University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Proactive Effects In Meaningful Verbal Learning And Retention In Eighth Grade Students

(USC Thesis Other)

Proactive Effects In Meaningful Verbal Learning And Retention In Eighth Grade Students

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Content 72-585
WULF, Kathleen McFarland, 19M-1-
PROACTIVE EFFECTS IN MEANINGFUL VERBAL
LEARNING AND RETENTION IN EIGHTH
GRADE STUDENTS.
University of Southern California, Ph.D.,
1971
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A XEROX Company , A nn Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFLIMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
PROACTIVE EFFECTS IN MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING
AND RETENTION IN EIGHTH GRADE STUDENTS
by-
K a th le e n McFarland Wulf
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t of th e
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u catio n )
June 1971
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFO R N IA
TH E GRADUATE SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LO S A N G ELE S, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
K ath leen McFarland IVulf
under the direction of h~or... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
.
Dean
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
....(j....
Chairman,r / \ *
--------
PLEASE NOTE:
Some Pages have I n d i s t i n c t
p r i n t . Filmed as received.
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS
TABLE O F CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I . THE PROBLEM................................................................................. 1
S ta te m e n t o f th e P rob lem ................................................... 1
The S tu d y o f Rote L e a r n in g .............................................. 2
The S tu d y of M eanin gful L e a r n in g ............................... 6
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms ............................................................. 8
T h e o rie s of T r a n s f e r and R e t e n t i o n ................................11
I n t e r f e r e n c e Theory ............................................................. 13
Subsum ption T h eo ry ........................................................................ 15
T h e o rie s of O v e r le a r n in g .........................................................18
T r a n s f e r of S i m i la r M a t e r i a l s .................................... 19
Purpose o f T h is S t u d y ..............................................................23
I I . THIS STUDY............................................................................................ 2b
E x p e rim e n ta l H ypotheses .......................... . . . . . 2b
N ull H y p o t h e s e s .............................................................................2?
L e a rn in g M a t e r i a l s ........................................................................25
T e s t of E f f e c t o f th e In d ep e n d en t V a r ia b l e . . 27
P r o c e d u r e s ............................................................................................29
A n a ly sis of D a ta .............................................................................32
The S am ple............................................................................................33
D e l im i ta ti o n s of th e S tu d y ....................................................33
A s s u m p t i o n s .......................................................................................3*+
ii
CHAPTER PAGE
I I I . FINDINGS...................................................................................... 35
F in d in g s R egarding th e Sam ple............................... 35
F in d in g s R egarding T e s t P e rfo rm a n ce................ 36
S t a t i s t i c a l T re a tm e n t....................................................... 39
F in d in g s from S u b j e c t s 1 R esponses to
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ...................................................................... *+5
Summary o f F i n d i n g s ............................................................ 57
IV. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH. . . . 59
Summary. . . „......................................................................... 59
R e c a p i t u l a t i o n of th e H ypotheses ............................ 61
F in d in g s R egarding th e F i r s t H y p o th e sis. . . 62
F in d in g s R egarding th e Second H yp oth esis . . 63
F in d in g s R egarding th e T h ird H y p o th e sis. . . 63
I m p lic a tio n s f o r R e se arch ........................................... 6^
REFERENCES.......................................................................... . . . 68
APPENDIX A Reading P a s s a g e s ............................................ 7*+
APPENDIX B T e s t ................................. 85
APPENDIX C D i r e c t io n s ........................................................... 91
APPENDIX D Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ..................................................... 9^
iii
LIST O F TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I . P r i n c i p a l Types of M e d ia tio n P aradigm s. . . . 3
I I . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of T e s t Item s A ccording
t o th e Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c tiv e s
f o r th e T e s t ..................................................................... 28
I I I . O rder of L e a rn in g P a ss a g e s f o r th e Four
E x p e r im e n ta l S e s s io n s f o r th e T h ree G roups. 31
IV. Raw D ata on S u b je c ts L o st from O r i g i n a l
S am ple..................................................................................... 37
V. C om parison o f F i n a l Sample Groups ......................... 38
V I. C om parison o f Group Means ............................................. ^0
V I I . Raw D a ta f o r O v e r le a r n i n g - P r o a c t i v e G roup,
Group I ................................................................................ ^1
V I I I . Raw D ata f o r P r o a c t i v e Group, Group I I . . . . *+2
IX. Raw D ata f o r C o n tro l Group, Group I I I . . . . ^3
X. C om parison o f C o r r e l a t i o n s Between IQ 's
and T e s ts I and I I , W ith in G r o u p s .....................
X I. A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e f o r T e s t I a s th e
D ependent V a r i a b l e ...................................................... b6
X I I . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n ce f o r T e s t I I as th e
D ependent V a r i a b l e ...................................................... b-7
X I I I . A n a ly s is o f C o v a ria n ce f o r T e s t I
as th e D ependent V a r i a b l e .................................. M -8
i v
TABLE PAGE
XIV. A n a ly sis of C ovariance f o r T e s t I I
as th e Dependent V a r i a b l e ...............................................* 4 -9
XV. Raw D ata f o r th e Three Groups on
S u b t e s t o f F iv e I t e m s ........................................................ 50
XVI. A n a ly sis o f V ariance f o r th e
F iv e - I te m S u b te s t of T e st I
as th e Dependent V a ria b le . . . . . . . . . 51
XVII. A n a ly sis of V ariance f o r th e
F iv e -I te m S u b te s t o f T e s t I I
as th e Dependent V a r i a b l e .............................................. 52
X V III. Q u e s tio n n a ir e Responses f o r Group I ...................... 5^
XIX. Q u e s tio n n a ire Responses f o r Group I I ...................... 55
XX. Q u e s tio n n a ir e Responses f o r Group I I I . . . . 56
v
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem
Though s t u d y o f t r a n s f e r o f t r a i n i n g h a s alw ays b een a
c e n t r a l i s s u e i n e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g y , i t h a s to o o f t e n
b e e n l i m i t e d t o r o t e s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e t r e a t m e n t s , f a i l i n g
t o d e a l w ith m e a n in g fu l c la s s ro o m m a t e r i a l s . Deese and
H u lse o b se rv e d
I t i s , i n p o i n t o f f a c t , r a t h e r d i s a p p o i n t i n g t o f i n d
t h a t i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e have been r e l a t i v e l y few
c o n c e r te d e f f o r t s t o a p p ly th e d e t a i l s o f t h e t h e o r y o f
t r a n s f e r o f t r a i n i n g t o p r a c t i c a l p ro b le m s. One r e a
s o n , p e r h a p s , t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n h a s lag g e d i n r e c e n t
y e a r s i s b e c a u se t r a n s f e r t h e o r y h a s b e e n so c o m p le te ly
d om inated by th e s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e a n a l y s i s . . . C er
t a i n l y a t one tim e th e t h e o r y o f t r a n s f e r s to o d a t th e
v e r y c e n t e r o f e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o lo g y , and i t would
seem t h a t th e tim e i s r i p e f o r i t t o r e t u r n t o i t s f o r
mer em inence* (D eese and H u ls e , 1967, p . 369)
Such a r e l i a n c e upon th e f i n d i n g s of r o t e s t u d i e s has
l e d t o a n e g l e c t o f th e n a tu r e and c o n d i t i o n s o f m e a n in g fu l
v e r b a l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n , a llo w in g t r a d i t i o n a l r o t e
t e c h n iq u e s t o be p e r p e tu a te d i n th e c la s s ro o m . M eaningful
m a t e r i a l s a r e s t i l l t a u g h t and l e a r n e d a s i f th e y w ere r o t e
i n c h a r a c t e r , and t h e r e f o r e a r e r e t a i n e d i n e f f e c t i v e l y .
Only r e c e n t l y h a s t h e r e b e e n c o n c e rn w i t h t h e problem o f
f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e m e a n in g fu l a c q u i s i t i o n and r e t e n t i o n o f
b o d ie s o f knowledge*
1
The problem to be examined by t h i s stu d y i s th e e f f e c t
o f l e a r n in g a p r o a c tiv e m eaningful passage upon th e s u b s e
q u e n t l e a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n of s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l .
The S tu dy o f R ote L earning
The g r e a t b u lk o f e x p e rim e n ta l work on human v e r b a l
l e a r n i n g h as employed m a t e r i a l t h a t was not in ten d ed t o be
m e a n in g fu l. T his was d e l i b e r a t e , aimed a t e li m in a ti n g th e
confoun din g e f f e c t s of p rev io u s l e a r n i n g by re d u c in g mean
in g i n so f a r as p o s s i b l e . Three t a s k s , nonsense s y l l a b l e s ,
s e r i a l l e a r n i n g , and p a ire d a s s o c i a t e le a r n in g w ere f r e
q u e n tl y u se d . P a ire d a s s o c i a t e l e a r n i n g , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
se rv e d as a model of th e a s s o c i a t i v e p ro c e s s .
I t h as been e s t a b l i s h e d (Underwood and S c h u lz , I960)
t h a t p a ire d a s s o c i a t e le a r n in g o ccurs in two s t a g e s : 1) r e
spo nse l e a r n i n g , which c o n s i s t s of making th e re sp o n se
a v a i l a b l e t o th e l e a r n e r , and 2) a s s o c i a t i o n s t a g e , in which
s t i m u l i a re p a ire d w ith r e s p o n s e s . The a u th o rs concluded
t h a t such v a r i a b l e s as a s s o c i a t i o n v a lu e and fre q u e n c y were
m ain ly im p o rta n t i n th e r e s p o n s e - le a r n i n g phase.
Another te c h n iq u e (H orow itz, 1962) allow ed s tu d y o f th e
a s s o c i a t i v e phase w ith o u t th e in f lu e n c e of re s p o n se l e a r n
i n g . There were no re s p o n s e s t o l e a r n . The s u b j e c t was
exposed to stim u lu s re s p o n se p a i r s and was th e n su p p lie d
w ith a form board w ith a l l th e s t i m u l i p r in te d on i t and a
p a c k e t of c a rd s c o n ta in in g the re s p o n s e s . The t a s k was to
match re s p o n s e s t o s t i m u l i . Horow itz found t h a t i f th e
3
r e s p o n s e s w ere h i g h l y s i m i l a r t o one a n o t h e r , such m atch in g
was more d i f f i c u l t t h a n i f th e y w ere n o t.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e a s s o c i a t i o n s i n r o t e
v e r b a l l e a r n i n g h a s b een examined i n term s o f th e p r i n c i p l e
o f m e d i a t i o n , w hich a s s e r t s t h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s som etim es
come a b o u t b etw een two e le m e n ts , A and B, b e c a u se t h e y a r e
b o th a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t h i r d e le m e n t C. The t h i r d term
s e r v e s t o b r i d g e th e gap betw een th e two n o n -c o n tig u o u s
t e r m s . The e s s e n t i a l problem i n th e s tu d y o f m e d ia tio n i s
th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e ways i n w hich i n t e r v e n i n g term s
o p e r a t e t o l i n k th e two ite m s . M e d ia tio n b e h a v io r h a s b een
d e f i n e d i n a v a r i e t y o f e x p e r im e n ta l p a rad ig m s: i . e . m edia
t i o n by c h a i n i n g , by s tim u lu s e q u iv a le n c e , and by re s p o n s e
e q u iv a le n c e (See T a b le I ) .
TABLE I
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MEDIATION PARADIGMS
S ta g e C h a in in g
S tim u lu s
E q u iv a le n c e
R esponse
E q u iv a le n c e
L ea rn : A-B A-B B-A
Then L ea rn : B-C C-B B-C
T e s t F o r: A-C A-C
(D eese and Hulse*
A-C
1967. D. 317)
I f a l l th e p o s s i b l e c o m b in a tio n s o f two term s t a k e n i n
gro u p s o f t h r e e a r e c o n s i d e r e d , i t can be s e e n t h a t t h e r e
a r e a t o t a l o f e i g h t d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s o f l e t t e r s t o
fo rm t h e t h r e e p a ra d ig m s* A c t u a l l y t h e p a ra d ig m s a r e
i n c o m p l e t e , f o r t h e r e i s a l s o a p o s s i b l e r e v e r s e - c h a i n i n g
p a r a d ig m . By s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e a n a l y s i s i t w ould be e x
p e c t e d t h a t r e v e r s a l o f s t i m u l u s o r r e s p o n s e e q u i v a l e n c e
p a ra d ig m s w ould be th e same a s t h e p a ra d ig m s i n t h e f o r w a r d
d i r e c t i o n , b u t r e v e r s e c h a i n i n g i s s o m e th in g d i f f e r e n t .
S t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e a n a l y s i s w ould i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e would
b e l i t t l e h e l p i n l e a r n i n g t h e t h i r d l i s t fro m r e v e r s e
c h a i n i n g , c h i e f l y b e c a u s e t h i n g s go i n t h e wrong d i r e c t i o n
(D eese and H u l s e , 1967» p* 317)*
A l a r g e e x p e r i m e n t by H o rto n and K j e l d e r g a a r d (1 961 )
com pared a l l t h e e i g h t p o s s i b l e a r r a n g e m e n ts w i t h i n t h e
t h r e e p a ra d ig m s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e r e v e r s e - c h a i n i n g a r r a n g e
m e n t ) . A l l t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t l e a r n e d t h r e e
l i s t s o f p a ir e d a s s o c i a t e s , and e a c h l i s t c o rre s p o n d e d t o
one o f t h e s t a g e s i n th e p a ra d ig m s . A l l p a ra d ig m s showed
p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r i n t h e t h i r d s t a g e , and p a ra d ig m s d i d n o t
d i f f e r among t h e m s e l v e s .
As a g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n i t seem s t h a t th e b e h a v i o r i n
v o lv e d i n m e d i a t i o n o c c u r s t h r o u g h a c h a i n o f a s s o c i a t i v e
l i n k s o r a s a f u n c t i o n o f o r g a n i z i n g c o n c e p ts and r u l e s
w h ic h p e r m i t a v a r i e t y o f s t i m u l i t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a
common c o n c e p t o r p r i n c i p l e w h ic h e n a b l e s a p a r t i c u l a r
r e s p o n s e t o be g e n e r a t e d (D eese and H u l s e , 1967)*
I n a c c o r d w i t h some o f t h e f i n d i n g s on m e d i a t i o n , i t
h a s a l s o b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e m e a n in g f u ln e s s o f r o t e
m a t e r i a l i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to i t s a c q u i s i t i o n . The
a s s u m p tio n i s t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n in g fu ln e ss ( e . g . ,
n o n se n se s y l l a b l e s ) r e f l e c t v a r i a t i o n s i n th e fre q u e n c y of
p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e — th e g r e a t e r th e d e g re e o f p r i o r e x p e r i
e n c e , th e h ig h e r th e m e a n in g fu ln e s s . " F a m i l i a r i t y " a c t s
s i m i l a r l y to 1 1 m e a n in g f u ln e s s ," b u t f a m i l i a r i t y i s th e con
seq uence o f f re q u e n c y a lo n e , w hereas m e a n in g fu ln e ss i s th e
p ro d u c t of b o th f re q u e n c y and m u l t i p l e a s s o c i a t i o n s (N oble,
1 9 6 3 ).
I t i s a l s o found t h a t s i m i l a r i t y can be " f o r m a l" — i n
term s o f th e com m onality o f l e t t e r components o f th e v e r b a l
u n i t s , and a l s o " s e m a n tic " — s i m i l a r i t y i n term s of common
m eaning. Both ty p e s o f s i m i l a r i t y have th e same e f f e c t ,
i . e . tend t o r e s u l t i n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n g r a d i e n t s w hich p ro
du ce i n t r u s i o n e r r o r s t h a t slow down a c q u i s i t i o n .
Osgood (1967) b e lie v e d t h a t i f t h e r e were such g e n e r
a l i z a t i o n , th e n i t would be a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t p r a c t i c e on
l e a r n i n g one l i s t of words should f a c i l i t a t e su b se q u e n t
l e a r n i n g o f a n o th e r l i s t , t o th e e x t e n t t h a t t h e r e a r e
m e a n in g fu l s i m i l a r i t i e s in v o lv e d . T his k in d o f f a c i l i t a -
t i v e t r a n s f e r h a s been shown by C o fe r and F o le y (1 9 ^ 2 ).
To sum up th e r e s e a r c h on r o t e l e a r n i n g , two now-
c h a n g in g p r i n c i p l e s have b een i d e n t i f i e d . E x p e rim e n te rs i n
t h e f i e l d had b e en assum ing 1) t h a t a m ajor e lem en t o f
l e a r n i n g was t o be found i n th e p a ir e d a s s o c i a t i o n s e v id e n t
i n l i s t l e a r n i n g , and 2) t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e to k eep a t a
6
minimum th e in f lu e n c e of p r e - e x i s t i n g , p r e - i n s t r u e t i o n a l
b e h a v io r . Now t h a t r e s e a r c h h as shown t h a t even E bbing-
h a u s ‘ (1885) nonsense s y l l a b l e s have v a rio u s d e g re e s of
m eaning, th e id ea of t o t a l e x p e rim e n ta l c o n t r o l i s u n su p
p o r t e d . F u rth e rm o re , the a s s o c i a t i v e laws i n r o t e l e a r n in g
a r e observed i n o th e r a re a s o f b e h a v io r , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e
t i g h t l y - p l a n n e d r e s e a r c h on p a ire d a s s o c i a t e s may have
obscu red the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r o t e v e r b a l l e a r n i n g to o th e r
c a t e g o r i e s of b e h a v io r .
The S tu dy o f M eaningful L earning
A ccording t o Underwood (196*+, p. 1 ^ 2 ),
th e h ig h e r th e m e a n in g fu ln e ss, th e more r a p id th e
l e a r n i n g ; t h i s p r i n c i p l e h o ld s a c ro s s a l l ty p e s of
v e r b a l l e a r n i n g t a s k s . . . . Of th e h ig h im p o rtan ce of
th e g ro ss v a r i a b l e o f m ea n in g fu ln e ss t h e r e can be no
d o u b t; c o n ce rn in g th e p r e c i s e mechanisms o f i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n , th e r e i s .
Though r o t e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s , e . g . , p a ire d a s s o c i
a t e s , do indeed c o n ta in some m eaning, th e y a re not In clu d e d
w i t h i n th e newer c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l l y m eaningful
m a t e r i a l s . F o r an a c c u ra te d e f i n i t i o n o f m eaning, Osgood
(1967) b rid g e d th e chasm betw een s tim u lu s -r e s p o n s e meaning
and c o g n itiv e meaning w ith h i s a ll-e n c o m p a s s in g d e f i n i t i o n :
"Meaning i s t h a t p ro c e ss or s t a t e i n th e b e h a v io r of a
s i g n - u s i n g organism which i s assumed t o be a n e c e s s a ry con
sequence of th e r e c e p t i o n of s i g n - s t i m u l i and a n e c e s s a ry
a n te c e d e n t f o r th e p ro d u c tio n of s ig n - r e s p o n s e s " (Osgood,
1967, p. 9 ) .
F o r A usubel and o t h e r c o g n i t i v e t h e o r i s t s , t h e d e f i n i
t i o n i s more rem o te fro m s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e t e r m in o l o g y .
M eaning f o r them i s a " r e l a t i o n a l C o n c e p t, a phenom enolo
g i c a l outcom e o f a m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n w h ich th e
p o t e n t i a l m eaning i n h e r e n t i n t h e e x t e r n a l w o rld becomes
c o n v e r t e d i n t o a n i n d i v i d u a l i z e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e or
c o n t e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s " (A u s u b e l, 196 3 , P* 3*+)*
The b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g i s t h a t
i t i n c l u d e s a d i s t i n c t i v e k in d o f l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n w h ich
t h e l e a r n e r em ploys a " s e t " t o i n c o r p o r a t e w i t h i n h i s c o g n i
t i v e s t r u c t u r e i n a n o n a r b i t r a r y , n o n v e rb a tim m anner,
p o t e n t i a l l y m e a n in g fu l m a t e r i a l s w hich a r e " su b su m a b le" by
e s t a b l i s h e d e n t i t i e s a l r e a d y w i t h i n t h a t s t r u c t u r e . A ccord
in g t o A u su b el (1 9 6 3 , P* 2 3 ) , two c r i t e r i a d e te r m i n e w h e th e r
new l e a r n i n g i s p o t e n t i a l l y m e a n in g f u l: 1) n o n a r b i t r a r y
r e l a t a b i l i t y t o r e l e v a n t c o n c e p ts i n c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e as
a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e m a t e r i a l , and 2) m a t e r i a l ' s r e l a
t a b i l i t y t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f a
p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e r . I t i s on t h i s b a s i s t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l
m e a n in g f u ln e s s o f l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l v a r i e s w i t h a g e ,
i n t e l l i g e n c e , o c c u p a t i o n , and c u l t u r a l m em bership.
W it h i n A u s u b e l 's t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew o rk , t h e r e f o r e , i t
i s s u b s u m a b i l i t y by a p a r t i c u l a r c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e w hich
c o n v e r t s p o t e n t i a l i n t o a c t u a l m ea n in g , and w h ich d i f f e r
e n t i a t e s m e a n in g fu l from r o t e l e a r n i n g .
C e r t a i n k ey term s se rv e t o i l l u s t r a t e th e f a c e t s o f
m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g .
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
C o g n i ti v e S t r u c t u r e — an i n d i v i d u a l ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n , s t a b i l
i t y , and c l a r i t y o f knowledge i n a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t
m a t t e r f i e l d a t a g iv e n tim e
P r i n c i p a l k i n d s o f c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g — r o t e , m ea n in g fu l
v e r b a l l e a r n i n g , c o n c e p t f o r m a t io n , n o n v e rb a l
p r o b le m - s o lv in g
R e c e p tio n L e a r n in g —V e rb a l r e c e p t i o n l e a r n i n g c a n be
g e n u in e ly m e a n in g fu l w ith o u t p r i o r d i s c o v e r y e x p e r i
e nce o r p ro b le m -s o lv in g a c t i v i t y . E n t i r e c o n te n t o f
w h at i s t o be le a r n e d i s p r e s e n te d t o th e l e a r n e r i n
f i n a l fo rm .
D is c o v e r y L e a r n in g — P r i n c i p a l c o n te n t o f w hat i s t o be
l e a r n e d i s n o t g iv e n b u t must be in d e p e n d e n tly d i s
co v ered b y th e l e a r n e r b e f o r e he can i n t e r n a l i z e i t .
M e a n in g fu l L e a r n in g S e t — L e a r n e r h a s a s e t t o r e l a t e s u b
s t a n t i v e ( a s opposed t o v e rb a tim ) a s p e c t s o f new
c o n c e p ts , i n f o r m a t i o n , o r s i t u a t i o n s t o r e l e v a n t com
p o n e n ts o f e x i s t i n g c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e i n v a r i o u s
ways t h a t make p o s s i b l e th e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f d e r i v a
t i v e , e l a b o r a t i v e , c o r r e l a t i v e , s u p p o r t i v e , q u a l i f y i n g
o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
" a n c h o r e d " — n o n a r b i t r a r i l y and s u b s t a n t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o
m a t e r i a l i n th e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e
9
" r e t r i e v a b i l i t y " — th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m a t e r i a l w i t h i n th e
c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s u b s e q u e n t t o m ea n in g fu l l e a r n i n g
(A u s u b e l, 1963 and 1968)
M e an in g fu l l e a r n i n g , as d e fin e d ab o v e, i s b a s i c a l l y
d e p e n d e n t upon t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e , f o r th e p r o p e r t i e s
o f c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e d e te rm in e b o th th e v a l i d i t y and
c l a r i t y o f m eanings t h a t em erge, as w e l l as th e n a tu r e o f
t h e i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s t h a t ta k e s p l a c e .
In th e more s p e c i f i c and s h o r t - t e r m s e n s e , c o g n i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e v a r i a b l e s r e f e r to th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o
p e r t i e s o f th e j u s t im m e d ia te ly ( o r p r o x im a te ly )
r e l e v a n t c o n c e p ts w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t m a t t e r
f i e l d and t h e i r e f f e c t s on th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n
o f sm a ll u n i t s of r e l a t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r . I n e i t h e r
s e n s e , how ever, th e l e a r n e r ’ s a c q u i s i t i o n o f a c l e a r ,
s t a b l e , and o rg a n iz e d body o f knowledge c o n s t i t u t e s
more t h a n j u s t th e m ajor l o n g - te r m o b j e c t i v e o f c l a s s
room l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t y , o r th e p r i n c i p a l d e p e n d e n t
v a r i a b l e ( o r c r i t e r i o n ; t o be used i n e v a l u a t i n g th e
im p a ct o f a l l f a c t o r s and c o n d i t i o n s im p in g in g on
l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . C o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e i s a l s o ,
i n i t s own r i g h t , th e most s i g n i f i c a n t in d e p e n d e n t
v a r i a b l e i n f l u e n c i n g ( f a c i l i t a t i n g , i n h i b i t i n g , l i m i t
in g ) th e l e a r n e r ' s c a p a c i t y f o r a c q u i r i n g more new
knowledge i n th e same f i e l d . (A u s u b e l, 1963, p . 27)
The a d v a n ta g e s o f m ea n in g fu l l e a r n i n g a r e b e s t d e l i n
e a t e d when compared t o r o t e l e a r n i n g . In th e f i r s t p l a c e ,
r o t e l e a r n i n g i s composed o f d i s c r e t e and r e l a t i v e l y i s o
l a t e d e n t i t l e s w hich a r e o n ly r e l a t a b l e t o c o g n i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e i n an a r b i t r a r y v e rb a tim f a s h i o n , n o t p e r m i t t i n g
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f th e ab o ve-m entioned r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
J o n e s and E n g li s h (1926) found t h a t i t was much e a s i e r
t o l e a r n t h e s u b s ta n c e o f p o t e n t i a l l y m e a n in g fu l m a t e r i a l
10
t h a n i t was t o m em orize th e same c o n n e c te d m a t e r i a l i n a
r o t e , v e r b a tim way.
S e c o n d ly , m a t e r i a l w hich c a n be l e a r n e d m e a n in g f u l l y i s
a c q u i r e d much more r a p i d l y t h a n a n a r b i t r a r y s e r i e s o f
d i g i t s o r n o n se n se s y l l a b l e s ( G la z e , 1928; Lyon, 191^;
R e e d , 1 9 3 8 ).
S i m i l a r l y , s im p le n a r r a t i v e m a t e r i a l i s l e a r n e d more
q u i c k l y and remembered b e t t e r t h a n a r e more com plex p h i l o
s o p h i c a l i d e a s (R eed , 1 9 3 8 ) . An i n c r e a s e i n th e l e n g t h o f
t h e m a t e r i a l a l s o adds r e l a t i v e l y l e s s l e a r n i n g tim e t o
m e a n in g fu l t h a n t o r o t e l e a r n i n g t a s k s ( C o f e r , 19*+1; Lyon,
191*+) • H ence, n o t o n ly i s m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g e a s i e r , more
e c o n o m ic a l, and l e s s burdensom e th a n r o t e l e a r n i n g i n term s
o f tim e and e f f o r t , b u t i t i s a l s o more a v a i l a b l e i n co g
n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e f o r l a t e r f u n c t i o n a l u se i n new l e a r n i n g
and pro b lem s o l v i n g .
I n s p i t e o f t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s , A usubel (1963) p o in te d
o u t t h a t a l t h o u g h r o t e l e a r n i n g i s more d i f f i c u l t t h a n
m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g i n most c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t may a c t u a l l y
b e e a s i e r f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l who l a c k s t h e n e c e s s a r y i d e a
t i o n a l backg ro und f o r a p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n i n g t a s k . I t a l s o
o f t e n a p p e a r s e a s i e r t o t h e a n x i e t y - r i d d e n p e r s o n who l a c k s
c o n f i d e n c e i n h i s a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d d i f f i c u l t and u n
f a m i l i a r new p r o p o s i t i o n s .
11
T h e o r ie s of T r a n s f e r and R e te n ti o n
I n a d d i t i o n t o th e dichotom y o f r o t e v e r s u s m ea n in g fu l
l e a r n i n g , t h e r e a re f u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s tio n s when
r e t e n t i o n and t r a n s f e r a re c o n s id e r e d .
F u n d a m e n ta lly , th e s tim u l u s - r e s p o n s e d e s c r i p t i o n of
t r a n s f e r i s im p o rta n t b e c a u se o f th e g e n e r a l i t y of i t s
a n a l y s i s . Any t a s k can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s s tim u lu s
components and th e r e s p o n s e s , b o th o v e r t and i m p l i c i t , made
t o th o s e s t i m u l i . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een two t a s k s can
u s u a l l y v e ry w e l l be d e s c r ib e d by s t a t i n g th e s t i m u l i i n
t h e two t a s k s and by c h a r a c t e r i z i n g th e r e l a t i o n s betw een
t h e t h in g s th e organism does o r t h in k s when fa c e d w ith each
o f th e t a s k s .
S t i m u l i can v a ry In t h e i r resem b lan ce t o one a n o th e r ,
a s c an r e s p o n s e s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n s i m i l a r i t y have
b e e n th o u g h t t o d e te rm in e th e amount and d i r e c t i o n o f t r a n s
f e r . A com plete p i c t u r e o f t r a n s f e r and i n t e r t a s k
s i m i l a r i t y was d e v is e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t o f th e t r a n s f e r
s u r f a c e .
The t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e i s a diagram which r e q u i r e s t h r e e
d im e n s io n s . One d e s c r i b e s th e d e g re e o f s i m i l a r i t y betw een
th e s t i m u l i i n two t a s k s , a n o th e r d e s c r i b e s th e d e g re e of
s i m i l a r i t y betw een r e s p o n s e s f o r th e s e same t a s k s , and th e
t h i r d d im en sio n d e s c r i b e s th e d i r e c t i o n and amount of t r a n s
f e r (Osgood, 19*+9)* The c u rv e s betw een each of th e p a i r s of
a x e s show how amount and d i r e c t i o n o f t r a n s f e r v a r i e s a s a
f u n c t i o n o f e i t h e r s t i m u l u s o r r e s p o n s e s i m i l a r i t y . The
c u r v e s , p u t t o g e t h e r , d e s c r i b e a p e c u l i a r l y curved s u r f a c e .
The p a r t o f th e s u r f a c e i n th e low er r i g h t - h a n d c o r n e r i s
t h a t c o m b in a tio n o f c o n d i t i o n s w hich p ro duces th e g r e a t e s t
n e g a t i v e t r a n s f e r . T hat i s d e f in e d by th e c a se i n w hich
t h e s t i m u l i f o r two t a s k s a r e i d e n t i c a l b u t th e r e s p o n s e s
a r e c o m p le te ly u n r e l a t e d . On th e o t h e r hand, maximum p o s i
t i v e t r a n s f e r i s found when b o th s t i m u l i and r e s p o n s e s a re
i d e n t i c a l f o r th e two t a s k s . From t h i s r e s u l t , we c a n see
t h a t f u r t h e r p r a c t i c e on th e same t a s k i s o n ly a s p e c i a l
and l i m i t i n g c a se o f p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r , a s l o g i c a l l y i t
s h o u ld b e . On th e o p p o s i t e or f a r s i d e o f th e d ia g ra m ,
w here th e s i m i l a r i t y b etw een s t i m u l i f o r th e t a s k s i s a t a
minimum, t r a n s f e r , e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , i s v e ry
w eak. No t r a n s f e r sh o u ld o c c u r a t a l l when th e two t a s k s
a r e u n r e l a t e d i n b o th s t i m u l i and r e s p o n s e s .
T hree s t u d i e s o f th e t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e , (B u g e ls k i and
C a d w a lla d e r, 1956; D a l l e t t , 1962; and Wimer, 196M-) a l l
1) showed d e c r e a s i n g amounts o f p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r when
r e s p o n s e s a re h e ld th e same and s tim u lu s s i m i l a r i t y v a r i e d ;
and 2) t h a t u n r e l a t e d r e s p o n s e s betw een th e two l i s t s p ro
du ced n e g a t iv e t r a n s f e r , th o ugh B u g e ls k i and C a d w a lla d e r
(1 9 5 6 ) a l s o showed t h a t n e g a tiv e t r a n s f e r o c c u rre d when
r e s p o n s e s were v e ry s i m i l a r .
13
I n t e r f e r e n c e T h eo ry
G r a n tin g t h a t t r a n s f e r i s a r e a l phenomenon, one m ig h t
a s k how f o r g e t t i n g a c t u a l l y t a k e s p l a c e . R e ly in g on i n t e r
f e r e n c e t h e o r y from s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e p s y c h o lo g y , an
a c c e p t a b l e answ er would be t h a t f o r g e t t i n g was n o t so much
p a s s i v e d e c a y o v e r t i m e , b u t r a t h e r , t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f
new l e a r n i n g w ith memory. Thus when new l e a r n i n g i n t e r f e r e d
w i t h o l d , th e r e s u l t was r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n ; when p r i o r
l e a r n i n g i n t e r f e r e d , i t was c a l l e d p r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n , ,
A c l a s s i c s t u d y o f i n t e r f e r e n c e was r e p o r t e d by J . G.
J e n k i n s and K a r l M. D a lle n b a c b i n 1 9 2 ^ . They had two s t u
d e n t s l e a r n a number o f l i s t s o f n o n se n se s y l l a b l e s . One
o f th e s t u d e n t s w ent t o s l e e p im m e d ia te ly a f t e r l e a r n i n g ;
th e o t h e r s t u d e n t c a r r i e d on w i t h h i s norm al d a y tim e a c t i v i
t i e s . At th e end o f o n e , tw o, f o u r , and e i g h t h o u r p e r i o d s ,
t h e s t u d e n t s w ere a sk e d t o r e c a l l t h e m a t e r i a l t h e y had
l e a r n e d . The s l e e p i n g s u b j e c t was awakened a f t e r e a c h o f
t h e s e i n t e r v a l s , o n ly one i n t e r v a l b e in g t e s t e d i n a n y one
n i g h t . A c co rd in g t o th e p e r c e n ta g e s c o r e s , t h e s l e e p i n g
s u b j e c t f o r g o t l e s s t h a n th e w ak ing s u b j e c t a t e a c h p e r i o d .
How ever, he d id n o t h a v e p e r f e c t r e t e n t i o n a t any p o i n t .
As J e n k i n s and D a lle n b a c h c o n c lu d e d , " F o r g e t t i n g i s n o t so
much a m a t t e r o f d e c a y (due t o d i s u s e ) a s i t i s a m a t t e r o f
i n t e r f e r e n c e , i n h i b i t i o n o r o b l i t e r a t i o n o f th e o ld by t h e
new" ( J e n k i n s and D a l le n b a c h , 192*0*
I n a n o th e r e x p e rim e n t A rth u r W. M elto n and J . McQ.
I r w i n had f i v e gro u p s o f s u b j e c t s l e a r n a l i s t o f n o n se n se
s y l l a b l e s . T h is was o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g (S ta g e 1 ) . One of
t h e s e group s th e n r e s t e d b e f o r e b e in g asked t o r e c a l l th e
o r i g i n a l l i s t . The second th r o u g h f i f t h groups w ere asked
t o l e a r n an i n t e r p o l a t e d l i s t f o r 5» 10 , 20, and ^0 t r i a l s ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h is second l e a r n i n g c o n s t i t u t e d i n t e r p o l a t e d
l e a r n i n g (S ta g e 2 ) . At th e end o f th e i n t e r p o l a t e d l e a r n i n g
a l l f i v e g ro ups w ere asked t o r e c a l l th e i n i t i a l l i s t (S ta g e
3)* I n a c c o rd w ith i n t e r f e r e n c e t h e o r y , th e g ro ups t h a t
l e a r n e d i n t e r p o l a t e d l i s t s ten d ed t o have more d i f f i c u l t y
l e a r n i n g th e o r i g i n a l l i s t . The a u th o r s c o n clu d ed t h a t i n
g e n e r a l , th e more th e i n t e r p o l a t e d p r a c t i c e , th e more th e
i n t e r f e r e n c e (M e lto n and I r w i n , 19*+0).
Even tho ugh r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n can be g r e a t ,
p s y c h o l o g i s t s l i k e Underwood (196*+) and Postman (1961) have
s t r e s s e d t h a t a m ajo r mechanism i n f l u e n c i n g memory i s
lo n g - te r m p r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f p r i o r la n g u a g e
h a b i t s . T h e ir work s u g g e s te d t h a t p r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n was
p o t e n t i a l l y more im p o r ta n t t h a n r e t r o a c t i v e and n o ted p r o
a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n co uld have b e en a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
i n t e r f e r e n c e coming from o u t s i d e th e l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n a t
any tim e . T hus, a c c o r d in g t o i n t e r f e r e n c e t h e o r y , p r o a c t i v e
i n t e r f e r e n c e , i n th e form o f a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g h a b i t s , i s
p r o b a b ly th e m ajor c a u se o f f o r g e t t i n g . Underwood (196M-)
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e a r e o n ly two m ajor f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n
15
a s u b s t a n t i a l way i n i n f lu e n c i n g f o r g e t t i n g ov er tim e . They
a r e 1) th e d e g re e o f l e a r n i n g of th e t a s k t o be r e c a l l e d ,
and 2) th e number and s t r e n g t h (d e g re e o f l e a r n i n g ) o f
i n t e r f e r i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s .
Subsum ption Theory
The id e a o f "d eg re e of l e a r n i n g " le a d s i n d i r e c t l y t o
th e n o t io n of " q u a l i t y " o f l e a r n i n g , a c o n c e p t a t th e v e ry
h e a r t o f m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y .
In c o n t r a s t t o th e b e h a v i o r i s t i c t r a n s f e r th e o r y o f
memory (which o n ly a c c o u n ts s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f o r f o r g e t t i n g
o f r o t e le a r n e d e le m e n ts ) , su bsu m p tion th e o r y h o ld s t h a t
th e f o r g e t t i n g o f m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
o b l i t e r a t i v e sub su m p tio n under more i n c l u s i v e and e s t a b
l i s h e d c o n c e p ts r a t h e r th a n t o re s p o n s e c o m p e titio n o r to
s tim u lu s o r re s p o n s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n (A u su b el, 1963, p. 2 6 ) .
The model o f c o g n i t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n proposed f o r th e
l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n of m ea n in g fu l m a t e r i a l s assumes th e
e x i s t e n c e o f a c o g n it i v e s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s h i e r a r c h i c a l l y
o r g a n iz e d i n term s o f h ig h ly i n c l u s i v e c o n c e p tu a l t r a c e s
u n d e r w hich a re subsumed t r a c e s o f l e s s i n c l u s i v e subcon
c e p t s as w e l l as t r a c e s o f s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n a l d a t a .
The i n i t i a l e f f e c t s of su b su m p tio n , t h e r e f o r e , may be
d e s c r i b e d as f a c i l i t a t i o n o f b o th l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n .
When t h i s second or o b l i t e r a t i v e s ta g e o f su bsu m p tion
b e g in s , th e s p e c i f i c item s become p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e s s
d i s s o c i a b l e as e n t i t i e s i n t h e i r own r i g h t u n t i l th e y
a r e no lo n g e r a v a i l a b l e and a re s a id t o be f o r g o t t e n .
. . . T h i s p ro c e s s can be c a l l e d m em orial r e d u c t i o n t o
th e l e a s t common denom inator (A u su b el, 1963, p. 2*+).
In f u r t h e r c o n t r a s t t o th e t r a d i t i o n a l t r a n s f e r
th e o r y , th e r e l e v a n t a s p e c ts of p a s t e x p e rie n c e i n th e
m ean in g fu l ty p e of t r a n s f e r paradigm a re such o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f th e l e a r n e r ' s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r knowledge as
c l a r i t y , s t a b i l i t y , g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y , i n c l u s i v e n e s s ,
c o h e s iv e n e s s , and d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y < i . e . c o g n it i v e s t r u c
t u r e v a r i a b l e s ) — not d eg ree of s i m i l a r i t y betw een s t i m u l i
and re s p o n se s i n th e two l e a r n in g t a s k s ; and r e c e n t p r i o r
e x p e rie n c e i s n o t re g a rd e d as i n f lu e n c i n g c u r r e n t l e a r n i n g
by i n t e r a c t i n g d i r e c t l y w ith th e s tim u lu s - r e s p o n s e compo
n e n ts of th e new l e a r n in g t a s k , b u t o n ly i n s o f a r as i t
m o d ifie s s i g n i f i c a n t r e l e v a n t a t t r i b u t e s o f c o g n it i v e
s t r u c t u r e , "C o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e v a r i a b l e s . . . a r e th e
p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s involved i n m eaningful t r a n s f e r , and
t r a n s f e r i t s e l f is l a r g e l y a r e f l e c t i o n of th e in f lu e n c e of
th e s e v a r i a b l e s " (A usubel, 1963, p. 2 b ).
In e f f e c t , th e n , i n tune w ith m ean ingful l e a r n i n g
t r a n s f e r t h e o r y , o n ly v a r i a n t s o f more i n c l u s i v e c o n ce p ts
would tend to have long term r e t e n t i o n v a lu e . A lso , th e
d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y of new m a t e r i a ls could be enhanced by
r e p e t i t i o n or by e x p l i c i t l y p o in tin g o u t s i m i l a r i t i e s and
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een them and t h e i r presumed subsumers i n
c o g n it i v e s t r u c t u r e .
Some e x p e rim e n ta l s t u d i e s have compared th e r e l a t i v e
r e t e n t i o n of r o t e and m eaningful l e a r n i n g . A s tu d y by
Newman (1939) comparing r e t e n t i o n d u rin g p e rio d s of s le e p
and w aking, threw l i g h t on the r e l a t i v e r e t e n t i o n spans and
r e s p e c t i v e f o r g e t t i n g p ro c e ss e s of r o t e l y and m e a n in g fu lly
le a r n e d m a t e r i a l s . U n e s s e n tia l d e t a i l s o f a n a r r a t i v e were
remembered much b e t t e r a f t e r a p e rio d of s l e e p th a n a f t e r a
p e rio d o f normal d a i l y a c t i v i t y , w hereas th e r e was no c o r
re s p o n d in g d i f f e r e n c e i n the c a se of s u b s ta n c e ite m s . The
i n f e r e n c e h e re was t h a t immediate r e t r o a c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e ,
w hich i s o b v io u s ly g r e a t e r d u rin g d a i l y a c t i v i t y th a n d u rin g
s l e e p , i s an im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n r o t e memory b u t does not
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t th e r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n in g fu lly le a r n e d
m a t e r i a l s •
Many c lassro o m s t u d i e s su p p o rt the f i n d in g s of t h i s
e x p e rim e n ta l a p p ro a c h . In g e n e r a l th e y show t h a t p r i n c i
p l e s , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p r i n c i p l e s s tu d ie d
i n such c o u rs e s as b io lo g y , c h e m is tr y , geom etry, and p h ysics
were remembered much b e t t e r over p e rio d s of months and even
y e a r s th a n a r e more f a c t u a l item s such as sym bols, fo rm u la s,
and te rm in o lo g y (E ik e n b e rry , 1923; P r u tc h e y , 1937; Ward and
D a v is , 1 9 3 8 ). A second type o f c lassro o m e v id e n ce demon
s t r a t e d t h a t knowledge o f number f a c t s ( i . e . , a d d i t i o n , sub
t r a c t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ) le a rn e d w ith u n d e rs ta n d in g i s
r e t a i n e d more e f f e c t i v e l y and i s more t r a n s f e r a b l e th a n
when le a rn e d i n m e c h an ica l, r o t e f a s h i o n (A nderson, 19*+9;
Swenson, 1 9 ^ 9 ).
18
T h e o r i e s o f O v e r le a r n in g
A f i n a l q u e s t i o n i s w h e th e r th e r o l e and s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f f r e q u e n c y i s d i f f e r e n t f o r m e a n in g f u l from w hat i t i s
f o r r o t e l e a r n i n g . In o r d e r t o be c o n s i s t e n t w ith
p r e v io u s ly - m a d e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw e e n r o t e and m e a n in g fu l
l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s , i t sh o u ld be n e c e s s a r y t o a s s i g n q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t r o l e s t o f r e q u e n c y i n t h e s e two k in d s o f l e a r n i n g
s i t u a t i o n s (A u s u b e l, 1963» P« 1 8 6 ) . R e p e a te d e n c o u n te r s
w i t h th e same s t i m u l u s hav e b e e n shown t o en h an ce r o t e
l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n by i n c r e a s i n g t r a c e s o r v e r b a tim
l i n k a g e s . The same r e p e t i t i o n p re su m a b ly would enhance
m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n , b u t n o t f o r th e same
r e a s o n s .
On a p r i o r i g ro u n d s one m ig h t assum e t h a t s h e e r
r e p e t i t i o n w ould p l a y a more s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e
l e a r n i n g and s h o r t - t e r m r e t e n t i o n o f d i s c r e t e and
a r b i t r a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s l a r g e l y i s o l a t e d from c o g n i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e t h a n i t would i n t h e l e a r n i n g and l o n g e r -
te rm r e t e n t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s t h a t c a n be m e a n in g f u l l y
i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n t h a t s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e l a t t e r as
opposed t o th e fo rm e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , su c h o t h e r f a c t o r s
as th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c l e a r and s t a b l e su b s u m e rs, t h e
d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y b e tw e e n t h e s e subsum ers and t h e l e a r n
in g t a s k , and th e i n t e r n a l l o g i c and l u c i d i t y ( t h e
p o t e n t i a l m e a n in g f u ln e s s ) o f t h e l e a r n i n g t a s k would
p re su m a b ly overshadow t h e e f f e c t o f r e p e t i t i o n on
sim p le l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e
i n f l u e n c e o f r e p e t i t i o n c a n n o t be d is m is s e d i n any
c a s e a s e i t h e r i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l o r a s b a s i c a l l y e x t r i n
s i c t o th e p r o c e s s w hereby in c r e m e n ts i n s t r e n g t h a r e
e f f e c t e d (A u s u b e l, 1963 5 P* 1 8 6 ) .
To t e s t t h i s t h e o r y a m a z in g ly l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n
d u c te d on th e r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n f r e q u e n c y and m e a n in g fu l
l e a r n i n g - r e t e n t i o n . M ore, h o w e v er, i s known o f th e e f f e c t
o f o v e r - l e a r n i n g on m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g . The e x t e n t o f
19
d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n o f p o e try (E b b ingh au s, 1913) and "con
n e cted d i s c o u r s e " i s r e l a t e d t o th e number of r e p e t i t i o n s
o f th e le a r n in g m a t e r i a l s , b u t d im in is h in g r e t u r n s s e t i n
more r a p i d l y th a n i n th e case of r o t e r e t e n t i o n .
T r a n s f e r o f S i m i l a r M a te r ia ls
In a g e n e ra l su rv e y of s t u d i e s r e l a t i n g t o m ean ingful
l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n , a re s p e c te d r u l e o f thumb i n
psychology would be r e q u i r e d : t h a t when an organism moves
from one s i t u a t i o n t o a n o th e r , n e g a tiv e t r a n s f e r w i l l always
be th e r e s u l t i f s t i m u l i a r e k e p t c o n s t a n t and re s p o n se s are
changed (Mednlck, 196*+). The e x c e p tio n s to t h i s r u l e a re of
p rim a ry i n t e r e s t to t h i s s tu d y .
One e x c e p tio n in v o lv ed anim al t r a i n i n g by K ellog g and
W alker (Mednick, 196^)• A dog was t r a i n e d to l i f t h i s hind
l e g i n re sp o n se t o a b u z z e r. Then he was ta u g h t t o l i f t a
d i f f e r e n t l e g . In t h i s s i t u a t i o n p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r o c
c u rr e d because th e o ld resp o n se was not in c o m p a tib le w ith
th e new re s p o n s e , and b o th re s p o n s e s were h ig h ly s i m i l a r .
The a u th o rs concluded t h a t o n ly , i n f a c t , when new and old
r e s p o n s e s a re co m p a tib le and somewhat s i m i l a r would p o s i t i v e
t r a n s f e r o c c u r.
A second example of p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r where re s p o n se s
were c o m p atib le was provided by J a r v i s B a s tia n (Mednick,
196*0. S u b je c ts le a rn e d a l i s t o f s y l l a b l e word p a i r s and
th e n d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e groups t h a t were d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by
s u b s t i t u t e s f o r th e re sp o n se w ord. The f i r s t two words
20
(m ore c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o th e o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e t h a n th e
t h i r d word) p rodu ced p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r . B oth o f t h e s e
e x p e r im e n ts a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o th e g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t when a
r e s p o n s e i s r e p l a c e d w ith a new r e s p o n s e , n e g a t i v e t r a n s f e r
r e s u l t s . When th e two r e s p o n s e s in v o lv e d a r e c o m p a ti b l e ,
p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r i s p o s s i b l e .
Osgood (19^6) h a s shown t h a t t h e r e i s l e s s i n t e r f e r e n c e
among s i m i l a r m e a n in g fu l r e s p o n s e s th a n among u n r e l a t e d
m e a n in g f u l r e s p o n s e s i n t h e s u c c e s s i v e l e a r n i n g o f l i s t s o f
p a i r e d a s s o c i a t e s ; f u r t h e r m o r e , i t was a l s o shown t h a t t h e r e
i s a s p e c i a l k in d o f r e c i p r o c a l i n h i b i t i o n o p e r a t i n g b e tw een
m e a n in g f u l l y opposed r e s p o n s e s i n su c h l i s t s , th e l e a r n i n g
o f one v e r b a l r e s p o n s e t e n d in g t o b l o c k o r d e c r e a s e th e
sp e ed o f r e s p o n d in g w i t h th e o p p o s i t e v e r b a l r e s p o n s e t o th e
same s t i m u l u s .
In s p i t e o f th e above f i n d i n g s o f p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r
w i t h m e a n in g fu l m a t e r i a l s , a n o t h e r s t u d y w ith m e a n in g fu l
p a s s a g e s showed n e g a t i v e t r a n s f e r .
E n tw is le and H uggins (196b) showed th e p o t e n t i a l f o r
n e g a t i v e t r a n s f e r b e tw e e n two c l o s e l y r e l a t e d a s p e c t s o f a
t e c h n i c a l s u b j e c t . The n o n - v e r b a l t o p i c exam ined i n t h i s
s t u d y was th e l e a r n i n g o f c i r c u i t t h e o r y by fre s h m a n s t u
d e n t s i n e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g . The a u t h o r s o f t h i s s t u d y
p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e was a s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y o f n e g a t i v e
t r a n s f e r i n t h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r b e c a u s e c i r c u i t t h e o r y i n
v o lv e d d u a l s t a t e m e n t s o f c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p r i n c i p l e s . The
21
r e s u l t s showed r e a d i l y d e t e c t a b l e n e g a tiv e t r a n s f e r on th e
v o l t a g e s o l u t i o n s . F u rth e rm o re , a n a l y s i s o f th e perform ance
on th e i n t e r v e n i n g c u r r e n t s o l u t i o n s showed t h a t th e s t u
d e n ts were p o o re r th a n th e y ought t o have been a t t h i s t a s k .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e was p ro b a b ly p r o a c t iv e n e g a tiv e t r a n s f e r as
w e l l a s r e t r o a c t i v e t r a n s f e r .
A r e c e n t e x p e rim e n t by A usubel, e t a l . , (1968) s u p
p o r te d th e t h e o r e t i c a l view of m ea n in g fu l r e t e n t i o n i n a
r e t r o a c t i v e d e s i g n . The i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f a Buddhism passag e
betw een th e l e a r n i n g o f and a t e s t of th e r e t e n t i o n o f a
s i m i l a r p r e v i o u s ly le a r n e d Zen Buddhism p a ssa g e , f a c i l i t a t e d
r a t h e r th a n i n h i b i t e d th e r e t e n t i o n o f th e Zen Buddhism
p a s s a g e .
C o n tra ry t o th e s e r e s u l t s , Suppes and G insberg (1963)
no ted n e g a tiv e t r a n s f e r when a group o f f i r s t g r a d e r s
l e a r n e d th e c o n c e p t of i d e n t i t y o f o rd ere d s e t s a f t e r
l e a r n i n g th e c o n c e p ts o f i d e n t i t y o f u n o rd ere d s e t s .
A usubel (1969) c o n sid e re d th e n e g a tiv e t r a n s f e r in t h a t
s t u d y t o be caused by th e f a i l u r e o f th e f i r s t l e a r n i n g t o
be e s t a b l i s h e d f i r m l y w i t h i n th e c o g n it i v e s t r u c t u r e .
The l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o th e in f lu e n c e o f o v e r l e a r n
in g r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l s on p r o a c t iv e e f f e c t s was not p r o l i f i c ,
b u t g e n e r a l l y c o n fin e d t o r o t e l e a r n i n g . Bruce (1953) noted
t h a t in c r e a s e d p r a c t i c e tended to i n c r e a s e p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r
i n s e r i a l and p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e l e a r n i n g u n d e r c o n d itio n s
co m p arab le to s tim u lu s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Under c o n d it i o n s
22
u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n e g a t iv e t r a n s f e r , in c r e a s e d p r i o r
t r a i n i n g red u c ed and e v en r e v e r s e d th e d i r e c t i o n o f n e g a tiv e
t r a n s f e r ( A tw a te r, 1953; M a n d ler, 195^; S i i p o l a and I s r a e l ,
1933; Underwood, 19*+9; Young and Underwood, 195^;
Y arco zo w er, 1 9 5 9 ). In t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s o v e r l e a r n i n g was
e f f e c t i v e c h i e f l y b e c a u se i t e s t a b l i s h e d th e p a r t i c u l a r
r e l e v a n c e of s p e c i f i c e le m e n ts f o r s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s , w h ile
s i m u lt a n e o u s ly p e r m i t t i n g th e p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r o f g e n e r a l
f a c t o r s .
Though th e r e s e a r c h on m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g was
s c a n t y , th e e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e s t a b i l i t y o f a n c h o r
in g id e a s was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o th e l e a r n i n g and
r e t e n t i o n o f s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l (A usubel and F i t z g e r a l d , 1961;
A usubel and Y o u s se f, 1 9 6 3 ). A lso w i t h i n th e re a lm o f mean
i n g f u l l e a r n i n g , i n th e r e t r o a c t i v e - i n t e r f e r e n c e - f a c i l i t a -
t i o n p a ra d ig m , th e f a c i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t o f th e i n t e r p o l a t e d
m a t e r i a l was n o t found t o be d i f f e r e n t i a l l y g r e a t e r o r l e s s
when t h e o r i g i n a l m a t e r i a l was f i r s t o v e r le a r n e d (A usubel
e t a l„ 1 9 6 8 ).
The most r e c e n t s tu d y t o d e a l w i t h p r o a c t i v e e f f e c t s
o f m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g was A u s u b e l's ( 1 9 6 9 ). He
found t h a t p r o a c t i v e e f f e c t s o f l e a r n i n g Buddhism m a t e r i a l
b y Grade 13 s t u d e n t s in d u ced n e i t h e r i n t e r f e r e n c e nor
f a c i l i t a t i o n i n th e m ea n in g fu l l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f a
Zen Buddhism p a s s a g e . O v e rle a r n in g o f th e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e
had no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on th e m ean ingful l e a r n in g and
r e t e n t i o n o f th e Zen Buddhism m a t e r i a l .
P urpose of T his Study
The purpose of t h i s stu d y was to i n v e s t i g a t e th e p o s s i
b i l i t y of p o s i t i v e p r o a c tiv e t r a n s f e r u sin g m eaningful
v e r b a l m a t e r i a l s w ith e ig h t h g rade s t u d e n t s . In th e
r e s e a r c h d is c u s s e d above, the im p o rta n t t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i
p l e s of p r o a c t iv e f a c i l i t a t i o n and r e t e n t i o n have not been
f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d . T his stu d y a tte m p te d to show c o n c lu
s i v e l y what Ausubel t r i e d to do i n h i s 1969 stu d y w ith
Buddhism and Zen Buddhism m a t e r i a ls f o r Grade 13 s u b j e c t s ,
i . e . , t h a t p r i o r l e a r n i n g of a m eaningful p r o a c t iv e passage
could f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n of l a t e r r e l a t e d
m a t e r i a l . Because th e l e a r n in g m a t e r i a l s were e s p e c i a l l y
a d apted f o r e ig h th g rad e s t u d e n t s , and the t o t a l exp erim en t
c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d , a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t , i f p r e s e n t ,
would be l i k e l y to be i d e n t i f i e d .
CHAPTER I I
THIS STUDY
The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r e s e n t a d e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l h y p o t h e s e s , th e sam p le, th e l e a r n i n g
m a t e r i a l s and t e s t , p r o c e d u r e s , and d a t a a n a l y s i s of t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The aims of th e s tu d y a r e e x p re s s e d i n t h r e e
h y p o t h e s e s , w hich w ere im plem ented by th e p ro c e d u re s g iv e n
i n t h i s c h a p t e r . The t h r e e h y p o th e s e s , s t a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y
b e lo w , a r e t h a t m ea n in g fu l l e a r n i n g h as a f a c i l i t a t i n g p ro
a c t i o n on th e l e s s o n , t h a t two r e a d i n g s of a p r o a c t i v e
p a s s a g e would have more f a c i l i t a t i o n th a n o n e, and t h a t th e
e f f e c t o f p r o a c t i o n would be g r e a t e r on th e im m ediate th a n
on t h e d e la y e d t e s t o f th e l e s s o n .
E x p e rim e n ta l H ypotheses
The f o l l o w i n g h y p o th e s e s were s u b j e c t e d t o i n v e s t i g a
t i o n by th e s tu d y :
1 . M e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g o f th e -p ro a c tiv e p a ssa g e w i l l
f a c i l i t a t e , o r a t l e a s t n o t i n h i b i t , th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n
t i o n o f th e l a t e r r e l a t e d p a s s a g e . The A usubel t h e o r i e s
( 1963) d e m o n s tra te t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
2 . The d e g re e o f f a c i l i t a t i o n w i l l be g r e a t e r w i t h two
r e a d i n g s o f th e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e th a n w ith o n e . T h is
h y p o t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s an im p o rta n t b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e betw een
2b
25
m ea n in g fu l l e a r n i n g and r o t e l e a r n i n g , where l i t e r a t u r e
shows t h a t two r e a d in g s o f a p r o a c tiv e passage would be
d e f i n i t e l y i n h i b i t i n g (B ruce, 195 3 ).
3 . In each i n s t a n c e th e e f f e c t of the in dep en d en t
v a r i a b l e would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r on imm ediate r e t e n
t i o n th a n on d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n (A usubel, 1969).
mill H ypotheses
H
0^ : L earn in g o f th e p r o a c tiv e passag e has no f a c i l i t a
t i n g e f f e c t upon th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f th e
l a t e r r e l a t e d l e a r n i n g p a ssa g e , th e l e s s o n .
02 s The d e g re e o f f a c i l i t a t i o n w i l l not be g r e a t e r w ith
two re a d in g s o f th e p r o a c tiv e passage th an w ith one.
H
0^ : In each in s ta n c e the e f f e c t of th e in d ep en d en t
v a r i a b l e w i l l not be s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r on
imm ediate r e t e n t i o n th a n on delayed r e t e n t i o n .
L ea rn in g M a te r ia ls
The m a t e r i a l used to i n v e s t i g a t e p r o a c tiv e e f f e c t s
c o n s i s t e d of two p a ssa g e s t h a t , on th e b a s i s of c o n te n t
a n a l y s i s were judged t o be h ig h ly s i m i l a r and c o n f l i c t i n g .
A t h i r d c o m p le te ly u n r e la te d passage was p re s e n te d as con
t r o l m a t e r i a l .
A ll t h r e e p a ssa g e s were s e l e c t e d by th e fo llo w in g
c r i t e r i a : 1 ) a p p r o p r i a te r e a d in g l e v e l f o r th e average
e i g h t h grade s t u d e n t , and 2) u n f a m i l i a r i t y , as measured by
e m p i r ic a l t e s t , on a sample o f e ig h t h grade s tu d e n ts w ith in
th e same sc h o o l d i s t r i c t .
The " l a t e r r e l a t e d passag e" o r " le s s o n " was e n t i t l e d
" G la c ie r s " and was adapted from an a r t i c l e i n th e S c i e n t i f i c
American ( F i e l d , 1 955)• The a r t i c l e was o r i g i n a l l y ad ap ted
by Kropp and S to k e r (1966) i n a stu d y r e la te d , t o v a l i d a t i o n
of th e Taxonomy of E d u c a tio n O b je c tiv e s (Bloom, 1 9 5 6 ).
Then i t was used i n th e d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n of More (1968)
i n a stu d y o f fe e d b a c k . The v e r s i o n of th e a r t i c l e used i n
th e p r e s e n t stu d y was M ore's and was v i r t u a l l y th e same as
t h a t used by Kropp and S to k e r . The o n ly changes c o n s is te d
o f th e use o f synonyms w hich, i n M ore's o p in io n , were more
co m p reh en sible t o e ig h t h grade s t u d e n t s .
The a r t i c l e was concerned w ith the e f f e c t of g l a c i e r s
on th e w a ter economy o f th e e a r t h . I t d e s c r ib e d p r e s e n t
g l a c i a l systems and how th e s e have v a rie d th ro u g h o u t
h i s t o r y .
The p r o a c tiv e passag e was e n t i t l e d " Ic e b e rg s " and was
w r i t t e n by th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , w ith s u g g e s tio n s from a num
b e r o f sc ie n c e t e a c h e r s . The a r t i c l e was concerned w ith
ic e b e r g s and t h e i r o r i g i n . I t was ta k e n l a r g e l y from Ice
Age Coming by L e v e r e t t G. R ic h a rd s ( I 9 6 0 ) , a book recom
mended f o r e ig h th grade l e v e l s t u d e n t s .
A t h i r d p a ssa g e , c o m p le te ly u n r e l a te d t o the two on
g l a c i e r s and i c e b e r g s , was e n t i t l e d "Rhodesia" and was
w r i t t e n by More (1 9 6 8 ). A ll passages were a p p ro x im a te ly
1300 words i n l e n g t h .
27
T e s t o f t h e E f f e c t o f t h e In d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e
The tw e n ty ite m s i n th e G l a c i e r s t e s t w ere a d a p te d
fro m th e ite m s u se d i n t h e Taxonomy V a l i d a t i o n S tu d y (Kropp
and S t o k e r , 1 9 6 6 ) , u s i n g th e l e v e l s o f th e Taxonomy o f
E d u c a t i o n a l O b j e c t i v e s ; C o g n i t i v e Domain (Bloom, 1 9 5 6 ).
M ost o f t h e ite m s w ere from t h e know ledge and C o m prehension
l e v e l s (See T a b le I I ) . None o f th e q u e s t i o n s was from th e
E v a l u a t i o n o r S y n t h e s i s l e v e l b e c a u s e o f th e i n a p p r o p r i a t e
n e s s o f t h e m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e f o r m a t t o t h e s e l e v e l s .
A c c o rd in g t o Kropp and S t o k e r (1 966 ) t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e
t e s t , u s i n g K uder R ic h a r d s o n # 2 0 , f o r v a r i o u s sam p les o f
s u b j e c t s ra n g e d from .6 7 7 t o . 8 5 7.
The s e t o f tw e n ty ite m s was in c lu d e d i n a p i l o t s tu d y
i n w hich t w e n t y - f i v e ite m s w ere u s e d . Some o f th e tw e n ty -
f i v e ite m s w ere e l i m i n a t e d a f t e r th e p i l o t s t u d y , w h ile
o t h e r s w ere a l t e r e d (M ore, 1 9 6 8 ).
Each t e s t was p r i n t e d on f o u r s h e e t s o f w h ite p a p e r ,
8£ by 11 in c h e s i n s i z e . The f i r s t page c o n s i s t e d of f o u r
p r a c t i c e ite m s and d i r e c t i o n s . The r e m a in in g p ages c o n
t a i n e d th e tw e n ty t e s t i t e m s . A copy o f th e t e s t a p p e a rs
i n A ppendix B.
The l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s , I c e b e r g s and G l a c i e r s , c o n
t a i n e d c o n c e p ts i n common a s w e l l a s c o n c e p ts i n c o n f l i c t .
F o r e x am p le, t h e y b o th s t r e s s e d th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t most o f
t h e e a r t h ’ s w a t e r i s i n l i q u i d p h y s i c a l s t a t e and t h a t i t i s
fo u n d i n th e o c e a n s . On th e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e w ere
TABLE I I
CLASSIFICATION OF TEST ITEMS ACCORDING TO THE TAXONOMY
OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES FOR THE TEST
Item Number C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
5 Knowledge
6 Comprehension
7 Knowledge
8
Comprehension
9 Knowledge
10
Knowledge
11
Comprehension
12 Knowledge
13 A p p lic a tio n
lb
A p p lic a tio n
15 Comprehension
16 A p p lic a tio n
17 A p p lic a tio n
18
A p p lic a tio n
19 Knowledge
20 Knowledge
21 A n a ly sis
22
A p p lic a tio n
23 A n a ly sis
2b
Comprehension
29
d i f f e r e n c e s d e l i b e r a t e l y b u i l t i n by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r , e . g .
e s t i m a t e s o f t o t a l volume o f w a t e r i n g l a c i e r s i n term s
d i f f e r e n t from th o s e used i n d e s c r i b i n g t o t a l d im e n sio n s o f
t h e l a r g e s t i c e b e r g s .
In a p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s , th e a u t h o r s e l e c t e d
f i v e q u e s t i o n s from th e tw e n ty on t h e t e s t w hich c o u ld be
term ed " c o n c e p ts i n common," l i t e r a l l y p r e s e n t ( n o t s im p ly
i m p l i e d ) i n b o th th e G l a c i e r s and I c e b e r g s a r t i c l e s . I t
was assum ed t h a t i f in d e e d t h e r e w ere any f a c i l i t a t i o n i n
l e a r n i n g t h e l e s s o n a s a r e s u l t o f l e a r n i n g t h e p r o a c t i v e
p a s s a g e , i t would be p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e s e f i v e
i t e m s . The f i v e ite m s i d e n t i f i e d f o r th e s p e c i a l s tu d y
w e re numbers 5* 9* 15* 19* and 21. Two a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e
w ere p la n n e d , f o r th e t h r e e g r o u p s , th e f i r s t u s in g s c o r e s
on t h e s e q u e s t i o n s on T e s t I a s th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , and
s e c o n d , u s i n g s c o r e s on th e f i v e q u e s t i o n s on T e s t I I a s th e
d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .
P r o c e d u r e s
At th e o u t s e t o f th e e x p e r im e n t s u b j e c t s w ere a s s i g n e d
t o one o f th e t h r e e g r o u p s . The O v e r l e a r n i n g - P r o a c t i v e
( 0 - P ) gro u p s t u d i e d th e p r o a c t i v e p a s s a g e ( I c e b e r g s ) t w i c e ,
th e P r o a c t i v e (P) g ro u p s t u d i e d th e p r o a c t i v e p a s s a g e o n c e ,
and t h e C o n t r o l (C) gro u p was n o t exposed t o t h e p r o a c t i v e
p a s s a g e .
I n t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n of th e e x p e r im e n t (Day 1 ) , Group
0-P s t u d i e d t h e p r o a c t i v e p a s s a g e , and Groups P and C
30
s t u d i e d th e i r r e l e v a n t (R hodesia) p a ssa g e . A ll s u b j e c t s
w ere t o l d when s tu d y in g a l l p a ssag es t h a t th e y were to rea d
a t t h e i r custom ary sp e e d , and t h a t th e y were t o be examined
on th e m a t e r i a l a t a l a t e r tim e by means of a m u l t i p l e -
c h o ic e t e s t . (They were not a c t u a l l y t o be t e s t e d on any
m a t e r i a l o th e r th a n th e l a t e r l e s s o n , b u t th e a n t i c i p a t i o n
o f a t e s t on each passage was th o u g h t n e c e s s a ry to s u s t a i n
and e q u a te m o tiv a tio n i n a l l c o n d i t i o n s ) .
In th e second s e s s i o n , two days a f t e r th e f i r s t ( i . e .
Day 3 ) , Groups 0-P and P read th e p r o a c tiv e p a ssa g e , and
Group C a g a in read th e i r r e l e v a n t p a ssa g e .
In th e t h i r d s e s s i o n , two days a f t e r th e second ( i . e .
Day 5 )9 a l l groups s tu d ie d th e l a t e r r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l
( G l a c i e r s ) and a l l were th en t e s te d im m ediately on t h a t
p a s s a g e . The s u b j e c t s were i n s t r u c t e d t o answer a l l
q u e s t i o n s .
In th e f o u r t h s e s s i o n , seven days a f t e r th e t h i r d ( i . e .
Day 1 2 ) , a l l s u b j e c t s took th e d e lay ed t e s t on r e t e n t i o n of
t h e l a t e r r e l a t e d l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l . T his t e s t was id e n
t i c a l w ith th e imm ediate t e s t o f l e a r n i n g of t h i s m a t e r i a l .
Then a l l s u b j e c t s answered a q u e s t io n n a ir e r e l a t i n g t o the
p a ssa g es r e a d .
In th e f i r s t , second, and f o u r t h e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s i o n s ,
s u b j e c t s sp e n t th e f i r s t f i v e m inutes o f th e ^O-minute
p e rio d r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s and th e b a la n c e of th e p e rio d
r e a d i n g a p assage or ta k in g th e t e s t . In th e t h i r d s e s s io n ,
I TABLE I I I
ORDER OF LEARNING PASSAGES FOR THE FOUR EXPERIMENTAL SESSIONS
FOR THE THREE GROUPS
L earning S e ssio n s
I (Day 1) I I (Day 3) I I I (Day 5) IV (Day 12)
Group I
(0-P)
p ro a c tiv e
passage
Iceb erg s
p ro a c tiv e
passage
Iceb erg s
le s s o n
G la c ie rs
immediate
t e s t i n g
delayed
t e s t i n g
on le s s o n
q u e s tio n n a ir e
Grouj? I I i r r e l e v a n t
passage
Rhodesia
p ro a c tiv e
passage
Iceb erg s
le s s o n
G la c ie rs
immediate
t e s t i n g
delayed
t e s t i n g
on le s s o n
q u e s tio n n a ir e
Group I I I
(C)
i r r e l e v a n t
passage
Rhodesia
i r r e l e v a n t
passage
Rhodesia
le s s o n
G la c ie rs
immediate
t e s t i n g
delayed
t e s t i n g
on le s s o n
q u e s tio n n a ir e
T o ta l
Time of VO minutes VO minutes 80 m inutes VO minutes
S e ssio n
O J
H
32
which was 80 m inutes lo n g , th e s u b j e c t s sp e n t f i v e m inutes
r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , 35 m inutes r e a d in g th e l e s s o n , 5
m inutes r e c e i v i n g t e s t i n s t r u c t i o n s , and 35 m inutes ta k in g
th e t e s t . No s u b j e c t was expected t o have d i f f i c u l t y i n
c o m p letin g any of th e t a s k s w i t h in th e a l l o t t e d tim e .
A n a ly sis of Data
A com parison of th e means on th e im m ediate and d e la y ed
t e s t s o f th e l e s s o n was planned to i n d i c a t e w heth er th e p ro
a c t i v e p assage induced e i t h e r p r o a c tiv e i n t e r f e r e n c e or
p r o a c t iv e f a c i l i t a t i o n . Two s e p a r a te a n a ly s e s of v a ria n c e
were perform ed, b oth th e randomized group d e s ig n model. The
f i r s t a n a l y s i s c o n s id e re d T e s t I (im m ediate) as th e depend
e n t v a r i a b l e , w h ile th e second a n a l y s i s t r e a t e d T est I I as
th e dependent v a r i a b l e . F o llo w in g a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e ,
i n d i v i d u a l com parisons of th e means (0 -P v e rs u s C, P v e rsu s
C, and 0-P v e rs u s P) were planned u sin g th e Newman-Keuls
p ro c e d u re , w ith an a lp h a l e v e l o f .05 f o r each o f th e t h r e e
c o m p a riso n s.
F or H yp o th esis I I I i n p a r t i c u l a r , th e com parison of
i n d i v i d u a l means would u se th e Newman-Keuls p roced ure on th e
t h r e e group mean s c o re s f o r T e s t I v s . t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
T e s t I I . I f a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t F -s c o r e were found,
t h e s e o p e ra tio n s would r e v e a l a d i f f e r e n c e a t th e .0 5 con
f i d e n c e l e v e l .
The Sample
The e x p e r i m e n t a l sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f 150 e i g h t h g ra d e
s t u d e n t s draw n rand om ly ( u s i n g a t a b l e o f random num bers)
from t h e t o t a l m em bership of th e e i g h t h g rad e c l a s s a t
S i n a l o a J u n i o r High S c h o o l i n S im i, C a l i f o r n i a . The 150
s u b j e c t s w ere t h e n ra n d o m ly a s s i g n e d t o th e t h r e e g r o u p s .
B e ca u se o f t h e n a t u r e o f th e e x p e r i m e n t , d a t a w e re c o l l e c t e d
o n l y on members o f th e sam ple p r e s e n t f o r a l l f o u r e x p e r i
m e n ta l s e s s i o n s . T hese s e s s i o n s w ere c o n d u c te d d u r i n g
r e g u l a r s c h o o l h o u r s , l a s t i n g f o r a maximum o f 80 m in u te s a t
any one t im e .
The i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t (IQ ) was o b ta in e d from s c h o o l
r e c o r d s o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a S h o r t - Form T e s t o f M e n ta l M atu
r i t y . w hich had b e en a d m i n i s t e r e d t o a l l g ra d e e i g h t
s t u d e n t s f o u r months p r i o r t o th e p r e s e n t s t u d y a s a p a r t
o f th e t e s t i n g program o f th e S im i V a l l e y U n i f i e d S c h o o l
D i s t r i c t . The s u b j e c t s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s t o s e x , IQ, and
p e rfo rm a n c e i n th e s t u d y i n T a b le s V I, V I I , and V I I I i n
C h a p te r I I I .
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e S tu d y
T h is s t u d y was l i m i t e d t o sam p les o f r e g u l a r c l a s s
p u p i l s I n a m id d le s o c io e c o n o m ic , p r e d o m in a n tly w h ite com
m u n ity I n s u b u rb a n s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a . A ll s u b j e c t s w ere
I n g ra d e e i g h t .
S in c e t h e s t u d y was l i m i t e d t o s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r e a r l y
t e e n s , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t o y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s who may n o t y e t
3^
have develop ed th e a b s t r a c t a b i l i t i e s o f sy m b o liz in g and
g e n e r a l i z i n g i s not j u s t i f i e d .
The stu d y was l i m i t e d t o m ea n in g fu l v e r b a l m a t e r i a l s
and q u e s tio n s on th e s e m a t e r i a l s , w hich were a l s o o f a v e r
b a l n a t u r e .
A ssum ptions
I t was assumed t h a t th e s t u d e n ts had not been p r e v i
o u s ly exposed t o th e r e a d in g p a ssa g e s used in th e s t u d y .
I t was assumed t h a t th e t e s t was a v a l i d and r e l i a b l e
i n d i c a t o r o f th e amount o f m a t e r i a l a c q u ire d from th e r e a d
in g p a s s a g e .
I t was assumed t h a t th e a ssig n m e n t o f s t u d e n ts t o
t r e a tm e n ts was a random p ro c e d u re .
CHAPTER I I I
FINDINGS
W ith in th e fram ew ork o f A u s u b e l's m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l
l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , t h e aims o f t h i s s t u d y were r e f l e c t e d i n
t h r e e h y p o th e s e s : 1) t h a t m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g o f a p r o a c
t i v e p a s s a g e f a c i l i t a t e s th e l e a r n i n g and r e t e n t i o n o f a
l a t e r r e l a t e d l e s s o n ; 2) t h a t t h e d e g re e o f f a c i l i t a t i o n i s
g r e a t e r w i t h two r e a d i n g s o f th e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e th a n w ith
o n e ; and 3) t h a t th e e f f e c t o f t h e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e would
b e g r e a t e r on im m ediate r e t e n t i o n t h a n on d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n .
F in d in g s R e g a rd in g t h e Sample
U sin g s i m i l a r - c o n f l i c t i n g l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s p a r t i c u
l a r l y a d a p te d t o e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y , and a t h r e e
g ro u p r e s e a r c h d e s i g n w ith one c o n t r o l group (Group I I I ) and
two e x p e r i m e n t a l groups (Groups I and I I ) , th e f o u r s e s s i o n
l e a r n i n g and t e s t i n g was a d m in is te r e d t o a t o t a l sam ple o f
99 s u b j e c t s . A ccording t o th e p ro c e d u re s e x p la in e d i n Chap
t e r I I , t h e o r i g i n a l e x p e r im e n ta l sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f 150
e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s drawn ran dom ly fro m th e t o t a l number
o f e i g h t h g r a d e r s (501 s t u d e n t s ) a t a su b u rb a n j u n i o r h ig h
s c h o o l i n s o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a . The 150 s u b j e c t s were r a n
domly a s s ig n e d t o th e t h r e e g r o u p s . T hen, b e c a u se o f th e
n a t u r e o f th e e x p e r im e n t, d a t a w ere c o l l e c t e d o n ly on
3 5
members o f each group p r e s e n t f o r a l l f o u r e x p e rim e n ta l
s e s s i o n s . By th e end of th e f o u r t h day of th e e x p e rim e n t,
com plete d a ta were a v a i l a b l e f o r 35 s u b j e c t s i n Group I , 33
s u b j e c t s i n Group I I , and 33 s u b j e c t s i n Group I I I . Using
random p ro c e d u re , two of the 35 s u b j e c t s were dropped from
Group I t o e q u a liz e numbers a c r o s s g ro u p s. T able IV i n d i
c a t e s raw d a ta on s u b j e c t s l o s t from th e o r i g i n a l sam ple,
showing t h a t l o s s was random w ith r e s p e c t t o th e v a r i a b l e s
a t i s s u e . The r e a s o n f o r th e l a r g e sample a t t r i t i o n was
t h a t th e e x p erim en t was a d m in is te re d d u rin g March of 1971,
p r e c i s e l y a t th e tim e of a f l u epidem ic i n th e community.
A tten d an ce r e c o r d s in d ic a t e d t h a t 27% o f th e s tu d e n t body
was a b s e n t f o r a t l e a s t two days d u r in g th e months of Feb
r u a r y o r March.
The d e g re e o f s i m i l a r i t y i n th e sample groups i s i n d i
c a te d i n Table V, where mean IQ o f th e groups i s r e p o r t e d t o
be 1 0 2 .8 f o r Group I , 97.**- f o r Group I I , and 102 .2 f o r
Group I I I .
F in d in g s R egarding T e st Perform ance
A f t e r stu d y in g v a ry in g co m b in atio n s of th e p r o a c tiv e
p a ssa g e and th e l e s s o n , a l l groups were t e s t e d on G la c ie r s
on th e t h i r d e x p e rim e n ta l s e s s i o n (Day 5) f o r im m ediate
r e t e n t i o n and th e n a g a in on th e same t e s t f o r delay ed r e t e n
t i o n (Day 1 2 ). The means f o r Groups I , I I , and I I I on th e
im m ediate t e s t i n g were 1 0 .7 6 , 9*697, and 11.303 r e s p e c
t i v e l y . Means f o r th e t e s t o f r e t e n t i o n were a l s o b ased on
37
TABLE IV
RAW DATA ON SUBJECTS LOST
FROM ORIGINAL SAMPLE
Group I
Group I I
Group I I I
Sex
M F
IQ
Sex
M F
IQ
Sex
M F
IQ
X
9^
X
83
X
107
X
87 X
115
X 8* +
X 101 X
87 X
93
X
79 X
107 X 116
X
99
X
115
X 98
X 108 X 96 X
9^
X 108 X
105 X
91
X 90 X
99 X
85
X
91
X
107 X
109
X
99
X 90 X
115
X
83
X 92 X
97
X
123 X
87 X 92
X
95 X 88 X
95
X 82 X 100 X
89
X 101 X 76 X 96
X 120 X 100
x 109
X 111 X 11^ X
99
Mean
IQ
9 8 .2 9 ^
9 7 .7 0 5 98 .1 7 6
38
TABLE V
COMPARISON OF FINAL SAMPLE GROUPS
Mean IQ IQ Range F em ales M ales T o t a l
Group I 1 0 2 .8 2 9 80— 129 17 16 33
(0 -P )
Group I I 9 7 .^ 0 6 6b—12b 19 lb 33
(P)
Group I I I 1 0 2 .2 1 2 82— 125 19 l 1 * 33
(C)
39
number c o r r e c t out of th e 20 p o s s ib l e and were 10. 3 0 , 9 «273j
and 10.909 f o r th e t h r e e g ro u p s. These d a t a , plus mean IQ
f o r groups and s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n s on th e two t e s t i n g s are
summarized i n T ab le VI. Raw d a ta on s u b j e c t s 1 th ro u g h 33
i n each group in c lu d in g sex , IQ, s c o re s on T est I and T est
I I , a re in T ab les V II, V I I I , and IX.
I n v e s t i g a t i n g th e p o s s i b i l i t y of a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
IQ and t e s t s w i t h i n th e t h r e e g ro u p s, p ro d u ct moment c o r r e
l a t i o n s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r each group betw een IQ and sc o re s
on T e st I and IQ and s c o re s on T e st I I . C o r r e l a ti o n s ranged
betw een .M+0 f o r IQ and T est I I f o r Group I up t o .708 f o r
IQ and T e s t I I f o r Group I I I (T ab le X ).
S t a t i s t i c a l T reatm ent
In acco rd w ith th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n , two s e p a r a t e a n a ly
se s o f v a ria n c e were perform ed , th e f i r s t u s in g T e s t I f o r
th e t h r e e groups as th e d epend ent v a r i a b l e , and th e n w ith
T e s t I I as th e d ependen t v a r i a b l e . The F -s c o re f o r th e d a ta
on T e st I was 1 .8 0 9 , d f= 2 /9 6 , a n o n s i g n i f ic a n t r e s u l t . The
F - s c o r e f o r the d a ta on T est I I was 1 .9 6 3 , d f= 2 /9 6 , a l s o a
n o n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t . Since th e F - s c o r e s d id n o t approach
th e r e q u ir e d v a lu e s needed f o r r e j e c t i o n of th e n u l l h y p o th
e s i s , th e Newman Keuls p rocedure f o r com parison o f
i n d i v i d u a l means a re n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , c o n firm in g t h a t n e i
t h e r th e l e a r n i n g nor o v e r - l e a r n i n g of th e p r o a c tiv e passage
had s i g n i f i c a n t p r o a c t iv e i n t e r f e r i n g or f a c i l i t a t i n g
TABLE VI
COMPARISON OF
AND STANDARD
GROUP MEANS
DEVIATIONS
IQ
TEST I TEST I I
SD SD
Group I
1 0 2 .8 2 9 1 0 .7 6 1 0 .3 0
3 .3 5
3 .0 1
Group I I 97.^-06
9 .6 9 7 9 .2 7 3
3 .5 9 3 .3 9
Group I I I 1 0 2 .2 1 2
1 1 .3 0 3 1 0 .9 0 9
3 .5 7 3 .7 5
k l
TABLE V II
RAW DATA FOR OVERLEARNING-PROACTIVE GROUP,
GROUP I
S u b j e c t Sex IQ T e s t I T e s t I I
M F
1 X 122 lb Ik
2 X 122
17
16
3
X 80
7
6
k X 112 16 16
5
X
97 9
8
6 X 88 10
9
7
X
113
11 12
8 X 98
9
8
9
X 11V 11 10
10 X 102 12 11
11 X
115
8 11
12 X
129 17 13
X
93 9
11
Ik X
75
6
7
15
X 110 8
9
16 X
93 13
11
17
X
97
6
5
18 X 120 10
9
19 X
87
8
5
20 X
103 9
10
21 X 81 11
9
22 X 109 8 k
2?
X
103 9 13
2k X
91
8 12
25
X
105 15 13
26 X 10* *
17
12
27 X 108
13
10
28 X 98 lt f 12
29
X
105 12
9
30 X 108 8 12
31
X
99 12 10
32 X
99 5
8
33
X 88
13 15
1
2
I
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
1 1
12
K
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Zb
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
TABLE V I I I
RAW DATA FOR PROACTIVE GROUP, GROUP I I
Sex IQ T e s t I
M F
X
87 7
X
97
11
X
107
10
X 96 13
X 7b 6
X 82
9
X 90 7
X 1 0 M - 11
X
91
b
X 99 5
X 108
17
X 12b
16
X 116
19
X 88
9
X
89 9
X
87 7
X
ll*f 8
X
79 9
X
119 lb
X
99
10
X 86 8
X 102 8
X
87
5
X n o d a t a 8
X 96 10
X 6b
7
X
91 12
X 111 10
X 110
5
X
103 10
X 100 l i
X
109
15
X 108 10
43
TABLE IX
RAW DATA FOR CONTROL GROUP, GROUP I I I
S u b je c t Sex IQ T e s t I T e st I I
M F
1 X
97
11
9
2 X
125 17
18
3
X 98 12
9
4 X
99 7 6
5
X 102 10
9
6 X 114 12 14
7 X 96
9 10
8 X 90 4
5
9
X 88 12
7
10 X
93
12 11
11 X
123 12 12
12 X 104
5
8
13
X
117 16 14
14
X 114
15 16
15 X 112 12
13
16 X 92
7 2
17 X 106
15 15
18 X 94 8 6
19 X
99 11 12
20 X 100
5 7
21
X 82 14 6
22 X
109
15
23 X 106 i4
11
2k
X
87 8 10
25 X 82
5 9
26 X
115 17 17
27 X
97 13
14
28 X
109
13 12
29 X 108 12 14
30 X
122 12
13
31 X
107 14
13
32 X
102 14
13
33 X 84 10 10
TABLE X
COMPARISON OF CORRELATIONS BETWEEN
IQ ’ S AND TESTS I AND I I , WITHIN GROUPS
C o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n C o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n
IQ and T e s t I IQ and T e s t I I
Group I .k67 .M+O
Group I I .573 .6 5 0
Group I I I .559 .708
^5
e f f e c t s on th e l e a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n of th e l e s s o n . None
o f th e t h r e e n u l l h y p o th eses was r e j e c t e d .
Owing t o the s u b s t a n t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een IQ and
th e d ependen t v a r i a b l e , an a n a l y s i s o f c o v a ria n c e was p e r
form ed, u sin g IQ a s th e c o v a r i a t e . R e s u lts a re c i t e d in
T ab les X I I I and XIV. H olding c o n s ta n t f o r th e c o v a r i a t e , no
s i g n i f i c a n t tr e a tm e n t e f f e c t was fo u n d . F - s c o r e s f o r t e s t s
I and I I were *7^6 and .889 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
As a r e s u l t o f th e a u t h o r 's s u b j e c t iv e a n a l y s i s planned
f o r th e f i v e item s on th e t e s t which c o n ta in e d d e f i n i t e
"c o n c e p ts i n common" from the p r o a c tiv e passage and l e s s o n ,
raw d a ta were c o ll e c t e d on each s u b j e c t 's perform ance on
q u e s tio n s 5> 9, 15 > 19» and 21. The raw d a ta f o r a l l groups
a p p e a rs i n T able XV. Means f o r the t h r e e groups on T e s t I
were 3**+85, 3*182, and 3*636 r e s p e c t i v e l y ; w h ile f o r T e s t I I
th e y were 3*^85, 3-5^5* and 3*8^8. On th e f i r s t a n a l y s i s of
v a r ia n c e u s in g T e s t I as the dependent v a r i a b l e , th e F -s c o re
was 1 .1 7 2 , a s t a t i s t i c a l l y n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t . On th e
second a n a l y s i s o f v a ria n c e u s in g T e s t I I as th e d epend ent
v a r i a b l e , th e F - s c o r e was .855, a ls o n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t . (See
T a b le s XVI and X V II).
F in d in g s from S u b j e c t s ' Responses to th e Q u e s tio n n a ire
To i n v e s t i g a t e th e s u b j e c t s ' p e r c e p tio n of th e e x p e r i
m ent, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r view of th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
th e l e a r n i n g p a s s a g e s , a q u e s t io n n a ir e was w r i t t e n and p r e
se n te d t o a l l s u b j e c t s a f t e r th e r e t e n t i o n t e s t i n g on th e
TABLE X I
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR TEST I
AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
S o u rc e o f
V a r i a t i o n
Sum o f
S q u a r e s
D eg ree s o f
Freedom
Mean
S q u a re
F
T r e a tm e n ts
M f.019
2 2 2 .0 1 0
1 .8 0 9
W it h i n
T r e a tm e n ts
1 1 6 8 .0 0 1 96 1 2 .1 6 7
T o t a l 1 2 1 2 »020 98
•
TABLE X II
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR TEST
AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
I I
k7
S ource of Sum of D egrees of Mean F
V a r i a t i o n S qu ares Freedom Square
T re a tm e n ts M-5.172 2 22.586
1.963
W ith in 110^.2^2 96
11.503
T reatm en ts
T o ta l 98
TABLE XIII
ANALYSIS O F COVARIANCE FOR TEST I
AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
S o u rc e o f
V a r i a t i o n
Sum o f
S q u a re s
D eg rees o f
Freedom
Mean
S q u a re
F
B etw een
Groups
1 3 .1 9 1 2 6 .5 9 6
.7^9
W ith in
Groups
8 3 6 .7 5 0
95
8 .8 0 8
T o t a l
8*+9.9^1 97
^9
TABLE XIV
ANALYSIS O F COVARIANCE FOR TEST II
AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Source o f
V ariation
Sum of
Squares
Degrees of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
Betw een 1 3 .1 9 7 2 6 .5 9 9 .889
Groups
W it h i n 7 0 5 .2 8 7 95 7.*+2^
Groups
T o t a l 7 1 8 .^ 8 3 97
1
2
5
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
lb
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
15
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
50
TABLE XV
R A W DATA FOR TH E TH R EE G R O U PS O N
SUBTEST O F FIVE ITEM S
Group I Group II Group III
Test I Test II Test I Test II Test I Test II
5
b
3 3
if
5
5 5
b
5 5 5
2 2 b b
3 l
3
1 +
3
b 2 l
5 b 1 2 if
5
b
3
if 2 if b
if
3
2 if if
5
2
3 5 3
2
5
2
3 3
2
3
if
if
3 3
if 3
b
5
b 1 b
b
3 5 5 3
if
b
5 5 5 5 5
1
3 3
l 5
b
2
3
if if If if
5 3 3 3 1 0
2 0
3 . 5
if
5
3 5 3 1 3 2
b 1 b if if if
5 3 3
if
3
2
b b 1
3
if
1 2 1
3 5
if
b
3
if If
5
if
3 5
2 if
3
if
5 5
if
5
2 if
3 5
2
3 5 5
3
b if If 5 5
5
b 2 3 b b
5
b 2 if
5 5
5
b if if
3
2
b
5 3
if
5 5
0 2
3
if b If
3 3 3
if
3 5
51
TABLE XVI
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FOR THE
FIVE-ITEM SUBTEST O F TEST I
AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Source o f
V ariation
Sum of
Squares
Degrees of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
Treatments 3o536 2 1 .5 0 8 1 .1 7 2
W ithin
Treatments
1 W .7 8 7 96 1.7 6 8
T otal
1*4-8.323
98
52
TABLE XVII
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FOR T H E
FIVE-ITEM SUBTEST O F TEST II
AS T H E DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Source of
V ariation
Sum of
Squares
Degrees of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
T re a tm e n ts 2.50 6 2 1.253 .855
W ith in 'l^O.OeO 96 1 A 6 5
T rea tm en ts
T o t a l 1^3 o172 98
53
l a s t day o f th e e x p e r im e n t. R e s u l t s o f t h e s u r v e y , by
g ro u p s , a r e c o n ta in e d i n T a b le s X V III, XIX, and XX. D i f f e r
e n c e s i n group answ ers a re summarized f o r eac h o f th e e i g h t
q u e s t i o n s :
1 . N e a rly a l l s u b j e c t s i n Groups I and I I , 25 and 27
s u b j e c t s r e s p e c t i v e l y , saw s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een t h e i r p ro
a c t i v e p a ssa g e ( I c e b e r g s ) and th e l e s s o n ( G l a c i e r s ) ; o n ly
18 s u b j e c t s i n Group I I I saw s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een t h e i r p ro
a c t i v e p a s s a g e (R h o d e sia ) and t h e l e s s o n ( G l a c i e r s ) .
2 . At l e a s t 22 s u b j e c t s i n a l l groups resp o n d ed t h a t
t h e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e d id n o t make th e l e s s o n h a r d e r to
l e a r n .
3 . T w e n ty -th re e and 21 s u b j e c t s i n Group I and Group
I I s a id th e y n o tic e d f a c t s i n t h e i r p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e t h a t
made th e l e s s o n e a s i e r t o l e a r n ; o n ly 13 s u b j e c t s i n Group
I I I i n d i c a t e d t h a t l e a r n i n g th e i r r e l e v a n t p a ssa g e made
t h e i r l e s s o n e a s i e r .
*+. In r e s p o n s e t o th e q u e s t i o n w h e th e r th e y m igh t have
done b e t t e r i f t h e y had b een t o l d t o w atch f o r s i m i l a r i t i e s
and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e a d i n g p a s s a g e s , o p in io n was s p l i t
w i t h i n a l l t h r e e g r o u p s , w i t h a s l i g h t m a j o r i t y of t h e 99
s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t i n g " D o n 't Know."
5 . More th a n h a l f o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s i n a l l groups
r a t e d t h e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e a d in g
l e v e l f o r th e e i g h t h g r a d e .
5^
TABLE XVIII
QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES FOR G R O U P I
Yes No D o n 't
Know
1 . Did you n o tic e any s i m i l a r i t i e s b e - 25 7 1
tween th e re a d in g passag e you had on
Wednesday and th e one on G la c ie r s
today?
2. Did you n o tic e any f a c t s in Wednes- 7 23 3
d a y 's passage t h a t made G la c ie r s h a rd e r
to l e a r n ?
3 . Did you n o t ic e any f a c t s in Wednes- 23 6 3
d a y 's passage t h a t prepared you f o r
G la c ie rs and made i t e a s i e r t o l e a r n ?
*+. I f th e p e rso n i n ch arg e of your t e s t - 12 7 13
in g group had p o in te d out t h a t you
should pay s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to s i m i
l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e
r e a d in g p a s s a g e s , would you have done
b e t t e r on th e t e s t ?
5* Do you f e e l t h a t th e words i n th e a r t - 16 12 ^
i c l e s were a t th e r i g h t l e v e l of
d i f f i c u l t y f o r you as an e ig h th g rade
s tu d e n t?
6 . Were the words too hard?
3 29
1
7 .
Were the words too easy? 1 30 1
8. Did you have trouble reading because 2
31
0
t h e r e was not enough tim e?
55
TABLE XIX
QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES FOR G R O U P II
Yes No Don't
Know
1 . Did you n o tice any s im ila r it ie s 27 b 2
between the reading passage you had
on Wednesday and the one on Gla
c ie r s today?
2 . Did you n o tice any fa c ts in Wednes- 10 22 1
d a y 's passage that made G laciers
harder to learn?
3 . Did you n o tice any f a c ts in Wednes- 21 9 2
d ay's passage that prepared you fo r
G laciers and made i t e a s ie r to learn?
*+. I f the person in charge of your t e s t - 10 8 15
in g group had pointed out that you
should pay s p e c ia l a tte n tio n to sim i
l a r i t i e s and d iffe r e n c e s in the
reading p assages, would you have done
b e tte r on the te s t?
5 . Do you f e e l that the words in the 17 9 7
a r t i c l e s were at the r ig h t le v e l of
d i f f i c u l t y for you as an eigh th grade
student?
6. Were the words too hard?
1 30 2
7.
Were the words too easy?
1 30 2
8 .
Did you have trou b le reading because
2 30 0
56
TABLE XX
QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES FOR GROUP I I I
Yes No D o n 't
Know
1 . Did you n o t i c e any s i m i l a r i t i e s 18 9 6
b e tw e e n t h e r e a d i n g p a s s a g e you had
on W ednesday and th e one on G la
c i e r s to d a y ?
2 . Did you n o t i c e any f a c t s i n W ednes- 8 2^ 1
d a y 's p a s s a g e t h a t made G l a c i e r s
h a r d e r t o l e a r n ?
3 . Did you n o t i c e any f a c t s I n W ednes- 13 17 2
d a y 's p a s s a g e t h a t p r e p a r e d you f o r
G l a c i e r s and made i t e a s i e r t o l e a r n ?
I f th e p e r s o n i n c h a rg e o f y o u r t e s t - 11 11 10
in g grou p had p o i n te d o u t t h a t you
s h o u ld pay s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o s i m i
l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e
r e a d i n g p a s s a g e s , would you have done
b e t t e r on th e t e s t ?
5 .
Do you f e e l t h a t t h e w ords i n th e
a r t i c l e s w ere a t t h e r i g h t l e v e l o f
d i f f i c u l t y f o r you a s an e i g h t h g rad e
s t u d e n t ?
26 if
3
6 . Were t h e words to o h a rd ? if 28 1
7 .
Were th e words to o e a sy ?
3
30 0
8 . D id you have t r o u b l e r e a d i n g b e c a u s e 2 30 1
t h e r e was n o t enough tim e ?
57
6 . E igh ty-seven of the t o t a l su b jects said th at the
words used were not too d i f f i c u l t fo r them.
7 . Ninety of the su b je c ts Indicated th a t the words
used were not too ea sy for them.
8 . N inety-one o f the su b je c ts reported th at there was
ample time allowed fo r reading the m a te r ia ls.
On the b a s is of the data from the q u e stio n n a ire , the
la r g e s t d iffe r e n c e s in group answers were in response to
q u estio n s number one and number th r e e . On the f i r s t q u est
io n , s iz a b le numbers of su b jec ts in both Groups I and II
recognized s i m i l a r i t i e s between Icebergs and. G la ciers; but
some su b je c ts in Group I I I perceived a s im ila r it y between
Rhodesia and G la c ie r s. On q u estio n th ree, Groups I and II
perceived th e ir p roactive passage (Iceb ergs) as f a c i l i t a
tin g ; Group I I I did not see th at r e la tio n s h ip in the co n tro l
m a te r ia l.
Summary o f Findings
A randomized group model a n a ly sis o f variance d esig n
was employed tw ic e , the f i r s t time u sin g Test I as the
dependent v a r ia b le , and the second time Test II fo r hypoth
e s e s I and I I r e s p e c t iv e ly . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t
d iffe r e n c e was found fo r any o f the three treatm en ts. Mean
sc o r e s fo r the three groups were never as fa r as 2 .0 p oin ts
a p a rt, in s p it e of d ivergen t p ro a ctiv e exp erien ces provided.
S in ce Hypotheses I and II were not confirm ed, there was no
reason to t e s t fo r I I I . C orrela tio n s were found between IQ
and t e s t p e rf o r m a n c e , b o t h on T e s t I and T e s t I I . These
c o r r e l a t i o n s ra n g e d from .MfO o n th e O v e r l e a r n i n g - P r o a c t i v e
G roup, Group I , t o a h ig h of „708 f o r C o n tro l G roup, Group
I I I . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e y i e l d e d no s i g
n i f i c a n t r e s u l t . O ther d i f f e r e n c e s w ere n o ted i n r e s p o n s e
t o q u e s t i o n s asked a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f th e e x p e r im e n t.
S u b j e c t s i n Groups I and I I , t h e two group s who e x p e r ie n c e d
t h e s i m i l a r - c o n f l i c t i n g p r o a c t i v e t r e a t m e n t , p e r c e i v e d t h e i r
p r o a c t i v e l e a r n i n g as f a c i l i t a t i n g and a l s o p e r c e i v e d s i m i
l a r i t i e s b e tw ee n t h e i r p r o a c t i v e l e a r n i n g and th e l e s s o n t o
a g r e a t e r d e g re e t h a n d i d s u b j e c t s i n Group I I I , t h e c o n t r o l
g r o u p .
CHAPTER IV
SUM M ARY A N D IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH
Summary
The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e po s
s i b i l i t y o f p o s i t i v e p r o a c t i v e t r a n s f e r u s in g m ea n in g fu l
v e r b a l m a t e r i a l s w ith e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s . W ith in th e
c o n t e x t o f A u s u b e l's m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , th e e x p e r i
m e n ta l m a t e r i a l s w ere c h o sen and ju dged t o be h i g h l y s i m i l a r
and c o n f l i c t i n g . A cco rd in g t o r o t e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , such
s i m i l a r i t y would have b e en e x p e c te d t o be i n h i b i t i n g to th e
l e a r n i n g o f new m a t e r i a l ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , i n m e a n in g fu l cog
n i t i v e t h e o r y , su ch s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s m ight be f a c i l i t a t i n g
f o r new l e a r n i n g , fo rm in g u s e f u l a n c h o rs i n th e s u b j e c t s '
c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . A u su b e l, e t a l . (1969) found n e i t h e r
i n t e r f e r e n c e nor f a c i l i t a t i o n i n th e m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g and
r e t e n t i o n o f a s i m i l a r - c o n f l i c t i n g p a s s a g e . U sing h i s model
and r e s e a r c h d e s i g n , w h ile s t r i n g e n t l y c o n t r o l l i n g m a t e r i a l s
and e x p e r im e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s , t h i s s t u d y s e t o u t t o f i n d e v i
d e n c e o f p o s s i b l e p r o a c t i v e f a c i l i t a t i o n .
Employing a t h r e e - g r o u p d e s i g n ( O v e r l e a r n i n g - P r o a c t i v e ,
P r o a c t i v e , and C o n t r o l ) , 150 s u b j e c t s were random ly a s s ig n e d
t o t r e a t m e n t s fro m th e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of e i g h t h g r a d e r s a t
a l a r g e su b u rb a n j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l . E x p e rim e n ta l s e s s io n s
59
60
w ere h e ld d u r in g a 1 2 -d a y tim e p e r i o d , a llo w in g t h e (0 -P )
Group I an o p p o r t u n i t y t o re a d th e p r o a c t i v e p a s s a g e tw ic e ,
th e (P) Group I I t o r e a d th e i r r e l e v a n t p a ssa g e once and th e
p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e o n c e , and th e (C) Group I I I t o re a d th e
i r r e l e v a n t p a ssa g e t w i c e b e f o r e a l l groups re a d th e l e s s o n
and w ere t e s t e d on i t . T e s ti n g was b o th im m ediate and
d e l a y e d , u s in g th e same i n s tr u m e n t f o r a l l g r o u p s . A ll sub
j e c t s answered a q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n of
th e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s .
A com parison o f t h e means on th e 2 0 -ite m im m ediate and
d e la y e d t e s t s on th e l e s s o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w ere a l l
w i t h i n l e s s t h a n 2 .0 p o i n t s o f one a n o t h e r , and t h a t th e
gro u p s ( I and I I ) who e x p e rie n c e d th e p r o a c t i v e p a s s a g e d id
n o t do as w e l l as th e c o n t r o l group ( I I I ) . Means f o r Groups
I , I I , and I I I on T e s t I were 1 0 .7 6 , 9*697? and 1 1 .3 0
r e s p e c t i v e l y ; w h ile means f o r t h e same t h r e e grou ps on T e s t
I I w ere 1 0 .3 0 , 9*273* and 10.909* A random ized g ro up model
a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e was used t w i c e , th e f i r s t tim e w ith
T e s t I as th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , and th e second tim e T e s t
I I . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t F - s c o r e was f o u n d , and no
f u r t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n t was r e q u i r e d .
S i m i l a r l y , a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r ia n c e u s in g IQ as t h e
c o v a r i a t e , d i d n o t y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s . A s u b t e s t
s c o r e on f i v e item s c o n s id e r e d most f a c i l i t a t i n g ( i . e . p r e s
e n t i n b o th t h e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e and l e s s o n ) was d e te rm in e d
f o r e a c h s u b j e c t , b u t i t a l s o f a i l e d t o show a s i g n i f i c a n t
61
d i f f e r e n c e on a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e f o r b o th T e s t I and T e s t
I I . The a u t h o r 's c o n v i c t i o n was t h a t i f t h e r e w ere any
g e n u in e f a c i l i t a t i o n i n l e a r n i n g th e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e and
t h e n th e l e s s o n , i t s u r e l y would have been a p p a r e n t i n Group
I ' s s u b t e s t r e s u l t s and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t p e rh a p s i n Group
I I ' s s u b t e s t r e s u l t s . However, no such r e l a t i o n s h i p was
i n d i c a t e d by th e d a t a .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y s u b s t a n t i a t e d
A u s u b e l 's (1969) r e s e a r c h . U sin g th e same g r o u p in g s b u t
w i t h o l d e r s u b j e c t s ( g ra d e 1 3) and d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , he
fo u n d th e mean f o r t h e c o n t r o l group b a r e l y h i g h e r t h a n f o r
t h e o t h e r two g r o u p s . The mean number c o r r e c t on im m ediate
and d e la y e d t e s t s i n t h i s p r e s e n t s tu d y was s c a r c e l y over
h a l f , j u s t a s i n th e A usubel r e s e a r c h . The mean l o s s i n
r e t e n t i o n betw een T e s t I and T e s t I I i n t h i s s tu d y was a l s o
s i m i l a r t o A u s u b e l 's — l e s s th a n 1 .0 p o i n t l o s s f o r e a c h
g ro u p .
R e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f th e H ypotheses
The f o l lo w in g h y p o th e s e s were f o r m u la te d f o r i n v e s t i g a
t i o n by t h i s s tu d y :
1 . M e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g o f th e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e w i l l
f a c i l i t a t e , o r a t l e a s t not i n h i b i t , th e l e a r n i n g
and r e t e n t i o n o f th e l a t e r p a s s a g e .
2 . The d e g re e o f f a c i l i t a t i o n w i l l be g r e a t e r w ith two
r e a d i n g s o f th e p r o a c t i v e p a ssa g e t h a n w i t h one.
6 2
3 . In e a c h i n s t a n c e th e e f f e c t o f th e p r o a c t i v e p a s
sa g e would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r on im m ed iate
t h a n on d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n .
F in d in g s Regarding the F ir s t H ypothesis
The f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , c e n t r a l i n
m e a n in g fu l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , was c o n ce rn e d w i t h p o s s i b l e
f a c i l i t a t i o n i n l e a r n i n g a seco nd p a s s a g e a s a r e s u l t of
l e a r n i n g a s i m i l a r and c o n f l i c t i n g p r o a c t i v e p a s s a g e .
A u s u b e l 's w r i t i n g s s i n c e 1963 h a v e s t r e s s e d th e im p o rta n c e
o f e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e f i r s t (o r p r o a c t i v e ) l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e
m e a n in g f u l l y i n t o c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . Then i t would be
" a n c h o r e d ," a v a i l a b l e a s a r e f e r e n c e when new m a t e r i a l w ould
b e subsum ed. The s i m i l a r i t y and c o n f l i c t i n th e m a t e r i a l
w ould n o t be i n h i b i t i n g a s i n r o t e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y , b u t
w ould be f a c i l i t a t i n g — e n a b l in g t h e l e a r n e r t o make c o n
t r a s t s w ith th e e a r l i e r l e a r n i n g s .
I n th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found b e tw e e n t h e gro u p s who
e x p e r i e n c e d th e p r o a c t i v e l e a r n i n g and th e group who d id
n o t . However, i n t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s
i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a t th e end o f t h e l a s t e x p e r i m e n t a l
s e s s i o n , th e two gro u p s who w ere exposed to th e p r o a c t i v e
p a s s a g e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y r e c o g n iz e d s i m i l a r i t i e s b e tw ee n
i t and th e l a t e r l e s s o n and t h a t t h e y p e r c e iv e d t h a t i t
f a c i l i t a t e d t h e i r l e a r n i n g of t h e l a t e r l e s s o n . The c o n t r o l
63
group did not report such a r e la tio n s h ip in the m aterials
stu d ie d .
Findings Regarding the Second Hypothesis
The second h yp oth esis sta ted that two readings of the
p roactive passage would provide a greater degree of f a c i l i
t a tio n than would one reading. Contrary to rote learn in g
th eory, where lit e r a t u r e shows that two readings would he
more in h ib itin g to fu tu re learn in g than one reading, mean
in g fu l learn in g would not be l i k e l y to su ffer from such
in te r fe r e n c e . T h e o r e tic a lly , two readings of the proactive
passage should e s ta b lis h the m aterial more secu rely w ithin
the c o g n itiv e str u c tu r e , allow ing for greater futu re
r e t r i e v a b i l i t y .
In s p ite of such a th e o r e tic a l b ase, th is in v e s tig a tio n
found n either f a c i l i t a t i o n to support meaningful learn ing
theory nor in h ib itio n to support in te rfer en ce theory. As in
the f i r s t h y p o th esis, a n a ly sis of variance showed no s i g n i f
ic a n t s t a t i s t i c a l d iffe r e n c e between the groups.
Findings Regarding the Third Hypothesis
I t was hypothesized that the e f f e c t of the p roactive
passage would be greater on immediate r e te n tio n of the l e s
son than on delayed r e te n tio n . Even though the a ctu al
decrement in performance was expected to be sm a ll, as i s
u s u a lly the case for meaningful r e te n tio n , the i n i t i a l t e s t
ing sco res were p redicted to be h igh, la r g e ly because o f the
p ro a ctiv e learn in g ju s t two days before the le s s o n and
6*+
t e s t i n g . The data su g g est the expected sm all decrement
between t e s t in g s e s s io n s , but there i s no s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e .
Im p lica tio n s fo r Research
The f a ilu r e of t h is study to show a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g
n if ic a n t r e s u lt does not n e c e s s a r ily imply th a t the theory
o f m eaningful v erb a l le a r n in g is not v ia b le . The theory
s t i l l seems c r e d ib le , p a r tic u la r ly when viewed in l i g h t of
p revious research l i t e r a t u r e . The experim en tal d esig n s
employed h e r e to fo r e may not y e t have p ossessed the power to
r e v e a l the true e f f e c t . Furthermore, the p r o a c tiv e e f f e c t
might be p re se n t, but might be too sm all to overrid e th e
co n sid era b le w ith in group d if f e r e n c e s . In t h is p resen t
stu d y , i t i s p o s s ib le th at the e f f e c t i s obscured by other
sources o f v a r i a b i l i t y . The e f f e c t might have been r e a l ,
but i t was not transcendant in t h is in v e s t ig a t io n . There
f o r e , new research i s su ggested from t h is experim ent, ju s t
as t h is study grew from A usub el's (196 9) work.
F ir s t of a l l , i t i s e s s e n t i a l to in su re th a t there was
not an inadequacy in the a d m in istr a tio n o f the experim ent or
in the m a te ria ls th at prevented a tru e d iffe r e n c e in th e
groups from b ein g measured. In undertaking t h is stu d y,
c a r e fu l c o n tr o ls were d evised fo r the a d m in istra tio n o f the
experim ent. S u b jects were summoned to " sp e c ia l t e s t in g ,"
not to an "experim ent." A ll in s t r u c t io n s were printed in
advance, so th a t each experim enter would p resen t the
65
m a t e r i a l s t o h i s group i n e x a c t l y th e same way. Most
im p o r ta n t to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , s u b j e c t s were n o t inform ed
o f any r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een one d a y 's l e a r n i n g passag e and
th o s e to f o l lo w . S u b je c ts were n e v er a l e r t e d t o w atch f o r
a n y c o n f l i c t s o r s i m i l a r i t i e s i n th e m a t e r i a l s .
A nother c o n c e rn of t h i s r e s e a r c h e r was t h a t th e m ate
r i a l s be p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o e i g h t h g rad e s u b j e c t s . The
t h r e e l e a r n i n g p a ssa g e s were judged t o be a p p r o p r i a t e by
q u a l i f i e d a d u l t ju d g e s , and a l s o by th e s u b j e c t s them
s e l v e s . R e g a r d le s s of th e d is a d v a n ta g e s o f th e s e l f - r e p o r t
q u e s t i o n n a i r e , n e a r l y a l l of th e s u b j e c t s r a t e d th e m ate
r i a l s to be s u i t a b l e f o r t h e i r re a d in g l e v e l . S u b je c ts a l s o
r e p o r t e d p e r c e i v i n g a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p r o a c t iv e
p a s s a g e and th e l e s s o n , which w ere r a t e d " s i m i l a r and con
f l i c t i n g " by two e x p e r t s .
S e c o n d ly , some a d d i t i o n a l d a t a , a p a r t from w hat was
r e q u i r e d t o t e s t th e t h r e e h y p o th e s e s , were accum ulated as
a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . C o r r e l a t i o n s were c a l c u l a t e d
be tw ee n IQ and i n d i v i d u a l s c o r e s on T e s t I and T e s t I I
(T a b le X ), ra n g in g from .M+0 f o r Group I on T e st I I t o .708
f o r Group I I I on T e s t I I . A part from th e a c c e p te d .50 t o
.6 0 e x p e c te d c o r r e l a t i o n betw een IQ and r e a d in g a b i l i t y , i t
may be w e l l w orth i n v e s t i g a t i n g why th e s c o r e s o f th e group
w i t h th e most m e a n in g fu l p r o a c t i v e e x p e rie n c e c o r r e l a t e d
lo w e s t w i t h IQ and t e s t perform ance and th e s c o r e s of th e
66
c o n tr o l group w ith no m eaningful p roactive exp erien ce co rre
la te d most h ig h ly .
The next step Indicated for research i s to in v e s t ig a t e
the same h yp oth eses, but t h is time u sin g nine groups, three
fo r each a b i l i t y grouping of h igh , medium, and low . Recog
n iz in g th at A usubel's c o g n itiv e theory was never intended
to apply e x c lu s iv e ly to high a b i l i t y s u b je c ts , i t seems
l i k e l y th a t i f th ere is such a d iffe r e n c e in c o g n itiv e
str u c tu r e between a b i l i t y groups, i t w i l l come to lig h t
w ith in t h is proposed nine-group d e sig n . This w r ite r specu
l a t e s th a t in d iv id u a l d iffe r e n c e s might be an important
fa c t o r in a l l research of meaningful verbal le a r n in g . Even
though m aterials are appropriate to the reading l e v e l of the
s u b j e c ts , the low IQ su b ject might not be p ercep tiv e enough
to se e the su b tle s im i l a r i t i e s and d iff e r e n c e s , or he may
not r e ta in (anchor) such s im ila r it ie s or d isc r e p a n c ie s in
h is c o g n itiv e str u c tu r e .
The other p r o fita b le avenue fo r fu tu re research sug
g ested by t h is in v e s t ig a t io n Is to examine the is s u e of
in te n t io n to le a r n . Although most of the su b jects
responded that they did not know i f they would have done
b e tte r i f they had been encouraged to watch fo r s im ila r i
t i e s and d iffe r e n c e s in the p assages, i t i s s t i l l p o ssib le
th a t they would have done b e t te r . A sim ila r experim ental
s it u a t io n could be ach ieved , where some groups would r e c e iv e
s p e c ia l in s tr u c tio n s and others would n ot.
I f th e c o g n i t i v e th e o r y of m e a n in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g
i s a c c u r a t e , th e n s tu d y i n th e f i e l d would have d e f i n i t e
i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c la ssro o m l e a r n i n g . I f i t could be shown
t e n a b l e t h a t p r o a c t i v e l e a r n i n g o f m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l
c o u ld a c t u a l l y a id r e t e n t i o n o f l a t e r l e s s o n s , e d u c a to r s
would n o te i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c u rr ic u lu m p la n n in g , as w e l l
a s f o r e v e ry d a y cla ssro o m r o u t i n e . Two such lo n g - te r m
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s m ight be 1) t h a t o r d e r o f l e a r n i n g new con
c e p t s or u n i t s o f s tu d y i s much more im p o rta n t th a n i t was
p r e v i o u s l y c o n s id e re d t o b e , and 2) t h a t m a t e r i a l m ust be
e s t a b l i s h e d as m ea n in g fu l to th e l e a r n e r f o r any d e g re e of
r e t r i e v a b i l i t y a f t e r su b se q u e n t le a r n in g *
R E F E R E N C E S
6 8
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S la m e c k a , N. J . R e t r o a c t i v e I n h i b i t i o n o f c o n n e c te d d i s
c o u r s e a s a f u n c t i o n o f p r a c t i c e l e v e l . J o u r n a l o f
E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y . I 9 6 0 , 59: 101 * — lUB
S la m e c k a . N. J . and C e r a s o , J . R e t r o a c t i v e and p r o a c t i v e
i n h i b i t i o n o f v e r b a l l e a r n i n g . P s y c h o l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n .
1 9 6 0 , 5 7 : ¥ f 9 — »f75
73
S u p p e s , P . , and G in s b e r g , R . A. A f u n d a m e n ta l p r o p e r t y o f
a l l - o r - n o n e m o d e ls , b in o m ia l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s
p r i o r t o c o n d i t i o n i n g , w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n t o c o n c e p t
f o r m a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e v ie w . 1 9 o 3 ,
7 0 : 139—161
S w e n so n , E . J . O r g a n i z a t i o n and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a s f a c t o r s
i n l e a r n i n g , t r a n s f e r , and r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n # I n
L e a r n in g T h e o ry i n S c h o o l S i t u a t i o n s « U n i v e r s i t y o f
M in n e s o ta S t u d i e s i n E d u c a ti o n . M in n e a p o lis : U n i v e r
s i t y o f M in n e s o ta P r e s s , 19^9» PP 9 — 39
U n d erw o o d . B . J . L a b o r a to r y S t u d i e s i n V e r b a l L e a r n i n g .
I n H i l g a r d , E r n e s t R . T h e o r i e s o f L e a r n in g and i n
s t r u c t i o n . The S i x t y - T h i r d Y e a rb o o k o f t h e i f a t i o n a l
S o c i e t y f o r t h e S tu d y o f E d u c a t i o n . C h ic a g o : U n i v e r
s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , l$6b
U n d erw o o d , B . J . P r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f
tim e and d e g re e o f p r i o r l e a r n i n g . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i
m e n t a l P s y c h o lo g y . 19^9* 3 9 : 2b— 3*+
W ard , A. H . . and D a v i s , R. A. I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n
r e t e n t i o n o f g e n e r a l s c i e n c e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t h e
c a s e o f t h r e e m e a s u ra b le o b j e c t i v e s . J o u r n a l o f
E x p e r i m e n t a l E d u c a ti o n . 193°» 7 : 2b— 3$
W im er, B. J . S t a t i s t i c a l P r i n c i p l e s i n E x p e r i m e n t a l D e s i g n .
New Y o rk : M c G ra w -H ill Book C om pany,' 1962
W im er, R. O s g o o d 's t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e . J o u r n a l o f V e r b a l
L e a r n in g and V e r b a l B e h a v i o r . 196*f7"3’: 2 7 * + —279
Y a rc o z o w e r, M. C o n d i ti o n i n g t e s t o f s t i m u l u s p r e d i f f e r e n
t i a t i o n # A m e ric an J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y . 1959>
7 2 : 5 72 — 575
Y oung, R# K #, and U nderw ood, B . J . T r a n s f e r i n v e r b a l m a te
r i a l s w i t h d i s s i m i l a r s t i m u l i and r e s p o n s e s i m i l a r i t y
v a r i e d . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y . 1 9 5 1 +»
b 7 t 153—15^
s '4
A P P E N D I X A
7U
75
PROBLEMS IN RHODESIA
R h o d e s ia i s a n a t i o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f th e
A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . I t I s l u s h and f e r t i l e and h a s c l e a r
d r y a i r and a n e a r - p e r f e c t c l i m a t e . To some p e o p le
R h o d e s ia s y m b o liz e s th e p ro m ise o f th e e n t i r e A f r i c a n
c o n t i n e n t .
B etw een t h e p ro m is e and t h e f u l f i l l m e n t f a l l s t h e
shadow o f th e c o n t i n u i n g c r i s i s i n R h o d e s ia . Two y e a r s ago
t h e g o v e rn m e n t o f P rim e M i n i s t e r I a n S m ith p r o c la im e d th e
U n i l a t e r a l D e c l a r a t i o n o f In d e p e n d e n c e (U D I). By t h e UDI
R h o d e s ia t r i e d t o c u t a l l t i e s w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n and th e
Commonwealth o f N a t io n s . The S m ith g o v e rn m e n t was d e t e r
m ined t o p r e s e r v e r u l e o f R h o d e s ia by t h e w h ite r a c e .
I n th e e l e c t i o n o f May 1965* P rim e M i n i s t e r S m ith and
h i s R h o d e s ia F r o n t p a r t y sw ep t t o v i c t o r y . S m ith had r u l e d
R h o d e s ia e v e r s i n c e . A f t e r h i s e l e c t i o n s S m ith r e p e a t e d l y
t o l d B r i t a i n t h a t t h e w h ite m i n o r i t y i n R h o d e s ia w o u ld n e v e r
a p p ro v e f u l l fre e d o m f o r th e n a ti o n * s n o n w h ite m a j o r i t y . I n
R h o d e s ia t h e r e a r e f o u r m i l l i o n b l a c k A f r i c a n s and o n ly
2 2 5 ,0 0 0 w h i t e s . The b l a c k s o u tn u m b er t h e w h i t e s 18 t o o n e .
Y e t, o f t h e f o u r m i l l i o n n o n w h ite s o n ly 1 1 ,0 0 0 a r e e l i g i b l e
t o v o t e . The f u t u r e o f t h e n a t i o n r e s t s as s e c u r e l y w ith
t h e w h i t e s a s i t d i d i n th e 19 c e n t u r y .
The t r a d i t i o n a l c la im b y t h e w h i t e s t o r u l e R h o d e s ia
g o e s b a c k t o t h e s t o r y o f C e c i l J o h n R hodes ( 1 8 5 3 - 1 9 0 2 ) , f o r
whom t h e n a t i o n I s nam ed. R hodes was a B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l and
I m p e r i a l s t a te s m a n who w en t t o A f r i c a f o r h i s h e a l t h .
B e f o re h e was 1 9 , h e had become v e r y r i c h fro m R h o d e s i a 's
n e w ly d i s c o v e r e d g o ld and o t h e r p r e c i o u s m in e r a l m in e s . He
w r o t e i n h i s w i l l w hen h e w as 22 t h a t h i s g r e a t e s t a c h i e v e
m ent w ould be s e t t i n g u p a B r i t i s h I m p e r i a l c la im t o r i c h
s o u t h e r n A f r i c a .
T h e re was a n a t i v e u p r i s i n g i n 1 8 9 6, w h ic h t h r e a t e n e d
B r i t a i n ' s s t a g e i n A f r i c a . D e fy in g d a n g e r t o h i s l i f e ,
R hodes r o d e unarm ed i n t o t h e camp o f t h e t r i b a l l e a d e r s . He
e x p l a i n e d t o t h e n a t i v e s t h a t t h e y c o u ld n o t h o p e t o w in
a g a i n s t t h e B r i t i s h E m p ire . "Now. f o r t h e f u t u r e , i s i t
p e a c e o r w a r? " h e a s k e d . The n a t i v e l e a d e r s p u t t h e i r
s p e a r s a s i d e , t e l l i n g t h e o t h e r s t o f o l l o w . They a n sw e red
w i t h one w o rd s " P e a c e ."
C o n t r o l o f N onw hites
S i n c e t h e n t h e n o n w h ite s h a v e l i v e d a c e n t u r y w i t h
a lm o s t no p e a c e . A t f i r s t th e n a t i o n w as th e S o u th A f r i c a
Company, c h a r t e r e d by t h e crow n and c o n t r o l l e d b y R h o d e s.
I n 1923 i t becam e a s e l f - g o v e r n i n g member o f t h e B r i t i s h
76
Commonwealth* And I n 1961 i t was g r a n t e d i t s f i r s t c o n s t i
t u t i o n a s a b e g in n in g s t e p to w a rd s in d e p e n d e n c e . B ut
B r i t a i n i n s i s t e d t h a t b e f o r e R h o d e s ia c o u ld be g iv e n com
p l e t e in d e p e n d e n c e , f u l l e q u a l i t y and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
g o v e rn m e n t w ould h a v e t o be g r a n te d t o t h e n o n w h ite m a j o r i
t y . The an sw er fro m S m i t h 's p a r t y was t h a t " r a c i a l
p a r t n e r s h i p s w ould g u a r a n t e e n o n w h ite fre e d o m , b u t t h e
w h i t e s w ould be t h e r u l e r s . "
The p ro b lem o f R h o d e sia seem s v e r y d i f f i c u l t fro m a
d i s t a n c e , b u t u p c l o s e i t a p p e a r s i n s o l u b l e . P o l i t i c a l
d o m in a tio n b y w h i t e s i s s u p p o r te d b y cu sto m s and law s t h a t
k e e p t h e n o n w h ite s dow n. An a d e q u a te e d u c a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e
o n ly t o t h e w h i t e s . The b e t t e r jo b s and homes a r e o n l y f o r
t h e w h i t e s . O nly w h i t e s c a n e a r n enough t o im p ro v e t h e i r
f u t u r e . R h o d e s ia i s one o f t h e l a s t few w h i t e - c o n t r o l l e d
o u t p o s t s i n A f r i c a .
A B r i t i s h sp o k esm an p o in te d o u t t h a t S m i t h 's p o s i
t i o n i s h o p e l e s s b e c a u s e i t in v o lv e s c o n t r o l l i n g
p e o p le . The e n t i r e R h o d e s ia n l e g i s l a t i v e , r a c i a l
and econo m ic s y s te m i s d e s ig n e d t o p r o t e c t se m i
s k i l l e d and u n s k i l l e d w h i t e s fro m A f r i c a n c o m p e ti
t i o n . T h is s y s te m c o u ld n o t s u r v i v e w i t h o u t
s p e c i a l l a w s . T h e re a r e s p e c i a l p o l i c i e s s u c h a s
" la n d a p p o r t i o n m e n t ," w h ic h f a v o r w h ite s e t t l e r s .
T h e re a r e jo b l i m i t s . The e a r n i n g s o f n o n w h ite s
a r e ta x e d t o s u b s i d i z e th e e a r n i n g s o f w h i t e s . I t
i s a lm o s t i m p o s s i b l e f o r a b l a c k man t o g e t a p o s i
t i o n a s a m a n a g e r.
B r i t i s h i n t r o d u c e d c r i p p l i n g t r a d e r e s t r i c t i o n s on
R h o d e s ia when i t p r o c la im e d in d e p e n d e n c e . But S m i t h 's
g o v e rn m e n t, u s i n g i t s g o ld and to b a c c o p r o d u c t s , b o u g h t
fro m o t h e r n a t i o n s who w ere l e s s f e a r f u l o f r e p r i s a l s from
t h e r e s t o f A f r i c a .
T h e re was a d r a m a t i c sc e n e i n t h e B r i t i s h - R h o d e s i a
dram a i n D ecem ber o f 1 9 6 6 . B r i t i s h Prim e M i n i s t e r H a ro ld
W ils o n and S m ith m et a b o a rd t h e B r i t i s h c r u i s e r HM S T i g e r ,
a t s e a . T h e re W ils o n p r e s e n t e d B r i t a i n ' s u ltim a tu m f o r
s e t t l e m e n t : a new c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h in d e p e n d e n c e , p r o v i d in g
t h a t R h o d e s ia w o u ld g u a r a n te e e v e ry o n e t h e r i g h t t o v o t e ,
and g o v e rn m e n t b y m a j o r i t y . The R h o d e sia F r o n t g o v e rn m e n t,
S m i t h 's p a r t y , r e j e c t e d t h e p l a n . S m ith d e c l a r e d : "The
r e c o r d shows t h a t we t r i e d and we t r i e d and we t r i e d . "
W hat W i l l H appen?
I t seem s t h a t S m ith w i l l h a v e t o t r y a g a i n . B r i t a i n
w i l l n o t g iv e u p i t s a u t h o r i t y i n a n a t i o n r i g h t b e s i d e th e
r a c i s t c o u n tr y o f S o u th A f r i c a . M i l i t a r y f o r c e c a n n o t be
77
u s e d b e c a u s e Com m unist n a t i o n s w ould a c c u s e B r i t a i n o f
r e t u r n i n g t o c o l o n i a l i s m . The U n ite d N a tio n s c a n n o t h e l p
b e c a u s e i t c a n n o t i n t e r f e r e i n t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f a
c o u n t r y — and t e c h n i c a l l y t h i s i s a B r i t i s h p ro b le m .
B r i t i s h w i l l c o n ti n u e t o p r e s s u r e R h o d e s ia b e c a u s e t h i s
i s a p ro b le m c o n c e r n in g t h e l i v e s o f hum ans. B r i t a i n c a n
u s e eco nom ic p r e s s u r e . R h o d e s ia n money h a s a l r e a d y
d e c r e a s e d i n v a l u e , and r e c e n t l y t h e r e h a v e b e e n many c r i t i
c is m s a g a i n s t S m i t h s f o r m e r l y u n c h a lle n g e d p o w e r.
S m i t h 's g o v e rn m e n t r e q u i r e s R h o d e s ia n p o l i c e and
s o l d i e r s , members o f t h e p a r l l m e n t and ju d g e t o t a k e a
s p e c i a l o a th o f a l l e g i a n c e ; t o r e b e l a g a i n s t th e S m ith
g o v ern m en t i s t r e a s o n .
The q u e s t i o n i n e v e r y o n e 's m ind— i n R h o d e s ia , i n
B r i t a i n , i n A f r i c a , and i n th e w o r l d — i s : How lo n g ? How
lo n g w i l l t h e S m ith g o v ern m en t p e r s i s t i n s t r i v i n g f o r
so m e th in g l i k e th e r a c i s t p o l i c i e s o f t h e n a t i o n o f S o u th
A f r i c a ? Or w i l l i t go t h e way o f many o t h e r B r i t i s h
c o l o n i e s and f i n a l l y a c c e p t n o n w h ite r u l e ?
78
GLACIERS
I c e p l a y s a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n t h e w a te r economy
o f t h e e a r t h . A bout 86 p e r c e n t o f i t i s i n t h e
A n t a r c t i c , w h e re i t e x e r t s a p ro fo u n d i n f l u e n c e
on th e w e a th e r i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld .
By W illia m 0 . F i e l d
W ater i s one o f t h e few s u b s t a n c e s on e a r t h e x i s t i n g
i n n a t u r e i n a l l t h r e e p h y s i c a l s t a t e s — l i q u i d - s o l i d , and
g a s e o u s . A l t o g e t h e r o u r p l a n e t c o n t a i n s some 350 m i l l i o n
c u b ic m ile s o f w a t e r , m ost o f i t , o f c o u r s e , i n t h e o c e a n s .
Of t h e t o t a l w a t e r on t h e e a r t h , n o t much m ore t h a n one p e r
c e n t i s i n t h e s o l i d fo rm o f i c e o r snow , and fair l e s s t h a n
tT iat i n t h e form o f w a t e r v a p o r i n t h e a tm o s p h e r e . Yet
t h e s e p r o p o r t i o n s make u p a d e l i c a t e b a la n c e w h ic h i s v e r y
i m p o r t a n t t o l i f e on t h e e a r t h . Any g r e a t c h an g e i n th e
r a t i o s o f w a t e r , i c e and a tm o s p h e r ic m o is tu r e w ould have
c a t a s t r o p h i c c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r man an d h i s econom y. The i c e
p i l e d i n g l a c i e r s on t h e l a n d s , f o r i n s t a n c e , e x e r c i s e s
t i g h t c o n t r o l o v e r s e a l e v e l s , c l i m a t e and w a te r s u p p l i e s
o f w h o le c o n t i n e n t s .
G l a c i e r s now c o v e r a b o u t o n e - t e n t h ( n e a r l y s i x m i l l i o n
s q u a r e m ile s ) o f t h e w o r l d 's la n d a r e a . Our e s t i m a t e o f t h e
t o t a l am ount o f w a t e r i n them i s o n ly a ro u g h g u e s s , m a in ly
b e c a u s e we h a v e o n ly a h a z y i d e a o f t h e t h i c k n e s s o r th e
A n t a r c t i c i c e s h e e t . T h is v a s t i c e c a p a c c o u n ts f o r a b o u t
86 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o rld * s g l a c i a l a r e a . The G re e n la n d i c e
c a p m akes u p a n o t h e r t e n p e r c e n t . The r e m a in in g f o u r p e r
c e n t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , a s f a r a s i t s e f f e c t s g o , f o r i t
i n c l u d e s t e n s o f th o u s a n d s o f s q u a r e m ile s o f g l a c i e r s on
m o u n ta in s i n th e te m p e r a te z o n e s , w h e re t h e y i n t i m a t e l y
i n f l u e n c e m a n 's c l i m a t e and w a te r s u p p l i e s .
E s t im a te s o f t h e t o t a l volum e o f w a te r i n th e w o rld * s
g l a c i e r s r a n g e fro m a b o u t 2»b m i l l i o n t o more th a n s i x
m i l l i o n c u b ic m i l e s . I f a l l t h i s i c e m e lte d , t h e l e v e l o f
t h e w o r l d 's o c e a n s w ould r i s e b y so m e th in g l i k e 65 t o 200
f e e t l
G l a c i e r s c a n grow o n ly I n a r e a s w h ere th e s n o w f a l l i s
g r e a t enough y e a r a f t e r y e a r t o e x c e e d th e a n n u a l r a t e o f
m e l t i n g . As a r e s u l t , t h e i c e s h e e t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
t h i c k e s t w h ere t h e c l i m a t e Ts c o l d e s t . Tn A la s k a t h e g r e a t
e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f g l a c i e r s i s a lo n g t h e s o u t h e r n c o a s t ,
w h ic h i s t h e w a rm e st p a r t o f t h e T e r r i t o r y b u t h a s t h e
h e a v i e s t w i n t e r s n o w f a l l . P a r t s o f n o r t h e r n G re e n la n d h a v e
no g l a c i e r s b e c a u s e t h e r e I s n o t e n o u g h s n o w f a l l .
79
As snow a c c u m u l a t e s , t h e p r e s s u r e o f th e m o u n ta in o u s
l a y e r s c o m p a c ts i t I n t o i c e . U n d e r I t s own w e ig h t i c e
b e g i n s t o f lo w t o lo w e r e l e v a t i o n s . The r a t e o f f lo w o f
g l a c i e r s v a r i e s tr e m e n d o u s ly : some move v e r y s lo w ly w h ile
o t h e r s s l i d e a s much a s 50 f e e t p e r d a y d u r i n g t h e sum m er.
At t h e lo w e r e l e v a t i o n s , t h e g l a c i e r m e l t s o r d i s c h a r g e s
i c e b e r g s i n t o t h e s e a . B u t u n d e r s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , th e
g l a c i e r f r o n t may a d v a n c e o v e r t h e la n d y e a r a f t e r y e a r .
I t t a k e s o n ly a s l i g h t c h a n g e i n t h e c o m b in a tio n o f a n n u a l
s n o w f a l l , m e l t i n g - s e a s o n t e m p e r a t u r e s and o t h e r m e te o r o
l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t o p ro d u c e a n a d v a n c e o r r e t r e a t o f a
g l a c i e r .
P r o b a b ly d u r i n g m o st o f t h e e a r t h ' s h i s t o r y i t h a s
b e e n f r e e o f g l a c i e r s . We a r e i n a n e x c e p t i o n a l e r a —
n e i t h e r g l a c i a l n o r n o n g l a c i a l . D u rin g t h e l a s t m i l l i o n
y e a r s t h e r e h a v e b e e n a t l e a s t f o u r g r e a t i c e a g e s ; a t t h e i r
maximum, i c e c o v e re d a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e w o r l d 's la n d
s u r f a c e . The i c e a g e s w e re s e p a r a t e d b y lo n g warm i n t e r v a l s
d u r i n g w h ic h t h e g l a c i e r s n e a r l y d i s a p p e a r e d . At p r e s e n t we
seem t o be i n a n i n - b e t w e e n s t a g e , som ew here b e tw e e n a
g l a c i a l and a n i n t e r - g l a c i a l a g e . Some g l a c i e r s a r e grow
i n g ; o t h e r s a r e d i s a p p e a r i n g .
D u rin g t h e l a s t I c e Age t h e s e a l e v e l p r o b a b ly was m ore
t h a n 300 f e e t lo w e r t h a n now. O v er th e w o rld th e te m p e r a
t u r e s a v e ra g e d 7 t o 1M - d e g r e e s c o l d e r . T h e re w e re f i v e
c o n t i n e n t a l i c e s h e e t s o f more t h a n one m i l l i o n s q u a r e m ile s
e a c h . T h re e o f t h e s e , i n N o rth A m e ric a , E u ro p e and S i b e r i a ,
h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , b u t t h e two i n G re e n la n d and A n t a r c t i c a
r e m a i n . M o u n ta in g l a c i e r s have a l l s h r u n k .
Human c i v i l i z a t i o n b e g a n t o a r i s e i n W e s te rn A s ia and
N o rth A f r i c a j u s t a s t h e E u ro p e a n and N o rth A m e ric a n s h e e t s
w e re d i s a p p e a r i n g . A bout 3000 B . C . t h e c l i m a t e I n m any, i f
n o t a l l , p a r t s o f t h e w o rld was d r i e r an d w arm er b y tw o o r
t h r e e d e g r e e s th a n a t p r e s e n t . T he s e a l e v e l w as a p p a r e n t l y
f i v e t o s i x f e e t h i g h e r . The g l a c i a l r e g i o n i n t h e A lp s w as
a t l e a s t 1 ,0 0 0 f e e t h i g h e r th a n t o d a y . I c e i n t h e A r c t i c
t e m p e r a t u r e r e g i o n s w h e re s m a ll m o u n ta in g l a c i e r s now
f u r n i s h t h e summer w a t e r s u p p ly m u s t h a v e b e e n a r i d .
C o n d i ti o n s b e g a n t o c h a n g e d r a s t i c a l l y a b o u t 1 0 0 0 B. C .
The c l i m a t e becam e c o l d e r and m ore s to r m y i n many p a r t s o f
t h e w o r l d , and b y a b o u t 500 B. C . g l a c i e r s b e g a n t o grow
a g a i n . T h en , i n t h e f i r s t th o u s a n d y e a r s a f t e r C h r i s t came
a p e r i o d o f g l a c i e r r e c e s s i o n . A f t e r t h a t , g l a c i e r s
a d v a n c e d a g a i n t o a maximum i n t h e 1 7 th t o 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s .
T h is r e s u r g e n c e o f g l a c i e r s was w a tc h e d d i r e c t l y b y o b s e r v
e r s i n t h e A l p s , S c a n d i n a v i a and I c e l a n d . S in c e t h e seco n d
h a l f o f t h e 1 9 th c e n t u r y , g l a c i e r s th r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld h a v e
te n d e d t o s h r i n k o n c e a g a i n . As a r e s u l t th e s e a l e v e l h a s
80
a p p a r e n t l y b e e n r i s i n g r e c e n t l y a t th e r a t e o f a p p r o x im a te ly
2 . 5 in c h e s p e r c e n t u r y . Some g l a c i e r s , h o w e v e r, hav e
a d v a n c e d , c o n t r a r y t o th e g e n e r a l t r e n d . I n p a r t s o f t h e
w e s te r n U. S . t h e r e i s a g row th o f g l a c i e r s a t p r e s e n t w h ich
may i n d i c a t e a c h a n g in g c l i m a t e .
G l a c i e r s hav e b e e n s t u d i e d s e r i o u s l y f o r a l i t t l e more
t h a n 100 y e a r s . B e g in n in g I n 1919 Hans W ison Ahlmann o f th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f S to c k h o lm (now Sweden*s A m bassador t o Norway)
i n tr o d u c e d a new e r a I n g l a c i o l o g y . He to o k a new l o o k , i n
g r e a t e r d e t a i l , a t g l a c i e r s I n S c a n d in a v ia , I c e l a n d , S p i t s
b e rg e n and n o r t h e a s t G re e n la n d , and h i s e x a m in a tio n l e d to
new m ethods o f m e a su rin g t h e i r n o u rish m e n t and w a s ta g e .
O b s e r v a tio n s o f g l a c i e r s a re now b e in g made on a s y s te m a t i c
b a s i s i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f th e w o r ld . D u rin g th e l a s t t e n
y e a r s , im p o r ta n t s t u d i e s hav e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t I n G re e n la n d ,
e s p e c i a l l y b y P a u l V i c t o r ’ s F re n c h P o la r E x p e d i t i o n s , w hich
s t u d i e s i t s re g im e n o v e r a b ro a d a r e a .
The l i t t l e - k n o w n A n t a r c t i c i c e s h e e t i s more th a n one
and a t h i r d tim e s t h e s i z e o f th e U. S . and i t s t e r r i t o r i e s .
I t c o v e r s p r a c t i c a l l y th e w hole c o n t i n e n t o f A n t a r c t i c a .
F u l l y t h r e e m i l l i o n s q u a re m ile s o f th e c o n t i n e n t have n e v e r
b e e n s e e n ev en from t h e a i r . The c o n t i n e n t 's i c e c a p i s
known t o r i s e a s h ig h a s 1 0 ,0 0 0 f e e t , b u t th e t h i c k n e s s o f
t h e i c e h a s b e e n m easured i n o n ly a few p l a c e s .
81
ICEBERGS
T oday a lm o s t a l l o f th e w a t e r on e a r t h i s i n t h e s a l t y
o c e a n s , — 9 7 .2 o f t h e t o t a l . W hat r e m a in s i s f r e s h w a t e r ,
b u t o n l y a p o r t i o n o f t h a t i s u s a b l e f r e s h w a t e r a b o v e o r
i n t h e g r o u n d , l e s s t h a n 2 /3 o f 1% o f t h e t o t a l . T ak en
t o g e t h e r , t h e o c e a n s and th e i c e c a p s and g l a c i e r s c o m p ris e
99*35% of t h e e a r t h ' s t o t a l w a t e r . The r e m a in in g 2 /3 o f 1%
a r e a p p o r t i o n e d t o a l l t h e o t h e r b o d i e s o f w a t e r a ro u n d t h e
g l o b e — r i v e r s , u n d e rg ro u n d w a t e r f o r w e l l s , f r e s h w a t e r ,
l a k e s , e t c .
I c e b e r g s a r e g i g a n t i c b l o c k s o f i c e t h a t a r e b r o k e n
o f f g l a c i e r s t h a t end i n t h e s e a . The l a r g e s t i c e b e r g s
i n t h e n o r t h a r e one h a l f t o one m ile I n l e n g t h and may
show 300 f e e t o f i c e ab o v e t h e w a t e r . As t h e r e i s o f t e n
e i g h t tim e s a s much i c e b e lo w t h e w a t e r a s t h e r e i s a b o v e ,
t h e t o t a l h e i g h t o f t h e i c e b e r g s so m e tim e s r e a c h e s 2 .7 0 0
f e e t , b u t t h e g r e a t e s t o f a l l i c e b e r g s a r e t h o s e t h a t a r e
b r o k e n o f f t h e A n t a r c t i c g l a c i e r s . Some o f t h e s e t a b u l a r
i c e b e r g s a r e o v e r kO m ile s l o n g .
As t h e g l a c i e r s o f A la s k a and G re e n la n d a r e p u sh e d
s l o w l y down o f f t h e m o u n ta in s b y t h e w e ig h t o f i c e b e h in d
th e m , t h e y f i n a l l y come t o s e a . As t h e r i v e r o f i c e f lo w s
o u t i n t o t h e s e a , p i e c e s b e g i n t o b r e a k o f f and f l o a t aw ay.
A b u s y g l a c i e r l i k e t h e one i n J a k o b s h a v u F i o r d o n w e s t
c o a s t o f G re e n la n d c an a lm o s t b e s e e n t o m ove. On a warm
summer d a y p i e c e s th e s i z e o f a c a r s l i p and f a l l i n t o t h e
s e a e v e r y few m i n u t e s .
As m ore and more i c e b e r g s a r e " b o r n " , e a c h b e r g i s
sh o v e d f a r t h e r down t h e f i o r d . Soon t h e s e a w a t e r i s c h o k ed
w i t h i c e o f a l l s h a p e s and s i z e s . A t f i r s t a l l may b e h e l d
t i g h t a s t h e s e a w a te r f r e e z e s a ro u n d th e m . T hen a s summer
com es t o G re e n la n d and t h e s u n s h i n e s a l l d a y and a l l
" n i g h t " , t h e b e r g s b e g in t o s e p a r a t e and m ove. No o n e knows
e x a c t l y w hy, b u t t h e r e comes a d a y w hen a l l t h e b e r g s , b i g
an d s m a l l , l i n e u p i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e f i o r d and b e g i n t o
move f a s t e r and f a s t e r o u t to w a rd t h e s e a , s l o w l y m e l t i n g
a l l t h e t i m e .
Out i n t h e o p e n s e a t h e s to r m w av es l a s h a t t h e i c e
b e r g s d a y a f t e r d a y , c a r v i n g l e d g e s and c a v e s a lo n g t h e
w a t e r l i n e , c h a n g in g t h e c o l o r s o f i c e . The warm w in d and
t h e s u n , t o o , c a r v e a t t h e c r e s t o f t h e i c e m o u n ta in s , c u t
t i n g v a l l e y s o u t o f t h e i c e . T h is g o e s on f o r a s many a s
f i v e y e a r s I S u c h b e r g s may t r a v e l n e a r l y 5000 m ile s b e f o r e
t h e y d i e . T h ey a r e c a r r i e d s o u t h down t h e e a s t c o a s t o f
G r e e n la n d , a ro u n d Cape F a r e w e l l and b a c k n o rth w a rd u p t h e
82
w e s t c o a s t o f G re e n la n d as f a r a s Cape Y o rk, Then th e y
c r o s s D a v is S t r a i t t o th e c o a s t o f E lle m o re I s l a n d and t u r n
s o u t h a g a in *
I c e b e r g s a r e a lw ay s d a n g e ro u s — e s p e c i a l l y when th e y
t u r n o v e r o r c a p s i z e . Remember t h a t 80# i s u n d e r w a te r , so
e v e n a s m a ll l o o k in g b e rg c an sm ash o r s i n k a tu g b o a t o r
f i s h i n g v e s s e l i f i t r o l l s o v e r w h ile th e b o a t i s t i e d up
t o t h e b e r g . The wave thro w n u p by a b i g b e rg when i t r o l l s
o v e r c a n smash s m a l l e r b o a t s .
The b i g g e s t i c e b e r g a c t u a l l y m easured i n G re e n la n d
w a t e r s was 775 f e e t w id e , 385 f e e t l o n g , and from 50 to *+00
f e e t h ig h above th e w a te r l i n e . T h at w ould c o v e r a b o u t
f o u r c i t y b lo c k s and w eigh m i l l i o n s o f t o n s . B ut many i c e
b e r g s f a r b i g g e r h av e b e en s e e n i n th e N o rth A t l a n t i c , some
a s b i g a s s m a ll c i t i e s . Even a s m a ll one i s so b i g and
h e a v y t h a t i t c a n sm ash a p i e r a s i f i t w ere made o f p a p e r .
A c t u a l l y th e b i g g e s t b e rg s a r e found i n th e A n t a r c t i c , b u t
th e y a r e n o t a s im p r e s s iv e as t h e n o r t h e r n o n e s . They a r e
a l l f l a t b e r g s , f l o a t i n g s h e e t s o f i c e c a l l e d " t a b u l a r "
b e r g s b e c a u s e ih e y lo o k l i k e t a b l e t o p s .
A lth o u g h t h e i c e b e r g s o f G re e n la n d a r e much s m a l l e r ,
t h e y a r e more d a n g e ro u s t o man. H undreds o f s h ip s h av e b e e n
su n k b y G re e n la n d ic e b e r g s and th o u s a n d s o f l i v e s l o s t . I t
I s when th e i c e b e r g s f i n a l l y f l o a t down i n t o th e o p en A t l a n
t i c t h a t th e y become m ost d a n g e r o u s . Here t h e y d r i f t i n t o
t h e o c e a n c u r r e n t c a l l e d th e G u lf S tre a m , w here h u n d re d s o f
s te a m s h ip s r u n from th e U n ite d S t a t e s t o E u ro p e . The number
o f b i g b e r g s t h a t d r i f t s o u th o f L a b ra d o r and I n t o th e
s te a m e r l a n e s o f A t l a n t i c e v e r y summer v a r i e s from none i n
1932 t o a s h ig h a s 1351 a c t u a l l y c o u n te d i n 1929 b y t h e
c u t t e r s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I c e P a t r o l . One f r e i g h t e r
c a p t a i n i n 1957 r e p o r t e d c o u n tin g 56 I c e b e r g s i n 12 h o u r s
w h ile c r e e p in g th ro u g h th e fo g o f f N ew foundland B a n k s. A
h a l f - d o z e n o t h e r v e s s e l s i n t h e same fo g b a n k c o u n te d a
t o t a l o f 2 5 0 . D u rin g th e p a s t 50 y e a r s an a v e ra g e o f M -00
i c e b e r g s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d a n n u a l ly I n t h e s te a m e r l a n e s .
The A r c t i c O cean, w hich l i e s a t th e N o rth P o l e , i s
c o v e re d w ith s e a i c e a l l th e y e a r r o u n d . Y et t h e r e a r e no
" l i v e " g l a c i e r s flo w in g i n t o i t . B ut some o f th e o l d e s t i c e
i s fo u n d I n t h e A r c t i c Ocean and some o f t h e b i g g e s t p i e c e s
I n t h e w o r ld . They a r e p i e c e s o f f r e s h w a te r i c e , b u t th e y
a r e n o t c a l l e d I c e b e r g s , b e c a u s e th e y do n o t f l o a t o f f t o
w arm er s e a s .
The f i r s t tim e one was s e e n was A ugust 1 ^ , 1 9 ^ 6 , on th e
r a d a r s c r e e n . I n t h e m id s t o f th e w h ite s e a i c e , a d a r k
m ass was s e e n . I t was 15 m ile s a c r o s s t h e b o tto m and 18
m ile s on e i t h e r s i d e . E v ery one th o u g h t i t was a new i s l a n d .
83
I t lo o k e d l i k e l a n d . I t was to o b i g f o r a s e a i c e f l o e .
F i n a l l y o n a c l e a r d a y a n o t h e r bom ber c re w w e n t down t o
l o o k a t a b i g i s l a n d 3 00 m ile s n o r t h o f P o i n t B a rro w ,
A l a s k a . I t was a n i s l a n d r i s i n g a b o u t 20 t o M O f e e t above
t h e s e a i c e . T h is i s l a n d , h o w e v e r, moved a s much a s t e n
m il e s i n a d a y .
To l e a r n m ore a b o u t i c e i s l a n d s a s w e l l a s t o s t u d y
t h e o c e a n c u r r e n t s w e a th e r n e a r t h e N o rth P o l e , t h e A ir
F o r c e d e c id e d t o la n d on one o f t h e sm ooth i c e i s l a n d s and
b u i l d a s m a ll " c i t y ” . On M arch 1 9 , 1 9 5 2 , a t w i n - e n g i n e d
p l a n e e q u ip p e d w i t h s k i s la n d e d o n th e s m a l l e s t o f t h e i c e
i s l a n d s . I t w as named " F l e t c h e r ' s I c e I s l a n d " i n h o n o r o f
t h e com m ander o f t h e p a r t y , C o l. J o s e p h 0 . F l e t c h e r . A
w e a t h e r s t a t i o n h a s b e e n o p e r a t i n g on t h e f l o a t i n g i s l a n d
s i n c e t h e n .
The b i g g e s t i c e b e r g s i n t h e w o rld a r e fo u n d n o t a t
t h e N o rth P o le i n t h e A r c t i c O cean , b u t i n t h e d e e p , s to rm y
w a t e r s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e A n t a r c t i c c o n t i n e n t s . L i t t l e h a s
b e e n h e a r d o f t h e s e g r e a t p r a i r i e s o f i c e b e c a u s e no s h i p s
p l y t h e s e w a t e r s — e x c e p t f o r a few w h a lin g s h i p s . The
b e r g s fo u n d 200 t o 600 m il e s o f f t h e A n t a r c t i c c o a s t s make
e v e n t h e i c e i s l a n d s o f t h e A r c t i c lo o k l i k e t o y s .
S l a b s o f A n t a r c t i c g l a c i a l i c e 20 m il e s l o n g a r e n o t
uncom m on. Some m e a s u r in g 50 m il e s lo n g h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d
b y t h e few w h a lin g v e s s e l s t h a t s te a m a lo n g t h e e d g e o f t h e
i c e f l o e s fro m t h e A n t a r c t i c c o a s t . The b i g g e s t one
r e p o r t e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Navy s a i l i n g d i r e c t i o n s f o r
t h e A n t a r c t i c w as n e a r l y a s b i g a s th e s t a t e o f Rhode
I s l a n d . I t was 100 m il e s l o n g , an d r o s e 130 f e e t ab o v e t h e
w a t e r . A bout 850 f e e t o f i c e was h id d e n b elo w t h e w a t e r
l i n e . T o t a l t h i c k n e s s o f t h i s g r e a t p l a i n was a b o u t 1000
f e e t .
Y et f a r b i g g e r i c e b e r g s h a v e u n d o u b te d ly b r o k e n l o o s e
fro m t h e g r e a t i c e s h e e t s o f t h e A n t a r c t i c c o n t i n e n t . The
b i g g e s t one a c t u a l l y s e e n and m e a su re d w as r e p o r t e d b y t h e
USS G l a c i e r , t h e U. S . Navy’ s b i g g e s t i c e b r e a k e r , 1 50 m ile s
w e s t o f S c o t t I s l a n d w h ile on a c r u i s e fro m t h e A n t a r c t i c
i n a d i r e c t l i n e t o New Z e a la n d . T h is m ig h ty i s l a n d o f i c e
w as t w i c e a s b i g a s t h e s t a t e o f C o n n e c t i c u t . I t m ea su re d
208 m il e s l o n g an d m ore t h a n 50 m il e s w id e . The s h i p ' s
c re w e s t i m a t e d i t c o n t a i n e d 1 2 ,0 0 0 s q u a r e m il e s o f i c e
w h i l e C o n n e c t i c u t h a s o n ly 5 0 0 9 s q u a r e m il e s o f a r e a . T h is
m o n s te r b e r g w as a b o u t 1 0 0 0 f e e t t h i c k . A bout 130 f e e t o f
i c e r o s e a b o v e t h e w a t e r l i n e .
A l l o f t h e s e A n t a r c t i c i c e b e r g s a r e f l a t , c o m p a ra
t i v e l y l e v e l s h e e t s o f i c e , s o m e th in g l i k e t h e i c e i s l a n d s
o f t h e A r c t i c . T hey b r e a k o f f fro m t h e s h e e t s o f i c e t h a t
8*+
a r e t h r u s t o u t fro m t h e s h o r e s o f t h e A n t a r c t i c y e a r a f t e r
y e a r . A b e r g a s b i g a s th e one m easu red b y t h e USS G l a c i e r
may f l o a t a b o u t t h e A n t a r c t i c w a t e r s f o r y e a r s b e f o r e s lo w ly
b r e a k i n g u p and m e l t i n g .
A P P E N D I X B
85
86
GLACIERS
Name
P r a c t i c e Q u e s tio n s
1 .
3 +
2 +
a*
5
(
b*
23
c . l
d . 6
2 . 23 « - 17 =
S t • ko (
b .
5
c . *+ 6
d . 6
3 .
The 1968 Summer O lym pics w e re h e ld i n
a . Tokyo (
b . M exico C i t y
c • Los A n g eles
d . G ren o b le
b.
How lo n g d o e s i t t a k e a r o c k t o f a l l 100 f e e t ?
a* 1£ se c o n d s (
b . 5 se c o n d s
c . 1 se co n d
d . 2£ se c o n d s
(Do n o t t u r n t h i s page u n t i l t o l d t o do s o )
87
5* I n w h ic h p h y s i c a l s t a t e i s m ost o f t h e e a r t h ' s w a te r ?
a . l i q u i d (____
b . f r o z e n
c . g a s e o u s
d . i c e
6 . The A n t a r c t i c i c e s h e e t i s a p p r o x i m a t e ly t h e s i z e o f
a* E u ro p e and A s ia . (____
b . The A r c t i c i c e s h e e t .
c . The U n ite d S t a t e s and M e x ico .
d . The U n ite d S t a t e s and R u s s i a .
7 . How many i c e a g e s have o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e l a s t
m i l l i o n y e a r s ?
a . 2 (____
b . 1
c . b
d. 3
8 . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b e s t d e s c r i b e s c o n d i t i o n s
d u r in g t h e p a s t 2 ,0 0 0 y e a r s ?
a . The num ber and s i z e o f g l a c i e r s h a v e v a r i e d . (_____
b . S e a l e v e l h a s b e e n c o n s t a n t l y d e c r e a s i n g .
c . W ater i n t h e a tm o sp h e re h a s d e c r e a s e d .
d . A m e r ic a 's c o n t i n e n t a l g l a c i e r s h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d ,
b u t E u r o p e 's have n o t .
9 . Of t h e f i v e c o n t i n e n t a l i c e s h e e t s fo rm ed d u r i n g t h e
l a s t i c e age two r e m a in . One o f them i s l o c a t e d i n
a . G r e e n la n d . (____
b . C a n a d a .
c . Norway.
d . S i b e r i a .
1 0 . We now l i v e i n a p e r io d w h ic h i s n e i t h e r g l a c i a l n o r
n o n - g l a c i a l . W hich o f t h e f o l l o w i n g i s th e b e s t
e v id e n c e o f t h i s f a c t ?
a . The c l i m a t e i s c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g in g . (____
b . The a n n u a l s n o w f a ll i s d e c r e a s i n g .
c . E x tre m e ly l a r g e g l a c i e r s a r e m e l t i n g .
d . Some g l a c i e r s a r e g ro w in g and o t h e r s a r e s h r i n k
i n g .
88
1 1 . I f g l a c i e r s c o v e r a b o u t t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e l a n d a r e a ,
o r a b o u t s i x m i l l i o n s q u a r e m il e s o f t h e e a r t h , t h e n
t h e la n d a r e a o f t h e e a r t h , i n s q u a r e m i l e s , i s
a p p r o x i m a t e ly
a . 5 ,^ 0 0 ,0 0 0 ( _____)
b . 6 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
c . 5 ^ ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
d . 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
1 2 . The i c e i n g l a c i e r s d o e s n o t c o n t r o l
a . s e a l e v e l (_____)
b . w a te r s u p p l y
c . c l i m a t e
d . w ind sp e e d
1 3 . W hich i s t h e m o st c o r r e c t s t a t e m e n t ?
a . Amount o f g l a c i a t i o n i s u n r e l a t e d t o am ount (____ )
o f w a t e r i n t h e o c e a n s .
b . An i n c r e a s e i n am ount o f g l a c i a t i o n i n t h e
w o rld ' o c c u r s w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n am o unt o f
w a t e r i n t h e o c e a n s .
c* An i n c r e a s e i n am ount o f g l a c i a t i o n i n t h e
w o rld o c c u r s w i t h a d e c r e a s e i n am ount o f
w a te r i n t h e o c e a n s ,
d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n n o t b e d e te r m in e d fro m
t h i s p a s s a g e .
I 1 * . W hich i s t h e m o st c o r r e c t s t a t e m e n t ?
a . An i n c r e a s e i n am ount o f s n o w f a l l o c c u r s ( )
w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e o f g l a c i e r s .
b . An i n c r e a s e i n am ount o f s n o w f a l l o c c u r s
w i t h a d e c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e o f g l a c i e r s .
c . Amount o f s n o w f a l l i s n o t r e l a t e d t o th e
s i z e o f g l a c i e r s .
d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n am ount o f s n o w f a l l
and s i z e o f g l a c i e r s c a n n o t b e d e te r m in e d fro m
t h e r e a d i n g p a s s a g e .
15* A g l a c i e r c a n b e s t b e d e s c r i b e d a s a
a . snow f i e l d _____________________________________________ (_____ )
b . v a l l e y p a c k e d w i t h i c e
c . m oving i c e f i e l d
d . p r o d u c t o f low t e m p e r a t u r e
89
**NOTE: The f o l lo w in g in f o r m a tio n a p p l i e s t o q u e s t io n
16, 1 7 , and 1 8 .
I n a n ew ly d is c o v e r e d c o u n tr y th e a v e ra g e a n n u a l
s n o w f a ll i s e q u a l t o th e a v e ra g e a n n u a l m e lt.
The a v e ra g e te m p e ra tu re i n th e summer i s 70 d e g re e s
F . T h e re , c o n d itio n s have e x i s t e d f o r 100 y e a r s .
1 6 . T h is new ly d is c o v e r e d c o u n tr y p ro b a b ly
a . has a few l a r g e g l a c i e r s . _________________________ (____ )
b . h as no g l a c i e r s .
c . h as many g l a c i e r s .
d . i s n e a r a g l a c i a t e d a r e a .
1 7 . I f t h e a n n u a l m e lt w ere re d u c e d i n t h i s c o u n tr y ,
how would c o n d it i o n s change?
a . A nnual s n o w f a ll would i n c r e a s e . ( )
b . A nnual s n o w f a ll would d e c r e a s e .
c . G l a c i e r s would b e g in t o d is a p p e a r*
d . G la c ie r s would b e g in t o fo rm .
1 8 . What would c a u s e th e a n n u a l m e lt t o d e c r e a s e ?
a . I n c r e a s e i n a n n u a l s n o w f a ll. (____ )
b . I n c r e a s e i n a v e ra g e summer te m p e r a tu r e .
c . D e c re a s e i n a tm o s p h e ric p r e s s u r e .
d . D e c re a s e i n a v e ra g e summer te m p e r a tu r e .
***
1 9 . Where i s m o st o f th e w o r l d 's w a te r?
a . i n th e o c ea n s (____ )
b . i n th e a tm o sp h ere
c . below th e ground
d . i n g l a c i e r s
2 0 . T h ere a re fe w e r g l a c i e r s i n n o r t h e r n A la sk a t h a n i n
s o u th e r n A la sk a b e c a u se n o r th e r n A lask a h a s
a . few er v a l l e y s i n w hich g l a c i e r s c o u ld fo rm . (____ )
b . c o ld e r w e a th e r,
c . more s n o w f a l l .
d . l e s s s n o w f a l l .
90
2 1 . I t i s e s t im a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e a b o u t f o u r m i l l i o n
c u b ic m ile s o f w a te r i n th e w o r l d 's g l a c i e r s . In
o r d e r t o make t h i s e s t i m a t e , a s c i e n t i s t w ould hav e
t o know:
a . The a v e ra g e s n o w f a ll p e r y e a r . (_____)
b . The a v e ra g e w o rld t e m p e r a t u r e .
c . The volum e o f w a te r i n t h e o c e a n s .
d . The volum e o f i c e i n g l a c i e r s .
2 2 . What m ight h a p p e n i f t h e e a r t h ' s g l a c i e r s w ere t o
m e lt d u r in g th e n e x t t e n y e a r s ?
a . G re e n la n d would d e v e lo p i n t o an im p o r ta n t (_____)
n a t i o n .
b . A n t a r c t i c a w ould em erge a s a l a r g e c o n t i n e n t a l
mass •
c . The g r e a t s e a p o r t s o f t h e w o rld w ould d i s a p p e a r
u n d e r w a t e r .
d . A u s t r a l i a w ould su b m erg e.
2 3 . What i s t h e p rim a ry r e a s o n t h a t g l a c i e r s do n o t e x i s t
i n c e n t r a l C anada?
a . The a l t i t u d e o f t h i s r e g i o n i s l e s s th a n (_____)
1 3 ,5 0 0 f e e t .
b . I t i s t o o f a r from t h e p o l a r i c e c a p .
c . The t e m p e r a tu r e g e ts e x tr e m e ly c o ld i n t h e
w i n t e r m o n th s.
d . The t e m p e r a tu r e g e ts v e r y h o t i n t h e summer
m o n th s.
2b, The s e r i o u s s tu d y o f g l a c i e r s b e g a n a b o u t t h e tim e
o f t h e
a . F re n c h R e v o lu tio n (_____)
b . C i v i l War
c . D is c o v e ry o f A m erica
d . G olden Age o f G reece
A P P E N D I X C
91
92
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTRATION OF EXPERIMENT
1 . Hand o u t a r t i c l e t o e a c h s t u d e n t — f a c e down.
2 . Read t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s t o th e c l a s s : "T oday
y o u a r e g o in g t o re a d a n a r t i c l e so t h a t you c a n be
t e s t e d on i t l a t e r . You a r e t o do th e b e s t y o u c a n ,
b u t d o n 't w o rry i f you f i n d th e r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t .
I t i s in te n d e d t o be a c h a l l e n g e t o y o u . Read t h e
a r t i c l e s lo w ly an d c a r e f u l l y , b u t do n o t t u r n b a c k
o n c e y o u have c o m p le te d a p a g e . T ry t o u n d e r s ta n d
and rem em ber a s much a s you c a n . You h a v e 20 m in u te s
w h ic h s h o u ld be p l e n t y o f tim e . Keep t h e a r t i c l e a t
y o u r s e a t u n t i l t h e tim e i s u p , and I w i l l c o l l e c t i t .
A re t h e r e an y q u e s t i o n s ? "
3* A f t e r a n s w e r in g a n y q u e s t i o n s t e l l t h e s t u d e n t s ,
" T u rn o v e r t h e p a p e r s and s t a r t r e a d i n g . "
*t. When 20 m in u te s h av e p a s s e d , c o l l e c t p a p e rs and rem in d
s t u d e n t s o f n e x t m e e tin g ______________________________________
TEST INSTRUCTIONS
Hand o u t t e s t t o e a c h s t u d e n t .
Read t h e f o l l o w i n g I n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e c l a s s : " P l e a s e
l e a v e t h e t e s t s f a c e down a s I g iv e you t h e s e i n s t r u c
t i o n s . T h is t e s t i s b e in g g i v e n t o you t o f i n d o u t
w h at you l e a r n e d from r e a d i n g to d a y * s a r t i c l e . The
t e s t w i l l be a c h a l l e n g e to y o u . Do y o u r b e s t , b u t
d o n 't make w ild g u e s s e s . The t e s t h a s 2b q u e s t i o n s ,
b u t th e f i r s t b q u e s t i o n s a r e o n ly f o r p r a c t i c e and
\
w i l l n o t c o u n t . T u rn o v e r y o u r p a p e r s and l e t ' s t r y
t h e p r a c t i c e q u e s t i o n s . P la c e t h e l e t t e r s a , b , c ,
o r d i n t h e box a t t h e r i g h t t o show w hich a n sw e r y o u
t h i n k i s c o r r e c t . The an sw er t o q u e s t i o n 1 i s ________?
R ig h tI "_______ " i s c o r r e c t . Did anyone p u t an y
o t h e r l e t t e r i n t h e b o x ? . . .
Now t r y th e n e x t t h r e e q u e s t i o n s b u t d o n 1t t u r n t h e
p a g e . The c o r r e c t a n sw e rs a r e ________, , and
_______ . Are t h e r e a n y q u e s t i o n s ? . . . You h a v e 35
m in u te s t o do t h e r e m a in in g 20 q u e s t i o n s . So s i g n
y o u r name a t t h e t o p o f th e p a g e , t u r n t o page 2 ,
an d s t a r t . "
A f t e r 3 5 m in u te s c o l l e c t a l l p a p e r s . Remind s t u d e n t s
t h a t t h e n e x t m e e tin g w i l l b e <
A P P E N D I X D
9h
9?
QUESTIONNAIRE
DON'T
YES NO KNCW
1 . D id you n o t i c e a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s b e
tw e e n t h e r e a d i n g p a s s a g e you had ________________________
on W ednesday and th e one on
G l a c i e r s to d a y ?
2 . D id you n o t i c e a n y f a c t s i n Wed-
n e s d a y 's p a s s a g e t h a t made ________________________
" G l a c i e r s " h a r d e r t o l e a r n ?
3« D id you n o t i c e any f a c t s i n Wed-
n e s d a y 's p a s s a g e t h a t p r e p a r e d you ________________________
f o r " G l a c i e r s " and made i t e a s i e r
t o l e a r n ?
1 f . I f t h e p e rs o n i n c h a rg e o f y o u r
t e s t i n g g ro u p had p o in te d o u t t h a t ________________________
y o u s h o u ld pay s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n
t o s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n
t h e r e a d i n g p a s s a g e s , w ould you
h a v e done b e t t e r on th e t e s t ?
5 . Do you f e e l t h a t th e w ords i n t h e
a r t i c l e s w ere a t t h e r i g h t l e v e l ________________________
o f d i f f i c u l t y f o r you a s an e i g h t h
g r a d e s t u d e n t ?
6 . Were t h e w ords t o o h a rd ?
7* W ere t h e w ords to o e a s y ?
8 . D id you h av e t r o u b l e r e a d in g
b e c a u s e t h e r e was n o t enough tim e ?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wulf, Kathleen Mcfarland (author)

Core Title Proactive Effects In Meaningful Verbal Learning And Retention In Eighth Grade Students

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Meyers, Charles Edward (committee chair), Dembo, Myron H. (committee member), Schutz, John A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-535794

Unique identifier UC11362109

Identifier 7200585.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-535794 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7200585.pdf

Dmrecord 535794

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Wulf, Kathleen Mcfarland

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA