University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An Experimental Study Of The Influence Of Subliminal Cue Words On Audience Responses To A Filmed Speaker'S Sincerity, Effectiveness, And Subject Matter

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An Experimental Study Of The Influence Of Subliminal Cue Words On Audience Responses To A Filmed Speaker'S Sincerity, Effectiveness, And Subject Matter

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Content AN EXPERIM ENTAL STUDY O F THE INFLUENCE OF
SUBLIMINAL CUE WORDS ON AUDIENCE RESPONSES
TO A FILM ED SPEA K ER ’S SINCERITY,
E FFEC TIV E N ESS, AND SUBJECT M ATTER
by
G eorge Edw ard S tein er
A D isse r ta tio n P r e se n te d to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm en t of the
R eq u irem en ts fo r the D eg ree
D octor of P h ilosop h y
(Sp eech )
A ugust 1959
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PA RK
L O S A N G E L E S 7. C A L IF O R N IA
This dissertation, written by
.......................G .e Q r ^ e ..J E d M a r .d ..ja te J .n .e .r .....................
under the direction of hX.S...Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date J . u T y . - . Z , . . . . 1 9 5 . 9 . .
RTATION COMMITTEE
T A B L E O F CO NTENTS
P a g e
LIST O F T A B L E S ................................................................................................... iv
LIST O F IL L U ST R A T IO N S .............................................................................. v ii
C h a p ter
I. TH E P R O B L E M A N D R EV IEW O F L IT E R A T U R E . . 1
In tro d u ctio n
T h e P r o b le m
D e fin itio n s o f T e r m s U se d
R e v ie w of L ite r a tu r e
II. S U B JE C T S , T E C H N IQ U E S, AND P R O C E D U R E S . . . 28
S u b je c ts
T e c h n iq u e s
P r o c e d u r e s
III. P R E S E N T A T IO N A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N O F D A T A . 55
V a lid ity o f D ata
R e lia b ility o f D ata
B a s is fo r In te r p r e ta tio n o f D ata
Q u e stio n 1
Q u e stio n 2
Q u e stio n 3
Q u e stio n 4a
Q u e stio n 4b
IV . SU M M A R Y , C O N C LU SIO N S, A N D IM PLIC A TIO N S
F O R F U R T H E R ST U D Y ......................................................... 73
S u m m a ry
C o n c lu s io n s
I m p lic a tio n s and S u g g e stio n s fo r F u r th e r Study
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ........................................................................................................ 94
P a g e
A P P E N D IX A . In str u c tio n S h ee t and P r e T e s t .............................. 100
A P P E N D IX B . In str u c tio n S h e e t, I n itia l P o s t T e s t , R a tin g
S c a le s , S e a tin g C h a rt and R e q u e st to U s e
E y e s ig h t R a tin g s .................................................... 104
A P P E N D IX C . F in a l P o s t T e s t ........................ I l l
A P P E N D IX D . T a b le s on E y e s ig h t and S e a tin g D a t a .................... 116
ge
59
59
61
62
62
63
63
65
65
67
67
68
68
LIST O F T A BL ES
G roup m e a n s and to ta l m e a n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
e ff e c t iv e n e s s r a t i n g s ....................................................................
A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e o f th e d iffe r e n t m e a n s fo r s e x
d iff e r e n c e s in e f f e c t iv e n e s s r a t i n g s .................................
G roup m e a n s fo r p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s , fo r s c o r e s
b e tw e e n p r e and in itia l p o st t e s t , and fin a l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s ........................................................................................................
G roup m e a n s and to ta l m e a n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
p re t e s t s c o r e s ...................................................................................
A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e of the d iffe r e n t m e a n s fo r s e x
d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t s c o r e s ...............................................
G roup m e a n s and to ta l m e a n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s
b e tw e e n p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s c o r e s ..........................
A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e o f th e d iffe r e n t m e a n s fo r s e x
d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e en p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s c o r e s .
C o r r e la tio n b e tw e en p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s .....................
D a ta fo r u s e in M c N e m a r ’s F o r m u la 9 0 w ith s ig n ific a n c e
o f t t e s t o f v a r ia n c e d i f f e r e n c e s ...............................................
G roup m e a n s and to ta l m e a n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
in it ia l p o st t e s t s c o r e s ....................................................................
A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p o st
t e s t s c o r e s .............................................................................................
G roup m e a n s and to ta l m e a n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
fin a l p o st t e s t ........................................................................................
A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st
t e s t .............................................................................................................
iv
v
T a b le P a g e
14. M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p ost
t e s t s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c l a s s i f i
c a tio n s ...................................................................................................... 117
15. A n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p o st
t e s t s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c l a s s i f i
c a tio n s ....................................................................................................... 117
16. M ean s and to ta l m e a n s for d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s
b etw een pre and in itia l p ost t e s t s o f film su b je c t-
m a tte r fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s . . 118
17. A n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s b etw een
p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r fo r
d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ............................... 118
18. M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p ost
te s t s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c l a s s i f i
c a tio n s ...................................................................................................... 119
19. A n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st te s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s ific a tio n s . . 119
20. M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
r a tin g s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s . . 120
21. A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
r a tin g s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s . . 120
22. M eans and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a cu ity c la s s if ic a t io n s . . 121
23. A n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre te s t s c o r e s
fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a cu ity c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ..................... 121
24. M eans and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
r a tin g s fo r d iffe r e n t se a tin g a r e a s .................................... 122
25. A n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
r a tin g s fo r d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s .................................... 122
26. M ean s and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t se a tin g a r e a s .................................... 123
T able P a g e
27. A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t s c o r e s
fo r d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s .................................................................... 123
28. M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p o st te s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s ................................................124
29. A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s ................................................124
30. M ean s and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s b etw een
pre and in itia l p o st t e s t s o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r fo r
d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s ................................................................... 125
31. A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s b e tw e en
pre and in itia l p o st t e s t s o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r fo r
d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s ......................................................................... 125
32. M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s .....................................................126
33. A n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s for d iffe r e n t s e a tin g a r e a s .....................................................126
LIST O F ILLUSTRATIONS
F ig u r e
1. D ia g r a m o f e x p e r im e n ta l room 109, d im e n sio n s,
s e a tin g a r e a s , and p la c em e n t o f eq u ip m en t . . .
P a g e
35
v ii
C H A PT E R I
THE P R O B L E M AND REVIEW O F LIT ER A TU R E
In trod u ction
The o r ig in fo r th is stu dy w a s the c o n c er n e x p r e s s e d by m any
p eop le in v a r y in g w a lk s o f life about a new tech n iq u e in a d v e r tis in g
known a s “ su b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g .” Its m o st r e c e n t a p p lica tio n to
a d v e r tis in g at the tim e o f th is stu dy c o n s is te d o f su p e r im p o sin g a w ord
m e s s a g e o r fig u re o v e r a m otion p ictu re film im a g e at e x tr e m e ly fa st
sp e e d s and at a r b itr a r y tim e in te r v a ls through the sim u lta n e o u s u se o f
a se p a r a te slid e film p r o je c to r .
W ith the advent o f the c o m m e r c ia liz e d a p p lica tio n of su b
lim in a l p e r ce p tio n and the public an n ou n cem en t of its e ffe c tiv e n e s s in
in c r e a s in g s a le s of C o c a -C o la and pop corn in a New J e r s e y m o v ie
th e a te r , c a m e con d em n ation fro m m e m b e r s o f lea r n e d s o c ie t ie s ,
g o v ern in g b o d ie s, and jo u r n a lis ts . R a r e ly h as one ev en t c a u se d su ch
u n an im ity o f p u b licly e x p r e s s e d op in ion . P o r tio n s of th e s e o p in io n s
fo llo w in o r d e r to lea d to a b e tte r u n d erstan d in g o f the p rob lem in
g e n e r a l and o f th is study in p a r tic u la r .
J u s tific a tio n fo r c o n c e r n by p s y c h o lo g is ts w a s s u c c in c tly m ade
by M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M cN eil in an a r tic le e n title d “ S u b lim in a l
2
S tim u la tio n : A n O v e r v ie w / ’ w h ich a p p ea red in the M ay, 1958, is s u e
o f T he A m e r ic a n P s y c h o lo g is t :
R e c e n tly , to our d is m a y , the a n n o u n cem en t o f a c o m m e r c ia l a p p li
ca tio n o f lon g e s ta b lis h e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s h a s a ss u m e d
n ig h tm a r ish q u a litie s , and w e find o u r s e lv e s u n w illin g ly c a s t in
th e r o le o f in v a d e r s o f p e r so n a l p r iv a c y and e n e m ie s of s o c ie t y .
A kind o f g u ilt by a s s o c ia tio n s e e m s to be o c c u r r in g , and, a s
fu tu re in c id e n ts o f th is kind w ill, it th r e a te n s to u n d erm in e the
p u blic r e la tio n s w e h a v e b u ilt w ith y e a r s o f ca u tio n and c o n c e r n
fo r public w e lfa r e . T he h ig h ly e m o tio n a l p u b lic r e a c tio n to the
“ d is c o v e r y ” o f su b lim in a l p e r ce p tio n sh ou ld s e r v e a s an o b je ct
le s s o n to ou r p r o fe s s io n , fo r in the b rig h t g la r e o f p u b licity w e
can s e e u rg en t e th ic a l i s s u e s a s w e ll a s an o m en o f th in g s to
c o r n e d
T h e in te n siv e n a tio n a l p u b licity g iv en the su b lim in a l p e r c e p
tio n tech n iq u e b y the p r e s s r e su lte d in c r e a tin g m u ch th e sa m e
situ a tio n th at co n fro n ted th e m en r e s p o n s ib le fo r the s c ie n tific d e v e lo p
m en t o f the atom b om b . P u b lic a la r m dem an d ed c o n tr o l of the
su b lim in a l s o c ia l a to m . E . R o p er fo rm u la te d th e p rob lem thus:
If the d e v ic e is s u c c e s s f u l fo r putting o v e r p op corn , why not
p o litic ia n s o r an yth in g e ls e ? If it is p o s s ib le to prom pt the su b
c o n s c io u s into m ak in g c e r ta in ju d g m en ts o f hum an c h a r a c te r , w hy
w ou ld n ’t it be p o s s ib le to u s e in v is ib le m e s s a g e s fo r the p u rp ose o f
a n n ih ila tin g a rep u ta tio n o r p ro m o tin g it? The s p o n s o r s o f the
ga d g et a r e not un aw are o f th e d a n g ero u s u s e s to w h ich it m ig h t be
put, a s th ey t h e m s e lv e s have s u g g e s te d th at an a u d ien ce b e
in fo r m ed w h en it is b e in g su b lim in a ted and a ls o that the n a tu re o f
an in v is ib le m e s s a g e b e m ad e known b e fo r e o r a fte r a p r o g r a m .
A t the v e r y le a s t , th e FCC sh ou ld a c t in th e public in te r e s t to
p r e v en t the d e v ic e fro m b e in g u se d on t e le v is io n , e v en though the
o w n e r s w ould p r o m ise to in fo rm the v ie w e r s w hen and how th ey
w e r e b e in g su b lim in a te d . T he su b c o n s c io u s m ind is the m o s t
d e lic a te part o f the m o s t d e lic a te a p p a ra tu s in th e e n tir e u n iv e r s e .
1 J a m e s V . M cC o n n ell, R ich a rd L . C u tle r , and E lto n B .
M c N e il, “ S u b lim in a l S tim u la tio n : A n O v e r v ie w ,” T he A m e r ic a n
P s y c h o lo g is t , p. 238, M ay, 1958.
3
It i s not to be sm u d g ed , s u llie d , o r tw iste d in o r d e r to b o o st the
s a le s of p op corn o r an yth ing e ls e . A n open d e c la r a tio n o f w a r can
no lo n g e r be d e la y e d a g a in st th o se w ho v ie w the in te g r ity o f the
in n e r s e l f la r g e ly in te r m s o f th e m o v em e n t o f m e r c h a n d ise .^
S e v e r a l n a tio n a l le g is la tiv e m e m b e r s w e r e v e r y o u tsp o k en in
th e ir op in io n of su b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g . In the w o rd s o f U tah C o n
g r e s s m a n W illia m A . D aw son:
S u b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g h a s so m e w o r r is o m e if not frig h ten in g
a s p e c ts and w ould be m ad e to o r d e r fo r the e s ta b lis h m e n t and
m a in te n a n c e o f a to ta lita r ia n g o v e rn m e n t if put to p o litic a l
purposes.**
B r o a d c a stin g M agazin e o f D e c e m b e r 2, 1957, r e p o rted that:
S en a to r C h a r le s E . P o tte r (R ., M ich .) sa id he w a s d istu r b e d by
c la im s of p s y c h ia tr is ts that p eop le can be in flu en ced by su b lim in a l
p e r c e p tio n [SP ] m e s s a g e s . “ If SP is h ig h ly p e r s u a s iv e , the
v ie w e r m ay find h im s e lf m ak in g a p u rch a se w ith ou t e v e n know ing
w h y ,” he sa id . “ T h is r a is e s s e r io u s e th ic a l q u e s tio n s . The
p o s s ib ilit ie s a r e c e r ta in ly u n fa ir to the v ie w e r who is n ’t e v en
g iv en a ch an ce to e x e r c is e s a le s r e s is ta n c e . It’s r e a s s u r in g to
know that FCC c o n s id e r s its p o w ers ad eq u ate u n d er th e a c t to
c o n tr o l i t .” ^
A n a r tic le th at ap p eared in an e a r lie r is s u e o f B r o a d c a s tin g ,
N o v e m b e r 11, 1957, rem in d ed t e le c a s t e r s of the F e d e r a l C o m m u n ica
tio n s C o m m is s io n ’s [F C C ] ru lin g on p ro p er sp o n so r id e n tific a tio n .
If t e le c a s t e r s have any n otion o f tr y in g su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n , [a]
m eth od by w h ich [an] im p r e s s io n on [the] su b c o n s c io u s m ig h t be
m ad e th rou gh rep ea ted in v is ib le fla s h e s on [a] t e le v is io n s c r e e n ,
2
E . R o p er, “ How P o w e r fu l A r e the P e r s u a d e r s ,” T he
S atu rd ay R e v ie w , 4 0 :1 9 , O cto b er 5, 1957.
3
T h e W all S tr e e t J o u r n a l, M arch 7, 1958, p. 1.
4
B r o a d c a s tin g , D e c e m b e r 2, 1957, p. 32.
4
th e y ’d b e tte r read Ithe] c o m m u n ic a tio n s’ a c t and FCC r e g u la tio n s .
T h e r e ’s [a] s p e c if ic r e q u ir e m e n t fo r sp o n s o r id e n tific a tio n on a ll
b r o a d c a st p r o g r a m s . F a ilu r e to c o m p ly cou ld b r in g p u n itive
a c tio n . 5
A n o th er a r tic le in B r o a d c a stin g m en tio n ed th e c o n c e r n show n
by the FCC w ith the r e a c tio n s th is a d v e r tis in g tech n iq u e had c a u se d
a m on g the le g is la t o r s :
C h a irm a n Joh n C . D o e r fe r , FC C C h a irm a n , se n t a p r o g r e s s
r e p o r t to about 20 C o n g r e ss m e n and S e n a to r s who had e x p r e s s e d
fe a r about the tech n iq u e o f in sta n ta n e o u s “ Q uick a s a w in k ”
a d v e r tis in g m e s s a g e s on t e le v is io n . The C o m m issio n i s in v e s t i
g a tin g the m ethod.®
R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f both g o v e rn m e n t and the p r e s s w e r e in v ited to the
in v e stig a tio n , a s th is r e p o r t in B r o a d c a stin g in d icated :
T h e F C C , in te r e s te d m e m b e r s o f c o n g r e s s and th e W ash in gton
P r e s s w ill h ave a ch a n ce to judge fo r th e m s e lv e s the m e r its o f the
m u c h -p u b lic iz e d new a d v e r tis in g tech n iq u e “ S u b lim in a l p e r c e p
tio n ,” on J a n u a ry 13 at a s p e c ia l d e m o n str a tio n in W T O P -T V ,
W a sh in g to n ’s B r o a d c a st H ou se S tu d io s. T he d e m o n s tr a tio n s , one
fo r the g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic ia ls and a n o th er fo r the lo c a l p r e s s at
noon, w ill be p r e se n te d b y the S u b lim in a l P r o je c tio n C o. o f N ew
Y o rk , o v e r c lo s e d c ir c u it f a c ilit ie s o f the s ta tio n .?
N o pu blic sta te m e n t by the FCC fo llo w ed the a fo r e m e n tio n e d
d e m o n str a tio n . H o w e v er , it w a s r ep o rted that the FCC sa id it saw no
r e a s o n fo r a c tio n s in c e su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n w a s not b ein g u sed
O
an y w h ere at the m o m en t.
^ 6
"B r o a d c a s tin g , N o v e m b e r 11, 1957, p. 5. Ib id ., p. 72.
7
B r o a d c a s tin g , J a n u a ry 6, 1958, p. 53 .
Q
H e r b e r t B r e a n , “ H idden S e ll T ech n iq u e Is A lm o s t H e r e ,”
L ife , p. 107, M arch 31, 1958.
5
T h e th r e e m a jo r b r o a d c a stin g n e tw o r k s in th is co u n try w e r e
the f ir s t to p ro h ib it th e u s e o f su b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g . C B S -T V
P r e s id e n t M e r le S. J o n e s is s u e d a d ir e c tiv e to d e p a r tm en t e x e c u tiv e s
th at u n d er no c ir c u m s ta n c e s w ould *‘h id den te c h n iq u e ” e v e r b e u se d on
p r o g r a m s o v e r sta tio n s ow ned and o p e r a te d by th e C BS N etw ork .^ A
s im ila r d ir e c tiv e b y A B C -T V fo llo w ed sh o r tly th e r e a fte r :
R e a ffir m in g p o lic y that a ll a d v e r tis in g m u st be s e e n and h e a r d and
not “ S u b lim in a l” on A B C -T V , L eon ard H. G o ld en so n , P r e s id e n t
o f the P a r e n t A m e r ic a n B r o a d c a stin g P a ra m o u n t T h e a tr e s , la s t
w e ek a d v ise d a ll d ep a rtm en t h ea d s: “ U n til su ch tim e a s fu ll and
c o m p le te in fo r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g th e e ffe c ts o f th is tec h n iq u e is
a v a ila b le fo r c a r e fu l c o n sid e r a tio n , the A B C -T V N etw o rk and its
o w n e d -a n d -o p e r a te d s ta tio n s , in k eep in g w ith th e ir p o lic y that a ll
c o m m e r c ia l a n n o u n cem en ts s h a ll be c le a r ly id e n tifie d a s su ch ,
w ill not b r o a d c a st m e s s a g e s u tiliz in g the tech n iq u e o f ‘su b lim in a l
p e r c e p tio n .* ” 10
A s im ila r p o sitio n tow ard su b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g w a s a ls o tak en b y the
NBC N e tw o r k .11
A lth ou gh few in d ep en d en t b r o a d c a s te r s m ad e public a n n o u n ce
m e n ts o f th e ir p o sitio n , m any a g r e e d to fo llo w the r e c o m m e n d a tio n s o f
the N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o f B r o a d c a s te r ’s C ode w h ich a d v ise d its
m e m b e r s a g a in s t u sin g “ su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n ” in any w ay. I 2
S om e b r o a d c a s te r s w e r e m u ch m o r e ad am an t in th e ir
g
B r o a d c a s tin g , N o v e m b e r 11, 1957, l o c . c i t .
1 ^Br o a d c a s tin g , D e c e m b e r 23, 1957, p. 71.
11B r e a n , l o c . c i t .
l 2U n ited P r e s s R ad io W ir e , “ B r o a d c a st R o w ,” W a sh in g to n ,
M arch 26, 1 9 58.
6
attitu d e:
T h e r e h a s b een c o n sid e r a b le ta lk , in N A B and o th e r b r o a d c a stin g
c i r c l e s , about co n d u ctin g r e s e a r c h in to the p h en om en on o f su b
lim in a l p e r c e p tio n b e fo r e d e c id in g w h eth er th e tech n iq u e ought to
be u se d on te le v is io n . W e d on ’t think th e r e s e a r c h i s n e c e s s a r y
w ithou t kn ow ing m o r e about s u b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n than it s b a s ic
n a tu r e . B r o a d c a s te r s ought to be a b le to d e c id e th at it d o e s not
b e lo n g on th e a ir . T he tr a n s m is s io n o f a s u b lim in a l m e s s a g e is
in ten d ed to a c h ie v e one b a s ic e n d — th e c r e a tio n o f a v ie w e r im
p r e s s io n w ith ou t le ttin g th e v ie w e r c o n s c io u s ly know that h e is
b e in g im p r e s s e d . T hat is a p retty sn ea k y tr ic k . It is sn e a k y no
m a tte r how s a lu ta r y the c o n te n ts o f th e m e s s a g e . It co u ld b e c o m e
w o r s e than sn ea k y if put to c o r r u p t u s e . It s e e m s to u s the a d v e r
tis in g w o rld w ould do b e tte r to c o n c e n tr a te on the im p r o v e m e n t o f
te c h n iq u e s o f p e r c e p tib le m a s s p e r s u a s io n than to m ed d le w ith
m eth o d s w h ich m a y b e u s e fu l in p sy c h o lo g y la b o r a to r ie s but a r e
m a n ife s tly in a p p ro p ria te fo r g e n e r a l ap p lica tio n .^ ^
A m on g th e f ir s t t e le v is io n n e tw o rk s o u tsid e o f the U n ited
14
S ta te s to u s e the su b lim in a l tech n iq u e w e r e B B C -T V , in 1956 and
15
C B C -T V in 1958. W hile no r e lia b le s t a t is t ic a l data w e r e a v a ila b le
on th e s e t e s t s , p u b lish ed r e p o r ts in d ica ted that the e x p e r im e n ts fa ile d
to e lic it s ig n ific a n t v ie w e r r e s p o n s e .
L a st J a n u a ry the C an adian B r o a d c a stin g C o r p o r a tio n p e r m itte d
S u b lim in a l P e r c e p tio n to s ta g e a t e s t o v e r it s n etw o rk . D u rin g
th e p ro g ra m the an n ou n cer e x p la in e d to the v ie w e r s th at an u n d is
c lo s e d su b lim in a l m e s s a g e w a s b e in g b r o a d c a st o v e r th e ir
t e le v is io n s c r e e n s , and a sk e d th em to w atch fo r an yth in g u n u su a l.
C h eck in g n e x t day fa ile d to tu rn up a s in g le p e r so n w ho had a
n o tio n o f w hat the m e s s a g e had b e e n . U ndaunted, S u b lim in a l
P e r c e p tio n tr ie d a g a in n ex t Sunday. T h ey fla sh e d th e ir m e s s a g e
325 t im e s d u rin g th e p ro g ra m and a sk e d fo r le t t e r s fr o m anybody
13
B r o a d c a s tin g , D e c e m b e r 9, 1957, p. 126.
14
M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M cN e il, o p . c i t ., p. 229.
15
T he W all S tr ee t Jou rn al, lo c . cit.
7
w ho thou ght h e had the c o r r e c t a n s w e r . F iv e h u nd red r e p lie s
pou red in but not one r ig h t a n s w e r . *6
H e r e in th is c o u n tr y tw o t e le v is io n s ta tio n s had s im ila r r e s u lts :
“ If s u b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g is a w o r ld -sh a k in g o r p o te n tia lly
d a n g er o u s m ed iu m , w e h a v en ’t b e e n a b le to s e e it h e r e .” So sa id
P r e s . M u rray C a r p e n te r o f W TW O, B a n g o r , M e., su m m in g up
h is s ta tio n ’s e x p e r ie n c e w ith o n -a ir t e s t s o f “ in v is ib le ” c o m
m e r c ia ls to d a te . A fte r n e a r ly 3 w e e k s o f a lte r n a te -d a y e x p e r i
m en ta tio n w ith th e s in g le m e s s a g e , {WRITE NOW w a s the
m e s s a g e ] C a r p e n te r s a y s he i s co n v in c ed the tech n iq u e is n ’t
“ w o r ld -s h a k in g ” o r “ in h e r e n tly w ic k e d ,” a s s o m e c r it ic s h ave
im p lie d . “ It h a s n ’t fille d m e w ith e n th u sia sm in any w a y .” ^
A n a ttem p t by a W e st C o a st t e le v is io n sta tio n to k eep a b r e a s t
o f new b r o a d c a stin g te c h n iq u e s th rou gh the u s e of su b lim in a l a d v e r
t is in g m e t w ith an e a r ly d e fe a t o f a d iffe r e n t n a tu r e .
L o s A n g e le s t e le v is io n sta tio n K T L A , in a d a m n -th e -to r p e d o e s
g e s tu r e , ann ou n ced th at in o r d e r to “ k eep ah ead in th e d e v e lo p
m en t o f new fo r m s o f t e le v is io n ” it had sig n e d an a g r e e m e n t, w ith
P R E C O N , the N ew O r le a n s co m p a n y , to fu r n ish it w ith su b lim in a l
p u b lic s e r v ic e m e s s a g e s . T h e s e w ould be in n o cu o u s s lo g a n s su ch
a s “ D r iv e S a fe ly ” and “ D on ’t be a L itte r b u g .” K TLA r e c e iv e d
su ch a to r r e n t o f a d v e r s e m a il th at it c a n c e le d th e cam p aign .*®
It w ou ld s e e m th at public o p p o sitio n s p e lle d the end fo r both
c o m m e r c ia l su b lim in a l c o m p a n ie s a s th is m o r e r e c e n t a r tic le in T he
W orld N e w s T e le g r a m a tte ste d :
T h e s u b lim in a l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e fa lle n on lea n t im e s . O n ly a
y e a r ago th e y a ttr a c te d n ation w id e p u b licity w ith th e ir d e v ic e s fo r
16
J . P a tte r s o n , “ In v isib le S a le s m a n ,” T h e C o m m o n w e a l,
LXVIII (A p r il 18, 19 5 8 ), 7 1 -7 3 .
* ^T e le v is io n D ig e s t , XIII (N o v e m b e r 2 3 , 1 9 5 7 ), 5.
^ B r e a n , lo c . c it .
8
fla s h in g “ h id d e n ” c o m m e r c ia ls a c r o s s m o v ie and T V s c r e e n s .
B u t now ? “ I'v e b e e n ta k in g a h e c k o f a lic k in g ,” s a y s J a m e s M .
V ic a r y , th e y o u th fu l m a r k e t r e s e a r c h e x e c u tiv e w h o se p u b lic
a n n o u n ce m en t o f s u b lim in a l p r o je c tio n te c h n iq u e s in S e p te m b e r ,
1 9 5 7 , a r o u s e d a s to r m o f c o n tr o v e r s y . S om e dubbed it “ th e s u b
c o n s c io u s s e l l . ” N ot o n ly h a v e th e p r o c e s s e s ’ c o m m e r c ia l
a p p lic a tio n s fa ile d to m a t e r ia liz e , n o te s M r. V ic a r y , but th e
p u b lic ity n e a r ly d e s tr o y e d h is e s ta b lis h e d r e s e a r c h b u s in e s s .
“ W e’v e r e a lly had to tig h te n o u r b e l t s ,” s a y s D r . R o b e r t E .
C o r r ig a n , a v ic e p r e s id e n t and fo u n d er o f P r e c o n P r o c e s s &
E q u ip m e n t C o r p . o f N ew O r le a n s , a n o th e r p io n e e r in g s u b lim in a l
c o m p a n y . “ T h is w h o le fie ld i s s u ffe r in g fr o m a c o m p le te p u b lic
m is u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o u r te c h n iq u e s and in te n t io n s ,” h e a d d s.* ^
T h e fo r e g o in g m a t e r ia ls r e p r e s e n t but a s m a ll s e le c t io n fr o m
th e a r t i c le s p u b lish ed r e g a r d in g th e u s e o f s u b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n .
T h e s e le c t io n w a s m a d e in the h op e o f e s ta b lis h in g a m u ch c le a r e r
p ic tu r e n ot o n ly o f th e c o n te m p o r a r y h is to r y o f the c o m m e r c ia liz e d
a p p lic a tio n o f th e s u b lim in a l te c h n iq u e , but a ls o to illu s t r a t e th e n e e d
fo r fu r th e r o b je c tiv e r e s e a r c h in th is a r e a o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s . It
w a s w ith g r e a t h u m ility and in th e s p ir it o f th e fo llo w in g e x c e r p t that
th e w r ite r a p p ro a c h e d the p r o b le m o f th is stu d y:
A n yon e w ho w is h e s to u t iliz e S u b lim in a l S tim u la tio n fo r c o m m e r
c ia l o r o th e r p u r p o s e s c a n be lik en ed to a s tr a n g e r e n te r in g in to
a m is t y , c o n fu s e d c o u n tr y s id e w h e r e th e r e a r e but a few la n d
m a r k s . B e fo r e th is te c h n iq u e is u s e d in the m a r k e t p la c e , if it is
to b e u s e d at a ll, a tr e m e n d o u s a m o u n t o f r e s e a r c h sh o u ld be d on e
and b y c o m p e te n t e x p e r i m e n t e r s .^
19
T h e W a ll S tr e e t J o u r n a l, J a n u a ry 14, 1 9 5 9 , p. 1.
20
M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M cN e il, l o c . c i t ., p. 237.
9
T h e P r o b le m
T he g e n e r a l p u rp o se o f t h is stu d y w a s to t e s t th e h y p o th e sis
that su b lim in a l c u e w o r d s ca n in flu e n c e an a u d ie n c e ’s e v a lu a tio n o f a
s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r it y and e ff e c t iv e n e s s and th at su b lim in a l cu e w o r d s
can in flu e n c e an a u d ie n c e ’s r e te n tio n o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s s u b je c t-
m a tte r .
T h is g e n e r a l p u rp o se w a s su b d iv id ed in to th e fo llo w in g fo u r
q u e stio n s:
1. T o w h at e x te n t i s it p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e su b lim in a lly an
a u d ie n c e ’s e v a lu a tio n o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity
(a ) w h en the s u b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w h en the
s u b lim in a l w o r d s a r e “ not s i n c e r e ” ?
2. T o w hat e x te n t is it p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e s u b lim in a lly an
a u d ie n c e ’s r a tin g o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s e ff e c t iv e n e s s
(a ) w h en th e su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w h en the
s u b lim in a l w o r d s a r e “ not s i n c e r e ” ?
3 . T o w hat e x te n t is it p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e s u b lim in a lly an
a u d ie n c e ’s r e te n tio n o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s s u b je c t-
m a tte r (a ) w h en th e su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ;
(b) w h en th e su b lim in a l w o r d s a r e “ n ot s in c e r e ” ?
4 . W hat e ffe c t s do e y e s ig h t r a tin g s and s e a tin g a r r a n g e m e n ts
h a v e upon an a u d ie n c e ’s ju d g m en t o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s
10
s in c e r it y and e f f e c t iv e n e s s and upon t h e ir r e te n tio n o f
h is s u b je c t m a tte r (a ) w h en th e s u b lim in a l w ord i s
“ s i n c e r e ” ; (b ) w h en th e s u b lim in a l w o r d s a r e “ not
s i n c e r e ” ?
D e fin itio n s o f T e r m s U s e d
F o r th e p u rp o se o f th is stu d y fo u r t e r m s , “ s u b lim in a l p e r
c e p tio n ,” “ s i n c e r e ,” “ n ot s i n c e r e ,” and s p e a k e r “ e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,”
r e q u ir e d d e fin itio n .
S u b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n [S P ],— T h e r e w e r e v a r y in g d e fin itio n s
o f the te r m “ s u b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n ,” b e c a u s e c la s s if ic a t io n o f th e
p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d w e r e r e c o r d e d in t e r m s o f r a th e r s p e c if ic e x p e r i
m e n ta l c o n d itio n s .
In a n s w e r in g th e q u e s tio n , “ W hat i s s u b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n ? ”
it s e e m e d lo g ic a l to d is c u s s , f i r s t , the a c tu a l m e a n in g o f th e c o n s t it
u en t w o r d s; s e c o n d , th e v a r y in g in te r p r e ta tio n s o f the e x p r e s s io n a s a
w h o le ; an d , la s t , th e d e fin itio n o f th e e x p r e s s io n in r e la tio n to th is
stu d y .
T h e p r e fix su b i s d e fin e d in m a n y w o r d s , m o s t ly o f L atin
21
o r ig in , a s h a v in g th e s e n s e o f u n d e r , b e n e a th , b e lo w , d ow n . T h e
W e b s te r ’s N ew In te r n a tio n a l D ic tio n a r y (s e c o n d ed itio n ;
S p r in g fie ld : G . C . M e r r ia m P u b lis h in g C o m p a n y , 1 9 5 3 ), p. 2 5 0 6 .
11
w ord o r te r m lim e n , fr o m w h ich lim in a l i s d e r iv e d , is a p s y c h o lo g ic a l
22
te r m m ea n in g t h r e s h o ld . W e b s te r ’s N ew In te r n a tio n a l D ic tio n a r y
d efin ed th e te r m th r e s h o ld th u s:
T h r e sh o ld in p s y c h o lo g y i s d e fin e d a s a m e a s u r e o f th e s e n s it iv it y
o f an y o r g a n o r fu n ctio n , o b ta in ed b y fin d in g th e lim itin g v a lu e of
the a p p r o p r ia te s tim u lu s th at w ill g iv e the r e s p o n s e . T h r e e ty p e s
o f th r e s h o ld a r e d is tin g u ish e d : th e a b s o lu te th r e s h o ld or s tim u lu s
th r e s h o ld , th e lo w e r lim it o f s tim u lu s m a g n itu d e th at a r o u s e s
v is u a l s e n s a tio n fr o m the e y e , c o n tr a c tio n fr o m a m u s c le ; the
d iffe r e n c e th r e s h o ld , th e s m a lle s t d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n tw o s tim u li
th at g iv e s a d iffe r e n c e o f r e s p o n s e ; and th e te r m in a l th r e s h o ld
(m o s tly u n d e te r m in e d ), th e u p p er lim it o f the s tim u lu s , b eyon d
w h ic h no fu r th e r in c r e a s e in the s p e c if ic r e s p o n s e ca n be
o b t a in e d .^
P e r c e p t io n . “ P e r c e p tio n ” w a s d e fin e d a s any a c t o r p r o c e s s
o f kn ow in g o b je c ts , f a c t s , o r tr u th s , w h e th e r b y s e n s e e x p e r ie n c e , o r
b y thought; a w a r e n e s s o f o b je c ts ; c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is o r ig in a l m e a n -
24
in g i s now r a r e in p s y c h o lo g y .
25
A lth ou gh A d a m s r e fe r r e d to th e L a z a r u s and M c C le a r y
? fi
te r m “ su b c e p tio n ” and to “ s u b lim in a l s t im u li” a s d iffic u lt to
d e s c r ib e o r u n d e rsta n d , th e r e w a s s o m e a g r e e m e n t a m on g e a r lie r
e x p e r im e n te r s th at su c h a p h en om en on did e x is t r e g a r d le s s o f its
22 22 24
Ib id ., p. 1 4 3 3 . Ib id ., p. 2 6 3 4 . Ib id ., p. 1 8 16.
25
J o e K. A d a m s, “ L a b o r a to r y S tu d ie s of B e h a v io r w ith ou t
A w a r e n e s s ,” P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u lle t in , LIV (S e p te m b e r , 1 9 5 7 ), pp.
3 8 3 -4 0 5 .
2 6
R ic h a r d S. L a z a r u s and R o b e r t A . M c C le a r y , “ A u to n o m ic
D is c r im in a tio n w ith o u t A w a r e n e s s ; A Study of S u b c e p tio n ,” P s y c h o l
o g y R e v ie w , L V I II (1 9 5 1 ), 1 1 3 -1 2 2 .
12
in te r p r e ta tio n . B a k e r r e p o r te d th at e x p e r im e n ta l p s y c h o lo g is ts in the
fie ld o f su b lim in a l stim u la tio n d a te s fro m the e x p e r im e n ts o f S u slo w a
27
in 1863. It w a sn ’t u n til th e la te 1 9 3 0 ’s that th e a c tu a l te r m
2 8
“ su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n ” a p p ea red in p u b lish ed r e p o r ts . A s r e c e n tly
a s 1957 th e r e s e e m e d to be no u n iv e r s a lly a c c e p te d te r m fo r the
ph en om en on o f “ su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n .” F o r e x a m p le , in the A d a m s
a r tic le o f 1957 e n title d “ L a b o ra to r y S tu d ies o f B e h a v io r w ithout
A w a r e n e s s ,” th e te r m w a s c o n sp ic u o u sly m is s in g and the te r m
29
“ b e h a v io r w ith ou t a w a r e n e s s ” w a s p red om in an t in h is r e p o r t.
C lo s e ly akin to the p ro b lem o f te r m a c c e p ta n c e in p sy ch o lo g y
i s the in d iv id u a l p s y c h o lo g is t’s a c c e p ta n c e of the u s e o f a s p e c ific
te r m . Such w a s th e c a s e p r e se n te d by M ille r in r e fe r e n c e to B a k e r ’s
u s e o f the te r m “ lim e n .”
B a k e r u se d w hat he c a lle d “ the a b so lu te lim e n o f a w a r e n e s s of the
s t im u lu s ,” w h ich he c o n s id e r s a b e tte r m e a s u r e than the
“ p s y c h o p h y sic a l th r e s h o ld ,” su ch a s N ew h a ll and S e a r s u se d .
T h is u s e o f the w ord “ lim e n ” is u n ju stifie d , b e c a u s e it d o e s not
fit the a c c e p te d u s a g e . T o p s y c h o lo g is ts “ lim e n ” h a s tr a d itio n
a lly m ea n t a s t a t is t ic a lly d e te r m in e d p oin t, u s u a lly the point
w h er e the s e n s a tio n is r e p o r te d 50% o f the tim e . B a k e r , h o w e v e r ,
m e a n s by “ lim e n ” the lo w e s t point at w h ich it is e v e r p o s s ib le to
h ave an a w a r e n e s s . T h is i s th e lo w e s t poin t o f the p sy c h o p h y sic a l
27
Lynn E . B a k e r , “ T he In flu en ce o f S u b lim in a l S tim u li upon
V e r b a l B e h a v io r ,” J o u r n a l of E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y , 2 0 : 8 4 - 1 0 0 ,
1937.
2 8
A . C . W illia m s , J r ., “ P e r c e p tio n o f S u b lim in a l V isu a l
S tim u li,” J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , 6 :1 8 7 -1 9 9 , 1938.
A d a m s, lo c . cit.
13
fu n ctio n o f a w a r e n e s s . A sid e fro m h is te r m in o lo g y , h o w e v e r ,
B a k e r i s r ig h t. If “ u n a w a r e ” is d efin ed a s “ b elo w th e p s y c h o
p h y sic a l lim e n ,” d iffic u ltie s w ill a r is e . A t an in te n s ity ju s t
b elo w th e lim e n the su b je c t w ill be a b le to r e p o r t a lm o s t h a lf o f
the s tim u li. L e a rn in g to r e a c t to th e s e s tim u li w ould not be
le a r n in g w ithou t a w a r e n e s s in th e o r d in a r y s e n s e . T h e r e fo r e ,
a ll data in our e x p e r im e n t h ave b e e n p ro ra ted to 70 v o lt s , b elo w
the lo w e s t p o s s ib le point o f o n se t o f a w a r e n e s s .^
F o r p u r p o se s o f th is stu d y , “ su b lim in a l” w a s d efin ed a s
v is u a l s tim u li p r e se n te d at a su b -th r e sh o ld in te n s ity b elo w th e lo w e s t
p o s s ib le p oin t o f th e s u b j e c t s o n s e t of a w a r e n e s s ; and “ p e r c e p tio n ”
w a s d efin ed a s th e le v e l o f s t a t is t ic a l sig n ific a n c e o f the s u b je c t’s
r e s p o n s e s to su ch v is u a l s t im u li.
S in c e r e . “ S in c e r e ” w a s o p e r a tio n a lly d efin ed a s the
a u d ie n c e 's im p r e s s io n o f the film e d s p e a k e r 's h o n e st b e lie f in h is
p o sitio n .
N ot s in c e r e . “ N ot s in c e r e ” w a s o p e r a tio n a lly d efin ed a s the
a u d ie n c e 's im p r e s s io n o f the film e d s p e a k e r 's d is b e lie f in h is p o sitio n .
S p ea k er e f f e c t iv e n e s s . The d e g r e e o f p u blic sp ea k in g e f f e c
t iv e n e s s m a n ife ste d by the sp e a k e r w a s o p e r a tio n a lly d efin ed a s the
a v e r a g e o f th e a u d ie n c e s' ju d gm en ts r e c o r d e d upon an a p p ro p ria te
r a tin g s c a le .
30
J a m e s G. M ille r , “ T he R o le o f M otivation in L ea rn in g
w ith ou t A w a r e n e s s ,” The A m e r ic a n J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , LIII
(A p r il, 19 4 0 ), 2 2 9 -2 3 9 .
14
R eview of L iterature
B e fo r e su b lim in a l stim u la tio n tech n iq u es w e re u sed by c e r ta in
c o m m e r c ia l in te r e s ts for a d v e r tisin g p u rp o se s, m uch sy ste m a tic
r e s e a r c h by p sy c h o lo g ists r e la tin g d ir e c tly to the in flu en cin g of
hum an b eh a v io r had taken p la c e. One need only to g la n ce at the
31
r e fe r e n c e s lis te d in the r e c e n t A d am s and M cC on nell, C u tler, and
32
M cN eil a r tic le s to r e c o g n iz e th is fact.
C o llie r a c c la im e d G. W. L e ib n itz 's th eo ry of p e tite s
p e r ce p tio n e s as im portant in the h isto r y o f p sy ch o lo g y on the follow in g
th reefo ld b a sis:
It p resen ted one o f the f ir s t su g g e stio n s of a th resh o ld concep t;
(2) it i s , in part, the b a s is fo r la te r th e o r ie s o f a “ su b co n scio u s
m ind " and its e ffe c t upon c o n s c io u s n e s s and b eh avior; and (3) the
th eo ry that the su b lim in a l stim u lu s is e ffe c tiv e is d e fin itely
im p lied . ^3
C o llie r a ls o r e ite r a te d the im p o rta n ce of n atu ral p h y sic a l
s tim u li in s o c ia l b eh a v io r, a su b ject that h a s, fo r m any y e a r s , been a
part of n e a r ly e v e r y sp ee ch te x t.
U n noticed stim u li undoubtedly play an im p ortan t r o le in so c ia l
b eh a v io r. S ligh t ch an ges in fa c ia l e x p r e s s io n and m inute a lte r a
tio n s in form s of b od ily p ostu re a r e known to be su ffic ie n t to
in flu en ce r e sp o n s e s o f n eigh b orin g o b s e r v e r s . In dividu als m ay
31
A d a m s, lo c . c i t ., p. 402.
32
M cC on n ell, C u tle r, and M cN eil, lo c . c i t ., p. 240.
33
R. M. C o llie r , “ A n E x p er im e n ta l Study of the E ffe c ts of
S u b lim in a l S tim u li," P s y c h o lo g ic a l M on ograp h s, LII (1940), 6.
15
in flu e n c e one a n o th er w ith ou t e ith e r o f th em b e in g a w a r e o f the
m u tu a l m o d ific a tio n s . C o n d itio n in g to th e s e u n n o ticed c h a n g e s
p ro b a b ly b e g in s e a r ly in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f the in d iv id u a l. It is
c o n c e iv a b le th at m an y in d iv id u a ls m a y b e c o m e in c r e a s in g ly m o r e
r e s p o n s iv e to s lig h t s ig n s and c u e s fr o m o th e r s th at h a v e s o c ia l
s ig n ific a n c e . L ittle a s y e t h a s b e e n done to d e te r m in e the typ e
and s ig n ific a n c e o f th e s e u n n o tic ed s o c ia l in flu e n c e s . T o know
th e c o n d itio n s u n d er w h ich th e s e s tim u li b e c o m e e ffe c tiv e m ig h t
04
add m u ch to o u r s y s te m a tic k n o w led g e o f h u m an b e h a v io r .
A n in te r e s tin g q u e stio n th at a r o s e fr o m th is d is c u s s io n w a s: in its
in flu e n c e on hum an b e h a v io r , i s a n a tu r a l p h y sic a l s tim u lu s a s str o n g
a s , o r s tr o n g e r th an , an in d u ced s y m b o lic stim u lu s? In o th e r w o r d s ,
w ould it be p o s s ib le to ch an ge an a u d ie n c e ’s attitu d e tow ard su ch a
p e r so n a s d e s c r ib e d b elo w b y in d u cin g a n e g a tiv e s tim u lu s into th e
situ a tio n ?
T he e ld e r K ean w a s s o p e r fe c t a m a s te r o f h is a r t that w h en he
f ir s t w a lk ed on th e L ondon s ta g e , and took h is p o s itio n in the
c e n tr e w ith o u t sp ea k in g a w ord the a u d ien ce r e c o g n iz e d in h im a
g e n iu s . * * * *
In o r d e r to p r e p a r e fo r te s tin g th e h y p o th e sis th at a n a tu r a l
p h y s ic a l s tim u lu s w a s a s s tr o n g a s , o r s tr o n g e r than, an in d u ced
sy m b o lic s tim u lu s , a r e v ie w o f th e p e r tin en t r e s e a r c h in th e a r e a o f
su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n w a s m a d e .
o e
A s r e p o r te d by M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M c N e il and by
3 4
Ib id ., p. 3.
35
H ugh C a m p b e ll, R . F . B r e w e r , and H en ry N e v ille , V o ic e ,
S p e e c h , and G e s tu r e (L ondon: C h a r le s W illia m D e a c o n and C om p an y,
1 9 0 0 ), p. 121.
3 6
M cC on nell, C u tler, and M cN eil, l o c . c it ., p. 230.
16
37
A d a m s, e a r ly e x p e r im e n ta l in v e stig a tio n s in su b lim in a l stim u la tio n
by S u slow in e le c t r ic a l stim u la tio n in 1863, b y P e ir c e and J a str o w
w ith w e ig h ts in 1884, and by S id is w ith le tte r and n u m b er d is c r im in a
tion in 1898, w e r e la te r su b sta n tia ted by o th e r s u sin g v a ry in g
e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n s and o th er s e n s e m o d a litie s .
B a k er found su b je c ts ab le to d is c r im in a te d iagon al from
v e r tic a l c r o s s e d lin e s , and a d o t-d a sh from a d a sh -d o t a u d ito ry p a t-
3 8
t e r n .’ M ille r p r e se n te d fiv e g e o m e tr ic fig u r e s at fou r d iffe r e n t
le v e ls of in te n sity b elow the th r esh o ld and found th at, w h ile su b je c ts
could d is c r im in a te w h ich w a s b e in g p r e sen ted a sig n ific a n t p rop ortion
o f the tim e , th e ir a b ility to d is c r im in a te w as red u ced a s the in te n sity
39
o f the stim u la tio n w a s fu rth er red u ced .
M ore r e c e n tly B la c k w e ll sta ted the sa m e p rop osition :
T h ere is no co n v in cin g ev id en ce that su b lim in a l p r o je c tio n s o ffe r
p o s s ib ilit ie s or th r e a ts of e s p e c ia lly e ffe c tiv e c o n tr o l o f hum an
b e h a v io r . On the c o n tr a r y , th ere i s ra th er co n v in cin g e v id e n c e
that o p tic a l p r o je c tio n s a r e e ffe c tiv e in d ir e c t p rop ortion to th e ir
v is ib ilit y , s o that su b lim in a l p r o je c tio n s a r e u n u su a lly in e ffe c tiv e .
T hat i s , the l e s s v is ib le the p r o jec tio n , the l e s s w ill be its
e f f e c t i v e n e s s .^
Support o f the th e o ry that hum an b e in g s a r e s e n s itiv e and
s u s c e p tib le to su b lim in a l stim u li w a s su g g e ste d by K o llig s.
37
A d a m s, l o c . c i t ., p. 385.
38 39
B a k e r , l o c . c i t ., pp. 8 4 -1 0 0 . M ille r , l o c . c i t ., p. 239.
40
H. R ich a rd B la c k w e ll, ‘‘C o m m en ts on S u b lim in a l P r o j e c
tio n ,” J o u rn a l of C o m m u n ica tio n , S u m m er, 1958, p. 68.
17
The exp erim en ts involved the gradual developm ent of a gen eral
un clear im p ressio n into a c le a r , d istin ctly recognizab le im p r e s
sion . The exp erim en ts su ggest that the p sych ical pow ers of a
living being are in perm anent read in ess to react to stim u li. The
rea d in ess can becom e so strong that m ental a b ilitie s begin to
function before extern al stim u li are m e t .^
R ecent unpublished stu d ies by p sych ologists at Stanford
U n iversity confirm , to a d egree, the e a r lie r exp erim en ts by C o llier
and P erk y as reported by A dam s which indicated that su bjects could be
m ade to produce draw ings, even though they w ere not aware that they
42
w ere being influenced. A ccording to H ilgard su bjects recovered
m any apparently unnoticed picture d etails in la ter unrelated drawing
a ssig n m en ts. He stated, “ T his su g g ests that un con sciou sly p erceived
m a teria l is d isa sso c ia te d from the origin al p ercep tion .” He added,
“ Our exp erim en ts are su fficien t to indicate that there are kinds of
43
behavior that go on outside of c le a r a w a r e n e ss.”
M cConnell, C utler, and M cN eil su ggested that findings
related to supporting the contention that behavior of a so rt can be
influenced by sublim inal m ean s require cautious interpretation. They
contended that the d egree of the su bject’s attention to the stim u li is
41
M. K o llig s, “ O ptical F igu res and the D evelopm ent of
T h eir M eaning,” A rch ives g es P sy ch o lo g y , 1/2 (1942), 39 -5 5 .
42
A dam s, o£. c it., p. 392.
43
N otes from a lectu re given by D r. H ilgard for the Faculty
of P sych ology D epartm ent, San F ran cisco State C ollege, May 28, 1958.
18
44
c le a r ly a fa cto r to be co n sid ered .
V ariou s stu d ies have attem pted to show that it is p o ssib le to
condition su b jects to su b lim in al stim u li. A dam s rep orted that N ew hall
i
and S ea rs found it p o ssib le to e sta b lish a w eak and unstab le resp o n se
to ligh t p resen ted su tlim in a lly , when the light had been p rev io u sly
45 46
paired with sh ock . B ak er rep orted the s u c c e s s fu l conditioning of
the pupillary r e fle x to a su b lim in a l auditory stim u lu s, but la ter find-
47
in gs failed to su bstantiate h is r e s u lts . L azaru s and M cC leary found
that n on sen se s y lla b le s w hich had p rev io u sly been a sso c ia te d with
shock produced a g r ea ter psych ogalvan ic r e fle x when p resen ted
48
ta c h isto sc o p ic a lly at su b lim in al sp eed s than did nonshock s y lla b le s .
B la ck w ell r e c e n tly d is c u sse d another p o ssib le m ethod for
m aking su b lim in a l stim u li com p ellin g:
A s far a s our ex p erim en ts go, th ere is only ev id en ce that stim u li
which can b ecom e su p rath resh old with p r a c tic e, or with an in d ic a
tor not req u irin g e x p lic it a w a r e n e ss, have the unusual c h a r a c te r
is tic that o b se r v e r s se e m intrigued w ith them b efore they have
com e to respond to them habitually. P erh a p s stim u li w ithin th is
range have a n ovelty value unlike other stim u li. H ow ever, our
44
M cC onnell, C u tler, and M cN eil, lo c . c i t ., p. 231.
45
A d am s, lo c . c i t ., p. 388.
46
B ak er, lo c . c it ., p. 99.
E r n e st R. H ilgard, J a m es G. M iller , and J . A . O hlson,
“ T h ree A ttem p ts to S ecu re P u p illa ry C onditioning to A uditory S tim u li
N ear the A b solute T h re sh o ld ,” Jou rn al of E x p erim en ta l P sy c h o lo g y ,
XXIX (1941), 89-103.
^ L a z a r u s and M cCleary, lo c . c it ., p. 121.
19
exp erim en ts su ggest that this novelty does not occu r until the
p oten tialities of th ese stim u li are som ehow m ade c le a r to the
o b se r v e r s, and w ears off once the o b se r v e r s’ c r ite r ia have been
altered so a s to bring them above the threshold l e v e l . ^9
M cConnell, C utler and M cN eil reported that the available
evid en ce in relation to the su b ject’s attention to stim u li su g g ests that
su bjects m ay (a) “ lea rn ” certain su blim in ally presented stim u li, or
(b) m ake use of sublim in al rein fo rcers eith er to learn or strengthen a
50
p reviou sly learned resp o n se. The latter a sser tio n w as m ade a part
o f the recen t Sublim inal P rojection Com pany’s plan of operation in
relation to sublim inal advertising:
T his type of ad vertisin g can’t “ persuad e” or “ in fluence” — it can
only “ rem in d .” F o rr est [E xecutive V ice P resid en t of Sublim inal
P rojection Company] c la im s that if view er is uninterested in
m essa g e or h o stile, no im p ression is made at a l l — [the] m essa g e
is r e je c te d .^
T here is exp erim en tal evidence to support the hypothesis that
certain p h ysiological factors and p sych ological sta tes m ay sign ifican tly
a lter the recognition of the individual threshold. The authors of
“ Sublim inal Stim ulation: An O verview ,” suggested that individual
d ifferen ces in the perceptual p ro cess m ust be taken into account in
further work on the e ffe c ts of sublim inal stim ulation. They a lso con
tended that th resh old s vary from m om ent to m om ent and that stim u li
49
B lack w ell, lo c . c it., p. 75.
50
M cConnell, C utler, and M cN eil, lo c . c it ., p. 232.
51
T e le v isio n D ig est, N ovem ber 23, 1957, p. 2.
20
w h ich a r e s o w eak th at th e y a r e n e v e r r e p o r ta b le u n d er any c ir c u m -
52
s t a n c e s m a y not in flu e n c e b e h a v io r .
T h e r e i s no e x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e to in d ic a te th e b e s t
m e th o d s o f p ro d u cin g su b lim in a l s tim u li. T he a fo r e m e n tio n e d a u th o r s
sta te d :
W e s im p ly w ish to m a k e th e poin t th at the ra n g e o f s tim u lu s
in t e n s itie s w h ich a r e in fa c t “ s u b lim in a l” m a y b e s m a lle r than
m an y e x p e r im e n te r s in the p a st h a v e a s s u m e d . It h a s b e e n c o m
m o n ly a s s u m e d that the s e v e r a l m eth o d s o f p ro d u cin g su b lim in a l
s tim u li, i . e . , r e d u c in g in te n s ity , d u ra tio n , s i z e , o r c la r ity , a r e
lo g ic a lly and m e th o d o lo g ic a lly e q u iv a le n t. W h ile th is m a y be
tru e it r e m a in s to be d e m o n s tr a te d c o n c l u s i v e l y . ^
T he u s e o f t a c h is to s c o p ic m e th o d s fo r th e p ro d u ctio n o f su b
lim in a l s tim u li in su b lim in a l e x p e r im e n ts w a s a n a tu r a l d e v e lo p m e n t
due in part to th e s u c c e s s o f t a c h is to s c o p ic m eth o d s e m p lo y e d in a ir -
54
c r a ft r e c o g n itio n tr a in in g and th e a d a p ta b ility o f ta c h is to s c o p ic
e q u ip m en t. A lth ou gh th e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t v a r ie ty o f t a c h is to s c o p ic
a d a p ta tio n s m a d e in the p r o je c tio n eq u ip m en t u s e d fo r su b lim in a l
e x p e r im e n ta tio n , th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f on e typ e a s d e s c r ib e d by
T w itm y e r and F e r n b e r g e r w ou ld s e e m to s a t is f y th e n e c e s s a r y
c r it e r ia .
T he p r o b le m o f s e r i a l e x p o s u r e s fo r d e m o n s tr a tio n p u r p o se s
52
M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M c N e il, l o c . c i t ., p. 2 3 3 .
53..
Ib id .
54
S. R e n sh a w , “ T he V is u a l P e r c e p tio n and R e p r o d u c tio n s o f
F o r m s by T a c h is to s c o p ic M e th o d s,” J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , X X (1945),
21
b e fo r e a la r g e grou p h a s not h e r e to fo r e b e e n s u c c e s s f u lly s o lv e d
alth ou gh a n u m b er o f d e v ic e s h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d fo r th is p u r
p o s e . S e v e r a l f a c to r s a r e e s s e n t ia l fo r su ch an a p p a r a tu s. (1 ) It
m u st p rod u ce an im a g e la r g e enough and c le a r enough to be s e e n
fr o m a d is ta n c e and s o a r r a n g e d that th e s u b je c ts s ittin g fa r a w ay
w ill h ave an u n o b stru cte d v ie w o f the m a te r ia l. (2 ) T he a p p a ra tu s
m u st p r o v id e fo r r e g u la r ity o f e x p o s u r e . (3 ) It m u s t p ro v id e fo r
c h a n g e s in the len g th o f e x p o s u r e . (4 ) It m u st p r o v id e fo r a p r e -
e x p o su r e and a p o s t-e x p o s u r e fie ld . (5 ) It m u s t p r o v id e fo r a
s u ffic ie n t n u m b er o f r e g u la r ly tim e d s u c c e s s iv e e x p o s u r e s fo r
m e m o r y w o rk . (6 ) It m u st not d is c lo s e th e ch a n g in g o f th e
m a t e r ia l. ^
In s p ite o f the c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r the c o m m e r c ia l su b lim in a l
e x p e r im e n ts and th e ap p a ren t la ck o f d ata r e s u ltin g fro m th e s e e x p e r i
m e n ts , the c o m m e r c ia l su b lim in a l e x p e r im e n ts h a v e , n e v e r t h e le s s ,
r a is e d a r a th e r lo n g lis t o f u n a n sw e re d q u e s tio n s th at o th e r w is e m ig h t
not h ave b e e n a sk e d . T h e q u e s tio n s r a is e d w ould s e e m to o ffe r a
s u ffic ie n t n u m b er o f te c h n o lo g ic a l p r o b le m s to c h a lle n g e in v e s tig a to r s
fo r m an y y e a r s to c o m e:
F o r e x a m p le , d u rin g a tw o -h o u r m o v ie (o r a o n e -h o u r t e le v is io n
sh o w ), how m a n y t im e s sh o u ld th e s tim u lu s be r e p e a te d to m a k e
s u r e th at th e “ m e s s a g e ” g e ts a c r o s s to the la r g e s t p o s s ib le p e r
c e n ta g e o f the a u d ien ce? Should th e s tim u lu s b e r e p e a te d e v e r y
se c o n d , e v e r y fiv e s e c o n d s , o n ly o n ce a m in u te? Is the e ffe c t
c u m u la tiv e , o r is one p r e se n ta tio n r e a lly enough? Is th e r e a
s a tia tio n e ffe c t, su ch th at the a u d ien ce b e c o m e s “ u n c o n s c io u s ly
t ir e d ” o f the s tim u la tio n , and “ u n c o n s c io u s ly b lo c k s ” th e in c o m
in g su b lim in a l s e n s a tio n s ? Should th e s tim u li be p r e se n te d
“ b e tw e e n fr a m e s o f the m o v ie ” (th at i s , w h en the s h u tte r o f the
film p r o je c to r i s c lo s e d and th e s c r e e n m o m e n ta r ily blank a s it is
2 1 7 -2 3 2 .
55
E d w in B . T w itm y e r and S a m u e l W . F e r n b e r g e r , “ T h e
T w itm y e r D e m o n str a tio n T a c h is t o s c o p e ,” T h e A m e r ic a n J o u r n a l o f
P s y c h o lo g y , XX XVIII (1 9 2 7 ), 1 1 3 -1 1 9 .
22
24 tim e s e a ch se c o n d ), o r sh ou ld th e m e s s a g e be p r e se n te d on ly
w hen th e s c r e e n a lr e a d y h a s a p ic tu r e on it? H ow c lo s e to the
th r e sh o ld ( s t a t is t ic a l o r o th e r w is e ) sh o u ld the s tim u li b e? How
m an y w o r d s lon g ca n th e m e s s a g e be? If th e m e s s a g e m u st be
s h o r t, cou ld s u c c e s s iv e s tim u la tio n s p r e se n t s e q u e n tia l p a r ts o f
a lo n g e r a d v e r tise m e n t? H ow m u ch o f th e s c r e e n sh ou ld the
s tim u li fill? Should the s tim u li b e p r e se n te d o n ly d u rin g “ happier**
m o m e n ts o f the film in o r d e r to gain “ positive** e ffe c t? D o e s any
e ffe c t tr a n s fe r at a ll fro m the film to the ad? Should one u s e
p ic tu r e s , o r a r e w o r d s b e st? M ust the w o r d s be fa m ilia r o n es?
A nd w hat about su b lim in a l a u d ito ry , c u ta n e o u s, and o lfa c to r y
stim u la tio n ? 56
And again:
It i s q u ite lik e ly that m an y d iffe r e n c e s in the p e r c e p tio n o f su b
lim in a l s tim u li do e x is t b e tw e en in d iv id u a ls o f d iffe r in g c l a s s e s ,
a g e s , and s e x e s . A s a lw a y s, on ly e x p e r im e n ta tio n ca n d e te r m in e
w hat th e s e d iffe r e n c e s a r e . ^
A s o f th is w r itin g , a stu d y c o m p le te d by B a ch and K lein
s e e m e d to h ave s p e c ia l s ig n ific a n c e fo r th is p r e s e n t stu d y in th at th e ir
fin d in g s in d ic a ted that th e y w e r e ab le to in flu e n c e su b lim in a lly su b
jec ts* ju d g m en ts o f a m a n ’s e x p r e s s io n .
T w e n ty -tw o w om en u n d erg ra d u a tes look ed at a su p r a lim in a l, p r o
je c te d n e u tr a l fa c e , 20 tim e s in one m in u te e x p o s u r e s . T h e w o r d s
H A P P Y o r ANGRY w e r e su p e r im p o se d on the fa c e b elo w th r e sh o ld
in te n sity . P o la r iz e d lig h t and p o la r o id g l a s s e s w e r e u se d to
tr a n sm it th e su b lim in a l stim u lu s to on ly one e y e , and the su p r a
lim in a l stim u lu s to the o th e r . F o r s ix te e n s u b je c ts , the fa c e
b e c a m e g e n e r a lly m o r e “ pleasant** in the H A P P Y -fa c e p a ir in g and
m o r e “ u n p le a sa n t startled** in th e A N G R Y -fa ce p a ir in g . H igh -
e ffe c t su b je c ts a ls o sh ow ed a lo n g e r r e s p o n s e la te n c y to the
A N G R Y -fa ce p a ir in g , and on the T A T ga v e m o r e e v id e n c e o f
em p a th y , p a s s iv e r e c e p tiv ity , and c a p a c ity to to le r a te c o n flic tin g
56
M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M cN e il, l o c . c i t ., p. 235.
57
Ibid., p. 236.
58
im p r e s s io n s .
S in c e th e B a c h and K lein stu d y in d ic a te d th at th e y w e r e a b le to
in flu e n c e s u b lim in a lly s u b j e c t s ’ ju d g m en ts o f a m a n ’s e x p r e s s io n , a
r e v ie w o f th e lite r a tu r e d e a lin g w ith th e s o u r c e s o f tr u s t in s p e a k e r s
w a s m a d e .
R h e to r ic ia n s h ave lon g s p e c u la te d upon th e im p lic a tio n s o f the
a n c ie n t c o n c e p ts o f A r is t o t le and Q u in tillia n in r e g a r d to the s o u r c e s
o f tr u s t in s p e a k e r s . A r is t o t le sta te d :
A s fo r th e s p e a k e r s t h e m s e lv e s , the s o u r c e o f ou r tr u s t in th em
a r e th r e e . . . in a sp e e c h th e r e a r e th r e e th in g s th at g a in ou r
b e lie f , n a m e ly , in t e llig e n c e , c h a r a c te r , and good w ill. ®
J u s tify in g “ s in c e r it y ” a s a fa c e t o f e th ic a l a p p ea l and c o n s id
e r in g it a s “ e s s e n t i a l ” o r “ im p o r ta n t” in p u blic sp e a k in g h a s b e e n
6 0
m en tio n e d b y so m e sp e e c h te x t b ook a u th o r s su c h a s B r ig a n c e ,
61 62
S a r r e tt and F o s t e r , W in a n s, and ig n o r e d by o th e r s , su c h a s
5 8
S. B a c h and G. S. K le in , “ C o n s c io u s E ff e c ts o f P r o lo n g e d
S u b lim in a l E x p o s u r e s o f W o r d s ,” A m e r ic a n P s y c h o lo g is t s , 1 2 :3 9 7 ,
J u ly , 1 9 5 7 .
59
L an e C o o p e r , T h e R h e to r ic o f A r is t o t le (N ew Y ork: D . C .
A p p le to n -C e n tu r y C om p an y, 1 9 3 2 ), p. 9 2 .
60
W illia m N orw ood B r ig a n c e , S p ee c h C o m m u n ic a tio n (N ew
Y ork : C r o fts and C o m p a n y , 1 9 4 7 ), 398 pp.
61
L ew S a r r e tt and W. T . F o s t e r , B a s ic P r in c ip le s o f S p ee c h
(C a m b r id g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts : H o u g h to n -M ifflin C om p an y, C a m b rid g e
P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 ), 273 pp.
6 2
J a m e s A . W in a n s, S p ee c h M aking (N ew Y ork: D . C .
A p p le to n -C e n tu r y C om p an y, 1 9 3 8 ), 285 pp.
24
63 64 65
W e a v e r , B o r c h e r s , W o o lb e r t, P h illip s , and M o n ro e.
H ovlan d , J a n is , and K e lle y , d e v e lo p e d a str o n g a r g u m en t fo r
th e r e la tio n s h ip o f tr u s tw o r th in e s s to p e r su a s io n :
A s a r e s u lt o f le a r n in g e x p e r ie n c e s , m o s t in d iv id u a ls a c q u ir e
str o n g m o tiv e s w h ich in c lin e th em to n o tic e s ig n s o f c o m m u n ic a to r
in ten t and to a v o id b e in g in flu e n c e d w h en th ey e x p e c t th a t th e
c o m m u n ic a to r is a tte m p tin g to m a n ip u la te th e m . N u m e r o u s e x
p e r im e n ts on p e r s u a s io n s u g g e s t that th is p a r tic u la r s o u r c e of
in te r fe r e n c e i s a m a jo r d e te r m in a n t of r e s is t a n c e . F o r in s ta n c e ,
th e fin d in g th a t c u e s to the “ t r u s t w o r t h in e s s ” o f the s o u r c e w ill
a ffe c t th e w ay in w h ich the a u d ien ce ju d g e s the co n ten t o f a c o m
m u n ic a tio n w ou ld s e e m to in v o lv e th is typ e o f in te r fe r e n c e . In
th e e x p e r im e n ta l in v e s tig a tio n s on “ s o u r c e tr u s t w o r t h in e s s ,” the
s a m e c o m m u n ic a tio n is p r e se n te d a s c o m in g fr o m tw o d iffe r e n t
s o u r c e s , one o f w h ich is r e p r e s e n te d a s b e in g im p a r tia l w h ile th e
o th e r is r e p r e s e n te d a s h a v in g u lt e r io r p e r s o n a l m o tiv e s fo r tr y in g
to p e r su a d e o th e r s to adopt h is v ie w . T h e a v a ila b le e v id e n c e fr o m
su ch s tu d ie s ten d s to be c o n s is te n t w ith th e g e n e r a l h y p o th e s is that
th e l e s s “ tr u stw o r th y ” a c o m m u n ic a to r i s p e r c e iv e d to b e , the
g r e a t e r the lik e lih o o d th at h is p r e se n ta tio n w ill b e ju d ged a s
b ia s e d and d is to r te d and th e g r e a te r th e te n d e n c y to r e j e c t h is c o n
c lu s io n s . W h en ev er the s o u r c e is p e r c e iv e d to be tr u stw o r th y ,
e x p e c ta tio n s o f m a n ip u la tiv e in ten t w ould b e absent.® ^
If tr u s tw o r th in e s s in a s p e a k e r can be d e fin e d a s “ s i n c e r i t y ,” and
c o n v e r s e ly , if u n tr u stw o r th in e s s can be d efin ed a s “ in s in c e r it y ,”
th en th e a r e a o f s p e a k e r o r c o m m u n ic a to r in te n t w ould s e e m to be an
63
A n d rew T h o m a s W e a v e r , G la d y s L o u is e B o r c h e r s , and
C h a r le s H en ry W o o lb e rt, T h e N ew B e tte r S p ee c h (N ew Y ork: H a r c o u r t,
B r a c e and C o m p a n y , 19 3 9 ), 548 pp.
64
A r th u r E d w ard P h illip s , E ffe c tiv e S p ee c h (C h ica g o : T he
N ew ton C o m p a n y , 1 9 0 8 ), 314 pp.
65
A la n H . M o n ro e, P r in c ip le s o f S p e e ch (R e v is e d b r ie f
e d itio n ; C h ica g o : S c o tt, F o r e s m a n and C om p an y, 1 9 51), 337 pp.
6 6
C a r l I. H ovlan d , Ir v in g L . J a n is , and H arold H . K e lle y ,
a r e a in w h ich su b lim in a l in flu e n c e m ig h t b e e ff e c t iv e .
In a tech n iq u e d e sig n e d to d e te r m in e the a ttitu d e o f la y m e n
to w a rd th e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f good p u b lic sp ea k in g , C la r k found th a t,
o v e r w h e lm in g ly , s in c e r it y w a s g iv e n a s the m o s t im p o r ta n t. H e s u b
m itte d a l is t of “ c o m m o n ly tau gh t sta n d a r d s o f p u b lic sp e a k in g ” to
la y a u d ie n c e s c o m p r is in g 271 p e r s o n s . H e a sk e d th e a u d ien ce m e m
b e r s to r a te the sta n d a r d s b y m e a n s o f a s c a le ra n g in g fr o m m o st
e s s e n t ia l to le a s t e s s e n t ia l. S in c e r ity w a s ran k ed “ M o st E s s e n t ia l”
b y both s e x e s and r e c e iv e d no “ L e a s t E s s e n t ia l” r a tin g s . In c o m
b in ed to ta ls , s in c e r it y r e c e iv e d th ir ty -tw o p er c e n t o f the f ir s t p la c e
v o t e s in th e “ M o st E s s e n t ia l” c a te g o r y . T h is w a s s e v e n te e n p e r cen t
b e tte r than “ P o i s e , ” tw en ty p er c en t b e tte r than “ W e ll C h o se n S u b
j e c t , ” tw e n ty -o n e p e r c en t b e tte r than “ A g r e e a b le V o ic e ,” and
tw e n ty -tw o p e r c e n t b e tte r than “ P u r p o s iv e n e s s .” T h e o v e r - a ll
to ta ls sh o w ed s in c e r it y to be ran k ed a m o n g th e f ir s t fo u r sta n d a r d s
6 7
a lm o s t tw ic e a s o ften a s w a s an y o th e r sta n d a r d .
H ild r e th u s e d C la r k ’s fin d in g s a s a b a s is fo r h is stu d y in
w h ich he a ttem p ted to d e te r m in e if la y a u d ie n c e s had th e a b ility to
d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n “ s i n c e r e ” and “ in s in c e r e ” s p e e c h e s . H e fu r th e r
C o m m u n ica tio n and P e r s u a s io n (N ew H aven: Y a le U n iv e r s ity P r e s s ,
1 9 5 4 ), p. 296.
^ W illia m K eith C la r k , “ A S u r v e y o f C e r ta in A u d ie n c e A t t i
tu d e s tow ard C o m m o n ly T au gh t S ta n d a rd s o f P u b lic S p ea k in g ” (u n
p u b lish ed M a s te r ’s t h e s is , U n iv e r s ity o f S ou th ern C a lifo r n ia , L o s
A n g e le s , 1 9 5 0 ).
26
p ro p o sed to d is c o v e r if a c o r r e la tio n e x is te d b e tw e en s in c e r it y , a t t i
tude tow ard the to p ic , and e ffe c tiv e sp ea k in g . T w o sound m o tio n
p ictu re film s co n ta in in g tw e lv e s p e a k e r s e a ch w e r e u se d to k eep the
sp e a k e r v a r ia b le c o n sta n t. In p rep a ra tio n fo r the e x p e r im e n t each
s p e a k e r w as a sk ed to d e liv e r a tw o -m in u te sp e e c h on a to p ic in w h ich
he w a s v ita lly in te r e s te d . U pon c o m p letio n o f the film r e c o r d in g o f h is
f ir s t s p e e c h , ea ch sp e a k e r w as fo r c e d to take e x a c tly the o p p o site s id e
of th e sa m e to p ic . F ilm s o f tw e n ty -fo u r sp e a k e r s w e r e d iv id ed into
tw o g ro u p s b y random s e le c tio n . E ig h ty -s e v e n m e m b e r s o f a la y
a u d ien ce judged the film e d sp e a k e r s in the f ir s t group and se v e n ty -tw o
m e m b e r s o f a la y a u d ien ce judged the film e d s p e a k e r s in the se co n d
68
grou p .
In th is stu d y H ild reth found (1) that la y a u d ie n c e s w e r e un able
to d is tin g u ish b etw een the s in c e r e and in s in c e r e s p e e c h e s , (2 ) that
th e r e w e r e no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s b etw een the s e x e s in th e ir a b ility
to id en tify s in c e r ity , (3 ) that a u d ie n c e s sh ow ed a sig n ific a n t ten d en cy
to r a te a sp e a k e r a s s in c e r e w hen th ey ra ted him a s e ffe c tiv e , (4 ) th at
th e r e w a s no sig n ific a n t r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e en a c tu a l s in c e r ity and
e ff e c t iv e n e s s r a tin g s, (5 ) that the attitu d e o f a judge on the to p ic o f a
sp e a k e r had no s ig n ific a n t in flu e n c e on th e ju d g e ’s id e n tific a tio n of
68
R ich a rd A . H ild reth , “ A n E x p e r im e n ta l Study o f A u d ie n c e s ’
A b ility to D istin g u ish b etw een S in c e r e and In sin c e r e S p e e c h e s ” (unpub
lis h e d P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e r s ity o f Sou th ern C a lifo r n ia , L o s
sin c e r ity , (6) that e ffe c tiv e n e s s ra tin g s w e re not sig n ific a n tly in -
69
flu en eed by a ju d ge’s attitude tow ard a sp e a k e r ’s to p ic.
In h is “ Im p lica tio n s and S u g g estio n s for F u rth er S tu dy,”
H ild reth su g g ested that “ the jud ge’s im p r e s sio n of s in c e r ity w a s m ore
im portant than the sp e a k e r ’s a ctu a l s in c e r ity ,” that “ fu rth er r e se a r c h
into the ‘h ow ’ and the ‘w hat’ in r e la tio n to jud gm en ts o f s in c e r ity be
m a d e ,” that the tw o -m in u te tim e lim its im p o sed on the sp e a k e r s
“ r a ise d the q u estion o f am ount of p e r su a sio n p o ssib le in that t im e ,”
and that “ r e se a r c h u sin g few er sp e a k e r s and lo n g er s p e e c h e s be
u n d erta k en .” *^
The follow in g ch a p ters in th is study w ill be d evoted to a
p resen ta tio n of the d evelop m en t of the p rob lem a s sta ted in th is ch ap ter.
C hapter II w ill p r e sen t the e x p e rim en ta l d e sig n through a d is c u s s io n of
the su b je c ts, tech n iq u es, and p ro ced u res u sed . The data obtained w ill
be p resen ted and in terp reted in C hapter III. C hapter IV w ill su m m a r
iz e the study, lis t the c o n c lu sio n s, and d is c u s s im p lic a tio n s for
fu rth er stu dy.
A n g e le s, 1953).
69
Ib id., p. 70.
7 Q Ibid., p. 72.
CH APTER II
SU BJEC TS, TECHNIQUES, AND PROCEDURES
Su bjects
Through the c o -o p e r a tiv e effo rt o f a sta ff m em b er in the
L anguage A r ts D epartm en t of San F r a n c isc o State C o lle g e , D r. John
L . C lark, s ix se c tio n s of a secon d s e m e s te r c la s s en titled E n g lish 6 .2,
B a sic C om m u n ication s, w ere a ssig n ed to the w r ite r a s su b je c ts.
T h ese s ix c la s s se c tio n s w ere a part of a total of tw e n ty -six s im ila r
se c tio n s of th is c la s s b ein g taught by the Language A rts D ep artm en t in
the Spring S e m e ste r of 1958 at San F r a n c isc o State C o lleg e.
It w a s b eliev ed that the s ix c la s s se c tio n s a ssig n ed for u se in
th is study w ere su itab le a s su b jects for the follow in g rea so n s:
1. T hey could be co n sid ered a s ty p ic a l fir s t y e a r c o lle g e
un d ergradu ates b eca u se of th eir age s im ila r ity , y e a r in
c o lle g e , and ed u cational background. It w as fu rth er
b e lie v ed that th ey m ight be at a m ore im p r essio n a b le age
than o ld e r c o lle g e stu d en ts.
2. A ll su b jects u sed in th is study w ere e n ro lled in c la s s s e c
tio n s of E n g lish 6 .2, B a sic C om m u n ication s, that m et
r e g u la r ly during m orn ing h o u rs.
29
3. T h e s u b lim in a l n a tu re o f th is stu d y w a s not r e v e a le d to
an y su b je c t u n til a ll o f the e x p e r im e n ta tio n had b e e n c o m
p le ted and a ll s u b je c ts had p r e v io u s ly b e e n in fo r m e d b y
th e ir in s tr u c to r s th at th ey w ou ld be h e ld r e s p o n s ib le fo r
th e ir a tten d a n ce at th e f ilm -v ie w in g , a s w e ll a s fo r the
s u b je c t-m a tte r co n ta in ed in the film .
4. T h is ty p e o f stu d y h eld a c o m m o n in t e r e s t fo r both the
L an gu age A r ts D e p a r tm e n t and the in s tr u c to r s o f th e s ix
c la s s s e c tio n s a s s ig n e d . T h e a r e a o f in v e s tig a tio n in th is
stu d y w a s one th a t w a s c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e co n ten t and
p u r p o se s of E n g lish 6 .2 , B a s ic C o m m u n ic a tio n s, and
o th e r L an gu age A r ts c o u r s e s , b e c a u s e o f the im p lic a tio n s
of su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n to the fie ld o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s.
In a d d itio n , th is in v e s tig a tio n w a s o f u n u su al in te r e s t to
the p a r tic ip a tin g in s tr u c to r s , b e c a u s e th e y and th e ir s t u
d e n ts w e r e in v o lv e d in w h a te v e r fin d in g s th is stu d y
r e v e a le d . In no c a s e w a s any c la s s in s tr u c to r p r e v io u s ly
in fo r m e d o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l c la s s if ic a t io n o f h is p a r tic u
la r s e c tio n .
A lth ou gh th e film u se d in th is stu d y w a s s e le c t e d p r im a r ily
b e c a u s e it m e t th e n e c e s s a r y c r it e r ia p r o p o se d fo r th is ty p e o f e x p e r i
m e n t, it a ls o p r o v id e d , fo r th e s u b je c ts , a d d itio n a l s p e c ia l in s tr u c tio n
in g e n e r a l s e m a n t ic s . A s a r e s u lt, a c o m p a tib le w o r k in g a r r a n g e m e n t
e x is te d b e tw e en the in s tr u c to r s , the s u b je c ts , and the w r ite r .
O f th e 123 s u b je c ts a s s ig n e d fo r u s e in th is stu d y , 44 w e r e
m a le s and 79 w e r e f e m a le s . T h e a v e r a g e age fo r th e to ta l group w as
1 9 .2 5 y e a r s a s d e te r m in e d by th e ir a g e s at th e ir la s t b ir th d a y s. The
su b je c ts w e r e id e n tifie d a s fo llo w s: 110 fr e sh m e n , s e v e n s o p h o m o r e s ,
fiv e ju n io r s, and one s e n io r . A t the tim e o f th is stu d y a ll su b je c ts
w e r e c o m p le tin g the se c o n d s e m e s t e r c o u r s e in B a s ic C o m m u n ic a tio n s.
B e c a u s e the d e sig n of th is stu d y req u ire d an in v e stig a tio n of
the e ff e c ts b e tw e en a su b je c t’s e y e s ig h t ra tin g and the e x te n t o f the
su b lim in a l in flu e n c e , the c o lle c te d data of one fe m a le su b je c t w e re
e x clu d ed w hen it w a s d is c o v e r e d th at sh e w as p a r tia lly b lin d . D iff e r
e n c e s in group to ta ls w e r e due to: (1 ) the fa ilu r e o f c e r ta in su b je c ts to
c o m p le te both th e pre and p o st t e s t s o f s u b je c t-m a tte r , (2 ) u n a v a ila
b ility o f e s s e n t ia l p e r so n a l d ata, (3) s u b je c ts ’ ta r d in e s s at c e r ta in
s e s s io n s of the e x p e r im e n t, (4 ) s u b je c ts ’ a b se n c e fro m one o f the
te s tin g s e s s io n s in the e x p e r im e n t.
T e ch n iq u es
T he f ir s t ste p w a s to p rep a re the m a te r ia ls .
P r e p a r a tio n o f m a t e r ia ls . M a te r ia ls w e r e p r ep a red in fiv e
p r in c ip a l s t a g e s . F ir s t , e x p e r im e n ta l su b lim in a l s tim u li w e r e
s e le c te d ; se c o n d , th e m eth od o f p rod u cin g the s e le c te d su b lim in a l
31
w o rd s w a s d eterm in ed ; th ird , a su ita b le sound m otion p ictu re film w as
se le c te d ; fou rth , an e x p e r im e n ta l room w a s se le c te d ; and, fifth ,
ra tin g s c a le s , su b je c t-m a tte r t e s t s , and a d d ition al te stin g m a te r ia ls
w e r e p rep a red .
S u b lim in a l w o r d s . A t the tim e o f the e x p e r im e n t th e re w as
little e x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e w hich in d icated the b e st p air of p o la r w ord s
fo r a study o f th is ty p e. T h ere w as ev en le s s e v id en ce c o n c er n in g the
p ro p er len gth and r e la tiv e s iz e o f w o rd s to be u se d . In ad d ition , as
w a s in d ica ted in C hapter I of th is stu d y, th ere w as in su ffic ie n t e x p e r i
m en ta l e v id en ce to e s ta b lish a p r e fe r e n c e fo r w o r d s, a s op p osed to
the u se of p ic tu r e s , or ev en s y m b o ls , a s su b lim in a l c u e s . An in te r
p retation o f s e v e r a l stu d ie s , h o w ev e r, se e m e d to su g g e s t that u n fa m il
ia r m e s s a g e s m ay be in e ffe c tiv e .
B e c a u se o f the e x p e r im e n ta l u n c e r ta in tie s in volved in the
p rop er s e le c tio n o f e ffe c tiv e su b lim in a l c u e s , th e r e se e m e d to be so m e
ju s tific a tio n for u sin g any p air of p olar w o rd s or s y m b o ls , and b y so
doin g to add in fo rm a tio n to th is a r e a of stu d y. H ow ever, th is random
ch an ce p ro ced u re w as not fo llo w ed in s e le c tin g the w ord s “ s in c e r e ”
and “ not s in c e r e ” fo r u se in th is study; the s e le c tio n of th e se p olar
w o r d s — that i s , w o rd s w ith o p p o site m e a n in g s — w a s b a sed on th e fa ct
th at textb ook au th ors in the fie ld o f public a d d r e s s , a s w e ll a s lay
g ro u p s, have ra ted “ s in c e r ity ” a s e ith e r “ e s s e n t ia l” o r “ im p o rta n t”
32
to e ffe c tiv e public sp ea k in g , and that th ere w a s e v id en ce to su p p ort the
g e n e r a l h y p o th e sis that the l e s s “ tru stw o r th y ” a co m m u n ica to r is
p e r c e iv e d to b e , the g r e a te r the lik elih o o d that h is p r e sen ta tio n w ill be
judged a s b ia se d and d isto r te d , and the g r e a te r the ten d en cy w ill b e to
r e je c t h is c o n c lu sio n s .
The u se o f the w o rd s “ not s in c e r e ” a s op p osed to the u s e of
the w ord “ in s in c e r e ” fo r the n e g a tiv e su b lim in a l cu e w a s an a r b itr a r y
d e c is io n m ade by the w r ite r in o r d e r to in su r e a g r e a te r v isu a l
d iffe r e n c e b etw een the p o sitiv e su b lim in a l cu e w ord “ s in c e r e ” and the
n e g a tiv e su b lim in a l cue w o rd s “ not s in c e r e .”
S u b lim in a l produ ction tec h n iq u e . T h ere w as little e x p e r i
m en ta l e v id e n c e to su pp ort the h y p o th e sis that a fla sh e d p r o jec tio n of
stim u li at one th ree-th o u sa n d th of a seco n d on a p ro jectio n s c r e e n w a s
e ith e r m o r e , o r l e s s , e ffe c tiv e than one that w as fla sh e d at a m uch
s lo w e r sp e e d . L ik e w ise , th e re w a s no e x p e r im e n ta l e v id en ce e s t a b
lish in g the m o st e ffe c tiv e in te r v a l fo r su b lim in a l e x p o su r e , or
e sta b lish in g the to ta l p eriod o f tim e that a su b lim in a l stim u lu s sh ould
be u sed in any g iv en p rogram o r e x p e r im e n t. It is the a ssu m p tio n of
c e r ta in a u th o r itie s that v a r io u s tech n iq u es d e sig n ed fo r prod u ctin g
su b lim in a l s tim u li, i . e . , red u cin g in te n sity , d u ration , s iz e , o r c la r ity ,
a r e lo g ic a lly and m e th o d o lo g ic a lly e q u iv a len t. H o w ev er, oth er
33
a u th o r itie s su c h a s M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M cN eil* in d ic a te d th at th is
a ss u m p tio n r e m a in e d to be d e m o n s tr a te d .
T h e la c k o f e x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e in su p p o rt o f any m eth o d o f
p ro d u cin g s u b lim in a l s t im u li w a s a d e te r m in in g fa c to r in s e le c t in g th e
tec h n iq u e o f u sin g a r ed u c ed in te n s ity o f lig h t fo r th e p r o je c te d s u b
lim in a l w o r d s , w ith co n tin u o u s s u b lim in a l e x p o su r e th rou gh ou t th e
e n tir e th ir ty -m in u te film . T h e s e a p r io r i c h o ic e s w e r e m ad e w ith a
v ie w to u s in g te c h n iq u e s w h ich w ou ld a p p a re n tly g iv e e v e r y “ a d v a n ta g e ”
to th e su b lim in a l p r e se n ta tio n .
A 1 5 0 -w a tt V ie w le x s lid e p r o je c to r , M od el V -3 , w a s u s e d fo r
p r o je c tin g th e s u b lim in a l w o r d s o v e r the sou nd m o tio n p ic tu r e film
im a g e . T h e a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t c o rd o f th e s lid e p r o je c to r w a s
a tta ch ed to th e input c o n n e c tio n o f a V a r ia c v o lta g e r e d u c e r . T he
V a r ia c a lte r n a tin g c u r r e n t co rd w a s c o n n e c te d w ith an a lte r n a tin g
c u r r e n t o u tle t lo c a te d in th e p r o je c tio n b ooth . T h e v o lta g e o f the 1 5 0 -
w att s lid e p r o je c to r in c a n d e s c e n t lam p w a s r ed u c ed to fifty v o lts b y u s e
o f th e V a r ia c v o lta g e r e d u c e r . V a r ia c v o lta g e output w a s t e s te d by a
P r e c is io n s e r i e s 856 v o lt-o h m m illim e t e r .
T h e s lid e p r o je c to r w a s p la c e d im m e d ia te ly to th e le ft o f an
RC A s ix t e e n - m illim e t e r sou nd m o tio n p ic tu r e p r o je c to r w h ich u s e d a
o n e -th o u sa n d w att in c a n d e s c e n t la m p . T h e le n s o f th e s lid e p r o je c to r
* J a m e s V . M cC o n n ell, R ich a rd L . C u tle r , and E lto n B .
M c N e il, “ S u b lim in a l S tim u la tio n : A n O v e r v ie w ,” T h e A m e r ic a n
34
and th at of the m o tio n p ic tu r e p r o je c to r w e r e th ir ty -e ig h t f e e t fr o m the
p r o je c tio n s c r e e n . S e e F ig . 1.
T h e r ed u ctio n o f the lig h t in te n sity o f the su b lim in a l w ord
s lid e p r o je c to r to fifty v o lts w a s d e c id ed upon a fte r p r e v ie w in g the
s e le c t e d film w ith the su b lim in a l w o r d s su p e r im p o s e d . A t fifty v o lts
it w a s im p o s s ib le fo r the w r ite r o r any o f h is a s s is t a n t s to p e r c e iv e
the p r o je c te d su b lim in a l w o r d s fro m any a r e a o r a n g le o f the e x p e r i
m e n ta l r o o m .
T h e w o rd s “ s in c e r e ” and “ not s in c e r e ” w e r e ph otograp h ed
onto t h ir t y - f iv e - m illim e t e r film and m ad e into tw o s e p a r a te g l a s s -
e n c lo s e d 2 x 2 s lid e s w ith w h ite le t t e r s on a d ark b ack grou n d . The
s iz e o f the le t t e r s in the su b lim in a l w o r d s a s th ey ap p ea red on the
s c r e e n , p r o je c te d fro m a d ista n c e o f th ir ty -e ig h t fe e t, w a s ten in c h e s
in h eig h t and fo u r fe e t in len gth fo r the w ord “ s i n c e r e ,” and ten in c h e s
in h eig h t and fiv e and o n e -h a lf fe e t in len gth fo r the w o r d s “ not
s i n c e r e .”
T h e red u ctio n o f th e v o lta g e in th e 1 5 0 -w a tt in c a n d e sc e n t
lam p o f the s lid e p r o je c to r c a u se d th e p r o je c te d le t t e r s o f th e su b
lim in a l w o r d s to a p p ea r m o r e red than w h ite w hen th ey w e r e v iew ed
in d ep en d en tly on the p r o je c tio n s c r e e n . A n e ffo r t to m e a s u r e the
w a v e len g th o f the red u ced in te n sity o f lig h t in A n g str o m u n its w a s
m ad e by the w r ite r in c o -o p e r a tio n w ith the P h y s ic s D e p a r tm en t of
San F r a n c is c o S tate C o lle g e . H o w e v er , b e c a u se o f the red u ced v o lta g e
35
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Seat N o. 1 2 3 4
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8 9 10
F ig . 1 . — D ia g ra m of e x p e r im e n ta l room 109, d im e n sio n s,
se a tin g a r e a s , and p lacem en t of equip m en t.
CODE: A = V a ria c V oltage R ed u cer; B = S lid e P r o je c to r ; C = 16m m
Sound M otion P ic tu r e P r o je c to r ; D = P r o je c tio n Booth; E = P r o je c tio n
S c r e e n .
36
a ssig n e d and the d ista n ce that the lig h t had to tr a v e l, no m ea su r em e n t
o f the c o lo r v a lu e s of the p rojected w ord s could be m ad e. T he w r ite r
a lso w as in form ed that the a c cu ra te m ea su r em e n t of an in te n sity of a
c e r ta in c o lo r r e q u ir e s the u se of e x tr e m e ly bulky and ex p e n siv e
la b o ra to ry c o lo r - t e s t equip m en t, and that su ch equipm ent w a s a v a ila b le
only in c e r ta in a r e a s of the cou n try.
In a p rio r attem p t to avoid e x c e s s iv e v o lta g e red u ction of the
su b lim in a l p rojected ligh t, a 7 5- and 100-w att slid e p ro jecto r in c a n
d e sc e n t lam p w e re te s te d in the s e le c te d e x p e rim en ta l room . H ow ever,
th e re se e m e d to be no d istin g u ish a b le d ifferen ce in the am ount of
v o lta g e red u ction req u ired b etw een the lo w er w attage in ca n d escen t
la m p s and the 150-w att in ca n d escen t lam p in regard to the d e g r e e of
red w hich app eared in the p rojected su b lim in a l w o r d s. The u se of
lo w er w attage in ca n d escen t lam p s w as d isca r d e d , not only b e c a u se
th e ir u se had fa iled to red u ce the red ap p earan ce of the p rojected
su b lim in a l w o rd s, but a lso b eca u se it w as b e lie v ed that th e ir u se
w ould in te r je c t an u n rea l situ a tio n into the ex p e rim en t sin c e s m a ll
w attage lam p s a re u sed r a r e ly in p r o fe ssio n a l production p r o c e d u r e s.
Sound m otion p ictu re film . C erta in c r ite r ia w e re follow ed in
the s e le c tio n of the sound m otion p ictu re film to be u sed in th is study:
1. The film e d sp ea k er should d em o n stra te a m a ste r y o f the
p r in c ip les of e ffe c tiv e sp e e c h .
37
2. T h e film sh o u ld b e o f h ig h q u a lity both in v is u a l and
sou nd r e p r o d u c tio n .
3. T h e film sh o u ld fe a tu r e o n ly one p e r s o n sp e a k in g and
sh o u ld d is p la y a m in im u m n u m b er o f t e le v is io n t e c h
n iq u e s, e . g . , e la b o r a te b a ck g ro u n d s and m u s ic .
4 . T h e lig h t in te n sity o f the f ilm , w h en p r o je c te d on a
r e g u la r m o tio n p ic tu r e p r o je c tio n s c r e e n , sh o u ld b e a s
c o n sta n t th rou gh ou t the film a s p o s s ib le in o r d e r to
a v o id the p o s s ib ility o f r e v e a lin g th e su b lim in a l w o r d s .
5. T h e film sh ou ld b e a t le a s t fifte e n m in u te s in len g th and
sh o u ld be a v a ila b le fo r the tim e s e t fo r the e x p e r im e n t
and fo r th e p u r p o se s o f the e x p e r im e n t.
B la c k -a n d -w h ite , th ir ty -m in u te k in e s c o p e r e c o r d in g s o f the
la te D r . Irv in g L e e o f N o r th w e ste r n U n iv e r s ity m e t a ll the r e q u ir e
m e n ts . T h e w r ite r c o n ta c te d th e N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n a l T e le v is io n F ilm
S e r v ic e , A u d io -V is u a l C e n te r , B lo o m in g to n , In d ian a, and w a s g r a n ted ,
u n d er th e ir “ e x te n d ed s e r v i c e s ” n o n -te le v is io n p lan , a m on th ’s fr e e
u s e o f th r e e k in e s c o p e r e c o r d in g s in th e “ T a lk in g S e n s e ” s e r i e s .
A fte r p r e v ie w in g the th r e e f ilm s and s e c u r in g e v a lu a tio n s by
c o lle a g u e s in th e L an gu age A r ts D e p a r tm e n t o f San F r a n c is c o S tate
C o lle g e , th e k in e s c o p e f ilm -r e c o r d in g e n title d “ T h e M an w ho K now s It
A l l ” w a s s e le c t e d fo r u se in th is stu d y .
38
E x p e r im e n ta l r o o m . S e le c tio n o f an e x p e r im e n ta l ro o m r e
q u ire d th at c e r ta in c r it e r ia b e m et:
1. T he ro o m sh ou ld b e d e sig n e d fo r film v ie w in g p u r p o se s;
if p o s s ib le , it sh o u ld h a v e the c u s to m a r y sla n te d flo o r .
2. T h e ro o m sh ou ld h a v e a s e a tin g c a p a c ity o f at le a s t fifty ,
but no m o r e than one hu nd red s e a t s .
3 . T he n a tu r a l and a r t if ic ia l lig h t in th e ro o m sh o u ld be
c o n tr o lla b le , to th e poin t o f to ta l d a r k n e s s if n e c e s s a r y .
4 . E a c h s e a t in th e r o o m sh o u ld h ave a n u m b er in o r d e r to
ob tain an a c c u r a te s e a tin g c h e ck fo r e a c h su b je c t d u rin g
th e e x p e r im e n t.
5. T he ro o m sh o u ld h a v e th e n e c e s s a r y eq u ip m en t fo r
p r o je c tin g a s ix t e e n - m illim e t e r sou nd m o tio n p ic tu r e
film .
6 . T h e r o o m sh o u ld b e a v a ila b le fo r th e t im e s and d a y s o f
th e e x p e r im e n t.
R o o m 109 in th e In d u str ia l A r ts B u ild in g on th e c a m p u s o f San
F r a n c is c o S ta te C o lle g e m e t a l l o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts , and w a s u se d a s
th e e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m fo r th is stu d y . S ee F ig . 1 on page 35.
In a d d itio n to b e in g u se d a s a c la s s r o o m , R oom 109 w a s u s e d
a ls o a s a m o tio n p ic tu r e th e a te r b y the c o lle g e . It had a sla n te d flo o r
and a s e a tin g c a p a c ity fo r se v e n ty p e o p le .
T h e r e w a s no s o u r c e o f n a tu r a l lig h t, and a ll a r t if ic ia l lig h t
co u ld b e c o n tr o lle d fro m th e p r o je c tio n b ooth .
A lth ou gh the ro o m s e a t s w e r e not n u m b ered , it w a s a sim p le
m a tte r to a r r a n g e an a c c u r a te s e a tin g c h e c k . (T h e s e a tin g c h a r t is
d is c u s s e d la te r in th is c h a p te r .)
S in c e th e ro o m w a s fr e q u e n tly u s e d a s a m o tio n p ic tu r e
th e a te r , it w a s p e r m a n en tly equip ped w ith s ix t e e n - m illim e t e r RCA and
B e ll and H o w e ll sound m o tio n p ic tu r e p r o je c to r s and a p r o je c tio n
s c r e e n . A ll p r o je c tio n eq u ip m en t, in clu d in g s e v e r a l o th e r s lid e p r o
j e c t o r s , w a s con tain ed in a la r g e w ir e s c r e e n c a g e w h ich a ls o s e r v e d
a s th e p r o je c tio n b ooth .
F o r p u r p o se s o f th is stu d y , the u s e o f a 1 5 0 -w a tt V ie w le x
s lid e p r o je c to r , M od el V -3 , w a s d on ated by P h o to and Sound, a c o m
m e r c ia l ph otograp hy sh op in San F r a n c is c o .
P e r m is s io n to u se R oom 109 fo r e x p e r im e n ta l p u r p o se s w a s
g ra n ted by the O ffic e o f th e D ean o f In str u c tio n o f San F r a n c is c o S tate
C o lle g e .
M eth o d o lo g ic a l b a ck g ro u n d . S in ce th e m e a s u r in g d e v ic e s
u tiliz e d in th is stu d y w e r e r a tin g s c a le s and film s u b je c t-m a tte r t e s t s ,
it w a s im p o rta n t th at th e ir v a lid ity and r e lia b ility be e s ta b lis h e d .
G u ilfo rd e n d o r se d and d is c u s s e d th e u s e o f r a tin g s c a le s in g e n e r a l
2
e x p e r im e n ta tio n . P en la n d u tiliz e d r a tin g s c a le s in e v a lu a tio n o f
2
J . P . G u ilfo rd , P s y c h o m e tr ic M ethod s (se c o n d ed itio n ; N ew
40:
3
sp e e c h p e r fo r m a n c e . A lthough th e r e h a s not b een c o m p le te a g r e e
m en t a s to the s p e c ific type of ra tin g s c a le to be u se d , the tech n iq u e
h a s b een a c c e p te d a s an e ffe c tiv e m ea n s fo r ev a lu a tin g sp e e c h p e r -
4 5
fo rm a n ce by su ch w r ite r s a s T h om p son and K now er. H ild r e th ’s
stu d y o f s in c e r ity w h ich in clu d ed the u s e o f a fiv e -p o in t ra tin g s c a le
fo r “ e f f e c t iv e n e s s ” se e m e d to fu rth er c o rr o b o r a te the ad eq u acy o f the
0
tech n iq u e a s a m e a su r in g d e v ic e fo r sp e e c h p e r fo r m a n c e .
7
R atin g s c a l e s . T he ra tin g s c a le s a s d e sig n e d b y H ild reth
w e r e u sed in th is stu d y fo r the fo llo w in g r e a so n s:
1. A s im ila r ity o f p u rp ose e x is te d b etw een th e H ild reth
stu d y and th is stu d y in that both s tu d ie s w e re d e sig n e d to
Y ork: M cG ra w -H ill B ook C om p any, In c., 1954), pp. 2 6 3 -2 9 8 .
3
V ir g il D . P en la n d , “ An E x p e r im e n ta l Study to M ea su re
E ffe c tiv e n e s s in O ra l R ead in g by M eans o f a R ating S c a le T ech n iq u e
(un pu blish ed P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n , th e U n iv e r sity of Sou thern C a lifo r n ia ,
L o s A n g e le s , 1946).
4
W ayne N . T h om p son , “ A n E x p e r im e n ta l Study o f the
A c c u r a c y o f T y p ic a l S p eech R ating T e c h n iq u e s ,” S p eech M on ograp h s,
XI (1 9 4 4 ), 6 5 -6 9 .
5
F ra n k lin H. K now er, “ A S u g g e stiv e Study o f P u b lic Sp eak ing
R atin g S c a le V a lu e s ,” Q u a r ter ly J o u rn a l o f S p eech , X V (F e b r u a r y ,
1929), 3 0 -4 2 .
0
R ich ard A . H ild reth , “ A n E x p e r im e n ta l Study o f A u d ie n c e s’
A b ility to D istin g u ish b etw een S in c e r e and In sin c e r e S p e e c h e s ” (unpub
lis h e d P h . D . d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e r sity of Sou thern C a lifo r n ia , L os
A n g e le s , 1953), p. 71.
^Ibid., p. 26.
41
d is c o v e r an a u d ie n c e ’s ju d g m en t o f a s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r it y
and e f f e c t iv e n e s s .
2. T h e u s e o f th e w o r d s “ s i n c e r e ” and “ n o t s i n c e r e ” a s the
s u b lim in a l w o r d s in th is stu d y e s ta b lis h e d a n e e d to u s e a
s y s t e m o f r a tin g s c a l e s th a t w ou ld b e d ir e c t ly r e la te d to
th e p o s s ib le e f f e c t s o f s u b lim in a l s t im u li.
3. S in c e H ild r e th d is c o v e r e d a s ig n ific a n t te n d e n c y fo r
a u d ie n c e s to r a te a s p e a k e r a s s in c e r e w h en th e y r a te d
h im a s e f f e c t iv e , but a ls o d is c o v e r e d no s ig n ific a n t r e l a
tio n sh ip b e tw e e n w h at h e d e fin e d a s a c tu a l s p e a k e r s i n
c e r it y and s p e a k e r e f f e c t iv e n e s s r a tin g s , it w a s b e lie v e d
th a t h is d e fin itio n s o f s in c e r it y and e f f e c t iv e n e s s , p lu s
th e d e g r e e s o f im p r e s s io n a llo w e d fo r both w o r d s a s
in te r p r e te d in h is r a tin g s c a l e s , w e r e a d eq u a te fo r u s e in
th is stu d y .
F o r th e stu d y o f s in c e r it y , a th r e e - p o in t r a tin g s c a le w a s
u s e d . It w a s b e lie v e d that su c h a s c a le w ou ld d e te r m in e w h e th e r an
a u d ie n c e c o u ld b e s u b lim in a lly in flu e n c e d to r a te a film e d s p e a k e r a s
“ s i n c e r e ” o r “ n ot s i n c e r e ,” and fu r th e r , if p o s s ib le , to d e te r m in e
w h at e ff e c t a u d ie n c e s ’ s in c e r it y r a tin g s w ou ld h a v e upon th e ir r a tin g s
o f th e s p e a k e r ’s e f f e c t iv e n e s s , and upon t h e ir s c o r e s in th e s u b je c t-
m a tte r t e s t s . It w a s fu r th e r b e lie v e d th a t a th ir d r a tin g c a te g o r y o f
“ u n d e c id e d ” sh o u ld b e in c lu d e d in th e r a tin g s c a le fo r s in c e r it y in
42
o r d e r to d e te r m in e , if p o s s ib le , w hat e ffe c t a u d ie n c e s ’ “ u n d e cid ed ”
r a tin g s w ou ld h ave upon th e ir r a tin g s o f the s p e a k e r ’s e ff e c t iv e n e s s
and upon th e ir s c o r e s in th e s u b je c t-m a tte r t e s t s .
RATING O F SINC ERITY
( ) S p ea k er w a s s in c e r e .
( ) S p ea k er w a s not s in c e r e .
( ) I am u n d ecid ed .
A fiv e -p o in t o p en -en d r a tin g s c a le fo r e f f e c tiv e n e s s w a s u se d
b e c a u se in th is stu d y , a s in H ild r e th ’s ,e f f e c t iv e n e s s w a s c o n c e iv e d a s
a m a tte r of d e g r e e of in flu e n c e fa llin g on a lin e a r con tin u u m .
RATING O F E F F E C T IV E N E S S
( ) ( ) ( ) < ) ( )
1 2 3 4 5
A lm o s t B elo w A v e r a g e A b ove A lm o s t
none a v e r a g e a v e r a g e p e r fe c t
S u b je c t-m a tte r t e s t s . In an e ffo r t to a r r iv e a t a n u m e r ic a l
ev a lu a tio n o f the su b je c t’s p r e -k n o w le d g e and p o st-k n o w le d g e o f a
s e le c te d f ilm ’s co n ten t, and to in v e stig a te the e x te n t o f the su b lim in a l
in flu e n c e upon the am ount o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r a tta in ed , a p re te s t ,
an in itia l p o st t e s t , and fin a l p o st t e s t w e r e c o m p o se d .
P r e t e s t . A fte r c a r e fu l a n a ly s is o f the k in e sc o p e r e c o r d in g
e n title d “ T he M an W ho K now s It A ll” w a s m ad e by th e e x p e r im e n te r ,
s ix o p in io n -s ta te m e n ts b a se d on th e g e n e r a l s u b j e c t-m a tte r — a s
d e liv e r e d by the film e d s p e a k e r — w e r e c o m p o se d and c la s s if ie d a s the
pre t e s t o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r . O nly “ a g r e e ” o r “ d is a g r e e ” a n s w e r s
43
w e r e a llo w ed fo r ea ch sta te m e n t, b e c a u se it w as b e lie v e d that su b je c ts
m ig h t take advantage o f an “ un decided*’ c a te g o r y a s an o u tlet fo r an
in d e c is iv e a n s w e r . It w a s fu rth er b e lie v e d that an “ u n d ecid ed ” ra tin g
w ould not o n ly c o m p lic a te th e r e s u lts o f the pre t e s t s c o r e s , but w ould
b e e x tr e m e ly d iffic u lt to in te r p r e t. In ad d ition , the data c o lle c te d
fro m the pre t e s t s c o r e s m ig h t s e r v e a s an in d ic a to r o f the s im ila r ity
o r n o n -s im ila r ity o f the v a r io u s g ro u p s. See A ppendix A .
In itia l p ost t e s t . A se p a r a te c o m p ila tio n of s ix a d d ition al
s ta te m e n ts, c lo s e ly r e la te d to the op in ion sta te m e n ts p r e sen ted in the
pre t e s t, but m o re s p e c ific a lly r e la te d to a c tu a l sta te m e n ts m ade by
the film e d sp e a k e r , w a s u sed a s a b a s is for the in itia l p ost t e s t . A
fo r c e d c h o ic e b etw een two p o s sib le a n s w e r s , “ a g r e e ” or “ d is a g r e e ,”
a ls o w a s u sed in th is t e s t . T h is r e s tr ic tio n o f c h o ic e w a s thought to
be e s s e n t ia l in th is t e s t b e c a u se th e re w a s no w ay o f d e ter m in in g
w h eth er an “ u n d ecid ed ” a n sw e r , if it w a s in clu d ed , w a s due to la ck of
c la r ity and u n d erstan d in g of the s u b je c t-m a tte r — a s p r e sen ted by the
film e d s p e a k e r — o r due to a su b c o n sc io u s c o n flic t c r e a te d by the su b
lim in a l w o r d s. See A ppendix B .
F in a l p ost t e s t . In a n ticip a tio n of the p o s s ib le lim ita tio n s o f a
s ix sta te m e n t “ a g r e e ,” “ d is a g r e e ,” pre te s t and in itia l p o st te s t , a
fin a l p o st t e s t w a s co m p o sed and a d m in iste r e d to the su b je c ts in th is
stu d y one w e ek fo llo w in g the v iew in g of the film s and the co m p letio n o f
44
the pre and post t e s t s . T h is fin a l film su b je c t-m a tte r te s t contained
tw enty new ly com p osed sta te m en ts w hich w ere b ased d ir e c tly on s ta te
m en ts m ade by the sp ea k er in the film en titled “ The Man who Knows It
A ll,” and upon anoth er film in the sa m e s e r ie s en titled “ Do You Know
How to Make a S tatem en t of F a c t? ” The la tte r film w as shown to the
su b je c ts, but w as p resen ted two days a fter the film u sed in th is study
w as v iew ed . Its p resen tation u tiliz e d a va ria tio n in the technique for
g
p rojectin g su b lim in a l stim u li.
In addition to the sta te m en ts on film su b je c t-m a tte r , the fin al
p ost te s t contained s e v e r a l sta te m en ts about the m a n n er ism s and d r e s s
o f the film ed sp ea k er. The p o ssib le a n sw e rs w ere changed to “ tr u e ”
o r “ f a ls e .” T h is change w as m ade in an attem p t to d is so c ia te th is
fin a l te s t from the p rior t e s ts and from the e x p e rim en ta l view in g
e x p e r ie n c e . See A ppendix C .
J u stific a tio n for in clu sio n of a fin a l p ost te st w as b ased on
p reviou s findings in the a r ea of film in v estig a tio n .
The tim e in te rv a l betw een the film show ing and the a d m in is
tra tio n of the su rv ey a fter the film w as s e t at ap p roxim ately one
w eek in the c a se o f a ll the e x p erim en ta l stu d ies o f orien tation
film s and alw ays involved an in terven in g weekend.®
And again:
g
See d is c u ssio n of follow -u p study, p. 52.
9
C a rl I. H ovland, A rthur A . L u m sd ain e, and F red D . S h ef
fie ld , S tu d ies in S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y in W orld W ar II, V ol. Ill (P rin ceto n ,
N ew J e r se y : P rin c eto n U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1949), p. 28.
45
The ra tio n a l u sed w ith the b e fo r e -a fte r d e sig n in ev a lu a tin g
“ The B a ttle o f B ritain ** w as that the q u e stio n a ir e had b een
r e v ise d on the b a s is of p r e lim in a r y r e s u lt s . T he fo rm a t of the
rep ea t q u estio n n a ire w as c o n sp icu o u sly a lt e r e d .10
F u rth er ju stific a tio n fo r te s tin g the la stin g e ffe c ts of film
s u b je c t-m a tte r a ls o w as su g g e ste d by H ovland, L u m sd a in e, and
S h effield :
P e r h a p s, fo r ex a m p le, the in flu en ce of fa ctu a l in fo rm a tio n is
not in the im m ed ia te ch an ges in opinion produ ced, but in its e ffe c t
— a s a sto r e of know ledge — in a ffec tin g the in te rp re ta tio n s of
su b seq u en t lea rn ed fa c ts . O r p erhaps the im p lic a tio n s o f fa c ts
a r e not se e n im m e d ia te ly but in stea d r eq u ire a period to think
them o v e r o r s e e th e ir r e le v a n c e in su b seq u en t d is c u s s io n s .11
A period for thinking th in gs o v e r ta k es on e v en g r e a te r sig n ific a n c e
w hen c o n sid er ed in ligh t o f the r e c e n t unpublished fin d in gs in su b lim in a l
p ercep tio n by H ilgard . A s w a s noted in C hapter I, h is fin d in gs s u g g e s t
“ that u n c o n sc io u sly p e r c e iv e d m a te r ia l is d is a s s o c ia te d from the
o r ig in a l perception.***^
A d d ition al te s t m a te r ia ls . In an e ffo r t to obtain an a c cu ra te
r e c o r d o f the se a tin g a rra n g em en t o f each su b ject du rin g the e x p e r i
m en t, it w a s n e c e s s a r y to id en tify each row o f s e a ts in the e x p e r im e n
ta l room . T h is w as a c co m p lish ed by attach in g a th r e e -in c h b lack
le tte r to a fiv e by se v e n w hite p o ste r ca rd . T he p o ster c a r d s w e re
then a tta ch ed to a fiv e -fo o t wood sla t and each s la t w as taped to the
10Ib id ., p. 31. 11Ib id ., p. 71.
12
H ilg a rd , s e e page 17.
46
f ir s t se a t of each row at the left sid e of the e x p e r im e n ta l ro o m . O f the
e ig h t ro w s o f s e a ts in the ro o m , th e re w ere ten s e a ts in se v e n row s
and s ix s e a ts in one row . T he row of S ea ts n e a r e s t the p ro jectio n
s c r e e n w a s id en tified a s Row A , the seco n d , Row B , and so on through
the le tte r H. A o n e-p a g e d iagram con tain in g the row le tte r and the
s e a t num ber w a s inclu ded in each su b je c t’s in str u c tio n and ratin g
pack et. In stru ctio n s fo r m ark in g the lo ca tio n of each occu p ied se a t
w e r e in clu d ed in the o n e-p a g e se a tin g ch art d ia g ra m . S ee A ppendix B .
E y e sig h t r a tin g . It w as n e c e s s a r y for each su b ject to sig n a
w a iv e r granting the w r ite r p e r m is sio n to obtain and u se e y e sig h t ratin g
in fo rm a tio n on file in the Student H ealth D ep artm en t of San F r a n c isc o
State C o lle g e . A n affid avit w as draw n up for th is p u rp o se. E ach su b
je c t w a s in str u c te d to sig n , not print, h is nam e on th is fo rm .
P e r s o n a l in fo r m a tio n . A ll te s tin g -m a te r ia l sh e e ts req u ested
ea ch su b ject to print n am e, d ate, s e x , y e a r in c o lle g e , and c la s s
s e c tio n n u m b er, in the p rovided s p a c e s . E ach su b ject w a s in stru cted
to in clu d e h is a g e on the te s tin g -m a te r ia l s h e e ts for the pre and post
t e s t s . It w as b e lie v e d that in o r d e r to avoid con fu sion in co m p ilin g an
in d ivid u al su b je c t’s te stin g m a te r ia ls a fter the te stin g p ortion of the
ex p e rim en t w as co m p lete d , such r ep etitio n of e ffo r t on the part o f the
su b je c ts w a s a n e c e s s a r y p reca u tio n . S ee A p p en d ixes A , B , and C.
47
S ta tis tic a l tr e a tm e n t o f d a ta . T he s t a t is t ic a l a p p lic a tio n o f
the a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e tech n iq u e to the data o f th is stu d y w a s r e c o m
m en d ed by D r. R alph H ab er, a sta ff m e m b e r in th e P sy c h o lo g y
13
D ep a rtm en t o f San F r a n c is c o S tate C o lle g e . T he a d v a n ta g es o f u sin g
the a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e tech n iq u e w e r e ou tlin ed by M cN em ar:
F ir s t , it p r o v id e s an o v e r - a ll t e s t o f the sig n ific a n c e o f the
d iffe r e n c e b etw een tw o o r m o r e m e a n s w hen e ith e r la r g e o r s m a ll
s a m p le s a r e in v o lv ed .
S econ d , w e s h a ll so o n s e e that it le a d s to a d e fin ite ly
im p ro v ed e s tim a te of sa m p lin g e r r o r w hen double o r tr ip le o r
h ig h -o r d e r c la s s if ic a tio n s a r e in v o lv ed . F o r in sta n c e , w hen the
o ld e r m eth od is u sed to c h e ck the s ig n ific a n c e o f d iffe r e n c e
b e tw e e - the tw o s e x m ea n s fo r the to ta l grou p , the d e te r m in a tio n
o f the sa m p lin g e r r o r m a k e s no a llo w a n ce fo r lik e ly h e te r o
g e n e ity in in te llig e n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith r e s id e n c e sta tu s. T he
v a r ia n c e m eth od p e r m its a refin e d e s tim a te o f e r r o r by a llo w in g
fo r v a r ia tio n due to one o r m o r e v a r ia b le s w hen one i s te s tin g the
d iffe r e n c e s b etw een g ro u p s c la s s if ie d on the b a s is o f so m e o th er
v a r ia b le .
T h ird , the v a r ia n c e tech n iq u e p r o v id e s a m e a n s o f te s tin g
w h eth er the in flu en ce o f one ind ep en d en t v a r ia b le on the dependent
v a r ia b le i s s im ila r fo r su b -g r o u p s fo rm ed on th e b a s is o f a se co n d
ind ep en d en t v a r ia b le .
In a s e x - b y - r e s id e n c e a n a ly s is o f IQ, s the breakdow n o f ea ch
r e s id e n c e group b y s e x w ill lik e ly show that the s e x d iffe r e n c e s
a r e not e x a c tly the sa m e fo r the th r e e g rou p s and that r u r a l-
su b u rb an -u rb an d iffe r e n c e s a r e not e x a c tly a lik e fo r th e se p a r a te
s e x g r o u p s. Such in c o n s is te n c ie s a s s e e m ap p aren t fr o m e x a m in a
tio n o f th e s e x c e ll m ea n s m a y not be r e a l fo r the sim p le r e a so n
that random sa m p lin g e r r o r s a r e p r e s e n t. B e fo r e th e d e v e lo p
m en t o f the v a r ia n c e tech n iq u e th e re w a s no w ay o f te s tin g su ch
ap p aren t in c o n s is t e n c ie s , e x c e p t w hen e a ch c la s s ific a t o r y c h a r
a c te r is tic lea d to ju st tw o c a te g o r ie s .
D r . R alph H ab er w a s en gaged a s a co n su lta n t and s t a t i s
tic ia n fo r th is stu d y.
48
T h e la s t poin t h a s to do w ith w h at h a s b e e n te r m e d in te r a c tio n ,
a c o n c e p t w h ich is n ot e a s ily u n d e r sto o d . S u p p ose th a t it h a s b e e n
found th at one le a r n in g m eth o d h a s a d is tin c t ad v a n ta g e o v e r a
se c o n d m eth o d , but th a t, w hen th e data a r e b r o k e n dow n fo r tw o
r e c a ll in t e r v a ls , th e s u p e r io r ity o f the f ir s t m eth od s e e m s to hold
o n ly fo r th o s e w ith th e s h o r te r r e c a ll in te r v a l. T h is fa ilu r e o f
th e f ir s t m GtixOd tO be c o n s is te n t ly b e tte r b e c o m e s an e x a m p le o f
in te r a c tio n . B e fo r e c o n c lu d in g th at th e r e i s e v id e n c e fo r r e a l
in te r a c tio n , one n e e d s to ap p ly a s t a t is t ic a l t e s t . F o r su ch a
s im p le b rea k d o w n , one cou ld co m p u te the d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e
f ir s t and se c o n d m eth od m e a n s , and the sta n d a rd e r r o r o f th e
d iffe r e n c e , fo r th o s e w ith the sh o r t r e c a ll in te r v a l; lik e w is e ,
fo r th o s e w ith th e lo n g in te r v a l; th en on e cou ld d e te r m in e th e
d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n th e d iffe r e n c e s and its sta n d a rd e r r o r and
th e r e fr o m o b ta in e ith e r a c r it ic a l r a tio o r a t a s a t e s t of
in c o n s is te n c y . B u t, w h en one th in k s o f a situ a tio n w ith th r e e
m e th o d s and th r e e o r fo u r r e c a ll in t e r v a ls , it i s im m e d ia te ly
o b v io u s th a t su c h a s im p le t e s t can n ot b e a p p lie d .
In s u m m a r iz in g th e m e th o d o lo g ic a l b a ck g ro u n d , it s e e m e d
s a fe to a s s u m e th at fo r p u r p o se s o f e v a lu a tin g s p e a k e r s in c e r it y and
e f f e c t iv e n e s s , th e r a tin g s c a le tec h n iq u e w a s both r e a lis t ic and v a lid
and th at th e t e s tin g m eth o d s fo r m e a s u r in g an a u d ie n c e ’s r e te n tio n o f
a f ilm ’s c o n ten t b e fo r e and a fte r th e y w e r e su b je c te d to a su b lim in a l
s t im u li w e r e a d e q u a te.
P r o c e d u r e s
N o tific a tio n o f e x p e r im e n t. A fte r it had b e e n c o n fir m e d th at
s ix d iffe r e n t c la s s s e c t io n s o f E n g lis h 6 .2 , B a s ic C o m m u n ic a tio n s,
w e r e a v a ila b le fo r u s e in th is stu d y , a ca m p u s m ap in d ic a tin g th e
14
Q uinn M c N e m a r , P s y c h o lo g ic a l S t a t is t ic s (se c o n d ed itio n ;
N ew Y ork: Joh n W ile y and S o n s, 1 9 5 5 ), pp. 2 8 2 -8 4 .
49
lo ca tio n o f the e x p e r im e n ta l ro o m , and the d a te s and tim e s fo r v ie w in g ,
w e r e g iv en to each su b je c t in the a ss ig n e d s e c tio n s . The d istr ib u tio n
o f the m a p s w a s a c c o m p lish e d by the se c tio n in s tr u c to r s at a r eg u la r
c la s s m e e tin g o f ea ch c la s s one w eek p r io r to the date of the e x p e r i
m en t. On the day o f the e x p e r im e n t, la r g e b lack and w hite sig n s in d i
ca tin g the e x p e r im e n ta l ro o m w e re attach ed to the o u tsid e o f the tw o
en tra n ce d o o r s . T he sig n s on ly in d icated that a film fo r E n g lish 6.2
stu d en ts w ould be show n in R oom 109. T h e se p reca u tio n s se e m e d
n e c e s s a r y b e c a u se of the u n fa m ilia r ity of m any stu d en ts w ith the
d iffe re n t r o o m s and b u ild in g s on the ca m p u s.
G roup c la s s if ic a t io n . T he s ix c la s s s e c tio n s that w ere
a ss ig n e d to th is stu dy w e r e d ivid ed into th r ee g r o u p s. E ach o f the
th r ee grou p s w a s co m p o sed of tw o c la s s s e c tio n s . A n u m b er w a s
a ss ig n e d to ea ch group. The tw o c la s s s e c tio n s that m et at 8:00 A . M.
w e r e id e n tifie d a s Group 1 (C on trol); the tw o c la s s s e c tio n s that m et
at 9:35 A .M . w e re id en tified a s G roup 2 (E x p e r im e n ta l A); and the
tw o c la s s s e c tio n s that m et at 11:00 A .M . w e re id e n tifie d a s G roup 3
(E x p e r im e n ta l B ).
G roup 1 (C o n tro l) v iew ed the film w ithout b ein g su b jected to
su b lim in a l stim u li; G roup 2 (E x p e r im e n ta l A ) v iew ed the film and
du rin g the film w e r e su b jected to the su b lim in a l cue w ord “ s in c e r e ” ;
G roup 3 (E x p e r im e n ta l B ) v iew ed the film and d u rin g the film w e r e
50
su b je c te d to th e su b lim in a l cu e w o r d s “ not s i n c e r e .” H en ce fo rth in
th is stu d y a ll g r o u p s w ill be r e fe r r e d to b y group n u m b er o n ly .
P r e p a r a tio n o f e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m . T w o u p p er d iv is io n
R a d io -T e le v is io n m a jo r s w e r e s e le c t e d a s a s s is t a n t s b y the w r ite r to
aid in the p r e p a r a tio n o f the e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m . T h ey a tta ch ed
id e n tific a tio n m a r k e r s to the r o w s o f s e a t s , te s te d the o p e r a tio n o f the
p r o jec tio n eq u ip m en t, p r e -c h e c k e d the fo c u s o f both p r o je c to r s ,
a d ju sted and p r e s e t the V a r ia c v o lta g e r e d u c e r at th e p r e d e te r m in e d
v o lta g e le v e l, and ch e ck ed a ll the eq u ip m en t fo r p r o p e r aud io and
v id e o l e v e ls . O ne a s s is t a n t w a s a s s ig n e d the o p e r a tio n o f the p r o je c
tio n eq u ip m en t, and both a s s is t a n t s aid ed in d istr ib u tin g and c o lle c tin g
t e s t m a te r ia ls . A ll p r e -te stin g o f eq u ip m en t w a s m ad e u n d er the
d ir e c t s u p e r v is io n o f the w r ite r , and w a s a c c o m p lish e d p r io r to the
a r r iv a l o f any grou p o f s u b je c ts in the e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m . B e c a u s e
th e r e w a s th e p o s s ib ility th at a su b je c t se a te d in th e c e n te r s e c tio n o f
the e x p e r im e n ta l room m ig h t h ave to stan d up d u rin g th e film v iew in g
p erio d and th u s b lo ck the m o tio n p ictu re lig h t, th e r e b y r e v e a lin g th e
p r o je c te d su b lim in a l s tim u li, ten s e a t s in the c e n te r o f th e ro o m w e r e
p e r m a n en tly rop ed o ff, p r e v en tin g th e ir u s e . A sig n in d ic a tin g that
th is rop ed o ff s e c tio n o f s e a t s w a s “ r e s e r v e d ” w a s p la ced d ir e c tly in
v ie w upon e n te r in g the ro o m in o r d e r to a v o id p o s s ib le s u s p ic io n .
O p era tio n o f e x p e r im e n t. A te n -m in u te w a itin g p e r io d w a s
51
allo w ed fo r the a r r iv a l of e a ch group. A fte r th is am ount o f tim e had
e la p se d , the d o o r s o f the e x p e r im e n ta l room w e r e c lo s e d . T he p r e
te s t m a te r ia l and its a cco m p a n y in g in str u c tio n s h e e ts w e re then
d istr ib u ted to the s u b je c ts . The in str u c tio n s h e e ts w e r e read to the
su b je c ts by the e x p e r im e n te r . F iv e m in u tes w e r e a llo w ed fo r c o m
p letio n o f the pre t e s t. Im m e d ia tely fo llo w in g the c o lle c tio n of the pre
t e s t m a te r ia ls , a ll room ligh t w a s e lim in a te d and th e film “ T he Man
W ho K now s It A ll” w a s p ro jected on the s c r e e n .
F o r G roup 2 and Group 3, p ro jectio n of the su b lim in a l
stim u li did not b egin u n til a fte r the op en in g film c r e d its had p a sse d and
the film e d sp e a k e r had a p p ea red . P r o je c tio n of the su b lim in a l stim u li
w as stop ped ju st p r io r to the c lo s in g film c r e d its . No te c h n ic a l
d iffic u ltie s o c c u r r e d du rin g any v iew in g of the film .
A t the co m p letio n o f the film v iew in g , w hich took a p p r o x i
m a te ly th irty m in u te s, the room lig h ts w e r e turned on, and the in itia l
p ost t e s t s , w ith acco m p a n y in g m a te r ia ls and in str u c tio n s h e e ts , w e r e
d istr ib u te d . The a cco m p a n y in g m a te r ia ls in clu d ed the ra tin g s c a le s
fo r s in c e r ity and e ff e c t iv e n e s s , a se a tin g ch a rt, and a r e q u e st fo r p e r
m is s io n to u se e y e s ig h t r a tin g s. S u fficien t tim e w a s a llo w ed fo r the
s u b je c t’s e y e s to ad ju st to the room lig h t b e fo re he co m p leted the
r e q u e ste d in fo rm a tio n . T he in str u c tio n s h e e ts fo r the in itia l post te s t
and the a cco m p a n y in g m a te r ia ls w e r e read to the su b je c ts by the
e x p e r im e n te r . S even m in u te s w e r e a llo w ed fo r co m p letio n o f th e se
52
te s tin g m a t e r ia ls .
A t no tim e d u rin g th e e x p e r im e n t w a s m en tio n m a d e o f th e tr u e
p u rp o se o f th is stu d y . H o w e v e r , p r io r to the d is m is s a l o f the s u b je c ts
in e a c h g r o u p , a ll s u b je c ts w e r e in fo r m e d that th e y w e r e to r etu r n to
th e s a m e r o o m at th e ir n e x t c la s s m e e tin g tw o d a y s h e n c e , fo r p u r
p o s e s o f v ie w in g a d d itio n a l f ilm s in th is s a m e s e r i e s .
F in a l p o st t e s t . T h e fin a l p o st t e s t u s e d in th is stu d y w a s
a d m in is te r e d to the s u b je c ts b y the r e s p e c tiv e c la s s in s tr u c to r s one
w eek fo llo w in g the v ie w in g o f th e f i r s t film . U pon c o m p le tio n and
c o lle c tio n o f the fin a l p o s t t e s t s , a ll s u b je c ts w e r e in fo r m e d o f the
tr u e p u r p o se o f th is stu d y . P e r s o n a l c o n v e r s a tio n s b e tw e en the c la s s
in s tr u c to r s and the e x p e r im e n te r in d ic a te d th at no su b je c t had any
id e a th at he w a s b e in g su b je c te d to a su b lim in a l in flu e n c e at the tim e
o f th e e x p e r im e n t. D ata ob tain ed fr o m th e s p e a k e r e v a lu a tio n s , t e s t
s c o r e s , a d d itio n a l t e s t m a t e r ia ls , and s t a t is t ic a l p r o c e d u r e s that
w e r e a p p lied a p p ea r in th e s u c c e e d in g c h a p te r .
F o llo w -u p stu d y . A s w a s sta te d e a r lie r in th is c h a p te r , s u b
j e c t s w e r e a s s ig n e d a se c o n d p e r io d o f film v ie w in g w h ich took p la c e
tw o d a y s fo llo w in g th e v ie w in g o f the film u s e d a s a p art o f th is stu d y .
T h is a d d itio n a l v ie w in g a r r a n g e m e n t had b e e n m ad e at th e tim e o f the
in itia l n e g o tia tio n s w ith the in s tr u c to r s o f th e s ix c la s s s e c t io n s u sed
in th is stu d y . B e c a u s e o f a ch an ge in the e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n o f th is
53
stu d y a se c o n d v ie w in g p erio d w a s not n e c e s s a r y . H o w e v e r , s in c e a ll
the n e c e s s a r y a r r a n g e m e n ts fo r sh o w in g a d d itio n a l film s had b een
m a d e , and s in c e th e sa m e s u b je c ts w ould be a v a ila b le , D r . R alph
H ab er o f the fa cu lty o f San F r a n c is c o S tate C o lle g e , and o f th e I n s ti
tu te fo r C o m m u n ica tio n s R e s e a r c h at Stan ford U n iv e r s ity , r e q u e ste d
u s e o f th e s u b je c ts , th e su b lim in a l w ord s lid e s , a s in c e r it y and e f f e c
tiv e n e s s r a tin g s c a le s h e e t, and th e film e n title d “ D o You Know How to
M ake a S ta tem en t o f F a c t? ” fo r h is r e s e a r c h p u r p o se s. T h is p e r
m is s io n w a s g r a n ted , and an e x p e r im e n t u tiliz in g the ab ove r e q u e ste d
f a c ilit ie s w a s c o m p le te d .
H a b e a s p rod u ction m eth od o f p r o je c tin g th e su b lim in a l
s tim u li d iffe r e d fro m the m eth od e m p lo y ed in th is stu d y in th at a d if
fe r e n t lig h t in te n sity w a s u se d fo r the p r o je c tio n o f th e su b lim in a l
w o r d s and th e su b lim in a l w o r d s w e r e fla sh e d on the m o tio n p ic tu r e
s c r e e n , d u rin g th e v ie w in g o f the film , at one fo u r-h u n d red th of a
se c o n d , and at in te r v a ls of e v e r y fiv e s e c o n d s .
T h e tw o e x p e r im e n ta l g r o u p s, G roup 2 and G roup 3, w e r e
su b je c te d to the sa m e su b lim in a l w o r d s a s in th is stu d y.
A ll data c o n c e r n in g D r . H a b e r 's stu d y , if p u b lish ed , w ill be
m ad e a v a ila b le through the In stitu te o f C o m m u n ica tio n s R e s e a r c h ,
S tan ford U n iv e r s ity . A p r e lim in a r y a n a ly s is o f th e s e data by D r .
H a b er s e e m e d to in d ic a te th at no s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s w e r e found
b etw een the su b lim in a l p r o je c tio n tech n iq u e em p lo y ed in h is stu d y and
the su b lim in a l p r o jec tio n tech n iq u e em p lo y ed in th is stu d y.
CHAPTER III
PRESENTATIO N AND IN TERPRETATIO N O F DATA
P r e se n ta tio n of the data is m ade fo r the th ree grou p s and the
in terp reta tio n s of the data w ere c o n sid ered in o r d e r of the q u estio n s
posed . Sex d iffe r e n c e s w ithin the groups are d is c u sse d im m ed ia te ly
follow in g the in terp reta tio n of data for each q u estion .
V alid ity of D ata
If the d efin ition s u sed for the study are adequate and the
r e su lts of the ex p erim en t are in terp reted w ithin the fram e o f r e fe r e n c e
of the study, the data have a high face v a lid ity . The data w ere p r e
su m ed to m ea su r e the in flu en ce of the su b lim in a l w ord s “ s in c e r e ” and
“ not s in c e r e ” on an a u d ien ce’s rating o f a film ed sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity
and e ffe c tiv e n e s s , a s w e ll a s the subseq uent in flu en ce of the su b lim in al
w ord s on the sa m e au d ien ce’s reten tio n of the film ’s su b je c t-m a tte r .
The data w ere su m m a ries of the num ber of ra tin g s given on the
sin c e r ity and e ffe c tiv e n e ss s c a le s , the pre te s t s c o r e s , the s c o r e s ob
tained betw een the pre te s t and the in itia l post te s t of film su b ject-
m a tter , the in itia l post te s t s c o r e s , and the fin a l post te s t s c o r e s of
film su b je c t-m a tte r . In the se n se that they w ere a m ea su r e of a
p a rticu la r situ a tio n , th ese data w ere valid to the exten t that the
56
situ a tio n s to w h ich th e y w e r e a p p lied w e r e in a g r e e m e n t w ith th e s it u
a tio n d e s c r ib e d in the p r e c e d in g c h a p te r s .
R e lia b ility o f D ata
T h e ob tain ed m e a n s o f th r e e g ro u p s o f th ir ty o r m o r e group
m e m b e r s on s in c e r it y and e f f e c tiv e n e s s r a tin g s o f a film e d s p e a k e r , a
p re t e s t , an in itia l p o st t e s t , s c o r e s b e tw e en th e pre t e s t and th e
in itia l p o st t e s t , a fin a l p o st t e s t , p lu s a m a n ip u la tio n o f the sa m e data
in o r d e r to ob tain s e x , s e a tin g , and e y e s ig h t r a tin g d iffe r e n c e s in
r e la tio n to th e fo r e g o in g a r e a s o f in v e stig a tio n , w e r e the b a s e s fo r
c o m p a r is o n o f th e su b lim in a l in flu e n c e . D iffe r e n c e s b e tw e en ob tain ed
m e a n s w e r e th e in str u m e n ts by w h ich c o m p a r is o n s w e r e m a d e . T he
r e lia b ility o f a d iffe r e n c e b e tw e en ob tain ed m e a n s w a s m e a s u r e d b y an
a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e tech n iq u e fo r u n eq u al n u m b e rs o f s u b je c ts .*
B a s is fo r Intex-pretation o f D ata
T h e a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e tech n iq u e p r o v id e s an o b je c tiv e
c r ite r io n fo r d e c id in g w h eth er the v a r ia b ility b etw een g r o u p s is la r g e
enough in c o m p a r iso n w ith the v a r ia b ility w ith in g ro u p s to ju s tify the
in fe r e n c e th at the m e a n s o f th e p o p u la tio n s fr o m w h ich the d iffe r e n t
g ro u p s w e r e draw n a r e not a ll the s a m e . T he d iffe r e n c e s a m on g the
*H elen M. W alk er and J o se p h L e v , S ta tis tic a l In fe r e n c e (N ew
Y ork: H en ry H olt and C om p any, 1953), pp. 2 1 2 -2 1 6 .
57’
m e a n s, a s d e te r m in e d by the a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e , is sig n ific a n t, p r o
vid ed the r a tio of b etw een grou p s v a r ia b ility to w ith in g ro u p s v a r ia b il
ity is su ffic ie n tly la r g e .
Q u estion 1
T o w hat e x te n t is it p o s s ib le to in flu en ce su b lim in a lly an
a u d ie n c e ’s ev a lu a tio n of a film e d s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity (a) w hen the
su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w hen the su b lim in a l w o rd s a r e “ not
s in c e r e ” ?
In te r p r e ta tio n . The am ount o f d iffe r e n c e am on g the th r ee
grou p s fo r the ev a lu a tio n of th e film e d sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity w a s
s ta tis t ic a lly in sig n ific a n t and the n u ll h y p o th e sis w a s a c ce p ted fo r th is
a r e a o f in v e stig a tio n .
O f 123 su b je c ts who rated the sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity , no su b je ct
ra ted h im a s b ein g “ not s in c e r e ” and on ly s ix su b je c ts w e r e “ u n d e
c id e d .” T h e rem a in in g 117 su b je c ts ra ted th e film e d sp e a k e r a s
“ s in c e r e .” O b v io u sly , the su b lim in a l cue w o rd s “ not s in c e r e ” had
little o r no in flu e n c e . It m igh t be o f in te r e s t to n o te, h o w e v e r , that
o f 123 r a tin g s, the s ix su b je c ts who w e re “ u n d ecid ed ” a s to the film e d
s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity in clu d ed th r e e fe m a le su b je c ts and one m a le su b
je c t in G roup 1, and one fe m a le su b je c t and one m a le su b je ct in
G roup 2.
58
S ex d iffe r e n c e . The n u ll h y p o th e sis a ls o w as a c c e p te d fo r the
s e x d iffe r e n c e s w ithin the g r o u p s, and th e ir s in c e r ity r a tin g s o f the
film e d sp e a k e r .
i
Q u estio n 2
T o w hat ex ten t is it p o ssib le to in flu en ce su b lim in a lly an
a u d ie n c e 's ra tin g o f a film e d s p e a k e r 's e ffe c tiv e n e s s (a) w hen the
su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e " ; (b) w hen the su b lim in a l w o rd s a r e “ not
s in c e r e " ?
In te r p r e ta tio n . The am ount o f d iffe r e n c e b etw een the th r ee
grou p s fo r the ra tin g o f the film e d sp e a k e r ’s e ffe c tiv e n e s s w a s
s t a tis tic a lly in sig n ific a n t ( s e e T ab le 1).
S ex d iffe r e n c e s . T h ere w e r e no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s
b etw een the s e x e s in the in d ivid u al grou p s in r e la tio n to the e x te n t o f
the su b lim in a l in flu en ce on th e ir ra tin g of the film e d s p e a k e r 's
e ffe c tiv e n e s s , w hen the su b lim in a l cu e w o rd s “ s in c e r e " and “ not
s in c e r e " w e re u sed ( s e e T ab le 2 ).
Q u estio n 3
T o w hat ex ten t is it p o s sib le to in flu en ce su b lim in a lly an
a u d ie n c e 's r eten tio n o f a film e d s p e a k e r 's su b je c t-m a tte r (a ) w hen the
su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e " ; (b) w hen the su b lim in a l w o r d s a r e “ not
59
TA BL E 1 .— Group m ea n s and to ta l m ea n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
e ffe c tiv e n e s s ra tin g s
G roup
Group
M N
M ale (N = 47)
M
F em a le (N = 83)
M
1 3.82 49 4 .12 3.67
2 3.96 47 4 .1 0 3.85
3 3.74 34 3 .7 0 3.75
T o ta l Sex M 3.98 3 .7 5
TA BL E 2 . - -A n a ly s is of v a r ia n ce o f the d iffe re n t m ea n s fo r s e x
d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s ra tin g s
S ou rce E2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
Sex .036 1 .036
-
NS
C ondition .065 2 .032 - NS
In teraction .052 2 .026
-
NS
W ithin 3.25 124 .026
-
NS
i
60
s in c e r e ” ?
In ter p r eta tio n . N o sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s w e r e found am ong
the th ree grou p s in an in itia l p ost te s t, in s c o r e s obtain ed b etw een the
pre te s t and in itia l p ost te s t , in a fin a l p ost t e s t given one w eek a fter
v iew in g the film ( s e e T ab le 3).
S ex d iffe r e n c e s . A s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n at the
.05 le v e l of sig n ific a n c e w as found b etw een the s e x e s in G roup 2 and
th e ir pre te s t s c o r e s (s e e T a b le s 4 and 5). In addition, a v e r y s ig n if i
cant in te ra c tio n at the .01 le v e l o f sig n ific a n c e w as found b etw een the
s e x e s in Group 2 and the s c o r e s th ey obtained b etw een the p re t e s t and
the in itia l p ost te s t (s e e T a b les 6 and 7). F o r th e se two a r e a s o f
in v e stig a tio n , the nu ll h y p o th e sis w as r e je c te d .
S in ce the a r e a s of in v e stig a tio n r e fe r r e d to in T a b le s 4 , 5, 6,
and 7 w e re a r e a s in w hich a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ific a n t in te ra c tio n w a s
ob tain ed , it se e m e d n e c e s s a r y to d is c u s s p o ssib le r e a s o n s fo r th is
in te ra c tio n .
It w as b e lie v ed that a sig n ific a n t in te ra c tio n at the .05 le v e l of
sig n ific a n c e in rela tio n to Group 2 s e x d iffe r e n c e s b etw een pre te s t
s c o r e s in d icated a g r e a te r p re-k n ow led ge of film su b je c t-m a tte r on the
part o f G roup 2 m a le s a s com p ared w ith the fe m a le s o f the sa m e
group. S in ce no ex p e rim en ta l v a r ia b le w as introdu ced p rio r to the
co m p letio n o f the pre te s t, th is d iffe r e n c e w a s in terp reted a s
61
I
T A B L E 3 . — G roup m e a n s fo r p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s , fo r s c o r e s b e
tw een pre and in itia l p ost t e s t , and fin a l p o st t e s t s c o r e s *
G roup
P r e te s t
In itia l
P o s t t e s t
S c o r e s b etw een
P r e and In itia l
P o s t T e s t s
F in a l
P o s t t e s t
M N M N M M N
1 4 .1 5 46 5.35 46 +1.19 1 6 .4 6 35
2 4 .3 0 46 5.45 46 + 1.15 15.63 38
3 4 .3 2 31 5.32 31 + 1.00 15.11 27
* S ee T a b le s 5, 7, 11, and 13 fo r sig n ific a n c e t e s t s .
T A B L E 4 . — Group m ea n s and to ta l m ea n s fo r s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
pre t e s t s c o r e s
Group
Group
M N M
M ale
N
F e m a le
M N
1 4 .1 5 46 4 .0 0 15 4 .2 3 31
2 4 .3 0 46 4 .7 6 21 3 .9 2 25
3 4.32 31 4 .0 0 8 4 .4 3 23
T o ta l S ex
M & N 4 .3 6 44 4 .1 9 79
T A B L E 5 . - -A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n ce of the d iffe r e n t m ea n s fo r s e x
d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t s c o r e s
S ou rce S2 d f
V a ria n ce
E stim a te
F P
Sex .047 1 .047 0.812 NS
C on dition .038 2 .019 0.324 NS
In tera ctio n .526 2 .263 4 .5 3
W ithin 6.786 117 .058
-
NS
♦♦S ign ifican t a t the .05 le v e l.
63;
T A B L E 6 . — G roup m e a n s and t o ta l m e a n s fo r s e x d if f e r e n c e s b e
tw e e n p re and in it ia l p o s t t e s t s c o r e s
G rou p
G rou p
M N M
M ale
N
F e m a le
M N
1 1.19 46 1 .4 7 15 1 .0 6 31
2 1 .1 5 46 .62 21 1 .6 0 25
3 1 .0 0 31 1 .1 3 8 .96 23
T o ta l S e x M & N 1.0 9 44 1.21 79
T A B L E 7 . — A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e o f th e d iffe r e n t m e a n s fo r
d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n p re and in it ia l p o st t e s t s c o r e s
s e x
S o u r c e Z 2 df
V a r ia n c e
E s tim a te
F P
S e x .02 1 .02
-
NS
C o n d itio n .07 2 .0 3 5
-
NS
I n te r a c tio n .58 2 .29 1 4 .5 V S*
W ith in 2 .3 7 117 .02
-
NS
^ S ig n ific a n t a t th e .01 le v e l.
l
64
in d ic a tin g a str o n g in itia l b i a s .
It w a s b e lie v e d th at a v e r y s ig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n a t the .01
le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e in r e la tio n to the s e x d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s
ob ta in ed b e tw e e n film s u b je c t-m a tte r t e s t s co u ld be a ttrib u ted to one
o f th e fo llo w in g e ffe c ts : (1 ) a lim itin g o r c e ilin g e ffe c t w h ich o p e r a te d
in th e t e s t s , (2 ) th e su b lim in a l in flu e n c e o f th e c u e w ord “ s i n c e r e ,” o r
(3 ) an u n d e ter m in e d v a r ia b le .
In an e ffo r t to d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r n o t th e la ck of ga in
s c o r e s b e tw e en the p re t e s t and th e in itia l p o st t e s t o f film s u b je c t-
m a tte r in d ic a te d a lim itin g o r c e ilin g e ffe c t, M cN e m a r ’s F o r m u la 90
2
fo r te s tin g d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e e n c o r r e la te d v a r ia n c e s w a s a p p lie d .
H o w e v e r , b e fo r e su ch a fo r m u la cou ld b e u s e d , it w a s n e c e s s a r y to
d e te r m in e th e c o r r e la tio n b e tw e e n the p re t e s t and the in itia l p ost t e s t .
T h e la tte r p r o c e d u r e w a s fo llo w e d ( s e e T a b le 8) and M c N e m a r ’s
3
F o r m u la 30 w a s u se d fo r th is p u r p o se .
In co m p u tin g th e d iffe r e n c e s b e tw e en the c o r r e la te d v a r ia n c e s
o f th e pre t e s t and th e in itia l p o st t e s t ( s e e T a b le 9 ), M c N e m a r ’s
4
F o r m u la 90 w a s a p p lie d .
T he s ig n ific a n t v a r ia n c e d iff e r e n c e s in T a b le 9 w e r e in t e r
p r e te d a s in d ic a tin g th at the s ig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n th at a p p e a r e d in th is
2
Q uinn M cN e m a r, P s y c h o lo g ic a l S t a t is t ic s (se c o n d ed itio n ;
N ew Y ork: John W ile y and S o n s, 1 9 5 5 ), p. 2 4 4 .
3Ib id ., p. 145. ^Ib id ., p. 244.
65
T A B L E 8 . — C o r r e la tio n b e
tw een p re and in itia l p o st
t e s t s
G roup R P
1 .29 NS
2 .07 NS
3 .30 NS
T A B L E 9 . — D ata fo r u s e in M cN em a r’s F o r m u la 90 w ith sig n ific a n c e
o f t t e s t o f v a r ia n c e d iffe r e n c e s
G roup N
P r e t e s t
a
2
cr
P o s t te s t
c
2
R R 2 P
1 46 .82 .67 .49 .24 .29 .08 .01*
2 46 1 .0 8 1.17 .77 .59 .07 .01 .05**
3 31 1 .2 0 1.44 .60 .36 .30 .09 .01*
♦ S ig n ifica n t at .01 le v e l.
♦ ♦ S ig n ifica n t at .05 le v e l.
T a b le 7 w a s due to in itia l d iffe r e n c e s and not to the e x p e r im e n ta l
fa c to r s , and that a lim itin g o r c e ilin g e ffe c t w as o p era tin g b etw een the
pre t e s t and the in itia l p o st t e s t . A s a r e s u lt of th is con d ition ,
g r e a te r gain s c o r e s w e re not p o s s ib le . T he n o n -sig n ific a n t r v a lu e s
lis te d in T ab le 8 a ls o in d icated a lim itin g or c e ilin g e ffe c t s in c e a
m uch h ig h er c o r r e la tio n is e x p e cted in any p r e -p o s t t e s t r e la tio n sh ip .
T h e r e fo r e , the v e r y sig n ific a n t in te ra c tio n that o c c u r r e d b etw een the
s e x e s and in the s c o r e s th ey obtained b etw een the film su b je c t-m a tte r
t e s t s (T ab le 7) w as ap p aren tly not due to e ith e r an u n d eterm in ed
v a r ia b le o r to the su b lim in a l in flu en ce o f the w ord “ s in c e r e ,” but to a
lim itin g o r c e ilin g e ffe c t in the in itia l p ost te s t.
T h ere w e re no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s b etw een the s e x e s in the
th r e e grou p s in r e la tio n to the exten t o f the su b lim in a l in flu en ce on
th e ir in itia l p o st t e s t and fin a l p ost te s t s c o r e s . T he n u ll h y p o th e sis
w as a c ce p ted fo r th e se tw o a r e a s of in v e stig a tio n ( s e e T a b le s 10, 11,
12, and 13).
Q u estio n 4a
W hat e ffe c t d o e s the e y e s ig h t ratin g of an au d ien ce h ave upon
th e ir jud gm en t o f a film e d sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity and e ffe c tiv e n e s s , and
upon th e ir pre t e s t s c o r e s of film s u b je c t-m a tte r , th e ir s c o r e s
b etw een the pre te s t and the in itia l p o st te s t , and upon th e ir fin a l p ost
te s t s c o r e s (a) w hen the su b lim in a l cu e w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w hen
67!
T A B L E 1 0 .— G roup m ea n s and to ta l m ea n s for s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
in itia l p o st t e s t s c o r e s
G roup
G roup
M N
M ale
M N
F e m a le
M N
1 5.35 46 5.47 15 5.29 31
2 5 .4 5 46 5.38 21 5.52 25
3 5.32 31 5.12 8 5.39 23
T o ta l S ex M & N 5.48 44 5.32 79
T A B L E 1 1 .- —A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e for s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
p ost te s t s c o r e s
in itia l
S o u rce S 2 df
V a ria n ce
F P
E stim a te
S ex .008 1 .008
-
NS
C ondition .022 2 .011
-
NS
Inte ra ctio n .067 2 .034
-
NS
W ith in 2.346 117 .020
-
NS
68
TA B L E 1 2 .— G roup m ea n s and to ta l m ea n s for s e x d iffe r e n c e s in
fin a l p ost te s t
G roup
G roup
M N
M ale
M N
F em a le
M N
1 16.46 35 17.25 12 16.04 23
2 15.63 38 15.94 17 15.38 21
3 15.11 27 15.00 9 15.17 18
T otal S ex M & N 16.06 38 15.53 62
TA B L E 13. — A n a ly sis of v a r ia n ce for s e x d iffe r e n c e s in fin al
post te s t
Sou rce X72 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
Sex .42 1 .42 NS
C ondition 3.34 2 1.67 1.43 NS
In teraction .48 2 .24 NS
W ithin 11.00 94 1.17 NS
th e s u b lim in a l cu e w o r d s a r e “ n ot s i n c e r e ” ?
B e f o r e an in te r p r e ta tio n o f t h is q u e s tio n c o u ld be m a d e and
th e d ata m a n ip u la te d it w a s n e c e s s a r y to c la s s i f y th e s u b je c ts in e a c h
g ro u p in to tw o e y e s ig h t r a tin g c la s s if ic a t io n s : th o s e s u b je c ts w ith o r
w ith ou t g l a s s e s w ho had an e y e s ig h t r a tin g o f 2 0 /2 0 fo r b oth e y e s , and
th o s e s u b je c ts w ith o r w ith o u t g l a s s e s w ho had an e y e s ig h t r a tin g
h ig h e r than 2 0 /2 0 fo r on e o r both e y e s .
I n te r p r e ta tio n 4 a . — N o s ig n ific a n t d if fe r e n c e s w e r e found
b e tw e e n th e e y e s ig h t r a tin g s o f th e s u b je c ts in th e th r e e g r o u p s and
th e ir r e te n tio n o f an in it ia l p o st t e s t o f film s u b je c t m a tte r , th e ir
s c o r e s b e tw e e n a p r e t e s t and an in itia l p o s t t e s t o f film s u b je c t-
m a tte r , a fin a l p o st t e s t o f film s u b j e c t-m a tte r (a ) w h en the s u b lim in a l
c u e w o rd “ s i n c e r e ” w a s u se d ; (b ) w h en the s u b lim in a l c u e w o r d s “ n ot
s i n c e r e ” w e r e u s e d ( s e e T a b le s 13 th ro u g h 19 in A p p en d ix D ).
D a ta w e r e not m a n ip u la te d to in v e s tig a te r e la tio n s h ip s th at
m ig h t e x is t b e tw e e n e y e s ig h t r a tin g s and s in c e r it y r a tin g s , b e c a u s e o f
th e e x tr e m e ly s m a ll d iffe r e n c e a m o n g th e th r e e g r o u p s on s in c e r it y
r a t in g s .
A s ig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n a t th e .05 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e b e
tw e e n e f f e c t iv e n e s s r a tin g s o f th e film e d s p e a k e r and e y e s ig h t r a tin g s
o f s u b je c ts w a s foun d. O ne m ig h t p e r h a p s b e te m p te d to e x p la in th is
fin d in g a s fo llo w s : g iv e n a grou p and th e ir e y e s ig h t r a tin g s a llo w s on e
7 °
to p r e d ic t how s u b je c ts w ill r a te th e e ff e c t iv e n e s s o f a s p e a k e r .
H o w e v e r , s in c e th is s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e w a s due to an in te r a c tio n
b e tw e e n th e tw o v a r ia b le s and not due to a s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e in e y e
sig h t r a tin g s and th e g rou p , no su c h p r e d ic tio n w a s p o s s ib le . L o g ic
a lly su c h a p r e d ic tio n w a s not p o s s ib le b e c a u s e a c o m p a r is o n b e tw e en
e y e s ig h t r a tin g s o f s u b je c ts and th e ir e f f e c t iv e n e s s r a tin g s o f a
sp e a k e r a r e not n e c e s s a r ily c o m p a r a b le it e m s . S t a t is t ic a lly su ch a
p r e d ic tio n le a v e s room fo r s e r io u s q u e s tio n . A lth ou gh the v e r y p oor
e y e s ig h t o f a su b je c t m a y h ave s o m e e ffe c t on h is r a tin g o f a s p e a k e r ’s
e f f e c t iv e n e s s , p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h h a s in d ic a te d that a s p e a k e r ’s
e f f e c t iv e n e s s m a y be in p art a fu n ctio n o f d o z e n s o f m in u te d e ta ils of
v o ic e , la n g u a g e , d e liv e r y , and sp e e c h o r g a n iz a tio n — d e ta ils o f w h ich
n e ith e r the s p e a k e r n o r the a u d ien ce is c o n s c io u s ly a w a r e — d e ta ils
that a r e not p e r c e iv e d th rou gh sig h t o r g a n s a lo n e ( s e e T a b le s 20 and 21
in A p p en d ix D ).
A s ig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n at the .025 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e w a s
found b e tw e e n p re t e s t s c o r e s and e y e s ig h t r a tin g s . S in c e th is a r e a of
in v e s tig a tio n a g a in r e v e a le d an in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n th e g r o u p s and
th e ir e y e s ig h t r a tin g s p r io r to th e u s e o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l fa c to r in
th is stu d y , and s in c e no s ig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e w a s found in the g ro u p s
a lo n e o r in e y e s ig h t r a tin g s a lo n e , th is a r e a o f in v e s tig a tio n w a s not
c o n s id e r e d to b e of p r im a r y im p o r ta n c e to th is stu d y ( s e e T a b le s 22
and 23 in A p p en d ix D ).
71
Q u estio n 4b
W hat e ffe c t d o e s the se a tin g a r ra n g e m e n t of an au d ien ce have
upon th e ir judgm ent o f a film e d sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity and e ff e c tiv e n e s s ,
and upon th e ir pre t e s t and p o st te s t s c o r e s o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r ,
th e ir s c o r e s b etw een a pre te s t and an in itia l p ost t e s t , and upon th e ir
fin a l p ost te s t s c o r e s (a) w hen the su b lim in a l cu e w ord i s “ s in c e r e ” ;
(b) w hen the su b lim in a l cu e w ord s a r e “ not s in c e r e ” ?
B e fo r e an in te rp re ta tio n of th is q u estio n could be m ade and the
data m an ip u lated , it w a s n e c e s s a r y to c la s s if y the su b je c ts in each
group into se a tin g a r e a s . T h ree se a tin g a r e a s , fron t, m id d le , and
b ack , w e r e d eterm in ed by f ir s t d ivid in g the s e a ts into eig h t se a tin g
a r e a s and by fin a lly com b in in g a r e a s o n e, tw o, th r ee and four to g eth er
to form a fron t se a tin g a r e a , by com b in in g a r e a s fiv e and s ix to g eth er
to fo rm a m id d le se a tin g a r e a , and by com b in in g a r e a s se v e n and
e ig h t to g e th e r to fo rm a b ack se a tin g a r e a . The th r ee la r g e r c l a s s
if ic a t io n s — fro n t, m id d le , and back — w e re n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to
a s s u r e a b e tte r d istr ib u tio n of su b je c ts fo r ea ch a r e a . S ee F ig . 1 on
page 35.
In terp reta tio n 4 b . — T h er e w e r e no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s
am on g the th r e e grou p s of su b je c ts , grouped in te r m s o f se a tin g
a r r a n g e m e n ts, and th e ir ju d gm en ts of a film e d sp e a k e r ’s e ffe c tiv e n e s s ,
th e ir pre and p ost t e s t s c o r e s o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r , th e ir s c o r e s
72
b e tw e e n a p re t e s t and an in itia l p o st t e s t , and th e ir fin a l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s of film s u b je c t-m a tte r (a ) w hen the s u b lim in a l cu e w ord
“ s i n c e r e ” w a s u se d ; (b ) w h en the s u b lim in a l cu e w o r d s ‘‘n ot s in c e r e ,,
I
w e r e u s e d .
T h e r e w a s a ten d e n c y in a ll g ro u p s fo r the m a le and fe m a le
s u b je c ts w ho w e r e se a te d in the m id d le s e c tio n o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l
ro o m to a tta in h ig h e r gain s c o r e s b etw een the pre and p o st t e s t s of
film s u b je c t-m a tte r , but th e am oun t of d iffe r e n c e w a s not s t a t is t ic a lly
sig n ific a n t ( s e e T a b le s 22 th rou gh 31 in A p p en d ix D ).
A g a in , d ata w e r e not m a n ip u la ted to in v e stig a te r e la tio n s h ip s
th at m ig h t e x is t b e tw e en s e a tin g a r r a n g e m e n ts and s in c e r ity r a tin g s,
b e c a u se o f th e n e a r ly u n ifo rm r a tin g the s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity r e c e iv e d
by a ll th r e e g r o u p s.
L
C H A PT E R IV
SU M M ARY , C O NC LUSIO NS, A N D IM PLICA TIO NS
FO R F U R T H E R STU D Y
S u m m a ry
J o u r n a lis t s , m e m b e r s of le a r n e d s o c ie t ie s , and g o v e rn in g
b o d ie s e x p r e s s e d g r a v e c o n c e r n about the im p lic a tio n s o f a new t e c h
n iq u e in a d v e r tis in g known a s “ s u b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g .” J u s tific a tio n
fo r su ch c o n c e r n fo llo w ed the p u blic an n ou n cem en t in S e p te m b e r , 1957,
that the new a d v e r tis in g tech n iq u e w a s e ffe c tiv e in in c r e a s in g th e s a le
o f C o c a -C o la and pop corn in a N ew J e r s e y m o tio n p ic tu r e th e a te r . A t
th e tim e o f th is stu d y the tech n iq u e c o n s is te d o f su p e r im p o s in g a w ord
m e s s a g e o r fig u r e o v e r a m o tio n p ic tu r e film im a g e at e x tr e m e ly fa s t
s p e e d s and at a r b itr a r y tim e in te r v a ls through th e sim u lta n e o u s u s e of
a se p a r a te s lid e film p r o je c to r .
J o u r n a lis ts w e r e am on g the f ir s t to a tta ck and c r it ic iz e th is
new a d v e r tis in g te c h n iq u e . S om e e x p r e s s e d a fe a r that if th is t e c h
niq ue w a s s u c c e s s f u l in p ro m o tin g p o p co rn , it cou ld a ls o p rom p t the
su b c o n s c io u s m in d to m ak e c e r ta in ju d g m en ts about hum an c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s and th e r e b y a n n ih ila te o r p ro m o te a m a n ’s rep u ta tio n .
P s y c h o lo g is t s e x p r e s s e d a d eep p e r so n a l c o n c e r n , b e c a u s e
73
74
th e y b e lie v e d that the c o m m e r c ia l u se of the p sy c h o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s
o f su b lim in a l stim u la tio n in d ica ted to the public that th ey w e r e g u ilty
by a s s o c ia tio n .
N a tio n a l le g is la tiv e m e m b e r s , su ch a s U tah C o n g r e ssm a n
D aw son and M ich ig a n ’s S en ator P o tte r , w e r e ou tsp ok en in th e ir d e
n ou n cem en t o f su b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g b e c a u se o f the e th ic a l q u e stio n s
that would be r a is e d sh ould su ch a tech n iq u e be u sed for p o litic a l
p u r p o se s.
B e c a u se of the p o litic a l p r e s s u r e s that w e re brought to b ea r
b y tw en ty le g is la t o r s upon the F e d e r a l C o m m u n ica tio n s C o m m issio n ,
a s p e c ia l d e m o n stra tio n o f the su b lim in a l a d v e r tis in g tech n iq u e w as
h eld in the W ash ington B r o a d c a st H ouse S tu d io s. E v id en tly the FCC
sa w no r e a so n fo r im m ed ia te a c tio n , fo r it w a s r ep o rted that no public
an n ou n cem en t follow ed the su b lim in a l d e m o n stra tio n .
The th r ee m a jo r b r o a d c a stin g n etw o rk s in th is co u n try , the
N a tio n a l B r o a d c a stin g C om pany, the C olu m b ia B r o a d c a stin g C om pany,
and the A m e r ic a n B r o a d c a stin g C om p any, im m e d ia te ly p roh ib ited the
u s e o f the su b lim in a l tech n iq u e fo r a d v e r tis in g p u rp o ses on a ll of th e ir
ow ned and o p era ted n etw ork s ta tio n s . In a few in s ta n c e s , independent
b r o a d c a s te r s w e r e m o re w illin g to e x p e r im e n t w ith the tech n iq u e b e fo re
e x p r e s s in g an o p in ion . M any ind ep en dent b r o a d c a s te r s , h o w ev e r,
a g r e e d to fo llo w the r ec o m m e n d a tio n s of the N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n of
B r o a d c a s te r ’s C ode w h ich a d v ised its m e m b e r s a g a in st u sin g
75'
“ su b lim in a l p e rcep tio n ” in any w ay.
W hile no r e lia b le s ta t is t ic a l data w e re a v a ila b le on the u se o f
the su b lim in a l techn iqu e on the B r itis h B r o a d c a stin g C orp oration
T e le v is io n sy s te m in 1956 and on the C anadian B r o a d c a stin g C o r p o r a
tion T e le v is io n sy s te m in 19 58, published r e p o r ts in d icated that th e ir
e x p e r im e n ts fa iled to e lic it sig n ifica n t v ie w e r r e sp o n s e .
It w ould se e m that an ending h a s b een w ritten to the h is to r y of
the c o m m e r c ia l su b lim in a l c o m p a n ie s, b eca u se a c co rd in g to one
rep o rt both the S u b lim in al P r o je c tio n C om pany of New Y ork and the
P r e c o n C orp oration of N ew O rlea n s have b een fo rced to stop th eir
su b lim in a l a d v e r tisin g o p e r a tio n s, b e c a u se of the a d v e r se op in ion s
e x p r e ss e d by the public a g a in st the u se of su b lim in a l a d v e r tisin g
m eth od s.*
T he o r ig in o f th is study w a s b a sed upon the need fo r fu rth er
o b je ctiv e r e s e a r c h in th is a r e a o f co m m u n ica tio n s in an e ffo r t to
m od ify , c o n firm , o r ign ore the co n cern of th o se in te r e ste d peop le who
b e lie v e d that th is new s e llin g tech n iq u e w a s “ w o r ld -sh a k in g ” and
“ in h eren tly w ic k e d .”
The pu rpose of th is study w as to in v e stig a te the in flu en ce of
the su b lim in a l w ord s “ s in c e r e ” and “ not s in c e r e ” on an a u d ien ce’s
ra tin g of a film e d sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity and e ffe c tiv e n e s s and the s u b s e
quent in flu en ce o f the su b lim in a l w ords on the sa m e a u d ien ce ’s
*The W all Street Jou rn al, January 14, 1959, p. 1.
76
r e te n tio n o f th e film e d s p e a k e r ’s s u b je c t-m a tte r .
T h e p ro b lem o f th is stu d y w a s su b d iv id ed in to fo u r q u e stio n s:
1. Is it p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e su b lim in a lly an a u d ie n c e ’s
e v a lu a tio n o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity (a ) w hen the
su b lim in a l w ord i s “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w h en the su b lim in a l
w o r d s a r e “ not s in c e r e ” ?
2. Is it p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e su b lim in a lly an a u d ie n c e ’s
r a tin g o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s e ffe c tiv e n e s s (a ) w h en the
su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w hen th e su b lim in a l
w o r d s a r e “ not s in c e r e ” ?
3 . Is it p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e s u b lim in a lly an a u d ie n c e ’s
r e te n tio n o f a film e d s p e a k e r ’s s u b je c t-m a tte r (a) w hen
th e su b lim in a l w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w hen th e su b lim in a l
w o r d s a r e “ not s in c e r e ” ?
4 . W hat e ff e c t s do e y e s ig h t r a tin g s and s e a tin g a r r a n g e
m e n ts h ave upon an a u d ie n c e ’s ju d gm en t o f a film e d
s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity and e f f e c tiv e n e s s and upon th e ir
r e te n tio n o f h is s u b je c t-m a tte r (a ) w h en th e su b lim in a l
w ord is “ s in c e r e ” ; (b) w h en the s u b lim in a l w o r d s a r e
“ not s in c e r e ” ?
F o r p u r p o se s o f th is stu d y , “ su b lim in a l” w a s d efin ed a s
v is u a l s tim u li p r e se n te d at a su b -th r e sh o ld in te n sity b elo w th e lo w e s t
p o s s ib le point o f the s u b je c t’s o n s e t o f a w a r e n e s s; and “ p e r c e p tio n ”
77
w a s d efin ed a s the le v e l o f s t a t is t ic a l s ig n ific a n c e o f th e su b je c t’s
r e s p o n s e s to su ch v is u a l s t im u li.
T h e film e d s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity w a s c o n s id e r e d to be the
a u d ie n c e ’s im p r e s s io n o f th e film e d s p e a k e r ’s h o n e st b e lie f in h is
p o sitio n ; and the film e d s p e a k e r ’s in s in c e r ity w a s c o n s id e r e d to be
the a u d ie n c e ’s im p r e s s io n o f the film e d s p e a k e r ’s d is b e lie f in h is
p o sitio n . T he film e d s p e a k e r ’s e ff e c t iv e n e s s w a s c o n sid e r e d to be the
d e g r e e of p u blic sp ea k in g e ff e c t iv e n e s s m a n ife ste d by the sp e a k e r and
w a s o p e r a tio n a lly d efin ed in th is stu d y a s the a v e r a g e o f the a u d ie n c e s ’
ju d g m en ts r e c o r d e d upon an a p p ro p ria te r a tin g s c a le .
A r e v ie w o f the lite r a tu r e r e v e a le d that m uch s y s te m a tic
r e s e a r c h in th e a r e a o f s u b lim in a l stim u la tio n had b e e n a c c o m p lish e d
2
b y e x p e r im e n ta l p s y c h o lo g is ts a s e a r ly a s 1863. E x p e r im e n ta tio n in
th e fie ld o f su b lim in a l stim u la tio n w a s con tin u ed through the y e a r s by
su ch p s y c h o lo g is ts a s D unlap, C o llie r , B a k e r , M ille r , W illia m s ,
H ilg a r d , L a z a r u s, M c C le a r y , and m o r e r e c e n tly by B la c k w e ll, B a c h ,
3
and K le in . W h ile the s tu d ie s r e p o r te d by th e s e and o th e r e x p e r i
m e n te r s in d ic a ted that u n d er c e r ta in c o n d itio n s, the ph en om en on o f
su b lim in a l p e r c e p tio n did o c c u r , o th e r a u th o rs p oin ted out th at th is
2
S ee e s p e c ia lly M cC o n n ell, C u tle r , and M cN e il a r tic le
e n title d 1 ‘S u b lim in a l S tim u la tio n : A n O v e r v ie w ,” The A m e r ic a n
P s y c h o lo g is t , M ay, 1958, fo r h is to r ic a l d is c u s s io n .
3Ibid., pp. 2 3 0 -3 7 .
78
c o n c lu sio n r a is e d ad d ition al u n an sw ered q u e stio n s, su ch a s:
W hat kinds o f b eh a v io r can be in flu en ced by su b lim in a l
stim u lation ? W hat ty p e s o f stim u li o p era te b e st at su b -th r e sh o ld
in te n sitie s ? How m any tim e s should the stim u lu s be rep ea ted to
m ake su re that the su b lim in a l m e s s a g e is r e c e iv e d by the la r g e s t
p o s sib le p ercen ta g e o f an au d ien ce? How m any w o rd s lon g can the
su b lim in a l m e s s a g e be? Should p ic tu r e s be u sed o r a r e w o rd s
b est? ^
T h e se a re but a few o f the m any q u e stio n s that have been
a sk ed by the p s y c h o lo g ists th e m s e lv e s . T h e se sa m e p sy c h o lo g ists
con clu d ed that, a s a lw a y s, on ly e x p erim en ta tio n can aid in d eterm in in g
so m e o f the a n sw e r s to th e se and o th er q u e stio n s.
S in ce the B ach and K lein study in d icated that th ey w e r e able
5
to in flu en ce su b lim in a lly s u b je c ts ’ ju d gm en ts of a m an ’s e x p r e s s io n ,
a r e v ie w o f the lite r a tu r e d ea lin g w ith the s o u r c e s o f tru st in sp e a k e r s
w a s m ad e.
R h eto r ic ia n s have lon g sp ecu la ted upon the im p lic a tio n s of the
a n cien t co n cep ts of A r is to tle and Q u in tillian in reg a rd to the so u r c e s
o f tr u st in a sp e a k e r . J u stify in g “ s in c e r ity ” a s a fa ce t o f e th ic a l
a p p eal and c o n sid e r in g it a s “ e s s e n t ia l” o r “ im p o rta n t” in public
sp ea k in g h as b een m en tion ed by so m e sp e e c h te x t book au th ors and
ig n o red by o th e r s . A u th ors in the fie ld o f co m m u n ica tio n s r e s e a r c h ,
^Ib id ., p. 235.
5
S. B ach and G. S. K lein , “ C o n sc io u s E ffe c ts of P ro lo n g ed
S u b lim in a l E x p o su r e s of W o r d s,” A m e r ic a n P s y c h o lo g is t, XII (Ju ly,
1957), 237.
79
h o w e v e r , have d ev elo p ed a str o n g argu m en t in fa v o r o f the r e la tio n sh ip
b etw een tr u stw o r th in e s s and p e r su a sio n . It w a s b e lie v e d , th e r e fo r e ,
that if tr u stw o r th in e s s in a sp e a k e r w a s d efin ed a s “ s in c e r it y ,” and
c o n v e r s e ly , if u n tr u stw o r th in e ss in a sp e a k e r w a s d efin ed a s “ not
s i n c e r e ,” th en the a r e a of sp e a k e r o r co m m u n ic a to r in ten t w ould be a
v u ln er a b le a r e a in w h ich a su b lim in a l in flu en ce w ould be e ffe c tiv e .
In a stu d y d e sig n e d to d e te r m in e the attitu d e o f la y m en tow ard
the c h a r a c te r is tic s o f good public sp ea k in g , C la rk found that,
o v e r w h e lm in g ly , s in c e r ity w as g iv en a s the m o st im p ortan t c h a r a c te r -
6
is t ic o f good public sp ea k in g . The H ild reth stu d y r e v e a le d the fa ct
that la y a u d ien ce s w e r e unable to d istin g u ish b etw een the s in c e r e and
in s in c e r e s p e e c h e s . H is “ Im p lica tio n s and S u g g estio n s fo r F u rth er
Study” su g g e s te d , h o w ev e r, that “ th e ju d ge’s im p r e s s io n o f s in c e r ity
7
w a s m o re im p o rta n t than th e sp e a k e r ’s a c tu a l s in c e r it y .”
T hrough the c o -o p e r a tiv e e ffo r t o f a sta ff m e m b e r in the
L anguage A r ts D ep a rtm en t o f San F r a n c is c o S tate C o lle g e , 123 stu d en t
s u b je c ts w e r e a ss ig n e d fo r u se in th is study; 44 w e re m a le s and 79
w e r e fe m a le s . T he a v e r a g e age for the to ta l group w a s 1 9 .25 y e a r s a s
d e ter m in e d b y th e ir a g e s at th e ir la s t b irth d ay. A t the tim e o f th is
stu d y a ll su b je c ts w e re c o m p letin g the se co n d s e m e s t e r c o u r s e in
E n g lish 6 .2 , B a s ic C o m m u n ic a tio n s.
0
Supra, p. 25.
7
Supra, p. 27.
80
M a teria ls w ere prepared in fiv e p rin cip al sta g e s. F ir st, the
w ords “ s in c e r e ” and “ not s in c e r e ” w ere se le c te d as being acceptable
a s su b lim in al cue w ords b eca u se of th eir polar m ean ings and the
im portance given to them in the field of public a d d r e ss. The w ords
“ s in c e r e ” and “ not s in c e r e ” w ere photographed on th ir ty -fiv e
m illim e te r film and m ade into two sep a ra te g la s s -e n c lo s e d 2 x 2
s lid e s with w hite le tte r s on a dark background. The s iz e of the
le tte r s in the su b lim in al w ords, a s they appeared on the projection
s c r e e n , w as ten in ch es in height and four feet in length fo r the word
“ s in c e r e ” and ten in ch es in height and five and on e-h a lf feet in length
fo r the w ords “ not s in c e r e .”
Second, the technique used for p rojecting the su b lim in al w ords
continu ously upon the m otion picture film im age of the public sp eak er
at a reduced in ten sity of light w as accep ted . T h ese a p rio ri ch o ices
w ere b ased on the lack of ex p erim en ta l evid en ce in support of any
su b lim in a l production m ethod and in an attem pt to allow as great an
“ advantage” to the su b lim in al p resen tation a s p o ssib le . A 150-w att
V iew lex slid e p rojector, M odel V -3, w as u sed to project the su b lim
in a l w ords upon the sc r e e n . The voltage input of the 150-w att slid e
p rojector in can d escen t lam p w as reduced to fifty v o lts by u se of a
V ariac voltage red u cer. The slid e p rojector w as placed im m ed ia tely
to the left o f an RCA six te e n -m illim e te r sound m otion picture p r o jec
to r w hich contained a one thousand watt incan d escen t p rojection lam p.
81
The len s of the slid e projector and that of the m otion picture projector
w ere located th irty-eigh t feet from the projection sc re en .
Third, a b lack-an d-w h ite, thirty-m inute kinescope recording
entitled “ The Man Who Knows It A ll,” made of the late D r. Irving Lee
of N orthw estern U n iversity, m et the n e c e ssa r y requirem ents and was
used as the sound m otion picture in this study. This film w as one in
the s e r ie s of kinescope record in gs entitled “ Talking S e n se .”
Fourth, Room 109 in the Industrial A rts Building at San
F ran cisco State C ollege w as used as the view ing room for a ll su b jects,
becau se it afforded ex cellen t fa c ilitie s, controlled lighting conditions,
and a neutral m eeting place for the su bjects.
F ifth, a th ree-p oin t rating sc a le for “ sin ce rity ” and a fiv e-
point rating sc a le for “ e ffe c tiv e n e ss” w ere used to evaluate the film ed
sp eak er. The rating sca le technique w as used because of its accep t
ance, by the w riters in the field of sp eech , as an effective m eans for
evaluating sp eak er perform ance. A pre te st con sistin g of six opinion-
statem en ts which allow ed only “ a g r e e ” or “ d isa g re e ” answ ers was
devised after carefu l a n a ly sis of the film “ The Man Who Knows It A ll”
had been m ade. A separate com pilation of six additional statem en ts,
c lo se ly related to the statem en ts presented on the pre test, but m ore
sp ec ific a lly related to actual statem en ts made by the film ed speaker,
w as used as a b a sis for the in itial post te s t. A forced choice betw een
two p ossib le a n sw ers, “ a g r e e ” or “ d isa g r e e ,” also was used in this
82
t e s t . A n “ u n d ecid ed ” c a te g o r y w as e lim in a te d in both the p re t e s t and
in itia l p ost te s t , b e c a u se it w as b e lie v e d that su b je c ts m igh t take a d
van tage o f su ch a c a te g o r y and u s e it a s an o u tlet fo r an in d e c is iv e
a n sw e r . It w as fu rth er b e lie v e d that an “ u n d ecid ed ” c a te g o r y w ould
not on ly c o m p lic a te the r e s u lts o f the t e s t s , but w ould be e x tr e m e ly
d iffic u lt to in te r p r e t. A fin a l p o st te s t c o n s is tin g o f tw enty n ew ly
c o m p o se d sta te m e n ts, b a sed d ir e c tly on a d d ition al sta te m e n ts m ade by
the film e d sp e a k e r , w as u se d a s the la s t su b je c t-m a tte r t e s t g iv en in
th is stu d y. The p o s sib le a n sw e r s in th is fin a l te s t w e r e changed to
“ tr u e ” o r “ f a ls e ” in an e ffo r t to d is a s s o c ia te th is fin a l p ost t e s t fro m
the e x p e r im e n ta l v iew in g e x p e r ie n c e . A d d ition al t e s t m a te r ia ls su ch
a s s u b je c t’s se a tin g a r e a , e y e sig h t ra tin g , and p e r so n a l data w e re
g a th ered at the tim e o f the e x p e r im e n t.
It w as p rop osed that a sim p le e x p e r im e n ta l d e sig n w ould p r o
v id e a so lu tio n to the p ro b lem in th is stu d y. The 123 su b je c ts w e r e
d ivid ed into th r ee g r o u p s. G roup 1 (C o n tro l) co m p leted the pre t e s t ,
v iew ed the film w ithout b ein g su b jected to a su b lim in a lly p ro jected
w ord , co m p leted the in itia l p ost te s t , rated the sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity and
e ffe c tiv e n e s s im m e d ia te ly a fte r v iew in g the film , and co m p leted the
fin a l p ost t e s t one w eek a fte r v iew in g the film . G roup 2 (E x p e r im e n ta l
A ) co m p leted the p re t e s t, v iew ed the film on w h ich the su b lim in a lly
p ro jected w ord “ s in c e r e ” w as su p e rim p o sed on the fa c ia l im a g e o f the
film e d sp e a k e r , co m p leted the in itia l p ost t e s t , rated the film e d
83
s p e a k e r 's s in c e r ity and e ffe c tiv e n e s s im m e d ia te ly a fte r v iew in g the
film , and co m p lete d th e fin a l p ost te s t one w eek a fte r v iew in g the film .
G roup 3 (E x p e r im e n ta l B ) co m p leted the pre t e s t , v iew ed the film on
w h ich the su b lim in a lly p ro jected w o rd s “ not s in c e r e ,, w e r e s u p e r
im p o se d on the fa c ia l im age of the film e d sp e a k e r , co m p leted the
in itia l p o st te s t, rated the film e d sp e a k e r 's s in c e r ity and e ffe c tiv e n e s s
im m e d ia te ly a fte r v iew in g the film , and co m p leted the fin a l p o st te s t
one w eek a fte r v iew in g the film .
V isu a l rep rod u ction o f the t e s t s , the ratin g s c a le s , the
se a tin g c h a r t, and the r e q u e st fo r p e r m is sio n to u se su b je c t's e y e
sig h t ra tin g s w as of high q u a lity . E ach t e s t b ook let con tain ed an
in str u c tio n s h e e t.
T he m ain data w e re the in d ivid u al s c o r e s m ade by the su b
je c ts on the pre te s t and in itia l p ost te s t of su b je c t-m a tte r , the s c o r e s
obtained b etw een the pre te s t and the in itia l p ost te s t, the ra tin g s on
th e film e d sp e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity and e ffe c tiv e n e s s , the fin a l p ost te s t
s c o r e s of the film 's su b je c t-m a tte r , a s w e ll a s the data c o lle c te d on
the su b je c t's se a tin g a r e a and e y e sig h t ratin g. T r ea tm en t of th e se
data w e r e s ta tis tic a l.
C o n clu sio n s
C o n clu sio n s rea ch ed in th is stu d y hold v a lid ity on ly when
c o n sid e r e d w ith in the fra m ew ork o f co n d itio n s e sta b lish e d by the
84'
e x p erim en ta l d e sig n . T h ese con d ition s w ere:
1. The film c o n siste d of only one public sp ea k er who sp oke
on one su b ject.
2. The only su b lim in a l w ord s u sed w e re “ s in c e r e ” and
“ not s in c e r e .”
3. O nly one m ethod of p rojectin g the su b lim in a l cue w ords
w as u sed .
4. No su b ject w as in form ed a s to the tru e purpose of the
ex p erim en t u n til the en tire o p eration of the ex p erim en t
had been co m p leted .
On the b a s is of ex p e rim en ta l co n d itio n s, the follow in g c o n
c lu sio n s se em e d ju stified :
1. The u se of the su b lim in a l w ord s “ s in c e r e ” and “ not
s in c e r e ,” when su p erim p o sed at a red uced in ten sity of
ligh t o v er a sound m otion p ictu re film featu rin g a public
sp ea k er o f the sta tu re o f the late D r. Irvin g L ee, had no
apparent in flu en ce on an a u d ien ce’s ratin g of h is sin c e r ity .
In fa ct th ere w as an e x tr e m e ly high a g reem en t by the
aud ien ce that he w as s in c e r e .
2. T h ere w e re no sig n ifica n t r e la tio n sh ip s b etw een the
in flu en ce of the su b lim in a l w o rd s u sed and the e ffe c tiv e
n e s s ra tin g s o f the film ed sp e a k e r .
3. T h ere w e re no sig n ifica n t r ela tio n sh ip s betw een the
85
in flu e n c e o f th e su b lim in a l w o r d s u s e d and th e a u d ie n c e 's
r e te n tio n o f th e film e d s p e a k e r 's su b je c t-m a tte r a s
d e te r m in e d b y an in itia l p o st t e s t and a fin a l p o st t e s t ,
a . T h e s ig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n b e tw e en the s e x e s and th e
s c o r e s th e y ob tain ed b e tw e e n th e p r e and p o st t e s t s
o f film s u b je c t-m a tte r s e e m e d to in d ic a te a te n d e n c y
fo r fe m a le s u b je c ts to a tta in g r e a t e r gain s c o r e s in
film s u b je c t-m a tte r th at m a le s u b je c ts in the s a m e
grou p w h en the su b lim in a l w ord “ s in c e r e " w a s u s e d .
T h e s e s ig n ific a n t v a r ia n c e d iff e r e n c e s , h o w e v e r ,
w e r e due to an in itia l b ia s , n ot to e x p e r im e n ta l
f a c t o r s , and in d ic a ted th at a c e ilin g o r lim itin g
e ff e c t w a s o p e r a tin g b e tw e en the p r e - t e s t and th e
in it ia l p o st t e s t .
4 . N o s ig n ific a n t r e la tio n sh ip w a s found b e tw e e n a u d ien ce
m e m b e r 's e y e s ig h t r a tin g and the r e la te d a r e a s o f in v e s
tig a tio n in th is stu d y . A lth ou gh th e r e w a s a te n d e n c y fo r
th e s u b je c ts w ho w e r e s e a te d in th e m id d le a r e a s o f the
e x p e r im e n ta l ro o m to a tta in h ig h e r s u b je c t-m a tte r g a in
s c o r e s , the r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n s e a tin g a r e a s and th e
in flu e n c e o f th e su b lim in a l w o r d s w a s not s ig n ific a n t.
O v e r - a ll c o n c lu s io n and p o s s ib le in te r p r e ta tio n s .— T h e data o f
86
th is stu d y in d ic a te d th a t the p r o je c tio n o f th e s u b lim in a l cu e w o r d s
“ s i n c e r e ” and “ n ot s i n c e r e ” upon th e film e d p r e s e n ta tio n o f a s p e e c h ,
had no s ig n ific a n t e ff e c t s upon th e a u d ie n c e s ’ ju d g m en ts o f th e s p e a k e r ’s
s in c e r it y o r the s p e a k e r ’ s e f f e c t iv e n e s s o r h is s u b je c t- m a tte r . A t
le a s t th r e e in te r p r e ta tio n s o f th is o v e r - a l l c o n c lu s io n w e r e p o s s ib le :
1. T h e p r o je c tio n o f c u e w o r d s at b e lo w -th r e s h o ld lig h t
in te n s ity upon a film e d p r e se n ta tio n m a y be an in h e r e n tly
w ea k typ e o f s u b lim in a l s tim u li. T h e p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h
r e v ie w e d in C h a p ter I in d ic a te d th e str o n g p r o b a b ility
th at c e r ta in ty p e s o f s u b lim in a l s tim u li h a v e s ig n ific a n t
m e a s u r a b le e f f e c t s upon r e c ip ie n t s ’ b e h a v io r s . It
s e e m e d p o s s ib le , h o w e v e r , th at c e r ta in ty p e s o f s u b
lim in a l s tim u li m a y , b y th e ir n a tu r e , h ave o n ly “ n e u tr a l”
e f f e c t s . F o r e x a m p le , it co u ld b e th at la n g u a g e s y m b o ls
a r e in h e r e n tly in e ffe c tiv e b e c a u s e by d e fin itio n su ch
s y m b o ls in v o lv e a r b itr a r y a g r e e m e n ts , i . e . , a r t if ic ia lly
a s s ig n e d m e a n in g s . B y c o n tr a s t, s u b lim in a l s t im u li in
th e fo r m o f g e s t u r e s o r f a c ia l e x p r e s s io n s m ig h t f a ll in to
a d iffe r e n t c a te g o r y . N a r r o w in g th e sc o p e o f th e e x a m p le ,
it co u ld b e p o s s ib le th at in d ir e c t s u g g e s tio n by la n g u a g e
s y m b o ls m ig h t h ave e ff e c t s w h ich co u ld not be p rod u ced
by d ir e c t s u g g e s tio n s . In o th e r w o r d s , it co u ld be th at
d ir e c t s u g g e s tio n s , su c h a s “ s i n c e r e ,” “ n ot s i n c e r e ,”
“ b u y p o p c o r n ,” c r e a te a r e s is t a n c e w h ich o f f s e t s th e ir
p o te n tia l p o s itiv e e f f e c t s . T h e fo r e g o in g r e a s o n in g
c o u ld lo g ic a lly a c c o u n t fo r th e fin d in g s o f th e p r e s e n t
stu d y .
T h e e ff e c t s o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l s u b lim in a l s t im u li u s e d
in th is stu d y m a y h ave b e e n n e u tr a liz e d b y the e ff e c t s o f
o th e r unknow n and u n c o n tr o lle d s u b lim in a l s tim u li.
P r e v io u s r e s e a r c h h a s in d ic a ted th at a s p e a k e r ’s e f f e c
t iv e n e s s m a y b e in p a rt a fu n ctio n o f d o z e n s o f m in u te
d e ta ils o f v o ic e , la n g u a g e , and b o d ily a c tio n — d e ta ils o f
w h ich n e ith e r s p e a k e r n o r a u d ie n c e is c o n s c io u s ly a w a r e
but w h ich m a y o p e r a te a s su b lim in a l s tim u li upon th e
a u d ito r s . In the p r e s e n t stu d y , fo r e x a m p le , it cou ld be
p o s s ib le th at the e ff e c t s o f the su b lim in a l s tim u li “ not
s in c e r e ” p r o je c te d upon th e s c r e e n , w e r e o v e r w h e lm e d
b y n u m e r o u s o th e r su b lim in a l s tim u li, m o s t o f w h ich
“ to ld ” the lis t e n e r s th at D r . L ee w a s s in c e r e . T h is
se c o n d lin e o f r e a s o n in g co u ld a ls o a c c o u n t fo r th e
fin d in g s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y .
T h e tec h n iq u e o f p r e s e n tin g the s u b lim in a l c u e w o r d s in
th is stu d y m a y h a v e p r e v en te d th o s e s tim u li fr o m a ffe c tin g
th e s u b je c t’s b e h a v io r s . A s p r e v io u s ly e x p la in e d in
88
g
plan ning th e e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n fo r th is stu d y , the e x
p e r im e n te r had to m a k e n u m e r o u s c h o ic e s r e g a r d in g
te c h n iq u e s and p r o c e d u r e s fo r p r e se n tin g th e su b lim in a l
s tim u li. A s e x p la in e d on page 33, a p r io r i c h o ic e s w e r e
m ad e “ in fa v o r o f” th e s u b lim in a l s t im u li. A s r e p o r te d
on p a g es 52 and 53, D r . R alph H a b er r e p lic a te d the
w r ite r ’s e x p e r im e n ts , u sin g a n o th er tec h n iq u e, but
w ithou t a p p a ren t d iffe r e n c e s in h is fin d in g s. T h e r e fo r e ,
th is th ird ex p la n a tio n m ig h t a ls o a cco u n t fo r the r e s u lts
h e r e r e p o r te d .
A d d itio n a l a lte r n a tiv e th e o r e tic a l e x p la n a tio n s m ig h t be
added but the ab ove th r e e s e e m e d s u ffic ie n t to illu s tr a te the in te r p r e
ta tiv e p o s s ib ilit ie s .
Im p lic a tio n s and S u g g e s tio n s fo r F u r th e r Study
T w o k in d s o f im p lic a tio n s w e r e s u g g e s te d b y th e r e s u lt s o f
th is stu d y .
P r a c t ic a l im p lic a tio n s . T h e p r in c ip a l im p lic a tio n o f th is
stu d y , put in to c a u tio u s la n g u a g e, w a s th at th o se p e r so n s who h ave
b e lie v e d in the p ow er o f s u b lim in a l cu e w o r d s p r o je c te d upon a film e d
p r e se n ta tio n o f a sp e a k e r , w ill find no su p p o rt fo r th e ir b e lie f s fr o m
8See e s p e c ia lly quotation from M cC onnell, C u tler, and
M cN eil, su p r a , pp. 21-22.
89
th e r e s u lts o f th is e x p e r im e n t. B o ld ly sta ted th is im p lic a tio n i s that
th o se who h ave hoped that su b lim in a l c u e w o r d s cou ld b e u se d to in
flu e n c e the b e h a v io r s o f m o tio n p ictu re o r te le v is io n a u d ie n c e s, should
cu rb th e ir h op es; and th o se w ho have fe a r e d su ch u s a g e , sh ou ld c a lm
th o se fe a r s .
In c o m p a r iso n w ith o th er e x p e r im e n ts ap p lyin g v a r io u s kin ds
o f e x p e r im e n ta l stim u li to s im ila r g ro u p s of su b je c ts (c o lle g e stu d en ts),
the data of th is stu d y w e r e r em a rk a b ly c o n s is te n t in th e ir n e g a tiv e
tren d . In o th er w o r d s, p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h h a s r e p e a te d ly show n that
au d ien ce a ttitu d es a r e r e la tiv e ly e a s y to change — a v a r ie ty of u n lik ely
s tim u li have b e e n fo llo w ed by su ch c h a n g e s, y e t the ch a n g es in th is
e x p e r im e n t w e re v ir tu a lly n il. In co m p a rin g the th r ee c o n d itio n s o f no
su b lim in a l s tim u li, stim u lu s w ord “ s in c e r e ,* * and stim u lu s w ord s
“ not s in c e r e , ” the d iffe r e n c e s b etw een the grou p s w e r e in sig n ific a n t
w ith r eg a rd to the r a tin g s o f the s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity , and h is e ff e c t iv e
n e s s , and h is a b ility to get a c r o s s h is fa c ts and o p in io n s. N ot only
w e r e th e se d iffe r e n c e s s t a tis tic a lly in sig n ific a n t — th e s e d iffe r e n c e s
w e r e s o s m a ll that in sig n ific a n c e could e a s ily have b e e n r e c o g n iz e d by
in sp e c tio n o n ly . T he tren d o f the data could w ith c o n sid e r a b le ju s tic e
be d e sc r ib e d a s o v e rw h elm in g .
T he s c ie n tific p o s s ib ility r e m a in s , o f c o u r s e , that the
r e s u lt s o f th is stu d y w e r e d e ter m in e d b y a ty p ic a lity o f the su b je c ts or
b y b ia s in the tec h n iq u es and p r o c e d u r e s. T h e se p o s s ib ilit ie s sh ould
90
be te s te d by fu rth er r e s e a r c h . T he im p lic a tio n o f th is e x p e r im e n t i s ,
h o w ev e r, that ch a n g es in e x p e r im e n ta l d e sig n sh ould p rob ab ly be q u ite
r a d ic a l if sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s a r e to be e x p e c te d .
Im p lic a tio n s fo r fu tu re r e s e a r c h . — T he fo llo w in g im p lic a tio n s
fo r future stu d ie s of th is type a r e apparent:
1. S in ce n e a r ly e v e r y su b je c t in th is stu dy rated the film e d
sp e a k e r a s “ s in c e r e ” and above a v e r a g e in “ e f f e c t iv e
n e s s ,” it w ould s e e m that the film e d sp e a k e r u sed in th is
stu d y w a s not a good sp e a k e r s e le c tio n . H o w ev er, the
o p p o site point of v iew is eq u a lly d e fe n sib le . S in ce the
sp e a k e r w a s rated a lm o st 100 per cen t “ s in c e r e ” by
G roup 1, it w ould ap p ear that the n e g a tiv e su b lim in a l
s tim u li “ not s in c e r e ,” a s u sed on G roup 3, w a s g iv en an
e x c e p tio n a lly good ch an ce to o p e r a te . If the s tim u li had
any e ffe c t, s u r e ly a few o f the su b je c ts in G roup 3 w ould
h ave at le a s t b een in doubt and m ark ed “ I am u n d e c id e d .”
O r s u r e ly so m e of the su b je c ts in G roup 3 w ould have
rated the film e d sp e a k e r a s “ l e s s e f f e c t iv e .” T h e se
fin d in gs im m e d ia te ly su g g e st a stu d y w h ich w ould
co m p a re the ap p aren tly w eak e ffe c t o f su b lim in a l stim u li
w ith the p o s sib le e ffe c t that a co n triv ed and v a r ie d v e r b a l
in tro d u ctio n to the film e d sp e a k e r m ig h t h a v e. T h is
c o m p a r a tiv e stu d y w ou ld u t iliz e th e s a m e film and s u b
j e c t s , and th e sa m e g e n e r a l d e s ig n , but w ou ld s u b s titu te
a n o n -s u s p e c t v e r b a l in tr o d u c tio n o f th e film e d s p e a k e r
fo r s u b lim in a l s tim u lu s “ s i n c e r e ,” and a s u s p e c t v e r b a l
in tr o d u ctio n o f th e film e d sp e a k e r fo r the su b lim in a l
s tim u li “ n ot s i n c e r e .* ’ T h e v e r b a l in tr o d u c tio n s w ou ld
b e b a s e d on a c o n tr iv e d in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e s p e a k e r ’s
tr u s tw o r th in e s s . G roup 1 (n e u tr a l) w ou ld r e c e iv e no
in tr o d u c tio n to th e s p e a k e r o r the film . G roup 2 (n o n
s u s p e c t) w ould b e to ld fo u r th in g s: (1 ) that th e film e d
s p e a k e r w a s a g r e a t m an and a g r e a t t e a c h e r , (2 ) th at he
had in s is t e d on m a k in g th e film e v e n though he w a s d yin g
o f c a n c e r a t the tim e , (3 ) th at he m a d e th e film w ith th e
hop e th a t if o n ly one p e r so n b e n e fite d fr o m h is p lea fo r
b e tte r h u m an u n d e rsta n d in g , h is sh o r t m is s io n h e r e on
e a r th w a s w e ll w o rth it, (4 ) th at h e d ied in h is c la s s r o o m .
G roup 3 ( s u s p e c t ) w ou ld be to ld fo u r th in g s: (1 ) th a t the
film e d sp e a k e r w a s tr u ly a m o d e rn e x a m p le o f the
fa m o u s D r . J e k y ll and M r. H yde s to r y , and that to a ll
a p p e a r a n c e s , he w a s the you n g b r illia n t c o lle g e p r o f e s
s o r , but b e c a u s e o f h is m a s t e r y in th e a r t o f sp e a k in g ,
h e w a s lik e th e s in is t e r M r. H yd e, in that he to o led a
life s o fille d w ith d e c e it , fra u d , and t r ic k e r y , th a t e v e n
the e x p e r ts w e r e fo o led — fo r a lon g tim e , (2 ) th at it
w a sn 't u n til a fte r he m ad e th is film th at th e r e a l tru th
about h im w a s m ad e know n, (3 ) th at h is v ic t im s w e r e
p e n s io n e r s fro m w hom he m a n a g ed , a g a in b y h is m a s te r y
in the a r t o f v e r b a l tr ic k e r y , to c o lle c t a huge p e r so n a l
fo rtu n e, (4 ) th at he d ied in p r iso n w h ile s e r v in g tim e fo r
h is c r im e s .
F u r th e r r e s e a r c h u tiliz in g p u blic s p e a k e r s o f v a r io u s
p r o fe s s io n a l le v e ls p r e se n tin g d iffe r e n t sp e e c h to p ic s , a s
w e ll a s im p r o v ed te s tin g m eth o d s fo r m e a s u r in g a s u b
j e c t 's r e te n tio n o f a f ilm ’s s u b je c t-m a tte r a s w e ll a s the
o th e r su b lim in a l in flu e n c e s , is s u g g e s te d .
V a ried te c h n iq u e s fo r p r o je c tin g su b lim in a l w o r d s on a
p r o je c tio n s c r e e n a r e s u g g e s te d a s an a r e a fo r p o s s ib le
in v e s tig a tio n . Is th e tech n iq u e of p r o je c tin g th e s u b lim
in a l m e s s a g e at fa s t sh u tte r sp e e d s fo r s h o r t in te r v a ls o f
tim e a s ig n ific a n tly m o r e e ffe c tiv e tech n iq u e than the one
u tiliz e d in th is study?
F u r th e r r e s e a r c h is s u g g e s te d to in v e s tig a te th e r e la tio n
sh ip b e tw e en th e s u b lim in a l in flu e n c e o f cu e w o r d s and
the s e x e s fr o m d iffe r e n t p o p u la tio n s and v a r ie d a g e
le v e ls .
T he u s e o f o th e r su b lim in a l w ord c u e s , s h o r te r in len gth
93
than th o s e u se d in th is stu d y , i s r e c o m m e n d e d fo r fu r th e r
in v e s tig a tio n and fu r th e r stu d y .
6 . A lth ou gh sou nd m o tio n p ic tu r e film h a s p ro v ed to b e a
s a t is f a c t o r y m eth o d fo r h o ld in g a s p e a k e r v a r ia b le
c o n sta n t, it w ou ld s e e m th at an in v e s tig a tio n o f a s u b
lim in a l in flu e n c e m ig h t w e ll b e d e sig n e d in w h ich a p u b lic
s p e a k e r g iv e s h is sp e e c h to an a u d ie n c e “ in p e r s o n .”
Such an in v e s tig a tio n w ou ld s u g g e s t th e u s e o f a p r o j e c
tio n s c r e e n b eh in d th e “ in p e r s o n ” s p e a k e r , and a s ta g e
lig h t a d ju stm e n t th at w ould a llo w a b e lo w th r e s h o ld p r o
je c tio n o f th e su b lim in a l s t im u li. T h is ty p e o f e x p e r im e n t
w ou ld e lim in a te a ll o th e r v is u a l s tim u li fr o m th e
p r o je c tio n s c r e e n e x c e p t th e in ten d ed s u b lim in a l s t im u li.
7. T h e u s e o f c o lo r e d su b lim in a l m e s s a g e s , su c h a s r e d and
b lu e , is s u g g e s te d a s a p o s s ib le a r e a fo r in v e s tig a tio n in
r e la tio n to it s a ffe c tin g an a u d ie n c e ’s r a tin g o f a p u b lic
s p e a k e r .
8 . S in c e th e r e w a s a te n d e n c y fo r s u b je c ts in t h is stu d y who
w e r e se a te d in th e m id d le s e c t io n o f the e x p e r im e n ta l
v ie w in g r o o m to a tta in h ig h e r g a in s c o r e s b e tw e e n a p re
and p o st t e s t o f film s u b je c t-m a t te r , fu r th e r r e s e a r c h on
th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n s u b je c t’s IQ and h is v o lu n ta r y
s e a t s e le c t io n w ou ld s e e m to b e a n o th e r p o s s ib le r e s e a r c h
a r e a .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
BIB LIO G R A PH Y
B o o k s
B r ig a n c e , W illia m N o rw o o d . S p ee c h C o m m u n ic a tio n . N ew Y ork:
C r o fts and C om p an y, 1947.
C a m p b e ll, H ugh, B r e w e r , R . F ., and N e v ille , H en ry . V o ic e , S p e e c h ,
and G e s t u r e . London: C h a r le s W illia m D e a c o n and C om p an y,
1900.
C o o p er, L a n e. T h e R h e to r ic o f A r is t o t le . N ew Y ork: D . C .
A p p le to n -C e n tu r y C om p an y, 1932.
G u ilfo rd , J . P . P s y c h o m e tr ic M e th o d s. S econ d e d itio n . N ew Y ork:
M c G ra w -H ill B ook C om p an y, 1954.
H ovlan d, C a r l I., L u m sd a in e, A rth u r A ., and S h e ffie ld , F r e d D .
S tu d ies in S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y in W orld W ar II. 3 v o ls . P r in c e
ton , N ew J e r s e y : P r in c e to n U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1949.
_________, J a n is , Ir v in g L ., and K e lle y , H arold H . C o m m u n ica tio n and
P e r s u a s io n . N ew H aven , C o n n ecticu t: Y a le U n iv e r s ity P r e s s ,
1954.
M cN em a r, Q uinn. P s y c h o lo g ic a l S t a t is t ic s . S econ d e d itio n . N ew
Y ork: Joh n W ile y and S o n s, 1955.
M o n ro e, A lan H . P r in c ip le s o f S p e e c h . R e v ise d b r ie f e d itio n .
C h ica g o : S c o tt, F o r e s m a n and C om p an y, 1951.
P h illip s , A rth u r E d w a rd . E ffe c tiv e S p e e c h . C h icago: T h e N ew ton
C om p an y, 1908.
S a r r e tt, L ew , and F o s t e r , W . T . B a s ic P r in c ip le s o f S p e e c h .
C a m b rid g e , M a ssa c h u se tts: H oughton M ifflin C om p an y, 1936.
W a lk e r, H elen M ., and L e v , J o se p h . S ta tis tic a l I n fe r e n c e . N ew Y ork:
H en ry H olt and C om p an y, 1953.
95
96
W e a v e r , A n drew T h o m a s, B o r c h e r s , G lad ys L o u is e , and W o o lb ert,
C h a r le s H en ry. T he N ew B e tte r S p e e c h . N ew Y ork: H a rco u rt,
B r a c e and C om pany, 1939.
W eb ster* s N ew In tern a tio n a l D ic tio n a r y . Secon d u n abridged ed itio n .
S p rin g field : G. C . M erria m P u b lish in g C om p any, 1953.
W in an s, J a m e s A . S p eech M aking. N ew Y ork: D . C . A p p leto n -
C en tu ry C om pany, 1938.
P e r io d ic a ls
A d a m s, J o e K. “ L a b ora tory S tu d ies o f B eh a v io r w ithout A w a r e n e s s ,”
P sy c h o lo g y B u lle tin , LIV (1 9 5 7 ), 3 8 3 -4 0 5 .
B a c h , B ., and K lein , G. S. “ C o n sc io u s E ffe c ts o f P r o lo n g e d Su b
lim in a l E x p o su r e s of W o r d s,” A m e r ic a n P s y c h o lo g is t, XII
(1 9 5 7 ), 397.
B a k e r , Lynn E . “ T he In flu en ce o f S u b lim in a l S tim u li upon V e rb a l
B e h a v io r ,” J o u rn a l o f E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y , XX (1 9 3 7 ),
8 4 -1 0 0 .
_________. “T he P u p illa r y R e sp o n se C on ditioned to S u b lim in a l A u d itory
S tim u li,” P s y c h o lo g ic a l M on ograp h s, L (1 9 3 8 ), W hole N o. 223.
B la c k w e ll, H . R ich a rd . “ C o m m en ts on S u b lim in a l P r o je c tio n ,”
J o u r n a l of C o m m u n ica tio n , VIII (S u m m er, 1958), 6 8 -7 6 .
B r e a n , H er b e rt. “ H idden S e ll T ech n iq u e Is A lm o st H e r e ,” L ife ,
XLIV (M arch 31, 1958), 1 0 2 -1 4 .
B r o a d c a stin g , N o v em b er 11, 1957, pp. 5, 72.
_________, D e c e m b e r 2, 1957, p. 32.
_________, D e c e m b e r 9, 1957, p. 126.
, D e c e m b e r 23, 1957, p. 71.
, Jan u ary 6, 1958, p. 51.
97
C o llie r , R . M . “A n E x p e r im e n ta l Study of the E ffe c ts of S u b lim in al
S tim u li,* * P sy c h o lo g ic a l M on ograp h s, LII (1940), W hole N o. 236.
H ilgard , E r n e st R ., M ille r , J a m e s G ., and O h lso n , J . A . “T h ree
A ttem p ts to S ecu re P u p illa r y C onditioning to A u d itory S tim u li
n ear the A b so lu te T h r e sh o ld ,* * J o u rn a l of E x p er im e n ta l
P sy c h o lo g y , XXIX (1 9 4 1 ), 8 9 -1 0 3 .
K now er, F ra n k lin H. “ A S u g g estiv e Study o f P u b lic-S p e a k in g R ating
S ca le V a lu e s ,* * The Q u a rterly Jo u rn a l o f S p ee c h , XV (F eb ru a ry ,
1929), 3 0 -4 2 .
K o llig s, M. “O p tica l F ig u r e s and the D ev elo p m en t o f th e ir M ean in g,* *
A r c h iv e s g e s P s y c h o l., Ill (1942), 3 9 -5 5 .
L a z a r u s, R ic h a r d S ., and M cC lea ry , R ob ert A . “ A u tonom ic D i s
c rim in a tio n w ithout A w a r e n e ss: A Study of S u b cep tio n .”
P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e v ie w , L V III(1 9 5 1 ), 1 1 3 -2 2 .
M cC on nell, J a m e s V ., C u tler, R ichard L ., and M cN eil, E lton B .
“ S u b lim in al S tim ulation: An O verview ,** A m e r ic a n P s y c h o lo
g is t , XIII (1958), 2 2 9 -4 2 .
M ille r , J a m e s G. “The R ole of M otivation in L earn in g w ithout
A w areness,** A m erica n Jo u rn a l of P sy c h o lo g y , LIII (1 9 4 0 ),
2 2 9 -3 9 .
P a tte r so n , J . “ In v isib le S a le sm a n ,’* The C om m on w eal, LXVIII
(A p ril, 1958), 7 1 -7 3 .
R en sh aw , S. “ T he V isu a l P e r c e p tio n and R ep rod u ction s of F o r m s by
T a c h isto sc o p ic M ethods,** J o u rn a l of P sy c h o lo g y , XX (1945),
2 1 7 -3 2 .
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R e v ie w , X L (O ctob er, 1957), 19.
T e le v is io n D ig e s t, N o v em b er 23, 1957, pp. 2 -3 , 5.
T h om p son , Waynie N. “ An E x p er im e n ta l Study o f the A c c u r a c y of
T y p ic a l S p eech R ating T e c h n iq u e s,’’ S p eech M on ograp h s, XI
(1 9 4 4 ), 6 5 -7 9 .
98
T w itm y er, E dw in B ., and F e r n b e r g e r , Sam u el W. “ The T w itm y er
D em o n stra tio n T a c h isto sc o p e ,,, The A m e rica n J o u rn a l of
P sy c h o lo g y , XXXVIII (1927), 1 1 3 -1 9 .
W illia m s, A . C ., J r . “ P er ce p tio n o f S u blim in al V isu a l S tim u li,”
Jou rn al o f P sy c h o lo g y , VI (1938), 1 8 7 -9 9 .
U npublished M a teria ls
C lark , K eith C. “ A S u rvey of C erta in A udience A ttitu d es tow ard
C om m on ly Taught Standards o f P u b lic Sp eak in g.” U npublished
M a ste r ’s th e s is . The U n iv e r sity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , 1950.
H ild reth , R ichard A . “ An E x p erim en ta l Study of A u d ie n c e s’ A b ility to
D istin g u ish betw een S in cere and In sin c er e S p e e c h e s.” Un pub
lish ed P h .D . d isse r ta tio n , The U n iv e r sity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia ,
1953.
P en lan d , V ir g il D. “ An E x p erim en ta l Study to M easu re E ffe c tiv e n e s s
in O ra l R eading by M eans of a R ating S ca le T ech n iq u e.”
U npublished P h .D . d isse r ta tio n , The U n iv e r sity of Southern
C a lifo rn ia , 1946.
N ew sp ap ers
T he W all S tr ee t J o u rn a l, M arch 7, 1958.
________ , Janu ary 14, 1959.
N ew s W ire
U nited P r e s s In ternational R adio W ire , “ B r o a d c a st R o w ,” M arch 26,
1958.
A P P E N D I X E S
A P P E N D IX A
INSTRUCTION SHEET AND PR E TEST
A P P E N D IX A
IN STR U C TIO N SH E E T A N D P R E T E S T
In str u c tio n S h ee t fo r A ttitu d e to w a rd S ta te m e n ts
IN STR U C TIO N S:
1. P la c e y o u r n a m e in the s p a c e p ro v id ed on th e a tta ch ed l i s t o f
s ta te m e n ts . A ls o on the s a m e s h e e t p la c e to d a y ’s d a te . N e x t,
c ir c le M o r F to d en ote y o u r s e x , in d ic a te y o u r y e a r in c o lle g e by
c ir c lin g on e o f th e c l a s s e s lis t e d , and in d ic a te y o u r p r e s e n t a g e in
y e a r s . L a s tly , in d ic a te th e SE C TIO N n u m b er o f y o u r c l a s s in
E n g . 6 .2 , B a s ic C o m m u n ic a tio n s, and w r ite in the n a m e o f y o u r
in s tr u c to r .
2. T he a tta ch ed l is t c o n s is t s o f s ix s ta te m e n ts . Im m e d ia te ly b elo w
e a c h sta te m e n t is an “ A ttitu d e R a tin g S c a le ” fo r th a t sta te m e n t,
3 . R ead e a c h s ta te m e n t c a r e fu lly .
4 . P la c e a c h e c k m a rk (J) n e x t to th e n u m b er b elo w the sta te m e n t
w h ich m o s t c lo s e ly a g r e e s w ith y o u r a ttitu d e to w a rd th e sta te m e n t.
5. We a s k , fo r p u r p o se s o f th is e x p e r im e n t in w h ich you a r e p a r t ic i
p atin g, th a t you c o n s id e r e a c h sta te m e n t c a r e fu lly and th en m ak e a
r e s p o n s e on e a c h sta te m e n t.
6 . U pon c o m p le tio n o f th e “ A ttitu d e R a tin g S c a le ,” p a s s y o u r p a p er
to y o u r r ig h t.
7. T h e a tta c h e d “ A ttitu d e R a tin g S c a le ” m u s t b e c o m p le te d b e fo r e
th e f i r s t film i s sh ow n .
101
A ttitude tow ard S ta te m en ts ( P r e -f ilm )
102:
YOUR NAME
TO DAY'S DATE
SEX M F
(C ir c le one)
Y EA R IN CO LLEG E: F r e s h Soph J r . S r.
(C ir c le o n e) (YOUR
A G E )
CLASS SECTIO N NO. E n g. 6.2 B a s ic C o m m .________________________
(YO UR IN STR UCTO R)
ST A TE M EN TS: P la c e a ch eck m ark (7 ) n ext to the le tte r b elo w each
1. M ost p eop le know a ll th e r e is to know about c e r ta in su b je c ts .
( ) a . A g r e e
( ) b. D is a g r e e
2. F a th e r s h ave the attitu d e that th ey h ave m o st o f th e a n s w e r s to any
g iv en p ro b lem .
( ) a. A g r e e
( ) b . D is a g r e e
3. F o r a p e r so n to be a “ know it a ll," he m u st take g r e a t p ain s to
lis te n to o th er p eo p le.
( ) a. A g r e e
( ) b. D is a g r e e
4 . O ld er peop le a r e m uch m o re apt to s a y a thin g w on 't w ork than not.
( ) a. A g r e e
( ) b. D is a g r e e
5. We a r e a ll g u ilty of a b str a c tin g ju st th o se ite m s o f a su b je c t that
m atch ou r e x p e r ie n c e s .
( ) a. A g r e e
( ) b. D is a g r e e
sta te m e n t w h ich m o st c lo s e ly a g r e e s w ith you r
attitu d e tow ard the sta te m e n t.
103
6 . J u st a s a fa r m e r co n d itio n s h is s o il fo r plan tin g, s o m u st the
m ind be con d ition ed fo r lea r n in g .
( ) a . A g r e e
( ) b . D is a g r e e
NO TE: U pon c o m p letio n o f th is sh e e t p a ss it to the p e rso n on y ou r
r ig h t.
A P P E N D IX B
INSTRUCTION SH E E T , IN ITIAL PO ST T E ST ,
RATING SC A LES, SEATING CHART AN D
R EQ UEST TO USE EYESIGHT RATINGS
A P P E N D IX B
INSTRUCTION SH EET, INITIAL POST T E ST ,
RATING SCALES, SEATING CHART AND
REQUEST TO USE EYESIGHT RATINGS
In stru ction Sh eet for A ttitude tow ard S tatem en ts
and E valu ation of F ilm ed Speaker
INSTRUCTIONS:
1 . A gain p la ce your nam e in the sp a ce provided on the attached lis t
of sta te m en ts and w r ite in today’s d ate. N ext, c ir c le M or F to
denote you r se x , c ir c le your y e a r in c o lle g e and in d icate your
p resen t age in y e a r s . L a stly , in d icate the SECTION num ber of
your c la s s in E ng. 6.2, B a sic C om m u n ication s, and w rite in the
nam e of your in str u c to r .
2. Now that you have se e n the film , read each sta tem en t c a r e fu lly
and again p lace a ch eck m ark (./) next to a num ber below each
sta tem en t w hich m o st c lo s e ly a g r e e s with your attitude tow ard the
sta tem en t.
3. P le a s e c o n sid e r each sta tem en t c a re fu lly and then m ake a
r e sp o n se .
4 . Now turn to the page follow in g the “ attitude tow ard sta te m e n ts”
to the ratin g s c a le s on “ s in c e r ity ” and “ e ff e c tiv e n e s s .”
a. SCALE NUM BER I: S in ce rity
(1) T h is s c a le is to be u sed to evalu ate the sp e a k e r ’s
sin c e r ity . (S in ce rity is to be co n sid er ed a s the im p r e s sio n
o f the sp e a k e r ’s h o n est b e lie f in h is p o sitio n .)
105
(2 ) P la c e a c h e c k m a r k (J) b e fo r e the w o r d s w h ich m o s t c l e a r
ly a g r e e w ith y o u r e s tim a te o f th e s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r it y .
b . SC A L E N U M B E R II: E f f e c t iv e n e s s
(1 ) U s e th is s c a le to e v a lu a te th e s p e a k e r ’s e f f e c t iv e n e s s .
( E f f e c t iv e n e s s sh o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d a s th e s p e a k e r ’s
a b ility in p e r su a d in g y o u .)
(2 ) P la c e a c h e c k m a r k (J) ab ove th e n u m b er w h ich m o s t
c lo s e ly a g r e e s w ith y o u r e s tim a te o f th e s p e a k e r ’s g e n e r a l
e f f e c t iv e n e s s .
M ake o n ly o n e c h e c k m a r k (J) fo r e a c h s c a l e . M ake c e r ta in you
m a k e a c h e c k m a rk fo r SC A L E N U M B E R I and a c h e c k m a r k fo r
SC A L E N U M B E R II.
N ow tu rn to the page fo llo w in g SC A L E N U M B E R I and SC A L E
N U M B E R II. T h is is a s e a tin g c h a r t of th is r o o m .
a . P r in t y o u r n am e in th e s p a c e p r o v id e d .
b. P la c e a c h e c k m a rk (J) on th e e x a c t lo c a tio n o f th e s e a t you
a r e now o c c u p y in g . B y lo o k in g to th e le ft in y o u r ROW , you
w ill n o tic e th a t th e ROW is id e n tifie d a lp h a b e tic a lly . On th e
s e a tin g c h a r t p la c e a c h e c k m a r k (J) ab o v e th e n u m b er th at
r e p r e s e n t s y o u r s e a t .
N ow tu rn to the la s t p a g e . T h is i s a r e q u e s t fo r p e r m is s io n to
u s e y o u r e y e s ig h t r a tin g . Y ou r c o -o p e r a tio n in g r a n tin g th is
r e q u e s t w ill be g r e a tly a p p r e c ia te d . P le a s e s ig n y o u r n a m e on
th is fo r m . D o N ot P r in t Y o u r N a m e .
107:
A ttitu d e to w a rd S ta te m e n ts (P o s t film )
YO UR NA M E
T O D A Y ’S D A T E
SE X M F Y E A R IN C O L L E G E : F r e s h Soph J r S r ___________
(C ir c le O n e) (C ir c le o n e ) (Y O U R
A G E )
C L A SS SE C T IO N N O . E n g . 6.2 B a s ic C o m m .________________________
IN ST R U C T O R ’S
NAM E
IN STR U C TIO N S: P la c e a c h e c k m a r k (J) n e x t to th e le t t e r b e lo w e a ch
sta te m e n t w h ich m o s t c lo s e ly a g r e e s w ith y o u r
a ttitu d e tow ard th e sta te m e n t,
f a p e r so n w o rk ed lo n g enough and h ard enough on a c e r ta in su b -
e c t , h e cou ld know e v e r y th in g th e r e is to know about th at su b je c t.
) a . A g r e e
) b . D is a g r e e
A t th e end o f an y th in g w e s a y th e r e i s a lw a y s m o r e to be s a id .
) a . A g r e e
) b . D is a g r e e
3 . T h e “ d is e a s e o f a l ln e s s ” i s an a ttitu d e th at in v o lv e s c r it ic a l
lis te n in g .
) a . A g r e e
) b . D is a g r e e
4 . O ld e r p eo p le ten d to be v e r y s e t in th e ir w a y s .
) a . A g r e e
) b . D is a g r e e
5. M an i s v e r y lim ite d in h is c o n c e p tio n o f th e w o rld around h im .
) a . A g r e e
) b . D is a g r e e
108
6 . P e o p le who sa y , “ You c a n ’t s a y an yth in g w e h a v en ’t h ea rd b e fo r e ,”
a r e p eo p le w ho d on ’t know v e r y m u ch , n o r w ill th ey le a r n v e r y
m u ch .
( ) a . A g r e e
( ) b . D is a g r e e
R atin g S c a le fo r E v a lu a tio n o f F ilm e d S p ea k er
RATING SC A L E S : P la c e a ch eck m a rk (J) b e fo r e th e w o r d s w h ich
m o s t c le a r ly a g r e e w ith y o u r e s tim a te of the
s p e a k e r ’s s in c e r ity .
SC A LE N U M B E R I: (S in c e r ity )
( ) S p ea k er w a s s in c e r e .
( ) S p ea k er w a s not s in c e r e .
( ) I am u n d ecid ed .
SC A LE N U M B E R 11: (E ff e c tiv e n e s s )
P la c e a c h e ck m a rk (J) ab ove the n u m b er w hich
m o st c lo s e ly a g r e e s w ith y o u r e s tim a te o f the
s p e a k e r ’s g e n e r a l e ff e c t iv e n e s s .
( ) ( ) ( ) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _(J ( )
1 2 3 4 5
A lm o s t none B e lo w A v e r a g e A b o v e a v e r a g e A lm o s t p e r fe c t
a v e r a g e
S e a tin g C h art fo r R oom 109 In d u str ia l A r ts B u ild in g
P R IN T NAM E
(L A S T ) (F IR S T ) (M ID D L E )
109
P le a s e m ake a ch eck m ark (J) b elow w h ich in d ic a te s the e x a c t
s e a t you o ccu p ied w h ile v iew in g the film . The ROWS o f s e a t s a r e
id en tified a lp h a b e tic a lly (at the fa r le ft) sta r tin g w ith the le tte r A at
th e fron t o f the room and con tin u in g through the le t te r H at the b ack o f
the ro o m . T he ten s e a ts in ea ch row a r e n u m e r ic a lly id e n tifie d ,
sta r tin g w ith n u m ber one (1 ) on the fa r le ft and con tin u in g through
n u m b er ten (10) on the fa r rig h t. E ach row o f s e a t s is a r b itr a r ily
n u m b ered one (1) through ten (1 0 ) in the se a tin g ch a rt. M ake a ch eck
m ark (J ) fo r you r se a t o n ly .
ROW A ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S eat N o. 1234 56 789 10
ROW B ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S eat N o. 12 34 5 67 8 9 10
ROW C ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S ea t N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
R O W D ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S eat N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
R O W E ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ; ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S ea t N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ROW F ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S ea t N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ROW G ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S ea t N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
ROW H ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
S eat N o . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
i * .
no:
P e r m is s io n to U se E y e sig h t R ating
In an e ffo r t to in su r e a g a in st the p o s s ib ility that you r e y e sig h t
m a y o r m a y not have an e ffe c t upon the fin d in gs o f th is stu d y, it is
n e c e s s a r y fo r the e x p e r im e n te r to have you r p e r m is s io n to copy you r
e y e sig h t ratin g from the r e c o r d s o f the H ealth D ep artm en t h e r e at San
F r a n c isc o State C o lle g e . A ll su ch ra tin g s w ill be kept co n fid en tia l
and w ill not be u sed in any m an n er e x ce p t fo r the p u rp o ses o f th is
stu d y. P L E A SE DO NOT PRIN T YOUR NAM E. U se you r r eg u la r
sig n a tu r e .
I, the u n d ersig n ed , h ereb y gran t the in v e stig a to r in th is e x p e r i
m en t, p e r m is s io n to u se m y e y e sig h t ratin g a s it a p p ea rs on m y
h ealth r e c o r d s in the H ealth D ep artm en t of San F r a n c isc o State
C o lle g e . I gran t th is p e r m is sio n w ith the stip u lation that m y e y e sig h t
ratin g w ill be kept co n fid en tia l and that it w ill not be u sed in any
m an n er ex cep t for the p u rp o ses of th is stu d y.
SIGN YOUR NAME
(DO NOT P R IN T )
DATE
A P P E N D IX C
F IN A L P O S T T E S T
A P P E N D IX C
FIN A L PO ST T E ST
F in a l A ttitu d e T ow ard S ta tem en ts
YOUR NAM E
( ) ( > ( ) ( )
(P le a s e P r in t) 0 1 2 3
CLASS SECTION NO. E n g. 6.2
TO TA L FILM S V IE W E D -
CHECK ONE BRA CK ET
O NLY
INSTRUCTIONS: U n d er ea ch o f the sta te m e n ts b e lo w , c h e ck TRUE
1. A c co r d in g to D r. L e e , so m e peop le who liv e d one hundred y e a r s
ago b e lie v e d that th in g s cou ld be fu lly ex p la in ed .
( ) TRUE
( > FA L SE
2. D r . L ee w a s rig h t-h a n d ed .
( ) TRUE
( ) FA L SE
3. D r . L ee sta ted that w isd o m b e g in s w hen w e r e a liz e the d iffe r e n c e
b etw een an in fe r e n c e and a sta te m e n t o f fa ct.
( ) TRUE
( ) FA L SE
4 . T he J e ffe r s o n le tte r , w h ich D r . L ee sa id he u sed in an e x p e r i
m en t, in d ica ted to him th at p eop le do not rea d .
( ) TRU E
( ) FA L SE
(7 ) if you think the sta te m e n t is T R U E , and ch eck
FA LSE (7 ) if you think the sta te m e n t i s F A L SE .
112
113
5. S c ie n tis ts m ak e in fe r e n c e s o n ly .
( ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
6 . D r . L e e con clu d ed that it w a s a fa ct that J o e s to le the silv e r w a r e .
( ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
7. T h e r e a so n the little b oy in the c la s s r o o m w ou ld n ’t do w hat the
te a c h e r a sk ed w a s b e c a u se he had a r a th e r bad e x p e r ie n c e w ith a
fo r m e r te a c h e r .
( ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
8 . A sta te m e n t o f fa c t c o m e s a s c lo s e to c e r ta in ty a s p o s s ib le .
( ) TRU E
( ) F A L SE
9 . W hen D r . L ee op en ed th e app le he found s e e d s in it.
( ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
10. D r . L ee is a P r o f e s s o r o f S p eech at th e U n iv e r s ity o f Iow a.
( ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
11. D r . L e e r e fe r r e d to p o lic e m e n a s r e p r e s e n tin g a se g m e n t o f th e
p op u lation that n eed ed to h ave an a ttitu d e o f “ a l l n e s s .”
( ) TR U E
( ) FA L SE
12. P r e s id e n t E lio t o f H arvard w a s p le a se d by th e h at c h e c k b o y ’s
r e m a r k , b e c a u s e it sh ow ed that th e hat c h e c k b oy had n ot co n fu sed
fa c t w ith in fe r e n c e .
< ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
114
13. A factual observation stays with what is being observed , w hereas
an in ference goes beyond.
( ) TRUE
( ) FALSE i
14. A ccording to D r. L ee’s interpretation, an inference is the
sam e thing as a g u ess.
( ) TRUE
( ) FALSE
15. Ideally, according to D r. L ee, we should avoid making in fer
en ces as we go through a day’s activity.
( ) TRUE
( ) FALSE
16. D r. L ee wore a sin g le-b rea sted suit.
( ) TRUE
( ) FALSE
17. The penny that D r. L ee made disappear w as finally found in his
left hand coat pocket.
{ ) TRUE
( ) FALSE
18. Inferences can be made only before observation and factual
conclu sions can only be made after observation.
( ) TRUE
( ) FALSE
19. Inferences provide us with probability judgm ents rather than
statem ents of fact.
( ) TRUE
( ) FALSE
115
20. D r . L e e sta te d that “ a l ln e s s ” can be a w a ll th at s e p a r a t e s the
e n lis te d m an fr o m th e o ffic e r and the s u p e r v is o r fr o m the
w o r k e r .
( ) TR U E
( ) F A L SE
A P P E N D IX D
TA BL ES ON EYESIGHT AN D SEATING DA TA
A P P E N D IX D
T A B L E S ON E Y E SIG H T A N D SEATIN G D A T A
T A B L E 1 4 .— M ea n s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in it ia l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s
V is u a l A c u ity
R a tin g
G roup 1
M
N = 44
G roup 2
M
N = 42
G rou p 3
M
N = 33
T o ta l V is u a l
M
2 0 /2 0 R atin g
fo r B oth e y e s
5 .4 5 5 .5 6 5 .3 2 5 .4 6
A b o v e 2 0 /2 0
R atin g fo r O ne
o r B oth e y e s
5.27 5 .2 5 5 .3 6 5 .2 9
T o ta l G roup M 5 .3 9 5 .5 0 5 .3 3 5.41
T A B L E 1 5 .— A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iff e r e n c e s in in itia l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s
S o u r c e S 2 df
V a r ia n c e
E s tim a te
F P
E y e s ig h t .0507 1 .0507
- -
C o n d itio n .0 2 9 8 2 .0149
- -
In te r a c tio n .0432 2 .0216
- -
W ith in 6.110 113 .0541
- -
117
118
T A B L E 1 6 .— M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s betw een:
p re and in itia l p o st t e s t s of film s u b je c t-m a tte r fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l
a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s
V is u a l A c u ity
R atin g
G roup 1
M
N = 43
G roup 2
M
N = 41
G roup 3
M
N = 30
T o ta l V isu a l
M
20 /2 0 R atin g
fo r B oth E y e s
1.33 1.33 .75 1.20
A b ove 20 /2 0
R a tin g fo r One
o r B oth E y e s
.81 1.00 1.50 1.13
T o ta l G roup M 1.14 1.27 1.03 1.16
T A B L E 1 7 .— A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s b etw een
pre and in itia l p o st t e s t s of film s u b je c t-m a tte r fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l
a c u ity c la s s if ic a t io n s
S o u rce £ 2 d f
V a r ia n c e
E s tim a te
F P
E y e s ig h t .0075 1 .0075
- -
C on d ition .0538 2 .0269
- -
In te r a c tio n .5229 2 .2614 2 .7 4 NS
W ithin 10.29 108 .0953 - -
119’
T A B L E 18. — M eans and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s ific a tio n s
V isu a l A cu ity
R ating
G roup 1
M
(N = 35)
G roup 2
M
N = 34
G roup 3
M
N = 31
T o ta l V isu a l
M
20/20 R ating
fo r B oth E y e s
1 6.30 1 5 .68 14.05 15.40
A bove 20/20
R atin g fo r One
o r B oth E y e s
1 5.66 15.33 1 5 .90 15.68
T o ta l G roup M 16.09 15.62 14.65 1 5.48
T A B L E 1 9 .— A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t v is u a l a c u ity c la s s ific a tio n s
S ou rce E 2 df
V a ria n ce
E stim a te
F P
E y e sig h t .1392 1 .1392 - -
C ondition 2.1612 2 1.0806 2.99 NS
In tera ctio n 2.1136 2 1.0568 2.92 NS
W ithin 3 4 .0 0 0 0 94 .3617 - -
120
T A B L E 2 0 .— M eans and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
ra tin g s fo r d iffe re n t v isu a l a cu ity c la s s ific a tio n s
V isu a l A cu ity
R ating
G roup 1
M
N = 45
G roup 2
M
N = 43
Group 3
M
N = 32
T o ta l V isu a l
M
20/20 R ating
fo r Both E y e s
3.87 3.97 3.57 3.84
A bove 20/20
R ating fo r One
o r B oth E y e s
3 .6 0 4.13 4.09 3 .8 8
T o ta l Group M 3.78 4 .0 0 3.75 3.85
T A B L E 2 1 .— A n a ly sis o f V a ria n ce fo r d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
ra tin g s fo r d ifferen t v is u a l a cu ity c la s s ific a tio n s
S ou rce H 2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
E y e sig h t .0030 1 .0030
- -
C ondition .0748 2 .0374 1.87 NS
In tera ctio n .2051 2 .1025 3.39 .05*
W ithin 3.445 114 .0302
- -
^ S ignificant at the .05 le v e l of sig n ific a n c e
TA BL E 22.— M eans and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre te s t s c o r e s
fo r d ifferen t v is u a l a cu ity c la s s ific a tio n s
V isu a l A cu ity
R ating
G roup 1
M
N = 42
G roup 2
M
N = 41
G roup 3
M
N = 30
T o ta l V isu a l
M
20/20 R ating
fo r B oth E y e s
4 .0 4 4.27 4.55 4 .2 8
A bove 20/20
R ating fo r O ne
o r B oth E y e s
4 .5 0 4 .2 5 3 .8 0 4 .1 8
T o ta l G roup M 4.21 4.27 4 .3 0 4 .2 6
TA BL E 2 3 .— A n a ly s is of v a r ia n ce fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t s c o r e s
for d ifferen t v is u a l a cu ity c la s s ific a tio n s
S ou rce S 2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
E y e sig h t .0204 1 .0204 - -
C ondition .0084 2 .0042
- -
In teraction .4703 2 .2351 4 .4 6 .025*
W ithin 5.64 107 .0527
- -
^ S ign ifican t at the .025 le v e l o f sig n ific a n c e
122
T A B L E 2 4 .— M eans and to ta l m ea n s for d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
r a tin g s fo r d iffe re n t se a tin g a r e a s
Seatin g
A rea
G roup 1
M
N = 49
Group 2
M
N = 47
Group 3
M
N = 34
T o ta l A r e a
M
F ron t 4 .0 0 4 .0 8 3.25 3.92
M iddle 3.73 3.90 3.88 3.83
B ack 3.82 3.93 3.69 3.81
T o ta l G roup M 3.82 3.96 3.74 3.85
T A B L E 25. — A n a ly sis of v a r ia n ce for d iffe r e n c e s in e ffe c tiv e n e s s
ra tin g s fo r d ifferen t se a tin g a r e a s
S ou rce U 2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
Seating .0188 2 .0094 -
C ondition .0753 2 .0376
-
In tera ctio n .3613 4 .0903 2 .0 0 NS
W ithin 5.456 121 .0451
-
123 !
TABLE 2 6 .— M eans and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t s c o r e s '
for d iffe re n t se a tin g a r e a s
S eatin g
A r e a
G roup 1
M
N = 46
G roup 2
M
N = 46
G roup 3
M
N = 31
T o ta l A r ea
M
F ron t 4 .25 4 .5 8 5.00 4 .4 8
M iddle 4 .0 4 4 .2 8 4 .0 0 4 .1 2
B ack 4.25 4 .0 8 4.69 4.31
T o ta l Group M 4 .15 4 .3 0 4.32 4 .2 4
TA BLE 27. — A n a ly sis of v a r ia n ce fo r d iffe r e n c e s in pre t e s t s c o r e s
fo r d iffe re n t se a tin g a r e a s
S ou rce E 2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
S eatin g .2307 2 .1153
- -
C ondition .0663 2 .0331
- -
In teraction .4347 4 .1087
- -
W ithin 188.6 114 1.654
- -
124
T A B L E 2 8 .— M ean s and to ta l m e a n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p ost t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t se a tin g a r e a s
S eatin g
A rea
G roup 1
M
N = 49
G roup 2
M
N = 46
G roup 3
M .
N = 34
T o ta l A r e a
M
F ron t 5 .3 0 5.5 0 5.50 5.27
M iddle 5 .5 0 5.57 5.24 5.45
B ack 5.29 5.23 5.38 5.30
T o ta l G roup M 5.39 5.45 * 5.32 5.36
TA B L E 2 9 .- —A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e fo r d iffe r e n c e s in in itia l p ost t e s t
s c o r e s fo r d iffe r e n t se a tin g a r e a s
S o u rce X 2 df
V a ria n ce
E stim a te
F P
S eatin g .0594 2 .0297
- -
C ondition .0075 2 .0037
- -
In tera ctio n .1668 4 .0417
- -
W ithin 11 .70 120 .0975
- -
125'
TA B L E 3 0 .— M eans and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s b etw een
pre and in itia l p ost t e s t s of film su b je c t-m a tte r fo r d iffe re n t se a tin g
a r e a s
Seatin g
A r ea
G roup 1
M
N = 46
G roup 2
M
N = 46
G roup 3
M
N = 31
T o ta l A r e a
M
F ron t .88 .92 1.00 .90
M iddle 1.45 1.29 1.23 1.33
B ack 1.00 1.15 .69 .95
T o ta l Group M 1.19 1.15 1.00 1.11
TA BL E 3 1 .— A n a ly s is o f v a r ia n ce fo r d iffe r e n c e s in s c o r e s b etw een
pre and in itia l p ost t e s ts of film su b je c t-m a tte r fo r d iffe re n t se a tin g
a r e a s
S ou rce S 2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
Seatin g .3519 2 .1759
- -
C ondition .0567 2 .0283
- • *
In teraction .1105 4 .0276
- -
W ithin 27.36 113 .2421 - -
126’
T A B L E 32. — M eans and to ta l m ea n s fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p o st te s t
s c o r e s for d ifferen t se a tin g a r e a s
S eatin g
A rea
G roup 1
M
N = 35
G roup 2
M
N = 38
G roup 3
M
N = 27
T o ta l
A r e a M
F ron t 16.28 15.72 14.33 15.71
M iddle 16.56 15.67 14.86 15.71
B ack 16.41 15.50 15.77 15.90
T o ta l Group M 16.46 15.63 15.11 15.73
T A B L E 33. — A n a ly sis o f v a r ia n ce fo r d iffe r e n c e s in fin a l p ost te s t
s c o r e s fo r d ifferen t se a tin g a r e a s
S ou rce Z2 df
V arian ce
E stim a te
F P
Seatin g .0687 2 .0343
- -
C ondition 2.643 2 1.321 2.84 NS
In tera ctio n .9928 4 .2482
- -
W ithin 4 2 .7 4 92 .4646
- -

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Asset Metadata

Creator Steiner, George Edward (author)

Core Title An Experimental Study Of The Influence Of Subliminal Cue Words On Audience Responses To A Filmed Speaker'S Sincerity, Effectiveness, And Subject Matter

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McCoard, William B. (committee chair), Dickens, Milton (committee member), Harwood, Kenneth A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-49837

Unique identifier UC11357585

Identifier 5905027.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-49837 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 5905027.pdf

Dmrecord 49837

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Steiner, George Edward

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA