University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Descriptive-Analytical Study Of Ethical Standards In Contemporary American Public Address

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A Descriptive-Analytical Study Of Ethical Standards In Contemporary American Public Address

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Content This dissertation has been G1— 3796
m icrofilm ed exactly as received
DABBS, Dhyllis Selby, 1923-
A DESC HIBTIV E-AN A LYTIC A L STUDY OF
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN CONTEMPORARY
AMERICAN RUBRIC ADDRESS.
University of Southern California
Eh. D., 19G1
Speech — Theater
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
C o p y r i p h t by
PHYLLIS SELBY DABBS
1961
DE3GRIPTIVH-ANALYTICAL STUDY OP ETHICAL STANDARDS
IN CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN PUBLIC ADDRESS
by
P h y l l i s S e l b y D abbs
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to th e
FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
i n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e D eg ree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Speech)
June 1961
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CA U FO R N IA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7. CALIFORNIA
This dissertation,‘ written by
Phyllis ..lelby .Daljh.s.........
under the direction of h ST, .Dissertation C om *
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to ttnd accepted by the Dean of
the (iraduate School, in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the deqree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
D tm m
D ate J u n e * 1961
F o r by th y w o rd s th o u a h a l t be
J u s t i f i e d , an d by t h y w o rd s th o u
s h a l t be condem ned.
Matthew 12:37
i i
TABLE OP CONTENTS
P ag e
LIST OP TABLES
v
C h a p t e r
I . INTRODUCTION 1
I m p o r ta n c e o f th e S tu d y
The B a s i c A s s u m p tio n
N a t u r e an d S co p e o f S tu d y
M e th o d o lo g y a n d M a t e r i a l s
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e R e m a in d e r o f th e
The s i s
R eview o f p r e v i o u s R e s e a r c h
O b s t a c l e s to t h e P o r m a t l o n o f S t a n d a r d s
The R h e t o r l c a l - E t h l c s o f C l a s s i c a l and
E a r l y M odern T h e o r i s t s
The R h e t o r l c a l - E t h l c s o f C o n te m p o r a r y
A m e ric a n T h e o r i s t s
A C o n te m p o r a r y R h e t o r i c f o r A m e ric a n
D em ocracy
I I I . THE RHETORICAL-ETHICS OF ROBERT ALPHONSO
R eview o f P r e v i o u s R e s e a r c h
S c e n e ( O c c a s i o n and A u d ie n c e )
A g e n t ( S p e a k e r )
A gency (M eans o f P e r s u a s i o n )
P u r p o s e (End)
A c t ( E t h i c a l E v a l u a t i o n )
IV . THE RHETORIC AL-ETHICS OF HUEY PIERCE LONG. . Ip62
R eview o f P r e v i o u s R e s e a r c h
S c e n e ( O c c a s i o n an d A u d ie n c e )
A g e n t ( S p e a k e r )
A gency (M eans o f P e r s u a s i o n )
P u r p o s e (E nd)
A c t ( E t h i c a l E v a l u a t i o n )
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS . . . 59 J
i l l
I I . THE RHETORICAL-ETHICAL CRITERIA 110
TAFT
359
P ag e
Summary
C o n c l u s i o n s
I m p l i c a t i o n s
P o s t s c r i p t
APPENDICES
A. TEXTS OP TAFT'S ADDRESS ON THE TAFT-
HAHTL5Y BILL, JUNE 2 0 , 1 9 V ? ............................................610
B. TEXTS OF LONG'S ADDRESS, MARCH 7 , 1935* "OUR
BLUNDERING GOVERNMENT AND ITS SPOKESMAN —
HUGH S. J O H N S O N " ........................................................................621
C. BIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT ALPHONSO T A F T .................................660
D. BIOGRAPHY OF HUEY PIERCE L O N G ............................................662
E. MINOR CONTRIBUTORS: IDEAL PHILOSOPHICAL
POSITIONS OF CONTEMPORARY RHETORICIANS . . 663
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 672
l v
L IS T OF TABLES
Table Page
1 . G a l l u p P o l l on L o n g 's I n f l u e n c e I n L o u i s i a n a . . $2
2. I d e a l G e n e r a l P h i l o s o p h i c a l P o s i t i o n s o f
C l a s s i c a l and E a r l y M odern R h e t o r i c i a n s . . . . 208
3 . M a jo r C o n t r i b u t o r s : I d e a l P h i l o s o p h i c a l
P o s i t i o n s o f C o n te m p o ra ry R h e t o r i c i a n s .................. 212
4 . M in o r C o n t r i b u t o r s : A Summary o f I d e a l
P h i l o s o p h i c a l P o s i t i o n s o f C o n te m p o r a r y
R h e t o r i c i a n s ............................................................................................2lij.
T im e ta b le o f T a f t - I I a r t l e y L e g i s l a t i o n , 191+7 . . 378
6 . T i m e t a b l e o f E v e n ts R e l a t i n g to S h a r e Our
W e a lth , J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 2 -M a rc h , 1935 1+99
v
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
T h e re a r e c e r t a i n w o rd s ,
Our own a n d o t h e r s ' , w e 'r e u s e d t o - - w o r d s w e 'v e u s e d ,
H e a rd , h a d to r e c i t e , f o r g o t t e n ,
L i b e r t y , e q u a l i t y , f r a t e r n i t y .
To n o n e w i l l we s e l l , r e f u s e o r d e n y , r i g h t o r j u s t i c e .
We h o l d t h e s e t r u t h s to b e s e l f - e v i d e n t .
I am m e r e l y s a y i n g - - w h a t i f t h e s e w o rd s p a s s ?
W hat i f t h e y p a s s and a r e gone and a r e no m o re ,
E v i s c e r a t e d , b l o t t e d o u t o f t h e w o rld ?
— S t e p h e n V i n c e n t B e n e t , " N ig h tm a re a t N oon" (33:1+66)
S o m e tim e s an o l d s a y i n g h a s a p e c u l i a r r e l e v a n c e i n
o u r own t i m e s . A lth o u g h i t i s known t h a t when D i o n y s i u s
o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s p e n n e d h i s A n t i q u i t i e s o f Home, c a .
20 B . C . , he was w r i t i n g th e h i s t o r y o f Rome fro m th e
m y t h i c a l ag e t o th e tim e o f th e P u n i c Wars ( 2 2 0 : 1 9 0 ) , h i s
w o rd s seem to be a s p e r t i n e n t t o d a y a s when h e w r o te them ,
f o r t h e r e i s much t o i n d i c a t e t h a t d e m a g o g u e ry l e a d s to
th e r u i n a t i o n o f a c o u n t r y :
A l l t h e w o r ld knows t h a t e v e r y t y r a n t s p r i n g s fro m a
f l a t t e r e r o f th e p e o p l e a n d t h a t th e d i r e c t r o a d f o r
t h o s e who w i s h t o e n s l a v e t h e i r c o u n t r y i s t h a t w h ic h
l e a d s to d o m i n a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e f a v o r o f t h e w o r s t
c i t i z e n s . . . ( 8 1 , V I , 6 0 , 2:3$)
The r o s t e r o f th e d e m a g o g o s , th e l e a d e r o f th e
p e o p l e , i s a l o n g o n e , r e c o r d i n g th e nam es o f a n c i e n t
G r e e k s an d Rom ans— P e i s i s t r a t u s , C l i e s t h e n e s , C r i t i u s ,
2
C l e o n , C le o p h o n , H y p e r b o l u s , C a t a l i n e - - a a w e l l a s t h e i r
c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t e r p a r t s - - H i t i e r , M u s s o l i n i , M c C a rth y ,
an d Huey L o n g . Once a d e s c r i p t i v e te r m , th e word becam e
a n e p i t h e t , w h ic h p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to
men w i t h s u c h w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t c h a r a c t e r s a s P e r i c l e s and
C a t a l i n e . B o n n e r , i n h i s w ork A s p e c t s o f A t h e n i a n
D e m o c ra c y , e x p l a i n e d t h e c h a n g i n g u s a g e o f t h e te rm i n
c l a s s i c a l t i m e s :
I n G re e k u s a g e , i n th e b e g i n n i n g , dem agogoa w as a
n e u t r a l w o rd , m e a n in g " p o p u l a r l e a d e r . * T h u c y d id e s
c a l l s C le o n a " d e m a g o g u e ," and I s o c r a t e s a p p l i e s th e
te rm to P e r i c l e s . CB onner h a s t e n e d t o a s s u r e h i s
r e a d e r s t h a t , i n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e te rm was n o t u s e d i n
th e v u l g a r s e n s e ( 3 5 6 ) . 3 B u t s o o n i t came t o h a v e a
s i n i s t e r c o n n o t a t i o n , an d w r i t e r s u s i n g i t i n a good
s e n s e fo u n d i t n e c e s s a r y to e m p lo y q u a l i f y i n g
a d j e c t i v e s s u c h a s "g o o d " o r " J u s t . " A r i s t o t l e
d e f i n i t e l y f i x e d t h e bad s e n s e o f t h e word f o r t h e
m o d ern w o r l d , a s "mob l e a d e r " b y d e f i n i n g a dem agogue
a s a " f l a t t e r e r o f t h e p e o p l e . " ( 3 6 : 5 0 )
I n A t h e n s , l e a d e r s o f th e a s s e m b ly w e re d i f f e r e n t i
a t e d fro m l e a d e r s o f t h e p e o p l e by nam e, much a s t h e
dem agogue i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d fro m t h e s t a t e s m a n to d a y :
The num ber o f p e r s o n s who h a b i t u a l l y s p o k e i n th e
a s s e m b l y w as c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l . They w e re v a r i o u s l y
known a s " p o l i t i c i a n s " . . . , " s p e a k e r s " . . . ,
" p u b l i c men" . . . B u t t h e i r common a n d m o s t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e s i g n a t i o n was " o r a t o r . " T h e y w ere
th e men who l e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n s a n d I n f l u e n c e d p u b l i c
o p i n i o n a s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e d e c r e e s o f t h e a s s e m b l y .
I n a w o rd , th e y w ere p r o f e s s i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s . The
d e s i g n a t i o n " o r a t o r s , " th o u g h i n no s e n s e o f f i c i a l ,
was so d i s t i n c t i v e t h a t i t was e m p lo y e d e v e n i n p u b l i c
d o c u m e n ts .
A " p o l i t i c i a n " i s t h e n e a r e s t m o d ern e q u i v a l e n t o f
t h e A t h e n i a n " o r a t o r , " b u t t h e common d e s i g n a t i o n o f
t h e A t h e n i a n p o p u l a r l e a d e r s i s " d e m a g o g u e ."
(3&:lf9-50)
T h e se l e a d e r s o f d e m o c r a c y , B o n n e r c o n t i n u e d , w ere
" s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d and e v e n r e v i l e d by t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a
r i e s " (3 6 :5 2 ), a c o n d i t i o n w h ic h A l l a n S l n d l e r d e c l a r e d
m i g h t b e t r u e o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p o l i t i c i a n s i n th e
U n i t e d S t a t e s , I n h i s r e c e n t d o c t o r a l s t u d y , he p o i n t e d
o u t t h a t " a n u n b i a s e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f . . . p o p u l a r i z e d
s t a n d a r d s o f dem agogy • . • w o u ld l e a d t o th e c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t dem agogy i s an i n h e r e n t p a r t o f a l l p o l i t i c a l a p p e a l s
a n d a t a c t i c o f m o s t p o l i t i c i a n s " ( 2 2 3 : 1 1 1 )• H ie s e
p o p u l a r c r i t e r i a o f d e m a g o g u e ry " a r e I n a d e q u a t e and m i s
l e a d i n g a n d h a v e made t h e te r m a s u b j e c t i v e e p i t h e t t o be
u s e d w i t h a b a n d o n a g a i n s t t h e p o l i t i c i a n s o n e d i s l i k e s ' '
(223:111). S l n d l e r e m p h a s iz e d t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f m o d e m
e v a l u a t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s . As I n A t h e n i a n t i m e s ,
on e c o u l d t o d a y , w i t h o u t to o m uch s t r e t c h i n g o f E n g l i s h
u s a g e , c a l l a l m o s t a n y m ass l e a d e r a dem agogue b y u s i n g
on e o r a n o t h e r o f t h e l a y c r i t e r i a . L u t h l n c o n s e n t e d t h a t
so f a r no A m e ric a n P r e s i d e n t h a s d e s e r v e d t h i s name
(ll*3 : x i i i ) , b u t , o f c o u r s e , th e v a l i d i t y o f h i s s t a t e m e n t
w ou ld h i n g e u p o n t h e c r i t e r i a b e i n g a p p l i e d .
H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e dem agogue h a s b e e n a p e r s u a d e r .
The " f l a t t e r e r o f t h e p e o p l e " o f A r i s t o t l e ( 8 ,V ,1 1 ,1313b:
175) p o w e r f u l by h i s e l o q u e n c e (8,V ,5»1305*:153)• Hie
r o o t o f e v i l was t h a t men r a t h e r t h a n la w r u l e d , an d
b e c a u s e o f t h i s t h e p e r s u a s i o n o f th e dem agogue was
s u c c e s s f u l . W r i t i n g a b o u t d e m o c r a c y , A r i s t o t l e s a i d :
k
T his, then I s one s p e c ie s th e r e o f . . . . Another I s
li k e these in o th e r p a r t i c u l a r s , b u t th e re the people
govern, and n o t the law: and th is ta k es p lace when
e v e ry th in g i s determ ined by a m a jo rity of v o te s , and
n o t by a law; which happens when the people are
In flu e n ce d by the demagogues: f o r where a democracy
i s governed by s ta te d laws th e re i s no room f o r them,
b u t men o f worth f i l l the f i r s t o f f i c e s o f the s t a t e :
b u t where the power i s n o t v e s te d in the laws, th e re
demagogues abound: f o r th e re the people r u le w ith
k in g ly power: the whole composing one body; f o r they
are supreme, not as in d iv id u a ls bu t in t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e
c a p a c ity . (8 ,lV ,4 ,1 2 9 2 a :ll5 -1 6 )
The s o v e r e i g n t y o f th e p e o p l e an d t h e i r c a p a c i t y to be
swayed through r h e t o r i c c r e a te a s i t u a t i o n fa v o ra b le to
d e m a g o g u e s . The theme o f A r i s t o p h a n e s ' K n i g h t s I s th e
d e g e n e r a c y o f p o p u l a r l e a d e r s h i p ( 6 ) . A r i s t o p h a n e s h a s
the chorus say:
0 Demus, y o u p o s s e s s a f i n e s o v e r e i g n t y , when a l l men
d r e a d yo u a s a t y r a n t . Y e t yo u a r e e a s i l y l e d by th e
n o s e , and you d e l i g h t I n b e i n g f l a t t e r e d and c a j o l e d ,
and g ap e o p e n -m o u th e d a t w h o e v e r h a p p e n s to be
s p e a k i n g , and y o u r m in d , th o u g h p r e s e n t , i s a b r o a d .
( 6: 1 0 2)
L a b e l l i n g a man a dem agogue to d a y l a t a n t a m o u n t to
e v a l u a t i n g him a s u n e t h i c a l s i n c e th e word h a s s u c h a
n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n . S uch a d e s c r i p t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t he
i s a " b a d " l e a d e r o f t h e p e o p l e . M o re o v e r, h e i s a " b a d "
s p e a k e r , f o r t h i s i s how h e o r i g i n a l l y c a p t i v a t e s t h e
p e o p l e .
N um erous c r i t e r i a j u s t i f y i n g s u c h a n e v a l u a t i o n a r e
a v a i l a b l e i n c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t i n g s . Some s o u r c e s
d i f f e r e n t i a t e a dem agogue fro m an e t h i c a l l e a d e r o f th e
p e o p l e b y h i s I n t e n t - - w h e t h e r o r n o t h e s e e k s t o s e r v e
5
h i m s e l f o r th e p e o p l e t h r o u g h h i s p e r s u a s i o n . O t h e r
w r i t e r s d i s t i n g u i s h one fro m th e o t h e r on t h e b a s i s o f th e
t e c h n i q u e s u t i l i z e d . W h ile t h e s e c r i t e r i a a r e p a r t o f th e
c o n t e n t o f th e n e x t c h a p t e r , t h e r e I s a p o i n t t o b e made
h e r e : t h e te r m "dem ag o g u e" m u s t h a v e r h e t o r i c a l c o m p o n e n ts
a s w e l l a s e t h i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l o n e s . The p r o b le m I s n o t
so much to s e p a r a t e t h e s e e l e m e n t s , a s one e a r l i e r s t u d y
a t t e m p t e d t o do ( 6 1 7 )» a s i t I s to a n a l y z e them a s t h e y
e x h i b i t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t i s
i n t e r e s t i n g t o r e c a l l t h a t no A m e ric a n dem agogue h a s a s
y e t b e e n i n c l u d e d among th e s p e a k e r s i n t h e t h r e e v o lu m e s
o f A H i s t o r y and C r i t i c i s m o f A m e ric a n P u b l i c A d d r e s s
(i|2 , 1 1 0 ) . A man i s n o t a " b a d " l e a d e r s im p ly b e c a u s e he
l e a d s t h e m a s s e s — a t l e a s t d e m o c ra c y i s p r e m is e d upon th e
b e l i e f t h a t t h i s i s n o t t r u e ; a man i s n o t a " b a d " s p e a k e r
J u s t b e c a u s e h e p e r s u a d e s th e m a s s e s - - s u r e l y a l l o f
r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y w o u ld d e n y t h i e to be t r u e . When i s a
man a dem agogue? When i s h e n o t a dem agogue? W hat u n i o n
o f r h e t o r i c , e t h i c s , and p o l i t i c s p r o v i d e s th e d i s t i n
g u i s h i n g m ark? T h i s s t u d y s e e k s to p r o v i d e an a n s w e r to
t h i s q u e s t i o n .
T h o n s s e n a n d B a i r d w r o te i n th e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f
S p e e c h C r i t i c i s m :
Ifce m ere p o s s e s s i o n o f th e t o o l s o f p e r s u a s i v e
m a n l p u l a t i o n - - w l t h o u t a s t a b i l i z i n g e t h i c to c o n t r o l
t h e i r u s a g e — i s n o t e n o u g h . I f p o l i t i c s — a n d i n i t s
t u r n , r h e t o r i c — i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m eans o f
g e t t i n g t h i n g s d o n e , i t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t e t h i c s ,
6
w h ic h d e a l s w i t h e n d s and th e r e l a t i v e v a l u e s o f w h a t
i s a c h i e v e d , be r e u n i t e d w i t h th e p o l i t i c a l a r t .
R h e t o r i c , a s t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y b e tw e e n t h e w i l l to
a c t i o n and th e a c h i e v e m e n t o f th e r e s u l t , m u st
a c c o r d i n g l y be c o n c e i v e d a s b o t h a p o l i t i c a l and an
e t h i c a l i n s t r u m e n t . ( 2 3 3 : 1 + 6 7 )
O ut o f t h i s r e u n i o n o f r h e t o r i c , e t h i c s , a n d p o l i t i c s , o u t
o f a r e c o g n i t i o n o f o r a t o r y a s a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f
d e m o c r a t i c fo rm s ( 2 3 3 : 1 +6 6 ) , o u t o f a n a w a r e n e s s o f th e
n e e d f o r na m ore b i n d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e
I n s t r u m e n t a l a n d the e t h i c a l c o m p o n e n ts o f t h e s p e a k i n g
a r t " ( 2 3 3 : 1 +7 1 ) com es th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s s t u d y .
I m p o r t a n c e o f th e S tu d y
Any v i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n d s
upon two s t a t e m e n t s f o r w h ic h t h e r e i s am ple s u p p o r t :
( 1 ) p u b l i c a d d r e s s i s i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e g ro w th
an d e x t e n s i o n o f d e m o c ra c y a n d J u s t a s c l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h
i t s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ; ( 2 ) th e t e a c h i n g a n d p r a c t i c e o f p u b l i c
a d d r e s s can be no b e t t e r t h a n th e t h e o r y o f p u b l i c
a d d r e s s - - a n d t h e r e i s no e s t a b l i s h e d t h e o r y o f t h e e t h i c s
o f r h e t o r i c .
The s p o k e n word i s p e r v a s i v e i n o u r n a t i o n a l l i f e ;
m o s t t r a n s a c t i o n s i n o u r s o c i e t y a r e c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h
l a n g u a g e . B e g i n n i n g w i t h th e l i t t l e t a l k o f l i t t l e m en,
c o m m u n lc a tlo n e m e rg e s a s t h e c r e a t o r o f m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n .
As B r l g a n c e p u t I t :
N o t o n l y I s h i s t o r y w r i t t e n w i t h w o r d s . I t i s made
w i t h w o r d s . M o st o f t h e m i g h t y m ovem ents a f f e c t i n g
th e d e s t i n y o f t h e A m e ric a n n a t i o n h a v e g a t h e r e d
s t r e n g t h I n o b s c u r e p i e c e s fro m th e t a l k o f n a m e l e s s
m en, an d g a i n e d f i n a l momentum fro m l e a d e r s who c o u l d
s t a t e I n comnon w o rd s t h e n e e d s a n d h o p e s o f conmon
p e o p l e , ( 1 ^2 , 1 : v l i )
The c r e a t i v e m i n o r i t y l e a d s th e m a j o r i t y t h r o u g h p e r s u a
s i o n . C i v i l i z a t i o n b r e a k s down when f o r c e i s u s e d i n i t s
p l a c e ( 3 0 6 : 1 8 0 - 8 1 ) . E q u a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e t o s o c i e t y i s a
t y r a n n i c a l m a J o r l t y - - na new k i n d o f d e s p o t i s m i n t h a t
i d e a s u n c o n g e n i a l t o t h e m a j o r i t y a r e d i s c o u r a g e d a n d t h e i r
e x p r e s s i o n n o t o n l y f r o w n e d upon b u t o f t e n p r e v e n t e d by
v i o l e n c e * (79:395)* The c o r r e c t i v e i n b o t h c a s e s n e e d e d
t o p r e s e r v e d e m o c ra c y i s f r e e an d r e s p o n s i b l e s p e e c h , f o r
t h e p r o b le m s o f s u c h a s o c i e t y m u s t b e s o l v e d i n t h e
a r e n a s o f c o m p e t i n g p e r s u a s i o n s ( 1 ^1 : 7 )*
I n c o n t e m p o r a r y d e m o c ra c y , g o v e r n m e n t i s l e s s
r e s p o n s i v e t o i n d i v i d u a l s i n f a c e - t o - f a c e s i t u a t i o n s th a n
i t was i n f o r m e r t i m e s . C i t i z e n s h a v e t o d e p e n d on s h a t
th e y a r e t o l d , s i n c e t h e y c a n no l o n g e r p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e
c o m p le te e x p e r i e n c e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , m ass c o m n u n l c a t i o n
p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e (ijJL:7) * A lth o u g h t h i s i s n o t dem oc
r a c y ' s f i r s t g r e a t c r i s i s , i t i s t h e f i r s t i n w h ic h t h e
re m e d y d e p e n d s on m i l l i o n s I n s t e a d o f J u s t a few p e o p le
( 2lj.0 : l ) . The a n s w e r l i e s i n t h e w isdom o f p l a i n p e o p l e
(li|. 3 : x i l i ) — p e o p l e who a r e f a c e d w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
w h ic h a r e dem anded o f them a s an a u d i e n c e .
V a l e n t i n e , i n The Age o f C o n f o r m i t y , a n a l y z e d th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y and p o l i t i c a l v i r t u e ,
6
s i m i l a r l y p l a c i n g th e c r u x o f th e m a t t e r i n th e c h a r a c t e r
o f th e a v e r a g e A m e ric a n ( 2lf.O: J 4J4 .) # a n d l a m e n t i n g th e f a c t
t h a t th e i d e a l s and p r a c t i c e s o f t h e p e o p l e f a i l e d to l i v e
up to t h e i r " e x a c t i n g p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " ( 2lj.O:
5 5 )* What i s n e e d e d , h e w r o t e i s t h a t
a l l t h e f o r c e s o f s o c i e t y m u s t c o n t r i b u t e to
s t r e n g t h e n t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e a v e r a g e c i t i z e n to
d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n s i n c e r i t y a n d d e m a g o g u e ry , b e tw e e n
f a c t and o p i n i o n , b e tw e e n t r u t h and h a l f - t r u t h ,
b e tw e e n w h a t u p l i f t s and w h a t d e g r a d e s h im . ( 2ij.0 : b 6 )
T h is demand f o r th e e n l i g h t e n m e n t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
a u d i e n c e so t h a t i t may ju d g e m ore e f f e c t i v e l y c a n be m et
b y a d e l i n e a t i o n o f s t a n d a r d s w h ic h do n o t o m i t e t h i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f ro m an e v a l u a t i o n o f s p e a k i n g (2l±l±:10Q) .
B a i r d s t r e s s e d t h i s n e e d f o r s t a n d a r d s :
P u b l i c a d d r e s s c o n t i n u e s to e x e r c i s e i t s po w er i n
s h a p i n g o u r p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n d u c t . . . . I n d e e d
th e p u b l i c - a d c r e s s s y s te m , r a d i o , an d t e l e v i s i o n h a v e
m u l t i p l i e d th e p o w e r and p r e s t i g e o f s p e a k e r s f a r
b e y o n d a n y t h i n g e n v i s i o n e d by f o r m e r o r a t o r s a n d
r h e t o r i c i a n s . • . .
B u t t h i s b a r r a g e o f i d e a s an d p r o p a g a n d a c a l l s f o r
o u r p r o p e r c o n d i t i o n i n g to a c c e p t o r r e j e c t th e
a p p e a l s . Our r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s a u d i t o r s an d v i e w e r s
i s n o t to a c c e p t o r r e j e c t u n c r i t i c a l l y t h e s e t h i n g s .
Our a u d i e n c e r o l e i s to d i s c r i m i n a t e b e tw e e n t h e good
an d t h e b a d and so to a p p r o v e o r r e j e c t . . . .
The p r o b le m , t h e n , i s how s h a l l we s e p a r a t e th e
v a l i d fro m t h e i n v a l i d p r o p a g a n d a ? The so u n d fro m t h e
c r o o k e d t h i n k i n g ? Sound u t t e r a n o e fro m t h e b l a t a n t
d e l i v e r y ? F a c t fro m f i c t i o n ? O ur p r a c t i c a l c o n c e r n
i s t o f o r m u l a t e s t a n d a r d s b y w h ic h to d e a l w i s e l y
w i t h t h i s c e a s e l e s s t o r r e n t o f w o r d s . ( 1 2 : 1 - 2 )
C r i t e r i a n e e d t o b e f o r m u l a t e d w h ic h w i l l d i s t i n g u i s h
e t h i c a l fro m u n e t h i c a l s p e a k e r s . A f t e r a l l , n e i t h e r
r h e t o r i c i a n s n o r r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i z e n s w a n t t o b e p l a c e d
9
i n th e p o s i t i o n o f l a u d i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e t e c h n i q u e s o f
t h e l a t e s t dem agogue ( 2 :1 6 2 ) *
" B re a d and c i r c u s e s " h a v e n o t l o s t t h e i r a p p e a l to
th e common m an, and he n e e d s to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n
s h i p b e tw e e n th e d em agogue, th e d em o s, and a d em ocracy*
The dem agogue i s t h e p r o d u c t o f th e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e
p e o p l e , and h e a r i s e s when th e m a s s e s succum b to h i s
p e r s u a s i o n . B o rn o f f r e e s p e e c h h e i s I n s t r u m e n t a l i n i t s
d e s t r u c t i o n . W ith t h e e m a s c u l a t i o n o f f r e e and r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e e c h , d e m o c ra c y d i s i n t e g r a t e s . I t s u r v i v e s o n l y when
th e c o l l e c t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e p e o p l e r e v e a l s him i n
h i s t r u e l i g h t * L u t h l n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t " t h e r e c o r d o f
o u r more c o n s p i c u o u s dem ag o g u es u s u a l l y c l o s e s i n a
p o p u l a r m ovem ent f o r t h e i r o v e r t h r o w . . . " (lig 3 : x i v ) .
One c a n n o t l e g i s l a t e t h e dem agogue o u t o f p r a c t i c e ; h e
c a n n o t be e l i m i n a t e d , b u t h i s " m a g ic " c a n b e s t u d i e d to
h e l p p r e v e n t f u t u r e r e p e t i t i o n s . B u rk e e x p r e s s e d t h i s
v ie w w h i l e w r i t i n g o f t h e p e r s u a s i o n o f A d o lf H i t l e r :
H ere i s t h e t e s t a m e n t o f a man who swung a g r e a t
p e o p l e i n t o h i s w ak e. L e t u s w a tc h i t c a r e f u l l y ; and
l e t u s w a tc h i t , n o t m e r e l y to d i s c o v e r some g ro u n d s
f o r p r o p h e s y i n g w h a t p o l i t i c a l move i s t o f o l l o w
M u n ich , and w h a t move to f o l l o w t h a t m ove, e t c . ; l e t
u s t r y a l s o to d i s c o v e r w h a t k i n d o f " m e d i c i n e " t h i s
m e d ic ln e - m a n h a s c o n c o c t e d , t h a t we may know, w i t h
g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y , e x a c t l y w h a t t o g u a r d a g a i n s t , i f
we a r e t o f o r e s t a l l th e c o n c o c t i n g o f s i m i l a r m e d i c i n e
i n A m e ric a . (60:l61j.)
" A b s t r a c t I d e a l s , " B u rk e p o i n t e d o u t , " a r e s o c i a l
b l u e p r i n t s . H iey a r e ways o f s h a p i n g p o l i c i e s w i t h
r e l a t i o n to p r i n c i p l e s " (6 0 :1 5 6 ). One c a n n o t s e p a r a t e
t h e o r y fro m p r a c t i c e , o r p r a c t i c e fro m t h e o r y , o r e i t h e r
fro m t e a c h i n g . T h o n s s e n and B a i r d c a l l e d t h e o r y ,
p r a c t i c e , a n d c r i t i c i s m " i n d i v i s i b l e " ( 2 3 3 : 1 6 ) , an d ad d ed
t h a t e a c h was a d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e o t h e r s ( 2 3 3 : 2 6 ) .
D em ag o g u ery r e f l e c t s a d v e r s e l y on p u b l i c s p e a k i n g ( 6 1 9 :
115); f o r m any, fro m P l a t o ' s t o m o d ern t i m e s , r h e t o r i c
h a s become known b y t h e "com pany i t k e e p s " (i+ O b :lb ? ).
An e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c I s one o f th e t h r e e m o st
i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s o f s p e e c h t e x t w r i t e r s t o d a y ( 5 0 i|.:
1 7 3 ) ; I t I s th e c e n t r a l i s s u e i n m o d ern s p e e c h t e a c h i n g
(31+2:290). J o s e p h B l a u , who i s m ore o p t i m i s t i c th a n many
o t h e r s a b o u t th e a b i l i t y o f th e A m e ric a n a u d i e n c e to
r e s i s t m a n i p u l a t i o n i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f e n d s d e t r i m e n t a l
t o i t s w e l f a r e , a s k e d t h a t a n I n s t r u m e n t f o r d e t e c t i n g
t r u t h b e made w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c , and fo u n d
h i s s o l u t i o n i n a p h i l o s o p h i c c r i t i c i s m o f p u b l i c a d d r e s s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h a s s e s s i n g th e v a l i d i t y o f e n d s t h r o u g h a
" s t u d y o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s and c o n c l u s i o n s o f th e
I n t e l l e c t u a l a p p e a l o f th e s p e a k e r " ( 2 9 1 : 6 2 - 8 3 ) . S t l t e s ,
i n h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , u r g e d I n t e n s i v e a n a l y s e s o f
c o n t e m p o r a r y s p e e c h t e x t s , and t h e c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s a s
w e l l o f e f f e c t i v e , r e s p o n s i b l e , and i n t e l l i g e n t s p e e c h
p r a c t i c e s o f m o d ern s p e a k e r s t o d e t e r m i n e th e p h i l o s o p h y
and m e th o d o f s p e a k i n g p r a c t i c e s i n o u r c u l t u r e ( 6 3 6 :
11
This study I s a s te p In the e s ta b lis h m e n t of a
th e o ry o f e t h i c s f o r the sp eak er In a democracy; I t
In c lu d e s an I n te n s iv e a n a ly s is of the re s p o n s ib le speech
p r a c t i c e s of two contem porary sp e ak ers.
The B asic Assumption
Every s c h o la r ly t r e a t i s e has a fundam ental assump
t io n . Sometimes I t Is s t a t e d ; sometimes I t l i e s h id d e n --
perhaps even to the s c h o la r--u n d e rn e a th the su p e r
s t r u c t u r e o f academic re s e a r c h . Whitney, q u o tin g Roscoe
Found of Harvard U n iv e r s ity , has termed such an assum ption
the " u ltim a te - u ltim a te o b je c tiv e " (2 5 ^:1 2 2 ). Whitney
noted the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the " u ltim a te - u ltim a te
o b je c tiv e " and the u ltim a te o b je c tiv e :
The a t ta c k on the s o lu tio n of a s e le c te d problem Is
always i n terms of an u n d e rly in g , b a s ic philosophy
more or l e s s o o n sc lo u sly h eld by the r e s e a r c h w orker.
• • . I t i s the d ete rm in in g p o in t of view, the
fundam ental assum ption th a t d i c t a t e s which way the
s tu d e n t s h a l l face in advancing toward a d e s ir e d
goal or g e n e r a liz a ti o n . • . .
Conforming to the re q u irem en ts of t h i s b a s ic
assum ption i s the s p e c i f i c purpose of the p a r t i c u l a r
I n v e s t i g a t i o n in hand, i t s u ltim a te o b je c ti v e .
(25^:122)
This work has been composed w ith J u s t such an
assum ption c o n s c io u sly i n th e mind of the r e s e a r c h e r . 'Hie
b a s ic assum ption of t h i s stu d y i s th a t the government of
the U nited S ta te s i s a democracy. Although profoundly
in flu e n c e d by contem porary c o n tr o v e r s ie s co n cern in g the
v a l i d i t y and w o rk a b ility o f democracy, I chose to embrace
12
w h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a t r a d i t i o n a l W e s te r n c o n c e p t i o n ,
th o u g h p e r h a p s a n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n e , o f m an, h i s
I n s t i t u t i o n s , h i s r i g h t s , and h i s o b l i g a t i o n s . I t I s
I m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t I w as n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h
w h a t i s good s o c i a l o r d e r b u t w i t h w h at i s r i g h t p e r s u a
s i o n I n th e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l o r d e r .
D em o cracy i s a d i a l e c t i c ; I n a d e m o c r a c y , a t l e a s t
t h e o r e t i c a l l y , t r u t h e m e rg e s f ro m t h e e x p r e s s e d w i l l o f
th e p e o p l e . I n t h i s s e n s e . I t s c r i t e r i o n o f t r u t h i s
u n i v e r s a l d e c i s i o n ( 5 9 5 : 1 6 2 ) , f o r i t I s g r o u n d e d i n th e
f a i t h t h a t t h e p e o p l e e n m a sse w i l l u l t i m a t e l y b e r i g h t .
The w i l l o f th e p e o p l e i s e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h t h e
b a l l o t , a b a l l o t w h ic h i s n o t o n l y v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d
i n i t s e x t e n s i o n b u t one w h ic h i s g r a n t e d e q u a l l y t o
e v e r y o n e . E x c e p t f o r c e r t a i n known e x c e p t i o n s , i . e . ,
m i n o r s , c r i m i n a l s , a n d th e f e e b l e m i n d e d , and t h e v i c t i m s
o f c e r t a i n a b u s e s o f t h e la w , s u f f r a g e i n a d e m o c ra c y i s
u n i v e r s a l . A t t h e same t i m e , no on e m a n 's v o t e i s
w e i g h t e d m ore h e a v i l y t h a n a n o t h e r ' s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f
n a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e , e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l , o r t h e I n fo r m e d
o r b i a s e d n a t u r e o f h i s v i e w s .
Prom t h e n a t u r e o f s u f f r a g e i n a d e m o c ra c y and th e
c h a r a c t e r o f d e m o c r a t i c " t r u t h " a r e d e d u c e d c e r t a i n
p o l l t i c a l - e t h i c a l - r h e t o r i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , w h ic h , i n p a r t ,
i t w as t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y t o d i s c u s s .
D e m o c r a t i c v o t i n g p r e s u m e s t h a t e a c h man i s c a p a b l e
13
o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n I n f o r m i n g t h e u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n — t h a t
he l a f r e e to make c h o i c e s and t h a t h e l a a b l e t o make
t h e s e c h o i c e s r a t i o n a l l y . T h is r o l e o f th e I n d i v i d u a l I n
t h e e v o l v i n g o f t h e p u b l i c w i l l n o t o n l y p o i n t s t o t h e
I m p o r t a n c e o f t r e a t i n g man a s a n end r a t h e r th a n a s a
m e a n s , b u t a l s o t o th e n a t u r e o f t h e g e n e r a l g o o d , a
f u n c t i o n a l e n t i t y d e r i v e d fro m t h e c o m p e t i t i v e s t r u g g l e
f o r t h e c o o p e r a t i v e e n d . I n t h e o r y t h e p u b l i c w i l l i s no
m o re n o r l e s s t h a n th e outco m e o f th e u n im p e d e d d i a l e c
t i c a l p r o c e s s . T r u t h ( I . e . , u n i v e r s a l d e c i s i o n , th e
p u b l i c w i l l , t h e d e m o c r a t i c e n d ) a " g o o d " e m e rg e s o n l y
when and I f t h e p r o c e s s I s u n im p e d e d . B u rk e a f f i r m e d :
I t a k e d e m o c r a c y t o b e a d e v i c e f o r I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g
th e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s , b y s e t t i n g up a p o l i t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e t h a t g i v e s f u l l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e u s e o f
c o m p e t i t i o n t o a c o o p e r a t i v e e n d . A llo w f u l l s c o p e to
th e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s , a n d y o u e s t a b l i s h a s c e n e I n
w h ic h th e p r o t a g o n i s t o f a t h e s i s h a s maximum
o p p o r t u n i t y t o m o d i f y h i s t h e s i s , an d s o m a t u r e i t ,
i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e a n t a g o n i s t ' s r e j o i n d e r s . • . •
I s h o u l d c o n t e n d t h a t t h e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s a b s o l u t e l y
m u s t be u n im p e d e d , I f s o c i e t y i s t o p e r f e c t i t s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y b y t h e n e c e s s a r y r e t h o d o f
g i v e - a n d - t a k e ( y i e l d l n g - a n d - a d v a n c e ) . (o 0 : 3 2 7 - 2 8 )
S i n c e t h e d i a l e c t i c a l p r o c e s s d e p e n d s on t h e f r e e
dom f ro m b a r r i e r s t o t h e f r e e f l o w o f a l l t h e I d e a s , th e
c h a n n e l s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n m u s t b e c l e a r . I n t h i s
' c o n n e c t i o n d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y h a s b e e n p r o f o u n d l y I n f l u
e n c e d b y J o h n M i l t o n ' s c o n c e p t o f t r u t h : " L e t h e r £ t r u t h }
w i t h f a l s e h o o d g r a p p l e ; who e v e r knew t r u t h p u t to th e
w o r s e , i n a f r e e a n d o p e n e n c o u n t e r . H er c o n f u t i n g i s t h e
14
b e a t and s u r e s t sup p ressin g * (162:151)• While t h i s view,
In I t s tu rn , is s tr o n g ly re m in isc e n t of the A r i s t o t e l i a n
philo so p h y th a t o th e r th in g s b ein g e q u a l, tr u t h w i l l
p re w a il over fa lse h o o d , a contem porary a u t h o r it y on f r e e
speech In America, Z echariah Chafee, echoed the old
r e f r a i n :
t h a t the u ltim a te good d e s ire d i s b e t t e r reached by
f r e e trad e i n i d e a s - - t h a t the b e s t t e a t o f t r u t h i s
the power of the tho u g h t to g e t I t s e l f ac cep ted in the
c o m p etitio n of the m arket, and t h a t t r u t h i s the only
ground upon which • . • [m en's] w ishes s a f e l y can be
c a r r i e d o u t. That a t any r a t e la the th e o ry of our
C o n s t i t u t i o n . (67:137)
Whet a re the channels o f communlcation In contem
p o rary U nited S tatesT The mass media (in c lu d in g the p r e s s ,
r a d io , t e l e v i s i o n , and the film s ) and th e p u b lic p la tfo rm
are of prime Importance as communicative media In
Americal960, b u t t h i s study was focused on the p u b lic
speaker se e k in g to in flu e n c e h i s audience u sin g two
ch an n els of mass com m unication--radio and the p r in te d
word.
When the normal e x p re ssio n of th e p u b lic w i l l Is
h in d e re d by some a c tio n o r n o n -a c tio n In v o lv in g these
channels of communication, t r u t h w i l l n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
emerge as th e p ro d u ct o f competing id e a s , and the d i a l e c
t i c a l p ro c e s s , democracy, w i l l have been su b v e rte d . As
one w r i t e r has p u t i t , the m o ra lity o f d e c is io n as the o u t
come of d is c u s s io n i s I d e n t i c a l w ith the dem ocratic
p ro c e s s . (4°9:536)
15
By t h l a r e a s o n i n g , c o m m u n ic a tio n w h ic h im p e d e s th e
d i a l e c t i c a l p r o c e s s i s u n e t h i c a l b e c a u s e i t s u b v e r t s t h e
d e m o c r a t i c e n d and i n so d o i n g c o n c o m i t a n t l y d e s t r o y s th e
d e m o c r a t i c m e th o d . S u c h c o m m u n ic a tio n v i o l a t e s t h e
d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c , w h ic h s a y s t h a t m eans m u s t b e c o n s o n a n t
w i t h e n d s , a t t h e same moment t h a t i t u n d e r m in e s th e
u l t i m a t e e n d s o f d e m o c ra c y .
I t w as my p u r p o s e t o a n a l y z e how t h e p u b l i c w i l l
c a n b e s u b v e r t e d and t h e r e b y t o I t e m i z e w h a t a r e t h e
e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e ric a n p u b l i c a d d r e s s .
I w as n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h a t i s good s o c i a l o r d e r b u t
r a t h e r w i t h w h a t i s r i g h t p e r s u a s i o n i n th e e x i s t i n g s o c i a l
o r d e r . W h ile t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s d e t e r m i n i n g p o i n t o f
v ie w , t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n , h a s b e e n a r g u e d a t l e n g t h
e l s e w h e r e , i t w as n o t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h i s w o rk t o
e n u m e r a te t h e s e a r g u m e n t s . H ow ever, s h o u l d t h e r e a d e r
d i s a g r e e w i t h t h e b a s i c o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e s t u d y , he w i l l
n e c e s s a r i l y d i s a g r e e w i t h i t s c o n c l u s i o n s .
N a t u r e a n d S co p e o f S tu d y
I n 1 9 ^ 9 , Tau K appa A lp h a , n a t i o n a l c o l l e g i a t e
f o r e n s i c s o c i e t y , i n i n a u g u r a t i n g a p u b l i c - b e n e f 1 t
p r o j e c t - - t h e S p e a k e r - o f - t h e - Y e a r Awards (19d:l{.ti9)~~
d e t e r m i n e d t h a t e f f e c t i v e , r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d i n t e l l i g e n t
s p e a k i n g w as t h e b a s i s o f o u r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e i n
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m . T h e se c r i t e r i a w e re th e r e s u l t o f
16
a n a t t e m p t b y t h e TKA a w a rd s c o m m itte e to " c o d i f y w h a t I n
i t s ju d g m e n t w as t h e c o n s e n s u s o f the c e n t u r i e s " ( 6 3 7 : k ) .
The c h a ir m a n o f th e a w a r d s c o m m i t t e e , who w as l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e I d e a , i s P r o f e s s o r
W. C h a r l e s R e d d in g ( 1 9 6 :^ 8 9 ) * f o r m e r l y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y
o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , now a t P u rd u e U n i v e r s i t y . I t was
u n d e r P r o f e s s o r R e d d i n g 's g u i d a n c e t h a t I e m b a rk e d on t h i s
I n v e s t i g a t i o n e m p h a s i s i n g th e s e c o n d c r i t e r i o n i n t h e
t r i a d - - r e s p o n s i b l e s p e e c h .
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m .--M y c e n t r a l p u r p o s e was
t o f o r m u l a t e a s e t o f e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y
A m e ric a n p u b l i c a d d r e s s . The f i r s t s t e p w as t o a n s w e r th e
q u e s t i o n : ( 1 ) w h a t a r e t h e e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s o f c o n te m
p o r a r y A m e ric a n p u b l i c a d d r e s s a s a t a t e d b y r e c o g n i z e d
s p e e c h a u t h o r i t i e s ? The s e c o n d s t e p was t o " v e r i f y " t h e s e
s t a n d a r d s b y a n s w e r i n g th e q u e s t i o n : ( 2 ) do t h e s e
s t a n d a r d s , w hen a p p l i e d t o s e l e c t e d c o n t e m p o r a r y A m erican
s p e a k e r s , r e n d e r t h e same e t h i c a l Ju d g m e n t a s t h e one
r e n d e r e d b y t h e p u b l i c m ind?
D e f i n i t i o n o f te r m s u s e d . - - I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d
c l e a r l y t h e I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , c e r t a i n te r m s
n e e d e d m ore p r e c i s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The d e f i n i t i o n s w h ic h
f o l l o w a r e i n many c a s e s I d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e a p p e a r i n g i n
a p r e l i m i n a r y b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l s t u d y c o m p ile d b y t h e a u t h o r
(6 2 9 :1 -3 ).
" E t h i c s " ( o r e t h i c a l c o n d u c t ) w as I n t e r p r e t e d aa
17
one o f s e v e r a l s t a n d a r d s f o r e v a l u a t i n g p u b l i c a d d r e s s .
Tims t h e te rm " e t h i c s " may c o m p reh en d n u m ero u s c r i t e r i a —
a c c o r d i n g to th e p a r t i c u l a r p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f
an y c r i t i c who c h o o s e s t o u s e i t . A s id e fro m t h e a ssu m p
t i o n t h a t A m e ric a i s a d e m o c ra c y , n e i t h e r a s p e c i f i c t y p e
o f e t h i c a l t h e o r y n o r a s e l e c t e d p o i n t o f v ie w w as a d o p t e d
p r i o r t o th e s u r v e y o f l i t e r a t u r e .
An e t h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n w as u s e d to r e f e r s im p l y to
t h e r i g h t n e s s o r w r o n g n e s s , g o o d n e s s o r b a d n e s s o f a c t i o n s ,
a g e n t s , i n s t r u m e n t s , o r p u r p o s e s . W h ile t h e Ju d g m en t
" e t h i c a l " was i n t e r p r e t e d to mean m o r a l — i m p l y i n g t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e o f r i g h t a c t i o n s a n d / o r d i r e c t i o n to w a rd good
e n d s , th e ju d g m e n t " u n e t h i c a l " w as i n t e r p r e t e d to m ean n o t
m o r a l , i . e . , im m o ra l— I m p l y i n g th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f w ro n g
a c t i o n s a n d / o r d i r e c t i o n to w a rd b a d e n d s . B o th J u d g m e n ts
s h o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d I n t h e m in d o f t h e r e a d e r f ro m
" a m o r a l " b e h a v i o r - - a fo rm o f b e h a v i o r w h ic h I s n o t t o b e
ju d g e d b y th e c r i t e r i a o f m o r a l i t y .
" S t a n d a r d s " w ere i n t e r p r e t e d a s c r i t e r i a , r u l e s , o r
t e s t s b y w h ic h a n y t h i n g i s t r i e d i n f o r m i n g a c o r r e c t
ju d g m e n t ( 2 4 7 : 1 9 7 ) .
I n l i m i t i n g t h e s t u d y t o " c o n t e m p o r a r y p u b l i c
a d d r e s s , " t h e som ew hat a r t i f i c i a l b o u n d a r i e s f o r t h e
c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r i o d o f t h e en d o f W o rld War I t o t h e
p r e s e n t w ere c h o s e n . A c t u a l l y , l i t e r a t u r e p u b l i s h e d i n
1 9 1 8 w as I n c l u d e d a s w e l l a s a p a r t i c u l a r l y I n f l u e n t i a l
18
t e x t p u b l i s h e d I n 1917* P u b l i c S p e a k i n g , b y Jam e s A l b e r t
W ln an s (2 5 7 )* W in a n s ' b o o k , w h ic h a n n o u n c e d a s u b s t a n
t i a l l y new t h e o r y o f p e r s u a s i o n I n w h ic h a t t e n t i o n becam e
t h e c e n t r a l p r i n c i p l e , I s c r e d i t e d a s t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i
b u t i o n to r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y s i n c e C a m p b e ll ( 2 3 3 :1 4 4 ) *
The te r m " A m e ric a n " w as u s e d to I n c l u d e th e
g e o g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s s t u d y , " p u b l i c a d d r e s s " w as i n t e r
p r e t e d t o mean t h e p r a c t i c a l a r t o f o r a l d i s c o u r s e —
p r i m a r i l y p e r s u a s i v e — I n co m m u n ity and n a t i o n a l l i f e .
T h e r e f o r e , s p e c i f i c e t h i c a l p r o b le m s I n c o m p e t i t i v e d e b a t e
and s i m i l a r s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t i e s w e re e x c l u d e d e x c e p t
when t h e s e p r o b le m s w e re e x t e n d e d to e n c o m p a ss p u b l i c
s p e e c h i n g e n e r a l ,
R o b e r t A lp h o n so T a f t an d Huey P i e r c e L ong w ere
s e l e c t e d a s t h e " c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e ric a n s p e a k e r s " t o b e
s t u d i e d . The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e i r s e l e c t i o n w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
The " p u b l i c m in d " h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d a s an i n t e g r a l
f a c t o r i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t was I n t e r p r e t e d s i m p l y
a s an e v a l u a t i o n by t h e A m e ric a n p e o p l e , i . e . , l a y o p i n i o n ,
a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h an e v a l u a t i o n by s p e e c h e x p e r t s . The
*
g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s o f t h e p u b l i c w as t h a t T a f t , w h a t e v e r
e l s e h e w a s , was e t h i c a l , w h i l e L o n g , a t l e a s t a a f a r a s
h i s n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n among l n t e l l e c t u a l a w as c o n c e r n e d ,
w as u n e t h i c a l . The s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e f o r t h e s e s t a t e -
19
m e n ts w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d l a t e r i n t h i 3 c h a p t e r .
S c o p e and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y . - - I t b eco m es
o b v i o u s t h a t th e te r m s u t i l i z e d i n t h e p h r a s i n g o f th e
c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n s p r o v i d e c e r t a i n i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e sc o p e
and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y . F u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s w i l l
b e r e v e a l e d by t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e m e th o d o lo g y and m a t e r i a l s
u s e d .
M e th o d o lo g y and M a t e r i a l s
W h itn e y s t r e s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t a n y d i s c u s s i o n o f
th e m e th o d o lo g y ( t h e "how" o f r e s e a r c h ) and th e m a t e r i a l s
u s e d ( t h e " w i t h w h a t" ) s h o u ld i n c l u d e t r e a t m e n t o f ( 1 ) th e
m a n n e r i n w h ic h th e d a t a w ere c o l l e c t e d , ( 2 ) t h e t o o l s
u s e d i n t h i s a c t i v i t y , and ( 3 ) th e w ays i n w h ic h t h e
f i n d i n g s w ere c l a s s i f i e d and i n t e r p r e t e d ( 2 5 ^ : 1 3 7 ) .
The r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g l e a .--T w o r e s e a r c h
m e t h o d o l o g i e s w e re u t i l i z e d i n th e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s
s t u d y . The p r i m a r y r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e u s e d i n th e c h a p t e r
i n w h ic h t h e r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a w e re p r e s e n t e d ,
C h a p t e r I I , w as t h e d e s c r i p t i v e m e th o d . T h i s r e s e a r c h
t e c h n i q u e h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s " f a c t f i n d i n g w i t h a d e q u a t e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " ( 2 5 ^ : 1 6 0 ) . The f o r m u s e d b y t h i s w r i t e r
w as l i b r a r y a n d d o c u m e n ta r y r e s e a r c h , f o r d e s c r i p t i v e
a n a l y s e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y s u r v e y s and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s e s o f
a v a i l a b l e d a t a i n p r i n t e d fo rm ( 2 5 ^ :1 7 8 ) * W h ile th e
c o n t e n t o f t h i s s t u d y m if£ it l e a d one t o c o n c l u d e t h a t i t s
20
m e th o d o lo g y was p h i l o s o p h i c a l , I t c a n be more a c c u r a t e l y
te rm e d d e s c r i p t i v e o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l v a l u e s ( 2 5 ^ : 2 5 4 ) .
The p r im a r y r e s e a r c h m e th o d o lo g y u s e d i n th e
c h a p t e r s i n w h ic h th e e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s w ere a p p l i e d ,
C h a p t e r s I I I and IV , was t h e a n a l y t i c a l m e th o d , a ty p e o f
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m w h ich c o n s i s t s o f t h e c r i t i c a l
e v a l u a t i o n o f p r i m a r y d a t a .
The a n a l y t i c a l m e th o d a s d e f i n e d ab o v e p ro v e d t o be
c l o s e r t o T h o n s s e n a n d B a i r d ' s J u d i c i a l c r i t i c i s m , w h ic h
c o m b in e s th e a lm s o f a n a l y t i c and s y n t h e t i c c r i t i c i s m ,
t h a n i t was to t h e i r a n a l y t i c a l m e th o d ( 2 3 3 :1 7 - 1 3 ) * W h ile
a n a l y t i c c r i t i c i s m m e t h o d i c a l l y e x a m in e s a l l a v a i l a b l e
f a c t s r e l a t i n g t o th e s p e e c h I t s e l f , s y n t h e t i c c r i t i c i s m
u s e s t h e s e f a c t s com bined w i t h o t h e r e l e m e n t s o f th e
t o t a l s i t u a t i o n . J u d i c i a l c r i t i c i s m ad d s e v a l u a t i o n a n d
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s to t h e a lm s o f a n a l y t i c and
s y n t h e t i c c r i t i c i s m .
M e th o d o lo g y an d m a t e r i a l s u s e d i n g a t h e r i n g d a t a . —
The b r o a d d e f i n i t i o n o f th e r e s e a r c h m eth o d i s n o t e n o u g h
to g u id e t h e r e a d e r i n a c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f a s c h o l a r l y
t r e a t i s e . S p e c i f i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e m e th o d o lo g y and t h e
m a t e r i a l s u s e d i n g a t h e r i n g , c l a s s i f y i n g , a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g
t h e d a t a s h o u ld b e p r e s e n t e d .
J u s t "how” was t h e r e s e a r c h done and " w i t h w h a t ? ”
The l i t e r a t u r e i n th e f i e l d o f r h e t o r i c was
s u r v e y e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t t h e s e w r i t e r s t h o u g h t was
21
e t h i c a l , i . e . , to a s c e r t a i n th e c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c t r i n e o f
t h e e t h i c s o f p u b l i c a d d r e s s a s fo u n d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e .
The m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e s t u d y w as d i r e c t e d to r h e t o r i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e s i n c e W o rld War I ; t e x t b o o k s , p e r i o d i c a l s ,
l e a r n e d p u b l i c a t i o n s , and u n p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s w ere
s e a r c h e d f o r s t a t e d o r i m p l i e d v ie w s to w a rd an e t h i c s o f
r h e t o r i c .
I n o r d e r t o l o c a t e p e r t i n e n t s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h ,
t h e w r i t e r c o n s u l t e d p u b l i s h e d b i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f t h e s e s
an d d i s s e r t a t i o n s . C o m p le te f i l e s o f c e r t a i n p r o f e s s i o n a l
s p e e c h p u b l i c a t i o n s w ere c h e c k e d : The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l
o f S p e e c h , S p e e c h M o n o g ra p h s , Ih o S p e e c h T e a c h e r , Today* s
S p e e c h , V i t a l S p e e c h e s o f th e D ay, C e n t r a l S t a t e s S p e e c h
J o u r n a l , 'flie s o u t h e r n S p e e c h J o u r n a l , an d W e s te rn S p e e c h .
C o m p le te n e s s was e m p h a s iz e d i n th e q u e s t f o r
e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s i n p e r i o d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e an d s c h o l a r l y
s t u d i e s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s e two s o u r c e s w ere m ore
l i k e l y to be u p - t o - d a t e - - t o r e f l e c t c u r r e n t v ie w s m ore
a c c u r a t e l y - - a n d t o p r o v i d e m ore c o m p r e h e n s iv e t r e a t m e n t s
o f t h e s p e c i f i c r h e t o r i c a l s t a n d a r d t o be e v a l u a t e d t h a n
w o u ld be p o s s i b l e i n t e x t b o o k s . A d v a n c e s r e c o r d e d i n
m a g a z i n e s an d t h e s e s do e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h t h e c l a s s r o o m ,
a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y i n a som ew hat d i l u t e d fo rm .
H o w ev er, a few o f t h e la n d m a r k f u n d a m e n t a l s t e x t s
w e re c o n s u l t e d a s w e l l a s t h o s e m o st o f t e n q u o te d i n
b i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e . S e l e c t e d
22
t e x t s I n d e b a t e , a r g u m e n t a t i o n , d i s c u s s i o n , and p e r s u a s i o n
w ere c o n s i d e r e d when t h e h a n d l i n g o f e t h i c s e x t e n d e d
b e y o n d t h e s e a c a d e m ic s t u d i e s I n t o t h e a r e a o f p u b l i c
s p e e c h .
One m ig h t l e g i t i m a t e l y q u e s t i o n why th e e m p h a s is
I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was p l a c e d on c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a
t u r e . T h is was done f o r a num ber o f r e a s o n s . (1 ) The
s t u d y was l i m i t e d to " A m e r ic a n " p u b l i c a d d r e s s , an d as
M a rie H ochm uth s t a t e d i n h e r I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e t h i r d
volum e o f H i s t o r y a n d C r i t i c i s m o f A m e ric a n P u b l i c A d d r e s s ,
t h e r e h a s n o t b e e n much s e r i o u s c r i t i c i s m o f o r a t o r y I n
A m e ric a u n t i l th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ( 1 1 0 : 2 ) . The e m e r
g e n c e o f s p e e c h a s a s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e a l s o c o i n c i d e d
w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p e e c h t e a c h e r s I n t o a n a t i o n a l
a s s o c i a t i o n i n t h e se c o n d d e c a d e o f t h i s c e n t u r y . (2) I t
s h o u l d be rem em b ered t h a t t h e s t u d y was c o n d u c t e d i n t h e
d e m o c r a t i c f r a m e w o r k - - a n I n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h h a s a l t e r e d
c o n s i d e r a b l y s i n c e i t w as d e s c r i b e d i n A r i s t o t l e ' s
R h e t o r i c (9*I#& :14|J • (3) P e r h a p s t o o , a s R e id p o i n t e d
o u t i n h i s a r t i c l e , "The P e r i l s o f R h e t o r i c a l C r i t i c i s m , "
c o n t e m p o r a r y w ork may h a v e b e t t e r a n s w e r s t h a n c l a s s i c a l
r h e t o r i c ( 5 0 1 : 2 ) . I t i s c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t t h e f r o n t i e r s
o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h a v e b e e n p u s h e d b a c k a v a s t d i s t a n c e
s i n c e t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y b e f o r e C h r i s t .
B u t on e c a n n o t i g n o r e t h e c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n s .
J u s t a s t h e r e w as r e a s o n to n u m b er W lnans among th e
23
c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s , so t h e r e was J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r e f e r
e n c e to t h e m a j o r c l a s s i c a l and e a r l y m odern t r e a t i s e s .
A k n o w le d g e o f the b a c k g r o u n d o f r h e t o r i c i s a lw a y s
e s s e n t i a l to i n t e l l i g e n t c r i t i c i s m ( 2 3 3 :1 9 ) *
The f i r s t c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r to b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n
t h e s u r v e y was I s o c r a t e s . I t was I s o c r a t e s w i t h a c o r e
c u r r i c u l u m o f p o l i t i c s , e t h i c s , and r h e t o r i c , who " i n d u c e d
r h e t o r i c to come i n t o i t s own a s a n e c e s s a r y m e th o d i n a
d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y " ( 6 3 7 : 1 6 ) . P r i o r t o h i s A g a i n s t t h e
S o p h i s t s and A n t l d o s l s ( 1 2 2 ) , t h e r e w ere no i m p o r t a n t
r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e s .
The n e x t f o u r w r i t e r s c o v e r e d i n th e s t u d y w ere th e
f o u r g r e a t c l a s s i c i s t s : P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , C i c e r o , and
Q u i n t i l i a n . Beyond t h e s e f o u r , no c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n
made any c o n t r i b u t i o n o f n o t e t o c r i t i c a l t h e o r y .
P l a t o h a s b e e n s a i d t o h a v e made th e f i r s t s o l i d
c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e p h i l o s o p h y o f e x p r e s s i o n ( 2 3 3 : 1 5 0 ) .
Of h i s r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e s , Q o r g l a s and P h a e d r u s ( 1 9 6 ) ,
t h e f i r s t w o rk , w h ic h i s s u b t i t l e d . The R h e t o r i c , c o n t a i n s
a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s c o n d u c i v e t o
p o l i t i c a l w e l l - b e i n g ( 2 3 3 :5 1 ) * an d i s , i n e f f e c t , a
c r i t i c i s m o f r h e t o r i c a s i t was p r a c t i c e d d u r i n g h i s l i f e
t i m e ; th e se c o n d c o m p o s i t i o n c o n t a i n s P l a t o ’ s l a t e r an d
m ore p o s i t i v e p h i l o s o p h y .
B e c a u se o f th e c l o s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p among
A r i s t o t l e ' s R h e t o r i c (9 )* E t h i c s (7 )* an d P o l i t i c s ( 8 ) ,
2k
t h e t h r e e w orks w ere r e f e r r e d to I n th e p r o c e s s o f t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e m a j o r e m p h a s is was p l a c e d
u p o n th e f i r s t . T r e v e r p o i n t e d o u t i n H i s t o r y o f A n c i e n t
C i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t a l l t h r e e b o o k s show P l a t o ' s i n f l u e n c e
w h i l e a t the same tim e t h e y r e v e a l A r i s t o t l e to be t h e
m ore p r a c t i c a l and d i s p a s s i o n a t e i n v e s t i g a t o r ( 2 3 6 , 1 : 144- 0 ) .
The c o n t e m p o r a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f A r i s t o t l e b ec o m e s
o b v i o u s when one r e a l i z e s t h a t th e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s
i n m o d ern r h e t o r i c a r e E s s e n t i a l l y A r i s t o t e l i a n " ( 6 2 0 :
1 9 9 )* I t i s t r u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n much new
p s y c h o l o g i c a l k n o w le d g e s i n c e A r i s t o t l e ( 6 2 1 :1 5 9 ) # >s w e l l
a s v i t a l a l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e s t a t e (lj.73:
3 1 4 ) • F u r t h e r m o r e , one w r i t e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s
E t h i c s r e s t e d on a b a s e o f a g r e e m e n t a s t o "who th e w i s e s t
a r e " - - a p o s i t i o n upon w h ic h t h e r e i s no s u c h u n a n i m i t y
i n o u r s o c i e t y ( 3 8 1 : 1 3 3 - 3 5 ) .
p r i o r t o t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . , t h e r e was no r e a l
Roman r h e t o r i c , a s p r e v i o u s w r i t e r s h a d s im p ly b o r ro w e d
fro m A r i s t o t l e . The two i m p o r t a n t Roman f i g u r e s f o r th e
p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s u r v e y a r e C i c e r o an d Q u i n t i l i a n .
The i m p o r t a n c e o f Rome i n th e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r ld
a n d i n th e h i s t o r y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n p a r t i c u l a r l a
common k n o w le d g e . I n f a c t , C i c e r o , th e "su p re m e i n d e x " o f
h i s ag e ( 2 3 3 : 1 5 9 , 2 3 6 , 1 1 : 2 9 3 ) , s e r v e d a s a s o u r c e f o r t h e
A m e ric a n C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d th e F e d e r a l i s t P a p e r s .
C i c e r o ' s v ie w o f s p e e c h m a k ln g was c o n s i s t e n t l y
25
d e v e l o p e d fro m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f th e o r a t o r h i m s e l f
( 2 3 3 :9 1 ) * Of h i s r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e s , De O r a t o r s (70)
was s e l e c t e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n on t h e g ro u n d s t h a t I t was h i s
m o s t I m p o r t a n t w ork I n r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y . I t was h i s aim
I n t h i s w ork to s e t down h i s w hole p h i l o s o p h y o f o r a t o r y .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Q u i n t i l i a n , I n h i s I n s t l t u t l o
P r e t o r i a (2 0 1 ) p r o d u c e d th e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e a n a l y s i s
o f r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g i n p r i n t ( 2 3 2 :9 9 ) * I n d e f i n i n g
th e p e r f e c t o r a t o r , he e m p h a s iz e d a n d r e s t a t e d th e
c o n c e p t i o n , p r o b a b l y o f S t o i c o r i g i n ( 2 3 3 :1 8 1 ) a l t h o u g h
l a t e r i n c o r p o r a t e d In t h e A n t l d o s l a o f I s o c r a t e s (1 2 2 :
3 3 7 - 3 9 ) and th e e l d e r C a t o , o f th e o r a t o r a s t h e "good
m an, s k i l l e d i n s p e a k i n g " ( 2 0 1 , X I I , 1 , 1 : 3 5 5 ) *
B e tw e e n Q u i n t i l i a n and C a m p b e ll l a y th e m e d i e v a l
age an d th e R e n a i s s a n c e . S in c e no r h e t o r i c i n t h i s
p e r i o d p r o d u c e d a n y t h i n g more t h a n an a d a p t a t i o n o f
c l a s s i c a l d o c t r i n e i n te r m s o f i t s own ag e ( 2 3 3 : 1 1 0 ) ,
t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t r h e t o r i c i a n , G eo rg e C a m p b e ll, was
s e l e c t e d a s t h e l a s t o f th e p r e - c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s . The
P h i l o s o p h y o f R h e t o r i c ( 6 2 ) , w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s t h e t r a n s
i t i o n f ro m c l a s s i c a l t o m o d e rn r h e t o r i c ( 6 3 7 : 6 2 ) , s e t t h e
p a t t e r n f o r th e m o d ern t r e a t m e n t o f th e r h e t o r i c a l c a n o n s
( 2 3 3 : 7 8 ) .
T h ese t r e a t i s e s o f th e r h e t o r i c a l p a s t a r e
I m p o r t a n t to t h i s s t u d y b u t i t s h o u ld be re m e m b e re d t h a t
th e y h a v e l i m i t a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y k n o w le d g e
26
and t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A m e ric a n s o c i e t y .
W h ile m a j o r s t r e s s was p l a c e d on t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f
s p e e c h m a k in g , w r i t i n g s fro m r e l a t e d f i e l d s w e re p e r u s e d to
s e c u r e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p o l i t i c a l , e t h i c a l , a n d
p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y , The s u b t l e
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , the com m unity o f a im s , t h e p e r e n n i a l
c r o s s i n g o f t h e b a r r i e r s b e tw e e n t h e d i s c i p l i n e s — t h i s i s
s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r a d i s s e r t a t i o n i n i t s e l f . The i m p l i c a
t i o n s o f t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l b e d i s o u s s e d a s
t h e y a r e a p p l i c a b l e i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s .
I n t h e s e a r c h f o r r e l e v a n t d a t a , b i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f
t h e s e s and d i s s e r t a t i o n s , th e c o m p le te f i l e s o f t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f E t h i c s , a n d s e l e c t e d b o o k s and
p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e i s s u e s w ere
c h e c k e d .
F i n a l l y , b o o k s , p e r i o d i c a l s , u n p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s ,
n e w s p a p e r s , g o v e rn m e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s , and th e s p e e c h t e x t s
t h e m s e l v e s w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e s p e a k e r s and th e s p e e c h e s .
M e th o d o lo g y a n d m a t e r i a l s u s e d i n th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
an d I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d a t a . — B e s i d e s a p o i n t - b y - p o i n t
a n a l y s i s o f t h e m e th o d o lo g y a n d m a t e r i a l s u s e d i n g a t h e r
i n g d a t a , a r e s e a r c h e r s h o u ld e x p l a i n how t h e d a t a w ere
m a n i p u l a t e d and i n t e r p r e t e d .
A b r o a d a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n t e n t o f th e r h e t o r i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e was c o m p le te d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s t a t e d o r i m p l i e d
27
v ie w s o f t h e w r i t e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h
i c a l p o s i t i o n s on th e e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c . W henever t h e
a u t h o r f a i l e d to s t a t e h i s p o s i t i o n e x p l i c i t l y a n d y e t
o f f e r e d a c o m p r e h e n s iv e r h e t o r i c , I a t t e m p t e d t o I d e n t i f y
h i s i m p l i e d p o s i t i o n fro m an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f h i s s p e c i f i c
r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l c h o i c e s . E a c h w r i t e r was s t u d i e d
v e r t i c a l l y , i . e . , a l l o f h i s p e r t i n e n t w o rk s w ere a n a l y z e d
to b r i n g o u t t h e t o t a l n a t u r e o f h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n .
S e v e n p o s i t i o n s w ere u s e d to c l a s s i f y t h e v a r i o u s
c o n c e p t s o f i d e a l s p e e c h m a k in g fo u n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .
(1) S i n c e r h e t o r i c i s an a m o r a l a r t , e t h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s
a r e I r r e l e v a n t and a s p e a k e r o u g h t n o t t o b e e v a l u a t e d
e t h i c a l l y . (2) C e r t a i n e t h i c a l i n j u n c t i o n s a r e i m p l i c i t
i n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a s i o n . (3) The m o r a l i t y o f s p e e c h -
m a k in g i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r ,
(lj.) o f t h e e n d s s e l e c t e d , (5) o f th e m eans u t i l i z e d ,
(6 ) o f b o t h th e m eans an d t h e e n d s . (7) R h e t o r i c i s
i n t r i n s i c a l l y u n e t h i c a l , i . e . , im m o ra l.
Once th e c o n t e n t o f t h e r h e t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e was
c l a s s i f i e d an d th e a u t h o r s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e s e p o s i t i o n s ,
th e r e s u l t s w e re t a b u l a t e d , a n d t h e c a t e g o r y m o s t o f t e n
f a v o r e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r i c i a n s was d e s c r i b e d a s th e
c o n t e m p o r a r y p o s i t i o n . The c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h i s p o s i t i o n
w i t h t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s t u d y was d i s c u s s e d .
F u r t h e r a t t e m p t w as made to v a l i d a t e t h i s p o s i t i o n b y
t a k i n g I n t o a c c o u n t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l .
28
e t h i c a l , and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e .
W o rk in g w i t h i n t h i s f ra m e w o r k , t h e w r i t e r o u t l i n e d
b r i e f l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e c i f i c r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l c h o i c e s
e m b ra c e d by th e p r o p o n e n t s o f t h i s p o s i t i o n . T h i s d a t a
w as o r g a n i s e d a c c o r d i n g t o a t w o f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n :
(1 ) t h e B u r k e a n p e n t a d , and (2) th e t r a d i t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l
c a n o n s .
The f o r m e r p r o v i d e d a c o n v e n i e n t and c o m p r e h e n s iv e
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t a l l th e p o s s i b l e
v a r i a b l e s i n t h e sm n p le s i t u a t i o n s . I n h i s A Grammar o f
M o tiv e s ( 5 7 : x ) an d e l s e w h e r e , B u rk e h a s o u t l i n e d h i s k e y
te r m s o f d r a m a t ls m , a w ord m e a n in g a s t u d y o f m e n 's
m o t i v e s , " t h e b a s i c s t r a t a g e m s w h ic h p e o p l e e m p lo y i n
e n d l e s s v a r i a t i o n s , and c o n s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c i o u s l y , f o r
t h e o u t w i t t i n g and c a j o l i n g o f one a n o t h e r " ( 5 7 : x i i ) .
He c o n t i n u e d :
S i n c e a l l t h e s e d e v i c e s h a d a "y o u and me" q u a l i t y
a b o u t them , b e i n g " a d d r e s s e d " to some p e r s o n o r t o
some a d v a n t a g e , we c l a s s e d them b r o a d l y u n d e r th e
h e a d i n g o f a R h e t o r i c . ( 5 7 : x i )
The f i v e te r m s u s e d b y B u rk e a r e a c t , s c e n e , a g e n t ,
a g e n c y , p u r p o s e .
I n a r o u n d e d s t a t e m e n t a b o u t m o t i v e s , y o u m u s t h a v e
some w o rd t h a t nam es th e a c t (nam es w h a t t o o k p l a c e ,
i n t h o u g h t o r d e e d ) , a n d a n o t h e r t h a t n am es t h e
s c e n e ( t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e a c t , t h e s i t u a t i o n i n
w h ic h i t o c c u r r e d ) ; a l s o , y o u m u st i n d i c a t e w h a t p e r s o n
o r k i n d o f p e r s o n ( a g e n t ) p e r f o r m e d t h e a c t , w h a t
m eans o r i n s t r u m e n t s h e u s e d ( a g e n c y ) , an d t h e p u r p o s e .
Men may v i o l e n t l y d i s a g r e e a b o u t t h e p u r p o s e s b e h i n d
a g i v e n a c t , o r a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e r s o n who
d i d i t , o r how he d i d i t , o r i n w h a t k i n d o f a
29
s i t u a t i o n he a c t e d ; o r th e y may e v e n I n s i s t upon
t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t w ords to name th e a c t I t s e l f . Be
t h a t a s i t may* a n y c o m p le te s t a t e m e n t a b o u t m o t i v e s
w i l l o f f e r some k i n d o f a n s w e r s to t h e s e f i v e
q u e s t i o n s ; w h a t was done ( a c t ) , when o r w h e re i t was
done ( s c e n e ) , who d i d i t ( a g e n t ) , how he d i d i t
( a g e n c y ) , a n d why ( p u r p o s e ) . ( £ 7 : x )
One m i g h t f a i r l y q u e s t i o n t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f th e
B u r k e a n p e n t a d f o r th e w e ll- k n o w n t r a d i t i o n a l f o u r s o m e —
s p e a k e r , s p e e c h , s i t u a t i o n , a i d a u d i e n c e . A c o m p a r i s o n o f
t h e v a r i o u s u n i t s p r o v i d e d c e r t a i n J u s t i f i c a t i o n .
J u s t a s t h e f o u r i n t e r a c t i n g e l e m e n t s o f t h e s p e e c h
a c t d e f i n e i t s o p e r a t i v e f a c t o r s , so th e p e n t a d d e f i n e s
t h e m a n e u v e r s o p e r a t i v e i n an y g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . One c an
move c o n t i n u o u s l y t h r o u g h e a c h o f t h e s e r i e s f u l l y
c o n s c i o u s o f t h e am ount o f o v e r l a p . To B u r k e , l i t e r a t u r e ,
i . e . , e i t h e r th e s p o k e n o r t h e w r i t t e n a r t , i s a s t r a t e g y
f o r e n c o m p a s s in g a s i t u a t i o n ( 6 0 : 1 0 9 ) ; i t i s t h e
p s y c h o l o g y o f m o tiv e ( 6 0 : 6 2 ) . When o n e s e e k s t o u n d e r
s t a n d how l a n g u a g e o p e r a t e s t o p r o d u c e t h e s t r a t e g y ( 6 0 :
109) he d i s c o v e r s t h a t a c t o v e r l a p s u p o n a g e n c y . T o g e th e r
t h e s e two te r m s c a n b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e s p e e c h . A gency,
i . e . , t h e I n s t r u m e n t s , m e a n s , m e th o d s o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g
t h e a c t , i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n "m eans o f
p e r s u a s i o n " (9 * I > 2 :7 )* The a u t h o r o f t h e a c t , t h e a c t o r ,
i s o b v i o u s l y t h e s p e a k e r ; t h u s t h e a g e n t an d t h e s p e a k e r
a r e o n e . The s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n , w h ic h t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e f e r s
to th e Im m e d ia te o c c a s i o n a s w e l l a s t h e h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e , l o g i c a l l y c s n b e c o m p a re d t o t h e B u r k e a n
30
s c e n e . H is l i s t o f t h e synonym s f o r s c e n e r e v e a l s th e
v a l i d i t y o f th e c o m p a r i s o n : s o c i e t y , e n v i r o n m e n t ,
h i s t o r i c a l e p o c h s , c u l t u r a l m o v e m e n ts, s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
b a c k g r o u n d , t e r r a i n , s i t u a t i o n , w o rd s f o r p a r t i c u l a r
p l a c e s , s i t u a t i o n s , o r e r a s ( 5 7 : 1 2 ) . I m p l i c i t i n t h e
s c e n e i s t h e a u d i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y when i t o p e r a t e s a s a
f u n c t i o n a l e n t i t y I n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r s p e c t i v e
I n l a r g e and t h e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n . H o w ev er, I t i s a l s o
t r u e t h a t th e a u d i e n c e I s I m p l i c i t I n t h e a c t , f o r t h e
fo rm I s t h e a c t and t h e fo rm I s th e p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e
a u d i e n c e ( 5 9 : 1214.). The l a s t te r m I n t h e p e n t a d , p u r p o s e ,
h a s o f t e n b e e n o m i t t e d o r n e g l e c t e d I n t r a d i t i o n a l
r h e t o r i c a l e v a l u a t i o n s . As B u rk e u s e s I t , t h e w ord
s i g n i f i e s t h e i n t e n t o f th e a g e n t - - t h e e n d s o u g h t . The
e n d s o u g h t assu m ed s u c h a v i t a l r o l e I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
s t u d y t h a t I f e l t J u s t i f i e d I n s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e p e n t a d
f o r th e m o re f a m i l i a r q u a r t e t .
T h e re w e re o t h e r r e a s o n s f o r th e u s e o f th e nk e y
t e r m s '1 ( 5 7 : * ) . B u r k e ’ s a g e n t was n o t l i m i t e d t o an
e v a l u a t i o n a s s p e a k e r ; t h e e t h i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l r o l e s o f
th e I n d i v i d u a l c o u l d a l s o be a s s e s s e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
d r a m a t i s t i c s y s t e m s t r e s s e d a f u n d a m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n a s o c i e t y ( s c e n e ) an d an a c t ( s p e e c h ) p e r f o r m e d
w i t h i n i t s c o n t e x t . Itae f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n o f t h i s
s t u d y made t h i s same a s s e r t i o n . B u rk e p o i n t e d o u t " t h e
n a t u r e o f a c t s and a g e n t s s h o u l d b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h th e
31
n a t u r e o f th e s c e n e ” ( 5 7 :3 ) # F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e l a t i o n
s h i p b e tw e e n t h e s e t h r e e te r m s
c a n b e a p p l i e d d e t e r m i n i a t i c a l l y I n s t a t e m e n t s t h a t
a c e r t a i n p o l i c y had t o b e a d o p t e d I n a c e r t a i n
s i t u a t i o n , o r 1 t may be a p p l i e d I n h o r t a t o r y s t a t e
m e n ts to t h e e f f e c t t h a t a c e r t a i n p o l i c y s h o u ld b e
a d o p t e d I n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h th e s i t u a t i o n . T 5 7 : 13)
I t was I n t h e l a s t s e n s e t h a t th e w r i t e r a p p l i e d t h e a c t -
a g e n t / s c e n e r a t i o .
I t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t was n o t my
i n t e n t i o n to make a f u l l B u r k e a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e s p e e c h e s ,
b u t I n s t e a d m e r e l y t o u s e h i s k e y te r m s a s a d e v i c e f o r
c l a s s i f y i n g d a t a .
S i n c e t h i s s t u d y was p r o p o s e d a s a r h e t o r i c a l
I n v e s t i g a t i o n , I t s h o u l d b e made c l e a r j u s t how th e
t r a d i t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l a p p r o a c h f i t t e d i n t o t h e p a t t e r n .
The f o u r I n t e r - a c t l n g e l e m e n t s o f t h e s p e e c h a c t h a v e
a l r e a d y b e e n I d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e k e y t e r m s . The f i v e
p a r t s o f r h e t o r i c w h ic h a r e s e t f o r t h i n t h e L a t i n
r h e t o r i c , Ad H e re n n lu m ( f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . ) , r e p r e s e n t th e
c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n a f t e r A r i s t o t l e u n t i l t h e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y ( 2 3 3 : 7 6 ) • T h e se t r a d i t i o n a l c a n o n s p r o v i d e d t h e
s u b - a r e a s to b e c o n s i d e r e d i n an e v a l u a t i o n o f th e
s p e a k e r s ' m e r i t ( 2 3 3 :2 9 1 - 9 2 ) I n te r m s o f t h e s p e e c h
p r o p e r . T h e se d i v i s i o n s — (1) l n v e n t l o ( i n v e n t i o n ) ,
(2) d l s p o s l t l o ( a r r a n g e m e n t ) , (3) e l o c u t l o ( s t y l e ) , (4 )
p r o n u n t l a t l o ( d e l i v e r y ) , and (5) m em o rla ( m e m o r y ) - - a r e
I n s t r u m e n t a l i n th e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s p e a k e r a s e t h i c a l ,
3 2
and r e f e r p r i m a r i l y to th e t e c h n i q u e s u t i l i z e d (a g e n c y )
i n th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e a c t ( s p e e c h ) .
I n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d a t a u n d e r th e f i r s t
r h e t o r i c a l c a n o n , s e v e r a l l i m i t a t i o n s i n m a t e r i a l s a n d
t e r m i n o l o g y w e re a d h e r e d t o . T r e a t m e n t s o f l o g i c a l
f a l l a c i e s , u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f l o g p a , l o g i c a l
a r g u m e n t, w ere e x c l u d e d s i n c e s u b s t a n t i a l a g r e e m e n t e x i s t e d
i n t h i s a r e a and s i n c e t h e i r u s e o r d i n a r i l y o n l y b eco m es
a m o r a l i s s u e when t h e y a r e t h e r e s u l t o f c o n s c i o u s I n t e n t
to d e c e i v e . D i s c u s s i o n o f p a t h o s , e m o t i o n a l o r p s y c h o
l o g i c a l p r o o f , w as i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e much o f t h e
c o n t r o v e r s y on e m o t i o n s and m o t i v e s l a y w i t h i n t h e s c o p e
o f th e s t u d y . E t h o s , e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r o r e t h i c a l p r o o f ,
m u s t be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d fro m e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , d i s c u s s e d
u n d e r t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t e r m s , s i n c e th e f o r m e r te r m s
s i g n i f y th e p e r s u a s i v e f o r c e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e
s p e a k e r a s p e r c e i v e d by a g i v e n a u d i e n c e .
Prom among c r i t e r i a so I s o l a t e d an d so o r g a n i z e d
a l i m i t e d n u m b er o f c r i t e r i a w ere s e l e c t e d . T hese a r e th e
e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s I p r o p o s e d t o f o r m u l a t e an d a p p l y .
One o f t h e b a s e s f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c r i t e r i a
t o b e a p p l i e d i n t h i s s t u d y h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n d i c a t e d :
c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n an d w i t h t h e g e n e r a l
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n , i n a d d i t i o n , c r i t e r i a w e re s e
l e c t e d upon w h ic h t h e r e was some u n a n i m i t y among
r h e t o r i c i a n s and w h e re p o s s i b l e upon w h ic h t h e r e was some
33
c h a n c e o f o b j e c t i v e v e r i f i c a t i o n .
I n t h e l a s t two c h a p t e r s o f th e r e p o r t , th e
c r i t e r i a s e l e c t e d w ere a p p l i e d to s i n g l e s p e e c h e s o f
R o b e r t A. T a f t an d Huey P i e r c 9 L ong. F i v e g u i d e s w ere
u t i l i z e d i n th e s i n g l i n g o u t o f t h e s e s p e a k e r s f o r s t u d y .
S p e a k e r s w e re c h o s e n who (1) h a d b e e n e v a l u a t e d e t h i c a l l y
b y t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , (2) w e re o f n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e ,
(3 ) w ere m em bers o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e , (4) w e re
s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r s f o r t h e p r e s i d e n c y , a n d (5) w e re
c o n t e m p o r a r y y e t no l o n g e r l i v i n g .
When c o n s i d e r i n g th e c h o i c e o f R o b e r t A. T a f t a s a
s p e a k e r on e m u s t rem em ber t h a t th e man who was s a i d to
r e p r e s e n t a c o m p o s i t e p i c t u r e o f 1 6 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 R e p u b l i c a n s
w as n o t a g r e a t s p e a k e r ( 6 3 1 : 2 3 6 ) . He was n o t a s k i l l e d
o r a t o r ( 6 2 8 : 3i^7) # and was i n f a c t a f a r b e t t e r d e b a t e r
th a n he was an o r a t o r ( l 6 : l l i j . ) . Rapp, i n h i s d o c t o r a l
d i s s e r t a t i o n on T a f t , q u o t e d e x t e n s i v e l y fro m o r i g i n a l
l e t t e r s a b o u t T a f t ' s s p e a k i n g , l e t t e r s w h ic h w e re w r i t t e n
to him by T a f t ' s a s s o c i a t e s a n d j o u r n a l i s t s who h a d
c o v e r e d h i s c a m p a ig n t o u r s (63i+ :385“ 0 8) • The g e n e r a l
c o n s e n s u s was t h a t T a f t u s u a l l y sp o k e e x t e m p o r a n e o u s l y ,
o c c a s i o n a l l y u s i n g n o t e s . A man who sp o k e a s much a s
T a f t w o u ld h a v e t o be a n a b l e e x te m p o r a n e o u s s p e a k e r .
I s a a c s o n s t r e s s e d th e n u m b e r o f h i s s p e a k i n g e n g a g e m e n ts :
Few p u b l i c f i g u r e s h a v e c o m m u n ic a te d t h e i r i d e a s i n
p u b l i c s p e e c h e s o r s p e a k i n g a s f u l l y o r a s f r e q u e n t l y
a s d i d R o b e r t A. T a f t . H is p u b l i c a d d r e s s e s a lo n e
t o t a l e d many t h o u s a n d s . Add to t h o s e h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n
on th e " f l o o r " g e n e r a l l y ( o f t h e O hio L e g i s l a t u r e and
o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e ) * h i s c o m m itte e s e r v i c e *
h i s p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e s , h i s i n t e r v i e w s * and s t i l l th e
t o t a l w i l l n o t b e r e a c h e d , ( 6 2 8 :3 4 7 )
W a rre n G u t h r i e , W e s t e r n R e s e r v e U n i v e r s i t y * a l s o e m p h a s iz e d
t h e q u a n t i t y o f s p e a k i n g d o n e by T a f t ; i n t h i s c a s e he was
r e f e r r i n g to T a f t ' s p o l i t i c a l s p e a k i n g w h ic h p r e f a c e d th e
1952 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n .
B e tw e e n A p r i l o f 1951 and J u l y 7 o f 1 9 5 2 t h e
i n d e f a t i g a b l e Mr, T a f t d e l i v e r e d m ore t h a n 600 f u l l -
l e n g t h s p e e c h e s * stu m p e d i n f o r t y - t h r e e s t a t e s *
a p p e a r e d on in n u m e r a b le r a d i o an d t e l e v i s i o n p r o g ra m s
( i n c i d e n t a l l y * a n d s o m e tim e s o b v i o u s l y * much t o h i s
d i s t a s t e ) , h e l d I 8 7 p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e s * a n d c o n f e r r e d
a l m o s t d a l l y w i t h h i s c a m p a ig n s t r a t e g i s t s an d f a r -
f l u n g o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e n a t o r made a
p r a c t i c e o f m e e t i n g h e a d - o n e v e r y c h a l l e n g e o r
q u e s t i o n on t h e m a j o r i s s u e s e v e r y tim e h e e n c o u n t e r e d
th em . I t was a c a m p a ig n w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t i n A m e ric a n
p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y . And i t f a i l e d . ( 3 8 2 :2 7 7 )
B u t q u a n t i t y o f s p e a k i n g i s n o t a d e q u a t e j u s t i f i c a
t i o n f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a s p e a k e r . What d i d th e s p e e c h
e x p e r t s h a v e to say a b o u t t h e q u a l i t y o f T s f t ' s s p e a k in g *
a p a r t fro m i t s e t h i c a l n a t u r e ? I s a a c s o n ' s s t u d y c o n t a i n s
an e x c e l l e n t summary o f t h e v ie w s e x p r e s s e d i n s c h o l a r l y
s t u d i e s a n d a r t i c l e s on t h i s s u b j e c t ( 6 2 8 :4 0 5 - 3 1 ) » a s w e l l
a s a n u m b er o f r e t r o s p e c t i v e j u d g n e n t s b y o t h s r e x p e r t s .
The v ie w s i n r e t r o s p e c t * w h ic h w i l l be o f c o n c e r n
a t t h i s p o i n t , w ere d e r i v e d fro m o r i g i n a l d a t a o b t a i n e d i n
t h e fo rm o f l e t t e r s fro m o b s e r v e r s o f T a f t ' s s p e a k i n g i n
O h io and e l s e w h e r e i n t h e n a t i o n ( 6 2 8 :4 3 1 - 4 5 ) * Many o f
t h e s e e v a l u a t i o n s w e re n o t f l a t t e r i n g t o T a ft* e s p e c i a l l y
35
t h o s e c o n c e r n i n g h i s d e l i v e r y . R em arks a b o u t h i s c o n t e n t
a n d g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h t o h i s s u b j e c t w ere m ore p o s i t i v e .
F r a n k l i n K now er, I n a l e t t e r d a t e d D ecem ber 1, 1955* w r o te
t h a t w h i l e T a f t a lw a y s h a d s o m e th in g t o s a y , h i s p l a t f o r m
p e r s o n a l i t y l a c k e d w arm th (628:14.32), P r o f e s s o r H. F .
H a r d i n g d e s c r i b e d T a f t , I n h i s n o t e d a t e d M arch 2 7 , 1 9 5 6 ,
a s ”an i n e p t s p e a k e r ” who '’v i o l a t e d m o s t o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s
o f good d e l i v e r y , ” H a r d i n g a d d e d :
I ' v e o f t e n w o n d e re d how y ou do e x p l a i n th e p o p u l a r i t y
o f t h e m an. I s u p p o s e I t ' s p a r t l y t h e m a g ic o f a
nam e, p a r t l y d o g g e d p e r s i s t e n c e , and m o s t o f a l l down
r i g h t h o n e s t y a n d b l u n t n e s s , ( 6 2 6 : 1 4 .3 2 )
C r o c k e r w as i m p r e s s e d by T a f t ' s ”f e a r l e s s n e s s ” a b o u t
I s s u e s , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s c o m m u n ic a tio n d a t e d O c t o b e r 15#
1955 ( 6 2 8 jl4.3l4 .- 3 5 ) • P r o f e s s o r H a r r y W i l l i a m s o f Miami
U n i v e r s i t y i n O hio w r o t e , O c t o b e r 31* 1955* t h a t w h i l e
T a f t was a n e f f e c t i v e s p e a k e r he was n o t a p e r s o n who was
l i k e d b y h i s a u d i e n c e (628:14.37)* O t h e r c r i t i c s w r o t e
a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s .
One o f th e m o st c o m p l i m e n t a r y e v a l u a t i o n s o f T a f t ' s
s p e a k i n g was t h a t o f W. Norwood B r i g a n c e who w r o t e ,
N ovem ber 3* 1955* t h a t T a f t ”n e v e r g o t o v e r b e i n g a
c o l l e g e d e b a t e r ” b u t ”when t h e c h i p s w ere down h e was J u s t
a b o u t on e o f t h e b e s t s p e a k e r s I n th e b u s i n e s s ” ( 6 2 8 : ^ 2 ) .
Many o f th e e x p e r t s w ere I m p r e s s e d by T a f t ' s
h o n e s t y and s i n c e r i t y , e v a l u a t i o n s w h ic h h a v e b e e n r e p u t e d
b y some t o b e t h e k e y t o h i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s an d w h ic h w i l l
36
be o f m ore c o n c e r n i n C h a p t e r I I I .
I n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f term s* th e " ju d g m e n t o f th e
p o p u l a r m in d " was m e n tio n e d a s a n I n t e g r a l f a c t o r i n th e
s t u d y . T h is e v a l u a t i o n by t h e p e o p le * a s i n d i c a t e d i n th e
s t a t e m e n t o f th e p ro b le m * was u s e d a s t h e p o i n t o f
d e p a r t u r e f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s
f o r m u l a t e d i n th e s t u d y . 'The c o m p a r is o n o f th e p o p u l a r
e s t i m a t e o f t h e e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s p e a k e r s
w i t h an e v a l u a t i o n b a s e d on e x p e r t o p i n i o n o f w h a t i s
e t h i c a l w as a m a j o r g o a l o f my i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
O f t e n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e p e o p l e i s f o r m u l a t e d by
w h a t t h e y r e a d fluid by t h e o p i n i o n s o f p e o p l e whom th e y
r e s p e c t . I t i s i n t h i s way t h a t th e j o u r n a l i s t s o f th e
n e w s p a p e r and p e r i o d i c a l w o rld a ssu m e a v i t a l r o l e i n
th e c r e a t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c v ie w . S i m i l a r l y * th e e s t i m a t e s
o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t e s o f p u b l i c men* b o t h
R e p u b l i c a n s a n d D e m o c ra ts* becom e a p o t e n t s o u r c e n o t o n l y
f o r n e w s p a p e r comment b u t a ls o * and p e r h a p s a s a r e s u l t
o f t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d * f o r th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p u b l i c
o p i n i o n .
W hat d i d s u c h laym en a s j o u r n a l i s t s r e p o r t a b o u t
T a f t ' s e t h i c a l b e h a v l o r f
P e r h a p s th e m o st c o m p r e h e n s iv e t r e a t m e n t o f T a f t ' s
e t h i c s was fo u n d i n a b i o g r a p h y o f T a f t w r i t t e n by
W i l l i a m S. W h ite* a j o u r n a l i s t f o r th e New Y o rk T im e s*
who* I n c i d e n t a l l y * was " c o v e r i n g " t h e s t o r y o f t h e T a f t -
37
H a r t l e y La* (2 5 3 )* The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s f a c t o r w i l l be
o b v i o u s a s t h e d i a c u s s i o n p r o c e e d s . He t r a c e d t h e T a f t
s t o r y f l a y i n g h e a v y e m p h a s is on T a f t ' s f u n d a m e n t a l
i n t e g r i t y , y e t n o t n e g l e c t i n g w h a t W h ite te rm e d a p e r i o d
o f i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a l i e n to T a f t ' s r e a l n a t u r e ( 2 5 3 : 8 0 ) .
W h ite r e p o r t e d t h a t :
T h e re g rew a b o u t him a l e g e n d t h a t was f a r m ore
f a c t u a l t h a n n o t . H e re [ i n th e Ohio e l e c t i o n c a m p a ig n
i n 1 9 4 4 J b e g a n t o a r i s e t h e b e l i e f t h a t l a t e r becam e
a s l o g a n , th e b e l i e f t h a t f o r t h e name T a f t t h e r e was
a synonym i n th e g r e a t E n g l i s h n o u n I n t e g r i t y . And
th o u g h t h e r e w ere p o i n t s l a t e r [ a f t e r 1 9 4 8 J a t w h ic h
t h i s e q u a t i o n m ig h t h a v e seem ed a b i t s h a k y , th e
s l o g a n 'M r. I n t e g r i t y ' was f u n d a m e n t a l l y a t r u l y
a p p l i e d o n e . ( 2 5 3 :2 5 )
An u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c y n i c i s m seem ed to a n i m a t e a
g r e a t d e a l o f w h a t h e d i d and s a i d [ a f t e r t h e 194$
e l e c t i o n i n w h ic h Dewey was d e f e a t e d b y T r u m a n l.
S a d d e s t o f a l l , t h e T a f t m in d , w h ic h on t h e w h o le h ad
an e x t r a o r d i n a r y p u r i t y o f m o t i v e , w h e t h e r o r n o t i t s
c o n c l u s i o n s w ere a lw a y s l o g i c a l l y s o u n d , seem ed i n
t h i s p e r i o d t o h a v e c l o u d e d o v e r w i t h a l o n g mood o f
i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t was w h o lly f o r e i g n t o h i s o t h e r
y e a r s .
I h l s u n f o r t u n a t e p e r i o d I n i t s l e a s t a t t r a c t i v e
p h a s e s p e r s i s t e d fro m e a r l y 19^4-9 o n w a rd , o f f an d o n ,
u n t i l 1 9 5 2 . ( 2 5 3 :8 0 )
W h i t e 's g e n e r a l t h e s i s , d e s p i t e t h i s u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
p e r i o d , seem ed t o s u p p o r t a p o s i t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f T a f t ' s
e t h i c s .
O t h e r J o u r n a l i s t s t o o k a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n . K e n n e th
C r a w f o r d , c o l u m n i s t f o r Newsweek ( 3 3 8 : 6 4 8 ) , J o h n G u n th e r
( 1 0 3 : 1 4- 3 5 ) ; C a r o l i n e H a r n s b e r g e r , a u t h o r o f a v e r y p a r t i s a n
b i o g r a p h y on T a f t ( 1 0 5 : v i i - v i i i ) , R i c h a r d R o v e r e , w r i t i n g
i n H a r p e r ' s M a g a s ln e ( 5 1 2 : 2 9 3 - 9 4)» w e re among t h o s e who
38
w r o te o f T a f t * 3 e s s e n t i a l h o n e s t y a n d i n t e g r i t y . R o v e re
w r o te i n 1 9 ^-8 , i n a s t a t e m e n t t y p i c a l o f many o t h e r s :
No m a t t e r w h a t may b e s a i d a g a i n s t T a f t ' s l e a d e r s h i p ,
i t c a n n o t b e d e n i e d t h a t i t h a s b e e n b o t h p r i n c i p l e d
and r e s p o n s i b l e . He l a a l o n g way fro m b e i n g an
o p p o r t u n i s t . ( 5 1 2 :2 9 3 )
M oat o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s w h ic h p o i n t e d to w a r d a n
e v a l u a t i o n o f " u n e t h i c a l " f o r T a f t c o u l d b e c l o s e l y t i e d
t o t h e e n d o f th e p e r i o d o f I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a l r e a d y
m e n t i o n e d . A. C r a i g B a i r d r e p o r t e d i n 1952 c h a r g e s by
T a f t ' s p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s o f s a c r i f i c e o f p r i n c i p l e f o r
e x p e d i e n c y ( 1 7 : 1 0 1 ) , b u t by f a r t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l com m ents,
a l s o d a t e d 1 9 5 2 , w e re p r i n t e d i n a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s i n
t h e New R e p u b l i c (331* 3 3 2 , 333* 33l|.). The a u t h o r a r g u e d
t h a t i n t e g r i t y h a d b e e n a b a n d o n e d by T a f t i n t h e p u r s u i t
o f a m b i t i o n ( 3 3 1 :1 0 ) * W h ile a d m i t t i n g h i s e a r l y
r e p u t a t i o n f o r i n t e g r i t y ( i n 1 9 3 9 when h e e n t e r e d t h e
S e n a t e ) , t h e j o u r n a l i s t c h a l l e n g e d t h a t T a f t h a d c h a n g e d :
A f t e r t h e m i d - f o r t i e s , h o w e v e r , c l o s e a s s o c i a t e s
i n t h e S e n a t e o b s e r v e d a d i s c e r n i b l e c h a n g e i n T a f t .
A m b itio n h a d e n t w i n e d him a n d , l i k e a p o w e r f u l v i n e ,
w as b e n d i n g and t w i s t i n g h i s f o r t h r i g h t c h a r a c t e r .
W i t n e s s e s b e f o r e t h e c o m m i t t e e s on d o m e s t i c p o l i c i e s
on w h ic h h e s a t and h i s f e l l o w c o m m itte e m em bers
becam e a c c u s to m e d to h e a r i n g T a f t ta k e one p o s i t i o n
i n s i d e th e c o n s u lt t e e room a n d s e e i n g h im v o t e t h e
o t h e r way on t h e f l o o r o f t h e S e n a t e . ( 3 3 2 :1 2 )
The w r i t e r c o n t i n u e d to d e s c r i b e T a f t ' s t e c h n i q u e o f
" r e a r g u a r d f i g h t i n g , " w h ic h waa to f i g h t f i r s t ; i f
f i g h t i n g was t o no a v a i l , T a f t ' s s e c o n d move w as t o move
o v e r t o t h e m a j o r i t y and w a t e r down t h e r e s o l u t i o n
th r o u g h r e a e r v a t i o n s a n a c o n d i t i o n s ( 3 3 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) .
A t l e a s t one p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f T a f t ' s
m eth o d o f f i g h t i n g c o u l d l e n d c r e d e n c e to a p o s i t i v e
e v a l u a t i o n o f T a f t ' s e t h i c s , f o r t h e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d
c o u ld i n d i c a t e , i n th e a b s e n c e o f e v i d e n c e e i t h e r f o r o r
a g a i n s t a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h a t t h e two p o s i t i o n s
ta k e n by T a f t w ere n o t d i f f e r e n t a t a l l b u t m e r e l y two
a p p r o a c h e s to t h e same e n d .
One f i n a l ite m s u p p o r t e d th e l a b e l " e t h i c a l " f o r
T a f t . On J u n e 7 , 19-4-9» one h u n d r e d W a s h in g to n newsmen i n
a Look m a g a z in e p o l l c h o s e R o b e r t A. T a f t a s th e S e n a t o r
who h ad c o n t r i b u t e d m o st t o th e n a t i o n ' s w e l f a r e ( 1 0 5 : 7 ) .
The p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f j o u r n a l i s t i c o p i n i o n seem ed,
t h e r e f o r e , to s u p p o r t a g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n o f T a f t a s
e t h i c a l . The a n t a g o n i s t i c v ie w c o u l d be c o n n e c t e d w i t h a
tim e i n h i s l i f e s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e p e r i o d o f c o n c e r n i n
t h i s s t u d y .
A s e c o n d s o u r c e o f l a y o p i n i o n , i n c o n t r a s t to
e v a l u a t i o n by s p e e c h e x p e r t s , was t h e ju d g m e n t o f T a f t b y
h i s c o l l e a g u e s . T h e i r e s t i m a t e was o f t e n a s o u r c e f o r
n e w s p a p e r comment and i n o t h e r c a s e s r e a c h e d th e p e o p le
t h r o u g h g o v e rn m e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s .
W hat d i d t h e s e a s s o c i a t e s s a y a b o u t T a f t ' s e t h i c s ?
B o th D e m o c ra ts and R e p u b l i c a n s a s s e r t e d h i s h o n e s t y . H is
m a j o r D e m o c r a tic a d v e r s a r y , H a r r y S . Trum an, c a l l e d him
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y h o n e s t ( 6 3 ^ : 2 ) . I n 1957 T a f t was s e l e c t e d
1 * 0
a s one o f th e f i v e o u t s t a n d i n g S e n a t o r s c h o s e n fro m among
t h e m ore t h a n 2 ,0 0 0 m em bers who h a d s e r v e d I n th e S e n a t e
I n i t s 168 y e a r h i s t o r y , I h e f i v e s e l e c t e d b y t h e s p e c i a l
S e n a t e c o m m itte e w ere W e b s te r , C l a y , C a lh o u n , L a F o l l e t t e ,
an d T a f t . I n m a k in g t h e s e l e c t i o n t h e c o m m itte e a p p l i e d
f o u r s t a n d a r d s : (1 ) t h e c a n d i d a t e s c o u l d n o t be l i v i n g ;
(2 ) t h e y s h o u l d b e c h o s e n w i t h o u t r e g a r d to o t h e r o f f i c e s
h e l d ; (3) t h e y s h o u ld h a v e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s by
a c t s o f s t a t e s m a n s h i p w h ic h t r a n s c e n d e d p a r t y l i n e s , and
(If) t h e i r n a t i o n a l a s w e l l as s e n a t o r i a l r e p u t a t i o n f o r
l e a d e r s h i p s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d . S i n c e I t w as t h e p u r p o s e
o f t h i s s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h some d e g r e e o f c l a r i t y
an d o b j e c t i v i t y th e n a t u r e o f two e x tr e m e p o l i t i c a l -
e t h i c a l - r h e t o r i c a l r o l e s , t h e i n s e r t i o n o f t h i s h o n o r o n l y
b eco m es c l e a r when t h e r o l e s a r e d e l i n e a t e d . T h is I s , o f
c o u r s e , t h e c o n t e n t o f C h a p t e r I I , b u t f o r t h e s a k e o f
c l a r i t y i t w o u ld be h e l p f u l to s t a t e t h a t i n th e one r o l e ,
v a r i o u s l y te r m e d s t a t e s m a n , a d m i n i s t r a t o r , t h e o r i s t ,
l e g i s l a t o r , a l l t h e t e r m s seem to c a r r y a p o s i t i v e
c o n n o t a t i o n , w h i l e In t h e o t h e r , f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d
a g i t a t o r , s o p h i s t , d e m a g o g u e , c h a r l a t a n , p r o p a g a n d i s t , o r
m e r e l y p o l i t i c i a n , a l l t h e w o rd s seem t o b e u s e d I n a
n e g a t i v e s e n s e . T h is a f f i r m a t l o n , t h e r e f o r e , o f t h e
s t a t e s m a n l i k e q u a l i t y o f T a f t , made a s I t w as by a l l th e
t h e n - p r e s e n t m em bers o f t h e S e n a t e and many f o r m e r m em bers
i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h m ore th a n 150 h i s t o r i a n s an d s c h o l a r s ,
u
was i n t e r p r e t e d by t h i s w r i t e r a s s t r o n g e v i d e n c e i n f a v o r
o f a n e v a l u a t i o n o f " e t h i c a l " f o r T a f t ( 5 6 6 :7 3 - 7 4 ) *
A p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e r (6 28) i n a s t u d y w h ic h w i l l
b e d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r I I I h a s c a t e g o r i z e d th e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c i t e d I n th e p u b l i s h e d m e m o ria l a d d r e s s e s
e u l o g i z i n g T a f t (6 1 3 ) an d h a s n o t e d t h a t " i n t e g r i t y " was
m e n tio n e d t h i r t y t im e s and " h o n e s t y " e i* £ ite e n t i m e s (b 2 8 :
5 l 6 ) . W h ile t h i s i n I t s e l f was c e r t a i n l y n o t p r o o f o f th e
i s s u e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d , I t d i d c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w i t h
th e g e n e r a l l y e x p r e s s e d o p i n i o n s a b o u t T a f t ' s e t h i c s . I n
t h e s e a d d r e s s e s , E v e r e t t M. D i r k s e n , I l l i n o i s , r e c a l l e d
how he d u b b ed T a f t a s "Mr. I n t e g r i t y " a t th e 1952
R e p u b l i c a n N o m in a tin g C o n v e n tio n ( 6 1 3 : 2 8 ) .
I n A p r i l , 1959* a t t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f a b e l l to w e r
on C a p i t o l H i l l i n memory o f T a f t , b o t h P r e s i d e n t D w ig h t
D a v id E ls e n h o w e r a n d e x - p r e s i d e n t H e r b e r t H o o v e r e x t o l l e d
T a f t ' s v i r t u e s ( 5 1 9 * 4 / 1 5 / 5 9 : 9 ) * E i s e n h o w e r s a l u t e d him
a s t h e " v e r y sy m b o l o f i n f o r m e d a n d r e s p o n s i b l e
c o n s e r v a t i s m , " w h i l e H o o v e r " t i c k e d o f f T a f t ' s v i r t u e s - -
'm a g n i f i c e n t c o u r a g e an d d e v o t i o n w h ic h n e v e r w a v e re d
. . . I n t e l l e c t u a l an d m o r a l I n t e g r i t y . . . s e n s e o f
d u t y . . . a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f o b l i g a t i o n . . . l o y a l t y
an d p a t r i o t i s m ' " ( 5 1 9 * 4 / 1 5 / 5 9 : 9 ) .
T a f t ' s w ho le l i f e , h i s p e r s i s t e n t r e f u s a l to u s e
th e I n s t r u m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e s , and to a c t l i k e a p o l i t i c i a n ,
h a s b e e n and c o u ld b e c o n s t r u e d t o f a v o r an e v a l u a t i o n o f
k2
" e t h i c a l . ” T h l3 l i n e o f a rg u m e n t w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d I n
C h a p t e r I I I .
I t a p p e a r e d t h a t b o t h T a f t ' s c o l l e a g u e s and th e men
o f t h e p r e s s - - t w o o f th e m o s t I n f l u e n t i a l s o u r c e s o f p u b l i c
o p i n i o n — o v e r w h e l m i n g ly e s t i m a t e d T a f t ' s b e h a v i o r a s
b a s i c a l l y e t h i c a l . The s i t u a t i o n w as v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n
L o n g 's c a s e , a s l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n w i l l show.
The n e x t t h r e e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s p e a k e r s t o be
a n a l y s e d w ere b e t t e r c o n s i d e r e d a s a u n i t t h a n s e p a r a t e l y
s i n c e t h e r e was some o v e r l a p p i n g . The s p e a k e r s w e r e , I t
w i l l be re m e m b e re d , t o b e o f n a t i o n a l I m p o r t a n c e , U n i t e d
S t a t e s S e n a t o r s , and s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r s f o r th e p r e s i d e n c y .
N o e l Rapp, i n h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , J u s t i f i e d
h i s s e l e c t i o n o f T a f t a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r to th e a b o v e .
He c h o s e T a f t b e c a u s e o f h i s l e a d e r s h i p i n th e S e n a t e f o r
a t l e a s t p a r t o f h i s f o u r t e e n y e a r s a s a m em ber, a n d
b e c a u s e o f h i s s i g n i f i c a n c e a s t h e t i t u l a r h e a d o f t h e
R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y , a s w e l l a s f o r h i s t h r e e - t i m e a t t e m p t
to s e c u r e the R e p u b l i c a n n o m i n a t i o n a s a c a n d i d a t e f o r
P r e s i d e n t ( 6 3 l ^ : l ) . A n o th e r r e s e a r c h e r , D o n a ld K l e c k n e r ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a , s e l e c t e d T a f t n o t b e c a u s e o f h i s
s p e a k i n g a b i l i t y b u t " b e c a u s e t h e y [ h i s s p e e c h e s ! r e v e a l
t h e I d e a s o f a p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r who h a s b e e n u n a f r a i d to
e x p r e s s h i s v i e w s " ( 6 3 1 : n . p . ) .
O th e r w r i t e r s and h i s c o l l e a g u e s a s w e l l h a v e
s t r e s s e d h i s c o n s e q u e n c e a s a n a t i o n a l f i g u r e . The A ls o p s
r a t e d h im a s "o n e o f th e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s i n
A m e ric a n p o l i t i c a l l i f e " ( 2 6 5 : 1 0 3 ) . R o v ere c a l l e d him
" t h e a b l e s t f i g u r e i n A m e ric a n p o l i t i c s t o d a y " ( 5 1 2 :2 6 9 ) #
and t h e 194& D e m o c r a tic C o n g r e s s l i k e w i s e v o t e d him I t s
a b l e s t member ( 5 4 9 : 3 3 9 ) . L ik e t h e s p e c i a l C o n g r e s s i o n a l
c o m m itte e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d w h ic h p l a c e d T a f t among
t h e I m m o r t a l s o f th e S e n a t e ( 5 6 6 :7 3 - 7 4 ) * C h a r l e s B e a r d ,
t h e h i s t o r i a n , r a n k e d him a l o n g w i t h C l a y , C a lh o u n , and
W e b s t e r ( 6 2 6 : 3 5 3 ) .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , W h i t e , h i s b i o g r a p h e r , co m p ared
T a f t w i t h C h u r c h i l l .
The A m e ric a n p a r l i a m e n t i s a v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t
t h i n g fro m t h e B r i t i s h on e and T a f t was o f c o u r s e a
v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t man f ro m W in s to n C h u r c h i l l ;
n e v e r t h e l e s s h e b e s t r o d e th e one a s s u r e l y a s
C h u r c h i l l b e s t r o d e t h e o t h e r . They w e r e , e a c h , i n
h i s v e r y s e p a r a t e w ay, t h e two o u t s t a n d i n g
p a r l i a m e n t a r y men o f t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n . ( 2 5 3 :1 9 5 )
W h ile W h ite i n d i c a t e d t h a t T a f t ' s i n f l u e n c e i n t h e S e n a te
d u r i n g h i s y e a r s t h e r e "was m a t c h l e s s , " he c o n c l u d e d h i s
e s t i m a t e o f T a f t ' s i m p o r t a n c e w i t h t h i s s u b t l y p h r a s e d
s t a t e m e n t : "he n e v e r r e a c h e d t h e p r e s i d e n c y . A l l he d i d
w as t o s h a p e A m e ric a n p u b l i c l i f e a s fe w men b e f o r e him
h a d e v e r d o n e " ( 2 5 3 : 2 7 9 ) .
The r e c o r d on T a f t w as c l e a r : I t c o u l d e a s i l y b e
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t h e was o f n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e ; he s e r v e d
i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e fro m 1939 u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n
1 9 5 3 ; he s e r i o u s l y s o u g h t t h e n o m i n a t i o n f o r P r e s i d e n t
o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h r e e t i m e s — 1940* 194®# 1 9 5 2 - - a n d
kk
e a c h tim e he f a i l e d .
Hie l a s t c r i t e r i o n was e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d b y a
s im p l e s t a t e m e n t o f f a c t . R o b e r t A lp h o n s o T a f t was b o r n
o n S e p te m b e r 8 , 1889* a n d d i e d on J u l y 3 1 , 1953* He w as
p a r t o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s c e n e ; y e t b e c a u s e h e i s no
l o n g e r p a r t o f I t , he c an b e p e r c e i v e d w i t h some
o b j e c t i v i t y .
The s e c o n d s p e a k e r c h o s e n f o r s t u d y was Huey P i e r c e
L o n g . H i s t o r i c a l l y , men l i k e H uey Long h a v e n o t b e e n
n u m b ered among A m e r i c a 's g r e a t s p e a k e r s . H is nam e, l i k e
t h e nam es o f o t h e r e f f e c t i v e s p e a k e r s w i t h s i m i l a r
r e p u t a t i o n s , i s c o n s p i c u o u s l y a b s e n t fro m t h e r o s t e r o f
o r a t o r s t r e a t e d i n t h e t h r e e v o lu m e s so f a r d e d i c a t e d
t o A m e ric a n p u b l i c a d d r e s s . C om m enting upon t h i s f a c t ,
B r a n d e n b e r g a t t r i b u t e d I t to A m e r i c a 's c o n c e r n t h a t t h e
s u p p o r t o f d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s b e c o n s i d e r e d a n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e "good man" ( 3 0 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 ) . (S u c h a
s t a t e m e n t p l a c e s t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y I n a
c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n I n a r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l a n a l y s i s . J o i n i n g
g o o d , i . e . , e f f e c t i v e s p e a k i n g , w i t h g o o d , i . e . , m o r a l
s p e a k i n g , b o t h o f w h ic h a r e s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e d e m o c r a t i c
p h i l o s o p h y , a n d d e n y i n g t h e a p p e l l a t i o n " o r a t o r " t o a
s p e a k e r who f a l l s t o q u a l i f y on b o t h c o u n t s , f o r i n s t a n c e ,
t h e d e m a g o g u e .) Borm ann h a s d e c r i e d t h i s n e g l e c t o f
s p e a k e r s l i k e Long b y A m e ric a n r h e t o r i c i a n s , p o i n t i n g o u t
t h e I m p o r t a n c e o f s t u d y i n g s u c h s p e e c h m a k in g .
k s
A c a s e s t u d y o f S e n a t o r L o n g 's p e r s u a s i v e s p e a k i n g
seem s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e I t l a a ty p e o f
s p e a k i n g f o r w h ic h r h e t o r i c i a n s s i n c e t h e d a y s o f
A r i s t o t l e , h a v e b e e n a t t e m p t i n g to f i n d some J u s t i f i e s *
t i o n . S e n a t o r L ong was a n e f f e c t i v e s p e a k e r b u t he
w as c h a r g e d w i t h b e i n g a dem agogue and o f t e n a c c u s e d
o f s m p l o y l n g p e r s u a s i v e d e v i c e s I n an i n e x c u s a b l e
m a n n e r. The s t u d y o f t h e s p e a k i n g p r a c t i c e s o f men
who h a v e h a n d l e d t h e t o o l s o f m ass c o n s n u n lc a tio n I n
an I r r e s p o n s i b l e w ay seem s a s n e c e s s a r y a s t h e s t u d y
o f men who h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s "good* o r a t o r s , I f
a n y e m p i r i c a l b a s i s f o r an e t h i c s o f p e r s u a s i v e
s p e a k i n g I s t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d . ( 6 1 7 : 2 0 - 2 1 )
W hat d i d o t h e r s p e e c h c r i t i c s s a y a b o u t t h e q u a l i t y
o f L o n g 's s p e a k i n g , s e p a r a t e fro m i t s e t h i c a l n a t u r e ?
O l i v e r , i n h i s H ie P s y c h o lo g y o f P e r s u a s i v e S p e e c h ,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d Long a s a " m a s t e r o f p e r s u a s i v e s p e a k i n g "
( 1 8 2 : 8 2 , 2 4 9 ) • B o th Low rey ( 6 3 2 : l v ) and A b e r n a th y ( 2 6 4 :8 7 )
c r e d i t e d L o n g 's s p e a k i n g w i t h a m a j o r r o l e i n h i s m e t e o r i c
r i s e , a t t e s t i n g to i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . The l a t t e r a l s o
s t a t e d t h a t , "To a n e v e n g r e a t e r e x t e n t , p e r h a p s , t h a n
F r a n k l i n D e la n o R o o s e v e l t o r H i t l e r , L ong fo u n d t h a t
p u b l i c s p e a k i n g w as h i s g r e a t e s t w eap o n " ( 2 6 4 : 8 8 ) .
Many r e f e r e n c e s to t h e a b l e n a t u r e o f h i s s p e a k i n g
b y l a y c r i t i c s w e re a v a i l a b l e i n th e l i t e r a t u r e ( 2 7 : 1 3 ,
1 4 3 : 2 5 1 . 2 2 3 : 1 0 0 , 2 2 6 : 2 1 , 2 3 8 : 2 , 3 2 1 : 4 3 7 . 4 2 0 : 4 0 9 . 4 3 7 :
6 6 ) . One o f th e m o a t c o m p r e h e n s iv e o f t h e s e e v a l u a t i o n s
w as w r i t t e n b y Thomas 0 . H a r r i s , an « i t i - L o n g b i o g r a p h e r :
S e n a t o r L ong was a m a g n e t i c c a m p a ig n s p e a k e r . He
c o u l d r a i s e h i m s e l f to t h e l e v e l o f th e h i g h e s t
I n t e l l e c t o r s i n k to th e d e p t h s o f t h e l o w e s t . He had
a g i f t f o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e t h o u g h t an d te m p e r o f h i s
a u d i t o r s . I t w as h i s i n v a r i a b l e h a b i t i n s p e a k i n g to
f e e l a r o u n d a w h i l e i n a n e f f o r t t o l e a r n J u s t w h at
p h a s e o f t h e p e n d i n g q u e s t i o n i n t e r e s t e d h i s h e a r e r s
1 * 6
m o s t . Once g i v e n a c l u e th r o u g h u n u s u a l a p p l a u s e o r
s u d d e n l y a r o u s e d I n t e r e s t , he f e d them th e f o o d t h e y
w a n te d ; and t h e y d e v o u r e d i t .
H is s t y l e o f o r a t o r y w e n t t h r o u g h s e v e r a l v i s i b l e
t r a n s i t i o n s . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g I t s c h i e f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
was la c K o f e l e g a n c e o r p o l i s h . I t was f i l l e d w i t h
o f f e n s i v e m a n n e r is m s , was d i f f u s i v e a n d c i r c u m l o c u t o r y ,
a n d , g e n e r a l l y , p r o v e d a m ere m i s t o f w o rd s . L a t e r ,
a f t e r t h e h o n o r a r y d e g r e e i n v e s t i t u r e a t L o y o la , h i s
d e c l a m a t i o n becam e more sm o o th and g r a c e f u l ; an d w h i l e
n o t known to b e a s t u d e n t o f e l o c u t i o n , he n e v e r t h e l e s s
made p r o f i t a b l e u s e o f t h e n i c e t i e s o f I n t o n a t i o n and
g e s t u r e t h a t go w i t h th e s c i e n c e f s l c j o f e x p r e s s i o n .
B u t , e l a b o r a t e r h e t o r i c an d b a l a n c e d o r a t o r y w ere
n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d t o Huey L o n g 's b r a n d o f l e a d e r
s h i p . He fo u n d I n e l e g a n c e and v u l g a r i t y much more
p r o f i t a b l e t h a n e u p h o n y an d r e f i n e m e n t . So, he
q u i c k l y l a p s e d I n t o h i s o r i g i n a l s t y l e o f s p e e c h ; a n d .
I n th e U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a t e a n d o u t o f i t , becam e th e
c h i e f a p o s t l e o f b o m b a st a n d c o a r s e n e s s I n A m e ric a n
p u b l i c l i f e . ( 1 0 6 : 2 7 5 ,2 7 7 - 7 6 )
A num ber o f o t h e r l a y c r i t i c s p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d com m ented
upo n two o f th e f a c t o r s m o st o b v i o u s I n th e ab o v e e v a l u a
t i o n — a u d i e n c e a d a p t a t i o n and m ass a p p e a l .
Raymond Gram Sw ing q u o te d t h e o p i n i o n o f a n o t h e r
a n t i - L o n g man, a k e y man i n L o u i s i a n a p o l i t i c s :
Huey Long i s th e b e s t stum p s p e a k e r I n A m e r ic a . He
i s th e b e s t p o l i t i c a l r a d i o s p e a k e r , b e t t e r e v e n t h a n
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t . G ive h im tim e on th e a i r and l e t
h im h a v e a w eek to c a m p a ig n i n e a c h s t a t e , and he oan
sw eep th e c o u n t r y . He i s one o f t h e m o st p e r s u a s i v e
men l i v i n g l ( 2 3 1 :9 2 - 9 3 )
A t e s t i m o n i a l b y one o f L o n g 's c o l l e a g u e s was
q u o t e d b y L o w re y . I t was p a r t o f a l e t t e r w r i t t e n t o h im ,
d a t e d , May 8 , 1 9 5 1 , b y U. S. C i r c u i t Ju d g e Homer T. B one,
f o r m e r U. S . S e n a t o r :
My p e r s o n a l v ie w , r e i n f o r c e d b y c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h
many o l d - t i m e p u b l i c f i g u r e s , w as t h a t Huey Long was
on e o f th e b e s t e x te m p o r a n e o u s s p e a k e r s i n th e l o n g
47
h i s t o r y o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e . ( 6 3 2 :2 2 )
R h e t o r i c i a n s , o t h e r w r i t e r s , and c o l l e a g u e s a l l
a f f i r m e d L o n g 'a a b i l i t y a a a s p e a k e r ; i n a num ber o f
I n s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r , t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s w ere b e g r u d g i n g and
l i m i t e d b y a t t a c k s on s p e c i f i c r h e t o r i c a l m e th o d s u s e d b y
L ong. T h a t L ong was an e f f e c t i v e s p e a k e r seem ed t o be
c l e a r ; t h a t h e was a g o o d , i . e . , m o r a l , s p e a k e r s h o u ld b e
c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y a s one o f th e s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a
u s e d i n c h o o s i n g Long f o r a n a l y s i s i n t h i s s t u d y .
What w as t h e Ju d g m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a r m ind c o n c e r n
i n g L o n g 's e t h i c s ? The s u r p r i s i n g u n a n i m i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f t h e p o p u l a r a s s e s s m e n t o f T a f t was a b s e n t t h i s t i m e .
The m ere i t e m i z a t i o n o f t h e a p p e l l a t i o n s u s e d t o r e f e r to
Long showed t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f s e g r e g a t i n g a b l a c k o r w h i t e
e v a l u a t i o n : " S u p e rm a n ” ( 3 2 2 :1 4 ) # " S i r G a l a h a d ” ( 2 0 6 : 3 3 0 ) ,
a "new ty p e o f S o u t h e r n p o l i t i c i a n " ( 2 8 6 :6 6 9 ) # " t h e
a b l e s t , t h e m o st f o r m i d a b l e p o l i t i c i a n t h e S o u t h h a s p r o
d u c e d s i n c e t h e C i v i l W ar" ( 5 1 0 :1 2 7 ) # "a r e m a r k a b l e s o c i a l
and p o l i t i c a l c r i t i c o f t h e e v i l s a n d m i s f o r t u n e s o f o u r
d a y " ( 2 7 :4 1 0 ) # " t h e K a r l Marx o f th e H i l l b i l l i e s " (2 8 8 :
1 0 6 ) , " t h e s u p e r - s a l e s m a n o f A m e ric a n p o l i t i c s , " u s e r o f
" o r a t o r i c a l h o c u s - p o c u s " ( 3 1 8 :1 7 5 * 1 7 4 ) # dem agogue (2 5 :1 7 9 #
1 4 3 : 2 3 7 , 1 6 5 : 2 2 1 , 2 3 1 : 1 6 , 2 6 6 :6 6 4 , 2 9 6 : 1 6 , 3 1 8 : 1 7 2 , 50 8 :
291# 6 l 8 : 4 ) # " f a s c i s t " ( 5 1 0 :7 4 ) # nan © n g a g in g m o n s t e r , "
"man o f th e p e o p l e " ( 1 0 3 : 8 1 0 ) , " s o p h i s t " ( 1 0 6 : 1 8 5 ) ,
" C a t i l i n e " ( 4 l 4 : 4 3 1 ) # "bog ey m an " ( 3 2 2 : 1 1 ) , d i c t a t o r (1 :
48
1 8 7 , 2 5 : 1 8 0 , 6 5 : 3 6 3 , 7 7 : 3 , 8 5 :4 1 4 * 1 0 3 :8 0 9 , 1 0 6 : 3 , 125:
1 3 8 , 2 2 3 : 1 1 3 , 2 3 1 : 7 0 , 2 6 4 : 8 9 , 2 8 7 : 7 2 , 3 1 8 :1 7 1 , 3 5 2 : 1 2 ,
5 5 4 : 3 8 ) , t y r a n t ( 2 0 6 :3 2 8 , 2 2 3 : 7 5 , 4 4 3 : 8 ) , D r. J e k y l l and
Mr. Hyde ( 1 6 5 : 2 2 1 ) , o p p o r t u n i s t ( 2 2 3 :1 0 9 , 2 9 6 : 1 8 ) . Even
a s u p e r f i c i a l p e r u s a l o f t h e s e e p i t h e t s r e v e a l e d t h e
v a r y i n g s h a d e s o f o p i n i o n a b o u t L o n g ’ s e t h i c s - - a few
w r i t e r s w ere f a v o r a b l e , a few o t h e r s som ew hat n e u t r a l , b u t
many w e re u n f a v o r a b l e .
S l n d l e r w r o t e I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f L o u i s i a n a p o l i t i c s
fro m 1920 t o 1 9 5 2 , h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n a t H a r v a rd
U n i v e r s i t y :
To g r e a t n u m b e rs o f L o u i s i a n i a n s , Huey L ong was
e i t h e r t h e s a l v a t i o n o r t h e r u i n a t i o n o f L o u i s i a n a .
I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t m o s t J u d g n e n t s
o f t h e K i n g f i s h , w h e th e r d e r i v e d f ro m a d u l a t i o n o r
d e t e s t a t i o n , a r e e s s e n t i a l l y o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l . A more
a c c u r a t e v ie w o f Huey m u s t s t r e s s t h e m i x t u r e o f ty p e s
h e a c t u a l l y was and th e m a n y - s i d e d I m p a c t o f h i s r e i g n
on s u c c e e d i n g s t a t e p o l i t i c s . ( 2 2 3 :9 8 )
S i n d l e r o f f e r e d a s p a r t o f h i s v e r y th o r o u g h a n d s c h o l a r l y .
t r e a t m e n t a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l Ju d g m e n t o f L ong: th e p r o -
L ong p o s i t i o n , t h e a n t i - L o n g s i d e , and a m e d i a l p o s i t i o n
( 2 2 3 : 1 0 8 - 1 5 ) .
T h e se t h r e e v ie w s w ere c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t L o n g . As i n t h e c a s e o f T a f t , n e w s p a p e r
and p e r i o d i c a l w r i t e r s an d p r o f e s s i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s , b o t h
f r i e n d s an d e n e m i e s , J o in e d to f o r m u l a t e t h e p o p u l a r
o p i n i o n o f L o n g 's e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r . P e r h a p s a l s o
i n f l u e n t i a l a s s o u r c e s o f o p i n i o n f o r m a t i o n w ere t h e many
t o
n o v e l s b a s e d on L o n g 's l i f e , f o r Huey F i e r c e Long was a
f i t t i n g p r o t o t y p e f o r t h e n o v e l i s t .
More d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e
p e o p l e o f L o u i s i a n a a n d t h e n a t i o n w ere h i s a c t i o n s . 'Die
p r o m is e and d e l i v e r y o f m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t s t o t h e p e o p l e o f
L o u i s i a n a a f f e c t e d h i s r e p u t a t i o n t h e r e . S i m i l a r p r o m i s e s
t o th e p e o p l e o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o v i d e d him w i t h a
n a t i o n a l f o l l o w i n g ; a t t h e same t i m e , t h e a p p a r e n t d e s t r u c
t i o n o f th e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s i n L o u i s i a n a was i n s t r u
m e n t a l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a som ew hat d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l
r e p u t a t i o n among many A m e ric a n s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e l l e c t u a l s .
The p o s i t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s o f Long w e r e , i n m o s t
c a s e s , r e f l e c t i o n s o f a c c o u n t a b l e b i a s on t h e p a r t o f th e
p e o p le d o i n g th e a p p r a i s i n g , who w e r e , i t m u s t be
e m p h a s iz e d , g e n e r a l l y o f two k i n d s : h i s p o l i t i c a l f r i e n d s
a n d t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f h i s b e n e f i c S n c e i n L o u i s i a n a .
The e x a m p le , p a r e x c e l l e n c e , o f t h e p r o - L o n g i a n
p o s i t i o n , i s c o n t a i n e d i n w h a t S l n d l e r te rm e d t h e " c l a s s i c
d e f e n s e " o f L o n g , a m e m o r ia l a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d J a n u a r y 2 2 ,
1 9 3 6 , i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e , b y h i s l o n g - t i m e
f r i e n d , J o h n H. O v e r t o n , S e n a t o r f ro m L o u i s i a n a .
R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t
" i t h a s b e e n r e p e a t e d l y c o n t e n d e d b y many o f h i s
c r i t i c s t h a t S e n a t o r Long r o s e t o p o l i t i c a l p o w er by
r u t h l e s s a n d u n s c r u p u l o u s m e th o d s " O v e r to n c h o s e n o t
t o a t t e m p t d e n i a l o f t h e t r u t h o f t h e c h a r g e , b u t to
b l u n t i t s f o r c e b y a s s e r t i n g t h a t L o n g 's m e th o d s h a d
t o be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f " b o t h th e m o d e m
p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f L o u i s i a n a an d t h e p o l i t i c a l
50
c a r e e r o f th e m a n ." ( 2 2 3 :1 0 8 )
The a l l i a n c e b e tw e e n Long and O v e r to n s p a n n e d a
num ber o f y e a r s (1 2 5 :9 5 # 11^3:257# 2 2 3 : 6 0 ) , and a t no tim e
d i d O v e r t o n s t r a y fro m t h e camp o f t h e K i n g f i s h (226:21^.);
c o n s e q u e n t l y , and J u s t i f i c a t i o n o f L ong b y O v e r t o n c o u l d
be l a b e l e d a s b i a s e d I n L o n g 's f a v o r . More I m p o r t a n t ,
O v e r to n d i d n o t , a s I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t , make an
o u t r i g h t d e n i a l o f t h e c h a r g e s o f d e m a g o g u e ry h u r l e d a t
L o n g . O v e r to n m e r e l y te m p e r e d t h e c h a r g e by a s k i n g f o r
an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a g a i n s t th e s o c i a l -
p o l i t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f L o u i s i a n a . Few t o d a y w o u ld d en y
t h e r e l e v a n c e o f b i o g r a p h i c a l and c u l t u r a l d a t a a s
p e r t i n e n t f a c t s I n th e f o r m a t i o n o f c h o i c e s , y e t th e
a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i r r o l e n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a l l o w an
i n d i v i d u a l to e s c a p e e t h i c a l a s s e s s m e n t s b y p l a c i n g
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s a c t s on e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s o n l y .
A s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d b e tw e e n Long and
a n o t h e r o f h i s more p o s i t i v e e v a l u a t o r s , G e r a l d L. K.
S m ith . S m ith w r o te t h a t Long was a " s u p e r m a n , " " t h e
g r e a t e s t p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i s t a l i v e , " " t h e g r e a t e s t
h e a d l i n e w r i t e r I h a v e e v e r s e e n , " a man who u s e d e n t e r
t a i n m e n t a s a w edge, " b u t b e h i n d t h a t wedge was a d e e p
»
sy m p a th y a n d a t e n d e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e n e e d s o f h i s
p e o p l e " ( 3 2 2 : II4. - I 5 ) • L i k e , O v e r t o n , S m ith r e c o g n i z e d
t h e v a l i d i t y o f c r i t i c i s m s o f L o n g 's t e c h n i q u e s when h e
s t a t e d , "He h a d th e s u r f a c e m a n n e rs o f a d e m ag o g u e, b u t t h e
51
d e p t h o f a s t a t e s m a n . T h is d u a l n a t u r e a c c o u n t s f o r many
o f h i s v i c t o r i e s . He w in s l i k e a dem agogue and d e l i v e r s
l i k e a s t a t e s m a n " ( 3 2 2 : 114.).
S m i t h 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to Long s h o u l d be e x a m in e d i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s t e s t i m o n y . S m ith h ad b e e n r e t a i n e d
b y L o n g I n 1934 a s an o r g a n i s e r f o r h i s w e a l t h - s h a r i n g
o r g a n i z a t i o n (143:2614.)* He was e m p lo y e d t o make s p e e c h e s
on " s h a r e O ur W e a lth " when Long was u n a v a i l a b l e ( 1 2 5 : 1 2 0 ) .
A f t e r L o n g 's d e a t h , S m ith made i t c l e a r t h a t he I n t e n d e d
t o u s e L o n g 's o r g a n i z a t i o n to r i s e on th e n a t i o n a l s c e n e
I n L o n g 's p l a c e ( 1 2 5 : 1 5 2 ) . He w as I n a s t r a t e g i c
p o s i t i o n t o do t h i s s i n c e h i s name w as known t o m i l l i o n s ;
h e was c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Huey L ong, and p o t e n t i a l l y
h e l d t h e w e a l t h - s h a r i n g movem ent i n h i s h a n d s ( 1 2 5 :1 5 0 ) *
L ik e O v e r to n , S m i t h 's p o l i t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h
L ong i d e n t i f i e d h im a s p r o - L o n g i a n . S m i t h 's tu n e w as
s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . He s t i l l d i d n o t i n p r e c i s e w o rd s
d e n y t h e c h a r g e s o f d e m a g o g u e ry ; i n s t e a d h e l a b e l e d t h i s
b e h a v i o r a s s u p e r f i c i a l — a s a c o v e r f o r L o n g 's r e a l
sy m p a th y f o r t h e p e o p l e o f L o u i s i a n a , an d s t r e s s e d e n d s
a c h i e v e d r a t h e r t h a n m eans u s e d a s i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s .
L ik e O v e r t o n , he i n t r o d u c e d o t h e r , a n d c e r t a i n l y l e g i t i
m a t e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t o t h e p i c t u r e — a p u r i t y o f i n t e n t
a n d m a t e r i a l g a i n f o r th e p e o p l e o f L o u i s i a n a .
B u t O v e r to n a n d S m ith w ere n o t t h e o n l y o n e s who
assu m ed a p r o - L o n g p o s i t i o n . Many o f t h e p e o p l e o f
52
L o u i s i a n a w ere c o n v i n c e d t h a t Long was t h e " S i r G a la h a d
o f r e f o r m " ( 2 0 6 : 3 3 0 ) . One w r i t e r w r o t e :
The L ong d i c t a t o r s h i p o v e r L o u i s i a n a r e s u l t e d i n . . •
a p o l i t i c a l r e g im e w h ic h o u t r a g e d b e l i e v e r s I n
d e m o c r a c y , b u t w h ic h w as r e g a r d e d by th e common p e o p l e
o f L o u i s i a n a a s a s c o u r g e t o d r i v e an e n t r e n c h e d
a r i s t o c r a c y o u t o f t h e s e a t s o f p o w e r and t o b e g i n , a t
l a s t , s p r e a d i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f p o w er among t h e p o o r .
( 4 0 7 :1 1 6 7 )
As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , e v e n a f t e r t h e t a x s c a n d a l s h a d
b r o k e n i n t h e p r e s s , i n l a t e 1939* « ■ G a l l u p p o l l s e c u r e d
t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s I n r e s p o n s e t o th e q u e s t i o n , " T a k in g
e v e r y t h i n g I n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , do y o u t h i n k t h a t Huey P.
Long w as a good o r a b a d I n f l u e n c e i n L o u i s i a n a " ( 2 2 3 :1 1 5 ) 7
Die b re a k d o w n i n c l a s s e s , r e p o r t e d i n S i n d l e r ' s s t u d y , was
s e c u r e d t h r o u g h th e c o u r t e s y o f R o b e r t D* C o u r s e n o f t h e
A m e ric a n I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c o p i n i o n ( 2 2 3 :1 1 5 ) *
TABLE 1
GALLUP POLL ON LONG'S INFLUENCE IN LOUISIANA
P e r c e n t a g e s
Good
I n f l u e n c e
Bad
I n f l u e n c e
B o th No
O p in io n
T o t a l S t a t e
55
22
14 9
U p p er C l a s s
33 39
20 8
M id d le C l a s s 53 23 15 9
Low er C l a s s
65 i 4
12
9
53
The h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f a p p r o v a l o f Long r e g i s t e r e d i n th e
o p i n i o n s o f th e l o v e r a n d m id d le c l a s s c i t i z e n s v i v i d l y
p o r t r a y e d t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n Long and
t h e s e p e o p l e ; he was t h e i r l e a d e r i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t
c e n t u r i e s o f u p p e r - c l a s s d o m in a n c e . As B e a l s p h r a s e d i t :
D e s p i t e a l l h i s a r b i t r a r y m e a s u r e s , h o w e v e r much
h e w as h a t e d b y t h e " b e t t e r e l e m e n t s " - - a p h r a s e
r e p e a t e d ad nauaeum i n L o u i s i a n a - - h e h ad t h e l o y a l
b a c k i n g o f th e m a ss o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f h i s s t a t e
an d c a r r i e d w i t h him to th e g r a v e t h e s o rro w o f
h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s . ( 2 7 : 1 2 )
J o h n F . C a r t e r e x p l a i n e d t h i s p o p u l a r i t y a s th e
r e a l t h r e a t to d e m o c ra c y :
Y e t he [L o n g ] c o n t i n u e s t o grow i n p o w e r — w h ic h
a g a i n shows t h a t th e g r e a t m a s s e s o f p e o p l e a t t h e
b o tto m l o o k on t h e p r o c e s s e s o f g o v e rn m e n t e x a c t l y a s
t h e b ig - m o n e y e d crow d h a v e a lw a y s l o o k e d a t t h e m - - n o t
a s d e s i r a b l e i n t h e m s e l v e s , b u t a s m eans to th e
a t t a i n m e n t o f d e f i n i t e e n d s . T h a t i s why Huey i s a
s e r i o u s t h r e a t to d e m o c r a c y — b e c a u s e he i s sh o w in g
how f e e b l e th e d e v o t i o n to th e m a c h i n e r y o f d e m o c ra c y
i s i n c o m p a r is o n t o th e demand f o r e c o n o m ic l i b e r t y ,
e q u a l i t y , and s e c u r i t y . ( 2 3 8 : 3 1 )
B o th Thomas 0 . H a r r i s , an a n t i - L o n g b i o g r a p h e r o f
L ong ( 1 0 6 : 1 1 2 - 1 3 ) , and H a r n e t t Kane ( 1 2 5 :9 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t
p a r t o f th e K l n g f i s h ' s a c c e p t a n c e I n h i s own s t a t e w as due
t o t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f many L o u i s i a n i a n s to " a c c e p t an y
f o rm o f s t a t e g o v e rn m e n t t h a t c a r r i e d w i t h i t I n d i v i d u a l
o r co m m u n ity b e n e f i t s " ( 1 0 6 : 1 1 2 - 1 3 ) . S l n d l e r , on t h e
o t h e r h a n d , was n o t a s c r i t i c a l i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f
L o n g 's a p p e a l :
Y e t t h e r e h a d d e v e l o p e d i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
L o u i s i a n a I n c r e a s i n g l y w e l l - d e f i n e d c l a s s a n t a g o n i s m s
w h ic h , i f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l y c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r
a p p e a r e d , c o u l d s t i m u l a t e a n o t h e r £a t h i r d ] a t t e m p t a t
p r o t e s t p o l i t i c s by l o w e r - c l a s s w h i t e s . Huey L ong,
s u l g e n e r i s o r n o , t h u s m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d I n t h e
c o n t e x t o r t h e o r i g i n s o f c l a s s c o n f l i c t I n L o u i s i a n a .
Hie p e r s i s t e n t a p p e a l o f L onglam I n r e c e n t L o u i s i a n a
p o l i t i c s owes a s m uch, I f n o t m o re , t o r e p r e s s e d c l a s s
b i t t e r n e s s a s I t d o e s t o t h e m a k e s h i f t l i b e r a l p o l i c i e s
o f th e L o n g s . P o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l b y l o w e r - c l a s s
l e a d e r s f o r t h e b e t t e r p a r t o f t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s
h a s n o t y e t d u l l e d c l a s s r e s e n t m e n t s f o u n d e d on th e
r a n k l i n g a w a r e n e s s o f a c e n t u r y o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
( 223:26)
R o b i s o n , an h i s t o r i a n , w r i t i n g I n an a r t i c l e i n th e
J o u r n a l o f S o u t h e r n H i s t o r y , f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d L o n g 's
p o p u l a r i t y w i t h th e p e o p l e b y p o i n t i n g to th e s e q u e n c e
o f e v e n t s i n L o u i s i a n a s i n c e L o n g 's d e a t h a s e v i d e n c e (50tt:
3 0 3 ) .
W h e th e r th e " s e d u c i n g o f a p o p u l a c e " ( 1 2 5 :5 )
r e s u l t e d I n a p p r o v a l , o r w h e t h e r th e p e o p l e ' s f a v o r came
a s a r e s u l t o f a b i t t e r c l a s s s t r u g g l e , one m u st know
s o m e t h i n g o f t h e s o c i a l - e c o n o m i c - p o l l t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y L o u i s i a n a , a n d s o m e t h i n g o f th e w h o le
s i t u a t i o n i n A m e ric a i n t h e t h i r t i e s i n o r d e r to u n d e r
s t a n d s u c h an a s s e s s m e n t b y a d e m o c r a t i c p e o p l e . P e r t i
n e n t b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e t r e a t e d I n d e t a i l i n
C h a p t e r IV .
O t h e r L o u i s i a n i a n s , h o w e v e r , and many w r i t e r s f o r
n e w s p a p e r s and m a g a z i n e s i n th e r e s t o f t h e n a t i o n , w ere
s e v e r e l y c e n s o r i o u s o f L o n g 's b e h a v i o r . Many a t t a c k e d
h im , some e v e n a d m i t t i n g m a t e r i a l g a i n f o r t h e lo w e r
c l a s s e s i n L o u i s i a n a , th o u g h o t h e r s d e n i e d t h i s . Hie
55
common s t r a i n o f t h e i r c h a r g e s s t r e s s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s e s i n L o u i s i a n a . I i n t e r p r e t e d t h e s e
c r i t i c i s m s a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f an e v a l u a t i o n a s
" u n e t h i c a l . "
H a r r i s w r o t e , e x p l a i n i n g , i n p a r t , th e g e n e r a l
a c c e p t a n c e o f L ong b y L o u i s i a n i a n s , " e v e n i n L o u i s i a n a ,
t h e r e a r e n o t many men w i t h a f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e
e x t e n t t o w h ic h h e Chong} u s e d a d e m o c r a t i c I n s t r u m e n t
£th e L o u i s i a n a l e g i s l a t u r e ^ to d e s t r o y d e m o c ra c y " ( 1 0 6 : 5 ) •
F o r r e s t D a v i s , a n e w s p a p e r r e p o r t e r an d a l s o a b i o g r a p h e r
o f L o n g , commented on t h e Long d i c t a t o r s h i p :
G r a d u a l l y , th e K i n g f i s h h a d r e a c h e d i n t o e v e r y
p o l i t i c a l u n i t i n th e s t a t e u n t i l he a l o n e w as m a s t e r .
P a r i s h and c i t y l i n e s becam e f i g m e n t s , g e o g r a p h i c a l
r e l i c s o f an o l d " u n c o o r d i n a t e d " p o l i t i c a l s y s te m .
The l e g i s l a t u r e g l a d l y r u b b e r - s t a m p e d h i s p r o g r a m s .
O p e r a t i n g s c r u p u l o u s l y w i t h i n t h e l e t t e r o f
L o u i s i a n a ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n , L ong, i n 193 5 b a d s e i z e d
t h e w h o le pow er o f t h e s t a t e . N o t h i n g w as l e f t to
a n y n e u t r a l , an y o p p o n e n t . He h a d c a r i c a t u r e d
d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s e s , . . . and d e m o n s t r a t e d t o th e
c o u n t r y t h e e a s e w i t h w h ic h a s t r o n g man m i g h t
" r e f o r m " a S t a t e g o v e r n m e n t. ( 7 7 : 2 3 8 - 3 9 )
S l n d l e r , i n one o f th e m o st t h o r o u g h an d s c h o l a r l y p a p e r s
on Long, r e i t e r a t e d t h e v ie w s o f D a v is a n d H a r r i s . Long
show ed t h r o u g h
i n g e n i o u s an d r u t h l e s s e x e r c i s e o f i n c r e a s i n g l y
c e n t r a l i z e d po w er a n d t h r o u g h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t s , how e a s i l y th e fo rm s o f p o l i t i c a l
a c c o u n t a b i l i t y c o u l d be s t r i p p e d o f s u b s t a n t i v e
v a l u e . ( 2 2 3 :7 5 )
O t h e r m em bers o f t h e p r e s s e c h o e d f e a r s f o r th e
n a t i o n i f Long a c h i e v e d n a t i o n a l p o w e r. H a m i l t o n B a s s o ,
56
an a n t i - L o n g r e p o r t e r f o r an o p p o s i t i o n New O r l e a n s n e w s
p a p e r c a l l e d Long a M a c h i a v e l l i a n . B a s s o was a l a r m e d a t
t h e p r o s p e c t o f Long i n t h e W h ite House* w h ic h w o u ld
r e s u l t * he f e l t * I n th e e m a s c u l a t i o n o f a l l n a t i o n a l
a u t h o r i t y ( 2 5 : 1 9 3 ) . F . Raymond D a n l e l l * a J o u r n a l i s t
a s s i g n e d t o c o v e r Huey* r e f l e c t e d I n h i s e s s a y * "Land o f
t h e F r e e * 1 * h i s c o n c e r n o v e r th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f d e m o c ra c y
I n L o u i s i a n a and p r o j e c t e d h i s f e a r s f o r th e n a t i o n *
By b r i b e r y , c a j o l e r y * p a t r o n a g e * and b l a c k m a i l he
w h ip p e d t h e l e g i s l a t u r e I n t o l i n e u n t i l b y t h e tim e he
d i e d t h e v a s t m a j o r i t i e s I n b o t h h o u s e s w ere b e h a v i n g
l i k e t r a i n e d s e a l s . . . . I n t h e s p a c e o f s e v e n y e a r s *
Huey h a d s u c c e e d e d I n g r a b b i n g c o n t r o l o f th e
e x e c u t i v e , th e l e g i s l a t i v e * a n d t h e J u d i c i a l b r a n c h e s
o f th e g o v e rn m e n t o f h i s s t a t e * and f ro m h i s s e a t In
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e h a d h i s e y e on t h e n a t i o n a l
g o v e r n m e n t. ( 7 6 : 8 9 - 9 0 )
H a r n e t t K ane, a s p e c i a l w r i t e r f o r th e New O r l e a n s i t e m
who was a l s o a s s i g n e d to c o v e r L ong, e v a l u a t e d him a s a
t h r e a t to th e n a t i o n .
The m o s t c o m p le te d e s p o t i s m i n t h e n a t i o n ' s h i s t o r y
u s e d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f d e m o c ra c y t o c r u s h d e m o c r a c y .
T h ro u g h b a d y e a r s a n d good y e a r s * d e p r e s s i o n and
p r o s p e r i t y , i t m e t t h e t e s t : I t w o rk e d . L ik e m o st
m o d e m d i c t a t o r s h i p s , i t b e g a n w i t h a r e v o l u t i o n * a
p o o r - w h i t e r e b e l l i o n . I t w e n t on t o s h i f t t h a t
r e b e l l i o n ' s c o u r s e , to b e t r a y i t . . . .
T h i s f u l l - d r e s s r e h e a r s a l o f an A m e ric a n t y r a n n y
. . • was a c o n s c i o u s a c c e p t a n c e o f a re g im e t h a t
a p p l i e d * s l o w l y a t f i r s t * t h e n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
b o l d n e s s * t h e o l d p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r power* w i t h new
t o u c h e s : b r e a d a n d c i r c u s e s — d i s p e n s a t i o n s fro m
above* f r e e f o o d and f r e e v a u d e v i l l e — i n r e t u r n f o r
a c q u i e s c e n c e .
I t s m a s t e r was t h e f i r s t A m e ric a n dem agogue to
becom e a n a t i o n a l t h r e a t ; t h e f i r s t to c l u t c h and u s e
w i t h m a c h i n e - g u n r u t h l e s s n e s s t h e c u r r e n t t o o l s o f
m a ss p r o p a g a n d a a n d t h e I n s t r u m e n t s o f v i o l e n c e ,
i n c l u d i n g s t a t e an d n a t i o n a l m i l i t i a . ( 1 2 5 : 1*.)
The e x a m p le , par e x c e l l e n c e , o f t h e a n t i - L o n g i a n
p o s i t i o n , I s c o n t a i n e d I n w h at one m l ^ h t terra th e c l a s s i c
v i l i f i c a t i o n o f Long, a n a t i o n a l r a d i o s p e e c h d e l i v e r e d
by G e n e r a l Hugh S. J o h n s o n , e x - h e a d o f th e N a t i o n a l
R e l i e f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d a R o o s e v e l t f o l l o w e r , on M arch ip
1 9 3 5 , fro m th e W a l d o r f - A s t o r i a H o t e l i n New Y ork C i t y (3ip9
5 ) . C a l l i n g Long " C a t a l i n e , " d em ag o g u e, and T ie d P i p e r
o f H a m a lin , J o h n s o n a s s e r t e d :
You know j u s t w here he fL ongJ s t a n d s and how,
g i v e n p o w er, he w i l l a c t ; b e c a u s e you know how he h a s
a c t e d i n t h e S t a t e o f L o u i s i a n a . T here Huey i s a
d i c t a t o r b y f o r c e o f arras and A d o lf H i t l e r h a s n o t h i n g
on him any way you c a re to lock then. 'io tn . In
Tact Huey i s th e H i t l e r o f one o f o u r s o v e r e i g n
S t a t e s — n o t i n the f o r c i b l e s e i z u r e o f a b s o l u t e and
a r b i t r a r y p o w e rs a l o n e b u t i n t h e c u r i o u s m i x t u r e o f
i n c r e d i b l e m um bo-jum bo, t h e s u r f a c e p l a u s i b i l i t y and
u n d o u b te d p e r s o n a l m a g n e tis m t h a t c a u s e p e o p l e to p u t
t h e i r e m o t i o n s b e f o r e t h e i r r e a s o n and go s ta m p e d in g
o f f t o n o t h i n g l i k e a f r i g h t e n e d f l o c k o f s h e e p .
(ip71,3/5/3 5 :1 0 )
T h is t a l k w i l l be t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r IV s i n c e i t
was i n a n sw e r to t h i s a d d r e s s t h a t Huey L ong, on M arch 7»
1935* made th e s p e e c h t h a t was c h o s e n f o r a n a l y s i s i n t h i s
s t u d y .
L ik e J o h n s o n , F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t f o r e s a w d a n g e r to
A m e ric a u n d e r Huey Long ( 2 0 8 : 9 2 ) .
S p e a k i n g o f t h e p o l i t i c a l c r i t i c s o f Long, R o b in s o n
q u e s t i o n e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f t a k i n g t h e i r e s t i m a t e s o f Long
a s th e " f i n a l ju d g m e n t o f h i s t o r y , " a n d s o u g h t " a d d i t i o n a l
t h o u g h t t o th e men t h e m s e l v e s ^ T illm a n - L o n g ty p e l e a d e r s
o f t h e r u r a l S o u t h 3 to th e p o l i c i e s and m e a s u r e s f o r
w h ic h t h e y s t o o d , and to th e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h p r o d u c e d
th em " ( 5 0 a : 2 9 1 - 9 2 ) ,
I n sum m ary, a l t h o u g h t h e te r m s u s e d to d e s c r i b e
L ong r u n th e gam ut fro m h e r o to d e v i l , one i s i m p r e s s e d
b y t h e n e g a t i v e n a t u r e o f m o s t o f them . E v en p r o - L o n g i a n
O v e r to n a n d S m ith c o u l d n o t d e n y th e u n s c r u p u l o u s t e c h
n i q u e s u s e d by Long, .V hether o r n o t th e y a p p r o v e d o f h i s
m e t h o d s , m any L o u i s i a n i a n s d i d a p p r o v e o f much o f h i s
p r o g ra m ; o t h e r s c o u l d n o t J u s t i f y a n y t h i n g he d i d b e c a u s e
o f t h e m e th o d s he u s e d i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g h i s e n d s .
O t h e r r e f l e c t i o n s on h i s c h a r a c t e r w ere o f th e
" y e s , b u t " v a r i e t y - - " Y e s , he d i d much t h a t w as g o o d f o r
L o u i s i a n a , b u t he d i d much h arm t o o . " T h ese m e d i a l l y
p l a c e d e v a l u a t i o n s e m p h a s iz e d t h e " m i x t u r e o f t y p e s " t h a t
L ong a c t u a l l y was ( 2 2 3 : 9 ^ ) . T y p i c a l o f t h e s e a s s e s s m e n t s
w ere t h e f o l l o w i n g : "He d i d m ore g o o d , a n d m ore e v i l ,
t h a n any man i n th e h i s t o r y o f h i s s t a t e " ( 2 7 : 1 3 ) ;
" N e i t h e r s a i n t n o r d e v i l , h e w as a c o m p le x and h e t e r o
g e n e o u s m i x t u r e o f goo d a n d b a d , g e n i u s a n d c r a f t ,
h y p o c r i s y and c a n d o r , b u f f o o n e r y and s e r i o u s n e s s " (106:1^.)
he w as a g e n i u s i n a l l t h e a r t s o f p o l i t i c s , b o t h good
and b a d ( 2 0 6 : 3 2 6 ) . F r e d e r i c k A l l e n s p e l l e d o u t th e s i d e s
o f t h e c o i n :
Long was one o f t h e m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y f i g u r e s i n
a l l A m e ric a n p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y . He was o f th e s t u f f
o f w h ic h d i c t a t o r s a r e m ade, an d h e r u l e d L o u i s i a n a
w i t h an i r o n h a n d , s m a s h in g o p p o s i t i o n a s r u t h l e s s l y
a s a r a c k e t e e r . B l a t a n t , p r o f a n e , w i t t y .
59
u n s c r u p u l o u s , v i o l e n t ; p o s s e s s e d o f t h e d e m a g o g u e 's
h a b i t o f p r o m i s i n g th e I m p o s s i b l e t o g e t h e r w i t h th e
s t a t e s m a n ' s a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e good r o a d s , b e t t e r
s c h o o l s , f r e e s c h o o l b o o k s , a n d a g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r
s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g among t h e p o o r , b o t h b l a c k and
w h i t e , a n d a t th e same tim e t o k e e p th e s t a t e
g o v e r n m e n t s o l v e n t - - H u e y h a d b l u s t e r e d an d b l u d g e o n e d
h i s way i n t o a s to r m y n a t i o n a l p r o m i n e n c e . ( 1 : 1 8 7 *8 8 )
S i n d l e r f o u n d much i n Long w h ic h q u a l i f i e d him f o r th e
te r m "d em ag o g u e" a s commonly a p p l i e d , a l t h o u g h h e p o i n t e d
o u t t h a t
t h e r e w e re o t h e r a s p e c t s o f L o n g 's r e c o r d an d Im p a c t
w h ic h s u g g e s t t h a t , i f th e ju d g m e n t o f dem agogue i s
r e t a i n e d . L ong s h o u ld b e c r e d i t e d w i t h h a v i n g b e e n
one o f t h e m o st u s e f u l an d e f f e c t i v e d em ag o g u es
p r o d u c e d b y t h e new S o u t h . ( 2 2 3 :1 1 0 - 1 2 )
C h a r l e s and M ary B e a rd d e c l a r e d t h a t , e v e n i f Long w ere a
d e m a g o g u e , h e d i d n o t a r i s e o u t o f a vacuum , b u t i n
r e s p o n s e to a d e f i n i t e s o c i a l n e e d .
I t w o u ld h a v e b e e n a m a r v e l o f h i s t o r y i f no l e a d e r s
h ad a r i s e n t o e x p r e s s t h e s e n t i m e n t s a n d r e s e n t m e n t s
o f t h e m u l t i t u d e s who w ere u n e m p lo y e d o r f r e t t e d by
d e p o s i t s f r o z e n i n b a n k s , hom es o r f a r m s i n p e r i l o f
f o r e c l o s u r e , b o n d s In d e f a u l t , s t o c k s e v i d e n t l y
w o r t h l e s s . I t w ou ld a l s o h a v e b e e n a m a r v e l i f no
d em ag o g u e s h a d ta k e n a d v a n t a g e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o
e l e v a t e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o p l a c e s o f I n f l u e n c e and
a u t h o r i t y . B o th a p p e a r e d o n t h e s c e n e and i t w as n o t
a lw a y s e a s y t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e one f ro m t h e o t h e r .
From a n c i e n t t i m e s , i t i s t r u e , a c o n n o t a t i o n o f
e v i l h a d b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e m a g o g u e ry . . . .
A r i s t o t l e h a d c a l l e d t h e dem agogue th e man who
f l a t t e r s t h e p e o p l e . . . . A t l e a s t t h e dem agogue was
a t r o u b l e m a k e r. . . . Y e t A r i s t o t l e d i d n o t r e g a r d
t h e dem agogue a s an e v i l g e n i u s s p r i n g i n g o u t o f a
v acuum , w i t h no j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f r i g h t on h i s s i d e .
" C o n s t i t u t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n ts a n d a r i a t o c r a c l e s , " h e
e x p l a i n e d , " a r e commonly o v e r t h r o w n o w in g t o some
d e v i a t i o n fro m j u s t i c e i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n I t s e l f . "
I n c l a s s i c t h e o r y . . . i t h a d n o t b e e n e n t i r e l y
a c a s e o f b l a c k a g a i n s t w h i t e - * t h e v l l l a n y o f t h e
dem agogue a g a i n s t th e e x c e l l e n c e o f " t h e b e t t e r c l a s s . "
Ifce ju d g m e n t o f s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r y l i k e w i s e h a d b e e n
6 0
m ix e d . W ith h i s t o r i c l i n e s o f d e m a r k a t l o n so l o o s e l y
d ra w n i t w as i m p o s s i b l e i n 1 9 3 3 t o make a d i s t i n c t i o n
u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i f v i o l e n c e o f
l a n g u a g e a n d th e p r o m is e o f i m p o s s i b l e g i f t s w e re th e
s i g n s o f d em ogogy, t h e n t h e U n i t e s S t a t e s h a d t h r e e
m a s t e r s o f t h e a r t • . . — H uey P . L ong, F a t h e r
C h a r l e s E. C o u g h l i n , and D r. F r a n c i s E . T ow nsend.
E a c h i n h i s way was a man o f s i n g u l a r p o w e r. E ach
a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f t o a s p e c i a l a u d i e n c e an d e m p lo y e d
h i s own l a n g u a g e and s y m b o ls o f m a r t i a l a r r a y . B u t ,
i f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i r f o l l o w i n g was t h e t e s t o f
t h e i r I n t e n t i o n , a l l a p p e a l e d t o m i s e r y a n d d i s c o n t e n t
w i t h t h e econom y and g o v e rn m e n t o f " t h e b e t t e r c l a s s . "
( 2 8 :1 9 2 - 9 3 )
E v e r y s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h s t u d y c o n s u l t e d b y t h i s
w r i t e r e i t h e r e v a l u a t e d Long a s a dem agogue o r c i t e d
o t h e r s who d i d e v a l u a t e him i n t h i s way (1 4 3 :2 3 7 # 2 2 3 :
1 1 0 - 1 2 , 2 6 4 : 1 0 2 , 2 9 6 : 1 6 , 4 + 4 :1 9 4 * 6 1 7 : 2 0 , 6 1 0 : 4 , 6 3 2 : v ) .
Some o f th em , l i k e S i n d l e r , c r e d i t e d him w i t h a few
a c h i e v e m e n t s i n L o u i s i a n a . B o th S i n d l e r ( 2 2 3 :1 1 0 ) and
Borm ann ( 6 1 8 :3 ) r e p o r t e d t h e p o p u l a r v ie w o f Long fro m th e
n a t i o n a l v i e w p o i n t to be t h a t o f th e. g r e a t A m e ric a n
d em ag o g u e.
The l a s t o f th e i n f l u e n c e s i n f a s h i o n i n g th e
p o p u l a r e s t i m a t e o f Long was t h e Huey Long l e g e n d i n
f i c t i o n ( 2 8 8 :1 0 6 , 2 5 : 1 8 0 ) . F o u r n o v e l i s t s i n t h e e a r l y
f o r t i e s u s e d Long a s a m o d e l: H a m i l t o n B a s s o , Sun i n
C a p r i c o r n ( 2 6 ) , J o h n Dos P a s s o s , N um ber One (8 3 )* R o b e r t
Penn W a rre n , A l l t h e K i n g 1 s Men (2Z+2), and A d r i a Locke
L a n g le y , A L io n I s i n th e S t r e e t s ( 1 2 8 ) . A c c o r d i n g to an
a r t i c l e b y B a s s o on th e f i c t i o n a l L ong s t o r y , th e f i r s t
two n o v e l s c a l l e d h im a d i c t a t o r a n d t h e l a s t two
6 1
I d e a l i z e d him ( 2 6 8 : 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ) . B a sso a d d e d a v e r y p e r t i
n e n t o b s e r v a t i o n :
S h o u ld . . . L ong b e e l e v a t e d t o t h e f r o n t r a n k o f
th e g r e a t h e r o e s o f t h e A m e ric a n s t o r y , f i c t i o n w i l l
h a v e done m ore t h a n o v e rs h a d o w t r u t h . I t w i l l h av e
p r e v e n t e d Long fro m o c c u p y i n g th e one p l a c e i n th e
A m e ric a n l e g e n d t h a t h e i s u n i q u e l y q u a l i f i e d to f i l l .
The A m e ric a n l e g e n d so f a r h a s h a d room o n l y f o r
d e m ig o d s . V i l l a i n s n e e d n o t a p p l y . B u t a v i l l a i n ,
i t so h a p p e n s , i s w h at t h e l e g e n d n e e d s m o s t . I t s
g r e a t p r o t a g o n i s t s s h o u ld h a v e a p o w e r f u l a n t a g o n i s t
t o p l a y a g a i n s t . The l e g e n d , i n t h a t c a s e , w o u ld
b e m ore t h a n a s t i r r i n g r o l l c a l l o f h e r o e s . I t w o u ld
t a k e on s o m e t h i n g o f th e h i g h e s t fo rm o f d ra m a — th e
c o n f l i c t o f good a n d e v i l . Some e q u i v a l e n t o f L u c i f e r
s h o u l d be ad d e d to t h e c a s t . ( 2 8 6 : 1 1 6 - 2 1 )
Huey Long was a c o n t r o v e r s i a l f i g u r e i n A m e ric a n
p o l i t i c s . A l t h o u g h th e l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t him w as mos t l y
o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l , som ew here i n b e tw e e n th e e p i t h e t s
"S u p e rm a n " and " L u c i f e r " l i e s th e r e a l t r u t h . H is r e c o r d
o f p e r f o r m a n c e was a s p o t t y one ( 2 2 3 : 1 0 2 ) , a s w e l l a s a
h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l o n e ; i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e , h o w e v e r , was
t h e e n e r v a t i o n o f d e m o c ra c y i n L o u i s i a n a u n d e r h i s
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T r u l y , i n t h i s s e n s e a t l e a s t , Long was
th e g r e a t A m erican d e m ag o g u e.
As I n T a f t ' s c a s e , s e v e r a l o f t h e r e m a i n i n g
c r i t e r i a f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r to b e s t u d i e d
w e re b e t t e r c o n s i d e r e d a s a u n i t . E a s i e s t t o d is p o .s e o f
s i n c e i t i s a q u e s t i o n o f f a c t w as t h e s e c o n d c r i t e r i o n —
t h a t th e s p e a k e r c h o s e n h a v e b e e n a U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t o r .
Long w as e l e c t e d t o s e r v e i n t h a t c a p a c i t y f o r L o u i s i a n a
f o r a te rm s c h e d u l e d to b e g i n on M arch 4 , 1 9 3 1 . He h e l d
62
c o n c u r r e n t l y t h e o f f i c e o f G o v e rn o r o f L o u i s i a n a , an d
f e a r i n g to l o s e c o n t r o l o f h i s s t a t e to h i s e n e m ie s , d i d
n o t o f f i c i a l l y t a k e h i s S e n a t e s e a t u n t i l J a n u a r y 2 5 , 1932
( 2 6 ^ : 9 5 ) • He s e r v e d t h e r e u n t i l he v a s s h o t on
S e p te m b e r 8 , 1935* He d i e d two d a y s l a t e r ( 1 2 5 : 1 3 6 ) .
Long t h e r e f o r e m et t h e f i f t h c r i t e r i o n — a c o n t e m p o r a r y
s p e a k e r no l o n g e r l i v i n g .
The r e m a i n i n g two c r i t e r i a - - a s p e a k e r o f n a t i o n a l
I m p o r t a n c e , and one who was a s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r f o r t h e
p r e s i d e n c y - - a l s o n e e d e d t o be c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r s i n c e
t h e r e w as some o v e r l a p p i n g i n th e l i t e r a t u r e .
F o u r a s p e c t s o f L o n g 's c a r e e r s u p p o r t e d a n e s t i m a t e
o f h im a s an i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l f i g u r e : ( 1 ) h e was
r e p u t e d to h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n t i a l i n th e n o m i n a t i o n o f
F r a n k l i n D e la n o R o o s e v e l t f o r th e p r e s i d e n c y i n 1932
and i n t h e e l e c t i o n o f p o l i t i c i a n s i n L o u i s i a n a an d in
o t h e r S o u t h e r n s t a t e s ; (2) he was r e p u t e d t o h a v e b e e n
i n f l u e n t i a l i n m o v in g th e R o o s e v e l t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f u r t h e r
to t h e l e f t , a f a c t w h ic h i n i t s e l f showed h i s n a t i o n a l
p o w e r a n d p o t e n t i a l ; ( 3 ) h e h a d a n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m , th e
S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h m ovem ent w h ic h a p p e a l e d t o m i l l i o n s o f
p e o p l e i n t h e d e p r e s s i o n y e a r s ; an d (If) he was r e p u t e d to
h a v e p r e s i d e n t i a l a s p i r a t i o n s , i f n o t f o r 1 9 3 6 , a t l e a s t
f o r 191*0 .
Long h a d p l a y e d a k e y r o l e i n t h e n o m i n a t i o n o f
R o o s e v e l t ( lf2 0 : lf07) . Jam es A* F a r l e y , i n h i s b o o k B e h in d
63
t h e B a l l o t s , r e c o u n t e d t h e a t o r y o f th e n o m i n a t i o n (9 0 )#
One o f th e f i r s t t e s t s o f s t r e n g t h i n t h e D e m o c r a tic
C o n v e n t i o n came on th e q u e s t i o n o f s e a t i n g th e L o u i s i a n a
d e l e g a t i o n . T h e re w ere t h r e e L o u i s i a n a d e l e g a t i o n s : th e
L ong d e l e g a t i o n , th e o p p o s i t i o n s l a t e l e d b y f o r m e r
G o v e r n o r J a r e d S a n d e r s , an d a b u r l e s q u e d e l e g a t i o n p r o
v i d e d b y Long f o r h i s own am usem ent ( 9 0 : 1 2 4 ) . The
R o o s e v e l t f o r c e s d e c i d e d t o b a c k L o n g , a n d t h e o p p o s i t i o n
u n i t e d b e h i n d S a n d e r s e v e n th o u g h h i s d e l e g a t i o n w as
u n p l e d g e d . L o n g , s e n s i n g th e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e s i t u a
t i o n , " d e l i v e r e d a r e a s o n e d , c o m m o n -sen se a r g u m e n t f o r
h i s s i d e t h a t . • . won h im c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t " ( 9 0 ;
1 2 5 ) . Ih e v o t e , when f i n a l l y t a k e n , w as 6 3 0 - 3 / 4 f o r th e
L ong g r o u p and 5 1 4 - 1 / 4 f o r th e o p p o s i t i o n d e l e g a t i o n , and
R o o s e v e l t ' s f i r s t b a t t l e h a d b e e n s u c c e s s f u l l y won.
R e i n h a r d L u t h i n , a p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y , w r o te , i n
h i s b o o k A m e ric a n D e m a g o g u e s:
The S e n a t o r fro m L o u i s i a n a u t i l i z e d th e 1932
e l e c t i o n to i n c r e a s e h i s i n f l u e n c e n a t i o n a l l y .
A t t h e D e m o c r a tic N a t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n i n C h ic a g o
d u r i n g J u n e , 1 9 3 2 , Long t h r u s t h i m s e l f t o th e f r o n t .
S u r r o u n d e d b y h i s b o d y g u a r d s , h e b a r g e d i n t o th e h o t e l
room o f Edw ard J . F l y n n , B o s s o f t h e B ro n x , a n d a n
n o u n c e d t h a t he w as f o r R o o s e v e l t f o r th e p r e s i d e n t i a l
n o m i n a t i o n . The d e l i g h t e d F l y n n , a R o o s e v e l t l e a d e r ,
a s s u r e d him t h a t t h e New Y o rk G o v e r n o r 's f o r c e s w o u ld
s u p p o r t L o n g 's L o u i s i a n a d e l e g a t i o n i n p r e f e r e n c e t o
t h e r i v a l o n e . . • • L a t e r F l y n n d e c l a r e d : " T h e r e i s
no q u e s t i o n i n my m in d b u t t h a t w i t h o u t L o n g 's w ork
R o o s e v e l t m i g h t n o t h a v e b e e n n o m i n a t e d . ( 1 4 3 :2 5 4 * 5 5 )
L o n g 's p o w er to p e r s u a d e t h e m a s s e s w as c r e d i t e d
f o r h e l p i n g R o o s e v e l t w in th e e l e c t i o n a s w e l l a s f o r
61*
h e l p i n g c a n d i d a t e s i n L o u i s i a n a and i n o t h e r s t a t e s i n th e
n a t i o n . H is v i c t o r i e s i n L o u i s i a n a w ere v e r y n u m e ro u s ,
a n d w ere n o t s u r p r i s i n g i n v ie w o f h i s p o p u l a r i t y t h e r e .
P a r l e y w r o t e , o f L o n g 's e f f o r t on R o o s e v e l t ' s b e h a l f :
"He p u t on a g r e a t show a n d e v e r y w h e r e he w e n t, e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e l a r g e r c i t i e s , we g o t t h e m o s t g l o w i n g r e p o r t s o f
w h a t he h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d f o r th e D e m o c r a tic c a u s e " ( 9 0 :
1 7 1 ) .
L u t h l n t o l d a b o u t L o n g 's s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t to
sw in g an A r k a n s a s e l e c t i o n f o r a c a n d i d a t e o f h i s
c h o o s i n g :
Long t o o k e n o u g h tim e o u t fro m h i s n a t i o n a l
p o l i t i c k i n g t o h e l p M rs. H a t t i e C araw ay o f A r k a n s a s i n
h e r c a m p a ig n f o r e l e c t i o n to a f u l l te rm I n t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s S e n a t e . M rs. C araw ay h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d t o f i l l
h e r l a t e h u s b a n d 's u n e x p l r e d S e n a t e t e r m . . . . She
w as a c c o r d e d no c h a n c e to w in . B u t t h e K i n g f l s h
d e c i d e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t he w i e l d e d i n f l u e n c e o u t
s i d e h i s own s t a t e . . • .
I n l a t e J u l y , 1 9 3 2 , s t a c k s o f e l e c t i o n e e r i n g
c i r c u l a r s w ere l o a d e d i n t o f o u r L o u i s i a n a s t a t e - o w n e d
t r u c k s a n d s e n t to A r k a n s a s . . . • O v er m ore th a n
2 ,0 0 0 m i l e s o f A r k a n s a s h ig h w a y , Huey an d H a t t i e l e d
t h e i r t r u c k c a r a v a n , m e e t i n g f o l k s a n d s p e a k i n g i n
t h i r t y - n i n e c o u n t y s e a t s .
" K i s s H a t t i e ' s " s i x o p p o n e n t s , c a m p a ig n in g i n th e
S o u t h e r n t r a d i t i o n and e q u i p p e d w i t h f r o c k c o a t s and
s h o e s t r i n g t i e s , w ere b e w i l d e r e d by t h i s m o t o r i z e d
c o m b i n a t i o n o f c a r n i v a l an d e v a n g e l i s m . I n l i t t l e m ore
t h a n o n e week o f a u c h s tu m p i n g th e K i n g f i s h an d th e
" W ld d s r N won o v e r e n o u g i r u r a l A r k a n s a s t o r e t u r n h e r
t o t h e S e n a t e . (11*3:256-57)
I n d i s c u s s i n g L o n g 's s u c c e s s i n c a m p a i g n i n g f o r
o t h e r p o l i t i c i a n s , A b e r n a th y m e n t i o n s t h e 1932 p r e s i d e n t i a l
c a m p a ig n , th e A r k a n s a s e l e c t i o n p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d , an d h i s
65
c a m p a ig n f o r A l f r e d R. S m ith I n 1928 I n w h ic h L o u i s i a n a
" r o l l e d u p t h e l a r g e s t S m ith m a j o r i t y o f a n y D e m o c r a tic
s t a t e I n th e U n io n " (2 6 1 ^ :1 0 1 -1 0 2 ).
T h a t Long was a w e i g h t y f a c t o r I n t h e e l e c t i o n o f
o t h e r p o l i t i c i a n s was a t t e s t e d to by m any. He was a l s o
an i m p o r t a n t po w er I n a s h i f t o f th e New D e a l to t h e l e f t .
I n S i n c e Y e s t e r d a y , F r e d e r i c k A l l e n com m ented upon
R o o s e v e l t ' s e f f o r t s t o u n d e rm in e Long I n t h e summer o f
1 9 3 5 b y b a c k i n g " a r e v e n u e b i l l w h ic h s t e p p e d u p t a x e s on
th e r i c h " ( 1 : 2 3 1 ) .
G eo rg e E. S o k o l s k y , who f e l t t h a t L o n g c o u l d n e v e r
becom e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s t a t e d t h a t h e h ad
n e v e r t h e l e s s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l i n f o r c i n g R o o s e v e l t to
a d o p t " a n a b s u r d f i s c a l p ro g ram m e, a n d he s u c c e e d e d i n
b a l a n c i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s c a l e so a c c u r a t e l y t h a t h e w a s ,
a f t e r F r a n k l i n D. R o o s e v e l t , t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
p o l i t i c a l p e r s o n a l i t y o f h i s d a y " ( 5 ^ 3 : 5 2 5 ) .
C o n c u r r i n g w i t h t h e s e v ie w s w as Raymond M oley i n
27 M a s t e r s o f P o l i t i c s i n a P e r s o n a l P e r s p e c t i v e :
I t c a n n o t e n t i r e l y b e c o i n c i d e n c e t h a t th e w hole
d i r e c t i o n and p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e New D e a l c h a n g e d a t
a b o u t t h e tim e w hen Long w e n t to h i s g a u d y g r a v e .
R o o s e v e l t , W a l l a o e , H o p k in s a n d o t h e r s h a d becom e
K l n g f l s h d l s o l p l e s t o a d e g r e e t h e y p r o b a b l y n e v e r
r e a l i s e d . . . [and] t h e s e c o n d New D e a l , w h ic h a r o s e
I n 1935* d i f f e r e d i n p r i n c i p l e f ro m t h e f i r s t . I n t h e
f i r s t t h e o b j e c t i v e was t o b r i n g t o e c o n o m ic l i f e th e
m eans o f c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i o n w i t h o u t e s s e n t i a l l y
d i s t u r b i n g th e c o m p e t i t i v e s p i r i t w h ic h e n e r g i s e s i t
an d m ak es i t p r o d u c t i v e . The s e c o n d s o u g h t p o l i t i c a l
p o w e r b y t h e s im p le p r o c e s s o f r e d i s t r i b u t i n g e x i s t i n g
w e a l t h u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f s o c i a l J u s t i c e and u p l i f t b y
6 6
la w . ( 1 6 5 : 2 2 9 - 3 0 )
A g r e e i n g w i t h M o l e y 's e s t i m a t e o f L o n g 's I n f l u e n c e
on R o o s e v e l t , E l l i o t R o o s e v e l t , I n F r a n k l i n D. R o o s e v e l t :
H i s P e r s o n a l L e t t e r s , 1 9 2 ti-k 5 » w r o t e :
1 9 3 5 w&s a y e a r I n w h ic h t h e d e m a g o g u e s , w i t h t h e i r
a t t a c k s on W a ll s t r e e t p l u t o c r a c y , a t t a i n e d t h e i r
g r e a t e s t f o l l o w i n g . . . . I n a s e r i e s o f s to r m y
l e g i s l a t i v e b a t t l e s F . D. R. h i m s e l f p u s h e d t h r o u g h
a g r o u p o f m e a s u r e s w h ic h . . . w e re d e s i g n e d t o o u t
t h e g ro u n d fro m u n d e r th e c a s e o f th e d e m a g o g u e s .
(2 0 9 * 1 1 1
B e a s l e y w e n t e v e n f u r t h e r t h a n t h e s e o t h e r w r i t e r s :
As p o l i t i c i a n s l i v e on I n o t h e r p o l i t i c i a n s , so Huey
Long l i v e d o n i n R o o s e v e l t . One o f L o n g 's p r o m i s e s
becam e one o f R o o s e v e l t ' s p o s s e s s i o n s . T h a t p r o m is e
w as t h e o l d - a g e p e n s i o n s . R o o s e v e l t re n a m e d I t
S o c i a l S e c u r i t y . ( 2 9 :6 6 )
F . Raymond D a n i e l l c r e d i t e d Long w i t h b e i n g
R o o s e v e l t ' 8 t e a c h e r I n t h e a c c r u i n g o f p o w e r, when he
s a i d :
T h e re I s a t l e a s t c i r c u m s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e
P r e s i d e n t l e a r n e d a few l e s s o n s fro m t h e K i n g f i s h - -
w hen h e a s k e d a p r e d o m i n a n t l y D e m o c r a tic C o n g r e s s t o
g r a n t him th e p o w er to e n l a r g e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
Suprem e C o u r t . ( 7 6 :9 0 )
B e s i d e s r e c o g n i z i n g L o n g 's p o l i t i c a l I n f l u e n c e on
R o o s e v e l t , one m u s t r e a l i z e t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f L o n g 's
p r o g r a m , t h e S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h m ovem ent, t o th e A m e ric a n
p u b l i c a t t h a t t i m e . I n g i v i n g t h e " e c o n o m ic u n t o u c h a b l e s "
a v o i c e , L o n g s e r v e d " a s a c o n s t r u c t i v e f a c t o r i n o u r
n a t i o n a l l i f e , " one a u t h o r c l a i m e d ( 2 3 8 : 2 6 ) .
A l l e n , p o i n t i n g o u t how t h e s h o c k o f t h e d e p r e s s i o n
h a d a r e l i g i o u s e f f e c t u p o n p e o p l e w h ic h a s s e r t e d i t s e l f
I n a w i l l i n g n e s s to f o l l o w "som eone w i t h a l i n e o f s t u f f
i n w h ic h • . . [onej c o u l d r e a l l y b e l i e v e , " show ed how
s e c u l a r r e l i g i o n i s t s l i k e Long a r o s e t o l e a d to w a rd
"e c o n o m ic o r s o c i a l s a l v a t i o n " ( 1 : 1 5 7 - 5 8 )*
An e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r f o r the C h r is t ia n C entury
suggested the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the people w ith the Share-
Our-W ealth movement.
" S h a r e o u r w e a l t h " i s n o t m e r e l y a s lo g a n * I t l a
e v e n l e s s a p r o g r a m . R a t h e r , i t i s a d e e p - t h r o a t e d
g r o w l , a dem and and a w a r n i n g u t t e r e d b y m i l l i o n s who
b e l i e v e t h a t th e u n p a r a l l e l e d m a t e r i a l r i c h e s o f t h i s
c o u n t r y a r e r e a l l y " o u r " r i c h e s , a n d who b e l i e v e t h a t
t h e y a r e s u f f e r i n g u n n e c e s s a r y e x p l o i t a t i o n so l o n g
a s t h e i r s h a r e o f t h e s e r i c h e s i s r e s t r i c t e d to r e l i e f
d o l e s o r e v e n t o an Incom e b e lo w th e c o m f o r t l i n e .
( 4 0 7 :1 1 6 7 )
F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t th e p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g 1s
p r o g r a m , I n c l u d i n g n u m e r i c a l a c c o u n t s o f th e e x t e n t o f h i s
f o l l o w i n g , w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d u n d e r th e c r i t e r i a f o r th e
s e l e c t i o n o f th e s p e c i f i c s p e e c h t o b e s t u d i e d .
F i n a l l y , L ong w as r e p u t e d t o h a v e p r e s i d e n t i a l
a s p i r a t i o n s . A b e r n a t h y , i n h i s a r t i c l e i n t h e S o u t h e r n
S p e e c h J o u r n a l , made t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t " c a p a b l e
p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s " h a d p r e d i c t e d t h a t Long w o u ld one
d a y b e P r e s i d e n t ( 2 6 4 : 8 7 ) .
As e a r l y a s 1 9 2 3 , w hen he b e c a m e G o v e rn o r o f
L o u i s i a n a , Huey b r a g g e d , " I 'm g o n n a b e P r e s i d e n t some d a y "
( 1 2 5 :5 8 ) * He c e r t a i n l y w as n o t h i d i n g h i s p r e d i l e c t i o n t o
becom e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e w h en , b e f o r e t h e 1 9 2 9 im p e a c h m e n t
p r o c e e d i n g s , s p e a k i n g o f th e new g o v e r n o r ' s m a n s io n he h a d
b u i l t In L o u isia n a which was s im ila r In appearance to the
White House, Long to ld h i s f r i e n d s , "I want to f e e l at
home when I s t a r t in a t the White House" ( 1 2 5 : 7 2 ) . In
1931* when Judge R. W. Oglesby in tro d u c e d Long as a
p ro s p e c tiv e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te , Huey chided the
sp e a k er, say in g he had "exposed" him ( 1 0 6 : 1 3 5 ) . Even more
le g e n d a ry than some of th e se comments was the s to r y th a t
when form er P r e s id e n t Coolldge v i s i t e d L o u isia n a d u rin g
the Hoover a d m in is tra tio n , and a p i c t u r e of Long and the
e x - P re s id e n t was tak en , Long suggested the c a p tio n , the
form er and the f u tu r e P r e s id e n t, and q u estio n ed Coolldge
about H oover's housekeeping a b i l i t i e s , rem arking th a t he
wanted the White House In good shape when he g o t th e re
( 6 1 8 : 9 5 ) .
But legend alone does n o t make one a s e rio u s
p r e s i d e n t i a l c o n te n d e r. By 1 9 3 2 , P a rle y had a lre a d y seen
sig n s o f H uey's am b itio n ( 9 0 : 1 7 0 ) . About the same tim e,
in L o u is ia n a , Iluey again made h i s d e s i r e s known. He was
then S e n a t o r - e l e c t , a lth o u g h he had n o t y e t l e f t f o r
W ashington. "I'm le a v in g s t a t e p o l i t i c s f o r good," he
s a i d . " I 'v e done a l l I can f o r L o u is ia n a . Now I want to
h e lp the r e s t o f the co u n try " ( 1 2 5 : 8 6 , 7 7 : 1 7 2 ) . By 1933*
Bormann a s s e r t e d , Long had re c o g n ise d R oosevelt as h is
prime o p p o s itio n f o r th ese f u t u r e p r e s i d e n t i a l a s p i r a t i o n s ,
and he began h i s e f f o r t s to d i s c r e d i t R o o sev elt and h i s
p o l i c i e s (6 18:101).
69
By 1935* h e was a r e c o g n i z e d c o n t e n d e r f o r th e 1936
e l e c t i o n . B a s s o e x p e c t e d t o f i n d h i s name on th e b a l l o t
i n 1936 ( 2 6 6 :6 6 9 ) * By m i d - y e a r h e h a d b e g u n a n a t i o n w i d e
t o u r t a k i n g h i s p ro g ra m t o t h e p e o p l e ( 1 2 5 :1 2 5 ) * S i n d l e r
c a l l e d L o n g 's m ovem ent a v e h i c l e f o r h i s n a t i o n a l a m b i t i o n s
( 2 2 3 :6 3 ) * W ith i t h e h o p e d t o o p p o s e R o o s e v e l t f o r th e
D e m o c r a tic n o m i n a t i o n o r p e r h a p s e v e n fo rm a t h i r d p a r t y
( 7 7 :2 5 1 ) * A t f i r s t , i t w as s a i d h e w o u ld b a c k B o ra h i n
1 9 3 6 ( 1 2 5 : 1 2 5 * 6 3 2 : 1 0 ) ; he was n o t c e r t a i n w h ic h c o u r s e
t o f o l l o w , b u t h e was w o r k i n g to d e v e l o p a c o a l i t i o n
a g a i n s t R o o s e v e l t ( 1 2 5 :1 2 5 ) *
B e a rd b e l i e v e d t h a t Long o o u ld c a p t u r e a good p a r t
o f t h e S o u th i n 1 9 3 6 ; L o n g , i n r e b u t t a l , s t a t e d B e a rd was
i n c o r r e c t , t h a t h e c o u l d t a k e a l l o f I t ( 7 7 : 2 6 0 , 1 2 5 : 1 2 5 )*
Long c o n f i d e d to on e w r i t e r :
" S o k o l s k y , a l l t h i s t a l k a b o u t my r u n n i n g f o r
P r e s i d e n t i s eyew ash* I c o u l d n ' t c a r r y th e s t a t e s
w i t h t h e b i g e l e c t o r a l v o t e s . No S o u t h e r n e r c o u l d
e x c e p t i n a y e a r w hen i t ' s a n a t u r a l f o r th e D e m o c r a tic
P a r t y . B u t I 'm a f t e r t h a t O i o o s e v e l t l . • . "
(51+3:523) L
S o k o ls k y w e n t on t o d e s c r i b e L o n g 's t h e o r y . Long f e l t t h a t
I f h e c o u l d d e p r i v e R o o s e v e l t o f 5 * 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 v o t e s h e c o u l d
u p s e t h im ; o n th e o t h e r h a n d , i f H o o v e r w e re n o m i n a t e d ,
Long p l a n n e d to o r g a n i z e a t h i r d p a r t y (52+3:523)*
T h i s was p r e c i s e l y w h a t t h e R o o s e v e l t D e m o c ra ts
f e a r e d . R o b in s o n r e p o r t e d :
The d a n g e r to R o o s e v e l t l a y n o t I n th e p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t Long m i g h t s u c c e e d I n c a p t u r i n g c o n t r o l o f th e
70
n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t, n o r I n L o n g 's d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e
upo n n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , l e g i s l a t i o n , o r a < h i i n i a t r a t i o n .
The d a n g e r to th e D e m o c r a tic p a r t y l a y I n t h e e v i d e n t
f a c t t h a t an e x tr e m e m o v e m e n t - - n a t i o n a l l y d e v e l o p e d i n
1 9 3 6 — w o u ld t a k e fro m R o o s e v e l t a l a r g e v o t e and t h u s
w o u ld im p ro v e t h e c h a n c e s o f a R e p u b l i c a n v i c t o r y .
( 208:165- 66)
The D e m o c r a t i c l e a d e r s w ere w o r r i e d . I n t h e summer o f
1935# t h e y c o n d u c t e d a s e c r e t p o l l o f L o n g 's p o t e n t i a l
p o w e r, an d f o u n d , a c c o r d i n g t o Jam es F a r l e y , t h a t r u n n i n g
o n a t h i r d t i c k e t , Long w o u ld p o l l b e tw e e n 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 and
1 ^ , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 v o t e s - - e n o u g h t o p o s e a s e r i o u s t h r e a t to
R o o s e v e l t (9 0 :2 1 ^ 9 -5 0 ). R odney D u l c h e r , a W a s h in g to n n e w s
p a p e r c o r r e s p o n d e n t , r e p o r t e d t h a t L o n g 's c a n d i d a c y i n
1 9 3 6 h a d b e e n d i s c u s s e d e v e n e a r l i e r i n c a b i n e t m e e t i n g s
w i t h t h e " u t m o s t s e r i o u s n e s s " ( 7 7 : 2 5 2 ) .
Huey h i m s e l f d i d n o t b e l i e v e he c o u l d w in i n 1936
( 7 7 : 2 7 2 ) ; he f e l t t h a t 1 9 I4.O w o u ld be " h i s y e a r " ( 1 2 5 : 1 2 5 ) .
I n an I n t e r v i e w w i t h F o r r e s t D a v i s , L ong r e v e a l e d
t h a t he p l a n n e d to b e P r e s i d e n t f o u r te r m s ( 7 7 : 2 2 ) . H is
a u t o b i o g r a p h y . My F i r s t D ays i n t h e W h ite H ouse (1 3 9 )#
was p r e s e n t e d a s a " p r o p h e c y " o f w h a t he w o u ld do s h o u ld
h e becom e P r e s i d e n t .
L ong n o t o n l y d re a m e d o f b e c o m in g t h e c h i e f
e x e c u t i v e o f t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s , h e c o u l d a l s o r e a l i s t i c a l l y
e x p e c t a s u b s t a n t i a l v o t e i n h i s f a v o r - - e n o u g h t o make
him a s e r i o u s c o n t e n d e r f o r t h e h i g h e s t o f f i c e i n t h e l a n d .
B e s i d e s th e f i v e c r i t e r i a u s e d i n t h e c h o i c e o f t h e
s p e a k e r to be s t u d i e d , f i v e a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a w ere
u t i l i z e d I n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s p e e c h e s i n an a t t e m p t
t o e l i m i n a t e a s many v a r i a t i o n s a s p o s s i b l e b e tw e e n th e
s a m p l e s . B e c a u s e t h e b a s i c p r o b le m o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n
w as t o e s t a b l i s h new c r i t e r i a , i t was f e l t t h a t an
I n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f a s i n g l e s p e e c h w ou ld r e n d e r a m ore
v a l i d ju d g m e n t t h a n t h e n e c e s s a r i l y m ore s u p e r f i c i a l
e v a l u a t i o n o f a num ber o f s p e e c h e s . L o n g 's S h a r e - O u r -
W e a lth a d d r e s s e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n s t u d i e d b y o t h e r
r h e t o r i c i a n s i n t r a d i t i o n a l o r i t l c a l w o rk s ( 2 6 lf, 2 9 5 , 2 9 6 ,
6 1 6 , 6 1 7 , 6 1 8 , 6 3 2 ) . T a f t ' s l a b o r a d d r e s s e s h a v e b e e n
a n a l y z e d a l s o , i n some c a s e s a s p a r t o f l a r g e r s t u d i e s
(3 1 3 , 3 lf0 , 3 8 2 , 6 2 8 , 631*.* 6 3 5 ) .
The p r a c t i c e o f m a k in g an i n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f a
s i n g l e s p e e c h h a s b e e n b o t h d e m o n s t r a t e d a n d a d v o c a t e d
b y M a rie H ochm uth, p r o f e s s o r o f s p e e c h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y
o f I l l i n o i s ( 1 9 2 : 2 1 - 7 1 ) . I h e f i r s t c r i t e r i o n w a s , t h e n ,
t h a t ( 1 ) a s i n g l e s p e e c h b e s e l e c t e d f o r i n t e n s i v e a n a l y
s i s . S u c h an a n a l y s i s was m ade, c o n s i d e r i n g f a c t o r s b o t h
e x t r l n s i o a n d i n t r i n s i c t o t h e s p e e c h ; i n o t h e r w o r d s ,
b i o g r a p h i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e was c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g
w i t h an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n t e n t i t s e l f (lj.9 9 : 9 6 - 1 0 3 ) •
(2 ) E a c h s p e e c h was t o h a v e b e e n d i r e c t e d t o a n a t i o n a l ,
r a t h e r t h a n a r e g i o n a l , a u d i e n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , (3) t h e
s p e e c h was t o b e a b o u t t h e s p e a k e r ' s m a j o r n a t i o n a l
p r o p o s a l . The n e x t c r i t e r i o n w as an I n c i d e n t a l one r a t h e r
t h a n a p r o d u c t o f p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g : (If) b o t h o f th e
72
s p e e c h e s s e l e c t e d w ere r e f u t a t o r y I n n a t u r e , h a v i n g b e e n
g i v e n a s r e p l i e s t o e a r l i e r s p e e c h e s o f o t h e r n a t i o n a l
f i g u r e s . F i n a l l y (5) an a u t h e n t i c t e x t o f e a c h s p e e c h
was to b e a v a i l a b l e .
T a f t ' s s p e e c h w h ic h was s e l e c t e d was h i s n a t i o n a l
r a d i o a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d o v e r t h e M u tu a l and C o lu m b ia
B r o a d c a s t i n g S y s te m s on J u n e 2 0 , 19k7• I t was g i v e n I n
r e b u t t a l t o H a r r y S. T r u m a n 's e a r l i e r s p e e c h o n t h e v e t o
o f t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y A c t . The q u e s t i o n d e b a t e d w as,
" S h o u ld th e T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l become la w ? "
The p a s s a g e o f t h i s la w w as a n a t i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n
a r e g i o n a l I s s u e . Truman h ad b e e n s u b j e c t e d to an " i n t e n s e
p r e s s u r e c a m p a ig n " u r g i n g him t o v e t o t h e la w . A c c o r d i n g
t o N ew sw eek, h e had r e c e i v e d a b o u t 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 t e l e g r a m s ,
l e t t e r s , an d p o s t c a r d s ( 6 0 3 :l 5 ~ 1 7 ) « A CIO p e t i t i o n w i t h
5 0 0 ,0 0 0 s i g n a t u r e s w as l e f t a t t h e W h ite H o u s e .
C o n g r e s s i o n a l a c t i o n s t i m u l a t e d n a t i o n a l I n t e r e s t .
D e s p i t e T r u m a n 's v e t o , t h e H ouse v o t e d 331 t o 83 t o r e p a s s
th e b i l l , b e t t e r t h a n a ij. to 1 m a r g in w h e re o n l y a tw o-
t h i r d s v o t e was n e e d e d t o o v e r r i d e . I n th e S e n a t e a
n u m b er o f S e n a t o r s f i l i b u s t e r e d t o p o s t p o n e t h e r o l l c a l l
t o " l e t t h e c o u n t r y b e h e a r d f r o m . " I h e R e p u b l i c a n s k e p t
t h e S e n a t e I n a r o u n d - t h e - c l o c k s e s s i o n to b r e a k t h e
m a r a t h o n . A f t e r a c o n t i n u o u s s e s s i o n o f o v e r t h i r t y h o u r s ,
t h e l o n g e s t s i n c e 1927» t h e S e n a t e p a s s e d t h e b i l l o v e r
t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l v e t o w i t h a s i x v o t e m a r g i n .
73
B e s i d e s b e i n g v i t a l l y I n t e r e s t e d I n t h e I s s u e , th e
c o u n t r y l i s t e n e d t o t h e d e b a t e . The New Y o rk Times
r e p o r t e d t h e " c o u n t r y - w i d e ” n a t u r e o f th e a u d i e n c e f o r
b o t h T r u m a n 's and T a f t ' s r a d i o t a l k s d e s i g n e d t o make a
" d i r e c t a p p e a l to t h e c o u n t r y " (lj.7 1 »6 / 2 1 /i|.7 : 1 , 3 ) .
The Tim es com m ented:
B o th t h e P r e s i d e n t and th e S e n a t o r w a i t e d f o r t h e
r e s p o n s e o f t h e c o u n t r y t o t h e i r a p p e a l s . S t a r t i n g i n
t h e e a r l y h o u r s y e s t e r d a y m o r n in g , t e l e g r a m s p o u r e d
i n t o th e W h ite House a n d S e n a t o r T a f t ' s o f f i c e i n th e
S e n a t e O f f i c e B u i l d i n g . The W h ite H ouse r e c e i v e d
1 5 0 0 t e l e g r a m s by m i d - a f t e r n o o n , 9 0 p e r c e n t o f them
p r a i s i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p o s i t i o n . S e n a t o r T a f t ' s
o f f i c e s a i d he h a d r e c e i v e d 6 0 0 w i r e s , a l l b u t f i f t y
o f them w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y e n d o r s i n g h i s s t a n d .
( 4 7 1 . 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , I V :1 )
The T a f t - H a r t l e y A c t was tr e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t
to t h e n a t i o n , to t h e R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y , a n d t o T a f t . What
one s o u r c e c a l l e d th e R e p u b l i c a n " p i e c e de r e s i s t a n c e , "
W i l l i a m S. W h ite te r m e d , i n t h e New Y ork T i m e s , th e " m a jo r
l e g i s l a t i v e e f f o r t " o f T a f t ' s c a r e e r (ij.7 1 , 6 / 7 / 1 4- 7 : 2 ) . i n
t h e same n e w s p a p e r , L o u i s S t a r k c a l l e d i t " o n e o f t h e m o st
i m p o r t a n t p i e c e s o f s o c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h e l a s t f i f t e e n
y e a r s " (1 j.7 1 ,6 /1 5 /V 7 » IV :1 0 ) . A t h i r d a r t i c l e i n th e T im es
s t a t e d :
The i s s u e i n t h i s s t r u g g l e f t h e d u e l b e tw e e n T a f t
and Truman o v e r l a b o r J i s a c r i t i c a l one f o r t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t c o n c e r n s t h e r e l a t i o n s o f m i l l i o n s
o f u n i o n w o r k e r s w i t h t h e i r e m p l o y e r s ; and t h e r e f o r e
t h e w h o le econom y. T h a t i s t h e e c o n o m ic f a c t o r .
P o l i t i c a l l y th e i s s u e may be a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n th e
19^-8 P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , now o n l y a l i t t l e m ore
t h a n a y e a r aw ay. (1+71,6/22/1^7, IV : 1)
W h ite p o i n t e d o u t i n The T a f t S t o r y t h a t t h i s was
t h e " f i r a t r e a l an d m a j o r u p r o o t i n g o f an e a t a b l l a h e d New
D e a l p o l i c y £ th e W agner A c t ] " ; t h a t I t w as t h e o n l y m a j o r
l e g i s l a t i v e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f T a f t ' s l i f e t h a t w as
" g e n u i n e l y p o p u l a r " ( 2 5 3 : 7 9 ) •
T a f t , m i s r e a d i n g th e r e s u l t s o f h i s s u c c e s s f u l
1950 c a m p a ig n f o r r e e l e c t l o n i n O h io , was s o p ro u d o f h i s
l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t
he I g n o r e d e v e r y c o u n s e l t o s o f t - p e d a l t h a t i s s u e , o r
a t a l l e v e n t s n o t to go o u t l o o k i n g f o r t r o u b l e on i t .
E v e ry w h e re and i n e v e r y c i r c u m s t a n c e he I n v i t e d , a n d
e v e n i n s i s t e d u p o n , d e b a t e o v e r th e a c t . ( 2 5 3 : 9 5 )
The l a s t c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e
s p e c i f i c s p e e c h to b e s t u d i e d w as t h a t a n a u t h e n t i c t e x t
b e a v a i l a b l e .
As a g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e i n s p e e c h c r i t i c i s m , b u t
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s , t e x t u a l a u t h e n t i c i t y
a s s u m e s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e . T h o n a se n an d B a i r d h a v e
c o n s e n t e d upon t h e c r i t i c ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to s e c u r e th e
m o s t a u t h e n t i c t e x t a v a i l a b l e b e f o r e a s s e s s i n g th e m e r i t
o f a s p e a k e r :
C l e a r l y , t h e c r i t i c n e e d s g e n u in e m a t e r i a l s . . . .
I f a s p e a k e r i s to b e Ju d g e d b y t i i a t h e s a i d , i t
w ould seem p r o p e r t h a t h i s w ords b e q u o t e d w i t h a s
much f i d e l i t y to o r i g i n a l u t t e r a n c e a s p o s s i b l e .
( 2 3 3 :3 0 8 )
I n d e t e r m i n i n g th e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y
s p e e c h , i t s s p u r i o u s n a t u r e ( w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e o r a t o r
a c t u a l l y d e l i v e r e d th e s p e e c h ) i s n o t u s u a l l y an i s s u e ;
t h e m a in c o n c e r n o f m o d ern c r i t i c i s m i s w h e t h e r o r n o t
75
"the a v a ila b le t e x t m ir ro rs f a i t h f u l l y the words o r i g i n a l l y
spoken by the o r a to r " ( 2 3 3 :3 0 5 ) * O bviously th en , the most
a u th e n tic t e x t p o s s ib le i s a re c o rd in g made a t the time
o f d e l iv e r y . Both of the speeches s e le c te d f o r study were
reco rd ed w hile b ein g d e l iv e r e d , a id In b o th c a se s the
re c o rd ed v e rsio n was a v a ila b le to t h i s w r i t e r . T a f t 's
speech, o r i g i n a l l y b ro a d c a s t over the Columbia B ro ad c a st
in g System, was provided through the c o u rte s y of Lewis W.
S h o lle n b e rg e r, A sso ciate D ir e c to r of P u b lic A f f a ir s f o r
CBS i n W ashington, D.C. The tape r e c o rd in g o f L ong's
speech, o r i g i n a l l y b ro a d c a s t over the N a tio n a l B ro a d c ast
in g Company, was made from a p r im itiv e d is c re c o rd in g
owned by NBC, secu red through the c o u rte sy of E rn e s t G.
Bormann, F lo r i d a S ta te U n iv e r s ity , f o r whom th e o r i g i n a l
d is c re c o rd in g was made.
In an e v a lu a tio n of th e e t h i c s of a sp e ak er, what
the speaker a c t u a l l y s a id and what he In ten d e d to say
b o th seemed im p o rtan t to t h i s stu d y , f o r I n t e n t was so
o f te n emphasized In th e l i t e r a t u r e as a c r i t e r i o n f o r
e t h i c a l r h e t o r i c . What b o th sp eak ers a c t u a l l y sa id was
e a s i l y e s ta b li s h e d from th e re c o rd in g s ; what each in te n d e d
to say was more d i f f i c u l t to a s c e r t a i n , b u t I attem pted
to determ ine the l a t t e r through a com parative a n a ly s is of
a v a ila b le w r i tte n t e x t s .
I t was my th e o ry t h a t a p rep ared m a n u scrip t
r e le a s e d p r i o r to o r c o n c u rr e n tly w ith the a c tu a l d e l iv e r y
76
o f t h e s p e e c h o r a l a t e r e d i t e d v e r a l o n w ould be l i k e l y to
r e f l e c t w h a t e a c h s p e a k e r I n t e n d e d to s a y , u n a f f e c t e d by
t h e p r e s s u r e s an d e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r s p e e c h
s i t u a t i o n . I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t n e w s p a p e r o r m a g a z in e
r e p r i n t s m i g h t be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e p r e l i m i n a r y
m a n u s c r i p t r e l e a s e d to th e p r e s s , w h i l e v e r s i o n s a p p e a r i n g
I n th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y r e f l e c t th e
e d i t i n g , r e v i s i o n s , a n d e x t e n s i o n s o f r e m a r k s p o s s i b l e I n
t h a t o r g a n .
R o b e r t K in g I n h i s s t u d y o f a r a d i o s p e e c h b y
F r a n k l i n D e la n o R o o s e v e l t c o n f i r m e d th e p o i n t t h a t a p r e
p a r e d t e x t d o e s n o t a l w a y s c o n fo rm t o t h e w o rd s s p o k e n
o v e r th e a i r (i ^ 2 2 : l j . 3 )• K in g c h e c k e d a m a n u s c r i p t
f u r n i s h e d b y th e P r e s i d e n t ' s s e c r e t a r y w i t h a r a d i o
r e c o r d i n g o f w h a t th e P r e s i d e n t s a i d . He f o u n d t h a t th e
p r e p a r e d t e x t c o n fo rm e d a l m o s t e x a c t l y w i t h th e t e x t s
p r i n t e d i n t h e p a p e r s b u t o n l y c l o s e l y w i t h w h a t R o o s e v e l t
a c t u a l l y s a i d , t h a t
a s we r e a d t h e s p e e c h e s o f th e d a y £we m u s t rem sm bexj
t h a t t h e y a r e , a f t e r a l l , w h at th e s p e a k e r I n t e n d e d
t o s a y , th o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w h a t h e s a i d .
S i m i l a r l y , t h e s p e e c h e s made o v e r th e a i r r e p r e s e n t
n o t w h a t t h e s p e a k e r n e c e s s a r i l y h a s w r i t t e n , f u l l y
I n t e n d i n g to s a y , b u t w h a t h e a c t u a l l y s a y s . (1+22:
438- 1 ^)
Zon R o b in s o n o f S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y s u p p o r t e d t h e
t h e o r y t h a t t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd s e r v e s a s a p o s s i b l e
s o u r c e o f w h a t t h e s p e a k e r i n t e n d e d t o s a y ( 5 0 7 : 6 - 1 2 ) .
I n a l i s t o f I k e t o r s w h ic h o p e r a t e f o r i n a c c u r a c y o f
77
s p e e c h t r a n s c r i p t i o n , he i n c l u d e d l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e
s y s te m o f r e p o r t i n g , e d i t i n g , r e v i s i o n , e x p u n c t i o n , and
e x t e n s i o n o f r e m a r k s . A member h a s t h e p r i v i l e g e t o a d d ,
d e l e t e , o m i t a w h o le s p e e c h a n d s u b s t i t u t e a new t e x t ;
some m em bers t a k e e x t e n s i v e l i b e r t i e s i n t h i s a r e a .
The a v a i l a b l e w r i t t e n t e x t s o f t h e T a f t a d d r e s s
w ere e x a m in e d i n an e f f o r t to d e t e r m i n e t h e i r r e l a t i v e
a u t h e n t i c i t y a s r e c o r d s o f w h a t he a c t u a l l y s a i d and to
i d e n t i f y an y d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e t e x t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r
t h i s s t u d y . The a v a i l a b l e t e x t s I n c l u d e d v e r s i o n s fro m
t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd ( 6 l l : A 3 2 3 2 - 3 3 ) » t h e New Y o rk Tim es
( A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s ) (lj.71# 6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : I4. ) , V i t a l S p e e c h e s (5 5 7 :
5 M 3 -5 0 ), and R e p r e s e n t a t i v e A m e ric a n S p e e c h e s (1 6 :
196- 2 0 2).
I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e c o r d e d v e r s i o n
I s o b v i o u s l y a lw a y s t h e m o st a u t h e n t i c r e p r o d u c t i o n o f
w h a t w as a c t u a l l y s a i d . Of t h e f o u r p r i n t e d t e x t s , t h e
C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd p r o v e d to b e t h e m o s t e x a c t when
c o m p a re d w i t h t h e r e c o r d i n g . ( T h i s f i n d i n g c o n t r a d i c t s
K i n g 's c o n c l u s i o n t h a t New Y o rk Tim es t e x t s w ere m ore
a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e R e c o rd ( 4 2 2 )• M in o r word s u b s t i t u t i o n s
a n d o m i s s i o n s c o n s t i t u t e t h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e
tw o . No s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e r e c o r d e d
v e r s i o n and t h e R e c o rd t e x t w ere f o u n d . As f a r a s t h e
T a f t a d d r e s s i s c o n c e r n e d , my t h e o r y t h a t t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l
R e c o r d w ou ld s e r v e a s a s o u r c e o f w h a t t h e s p e a k e r
78
In ten d e d to say r a t h e r than v h a t he a c tu a l ly s a id , was no t
s u b s t a n t i a t e d . The d i s p a r i t y between t h i s t e x t and o th e r
w r i t t e n t e x t s su g g e sts t h a t the Senate v e r s io n , in s e r t e d
In to the Record as an e x te n s io n of remarks by the
Honorable Joseph H. B a ll, R epublican S enator from
M innesota, I s p ro b ab ly a somewhat in a c c u ra te t r a n s c r i p t i o n
of what T a ft a c t u a l l y s a id over CBS, b u t the o r ig in of the
newspaper and p e r i o d i c a l t e x ts I s more d o u b tfu l.
I t i s p o s s ib le th a t th e se u n o f f i c i a l w r i tte n
so u rces were taken from p re ss r e le a s e s is s u e d by T a f t 's
s t a f f . Both Isaa cso n (628:1^.19) and Rapp (63U-:388)
e s t a b l i s h e d th a t T aft o c c a s io n a lly su p p lie d m an u scrip t
copy f o r newspaper r e l e a s e s even though he may a c t u a l l y
have spoken extem poraneously from n o te s .
An a n a ly s is o f the e x te n t and n a tu re o f the
om issions in th e se u n o f f i c i a l w r i tte n so u rces suggested
(1) t h a t they were p ro b ab ly n o t s e p a r a te and independent
t e x t s ; and (2) th a t they could c o n c elv e ab ly have been the
p ro d u ct of a s in g le p re s s r e l e a s e . Thonssen and B aird
have p o in te d o u t the dangers in c o l l a t i n g te x ts which
embrace a common e r r o r , end s tr e s s e d the d e s i r a b i l i t y of
comparing s e p a ra te and independent t e x t s when a tte m p tin g
to e s t a b l i s h th e most a c c u ra te v e rs io n (233:308-309).
The c lo se s i m i l a r i t y found in these th re e t e x t s supported
the th e o ry th a t they were no t such t e x t s .
The a d d re sse s p r in te d in V i t a l Speeches and
79
R e p re s e n ta tiv e American Speeches are i d e n t i c a l ex c e p t f o r
changes in c a p i t a l i z a t i o n and p arag rap h in g . The f i r s t
v a r i a t i o n might w e ll be due to the J o u r n a ls 1 ty p o g ra p h ic a l
s t y l e s h e e t s , the second to e d i t i n g or w ire s e rv ic e
f a c i l i t i e s . S im ila r v a r i a t i o n s are o b se rv a b le in th e New
York Times t e x t , along w ith some a l t e r a t i o n s in p u n c tu a tio n
and s e v e r a l o th e r d if f e r e n c e s of a minor n a tu re . For
i n s ta n c e , B a ir d 's te x t In c lu d e s one l i k e l y ty p o g ra p h ic a l
e r r o r , the s u b s t i t u t i o n of "90 days" f o r "80 days" which
appears in a l l o th e r t e x t s . In a d d itio n , in t h i s v e rs io n ,
as w e ll as in the V i t a l Speeches te x t , th e words " r e f e r s
to l e t " and " a lla y " are s u b s t i t u t e d f o r " p r e f e r s to l e t "
and "d elay " which appeared in th e re c o rd in g and the Senate
t e x t s . The Times a ls o used " a lla y " but r e ta in e d " p r e f e r s
to l e t , "
The most a c c u ra te o f the u n o f f i c i a l s o u rc e s , the
New York Times, was used by t h i s w r i te r as r e p r e s e n ta ti v e
of a l l th ree of these s o u rc e s. The Times v e rs io n c o n ta in s
a number of om issions n o t o n ly of in d iv id u a l words b u t
also of p h ra se s and c la u s e s , and a com parison w ith th e
tape re c o r d in g re v e a le d th a t these om issions in many ca ses
have an extemporaneous f l a v o r , which seemed to su p p o rt the
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s v e r s io n , given the b y lin e "By the
A sso c iate d P r e s s ," might have come from a p re lim in a ry
p re s s r e l e a s e .
While c o n c u rrin g t h a t i t was u s u a lly T a f t 's custom
80
t o p r e p a r e m a n u s c r i p t s f o r r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n p e r f o r m
a n c e s , Rapp o f f e r e d some e v i d e n c e w h ic h c o u l d c a s t d o u b t
on th e v a l i d i t y o f th e p r e s s r e l e a s e t h e o r y . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e
C l a r e n c e J . Brown w r o t e t o R ap p , A u g u s t 4* 1954*
I can r e c a l l , In answ ering P re s id e n t Truman, f o r
exam ple--and on many o th e r o ccasio n s where he had
s h o rt n o tic e and no time to p r e p a r e —Bob T a ft making
a m a s te rfu l p r e s e n ta ti o n on r a d io and t e l e v i s i o n from
a few n o te s h u r r i e d l y s c rib b le d down w hile l i s t e n i n g
to the p rev io u s sp e a k e r. (634*3®8)
Rapp does not i d e n t i f y the o c c a sio n f o r t h i s comment. Two
s i m i l a r s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n s c o u l d b e th e s u b j e c t o f t h i s
r e f e r e n c e . Hie s p e e c h b e i n g s t u d i e d c o u l d b e t h e o n e
d e s c rib e d . On the o th e r hand, Brown could also be c i t i n g
T a f t 's r e b u t t a l to Truman over the a i r on May 1 6 , 1 9 5 0 .
Upon t h i s o c c a sio n , T a ft was fo rc e d by the p re ssu re of
time to p r e p a r e r a t h e r h a s t i l y t o a n s w e r Truman's r e c e n t
s p e e c h e s a n d h i s b r o a d c a s t o f t h e n i g h t b e f o r e ( 6 2 8 : 3 5 0 ) .
P e r h a p s Brown w as r e f e r r i n g to t h e J u n e 2 0 , 1947
s p e e c h . Rapp d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r o r n o t Brown
a c t u a l l y w i t n e s s e d w h a t he t e s t i f i e d t o , o r m e r e l y assu m ed
I t t o b e t r u e b e c a u s e o f th e s h o r t p r e p a r a t i o n t i m e . W h ile
I t was t r u e t h a t t h e r e w as r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e tim e t o p r e
p a r e a r e s p o n s e t o T r u m a n 's s p e e c h , h i s v e t o h ad b e e n
e x p e c t e d a s e a r l y a s J u n e 5 ( 4 7 1 * 6 / 5 / 4 7 : 1 ) * an d t h e v e t o
m e ss a g e h a d b e e n r e c e i v e d i n t h e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
b y 1 1 : 4 5 A .M ., F r i d a y , w h e re i t was r e a d a l o u d , w i t h
C o n g re s sm e n f o l l o w i n g t h e i r own c o p i e s , b e g i n n i n g a t
1 2 : 0 7 . The r o l l c a l l was s t a r t e d a t 1 2 : 4 9 ( 6 0 3 : 1 6 ) . T h u s,
I t m u s t b e c l e a r t h a t T ru m a n 's o p p o s i t i o n to t h e b i l l w as
known f o r some d a y s* a n d t h e c o n t e n t o f h i s v e t o m e s s a g e
was a v a i l a b l e to T a f t f o r a l m o s t e l e v e n h o u r s , r a t h e r th a n
l e s s t h a n a n h o u r p r i o r to h i s r e b u t t a l . T r u m a n 's s p e e c h
t o t h e n a t i o n was d e l i v e r e d a t t e n o ' c l o c k th e same
e v e n i n g fro m th e W h ite H ouse w i t h T a f t ' s f o l l o w i n g f o r t y -
f i v e m i n u t e s l a t e r f r o m t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g c h am b er o f th e
S e n a t e ( 4 7 1 * 6 / 2 5 / 4 7 # I V : 1 ) . P o s s i b l y I f Brown w ere p r e s e n t ,
w h a t he a c t u a l l y saw was t h e h a s t y s c r i b b l i n g o f l a s t
m in u te c h a n g e s - - a l t h o u g h t h e r e I s no e v i d e n c e o t h e r th a n
w h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d t o s u p p o r t e i t h e r p o s i t i o n .
B r o w n 's s t a t e m e n t s do n o t p r o h i b i t w h a t was e a r l i e r d e s
c r i b e d a s b e i n g T a f t ' s h a b i t u a l m e th o d o f s p e e c h p r e p a r a
t i o n — a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y n o t f o r r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n
a d d r e s s e s - - t o s p e a k e x t e m p o r a n e o u s l y f ro m n o t e s , s t i l l
p r o v i d i n g some s o r t o f p r e l i m i n a r y f o r th e p r e s s .
Whatever the so u ro e, none o f the d if f e r e n c e s between
th ese r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t e x t s was c o n s id e re d s i g n i f i c a n t to
an assessm ent of T a f t 's r h e t o r i c a l e t h i c s . For t h i s
re a s o n , alth o u g h f u l l t e x t s of b o th the rec o rd e d and the
Times v e rs io n s are Included in th e appendix, f o r purposes
of t h i s study I f e l t no o b lig a tio n to d ea l w ith any te x t
ex c ep t the re co rd ed one.
E a r l i e r remarks in d ic a te d t h a t the contem porary
speech c r i t i c i s l e s s concerned w ith w hether o r n o t the
82
speaker a c t u a l l y d e liv e re d the speech In q u e s tio n , f o r
u s u a lly th e re i s no d i f f i c u l t y in p roving he a c t u a l l y d id
give the speech. T a f t 's b ro a d c a s t, v h lc h was p r a c t i c a l l y
sim ultaneous w ith Truman's ( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 3 / 4 7 : 1 ) , was re co rd e d .
Such evidence i s I n d is p u ta b le .
But th e re I s a n o th er a s p e c t of a u t h e n t i c i t y which
the modern c r i t i c must fa c e ; i t c e n te r s around th e old
p r a c t ic e of w r itin g speeches f o r o th e r s , c u r r e n t l y termed
"ghost w r i t i n g . ” Thonssen and B aird d is c u s s e d the
d i f f i c u l t y of d eterm in in g how many speeches nb e a r the marks
o f hands and minds o th e r than those of the sp e ak ers to whom
they are a t t r i b u t e d ” (233:300). Hiey concluded t h a t "in
many cases th e re may be grave doubt as to w hether the
t e x t which the c r i t i c e s t a b l i s h e s as a u th e n tic Is r e a l l y
the o r i g i n a l work, in f u l l , of the p a r t i c u l a r s p e a k e r”
( 2 3 3 : 3 0 1 ) .
Whether o r n o t one accepted Brown's testim ony th a t
T a ft spoke extem poraneously from n o te s In t h i s c a se , o r
w hether one su b sc rib e d to the th e o ry th a t he read from a
m a n u sc rip t, which was h is u su a l p r a c t i c e f o r ra d io
a d d re s s e s , th e re i s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y in e s t a b l i s h i n g the
f a c t th a t T a ft d id w rite h i s own sp e ech es.
As e a r l y as th e 1938 Ohio campaign f o r the S en ate,
i t was reco rd ed t h a t T aft did not use a s p e e c h w rite r (1 0 5 :
1 2 7 ) . A lice R oosevelt Longworth re p o rte d t h a t T aft wrote
h i s own sp e ech e s, a lth o u g h he d id n o t o fte n p r a c t i c e them
63
( 4 4 2 :9 1 ) * H i* b i o g r a p h e r . W h ite w r o te i n m ore d e t a i l :
He w a a , ao f a r aa I know , th e o n l y e l e v a t e d W e s te rn
p o l i t i c i a n a p a r t fro m C h u r c h i l l , who n e v e r u a e d a
g h o s t w r i t e r o r a n y o f t h e o t h e r a i d s and t r a p p i n g s
o f t h e a g e o f r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n and o f g e n e r a l
c la m o r i n t h e n i g h t . He d i d h i s s p e e c h e s th e d i r e c t
way and th o u g h t h e y w e re n e v e r b r i l l i a n t t h e y w ere a t
a l l e v e n t s h i s own.
F o r a m a j o r s p e e c h " o u t s i d e " - - t h a t i s , away fro m
t h e S e n a t e — t h a t r e q u i r e d , s a y , t h i r t y m i n u t e s to
d e l i v e r h e w o u ld d i c t a t e t o a s t e n o g r a p h e r f o r a b o u t
f o r t y - f i v e m i n u t e s . He to o k h e r ty p e d c o p y , made a
fe w m a rk s h e r e and t h e r e w i t h a p e n c i l , h a d h e r ty p e
t h e t h i n g o v e r a g a i n an d t h a t was t h a t . H o s t o f t h e
tim e i n s p e a k i n g i n t h e S e n a t e he h a d no m a n u s c r i p t
o f an y s o r t o r e v e n n o t e s . ( 2 5 3 :2 0 4 - 2 0 5 )
The m o st t h o r o u g h t r e a t m e n t o f T a f t ' s s p e e c h w r i t i n g
p r a c t i c e s w as I n c l u d e d i n I s a a c s o n ' s d o c t o r a l s t u d y . M ost
o f T a f t ' s s p e a k i n g w as e x t e m p o r a n e o u s , a l t h o u g h he o f t e n
u s e d a m a n u s c r i p t f o r m a j o r a d d r e s s e s . H i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
a s s i s t a n t , Mr. I . J a c k M a r t i n , r e c a l l e d i n a l e t t e r to
M iss I s a a c s o n , d a t e d M arch 19* 195 6 :
D u r i n g my a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h S e n a t o r T a f t I know o f
no s p e e c h w h ere he h a d a c t u a l h e l p e x c e p t i n s e c u r i n g
t h e s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . The S e n a t o r c o u l d s p e a k
o f f t h e c u f f f o r a n h o u r on a n y s u b j e c t , no m a t t e r how
t e c h n i c a l , tn d when h e p r e p a r e d a s p e e c h he c o u l d
d i c t a t e a h a l f h o u r ' s s p e e c h i n 4 5 m i n u t e s . A lth o u g h
h e r e q u i r e d a f i r s t d r a f t , i n m o s t I n s t a n c e s th e
s e c o n d d r a f t w as t h e f i n i s h e d d o c u m e n t. T h e re m i g h t
h a v e b e e n a c o u p l e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s , b u t I do n o t
rem em b er t h e e x a c t o c c a s i o n s . ( 6 2 6 :3 4 9 )
T a f t d i d , h o w e v e r , s e e k h e l p f o r h i s s e c o n d s p e e c h
to t h e G r i d i r o n C lu b i n W a s h in g to n ( 6 2 6 : 3 6 1 ) . Ten y e a r s
p r e v i o u s l y he h a d f a i l e d i n h i s f i r s t s p e e c h b e f o r e t h i s
i m p o r t a n t a u d i e n c e o f n e w s p a p e r c o r r e s p o n d e n t s ( 6 2 8 : 3 6 1 ) .
T a f t n e v e r made an y s e c r e t o f t h e h e l p he h a d r e c e i v e d on
t h i s o c c a s i o n ( 6 2 8 : 3 6 6 ) .
On o t h e r , th o u g h r a r e , o c c a s i o n s he a l s o s o u g h t th e
h e l p o f Mr. W a lte r T ro han, C h ie f o f the W ash in g to n B u re au ,
C h icag o T r ib u n e , who had g iv e n him th e m ost a i d i n th e
a f o r e m e n tio n e d c a s e ( 6 2 8 : 3 6 4 ) . T rohan w ro te to M iss
I s a a c s o n on J a n u a r y 29# 1955# d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e o t h e r
I n s t a n c e s .
Once i n a lo n g w h ile he s e n t me so m e th in g w hich he
was p r e p a r i n g f o r p u b l i c a t i o n , u s u a l l y accom p an ied
by a b r i e f n o t e r e a d i n g : " P le a s e ta k e th e T a f t c u r s e
o f f t h i s . " . . . I n su c h e f f o r t s my c o n t r i b u t i o n s were
n o t I m p o r t a n t . I s h o r t e n e d s e n t e n c e s , s u g g e s te d
a d d i t i o n s o r a l i n e o r so f o r e m p h a sis o r f o r c l a r i t y .
• • •
I would sa y t h a t T a f t now and th e n c o n s u l t e d me.
I d i d n ' t w r i t e h i s s t u f f i n any s e n s e . No one d i d h i s
t h i n k i n g f o r him and no one d i d h i s w r i t i n g f o r him .
You have o n l y to lo o k a t h i s s p e e c h e s to se e t h a t .
(628:367- 68)
B enjam in S t o l b e r g , a J o u r n a l i s t w r i t i n g f o r the
A m erican M e rc u ry , a l s o r e i t e r a t e d T a f t ' s h a b i t o f d o in g
h i s own p r e p a r a t i o n — r e s e a r c h , a r t i c l e s , s p e e c h e s , and
b r o a d c a s t s (5 4 9 :3 ,9 3 ).
I n summary, T a f t u s u a l l y r e c e i v e d l i t t l e , i f a n y ,
a i d i n c o n s t r u c t i n g h i s s p e e c h e s ; w h at h e l p he d id
u t i l i z e was m o s tly l i m i t e d to e d i t i n g and r e s e a r c h .
The same f i v e c r i t e r i a were u se d t o d e te r m i n e
w h ich o f L o n g 's a d d r e s s e s s h o u ld be s t u d i e d . The sp e e c h
w hich was s e l e c t e d was h i s n a t i o n a l r a d i o a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d
o v e r th e N a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g Company on M arch 7 , 1935*
I t was g iv e n i n r e b u t t a l to an e a r l i e r s p e e c h a t t a c k i n g
8 5
Long b y G e n e r a l Hugh S . J o h n s o n . A lth o u g h Long d i d
a t t a c k J o h n s o n and th e R o o s e v e l t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n I n th e
f i r s t p a r t o f h i s a d d r e s s , h i s p r i m a r y s u b j e c t was t h e
S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h p r o g ra m .
Bomnann f e l t t h i s s p e e c h w as c o n c e i v a b l y L o n g ’ s
m o s t I m p o r t a n t s p e e c h , th e " h i g h w a t e r m a rk " o f h i s
c a r e e r , r e p r e s e n t i n g Long I n one o f h i s m o st p e r s u a s i v e
m om ents ( 6 1 8 : 5 ) •
At f i r s t , L o n g 's m ovem ent was a r e g i o n a l o n e ; l a t e r ,
a t l e a s t b y e a r l y 1 9 3 5 * I t had becom e a n a t i o n a l I s s u e .
C h a r l e s and Mary B e a rd n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h th e a c t u a l
m e c h a n ism f o r s e c u r i n g t h e a d v o c a t e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
w e a l t h was v a g u e , " t h e r e was no d o u b t a b o u t t h e e f f e c t i v e -
n e s s o f h i s a p p e a l and th e m a g n itu d e o f th e f o l l o w i n g he
s e c u r e d " ( 2 8 :1 9 5 ) * J o h n F . C a r t e r ( 2 3 8 : 2 1 - 2 3 ) w r i t i n g
a b o u t th e l e t t e r s Long r e c e i v e d , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t I n 193lj.»
90 p e r c e n t o f t h e S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h m a l l was w r i t t e n I n
p e n c i l on r o u g h n o t e p a p e r . L e s s t h a n 5 p e r c e n t was
t y p e d on p r i n t e d o r e n g r a v e d l e t t e r h e a d s . A f t e r t h e
n a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t s , m o st o f w h ic h o c c u r r e d I n 1 9 3 5 * t h e
p e r c e n t a g e o f th e l a t t e r ty p e o f I n q u i r y Jumped to 27 p e r
c e n t a n d I n c l u d e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e fro m e v e r y s t a t e , H a w a ii,
A l a s k a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e I s l a n d s , an d C a n a d a . By
F e b r u a r y 1 , one s e t o f f i g u r e s c r e d i t e d L o n g 's s o c i e t y w i t h
27,1^31 c l u b s I n w h ic h t h e r e w e re 7 , 6 8 2 , 7 6 8 m em bers
( 2 3 8 : 2 3 ) .
P r i o r to J o h n s o n 'a a t t a c k th e m ovem ent was s t i l l
f u n d a m e n t a l l y r e g i o n a l l o c a t i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f i t s
m e m b e rsh ip i n L o u i s i a n a , A r k a n s a s , and M i s s i s s i p p i , w i t h
C a l i f o r n i a , New Y o rk , an d M in n e s o t a f o l l o w i n g ( 2 3 8 : 2 4 ) .
A f t e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t t a c k , l e t t e r s p o u r e d i n fro m
e v e r y w h e r e . Long h a d to i n c r e a s e h i s s t e n o g r a p h i c h e l p to
t w e n t y - o n e i n th e d a y and f o u r t e e n a t n i g h t . H is p r i v a t e
s e c r e t a r y , E a r l e J . C h r i a t e n b e r r y , was b r o u g h t c l o s e t o a
n e r v o u s b re a k d o w n ( 2 3 8 : 2 4 ) . B orm ann, q u o t i n g C h r i s t e n -
b e r r y , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Long was a v e r a g i n g 3 4 » 0 ° ° p i e c e s
o f m a i l d a l l y p r i o r t o h i s M arch 7 s p e e c h , a n d t h a t two
d a y s l a t e r , on M arch 9* b i s m a i l i n c r e a s e d to 69*000
pieces (295:254)*
I n an a r t i c l e i n th e N a t i o n , Raymond G. S w ing t o l d
a b o u t L o n g 's b i d f o r n a t i o n a l p o w e r:
The S h a r e Our W e a l t h o r g a n i s a t i o n i s f i r s t o f a l l
a g l o r i f i e d m a i l i n g l i s t , a l r e a d y o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t
i n t h e l a n d , b u t c e r t a i n t o grow much l a r g e r o n c e th e
L o n g c a m p a ig n i s u n d e r w ay. I t i s t h e n u c l e u s o f a
n a t i o n - w i d e p o l i t i c a l m a c h i n e . ( 5 5 6 :9 9 )
I h e s h i f t fro m a r e g i o n a l t o a n a t i o n a l m ovem ent
b e g a n i n J a n u a r y o f 19 3 4 ( 1 2 5 :1 1 9 ) * I n a s e r i e s o f e l e v e n
b r o a d c a s t s o v e r n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k s fro m M arch, 1933 t o
J u l y , 1935* he s p r e a d t h e " g o s p e l " t o t h e n a t i o n (6 1 7 :
8, 11- 12).
I n t h e " m o d e m M i s s i s s i p p i B u b b le " ( 1 6 0 :1 4 ) * t h e
" b l u e p r i n t o f U t o p i a " ( 2 7 :3 1 1 ) * one w r i t e r a s s e r t e d l a y
L o n g 's o n l y m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and v i t a l i t y ; he was a
87
s e e k e r o f e c o n o m ic j u s t i c e ( 2 7 : ^ 1 3 ) . O t h e r a u t h o r s sp o k e
o f t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t th e m ovem ent was d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e a
r h e t o r i c a l r a t h e r th a n a n eco n o m ic p r o b le m ; f o r Long was
m ore c o n c e r n e d w i t h b e c o m in g P r e s i d e n t t h a n he was w i t h
s o l v i n g th e e c o n o m ic d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e d e p r e s s i o n
( 7 7 : 2 5 1 - 5 2 , 617:i*.8l+). C i t i n g th e New Y o rk H e r a l d T r i b u n e
o f M arch 9» D a v is w r o t e , s p e a k i n g o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
. a t t a c k :
What I s r e a l l y on i s a w ar b e tw e e n t h e R o o s e v e l t
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and S e n a t o r Long a n d t h e l e f t i s t
e l e m e n t s t h a t f a v o r h im . The A d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e g a n
t o t u r n to d a y fro m Huey L o n g , t h e p e r s o n a l - p o l i t i c a l
i s s u e t o Huey L ong, th e e c o n o m i c - p o l i t i c a l i s s u e .
( 7 7 :2 6 )
Many w r i t e r s v ie w e d t h e J o h n s o n " r a d i o P h i l i p p i c " (1 6 5 :
228) a s p a r t o f an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t t a c k on Long (1^.3 :2 6 5 ,
1 6 5 :2 2 8 , ^ 7 1 , 3/ 6 / 3 5 : 1 ) , b u t w h a t i t r e a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d
was to make Long th e " c h a l l e n g e o f A m e ric a n p o l i t i c s "
( 1 ^ 7 1 ,3 / 1 0 / 3 5 ,I V : 3 ) , a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y b e c a u s e Long was
c l e v e r e n o u g h n o t to r e p l y i n k i n d :
S e n a t o r Huey Long o f L o u i s i a n a h a d h i s o p p o r t u n i t y
t o n i g h t to r e p l y i n k i n d t o t h e b i t t e r p e r s o n a l a t t a c k
made u p o n him b y G e n e r a l Hugh S . J o h n s o n i n th e now -
fa m o u s s p e e c h o f t h e f o r m e r h e a d o f th e NRA. B u t t h a t
i s w h a t h e d i d n o t d o . I n s t e a d h e to o k t h e o c c a s i o n
t o d e l i v e r a s k i l l f u l e x p o s i t i o n o f h i s s h a r e - t h e -
w e a l t h t h e o r y i n w h a t w as f o r him e x c e e d i n g l y m o d e r a te
l a n g u a g e . A minimum o f v i t r i o l w as u s e d b y him an d
h i s maximum o f l o g i c .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , Huey Long saw a c h a n c e t o p u t h i s
p o l i t i c a l c a s e b e f o r e t h e e n o rm o u s a u d i e n c e o f h i s
N a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g h o o k - u p . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e m u s t
h a v e s e e n a c h a n c e t o g e t h i s p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e s
v e r b a t i m i n t o s c o r e s o f n e w s p a p e r s a l l o v e r t h e l a n d
to an e x t e n t w h ic h h ad n e v e r b e f o r e b e e n p o s s i b l e to
h im .
80
Hie c o n s e n s u s h e r e t o n i g h t i s t h a t th e S e n a t o r fro m
L o u i s i a n a made a m o s t s a g a c i o u s p o l i t i c a l m ove. He
c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e e n j o y e d h i m s e l f h u g e l y a n d
am used h i s a u d i e n c e by l a m b a s t i n g G e n e r a l J o h n s o n .
B u t h e g a v e up t h a t e n jo y m e n t t o p l a y p o l i t i c s . I t I s
a s a f e g u e s s t h a t he made a n e f f e c t i v e d e c i s i o n .
What h a s h a p p e n e d i s t h a t h e u s e d m ore t h a n t h i r t y
m i n u t e s o f h i s f o r t y - f i v e m i n u t e s i n a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
h i s p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y i n a m a n n e r w h ic h m u s t h a v e
made an i m p r e s s i o n on h i s l i s t e n e r s . . . . (1*71,
3 / 6 / 3 5 : 1 )
S l n d l e r e x p l a i n s some o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e
n a t i o n a l p o p u l a r i t y o f L o n g 's p r o g ra m :
S h a r e Our W e a l t h p r o p e r l y s h o u l d be v ie w e d a s a
p r o d u c t o f p o l i t i c a l c r a f t s m a n s h i p b y a s k i l l e d
a r t i s a n who h a d b e e n i n t e r m i t t e n t l y a t w o rk on h i s
m a s t e r p i e c e s i n c e 1 9 1 8 . I t s m a in p l a n k may h a v e b e e n
n o t h i n g b u t e x p r o p r l a t o r y s o c i a l i s m , b u t i n th e
a b s e n c e o f a n e l a b o r a t e t h e o r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e and o f
a s p e c i a l c o n c e r n f o r t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s , i t c o u l d be
a d v o c a t e d a s p a r t o f th e n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n o f n a i v e ,
d i r e c t - a c t i o n p r o g r e s s i v i s m . I n a w o rd , " s o a k th e
r i c h l " T h e re was s o m e t h i n g i n i t f o r e v e r y o n e :
f a r m e r s , u r b a n i t e s ; t h e a g e d ; p o o r l y p a i d w o r k e r s ;
a l l w o r k e r s ; v e t e r a n s ; a n d h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s .
(223:81*.)
The m a j o r im p e t u s w h ic h g a v e n a t i o n a l s c o p e t o th e
L ong p l a t f o r m w as J o h n s o n 's a t t a c k . S e v e r a l a r t i c l e s and
new s s t o r i e s com m ented on t h e s i z e o f L o n g 's l i s t e n i n g
a u d i e n c e , f o r w h ic h t h e y g av e J o h n s o n c r e d i t (3i*-9:6, 6 1 0 :
109» 1*71»3 / 6 / 3 5 : 1 ) . Raymond G. S w in g f o l l o w e d s u i t :
I h e e x c o m m u n ic a tio n o f H uey L ong and F a t h e r C o u g h lin
h a s t u r n e d i n t o a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l f e e b l e
m i n d e d n e s s . G e n e r a l Hugh J o h n s o n , a d i s c r e d i t e d m an,
w as s e t u p t o f i n i s h o f f t h e K i n g f l s h and t h e r a d i o
p r i e s t m e r e l y b e c a u s e h e f i r e s a s i x t e e n - i n c h m o u th .
The G e n e r a l d i d a m a r v e l o u s jo b w i t h h i s v e r b a l
a m m u n itio n . He o v e r j o y e d e v e r y o n e c a p a b l e o f d e l i g h t
i n p i c t u r e s q u e l a n g u a g e . And when h e h a d f i n i s h e d ,
he h a d b u i l t up f o r Huey L o n g th e l a r g e s t r a d i o
a u d i e n c e i n h i s c a r e e r - - n e a r l y a " P r e s i d e n t i a l "
a u d i e n c e i n s i z e - - w h i c h H uey, who i s no f o o l , u s e d
69
n o t f o r v i t u p e r a t i o n b u t f o r a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s
w e a l t h - s h a r i n g p r o g r a m . ( 5 5 3 :3 2 5 )
C a r t e r a l s o com m ented on t h e " p r e s i d e n t i a l s i z e " o f th e
r a d i o a u d i e n c e ( 2 3 8 : 8 ) .
I t e a n b e s e e n t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h
m ovem ent was a n a t i o n a l o n e - - p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e
ec o n o m ic d i s t r e s s r a m p a n t I n t h e l a n d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f
t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f i t s a p p e a l , a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f th e
c o l o r f u l s a g a e n a c t e d f o r t h e p u b l i c o v e r t h e n a t i o n a l
n e t w o r k s .
The p ro g ra m w h ic h L ong o f f e r e d w as h i s m a jo r
n a t i o n a l p r o p o s a l . S h a r e O ur W e a lth w as n o t a new theme
f o r h im , b u t was h i s s i n g l e a n d r e c u r r e n t th e m e . C a r t e r
e x p l a i n e d :
Long i s a dem ag o g u e, no d o u b t , a s w e l l a s a s l i c k
p o l i t i c i a n , b u t h e h a s b e e n m a k in g th e same s p e e c h f o r
s e v e n t e e n y e a r s f s l n c e 19183* He c a n f a i r l y c l a i m to
h a v e b e e n c o n s i s t e n t I n a d v o c a t i n g t h e s e f u n d a m e n t a l
i s s u e s w h ic h d i d n o t becom e v i s i b l e to o t h e r s o f o u r
l e a d i n g s t a t e s m e n u n t i l t h e d e p r e s s i o n was b i t i n g
d e e p I n t o an u n s o u n d e c o n o m ic s t r u c t u r e . ( 2 3 8 :2 1 )
S i m i l a r l y , B a s s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e d i s t r i b u
t i o n o f w e a l t h was n o t new to A m e r ic a , f o r I t c o n t a i n e d
" a good m e a s u re o f o l d - t i m e p o p u l i s m , an d th e n e e d f o r
b r i n g i n g a b o u t a m ore a d e q u a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h
h a d b e e n f o r c e f u l l y s t a t e d b y T h e o d o re R o o s e v e l t " (2 5 :
19 1 )* L o n g h a d b e e n b o r a and h a d grow n up I n Winn C o u n ty
i n n o r t h c e n t r a l L o u i s i a n a , a P o p u l i s t s t r o n g h o l d (5 1 0 :
7 9 )* H is f a t h e r , Huey L o n g , S r . , a t e i g h t y - t h r e e , sp o k e
90
a p p r o v i n g l y o f h i a s o n ' a I d e a a :
D i d n ' t Abraham L i n c o l n f r e a t h e n l g g e r a and n o t
g i v e t h e p l a n t e r a a d im e . Why a h o u l d n ' t Huey ta k e
t h e money away fro m th e r i c h and a t l l l l e a v e 'em
p l e n t y ? Abe L i n c o l n f r e e d th e n l g g e r a w i t h o u t p r i c e .
Why a h o u l d n ' t t h e w h i t e a l a v e a b e f r e e d , an d t h e i r
m a a t e r a l e f t a l l t h e y c a n u a e ? Maybe y o u ' r e a u r p r i a e d
t o h e a r t a l k l i k e t h a t . W e l l , i t waa l u s t au ch t a l k
t h a t my bo y waa r a l a e d u n d e r . ( 5 1 0 :7 8 )
Long g av e c r e d e n c e to h i s f a t h e r ' s com m ents a b o u t h l a
b a c k g r o u n d by r e m a r k i n g , a f t e r h e h a d b r o k e n w i t h R o o s e v e lt,
I n c h a r a c t e r i s t l c h u m o r:
I 'm a s b i g a s R o o s e v e l t . Why, h e ' s c o p y i n g my a h a r e -
t h e - w e a l t h s p e e c h e s now, th e o n e s t h a t I w as w r i t i n g
when I w as f o u r t e e n y e a r s o l d . So h e ' s j u s t now
g e t t i n g a s s m a r t as I was when I was I n k n e e b r i t c h e s .
( 1 2 5 :1 1 7 )
T r a c i n g b a c k L o n g 's a b s o r p t i o n w i t h t h e r e d l s t r i -
b u t i o n o f w e a l t h , one f i n d s e m b ry o n ic b e g i n n i n g s a s e a r l y
a s 191 6 when he m e t S t a t e S e n a t o r S . J . H a r p e r who
a d v o c a t e d I t ( 7 7 :6 7 ) * D a v i s d rew a c h a r a c t e r s k e t c h o f
H a r p e r :
[ He ] . . . was an o l d f a a h l o n e d f r o n t i e r A m e ric a n .
He b e l i e v e d i n t h e b e g u i l i n g s i m p l i c i t i e s end e q u a l i
t i e s o f e a r l y A m e ric a n i d e a l s - - n o k i n g s , no n o b l e
l o r d s a n d e v e r y man th e e q u a l o f e v e r y o t h e r m an.
The S e n a t o r ' s k i n d l y m ind h a d b e e n s e d u c e d by t h e
f a i r p r o m i s e s o f th e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y e q u a l l t a r l a n s .
The p r i s t i n e A m e ric a n r e p u b l i c , a s h e saw i t , was
g o i n g t h e way o f a n c i e n t Rome b e c a u s e o f t h e p i l i n g
up o f c o l o s s a l f o r t u n e s . • . . ( 7 7 : 6 7 )
I n May, 1 9 1 6 , Long and H a r p e r i n t r o d u c e d a b i l l i n t o t h e
L o u i s i a n a l e g i s l a t u r e w h ic h s o u g h t t o amend e x i s t i n g la w s
p r o v i d i n g f o r a $ 3 0 0 l i m i t a s t h e maximum d e a t h b e n e f i t
i n c a s e s o f i n d u s t r i a l a c c i d e n t ( 7 7 : 6 4 - 6 7 ) .
91
A lth o u g h a num ber o f s o u r c e s c r e d i t e d L o n g 's 1918
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h H a r p e r a s t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e S h a r e - O u r -
W e a lth m ovem ent ( 3 8 : 2 9 2 , 125 :4 5 * 1 4 3 : 2 4 0 , 6 3 2 :3 7 ) * one o f
t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d e x p o s i t i o n s o c c u r r e d i n D a v i s ' b i o g r a p h y
( 7 7 : 7 0 - 7 3 ) * H a r p e r , who o p p o s e d t h e e n t r y o f A m erica
I n t o W orld War I , p u b l i s h e d a p a m p h l e t e n t i t l e d " I s s u e s
o f t h e D ay— F r e e S p e e c h — F i n a n c i a l S l a v e r y " i n w h ic h he
a d v o c a t e d c o n s c r i p t i o n o f w e a l t h a s w e l l a s m en. He
a t t a c k e d th e e s p i o n a g e la w s " u n d e r w h ic h t h e W ils o n
d e m o c ra c y s o u g h t to e n f o r c e a c o n f o r m i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n . "
I n 1 9 1 6 , when h e s o u g h t t o r u n f o r C o n g r e s s , h e was
i n d i c t e d u n d e r t h e e s p i o n a g e a c t , and L ong, who d e f e n d e d
h im , s u c c e e d e d i n g e t t i n g him a c q u i t t e d . D u r i n g th e
e a r l y s t a g e s o f th e t r i a l Long s e n t a l e t t e r to th e New
O r l e a n s I t e m , w h ic h a p p e a r e d on lia r o h 1, 1 9 1 8 , u n d e r th e
h e a d i n g " H i i n k s W e a lth S h o u ld Be More E v e n ly D i s t r i b u t e d . "
Die l e t t e r f o l l o w s i n d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n .
A c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e i s t h a t a b o u t s i x t y - f i v e
o r s e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t i r e w e a l t h o f th e U n i t e d
S t a t e s i s owned b y two p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p l e . S i x t y -
e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e w h o le p e o p l e l i v i n g i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s own b u t two p e r c e n t o f i t s w e a l t h .
From t h e y e a r I 8 9 0 t o 1910* t h e w e a l t h o f t h i s n a t i o n
t r e b l e d , y e t t h e m a s s e s owned l e s s I n 1910 t h a n t h e y
d i d I n 189 0 a n d a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p l e
l i v e d i n m o r t g a g e d and r e n t e d hom es I n 1 9 0 0 t h a n i n
I 8 9 O, a n d m ore l i v e d I n r e n t e d and m o r tg a g e d hom es
I n 1910 t h a n d i d I n 1 9 0 0 . R e p o r t s f ro m t h e C o m m itte e
o n I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s , a p p o i n t e d b y t h e P r e s i d e n t
C W ilso n } , show ed t h a t w e a l t h i s f a s t c o n c e n t r a t i n g i n
th e h a n d s o f t h e f e w .
B u t t h e g r e a t e s t c a u s e f o r I n d u s t r i a l u n r e s t i s
t h a t o f e d u c a t i o n . A u t h o r i t i e s on e d u c a t i o n t e l l u s
t h a t e i g h t y o u t o f e v e r y o n e h u n d r e d p e o p l e i n th e
92
U n ite d S t a t e s n e v e r e n t e r h i g h s c h o o l ; o n ly f o u r t e e n
o u t o f e v e r y th o u s a n d g e t a c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n ; 690
o u t o f e v e r y th o u san d n e v e r f i n i s h th e f o u r t h g rad e
i n s c h o o l . Does su c h a c o n d i t i o n g iv e th e o r d i n a r y
man h i s p r o p e r r e t u r n o f th e n a t i o n ’ s p r o s p e r i t y ?
What do you t h i n k o f su c h a game o f l i f e , so b r u t a l l y
and o r u e l l y u n f a i r , w ith th e d ic e so lo a d e d t h a t th e
c h i l d o f to d a y m u st e n t e r i t w i t h o n ly f o u r t e e n
c h a n c e s o u t o f a th o u s a n d I n h i s f a v o r o f g e t t i n g a
c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n w i t h 986 c h a n c e s a g a i n s t h i s
s e c u r i n g th e lu c k y draw ? How can t h i s N a tio n p r o s p e r
w i t h th e o r d i n a r y c h i l d h a v in g o n ly tw e n ty c h a n c e s i n
a th o u s a n d o f s e c u r i n g th e f i r s t p a r t o f the game?
T h is i s t h e c o n d i t i o n , n o r t h , e a s t , s o u t h and w e s t;
w ith w e a l t h c o n c e n t r a t i n g , c l a s s e s beco m ing d e f i n e d ,
t h e r e i s n o t th e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r C h r i s t i a n u p l i f t and
e d u c a t i o n and c a n n o t be u n t i l t h e r e i s more econom ic
r e f o r m . T h is i s th e p ro b lem t h a t th e good p e o p le o f
t h i s c o u n t r y m u st c o n s i d e r .
Huey P. Long ( 7 7 : 7 2 - 7 3 . 1 3 8 : 3 7 - 3 9 )
D a v is rem ark ed a b o u t t h i s f i r s t p u b l i c u t t e r a n c e on w e a l t h
s h a r i n g :
W hether i t waa p r i m a r i l y a l a w y e r ’ s shrew d t r i c k
r » i nee i t a p p e a re d d u r i n g th e t r i a l j . . . o r th e
p u b l i c c o n f e s s i o n and avow al o f a c o n v e r t c a n n o t
a c c u r a t e l y be d e te r m in e d a t t h i s l a t e d a t e . P e r h a p s
Huey h i m s e l f c a n n o t go bSok an d s e p a r a t e th e m o t i v e s .
I n any c a s e , t h e l i t e r a t e a p o s t l e s o f th e movement i n
193 5 c i t e th e 1 916 l e t t e r t o t h e e d i t o r s o f L o u is ia n a
a s the f i r s t a u t h e n t i c p ro n o u n cem en t o f the f o u n d e r ;
and t h e f o u n d e r h i m s e l f c o n f u t e s w i t h i t th e a rg u m e n ts
o f h i s b e l i t t l e r s t h a t h i s g o s p e l i s a p r o d u c t o f th e
d e p r e s s i o n o f th e 1 9 3 0 's .
A h i s t o r i a n o f the f u t u r e , I s h o u ld J u d g e , w ould be
J u s t i f i e d i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t Huey had e n t e r e d i n t o
d i s c i p l e a h i p to S e n a t o r H a r p e r b e f o r e th e U n ite d S t a t e s
e n t e r e d th e W orld War [ w o r l d War i j and t h a t H a rp e r
s h a r e s w i t h H oses and W in n 's a n c i e n t r a d i c a l i s m th e
b u l k o f c r e d i t f o r i n s p i r i n g S h a re Our W e a lth . Huey
h a s n e v e r a s c r i b e d h i s s o u r c e s . (7 7 :7 3 )
S e v e r a l s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d t h a t Long d id n o t awerve
fro m t h e s e e a r l y p r i n c i p l e s f o r o p p o r t u n i s t i c r e a s o n s
(27:1+10, 6 l7 :i+ 6 5 -6 6 )
93
In 1 9 2 8 , when Long ra n f o r G overnor o f L o u i s i a n a ,
he p r o v i d e d h i m s e l f w i t h a s l o g a n w h ic h h e was t o u s e
u n t i l h i s d e a t h : "E v ery Man a K ing b u t No Man Wears a
Crow n" (1^3:2i|.5)« O f t e n a s c r i b e d a s an a d a p t a t i o n fro m
th e " C r o s s o f G old " s p e e c h (125:5^+, 2 2 3 : 8 3 ) , L u t h i n w r o te
a b o u t i t s o r i g i n :
L o n g s a i d he b o r r o w e d t h e v o t e - c a t c h i n g w o rd s fro m
t h a t p e r e n n i a l D e m o c r a t i c - p o p u l i s t s e e k e r a f t e r t h e
p r e s i d e n c y , W i l l i a m J e n n i n g s B r y a n . I n a s p e e c h on
" I m p e r i a l i s m , " d e l i v e r e d i n t h e c a m p a ig n o f 1 9 0 0 , th e
G r e a t Commoner s p o k e o f a " r e p u b l i c i n w h ic h e v e r y
c i t i z e n i s a s o v e r e i g n * h u t i n w h ic h no one c a r e s o r
d a r e s to w e a r a c r o w n ." (li|3:2lj.5)
A g a in i n 1932 when he e n t e r e d th e S e n a t e , Long
" d u s t e d o f f " w e a l t h s h a r i n g ( 7 7 : 1 5 0 , 8 8 ) . S e v e r a l
a u t h o r i t i e s c i t e d M arch, 1 9 3 2 , a s th e d a t e o f h i s f i r s t
S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h s p e e c h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e , b u t
b o t h Long h i m s e l f ( 1 3 8 : 2 9 3 ) , Low rey ( 6 3 2 : 2 ) , a n d Borm ann
(617:1*4) c o n c u r r e d t h a t t h e c o r r e c t d a t e f o r L o n g 's
o p e n i n g v o l l e y w as A p r i l 4 , 1 9 3 2 . The l a t t e r two s o u r c e s ,
w h ic h w ere s c h o l a r l y s t u d i e s , p r o v i d e d l i s t s o f L o n g 's
S e n a t e p u b l i c a t i o n s and a d d r e s s e s and h i s r a d i o s p e e c h e s
on S h a r e Our W e a l t h f ro m t h e tim e o f h i s e n t r y i n t o th e
S e n a t e t o t h e summer o f 1 9 3 5 ( 6 1 7 : 1 2 , 6 3 2 : 2 - 7 ) * T h i s d a t a
w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d a s p a r t o f th e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a g e n t
i n C h a p t e r IV .
A lt h o u g h th e d e t a i l s o f t h e w e a l t h - s h a r i n g p l a n
w e re c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g l n g - - t h e p l a n h a d n o t j e l l e d by
e a r l y 1933 ( 7 7 : 1 8 0 ) — i n A u g u s t 1 9 3 3 , Long c o n v e r t e d h i s
9k
L o u i s i a n a p r o g r e s s , th e J o u r n a l i s t i c v e h i c l e f o r p o p u l a r
i z i n g h i s b e l i e f s w h ic h h a d f i r s t a p p e a r e d on M aroh 2 7 ,
1930 ( 1 4 3 : 2 5 0 ) , i n t o t h e A m e ric a n P r o g r e s s , a name m ore I n
k e e p i n g w i t h h i s n a t i o n a l a m b i t i o n s ( 1 4 3 : 2 6 4 ) . S h o r t l y
t h e r e a f t e r , Long r e t a i n e d G e r a l d L. K. S m ith t o o r g a n i z e
a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ( 1 4 3 : 2 6 4 ) . By J a n u a r y , 1934* t h e
S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h S o c i e t y h a d a f o r m a l , n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a
t i o n ( 1 2 5 : 1 1 9 ) .
L o n g 's m ovem ent w a s , a s I t e m e rg e d i n 1935* t h e
p r o d u c t o f many y e a r s * S o m e th in g h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s a i d
a b o u t t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f S h a r e O ur W e a lth d u r i n g t h e
t h i r t i e s and t h e s c o p e o f I t s f o l l o w i n g . I t was p o p u l a r
w i t h m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e . Many, i n c l u d i n g L ong h i m s e l f ,
f e l t i t to be h i s p r e s i d e n t i a l p l a t f o r m (2 2 3 :0 3 * 2 8 6 :6 7 1 ,
2 9 6 : 1 6 , 3 2 2 : 1 2 , 6 1 8 : 2l|.-25) • Borm ann s u g g e s t e d t h a t Long
w as r e a l l y n o t a f t e r th e a d o p t i o n o f t h e p l a n so much a s
h e w as d e s i r o u s o f p e r s o n a l a l l e g i a n c e ( 6 1 7 :2 5 6 ) and t h e
d i s c r e d i t i n g o f th e R o o s e v e l t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( 6 1 8 : 9 6 ) .
Raymond S w in g a s t u t e l y o b s e r v e d t h a t "He I s no m enace I f
th e P r e s i d e n t p r o d u c e s r e f o r m a n d r e c o v e r y " ( 5 5 6 : 9 0 ) , a n
o p i n i o n w i t h w h ic h Long a p p a r e n t l y c o n c u r r e d s i n c e h e
s a i d t o a new s i n t e r v i e w e r , " I w o u ld r a t h e r s e e my la w s
C S h a r e - O u r - W e a l t h l e g i s l a t i o n ) p a s s e d t h a n b e P r e s i d e n t .
B u t t h e p a s s a g e o f t h o s e la w s i s th e o n l y way th e y c a n
k e e p me fro m b e i n g p r e s i d e n t — u n l e s s I d i e " ( 7 7 : 2 5 3 ) . I n
1935* Long p u b l i s h e d t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f h i s p l a n i n h i s
95
v o lu m e , tty F I r a t D ays I n th e W h ite Houae (1 3 9 )*
I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t h l a M arch 7
s p e e c h o v e r N3C w as r e f u t a t o r y I n n a t u r e , h a v i n g b e e n
g i v e n I n r e s p o n s e to th e a d d r e s s by G e n e r a l Hugh S.
J o h n s o n , e x - h e a d o f t h e NRA, on U a rc h 4 , 1935* a t a d i n n e r
g i v e n h im by R edbook m a g a z in e I n t h e W a l d o r f - A s t o r i a
H o t e l I n New Y ork C i t y ( 3i|-915* 4 7 1 * 3 / 5 / 3 5 : 1 0 ) • J o h n s o n 's
s p e e c h an d th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t t a c k s w h ic h f o l l o w e d I t
" t r a n s f o r m e d Huey Long f ro m a c lo w n I n t o a r e a l p o l i t i c a l
m e n a c e " ( 4 7 1 * 3 / 1 0 / 3 5 # I V : 3 ) • J o h n s o n l a m b a s t e d L ong and
F a t h e r C h a r l e s C o u g h l i n , c a l l i n g them " P i e d P i p e r s o f
H a m l i n ," d e m a g o g u e s , " C a t a l l n e s , " a n d l e a d e r s o f t h e
" e m o t i o n a l f r i n g e " ( 4 7 1 * 3 / 5 / 3 5 : 1 0 ) . The L i t e r a r y D i g e s t
q u o te d a few o f th e t i t l e s a p p l i e d t o J o h n s o n a s a r e s u l t
o f th e s p e e c h : " 'D 'A r t a g n a n w i t h a d i c t i o n a r y , ' " New
Y o rk W o rld T e l e g r a m ; " 'p h r a s e m a k e r e x t r a o r d i n a r y to th e
R o o s e v e l t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , ' " C h r i s t i a n S c i e n c e M o n i t o r ;
" ' a new h i g h i n n a m e c a l l i n g , ' " J e r s e y C i t y J e r s e y J o u r n a l
( 5 7 7 : 5 ) .
Huey h a d a few " s n a p p y c o m e b a c k s " to o f f e r a f t e r
J o h n s o n 's sp e e c h * one o f w h ic h was t h a t he w o u ld , i n h i s
r e p l y * " c o v e r J o h n s o n 's c a s e fro m h e l l t o b r e a k f a s t "
( 4 7 1 * 3 / 5 / 3 5 : 1 0 ) • And t h i s was w h a t th e n a t i o n e x p e c t e d .
B u t t h i s was n o t w h a t Long d i d . B a s s o w r o t e :
I t I s s i g n i f i c a n t o f h i s c u n n i n g an d a m b i t i o n t h a t he
to o k th e f i r s t c h a n c e g i v e n him to a d d r e s s t h e n a t i o n
a t a " f a v o r e d " h o u r t o make h i s f i r s t o u t - a n d - o u t b i d
96
f o r t h e P r e s i d e n c y .
T h a t b i d , i t p l a i n l y a p p e a r s . I s to be made on th e
b a s i s o f h i s S h a r e Our W e a lth m ovem ent. . . . As a n
n o u n c e d o v e r th e r a d i o I t b o r e b u t l i t t l e r e s e m b l a n c e
to t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n p r o p o s e d i n Mr. L o n g 's a u t o b i
o g r a p h y , and we may e x p e c t i t t o b e m o d i f i e d o r
e l a b o r a t e d a s tim e g o e s o n . The o n l y c o n s i s t e n t t h i n g
a b o u t Mr. Long i s h i s a m b i t i o n . (2 8 6 :6 7 1 )
Newsweek and Time com m ented on L o n g 's r e p l y :
The K l n g f l s h ' s d o u b l e - b a r r e l e d r e p l y e c h o e d i n th e
S e n a t e Cham ber a n d r o l l e d t h r o u g h t h e m ic ro p h o n e fro m
c o a s t t o c o a s t . H i s f i r s t b a r r e l was l o a d e d w i t h
a b u s e ; h i s s e c o n d , w i t h p e r s u a s i o n . ( 3 ^ 9 :6 )
As h i s s p e e c h c o n t i n u e d , S e n a t o r L o n g 's r e p u t a t i o n
f o r p o l i t i c a l s h r e w d n e s s b e g a n t o become m ore u n d e r
s t a n d a b l e . W ith t h e n a t i o n a t i t s l o u d - s p e a k e r e a g e r
f o r a n o t h e r s e s s i o n o f n a m e c a l l l n g , w i t h e v e r y
i m p o r t a n t n e w s p a p e r i n t h e l a n d p rim e d to p r i n t h i s
s p e e c h t h e n e x t m o r n i n g , S e n a t o r Long d e v o t e d th e
f i r s t f i v e m i n u t e s to h i s e n e m ie s and t h e r e m a i n i n g
f o r t y to p r o p a g a n d i s i n g h i s S h a r e - t h e - W e a l t h P l a n .
( 5 6 8 :1 5 )
The l a s t c r i t e r i o n f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s p e c i f i c
s p e e c h to b e s t u d i e d was t h a t an a u t h e n t i c t e x t b e a v a i l
a b l e .
F o r L o n g 's a d d r e s s , two p r i n t e d t e x t s a s w e l l a s
th e r e c o r d i n g w ere s t u d i e d , i n c l u d i n g v e r s i o n s fro m th e
New Y o rk Tim es and t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd ( 6 1 0 : A 3 ^ 3 6 - 3 9 ) •
The T im es c o p y i s t h e m o st a c c u r a t e p r i n t e d s o u r c e o f w h a t
was a c t u a l l y s a i d .
A p r e v i o u s s t u d y o f L o n g 's n a t i o n a l r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s
i t e m i z e d two a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o f w r i t t e n t e x t s a v a i l a b l e
to th e c r i t i c : (1 ) a p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n o f L o n g 's s p e e c h e s
c o m p i l e d b y h i s a s s i s t a n t and s e c r e t a r y , *Carle J .
97
C h r i s t e n b e r r y , e n t i t l e d S p e e c h e s by th e L a te Huey P. Long,
and (2 ) V i t a l S p e e c h e s , i s s u e o f March 25* 1 9 3 5 ( 6 1 7 : 2 7 ) .
S in c e B o rm an n 's s tu d y I n c l u d e d an e x t e n s i v e and
v e ry th o ro u g h t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f th e s p e e c h i n q u e s t i o n ,
th e r e s u l t s o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t e d h e r e .
My c o n c l u s i o n s b a s e d upo n an i n d e p e n d e n t a n a l y s i s o f th e
t h r e e v e r s i o n s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r w i l l a l s o be I n c l u d e d .
Borm ann d e v o t e d a w h o le c h a p t e r t o t h e t h r e e
q u e s t i o n s o f t e x t u a l a u t h e n t i c i t y o f c o n c e r n to th e s p e e c h
c r i t i c : (1 ) w as t h e s p e a k e r th e a u t h o r o f th e s p e e c h i n
q u e s t i o n ; (2) d i d h e d e l i v e r i t , and (3 ) d o e s t h e t e x t ,
a s r e c o r d e d , f a i t h f u l l y p r e s e n t th e e x a c t w o rd s s p o k e n
( 6 1 7 : C h a p t e r I ) , The f i r s t tw o q u e s t i o n s w i l l b e
r e s e r v e d f o r l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n .
The a n a l y s i s by Bormann e l i m i n a t e d th e n e c e s s i t y
o f c o m p a rin g a l l f o u r o f th e w r i t t e n t e x t s w i t h th e
r e c o r d i n g . H is p r e s e n t a t i o n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h r e e o f th e s e
v e r s i o n s a r e i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d n o t s e p a r a t e and in d e p e n d
e n t t e x t s .
He o u t l i n e d L o n g 's c u s to m a ry m anner o f p r e p a r i n g
t e x t s f o r i n s e r t i o n i n t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd , p o i n t i n g
o u t how on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r o c c a s i o n he spoke from
m a n u s c r i p t ( 6 1 7 : 3 5 * 3 6 ) . Bormann w ro te c i t i n g an i n t e r v i e w
w i t h C h r i s t e n b e r r y on Decem ber 1 2 , 19 5 2 :
Long seldom w ro te o u t h i s s p e e c h e s b e f o r e g o in g
on th e a i r . The s p e e c h t e x t s t h a t he d i s t r i b u t e d and
w hich he had r e a d i n t o th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e co rd were
98
t a k e n fro m t r a n s c r i p t i o n s made by s t e n o g r a p h e r s , from
r e c o r d i n g s o f the s p e e c h o r fro m th e a c t u a l b r o a d c a s t s ,
a c c o r d i n g to Mr. C h r i s t e n b e r r y . U r. C h r i s t e n b e r r y
c o u ld n o t t e s t i f y f o r a l l th e m a n u s c r i p t s C o f a l l th e
n a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t s made by LongJ s i n c e he h ad c o p ie d
o n ly one p e r s o n a l l y , b u t he s t a t e d t h a t on t h a t
o o o a s lo n he h a d t r a n s c r i b e d th e sp e e c h i n s h o r th a n d
fro m r e c o r d i n g s made a t th e tim e o f th e b r o a d c a s t . He
u s e d th e f a c i l i t i e s o f th e N a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g
Company to make th e t r a n s o r l p t l o n . I t was h i s o p i n io n
t h a t th e o t h e r s p e e c h e s w ere c o p ie d i n much th e same
way.
A f t e r a copy o f t h e s p e e c h was s e c u r e d i n t h i s
m an n er, S e n a t o r Long u s u a l l y e d i t e d th e s p e e c h b e f o r e
i t was i n s e r t e d i n the C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd .
A p p a r e n tly t h i s p r o c e d u r e was f o l lo w e d ? o r 'm ost o f
th e s p e e c h e s t h a t Long d e l i v e r e d o v e r th e n a t i o n a l
n e tw o r k s . (6 1 7 :2 6 )
W hile m o st o f the p r i n t e d t e x t s o f L o n g 's b r o a d c a s t s
a r e o f t h i s ty p e , th e M arch 7* 1935* sp e e c h was n o t p r e
p a re d i n th e u s u a l m an n er.
Itie M arch 7» 1935* b r o a d c a s t , ho w ev er, was an
e x c e p t i o n . The p u b l i c i n t e r e s t t h a t had b e e n a ro u s e d
by th e c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e o f t h i s s p e e c h and by th e
a t t e n d i n g p u b l i c i t y , c a u se d th e New Y ork Tim es to
p u b l i s h a c o m p le te t e x t o f th e b r o a d c a s t , f h i a t e x t
was n o t th e one p r e p a r e d by S e n a to r Long and h i s s t a f f
i n th e u s u a l m an n er, b u t was " . . . t r a n s c r i b e d
s t e n o g r a p h i c a l l y b y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the N a t i o n a l
B r o a d c a s t i n g C om pany." ( 5 1 7 :2 6 )
T h is m a n u s c r i p t was p u b l i s h e d i n t h e New Y ork T im es, th u s
b e i n g an e x c e p t i o n to my b e l i e f t h a t n e w sp a p e r t e x t s were
d e r i v e d fro m p r e s s r e l e a s e s .
W h ile Bormann d id n o t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e t h a t th e
U arch 7 a d d r e s s a s p r i n t e d i n t h e C h r i s t e n b e r r y c o l l e c t i o n
i s th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R ecord v e r s i o n , he d id i n d i c a t e t h a t
m ost o f t h i s c o l l e c t i o n was r e p r i n t e d fro m th e R ecord
( 6 1 7 :2 7 ) * He r e p o r t e d t h a t th e v a r i a n c e b e tw e e n t h e Times
99
an d C h r i s t e n b e r r y t e x t s s h e d some d o u b t on t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y
o f t h e l a t t e r and h e n c e on t h e v a l i d i t y o f o t h e r C o n g r e s
s i o n a l R e c o rd t e x t s * h i s a s s u m p t i o n a p p a r e n t l y b e i n g t h a t
t h e S e n a t e and C h r i s t e n b e r r y t e x t s a r e i d e n t i c a l ( 6 1 7 : 2 8 ) ,
F u r t h e r m o r e , Borm ann u s e d th e C h r i s t e n b e r r y t e x t t o t h e
e x c l u s i o n o f t h e S e n a t e v e r s i o n I n h i s a n a l y s i s .
He d i d e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e V i t a l
S p e e c h e s and t h e C h r i s t e n b e r r y t e x t a r e I d e n t i c a l e x c e p t
f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h w h ic h h a d b e e n a d d e d t o t h e
e n d o f t h e s p e e c h i n V i t a l S p e e c h e s .
B u t now, my f r i e n d s , t h e r e h a v e b e e n so many
u n f o u n d e d a t t a c k s made upon th e w o rk w h ic h I h a v e
d o n e a n d h e l p e d o t h e r s t o do I n L o u i s i a n a , t h a t I w i l l
d e v o t e some tim e t o m a k in g a n a n s w e r . T oday I am
p r e s e n t e d w i t h a f r o n t - p a g e e d i t o r i a l I n a P h i l a d e l p h i a
n e w s p a p e r an d a l s o a f r o n t - p a g e e d i t o r i a l I n a New York
n e w s p a p e r . They c a l l f o r me t o make a n s w e r t o c e r t a i n
q u e s t i o n s , so I w i l l consume th e b a l a n c e o f my tim e I n
so d o i n g . ( 6 1 7 :3 5 )
N o t h i n g r e m o t e l y s i m i l a r t o t h i s was s a i d o v e r r a d i o .
B orm ann c o n c l u d e s :
Die e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t s u g g e s t s I t s e l f m o s t s t r o n g l y i s
t h a t t h e e d i t o r s o f V i t a l S p e e c h e s m a g a z in e w ere
f u r n i s h e d w i t h a c o p y o r t h e m a n u s o r l p t t h a t th e
S e n a t o r p r e p a r e d b e f o r e he g av e t h e s p e e c h . T h is same
m a n u s c r i p t m ig h t w e l l h a v e b e e n e d i t e d a n d t h e n
p r i n t e d up f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o th e S e n a t o r ' s f o l l o w e r s ,
th u s e x p l a i n i n g how i t fo u n d i t s way i n t o th e C h r i s t e n
b e r r y c o m p i l a t i o n . T h i s was one o f t h e few b r o a d c a s t s
i n w h ic h t h e s p e a k e r h a d p r e p a r e d a m a n u s c r i p t . E y e
w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s I n d i c a t e t h a t h e d e p a r t e d fro m h i s
m a n u s c r i p t f r e q u e n t l y . Die i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e i n th e
s p e e c h a s g i v e n s u g g e s t s t h a t h e c u t s h o r t th e e x p l a n a
t i o n o f t h e l a s t p a r t o f h i s p l a n . He s a i d , " L a d i e s
a n d g e n tle m e n I ' l l n o t d e t a i n you a n y l o n g e r . • • "
Long may w e l l h a v e d e c i d e d t o c o n c l u d e h i s r e m a r k s b y
a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d b y n e w s p a p e r e d i t o r i a l s and
th e n a t t h e l a s t moment c h a n g e d h i s m ind i n f a v o r o f
100
the e m o tio n a l l e t t e r s t h a t he a c t u a l l y d id r e a d , so
q u i t e p o s s i b l y th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een t h e s e two t e x t s
and w hat S e n a to r Long a c t u a l l y s a i d a re th e r e s u l t o f
p l a t f o r m e d i t i n g . ( 6 1 7 :3 5 - 3 6 )
S in c e Bormann*s e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t th e
C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd , th e C h r i s t e n b e r r y , and th e V i t a l
S p e e c h e s t e x t s a r e n o t s e p a r a t e and I n d e p e n d e n t t e x t s , I
f e l t J u s t i f i e d I n s e l e c t i n g th e S e n a te v e r s i o n to r e p r e s e n t
a l l t h r e e f o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s . Bormann*s c o n c l u s i o n s
a b o u t th e v a l i d i t y o f th e t e x t i n s e r t e d by Long I n t o th e
R ecord and h i s re m a rk s a b o u t L o n g 's u s u a l p r a c t i c e o f
p l a t f o r m e d i t i n g b o t h s u p p o r t e d my t h e o r y t h a t t h e
C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e co rd s e r v e s a s a s o u r c e o f w h a t th e s p e a k e r
i n t e n d e d to s a y ( u n a f f e c t e d b y th e r e a l sp e e c h s i t u a t i o n ) ,
a l t h o u g h as p r e v i o u s l y p o i n t e d o u t h i s e v id e n c e f a i l s t o
s u p p o r t th e same t h e o r y a b o u t n e w sp a p e r t e x t s .
G e n e r a l i s i n g upon h i s c o m p a ris o n o f th e r e c o r d i n g
w i t h a l l p r i n t e d t e x t s , Bormann w r o te :
The p r i n t e d t e x t s o f th e March 7# 193 5 s p e e c h a l l
f o l l o w th e a c t u a l r e c o r d e d t e x t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e
a c c u r a c y f o r a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e s p e e c h . Y et
ev en w here th e y f o l l o w r a t h e r c l o s e l y th e a c t u a l w ords
o f th e s p e a k e r , th e y do n o t r e c o r d e x a c t l y w hat t h e
S e n a t o r s a i d . The w r i t t e n t e x t s r e c o r d th e t r e n d o f
i d e a s b u t n o t th e a c t u a l p h r a s e s so w e l l t h a t t h e I d e a
and e v e n th e f l a v o r o f th e p a s s a g e i s c o n v e y e d .
The V i t a l S p e e c h e s t e x t i s a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l , w i t h
one m a jo r e x o e p t i o n , t o th e C h r i s t e n b e r r y v e r s i o n .
[jTote the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f th e C h r i s t e n b e r r y t e x t f o r
the C o n g r e s s i o n a l R ecord v e r s i o n i n B o rm an n 's
d i s c u s s i o n . ) At c e r t a i n p l a c e s , h o w ever, t h e r e i s
much v a r i a n c e b e tw e e n t h e s e t e x t s and t h e New York
Times r e p o r t . I n g e n e r a l , d e s p i t e some m in o r
i n a c c u r a c i e s , th e s p e e o h t e x t r e c o r d e d i n th e New York
Timas f o l l o w s th e S e n a t o r 's a c t u a l w ords c l o s e l y .
101
T h is i s n o t tr u e o f th e o t h e r two t e x t s . ( 6 1 7 :2 9 - 3 1 )
T h is w r i t e r ' s i n d e p e n d e n t a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R ecord t e x t d i f f e r s m a r k e d ly from th e
r e c o r d i n g and th e NBC t r a n s c r i p t i o n , c a s t i n g d o u b t on the
v a l i d i t y o f o t h e r Long s p e e c h e s i n s e r t e d i n t h e R e c o r d ,
w h i l e th e t r a n s c r i p t i o n p r i n t e d i n th e New York T im es,
e x c e p t f o r m in o r v a r i a t i o n s , f o l l o w s th e r e c o r d i n g c l o s e l y .
H ie re i s much g r e a t e r d i s p a r i t y among th e Long t e x t s th a n
among th e T a f t t e x t s .
A c o m p a ris o n o f th e Times t r a n s c r i p t i o n w i t h t h e
r e c o r d i n g , i t was n o te d a b o v e , r e v e a l e d many v a r i a t i o n s
o f a m in o r n a t u r e . The t r a n s c r i p t i o n , a s Bonnann
i n d i c a t e d , f o l l o w s th e a c t u a l w ords c l o s e l y , r e t a i n i n g
much o f th e la n g u a g e and " f l a v o r " o f th e a d d r e s s . Where
d e p a r t u r e s o c c u r , t h e y do n o t r a d i c a l l y a l t e r th e i d e a s
p r e s e n t e d .
By f a r th e g r e a t e s t m a j o r i t y o f a l t e r a t i o n s a re
s i n g l e word s u b s t i t u t i o n s and o m is s i o n s . Some o m is s io n s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y o f lo n g p h r a s e s o r c l a u s e s , a re c l e a r l y
e x te m p o ra n e o u s r e p e t i t i o n s o r a m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f the
p r e c e d i n g i d e a w h ich t h e s t e n o g r a p h e r d i d n o t t r a n s c r i b e .
F o r e x am p le, t h e u n d e r l i n e d w ords i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
p a r a g r a p h r e p r e s e n t p o r t i o n s n o t p ic k e d up by t h e s t e n o
g r a p h e r .
Hie p r i n c i p l e was n o t o n ly , t h a t I s , th e p r i n c i p l e
t h a t I am a d v o c a t i n g , t h a t I ' l l g iv e you i n d e t a i l i n
a m in u t e , t h a t p r i n c i p l e was n o t o n l y th e m a i n s p r i n g
102
o f th e R o o s e v e l t n o m i n a t i o n and e l e c t i o n b u t I n th e
c l o s i n g s p e e c h o f H e r b e r t H o o v er a t M a d iso n S q u a r e
G a rd e n i n N ovem ber, 1 9 3 2 , e v e n H o o v e r s a i d :
"My c o n c e p t i o n o f A m e ric a i s a l a n d w h e re men and
women may w ork i n o r d e r e d l i b e r t y . . . "
A few s u b s t i t u t i o n s s u c h a s " c l a s s ’* f o r " p a t h , " " f l u r r y "
f o r " f u r y , " and " b r i l l i a n c e " f o r " b a l a n c e , " c o u l d l o g i c a l l y
b e a t t r i b u t e d to s i m i l a r i t i e s i n s o u n d . C h a n g e s i n
p u n c t u a t i o n , word o r d e r , and w ord fo rm a c c o u n t e d f o r o t h e r
v a r i a t i o n s .
Two v a r i a t i o n s c a u s e d some l o s s i n th e " f l a v o r " o f
th e a d d r e s s : t h e w r i t i n g o u t i n f u l l o f th e c o n t r a c t i o n s
w h ic h w e re a c t u a l l y s p o k e n , a n d th e r e c o r d i n g i n t h e i r
c o r r e c t s p e l l i n g o f w o rd s i n a c c u r a t e l y p r o n o u n c e d b e c a u s e
o f c a r e l e s s o r r e g i o n a l p r o n u n c i a t i o n .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t t h e r e i s an I n c r e a s
i n g num ber o f i n a c c u r a c i e s i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n p o r t i o n s
o f t h e s p e e c h w h ere L o n g 's s p e a k i n g r a t e was r a p i d an d a
d e c r e a s i n g n u m b er w h e re h e sp o k e s l o w l y and w i t h d e l i b e r a
t i o n .
A n o th e r ty p e o f d i f f e r e n c e o c o u r a w h ic h c o u l d
c o n c e i v a b l y be due to s t e n o g r a p h i c o r t y p o g r a p h i c e r r o r .
F o r e x a m p le , " I t " w as u s e d i n p l a c e o f " I , " "9 5 " p e r
c e n t f o r " 9 0 " p e r c e n t , " 9 , 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 " f o r " 9 * 8 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 "
a n d " R o c k e f e l l e r F o u n d a t i o n " f o r " R o c k e f e l l e r f o r t u n e . "
I n sum, a l t h o u g h t h e v a r i a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e s e two
t e x t s a r e n u m e ro u s th e y a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T h i s i s n o t
103
th e c a s e , h o w ev er, when th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R ecord t e x t l a
com pared w i t n th e r e c o r d i n g . W hile t h e r e a re many m in o r
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e s e t e x t s to o , t h e r e a r e a l s o m a jo r
v a r i a t i o n s .
Long I n s e r t e d h i s M arch 7 a d d r e s s , e n t i t l e d "Our
B l u n d e r i n g G o v e rn m e n t," In th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R ecord on
T u esd ay , March 1 2 , 1 9 3 5 , s i x d a y s a f t e r i t s d e l i v e r y o v e r
NBC. T h is a llo w e d a d e q u a te tim e f o r w h a te v e r e d i t i n g
Long m ig h t have done t o th e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t .
The c o m p a ris o n o f w h a t Long a c t u a l l y s a i d w i t h w hat
he i n t e n d e d to s a y ( o r a t l e a s t w i t h w hat he i n t e n d e d to
have p u b l i s h e d a s th e t e x t o f h i s a d d r e s s ) r e v e a l e d t h a t
th e C o n g r e s s i o n a l Record v e r s i o n c o n t a i n e d many o f th e
same t y p e s o f d i f f e r e n c e s found i n th e Times v e r s i o n , p l u s
num erous l e n g t h y I n s e r t i o n s and o m is s i o n s i n th e f i r s t
t w o - t h i r d s o f th e s p e e c h , and I n th e r e m a in in g t h i r d , a
r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t and g r e a t l y e x p an d ed t r e a t m e n t o f h i s
S h a r e - O u r -W e a lth p l a n and a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t e n d in g .
The f o u r t h , f i f t h , and s i x t h p la n k s o f h i s p l a n w ere
a l t e r e d more th a n th e f i r s t t h r e e , s u g g e s t i n g , a s Bormann
I n d i c a t e d , t h a t Long was r u n n i n g o u t o f tim e . (See
A ppendix B f o r c o m p a r a tiv e a n a l y s e s o f t h e s e t e x t s . )
An e n u m e r a tio n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e ta p e r e c o r d
i n g and w h a t was i n s e r t e d In the R ecord a s t h e y a f f e c t th e
a s s e s s m e n t o f th e s p e a k e r 's r h e t o r l e a l - e t h i c s w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r IV. S u f f i c e i t t o say a t t h i s p o i n t ,
101*
t h a t f o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s , the ta p e r e c o r d i n g was
u t i l i z e d as t h e a u t h e n t i c t e x t o f w h a t was a c t u a l l y s a i d
and the S e n a te v e r s i o n was u sed a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
s p e a k e r 's i n t e n t i o n unencum bered by th e p r e s s u r e s o f the
p a r t i c u l a r s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n .
A seco n d p ro b le m o f t e x t u a l a u t h e n t i c i t y i s c o n
c e r n e d w i t h w h e th e r o r n o t the s p e a k e r a c t u a l l y d e l i v e r e d
th e a d d r e s s b e i n g s t u d i e d . T h ere can be no d o u b t aa to
t h i s f a c t f o r th e ta p e r e c o r d i n g and eye w i t n e s s a c c o u n ts
(t>17:35~36) p r o v id e s a t i s f a c t o r y e v id e n c e t h a t i t was he
who sp o k e . Long had a d d r e s s e d t h e n a t i o n se v e n tim e s
p r i o r to t h i s o c c a s io n o v e r n a t i o n a l n e tw o rk s ( 6 1 7 : 1 2 ) , as
w e l l a s many tim e s o v e r more l i m i t e d h o o k -u p s in
L o u i s i a n a . He u sed the r a d i o a s a " t e r r i b l e w e ap o n ," the
A m erican M ercu ry r e p o r t e d ( 4 3 6 : 9 5 ) . He had become a
f a v o r i t e r a d i o d i v e r s i o n soon a f t e r b ecom in g s e n a t o r
( 1 2 5 : 1 1 8 ) . F o r r e s t D a v is w r o te , "He i s one o f th e two or
t h r e e m o st i n g r a t i a t i n g r a d i o p e r s o n a l i t i e s i n the
c o u n t r y . . . " ( 7 7 : 2 9 3 ) .
F o r t h r e e m in u te s b e f o r e h i s s p e e c h s t a r t e d , Long
acco m o d ated p h o t o g r a p h e r s by g e s t i c u l a t i n g f o r th e m --
and i n t h a t p e r i o d h e made more g e s t u r e s t h a n i n h i s
f o r t y - f i v e m in u t e s on th e a i r . F o r when t h e b r o a d c a s t
s t a r t e d he was subd ued and d e a d l y s e r i o u s , (471,
3 / 1 0 / 3 5 , I V : 1)
The s t u d i o was cro w d ed ; t h r e e o f h i s b o d y g u a rd s s a t c l o s e
a s he sp o k e ( 4 7 1 , 3 / 8 / 3 5 : 1 7 ) .
F o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r n a t i o n a l r a d i o b r o a d c a s t , Long
105
used a p r e p a r e d m a n u s c r i p t ( 2 3 8 :2 , lj.71» 3 /8 /3 5 :1 7 » 617:
35_36, 6 1 8 :1 1 7 ) , w h ich was a d e p a r t u r e from h i s custom
( 6 1 7 : 1 1 3 ) . He was r e p o r t e d to have d e p a r t e d fro m h i s
m a n u s c r i p t f r e q u e n t l y , as was h i s u s u a l p r a c t i c e when
u s i n g a m a n u s c r i p t ( ^ 7 1 , 3 / 6 / 3 5 : 1 7 » 6 1 8 : 1 1 7 ) . Bormann
s t a t e d i n h i s m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s on t h i s a d d r e s s t h a t i n t e r n a l
e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s L o n g 's tim e was r u n n i n g o u t f o r c i n g him
to c u t s h o r t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e l a t t e r p o r t i o n o f th e
p l a n ( 6 1 8 : 1 1 7 ) . The c o m p a r a tiv e a n a l y s i s o f th e r e c o r d e d
v e r s i o n w ith t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l R eco rd t e x t r e v e a l e d a
c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p a n s i o n i n th e l a t t e r o f th e l a s t t h r e e
p l a n k s o f h i s p l a t f o r m , s u g g e s t i n g he i n t e n d e d t o d e a l
w i t h them more c o m p l e t e ly .
C a r t e r rem ark ed o f t h i s b r o a d c a s t t h a t h i s r e b u t t a l
was " p r e p a r e d and re a d o v e r th e m ic ro p h o n e , a p r o c e e d i n g
w h ic h cram ped h i s s t y l e s u f f i c i e n t l y to make him sw ear
n e v e r to do i t a g a in . . . " ( 2 3 8 : 2 ) .
S in c e h e d i d n o t e x t e m p o r i s e , a s was h i s u s u a l
p r a c t i c e , t h e q u e s t i o n o f a u t h o r s h i p a r i s e s . Much o f th e
d e t a i l and a good many o f t h e s t a t i s t i c s u se d i n t h e
a d d r e s s h a d a p p e a re d b e f o r e i n o t h e r s p e e c h e s and p u b lis h e d
m a t e r i a l s . Some i te m s were u se d tim e and tim e a g a i n , Hie
f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s ta k e n from th e t r a n s c r i b e d v e r s i o n
r e f e r to an a r t i c l e i n t h e S e p te m b e r 23* 1 9 1 6 , S a t u r d a y
E v e n in g P o s t ( 2 7 1 :2 l f ) , w hich Long a l s o c i t e d i n h i s
a u t o b i o g r a p h y , E v e ry H a n a K in g ( 1 3 8 : 3 8 ) :
io6
I t was a t a b o u t th e same tim e i n 1916 t h a t many o f
o u r l e a d i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e ric a b e g a n to d e p l o r e
th e f a c t t h a t so few p e o p l e owned so much and t h a t so
many p e o p le owned so l i t t l e . Among th o s e co m m en tin g
upo n t h a t d e p l o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n o f t h a t d a y and tim e
E v e n in g P o s t :
"A lo n g one s t a t i s t i c a l l i n e yo u c a n f i g u r e o u t a
n a t i o n b u s t i n g w i t h w e a l t h ; a l o n g a n o t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l
l i n e , a b l o a t e d p l u t o c r a c y . ” They s a i d t h a t o f
A m e ric a , a b l o a t e d p l u t o c r a c y — " c o m p r i s i n g one p e r c e n t
o f th e p o p u l a t i o n l o r d i n g I t o v e r a £ w o rd s I n a u d i b l e ;
th e r t o f q u o te s h o u l d r e a d " s t a r v e l i n g h o r d e w i t h
o n l y a t h i n m a r g in o f m e r e l y w e l l - t o - d o i n be tw e e n . " 3
fro m The S a t u r d a y E v e n in g P o s t .
The p a r a g r a p h w h ic h f o l l o w s i s s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r i n
c o n t e n t to an e x c e r p t fro m th e l e t t e r Long w r o te to th e
New O r l e a n s Ite m on M arch 1, 1 9 l8 » c i t e d e a r l i e r :
The w e a l t h i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s was t h r e e tim e s a s much
i n 1 9 1 0 a s i t was i n 1 6 9 0 , a n d y e t th e m a s s e s o f o u r
p e o p le owned l e s s i n 1 9 1 0 th a n th e y d i d i n I 8 9 O. I n
t h e y e a r 1 9 1 6 th e c o n d i t i o n h a d become so bad t h a t a
c o m m itte e p r o v i d e d f o r by th e C o n g r e s s o f t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s r e p o r t e d t h a t 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p l e o f th e
U n i t e d S t a t e s owned 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e w e a l t h i n th e
c o u n t r y , a n d t h a t 6 5 p e r c e n t o f th e p e o p l e owned l e s s
th a n 5 p e r c e n t o f th e w e a l t h .
A s s e r t i n g t h e i r f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n to t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f w e a l t h . I n h i s s p e e c h , among o t h e r s , he c i t e d L i n c o l n ,
W e b s t e r , T h e o d o re R o o s e v e l t , W i l l i a m J e n n i n g s B r y a n , and
t h e B i b l e i n h i s own s u p p o r t , a n d i n h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y he
q u o t e d s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t s a s t e s t i m o n i a l s ( 1 3 8 : 2 9 6 - 9 7 ) .
m a t e r i a l s r e p e a t e d l y , and t h e p l a n i t s e l f h a d b e e n i n c o r p o -
S e p te m b e r 2 3 , 1 9 1 6 , s a i d , q u o t i n g fro m The S a t u r d a y
Long was f o n d o f q u o t i n g a u t h o r i t y - l a d e n nam es
I t w as, i t c a n b e s e e n . L o n g 's h a b i t t o u s e
r a t e d i n t o i n n u m e r a b l e c o m m u n ic a tio n s a t v a r i o u s tim e s
107
w i t h m in o r v a r i a t i o n s . T h is custom te n d e d to g iv e c re d e n c e
to th e b e l i e f t h a t Long was th e a u t h o r o f the s p e e c h . I t
I s t r u e , h o w e v er, t h a t much o f th e s u p p o r t i n g m a t e r i a l
I n c l u d e d was I n th e fo rm o f d i r e c t o r I n d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n
fro m some o t h e r s o u r c e , w h ic h , o f c o u r s e , c o u ld n o t bo
c o n s t r u e d a s o r i g i n a l m a t e r i a l .
Bonnann p r e s e n t e d some I n t e r e s t i n g I n f o r m a t i o n ,
b a s e d on an i n t e r v i e w w ith E a r l e C h r i s t e n b e r r y , a b o u t how
Long s e c u r e d some o f t h i s s e c o n d a r y m a t e r i a l .
S e n a t o r Long d id n o t h i m s e l f g a t h e r a l l o f th e
m a t e r i a l s f o r h i s b r o a d c a s t s , h ow ev er. He u se d much
d a t a from c u r r e n t p e r i o d i c a l s and n e w s p a p e rs and he
d ep en d ed on h i s s t a f f to f i n d t h i s m a t e r i a l f o r him .
H is a i d e s w ere a l s o I n s t r u c t e d to be on t h e lo o k o u t
f o r l e t t e r s fro m h i s m a l l t h a t w ould be s u i t a b l e f o r
h i s p u r p o s e s I n h i s r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s . . . .
Long was alw ay s on th e a l e r t f o r new s t a t i s t i c s
and e v id e n c e to s u b s t a n t i a t e h i s p o s i t i o n . I n t h i s
jo b o f g a t h e r i n g new m a t e r i a l E a r l e C h r i s t e n b e r r y
p la y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t . ( 6 1 7 : 111*.— 1$)
The s p e e c h i t s e l f b e a r s the Long I m p r i n t . Bormann
s t r e s s e d th e s i m i l a r i t i e s o f s t y l e b e tw ee n a l l o f L o n g 's
e le v e n n a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t s a n d h i s e x te m p o ra n e o u s re m a rk s :
The e v id e n c e I s a lm o s t . . . c o n c l u s i v e t h a t h e was
the a u t h o r o f t h e s p e e c h e s . H is m anner o f p r e p a r a t i o n
i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h ile he may h ave had U r. E a r l e
C h r i s t e n b e r r y , h i s a s s i s t a n t and s e c r e t a r y , l o o a t e
m a t e r i a l f o r him th e f u n d a m e n ta l I d e a s , o r g a n i z a t i o n
an d p h r a s e o l o g y o f t h e s p e e c h e s were h i s own. F u r t h e r
e v id e n c e f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Long w ro te h i s own
s p e e c h e s can be fo u n d I n th e f a c t t h a t he u s u a l l y
p r e s e n t e d h i s re m a rk s e x te m p o r a n e o u s ly . F u r t h e r , on
th e few o c c a s i o n s when he had a m a n u s c r i p t he d i d
much p l a t f o r m e d i t i n g . F i n a l l y , a c l o s e s tu d y o f th e
b r o a d c a s t s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e y a l l have a c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c " s t y l e . " They seem to have t h e i m p r i n t o f one
p e r s o n a l i t y , w h e th er th e S e n a t o r d e l i v e r e d them fro m
m a n u s c r i p t o r e x te m p o ra n e o u s ly ; t h a t I s , th e s p e e c h e s
108
w hich were h a n d le d from m a n u s c r i p t , sound s i m i l a r I n
to n e to th e s p e e c h e s w hich were p r e s e n t e d e x te m p o ra n e
o u s l y . We know the l a t t e r w ere d e v e lo p e d by th e
S e n a t o r ; t h e r e f o r e we assume t h a t t h e fo rm e r w ere a l s o .
( 6 1 7 :2 5 )
B oth Long and T a f t m et th e c r i t e r i a u se d I n s e l e c t
i n g th e s p e a k e r s to be a n a l y s e d , and t h e i r s p e e c h e s
s i m i l a r l y f o l lo w e d th e d e s i r e d p a t t e r n .
A f t e r the s p e a k e r s and t h e i r s p e e c h e s had b een
s e l e c t e d , p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h on t h e s e men was e v a l u a t e d .
T h is a n a l y s i s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d In C h a p te r s I I I and IV.
P e r t i n e n t b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s w ere I n c l u d e d , i n th e t e x t
w h e re v e r n e c e s s a r y , and In an a b b r e v i a t e d form In th e
a p p e n d i c e s . The h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e f o r th e s p e e c h e s
a nd th e s p e c i f i c s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n s were t r e a t e d - - t h i s I s
th e B u rk ean s c e n e — t o g e t h e r w i t h d i s c u s s i o n s of th e
s p e c i f i c a u d ie n c e s I n e a c h c a s e . The c r i t e r i a s e l e c t e d
f o r use I n th e s tu d y were th e n a p p li e d to the s p e a k e r s
and t h e i r s p e e c h e s , w i t h c o n c l u s i o n s b e i n g drawn c o n c e r n
i n g th e s p e a k e r 's r h e t o r l c a l - e t h i c s a s r e v e a l e d by th e s e
c r i t e r i a .
O r g a n i s a t i o n o f th e R em ainder o f th e T h e s is
The r e m a in d e r o f t h i s t h e s i s w i l l be o r g a n i z e d I n t o
f o u r c h a p t e r s p l u s a p p e n d i c e s . C h a p te r I I w i l l be c o n c e r n
ed w ith th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a
w h ich i t was th e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s tu d y t o e s t a b l i s h .
C h a p te r I I I , w hich i s a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s e c r i t e r i a
109
a p p l i e d t o a man p o p u l a r l y e v a l u a t e d e t h i c a l , w i l l be
e n t i t l e d , "The R h e t o r i c a l - E t h i c s o f R o b e r t A lphonao T a f t . "
C h a p te r IV, w h ich p r e s e n t s t h e s e same c r i t e r i a a p p l i e d to
a man f r e q u e n t l y e v a l u a t e d a s u n e t h i c a l , w i l l be e n t i t l e d ,
"The R h e t o r i c a l - E t h i c s o f Huey P i e r c e L o n g ." The summary,
c o n c l u s i o n s , and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l be th e
c o n t e n t o f C h a p te r V.
F i v e a p p e n d i c e s f o l l o w t h e b o d y o f th e r e s e a r c h
r e p o r t . A p p e n d ix A i s a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e two
m o st r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t e x t s o f T a f t ' s J u n e 2 0 , 19^7 a d d r e s s .
A p p e n d ix B i s a s i m i l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e tw o m o st
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t e x t s o f L o n g 's M arch 7» 1935 a d d r e s s .
A p p e n d ix C c o n t a i n s a f a i r l y d e t a i l e d b i o g r a p h y o f
s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t s a b o u t T a f t , w h ile A p p en d ix D p r o v i d e s
p a r a l l e l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t L ong. A p p e n d ix E c o n t a i n s b r i e f
e s t i m a t e s o f t h e i d e a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s o f m in o r
c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n t r i b u t o r s t o an e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c .
A t e r m i n a l b i b l i o g r a p h y i s p r o v i d e d . The f i r s t
num ber i n t h e p a r e n t h e s e s a f t e r d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t r e f e r
e n c e to a s o u r c e r e f e r s to th e num ber o f the b i b l i o g r a p h y
I te m . The l a s t num ber p r o v i d e s th e e x a c t page c i t e d .
CHAPTER I I
THE RHETORICAL-ETHICAL CRITERIA
I t i s w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g w h e t h e r t h e r e a l c i v i l
d i s o b e d i e n c e m u s t n o t b e g i n w i t h o u r l a n g u a g e .
- - R i c h a r d M. W eav er, The E t h i c s o f R h e t o r i c ( 2 4 6 :2 3 2 )
T h e o d o re B ra m e ld , p r o f e s s o r o f e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o
p h y a t New Y o rk U n i v e r s i t y , w r o t e i n an a r t i c l e on th e
e t h i c s o f l e a d e r s h i p t h a t " d e m o c r a c y , r i g h t l y I n t e r p r e t e d ,
i s a lw a y s a t h e o r y o f e t h i c s e v e n th o u g h t h e o r i e s o f
e t h i c s a r e b y no m eans a lw a y s d e m o c r a t i c " ( 2 9 9 :5 ) *
F r a n k l y n H aim an, i n h i s a r t i c l e "A R e - e x a m l n a t l o n o f t h e
E t h i c s o f P e r s u a s i o n , " r a i s e d th e q u e s t i o n o f e t h i c a l
j u s t i f i c a t i o n :
O ur q u e s t i o n now b e c o m e s , n o t " i s i t d o n e ? " o r
" l a i t n e o e s s a r y ? " b u t "O u g h t i t t o b e d o n e ? " When
we r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g o u g h t
t o b e do n e we i m p l y t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d s
o r c r i t e r i a b y w h ic h we c a n Ju d g e an d e v a l u a t e i t .
E a c h o f u s i s l i k e l y t o b r i n g h i s own u n iq u e v a l u e s
t o t h e s i t u a t i o n . H o w ev er, I w o u ld s u g g e s t t h a t i n
o u r s o c i e t y t h e r e i s o n l y one u l t i m a t e v a l u e on w h ic h
a l l s u c h q u e s t i o n s m u s t b e d e o l d e d . I t i s th e o n l y
v a l u e I know w h ic h i s l e g a l l y an d n o r m a l l y b i n d i n g on
a l l idio c h o o s e to l i v e i n o u r c u l t u r e , ifc a t i s t h e
d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c . ( 3 6 3 :7 )
K a r l W a l l a c e , s i m i l a r l y , com m ented u p o n t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n
s h i p o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e s - - r h e t o r i c , e t h i c s , p o l i t i c s - -
when h e w ro t e :
We n e e d n o t b e c o n t e n t w i t h an e t h i c w h ich i s e x t e r n a l
110
I l l
to c o m m u n ic a tio n . . . . connnuni c a t i o n c a r r i e s l t a
e t h i c s w i t h i n i t s e l f . P u b l i c a d d r e s s o f a n ; k i n d i s
i n s e p a r a b l e fro m th e v a l u e s w h ic h p e r m e a t e a f r e e and
d e m o c r a t i c c o m m u n ity . ( 5 8 2 :9 )
A l l o f t h e s e q u o t a t i o n s r a i s e a s i n g l e q u e s t i o n : " I s t h e r e
a ' r h e t o r i c o f d e m o c r a c y '" ( 1 3 3 : 9 ) ? T h i s c h a p t e r , i n
w h ic h th e w r i t i n g s o f c l a s s i c a l and c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r i
c i a n s w i l l b e c l a s s i f i e d a n d a n a l y z e d , s e e k s an a n s w e r to
t h a t q u e s t i o n .
R eview o f P r e v i o u s R e s e a r c h
B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g to o d e e p l y i n t o th e s o l u t i o n o f a
s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o b le m i t i s c u s t o m a r y to d e t e r m i n e how
f a r i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s o l v e d t h r o u g h e a r l i e r r e s e a r c h .
S i n c e th e m e th o d o lo g y u s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r p r o v i d e d f o r
th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t o f
an e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c i n a d e m o c r a c y , i n one s e n s e th e
w h o le c h a p t e r c o n s t i t u t e s a r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e — n o t
o n l y o f p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h b u t a l s o o f p r e v i o u s t h e o r i z i n g .
I a t t e m p t e d to a v o i d d u p l i c a t i n g th e t r e a t m e n t of t h i s
l i t e r a t u r e ; h e n c e , r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to
t h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h i s p o i n t w e re n o t r e p o r t e d
a g a i n u n d e r c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e . S t u d i e s i n d i r e c t l y
o r t a n g e n t i a l l y o r p a r t i a l l y r e l a t e d w e re r e s e r v e d f o r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n u n d e r a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s .
T h ree d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o m p le te d
w hose s u b j e c t s a r e d i r e c t l y and i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h
t h i s o n e : (1) E r n e s t B o y d 's t h e s i s , w r i t t e n f o r N o r t h -
112
w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , l a e n t i t l e d , "A C r i t i c a l S tu d y o f t h e
D o c t r i n e s o f P e r s u a s i o n i n S p e e c h and i n A d v e r t l a l n g ,
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 5 3 " ( 6 l 9 ) » (2) a n o t h e r N o r t h w e a t e m p a p e r I s P a r k e
G i l l e t t e B u r g e s s ' "A C o n c e p t o f S o c i a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n
R h e t o r i c " ( 6 2 0 ) ; (3) " U ie P l a c e o f E f f e c t i v e , R e s p o n s i b l e
an d i n t e l l i g e n t S p e a k i n g i n t h e R h e t o r i c s an d t h e
S o c i e t i e s o f C l a s s i c a l a n d E a r l y M odern C u l t u r e s " b y
W i l l i a m H. S t i t e a w as w r i t t e n f o r th e U n i v e r s i t y o f D e n v e r
( 6 3 7 ) .
B o y d 's s t u d y w as a c o m p a r a t i v e s u r v e y an d c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s i s o f p e r s u a s i o n i n s p e e c h and a d v e r t i s i n g . D e a l i n g
w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d num ber o f s p e e c h s o u r c e s ,
p r i m a r i l y t e x t b o o k s , Boyd a t t e m p t e d t o a n s w e r th e c e n t r a l
q u e s t i o n :
D id th e m o d e m A m e ric a n d o c t r i n e o f p e r s u a s i o n a s
r e v e a l e d b y b o o k s p u b l i s h e d i n t h e f i e l d s o f s p e e c h
an d a d v e r t i s i n g , 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 5 3 # p r o v i d e p h i l o s o p h i c b a s e s
a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e s o c l o - d e m o c r a t l c
i d e a l s and c o m m e n su ra te w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
s o c i a l c o n t r o l o f o u r i n d u s t r i a l d e m o c r a c y i n th e y e a r
1953? ( 6 1 9 :3 0 6 )
Among t h e s i x t e e n s u b - q u e s t i o n s he t h o u g h t t o b e s i g n i f i
c a n t i n " a n y b r o a d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f p e r s u a
s i o n " w e re f o u r e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t to t h i s s t u d y (6 1 9 :
6 - 7 ) . Any c o n c l u s i o n s o f B o y d 's s t u d y s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d
I n th e l i g h t o f th e l i m i t e d n u m b er o f s p e e c h t e x t s s t u d i e d .
A lth o u g h h e i t e m i s e d f o u r t e e n " i m p o r t a n t " b o o k s a s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e s p e e c h f i e l d i n h i s f i r s t c h a p t e r ,
no s p e c i f i c n u m b e r w as d e s i g n a t e d f o r th e w h o le s t u d y .
113
H is c h a p t e r on t h e p e r s u a s i o n m e th o d o lo g y o f th e s p e e c h
f i e l d . C h a p t e r V, d e a l t w i t h o n l y t e n s p e e c h t e x t s , an d
I n a t l e a s t one i n s t a n c e ( a c r u c i a l one i n te r m s o f t h i s
s t u d y ) h i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e I d e a l p e r s u a d e r , o n l y a s i n g l e
s o u r c e was u s e d to r e p r e s e n t t h e w h o le s p e e c h f i e l d ( 6 1 9 :
3 0 1 - 3 0 2 ) . T h is p re s u m e s a u n a n i m i t y o f o p i n i o n w h ic h
s im p l y d o e s n o t e x i s t *
O n ly t h o s e o f h i s c o n c l u s i o n s p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s
s t u d y w i l l be r e p o r t e d I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n . I n
a n s w e r to th e s u b - q u e s t i o n "What i s th e p r o p e r f u n c t i o n
o f p e r s u a s i o n i n an I n d u s t r i a l d e m o c r a c y ? " Boyd c o n
c l u d e d :
I n s p e e c h , t h e e a r l y T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y v i e w p o i n t
seem ed to be t h a t s e l f - i n t e r e s t p r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t
i n c e n t i v e f o r d e v e l o p i n g s k i l l i n p e r s u a s i o n . By
1 9 2 0 , th e v i e w p o i n t h a d e v o l v e d a s one o f e n l i g h t e n e d
s e l f - i n t e r e s t , p e r h a p s s y m b o l i z e d by W o o l b e r t 's view
t h a t d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s p e a k e r f o r h i s own b e n e f i t
w o u ld a l s o b e n e f i t s o c i e t y . M oBurney a n d W rage seem ed
t o e p i t o m i z e th e c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i o - d e m o c r a t l c
I d e a l i s m o f th e s p e e c h d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e i r s t a t e m e n t ,
" E d u c a t i o n f o r s p e a k i n g i s e d u c a t i o n f o r d e m o c r a t i c
l i v i n g . " ( 6 1 9 :3 1 1 )
B o y d 's a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n "W hat e t h i c a l b a s e s
f o r p e r s u a s i o n may be d i s c l o s e d by th e l i t e r a t u r e ? " was
i n d i c a t i v e o f th e v a r i e d e t h i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t a k e n by
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y r h e t o r i c i a n s :
I n th e f i e l d o f s p e e c h to a b o u t 1915* t h e B a k e r and
H u n t i n g t o n a d m o n i t i o n t o " c h o o s e t h e h i g h e s t m o tiv e
to w h ic h you t h i n k y o u r a u d i e n c e w i l l r e s p o n d " p r o
v i d e d a k i n d o f p r a g m a t i c e t h i c a l b a s e . W inans w as
t h e f i r s t T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y c o n t r i b u t o r t o s p e e c h
d o c t r i n e who g a v e t h e e t h i c s o f p e r s u a s i o n e x t e n s i v e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . He a p p l i e d v a r i o u s e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a .
114
i n c l u d i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s " e n e r g i z i n g o f t r u t h , " b u t to o k
th e v ie w t h a t " e a c h c a s e m u st b e d e c i d e d on i t s
m e r i t s . " As t h e d i s c i p l i n e m a t u r e d , i t w as s e e n to
h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s o c i o - d e m o c r a t l c i d e a l i s m t h a t was
r e f l e c t e d i n i n c r e a s e d e m p h a s is upon th e l o g i c a l o r
c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c o m p o n e n ts o f th e p e r s u a s i o n p r o c e s s .
A l t h o u g h P e l l e g r i n i a n d S t i r l i n g i n t h e i r a d v e r s e
c r i t i c i s m o f c o m p e t i t i v e d e b a t i n g a s s a i l e d a l s o th e
" s h o r t c i r c u i t " a s p e c t s o f p e r s u a s i o n , a s d i d Haiman
i n a c r i t i c a l e s s a y , t h e r e seem s to be a r a t h e r w id e
g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t among r e c e n t w r i t e r s o f s p e e c h t e x t
b o o k s t h a t a l l a v a i l a b l e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n may be
a p p l i e d e t h i c a l l y u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . T hese
c o n d i t i o n s g e n e r a l l y w e re t h o u g h t t o i n c l u d e th e u s e
o f p e r s u a s i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s w h ic h c o u l d b e s u p p o r t e d
l o g i c a l l y , an d th e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a r e a s o n a b l e
b a l a n c e b e tw e e n th e l o g i c a l and n o n - l o g l c a l f a c t o r s .
B rem beck and H o w e ll d e s c r i b e d many e t h i c a l t e a t s t h a t
m i g h t be a p p l i e d , re c o m m e n d in g th e u s e o f a c o m b i n a t i o n
o f s u c h t e s t s w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e p e r s u a s i o n c o n
t e x t , I n c l u d i n g s u b j e c t , a u d i e n c e , tim e , p l a c e , and
o c o a s l o n . The u s e o f p e r s u a s i o n f o r p e r s o n a l g a i n
seem ed t o be d i s a p p r o v e d b y some b u t a p p r o v e d b y
o t h e r s i f o t h e r e t h i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s w ere m e t . Some
o f t h o s e who, l i k e P e l l e g r i n i a n d S t i r l i n g , seem ed t o
r e g a r d s a l e s m a n s h i p a s u n e t h i c a l d i d n o t make c l e a r
w h a t s u b s t i t u t e a c t i v i t y m ig h t ta k e th e p l a c e o f
s a l e s m a n s h i p i n th e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o c e s s e s o f a
c o m p e t i t i v e econom y. ( 6 1 9 :3 1 3 - 1 4 )
" b i d th e 1953 e t h i c a l b a s e s seem to be c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h th e A m e ric a n s o c i o - d e m o c r a t l c i d e a l f " Boyd f e l t t h a t
s i n c e s p e e c h h a d f o r m u l a t e d a p e r s u a s i o n m e th o d o lo g y w h ic h
r e s t e d on e t h i c a l b a s e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n s an d
o b l i g a t i o n s o f a p e r s u a d e r i n a d e m o c r a c y , i t s p h i l o s o p h y
was i n b a s i c h arm o n y w i t h t h e s o c i o - d e m o c r a t l c i d e a l
( 6 1 9 : 3 1 5 ) .
I n a n s w e r t o th e s u b - q u e s t i o n "What a r e t h e
a t t r i b u t e s , a p t i t u d e s , a n d s k i l l s o f th e ' i d e a l ' p e r s u a d e r
a s s e e n b y c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e ? " Boyd
e n u m e r a te d s i n c e r i t y , e n t h u s i a s m , i n t e l l i g e n c e , c h a r a c t e r ,
115
an d good w i l l ( 6 l 9 : 3 2 l i ) — w h ic h seam s t o be l i t t l e m ore t h a n
th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f th e e t h o s o f t h e s p e a k e r .
I n a n s w e r t o h i s c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n , Boyd p o s i t e d an
a f f i r m a t i v e a n s w e r f o r t h e s p e e c h d i s c i p l i n e :
D id t h e m o d ern A m e ric a n d o c t r i n e s o f p e r s u a s i o n a s
r e v e a l e d b y b o o k s p u b l i s h e d I n t h e f i e l d s o f s p e e c h
a n d o f a d v e r t i s i n g , 1 9 0 0 -1 9 5 3 # p r o v i d e p h i l o s o p h i c
b a s e s an d m e t h o d o l o g i e s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e s o c i o -
d e m o c r a t l c I d e a l s an d c o m m e n su ra te w i t h t h e r e q u i r e
m e n ts f o r s o c i a l c o n t r o l o f o u r I n d u s t r i a l d e m o c ra c y
I n t h e y e a r 1953?
. . . S p e e c h d o c t r i n e # h a v i n g r e t a i n e d much o f th e
t r a d i t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y an d s t r u c t u r e o f a n c i e n t and
c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c , seem ed t o I n t e g r a t e th e m o d ern
p s y c h o l o g y w i t h o u t c o m p r o m is in g th e p h i l o s o p h y o r
w e a k e n in g th e s t r u c t u r e . I n s o f a r a s th e p h i l o s o p h i c
b a s e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , a p o s i t i v e a n s w e r a p p l i e s t o th e
f a c e - t o - f a c e a u d i e n c e s i t u a t i o n , t h e a n s w e r a g a i n
w o u ld seem to be a f f i r m a t i v e . I t i s p r o b a b l y t r u e ,
h o w e v e r, t h a t th e s p e e c h m e th o d o lo g y a s r e v e a l e d by
t h e l i t e r a t u r e f a l l s so m ew h at s h o r t o f m e e t i n g
c o n t e m p o r a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n a
m a ss p e r s u a s i o n e r a , (6 1 9 :3 2 5 * 2 6 )
B o y d 's s t u d y I s a l o g i c a l p r e d e c e s s o r to t h i s p a p e r .
B e g i n n i n g a s he d i d w l t h th e r e c e n t u n i o n o f r h e t o r i c and
d e m o c ra c y f o u n d I n c o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e , h i s s t u d y
s e r v e d a s s u p p o r t f o r my b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n . By s h o w in g
t h e d i v e r s i t y o f s t a n d a r d s b e i n g a p p l i e d by v a r i o u s t e x t
w r i t e r s , h e I n d i r e c t l y d i s c l o s e d th e l a c k o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l
u n i t y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r l c i a n s , t h u s e m p h a s i z i n g t h e
n e e d f o r f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a . H is
l i m i t e d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e " i d e a l " p e r s u a d e r a l s o r e v e a l e d
t h e n e e d f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y . H is f i n a l p o s i t i o n t h a t
" a l l a v a i l a b l e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n may b e a p p l i e d e t h i c a l l y
u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s " (619:31l|.)# c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h he
116
s p e c i f i e d i n a g e n e r a l w ay, p r o v i d e d f o r l i m i t a t i o n s upon
r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s u s e d I n th e s o c i o - d e m o c r a t l c c o n t e x t ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y upon l o g o s and p a t h o s * I s o u g h t m ore s p e c i f i c
a n s w e r s t h a n B o y d 's s t u d y o f f e r e d .
The s e c o n d s t u d y t o be r e v i e w e d I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
t h i s c h a p t e r was P a r k e G i l l e t t e B u r g e s s ' "A C o n c e p t o f
S o c i a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n R h e t o r i c " ( 6 2 0 ) . Com m enting
u p o n th e "new r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " o f r h e t o r i c w h ic h h a v e
come w i t h t h e "new c o m p l e x i t i e s " ( 6 2 0 : 2 ) , B u r g e s s fo u n d
a c o n f u s i o n i n t h e f i e l d a s to w h a t i s s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e
p e r s u a s i o n ( 6 2 0 : 9 ) . He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e a n s w e r s b e i n g
g i v e n a r e n e i t h e r i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , n o r c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h o t h e r a s p e c t s o f r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y , n o r c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h th e n e e d s o f a s t u d e n t o f p e r s u a s i o n i n a d e m o c ra c y
( 6 2 0 : 1 0 ) . B u r g e s s s o u g h t t o a n s w e r t h r e e q u e s t i o n s u s i n g
t h e g e n e r a l s e m a n t i c s a p p r o a c h :
W hat d o e s th e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c a l
t h e o r y s a y a b o u t th e f u n c t i o n o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
i n th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c ? Do w r i t e r s o f t h e m id -
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a g r e e i n m o s t r e s p e c t s w i t h t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n , o r do t h e y o f f e r d i v e r g e n t
o p i n i o n s ? And f i n a l l y , w h a t a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s
o f t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r a m o d e m p h i l o s o p h y o f
r h e t o r i c . ( 6 2 0 :1 6 )
The m a j o r q u e s t i o n w h ic h he a t t e m p t e d to a n s w e r w as s t a t e d
a s f o l l o w s :
R e l a t i v e to t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s u n d e r s t u d y h e r e , w h a t
a r e th e m a j o r a n d p e r s i s t e n t t r e n d s t h a t h a v e b e e n
i n i t i a t e d an d d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s i n
th e C l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y ? (6 2 0 :
55k)
117
B u r g e s s ' c o n c l u s i o n s w ere l i m i t e d I n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e
d o c t r i n e o f g e n e r a l s e m a n t i c s was " f u n d a m e n t a l l y r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r t h e n a t u r e and m eth o d o f t h i s s t u d y , . . . a l s o ,
f o r th e v a l u e s t h a t w e re m a l y z e d and t h e k i n d s o f
c o n c l u s i o n s d e r i v e d " ( 6 2 0 : 5 7 0 ) . (He d e f i n e d s o c i a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y I n te r m s o f " f a c t u a l " a d e q u a c y ( 6 2 0 : 1 8 2 ) . )
B u r g e s s s e p a r a t e d h i s f i n d i n g s fro m t h e i r p h i l o s o p h
i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . He f o u n d t h a t s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
was f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d o m in a n t d e f i n i t i o n o f
p e r s u a s i o n w h ic h s te m s fro m A r i s t o t e l i a n t h e o r y . He e x
p a n d e d on t h i s i d e a , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e u s u a l d e f i n i t i o n
o f p e r s u a s i o n t r e a t e d r h e t o r i c a s a n a m o r a l I n s t r u m e n t by
w h ic h any m eans n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s
p e r m i t t e d and e v e n e n c o u r a g e d ( 6 2 0 : 5 5 6 ) . He f o u n d a
f u n c t i o n a l and p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c e r t a i n t r e n d s
w h ic h " m a n i f e s t e d c o n s l s t e n c y w i t h th e s t a t e d d e f i n i t i o n
o f r h e t o r i c " ( 6 2 0 : 5 5 6 ) : (1 ) w h i l e t h e c l a s s i c i s t s seem ed
t o d i s r e s p e c t th e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s o f a u d i e n c e s ,
m o d ern r h e t o r i c i a n s te n d e d t o e x h i b i t a g r e a t e r r e s p e c t f o r
t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s ; (2) w h i l e t h e c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s
e m p h a s iz e d t h e o r a t o r a s t h e f i n a l Ju d g e o f t h e f a c t u a l
a d e q u a c y o f th e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n , c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s
p l a c e d l e s s e m p h a s is on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r and
m ore e m p h a s is upon t h e f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y o f t h e m eans
t h e m s e l v e s ( 6 2 0 : 5 5 6 - 5 7 ) • He fo u n d a f u n c t i o n a l a n d
p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c e r t a i n t r e n d s w h ic h " m a n i f e s t e d
1 1 8
I n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h t h e s t s t e d d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c "
( 6 2 0 : 5 5 7 ) : (1 ) t h e t e n d e n c y s i n c e W ard, t o u s e m o r a l
e x h o r t a t i o n t o r e j e c t m eans o f p e r s u a a i o n w h ic h a g i v e n
r h e t o r i c i a n c o n s i d e r s r e p r e h e n s i b l e ; (2 ) t h e t e n d e n c y i n
t h e m o d ern p e r i o d to d e v e l o p m ore s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t m e n t s
o f an e t h i c s o f p e r s u a s i o n r e g a r d i n g u a a b l e m e a n s ; (3) t h e
c o n t e m p o r a r y t e n d e n c y to r e l y on l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s
u n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i r a c t u a l r e l e v a n c e to e f f e c t i v e n e s s
( 6 2 0 :5 5 7 ) * B u r g e s s i n s t r u c t e d h i s r e a d e r t o re m e m b e r t h a t
a l l o f th e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s w h ic h h e f o u n d w e re a p r o d u c t
o f t h e m e th o d o lo g y e m p lo y e d , u n d e r w h ic h h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
i n c o m p a t i b l e e l e m e n t s by t h e u s e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i
t i o n : "Any i n s t a n c e s w h e re l a n g u a g e fo rm s do n o t a c c u r a t e
l y r e p r e s e n t w h a t t h e y p u r p o r t t o r e p r e s e n t , may b e c a l l e d
' l o g i c a l i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ' " ( 6 2 0 : 5 7 0 ) . He f o u n d :
S o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was i n f e r r e d t o b e f u n c t i o n a l l y
an d p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to a t r e n d t h a t h a s b e e n a l m o s t
u n i v e r s a l i n t h e C l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n , a n d e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e m o d e rn c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h a t t r a d i t i o n , b u t
w h ic h , h o w e v e r , b e a r s no l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n t o th e
d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c ; n a m e ly , t h e c o n c e r n f o r
e t h i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , a n d / o r l o g i c a l l y a d e q u a t e e n d s
o f p e r s u a s i o n — t h e p e r s u a d e r ' s p u r p o s e m u st m e e t
d e f e n s i b l e s t a n d a r d s . ( 6 2 0 :5 5 7 )
(One m i g h t a r g u e , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h a t i f r h e t o r i c w ere
c o n c e i v e d a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r th e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f a n
e x t r i n s i c e n d , and th e d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c r e f e r s o n l y
to an i n t r i n s i c e n d , t h e r e n e e d b e no i l l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n
s h i p i n th e ab o v e s t a t e m e n t . ) He fo u n d a f u n c t i o n a l a n d
a n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e c o n c e p t s o f s o c i a l
119
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d t h e m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e s
( 6 2 0 : 5 5 7 * 5 3 ) . He f o u n d no n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n
s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y an d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l u n i v e r s a l c o n
c e r n w i t h e f f e c t i v e n e s s . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , he f e l t
t h a t s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was a f u n c t i o n o f a " p a r t i c u l a r ”
d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c , w h ic h d e f i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f
e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i t h i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e " p a r t i c u l a r "
r h e t o r i c a l s y s te m ( 6 2 0 : 5 5 3 ) . ( T h i s i s o n l y a way o f s a y
i n g t h a t t h e en d o f " e f f e c t i v e n e s s " i s a s u b - g o a l t o be
e v a l u a t e d i n t e r n s o f a l a r g e r p e r s p e c t i v e . ) He fo u n d
t h a t w h i l e v i r t u a l l y a l l m o d e rn t h e o r i s t s a c c e p t e d t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c * i t was f r e q u e n t l y
c o n t r a d i c t e d i n t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e i r t h e o r i e s . M ost o f
t h e s e w r i t e r s , he f o u n d , o f f e r e d r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n
a r t i s t i c a d e q u a c y — w h ic h he e q u a t e d w i t h a m o r a l i t y - - f o r
a o c e p t i n g o r r e j e c t i n g c e r t a i n m eans o r p e r s u a s i o n .
F u r t h e r m o r e , he n o t e d t h a t a l l o f the m o d e rn s I m p l i e d a
p e r s o n a l and s o c l o - d e m o c r a t l c v a l u e s y s te m w h ic h i s
c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s o f r h e t o r i c :
O r, t o p u t i t m ore d i r e c t l y , i t seem s h i s t o r i c a l l y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r h e t o r i c i a n s , i n g e n e r a l , a n d o f
m o d e m t h e o r i s t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o p r e f e r a r h e t o r i c a l
t h e o r y t h a t i s s o c i a l l y u s e f u l ( n o t p o w e r f u l , n e c e s
s a r i l y ) , p o l i t i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e , an d p e r s o n a l l y e l e v a t
i n g . ( 6 2 0 :5 5 9 )
B u r g e s s r e p o r t e d a n u m b er o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s f i n d i n g s . (1 ) H is s t u d y r e v e a l e d a
m a j o r p o i n t o f d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n c l a s s i c a l a n d m odern
1 2 0
t h e o r i s t s — a o o n o e r n f o r t h e s o e i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
u t t e r a n c e ( 6 2 0 : 5 6 1 ) . (2 ) M odern t h e o r i s t s h a r e a e o e p t e d
t h e c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n d e s p i t e t h i s d i s a g r e e
m ent on t h e a m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c , a d i s a g r e e m e n t v h l o h i s
l a r g e l y I m p l i e d ( 6 2 0 : 5 6 2 ) . (3 ) T h i s a d h e r e n c e t o t h e
c l a s s i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , a t t h e same t im e e x h i b i t i n g o o n o e r n
f o r s o c i o - d e m o o r a t i o r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a m o u n ts t o a p h i l o
s o p h i c a l d ilem m a w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e
s o l v e d by m o d ern t h e o r i s t s ( 6 2 0 : 5 6 2 ) . (1*.) The p r i n c i p l e s
o f g e n e r a l s e m a n t i c s m ig h t o f f e r some r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s
d i l e m m a - - w h l c h may be l i t t l e m ore t h a n a p r o b le m o f
r e d e f i n i t i o n ( 6 2 0 : 5 6 5 ) . B u r g e s s h a s f o u n d , i n h i s own
w o r d s , " t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f s o c i a l I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o be
I n h e r e n t i n a p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n c o n s i s t e n c y " a n d " t h a t s u c h
a s o u r c e c a n be l o g i c a l l y rem o v ed by m ak in g a g e n e r a l an d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l a t t a c k on t h i s i n c o n s i s t e n c y " ( 6 2 0 : 5 6 6 ) .
B u r g e s s ' s t u d y was a t h o u g h t- p r o v o k i n g o n e . I t s
m a jo r o b j e c t i v e , o f c o u r s e , was n o t c o n te m p o ra ry p e r s u a
s i o n , b u t r a t h e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n i t s t h e o r i e s
and I t s c l a s s i c a l b a c k g r o u n d s . He l o o a t e d w hat he con
s i d e r e d t o be t h e s o u ro e o f i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n a p h i l o
s o p h i c a l i n c o n s i s t e n c y b e tw e e n t h e o l a s s l o a l d e f i n i t i o n o f
r h e t o r i c and t h e d e m o c r a tic r h e t o r i c o f c o n te m p o ra ry
w r i t e r s . He u r g e d t h a t f u r t h e r s t u d y be made t o e s t a b l i s h
" s p e c i f i c , t e a o h a b l e , and w o rk a b le c r i t e r i a f o r th e
a s s e s s m e n t o f p e r s u a s i v e m ethods i n term s o f t h e i r e f f e c t s
1 2 1
on p e o p l e " ( 6 2 0 : 5 7 2 ) ; to e s t a b l i s h s t a n d a r d s f o r e v a l u a t
i n g t h e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s p e e c h e s o f t h e c o n te m p o
r a r y s c e n e . T h e se w ere p rim e aim s o f my s t u d y , f o r I
a g r e e w i t h B u r g e s s t h a t " t h e p e r s u a d i n g o f men i n a demo
c r a t i c s o c i e t y m ean s t h e s h o u l d e r i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
c o m m e n su ra te w i t h th e pow er so w i e l d e d , a n d w i t h t h e
v a l u e s on w h ic h t h a t s o c i e t y t h r i v e s " (6 2 0 :5 7 4 -).
S t i t e s ' r e p o r t , c o m p le te d i n 1954-* e n t i t l e d "The
P l a c e o f E f f e c t i v e , R e s p o n s i b l e , and I n t e l l i g e n t S p e a k in g
i n t h e R h e t o r i c s and t h e S o c i e t i e s o f C l a s s i c a l and E a r l y
M odern C u l t u r e s , " a r o s e o u t o f a b e l i e f t h a t " v e r y l i t t l e
e f f o r t h a s b e e n made t o a n a l y s e c r i t i c a l l y t h e s e r h e t o r i c s
i n t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i c s e t t i n g o f t h e i n t e n t o f t h e i r
a u t h o r s " ( 6 3 7 :3 ) * H is p u r p o s e was s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s :
The p r o b le m was t o d i s c o v e r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f e f f e c t i v e ,
r e s p o n s i b l e , an d i n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k i n g i n t h e r h e t o r i c s
o f c l a s s i c a l and e a r l y m o d ern s o c i e t i e s a s shown b y
q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r h e t o r i c s o f
t h e c l a s s i c a l and th e e a r l y m o d ern p e r i o d , and t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e s o c i e t y i n and f o r w h ic h t h e y w ere
w r i t t e n . ( 6 3 7 :6 )
H is t r e a t m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g i s m ost i m p o r t a n t to
t h i s s t u d y . S t i t e s a n a l y z e d P l a t o ’ s G o r g l a s and P h a e d r u a ,
A r i s t o t l e ’ s R h e t o r i c , C i c e r o 's De O r a t o r e , Q u i n t i l i a n ' s
I n s t i t u t l o O r a t o r i o , Thomas W i l s o n 's The A rte of
R h e t o r i q u a , G eorge C a m p b e ll's The P h ilo s o p h y o f R h e t o r i c ,
Hugh B l a i r ' s L e c t u r e s on R h e t o r i c and B e l l e s L e t t r e s , and
R io h a r d W h a t e l y 's E le m e n ts o f R h e t o r i c . He d e f i n e d
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g :
1 2 2
T h e re I s e v i d e n c e o f t r e a t m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g
I n a r h e t o r i c w hen: (1) a d v i c e I s g i v e n to a s p e a k e r
to d i r e c t h im to becom e e t h i c a l l y a n d m o r a l l y aw are
o f a l l t h e s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f h i s s p e a k i n g ; (2)
a d v i c e I s g iv e n to th e s p e a k e r to d i r e c t him t o h a v e a
t h o r o u g h m a s t e r y o f a l l a v a i l a b l e f a c t s u p o n th e
s u b j e c t a b o u t w h ic h h e I s t o s p e a k w i t h a l l m a t e r i a l s
w e ig h e d I n t e r m s o f good a n d e v i l to s o c i e t y . (6 3 7 :
2 0)
The m e th o d o lo g y u s e d b y S t i t e s was q u a l i t a t i v e
a n a l y s i s . T h i s , he a d m i t t e d , d i d n o t p e r m i t c o m p l e t e l y
s c i e n t i f i c t r e a t m e n t " b e c a u s e o f t h e n o n - a d d i t i v e a t t r i
b u t e s o f t h e c r i t e r i a t h e m s e l v e s " ( 6 3 7 : 1 2 3 ) . He u s e d a
s c a l e f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e q u a l i t i e s p l a c i n g " c o m p le te
a d v i c e f o r " a t one e n d , " c o m p le te a d v i c e a g a i n s t " a t t h e
o p p o s i t e e n d , an d " l a c k o f a d v i c e " I n a c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n .
A f t e r s e c u r i n g an e s t i m a t e o f t h e r h e t o r i c i a n s '
t r e a t m e n t s o f e f f e c t i v e , r e s p o n s i b l e , and I n t e l l i g e n t
s p e a k i n g i n te rm s o f th e ab o v e s c a l e , S t i t e s c o m p a re d
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t h e o r i e s w i t h t h e p r a c t i c e s I n t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e s o c i e t i e s . B i u s , I n t h e b o d y o f t h e t h e s i s ,
he f i r s t d i s c u s s e d t h e p l a c e o f e f f e c t i v e , r e s p o n s i b l e ,
an d I n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k i n g I n t h e v a r i o u s s o c i e t i e s , s e c o n d ,
I n t h e r h e t o r i c s , an d f i n a l l y , he sh o w e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
b e tw e e n the r h e t o r i c s a n d t h e s o c i e t i e s .
S t i t e s c o n c l u d e d , i n p a r t : (1 ) t h a t " P l a t o p r e s e n t
e d a v e r y s t r o n g p h i l o s o p h y o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g ,
d e v o t i n g m o s t o f t h e G o r g l a s a n d t h e P h a e d r u s t o t h i s
p r i n c i p l e " ( 6 3 7 : 3 1 2 ) , a n d t h a t t h i s a d v i c e was g i v e n
" a l m o s t I n t o t a l r e v e r s e o f t h e p r a c t i c e s o f h i s s o c i e t y , "
123
w h ic h e m p h a siz e d e f f e c t i v e s p e a k in g ( 6 3 7 : 3 1 3 — lip ) . (2)
A r i s t o t l e , S t i t e s a r g u e d , c o n s i d e r e d r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g
to be I m p o r ta n t (6 3 7 :3 1 5 )* b u t h i s s o c i e t y saw l i t t l e n eed
f o r I t ( 6 3 7 : 3 1 6 ) . (3 ) N e i t h e r C ic e r o n o r th e s o c i e t y In
w h ic h he l i v e d c o n s i d e r e d r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g much beyond
th e p o i n t o f p r e p a r a t i o n ( 6 3 7 : 3 2 0 ) . (/j.) W r i t i n g f o r a
s o c i e t y w h ich showed a lm o s t t o t a l d i s r e g a r d f o r r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k i n g , Q u i n t i l i a n made h i s g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n to
r h e t o r i c i n t h a t a r e a , f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f h i s I d e a l o r a t o r
m u st be a good man ( 6 3 7 : 3 2 1 - 2 3 ) . (5 ) At th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l
l e v e l , C a m p b e ll 's t r e a t m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g was
s i m i l a r to t h a t o f th e s o c i e t y In w h ich he l i v e d , b u t a t
th e l e v e l o f m eth o d , h i s t r e a t m e n t was c o n s i d e r a b l y more
" i n t e n s i v e " t h a n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e ( 6 3 7 : 3 2 7 ) . S t i t e s f e l t
t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , " th e h i g h e r th e fo rm o f c u l t u r e |_ln a
s o c i e t y 3 * • • the more the s p e a k i n g te n d e d to ta k e
c o g n iz a n c e o f a l l t h r e e o f th e c r i t e r i a . . . " ( 6 3 7 : 3 3 6 ) .
S t i t e s ' r e s e a r c h , l i k e t h a t o f Boyd, I s a l o g i c a l
p r e d e c e s s o r to t h i s s t u d y . He d.d f o r c l a s s i c a l and e a r l y
m o d e m r h e t o r i c s o m e th in g v e r y s i m i l a r to w hat I a tte m p te d
to do f o r c o n te m p o ra ry r h e t o r i c . He a n a ly z e d s p e e c h
t h e o r y i n t h e c l a s s i c a l and e a r l y m o d em p e r i o d s , and th e
n e e d s and p r a c t i c e s o f the s o c i e t i e s f o r w hich the
r h e t o r i c s were c r e a t e d . My s t u d y a t t e m p t s to I s o l a t e
c o n te m p o ra ry a d v ic e c o n c e r n i n g one o f S t i t e s ' c r i t e r i a - -
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e e c h - - a n d to i n v e s t i g a t e i t s f i t n e s s f o r th e
1 2k
s o c i e t y i n w h ic h I t was c r e a t e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , h i s a n a l y s i s
o f t h e w o rk s o f P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , C i c e r o , Q u i n t i l i a n , and
C a m p b e ll w as h e l p f u l t o me, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n v e r i f y i n g
t h e v ie w s o f r e s p o n s i b l e u t t e r a n c e c o n t a i n e d i n th em .
B o th S t i t e s ' and B u r g e s s ' s t u d i e s h a v e c e r t a i n
l i m i t a t i o n s o f u s a b i l i t y f o r t h i s s t u d y . The m ain r e
s t r i c t i o n on th e f o r m e r i s t h a t S t i t e s was o n l y s e a r c h i n g
f o r " a d v i c e ” on r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g ; h e was n o t l o o k i n g
f o r a c o m p r e h e n s iv e t h e o r y o f e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c . On th e
o t h e r h a n d , B u r g e s s ' s t u d y i s l i m i t e d b e c a u s e (1 ) h i s
c o n c l u s i o n s w e re b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on an a n a l y s i s o f t h e
t r e a t m e n t o f i n v e n t i o n a l o n e , and (2) h i s c r i t e r i o n o f
" f a c t u a l ” a d e q u a c y a l s o r e s t r i c t e d t h e sc o p e o f th e s t u d y .
A l l o f t h e s e s t u d i e s made s t r o n g r e c o m m e n d a tio n s
f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y i n th e a r e a o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y an d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f i t s r h e t o r i c .
Many s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s w i l l be I n c l u d e d as
t h e y p e r t a i n to l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n .
O b s t a c l e s t o t h e F o r m a t i o n o f S t a n d a r d s
Hie f o r m a t o f t h i s s t u d y , w i t h i t s l i m i t a t i o n i n
te r m s o f t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n , m ak es i t e a s i e r t h a n i t
o t h e r w i s e w ould oe to d e t e r m i n e e t h i c a l - s t a n d a r d s — t h e y
m u s t be i n a c c o r d w i t h d e m o c r a t i c v a l u e s and p r o c e s s e s .
B u t t h e r e a r e e n o u g h o b s t a c l e s w h ic h f a c e one i n v e s t i g a t
i n g s u c h c r i t e r i a w i t h o u t p l a c i n g th e a d d i t i o n a l b u r d e n o f
1 2 5
t h e f o r m a t i o n o f u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d s — c r i t e r i a f o r a l l t i m e s
an d I n a l l p l a c e s . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , P. H. N o w e ll-
S m ith s t a t e d t h a t m o r a l la w s c a n n o t b e c o d i f i e d f o r a l l
t i m e s ( 1 8 0 : 1 8 ) . I f o n e c o n c e i v e s o f r h e t o r i c a s a p o l i t i
c a l i n s t r u m e n t , a s I t c e r t a i n l y I s I n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y ,
o n e ' s c o n c e r n f o r an e t h i c a l c o d e m u s t b e r e l a t e d to th e
w h o le s o c i e t a l s t r u c t u r e b e c a u s e o f th e p u b l i c n a t u r e o f
s u c h s t a n d a r d s ( 5 : 2 0 ) . "The e t h i c s o f o u r s o c i a l an d
p o l i t i c a l l i f e I s a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f g r o u p e t h i c s o f
v a r i o u s s t r a t a , " H ans R e ic h e n b a c k p o i n t e d o u t (2 0 ij.:2 8 6 ).
R o u s s e a u t o l d how m o r a l c o d e s a r i s e fro m many s m a l l c o d e s :
E v e r y p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y I s com p o sed o f o t h e r s m a l l e r
s o c i e t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s , e a c h o f w h ic h h a s I t s
i n t e r e s t s an d I t s r u l e s o f c o n d u c t : b u t t h o s e s o c i e
t i e s w h ic h e v e r y b o d y p e r c e i v e s , b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e an
e x t e r n a l and a u t h o r i s e d f o r m , a r e n o t t h e o n l y o n e s
t h a t a c t u a l l y e x i s t i n t h e S t a t e : a l l I n d i v i d u a l s who
a r e u n i t e d by a common i n t e r e s t com pose a s many o t h e r s ,
e i t h e r t r a n s i t o r y o r p e r m a n e n t , w hose I n f l u e n c e I s
n o n e t h e l e s s r e a l b e c a u s e i t i s l e s s a p p a r e n t , and
th e p r o p e r o b s e r v a t i o n o f w hose v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s I s
t h e t r u e k n o w le d g e o f p u b l i c m o r a l s and m a n n e r s . The
I n f l u e n c e o f a l l t h e s e t a c i t o r f o r m a l a s s o c i a t i o n s
c a u s e s b y t h e I n f l u e n c e o f t h e i r w i l l , a s many d i f f e r
e n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e p u b l i c w i l l . ( 2 1 2 :3 6 9 )
C o n f l i c t i n g m o r a l s t a n d a r d s o n th e p a r t o f t h e p u b l i c a r e
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l a c k o f c l e a r p u b l i c e t h i c s ( 1 0 lf :5 , 6 2 1 :
214.}* I n some c a s e s a d o u b l e s t a n d a r d e x i s t s i n w h ic h t h e
" e n d u r i n g v a l u e s " r u n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e " f a s t b u c k " t o
th e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e f o r m e r . A c o m m itte e on e t h i c s i n
g o v e rn m e n t c h a i r e d b y P a u l D o u g la s p o i n t e d o u t ;
The a c c e p t e d i d e a l s a r e c h a l l e n g e d d a i l y . . . b y
c o n t r a r y v a l u e s . . . . T h e re i s a t o l e r a n c e I n A m erican
1 2 6
l i f e f o r u n s c r u p u l o u s m e th o d s w h ic h b r i n g Im m e d ia te
r e w a r d s , e v e n th o u g h t h e s e m e th o d s , I f t h e y s h o u l d
becom e u n i v e r s a l , w ould d e s t r o y t h e v e r y s o c i e t y I n
w h ic h t h e y a r e t o l e r a t e d . ( 6 1 5 :9 )
P u b l i c v a l u e s , I m p r e s s e d by p u b l i c m o r a l i t i e s , te n d to b e
f o r c e d to t h e l o w e s t common d e n o m i n a t o r ( 5 : 1 0 ) .
T h i s l a c k o f a g r e e m e n t among th e p e o p l e a s to s h a t
I s e t h i c a l i s r e f l e c t e d i n a s i m i l a r l a c k o f a g r e e m e n t
among r h e t o r i c i a n s . B u t t h e r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p ro b le m I s
f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s . One o f t h e s e
I s t h e s t r u g g l e to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n w h at I s good
t e c h n i c a l l y — I n te r m s o f t h e v a l u e s o f u t i l i t y - - a n d w h a t
i s good e t h i c a l l y I n an u l t i m a t e s e n s e . B u r g e s s ' r e s e a r c h
(620) s u g g e s t e d s o m e t h i n g o f th e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h i s p r o b
lem i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f " e f f e e t i v e n e s s " a s th e s t a t e d en d
o f r h e t o r i c c o n t r a s t e d w i t h I t s I m p l i e d en d I n c o n te m p o
r a r y t h e o r y , " s o c i a l u t i l i t y . "
A n o th e r c o m p l l c a t l o n - - t h l s tim e to t h e r e a l i z a t i o n
o f s t a n d a r d s - - l s t h e l a c k o f a n e n f o r c i n g a g e n c y ( 1 7 1 : 1 3 2 ) .
I n 1954» p r i o r t o t h e e l e c t i o n s , an e d i t o r i a l i n T o d a y 1s
S p a e c h a s k e d f o r a r e a f f i r m a t i o n o f th e p a r t o f " o u r p r o
f e s s i o n a l c r e d o " d e a l i n g w i t h d e m a g o g u e ry ( 4 8 5 : 3 2 ) , Even
i f th e c o d e h a d b e e n s p e c i f i c i n d e f i n i n g d e m a g o g u e ry ,
t h e r e w as and i s no l e g i s l a t i v e b o d y , s u c h a s e x i s t s i n
C o n g r e s s , t o r u l e u p o n a v i o l a t i o n o f th e e t h i c s o f l a n
g u a g e . P r e s c r i p t i o n s c a n b e made a s to w h a t i s e t h i c a l
b u t th e s p e a k e r n e e d n o t a d h e r e to them . H ie o n l y m eth o d
127
o f i n s u r i n g c o n f o r m i t y t o s u c h e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s i s t h r o u g h
t h e r e s p o n s e o f an I n fo r m e d and I n t e l l i g e n t a u d i e n c e whose
a w a r e n e s s o f u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r so s t i g m a t i z e s th e s p e a k e r
t h a t h i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s d i m i n i s h e d . K now ing t h i s i s t h e
o n l y r e c o u r s e , one i s a l l th e m ore I m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e n e e d
o f e s t a b l i s h i n g an i d e a l f o r t h e g u id a n c e o f th e p e o p l e .
I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t when r u l e s a r e
s e t up t h e y c a n be b r o k e n . When c o d e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d ,
o n e i s m e r e l y s a y i n g nyou o u g h t t o do t h i s . ” An i d e a l , a
norm i s th e r e s u l t ( 2 4 9 :1 9 1 ) * D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s t e l l
w h a t i_s r a t h e r th a n w h a t o u g h t t o b e . One o f t h e m a jo r
d i f f i c u l t i e s I n v o l v e d i n th e f o r m u l a t i o n o f e t h i c a l s t a n d
a r d s was due to c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n n o r m a t i v e and d e s c r i p t i v e
s t a n d a r d s f o u n d i n much o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . What seem ed an
u n r e s o l v a b l e I n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t i n c e r t a i n w r i t i n g s was c o n
v i n c i n g l y e x p l a i n e d b y th e s e p a r a t i o n o f r e a l f ro m i d e a l
s t a n d a r d s . When a w r i t e r a s s e r t e d th e a m o r a l l t y o f r h e t o
r i c o n l y to s e e m in g l y c o n t r a d i c t t h i s s t a t e m e n t i n t h e n e x t
u t t e r a n c e b y s p e c i f y i n g u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s i t w as a
m o r a l o r an l m n o r a l i n s t r u m e n t , f r e q u e n t l y t h i s c o n f u s i o n
b e tw e e n t h e d e s c r i p t i v e and n o r m a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s w as t h e
c a u s e . I s o u g h t t o f o r m u l a t e s t a n d a r d s o f th e n o n a a t l v e
t y p e , t o c l a r i f y w h a t one o u g h t t o d o - - o r o u g h t n o t to d o - -
i n o r d e r to u s e r h e t o r i c e t h i c a l l y i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y .
'The r e a l , th e p r a c t i c e s o f m en, may a p p r o x i m a t e th e i d e a l
o r may d i v e r g e fro m I t . P a t t e r s o n a s s u r e d h i s r e a d e r s :
1 2 8
I f k i o w l e d g e o f t h e good h a s th e e f f e c t o f m a k in g
p e o p l e s t r i v e to w a rd I t s r e a l i z a t i o n , s o much t h e
b e t t e r ; b u t w h e t h e r t h i s o c c u r s o r n o t , e t h i c s l a s t i l l
I n t e r e s t e d i n k n o w in g w h a t i s th e m e a n in g o f g o o d n e s s .
( 1 9 3 :1 1 )
Aa P l a t o h a s p o i n t e d o u t i n h i s R e p u b l i c , one may n e v e r
a c h i e v e th e i d e a l , b u t t h i s d o e s n o t make I t w o rs e (1 9 5 * V:
3k2)• The r e a l and th e I d e a l b e l o n g t o g e t h e r ; i t i s o n l y
w hen t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d , and p u r s u e d i n n e g l e c t o f e a c h
o t h e r t h a t t h e y a r e d a n g e r o u s t o s o c i e t y ( 5 0 : 2 ^ ) . The
g a p b e tw e e n th e two n e e d s t o be n a r r o w e d ( 5 0 : 2 lj.9 )* I t i s
e a s y to d e s c r i b e w h a t e x i s t s ; b u t i t I s n o t so e a s y to
c h a r a c t e r i z e w h a t o u g h t to be d o n e .
S i n c e th e p e o p l e a r e th e o n l y l e g i s l a t o r s a g a i n s t
t h e sham r h e t o r i c i a n , c r i t e r i a u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h e t h i c a l
fro m u n e t h i c a l r t i e t o r i c s h o u ld be a s o b j e c t i v e a s p o s s i b l e .
W h ile r h e t o r i c a l and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m h a v e a v a l i d i t y o f
a s o r t , i t i s n o t th e same k i n d o f v a l i d i t y a s one e x p e c t s
o f s c i e n t i f i c d a t a . As T h o n s s e n an d B a i r d d e f i n e d r h e t o r
i c a l c r i t i c i s m , some s u b j e c t i v i t y i s e v i d e n t : r h e t o r i c a l
c r i t i c i s m " i n v o l v e s . . . a p r o c e s s by w h ic h u n s u p p o r t e d
i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n c e moves to w a r d r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d and
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d c h o i c e " ( 2 3 3 : 1 6 ) . Rene W e lle k
and A u s t i n W a rre n , i n t h e i r T h e o r y o f L i t e r a t u r e (2 5 0 )
c o n f i r m e d th e p o s i t i o n o f S p e e c h C r i t i c i s m ( 2 3 3 ) :
L i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s h i p h a s i t s own v a l i d m e th o d s w h ic h
a r e n o t a lw a y s t h o s e o f t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s b u t a r e
n e v e r t h e l e s s I n t e l l e c t u a l m e th o d s , t H i e r e I s a d i f f e r
e n c e b e tw e e n t h e m e th o d s and a lm s o f th e n a t u r a l
s c i e n c e s a n d th e h u m a n i t i e s . L i t e r a t u r e s t u d e n t s a r e
129
I n t e r e s t e d I n l i t e r a t u r e } . . . a s an i n d i v i d u a l i t y
w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s and q u a l i t i e s w hich s e t
I t o f f from o t h e r s i m i l a r g r o u p i n g s .
L ik e e v e r y human b e i n g , e a c h work o f l i t e r a t u r e h a s i t s
own i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; b u t i t a l s o s h a r e s com
mon p r o p e r t i e s w i t h o t h e r w orks o f a r t , j u s t a s e v e r y
man s h a r e s t r a i t s w ith h u m a n ity , w i t h a l l members o f
h i s s e x , n a t i o n , c l a s s , p r o f e s s i o n , e t c . ( 2 5 0 :5 - 7 )
B ecau se one a t t e m p t s i n su c h c r i t i c i s m to i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n
v a r i a b l e s w i t h i n a m ass o f v a r i a b l e s , v a l i d i t y , o r o b j e c
t i v i t y , i n the s c i e n t i f i c s e n s e i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e .
F u r th e r m o r e , th e e s t a b l i s h i n g o f v a l u e s i s an i n t e r p r e t a
t i v e a c t i v i t y ( 2 3 : 7 ) . W illia m Young, a p r o f e s s o r o f
p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , a rg u e d t h a t judgm ent i n m a t t e r s of t h i s
s o r t , i . e . , e t h i c a l j u d g n e n t s o f p o l i t i c a l b e h a v i o r , a re
p e r s o n a l and s u b j e c t i v e , and t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l d e m o n s tr a tio n
i s i m p o s s i b l e ( 6 0 7 :i|7 ) .
Many o f th e r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s f o r a
d em o cracy c a n n o t be o b j e c t i v e i n th e s c i e n t i f i c s e n s e . A
few c e r t a i n l y a re o b j e c t i v e f o r t h e i r u se o r m is u se c a n be
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y v e r i f i e d . (However, even th e s e c o n f r o n t
th e c r i t i c w i t h some s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s . ) The s t a n d a r d s
c h o s e n f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n th e l a s t two c h a p t e r s w i l l be
s e l e c t e d from th o s e p o s s i b l e o f o b j e c t i v e v e r i f i c a t i o n .
The R h e t o r i c a l - E t h i c s o f C l a s s i c a l and E a r l y
Modern frh eo risE s
T h is p o r t i o n o f th e c h a p t e r w i l l e x p l a i n the g e n e r a l
p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s o f s e l e c t e d c l a s s i c a l and e a r l y
m odern r h e t o r i c i a n s . In ju d g in g the view s em braced i n
130
t h e i r r h e t o r i c s , I r e l i e d u p o n d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t s i n w h ic h
t h e i r p o s i t i o n was e x p l i c i t l y e x p r e s s e d , o r , l a c k i n g t h e s e ,
upo n t h e i r s p e c i f i c r h e t o r i c a l - e t h l c a l c h o i c e s . I n o r d e r
to u s e t h e l a t t e r a s t h e b a s i s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , I f e l t
t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d be c o m p r e h e n s iv e e n o u g h so t h a t
th e p o s i t i o n c o u l d b e s a f e l y I m p l i e d fro m a v a i l a b l e d a t a .
F o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , when a w r i t e r had
p r o d u c e d a num ber o f p e r t i n e n t w r i t i n g s , t h e y w e re c o n s i d
e r e d a s a u n i t .
The v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a p h i l o s o p h y o f r h e t o r i c a l -
e t h i c s fo u n d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d i n s e v e n
p o s i t i o n s . (1 ) R h e t o r i c i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h e t h i c s ; i t
i s a m o r a l . S i n c e i t s u l t i m a t e e n d i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s , i t i s
n o t to b e j u d g e d by m o r a l s t a n d a r d s , f o r w h a t e v e r i s t e c h
n i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l i s g o o d . The p r o p o n e n t s o f t h i s p o s i
t i o n a r g u e d f o r a r t i s t i c a n d u t i l i t a r i a n s t a n d a r d s r a t h e r
t h a n e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s . (2 ) An e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c i s
f u n c t i o n a l l y I n t r i n s i c i n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a s i o n . T hese
w r i t e r s a r g u e d t h a t i n o r d e r to a c h i e v e s u c c e s s i n s p e a k
i n g , a p e r s u a d e r m u st c o n f o rm to c e r t a i n e t h i c a l I n j u n c
t i o n s i m p l i c i t i n th e s p e a k e r - a u d i e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p . (3 )
The m o r a l i t y o f t h e p e r s u a s i v e a c t I s a f u n c t i o n o f th e
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r . T h is p o s i t i o n w as f r e q u e n t l y
c h a m p io n e d a l o n g w i t h a n o r m a t i v e s t a t e m e n t t h a t r h e t o r i c
i s m o r a l when i t s e r v e s good e n d s , t h e s e e n d s , o f c o u r s e ,
b e i n g a f u n c t i o n o f th e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c t e r . (If) Hie
131
m o r a l i t y o f p e r s u a s i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by th e s e l e c t i o n o f
e n d s , i . e . , s p e e c h m a k in g l a m o ra l when i t s e r v e s good e n d s
and im m o ra l when i t s e r v e s e v i l e n d s . (5) The f i f t h
p o s i t i o n m ak es a s i m i l a r d i s t i n c t i o n d e p e n d e n t upo n t h e
l e g i t i m a c y o f th e m eans u s e d , (6) w h i l e th e s i x t h p o s i t i o n
i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s e l e c t i o n o f b o t h m eans an d e n d s .
(7) The l a s t m a jo r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d r h e t o r i c to
be Im m oral, i n t r i n s i c a l l y u n e t h i c a l . A number o f r h e t o r i
c i a n s em braced s e v e r a l o f th e s e p o s i t i o n s .
R h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a i n I s o c r a t e s . - - A l t h o u g h th e p o r
t i o n o f I s o c r a t e s ’ A g a in s t th e S o p h i s t s w h ic h c o n t a i n s h i s
a t t a c k on o t h e r sy ste m s o f e d u c a t i o n i s e x t a n t , th e f r a g
m en ts b r e a k o f f a t th e p o i n t where he was to b e g i n h i s
p o s i t i v e p h i lo s o p h y , so t h a t o n l y the b a r e s t h i n t s o f h i s
own p h ilo s o p h y a re i n c l u d e d ( 1 2 2 : 1 6 0 ) . I n t h i s w ork,
w r i t t e n a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s c a r e e r , c a . 390 B .C . ( 1 1 ,1 :
1 2 3 ) t I s o c r a t e s a t t a c k e d s e v e r a l c l a s s e s o f s o p h i s t s , among
them th e t e a c h e r s o f p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e , who, he c h a r g e d ,
w ere n o t I n t e r e s t e d i n th e triu m p h o f j u s t i c e b u t i n m aking
" t h e w orse r e a s o n th e b e t t e r " ( 1 2 2 : 1 6 9 ) - - a c h a r g e w h ic h he
was to a n sw er I n h i s s p e e c h , A n t l d o s l s , w r i t t e n a t t h e age
o f 6 2 , £ a . 351+-3 B .C . ( 1 2 2 : 1 8 5 ) , when i t was l e v e l e d
a g a i n s t h i m s e l f . A lth o u g h l i t t l e o f h i s c o n s t r u c t i v e p h i
lo s o p h y from t h i s e a r l i e r work i s e x t a n t , I n t e r n a l e v id e n c e
i n th e l a t e r work s u g g e s t s s i m i l a r i t i e s i n th e two t r e a
t i s e s , w hich he l a t e r u se d as e v id e n c e o f h i s s i n c e r i t y
1 3 2
( 1 2 2 : 2 9 7 ) .
W h ile I s o c r a t e s r e g a r d e d h i m s e l f a s a s o p h i s t , he
s e t h i m s e l f a p a r t fro m th e common h e r d i n t h e o p e n i n g l i n e s
o f A g a i n s t t h e S o p h i s t s ( 1 2 2 : 1 6 5 ) . He a t t a c k e d th e e r i s t i c
s o p h i s t s w hose aim i t w as to show up t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n
a c c e p t e d m o r a l i t y ( 1 2 2 :1 6 7 ) # " d i s p u t a t i o n f o r d i s p u t a t i o n ' s
sa k e i n t h e f i e l d o f e t h i c s " a s A t k i n s p u t i t ( 1 1 ,1 : 1 2 ^ .) .
He a l s o c r i t i c i z e d t e a c h e r s o f p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e f o r
p l a c i n g to o much e m p h a s is u p o n t e c h n i q u e . I s o c r a t e s ' c o n
s t r u c t i v e r h e t o r i c , b r i e f a s i t was i n t h i s t r e a t i s e ,
l i n k e d p h i l o s o p h y ( e t h i c s ) , o r a t o r y , and s t a t e s m a n s h i p
( 1 2 2 : 1 7 3 ) . I n th e c l o s i n g l i n e s o f A g a i n s t t h e S o p h i s t s ,
I s o c r a t e s o b s e r v e d w h a t was l a t e r to becom e a key p o i n t i n
A n t l d o s l a - - t h a t f o l l o w e r s o f th e d i s c i p l i n e o f p o l i t i c a l
d i s c o u r s e m ig h t be h e l p e d m ore to w a rd c h a r a c t e r Im p ro v e m e n t
t h a n to w a rd Im p ro v e m e n t i n s p e a k i n g ( 1 2 2 : 1 7 7 ) .
I n t h e A n t l d o e l a , w r i t t e n i n d e f e n s e o f h i s l i f e ' s
w o rk and i n a n s w e r to t h e c h a r g e t h a t r h e t o r i c c o r r u p t e d
i t s s t u d e n t s , I s o c r a t e s c a l l e d up th e nam es o f g r e a t
A t h e n i a n s who w e re g r e a t o r a t o r s , a l t h o u g h , i n h i s w o r d s ,
n o t " e v i l d o e r s " - - S o l o n , C l e l a t h e n e s , T h e m i s t o c l e s , P e r i c l e s
( 1 2 2 : 3 0 7 ) . He t o l d o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s p e e c h i n f o r m i n g
t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ( 1 2 2 : 3 2 7 ) . He s t r e s s e d
h i s b e l i e f t h a t no a r t e x i s t e d o r e v e r w o u ld e x i s t w h ic h
w o u ld make an e v i l man g o o d , y e t t h a t i f a p e r s o n d e s i r e d
to s p e a k w e l l h e w ould o f n e c e s s i t y become b e t t e r :
133
I c o n s i d e r t h a t th e k in d o f a r t w hich c a n Im p la n t
h o n e s t y and j u s t i c e I n d e p ra v e d n a t u r e s h a s n e v e r
e x i s t e d and does n o t now e x i s t . . . . B u t I do h o ld
t h a t p e o p le can become b e t t e r and w o r t h i e r I f th e y
c o n c e iv e an a m b itio n to sp eak w e l l . I f th e y become
p o s s e s s e d o f t h e d e s i r e to be a b l e to p e r s u a d e t h e i r
h e a r e r s , and f i n a l l y , I f th e y s e t t h e i r h e a r t s on
s e i s i n g t h e i r a d v a n t a g e - - ! do n o t mean ''a d v a n ta g e " In
the s e n s e g iv e n to t h a t w ord b y th e e m p ty -m in d ed , b u t
a d v a n ta g e In th e t r u e m eaning o f t h a t term ; and t h a t
t h i s I s so I t h i n k I s h a l l p r e s e n t l y make c l e a r .
F o r I n the f i r s t p l a c e , when anyone e l e c t s to sp e a k ,
o r w r i t e d i s c o u r s e s w hich a r e w o rth y o f p r a i s e and
h o n o u r, I t I s n o t c o n c e iv a b le t h a t he w i l l s u p p o r t
c a u s e s w hich a r e u n j u s t o r p e t t y o r d e v o te d to p r i v a t e
q u a r r e l s , and n o t r a t h e r th o s e w hich a re g r e a t and
h o n o r a b l e , d e v o te d to th e w e l f a r e o f man and o u r common
good. . . . F u r th e r m o r e , m ark you, th e man who w is h e s
to p e rs u a d e p e o p le w i l l n o t be n e g l i g e n t a s to the
m a t t e r o f c h a r a c t e r . . . f o r who d o e s n o t know t h a t
w ords c a r r y g r e a t e r c o n v i c t i o n when spok en by men of
good r e p u t e th a n when sp ok en by men who l i v e u n d er a
c lo u d , and t h a t th e arg u m en t w hich I s made by a m a n 's
l i f e i s o f more w e ig h t th a n t h a t w hich i s f u r n i s h e d by
w o rd s. T h e r e f o r e , th e s t r o n g e r a m a n 's d e s i r e to
p e r s u a d e h i s h e a r e r s , the more z e a l o u s l y w i l l he s t r i v e
to be h o n o u r a b le and to have the e ste e m o f h i s f e l l o w -
c i t i z e n s . ( 1 2 2 :3 3 7 - 3 9 )
E a r l i e r I n t h i s w ork, I s o c r a t e s had s t r e s s e d th e Im p o rta n c e
o f s e c u r i n g th e good w i l l o f th e a u d ie n c e ( 1 2 2 : 2 6 1 ) . He
now p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s a d v a n ta g e was more s u i t a b l y
a p p l i e d to u p r i g h t th a n to d e p ra v e d men (122:314-3)* L ike
C a to and Q u i n t i l i a n , f o r I s o c r a t e s i t was th e good man who
spoke w e l l ; l i k e Emerson and L o n g in u s, f o r I s o c r a t e s the
b e s t s p e e c h came fro m the b e s t s o u l . T hat I s o c r a t e s was
d e a l i n g w ith i d e a l s t a n d a r d s was made c l e a r when he arg u e d
t h a t n o t e v e r y man was c a p a b le o f becom ing a cham pion
o r a t o r , b u t t h a t th o s e who had a c h ie v e d th e h e i g h t s b o re a
s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y to one a n o t h e r ( 1 2 2 :3 0 1 ) .
131*
As e a r l y a s I s o c r a t e s , a d i s c e r n i n g r e a d e r f i n d s
h i m s e l f d e a l i n g w i t h two s e t s o f r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l s t a n d -
a r d s - - t h e r e a l an d th e i d e a l . I s o c r a t e s d i d n o t , and c o u l d
n o t d e n y th e u s e o f r h e t o r i c by b a d men f o r oad e n d s ; h e
d i d a s s e r t , h o w e v e r , t h a t i d e a l l y a n e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c i s
f u n c t i o n a l l y i n t r i n s i c i n good p e r s u a 3 l o n - - i n o t h e r w o r d s ,
i m p l i c i t i n th e v e r y n a t u r e o f th e s p e a k e r - a u d l e n c e
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s th e demand f o r good c h a r a c t e r an d th e
p u r s u a n c e o f good e n d s .
I s o c r a t e s c o n c e iv e d , i n my o p i n i o n , a r h e t o r i c
J o i n e d w ith e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s . H is i d e a l r h e t o r i c was
d e v o te d to m a n 's w e l f a r e and th e common good; h i s i d e a l
o r a t o r became b e t t e r i n th e v e r y a c t o f s p e a k in g w e l l , f o r
th e good w i l l o f the a u d ie n c e was b e s t e f f e c t e d by an
h o n o r a b le c h a r a c t e r . C e n t r a l to h i s r h e t o r i c was th e
e t h o a , o r c h a r a c t e r , o f th e s p e a k e r .
By no s t r e t c h o f th e i m a g i n a t i o n c o u ld I s o c r a t e a n
d o c t r i n e be i n t e r p r e t e d to s u p p o r t the f i r s t g e n e r a l p h i l
o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n - - t h a t r h e t o r i c i s n o t c o n c e rn e d w i t h
e t h i c s . F o r I s o c r a t e s , i n B u rk ean te r m s , i m p l i c i t i n th e
a c t ( p e r s u a s i o n ) was th e demand f o r a good a g e n t ( s p e a k e r )
and a good p u rp o se ( e n d ) . H is I d e a l r h e t o r i c j o i n e d "good"
i n th e t e c h n i c a l s e n s e w i t h "good" i n th e e t h i c a l s e n s e .
I t i s t r u e t h a t i n th e N l c o c l e a o r th e C y p r i a n s , q u o te d i n
T h onssen and B a ir d , he w ould p l a c e t h e blam e f o r the r e a l
m isu se o f r h e t o r i c s q u a r e l y on th e s h o u l d e r s o f th e u s e r
135
( 2 3 3 : 4 7 ) , y e t a c c o r d i n g to h i a c o n s t r u c t i v e p h i l o s o p h y , as
I se e i t , t h i s d o e s n o t p l a c e th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the
i d e a l m o r a l i t y o f the r h e t o r i c i n th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e
s p e a k e r . I d e a l l y th e m o r a l i t y i s s t i l l d e te r m in e d by th e
c h a r a c t e r o f th e p e r s u a s i o n . T e c h n i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a
s i o n c o n t a i n s an i m p l i c i t demand f o r a good s p e a k e r and
f o r good e n d s . At l e a s t i n t h i s s e n s e , t e c h n i c a l l y e f f e c
t i v e p e r s u a s i o n I s e t h i c a l p e r s u a s i o n .
Thus, I s o c r a t e s ' p o s i t i o n c an be c o n s t r u e d to be as
f o l l o w s : (1) a3 a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , r h e t o r i c i s an a m o ra l
i n s t r u m e n t , f o r I s o c r a t e s does n o t deny i t s use i n p r a c t i c e
by good and bad men f o r good and b ad e n d s ; (2) b u t i d e a l l y ,
r h e t o r i c i s c o n jo i n e d w i t h e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s - - i t i s m o ral
to i t s v e r y c o r e . I n t r i n s i c w i t h i n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a s i o n
(POSITION I I ) i s a demand f o r a good c h a r a c t e r (POSITION
I I I ) and good e n d s (POSITION IV ). The f i n a l d e t e r m i n a n t
o f a n e t h i c s o f p e r s u a s i o n i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n a t u r e o f th e
a r t I t s e l f .
P h i l i p N e s e r i u s , i n h i s a r t i c l e " I s o c r a t e s ' P o l i t i
c a l and S o c i a l I d e a s " w hich a p p e a re d i n th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
J o u r n a l o f E t h i c s , p o i n t e d o u t how I s o c r a t e s ' a i m - - t o make
good c i t i z e n s — f i t n a t u r a l l y i n t o h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e s t a t e
( 4 7 3 : 3 1 1 ) .
H is e t h i c a l t e a c h i n g s have a s t r i c t b e a r i n g upon th e
s t a t e . To him , m o r a l s , p h i l o s o p h y , and p o l i t i c s a r e so
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d and in te r w o v e n t h a t so m etim es i t i s
i m p o s s i b l e to d e t e c t th e d i v i d i n g l i n e s . P h ilo s o p h y i s
a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r p o l i t i c s . (473: 311)
M aking p h i l o s o p h y a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r p o l i t i c s was d e s i g n e d
to c a r r y w h a t i s good and n o b l e i n t o th e s t a t e , f o r
I s o c r a t e s b e l i e v e d t h a t a good o r b ad s t a t e was d e t e r m i n e d
b y th e v i r t u e and i n t e l l i g e n c e o f i t s c i t i z e n s (ij.7 3 :3 1 1 ),
w h i c h , a s h a s b e e n s e e n , w i l l b e im p ro v e d b y th e s t u d y o f
r h e t o r i c . Of c o u r s e , h i s i d e a l s t a t e was t h e e l d e r
d e m o c ra c y o f S o lo n and C l e i s t h e n e s , f o r th e d i s s o l u t i o n o f
G re e k s o c i e t y h ad b e g u n . I t was u n f o r t u n a t e f o r I s o c r a t e s '
fam e t h a t h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e I n t e r e s t s o f A th e n a and
G re e c e p u t him I n t o o p p o s i t i o n w i t h D e m o s th e n e s . Even
t o d a y , he I s c h a r g e d w i t h t e a c h i n g s w h ic h w ere a t v a r i a n c e
w i t h th e " d e m o c r a t i c H b e g i n n i n g o f r h e t o r i c and th e
" d e m o c r a t i c " p r a c t i c e o f D e m o sth e n e s (lpL|.6: 3 ^ 0 ) . H u l t z e n
i n h i s a r t i c l e " R h e t o r i n D e m o c r a c y ," i n l a b e l l i n g th e
s o p h i s t a p p r o a c h w i t h I s o c r a t e s nam e, seem s to h av e f a l l e n
i n t o th e same t r a p (1 * 09:53^). Of c o u r s e , H u l t z e n a d m i t t e d
t h a t th e u s e o f I s o c r a t e s ' name was m e r e l y a c o n v e n i e n t
l a b e l f o r an a p p r o a c h s e e i n g i n p e r s u a s i o n t h e way to
p o w e r, b u t th e te rm w as i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y c h o s e n . A n o th e r
w r i t e r , B u r k e , p o i n t e d o u t how e a s i l y th e m e a n in g o f
I s o c r a t e s ' te r m " a d v a n t a g e " c o u l d b e t u r n e d a g a i n s t h im :
I s o c r a t e s , r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e l e m e n t o f u n f a i r n e s s i n
t h e w ar o f w o r d s , c h o s e to s p i r i t u a l i z e th e n o t i o n o f
" a d v a n t a g e " (p l e o n e x l a ) . W h ile r e c o g n i z i n g t h e f r e
q u e n t r h e t o r i c a l a im to t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f an o p p o r t u n
i t y o r to g a i n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r o n e s e l f , h e l o c a t e d th e
" t r u e a d v a n t a g e " o f th e r h e t o r i c i a n i n m o r a l s u p e r i o r
i t y . He was t h i n k i n g o f an i d e a l r h e t o r l c , o f c o u r s e ,
r a t h e r t h a n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s t r u g g l e f o r a d v a n t a g e a s
i t o r d i n a r i l y d o e s t a k e p l a c e i n human a f f a i r s . B u t h e
137
h e r e add a a v e r y I m p o r ta n t term to o u r l i s t : Among th e
m arks o f r h e t o r i c I s I t s u se to g a i n a d v an tag e * o f one
s o r t o r a n o t h e r . (5 8 :6 0 )
B u t th e t e s t i m o n y o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s w e ig h s m ore
h e a v i l y I n f a v o r o f I s o c r a t e s a s one who b r o u g h t e t h i c s
I n t o p o l i t i c s ( 4 8 2 : 2 1 0 ) , and U io n s s e n a n d B a i r d , I n p r o
j e c t i n g a p h i l o s o p h y o f r h e t o r i c f o r t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
A m e ric a , u r g e d a r e t u r n to th e u n i t y o f o r a t o r y an d s t a t e s
m a n s h ip f o u n d i n I s o c r a t e a n d o c t r i n e ( 2 3 3 :4 6 9 ) *
R h e t o r i c a l - e t h l c s I n P l a t o . - - I n t h e c o n c l u d i n g l i n e s
o f t h e F h a e d r u s , P l a t o , who h a s b e e n l o n g c o n s i d e r e d an
a r c h - c r l t i c o f r h e t o r i c , e m b ra c e d I s o c r a t e s a s h i s f a v o r i t e
( 1 9 6 : 3 6 0 ) . W. S c o t t N o b le s w r o te a b o u t h i s i n f l u e n c e on
P l a t o , I n t e r p r e t i n g th e l a t t e r ' s a c c e p t a n c e o f th e
I s o c r a t e a n r h e t o r i c a l s c h o o l w i t h I t s " s o u n d e r e t h i c a l and
p o l i t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n " a s i n s t r u m e n t a l I n c h a n g i n g P l a t o ' s
a t t i t u d e to w a rd r h e t o r i c ( 4 6 2 : 2 1 0 ) .
I f th e a c c e p t e d c h r o n o lo g y I s c o r r e c t and th e
G o r g l a s , c a . 390 B .C . ( 4 8 2 : 2 0 8 ) , I s th e p r o d u c t o f h i s
e a r l y y e a r s , w h ile th e P h a e d r u s , c a . 3 7 9 * 3 6 2 B .C . (4 8 2 :
2 0 8 ) , I s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s t h i n k i n g a t th e h e i g h t o f
h i s c a r e e r , i t seem s u n f a i r to l a b e l P l a t o c o m p l e t e ly as
an enemy o f r h e t o r i c , ftio n s se n and B a i r d , who i n c i d e n t a l l y
do n o t lo o k so f a v o r a b l y on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f P l a t o and
I s o c r a t e s , a rg u e d t h a t " P l a t o ' s i n d i c t m e n t o f r h e t o r i c I s
I n c i d e n t a l to h i s c o n d e m n a tio n o f the c i v i l i z a t i o n he
knew" ( 2 3 3 : 5 1 ) . S i m i l a r l y H unt p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r h e t o r i c
1 3 8
o f f e r e d to f i f t h - c e n t u r y A th ens n o t o n ly a form o f h i g h e r
e d u c a t i o n b u t more th a n t h a t — a way o f l i f e ; P l a t o a t t a c k e d
I t b e c a u s e i t r e p r e s e n t e d w hat he d i s l i k e d i n A th e n ia n
l i f e ( 1 1 9 :3 ) * I t i s p e r h a p s t r u e t h a t P l a t o i s to be
c r e d i t e d w i t h th e i n i t i a t i o n o f th e d e b a te on s o p h i s t r y
and th e m is u s e o f r h e t o r i c a s S h o re y s u g g e s t e d ( 5 3 3 :1 1 6 ) *
b u t one c a n n o t o v e r l o o k the te s tim o n y o f h i s l a t e r work*
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e s c h o l a s t i c t r a d i t i o n h a s e s t a b l i s h e d
t h a t r h e t o r i c was t a u g h t i n P l a t o ' s Academy* i f n o t by
P l a t o h im s e lf* a t l e a s t by A r i s t o t l e (lj.6 2 :2 1 0 ). A d d i t i o n a l
s u p p o r t f o r a more p o s i t i v e view o f P l a t o ' s e v a l u a t i o n o f
r h e t o r i c c a n be fou nd i n a r e c e n t a r t i c l e b y Edwin Black*
" P l a t o ' s View o f R h e t o r i c " ( 2 9 0 : 3 6 1 - 7 ^ ) . B la c k c o n v i n c i n g
l y d i s s o l v e d w h a t h a s o f t e n b e en i n t e r p r e t e d a s a f u n d a
m e n ta l i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n P l a t o - - t h e n e g a t i v e c a s t o f the
G o rg la a a s o p p o sed to t h e p o s i t i v e r e a f f l r m a t l o n o f r h e t
o r i c i n th e P h a e d ru s . C h a rg in g t h a t su c h "a s u b t l e and
d i s c i p l i n e d w r i t e r £as P l a to J . . . would n o t have a llo w e d
p a t e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y o r c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n t o the c o n s t a n t l y
r e v i s e d body o f h i s work . . . " ( 2 9 0 :3 6 1 ) * B la c k w ent on to
r e c o n c i l e P l a t o ' s w r i t i n g s by a c l e v e r J u x t a p o s i t i o n o f
c r i t i c a l c o n m e n ta ry and th e o r i g i n a l t r e a t i s e s . Die k ey
t o h i s a n a l y s i s l i e s i n th e d e f i n i t i o n and r e d e f i n i t i o n o f
th e word " r h e t o r i c * " so t h a t th e c r i t i c i s m s o f the G o rg la s
a r e l e v e l e d a t a p a r t r a t h e r th a n th e w h o le o f t h e a r t .
F u r th e r m o r e he p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e i n c i p i e n t p o s i t i v e
139
p h i l o s o p h y o f th e l a s t l i n e s o f th e G o r g l a s f i n d s r a m i f i c a -
t l o n I n t h e f u l l y d e v e l o p e d v l e v o f t h e P h a e d r u s * i n d e e d
I t I s d i f f i c u l t t o be f u l l y c o n v i n c e d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
v ie w t h a t P l a t o i s t h e o p p o n e n t p a r e x c e l l e n c e o f t h e
r h e t o r i c a l a r t .
B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e o r i g i n a l t r e a t i s e s t h e m s e l v e s
f o r an e s t i m a t e o f P l a t o ' s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n , t h e
r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s o f o t h e r w r i t e r s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d .
A lth o u g h h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f P l a t o ' s r h e t o r i c was
I n c i d e n t a l to h i s t r e a t m e n t o f A r i s t o t l e ' s b e c a u s e h e
t h o u g h t I t s l a c k o f d e t a i l p r o h i b i t e d i t s v a l i d u s e I n h i s
s t u d y , B u r g e s s o f f e r e d some I n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t
P l a t o ' s c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n r h e t o r i c ( 6 2 0 ) .
He w r o t e :
I t i s s a f e t o s a y , t h a t t h e r h e t o r i c s o f P l a t o and
A r i s t o t l e a r e v e r y s i m i l a r i n t h e i r a d v o c a c y o f t h e
s u p p o r t o f nt r u t h " a s t h e o n l y p r o p e r a n d o f p e r s u a
s i o n , w h i l e d i f f e r i n g s h a r p l y ( a t l e a s t b y I m p l i c a t i o n )
r e g a r d i n g th e p r o p e r e m p lo y m e n t o f m eans to t h i s e n d .
I n s h o r t , I f one w e re to a s s e s s th e v e r y g e n e r a l
c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i m p l i e d i n t h e s k e t c h y
r h e t o r i c o f P l a t o , i t w o u ld h a v e to b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t
t h i s c o n c e p t w o u ld h a v e b e e n g i v e n h i g h r e g a r d , m o s t l y
d u e to P l a t o ' s h e a v y e m p h a s is on r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t
m i r r o r t r u t h r a t h e r t h a n a p p e a r a n c e s i n a l l a s p e c t s o f
r h e t o r i c a l i n v e n t i o n . . . . T h a t he was i n t e r e s t e d i n
t h e m o r a l e d u c a t i o n o f b o t h s p e a k e r a n d h e a r e r a s t h e
u l t i m a t e aim o f r h e t o r i c ; t h a t h e saw h i s s p e a k e r a s
one w hose e t h o s i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n m o r a l l y d e f e n s i b l e
b e h a v i o r , a n d t h a t h e d e c r i e d e m p lo y m e n t o f s p e c u l a t i v e
p r o b a b i l i t y i n f a v o r o f a t h e o r y o f e s s e n t i a l t r u t h ,
a r e a l l w e ll- k n o w n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . B u t , t h a t a
d e t a i l e d a n d s y s t e m a t i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f P l a t o ' s t h e o r i e s
w ou ld h a v e c a r e f u l l y a d h e r e d t o t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s ,
r e m a i n s a n u n a n s w e r a b l e q u e s t i o n . A r i s t o t l e m e t t h e s e
p r o b le m s and s o l v e d them i n h i s own way; P l a t o n e v e r
w en t t h a t f a r . T h u s, t o s a y t h a t t h e B h e t o r l c e m b o d ie d
l i + o
th e " u l t i m a t e an d f i n a l a n s w e r" to P l a t o ( B a ld w in ) i s ,
p e r h a p s , to b e g th e q u e s t i o n , s i n c e t h e n a t u r e o f th e
p r o b le m p o s e d b y P l a t o r e m a i n s p a r t i a l l y u n c l e a r
b e c a u s e o f t h e f a i l u r e o f P l a t o t o I m p le m e n t h i s p r i n
c i p l e s i n any d e t a i l e d f a s h i o n . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f
one u n d e r s t a n d s th e " p r o b le m " t o b e s t a t e d i n te r m s o f
t h e I n d i c t m e n t s o f r h e t o r i c and t h e i m p l i e d im p le m e n
t a t i o n s fo u n d i n t h e P l a t o n i c d i a l o g u e s , t h e n i t i s
p o s s i b l e to s u g g e s t r a t h e r c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t t h e
R h e t o r i c i s no a n s w e r a t a l l , b u t e v e n a r e f u t a t i o n o f
a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e P l a t o n i c t h e o r y , w h ic h s u g g e s t s
t h a t f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y w o u ld b e a f i r s t p r i n c i p l e
r e g a r d i n g b o t h e n d s and m eans i n p e r s u a s i o n ;
A r i s t o t e l i a n t h e o r y e n v i s a g e s I t a s s i g n i f i c a n t i n th e
c h o i c e o f e n d s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y I r r e l e v a n t i n t h e c h o i c e
o f m e a n s . A l th o u g h t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s seem w a r r a n t e d ,
g i v e n t h e i r b a s i s i n i m p l i c a t i o n a l o n e , s u c h a b a s i s
was f e l t to be I n a d e q u a t e b o t h f o r an y c o n c l u s i v e
c o m p a r i s o n s b e tw e e n th e r h e t o r i c s o f A r i s t o t l e and
P l a t o , and f o r a n y i n t e l l i g e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e P l a t o n i c
c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . (6 20:183-81^)
B u r g e s s ' b a t t l e w i t h a u t h o r i t a t i v e r h e t o r i c i a n s to th e
e f f e c t t h a t A r i s t o t l o h a s a c e r t a i n d o c t r i n a l k i n s h i p to
P l a t o h i n g e s on th e m ere q u e s t i o n o f th e am o u n t o f d e t a i l .
W h ile t h i s l a c k o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s o f l i t t l e c o n s e q u e n c e
i n d e t e r m i n i n g a g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s l t l o n , s p e c i f i c
r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a c o u l d o b v i o u s l y n o t b e g l e a n e d
f ro m an i n c o m p l e t e r h e t o r i c . T h e re I s a m ore s e r i o u s
c r i t i c i s m o f B u r g e s s ' c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g P l a t o - - o n e
i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h th e k e y word o f P l a t o n i c t h e o r y ,
" t r u t h . " As e a r l y a s 1 9 2 0 , b e f o r e t h e e r a o f th e se m a n -
t l c l s t s whom B u r g e s s r e p r e s e n t s , H u n t w r o t e i n h i s a r t i c l e ,
" P l a t o on R h e t o r i c a n d R h e t o r i c i a n s , " t h a t P l a t o d i d n o t
m ean " t r u t h " i n t h e s e n s e o f a c c u r a c y i n t h e u s e o f s t a t i s
t i c s , c a r e i n q u o t i n g h i s t o r y , o r f a i r n e s s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n
o f e x a m p l e s , b u t r a t h e r the " T r u t h " o f th e p h i l o s o p h e r
Ikx
(4 .1 1 :3 6 ) . A l a t e r w r i t e r , H l l l b r u n e r , who c o m p a re d th e
t r u t h v ie w s o f P l a t o an d K o r z y b s k l , w r o te t h a t t o P l a t o
a d h e r e n c e to th e t r u t h "m e a n t n o t a m ere a d h e r e n c e to th e
' f a c t s ' b u t r a t h e r t o th e t r u t h w h ic h h e c a l l e d I d e a s . . .
i t was t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s t r u t h t h a t was th e en d o f h i s
t h e o r y . . . " (39^4-? 18 9 ) • T h e r e f o r e , to s a y t h a t P l a t o ' s
" t r u t h " was r e l a t e d t o " f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y " f o u n d l i t t l e
s u p p o r t i n o t h e r w r i t i n g s .
A s e c o n d s c h o l a r l y r e p o r t a h i c h d e a l t w i t h P l a t o ' s
u s e o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g was t h e S t i t e s ' s t u d y ( 6 3 7 ) .
S t i t e s c o n c l u d e d , i n p a r t :
(3 ) P l a t o p r e s e n t e d a v e r y s t r o n g p h i l o s o p h y o f
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g , d e v o t i n g m o s t o f t h e G o r g la s and
th e P h a e d r u a to t h i s p r i n c i p l e .
(4.) H is t r e a t m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g was e x t e n
s i v e , b u t n o t so i n t e n s i v e .
(5) The n e e d f o r r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g to w h ic h P l a t o
gav e s u c h s t r o n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n was b r o u g h t a b o u t b y
a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o l n t e l l l j g e n t s p e a k i n g .
(6 ) I n t h e Q o r g l a a , P l a t o b u i l t h i s c a s e f o r r e s p o n
s i b l e s p e a k i n g b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k i n g
H m o w le d g e o f th e t r u t h ! w as t h e s u r e s t way o f a c h i e v
i n g t h i s e n d . I n t h e P n a e d r u a , h e gav e t h e m ore
I m p o r t a n t p l a c e t o I n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k i n g , w h i l e s u g g e s t
i n g t h a t t h e g o a l o r t h e s p e a k e r m u s t a lw a y s be
r e s p o n s i b l e .
(1U) !> lato g a v e a d v i c e a l m o s t i n t o t a l r e v e r s e o f th e
p r a c t i c e s o f h i s s o c i e t y . They t a u g h t e f f e c t i v e
s p e a k i n g , w h i l e P l a t o c o n s i d e r e d t h i s n o t to o i m p o r t a n t
(6 3 7 :3 1 2 - 1 4 .) .
S t i t e s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t i n t h e O o r g i a s , P l a t o e v a l u
a t e d r h e t o r i c a s u n e t h i c a l an d p h i l o s o p h y a s e t h i c a l (6 3 7 :
74-) • (The p r i n c i p l e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n S t i t e s ' a n d B l a c k ' s
v ie w s a p p e a r s t o be a m a t t e r o f d e f i n i t i o n . ) R h e t o r i c was
e v a l u a t e d a s i r r e s p o n s i b l e b e c a u s e i t s e r v e d t h e u n j u s t and
1 k2
f l a t t e r e d r a t h e r t h a n s o u g h t t o Im p ro v e th e p o p u l a c e (6 3 7 :
7 5 * 7 6 ) . I n t h e P h a e d r u a , S t i t e a i n t e r p r e t e d th e f o l l o w i n g
e x c e r p t to m ean t h a t r e a p o n a l b l e s p e a k i n g m u s t b e l e a r n e d
p r i o r to e f f e c t i v e s p e a k i n g , b u t t h a t b o t h a r e n e c e s s a r y
( 6 3 7 : 1 7 7 ) :
S o c r a t e s . B u t h a v e we n o t , my good f r i e n d , r e v i l e d th e
a r t o f s p e a k i n g m ore r o u g h l y t h a n i s p r o p e r ? f o r sh e
m ay, p e r h a p s , s a y "Why, s i r s , do y ou t a l k so f o o l i s h l y ?
F o r I c o m p e l no one who i s i g n o r a n t o f t h e t r u t h t o
l e a r n how t o s p e a k : b u t i f my a d v i c e i s w o r t h an y
t h i n g , when he h a s a c q u i r e d t h a t , h e th e n h a s r e c o u r s e
to m e. T h i s , t h e n , I i n s i s t o n , t h a t w i t h o u t me one
who knows th e t r u t h w i l l n o t f o r a l l t h a t be a b l e to
p e r s u a d e b y a r t . "
P h a e d r u a . W i l l s h e n o t s p e a k J u s t l y , i n a s s e r t i n g
*EKT57------
S o c r a t e s . I a d m it i t . . . a g e n u i n e a r t o f s p e a k i n g ,
. . . w i t h o u t l a y i n g h o l d o f t r u t h , n e i t h e r e x i s t s ,
n o r e v e r c a n e x i s t h e r e a f t e r . ( 1 9 6 :3 3 8 )
R i c h a r d W eav er o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o i n t e r p r e t e d th e
same s t a t e m e n t t o m ean t h a t r h e t o r i c e q u a l s t r u t h p l u s i t s
a r t f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n (2 i+ 6 :l5 )# t h a t t h e r e i s no t r u e r h e t
o r i c w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g d i a l e c t i c (2lj.6:25)* The s i m i l a r
i t y o f t h e s e two v ie w s c a n b e d i s c e r n e d m ore r e a d i l y b y
r e m e m b e rin g th e s i x t h o f S t i t e s * c o n c l u s i o n s - - t h a t t h e
s u r e s t way o f a c h i e v i n g r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g i s t h r o u g h
a d h e r e n c e to i n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k i n g (k n o w le d g e o f t h e t r u t h ) .
W eaver d i s c u s s e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n r h e t o r i c and
d i a l e c t i c m ore c o m p l e t e l y :
I n an y g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n r h e t o r i c w i l l I n c l u d e
d i a l e c t i c , b u t f o r t h e s t u d y o f m e th o d i t i s n e c e s s a r y
to s e p a r a t e t h e tw o . D i a l e c t i c i s a m e th o d o f i n v e s t i
g a t i o n w hose o b j e c t i s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t r u t h a b o u t
d o u b t f u l p r o p o s i t i o n s . . . . [ N o te t h a t W e a v e r 's t r u t h
d o e s, n o t r e f e r to f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y .]
143
But there la a branch of d la la o tlo whioh con trib
ute* to "oholoe or avold anoe,” and I t la v lth th la
th at rh atorlo la re g u la r ly found Joined. G enerally
apacking, th la la a r h eto ric in v o lv in g quaatlona of
p o lio y , and tha d la la o tlo which preoedea I t w ill
deterirtne not tha a p p lic a tio n of p o s itiv e terms but
th a t o f terms whioh ara aubjact to tha contingency of
ev a lu a tio n . Hare d la le o tlo a l Inquiry w ill concern i t -
a e lf not w ith what la "iron" but w ith what la "good."
• . . Any plaoa of perauaalon, th e r e fo r e , w ill oontaln
aa ita f i r a t process a d ia le c t ic ea ta b lla h ln g tern s
which have to do w ith p o lic y . . . .
There l a , then, no true rh atorlo w ithout d ia le c t ic ,
fo r the d la la o tlo providea th a t baala of "high specu
la tio n about nature" w ithout which rh eto ric In the
narrower aenae has nothing to work upon. (246:15-17)
Thus, both S tite a and Weaver seem to agree w ith Hunt and
H lllbruner th at p h ilosop h ic tru th la the aim of P la to 's
r h e to r io --a tru th which i s p a ten tly Inseparable from
honest rh a to r lo .
Hunt la the author of sev era l a r tlo le a about P la to .
His ea rly easays whioh appeared In the tw en ties are very
sim ila r in th e ir content (119» 4 l l) » In the f i r s t pub li
ca tio n whioh appeared In 1920 he proposed to evalu ate
P la to 's theory of rh eto ric and hia a ttitu d e toward contem
porary rh etorlolan a ( 4 l l ) • In p resen tin g P la to 's ru les of
speaking, he acknowledged the key ooncept of tru th —
P la to n ic , i . e . , p h ilosop h ic truth— as an e s s e n t ia l fa c to r
In honest rh atorlo (1 4 -11:4 2 ) . He remarked upon P la to 1 a lift-
long contempt fo r the a r t (411*45), p oin tin g out th at th is
fe e lin g waa more apparent In the Q oraiaa. in whioh he
condemned I t , than In the Phaedrua, In which he con trasted
true and f a ls e rh atorlo (4 ll:4 5 )* His second a r t ic le
U *
whioh contained much of tha same m aterial waa a la o con
cerned w ith A r ia to tla (119)* In i t ha auoMd up hia view
of P lato'a works: to P la to , rh a to ric (in tha Q orgiaa) waa
not an a rt whioh might ba uaad or abused, but waa rathar a
fa la a impulaa in human thought; in tha Phaadrua. P lato
ahowad hia in a b ilit y to con ceive of rh atorio aa an in str u
ment (119 l-lj.2) •
P la to 's abaorption w ith tha tru th aa tha b a sis fo r
an honaat rh a to ric has not baan traatad k ind ly by aoma
w r ita r s. In a raoant a r tio la in tha Southarn Speeoh Jour
n a l. Anthony H lllbrunar chargad th at P la to 's philosophy
could "only randar damooracy impotent and s te r ile " (39^s
1 9 0 ). H illbrunar attem pted to r e la te P la to 's p o l it ic a l and
r h a to r io a l p h ilosop h ies and to show th at not only waa hia
id e a l rh eto rio ia n u n a tta in a b le, but a lao u nd esirab le in tha
la rg er p ersp ectiv e of p o lit ic a l s o c ie ty . Tha s t a t e , whioh
waa I d e n tifie d w ith tha e x c lu siv e ln taraata of i t s r u le r s—
tha philosopher kings—was tha " en d -a ll in P la to 's p o l i t i
c a l program" (39^ :137). In P la to 's system th ese p h ilo so
phers ware tha "only proper p r a c titio n e r s of rh a to ric,"
and tha u se of "noble lia s " and p o l it ic a l and r e lig io u s
myths was th e ir p r iv ile g e (39^*136). These "noble lia s"
ware to ba used to persuade tha m ultitude th at tha p h ilo so
pher k in g 's tru th should ba obeyed (39^i 137-38)• P la to 's
truth was "Idea" in i t s ab solu te form—an e n tity which
tended to d ete rio ra te when changed (39l|»:ld9)* S im ila r ly ,
1 k s
P l a t o ' s s t a t e was a s t a b l e s o c i e t y - - a n u n c h a n g i n g one
( 3 9 4 : 1&9)* B e c a u s e t h e r h e t o r c o u l d c h a n g e t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f t h e s o c i e t y and q u e s t i o n w h a t was h a p p e n i n g and p r e s e n t
h i s c o n c l u s i o n s t o t h e p o p u l a c e I n an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e fo rm ,
P l a t o condem ned r h e t o r i c ( 3 9 if :l8 9 ) « H is l a t e r r e c o n s t r u c
t i o n o f r h e t o r i c w as " n o t a m e th o d b u t a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
p h i l o s o p h y " a t t a i n a b l e p e r h a p s o n l y b y P l a t o h i m s e l f (3 9 ^ :
1 8 9 ) • The e f f e c t o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y , a p p l i e d to a dem oc
r a c y , w o u ld b e I t s e v e n t u a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n — t h e o p e n
s o c i e t y w o u ld f a l l , l e a v i n g t h e c l o s e d s o c i e t y t o r u l e th e
w o r l d ( 3 9 ^ :1 9 0 ) *
H l l l b r u n e r i s h e a v i l y I n f l u e n c e d I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f
P l a t o ' s c o n c e p t o f t r u t h an d I t s e f f e c t on a d e m o c r a t i c
s o c i e t y b y K. R. P o p p e r , w hose tw o -v o lu m e w o rk , e n t i t l e d
The Open S o c i e t y a n d I t s E n e m ie s ( 1 9 7 ) , s e r v e d a s th e f i r s t
s h o t I n a c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f P l a t o ' s
d o c t r i n e s to o u r own t i m e s . The f i n a l v o l l e y was f i r e d b y
J o h n W ild , w hose w o rk , P l a t o ' s M odern E n e m ie s a n d th e
T h e o ry o f N a t u r a l Law ( 2 5 5 ) , p r o v i d e d a n e x c e l l e n t
r e b u t t a l to P o p p e r .
P o p p e r 's f i r s t v o lu m e , s u b t i t l e d The S p e l l o f P l a t o ,
i d e n t i f i e d t h e P l a t o n i c p o l i t i c a l p r o g ra m , c o n c e p t i o n o f
j u s t i c e , t r u t h , w isdom , b e a u t y , a n d h a p p i n e s s w i t h t o t a l i
t a r i a n i s m a n d r a c i a l i s m (1 9 7 :i^ , l)+9) * The G r e e k s h a d b e g u n
t h e t r a n s i t i o n fro m th e c l o s e d to t h e o p en s o c i e t y ( 1 9 7 :
1 5 3 )* P o p p e r 's u s e o f t h e s e te r m s was c l e a r l y d e f i n e d :
lij.6
M y terns in d ic a te , as i t were, an I n t e lle c t u a lly t
d istin c tio n ; the clo sed s o o le ty is" ch aracterised by
Bie belle?" in m agical tab oos, w hile the open s o c ie ty
i s one in which men have learned to be to some exten t
o r it io a l of tab oos, and to base d ecisio n s on the
au th o rity of th e ir own in t e llig e n c e . (197:178)
This tr a n sitio n from a clo sed to an open s o c ie ty takes
place
when s o c ia l in s t itu t io n s are f i r s t co n scio u sly reoog-
nized as man-made, and when th e ir conscious a lte r a tio n
i s d iscu ssed in terms of th e ir s u it a b ilit y fo r the
achievement of human alms or purposes. Or, p u ttin g
the m atter in a le s s ab straot way, the clo sed s o o le ty
breaks down when the supernatural awe w ith which the
s o c ia l order i s considered g iv es way to a c tiv e in te r
fe r e n c e , and to the conscious p ursuit of personal or
group in t e r e s t s . (I9 7 :2 l|.7 )
According to Popper, P lato rein terp reted Socrates— who was
dead and could not r e s i s t — as a frien d of the clo sed
s o c ie t y , w hile in truth Socrates was a p rotagon ist of the
open s o c ie ty (19 7 :1 7 2 ,1 6 7 ). Popper b eliev ed th a t in
P la to 's works we are w itn essin g the inner c o n flic t of h is
mind: he was impressed by the open s o c ie ty and had to
stru g g le to "come to h is sen ses and r e a liz e where he was—
n a m e ly , i n t h e camp o f i t s a n t a g o n i s t s " ( 1 9 7 : 1 7 3 -7 lf) .
The s ta te of flu x , i . e . , s o c ia l change, worried
P lato ( 1 9 7 : 1 6 ) . Hence, he o ffered a law of h is t o r ic a l
development; aooordlng to th is law, s o c ia l change was
degeneration ( 1 9 7 : 1 6 ) . The aim of h is s ta te was to a rr est
change, to return to the clo sed s o c ie ty ( 1 9 7 : 1 6 ) . He
b eliev ed th at there was idea th at would not decay— a
p er fe c t th ing ( 1 9 7 : 1 7 ) . Things in f lu x , lik e the s t a t e ,
li*7
ware o ffsp rin g of th is p erfect thing (form, id es) (197:20).
This "Ides” i s the "truth" which H illbruner a sserted was
to be the b a sis of r h e to r io .
Popper summed up h is comments on P la to ;
In d ivid u alism , eq u a lita ria n lsm , f a it h in reason and
love o f freedom were new, pow erful, and, from the
point of view of the a n ta g o n ists of the open s o c ie ty ,
dangerous sentim ents th a t had to be fou gh t. P lato had
h im self f e l t th e ir ln flu e n o e , and, w ith in h im se lf, he
had fought them. His answer to the Great Generation
£the Golden Age of PerlcleqJ was a tr u ly great e f f o r t .
I t was an e ffo r t to c lo se the door which had been
opened and to a r r e st s o o le ty by ca stin g upon I t the
s p e ll of an a llu r in g p h ilosop h y, unequaled in depth
and r ic h n e ss. In the p o l it ic a l f i e l d he added but
l i t t l e to the old o lig a r c h ic programme a g a in st which
P e r ic le s had once argued. But he d iscovered , perhaps
u n con solou sly, the great se o r e t of the r e v o lt a g a in st
freedom, form ulated in our own day by Paretor To take
advantage of sen tim en ts, not w asting one's en ergies in
f u t i l e e ffo r ts to destroy them. . . . " P lato thus
became the pioneer of the many propagandists who
developed the technique of appealing to m oral, humani
ta ria n sen tim en ts, for an ti-h um anitarian, Immoral
purposes. (197:175)
W ild's defense of P lato was d irected mainly to
Popper (255:9)* D isagreeing w ith Popper's charge th at
P lato had im p licated Socrates in h is "grandiose attempt to
oon stru et the theory of the a rrested so ciety " (197:171)*
Wild pointed out th a t Socrates was the concrete embodiment
of P la to 's e th io a l p r in c ip le s (255s1 0 ). The way to tru th
fo r P la to , Wild a sse r te d , was through the e x e r c ise of the
in d iv id u a l I n t e lle c t in S ooratlc q u estion in g— in the exam
in in g and s if t in g of relev a n t evldenoe (255:13)*
Wild agreed th at i t was sound to r e la te P laton ic
d octrin e to contemporary tim es because of s im ila r ity of the
1 2 4 - 8
p erio d s, but he did not agree with Popper's In terp retation .
In the f i r s t p la ce, the a ttr ib u tin g to Plato o f t o t a lit a r
ian Ideas Is due to an attem pt to In terp ret him as an
I d e a lis t , and p a r tic u la r ly from the Jowett tr a n sla tio n
which was w ritten under the In fluence of H egelian Ideas
( 2 5 5 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) . P lato was a moral r e a l i s t , not an I d e a lis t
( 2 5 5 : 1 9 , 6 2 ) . I t Is true th at h is e th ic s Is rooted in the
nature o f man and of th in g s, fo r Plato bellowed th at the
"good fo r man Is the f u l l r e a lis a tio n of human nature,
in clu d in g e s p e c ia lly the a cts of reason and d elib e ra te
oholoe" ( 2 5 5 : 1 2 ) . The common good can be achieved by
d iffe r e n t In d ivid u als and sought by coop erative a c tio n
(2 5 5 :2 2 -2 3 ), but I t should be a product of reason (255:31)»
Wild answered Popper's charges concerning to ta lita r ia n ism
and h isto r lc ism :
He £Plato3 did not b e lie v e th at recorded h isto r y is
the record of an In ev ita b le d eclin e from a past Golden
Age. In h is view , the Id eal rep u b lic has never
a c tu a lly been r e a liz e d and Indeed Is Incapable of
being p e r fe c tly aohleved In the co n crete. (255*2^)
Furthermore, he was not a reaction ary defender of a clo sed
s o c ie ty :
P lato ooncelved o f the good fo r man as the r e a liz a
tio n o f human nature In a l l i t s phases under the
guidanoe of reason whioh alone deserves to r u le . . . .
In the R ep u b lic. P lato attem pts to desoribe a o lty
b u ilt on r a tio n a l p r in c ip le s in accordance w ith the
n atu ral needs of man, in which the S ocratlo s p ir it
might fin d I t s e l f a t home. (255:31)
His h elrarch y, w ith reason in the supreme p o s itio n , Is a
hard cold fa c t of natu re, rather than an apology fo r
li+9
a r b i t r a r y c l a s s r u l e , f o r P l a t o b e l i e v e d t h a t " t h e c o u r s e
o f h i s t o r y i s l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y th e m o r a l c h o i c e s o f
human a g e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y "
( 2 5 5 : 3 2 ) . He b e l i e v e d i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e human m ind to
p e r c e i v e t h e t r u t h when s u b j e c t e d t o t h e S o c r a t i c d i a l o g u e
( 2 5 5 : 3 2 ) . C h a r g i n g t h a t P o p p e r seem ed to d e f e n d " p i e c e
m e a l s o c i a l e n g i n e e r i n g " o v e r an a t t e m p t to f o r m u l a t e an
u t o p i a n s o c i e t y . W ild w r o te t h a t th e f o r m e r c o u l d n o t be
a t t e m p t e d w i t h o u t th e l a t t e r , and t h a t P l a t o made p r o v i
s i o n s f o r b o t h , " g u id e d by c l e a r an d r a t i o n a l l y d e f e n s i b l e
c o n c e p t i o n s o f th e human g o o d " ( 2 5 5 : 3 4 ) -
W ild a g r e e d t h a t P l a t o h a d no k i n s h i p f o r th e mob,
t h a t he b e l i e v e d t h a t human w e l f a r e c o u l d o n l y be a c h i e v e d
b y t h e e x e r c i s e o f th e I n d i v i d u a l i n t e l l e c t ( 2 5 5 : 3 9 ) - He
s t r e s s e d th e p o r t i o n o f th e G o r g l a s i n w h ic h S o c r a t e s t e l l s
p o l u s t h a t he c o n s i d e r s I t b e t t e r t o c o n v i n c e a s i n g l e
q u e s t i o n i n g m ind t h a n a v a s t m u l t i t u d e ( 2 5 5 : 3 9 ) -
W ild a d m i t t e d t h a t P l a t o was o p p o s e d t o e a r l y G reek
d e m o c ra c y b u t p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t was n o t r e a l l y a p u re
d e m o c ra c y b u t p r o b a b l y a m i x t u r e o f d e m o c ra c y , o l i g a r c h y ,
an d t i m o c r a c y ( 2 5 5 : 4 0 ) • He a d d e d :
A c c o r d i n g to P l a t o , t h e r u t h l e s s i m p e r i a l i s m o f
A t h e n i a n w ar p o l i c y and t h e c u l t u r a l d e c a y w h ic h
f o l l o w e d t h e w ar m u s t be t r a c e d t o c e r t a i n s o p h i s t i c
m ovem ents w h ic h b e g a n i n t h e Age o f P e r i c l e s . He
i d e n t i f i e d t h l a fo rm o f d e m o c ra c y w i t h i r r e s p o n s i b l e
a n a r c h y an d condem ned i t b o t h i n i t s e l f a n d on b e i n g
th e m o th e r o f t y r a n n y . ( 2 5 5 : 4 ®)
H ow ever, th e r e a l i s t i c p h i l o s o p h y o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e i s
150
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e m odern I d e a l o f
d e m o c r a c y : t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f human g o o d n e s s a s t h e r e a l
i z a t i o n o f a n a t u r e s h a r e d by a l l men ( r a t i o n a l i t y ) and th e
d e f i n i t i o n o f c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s an d d u t i e s p r e
s c r i b e d b y s u c h r e a l i z a t i o n — among them , f r e e d i s c u s s i o n
an d c r i t i c a l f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f o p i n i o n ( 2 5 5 : ^ 6 ) . Two
o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i d e a l d e m o c r a c y — th e r i g h t to
rem o v e p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s f r c n o f f i c e by f r e e b a l l o t , a n d th e
s e n s e o f d i g n i t y and w o r t h o f humsn l i f e — W ild d i s m i s s e d as
r e s p e c t i v e l y a m ere n e g a t i v e a v o i d a n c e o f t y r a n n y and w h a t
c o u l d i n i t s e x tr e m e fo rm become th e t y r a n n y o f th e m a j o r
i t y ( 2 £ 5 : W - - 4 5 ) .
M odern s o c i e t y , W ild a d m i t t e d , i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y
u n j u s t i f i e d i n i t s d i s l i k e o f P l a t o ' s " n o b l e l i e " ( 2 5 5 : 5 1 ) •
F i r s t o f a l l , P l a t o h a s a som ew hat e l a b o r a t e and
c o m p le x d o c t r i n e c o n c e r n i n g th e l i e , w h ic h may be
s u m m a riz e d a s f o l l o w s : t h e w o r s t k in d o f l i e , a c c o r d
i n g to h im , i s " t h e l i e i n t h e s o u l , " th e b e l i e f by
o n e ' s s e l f o f w h a t i s n o t s o , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e t r u t h
i s s u s p e c t e d . S u c h l y i n g to o n e ' s s e l f i s i n v o l u n t a r y ,
f o r no one r e a l l y w i s h e s t o b e d e c e i v e d . H ence i t i s
u t t e r l y i n d e f e n s i b l e , u n m i t i g a t e d l y e v i l w i t h o u t
e x c e p t i o n . S o c r a t l c e d u c a t i o n - - r a d i c a l q u e s t i o n i n g o f
s e l f — i s r e q u i r e d t o r o o t i t o u t . What we commonly
r e f e r t o a s a l i e i s s o m e t h i n g q u i t e d i s t i n c t . T h is
c o n s i s t s i n t e l l i n g som eone e l s e w h a t t h e t e l l e r h im
s e l f knows to b e f a l s e , b e c a u s e he knows w h a t i s
r e a l l y t r u e . I n P l a t o ' s v i e w , t h i s i s s e c o n d a r y a n d
d e r i v a t i v e , f o r a t l e a s t someone knows th e t r u t h .
H e n c e , h e c a l l s t h i s m e r e l y a l i e i n w o r d s . S u ch a
l i a r i s n o t d e c e i v i n g h i m s e l f , u n l e s s h e i s u s i n g th e
l i e f o r a m i s t a k e n o r i m n o r a l p u r p o s e , i f s o , i t
i n v o l v e s a l i e i n h i s s o u l , w h ic h i s a d i s a s t r o u s e v i l .
S o m e tim e s , h o w e v e r , th e l i e i n w o rd s i s J u s t i f i a b l e .
T h i s i s when t h o s e to whom we a r e c o m m u n ic a tin g a r e n o t
i n a p o s i t i o n to u n d e r s t a n d o r g a i n an y b e n e f i t fro m
t h e t r u t h w h ic h we u n d e r s t a n d . ( 2 5 5 :5 1 - 5 2 )
151
The n o b l e l i e I s the common p u r p o s e c l o t h e d i n th e " c o n
c r e t e Im a g e ry o f a p a t r i o t i c m y th " ( 2 5 5 : 5 2 ) . S in c e t h e
p u r p o s e o f th e m y th I s m o r a l l y s o u n d , t h i s i s a l i e , b u t
a n o b l e l i e ( 2 5 5 : 5 3 ) .
I n t h i s way, W ild r e f u t e d t h e a r g u m e n ts o f P o p p e r .
The m a jo r c o n c e r n o f b o t h w r i t e r s - - t h e e f f e c t o f P l a t o ' s
p h i l o s o p h y on c o n t e m p o r a r y d e m o c r a c y - - i s c e r t a i n l y a
l e g i t i m a t e q u e s t i o n to c o n s i d e r i n t h i s s t u d y . B o th l i n e s
o f a r g u m e n t a r e p e r s u a s i v e . The a t t a c k a p p e a r e d t o c e n t e r
a r o u n d (1 ) th e s t a t i c n a t u r e o f P l a t o ' s I d e a , p h i l o s o p h i c
t r u t h , and t h e d e s i r e to m a i n t a i n i t s i n t e g r i t y ; (2) h i s
d i s l i k e o f th e m u l t i t u d e a n d o f d e m o c r a c y ; and (3 ) th e
u n a t t a i n a b i l i t y o f h i s i d e a l . I n r e b u t t a l , W ild (1 ) i d e n
t i f i e d P l a t o n i c t r u t h w i t h th e k in d o f p r a g m a t i c t r u t h
w h ic h i s t h e p r o d u c t o f c o m p e t i n g i d e a s - - a p o s i t i o n h i g h l y
r e m i n i s c e n t o f th e one t a k e n by c o n t e m p o r a r y d e m o c ra c y ;
(2) p l a c e d P l a t o ' s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c v ie w i n i t s p r o p e r
h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a t t h e same tim e r a t i o n a l i z i n g t h a t
t h e w e l f a r e o f s o c i e t y i s a c h i e v e d b y i n d i v i d u a l r a t h e r
t h a n m ass I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y . S u ch a v iew I m p l i e s t h a t
t h e r e i s a m ass m ind w h ic h i s sw ayed a s a s i n g l e e n t i t y
i n m uch t h e same way a s a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s m in d ; P l a t o ' s
d i s c u s s i o n o f th e v a r i o u s n a t u r e s o f men i s i n i t s e l f an
e l o q u e n t r e j o i n d e r to s u c h an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . One c o u ld
c e r t a i n l y a r g u e , h o w e v e r, t h a t p e r s u a s i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
i s m ore c r i t i c a l t h a n p e r s u a s i o n o f t h e mob, f o r t h e f o r m e r
I s the I n d i s p u t a b l e p r e r e q u i s i t e o f the l a t t e r , (T h is d oes
n o t mean t h a t mob a c t i v i t y c a n n o t i n f l u e n c e i n d i v i d u a l
a c t i v i t y . ) As to th e l a s t a rg u m en t, (3) s u r e l y I t i s th e
n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y to f a l l s h o r t o f th e i d e a l ; b e c a u s e I t I s
u n a t t a i n a b l e , an I d e a l i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d e f e n s i b l e . In
a r e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s pro b lem , c o n s i d e r t h a t e ac h w r i t e r h a s
p r e s e n t e d " h i s s t o r y 1 1 o f P l a t o ' s work. To th e e x t e n t t h a t
P l a t o ' s t r u t h i s s t a t i c , i . e . , n o t the r e s u l t o f d i a l e c t i c ,
t o t h a t e x t e n t h i s p h ilo s o p h y can be view ed a s a n t i t h e t i c a l
to dem ocracy. Y e t, i f P l a t o ' s t r u t h i s s t a t i c o n ly in the
se n se t h a t i t i s u n a t t a i n a b l e to I m p e r f e c t man, s u r e l y th en
h i s view s c a n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be d e m o n s tra te d to be a n t i
d e m o c r a t i c , f o r dem ocracy i t s e l f i s an i d e a l . To the e x
t e n t t h a t P l a t o ' s co ndem n ation o f dem ocracy i s u n i v e r s a l
and b ased on a r e a l d i s l i k e o f l e s s - p e r f e c t men t a k i n g a
r o l e in t h e i r own w e l f a r e , to t h a t e x t e n t h i s p h ilo s o p h y
c an be view ed as a n t i t h e t i c a l to dem ocracy. On th e o t h e r
h a n d , h i s view s c a n n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be d e m o n s tr a te d a s a n t i
d e m o c r a tic i f the d i a l e c t i c o f th e p h i l o s o p h e r s , l i k e th e
d i a l e c t i c o f th e l e s s - p e r f e c t p e r s u a d e r s , a l s o f a l l s s h o r t
o f the t r u th .
No a s s e s s m e n t o f P l a t o ' s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n
c a n be made w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o th e d ia l o g u e s th e m s e lv e s .
The G o rg ia s c o n ta in e d an o u t r i g h t d e c l a r a t i o n o f th e
Im m o ra lity o f r h e t o r i c i n p r a c t i c e (a r e a l a s s e s s m e n t)
t o g e t h e r w ith a s t a te m e n t o f how th e " t r u e " r h e t o r i c i a n
153
s h o u ld b eh av e ( t h e I d e a l s t a n d a r d ) . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h i s
d i a l o g u e h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d a s a c r i t i c i s m o f r h e t o r i c , and
p e r h a p s i n one s e n s e t h i s i s j u s t i f i a b l e , b u t the c o n s t r u c
t i v e comments i n th e c o n c l u d in g p o r t i o n , w hich a d m i t t e d l y
i d e n t i f y " t r u e ” r h e t o r i c w i t h th e r h e t o r i c o f th e p h i l o s o
p h e r , m u st n o t be n e g l e c t e d . B la c k s u p p o r te d su ch an
e v a l u a t i o n o f the Q o r g l a s :
We a r e bound to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t P l a t o d i d n o t In te n d
h i s c o n d e m n a tio n to a p p ly to a l l r h e t o r i c . . . . A l l we
h a v e a r i g h t to I n f e r from th e t e x t o f the G o rg laa I s
t h a t P l a t o opposed o n l y a p a r t i c u l a r view o f r n e t o r i c
u n s u c c e s s f u l l y d e fe n d e d i n th e d i a l o g u e by G o r g ia s ,
P o l u s , and C a l l i c l e s , and p r o b a b ly a c t u a l l y d e fe n d e d by
l e a d i n g S o p h i s t s and r h e t o r i c i a n s o f P l a t o ' s tim e .
. . . P l a t o ' s a t t a c k was on th e G o rg la n view o f r h e t
o r i c (w hich was p r o b a b ly a g e n e r a l S o p h i s t i c a l view o f
r h e t o r i c ) . The a t t a c k f o c u s s e d on th e G o rg lan d e f i n i
t i o n , th o u g h " d e f i n i t i o n " i n th e d i s t i n c t i v e l y P l a t o n i c
s e n s e . T his d e f i n i t i o n c o u ld be e x p e c te d to have two
p a r t s : th e c o l l e c t i o n and th e d i v i s i o n . The G o rg ia s
i s a r e f u t a t i o n o f b o th p a r t s o f th e G o rg lan d e f i n i -
t i o n . We f i n d i n th e f i r s t two p a r t s o f th e d i a l o g u e ,
w here G o r g ia s and th e n P o lu s a r e S o c r a t e s ' s prim e
a n t a g o n i s t s , t h a t S o c r a t e s alms to o v e rth ro w th e
" c o l l e c t i v e " d e f i n i t i o n . . . . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
C a l l i c l e s d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a change i n them e; r a t h e r ,
i t r e p r e s e n t s a s h i f t I n f o c u s to th e " d i v i s i v e "
definition. (290:367)
E a r l y i n th e d i a l o g u e , P l a t o made i t q u i t e e v i d e n t
t h a t h i s s u b j e c t was th e a r t o f G o r g ia s , f o r h e had
S o c r a t e s sa y to P o l u s :
B u t no one a sk e d you w h a t was th e q u a l i t y o f t h e a r t o f
G o r g i a s , b u t w h a t i t w as, and by w hat name we o u g h t to
c a l l G o r g i a s . • . . Now, t h e r e f o r e , t e l l me i n th e same
m an n er, w h a t a r t G o r g ia s p r o f e s s e s , and w h a t we o u g h t
to c a l l him . Or r a t h e r , G o r g ia s , do you t e l l u s y o u r
s e l f w h a t we o u g h t to c a l l you as s k i l l e d i n w hat a r t .
( 196: 138)
P l a t o h a s l i m i t e d d i s c u s s i o n a t th e v e ry o n s e t . He i s to
isk
be c o n c e rn e d w i t h G o rg la n r h e t o r i c , I . e . , s o p h i s t i c a l r h e t
o r i c a s p r a c t i c e d i n A thens d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e . W hile i t
i s t r u e t h a t th e G o rg ia s d e a l s m a in ly w ith th e d e f i c i e n c i e s
o f t h i s k in d o f p e r s u a s i o n , t h r o u g h o u t th e d i a l o g u e i s
fo u n d a l i m i t e d d e v e lo p m e n t of a n o t h e r k in d o f p e r s u a s i o n .
B la c k r a i s e d a c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n w h ich seems a t odds
w i t h my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n :
At t h i s p o i n t th e q u e s t i o n m ig h t a r i s e , i f P l a t o
w ish e d to oppose th e G o rg lan view o f r h e t o r i c , why d id
he a t t a c k i t s d e f i n i t i o n r a t h e r th a n i t s p r a c t i c e ? The
an sw e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n m u st b e , a s p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t
e d , s t a t e d i n te rm s o f th e o b j e c t i v e s and m ethods o f
d i a l e c t i c . P l a t o s o u g h t to know th e t r u e Form. In th e
G o rg ia s and th e P h a e d ru s he was s e e k i n g th e Form o f
r h e t o r i c . ( 290:3671
I would c o n te n d t h a t P l a t o a t t a c k e d th e p r a c t i c e o f th e a r t
ip s o f a c t o a t th e same tim e t h a t he a t t a c k e d i t s d e f i n i
t i o n , f o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g w hat r h e t o r i c i £ th e p a r t i c i p a n t s
made c o n s t a n t r e f e r e n c e t o w hat r h e t o r i c d o e s . H is r e f e r
en ce to th e e f f e c t t h a t no h o n o r a b le u s e r s o f r h e t o r i c
e x i s t e d o r e v e r e x i s t e d (1 9 6 :2 0 5 ) seem s to s u p p o r t f u r t h e r
a c o n c u r r e n t a t t a c k upon p r a c t i c e and d e f i n i t i o n . T here
seems to be no n e c e s s a r y i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n s im u lta n e o u s
e f f o r t s to a t t a c k a f a l s e r h e t o r i c w h ile s e e k i n g i t s tr u e
fo rm .
P l a t o d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e tw een th e two k i n d s o f p e r s u a
s i o n w hich a r e th e s u b j e c t o f h i s d i a l o g u e by u s i n g G orgias,
P o l u s , and C a l l i c l e s a s p r o t a g o n i s t s o f s o p h i s t i c a l r h e t
o r i c and S o c r a t e s a s i t s a n t a g o n i s t a s w e l l a s th e p r o t a g o -
155
n l a t o f che t r u e fo rm o f p e r s u a s i o n ( 1 9 6 : 1 4 5 - 4 6 ) .
G o r g i a s f i r s t d e f i n e d h i a a r t , r h e t o r i c , a s th e
"p o w er o f p e r s u a d i n g by w o rd s j u d g e s i n a c o u r t o f J u s t i c e ,
s e n a t o r s i n t h e s e n a t e - h o u s e , a n d t h e h e a r e r s i n a p u b l i c
a s s e m b l y , a n d i n e v e r y o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l
n a t u r e " ( 1 9 6 : 1 4 3 ) . He a d m i t t e d t h a t h i s a r t d i f f e r e d fro m
t h e o t h e r f o rm o f p e r s u a s i o n i n t h a t h i s a r t p r o d u c e d
b e l i e f w i t h o u t k n o w le d g e w h i l e t h e o t h e r i s a m eans to th e
a c h ie v e m e n t o f k n o w le d g e ( 1 9 6 :1 4 .6 ). I n m a k in g r h e t o r i c
m ore e f f e c t i v e w i t h th e m u l t i t u d e ( 1 9 6 : 1 4 7 ) , P l a t o e f f e c
t i v e l y d e m o n s t r a t e d h i s d i s d a i n o f b o t h ( f o r he l a t e r w e n t
on t o Im p ly t h a t th e m a s s e s w e re n o t v e r y d i s c r i m i n a t i n g
I n t h e i r J u d g m e n ts , s i n c e th e r h e t o r i c i a n c o u l d p e r s u a d e
them t h a t he knew m ore th a n one who a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s e d
k n o w le d g e ( 1 9 6 : 1 5 0 ) , t h a t i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r
w h a t i s b e s t t o g r a t i f y them ( 1 9 6 : 2 0 3 ) , and t h a t to be
s u c c e s s f u l th e s p e a k e r n e e d o n l y s u i t h i s a r g u m e n ts to
t h e i r d i s p o s i t i o n s ( 1 9 6 : 2 1 6 ) .
I n r e f u t a t i o n o f G o r g ia s * i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , S o c r a t e s
c h a r g e d t h a t r h e t o r i c i s n o t an a r t b u t a s k i l l o f p r o
c u r i n g g r a t i f i c a t i o n and p l e a s u r e ; i t I s a fo rm o f f l a t -
t e r y - - a m ere s e m b la n c e o f a d i v i s i o n o f th e p o l i t i c a l a r t
( 1 9 6 : 1 5 4 " 5 5 ) . He c a l l e d i t b a s e b e c a u s e " i t l o o k s to w h a t
i s a g r e e a b l e w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o r w h a t i s b e s t " ( 1 9 6 : 1 5 7 ) .
P o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t r u t h c a n n o t b e r e f u t e d , S o c r a t e s showed
t h e u s e l e s s n e s s o f r h e t o r i c a l c o n f u t i n g , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
156
show ing h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r the " o t h e r mode o f r e f u t a t i o n "
( 1 9 6 : 1 6 6 - 6 7 ) .
T h at he was c l e a r l y w e ig h in g one mode a g a i n s t th e
o t h e r i s e v i d e n t fro m th e w ords o f S o c r a t e s :
F o r you see t h a t o u r d i s c o u r s e i s on a s u b j e c t , th a n
w h ich t h e r e i s none t h a t a man endued e v en w ith t h e
s m a l l e s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g w ould ta k e more p a i n s a b o u t,
n am ely i n w hat way we o u g h t to l i v e , w h e th e r i n su c h
a way a s t h a t t o w hich you e x h o r t me, e n g a g in g i n such
em ploym ents o f a man, a s s p e a k i n g among the p e o p le ,
c u l t i v a t i n g r h e t o r i c , and a p p l y i n g o n e s e l f to p o l i t i c a l
a f f a i r s , i n th e m anner w hich you now do; o r w h e th e r we
s h o u ld d e v o te o u r s e l v e s to a p h i l o s o p h i c l i f e , and i n
w h a t the l a t t e r d i f f e r s from th e f o r m e r . ( I 9 o :2 0 2 )
S o c r a t e s c l a r i f i e d th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th e two modes o f
p e r s u a s i o n , r e f u t i n g th e one and d e f e n d i n g the o t h e r ,
t h r o u g h o u t th e r e s t o f th e d i a l o g u e . He spoke o f th e c o n
te m p o ra ry p r a c t i c e o f r h e t o r i c :
S o c r a t e s . As to t h e r h e t o r i c a d d r e s s e d to the A th e n ia n
p e o p l e , and the p e o p le i n o t h e r c i t i e s c o n s i s t i n g o f
f r e e - m e n , w hat s h a l l we s a y a s to t h a t ? Do th e r h e t o
r i c i a n s a p p e a r to you alw ay s sp e a k w ith a view to w hat
I s b e s t , a im in g a t t h i s , t h a t th e c i t i z e n s may be made
a s good a s p o s s i b l e by t h e i r d i s c o u r s e s ? o r do th e y ,
to o , e n d e a v o u r to g r a t i f y th e c i t i z e n s , and n e g l e c t i n g
th e p u b l ic I n t e r e s t f o r th e sa k e o f t h e i r own p r i v a t e
a d v a n ta g e , do th e y t r e a t th e p e o p le as c h i l d r e n , t r y i n g
o n ly to g r a t i f y them , w i t h o u t b e in g i n th e l e a s t c o n
c e r n e d w h e th e r th e y s h a l l become b e t t e r o r w orse by
t h e s e means?
C a l l i c l e s . I b i s i s n o t a s im p le q u e s t i o n t h a t you ask
me• F o r” t h e r e a r e some who, l o o k i n g to t h e i n t e r e s t o f
th e c i t i z e n s , sa y w hat t h e y d o; b u t o t h e r s a r e su c h a s
you d e s c r i b e .
S o c r a t e s . T h a t i s e n o u g h . F o r , i f t h i s a l s o i s two-
r o l d , one p a r t o f i t w i l l be f l a t t e r y , and a b a s e
p o p u l a r s p e a k i n g , b u t th e o t h e r w i l l be h o n o u r a b l e ,
n a m e ly , t h a t w hich e n d e a v o u rs to make th e s o u l s o f th e
c i t i z e n s a s good a s p o s s i b l e , and s t r i v e s to s p e a k w hat
i s b e s t , w h e th e r i t be p l e a s a n t o r u n p l e a s a n t t o th e
h e a r e r s . B ut you have n e v e r y e t seen t h i s k in d o f
r h e t o r i c . (1 9 0 :2 0 ^ -2 0 5 )
157
P a a t o r a t o r s , e v e n P e r i c l e s , C im on, t t l l t i a d e s , and
D i e m l s t o e l e s (whom C a l l i c l e s h a s a s s e r t e d t o b e u s e r s o f an
h o n o r a b l e r h e t o r i c ( 1 9 6 : 2 0 5 ) ) , l i k e c o n t e m p o r a r y G re e k
o r a t o r s , d i d n o t make u s e o f t r u e r h e t o r i c ( 1 9 6 : 2 2 1 ) .
At l a s t S o c r a t e s p r o f f e r e d h i s p o s i t i v e v ie w , h i s
" t r u e " p o l i t i c a l a r t ( n o t a m ere s e m b la n c e l i k e r h e t o r i c ) ,
w h ic h he p r o f e s s e s i s p e r f o r m e d by h i m s e l f and r e l a t i v e i y
few o t h e r A t h e n i a n s ( 1 9 6 : 2 2 6 ) . O ut o f h i a c a r e f u l l y w orded
q u e s t i o n s , o u t o f t h e m a n e u v e r s he e n g a g e d I n d u r i n g th e
c o n v e r s a t i o n s , h a s e m e rg e d a n e g a t i v e c r i t i c i s m o f e x i s t i n g
r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e p h r a s e d I n p o s i t i v e t e n n s w h ic h i l l u m i -
n a t e th e t r u e f o r a . S o c r a t e s ' p e r s u a s i o n , h i s c o n v e r s a
t i o n s , a r e n o t e n t e r e d i n t o t o c o n c i l i a t e p o p u l a r f a v o r ,
b u t w i t h a view to w h a t I s b e s t ( 1 9 6 : 2 2 6 ) . H is t r u e
p o l i t i c a l a r t a l o n e r e p r e s e n t s th e d u t y o f th e c i t i z e n
( 1 9 6 : 2 2 6 ) . T h is i s t h e l i f e o f th e p h i l o s o p h e r "who h a s
a t t e n d e d to h i s own a f f a i r s , and h a s n o t made h i m s e l f v e r y
b u s y d u r i n g l i f e , " who h a s " p a s s e d t h r o u g h l i f e p i o u s l y and
w i t h t r u t h , " l i v i n g and d y i n g " i n th e e x e r c i s e o f J u s t i c e
and t h e o t h e r v i r t u e s " ( 1 9 6 : 2 3 1 - 3 2 ) . E ven h i s a n t a g o n i s t s
m u s t a d m i t , S o c r a t e s a s s e r t s
t h a t we o u g h t t o b e w a re o f c o m m i t t i n g i n j u s t i c e r a t h e r
t h a n o f b e i n g i n j u r e d , and t h a t ab o v e a l l a man o u g h t
t o s t u d y n o t t o a p p e a r g o o d , b u t t o b e so . . . and
t h a t a l l f l a t t e r y , w h e t h e r o f o n e ' s - s e l f o r o t h e r s ,
w h e t h e r o f few o r m any, m u s t be a v o i d e d ; a n d t h a t
r h e t o r i c , and e v e r y o t h e r a c t i o n , i s a lw a y s t o be
e m p lo y e d w i t h a v ie w to w h a t i s J u s t . ( 1 9 6 :2 3 1 - 3 2 )
I f th e G o r g i a s r e p r e s e n t e d b o t h P l a t o ' s c r i t i c i s m o f
158
s o p h i a t i c a l r h e t o r i c a s w e l l a s th e I n c i p i e n t d e v e lo p m e n t
o f h i s l a t e r p h i l o s o p h y , th e f u l l m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n o f th e
l a t t e r a p p e a r e d i n t h e P h a e d r u s , S u b j e c t to a l m o s t a s
much c o n t r o v e r s y a s h i s a t t i t u d e to w a rd r h e t o r i c a r e t h e
t h r e e s p e e c h e s on l o v e w h ic h c o m p r is e th e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f
th e d i a l o g u e . A lth o u g h b o t h H u n t (I4J .I : 3 i|" 3 5 ) and B la c k
{ 2 9 0 :3 6 9 ) e n u m e r a te among t h e i r l i s t s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
th e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a p p r o a c h t h a t th e s p e e c h e s w ere i n t e n d
ed t o p r e s e n t P l a t o ' s i d e a s on l o v e , one f i n d s m ore a c c e p t
a b l e W e a v e r 's a d v i c e t h a t th e r e a d e r m u st a p p r o a c h th e
s p e e c h e s w i t h some i m a g i n a t i o n (214.6:3)* I n v iew o f t h e
b u l k o f t h e i r t r e a t m e n t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to s u b s c r i b e to
an y p o s i t i o n w h ic h d o e s n o t a f f i r m a c l e a r - c u t r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n t h e s e s p e e c h e s and th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c .
What i l l u m i n a t i o n i s sh e d by th e P h a e d r u s on t h e
n a t u r e o f P l a t o ' s e t h i c a l - r h e t o r i c a l v ie w ? At th e v e r y
o n s e t , one e x p e c t s a f r i e n d l y r a t h e r t h a n a h o s t i l e s t a t e
m e n t, f o r b o t h th e c h a r a c t e r s i n th e d i a l o g u e , P h a e d r u s and
S o c r a t e s , a r e l o v e r s o f s p e e c h e s ( 1 9 6 :3 0 2 ,3 1 1 ) * S o c r a t e s ,
i n a d d i t i o n , i s a l o v e r o f wisdom ( 1 9 6 :3 0 5 ) * w h ic h i s l a t e r
r e v e a l e d t o be th e p r o p e r name f o r th e t r u e r h e t o r i c i a n
( 1 9 6 :3 5 9 ) * P l a t o i n f o r m e d h i s r e a d e r t h a t h i s s u b j e c t was
" t r u t h * :
S u r e l y I may v e n t u r e to a p e a k th e t r u t h , e s p e c i a l l y
a s my s u b j e c t i s t r u t h . F o r e s s e n c e , t h a t r e a l l y
e x i s t s , c o l o u r l e s s , f o r m l e s s a n d i n t a n g i b l e , i s v i s i b l e
o n l y to i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t g u i d e s t h e s o u l , an d a ro u n d
i t t h e f a m i l y o f t r u e s c i e n c e h a v e t h i s f o r t h e i r
a b o d e . ( 1 9 6 :3 2 3 )
A lth o u g h th e ab o v e r e f e r e n c e to t h e s u b j e c t o f th e d i a l o g u e
I s p a r t o f S o c r a t e s ’ s e c o n d s p e e c h , th e v a l i d i t y o f s u c h an
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n be s u b s t a n t i a t e d b y l a t e r , m ore e x p l i
c i t , r e f e r e n c e s . The p h i l o s o p h e r , " t h e s o u l w h ic h h a s s e e n
m o s t , " i s a l o n e a b l e to p e r c e i v e th e t r u t h , " t h e mind o f
th e p h i l o s o p h e r I s a l o n e f u r n i s h e d w i t h w in g s " (1 9 6 :
3 2 lf - 2 5 ) . O th e r men a l s o c h o s e t h e i r " l o v e " o u t o f th e
o b j e c t s o f b e a u t y , e a c h a c c o r d i n g to h i s own p r e f e r e n c e
( 1 9 6 : 3 2 9 ) . Thus i s e x p l a i n e d how th e p h i l o s o p h e r , who
l o v e s w isdom , a l o n e c h o o s e s t r u t h to l o v e . In t h e c o n c l u
s i o n o f t h i s s p e e c h , S o c r a t e s p l e a d s t h a t L y s i a s d e s i s t
fro m s p e e c h m a k in g and become a c o n v e r t o f p h i l o s o p h y (1 9 6 :
3 3 4 ) .
V/hile S o c r a t e s f i n d s no f a u l t w i t h L y s i a s ’ p r a c t i c e
o f s p e e c h w r i t i n g i n i t s e l f , h e a d v o c a t e s L y s i a s do h i s jo b
w e l l ( 1 9 6 : 3 3 5 ) . I n o r d e r to do t h i s , th e m ind o f th e
s p e a k e r m u s t know th e t r u t h o f w h a t he i s to sa y ( 1 9 6 : 3 3 7 ) .
I n d e e d , th e p o s s e s s o r o f t r u t h n e e d s th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c i n
o r d e r to p e r s u a d e ( 1 9 6 : 3 3 3 ) . The r h e t o r i c i a n m u st know th e
n a t u r e o f a l l t h i n g s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e a b o u t w h ic h men a r e
m ore e a s i l y d e c e i v e d ; he m u s t d i s c o v e r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f
e a c h c l a s s " b o t h o f t h a t i n w h ic h t h e g e n e r a l i t y o f men
m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e l e d a s t r a y , and o f t h a t i n w h ic h t h a t
i s n o t th e c a s e " ( 1 9 6 : 3 4 ^ ~ 4 ^ ) • D i a l e c t i c , t h e p r o c e s s o f
a r r i v i n g a t t r u t h t h r o u g h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n an d d i v i s i o n , i s
i 6 o
a g o d l i k e a r t ; w i t h o u t t h i s a b i l i t y . I t seem s u n w is e to
c a l l L y s ia s * p r a c t i c e t h e " a r t " o f s p e a k i n g (196:314-5).
T h o se who a r e n o t w i s e , I . e . , t h o s e who a r e i g n o r a n t o f
d i a l e c t i c , c a n n o t know t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f r h e t o r i c ; i n
s t e a d , th e y know o n l y t h o s e t h i n g s t o b e l e a r n e d p r e p a r a
t o r y to th e a r t (196:314.3) • A s p e a k e r s h o u ld n o t p u r s u e th e
p r o b a b l e (w h ic h P l a t o e q u a t e s w i t h p o p u l a r i t y ) b u t s h o u l d
s e r v e t r u t h , f o r s i n c e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r i s b e s t a c q u a i n t e d
w i t h th e t r u t h , h e i s b e s t a b l e to d i s c o v e r r e s e m b l a n c e s - -
t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p r o b a b i l i t y ( 1 9 6 : 3 5 2 - 5 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , i t
i s c l e a r t h a t P l a t o ’ s I d e a l r h e t o r i c i a n i s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r
s k i l l e d I n s p e a k i n g . He s h o u l d u s e h i s a r t to s e r v e g r e a t
e n d s ( 1 9 6 : 3 5 I4. ) . The ex am p le p a r e x c e l l e n c e o f th e p h l l o s o -
p h e r - r h e t o r i c i a n was I s o c r a t e s , who I s P l a t o ' s f a v o r i t e
( 1 9 6 : 3 6 0 ) .
I n s u n m a ry , when P l a t o ' s G o r g i a s i s c o n s i d e r e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h th e P h a e d r u s , h i s g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i
t i o n may be c o n s t r u e d a s f o l l o w s : t h e p r a c t i c e o f r h e t o r i c
( a s i t was e x h i b i t e d i n A th e n s i n t h e f i f t h c e n t u r y b e f o r e
C h r i s t ) i s I m m o ra l, f o r i t s e r v e s p e r s u a s i o n a s a n end
r a t h e r t h a n t r u t h ; i t s e e k s r t i a t i s a g r e e a b l e to th e p o p u
l a c e r a t h e r th a n w h a t i s b e s t . H o w ev er, when do n e w e l l ,
t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c i s n o t t o b e co n d e m n e d . I t i s m o r a l
when i t s e e k s t r u t h . A c o r o l l a r y t o t h i s i s t h a t t r u t h
n e e d s a r t f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n i n o r d e r t o p e r s u a d e . The i d e a l
r h e t o r i c i a n i s t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s k i l l e d i n s p e a k i n g , f o r
l 6 l
o n l y h e c a n know th e t r u e n a t u r e o f r h e t o r i c ( s i n c e i t i s
t h e h a n d m a id e n o f t r u t h ) . He o u g h t t o s e e k good e n d s , b u t
h e i s J u s t i f i e d i n d e c e i v i n g h i s h e a r e r s s h o u ld t h i s be
n e c e s s a r y to s e r v e t h e e n d o f t r u t h .
T h u s, P l a t o ' s r e a l a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f
r h e t o r i c i s t h a t r h e t o r i c i s im m o r a l, b u t t h i s a s s e s s m e n t
n e e d n o t o b s c u r e o u r v i s i o n o f h i s i d e a l e v a l u a t i o n . H is
i d e a l s t a n d a r d i s t h a t r h e t o r i c i s m o r a l when i t i s d i r e c t
ed to w a rd a d e s i r a b l e e n d ( t r u t h ) ; i n s e r v i n g t h i s e n d , th e
r h e t o r i c i a n may u s e any m eans (POSITION I V ) . ( s e e p a g e s
1 3 0 -3 1 f o r a l i s t o f p o s i t i o n s . ) I m p l i e d i n t h i s c r i t e r i o n
i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e i d e a l p e r s u a d e r m u s t b e a c e r t a i n
k i n d o f man, i n t h i s c a s e a p h i l o s o p h e r (POSITION I I I ) .
R h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a i n A r i s t o t l e . - - W h i l e I s o c r a t e s and
P l a t o l a i d th e g ro u n d w o rk f o r a ty p e o f e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c ,
one m u s t a d m i t t h a t t h e i r w o rk s w ere s k e t c h y i n t e r m s o f an
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e i r b a s i c p h i l o s o p h i e s . Much m ore d e
t a i l e d , o f c o u r s e , w as th e A r i s t o t e l i a n t r e a t m e n t o f th e
a r t . I n an e f f o r t t o a s c e r t a i n A r i s t o t l e ' s g e n e r a l p h i l o
s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n , I r e l i e d up o n b o t h p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y
s o u r c e s , w i t h e m p h a s is up o n th e f o r m e r . I t h a s p r e v i o u s l y
b e e n s t a t e d t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f A r i s t o t l e ' s v ie w was
g l e a n e d fro m h i s s t a t e d an d I m p l i e d p o s i t i o n a s i t was e x
h i b i t e d p r i m a r i l y i n h i s R h e t o r i c ( 9 ) . H ia o t h e r w o r k s ,
P o l i t i c s (ti) and E t h i c s ( 7 ) , w e re a l s o c o n s u l t e d . A r i s t o t
l e ' s v ie w o f r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s h a s b e e n a s s e s s e d b y n u m e r-
1 6 2
o u s s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s . I t seem s l o g i c a l t o p r e s e n t th e
f i n d i n g s o f p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h f i r s t .
Ifcree c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s , r i g o r o u s l y s u p p o r t e d , f u r
n i s h a g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e S t a g l r i t e ' s
p o s i t i o n on r h e t o r l c a l - e t h i c s . S i n c e th e m a j o r q u e s t i o n s
a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f b o t h S t l t e s ' (6 3 7 ) a n d B u r g e s s '
(6 2 0 ) s t u d i e s h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n r e p o r t e d , t h e y w i l l n o t be
r e p e a t e d h e r e ; I n s t e a d 1 w i l l c o n c e r n m y s e l f w i t h t h e i r
s p e c i f i c t r e a t m e n t s o f A r i s t o t l e . The t h i r d r e s e a r c h
p a p e r , e n t i t l e d "The A r i s t o t e l i a n B a s i s f o r th e E t h i c s o f
S p e a k i n g , " a p p e a r e d i n t h e S p e e c h T e a c h e r ( 3 7 1 ) .
S t l t e s ' s t u d y r e v e a l e d w h a t he c o n s i d e r e d t o be a
t r e a t m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g I n A r i s t o t l e ' s r h e t o r i c .
W h ile h i s t r e a t m e n t was n o t a s c o m p r e h e n s i v e a s P l a t o ' s ,
S t l t e s t h o u g h t i t was m ore i n t e n s i v e a t t h e l e v e l o f m e th
o d o l o g y ( 6 3 7 :1 9 9 ) * S t l t e s w o u ld a g r e e w i t h o t h e r w r i t e r s
t h a t A r i s t o t l e w as p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h e f f e c t i v e
s p e a k i n g , b u t he f e l t A r i s t o t l e was " h i g h l y c o n c e r n e d " w i t h
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g a t th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e v e l ( 6 3 7 : 1 9 2 ) .
S t l t e s f o u n d J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s u c h an e v a l u a t i o n i n w h a t
he c o n s i d e r e d to be e v i d e n c e o f c o n c e r n f o r r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k i n g i n t h e R h e t o r i c ; (1 ) A r i s t o t l e a d v i s e d t h a t r e
s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g i s to b e c o n s i d e r e d f u n d a m e n t a l i n c a s e s
w h e re ju d g m e n t i s t o b e m ade— e s p e c i a l l y l e g a l ; (2 ) h e
u r g e d r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g , d i s a g r e e i n g w i t h P l a t o ' s c h a r g e
t h a t r h e t o r i c i s b a s i c a l l y i r r e s p o n s i b l e ; (3 ) h e s t r e s s e d
1 6 3
th e I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p e r s o n a l g o o d n e s s r e v e a l e d b y t h e
s p e a k e r a s a f a c t o r I n h i s p e r s u a s i v e s u c c e s s ; (I4.) h e u r g e d
p r e p a r a t i o n t o know r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s when h e w r o t e , " F i r s t ,
t h e n , we m u s t a s c e r t a i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e g o o d s o r e v i l s
a b o u t w h ic h t h e d e l i b e r a t i v e s p e a k e r g i v e s h i s c o u n s e l
. . . " ( 9 » I A » 1 3 5 9 * : 2 0 ) , and f i n a l l y , ( 5 ) he a c k n o w le d g e d
t h a t t h e r e w ere c e r t a i n known " g o o d s " to a r g u e f o r ( 6 3 7 :
192-94)•
I t w a s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n th e
v a l i d i t y o f S t l t e s * o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g A r i s t o t l e w i t h
o u t r e p e a t i n g th e e n t i r e s t u d y s i n c e , ( e x c e p t I n th e c a s e
o f C i c e r o , whom he u s e d a s a d e t a i l e d I l l u s t r a t i o n o f h i s
m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h ) comment c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r r h e t o r i
c i a n s was l i m i t e d to a s t a t e m e n t o f h i s f i n d i n g s . S in c e
t h i s was t h e c a s e , I f e l t j u s t i f i e d In r e p o r t i n g h i s
r e m a r k s f o r t h e i r f a c e v a l u e , l a t e r r e f u t i n g o r s u b s t a n t i
a t i n g them w here my own r e s e a r c h seem ed to s u p p o r t s u c h a
m ove.
B u r g e s s ' r e s e a r c h w as much m ore d e t a i l e d ; he d e v o t e d
a w h o le c h a p t e r t o A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i a l r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y - ^ s u b j e c t w h ic h he a p p r o a c h e d fro m t h e v i e w p o i n t
o f g e n e r a l s e m a n t i c s ( 6 2 0 : 9 9 - 2 0 1 ) . D e f i n i n g " s o c i a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " I n t e n n s o f " f a c t u a l " a s o p p o s e d to
" a r t i s t i c " a d e q u a c y , end t h e f o n n e r i n te rm s o f " th e
a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e f a c t s o f t h e t o t a l s p e e c h
s i t u a t i o n " ( 6 2 0 : 1 8 2 ) , B u r g e s s c l a r i f i e d A r i s t o t l e ' s v ie w
161*.
o f th e s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r h e t o r i c :
The r h e t o r i c o f P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e a re v e ry s i m i l a r i n
t h e i r a d eq u acy o f th e s u p p o r t o f " t r u t h " a s th e o n ly
p r o p e r g o a l o f p e r s u a s i o n , w h ile d i f f e r i n g s h a r p l y ( a t
l e a s t by i m p l i c a t i o n ) r e g a r d i n g th e p r o p e r em ploym ent
o f m eans to t h i s e n d . (6 2 0 :1 8 3 )
B u rg e ss fo u n d t h a t b o t h P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e r e j e c t e d th e
s o p h i s t i c e n d o f " s u c c e s s " i n f a v o r o f " t r u t h " ( 6 2 0 : l8l*.-85)#
R h e to r i c a s an a r t was am o ral to A r i s t o t l e ; h i s p e r s u a d e r
was f o r c e d to c h o o se e n d s , t h u s l e a v i n g c h o ic e o u t s i d e the
scope o f r h e t o r i c as a f u n c t i o n o f th e m o ra l c o n s t i t u t i o n
o f the p e r s u a d e r ( 6 2 0 : 1 8 5 ) . B u rg e ss w r o te : " In s h o r t ,
once th e s p e a k e r h a s d e c id e d w hat end m u st be g a in e d (a
m o ra l p r o b le m ), i t i s th e p r o v in c e o f r h e t o r i c to p r o v id e
th e n e c e s s a r y means (an am o ral p r o b le m ) " ( 6 2 0 :1 8 5 ) * In
s u c h a s i t u a t i o n s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e
s p e a k e r 's e n d s , i f he s u b s c r i b e s to A r i s t o t l e ' s i n j u n c t i o n
to s e r v e good en d s ( 6 2 0 : 1 8 6 ) . To B u r g e s s , A r i s t o t l e ' s
t r e a t m e n t o f e n d s - - e n d s w hich were b o t h a u d i e n c e - c e n t e r e d
and v i c t o r y - c e n t e r e d — s u g g e s te d th e a g e - o l d c o n c e p t o f th e
"end j u s t i f i e s th e m e a n s ." B u rg e s s c o n c lu d e d :
As a f u n c t i o n o f I n v e n t i o n , s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o p e r a t e s i n o n l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t ways and a lw ay s
i n d i r e c t l y . The A r i s t o t e l i a n c o n c e p t i o n s o f e t h o s ,
e m o tio n a l a p p e a l , and l o g i c a l a rg u m e n t, a p p e a r to be
su c h t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e c o n c e rn f o r m a t t e r s i n v o l v i n g
th e s p e a k e r 's a t t e n t i o n to f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y . E x c e p t
when one v iew s a l s o th e R h e t o r i c ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e
p r o p e r en d s o f p e r s u a s i o n , m o re o v e r, th e im p r e s s io n
r e m a in s t h a t t h i s r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e i s c h i e f l y a
c o m p i l a t i o n o f a d v ic e aimed a t a r t i s t i c a d e q u a c y , o r
p e r s u a s i v e s u c c e s s , o f the s p e a k e r 's p r e d i c t i o n s .
S o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d to
A r i s t o t l e ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c , t h e r e f o r e . N ot
165
o n l y a i d ho c h o o s e u l t i m a t e l y to g iv e a r t i s t i c a d e q u a c y
th e p l a c e o f p r e d o m in a n c e ; he a d h e r e d s t r i c t l y t o t h i s
p r i n c i p l e t h r o u g h o u t . As a r e s u l t , t h e g r e a t e s t
p o s s i b l e e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r th e s p e a k e r becam e t h e s o l e
en d and a im o f r h e t o r i c . I t I s up to t h e s p e a k e r to
d e c i d e w h e t h e r to make good o r i l l u s e o f i t . Such
m o r a l d e c i s i o n s a r e b e y o n d t h e p r o v i n c e o f t h i s a m o r a l
a r t . ( 6 2 0 :1 9 5 - 9 6 )
B o th o f t h e s e r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s f o u n d " a d v i c e " f o r
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g i n th e R h e t o r i c ; th e f o r m e r , h o w e v e r,
d i d n o t a t t e m p t to e s t a b l i s h a c o m p r e h e n s iv e th e o r y o f
e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c w h i l e th e l a t t e r was l i m i t e d by i t s
a p p r o a c h and i t s s c o p e .
The l a s t o f t h e p a p e r s w h ic h d e a l t e x t e n s i v e l y and
e x h a u s t i v e l y w i t h t h e r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s o f A r i s t o t l e was
w r i t t e n b y L aw rence J . F l y n n , who h a s a b a c k g r o u n d i n
E n g l i s h , r h e t o r i c , and p h i l o s o p h y ( 3 7 1 ) . F ly n n r e f e r r e d
t o a num ber o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p e r t i n e n t w o rk s I n h i s e f f o r t
t o e x p l a i n th e A r i s t o t e l i a n m o r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f a human
a c t and t h e i r s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n .
F l y n n p r o c e e d e d f i r s t t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e e l e m e n t s o f a
human a c t w h ic h h e fo u n d to be (1 ) a r a t i o n a l a g e n t (2 ) who
knows w h a t h e d o e s a n d (3 ) f r e e l y c h o o s e s t o do i t (3 7 1 :
1 8 0 ) . F l y n n a l s o a s s e r t e d t h a t a man was r e s p o n s i b l e , when
I g n o r a n t , i f t h e I g n o r a n c e w ere t h e r e s u l t o f c a r e l e s s n e s s
o r a r e f u s a l t o l e a r n th e f a c t s w h ic h a n a g e n t s h o u ld know
( 3 7 1 : 1 8 1 ) . The e l e m e n t s o f a m o r a l l y good a c t , a c c o r d i n g
t o A r i s t o t l e , a r e (1 ) t h e o b j e c t o f th e a c t , i . e . , m u r d e r ,
p e r s u a s i o n , (2 ) t h e I n t e n t o f t h e a g e n t , i . e . , h i s m o t i v e ,
1 6 6
and (3) th e accom pan ying c ir c u m s ta n c e s (371:162). The
o b j e c t o f the a c t i s I t s name, eh a t the p e rs o n d o e s ; th e
I n t e n t I s why he d o e s I t ; th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s may b e l o c a t e d
I n t h e an sw e rs to th e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : who? what?
w here? why? when? how? b y w h a t m eans ( 371: 102— 81^) ? F ly n n
a s s u r e d h i s r e a d e r t h a t A r i s t o t l e made th e e v i l n a t u r e o f
an a c t d epend upon th e above p a r t i c u l a r s b e in g e v i l .
The o b j e c t names th e a c t s t r i p p e d o f i n t e n t and
c i r c u m s t a n c e s (371:162). C e r t a i n a c t s p o s s e s s names w hich
im p ly t h a t t h e s e a c t s i n th e m s e lv e s a r e b a d , a c t s w hich
c a n n o t be made good by good i n t e n t o r c i r c u m s t a n c e s (3 7 1 :
182). T h is , F ly n n s u g g e s t e d , i m p l i e s a c t s w h ich a re e i t h e r
good i n th e m s e lv e s o r w h ich may be made good o r bad d e p e n d
i n g on i n t e n t and c ir c u m s t a n c e s (371:162). O th e r a c t s a re
i n d i f f e r e n t ; th e y become good o r bad by th e " c o r r e s p o n d i n g
i n t e n t o f th e a g e n t " ( 3 7 1 :1 6 2 ) .
I f the i n t e n t o f th e a g e n t a n d t h e o b j e c t o f th e
a c t c o i n c i d e , F ly n n a s s e r t e d , the m o r a l i t y i s ju d g e d from
th e o b j e c t , b u t when t h e r e i s an u l t e r i o r m o tiv e , i t
becom es a " s e p a r a t e d e t e r m i n a n t o f th e m o r a l i t y o f th e a c t "
(371:163). Flynn concluded:
A r i s t o t l e e x p l i c i t l y r e q u i r e s an e v i l I n t e n t aa m n .
e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n f o r a m o r a l l y e v i l a c t . . . . More
o v e r , he e x p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i s e s i n d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s
w hich a r e n o t e v i l u n l e s s acco m panied by an e v i l
i n t e n t .
A good i n t e n t i s so e s s e n t i a l t h a t w ith o u t I t an a c t
c a n n o t be m o r a l l y g oo d . . . . (3 7 1 :1 6 3 )
The c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e a c c i d e n t a l d e t e r m i n a n t s accom-
167
p a n y i n g th e a c t w h ic h a d d some m o r a l i t y o t h e r th a n t h a t
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e two p r e v i o u s p a r t i c u l a r s (371:1314-) •
F l y n n d e n i e d B u r g e s s ' c h a r g e t h a t f o r A r i s t o t l e th e
e n d j u s t i f i e d th e m ean s:
A r i s t o t l e r e p u d i a t e s th e n o t i o n t h a t t h e e n d J u s t i
f i e s th e m e a n s when t h e m eans i s e v i l ; I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
a good I n t e n t d o e s n o t J u s t i f y u s i n g an e v i l m e a n s .
D o in g e v i l f o r th e s a k e o f g o o d i s c o n t r a r y to m a n 's
n a t u r e . . . . o b j e c t s . . . e v i l i n t h e m s e l v e s . . . .
c a n n o t b e w h ite w a s h e d b y a good I n t e n t i o n . (3 7 1 :
1 9 3- 914.)
Q u o t i n g fro m A r i s t o t l e ' s E t h l c a g u d e m la , F ly n n a d d e d
A r i s t o t l e ' s p o i n t e d r e m a r k s r e g a r d i n g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n e n d s an d m e a n s:
I t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e aim ( e n d ) to be r i g h t ( m o r a l l y
g o o d ) , b u t f o r a man t o go w ro n g ( e v i l a c t ) i n t h e
m eans ( m o r a l l y e v i l o b j e c t ) to t h a t a im ; and a g a i n th e
aim may b e m i s t a k e n w h i l e th e m eans l e a d i n g to i t a r e
r i g h t . ( 3 7 1 : 1314-)
I n a p p l y i n g th e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e human a c t
an d I t s m o r a l i t y to t h e s p e a k i n g s i t u a t i o n , F l y n n w r o t e :
Though . . . Q heJ s p e a k e r ' s u l t i m a t e end . . . i s
g o o d , A r i s t o t l e w a n t s e a c h a c t - - c a l l i t t h e u se o f a
r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e , t e c h n i q u e , m e th o d , f a c u l t y , o r
f a c t — t o p a s s t h e t e s t o f m o r a l i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
t h r e e d e t e r m i n a n t s . . . . T h e se m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n a r e
I n d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s w h ic h h e may u s e f o r go o d o r e v i l .
H i s u n d e r l y i n g i n t e n t . . . i s th e m a in f a c t o r “ 3 e t e r -
m l n i n g t h e i r m o r a l i t y . I f h e c h o o s e s f a c t s , e v i d e n c e ,
and a r g u m e n t s , and u s e s h i s s p e a k i n g p o w e rs f o r a good
e n d , n o t t o d e c e i v e o r d i s h o n o r , t h e d i v e r s i f i e d
a c t i v i t i e s o f h i s s p e a k i n g w i l l b e m o r a l l y good b e c a u s e
t h e y s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a m o r a l l y goo d a c t .
<371:181*)
W h ile F l y n n w e n t on t o p o i n t o u t d e t a i l e d a p p l i c a
t i o n s o f A r i s t o t l e ' s g e n e r a l p o s i t i o n , t h e s e s p e c i f i c s do
n o t c o n c e r n u s h e r e . What d o e s c o n c e r n u s i s t h e a p p a r e n t
1 6 8
d is a g r e e m e n t b e tw ee n B u r g e s s ' and F l y n n 's s t a t e m e n t s o f
A r i s t o t l e ' s p h i lo s o p h y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n ends
and m ean s. W hile B u rg e s s c r e d i t e d th e r h e t o r i c i a n w ith a
p h i lo s o p h y i n w h ich th e end J u s t i f i e d th e m eans, F ly n n
e x p l i c i t l y d e n ie d t h i s . T h is v a r i a n c e was e a s i l y r e s o l v e d
by th e d i s c o v e r y t h a t F ly n n c o n s i d e r e d r h e t o r i c to b e an
i n d i f f e r e n t a c t , r a t h e r t h a n an e v i l o n e, and b o th w r i t e r s
a g re e d t h a t i n th e c a se o f an i n d i f f e r e n t a c t , u n d e r l y i n g
I n t e n t i s th e m a jo r f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g i t s m o r a l i t y .
S in c e th e m ost I m p o r ta n t o f th e s e c o n d a r y a s s e s s
m en ts o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p o s i t i o n have b e e n c o n s i d e r e d , i t i s
tim e to t u r n to h i s own w r i t i n g s . A r i s t o t l e ' s R h e to r l c can
b e a t b e u n d e r s t o o d when i t i s c o n s i d e r e d i n i t s i n t e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h h i s E t h i c s and p o l i t i c s . Of c o u r s e , h i s
r h e t o r i c i s d e s i g n e d to p r o v i d e a d e q u a te a n s w e rs f o r the
p e r s u a d e r i n th e o t h e r m a t t e r s (9 :x x )> b u t when a d d i t i o n a l
h e l p i s n e e d e d to h e i g h t e n u n d e r s t a n d i n g , th e o t h e r w o rk s
can J u s t i f i a b l y be c o n s u l t e d . A r i s t o t l e w ro te o f th e
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e t h r e e d i s c i p l i n e s : "Thus I t
f o l l o w s t h a t R h e to r i c i s a k in d o f o f f s h o o t , on th e one
h a n d , of D i a l e c t i c , and, on th e o t h e r , o f t h a t s tu d y o f
E t h i c s w h ich may p r o p e r l y b e c a l l e d ' p o l i t i c a l ' "
( 9 , I , 2 , 1 3 5 6 a : 9 ) . A. D. L in d s a y p o i n t e d o u t i n h i s i n t r o
d u c t i o n to A r i s t o t l e ' s P o l i t i c s t h a t A r i s t o t l e d id n o t
s e p a r a t e " th e s p h e r e s o f th e s ta te s m a n and th e m o r a l i s t "
( 8 : v ) . In th e E t h i c s he d e s c r i b e d th e c h a r a c t e r n e e d e d f o r
169
th e "good l i f e , ” and I n th e P o l i t i c s he a t t e m p t e d to d e
s c r i b e ho* a s o c i e t y c o u ld be fram ed so a s to make t h a t
good l i f e p o s s i b l e ( 8 : v ) .
The l o g i c a l w ork to b e g i n w i t h , t h e n , i s A r i s t o t l e ' s
N lc o m a c h e a n E t h i c s ( 7 ) - I n I t A r i s t o t l e a p p r o a c h e d t h e
p r o b le m o f e t h i c s f ro m th e p r a c t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e t h e o
r e t i c a l s i d e ( 7 :2 3 ) * To h im , e t h i c s w as t h e s c i e n c e , o r
t h e a r t , o f d i s c o v e r i n g w h a t g o o d n e s s l s - - a d i s c o v e r y w h ic h
c a n be made o n l y by b e h a v i n g l i k e a good man ( 7 : 2 3 ) .
P o l i t i c s , he p o i n t e d o u t , makes u se o f b o t h r h e t o r i c
an d e t h i c s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y I t s end m u s t I n c l u d e t h e l r s - -
an end w h ic h c an o n l y be f o r th e ^ood o f man ( 7 , 1 , 2 : 2 7 ) .
A r i s t o t l e e x p r e s s e d t h i s p h i lo s o p h y s u c c i n c t l y :
Now m o st p e o p le would r e g a r d th e good a s t h e end
p u r s u e d by t h a t s tu d y w h ic h h a s m o st a u t h o r i t y and
c o n t r o l o v e r th e r e s t . Need I s a y t h a t t h i s I s th e
s c i e n c e o f p o l i t i c s ? . . . We s e e a l s o t h a t the
f a c u l t i e s w h ic h o b t a i n m ost r e g a r d come u n d e r t h i s
s c i e n c e : f o r e x am p le , th e a r t o f w ar, th e m anagement
o f p r o p e r t y , th e a b i l i t y to s t a t e a c a s e f r h e t o r l c j .
S i n c e , t h e r e f o r e , p o l i t i c s makes u se o f th e o t h e r
p r a c t i c a l s c i e n c e s , snd l a y s i t down b e s i d e s t f i a t we
m u st do and w h at we m u st n o t d o , i t s end m u st i n c l u d e
t h e i r s . And t h a t e n d , i n p o l i t i c s a s w e l l a s I n
e t h i c s , c an o n l y be th e good f o r man. F o r e v e n I f th e
good o f th e com m unity c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h a t o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l , th e good o f th e com m unity i s c l e a r l y a
g r e a t e r and more p e r f e c t good b o t h to g e t and to k e e p .
(7 , 1 . 2 :26- 2 7)
Each o f t h e s e s u b s i d i a r y a r t s , I . e . , r h e t o r i c and e t h i c s ,
" h as an end f o r th e sa k e o f w h ich e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i t d o e s
i s do n e" w hich may be d e s c r i b e d as i t s good ( 7 , 1 , 7 : 3 6 ) .
Thus, we s e e k more th a n one good, n o t a l l o f w h ic h e n d s a re
170
u l t i m a t e e n d s ( 7 . 1 . 7 : 3 6 ) , T h is l i n e o f a rg u m e n t s u g g e s t s
t h a t th e e n d s o f e t h i c s ( th e good o f th e I n d i v i d u a l ) and o f
r h e t o r i c ( p e r s u a s i o n ) a r e n o t u l t i m a t e , b u t a r e i n s t e a d
s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e f i n a l g o o d - - w h i c h i s t h e en d o f p o l i t i c s
an d w h ic h A r i s t o t l e d e f i n e d f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r w o rd , a s
’’h a p p i n e s s . ”
A r i s t o t l e c l a r i f i e d h i s te r m " h a p p i n e s s ” :
The h i g h e s t good l a th e end w h ic h i s s o u g h t b y p o l i t i
c a l s c i e n c e . W hat th e s t a t e s m a n i s m o s t a n x i o u s to
p r o d u c e I s a c e r t a i n m o r a l c h a r a c t e r I n h l a f e l l o w -
c i t i z e n s , n a m e ly a d i s p o s i t i o n to v i r t u e and th e
p e r f o r m a n c e o f v i r t u o u s a c t i o n s . ( 7 , 1 , 9 : I|jU .)
W hat m akes u s h a p p y " i s th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s o u l ’ s e n e r
g i e s on so u n d m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s ” an d w h a t m akes us u n h a p p y
i s " t h e i r d i r e c t i o n to w a r d s e v i l ” ( 7 , 1 , 1 0 : 4 6 ) . S i n c e
h a p p i n e s s i s th e u l t i m a t e end a n d i s a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h
v i r t u e , i t i s l o g i c a l to c o n s i d e r th e d e f i n i t i o n o f v i r t u e ,
w h ic h A r i s t o t l e s t a t e s i s t h e ” s e t t l e d h a b i t o f a c t i n g
w i s e l y ” ( 7 . 1 . 1 3 : 5 4 ) • M o ra l g o o d n e s s , i . e . , e t h i c s , i s t h u s
d e r i v e d fro m e t h o s , " h a b i t , ” fro m w h ic h i t g o t i t s name
( 7 . 1 1 . 1 : 5 5 ) .
The a g e n t , d o e r , i n o r d e r t o p e r f o r m v i r t u o u s
a c t i o n s m u s t be i n th e p r o p e r fra m e o f m in d : (1) t h e
a g e n t , a r a t i o n a l b e i n g , m u s t b e f u l l y c o n s c i o u s o f w h at
h e i s d o i n g , (2 ) a n d m u s t " w i l l " th e a c t i o n , and (3 ) t h i s
a c t i o n m u s t come fro m a " f i x e d an d u n c h a n g e a b l e d i s p o s i
t i o n " ( 7 . I I . 4 :6 1 ) * Th® f i r s t two o f t h e s e r e q u i s i t e s f o r
t h e p r o p e r f ra m e o f m ind c o n t a i n t h e c o n c e p t o f v o l u n t a r y
171
c h o ic e w hich was assum ed a s a n e c e s s a r y p h i l o s o p h i c a l
o r i e n t a t i o n t o a y stu d y * A r i s t o t l e l a t e r d e f i n e d t h e s e
c o n d i t i o n s more e x p l i c i t l y . The t h i r d o f th e r e q u i r e m e n t s
l o c a t e s good a c t s a s p r o c e e d i n g fro m th e a g e n t ' b c h a r a c t e r .
The v i r t u o u s a c t i v i t y w h ic h i s t h e p r o d u c t o f s u c h
an a g e n t i s a "m ean ” c o n d i t i o n ; t h i s " g o ld e n m ean " a v o i d s
b o t h e x c e s s a n d d e f i c i e n c y ( 7 * 1 1 , 6 : 6 6 ) . H ow ever, A r i s t o t l e
c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h a t some a c t i v i t i e s a r e b a d i n t h e m s e l v e s ,
and f o r t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s t h e r e i s no c h o i c e o f a mean s i n c e
th e a c t i t s e l f i s e v i l ( 7 , 1 1 , 6 : 6 7 ) . I n s u c h c a s e s , c i r c u m
s t a n c e s do n o t a l t e r th e r i g h t n e s s o r w ro n g n e s s o f th e a c t
( 7 , 1 1 , 6 : 6 7 ) .
A r i s t o t l e th e n a p p ro a c h e d th e q u e s t i o n o f m o ra l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . An a g e n t I s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e , he w r o t e , f o r
a c t s done (1) u n d e r c o m p u ls io n , o r (2) c o m m itted i n i g n o
r a n c e ( 7 , 1 1 1 , 1 : 7 7 ) * Such a c t s a r e i n v o l u n t a r i l y d o n e . An
a g e n t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s a c t s o n ly when th e y a re
v o l u n t a r y :
By a v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n . . . I mean one w hich (a) I t
was i n th e a g e n t ' s power to do o r n o t to d o , (b) he
p e rfo rm s n o t i n ig n o r a n c e b u t w i t h f u l l know ledge o f
th e p e r s o n a f f e c t e d by h i s a c t i o n , th e i n s t r u m e n t he
i s u s i n g , th e o b j e c t he s e e k s to a t t a i n , (o) i n no
p a r t i c u l a r i s d e te r m in e d by a c c i d e n t o r f o r c e m a je u r e .
(7,V,8:160) --------------------
F u r th e r m o r e , A r i s t o t l e t o l d how a c t s m ig h t be made j u s t o r
u n j u s t by th e s u r r o u n d i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s — I n t h i s c a se he i s
d i s c u s s i n g w h a t w ould n o r m a l l y be c o n s i d e r e d j u s t a c t s
( 7 » V , S : l 6 l ) . The p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e a l s o s p e l l e d
1 7 2
o u t : (1 ) th e a g e n t , (2) th e a c t , (3 ) t h a t w h ic h I s th e
o b j e c t (e n d ) o f th e a c t , (lj.) th e I n s t r u m e n t s , (5) th e
r e s u l t o r e f f e c t , and (6 ) th e m an n er ( 7 * 1 1 1 , 1 : 8 0 - 8 1 ) ,
V ic e s a r e v o l u n t a r y i n th e same way a s v i r t u e
( 7 , 1 1 1 , 5 : 9 3 ) .
A r i s t o t l e u s e d th e te rm p r o a l r e a l s to r e f e r t o t h e s e
v o l u n t a r y a c t s w h ic h a r e p r e c e d e d b y d e l i b e r a t i o n — h e n c e ,
d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e ( 7 , I I I , 2 : 82-8ij.). Man " w i s h e s ” f o r t h e
"g o o d " ( e n d ) ; h e d o e s n o t c h o o s e I t ( 7 , I I I ,l|.: 8 8 ) . D e l i b e r
a t e c h o i c e i s e x e r c i s e d upon m eans r a t h e r th a n e n d s :
O b se rv e a l s o t h a t we do n o t d e l i b e r a t e a b o u t e n d s
b u t a lw a y s a b o u t m e a n s. A d o c t o r d o e s n o t d e l i b e r a t e
w h e th e r o r n o t ha w i l l c u r e h i s p a t i e n t s , n o r an o r a t o r
w h e th e r o r n o t h e i s to w in o v e r h i s a u d i e n c e . . . n o r
d o e s an y o n e e l s e d e l i b e r a t e a b o u t t h e en d a t w h ic h he
i s a i m i n g . No, t h e y s e t some en d b e f o r e t h e m s e l v e s and
t h e n p r o c e e d to c o n s i d e r how and by w hat m eans i t ca n
be a t t a i n e d * I f i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e i s a v a r i e t y o f
m eans o f d o i n g t h i s , th e y c o n s i d e r w h ic h o f t h e s e w i l l
b e t h e e a s i e s t and m o s t e f f e c t i v e . ( 7 , 1 1 1 , 3 : 8 6 )
V i r t u e , t h e r e f o r e , t o A r i s t o t l e was e x e r c i s e d upon m e a n s —
th e v i r t u o u s man i s th e one who m akes th e c o r r e c t c h o i c e
o f m eans ( 7 , 1 1 1 , 5 : 8 9 ) . A r i s t o t l e a s su m e s t h a t th e good
m a n 's end ( t r u t h ) i s a c o r r e c t Ju d g m en t and c o r r e s p o n d s to
th e t r u t h ( 7 » I I I , 1 |. : 8 8 ) .
I n t h e s i x t h b o o k , A r i s t o t l e t u r n e d fro m t h e m o ra l
t o t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l v i r t u e s , an d h e i s i m m e d i a t e l y I n v o l v e d
i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f w h a t i s th e r i g h t p r i n c i p l e ( l o g o s )
w h ic h h e h a s p r e v i o u s l y p o i n t e d o u t d e t e r m i n e s th e mean
( 7 , V I , 1 : 1 7 1 ) . D e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e r e q u i r e s t h e e x e r c i s e o f
173
r e a s o n a s w e l l a s c h a r a c t e r ( 7 » V I , 2 :1 7 3 ) » s u c h d e l i b e r a t i o n
b eco m es w is e when I t I s t h e k i n d o f c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h i n k i n g
t h a t e n s u r e s a good r e s u l t :
I f w is e d e l i b e r a t i o n r e v e a l s a p r u d e n t man, I t m u s t be
c o r r e c t d e l i b e r a t i o n a b o u t w h a t s e r v e s an e n d . P r u
d e n c e c o n s i s t s i n a t r u e c o n c e p t i o n o f w h a t s e r v e s t h a t
e n d . ( 7 , V I , 9 : 1 8 ^ )
T h o n s s e n and B a i r d h a v e fo u n d t h e k e y to A r i s t o t l e ' s
r h e t o r i c a l - e t h l c s i n th e s i x t h boo k o f t h e E t h i c s (2 3 3 :7 5 ) *
I n i t A r i s t o t l e w r o t e :
I t i s p r u d e n c e and m o r a l g o o d n e s s t h a t make p o s s i b l e
t h e f u l l p e r f o r m a n c e o f th e f u n c t i o n o f a m an. I t i s
due to v i r t u e t h a t th e end we aim a t i s r i g h t , and i t
i s d u e t o p r u d e n c e t h a t t h e m eans we em p lo y to t h a t end
a r e r i g h t .
I t i s m o r a l g o o d n e s s t h a t m akes u s c h o o s e o u r en d
a r i g h t - - t r u e - - b u t d o i n g t h e t h i n g s w h ic h by t h e i r
n a t u r e a r e s u c h a s m u s t b e d o n e i f we a r e to a t t a i n o u r
c h o s e n e n d - - t h a t f a l l s o u t s i d e th e r a n g e o f m o r a l g o o d
n e s s and w i t h i n t h a t o f q u i t e a n o t h e r f a c u l t y .
To make t h e m a t t e r c l e a r e r we m u s t g i v e i t f u r t h e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e re i s a c e r t a i n f a o u l t y c a l l e d
" c l e v e r n e s s " o r " t a l e n t , " w h ic h l a t h e a b i l i t y t o do
t h e t h l n g a o f w h ic h we h a v e b e e n a p e a k l n g a s c o n t r i b
u t o r y to t h e e n d we h a v e s e t b e f o r e u s , a n d so t o
a c h i e v e t h a t e n d . Now, i f t h e c l e v e r m a n 's aim i s
h i g h , h i s t a l e n t m u s t w in o u r a p p r o b a t i o n ; i f i t i s I o n
we c a l l him an a s t u t e r a s c a l . B u t we do c a l l him
c l e v e r j u s t a s m uch a s we c a l l th e p r u d e n t man c l e v e r .
T h a t i s an a m b i g u i t y we m u s t t r y t o a v o i d . C l e v e r n e s s
i s n o t th e same a s p r u d e n c e , th o u g h p r u d e n c e c o n t a i n s
an e l e m e n t o f c l e v e r n e s s . . . • Now th e su p rem e good
a p p e a r s s u c h o n l y t o t h e good m an, f o r v i c e g i v e s a
t w i s t to o u r m in d s , m a k in g u s h o l d f a l s e o p i n i o n s a b o u t
th e p r i n c i p l e s o f e t h i c s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e o b v i o u s t h a t
a man c a n n o t b e p r u d e n t u n l e s s he b e g o o d . ( 7 # V I ,1 2 :
188- 90 )
I n t h e t e n t h boo k A r i s t o t l e re su m e d h i s d i s c u s s i o n
o f h a p p i n e s s , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t s i n c e " t h e t r u t h i s t h a t
w h ic h seem s t o t h e good man t o b e t r u e " t h e h a p p y l i f e m u s t
171*
b e t h e one w h ic h i s b e a t t o th e good men ( 7 # X * 6 :3 0 2 ) .
A r i a t o t i e i d e n t i f i e d th e h a p p y l i f e a a s p e c u l a t i v e o r c o n
t e m p l a t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r ( 7 » X » 7 :3 0 3 ) . A r i s t o t l e th e n p a s s e d
t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f how man c a n becom e g o o d - - t h r o u g h e d u c a
t i o n u n d e r t a k e n b y th e s t a t e ( 7 » X ,9 j 311)*
And a b r u p t l y , A r i s t o t l e s t o p p e d h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n on
E t h i c s to d i s c u s s p o l i t i c s . W h ile th e P o l i t i c s (8) seem s
to be m e r e l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e E t h i c s , i n a c t u a l i t y
i n i t A r i s t o t l e t r e a t s " p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s fro m a p o l i t i
c a l s t a n d p o i n t " ( 8 : v l l ) . I n h i s h a n d b o o k f o r th e s t a t e s
m an, t h e "o n e who h a s k n o w le d g e o f w h a t o u g h t to be done
. . • r a t h e r t h a n one who h a s p o w e r to c o n t r o l t h e f o r c e s
o f s o c i e t y " ( 8 : i x ) , A r i s t o t l e i s b o t h a r e a l i s t and an
i d e a l i s t ( 8 : x l v ) . H is f a i l u r e , L i n d s a y p o i n t e d o u t i n h i s
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o th e w o rk , d i d n o t l i e i n t h i s f a c t , b u t
i n s t e a d i n th e f a i l u r e to r e c o n c i l e t h e r e a l i s m o f B ooks
IV , V, an d VI w i t h t h e i d e a l i s m o f B ooks I , I I , V I I , and
V I I I ( 8 : x i v ) . i t i s w i t h h i s " i d e a l " t h a t we a r e c o n c e r n e d .
"The e n d and p e r f e c t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t" i s th e h a p p y
l i f e ( 8 , I , 2 , 1 2 5 2 b :3 )» w i t h w h ic h th e r e a d e r by t h i s tim e i s
f a m i l i a r . A r i s t o t l e p e r c e i v e s no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m a n 's
h a p p i e s t l i f e a s a n i n d i v i d u a l ( a s h e d e s c r i b e d i t i n th e
E t h i c s ) a n d h i s h a p p i e s t l i f e a s a c i t i z e n ( 8 , V I I , 1 , 1 3 2 4 a :
203)* As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i n t h e m o s t p e r f e c t g o v e r n m e n t,
th e v i r t u e o f t h e good man an d th e good c i t i z e n a r e th e
same ( 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 2 8 6 a : 1 0 5 ) . A good m a g i s t r a t e p o s s e s s e s
1 7 5
b o t h o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s ( 8 , I I I , Ij.,1 2 7 7 » :7 2 ) . A r i s t o t l e
s p e c i f i e d t h e " t h r e e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h o s e who
f i l l t h e f i r s t d e p a r t m e n t s i n g o v e r n m e n t" :
f i r s t o f a l l , an a f f e c t i o n f o r th e e s t a b l i s h e d c o n s t i
t u t i o n ; s e c o n d p l a c e , a b i l i t i e s e v e r y way c o m p l e t e l y
e q u a l to th e b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r o f f i c e ; i n t h e t h i r d ,
v i r t u e an d j u s t i c e c o r r e s p o n d e n t t o th e n a t u r e o f t h a t
p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e t h e y a r e p l a c e d i n ; f o r i f j u s t i c e i s
n o t t h e same i n a l l s t a t e s [ s i n c e i t i s a p r o d u c t o f
i t s l a w s j i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e r e m u s t be d i f f e r e n t
s p e c i e s t h e r e o f . ( 8 ,V , 9 » I 3 0 9 a : 1 6 4 )
The c r i t e r i a o f v t i a t i s r i g h t w i t h i n a s t a t e a r e th e
r u l e s b y w h ic h th e s t a t e i s r e g u l a t e d , f o r j u s t i c e i s a
p o l i t i c a l v i r t u e ( 8 , l , 2 , 1 2 5 3 a : 5 ) • T h e se la w s a r e m e a n s,
J u s t a s a r e o t h e r v i r t u e s ( 8, I I I , 6, 1 2 8 7 b : 1 0 2 ) • T h e re a r e
many f o rm s o f g o v e rn m e n t d i f f e r i n g fro m one a n o t h e r i n
t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s ( 8 , I V , 3 # 1 2 9 0 a : 1 1 0 ) f o r a g o v e rn m e n t i s
a " c e r t a i n o r d e r i n g o f a c i t y , " w h ic h i s m e r e l y a g ro u p o f
c i t i z e n s ( 8 , l l l , l , 1 2 7 l | b : 6 6 ) • The fo rm o f g o v e rn m e n t i s
i d e n t i f i a b l e b y " w h e r e in th e su p rem e pow er i s l o d g e d "
( 8 , I I I , 6 , 1 2 7 8 b : 7 6 ) . Such a g o v e rn m e n t i s j u s t when i t i s
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r th e common good ( 8 , I I I , 7 # 1 2 7 9 » : 7 8 ) * Now
i t i s t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e l e g i s l a t o r to h e l p h i s c i t i z e n s
to a c h i e v e th e good l i f e , to d e t e r m i n e w h a t e d u c a t i o n w i l l
a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , an d to d e c i d e w h a t i s th e f i n a l o b j e c t o f
a good l i f e ( 8 , V I I , llj., 1 3 3 3 a : 2 2 8 ) . H i s s t a t e s h a l l b e
w o r th y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t b o t h h e and h i s c i t i z e n s a r e
w o r th y ( 8 ,V I I » 1 3 # 1 3 3 2 a : 2 2 6 ) • S u ch p e r f e c t i o n d e p e n d s upon
two t h i n g s :
1 7 6
As t h e r e a r e two p a r t i c u l a r s on w h ic h t h e e x c e l l e n c e
an d p e r f e c t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d , one o f t h e s e i s ,
t h a t t h e o b j e c t a n d en d p r o p o s e d s h o u l d be p r o p e r ; th e
o t h e r , t h a t th e m eans to a c c o m p l i s h I t s h o u l d b e
a d a p t e d t o t h a t p u r p o s e ; f o r I t may h a p p e n t h a t t h e s e
may e i t h e r a g r e e o r d i s a g r e e w i t h e a c h o t h e r ; f o r th e
e n d we p r o p o s e may b e g o o d , b u t I n t a k i n g th e m eans to
o b t a i n I t we may e r r ; a t o t h e r t i m e s we may h a v e th e
r i g h t a n d p r o p e r m eans I n o u r p o w e r, b u t th e e n d may
b e b a d , a n d s o m e tim e s we may m i s t a k e i n b o t h . . . . I n
e v e r y a r t an d s c i e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , we s h o u l d b e m a s t e r
o f t h i s k n o w le d g e , n a m e ly , t h e p r o p e r e n d , and th e
m eans t o o b t a i n I t . ( 8 ,V I I ,1 3 ,1 3 3 1 b : 2 2 l |.)
The m essage o f A r i s t o t l e ' s P o l i t i c s d o e s n o t d e v i a t e
from t h a t o f h i s E t h i c s . The end o f p o l i t i c s i s the u l t i
m ate good; i t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h th e common good. O th e r
a r t s and s c i e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g e t h i c s and r h e t o r i c , have end s
o f t h e i r own, b u t t h e s e en d s a re s u b s e r v i e n t to t h e u l t i
m ate en d. An a c t , a man, a s t a t e i s v i r t u o u s when th e end
s o u g h t I s a good end (w hich o n ly a v i r t u o u s man can c l e a r l y
p e r c e i v e ) and when th e " c o r r e c t " means a r e s e l e c t e d to
a c c o m p lis h i t . " C o r r e c t " In t h i s c a s e r e f e r s to means
a d e q u a te to e n s u re t h a t t h e r e s u l t d e s i r e d w i l l b e e f f e c t e d .
B o th a c l e v e r and a p r u d e n t man a r e c a p a b le o f s e l e c t i n g
" c o r r e c t " m eans, b u t o n l y th e p r u d e n t man i s a b le to d i r e c t
h i s a c t i o n to w a rd th e t r u t h .
Does A r i s t o t l e ' a R h e t o r i c p r e a c h t h e same e t h i c a l
d o c t r i n e a s h i s o t h e r two w orks? I s A r i s t o t l e ' s R h e to r l c
m o r a l, a m o r a l, o r Im m oral? I t h a s b e e n c a l l e d a l l t h r e e .
Does A r i s t o t l e ' s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p h i lo s o p h y c o n s t i t u t e
" th e b a s i s o f an a c c e p t a b l e s t a n d a r d f o r a t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y p h i lo s o p h y o f r h e t o r i c " (2 3 3 :7 5 )# d o e s he come "as
177
n e a r g i v i n g a t r u e e t h i c o f d i s c o u r s e a s a n y w r i t e r , i n c l u d
i n g I s o c r a t e s '* a s T h o n s s e n and B a i r d w o u ld h a v e i t (2 3 3 :
?!+)? Or d o e s h e f o r m u l a t e an " u n m o r a l 1 1 a r t a s E v e r e t t Lee
H u n t a s s e r t e d (119:M j.)? Was Bower A ly r i g h t i n The R h e t
o r i c o f A l e x a n d e r H a m ilto n when h e s t a t e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e
saw r h e t o r i c a s an a m o r a l s o c i a l f o r c e ( 2 : 3 1 ) 7 Was h i s
r h e t o r i c m e r e l y " a n e x p e d i e n t m eth o d o f c o n t r o l l i n g common
h a b i t s o f t h o u g h t " a s S i m r e l l w r o te (5 3 7 :3 6 0 ) 7 The a n s w e rs
to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s m u s t u l t i m a t e l y b e f o u n d i n t h e w ork
i t s e l f , an d i n i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o h i s E t h i c a and P o l i t i c s ,
R h e t o r i c , A r i s t o t l e w r o t e , i s th e a r t , i . e . , t h e
m e th o d , b y w h ic h s u c c e s s f u l s p e a k e r s g a i n t h e i r e n d
(9 ,I,1 ,1 3 5 J4 -« :1 ) * I n a B u r k e a n s e n s e , r h e t o r i c h a s i t s own
e n d ( p u r p o s e ) w i t h i n i t s e l f ; th e A r i s t o t l e l i a n te rm i s
e n t e l e c h y ( 5 7 : 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 2 8 8 ) . I t i s a d i s c i p l i n e whose p u r
p o s e i t i s t o d e f i n e th e " c o r r e c t " m e a n s — m ean s w h ic h
e n s u r e th e d e s i r e d e n d . T h u s, th e r h e t o r who i s s u c c e s s
f u l i n u s i n g t h e m eth o d ( r h e t o r i c ) p r o p e r l y i s s i m i l a r t o
th e v i r t u o u s man who l i k e w i s e m akes t h e c o r r e c t c h o i c e o f
m e a n s ( 7 , I I I # 5 : 8 9 ) . L ane C o o p e r I n t e r p r e t e d A r i s t o t l e ' s
s t a t e m e n t o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f r h e t o r i c i n a way w h ic h seem ed
t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m eth o d r a t h e r t h a n
s u c c e s s . H is t r a n s l a t i o n a n d i n t e r p o l a t e d com m ents r e a d :
I t s [ r h e t o r i c ' s j f u n c t i o n i s n o t [ a n d h e r e C o o p e r
i n t e r p o l a t e d th e w ord " a b s o l u t e l y " J t o p e r s u a d e , b u t
t o d i s c o v e r t h e a v a i l a b l e m ean s o f p e r s u a s i o n i n a
g i v e n c a s e . [ C o o p e r a d d e d : "H o t o u tw a r d s u c c e s s , b u t
a c o r r e o t m e th o d , i s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f a r t . The c o r r e c t
m ethod w i l l b r i n g s u c c e s s i n p r o p o r t i o n . An u n w ar
r a n t e d a p p e a l to th e e m o tio n s m ig h t win an u n d e s i r a b l e
s u c c e s s . " j H e r e in R h e to r i c i s l i k e a l l o t h e r a r t s .
( 9 , I , 2 #1 3 5 5 b :7 )
A p a r a p h r a s i n g o f th e E t h i c s h e l p s to c l a r i f y A r i s t o t l e ' s
v iew t h a t i f p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n i s p a id to th e a r t , th r o u g h
i t t r u t h and J u s t i c e w i l l i n e v i t a b l y win o u t ( 9 » I > 1 » 1 3 5 5 * :
5 ) • The " c l e v e r " r h e t o r , o r f o r t h a t m a t t e r , th e c l e v e r
man, i s d i f f e r e n t i n one r e s p e c t from the " p r u d e n t " r h e t o r ,
o r man. B o th may p i c k th e " c o r r e c t " m eans ( th o s e w hich
w i l l e n s u re th e e n d ) , b u t o n ly th e l a t t e r h a s th e c a p a c i t y
to d e s i r e th e u l t i m a t e and t h e r e f o r e , o n ly th r o u g h
him may " t r u t h and j u s t i c e " tr iu m p h . The e v i l man, i . e . ,
th e man whose h a b i t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s b a d , c a n n o t s e e th e
p r o p e r e n d s , f o r h i s o u t l o o k i s b i a s e d ; how ever, he may
s t i l l be a b l e to a c h ie v e h i s e n d , i . e . , s e l e c t th e " c o r
r e c t " means f o r t h a t e n d . C l e a r l y th e n , r h e t o r i c as an a r t
w hich d e s c r i b e s a l l th e a v a i l a b l e means o f p e r s u a s i o n i n a
g iv e n c a s e n a t u r a l l y i n c l u d e s m eans u s a b l e by b o th good and
e v i l men f o r good and e v i l e n d s .
L ik e I s o c r a t e s , A r i s t o t l e f e l t a l i t t l e d e f e n s i v e
a b o u t th e a m o r a l l t y o f r h e t o r i c , b u t he d id n o t b e l i e v e a
c h a rg e o f a m o r a l l t y j u s t i f i e d c o n d e m n a tio n o f th e a r t :
I f i t i s u r g e d t h a t an a b u se o f th e r h e t o r i c a l f a c u l t y
c a n work g r e a t m i s c h i e f , th e same c h a rg e can be b r o u g h t
a g a i n s t a l l good t h i n g s (s a v e v i r t u e I t s e l f ) , and
e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t th e m o st u s e f u l t h i n g s su c h a s
s t r e n g t h , h e a l t h , w e a l t h , and m i l i t a r y s k i l l . R i g h t l y
em p lo y ed , th e y work th e g r e a t e s t b l e s s i n g s ; and w ro n g ly
em ployed, th e y work th e u tm o s t harm . . . . Thus the aim
o f m e d ic in e i s n o t , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , to r e s t o r e a
179
s i c k man to p e r f e c t h e a l t h , b u t t o b r i n g h im a s n e a r to
h e a l t h a s t h e c a s e a d m i t s ; p e o p l e v h o n e v e r c a n b e v e i l
may y e t be p r o p e r l y t r e a t e d . ( 9 , I , 1 , 1 3 5 5 b : 6 - 7 )
By I n f e r e n c e , one c o n c lu d e s t h a t a c a s e w hich may n e v e r be
s u c c e s s f u l may n e v e r t h e l e s s be p r o p e r l y t r e a t e d .
Hie term " r h e t o r i c i a n " was u se d by A r i s t o t l e to
r e f e r n o t o n l y to a s p e a k e r 's command o f th e m ethod o f
r h e t o r i c b u t a l s o h i s m o ral p u r p o s e . " S o p h i s t i c a l s p e a k
i n g , " he w r o te , " i s made s o , n o t by th e f a c u l t y , b u t by th e
m o ra l p u r p o s e " ( 9 » I # l # 1 3 5 5 b : 7 ) * Abuse h a s b e e n h e a p e d upon
r h e t o r i c b e c a u s e o f t h i s l a c k o f v e r b a l d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een
I t s e t h i c a l and u n e t h i c a l u s e r s . I n my o p i n i o n , t h i s
s t a t e m e n t c o n t a i n s th e k e y to A r i s t o t l e ' s r h e t o r i c a l -
e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n : r h e t o r i c lti an o f f s h o o t o f e t h i c s ; o n ly
by the m o ra l p u rp o se c a n the s p e a k e r be i d e n t i f i e d a s th e
u s e r o f sham ( a p p a r e n t ) means as c o n t r a s t e d w ith g e n u in e
o n e s . A r i s t o t l e ' s a r t d i s c e r n s th e m eans u s a b l e by b o t h
good and e v i l men; I t d i s c e r n s n o t o n ly th e g e n u in e b u t
a l s o the s p u r i o u s means o f p e r s u a s i o n ( 9 » I »1*1 3 5 5 b :7 ) .
The end may be a c h ie v e d b y b o t h g e n u in e and s p u r i o u s
m eans, b u t i f a c h ie v e d by the l a t t e r , th e p r u d e n t s p e a k e r
h a s b een g u i l t y o f n e g l e c t i n g h i s a r t . A p a s s a g e from th e
E t h i c s i s h e l p f u l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e l a s t s t a t e m e n t :
I t I s p l a i n , h o w e v er, t h a t n o t e v e r y k i n d o f c o r r e c t
n e s s — f o r th e word i n t h i s c o n t e x t a d m its o f more t h a n
one m e a n l n g - - l s e x h i b i t e d i n w ise d e l i b e r a t i o n . A weak
o r b a d man may make a c a l c u l a t i o n w hich w i l l e n a b l e him
to do w h at he s e t s b e f o r e h i m s e l f a s so m e th in g w h ich
he o u g h t t o d o . £ a bad man may be c l e v e r enough to
d i s c e r n th e " c o r r e c t " m ethod o f a c h i e v i n g h i s e n d . 3
180
I n t h a t e v e n t h e w i l l h a v e d e l i b e r a t e d c o r r e c t l y ,
th o u g h t h e end he h a s a c h i e v e d may be s o m e t h i n g v e r y
w ic k e d o r i n j u r i o u s . . . . We c o n c l u d e t h a t i t i s th e
s o r t o f c o r r e c t n e s s I n d e l i b e r a t i o n w h ic h e n s u r e s a
good r e s u l t t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s d e l i b e r a t i v e e x c e l l e n c e .
(N o te t h e u s e o f th e w ord "g o o d " h e r e to mean
" v i r t u o u s . " ] S u ch a r e s u l t , h o w e v e r, may a c t u a l l y b e
a c h i e v e d b y f a l l a c i o u s r e a s o n i n g . . . . A p r o c e d u r e o f
t h i s k i n d , t h e n , b y w h ic h one r e a c h e s t h e r i g h t c o n
c l u s i o n b u t on th e w ro n g g r o u n d s f a l l s s h o r t l i k e th e
o t h e r . . . . ( 7 » V I ,9 : 1 8 4 )
T h is e x c e r p t fro m A r i s t o t l e ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m e a n in g o f
w is e d e l i b e r a t i o n m u s t be I n t e r p r e t e d a l o n g w i t h h i s sum
m a r i z i n g s t a t e m e n t : " I f w i s e d e l i b e r a t i o n r e v e a l s a
p r u d e n t man, i t m u s t be c o r r e c t d e l i b e r a t i o n a b o u t w h a t
s e r v e s a n e n d . P r u d e n c e c o n s i s t s i n a t r u e c o n c e p t i o n o f
w h a t s e r v e s t h a t e n d " ( 7 » V I , 9 :184) • Can t h e s e w o rd s be
f a i r l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o l l o w s ? A good man m akes t h e
c o r r e c t c h o i c e o f m e a n s; he d e l i b e r a t e s w i s e l y . I n th e
i d e a l s e n s e , t h e v o l u n t a r y and d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e s o f th e
good man e n s u r e n o t o n l y a good end b u t a l s o w h a t e v e r m eans
a r e n e c e s s a r y t o a t t a i n i t — and i f t h e r i g h t en d i s r e a c h e d
t h r o u g h t h e w ro n g m eans (sham o r s p u r i o u s m e th o d s ) i t i s
n e c e s s a r i l y s h o r t o f th e i d e a l . D oes " c o r r e c t " mean n o t
o n l y " e f f e c t i v e " b u t a l s o " g o o d " ? Or d o e s th e " c o r r e c t "
m e th o d I d e a l l y c o n t a i n th e " g o o d " ?
The Lane C o o p e r t r a n s l a t i o n p r o v i d e s a p e r t i n e n t
e d i t o r i a l com m ent: " B e s i d e s g e n u in e a r g u m e n ts ( t h e f o r e
g o in g ) w h ic h t h e h o n e s t s p e a k e r may u s e , t h e r e a r e s p u r i o u s
a r g u m e n ts w h ic h h e m u s t be p r e p a r e d t o m e e t" ( 9 : 1 7 2 ) . The
i m p l i c a t i o n seem s to be t h a t th e h o n e s t s p e a k e r m u s t " m e e t"
181
a p u r l o u s a rg u m e n ts b u t ha p r o p a b l y would n o t u a a them.
I n h l a E t h i c a ha h a a a l r a a d y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c e r
t a i n a c t a a r e i n h e r e n t l y e v i l and c a n n o t be made good u n d e r
any c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Prom t h i s , F ly n n d edu ced t h a t c e r t a i n
o t h e r a c t s m u st be i n h e r e n t l y good i n th e m s e lv e s o r good o r
b ad d e p e n d in g on th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . The l a s t ty p e o f a c t
b e lo n g s to th e c a t e g o r y o f i n d i f f e r e n t a c t s . To t h i s
c a t e g o r y , F ly n n a s s e r t e d , b e lo n g s r h e t o r i c ( 3 7 1 :1 8 5 ) *
W hile i n one o r two p l a c e s i n h i s R h e t o r i c , A r i s t o t l e
I d e n t i f i e d c e r t a i n p r a c t i c e s a s common to " a r t f u l and u n
s c r u p u l o u s s p e a k e r s " ( 9 , I I I , 1 5 , l l * l 6 b : 228, 9 , I I »2 5 , llj.02b:
1 7 9 ) , ho now here p r o h i b i t s t h e i r u s e aa u n e t h i c a l b u t o n ly
s u p p o r t s the view t h a t th e y a r e l e s s a r t i s t i c (and h e n c e ,
l e s s c o r r e c t ) . I c a n n o t f i n d s u f f i c i e n t g ro u n d s f o r
e q u a t i n g c o r r e c t w i t h a n y t h i n g more th a n e f f i c i e n t o r a r
t i s t i c . F o r A r i s t o t l e , e t h i c s i s e x t r i n s i c to r h e t o r i c ,
b u t i t l a f u n c t i o n a l l y i n t r i n s i c i n good p e r s u a s i o n . I t l a
t h e r e f o r p r a g m a tic r e a s o n s .
I n summary, when A r i s t o t l e ' s R h e t o r i c i s c o n s i d e r e d
i n i t s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h th e E t h i c s and P o l i t i c s ,
h i s g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n r e g a r d i n g an e t h i c s o f
r h e t o r i c may b e c o n s t r u e d a s f o l l o w s . The h i g h e s t a r t l a
th e p o l i t i c a l a r t , and r h e t o r i c and e t h i c s a r e s u b s e r v i e n t
a r t s w hich s e r v e i t s e n d . The u l t i m a t e end o f p o l i t i c s i s
h a p p i n e s s w h ich i s fo u n d i n v i r t u e . T his f i n a l good i s th e
same f o r I n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s , b u t a s o c i e t y becom es good
182
o n l y when I t s e r v e s th e w e l f a r e o f th e g r o u p sn d when I t s
p a r t i c i p a n t s b o t h l e a d e r s a n d c i t i z e n s a r e s i m i l a r l y g o o d .
By d e d u c t i o n , r h e t o r i c a s a s u b s e r v i e n t a r t m u s t s e r v e th e
e n d s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l b r a n c h o f e t h i c s . I n I t s I d e a l f o r m ,
t h e r e f o r e , r h e t o r i c s e r v e s th e common g o o d - - w h i c h i s a
c o r r e c t Ju d g m e n t a n d c o n fo rm s to t h e t r u t h .
The good r h e t o r i c i a n , i . e . , th e e t h i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n ,
s e r v e s t h i s e n d . He d o e s s o b e c a u s e h e I s a good man and
b e c a u s e i t I s t h e r e b y h i s r e a l d e s i r e . The good r h e t o r i
c i a n , i . e . , t h e s u c c e s s f u l r h e t o r i c i a n , c h o o s e s t h e c o r r e c t
m eans t o e f f e c t h i s g o a l . He I s an e t h i c a l r h e t o r i c i a n i n
so f a r a s h i s I n t e n t (e n d ) I s g o o d , a i d he i s u n e t h i c a l I f
i t i s b a d . The a r t o f r h e t o r i c i s an a m o r a l a r t w h ic h c a n
s e r v e th e e n d s o f b o t h good o r e v i l m en. S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h
t h e r e i s no w ord w h ic h d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e e t h i c a l u s e r o f
r h e t o r i c f r o m t h e u n e t h i c a l u s e r ; th e t e r m " r h e t o r i c i a n " i s
a p p l i e d t o b o t h . The m o r a l e v a l u a t i o n I s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
e n d s o f th e s p e a k e r , w h ic h i n t u r n a r e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
m o r a l d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e s p e a k e r - - h i s c h a r a c t e r .
T h u s, A r i s t o t l e ' s p o s i t i o n e m b r a c e s a u n i o n o f
s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s . (1) I n a r e a l s e n s e , r h e t o r i c i s
a m o r a l , f o r i t s t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s a b l e by b o t h go o d and b a d
men f o r good o r b a d e n d s . (2 ) I d e a l l y , h o w e v e r , i t s m o r a l
i t y i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e s p e a k e r ' s i n t e n t ( e n d ) (POSITION
I V ) , w h ic h i s a f u n c t i o n o f h i s c h a r a c t e r (POSITION I I I ) .
Any t e c h n i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e , i . e . , c o r r e c t , m e a n s may b e u s e d
18 3
to s e r v e a good e n d . I n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s * "sham o r
s p u r i o u s * m eans a r e m e r e l y l e s s c o r r e c t * I . e . , l e s s e f f e c
t i v e . I t I s o b v i o u s t h a t w h i l e A r i s t o t l e s u g g e s t e d t h a t a
c e r t a i n p r a g m a t i c e t h i c s i s i n t r i n s i c i n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a
s i o n (POSITION I I ) * no e t h i c a l s t i g m a t a w ere to b e a p p l i e d
when t h e s e c r i t e r i a w e re v i o l a t e d u n l e s s t h e s p e a k e r ' s
i n t e n t w as b a d .
R h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s i n C i c e r o .--R o m a n r h e t o r i c , l i k e
th e G re e k t r a d i t i o n * I s w e l l t y p i f i e d b y th e w r i t i n g s and
t e a c h i n g s o f r e l a t i v e l y few men. The b e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h e p r a c t i c a l b e n t o f t h e Roman p e o p l e e x t e n d e d i n t o
t h e r h e t o r i c a l a r t I s M arcu s T u l l i u s C i c e r o ( 2 3 3 : 8 1 ) .
A lt h o u g h h e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m a t t e r - o f - f a c t Roman ways o f
l i f e c o m b in e d w i t h th e G re e k ways o f th o u g h t* i n a s e n s e
e p i t o m i z i n g t h e c u l t u r a l s t r a i n s p r e s e n t i n h i s s o c i e t y *
he s t o o d i n c o n t r a s t n o t o n l y to th e a r i s t o c r a t s b u t a l s o
to t h e m a s s e s o f Rome ( 7 4 : 3 5 2 - 5 3 ) * W i t h o u t h i s y e a r n i n g
f o r " t h e o r d e r e d s e c u r i t y a n d u n i t y o f th e h e r o i c a g e o f
th e R e p u b l i c " (7 4 * 2 7 7 )* e v e n f o r g e t f u l o f i t s t r a d i t i o n a l
m o r a l i t y * m a n n e rs* an d c u s to m s , w i t h o u t h i s k n o w le d g e o f
t h e G re e k h e r i t a g e i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f c i v i l l i f e , t h e
Romans o f C i c e r o ' s d a y w ere i n c a p a b l e o f s e e k i n g h i s
a b s t r a c t i d e a l o f a s o c i e t y g o v e r n e d b y law r a t h e r t h a n by
s e l f i s h p l e a s u r e s ( 7 4 * 3 7 7 - 7 8 ) . C i c e r o l i v e d n e a r t h e e n d
o f t h e R e p u b l i o ( 2 4 :6 9 ) * b u t e v e n h i s e l o q u e n t c h a m p io n in g
o f s o c i a l h arm o n y and t h e r u l e o f law was i n a d e q u a t e to
184
p r e v e n t t h e t r a g e d y o f Rome ( 7 4 : 3 7 7 ) .
T r e v e r w r o t e , " P r o b a b l y no o u t s t a n d i n g h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s o n a g e , c e r t a i n l y no Roman, h a s e v e r b e e n more u n j u s t l y
m a l i g n e d o r e x t r a v a g a n t l y p r a i s e d t h a n C i c e r o " ( 2 3 6 ,1 1 :
24 9 )* S u p e r f i c i a l , i n c o n s i s t e n t , a t t i m e s a p o l i t i c a l
o p p o r t u n i s t , h e d i d p o s s e s s p o l i t i c a l and p r i v a t e i n t e g
r i t y , a n d h i s c o n s i s t e n t s t a n d f o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m t e n d e d
t o o f f s e t some o f h i s d e f i c i e n c i e s ( 2 3 6 , 1 1 : 2 5 0 ) . C a l l i n g
him a p r o - c o n s e r v a t i v e p r o p a g a n d i s t , P a u l M a c K e n d rlc k , i n
a n a r t i c l e i n t h e C l a s s i c a l J o u r n a l , c h a r g e d t h a t h i s m a in
c h a r a c t e r s w ere men i n p o w e r w hose a im I t was t o p e r s u a d e .
I r r e s p e c t i v e o f m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ( 4 4 6 :3 4 4 ) * He a d d e d
t h a t " i n h i s ' r h e t o r i c a l ' w o rk s he k e e p s i n s i g h t t h a t
I d e a l o f th e e x p e r t w h ic h h i s c h a r a c t e r and th e t i m e s
p r e v e n t e d h i s e v e r a c h i e v i n g " ( 4 4 6 : 3 4 5 ) - On th e o t h e r
h a n d , W. L e o n a rd G r a n t com m ented on C i c e r o ' s c o n c e n t r a t i o n
on t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a v l r t u s o r a t o r l a t h r o u g h o r a t o r i c a l
t r a i n i n g ( 3 7 9 : 4 7 3 ) .
E ven th o u g h a s s e s s m e n t s o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d r h e t o r
i c a l v ie w s v a r y , t h e r e i s l i t t l e d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r h i s
o r a t o r i c a l r o l e . B a ld w in r e g a r d e d him a s t h e " m o st e m i n e n t
o r a t o r o f Roman c i v i l i s a t i o n " ; a f t e r 2 ,0 0 0 y e a r s h e s t i l l
r e m a i n s t h e t y p i c a l o r a t o r w r i t i n g on o r a t o r y ( 2 2 : 3 7 ) . I t
I s b e c a u s e h e t r e a t e d r h e t o r i c fro m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f
t h e o r a t o r t h a t h i s w o rk s a r e I m p o r t a n t ( 2 3 2 : 6 5 ) . He
a d d e d v e r y l i t t l e t h a t l a new , m a i n l y r e s t a t i n g th e
1 8 5
A r i s t o t e l i a n and i s o c r a t e a n view s ( 1 1 :2 3 - 2 4 , 23 b#11:294#
6 3 7 :4 4 4 )* J* s * W atson saw t h i s r e i t e r a t i o n o f c l a s s i c a l
d o c t r i n e a s C i c e r o 's m ain p u rp o s e i n De O r a t o r e .
The o b j e c t o f C ic e ro # I n th e s e b o o k s, was to s e t b e f o r e
h i s r e a d e r a l l t h a t was I m p o r ta n t i n th e r h e t o r i c a l
t r e a t i s e s o f A r i s t o t l e , I s o c r a t e s , and o t h e r a n c i e n t
w r i t e r s on o r a t o r y , d i v e s t e d o f t e c h n i c a l i t i e s , and
p r e s e n t e d i n a p l e a s i n g fo rm . ( 70: 5 )
B e fo re t u r n i n g to th e t e x t o f De O r a to r e i t s e l f ,
C i c e r o ' s m ost i m p o r t a n t book on r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y ” (2 3 3 :
8 2 ) , S t i t e s ' d o c t o r a l t h e s i s w hich e v a l u a t e d C i c e r o 's
t r e a t m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g s h o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d .
S t i t e s ' fo u n d t h a t i n Roman s o c i e t y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y In
s p e a k i n g was d e f i n e d In te rm s o f a s t r o n g c e n t r a l g o v e r n
ment r a t h e r th a n o f s o c i e t y a s a w h o le ; a s l i b e r t y was
r e p r e s s e d , th e p l a c e o f r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g n a rro w ed (6 3 7 :
2 0 3 ) . C i c e r o 's p rim a ry e m p h a sis was p la c e d on e f f e c t i v e
s p e a k i n g ( 6 3 7 :3 1 6 ) , b u t some a t t e n t i o n was g iv e n to
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g a t th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e v e l (637:
2 1 0 - 1 3 ) . I n h i s c o n c l u s i o n , S t i t e s su n m a rlz e d C i c e r o 's
a d v ic e on r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g :
4 . Though C ic e r o p l a c e d some s t r e s s upon th e f a c t
t h a t th e s p e a k e r m u st f i r s t be a good man, he w ro te a
f a i r l y weak r h e t o r i c f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k i n g .
5 . C i c e r o 's m o st i m p o r t a n t work i n r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k in g came u n d e r th e c a t e g o r y o f p r e p a r a t i o n o f the
o r a t o r f o r th e sp e e c h s i t u a t i o n . (6 3 7 :3 1 8 )
In h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s , B u rg e ss t r e a t e d C ic e ro and
Q u i n t i l i a n j o i n t l y i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f Roman r h e t o r i c . He
fo u n d Roman r h e t o r i c to be a l o g i c a l h e i r to th e c l a s s i c a l
186
t r a d i t i o n o f I s o c r a t e s , P l a t o , and A r i s t o t l e ( 6 2 0 :2 0 2 - 6 5 ) •
W hile th e c o n c e p ti o n o f th e p h i l o s o p h e r - s t a t e s m a n - o r a t o r
e x p r e s s e d I n th e w r i t i n g s o f b o t h men I s more I s o c r a t e a n
and P l a t o n i c ( 6 2 0 : 2 0 2 ) , th e A r i s t o t e l i a n i n f l u e n c e i s
r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e i r f i n a l r e l i a n c e on the c h a r a c t e r o f th e
s p e a k e r a s th e e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f the r h e t o r i c a l a r t
( 6 2 0 : 2 6 5 ) .
C i c e r o 's c o n c e p ti o n o f th e I d e a l o r a t o r re m a in e d an
u n a t t a i n a b l e g o a l ( 6 2 0 : 2 0 8 - 2 0 9 ) • I t was h i s I n t e n t i o n ,
B u rg e ss f e l t , to u n i f y a l l know ledge u n d e r the p r o v in c e o f
o r a t o r y ( 6 2 0 : 2 1 2 ) . H is p e r f e c t o r a t o r s o u g h t p e r s u a s i o n ,
I . e . , s u c c e s s , a s h i s g o a l ( 6 2 0 :2 0 4 ) , b u t t h i s end i s
d e s c r i b e d as s u p p o r t i n g th e good o f th e s t a t e (6 2 0 :2 0 5 )
and o f th e a u d ie n c e ( 6 2 0 : 2 1 8 ) . B u rg e ss came to th e s e
c o n c l u s i o n s by i n d u c t i o n , u s i n g s e l e c t e d q u o t a t i o n s from
De O r a t o r s a s e v id e n c e o f C i c e r o 's a d v i c e . F o r ex am p le ,
B u rg e s s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t C i c e r o seemed to assume t h a t a
p e r f e c t o r a t o r w i l l u p h o ld th e w e l f a r e o f th e s t a t e th r o u g h
h i s Judgm ent and wisdom ( 7 0 , 1 , 6 : 1 4 ) * and y e t he was w e l l
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h th e m i s c h i e f done th e s t a t e by e l o q u e n t men
( 7 0 , 1 , 9 : 1 5 ) * «nd i n f a c t d i d n o t f a v o r g i v i n g t r a i n i n g i n
o r a t o r y to men d e v o id o f a p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a c k g ro u n d
( 7 0 , 1 1 1 , 1 4 : 2 0 7 ) . ’ n i l s , B u rg e s s a s s e r t e d , am ounted to
a d v ic e by C ic e r o t h a t h i s i d e a l o r a t o r m ust be a p h i l o s o
p h e r and s e r v e th e s t a t e . A n o th e r exam ple o f B u r g e s s '
i n d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g i s p r o v i d e d by an a n a l y s i s o f how he
187
c o n c l u d e d t h a t C i c e r o a d m o n ish e d h i s o r a t o r to s e r v e th e
w e l f a r e o f h i s a u d i e n c e . He c i t e d C i c e r o ' s a d v i c e t h a t t h e
o r a t o r rem em b er h i s d u t y t o h i s c l i e n t s (7 0 * I I # ^ 6 :1 3 5 -3 6 ) »
t h a t t h e o r a t o r r e f r a i n fro m s a y i n g a n y t h i n g t h a t w o u ld
i n j u r e h i s c l i e n t ( a u d i e n c e ) o r t h e i r c a u s e s ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 7 3 :
171)# a n d a t t e m p t t o e f f e c t good r a t h e r t h a n h a rm by
s p e a k i n g (7 0 ,1 1 ,7 6 :1 7 1 4 -).
T h i s n o b l e c o n c e p t i o n o f th e o r a t o r ' s g o a l r e q u i r e s
t h a t h e p o s s e s s th e b a c k g r o u n d an d t r a i n i n g o f t h e p h i l o s o
p h e r t o g e t h e r w i t h a m a s t e r y o f t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c ( 6 2 0 :
211- 1 2).
J u s t a s th e s p e a k e r c h o o s e s e n d s f o r th e w e l f a r e o f
s o c i e t y , so he a l s o c h o o s e s m eans ( 6 2 0 : 2 1 6 - 1 7 ) . C i c e r o ' s
p a t e r n a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e Roman p u b l i c p e r m i t s
s o c i a l l y i r r e s p o n s i b l e m e a n s, a c c o r d i n g to B u r g e s s (6 2 0 :
2 5 7 ) .
The e f f e c t o f C i c e r o ' s a d v i c e on th e s o c i a l r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y o f r h e t o r i c i s s i m i l a r to A r i s t o t l e ' s ; f o r , I n th e
l a s t a n a l y s i s , t h e m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c d e p e n d s upo n th e
c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r ( 6 2 0 : 2 2 1 ) . He c h o o s e s w h a t i s
" b e s t * f o r t h e s t a t e and h i s a u d i e n c e , a n d a f t e r he h a s
d e t e r m i n e d t h e s e e n d s , h e i s J u s t i f i e d i n u s i n g a n y m ean s
n e c e s s a r y t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s p u r p o s e ( 6 2 0 : 2 2 2 ) .
The e f f e c t o f B u r g e s s ' and S t i t e s ' r e s e a r c h I s th e
sam e . B o th n o t e d C i c e r o ' s a t t e n t i o n t o an i d e a l l y r e s p o n
s i b l e r h e t o r i c w h i l e w r i t i n g o f an a r t s e r v i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s
188
a s I t s e n d .
A t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f De O r a to r e was made to d e t e r
m ine C i c e r o ' s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n f o r p u r p o s e s o f
t h i s s t u d y . 'The d i a l o g u e , w r i t t e n i n 55 B.C. d u r i n g a
p e r i o d when C ic e r o had w ith d ra w n h i m s e l f from p u b l i c l i f e ,
i s s e t h y p o t h e t i c a l l y i n 91 B .C . and th e p a r t i c i p a n t s a re
drawn fro m th e i m p o r t a n t o r a t o r s of t h a t tim e ( 7 1 : 1 7 1 ) .
C i c e r o I n t r o d u c e d th e d i a l o g u e , d e d i c a t e d to h i s
b r o t h e r , Q u i n t u s , by i n d i c a t i n g h i s i n t e n t i o n to r e c o l l e c t
"an o l d t r a d i t i o n " r e l a t i n g "w hat o p i n i o n s th e m ost fam ous
and e l o q u e n t men e n t e r t a i n e d r e s p e c t i n g th e whole a r t o f
o r a t o r y " m o d if i e d by h i s own e x p e r i e n c e s i n c e h i s e a r l i e r
w ork, De I n v e n t l o n e ( 7 0 , 1 , 2 : 7 ) . He l m n e d i a t e l y i d e n t i f i e d
h i s a p p ro a c h to e lo q u e n c e by s t a t i n g t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d i t
to be " th e o f f s p r i n g o f th e a c c o m p lish m e n ts o f the m o st
l e a r n e d men" ( 7 0 , 1 , 2 : 7 ) . H adas to o k t h i s u n io n o f r h e t o r i c
and p h i lo s o p h y a s the m a jo r aim o f the d i a l o g u e , a t a s k
w h ic h he d e c l a r e d C i c e r o f a i l e d to a c h i e v e . He w ro te t h a t
" w ith a l l h i s p e r s u a s i v e e lo q u e n c e C ic e r o m e re ly J u x ta p o s e s
th e c r a f t and th e s c i e n c e , b u t s e t s up no p h i l o s o p h i c a l
p r i n c i p l e to e s t a b l i s h a n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c ti o n b e tw ee n them"
( 7 1 : 1 7 2 ) . T here seems to be no n e c e s s a r y c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n
Hadas* and W a ts o n 's view ( t h a t C ic e r o s o u g h t to r e i t e r a t e
c l a s s i c a l d o c t r i n e ) , s i n c e w h ile C ic e r o d i d p r e s e n t much o f
th e c l a s s i c a l d o c t r i n e , p a r t o f t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y c o n c e rn e d
w i t h th e u n io n o f r h e t o r i c and p h ilo s o p h y , p a r t i c u l a r l y the
189
I s o c r a t e a n and P l a t o n i c e f f o r t s .
C i c e r o seem ed to em b race p h i l o s o p h y (k n o w le d g e )
w i t h i n th e s c o p e o f r h e t o r i c , r a i s i n g r h e t o r i c to th e com
m a n d in g p o s i t i o n . I n Book I I I , h i s v ie w s a r e summed u p on
t h i s m a t t e r :
Now, I f any one d e s i r e s e i t h e r t o c a l l t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r
who I n s t r u c t s u s f u l l y I n t h i n g s a n d w o rd s , an o r a t o r ,
h e may do so w i t h o u t o p p o s i t i o n fro m me; o r I f he
p r e f e r t o c a l l t h a t o r a t o r , o f whom I a p e a k a s h a v i n g
wisdom u n i t e d w i t h e l o q u e n c e , a p h i l o s o p h e r , I s h a l l
make no o b j e c t i o n , p r o v i d e d I t be a l l o w e d t h a t n e i t h e r
h i s a b i l i t y t o s p e a k , who u n d e r s t a n d s h i s s u b j e c t , b u t
c a n n o t s e t I t f o r t h I n w o r d s , n o r h i s i g n o r a n c e , t o
whom m a t t e r I s w a n t i n g th o u g h w o rd s a b o u n d , c a n m e r i t
c o m m e n d a tio n ; and I f I h ad t o c h o o s e one o f th e tw o, I
s h o u ld p r e f e r u n e l o q u e n t good s e n s e t o l o q u a c i o u s
f o l l y . B u t i f i t be i n q u i r e d w h ic h I s th e more e m in e n t
e x c e l l e n c e , th e palm i s to be g i v e n t o th e l e a r n e d
o r a t o r ; and I f t h e y a l l o w th e same p e r s o n to be a
p h i l o s o p h e r , t h e r e I s an end t o th e c o n t r o v e r s y ; b u t
I f t h e y d i s t i n g u i s h them , t h e y w i l l a c k n o w le d g e t h e i r
i n f e r i o r i t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h a t a l l t h e i r k n o w led g e
I s i n h e r e n t I n th e c o m p le te o r a t o r ; b u t i n th e know
le d g e o f th e p h i l o s o p h e r e lo q u e n c e i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
I n h e r e n t ; w h ic h , th o u g h I t may b e u n d e r v a l u e d by them ,
m u s t o f n e c e s s i t y be t h o u g h t to g iv e a f i n i s h i n g g r a c e
to t h e i r s c i e n c e s . ( 7 0 ,1 1 1 , 3 5 : 2 3 3 )
C i c e r o ' s i d e a l o r a t o r m u st h a v e a t t a i n e d a b r o a d
k n o w le d g e a b o u t e v e r y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t ( 7 0 , 1 , 6 : 1 1 ) . C i c e r o
a ssu m e s t h a t , g i v e n t h i s b r o a d k n o w led g e w h ic h m u st i n c l u d e
m a s t e r y o f l i f e and m o r a ls ( 7 0 , 1 , 1 5 : 2 3 ) * t h e o r a t o r w i l l
s e r v e t h e w e l f a r e o f th e s t a t e ( 7 0 , I , 8 : l 4 ) » S t i l l C i c e r o
d o e s n o t d e n y t h e f r e q u e n t u s e o f r h e t o r i c a g a i n s t t h e b e s t
I n t e r e s t s o f th e s t a t e ( 7 0 , 1 , 9 : 1 5 ) * B e s i d e s k n o w le d g e ,
I . e . , u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s s u b j e c t ( 7 0 , 1 , 1 1 : 1 6 ) , th e I d e a l
o r a t o r m u st know th e n a t u r e s o f men a n d how to a d a p t to
190
them (7 0 # I »1 2 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) , a n d a l s o how t o com pose s p e e c h e s
( 7 0 # I # 1 5 : 2 3 ) . E x c e p t I n t h e c a s e o f k n o w le d g e o f l i f e and
m o r a l e , o r a t o r i c a l s k i l l l e m ore I m p o r t a n t t h a n k n o w le d g e
o f t h e s u b j e c t ( 7 0 , 1 , 1 5 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) .
The c o m p l e t e o r a t o r , who b o t h C h arm ad as ( 7 0 , 1 , 2 1 :
2 9 - 3 0 ) a n d A n to n lu s ( 7 0 , 1 , 2 8 : 3 7 ) p o i n t o u t I s a r a r i t y , I s
one "fro m shorn e v e r y k i n d o f f a u l t I s a b s t r a c t e d , an d who
I s a d o r n e d w i t h e v e r y k i n d o f m e r i t " ( 7 0 , 1 , 2 6 : 3 5 )#
C r a s s u s , who r e p r e s e n t s C i c e r o I n Books I and I I I , I d e n t i
f i e d th e o r a t o r ' s p u r p o s e : " I t I s th e b u s i n e s s o f th e
o r a t o r to s p e a k I n a m an n er a d a p t e d to p e r s u a d e " ( 7 0 , 1 , 3 1 :
M>).
A n t o n i a s , th e s e c o n d m a jo r i n t e r l o c u t o r i n 3ook I ,
I n h i s r e j o i n d e r to C r a s s u s , a r g u e d f o r a p u b l i c s p e a k i n g
w h ic h s t r e s s e s e l o c u t l o ( 7 0 , 1 , 2 1 : 3 0 - 3 1 , 22:1+4)- He f e a r e d
t h a t C r a s s u s * e m p h a s is on w id e k n o w le d g e m i g h t r e s u l t i n
l e s s a t t e n t i o n b e i n g p a i d t o r h e t o r i c ( 7 0 , 1 , 1 6 : 2 6 ) . He
a n s w e re d C r a s s u s :
The o r a t o r , h o w e v e r , s i n c e I t i s a b o u t him t h a t we a r e
c o n s i d e r i n g , I do n o t c o n c e i v e to be e x a c t l y th e same
c h a r a c t e r t h a t C r a s s u s m ak es h im , who seem ed t o I n c l u d e
a l l k n o w le d g e o f a l l m a t t e r s an d s c i e n c e s u n d e r th e
s i n g l e p r o f e s s i o n and name o f a n o r a t o r ; b u t I r e g a r d
him a s one who c a n u s e w o rd s a g r e e a b l e t o h e a r , and
t h o u g h t s adapted t o p r o v e , n o t o n l y in c a u s e s t h a t a r e
p l e a d e d m the r o r u a , b u t in p a u s e s i n g e n e r a l ftlm I
c a l l , an o r a t o r , a n d w o u ld h a v e h im , b e s i d e s , acco m -
p l l s h e d i n d e l i v e r y an d a c t i o n , w i t h a c e r t a i n d e g r e e
o f w i t . ( 7 0 , 1 , 4 8 :fc>4)
B a ld w in c l a r i f i e d t h e a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n
t h e s e two v ie w s :
191
One c l o s e s th e f i r s t book w i t h the I d e a t h a t b o t h
C r a s s u s and A n to n lu s a re r i g h t . The two men, e v e n more
th a n th e two v ie w s , a re c o m p lem e n ta ry . The v ie w s a re
i r r e c o n c i l a b l e o n ly when p u sh e d to t h e e x tr e m e ; and In
e x tre m e fo rm e i t h e r th e e x t e n s i v e n e s s o f C r a s s u s o r th e
I n t e n s i v e n e s s o f A n to n lu s may become a r e d u c t l o ad
a b su rd a m . N o rm ally r h e t o r i c I s b o t h e x t e n s i v e and
i n t e n s i v e , b o t h a c o m p re h e n s iv e s t u d y o f l i f e and a
s p e c i f i c a r t . . . . D o u b t l e s s C ic e r o m eant t o l e a v e
t h i s I m p r e s s i o n ; f o r he g i v e s f u l l w e ig h t t o th e t h e o r y
o f A n to n lu s h e r e , makes him th e m o u th p ie c e i n Book I I
f o r th e s p e c i f i c l o r e o f l n v e n t i o , w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s to
th e know ledge u rg e d i n Book !l by C r a s s u s , and makes
C r a s s u s i n Book I I I th e spokesm an f o r s t y l e . I t i s
C i c e r o , n o t m e r e ly C r a s s u s , who p l e a d s t h a t th e t e a c h
i n g o f th e o r a t o r be n o t the I m p a r t i n g o f t r i c k s , n o r
m a in ly o f t e c h n i c I n a w id e r and w o r t h i e r s e n s e , b u t
th e g r a d u a l b r i n g i n g to b e a r o f th e w hole man. . . .
The view o f A n to n lu s , u n c o r r e c t e d by th e v iew o f
C r a s s u s , I s I m p e r f e c t t h e o r e t i c a l l y . . . .
The view o f C r a s s u s , to o , h a s i t s d a n g e r s . . . .
B ut . . . the h i s t o r y o f r h e t o r i c seem s to show t h a t
h i s i s the r i g h t e m p h a sis and t h e more f r u i t f u l I d e a .
(22:1*5-M>)
C i c e r o 's p r e f e r e n c e f o r C r a s s u s ' p o s i t i o n m ig h t be
J u s t i f i e d by A n t o n l u s ' comments In Book I I b e f o r e he g i v e s
h i s a d v ic e on o r a t o r y :
C r a s s u s so m etim es s p e a k s a g a i n s t me, o r I a g a i n s t
C r a s s u s , when one o f u s m u st o f n e c e s s i t y ad v an ce w hat
i s f a l s e , b u t even • . . e a c h o f u s , a t d i f f e r e n t
t i m e s , m a i n t a i n s d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s on the same q u e s
t i o n , when more th a n one o f th o s e o p i n i o n s c a n n o t
p o s s i b l y be r i g h t . I w i l l s p e a k , t h e r e f o r e , a s on a
s u b j e c t w hich i s o f a c h a r a c t e r to d e f e n d f a l s e h o o d ,
w h ich r a r e l y a r r i v e s a t k n o w le d g e, and w h ic h i s r e a d y
to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e o p i n i o n s and even e r r o r s o f
m an kin d. . . . ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 7 : 9 0 - 9 1 )
Antonlus acknowledges "certain a r tfu l d irectio n s" which may
be u se d to move th e f e e l i n g s and g a i n th e f a v o r o f th e
a u d ie n c e ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 8 : 9 1 ) . In d e s c r i b i n g an i d e a l o r a t o r f o r
C r a s s u s ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 2 0 : 1 0 5 ) , he i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d In t r y i n g to
r e f u t e C r a s s u s b u t r a t h e r i n d e c l a r i n g h i s own view s
192
( 7 0 , 1 1 , 1 0 : 9 3 ) . A n to n lu s would e n t r e a t o n ly a good man to
p u r s u e th e s t u d y o f e lo q u e n c e ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 2 0 * 1 0 5 ) . In a f o o t
n o t e to th e above comment, Watson w r o te :
C ic e r o I n t h i s p a s s a g e , u n d e r the c h a r a c t e r o f
A n to n lu s , and In h i s own p e r s o n , De I n v . , 1 . , 3, 4>
s i g n i f i e s t h a t , tho ugh he t h i n k s a good c h a r a c t e r o f
g r e a t Im p o rta n c e i n an o r a t o r , he d o e s n o t deny t h a t
much e lo q u e n c e may a t tim e s be fo u n d In a man o f bad
c h a r a c t e r . ( 7 0 :1 0 5 )
I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t I n Book I , C ic e r o h a s S c a e v o la say :
”1 c o u l d c i t e m ore i n s t a n c e s o f m i s c h i e f t h a n o f b e n e f i t
d o n e to p u b l i c a f f a i r s by men o f e m i n e n t e l o q u e n c e . . . "
( 7 0 , 1 , 9 : 1 5 ) . A n t o n l u s a c c e p t s C r a s s u s ' p o s i t i o n t h a t th e
s p e a k e r m u s t f i r s t u n d e r s t a n d h i s s u b j e c t ; t h e n he m u st
d e c i d e the i s s u e s , c o n s i d e r how to recommend h i m s e l f o r h i s
c l i e n t t o th e a u d i e n c e , and how to sw ay t h e i r m in d s
( 7 0 , 1 1 , 2 7 : 1 1 0 - 1 2 , 1 1 4 ) . S in c e man i s more e a s i l y and o f t e n
moved th r o u g h h i s e m o tio n s th a n th r o u g h t r u t h o r r i g h t , th e
s p e a k e r s h o u l d a t t e m p t to I n f l u e n c e him "more by Im p u lse
and e x c i te m e n t o f m ind th a n by jud g m en t o r r e f l e c t i o n "
( 7 0 , 1 1 , 4 2 : 1 3 1 ) . T h i s a w a k e n in g o f e m o tio n i s m o s t e a s i l y
a c c o m p lis h e d i f th e s p e a k e r a c t u a l l y f e e l s th e e m o tio n s
h i m s e l f ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 4 6 : 1 3 5 ) . The same i s t r u e o f e t h i c a l
a p p e a l ; b e i n g good i s more p e r s u a s i v e t h a n a p p e a r i n g good
( 7 0 , 1 1 , 4 3 : 1 3 2 ) . C i c e r o I s q u i c k to p o i n t o u t t h a t l a c k i n g
su c h a c h a r a c t e r , i t s a p p e a ra n c e can be I n v e n te d ( 7 0 ,1 1 ,4 6 :
1 3 3 ) . The I m p u tin g o f b ad c h a r a c t e r to th e o p p o s i t i o n i s
a l s o p e r s u a s i v e ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 4 6 : 1 3 3 ) . When d i s c u s s i n g how to
193
p r o c e e d a f t e r h a v i n g e n t e r e d upon a c a u s e , A n to n lu s p o i n t s
o u t t h a t h i s o b j e c t I n s p e a k i n g i s " t o e f f e c t , I f I c a n ,
some good by s p e a k i n g ; b u t I f n o t , to do a t l e a s t no h a rm ”
( 7 0 , 1 1 , 7 5 : 1 7 4 ) * He f u r t h e r recom m ends t h a t a l t h o u g h a l l
t h r e e t y p e s o f p r o o f m u s t b e u s e d , t h e s p e a k e r s h o u l d
a p p e a r o n l y t o i n s t r u c t th e h e a r e r , a l l o w i n g t h e o t h e r two
a p p e a l s to b e d i f f u s e d t h r o u g h o u t th e s p e e c h ( 7 0 , 1 1 , 7 7 :
1 7 5 ) .
I n th e l a s t b o o k , C r a s s u s r e t u r n s to t h e them e o f
Book I and i n a d d i t i o n d i s c u s s e s s t y l e . The t r u l y e l o q u e n t
s p e a k e r " c o m p re h e n d in g a k n o w le d g e o f t h i n g s , e x p r e s s e s th e
t h o u g h t s a n d p u r p o s e s o f t h e mind I n s u c h a m a n n e r, t h a t I t
c a n im p e l th e a u d i e n c e w h i t h e r s o e v e r I t I n c l i n e s I t s f o r c e
. * *" ( 7 0 , 1 1 1 , 1 4 : 2 0 7 ) . I f th e f a c u l t y o f e l o q u e n c e i s
g i v e n men d e s t i t u t e o f s u c h k n o w le d g e , th e y w i l l s t i l l n o t
becom e o r a t o r s ( s i n c e th e i d e a l o r a t o r p o s s e s s e s t h i s know
l e d g e ) ; arm s w i l l h a v e b e e n g i v e n to mad men ( 7 0 , m , l 4 :
2 0 7 ) . L e a r n i n g t h e r u l e s o f r h e t o r i c a s s e t f o r t h by
A n t o n l u s d o e s n o t q u a l i f y a s p e a k e r a s an o r a t o r ; r h e t o r i c
w o u ld t h e n be a v e r y n a r r o w a r t ( 7 0 , 1 1 1 , 1 9 : 2 1 2 ) . The
p e r f e c t s p e a k e r u n i t e s t h e k n o w le d g e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r
w i t h r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l ( 7 0 , 1 1 1 , 2 2 : 2 1 5 ) • S u ch a g o a l , an
a b s o l u t e p e r f e c t i o n , I s a n I d e a l ( 7 0 , 1 1 1 , 2 2 : 2 1 6 ) . Book
I I I , B a ld w in w r o t e , I s a s im p l e i t e r a t i o n o f t h e t r u i s m
t h a t s t y l e i s I n s e p a r a b l e f ro m s u b s t a n c e ( 2 2 : 5 5 ) .
I n sum m ary, C i c e r o r e c o g n i s e d t h e a m o r a l i t y o f
I9lf
r h e t o r i c I n p r a c t i c e , f o r he a d m itte d I t s u s a b i l i t y f o r th e
b e n e f i t and th e d e t r i m e n t o f s o c i e t y , and by good and bad
men. F u r th e r m o r e , he n e v e r d e n ie d e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s th e
p e r s u a s i v e e n d , even In h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n o f th e o r a t o r .
He i n j e c t e d w i t h i n th e fram ew ork o f r h e t o r i c a man w i t h th e
b r o a d know ledge c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r . He
assum ed t h a t , armed w i t h t h i s know ledge and i d e a l l y b e i n g
a good man, h i s p e r f e c t o r a t o r w ould u t i l i z e r h e t o r i c i n
th e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f th e s t a t e a n d th e p e o p l e . B o th e n d -
s e l e c t i o n and m e a n s - s e l e c c i o n a re a f u n c t i o n o f th e i d e a l
s p e a k e r 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w h at i s good f o r h i s so c i e t y
and h i s a u d i e n c e . R h e t o r i c a l means in th e m s e lv e s a re
s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r a r t i s t i c a d eq u a cy i n t h e p u r s u i t o f
s u c c e s s f u l p e r s u a s i o n . C ic e r o s u g g e s t e d t h a t o c c a s i o n a l l y
w hat i s gpod e t h i c a l l y and w hat i s good r h e t o r i c a l l y may
c o i n c i d e , a s in the c a s e o f b e in g a good man o r f e e l i n g
th e e m o tio n b e i n g d e p i c t e d , y e t h e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i f
d e f i c l e n c e s o c c u r i n t h e s e a r e a s , the o r a t o r may s u b s t i t u t e
a p p e a ra n c e f o r r e a l i t y . C l e a r l y , h i s i d e a l o r a t o r i s th e
p h i l o s o p h e r s k i l l e d i n s p e a k i n g .
C o n s i d e r i n g h i s work a s a w h o le , C ic e r o m u st be
i n t e r p r e t e d to r e g a r d th e c h a r a c t e r o f the s p e a k e r a s th e
f i n a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f a m o r a l i t y o f sp e e c h m a k ln g (POSITION
I I I ) . A c o r o l l a r y o f t h i s i s t h a t , g iv e n t h e r i g h t k in d
o f c h a r a c t e r , th e s p e a k e r w i l l s e l e c t good e n d s (POSITION
I V ) . C i c e r o ' s work i s co m p lem e n ta ry to A r i s t o t l e ' s , as
195
B a ld w in p o i n t e d o u t :
R h e t o r i c i n th e p h i l o s o p h y o f A r i s t o t l e i s e s s e n
t i a l l y th e a r t o f g i v i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s t o t r u t h .
A c c e p tin g t h i s t h e o r y , C ic e r o n e v e r t h e l e s s f e e l s r a t h e r
th e t r a d i t i o n of r h e t o r i c a s th e a r t o f g i v i n g e f f e c
t i v e n e s s to th e s p e a k e r . (22:5)
R h e t o r l o a l - e t h l c a i n Q u i n t i l i a n .- - M a r c u s F a b l u s
Q u i n t i l i a n u s ( c a . 3 5 - 9 5 A .D .) w ro te h i s I n a t l t u t l o O r a t o r l a
a t a tim e when r h e t o r i c no l o n g e r s e r v e d e f f e c t i v e l y a s a
p o l i t i c a l I n s t r u m e n t ( 2 2 : 6 2 ) . I n s p i t e o f i t s d e c a d e n t
s t a t e , Q u i n t i l i a n p r e s e r v e d " a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c a s a r i p e
w h o le " ( 2 2 : 6 2 ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y C i c e r o n i a n s t a n d a r d s (233:195)*
In h i s t r e a t i s e , Q u i n t i l i a n d e s c r i b e d th e e d u c a t i o n o f an
o r a t o r from boyhood to m anhood, e n d in g w i t h th e s p e a k e r as
th e " e f f i c i e n t r e s u l t " ( 2 2 : 8 5 ) . H is work a l t h o u g h i t
c o n t a i n s l i t t l e t h a t i s new ( 2 3 3: 9 2), a p p r o a c h e s r h e t o r i c
fro m a d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t th a n A r i s t o t l e , s i n c e the
l a t t e r b e g a n h i s t r e a t i s e w i t h th e s p e a k e r a s t h e " e f f i
c i e n t c a u s e " ( 2 2 : 8 5 ) . L ik e C i c e r o , he a t t e m p t e d to p o s t u
l a t e th e i d e a l o r a t o r , b u t h i s t r e a t m e n t was m ore c o m p le te ;
f o r , T h o n sse n and B a i r d w r o t e :
I n a d d i t i o n t o p o s s e s s i n g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s c r i b e d
by C i c e r o to th e p e r f e c t s p e a k e r , Q u i n t i l i a n ' s i d e a l
was p re s u m a b ly e v e n m ore h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d a s a p a r t i c i
p a n t i n p u b l i c l i f e b e c a u s e he h a d t o be a good man.
( 2 3 3 : 1 9 2 - 9 3 )
B e s i d e s B u r g e s s ' and S t i t e s ' s t u d i e s , w hich i n c l u d e d
e v a l u a t i o n s o f Q u i n t i l i a n ' s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n ,
t h r e e o t h e r w r i t e r s a l s o d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y and a t c o n s i d
e r a b l e l e n g t h w i t h h i s w ork.
196
B u r g e s s ' c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t Q u i n t i l i a n ' s a d v i c e on
s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p a r a l l e l e d h i s r e m a r k s a b o u t C i c e r o .
I n b o t h c a s e s , th e e f f e c t o f t h e i r r h e t o r i c s was fo u n d to
b e a d o c t r i n e o f r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s i n w h ic h t h e c h a r a c t e r
o f t h e s p e a k e r i s t h e d e c i s i v e f a c t o r ( 6 2 0 : 2 1 3 ) . He d i d ,
h o w e v e r , d i s c o v e r m in o r d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e two Rom ans.
W hile C ic e r o m e r e ly r e c o g n i z e d th e f o r c e o f th e
"good man" c o n c e p t o f C ato and I s o c r a t e s , i n Q u i n t i l i a n i t
i s i n t e g r a l to th e work a s a w hole ( 6 2 0 : 2 0 8 ) . W hile C ic e r o
d e f i n e d " s u c c e s s " a s th e g o a l o f r h e t o r i c , Q u i n t i l i a n p r e
f e r r e d th e d e f i n i t i o n " th e s c i e n c e o f s p e a k in g w e l l " (6 2 0 :
20l|.), b e l i e v i n g t h a t a s p e a k e r m ig h t be d e f e a t e d and s t i l l
sp e a k w e l l ( 6 2 0 : 2 2 3 ) . W hile C i c e r o 's i d e a l o r a t o r I s to be
a p h i l o s o p h e r ( 6 2 0 : 2 1 1 ) , Q u i n t i l i a n ' s n o b le s p e a k e r m ust be
a good man ( 6 2 0 : 2 0 7 ) . Q u i n t i l i a n w en t f u r t h e r th a n C ic e r o ,
and l i k e I s o c r a t e s , b e l i e v e d t h a t a s p e a k e r 's c h a r a c t e r
may b e a l t e r e d by r h e t o r i c ( 6 2 0 : 2 1 1 ) , i . e . , a bad man i s
made worse by r h e t o r i c ( 6 2 0 : 2 2 2 ) .
B oth w r i t e r s e x p e c te d the s p e a k e r to make c h o ic e s
o f e n d s and means f o r th e b e n e f i t o f s o c i e t y (6 2 0 :2 1 7 ) and
p e r m i t t e d t h e c h o ic e o f good en d s to j u s t i f y any means
( 6 2 0 : 2 2 2 ) .
W hile C ic e r o p r e f e r r e d p a t h o s a s a fo rm o f s u p p o r t ,
Q u i n t i l i a n , l i k e A r i s t o t l e , e m p h a siz e d l o g o s ( 6 2 0 : 2 3 7 ) .
A lth o u g h Q u i n t i l i a n demanded t h a t th e s p e a k e r p o s s e s s the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a good e t h o s , C ic e r o a d v is e d h i s r e a d e r s
197
t h a t t h e y c an be I n v e n te d ( 6 2 0 : 2 2 6 ) . Both w r i t e r s , i f
f o l l o w e d to th e e x tre m e , c o u n s e le d s o c i a l l r r e s p o n s i b i l l t y
i n th e use o f l o g i c a l s u p p o r t , c o n d o n in g th e u se o f any
m eans, " s h o r t o f a b d i c a t i n g i n t e g r i t y o f p u r p o s e " to d r a g
th e a u d ie n c e a lo n g ( 6 2 0 : 2 5 7 ) .
Die se co n d r e s e a r c h s t u d y , w r i t t e n by s t i t e s , con*
e lu d e d t h a t Q u i n t i l i a n e m p h a sise d r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g b u t
t r e a t e d b o t h i n t e l l i g e n t and e f f e c t i v e s p e a k i n g ; Roman
s o c i e t y , d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e , was i n c a p a b l e o f a c c e p t i n g
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g , ig n o r e d I n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k in g , and
c o n c e n t r a t e d on e f f e c t i v e s p e a k i n g (637:33^-).
He w ro te t h a t th e c o re and v e r y f o u n d a t i o n o f th e
I n s t l t u t l o P r e t o r i a i s r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g ( 6 3 7 : 2 2 7 - 2 8 ) •
I t i s th e m o st e x t e n s i v e and I n t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t o f r e s
p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g i n W e ste rn c i v i l i z a t i o n ( 6 3 7 : 2 3 5 ) .
R e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g i s e m p h a s is e d b o t h a t th e p h i lo s o p h ic a l
and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l e v e l ( 6 3 7 : 2 2 7 ) . B o th th e o r a t o r and
h i s t e a c h e r s h o u ld be f r e e o f v i c e ; as a m a t t e r o f f a c t , an
e v i l man c a n n o t be an o r a t o r ( 6 3 7 : 2 2 8 - 2 9 ) . A s p e a k e r who
t h o u g h t to be a bad man w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be i n e f f e c t i v e
( 6 3 7 : 2 3 0 ) . T h e r e f o r e , one c o n c l u d e s t h a t i t I s more im p o r
t a n t t o s p e a k r e s p o n s i b l y th a n e f f e c t i v e l y ( 6 3 7 : 2 3 0 ) .
ISie t h i r d r e s e a r c h p a p e r on Q u i n t i l i a n , R ic h a r d A.
H i l d r e t h ' s m a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , e n t i t l e d " Q u i n t i l i a n - - 'H i e Good
Man and S t h l c a l P r o o f " ( 6 2 6 ) , was somewhat c o n f u s i n g
b e c a u s e o f th e o v e r l a p p i n g and a m b ig u ity o f h i s te rm s . H is
198
f a i l u r e to p r o v i d e a summary, c o n c l u s i o n s , and even a
b i b l i o g r a p h y f u r t h e r o b s c u r e d h i s I d e a s and w eakened h i s
e f f o r t . I f one I n t e r p r e t s him c o r r e c t l y , H i l d r e t h s a y s
v i r t u a l l y th e same t h i n g s a b o u t Q u i n t i l i a n a s d o e s B u r g e s s .
Two o t h e r w r i t e r s , J . P. Ryan ( 5 l 6 ) end E a r n e s t
B ra n d e n b u rg (301) w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e
a p p l i c a t i o n s o f Q u i n t i l i a n ’ s m essage to c o n te m p o ra ry
c r i t i c i s m and p r a c t i c e . R y a n 's a r t i c l e I s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a
e u lo g y . He p r a i s e d Q u i n t i l i a n f o r th e m o d e rn ity and
perm anency of h i s d i c t a , f o r h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i d e a l
r a t h e r th a n r e a l s t a n d a r d s , and s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r h i s I d e a l
o f th e "good man s k i l l e d i n s p e a k in g " ( 5 1 6 : 2 7 1 - 8 0 ) .
B ra n d e n b u rg s i m i l a r l y o u t l i n e d how Q u i n t i l i a n ' s
"good man" c o n c e p t a f f e c t s the c o n te m p o ra ry r h e t o r i c a l
c r i t i c , and h i s a t t i t u d e was l i k e w i s e com m endatory ( 3 0 1 ) .
I n g e n e r a l , he a rg u e d t h a t th e t a s k o f th e r h e t o r i c a l
c r i t i c m u st I n v o lv e an a p p r a i s a l o f t h e m o ra l c h a r a c t e r o f
th e s p e a k e r , w h ic h he a d v o c a te d m ig h t l e g i t i m a t e l y be
a s s e s s e d from a r e l a t l v i s t i c p o s i t i o n ( s i n c e th e e t h i c a l
code I s In a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f f l u x ) ; more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
he s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e c r i t i c (1) be c o n c e rn e d w i t h d i s t i n
g u i s h i n g b e tw ee n c h a r a c t e r and r e p u t a t i o n (b e tw e e n good and
th e a p p e a ra n c e o f g o o d ), (2) w eigh s i n c e r i t y and I n t e g r i t y ,
(3) a s s e s s th e s p e a k e r 's s t r i v i n g f o r t r u t h , a t th e same
tim e r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t i t s te m p o ra ry d e n i a l m ig h t o c c a s i o n
a l l y r e s u l t I n g r e a t e r v a l u e , (ij.) e v a l u a t e th e s p e a k e r 's
199
s t r i v i n g o r n o n - s t r i v i n g f o r th e t o t a l p o s s i b l e good,
t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s s u c c e s s i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s e n d , (5)
c o n s i d e r th e o r a t o r ' s w ords a n d a c t i o n s on o c c a s i o n s o t h e r
th a n th e one i n q u e s t i o n ( 3 0 1 :2 3 - 2 7 ) * He added t h a t
A m erican s o c i e t y h a s made th e s u p p o r t o f dem ocracy a p r i n
c i p a l and e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f i t s "good man" ( 3 0 1 : 2 8 ) . W hile
such e v a l u a t i o n s o f th e s p e a k e r m u st i n e v i t a b l y be s u b j e c
t i v e , B ra n d e n b u rg commented t h a t t h e y w ould b e r e n d e r e d
v a l i d n o t by e x a m in in g s p e c i f i c ite m s i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t
o n l y by an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e i n t e r l o c k i n g f a c t o r s i n
v o lv e d i n any s i t u a t i o n ( 3 0 1 : 2 8 ) .
Common to a l l t h e s e e v a l u a t i o n s o f Q u i n t i l i a n ' s
w r i t i n g s i s a r e c o g n i t i o n o f e t h o s a s th e c e n t r a l c o n c e p t
o f h i s I n s t l t u t l o O r a t o r l a . R e fe re n c e to h i s r h e t o r i c
s u b s t a n t i a t e s t h i s .
True r h e t o r i c i s m o r a l, i . e . , v i r t u o u s , Q u i n t i l i a n
a r g u e d , r a t h e r th an an i n d i f f e r e n t a r t w h ic h d e p en d s upon
th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r ( 2 0 1 , 1 1 , 2 0 , 1 - 5 : 3 5 1 ) • W hile i t
h a s b e e n a rg u e d t h a t r h e t o r i c i s a m o ra l, i t c a n n o t be
a rg u e d t h a t i t i s im m o ra l— s i n c e i t can be em ployed f o r
good ( 2 0 1 , 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 0 : 3 2 3 ) .
m e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t o f Q u i n t i l i a n ' s e d u c a t i o n , h i s
i d e a l o r a t o r , i s a " 'g o o d man, s k i l l e d i n s p e a k i n g '"
( 2 0 1 , X I I , 1 , 1 : 3 5 5 ) » who p o s s e s s e s e x c e p t i o n a l e x c e l l e n c e s o f
s p e e c h and c h a r a c t e r ( 2 0 1 , I , p r e f . , 9 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) . He i s l i k e
C i c e r o 's p e r f e c t o r a t o r who u n i t e s th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f
200
the philosopher and the orator (201f l , F r e f . ,1 3 :1 1 )• 'Hie
term "orator" i s r e s t r ic t e d only to good men (201,X I I , 1,3:
357); indeed, i f a speaker gives the im pression of a bad
man, he i s a c tu a lly speaking badly (2 0 1 ,V I,2,19:1*27) • Even
the bad man with the h ig h e st eloquence i s not an orator
(2 0 1 ,X I I , 1 ,2 3 :3 6 9 ); such a hypothesis i s contrary to
nature, fo r the b e tte r orator must in e v ita b ly be the b e tte r
man (2 0 1 ,X I I , 1 ,9 :3 6 1 ). The power of speaking i s e v i l when
i t la found in e v i l men, for i t makes I t s p o ssesso rs worse
than before (2 0 1 ,X II,1,32:373)• A good man may t e l l l i e s
(2 0 1 ,X I I ,1,36:375) or use methods resembling fraud
(2 0 1 ,X I I , 1,1*1:379) depending on the cause ( in t e g r it y of
purpose). Indeed, the good man can use any means I f h is
end is honorable (201,X I , 1,35:175)# but i t i s never becom
in g to act or speak dishonorably (201,X I,l*ll*:163) •
I n summary, Q u i n t i l i a n ' s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n
may be s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s : i n p r a c t i c e , r h e t o r i c i s am oral
f o r i t may be u se d by good o r bad men f o r good o r bad e n d s ,
b u t i n an i d e a l s e n s e , i t i s m o ra l when i t s u s e r i s th e
i d e a l o r a t o r who J o i n s th e e x c e l l e n c e s o f c h a r a c t e r and
e lo q u e n c e i n t h e s e r v i c e of good e n d s (POSITIONS I I I and
I V ) . He i s j u s t i f i e d i n u s i n g any means to a c h ie v e s u c c e s s
I n t h i s p u r p o s e . The power o f s p e a k in g i s im m oral when I t
i s fou nd i n e v i l men. Thus th e f i n a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f a
m o r a l i t y o f sp eec h m ak ln g i s th e c h a r a c t e r o f the s p e a k e r .
R h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s i n C a m p b e ll.- - G e o r g e C am pbell
201
p u b l i s h e d The P h i l o s o p h y o f R h e t o r i c i n 1 7 7 6 , th e y e a r o f
th e D e c l a r a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h is w as a c o m p l a c e n t
a g e , f o r E n g la n d h a d " a r r i v e d " and t h e r e v o l u t i o n h a d h ad
l i t t l e e f f e c t ( 6 3 7 :9 9 - 9 9 ) * The e l o q u e n c e o f W a lp o le ,
C hatham , a n d P i t t h a d u s h e r e d i n th e G o ld e n Age o f B r i t i s h
O r a t o r y , t h e f i n e s t s p e a k i n g o f th e W e s t e r n w o r ld s i n c e
C i c e r o .
C a m p b e l l 's r h e t o r i c a n t i c i p a t e d th e m o d e m e r a ,
e v e n th o u g h i t f o l l o w e d t h e o l d t r a d i t i o n ( 5 1 4 * 2 3 6 ) . The
c l a s s i c a l i n f l u e n c e d o m in a te d C a m p b e l l 's v ie w o f r h e t o r i c
d e s p i t e t h e h i a t u s o f t h e p a t r i s t i c , m e d i e v a l , and
R e n a i s s a n c e p e r i o d s .
As th e f o r e r u n n e r o f m o d ern c r i t i c i s m , he h e l p e d to
e s t a b l i s h a s t a n d a r d f o r s p e e c h c r i t i c i s m ( 2 3 3 : 1 3 9 ) ; h e
d i r e c t e d a t t e n t i o n away fro m p e r s u a s i o n to o t h e r a s p e c t s
o f th e c o m m u n ic a tiv e p r o c e s s ( 6 3 7 : 6 3 ) ; he c l a s s i f i e d s p e e c h
e n d s i n te rm s o f a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e - - a view a d h e r e d t o by
m o d e m w r i t e r s - - a n d made c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o th e a n a l y s i s o f
e m o t i o n an d o f th e a u d i e n c e ( 2 3 2 : 2 3 1 ) .
S t i t e s r e p o r t e d i n h i s s t u d y t h a t e v e n th o u g h i t was
h e i r to th e s o c i e t y w h ic h p r o d u c e d H i l t o n , e i g h t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y E n g la n d d e m o n s t r a t e d a l m o s t a t o t a l l a c k o f r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y to w a rd a l l e x c e p t th e u p p e r a n d m id d le c l a s s e s
( 6 3 7 : 2 ^ 6 ) . Some i n t e r e s t i n r e s p o n s i b l e s p e e c h was dem on
s t r a t e d b y c le r g y m e n and p o l i t i c i a n s ( 6 3 7 :1 0 3 ) * I n h i s
t r e a t i s e , C a m p b e ll w as c o n c e r n e d (1 ) b o t h e x t e n s i v e l y and
202
i n t e n s i v e l y w i t h e f f e c t i v e s p e a k i n g , (2) w ith r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k in g a t th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l e v e l , and (3) i n t e n s i v e l y
w i t h r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k in g a t th e l e v e l o f m ethod ( e s p e c i a l
l y I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f th e p a s s i o n s ) ( 6 3 7 :3 2 5 ) * S t l t e s
d i d n o t f e e l t h a t C a m p b e ll 's s u p p o r t o f t r u t h as th e
p e r s u a s i v e end was h i s m o st I m p o r ta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n , s i n c e
t h i s had a l s o b e e n th e p o s i t i o n o f P l a t o and A r i s t o t l e
( 6 3 7 :2 6 3 ) * m o st i m p o r t a n t was C a m p b e ll's b e l i e f t h a t r h e t
o r i c was c o n c e r n e d , n o t o n ly w ith th e s u b j e c t , b u t a l s o
w i t h th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p ro b le m s c e n t e r i n g aro u n d the
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s p e a k e r and th e h e a r e r to th e s u b j e c t
I n th e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h ( 6 3 7 : 2 6 4 ) . lh e key to r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k i n g , he fo u n d , had to be d i s c o v e r e d I n t h e h e a r e r s
( 6 3 7 : 2 6 ^ ) .
B u r g e s s , on th e o t h e r h a n d , c o n c lu d e d t h a t w h ile
C a m p b e ll 's r h e t o r i c I s " i m p l i c i t l y m ore p o s i t i v e " th a n th e
work o f th e o t h e r c l a s s i c a l w r i t e r s , i t I s " e x p l i c i t l y more
n e g a t i v e " ( 6 2 0 : 3 0 2 ) . H is work i s more p o s i t i v e th a n t h a t
o f th e a n c i e n t s b e c a u s e o f h i s ren e w e d e m p h a sis on th e
" p l a c e o f l o g i c a l argum ent a s the c e n t r a l c o n c e rn of th e
o r a t o r , a t r e n d t h a t i s t o f i n d i t s f r u i t i o n . . . i n th e
t h e o r i e s o f th e m o d e r n s ," and b e c a u s e o f h i s c o n c e r n f o r
th e f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y o f th e s o u r c e s ( b a s e s ) o f arg u m en t
( 6 2 0 :3 0 4 ) * H is w ork l a more n e g a t i v e b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h he
" c o n d o n e s " s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e e n d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u t h
(6 2 0 :2 6 9 )* t h i s n o b le i d e a l i s a p p l i e d o n ly to p u l p i t
203
s p e a k i n g ( 6 2 0 : 2 8 7 ) ; f u r t h e r m o r e , h i s a d v o c a c y o f t r u t h i s
n o t u n e q u i v o c a l b e c a u s e o f h i s e m p h a s is on r e s u l t s (6 2 0 :
3 0 1 - 3 0 2 ) . He j u s t i f i e s th e u s e o f r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s on
th e g r o u n d s o f a r t i s t i c a d e q u a c y o r a m o r a l i t y , a n d w hen he
condem ns f a l s e h o o d o r s o p h i s t r y , h e d o e s i t f o r a r t i s t i c
r e a s o n s ( 6 2 0 :3 0 3 ) * B u r g e s s c o n c l u d e d , a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e
n e g a t i v e f a c t o r s , t h a t C a m p b e ll d i d n o t p o s s e s s th e " c l a s
s i c a l c o n c e r n w i t h t h e s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l f u n c t i o n " o f
r h e t o r i c ( 6 2 0 : 3 0 2 ) .
R e f e r e n c e to The P h i l o s o p h y o f R h e t o r i c h e l p s to
c l a r i f y C a m p b e l l 's p o s i t i o n on r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s . C a m p b e ll
seem ed to p l a c e a d o m in a n t e m p h a s is on t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f
e f f e c t i v e n e s s , f o r h e d e f i n e d e l o q u e n c e a s an a r t o r t a l e n t
b y w h ic h d i s c o u r s e i s a d a p t e d t o i t s e n d s ( 6 2 : 2 3 ) . T h e se
e n d s ( t o e n l i g h t e n th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , to p l e a s e t h e
i m a g i n a t i o n , to move t h e p a s s i o n s , o r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e
w i l l ) a r e , when s o u g h t a s t h e p r i n c i p a l i n t e n t i o n , p r i m a r y
e n d s ; when one i s u s e d I n a s e c o n d a r y m a n n e r, i . e . , to
f u r t h e r one o f th e o t h e r s w h ic h i s a c t i n g a s t h e p r i n c i p a l
e n d , i t s e r v e s a s a m e a n s , and i t s " p r o p r i e t y o r i m p r o p r i
e t y " c o n s e q u e n t l y d e p e n d s on i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n a c h i e v i n g
t h a t en d ( 6 2 : 2 3 ) * F o r e x a m p le , a s p e e c h a d d r e s s e d t o t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s h o u ld n o t I n c l u d e a p p e a l to p a s s i o n s i n c e
t h e I n c l u s i o n o f t h e l a t t e r i s f o r e i g n a n d i n i m i c a l t o th e
f o r m e r (6 2 :2 3 -2 1 ;.).
I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f l o g i c a l p r o o f , C a m p b e ll c l a r i f i e d
20
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f l o g i c an d r h e t o r i c :
The s o l e and u l t i m a t e en d o f l o g i c i s th e e v i c t i o n
o f t r u t h ; o n e i m p o r t a n t en d o f e l o q u e n c e * . . , n e i t h e r
t h e s o lo * n o r a lw a y s th e u l t i m a t e , i s t h e c o n v i c t i o n
o f t h e h e a r e r s . P u r e l o g i c r e g a r d s o n l y th e s u b j e c t ,
w h ic h i s e x a m in e d s o l e l y f o r t h e s a k e o f i n f o r m a t i o n .
T r u t h , a s s u c h , i s th e p r o p e r aim o f t h e e x a m i n e r .
E lo q u e n c e n o t o n l y c o n s i d e r s th e s u b j e c t , b u t a l s o th e
s p e a k e r and th e h e a r e r s , and b o t h t h e s u b j e c t and t h e
s p e a k e r f o r th e s a k e o f t h e h e a r e r s , o r , r a t h e r , f o r
t h e s a k e o f th e e f f e c t I n t e n d e d t o be p r o d u c e d i n them .
Now t o c o n v i n c e t h e h e a r e r s i s a lw a y s e i t h e r p r o p o s e d
b y th e o r a t o r a s h i s en d i n a d d r e s s i n g th em , o r
s u p p o s e d to accom pany th e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f h i s e n d .
• . . T h u s , i n o r d e r to s a t i s f y th e m in d , i n m o s t
c a s e s , t r u t h , and i n e v e r y c a s e , w h a t b e a r s th e
s e m b la n c e o f t r u t h , m u s t b e p r e s e n t e d t o i t . . . . I f ,
t h e n , i t I s th e b u s i n e s s o f l o g i c t o e v i n c e t h e t r u t h ,
to c o n v i n c e an a u d i t o r y , w h ic h I s t h e p r o v i n c e o f
e l o q u e n c e , i s but a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e
l o g i c i a n ’ s a r t . ( 6 2 :5 ^ - 5 5 )
T h u s , f u n c t i o n a l l y i n t r i n s i c i n good p e r s u a s i o n i s a demand
fo r the p resen ta tio n of the tru th or i t s appearances.
I n h is t r e a t m e n t of p a th etic proof (62:93-9^)#
C a m p b e ll p o l n t e u o u t t h a t th e u s e o f p a s s i o n i s n o t d e c e p
t i v e ; r a t h e r , i t i s a n e c e s s a r y a n d e s s e n t i a l t o o l o f th e
o r a t o r , w h ic h i s e s s e n t i a l t o p e r s u a s i o n b e c a u s e o f m a n 's
n a t u r e . A lth o u g h i t may be u s e d to s e c u r e b o t h good and
e v i l , i t i s i n h e r e n t l y f r i e n d l i e r t o t r u t h and v i r t u e t h a n
f a l s e h o o d and v i c e .
When b e l i e f i s th e g o a l , i t i s e n o u g h t o show th e
a u d i e n c e t h a t " t h i n g s a r e s o , " b u t I n o r d e r to make th e
l i s t e n e r a c t , t h e y m u s t be shown " t h a t th e a c t i o n w i l l
a n s w e r some e n d " ( 6 2 :9 9 ) * P a t h e t i c p r o o f i s n o t u n f a i r ,
i t i s a n e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r i n p e r s u a s i o n ( 6 2 : 1 0 0 ) . W h ile
205
" p a s s i o n l a t h e m o v er to a c t i o n , r e a s o n I s th e g u i d e . Good
I s t h e o b j e c t o f th e w i l l ; t r u t h i s t h e o b j e c t o f th e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g " ( 6 2 : 1 0 1 ) . The I m p l i c a t i o n I n C a m p b e l l 's
r h e t o r i c seem s to b e t h a t b o t h l o g i c a l a n d p a t h e t i c p r o o f s
a r e r e q u i r e d I n s u c c e s s f u l p e r s u a s i o n , b u t t h a t th e y o u g h t
t o b e u s e d on t h e s i d e o f t r u t h and v i r t u e , and I n f a c t ,
a r e f r i e n d l i e r t o s u c h g o a l s .
S t h l c a l p r o o f I s a l s o n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e o f m a n 's
n a t u r e ( 6 2 :1 1 9 ) * R h e t o r i c i a n s h a v e l o n g a d v o c a t e d t h a t t h e
o r a t o r be a good man, f o r o n l y I f he I s a good man c a n he
be a s s u r e d t h a t he w i l l be a t t e n d e d ( 6 2 : 1 1 9 ) . T h i s demand
o r i g i n a l l y was I n s t i n c t i v e , b u t I t was l a t e r c o r r o b o r a t e d
b y r e a s o n ( 6 2 :1 1 9 ) *
I n h i s a n a l y s i s o f th e " p e r s o n s a d d r e s s e d , " C a m p b e ll
r e m a r k e d t h a t a s p e a k e r may more e a s i l y work upo n th e
p a s s i o n s o f th e u n e d u c a t e d I n o r d e r to a c h i e v e h i s e n d , b u t
t h a t s i n c e I t i s a m e a n s , i t " w i l l no f a r t h e r b e r e g a r d e d
i n a n y c a s e t h a n i t c a n b e r e n d e r e d c o n d u c l b l e to th e e n d "
(6 2:125- 26).
I n summ ary, one f i n d s I n C a m p b e ll th e same m u l t i p l e
s t r a i n s o f r e a l an d I d e a l s t a n d a r d s o b s e r v a b l e i n m o s t o f
t h e o t h e r w r i t e r s . C a m p b e ll a g r e e s t h a t r h e t o r i c l a a n
a m o r a l I n s t r u m e n t w h ic h c a n b e u s e d i n t h e s e r v i c e o f
e i t h e r t r u t h o r s o p h i s t r y . As s u c h a n a r t , r h e t o r i c p o s -
s e s s e s I t s own e n d - - e f f e c t i v e n e s s . The s k i l l e d o r a t o r
g a i n s t h i s o b j e c t i v e t h r o u g h th e p r o p e r u s e o f t h e t h r e e
206
m odea o f p r o o f , i n o t h e r w o rd s , t h r o u g h u a i n g them I n a
t e c h n i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e m a n n e r . I n an I d e a l a e n a e , h ow ever,
t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c a e r v e a a n e n d l a r g e r t h a n i t a own—
t r u t h o r l t a a p p r o x i m a t i o n and v i r t u e (POSITION I V ) . The
r h e t o r i c a l m eana a r e n a t u r a l l y m ore e f f e c t i v e i n t h e s e r v -
l c e o f t h e a e d e s i r a b l e e n d a t h a n t h e y a r e i n t h e a e r v l c e
o f f a l s e h o o d and v i c e (POSITION I I ) .
Summary o f c l a a a l o a l and e a r l y m o d e rn t h e o r i e s o f
r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a . - - I n h i s summary o f c l a s s i c a l c o n c e p t s o f
s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , B u r g e s s c o n c l u d e d :
I n d e e d , i t c a n b e c o n c l u d e d h e r e t h a t th e C l a s s i c a l
t r a d i t i o n s p e a k s p r i m a r i l y w i t h one v o i c e r e g a r d i n g
s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y aa a f u n c t i o n a l a s p e c t o f l t a
p h i l o s o p h y ; a n d t h e v o i c e i s l a r g e l y t h a t o f A r i s t o t l e .
( 620 : 266)
He a d d e d t h a t c l a s s i c a l p h i l o s o p h y r e g a r d s r h e t o r i c a s an
a m o r a l I n s t r u m e n t w h ic h d e r i v e s l t a m o r a l i t y from th e
c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r ( 6 2 0 : 2 6 6 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e s p e a k e r
i s u r g e d t o c h o o s e m o r a l l y d e f e n s i b l e e n d a , he i a p e r m i t
t e d to u a e a n y m eana to s u c c e e d i n t h i s o b j e c t — and th e
m eans th e m a e lv e a a r e m o r a l ( 6 2 0 : 2 6 7 ) .
S i n c e S t l t e s ' c o n c l u s i o n s w ere r e l a t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l
r h e t o r i c i a n s an d w ere n o t g e n e r a l i n n a t u r e , t h e y h a v e
a l r e a d y b e e n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b o d y o f t h i s s e c t i o n . T h e re
r e m a i n s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a t t h i s p o i n t o n l y w h e t h e r o r n o t
B u r g e s s ' c o n c l u s i o n s and t h o s e o f t h i s s t u d y c o n c u r .
I s o c r a t e s was n o t i n c l u d e d i n B u r g e s s ' s t u d y , and P l a t o ' s
r h e t o r i c was n o t a n a l y z e d a s a m a j o r p a r t o f h i s w ork,
207
s i n c e he f e l t I t to be I n a d e q u a t e I n i t s t r e a t m e n t f o r h i s
p u r p o s e s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e I s s u e s to b e r e s o l v e d a r e
p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e r h e t o r i c o f A r i s t o t l e ,
C i c e r o , Q u i n t i l i a n , a n d C a m p b e ll.
A l l o f r h e t o r i c v i r t u a l l y s p e a k s w i t h one v o i c e
c o n c e r n i n g th e r e a l e v a l u a t i o n o f r h e t o r i c I n p r a c t i c e .
I s o c r a t e s , A r i s t o t l e , C i c e r o , Q u i n t i l i a n , an d C a m p b e ll a l l
r e c o g n i z e d i t s a m o r a l ! t y a s a p r a c t i c a l a r t . E a c h w r i t e r
com m ented t h a t i t was an I n s t r u m e n t w h ic h c o u l d b e u s e d
b y good o r b a d men f o r good o r b a d e n d s . The lo n e d i s s e n t -
i n g v o i c e I n t h e c l a s s i c a l p e r i o d o n t h i s p o i n t i s t h a t o f
P l a t o ; h e c h a r g e s t h a t r h e t o r i c i s im m o ra l s i n c e i t s e r v e s
p e r s u a s i o n . I t i s I m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t P l a t o a g r e e d
w i t h th e o t h e r w r i t e r s t h a t t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c d e f i n e s t h e
m eana to be u s e d i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g i t s s e l f - c o n t a i n e d e n d .
W h ile he c o n s i d e r e d t h i s t o be " I m m o r a l , * t h e o t h e r s a l l
e v a l u a t e I t a s " a m o r a l . " T h u s, I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t th e
c l a s s i c a l and e a r l y m o d e m w r i t e r s a r e c l o s e r th a n t h e s e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n te rm s w o u ld s u g g e s t .
The c h a r t on th e f o l l o w i n g p a g e p i c t u r e s t h e i d e a l
s t a n d a r d s o f t h e s e p r e - c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r i c i a n s . A l l o f
t h e i r v ie w s c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d i n p o s i t i o n s I I , i l l , an d IV.
No one o f th em w ou ld a d v o c a t e a n I d e a l p e r s u a d e r who I s
c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s h i s g o a l . A l l o f them
e i t h e r u r g e d good e n d s o r e l s e d e f i n e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f th e
s p e a k e r so t h a t h e w o u ld I n e v i t a b l y s e l e c t d e s i r a b l e e n d s .
208
A l l o f them a g r e e d t h a t t h e en d s e l e c t e d j u s t i f i e s th e
m e a n s . The m eans a r e to b e e v a l u a t e d by t h e i r e f f e c t i v e
n e s s i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e e n d , a l t h o u g h some p o i n t o u t
t h a t a t t i m e s a r t i s t i c a d e q u a c y c o i n c i d e s w i t h e t h i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
TABLE 2
IDEAL GENERAL PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS OF CLASSICAL
AND EARLY MODERN RHETORICIANS
P o s . I I
E t h i c s I n t r i n s i c
i n P e r s u a s i o n
P o s . I l l
E t h i c s D e p e n d e n t
on C h a r a c t e r
P o s . IV
E t h i c s D e p e n d e n t
on End
ISOCRATES ( a f u n c t i o n o f 11) (a f u n c t i o n o f
I I )
( i m p l i e d i n IV) PLATO
t r u e , y e t a r t i s t i c
a d e q u a c y I s t e s t
( i m p l i e d i n
CICERO
IV) ARISTOTLE
( a f u n c t i o n o f
I I I )
QUINTILIAN ( a f u n c t i on o f
I I I )
t r u e , m eans f r i e n d
l i e r t o good e n d s
( i m p l i e d i n IV) CAMPBELL
The d o m in a n t them e o f c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c i s t h a t an
i d e a l p e r s u a d e r i s a good man who u s e s h i s a r t e f f e c t i v e l y
i n t h e s e r v i c e o f d e s i r a b l e e n d s . U s in g h i s a r t e f f e c t i v e
l y may a c c i d e n t a l l y m ean u s i n g i t e t h i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h t h e
s t a n d a r d s to be a p p l i e d a r e a r t i s t i c r a t h e r t h a n e t h i c a l .
The i n c i p i e n t b e g i n n i n g s o f a m o r a l i t y o f s p e e c h m a k ln g
f o u n d i n G r e e k , Roman, and E n g l i s h r h e t o r i c p r o v i d e th e
209
p h i l o s o p h i c s u b s t r u c t u r e f o r i t s c o n t e m p o r a r y m a t u r a t i o n
an d m o d i f i c a t i o n i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y .
The R h e t o r i c a l - Bt h i c s o f C o n te mpor a r y A m e ric a n
Theorists
A l t h o u g h c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r i c i a n s a r e h e i r t o t h e
t r a d i t i o n o f s p e e c h m a k ln g p r o m u l g a t e d b y I s o c r a t e s , P l a t o ,
A r i s t o t l e , C i c e r o , Q u i n t i l i a n , a n d C a m p b e ll, a s e x p l a i n e d
i n th e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , few o f them
a c c e p t e d i t s m e ss a g e w i t h o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n s . M ost o f t h e s e
m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f c l a s s i c a l d o c t r i n e w ere t h e p r o d u c t o f a
c o n c e p t i o n o f r h e t o r i c a s t h e b u l w a r k o f d e m o c ra c y .
T h is p o r t i o n o f t h e c h a p t e r w i l l e x p l a i n th e v a r i e d
p h i l o s o p h i c a l a p p r o a c h e s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s s y s t e m a t i
c a l l y . I n a r r i v i n g a t c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t th e r h e t o r i c a l -
e t h i c a l v ie w s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i r r h e t o r i c s , I r e l i e d upo n
d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t s , o r , i n t h e i r a b s e n c e , upon th e
a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t s p e c i f i c c h o i c e s f o r a g e n e r a l
Ju d & n e n t t o b e s a f e l y i m p l i e d .
When a w r i t e r had w r i t t e n a num ber o f p e r t i n e n t
w o r k s , t h e y w ere c o n s i d e r e d a s a u n i t . A w r i t e r w as c l a s
s i f i e d a s a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r when a s much a s a s i n g l e
c h a p t e r o r an e n t i r e a r t i c l e was d i r e c t l y a n d s u b s t a n t i a l l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c . S e v e r a l who d i d n o t
f i t i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y w ere c o n s i d e r e d o f m a j o r I m p o r ta n c e
b e c a u s e o f th e e x t e n s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e i r t r e a t m e n t . B e
c a u s e o f t h e i r n u m b er and m in o r I m p o r t a n c e , w r i t e r s who
210
w ere d i r e c t l y b u t s e c o n d a r i l y c o n c e r n e d , o r I n d i r e c t l y o r
I n c i d e n t a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h an e t h i c a o f r h e t o r i c w ere
r e p o r t e d I n c h a r t fo rm I n th e A p p e n d ix E. C o n c l u s i o n s
w ere d ra w n fro m w r i t i n g s w i t h c o m p le te an d s u b s t a n t i a l
t r e a t m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n fro m t h o s e p r o v i d i n g I n c o m p l e t e o r
l i m i t e d d a t a , e v e n th o u g h b o t h m a jo r a n d m in o r c o n t r i b u t o r s
s u p p o r t e d t h e same c o n c e p t i o n o f an e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c .
I n o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d a t a
p r e s e n t e d n e x t I n t h i s c h a p t e r , summary c h a r t s I d e n t i f y i n g
t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s e m b ra c e d by c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t
o r i c i a n s h a v e b e e n I n c l u d e d . The p o s i t i o n s u s e d I n t h i s
s t u d y h a v e b e e n I d e n t i f i e d on th e c h a r t s , a n d I n th e
r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r , b y Roman n u m e r a l s , r e p r e s e n t a
t i v e o f th e f o l l o w i n g c o n c e p t i o n s o f th e e t h i c s o f r h e t
o r i c . POSITION I : R h e t o r i c i s a m o r a l , I . e . , n o t to be
J u d g e d by m o r a l s t a n d a r d s ; i t s t e c h n i q u e s a r e m e a s u re d b y
a r t i s t i c r a t h e r t h a n e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s . POSITION I I :
C e r t a i n s t a n d a r d s o f e t h i c s a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y I n t r i n s i c
I n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a s i o n , I . e . , s o m e tim e s a r t i s t i c and
e t h i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s c o i n c i d e . POSITION I I I : The m o r a l i t y
o f r h e t o r i c I s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e r s u a d
e r . POSITION IV : The m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c I s a f u n c t i o n
o f th e e n d s s o u g h t . POSITION V: The m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c
I s a f u n c t i o n o f th e p e r s u a s i v e m ean s s e l e c t e d . POSITION
V I: The m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c I s d e p e n d e n t upon b o t h th e
e n d s s o u g h t a n d t h e p e r s u a s i v e d e v i c e s u t i l i z e d . POSITION
211
V I I : R h e t o r i c l a im m o ra l, I n h e r e n t l y u n e t h i c a l .
T a b le 3 d e p i c t s t h e g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n s
o f r h e t o r i c i a n s c l a s s i f i e d a s m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r s . E i g h t y -
e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r s I d e n t i f i e d b o t h
t h e m eans a n d t h e e n d s a s e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s (POSITION
V I ) . F i f t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t* m o s t o f whom a l s o a d h e r e d t o
th e ab o v e p o s i t i o n * i d e n t i f i e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e
p e r s u a d e r a s a n e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t (POSITION I I I ) . S e v e r
a l w r i t e r s * who a f f i r m e d b o t h o f t h e p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n s *
a l s o n o t e d t h e c o i n c i d e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e t h i c a l and
a r t i s t i c s t a n d a r d s (POSITION I I ) . V a r i a t i o n s i n a l p h a b e t
i c a l o r d e r w h ic h o c c u r i n T a b le 3 a r e d u e t o th e c o m p l i c a
t i o n o f c o - a u t h o r s h i p . D e t a i l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e v ie w s
o f m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r s w i l l b e o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o th e
p o s i t i o n s o u t l i n e d i n t h e i r r h e t o r i c s * r a t h e r th a n i n th e
o r d e r i n w h ic h t h e y a p p e a r on t h e c h a r t .
T a b le If d e p i c t s t h e f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f a
p a r t i c u l a r p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n * r e g a r d e d e i t h e r a s a
s i n g l e e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t o r a s one o f a num ber o f
d e t e r m i n a n t s * f o u n d i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f m i n o r c o n t r i b u t o r s .
More s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r v ie w s h a s b e e n
r e l e g a t e d t o A p p e n d ix E. The l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e s e
w r i t e r s a f f i r m e d a p h i l o s o p h y o f r h e t o r i c i n w h ic h b o t h
e n d s and m eans assu m e i m p o r t a n c e . Many o f t h e s e same
c o n t r i b u t o r s n o t e d th e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s p e a k e r ' s
c h a r a c t e r an d h i s e t h i c s .
TABLE 3
MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS: IDEAL PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS OP
CONTEMPORARY RHETORICIANS
W r i t e r s
P o s i t i o n s
R e f e r e n c e
B a i r d
I I I VI
f tio n s s e n
I I I VI
B a k e r , V.
I I I VI
B a s k e r v i l l e
VI
B o r e h e r s
I I I VI
B ra n d e n b u rg
I I I IV
B rem beck Sc H o w ell I I I VI
H o w ell Sc S m ith VI
B r l g a n c e
I I I I I VI
B r y a n t
VI
W a lla c e
VI
B u rk e
VI
C l a r k
VI
( 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 . 1 5 , 1 8 , » 1 9 . » 2 0 ,« 2 3 3 *)
( 2 3 3 , • 2 3 4 .* 2 3 5 ,* 576)
(281, 282*)
(2 8 5 )
( 3 7 , • 2 4 4 *)
(3 0 0 , 301)
(4 1 )
( 118)
(4 3 , 4 4 . 4 5 , 4 6 . 4 7 , 4 8 , 3 0 4 , 3 0 5 , 3 0 6 )
( 5 1 ,* 5 2 , » 5 3 , a 5kP 3 0 8 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 0 )
( 5 1 ,* 5 2 , * 5 3 , * 5 4 , * 5 8 2 , 5 8 3 , 5 8 4 , 585)
K57 , 58 , 5 9 , 60)
(3 2 7 , 328)
^ W r i t t e n i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h one o r more c o - a u t h o r s .
^ I m p l i e d p o s i t i o n .
212
C l e v e n g e r
C r o c k e r
C r o f t
D a h ls tr o m
E l l i s
Swbank
E ubank
Hainan
H u ltz e n
K a n tn e r
M cBurney
M in n ie k
M urphy
M u rray
M i l s e n
O l i v e r
P e l l e g r i n i
R ice
Rogge
R o w e ll
S c a n l a n
S c h r i e r
3 Im re 11
V a l t e r
W eav er, R.
W e in b e rg
W ile y
W inans
Youngerm an
VI
II III VI
VI
III VI
III VI
III VI
III VI
VI
II IV
III VI
II III VI
III VI
II III VI
VI
VI
III VI
VI
III VI
III VI
VI
III VI
III VIb
VI
VI
III VI
III VI
IV
III VI
Totals 0 5 2k Ij. 0 37 0
329)
7 5 , 3 3 9 . 3 ltl)
3 k2)
8 8 , * 8 9 , * 367)
6k2)
3 8 3 , 38)).)
5-09 )
I*., 1)17» I*i8, 1 4 9 )
1 5 1 ,* 1 5 2 , * 1 5 3 ,* I S ) , * 155*)
1 6 3 , 1)59) , , , „
1 7 1 , 1 7 2 . 1)61), 1)65)
1 7 3 ,» , 1)67. 1)68, 1)69)
1)76, 1)77. 1)78, 1)79)
1 8 1 , 1 8 2 , 181), 1 8 5 ,* 1 8 6 ,* 1)85,
191), 1)89, 1)90)
503)
509)
515)
2 3 5 .* 5 2 2 , 5 2 3 , 521). 5 2 5 . 526)
531)
537)
5 8 6 , 591)*)
2 1)6 )
591)
595)
2 5 7 , 2 5 8 , 259*)
608)
21k
TABLE k
MINOR CONTRIBUTORS: A SUMMARY OP IDEAL PHILOSOPHICAL
POSITIONS OF CONTEMPORARY RHETORICIANS
P o s i t i o n F r e q u e n c y
I 5
I I 3
I I I
21
IV
*4
V
15
VI
43
V II 1
The l a r g e s t n u m b er o f c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t o r i c i a n s
I d e n t i f i e d t h r e e e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s - - t h e c h a r a c t e r o f
t h e p e r s u a d e r * th e e n d a he s e l e c t s * a n d t h e m eans o f
p e r s u a s i o n w h ic h he u s e s (POSITIONS I I I , V I ) , T h is g r o u p
w i l l b e t h e f i r s t one e x a m in e d .
A. C r a i g B a i r d (a n d c o - a u t h o r s ) . — B a i r d ' s v ie w o f
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s p e e c h to d e m o c r a c y c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d
th e one t a k e n i n C h a p t e r I o f t h i s s t u d y . I n a v o lu m e c o
a u t h o r e d by T honssen* f re e d o m o f man was i d e n t i f i e d a s th e
u l t i m a t e e n d o f s p e e c h c r a f t ( 2 3 3 : i|-70) ; i n d e e d , th e s p e c i a l
aim o f s p e e c h i s th e s u p p o r t o f d e m o c ra c y (27lj.:2l+3) . The
m ovem ent t o l i m i t f r e e s p e e c h i s a t h r e a t t o d e m o c r a c y
f o r t h e y p o s s e s s a c e r t a i n i d e n t i t y i n t h a t th e y p a r t i c i
p a t e o f on e a n o t h e r (27i+:2l+.3). T h i s p o i n t w as e l a b o r a t e d
on i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f S p e e c h C r i t i c i s m ;
I f man i s a p o l i t i c a l a n i m a l ; i f h e u s e s s p e e c h to
215
a c h i e v e h l a e n d s I n d e l i b e r a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s , h e a l s o
n e e d s a g u i d i n g e t h i c , a s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h w i l l
e n a b l e h im to j u d g e th e r i g h t fro m t h e w ro n g and t o
g o v e r n h i s c o n d u c t b y a p p e a l t o m o ra l s t a n d a r d s .
H i l s i s s im p l y a n o t h e r way o f s a y i n g t h a t r h e t o r i c
i s to be u s e d to g i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s to t r u t h . I t i s
n o t I n t e n d e d t o g i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s t o t h e s p e a k e r ,
p e r s e , o r t o t e c h n i q u e s , p e r s e . ( 2 3 3 : 1 4 - 7 0 )
I t must be made clear that the "truth” which Baird defined
a s t h e e n d o f r h e t o r i c i n m o st o f h i s w r i t i n g s i s i d e n t i c a l
w i t h d e m o c r a t i c t r u t h , p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y , t h e f r e e d o m o f
man. This i s h is goal for responsible utterance.
The s p e a k e r ' s m o tiv e i s a f u n c t i o n o f h i s e t h o s (1 9 :
1 6 3 ) • The e t h i c a l p e r s u a d e r s e e k s to i n t e r p r e t t r u t h a s
h e s e e s i t ( 2 7 7 : 7 0 ) . The c o - a u t h o r s o f E s s e n t i a l s o f
G e n e r a l S p e e c h c l a r i f i e d t h i s v i e w p o i n t :
One a s p e c t o f th e f u n c t i o n i n g o f y o u r p e r s o n a l i t y i n
th e s p e a k i n g s i t u a t i o n i s t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f th e f a c t
t h a t you a r e a n e t h i c a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n , aw are
t h a t y o u may do much h arm o r much good t h r o u g h y o u r
r e m a r k s . . . . As a s p e a k e r , you h a v e a s e c r e t
a l l i a n c e w i t h m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s - - a co m m itm en t w h ic h
w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n y o u r h a n d l i n g o f y o u r i d e a s and
i n y o u r a t t i t u d e to w a r d y o u r a u d i e n c e . ( 1 9 : 1 1 )
W h ile t h e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n a r e i n p r a c t i c e am oral,
s i n c e t h e y a r e ( 1 ) " c a p a b l e o f b o t h e n l i g h t e n e d and e v i l
u s e , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r " ( 2 3 3 :
I4.7 I ) , and (2 ) J u d g e d b y how e f f e c t i v e t h e y a r e ( 1 6 :5 ) » t h e y
s t i l l c a n n o t b e a s s e s s e d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e u l t i m a t e
e n d s t o be s e r v e d ( 2 3 3 : 1 4- 6 1 ) • T e c h n iq u e s w h ic h " f r u s t r a t e
t h e h i g h e r c o d e s o f s o c i e t y " a r e u n e t h i c a l ( 1 8 :1 9 5 ) * A
s p e e c h i s e f f e c t i v e when i t i s s u c c e s s f u l i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g
th e s p e a k e r ' s p u r p o s e , b u t o n l y i f t h a t p u r p o s e i s l i k e w i s e
216
"consistent with the d icta te s of responsible Judgment and
s o lic ito u s regard for the p o sitiv e good of an enlightened
society" (233:14-61). Baird wrote in another book:
At the bottom, our judgments depend upon our standards
of value. If the persuasions . . . point to so c ia l
am elioration and the progress of American cu ltu ra l
l i f e , we hold such speakers constructive in th eir
speaking in flu en ce. I f the H itleria n demagogues leave
in their train so c ia l d eterioration , we pronounce the
speechmaker a fa ilu r e --e v e n though he possesses
splendid d elivery and powerful propagandistic appeal.
( 1 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 )
Propaganda and persuasion are not very d iffe r e n t, although
i t i s probable that the propagandist uses certain tech
niques more fr e e ly and le s s responsibly ( 2 3 3 : 2 8 2 - 8 3 ) • Bad
propaganda i s simply another name for the use of f a lla c ie s
in speaking (27i|»:2i|JL|.); and consequently, th eir use does
not n ecessa rily imply an unworthy purpose (19:291, 20:22i|.).
Such techniques are both il l o g i c a l and unethical ( P j l \ • ? i \ l\).
The main issu e in a reunion of e th ic s and rhetoric is the
" recon ciliatio n of the instrumental means of acquiring
responses from hearers with the e th ic a l considerations
r e la tiv e to the character of the desired ends" (233:1|.70).
Baird (and h is co-authors) are true to the c la s s ic a l
trad ition in th eir espousal of the amorality of rh eto rical
techniques in p ra ctice. While th eir id eal p o sitio n bears
certain resemblances, i t d iffe r s markedly in i t s consider
ation of means-ends rela tio n sh ip s. The id eal persuader is
one who "costumes truth e ffe c tiv e ly " (233:14-71); h is purpose
Is consonant with democracy. Its choice Is la rg ely a
217
function of hla character (POSITION I I I ) . While these
w riters seem to recognize the end as the f in a l determinant
of an e th ic s of speechmaklng, unlike the c la s s ic a l w riters,
they do not condone the use of any means. Those techniques
which fru stra te the high Id eals of speech are u neth ical.
The e f fe c t of th is corollary of the f in a l determinant is a
m odification of the tra d itio n a l doctrine In which the end
J u s tifie s the means. In fa c t, in their philosophy the end
p a rticip a tes of the means; th eir id eal persuader serves
democracy with means which do not negate the end (POSITION
VI).
Lester Thonssen (and co-au th ors). —Speech C riticism
(233) was the major source of the r h e to r ic a l-e th ic a l p o si
tion of Lester Thonssen as well as A. Craig Baird. The
philosophy expounded in th is volume, summarized above, was
supported by reference to other of Thonssen's published
works, although Speech C riticism was more complete. Speech
Preparation and D elivery, co-authored with Ross Scanlan,
stressed the amorallty of rh eto rica l Instruments and th eir
use by both good and e v il men ( 2 3 5 : 1 1 6 - 2 5 ) • Basic Training
in Speech, co-authored with Howard G ilkinson, explained
honest and dishonest uses of certain persuasive means (234:
2 6 6 - 6 9 )* while Thonssen*s a r t ic le , "The S ocial Values of
D iscussion and Debate’ 1 ( 5 7 6 ) , elaborated upon these speech
forms as I n te lle c tu a lly honest means to truth and reason
able conclusions ( 5 7 6 : 1 1 3 - 1 4 ) •
218
• R i e r e f o r e , b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f T h o n s s e n 's
a n d B a i r d ' s w r i t i n g s a s a w h o le , T h o n s s e n 's p h i l o s o p h y was
s i m i l a r l y c a t e g o r i z e d a s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e s p e a k e r ' s
c h a r a c t e r (POSITION I I I ) and th e m eans and e n d s s e l e c t e d
b y him (POSITION V I ) .
V irg il Baker and Ralph Eubanks. —In h is most recent
a r t i c l e , c o - a u t h o r e d w i t h R a lp h T. S u b a n k s , B a k e r u r g e d a
d e m o c r a c y - c e n t e r e d s p e e c h c r a f t ( 2 6 7 : 7 6 ) . R e s p o n s i b l e
speech o u g h t t o r e a f f i r m d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l s ( 2 8 2 : 7 5 ) . They
sp o k e o f " o u r s p e c i a l d u t y " a s r h e t o r i c i a n s :
The v a l u e s o f d e m o c r a t i c l i v i n g s h o u l d u n d e r g i r d and
I n f o r m o u r r h e t o r i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n . S u ch co m m itm en t
m u s t r e s u l t i n o u r b e i n g m ore c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e
e t h i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f r h e t o r i c and w i t h t h e e x t e n s i o n
o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e fro m a m e c h a n i c a l , a - d e m o c r a t l c
s t u d y t o a r h e t o r i c o f p r i n c i p l e s f o r d e m o c r a t i c
s p e a k i n g . ( 2 8 2 :7 3 )
More s p e c i f i c t r e a t m e n t w as f o u n d i n an e a r l i e r a r t i c l e by
B a k e r , w hose p u r p o s e w as t o d e f i n e w h a t t h e a r t o f s p e a k
i n g l £ and i s n o t ( 2 8 1 : 3 1 8 - 2 0 ) . B e c a u s e a s p e a k e r h a s
f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h i n a d e m o c r a c y , he i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s
I d e a s ( 2 8 1 : 3 1 8 ) . He h a s a n o b l i g a t i o n to w o rk f o r t h e w e l
f a r e o f h i s s o c i e t y , n o t f o r j u s t h i s own p e r s o n a l a d v a n
t a g e ( 2 8 1 : 3 1 3 ) . I f a p e r s o n i s t o p r a c t i c e t h e a r t o f
p u b l i c s p e a k i n g , h e m u s t b e a m o r a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n ,
and a v o i d t h e a r t i f i c e s o f v a n d a l i s m ( d e s t r u c t i o n o f w h a t
i s g o o d ) , d e m o g o g u e ry ( a p p e a l s t o l o w e r m o t i v e s and b a s e
c o n c e p t i o n s ) , a i d p r o p a g a n d a ( f a c t u a l d i s t o r t i o n , s u b s t i t u
t i o n o f n a m e - c a l l i n g an d t h e s c a p e g o a t d e v i c e f o r d e b a t e on
219
the Issues) which are not part of the art { 2 8 1 : 3 1 9 ) .
Therefore, In summary, one concludes that Baker and Kubanka
find the e th ic a l variab les to be the ends sought, the means
used, and the character of the persuader (POSITIONS I I I ,
VI). The e th ic a l speaker Is a morally responsible person
who uses the art of speech rather than the a r t if ic e s
mentioned for the betteim ent of democratic s o c ie ty .
Gladys Borchera (and co-au th ors).- - I n Chapter X,
"Language and E th ic s ,” of Modern Speech, by Gladys Borchers
and Claude Wise, prevalent views on the e th ic a l use of
language were enumerated, although th is l i s t i n g was not
documented (3 7 :2 4 7 - 8 3 ) • Of the seven a ttitu d e s surveyed,
the f i r s t seemed to be the one assumed by Borchers in an
e a r lie r te x t co-authored with Andrew Weaver and Charles
Woolbert ( 2 4 4 : 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 ) . (1) Language i s an instrument of
power whose devices are to be measured by standards of
u t i l i t y (POSITION I ); (2 ) language i s e th ic a l when appeals
are directed to worthy motives and when legitim ate tech
niques are used (POSITION V); (3) an extreme form of two,
in which in addition to using legitim ate techniques, i . e . ,
unbiased, f u l l , and accurate information, lo g ic a l appeals
d irected to the mind, appeals to higher m otives, the
speaker has an ob liga tion to fu rth er the progress of the
race (POSITION VI); ( 4 ) * desirable end j u s t i f i e s the use
of any means (POSITION IV); (5 ) * denial of four, in which
the proponents deny th at a worthy cause can J u stify the use
220
o f b a d d e v i c e s ( s i m i l a r t o t h r e e a b o v e , POSITION V I ) ; (6)
e v e n th o u g h some t e c h n i q u e s c a n n o t b e a p p r o v e d fro m an
e t h i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , t h e y m u s t b e u s e d t o a c h i e v e t h e
s p e a k e r ' s g o a l ( i d e n t i c a l w i t h one a b o v e , POSITION I ) ; (7)
t h e e t h i c a l u s e o f l a n g u a g e i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e good
i n t e n t i o n s , i . e . , s i n c e r i t y , o f t h e s p e a k e r (POSITION I I I )
( 3 7 : 2 7 5 - 7 7 ) .
Which view or views did the w riters of Modern Speech
espouse? They recognised the amorallty of propaganda and
language (37:270,27^)* and placed the fin a l determinant of
the e th ic a l use of language in the hands of the user:
To say that a user of language should be a "good"
man says only the obvious, i f goodness is assumed
to be a desirable c h a r a c te r istic . The questions are,
rather: What is goodness? What is a good man? What
uses of language w ill a good man approve and what ones
w ill he condemn? These questions Involve the ahole
range of e th ic s and probably cannot be answered;
certa in ly they cannot be answered here. ( 3 7 :2 7 5 )
A l t h o u g h a s p e c i f i c l i s t o f u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e s i s d i f f i
c u l t to c o m p i l e , i t i s p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e o n e v ie w o f an
e t h i c s o f l a n g u a g e b y th e e f f e c t l a n g u a g e h a s on human
r e l a t i o n s h i p s : l a n g u a g e may b e e v a l u a t e d a s e t h i c a l i f i t
r e s u l t s i n b e t t e r a u d i e n c e a d j u s t m e n t to t h e w o r ld a n d t o
o t h e r p e o p l e , u n e t h i c a l I f i t r e s u l t s i n m a l a d j u s t m e n t
( 3 7 : 2 7 7 * 7 8 ) . L a t e r s t a t e m e n t s r e v e a l t h a t t h i s v ie w
e n c o m p a s s e s b o t h on d a and m e a n s .
M an must build h is own s e t of e th ic a l standards
within the lim its provided by h is so c ie ty , and In doing
221
t h i s he m i g h t k e e p c e r t a i n g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s I n m in d :
(1 ) L a n g u a g e o u g h t to b e n e f i t th e u s e r , o t h e r I n d i v i d u a l s ,
a n d s o c i e t y ; (2) I t s h o u ld b e u s e d to p ro m o te t h e g e n e r a l
w e l f a r e and th e common g o o d , n o t m e r e l y to c o n t r o l o r
I n f l u e n c e ; (3) I t s u s e r a s su m e s a m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o
u s e l a n g u a g e w i s e l y , s a n e l y , a n d I n t e l l i g e n t l y , a n d h i s
i n t e n t i o n t o do t h i s i s n o t a d e q u a t e ; (l\.) h e s h o u l d u s e
h i s s k i l l f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f s o c i e t y , (5 ) n o t f o r h i s own
e n d s , and f u r t h e r m o r e , he s h o u ld n o t r e g a r d t h e en d a s
J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e m e a n s; (6 ) he s h o u l d a p p e a l t o h i g h e r
m o t i v e s , an d (7 ) b e c a u s e he I s t h e k e y t o t h e p r o p e r u s e o f
l a n g u a g e , h e s h o u ld g u a r d h i m s e l f a g a i n s t s e l f - d e c e i t and
r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ( 3 7 : 2 7 9 - 8 1 ) •
I n sum m ary, B o r c h e r s "good man" I s n o t e x c u s e d by
I g n o r a n c e ; he m u s t n o t o n l y I n t e n d t o u s e h i s a r t e t h i c a l l y ,
he m u s t a c t u a l l y u s e i t e t h i c a l l y . P a r t o f h i s o b l i g a t i o n
r e q u i r e s t h a t h e g u a r d h i m s e l f a g a i n s t s e l f - d e c e i t so t h a t
he w i l l do s o . The c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r i s c e n t r a l t o
B o r c h e r ' s i d e a l p e r s u a d e r (POSITION I I I ) ; h e i s a s p e a k e r
who n o t o n l y I n t e n d s t o b u t a c t u a l l y u s e s h i s a r t e t h i c a l
l y , I . e . , h e u s e s l e g i t i m a t e t e c h n i q u e s to f o r w a r d d e s i r a
b l e e n d s (POSITION V I ) . ( I a ssu m e d t h a t B o r c h e r ' s e a r l i e r
p o s i t i o n w as d i s p l a c e d b y h e r m a t u r e d v i e w . )
W in s to n B rem beck an d W i l l i a m S . H o w e l l .- - O n e o f t h e
m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t s o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y e t h i c s o f
r h e t o r i c was o f f e r e d by W in s to n B rem b eck a n d W i l l i a m S.
222
H o w e ll i n t h e i r b o o k . P e r s u a s i o n ; A Means o f S o c i a l C o n t r o l
( i l l ) . T h e i r C h a p t e r XXIV p ro p o u n d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e s i s :
A c c e p te d s t a n d a r d s o f e t h i c s n o t o n l y a r e w o rd e d i n
g e n e r a l t e r m s b u t v a r y w i t h t h e tim e s a n d w i t h v a r y i n g
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h i s a d a p t a b i l i t y o r f l e x i b i l i t y i s so
i m p r e s s i v e t h a t we a r e f o r c e d to c o n c l u d e : e t h i c s
o f p e r s u a s i o n I s a f u n c t i o n o f c o n t e x t . (1^1:1^66)
P r i o r to t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e i r own v ie w , Q rem beck a n d
H o w e ll d i s c u s s e d t h e s e a c c e p t e d s t a n d a r d s , t h e v a r i o u s
a p p r o a c h e s o f w r i t e r s o f p e r s u a s i o n and p r o p a g a n d a : (1)
s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f ta b o o w o rd s an d p h r a s e s , e . g . , n a m e -
c a l l i n g o r l o a d e d w o rd s ; (2 ) d e s c r i p t i o n an d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
o f d e c e p t i o n s , e . g . , d i s t o r t i o n o r f a l s i f i c a t i o n o f e v i
d e n c e , d i v e r s i o n fro m t h e I s s u e s , c o n c e a l m e n t o f t h e r e a l
p u r p o s e ; (3 ) r e l i a n c e up o n r e a s o n t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r
known a p p e a l s ; (i;.) c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f a c c e p t a b l e m o tiv e
a p p e a l s ; (5 ) r e s t r i c t i o n s b a s e d u p o n a p h i l o s o p h y i n w h ic h
t h e e n d J u s t i f i e s t h e m e a n s ; (6 ) r e s t r i c t i o n s b a s e d u p o n
t h e c o n c e p t o f "w h at y o u c a n g e t aw ay w i t h " (i|J:!j!|.6-55) •
I n t h e p l a c e o f t h e s e " h e l p f u l b u t f r a g m e n t a r y "
a p p r o a c h e s , B rem beck an d H o w e ll s u b s t i t u t e d an a p p r o a c h
a p p l i c a b l e to e v e r y c a s e ( l^ l : i ^ 5 l v 5 5 ) : " E t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s
f o r p e r s u a s i o n c a n be f o r m u l a t e d t h r o u g h a c o n t e x t a n a l y s i s
u s i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s e s o f b e h a v i o r
a n d th e c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l u t i l i t y " (1^1:1^65).
The p r o c e s s o f end i n s p e c t i o n . I n c l u d i n g th e e x a m i
n a t i o n o f b o t h s h o r t an d l o n g - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s , i s e s s e n
t i a l t o m a k in g an e t h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n (1 ^ 1 :^ 6 0 - 6 1 ) . The
223
s o c i a l u t i l i t y o f a n a c t , i . e . , I t s e f f e c t s upon o r u s e f u l
n e s s t o t h e p e o p l e a f f e c t e d , may be a s s e s s e d b y m a k in g an
a n a l y s i s o f th e m e m b e rsh ip an d i n t e r e s t s o f t h e g r o u p and
o f th e e f f e c t s o f t h e p e r s u a s i v e a c t u p o n them b o t h a s
I n d i v i d u a l s a n d a s m em bers o f t h e g r o u p ( 4 l : 4 5 5 ) . The
" p e r s u a d e r ' s s i n c e r e e f f o r t t o a b i d e by some s o c i a l u t i l i t y
p r i n c i p l e s " i s th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t move to w a rd b e i n g e t h i c a l
When i t i s c o n s i d e r e d i n c o n t e x t , t h e en d ( s o c i a l
u t i l i t y ) i s a "m o st e x c e l l e n t a n d m e a n i n g f u l c h e c k up o n th e
l e g i t i m a c y o f th e m e a n s ," an d y e t t h e m eans t h e m s e l v e s m u s t
m e e t c e r t a i n s o c i a l and h u m a n i t a r i a n e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s ( 4 l :
4 5 3 )* I f q u e s t i o n a b l e m eans a r e u s e d , t h e e n d is c o n t a m i
n a t e d by them (I|JL:453) •
The m e a n s, i . e . , t h e c o n t e n t d e t a i l s , m u s t a l s o be
e v a l u a t e d when m a k in g an e t h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n ( I4. I : 4 6 1 ) .
E x p e r i m e n t a l an d n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s e s o f b e h a v i o r ca n
h e l p th e e v a l u a t o r a t t h i s p o i n t ; f o r e x a m p le , an a n a l y s i s
o f b e l i e f s d e r i v e d fro m one o r th e o t h e r o f t h e s e b a s e s
c a n b e u s e d to d e t e r m i n e t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f a p p e a l s u s e d
i n a n y g i v e n c a s e (i|J.:l|.6 l) • An e x p e r i m e n t a l l y b a s e d b e l i e f
i s on e w h ic h i s th e p r o d u c t o f t e s t e d and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y
v e r i f i e d d a t a ; a n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l l y b a s e d b e l i e f i s one
d e r i v e d fro m p r o p o s i t i o n s a c c e p t e d w i t h o u t p r o o f ( 4 l : 4 5 6 ) .
T h e se b e l i e f s I n f l u e n c e t h e g ro u p i n m a k in g d e c i s i o n s (lj.1:
4 5 6 ) .
2 ? \
E t h i c a l c r i t e r i a may be f o r m u l a t e d u s i n g t h e s e
b a s e s o f b e h a v i o r : (1 ) a n e t h i c a l p e r s u a d e r w i l l n o t u s e
n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o p o s i t i o n s a s p r e m i s e s fro m w h ic h he
r e a s o n s e x p e r i m e n t a l l y ( 4 1 : 4 5 7 ) ; (2) s i n c e n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l
b e l i e f s a r e c a p a b l e o f v a r y i n g I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , th e e t h i c a l
p e r s u a d e r w i l l i n d i c a t e n o t o n l y t h e r a n g e b u t a l s o a n y
e x c e p t i o n s o r s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s ( 4 1 : 4 5 7 - 5 8 ) ; (3 ) s i n c e
s u c h b e l i e f s a r e f r e q u e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y , th e e t h i c a l
p e r s u a d e r w i l l n o t b a s e h i s p e r s u a s i o n on t h e a s s u m p t i o n
t h a t p e o p l e a r e l o g i c a l i n t h e s e b e l i e f p a t t e r n s ( 4 l :
4 5 8 - 5 9 ) I (4 ) w in ce p e o p l e t e n d to r a t i o n a l i s e t h e i r n o n
e x p e r i m e n t a l b e l i e f s , t h e e t h i c a l p e r s u a d e r w i l l n o t p r e
t e n d to b a s e h i s c a s e on r e a s o n when t h e r e i s i n a d e q u a t e
i n f o r m a t i o n o r when r i g i d r e a s o n i n g t e s t s c a n n o t be
a p p l i e d ( 4 l : 4 5 9 ) » (5 ) s i n c e t h e s e b e l i e f s t e n d to be r e
s i s t a n t t o c h a n g e , t h e e t h i c a l p e r s u a d e r w i l l n o t p e r s u a d e
h i s a u d i e n c e i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s known f a c t ( 4 1 : 4 ^ 0 )•
A t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e e t h i c a l e v a l u a t i o n , B rem b eck
an d H o w e ll w o u ld u t i l i z e some o f t h e commonly a c c e p t e d
e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s ( 4 1 :4 8 1 ) *
The f in a l determinant in th eir e th ic a l system is the
speaker's habitual pattern o f m orality, which In evitab ly
lim its h is e th ic a l q u ality (4l:483)*
In summary, Brembeck and Howell noted that the
persuader's character i s a lim itin g fa cto r in determining
h is e th ic a l behavior (POSITION I I I ) , but given the
2 2 5
n e c e s s a r y e t h i c a l p o t e n t i a l , t h a t s p e a k e r i s e t h i c a l who
a d h e r e s to some c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l u t i l i t y , a n d who u s e s
a p p e a l s s u i t a b l e to t h e b a s i s o f t h e b e l i e f s o f th e
a u d i e n c e (POSITION V I ) ,
C a r l D a h l a t r o m . — I n a J o u r n a l a r t i c l e w r i t t e n a s a
s a m p le p r e f a c e f o r a s p e e c h t e x t , C a r l D a h l s tr o m a d v a n c e d
th e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t "when t h e m eans a r e c o r r u p t , t h e end
w i l l be c o r r u p t e d " (3 M + :4 2 0 ). He r e i t e r a t e d o n e o f
C a r l y l e ' s th em es t h a t a s p e a k e r s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d
good i f he d o e s n o t s p e a k th e t r u t h ( 3 4 4 : 4 1 8 ) . D a h l s tr o m
d i d n o t f a v o r I r r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g ( l y i n g , d e c e i t , t h e
u s e o f a n y e x p e d i e n t m e a n s, o r th e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a
p l e a s i n g p e r s o n a l i t y f o r e i t h e r a w o r th y o r a d i s h o n e s t
c a u s e ) ; I n s t e a d he u r g e d a " s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e " s p e a k i n g
d e p e n d a n t upon p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y (31+4:418“ 21+) •
D a h l s tr o m * s p r o p o s e d p r e f a o e c h a m p io n e d th e r h e t o r i c
o f a man o f i n t e g r i t y (POSITION I I I ) , w hose s p e a k i n g i s
s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e , i . e . , l e g i t i m a t e p e r s u a s i v e d e v i c e s
a r e d e s i g n e d to f o r w a r d w o r t h y , h o n e s t g o a l s (POSITION V I ) .
A l t h o u g h th e r e f e r e n c e to d e s i r a b l e e n d s i s n o t e x p l i c i t
i n t h i s s o u r c e , i t i s r a t h e r c l e a r l y i m p l i e d .
C a r r o l l B ro o k s B i l l s . - - C a r r o l l B ro o k s E l l i s w r o t e i n
t h e S o u t h e r n S p e e c h J o u r n a l o f th e i m p o r t a n c e o f a r e -
e m p h a s is u p o n t h e w ord " g o o d " i n Q u i n t i l i a n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f
an o r a t o r ( 3 6 4 :8 5 ) * The s p e e c h f i e l d , h e f e l t , h a s p a i d
to o l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n to th e l e g i t i m a t e u s e o f s p e e c h s k i l l s
and t o th e e t h i c a l r e a p o n s l b l l l t i e s o f th e s p e a k e r (361;.:
8 5 ) . W h ile h e d i d a d m it t h a t th e w ord "g o o d " I s s u b j e c t
t o v a r y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , he I t e m i s e d a n u m b e r o f
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h he b e l i e v e d would h e l p t h e s p e a k e r be
a b e t t e r man: (1 ) h i s c o n c l u s i o n s s h o u l d be t h e p r o d u c t
" o f o b s e r v a t i o n , s t u d y , and s c r u p u l o u s o b j e c t i v e t h i n k i n g "
( 3 6 ^ : 8 7 ) ; (2 ) he s h o u ld n o t s t i f l e h i s own c r e a t i v i t y a s a
p o s s i b l e f a c t o r I n r e a c h i n g a c o n c l u s i o n ; (3) h e s h o u ld
s t r e n g t h e n h i s a b i l i t y to ju d g e good and e v i l ; a n d (lj.) he
s h o u l d p o s s e s s a s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d s e l f - r e s p e c t
( 3 6 i f : 8 7 - 8 8 ) . One c a n o o n c lu d e fro m E l l i s ’ r e i t e r a t i o n o f
t h e Roman i d e a l t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r I s b a s i c
I n an y e t h i c a l a n a l y s i s (POSITION I I I ) , and t h a t t h e u s e
o f good and e v i l e n d s o r m eans i s f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d to
t h e s p e a k e r a s a man (POSITION V I ) .
H en ry Lee Bwbank (a n d c o - a u t h o r s ) . — I n a n a r t i c l e ,
" T e a c h i n g S p e e c h f o r Human R e l a t i o n s , " H e n ry Lee Ewbank
summed up b o t h h i s i d e a l an d r e a l p o s i t i o n :
I n o u r t e a c h i n g we s h o u l d s t r e s s t h e f a c t t h a t
s p e e c h e s may be u s e d f o r u n w o rth y a s w e l l a s w o r th y
p u r p o s e s : to c o n f u s e I n s t e a d o f c l a r i f y i n g t h e i s s u e ;
t o d e s t r o y a r e f u t a t i o n b y u n w a r r a n t e d c h a r g e s ; to t e l l
t h e t r u t h , b u t n o t t h e w h o le t r u t h . We s h o u l d i n s i s t
on a c o d e t h a t d o e s n o t t o l e r a t e h i t t i n g b e lo w t h e
b e l t , c l i p p i n g , o r u n n e c e s s a r y r o u g h n e s s . ( 3 6 7 :1 3 )
I n t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f D i s c u s s i o n a n d D e b a t e , Ewbank and
J . J e f f r e y A uer o u t l i n e d t h i s m o r a l c o d e ( 8 8 : 2 7 8 ) . A l
th o u g h a s p e a k e r m u s t a n s w e r to h i s a u d i e n c e and t o h i s
c o n s c i e n c e f o r h i s b e h a v i o r , c e r t a i n p r a c t i c e s a r e u n -
227
e t h i c a l i f he s i n c e r e l y b e l i e v e s I n h i s c a u s e : (1 ) to u s e
p e r s u a s i v e a p p e a l s when he knows t h a t a c r i t i c a l e x a m in a
t i o n o f t h e f a c t s would r e s u l t I n t h e r e j e c t i o n o f h i a
p r o p o s a l * (2 ) to d i v e r t a t t e n t i o n fro m t h e w e a k n e s s e s i n
h i s p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h u s i n g a p p e a l s to h a t r e d * i n t o l e r a n c e *
e t c . * (3 ) t o c o n c e a l h i s r e a l m o t i v e , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n
w h ic h he r e p r e s e n t s * o r t o p r e t e n d t o I n v e s t i g a t e a m a t t e r
o b j e c t i v e l y when i n t r u t h he i s an a d v o c a te * (1^) t o p o s e
a s an e x p e r t I n an a r e a I n w h ich he h a s o n l y a l a y m a n 's
a u t h o r i t y ( 8 8 :2 7 8 - 7 9 ) * A n o t h e r u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e was
a d d e d I n the s e c o n d e d i t i o n o f t h e same t e x t : (5 ) to
d i s t o r t a n d f a l s i f y e v i d e n c e ( 6 9 :2 5 5 ) *
The ju d g m e n t o f th e e t h i c a l v a l i d i t y o f h i s p r o o f s
m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s p e a k e r * b u t t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u ld
n e v e r a c c e p t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f a n y a d v o c a t e u n c r i t i c a l l y
b e c a u s e t h e s i n c e r e a d v o c a t e l a I n e v i t a b l y b i a s e d o n ce h e
h a s e m b ra c e d h i s c a u s e ( 8 8 :2 7 7 * 7 9 ) * E v en th o u g h h i s c o n
t r o l o v e r th e u s e o f e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l s I s l i m i t e d * a s
m e n t i o n e d above* t h e e t h i c a l s p e a k e r w i l l a t t e m p t to u s e
them w i t h "d u e r e g a r d f o r s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e 1 * ( 8 8 : 2 6 0 ) .
I n sum m ary, th e p o s i t i o n o f Ew bank a n d A u er may b e
d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s : a s a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , r h e t o r i c I s
a m o r a l s i n c e i t may b e u s e d f o r good o r b ad e n d s by b o t h
good a n d b a d men; b u t I d e a l l y * r h e t o r i c I s m o r a l when a
s i n c e r e s p e a k e r a v o i d s th e u s e o f s p e c i f i e d u n e t h i c a l
p r a c t i c e s a n d p u r s u e s d e s i r a b l e s o c i a l p u r p o s e s (POSITIONS
228
I I I , V I ) .
Wayne C. E u b a n k . - - I n a a p e e c h e n t i t l e d , "The
S p e a k e r ' s E t h i c s I n A rg u m en t and A d v o c a c y ," g i v e n
D ecem ber 2 8 , 1955# b e f o r e a m e e t i n g o f th e S p e e c h A s s o c i a
t i o n o f A m e ric a i n Los A n g e l e s , Wayne C. E ubank o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f New M exico s p e l l e d o u t h i s v ie w s on t h e
e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c (bl^2). He s a i d t h a t c u r r e n t t e x t b o o k s
a n d s p e e c h t e a c h e r s s h o u l d b e v i t a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h
e t h i c s a s w e l l a s t e c h n i q u e s . S t a t e s m e n b u t n o t c h a r l a t a n s
s h o u l d r e s u l t fro m good t r a i n i n g i n t h e a r t o f s p e e c h .
A lth o u g h E ubank r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e i s a t h i n l i n e
b e t w e e n e t h i c a l end u n e t h i c a l s p e a k i n g , he a r g u e d t h a t t h e
l i n e m u s t n e v e r t h e l e s s b e d ra w n . S p e e c h m a k ln g m u st r i s e
ab o v e im m e d ia te u t i l i t y , f i n d i n g i t s e t h i c a l b a s e i n a
s o c i a l u t i l i t y c o n t e x t w h ic h E u b a n k d e s c r i b e d a s good
s p e a k i n g b y good s p e a k e r s d e v o t e d to good c a u s e s . G e n u in e
h o n e s t y a n d r e s p e c t f o r human v a l u e s a r e e s s e n t i a l i f a
s p e a k e r ' s e t h i c s a r e t o b e above r e p r o a c h . The m ark s o f
an e t h i c a l s p e a k e r i n c l u d e : (1) th e u s e o f m eans w h ic h
j u s t i f y th e e n d , (2 ) r e s p e c t f o r f a c t s , (3) t h e u s e o f
f a c t s a s t h e b a s i s f o r c o n c l u s i o n s and t h e r e f u s a l t o
d i s t o r t an d m i s h a n d l e e v i d e n c e , (lj.) t h e r e f u s a l b y t h e
s p e a k e r t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f h i s p o s i t i o n a s a p r i m a r y
s o u r c e o f e v i d e n c e d u r i n g t h e s p e e c h , and (5 ) r e s p e c t f o r
t h e o p i n i o n s o f o t h e r s .
I n sum m ary, E ub an k i m p l i e d t h a t good s p e e c h t r a i n i n g
229
s h o u l d d e v e l o p e t h i c a l s p e a k e r s a s w e l l a s s k i l l e d s p e a k e rs ^
w h ic h 1 I n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t one o f t h e k e y f a c t o r s I n
e t h i c a l s p e e c h m a k ln g I s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r
(POSITION I I I ) . He w as e x p l i c i t I n h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t I n
o r d e r f o r s p e e c h m a k ln g t o b e e t h i c a l l e g i t i m a t e t e c h n i q u e s
m u s t b e u s e d to s e r v e d e s i r a b l e e n d s (POSITION V I ) . I n h i s
v i e w , th e m ean s m u s t j u s t i f y th e e n d .
C la u d e E. K a n t n e r . - - C l a u d e E. K a n t n e r e x p l a i n e d h i s
p h i l o s o p h y o f e t h i c a l p e r s u a s i o n i n w r i t i n g s s p a n n i n g a
t w e l v e - y e a r p e r i o d (ip.8, i f l 9* lj.:3 -2 6 , 14-17). A l l o f t h e s e
s o u r c e s c o n t r i b u t e d to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s p o s i t i o n and
p o r t r a y e d a c o n s i s t e n t v ie w , s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r to t h a t o f
B o r c h e r s a n d W ise i n t h e i r 19^7 t e x t ( 3 7 ) .
The f i r s t a r t i c l e , " S o c i a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y I n S p e e c h
E d u c a t i o n " (I9I4.8) (Ij.l8)» i n w h ic h he n o t e d a c u r r e n t t r e n d
to w a rd i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
s p e a k e r and i n d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s , seam ed
to a p p r o v e a c o n c e p t o f m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t h a t s t r e s s e d th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f u s i n g l a n g u a g e " w i s e l y , s a n e l y , and
a c c u r a t e l y . . . t o f a c i l i t a t e c o o p e r a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n
among i n d i v i d u a l s an d g r o u p s f o r t h e m u t u a l b e n e f i t o f a l l
c o n c e r n e d " (1j. 1 8 : 7 3 ) .
" S p e e c h and E d u c a t i o n i n a D e m o c ra c y " (1 9 5 1 ) d i s
c u s s e d v i t a l a s p e c t s o f t h e r o l e o f s p e e c h e d u c a t i o n i n
c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y a n d c l a r i f i e d h i s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l
p o s i t i o n by n o t i n g t h e i m p o r t m c e o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c -
230
t e r a n d a c o n c e r n f o r t h e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e (if l9 : lif- 2 2 ) •
I n a sym posium on e t h i c a l p r o b le m s i n d e b a t i n g
( 1 9 5 9 )» ho s t r e s s e d d e b a t i n g w h ic h c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e p r o c
e s s o f a s c e r t a i n i n g th e t r u t h b a s i c to c h o i c e s a n d d e c i
s i o n s b e n e f i c i a l t o s o c i e t y (1(17:155)*
H is m o st r e c e n t t r e a t m e n t o f e t h i c s , a s w e l l a s h i s
m o s t c o m p l e t e , a p p e a r e d a s C h a p t e r I , "The N a t u r e , F u n c
t i o n , and P r o b le m s o f L a n g u a g e , n i n t h e I9 6 0 r e v i s i o n o f
A n d e r s c h a n d S t a a t s , S p e e c h f o r E v e r y d a y Use ( if). He
r e i t e r a t e d h i s r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r
a s a m a j o r e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t , a d d i n g t h a t h e m u s t g u a r d
h i m s e l f a g a i n s t s e l f - d e c e i t , an d t h a t he i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a c t s t h a t he d o e s e i t h e r b y c h o i c e o r o u t o f I g n o r a n c e when
h e h a s h a d th e o p p o r t u n i t y to l e a r n ( i f ; 2 3 ) . Even th o u g h
r h e t o r i c i j a m o ra l and l e g i s l a t i o n a g a i n s t " q u e s t i o n a b l e "
p r a c t i c e s i n a d v i s a b l e (If: 1 8 ) , K a n t n e r n e v e r t h e l e s s o f f e r e d
a b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r ( if : 2 1 ) , L a n g u a g e
i s e t h i c a l when I t s e r v e s th e l e g i t i m a t e p u r p o s e s o f b o t h
th e s p e a k e r and th e s o c i e t y i n w h ic h h e s p e a k s :
T h u s , i t may b e s a i d t h a t l a n g u a g e i s u s e d e t h i c a l l y i f
i t c a u s e s o r t e n d s to c a u s e p e o p l e t o im p ro v e t h e i r
a d j u s t m e n t to t h e m s e l v e s , t o o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d t o t h e i r
e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d i f i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e common w e l
f a r e . I t c a n b e c a l l e d u n e t h i c a l i f i t f o s t e r s m a la d
j u s t m e n t , l e a d s t o a c t i o n s h a r m f u l to t h e i n d i v i d u a l
o r s o c i e t y , u n d e r m in e s o r d e s t r o y s i n d i v i d u a l an d
g ro u p v a l u e s , o r e x p l o i t s w e a k n e s s e s i n o u r s e l v e s o r
i n o u r l a n g u a g e , ( if :21)
S u ch a c r i t e r i o n m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t th e u s e o f r h e t o r i c f o r
s e l f i s h e n d s a t t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e g r o u p ( l f : l 8 - 1 9 ) . I t
231
r e q u i r e s a s s e s s m e n t o f th e p r o b a b l e e f f e c t s o f l a n g u a g e
( b o t h I m m e d ia te a n d l o n g - t e r m ) (I4.:2 1 ) • H o w ev er, e v e n a
w o r t h y en d d o e s n o t J u s t i f y t h e u s e o f u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e s
( 4 : 2 2 ) . A b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d s r e s p e c t i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e l n a d -
q u a t e b e c a u s e w h at I s r i g h t o r w ro n g I s f r e q u e n t l y d e t e r
m in e d b y c o n d i t i o n s p e c u l i a r to a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n (4 : 2 0).
I n summ ary, K a n t n e r s u p p o r t e d a p h i l o s o p h y o f
r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s w h ic h made t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r th e
f i n a l d e t e r m i n a n t o f t h e e t h i c a l n a t u r e o f h i s a r t (PO SI
TION I I I ) ; t h e a r t i t s e l f m i g h t be a s s e s s e d a s e t h i c a l i f
i t s e r v e d good p u r p o s e s u s i n g l e g i t i m a t e t e c h n i q u e s
(POSITION V I ) . The end d o e s n o t j u s t i f y th e m e a n s .
Wayne M l n n l c k . — W i t h o u t i d e n t i f y i n g I n much d e t a i l
t h e s p e c i f i c l i t e r a t u r e upon w h ic h h i s c o n c l u s i o n s w ere
b a s e d , Wayne M in n ic k , i n h i s c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d , "The e t h i c s
o f P e r s u a s i o n , " d i s t i n g u i s h e d two b r o a d h i s t o r i c a l a p
p r o a c h e s t o p e r s u a s i v e e t h i c s ( 1 6 3 : 2 7 7 ) . The f i r s t o f
t h e s e v ie w s J u d g e s a s p e a k e r * s e t h i c s b y t h e e n d s o u g h t ,
l e a v i n g th e a r t i t s e l f b a s i c a l l y a m o r a l ( 1 6 3 : 2 7 7 - 7 6 ) . Such
a c r i t e r i o n p l a c e s th e c r i t i c i n th e d i f f i c u l t p r e d i c a m e n t
o f d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t e n d s a r e good a n d w h a t a r e b a d , and
i n e v i t a b l y p e r m i t s a l l m ean s o f p e r s u a s i o n t o be te r m e d
" e t h i c a l " when a p p l i e d to good c a u s e s ( 1 6 3 : 2 7 6 - 7 9 ) .
M in n ic k s u b s c r i b e d to t h e s e c o n d v ie w w h ic h j u d g e s
a s p e a k e r ' s e t h i c s b y th e m ean s e m p lo y e d ( 1 6 3 : 2 7 9 ) . I n an
e a r l i e r a r t i c l e , h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d p r o p a g a n d a fro m p e r s u a -
232
sion not by the d e s ir a b ility of the goal but instead by the
manner in which conviction was won (1^59:39)* Such a
c r ite r io n raises the problem of determining which tech
niques are good and which bad (163:279)* Mlnnlck concluded
that there is general agreement that certain means of
persuasion are u neth ical, that some are in tr in s ic a lly
sound, and that a third group are e th ic a lly neutral (l|.59:
2 8 3 -6 5 )* To assure him self that h is discourse is of "high
e th ic a l q u ality," a speaker must be s e le c tiv e in h is use of
means:
F ir st, he must r e je c t out of hand, a l l frauds, decep
tio n s, concealments, and specious arguments--modes of
persuasion that are I n tr in s ic a lly unsound. Second, he
must c u ltiv a te , to the lim it of h is a b ilit y , the
capacity for carefu l in v estig a tio n and ju d ic ia l and
r e fle c tiv e d elib eration of controversies and problems.
He must endorse only thoae p o sitio n s shose truth-clal®
merits h is advocacy. He must use, as a c r iterio n of
h is own ch o ices, methods that are in tr in s ic a lly sound.
F in a lly , having assured him self as w ell as he can of
the soundness of h is p o sitio n , he may use such e t h ic a l
ly neutral methods as suggestion, emotional ex c ita tio n ,
and the lik e in ways which are co n sisten t with and can
be defended by r e lia b le evidence and sound reasoning.
(163:285- 86)
Mlnnlck argued that the f i r s t view of rh etorical
e th ic s was u n satisfactory, in part, because men do not
agree most of the time about the value o f a sp e c ific act
( 1 6 3 :2 7 9 ) * His la te r remarks seemed to have provided a
solu tion in cases in which such a disagreement e x is ts ; the
solu tion which he offered (but which he did not e x p lic it ly
recognize as a solution) i s to leave the problem in the
hands of the persuader who ought to defend only those
2 33
propositions with high-truth p rob ab ility (163:28/*.). Even
though Mlnnlck dsvslopod th is lin e of reasoning under a
d iscussion of " in tr in s ic a lly sound" means of persuasion,
I t bears a clo se resemblance to an exhortation to serve
truth. Mlnnlck made the legitim acy of the sp e c ific speech
purpose dependent upon the speaker's application of
ra tio n a l methods of in v estig a tio n prior to advocacy. Thus,
in Mlnnlck's scheme of th ings, a ra tio n a lly determined and
r a tio n a lly supported proposition is e th ic a l. The persuader
ap plies the t e s t to h is proposition (POSITION I I I ) . In
order to be e th ic a l, he must avoid unethical devices, use
neutral means in an acceptable way, and c u ltiv a te sound
methods, I . e . , he must advocate only propositions of high-
truth p rob ab ility. While i t i s true that Mlnnlck did not
c la r ify what kind of ultim ate ends a persuader ought to
serve, except to imply that they ougit to be "good," what
ever that means, he did sp ecify that the immediate persua
sive end ought to have "truth" v a lu e. While h is e x p lic it
statements support an e th ic s of rhetoric dependent upon the
legitim acy of means, Im p licit suggestions reveal an end
which Is the function of sound means (POSITION VI).
R o b e r t T. O l i v e r (an d c o - a u t h o r s ) . — One o f th e
e a r l i e s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e t r e a t m e n t s o f an e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c
a p p e a r i n g I n c o n t e m p o r a r y p u b l i c s p e a k i n g t e x t s was i n
c l u d e d i n R o b e r t T. O l i v e r ' s T r a i n i n g f o r E f f e c t i v e S p e e c h ,
p u b l i s h e d i n 1939 (18/*.). The p r a c t i c a l e t h i c a l p r o b le m s
234
d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r T h re e o f t h l a b o o k w ere th e b a s i s o f
O l i v e r ' s p h i l o s o p h y o f e t h i c s an d w ere f o u n d r e p e a t e d and
r e p h r a s e d i n t h e 1 9 5 1 r e v i s i o n o f th e same b o o k , c o - a u t h o r -
ed b y R u p e r t C o r t r i g h t ( 1 6 5 ) , and i n a n u m b er o f o t h e r
t e x t s : C o m m u n ic a tiv e S p e e c h (1 9 5 5 )# c o - a u t h o r e d b y D a l l a s
D ic k e y and Howard Z e lk o ( 1 8 6 ) , F e r s u a s l v e S p e a k in g (1 9 5 0 )
( 1 8 1 ) , and The P s y c h o lo g y o f P e r s u a s i v e S p e e c h (1 9 4 2 )
( 1 8 2 ) . The v ie w s p r e s e n t e d h e r e h av e b e e n draw n fro m a l l
t h e s e s o u r c e s .
R h e t o r i c i s pow er ( 1 8 5 :1 8 ) # i t c a n be u s e d f o r good
o r e v i l ( 1 8 6 : 2 5 b ) . The u s e a s p e a k e r m akes o f t h i s p o w er
i s d e p e n d e n t upon h i s c h a r a c t e r and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f u n c t i o n
i n t h e s p e c i f i c s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n ( 1 8 1 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) : "The t r u l y
p e r s u a s i v e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t h o s e who r e p r e s e n t i n t h e i r own
c h a r a c t e r s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s t h e b e s t t r a i t s o f t h e s o c i e t y
i n w h ic h th e y l i v e " ( 1 8 1 : 3 ) . S p e e c h m a k ln g i s e f f e c t i v e
o n l y i n te r m s o f th e t o t a l c o n t e x t i n w hich i t o p e r a t e s
( 4 8 6 : 2 0 7 ) . B o th good and e v i l men c a n b e p e r s u a s i v e , s i n c e
e i t h e r man may r e p r e s e n t t h e v a l u e s a n d a t t i t u d e s o f a
p a r t i c u l a r a u d i e n c e ( l d l : 3 ) . A lth o u g h c h a r a c t e r i s s t i l l a
r e q u i r e m e n t f o r good s p e a k i n g ( 1 8 5 : 2 1 ) , p e r v e r s e e x a m p le s
o f t h e good m an, l i k e A d o lf H i t l e r , a r e s t i l l p o s s i b l e i f
th e g r o u p s to w h ic h th e y s p e a k s h a r e s i m i l a r q u a l i t i e s
( 1 8 1 : 4 ) .
Hie b a s i c c o r r e c t i v e f o r d e m a g o g u e ry , O l i v e r p o i n t e d
o u t i n an e d i t o r i a l i n T o d a y 's S p e e c h , i s t h e h e a r i n g o f
2 3 5
opposite views (1^.85:32). Since the demagogue may present
h is h a lf-tr u th s or untruths e ffe c tiv e ly * the speaker who
serves truth has an ob ligation to use speech e f fe c t iv e ly
( 1 8 5 : 1 9 ) .
A good man w ill use his art in the service of his
audience and the society in which he liv e s (l8 b :32-33)* but
the demagogue w ill permit h is own advantage to govern h is
speaking (18i|.:72).
Desides the possession of a good character and a
good end* the e th ic a l speaker i s responsible in the use of
rh etorical d evices. H e i s sincere* morally thoughtful*
i .e .* well-inform ed about h is subject and convinced of i t s
rightness ( 1 8 5 :1 9 ) * H e does not cater to his audience
(181^:66); Instead he stic k s to h is high alms even though
success may not be immediate ( 1 8 1 : 1 8 ) . He uses s p e c ific
fa c ts rather than vague g e n e r a litie s , avoids misstatement*
and Inaccurate c it in g of authorities* and la carefu l in
using illu s t r a t iv e sto r ie s and xh etorlcal exaggeration
( l 8 5 : 1 9 ~ 2 1 ) . He does not d elib era tely conceal or omit
important data (1 8 1 :7 7 ) * In summary, one might say that
O liver's e th ic a l speaker has In teg rity in using supporting
m aterials ( 1 8 6 :1 2 7 ) * The e th ic a l speaker not only refuses
to use questionable means deliberately* he assumes a
r e sp o n sib ility to protect h is audience from h is ignorant
use of such devices (186:365-66).
After id en tify in g the character of the e th ic a l
236
p e r s u a d e r , O l i v e r e n d e a v o r e d t o e n u m e r a te t h e m ark s o f th e
d e m ag o g u e, a t t h e same tim e p o i n t i n g o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f
d r a w i n g a c l e a r - c u t l i n e b e tw e e n t h e two ( 1 8 4 : 7 1 ) . The
dem agogue i s th e a n t i t h e s i s o f th e good man ( 1 8 4 :7 2 ) • He
s e r v e s h i s own s e l f i n t e r e s t ( 1 8 4 : 7 2 ) , c a t e r s to h i s
a u d i e n c e , i s a w e a t h e r v a n e o f th e p o p u l a r v ie w , m akes
e x t r a v a g a n t p r o m i s e s , u s e s i l l e g i t i m a t e r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e s ,
and e x p l o i t s t h e p r e j u d i c e s o f h i s a u d i e n c e i n s t e a d o f
h e l p i n g them make s o u n d e r ju d g m e n ts ( 1 8 4 : 7 1 - 7 2 ) .
I n sum m ary, O l i v e r e m p h a s iz e d th e c e n t r a l n a t u r e o f
t h e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c t e r i n d e t e r m i n i n g e t h i c a l p e r s u a s i o n
(POSITION I I I ) . A s p e a k e r w i t h a g o o d c h a r a c t e r u t i l i z e s
l e g i t i m a t e m eans i n t h e s e r v i c e o f d e s i r a b l e e n d s ; a
d e m ag o g u e, on th e o t h e r h a n d , s e r v e s h i s own a d v a n t a g e w i t h
a n y e x p e d i e n t m eans (POSITION V I ) .
Edw ard R o g g e. — Edward Rogge I n a r e c e n t a r t i c l e ,
" E v a l u a t i n g th e E t h i c s o f a S p e a k e r i n a D e m o c r a c y ,"
a p p r o a c h e d e t h i c s f ro m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e r h e t o r i c a l
c r i t i c ( 5 0 9 : 4 2 0 ) - W o rk in g fro m t h e p r e m i s e " t h a t i n a
d e m o c ra c y t h e s t a n d a r d s o f v a l u e b y w h ic h a s p e a k e r and a
s p e e c h a r e e v a l u a t e d m u st be t h e s t a n d a r d s e s t a b l i s h e d by
t h e s o c i e t y , " he a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e s t a n d a r d s m u s t be
d e t e n n i n e d b y t h e e l e c t o r a t e ( 5 0 9 : 4 2 0 ) . T h e se c r i t e r i a
v a r y a s e a c h f a c t o r i n the s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n v a r i e s ; th e y
v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e p r o p o s a l and
a c c o r d i n g t o th e s p e a k e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o h i s a u d i e n c e
237
(5 0 9:1 4 - 20- 2 1 4.).
S o o le ty determ ines th e a o o e p t a b i l l t y of p e rsu a siv e
means and a n d a t the l a t t e r being matched a g a in a t the enda
of h la audlenoe and of h ia s o c ie ty ( 5 0 9 sl|»23— 2I 4.) • Sometimes
th e e l e e t o r a t e w i l l perm it l t a le a d e r t o uae perau aaiv e
means o th erw ise c o n sid ered unworthy (509:l4-2l4.-25); in o th er
words, g ir a n a o e r t a l n c h a r a c te r of s p e a k e r, the audlenoe
may f e e l j u s t i f i e d in a c c e p tin g r e p re h e n s ib le te ch n iq u es
i n th e s e rv lo e of good ends. N e v e rth e le s s , in ev ery c a se ,
th e speaker o u s t oonform to the p e rs u a s iv e morea of h la
s o c ie ty (509:14-21). A l t e r a t i o n s of the speaking r u le s
in e v i t a b l y reo e lv e t h e i r j u s t recom pense, even though the
r e a c t i o n may be delayed ( 5 0 9 : 1 4 -2 2 ) .
In summary, Rogge's view i s h ig h ly re m in isc e n t of
the philosophy of Brembeck and Howell. Like them, he
p la c e s speech in l t a a o o la l c o n te x t (dem ocracy), and o f fe rs
a r e l a t i v e s ta n d a rd . Both the means and ends a re e t h l o a l
d eterm in an ts (POSITION VI), as i s the c h a r a c te r of the
sp eak er (POSITION I I I ) , but Rogge's unique c o n t r ib u tio n is
h i s i n s i s t e n c e on making e t h l o a l s ta n d a rd s a f u n c tio n of
th e e l e c t o r a t e .
George R ic e . — George Rice em phasised th e in tim a te
c o n n e ctio n between th e d e o lin e of e t h lo s and p o l i t i o a l
m o r a li ty , as r e f l e c t e d in p o l i t i o a l sp e ak in g , and th e decay
of a p o l i t i c a l ideology (503:79)* He urged t h a t p o l i t i c a l
sp eak ers u se hon o rab le means (503:77) and speak in a manner
238
w h ic h show s t h e i r a w a r e n e s s o f s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s (5 0 3 :
7 9 )* The I d e a l s p e a k e r s h o u ld s t r i v e to w a rd C i c e r o ' s I d e a l
o f t h e good man s k i l l e d I n s p e a k i n g ( 5 0 3 : 7 9 - 8 0 ) . C l e a r l y ,
R ic e a d v o c a t e d an e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r (POSITION III) a n d h i s s e l e c t i o n
o f l e g i t i m a t e m eans an d d e s i r a b l e e n d s (POSITION V I ) .
R o ss S c a n l a n . — R oss S c a n l a n h a s made c o n s i d e r a b l e
s t u d y o f N a z i s p e a k i n g and m o s t o f h i s r e f l e c t i o n s upon an
e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c w ere made I n t h a t c o n t e x t (5 2 3 , 524»
5 2 5 , 5 2 6 ) , a l t h o u g h s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o h i s
p h i l o s o p h y w ere a d d e d i n a book w h ic h he c o - a u t h o r e d w i t h
T h o n sa e n (2 3 5 )*
S c a n l a n v ie w e d r h e t o r i c a s an i n s t r u m e n t c a p a b l e o f
b e i n g u s e d o r m is u s e d ( 2 3 5 :1 1 8 - 2 5 ) * I n c o n t e m p o r a r y t i m e s ,
a s w e l l a s t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , i t s u se by d e m o c r a t i c and
t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e s h a s r e v e a l e d b o t h good an d e v i l e f f e c t s
( 5 2 3 : 3 1 1 ) .
T h e re i s a b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n s p e e c h t r a i n i n g
i n d i c t a t o r s h i p s and d e m o c r a c i e s ( 5 2 3 :3 1 2 - 1 3 ) * E v en t h e
c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i d e a l s p e a k e r i s d i f f e r e n t ( 5 2 5 : 1 4 3 ) . Hi*
p u r p o s e o f r h e t o r i c i n a d i c t a t o r s h i p I s t o r o u s e t h e
m a s s e s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t o b e p e r s u a s i v e ( 5 2 6 : 4 3 0 ) . I n
s u c h a s o c i e t y i t beoom es a t o o l to make h i s t o r y , o n e w h ic h
p u t s f o r w a r d p r e d e t e r m i n e d a r g u m e n ts i n s t e a d o f s e a r c h i n g
f o r t r u t h . The e n s l a v e d s p e a k e r I s t r a i n e d I n t h o u g h t s
w h ic h a r e p r e s c r i b e d i n c o n t e n t , p a t t e r n , and l i m i t s , w h i l e
th e f r e e s p e a k e r I s t r a i n e d to t h i n k u s i n g th e s t e p s
e s s e n t i a l to t h a t end ( 5 2 3 : 3 1 2 ) , The p u r p o s e o f r h e t o r i c
i n a d e m o c ra c y I s to a i d d e c i s i o n I n t h e s u p p o r t o f f r e e
k n o w le d g e , i n o t h e r w o rd s, to a l l o w v a r i o u s b r a n d s o f
t r u t h to m e e t i n open e n c o u n t e r ( 5 2 3 :3 1 5 ) * F reedom o f
t h o u g h t i s th e e n d t o b e s e r v e d ; th e m e a n s to i t s a c h i e v e
m e n t, f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h ( 5 2 3 : 3 1 3 ) .
No g o v e rn m e n t i s u n a f f e c t e d b y t h e p e r s u a s i v e
m e th o d s i t u s e s ( 5 2 2 : 1 1 ) , W h ile d i c t a t o r s h i p s u b s c r i b e s
to a p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e e n d w h ic h J u s t i f i e s t h e m e a n s , i n a
d e m o c ra c y , t h e m eans a r e i n e v i t a b l y one w i t h th e e n d .
R h e t o r i c a l m eans m u s t be a s b l a m e l e s s a s e n d s i n a dem oc
r a c y ( 5 2 2 : 1 0 ) . A lth o u g h S c a n l a n a c k n o w le d g e d p a s t u s e o f
q u e s t i o n a b l e p e r s u a s i v e m e th o d s b y p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f r h e t
o r i c , h e o b j e c t e d s t r e n u o u s l y to th e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s a l e
t e c h n i q u e s , o r s i m i l a r d e v i c e s , i n t o p o l i t i c a l s p e a k i n g
(322: 9- 10):
ftie c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t u r n i n g o v e r t h e h i s t o r i c f u n c
t i o n s o f d e b a t e t o t h e a d v e r t i s e r s c a n n o t b e good f o r
d e m o c r a c y . L e t no one s a y i n r e b u t t a l t h a t th e e n d
J u s t i f i e s t h e m e a n s . E ven when a d v e r t i s i n g t e c h n i q u e s
a r e p u t t o " g o o d " u s e s , some o f th e r e s u l t s w i l l be
b a d , TCie o b j e c t i o n i s n o t s im p l y m o r a l ; i t i s l o g i c a l
a s w e l l . A lm o st a n y m ean s we em p lo y to a c h i e v e
p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n w i l l h a v e m ore th a n o n e c o n s e q u e n c e
a n d w h e re t h e m ean s a r e b a d some o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
w i l l be b a d . ( 5 2 2 :1 0 )
I n s u n n a r y , S c a n l a n s u p p o r t e d a c o n c e p t o f r h e t o r -
i c a l - e t h i c s f u n d a m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r o f
th e p e r s u a d e r (POSITION I I I ) a s w e l l a s b y th e e n d s and
2l*0
m eans s e l e c t e d b y h im , b o t h o f w h ic h w ere I n t e g r a l l y
r e l a t e d to t h e s o c i e t y I n w h ic h he sp o k e {POSITION V I ) .
W i l l i a m S c h r l e r . - - W i l l i a m S c h r i e r , a u t h o r o f a 1930
a r t i c l e , "The E t h i c s o f P e r s u a s i o n : A D e f e n s e o f R h e t o
r i c , " r e a f f i r m e d t h e a m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c i n th e s e n s e
t h a t I t I s an i n s t r u m e n t c a p a b l e o f b e i n g u s e d and a b u s e d ,
th u s , a c k n o w l e d g i n g th e e x i s t e n c e o f a f a l s e p e r s u a s i o n
(531:1*76).
He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e i s no d i s t i n c t b o u n d a r y
l i n e b e tw e e n l e g i t i m a t e and i l l e g i t i m a t e a p p e a l s , e x c e p t
p e r h a p s i n th e m a n n e r i n w h ic h t h e y a r e u s e d (531:1*76).
F o r e x a m p le , w h i l e e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l s a r e n o t i n t h e m s e l v e s
u n e t h i c a l , t h e y s h o u l d b e " J u d i c i o u s l y i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h
a p p e a l s to r e a s o n " (531:1*78).
The a u d i e n c e ' s d i s c e r n m e n t o f im p r o p e r p e r s u a s i v e
m e th o d s i s n o t a t e s t o f th e f a l s e n e s s o f th e p e r s u a s i o n ;
i t i s m e r e l y a s i g n t h a t t h e s p e a k e r h a s i m p r o p e r l y
a n a l y z e d h i s a u d i e n c e (5 3 1 :1*80). One o u g h t n o t t o c h a r g e
a s p e a k e r who r e p r e s e n t s an o p p o s i t i o n v ie w w i t h f a l s e
p e r s u a s i o n s im p l y b e c a u s e he s u p p o r t s a d i f f e r e n t v ie w , f o r
r h e t o r i c d e a l s I n p r o b a b i l i t i e s i n a r e a s i n w h ic h t r u t h i s
i n t h e p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r y (5 3 1 :1 * 6 0 -8 1 ). Even so u n d r u l e s
s u c h a s "be s i n c e r e " an d " a p p e a l to h i g h m o t i v e s " a r e s u b -
J e o t to e x c e p t i o n s (531:1*62).
E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d
f i n a l l y r e s o l v e s i t s e l f I n t o th e f a c t t h a t p e r s u a s i v e
21*1
e t h i c s c a n n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m g e n e r a l e t h i c s :
P e r s u a s i o n e t h i c s i s g e n e r a l e t h i c s . T h e re i s no
s e p a r a t e s t a n d a r d o f e t h i c s f o r p u b l i c s p e a k e r s ; e a c h
c a s e o f p e r s u a s i o n m u s t b e J u d g e d i n t h e l i g h t o f th e
p a r t i c u l a r I n s t a n c e , a n d a c c o r d i n g to th e p r e v a i l i n g
s t a n d a r d o f e t h i c s o f th e com m unity o r th e i n d i v i d u a l .
(531:^76)
T h e re was n o t e n o u g h d e t a i l i n S c h r i e r ' s a r t i c l e to
p e r m i t a t r u l y v a l i d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f h i s p o s i t i o n . W h ile
i t I s c l e a r t h a t h i s s t a n d a r d i s r e l a t i v e , and t h a t e a c h
p e r s u a s i v e a c t m u s t b e j u d g e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o th e
e t h i c a l c o d e o f th e s p e a k e r a n d h i s s o c i e t y , S c h r i e r d i d
n o t s p e c i f y w h a t t h i s w ould im p l y i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y .
H o w ev er, t h e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c t e r i s a d e t e r m i n a n t (POSITION
I I I ) a s a r e th e e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s o f o u r p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y
(IMPLIED POSITION V I ) .
R i c h a r d W e a v e r. - - R i c h a r d W eav er, a u t h o r o f a
t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s e n t i t l e d The E t h i c s
o f R h e t o r i c , to o k h i s c u e f ro m t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n p o s i t i o n
t h a t r h e t o r i c i s a n o f f s h o o t o f b o t h e t h i c s and d i a l e c t i c
( 2 4 b ) . He b e g a n h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n b y a d r a m a t i s t i c i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f P l a t o ' s P h a e d r u s w h ic h c l a r i f i e d th e n a t u r e o f
r h e t o r i c (246:3-26). P l a t o ' s n o n - l o v e r , e v i l l o v e r , and
n o b l e l o v e r becom e e m b o d im e n ts o f t h r e e t y p e s o f d i s c o u r s e :
n e u t e r o r s e m a n t i c a l l y - p u r i f i e d s p e e c h , b a s e r h e t o r i c , an d
n o b l e r h e t o r i c (246:6-13). T h i s d i s c u s s i o n i d e n t i f i e d th e
n a t u r e o f r h e t o r i c i n p r a c t i c e a s a m o r a l and s u g g e s t e d
c r i t e r i a f o r e t h i c a l and u n e t h i c a l s p e e c h .
2k2
In answer to the question, "if truth alone is not
s u ffic ie n t to persuade men, what e lse remains that can be
le g itim a te ly addedT" Weaver answered that truth needs art
fu l presentation in order to persuade ( 2 4 6 : 1 5 ) . Therefore,
i t becomes obvious that any ch aracterisation of rhetoric
must include d ia le c t ic , the purpose of which i s to ascer
tain the truth about doubtful propositions ( 2 4 6 : 1 5 ) . The
f i r s t process of persuasion must be a d ia le c tic which
e sta b lish e s terms having to do with questions of p olicy
(2l|.t>:17). These terms are not p o sitiv e ; they are subject
to the "contingency of evaluation" (246:16).
After the noble rh etorician has determined the mean
ing of terms, he passes to poetic (analogical a sso cia tio n ),
which was the method used in the phaedrus ( 2 4 6 : 1 6 ) . The
discourse of the id eal rhetor w ill deal in "real p o te n tia l
it y or p ossib le actu ality" rather than in the "unreal
p o te n tia lity " of the base rhetor ( 2 4 6 : 2 0 ) . Rhetoric is
more complete than d ia le c tic for the pure d ia le c tic ia n is
lik e the non-lover; he cannot give e ffe c tiv e n e ss to truth
( 2 4 6 : 2 1 ) . While d ia le c tic contains co n traries, rhetoric
espouses one of the co n traries, moving the soul in a way
which cannot b e lo g ic a lly ju s tifie d ( 2 4 6 : 2 1 , 2 3 ) . Because
of th is fa c t, rhetoric can only b e valued through i t s
reference to some supreme Image of an analogical sort (246:
2 3 ) :
A ll of the terms in a rh etorical vocabulary are lik e
2 4 3
l i n k s I n a c h a i n s t r e t c h i n g up to some m a s t e r l i n k
w h ic h t r a n s m i t s i t s i n f l u e n c e down t h r o u g h t h e l i n k
a g e s . i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to t a l k a b o u t r h e t o r i c a s
e f f e c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n w i t h o u t h a v i n g a s a te rm g i v i n g
I n t e l l i g i b i l i t y t o t h e w ho le d i s c o u r s e * t h e Good. Of
c o u r s e , i n f e r i o r c o n c e p t s o f th e Good may b e and o f t e n
a r e p l a c e d i n t h i s u l t i m a t e p o s i t i o n ; and t h e r e l a
n o t h i n g t o k e e p a b a s e l o v e r fro m i n v e r t i n g th e p r o p e r
o r d e r and s a y i n g , " E v i l , be t h o u my g o o d . " Y e t t h e
f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t i n an y p i e c e o f r h e t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e ,
o n e r h e t o r i c a l te r m o v e rc o m e s a n o t h e r r h e t o r l o a l te r m
o n l y b y b e i n g n e a r e r to th e te rm w h ic h s t a n d s u l t i m a t e .
( 24&:23)
R e s p o n s i b l e u t t e r a n c e i n c l u d e s d i a l e c t i c ; i r r e s p o n
s i b l e u t t e r a n c e s u p p o r t s a p o s i t i o n w h ic h h a s n o t b e e n
d l a l e c t i c a l l y s e c u r e d (246:25). I d e a l r h e t o r i c s e e k s as
i t s e n d th e p e r f e c t i o n o f men i n t h e im age o f i d e a l man:
So r h e t o r i c a t i t s t r u e s t s e e k s to p e r f e c t men by
s h o w in g them b e t t e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e m s e l v e s , l i n k s I n
t h a t c h a i n e x t e n d i n g up to w a rd th e i d e a l , w h ic h o n l y
th e i n t e l l e c t c a n a p p r e h e n d and o n l y th e s o u l h a v e
a f f e c t i o n f o r . ( 2 4 6 :2 5 )
S p e e c h i s a fo rm o f e r o s ( l o v e ) w h ic h t h e g o d s h a v e g i v e n
man t o e x p r e s s h i s s o u l ( 2 4 6 : 2 6 ) .
I n h i s s e c o n d e s s a y , W eaver n o t e d t h a t d i a l e o t l c i s
t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y d e f i n i t i o n o f a s u b j e c t w i t h r e g a r d t o
l o g o s ; i t i s e s t a b l i s h e d when th e n a t u r e o f i t s o p p o s i t e
i s made c l e a r (246:27). R h e t o r i c t a k e s t h i s d l a l e c t i c a l l y
s e c u r e d p o s i t i o n an d r e l a t e s i t t o t h e nw o r ld o f p r u d e n t i a l
c o n d u c t " (246:27*26). T ru e a r g u m e n t i s a b o u t t h e I m p o r t o f
p r o p o s i t i o n s , n o t a b o u t f a c t a ( 2 4 6 : 5 2 - 5 3 ) .
H is t h i r d and f o u r t h e s s a y s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s t u d i e s
o f s o u r c e s , w h e re W eaver b e l i e v e d r h e t o r i c a l s t u d y b e g i n s :
The r e a s o n e r r e v e a l s h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n b y t h e
2 lt4
s o u r c e o f a rg u m e n t w h ic h a p p e a r s m o s t o f t e n I n h i s
m a j o r p r e m is e b e c a u s e th e m a jo r p r e m is e t e l l s u s how
he I s t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e w o r l d . I n o t h e r w o rd s , th e
r h e t o r i c a l c o n t e n t o f t h e m a jo r p r e m is e w h ic h th e
s p e a k e r h a b i t u a l l y u s e s I s t h e k e y to h i s p r i m a r y v iew
o f e x i s t e n c e . ( 2 4 6 :5 5 )
W e a v e r a n a l y s e d t h r e e s o u r c e s o f a r g u m e n t: (1 ) g e n u s o r
a r g u m e n t b a s e d on th e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , (2) s i m i l i t u d e o r
a rg u m e n t fro m e s s e n t i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s , an d (3 ) c i r c u m
s t a n c e o r a r g u m e n t fro m e x p e d i e n c y ( 2 4 6 : 5 6 - 5 7 ) . Those
p e r s o n s who h a b i t u a l l y a r g u e fro m t h e f i r s t a r e I d e a l i s t s ,
t h o s e who a r g u e fro m t h e s e c o n d b e l i e v e I n th e o n e n e s s o f
t h e w o r l d , w h i l e t h o s e who a r g u e fro m t h e t h i r d s t o p a t th e
l e v e l o f f a c t (2 4 6 : ) .
D em o cracy l a a d i a l e c t i c a l p r o c e s s w h ic h I s d e p e n d
e n t upon t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f a g r o u p s u f f i c i e n t l y i n d i f f e r
e n t to s u c c e s s to o p p o s e th e l n - g r o u p on th e b a s i s o f
p r i n c i p l e r a t h e r t h a n m ere e x p e d i e n c y ( 2 4 6 : ^ 3 ) . a p o l i t i
c a l p a r t y s h o u ld h a v e a r h e t o r i c b a s e d i n t h e n a t u r e o f
t h i n g s ( 2 I4.6: 8 I4.) •
H is n i n t h an d f i n a l c h a p t e r , " U l t i m a t e Term s i n
C o n te m p o r a r y R h e t o r i c , " I s m o s t v i t a l t o my s t u d y (2 4 6 :
2 1 1 - 3 2 ) . "Term " i s d e f i n e d a s " a name c a p a b l e o f e n t e r i n g
i n t o a p r o p o s i t i o n " ( 2 4 6 : 2 1 1 ) . A s i n g l e te r m i s an I n c i p
i e n t p r o p o s i t i o n s i n c e I t o n l y a w a i t s c o u p l i n g w i t h a n o t h e r
( 2 4 6 : 2 1 1 ) . W eaver l i s t e d t h e "g o d " te r m s and th e " d e v i l "
te r m s w h ic h w ere f o r c e f u l i n c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y (2 4 6 :
2 1 2 - 2 6 ) . S i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f te r m s
245
r e f l e c t c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s ( 2 4 6 : 2 2 0 ) . I n v e r t e d h e l r a r c h l e s
o c c u r w h ic h s u b s t i t u t e th e w o r s t f o r t h e b e s t ( 2 4 6 :2 2 4 ) *
Some te r m s h a v e a p o w er t h a t l a n o t d e r i v e d b u t somehow
m y s t e r i o u s l y g i v e n ; t h e s e a r e c a l l e d " c h a r i s m a t i c t e r m s "
( 2 4 6 :2 2 7 ) * T h e i r m e a n in g seem s to p r o c e e d o u t o f a p o p u l a r
w i l l t h a t t h e y mean s o m e t h i n g ( 2 4 6 :2 2 7 ) * T h e se a r e th e
m o s t p o w e r f u l te r m s ( 2 4 6 : 2 2 8 ) , b u t a s f a r a s t h e i r c o r r e l a
t i o n w i t h e x i s t e n c e and t h e i r a n a l y z a b l e c o n t e n t i s c o n
c e r n e d , t h e s e w o rd s a r e i r r a t i o n a l ( 2 4 6 : 2 3 1 ) . " F re e d o m ,"
" d e m o c r a c y ," and t e l e s c o p i c o r a b b r e v i a t e d fo rm s o f w o rd s
p a r t a k e o f t h i s n a t u r e ( 2 4 6 : 2 2 8 - 2 9 ) . The l a t t e r p a r t i c u
l a r l y show s a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e g o v e rn m e n t t o u s u r p th e
r o l e o f th e p e o p l e i n c o n f e r r i n g c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y
( 2 4 6 : 2 3 6 ) . The I n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y f o r a b s t r a c t i o n s to
becom e u l t i m a t e te r m s shows th e d i v o r c e m e n t b e tw e e n " r h e
t o r i c a l im p u l s e and r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t " ( 2 4 6 : 2 3 0 ) .
An e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s e u l t i m a t e
te r m s b e u l t i m a t e i n some r a t i o n a l s e n s e ; t h i s i s W e a v e r 's
f i n a l word on t h e s u b j e c t ( 2 4 6 : 2 3 2 ) .
B e c a u s e o f t h e c r u c i a l n a t u r e o f W e a v e r 's w ork i n
an a n a l y s i s o f m o t i v a t i o n , m ore d e t a i l t h a n w ould h a v e
o t h e r w i s e b e e n n e c e s s a r y was I n c l u d e d h e r e . One m i $ i t
su m m arize h i s r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n b r i e f l y , h o w e v e r:
r h e t o r i c i s m o r a l when r a t i o n a l l y s e c u r e d te r m s a r e r e l a t e d
to t h e w o r ld o f p r u d e n t i a l c o n d u c t f o r th e b e t t e r m e n t o f
m a n k in d (POSITION V I ) . H is s p e e c h b e t r a y s o r e x p r e s s e s th e
u l t i m a t e v a l u e s of th e u s e r (POSITION I I I ).
H a r r y L. W e in b e r g . — H a r r y L . W e i n b e r g 's a r t i c l e , "A
R e d e f i n i t i o n o f R h e t o r i c , * a t t e m p t e d to d e f i n e w h a t he
te rm e d the new a r t o f e t h i c a l p e r s u a s i o n ( 5 9 1 : 1 0 ) • He
I d e n t i f i e d t h r e e l e v e l s o f r h e t o r i c , and p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
I f a s p e a k e r o n l y o p e r a t e s a t th e se c o n d l e v e l , he I s a t
b e a t a t e c h n i c i a n , a t w o r s t , a h u c k s t e r ( 5 9 1 : 9 )• H ie s e
l e v e l s a r e (1 ) th e a u d i e n c e w h ic h i s to be p e r s u a d e d , (2)
th e r h e t o r i c a l m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n , and (3) r u l e s f o r th e
u s e o f r h e t o r i c a l r u l e s ( 5 9 1 :9 ) * W e in b e rg s u b m i t t e d t h a t
t h r e e r u l e s s h o u ld c o n s t i t u t e th e t h i r d l e v e l : t e l l th e
t r u t h , t r y to co m m u n icate r e l i a b l e k n o w le d g e , t r e a t th e
a u d i e n c e a s e n d s ( 5 9 1 : 9 ) . W hile t r u t h i s m e r e l y a m eans o f
p e r s u a s i o n w h ic h may o r may n o t be u t i l i z e d a t th e se c o n d
l e v e l , a t th e t h i r d l e v e l i t s u s e i s i m p e r a t i v e ( 5 9 1 : 1 0 ) .
S i n c e th e s p e a k e r alm s to make h is l i s t e n e r s more human,
i . e . , more r a t i o n a l , he m u st d e s i s t fro m u s i n g t h e i r
d e f e n s e m ec h a n ism s I m p r o p e r l y ( 5 9 1 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) . The u s e r o f
s u c h an a r t w o u ld t r u l y be a good man s p e a k i n g w e l l (5 9 1 :
11).
Although Weinberg had not yet worked out the tech
niques for implementing h is philosophy, he had constructed
a formula for eth ica l persuasion:
Rhetoric would co n sist of ju st two fa c to rs, an in v a ri
ant and a variab le. * . • Our formula would read R-kx,
where k i s the se t of ru les for using the lower order
rules and techniques, x, which vary from speech to
speech according to the purpose of the speaker and the
2ltf
o c c a s i o n . R e f l e c t i n g t h i s , e v e r y s p e e c h w ou ld c o n s i s t
o f two p a r t s , k and x . The l a t t e r w ould be t h e a g r u -
m e n ts f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e an d th e f a c t s and e v i
d e n c e s e l e c t e d t o a i s t a i n them t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t e c h
n i q u e s o f d e l i v e r y , e t c . The k w o u ld be t h e c o n s t a n t
aim o f I n d u c i n g b e t t e r , l e a s d e s t r u c t i v e u s e o f th e
d e f e n s e m e c h a n ism and o t h e r m o t i v a t i n g e n e r g i e s I n o u r
l i s t e n e r s a n d o u r s e l v e s . ( 5 9 1 : 1 0 - 1 1 )
W e i n b e r g 's a r t i c l e seem ed t o s u p p o r t th e u s e o f
s p e e c h f o r d e s i r a b l e e n d s b y a goo d man who c h o o s e s m eans
o f p e r s u a s i o n w h ic h c o n fo rm t o m in im a l s t a n d a r d s (POSITIONS
I I I , V I ) .
James A. W lnana ( a n d c o - a u t h o r ) . --A n e x t e n s i v e
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c a p p e a r e d a s e a r l y a s
1917 i n Jam e s A. W in a n s ' t e x t , P u b l i c S p e a k i n g ( 2 5 7 ) . He
p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r h e t o r i c h a s p o t e n t i a l i t y f o r good o r
e v i l , t h a t I t s e t h i c a l n a t u r e d e p e n d s upon t h e u s e r ( 2 5 7 :
3I4.O): "What u s e a s p e a k e r may make o f h i s p o w e r w i l l d e
p e n d u p o n w h a t k i n d o f a man h e I s . The man who I s
u n s c r u p u l o u s o f f th e p l a t f o r m w i l l be u n s c r u p u l o u s on th e
p l a t f o r m " (2 5 7 :2 lj.2 ). T h i s v ie w o f t h e s p e a k e r a s t h e
e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t was r e p e a t e d I n A r g u m e n t a t io n ( 1 9 3 0 ) ,
c o - a u t h o r e d w i t h U t t e r b a c k (259:1514.-55)• I n S p e e c h -M a k in g
( 1 9 3 8 ) , he a l s o e m p h a s iz e d t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s
c h o i c e o f m ean s to h i s e t h o s w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e ( 2 5 8 : 3 7 8 ) .
The h o n e s t s p e a k e r s h o u l d l e a d t h e cro w d f o r good
p u r p o s e s ( 2 5 7 : 2 3 8 ) . A lth o u g h no c l e a r l i n e c a n b e d raw n
b e tw e e n e t h i c a l an d u n e t h i c a l p e r s u a s i v e m e th o d s , t h e
h o n e s t man w i l l s e l e c t e t h i c a l l y u n q u e s t i o n a b l e m eans (2 5 7 :
2^8
5^4-0) • n i l s d o e s n o t m ean t h a t h a m u a t t o l l th e t r u t h a l l
t h e tim e ( 2 5 7 : 314.0 ) , n o r t h a t h e may n e v e r a p p e a l t o u n
w o r t h y m o t i v e s , f o r e a c h c a s e m u s t b e d e c i d e d on I t s m e r i t s
( 2 5 7 :1 9 7 - 9 8 ) * Th® s p e a k e r a s su m e s a s e r i o u s m o r a l r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y when p e r s u a d i n g h i s a u d i e n c e w i t h o u t c o n v i n c i n g
them I n t e l l e c t u a l l y (257 : 2lj 1 ) . He m u s t b u i l d on so u n d
r e a s o n i n g ( 2 5 7 : 214.6 ) an d a v o i d f a c t u a l d i s t o r t i o n s :
I f y o u h a v e g i v e n an u n t r u e h i s t o r y , d i s t o r t i n g o r
o m i t t i n g i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s , i f y o u r d e f i n i t i o n s a r e
w a r p e d , o r y o u r p r o p o s a l o r t h e i s s u e s a r e n o t f a i r l y
s e t f o r t h , y o u w i l l b e e x p o s e d t o th e c h a r g e o f t r i c k
e r y , a n d w i l l d e s e r v e t h e d i s c r e d i t o f e x p o s u r e . Even
th e man who w i l l c o n c e d e n o t h i n g , who l a p l a i n l y
b i g o t e d a n d p r e j u d i c e d , w i l l make a b e t t e r i m p r e s s i o n
t h a n one who u n d e r p r e t e n s e o f f a i r n e s s a t t e m p t s t o
d e c e i v e h i s a u d i e n c e . The b e s t o p i n i o n i s t h a t , e v e n
on t h e g r o u n d o f e x p e d i e n c y , w hen one i s s t r i v i n g to
w in o v e r th e u n c o n v i n c e d , e v e n h o n e s t p a r t i s a n s h i p
s h o u l d be e x c l u d e d f ro m th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e a r g u
m e n t. ( 2 5 7 : 2 6 9 ”70)
The s p e a k e r ' s e t h o s m u s t n o t v a r y w i d e l y fro m t h a t o f t h e
a u d i e n c e , b u t i t i s n o t t r u e t h a t o n l y th e good man ca n
p e r s u a d e , f o r much d e p e n d s o n th e p a r t i c u l a r " v i c e " b e i n g
u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h good fro m b a d (257 : 3 l l |- " l 5 ) . The
s p e a k e r m u s t be f a i r :
He i s e x p e c t e d t o s t a t e h i s s i d e a s s t r o n g l y a s t r u t h
p e r m i t s ; b u t h i s a u d i e n c e h a s a r i g h t t o e x p e c t him to
s t a t e f a c t s t r u l y a n d t o r e f r a i n f r o m s o p h i s t r y . To
b e an a d v o c a t e d o e s n o t g i v e one a r i g h t t o b e o t h e r
t h a n f a i r a n d h o n e s t . ( 2 5 7 :3 1 7 )
T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e W ln an s n o t e d t h e good and b a d
e x a m p le s o f p a s t o r a t o r y , he r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e e t h i c a l
n a t u r e o f s p e e c h m a k ln g w as d e p e n d e n t upon th e c h a r a c t e r o f
t h e p e r s u a d e r (POSITION I I I ) , an d t h a t an h o n e s t man s h o u l d
2 1 + 9
choose good ends and use rh eto rical devices f a ir ly (POSI
TION VI).
A second group of contemporary th e o r ists conformed
to the philosophy ju st examined and in addition noted that
certain e th ic a l c r it e r ia are fu n ctio n a lly in tr in s ic In
e ffe c tiv e persuasion (POSITIONS I I , I I I , VI).
William Norwood Brlgance. — The most complete tr e a t
ment of the philosophical p o sitio n of William Norwood
Brlgance was contained in h is te x t, Speech: I ts Techniques
and D iscip lin es in a Free Society (1+6).
In the f i r s t chapter of th is book he presented a
"Hippocratic oath" fo r democratic speakers (1+6:11). Hiis
oath of moral r e sp o n s ib ility , also found in another text
by Brlgance (1 + 3 * 1 + 1 + ), emphasized the common welfare as the
speaker's end and stressed the role of p rofession al compe
tence in the achievement of th is goal (1+6:11). This theme,
that truth needs a rtfu l presentation in order to persuade,
and that the persuader ought to use h is art to serve truth,
is often repeated in the w ritings of Brlgance (l+6:99»l+3l+*
305:161, 306:183).
In a contemporary democratic so c ie ty , the speaker
must persuade the mass audience (1+6:129-30), and must
appeal to wants and motives as w ell as reason i f he i s to
succeed (1+5# 1+6:100-102, 1+ 7* 1+8).
In a democratic so ciety the audience is free to
choose what kind of speaker i t w ill tru st and fo llo w (1+6:
250
2 0 0 ) . I t w i l l b e l i e v e a man who h a s c h a r a c t e r a n d p e r s o n a l
I n t e g r i t y (l*.6:i*.35) • I n t e g r i t y i s a m o r a l s e n s e , i n t h i s
c a s e , n o t a t e c h n i q u e (l4.6 tl4 .3 S) • C e r t a i n a u t h e n t i c s i g n s
i d e n t i f y s u o h s p e a k e r s . (1 ) S u ch a s p e a k e r show s i n t e l l e c
t u a l h o n e s t y a n d s o u n d ju d g m e n t (i*.6:l*.36, 1*7: 1 2 0 - 2 1 ) • T h i s
i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by s p e a k i n g t h e t r u t h , by b e i n g f a i r - m i n d
e d , b y a v o i d i n g r e c k l e s s a s s e r t i o n , e v i d e n c e w h ic h m is
l e a d s , a n d by l i f t i n g t h e t o n e a b o v e n a m e - c a l l i n g (1*.6;1*.36,
3 0 5 : l 6 l ) • (2 ) S uoh a s p e a k e r show s t h a t h e knows h i s
s u b j e c t (1*.6:1*.37) ; h e h a s s i g n i f i c a n t i d e a s a n d g i v e s a c c u
r a t e a n d s i g n i f i c a n t i n f o r m a t i o n ( 3 0 5 : l 6 l ) . (3 ) He u s e s
m o d e r a t i o n , r e s t r a i n t a n d good w i l l i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
h i s v i e w s , a n d (i*.) I d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f w i t h t h e I n t e r e s t s o f
t h e a u d i e n c e (l* .6 :l* .3 d )--aro u sln g th em t o t h i n k p r o f i t a b l y
( 3 0 5 : 1 6 1 ) .
The p e r s u a s i v e t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n s o c l e -
t y - - t h e " b i g l i e , " c h a r a c t e r a s s a s s i n a t i o n , n a m e - c a l l i n g ,
t h e h y s t e r l o a l a p p r o a c h , t h e s e d u c t i v e s l o g a n - - e v e n t u a l l y
f a i l i n a d e m o c ra o y t h r o u g h r e f u t a t i o n , a n d t h e y a r e e v e n
s h o r t - l i v e d i n a t o t a l i t a r i a n s o c i e t y , f o r t h e y c a r r y t h e
s e e d s o f t h e i r own d e s t r u c t i o n (l*.6:l*.32-3l*-) • S uoh p e r s u a
s i o n d o e s n o t a r i s e f ro m t h e p e r s o n a l e t h l o s o f i n d i v i d u a l
s p e a k e r s b u t r a t h e r f r o m t h e p l a n n e d t e c h n i q u e s o f e n s l a v e d
men (I4.6 :l|.33) •
I n sum m ary, B r l g a n c e c o n c e i v e s a n e t h i o s o f p e r s u a
s i o n t o be a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r
251
(POSITION I I I ) . An e t h i c a l p e r s u a d e r w i l l c h o o s e a h i g h
l e v e l o f e t h i c s ( 1 +6 : 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 )* I . e . , one w h ic h s e r v e s t r u t h
and u s e s l e g i t i m a t e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n (POSITION V I ) . I n
a s e n s e , t h e s e e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y i n t r i n s i c
i n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a s i o n s i n c e an a u d i e n c e w i l l o n l y t r u s t
a man o f good c h a r a c t e r and s i n c e u n e t h i c a l t e c h n i q u e s
c a r r y t h e i r own s e e d s o f d e s t r u c t i o n , i . e . , a r e I n e f f e c t i v e
i n t h e l o n g r u n (POSITION I I ) .
L i o n e l C r o c k e r . — L i o n e l C r o c k e r d e s c r i b e d s p e e c h a s
an I n s t r u m e n t o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l , w h ic h s e e k s p e r s u a s i o n as
i t s o b j e c t i v e ( 7 5 : 3 1 9 )* en d w h ic h i s i n e v i t a b l y m e a s u r e d
b y t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r ( 7 5 : 2 5 ) . The good man w i l l
b e m ore r e a d i l y b e l i e v e d t h a n t h e i n s i n c e r e dem agogue whose
m o t i v e s a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e ( 7 5 : 3 1 ) .
C r o c k e r 's i d e a l s p e a k e r was d e s c r i b e d a s a man o f
s t e r l i n g c h a r a c t e r who s p e a k s th e t r u t h a s h e s e e s i t ,
r e f u s i n g t o u s e l i e s e v e n t o g a i n t h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e e n d o r
to u s e a n y o t h e r t e c h n i q u e h e c a n " g e t away w i t h " ( 3 3 9 :
1*45). He n o t e d : "The c o n s e q u e n c e s do n o t a lw a y s j u s t i f y
t h e m e a n s . I n t e n t i s p a r t and p a r c e l o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s "
( 3 3 9 : 4 4 5 )* D ie a s i d e a l s s h o u l d be p r o c l a i m e d b y t h e s p e e c h
t e a c h e r who m u s t n o t t e a c h s p e e o h u n c o n c e r n e d w i t h i t s u s e
(339:U 4fe).
I n 1953* C r o c k e r r e s t a t e d t h e s e c o n c e p t s i n te r m s o f
a s p e c t s o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s p e r s o n a l i t y w h ic h h e l p to make
t r u t h p r e v a i l ( 3 4 1 : 2 ) . D ie good t e a c h e r o f s p e e c h o u g h t to
252
be s i n c e r e , to u p h o ld p r i n c i p l e s o f r i g h t and w ro n g , to
t r e a t men a s e n d s r a t h e r th a n a s m eans ( 3 4 1 : 2 - 5 )*
I n c o n c l u s i o n , C r o c k e r v ie w s r h e t o r i c a s an a r t
I n e v i t a b l y l i m i t e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e r s u a d e r (P O S I
TION I I I ) , w h ic h p o s s e s s e s " b u i l t - i n " a d v a n t a g e s f o r th e
good man (POSITION I I ) . An I d e a l r h e t o r i c f o r b i d s th e u s e
o f r e p r e h e n s i b l e t e c h n i q u e s and commands I t s s k i l l s to
p ro m o te t r u t h (POSITION V I ) .
Jam e s M cB uraey (a n d c o - a u t h o r s ) . — The p o s i t i o n
a ssu m e d b y Ja m e s K cB urney and E r n e s t Wrage i n The A r t o f
Good S p e e c h (1 9 5 3 ) (1 5 5 ) G u id e to Good S p e e c h (1 9 5 5 )
( 1 5 4 ) e n c o m p a s se d a s p e c t s o f a l m o s t a l l o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s
u s e d I n t h i s s t u d y .
I n b o t h o f t h e s e t e x t s , th e a u t h o r s o u t l i n e d f o u r
c l a s s i c a l a n s w e r s t o th e p r o b le m o f s t a n d a r d s o f good
s p e a k i n g and c h o s e one o f t h e f o u r a s m o s t s a t l s f a c t o r y
( 1 5 4 : 1 1 - 2 1 , 1 5 5 : 2 1 - 3 6 ) . (1 ) The r e s u l t s t h e o r y w h ic h
e v a l u a t e s s p e a k i n g b y t h e s o l e c r i t e r i o n o f a u d i e n c e r e
s p o n s e i s u n s a f e b e c a u s e o f th e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t o f o u t s i d e
I n f l u e n c e s on th e o u tco m e o f p e r s u a s i o n I n a n y g i v e n c a s e .
(2) Hie t r u t h t h e o r y w h ic h m e a s u r e s a s p e e c h by i t s c o n c u r
r e n c e w i t h t h e t r u t h l e a d s t o th e u n t e n a b l e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t
e v e n p o o r , I . e . , b u n g l i n g , s p e a k i n g I s good I f i t i s f o r a
good c a u s e , an d f a l l s to r e c o g n i z e t h a t m o st s p e e c h m a k in g
t a k e s p l a c e I n c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h ic h th e t r u t h I s n o t a
known f a c t o r . ( 3 ) The e t h i c a l t h e o r y w h ic h u s e s t h e
253
m o t i v e s an d i n t e n t i o n s o f th e s p e a k e r a s t h e s t a n d a r d s
I n v o l v e s th e c r i t i c i n a h o p e l e s s c o n f u s i o n o f e t h i c s and
r h e t o r i c ; c h a r a c t e r and s p e a k i n g s k i l l a r e n o t a lw a y s fo u n d
i n t h e same man. (l|.) The o n l y a d e q u a t e a n s w e r i s f o u n d i n
th e a r t i s t i c t h e o r y w h ic h h o l d s t h a t s p e a k i n g i s to be
j u d g e d b y th e p r i n c i p l e s o f th e a r t . f t i l s t h e o r y a s i t i s
d e s c r i b e d b y M cB um ey an d W rage r e a l l y I n c l u d e s t h e o t h e r s .
I t I n c l u d e s th e f i r s t s i n c e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e a r t a r e
t h e a i d s w h ic h t h e s p e a k e r u s e s to s e e k a r e s p o n s e . I t
I n c l u d e s th e o t h e r two i n t r i n s i c a l l y , s i n c e u n w o r th y mo
t i v e s and i n d i f f e r e n c e to t r u t h h am p er good s p e e c h .
I n t h e i r c h a p t e r d e v o t e d t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f good
s p e e c h , t h e w r i t e r s s p e l l e d o u t t h e i r t h e o r y i n d e t a i l
a d v o c a t i n g I n t e r e s t d e v i c e s w h ic h a r e n o t " b e n e a t h th e
d i g n i t y o f ' s t r a i g h t t h i n k i n g s p e a k e r s ' " ( 1 5 ^ : 1 7 )* th e
p o s s e s s i o n o f a good e t h o s a s a p r a g m a t i c r a t h e r t h a n an
e t h i c a l q u a l i t y ( I 51j . : l 8 ) , an d th e u s e o f s o u n d m e th o d s
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s t a n d a r d s o f d e c e n c y , h o n e s t y , and v a l i d i t y
( l 5 5 s 2 5 3 ” 5 i4-»2 7 8 - 7 9 » 3 0 5 - 3 0 6 ) . Hie p e r s u a d e r ' s c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c m o r a l i t y i s a d m i t t e d l y p a r t l y a f a c t o r i n t h e d e t e r m i
n a t i o n o f th e e t h i c s o f p e r s u a s i o n , b u t M cBurney and W rage
s u g g e s t e d a s a c o r r e c t i v e t h a t th e a r t o u g h t t o b e s u b m i t
t e d to t h e s c r u t i n y o f l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s ( 1 5 5 : 3 0 5 - 3 0 6 ) .
T h re e o t h e r b o o k s on l i m i t e d f o rm s o f s p e e c h , c o
a u t h o r e d b y MCBurney w i t h o t h e r w r i t e r s , i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i f i c
m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n w h ic h th e a u t h o r s a p p r o v e d o r d i s a p
254
proved, b u t d id n o t d e lin e a te r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s it io n s
in a d i r e c t way (l5 l» 152, 153).
In summary, the r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n s of
McBumey and h i s c o -a u th o rs may be a s se ss e d as fo llo w s : to
a c e r t a i n e x t e n t, an e t h i c s of p e rsu a sio n i s i n t r i n s i c in
good speaking, f o r good ends and a good c h a r a c te r p o sse ss
n o t only p ra g n a tic b u t a lso e t h i c a l im portance (POSITION
I I ) ; but i t i s also tru e t h a t the moral code of the
p e rsu a d e r i s an e t h i c a l d e te rm in a n t (POSITION I I I ) . A
s t r a i g h t th in k in g speaker s e l e c t s h o n e s t means; i t has
a lre a d y been p o in te d out th a t d e s ir a b le ends are e s s e n t i a l
from the p o in t o f view of the audience (POSITION VI).
R ichard Murphy.- -R ic h a rd Murphy's "P reface to an
E th ic o f R h e to r ic ," which appeared in The R h e to r ic a l Idiom ,
provided a g e n e ra l survey of some r e c e n t a r t i c l e s on an
e t h i c s of r h e t o r i c . Murphy proposed to provide a base f o r
an e t h i c s of r h e t o r i c , and in o rd e r to do t h i s , he examined
some of the problems which have p rev en ted the e s ta b lis h m e n t
o f such a code In the p a s t, surveyed s e v e r a l c u r r e n t p ro
p o s a ls , and o f fe re d h i s own g u id in g p r i n c i p l e s to be
c o n sid e re d i n fram in g a code (171:126).
The f i r s t problems w ith which Murphy was concerned
were assessm en ts of r h e t o r i c as Immoral or am o ra l--b o th
views he c o n sid ered u n s a t i s f a c t o r y (1 7 1 :1 2 6 -3 0 ). Murphy
o b v io u sly b e lie v e d t h a t e t h i c a l I d e a l s should be fo rm u late d
f o r r h e t o r i c : t h a t as an In stru m e n t, r h e t o r i c could be
255
u s e d f o r good e n d s , end t h a t I t o u g h t n o t t o be c o n s t r u e d
a s m e re t e c h n i q u e s e p a r a t e d fro m c o n t e n t ( 1 7 1 : 1 2 6 - 3 0 ) . He
e n u m e r a te d two o t h e r p r o b le m s c o n f r o n t i n g th e c r i t i c who
w is h e d t o e s t a b l i s h an e t h i c a l c o d e f o r r h e t o r i c : ( 1 ) t h e
a b s e n c e o f a g r e e d - u p o n c r i t e r i a o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s m a l
p r a c t i c e i n r h e t o r i c , and ( 2 ) th e l a c k o f an e n f o r c i n g
a g e n c y ( 1 7 1 : 1 3 1 - 3 2 ) s u c h a s p a r l i a m e n t a r y b o d i e s p o s s e s s
( 1 7 1 :1 3 7 ) * W h ile M urphy c o u l d n o t s o l v e t h e l a s t p r o b le m ,
h e o f f e r e d a n s w e r s to t h e o t h e r s .
He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t p r e v i o u s a t t e m p t s to e s t a b l i s h
s u c h s t a n d a r d s h a d b e e n v e r y g e n e r a l a n d l a c k i n g I n
s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n s (171:133-31+ )* M u rp h y 's p r o p o s e d
" p r e f a c e " d i d n o t e l u c i d a t e a m a t u r e d and f u l l y d e v e l o p e d
c o d e e i t h e r , b u t i t d i d c o n t a i n some h e l p f u l " g u i d i n g
p r i n c i p l e s " ( 1 7 1 :ll+ 0 ) . He i n f e r r e d t h a t r h e t o r i c i s m o ra l
w hen a s p e a k e r a d h e r e s to t h e m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s ( d e f i n i t i o n s
o f w h a t i s r i g h t a n d w h a t I s w ro n g ) ( 1 7 1 : 1 2 6 ) o f h i s s o c i e
t y an d h i s a r t (171:11+0-1+2) • V i o l a t i o n s o f g ro u p e t h i c s
I n c l u d e s u c h " o f f e n c e s a g a i n s t d e c e n c y " a s b a s e m o t i v e
a p p e a l s , f a l s i f i c a t i o n o f e v i d e n c e , s l a n d e r , t e c h n i q u e s
w h ic h c i r c u m v e n t r a t i o n a l i t y and m a j o r i t y r u l e , an d u n a c
k n o w le d g e d o r i r r e s p o n s i b l e l o g o g r a p h y ( 1 7 1 : 11+0 ) . o f f e n s e s
a g a i n s t t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c i n c l u d e b e h a v i o r I n c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h th e f u n d a m e n t a l n a t u r e o f th e s u b j e c t ( 1 7 1 : 11+1 ) .
R h e t o r i c I s b a s e d on t h e n a t u r e o f man and h i s m e n t a l and
e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n t o t h e h o n e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s
256
( 1 7 1 : l 4 l " 4 2 ) . U n l i k e l o g i c , r h e t o r i c h a s v a l u e p r e m i s e s
w h ic h m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d ( 1 7 1 : l i i l ) . W hile p e r s o n a l i n t e g
r i t y and h o n e s t b e l i e f a r e a s p e c t s o f th e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c
t e r , i n r h e t o r i c t h e c r i t i c i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e " h o n e s t y
o f h i s e x p r e s s i o n " r a t h e r t h a n h i s s i n c e r i t y , i . e . , a
r h e t o r i c i a n c a n n o t e x c u s e f a u l t y r h e t o r i c s i m p l y b e c a u s e a
s p e a k e r i s h o n e s t l y m o t i v a t e d ( 1 7 1 : 11^ 2 ) •
O t h e r w r i t i n g s b y M urphy s u p p o r t e d h i s c o n c e r n w i t h
s i n c e r i t y an d th e s p e a k e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s p u b l i c
s t a t e m e n t s (i4.6 l4.1b - 9 ) a n d h i s b e l i e f t h a t v a l i d i t y — n o t
" s u c c e s s " - - l s th e c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n o f r h e t o r i c
(1^.65:122). I n a n o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n , "The F o r e n s i c M in d ," he
s t r e s s e d an i t e m w h ic h m ig h t w e l l h a v e r e c e i v e d f u r t h e r
d e v e l o p m e n t i n h i s " p r e f a c e " : t h a t s i n c e o b j e c t i v i t y i s
i m p o s s i b l e , b e c a u s e o f m a n 's n a t u r e , s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b le m s
o u g h t to b e e x p o s e d t o a l l a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e i n t e r m s o f
a l l o f th e i n t e r e s t s I n v o l v e d ( 1 7 2 : 1 4 .614.).
I n sum m ary, M urphy r e p u d i a t e d c o n c e p t i o n s o f r h e t
o r i c a s l m n o r a l o r a m o r a l and u r g e d t h a t i t b e J u d g e d b y
th e e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s o f s o c i e t y and o f t h e a r t . Such a
g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n i m p l i e s n o t o n l y t h a t some
e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a a r e i n t r i n s i c w i t h i n t h e a r t (POSITION I I )
b u t a l s o t h a t o t h e r s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e e n d s a n d sw a n s
w h lo h s o c i e t y s a n c t i o n s (POSITION V I ) . B o th e n d s a n d m eans
o u g h t t o b e g o o d . The c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r i s a m o r a l
d e t e r m i n a n t i n so f a r a s i t i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e
257
h o n e sty of h is speech (POSITION I I I ) .
A th ir d group of contem porary t h e o r i s t s lim ite d
t h e i r e x p o s itio n of an e t h i c s of r h e t o r i c to a c o n s id e ra
t i o n o f the means and ends as e t h i c a l d e te rm in a n ts (POSI
TION VI).
B arnet B a s k e r v l l l e . — In h is a r t i c l e , nJoe McCarthy,
B rie f-C a se Demagogue, n B a rn et B a s k e r v llle d e fin e d the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a demagogue by example ( 2 8 5 ) . A dema
gogue m islea d s h i s audience f o r h i s own s e l f i s h advantage
(265:9)* In doing t h i s , he t e l l s h i s l i s t e n e r s what they
want to h e a r, uses in v e c tiv e and c a tc h p h ra s e s , e x p l o i t s
causes and I s s u e s , dropping them when th ey no lo n g e r serve
h is p u rp o ses, and s u b s t i t u t e s em otional appeal f o r the
fa c ts ( 2 8 5 :9 ) * McCarthy b o th adhered to and d e p a rte d from
t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of a demagogue ( 2 8 5 :9 ) * In ste a d of
a p o s i t i v e program, he crusaded on a p la tfo rm of n e g a tio n ;
he used u n tr u th s and d i s t o r t i o n , c a u sin g e s tim a te s of h is
p e rs o n a l i n t e g r i t y to be low; he o v e r s im p lif ie d id e a s ,
a l l i e d h im self w ith the m ass-ego a g a in s t l n t e l l e c t u a l l s m ,
and was i n d i f f e r e n t to the d i a l e c t i c of democracy by which
id e a s are t e s t e d ; f i n a l l y , he r e l i e d upon bogus documenta
tio n to su p p o rt c h a r a c te r a t ta c k s ( 2 8 5 : 9 - 1 2 ) . The l a s t
technique was h is most o r i g i n a l one (2 8 5 :1 2 ).
To g e n e r a lis e upon the s p e c if ic example o f McCarthy,
one m ight conclude th a t B a s k e r v llle s e p a r a te s th e e t h i c a l
from the u n e t h ic a l (demagogic) p e rsu a d e r by b o th the ends
258
he seeks end the means used in their achievement (POSITION
VI). The unethical rhetor does not seek the truth, serves
h is own personal in te r e s t instead of the general w elfare,
and uses questionable means in h is speaklng--means which
are at variance with the democratic process of problem
solvin g.
D o n a ld B r y a n t . — The m o s t r e c e n t e d i t i o n o f F u n d a
m e n t a l s o f P u b l i c S p e a k i n g , b y B r y a n t and W a l l a c e ( I 9 6 0 ) ,
c o n t a i n e d w h a t seem ed to be B r y a n t ' s m o s t c o m p l e t e t r e a t
m ent o f r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c s ( 5 3 ) . I n t h i s r e v i s i o n , t h e s e
w r i t e r s o b s e r v e d t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r h e t o r i c and
c o n t e m p o r a r y d e m o c ra c y d e t e r m i n e s t h e e n d s o f r h e t o r i c :
The p e r s u a s i v e s p e a k e r s h o u l d p r e f e r g o a l s and
m o t i v e s w h ic h he b e l i e v e s a r e i n t h e b e s t I n t e r e s t s o f
t h e a u d i e n c e . . . .
Indeed, i f he observes the ethic which is b u ilt into
the art of rhetoric and persuasion, he can make no
other choice. There i s an eth ic of persuasion because
the domain of rh etoric overlaps that of p o lit ic s , 'ftie
overlap is in the region of e th ic a l values . . . (53:
291)
An a r t i c l e p u b l i s h e d i n 1950 f o r e t o l d t h i s l a t e r p h i l o s o
p h y :
I t Q rhetoric] has ever espoused the high so c ia l pur
pose. Rhetoric cannot be considered as e s s e n tia lly
r e la t iv l s t l c and opportunistic, as mainly concerned
with the e a s ie s t operation of the techniques of
persuasion toward ends with which i t has no concern.
( 308:176)
Bryant and Wallace explained these purposes more fu lly :
The art o f rhetoric i s instrumental to p o lit ic a l
and so c ia l l i f e . I t serves the n ation al community and
must therefore respect i t s values. So the e th ic a l
Id eals of the public speaker are taken d ir e c tly from
259
th e I d e a l s o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e . ( 5 3 : 2 9 1 )
R h e t o r i c s h o u ld n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a n a m o ra l t o o l o r
t e c h n i q u e d e p e n d e n t f o r I t s m o r a l i t y u p o n th e c h a r a c t e r o f
th e p e r s o n u s i n g i t ( 5 3 : 2 9 2 ) . T h is r e c e n t s t a t e m e n t
c o n t r a d i c t e d an e a r l i e r a r t i c l e w r i t t e n b y B r y a n t I n 1953*
I n w h ic h h e e n t e r t a i n e d t h e n o t i o n o f th e a m o r a l l t y o f th e
a r t , an a r t w h ic h c a n be u s e d h o n e s t l y o r d i s h o n e s t l y
d e p e n d i n g up o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f th e s p e a k e r ( 3 1 0 :lj.0 9 ) . I f
th e s p e a k e r e x p l o i t s h i s a u d i e n c e , h i s m o r a l s r a t h e r th a n
h i s r h e t o r i c a r e a t f a u l t ( 3 1 0 : 1 ^ 1 ) • B r y a n t m in im iz e d th e
e f f e c t o f t h i s i n c o n s i s t e n c y by d e f i n i n g th e r e s u l t i n g
p e r s u a s i o n s i n e t h i c a l te r m s :
I t Is obvious and commonplace th a t the a g i t a t o r , the
p o l i t i c a l sp e ak er, the pam p h leteer, the advocate, the
p re a c h e r, the p o le m ic is t and a p o l o g is t, the a d v is e r of
kin g s and p r in c e s , the te a c h e r of sta tesm en , the
refo rm er and c o u n te r-re fo rm e r, the f a n a t i c in r e l i g i o n ,
d i e t o r economics, the mountebank and m esslah, have
enhanced the s ta tu r e o f a noble d is c o u rs e or have
e x p lo ite d a degraded, sh allo w , and d is h o n e s t d is c o u rs e .
I t m a tte rs n o t t h a t we r e s o r t to e x a lte d names f o r the
one— eloquence, g e n iu s, p h ilo so p h y , lo g ic , d is c o u rs e of
re a s o n ; and f o r the o th e r, l a b e l s o f re p ro ach and
contem pt— s o p h is try , g lib n e s s , demagoguery, c h ic a n e ry ,
" r h e t o r i c " . . . . The f a c t i s th a t in t h e i r c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c p re o c c u p a tio n w ith m a n ip u la tin g the p u b lic mind,
they a re one. They m ust n o t a l l be approved or
em ulated, but th e y must a l l be s tu d ie d as h ig h ly
s i g n i f i c a n t s o c ia l phenomena . . . . (310:lp.l)
He went on to e x p la in s i t u a t i o n s in which problems o ccu r:
The m oral d is tu rb a n c e s which r h e t o r i c and r h e t o r i c a l
a c t i v i t y seem to b reed do n o t u s u a lly r e s u l t from t h i s
p ro c e s s of m utual accommodation i t s e l f . Most of them
a r i s e when the sp eak er t r i e s so to a d j u s t id e a s to
people t h a t the id e a s are b a s i c a l l y f a l s i f i e d , or when
he a tte m p ts so to a d j u s t people to id e a s as to deform
o r a n e s th e tiz e the p eo p le. (310:ljJL3)
2 60
B r y a n t v a a d e s c r i b i n g a c o m p le te r h e t o r i c ( 3 1 0 : 1 4 j.i1 .), th e
t e c h n i q u e s o f w h ic h a r e r e c o g n i z a b l e I n t h e w ork o f th e
a d v e r t i s i n g w o r l d , t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t , th e s a le s m a n , a n d th e
p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s man ( 3 1 0 : l j l . l ) . T h i s p a r a d o x i c a l a d v i c e
r e g a r d i n g th e e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t was r e s o l v e d by a r e c o g
n i t i o n t h a t i n t h e e a r l y a r t i c l e , B r y a n t w as d e s c r i b i n g th e
w h o le a r t , w h i l e i n t h e r e c e n t t e x t r e v i s i o n , h e w as p o s i t
i n g a d e m o c r a t i c r h e t o r i c . I n th e f o r m e r , th e c h a r a c t e r o f
th e s p e a k e r d e t e r m i n e d th e m o r a l i t y , w h i l e i n th e l a t t e r ,
t h e m o r a l i t y i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i d e a l s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
s o c i e t y w i t h i n w h ic h t h e p e r s u a s i o n o p e r a t e s . I d e a l r h e t
o r i c i s d e f i n e d b y d e m o c r a t i c I d e a l s , n o t b y th e i d e a l s o f
th e s p e a k e r ; i f he s u p p o r t s th e v a l u e s o f th e d e m o c r a t i c
s t a t e t h r o u g h h i s a r t , t h e n he i s an e t h i c a l s p e a k e r .
Bryant and Wallace added advice concerning the
relation sh ip of ends and means:
F o r th e p e r s u a s i v e s p e a k e r , t h e e n d d o e s n o t J u s t i f y
t h e m e a n s . . . . R a t h e r , th e s p e a k e r r e s p e c t s t h e m eans
m ore t h a n th e e n d . F o r a p a r t i c u l a r s p e e c h , i t i s t h e
q u a l i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t c o u n t s , n o t i t s e f f e c t .
W hat m a t t e r s i s how w e l l th e p e r s u a d e r s p o k e , how w e l l
h e m e a s u r e d up t o t h e s t a n d a r d s o f s p e e c h m a k in g .
Accordingly, the persuader's m orality co rrelates with
the q u a lity of h is speech. A speech i s good to the
extent that i t meets proper standards; i t i s bad to the
exten t that i t does n ot. (53:293)
What Bryant and Wallace are saying here i s that a speaker
i s not ju s tifie d in using any means In order to achieve h is
purpose, i . e . , in order to succeed; i t is more important
that the speaker s e le c t proper methods. This i s e s s e n tia l
261
l y t h e A r i a t o t o 11an v ie w , e x c e p t t h a t i n A r l a t o t l e when th e
s p e a k e r s e l e c t s t h e l e s s p r o p e r m e th o d s , h e I s n o t e v a l u
a t e d e t h i c a l l y ; he I s o n l y c o n s i d e r e d l e s s a r t i s t i c , i n
B r y a n t and W a l l a c e , when th e s p e a k e r c h o o s e s th e l e s s p r o
p e r m e th o d s , h e i s e v a l u a t e d e t h i c a l l y a t t h e same tim e
t h a t he I s e v a l u a t e d a r t i s t i c a l l y .
The su p re m e v a l u e o f d e m o c ra c y , " t h e d i g n i t y and
w o r t h o f t h e I n d i v i d u a l , " e n t a i l s t h a t th e s p e a k e r a b i d e b y
c e r t a i n com m andm ents, i . e . , s e l e c t " p r o p e r " m e th o d s ( 5 3 :
2 9 ^)* (1 ) He m u s t r e s p e c t t h e o p i n i o n s o f o t h e r s , p a r t i c u
l a r l y t h o s e o f h i s a u d i e n c e ( 5 3 : 2 9 ^ ) . I n o r d e r to do t h i s
he m u s t r e c o g n i z e "b y s t a t e m e n t o r b y c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n "
t r u t h w h e r e v e r i t may l i e ( 5 3 : 2 9 l l ) . (2 ) He m u s t r e s p e c t
h i s own o p i n i o n , i . e . , he m u s t o f f e r h i s a u d i e n c e h i s view
o n l y when i t i s h i s s i n c e r e , c o n s i d e r e d , in f o r m e d o p i n i o n
( 5 3 : 2 9 5 ) . (3 ) He m u s t p l a y f a i r w i t h h i s a u d i e n c e , g i v i n g
them a c c e s s t o p e r t i n e n t I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th e q u e s t i o n
b e i n g d l s c u s s e d - - i n f o n n a t l o n w h ic h i s b a s e d on d i v e r s e and
u n b i a s e d s o u r c e s - - i n a way w h ic h d o e s n o t p e r m i t d i s t o r t i o n
o r r e s t r i c t i o n ( 5 3 : 2 9 6 ) . H is o b l i g a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t he
a c t u a l l y b e i n f o r m e d on h i s s u b j e c t and t h a t h e n o t o m i t ,
d i s t o r t , o r s u p p r e s s i n f o r m a t i o n w h ic h "w o u ld a l t e r th e
e f f e c t o f h i s p r o p o s i t i o n " ( 5 3 : 2 9 6 - 9 7 ) . (1+) He m u s t make
c l e a r t o h i s a u d i e n c e t h e m o t i v a t i o n s a n d b i a s e s n o t o n l y
o f h i m s e l f b u t a l s o o f h i s s o u r c e s ( 5 3 : 2 9 6 ) .
T h e se a c t i o n s and a b s t e n t i o n s fro m a c t i o n s o f u l l y
262
a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h e I9 6 0 r e v i s i o n a r e f o u n d I n t h e i r
I n c i p i e n t d e v e lo p m e n t i n b o t h e a r l i e r e d i t i o n s ( 5 1 , 5 2 ) a s
w e l l a s I n th e o t h e r t e x t c o - a u t h o r e d b y th e same w r i t e r s
(54) •
I n sum m ary, i n h i s m o s t r e c e n t w ork D o n a ld B r y a n t
p o s i t s a n i d e a l r h e t o r i c f o r a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y w h ic h i s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h f o r w a r d i n g th e I d e a l s o f t h a t s o c i e t y an d
w h ic h a b i d e s b y c e r t a i n comm andm ents ( c r i t e r i a ) r e s p e c t i n g
m eans s i m i l a r l y t e s t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e i d e a l s (P O S I
TION V I ) . Means a r e to be t e s t e d n o t b y how t h e y a i d
e f f e c t i v e n e s s , b u t i n s t e a d by how t h e y " m e a s u re u p " t o t h e
s t a n d a r d s o f d e m o c r a t i c r h e t o r i c .
K a r l W a l l a c e . — I n a d d i t i o n to th e t e x t s w h ic h he c o -
a u t h o r e d w i t h B r y a n t ( 5 1 , 52, 53, 5k)* K a r l W a lla c e was th e
a u t h o r o f s e v e r a l o t h e r p e r t i n e n t a r t i c l e s w h ic h a p p ro a c h e d
a n e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c fro m th e same p o i n t o f v ie w (5 6 2 ,
5 6 3 , 5 6 4 , 5 6 5 ) .
W a lla c e f e l t t h a t a g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h y i n w h ic h th e
e n d J u s t i f i e s t h e m eans i s u n t e n a b l e i n a d e m o c ra c y and
s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d b y one i n w h ic h th e m eans a r e e m p h a siz e d
m ore t h a n t h e e n d ( 5 8 2 : 2 - 3 ) . A s p e c i f i c p h i l o s o p h y o f
e t h i c s f o r o r a l c o m m u n ic a tio n m u s t d e r i v e i t s s t a n d a r d s
fro m t h e a r t o f r h e t o r i c , w h ic h i n t u r n t a k e s i t s m e a n in g
f ro m i t s s o c i a l s e t t i n g ( 5 6 2 : 4 ) : C o m m u n ic a tio n
i n e v i t a b l y m u s t s t a n d f o r a n d m u s t r e f l e c t t h e same
e t h i c a l v a l u e s a s t h e p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y o f w h ic h i t i s
263
a p a r t " ( $ 8 2 :5 ) * S in c e t h i s I s t r u e , t h e s p e e c h t e s c h e r
m u s t b e ftwere o f t h e s e v a l u e s ( 5 8 3 : 9 6 ) , and t e a c h a r h e t o r i :
o f s o c i a l p e r s u a s i o n w h ic h t a k e s I t s w h o le o r i e n t a t i o n and
some o f I t s m e th o d o lo g y " fro m th e t e r r i t o r y w h e re p o l i t i c s
and e t h i c s o v e r l a p " (58 1 ^:2 0 3 ). T hese e s s e n t i a l v a l u e s o f
d e m o c ra c y w h ic h m u s t g u id e th e s p e a k e r I n c l u d e : (1) a
r e s p e c t f o r th e d i g n i t y a n d w o r th o f t h e I n d i v i d u a l , (2 ) a
b e l i e f I n f a i r n e s s and e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y , (3) a b e l i e f i n
f r e e d o m w i t h r e s t r a i n t , a n d (ij.) a c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a l l
p e r s o n s a r e c a p a b l e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g In
d e m o c ra c y ( 5 8 2 : 5 * 6 ) . T h ese I d e a l s h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a
m o r a l i t y o f r h e t o r i c w h ic h c a n be su m m a riz e d I n te r m s o f
" f o u r m o r a l i t i e s " : (1 ) t h e d u t y o f s e a r c h and I n q u i r y ; (2)
a l l e g i a n c e t o a c c u r a c y , f a i r n e s s , and j u s t i c e I n th e s e l e c
t i o n and t r e a t m e n t o f i d e a s and a r g u m e n t s ; (3 ) a w i l l i n g n e s s
to s u b m i t p r i v a t e m o t i v a t i o n s to p u b l i c s c r u t i n y and (i|.)
th e t o l e r a t i o n o f d i s s e n t ( 5 8 2 :9 ) *
M i l t o n D o b k in s e c o n d e d W a l l a c e ' s e t h i c a l v ie w d i s
c u s s e d a b o v e , In h i s a r t i c l e , "The F o r e n s i c D i r e c t o r and
C i t i z e n s h i p " ( 354)* D o b k in , r e c o g n i z i n g th e " d a n g e r to
d e m o c ra c y o f a d v o c a c y w h ic h r e s t s on a n a m o r a l o r n o n - e t h i -
c a l b a s i s , " w a n te d t h e s p e e c h t e a c h e r t o s t r e s s W a l l a c e ' s
f o u r m o r a l i t i e s (3 5 4 :2 0 lj.).
The r e s e m b l a n c e o f W a l l a c e ' s w r i t i n g s and t h o s e o f
B r y a n t , a s w e l l as t h e i r w o rk s p r o d u c e d i n J o i n t a u t h o r s h i p .
J u s t i f y a s i m i l a r c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f W a l l a c e ' s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
26k
p o s i t i o n : r h e t o r i c a l m eans a r e t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e I d e a l s
and m e th o d s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y i n v o l v e d (POSITION
V I ) .
K e n n e th B u r k e . - - W h i l e th e k e y te r m s o f d r a m a tis m ,
th e B u rk e a n p e n t a d d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r I , w ere u s e d i n
t h i s s t u d y a s an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e v i c e f o r c l a s s i f y i n g d ata*
no a t t e m p t was made t o a p p l y th e m e th o d o lo g y o f K e n n e th
B u rk e i n i t s e n t i r e t y . "B u rk e i s d i f f i c u l t and o f t e n c o n
f u s i n g , " w r o te M a rie H och m u th , p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t p e r c e p t i v e
e x p o u n d e r o f h i s "new r h e t o r i c " I n s p e e c h l i t e r a t u r e (3 9 7 :
1 4 4 ) • W h ile th e c a s u a l r e a d e r i n e v i t a b l y f i n d s Burke o b
s c u r e , e v e n t h e p l o d d i n g s c h o l a r may b e o v e rw h e lm e d by w h a t
S t a n l e y Hyman c a l l s , i n The Armed V i s i o n h i s " l i m i t l e s s
f e r t i l i t y " ( 1 2 0 : 3 2 7 ) .
T h is s e c t i o n was p u r p o s e l y l i m i t e d to o n l y o n e a s
p e c t o f B u r k e ' s p r o f u n d i t y . The t r e a t m e n t w h ic h f o l l o w s
w i l l p r e s e n t h i s i d e a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t
d i g r e s s i o n i n t o h i s m e th o d o lo g y .
M o st o f B u r k e ' s c r i t i c a l w ork i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
e x p l i c a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s m e th o d . O c c a s i o n a l l y ,
h e r e a n d t h e r e , one c a n p i e c e t o g e t h e r com m ents c a p a b l e o f
b e i n g su m m a riz e d and woven I n t o a f a b r i c o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y
o f r h e t o r i c a l e t h i c s .
He seem s to c o n s i d e r r h e t o r i c an a m o r a l i n s t r u m e n t :
A l l t o l d , p e r s u a s i o n r a n g e s fro m t h e b l u n t e s t q u e s t
o f a d v a n t a g e , a s i n s a l e s p r o m o t i o n o r p r o p a g a n d a ,
t h r o u g h c o u r t s h i p , s o c i a l e t i q u e t t e , e d u c a t i o n , a n d th e
2 65
s e rm a n , to a " p u r e " fo rm t h a t d e l i g h t s i n t h e p r o c e s s
o f a p p e a l f o r I t s e l f a l o n e , w i t h o u t u l t e r i o r p u r p o s e .
( 5 8 :x )
E v e n I n I t s p u r e fo rm o r a r c h e t y p e , p e r s u a s i o n I s n e i t h e r
good n o r b a d I n a m o r a l s e n s e ( 5 3 :2 7 5 ) * R h e t o r i c , c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f m e n 's
b e l i e f s f o r p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s (59:1+1), I n v o l v e s c h o i c e and
c a n be d i r e c t e d to men o n l y I n so f a r a s t h e y a r e f r e e (5 9 :
5 0 ) .
The p r i n c i p l e p u r p o s e o f e l o q u e n c e I s t o c o n v e r t
l i f e i n t o i t s m o s t t h o r o u g h v e r b a l e q u i v a l e n t ( 5 9 : 1 6 7 ) , b u t
t h i s d o e s n o t m ean th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e ( t h e sem an
t i c I d e a l ) ( 6 0 : 1 2 6 ) . I n s t e a d , i t i m p l i e s th e p o e t i c i d e a l ,
I . e . , th e h e a p i n g up o f c o n f l i c t s o f a t t i t u d e so t h a t a
f u l l m o r a l a c t i s a t t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e i r a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a
t i o n ( 6 0 : 1 2 9 ) . I n t h i s a c t t h e d i a l e c t i c a l and r h e t o r i c a l
e l e m e n t s a r e m ix e d . D em o cracy i s an I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n
o f t h i s p r o c e s s :
I t a k e d e m o c ra c y to be a d e v i c e f o r i n s t l t u t l o n i z l n g
t h e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s , b y s e t t i n g up a p o l i t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e t h a t g i v e s f u l l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r th e u s e o f
c o m p e t i t i o n t o a c o o p e r a t i v e e n d . A llo w f u l l s c o p e to
t h e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s , and y o u e s t a b l i s h a s c e n e I n
w h ic h th e p r o t a g o n i s t o f a t h e s i s h a s maximum o p p o r t u n
i t y t o m o d ify h i s t h e s i s , an d so m a t u r e i t , I n t h e
l i g h t o f t h e a n t a g o n i s t ' s r e j o i n d e r s . . . . I s h o u l d
c o n t e n d t h a t t h e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s a b a o l u t e l y m u s t b e
u n im p e d e d , I f s o c i e t y I s t o p e r f e c t i t s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f r e a l i t y b y th e n e c e s s a r y m e th o d o f g i v e - a n d - t a k e
( y i e l d and a d v a n c e ) . ( 6 0 :3 2 7 - 2 8 )
p o e t r y ( 6 0 : 1 3 7 ) , i . e . , la n g u a g e ( 5 6 : 1 7 8 ) , r h e t o r i c ,
h a s b e e n a b u s e d ; I n s p i t e o f t h i s t h e s o l u t i o n i s n o t t o
e l i m i n a t e s u c h v e r b a l c o e r c i o n ( 6 0 :5 ) * b u t I n s t e a d to f o s t e r
m o r a l p e r s u a s i o n , I . e . , to c o a c h " g o o d " s p e l l s ( 6 0 : 1 0 3 ) .
Su ch " c o r r e c t m a g ic " I m p l i e s d e c r e e s o r a s s e r t i o n s a h i c h
c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a te th e r e a l s i t u a t i o n ( 6 0 : 5 ) ; I t I s a k i n
to r a t i o n a l i t y , f o r w h a t I s r a t i o n a l i t y , B u rk e a s k s b u t th e
d e s i r e f o r an a c c u r a t e c h a r t o f w h a t i s g o in g on ( 6 0 : 9 0 ) .
R h e t o r i c i s g r o u n d e d I n o p i n i o n r a t h e r th a n t r u t h , and b e
c a u s e o f t h i s , o c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e s p e a k e r who w o u ld s u c c e e d
m u s t u s e r h e t o r i c a l m eans w h ic h h e m i g h t n o t l i k e ( 5 0 : 5 ^ ) .
H ow ever, a s c r u p u l o u s man a d v a n c i n g a good p u r p o s e w i l l
" c h o o s e the p u r e s t m eans a v a i l a b l e i n t h e g i v e n s i t u a t i o n "
( 5 0 : 1 5 5 ) . " P u r e " i m p l i e s t h a t th e m ean s s e l e c t e d a r e
b e t t e r a b l e t h a n o t h e r m eans to s e r v e th e d e s i r e d p u r p o s e
( 5 0 : 1 5 5 ) . Such a h e i r a r c h y o f m eans p r e v e n t s th e s e l e c t i o n
o f m eans " so a l i e n to t h e n a t u r e o f t h e avowed e n d , and so
f a r b e lo w o t h e r m eans a c t u a l l y a v a i l a b l e , t h a t I t am o u n ts
to n o t h i n g b u t a b l u n t p e r v e r t i n g o f t h a t e n d " ( 5 0 : 1 5 6 ) .
B e c a u se he b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e e n d s o f fre e d o m a r e
b e t t e r s e r v e d b y c o a c h i n g good s p e l l s ( 6 0 : 1 0 3 ) , B u rk e o f
f e r e d h i s r e a d e r i n "The R h e t o r i c o f H i t l e r ' s B a t t l e " h i s
c o n t r i b u t i o n to f o r e s t a l l i n g a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e
o f s u c h p e r s u a s i o n i n A m e ric a :
H e re i s th e t e s t a m e n t o f a man who sw ung a g r e a t
p e o p l e i n t o h i s w ake. L e t u s w a t c h i t c a r e f u l l y ; . . .
l e t u s t r y . . . to d i s c o v e r w h a t k i n d o f " m e d i c i n e "
t h i s m e d ic in e - m a n h a s c o n c o c t e d , t h a t we may know , w i t h
g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y , e x a c t l y w h a t we a r e to g u a r d a g a i n s t ,
i f we a r e t o f o r e s t a l l t h e c o n c o c t i n g o f s i m i l a r
m e d i c i n e i n A m e ric a .
2 6 7
. . . H i t l e r f o u n d a p a n a c e a * a " c u r e f o r w h a t a l i a
y o u , " a " s n a k e o i l * " t h a t made . . . u n i f y i n g p o s s i b l e
w i t h i n h i s own n a t i o n . And he was h e l p f u l e n o u g h t o
p u t h i s c a r d s f a c e up on t h e t a b l e £ in M ein K am pf] ,
t h a t we m i g h t e x a m in e h i s h a n d s . L e t us* th e n * f o r
G o d 's sak e* e x a m in e th em . T h i s b o o k i s t h e w e l l o f
N a z i m a g ic ; c r u d e m agic* b u t e f f e c t i v e . ( 6 0 :1 6 5 )
H i t l e r ' s r h e t o r i c w as a " b a d f i l l i n g o f a good n e e d " ; th e
n e e d w as German u n i t y * t h e f i l l i n g w as " ' c u r a t i v e ' u n i f i c a
t i o n b y a f i c t i t i o u s d e v l l - f u n c t i o n * g r a d u a l l y made c o n
v i n c i n g b y t h e s l o g a n i z i n g r e p e t i t i o u s n e s s o f s t a n d a r d
a d v e r t i s i n g t e c h n i q u e " ( 6 0 : 1 0 7 ) . H is u n i t y was no u n i t y a t
a l l * f o r i t s h i f t e d th e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e German p e o p l e fro m
t h e r e a l p r o b le m s a t h an d t h r o u g h d e c e p t i o n and t r i c k e r y ;
h i s a p p e a l s w ere a " b a s t a r d i z a t i o n o f f u n d a m e n t a l l y r e l i
g i o u s p a t t e r n s o f t h o u g h t " ( 6 0 : 1 3 8 ) .
S p e l l s t a k e on a m o r a l i t y fro m e l e m e n t s e x t r i n s i c to
t h e a c t i v i t y I t s e l f ; "Any s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t y p a r t i c i
p a t e s i n a l a r g e r u n i t o f a c t i o n " ( 5 8 :2 7 ) * a s p h e r e w i t h
w h ic h i n some o a s e s t h e a g e n t ( s p e a k e r ) h i m s e l f may n o t be
c o n c e r n e d . W h ile th e a g e n t , a s a t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t , n e e d
o n l y a p p l y h i m s e l f to t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f h i s w o rk , I f
t h i s r o l e i s a t o d d s w i t h h i s r o l e a s c i t i z e n * " a s p e c i a l t y
a t t h e s e r v i c e o f s i n i s t e r i n t e r e s t s w i l l I t s e l f become
s i n i s t e r " ( 5 8 :3 1 ) *
I n sum m ary, B u rk e r e c o g n i z e s t h e a m o r a l l t y o f r h e t
o r i c a s i t i s p r a c t i c e d * b u t he i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o a c h i n g
g o o d s p e l l s , i . e . , t e a c h i n g m o r a l i t y o f p e r s u a s i o n . P e r
s u a s i o n i s m o r a l when i t p r o v i d e s th e h e a r e r w i t h an a c c u -
2 6 8
r a t a c h a r t o f r e a l i t y t h r o u g h th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f " o p i n
io n s'* so t h a t th e p r o d u c t i s a k i n d o f p r a g m a t i c t r u t h .
3 u c h a c h a r t r e q u i r e s th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s p e c i a l i z e d a r t s
I n a w i d e r c o n t e x t w h ic h a f f e c t s th e f i n a l m o r a l e v a l u a
t i o n ; f u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n i f t h e p u r p o s e i s a good o n e , i n
o r d e r f o r an a c t t o be m o r a l , t h e a g e n t ( s p e a k e r ) m u s t
s e l e c t m eans w h ic h n o t o n l y a c c o m p l i s h t h e p u r p o s e (e n d )
e f f e c t i v e l y b u t w h ic h a l s o a r e t h e v e r y b e s t p o s s i b l e m eans
to a c c o m p l i s h t h a t p u r p o s e (POSITION V I ) . Means w h ic h
s u b v e r t t h e e n d a r e u n e t h i c a l , a s a r e e n d s w h ic h s u b v e r t
t h e w i d e r c o n t e x t w i t h w h ic h t h e a g e n t i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a
c i t i z e n .
R o b e r t p . C l a r k . — R o b e r t D. C l a r k i n an a r t i c l e
e n t i t l o d , "'These T r u t h s ,Ve H old S e l f - e v i d e n t , " w r o te t h a t
" t h e p u r p o s e o f s p e e c h t r a i n i n g i s n o t s im p ly to d e v e l o p
s k i l l i n p e r s u a s i o n b u t to d e v e l o p t h o s e s k i l l s w h ic h may
be u s e d u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s ; n a m e ly , w i t h i n a s o c i a l
c o n t e x t " ( 3 2 8 :4 4 b ) * C l a r k d i d n o t o b j e c t t o t h i n k i n g o f
p e r s u a s i o n a s a t o o l o f a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y ; i n f a c t he
f e l t t h a t p e r s u a s i v e s k i l l s m u s t be l o o k e d a t w i t h i n t h i s
s o c i a l c o n t e x t (3 2 8 :4 4 b )* When p e r s u a s i o n i s t h o u g h t o f a s
an e n d , t h e s p e a k e r i m m e d i a t e l y b eco m es c o n c e r n e d w i t h
s e e k i n g m eans o f a c h i e v e m e n t , and w i t h o u t t h e s o c i a l c o n
t e x t , p e r s u a s i o n becom es an i n s t r u m e n t o f p e r s o n a l po w er
( 3 2 8 :4 4 7 ) * The e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e dem agogue
and t h e s t a t e s m a n i s t h a t th e f o r m e r u s e s a p p e a l s to e x p l o i t
269
h i s own p u r p o s e , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r t r i e s t o m e a s u re them In
te r m s o f I n h e r e n t v a l u e ( 3 2 8 : 4 4 9 ) .
A m ore r e c e n t a r t i c l e , " L e s s o n s fro m th e L i t e r a r y
C r i t i c s , " p o i n t e d o u t , I n p a r t , t h a t s i n c e p e r s u a s i o n I s an
I n s t r u m e n t f o r s o c i a l c o n t r o l , i t o u g h t t o b e t e s t e d b o t h
f o r i t s m eans a n d I t s p u r p o s e s ( 3 2 7 : 8 8 ) . The c r i t i c o u g h t
t o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h w h e th e r o r n o t r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s
a r e I n i m i c a l t o a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y ( 3 2 7 : 8 8 ) . C l a r k d i d
n o t a n s w e r h i s own q u e s t i o n .
C l a r k ' s a r t i c l e s seem ed to s u g g e s t t h a t p e r s u a s i o n
i s a m eans w h ic h o u g h t to be v ie w e d i n th e d e m o c r a t i c c o n
t e x t ; b o t h t h e e n d s s o u g h t by t h e s p e a k e r and t h e s k i l l s
u s e d s h o u ld s u p p o r t th e p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y (POSITION V I ) .
T h e o d o re C l e v e n g e r . - - I n h i s a r t i c l e , "The T e a c h e r o f
S p e e c h an d F reed o m o f S p e e c h , " T h e o d o re C l e v e n g e r d i s c u s s e d
c u r r e n t s i g n s o f th e r e p r e s s i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h and s h a t
s p e e c h t e a c h e r s m u s t do i n c l a s s and on t h e p u b l i c p l a t f o r m
t o f u r t h e r f r e e s p e e c h ( 3 2 9 : 9 1 " 1 ° 1 ) •
S p e e c h t e c h n i q u e s s h o u l d n o t b e t a u g h t w i t h o u t
r e f e r e n c e to th e e n d s to be s e r v e d , f o r s u c h a p h i l o s o p h y
i s o u t o f h arm ony w i t h d e m o c r a t i c e d u c a t i o n ( 3 2 9 :9 5 ) * F r e e
s p e e c h s h o u l d b e n o u r i s h e d i n th e c l a s s r o o m so t h a t t h e r e
w i l l be an im p ro v e m e n t i n th e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e ( 3 2 9 :9 7 ) * I n
o r d e r to e f f e c t t h e s e g o a l s , t h e t e a c h e r m u s t e n c o u r a g e h i s
s t u d e n t s t o : (1 ) s p e a k up h o n e s t l y , f e a r l e s s l y , and w e l l ,
(2 ) " c o u n t e r p r o p a g a n d a w i t h t r u t h , " (3) t o l e r a t e d i f f e r i n g
270
v i e w s , and (4 ) assum e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r w o rd s (3 2 9 :
9 7 - 9 9 ) . A f t e r th e s p e e c h t e a c h e r h a s f u l f i l l e d t h i s f i r s t
o b l i g a t i o n , h i s n e x t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s t o s p e a k " o f t e n and
w e l l " h i m s e l f :
When th e t i d e o f p u b l i c p a s s i o n r u n s h i g h end th e
p r e s s u r e s f o r s u p p r e s s i o n a r e s t r o n g , h i s v o i c e may be
t h a t o f o n e c r y i n g i n th e w i l d e r n e s s , b u t w i t h a l l th e
t e c h n i q u e s h i s t r a d e p l a c e s a t h i s d i s p o s a l h e c a n make
t h a t v o i c e a p o w e r f u l o n e ; and a p o w e r f u l v o i c e s p e a k
i n g th e t r u t h c a n be h e a r d a l o n g w ay. ( 3 2 9 :1 0 1 )
I n summ ary, C l e v e n g e r e m b ra c e d w h a t seem s to b e a
t y p i c a l c o n t e m p o r a r y v ie w : r h e t o r i c i s m o r a l when i t i s
u s e d f r e e l y an d r e s p o n s i b l y to s u p p o r t n o t o n l y th e g e n e r a l
w e l f a r e b u t a l s o f r e e s p e e c h I t s e l f (POSITION V I ) .
A l b e r t C r o f t . - - T h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e f o r m u l a t i n g r h e
t o r i c a l t h e o r y t h r o u g h e t h i c a l c r i t i c i s m was s t r e s s e d by
A l b e r t C r o f t I n h i s a r t i c l e , "The F u n c t i o n s o f R h e t o r i c a l
C r i t i c is m " (3 4 -2 :2 9 1 ). Among th e new d i r e c t i o n s to be t a k e n
b y t h e r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c w as n o t o n l y an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e
s o c i a l v a l u e s o f th e s p e a k e r and h i s a u d i e n c e , i n c l u d i n g
t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s (34-2:287)* b u t a l s o a p e r s o n a l
e s t i m a t e o f t h e r i g h t n e s s o f t h e s e v a l u e s a n d t h e i r e f f e c
t i v e n e s s a s p e r s u a s i o n ( 3 ^ 2 * 2 9 0 ) . Th® a n s w e r t o w h a t C r o f t
c a l l e d t h e " c e n t r a l i s s u e " i n m o d ern s p e e c h p e d a g o g y - - t h e
m a t t e r o f th e e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c - - c a n o n l y b e " d e l i n e a t e d
• . . t h r o u g h a f u n d a m e n t a l l y e t h i c a l c r i t i c i s m o f th e
v a l u e - a c t l o n c o n n e c t i o n s w h ic h make up th e r e a l p e r s u a s i o n
o f a s p e e c h " (3 4 -2 :2 9 1 ). A lth o u g h C r o f t d i d n o t make h i s
271
p o s i t i o n m ore s p e c i f i c th a n t h i s , i t seem ed f a i r to c o n
c l u d e t h a t he was u r g i n g c a r e f u l en d i n s p e c t i o n a s w e l l a s
a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n t h e s e e n d s and
t h e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n (POSITION V I ) .
F r a n k l y n H a im a n . — F r a n k l y n Haim an h a s w r i t t e n two
a r t i c l e s w h ic h d e a l s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f
e t h i c s : h i s f i r s t a r t i c l e , " a R e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e E t h i c s
o f P e r s u a s i o n , " was w r i t t e n i n 1952 (3 8 3 )» and h i s s e c o n d
w ork " D e m o c r a tic E t h i c s and t h e H id d e n P e r s u a d e r s , " w h ic h
was e s s e n t i a l l y a r e s t a t e m e n t o f th e e a r l i e r one t h i s tim e
o r i e n t e d a r o u n d s u b l i m i n a l p e r s u a s i o n a p p e a r e d s i x y e a r s
l a t e r (3 8 4 )*
I n h i s e a r l i e r a r t i c l e , he c o n c l u d e d t h a t " p e r s u a
s i v e d e v i c e s , " i . e . , a p p e a l s w h ic h s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h e
r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s ( 3 8 3 :4 ) * a r e u n d e m o c r a t i c ( 3 8 3 : 7 ) en d
i n h e r e n t l y u n e t h i c a l ( 3 8 3 :9 ) * He l i s t e d among t h e s e d e
v i c e s w h ic h i n h i b i t r a t i o n a l c h o i c e th e f o l l o w i n g : t e c h
n i q u e s f o r r e n d e r i n g th e a u d i e n c e s u g g e s t i b l e , t h e d e l i b e r
a t e o m i s s i o n o r m i n i m i z a t i o n o f o p p o s i n g a r g u m e n t and
e v i d e n c e , t h e c o n s c i o u s u s e o f e t h i c a l o r e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l s
to b y - p a s s c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f th e I s s u e s ( 3 8 3 :4 ) * A l
t h o u g h Haim an d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e d e v i c e s a r e e s s e n
t i a l f o r e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a s i o n ( 3 8 3 :5 ) > h e seem ed to w a i v e r
a l i t t l e f ro m h i s i d e a l i s t i c p r o s l t i o n when he r e c o g n i z e d
an o c c a s i o n a l n e e d f o r " d e f e n s i v e p e r s u a s i o n " ( 3 8 3 : 7 ) .
I n th e s e c o n d a r t i c l e h e c h a r g e d t h a t th e t e c h n i q u e s
272
o f th e h i d d e n p e r s u a d e r a r e s im p l y p e r f e c t i o n s o f f a m i l i a r
p e r s u a s i v e t e c h n i q u e s ( 3 8 4 : 3 8 7 ) • T hese new s u b l i m i n a l d e
v i c e s s h a r e I n common w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s t h e i r
a t t e m p t t o " c i r c u m v e n t m a n 's m ind and r e a s o n I n o r d e r to
e l i c i t n o n - r e f l e c t l v e , s e m i - c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c i o u s r e
s p o n s e s " ( 3 8 4 : 3 8 7 ) .
The o n l y c r i t e r i o n b i n d i n g on a l l s p e a k e r s i n t h i s
s o c i e t y , H aim an w r o t e i n 1 9 5 2 , i s t h e d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c
( 3 8 3 :7 ) » and when m e a s u r e d a g a i n s t t h i s s t a n d a r d b o t h t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l ( 3 8 3 :9 ) and t h e new p e r s u a s i v e t e c h n i q u e ? (3 8 4 :
3 67) a r e fo u n d w a n t i n g . B o th a r e u n d e m o c r a t i c b e c a u s e t h e y
f a i l to u n d e r s t a n d a b a s i c d e m o c r a t i c t e n e t t h a t t h e e n d
d o e s n o t j u s t i f y th e m eans an d b e c a u s e t h e y e x p l o i t t h e
w e a k n e s s e s o f th e a u d i t o r I n s t e a d o f h e l p i n g him t o b e more
r a t i o n a l ( 3 8 4 : 3 8 7 ) .
The d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c p e r m i t s a s p e a k e r to I n f l u e n c e
h i s a u d i e n c e o n l y when th e c o n d i t i o n s a r e r i g h t :
I f th e s p e a k e r c a n do I t t h r o u g h r a t i o n a l m e a n s, w h ic h
b y t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e a r e r e s p e c t f u l o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i
c a l i n t e g r i t y o f th e l i s t e n e r a n d w h ic h c a n b e s u c c e s s
f u l o n l y i f t h e l i s t e n e r a o c e p t s them i n f u l l a w a r e n e s s
o f w h a t he i s d o i n g , t h e s p e a k e r h a s r e m a i n e d i n f u l l
a c c o r d w i t h t h e d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c o f r a t i o n a l f r e e
c h o i c e . I t i s o n l y when th e s p e a k e r a s s u m e s t h a t h i s
c a u s e I s so "g o o d " t h a t he i s j u s t i f i e d i n u s i n g a n y o r
a l l o f " t h e a v a i l a b l e m ean s o f p e r s u a s i o n " ( A r i s t o t l e )
to w in t h e l i s t e n e r t h a t . . . he h a s l e f t t h e r e a l m
o f th e d e m o c r a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p e o p l e . ( 3 6 3 : 8 )
H aim an e x p l a i n e d how t h e h i d d e n p e r s u a d e r v i o l a t e s t h e
d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c :
We a l l know . . . t h a t d e m o c ra c y I s b a s e d upo n t h e
273
d i g n i t y o f th e I n d i v i d u a l human b e i n g . What we may n o t
f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e l a t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t I n v o l v e s th e
p r e m l 8 e f now w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d b o t h h i s t o r i c a l l y and
p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y ! t h a t man l a d i f f e r e n t fro m l o w e r a n i
m a ls I n t h a t h e I s l e s s g o v e r n e d b y a u t o m a t i c I n s t i n c t
an d m ore aw are o f h i m s e l f , a n d , a s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e
two q u a l i t i e s , c a p a b l e o f m a k in g c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e s .
. . • T h i s d i f f e r e n c e . . . p o s t u l a t e s a c a p a c i t y o f
man t o g o v e r n , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s , h i s own b e h a v i o r .
Die h i d d e n p e r s u a d e r • • • • t a k e s a d v a n t a g e o f th e
f a c t t h a t a l t h o u g h men may h a v e th e l a t e n t c a p a c i t y f o r
m a k in g r a t i o n a l , c o n s c i o u s c h o i c e s , t h e y a r e a l s o p a r t
a n i m a l and a s s u c h c a n b e e x p l o i t e d . . . . B u t b e c a u s e
t h e y c a n b e so m oved, d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e y s h o u ld b e
so m oved, a n d a n y o n e who so moves them o n l y i n t e n s i f i e s
t h e i r t e n d e n c i e s t o r e s p o n d i m m a t u r e l y an d t h w a r t s
t h e i r g r o w th to w a rd t h e m ore d i g n i f i e d h u m a n i t y w h io h
d e m o c ra c y p r e s u m e s . ( 3 8 ^ : 3 8 7 - 8 0 )
P e r s u a s i o n I s d e m o c r a t i c when I t l e a v e s t h e a u d i t o r w i t h a
f r e e c h o i c e ( 3814.: 3 8 8 ) .
R e c o g n i z i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e tw e e n
e t h i c a l an d u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , H aim an a r g u e d I n b o t h
a r t i c l e s t h a t t h e t a s k o f t h e s p e e c h f i e l d I s t o make t h e
a u d i e n c e m ore s e n s i t i v e (3 8 l|.:3 9 2 ), t o " s e t th e d o m in a te d
f r e e " ( 3 8 3 : 8 - 9 ) .
H a im a n 's r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n i s c l e a r :
r h e t o r i c I s m o r a l when d e v i o e s a r e u s e d w h ic h f o s t e r
r a t i o n a l c h o i c e , Im m o ra l i f t h e y i n h i b i t f r e e c h o i c e . Die
s o l e c r i t e r i o n i s t h e d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c — f r e e r a t i o n a l
c h o i c e . I t i s b o t h t h e o b j e c t i v e o f p e r s u a s i o n a n d th e
s t a n d a r d b y w h ic h t h e m eans a r e t o b e t e s t e d (POSITION V I ) .
H a im a n 's p h i l o s o p h y d e n i e s t h e c l a s s i c a l c o n c e p t o f t h e end
w h ic h j u s t i f i e s t h e m ean s I n f a v o r o f an e n d w h ic h
p a r t i c i p a t e s o f th e m e a n s .
27k
W i l l i a m S. H o w 11 and D o n a ld K. S m i t h . - - B e s i d e s
h a v i n g c o - a u t h o r e d a book w i t h B rem beck (1^1), H o w e ll w r o te
a n o t h e r book ( w i t h D o n a ld K. S m ith ) w h ic h a l s o I n c l u d e d a
f u l l c h a p t e r o n e t h i c s ( 1 1 8 : 2 6 9 - 8 2 ) . More a t t e m p t was made
I n t h i s t e x t t o s p e l l o u t s p e c i f i c u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e s , b u t
t h e t r e a t m e n t was l i m i t e d to th e d e l i n e a t i o n o f e t h i c a l /
u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e s I n g ro u p d i s c u s s i o n . P r a c t i c e s w h ic h
" p ro m o te t h o u g h t f u l d e l i b e r a t i o n " a r e e t h i c a l ; t h o s e w h ic h
" p r e v e n t o r r e d u c e r e f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g " a r e u n e t h i c a l i f
t h e y a r e d e l i b e r a t e an d a v o i d a b l e o r e n g a g e d i n " f o r s e l f
i s h o r o t h e r r e a s o n s e x t r a n e o u s to p r o b le m s o l v i n g " (1 1 8 :
2 6 9 - 7 0 ) . F i v e t e c h n i q u e s f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n , some
o f w h ic h w ere p o s s i b l e o f p o s i t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n , w ere l i s t e d
and r a n k e d fro m th e l e a s t t o t h e m o s t u n e t h i c a l (1 1 0 :
2 7 1 - 7 5 )* A ls o e v a l u a t e d a s u n e t h i c a l was th e s p o n s o r i n g o f
d i s c u s s i o n f o r th e l o n g - r a n g e e n d o f e l i m i n a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n
( 1 1 8 : 2 7 7 ) . The u s e o f l i n g u i s t i c d e v i c e s o r l o g i c a l p r o
c e d u r e s e i t h e r c a r e l e s s l y o r p u r p o s e f u l l y so t h a t t h e y p r e
v e n t known f a c t and a c c e p t e d b e l i e f fro m b e i n g u s e d t o
s u p p o r t o r d e v e l o p o t h e r b e l i e f s i s u n e t h i c a l ( 1 1 8 :2 7 7 - 7 8 ) *
One m i g h t l e g i t i m a t e l y c o n c l u d e t h a t s i n c e th e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n w e re p l a c e d u p o n t h e s p e e c h
a r t I n t h i s c a s e , s p e e c h h a d a l r e a d y b e e n m o r a l i z e d a t
l e a s t a s f a r a s I t s e n d was c o n c e r n e d . I f t h e en d o f d i s
c u s s i o n i s t h o u g h t f u l d e l i b e r a t i o n o r I t s e q u i v a l e n t , and
i f t e c h n i q u e s a r e r e n d e r e d e t h i c a l o r u n e t h i c a l t h r o u g h
275
t h e i r s e r v i c e to t h i s e n d , th e n b o t h m eans and e n d s h a v e
b e e n m o r a l i z e d (POSITION V I ) . S u ch a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i
t i o n a g r e e s i n I t s g e n e r a l i z e d a s p e c t s w i t h t h e p o s i t i o n
ta k e n b y H o w e ll an d h i s o t h e r c o - a u t h o r I n P e r s u a s i o n (lj.1).
Elw ood M u rra y (a n d c o - a u t h o r s ) . — E lw ood M u rra y ,
Raymond B a r n a r d , and J . V. G a r l a n d , c o - a u t h o r s o f I n t e g r a
t i v e S p e e c h ( 1 7 3 ) , a p p r o a c h e d r h e t o r i c fro m t h e s e m a n ti c
v i e w p o i n t . A lth o u g h f r a g m e n t s o f t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i
t i o n w ere fo u n d I n t h e i r o t h e r w r i t i n g s , t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d
t e x t i s th e b e s t s o u r c e o f t h e i r c o m p l e t e v ie w .
S p e e c h i s a m o r a l i n p r a c t i c e , th e y w r o t e , s i n c e i t
c a n be u s e d to b u i l d o r d e s t r o y ( 1 7 3 : 3 3 ) . The b e s t way to
c o m b a t i t s e v i l u s e o r t o a d v a n c e i t s u s e f o r good is
t h r o u g h r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g , M u rra y w r o te i n an a r t i c l e ,
^ P e r t a i n i n g to t h e E t h i c s o f R h e t o r i c ” ( 4 6 8 : 1 0 7 ) .
A t th e p r e s e n t t i m e , s p e e c h i s b e i n g m i s u s e d :
S p e e c h i s b e i n g b a d l y m i s u s e d . I t i s b e i n g u s e d to
e x c h a n g e a c c u s a t i o n s auid to h e a p a b u s e , t o s t i r
p e o p l e ' s e m o t i o n s and to g e t p e o p l e t o a c t w i t h o u t
t h i n k i n g . I t l a n o t b e i n g u s e d t o g e t them to t h i n k
c l e a r l y a n d c a r e f u l l y , t o p r o b e a n d t o w e ig h t h e f a c t s ,
and t h e n to r e a c h common u n d e r s t a n d i n g and m u tu a l
a g r e e m e n t on a n I n t e l l i g e n t , c o n c e r t e d c o u r s e o f a c t i o n
t h a t w i l l b e n e f i t a l l c o n c e r n e d . ( 1 7 3 : x v l i l )
The ab o v e q u o t a t i o n m ak es i t o b v i o u s t h a t m i s u s e c a n o c c u r
t h r o u g h i m p r o p e r m ean s o r e n d s . As a w h o le , p r o p e r s p e e c h
i s i n t e g r a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n d i s i n t e g r a t i v e ; i t d ra w s t h e
g r o u p t o g e t h e r , m a k in g i t f u n c t i o n e f f i c i e n t l y f o r th e
b e n e f i t o f a l l ( 1 7 3 : 1 7 * 1 8 ) . I n " M e n ta l A d j u s tm e n t s f o r th e
276
R e l e a s e o f C r e a t i v e Pow er I n S p e e c h S i t u a t i o n s , " M u rray
e q u a t e d I n t e g r a t i v e and c r e a t i v e b e h a v i o r , f o r h e em pha
s i z e d t h e i r common e n d , t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e g r o u p , and t h e i r
common m e a n s - e n d a r e l a t i o n s h i p s (l|.67 : 1 4- 9 7 - 9 9 ) • 77ie i n t e
g r a t i v e s p e a k e r g i v e s h i s a u d i e n c e a r e a l i s t i c v ie w o f th e
w o r ld r a t h e r t h a n a d i s t o r t e d o n e , w h ic h I s a c c o m p l i s h e d
b y m a k in g l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n a s a "map" o f th e a c t u a l i t i e s
b e i n g d i s c u s s e d ( 1 7 3 : 3 7 ) :
Our s p e e c h , i f i t i s to b e a d e q u a t e and n o t m i s l e a d
p e o p l e , m u s t i n c l u d e w h a t i s p e r t i n e n t , and t h e r e l a
t i o n s h i p s we i n d i c a t e m u s t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e a c t u a l
l i f e r e l a t i o n s h i p s we a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t . I t m u s t a l s o
h a v e good p r e d i c t a b i l i t y . ( 1 7 3 :3 8 )
A k n o w le d g e o f t h e t r u t h i s c o n d u c i v e to th e e n d s o f l i f e
(14.68:107).
S uch a s e m a n t i c a l l y - p u r i f i e d r h e t o r i c , a l s o s t r e s s e d
b y B a r n a r d i n " G e n e r a l S e m a n t i c s and th e C o n t r o v e r s i a l
P h a s e s o f S p e e c h " (28l|.), w ou ld f a c i l i t a t e t h e s e p a r a t i o n
o f h o n e s t fro m d i s h o n e s t s p e a k i n g (1^69:3 1 " 3 2 ) . The h o n e s t
s p e a k e r i s a good r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t r u t h and r e a l i t y
(14.69:31), one who l o s e s h i m s e l f i n th e i n t e r e s t s o f o t h e r s ,
i n s t e a d o f e x p l o i t i n g them f o r h i s own b e n e f i t a s t h e
dem agogue f r e q u e n t l y d o e s ( 1 7 3 : 1 3 ) .
I n sum m ary, t h e g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n o f
t h e s e w r i t e r s i d e n t i f i e s s p e e c h m a k ln g a s m o r a l w hen l e g i t
im a t e m e a n s, p a r t i c u l a r l y s e m a n t i c a l l y - p u r i f i e d l a n g u a g e ,
a r e u s e d to f u r t h e r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e g r o u p (POSITION V I).
The en d d e t e r m i n e s th e m e a n s ; i t d o e s n o t J u s t i f y th e means.
277
Thomas R. N l l s e n . — Thomas R. N i l s e n p r o v i d e d a m o s t
f r u i t f u l and v i t a l e x p l i c a t i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c e t h i c s (4 7 6 ,
4 7 7 , 4 7 9 )* H is b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n , s i m i l a r t o t h e one
u s e d i n my s t u d y , was r e v e a l e d i n " L i b e r a l i s m , C o n s e r v a
t i s m , and th e T e a c h e r o f S p e e c h " as w e l l a s e l s e w h e r e :
" F r e e s p e e c h i s b a s i c to d e m o c ra c y ; i t i s h a r d l y j u s t a
l u b r i c a n t " ( 4 7 9 : 3 3 ) - W ith o u t i t , d e m o c ra c y c a n n o t e x i s t o r
e v e n b e g i n ( 4 7 9 : 3 3 ) . The c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f o p p o s in g v ie w s
i n f r e e p u b l i c d e b a t e p e r m i t s men t o c h o o s e b e tw e e n a l t e r
n a t i v e s , w h ic h i s t h e o n l y way s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l t r u t h s
c a n b e f o u n d ( 4 7 9 :3 4 )
I n " F re e S p e e c h , P e r s u a s i o n , a n d t h e D e m o c r a tic proo-
e s s , " d e m o c ra c y was c o n c e i v e d as b o t h a " p a t t e r n o f p r o
c e d u r e s and a p a t t e r n o f v a l u e s " ; i n o r d e r f o r d e m o c ra c y to
be p e r p e t u a t e d , " t h e v a l u e s m u st I n f l u e n c e th e p r o c e d u r e s ,
and th e p r o c e d u r e s m u st c o n t i n u o u s l y r e c r e a t e t h e v a l u e * "
( 4 7 7 : 2 3 6 ) . F r e e s p e e c h and p e r s u a s i o n a r e p r o c e d u r e s o f
d e m o c ra c y , an d a r e to be t e s t e d , In i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , by
w h e th e r th e s p e c i f i c a c t r e i n f o r c e s o r w eak en s t h e demo
c r a t i c p r o c e s s ( 4 7 7 : 2 3 6 ) .
P e r s u a s i o n i s n o t a n a m o r a l a r t d e r i v i n g i t s e t h i c
fro m t h e e n d s e l e c t e d :
p e r s u a s i v e m e th o d s . . . do I n f l u e n c e b e h a v i o r a p a r t
fro m and I n a d d i t i o n to t h e p a r t i c u l a r en d w h ic h t h e y
s e e k . When b e i n g p e r s u a d e d a man I s n o t o n l y i n f l u
e n c e d d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y i n h i s c h o i c e o f a c o u r s e
o f a c t i o n , he i s i n f l u e n c e d i n h i s m eth o d o f m a k in g th e
c h o i c e . ( 4 7 7 :2 4 3 ) ----------------------------------------
278
The p r o c e s s o f m a k in g th e d e c i s i o n i s v i t a l i n a d e m o c ra c y :
"By c o n s t a n t l y l i m i t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l f a c u l t i e s i n d e c i s i o n
we a r e l i m i t i n g th e b a s i s upo n w h ic h i t i s p o s s i b l e to h a v e
a r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i z e n r y , and t h u s we w eaken th e v e r y f o u n
d a t i o n s o f d e m o c ra c y " ( 1 4 - 7 7 : 2l|-3)«
I n " C r i t i c i s m and S o c i a l C o n s e q u e n c e s " (I4.76) end
" i n t e r p r e t a t i v e F u n c t i o n o f t h e C r i t i c " (I4.78), N i l s e n e x
p a n d e d upo n h i s p h i l o s o p h y o f r h e t o r i c a l e t h i c s . The
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c s h o u ld n o t w i t h h o l d ju d g m e n ts o f t h e
e f f e c t s o f a s p e e c h s im p l y b e c a u s e s u c h a s s e s s m e n t s a r e
r e l a t i v e and p r o b a b l e (1^76:1714-). Y e t when e f f e c t s a r e
e v a l u a t e d , th e c r i t i c m u s t c o n c e r n h i m s e l f n o t o n l y w i t h
t h o s e e f f e c t s I n t e n d e d by t h e s p e a k e r ( h i s e n d ) , b u t a l s o
w i t h t h e " a t t e n d a n t o r u n s o u g j i t - f o r e f f e c t s " ( 1 4 .7 b: 1 7 5 ) .
H ie s p e a k e r ’ s p u r p o s e , h i s e t h o s f ro m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f
th e a u d i e n c e , and h l a l m n e d l a t e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e s h o u l d
r e c e i v e a t t e n t i o n — b u t l i m i t e d i m p o r t a n c e (1 4- 7 6 : 1 7 5 ) .
N i l s e n o f f e r e d a d e f e n s i b l e t h e o r y o f r e s u l t s : "The e v a l
u a t i o n o f e f f e c t s h o u l d b e a Ju d g m e n t a b o u t t h e c o n t r i b u
t i o n th e s p e e c h m akes t o , o r th e i n f l u e n c e i t e x e r t s i n
f u r t h e r i n g , t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e s o c i e t y upon w h ic h i t h a s
i t s i m p a c t " (14-76:176). A good s o c i a l p u r p o s e s e r v e d by
d e m a g o g ic s p e a k i n g i s d e t r i m e n t a l t o d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y
(14-76:176). N i l s e n c l a r i f i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m eans and
e n d s :
The s p e e c h m u s t h a v e , b e s i d e s i t s s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e , an
279
a d e q u a t e s o c i a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a l a r g e r s o c i a l p u r p o s e ,
a n d m u s t embody th e v a l u e s s o c i e t y s e e k s t o r e a l i s e .
Thus t h e u l t i m a t e e n d s , o r v a l u e s , o f s o c i e t y m u s t b e
come one w i t h t h e m eans o f a c h i e v i n g t h e l m n e d l a t e
e n d s . The m eans m u s t , I n a s e n s e , embody th e e n d s .
( 4 7 6 :1 7 7 )
N i l s e n t h e n o f f e r e d f o u r c r i t e r i a f o r ju d g m e n t o f s p e c i f i c
a c t s o f p e r s u a s i o n :
Ju d fp n e n t, t h e n , a b o u t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a s p e e c h to
t h e p u r p o s e s o f s o c i e t y w o u ld be b a s e d on th e e x t e n t
t o w h ic h t h e s p e e c h
(1 ) I s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i n I t s e l f an d w i t h th e o b s e r v e d
e v e n t s o f I t s tim e ;
(2 ) a r o u s e s I n t h e m in d s o f I t s h e a r e r s , and l a t e r
r e a d e r s , a s a c c u r a t e a c o n c e p t o f t h e e v e n t s w i t h
w h ic h i t d e a l s a s p o s s i b l e ;
(3 ) p l a c e s f o r e m o s t th e u l t i m a t e g o a l s o f s o c i e t y and
r e l a t e s I t s Im m e d ia te p u r p o s e to t h e s e g o a l s ;
(4 ) e x a m in e s e x p l i c i t l y , a s f a r a s r e a s o n a b l y p o s s i b l e ,
th e s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , d i r e c t o r I n d i r e c t , o f th e
a c t i o n s I t may u r g e . ( 4 7 6 :1 7 7 )
A r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s n o t g o i n g o u t s i d e h i s f i e l d
I n p a s s i n g Ju d g m e n t on e n d s when t h e end h a s a b e a r i n g on
th e p r o c e s s o f s p e e c h I t s e l f i n d e m o c r a t i c s o c l e t y - - f o r
e x a m p le , an a b r i d g e m e n t o f f r e e s p e e c h o r a s s e m b ly (4 7 6 :
7 1 ) . He I s m o s t I n t e r e s t e d I n t h e " i n t e r m e d i a t e e f f e c t , "
th e p r o c e s s o f r e a c h i n g a d e c i s i o n , w h ic h I n a d e m o c ra c y i s
o f t e n m ore I m p o r t a n t t h a n th e d e c i s i o n I t s e l f ( 4 7 8 : 7 1 ) •
The c r i t i c ' * s a n a l y s i s o f r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s
s h o u l d r e v e a l t h e s p e a k e r ' s c o n c e p t o f man I n d i v i d u a l l y and
c o l l e c t i v e l y a n d o f i d e a s :
The r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , th e m eans o f p e r s u a s i o n , a r e
th e s p e a k e r ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e r h e t o r i c a l n e e d s o f a
p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n , b u t as s u c h t h e y a r e a l s o a
r e f l e c t i o n o f the s p e a k e r ' s c o n c e p t o f m an, i n w h a t he
a s k s h im to do a n d how; h i s c o n c e p t o f i d e a s , i n w h a t
h e p r e s e n t s and th e m a n n e r i n w h ic h he d e v e l o p s I t ; h i s
280
c o n c e p t o f s o c i e t y , i n w h at he i m p l i e s a b o u t th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man t o man. ( 4 7 8 :7 2 )
F o l l o w i n g t h i s g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t o f h i s v ie w , N i l s e n l i s t e d
a nu m b er o f q u e s t i o n s w h ic h th e s p e e c h c r i t i c s h o u ld a s k i n
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s e t h r e e c o n c e p t s o f a s p e a k e r ( 4 7 8 : 7 3 - 7 6 ) .
N i l s e n 1s p h i l o s o p h y o f r h e t o r l c a l - e t h l c s c a n be
c o n s t r u e d a s f o l l o w s : r h e t o r i c i s a m o r a l I n s t r u m e n t when
b o t h th e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d and t h e v a l u e s s o u g h t a r e c o n s i s
t e n t w i t h d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s e s an d v a l u e s (POSITION V I).
A n g elo M. P e l l e g r i n i . — A n g elo P e l l e g r i n i , l i k e
R o b e r t O l i v e r , w as one o f th e e a r l y e x p o n e n t s o f an e t h i c s
o f r h e t o r i c (194» 4 ^ 9 , 4 9 0 )* P e l l e g r i n i s e t h i c a l d o c t r i n e
e x h i b i t e d m a j o r c o n c e r n w i t h t h e s p e a k e r s e n d s and s e c o n d
a r y and d e r i v e d c o n c e r n o v e r t h e m e a n s .
P e l l e g r i n i c h a l l e n g e d th e u s e o f s p e e c h f o r p e r s o n a l
g a i n ; i n s t e a d , he u r g e d t h a t " i t m u s t c e a s e to be an i n
s t r u m e n t f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n and becom e an i n s t r u m e n t f o r
s o c i a l r e g e n e r a t i o n " ( 4 9 0 :3 4 7 ) * P e l l e g r i n i ' s s p e c i a l b i a s
f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l h o n e s t y and t h e l i f e o f r e a s o n ( 4 9 0 :3 5 1 )
and h i s b e l i e f t h a t e d u c a t i o n o u g h t t o s p r e a d t h e demo
c r a t i c g o s p e l r e s u l t e d I n t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t r u t h f o r
p e r s o n a l s u c c e s s a s t h e g o a l o f s p e a k i n g (489:31)* T r u t h
was d e f i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a d e f i n i t e c o n t e x t ; a t r u e c o n
c l u s i o n was one " w h ic h , when a c t e d u p o n , d e f i n i t e l y c o n
t r i b u t e s to t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f g r o u p i d e a l s " ( 4 8 9 :3 1 ) * The
c o n c l u s i o n s o f a s p e a k e r s h o u ld s t a n d o r f a l l on l o g i c
281
a l o n e ( 1 9 ^ : 9 2 ) . P e l l e g r i n i w ould p r o h i b i t a n y d i s t o r t i o n ,
o m i s s i o n , o r l a c k o f s i n c e r i t y e v e n I n th e s e r v i c e o f a
good e n d (I4.9 0 : 3^9) •
R h e t o r i c a l m eans b o rro w e d fro m p s y c h o l o g y a r e n o t
n e u t r a l ; th e y a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y t e n d to make an
a u d i e n c e u n c r i t i c a l {I4.8 9 :2 7 ) - P e l l e g r i n i e x t e n d e d t h i s
l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g f u r t h e r :
No m a t t e r w h at t h e p r e j u d i c e , r e p e a t e d a p p e a l to I t
w i l l te n d t o I n t e n s i f y I t a n d u l t i m a t e l y make I t th e
c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c e I n b e h a v i o r . I n so f a r a s t h i s I s
t r u e , r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l , no m a t t e r f o r w h a t p u r p o s e s
u s e d , c a n n o t be s a i d to b e n e u t r a l * I t s u s e h a s
s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s q u i t e d i s t i n c t fro m t h e c o n s e
q u e n c e s o f t h e b e h a v i o r p r o v o k e d on w h a t e v e r h a p p e n s
t o be th e q u e s t i o n a t I s s u e . ( 4 8 9 :2 7 )
I n sum m ary, P e l l e g r i n i a d v o c a t e d a r h e t o r i c w h ic h I s
s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e In r e l a t i o n to b o t h m eans and e n d s
(POSITION V I).
Edw ard R o w e ll . — I n a n a r t i c l e , "The Image o f S a l e s
m a n s h ip I n P u b l i c S p e a k i n g , " Edw ard R o w e ll d e n i e d t h a t
e f f e c t i v e n e s s , t h e end o f s a l e s m a n s h i p , I s a s u i t a b l e end
f o r p u b l i c s p e a k i n g a n d t h a t s a l e s t e c h n i q u e s , condem ned
e v e n i n th e b u s i n e s s w o r l d , o u g h t to b e c o n s i d e r e d l e g i t i
m a te r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s (5 X 5 :1 6 8 -6 9 ) * R o w e l l ' s a r t i c l e
d i d n o t r e v e a l w h a t he c o n s i d e r e d th e p r o p e r g o a l o f
s p e e c h m a k ln g , a l t h o u g h he d i d r e f e r to " g e n u i n e s o c i a l
n e e d " I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n ( 5 1 5 : 1 7 0 ) . I t seem s l o g i c a l to
assum e f r o m t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t he s u p p o r t e d a
r h e t o r i c I n w h ic h b o t h t h e m eans a n d e n d s w e re s o c i a l l y
28 2
r e s p o n s i b l e (POSITION V I).
V. 5 . S i m r e l l . - - M o r a l s t a n d a r d s a r e I r r e l e v a n t to
r h e t o r i c a s a d i s i n t e r e s t e d a r t , V. E. S i m r e l l w r o te i n
"Mere R h e t o r i c " ( 5 3 7 : 3 6 1 ) . D i a l e c t i c r a t h e r th a n r h e t o r i c
i s t h e b e s t m e th o d o f m a k in g t r u t h p r e v a i l ( 5 3 7 : 3 6 1 ) .
R h e t o r i c , n e c e s s i t a t e d by c i r c u m s t a n c e s and m a n 's weak
j u d g m e n t, i s n o t an a d m i r a b l e a r t ( 5 3 7 : 3 6 1 ) . S i m r e l l
c h a r g e d :
Mere r h e t o r i c , i . e . , a l l t h e d e v i c e s o f p e r s u a s i o n
w h ic h a r e e i t h e r s u b s t i t u t e d f o r o r a d d e d to l o g i c a l
a rg u m e n t a n d v e r i t a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i s . . . , a s a
m eth o d o f e n f o r c i n g j u s t i c e and t r u t h , u n r e a s o n a b l e ,
i n e f f e c t i v e , a i d w ro n g . ( 5 3 7 :3 6 1 )
Even i n t e g r i t y o f p u r p o s e , o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d a d e s i r a b l e
a t t r i b u t e o f th e s p e a k e r , h i n d e r s th e l o c a t i o n o f t r u t h ,
f o r i t d o m i n a t e s t h e s p e a k e r ' s c r i t i c a l s p i r i t i n much th e
same way t h a t w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g m o ld s th e c o n c l u s i o n s o f h i s
a u d i e n c e ( 5 3 7 :3 6 3 -6 l|.) .
R e a d in g b e tw e e n t h e l i n e s o f S i m r e l l ' s a r t i c l e , one
d i s c o v e r s t h a t w h at he a d v o c a t e d I s v e r y c l o s e t o a r h e t
o r i c l i m i t e d to th e l o g i c a l mode o f i n v e n t i o n and e x c l u d i n g
b o t h t h e e t h i c a l an d p a t h e t h i c a s p e c t s . (H is p o s i t i o n
seem s to b e u n u s u a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c . ) The u l t i m a t e e n d o f
t h e m e th o d o lo g y he d e s c r i b e d w as s t i l l t r u t h and J u s t i c e
b u t t h e m eans t o t h i s e n d w ere to b e f a c t s an d l o g i c (PO SI
TION V I).
Otis M. Walter (and co-author). --O tis M. Walter re
fused to accept the amoral concept of rhetoric in h is
283
a r t ic le , "Rhetoric as a Liberal Art" ( 5 8 6 ) . This concept
Is based on the b e lie f that truth w ill prevail given equal
opportunity, but th is view of truth i s dependent upon a
non-existen t free competition between ideas (586:312).
Instead, rhetoric should be conceived as a lib e r a l
art and i t should serve the ends of such a r ts--th e b e tte r
ment of men and women ( 5 8 6 : 3 1 2 - 1 4 ) . I t should be conceived
as a means to an end rather than an end in i t s e l f (586:
3 1 4 ) .
The implementation of th is rather general p o sitio n
was found in another a r tic le by Walter, "Toward an Analysis
of Ethics of Rhetoric," which was co-authored by Henry N.
Wleman (5 9 4 )* Their e th ic a l standard was derived from two
uniquely human ca p a cities: man's a b ility to symbolize and
h is need for other human beint s (594:266-67). Ihe second
capacity provided the guiding p rin ciple fo r the cr e a tiv e ,
i . e . , e th ic a l, use of symbols (594:267).
E thical rh eto ric, defined as "the discovery of the
means of symbolism which lead to the g rea test understanding
a n d m u t u a l c o n t r o l , " p r o v i d e s t h e k i n d o f c o m m u n ic a tio n
t h a t l e a d s to a b e t t e r v e r s i o n o f m a n k in d ( 5 9 4 : 2 7 0 ) . The
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f e t h i c a l and u n e t h i c a l a c t s f o l l o w l o g i c a l l y
fro m t h e d e f i n i t i o n :
An e th ic a l act i s one that enables the organism to meet
i t s c o n stitu tiv e need for symbolism and appreciative
understanding; an unethical act i s one that destroys,
prevents, delays, or otherwise lim its the p o s s ib ilit ie s
of meeting these needs. 'Rie moral law derived from
28 14 .
th is eth ic might be stated thus: Always act to provide
conditions moat favorable for appreciative understand
ing between you rself and a l l concerned.
Although Walter and Weiman argued from a d iffe r e n t
premise from the one used in my study, their general p h ilo
sophical p o sitio n emphasized an e th ic a l standard both aimed
at a desirable end and attained by the use of means conso
nant with that end (POSITION VI).
Barnest Brandenburg seemed to be the lone advocate
of a philosophy of rh etoric Joining P osition s III and IV,
while Lee Hultzen alone Joined P osition s II and IV. Earl
Wiley and Henry Youngerman made ends the e th ic a l determi
nant in th eir w ritings (POSITION IV).
Earnest Brandenburg. - - A m odification of c la s s ic a l
trad ition to f i t into a contemporary democracy was found in
two a r tic le s w ritten by Earnest Brandenburg (300, 301). In
h is a r t ic le , "Quintilian and the Good Orator" (301), d is
cussed in d e ta il e a r lie r in th is chapter, he urged that the
modern c r it ic accept a r e s p o n s ib ility for appraisal of the
moral character of the speaker as part of h is task. Such
an assessment, Brandenburg argued, Involves a consideration
of the speaker’ s goal, which in America must support demo
c r a tic p r in c ip le s. O ccasionally, when the speaker Is
forced to s a c r ific e one value for another, a li e may be
perm itted. This a r tic le seems to support the c la s s ic a l
view of the end which J u s tifie s the means, modified fo r
contemporary democracy. In another a r tic le (300),
285
B r a n d e n b u r g w ould p e r m i t t h e u a e o f g r o u p d l a c u a a i o n m e th
o d s i n t h e a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f a p r e - d e t e r m i n e d c o n c l u s i o n ,
i n o t h e r w o r d s , a s p r o p a g a n d a . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , B r a n d e n
b u r g l o c a t e d th e u l t i m a t e e t h i c a l c r i t e r i o n i n t h e c h a r a c
t e r o f th e s p e a k e r (POSITION I I I ) , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t a
good man w ou ld s e e k d e s i r a b l e e n d s (POSITION IV), b u t i s
j u s t i f i e d i n u s i n g an y m eans n e c e s s a r y .
Lee H u l t z e n . - - I n h i s a r t i c l e , " R h e to r i n D e m o c r a c y ,”
Lee H u l t z e n c o n t r a s t e d two f u n d a m e n t a l l y o p p o s e d m o r a l
a t t i t u d e s r e g a r d i n g s p e e c h m a k ln g w h ic h he te r m e d A r i s t o t e
l i a n and I s o c r a t e a n ( 4 0 9 : 5 3 4 ) •
He d e s c r i b e d th e f o r m e r a p p r o a c h a s one w h ic h a d m its
t h e pow er o f r h e t o r i c f o r good o r e v i l , b u t assu m e s th e
i n e v i t a b l e t r i u m p h o f t r u t h ( 4 0 9 :5 3 4 ) * H u l t z e n c o n c l u d e d
t h a t th e A r i s t o t e l i a n way i s th e d e m o c r a t i c way, s i n c e t h a t
v ie w o f r h e t o r i c i m p l i e s t h a t w h a t i s e x p e d i e n t and J u s t i s
t h e p r o d u c t o f th e e x e r c i s e o f th e a r t ( 4 0 9 : 5 3 4 )* To c a r r y
t h i s f u r t h e r , A r i s t o t l e ' s a p p r o a c h , I n t e r p r e t e d by H u l t z e n ,
m ak es a m o r a l d e c i s i o n th e p r o d u c t o f d i s c u s s i o n ( w h ic h one
m ig h t e q u a t e w i t h c o m p e tin g p e r s u a s i o n s ) ( 4 0 9 : 5 3 6 ) . The
c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d e m o c ra c y and r h e t o r i c b eco m es c l e a r
when th e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s i s c o n c e i v e d s i m i l a r l y , a s an
i n s t r u m e n t t h r o u g h w h ic h r i g h t , i . e . , th e w i l l o f t h e
p e o p l e , w i l l e m e rg e ( 4 0 9 : 5 3 5 “ 3 6 ) .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e I s o c r a t e a n a p p r o a c h , a c o n
v e n i e n t th o u g h i n a p p r o p r i a t e l a b e l f o r t h e e n t i r e s o p h i s t
286
m ovem ent, p e r m i t s p e r s u a s i o n I n t h e s e r v i c e o f s e l f i s h
g o a l s (409:534)• I n t h i s c a s e , w h i l e th e a r t w ould d e t e r
m in e w h a t i s e x p e d i e n t , w h a t I s j u s t m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d by
some o t h e r m eans ( 4 0 9 :5 3 4 ) * A l t h o u g h u s a b l e i n a dem o
c r a t i c s t a t e , th e i s o c r a t e a n a p p r o a c h i s m ore a t home i n a
F a s c i s t o r C o m m u n istic s t a t e ( 4 0 9 :5 3 4 ) *
The k e y to H u l t z e n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c r h e t
o r i c l i e s I n h i s r e s t a t e m e n t o f A r i s t o t l e ' s p o s i t i o n . I n
e q u a t i n g th e d e m o c r a t i c and r h e t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s a s i n s t r u
m e n ts i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t r u t h , he h a s e m p h a s iz e d h i s b e l i e f
i n a good en d (POSITION IV ). Y e t b e h i n d t h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n
o f t h e g o a l i s an i d e a l i z a t i o n o f th e m e a n s . T r u t h i s
r e a c h e d a s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e m e th o d , i . e . , th e m e th o d i s
a ssu m ed t o p o s s e s s th e i n t r i n s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u c h a
y i e l d (POSITION I I ) . The m o r a l i t y o f t h e m eans i s d e f i n e d
b y th e e n d .
E a r l W. W i l e y . - - E a r l W. W ile y c o n t r a s t e d t o t a l i t a r
i a n a n d d e m o c r a t i c r h e t o r s i n " i h e R h e t o r i c o f th e A m e ric a n
D e m o c ra c y " ( 5 9 5 : 1 5 8 ) . Th® f o r m e r i s th e a r c h s o p h i s t who
c o m p e n s a t e s f o r t h e l o s s o f h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y i n a s o c i e t y
i n w h ic h th e s t a t e i s e v e r y t h i n g b y u s i n g s p e e c h to p r a i s e
th e s t a t e o r v i l i f y i t s e n e m i e s ( 5 9 5 : 1 5 8 ) , On t h e o t h e r
h a n d , th e d e m o c r a t i c r h e t o r r e l a x e s h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m i n
th e s e r v i c e o f t h e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e ( 5 9 5 : 1 5 8 - 5 9 ) • H is jo b
i s to f a c i l i t a t e c o - o p e r a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e e x t r e m e s o f s e l f
e x p r e s s i o n i s m an d g r o u p - e x p r e s s l o n l s m ( 5 9 5 : 1 5 9 ) :
287
R h etorically, democracy la a form of action that seeks
to keep a balance between the rig h ts o f the individual,
the rig h ts of the group, and the Ideology of the sta te .
Upset I t in favor of the speaker, and Individualism
runs loose and wild--Favor Cs l c l the audience too much,
and the speaker and te x t are' cfe-emphaslzed--Stresa
r ale 1 the theme unduly and human values may be made to
su ffer. (595:159)
The democratic speaker has the job of lo ca tin g democratic
truth, i . e . , universal d ecisio n , while he tr ie s to balance
these contending forces (595:182-63).
W iley's philosophy emphasized the ends to be sought
by the persuader i f he i s to be a democratic rhetor (POSI
TIO N IV).
Henry Youngerman. —In an a r tic le e n title d "Propagan
da and Public Address'1 ( 6 0 8 ), Henry Youngerman d iffe r e n ti
ated between propaganda, i . e . , unethical public address,
and legitim ate public address. In the la tte r , a technique-
ethos rela tio n sh ip is estab lish ed , while in the former,
technique i s emphasized above content ( 6 0 8 : 1 5 ) . The aim of
legitim a te public address is the e th ic a l in stru ction of the
lis te n e r , while the aim of propaganda i s his complete emo
tio n al motivation ( 6 0 8 : 1 5 ) • Both words are names for the
e f fe c t s of a message--names which are supplied by the
lis te n e r s ( 6 0 8 : 1 5 ) . In other words, they are evaluative
terms. Strangely enough, public address and propaganda are
alike in purpose and method, and d iffe r mostly in their
recognition of conscious a n tl-lo g ic a l in ten t (608:16-17).
Instead of giving lip -s e r v ic e to high e th ic a l prin-
288
c lp le s , teachers of speech should teach rh eto rica l (and
p ro p a g a n d ists) techniques "disciplined as to intent" (608:
17) (POSITION IV ).
Summary of contemporary th eories of r h e to r ic a l-
e t h ic s . —Although academic research papers d ir e c tly related
to the modern period have already been reviewed, th eir con
clu sion s w ill be restated here for purposes of correlation
with the r e su lts of my study. Several major contributors
described contemporary r h e to r ic a l-e th ic a l viewpoints, but
inadequate information about methodology and m aterials
made i t im possible to determine their r e lia b ilit y and
consequently the recounting of th eir own individual views
was more h elp fu l than their reporting of the p o sitio n s of
oth ers. However, one magazine a r tic le which reviewed the
lite r a tu r e seeking answers sim ilar to those in question
here was included fo r comparative purposes.
I t was pointed out e a r lie r that Boyd concluded, as
a r e su lt of h is research, that recent lite r a tu r e in persua
sion had developed a "soclo-democratic idealism " and empha
sized the lo g ic a l aspects of persuasion ( 6 l 9 : 3 1 3 - l l j . ) . He
evaluated both the philosophical bases of contemporary
persuasion and i t s methodologies as c o n siste n t with the
soclo-dem ocratic id ea l and adequate to f u l f i l l the require
ments for so c ia l control at le a s t in fa c e -to -fa c e s itu a
tions ( 6 1 9 : 3 2 5 - 2 6 ) . While he argued that the m ajority of
w riters accepted the use of a ll available means under cer-
289
tain con d itions, the conditions lis t e d usually amounted to
lim ita tio n s eith er on the se le c tio n or the use of means
( 6 1 9 :3 1 3 - 1 4 ) * Boyd's study Id en tified the gen erally ap
proved contemporary philosophy of rhetoric as one which
placed lim ita tio n s on the end (the soclo-dem ocratic id eal)
and the means as w ell (emphasizing the lo g ic a l aspects of
persuasion). This conclusion was supported by the r e su lts
of my study.
Burgess, in h is research, noted the contemporary
emphasis on d efen sib le ends ( 6 2 0 :5 5 7 ) and the rejectio n of
reprehensible means ( 6 2 0 :5 7 ) * He found th is to be incon
s is te n t with the tr a d itio n a l d e fin itio n of rhetoric (an
amoral art which i s Judged by standards of a r t is t ic ade
quacy), in c o n siste n tly Implemented in modern rh eto rics, and
Inadequate to meet contemporary needs ( 6 2 0 : 1 0 ) . He partly
resolved these in co n sisten cies by noting that the concern
for s o c ia lly defensible ends was related to a p articu lar
brand of rhetoric which defined what i s e ffe c tiv e in i t s
rh eto rica l system ( 6 2 0 : 5 5 8 ) . In other words, he sensed
that most modern rh etorician s were not w riting about rhet
oric per se, but Instead about democratic rh eto ric. Incon
s is te n c ie s between th eir general p hilosop hical p o sitio n s
and the d e ta ils of th eir rh eto rics, I found, could be ex
plained by the separation of advice about id ea l behavior
from d escrip tion s of actual behavior. Confusion of real
and id eal standards has been iso la te d as one of the obsta-
290
c le s to the formation of a code.
A third research paper, an a r tic le e n title d , "An
Analysis of Recent Literature on Teaching Ethics in Public
Address,n w ritten by J. Vernon Jenson, surveyed rh etorical
lite r a tu r e published during the recent period < J + l S :2 1 9 ) *
He fo u n d t h a t w r i t e r s e m p h a s iz e d th e e t h i c a l o b l i g a
t i o n s o f th e s p e e c h t e a c h e r t o f i v e o b j e c t s : t r u t h , th e
n a t i o n , t h e l i b e r a l a r t s , th e s p e e c h p r o f e s s i o n , and th e
s t u d e n t (lj.l5 :2 1 9 )* Hi®7 s t r e s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e v a l u
a t i n g s o c i a l e f f e c t s a s w e l l a s s p e e c h t e c h n i q u e s (1 ^15:
2 2 1 ) . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e e t h i c a l a s p e c t o f r h e t o r i c
a p p e a r e d i n I n c r e a s i n g n u m b e rs a f t e r 1 9 5 2 , and s u g g e s t e d
a n s w e r s to f o u r b a s i c q u e s t i o n s :
(1) What i s t h e s o u r c e o f e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s ? (2) How
c a n t h e g ap b e tw e e n p r e s c r i p t i v e s t a n d a r d s an d o b s e r v
a b l e p r a c t i c e be c l o s e d ? (3) W hat a r e some w o r th y e n d s
to w a r d w h ic h p e r s u a s i o n m ig h t b e d i r e c t e d ? (If.) What
a r e some a c c e p t a b l e m eans to em p lo y ? (1jJL5>:222)
Three sources of e th ic a l standards were Itemized.
V irtu ally a ll of the authors, Jenson concluded from im pli
cation s found in the referen ces, derived th eir standards
from the Judaeo-Chrlstian trad ition ( ljj.5 :2 2 2 ) . Stated
abhorrence of d e c e it, d isto r tio n , f a l s if ic a t i o n , misrepre
sen tation , s e lf- s e r v ic e , Jenson Interpreted as a relian ce
upon the Judaeo-Chrlstian trad ition (1^15:222). The values
of the p o lit ic a l so ciety were e x p lic it ly developed by a few
authors as the source of e th ic a l standards (143.5:2229. Both
of these sources produce absolute standards, which Jenson
291
I m p l i e d o r n o t d e s i r a b l e ( l p . 5 : 2 2 3 ) . When n a t i o n a l i d e a l s
a r e u s e d a s s t a n d a r d s , d e f i n a b l e n a t i o n a l v a l u e s a s w e l l a s
th eir p rescrip tive use are hypothesised {1^15:223). The
la s t source of e th ic a l standards found In the lite r a tu r e
was Brembeck and Howell's so cia l context, a r e la t lv ls t lc
s t a n d a r d ( i p .5 : 2 2 3 ) :
They CBrembeck and HowellJ urge that one observe the
actual moral behavior of one's contemporaries, that
advice given on the degree of rightness or wrongness
of a given persuasive act should take Into account the
concrete circumstances surrounding the Immediate situ a
tion , and that one's guide should be In part the degree
to which the so c ie ty affected w ill be hurt or benefited
both now and in the future. (Ij .15:223)
I n a n s w e r to t h e o t h e r t h r e e b a s i c q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d
I n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , J e n s o n f o u n d much c o n c e r n b u t fe w s o l u
t i o n s to t h e p r o b le m o f th e gap b e t w e e n t h e o r y an d p r a c t i c e
(ij.15:22l(.); he d i s c o v e r e d t h a t s o c i a l u t i l i t y , d e m o c r a t i c
v a l u e s , a n d T r u t h w ere m o s t f r e q u e n t l y a d v o c a t e d a s d e s i r
a b l e e n d s (1^15:227) • snd t h a t w h i l e m o s t o f th e a u t h o r s
c o n s i d e r e d r h e t o r i c a l m eans t o b e a m o ra l ( t h e i r e t h i c a l
n a t u r e b e i n g d e r i v e d fro m t h e i r u s e ) , m any i d e n t i f i e d c e r
t a i n m eans a s i n t r i n s i c a l l y e t h i c a l o r u n e t h i c a l (ip .5 :
2 2 5 - 2 6 ) . Even t h e u s e o f r a t i o n a l m eans c o u l d be c o n s t r u e d
to be u n e t h i c a l I n c e r t a i n c a s e s I f i t r e s u l t e d I n l e s s
a u d i e n c e a t t e n t i o n , a n d h e n c e , a r e d u c e d e x a m i n a t i o n of
a l t e r n a t i v e s (lp. 5 : 2 2 6 )«
Jenson's review of recent lite r a tu r e provided in te r
estin g in sig h t Into the sources or e th ic a l standards. He
292
seemed to favor a r e la t iv is t ic p o sition rather than an
a b so lu tist p o sitio n , even though the former is the minority
view, but he did not e x p lic it ly sta te h is preference for
any approach. His evaluation of the id eal3 of the p o l i t i
cal sta te as a source of m orality did not impair the v a lid
it y of my study, for as previously stated, i t is only valid
within the lim its of the assumption upon which i t was
based. Because Jenson did not attempt to define an id eal
rh etoric, h is work cannot be compared to the present study
in that area, but h is conclusions regarding ends and means
were generally supported by mine.
There was r e a lly more unity than variety in the
general philosophical p o sitio n s taken by major contributors.
All of them f e l t that in order for persuasion to be eth ica l
i t must serve a good end. The terms most frequently used
to describe the speaker's purpose were truth, democratic
valu es, so c ia l u t i l i t y , or synonyms of these. While some
w riters contented themselves by accepting the speaker's
Intent to serve such purposes as adequate, several others
wanted not only Intended but unsought-after e f f e c t s on the
audience and the p o lit ic a l so ciety to be evaluated.
A large percentage of the w riters e x p lic it ly stated
th eir preference for means su itable to the high id ea ls a l
ready discussed. Even most of the rh etorician s who advo
cated a m orality s o le ly dependent upon ends sought defined
them in terms of democracy--and democratic e th ic s require
293
t h e o utcom e t o be a f f e c t e d b y t h e p r o c e s s .
O v e r h a l f o f th e w r i t e r s r e c o g n i z e d th e I m p o r t a n c e
o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c t e r a s an e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t . Some
r e g a r d e d I t a s th e b a s i c f a c t o r , o t h e r s a s a l i m i t i n g
f a c t o r , and s t i l l o t h e r s a s a s e c o n d a r y f a c t o r , th e r e a l
m e a n in g o f w h ic h w as d e p e n d e n t upon h i s s e l e c t i o n o f m eans
a n d e n d s .
A l l o f t h e w r i t e r s who c o n s i d e r e d c e r t a i n e t h i c a l
c r i t e r i a to b e f u n c t i o n a l l y i n t r i n s i c I n e f f e c t i v e p e r s u a
s i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y r e f e r r e d t o th e a u d i e n c e ' s dem and f o r
good c h a r a c t e r o r f o r t r u t h .
T h ere w as much u n a n i m i t y a b o u t t h e e t h i c a l n a t u r e o f
r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e s . P e r s u a s i v e d e v i c e s w ere c o n s t r u e d a s
u n e t h i c a l i n m o s t c a s e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n t r i n s i c im m o r a l
i t y i n th e d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e x t , b e c a u s e t h e y w e re u s e d I n a
way t h a t i n v a l i d a t e d th e e n d , o r b e c a u s e t h e i r u s e h a d
u n d e s i r a b l e s o c i a l e f f e c t s . A lth o u g h s e v e r a l w r i t e r s r e
m a rk e d upon th e d i f f i c u l t y o f d r a w i n g a l i n e b e tw e e n
e t h i c a l and u n e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , p o i n t i n g to t h e v a r i a b l e s
o p e r a t i v e i n s p e c i f i c c a s e s , t h e y g e n e r a l l y i d e n t i f i e d
p r a c t i c e s w h ic h t h e y c o n s i d e r e d I n t r i n s i c a l l y u n e t h i c a l o r
u n e t h i c a l u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n o e s .
M ost o f th e s p e c i f i c p r o h i b i t i o n s r e g a r d i n g m ean s
d e a l t w i t h a s p e c t s o f I n v e n t i o n ( I n v a n t l o ) o r s t y l e
( e l o c u t l o ) ; f o r t h i s r e a s o n , I t w as fro m t h e s e two c a n o n s
t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a to be a p p l i e d I n l a t e r
29k
c h a p t e r s w e re s e l e c t e d . S t r e s s was p l a c e d on e t h i c a l p r e
s c r i p t i o n s o u t l i n i n g t h e p r o p e r u s e o f th e t h r e e f o r m s o f
p r o o f , l o g o s , p a t h o s , an d e t h o a , and two o f t h e c o n s t i t u
e n t s o f s t y l e , e l e c t l o an d c o m p o a l t l o .
H ie u s e o f s u c h d e v i c e s a s t h e f o l l o w i n g was c o n
s i d e r e d by a n u m b er o f w r i t e r s to be i n t r i n s i c a l l y u n e t h i
c a l : l y i n g , d i s t o r t i o n , o m i s s i o n , o r f a l s i f i c a t i o n o f
f a c t s , b o g u s d o c u m e n t a t i o n , n a m e - c a l l i n g , and t h e s c a p e g o a t
d e v i c e . S e v e r a l r h e t o r i c i a n s s t r e s s e d th e u n e t h i c a l n a t u r e
o f l a n g u a g e n o t s o l i d l y b a s e d on f a c t , i . e . , n o t r a t i o n a l
i n some r a t i o n a l s e n s e , a s W eav er p u t i t . T h e re w as a
g e n e r a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r l o g i c a l p r o o f o f a v a l i d n a t u r e , f o r
e m o t i o n a l p r o o f s u p p o r t e d by f a c t , f o r e t h i c a l p r o o f u s e d
a s s u p p o r t b u t n o t a s s u b s t i t u t e f o r a r g u m e n t, and f o r
a c c u r a t e l a n g u a g e . Means w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n t h e a n e s t h e
t i z a t i o n o f th e a u d i e n c e , t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h ,
o r i n s o c i a l d e g e n e r a t i o n w e re c o n s i d e r e d u n e t h i c a l .
C o n te m p o r a r y r h e t o r i c , l i k e c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c ,
seem ed t o s p e a k w i t h a s i n g l e v o i c e . The m o d e rn r h e t o r i c a l
l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
a new r h e t o r i c - - " a r h e t o r i c o f p r i n c i p l e s o f d e m o c r a t i c
s p e a k i n g " (2 8 2 :7 3 ).
I n a s e n s e , r h e t o r i c w as d e f i n e d i n t h e Im age o f
d e m o c r a c y , a n d fro m t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i t a ssu m ed th e
m o r a l i t y o f th e p o l i t i c a l s o c i e t y . D e m o c r a tic v a l u e s an d
p r o c e d u r e s becam e t h e t e s t i n g g r o u n d s f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e
295
e t h i c s o f a s p e a k e r .
The p l a c e m e n t o f r h e t o r i c w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f th e
d e m o c r a t i c s c e n e ( i n th e B u rk e a n m e a n in g o f th e w ord)
a l t e r e d th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a l i g n m e n t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y r h e t
o r i c fro m I t s c l a s s i c a l m o o r i n g s . W h ile some w r i t e r s made
t h e i r a l l i a n c e o f r h e t o r i c , e t h i c s , and p o l i t i c s e x p l i c i t ,
o t h e r s i m p l i e d a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p . R h e t o r i c was no
l o n g e r ▼iewed s im p ly a s a n I n s t r u m e n t . I t becam e an i n
s t r u m e n t i n a w i d e r c o n t e x t - - a d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e x t .
The c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p e r s u a d e r was r e g a r d e d a s an
e t h i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t . From a d e s c r i p t i v e p o i n t o f v ie w , th e
h a b i t u a l n a t u r e o f th e p e r s u a d e r i s r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h th e
c h o i c e s h e m akes i n t h e s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n . H is c o n c e p t i o n s
o f man, o f v a l u e , and o f s o c i e t y becom e e v i d e n t i n t h i s
m a n n e r. When th e c h o i c e s h e m akes c o n c u r w i t h t h e v a l u e s
o f h i s a u d i e n c e a n d th e s o c i e t y i n w h ic h he s p e a k s , he w i l l
b e r e g a r d e d a s an e t h i c a l s p e a k e r . When t h e y v a r y w i d e l y
fro m t h e v a l u e s o f h i s a u d i e n c e and s o c i e t y , he w i l l be r e
g a r d e d a s an u n e t h i c a l s p e a k e r . T h e r e f o r e , th e d e t e r m i n a
t i o n o f t h e i d e a l s p e a k e r , i . e . , w h a t i s e t h i c a l I n a
p e r s u a d e r , w i l l d e p e n d , i n p a r t , upon b o t h th e a u d i e n c e and
th e s t a t e ; y e t h i s s e l e c t i o n o f t h e m ean s an d e n d s i s c e n
t r a l . U n d e r a d i f f e r e n t g o v e r n m e n t, n o t o n l y a d i f f e r e n t
p e r s u a d e r , b u t d i f f e r e n t e n d s and d i f f e r e n t m eans may be
e l e v a t e d a s " g o o d ."
Hie d e m o c r a t i c c o n t e x t was d e s c r i b e d i n th e l i t e r s -
296
t u r e . D e m o c ra c y , B u rk e w r o t e , i s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g
o f t h e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s . I t i s b a s e d , i n p a r t , on th e
t h e o r y t h a t th e o u tc o m e o f t h e p r o c e s s , u n i v e r s a l d e o l s i o n
( t h e f r e e r a t i o n a l c h o i c e o f th e e l e c t o r a t e ) o r i t s a p p r o x
i m a t i o n , i s m o r a l . B u t i t i s m o r a l o n l y i f c e r t a i n p r o
c e d u r e s h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d . S o m e tim e s th e p r o c e d u r e s b e
come e v e n m ore i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e p r a g m a t i c t r u t h p r o d u c e d ,
f o r t h e f a i l u r e t o a b i d e b y c e r t a i n p r o c e d u r e s i n e v i t a b l y
I n v a l i d a t e s th e c o n s e q u e n c e s .
D em o cracy , l i k e r h e t o r i c , o p e r a t e s i n t h e a r e a o f
th e c o n t i n g e n t . O p in io n r a t h e r th a n t r u t h i s t h e b a s i s o f
i n d i v i d u a l o h o l c e . S ln o e man i s n o t w h o lly a r a t i o n a l
a n im a l t h e p r o c e s s o f d e c i d i n g c h o i c e i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y
t h e h e a p i n g up o f a t t i t u d e s . A f u l l m o r a l a c t i s a t t a i n e d
b y th e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e s e c o m p e t i n g p e r s u a s i o n s *
I m p l i c i t i n t h e a c t a r e f r e e s p e e c h , a c h o i c e b e tw e e n
a l t e r n a t i v e s , a n d t h e m o s t r a t i o n a l e x a m i n a t i o n p o s s i b l e .
I n o t h e r w o r d s , g i v e n f u l l s w a y , r h e t o r i c i s th e l u b r i c a n t
o f d e m o c r a c y . I t i s t h e I n s t r u m e n t t h r o u g h w h ic h t h e c o l
l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n i s r e a c h e d . B u t t h e p r o c e s s p r e c e d i n g
c h o i c e m u s t n o t be im p e d e d i n a n y w ay.
C o n te m p o r a r y w r i t e r s a g r e e d t h a t t h e e t h i c o f dem oc
r a c y i s a d e n i a l o f a p h i l o s o p h y i n w h ic h t h e e n d J u s t i
f i e s t h e m e a n s . I n a d e m o c r a c y , th e e n d p a r t i c i p a t e s o f
th e m e a n s . The e n d m u s t b e c o n c e i v e d i n t e n n s o f demo
c r a t i c I d e a l s an d t h e m e a n s m u s t r e f l e c t and r e c r e a t e t h e
297
end. The end enoompasses not o n lj th e sp eak er's intended
purpose but th e u n sou gh t-after oonsequenoes of h is speak
ing as v e i l . The means of persuasion are no longer amoral;
they p ossess a moral import of th e ir own, e ith e r in t r in s i-
o a lly or derived from th e ir r e la tio n sh ip to the ends
sought.
In summary, in m y op in ion , contemporary rh eto ricia n s
supported a philosophy of e th io s of contemporary p ublic
address in the United S ta tes which can be desoribed as
fo llo w s; rh etorio is an Instrument which d erives i t s
m orality from the democratic scen e. Free speech i s iden
t i f i e d w ith democracy, sin oe i t provides a means fo r t e s t
ing opinion in the lig h t of oompeting p ersu asion s. The
e th ic of persuasion Is the dem ocratic eth lo which req u ires
th at the means of persuasion (agency) be consonant with
the ends (th e sp eak er's intended purpose and the unsought-
a fte r e f f e o t s ) . The ends ou st be conceived in the image
of demooraoy. A speaker (agent) i s e th ic a l (a c t) in such
a scene (s o c ie ty , occasion , audlenoe) when he chooses
purposes (ends) and agency (means) c o n siste n t w ith the
scen e.
Im p lication s of the contemporary philosophy o f demo
c r a tic r h e to r ic .--What i s Im plied in the statem ent th at the
e th ic of persuasion i s the demooratio eth lo? In order to
c la r if y s ig n ific a n t asp ects o f the contemporary philosophy
o f democratic r h e to r io , referenoe was made to the llt e r a -
298
t u r e o f o t h e r f i e l d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y e t h i c s , p o l i t i c s , and
p s y c h o l o g y .
D em o cracy i s an o r g a n i z a t i o n i n s e a r c h o f v a l u e s ,
P a u l A p p le b y p o i n t e d o u t i n M o r a l i t y and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n
D e m o c r a t i c G o v e r n m e n t:
D e m o c r a tic g o v e r n m e n t l a one o f th e g e n e r a l f o m s o f
p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n [ a s o p p o s e d to s u c h p r i v a t e
o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s th e f a m i l y , c h u r c h , e t c . J p e c u l i a r l y
d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y i t s a s p i r a t i o n t o I m p r e g n a t e p u b l i c
v a l u e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e v a l u e s .
D em o cracy . . . i s l a r g e l y a m eans f o r th e d e t e r
m i n a t i o n o f , and a r r i v a l a t , v a l u e s . . . ( 5 : 2 )
As a fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t i t i s p l a c e d i n s h a r p e s t c o n t r a s t
w i t h communism b y i t s m o r a l l z a t l o n o f m ean s ( 5 : 2 5 ) . Democ
r a c y d o e s n o t t o l e r a t e th e p h i l o s o p h y o f th e e n d s a s
J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e m e a n s , T. V. S m ith and K duard
L ln d em an e x p l a i n e d i n The D e m o c r a t i c Way o f L i f e :
The d e m o c r a t i c way o f l l f o r e s t s f i r m l y upon t h e a s
s u m p tio n t h a ^ m eans m u s t b e c o n s o n a n t w i t h e n d s . I t i s
t h i s r u l e w h ic h , when p r a c t i c e d , e m a n a te s a s d e m o c r a t i c
b e h a v i o r an d c o n s t r u c t s a p a t t e r n o f d e m o c r a t i c m o r a l
i t y :— (225': 1 2 4 )----------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
An h o n e s t b e l i e v e r i n d e m o c ra c y c a n n o t s u p p o r t th e p o s i t i o n
t h a t t h e e n d j u s t i f i e s th e m eans f o r t h i s d o c t r i n e i s b o t h
im m o ra l and u n s c i e n t i f i c ( 2 2 5 : 1 2 5 - 2 6 ) • F o r e x a m p le , i t i s
a b s u r d to b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e r v e f r e e d o m
b y s u p p r e s s i n g i t ( 2 2 5 : 1 2 6 ) . " I f humane an d l i b e r a l e n d s
a r e d e s i r e d , " t h e y w r o t e , "we m u s t b e h a v e h u m a n e ly and
l i b e r a l l y . The c i t i z e n who s t r i v e s f o r d e m o c r a t i c g o a l s
m u s t d i s c i p l i n e h i m s e l f i n t h e u s e o f d e m o c r a t i c m e a n s "
(225:126).
299
The i m p o r t a n c e o f th e m e a n s - e n d s e q u a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y
w h a t h a p p e n s i n tim e o f w a r:
When a d e m o c r a t i c n a t i o n b eco m es i n v o l v e d i n w a r f a r e i t
I s o o m p e lle d to s u s p e n d some o f th e d e m o c r a t i c r u l e s .
I t s d i v e r s i t y [ o f e n d s ] I s now o v e rs h a d o w e d by t h e
u r g e n t n e e d f o r u n i t y . War s u b s t i t u t e s * f o r t h e co n *
t i n u i n g a n d f l u c t u a t i n g e n d s o f o r g a n i c l i f e * th e
s i n g l e a n d m e c h a n i c a l e n d o f s u r v i v a l . T h is is * o f
c o u r s e * a h a r m f u l e x p e r i e n c e a n d a n a t i o n c o n s t a n t l y
o n t h e a l e r t f o r w a r l i k e p o s s l b i l l t i e s * a m i l i t a r y
n a t i o n * c a n n o t l o n g r e m a i n d e m o c r a t i c . I f a n a t i o n
r e m a i n s m i l i t a r i z e d l o n g enough* i t s d e m o c r a t i c h a b i t s
w i l l w i t h e r and d i e . H e re a s e l s e w h e r e t h e m eans w i l l
f i n a l l y d e t e r m i n e th e e n d s . ( 2 2 5 :1 2 9 - 3 0 )
I n tim e o f war* th e p u b l i c v a l u e i s no l o n g e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f th e sum o f th e p r i v a t e v a l u e s o f th e c i t i z e n s * n o r c a n
I t t o l e r a t e c o r r e c t i o n . T h e se two a b s o l u t e y e t f u n c t i o n a l
an d p r o c e d u r a l c o n c e p t s * r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s a n d s e l f - c o r
r e c t i o n * a r e th e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d e m o c ra c y
a c c o r d i n g to k a r t e n Ten H o o r 's a r t i c l e * "An A p p ro a c h to an
E t h i c s o f D e m o c ra c y 1 * ( 5 6 2 : 1 6 3 * 1 6 6 ) . The c o r p o r a t e e n d o f
dem o cracy * w h ic h i s u s e d h e r e s y n o n y m o u s ly w i t h p u b l i c
v a l u e * i s t h e p r o m o t i o n o f th e f u l l e s t p o s s i b l e r e a l i z a t i o n
o f th e e n d s o f a l l c i t i z e n s ; i t i s d e r i v e d fro m t h e i n d e
p e n d e n t an d p r i v a t e e n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s (5 6 2 :
1 6 3 )* The m eans ( p r o c e d u r e s ) o f a t t a i n i n g t h e c o r p o r a t e
e n d a r e law s* i n s t i t u t i o n s * an d I n f o r m a l p r a c t i c e s * t h e
n a t u r e o f w h ic h i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r o f p e r s o n a l
an d g r o u p m o r a l i t y ( 5 6 2 : 1 6 7 ) . The i n s t i t u t i o n i z a t i o n o f
t h e c o r p o r a t e e n d on t h e l e v e l o f th e p o l i t i c a l s t a t e p r o
v i d e s d i r e c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t o m a i n t a i n t h e b a l a n c e b e tw e e n
3 0 0
t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f a s i n g l e e n d ( t y r a n n y ) an d u n r e s t r i c t e d
c o m p e t i t i o n o f r i v a l e n d s ( a n a r c h y ) (5 6 2:161^). I n o t h e r
w o r d s , d e m o c ra c y i s s e l f - c o r r e c t i v e . D em o cracy a s a p r o
c e d u r a l m eans g u a r d s t h e two a b s o l u t e s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s
an d s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n , w h ic h a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e r e a l i s a t i o n
o f th e c o r p o r a t e e n d . D em o cracy d o e s n o t g u a r a n t e e th e
a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n y s i n g l e s e t o f g o a l s ; i t d o e s n o t w a n t a
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f e n d s ( 5 6 2 :1 6 l f ) . By i t s v e r y n a t u r e . I t
p r e f e r s s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i v i s m c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i t s
g o a l — th e c o n t i n u o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f th e v a l u e s o f th e
demos i n t o la w s to w h ic h th e demos t h e m s e l v e s a r e r e s p o n
s i b l e ( 5 6 2 : 1 6 7 ) .
A r c h i b a l d M a c L e ls h , i n "D ie A m e ric a n C a u s e , " e x
p r e s s e d som ew hat e l o q u e n t l y d e m o c r a c y 's c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f
f l u x : "D em ocracy i s n e v e r a t h i n g d o n e . D em o cracy i s
a lw a y s s o m e th in g t h a t a n a t i o n m u s t b e d o i n g " (11^7:116).
I t s I n c o m p l e t e , s t a t i c , a n d c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g n a t u r e was
a l s o e m p h a s iz e d b y L o u is W asserm an i n M odern P o l i t i c a l
P h i l o s o p h i e s a n d W hat I h e y Mean (21 ^3 :1 2 ).
D em o cracy i s e t y m o l o g i c a l l y d e r i v e d fro m two G re e k
w o r d s , demos ( t h e p e o p l e ) a n d k r a t e l n ( t o r u l e ) . I t i s th e
r o l e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h lo h f i x e s th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
d e m o o ra c y , J o h n Dewey e x p l a i n e d i n R e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n P h i
l o s o p h y : d e m o c ra c y i s a m e a n s o f p r o m o t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n i n
w h lo h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s h a r e s i n th e s h a p i n g o f t h e a im s o f
th e g r o u p ( 7 8 : 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 ) . I t t r e a t s man a s a n e n d r a t h e r
301
t h a n a s a m e a n s , Dewey and h i s c o - a u t h o r o f E t h i c s , Jam es
T u f t s , w r o t e :
The c o n c e p t i o n o f common g o o d , o f g e n e r a l w e l l - b e i n g ,
I s a c r i t e r i o n w h lo h dem ands th e f u l l d e v e l o p m e n t o f
I n d i v i d u a l s I n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e I n d i v i d u a l i t y , n o t a
s a c r i f i c e o f them to some a l l e g e d v a g u e l a r g e r good
u n d e r th e p l e a t h a t I t i s " s o c i a l . " ( 7 9 :3 8 6 )
I n " V i t a l I s s u e s I n P r e e S p e e c h , " C h a r l e s R. N ix o n e x p a n d e d
o n t h e r o l e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e v a l u e s
b e s e r v e d b y s o c i e t y a r e t h o s e s e l e c t e d b y th e m a j o r i t y o f
t h e com m u n ity ( 1 |8 0 :1 1 5 ) . He c o n c u r r e d t h a t d e m o c r a c y d o e s
n o t d e t e r m i n e e n d s ; I n s t e a d i t m e r e l y p r o v i d e s t h e p r o
c e d u r e f o r f i n d i n g them (IfdO: IIJ4.) •
I n susm iary, d e m o c ra c y I s t h e p r o c e s s w h ic h h a s b e e n
I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v a l u e s o f th e d em o s.
T h ese v a l u e s a r e n o t c o n s t a n t s ; th e y a r e i n a c o n t i n u o u s
p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . N e i t h e r th e m a j o r i t y n o r t h e
m i n o r i t y v ie w I s d e v o i d o f e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , f o r th e
I d e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o r d e m o c ra c y d em ands t h e f u l l
e s t r e a l i s a t i o n o f a l l I n d i v i d u a l s a s d e t e r m i n e r s o f th e
g e n e r a l g o o d . The p r o c e d u r e s o f d e m o c r a c y p r o v i d e c o n t r o l s
e s s e n t i a l t o t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h i s e n d . The end p r e
e x i s t s I n t h e s e m e a n s .
The m o s t p e r t i n e n t o f t h e f o r m a l i z e d p r o c e d u r e s
r e l e v a n t to an e t h i c o f p e r s u a s i o n I s th e d e m o c r a t i c c o n
c e p t o f f r e e s p e e c h s o h e a v i l y r e l i a n t u p o n t h e w r i t i n g s o f
J o h n S t u a r t M i l l (1 6 1 ) a n d J o h n M i l t o n ( 1 6 2 ) . I n
" A e r o p a g l t i c a , " M i l t o n p r e s e n t e d h i s a r g u m e n t t h a t a l l
302
o p i n i o n s a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e d a t o r m i n a t i o n o f " t r u t h " :
" A l l o p i n i o n s , y e a , e r r o r s , known, r e a d , an d c o l l a t e d , a r e
o f m ain s e r v i c e an d a s s i s t a n c e to w a rd th e s p e e d y a t t a i n m e n t
o f w h a t i s t r u e s t " ( 1 6 2 :7 3 7 ) * When i t i s m e t i n " f r e e and
o p e n e n c o u n t e r " t r u t h w i l l t r i u m p h o v e r f a l s e h o o d , b u t t h e
i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n i s t h a t a l l o p i n i o n s m u s t b e h e a r d ,
f o r " i s i t n o t p o s s i b l e t h a t s h e Q t r u t h J may h a v e m ore
s h a p e s t h a n o n e " ( 1 6 2 :7 5 1 ) ?
M i l l p u r s u e d e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a r g u m e n t i n On
L i b e r t y , i n w h ic h h e e m p h a s iz e d th e u n i t y o f f r e e d o m t o
t h i n k , t o s p e a k , an d t o w r i t e ( l 6 l : l 4 ) , and t h e i r common
u s e a s s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t t h e t y r a n n y o f th e m a j o r i t y ( l 6 l :
4 -5 )* " A l l s i l e n c i n g o f d i s c u s s i o n i s a n a s s u m p t i o n o f
i n f a l l i b i l i t y " ( 1 6 1 :1 7 ) * h e w r o t e , an d no one i s i n f a l l i b l e
( 1 6 1 : 1 8 ) . i f th e d i s c u s s i o n o f o n l y " c e r t a i n " d o c t r i n e s i s
p e r m i t t e d , i n f a l l i b i l i t y h a s b e e n a ssu m e d ( 1 6 1 : 2 1 ) , and
t h i s i s e v i l , s i n c e w h a t h a s b e e n s i l e n c e d m ig h t be t r u e :
The d i c t u m t h a t t r u t h a lw a y s t r i u m p h s o v e r p e r s e c u t i o n ,
i s o n e o f t h o s e p l e a s a n t f a l s e h o o d s w h ic h men r e p e a t
a f t e r o n e a n o t h e r t i l l t h e y p a s s i n t o c o m m o n p la c e s, b u t
w h ic h a l l e x p e r i e n c e r e f u t e s . . • ( 1 6 1 :2 7 )
I h e r e a l a d v a n t a g e o f t r u t h i s i n s t e a d t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t
t o e x t i n g u i s h , and t h a t i t i s p e r p e t u a l l y b e i n g r e d i s c o v
e r e d u n d e r m o re f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ( 1 6 1 : 2 8 ) ,
A l l o p i n i o n s m u s t b e d e f e n d e d ( 1 6 1 :3 5 ) end t h e y m u s t
b e l i s t e n e d t o ( 1 6 1 :5 2 ) n o t p a s s i v e l y b u t a c t i v e l y (1 6 1 :
4 0 ) , f o r c o n f l i c t i n g d o c t r i n e s c o n t r i b u t e p o r t i o n s o f th e
3 0 3
t r u t h ( 1 6 1: 1 4.5)* D i s c u s s i o n s h o u l d b e co n d em n ed , n o t b e
c a u s e o f t h e s i d e a r g u e d , b u t i n s t e a d a c c o r d i n g t o th e mode
o f a d v o c a c y (161:514.)*
C a r l L. B e c k e r , i n F re e d o m an d R e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e
A m e ric a n Way o f L i f e , e l e v a t e d " f r e e c r i t i c i s m and a n a l y s i s
b y a l l and s u n d r y " a s t h e h i g h e s t v i r t u e i n a d e m o c ra c y
( 3 0 :3 7 ) * He r e c o g n i z e d t h e p r o f o u n d I n f l u e n c e o f M i l l u p o n
d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y ( 3 0 : 3 6 ) . The a s s u m p t i o n
b e h i n d d e m o c r a t i c d o c t r i n e o f f r e e s p e e c h w h ic h h e e n u m e r
a t e d seem ed t o b e l a r g e l y r e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s
o f t h e s e e a r l y p r o p h e t s :
The d e m o c r a t i c d o c t r i n e o f f re e d o m o f s p e e c h an d o f
th e p r e s s , w h e th e r we r e g a r d i t a s a n a t u r a l and i n
a l i e n a b l e r i g h t o r n o t , r e s t s upon c e r t a i n a s s u m p t i o n s .
One o f t h e s e i s t h a t men d e s i r e t o know th e t r u t h an d
w i l l b e d i s p o s e d to b e g u i d e d b y i t . A n o th e r i s t h a t
th e s o l e m eth o d o f a r r i v i n g a t t h e t r u t h i n th e lo n g
r u n i s b y t h e f r e e c o m p e t i t i o n o f o p i n i o n i n t h e o p e n
m a r k e t . A n o th e r i s t h a t , s i n c e men w i l l i n e v i t a b l y
d i f f e r i n t h e i r o p i n i o n s , e a c h man m u s t b e p e r m i t t e d
t o u r g e , f r e e l y and e v e n s t r e n u o u s l y , h i s own o p i n i o n ,
p r o v i d e d h e a c c o r d s t o o t h e r s t h e same r i g h t . And th e
f i n a l a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t fro m t h i s m u t u a l t o l e r a t i o n
a n d c o m p a r is o n o f d i v e r s e o p i n i o n s t h e one t h a t seem s
th e m o s t r a t i o n a l w i l l em erg e an d be g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t
e d . ( 3 0 :3 8 )
The c o d i f i c a t i o n o f p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s f o r f r e e s p e e c h
f o u n d i t s f i r s t s t a t e m e n t i n t h e B i l l o f R i g h t s i n w h ic h
C o n g r e s s w as p r o h i b i t e d th e a u t h o r i t y t o a b r i d g e f r e e d o m o f
s p e e c h . B u t t h e w o r d s , " C o n g r e s s s h a l l make no law . . .
a b r i d g i n g t h e f re e d o m o f s p e e o h . . . " d i d n o t s e t t h e
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s c l e a r l y (66:143-144) •
Two o f t h e m o s t h i g h l y r e g a r d e d s c h o l a r s on f r e e
30l(_
speech In America, Alexander M eiklejohn and Zechariah
Chafee, J r ., fa ile d to agree on the meaning o f the F ir s t
Amendment. M eiklejohn attempted to answer two q u estion s:
what does th is mean; and what should th is mean? The F ir s t
Amendment, he pointed ou t, "does not fo rb id the abridging
of speech . . . I t does fo rb id the abridging o f the fr e e
dom o f speech" ( 1 4 8 : 1 9 ) . He wrote In Free Speech and I t s
R elation to Self-governm ent:
W hen se lf-g o v ern in g men demand freedom of speeoh they
are not saying th at every in d iv id u a l has an In alien ab le
r ig h t to speak whenever, wherever, however he ch ooses.
What i s e s s e n tia l i s not th at everyone s h a ll speak, but
th at everyth in g worth saying s h a ll be sa id . . . • And
th at means that unwise Ideas must have a hearing as
w ell as w ise ones, u n fair as w ell as f a i r , dangerous as
w ell as s a fe , un-American as w ell as American. Ju st so
fa r a s, a t any p o in t, the c itiz e n s who are to decide an
Issu e are denied acquaintance w ith inform ation or
opinion or doubt or d is b e lie f or c r itic is m which Is
re le v a n t to that is s u e , ju st so fa r the r e s u lt must be
I ll-c o n s id e r e d , ill-b a la n c e d planning fo r the general
good. I t i s that m u tila tio n of the thinking process
a g a in st which the F ir s t Amendment to the C on stitu tion
i s d ir e c te d . (148:24-25)
The message of the F ir s t Amendment i s ab solu te; i t does not
imply the balance o f the public s a fe ty and the search fo r
truth a g a in st each other (1^ 8:68). I t s message ia that
" in te lle c tu a l freedom i s the n ecessary bulwark of the
p ublic safety" (li|£ :b 8 ).
C hief J u stic e O liver Wendell Holmes* view th at the
com petition o f the market i s the b e st t e s t o f truth i s only
p a rtly true: what we think together a t any time la the
only tru th , not the b e st tru th ( 1 4 8 : 6 3 , 8 6 ) . Holmes' view
305
of tr u th - t e s t i n g has become "a f r u i t f u l source of I n t e l
le c tu a l I r r e s p o n s ib ility and of the e r ro rs which irre sp o n
s i b i l i t y b rin g s" ( 1 1 4- 8 : 8 6 ). M eiklejohn charged th a t under
i t s In flu en ce no standards are used a t a l l to determ ine the
d iffe re n c e between tr u th and falsehood (148:87)*
The " c le a r and p re se n t danger" in te r p r e ta tio n of the
F i r s t Amendment denies r a th e r than ex presses i t s meaning
(148:92). This in te r p r e ta tio n d e c la re s th a t th e re is a
freedom of speech which i s abrldgable (148:38). I t s e f f e o t
has been to merge th e F i r s t and F i f t h Amendments so th a t
freedom of speech has become a lie n a b le (148:57)*
On the o th e r hand, Zechariah Chafee, J r . , did not
b e lie v e th a t the fram ers of the C o n s titu tio n intended th a t
"every Act which r e s t r i c t s th in k in g , ta lk in g , and p rin tin g
would be u n c o n s titu tio n a l" (68:44)* I n Freedom of Speech
and p re s s , he pointed out t h a t the Supreme Court has f r e
q u en tly re je c te d such a b s o lu tis t in te r p r e ta tio n s and he
c ite d Chief J u s tic e Vinson*s view th a t freedom o f speech
must be subordinated to o th er a o o le ta l values (66:44)* His
own conclusions concerning the tru e meaning of fre e speech
were c le a r ly id e n tif ie d : (1) i t i s a ch erish ed human de
s ir e to speak one*s views; (2) one of the fundam ental pur
poses of so c ie ty i s "the disco v ery and spread of tr u th as
to fa o ts and sound judgments" r e la tiv e to su b je c ts of com
mon concern; (3) r e s t r a i n t s which are made upon f r e e speech
should be made a f te r c a re fu l b alancing of the tru th -v a lu e
306
o f o p e n d i s c u s s i o n a g a i n s t o t h e r p u r p o s e s o f s o c i e t y , f o r
e x a m p le , p r o t e c t i o n fro m I t s e n e m ie s ( 6 6 : 1 4 .5 - 4. 6 ) .
I n h i s v o lu m e , F r e e S p e e c h I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , he
s o u n d e d a d i s m a l n o t e :
S p e e o h s h o u l d b e f r u i t f u l a s w e l l a s f r e e . Our
e x p e r i e n c e i n t r o d u c e s t h i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n t o th e
c l a s s i c a l a r g u m e n t o f M i l t o n and J o h n S t u a r t M i l l , t h a t
o n l y t h r o u g h o p en d i s c u s s i o n I s t r u t h d i s c o v e r e d and
s p r e a d . I n t h e i r s i m p l e r t i m e s , t h e y t h o u g h t I t e n o u g h
to rem o v e l e g a l o b s t a c l e s l i k e t h e c e n s o r s h i p an d s e d i
t i o n p r o s e c u t i o n s . . . .
We m u s t do m o re t h a n rem o v e th e d i s c o u r a g e m e n t s to
o p e n d i s c u s s i o n . We m u s t e x e r t o u r s e l v e s to s u p p l y
a c t i v e e n c o u r a g e m e n t .
. . . . We m u s t t a k e a f f i r m a t i v e s t e p s to Im p ro v e
t h e m e th o d s b y w h ic h d i s c u s s i o n i s c a r r i e d o n . Of l a t e
y e a r s t h e a r g u m e n t o f M i l t o n and M i l l h a s b e e n q u e s
t i o n e d , b e c a u s e t r u t h d o e s n o t seem t o e m e rg e fro m a
c o n t r o v e r s y I n t h e a u t o m a t i c way t h e i r l o g i c w ould l e a d
u s to e x p e c t . F o r on e t h i n g , r e a s o n i s l e s s p r a i s e d
n o w ad ay s t h a n a c e n t u r y a g o ; I n s t e a d , e m o t i o n s c o n
s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s a r e commonly s a i d to d o m in a te
t h e c o n d u c t o f m en. I s i t a n y l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to d i s
c o v e r t r u t h am id t h e c l a s h i n g b l a r e s o f a d v e r t i s e m e n t s ,
l o u d s p e a k e r s , g i g a n t i c b i l l b o a r d s , p a r t y p r o g r a m s ,
p r o p a g a n d a o f a h u n d r e d k i n d s ? To s i f t t h e t r u t h fro m
a l l t h e s e h a l f - t r u t h s seem s to dem and a s t a t i s t i c a l
i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e y o n d th e l i m i t s o f a n y b o d y 's tim e and
m oney. So some m o d e rn t h i n k e r s d e s p a i r i n g l y c o n c l u d e
t h a t t h e g r e a t m ass o f v o t e r s c a n n o t b e t r u s t e d t o
d e t e c t t h e f a l l a c i e s I n e m o t i o n a l a r g u m e n ts b y Com
m u n i s t s and so o n , a n d h e n c e m u s t b e p r e v e n t e d fro m
h e a r i n g them . E v en t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l s do n o t seem to
do much b e t t e r i n r e a o h l n g T r u t h b y c o n f l i c t i n g a r g u -
men t s . ( 6 7 : 5 5 9 - 6 0 )
I n s p i t e o f h i s p e s s i m i s m , C h a f e e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e a r g u
m e n t o f M i l t o n a n d M i l l w as b a s l o a l l y s o u n d , b u t t h a t i t
h a d b e e n g r e a t l y c o m p l i c a t e d i n m o d e rn t i m e s ( 6 7 : 5 6 0 ) . He
u r g e d e d u c a t i o n t o d e v i s e " w is e I m p ro v e m e n ts i n t e c h n i q u e "
a s th e a n s w e r , b u t h e f e l t t h a t r e a s o n i s s t i l l t h e b e s t
guide (67:561).
307
A t h i r d w r i t e r , D o n a ld M e i k l e j o h n , i n "The C i v i l
L i b e r t i e s i n t h a A m e ric a n Com m unity, " p r o p o s e d a c o n c e p t o f
p r o c e d u r a l t r u t h a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e n a t u r a l r i g h t s and
s o c i a l u t i l i t y t h e o r i e s o f f r e e s p e e c h (I4.56). H is v ie w was
f o u n d e d on b e l i e f i n t h e i n t r i n s i c v a l u e o f f r e e s p e e c h and
a s s e m b l y a s p r o c e d u r e s f o r th e f o r m i n g o f t h e p u b l i c m ind
(I4.56: II4.). He f o u n d i n o u r a t t e m p t s t o d e f i n e and p r o t e c t
t h e s e r i g h t s th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r u l e s f o r d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
( 1 4- 5 6 : 114.) • Hie e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f f r e e s p e e c h , he
w r o t e , i s t h a t men w i t h some " i n d e p e n d e n c e o f d e c i s i o n "
a c h i e v e a common ju d g m e n t t h r o u g h r a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n (I4.56:
1 9 - 2 0 ) . He d e f e n d e d h i s u se o f th e w ord " r a t i o n a l " i n t h i s
way:
The i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s i s no a n t i s e p t i c a r t i c u l a t i o n
o f s e l f - e v i d e n t p r o p o s i t i o n s . I t I s th e a d v a n c i n g o f
a s s e r t i o n s , f o u n d e d n a t u r a l l y i n f e e l i n g , f o r s u b j e c
t i o n to l i m i t a t i o n and c r i t i c i s m b y o t h e r a s s e r t i o n s .
( If 5 6 :l5 )
M e i k l e j o h n e x p l a i n e d t h e g r o u n d s o f J u d g e L e a r n e d H a n d 's
d e c i s i o n i n M a sse s P u b l i s h i n g Company v . P a t t e n (1 9 1 7 ) a s
a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o c e d u r a l c r i t e r i a r a t h e r th a n t h e d e a r
a n d p r e s e n t d a n g e r c r i t e r i o n (14.56:18). The f o l l o w i n g
q u e s t i o n s w e re r e l e v a n t t o H a n d 's d e c i s i o n :
D o es t h e s p e a k e r o r w r i t e r a d d r e s s h i s a u d i e n c e o r
r e a d e r s i n a way w h ic h p e r m i t s a g e n u i n e m e e t i n g o f
m in d s ? I s t h e r e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r e f l e c t i o n b y th e
a u d i e n c e , f o r r e p l y , o r q u e s t i o n , a s w e l l a s d o w n r i g h t
r e j e c t i o n ? D oes t h e e x c h a n g e r e a l l y a d m i t t h e f o r m a
t i o n o f a common p o i n t o f v iew ? ( 1 4.5 6 : 1 b)
A t l e a s t p a r t o f w h a t h e te rm e d " p r o c e d u r a l " t r u t h was
308
i m p l i c i t i n m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e c l e a r an d p r e s e n t d a n g e r
c l a u s e made by Holm es a n d B r a n d e l s i n t h e i r d e c i s i o n on
W h itn e y v . C a l i f o r n i a ( 1 9 2 7 ) :
To c o u r a g e o u s , s e l f - r e l i a n t m en, v i t h c o n f i d e n c e I n t h e
po w er o f f r e e a n d f e a r l e s s r e a s o n i n g a p p l i e d t h r o u g h
t h e p r o c e s s e s o f p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t , no d a n g e r f l o w i n g
f r o m s p e e c h c a n be deem ed c l e a r a n d p r e s e n t , u n l e s s t h e
i n c i d e n c e o f t h e e v i l a p p r e h e n d e d i s so im m in e n t t h a t
I t may b e f a l l b e f o r e t h e r e i s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r f u l l
d l s o u s s i o n . I f t h e r e be tim e t o e x p o s e t h r o u g h d i s
c u s s i o n t h e f a l s e h o o d a n d f a l l a c i e s t o a v e r t t h e e v i l
by t h e p r o c e s s e s o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e re m e d y t o be a p p l i e d
i s m ore s p e e o h , n o t e n f o r c e d s i l e n c e * ( o 7 : 3 ^ 9 )
I n sum m ary, t h e m e a n in g o f th e F i r s t Amendment i s a
f u n c t i o n o f c o u r t d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g i t * The a p p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e c l e a r a n d p r e s e n t d a n g e r c l a u s e , I n I t s m o st r e c e n t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h ic h r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e d a n g e r be b o t h
" s e r i o u s " a n d " im m e d ia te " ( l l f 8 : 2 9 , 5 l # 5 3 ) , n o t o n l y m i l i
t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e c u r t a i l m e n t o f t h e d i a l e c t i c a l p r o c e s s o f
d e m o c r a c y , i t r e a f f i r m s t h e v i t a l r o l e o f f r e e s p e e o h a s a
f a c t o r i n t h e d i a l e c t i c * W h ile i n a c t u a l f a c t , t h e F i r s t
Amendment m e r e l y s p e l l s o u t t h e l i m i t s b e y o n d w h ic h Con
g r e s s may n o t l a w f u l l y v e n t u r e i n r e s t r i c t i n g f r e e s p e e c h ,
i t s i m p l i e d e t h i c r e q u i r e s th e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e d i a l e c t i
c a l p r o c e s s * And t h e b a s i s o f t h e d i a l e c t i c p r o c e s s i s
r a t i o n a l i s m *
The m o st I m p o r t a n t i s s u e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,
K. R. P o o p e r w r o t e i n The Open S o c i e t y a n d I t s E n e m i e s , i s
t h e c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n r a t i o n a l i s m a n d i r r a t i o n a l i s m ( 1 9 7 :
2 1 2 ) . I n I d e a s A re W e a p o n s. Max L e r n e r s e c o n d e d P o p p e r 's
3 0 9
c a n d i d a t e f o r th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t a s k o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i
e t y ( 1 3 3 :7 ) * The p r o b le m t o be r e s o l v e d , h e w r o t e , I s
w h e t h e r men a r e I n p o s s e s s i o n o f I d e a s o r I d e a s a r e I n
p o s s e s s i o n o f men ( 1 3 3 :3 ) *
I t I s i m p o r t a n t t o a r r i v e a t a c l e a r c o n c e p t i o n o f
t h e m e a n in g o f r a t i o n a l i t y . P o p p e r d e f i n e d r e a s o n and
r a t i o n a l i s m b r o a d l y a s I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y p l u s o b s e r v a
t i o n an d e x p e r i e n c e ; I t I s an na t t i t u d e n t h a t s e e k s t o
s o l v e p r o b le m s t h r o u g h a p p e a l t o c l e a r t h o u g h t a n d e x p e r i
e n c e r a t h e r th a n b y a p p e a l t o p a s s i o n (197:212). The
r a t i o n a l i s t a t t i t u d e i n p r a c t i c e s u g g e s t s ”1 may b e w rong
an d y o u may b e r i g h t , and b y an e f f o r t , we may g e t n e a r e r
to t h e t r u t h '1; i t i s s i m i l a r t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e
(197:213).
A lth o u g h he s t r e s s e d th e e s s e n t i a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw e e n t h o u g h t , e m o tio n , a n d a c t i o n , a s f a c t o r s i n m a n 's
r e a c t i o n s ( 9 ^ :6 5 ) * S r i c h Fromm, i n The S ane S o c i e t y , p i c k e d
r e a s o n a s a u n i q u e l y human c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :
Reason i s man's fa c u lty fo r grasping the world by
thought, in co n tra d ictio n to in t e llig e n c e , which i s
man's a b ilit y to manipulate the world w ith the help of
thought. Reason i s man's instrum ent fo r a rriv in g a t
the tru th , I n te llig e n c e i s man's instrum ent fo r manip
u la tin g the world more s u c c e ss fu lly ; the former i s
e s s e n t ia lly human, the la t t e r belongs to the animal
part of man. (9^:614.)
A n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m i s t h e ”c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m a n i f e s
t a t i o n ” o f o u r a g e , C ra n e B r i n t o n w r o te i n The S h a p i n g o f
t h e M odern k i n d ( t h e c o n c l u d i n g h a l f o f I d e a s and Men)
3 1 0
( 5 0 : 2 2 3 ) . The a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t I s n o t t h a o p p o s i t e o f
th a r a t i o n a l i s t . By d e f i n i t i o n , th a a n t i - l n t e l l e c t u a l i s t
t r i e s " t o a r r i v e r a t i o n a l l y a t a j u s t a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e
a c t u a l r o l e s o f r a t i o n a l i t y and o f n o n r a t i o n a l i t y i n human
a f f a i r s " ( 5 0 : 2 2 3 ) . J o h n H a l l o w e l l , i n " P o l i t i c s and
H t h i c s , " p o i n t e d o u t t h e i r o n y o f th e a n t i - l n t e l l e c t u a l -
l s t s ' p u r s u i t when h e w h i m s i c a l l y n o t e d t h a t i t i s c u r i o u s
t h a t so many i n t e l l e c t u a l s s h o u ld b e so a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d
i n p e r s u a d i n g o t h e r I n t e l l e c t u a l s b y r e a s o n t h a t men a r e by
n a t u r e i r r a t i o n a l (2 ti5 :t> 5 l). The a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l d o e s
n o t p r a i s e n o n r a t i o n a l i t y , h e m e r e l y a t t e m p t s t o a s s e s s th e
r o l e o f n o n r a t l o n a l e l e m e n t s i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h o u g h t ( 5 0 :
2 2 3 -2 U .
The e s s e n t i a l t a s k f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y i s n o t
t o r e s o l v e th e u n r e s o l v a b l e c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n r a t i o n a l i s m
an d i r r a t i o n a l i s m ; t h e r e a l p r o b le m i s t o c l a r i f y t h e s e
tw in a p p e a l s I n r e l a t i o n to d e m o c r a c y . The t r a d i t i o n o f
d e m o c ra c y i s r a t i o n a l , y e t much t h a t i s done i n t h i s s o c i
e t y i s a n t i - I n t e l l e c t u a l i f n o t i r r a t i o n a l i n o r i e n t a t i o n .
B r i n t o n n o t e d t h i s a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l l s t n a t u r e o f
much o f c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c s ( 5 0 :2 3 1 ) •Hd p o i n t e d o u t th e
c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n t r a d i t i o n a n d p r a c t i c e :
We a r e b r o u g h t s q u a r e l y up a g a i n s t th e p r o b le m o f th e
r e l a t i o n o f a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l l s m t o o u r d e m o c r a t i c
t r a d i t i o n . • • . D em o cracy a s i t r i p e n e d i n th e e i g h t
e e n t h c e n t u r y h e l d o u t h o p e o f r a p i d an d th o r o u g h
s o c i a l c h a n g e to w a r d u n i v e r s a l h a p p i n e s s o n e a r t h to
be a c h i e v e d b y e d u c a t i n g a l l men to u s e t h e i r n a t u r a l
r e a s o n . . . . A n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m m a i n t a i n s a g a i n s t
3 1 1
t h e s e d e m o c r a t i c b e l i e f s th e b e l i e f t h a t men a r e n o t
an d c a n n o t u n d e r t h e b e s t e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m b e g u i d e d
b y t h e i r r e a s o n , t h a t t h e d r i v e s , h a b i t s , c o n d i t i o n e d
r e f l e x e s t h a t m o s t l y do g u i d e them c a n n o t b e c h a n g e d
r a p i d l y . . . . T h e s e two s e t a o f b e l i e f s , t h e dem o
c r a t i c a n d t h e a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l , seem m u t u a l l y in c o m
p a t i b l e . ( 5 0 : 21^0 )
He c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t t h i n k
i n g w as to make d e m o c ra c y o v e r i n t h e im age o f t h e " r e a l "
r a t h e r t h a n t h e " i d e a l " ( 5 0 : 2 ^ 1 ) • He r a i s e d a c r u c i a l
q u e s t i o n fro m th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h i s s t u d y : c a n th e
a d h e r e n t s o f d e m o c r a c y i n c o r p o r a t e t h e r e a l i t y made e v i d e n t
b y t h e a n t i - i n t e l l e c t u a l s w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e i r f a i t h i n t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f m o v in g c l o s e r to th e i d e a l - - o f i m p r o v i n g
r e a l i t y (5 0 :2 ijJ .). B e c k e r to o k a t r a d i t i o n a l th o u g h som e
w h a t r e a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n , n o t i n g t h a t p r a c t i c e f r e q u e n t l y
f a l l s s h o r t o f t h e i d e a l :
I n i t s i n c e p t i o n m o d ern d e m o c ra c y w as . . . a s t u p e n
d o u s gam b le f o r th e h i g h e s t s t a k e s , i t o f f e r e d l o n g
o d d s on th e c a p a c i t y an d i n t e g r i t y o f th e human m in d .
I t w a g e re d a l l i t h a d t h a t t h e f r e e s t e x e r c i s e o f t h e
human r e a s o n w o u ld n e v e r d i s p r o v e th e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t
o n l y b y t h e f r e e s t e x e r c i s e o f th e human r e a s o n c a n a
t o l e r a b l y J u s t and r a t i o n a l s o c i e t y e v e r b e c r e a t e d .
Die p l a y i s s t i l l o n , a n d we a r e s t i l l b e t t i n g on
f r e e d o m o f t h e m in d , b u t th e o u tc o m e seem s now som ew hat
m ore d u b i o u s t h a n i t d i d i n J e f f e r s o n ' s t i m e , b e c a u s e
a c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f o f e x p e r i e n c e m akes i t c l e a r t h a t
men do n o t i n f a c t a lw a y s u s e t h e i r f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h
and o f t h e p r e s s i n q u i t e t h e r a t i o n a l an d d i s i n t e r e s t
e d way t h e y a r e s u p p o s e d t o . ( 3 0 : 3 6 )
On t h e o t h e r h a n d Promm, who r e a l i s e d t h e u n i t y o f m a n 's
r e a c t i o n s , s t i l l e m p h a s is e d th e u n d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a l l o w i n g
h i s i r r a t i o n a l n a t u r e to p r e v a i l :
The p r o b le m o f d e m o c ra c y t o d a y i s n o t a n y m ore th e
r e s t r i c t i o n o f f r a n c h i s e b u t t h e m a n n e r i n w h ic h t h e
3 1 2
fr a n c h ise i s e x e r o lse d .
How own people express "their" w i ll I f they do not
have Any w il l or co n v io tlo n of th e ir own, I f th ey are
a lie n a te d autoaatona, whoa* t a s t e s , opinion* and p ref-
•ranoaa arw manipulatad by tha b ig co n d itio n in g m a
ch in es? Undar thaaa olroumatanoaa u n iv e r sa l su ffraga
becomes a fa tla h (94:185)
A a l m l l a r a t t e m p t t o r e s o l v e t h a o o n f l l o t b a tw a a n demo
c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d p r a o t i o a l p o l i t i o a waa f o u n d i n K u r t
R e l t s l e r ' s a r t i o l e , " P o l i t i c a l D a o l a l o n a I n M odern S o c i e t y "
( 5 0 6 ) • R e i t a l e r a n a w a r a d B r l n t o n ' a q u e s t i o n I n t h a a f -
f l r a a t l r e f o r a l t h o u g h h a a o o a p t a d t h a I n e v i t a b i l i t y o f
a a o t i o n a l a p p e a l t o aw ay t h a m a s s e s , h e u r g e d t h a t a m o t i o n
n o t be p e r m i t t e d t o p r e v a i l o v e r r e a s o n - - h e w a n te d a m e e t
i n g o f t h e a p l r l t o f p r o p a g a n d a a n d t h e s p i r i t o f d e b a t e
(5 0 6 :1 * 7 ).
In summary, tha lite r a t u r e of other f ie l d s revealed
th a t p h ilo so p h ic a lly democracy and ra tio n a lism were i r
revocab ly joined and th a t In p r a c tic e , man In a democracy
are im perfect r e a lis a tio n s of tha Id ea l man. M an la most
reasonable whan ha grasps th e world most f u l l y by thought,
whan ha la moat w illin g to modify hla p ercep tion s because'
of ob servation and ex p erien ce. Although evidence su ggests
th a t he i s not f u l l y r a tio n a l, by th e ir own e f f a r t s a n ti-
in t e lle c t u a ls have tended to show th a t man la not f u l l y ir>
r a tio n a l e it h e r . F o rtu n a tely , I t was not n ecessa ry , fo r
purposes of m y stu d y , to aw ait the r e s o lu tio n of th is I s
su e, I t was n ecessary to e s ta b lis h the p la in tiv e hope of
dem ooracy--that man Is capable of reason and th a t he Is
3 1 3
■oat lik e ly to lo c a te tru th through raaaon whan a l l tha
evldenee la In hla possession*
Wrltara In othar fla ld a have oontrlbutad to tha
meaning of tha ganaral p h ilo so p h ica l p o a itio n embraced by
moat contemporary r h a to r lo la n a , th at tha a th ie of persua-
alon la tha democratic a th lo . Tha damooratle Idaal la
u n iv e rsa l daolalon arrived a t through prooaduraa whloh an-
aura th at tha beat a o lu tlo n aa w all aa tha ona whloh rep-
raaanta tha view of tha m ajority la found* Fraa oompeti-
tlo n batwaan Id ea s, p oaslb la under and aubjeot to tha 11m-
lta tlo n a of tha F lra t Amandmant la a a a a n tla l to aueh a
g o a l, Tha goal la oontamlnatad I f tha meant of a rriv in g
a t I t are contam inated, fo r example, whan man la encour
aged to deolde on other than r a tio n a lly supportable
grounds, or when he la not perm itted to examine a l l tha
a v a ila b le evidenoa. S p eo lflo lm p lioation a of th la ganaral
view In terms of salaotad o r ita r la to be ap plied in the
f in a l chapters of th is study w ill be In v estig a ted In the
next seotlon *
A Contemporary R hetorio fo r
1 marloan psmooraoy
In ona se n se , tha e th le s of rh eto rio la a fu n ction
of co n tex t. Not only are the f iv e rh a to r lo a l canons tru ly
I n d iv is ib le , n a o ea a ita tin g th a ir ap p raisal aa a Q esta lt
(233*365), but th ey , In turn oan not be dlvoread from tha
In tera ctin g elem ents of tha speech s itu a tio n (233*15)*
314
The k e y te rm s o f t h e B u r l e a n p e n t a d , s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l s p e a k e r , s p e e c h , a u d i e n c e , a n d o c c a s i o n , a r e
a l s o m u t u a l l y I n t e r d e p e n d e n t ( 5 7 : x l l l ) . F i n a l l y , t h e tw o
o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s c h e m a ta t h e m s e l v e s o v e r l a p , f o r t h e c a n o n s
s i m p l y t r e a t t h e r u l e s o f a g e n o y . I t w ould be a m i s t a k e
f o r t h e r e a d e r t o I n t e r p r e t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t o t h e s e
c a t e g o r i e s a s synonym ous w i t h I n t e r d e p e n d e n c e .
The e t h i c a l i m p o r t o f t h e s c e n e : 1 . P o l i t i c a l
d e m o c r a c y . — The p o l i t i c a l s c e n e p l a y s a d o m in a n t r o l e i n
th is co n tex t. Democracy seemed to be equated In the
minds o f most w riters w ith what Malham Wakln termed the
" b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n " ( 6 3 8 : 1 7 8 ) . T h i s was t a n t a m o u n t t o a
d ecla ra tio n of what is "good." What resu lted from th is
id e n tific a tio n was the superimposing of the democratic
e th ic upon the r h e to r ic a l a r t. In "Revolutionary Speech
In the L iberal S o ciety ," Herman Brautigam o f Colgate
U n iv ersity commented:
Herein i s found the e t h ic a l b a sis fo r the democratic
s t a t e . I t oan claim the lo y a lty of the in d iv id u a l
to i t s p o lic ie s because he has had a voice in formu
la tin g them; a t le a s t he has had an opportunity to
express h is in te r e s ts and to advocate them. ( 3 0 2 :1 7 4 )
Brautigam noted th a t freedom of speeoh is a con d ition far
growth of th is kind of s o c ie t y ( 3 0 2 :1 7 4 ) * One might ex
p ress th is same thought in another way. U niversal d eci
s io n , the u ltim a te purpose of demooracy, o a r tic lp a te s of
the m orality of the means used in i t s accomplishment.
Procedures e s s e n t ia l to the r e a lis a tio n of th is goal
3 1 5
f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y aa m ean s b u t a l s o a a s e c o n d a r y o r
d e r i v e d p u r p o s e s .
The m o s t s o l i d l y g r o u n d e d p r o c e d u r e o f t h i s s o r t
r e l e v a n t t o a n e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c was f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h .
I t I s b o t h t h e m a j o r r h e t o r i c a l m eans o f a r r i v i n g a t th e
p r a g m a t i c t r u t h o f d e m o c ra c y an d an e n d i n I t s e l f , s i m i
l a r l y r e l a t e d t o s u b s i d i a r y m ean s o f p e r s u a s i o n . T h i s
c h a i n o f r e a s o n i n g , I n d i s s o l u b l y J o i n e d to th e b a s i c
a s s u m p t i o n d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r I , l e d to th e s e l e c t i o n
o f f r e e s p e e c h a s th e s u r r o g a t e f o r g o o d .
Two g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a o f e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r may be
d e r i v e d fro m t h i s t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n : (1 ) a s p e a k e r i s
e t h i c a l when he c h o o s e s p e r s u a s i v e m eans c o n d u c i v e t o o r
n o t a c t i v e l y h o s t i l e to t h e e x t e n s i o n o r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f
f r e e s p e e c h and when h i s p e r s u a s i v e p u r p o s e i s I n t e n d e d to
o r r e s u l t s i n t h e e x t e n s i o n o r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f f r e e
s p e e o h ; (2) a s p e a k e r i s u n e t h i c a l w hen he c h o o s e s p e r s u a
s i v e m eans I n i m i c a l o r a n t a g o n i s t i c t o th e e x t e n s i o n o r
p r e s e r v a t i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h , and when h i s p e r s u a s i v e
p u r p o s e i s i n t e n d e d t o o r r e s u l t s i n t h e c u r t a i l m e n t o r
a b r o g a t i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h .
T h a t t h e s p e e c h p r o f e s s i o n a s a w h o le a d v o c a t e d th e
s u p p o r t o f f r e e s p e e c h a s a p r i n c i p l e was e v i d e n t fro m a
r e s o l u t i o n u n a n im o u s ly a p p r o v e d a t t h e D e c e m b e r, 1 9 5 2 ,
m e e t i n g o f t h e S p e e c h A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r ic a , p u b l i s h e d
u n d e r t h e t i t l e , "The E t h i c s o f F r e e S p e e c h " ( 5 6 5 ) ,
3 1 6
T h is r e s o l u t i o n r e a f f i r m e d f a i t h i n f r e e s p e e c h and b e l i e f
i n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f f r e e d e b a t e an d d i s c u s s i o n and c o n
demned th e s u p p r e s s i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h * g u i l t b y a s s o c i a
t io n * a c c u s a t i o n s w i t h o u t p r o o f* c o m m itte e t r i a l s * an d th e
r e v e r s a l o f t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f * ( 5 6 5 :9 4 ) *
2 . O c c a s i o n an d a u d i e n c e . - - T h e s c e n e p r o p e r l y i n
t e r p r e t e d I n c l u d e s an a n a l y s i s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c
t i v e , t h e s p e c i f i c s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n * and t h e a u d ie n c e *
T h o n s s e n a n d B a i r d e x p l a i n e d w h a t a c r i t i c d o e s i n r e c o n
s t r u c t i n g th e s o c i a l m i l i e u :
T h is r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c e n t e r s l a r g e l y a b o u t two c o n s i d
e r a t i o n s : t h e t r a c i n g o f th e a n t e c e d e n t s — h i s t o r i c a l *
eco n o m ic* p o l i t i c a l * s o c i a l * c u l t u r a l — w h ic h im p in g e
u pon t h e i d e a s s e t f o r t h i n t h e s p e e c h ; and t h e exam
i n i n g o f d e t a i l s an d c i r c u m s t a n c e s — i n c l u d i n g th e
a u d i e n c e - r e l a t i v e t o t h e s p e c i f i c o c c a s i o n on w h ic h
th e s p e e c h w as g i v e n . ( 2 3 3 :3 2 1 )
T r a c i n g t h e s o c i a l m i l i e u r e s u l t s i n a n a w a r e n e s s o f t h e
m a t e r i a l s w h ic h s h a p e d t h e s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n ( 2 3 3 : 3 2 1 ) .
The e f f e c t i s t h a t o f s t a g e f u l l y s e t a n d r e a d y f o r t h e
e n t r a n c e o f th e a c t o r *
S o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e a v i t a l f a c t o r i n t h e em er
g e n c e o f th e d e m a g o g ic s p e a k e r . I n h i s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a
t i o n , " D e n n is K earn ey * A S tu d y i n D em ag o g u ery , " P ra n k
F a h e y t o l d how th e I r i s h im m ig ra n t* c r e a t o r o f th e W ork
i n g m a n 's P a r t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a r o s e o u t o f th e m a l a i s e o f
C a l i f o r n i a s o c i e t y ( 6 2 2 : 1 ) . Leo L o w e n th a l and N o r b e r t
Q u term an i n P r o p h e t s o f D e c e i t a l s o s t r e s s e d how th e
317
a g i t a t o r o r dem agogue a r i s e s to a r t i c u l a t e t h e s o c i a l d i s
c o n t e n t o f th e i n a r t i c u l a t e ( l i p . : 6 ) .
B e s i d e s p r o v i d i n g th e s c e n e f o r t h e e m e rg e n c e o f th e
d em a g o g u e , k n o w le d g e o f s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i s h e l p f u l In
a s s e s s i n g th e f a c t u a l b a s i s o f a s p e a k e r ' s p e r s u a s i o n .
B u r k e ' s a n a l y s i s o f H i t l e r ' s " b a t t l e " I s a c a s e I n p o i n t
(60:165-^9)* Ha fo u n d t h a t a l t h o u g h H i t l e r ' s s p e a k i n g
o r i g i n a t e d i n a r e a l n e e d , I t w as a "b ad f i l l i n g " o f t h i s
n e e d b e c a u s e h e s o u g h t to d i s p l a c e th e g u i l t r a t h e r t h a n
to e l i m i n a t e t h e c a u s e ( 6 0 ; 1 6 7 - 8 8 ) •
A n t e c e d e n t m a t e r i a l s a l s o assum e I m p o r t a n c e when
th e c r i t i c i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a s s e s s i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f s p e c i f i c p e r s u a s i v e a c t s (233:321). B a r n e t B a s k e r v l l l e ,
I n h i s a r t i c l e , " j o e M c C a rth y , B r i e f - C a s e D em ag o g u e," h e l d
M cC arth y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o m p o u n d in g r a t h e r t h a n r e d u c i n g
t h e f e a r s o f t h e A m e ric a n p e o p l e t h a t C o m m unists w e re I n
f i l t r a t i n g i n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v ern m en t (2 8 5 :8 ).
T h e se f e a r s w ere c a s e d on s p e c i f i c a n t e c e d e n t e v e n t s a n d ,
l a t e r , h y s t e r i a r e f l e c t e d th e e f f e c t o f h i s p e r s u a s i o n .
The s o c i a l m i l i e u p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e a u d i e n c e , f o r th e a u d i e n c e i s a f f e c t e d b y t h e com
p o s i t e i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e p a s t (233:321). " S o c i a l c h a r a c t e r
I s t h e p r o d u c t o f s o c i a l f o r m s , " D a v id R elsm an and h i s
c o l l a b o r a t o r s e x p l a i n e d I n The L o n e ly C ro w d ; " i n t h a t
s e n s e man i s made b y h i s s o c i e t y " (2 0 5 :3 ). An a w a r e n e s s
o f t h e I n f l u e n c e o f p a s t a g e s upon t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y man
318
(such as Crane B rin ton provided In The sh ap in g of the Mod
e m Mind ( 5 0 ) ) i s h e l p f u l from a d e s c r i p t i v e p o in t of view.
But i t s im pact does n o t end h e re , fo r these s o c i a l v alu es
or preconceived b e l i e f s are the s t u f f of which p e rsu a sio n
i s made. In "The F u n ctio n s of R h e to r ic a l C r i t i c i s m ,"
A lb e rt C ro ft urged th e c r i t i c to i n t e r p r e t the way the
s p e a k e r 's s o c ia l v a lu e s were r e l a t e d to those of h i s au d i
ence (342:287)• He suggested th a t t h i s be done by ap
p ro ach in g the c e n t r a l p r o p o s itio n s of a speech from the
p o in t of view of audience r e c e p t i v i t y to the id e as to
r e v e a l how the p r o p o s itio n s were m odified o r r e d ir e c te d
f o r maximum a c c e p t a b i l i t y (342:287-88)• Through t h i s
p ro c e s s , d e p a rtu re s from e t h i c a l b e h a v io r might be i s o
l a t e d .
I f the whole experim ent in democracy i s a demon
s t r a t i o n of f a i t h in the p eo p le, the answer to the dema
gogue who a r i s e s only in such a s o c ie ty in e v i t a b l y l i e s in
"the wisdom of the p la in peo p le" ( l 4 3 : x l i i - x l v ) • In t h i s
c e n tu ry , the s o l u t i o n n o t o n ly to t h i s problem b u t also
to o th e r c r i s e s depends on m i l l i o n s , n o t j u s t a few
(2 4 0 :1 ). In The Age of C onform ity, Alan V ale n tin e wrote
th a t th e average man i s k in g (240:4^)• Bernard Id d ln g s
B e ll in Crowd C u ltu re agreed n o t only w ith V a le n tin e 's
g e n e r a l i s a t i o n b u t al3o w ith some o f h is r e s e r v a t i o n s :
L e t u s n o t make t h e m i s t a k e o f s u p p o s i n g t h a t A m e ric a n
c u l t u r e o f t o d a y i s th e c u l t u r e o f A m e ric a o f a
h u n d r e d y e a r s ag o o r f i f t y o r t w e n t y o r t e n . N or i s i t
3 1 9
t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e fe w t h a t m a t t e r s , i t 13 t h e c u l t u r e
o f t h e many t h a t I s A m e ric a n c u l t u r e . T h i s I s t h e ag e
o f t h e Common Man. W e may a d m ire h im as t h e o n l y t r u e
g e n t l e m a n o r r e j e c t h im a s a s t u p i d b o u n d e r o r , w i t h
g r e a t e r j u s t i c e , lo o k u p o n him a s one v h o s e eco n o m ic
e m a n c i p a t i o n h a s gone on f a s t e r t h a n h e h a s b e e n a b l e
c o n s t r u c t i v e l y t o a s s i m i l a t e i t . ( 3 2 :2 3 )
D em o cracy I s " m u lta n im o u s " I n n a t u r e ( 5 0 : 1 5 ) . P u b l i c o p i n
i o n s e t a th e l i m i t s o f g o v e rn m e n t ( 5 : 2 2 ) , a s f o r I n s t a n c e
I n th e F i r s t Amendment. I t I s p u b l i c o p i n i o n w h ic h m u s t
i n e v i t a b l y d e t e r m i n e t h e r u i n o r s a l v a t i o n o f t h i s s o c i e t y
( 6 2 7 :7 ) * As R o u s s e a u p u t I t , t h e b o d y p o l i t i c i s t h e
s o u r c e o f th e la w s ( 2 1 2 : 3 6 9 ) .
B e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e of d e m o c r a c y and b e c a u s e o f
m an’ s l i m i t a t i o n s i n l i v i n g up t o i t s I d e a l s a n d p r a c t i c e s ,
th e a u d i e n c e m u s t b e a i d e d i n r e a c h i n g d e c i s i o n , C h a fe e
e x p r e s s e d t h i s n e e d by s a y i n g t h a t some of t h e f r i c t i o n
w ou ld h a v e t o b e rem o v ed (6 7 :5 6 0 ). V a l e n t i n e gave more
s p e c i f i c a d v i c e :
A l l t h e f o r c e s o f s o c i e t y m u s t c o n t r i b u t e to s t r e n g t h
e n i n g t h e a b i l i t y o f th e a v e r a g e c i t i z e n t o d i s t i n
g u i s h b e tw e e n s i n c e r i t y and d e m a g o g u e ry , b e tw e e n f a c t
an d o p i n i o n , b e tw e e n t r u t h an d h a l f - t r u t h , b e tw e e n
w h a t u p l i f t s an d w h a t d e g r a d e s h im . ( 2 4 0 : 6 8 ) .
I t i s d e g r a d i n g f o r man t o b e t r e a t e d a s a c i p h e r , i n s t e a d
o f a c i t i z e n , a s a m eans i n s t e a d o f an end ( 4 ^ 5 :4 6 ) *
P r o g r e s s and m an ’ s u p l i f t i n g a s w e l l d e p e n d s upo n m an’ s
c o n t i n u e d e f f o r t t o u s e r e a s o n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , when a
c a u s e , no m a t t e r how g o o d , i s won b y a p p e a l s w h ic h c i r c u m
v e n t h i s r a t i o n a l ju d g m e n t, a s p e a k e r i s u n e t h i c a l b e c a u s e
m a n 's a b i l i t y t o a p p l y r a t i o n a l t e s t s when t h e en d i s b ad
320
w ill be im paired. This i s the argument used by Robert
Merton in h is c r i t i c a l a n a ly sis o f the techniques of mass
persuasion used by K*te Smith in her war bond drive (1 5 9 )*
"Mass persuasion i s not m anipulative," he w rote, "when i t
provides access to the p ertin en t fa c ts ; i t i s m anipulative
when the appeal to sentim ent is used to the ex clu sio n o f
p ertin en t inform ation" ( 1 5 9 : 1 8 6 ) . Because o f the cumula
tiv e e f f e c t of propagandising, i t i s u n eth ica l to anesthe
t iz e people even fo r a good cau se.
Whether or not the American audience can pass the
t e s t of f a it h of th is century— the t e s t in the cap acity of
mankind fo r self-governm ent (6 1 5 :6 2 )—i s n ot the q uestion
being argued in th is d is s e r ta tio n . The American proposi
tion i s improvable ( llj.9 :3 5 2 ) . N ev erth eless, because of
the importance of the audience in p o lit ic a l democracy,
w hile the persuader has a r ig h t to tr y to convinoe others
to adopt h is view point, "he must use no methods, le g a l or
i l l e g a l , contrary to the s p ir it of fr e e men" (2^ 0:63).
In con clu sion , the scene as democracy i s v i t a l to
an e th ic s of rh eto ric because i t provides the "basic
d e fin itio n " a g a in st whioh both agency and purpose may be
te ste d . The scene as audlenoe and oooasion i s valuable as
pure d escr ip tio n and for purposes o f e th ic a l ev alu ation
as w e ll. D e sc r ip tiv e ly speaking, the s o c ia l m ilieu is
the key to the s o c ie ty , the audience, the is s u e s , and the
consequences of a man's oratory. E th ic a lly speaking, i t
3 21
la h e lp fu l in evalu atin g both purposes and agenoy (ends and
■sans) in r e la tio n to th e b a sic d e fin itio n as expressed In
the two gen eral o r lt e r la .
The e t h ic a l Import o f t h e agent ( s p e a k e r ) . — When I s
the agent qua speaker resp o n sib le fo r h is aotsT The d eter-
m ln lst would not have him resp o n sib le a t a l l , fo r he d enies
both freedom of d eo lslo n and r e s p o n s ib ility fo r a c tio n as
w e l l (l69:i|>9)* John Hoapera suggested th a t san Is not as
fr e e as one would lik e to think:
Everyone has been moulded by In flu en ces which In large
measure a t le a s t determine h is present behavior; he Is
l i t e r a l l y the product of th ese In flu e n c e s, stemming
from periods p rior to h is "years o f d isc r e tio n ,"
g iv in g him a h ost of character t r a it s th a t he cannot
change now even i f he would. So ob viou sly does what
a man i s depend upon how a man comes to b e, th at i t la
sm all wonder th at p hilosop hers and sages have consid
ered man fa r indeed from being the master of h is fa te*
I t Is not as i f man's w ill were standing high and serene
above the flu x of events th a t have moulded him; i t is
I t s e l f caught up in th is f lu x , i t s e l f carried along on
the current* An aot i s fr e e when i t Is determined by
the man's ch a ra cter, say m o r a lists; but what I f the
most d e o lslv e asp ects of h is character were already
Irrevocab ly acquired before he could do anything to
mould themT What i f even the degree of w ill power
a v a ila b le to him in shaping h is h a b its and d is c ip lin
ing h im self now to overoome the in flu e n c es of h is
e a r ly environment i s a fa c to r over whioh he has no
con trol? ( 1 1 6 : 5 6 2 - 6 3 )
Extreme advocates of p sy ch o a n a ly tica l dogma, Hospers p oin t
ed o u t, speak of the " illu s io n of freedom" ( 1 1 6 :5 6 7 ) * They
conclude th at the unconscious a o ts lik e an o u tsid e fa r o e ,
dominating and com pelling man's conscious w ill (116:571-72),
and th at man i s fr e e "in in verse proportion to h is neu-
rotlcism " ( l l 6 : 5 7 l |. - 7 5 ) • In h is a r t lo l e , "Democratic E th ics
3 22
a n d th e H id d e n p e r s u a d e r s , " F r a n k l y n Haim an a d m i t t e d t h e
d e m o n s t r a t e d p o t e n c y o f u n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n , b u t a r g u e d :
P s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a t i t s v e r y c o r e , i s b a s e d upo n th e
p r e m i s e t h a t u n d e r t h e p r o p e r c o n d i t i o n s man i s c a p a b l e
o f c r i n g i n g to l i g h t th e u n c o n s c i o u s f a c t o r s w h ic h
a f f e c t h im , o f s u b j e c t i n g them t o th e c r i t i c a l s c r u t i n y
o f h i s c o n s c i o u s m in d , a n d o f t h u s l e a r n i n g to l i v e
w i t h them a n d u se them p r o d u c t i v e l y r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g
b l i n d l y d r i v e n b y them . F r e u d , i n h i s r e l e n t l e s s
s e a r c h i n g a f t e r t r u t h , may h a v e u n c o v e r e d t h e b e a s t i n
m an, b u t h i s w h o le l i f e was d e d i c a t e d t o t h e p r o p o s i
t i o n t h a t man, t h r o u g h h i s u n iq u e c a p a c i t y f o r s e l f -
a w a r e n e s s , c a n and o f t e n d o e s r i s e a b o v e th e l e v e l o f
t h e b e a s t . ( 3 8 ^ :3 9 0 ) *
Haim an a g r e e d t h a t p r o b a b l y c o n s c i o u s n e s s and f r e e d o m o f
c h o i c e a r e m a t t e r s o f d e g r e e , b u t h e w o u ld s t i l l h o l d an
a d v o c a t e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a c t s w h ic h v i o l a t e d d e m o c r a t i c
I d e a l s (38 1 ^:3 9 0 ). H u n t e r Mead w r o t e t h a t w h e th e r th e
d e t e r m i n l s t f i n d s b e h a v i o r to b e c a u s e d b y f a c t o r s i n th e
e n v i r o n m e n t o r i n an e x t e r n a l i z e d s e l f , c e r t a i n l y man i s
n o t w i t h o u t h o p e , f o r i f he c o u l d l e a r n t o c o n t r o l t h e s e
f a c t o r s , h e c o u l d c r e a t e an e n v i r o n m e n t c o n d u c i v e to t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f a " f i r s t c l a s s hum an" ( 1 5 7 :3 3 9 ) *
A m ore m o d e r a t e d e t e r m i n l s t p o s i t i o n seem ed t o o f f e r
a p h i l o s o p h y b o t h m ore f r u i t f u l to t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f an
e t h i c a l t h e o r y o f d e m o c r a t i c r h e t o r i c t h a n t h e e x tr e m e
d e t e r m i n l s t an d m ore s c i e n t i f i c a l l y r e a l i s t i c t h a n t h e
l i b e r t a r i a n . The s e l f - d e t e r m l n i s t , a s H u n t e r Mead c a l l e d
h im , b e l i e v e s t h a t m a n 's a o t l o n s a r e t h e r e s u l t o f h i s
p r e v i o u s d e c i s i o n s and e x p e r i e n c e s ( 1 5 7 :3 2 9 ) * I n t h e s e l f -
d e t e r m l n i s t * s sohem e o f t h i n g s , a c t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d , b u t
323
th e y a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y f o r c e s i n m a n 's own n a t u r e ( 1 0 7 :3 2 9 ) .
The s e l f ' d e t e r m i n l s t l e a v e s man w i t h b o t h m o r a l fre e d o m
and m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( 1 0 7 : 3 2 9 ) .
The in d eterm ln ist or lib e r ta r ia n a lso defends both
freedom of d ecisio n and r e s p o n s ib ility fo r action (169:^ 9).
He does not o b ject to using character and s o c ia l m ilieu to
f a c i l i t a t e understanding human choice (169:08); he views
them as lim itin g rather than causal fa c to r s (107:329).
He h o l d s a n a g e n t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s " f r e e * c h o i c e s
( 1 6 9 : ^ 9 ) — c h o i c e s w h ic h a r e e x p r e s s i o n s o f th e g e n e r a l
t e n o r and s e t o f p e r s o n a l i t y ( 7 9 : 1 7 6 ) . The v e r y o r i g i n
o f th e w ord " e t h i c s " s u g g e s t s t h i s q u a l i t y . I t was
d e r i v e d fro m t h e G re e k w ord " e t h o s " w h ic h o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t
th e u s a g e s , h a b i t s , and t r a d i t i o n s o f one s o c i a l g r o u p a s
d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m a n o t h e r ( 0 2 0 : 0 0 ) . I t I s s i m i l a r t o
m o re s w h ic h i s th e L a t i n word f o r " m o r a l" ( 7 9 : 3 ) . L a t e r
i t came t o mean d i s p o s i t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r ( 7 9 : 3 ) .
A r is to tle commented on the o r ig in a l meaning o f the
word In ffth lc s: "Moral goodness i s the ch ild of h ab it
from which i t has got i t s very name, e th ic s being derived
from eth o s, 'h a b it', by a s lig h t a lte r a tio n in the quan
t i t y of the *e'" ( 7 , 1 1 , 1 : 0 0 ) . The b e st t e s t of character
was provided, A r is to tle b e lie v e d , by d e lib e r a te ch o ice,
i . e . , p ro a lrea la , which referred to the s e le c tio n of both
means and ends ( 7 * 1 1 1 * 2 :8 2 ). Moral philosophy I s based
upon d e lib e r a te ch oice ( 1 6 9 : 2 8 , 2 1 0 : 1 0 8 , 1^.81^:239). Democ-
32i*
racy too la based upon d elib e ra te ch o ice, Charles H.
P atterson pointed out!
Democracy Im plies s e lf-r u le * Prom the e th ic a l point
of view I t r e s ts on the assumption th at human beings
are moral persons capable o f making th e ir own deolslone
and hence resp o n sib le fo r the q u a lity of oholoes which
they make* In order to e x e r c ise th is sense of re
s p o n s ib ility and thus giv e exp ression and development
to th e ir own p e r s o n a litie s they must have some oppor
tu n ity to govern them selves* No one can aoqulre moral
values when he Is governed by fa c to r s ou tsid e h im self
over which he has no control* (193:14-)
T ranslated in to the r h e to r ic a l o o n tex t, ethos be
comes synonymous w ith the character of the speaker which
was revealed to the audience through p r o a lr e s ls , h is
ch oices of means and ends* In th is way agent (speaker)
overlaps on purpose (ends) and agency (means)* Agent a lso
overlaps upon soene (occasion and audience) because the
group ethos Is what determ ines which type of Individ ual
ethos w i ll be elev a ted as good in a so ciety * The a n a ly sis
of the speaker’s ch aracter may be aided by referen ce to
b iograp h ical data which purports to exp la in how and why he
beoame the type of persuader he was* A d d ition al In sig h t
may be provided through data gleaned from h is theory of
speaking* The combined lmpaot of a l l th ese fa c to r s to
gether rev ea ls the f u l l e th ic a l Import of the agent as an
e th lo a l determinant*
The e th ic a l Import of the sp eak er's purpose. — The
in o lp le n t purpose Is the oharacter of the persuader* I t
i s the progenitor both of the intended purpose, i . e . , what
i s so u g h t-a fte r , and the p u r p o s e -a s -fu lfllle d , whether I t Is
so u g h t-a fte r or unsought-after* Although men cannot be
h eld resp o n sib le fo r Im pulsive a c t s , they can be h eld re
sp on sib le fo r th e ir ch oices and the e f f e c t s of these
oholoes upon the ex tern a l w orld, as Quincy Wright pointed
out In "Moral Standards in Government and E thics" (6 0 5 :
1 5 3 -5 9 )* The p u r p o s e -a s -fu lfille d may represent the tru e
r e a lis a tio n of what the speaker Intended, or i t may repre
sen t what a c tu a lly happened though i t was not sought-after*
When the e f f e c t Is co n seq u en tia l, not a c c id e n ta l, the
speaker can s t i l l be held resp on sib le according to the
dem ocratic e th ic in which the end p a r tic ip a te s of the
means. The p u r p o s e -a s -fu lfllle d assumes a v ita l r o le in
the p h ilo so p h ica l o r ie n ta tio n of th is study, sin ce the
general c r it e r ia were w ritten in terms o f what happens to
fr e e speeoh* This lin e o f reasoning might b est be i l l u s
tra ted more oonoretely* I f a speaker h o n estly intends to
preserve fr e e speech, but attem pts to achieve th is goal by
making o erta ln a lte r n a tiv e view points u n availab le fo r
exam ination, he may be evaluated as u n e th ic a l according to
the gen eral o r ite r la on two counts: (1) the means he has
se le c te d are in im ic a l to fr e e speeoh, (2) the e f f e c t of
h is p ersu asion , l * e . , the p u r p o s e -a s -fu lfllle d , i s the
subversion of fr ee speech* The fa c t th at he d e lib e r a te ly
chose the means makes him resp o n sib le on both oounts* A
la te r se c tio n w ill d eal w ith the id e n tific a tio n of means
whioh are d e str u c tiv e of fr e e speeoh. The p oint s t issu e
here i s , what kind of intended purposes v io la te fr e e
speeoh? Carl Becker o ffered two answers to th is q u estion
in h is volume, Freedom and R e sp o n sib ility In the Aaerloan
o f L ife (3 0 ). The f i r s t abuse of fr e e speeoh ooneerns
those who a v a il them selves of fr e e speech to d estroy both
dem ocratic government and fr e e speech (3O1 I 4 .O). Cautioning
a g a in st p reven tive le g is la t io n more e v il than the abuses
them selves because i t might r e s u lt in the a b o litio n of
fr e e speeoh, Becker m oralised , "Freedom of speeoh is for
those who are fo r i t - - f o r those who are w illin g to accept
i t and abide by i t as a p o lit ic a l method. . • " (3O1 I 4 .I ) .
The second abuse concerns those who would "emnloy freedom
of speech, not to d estroy demooratlo government, but to
serve th e ir own in te r e s ts by d isto r tin g the tru th or be
trayin g the publio in te r e st" (30:J fl). While some abuses
of th is so r t are amenable to le g is la t io n , o th e r s, such as
"modern in genious methods of in sid io u s w ith in -th e-la w
v ilif ic a t io n " and " lyin g fo r p r o fit," cannot be w ise ly
le g is la t e d (30:ij.2). Beoker ou tlin ed the con d itio n s under
whioh fr e e speeoh might s u c c e ss fu lly prove the Amerloan
experim entt
The' con d ition s are th a t the people by and large be
s u f f ic ie n t ly Informed to hold and express in t e llig e n t
opinions on p ub lic a f f a i r s , and s u f f ic ie n t ly honest
and p u b llo -s p lr lte d to subordinate purely s e l f i s h
in te r e s ts to the gen eral w elfare* In so fa r as the
i n t e llig e n t and informed sy ste m a tic a lly employ freedom
327
of speech end of the press fo r personal and a n tis o c ia l
ends, in so fa r as the mass of the people are so
Ignorant and ill-in fo r m e d as to be capable of being
fo o led a l l of the tim e, freedom of speeoh and the press
lo s e s i t s c h ie f virtu e and self-governm ent i s under
mined* Self-governm ent, and the freedom of speech and
of the press th at su sta in s i t , oan be maintained by
law only in a form al sen se; i f they are to be main
tain ed in f a c t the people must have s u f f ic ie n t i n t e l l i
gence and honesty to m aintain them w ith a minimum of
le g a l compulsion* (30:^8)
Becker seemed t o su p p o rt th e g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a a l
re a d y i d e n t i f i e d f o r th e e t h i c a l e v a lu a tio n o f th e sp eak er's
in te n d e d p u rp o se i n term s o f w h eth er i t e x te n d s o r c u r t a i l s
f r e e speech* A lth o u g h th e d is c u s s io n of th e s p e a k e r ’ s
purpose c o u ld be broadened to in c lu d e o th e r d e m o c ra tic
i d e a l s , I p u rp o s e ly l im ite d th e tr e a tm e n t t o a s in g l e
"g o o d ," f r e e speech* Becker su g g e ste d a n o th e r c r i t e r i o n !
t h a t the s e r v ic e of p e r s o n a l ad v an tag e by f a o t u a l d i s
t o r t i o n or by s u b v e rtin g th e p u b lic i n t e r e s t i s u n e t h ic a l
from th e p o in t o f view o f f r e e speech* The u se of f a o t u a l
d i s t o r t i o n i s more p ro p e r ly th e co n cern of th e s e c t i o n
d e a lin g w ith agency (sw a n s), b u t th e e x p l o i t a t i o n of th e
p u b lic i n t e r e s t f o r p r i v a t e ad v a n tag e i s o f c o n o e m h ere*
Alm ost a l l of th e w r i t e r s o o n su lted championed p u b lic
I n t e r e s t r a t h e r th a n p r i v a t e gain* A lthough th e language
v a r ie d , th e m essage was th e same* S e v e r a l, p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n th e t h i r t i e s , spoke of " e n lig h te n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t "
(6 l9 :7 8 -d O )* O th ers u rg ed a m erger o f s e l f i n t e r e s t and
gro u p I n t e r e s t ( 2 3ti4 . l l , 101:366 , 2 0 2 :2 3 d , 2 8 1 :3 1 8 , 2 9 9 :6 ,
:4 3 9 ) • S t i l l o t h e r s - - t o o numerous to m ention—
326
championed group ends "larger" than personal en d s, or
pointed out th at the demagogue o h a r a o te r is tlo a lly seeks
p rivate advantage. The e f f e o t seemed to be the same, fo r
behavior was evaluated as c le a r ly u n e th ic a l when the
speaker sought p riv a te advantage in t r in s ic a lly h o s t ile to
the public in t e r e s t .
Earl W iley expressed th is commonly supported
p o sitio n In h is a r t ic le , "The R hetoric of the American
Demooraoy"; "Democratic u tteran ce o r ig in a te s a t the p oint
in rh eto ric where, on a b a sis of reason, the man speaking
rela x es h is egoism in deference to p ublic purposes" (595:
156-59); he speaks fo r "the w elfare of men in the aggre
gate" (5 9 5 :1 6 3 ), and "walks a tr ic k y wire" t i l l " rh etori
c a lly , ' s e l f and n o n - s e lf merge" (595:163).
S e lf and n o n -se lf merge in e th o s . The speaker
m anipulates the audience through h is use of what they
consider d esira b le (59=146). His persuasion i s most
appealing when the audlenoe and the speaker share the same
p attern of experience (59 :1 5 3 )* The most extreme example
of th is occurs when the speaker embodies the m otives
underlying h is cu ltu re ( 5 6 :l4 5 * lQ 8 ) • His lis te n e r s iden
t i f y w ith him; they are persuaded. The e th io a l problem
a r is e s when the speaker works a g a in st the b est in te r e s ts
of the audlenoe, whioh he may do u sin g e ith e r p u b lic or
p riv a te m a te r ia ls. M aehiavelll would have the orator use
th is id e n tific a tio n "to p resent p r iv a te ly a o q u lsltlv e
329
m o tiv es p u b l l c a l l y I n s a c r i f i c i a l te rm s ” ( 5 8 : l 6 6 ) . On th e
o th e r h an d , H i t l e r 's m a te r ia l s were p u b lic : " a l l th e
I n g r e d ie n ts H i t l e r s t i r r e d I n to h i s brew were a lr e a d y r i f e ,
w ith spokesmen and bands o f f o llo w e r s , b e fo re H i t l e r 'to o k
them o v e r '” (6 0 :1 3 3 ). The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p u b lic
and p r i v a t e m a te r ia l s u se d In a sp eech i s r e v e a le d in th e
a r e a o f th e sy m b o llo . Words a re modes of a o tlo n ( 6 0 : v i l ) j
an a t t i t u d e c o n ta in s an i m p l i c i t program o f a o tlo n ( 6 0:
125)• P urpose— as r e v e a le d in a speeoh— i s , t h e r e f o r e , a
l i n g u i s t i c p ro d u c t ( 3 9 7 :l4 l) *
K enneth Burke would n o t a g re e t h a t th e a sse ssm e n t
of m o tiv es I s n e c e s s a r i l y u n r e l i a b l e ( 1 6 9 :6 7 ), f o r he
a tte m p te d t o p o s i t a system f o r th e d e te rm in a tio n o f
m otives th ro u g h th e a n a ly s is of symbols i n t h e i r p ro p e r
c o n te x t (5 9 :1 5 3 )• Because h i s method Is more s u b je c tiv e
th a n was c o n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e i t was deemed u n s u it a b le f o r
my p u rp o s e s . Rene W ellek and A u s tin W arren, w r i t e r s of
Theory of L i t e r a t u r e , s u p p o rte d B u rk e 's g e n e r a l view (2 5 0 ).
They e x p la in e d t h a t th e r e I s "no ev id e n c e to r e c o n s t r u c t
th e I n t e n t of th e a u th o r e x c e p t th e f i n i s h e d work I t s e l f ”
f o r e x p l i c i t p r o f e s s io n s of I n t e n t co u ld be r a t i o n a l i s e d
v e rs io n s (2 5 0 :l4 8 -l|.9 )• O th er w r i t e r s s t r e s s e d th e p o s s i
b i l i t y o f s e l f - d e c e p t i o n (1 5 0 :3 8 , 3 5 7 :7 -9 )* The b e s t
so u rc e o* r e v e l a t i o n of th e s p e a k e r 's i n t e n t , W ellek and
W arren th o u g h t, I s theworic I t s e l f (2 5 ^ : ^49)*
3 3 0
Symbols " h a l f - r e v e a l " and " h a lf - c o n c e a l" th e r e a l
p u rp o ses b eh in d them , Max L e rn e r w ro te in h la book, Id e a s
Are Weapons (1 3 3 :5 )* D e lib e r a te co ncealm ent o f m o tiv e s ,
i . e . , d e c e p tio n o f th e h e a r e r s a b o u t th e s p e a k e r 's i n t e n t *
M lnnlok r e p o r te d commonly i s re g a rd e d as u n e t h i c a l (163:
2 8 i|). K a rl W allaoe to o k th e p o s i t i v e view I n s te a d of th e
n e g a tiv e , and c a l l e d f o r th e e t h i o a l p e rs u a d e r to "subm it
p r i v a t e m o tiv a tio n s to p u b lic s c r u ti n y " (5 8 2 :9 ).
The e t h i o a l e v a lu a tio n of th e s p e a k e r 's purpose Is
a f u n c tio n of c o n te x t. The d e m o c ra tic p e rs u a d e r i s h e ld
r e s p o n s ib le f o r b o th h i s d e l i b e r a t e p u rp o ses and h is
p u r p o s e - a s - f u l f i l l e d (when th e y meet c e r t a i n s p e c i f i
c a t i o n s ) . He i s o b lig e d to seek ends f r i e n d l y to f r e e
s p e e o h --e n d s which c a n n o t be e v a lu a te d e x c e p t i n th e
s p e c i f i c c o n te x t in w hich th e y f u n o tio n . The e t h i c of
f r e e speeoh can l o g i c a l l y be ex te n d e d t o r e q u ir e t h a t th e
s p e a k e r n o t s e rv e p e rs o n a l ends a t th e expense of group
i n t e r e s t . F i n a l l y , d e l i b e r a t e d e o e p tlo n re g a r d in g h i s
m o tiv es ( i n th e sp e e c h i t s e l f ) i s re g a rd e d as u n e t h l o a l .
The e t h i o a l im p o rt o f ag e n cy . — S in ce contem p o rary
w r i t e r s em phasised l n v e n tlo and e l o c u t l o ( in v e n tio n and
s t y l e ) i n t h e i r d is c u s s io n s of d e m o c ra tic r h e t o r i c , th e
s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a fo rm u la te d i n t h i s s e c t i o n w i l l be
s e le o te d from th e s e o anons. Because o f th e d e s i r a b i l i t y
o f e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l i a b l e c o n c lu s io n s , th e s ta n d a r d s t o be
chosen f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n th e n e x t two o h a p te rs were to be
3 3 1
as o b je c tiv e ly v e r ifia b le as p o s s ib le . For th is reason,
I attem pted to deal w ith measurable standards.
Two gen eral c r it e r ia fo r the use of the means of
persuasion have already been determined: (1) a speaker la
e th io a l when he ohooses p ersu asive means conduoive to or
not a e t lv e ly h o s t ile to the ex ten sio n or p reservation of
fr e e speeoh; (2) a speaker la u n eth loal when he ohooses
p ersu asive means in im ic a l or a n ta g o n istic to the exten sion
of p reservation of fr e e speeoh. I t was the purpose of
th is s e c tio n to o la r ify th ese g e n e r a lisa tio n s In terms of
the s p e c ific means of persuasion to be regarded as e th ic a l
or u n e th ic a l.
In h is dootoral d is s e r ta tio n , "The Logic of
O b ligation ," Malham Wakln s e t some ru les fo r the formula
tio n of such o r it e r la , th at i s , fo r the exp ression of
gen eral normative p ro p o sitio n s as u n iv e rsa l o b lig a tio n
sentenoes (6 3 6 :1 7 8 ). U n iversal o b lig a tio n , In eon trad ls-
tin o tlo n to the ab solu te o b lig a tio n o f a l l men In a l l
oiroumstanoes ( 636:163) and the In d ivid u al o b lig a tio n of a
p a r tic u la r agent (6 3 6 :1 6 5 -6 6 ), holds true fo r general a c t-
ty p e s, i . e . , a c ts which are ch a ra cterised by ce rta in
gen eral c h a r a c te r is tic s and which are v a lid fo r a l l men in
sim ila r olroum stances (636:163)* The gen eral c i r c u s
sta n ces are im p lic it ly or e x p lic it ly Included In the
o b lig a tio n (636:163)* Such an o b lig a tio n req u ires the
exam ination of surrounding oiroumstanoes to v e r ify th e ir
332
s im ila r ity to the general oiroumstanoes ( 6 3 8 : 1 6 5 ) • Wakln
found th a t the so le axiom of a lo g ic a l system of o b lig a tio n
oould be expressed as fo llo w s: whatever i s o b ligatory is
a ls o p erm issib le, o r, in other words, whatever i s ob liga
tory is not forbidden (636:1314-)* A number of u n iv e rsa l
o b lig a tio n sentenoes about the means of persuasion oan be
constructed u sin g Wakln's lo g ic a l system . Several objec
tiv e o r ite r la r e la tin g to the canons of Invention and s ty le
w ill be constructed in the remainder of th is chapter#
To speak of the canon of in ven tion i s to speak of
the whole in v e s tig a tiv e undertaking— the determ ination of
means su ita b le fo r e ffe c tin g persuasion In a given ca se.
I t Includes the t r i- p a r t it e system o f p r o o f--lo g ic a l, emo
t io n a l, and e th ic a l— the three ways of d escrib in g m aterials
from the p oint of view o f audience resp on se. In Book I of
the Lane Cooper tr a n sla tio n of A r is t o t le 's R h etoric. th ese
" a r tis tic " proofs are enumerated:
Of the BMans of persuasion supplied by the speeoh
i t s e l f th ere are three k ind s. The f i r s t kind r e sid e in
the oharacter f e th o s1 of the speaker; the seoond
c o n sist in produolng a ce rta in £the r ig h t] a ttitu d e in
the hearer; th e th ird appertain to the argument proper,
in so fa r as i t a c tu a lly or seem ingly dem onstrates,
. . . (9 ,I,2 ,1 3 5 6 a :8 )
In the R hetoric of A r is t o t le , th ese three modes of proof
are not "sharply separated e n t it le s ," Thonssen and Baird
n oted , fo r together they u n ite in various degrees to
lnduoe p e r s u a s io n (233:373)* In A r i s t o t l e , th e d i s t i n c t i o n
i s between m aterials th a t demonstrate and those which
333
predispose lis te n e r s to the dem onstration (233:373)*
Later rh eto ricia n s com partmentalised the appeals more
com pletely than A r is t o t le , so th at today the dichotomy
between con viotlon and persuasion is "secu rely fixed" in
the lite r a tu r e ( 2 3 3 : 3 7 3 ) * The se p a r a b ility of the three
modes of proof becomes a p oint in issu e in an e th ic s of
r h e to r ic , fo r i t i s on p r e c ise ly th is ground th at many of
the c r it e r ia found in the lite r a tu r e are based*
A great d eal of commentary i s a v a ila b le In
contemporary lite r a tu r e about the dichotomy between
co n v io tlo n and p ersu asion , the lo g ic a l h e ir to a d iv isio n
of proofs in to lo g ic a l and em otional, but not muoh has been
w ritten about the r e la tio n sh ip of ethos to the other modes
of proof* Ethos i s not only complex, I t is pervasive* The
o r ig in of the term i t s e l f has already been explored* In
r h e to r ic , i t is sym bolic of the persu asive fo rce of the
character of the speaker as perceived by a given audience*
I t is so complex as to components that a com plete l i s t of
a ttr ib u te s or m an ifesta tio n s cannot be prepared (2 3 3 * 3 8 7 ),
although ch ara cter, in t e llig e n c e , and good w ill are most
p e r s is te n tly ln d e n tifle d as components* Not a l l o f I ts
m an ifestation s have moral im port, eosw being merely
d esira b le but not e s s e n tia l* Ethos has already been
revealed to be a fu n ctio n of the character o f both the
persuader and the audience as w e ll as of the speaker*a
oholoe of means and ends* I t overlaps upon soen e9
33k
(o c c a s io n and a u d ie n o e ) , a g e n t ( s p e a k e r ) , p u rp o sa (and),
and o th a r form s o f agenoy (m aan s). A lthough th a soana i s
th a o a n t r a l oonoapt in an a th lo s o f p e rs u a s io n f o r
contem p o rary U n ite d S t a t e s i n th a se n se t h a t th a soana
d e te rm in e s w hat i s "good" b oth in r e s p e c t to maans and
e n d s , th a e th o s of th a p e rs u a d e r i s th a o a n t r a l r h e t o r i c a l
c o n c e p t from a n o th e r p o in t o f view . I t is th a e t h o s , th a
s p e a k e r 's h a b i t of c h o ic e , whioh d e te rm in e s whioh maans
and ends ha w i l l s e le o t* Because of th a t o t a l im pact of
e t h o s , in a l l o f i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , i t becomes a p o te n t
p e r s u a s iv e f o r o e . A r i s t o t l e re g a rd e d i t as second o n ly t o
l o g i c a l d e m o n s tra tio n ( 9 , 1 , 2 ,1 3 5 6 a :9 )•
A g lim p se i n t o th e v a rio u s m a n if e s ta tio n s o f e th o s
sh o u ld h e lp th e r e a d e r to d eterm in e i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p n o t
o n ly w ith th e o th e r modes o f p ro o f b u t w ith th e oanons
o f r h e t o r l o a s w e l l . T here a r e two ty p e s o f e th o s ,
s u b je c ti v e and o b je o tiv e . The fo rm e r r e f e r s to th e
c h a r a c te r o f th e p e rso n speaking* The l a t t e r r e f e r s to th e
tr e a tm e n t of o h a r e o te r i n r e l a t i o n t o th e au d ie n c e o r i n
r e l a t i o n t o p e rso n s r e p r e s e n te d (9 :2 3 6 )* Lane Cooper
o o n n eo ts o b je c ti v e e th o s w ith p a t h o s . f o r th ro u g h th e s tu d y
of em otions th e s p e a k e r i s e n a b le d " t o c o lo r h i s speeoh
w ith h i s own o h a r a o te r i n a d e s i r a b l e way, and to g iv e th e
o o lo r he d e s i r e s to th e p e rso n s and t h e i r a c ts t h a t a r e
d e a l t w ith i n h i s speeoh" (9 ,II# H » 1 3 Q 8 b :1 3 1 )J fu rth e rm o re
i n t h i s way, he can a d a p t h i s speeoh to th e c h a r a c te r o f
3 3 5
h is h e a r e r s (9*H *13»1390a:136). • In a se n se , o b jec tiv e
ethos d eals w ith the "captured” ethos of o th er s, fo r the
speaker must oapture the ethos of the audienoe In order to
adapt to I t , Just as the lawyer ou st oapture the character
of h is c lie n t or the logographer the character of the man
who Is a c tu a lly going to d e liv e r the words which he w rites*
A sp eak er's ethos say be derived from three sou rces:
the sp eak er's rep u tation before the speeoh, h is behavior
during the speech, and h is ch oloes and s p e o lflo referen ces
In the speech proper* The f i r s t two so u rces, str e sse d a t
times in c la s s ic a l lit e r a t u r e , received the g r e a te st play
In contemporary lite r a tu r e * The th ird source— choloes and
s p e o iflc referen ces In the speech proper— was somewhat
deemphasized In reoent lit e r a t u r e , e s p e c ia lly as fa r as
ch oices were concerned, although I t o e r ta ln ly received
ca r efu l a tte n tio n In A r isto tle *
Two modern treatm ents o f ethos suggested how a
sp eak er's rep u tation can be bound up w ith the ethos of h is
audience* Marie Hoohmuth, in Volume I I I of H istory and
C riticism of American Public A ddress, wrote:
The o r it lo needs to note and a s se ss the persuasive
e f fe o t of "echoes and v a lu es” a tta ch in g to the person
and oharaoter o f the speaker. Rarely Is th is a sim ple
m atter, fo r the man i s not always to be seen as a
s in g le In d ivid u al h avin gU s own m erits on ly. Men and
women d erive th e ir fo ro e from the sym bolic r e la tio n s
In which they stand among o th er s. Thus, Elsenhower
beoane the ”man of a o tlo n ” speaking fo r a n ation proud
of I t s a b i lit y to ”g et th ings d on e.” Clarence
Darrow . * . became a champion fo r the downtrodden,
the underdog, and spoke as the rep resen ta tiv e of a
336
o la s s . Thus, tha impetus given to ldaaa aat In motion
by tha apaakar la not merely the lmpetua d erivin g from
tha forea of one man*a ch ara cter, but o ften from the
whole olaaa w hich ha im ages. (110:10)
In A R hetoric of M otives Kenneth Burke atraaaad tha aama
p oint emphaelslng Ita potency:
Once you lin g e r on th la queatlon of p era o n a lity , you
fin d I t b r la tlln g w ith d ia le c t ic a l paradoxes whereby
the peraonal and the lmperaonal su b tly ohange plaoea
(paradoxea th at f u r tiv e ly ln v ea t humane w ith "divine"
a ttr ib u te s , hence adding to the " m ystification s" so
Important in r h e to r lo a l prodding). When a fig u r e
becomes the p era o n lflo a tlo n o f some im personal m otive,
the r e s u lt la a d e p sr so n a llsa tlo n . The person becomes
the charism atic v e s s e l o f some ^absolute" substanoe.
And when thus m agloally endowed, the person transcends
h is nature as an In d iv id u a l, becoming Instead the
image of th e idea he stands f o r . He i s then the
rep resen ta tiv e not of h im self but of the fam ily or
o la ss substanoe w ith whioh he i s I d e n tifie d . In th is
r e s p e c t he becomes d iv in e . . . (58:277)
An a n a ly sis of the concept of ethos In A r is t o t le 's
R hetoric would serve to accentuate both i t s com plexity and
I t s p erv a siv en ess. Although the in c ip ie n t development of
ethos as a r h e to r ic a l ooncept ooours in p r e -A r isto te lia n
r h e to r ic , i t r e c e iv e s i t s f in e s t f u l l s p e c ific and
system atic treatm ent by A r is t o t le . He found i t to be a
form of " a r tis tic " p roof, I . e . , ap pertain ing to rh eto ric
proper, and th er efo re , in te r n a l ( 9 ,1 ,2 ,1355b :8)•
I t is defin ed by A r is to t le as the character of the
speaker (9 ,I » 2 ,1 3 5 6 a :8 ), p a r tic u la r ly "the im pression th at
he is o f such and such a oharaoter" ( 9 ,1 ,9,1366a:1|.6), a
character th at w ill win the approval of the audience
( 9 : x x x v iii) • I t should not be l e f t to anteoendent
337
Im pressions alon e; i t should be created by the speech
I t s e l f ( 9 , 1 , 2 , 1 3 5 6 a :8 -9 )•
The most Important con trib u tion he made, In many
v a y s, was h is I d e n tific a tio n of ethos w ith ch o lo e, p articu
la r ly w ith good d isp o sitio n or h ab it of choloe ( 9 : x x i l i ) .
A s p e a k e r 's e th o s ( h a b it o f choloe) and h is d la n o la (th e
way in w hich he a rg u e s ) to g e th e r form h i s p e r s o n a l i t y
( 9 : x x i i i ) . C e rta in ty p e s of argum ents a r e chosen by perscns
w ith o e r t a l n o h a r a o te r s ( 9 * x x i i i ) . The means by whioh a
s p e a k e r e x h i b i t s good e th o s In r e l a t i o n to th e argum ent
p ro p e r a r e d is c u s s e d u n d e r th e h e a d in g o f means o f p e rs u a
s io n common t o a l l bran o h es of s p e a k in g . Such means in
clu d e th e enthymeme, exam ple, and maxim as form s of p ro o f
(9 ,1 1 ,2 0 ,1 3 9 3 * * 1 4 7 )• The means by w hich he can g iv e an
im p re s sio n of I n t e l l i g e n c e and good c h a r a c t e r a r e to be
found In an a n a ly s is o f v i r t u e s ( 9 ,1 1 , l ,1 3 7 8 a : 9 2 ) , w h ile
th e means le a d in g to an Im p re ssio n o f good w i l l and f r i e n d
l y d i s p o s i t i o n a r e to be fo u n d u n d e r th e head o f em otions
( 9 ,1 1 1 ,7 ,1380b-1382b:1 0 2 -1 0 7 ).
Ethos i s r e la te d to e lo c u tio , part of the A r isto te
lia n l e x i s . sin c e the use o f appropriate words tends to
reproduoe the oharaoter o f a o erta ln type of l i f e , fo r
example, or an eduoated man or a r u s tic (9 ,1 1 1 ,7 ,l4 0 8 a : 198).
I t i s re la ted to d ls p o s lt lo . the A r is to te lia n ta x is and to
the three types of sp eech es, because of the d iffe r e n t r o le
i t plays in the proem ( 9 ,III,l4 ,l4 l5 * b :2 2 3 -2 5 ) fo r e n s ic ,
3 3 8
d e l i b e r a t i v e , and c e re m o n ia l s p e e c h e s , In th e n a r r a t i o n
( 9 , I I I , 1 6 ,l 4 l 7 a 1230-31)• i n th e p ro o f p ro p e r ( 9 ,1 1 1 ,1 7 ,
ll*.17b-li^lSb:2 3 3 -3 5 ), in th e r e f u t a t i o n ( 9 , I I I ,17 ,l 4 l 8 b i
2 3 6 -3 7 ), and In th e e p ilo g u e ( 9 ,1 1 1 , l 9 , l 4 l 9 b : 2 h 0 ) . I t i s
r e l a t e d t o p r o n u n t l a t l o . p a r t o f th e A r i s t o t e l i a n l e x i s .
b ecau se o f th e im p o rta n ce of th e s p e a k e r 's b e a rin g
( 9 , I I I , 1 6, 141 7 b :2 3 1 ).
The testim ony of A r is t o t le 's rh etorlo may be
summarised as fo llo w s: as "habit o f ch o ice," ethos is
inseparable from the a ctu a l ch oices made by the speaker,
p a r tic u la r ly ch oices a ffe c tin g the lo g ic a l and em otional
modes; as "referen ces during the speech" and as "choice"
as w e ll, ethos overlaps d ls p o s ltlo and e lo c u tlo ; as behav
io r during the speech" i t overlaps p ro n u n tla tlo . Ethos Is
both complex and p erv a siv e.
C erta in ly , the concept has undergone m od ification —
p a r tic u la r ly in em p h asis--sin ce the tim e o f A r is t o t le . But
as already m entioned, the fa c e t of most concern in th is
stu d y --h a b it of oholce— has received very l i t t l e emphasis
i n contem porary l i t e r a t u r e . O u tsta n d in g e x c e p tio n s a re
found in the work of Kenneth Burksand Richard Weaver. In
her a n a ly sis of Burke's r h e to r ic a l method, Marie Hoehmuth
applauded h is c h a r a c te r is tic concern fo r oh oice:
No modern c r i t i c has done more to counteract the
s u p e r fic ia l concern w ith " p erso n a lity ” as providing
the e th io a l a sp ect o f speeoh. With the word considered
to be an aot in the f u l l moral se n se , Burke has c a lle d
back the e th ic a l foundations o f rh eto ric from i t s
339
souroe In the A r is to te lia n E th ic s. "The o r ig in of
a o tlo n ," says A r is to tle [c ite d from Ethloa rtlcomaohea.
t r . W. D. R oss, VI,1139*j» " its e f f i c i e n t , not i t s
f in a l cause— is ch o lo e, and th at of choice i s d esire
and reasoning w ith a view to an end. This Is why choice
cannot e x is t e ith e r without reason and in t e lle c t or
without a moral s ta te ; fo r good a ctio n and I t s opposite
cannot e x is t w ithout a combination of I n t e lle c t and
c h a r a c te r ." Embedded In the oonoept of a c t , as d if
fe r e n tia te d from m otion, l i e s an e th io a l concept—
language Is moral In I ts b a sis; i t contains the ch oices,
f e e lin g s , a ttitu d e s of o r ig in a to r s. (395$95)
In the lite r a tu r e of the c r i t i c s , the antecedent Impression
has receiv ed generous treatm ent, w hile s p e c iflo referen ces
In the speeoh proper and behavior during the speech have
been h ea v ily emphasized In textb ook s.
I t should be c le a r from the foregoing d ep letio n of
the com plexity and p ervasiven ess of ethos th at some of the
c r it e r ia p ertain in g In part to ethos cannot be c le a r ly
separated from th e ir other con n ection s. As a matter of
f a c t , freq u en tly th e ir d iscu ssio n seemed more lo g ic a l as
part of the d lso u sslo n of one of the other a sp ects of per
su asion . For example, although I t was r e je c te d as a
c r ite r io n fo r la te r a p p lica tio n because of the s u b je c tiv ity
in volved , the e th io a l c r ite r io n forbidding the d elib era te
concealment of m otives was treated under the speaker's
purpose (en d ).
Several e th io a l im p lica tio n s c le a r ly cen terin g
around the oonoept of ethos were found In the lite r a t u r e .
Almost to a man, rh eto ricia n s argued that the id e a l orator
must f i r s t be a good man. Many w riters tr ie d to reso lv e
314.0
the age-old argument of whether or not a speaker ought to
be a good man both In aopearanoe and In r e a lity * Borohers
and Wise explained the f u t i l i t y of such a c r ite r io n suc
c in c tly :
To say th at a u ser of language should be a "good" man
says only the ob vious, I f goodness i s assumed to be a
d esira b le c h a r a c te r is tic . The q u estion s a r e , rather;
What Is goodness? What Is a good mant What uses of
language w ill a good man approve, and what ones w ill
he condemn? (37:275)
I t Is p r e c is e ly the answers to th ese q u estion s which I am
attem pting to a sc e r ta in .
I t Is a ls o u s e le s s to attem pt to apply a s ln c e r lty -
ln s ln c e r lty c r ite r io n even though contemporary rh eto ricia n s
are v ir tu a lly unanimous In th e ir championing of the sin cere
persuader. With very few ex c ep tio n s, th is c r ite r io n Is
extended to oermlt the espousal of only the sid e In which
the speaker b e lie v e s . W riters of debate te x ts were most
a c tiv e in advocating th at the speaker be perm itted to
speak on the sid e In which he does not b e lie v e as w ell as
on the sid e in # ilc h he does b e lie v e . Other w riters sup
ported the same p r in c ip le . Robert O liver pointed out that
s in c e r ity should not be construed too narrowly; speaking
a g a in st the sid e which he favors Is a good I n te lle c t u a l ex-
e r o lse for the speaker, but he must s t i l l only present ar
guments which he f e e l s are j u s t if ie d by the fa c ts (18^ :63).
M ilton Dickens took exoeptlon to such an ex ten sio n of the
s in c e r ity c r ite r io n In h is book. Speech: Dynamic Communl-
31*1
ca tio n :
W e b e lie v e . . . In the r ig h t o f a m inority to be heard*
U su a lly , of cou rse, a speaker defends people or causes
in vh lch he b e lie v e s . Sometimes, however, I t Is neces
sary and e th ic a l fo r a speaker to sa y , "I do not neces
s a r ily b e lie v e or d is b e lie v e In th is sid e of the
con troversy, but 1 do b eliev e th at i t s arguments should
be heard." (80:369)
The exten sion of the s in c e r it y p r in cip le to the support of
only one sid e Is out of harmony w ith the gen eral c r it e r ia
already s ta te d . Indeed, arguing from the premise th at fr e e
speeoh Is dependent upon the exp ression of a l l a lte r n a tiv e
p o in ts of view, I t becomes o b lig a to ry fo r a speaker to
advocate a p o sitio n not In accordance w ith h is personal
co n v ictio n s I f h is s ile n c e would mean th at the p o sitio n
would go unchampioned*
But even I f s in c e r ity were not extended In th is way,
It Is s t i l l too d i f f i c u l t to determine whether or not a
speaker i s sln oere or In sin cere* Richard H ild reth 's stu d y,
"An Experimental Study of Audiences' A b ility to D istin g u ish
between Sincere and In sin cere Speeches," tended to support
the con clu sion th at lis t e n e r s are unable to d istin g u ish
between them, a t le a s t w ith in the lim its o f h is experimental
d esign (625:71)* His study a lso tended to support the
t h e s is th a t the judges' im pression of s in c e r ity Is more
Important than a ctu a l s in c e r ity (625*72)*
There Is one f in a l lim ita tio n of the sln o e r lty -
I n s ln e e r ity p rin cip le as an e th io a l o r lte r io n . The demo
cra t and the demagogue do not d if f e r g r e a tly in th is
3 1 * 2
r e s p e c t (14.33:28-29)* Adolf H it le r was s in o e r e , y e t moat
r h e to r ic ia n s would agree th a t he was a demagogue (6 0 :1 3 0 ).
As a m atter o f f a c t , i t i s d is a s tr o u s to encounter unwhole
some value backed by c o n v ic tio n , f o r "the b a sio s in o e r lt y
of the c o n v ic tio n a c ts as a sound v ir tu e t o r e ln fo r o e the
vice" (6 0 :1 7 0 ), Burke did not b e lie v e th a t H i t l e r ' s s in
c e r it y ab solved him from e t h ic a l r e s p o n s i b il it y :
H ere, Q.n the t r a n s la t io n o f H i t l e r ' s p r iv a te mind
i n t o , the vooabulary o f n a t i o n a l i s t i c events} I
th in k , we see the d is t in g u is h in g q u a lity of H i t l e r ' s
method as an Instrum ent o f p ersu a sio n , w ith r e f e r
ence to the q u e stio n whether H it le r Is s in c e r e or
d e lib e r a t e , whether h is v is io n o f the omnipotent
co n sp ira to r has the d r a s t ic h on esty o f paranoia or
the sh eer shrewdness of a demagogue tr a in e d in
R e a lp o lit lk of the M a ch ia v ellia n s o r t . Must we
choose? Or may we n o t, r a th e r , re p la ce the
" e ith e r --o r " w ith a "both--and"? Have we not by now
o ffe r e d grounds enough fo r our c o n te n tio n th a t
H i t l e r ' s s i n i s t e r powers of p ersu a sio n d eriv e from
the f a c t th a t he sp on tan eou sly evolved h is " c u r e -
a ll" In response to in n er n e c e s s i t i e s ? (6 0 :1 3 0 -8 1 )•
A th ir d c r it e r i o n found in the l i t e r a t u r e , exp ressed
in g en er a l term s, p ro h ib ite d the s u b s t it u t io n o f eth os fo r
lo g o s under c e r ta in c o n d itio n s . The p reviou s d is c u s s io n of
the p erv a siv en ess of eth o s sh ou ld have in d ic a te d some of
the insurm ountable d i f f i c u l t i e s of ap p ly in g such a vaguely
phrased stand ard . A c r it e r i o n u s e f u l in t h is study should
be phrased more s p e c i f i c i a l l y , and in terms o f u n it s more
e a s i l y sep arab le from the oth er modes or p ro o f.
D e lib e r a te u se of e t h ic a l appeal to " s h o r t - c ir c u it
the l i s t e n e r ' s c r i t i c a l th in k in g p ro cesses" i s a t b est a
q u e stio n a b le p ersu a siv e d evioe (383:14-). I t i s d i f f i c u l t
3^3
to a s c e r ta in a t Just which p o in t such behavior becomes
u n d e sir a b le (3 3 3 :9 )• Another a r t i c l e by the same w r it e r ,
Franklyn Halman, attem pted to draw the l in e :
I f one r u le s out hidden p e r su a sio n , . . . does I t not
f o llo w l o g i c a l l y th a t a speaker must Ignore the A r is
t o t e l i a n wisdom th a t he dress In a manner which w i l l be
a cc ep ta b le t o h is a u d ien ce, th a t he avoid u sin g lan
guage whloh w i l l offen d them, and th a t i f h is views
are d la m e tr le a lly opposed to th e ir s he make some adap
t a t io n in order to avoid In cu rrin g t h e ir h o s t i l i t y ?
. . . The speaker . . . by ob servin g th e se a m e n itie s ,
i s not n e c e s s a r ily attem p tin g to gain u n c r i t i c a l ac
ceptance of h is id e a s . He may sim ply be tr y in g to
avoid u n c r it ic a l r e j e c t io n . . . . I f , however, he goes
so fa r In h is a d a p tation to the audience th a t he never
r e v e a ls in any way h is d iff e r e n c e s w ith them, and a t
tempts to u se h is p r e s tig e and flu e n o y , I f he has them,
to ga in accep tan ce of an id ea or product th ey would not
a ccep t i f they examined I t c a r e f u l ly , he has then m is
used t h is p a r tic u la r method of p e r su a sio n . (381^:339)
The c o - a u t h o r s o f I n t e g r a t i v e S p e e ch w ent f u r t h e r t h a n
Halman, regardin g eth o s as bad i f I t sim ply r e s u lte d in the
u n c r i t i c a l accep tan ce of the sp ea k er 's id ea s ( 173: 159- 6 0 ) .
The means of p ersu a sio n must d eriv e t h e ir e t h io a l
e v a lu a tio n from t h e ir r o le In the p r e se r v a tio n or abroga
tio n of f r e e sp eech . C r it ic a l exam ination by the e lecto ra te
tends to p u r ify the outcome o f the d la le o t lo of f r e e speech.
U n iv e r sa l d e c is io n , dem ocratic " tru th ," I s b e s t achieved
by the f u l l p r e s e n ta tio n o f a l l o f the a lt e r n a t iv e p o in ts
of view and the evid en ce su p p ortin g t h e ir v a l i d i t y . I f a
speaker i s perm itted to u se h is e s ta b lis h e d eth o s in lie u
of proof soundly based in e v id e n c e , then the audlenoe has
been denied a c c e ss to the f a c t s . Thus, the u n iv e r s a l
o b lig a tio n sen ten ce e x p r e ssin g such a c r it e r i o n might be
p h r a s e d a s f o l l o w s : I t I s o b l i g a t o r y t h a t a s p e a k e r a v o id
s u b s t i t u t i n g h i s p e r s o n a l a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e e r l t l e a l e x
a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t s . F or ex am p le , a s p e a k e r whose b ack
g ro u n d o f know ledge q u a l i f i e d him a s a laym an I s u n e t h i c a l
I f h e p o se d a s an e x p e r t on th e p r o p o s a l I n q u e s t i o n ,
a s k i n g , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r I n d i r e c t l y , t h a t h i s a u d le n o e
a c c e p t h i s word a s a g u a r a n t e e o f th e p l a n , b e c a u se In
d o in g t h i s h e I s d e n y in g them a c c e s s t o th e f a c t s * He
s h o u ld make th e f a c t s a v a i l a b l e t o h i s a u d i e n c e , p e r m i t t i n g
I t to e v a l u a t e them f u l l y . Even a s p e a k e r who I s an e x p e r t
on th e s u b j e c t In q u e s t i o n o u g h t n o t t o o f f e r h i s a u t h o r i t y
a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e f a c t s * S in c e t h e t h e o r y o f democ
r a c y I s b a s e d on th e b e l i e f t h a t e a c h man I s c a p a b le o f
m aking c h o ic e s I n t h e r e a lm o f p o l l t l c s - - c h o l c e s b a s e d on
r e a s o n - - e v e n t h e e x p e r t h a s a d u ty t o p r e s e n t th e f a c t s *
He may s u p p o r t them w i t h th e w e ig h t of th e e s te e m i n w hioh
he i s h e l d , b u t he s h o u ld n o t u s e th e w e ig h t o f h i s au
t h o r i t y a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e e x a m in a tio n of t h e f a c t s *
Does t h i s c r i t e r i o n hav e t h e e f f e c t of I n v a l i d a t i n g a l l
t e s t i m o n y of a u t h o r i t y ? No, i t d o e s n o t* I t o n ly I n v a l i
d a t e s su c h t e s ti m o n y when i t i s u s e d a s a d e m o n s tr a ti o n o f
t h e t r u t h of a p r o p o s i t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a s a m ethod of
p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to th e t r u t h - c l a i m d e m o n s tr a te d by o t h e r
f a c t u a l e v id e n c e *
B ecause i t i s a mode o f p r o o f , e t h o s m ust m eet
c e r t a i n t r u t h t e s t s * I f a s p e a k e r i s d i s h o n e s t I n r e l a t i n g
3kS
t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a p e r t i n e n t t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f h i s
r e p u t a t i o n b e f o r e t h e s p e e c h , o r I f he i s m n t r u t h f u l In
s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g I n th e s p e e c h p r o p e r w hich
a f f e c t h i s l i s t e n e r ' s e s t i m a t i o n o f h i s c h a r a c t e r , h e I s
u n e t h i c a l . Suoh a p o s i t i o n I s a n t a g o n i s t i c t o th e c l a s s i c a l
p o s i t i o n I n w hich a d e s i r a b l e end j u s t i f i e s a n y m eans. I t
I s c l e a r l y th e r e s u l t o f a p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n In
w h ich t h e end o a r t l c l p a t e s o f th e m eans. F a l s i f i c a t i o n o f
any k in d i s I n t r i n s i c a l l y d e t r i m e n t a l to th e f u l l r e a l i
s a t i o n o f th e d e m o c r a tic d i a l e c t i c — i t im p a ir s t h e outcom e
b e c a u s e I t rem oves fro m th e c o n s c io u s mind o f t h e a u d i t o r
t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f e v a l u a t i o n o f f a c t o r s w hich p r e d i s p o s e
him t o a c c e p t o r r e j e c t a p r o p o s i t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g
u n i v e r s a l o b l i g a t i o n s e n t e n c e i s a l e g i t i m a t e e x t e n s i o n of
t h e t r e a t m e n t o f e t h o s i n r e l a t i o n t o f r e e s p e e c h : I t I s
o b l i g a t o r y t h a t t h e s p e a k e r a v o id m a n u f a c tu r in g c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s o f e t h o s .
The c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e t l o n o f t h e modes o f p r o o f
" r e a o h e s deep I n t o a n t i q u i t y " p e rh a p s b e g in n in g w i t h C ic e r o
(2 3 3 :3 7 3 ). I n Book I I o f De O r a t o r e . C ic e r o h a s A n to n iu s
s a y :
When, a f t e r h e a r i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e n a t u r e o f a
c a u s e , I p ro o e e d t o exam ine t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f I t ,
I s e t t l e n o t h in g u n t i l I h a v e a s c e r t a i n e d t o w h at point
my w hole s p e e c h , b e a r i n g Im m e d ia te ly on t h e q u e s t i o n
and c a s e , m ust be d i r e c t e d . I t h e n v e ry d i l i g e n t l y
c o n s i d e r two o t h e r p o i n t s ; t h e o n e , how t o recommend
m y s e l f , o r t h o s e f o r whom I p l e a d ; th e o t h e r , how t o
sway th e m inds o f t h o s e b e f o r e idiom I s p e a k t o t h a t
w hich I d e s i r e . Thus t h e w b o le b u s i n e s s o f s p e a k in g
3 1 + 6
r e s ts upon th rss th in g s fo r su co sss in p srsuaslon:
th at ve prors what vs m aintain to be true; th at vs
o o n o llla ts those vho hsar; th a t ve produos In th e ir
minds whatever f e e lin g our oause may req u ire.
(70,11,27:111+)
Y et, In a la te r s e c tio n , Cicero spoke of methods of ar
ranging m aterials "In order to prove, to Inform, to per
suade" (70,11,76:171+). Whether the con victIon -p ersu asion
dichotomy began v lth C icero or v lth Campbell (vho ap-
proaohed the dualism from the p oint of v lev of the speaker's
o b je c tiv e (233:37i+)» I t Is e sta b lish e d today. Thonasen
and Baird commented:
In recen t tim es, the vorlF of the pioneers has been
su stain ed or o fte n assumed v a lid without fu rth er In
v e s tig a tio n . As a r e s u lt , the c la s s ic a l d iv is io n
p e r s is ts today, determ ining not only the pedagogical
approach to argum entative speaking, but the c r it ic a l
estim ation o f speeches as v e i l . (233:376)
Boyd placed the co n v iction -p ersu asion dichotomy, the
problem of lo g ic a l versus p sy ch o lo g ica l co n te n t, a t the
oenter of the " k n o ttie st problem" of e th ic s (6 1 9 :8 8 ). He
pointed out th a t irtiile there I s gen eral agreement th a t a l l
of the elem ents— lo g o s . p ath os. and eth os— may be used
e t h ic a lly In c e r ta in p rop ortion s, there Is no agreement as
to the p rop ortion s, and the p o sitio n of a s p e c ific rh eto-
r lo la n Is revealed only by h is methodology (6 1 9 :8 8 -9 0 ).
Another resemmoher, Donald Bcroyd, vho attempted to de
termine the meaning o f persuasion in contemporary l i t e r
a tu re, concluded as a r e s u lt of h is study th at the con
v ic tio n - persuasion d iv is io n , w hile not a b e e lu te , s t i l l
3k7
p e r s i s t s today (358: 102)•
Robert S tu a rt G r if f in 's r e se a r c h , e n t i t l e d "A
H la to r io a l and P sy c h o lo g ic a l Study o f the C on victlon-
Perauasion Concept in P ublic Speaking," sought t o accom
p lis h th r ee g o a ls :
I t was th e purpose o f t h is study 1) to review h i s
t o r i c a l l y th e t h e o r is in g th a t has taken p la ce as t o the
nature of the c o n v lo tlo n -p e r su a a lo n concept and I t s
p la ce In a system o f r h e to r ic ; 2 ) to examine the
a v a ila b le p sy c h o lo g ic a l evid en ce as i t r e la t e s to the
oonoept w ith the view of a r r iv in g a t a b e t te r under
stan d in g of the p rocess o f in flu e n c in g oth ers through
the spoken word; 3 ) to in d i c a t e , I f p o s s ib le , the un
answered q u e stio n s upon the answers to which must
depend the f i n a l understanding of the process* ( 623: 3 )
G r iff in d efin ed the term " con viction " as "appeals to reason,
ap p eals to r a t i o n a l i t y , l o g i c a l aopeal" and the term "per
suasion" as "appeals to f e e l i n g , appeals to em otion s,
ap peals to p r e ju d ic e s , ap p eals to s t e r e o t y p e s , appeals to
su bconsciou s r e a so n in g , ap p eals to the Freudian wish" (623:
1-2 )* The r e s u lt s o f h is resea rch regard ing cu rren t psy
c h o lo g ic a l theory are worth q u otin g In t h e ir e n t ir e t y :
Reasoning Is id e a tio n a l orob lem -solvin g* I t In
v o lv e s a g o a l - s e t , a f o r e s ig h t o f the q u a l i t i e s or a t
tr ib u t e s which the d e sir e d s o lu t io n must p o s s e s s , and
the exam ination o f a proposed s o lu t io n to d isc o v e r the
p resence or absence o f the n eoessary a ttr ib u te s * The
l a t t e r phase I s a judgment*
Judgment I s e f f e c t e d by having in co n sc io u sn e ss a
m eaningful c o n te x t in to which the s t im u li re p r e se n tin g
the p resen ted o b je c t are to b e .r e c e iv e d * The meaning
f u l co n tex t thus made ready f o r the re ce p tio n o f the
s tim u li i s composed o f the a t t r ib u t e s whloh the pre
sen ted o b je c t must p o sse s s i f I t Is to s o lv e the prob
lem* Suoh c o n te x t Is determ ined by the momentary
purpose, the g o a l- s e t of th e reasoning* I f the g o a l-
s e t o f the reason in g I s s h i f t e d , the m eaningful c o n tex t
a p p lied t o th e p resen ted o b je c t w i l l be d i f f e r e n t , and
348
a d i f f e r e n t m eaning w i l l be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t e d
e le m e n t*
R a t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g r e q u i r e s th e p e r c e p t i o n I n t h e
p r e s e n t e d o b j e c t o f a t t r i b u t e s In k e e p in g w i t h t h e
o r i g i n a l p u rp o s e o f t h e r e a s o n i n g . . .
N o n - r a t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g i n v o l v e s a s h i f t i n g o f t h e
g o a l - s e t , and t h e s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s of t h e p r e s e n t e d
o b j e c t f o r a t t r i b u t e s w hioh w ould n o t hav e a n y r e l a t i o n
t o h i s o r i g i n a l g o a l - s e t * The a t t r i b u t e s p e r c e i v e d i n
t h e new g o a l - s e t a r e I r r e l e v a n t t o th e o r i g i n a l p u rp o s e
o f t h e r e a s o n in g *
A p p e als w hio h c a u s e t h e s h i f t i n g o f t h e g o a l - s e t
h a v e u s u a l l y b e e n d e s i g n a t e d a s " a p p e a l s t o th e f e e l
i n g s * " . • •
I r r a t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g o c c u r s i n t h e t r u e e m o tio n a l
s t a t e * • • • th e p e r c e p t i v e a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i v e pow ers
a r e i n c a p a c i t a t e d * I n su c h a s t a t e , t h e r e a s o n e r i s
u n a b le t o p e r c e i v e e i t h e r t h e p r e s e n o e o r a b s e n c e of
r e l e v a n t a t t r i b u t e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f w hat k in d o f g o a l -
s e t p r e v a i l s a t t h e moment*
T rue e m o tio n a l r e a c t i o n r e s u l t s o r i g i n a l l y from
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p r e s e n t e d s i t u a t i o n a s one o f menace t o
o n e 's s e l f s e e k in g * • • •
T h is a n a l y s i s r e v e a l s t h r e e ty p e s o f r e a s o n i n g :
r a t i o n a l , n o n - r a t i o n a l , and i r r a t i o n a l * I n th e r a t i o n
a l p r o c e s s , one d i s c o v e r s r e l e v a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s * The
o t h e r two ty o e s d e f e a t th e p u rp o s e of d i s c o v e r i n g t h e
p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f r e l e v a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s . Thus th e
l a t t e r ty p e may be s a i d t o r e s u l t in th e n o n - p e r c e p t i o n
o f r e l e v a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s *
S in c e t h e r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s r e p r e s e n t s w hat i s m eant
by o o n v i c t i o n . and th e o t h e r two ty p e s o f r e a s o n i n g
r e p r e s e n t w hat i s m eant by p e r s u a s i o n , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e tw e e n c o n v i c t i o n and p e r s u a s i o n , a t l e a s t w i t h r e -
s p e c t t o th e r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s , i s s e e n t o be a d i s
t i n c t i o n b e tw ee n t h e p e r c e p t i o n an d n o n - p e r c e p t i o n of
r e l e v a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s * b o t h a r e s u s c e p t i b l e i o i s o
l a t i o n a n d e x p l a n a t i o n a s s e p a r a b l e p r o c e s s e s i n p sy
c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g * ( 6 2 3 :1 6 8 -7 1 )
G r i f f i n * s s t u d y seem ed t o o f f e r a d e e p e r i n s i g h t i n t o th e
d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n l o g i c a l and p a t h e t l o a p p e a l s .
One f i n a l r e s e a r c h r e p o r t was i m p o r t a n t i n an
a n a l y s i s o f th e d ic h to m y i n r e l a t i o n t o an e t h i c s o f r h e t
o r i c . C a r l I s a a c s o n ' s s t u d y , e n t i t l e d " A r i s t o t l e ' s Con
c e p t s o f E m o tio n a l P ro o f A p p lie d t o an A n a l y s i s o f Modern
349
S p e e c h e s ," s o u g h t to d e te r m in e th e r o l e o f e m o tio n in
r e s p o n s i b l e s p e a k i n g (6 2 7 :2 ). I s a a c s o n b e l i e v e d t h a t
e m o tio n c o u ld n o t be i s o l a t e d fro m th e o t h e r modes o f per*
s u a s i o n , and t h a t t h e r e a l p ro b lem was n o t i t s e l i m i n a t i o n
b u t i t s p r o p e r a p p l i c a t i o n (627:4)*
I f we a r e t o assum e t h a t th e e m o t i o n * c o g n itio n
d ich o to m y o f t h e mind c a n n o t be m ade, and t h a t e m o tio n
o f some s o r t w i l l be a r o u s e d w h a te v e r th e s p e a k e r s a y s ,
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f e m o tio n a l a p p e a l t o " r e s p o n s i b l e
s p e a k in g " becomes even more c r i t i c a l b o t h fro m t h e
s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e s p e a k e r and h i s p u b l i c . (627:4)
The s p e a k e r m ust m eet h i s e t h i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y from t h e
p o i n t o f view o f a d e q u a te c o m m u n ic a tio n :
E f f e c t i v e c o m m u n icatio n c e a s e s when e m o tio n becomes
p re d o m in a n t o v e r i n t e l l e c t .
T h is a s s ig n m e n t o f s o c i a l d u ty t o t h e s p e a k e r does
n o t i n an y s e n s e r e v i v e th e o ld dich o to m y o f o o n v io tio n -
p e r s u a s i o n . • . . The s p e a k e r 's a c c o u n t a b i l i t y d l o t a t e s
t h a t h i s s e l e c t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l , and
h i s s t y l e an d d e l i v e r y d o es n o t n u m o s e l y s l a n t h i s
e a c h to w a rd th e e x tre m e s o f e m o tio n a l a p o e a l . (627:
I s a a c s o n ' s re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e s u p o o r t e d th e f o l l o w i n g
c o n c l u s i o n s : t h e r e was g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e
in te r d e p e n d e n c y o f e m o tio n and co m raun icatio n; t h e r e was
c o n s e n s u s t h a t a l t h o u g h a s p e a k e r m ig h t n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y
s e p a r a t e h i s a p p e a l s , he m ig h t e m p h a size one a s p e o t more
t h a n th e o t h e r i n h i s s e l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s , a r r a n g e m e n t,
o r d e l i v e r y ; t h e r e was e s s e n t i a l a g re e m e n t t h a t e m o t i o n a l
a o p e a l was n o t I n h e r e n t l y u n e t h i c a l , b u t t h a t i t oould be
b o th u s e d and a b u sed (627:52*53)*
I n h i s f i n a l c o n c l u s i o n , I s a a c s o n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
3 5 0
h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t e d t h a t e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l i s i n e v i t a b l e ,
t h a t i t can be u s e d o r a b u s e d , and t h a t i t s p r o p e r u s e can
be d e f i n e d :
When a p p e a l s t o e m o tio n by a s p e a k e r a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n
t h e r e a lm o f r e s p o n s i b l e and i n t e l l i g e n t s p e a k i n g , t h e
e x t e n t t o w hich a s p e a k e r u s e s l o g i o a l a rg u m e n ts and
" t r u t h " t o a ro u s e p a r t l o u l a r a t t i t u d e s o r e m o tio n s
w i t h i n h i s a u d ie n c e s h o u l d become t h e c r i t e r i a f o r
Ju d g in g th e " m e r i t s " o f e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l , and n o t
m e re ly t h e p r e s e n c e o f e m o tio n a l a p o e a l . • • • (6 27 :
225-2t>)
I n m aking t h i s a s s e s s m e n t , e m o tio n s m ust be c o n s i d e r e d i n
te rm s o f t h e t o t a l s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n , s i n c e s p e c i f i c e v e n t s
and a t t i t u d e s a r e v i t a l f a c t o r s a s t o w hat e m o tio n s w i l l
be a r o u s e d and how ( 6 2 7 : 2 2 6 ) .
Thus i t can be s e e n t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s e a r o h su g
g e s t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s : (1) i t i s p o s s i b l e t o
d i s t i n g u i s h r a t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g fro m n o n - r a t i o n a l and i r
r a t i o n a l r e a s o n i n g t h r o u g h th e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p e r c e p t i o n
o r n o n - p e r c e p t i o n o f r e l e v a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s ; (2) h o w e v e r, i t
i s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t a p p e a ls t o th e i n t e l l e c t and e m o tio n
w i l l commingle i n r e l a t i v e am ounts i n p e r s u a s i o n ; (3) t h e
r e a l t Q s t o f th e e t h i c a l u s e o f p a th o s d ep en d s upon th e
f a c t u a l v a l i d i t y o f th e s p e a k e r 's p r e m i s e s .
The l i t e r a t u r e s u r v e y e d by t h i s w r i t e r g e n e r a l l y
s u p p o r t e d t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s . The r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s i s th e
same w h e th e r th e m a t e r i a l s u s e d i n r e a s o n i n g a r e r a t i o n a l
o r e m o tio n a l (1 7 7 :3 ^ 9 )• The s o u n d n e s s o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s
s t i l l d ep en d s upon t h e a c t u a l s i m i l a r i t y b etw een th e
351
elem ents b ein g compered, as Alan N ich ols p oin ted out in
D isc u ssio n and Debate (177:3^9)* He added th a t a l l such
c o n c lu sio n s are more or l e s s probable:
A l l re a so n in g and ln fe r e n o e , th en , are based upon a
comparison of a oase under c o n s id e r a tio n v l t h p a st
c a se s f o r r e le v a n t s i m i l a r i t i e s * No oase in the p ast
w i l l be p r e o ls e ly s im ila r to the case a t hand* In the
p o in ts in whioh i t i s s im ila r i t v i l l not be id e n tio a l*
And not a l l s i m i l a r i t i e s w i l l be r e le v a n t to th e ob
j e c t iv e of our reasoning* Whether the reasoner judges
a p a r tic u la r s i m i l a r i t y as r e le v a n t must always in v o lv e
a c e r ta in h asard , d e r iv in g from h is e x p e r ie n t ia l back
ground* Any i n f e r e n t i a l c o n c lu s io n , th e r e fo r e , oan
on ly be more or l e s s p rob ab le, depending upon whether
the s i m i l a r i t i e s are e f f e c t i v e l y s im ila r and whether
they are e f f e c t i v e l y re lev a n t* (177:3^9-50)
When th e g o a l - s e t h a s b een s h i f t e d away from th e
l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an a d e q u a te s o l u t i o n , t h e con
c l u s i o n m ust a l s o d e p a r t fro m l o g i c a l a d e q u a c y . R e aso n in g
fro m an e m o tio n a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t t o an e m o tio n a l c o n c l u s i o n
" s h o r t - c i r c u i t s 1 * t h e r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s * G r i f f i n ' s t r e a t m e n t
o f th e s h i f t i n g o f th e g o a l - s e t was fo u n d m ost e n l i g h t e n i n g .
The se c o n d c o n c l u s i o n r e f l e c t s t h e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f th e d lc h o to m y due t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d v an o es* The mo-
n l s t i o a p p r o a c h t o a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r d e n ie s th e i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f t h e d ic h o to m y b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p tio n s o f f a c u l t y
p s y c h o lo g y , b u t i t d o e s n o t deny t h a t man b o t h r e a s o n s and
f e e l s * Man i s b e l i e v e d to r e a c t a s a u n i t , w i t h b o t h h i s
m ind an d h i s e m o tio n s* L anguage h a s I t s own d u a l i t y —
d e n o t a t i v e and c o n n o t a t i v e m eaning— e x h i b i t i n g th e same
k in d o f r e l a t i v e I n s e p a r a b i l i t y .
The th ir d co n c lu sio n r e p r ese n ts an attem pt to draw
the lin e c l e a r ly between e t h i c a l and u n e th ic a l behavior
w ith r e sp e c t to the use of l o g i c a l and p a th e tic a p p e a ls.
Muoh o f the contemporary lit e r a t u r e t r ie d to e s t a b lis h a
lin e between m otives which one oould appeal to and m otives
which one could not appeal t o . Yet M erton's study o f Kate
Smith c le a r ly dem onstrated th a t even appeals to h igh mo
t i v e s could be u n e th ic a l because o f th e ir cum ulative e f f e c t
(1 5 9 s139)* Brembeck and Howell d escrib ed a f u l l - f l e d g e d
system o f I d e n tify in g e t h i c a l from u n e th ic a l behavior (I4 .I:
lj.65). T heir system has a lrea d y been d isc u sse d in d e t a i l
e a r l i e r In t h is ch ap ter. (See pages 2 2 1 -2 5 .) The p oin t
which Is r e le v a n t here i s th a t they would p r o h ib it an
e t h i c a l oersuader from u sin g n on exp erlm en tally based propo
s i t i o n s as prem ises from which he reason s ex p erim en ta lly
(lfl:1^57)* I t i s t h is c r it e r i o n which I found most in t e r
e s t in g and chose to ap p ly . I t may be exp ressed in the
fo llo w in g u n iv e r s a l o b lig a tio n se n ten ce: I t I s o b lig a to r y
th a t the speaker avoid u sin g n on exp erlm en tally based prop
o s it io n s as prem ises from whioh he reason s e x p e r im e n ta lly .
This c r it e r io n e x e m p lifie s the extreme u se o f pathos as a
s u b s t it u t io n fo r lo g o s . An example o f such behavior may be
found In the scapegoat d e v lo e . The o r ig in o f the scapegoat
d ev ice In a n c ie n t Jewish r i t u a l su g g e sts i t s p ersu a siv e
a p p lic a t io n s . In L e v itic u s 16:20 the s to r y i s to ld o f the
goat se n t in to the w ild ern ess a f t e r the p r ie s t had symbol
i c a l l y la id the s in s o f the people upon i t . The g u i l t of
353
the people is d isp laced upon the goat who must su ffe r In
th e ir stead :
And Aaron s h a ll la y both h is hands upon the head of the
liv e g o a t, and con fess over them a l l the in iq u it ie s of
the ch ild ren o f I s r a e l, and a l l th e ir tr a n sg re ssio n s,
even a l l th e ir s in s ; and he s h a ll put them upon the
head o f the g o a t, and s h a ll send him away by the hand
of a man th at i s In read in ess in to the w ild ern ess: and
the goat s h a ll bear upon him a l l th e ir in iq u itie s unto
a s o lit a r y land; and he s h a ll l e t go the goat in the
w ild ern ess. (115:101)
The sym bolic tran sferen ce of g u ilt was not lim ited to
B ib lic a l tim es. In a "bastardised and caricatu red version
o f r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t " ( 6 0 : 1 7 1 ) , H i t l e r s a d d l e d t h e Jew
" w i t h a v a s t a m a lg a m a tio n o f e v i l s " ( 6 0 : 1 7 5 ) * Language was
th e m edium f o r t h i s t r a n s f e r e n c e .
The lo g ic of th is o b lig a tio n , m anifested In the
scapegoat d e v ic e , may be expressed as fo llo w s. When a
s o c ie ty or a group w ithin the la rg er con text is plagued
w ith bad tim es, the determ ination of the b est so lu tio n is
dependent upon the a n a ly sis of the causes of th e ir d if
f ic u lt y and the am elioration o f th e ir s itu a tio n through
a lle v ia tio n o f th ese e v i l s . In other words, an e t h ic a l
persuader would h elp h is audience an alyse the r e a l cause of
the e v i l which has b e fa lle n them, and h elp them remedy their
p lig h t through means consonant with the f a c t s . O n the oth
er hand, the u n eth lo a l persuader i s c h a r a c te r is tic a lly the
type of man who would s e t up a scapegoat— a recep ta cle fo r
the g u i lt . He sy m b o lica lly tr a n sfe rs the g u ilt from the
r e a l causes to the r e cep ta cle by disp lacem en t. S e ttin g up
35k
a scapegoat "to hate and flame" la a standard technique of
the propagandist (261)* The p r a o tlc a l r e s u lt i s th at the
p eo p le's search fo r the b est so lu tio n is in h ib ite d by th e ir
em otional displacem ent o f the real causes on to a f ic t io n
a lis e d cau se, and in th is way the d ia le c t ic prooess is
impeded a t i t s very in c e p tio n , v io la tin g the in te g r ity of
u n iv ersa l d e c is io n . The s u b stitu tio n of an extraneous i s
sue fo r the r e a l issu e i s a lo g ic a l fa lla c y . The m agical
in v e s titu r e has s h ifte d the g o a l-s e t and the reasoning can
not be r a tio n a l.
A lthough th e s p e c i f i c im p lic a tio n s o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n
co u ld be i n v e s t i g a t e d f u r t h e r , and o th e r c r i t e r i a oould be
d e te rm in e d , th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was to im plem ent
s e v e r a l of th e most p ro m isin g o b je c ti v e s ta n d a r d s , r a t h e r
th a n to ite m iz e a com prehensive and d e t a i l e d e t h i c a l system .
I f an e t h i c s of r h e t o r i c i s a f u n c tio n of th e o o n te x t, th e
r a m lf io a tlo n s a r e n u m b e rle ss.
Several c r it e r ia , properly id e n tifie d w ith lo g o s .
were id e n tifie d in the lit e r a t u r e . To a man, contemporary
rh eto ricia n s who subscribed to a philosophy in whioh the
end p r e -e x is ts in the means deplored the use o f fa c tu a l
d is to r tio n and the manufacture or f a ls if i c a t i o n of evidence.
Because c r it e r ia of th is so r t were p a r tic u la r ly su sc e p tib le
to o b jectiv e v e r if ic a tio n , I ohose to express them in u ni
v ersa l o b lig a tio n sen ten ces: (1) i t la forbidden th at a
speaker f a l s i f y , i . e . . m anufacture, m a teria ls: (2) i t i s
3 5 5
forbidden th at a speaker d is to r t m a te r la ls. An emotion
a lis e d premise Is not the only means of su bvertin g the
reasoning p ro cess. The fa b r ic a tio n or tw istin g of the rav
m aterials of p ro o f--th e substructure of re a so n in g --Is
eq u ally d e str u c tiv e . The Infamous "card stacking" device
of the I n s titu te fo r Propaganda A nalysis Immortalised
th ese base means.
In summary, the w riter has o u tlin ed sev era l o r lte r la
r e la tin g to Invention fo r a p o llc a tlo n In the f in a l chapters
of th is study: (1) I t I s o b ligatory th at a speaker avoid
su b stitu tin g h is personal au th o rity fo r the c r i t ic a l exam
in a tio n of the fa c t s ; (2) i t is o b lig a to ry th at a speaker
avoid manufacturing c h a r a c te r is tic s of e th o s; (3) i t is
o b ligatory that the speaker avoid u sin g nonexperlm entally
based p rop osition s as prem ises from which he reasons
experim entally; (It) I t Is forbidden th at a speaker f a l s i f y ,
i . e . , manufacture, m aterials; (5) I t i s forbidden th a t a
speaker d is to r t m a te r ia ls. One f in a l area remains to be
con sid ered , e lo o u tlo or s t y le .
E lo cu tlo has been d efin ed as the "concept o f ex
p ression In language, r e s u ltin g , b a s ic a lly , from the ch oice
of words and th e ir arrangement o r com position" ( 2 3 3 :7 9 ) *
The very d e fin itio n I t s e l f su ggests the In se p a r a b ility of
s ty le from the other p arts of r h e to r ic . While "what to
say" Is the province of In ven tion , "how to say it" is the
ooncern of s t y le . The c lo se r e la tio n sh ip of th ese two
356
canons can be c la r if ie d by n oting th at the lo g ica l-em o tio n -
a l dichotomy r e s u lts from the way the audience responds to
language (233:370). But as lin g u is ts and rh eto ricia n s
re o o g n lse, there i s only a r e la t iv e d iffer en ce between
fa o tu a l and em otional oon ten t. I t could be argued th at a l l
words have a t le a s t some em otional Import In as much as a l l
meaning l i e s in the u sers o f words*
The sp ellb in d er entrances h is audience through the
charm of h is s p e ll , m agical formula* He persuades them,
e ty m o lo g ic a lly , per s u a s lo . through sw eetness (19:378)*
The ends of freedom are b est served , not by the im possible
elim in a tio n of s p e lls , but by the coaching of good s p e lls
(6 0 :1 0 3 ,5 ). As Kenneth Burke pointed ou t, "The choice
• • • is not a ch oice between magic and no magic, but a
choice between magics th at vary in th e ir degree of approx
im ation to the truth" (6 0 :7 ). What i s d esired i s an ac
curate chart of what is g o in g on (60:6)« Such a d esire i s
akin to r a t io n a lity (6 0 :9 8 ). I t i s accom plished by the
"heaping up o f a ttitu d e" rather than by the elim in a tio n of
a ttitu d e (60:128)* A com pletely accurate chart of what i s
going on would elim in ate maglo, y e t th is i s an im possible
attainm ent because language I t s e l f i s sym bolic (60:8)*
The c lo se r e la tio n sh ip o f in v en tlo and e lo c u tlo
i s fu rth er evidenced by n otin g th at lndiotm ent, vitu p er
a tio n , and v in d ic tic tiv e n e s s are attenuated a sp ects of the
scapegoat device (60:3^)* There was rather gen eral agree
ment re g a rd in g th e u n e t h i c a l n a tu r e of I n v e c tiv e In con
tem p o rary l i t e r a t u r e . Much of what was c o n s id e re d u n e th ic a l
was a l s o r h e t o r i c a l l y u nsound, I . e . , d e f i c i e n t from the
p o in t o f view o f s t y l i s t i c q u a l i t y , and y e t h y p e rb o le ,
a n a lo g y , and o th e r f i g u r e s of sp e e c h , as w e ll as
e m o tio n a lly - la d e n la n g u a g e , a l l o r d i n a r i l y c o n s id e re d rh e
t o r i c a l l y sound, came u n d er c e n s u r e . I n v e c t i v e , im m o rtal
iz e d by C ioero In the f i r s t o r a t i o n a g a i n s t C a t i l i n e and by
Demosthenes In th e Second P h i l i p p i c , took on many names In
contem porary r h e t o r i c . I t has been c a l l e d I n v e c t i v e ,
v i l i f i c a t i o n , n a m e - c a llin g , c h a r a c t e r a s s a s s i n a t i o n , g u i l t
by a s s o c i a t i o n , v i t u p e r a t i o n , and sm ear. I n v e c tiv e con
ta m in a te s th e d e m o c ra tic p ro c e s s (314:231*-) and a s s a u l t s
f r e e sp eech (14-19:21), b ecau se I t I s an o b s ta c le to c l e a r
th in k in g ( 1 3 : 1 6 4 , 3 1 : 1 3 5 ) .
A u n iv e r s a l o b lig a tio n s e n te n c e can be fo rm u la te d
e x p re s s in g th e s p e a k e r 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h i s a r e a : i t
la f o rb id d e n t h a t a s p e a k e r d i v e r t h i s a u d ie n c e from th e
i s s u e s th ro u g h th e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f i n v e c t i v e , o th e r
c r i t e r i a r e l a t i n g to e l o c u t l o c o u ld be c o n s tr u c te d u s in g
th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n of t h i s s tu d y .
Summary. I t was th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s e c t i o n of
C h ap ter I I to c l a r i f y th e n a tu re o f th e r h e t o r i c a l - e t h i c a l -
p o l i t i c a l r o l e s of th e e t h i c a l and u n e t h ic a l sp e a k e r in a
dem ocracy in r e l a t i o n to scen e (o c o a s lo n and a u d ie n c e ) ,
p urpose ( e n d s ) , a g e n t ( s p e a k e r ) , and agency (means o f p e r
358
s u a s io n )* The g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a w ere fo rm u la te d i n term s
o f a b a s ic d e f i n i t i o n of "good" a s s y n o n y m o u s w ith f r e e
speeoh* The e t h i c s o f r h e t o r i c was d e term in ed be a
f u n c tio n of th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f th e s e a s p e c ts j T th e p e r
s u a s iv e a c t . The s p e c i f i c im p lic a tio n s o f sc., i a p h ilo s o
phy a r e e n d l e s s . S ix u n i v e r s a l o b li g a t i o n s e n te n c e s were
fo rm u la te d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n to th e p e r s u a s iv e d e v lo e s used
by Long and T a f t in th e fo llo w in g c h a p t e r s . The theme o f
d e m o c ra tic r h e t o r i c em p h asises l o g i c a l ad eq u acy . Each of
th e o th e r a s p e c ts o f th e p e r s u a s iv e p ro c e s s I s viewed in
t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e .
CHAPTER I I I
THE RHETORICAL-ETHICS OP ROBERT ALPHONSO TAPT
»
" th e v e ry symbol o f inform ed end
r e s p o n s ib le c o n s e rv a tis m "
--D w ight D avid E isenhow er ( 5 1 9 » 4 /1 5 /5 9 :9 )
C h ap ter I I s e t f o r t h the answ ers to th e q u e s tio n :
w hat a re th e e t h i c a l s ta n d a r d s o f contem p o rary American
p u b lic a d d re ss? C h a p te rs I I I and IV r e p r e s e n te d a tte m p ts
to answer th e q u e s tio n : do th e se s ta n d a r d s , when a p p lie d
to s e le c te d contem porary spM kers, r e n d e r the same e t h i c a l
judgm ent as th e one re n d e re d by the p u b lic mind?
In t h i s c h a p te r , i t was my purpose to a n a ly z e
R o b ert a . T a f t 's a d d r e s s , "sh o u ld th e T a f t- H a r tle y B i l l
become law ?" d e l iv e r e d o v e r M utual and Columbia B ro a d c a s t
in g System s i n r e b u t t a l to H arry s. T rum an's e a r l i e r
sp e e c h on th e v e to o f th e T a f t- H a r tle y Law. Through con
s i d e r i n g the v a rio u s e le m e n ts o f th e c o n te x t— scene
(o c c a s io n and a u d ie n c e ) , a g e n t ( s p e a k e r ) , p u rp o se ( e n d s ) ,
and agency (m e a n s )--I so u g h t to a r r i v e a t a Judgment o f
th e e t h i c a l q u a l i t y o f th e a c t (s p e e c h ), when a p p r a is e d
a o o o rd ln g to s e l e c t e d c r i t e r i a d e r iv e d from contem porary
r h e t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e .
Review o f P re v io u s R e se a rc h
359
Before prooeedlng to the primary purpose o f the
chapter. I t was n ecessary to record the r e s u lts o f pre
vious r h e to r ic a l research on Taft* Pour sc h o la r ly r e
search papers (626, 631, 631*, 635) were concerned with
various asp ects o f T a ft's speaking. Two of these stu d ie s
e s p e c ia lly emphasised h is labor addresses: (1) S tan ley
Oene R ives, "Senator T a ft's Public Speaking on Labor
L e g isla tio n : An A n alysis and E valuation” (635)» (2) Don
ald Charles Kleckner, "Senator Robert S. Taft: "A Study
of His p ublic Address w ith Emphasis on the Labor Issue"
(631)* The other two d is s e r ta tio n s were con sid erab ly more
comprehensive: (1) Noel 0 . Rapp, "The P o lit ic a l Speaking
of Robert A. T aft, 1939 to 1953" (631*), (2) Pauline H.
Isaacson , "Robert Alphonso T aft: An Assessment of a
persuader" (626).
R iv e s' s tu d y , a m a s t e r 's t h e s i s w r i t t e n f o r I l l i n o i s
S t a t e Normal U n iv e r s it y , had as i t s p u rp o se the e x a m in a tio n
and a n a ly s is o f T a f t 's la b o r a d d r e s s e s (6 3 5 :1 ) from
A p r il 23, 19l*7 (th e d a te of th e I n tr o d u c tio n of the T a f t -
H a r t l e y B i l l i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te ) , t i l l h i s d e a th ,
J u ly 3 1 , 1953 (635:1*)* He used C o n g re s s io n a l Record t e x t s ,
presum ing them to be r e a s o n a b ly a c c u r a te (6 3 5 :5 )* a p o s i
t i o n w hich was u pheld by my s tu d y o f t e x t u a l a u t h e n t i c i t y .
B oth T a f t 's sp e ak in g i n th e S e n a te r e l a t i v e to th e p assag e
o f th e b i l l (6 3 5 :3 6 -5 8 ) as w e ll a s h i s d e fe n s e of i t on
th e p u b lic p la tfo r m were a n a ly se d (6 3 5 :5 9 * 7 6 ). The
361
June 20, 19^7» r e b u t t a l to T rusian's v e to was among th e
sp e e e h e s t r e a t e d (6 3 5 :6 0 ). A lthough R ives was n o t s p e c i f
i c a l l y co n cern ed w ith T a f t 's e t h i c s , s e v e r a l o f h i s con
c lu s io n s were r e l e v a n t : (1) T a f t av o id ed e m o tio n a l
exam ples and m a t e r i a l s , r e ly in g h e a v ily upon r a t i o n a l p ro o f
(6 3 5 :7 6 -8 0 ) and (2) he r e l i e d h e a v i l y upon e t h i c a l p ro o f
(6 3 5 :6 2 ). T a f t 's whole p e r s o n a l l t y was g e a re d to r a t i o n a l
p ro o f (635:63).
The Kleckner study, a d octoral study w ritten fo r the
U n iv ersity o f M ichigan, supported R ives' con clu sion s In a
general way. I t was lim ite d to a co n sid era tio n o f T a ft's
labor addresses during the period from h is f i r s t Senate
campaign in September, 1937* to h is r e -e le e t lo n , two terms
la te r In November, 1950 (6 3 1 :n .p .). Kleckner analysed
e ig h t speeches (6 3 1 :iv ), among them the radio address of
June 20, 19^7 (6 3 1 :6 6 ). His th e s is contained no d isc u ssio n
o f te x tu a l a u th e n tic ity , but he used te x ts from the Con
g re ssio n a l Record, V ita l Speeches of the Day, and the M ew
York Times.
He made Ju d g n e n ts c o n c e rn in g T a f t 's u se o f e t h i c a l ,
e m o tio n a l, md l o g l o a l p r o o f , among o th e r th in g s . K leok-
n e r 's c o n c lu s io n s r e g a r d in g e t h i c a l p ro o f were b a s e d on a
r a t h e r l i m i t e d a n a ly s is of th e sp e eo h es th e m se lv e s; th e
em phasis was p la c e d in s t e a d on w hat had b ee n s a id about
T a f t . K leckner s u n e d up th e T a f tla n e t h o s ;
B ased upon w hat h a s b ee n w r i t t e n a b o u t him , w hat he
362
h a s done* and v h a t he h a s s a i d , the p e r s o n a l i t y and
c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s o f S e n a to r R obert A* T a f t seem to
shov t h a t ha Is a man o f n o te w o rth y a b i l i t y , I n d u s tr y ,
I n t e g r i t y , h o n e s ty and s l n o e r l t y — a man o f d e te rm in a
t io n and deep c o n v ic tio n s , and y e t , a man who I s f r a n k ,
t a c t l e s s , o b s t i n a t e , c o ld , and la c k in g th o s e q u a l i t i e s
w hich e n d e a r p eo p le to a l e a d e r , (631:114)
One c o n c lu s io n was p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t : he n o te d T a f t 's
te n d e n c y , In h is r e b u t t a l to Trum an's v e to m essage, to use
th e s ta te m e n t, " t h i s I s sim p ly n o t s o ," as p ro o f; I n o th e r
w ords, th e I m p lic a tio n was t h a t " t h i s I s tru e b e c a u se I say
i t I s " (6 3 1 :1 6 9 -7 0 ).
O th er r e l e v a n t c o n c lu s io n s concerned T a f t 's use of
p a th o s and lo g o s . K lec k n er p ro v id e d a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f
m o tiv e s , e m o tio n s, and a b s t r a c t a t t i t u d e s , and th e n he
e v a lu a te d T a f t 's sp eak in g In term s o f th e s e (631:115-40)*
He found t h a t , In T a f t 's r e b u t t a l to Truman, more e m o tio n a l
a p p e a ls ap p eared th a n In th e o th e r sp eech es (631:127)* He
n o te d th r e e dom inant a p p e a ls i n I t : to t r u t h , to f a i r n e s s
and freedom , and to pessim ism (631:127-30). K leck n er con
c lu d e d as a r e s u l t o f h i s e v a lu a t io n o f th e e ig h t sp eech es
t h a t a lth o u g h T a f t d id use e m o tio n a l p r o o f , he d id n o t
" s u g a rc o a t" h i s m essage (631:129)*
I n h i s c h a p te r on l o g i c a l p r o o f , K leck n er a n a ly s e d
th e a d d re s s o f June 20, 1947* and found t h a t T a f t 's p u r
po se i n t h i s a d d re s s was n o t so much to uphold th e T a f t -
H a r tle y Act a s I t was " to condemn T rum an's sta n d on th e
is s u e and h i s b a s i s f o r J u d g se n t" (631:160). The sp e e c h
was a lm o st w h o lly r e f u t a t o r y In n a tu r e (6 3 1 :1 6 1 ), I t was
3 6 3
one of the speeches which was the weakest lo g ic a lly , per
haps due to the fa o t th a t i t was extem porized (631:176).
Kleckner concluded that lo& ioal proof was the predominant
mode of persuasion used by T aft, but he added:
I t should be noted, however, th at too freq u en tly he
attem pts to prove a con ten tion w ith unsupported gener
a liz a t io n s , and when he does support a g e n e r a lisa tio n ,
he o fte n does so w ith a sse r tio n s e s p e c ia lly a sse r tio n s
whioh are h ig h ly c o n tr o v e r sia l. I t i s the con clu sion
of t h is w riter th a t the numerous statem ents r e fe r r in g
to Senator T a ft's a b ilit y to s t ic k to f a c t s , fig u r e s ,
and s tr a ig h t cold lo g ic has O le ] been o v ersta ted .
A lthough K leck n er came to o th e r c o n c lu s io n s , th e y were n o t
r e l e v a n t to a c o n s id e r a ti o n o f T a f t 's r h e t o r i c a l e t h i c s .
Noel Rapp's study, a d octoral d is s e r ta tio n w ritten
at Purdue U n iv ersity , contained an a n a ly sis o f twenty-one
speeches on lab or, fo reig n p o lic y , p o l it ic a l campaign
is s u e s , fin a n c e. J u s tic e , and a eulogy (6 3 ii:x l). Speeches
in the Senate, o u tsid e the S enate, and over the radio were
evalu ated (6 3 l|.:x i). The re b u tta l of June 20, 19^7, to
Truman's veto was included (63lj.:255)# The speeches were
analyzed from the standpoint of b asic prem ises, lin e s of
argument, lo g ic a l p roof, e th ic a l p roof, em otional proof,
o rgan ization and arrangement, s t y le , p rep aration , d e liv e r y ,
and e ffe c tiv e n e s s (6 3 lf:x l). His purpose was to review
T a ft's speaking to determine "how and w ith what e f f e c t iv e
n ess T a f t spoke" (631^:5).
H is re le v a n t con clu sion s w i l l be reported h ere. He
found that Taft spoke from three b a sic prem ises: (1) l i t -
36/+
o ra l in terp re ta tio n o f the C on stitu tio n and i t s p r in c ip le s,
(2) e f f ic ie n c y and economy in government, (3) p eacefu l
p reservation of the freedom of the in d iv id u a l American in
fo r e ig n p o lic y (63^ :rl)* The fo llo w in g con clu sion s were
noted regarding h is lin e s o f argument:
The most outstanding featu re of T a ft's lin e s o f argu
ment was h is s t r i c t adherence to h is b asic prem ises
and a sense of paternalism . He tended to reduoe the
Issu e s to la r g e , b a sic concepts w ith which he then
agreed or d isagreed . That w ith whioh T aft disagreed
was u su a lly reduced to ab su rd ity. In most of h is
speaking, Taft used ex ten siv e lo g ic a l proof in the
form of reasoning and support. However, in many In
sta n c e s, the reasoning did not prove to be v a lid be
cause o f im perfeot Induction or fa ilu r e to consider
other p o ssib le causes and e f f e o t s . In s p ite o f th ese
f a u lt s , correspondence rev ea ls th a t T aft had created
the Im pression that he was lo g ic a l, in a d d itio n , Taft
had a marked tendency to s ta te a sse r tio n s as f a c t , h is
a ttitu d e seeming to be th at he knew or he b eliev ed and
that should be s u ff ic ie n t fo r the audience. (63l+:332)
Rapp's con clu sions in th is area seemed to support those of
K leckner.
Rapp concurred w ith Kleokner regarding T a ft's use of
em otional appeal as w ell (63l+:33l+-35) - T aft used em otional
words and m o d ifiers, as w e ll as more f u l l y developed
em otional ap p eals, of the la t t e r , Rapp commented:
Outside the S enate, T a ft's appeals were a lso b u ilt
to a large ex ten t on the same lo y a lty to the tr a d i
tio n a l C o n stitu tio n a l government—and in c id e n ta lly , to
T a ft's own b a sic prem lses—d esp lte the fa o t that they
took many form s. Although he seemed angry and was ap
p ea lin g to a sense o f rev u lsio n and d isg u st In h is
speeoh on the v eto o f the T aft-H artley Aot, the under
ly in g Im p lication was th at the problems had arisen
through fa ilu r e to fo llo w the p r in c ip le s o f ord erly,
C o n stitu tio n a l government. (63i|>:3l|.9>
In h is a n a ly sis o f T a ft's use o f e th ic a l appeal,
365
R app u s e d c r i t e r i a s u g g e s t e d b y T h o n s s e n a n d B a i r d
( 2 3 3 :3 8 7 ) * c o u n t i n g th e I n c i d e n c e o f e a c h a p p e a l (634*
3 5 5 - 5 7 ) . He f o u n d t h a t T a f t m ade e x t e n s i v e u s e o f e t h i
c a l a p p e a l ( 6 3 4 * 3 5 8 ) . H o s t f r e q u e n t l y e m p lo y e d w as t h e
t e c h n i q u e o f a s s o c i a t i n g th e o p p o n e n t o r t h e o p p o n e n t 's
c a u s e w i t h n t h a t w h ic h w as n o t v i r t u o u s a n d e l e v a t e d "
( 6 3 4 : 3 5 8 ) . The s e c o n d m o s t f r e q u e n t l y e m p lo y e d t e c h n i q u e
i n v o l v e d a s s o c i a t i n g h i m s e l f w i t h " t h a t w h ic h w as v i r t u o u s
o r e l e v a t e d , f o l l o w e d b y t h e u s e o f r e l i a n c e o n p e r s o n a l
k n o w le d g e an d e x p e r i e n c e " ( 6 3 4 : 3 5 8 ) . He u s e d " s u b s t a n
t i a l l y " m o re e t h i c a l a p p e a l i n h i s r a d i o s p e e c h e s (634*
3 5 8 ) .
R app summed up th e e f f e c t o f T a f t ' s i m p a c t a s a
s p e a k e r :
H is s p e a k i n g w as c l e a r ; h i s m a n n e r f o r t h r i g h t ,
s o m e tim e s b l u n t . H ie s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o u p l e d w i t h
a l a c k o f m any o f t h e g r a c e s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l l y
p o l i s h e d o r a t o r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e v i d e n c e , e n h a n c e d
h i s e t h i c a l a p p e a l f o r h i s a u d i e n c e s , an d w e re l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m e a s u r e o f s u c c e s s h e e n j o y e d .
( 6 3 4 :4 2 6 )
A l t h o u g h R a p p 's s t u d y c o n t a i n e d m uch a d d i t i o n a l d a t a , o n l y
t h a t w h ic h w as d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o t h i s s t u d y h a s b e e n r e
v ie w e d .
The f i n a l r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t to b e r e v i e w e d h e r e w as
t h e w o rk o f P a u l i n e I s a a c s o n d o n e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
M i n n e s o t a . Two q u e s t i o n s fo rm e d t h e c o r e o f h e r s t u d y
( 6 2 8 : 5 ) . ( 1 ) "W hat w e re t h e m e th o d s o f h i s p e r s u a s i o n ? "
(2 ) "Why d i d m i l l i o n s o f h i s c o u n tr y m e n , f ro m a l l w a lk s o f
366
U f a , p la c e t h e i r c o n fid e n c e In him?" She was co ncerned
w ith h ie a c tio n s and words In o th e r c o n t e x ts , In a d d i tio n
t o h i s p u b lic a d d re s s (6 2 6 :6 ). She n o te d t h a t T a f t had
"no consummate s k i l l or a r t i s t r y In any one o f th e a r e a s
of e x p r e s s io n " ( 6 2 8 :8 - 9 ) , and a s k e d , t h e r e f o r e , one f i n a l
q u e s tio n (6 2 6 :9 ): "Was th e r e . . . i n t h i s man, re c o g n iz e d
by many o f th e g r e a t and th e s m a ll, som ething so s u b s ta n
t i a l t h a t I t was p e rs u a s iv e ? "
Much of h e r r e s e a r o h was drawn from p e r s o n a l f i l e s
o f p eo p le she in te r v ie w e d , from in te r v i e w s , and c o r r e s
pondence (626:22-23)* A good d e a l of d a ta n o t a v a i l a b l e
e lse w h e re i s c o n ta in e d in h e r s tu d y .
The h y p o th e se s p u t to t e s t in h e r t h e s i s f o llo w :
t h a t th e r e was in t h i s man . . . som ething so s u b s ta n
t i a l t h a t i t was p e r s u a s iv e ; t h a t in h i s p u b lic ad
d r e s s and o th e r com m unication, th e m ajor so u re e of
p e r s u a s iv e power was c o n te n t— f u l l n e s s of in fo rm a tio n
made a p p l ic a b le and more m e an in g fu l by c a r e f u l re a s o n
in g ; t h a t e t h l o a l p r o o f , t h a t p ro o f whioh l i e s in th e
man h i m s e l f , was a s tr o n g p o s i t i v e f a c t o r In h i s p e r
s u a s iv e n e s s . . . ; t h a t . . . t h i s p e rs u a d e r n e g le c te d ,
even g e n e r a lly d is d a in e d , th e " I n s tr u m e n ta l components";
t h a t h i s ap p e aran c e and p u b lic p e r s o n a l i t y were n o t
n o tlo e a b ly p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s i n h i s p e r s u a s iv e n e s s ; t h a t
h i s f o r t h r i g h t n e s s . . • s e rv e d a s a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r in
h i s p e r s u a s iv e n e s s . . • ; t h a t volume was a p o s i t i v e
f a c t o r • . • ; t h a t s u p e r io r i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y and
p h y s ic a l sta m in a a s w e ll as I n d u s tr y were b a s ic i n h i s
o a p a o lty f o r . . . s u s t a in e d la b o r • . • ; t h a t he
a o h le v e d a symbol r a t h e r th a n a s i g n a l re s p o n s e ; t h a t
t o th e q u e s tio n "W ill i t work?" t h i s p e rs u a d e r add ed ,
" I s i t e t h i c a l ? " t h a t he was a b le t o a d j u s t h i s mes
sag e to th e I n fo r m a tio n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l of h i s
l i s t e n e r s . • • an d , f i n a l l y , t h a t h i s a b i l i t y to
" th i n k on h i s f e e t , ” h i s f a c i l i t y i n th e extem pora
n e o u s , was a"Key d e te rm in a n t i n h i s p e r s u a s i v e n e s s .”
(628:27-29)
The f i r s t seven chapters o f Isa a cso n 's study were
concerned w ith background m a teria l. Chapter V III, en
t i t l e d "Speaking and Speeches," contained an a n a ly sis o f a
radio address given May 16, 1950 ( 6 2 8 :3 7 1 -4 ° 5 ). She found
heavy r e lia n c e upon lo g ic a l proof < 628 * , more em otional
proof than in h is Senate speeches (which agrees w ith Rapp's
con clu sion s) (628:402), and more c o lo r fu l language than is
ty p ic a l (6 2 6 :4 0 2 ), She added, "Prom other knowledge o f the
speaker, i t would appear v a lid to assume th a t any 'in s tr u
m ental techniques' in the speech were unconscious" (6 2 8 :
I 4 .0i4 .-i4 .05). Isaacson reported what speech exp erts in the
f i e l d of speech had to say about T a ft's speaking (6 2 8 :
I 4 .O 5-M4 .5) • S tu d ies and r e tr o sp e c tiv e comments and judgments
were presented (628:14.06-1445) • A ll o f the opinions in
retro sp ect were w ritten more than two years a fte r T a ft's
death (628:1420) , in gen eral, th eir assessm ents ooncurred
w ith those of the J o u rn a lists o f the day, but some were in
d ir e c t co n tra d ictio n w ith the Kleckner and Rapp con clu sion s
regarding the use o f em otional aid lo g ic a l proof. For ex
ample, Charles G, Irw in, head o f the Speech Department at
B aldw ln-V allaoe C o lleg e, Berea, Ohio, wrote: "If one was
able to grant him h is b a sic assum ptions, I b e lie v e th at
h is lo g ic was u n a ssa ila b le . C ertain ly the teohnlque o f
lo g lo was Impeccable" (628:434)* Thla judgment, irw ln
pointed out in h is le t t e r to Isaacson , dated October 18,
1955* was based on h is memory (6 2 8 :4 3 3 )* Another l e t t e r ,
dated January 9* 1956, w ritten by P rofessor Archie M.
Thomas, J r ., Chairman of the Department o f Speeoh, H eid el
berg C o lleg e, T if f in , Chlo, revealed th a t. In h is opinion,
Taft did not appeal to the em otions o f h is audlenoe (626:
4 3 5 -3 6 ). Although many other " retrosp ective" comments
could be c ite d to show both concurrence and d isp a r ity from
the researoh stu d ies already review ed, a l l o f them were
su b ject to the same w eaknesses, in the f i r s t p la c e , many
o f the speeches upon which the judgments were based were
n o n p o lltio s l. Many were made at c o lle g e assem b lies, and
were, consequently, not ty p ic a l of h is d e lib e r a tiv e ad
d r e sse s. Seoondly, I t i s d i f f i c u l t fo r any man, expert or
layman, to separate what he a c tu a lly r e c a lls about a speech
heard sev era l years p rev io u sly from what oth ers said to him
about I t and from myriads of commentary read In the public
p ress about the speaker. I do not f e e l th a t the use of
such " r e c o lle c tiv e Judgments" Is sound m eth od ologically
whatever the co n sisten cy of her con clu sion s w ith other
known stu d ie s.
Isa a cso n 's a n a ly sis of T a ft's ethos was based m ostly
on " r e c o lle o tlv e " judgment, and on ly very s lig h t ly upon an
a n a ly sis o f h is speaking. In gen era l, however, her conclu
sio n s supported those of the o th er resea rch ers.
In her f in a l ap p raisal o f T aft, Isaacson reported
how her hypotheses had fared as a r e s u lt of her research .
P ertin en t con clu sion s Included the fo llo w in g : (1) the
h y p o th e se s re g a rd in g c o n te n t, r e a s o n in g , and th e I n s t r u
m e n ta l com ponents were s u p p o rte d : (2) the ev id e n c e r e g a r d
in g ap p earan ce and p u b lic p e r s o n a l i t y as p o s s i b l y n e g a tiv e
f a o t o r s was n o t c l e a r o u t— la c k o f a r t i f i c e may have been a
f a c t o r ; (3) th e e v id e n c e s u p p o rte d f o r t h r i g h t n e s s , i n t e l
l e c t u a l a b i l i t y and p h y s ic a l sta m in a and in d u s t r y , au d ien ce
a d a p ta t io n , and extem poraneous a b i l i t y as p o s i t i v e f a o t o r s
(628:53l*-35). (If) H er c o n c lu s io n s r e g a r d in g th e s t r e n g t h
o f h i s e t h i c a l p r o o f , h is co n c e rn f o r v h a t is e t h i c a l , and
the " s u b s t a n t i a l " n a tu r e of th e p e r s u a d e r as a man were
s u b s t a n t i a t e d . A ll o f th e s e were r e p o r te d i n c o n s id e r a b le
d e t a i l . One of h i s s tr e n g t h s w as, she f e l t , the c lo s e
c o r r e l a t i o n betw een "Inw ard th o u g h ts and outw ard show"
( A r i s t o t l e ’ s to p ic f i f t e e n ) (628:537). She b e lie v e d t h a t
T a f t had f a i t h in th e c o l l e c t i v e Judgment of the p eo p le
b a s e d upon th e o b je c ti v e e x a m in a tio n o f the f a o t s (628:
5 3 8 )— a f a i t h t h a t was p ro b a b ly m is p la c e d (628:51*1), t h a t
h i s m otive was s e rv lo e r a t h e r th a n p e r s o n a l g lo r y , t h a t he
had f a i t h In th e governm ent o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , t h a t he
b e l ie v e d th a t a p u b lic o f f i c e was a p u b lic t r u s t , t h a t he
th o u g h t i n term s o f h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to the e l e c t o r a t e
r a t h e r th a n i n term s o f pow er, t h a t he b e lie v e d i n r i g h t
f o r r i g h t ’ s sake (628:538-1*0). She n o te d t h a t m ost o f the
p e o p le who e v a lu a te d him ag ree d on h i s e t h i c s and c h a ra c
t e r b u t d is a g re e d on h i s view s (628:51*1)* She found no
r a n c o r o r v i t u p e r a t i o n i n T a f t (628:51*2). She w ro te t h a t
he had been m isrepresented by both frien d s and enemies
(62 8:542). The most d e c e itfu l th in g about him was the way
he combed h is h a ir (625:543)* Isaacson ended on a somewhat
p o etic note; n H ls [Dr. F e lix M orley'sJ man was Robert
T aft. He was a t a l l man and b ald in g. He was a homey man
and a homely mm. In h is r ig h t hand he held a bulging
b r ie f case . . . " (628:546).
Isa a cso n 's study emphasized T a ft's e th o s. I t was
la r g e ly a study of h is ch aracter and environment w ith some
emphasis on h is speaking seen through the eyes o f h is audi
ence. There was very l i t t l e o r ig in a l a n a ly sis of a ctu a l
sp eeches. Because of th is f a c t , the r e s u lts o f her study
seem most v a lid when considered as a review o f comments and
evalu a tio n s of o th e r s, both exp erts and laymen. Her con
c lu sio n s r e la t iv e to T a ft's e th ic s co rrela ted w ith mine r e
ported in Chapter I .
Scene (O ccasio n and A udience)
Three fa c e ts of the scene w ill be analyzed in th is
se c tio n : (1) the chain o f h is t o r ic a l even ts regarding
labor-management r e la tio n s lead in g up to the s p e c ific
speech s itu a tio n ; (2) the re a ctio n o f the American people
to the lkbor-management problem, and (3) the d e t a ils of the
s p e c ific speech s itu a tio n . In clud in g referen ces to Truman's
speech which In cited T a ft's r e b u tta l.
There i s l i t t l e p oin t in rep eatin g h is t o r ic a l r e -
371
search already a v a ila b le In other sch o la rly papers. Both
K leckner's and Hives* stu d ie s contained h e lp fu l in sig h ts
in to the ev en ts lead in g up to the speech under con sidera
tio n h ere. Rives noted that the United S ta tes Government
has played an in c r e a sin g ly expanding r o le in lab or-
management r e la tio n s , but that there vas not much reg u la
tio n attempted before the t h ir t ie s (635:23-2lj.). The f i r s t
le g is la t io n d ir e c tly a ffe c tin g labor vas the Sherman A nti-
Trust Act o f 1690 which p roh ib ited r e s tr a in t of in te r s ta te
commerce in the form of agreement, con traot, or tr u st
(635:2^ ). Even though Congress probably had not Intended
th a t th is a ct be ap plied to lab or, th is was done by the
Supreme Court in the Danbury H atters case (635:21^).
The Clayton Act of 191^- contained several p rovision s
which labor b eliev ed would remove them from the ju r is d ic
tio n o f the a n ti-tr u s t laws (6 3 5 :2 5 ). Instead the e f f e c t
was the rev erse, fo r the Supreme Court subjected them to
Increased a p p lica tio n o f the a ct on the grounds th at unions
should not be exempted from a c c o u n ta b ility when engaged in
com bination or conspiracy in r e s tr a in t of trade (635:
25-26).
Pollow ing a lon g s e r ie s o f l e g is la t iv e e f f o r t s to
mediate railw ay labor d isp u te s, the Railway Labor Act of
1926 was passed (6 3 5 :2 6 -2 7 ). This act "foreshadowed a
change in governmental p o lic ie s ," fo r i t encouraged the
development o f organized labor and the use of c o lle c t iv e
372
b a r g a in in g th ro u g h a p r o v is io n th a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s be
ch o sen by b o th management and la b o r f r e e from th e I n f l u
ence of th e o th e r p a r ty (6 3 1 :5 0 )•
The N o rrls -L a O uardia A n ti - i n j u n c t i o n A ct of 1932
lim ite d the a u t h o r i t y o f the f e d e r a l c o u r t s to is s u e I n
ju n c tio n s In la b o r d is p u t e s (631:50)* The a c t r e p r e s e n te d
a n o th e r a tte m p t to remove t h e u n io n s from th e J u r i s d i c t i o n
o f a n t i - t r u s t law s (635:27)* I t s p e o l f i e d c e r t a i n u n ion
a c t i v i t i e s which were n o t to be s u b je c t to i n j u n c t i o n (635:
27)* I t c o n ta in e d th e f i r s t l e g i s l a t i v e s ta te m e n t o f th e
d e s i r a b i l i t y o f o r g a n iz a tio n by la b o r and of c o l l e c t i v e
b a r g a in in g , and was the f i r s t of a s e r i e s of a c t s d esig n ed
to enhance l a b o r ’ s p o s i t i o n (6 3 5 :2 7 ).
The N a tio n a l I n d u s t r i a l R ecovery A ct o f 1933 s e t
f o r t h i n S e c tio n 7 (a) codes of f a i r la b o r c o m p e titio n
(6 3 5 :2 8 ). The a c t was d e c la r e d u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l in 1935
(6 3 5 :2 8 ).
D e o is lv e s t r i d e s were n o t made u n t i l the p a s s in g of
th e N a tio n a l Labor R e la tio n s Aot o f 1935* commonly known as
th e Wagner Act (631:51)* w hich was d e a r l y p r o - la b o r (635:
2 9 ). T his a o t g u a ra n te e d the r i g h t of la b o r to o rg a n iz e
and b a r g a in c o l l e c t i v e l y — the b a s i c r i g h t s o f ls b o r b e in g
s t a t e d in S e c tio n 7 (6 3 1 :5 2 ). A lthough la b o r was n o t p ro
h i b i t e d from en g ag in g in u n f a i r la b o r p r a c t i c e s (6 3 5 :3 0 ),
management was f o r b id d e n to engage i n f i v e u n f a ir p r a c
t i c e s : (1) i n t e r f e r i n g i n the e x e r c is e o f th e g u a ra n te e d
373
r ig h ts , (2) In te r fe r in g In the form ation or adm inistration
o f a labor organ ization or the co n trib u tin g of funds to I t ,
(3) supporting or In h ib itin g union membership (w ith c e r ta in
e x c e p tio n s), (4) d iscrim in a tin g again st an employee f i l i n g
charges of v io la tio n under the law, (5) r e fu sin g to bargain
w ith the le g a l rep resen ta tiv e of employees (6 3 1 :5 2 ). The
N ational Labor R ela tio n s Board was created to adm inister
the aot (6 3 1 :5 2 ). Kleckner commented:
Throughout I t s h is to r y , the Board was su b jeot to severe
c r it ic is m s , some of which were j u s t if ie d , some were
n o t. One of the c h ie f a tta ck ers was Senator T aft.
. . . T aft rep eated ly referred to the b ia s and p reju
d ice o f the mearibers serv in g on th is Board, one gets
the Im pression upon reading T a ft's labor speeches th at
the ad m in istrative procedures and d e c isio n s were to
t a ll y w ithout m erit . . . . But ju s t as abuses by em
p loyers brought the Wagner A ct, abuses by unions under
the p ro tectio n o f that a ct brought a need for ce rta in
checks upon union a c t i v i t i e s . The T aft-H artley Act
was the so lu tio n proposed by Congress. (631:53;
The Walsh-Healy Act o f 1936 s e t re g u la tio n s concern
in g minimum wages, the eigh t-h ou r day, aid the forty-h our
week fo r workers under fe d e r a l co n tr a ct. S im ilar p ro v i
sio n s were extended to workers in in te r s ta te commerce by
the Pair Labor Standards Act o f 1938 (6 3 5 :3 0 -3 1 ).
The and o f fe d e r a l le g is la t io n fa v o rin g labor was
marked by passage o f the War Labor D isp utes Act o f 1943,
commonly known as the Sm lth-Connally Act (635:31)* This
a c t, which continued the War Board s e t up In 1942 under
ex ecu tiv e order, lapsed s ix months a fte r the c e ssa tio n of
h o s t i l i t i e s , D eoember 30, 1946 (635:31)*
374
The L a b o r M an ag em en t R e l a t i o n s A o t o f 1942* a l s o
know n a s t h e C a se B i l l * w as s i m i l a r t o th e l a t e r T a f t -
H a r t l e y A c t ( 6 3 5 : 3 2 ) . I t p r o v i d e d f o r a M e d i a t i o n B o a rd *
a c o o l i n g o f f p e r i o d p r i o r to s t r i k e c a l l * e n f o r c e m e n t o f
a g r e e m e n ts * n o u s e o f f o r c e i n d i s p u t e s , e x c l u s i o n o f
s u p e r v i s o r y e m p lo y e e s f r o m b a r g a i n i n g u n i t s * a n d r e s t r i c
t i o n s u p o n t h e u s e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y b o y c o t t ( 6 3 5 : 3 2 ) . A l
th o u g h t h i s b i l l w as v e t o e d b y H a r r y S . T ru m a n , some a c t i o n
w as d e m a n d e d , a n d t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y A ct* t h e L a b o r M an ag e
m e n t R e l a t i o n s A o t o f 1947 w as t h e r e s u l t ( 6 3 5 : 3 2 ) .
The b a s i c p r e m is e o f t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y A c t w as to
r e s t o r e t h e b a l a n c e b e tw e e n l a b o r a n d m a n a g e m e n t (635: 33)*
The R e p u b l i c a n p a r t y i n t e r p r e t e d t h e v i c t o r y a t t h e p o l l s
i n N o v a n b e r , 1946# a s a p o p u l a r m a n d a te f o r r e s t r i c t i o n s
o n l a b o r ( 6 3 5 :3 4 ) * T*1® T a f t - H a r t l e y A c t w as n o t a c o m p l e t e
r e v e r s a l * b u t i t w as t h e l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f s t a t e la w s
r e g u l a t i n g l a b o r w h ic h h a d b e e n g r o w in g s i n c e 1938 (635:
3 5 ) .
T h e re w as some d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o
w h lo h th e l a b o r b i l l r e v e r s e d o r e x t e n d e d t h e W agner A c t .
K e n n e t h C r a w f o r d , a c o l u m n i s t f o r H ew sw eek , i n a n a r t i c l e
i n t h e A— r l c a n M e r c u r y , co m m en ted t h a t t h e ~ b l l l w as a n
e x t e n s i o n o f t h e W ag n er A c t :
H is T a f t - H a r t l e y Law , w h i c h h a s b e e n c a l l e d a s l a v e
l a b o r a c t * i s n o t h i n g o f t h e k i n d end e v e n o r g a n i s e d
l a b o r d o e s n ' t b e l i e v e i t i s . I t i s a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f
t h e W agner A c t t o e x t e n d t o l s b o r l e a d e r s some o f t h e
r e s t r a i n t s t h e o r i g i n a l la w p l a c e d u p o n e m p l o y e r s
375
only. (338:653)
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , o t h a r w r i t e r s c o n s i d e r e d i t t o b a
a r e v e r s a l o f t h e W ag n er A o t. G a l l i n g t h e b i l l , " t h e
f i r s t r e a l a n d m a jo r u p r o o t i n g o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d New D e a l
p o l i c y " (253:1*9) • T a f t ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h e r an d c o l u m n i s t f o r
t h e New Y o rk T i n e s , W i l l i a m S . W h i t e , w r o t e i n a n ew s a r
t i c l e : " T h is p r o p o s e d L a b o r-M a n a g e m e n t R e l a t i o n s A c t o f
19l*7 w o u ld r e w r i t e f r o m b e g i n n i n g to e n d t h e W ag n er A c t,
w h ic h h a s b e e n u n c h a n g e d i n t h e tw e l v e y e a r s o f i t s l i f e "
(1 * 7 1 ,6 /7 /1 * 7 :1 ). L o u ia S t a r k , a l s o i n th e T i n e s , c a l l e d
t h e b i l l a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e W a& ier A c t , b u t e v a l u a t e d
i t a s " o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p i e c e s o f s o c i a l l e g i s l a
t i o n o f th e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s " (1 * 7 1 ,6 /1 5 /1 * 7 , IV : 1 0 ) .
B e f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o th e s p e c i f i c s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n ,
t h e im m e d ia te e v e n t s i n t h e S e n a t e a n d i n t h e n a t i o n l e a d
i n g u p t o t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e b i l l a s w e l l a s t h e m a j o r
p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e b i l l s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d .
C o n g r e s s b e l i e v e d i t h a d a p o p u l a r m a n d a te t o l e g i s
l a t e a g a i n s t a b u s e s b y u n i o n s . W i l l i a m S . W h ite r e p o r t e d
t h a t t h e p u b l i c b e l i e v e d t h a t l a b o r w as n o t b e h a v i n g l i k e
m a n a g e m e n t I n t h e p r e - W a g n e r d a y s ( 2 5 3 : 6 6 - 6 7 ) . An e d i t o
r i a l i n t h e Hew Y o rk T im e s e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e o v e r w h e lm in g
v o t e o f 3 2 0 t o 7 9 i n t h e H o u se o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s m ade i t
o b v i o u s
t h a t t h e E i g h t i e t h C o n g r e s s c o n s i d e r s i t s e l f u n d e r a
d e a r m a n d a te f ro m t h e p e o p l e who e l e o t e d i t l a s t
3 7 6
N o v em b er t o e n a e t l e g i s l a t i o n f o r th e g e n e r a l r e f o r m
a n d m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f th e n a t i o n * a l a b o r r e l a t i o n e
m a c h i n e r y . (1+71, 6 / 5 A 7 : 2l+).
A n o t h e r n ew s a r t i c l e s p e l l e d o u t t h e f a c t s o f t h e N o vem ber
e l e c t i o n : I n t h e 19M> f a l l e l e c t i o n , f i f t y - o n e D e m o c r a ts
w e re r e c a l l e d fro m t h e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a n d f i f t y -
s e v e n R e p u b l i c a n s w e re e l e c t e d ; t h e S e n a t e w as l e f t w i t h
f o r t y - f i v e D e m o c r a ts a n d f i f t y - o n e R e p u b l i c a n s (1+71,
6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : 1 6 ) .
One o t h e r m e th o d o f a s s e s s i n g t h e p u b l i c r e s p o n s e
t o t h e I d e a o f p l a c i n g m o re r e s t r i c t i o n s u p o n l a b o r I s p r o
v i d e d b y n o t i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m a l l r e c e i v e d b y Trum an
a n d T a f t a b o u t t h i s t i m e . H ben A y r e s , a n a s s i s t a n t s e c r e
t a r y I n t h e W h ite H o u s e , e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h r o u g h M onday,
J u n e 1 6 , 191+7, t h e p r e s i d e n t h a d r e c e i v e d 1 5 7 ,0 0 0 t o
1 5 6 , 0 0 0 l e t t e r s , o v e r 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 c a r d s , a n d 2 3 , 0 0 0 t e l e g r a m s ,
a n d t h a t a " l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e " o f t h e m a l l w as p r o - v e t o
(1+71,6/19/1+7:1+ ). The New Y o rk T im e s r e p o r t e d o n t h e m a i l
t h e d a y a f t e r th e b r o a d c a s t :
B o t h th e P r e s i d e n t a n d t h e S e n a t o r w a i t e d f o r t h e
r e s p o n s e o f t h e c o u n t r y to t h e i r a p p e a l s . S t a r t i n g
I n t h e e a r l y h o u r s y e s t e r d a y m o r n i n g , t e l e g r a m s p o u r e d
I n t o t h e W h ite H o u se a n d S e n a t o r T a f t * s o f f l o e I n th e
S e n a t e O f f l o e B u i l d i n g . Tfse W h ite H o u s e r e o e l v e d
1 , 5 0 0 t e l e g r a m s b y m l d - a f t e r n o o n , 9 0 p e r c e n t o f th em
p r a i s i n g t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s p o s i t i o n . S e n a t o r T a f t ' s o f
f l o e s a i d h e h a d r e c e i v e d 6 0 0 w i r e s , a l l b u t 5 0 o f th em
w h o l e h e a r t e d l y e n d o r s i n g h i s s t a n d . ( 1 + 7 1 ,6 /2 3 /4 7 :1 )
W hat w as t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s b i l l , so s t r e n u o u s l y
f o u g h t o v e r b y b o t h s l d e s f A l t h o u g h d e t a i l s f r o m t h e
a c t u a l b i l l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d l a t e r i n t h e c h a p t e r a s p a r t
377
o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f a c t u a l a d e q u a c y o f T a f t * a p e r
s u a s i o n , a t t h i s p o i n t a n a n a l y s i s o f th e p r i n c i p a l p r o v i
s i o n s se e m s t o be a d e q u a t e : t h e c l o s e d s h o p w as f o r b i d d e n ;
t h e u n i o n s h o p g r e a t l y r e s t r i c t e d ; t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and
j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e R a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o«*d
w e r e s e p a r a t e d ; u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c t i c e s b y e m p lo y e e s w e re
a d d e d ; r e s t r i c t i o n s w e r e m ade u p o n t h e r i g h t t o s t r i k e ;
t h e r i g h t o f f r e e s p e e c h b y e m p l o y e r s w as b r o a d e n e d ; I n
j u n c t i o n s an d d am ag e s u i t s a g a i n s t u n i o n s w e re m ade e a s i e r ;
i n d u s t r y - w i d e b a r g a i n i n g w as l i m i t e d ; i n d i v i d u a l e m p lo y e e
r i g h t s a g a i n s t u n i o n s w e re p r o t e c t e d a n d p o l i t i c a l e x
p e n d i t u r e s w e re p r o h i b i t e d ( l ^ l ^ t / l l j / V ? , IV : 1 0 ) •
T a b le 5, w h ic h f o l l o w s , d e s c r i b e s t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f
e v e n t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e p a s s a g e o f th e T a f t - H a r t l e y Law.
C o n g r e s s h a d g o n e f a r b e y o n d T r u m a n 's s u g g e s t i o n s
r e g a r d i n g l a b o r p o l i c y i n t h e f i n a l c o m p ro m is e b i l l , an d
T rum an w as f a c e d w i t h th e d e c i s i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t o
v e t o ( 1 4 .7 1 , 5/ 3 1 / 14.7 : ll|.) • T r u m a n 's o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e b i l l
w as w e l l know n ( I4 .71, 5/ 3l/k-7 1^4 ) • As l a t e a s t h e e n d o f
M ay, i t w as b e l i e v e d t h a t a " s t r o n g v e t o m e s s a g e an d an
a o t l v e c a m p a ig n b y t h e p r e s i d e n t ' s s u p p o r t e r s m i g h t t u r n
t h e t i d e " (1^-71 #5/31/14-7 sU*) •
T h e re w as a g o o d d e a l o f com m ent a b o u t t h e c r i t i c s
o f t h e b i l l . W i l l i a m S . W h ite w r o t e o n J u n e 3 , 1914.7:
T h o s e who d e n o u n c e t h i s b i l l [ t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l )
e i t h e r h a v e n o t r e a d i t , o r t h e y d e l i b e r a t e l y m i s r e p
r e s e n t i t . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e y d e n o u n c e i t
TABLE 5
TIMETABLE OP TAFT-HARTLEY LEGISLATION, 1<&7
D a te A g en cy A c t i o n R e f e r e n c e
J a n u a r y 3 H ouse H ouse m em bers d r o p p e d 17 b i l l s
I n h o p p e r
( 6 3 1 :5 3 )
J a n u a r y 26 P r e s i d e n t P r o p o s e d l i m i t e d a p p r o a c h to
l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n , c e n t e r e d o n
p r e v e n t i o n o f J u r i s d i c t i o n a l
s t r i k e s a n d som e s e c o n d a r y
b o y c o t t s
( l t f l . 5 / 3 0 A 7 : 1 3 )
J a n u a r y 2 3 -M a rc h 8 S e n a te H e a r in g s o f S e n a te C o m m itte e
on L a b o r a n d P u b l i c W e l f a r e ,
c h a i r e d b y R o b e r t A. T a f t
< 14-71»5/30/14.71X3)
F e b r u a r y 5 -M a rc h 1 5 H ouse H e a r in g s o f H o u se C o m m itte e on
E d u c a t i o n a n d L a b o r , h e a d e d b y
P r e d A. H a r t l e y , J r .
< l t f l , 5 / 3 0 A 7 : 1 3 )
A p r i l 17 H o u se P a s s e d a " s h a r p l y r e s t r i c t i v e
l a b o r m e a s u r e , " b y 3 0 8 to 1 0 7
( U 7 1 .S / 3 0 A 7 : 1 3 )
A p r i l 23 S e n a t e D e b a te o p e n e d ( 1 6 : 1 9 0 )
May 12 S e n a t e B i l l a s am ended r e a c h e s S e n a t e
f l o o r
( 1 6 : 1 9 0 )
May 13 S e n a t e P a s s e d 6 8 t o 2ij.
( U 7 1 , S / 3 0 / k 7 : 1 3 ) -
( k 7 1 . S / 3 0 A 7 : 1 3 ) °
May 29 H o u se it S e n a t e A f t e r 3 w e e k s o f n e g o t i a t i o n ,
" e s s e n t i a l s o f T a f t b i l l "
a c c e p t e d b y m em bers o f b o t h
b r a n c h e s
Ju n e
k
H o u se T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l p a s s e d b y
v o t e o f 3 2 0 -7 9
( 1 6 : 1 9 0 )
J u n e 6 S e n a t e T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l p a s s e d b y
v o t e o f 5 lp- 1 7
( 1 6 :1 9 0 )
J u n e 1 8 P r e s i d e n t S a y s p u b l i c l y h e s t i l l h a s n o t
made u p h i s m ln d f n o r h a s h e
r e a d t h e b i l l p a s s e d b y b o t h
h o u s e s
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 1 8 / 4 7 : 1 )
J u n e 2 0 p r e s i d e n t V e to r e a c h e s H ouse a t 1 2 :0 5
P.M .
R o l l c a l l b e g i n s a t 1 2 :5 2 P.M .
a f t e r r e a d i n g t h e v e t o m e ss a g e
an d w i t h o u t d e b a t e
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : 1 )
J u n e 2 0 H ouse
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : 1 )
Ju n e 2 0 H ouse O v e r r i d e s P r e s i d e n t ' s v e t o ,
3 3 1 - 8 3 * 5 5 m ore th a n n e c e s s a r y
t w o - t h i r d s
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : 1 )
Ju n e 2 0 S e n a t e F i l i b u s t e r u n d e r t a k e n b e f o r e
1 0 :0 0 P.M . t o d e l a y v o t e I n
S e n a te
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : 1 )
J u n e 2 0 P r e s l d e n t A d d r e s s e s t h e n a t i o n fro m th e
W h ite H ouse a t 1 0 :0 0 P.M .
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , I V : 1)
J u n e 2 0 T a f t A d d r e s s e s th e n a t i o n fro m th e
C a p i t o l a t 10:iv5 P.M .
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , IV :1 )
J u n e 2 1 S e n a t e R e c e s s e d a f t e r l o n g e s t c o n t i n u
o u s s e s s i o n s i n c e 1 9 2 7 * 3 0
h o u r s an d 5 0 m i n u t e s , w i t h v o t e
s e t f o r 3 : 0 0 P .M ., M onday
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , I V :1 )
J u n e 23 S e n a te O v e r r i d e s P r e s i d e n t ' s v e t o , 6 8 -
25# a t 3 : 1 7 P .M ., an d th e
T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l b e c o m e s law
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 4 / 4 7 : 1 )
- ' j
v O
380
only in the moat general terms* They cannot p oin t to a
lin e or a clau se in i t th a t supports any charges of un
fa ir n e ss to lab or, ( 4 7 1 t 6 / 3 / 4 7 : 1 )
An e d it o r ia l, two days la t e r , commented:
T h e s e e r l t l o s , w hose f a v o r i t e te r m o f d e n u n c i a t i o n o f
t h e l e g i s l a t i o n i s " s l a v e l a b o r , " h a v e d e p e n d e d u p t o
now o n a p e c u l i a r l y i n s i d i o u s f o rm o f m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e y h a v e b u i l t t h e i r a t t a o k o n
s w e e p in g g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s , b u t w hen p r e s s e d t o c i t e
s p e c i f i c e x a m p le s o f t h e " a n t i - l a b o r " c h a r a o t e r o f t h e
l e g i s l a t i o n , t h e y h a v e i n v a r i a b l y e x t r a c t e d o n e o r tw o
o f th e m o re e x tr e m e p r o v i s i o n s f ro m t h e o r i g i n a l b i l l
[ t h e H o u se b i l l } , a n d a f t e r g a r n i s h i n g th em g e n e r o u s l y
w i t h e x a g g e r a t i o n , o f f e r e d them a s t y p i c a l o f th e s p i r
i t o f t h e l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t w as g o i n g to b e s e n t t o t h e
p r e s i d e n t f o r h i s s i g n a t u r e * T hey w e re a b l e t o do t h i s
b y g r o u p i n g th e H o u se b i l l a n d t h e S e n a t e B i l l [ s i c ]
u n d e r t h e h y p h e n a t e d t i t l e , t h e " T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l 7 ”
an d b y d e l i b e r a t e l y r e f r a i n i n g f r o m p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t
t h e " v i c i o u s " f e a t u r e s t o w h ic h th e y a l w a y s a l l u d e d
h a d n o c o u n t e r p a r t i n th e S e n a t e ( T a f t ) b i l l , t h e p a t
t e r n o f w h ic h h a s b e e n a c c e p t e d a l m o s t w i t h o u t a
c h a n g e b y t h e c o n f e r e n c e c o m m itte e . . . . ( 4 7 1 ,
6 / 5 / 4 7 : 2 4 )
As la te as June 1 8 , Truman sa id th at he had not y et
read the b i l l in the form passed by both Houses, and th a t
he had not yet made up h is mind to v eto the b i l l (471:1)*
O n June 2 0 , he was reported by A ssociated Press as saying
that he b eliev ed the b i l l was "a bad p iece o f le g is la t io n ,
a fte r a long study of the most d e ta ile d a n a ly sis he had
ever receiv ed r e la tin g to a b ill" ( 4 7 1 : 1 ) • He had been sub
jected to an "Intense pressure campaign" urging him to veto
the b i l l ( 6 0 3 : 1 5 ) . He had been bombarded by telegram s,
le t t e r s , oards, a "CIO p e titio n w ith 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 sign atu res
l e f t a t the White House," a caravan of b u ses, s ta tio n
wagons, and autos from C a lifo rn ia ( 1 ,4 0 0 persons strong)
381
( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) * Ifo* D e m o c r a tic N a t i o n a l C o m m itte e p o l l e d i t s
m e m b e r s h ip a i d r e p o r t e d a v o t e o f 1 0 3 t o 6 6 I n f a v o r o f a
v e t o ( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) * T ru m an f a c e d a d ile m m a : I f he s i g n e d t h e
b i l l , h e w o u ld a l i e n a t e l a b o r ; i f h e v e t o e d i t , h e w o u ld
a n t a g o n i z e t h e m a j o r i t y t h a t h a d p r o v i d e d h im w i t h a
R e p u b 1 1 c a n - d o m i n a t e d C o n g r e s s , t h e p a s t N ovem ber ( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) *
The b i l l h a d u n d e r g o n e c a r e f u l s c r u t i n y b y h i s a d
v i s e r s ( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) * The p r i v a t e a n a l y s i s m ade b y t h e J u s t i c e
D e p a r t m e n t I n d i c a t e d p r o b le m s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; th e a n a l y
s e s o f t h e L a b o r D e p a r tm e n t a n d t h e N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a
t i o n s B o a rd w as s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t t h e b i l l ; th e C a b i n e t w as
d i v i d e d ( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) * T rum an m ade h i s d e c i s i o n o n l y t h e d a y
b e f o r e , on t h e b a s i s o f c o n f l i c t i n g a d v i o e ( 6 0 3 : 1 5 )*
A n u m b e r o f h i s c l o s e a d v i s e r s h e l p e d him w r i t e t h e
v e t o m e s s a g e :
O nce th e p r e s i d e n t ' s d e c i s i o n w as m a d e , h e s e t t o w r i t
i n g h i s v e t o m e s s a g e w i t h t h e h e l p o f P r e s i d e n t i a l
L a b o r A d v i s e r J o h n S . S t e e l m a n ; C l a r k G i f f o r d , h i s
c o u n s e l ; NLRB C h a irm a n P a u l M. H e r z o g ; W h ite H ouse
p r e s s s e o r e t a r y C h a r l e s R o s s . The m e s s a g e w as com
p l e t e d T h u r s d a y n i g h t . ( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , I V : 1)
T r u m a n 's v e t o m e s s a g e w a s r e a d to t h e H o u se a t n o o n t h e
n e x t dqjr, a n d i t w as p r o m p t l y o v e r r i d d e n ( 4 7 1 *6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : 1 ) .
W hen t h e v e t o s w s s a g e w as p r e s e n t e d t o t h e S e n a t e t h a t a f
t e r n o o n , T a f t t o o k t h e f l o o r y i e l d e d t o h im b y S e n a t o r
C l s u d e p e p p e r , F l o r i d a , t o o h a r g e t h a t T r u m a n 's v e t o m e s
s a g e f o l l o w e d a m em orandum p r e p a r e d b y L ee P r e s s m a n o f t h e
CIO ( 6 1 1 : 7 5 6 0 ) , b u t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s w i l l b e r e s e r v e d
382
f o r l a t e r I n th e o h a o t e r , s l n o e t h e sam e c h a r g e w as r e
p e a t e d i n t h e s p e e e h t h a t e v e n i n g . A f i l i b u s t e r w as u n d e r
t a k e n b y G le n H. T a y l o r , D e m o c ra t o f I d a h o , j u s t b e f o r e
1 0 : 0 0 P±M. (1 + 7 1 ,6 /2 1 /1 + 7 : 1 ) , a f i l i b u s t e r w h i c h w as t o b e
c o n t i n u e d b y o t h e r m em bers o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . The t o t a l
l e n g t h o f t h e f i l i b u s t e r w as t w e n t y - e i g h t h o u r s a n d t h i r t y -
tw o m i n u t e s (1*71,6 /2 2 /k l s i ) .
A t 1 0 :0 0 P.M . t h a t e v e n i n g , T rum an s o u g h t t o p u t t h e
w e i g h t o f h i s o f f l o e b e h i n d t h e v e t o b y a d i r e c t a p p e a l t o
t h e c o u n t r y (1 + 7 1 ,6 /2 1 /1 + 7 : 3 ) • He s p o k e fro m t h e O v a l Room
i n t h e W h ite H o u se ( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) *
B e c a u s e o f t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e v e t o m e s s a g e a n d
t h e r a d i o a d d r e s s t o t h e n a t i o n i s r e s p e c t t o t h e i r v i t a l
p a r t i c u l a r s , c r i t i c i s m a n p l i c a b l e t o b o t h w i l l be t r e a t e d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The New Y o rk T im e s d e s c r i b e d t h e v e t o
m e s s a g e " a s a c a t c h a l l f o r e v e r y d i s c r e d i t e d a r g u m e n t a d
v a n c e d a g a i n s t t h e b i l l o v e r t h e p a s t s e v e r a l w e e k s* (1 +7 1 ,
6 /2 1 / 1 + 7 :1 ) . The te r m s u s e d b y T ru m an a g a i n s t t h e b i l l o r
i t s p r o v i s i o n s w e re l i s t e d :
S t a r t l i n g , d a n g e r o u s , f a r - r e a c h i n g , u n p r e c e d e n t e d ,
u n w o r k a b l e , u n i q u e , c o m p le x , b u r d e n s o m e , a r b i t r a r y ,
u n n e c e s s a r y , i m p o s s i b l e , i n e f f e c t i v e , d i s c r i m i n a t o r y ,
e l a b o r a t e , c l u m s y , o u m b e rso m e , i n e q u i t a b l e , b a c k w a r d ,
u n f a i r , u n w a r r a n t e d , i n t e r f e r i n g , t r o u b l e s o m e , s e r i o u s ,
d r a s t i c . • • • (1+ 71,6/21/1+ 7*3)
F r e d H a r t l e y a t t a c k e d t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s m e s s a g e , p o i n t i n g o u t
t h a t h e " h a d g o n e s o f a r a s t o o b j e c t t o l a n g u a g e w h ic h w as
n o t i n t h e b i l l i n i t s p r e s e n t f i n a l f o r m ” a n d t h a t h e h a d
38 3
e n g a g e d I n " d o u b l e - t a l k , sh am , d i s t o r t i o n , a b u s e ; f a r
f e t c h e d , s t r a i n e d a n d t o r t u r e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f o l e a r
s i m p l e e l a u s e s , h y s t e r i c a l g r a s p i n g a t a n y a r g u m e n t , how
e v e r i n v a l i d , t o t h w a r t t h e w i l l o f C o n g r e s s " ( i f 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 A 7 :
1 ) , S e n a t o r I r v i n g M, I v e s , R e p u b l i c a n o f New T o r k , s a i d ,
" I t ' s t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s
o f t h e b i l l , b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e a c t " 04- 7 1 , 6 / 2 1 ^ 4.7 : 3 )*
T a f t r e s p o n d e d w i t h w o rd s w h ic h w e re b i t i n g an d
a c i d b e f o r e a m ic ro p h o n e i n t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g o h am b er o f t h e
S e n a t e a t 10:14.5 P.M. ( 1 4- 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 .If7 ,IV : 1) • (S e e C h a p t e r I
f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s mode o f d e l i v e r y . )
A g e n t (Speaker)
A b r i e f b i o g r a p h y o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s l i f e h a s b e e n
p r e s e n t e d i n A p p e n d ix C. ^ i n e e t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r
was t o i n v e s t i g a t e T a f t ' s s p e a k i n g e t h i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e c r i t e r i a l i s t e d i n C h a p t e r I I , I c h o s e n o t
t o r e p e a t t h e b i o g r a p h i o a l d e t a i l s o f h i s l i f e , w h ic h a r e
a v a i l a b l e a t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h i n o t h e r s t u d i e s ( 6 2 6 ,
6 3 1 , 6 3I4., 6 3 5 ) And i n b i o g r a p h i e s o f h i s l i f e ( 1 0 5 # 2 5 3 )*
The I s a a o s o n s t u d y , i n i t s f i n a l e f f e c t , a m o u n te d t o a n
e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e T a f t l a n o h a r a o t e r ( 6 2 8 ) , a s d i d t h e some
w h a t p a r t i s a n b i o g r a p h y w r i t t e n b y C a r o l i n e Thomas H a r n s -
b e r g e r . A Man o f C o u ra g e ( 1 0 5 ) . The e n t i r e f i r s t p a r t o f
t h e K l e o k n e r s t u d y was d e v o t e d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e b a c k -
38^
g r o u n d o f S e n a t o r T a f t ( 6 3 1 ) , w h i l e th e Rapp s t u d y e v e n
t r e a t e d t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f h i s f a m i l y I n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e
t a i l (6 3 if). The R i v e s s t u d y I n c l u d e d m i n im a l b i o g r a p h i c a l
m a t e r i a l , y e t t r e a t e d h i s s p e e c h e s I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p a s
s a g e o f th e T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l I n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l (6 3 5 )*
The l a s t o f th e m a jo r s o u r o e a o f b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a , The
T a f t S t o r y , b y W i l l i a m S . W h ite , r e p o r t e r f o r t h e New Y o rk
T im e s , a l t h o u g h som ew hat e u l o g i s t i c I n t o n e , c o n t a i n e d
much f a c t u a l d e t a i l a b o u t T a f t ' s l i f e (2 5 3 )«
A t l e a s t one i n d i c a t i o n o f th e g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t
o f T a f t ' s c h a r a c t e r ( t h e one m o s t v i t a l t o t h e r e s u l t s o f
t h i s s t u d y ) , h i s r e p u t a t i o n a s an e t h i c a l p e r s u a d e r , h a s
a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d I n C h a p t e r I .
Two f a c e t s o f T a f t ' s l i f e w h ic h a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y
I m p o r t a n t t o t h i s s t u d y a r e h i s b a c k g r o u n d a n d s p e a k i n g
e x p e r i e n c e on t h e l a b o r q u e s t i o n and h i s t h e o r y o f s p e a k
i n g .
T a f t ' s f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e a s a p u b l i c s e r v a n t w i t h
l a b o r p o l i c y came d u r i n g h l a y e a r s s p e n t i n th e O hio l e g i s
l a t u r e a t C o lu m b u s. I l e c k n e r r e p o r t e d h i s r e c o r d t h e r e
d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1 9 2 1 - 2 6 , 1 9 3 1 - 3 3 :
As f o r t h e fe w l a b o r q u e s t i o n s t h a t came up d u r i n g
h i s t e r m s , T a f t v o t e d f o r a b i l l t o e s t a b l i s h minimum
w ages f o r women mid m i n o r s I n i n d u s t r y ; f o r a c o n s t i
t u t i o n a l am endm ent l i b e r a l i s i n g t h e w o r k m a n 's c o m p e n sa
t i o n s y s t e m ; f o r l i m i t i n g t h e u s e o f i n j u n c t i o n s
a g a i n s t u n i o n s ; and f o r o u t l a w i n g " y e l l o w - d o g " c o n
t r a c t s , a m e a s u r e w h ic h w as o p p o s e d b y i n d u s t r i a l I n
t e r e s t s . ( 6 3 1 :1 8 )
3 85
Re wee a s s i g n e d t o t h e E d u o a t l o n and L a b o r C o s n l t t e e
d u r i n g h i s f i r s t t e r n I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e (1 0 5 :
1 3 8 ) . One w r i t e r , a W a s h in g to n c o r r e s p o n d e n t , r e p o r t e d
t h a t h i s r e c o r d d u r i n g t h e y e a r s b e t w e e n h i s f i r s t a s s i g n *
m e n t to t h a t c o m m itte e and h i s c h a i r m a n s h i p e i g h t y e a r s
l a t e r w as " c u r i o u s l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y ” :
I n 1 9 ^ 0 , T a f t s u r p r i s e d many o b s e r v e r s when h e b r o k e
w i t h h i s p a r t y t o v o t e f o r a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n * s u p p o r t e d
b i l l o u t l a w i n g th e u se o f s t r i k e b r e a k e r s a n d s p i e s i n
l a b o r d i s p u t e s . (B u t a few y e a r s l a t e r h e w as b a o k on
t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e f e n c e when h e s u p p o r t e d th e
S m l t h - C o n n a l l y War L a b o r D i s p u t e s A c t, w h ic h w as p a s s e d
o v e r p r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t ' s v e t o . ) T h e n , i n 19Mf> T a f t
s u r p r i s e d many p e o p l e a g a i n when h e s i d e d w i t h l a b o r
i n v o t i n g a g a i n s t r e q u i r i n g u n i o n s t o f i l e f i n a n c i a l
s t a t e m e n t s . (B u t r i g h t a f t e r t h e w ar he o p p o s e d th e
e m e rg e n o y u n e m p lo y m e n t- c o m p e n s a tio n p r o p o s a l s t h a t h a d
l a b o r ' s b a c k i n g . ) T h en , c r o s s i n g o v e r o n c e m o re , he
s u p p o r t e d a m o d i f i e d m lnlm um -wage b i l l a n d f o u g h t
a g a i n s t t h e " f o r c e d - l a b o r ” b i l l w h ic h Trum an p u t f o r t h
a t th e tim e o f t h e r a i l r o a d s t r i k e . (B u t I n th e m ean
tim e he had jum ped th e f e n c e a g a i n a n d h e l p e d d r a f t
th e C ase b i l l . (1*21:670)
By 19^-6, T a f t w as t h e S e n a t e l e a d e r on d o m e s t i c p o l i c y
( 2 6 5 :1 0 3 ) * Ho becam e c h a i r m a n o f t h e c o m m itte e on l a b o r
w hen t h e E i g h t i e t h C o n g r e s s c o n v e n e d on J a n u a r y 3, 19l*7
( 6 2 8 : 2 1 9 - 2 0 , 631 :l* l) .
W i l l i a m s. W h i t e , i n The T a f t S t o r y , p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t T a f t w as n o t c o n s i d e r e d a n e x p e r t on l a b o r e v e n
th o u g h h e h a d s e r v e d e i g h t y e a r s on t h e L a b o r C o m m itte e ,
n o r d i d h e c o n s i d e r h i m s e l f a s a n e x p e r t ( 2 5 3 : 6 9 ) . W h ite
r e p o r t e d t h a t T a f t p re p a ? e d h i m s e l f t h r o u g h s t u d y a n d
t h r o u g h c o n s o r t i n g " w i t h some r a t h e r o d d c h a r a c t e r s I n
o r d e r t o g e t t h e i r v i e w s ” ( 2 5 3 :6 9 ) * C i t i n g a n i n t e r v i e w
386
J a n u a r y 2 7 , 1 9 5 6 , l a a a c a o n r e p o r t e d :
Mr. J o h n M a r s h a l l , J r . , w h o v o r k a d f o r T a f t on t h a
L a b o r C o n m itte e h a s s a i d : "H ie t h i n g t h a t am asad me
v a s t h a t v a ' d h a v e h e a r i n g s on b i g p r o b l e m s , f o r e x
a m p le , s h i p p i n g , a n d a s u b j e c t v i t h w h ic h T a f t a n d th a
o t h e r s w e re u n f a m i l i a r , w o u ld b e b r o u g h t u p . S e n a t o r
Lehm an, I v e a , M u rra y , T a f t , a n d o t h e r s , m i g h t a l l b e
p r e s e n t , b u t i t w as T a f t who h a d t h e a b i l i t y t o a a k
q u e s t i o n s o f a w i t n e s s and draw o u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n .
When h e h a d t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n , he w o u ld h a v e a f a i r
g r a s p o f t h e s u b j e c t . The o t h e r s c o u l d n o t a s k q u e s
t i o n s w i t h a g i l i t y o r g e t t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e m a t t e r .
Pew p e o p l e w o u ld b e a b l e to do s o . ( 6 2 8 :2 2 0 )
C i t i n g m o t h e r i n t e r v i e w , J a n u a r y 2 6 , 1 9 5 6 , w i t h J u d g e
M i l d r e d R e e v e s o f t h e M u n i c i p a l C o u r t o f th e D i s t r i c t o f
C o lu m b ia , who h a d known T a f t s i n c e 1 9 3 1 , I s a a c s o n w r o t e :
Bob T a f t h a d an e x c e l l e n t b a c k g r o u n d o f k n o w le d g e ; y e t
h e t o o k no p o s i t i o n u n t i l he s t u d i e d i t t h o r o u g h l y *
When h e i n t r o d u c e d b i l l s , h e d i d s o o n l y a f t e r c l o s e
s c r u t i n y . He c a l l e d i n e x p e r t s b e f o r e he p r e p a r e d a
m e a s u r e . ( 6 2 8 :2 2 9 )
T a f t ' s s t a f f , w h ic h w as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a s s i s t i n g h im i n
r e s e a r c h a n d i n h a n d l i n g th e m any d e t a i l s o f t h e p u b l i c
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , w as d i s c u s s e d b y K l e c l m e r :
I n 1 9 ^ 7 , h e h a d an o f f i c e s t a f f o f e l e v e n , i n c l u d i n g a
p e r s o n a l l y p a i d p u b l i c i t y man ( B i l l McAdams). To a s
s i s t him i n o b t a i n i n g n e e d e d I n f o r m a t i o n , h e a l s o h a s
t h e l a r g e s t s t a f f o f r e s e a r c h e x p e r t s o f a n y c o n g r e s s
m an. (631:ip2)
W i l l i a m S . W h ite s t a t e d T a f t ' s v i e w , t h a t o r g a n i z e d
l a b o r v a s to o p o w e r f u l , b u t p o i n t e d o u t t h a t h e d i d n o t b e
l i e v e t h a t T a f t a p p r o a c h e d t h e p r o b le m " i n a p u n i t i v e f ra m e
o f m in d a n d w i t h a s p i r i t o f v e n g e a n c e " ( 2 5 3 : 6 9 * 7 0 ) .
N e i t h e r waa h e th e c a p t i v e o f m a n a g e m e n t, W h ite f e l t :
" W h a te v e r v ie w s h e h a d on t h e s u b j e o t w e re h i s own, g a t h -
337
• r e d w i t h o u t a p p a r e n t d e e p b i a s fro m b o t h s i d e s . . . "
( 2 5 3 : 7 0 ) .
O t h e r w r i t e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t T a f t w as b i a s e d , b u t t h a t
t h e b i a s was th e r e s u l t o f h i s f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d a n d p r e -
v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . R i c h a r d R o v e re w r o t e I n 191^.8:
I t I s s u r e l y a t r a g i c c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e a b l e s t
f i g u r e I n A m e ric a n p o l i t i c s t o d a y , and i n many ways
th e man o f f i r m e s t I n t e g r i t y a n d I n d e p e n d e n c e o f m in d ,
I s a t th e same tim e a man o f l m p r e g n a b l y p a r o c h i a l c u l
t u r e and o f a p e r s o n a l i t y e v e n l e s s b e g u i l i n g , when
v ie w e d fro m a d i s t a n c e , t h a n t h a t o f th e l a t e C a l v i n
C o o l i d g e . ( 5 1 2 :2 8 9 )
He a d d e d , s p e a k i n g o f th e T a f t - H a r t l e y l e g i s l a t i o n :
T h e re i s no r e a s o n t o q u e s t i o n T a f t ' s s i n c e r i t y
when h e s a y s t h a t th e T a f t - H a r t l e y A c t m e r e l y r e
d r e s s e s t h e I n e q u a l i t i e s im p o se d u p o n t h e e m p lo y e r s
b y t h e Wagner A o t. I f , a s seem s t o b e th e c a s e , t h e
A c t g o e s b e y o n d r e d r e s s an d r e c r e a t e s o n c e m ore a b a l
a n c e I n th e e m p l o y e r 's f a v o r , i t d o e s so n o t b e c a u s e
i t s a u t h o r w a n te d t o c r e a t e i n e q u a l i t y b u t b e c a u s e h i s
i d e a o f f i f t y - f i f t y I s u n a v o i d a b l y c o l o r e d by b a c k
g r o u n d and e x p e r i e n c e . ( 5 1 2 : 2 9 5 )
J o s e p h an d S t e w a r t A ls o p c o n c u r r e d t h a t T a f t h a d a " n a t u r a l
sy m p a th y f o r t h e b u s i n e s s c l a s s " ( 2 6 5 : 1 0 6 ) . K l e c k n e r ' s
s t u d y came t o s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s :
T h u s, when v ie w e d a s a w h o le , T a f t ' s l a b o r r e c o r d
seem s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t h e f a v o r s m a n a g e m e n t, p e r h a p s
u n c o n s c i o u s l y , a n d t h a t h e know s b u s i n e s s fro m t h e
p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n l a w y e r . ( 6 3 1 :6 ^ )
H i s e x p e r i e n c e a s a c o r p o r a t i o n l a w y e r s p a n n e d t h e e i g h t e e n
y e a r s o f h i s m e m b e rs h ip i n t h e f i r m o f T a f t , S t e t t i n l u s ,
a n d H o l l i s t e r - - a f i r m w h ic h r e p r e s e n t e d l a r g e l o c a l c o n
c e r n s s u c h a s o r u e n W a tc h , G l o b e - W e r n ic k e , C i n c i n n a t i M i l l
i n g M a c h in e Com pany, mid th e C i n c i n n a t i U n io n T e r m i n a l , an d
388
l a r g e o u t s i d e f i r m s l i k e t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a R a i l r o a d (6 3 1 :
1 6 ) . i t was I n e v i t a b l e t h a t h i s l a t e r v ie w s w o u ld be
c o l o r e d b y h i s e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e t o some e x t e n t .
A l t h o u g h I p r o p o s e d a n I n t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f a
s i n g l e s p e e c h - - t h e r a d i o a d d r e s s t o t h e n a t i o n i n r e p l y t o
T r u m a n 's v e t o o n t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y L aw --som e r e f e r e n o e t o
T a f t ' s o t h e r s p e a k i n g o n t h e m e a s u re seem ed a p p r o p r i a t e .
Rapp com m ented on t h e e x t e n s i v e n e s s a n d b r e a d t h o f T a f t ' s
S e n a t e s p e a k i n g , i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s b y a l i s t o f h i s s p e a k
i n g a p p e a r a n c e s d u r i n g t h e S e v e n t y - s i x t h C o n g r e s s — a l i s t
f o u r p a g e s i n l e n g t h ( 6 3 4 : 1 9 5 - 9 9 V He a l s o p r e p a r e d a c h a r t
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e years fro m 1 9 3 9 t o 1953* i n d i c a t i n g t h e
n u m b er o f d a y s th e S e n a t e m e t, th e n u m b er o f d a y s T a f t was
a b s e n t , a n d t h e num ber o f d a y s on w h ic h h e s p o k e ( 6 3 4 : 4 5 6 ) .
D u r i n g th e c r u c i a l E i g h t i e t h C o n g r e s s , t h e S e n a t e m et lij.0
d a y s , 3 o f w h i c h T a f t w as a b s e n t ; T a f t sp o k e o n 90 o f th e
lij.0 d a y s (63ij.:lj.56).
K l e c k n e r ' s s t u d y I n c l u d e d an a n a l y s i s o f t h e s p e e c h ,
g i v e n on A p r i l 23# 1947» i n w h ic h T a f t i n t r o d u c e d s * n a t e
B i l l 1 1 2 6 , th e T a f t - H a r t l e y Law, o n t h e S e n a t e f l o o r (6 3 1 :
6 7 )* I n t h i s s p e e o h , T a f t p r e s e n t e d t h e a r g u m e n ts e s t a b
l i s h i n g t h a n e e d f o r new l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n ; h e d i s c u s s e d
p r e v i o u s l e g i s l a t i o n s h o w in g how l a b o r h ad b e e n p e r m i t t e d
t o g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e i t s p o w er t o a n u n r e a s o n a b l e e x t e n t ;
t h e n , he o f f e r e d t h e s o l u t i o n , SB 1 1 2 6 , a n d p o i n t e d o u t i t s
b e n e f i t s ( 6 3 1 :1 5 3 - 5 7 \ F i f t y am endm ents t o t h e W agner A ct
389
w e re c o n t a i n e d I n t h e new b i l l ( 6 3 5 :3 7 ) *
On A p r i l 2 5 , 1 9 4 7 , T a f t s p o k e i n f a v o r o f a n amend
m ent made b y S e n a t o r J o s e p h H* B a l l o f M in n e s o ta w h ic h p r o
p o s e d t o make i t u n f a i r f o r u n i o n s t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e
e x e r c i s e o f l e g a l r i g h t s g u a r a n t e e d t o e m p lo y e r s ( 6 3 5 :
4 6 - 4 7 ) * T h r e e d a y s H a t e r he s p o k e a g a i n s t s p l i t t i n g t h e
b i l l i n t o f o u r p a r t s t o a v o i d a v e t o on t h e w h o le b i l l
( 6 3 5 :4 7 ) * T a f t h a d a r g u e d i n f a v o r o f a s i n g l e b i l l b o t h
i n c o m m itte e a n d on t h e f l o o r ( 6 3 5 :4 7 ) * The p r o p o s a l f o r a
s p l i t was r e j e c t e d on A p r i l 30 by a v o te o f f i f t y - n i n e t o
t h i r t y - f i v e ( 6 3 5 : 5 2 ) . On A p r i l 2 9 , T a f t d e b a t e d a g a i n s t
S e n a t o r P e p p e r on t h e q u e s t i o n on a d o s e d s h o p ( 6 3 5 : 5 0 ) .
On May 2 , S e n a t o r Wayne M orse made an a p p e a l f o r p a s s a g e
w i t h o u t a m en d m en t, a n d T a f t a n s w e r e d h im u r g i n g p a s s a g e o f
t h e b i l l w i t h t h e B a l l am endm ent ( 6 3 5 :5 3 ) * M orse was
a g a i n s t t h e w h o le b i l l , b u t i n f a v o r o f t h e am endm ent
( 6 3 5 :5 3 ) * The B a l l am endm ent was p a s s e d w i t h a v o t e o f
s i x t y t o t w e n t y - e i g h t ( 6 3 5 :5 3 ) * D u r in g t h e m onth o f May,
T a f t am endm ents p r o h i b i t i n g b o y c o t t s a n d o t h e r u n l a w f u l
c o m b i n a t i o n s w e re a d o p t e d ; a n am endm ent b y B a l l a n d o t h e r s
t o a b o l i s h t h e u n i o n s h o p w as d e f e a t e d ; a n am endm ent g u a r
a n t e e i n g f re e d o m o f s p e e c h t o e m p lo y e r s a n d e m p lo y e e s a n d
p r o h i b i t i n g c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f u n i o n s w i t h Com m unist o f f i c e r s
was p a s s e d ( 6 3 5 :5 4 ) * F i n a l l y , on May 13# t h e w h o le b i l l
was v o t e d u p o n a n d p a s s e d s i x t y - e i g h t t o t w e n t y - f o u r ( 6 3 5 :
5 4 )* W h ite r e p o r t e d t h a t T a f t " w e n t t o t h e c o u n t r y i n a
390
r a d i o • p e a c h * on t h e law on May 1 3 , 1947 ( 2 5 3 :7 5 ) * A f t e r
p a s s a g e o f t h e b i l l i n t h e S e n a t e , J o i n t m e e t i n g s w e re
h e l d w i t h t h e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and a g r e e m e n t was
f i n a l l y r e a c h e d o n May 29 ( 6 3 5 :5 4 ) *
The f i n a l p h a s e o f p a s s a g e w as m a rk e d b y t h e a c c e p t
a n c e o n J u n e 6 o f th e c o n f e r e n c e r e p o r t b y a v o t e o f f i f t y -
f o u r t o s e v e n t e e n , t h u s c l e a r i n g th e b i l l f o r t h e p r e s i
d e n t ' s s i g n a t u r e ( 6 3 5 :5 4 ) * On J u n e 20, th e p r e s i d e n t ' s
v e t o w as r e a d t o b o t h H o u s e s a n d b o t h Truman a n d T a f t
*w ent t o t h e n a t i o n * o v e r n a t i o n a l r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s .
T a f t ' s f i n a l s p e e c h on t h e b i l l was g i v e n on J u n e 23 ( 6 3 4 :
2 5 3 , 6 3 5 : 5 5 ) * A t t h i s t i m e , h e c l o s e d t h e d e b a t e a n d
summed up th e w o rk o f C o n g r e s s ( 6 3 5 : 5 6 ) . T h en th e S e n a t e
p a s s e d t h e b i l l o v e r th e P r e s i d e n t ' s v e t o a s t h e H ouse h a d
d o n e t h r e e d a y s b e f o r e .
T a f t n o t o n l y I n t r o d u c e d th e b i l l , he was t h e
d o m in a n t f i g u r e i n t h e p r e l i m i n a r y an d t h e f i n a l d e b a t e i n
t h e S e n a t e an d i t s m a j o r c h a m p io n b e f o r e th e A m e ric a n
p e o p l e . He was i n t e n s e l y p r o u d o f t h e b i l l , a n d th o u g h
i t w as u n p o p u l a r i n some r e s p e c t s , w o u ld n e v e r " s o f t -
p e d a l * i t ( 2 5 3 :9 5 ) * I n th e S e n a t e , i t h a d b e e n c l e a r l y
T a f t ' s b i l l , b u t t h e f i n a l p r o d u o t o f C o n g r e s s w as n e a r l y
a l l h i s w o rk to o ( 2 5 3 : 7 1 ) •
The s e c o n d f a o e t o f T a f t ' s l i f e e s p e c i a l l y p e r t i
n e n t t o t h i s s t u d y was h i s t h e o r y o f s p e a k i n g , i t i s I n
s e p a r a b l e fro m h i s t h e o r y o f p o l i t i c s , i t c a n b e
391
r e c o n s t r u c t e d fro m h i s own s t a t e m e n t s a s w e l l a s fro m t h e
s t a t e m e n t s o f o t h e r s .
"W hat m akes T a f t p u z z l i n g , I t h i n k , i s t h a t h e I s
a l l o f a p i e c e , " B e n ja m in S t o l b e r g w r o t e . " H is c h a r a o t e r ,
h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , a n d h i s l i f e a l l h a n g t o g e t h e r , w h ic h I s
r a r e e n o u g h t o be b a f f l i n g " (5 ^ 9 :3 9 lf)« T a f t a p p e a r e d t o
f i t I n R l e a m a n 's c a t e g o r y o f t h e " i n n e r - d i r e c t e d " man:
My m a j o r t h e s i s . . . i s t h a t t h e c o n f o r m i t y o f
e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s o f A m e ric a n s o f t h e t y p e I te rm
" i n n e r - d i r e c t e d " was m a i n l y a s s u r e d b y t h e i r I n
t e r n a l i z a t i o n o f a d u l t a u t h o r i t y . The m i d d l e -
c l a s s u r b a n A m e ric a n o f to d a y , t h e " o t h e r d i r e c t e d , "
i s , b y c o n t r a s t . I n a c h a r a c t e r o l o g i c a l s e n s e m ore
th e p r o d u c t o f h i s p e e r s - - t h a t I s , I n s o c i o l o g i c a l
t e r m s , h i s " p e e r - g r o u p s , " th e o t h e r k i d s a t s c h o o l
o r i n t h e b l o c k . I n a d u l t l i f e h e c o n t i n u e s to
r e s p o n d t o t h e s e p e e r s n o t o n l y w i t h o v e r t c o n fo rm
i t y , a s d o p e o p l e i n a l l t i m e s and p l a c e s , b u t a l s o
I n a d e e p e r s e n s e , i n t h e v e r y q u a l i t y o f h i s f e e l
i n g . Y e t p a r a d o x i c a l l y , he r e m a i n s a l o n e l y member
o f t h e crow d b e c a u s e he n e v e r com es r e a l l y c l o s e t o
th e o t h e r s o r t o h i m s e l f ; h i s i n n e r - d i r e c t e d p r e d e
c e s s o r was l o n e l y , t o o , b u t I n a d i f f e r e n t way: h i s
c h i e f company b e i n g t h e a n c e s t o r ' s w i t h i n - - t h e p a r e n t s
whom h e h a d i n t e r n a l i z e d . ( 2 0 5 : v - v i )
The " o l d " m id d le c l a s s — t h e b a n k e r , t h e t r a d e r — was " i n n e r -
d i r e c t e d " ( 2 0 5 : 2 1 ) . The s o u r c e o f d i r e c t i o n I s I n n e r s i n c e
i t w as i m p l a n t e d i n e a r l y c h ild h o o d - by th e e l d e r g e n e r a t i o n
and d l r e o t e d to w a rd s p e c i f i c g o a l s ( 2 0 5 :1 5 ) * C h o i c e s a r e
c h a n n e l e d t h r o u g h a r i g i d y e t h i g h l y i n d i v i d u a l i s e d
c h a r a c t e r and a r e r e l a t i v e l y u n c h a n g e a b l e s i n c e t h e y a r e
i d e o l o g i c a l l y I n t e r r e l a t e d ( 2 0 5 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) . T r a d i t i o n i s im
p o r t a n t I n l i m i t i n g t h e c h o i c e o f e n d s and I n I n h i b i t i n g
th e c h o i c e o f m eans ( 2 0 5 : 1 6 ) . When t h e " I n n e r - d i r e c t e d "
392
man I s c o n c e r n e d w i t h p o l i t i c s , he t e n d s to e x p r e s s h i m s e l f
a s a m o r a l i z e r (205:177)* He i s t y p i c a l o f th e s t y l e o f
th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a v i n g a t e n d e n c y to m o r a l i z e th e
w e l l - d e f i n e d I n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e l f ( 2 0 5 : 1 9 0 ) .
The v a l u e s y s te m t o w h ic h T a f t was d i r e c t e d w as a
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v a l u e s y s t e m , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c l a s s i
f i c a t i o n i n Jam e s T u f t s ' b o o k , A m e r i c a 's S o c i a l M o r a l i t y
( 2 3 7 :2 5 - 3 0 ) . T u f t s d e s c r i b e d t h r e e p e r i o d s o f c h a n g i n g
v a l u e s i n A m e ric a : (1) t h e r e l i g i o u s o r t h e o l o g i c a l p e r i
o d , fro m 1 6 (4 .0 -1 7 6 0 , f o r w h ic h t h e s p e c i f i c end was t o
g l o r i f y God; (2) th e p o l i t i c a l p e r i o d , t h r o u g h t h e C i v i l
W ar, i n w h ic h l i b e r t y a n d e q u a l i t y w e re s i ® i i f l e a n t sym
b o l s o f h o p e ; (3) th e e c o n o m ic p e r i o d , a f t e r t h e C i v i l
War, i n w h ic h e c o n o m ic p r o b le m s came t o t h e f o r e f r o n t
( 2 3 7 :2 5 - 3 0 ) . The p r e m i s e s f o u n d b y Rapp to be b a s i c to
th e s p e a k i n g o f T a f t seem ed t o b e p r e d o m i n a n t l y r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e o f th e s e c o n d p e r i o d (63(4-:v i ) .
H a r n s b e r g e r p o i n t e d o u t t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f R o b e r t
T a f t ' s p h i l o s o p h y w i t h t h a t o f h i s f a t h e r W i l l i a m H oward
T a f t , a n d t h a t o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , A lp h o n s o T a f t :
F o r t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s t h e T a f t f a m i l y h a d p r o d u c e d
p o l i t i c i a n s who s p o k e f o r t h r i g h t l y f o r f r e e d o m . . . .
T h e se p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s w ere g u i d e d b y th e same u n d e r
l y i n g p h i l o s o p h y — t h a t A m e ric a n p r o b le m s m u st b e
s o l v e d on t h e b a s i s o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e I n d i v i d u a l ' s
r i g h t t o l i b e r t y a n d t h e p u r s u i t o f h a p p i n e s s — a n d
t h e y made d e c i s i o n s a n d v o t e d a c c o r d i n g l y , r e g a r d l e s s
o f p e r s o n a l s a c r i f i c e s o r s u b j e c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s a s
t a r g e t s f o r c r l t l o i s m — a l l o f th em . ( 1 0 5 :1 )
H la g r a n d f a t h e r h a d h e l d two C a b i n e t p o s i t i o n s a n d two
393
" f i r s t - c l a s s " f o r e i g n m l • • i o n s ( 1 0 5 : 2 ) , H i s name becam e
" a synonym f o r h o n e s t y an d f a i r d e a l i n g * b u t h i s r e s o l u t e
s t a n d s v o n h im a f u l l s h a r e o f c r i t i c i s m " ( 1 0 5 : 2 ) . *Riis
same p a t t e r n a p p e a r e d i n W i l l i a m H ow ard T a f t * an d f i n a l l y
i n R o b e r t A lp h o n s o T a f t ( 1 0 5 : 4 ) • Repp seem ed t o o f f e r
some e v i d e n c e on t h i s p o i n t . He t o l d o f a n i n s t a n c e i n
w h ic h A lp h o n s o T a f t j e o p a r d i s e d h i s c h a n c e s f o r t h e g o v e r
n o r s h i p o f Ohio b y h a n d i n g down an u n p o p u l a r d e c i s i o n on
t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y o f c o m p u ls o r y r e a d i n g o f t h e B i b l e I n
C i n c i n n a t i ' s p u b l i c s c h o o l s ( 6 3 4 * 1 5 - 1 6 ) • He was a s t e r n
f a t h e r (6 3 4 * 1 6 )* Rapp summed up A lp h o n s o T a f t a s a man i n
t h i s w ay:
As a p e r s o n * A lp h o n s o T a f t w as c o n c e r n e d w i t h h a r d
work* h o n e s ty * and f r u g a l i t y . . . .
A lp h o n s o T a f t w as th e f i r s t o f t h e f a m i l y t o e n t e r
p o l i t i c s on a l a r g e s c a l e * and he was t h e f i r s t T a f t
t o h o l d p o s i t i o n s o f h i g h p u b l i c t r u s t on a n a t i o n a l
l e v e l . He f o r e s h a d o w e d c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l l t l o s f o r th e
T a f t f a m i l y t o f o llo w * an d h e was one o f t h e f i r s t mem
b e r s o f t h e R e p u b l i c a n p a r t y a t i t s b i r t h on a n a t i o n a l
s c a l e i n 1 8 5 6 . H is c o u r a g e o u s a n d s o s ie tim e s u n p o p u l a r
s t a n d s , h i s s t r o n g b e l i e f s i n e t h i c s , an d h i s h i g h r e
g a r d f o r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y o f I s s u e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y
r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e a c c o u n t s o f h i s l i f e . (6 3 4 * 1 * )
E v e n I f R o b e r t T a f t knew h i s g r a n d f a t h e r o n l y a s a v e r y
y o u n g c h i l d , h i s l n f l u e n o e may h a v e b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d
t h r o u g h h i s f a t h e r . Rapp r e p o r t e d H e l e n T a f t M anning*
T a f t ' s s i s t e r * a s c r e d i t i n g t h e i r f a t h e r w i t h t h e t r a i n i n g
t h a t d e t e r m i n e d T a f t ' s m e th o d o f p r e p a r i n g h i m s e l f on
I s s u e s (6 3 4 * ^ 1 )* • n d c o u r s e he saw a good d e a l o f t h i s
m e th o d when h i s f a t h e r w as P r e s i d e n t . T a f t h i m s e l f com-
39U
m e n te d i n N ovem ber, 1938* t h a t he g o t h i s s t a r t t h r o u g h h i s
f a m i l y h e r i t a g e , and t h a t h e h a d s o m e th in g t o l i v e up t o
( 6 3 l f : 1 9 ) • He t o l d an I n t e r v i e w e r I n 1 9^6 t h a t h i s p o l i
t i c a l and eco n o m ic p h i l o s o p h i e s h a d b e e n s h a p e d b y two
t h i n g s : h i s f a t h e r a n d h i s l o n g c o r p o r a t i o n p r a c t l o e I n
C i n c i n n a t i ( 3 3 2 : 1 2 ) .
T a f t ' s t h e o r y o f s p e a k i n g m i g h t h a v e come o u t o f
r e s p o n s e t o I n n e r n e c e s s i t i e s . I t m i g h t a l s o h a v e come
o u t o f h i s b e l i e f i n t h e c o l l e c t i v e ju d g m e n t o f t h e A m e ri
c a n p e o p l e a s I s a a c s o n s u g g e s t e d ( 6 2 8 : 5 3 8 ) . I n h e r f i n a l
a p p r a i s a l o f T a f t a s a p e r s u a d e r , sh e w r o t e :
I n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , R o b e r t T a f t b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
c o n s i d e r e d Ju d g m sn t o f p e o p l e c o l l e c t i v e l y i s m ore
r e l i a b l e th a n th e ju d g m e n t o f a n y s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l
no m a t t e r how w i s e .
T h i s w e n t h an d I n h a n d w i t h h i s a t t i t u d e t h a t h i s
c o u n try m e n w ere e n t i t l e d t o know h i s v i e w s , a n d , t h a t
I f t h e y d i d n o t w a n t to b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a man w i t h
h i s v i e w s , t h e y s h o u l d I n d i c a t e t h a t a t th e p o l l s . He
c o n s i d e r e d t h a t a p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f a p o l i t i c a l cam
p a i g n w as t o a f f o r d an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r g i v i n g a n d
h e a r i n g t h e s e v i e w s . ( 6 2 8 :5 3 8 )
S t o l b e r g a g r e e d w i t h I s a a c s o n ' s a s s e s s m e n t :
T a f t I s c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e A m e ric a n l a r e a l l y
i n t e r e s t e d i n h i s g o v e rn m e n t an d n o t o n l y w i l l i n g b u t
e a g e r t o l i s t e n t o a n y o n e who c a n g i v e h im an I n t e l l i
g e n t and l n f o n n e d p i c t u r e o f w h a t I s g o in g o n . (5 ^ 9 :
395)
S e v e r a l o f T a f t ' s own com m ents s u g g e s t e d t h a t h e h a d h i g h
h o p e s f o r t h e d e m o c r a t i c e x p e r i m e n t . On F e b r u a r y 1 0 ,
19^.8, s p e a k i n g b e f o r e t h e I n l a n d D a l l y P r e s s A s s o c i a t i o n
i n C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s , T a f t e x p l a i n e d w h at h e b e l i e v e d t o
b e th e p u r p o s e o f g o v e r n m e n t:
395
I c e r t a i n l y b e l i e v e t h a t th e o n l y o b j e c t o f g o v e r n m e n t
I s to s e r v e t h e p e o p l e a n d t o h e l p them becom e a
g r e a t e r p e o p l e I n t h e b e s t s e n s e s . We w a n t a b e t t e r
p e o p l e , p e o p l e o f s t r o n g c h a r a c t e r - - G o d - f e a r i n g , I n
d u s t r i o u s , s e l f - r e l i a n t , h o n o r a b l e a n d I n t e l l i g e n t .
( 105:286)
T h a t th e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h i s o b j e c t i v e w as s p e l l e d o u t
a l o n g p a r t i s a n l i n e s an d was a f f e c t e d b y w h a t m i g h t be
te r m e d h i s m y o p ic v i s i o n i s n o t a t a l l s u r p r i s i n g . I n a
b a s i c a l l y p o l i t i c a l a d d r e s s , on J u l y 2 8 , 1951# b e f o r e th e
P ly m o u th ( M a s s a c h u s e t t s ) C o u n ty R e p u b l i c a n C lu b , T a f t
a s s o c i a t e d h i s p a r t y w i t h t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f h o n e s t y i n
W a s h in g to n and th e c u r r e n t D e m o c r a t i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h
m i s l e a d i n g t h e p e o p l e :
So a l s o , i n th e f i e l d o f I s s u e s a d e l i b e r a t e p o l
i c y o f c o n c e a l i n g th e f a c t s and m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e
n e c e s s a r y e f f e c t o f p o l i c i e s u r g e d , h a s becom e a l m o s t
u n i v e r s a l I n e v e r y f i e l d o f p u b l i c a c t i v i t y . A p p a r
e n t l y , a G o v ern m en t d e p a r t m e n t f e e l s t h a t t h e p e o p le
a r e to o dumb t o r e a c h a c o r r e c t c o n c l u s i o n . S o , b e
f o r e a d o p t i n g a p o l i c y , I t e n l i s t s a l l m o d e rn p u b l i c
i t y t e c h n i q u e s to s e l l I t t o t h e p e o p l e . I t f a l l s t o
p r e s e n t m any o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f a o t s w i t h o u t w h ic h a
r e a s o n a b l e c o n c l u s i o n c a n n o t b e r e a c h e d . I t e n g a g e s
i n p u r e u n p r i n c i p l e d p r o p a g a n d a w i t h o u t any s u g g e s
t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s , o r may b e , an o p p o s i n g v ie w (5 5 8 :
6^6)
T a f t ' s d e p e n d e n c e o n f a c t s , h i s b e l i e f I n a r e a s o n e d c o n
c l u s i o n , h i s a b h o r r e n o e o f s a l e s t e c h n i q u e s , a n d f i n a l l y ,
h i s a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t y o f t h e p e o p l e a l l
seem t o b e I m p l i c i t I n t h i s s t a t e m e n t .
T a f t ' s b i o g r a p h e r , W i l l i a m S. W h i t e , b e l i e v e d t h a t
T a f t ' s f a i t h I n t h e p e o p l e was m i s p l a c e d :
And t h i s was i n c i d e n t a l l y , one o f t h e g r a v e s h o r t
c o m in g s , o r I n s t a n c e s o f l m p e r c e p t l o n s , o f h l a w h o le
3 9 6
p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r * He n e v e r c o u l d g r a s p t o w h a t e x t e n t
men r e a c t e d f a r m ore t r i v i a l l y o r e m o t i o n a l l y t h a n p e r
h a p s I d e a l l y t h e y s h o u l d . ( 2 5 3 : 5 6 - 5 7 )
T a f t h a d a " s e n s e o f b a s i c a l o n e n e s s , b o t h fro m p e o p l e a n d
f ro m t h e i r e m o t i o n a l a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d fro m t h e i r p u r e l y I n
t e l l e c t u a l c o n c e r n s " ( 2 5 3 :2 9 ) * Raymond H o le y , t o o , p o n
d e r e d w h e t h e r o r n o t T a f t h a d m i s j u d g e d h i s a u d i e n c e :
A f o r m e r a s p i r a n t f o r t h e n o m i n a t i o n , who h a d b e e n
a c c u s e d o f th e same i m p e r f e c t i o n f l a c k o f c o l o r ] , s a i d
t o me t h e o t h e r d a y : " B u t I s n ' t t h e r e c o l o r I n c o u r
a g e ? " T r u e , S e n a t o r T a f t h a s t h a t . He b l u r t s o u t h i s
v ie w s on a l l p u b l i c q u e s t i o n s , w i t h l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r
c o n s e q u e n c e s . B u t I m m e d i a t e l y a g r e a t w a i l a r i s e s ,
n o t fro m t h e v a s t c l i c h e - l a d e n p u b l i c , b u t fro m p r o
f e s s i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s : "Why c a n ' t T a f t a c t l i k e a
p o l i t i c i a n ? D o e s n 't he know t h a t th e way t o p o w er l a
t h r o u g h e l e g a n t b a n a l i t i e s ? P e o p l e l i k e hokum , a n d
T a f t s t i c k s to f a c t s and f i g u r e s . " P e r h a p s t h e r e I s
t r u t h I n w h a t t h e s e w o r d ly w i s e p o l i t i c i a n s s a y .
T h e re i s a b u n d a n t p r o o f o f t h e i r c a s e i n h i s t o r y .
( 1 4 .6 0 : 1 0 0 )
P e r h a p s T a f t d i d m id ju d g e t h e a b i l i t y o f th e e l e c t o r a t e
t o m ake d e c i s i o n s on r a t i o n a l g r o u n d s . W h ite p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t e v e n th o u g h T a f t knew m uch, t h e r e w as m uch t h a t he
d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d ( 2 5 3 :2 7 9 ) * He d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e
common man b e c a u s e he h a d m i s s e d much t h a t i s common t o
men d u e t o th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s l i f e ( 2 5 3 :3 5 ) *
S e v e r a l o t h e r w r i t e r s s u g g e s t e d t h a t T a f t was w ro n g
i n o t h e r ju d g m e n ts a s w e l l (103:1*33, 3 3 2 : 1 0 ) . K e n n e th
C r a w f o r d b e l i e v e d h e was " o u t o f j o i n t w i t h t h e t i m e s "
(338:614.8). G ordon K o s t e t t l e r , o f Tem ple U n i v e r s i t y , i n a
l e t t e r t o I s a a c s o n , d a t e d N ovem ber 3 , 1955* s a i d t h a t
h i s t o r y h a d p r o v e d t h a t T a f t w as w ro n g o n p r a c t i c a l l y
397
everything ( 6 2 8 * 4 4 2 ) . Richard Rovere summed up T aft's
errors th is way:
To get the vhole picture* knowledge must somehow be
squared with error. . . . They £the non-philosophers
in the population^ . . . fin d I t hard to see how a man
who knows so much can often be so wrong about the
things he knows so much about. . . . One reason why
h is speeches f a l l on such unresponsive ears i s that
they are altogether free of the flare-words to which
the past century of p o lit ic a l oratory has conditioned
the voter. Search h is speeches through and through
and you w ill fin d nothing In them about the flag* the
pioneers* our fath ers and th eir fathers* the American
home* the family* our honored dead* Lincoln and Wash
ington* Bunker H ill and Gettysburg* the sons of the
s o il and the sons of toll* or th r ift and Industry.
Taft never makes the eagle scream; he never appeals
for the adoption of h is p o lic ie s in the name of any
thing but the p o lic ie s them selves. (512:290)
T a ft's theory o f speaking may have had i t s origin
in the natural demands o f h is own character or in h is be
l i e f in the c o lle c tiv e Judgment of the American e le c to r
ate* whatever Its b irth , what matured was a philosophy of
speaking co n sisten t with the democratic tra d itio n in I ts
b asic e s s e n tia ls .
Joseph Alsop and Robert Kintner explained how he
grew In stature during h is years In the Senate:
Other Senators began by thinking him arrogant and
d u ll; la te r they recognized him as an engagingly
p lain and very able man who says what he thinks*
votes what he b eliev es and puts on a show fo r no one.
(266:97)
Taft him self said he did not b eliev e I t was honest to be
ta c tfu l (1 0 5 :1 4 2 * 5 4 9 :3 9 1 )* People wrote about h is
"unrhetorlcal d isputatious speeches" (512:290)* h is
"unmitigated directness" (549:387)* h is "odd plodding
I n s i s t e n c e ” ( 2 6 6 :9 ° ) * M s b l u n t n e s s ( 1 0 3 : 1 4 3 8, 1 0 5 : 1 3 2 ,
2 6 5 :1 0 3 , 2 9 2 : 1 1 0 , 3 8 2 :2 7 9 * V *2:91» 5 9 3 : 1 3 ) , U s k n a c k o f
c l a r i t y ( 5 7 9 : 2 2 ) , h i s l a c k o f e m o t i o n a l l y - t o n e d l a n g u a g e
( 5 1 2 : 2 9 0 , 5143:13, 5 7 9 : 2 2 ) , h i s l a c k o f v i t u p e r a t i o n (2 5 3 :
2 0 2 , 6 2 8 : 5^ 3 ) , end h i s g e n e r a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r f a c t s
r a t h e r t h a n o p i n i o n ( 2 6 5 :1 0 3 ) > H e r b e r t H o o v e r t o l d W h ite
t h a t T a f t a lw a y s a c t e d o r I n t e n d e d t o a c t I n c o n f o r m i t y
w i t h th e f a c t s ( 2 5 3 : 2 6 ) . H a r n s b e r g e r ( 1 0 5 : 8 ) , D a v id Law
r e n c e ( 1 4 3 1: 8 8 ) , a n d I s a a c s o n a l s o com m ented on M s d e s i r e
t o b e g u i d e d b y f a c t s r a t h e r t h a n e m o t i o n . S e v e r a l w r i t
e r s f e l t t h a t h e a r g u e d on t h e I s s u e s b e c a u s e he w as shrewd
e n o u g h t o know t h a t t h a t was w h e re h i s r e a l pow er l a y
( 5^ 9 : 3 9 2 ) o r b e c a u s e h e knew no o t h e r way ( 2 6 6 : 9 0 ) .
A p e r u s a l o f T a f t ' s b a c k g r o u n d and s p e a k i n g e x p e r i
e n c e o n th e l a b o r q u e s t i o n a n d U s t h e o r y o f s p e a k i n g h a s
r e v e a l e d : ( 1 ) t h a t he t o o k a n a c t i v e p a r t i n l a b o r l e g i s
l a t i o n I n t h e e i g h t y e a r s f o l l o w i n g h i s e n t r y I n t o t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e ; (2 ) t h a t p r i o r t o t U s t im e h e h a d
p a r t i c i p a t e d i n d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g l a b o r p o l i c y I n O M o ;
(3 ) t h a t d u r i n g t h e e i g h t e e n y e a r s o f U s p a r t n e r s h i p I n
t h e f i r m o f T a f t , S t e t t i n l u s , and H o l l i s t e r , h e becam e e x
p e r i e n c e d w i t h t h e l a b o r q u e s t i o n fro m th e v i e w p o i n t o f a
c o r p o r a t i o n l a w y e r ; (I4) t h a t h e sp o k e e x t e n s i v e l y on t h e
l a b o r q u e s t i o n b o t h p r i o r to and d u r i n g th e E i g h t i e t h
C o n g r e s s ; (5 ) t h a t U s t h e o r y o f s p e a k i n g - - r e v e a l e d I n
p a r t b y U s own com m ents a n d I n p a r t b y t h e e v a l u a t i o n s
399
of others-•placed heavy relian ce upon lo g ic a l and e th ic a l
proof, s lig h t relian ce on emotional proof, l i t t l e i f any
relian ce upon emotional "flare" vorda and vitu peration . A
consideration of the speech I t s e l f should reveal the ex
ten t to which h is stated views were carried into practioe
as w ell as the accuracy of the evaluations of others.
A gency (Means of Persuasion)
At 1 2 :0 5 P.M. on June 2 0 , 19ll7» Harry S. Truman's
veto of the Labor-Management R elations Act of 19^ 4 -7 reached
the House of Representatives (14.71*6/21/^7:1)* The message
Inserted in the Congressional Record contained arguments
not repeated when Truman spoke at 1 0 :0 0 P.M* that same
evening over a national radio hookup. When Taft answered
Truman, fo r ty -fiv e minutes la te r , he responded to argu
ments contained in the message to the Senate as w ell as in
the message to the people.
The veto message, House Document Humber 3 3 ^ 4 -* ex
plained Truman's reasons fo r returning the Labor-Management
R elations Act o f 19^4-7* H.R. 3020, without his signature
(6 1 1 :7 5 0 0 -5 0 3 ). He reitera ted h is conviction that labor
le g is la t io n was necessary, but pointed out that he did not
f e e l that the Taft-H artley B ill was a so lu tion to e x istin g
abuses (6 1 1 :7 5 0 0 ). He summed up rtxat he f e l t the e ffe c t
of the b i l l would be:
The b i l l taken as a whole would reverse the baslo
d irectio n of our national labor p o licy , In ject the
1 4 -0 0
Government Into private economic a ffa ir e on an un
precedented sc a le , and c o n flic t with Important prin
c ip le s of our democratic so ciety . I t s provisions
would cause more s tr ik e s , not fewer. I t would con
trib u te neither to In d u strial peace nor to economic
s t a b ilit y and progress. I t would be a dangerous
strid e In the d lreotlon of a to t a lly managed economy.
I t contains seeds of discord which would plague th is
Nation for years to come. (611:7500)
Mr. Truman weighed the probable e f f e c t s of the b i l l against
four basic t e s t s , fin d in g the b i l l wanting In each case:
(1) he f e l t that the b i l l would r e s u lt In more rather than
le s s government intervention In the n a tio n 's economic l i f e ;
(2) he f e l t that i t would not improve employee-employer
rela tio n sh ip s; (3) he b elieved that i t was unworkable, and
(4) unfair (611:7500). Then Truman went on to point out
I ts d efects in more d e ta il: (1) I t would su b sta n tia lly
increase str ik e s; (2) i t would r e s t r ic t voluntary agree
ment by deciding a r b itr a r ily certain Issu es normally r e
solved In bargaining; (3) i t would expose employers to an
noying hazards; (ij.) I t would deprive workers of v it a l
p rotection s they now have under the law; (5) i t would
le g a lis e unworkable and burdensome p rovisions; (6) I t
would set up I n e ffic ie n t and discrim inatory p ractices for
dealing with str ik e s in v it a l Indu stries; (7) I t would
discrim inate against employees; (6) I t i s not in accord
with agreements reached by employer and labor representa
tiv e s at the national labor-management conference In
November, 1945* (9) i t would raise questions regarding
p o lit ic a l con trib u tion s, sta te s' rig h ts and communism
w h ic h t r a n s c e n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f la b o r - m a n a g e m e n t r e l a
t i o n s ( 6 1 1 : 7 5 0 1 - 5 0 3 ) .
Ifce a d d r e s s t o t h e p e o p l e o f t h e n a t i o n was n o t a s
d e t a i l e d n o r a s c o m p r e h e n s iv e a s th e m e ss a g e t o C o n g r e s s .
B elow i s a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f t h e s p e e o h b r o a d c a s t o v e r
r a d i o .
i n t r o d u c t i o n (ij.71»t>/2l/lj.7 :!*.)
I . Today I v e t o e d th e T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l .
A. I t i s a b a d b i l l .
B. I w a n te d C o n g r e s s to s e n d me a b i l l t h a t I c o u l d
s i g n .
I I . We do n e e d l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n , a s I h a v e s a i d i n t h e
p a s t .
A. I made s p e c i f i c r e c o m m e n d a tio n s I n J a n u a r y .
B. I f C o n g r e s s h a d a c c e p t e d my p r o p o s a l s , t o d a y we
w ou ld h a v e h a d t h e b a s i s f o r b e t t e r l a b o r -
m an ag em en t r e l a t i o n s .
I I I . I w o u ld h a v e s i g n e d a l a b o r b i l l w h ic h t o o k u s i n
t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .
A. I w ould h a v e s i g n e d a b i l l i f i t s m a j o r Im p a c t
was g o o d .
B. B u t t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y B i l l i s a s h o c k i n g p i e o e o f
l e g i s l a t i o n .
IV . U n d e r no c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o u l d I h a v e s i g n e d i t .
A. The r e s t r i c t i o n s i t p l a c e s on l a b o r go f a r b e -
II.
I I I .
IV.
1+02
yond what you have been led to b e lie v e .
B. Theale; Therefore, I t la my purpose to l e t you
know the rea l meaning of the b i l l .
D iscussion
W e have been told that the b i l l Is moderate.
A. I found no truth In th is claim.
3. The fin a l b i l l follow s the o rig in a l House b i l l
in at le a s t th ir ty -s ix p a rticu la rs.
W e have been told that the b i l l favors the wage
earners of the country.
A. An examination of the b i l l shows that i t would
actu a lly weaken c o lle c tiv e bargaining, and hence,
the p o sitio n of every working man in th is coun
try.
B. While labor le g is la tio n i s needed, we do not need
le g is la tio n which would take away fundamental
r ig h ts.
W e have been to ld that the b i l l would protect the
nation from nation-wide str ik e s in v it a l In du stries.
A. The terms of the b i l l do not support th is claim.
B. The b i l l would not aid fa ir and early settlem ent
of disputes in v i t a l in d u strie s.
W e have been to ld that the b i l l would reduce Indus
t r ia l s t r i f e .
A. On the contrary, i t would Increase in d u stria l
s t r if e by u psetting e x istin g secu rity clauses
m a k in g I t d i f f i c u l t t o r e a c h new a g r e e m e n t s .
B. I t w o u ld I n c r e a s e I n d u s t r i a l s t r i f e b e c a u s e I t
d e p r i v e s w o r k e r s o f some o f t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l
r i g h t s w h ic h c o u l d o n l y be p r o t e o t e d t h e n b y
s t r i k i n g .
The b i l l w ould o p e n up o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e n d l e s s
l a w s u i t s .
A. F o r e x a m p le , d i s s a t i s f i e d w o r k e r s m i g h t t a k e
t h e i r e m p l o y e r s I n t o c o u r t .
B. I t h a s many l e g a l t r a p s w h ic h w ould t a k e l a b o r
r e l a t i o n s o u t o f t h e p l a n t a n d p l a c e them I n
s t e a d i n t h e c o u r t s .
The b i l l t h r e a t e n s f u n d a m e n t a l l i b e r t i e s .
A. One p r o v i s i o n p r o h i b i t s p o l i t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s
an d e x p e n d i t u r e s b y u n i o n s .
B. T h i s i s a d a n g e r o u s c h a l l e n g e t o f r e e s p e e c h an d
a f r e e p r e s s .
C o n c l u s i o n
The b i l l o v e r l o o k s t h e y e a r s o f p r o g r e s s i n l a b o r -
m an ag em en t r e l a t i o n s .
A. L a b o r a n d m an ag em en t h a v e l e a r n e d t o c o o p e r a t e .
B. U n d e r t h i s b i l l , t h e y w o u ld b e a n t a g o n i s t s i n
s t e a d .
A. ( I n d u c t i v e l y d e v e l o p e d p o i n t ) T h is b i l l d o e s
n o t r e s e m b l e th e l e g i s l a t i o n I reco m m en d ed .
B. T h is b i l l I s c o n t r a r y t o s o u n d g r o w th o f l a b o r
p o l i c y .
C. T h e ra i a s t i l l tim e to e n a o t good l e g i s l a t i o n .
I I . I» t h e r e f o r e , h o p e t h a t t h i s b i l l w i l l n o t become
l a w ,
T a f t ' s r a d i o a d d r e s s r e f u t e d p o i n t s i n b o t h o f
T r u m a n 's v e t o m e s s a g e s . A b r i e f o u t l i n e o f h i s r a d i o a d
d r e s s i s I n c l u d e d b e lo w .
I n t r o d u c t i o n
I* T*1® P r e s i d e n t ' s v e t o m e s s a g e m i s r e p r e s e n t s
b o t h th e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e b i l l a n d m o s t o f
i t s d e t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s .
A. ( I n d u c t i v e l y d e v e l o p e d p o i n t ) The b i l l r e p r e
s e n t e d th e r e s u l t o f f i v e m o n t h s ' s t u d y b y Con
g r e s s .
B. Y e t th e P r e s i d e n t r e n d e r e d h i s Ju d g m e n t o n t h e
b a s i s o f t e n d a y s ' s t u d y , t h r e e o r f o u r o f w h ic h
w ere s p e n t i n C a n a d a .
I I . I t l a n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t h i s m e s s a g e
show s t h a t h e knows p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e
b i l l .
I l l * He I g n o r e d t h e s t u d i e d c o n c l u s i o n s o f D e m o c r a ts i n
t h e H ouse who v o t e d t o d a y t o o v e r r i d e h i s v e t o .
A. i n s t e a d , h e a d o p te d t h e p r e j u d i c e d a r g u m e n ts
o f l a b o r l e a d e r s who o p p o s e d t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n .
B. He a l s o I g n o r e d th e a n s w e rs t o t h e s e a r g u m e n ts
I .
II .
Uo5
and m isrepresentations presented on the Senate
flo o r .
D iscussion
He does not fin d a sin g le good provision in the en
tir e b i l l .
A. He Ignores the record of abuse by labor unions
but gives li p service to the idea of reform.
B. He assumes that power given to labor leaders
b e n e fits union members. Ignoring the fa o t that
they are the rea l su fferers In s tr ik e s .
C. He o r lt lc lz e s every provision designed to make
unions resp on sib le.
D. He attacks the section perm itting the use of In
junction even though he used th is procedure la s t
f a l l .
S. He attacks the b i l l on the grounds that i t pro
vides too much government con trol--th e only new
thing in h is message.
I can deal with only a few of the d irect misrepre
sen tation s of the d e ta ils of the b i l l .
A. I t is not true that unions w ill be held respon
sib le fo r w lldoat s tr ik e s .
B. I t Is not true that unions would be forced to
strik e in order to have a ju r isd ic tio n a l dispute
s e ttle d by the National Labor R elations Board.
C. I t is not true that the b i l l requires e le c tio n
a f t e r e l e c t i o n .
D. I t i s n o t t r u e t h a t t h e a r b i t r a t i o n o f g r i e v a n c e
d i s p u t e s w i l l b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o th e c o u r t s .
E. I t i s n o t t r u e t h a t a n e m p lo y e r c o u ld d i s c h a r g e
a man f o r u n i o n a o t l v i t y on t h e p r e t e n s e o f a
m in o r i n f r a c t i o n .
F . I t i s n o t t r u e t h a t t h e law w o u ld e x p o s e u n i o n s
t o s u i t s f o r v i o l e n c e o r o t h e r a c t s n o t a u t h o r
i z e d b y th em .
G. The P r e s i d e n t a t t a c k s t h e p r o v i s i o n g i v i n g f r e e
s p e e c h t o e m p l o y e r s , y e t e v e n l a b o r l e a d e r s a d
m i t t e d t h e n e e d f o r s u c h a p r o v i s i o n .
H. The P r e s i d e n t c r i t i c i z e s t h e p r o v i s i o n p e r m i t
t i n g s t a t e la w s p r o h i b i t i n g u n i o n s h o p s t o r e m a in
i n e f f e c t , b u t d o e s n o t r e v e a l t h a t t h i s was a l s o
t r u e o f t h e W agner A c t .
I . Hie P r e s i d e n t a t t a c k s t h e s e c t i o n w h ic h a t t e m p t s
t o p r e v e n t C om m unists fro m g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f
u n i o n s .
C o n c l u s i o n
Summary: A lm o s t e v e r y s e n t e n c e i n h i s m e s s a g e i s
o p e n to d i r e c t c h a l l e n g e , and m any m ore m i s r e p r e s e n
t a t i o n s o c o u r r e d t h a n h a v e b e e n c i t e d .
A. ( I n d u c t i v e l y d e v e l o p e d p o i n t ) The C o n g r e s s i o n a l
c o m m i t t e e s w h ic h w r o t e t h i s b i l l w e re n o t a n t l -
u n l o n ; t h e y m e r e l y t r i e d t o r e s t o r e e q u a l i t y i n
*4-07
c o lle c tiv e bargaining*
B. The opposition campaign haa been completely
fa ls e ; they want to keep unions "above the law."
I I . I t i s r e a lly discouraging to see the President sub
m itting to th eir pressure, adopting th e ir arguments,
and blocking the w ill of Congress and of the people.
The six c r ite r ia which resu lted from an examination
of contemporary rh etorical lite r a tu r e were applied to
T aft's reply to Truman. Ths s ix c r it e r ia are restated
below: (1) i t is obligatory that a speaker avoid sub
s titu tin g h is personal authority for the c r it ic a l exam
in ation of the fa c ts ) (2) i t is obligatory that the speaker
avoid manufacturing ch a ra c teristics of eth o s; (3) i t is
obligatory that the speaker avoid using nonexperlmentally
based propositions as premises from which he reasons ex
perim entally; (i±) i t is forbidden that a speaker f a l s i f y ,
i . e . , manufacture m aterials; (5) i t is forbidden that a
speaker d isto r t m aterials; (6) i t i s forbidden that a
speaker d ivert h is audience from the issu es through the
su b stitu tio n of In vective. Each of these c r ite r ia w ill be
considered in turn in the remainder of th is section .
C riterion 1. I t i s ob ligatory that a speaker avoid
su b stitu tin g h is personal authority for the c r it ic a l ex
amination of the f a c t s . There were fiv e instances in
T a ft's rebu ttal speech in which he used statements such as
"This Is simply not so," or "This Is not so." Thess cases
are cited below*
1. The President says that a union w ill
be lia b le I f any of i t s members en
gaged In an unauthorised w ildcat
str ik e .
Tills Is simply not so.
2. The President says the b i l l would
force unions to strik e I f they wish
to have a ju r isd ic tio n a l dispute
se ttle d by the National Labor Rela
tion s Board.
Tills Is not so.
A ll the union has to do Is to f i l e a
p e titio n under the representation
sectio n .
H ow could th is provision increase
str ik e s when I t is not e f fe c tiv e at
a l l u n til there is already a j u r is
d ictio n a l strik e or secondary boy
c o tt In effect?
3. The President says that the provi
sions regarding the arb itration of
grievance disputes are transferred
to the courts to be determined by
law su its. He repeated th is s t a t e
ment tonight on the radio.
I t Is not so.
A rbitration provisions are e n tir e ly
le g a l and remain e ffe c tiv e under our
law. as long as eith er party abides
by the arb itration d ecisio n s he of
course Is not subjeot to s u it.
Ij.. The President says an employer can
discharge a man on the p retext of a
s lig h t In fraction , even though h is
real motive Is to discrim inate
against the employee for union
a c t iv ity .
(Statement)
(Answer)
(Statement)
(Answer a)
(Answer b)
(Answer c)
(Statement)
(Answer a)
(Answer b)
(Statement)
409
T h is I s n o t s o . (A nsw er s)
The b o a r d d e c i d e s , u n d e r t h e new law (A nsw er b )
a s u n d e r t h e f o r m e r la w , w h e t h e r th e
man was r e a l l y d i s c h a r g e d f o r u n io n
a c t i v i t y o r f o r good c a u s e .
5* The P r e s i d e n t s a y s t h e law w o u ld e x - ( S t a t e m e n t )
p o s e u n i o n s t o s u i t s f o r a c t s o f
v i o l e n c e , w i l d c a t s t r i k e s an d o t h e r
a c t i o n s , n o n e o f w h ic h w ere a u t h o r
i z e d o r r a t i f i e d by th em .
I t i s n o t s o . (A nsw er a)
We h a v e s i m p l y p r o v i d e d t h a t u n i o n s (A nsw er b )
a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e same g e n e r a l la w s
o f a g e n c y a s a n y o t h e r c o r p o r a t i o n
o r c i t i z e n i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i r l i a
b i l i t y f o r t h e a c t s o f t h e i r a g e n t s .
Rapp conmiented on T a f t ’ s g e n e r a l t e c h n i q u e o f
r e p l y i n t h i s s p e e c h :
I n s p i r i t i f n o t a lw a y s i n f a c t , th e s p e e c h am ounted
t o s t a t e m e n t s o f , "The P r e s i d e n t s a y s . . . . " Some
ti m e s T a f t ' s n e x t s e n t e n c e i s a f l a t , " T h is i s n o t
s o . n A t o t h e r t i m e s , T a f t w e n t d i r e c t l y i n t o h i s e x
p l a n a t i o n o f t h e " t r u e " f a c t s o f t h e c a s e . A t t i m e s ,
h i s r e p l i e s a r e m e r e l y a s s e r t i v e . H o w ev er, i n two
I n s t a n c e s , h e u s e d th e r e l u c t a n t t e s t i m o n y o f Truman
o r l a b o r . He f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o th e T a f t - H a r t l e y
A c t an d e x p l a i n e d and c o m p a r e d . I n two I n s t a n c e s ,
t h e c o m p a r is o n i s v e r y c l o s e t o b e i n g r e a s o n i n g b y
a n a l o g y . (6 3 4 * 3 0 3 )
He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t T a f t ' s u s e o f a s s e r t i o n seem ed t o
im p l y t h a t "h e knew o r h e b e l i e v e d and t h a t s h o u l d b e s u f
f i c i e n t f o r th e a u d i e n c e " ( 6 3 4 * 3 3 2 ) . The q u e s t i o n t o b e
c o n s i d e r e d h e r e i s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s e f i v e p o s i t i v e
d e c l a r a t i o n s w e re s u p p o r t e d o r u n s u p p o r t e d b y f a c t s . D id
T a f t u s e h i s e s t a b l i s h e d e t h o s , h i s r e p u t a t i o n f o r i n t e g
r i t y , i n t h e s e c a s e s a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n
kio
of the fa cts? C ertainly each of the cases q u a lifie s as a
clear-ou t use of personal a u th ority, but the c r ite r io n
presented In th is study required that the fa c ts be pre
sented even though the speaker might choose to use the
weight of h is esteem to predispose the audience toward the
acceptance of the f a c t s .
Previous d iscu ssion has shown that while Taft was
not regarded as an expert upon labor p o lic y , he had studied
the matter of labor reform c a r e fu lly , although he may have
approaohed the labor question with a natural b ia s.
Each of the fiv e Instances of use of personal au
th o rity s hould be examined In turn. The fa c tu a l adequacy
of his answers Is not the question here: what Is in ques
tion Is his use of fa ctu a l support.
Taft replied to Truman's charges (611:7501) that a
union would be held respon sible I f any of Its members en
gaged In a w ildcat str ik e by an a ssertio n that Truman's
statement was not true. No factu a l support was used to
support th is statement. However, the f i f t h example of the
use of personal au th ority deals with the same charge. At
th is p o in t, Taft did more than merely a ssert that th e
charge was untrue. He attempted to explain that the law
merely holds unions lia b le under the same general laws of
agency that a ffe c t corporations or o ltis e n s . The basis
of T aft's explanation seems to be section 301 (b) under
T itle III of the Taft-H artley Law:
1 4 -1 1
(b) Any labor organisation which represents employ
ees in an Industry a ffe c tin g commerce as defined in
th is Act and any employer whose a c t iv it ie s a ffe c t com
merce as defined in th is Act sh a ll be bound by the
acts of i t s agents. Any such labor organization may
sue or be sued as an e n tity and in behalf of the em
ployees whom i t represents in the courts of the United
S ta tes. (611:6458)
7tie b asis of Truman's charge seems to be section
301 (e) under T itle III of the T aft-H artley Law:
(e) For the purposes o f th is sec tio n , in determin
ing whether any person is actin g as an "agent" of
another person so as to make such other person respon
sib le for h is a c ts, the question of whether the spe
c i f i c acts performed were a ctu a lly authorized or
subsequently r a t if ie d sh a ll not be co n tro llin g . (611:
6458) -------
In th eir explanation of the e f f e c t of the Senate
amendments on the House b i l l , the House managers pointed
o u t:
Section 6 of the Norrls-LaGuardla Act provides that no
employer or labor organization p articip atin g or in te r
ested in a labor dispute sh a ll be held responsible for
the unlawful acts of th eir agents except upon clear
proof of actual authorization of such a c ts, or r a t i
fic a tio n of such a cts a fte r actual knowledge th ereof.
This provision in the Norris-Laauardla Act was made
inapplicable under the House b i l l . Section 301 (e)
of the conference agreement provides that fo r the
purposes of sectio n 301 in determining whether any
person i s actin g as an agent of another so as to make
such other person responsible for h is actio n s, the
question of whether the s p e c ific acts performed were
actu a lly authorized or subsequently r a t if ie d sh a ll not
be co n tr o llin g . ( 6 1 1 :6 4 7 1 )
On the flo o r of the Senate on June 6, Taft explained
sec tio n 301 (e) in the lig h t of sectio n 301 (c ):
Mr. TAFT. A ll th is proviso does i s to determine
whether an agent of a labor union should have applied
to him the ordinary common law rule of agency. W hy a
labor union should not be responsible for i t s agents,
1*12
under the same ru les of lav that makes a corporation
responsible fo r I ts agents, I cannot understand. That
i s what thlp does. The section of the Norrls-LaGuardia
Act (section 63 read by the Senator [PepperJ had noth
ing to do w ith in ju n ction s, i t has newer been con
sidered u n til very recen tly in the carpenters' case.
That case apparently led to t he conclusion that a man
who was c le a r ly an agent under a l l ru les of agenoy was
yet not considered an agent of a labor organisation.
I t was one of those p riv ile g es which i t was f e l t was
not necessary to be continued for a labor organisation.
(611:6680)
Senator pepper responded by saying that he did not b eliev e
that unions should be held to the same laws (611:6680).
I t should be clear from the foregoing an alysis that there
was a factu a l b asis for T aft's statements of denial in the
case of the f ir s t and the f i f t h examples. Senator Pepper
did not deny the fa c t that the e f fe c t of the section was
to apply the laws of agency. He denied that they ought
to be applied. The termination of whether or not a union
was to be held responsible in any particular case would be
l e f t for the court to decide as i t is in other cases of
agency. T aft's b rief explanation of the fa ctu a l b a sis for
h is p o sitiv e statements that Truman was mistaken seemed
adequate grounds to evaluate h is behavior as e th ic a l.
In the case of the second example, Taft followed
h is a ssertio n that Truman's statement was untrue with an
explanation of the method which unions could use to s e t
t le ju r isd ic tio n a l disputes without str ik in g . He pointed
out that they could f i l e a p e titio n under the representa
tion sectio n . Section 9 (c ) of T itle I of the law provides
1*13
f o r p e t i t i o n by a n e m p lo y e e o r a g r o u p o f e m p lo y e e s who
a s s e r t t h a t t h e I n d i v i d u a l o r l a b o r o r g a n i s a t i o n ,
w h ic h h a s b e e n c e r t i f i e d o r I s b e i n g c u r r e n t l y
r e c o g n i z e d a s th e b a r g a i n i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , i s
no l o n g e r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a s d e f i n e d I n s e c
t i o n 9 ( « ) • • • • (611:614.51*)
T a f t was a c t u a l l y r e p l y i n g to t h e v e t o m e s s a g e t o t h e
S e n a t e I n t h i s c a s e . T r u m a n 's c h a r g e a p p e a r s b e lo w ;
(4 ) The b i l l w o u ld f o r c e u n i o n s t o s t r i k e o r t o
b o y c o t t i f t h e y w i s h t o h a v e a j u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i s p u t e
s e t t l e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a r d , n i l s
p e c u l i a r s i t u a t i o n r e s u l t s fro m th e f a c t t h a t t h e
B o a rd i s g i v e n a u t h o r i t y t o d e t e r m i n e j u r i s d i c t i o n a l
d i s p u t e s o v e r a s s i g n m e n t o f work o n l y a f t e r s u c h d i s
p u t e s h a v e b e e n c o n v e r t e d I n t o s t r i k e s o r b o y c o t t s .
( 6 1 1 :7 5 0 1 )
T a f t ' s s e c o n d a n s w e r t o T r u m a n 's c h a r g e to o k t h e fo rm o f
a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n w h ic h h a d t h e e f f e c t o f t u r n i n g th e
P r e s i d e n t ' s own s t a t e m e n t on h i m s e l f . T a f t a s k e d : how
c o u l d t h e p r o v i s i o n g i v i n g t h e b o a r d a u t h o r i t y to d e t e r
m in e J u r i s d i c t i o n a l d i s p u t e s — T i t l e I , s e c t i o n 10 < 1 ) —
c a u s e s t r i k e s o r b o y c o t t s w hen I t o n l y b ecam e e f f e c t i v e
when t h e s e a l r e a d y e x i s t e d ? A g a in , T a f t ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t
T r u m a n 's s t a t e m e n t was n o t t r u e w as a d e q u a t e l y s u p p o r t e d
b y a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e la w .
The t h i r d e x a m p le o f th e u s e o f p e r s o n a l a u t h o r i t y
w as a r e f u t a t i o n o f b o t h t h e m e s s a g e t o t h e S e n a t e a n d to
t h e p e o p l e . Trum an c h a r g e d t h a t t h e a r b i t r a t i o n o f g r i e v
a n c e d i s p u t e s h ad b e e n l e f t t o be d e t e r m i n e d b y l a w s u i t s
r a t h e r t h a n b y a r b i t r a t i o n m a c h i n e r y (1*71#6/2 1 / I 4.7 :!*» 6 1 1 :
7 5 0 1 ) . S e c t i o n 10 o f T i t l e I e x p l a i n s t h e p o w e r o f t h e
I).i4
b o a r d I n r e l a t i o n to t h e c o u r t s :
S e c . 1 0 . (a ) The B o a rd l a em pow ered, a a h e r e i n a f t e r
p r o v i d e d , t o p r e v e n t a n y p e r s o n fro m e n g a g i n g i n an y
u n f a i r l a b o r p r a o t l c e . . . a f f e c t i n g com m erce. T h is
p o w e r s h a l l n o t b e a f f e c t e d b y a n y o t h e r m ean s o f a d
j u s t m e n t o r p r e v e n t i o n t h a t h a s b e e n o r may b e e s t a b
l i s h e d b y a g r e e m e n t , la w , o r o t h e r w i s e . . . . (6 1 1 :
<455)
I n t h e i r s t a t e m e n t o f e x p l a n a t i o n , t h e H ouse m a n a g e rs
p o i n t e d o u t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f th e b o a r d a n d t h e c o u r t s :
The House b i l l o m i t t e d fro m s e c t i o n 10 (a ) o f t h e
e x i s t i n g law t h e la n g u a g e p r o v i d i n g t h a t t h e B o a r d ’ s
pow er to d e a l w i t h u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c t i c e s s h o u l d n o t
b e a f f e c t e d b y o t h e r m eans o f a d j u s t m e n t o r p r e v e n t i o n ,
b u t i t r e t a i n e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e p r e s e n t A c t w h ic h
m akes t h e B o a r d 's J u r i s d i c t i o n e x c l u s i v e . The S e n a t e
am endm ent, b e c a u s e o f I t s p r o v i s i o n s a u t h o r i z i n g te m
p o r a r y i n j u n c t i o n s e n j o i n i n g a l l e g e d u n f a i r l a b o r
p r a c t i c e s and b e c a u s e o f I t s p r o v i s i o n s m a k in g u n i o n s
s u a b l e , o m i t t e d t h e l a n g u a g e g i v i n g t h e B o a rd e x c l u
s i v e J u r i s d i c t i o n o f u n f a i r l s b o r p r a c t i c e s , b u t r e
t a i n e d t h a t w h ic h p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e B o a r d 's pow er
s h a l l n o t b e a f f e c t e d b y o t h e r m eans o f a d ju s to n e n t o r
p r e v e n t i o n . The c o n f e r e n c e a g r e e m e n t a d o p t s t h e p r o
v i s i o n s o f t h e S e n a t e am endm ent. By r e t a i n i n g th e
l a n g u a g e w h ic h p r o v i d e s t h e B o a r d 's pow er u n d e r s e c
t i o n 10 s h a l l n o t b e a f f e c t e d b y o t h e r M a n s o f a d j u s t
m e n t, t h e c o n f e r e n c e a g r e e m e n t m ak es c l e a r t h a t , when
two r e m e d i e s e x i s t , one b e f o r e t h e B o a rd and o n e b e f o r e
t h e c o u r t s , th e re m e d y b e f o r e t h e B o a rd s h a l l b e i n
a d d i t i o n t o , a n d n o t i n l i e u o f , o t h e r r e m e d i e s . (6 1 1 :
6 I4 .6 6 )
A g a in , T a f t ' s u s e o f th e r e p e t i t i v e r e f r a i n , " I t I s n o t
s o , " u s e d a s p e r s o n a l a u t h o r i t y , was p r e s e n t e d I n c o n j u n c
t i o n w i t h t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f a c t s .
The l a s t ex a m p le t o b e c o n s i d e r e d r e l a t e d t o T r u
m a n 's c h a r g e t h a t a n e m p lo y e r c o u l d d i s c h a r g e a n e m p lo y e e
on a m i n o r i n f r a c t i o n e v e n th o u g h h e m ig h t r e a l l y be f i r
i n g h im f o r h i s u n i o n a c t i v i t y ( 6 1 1 : 7 5 0 1 ) • D i s c r i m i n a t i o n
kis
o f t h i s s o r t was e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t e d I n T i t l e I , s e c
t i o n 8 (a ) (3) (611:614.53)# *nd a s T a f t p o i n t e d o u t , th e
N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a rd j u d g e s w h e t h e r o r n o t a man
was f i r e d f o r u n i o n a c t i v i t y o r f o r good c a u s e u n d e r t h e
p r o v i s i o n s o f s e c t i o n 10 (611:614.55)*
I n e v e r y c a s e i n w h ic h T a f t u s e d t h e f l a t s t a t e
m e n t, " T h is I s n o t s o , " o r a v a r i a t i o n o f I t , a s p e r s o n a l
a u t h o r i t y , he s u p p o r t e d h i s a s s e r t i o n w i t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n
o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e b i l l . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , I t was
c o n c l u d e d t h a t T a f t c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s e t h i c a l I n r e
s p e c t t o th e f i r s t c r i t e r i o n .
C r i t e r i o n 2 . I t i s o b l i g a t o r y t h a t t h e s p e a k e r
a v o i d m a n u f a c t u r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e t h o s . R a p p 's
s t u d y , u s i n g th e " e x p l o r a t o r y " summ ary o f e t h i c a l a t t r i
b u t e s c i t e d b y T h o n s s e n and B a i r d ( 2 3 3 :3 8 7 ) # c a t a l o g e d
t h e f r e q u e n c y o f e t h i c a l a p p e a l o f v a r i o u s t y p e s i n T a f t ' s
r e p l y t o Trum an. He f o u n d : (1) f i v e o c c a s i o n s I n w h ic h
T a f t a s s o c i a t e d h i m s e l f o r h i s c a u s e w i t h w h a t I s v i r t u o u s
o r e l e v a t e d ; (2 ) e i g h t e e n o c c a s i o n s i n w h ic h he a s s o c i a t e d
h i s o p p o n e n t o r h i s c a u s e w i t h w h a t i s n o t v i r t u o u s ; (3 )
two i n s t a n o e s i n w h ic h h e r e l i e d u p o n a u t h o r i t y d e r i v e d
f ro m p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ; (1;.) two I n s t a n c e s i n w h ic h h e
c r e a t e d t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f e a r n e s t s i n c e r i t y ; (5 ) one o c
c a s i o n sh o w in g c a n d o r a n d f o r t h r i g h t n e s s (63i4.s35t4.~57) •
Rapp f a i l e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e s p e c i f i c e x a m p le s o f e a c h o f
t h e s e a p p e a l s , t h u s r e n d e r i n g c o m p a r i s o n o f r e s u l t s d l f f l -
I4 .1 6
c u l t . H o w ev er, my a n a l y s i s seem ed t o c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a te
R a p p * 3 a s f a r a s f r e q u e n c y o f a p p e a l s was c o n c e r n e d #
T a f t a s s o c i a t e d h i m s e l f o r h i s c a u s e , t h e T a f t *
H a r t l e y B i l l , w i t h v i r t u o u s o r e l e v a t e d th e m e s . (1 ) He
a s s o c i a t e d h i m s e l f w i t h C o n g r e s s , b y v i r t u e o f h i s m em ber
s h i p t h e r e a n d w i t h th e g ro u p w h ic h h a d s p e n t f i v e m o n th s
s t u d y i n g th e b i l l b e f o r e r e n d e r i n g t h e i r c o n s i d e r e d J u d g
m e n t . (2 ) He a s s o c i a t e d t h e b i l l w i t h " i m p a r t i a l p u b l i c "
s e r v i c e r a t h e r t h a n w i t h s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t g r o u p s . (3 ) The
b i l l was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e e x t e n s i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h and
(ij.) w i t h e f f o r t s t o r e s t o r e " e q u a l i t y " to la b o r - m a n a g e m e n t
r e l a t i o n s . (5 ) The b i l l was p i c t u r e d a s c o r r e c t i n g a b u s e s
shown t o e x i s t by b o n a f i d e e v i d e n c e .
The f a c t s r e g a r d i n g T a f t * s f i r s t a t t e m p t t o e s t a b
l i s h h i s own e t h o s a r e q u i t e c l e a r . As an e l e c t e d S e n a
t o r f r o m O hio he c o u l d p r o p e r l y c o n n e c t h i m s e l f w i t h t h e
g e n e r a l r e s p e c t w i t h w h ic h C o n g r e s s i s v ie w e d b y t h e p r i
v a t e c i t i z e n . I t was a known f a c t t h a t he h a d h e a d e d t h e
c o m m itte e I n th e S e n a t e w h ic h h a d c o n s i d e r e d th e m a t t e r o f
l a b o r p o l i c y fro m J a n u a r y t i l l J u n e .
The s e c o n d , f o u r t h , a n d f i f t h a t t e m p t s t o a s s o c i a t e
h i m s e l f w i t h e l e v a t e d o r v i r t u o u s th e m e s c a n b e t r e a t e d
t o g e t h e r . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n f ro m h i s s p e e c h , h e
a s s o c i a t e s t h e b i l l w i t h th e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e :
A l l t h i s b i l l d o e s i s t o s a y t h a t when t h e g o v e rn m e n t
d o e s I n t e r v e n e , I t s h a l l b e a s a n i m p a r t i a l p u b l i c
s e r v a n t , a n d n o t I n e v e r y c a s e a s t h e a d v o c a t e o f t h e
4 1 7
l a b o r u n i o n . The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e W agner A c t b y
t h e N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n * B o a r d , an d t h e c o u r t d e c i
s i o n s r e g a r d i n g i t , made i t so o n e - s i d e d a s t o p r o d u c e
a g e n e r a l p u b l i c demand t h a t t h e l a v o p e r a t e b o t h v a y s .
T h a t i s t h e e f f e c t o f th e n e v b i l l .
L a t e r on h e s t r e s s e d t h e d e s i r e o f t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l com
m i t t e e s t o r e s t o r e e q u a l i t y :
The c o m m itte e s o f C o n g r e s s w h ic h w r o t e t h i s b i l l
h a s n o a n t i - u n i o n p r e j u d i c e . T h e y h a v e t r i e d t o r e
s t o r e e q u a l i t y i n c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g an d c o r r e c t
o n l y t h o s e a b u s e s a g a i n s t e m p l o y e r s , u n i o n m em bers and
t h i r d p a r t i e s w h ic h w e re c l e a r l y shown t o e x i s t b y
b o n a f i d e e v i d e n c e .
What a r e th e f a c t s ? I t i s d i f f i c u l t to s e p a r a t e
f a c t f ro m f i c t i o n r e g a r d i n g th e q u e s t i o n o f t h e s e r v i c e o f
p u b l i c v e r s u s p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s . The m ore e x tre m e c r i t i c s
o f t h e b i l l te r m e d i t " s l a v e l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n . " More
m o d e r a t e c r i t i c s l i k e R o v e re b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e b i l l c r e a t e d
i n e q u a l i t i e s , r e v e r s i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d , " b e c a u s e h i s
£ T a f t * s J i d e a o f f i f t y - f i f t y i s u n a v o i d a b l y c o l o r e d b y
b a c k g r o u n d a n d e x p e r i e n c e " ( 5 1 2 :2 9 5 ) * The m a t t e r o f
T a f t * 8 n a t u r a l b i a s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l .
H i s n a t u r a l b i a s was m a tc h e d b y th e b i a s o f t h e o t h e r e x
tre m e v ie w . The N a t i o n c a l l e d t h e b i l l a h y p o c r i s y , e c h o
i n g T r u m a n 's s t a t e m e n t - - " * p i e c e o f c l a s s l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t
p r e t e n d s t o c o r r e c t a b u s e s b u t i s c o o l l y c a l c u l a t e d t o
d e s t r o y th e n a t i o n ' s t r a d e - u n i o n m ovem ent" (57 2:•
The New Y o rk T im e s s u p p o r t e d T a f t ' s p o s i t i o n :
W hat b a s i s d o e s i t ($he b l l l j p r o v i d e f o r t h e l o u d l y
t r u m p e t e d c h a r g e s t h a t i t i s " s l a v e l a b o r l e g i s l a
t i o n " ? t h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e s " a b lo w a t t h e l a b o r u n i o n
1*18
m o v e m e n t," and t h a t i t m a rk s a r e t u r n t o " g o v e r n m e n t b y
I n j u n c t i o n " ? I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h i s m e a s u r e I s n o t
s im p l y a n a n t i - u n i o n s i e a s u r e . T ru e , i t s e e k s to c u r b
t h e m ore o b v i o u s a b u s e s o f l a b o r ' s new f o u n d pow er b y
i m p o s in g up o n t h e u n i o n s r e s p o n s l b l l i t i e s c o m m e n su ra te
w i t h t h a t p o w e r - - r e s p o n s l b l l l t l e s w h ic h many u n i o n s
h a v e s t e a d f a s t l y r e f u s e d t o im p o se on t h e m s e l v e s . B u t
i t p r o v i d e s , a s w e l l , new p r o t e c t i o n f o r u n i o n m i n o r i
t i e s and i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r s and f o r a g e n e r a l o v e r h a u l
i n g o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e l a b o r la w s p r o p o s e d ,
( l t f l , 6/ 5 A 7 : 2lU
To a l a r g e e x t e n t , w h e t h e r o r n o t one c o n c l u d e s
t h a t T a f t o r Truman s o u g h t t o s e r v e t h e p u b l i c I n t e r e s t
d e p e n d s upon o n e ' s own n a t u r a l b i a s . H o w ev er, i t was t r u e ,
a s t h e t r a c i n g o f l e g i s l a t i o n r e g a r d i n g l a b o r I l l u s t r a t e s ,
t h a t th e War L a b o r D i s p u t e s A ct o f 1943# t h e S m ith C o n
n e l l y A c t , h a d o f f i c i a l l y m ark ed th e en d o f f e d e r a l l e g i s
l a t i o n f a v o r i n g l a b o r ( 6 3 5 : 3 1 ) . Truman h i m s e l f h ad r e c o g
n i z e d t h e n e e d to c u r b a b u s e s . The Wew Y o rk T im es r e p o r t e d
t h e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g h i s f i n a l d e c i s i o n t o v e t o t h e m e s
s a g e } i n f a v o r o f p a s s a g e w e re h i s own d e m o n s t r a t e d I n
c l i n a t i o n s , th e m i d d l e a n d r i g h t w in g o f h i s own p a r t y ,
a n d t h e p u b l i c ; a g a i n s t t h e b i l l w e re h i s b e l i e f t h a t th e
b i l l " t h r e a t e n e d m ore l a b o r d i s u n i t y t h a n l a b o r h arm o n y "
and th e t h r e a t e n e d r e v o l t o f th e l a b o r e l e m e n t i n t h e
D e m o c r a t i c p a r t y ( 4 7 1 # 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 # I V : 7 ) * The b i l l w as n o t p e r
f e c t l e g i s l a t i o n ; i t c o u l d n o t b e , r e s u l t i n g a s i t d i d fro m
t h e g i v e - a n d - t a k e o f co m p ro m ise ( 4 7 1 # 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , I V : 8 ) • l h e
e l e c t i o n o f 194& w h ic h r e t u r n e d a R e p u b l i c a n C o n g r e s s s u g
g e s t e d s t r o n g p u b l i c s u p p o r t f o r l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n o f a
r e s t r i c t i v e ty p e ( 4 7 1 # 6 / 2 1 / 4 7 : l 6 ) • B u t p e r h a p s m o s t t e l l -
1 4 - 1 9
i n g o f a l l l a t h e v o t e I n C o n g r e s s . When th e b i l l w as
p a s s e d o v e r Truman* s v e t o , t h e t o t a l s I n t h e r e s p e c t i v e
h o u s e s w e re a s f o l l o w s : I n th e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ,
106 D e m o c ra ts a n d 2 2 5 R e p u b l i c a n s w e re f o r r e - p a s s a g e an d
71 D e m o c r a ts , 11 R e p u b l i c a n s , an d 1 A m e ric a n L a b o r P a r t y
member w e re f o r s u s t a i n i n g th e v e t o (14-71#6 /2 1 /I4 .7 : 3) ; I n
th e S e n a t e , 20 D e m o c ra ts an d I4.8 R e p u b l i c a n s w e re f o r r e
p a s s a g e a n d 2 2 D e m o c ra ts an d 3 R e p u b l i c a n s w ere f o r s u s
t a i n i n g t h e v e t o (I4.7 1 #6 / 214/ 1 4.7 : 1 ) •
The f a c t a a r e n o t l n c o n t r o v e r i b l e , b u t th e e v i d e n c e
s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t T a f t p r o p e r l y a s s o c i a t e d t h e b i l l
w i t h w h a t th e A m e ric a n p u b l i c e n m a s s e b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e
p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , and w i t h w h a t a m a j o r i t y o f th e S e n a t e
and th e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s b e l i e v e d to b e d e s i r a b l e
l e g i s l a t i o n . A lth o u g h th e e v i d e n c e c o n c e r n i n g l a b o r
a b u s e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c o m m itte e s e s s i o n s w as n o t I n th e
R e c o r d , t h e t r e n d o f l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n s i n c e 1914-3 a n d th e
o v e r w h e lm in g s u p p o r t o f C o n g r e s s a s w e l l a s t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s
own a d m i s s i o n s u p p o r t e d t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h e v i d e n c e d i d I n
f a c t e x i s t .
The b i l l w as a l s o a s s o c i a t e d b y T a f t w i t h th e e x
t e n s i o n o f f r e e s p e e c h :
The P r e s i d e n t a t t a c k s t h e p r o v i s i o n g i v i n g f r e e d o m
o f s p e e c h to e m p l o y e r s . The n e e d f o r s u c h a p r o v i s i o n
w as t h e one t h i n g a d m i t t e d e v e n by l a b o r u n i o n l e a d
e r s . The new b i l l s i m p l y p r o v i d e s t h a t v i e w s , a r g u
m en t o r o p i n i o n s h a l l n o t be e v i d e n c e o f a n u n f a i r
l a b o r p r a c t i c e u n l e s s t h e y c o n t a i n i n t h e m s e l v e s a
t h r e a t o f c o e r c i o n o r a p r o m i s e o f b e n e f i t .
k .2 0
W i t h o u t su ch a p r o v i s i o n t h e r e w o u ld b e no f r e e d o m
o f s p e e o h on t h e p a r t o f e m p lo y e r s any m ore t h a n t h e r e
h a s b e e n f o r t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s *
I n h i s v e t o m e ss a g e t o C o n g r e s s , Trum an h a d d e v e l o p e d th e
p o i n t t h a t c e r t a i n p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e b i l l w e re n o t p r a c
t i c a l , a n d s u p p o r t e d t h i s p o i n t w i t h th e f o l l o w i n g :
(5 ) The b i l l w o u ld i n t r o d u c e a u n i q u e h a n d i c a p , u n
known i n o r d i n a r y la w , u p o n th e u s e o f s t a t e m e n t s a s
e v i d e n c e o f u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c t i c e s . An a n t i u n i o n
s t a t e m e n t b y an e m p l o y e r , f o r e x a m p le , c o u l d n o t b e
c o n s i d e r e d a s e v i d e n c e o f m o t i v e , u n l e s s i t c o n t a i n e d
a n e x p l i c i t t h r e a t o f r e p r i s a l o r f o r c e o r p r o m is e o f
b e n e f i t . The b i l l w o u ld make i t a n u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c
t i c e t o " i n d u c e o r e n c o u r a g e " c e r t a i n t y p e s o f s t r i k e s
and b o y c o t t s , a n d t h e n w ould f o r b i d th e N a t i o n a l L a b o r
R e l a t i o n s B o a rd to c o n s i d e r a s e v i d e n c e " v i e w s , a r g u
m e n t, o r o p i n i o n " b y w h ic h s u c h a c h a r g e c o u l d b e
p r o v e d . ( 6 1 1 :7 5 0 2 )
A p r o v i s i o n o f T i t l e I , s e c t i o n 8 (b ) (6 ) (c ) i s I n v o l v e d
i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . The s e c t i o n s t a t e s :
( c ) The e x p r e s s i n g o f a n y v i e w s , a r g u m e n t, o r o p i n
i o n , o r t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n t h e r e o f , w h e t h e r i n w r i t t e n ,
p r i n t e d , g r a p h i c , o r v i s u a l f o rm , s h a l l n o t c o n s t i t u t e
o r b e e v i d e n c e o f an u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c t i c e u n d e r an y
o f th e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s A c t , i f s u c h e x p r e s s i o n c o n
t a i n s no t h r e a t o f r e p r i s a l o r f o r c e o r p r o m is e o f
b e n e f i t *
On th e f a c e o f i t , w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o o t h e r d a t a ,
i t w o u ld seem t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n b r o u g h t th e r i g h t o f m an
a g e m e n t to s p e a k f r e e l y i n t o l i n e w i t h t h e r i g h t s o f t h e
c i t i z e n r y to th e same f r e e d o m . T h is r e q u i r e m e n t h a d b e e n
i n c l u d e d t o c o r r e c t an e x i s t i n g a b u s e u n d e r th e W agner
A c t . The H ouse m a n a g e r s e x p l a i n e d :
B o th t h e House b i l l and th e S e n a t e am endm ent c o n
t a i n e d p r o v i s i o n s d e s i g n e d t o p r o t e c t t h e r i g h t o f
b o t h e m p l o y e r s a n d l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o f r e e s p e e c h .
Ihe c o n f e r e n c e a g r e e m e n t a d o p t s t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e
421
H ouse b i l l I n t h i s r e s p e c t w i t h one c h a n g e d e r i v e d
f r o m th e S e n a t e am endm ent. . . .T he p r a c t i c e w h ic h
th e B o ard h a s h a d i n t h e p a s t o f u s i n g s p e e c h e s
an d p u b l i c a t i o n s o f e m p lo y e r s c o n c e r n i n g l a b o r
o r g a n i z a t i o n s and c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s
a s e v i d e n c e , no m a t t e r how i r r e l e v a n t o r i m m a t e r i a l ,
t h a t some l a t e r a c t o f th e em p h o y er h ad an i l l e g a l
p u r p o s e g av e r i s e t o t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h i s c h a n g e
i n t h e la w . The p u r p o s e i s t o p r o t e c t th e r i g h t o f
f r e e s p e e c h when w h a t t h e e m p lo y e r s a y s o r w r i t e s
i s n o t o f a t h r e a t e n i n g n a t u r e o r d o e s n o t p r o m is e
a p r o h i b i t e d f a v o r a b l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . ( 6 1 1 :6 4 6 4 )
T a f t e x p l a i n e d th e same s e c t i o n i n t h e S e n a t e , J u n e 5:
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s l a n g u a g e i s to make i t c l e a r
t h a t th e B o a rd i s n o t t o u s e a n y u t t e r a n c e c o n t a i n i n g
t h r e a t s o r p r o m i s e s o f b e n e f i t a s e i t h e r a n u n f a i r
l a b o r p r a c t i c e s t a n d i n g a l o n e o r a s m a k in g some a c t
w h ic h w ou ld o t h e r w i s e n o t be an u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c t i c e ,
an u n f a i r l a b o r p r a c t i c e . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t
t h i s s u b s e c t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o " v i e w s , a r g u m e n t s , o r
o p i n i o n s " a n d d o e s n o t c o v e r i n s t r u c t i o n s , d i r e c t i o n s
o r o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s w h ic h m ig h t be deem ed a d m i s s i o n s
u n d e r o r d i n a r y r u l e s o f e v i d e n c e . I n o t h e r w o rd s t h i s
s e c t i o n d o e s n o t make i n c o m p e t e n t , e v i d e n c e w h ic h
w o u ld o r d i n a r i l y b e deemed r e l e v a n t a n d a d m i s s i b l e
i n c o u r t s o f la w . ( b l l : 6 6 0 1 )
The a r g u m e n t b e tw e e n S e n a t o r T a f t and S e n a t o r
P e p p e r , o f F l o r i d a , on th e S e n a t e f l o o r on Ju n e 5 th ro w s
some l i g h t on t h i s m a t t e r .
Mr. PEPPER. U n d e r t h a t p r o v i s i o n , i f an e m p lo y e r
w e re t o s a y on Monday, "1 h a t e l a b o r u n i o n s , an d I
t h i n k th e y a r e a m enace t o t h i s c o u n t r y , " a n d i f he
f i r e d a man on T h u r s d a y an d t h e q u e s t i o n was w h e t h e r
t h a t man was f i r e d f o r c a u s e o r f i r e d b e c a u s e he was
a g i t a t i n g f o r a u n i o n i n th e p l a n t , w o u ld t h e s t a t e
m e n t made on M onday, i n w h ic h t h e man s a i d , " I t h i n k
l a b o r u n i o n s a r e a m en ace t o t h i s c o u n t r y " b e a d
m i s s i b l e i n e v i d e n c e a s b e a r i n g on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e
r e a s o n f o r t h e d l s c h a r g e T
Mr. TAFT. A l l t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e a c o n s i d e r a
t i o n o f th e s u r r o u n d i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t w o u ld d e p e n d
u p o n t h e f a c t s . U n d e r t h e f a c t s g e n e r a l l y s t a t e d b y
th e S e n a t o r , I t h i n k t h a t s t a t e m e n t w o u ld n o t b e e v i
d e n c e o f a n y t h r e a t . T h e re w o u ld h a v e t o b e some o t h e r
c i r c u m s t a n c e s to t i e I n w i t h th e a c t o f a n e m p lo y e r .
k 2 2
I f th e a c t o f d i s c h a r g i n g I s I l l e g a l and a n u n f a i r
l a b o r p r a c t i c e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s u c h a s t a t e m e n t
w o u ld b e p r o p e r . B u t I t w ou ld n o t be p r o p e r to c o n
s i d e r a s e v i d e n c e I n s u c h a c a s e a s p e e c h w h ic h I n
I t s e l f c o n t a i n e d no t h r e a t e x p r e s s o r i m p l i e d . T h a t
i s th e e f f e c t o f th e H ouse l a n g u a g e w h ic h we a c c e p t e d .
Mr. PBPPSR. I f t h e S e n a t o r w i l l p e r m i t , t h a t i s
th e p o i n t I w a n t to e m p h a s i z e [ a l e ]
Mr. TAFT. T h a t i s t h e e f f e c t o f th e House l a n g u a g e .
Mr. PBPPRR. T h a t u n d e r t h e c r i m i n a l law a t th e
p r e s e n t tim e a n y s t a t e m e n t a man may make p r i o r to a
g i v e n a c t w h ic h th e c o u r t may t r y t o e v a l u a t e may be
a d m i t t e d i n e v i d e n c e a s h a v i n g some r e l a t i o n s h i p to
h i s i n t e n t i o n s . B u t t h e c o n f e r e n c e r e p o r t d e l i b e r
a t e l y e x c l u d e s s t a t e m e n t s o f t h a t s o r t , u n l e s s th e
s t a t e m e n t c o n t a i n s an a c t u a l t h r e a t , t h e r e b y d e p r i v i n g
th e B o a rd o f t h e f u l l e v i d e n c e i n t h e c a s e .
Mr. TAFT. So l o n g a s th e B o a rd h a s a s t a t e m e n t o f
t h a t k i n d th e e m p l o y e r 's m o u th i s p r a c t i c a l l y s h u t .
I n c a s e he m akes a s p e e c h l a t e r on and i s c h a r g e d w i t h
some u n f a i r o r u n l a w f u l l a b o r p r a c t i c e , and t h a t ca n
be c o n s i d e r e d i n e v i d e n c e , i t m eans t h a t he c a n n o t
a f f o r d t o s p e a k a t a l l . W i t h o u t t h a t p r o v i s i o n t h e r e
i s n o t f re e d o m o f s p e e c h . I s a y t h a t i s one t h i n g t h a t
a man o u g h t to h a v e . He o u g h t to h a v e f re e d o m o f
s p e e c h , a n d i t seem s to me we s h o u ld p u t i n th e w ord
" e v i d e n c e . " ( 6 1 1 :6 6 0 3 - 6 0 ^ )
I n c o n s i d e r i n g th e i m p o r t o f t h i s a r g u m e n t on th e S e n a t e
f l o o r , one m u s t be a w a re t h a t a s b o t h Truman an d P e p p e r
p o i n t e d o u t , th e e v i d e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t was d i f f e r e n t fro m
o r d i n a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a d m i s s i o n o f e v i d e n c e . N e v e r t h e
l e s s , T a f t ' s a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e b i l l w i t h i n c r e a s e d f r e e
dom o f s p e e c h f o r e m p lo y e r s was deem ed t o b e e t h i c a l .
Two p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s w e re u s e d b y T a f t to p r o
v i d e a u t h o r i t y : (1) r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f i v e m o n th s o f s t u d y
i n C o n g r e s s i n w h ic h h e h a d p l a y e d a n a c t i v e r o l e , an d
(2 ) r e f e r e n c e t o th e " b e s t e x p e r t a d v i c e " c o n s i d e r e d b y th e
C o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e s , one o f w h ic h he was c h a i r m a n .
The f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e i s com non k n o w le d g e ; t h e s e c o n d h s s
a l r e a d y b e e n t r e a t e d u n d e r th e d i s c u s s i o n o f T a f t ' s k n o w l
e d g e o f t h e l a b o r q u e s t i o n . No e v i d e n c e w h ic h I f o u n d
I d e n t i f i e d th e " e x p e r t s " who h a d a p p e a r e d b e f o r e t h e com
m i t t e e to g i v e t e s t i m o n y . ltoe e v i d e n c e on t h i s p o i n t d o e s
n o t w a r r a n t a d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n .
T a f t a s s o c i a t e d P r e s i d e n t Trum an o r h i s c a u s e , t h e
v e t o o f th e T a f t - H a r t l e y Law, w i t h th e m e s w h ic h w ere n o t
v i r t u o u s o r e l e v a t e d . (1 ) Trum an w as d e p i c t e d a s a man
who w o u ld m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e f a c t s . T h is was T a f t ' s m a jo r
t h e s i s , a n d , o f c o u r s e , e a c h e x a m p le o f a l l e g e d m i s r e p
r e s e n t a t i o n m u l t i p l i e d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f u s e o f t h i s ty p e
o f e t h i c a l a p p e a l . ftie a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h w h e t h e r o r
n o t Trum an d i d a c t u a l l y m i s r e p r e s e n t t h e f a c t s w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d i n th e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e c r i t e r i a c o n c e r n i n g
f a l s i f i c a t i o n and d i s t o r t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s . (2 ) Trum an w as
d e p i c t e d a s I g n o r a n t o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f th e b i l l , and ( 3 )
a s a man who m ak es s n a p ju d g m e n ts on i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s o f
p u b l i c p o l i c y . T h e s e two e t h i c a l a t t r i b u t e s w i l l b e d i s
c u s s e d t o g e t h e r . (Ij.) Truman w as d e p i c t e d a s a man who
w o u ld a d v o c a t e t h e v ie w s o f a s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t g r o u p o v e r
t h e i n t e r e s t s o f C o n g r e s s and h i s p a r t y . (£ ) Trum an was
d e p i c t e d a s h y p o c r i t i c a l .
Was T a f t a c c u r a t e i n r e p r e s e n t i n g T rum an i n t h i s
l i g h t ? Was Truman I g n o r a n t o f t h e b i l l ? Had h e made h i s
k2k
d e c i s i o n on t h e b a s i s o f I n a d e q u a t e o o n s l d e r a t i o n f The
c o n f e r e n c e r e p o r t h a d b e e n a d o p t e d b y b o t h h o u s e s b y
J u n e 6 , th u s m a k in g t h e b i l l a v a i l a b l e f o r T ru m a n 1s p e
r u s a l a t l e a s t two w eek s b e f o r e th e d a t e of h i s v e t o m e s
s a g e . The H ouse b i l l h a d b e e n a v a i l a b l e s i n c e A p r i l 17*
and t h e am ended S e n a t e v e r s i o n s i n c e May 1 2 . B u t t h e r e
w e re a num ber o f c o m p ro m ise s I n c o n f e r e n c e and t h e b i l l
w h ic h e m e rg e d , w h i l e I t w as p r i m a r i l y a S e n a t e b i l l , was
som ew hat d i f f e r e n t fro m t h e May 12 v e r s i o n .
W i l l i a m s. W h ite s u g g e s t e d I n a n a r t i c l e i n t h e
Sew Y o rk Tim es on J u n e 7 t h a t th e S e n a t e o p p o s i t i o n on
t h e f l o o r l e d b y th e r e m a i n i n g Hew D e a l e r s was d e s i g n e d
t o I n d i c a t e a r e a s Truman s h o u l d s t r e s s i n h i s v e t o m e s s a g e
( 4 7 1 : 2 ) . T h e re was c o n s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e o n t h e S e n a t e
f l o o r o n J u n e 6 ; I t f i l l s o v e r f o r t y p a g e s o f t h e C on
g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd ( 6 1 1 :6 6 5 4 * 9 5 ) • For s e v e r a l d a y s , a n a l y
s e s o f t h e b i l l and I t s p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s h a d b e e n p l a c e d
i n t h e R e c o rd b y b o t h th e a d v o c a t e s a n d t h e a n t a g o n i s t s
o f t h e b i l l .
T r u m a n 's a i d e s b e g a n t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f t h e b i l l on
J u n e 6 (471*6/2j?/47#IV:7)• C a b i n e t o f f i c e r s , l a w y e r s , a n d
t e o h n l c a l a d v i s e r s w ere c a l l e d u p o n t o p r e p a r e r e p o r t s
(471*6/22/47»IV;7) • From t h e r e s u l t i n g re a m s o f commen
t a r y , c o n c i s e r e p o r t s w e i g h i n g t h e good a n d b a d p o i n t s o f
e a c h p r o v i s i o n w e re p r e p a r e d (471*6/22/47»IV :7). As l a t e
a s J u n e 1 8 , Truman s t a t e d p u b l i c l y t h a t he had n o t made up
h i s m in d , n o r h a d he r e a d t h e c o n f e r e n c e v e r s i o n (4 7 1 ,
6 / 1 8 / 4 7 : 1 ) . Truman was r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n " c l o s e t e d "
w i t h h i s a d v i s e r s on W ednesday and T h u r s d a y s t u d y i n g t h e
b i l l ( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , 1V: 1 ) . The New Y o rk Tim es b e l i e v e d th e
C a b i n e t to be u n a n i m o u s l y b e h i n d th e v e t o ( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 » I V :
7 ) , y e t Newsweek r e p o r t e d them to be " s h a r p l y d i v i d e d , "
an d i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e p r i v a t e a n a l y s e s made b y t h e J u s t i c e
D e p a r t m e n t , th e L a b o r D e p a r tm e n t, a n d t h e N a t i o n a l L a b o r
R e l a t i o n s B o a rd a l l s u p p o r t e d v e t o ( 6 0 3 : 1 5 ) . By T h u r s d a y
n i g h t , he an d h i s a s s o c i a t e s b e g a n w r i t i n g t h e v e t o m essa g e
( 4 7 1 , 6 / 2 2 / 4 7 , IV : 1 ) . The f o l l o w i n g m o r n in g Truman was
q u o t e d by J o s e p h A. L o f t u s a s s a y i n g t h a t h e b e l i e v e d th e
b i l l was a " b a d p i e c e o f l e g i s l a t i o n , " b u t t h a t he h a d made
h i s d e c i s i o n " a f t e r a l o n g s t u d y o f th e m o s t d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s h e h a d e v e r r e c e i v e d r e l a t i n g t o a b i l l " ( 4 7 1 ,
6 / 2 0 / 4 7 : 1 ) . What do t h e a v a i l a b l e f a c t a s u p p o r t r e g a r d i n g
T r u m a n 's k n o w le d g e o f t h e b i l l and t h e b r i e f n e s s o f h i s
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i t ?
E x a c t l y w h a t h a d T a f t s a i d a b o u t Truman? He s a i d :
Now th e P r e s i d e n t a t t e m p t s i n t e n d a y s , I n c l u d i n g
t h e t h r e e o r f o u r d a y s s p e n t i n C a n a d a , t o p u t h i s
ju d g m e n t o f t h e m e a n in g a n d e f f e c t o f a h u n d r e d d e
t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s o v e r t h a t o f a g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f
t h o s e who h a v e c a r e f u l l y d r a f t e d a n d a n a l y s e d t h e s e
p r o v i s i o n s .
I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e P r e s i
d e n t ' s v e t o m e s s a g e show s t h a t he know s p r a c t i c a l l y
n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e b i l l I t s e l f .
F a c t u a l l y much o f w h a t T a f t h a s s a id was t r u e .
426
Truman h a d " p u t h i s ju d g m e n t" t o th e b i l l a f t e r r a t h e r
l i m i t e d s t u d y . The e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t he d i d n o t r e a d
th e f i n a l b i l l a t h i s f i r s t o p p o r t u n i t y b u t i n s t e a d w a i t e d
u n t i l v i r t u a l l y t h e l a s t m om ent, t h u s e x p o s i n g h i m s e l f t o
o u t s i d e I n f l u e n c e s p r i o r to t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e law I t
s e l f . H ow ever, t h e b i l l h a d b e e n i n t h e h a n d s o f h i s c l o s e
a d v i s e r s , i n c l u d i n g th e l o g i c a l g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s ,
fro m t h e f i r s t a v a i l a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y . T h e r e f o r e , I t w o u ld
seem t h a t a l t h o u g h T a f t d i d n o t m a n u f a c t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f e t h o s i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p e r s o n
a l a t t e n t i o n g i v e n by Truman to th e b i l l , he h a d , i n a l l
p r o b a b i l i t y , o v e r s t a t e d h i s c a s e I n r e l a t i o n to T ru m a n 's
" i g n o r a n c e " o f t h e b i l l ' s c o n t e n t s . C e r t a i n l y a P r e s i d e n t
m u s t l i m i t t h e am o u n t o f p e r s o n a l a t t e n t i o n w h ic h he c a n
a p p o r t i o n o u t t o a n y o n e s p e c i f i c p r o b le m .
T a f t s u g g e s t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s d u r i n g t h e s p e e c h t h a t
th e P r e s i d e n t h a d l e t s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t s p r e v a i l o v e r t h e
w i l l o f C o n g r e s s a n d h i s p a r t y . F o r e x a m p le , I n h i s i n t r o
d u c t i o n , T a f t s a i d :
The P r e s i d e n t i g n o r e s t h e o p i n i o n an d s t u d i e d c o n c l u
s i o n o f t h e D e m o c r a ts I n t h e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ,
who v o t e d 106 t o 71 t h i s a f t e r n o o n to o v e r r i d e h i s
v e t o .
On t h e c o n t r a r y , th e P r e s i d e n t h a s a p p a r e n t l y
a d o p t e d i n l a r g e p a r t t h e p r e j u d i c e d a r g u m e n ts o f th e
u n i o n l a b o r l e a d e r s who f ro m t h e b e g i n n i n g h a v e o p p o s e d
a n y l e g i s l a t i o n w h a t e v e r and r e f u s e d t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h
C o n g r e s s o r make a n y c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s .
The P r e s i d e n t ' s m e s s a g e f o l l o w s i n many d e t a i l s th e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e b i l l p r e p a r e d b y Lee P r e s s m a n , g e n e r a l
c o u n s e l o f th e CIO, I n s e r t e d i n t h e C o n g r e s s i o n a l
R e c o rd on J u n e 3 b y C o n g re s sm a n M a r c a n t o n l o { A m e ric a n -
427
L a b o r , New Y o rk J an d a n o t h e r memorandum I n s e r t e d I n th e
C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o rd o f J u n e 6 by S e n a t o r [Ja m e s E .}
M u rra y d e m o c r a t , W o n ta n a 3 .
P r e s i d e n t Truman w h o l l y I g n o r e s t h e d e t a i l e d a n s w e rs
to t h e s e a r g u m e n ts and m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h ic h I
p r e s e n t e d on t h e f l o o r o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e .
A g a in , I n th e c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s s p e e c h , T a f t r e p e a t e d a
s i m i l a r c h a r g e :
I t i s d i s c o u r a g i n g to f i n d th e P r e s i d e n t o f th e
U n i t e d S t a t e s y i e l d i n g t o t h e i r ( t h e l a b o r u n i o n s }
p r e s s u r e , a d o p t i n g t h e i r a r g u m e n ts and b l o c k i n g t h e
e f f o r t o f t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e ' s r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s , i n c l u d i n g a l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f th e D em o c ra ts
i n t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , to s e c u r e a r e a s o n a b l e
r e f o r m .
The s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a o f th e v o t e i n C o n g r e s s a r e
e a s i l y s e c u r e d by r e f e r e n c e to th e R e c o r d . On J u n e 2 0 , i n
t h e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , 331 y e a s , 83 n a y s , and
1 5 a b s t e n t i o n s w ere r e c o r d e d on t h e v o t e to o v e r r i d e ( 6 1 1 :
7 5 0 4 ) . On Ju n e 2 3 , i n t h e S e n a t e , 6 8 y e a s , 25 n a y s , and
2 a b s t e n t i o n s w ere r e c o r d e d ( 6 1 1 : 7 6 9 2 ) . Of t h o s e v o t i n g
i n th e H ouse r o u g h l y 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e D e m o c ra ts s u p
p o r t e d t h e p a s s a g e o f th e la w . A p p r o x i m a te ly 7 9 p e r c e n t
o f t h o s e v o t i n g i n b o t h h o u s e s s u p p o r t e d th e m e a s u r e . I t
seem ed f a i r to a s s e s s T a f t ' s s t a t i s t i c a l s u p p o r t on t h i s
p o i n t a s a c c u r a t e .
The two m em oranda i n q u e s t i o n w ere i n s e r t e d i n t o th e
R e c o rd a s T a f t h a d s t a t e d . The a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e
b i l l p r e p a r e d b y Lee P r e s s m a n , g e n e r a l c o u n s e l o f t h e CIO
was i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e R e c o rd a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f r e m a r k s by
V i t o M a r c a n t o n i o , New Y o rk , on J u n e 3, 1947 ( 6 l l : A 2 7 7 7 - 8 0 ) .
428
P r e s s m a n 's a n a l y s i s was d e v e l o p e d u n d e r n i n e m a in p o i n t s
w h ic h h e b e l i e v e d w ould r e s u l t fro m p a s s a g e o f t h e b i l l :
(1 ) a b o l i t i o n o f u n i o n s e c u r i t y , (2) p r e v e n t i o n o f r e c o g
n i t i o n a n d c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g , (3 ) b r e a k i n g up o f c o l
l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g u n i t s , (4 ) r e s t r i c t i o n s on c o l l e c t i v e
b a r g a i n i n g , (5 ) i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e r l ^ i t t o s t r i k e —
r e v i v a l o f a n t i - l a b o r i n j u n c t i o n , (6) e x c l u s i o n o f g r o u p s
o f e m p lo y e e s fro m c o l l e c t i v e - b a r g a i n i n g r i g h t s , (7 ) o b
s t r u c t i o n a n d i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h th e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e Na
t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a rd , (8 ) e n c o u r a g i n g o f r a i d s on
u n i o n t r e a s u r i e s , an d (9) f o r b i d d i n g o f p o l i t i c a l e x p e n d
i t u r e s ( 6 1 1 :A 2 7 7 7 - 8 0 ) .
On J u n e 6 , Jam e s 5 . M u rra y i n s e r t e d a memo a n a l y z i n g
T i t l e I o f th e b i l l i n t o t h e R e c o rd ( 8 1 1 : 6 0 6 0 - 6 6 ) . H i i s
memo f o l l o w e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e b i l l , p o i n t by p o i n t ,
l i s t i n g o b j e c t i o n s to e a c h s e c t i o n . The a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e
memo was n o t r e v e a l e d u n t i l J u n e 20 b y M u rra y i n d e b a t e on
th e S e n a t e f l o o r . At t h i s t i m e , h e a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t i t
h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r h im , a t h i s r e q u e s t , b y t h e N a t i o n a l
L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a rd ( 6 1 1 : 7 5 6 0 ) . S e n a t o r P e p p e r c h a r g e d
T a f t w i t h " i n n u e n d o " an d " u n w o r th y i n s i n u a t i o n " f o r s u g
g e s t i n g t h a t t h e P r e s s m a n memorandum, w h ic h T a f t m i s t a k e n l y
h a d s a i d h a d b e e n i n s e r t e d b y M u rra y , " a f f o r d e d t h e b a s i s
f o r t h i s P r e s i d e n t i a l v e t o " ( 6 1 1 : 7 5 6 0 ) . T a f t r e p l i e d :
I made no s u c h o h a r g e . What 1 s u g g e s t e d [ o n t h e f l o o r
o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e ! w as t h a t i f t h e S e n a t o r
p e p p e r ] w ou ld r e a d i n t h e R e c o rd th e P r e s s m a n
1+29
memorandum, w h ic h was p u t I n t o t h e R e c o rd b y t h e
d i s t i n g u i s h e d S e n a t o r f ro m M o n ta n a [ l l u r r a y j , an d a l s o
p u t i n t o th e R e c o rd b y o n e o f t h e H ouse M em bers, t h e
S e n a t o r w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e v e t o m e s s a g e f o l l o w s i t
a l m o s t p o i n t b y p o i n t . I am n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t o t h e r
t h i n g s w ere n o t a l s o c o n s i d e r e d ; b u t I t h i n k t h e S e n a
t o r w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e y a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . (611:75t>0)
I t w as a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t M u rra y c l a r i f i e d t h e m a t t e r o f
th e a u t h o r s h i p o f h i s memo. By b r o a d c a s t tim e t h a t e v e n i n g
T a f t h a d r e p h r a s e d h i s c h a r g e to r e f l e c t t h e c o r r e c t i o n s
c a l l e d to h i s a t t e n t i o n on th e S e n a t e f l o o r . As a m a t t e r
o f f a c t , T a f t c o r r e c t e d t h e s t a t e m e n t he h a d made on th e
f l o o r i n h i s r e m a r k s to t h e S e n a t e on J u n e 2 1 :
I w i s h t o c o r r e c t t h a t s t a t e m e n t . I d i d c o r r e c t i t
i n a N a t i o n - w i d e b r o a d c a s t w h ic h I made l a s t n i g h t .
T h e re a r e two m em orandum s. Die one p r e p a r e d b y Mr.
P re s s m a n was p u t i n t o t h e R e c o rd i n th e H ouse b y
M a r c a n t o n l o , a n d t h e r e i s th e memorandum w h ic h t h e
S e n a t o r fro m M ontana [ M u r r a y ] p u t i n , w h ic h d o e s n o t
show i t s o r i g i n . My I m p r e s s i o n i s t h a t i t came fro m
th e N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a r d , o r p e r h a p s fro m
m em bers o f t h e i r s t a f f . I w is h t o c o r r e c t t h e s t a t e
m e n t to w h ic h t h e S e n a t o r M u rra y r e f e r r e d . I am
s o r r y I made th e m i s t a k e , b u t i t w as c o r r e c t e d to th e
w h o le c o u n t r y l a s t n i g h t . ( 6 1 1 : 7 6 5 5 )
A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n ts a p p e a r i n g i n
T r u m a n 's v e t o m e s s a g e s a n d t h o s e a p p e a r i n g i n t h e M u rra y
a n d M a r c a n t o n l o i n s e r t i o n s r e v e a l e d t h a t a l l t h r e e a p
p r o a c h e d t h e la w f ro m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f l a b o r , b u t t h a t t h e
Trum an m e s s a g e c o n t a i n e d two a r g u m e n t s n o t f o u n d i n t h e
i n s e r t i o n s . Trum an d e v e l o p e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e T s f t -
n a r t l e y B i l l p r o v i d e d f o r to o much g o v e r n m e n t a l i n t e r
v e n t i o n i n o u r e c o n o m ic l i f e — a p o s i t i o n w h ic h th e n a t i o n a l
l a b o r - m a n a g e m e n t c o n f e r e n c e o f 19^+ 5 h a d a g r e e d w as u n d e s l r -
k.30
a b l e . The o t h e r f a c e t o f h l a a d d r e s s n o t f o u n d I n e i t h e r
o f t h e o t h e r a o u r c e s d e a l t w i t h t h e h a z a r d s w h ic h e m p lo y e r s
w o u ld be s u b j e c t e d t o u n d e r t h e la w .
W h ile th e M u rra y memorandum a n d th e Truman m e s s a g e s
b o t h s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e b i l l w ould r e s u l t I n p o o r e r l a b o r -
m an ag em en t r e l a t i o n s , i . e . , t h a t i t w o u ld I n c r e a s e s t r i k e s ,
th e P re s s m a n memo d i d n o t d e a l w i t h t h i s a s p e c t . I t seem ed
t o b e m ore c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r i g h t t o s t r i k e t h a n th e
n u m b er o f s t r i k e s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p r o b le m o f th e
u s e o f I n j u n c t i o n s i n s t r i k e s a f f e c t i n g th e n a t i o n a l h e a l t h
an d s a f e t y , w h ic h was n o t p a r t o f T i t l e I an d h e n c e d i d n o t
a p p e a r I n th e M u rra y memo, w as d l s o u s s e d I n t h e P re s s m a n
I n s e r t i o n . C e r t a i n a r g u m e n ts w ere i n c l u d e d I n b o t h i n s e r
t i o n s a n d b o t h v e t o m e s s a g e s : t h e b i l l w o u ld b e u n w o r k a b le
a n d b u rd e n s o m e ; t h e b i l l w o u ld be u n f a i r , i . e . , i t w o u ld
d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t e m p lo y e e s ; t h e b i l l w ou ld r e s u l t i n
r e s t r i c t i o n s on c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g ; t h e b i l l w ould
d e p r i v e w o r k e r s o f v i t a l p r o t e c t i o n s t h e n e x i s t i n g u n d e r
t h e la w ; t h e b i l l w o u ld r a i s e I s s u e s w h ic h t r a n s c e n d t h e
p r o b le m o f i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s , e . g . , t h e p r o b le m o f
p o l i t l o a l e x p e n d i t u r e s , t h e m a t t e r o f t h e p r im a c y o f s t a t e
o r f e d e r a l l a w s , and t h e q u e s t i o n o f a s s e r t i o n s o f l o y a l t y
b y u n i o n l e a d e r s .
To r e t u r n t o t h e e a r l i e r q u e s t i o n , w h a t i s i m p o r t a n t
h e r e i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e P r e s i d e n t s
m e s s a g e " f o l l o w s i n many d e t a i l s " t h e s p e c i f i e d memos.
kn
E v id e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e t r u t h o f t h i s s t a t e m e n t I s s t r o n g .
E v id e n c e p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d c o n c e r n i n g th e a d v i s e r s
c o n s u l t e d b y Truman show ed t h a t one o f h i s m a jo r s o u r c e s
w as a r e p o r t b y t h e N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a rd (6 0 3 :
1 5 ) . The L a b o r D e p a r tm e n t a n a l y s i s was a l s o h e a v i l y r e l i e d
up o n ( 6 0 3 :1 5 ) * F u r t h e r m o r e , th e K l e c k n e r s t u d y s u g g e s t e d
t h a t t h e b o a r d J u s t m e n t i o n e d h a d r e n d e r e d d e c i s i o n s f a v o r
i n g l a b o r t o a g r e a t e x t e n t ( 6 3 1 :5 3 ) * T h e r e f o r e , I t I s n o t
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t I t seem ed to T a f t t h a t Truman m i g h t be
t a k i n g th e " u n i o n l i n e " on t h i s o c c a s i o n . S e n a t o r P e p p e r
s u g g e s t e d i n t h e R e c o rd o f J u n e 20 t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d
n o t an d w o u ld n o t d i s c u s s th e m a t t e r w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f e i t h e r s i d e ( 6 1 1 : 7 5 6 0 ) . He a l s o d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t
th e P r e s i d e n t h a d t a l k e d to a n y p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s on t h e law
( 6 1 1 : 7 5 6 0 ) , b u t th e w e i g h t o f th e e v i d e n c e seem s to s u g g e s t
t h a t he d i d c o n s u l t w i t h h i s a d v i s e r s .
The f i n a l a t t e m p t made b y T a f t t o e s t a b l i s h h i s own
e t h o s b y l o w e r i n g T ru m an ’ s i n v o l v e d t h e i n f e r e n c e t h a t
Truman w as h y p o c r i t i c a l , ftie f i r s t e x a m p le was g e n e r a l :
He [Trum an] i g n o r e s e v e r y a b u s e b y l a b o r u n i o n s w h ic h
f i l l th e r e c o r d o f e v i d e n c e b e f o r e t h e c o m m i t t e e s •
W h ile h e g i v e s l i p s e r v i c e t o t h e i d e a o f l a b o r r e f o r m
b y s a y i n g t h a t h e h e a r t i l y condem ns a b u s e s on t h e p a r t
o f u n i o n s a n d e m p l o y e r s , h e n o w h e re r e c o g n i z e s t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f a n y s p e c i f i c a b u s e .
The s e c o n d I l l u s t r a t i o n w as a s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e i n w h ic h
Trum an f o l l o w e d s u c h a p r o c e d u r e :
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y p r o v i s i o n o f t h e m e s s a g e
i s t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s a t t a c k on t h e s e c t i o n p e r m i t t i n g a n
1*32
I

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Creator Dabbs, Phyllis Selby (author)

Core Title A Descriptive-Analytical Study Of Ethical Standards In Contemporary American Public Address

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Seal, Forrest L. (committee chair), Brackenbury, Robert L. (committee member), McBath, James H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-100339

Unique identifier UC11357885

Identifier 6103796.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-100339 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6103796.pdf

Dmrecord 100339

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Dabbs, Phyllis Selby

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA