goodenough,
D. R ., & K arp, S. A. P s y c h o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .
New York: W iley, 1962.
W itk in , H. A ., Lew is, H. B ., H ertzm an, M., M achover, K .,
M e issn e r, P. P . , & Wapner, S. P e r s o n a l it y th ro u g h p e r
c e p t i o n . New York: H arp er, 1954T
W ohlw ill, J . F. D evelopm ental s t u d i e s o f p e r c e p tio n . Psy
c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , i 9 6 0, 57., 249-268.
W ohlw ill, J . P. Prom p e r c e p tio n t o in f e r e n c e : A dim ension
of c o g n itiv e developm ent. Monographs o f th e S o c ie ty
f o r R esearch i n C h ild D evelopm ent, 1962, 2 7 (2 j, 87-107.
Wood, N. E. A com parison o f r i g h t h e m ip le g ic s w ith l e f t
h e m ip le g ic s i n v i s u a l p e r c e p tio n . J o u r n a l o f C l i n i c a l
P sychology, 1955, 11, 378-380.
Wood, N. E. C au sal f a c t o r s o f d e la y e d speech and language
developm ent. American J o u r n a l o f M ental D e fic ie n c y ,
1957, 61, 4 -6 .
Wood, N. E. Language d is o r d e r s : An e d u c a tio n a l problem .
E d u c a tio n , March 1959, 7 9 , 399-403.
Wood, N. E. Language d is o r d e r s i n c h i l d r e n . C hicago: Na
t i o n a l S o c ie ty f o r C rip p le d C h ild re n and A d u lts, 1959.
Wood, N. E. Communication problem s and t h e i r e f f e c t on th e
le a r n in g p o t e n t i a l o f t h e m e n ta lly r e t a r d e d c h i l d .
CRP No, 1184, C o o p e rativ e R esearch B ranch, O ffic e of
E d u ca tio n , U .S. D epartm ent o f H e a lth , E d u ca tio n and
W elfare, i 9 6 0 .
Wood, N. E. Language developm ent and language d i s o r d e r s .
Los A ngeles: S o c ie ty f o r R e se arch in C h ild Developm ent,
A p r il i 9 6 0 .
Wood, N. E. Language d i s o r d e r s : M ajor b a r r i e r s to communi
c a t io n . School L if e , 1961, 6, 43.
Wood, N. E. D elayed speech and lan guag e d ev elo p m en t.
Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . : P r e n t ic e - H a l l, 1964.
Wood, N. E. V erb al l e a r n i n g . Dim ensions i n e a r l y l e a r n
in g s e r i e s . Los A ngeles: D im ensions P u b lis h in g C o.,
1969.
151-
Wood, N. E. A stu d y of v i s u a l p e r c e p tio n . An u n p u b lish e d
m a n u s c rip t, U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , 1970.
Woodrow, H. O u tlin e a s a c o n d itio n o f a t t e n t i o n . J o u r n a l
o f E x p e rim e n ta l P sy ch o lo g y , 1916, 1, 23-39.
W ulf, P. B e itr a g e z u r p sy c h o lo g ie d e r G e s t a l t . P sy c h o lo -
g is c h e F orschun g, 1 9 2 2, _1, 333-373.
Wundt, W. M. E lem ents de p sy c h o lo g ie p h y s io lo g iq u e .
P a r i s : G. B a i l l i e r e , I oBoT
Y erk es, R. M., & M o rg u lis, S. E xperim ents o f p e r c e p tio n .
P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 1909* 6, 257-273.
Z e i g le r , H. P ., & L e ib o w itz , H. A pparent v i s u a l s i z e as a
f u n c t i o n o f d is ta n c e f o r c h ild r e n and a d u l t s . Am erican
J o u r n a l o f P sychology, 1957* 70* 106-109.
Z ig l e r , J . J . , Cook, B ., M i l le r , D ., & Wemple, L. The p e r
c e p tio n o f form i n p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n . Am erican J o u r n a l
o f P sy ch o lo g y , 1930, 42, 246-259.
152
APPENDIX A
THE EXPERIMENTAL BATTERY
153
154
The E x p erim e n tal B a tte r y
I . P ro c ed u re s f o r C re a tin g th e E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte r y
A. Item S e l e c t i o n :
Item s f o r th e E x p erim e n tal B a tt e r y were s e
l e c te d from a l i s t of words w hich w ere com piled to
r e f l e c t th e re a d in g v o c a b u la ry o f c h i l d r e n i n th e
p rim a ry g ra d e s (G ates, 1935). I t was re a so n e d t h a t
i f c h il d r e n i n th e p rim a ry g ra d e s c o u ld re a d th e s e
w ords, c h il d r e n o f p re s c h o o l age sh o u ld be a b le to
i d e n t i f y (by m atching) a p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f s e l e c te d o b j e c ts . A ll words s e l e c te d r e p r e
s e n te d o b j e c ts , p e rso n s o r t h in g s . No p ro p e r names,
o r p a r t s o f speech o th e r th a n nouns were in c lu d e d .
A ll words s e le c te d were known to be:
1. W ith in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ran g e o f p re s c h o o l
age c h il d r e n (3-6 y e a r s ) .
2. P i c t o r i a l l y r e p r e s e n ta b l e i n sim p le l i n e draw
in g s w ith o u t r e q u i r i n g a d d i t i o n a l cues f o r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( e . g . , c o lo r , d e p th , s i z e ,
t e x t u r e ).
3. M u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e w ith i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o v e r
la p r e s t r i c t e d t o g e n e r a l c l a s s e s ( e . g . ,
c lo th in g ite m s , food ite m s , p e o p le , a n im a ls ) .
B. P r e p a r a tio n o f E x p erim e n tal S l i d e s :
B oth s e t s o f s l i d e s were g e n e ra te d from a
s i n g l e s e t o f in te r m e d ia te n e g a tiv e s w hich con
s i s t e d o f 30 l i n e draw ings o f th e t e s t ite m s , and
n in e in te r m e d ia te i n t e r f e r e n c e n e g a tiv e s .
The 30 l i n e draw ings were p h o to g rap h ed w ith
4"x5" o rth o l i t h f ilm and p ro c e s s e d i n r e g u l a r
l i t h o d e v e lo p e r. Exposure was a t m a n u f a c tu r e r 's
recom m endation, p ro c e ss e d by i n s p e c t io n to a s o l i d
s te p t h r e e on th e e le v e n - s te p S t o u f f e r D e n sity
S c a le .
The n in e i n t e r f e r e n c e in te r m e d ia te s w ere c r e
a te d by u s in g Benday S creen t i n t s ( s h e e ts o f t h i n
p a p e r w ith a wax a d h e siv e and b ack in g s h e e t con
t a i n i n g an o v e r a l l even p a t t e r n o f b la c k d o ts o f a
g iv e n s i z e ) which a re a v a i l a b l e from any p r i n t e r 's
155
su p p ly h o u se, and which come i n v a rio u s d e n s i t i e s
( r e l a t i v e s i z e o f b la c k d o t, l i s t e d by p e rc e n t o f
a r e a b lac k e n e d ) and s c re e n s i z e s (d o ts p e r l i n e a r
i n c h ) . To make th e in te r m e d ia te s , p ie c e s o f th e
s c re e n t i n t were ad h ered to a c e t a t e s h e e ts and
b u rn is h e d w ith a smooth o b je c t to remove a i r bub
b l e s . They were th e n p r o j e c te d i n an o r d in a r y en
l a r g e r t o make a 1 5- l i n e s c re e n (15 d o ts t o th e
in c h ) and p r o je c te d onto l i t h f ilm . P ro c e s sin g was
by i n s p e c t io n , u sin g th e 2 1 -s te p S to u f f e r n e g a tiv e
s c a l e to g u a ra n te e u n if o r m ity o f a l l n in e in te r m e
d i a t e s .
1. The F ig u re -g ro u n d S l i d e s : The f ig u re -g ro u n d
s e r i e s was c r e a te d by exp o sin g th e 4 ,1 x5" l i n e
n e g a tiv e o f th e t e s t s u b je c ts by tr a n s m i t te d
l i g h t and re -e x p o s in g th e same fram e f o r a 1 :1
c lo s e -u p w ith one o f th e n in e i n te r m e d ia te s .
T h is was done u s in g a Nikon F w ith Auto Macro
N ikor f 3 .5 le n s ( t h i s le n s w ith i t s a u to b e l
lows c o r r e c t i o n can save c o n s id e r a b le tim e
s in c e b o th e x p o su res must be e q u a l and a b e l
lows c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r must be c o n s id e r e d ).
The f ilm was K o d a lith ty p e 3 o r th o (35 mm.),
ex p o sed t o m a n u f a c tu r e r 's recom m endation and
p ro c e s s e d by i n s p e c t io n i n f i n e l i n e d e v e lo p e r.
I t was c o n s id e re d a d v a n ta g e o u s to p h o to g ra p h a
2 1 - s te p S t o u f f e r n e g a tiv e s c a le f o r c o n tr o l
p u rp o s e s on th e f i r s t and l a s t fram e o f each
r o l l b e c a u se t h i s p ro c e d u re a id s i n u n ifo rm
d ev elo p m en t o f a l l s l i d e s .
2. The C lo su re S l i d e s : The c lo s u r e s e r i e s was
p h o to g rap h ed by u sin g th e 4"x5" l i n e s u b je c t
n e g a tiv e and one o r more o f th e i n t e r f e r e n c e
n e g a tiv e s sandw iched t o g e t h e r u nder a p ie c e of
p l a t e g l a s s . For th e f i r s t few s l i d e s i t was
found t h a t one i n t e r f e r e n c e n e g a tiv e d id not
p ro v id e enough b lo c k in g e f f e c t , t h e r e f o r e , two
w ere u sed when n e c e s s a ry . To o b ta in th e p ro p e r
e f f e c t , i t was n e c e s s a ry to p la c e th e sc re e n s
a t 4 5 -d e g re e a n g le s to each o th e r .
C. E quipm ent and S u p p lie s U sed :
A ll equipm ent and s u p p lie s u se d i n t h e p r e p a r a
t i o n o f t h e s l i d e s w ere s u p p lie d by t h e D epartm ent
o f M e d ica l I l l u s t r a t i o n , S ch o o l o f M e d ic in e , U n i
v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a .
156
1. E quipm ent:
4"x5" view cam era
35mm. cam era (Nikon recommended, see t e x t )
11 S tep S t o u f f e r D e n sity S c a le ( f o r r e f l e c t e d
copy, o th e r b ran d s a v a i l a b l e )
21 S tep S t o u f f e r D e n sity S c a le ( f o r t r a n s
m itte d copy, o th e r b ran d s a v a i l a b l e )
L ig h t t a b l e o r t r a n s m i t te d l i g h t so u rce
2. S u p p l i e s :
Benday S c ree n T i n t s , 80 p e rc e n t th ro u g h 20
p e rc e n t (by 10 p e rc e n t g r a d a tio n s )
recommend u sin g l a r g e s t dot p a t t e r n
a v a i l a b l e ( u s u a lly 65 l i n e sc re e n )
F ilm , 4x5 L ith o (K o d a lith ty p e 3 o rth o , o r
many o th e r s )
F ilm , 35mm. L ith o (K o d a lith ty p e 3 o rth o ,
s p e c i a l o rd e r f o r Kodak)
D ev elo p er, L ith o ( f i n e l i n e ty p e recommended,
f o r a l l f ilm s such as K o d a lith f i n e l i n e )
3. S c ree n I n te r m e d ia te s Used f o r Each S lid e :
S lid e F ig u r e -
Degree___________ ground____________ C lo su re
1 80$ 80$ + 50$
2 70$ 80$ + 20$
3 60$ 80$
4 50$ 70$
5 40$ 6 0$
6 30$ 50$
7 20$ none
8 none none
C. P r e p a r a tio n o f Response C a rd s:
Each re s p o n s e c a rd c o n ta in e d f i v e f i g u r e s : th e
s tim u lu s ite m p lu s f o u r o th e r re s p o n se f i g u r e s .
L ine w e ig h ts o f a l l draw ings were i d e n t i c a l . The
f i g u r e s were a s s ig n e d random ly (Hodgman, 1959) to
a t r a n s l u c e n t f ilm s t r i p which was mounted on heavy
w h ite p o s t e r b o ard and sp ray ed w ith a f i x a t i v e .
The f i n a l re s p o n se c a rd s ^ " x ^ " ) were p hoto g rap h ed
t o e lim in a te t e a r i n g when s ta c k e d f o r u s e .
D. The F in a l E x p e rim e n ta l1 B a t t e r y :
F or th e f i n a l e x p e rim e n ta l t e s t b a t t e r y th e
s l i d e s were red u c ed from th e 110 which made up th e
157
i n i t i a l b a t t e r y (s e e Appendix C) t o 30 ite m s . The
f ig u re - g ro u n d ite m s ( T o ta l 15) were t r e a t e d w ith
from one t o e ig h t d e g re e s o f i n t e r f e r e n c e , g iv in g a
t o t a l o f 120 s l i d e s . The v i s u a l c lo s u r e ite m s (To
t a l 1 5 ) w ere t r e a t e d w ith from one to seven d e g re e s
o f i n t e r f e r e n c e , re n d e rin g a t o t a l of 105 s l i d e s .
The e n t i r e e x p e rim e n ta l b a t t e r y c o n s is te d o f 225
f ig u re - g ro u n d and c lo s u r e s l i d e s . Because s l i d e
p r o j e c t i o n o f each ite m c ea sed a f t e r th e s u b je c t
had s u c c e s s f u l l y i d e n t i f i e d th e item in two s u c
c e s s iv e t r i e s , th e number o f s l i d e s p r o j e c te d c o r
resp o n d ed w ith th e a b i l i t y o f s u b je c t to a c c u r a t e l y
i d e n t i f y t h e s tim u lu s ( i . e . , i f th e s u b je c t was
a b le t o i d e n t i f y th e t e s t s t i m u l i a t th e maximum
d e g re e s o f i n t e r f e r e n c e , i t was n ot n e c e s s a ry t o
p r o j e c t th e re m a in in g s l i d e s f o r t h a t ite m a t
l e s s e r d e g re e s o f i n t e r f e r e n c e ) .
The re s p o n se c a rd s a ls o were red u c ed i n number
from th e o r i g i n a l 150 (s e e Appendix C) t o 30. T his
r e d u c tio n was c o n s id e re d n e c e s s a ry b ecau se i t was
found i n t h e f i r s t y e a r stu d y t h a t th e c o n s ta n t
s h i f t i n g o f re s p o n se c a rd s f o r each s tim u lu s p r e
s e n te d seemed t o be d i s t r a c t i n g t o th e c h i l d . In
a d d it i o n , th e s o r t i n g and s ta c k in g o f th e l a r g e r
number o f c a rd s added m easu rab ly t o th e tim e r e
q u ire d t o a d m in is te r th e b a t t e r y . In an e f f o r t to
red u c e d i s t r a c t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t io n tim e , a d i f
f e r e n t re s p o n se c a rd was u sed f o r each o f th e 30
m ajor s tim u lu s ite m s p re s e n te d , r a t h e r th a n a new
c a rd f o r each d e g re e o f v a r i a t i o n f o r each ite m .
Twenty re s p o n se c a rd s were s e l e c te d from th e
o r i g i n a l 150 re s p o n se c a rd s on th e b a s i s o f one
c r i t e r i o n : by n o tin g where th e c o r r e c t re s p o n se
ite m f e l l on t h e re s p o n se c a rd . T h is c r i t e r i o n
f o r s e l e c t i o n was u sed i n o rd e r to a v o id d u p l i c a t
in g c o n s e c u tiv e p o s i t i o n s i n an e f f o r t to red u ce
any te n d e n c y on th e p a r t o f th e s u b je c t to p o in t
r o u t i n e l y to an a r e a on th e c a rd i n a f ix e d s e l e c
t i o n p a t t e r n . I n a d d it i o n , t e n new re sp o n se c a rd s
were d e s ig n e d : f i v e f o r th e c lo s u r e b a t t e r y and
f i v e f o r th e f ig u r e -g r o u n d b a t t e r y . T h is was done
by u s in g ite m s from th e o r i g i n a l re s p o n se c a rd s
and p la c in g them on new c a rd s so t h a t a l l f i v e
ite m s on each c a rd were e i t h e r h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r
t i c a l ( i . e . , hom ogeneous) i n d i r e c t i o n a l i t y . The
f i n a l b a t t e r y c o n s is te d o f 225 ( p o s s ib le ) s l i d e s
and 30 re s p o n se c a r d s .
APPENDIX B
FORMS USED FOR RECORDING R A W DATA
158
Name
Bate
Form for Recording Articulation
_________________ Subject No._
_______ Examiner___
Have the child read the words or repeat them after you. Indi
cate substitutions by writing the substitution following the
word. Use a dash to Indicate omissions. Test one sound at a
time. After completing test; repeat each error sound and
circle to determine If it can be produced adequately in isola
tion. S = substitution; D = distortion; 0 = omission
3 & YEAR LEVEL
P pin
B boy
M map
H home
.Vf win
S D 0 S D 0
apple_____• ____ nap
baby _______ Bob
___________mama home
• • * • _ _ _ • « * •
~ __ away ....
S D 0
hi YEAR LEVEL
T time _
- D dog______
N no ’ _____
K come _
Q go
NU . . . . ~
Y yes______
kitty.
daddy
ant
O.K.
wagon
Ink
hat
mud
pin
book
dog
king
5 i YEAR LEVEL
F fan coffee muff
6 & YEAR LEVEL
V vine
TH that
ZH .... ~
shoe
L lady _
oven
mother
measure
washing
yellow
five
bathe
garage
wish
ball
7 £ YEAR LEVEL
CH church _
J Jump
TH thin ~
S sun______
Z zero _
R robin
HW white
matches
magic
birthday
sister
busy
cherry
watch
edge
bath
bus
buzz
bear
Blends:
play
pray
blank
bread
TOTAL SDO
twenty
truck
dress
quick
class
glass
green
flower
fry
Form for Recording Responses
Experimental Battery Subject No._
SET I*
N a m e ___________________ Date________________ Examiner_______________
Figure-ground 0 1
Degrees
2 3 4 5
6
7
8
Row
Total
1. chicken
2. football
3. wagon
4. basket
5. bottle
6. book
7. boat
tt. duck
9. cup
10. hat
Figure-ground Homogeneous
Degrees Row
.012345678 Total
1. ice cream
2 . bowl
3 . fish
4. saw
5. mitten
. # r
O
Ct
{0
Visual Closure 0 1
Degrees
2 3 4 5 6
Row
Total Closure Homogeneous
1. bunny Degrees . Row
2. dog O I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
3 . airplane 1. truck |
4. table 2. bed
5. horse 3. cat 1
b. baby 4. boy
7. engine 5. cow |
8. soldier
r
l?otal
9. man
10. boat
Total
A. Figure-ground and Visual Closure Homogeneous and Heterogeneous: Place number
of position of response in box if incorrect response is made. Place check (✓)
in box at which degree correct response is made.
B. Criterion; Mu3t have two consecutive correct responses before proceeding to
next picture in series.
* Items were randomised to provide three orders of presentation (i.e., SET I,
SET II, SET III).
APPENDIX C
THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OP PERCEPTION
FOR INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT-TYPES
161
162
TABLE 9
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 1
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L o ad in g s
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .8 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t - 0.82
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l - 0.82
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
-0 .7 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n
-0 .7 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t -0 .7 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous f i s h - 0.67
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon
-0 .6 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous i c e cream -0 .6 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t
-0 .5 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .4 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous bowl -0 .4 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
-0 .3 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny
-0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t - 0.32
F ig u re -g ro u n d book - 0.32
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r - 0.30
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .2 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e -0 .2 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous saw -0 .2 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o r s e - 0 .22
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e - 0.2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous tr u c k - 0.18
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous cow 0.16
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous boy 0 .1 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous m itte n 0.11
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous c a t -0 .0 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck
-0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous bed - 0.06
V is u a l c lo s u r e e n g in e - 0 .02
163
TABLE 10
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 1
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n
-0 .7 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous t r u c k -0 .7 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e man - 0.72
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t -0 .6 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0 .6 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
-0 .6 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
-0 .5 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow
-0 .5 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .5 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .4 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t
- 0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck
-0 .3 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t
-0 .2 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw - 0.26
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream -0 .2 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny
-0 .2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0 .2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e
-0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t
-0 .1 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .0 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l - 0.08
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
-0 .0 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h
-0 .0 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n
0 .0 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d book - 0 .0 2
164
TABLE 11
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 2
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h 0.87
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t 0.83
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0 .6 l
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0.57
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at 0.5 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0 .5 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0.53
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous t r u c k 0 .5 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .5 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .4 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0.38
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e 0 .3 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .3 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l 0 .2 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o at 0 .2 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0.25
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .2 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e man 0 .1 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .1 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl 0 .l 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e en gine 0 .1 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0.10
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0.08
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0.07
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e 0.06
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .0 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .0 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t 0.03
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .0 1
165
TABLE 1 2
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 2
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t
-0 .7 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
-0 .7 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t - 0.72
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
-0 .6 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl -0 .6 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .5 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .5 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw
-0 .3 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n - 0.29
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
-0 .2 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .2 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0 .2 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .1 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0 .1 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n -0 .1 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h
-0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy
-0 .1 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream - 0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .1 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .1 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at -0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous t r u c k 0.08
V is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous c a t - 0.08
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine
-0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny
-0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
-0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .0 1
166
TABLE 13
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 3
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at - 0.82
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n - 0.82
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
-0 .7 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .7 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
-0 .6 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e
-0 .6 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0 .5 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
-0 .5 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup -0 .4 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
-0 .3 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0 .3 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t
-0 .3 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat - 0.30
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck - 0.30
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .2 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0 .2 3
V is u a l c lo s u re bunny - 0.21
F ig u re -g ro u n d book - 0.21
V is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous t r u c k - 0.20
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e
-0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog - 0.16
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0.16
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t -0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e a i r p l a n e -0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse - 0 .11
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw - 0.10
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow - 0.10
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream
-0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0.06
167
TABLE l4
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 3
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e - 0 .82
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .8 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o at
-0 .7 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup -0 .6 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0 .6 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e - 0.60
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .5 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .3 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .3 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k
0 .2 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream
-0 .2 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t -0 .2 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl -0 .2 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e - 0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t -0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse -0 .2 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed - 0.18
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw - 0.18
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
- 0.17
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog
-0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .1 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy
-0 .0 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en
-0 .0 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .0 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .0 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l 0 .0 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine 0 .0 0
168
TABLE 1 5
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 4
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0.92
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e 0.81
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
0.77
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse 0.62
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine 0.58
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t
0.51
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0.46
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0 . 4 l
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0.40
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow
-0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0.34
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0.27
V is u a l c lo s u r e man 0.27
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k 0.25
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0.24
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0.23
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t -0.18
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0.13
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0.13
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l 0.12
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0.11
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy
0.09
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h
-0 .0 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl - 0.06
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed o.o4
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0.03
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en -0.01
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat 0.01
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at -0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0.00
169
TABLE 16
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 4
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L o ad in g s
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck
0 .9 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous i c e cream
0 .8 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n
0 .6 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0.62
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
0.55
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t 0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t -0 .3 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
0.33
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
0 .3 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0 .3 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous m itte n 0 .3 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t
0 .2 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
0 .2 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e
0 .2 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .2 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous boy
0.23
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .2 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous bowl 0 .2 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .1 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l 0 .1 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous c a t -0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous t r u c k 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous cow - 0.06
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous f i s h 0.06
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous bed -0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .0 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous saw 0 .0 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e e n g in e 0 .0 0
170
TABLE 1 7
V ISU AL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 5
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n -0 .8 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .8 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous t r u c k -0 .8 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .8 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l -0 .6 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .6 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .5 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t -0 .5 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .5 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t -0 .5 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t -0 .4 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .4 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .3 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0 .2 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0 .2 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .2 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl -0 .2 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .2 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .1 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .1 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at -0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e -0 .0 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e a i r p l a n e -0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .0 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream -0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e 0 .0 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0 .0 0
171
TABLE 18
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 5
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name Loadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e boat -0 .8 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine -0 .7 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
-0 .7 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .4 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0.4 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
-0 .3 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .3 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d ch ick en 0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0.25
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t -0 .2 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat
-0 .2 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0.2 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous hoy - 0.18
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .1 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t 0.13
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p la n e -0 .1 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l -0 .1 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse
-0 .0 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d book
-0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous ic e cream 0 .0 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny o .o 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .0 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n -0 .0 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl - 0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .0 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .0 1
172
TABLE 19
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 6
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon O.87
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .8 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e O.83
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0 .7 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e en gine O.58
F ig u re -g ro u n d b oat O.56
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t 0 .5 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0 .4 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 . 4 l
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .3 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l O.36
V is u a l c lo s u r e man 0 .3 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .2 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0 .2 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h 0.26
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0 .2 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl 0.23
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .2 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e 0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0 .1 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0 .1 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t 0 .1 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream -0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .0 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .0 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n 0 .0 2
V isu a l c lo s u r e bo at -0 .0 1
173
TABLE 20
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 6
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
0 .8 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h 0.80
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .7 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream
0 .7 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
0.63
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0 .5 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t 0 .4 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed
0 .3 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0 .3 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny
0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t
0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0.32
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .3 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0.28
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0.26
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0.26
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e
0.2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k 0.18
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse 0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e man 0 .1 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
-0 .0 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat 0.08
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine 0.05
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t -0 .0 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
0.03
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .0 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en 0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e boat 0 .0 0
174
TABLE 2 1
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 7
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l -0 .8 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t -0 .8 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck - 0.82
F ig u re -gro u n d homog,eneous saw
-0 .7 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t - 0.70
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t
-0 .6 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r - 0.62
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e - 0.60
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed - 0.60
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t
-0 .5 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n
-0 .5 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
-0 .5 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k
-0 .4 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0 .3 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h
-0 .2 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0 .2 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .2 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
-0 .1 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
-0 .1 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby - 0.18
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n
0.1 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0 .1 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon - 0.08
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
-0 .0 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e
0 .0 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine 0 .0 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous I c e cream 0 .0 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .0 0
175
TABLE 22
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 7
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
-0 .8 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog
-0 .7 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .6 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy
-0 .6 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine
-0 .5 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .5 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl -0 .4 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .4 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .4 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .3 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l - 0.27
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon - 0.26
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .2 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0 .2 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o at -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .2 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0 .1 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e - 0.16
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en 0.16
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e - o . l 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .1 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e boat -0 .1 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup -0 .1 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t
-0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0.08
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t
0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0 .0 0
176
TABLE 23
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 7
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 3
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L o ad in g s
V is u a l c lo s u r e a i r p l a n e -0 .8 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .7 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .7 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl -0 .6 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t -0 .5 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e e n g in e -0 .4 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .4 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny - 0 . 4 l
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n -0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t - 0 .3 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .3 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0 .3 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .2 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .2 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0 .2 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0 .1 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l -0 .1 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .1 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .1 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0 .1 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t -0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .1 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous t r u c k 0 .0 9
F ig u re ground h a t -0 .0 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .0 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .0 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .0 1
177
TABLE 24
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 8
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup -O.89
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .8 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .8 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .7 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o at -0 .7 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .6 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .6 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l -0 .5 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0 .5 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl -0 .3 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t -0 .3 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .3 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream -0 .3 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .2 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .2 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e -0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .2 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0.13
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .1 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .0 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e -0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t -0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .0 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0 .0 0
178
TABLE 25
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 8
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L o ad in g s
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0.8 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous m itte n - 0.81
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t
-0.7^
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0 .6 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0.6 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e e n g in e -0 .5 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous bed
-0.43
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous saw -0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
-0 .3 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous c a t
-0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t -0.36
V is u a l c lo s u r e a i r p l a n e -0 .3 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
-0 .3 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny - 0.28
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0.28
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .2 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e
0.17
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous bow l
-0 .1 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t - o . i 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous i c e cream -0.11
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0.11
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0.10
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog
-0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous tr u c k 0.08
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous boy 0.08
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup - 0.06
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous cow -o .o 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0.03
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous f i s h 0.00
179
TABLE 26
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 9
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
. ■ ■ i i I . . .... i ll ■ —
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t 0 .8 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0.83
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0 .8 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
0 .7 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n
0 .7 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h 0 .6 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0.65
F ig u re -g ro u n d book
0.63
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream
0 .5 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .3 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t
0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .3 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0 .2 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .2 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed
0 .1 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .1 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k
0.13
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e 0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e eng ine 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e man 0 .0 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .0 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0.05
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
-0 .0 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t
-0 .0 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0.03
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .0 1
180
TABLE 27
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 9
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name Loadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e -0 .8 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .8 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .6 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at
-0 .5 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
-0 .5 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e -0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
-0 .3 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .3 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e -0 .3 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl 0 .2 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e man -0 .2 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog - 0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat -0 .1 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en
0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .1 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0 .1 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy
-0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t -0 .1 1
V is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous bed - 0 .1 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t
- 0 .0 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
- 0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d book - 0 .0 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h -0 .0 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon - 0 .0 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .0 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny - 0 .0 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n - 0 .0 1
l 8 l
TABLE 28
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 10
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
Figure--ground homogeneous bowl
-0 .9 1
F igure--ground homogeneous i c e cream
-0 .9 1
V is u a l c lo s u re h o rs e
-0 .6 7
F igure--ground homogeneous saw - 0 .6 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p la n e
-0 .5 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .5 2
F igure--ground homogeneous f i s h -0 .4 8
F igure--ground b o t t l e
-0 .3 7
F igure--ground wagon
-0 .3 5
F igure--ground duck
-0 .3 3
F igure--ground cup -0 .3 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e -0 .2 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby - 0 .2 6
F igure--ground boat -0 .2 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous tr u c k -0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny
-0 .1 9
F igure--ground c h ic k en 0 .1 8
V isu a l c lo s u r e man
-0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t - 0 .1 6
F ig u re--ground b a sk e t -0 .1 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at -0 .1 4
F ig u r e - -ground f o o t b a l l
0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r -0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .1 1
F ig u re--ground homogeneous : m itte n - 0 .1 0
F ig u re--ground h a t - 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u re t a b l e - 0 .1 0
F ig u r e - -ground book
-0 .0 9
182
TABLE 29
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 10
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e man 0 .8 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 . 8 l
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .8 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0 .6 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at 0 .5 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t 0 .4 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n 0 . 4 l
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h 0 .4 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l 0.3 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0.35
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e 0 .3 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .3 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .2 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed -0 .2 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t 0.20
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0 .2 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e 0 .1 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl 0 .1 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e v 18
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t 0 . l 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0 .1 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k 0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon 0 .0 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0.05
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup 0.03
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .0 1
183
TABLE 30
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 11
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
F igure--ground b o at 0 .8 2
F igure--ground wagon 0 .7 6
F igure--ground b o t t l e
0 .7 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e
0 .7 1
F igure--ground duck
0 .6 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
0 .5 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
0 .5 3
F igure--ground homogeneous bowl 0 .4 7
F igure--ground book 0 .4 6
F igure--ground b a sk e t 0 .4 6
F igure--ground h a t
0 .3 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .3 6
F ig u r e - -ground homogeneous saw
0 .3 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .3 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .2 8
F igure--ground homogeneous f i s h 0 .2 1
F igure--ground cup 0 .2 0
F igure--ground homogeneous i c e cream - 0 .1 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed
0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k
-0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u re b o at - 0 .0 8
F igure--ground f o o t b a l l - 0 .0 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .0 8
F igure--ground c h ic k e n
0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e engine 0 .0 7
F igure--ground homogeneous m itte n 0 .0 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e 0 .0 5
184
TABLE 31
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 11
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name Loadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
0 .7 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
0.75
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .5 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck 0 .5 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h 0.43
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en 0.40
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0.3 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
0.33
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat 0.30
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .2 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0.27
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream 0 .2 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse 0.23
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e 0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t 0.17
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw 0 .16
V is u a l c lo s u r e en gine 0.15
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl 0.13
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t 0.11
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow - 0 .0 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n 0 .0 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e -0 .0 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .0 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d book 0.03
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .0 2
V is u a l c lo s u re boat -0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous c a t -0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .0 7
185
TABLE 32
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 12
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d boat
0 .9 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
0 .7 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .7 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
0 .6 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e boat 0 .6 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l
0 .5 1
F igure--ground b a sk e t 0 .5 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed
0 .4 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy 0 .4 6
F ig ure--ground homogeneous m itte n 0 .4 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .4 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e
-0 .3 9
F ig u r e - -ground book
-0 .3 7
F igure--ground homogeneous saw 0 .2 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k
0.25
F ig ure--ground duck
0.25
F ig ure--ground homogeneous f i s h -0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow 0 .2 2
F ig ure--ground b o t t l e 0 .2 0
F ig ure--ground h a t
0 .1 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
0 .1 7
F ig ure--ground cup - 0 .0 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog
0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e
0 .0 7
F ig ure--ground wagon
0.03
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .0 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl 0 .0 1
F ig ure--ground c h ic k e n - 0.01
F ig ure--ground homogeneous ic e cream 0 .0 0
186
TABLE 33
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 12
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name L oadings
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k -0 .8 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .8 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck -0 .7 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i s h
-0 .6 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l -0 .5 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t -0 .4 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .3 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed
-0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at -0 .3 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
- 0 .2 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n - 0 .2 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e - 0 .2 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0 .2 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream -0 .2 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup
-0 .1 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e
-0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
0 .1 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t
-0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
-0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .1 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t
-0 .0 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
-0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e
0 .0 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
0 .0 7
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e 0 .0 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o at -0 .0 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en -0 .0 2
187
TABLE 34
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 13
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L o ad in g s
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous bowl -0.90
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0.81
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous saw -0.68
V is u a l c lo s u r e e n g in e -0.66
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e -0.66
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0.64
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0.55
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous t r u c k -0.48
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck
-0.37
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous m itte n
-0.35
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t -0.34
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o r s e -0 .3 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0.30
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0.30
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l - 0.26
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous f i s h -0.25
V is u a l c lo s u r e a i r p l a n e -0 .2 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous cow -0.23
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k e n -0 .2 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o a t
-0 .1 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous bed -0.18
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a s k e t -0.17
V is u a l c lo s u r e man - 0.16
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .1 4
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon -0.13
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous c a t - 0.06
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup -o .o 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous boy
-0.03
F ig u re -g ro u n d hom ogeneous i c e cream 0.02
188
TABLE 35
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE 13
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name L o ad in g s
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous c a t
-0 .7 ^
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .7 4
F ig u re --gro u n d b o a t -0 .7 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t
-0 .6 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous bed -0 .6 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
-0 .5 1
F ig u re --ground b a s k e t -0 .4 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog - 0 .4 2
F ig u re --ground h a t
-0 .3 7
F ig u re --ground c h ic k e n
-0 .3 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r
-0 .3 5
F ig u r e - -ground b o t t l e -0 .3 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e a i r p l a n e
-0 .3 1
F ig u re --ground duck
-0 .3 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous cow -0 .2 5
F ig u r e - -ground hom ogeneous saw -0 .2 4
F ig u r e - -ground cup 0 .2 2
F ig u r e - -ground f o o t b a l l -0 .2 1
F ig u re --ground hom ogeneous bowl - 0 .2 0
F ig u re --ground wagon
-0 .1 7
F ig u re --ground hom ogeneous i c e cream
- 0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e e n g in e -0 .1 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
-0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous t r u c k
-0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rs e 0 .1 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby -0 .1 2
F ig u r e - -ground hom ogeneous m itte n - 0 .0 8
F ig u re --ground book -0 .0 4
F ig u re --ground hom ogeneous f i s h -0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e hom ogeneous boy -0 .0 2
189
TABLE 36
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE "0"
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 1
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a ria b le Name Loadings
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o at -0 .8 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d b o t t l e -0 .8 1
F ig u re -g ro u n d wagon
-0 .7 9
F ig u re -g ro u n d book -0 .7 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d h a t -0 .7 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d cup -0 .7 0
F ig u re -g ro u n d duck
-0 .6 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d b a sk e t - 0 .5 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous bowl
-0 .5 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy -0 .4 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous f i sh -0 .4 3
F ig u re -g ro u n d f o o t b a l l - 0 .4 2
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous i c e cream -0 .4 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse
-0 .3 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e en g in e
-0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog -0 .2 5
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous m itte n -0 .2 2
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous cow -0 .1 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous tr u c k
-0 .1 7
V is u a l c lo s u r e man - 0 .1 6
V is u a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e - 0 .1 6
F ig u re -g ro u n d homogeneous saw -0 .1 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e
-0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed 0 .1 0
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby
-0 .0 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e s o l d i e r - 0 .0 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o a t - 0 .0 8
F ig u re -g ro u n d c h ic k en
0.03
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t 0 .0 1
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny -0 .0 1
190
TABLE 37
VISUAL PERCEPTUAL COMPONENTS FOR SUBJECT TYPE "0"
ORDERED LOADINGS FOR FACTOR 2
VARIMAX FACTOR PATTERN
V a r ia b le Name Loadings
V is u a l e lo s u r e s o l d i e r 0 .8 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous bed
0 .7 9
V is u a l c lo s u r e b o at 0 .7 4
V is u a l c lo s u r e man
0 .7 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e bunny
O.67
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous c a t
O.67
V is u a l c lo s u re engine
0 .5 9
F igure--ground homogeneous saw
0 .5 9
F igure--ground f o o t b a l l 0.56
F ig ure--ground b a sk e t 0 .4 4
F igure--ground homogeneous f i sh 0 .4 3
V isu a l c lo s u r e a ir p l a n e
0 .3 9
F ig u re - -ground homogeneous bowl 0.36
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous t r u c k 0 .3 4
F igure--ground homogeneous m itte n
0 .3 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e baby 0 .3 2
F igure--ground h a t 0 .2 8
Figure--ground homogeneous i c e cream 0 .2 8
V is u a l c lo s u re homogeneous cow 0 .2 8
V is u a l c lo s u r e t a b l e O.25
V is u a l c lo s u r e dog 0 .2 1
F ig u re - -ground duck 0 .1 6
Figure--ground b o t t l e 0 .1 6
F ig ure--ground book -0 .1 5
V is u a l c lo s u r e h o rse -0 .1 3
V is u a l c lo s u r e homogeneous boy
-0 .1 3
F ig ure--ground b oat 0 .0 8
Figure--ground cup - 0 .0 6
Figure--ground ch ic k en -0 .0 1
Figure--ground wagon 0 .0 0
APPENDIX D
MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OP INDIVIDUAL
MATURATIONAL VARIABLES FOR SUBJECT-TYPES
WITH SIGNIFICANT MULTIVARIATE F RATIOS
191
192
TABLE 38
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 2 EROM THE DISADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le - 1.00 0
Sex ( l = m ales; 2 = fem a le s) 1.50 0 .5 0
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 5 2.1 0
3 .2 3
Columbia raw sc o re 19.50
10.99
Columbia m ental age 4 8 .9 0 5 .8 3
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 94.00 9.08
Peabody raw sc o re 29.80 11.27
Peabody m en tal age 36.60
8 .8 9
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 7 4 .4 0 15.52
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
4 .6 0 2.80
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 8 .7 0 5 .0 0
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 3 .4 0 2.61
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 2.50 1.85
Locomotor developm ent 2.80 0 .4 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
12.30 4 .9 6
193
TABLE 39
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 2 PROM THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(n=i o )
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b l e 1 .0 0 0
Sex ( l = m ales; 2 = fe m a le s) 1.4 0 0 .4 8
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 5 6 .6 0 2.45
Columbia raw s c o re 5 6 .4 0 13.07
Columbia m ental age 7 6 .2 0
13.51
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 134.50 22.47
Peabody raw sc o re 57.1 0 4 .8 2
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 115.70 8 .5 0
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
9 .3 0 2.10
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 3 .4 0 5 .8 8
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 1.0 0
2 .1 9
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 0 .4 0
0 .9 1
Locomotor developm ent 3 .0 0 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re 0 .1 0 15.30
(Colum bia minus Peabody)
194
TABLE 40
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 3 FROM THE DISADVANTAGED
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
SAMPLE
V a r ia b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le -1 .0 0 0
Sex ( l = m ales; 2 = fe m a le s) 1.50 0 .5 0
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 53.40 3 .2 6
Columbia raw sc o re 23.80 8 .1 4
Columbia m en tal age
5 0 .50 3 .5 0
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 95.10 10.96
Peabody raw sc o re 31.50 13.30
Peabody m en tal age 4 0 .0 0 12.44
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 76.3 0
19.37
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
6 .7 0 2.41
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 7 .6 0 4 .2 0
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s )
1.8o 1.93
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s (o m issio n s) 2.50 2.10
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
10.50 14.30
195
TABLE 4 l
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 3 FROM THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N^IO)
V a r ia b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b l e 1.00 0
Sex ( l = m ales; 2 = fe m a le s) 1.30 0 .4 5
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 58.0 0
3.31
Columbia raw sc o re 5 5 .2 0 11.18
Columbia m ental age
7 2 .9 0 11.36
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ
125.20 14.46
Peabody raw s c o re s 5 6.10 5 .5 0
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 7 3 .6 0 12.25
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
112.40
9 .3 7
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 9 .6 0 2 .90
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 3 .6 0 3 .6 1
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s (o m issio n s) 0 .6 0 1.01
Locomotor developm ent 0 .7 0 1.10
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
-0 .7 0 9 .8 0
196
TABLE 42
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 6 FROM THE DISADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b l e -1 .0 0 0
Sex ( l = m alesj 2 = fe m a le s) 1.30 0.45
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 51.3 0
3.9 7
Columbia raw sc o re 20.60
10.55
Columbia m ental age 49.4 0 5.25
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ, 9 6.40 8 .6 1
Peabody raw sc o re 29.40 11.20
Peabody m en tal age 3 6.00 7 .8 4
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 7 4 .4 0 12.22
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
5 .4 0 2.61
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 8 .6 o 3 .5 8
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 4 .6 0 4 .0 5
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 5 .5 0 5 .4 2
Locomotor developm ent 3 .0 0 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Colum bia minus Peabody)
13.40 8 .9 8
197
TABLE 43
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 6 FROM THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
V a r ia b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D e sig n (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le 1.0 0 0
Sex ( l = m a le s; 2 = fe m a le s )
1.40 0 .4 8
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age
53.00
7 . H
C olum bia raw s c o re 4 8 .4 0 12.87
C olum bia m e n ta l age 66.7 0 9.63
C olum bia n o n - v e r b a l IQ
125.90 10.45
Peabody raw s c o re 4 8 .2 0 13.42
Peabody m e n ta l age 62.3 0 14.86
Peabody v e r b a l IQ
105.90 13.13
G eom etric d e s ig n s — v i s u a l m otor
p e rfo rm a n c e
8 .4 0 4 .6 7
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 10.10
9.47
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 2.50 2.61
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m is s io n s ) 4 .1 0 8 .2 0
L ocom otor developm ent 2.80 0 .4 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l s c o re
(C olum bia m inus Peabody)
4 .4 o 9.25
198
TABLE 44
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 7 PROM THE DISADVANTAGED
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
SAMPLE
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le -1 .0 0 0
Sex ( l = m alesj 2 = fem a le s)
1.70 0.45
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 54.40 2.83
Columbia raw sc o re 20.60 10.68
Columbia m en tal age 4 9 .2 0 4 . 8 l
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 90.70 10.76
Peabody raw sc o re 27.20 11.56
Peabody m en tal age 3 5.90 8 .5 1
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 7 0.10 18.72
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
p erform ance
6 .1 0 3 .7 2
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 9.9 0 4 .8 8
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 2.90 2.46
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 3 .9 0 3 .9 1
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
13.30
6 .5 5
..
199
TABLE 45
SUBJECTS IN TYPE J PROM THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le 1.00 0
Sex ( l = m alesj 2 = fem a le s) 1.50 0 .5 0
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 5 6.60 2.28
Columbia raw s c o re 53.1 0
5.73
Columbia m en tal age 6 9.80
5 .7 9
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 123.30 8.36
Peabody raw sc o re 53.50 4 .9 6
Peabody m en tal age 67.60 11.06
Peabody v e rb a l IQ 110.80 6 .4 7
G eom etric d e s ig n s — v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
10.10 3 .5 6
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 4 .1 0 5 .6 8
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 2.10 3.83
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 0.20 0 .4 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
2.20 9 .8 4
200
TABLE 46
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 10 FROM THE DISADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
V a r ia b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le -1 .0 0 0
Sex ( l = m ales; 2 = fe m a le s) 1 .60 0 .4 8
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 52.00
4 .1 7
Columbia raw sc o re 19.50 12.48
Columbia m en tal age 4 9 .0 0
5 .9 1
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 94.50 10.92
Peabody raw sc o re 28.20 9.27
Peabody m en tal age 36.40 7 .8 0
Peabody v e r b a l IQ 7 3 .50 13.93
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perfo rm an ce
5 .6 0 8 .1 6
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 10.00
5 .1 9
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 5 .8 0 4 .7 4
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 4 .9 0 5 .2 2
Locomotor developm ent 2.90 0 .3 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Colum bia minus Peabody)
12.60 9.70
201
TABLE 47
SUBJECTS IN TYPE 10 EROM THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=10)
V a r ia b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b l e 1.00 0
Sex ( l = m alesj 2 = fe m a le s) 1.5 0 0.50
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 56 .3 0 2.28
Columbia raw sc o re 56.50
11.39
Columbia m en tal age 74.6 0 9.67
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ, 126.60 15.74
Peabody raw sc o re 55.90 2.62
Peabody m en tal age 7 3 .2 0 5 .8 4
Peabody v e r b a l IQ 115.20 5 .3 6
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
8 .6 0 2.01
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 2.90 4 .8 8
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 1.2 0
1.99
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 0 .1 0 0 .3 0
Locomotor developm ent 3 .0 0 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
1.4 0
10.33
202
TABLE 48
SUBJECTS IN TYPE "0" FROM THE DISADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=17)
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le - 1.00 0
Sex ( l = m ales; 2 = fe m a le s) 1.70 0.45
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age
55.35 2.05
Columbia raw sc o re
21.47 11.85
Columbia m e n ta l age 49.9 4 6 .1 4
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ
90.29 10.51
Peabody raw sc o re 29.82
9.37
Peabody m en tal age 37.8 2 8 .1 6
Peabody v e r b a l IQ 7 0.64 14.22
G eom etric d e s ig n s — v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
6 .5 8 3 .2 1
M i s a r t ic u la t io n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 9.64 5 .9 6
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s )
3 .1 1
3 .6 2
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 2.70 4 .0 5
Locomotor developm ent 2.70 0 .9 5
D i f f e r e n t i a l sc o re 12.11 7 .8 2
(Columbia minus Peabody)
203
TABLE 49
SUBJECTS IN TYPE "0" FROM THE ADVANTAGED SAMPLE
STATISTICS FOR ORIGINAL SCORES
(N=28)
V a ria b le Name Mean S td . Dev.
D esign (in d e p e n d e n t) v a r i a b le 1.00 0
Sex ( l = m alesj 2 = fem a le s) 1.50 0 .5 0
C h ro n o lo g ic a l age 5 4 .00 5 .3 8
Columbia raw sc o re 52.03 11.75
Columbia m en tal age 7 0 .1 4 10.30
Columbia n o n -v e rb a l IQ 130.46
17.67
Peabody raw sc o re
5 4 .71 9 .2 9
Peabody m en tal age 7 2 .2 8 18.07
Peabody v e r b a l IQ 114.92 13.04
G eom etric d e s ig n s —v i s u a l m otor
perform ance
8 .8 2
3 .8 9
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( s u b s t i t u t i o n s ) 4 .6 7
6 .4 8
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s ( d i s t o r t i o n s ) 1.03
2.27
M i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s (o m issio n s) 0 .1 7
0 .4 6
Locomotor developm ent 2.89
0 .3 0
D i f f e r e n t i a l s c o re
(Columbia minus Peabody)
11.57 11.33

Asset Metadata

Creator Hall, Edward Pierce (author)

Core Title An Analysis And Comparison Of The Figure-Ground And Visual Closure Abilities Of Two Preschool Groups Of Children With A Deprived Or Advantaged Language Background

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Communicative Disorders

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag health sciences, speech pathology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Wood, Nancy E. (committee chair), Haney, Russell (committee member), Longstreth, Langdon E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-486887

Unique identifier UC11362407

Identifier 7221675.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-486887 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7221675

Dmrecord 486887

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hall, Edward Pierce

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA