University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Appropriateness Of Field And Level Of Vocational Choice As Related Toself-Concepts, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

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The Appropriateness Of Field And Level Of Vocational Choice As Related Toself-Concepts, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

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Content T H E APPROPRIATENESS OF FIELD A N D LEVEL OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE AS RELATED T O SELF-CONCEPTS, INTELLIGENCE, SC H O O L ACHIEVEM ENT, A N D SOCIOECONOM IC STATUS by Paul D. Fairw eather A D is s e r ta tio n P resen ted to the FACULTY OF T H E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L UNIVERSITY OF SO UTH ERN CALIFORNIA In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f the R equirem ents fo r th e Degree D O C T O R OF PHILOSOPHY (E ducation) January I960 UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES 7, CALIFORNIA This dissertation, written by ..........................P A l^ .D f..FATMEATHM........................... under the direction of h.X§...Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Date........J.ariuar.:/.,. .1 2 .6 .0 . DISSERTAJI J jg d A i- riON^OMMITTEE Chairman t y j j . b A ..... TABLE OF COM1 ENTS Chapter Page I . THE PROBLEM 1 I n tr o d u c tio n to th e Problem H ypotheses D e lim ita tio n s of th e Study D e f in itio n s of Terms and O p e ra tio n a l C o n stru c ts O rg a n iz a tio n of th e R eport V o c a tio n a l Choice Theory Methods and C r i t e r i a i n M easuring Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss O ccu p atio n al In fo rm a tio n and C ounseling as R e la te d to A p p ro p ria te n e ss of C areer Choice I n t e l l i g e n c e and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Choice Socio-Economic S ta tu s and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Choice I n v e n to r ie d I n t e r e s t s and A p p ro p ria te n e ss o f O ccu p atio n al Choice P e r s o n a lity and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Choice The In flu e n c e of S e lf Concepts on V o c a tio n a l Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss Q -s o rt Techniques of M easuring th e S e lf C oncepts Fam ily In flu e n c e on A p p ro p ria te n e ss o f V o c a tio n a l D ecisio n Summary Choice of th e Sample The E x p erim en tal Q -s o rt A d m in is tra tio n of th e Q -s o rt and S tu d en t Q u e stio n n a ire O b tain in g In fo rm a tio n O b tain in g th e S tate m e n t of th e S tu d e n t’ s O ccupational Choice T reatm ent of th e Data on E x p erim en tal V a ria b le s R a tin g of S tu d en t Choices R e tu rn s to th e Schools S t a t i s t i c a l D esign I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 10 I I I . RESEARCH DESIGN 70 Chapter Summary IV. FINDINGS..................................................................................... Com parisons of F ie ld Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith L evel Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s R e la tio n s h ip of V o c a tio n a l Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss to S e lf Concepts R e la tio n s h ip of V o ca tio n al Choice A p p ro p ri a te n e s s to V a ria b le s Employed i n V o c a tio n a l Guidance M u ltip le P r e d ic tio n of F ie ld and L evel of V o c a tio n a l Choice Summary of F in d in g s D isc u ssio n of th e F in d in g s V, SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AN D RECOMMENDATIONS . . Summary C onclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... iv Page 97 155 169 APPENDIX 187 LIST OP TABLES Table Page 1. C o r re la tio n of F ie ld Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith Level Choice A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s U sing D esig n ated Sam ples................................100 2 . C o r r e la tio n of F ie ld and L evel A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith S e le c te d S e lf Concept Q -s o rt V alues ....................................................................... 103 3. C o r r e la tio n o f F ie ld and L evel A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith S e lf - S e l f I d e a l Q -s o rt Values U sing D esig n ated Sam ples...................................................106 I}.. C o r r e la tio n of F ie ld and L evel A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith S e lf Id eal-M o th er I d e a l Q -so rt Values U sing D esig n ated Samples . . . . . . . 10? 5 . C o r r e la tio n of F i e l d and Level A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith S elf-M o th er I d e a l Q-3o r t V alues U sing D esig n ated Samples ............................. 108 6 , Comparison of Mean A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s of F ie ld of F i r s t Choice and S e lf Concept Q-3o r t V alues ....................................................................... 109 7* Comparison of Mean A p p ro p ria te n e ss R atin g s of Level of F i r s t Choice and S e lf Concept Q -s o rt Values ....................................................................... 112 8 * Comparison of F i r s t and Second C hoices o f V o ca tio n al F ie ld w ith S e lf Concept Q -s o rt V a l u e s ........................................................ l l £ 9* Comparison of F i r s t and Second C hoices of V o ca tio n al Level w ith S e lf Concept Q-3o r t V alues ....................................................................... I l 6 10. C o r r e la tio n of F ie ld and Level A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s w ith Guidance V a ria b le s ............................. 118 11. C o r r e la tio n of F ie ld and L evel A p p ro p ria te n e ss ; R a tin g s w ith I n te l l i g e n c e U sing j D esig n ated Sam ples 120 j 12. C o r re la tio n s o f F ie ld and Level Choice j A p p ro p ria te n e ss R atin g s w ith School I Achievement U sing D esignated S am ples........................ 122 Vi Table Page 13« C o r r e la tio n s of F i e l d and L evel Choice Appro p r ia te n e s s R a tin g s -with Socio-Econom ic S ta tu s U sing D esig n ate d Sam ples. .........................121+ lL|.. Comparison o f Mean A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s of F ie ld o f F i r s t Choice and F a c to rs Employed in V o catio n al C o u n selin g ................................................... 126 l £ . Comparison o f Mean A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s of L evel of F i r s t Choice and F a c to rs Employed in V o catio n al G uidance....................... 127 l 6 . A p p ro p ria te n e ss of F i r s t and Second F i e l d C h o ices.............................................................................131 17* Comparison of F i r s t and Second C hoices of V o ca tio n al F ie ld w ith Guidance V a ria b le s . . 132 18. A p p ro p ria te n e ss of F i r s t and Second L evel C h o ices............................................... I 3I 4 - 19* Comparison of F i r s t and Second Choices of V o catio n al L evel w ith Guidance V a ria b le s . . 131? 20. P re d ic tio n of A p p ro p ria te n e ss of F ie ld of V o ca tio n al Choice Employing a Com bination o f P r e d ic tiv e V a r ia b le s ..................................................... 137 21. P re d ic tio n o f A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Level of V o c a tio n a l Choice Employing a Com bination o f P r e d ic tiv e V a r ia b le s ...................................... 138 CHAPTER I | i [ THE PROBLEM j I n tr o d u c tio n to th e Problem V o ca tio n al co u n se lo rs a t th e h ig h sch o o l l e v e l a re ; confronted, w ith th e ta s k o f h e lp in g s tu d e n ts make r e a l i s t i c and i n t e l l i g e n t c a re e r d e c is io n s * School guidance p e r so n n el and v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lo rs have worked w ith in th e guidance s tr u c t u r e l a i d down by P rank P arsons (135) 1909* P a rso n ’ s th re e f a c t o r s in th e s e l e c t i o n of a voca t i o n w ere: ( 1 ) a c l e a r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s e l f ; ( 2 ) a knowledge of req u irem e n ts and c o n d itio n s of d i f f e r e n t l i n e s o f work; and (3 ) tr u e re a s o n in g on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e s e two groups of f a c ts * C ounseling c a r r i e d on w ith in t h i s framework came to be c o n s id e re d as p r im a r ily a p ro c e ss of m easuring th e t r a i t s o f an in d iv id u a l and m atching them a g a in s t job re q u ire m e n ts . D ec isio n was a c o g n itiv e p ro c e s s , and th e fu n c tio n of c o u n se lin g was to im p a rt in fo rm a tio n to th e I n d iv id u a l co n cern in g th e t r a i t s he p o sse sse d , and th e ty p e s o f work which would be ap p ro p r i a t e f o r him on th e b a s is of th e s e t r a i t s * The a b i l i t y of in d iv id u a ls to make r e a l i s t i c c a re e r d e c is io n s h as r e c e n tly come to be c o n sid e re d a p ro d u c t of b o th i n t r a - p e r s o n a l and i n t e r - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s . This u n d e rsta n d in g i s based on th e assum ption t h a t a p e rs o n ’ s p e r c e p tio n o f h im s e lf, along w ith f a c t o r s e x te r n a l to h i s frame of s e l f re fe re n c e , such as i n t e l l i g e n c e and a p t i - ! j tu d e s , s o c ia l s t a t u s , and l e v e l of a s p i r a t i o n , a re a l l ! in v o lv e d in th e k in d of c a re e r d e c is io n s he makes* Super s a id , ” Problems of v o c a tio n a l choice are to some e x te n t em otional because l i k e p a r e n t - c h ild , m a r ita l, o r any o th e r type of problem s, th ey in v o lv e th e s e l f ’* ( 192s 196)* He th e o riz e d t h a t i n choosing an o cc u p atio n one i s i n e f f e c t choosing a means of im plem enting a s e l f c o n c e p t. I t has been p o s tu la te d t h a t th e p e rso n whose id e a of h im s e lf i s in ad eq u ate o r u n r e la te d to r e a l i t y w i l l n o t be con scio u s o f h i s n eed s. As Kinnane (101) has p o in te d out, h is ex p e rien ce s of f a n ta s y w ill not be accompanied by conscious r e a l i t y t e s t i n g . He w ill n o t be a b le to r e d i r e c t h is d riv e s f o r need s a t i s f a c t i o n a g a in s t th e r e a l i t i e s o f h is f a c i l i t i e s o r h is s o c ia l milieu. In o rd e r t h a t th e guidance program of the sch o o l may more e f f e c t i v e l y h e lp th e s tu d e n t make h is c a re e r p la n s , t h i s study e x p lo re d th e way in which th e s e l f p e rc e p tio n of s e n io r h ig h sch o o l s tu d e n ts as measured by th re e s e l f concepts was r e la te d to t h e i r a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te c a re e r c h o ic e s . T his study attem p ted to a s c e r t a i n a ls o th e way in | which th e Im p o rtan t p s y c h o lo g ic a l- s o c ia l v a r ia b le s of ; i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s were ; r e l a t e d to th e a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f v o c a tio n a l choice and might be used in co n ju n ctio n w ith the a p p r a is a ls of s e l f concepts in u n d erstan d in g the stu d e n t* s re a d in e ss to make r e a l i s t i c d e c is io n s . Heywood (82:95) n o ted th a t in assuming a b roader p e rsp e c tiv e of th e in d iv id u a l in choice s it u a ti o n s , th e s e l f concept approach should co n tin u e to encompass a l l th e major f a c to r s of th e t r a i t and f a c t o r approach. Super who d isc u sse d v o c a tio n a l ch o ice as a p ro cess of s e l f concept im plem entation in d ic a te d th a t broad s tu d ie s of th is kind are c a lle d f o r . He 3a id , ’'What i s needed i s an u n d erstan d in g of how a l l s ig n i f ic a n t f a c to r s a f f e c t su c c e ss” (192:166-167) < » The id e a l stu d y according to him would be one in which a l l presum ably re le v a n t p sy c h o lo g ic a l, s o c ia l; and economic f a c to r s were taken in t o acco u n t, and in which t h e i r in te r a c ti o n as w ell as t h e i r p r e d ic tiv e v a l i d i t y were a s c e r ta in e d . This study attem pted to determ ine how p sy c h o lo g ica l and s o c ia l f a c to r s a lre a d y in use in th e f i e l d of v o c a tio n a l guidance were r e l a t e d to th re e im portant s e lf concepts u sin g a tw e lf th grade h ig h school p o p u la tio n . An attem p t was made to a s c e r ta in how such v a r ia b le s might be combined w ith s e l f concepts f o r use as m u ltip le p r e d ic to rs of choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss a t the tw e lf th g rad e. In a p p ia is in g th e r e a l i t y of v o c a tio n a l ch o ices t h i s stu d y was concerned to e v a lu a te the f i e l d of choice and the le v e l of choice s e p a r a te ly . No s tu d ie s were found which attem p ted such d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . Recent t h e o r i z i n g of Roe ( l £ l ) , S uper (1 9 2 ), and o th e r s i n d ic a t e d a need f o r such c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n v o c a tio n a l g u id an ce r e se arch # H igh sch o o l s e n io r s need h e lp i n term s o f u n d e r s ta n d in g th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r su c c e ss i n th e work th e y have s e le c te d , as w e ll a s th e p o t e n t i a l o f th e job to meet t h e i r p e r s o n a l needs and b r in g them s e l f s a t i s f a c t i o n * T his stu d y a t te n p t e d to make a c o n t r ib u t io n to th e f i e l d of sc h o o l v o c a tio n a l guid an ce by i n d i c a t i n g how th e e x p e ri m ental v a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d were r e l a t e d to b o th th e su c c e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l of stu d e n ts* ch o ices* To make t h i s p o s s i b le , a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f c h o ic e s was e v a lu a te d i n term s o f b o th v o c a tio n a l l e v e l and v o c a tio n a l f i e l d . S tate m e n t o f th e Problem The p u rp o ses o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ere; (1) to d eterm in e how th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ice o f t w e l f t h g rade s tu d e n ts was r e l a t e d to th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e ; ( 2 ) to a s c e r t a i n how th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f th e s t a t e d f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l ch o ice o f tw e l f th grade s tu d e n ts was r e l a t e d to t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p ts ; ( 3 ) to d is c o v e r how th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f s t a t e d l e v e l o f v o c a tio n a l ch o ice of t w e l f t h grade s tu d e n ts was r e l a t e d to t h e i r s e l f co n c e p ts; (I4 .) to d is c o v e r how th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f th e s t a t e d 1 f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e o f t w e l f t h g rad e s tu d e n ts was r e l a t e d to th e guidance v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , s o c io economic s t a t u s , and sc h o o l achievem ent; (5 ) to d is c o v e r how th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f th e s t a t e d l e v e l o f v o c a tio n a l • c h o ic e o f t w e l f t h g rad e s tu d e n ts was r e l a t e d to th e g u id ance v a r ia b le s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , so c io -eco n o m ic s t a t u s , and sch o o l achievem ent; (6 ) to a s c e r t a i n th e way in which th e second s t a t e d v o c a tio n a l ch o ice of th e s tu d e n t was r e l a t e d ; to h is f i r s t s t a t e d c h o ic e ; and ( 7 ) to d eterm in e th e way i n w hich th e s e l f c o n c e p ts , i n t e l l i g e n c e , ach iev em en t, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s o f s tu d e n ts c o u ld be combined f o r p r e d i c t i n g th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f f i e l d and l e v e l of c h o ic e . H ypotheses The f o llo w in g h y p o th e se s, s t a t e d in r e s e a r c h form , have been exam ined in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 1« S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t betw een th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f s t a t e d f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e o f tw e l f th g rad e s tu d e n ts and th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f s t a t e d l e v e l of v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . 2* S ig n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t betw een th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e among t w e l f t h g ra d e rs and th e c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een th e s e l f and th e ■ s e l f i d e a l c o n c e p t, th e s e l f and th e m other i d e a l co n c ep t, and th e s e l f i d e a l and th e m other i d e a l c o n c e p t. 6 3 . S i g n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t betw een th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f l e v e l of v o c a tio n a l ch o ice among tw e lf th g ra d e rs and th e c o r r e la tio n s between th e s e l f and th e s e l f id e a l co n c ep t, th e s e l f and th e m other i d e a l c o n c e p t, and th e s e l f i d e a l and th e m other i d e a l c o n c e p t, [}., S i g n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ice among tw e l f th g ra d e r s and i n t e l l i g e n c e , socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and sc h o o l achievem ent. 5* S ig n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t betw een th e a p p ro p r ia te n e s s o f l e v e l of v o c a tio n a l choice among t w e l f t h g ra d e rs and i n t e l l i g e n c e , socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and sc h o o l achievem ent, 6 , S e lf c o n c e p ts, i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s can be employed i n com bination to p r e d i c t th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f f i e l d and l e v e l o f c h o ic e , 7 . S ig n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between f i r s t and second ch o ice te n d e n c ie s and a s t u d e n t ’ s s e l f c o n c e p ts , i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s . D e lim ita tio n s o f th e Study The scope of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was r e s t r i c t e d to t w e l f th g rade s tu d e n ts . S u b je c ts employed i n th e stu d y were male s tu d e n ts in s e n io r problem s type c o u rse s from th r e e Los Angeles County m e tro p o lita n h ig h sc h o o ls hav in g averag e d a i ly a tte n d a n c e o f more th a n 1 ,5 0 0 b u t l e s s th a n 2,^00 s tu d e n ts . S u b je c ts whose h ig h e s t r e p o r te d I.Q . sco re was le s s than 75> s tu d e n ts who were a b se n t d u rin g i ! th e e x p e rim e n ta l p e rio d s were excluded from th e stu d y . | | The in v e s tig a tio n was a lso lim ite d to th e stu d y I of th e c e r t a i n s e le c te d s e l f concepts and guidance v a r i a b le s commonly employed In v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lin g . Choice i of th e v a r ia b le s was made on the b a s is of s p e c i a l i s t s 1 ! recom mendations as found in a review of th e l i t e r a t u r e . D e f in itio n s of Terms and O p e ra tio n a l C o n stru c ts The fo llo w in g term s are d e fin e d in accordance w ith I th e purpose of t h i s in v e s tig a tio n : 1« S e lf -c o n c e p t--th e s e l f th e in d iv id u a l , p e rc e iv e s , in c lu d in g h i s own a t t r i b u t e s , f e e l in g s , and b eh av io r as observed s u b je c tiv e ly and a d m itte d to aw are n e ss (lf?6:5>5) • 2. S e lf id e a l co n c ep t—th e i n d i v i d u a l ^ p ic tu r e of th e s e l f as he co n scio u sly w ishes to b e. 3. Mother id e a l con cep t— th e i n d i v i d u a l ^ p ic tu r e o f th e s e l f as he p e rc e iv e s h i s mother c o n s c io u sly w ishes him to b e . The fo llo w in g o p e ra tio n a l c o n s tru c ts were employed In t h i s stu d y : i 1, F ie ld o f c h o ic e — one of th e e ig h t c a te g o r ie s in to which an occu p atio n i s c l a s s i f i e d acco rd in g to th e ' prim ary fo cu s o f th e m ajor fu n c tio n s perform ed, th e degree of p e rs o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n s in v o lv e d , or th e fo rm of know l edge r e le v a n t to th e o cc u p a tio n (15>l:ll|5>-ll|.7) • 2 . Level of c h o ic e — one of th e s i x c a te g o r ie s in to w hich an o c c u p a tio n i s c l a s s i f i e d a c c o rd in g to th e degree o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , s k i l l , or c a p a c ity r e q u ir e d { l£ l:llj.9 ) • 3 . I n t e l l i g e n c e - - t h e h ig h e s t I .Q . sc o re r e p o r te d a f t e r th e t h i r d g rade o f sch o o l as re c o rd e d on a s t u d e n t ’ s cum u lativ e re c o rd f o l d e r . A ch iev em en t--th e most r e c e n t h ig h sch o o l achievem ent b a t t e r y t e s t sc o re r e p o r te d ac c o rd in g to grade p lacem en t, as re c o rd e d on a s t u d e n t ’ s cu m u lativ e re c o rd f o l d e r . Socio-econom ic s t a t u s —one o f th e seven s o c i a l s t a t u s c la s s e s based on th e o cc u p a tio n o f th e f a t h e r ran k ed a c c o rd in g to W arner, Meeker, and E e ls ’ c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f socio-econom ic le v e ls ( 199)* O rg a n iz a tio n of th e R ep o rt C hapter I I o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s concerned w ith a rev iew o f th e l i t e r a t u r e p e r ta in in g to a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . I t in c lu d e s v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e th e o ry , methods and c r i t e r i a in m easuring c h o ic e a p p r o p r i a te n e s s , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between guidance v a r i a b l e s and c h o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s , and th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f co n c ep ts and ch o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s . C hapter I I I d e s c rib e s th e b a s i c d e sig n o f th e stu d y and e x p la in s th e way i n which th e sample was selected * I t in c lu d e s a r e p o r t on th e in s tru m e n ts used i n th e p r o je c t, a d e s c r ip tio n of the te c h n iq u e s employed i n r a t i n g c h o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s , and the tr e a tm e n t o f th e d a t a . C hapter IV c o n ta in s th e f in d in g s o f th e i n v e s t i g a tio n * The r e l a t i o n s h i p s of th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f th e s t u d e n t s ’ s t a t e d v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s w ith s e l f co n c ep ts and g uidance v a r ia b le s a re r e p o r te d . The s ig n i f ic a n c e of th e f in d in g s a re d is c u s s e d . C hapter V p r e s e n ts a summary o f th e f in d in g s of th e in v e s tig a tio n * The d a ta a re i n t e r p r e t e d a c c o rd in g to th e re s e a r c h h y p o th eses s t a t e d i n th e r e p o r t . Recommenda t io n s and c o n c lu sio n s com prise th e rem a in d er o f th e c h a p te r . CHAPTER I I | REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE 1 I ' ' I V o c a tio n a l Choice Theory I R esearch on v o c a tio n a l cho ice h a s been perform ed w ith in th r e e m ajor c o n c e p tu a l fram ew orks; t r a i t and f a c t o r ! th e o ry , s o c ia l system s th e o ry , and p s y c h o lo g ic a l- s o c io lo g i- ; c a l th e o ry . W rite rs and r e s e a r c h e r s in each a re a have made m ajor c o n tr ib u tio n s to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f f a c t o r s r e l a t e d to a p p r o p r ia te c a r e e r d e c is io n s , B achrach ( 8 ) “ 'd i s cu ssed th e s e c o n c e p tu a l frameworks under th e h e a d in g s: t r a i t and f a c t o r th e o ry , s o c ia l system s ap p ro ac h es, and p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r i e s . Super (193), i n a re c e n t approach to ch o ice th e o ry , has em phasized a s y n th e tic approach to v o ca t i o n a l ch o ice em phasizing developm ental and p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts of c a re e r d e c is io n . He em phasized th r e e ty p e s o f f a c t o r s which he c o n sid e re d to p la y a m ajor p a r t i n v o c a tio n a l b e h a v io r: r o le f a c t o r s , p e rs o n a l f a c t o r s , and s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s , B e ilin (13) em phasized th e d if f e r e n c e s between th e b a s ic t r a i t and f a c t o r p h ilo so p h y of cho ice which he d e fin e d as ‘'p o in t in tim e ” c h o ic e , and c h o ice as d e v e lo p m e n ta lly c o n sid e re d w hich must be con s id e re d to be a p ro d u ct o f v a rio u s p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i a l f a c t o r s o p e ra tiv e in th e in d i v i d u a l . Choice from t h i s p e r s p e c tiv e would be a r e s u l t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p a s t h is to r y as w ell as s i t u a t i o n a l or ’’tim e bound” f a c t o r s . C la s s ic a l T r a i t and F a c to r Theory C la s s ic a l v o c a tio n a l counseling emphasized "p o in t in tim e" choice and much re s e a rc h was devoted to m easuring th e way in which a c q u is itio n of v o c a tio n a l in fo rm atio n o r in fo rm atio n about p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s and a p titu d e s a ffe c te d th e s tu d e n t's a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s . Methods employed in counseling and re s e a rc h were t r a i t and f a c to r c e n tered w ith much emphasis on a c tu a r ia l te c h - n iq u e s . Frank P a rso n 's (135) statem en t of the essence of e a r ly v o c a tio n a l counseling in 1909 has been r e f le c te d throughout i t s h is to r y u n t i l today, when as Bachrach ( 8) n o ted , we have the "new look" in t r a it and f a c t o r th e o ry . Super (192:168) observed th a t P a rso n 's method of a s c e r ta in ing the n a tu re of a p e rs o n 's a b i l i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , and background fo r purposes of matching them a g a in s t job requirem ents has become w ith only s li g h t m o d ific a tio n th a t of th e v o c a tio n a l guidance movement today* The ex p ressio n of t h i s philosophy can be c le a r ly tra c e d through the work of the U nited S ta te s Amy p sy c h o lo g ists in t h e i r study of d i f f e r e n t i a l a p titu d e s , the Minnesota Employment S t a b i l i z a tio n Research I n s t i t u t e , and th e Adjustment S erv ice of New York. These showed how improved methods of an aly zin g a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s and o f applying them on a ro u tin e b a s is could be accom plished. The la rg e sc a le re s e a rc h in a n a ly tic a l techniques and o c c u p atio n al requirem ents i n t r o duced by the U nited S ta te s Employment S erv ice as d esc rib e d by Stead and. S h a rtle ( 1 7 l + ) was a w itn ess to th e method of matching men and jo b s, P a te rs o n ’s ( 136) c h a p te r on voca tio n a l co u n selin g techniques in Trends i n Student Personnel Work p u b lish ed in 19^9 r e f le c te d t h i s philo so p h y . In i t s e s s e n ti a l divorcem ent from p sy c h o lo g ica l co u n selin g , r e se arch on choice re a lis m perform ed w ith in th is conceptual o u tlin e emphasized the way in which job in fo rm atio n , t r a i t s , and t r a i t knowledge were r e la te d to a p e rs o n 's a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te ca re er d e c is io n s . Contemporary Developments In a d d itio n to th e o rie s and re s e a rc h em phasizing t r a i t and f a c to r a sp e c ts o f choice re a lism , o th e r th e o rie s have been developing which have s tr e s s e d th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l- so c io lo g ic a l and developm ental a sp e c ts of ch o ice. R esearchers have been su c c e s sfu l in producing stu d ie s which have in d ic a te d th a t choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss i s a r e s u l t n o t only o f s i t u a t i o n a l and t r a i t f a c to r s but o f p e r s o n a lity adjustm ent, s e l f concept, and r o le i d e n t i f i c a tio n , S tu d ies by Ginzberg ( 7 3 ) * Small ( 1 6 9) , F riend and Haggard ( 6 7 ) , and many o th e rs , as w ell as a la rg e sc a le c a re e r p a tte r n study a t p re se n t being conducted by Donald Super ( 1 9 3 ) and a s s o c ia te s , have sig n a le d t h i s tr e n d . S tubblns s a id , nThe se a rc h f o r th e d eterm in an ts of v o c a tio n a l choice im p lie s a determ inism th a t n e g a te s the concept o f choice as the man on th e s t r e e t th in k s of i t 1 * (l8 5 :i|1 0 ). He f u r th e r p o in te d o u t t h a t , ’'what is c a lle d choice may more p ro p e rly be r e f e r r e d to a s an e v e n t, o r outcome, o r developm ent.” O ther evidences of an in c re a s in g concern w ith the p sy c h o lo g ic a l and so c io l o g ic a l a s p e c ts of choice re a lis m were in d ic a te d by s tu d ie s perform ed to measure th e d if fe re n c e s between a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te ch o ices a f t e r sim ple o c c u p a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n courses and a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c d e c is io n s a f t e r p e rso n a l c o u n selin g . S to n e’ s (180) stu d y was a c l a s s i c in t h i s r e g a rd . A lso, th e re have been s tu d ie s such as th e one com pleted by Heywood (82) which have attem pted to measure the r e la tio n s h i p between th e a b i l i t y of stu d e n ts to make r e a l i s t i c c a re e r d e c is io n s and th e s t r u c t u r e of th e e n t ir e guidance program o f the sc h o o l. Methods and C r i t e r i a in M easuring Choice A p p ro p riaten ess Comparison of re s e a rc h s tu d ie s i n th e f i e l d of v o c a tio n a l choice r e a lis m has been d i f f i c u l t because of th e d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a which have been employed f o r e v a lu a tio n p u rp o ses. O ccupational c l a s s i f i c a t i o n methods in re s e a rc h perform ed have a ls o v a rie d , making com parison of s tu d ie s even more d i f f i c u l t « n * C r i t e r i a f o r Determining: A p p ro p riaten ess of Choloe N atio n al and lo c a l census d a ta . —B ed fo rd 1 s (11) study i n 1938 was an example of a stu d y which e v a lu a te d choice a p p ro p ria te n e s s i n term s of th e p e rc e n ta g e of stu d e n ts s e le c tin g a given v o ca tio n a s compared w ith th e p erce n tag e employed in t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , as re p o rte d by th e U nited S ta te s Census. S im ila r s tu d ie s comparing p e r centage of stu d e n ts s e le c tin g o ccu p atio n s in g iv en c l a s s i f i c a tio n s as compared to census d a ta were th o se of Lehman and W itty (110), Byrns (3^)# and Bingham (2 2 ). Kinnane (101:11) c r i t i c i z e d s tu d ie s by B ell ( l 6 ) and H itchcock ( 8i|) which measured re a lis m on th e b a s is of com parison o f the numbers choosing c e r t a in o ccu p atio n s w ith th e number a c tu a lly employed. He s a id : In th e c r i t i c i s m of t h i s approach i t may be s a id th a t th e economy i s changing and manpower needs v a ry . I t a ls o does n o t allow f o r in d iv id u a l d if fe re n c e s in m o tiv a tio n , nor i s the g re a t d i v e r s i t y o f v o c a tio n a l p u r s u its w ith in broad v o c a tio n a l c a te g o rie s tak en in to acco u n t. Job needs in the l o c a l i t y from which th e samples are drawn may a ls o be a t v a ria n c e w ith n a tio n a l n ee d s.--T h e in d iv id u a l approach to re a lis m appears to be more e f f e c t i v e . ( 9lj.:ll) O ccupational s ta tu s of the f a t h e r . — O ccupational s ta tu s of th e f a th e r has sometimes been u sed, assuming th a t s tu d e n ts w i l l e n te r ap proxim ately th e same s o c ia l le v e l as th e f a t h e r . H o llingshead ( 86) p ro v id ed an example of t h i s approach. B unting (3 0 ), i n a stu d y on choice re a lis m , used as a c r i t e r i o n th e degree to which s tu d e n ts a s p ire d to th e same o cc u p atio n al le v e l as th e f a t h e r . Such s tu d ie s emphasized s o c ia l f a c to rs alm ost to th e e x c lu sio n of a l l o th e r f a c to r s and m itig a te d the im portance of i n d i v id u a l d iffe re n c e s i n v o c a tio n a l choice s i t u a t i o n s . Employment of p revious school g ra d u a te s .--Goxe (lj.6 ) e v a lu a te d r e a lis m of s tu d e n ts ’ choices by comparing choices made w ith the number of previous g rad u ates employed in th e s e le c te d c a te g o r ie s . Such a c r i t e r i o n was contam inated by th e degree to which th e a c tu a l v o ca tio n s e n te re d by p r e v i ous g rad u ates were in a p p ro p ria te . Job s a t i s f a c t i o n , .job su ccess, and .job e n tr y . — Follow up s tu d ie s have measured choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f stu d e n ts in terms of l a t e r job e n try , job su c cess, and job s a t i s f a c t i o n . K itson and S tover (lOlj.) e v a lu a te d choice re a lis m by measuring choices a g a in s t l a t e r job s a t i s f a c t io n , Cuony and Hoppock’s (51) c r i t e r i a were more i n c lu s iv e . They in c lu d e d job s a t i s f a c t i o n , amount of e a rn in g s, and number employed. G antoni’ s ( 35) study measured th e d iffe re n c e between stu d e n ts having had a v o c a tio n a l g u id ance program and th o se who had n o t. A follow up of th e experim ental group in d ic a te d th a t th e experim ental group had made g re a te r gains in o cc u p atio n al s t a t u s . From t h i s i t was in f e r r e d th a t t h e i r i n i t i a l choices had been more r e a l i s t i c . In re g a rd to stu d ie s concerned w ith e v a lu a tin g h ig h school s tu d e n ts ' choices by comparing them w ith actuajf. job e n try see P ro c to r (llj.1) and Ogborn (133)* R eduction of a s p ir a tio n l e v e l . —S e v e ra l s tu d ie s , in c lu d in g th e c la s s ic stu d y of Kefauver and Hand (99)» j have employed re d u c tio n of a s p ir a tio n le v e l as one of th e j c r i t e r i a of choice ap p ro p riaten ess* Such a c r i t e r i o n had i th e weakness of n o t measuring th e e x te n t to which a s p ir a tio n le v e l should have d ecreased . R atin g by .judges o r c o u n s e lo rs*—R ating by judges, v o c a tio n a l s p e c i a l i s t s , or co u n selo rs, them selves, have been employed i n an in c re a s in g ly la rg e number of s tu d ie s probably due to a c le a r e r u n d erstan d in g of the com plexity of f a c to r s e n te rin g in to the choice making s it u a ti o n and the r e a l i t y of the p referen ce expressed in it* In S to n e 's (180) study w ith a c o lle g e p o p u la tio n comparing th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of group v ersu s in d iv id u a l v o c a tio n a l co u n selin g , judges were asked to e v a lu a te th e a p p ro p ria te n e ss of s tu d e n ts ' choices* R yan's (159) study of re a lis m w ith c o lleg e stu d e n ts employed fo u r judges to r a te choice a p p ro p ria te n e s s . They r a te d choices on a th re e p o in t s c a le , " r e a l i s t i c , " "undecided," and " u n re a l i s t i c . " The r a tin g was used when th re e out of th e i fo u r judges ag reed . A study by R eisner (II4 .6 ) a ls o ! employed ju d g e s’ r a tin g s . j In S m all13 (lb 9 ) stu d y , co u n selo rs u sin g P a rt X V of th e D ic tio n a ry of O ccupational T i t l e s as a c r i t e r i o n of re q u ire d p erso n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r th e o ccu p atio n s e le c te d , asked the counselors to r a t e th e c l i e n t ’ s a p p ro p ria te n e ss f o r th a t type of work* Lockwood’ s (113) re c e n t study on th e choice re a lis m of 508 h ig h school s e n io rs used two experienced placem ent co u n selo rs to r a t e th e r e a lis m of th e s tu d e n ts ’ v o c a tio n a l choices on a te n p o in t re a lis m scale* Choices were ranked from ’’h ig h ly r e a l i s t i c ” to ’’h ig h ly u n r e a l i s t i c . ” The s c a le was u l t i m ately reduced to a f iv e p o in t s c a le by subsuming a l l r a tin g s from f iv e to te n under a f iv e r a tin g when too few stu d e n ts were found to have made u n r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s . R ealism of choice in S tu b b in ’ s (185) study o f v e te ra n s was determ ined by th e co u n selo r, who r a te d the ch o ices as ’’a p p r o p r ia te ,” ’’u n r e a l i s t i c , ” or ’’to o low l e v e l . ” Even t u a l l y ’’a p p ro p ria te ” and ’’to o low l e v e l ” were combined when few were found to have too low a le v e l o f c h o ic e . F in a l r a tin g was th u s i n term s of ’’r e a l i s t i c ” o r " u n r e a l i s t i c ” ch o ic e . The c r i t e r i o n used was th e q u e s tio n , "Would you have approved the chosen o ccu p atio n f o r t r a i n in g under P u b lic Law 16?” O ccupational C l a s s if ic a tio n f o r D eterm ining A p p ro p riaten ess of Choice Remstad and Rothney ( 1) 4 .8 ) have dem onstrated th a t r e s u l t s o b ta in e d in o c c u p a tio n a l re s e a rc h depend on th e method used in c l a s s i f y in g o c c u p a tio n s• They compared th e D ic tio n a ry of O ccupational T i t l e s , th e Ruder P re fe re n ce Record c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system , and a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system d evised by th e a u th o rs . Super (193:1|5"^6) d isc u sse d th e f a c t t h a t th e D ictio n ary o f O ccupational T i t l e s i s n o t a tr u e u n i-d im e n sio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system . He p o in te d out t h a t employing i t re q u ire d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f occupa tio n s acco rd in g to th re e dim ensions: a c t i v i t y , e n t e r p r is e , and l e v e l . He s ta te d : 1 1 I t i s n e ith e r a tru e two-dimen s io n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n nor a tr u e th re e -d im e n sio n a l system . In f a c t , i t i s n o t even a tru e u n i-d im e n sio n a l schem a.” I t would seem th a t although th e D ic tio n a ry of O ccupational T i t l e s might be h e lp f u l f o r purposes o f o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r c o u n selin g , i t i s n o t adequate as a method of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a p p ro p ria te to use in r e s e a r c h s i t u a t i o n s . Super (193*23) a ls o c r i t i c i z e d th e Edwards s c a le as having o v erlap p in g c a te g o r ie s . Two-dimensional c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . —Super (193:1 4 .6 ) has in d ic a te d th a t re s e a rc h re q u ire s th a t o ccu p atio n s be c l a s s i f i e d along a t l e a s t th e two dim ensions of f i e l d and l e v e l . He s ta te d th a t the only tru e way to r e p r e s e n t c o n siste n c y of choice i s to take b o th f i e l d and le v e l in t o account (193*1|6)* The Roe (151*151) f i e l d and le v e l occu p a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system i s looked upon by Super as 19 h av in g d e f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r re s e a rc h u se because i t i s d esig n ed to c l a s s i f y o cc u p atio n s more a c c u r a te ly . He 3a id : Roe developed h e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of o c c u p a tio n s as an a id to th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l u n d e rsta n d in g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e r o le o f th e o c c u p a tio n in th e l i f e o f th e in d i v i d u a l - - o f th e r e l a t i o n between o ccu p a tio n a l choice and p e r s o n a l i t y . (1 9 3sii-6 ) F o r Roe*s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c h a rt see Appendix C. A lthough Super (193 sl|7-I|.8) su g g ested c l a s s i f y in g o c c u p atio n s a c co rd in g to a th re e -d im e n s io n a l sy stem in c lu d in g f i e l d , l e v e l , and e n t e r p r i s e , he su g g e sted t h a t Roe»s f i e l d and le v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n seemed th e most l o g i c a l and p r a c t i c a l l y u s e f u l tw o-dim ensional c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a v a i l a b le . T a n z e r's ( 19£) re c e n t stu d y c l a s s i f i e d occupa t i o n a l choice on a tw o-dim ensional b a s is f o r com parison w ith p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . He s tr e s s e d th e im portance o f t h i s type of cho ice c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r re s e a rc h p u rp o se s. Kinnane (101) i n a re c e n t stu d y employed th e two c r i t e r i a of a b i l i t y and I n t e r e s t i n m easuring ch o ice re a lis m . He found th a t re a lis m was e v a lu a te d d i f f e r e n t l y when i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r th a n a b i l i t i e s were employed as th e c r i t e r i o n . S tatem en ts of Choice f o r D eterm ining Choice A p p ro p ria ten e ss A c r i t i c a l problem i n m easuring c h o ice r e a lis m has been d is c rim in a tin g between a s tu d e n t’ s sta te m e n t o f ch o ice as one o f p la n o r a s p i r a t i o n . E a rly f in d in g s i n t h i s re g a rd were re p o rte d by H urlock and Ja n s in g (91)• D resden (55) made the p o in t t h a t i t i s im p o rta n t to o b ta in th e s tu d e n t’ s sta te m e n t of choice in term s o f ch o ice r e a l ism . He p o in te d out i n h is stu d y th a t th e c o n te x t in which q u e s tio n s were asked a f f e c te d th e degree to which ch o ices were s t a t e d r e a l i s t i c a l l y . G -ilger’ s (71) stu d y had e a r l i e r in d ic a te d th a t th e form of th e q u e s tio n asked d eterm ined th e degree of r e a lis m ex p ressed in th e re s p o n s e . The a b i l i t y of in d iv id u a ls to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between r e a l and f a n ta s y g o a l s . F in d in g s re p o rte d from le v e l of a s p i r a t i o n s tu d ie s a re c o n s is te n t w ith th e s e c o n c lu s io n s . Frank (6 6 ) compared th e p r o p e r tie s of th e l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n w ith random g u e s sin g . He found t h a t q u e s tio n s such a s, ”What do you th in k you w ill do?” were fo llo w ed more c lo s e ly by a goal of tr y in g to come c lo s e to t h e i r g u esses th a n such q u e s tio n s a s , ”What do you in te n d to do?” F e s tin g e r in a stu d y on f a c t o r s in f lu e n c in g th e le v e l of a s p i r a t i o n s t a t e d : The s u b je c t who t e l l s what he e x p e c ts to g e t seems to be r e a l i s t i c and keeps h is le v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n c lo se to h is perform ance. The s u b je c t who t e l l s 21 what he hopes or what he lik e s seems to become w ish f u l and u n r e a l i s t i c and r a i s e s h is g o al f a r above j h is perform ance l e v e l . (6 2 : l 8 1| - 200) The a b i l i t y of s tu d e n ts to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between i ! v o c a tio n a l p lan s and a s p i r a t i o n s . Trow (198) s tu d ie d h ig h j | school s tu d e n ts . He asked them to in d ic a te what v o ca tio n s | th ey co n sid ered to be f o r them selves ( 1 ) p ro b ab le , ( 2 ) p o s- I s i b l e , or (3 ) f a v o r ite f a n ta s y . He compared th e r e s u l t s i w ith th e census d a ta f o r the c i t y of D e tr o it. He concluded r th a t stu d e n ts made r e a l i s t i c ch o ices when the form of th e q u e s tio n p e rm itte d d is c rim in a tio n between a c tu a l p la n s and ; f a n ta s y . A r e c e n t stu d y by Stephenson (17&) in which s t u d ents were asked to s t a t e b o th an o c c u p a tio n a l p la n and an o c c u p a tio n a l a s p ir a tio n in d ic a te d th a t s tu d e n ts could d i f f e r e n t i a t e p la n s from a s p i r a t i o n s . These s tu d ie s h e lp e x p la in many of th e d is c re p a n c ie s in fin d in g s of s tu d ie s concerned w ith m easuring a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s . O ccupational In fo rm atio n and C ounseling as R e lated to A p p ro p riaten ess o f C areer Choice Prom th e beginning of th e v o c a tio n a l guidance move ment o c c u p a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n courses and v o c a tio n a l coun- ; s e lin g have emphasized m atching th e man w ith th e jo b . R esearch perform ed in c o n ju n ctio n w ith t h i s framework I attem p ted to measure choice re a lis m as p r im a r ily a 22 s i t u a t i o n a l m a tte r in v o lv in g th e a c q u is itio n o f f a c t s about o ccu p atio n s and p e rso n a l t r a i t s . S tu d ie s were executed in an e f f o r t to determ ine th e r e la tio n s h i p between ! v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n and a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f c a re e r d e c i- ; sio n v ery o fte n fo r purposes of e v a lu a tin g th e e f f e e t i v e - ; n ess of v o c a tio n a l c a re e r or o cc u p a tio n a l in fo rm atio n c o u rse s. I R e la tio n s h ip of V ocational In fo rm atio n to A p propriateness of Choice Much re s e a rc h has been c a r r ie d out f o r the purpose of a s c e r ta in in g the way in which v o c a tio n a l g o a ls were | a l t e r e d as a r e s u l t of th e in d iv id u a l o b ta in in g occupa- ; tio n a l in fo rm a tio n . Choice changes a f t e r o ccu p atio n s c o u rs e s . —Using a w ith in group changes re se a rc h design Hedge and Hutson (80) concluded t h a t a y e a r ’ s course in v o c a tio n s had h elp ed h igh school s tu d e n ts a t t a i n more r e a l i s t i c v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s . A prim ary c r i t e r i o n was the re d u c tio n of th e le v e l of a s p ir a tio n . S ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n c e s were found in th e number of p u p ils planning c o lle g e tr a in i n g or p r o f e s s io n a l c a re e rs and th e la r g e r number p lan n in g to e n te r j s k i l l e d tra d e s b efo re and a f t e r the c o u rse . The course emphasized s e l f u n d erstan d in g through t e s t in fo rm atio n and j job in fo rm a tio n r e l a t i v e to a b i l i t i e s and I n t e r e s t s . I B unting (30) found t h a t h ig h school stu d e n ts changed t h e i r g o als in the d ir e c tio n of t h e i r p a r e n t s ’ o ccu p atio n s a f t e r a course in v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n . In one sem ester Nick ( 131) found e le v e n th and tw e lf th grade boys in a voca ti o n a l in fo rm a tio n course changed t h e i r o cc u p a tio n a l g o als to more r e a l i s t i c ones as measured i n term s o f census d a ta . The course emphasized a study o f employment o p p o rtu n ity d a ta . Recktenwald (D J+ I4 .), Remmers and W hisler (ll|7)> Bateman and Remmers (9)» and o th e rs have s tu d ie d a t t i t u d e changes toward v o ca tio n s over group v o c a tio n a l guidance c o u rse s. They found t h a t such courses h e lp ed break down o c c u p atio n al s te re o ty p e s of s tu d e n ts , from which i t m ight be in f e r r e d th a t more r e a l i s t i c choices would be p o s s ib le f o r them. Follow up s tu d ie s of o c c u p a tio n a l s ta tu s a f t e r occupations c o u rs e s . Long (lllj.) re p o rte d a stu d y conducted between 193^ and 1938 in which he follow ed up high, school drop o u ts and g ra d u a te s, randomly s e le c te d from s ix s e n io r hig h sc h o o ls. He compared those who had co u rses In occupa t i o n a l in fo rm atio n w ith th o se who had n o t. He found s ig n i f ic a n t d if fe re n c e s in th e number employed fa v o rin g th o se who had experienced such c o u rse s. K Itson and S tover (lOlj.) in a fo llo w up study of t h i r t y - t h r e e boys th re e y e a rs a f t e r advisem ent, found th a t th o se who had fo llo w ed th e advice o f th e v o c a tio n a l co u n selo r were more s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r w ork. I t may be i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e i r v o c a tio n a l j c h o ic e s had been more r e a l i s t i c . i ! ! S tu d ie s I n d i c a t i n g Lack o f R e la tio n s h ip o f V o c a tio n a l I In fo rm a tio n to A p p ro p ria te n e s s o f Choice I Auten (7) compared c h o ic e s o f tw e l f th g r a d e rs w ith | t h e i r c h o ic e s a s n i n t h g r a d e r s . He r e p o r te d c h o ic e s were I n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a p p r o p r ia te and t h a t th e o c c u p a tio n a l ; a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l had n o t changed s u b s t a n t i a l l y . S chool v o c a tio n a l g u id an ce a ls o was l i s t e d by th e s tu d e n ts in s e v e n th p la c e a s a f a c t o r in f lu e n c in g t h e i r c h o ic e s . S tone (180) s tu d ie d c o lle g e freshm en and found t h a t w h ile : i n d iv i d u a l c o u n s e lin g c r e a te d more c h o ice r e a lis m , group s i t u a t i o n s concerned w ith o c c u p a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n which were n o t accom panied by in d iv id u a l c o u n s e lin g a c t u a l l y c r e a te d l e s s c h o ice r e a l is m . McDonald (117) in a 191+7 s tu d y and K irk (102) i n a 1952 stu d y r e p o r te d t h a t v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e lin g f o r v e te r a n s d id n o t seem to be r e l a t e d to more a p p r o p r ia te v o c a tio n a l g o a ls . A rev ie w of th e l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e amount o f job in f o rm a tio n o r knowledge o f f a c t s ab o u t th e s e l f , and th e a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te c a r e e r d e c is io n s , i s n o t c l e a r . i | R e la tio n s h ip o f C o u n selin g to A p p ro p ria te n e s s of Choice I n th e wake o f in c r e a s in g aw areness of th e p sy ch o - |l o g i c a l - s o c i o l o g i c a l dynamics in v o lv e d i n th e c h o ice o f a v o c a tio n , th e re has come in c re a se d d is c rim in a tio n between those a sp e c ts of v o c a tio n a l guidance which are concerned w ith in fo rm a tio n g iv in g and th o se s i g n i f i c a n t p e rso n a l a s p e c ts of choice which r e q u ir e a co u n selin g environm ent. In d iv id u a l c o u n s e lin g . —A w e ll-c o n tr o lle d stu d y was executed by Stone (180) w ith c o lle g e freshmen in which he compared th e re a lis m o f s tu d e n ts ' ch o ices before and a f t e r a c a re e r course and in d iv id u a l co u n se lin g . Judges r a te d choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss b efo re and a f t e r th e e x p e ri ment. His fin d in g s in d ic a te d th a t those who had com p le te d a course in v o c a tio n a l in s t r u c t i o n did n o t make more a p p ro p ria te choices than th o se who had not, when voca tio n a l in s t r u c tio n was n o t accompanied by in d iv id u a l coun s e lin g . S to n e’ s fin d in g s s u b s ta n tia te d th e fo llo w in g hypotheses? ( 1 ) in d iv id u a l co u n selin g p lu s a c a re e r course in in fo rm atio n r e s u lte d in th e most a p p ro p ria te occupa ti o n a l ch o ices; ( 2) th o se who had ta k en in d iv id u a l coun s e lin g were a b le to s t a t e more a p p ro p ria te g o als than th o se who had taken only th e c a re e r co u rse; and (3 ) c a re e r courses when ta k en a p a rt from in d iv id u a l co u n selin g a c tu a lly r e s u lte d in sta tem en ts of l e s s a p p ro p ria te g o a ls . Cole ([|i|.) re p o rte d a stu d y w ith h ig h school age stu d e n ts in which he found th a t in d iv id u a l c o u n selin g p lu s a group v o c a tio n a l in fo rm atio n course produced s tu d e n ts b e t t e r a b le to o b ta in jobs and m a in ta in ste ad y employment I than th ose who had not taken such co u rses. Group c o u n se lin g .--H oyt (90) re p o rte d a study in | 195^ a t the co lleg e freshmen le v e l in which he concluded I th a t b o th in d iv id u a l and group counseling s it u a ti o n s enabled i s tu d e n ts to make more a p p ro p ria te choices than th o se i n a I | c o n tro l group which had n e i th e r . S ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in ! ! choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss were n o t found between the groups j i having had in d iv id u a l and group co u n selin g . R ealism was j ev a lu a te d by experienced c o u n se lo rs. Stevens and Hoppock I ( 179) in a re c e n t a r t i c l e d isc u sse d a c a re e rs program in the W orcester school system . The course as d escrib ed by ! them was th e f i r s t of i t 3 k in d . I t was s p e c if ic a lly | designed to apply the b asic p r in c ip le th a t in d iv id u a l co u n selin g and group guidance both must be provided f o r the same group. The course was an in d iv id u a liz e d program conducted by e x p e rts i n guidance tech n iq u es in which c la s s a c t i v i t i e s fu n c tio n only as an in te g r a l complement of In d iv id u a l co u n selin g . Super sa id : Stone makes i t c le a r th a t a com bination of g e t t i n g o cc u p atio n al in fo rm atio n and co n scio u sly con s id e rin g i t in the l i g h t of in fo rm a tio n about th e s e l f i s b e t t e r than m erely a c q u irin g the in fo rm atio n or merely an alyzing o n e s e lf. ( 192: 288) j L ite r a tu r e and re s e a rc h , th u s, r e f l e c t an in c re a s in g aware n ess o f the need to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between guidance as ! in fo rm atio n g iv in g and guidance as p erso n a l co u n selin g . i Development and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Choice L ow enstein and Hoppock (11J?) r e p o r te d i n 1953 a j j r e s u l t o f a su rv ey conducted by them t h a t th e re was a j I h e a lth y tendency tow ard g iv in g th e o c c u p a tio n s c o u rse i n i |th e u pper terras of th e h ig h sch o o l curriculum * Super (192) has r e c e n tly in tro d u c e d a develo p m en tal th e o ry o f v o c a tio n a l I ch o ice in which th e h ig h sch o o l p e r io d i s c o n s id e re d a ; p e r io d of d ev e lo p in g a s e l f concept* In th e developm ent o f th e person o v er th e h ig h school y e a rs he s e e s a grow ing a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c d e c isio n s* I R ealism o f N inth Grade Choices S tu d ie s have been q u ite c o n s is te n t i n i n d ic a t in g t h a t n in th g r a d e r s ' v o c a tio n a l ch o ic e s a re u n r e a l i s t i c : and t h a t th e n in th g ra d e rs do n o t make more r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s even a f t e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g In v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n c o u rse s o r re c e iv in g counseling* Choice changes a f t e r o c c u p a tio n s c o u r s e s , —As e a r l y as 1937 Haugen and Douglas (79) s t a t e d t h a t c o n tr a r y to what m ight be ex p e cte d more boys and g i r l s who underw ent changes i n v o c a tio n a l p re fe re n c e o v er a n in th g rad e occupa t i o n s In fo rm a tio n c o u rse chose th e second tim e an occupation jo f a h ig h e r le v e l th a n chose an o c c u p a tio n of a low er le v e l. 1 K efauver and Hand (99) compared two groups o f |t e n t h , e le v e n th , and tw e l f th g rade s tu d e n ts one o f which j had e x p e rie n c e d a c a r e e r s course a t th e n i n t h grade and a n o th e r w hich h ad n o t . They found no d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e two groups i n th e number o f s tu d e n ts w ith a c h o ic e , th e number p la n n in g c o lle g e , o r th e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f s tu d e n ts e x p e c tin g to a t t e n d c o lle g e . T h e ir s tu d y may be a n o th e r example of r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t i n g th e n e g a tiv e w o rth o f c a r e e r c o u rse s w ith o u t accompanying c o u n s e lin g , s im ila r to! s tu d i e s r e p o r te d u s in g s e n io r h ig h sch o o l and c o lle g e sam p les. On th e o th e r hand, f in d in g s may r e f l e c t a d e v elo p m e n ta l phenomenon, t h a t s tu d e n ts in th e n i n t h g ra d e a r e too imm ature to make r e a l i s t i c v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s . F ollow up of o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s a f t e r n i n t h grade v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lin g .--B o y e r (25) found no agreem ent b e tween n i n t h g rade o c c u p a tio n a l c h o ice a f t e r v o c a tio n a l guid an ce and th e u lti m a t e o c c u p a tio n a c t u a l l y e n t e r e d . Guidance c o n s is te d o f t e s t i n g and group and i n d i v i d u a l co u n selin g * No s tu d i e s of t h i s ty p e r e p o r tin g such n e g a t i v e f in d in g s u s in g h ig h sc h o o l o r c o lle g e sam ples were l o c a t e d . A ll s tu d ie s a t th e h ig h sc h o o l and c o lle g e l e v e l s in v o lv in g group and in d iv i d u a l c o u n s e lin g a s an in h e r e n t p a r t o f th e v o c a tio n a l g uidance program r e p o r te d s i g n i f i c a n t changes in s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s . R e a lism o f High S chool S e n io r s ' C hoices R e se a rc h seemed to i n d i c a t e t h a t h ig h sc h o o l s e n i o r s ' v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s a r e more j r e a l i s t i c th a n has o f te n been assumed and a p p e a r t o become more r e a l i s t i c w ith m a tu ra tio n . ; I n c r e a s in g r e a l is m o f ch o ice w ith m a tu r a tio n . — Schm idt and Rothney (162) r e p o r te d t h a t c o n s is te n c y of h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n t s ’ ch o ic e s d u rin g t h e i r sch o o l c a r e e r a lth o u g h n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r p la n n in g d id in c re a s e d u rin g th e l a t t e r y e a rs o f s c h o o lin g . P le e g e and Malone ( 63) i n t h e i r stu d y n o tic e d a d e c re a se i n c h o ic e s of o c c u p a tio n s a t th e p r o f e s s io n a l le v e l as boys advanced from grade seven to tw e lv e . A d e c re a se was a ls o n o te d in th e ten d en cy f o r s tu d e n ts w ith low er I.Q . sc o re s to choose p r o f e s s io n a l ty p e s o f work i n th e tw e l f th g ra d e . R esearch on ch o ice r e a lis m o f h ig h sc h o o l s e n i o r s .-— Crowley (lj.9 ),in a r e c e n t stu d y w ith male h ig h school s e n io r s , s t a t e d t h a t 95 P6* * c e n t o f a l l c h o ic e s were judged t o be r e a l i s t i c . Lockwood's (113) r e c e n t stu d y r e p o rte d in 1958 I n d ic a te d a h ig h d egree of r e a lis m i n th e ch o ices o f g ra d u a tin g s e n io r s . R ealism was judged by two c o u n s e lo rs . P o r te r ( 1 3 8) com pleted a fo llo w -u p stu d y i n 1951+ w hich in d ic a t e d t h a t v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s , p la n s , and p re f e re n c e s o f h ig h sch o o l s e n io r s were h ig h ly con s i s t e n t . He found a h ig h d eg ree of r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een what s e n io r boys p r e f e r r e d to do, p lan n ed to do, and what ith e y a c t u a l l y began to do s i x months l a t e r . H a r ts o n 's ( 7 8) f in d in g s in d ic a t e d t h a t th e p r e f e r e n c e s o f h ig h 30 school se n io rs were s ig n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to t h e i r c o lle g e and l a t e r v o c a tio n a l c a re e r p re fe re n c e s . Roe (l5:25i|.) p o in ted o u t th a t many stu d ie s have been conducted which show w ithout ex cep tio n th a t more p e r sons a t a l l ages and of b o th sexes name p r o fe s s io n a l- te c h n ic a l occupations and few er name a g r i c u l t u r a l and dom estic occupations than are p ro p o rtio n a te ly engaged in th e se occupations a t the tim e , Byrns (3^) study in 1939 and Menger’s (120) study i n 1932 were two examples Roe c i t e d . However, Roe was quick to p o in t out th a t Dresden (53) warned a g a in s t too l i t e r a l an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of q u e s tio n n a ire s , f e e lin g th a t tr u e v o c a tio n a l goals are c lo s e r to s tu d e n ts ’ a b i l i t y th a n th ey a re w illin g to admit • Stephenson (176), in summing up re se a rc h on choice in 1957t in d ic a te d th a t th e re was a tendency f o r choices to be made in the upper range of th e o cc u p atio n al h ie ra rc h y w ith a high degree of choices in th e p r o fe s s io n s . He in d ic a te d , however, th a t p lan n in g i s more r e a l i s t i c th an i s o fte n assumed. D iscrepancies in e a r l i e r and l a t e r s tu d ie s may be due to th e f a c t th a t more v o c a tio n a l s tu d ie s of h ig h school upper term stu d e n ts are being perform ed. C o n f lic t ing r e s u l t s may a ls o be due to : (1) th e form in which q u e stio n s were asked; (2) the trea tm en t o f th e d ata and 31 o cc u p atio n al c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ; and (3 ) the co n tex t i n which q u e stio n s concerning choice were asked. Developmental Levels and F an tasy and R e a lity Choice One tre n d in re c e n t v o c a tio n a l th e o riz in g has been to u n d erstan d v o c a tio n a l choice in term s o f the in d iv id u a l’s developm ental s t a t u s . Ginzberg*s developm ental s tu d y .--T he developm ental study by Ginzberg fo llo w in g such re s e a rc h fin d in g s on l i f e sta g e s as those by B uehler (29), and M ille r and Form ( 65)» concluded th a t th e p e rio d of r e a l i s t i c choice d id n o t occur u n t i l approxim ately e ig h te e n y ears of age which i s about th e age o f h ig h school g ra d u a tio n . Ginzberg in te rv iew ed s ix ty - f o u r boys aged elev en years to tw e n ty -fo u r y e a rs . The study concluded th a t choices d esc rib e d a t h r e e - f o ld developm ental p a t te r n : (1 ) fa n ta s y ch o ice, s ix to e lev en y ears o f age; ( 2) te n t a t i v e ch o ice, tw elve to seventeen y e a r of age; and (3) r e a l i s t i c ch o ice, e ig h te e n years of age and o v er. C ontrary l i t e r a t u r e .--G in z b e rg ’s stu d y has been s e rio u s ly c r i t i c i z e d by K itson (103) and Super (190) on th e b a s is of re s e a rc h d esign and sam pling. S tu d ies by B e ilin (1J4.) and Small (169) were c o n tra d ic to ry . B e ilin found t h a t r e a l i t y f a c to r s were most im portant f o r th e h ig h school group s tu d ie d while Small found fa n ta s y and r e a l i t y ch o ices e x is te d i n the same p ro p o rtio n a t d i f f e r e n t a d o le s c e n t l e v e l s . Small p o in te d o u t t h a t no l i n e a r r e l a tio n s h ip between age and r e a lis m o f ch o ice appeared to e x i s t . He s t a t e d t h a t changes w ith age were sometimes i n th e d ir e c tio n o f l e s s e r re a lis m . He concluded t h a t r e a l i t y f a c t o r s and f a n ta s y f a c t o r s o p e ra te sim u lta n e o u sly a t a l l ages i n th e s e le c tio n of a v o c a tio n a l g o a l. There i s one s e rio u s c r i t i c i s m which might n eg ate many o f S m a ll's f in d in g s . S tu d en ts in h i s matched groups were n o t eq u ated on th e v a r ia b le of i n t e l l i g e n c e . The mean d if f e r e n c e i n i n t e l l i g e n c e between th e two groups was te n p o i n t s . Since i n t e l l i g e n c e i s r e l a t e d to a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c c a re e r d e c is io n s th e fin d in g s of t h i s study m ight have been d i f f e r e n t i f th e v a r ia b le o f i n t e l l i g e n c e had been more ad e q u a te ly c o n tr o lle d . I n te l l i g e n c e and A p p ro p ria te n e ss o f Choice C o n sid erab le r e s e a r c h has been perform ed which has in d ic a te d t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p ria te c a r e e r d e c is io n s and th e I n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l of th e i n d iv Id u a 1 • I n t e l l i g e n c e and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of F ie ld o f Choice In a stu d y w ith c o lle g e s tu d e n ts Wrenn (203) found h ig h i n t e l l i g e n c e groups had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r p e r c e n t o f in d iv id u a ls w ith ch o ices a g re e in g w ith t h e i r 33 prim ary i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n on th e S tro n g V o ca tio n al I n t e r e s t B a tte r y . The low i n t e l l i g e n c e group had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a lle r p e r c e n t o f th e group w ith ch o ices a g re e in g w ith t h e i r prim ary i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n . I n te l l i g e n c e and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Level of Choice A stu d y by Grace (75) and a n o th e r by S p a rlin g (173)» I i n 1932 and 1933 r e s p e c tiv e ly , in d ic a te d t h a t th e more j i n t e l l i g e n t in d iv id u a ls tended to s e l e c t o c c u p a tio n a l a s p ir a tio n s more on a l e v e l w ith t h e i r a b i l i t i e s th a n d id s tu d e n ts o f low er i n t e l l i g e n c e , C lark and G ist (lj.3) r e p o rte d s im ila r fin d in g s in 1938* R e isn e r in a re c e n t study re p o rte d t h a t s tu d e n ts making a p p ro p ria te ch o ices as r a te d by th re e judges were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e rio r to th e o v e r - a s p ir a n t group i n g e n e ra l i n t e l l i g e n c e (llj.6 ) . The u n d e r^ a s p ira n t group exceeded th e o v e r - a s p ir a n t group i n i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n te ll ig e n c e and O v erall Choice R ealism Ryan (159) i n *953 r e p o rte d t h a t s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h e r I n te ll ig e n c e q u o tie n ts made more a p p ro p ria te ch o ices a s r a t e d by f o u r ju d g e s. Lockwood (113) in 1958 s tu d ie d th e r e a lis m of v o c a tio n a l p re fe re n c e of g ra d u a tin g s e n io rs from n in e B altim ore h ig h s c h o o ls . R ealism o f choice was judged by two e x p e rien ce d placem ent c o u n selo rs on a te n p o in t s c a le from ’’h ig h ly r e a l i s t i c ” to ”h ig h ly u n r e a l i s t i c , ” Lockwood concluded th a t in te lli g e n c e was d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to r e a lis m of c h o ice. I n te llig e n c e and F a c to rs In flu e n c in g Choice P leege and Malone {6 3) s tu d ie d secondary stu d e n ts and found no s ig n i f ic a n t tre n d f o r th o se o f h ig h e r i n t e l l i gence to o f f e r s u p e rio r m otives f o r o c c u p a tio n a l c h o ic e . Those of low er in te lli g e n c e d id not ex p ress le s s a c c e p ta b le m o tiv es• Socio-Economic S ta tu s and A p p ro p riaten ess of Choice V ocational p sy c h o lo g ists and r e s e a r c h e rs have become more a c u te ly aware of the need f o r an u n d ersta n d in g of th e s o c ia l f a c to r s which impinge on o c c u p a tio n a l d e c i s io n . T his has 1> 1 to c o n sid e ra b le r e s e a rc h on th e r e l a tio n s h ip between s o c ia l s ta tu s and v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . S ta tu s and Level of Choice H ollingshead ( 86) concluded h is stu d y by in d ic a tin g t h a t th e p a tte r n of v o c a tio n a l ch o ices corresponded ro u g h ly w ith job p a tte r n s a s s o c ia te d w ith each c la s s i n the a d u l t ’ s w orld of work. He sa id a d o le sc e n ts in making v o c a tio n a l choices ,!a re e i th e r being fo rc e d to ac ce p t or th e y a re w illin g to a c c e p t the v o c a tio n a l p a tte r n s th e c la s s system holds o u t to them” (8 6 j2 8 2 ). A stu d y by Youraans (20l|) and an o th er by Samson and S t e f f i r e ( 160) found c h ild re n o f v a rio u s o c c u p a tio n a l le v e l p a re n ts ten d ed to s e l e c t th e same l e v e l f o r t h e i r jo b s , Jensen and K irch n er (92) r e p o r te d t h a t o v er 71 p a r c e n t of th e sons i n manual o cc u p atio n s had f a t h e r s i n manual o c c u p a tio n s. O ther s tu d ie s r e l a t e to e d u c a tio n and v o c a tio n a l o p p o rtu n ity . These s tu d ie s would in d ic a t e t h a t low er s ta tu s s tu d e n ts a re l e s s l i k e l y to make a p p ro p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s because th ro u g h la c k of e d u c a tio n th e v o c a tio n a l f i e l d i s narrow ed f o r them® B e ll (15) found lower c la s s stu d e n ts had l e s s e d u c a tio n a l o p p o rtu n ity and ended up i n o ccu p atio n s i n th e low er socio-econom ic l e v e l s . Deasy (5 l|), and Moser (123) each found d e s ir e to a tte n d c o lle g e was r e l a t e d to c la s s s t r u c t u r e . S ta tu s and O ccupational A ttitu d e s V o catio n al a t t i t u d e s are p a r t l y a fu n c tio n o f sociaL s t a t u s . Johnson ( 9 6 ) found a r e l a t i o n s h i p between voca t i o n a l v a lu e s and f a t h e r ’ s o cc u p atio n le v e l among h ig h school s e n io rs in Los Angeles in 1 9 G a lle r (70) found upper c l a s s stu d e n ts made ch o ices which were more a l t r u i s t i c , B e ll (15) found low er c l a s s s tu d e n ts had low er o c c u p a tio n a l a m b itio n s . S tu d ie s have a lre a d y been c i t e d in d ic a tin g l e s s d e s ire to a tte n d c o lle g e f o r low er c la s s : s tu d e n ts . i In 1950 N orton and Kuhlen (132) found f a c t o r y w orkers showed marked v o c a tio n a l ap ath y w ith few i n t e r e s t s jand l a t e emergence of i n t e r e s t s . M o tiv atio n s a f f e c t in g 36 ; i ch o ice might be fo p th e s e s tu d e n ts q u ite d i f f e r e n t so th a t| i t h e i r ch o ices appear in a p p ro p ria te judged by middle c l a s s j v a lu e s . | i i S ta tu s and P e rc e p tio n of O ccupational C l a s s i f i c a t i o n j A re c e n t study by Rose and Wall (lf>7) in d ic a te d j t h a t th e o c c u p a tio n a l s tr u c tu r e seems to be p e rc e iv e d d i f - ; f e r e n t l y by th e low er socio-econom ic group. Since th e y rank occupations acco rd in g to a s ta tu s h ie ra rc h y which i s d if f e r e n t from t h a t u s u a lly ac cep ted by h ig h e r s o c io economic le v e l p e rso n s, t h e i r s ta te d choice of o cc u p atio n might not te n d to appear a p p ro p ria te . B rochard (27) a ls o I r e c e n tly r e p o rte d s im ila r f in d in g s . He concluded th a t p r e s tig e a tta c h e d to o cc u p atio n s by s u b -c u ltu re s v a r ie s w ith th e c o n d itio n s in which th e groups l iv e so th a t th e fram e o f re fe re n c e used by resp o n d e n ts a f f e c te d th e degree of choice re a lis m . S ta tu s and O ccupational R ealism V o catio n al choice th e o r iz in g and re s e a rc h has p o in te d to th e f a c t t h a t a r e la tio n s h i p e x i s t s between I ; ! a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c c a r e e r d e c is io n s and th e p e rs o n ’ s socio-econom ic s t a t u s . ! i Role m odels. —Super (192:2lj.3) s ta te d t h a t boys ; 1 i j from le s s p r iv ile g e d s o c ia l le v e ls were n o t l i k e l y to have ; j s u i t a b l e o c c u p a tio n a l r o le models i n th e fa m ily and v ery 37 few dom estic a c t i v i t i e s a p p ro p ria te to t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s . He made th e p o in t t h a t i f th ey a s p ire d to o ccu p atio n s which j j were above th o se of t h e i r p a re n ts they were dependent upon i | so u rces which gave them l i t t l e chance to check out t h e i r | ch o ices a g a in s t r e a l i t y , or which were f i c t i o n a l and un- ; r e a l i s t i c . Moser (123) concluded t h a t p a r e n ta l background, example, and tr a in in g p la y an im p o rtan t p a r t in in f lu e n c in g ; young people in t h e i r v o c a tio n a l p re f e re n c e s . Job h o rizo n s .--S u p e r (192 j 106-108) and F am es (13l|.) I have th e o riz e d t h a t w hite c o l l a r and s k i l l e d w orkers were I c lo s e r to p r o fe s s io n a l and m anagerial p o s itio n s so th a t th e y had a b e t t e r u n d ersta n d in g o f th e se o ccu p atio n s and could in d ic a te the s p e c if ic p ro fe s s io n o r b e t t e r type of work in which they would l ik e to see t h e i r c h ild r e n . They s tr e s s e d th a t s e m i-3 k ille d and u n s k ille d w orkers wanted som ething b e t t e r fo r t h e i r c h ild re n b u t t h e i r job h o rizo n s were to o lim ite d to know s p e c i f i c a l l y w hat. P e rc e p tio n o f m o b ility re q u ire m e n ts. —Reissman (lij.9 ) in 195> 1 + re p o rte d an in t e r e s t i n g stu d y i n which he d iv id e d h i s sample in to two h a lv e s, an upper c la s s and a | low er c l a s s . He concluded t h a t th e u pper c la s s e s ta b lis h e d I i t s a s p ir a tio n s on a more r e a l i s t i c b a s is th a n d id th e low er c l a s s . I t seemed to u n d ersta n d b e t t e r th e p r e r e q u i- I | s i t e s f o r o c c u p a tio n a l m o b ility . In t h i s study th e upper ! 38 ' c la s s p laced a major emphasis on s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s w hile | th e low er c la s s showed a la c k o f id e a ls i n t h i s m atter* | They did n o t seem to u n d ersta n d th e im portance o f s o c ia l j mechanisms. They were more w illin g to s a c r i f i c e p e rso n a l | views to tak e advantage of an o p p o rtu n ity f o r upward I m o b ility . The au th o r emphasized th a t such m isplacem ent o f >v alu es in d ic a te d a la c k of r e a l i s t i c u n d e rsta n d in g of what : m o b ility in v o lv e d . S ta tu s and A p p ro p riaten ess of Choice Stubbins (185) s tu d ie d th e r e a lis m o f v e te r a n s 1 v o c a tio n a l choices* He found t h a t f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n a l le v e l seemed u n re la te d to re a lis m of choice* He concluded th a t w hile th e tendency was f o r s u b je c ts to o v e r - a s p ir e , each le v e l a s p ire d to a nearby o c c u p a tio n a l le v e l* S tu b b in s’ stu d y d id n o t sta n d a rd iz e th e form of th e q u es tio n s asking f o r a sta te m e n t of c h o ic e . C ounselors asked f o r th e v e te r a n 's choice by using v a rio u s q u e s tio n s such a s, ,I-What d id you have i n mind?” R atin g on a p p ro p ria te n e ss of ch o ice was made by the in d iv id u a l co u n selo r who c l a s s i f i e d choices as r e a l i s t i c so long as th e re was no re a s o n a b le doubt as to t h e i r r e a lis m . A p p ro p riaten ess of choice e s tim a te s did n o t d is c rim in a te between f i e l d and l e v e l . | Lockwood (113), i n a 1958 study o f h ig h school | se n io rs in n in e h ig h schools, measured the r e la tio n s h i p j between p e rso n a l and s o c ia l f a c to r s and r e a lis m of s ta te d 39 c h o ic e . Realism was determ ined by two experienced p la c e ment co u n selo rs. His fin d in g s in d ic a te d th a t re a lis m was I u n re la te d to s o c ia l economic f a c t o r s . He made th e fo llo w - | in g co n clu sio n . The in v e s tig a tio n fav o rs th e h y p o th e sis th a t th e s tu d e n t’ s r e a lis m of v o c a tio n a l p re feren ce i s r e la te d to no sy stem a tic v a r ia b le w hatever; re a lis m appears I to be a pure chance phenomenon which p robably has i t s ex p lan atio n in the s tu d e n t's developm ental h is t o r y and p re s e n t p e r s o n a lity fu n c tio n in g . Realism might w ell be a pure chance phenomenon based on v ario u s unknown com binations of p re s e n t, or o th e r, f a c to r s and based on th e s tu d e n t's d ev e lo p m ental experiences and p re s e n t p e rs o n a lity fu n c tio n in g . I t appears reasonable to co n c ep tu a liz e such dynamics as com pensation, r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , and s te r e o type as being inv o lv ed in t h i s chance phenomenon. I t rem ains f o r fu tu re re se a rc h to re v e a l what f a c to r s are d e f i n i t e l y r e la te d to , and probably have a causa tiv e e f f e c t on, the re a lism of an in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t’s v o c a tio n a l p re fe re n c e . (113s l 03- 10l).) In v e n to rie d I n t e r e s t s and A ppropriateness of O ccupational Choice R esearch has in d ic a te d th a t i n t e r e s t s are im portant f a c to r s in v o c a tio n a l ch o ice. Strong s a id : I t appears th a t the i n t e r e s t s c h a r a c te r i s tic of o ccu p atio n al groups are p re se n t to a la rg e degree p r io r to en tran ce in to the occupation and so a re presum ably a f a c to r in the s e le c tio n of th e occupa tio n . ( 18^ : 380) Much e a rly re se a rc h did not c a r e f u lly d i f f e r e n t i a t e between expressed i n t e r e s t s , m an ifest i n t e r e s t s , inven to r ie d i n t e r e s t s , and te s te d i n t e r e s t s . R esu lts o f the re s e a rc h was c o n f lic tin g and in c o n s is te n t. F r y e r 's (69) work i n 1931 c o n ta in e d s tu d i e s d e a lin g w ith la c k o f perm an ence o f e x p re s se d i n t e r e s t s w h ile s tu d i e s such as th o s e o f C a r t e r ’ s (37, 3 9 ), found them c o n s i s t e n t enough f o r coun s e lin g use* VJhen ad e q u ate d is c r i m in a tio n was made betw een i n t e r e s t ty p e s so t h a t i n t e r e s t s w ere in v e n to r i e d and mea su re d in term s o f a sample o f r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s , s u r p r i s in g perm anence was fo u n d . I n t e r e s t s and S t a b i l i t y in T r a in in g and O c c u p a tio n a l C a re er S tro n g (18L}.) r e p o r te d t h a t th o se who e n te r e d t r a i n in g c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e i r in v e n to r ie d i n t e r e s t s te n d e d to com plete t h e i r t r a i n i n g more o f te n th a n th o se who d id n o t . He a ls o found t h a t i f s tu d e n ts e n te r e d o c c u p a tio n s w hich were n o t in l i n e w ith t h e i r in v e n to r i e d i n t e r e s t s th e y te n d e d to s h i f t to o th e r s w hich w ere. I n t e r e s t s and O cc u p a tio n a l S uccess S uccess was found to be r e l a t e d to i n t e r e s t s In some f i e l d s b u t n o t in o th e r s . T his depended a p p a re n tly on th e d eg ree o f s p e c i a l a p t itu d e w hich accom panied th e i n t e r e s t t o make su c c e ss p o s s i b l e . B i l l s 1 (20) stu d y o f I n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s a s p r e d i c t o r s o f s e l l i n g su c c e s s and D yer’ s (£ 6 ) te n y e a r fo llo w -u p stu d y o f c o lle g e g ra d u a te s p ro v id e d d a ta I n d ic a tin g t h i s . I n t e r e s t s and O ccupational S a tis f a c tio n Two s tu d ie s of p h arm a cists, one by Schwebel ( 163) and one by McCormack ( l l 6 ) suggested th a t u n le ss th e i n d i v id u a l’s f i e l d of work was com patible w ith h i s in v e n to rie d I n t e r e s t s , work d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n r e s u lt e d , A stu d y by Super (188) a ls o in d ic a te d t h a t men rem aining In occupations c o n tra d ic to ry to t h e i r in v e n to rie d i n t e r e s t p a tte r n tended to develop av o catio n s c o n s is te n t w ith t h e i r In v e n to rie d i n t e r e s t p a t te r n s . I n te r e s t s and A ctual O ccupational E ntry B erdie (18) made a summary o f n in e ty re s e a rc h r e p o rts sin c e 19^0, His conclusions were th a t th e re was co n sid erab le evidence t h a t th e Strong V ocational I n t e r e s t , Blank when used a g a in s t th e c r i t e r i a of choice of a p ro fe s s io n , choice o f academic cu rricu lu m , occu p atio n e n te re d , o r mature occupation s ta tu s was a s u b s t a n tia l p r e d ic to r of the in d iv i d u a l's f u tu r e employment. S t a b i l i t y of P re-C ollege I n t e r e s t s C a rte r (39 s68) s ta te d th a t th e measure of v o c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s by means o f modern in v e n to ry tech n iq u es was about as r e l i a b l e as th e measurement o f in te lli g e n c e by j means of group t e s t s . He concluded t h a t alth o u g h v o catio n -! i a l i n t e r e s t s of h ig h school stu d e n ts are in co m p letely devel oped th ey are h ig h ly in d iv id u a l in p a t te r n and were more j ! 1 r e l i a b l e th a n e a r l i e r s tu d ie s in d ic a te d . S to rd a h l (181) ! s tu d ie d th e s t a b i l i t y o f p r e - c o lle g e i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s i n ; 19f>l and 1953* He found t h a t f o r p r e - c o lle g e m ales a co- | e f f i c i e n t o f concordance rho v a lu e of ,7i{- e x i s te d between | |p r e - t e s t i n g and p o s t - t e s t i n g two y e a rs la te r * j S t a b i l i t y of I n t e r e s t s o f C ollege Freshmen S tro n g (1 8 2 ), in a stu d y o f th e perm anence o f th e i n t e r e s t sc o re s of c o lle g e s tu d e n ts o v er tw enty-tw o y e a r s , i j r e p o r te d s e t s o f rho c o r r e l a t i o n s i n w hich 76 p e r c e n t of th e c o e f f i c i e n t s ranged from *60 upward. Powers (lL(.0) conducted a te n y e a r lo n g it u d in a l stu d y o f c o lle g e stu d en ts* She r e p o r te d rho c o r r e l a t i o n s i n which th e median rho v a lu e 1 was «8 0* P e r s o n a lity and A p p ro p ria te n e ss of Choice V o c a tio n a l th e o ry and r e s e a r c h in d ic a t e d t h a t th e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p e r s o n a lity and v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . Temperament T r a i t s and Choice T endencies T r a i t th e o ry h as p la y ed a v i t a l r o l e i n v o c a tio n a l guidance and many s tu d ie s have a tte m p te d to measure th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een t r a i t s and c h o ic e te n d e n c ie s . R epre s e n ta ti v e s tu d ie s a r e review ed, F rey d (6 7 ) concluded t h a t in s u ra n c e salesm en p o sse sse d d i f f e r e n t temperam ent t r a i t s th a n m echanics, w ith in s u ra n c e salesm en te n d in g to be s o c i a l l y o r ie n te d , and mechanics te n d in g to lack s o c ia l p e rs p e c tiv e . Roe (lj?0, 152, 1^ 3 , 154) found a r t i s t s to be outgoing in seeking j em otional s a t i s f a c t i o n and to be more anxious than people i | i n g e n e ra l. On th e o th e r hand, she found c e r ta in common t r a i t s among s c i e n t i s t s such as la c k of im a g in a tio n , o b je c- !t i v i t y , and la ck of a b i l i t y in p erso n a l r e la tio n s h i p s , as though t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c work were an escape from people and : in ta n g ib le s . She d e sc rib e d b io lo g is ts as smooth but n o t warm, u n ag g ressiv e b u t stubborn, n e ith e r dominant nor subm issive, b e t t e r a d ju ste d to l i f e than a r t i s t s , and more s ta b le i n m arriage and fam ily l i f e , D arley (5 2) , usin g ; th e Strong V ocational I n t e r e s t Blank and th e B ell A d ju st ment In v en to ry , found r e la tio n s h ip s between some prim ary i n t e r e s t s and p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s ju s tif y in g the s te r e o types o f the ag g ressiv e salesm an and th e meek bookkeeper. In a stu d y of the r o le of p e r s o n a lity f a c to rs in occupa tio n a l choice Segal (166) in 1954 concluded: V ocational choice i s n o t a p e rip h e ra l d e c isio n of the in d iv id u a l made on a chance or n e c e s s a rily a r e a l i t y b a s is , b u t i s a concrete ex p ressio n of p e r s o n a lity development and em otional ex p erien ces w ith in th e framework o f th e environm ental p re ssu re s and oppor t u n i t i e s w ith which the in d iv id u a l i s co n fro n ted . An in d iv i d u a l's choice of an occupation r e f l e c t s c e r ta in techniques o f seeking g r a t i f i c a t i o n of b a sic p sy ch o lo g ical n ee d s. I t seems th a t the in d iv id u a l senses t h i s in an i n t u i t i v e o r unconscious manner. Temperament T r a its and A p p ro p riaten ess of Choice Ryan (1£>9) re p o rte d a study in v o lv in g c o lle g e I psychology stu d e n ts in which he attem p ted to determ ine th e j r e la tio n s h ip s or o cc u p a tio n a l choice re a lis m and c e r t a in p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s . Pour judges r a te d ch o ices as " r e a l - ; i s t i c , " "u n d e cid e d ,” o r " u n r e a l i s t i c . ” T r a its were measured by th e A llp o rt Vernon S cale o f V alues. S ig n if ic a n t d i f fe re n c e s were found between the " t h e o r e t i c a l man," whose choices seemed more r e a l i s t i c , and the "economic man,” whose ch o ices were e v a lu a te d as com paratively u n r e a l i s t i c . Kinnane (101) in 195>8 re p o rte d th a t choice re a lis m as measured by a b i l i t y or by i n t e r e s t s was n o t r e l a t e d to temperament t r a i t s . He used th e G u ilfo rd Zimmerman Tempera ment Survey as a measure of p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s . Em otional D isturbance and A p p ro p riaten ess o f Choice There has been a growing aw areness among v o c a tio n a l p s y c h o lo g ists th a t th e s e le c tio n of o n e 's o ccu p atio n i s n ot a f o r tu i to u s p ro c e s s . Choice has r e c e n tly been viewed as a p ro cess w ith im pulsive and em otional r o o ts . P o re r (61j .:361|.) d isc u sse d the f a c t t h a t em o tio n a lly d is tu rb e d persons tended to p r e f e r o ccu p atio n s a llo w in g freedom f o r u n c o n tro lle d s e l f e x p re ssio n even though th e ■ lik elih o o d f o r su ccess was low. He f u r t h e r emphasized th a t em o tio n a lly d is tu rb e d people r e je c te d o cc u p atio n s in |which they a re ab le to fu n c tio n and succeed. "N eurosis and p sy ch o sis seem to be c h a ra c te riz e d by g r e a t d is c re p a n c ie s between a p titu d e s and a s p ir a tio n s , between f a n ta s ie s and | a c t u a l i t i e s about the s e l f ” (61^:361|.). F o r e r ’ s emphasis jwas th a t d is tu rb e d persons o fte n are n o t a b le to d is c e rn ;what i s good f o r them o c c u p a tio n a lly and a re r e s i s t a n t j toward re c o g n itio n o f the f a c t th a t what they m ight want to do may not be b e s t f o r them. He r e la te d em otional malad justm ent w ith in a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s . S te in b e rg (175) s tu d ie d the r e la tio n s h i p s of v oca tio n a l p re fe re n c e to em otional adjustm ent and concluded t h a t n e u ro tic s tended to choose occu p atio n s w ith an emphasis on fa n ta s y which re q u ire d high le v e l t a l e n t and rew ards. He re p o rte d t h a t n o n -n e u ro tic s more o fte n sought p r a c t i c a l f i e l d s such as m echanical, s c i e n t i f i c , and com putational work. In 1953 Small ( 169) executed a stu d y designed to compare the r e la tio n s h i p between v o c a tio n a l choice r e a lis m and p e rso n a l ad ju stm en t. Using s u b je c ts f i f t e e n to n in e te e n y ea rs of age who came to a v o c a tio n a l a d v iso ry s e rv ic e , he compared f i f t y w e ll-a d ju s te d boys w ith f i f t y d is tu rb e d boys from p s y c h ia tr ic h o s p it a ls and c l i n i c s . He matched the s u b je c ts on age, r e l i g i o n , ra c e , and s o c io economic s t a t u s , but not on ed u catio n or i n t e l l i g e n c e . He : measured the d iffe re n c e in v o c a tio n a l choice re a lis m of th e two g roups. F in d in g s in d ic a te d t h a t th e choices o f th e b e t t e r a d ju s te d boys were more r e a l i s t i c * He a ls o found t h a t d i f f e r e n t ty p es o f choice f a n t a s i e s e x is te d w ith th e | ch o ices of th e a d ju s te d boys* The fa n ta s y c h o ic e s of th e j - ja d ju s te d boys in v o lv e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n and i n t e r a c t i o n w ith !th e environm ent w hile th e ch o ices o f th e d is tu rb e d boys ; were c h a r a c te r iz e d by f a n t a s i e s th a t em phasized removal : from o th e rs and a s e lf - d e p r e c ia t in g a c tin g out o f im p u lses. Sm all concluded t h a t in d iv id u a ls w ith d i f f e r e n t ego s tr e n g th s show d if fe re n c e s in th e r o le p lay ed by r e a l i t y and f a n ta s y in making v o c a tio n a l choices* Small b e lie v e d t h a t a th e o ry o f v o c a tio n a l choice must ta k e account of ego s tr e n g th and th a t i f t h i s could be h e ld c o n s ta n t i t would be p o s s ib le to t e s t th e r e l a t i v e v alu e o f such o th e r f a c t o r s as i n t e r e s t s , a p titu d e s , and fa m ily in f lu e n c e s w ith more v a l id ity * A weakness in S m a ll's stu d y was t h a t th e two groups compared were n o t matched on i n t e l l i g e n c e or e d u c a tio n , two im p o rtan t f a c t o r s in a s t u d e n t 's a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s . S ince th e d is tu rb e d group was te n p o in ts low er in g e n e ra l l e v e l of m easured i n t e l l i g e n c e , th e d if f e r e n c e in choice re a lis m may have been a fu n c tio n of i n t e l l i g e n c e r a t h e r th a n em otional d is tu rb a n c e . Em otional s t a b i l i t y and ch o ice r e a lis m . —H eisner perform ed a stu d y in 195>7 to a s c e r t a i n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p ; between p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s and a p p ro p ria te n e s s of l e v e l 1 + 7 of v o c a tio n a l c h o ice. He found t h a t low, p o s itiv e , but s ig n i f ic a n t c o r r e la tio n s , e x is te d between a p p ro p ria te n e ss ;of le v e l o f choice and em otional s t a b i l i t y . The Influence of Self Concepts on Vocational Choice Appropriateness The Centrality of the Self System in Understanding Behavior The s e l f system i n the contemporary e ra has come ; in to i t s own as a p sy c h o lo g ica l c o n s tru c t im portant in ex p la in in g much of human b eh av io r. H a ll and Lindzey made th e fo llo w in g o b se rv a tio n . F o r c e r ta in th e o r i s t s th e most im portant sin g le human a t t r i b u t e i s the view of p e rc e p tio n th e in d i v id u a l has of h im s e lf, and t h i s s e l f view ing pro cess i s o fte n seen as th e key to u n d erstan d in g the m u lti tude of p u zz lin g b e h a v io ra l events d isp la y e d by any sin g le person. ( 77*26) Again they s ta te d : W e have seen th a t th e re are s e v e ra l senses in which th e s e l f concept i s employed by p e r s o n a lity t h e o r i s t s . E ith e r th e s e l f i s seen as a group of p sy c h o lo g ica l p ro cesses which serves as a d e t e r minant o f b eh av io r or e ls e i t i s conceived o f as a c l u s t e r of a t t i t u d e s and f e e lin g s th e in d iv id u a l has about h im s e lf. In one form or the o th e r, however, th e s e l f occupies a prom inent r o le in most c u rre n t p e r s o n a lity fo rm u la tio n s, ( 77*26) Jung (77*85) ta lk e d o f th e s e l f as the nmid p o in t of p e rs o n a lity around which a l l o f the o th e r systems are | c o n s te lla te d . I t holds th e se systems to g e th e r and p ro v id es j th e p e rs o n a lity w ith u n i t y , ” A dler (77*12l|) viewed the I s e l f as so v ereig n in human p e r s o n a lity . S u lliv a n (18?) viewed th e s e l f system as the p r o te c to r o f o n e’ s s e c u r ity and th e c h ie f h u rd le to be overcome in p e r s o n a lity change. A llp o rt (1) saw the s e l f along w ith th e ego as th e ro o t of e v a lu a tiv e and in te n tio n a l c o n s is te n c y , Angyl sa id th a t the ” r e l a t i v e se g re g a tio n of th e sym bolic s e l f w ith in th e organism i s perhaps the most v u ln e ra b le p o in t o f the human p e r s o n a lity o rg a n iz a tio n ” (3*121). C a t t e l l (7 7 sl+03) i n d i c a te d t h a t th e s e l f sen tim en t i s the most pow erful s e n t i ment i n th e l a t t i c e , c o n tr o llin g a l l o th e rs in some d eg ree. To phenom enologists such as Snygg and Combs P re s c o tt Lecky (10?)> and C arl Rogers (155), th e s e l f i s th e c e n tr a l c o n s tru c t in e x p la in in g th e q u a l ity o f b e h a v io r. Combs and Snygg (lj.5ll27) d e fin e d a phenomenal s e l f which i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o u t o f the phenomenal f i e l d , th e f i e l d b eing th e t o t a l i t y o f ex p erien ce o f which th e person i s aware and ac co rd in g to which he behaves. The phenomenal s e l f in c lu d e s a l l th o se p a rts of th e phenomenal f i e l d which th e in d iv id u a l ex p e rien ces as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of h im s e lf. C arl Rogers (77*^78) has d e fin e d th e s e l f as th e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p o rtio n of th e phenomenal f i e l d which c o n s is ts o f a p a t te r n of conscious p e rc e p tio n s and v alu es of the ” 1" or ”me,” Q u a litie s of th e s e l f are s t a t e d to be as fo llo w s: 1. I t develops out o f th e o rganism ’ s i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e environm ent. 2 . I t may i n t r o j e c t th e v a lu e s o f o th e r p eo p le j and p e rc e iv e them i n d i s t o r t e d f a s h io n , i | 3* The s e l f s t r i v e s f o r c o n s is te n c y . ! I4 ., The organism behaves in ways c o n s is te n t w ith th e s e l f c o n c e p t. 1 j 3* E x p erien c es th a t a re n o t c o n s is te n t w ith th e ; s e l f s t r u c t u r e are p e rc e iv e d as t h r e a t s . 6 . The s e l f may change as a r e s u l t o f m a tu ra tio n -and le a r n in g ( 1 5 5:^83-533)0 I Rogers th u s re g a rd e d th e fo rm a tio n of the s e l f as th e g ra d u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of th e t o t a l p e r c e p tu a l f i e l d . 1 The S e lf Concept in V o c a tio n a l Choice Theory Heywood concluded h i s review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on v o c a tio n a l ch o ice by s t a t i n g : An em erging i n t e r e s t i n o c c u p a tio n a l ch o ice h as been th e s e l f concept th e o ry . T h is encompasses a l l th e major f a c t o r s j u s t l i s t e d b u t em phasizes t h a t th e s t u d e n t 's concept o f th e s e th in g s i n term s o f h i s own p e rso n i s th e prim ary f a c t o r i n cho ice o f a jo b . (82:95) S uper (192:288) made i t c l e a r t h a t a com bination o f g e t tin g o c c u p a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n and c o n s c io u sly c o n s id e rin g i t in th e l i g h t of in fo rm a tio n about th e s e l f i s b e t t e r than m erely a c q u ir in g th e In fo rm a tio n o r m erely a n a ly z in g one- ; 3e l f . Roe concluded t h a t in th e v o c a tio n a l p ro c e s s , s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g and s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e a re i n f a c t r a t h e r im p o rta n t. W ith th e s e i t i s a r e l a t i v e l y sim ple m a tte r to o b ta in v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n ; w ith o u t them a l l th e in fo rm a tio n i n th e w orld i s an in a d e q u a te g u id e . ( 1 5 1: 267) S e lf co n cep t and p e r c e p tio n i n v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . — Rusalem em phasized th e im p o rtan ce o f th e s e l f concept a s i t r e l a t e d to p e r c e p tio n i n v o c a tio n a l ch o ice s i t u a t i o n s * He s a id ; The s e l f con cep t i s th e way th e p e rs o n lo o k s upon h im s e lf and d e te rm in e s i n p a r t th e way in w hich he lo o k s upon th e w o r l d . - - I t w i l l no lo n g e r s u f f i c e to r e f e r a s tu d e n t to an o c c u p a tio n a l l i b r a r y . I t w i l l now be n e c e s s a ry to in c o rp o r a te o c c u p a tio n a l in fo rm a t i o n I n to th e c o u n s e lin g of th e who3e p e r s o n . ( 158: 85- 86) R usalem 1 s (158) p o in t was t h a t i f one a c c e p te d v o c a tio n a l guidance and v o c a tio n a l ad ju stm e n t a s f u n c tio n s of th e s e l f co n cep t a m e c h a n is tic view o f v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lin g as an in f o rm a tio n g iv in g e x e r c is e was u n te n a b le . He s t r e s s e d t h a t c l i e n t s p e rc e iv e d t h e i r e x p e rie n c e i n ways r a t i o n a l to t h e i r own fram e o f r e f e r e n c e and em phasized t h a t t h i s was as t r u e i n making v o c a tio n a l d e c is io n s a s in a n y th in g e l s e . R a y lesb u rg (llj.2) p r e s e n te d i n t e r e s t i n g r e s e a r c h ev id en ce i n th e a r e a o f p e r c e p tio n and v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . He s tu d ie d th e p e r c e p tio n of s tu d e n ts i n th e e n g in e e rin g f i e l d . He fo u n d t h a t e n g in e e r in g was p e r c e iv e d by some s tu d e n ts as a s c i e n t i f i c , by o th e rs a s a m a t e r i a l i s t i c , and by o th e rs a s a s o c i a l w e lfa re o c c u p a tio n . H is d a ta su g g e ste d t h a t a t th e c o lle g e l e v e l any o c c u p a tio n w hich had i n i t s e v e r a l s p e c i a l t i e s was p e r c e iv e d I n v a ry in g ways by th o se p r e p a rin g f o r I t . He co n clu d ed t h a t th e s e d if f e r e n c e s were r e l a t e d to p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 51 S e lf concept and le a rn in g In v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . — V ocational s p e c ia lis t s have p o in te d out th a t f o r a c a re e r d e c isio n to be ap p ro p ria te re q u ire s of the in d iv id u a l th a t he be ab le to accept r e a l i s t i c a l l y the inform ation about th e occu p atio n al w orld, P re s c o tt Lecky (107:175-286) e lu c id a te d th e way in which le a rn in g i s a p ro cess of r e j e c tio n or acceptance of id eas c o n s is te n t or in c o n s is te n t w ith th e s e l f concept. He pointed out th a t la c k of le a rn in g in a given s itu a tio n was merely symptomatic of an acceptance of d e f in itio n s th a t were a t cro ss purposes w ith one another. Non-achievement in school in h is study was lin k e d w ith th e process o f re d e fin in g erroneous concepts so th a t they could be a s sim ila te d in to the s e l f . Karen Homey (89:17) in a study found th a t change in the s e l f concept enabled a person to le a rn to improve tenni3 perform ance, Rogers ( I 5 5 : l 36~ il|l; 236- 277) rep o rted changes in the s e lf con cep t were accompanied by changes i n o v e rt b eh a v io r. S ev eral cases in d ic a te d a re v is io n of the c h i l d 's s e l f image e ffe c te d an in c re a se in a b i l i t y to cope s u c c e s s fu lly w ith re a d in g and o th e r academic problem s. H olland (85) j d isc u sse d the m a tte r of th e s e lf concept as i t r e la te d to le a rn in g in v o c a tio n a l s itu a tio n s and suggested th a t p e r sons w ith more adequate s e lf concepts were ab le to u t i l i z e more knowledge about them selves and to make more use of v o c a tio n a l in fo rm atio n . I t was h is co n jectu re th a t th e s e l f concept i n h i b i t s or f a c i l i t a t e s th e use o f v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n . S e lf concept and a n x ie ty in v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . — Kinnane (101:5-7) s ta te d in h is in tro d u c tio n to a r e c e n t study th a t a n x ie ty p reclu d es r e a l i t y te s tin g which i s an e s s e n ti a l elem ent of experience i f the in d iv id u a l i s going to be able to make r e a l i s t i c c a re e r d e c is io n s . He d i s cussed th e f a c t th a t the s e l f m aintains a balance between r e a l i t y and fa n ta sy and adm itted to awareness those asp ects of each which would enable the in d iv id u a l to avoid a n x ie ty f e e l in g s . He emphasized th a t the w ell in te g ra te d perso n in th e p u r s u it of s a t i s f a c t i o n of h is needs in v o c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s would continue the p u rs u it only i f r e a l i t y was p erce iv ed as more fav o rab le in th e s e le c te d d ir e c tio n than f o r a l te r n a ti v e p u r s u its . The b e t t e r in te g r a tio n of th e s e l f system would perm it acceptance of whatever was unfav o rab le in t h i s r e a l i t y . The p o o rly in te g r a te d person was d escrib ed as one who u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y pursued th e s a t i s f a c tio n of h is needs in v o c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s ir r e s p e c tiv e of w hether r e a l i t y was fa v o ra b le . S e lf concept and o cc u p atio n al needs in v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . Hoppock has d efin ed s e l f concepts as need s. He in d ic a te d th a t th e s e l f concepts a f f e c t v o c a tio n a l choices because th ey are n ee d s. He d escrib ed the r e la tio n s h ip between s e l f concepts and v o c a tio n a l choice as fo llo w s: The h e a lth y w e ll-a d ju s te d c l i e n t who h as a r e a l i s t i c concept o f h is own a b i l i t i e s and lim ita tio n s may seek an o ccu p atio n a p p ro p ria te to them. The p e r - i son w ith a g ran d io se concept of h im self may choose an o b je c tiv e f a r beyond h i s a b i l i t y to a t t a i n . — The person who f e e l s secure only when he h as some- i one e ls e to t e l l him what to do may lik e to th in k I of h im se lf as th e lo y a l, o b e d ie n t, tr u s t e d a s s i s t a n t to someone whose s tr e n g th and courage and competence ! he ad m ires. (88:80) I The S e lf I d e a l Concept and B ehavior The s e l f system in v o lv e s many s e l f co n cep ts. J e r s i l d (9I+) observed th a t \jhen we speak of th e s e l f we a c tu a lly make re fe re n c e to a system o f id e a s , a t t i t u d e s , a p p r a is a ls , and commitments to one’ s own p e rso n . Accord- ; ing to him, th e person ex p e rie n c e s th e se as d i s t i n c t l y b elonging to him and a l l of them to g e th e r as making up h is u n d ersta n d in g of h is in d iv id u a l e x iste n c e * Mead (119) p o in te d o u t th a t th e re are many se lv es which are d i f f e r e n t ia t e d o u t of s o c ia l ex p e rien ce through i n t e r a c t i o n w ith many s o c ia l g ro u p s. Such selves, according to Mead, in c lu d e a fa m ily s e l f , school s e l f , and o th e r s e lv e s . One of th e s e l f concepts which has re c e iv e d a g r e a t d eal o f a t t e n t i o n in the l i t e r a t u r e and i n r e s e a r c h i s the s e l f id e a l co n cep t. G a tt e ll ( 772€> ^1 ).— 6^ 7 ) m ain tain ed th a t th e re i s a r e a l s e l f and an i d e a l s e l f which depend on s e l f o b s e rv a tio n . He th e o riz e d t h a t in th e b eg in n in g of th e i n d i v i d u a l 's developm ental h i s t o r y th e r e a l s e l f i s an im p e rfe c t r e f l e c t i o n of th e id e a l s e l f and may be seen as s u b s id ia r y to i t . Through th e passage o f tim e and normal development th e re could come about an I n te g r a tio n of th e se two se lv es w ith in the d ic ta t e s of th e s e l f s e n ti- j ment. Normally the su b sid a tlo n of th e a c tu a l to the id e a l s e l f ten d s to p ass in tim e to a s in g le s e l f s e n t i e n t j through abandoning th e symbols and b eh av io r re p re - I s e n tin g rewards which cannot be a tta in e d (o r a tta in e d j w ithout too g re a t a c o u n te rv a ilin g e rg ic d e p riv a tio n ) I or through the e le v a tio n of th e a c tu a l s e l f to the ! a s p ire d performance l e v e l , (77:6£i|.-65>7) | The school of c lie n t- c e n te r e d counseling has been in te r e s te d in measuring th e e f f e c ts of th e s e l f - s e l f id e a l ; concept as i t has been r e la te d to fav o rab le behavior changes ! over co u n selin g . Findings re p o rte d by B u tle r and Haigh (33) in 195> I|. in d ic a te d th a t f o r p erso n s b e n e fit tin g from co u n selin g and e s ta b lis h in g more a p p ro p ria te behavior p a t te r n s th e d iscrep an cy between th e s e l f concept and th e s e l f id e a l concept d ecreased. Sears (l6L|.) in a le v e l of a s p ir a tio n study re p o rte d th a t c h ild re n w ith a h ig h d iscrep an cy p a tte r n were p oorer in school achievement and had low s e l f co n fid en ce. She found th a t c h ild re n who showed low d iscrep an cy scores were r a te d as co n fid e n t and behavior problems were l e s s fre q u e n t. Rogers ( 1 5 > 5 > Jl3 6 -l|l) summarized s tu d ie s on s e l f !accep tan ce. He concluded th a t th re e e s s e n ti a l elem ents ^ c h a ra c te riz e d the s e l f ac ce p tin g in d iv id u a l or the person ! who might be considered to have a low s e l f - s e l f id e a l concept discrepancy* These were as fo llo w s: 1, He p erceiv ed h im se lf as a more adequate p e r son w ith more w orth and more p o s s i b i l i t y of m eeting l i f e . 2 . He p e rm itte d more e x p e r ie n tia l d a ta to e n te r | h is awareness and th u s c o n tin u a lly achieved a more i i r e a l i s t i c e x p e c ta tio n of h im s e lf. 3* He tended to p la ce the b a s is of sta n d a rd s w ith - ; in h im s e lf, re c o g n iz in g th a t the q u a lity and i n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f an ex perience o r o b je c t was in h e re n t i n th e s e l f v alu e placed upon i t r a th e r than in the th in g i t s e l f . I The S e lf - S e lf Id e a l Concept and V ocational Role Nahinsky (128) measured th e r e la tio n s h i p between | th e s e l f - s e l f id e a l concept and acceptance o r r e j e c t i o n of c e r t a in v o c a tio n a l r o l e s . S e lf s o r ts of o f f i c e r s accep ted f o r c a re e r p o s itio n s were compared w ith s e l f s o r ts f o r those le a v in g the navy. Three s o r ts were designed and a d m in iste re d ; an id e a l o f f i c e r concept s o r t , a ty p ic a l o f f i c e r concept s o r t, and a s e l f concept s o r t . Nahinsky found th a t the id e a l o f f i c e r concept s e lf-c o n c e p t s o r t c o r r e l a t i o n s and th e ty p ic a l o f f i c e r c o n c e p t-s e lf concept s o r t c o r r e la tio n s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r th e two g roups. On th e o th e r hand, the id e a l o f f i c e r co n c ep t- ty p i c a l o f f ic e r concept c o r r e la tio n s did n o t d i f f e r f o r th e two groups. Nahinsky concluded th e fo llo w in g s 1. O ffic e rs le a v in g the navy p ic tu re d them selves £6 as b ein g le s s l i k e th e ty p ic a l c a re e r o f f i c e r and the id e a l c a re e r o f f i c e r than o f f ic e r s sta y in g in th e s e rv ic e p i c tu re d th e m selv es, 2. The lower in te r-c o n c e p t r e la tio n s h i p s f o r th e n o n -c a re e r groups were n o t r e l a t e d to any d if fe re n c e s b e tween th e two groups i n the way in d iv id u a ls p ic tu re d them s e lv e s , the ty p ic a l c a re e r o f f i c e r , or th e i d e a l c a re e r o f f i c e r . 3 . The d iffe re n c e s between th e way the two groups p ic tu r e d th em selv es, th e ty p ic a l c a re e r o f f i c e r , and th e i d e a l c a re e r o f f i c e r were a l l s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . i|. The Q tech n iq u e proved u s e fu l in d is c rim in a tin g between two groups of d if f e r e n t le v e ls of ad ju stm en t to a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . Nahinsky suggested th a t f e e lin g s of s e l f acceptance as r e f l e c t e d in th e s e l f concepts may be a most im p o rtan t measure of ad ju stm e n t. The S e lf - S e lf Id e a l Concept and A p p ro p riaten ess of V ocational Choice H olland ( 8£) th e o riz e d th a t f a c to r s of s e l f e v a lu a tio n and in te lli g e n c e determ ined th e l e v e l o f voca tio n a l c h o ic e . He in c lu d ed among th e s e l f e v a lu a tio n v a r ia b le s , socio-econom ic o r ig in , need f o r s t a t u s , educa ti o n , and s e l f co n cep t. He in d ic a te d t h a t s e l f knowledge i o p e ra te d to in c re a s e or d ecrease th e accuracy w ith which a person made a choice w hile s e l f e v a lu a tio n f a c i l i t a t e d or in h ib ite d th e in d iv i d u a l's a b i l i t y to use in fo rm a tio n . He p o in te d out t h a t d is c rim in a tio n of le v e l of choice could be explored through th e use of in te lli g e n c e , s o c ia l s t a t u s , and s e l f concept m easures. R ecently Kinnane (101) has executed a study w ith tw e lf th grade boys in which he measured th e r e la tio n s h ip between p erso n a l adjustm ent and a p p ro p ria te n e ss of voca t i o n a l c h o ic e . Adjustment wa3 measured by t r a i t survey, e stim a te of p sy ch o p ath o lo g ical te n d e n c ie s, and s e l f - s e l f id e a l concept d isc re p a n c y . Instrum ents used to make th e th re e e v a lu a tio n s were th e G uilford Zimmerman Temperament Survey, the R o tte r Incom plete Sentence Blank, and B i lls Index o f Adjustment and Values. V ocational choice r e a l i t y was measured by the s im ila r it y o f th e p r o f il e of te s te d a b i l i t i e s to th e o cc u p atio n al a b i l i t y p r o f i l e of th e expressed choice and by the s im ila r it y o f in v e n to rie d i n t e r e s t s to expressed v o c a tio n a l p re fe re n c e . F in d in g s re p o rte d in d ic a te d no r e la tio n s h ip between choice r e a lis m and temperament t r a i t s as measured by the G uilford Tempera ment Survey or p sy ch o p ath o lo g ical te n d en cies as measured by th e R o tte r Incom plete Sentence B lank, R ealism of choice as judged by b o th a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s was, however, p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to fav o rab le s e l f e v a lu a tio n s . Q -so rt Techniques o f Measuring the S e lf Concepts Consonant w ith the developing i n t e r e s t in th e s e l f concepts as im portant to an u nderstanding o f b eh a v io r th e re appeared a new tech n iq u e by which they could be m easured. Stephenson, in an in tr o d u c tio n to i t s employment, s a id : In th e above papers I have in tro d u ce d a f a c t o r technique which i s an in v e rsio n of a l l p rev io u s f a c t o r work. Follow ing P ro fe ss o r Thomson, I have used th e term Q , f o r c o r r e la tio n between persons ju s t as r i s used f o r c o r r e la tio n between t e s t s . . . . I have concluded th a t Q tech n iq u es serve g e n e ra l and type psychology ju s t as r technique i s f o r work on in d iv id u a l d if fe re n c e s , and t h i s dichotomy would seem to be a fundam ental one. (17?s360- 361) W olfle (201) d escrib ed the complete Q tech n iq u e p ro cess sim ply. A fte r c o r r e la tio n between persons in s te a d of t e s t s , the ta b le of c o r r e la tio n s between persons may be fa c to re d by th e a p p ro p ria te te ch n iq u e . The o b tain ed f a c to r s are n o t, however, to be considered t r a i t s of p e r s o n a lity but types of in d iv id u a ls . I t i s p o s s ib le to give to each in d iv id u a l a score which in d ic a te s h is c o r r e la tio n w ith the most ty p ic a l p e rso n . R e sea rc h ers, in te r e s te d in the measurement of s e l f d e s c r ip tio n s , have developed a v a r ia tio n o f the Q m ethodol ogy known as the Q -so rt te c h n iq u e . In t h i s approach, a p o p u la tio n of s e l f r e f e r e n t statem en ts i s s o rte d by the in d iv id u a l oa a h ie ra rc h ic a l scale according to a fo rc e d , normal curve d i s t r i b u t i o n of statem en ts from a ’’most l i k e ” categ o ry to a ’’l e a s t l i k e ” c a te g o ry , Mich used in th e U n iv e rsity of Chicago C ounsel ing C enter to measure change of s e lf - e s tim a te s over coun s e lin g i t has gained in im portance as a re s e a rc h d e v ic e , B u tle r and Haigh’ s (33) study employing e x c e lle n t c o n tro ls and re se a rc h design in d ic a te d measured changes in the s e l f - s e l f id e a l concept over co u n selin g employing th e Q -s o rt, S ev eral arguments have been advanced a g a in s t th e re s e a rc h p o te n tia l of the Q -3ort, T ravers (19&) and Jones (97) q u estio n ed the fo rc e d s o r t because i t re q u ire d th e s u b je c t to condemn h im s e lf. I t was a lso p o s ite d th a t e q u a liz in g of s c a t t e r in c re a se d the e r r o r of measurement, Edwards (59) ta lk e d of th e danger of s o c ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y as an in flu e n c in g f a c to r i n s o r tin g and c i te d re s e a rc h in d ic a tin g a c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t o f .87 between s t a t e ments th a t were s o c ia lly d e s ira b le and th o se th a t were lik e th e s e l f . Levy (111) c r i t i c i z e d the 3 o rt as in v o lv in g g e n e r a lity to p erceiv ed a c tu a l- id e a l d is c re p a n c ie s , C a tte ll (1|1) c r i t i c i z e d Q te ch n iq u e . He p o in te d out th a t f a c to r s can be analyzed more e a s ily from t e s t s than from p erso n s, th a t the "g e n eral s iz e " f a c to r was overlooked, and th a t i t was im possible to r o ta te the Q technique f a c t o r i z a t i o n to get p sy c h o lo g ica l m eaningful f a c to r s by sim ple s tr u c tu r e so long as they rem ain person f a c t o r s . He s ta te d o p p o sitio n to Roger’ s use of the s o r t . On the o th e r hand, are the evidences th a t I t i s a worthy, v a lid , and a p p ro p ria te te ch n iq u e , Blake and Mouton ( 23)» in a statem ent a f t e r a 1959 review of r e search on the s e l f concept, sa id : “The c o n tro l q u a lity of the concept, the ease and e f fic ie n c y of measurement p o ssib le by th e Q -s o rts , and th e l i k e —in su re continued concern w ith th e s e l f over th e p erio d ahead” (2 3s220) . Kenny (100) n o ted i t was le s s in flu e n c e d by s o c ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y than the q u e stio n n a ire o r in v e n to ry . The r e l i a b i l i t y of the Q -so rt was s tu d ie d by L iv- son (112). Using a Q -sort s e t he asked eleven s o r te r s to make fo u r s o r ts each d e s c rib in g the p e r s o n a lity of f iv e p o l i t i c a l f ig u r e s . R e l i a b i l i t i e s were computed f o r b o th fo rced and unforced s o r t s 0 The number of d is c rim in a tio n s p re se n t in each unforced s o r t was determ ined and i t was found t h a t the s o r te r s did not s e le c t any p a r tic u la r form of d i s t r i b u t i o n . Frank (66) stu d ie d the r e l i a b i l i t y of the Q -sort d ev ice. He found t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y co e f f i c i e n t s were ample fo r i t s u se . B lo ck 's ( 2I 4 .) study f u r th e r in d ic a te d th a t th e f o r ced choice s o r tin g procedure provided more d is c rim in a tio n than unforced procedures when used to measure in fo rm atio n based on o rd erin g of the item s r a th e r th a n g e ttin g inform a tio n of a m etric n a tu r e . Cronbach (ij.8 ) ev a lu ated th e te c h nique as a procedure f o r g a th e rin g d ata which i s p r a c t i c a l and fre q u e n tly h e lp f u l. He s a id : In th e Q -sort we have a v a r ia n t of the fo rc ed choice procedure which has so many psychom etric advantages. 6 l F o r one th in g , t h i s method of in te r r o g a tio n i s much more p e n e tra tin g than th e common q u e s tio n n a ire where th e person can say, "yes" to a l l th e fa v o ra b le symp toms and "no" to a l l u n fav o rab le ones. The method i s fre e from those id io s y n c ra c ie s of response which cause some persons to respond '’cannot say" tw ice as o fte n as o th e rs , and so make t h e i r sco res non-compar- a b le . Since more statem en ts are p laced in the middle p i l e s , the su b je c t i s fre e d from many d i f f i c u l t and r a th e r unim portant d is c rim in a tio n he would have to make i f he were fo rc ed to rank every sta te m e n t. And th e f a c t th a t d isc rim in a tio n s n ea r th e c e n te r o f the s c a le is d i f f i c u l t i s reduced in im portance by th e f a c t th a t in product-moment c o r r e la tio n s the end c e l l s re c e iv e th e g r e a te s t w eight. (I4 .8 ; 376— 388) Fam ily In flu en ce on A p propriateness of V ocational D ecision I Fam ily F a c to rs and A sp ira tio n Level Dynes, C larke, and D in itz (57) re p o rte d a study in 1956 in which th e attem pt was made to determ ine the r e l a tio n s h ip between a s p ir a tio n le v e l and c e r ta in asp e c ts of fam ily ex p e rien ce . The conclusions in d ic a te d th a t u n s a t i s fa c to r y in te r - p e r s o n a l fam ily r e la tio n s were r e l a t e d to e x c e ss iv e ly h ig h a s p ir a tio n le v e ls . High a s p ir e r s s ta te d th a t th ey had experienced f e e lin g s of r e je c tio n more f r e q u en tly than d id those in the group w ith lower a s p ir a tio n s . A s ig n i f ic a n t ly la r g e r p e r cen t experienced f e e lin g s of n o t being wanted by t h e i r f a th e r s and mothers and b e lie v - ; in g th a t f a v o r itis m had been shown to an o th er c h i ld . I High a s p ir e r s a lso confided l e s s in p a re n ts and were more i f e a r f u l o f punishm ent. Fam ily F a c to rs and A p p ro p ria ten e ss of V ocational Choice Jung (126:1^2) h y p o th esized t h a t the m other uncon s c io u s ly determ ined the in d i v i d u a l 's r e la tio n s h i p to women, s o c ie ty , and to th e world o f f e e l in g and f a c t . Although surveys such as those of Neuberg (130), C rapullo (1|7)> and F leeg e and Malone (6 3), in d ic a te d t h a t o f te n stu d e n ts d id n o t co n scio u sly a t t r i b u t e to home f a c t o r s an im p o rtan t p la c e in v o c a tio n a l ch o ice, o th e r s tu d ie s have in d ic a te d homes u n co n scio u sly in flu e n c e s tu d e n ts tow ard r e a l i s t i c or u n r e a l i s t i c v o c a tio n a l g o a ls . K om er (105)* through d ir e c t o b se rv a tio n a t th e v o c a tio n a l guidance u n i t of th e D iv isio n of P sy c h ia try a t the U n iv e rs ity of Chicago C lin ic , observed the fam ily as a very im p o rtan t f a c t o r in s tu d e n ts ' a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c c a re e r d e c is io n s . S ev eral a u th o rs have p o in te d out th e in flu e n c e of fam ily f a c to r s on th e s e l f co n c ep ts. S u lliv a n (186:10) in d ic a te d th a t th e s e l f i s made up of r e f l e c t e d a p p ra is a ls and t h a t th e r e la tio n s h ip of c h ild to p a re n t lim ite d h i s s e l f aw areness to th o se concepts about h im self which were com patible w ith p a re n ta l e v a lu a tio n . Murphy (127:522) fo rm u late d th e r e l a t i o n between p a r e n ta l a p p r a is a ls and s e l f - a p p r a i s a l s . He s a id : ”The tendency to value r a t h e r than d isv a lu e th e s e l f i s c o r r e la te d w ith p a r e n ta l appro v a l . ” Jo u rard and Reity ( 98) concluded t h a t ” s e l f a p p r a is a l s co-vary w ith a p e rs o n 's p e rc e p tio n or b e l i e f concerning [h is p a r e n ts ' a p p r a is a l of h im .” B u tle r s a id : ” I t i s deduced th a t th e r e a l d if fe re n c e s which e x is te d b o th on p re se n t adjustm ent and wished f o r ad ju stm e n t among groups was th e r e s u l t of d i f f e r e n t i a l p a re n ta l a p p r a is a ls e x p e r i enced in th e p a s t” (32:99)* S egel (l6f?:33“35) observed th a t th e changing s e lf of the a d o le sc e n t i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e f l e c t e d i n p a r e n ta l a t t i t u d e s and t h a t p a re n ts become in c o n s is te n t i n th e i r tre a tm e n t o f the a d o le sc e n t because of th e f e e lin g th a t he should have m a tu rity o f judgment b u t th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t he has n o t. To v o c a tio n a l t h e o r i s t s such as Super (189) s e l f concepts a re le a rn e d resp o n se s which are th e p ro d u ct of s o c i a l i z a t i o n as th e in d iv id u a l has le a rn e d to i n t e r a c t w ith th e im p o rta n t f o rc e s of h is l i f e . T h e o ris ts in t h i s school have hypo th e s iz e d th a t th e e n t i r e p ro c e ss of v o c a tio n a l choice i s one o f im plem enting s e l f concepts which are fo rm u la te d to a g r e a t e x te n t through home in f lu e n c e s , A study by F rie n d and Haggard (68) has serv ed to d e fin e ways in which th e home may in flu e n c e s tu d e n ts ’ a b i l i t y to make r e a l i s t i c v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s . Super (192) and G inzberg (73) b o th ac ce p t the co n c lu sio n s o f t h i s study a s s u b s ta n tia tin g th e th e o ry o f th e im portance of home in flu e n c e s on o c c u p a tio n a l c h o ic e . The stu d y was |c a r r i e d out by th e au th o rs i n t h e i r work w ith th e Fam ily S o ciety o f G re a te r B oston, F ollow ing c l i e n t s over a p e rio d of y e a rs th e y n o tic e d th a t em otional f a c t o r s tended to p la y an im p o rta n t p a r t i n v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . From th e s e o b s e rv a tio n s th e y developed th e purpose f o r t h e i r s tu d y . |E ig h ty r e l i e f ca se s were r a te d by th r e e p s y c h o lo g is t, I v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lo rs on item s r e l a t i n g to e a r l y l i f e , e a r l y jo b s, p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s , r e a c tio n to s p e c i f i c iwork c o n d itio n s , g e n e ra l work c a p a c i t i e s , a d ju stm e n t, and j im provem ent. S u b je c ts were a ls o c l a s s i f i e d i n t o s e v e r a l c a te g o r ie s in c lu d in g ad ju stm e n t and ach iev em en t. They found t h a t low job ad ju stm e n t was r e l a t e d to antagonism f o r th e m other in th e home. I n d iv id u a ls who had a d i f f i c u l t tim e making d e c is io n s a ls o had poor home a d ju stm e n t. Summary E a rly s tu d ie s and l i t e r a t u r e on ch o ice re a lis m were concerned p r im a r ily w ith e v a lu a tin g th e e f f e c t s of v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n and s e l f knowledge such as was con veyed in sch o o l c a r e e r c o u rse s on th e s t u d e n t s ’ a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te c a r e e r d e c is io n s . T h is r e s e a r c h empha s i s was com patible w ith th e v o c a tio n a l guidance p h ilo so p h y o f m atching men and jo b s . As p s y c h o lo g ic a l, s o c io lo g ic a l, and i n t r a - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s began to be e x p lo re d as phenomena which in flu e n c e d v o c a tio n a l d e c is io n , r e s e a r c h r e f l e c t e d th e new em phasis i n s tu d ie s com paring th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s of 1 v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n s i t u a t i o n s w ith c o u n s e lin g s i t u a t i o n s w hich s t r e s s e d th e p e r s o n a l a s p e c ts o f c h o ic e . Such s tu d ie s were s u c c e s s fu l In i n d i c a t i n g t h a t p e rs o n a l coun- 65; s e lin g , as i t was a b le to cope w ith th e more p s y c h o lo g ic a l | and p e rs o n a l f a c t o r s i n ch o ice making, was more e f f e c t i v e th a n v o c a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n c o u rse s in h e lp in g s tu d e n ts make e f f e c t i v e c a r e e r decisions® There was some evidence to in d ic a te t h a t in fo rm a tio n g iv e n w ith o u t any r e f e r e n c e to th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t u s of th e in d iv id u a l m ight a c t u a l l y be harmful® The im p lic a tio n of t h i s ty p e of re s e a r c h was th a t th e p e r s o n a lity dynamics in v o lv e d in v o c a tio n a l ch o ice d e c is io n were f a c t o r s t h a t needed to be e x p e r i mented w ith i f s tu d e n ts were to make more r e a l i s t i c c a re e r decisions® In c r e a s in g a t t e n t i o n was found to have been g iv e n to th e developm ental a s p e c ts of v o c a tio n a l ch o ice i n l i t e r a tu r e and research® The w eight of e x p e rim e n ta l evidence seemed to in d ic a te th a t th e r e was an in c r e a s in g a b i l i t y o f s tu d e n ts to make r e a l i s t i c ch o ices o f v o c a tio n s as th e y developed® N inth grade ch o ices d id n o t seem to be as r e a l i s t i c as tw e l f th grade c h o ic e s . In l i n e w ith t h i s v ie w p o in t was th e growing tendency to a t t r i b u t e a much g r e a t e r d eg ree of r e a l is m to h ig h sch o o l s e n i o r s ’ ch o ic e s than was p r e v io u s ly true® S tu d ie s have in d ic a t e d a grow irg c o n s is te n c y in c h o ice sta te m e n ts o v er th e h ig h sch o o l p e rio d and a h ig h e r d eg ree of r e a l is m and c o n s is te n c y to th e ch o ic e s of t w e l f t h g r a d e r s . An in c r e a s in g concern was n o te d in th e amount of r e s e a r c h and l i t e r a t u r e on th e way in w hich p e r s o n a lity s t a t u s in c lu d in g em o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y , s o c i a l a d ju stm e n t, and self concepts wa3 related to choice making ability* B oth c l i n i c a l p s y c h o lo g is ts and v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lo rs have sh a re d in th e concern t h a t th e s e l e c t i o n o f o n e 's occupa t io n i s more th a n a f o r t u i t o u s p ro c e ss and in v o lv e s e l e ments which a re em o tio n al as w e ll as r a tio n a l* The v o ca t i o n a l choice a p erso n makes h as come to be c o n s id e re d a p ro d u ct of a p e r s o n 's b a s ic p e r s o n a lity o r g a n iz a tio n and u n ique p sy c h o lo g ic a l development* R esearch in d ic a t e d t h a t em o tio n al d is tu rb a n c e and la c k of s o c i a l a d ju stm e n t a re r e l a t e d to i n a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te c h o ic e s . O ther s tu d ie s seemed to i n d ic a t e t h a t th e s e l f co n c e p ts, e s p e c ia lr l y th e s e l f id e a l co n c ep t, were r e l a t e d to a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p ria te v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s . R esearch a ls o fa v o re d th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t fa m ily f a c t o r s were im p o rta n t i n v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . U n sa tisfa c to ry p e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s in th e home, e s p e c i a l l y w ith th e m other, were r e l a t e d to in a p p r o p r ia te v o c a tio n a l a t t i t u d e s and a s p i r a t i o n . Such f in d in g s would in d ic a t e t h a t r e s e a r c h a tte m p tin g to d e fin e more c l e a r l y th e congruency between I n te r p e r s o n a l fa m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s and th e p o t e n t i a l f o r making r e a l i s t i c c a re e r d e c is io n s needs to be e x p lo re d . R esearch in d ic a te d t h a t c e r t a i n v a r ia b le s commonly i employed i n v o c a tio n a l guidance were r e l a t e d to th e student^ a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te c a r e e r d e c is io n s . I n t e l H gencei was found to be an im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n th e a b i l i t y to j 67 make r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s . No s tu d i e s w ith c o n t r a d ic to r y f in d in g s were lo c a te d . S tu d ie s d id i n d i c a t e , how ever, t h a t th e re a s o n s g iv e n by i n t e l l i g e n t s tu d e n ts f o r t h e i r c h o ic e s were n o t s u p e r io r to th o s e g iv e n by o t h e r s . S in ce s tu d i e s were n o t r e p o r te d in term s o f f i e l d and l e v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of r e a lis m , i t co u ld be t h a t th e a b i l i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n t s tu d e n ts to make a p p r o p r ia te c h o ic e s would be d i f f e r e n t when e v a lu a te d a c c o rd in g to th e s e c o n tin u a s e p a r a t e l y . S ocio-econom ic s t a t u s was th e o r iz e d a s h av in g a r e l a t i o n s h i p to a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of c h o ic e . I t was hypo th e s iz e d t h a t o c c u p a tio n a l a t t i t u d e s were more ad e q u ate f o r a c h ie v in g th e g o a ls one s e le c te d when h i s c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n p e r m itte d him g r e a t e r o p p o rtu n ity to p e rc e iv e th e o c c u p a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e and to u n d e rs ta n d m o b ility r e q u ir e m e n ts . I t was su g g e ste d by a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t th e h ig h e r le v e l s t u d e n t ’ s p ro x im ity to ad eq u ate fa m ily v o ca t i o n a l r o l e m odels would p e rm it th e h ig h e r s t a t u s s tu d e n t a b e t t e r chance to check o u t h i s ch o ice a g a in s t r e a l i t y . A f a c t o r commonly employed in sc h o o l guidance s i t u a t i o n s i s sc h o o l ach iev e m en t. The way t h i s f a c t o r was r e l a t e d to v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s c o u ld n o t be ; d e term in ed by l i t e r a t u r e o r r e s e a r c h . I n t e r e s t s as m easured by in v e n to ry have been u se d I f o r some tim e as c r i t e r i a f o r e v a lu a tin g c h o ic e a p p r o p r ia te - ; n e s s . The l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e d t h a t I n v e n to r ie d i n t e r e s t s were related to occupational stability, success, and satisfaction. Long terra follow-up studies indicated their stability was adequate for use in counseling to predict appropriateness of vocational field for the individual : high school senior0 Although high school students’ inter ests were observed to be incompletely developed, literature indicated that they are much more reliable and permanent than earlier studies indicated. The conclusion seems warranted that choices made in line with inventoried inter est patterns have a good deal of vocational field realism. The review of the literature indicated two serious short-comings in research to date. The first concerns the problem of criteria and the second concerns the problem of ascertaining the way in which whatever variables do contribute to choice appropriateness are inter-related. There was found an increasing tendency to utilize judges’ ratings to measure the appropriateness of an individual’s vocational choice. This was probably due to increased understanding of the complexity of the factors entering into vocational choice. However, it was not found that judges rated choices according to both field and level appropriateness criteria. The large scale treatment of ; the subject of occupational classification as it related to vocational research by vocational guidance specialists indicated that further developments in research design in this area were needed. Secondly, although studies have indicated that research results in appropriateness studies depended upon the form of the question asked, researchers have been careless in standardizing the form of the ques tion asked so that the degree of realism expressed could be controlled. More accurate distinction between the state ments of plans, fantasies, and aspirations need?to be made if choice realism estimates are to be accurate. The literature also indicated that exploratory studies need to be performed to ascertain the way in which individual personal traits already measurable contribute to choice making ability when considered along with such intra-personal factors as the self concepts, A complete review of the literature led Super to say: In any case it should be clear that what is needed is an understanding of how all significant factors affect success. The ideal study would therefore be one in which all presumably relevant psychological, social, and economic factors are taken into account, and in which their interaction as well as their predictive validity are ascertained. This has not been done to date, (192:166-167) The Q-3ort as a technique for measuring self con cepts for research purposes was reviewed. Research and literature seemed to indicate that it was capable of measur ing intra-individual differences in ways not possible by use of other instruments. Its practicality for use was suggested in the literature and the ease with which it could be controlled caused researchers to recommend its utilization. CHAPTER I I I j I RESEARCH DESIGN j : t In order to study the hypotheses projected in the ; present investigation, a design was formulated to make it possible to elicit realistic statements of the vocational : aspirations of senior high school male students and to provide for the rating of these choices as to their ap propriateness by vocational guidance specialists. The design was also structured to obtain a measure of certain intra-personal factors as expressed in three selected self concepts. These concepts were the self-self ideal concept, the self-mother ideal concept, and the self ideal- mother ideal concept. Self concepts were measured by the Q-sort technique through asking the students to sort self referent statements three times to represent aspects of these self concepts. The relationships between the two components in each of the selected self concepts were expressed in terms of Q , coefficients. The statistical design was structured so that the investigation yielded a measure of the significance of the ] j correlations between the self concepts as expressed by the j : ! Q coefficients and the rated appropriateness of vocational choices. Correlations between the appropriateness of voca tional choice and the variables of intelligence, school achievement, and socio-economic status were also measured, j inasm uch as th e y are m ajor f a c t o r s commonly employed i n sch o o l v o c a tio n a l g u id a n c e . D ata f o r each v a r i a b l e were ran k ed and c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e r a t i n g s o f c h o ic e a p p ro p r i a t e n e s s . A ll c o r r e l a t i o n s were t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e by means of th e Chi sq u are s t a t i s t i c . The s ig n i f ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een a p p r o p r ia te and i n a p p r o p r ia t e f i e l d c h o ic e s when compared w ith above and below median e x p e rim e n ta l groups was a ls o d e te rm in e d . S tu d e n ts h av in g o v e r- and u n d e r - a s p ir a t io n l e v e l s were a l s o compared w ith above and below m edian e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s. To d eterm in e i f any e x p e rim e n ta l v a r i a b l e had a s i g n i f i c a n t in f lu e n c e on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een any p a r t i c u l a r e x p e rim e n ta l v a r ia b le and a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f v o ca t i o n a l c h o ic e , d e s ig n a te d sam ples o f each v a r i a b l e , con s i s t i n g o f th e group to one s id e o f th e median f o r t h a t e x p e rim e n ta l group, were employed* A m u ltip le p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e was a l s o computed to d eterm in e i f m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n o f th e s e l e c t e d v a r ia b le s w ith ch o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s was ad e q u a te to w a rra n t f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n to th e m u ltip le p r e d i c t i v e power o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l v a r i a b l e s . Inasm uch as s tu d ie s p r e v io u s ly p erform ed d id n o t seem to be p r e c i s e enough in o b ta in in g v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e re s p o n s e s , th e d e s ig n o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y in c lu d e d a c a r e f u l l y worded q u e s tio n n a ir e s t r u c t u r e d to o b ta in th e most r e a l i s t i c v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e p o s s ib le from th e s tu d e n t.| 72 The p r e s e n t d e sig n was a ls o b ased on th e b e l i e f t h a t f a c - j t o r s a f f e c t i n g th e c h o ic e of a v o c a tio n a l f i e l d d i f f e r e d ■ from th o se in f lu e n c in g th e ch o ice of a v o c a tio n a l l e v e l . Thus, a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e and ap p r o p r ia te n e s s o f l e v e l of v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e were r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n tly and t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . S t a t i s t i c a l tr e a tm e n t o f th e d a ta was to in c lu d e m easurem ent o f th e s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f f i e l d and le v e l o f c h o ic e . The d e s ig n a ls o was to make p o s s ib le th e com parison of a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of f i r s t and second c h o ic e s o f th e s u b je c ts i n th e d i f f e r e n t e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s. I n s e l e c t i n g th e sample and th e p ro c e d u re s f o r o b t a i n i n g s tu d e n t re sp o n se s o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e , a d e s ig n was ad o p ted w hich was p r a c t i c a l f o r u se i n h ig h s c h o o ls . C o n sid e ra b le tim e was sp e n t i n o b ta in in g th e c o o p e ra tio n of th e s c h o o ls , th e p r i n c i p a l s , and th e c la ssro o m te a c h e r s so t h a t th e c la ssro o m u n i t s s e le c te d f o r th e sample would be made a v a ila b le f o r s tu d y . In ev e ry c a se c o o p e ra tio n was g a in e d . The sam pling p ro ced u re employed was o f a s t r a t i f i e d - c l u s t e r type as e x p la in e d below . A r e s e a r c h team o f c r e d e n tia le d p e rs o n n e l c a r r i e d o u t a l l r e s e a r c h in th e s c h o o ls . Choice of th e Sample S e le c tio n o f th e Schools E ig h teen randomly s e le c te d Los Angeles County h ig h sc h o o ls were ranked a c c o rd in g to th e mean s o c io economic le v e l of th e s tu d e n ts u s in g W arner, Meeker, and E e ls ' (199) socio-econom ic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , based on th e f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n . Among th o se sch o o ls a v a ila b le f o r r e s e a r c h p u rp o ses, th e school w ith th e h ig h e s t socio-econom ic s t a t u s , th e sch o o l w ith th e lo w est s o c io economic s t a t u s , and th e school whose s ta tu s was c l o s e s t to th e median were s e le c te d . Inasmuch as i n t e l l i g e n c e and achievem ent are r e l a t e d to socio-econom ic s t a t u s , i t was b e lie v e d th a t a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of sc h o o ls a c c o rd in g to socio-econom ic le v e l would g iv e an adequate range o f co n tin u o u s d a ta on th e s e th re e v a r ia b le s im p o rta n t to th e s tu d y . The f i n a l sample c o n s is te d of 195 hoys, f i f t y - o n e from the upper socio-econom ic l e v e l sc h o o l, s e v e n ty - s ix from the median l e v e l sc h o o l, and s i x t y - e ig h t from th e low er socio-econom ic le v e l sc h o o l. 7 1 + I Selection of the Classes j All boys enrolled in senior problems type classes ; where vocational guidance was offered in the three schools; were originally included in the sample* Those boys who were absent when Q-sorts were administered were not in cluded in the sample* Students were also not included in the sanple if information in their cumulative record folder was not adequate to serve as a basis for judges1 ratings. Inasmuch as it was the general policy in Los Angeles County Schools to place students with I.Q. scores below 75 in special education classes for the mentally retarded, students with all recorded I.Q. scores below 75 were not included in the study. Selection of the Subjects Twelfth grade senior boys were selected for this investigation for several reasons. Selection of an occupa tion at this time is a real problem for students, with more students making final vocational decisions at this period than at any other. Literature revealed that twelfth graders made more realistic and stable vocational decisions at this time than at earlier developmental levels. Cat- tell (77i656-657) observed that with the passage of time and normal development the self concept and the self ideal 75 concept s t a b i l i z e . S to r d a h l's (181) fin d in g s and C a r t e r 's (39:68) c o n c lu sio n s in d ic a te d t h a t i n t e r e s t p a t te r n s were re a so n a b ly s ta b le by th e tw e l f th g rad e. The re s e a rc h was lim ite d to males because s tu d ie s on in v e n to r ie d i n t e r e s t s have re v e a le d such broad sex d if f e r e n c e s th a t th e more h ig h ly v a lid a te d in v e n to r ie s pro v id e two s e ts of norm s. R e se a rc h e rs such as Lehman and W itty (109) have a ls o in d ic a te d t h a t broad d if f e r e n c e s e x i s t between sexes i n th e types of v o c a tio n a l p r e fe r e n c e . The E xperim ental Q -so rt In a d d itio n to v a r ia b le s c u r r e n tly c o n sid ered I n e c e ss a ry in h e lp in g to e x p la in s tu d e n ts ' a b i l i t y to s e le c t a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l■ g o a ls , p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s , in c lu d in g such im p o rta n t phenomena as s e l f c o n c e p ts, have been re c e iv in g in c re a s e d a t t e n t i o n . I t has been h y pothe siz e d th a t by u n d e rsta n d in g th e r e la tio n s h i p s of v a rio u s t r a i t s a lre a d y m easurable, and in use by th e sch o o l coun s e l o r , to th e t o t a l p e r s o n a lity as measured by th e s e l f concepts one might be ab le b e t t e r to p r e d i c t a s t u d e n t 's a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s . A m ajor concern of th e p re s e n t in v e s t i g a t i o n was to employ a measure o b je c tiv e enough to a s c e r ta in s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f | ic a n t r e la tio n s h i p s between s e l f concepts and a p p r o p r ia te - | n e ss o f c a r e e r choice as w e ll as o th e r t r a i t s and f a c t o r s i used in v o c a tio n a l counseling* The Q-3o r t h as been a p rim ary te c h n iq u e employed to a s c e r t a i n th e s t a t u s of an i n d i v i d u a l ^ s e l f concepts# B u tle r and Haigh (33) in d ic a te d th a t th e s o r t was e f f e c t i v e | in m easuring changes in th e d ir e c t i o n of s e l f ac ce p tan c e | o v er c o u n s e lin g . A s tu d y by Kenny (100) and o th e r r e s e a r c h i ! | h as made i t c l e a r t h a t th e Q-3o r t i s l e s s in flu e n c e d by ! s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s than a re o th e r m easures of s e l f c o n c e p ts . Lee Cronbach ()|8;377) s t a t e d th a t th e Q -s o rt in v e n te d by : S tephenson p ro v id ed a f l e x i b l e method f o r o b ta in in g a q u a l i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n (o r s e l f d e s c r ip tio n ) of th e in d iv id u a l i n a form f o r rig o ro u s m a n ip u la tio n . The Q p r o f i l e i s halfw ay between th e i d i o s y n c r a t i c , h ig h ly p e r s o n a liz e d ‘ s k e tc h a c l i n i c i a n m ight w rite and th e fo rm a l d ia g - | n o s t i c p r o f i l e from th e W echsler o r some o th e r t e s t j which m easures th e p e rso n on a lim ite d number of s c a l e s . (lq .8 : 377) The Q -s o rt was th u s d ec id ed upon as th e method to be employ ed in th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n in a s c e r t a i n i n g th e s e l f c o n c e p ts . The Technique of Q -s o rtin g The Q -s o rt i s perform ed by th e in d iv id u a l s o r tin g s ta te m e n ts in to a fo rc e d norm al d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e v e r a l p i l e s , u s u a lly seven, n in e , o r e le v e n . The continuum ra n g e s from d e s c r ip tio n s th e in d iv id u a l th in k s most n e a r ly j d e s c rib e some p e r s o n a lity con cep t to d e s c r ip tio n s he th in k s d e s c rib e i t l e a s t . The C o n s tru c tio n of th e Q -s o rt The Q -s o rt employed I n t h i s stu d y was c o n s tru c te d j by John B u tle r (32:66-70) and was used by him i n a 1957 s stu d y of th e s e l f co n c ep ts o f h ig h school s tu d e n ts . A I p o p u la tio n of l,lj.00 m ental h e a l t h o r ad ju stm e n t s ta te m e n ts , i I h a l f of w hich were ’’f a v o r a b le ” and h a l f of which were i ^ ’’u n f a v o r a b le ,” were accum ulated from s ta n d a rd iz e d in v e n to r y p r o to c o ls used in p u b lic s c h o o ls . A h ig h sc h o o l coun- i s e lo r - p s y c h o lo g is t, a d i s t r i c t p s y c h o m e tris t, and a d i s t r i c t p s y c h o lo g is t examined th e sta te m e n ts f o r m ental h e a l t h c o n te n t and red u ced th e number o f s ta te m e n ts to i 1 ,2 0 0 . The second s te p c o n s is te d of s e l e c t i n g e v e ry t h i r d i s ta te m e n t. The two sch o o l p s y c h o lo g is ts th e n made a p r e - ; lim in a ry s o r t of th e s ta te m e n ts i n to elev en p i l e s alo n g a continuum from th o se which e x p re sse d th e ’’b e s t co n cep t of s e l f ” to th e ’’p o o re s t concept o f s e l f . ” The number of s ta te m e n ts was a g a in red u ced to a p re lim in a ry s o r t o f 15>0 item s by s e le c tio n ac c o rd in g to c r i t e r i a recommended by T h u rsto n e and Chave, and A n a s ta s i. A ccording to B u tle r ( 3 2 : 6 8) th e c r i t e r i a used w ere: 1 . S ta te m e n ts should be as b r i e f as p o s s ib le so as n o t to f a tig u e th e s u b je c ts who have to r e a d them . I 2 . S ta te m e n ts sh o u ld be e a s i l y re a d a b le and I u n d e rs ta n d a b le so t h a t s u b je c ts have l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y | resp o n d in g to them. 78 i 3* S ta te m e n ts sh o u ld be su ch t h a t th e d eg ree o f | a c c e p ta n c e or r e j e c t i o n o f them i n d i c a t e s som ething d e f i n i t e ab o u t th e s u b j e c t 's o p in io n o f th e goodness o r p o o rn e ss o f h i s s e l f c o n c e p t. | I 4 . „ Double -b a r relied s ta te m e n ts sh o u ld be e lim in a te d i s in c e th e y te n d to have h ig h a m b ig u ity . i 1 ! S ta te m e n ts showing b i a s , i r r e l e v a n c e , t h r e a t , | o r d u p lic a t io n sh o u ld be a v o id e d . 1 From an in fo rm a l p i l o t stu d y and ite m e x a m in a tio n I made by th e w r i t e r p r i o r to s e l e c t i o n o f t h i s s o r t f o r th e I p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i t was found t h a t th e s ta te m e n ts i i conform ed to C ro n b ac h 's (l|8:380) c r i t e r i a f o r ite m s e l e c - ‘ t i o n . 1 . S ta te m e n ts w h ile l o g i c a l l y b e a rin g on th e same domain sh o u ld r e p r e s e n t a la r g e number o f c o n tin u a . 2 . S ta te m e n ts b ein g compared sh o u ld have ab o u t th e same d eg ree of d e s i r a b i l i t y . 3 . Each s ta te m e n t sh o u ld have s u b s t a n t i a l v a r ia n c e i n t h a t d i f f e r e n t p erso n s p u t i t in d i f f e r e n t p i l e s . Twenty r e p u ta b le p s y c h o lo g is ts were in v o lv e d i n th e f i n a l r a t i n g o f th e 150 s ta te m e n ts . S ta te m e n ts were r a t e d on a s c a le w ith v a lu e s from one, th e b e s t concept o f i s e l f , to e le v e n , th e p o o r e s t co n c ep t of s e l f . S ta te m e n ts w ith to o g r e a t v a r i a b i l i t y i n r a t i n g were e x c lu d e d . The e q u a l-a p p e a rin g e l e v e n - i n t e r v a l s c a le was th e n c o n v e rte d in to an eq u a l-ap p ea rin g s e v e n -in te rv a l s c a le by d iv isio n * As a f i n a l s te p , the item s were reduced to f i f t y on the b a s is of re-employment of the c r i t e r i a f o r s o r t statem en ts p re v io u sly c i te d . The u ltim a te f i f t y s o r t sta tem en ts employed were th u 3 arranged on a sc a le w ith v alu es from one to seven. Item s were arranged on the seven p o in t con tinuum from the most d e s ira b le to the le a s t d e s ira b le d e s c rip tio n s of th e s e lf concept In the fo llo w in g manner. Number of Statem ents 2 6 9 9 & 2 S cale value 1 2 3 If 5 ^ 7 Host d e s ira b le L east d e s ira b le The f i f t y sta tem en ts com prising the s o r t are in c lu d e d in Appendix B. R e l i a b i l i t y of the Q -so rt ....... The Q -so rt was ad m in istered to a group of s ix ty stu d e n ts and re a d m in iste re d one month l a t e r . The Q c o e f f i c i e n t of r e l i a b i l i t y which was based on th e d is c re p a n c ie s between th e placem ent of th e statem en ts on the f i r s t and second s o rtin g of the r e a l s e l f s o r t was . 7 1 + w ith a s ta n d ard d e v ia tio n of 2 .0 l|. Although the r e l i a b i l i t y was modest I t was b e lie v e d to r e f l e c t both e r r o r v aria n ce and in co n s is te n c ie s th a t occur in connection w ith in fo rm atio n about the s e l f . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n t as o b ta in ed was comparable to th e r e l i a b i l i t y re p o rte d f o r the one hundred statem ent Q -so rt developed by B u tle r and Haigh (33) and 80 h ig h e r th a n re p o rte d r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f ic ie n ts f o r w ell | known p e r s o n a lity in v e n to r ie s . The mean r e l i a b i l i t y on j th e v a rio u s sub t e s t s of the M innesota M u ltip h asic P er- | s o n a lity In v e n to ry ac co rd in g to G i lli la n d and C olgin (72) | was . 6l , | Self Concepts Selected for Investigation A number o f p s y c h o lo g is ts p o in te d o u t t h a t con- i ; c e p tu a l r o le s w ith in th e s e l f system a re formed so as to i provide a c o n s is te n t s e l f p ic t u r e . Mead (1 1 9 il7 D b e lie v e d ' th a t one could develop many s e lv e s . Each one, i t was 1 ! b e lie v e d , was formed from, s o c ia l communication w ith v a rio u s ! s o c ia l groups. Mead saw a fam ily s e l f which re p re s e n te d a t t i t u d e s r e f l e c t e d and expected w ith in the fa m ily u n i t , a school s e l f which r e f le c te d in te r a c ti o n w ith te a c h e rs and s tu d e n ts , and s e v e ra l o th e r s e lv e s . The s e l f and id e a l concepts have been found to be r e la te d to s o c ia l adequacy by B u tle r and Halgh (33)> to a s p ir a tio n le v e l by S ears (l6)|:311-36) j and to v o c a tio n a l choice by N ahinski (128) and Kinnane (101). The im portance o f the mother concept has been w ell e s ta b lis h e d in p sy c h o lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e . S tu d ie s cora- 1 p le te d by Ewing (6 0) and F rie n d and Haggard (6 8) supported I th e u s e fu ln e s s of th e mother co n cep t. B u tle r s ta te d : The r e a l s e l f , o r th e s e l f th a t the in d iv id u a l c u r r e n tly p e rc e iv e s , i s a t r a d i t i o n a l s t a r t i n g p o in t 81 b o th f o r in fe re n c e s about th e s o c ia l o r ig in s and th e p re s e n t adjustm ent o f th e s e lfo The id e a l s e l f (ego id e a l) i s co n sid ered to determ ine th e ' course of s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n o r s e lf-e x p a n s io n , l Horney a ls o views i t as a probable source o f c o n f lic t ! which can ’’even a lie n a te a person from h is r e a l s e l f , ” I Thorpe c l e a r ly d e p ic te d th e e f f e c t of p a r e n t s 1 b eh av io r upon the c h i l d 1s m ental h e a lth and s e l f development* (32:71-72) j I n l i g h t of re s e a rc h th e concepts s e le c te d to be s tu d ie d I were th e s e l f , th e s e l f id e a l, and th e m other id e a l* For ; more complete tre a tm e n t of the m o th e r^ r o le in s e l f con- ! cep t fo rm atio n see Moses (12Lj.), j A d m in istra tio n of th e Q -so rt and S tudent Q u estio n n aire The p ro ced u res d e sc rib e d below in v o lv e d a d m in is tra - i I tio n of th re e Q -so rts and a stu d e n t q u e s tio n n a ire to a l l i I su b je c ts* A d m in istra tio n of th e Q -so rt A re s e a rc h team of e r e d e n tia le d p e rso n n e l tr a in e d in th e p ro c e d u ra l tech n iq u es of the Q -so rt a d m in iste re d th re e Q -so rts to th e stu d e n ts in a l l the c la s s e s s e le c te d f o r in v e s tig a tio n . S tan d a rd iz ed , o r a l d ir e c tio n s were given to each of th e groups f o r each o f the th re e Q -so rts a d m in iste re d . A sta tem en t of th e i n s t r u c t i o n s i s in c lu d e d I in Appendix B. P rio r to a d m in is tra tio n of the Q -so rts th e i s ta n d a rd iz e d in s t r u c tio n s c a lle d f o r an e x p la n a tio n o f th e j purpose and Im portance o f th e stu d y t o m o tiv ate th e students to cooperate with the project. After the introduction the students were presented manila folders equipped with paper clips as pictured in Appendix A upon which to arrange the fifty Q-sort statements. Bundles of fifty cards were sim ultaneously administered upon which were printed the state ments to be sorted. The cards were in random order. The students were asked to arrange the cards from the state ments most descriptive of their real self at one end of the continuum to the statements least descriptive of their real self at the other end of the continuum. The ideal self and the mother ideal self were administered in the same manner. To encourage the student toward honest expression of feeling, the confidential way in which the data would be handled was described. Administration of the Student Questionnaire on Career Choice The team which administered the Q-sorts also ad ministered to each student a Student Questionnaire on Career Choice. Standardized oral instructions were given in administration of the questionnaire. A copy of all instructions and the questionnaire is included in Appendix B. The research team encouraged all students to ask ques tions freely and answered them. I Obtaining Information j This investigation was concerned with reporting I the relationship between the appropriateness of the 83 student’s stated career choice and the experimental vari ables of intelligence, socio-economic status, and achieve ment, Data on these experimental variables and informa tion necessary for the judges to possess in order to rate the realism of the students’ choices were obtained by the research team. They examined the students’ cumulative record folders and recorded pertinent information on the Student Information Sheet found in Appendix G, The Student Questionnaire on Career Choice provided further information. Information needed by the judges for rating the realism of choices had been decided upon by personal interviews with them. Intelligence Intelligence scores were obtained for each student from his cumulative record file. The highest I.Q. score reported beyond the third grade was employed in the experi ment. Achievement Achievement scores were obtained for each student from his cumulative record file. The latest high school total achievement test battery score was used in the exper iment. Scores were recorded according to the years and months over or under grade level achievement norms. Q b Socio-economic Status Each s tu d e n t was asked to s t a t e h is f a t h e r ’ s occupa j tio n on th e S tudent Q u estio n n aire on C areer C hoice. Employ i n g t h e Warner, Meeker and E els (199) s c a le f o r r a t i n g fsocio-econom ic s t a t u s of th e fam ily acco rd in g to the 'f a t h e r ’ s o ccu p atio n , th e socio-econom ic s ta tu s of each i \ stu d e n t was r a te d from one to seven. O btaining th e Statem ent of the S tu d e n t’ s O ccupational Choice | V o catio n al s p e c i a l i s t s such as G-ilger (71)> Dresden '( 5 5 ) * a**d Trow ( 198) have in d ic a te d th a t the form of th e I q u e s tio n in flu e n c e d th e degree of re a lis m ex p ressed in th e c h o ic e . Trow’ s study found t h a t stu d e n ts ex p ressed v a ry in g degrees o f re a lism depending upon w hether th e y con s id e re d th e v o c a tio n s e le c te d to be: (1 ) p ro b ab le ; (2) p o s s ib le ; or m erely a ( 3 ) f a v o r i t e fa n ta s y . Trow p o in te d o u t th a t th e c o n te x t i n which q u e s tio n s were asked in s tu d ie s r e f l e c t e d th e degree to which th e y were r e a l i s t i c . The p re se n t study attem p ted to a s c e r ta in s tu d e n ts ’ p ro b ab le ch o ices r a th e r th a n p o s s ib le or fa n ta s y c h o ic e s . The s tu d e n t q u e s tio n n a ire employed was designed w ith t h i s ; in mind. The q u e s tio n n a ire in c lu d e d a warning to s tu d e n ts to w ait fo r o r a l in s t r u c tio n s before w ritin g t h e i r s t a t e ments of choiceo The o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s inform ed th e students that the choices expected of them were the state ments of the type of work they believed they would actually | be doing in adult life. They were cautioned to be careful j to state what they would be doing as they understood it at I the present time, not what they would like to do if circum- S stances were different. The questionnaire was careful to i ; ask the question in terms of students' actual job expect- j ancies. They were further asked to discuss several aspects of the preference given in terms of reality factors such as the duties of such work, the reasons for choice, the ; obstacles they would have to overcome, and the finances I available to them to get into that kind of work. Treatment of the Data on Experimental Variables This section includes a discussion of the way in which the Q-sort data and data on intelligence, achieve ment, and socio-economic status were treated. Treatment of Q-sort Data Numbers were printed on the back side of each card prior to sorting, for Identification purposes. Numbers were printed on the back side of the cards so that students would not associate the numbers with the desirability of the statements. Subsequent to sorting, the cards were turned over so that the identification numbers were exposed. The numbers were later transferred to a sort Answer Sheet, 86 included in Appendix A, by research assistants. A second transfer was made to sort Tally Sheets for the purpose of computing the squared differences in arrangement of the statements on the individual sorts. The Tally Sheets are included in Appendix A. Q-sort correlation coefficients for the self-self ideal, the self-mother ideal, and the self ideal-mother ideal self were computed. While correlations could be measured by any product moment formula, the formula most efficient for the case where all profiles have the same mean and variation, as in the forced sort, iss 2N Yx In this formula, ^d£ is the sum of the squares of the dif ferences between the scores on each statement in relation to any two sorts by any given individual; N is the number of statements in the Q-sort; Vx is the overall variance for any one person. Because it was necessary to treat the data on an equal interval scale basis, the Q correlation values were transformed into Fisher z values. Cronbach suggested that, , f In general, hypotheses regarding homogeneity of groups I should be tested by the Fisher discriminant function or an | 1 equivalent test, instead of basing the analysis on Q cor- j i relations directly” (ij.8:378). 87 Treatment of the Data on the Guidance Variables An explanation of the way in which the data on the guidance variables of intelligence, achievement, and socio-economic status were treated is included in this section. Intelligence.— Scores for all students were ranked from the highest to the lowest for purposes of correlating intelligence with the other variables, as well as for the purpose of grouping for measuring the significance of rela tionships with other variables by means of the Chi square technique. In fifteen cases having no I.Q. scoro, judges used aptitude tests to help determine ability level when rating choices. When intelligence scores were related to other variables in this study these fifteen cases were not used. Achievement.--The highest achievement score for each student was employed. These were ranked from the highest to the lowest for purposes of correlating achievement with the other variables and for grouping for measuring the significance of relationships with other variables by means of the Chi Square statistic. In fifteen cases having no 1 achievement test scores, judges used school grades and i other information when rating choices. When achievement j t scores were related to other variables in this investiga tion, these fifteen cases were not employed. 88 Socio-oconom ic s t a t u s , —S tu d en ts were ran k ed along : a seven p o in t continuum ac co rd in g to t h e i r socio-econom ic | s ta tu s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n from low to h ig h . This ra n k in g was | done f o r purposes of c o r r e la tin g socio-econom ic s t a t u s i ! w ith th e o th e r v a r ia b le s , as w ell as f o r the purpose of | g ro uping f o r m easuring th e s ig n ific a n c e of r e la tio n s h i p s ; w ith o th e r v a r ia b le s by means of th e Chi square te c h n iq u e , I Seven ca se s having no f a th e r * s o ccu p atio n co u ld n o t be j r a t e d a c c o rd in g to the r a t i n g s c a le em ployed. These ca se s were n o t in c lu d e d when socio-econom ic s ta tu s was r e l a t e d j to th e o th e r v a r ia b le s employed i n th e stu d y . R a tin g of S tu d e n t Choices I t was a m ajor concern of t h i s stu d y to o b ta in a v a l i d r a t i n g o f th e r e a lis m of s tu d e n ts ' ch o ices which I could be r e l a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y to s e l f co n cep ts and th e guidance v a r ia b le s of i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and s o c io economic s t a t u s . The R atin g S cale Each of the f i v e judges r a te d th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s of the f i e l d and l e v e l of each s tu d e n t's choice on a f iv e p o in t i n t e r v a l s c a le . See Appendix C f o r a copy o f th e i I r a t i n g form employed. R a tin g s were given v a lu e s from i zero to four® A zero r a tin g was co n sid e re d "a most i a p p ro p ria te c h o ic e .’1 A number one r a t i n g was c o n sid e re d ; "an a p p ro p ria te b u t n o t a most a p p ro p ria te c h o ic e ." A i . .............. number two rating was labeled ’ ’questionable appropriate- : ness.” A number three rating was classified ’ ’inappropriate i I but not a most inappropriate choice.” A number four rating ( | was considered ”a most inappropriate choice.” Ratings for I all judges on an individual student were averaged to yield i j a mean appropriateness score from zero to four for both ; field and level continua. The procedure was repeated for : evaluating second choices. The employment of a rating scale according to which judges could rate choice appropriateness seemed to be : justified for several reasons. First, the majority of : recent studies on choice appropriateness employed this : device. Secondly, the clinical judgment type of approach : appeared justified on the basis of the complexity of the variables and the difficulty of objectively -weighting them when evaluating a single case. Finally, the device was considered functionally sound because in counseling situa tions appropriateness of choice has been determined by subjective judgment. A five point rating scale was considered to be most practical. It was looked upon as providing continuous data for measuring relationships with the other variables. iThe use of more than five variables was not considered i i | e f f i c i e n t due to Lockwood’ s (113) r e p o r t t h a t a te n p o in t ;s c a le w hich was d e v ise d f o r h is stu d y was red u ced to f i v e 90 p o in ts when I t was d isc o v e re d th e re were so few cases a t th e bottom o f th e s c a le t h a t lumping was n e c e s s a ry . I t was b e lie v e d t h a t th e f i v e p o in t s c a le would p ro v id e th e n e c e s s a ry co ntinuous ty p e o f d a ta f o r m easuring r e l a t i o n s h ip s w ith o th e r v a r ia b le s w hile i t would n o t p erm it th e d a ta to be c a te g o r iz e d u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y over too wide a ra n g e . F ie ld and L evel C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Choice Many a p p ro p ria te n e s s of cho ice s tu d ie s have been weak in th a t ch o ic e s were n o t c l a s s i f i e d on a s c a le which would p e rm it r a t i n g acco rd in g to b o th f i e l d and le v e l con tin u e . Remstad and Rothney (ll|8 ) dem onstrated t h a t r e s u l t s o b ta in e d in o c c u p a tio n a l re s e a r c h depended on th e method used in c l a s s i f y i n g o c c u p a tio n s . Super s ta te d t h a t a t p r e s e n t R o e 's f i e l d and le v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n "seems the most l o g i c a l and p r a c t i c a l l y u s e fu l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a v a i l ab le " ( 192S I4 .7) • R o e 's (1^1) two-way c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was employed in t h i s stu d y and a l l ch o ices were c l a s s i f i e d f o r the judges in term s o f t h i s schema by th e r e s e a r c h team . O rie n ta tio n of the Judges As s t a t e d above, a l l s tu d e n t c h o ic e s were c l a s s i f i e d ac c o rd in g to R o e's f i e l d and le v e l o f o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and judges were asked to r a t e th e ch o ices on a f iv e p o in t a p p ro p ria te n e s s s c a le f o r b o th f i e l d and level continue. Printed instructions directing them in hew to proceed in rating were provided them. A copy of these instructions is located in Appendix C. Judges were to give the choice a most appropriate rating when none of the fields listed by Roe seemed more appropriate than the one chosen and when all or nearly all other fields were consid ered less appropriate. An appropriate but not a most appro priate rating was to be given the choice when some fields seemed more appropriate but when most other fields seemed less appropriate. A questionable appropriateness rating was to be given the preference when the judge could not de termine whether or not a greater number of appropriate fields were more or less appropriate than the choice the student had made* An inappropriate but not a most inappro priate rating was to be assigned the choice when most other fields seemed more appropriate than the student's choice but when some fields seemed less appropriate. A most in appropriate rating was to be granted when all or nearly all fields seemed more appropriate and none seemed less appro priate than the student's choice. The same criteria were to be used when rating the level of choice. Each judge was supplied a printed form of Roe's I j field and level occupational classification schema which I : I | j contained representative occupations in each classifica tion to serve as a guide in helping him determine how many i occupational categories might be more or less appropriate for the student than the one he had selected. A copy of I 92 Roe’s two-way classification chart is found in Appendix C. Judges were supplied rating forms on which the student’s choice was classified according to Roe’s field and level classification schema. Ratings were to be made on both field and level continua by marking the proper square on the five point rating scale provided. Information concerning the student which was pro vided the judges included the data found on the Student Questionnaire on Career Choice and the Student Information Sheet. On their interpretation of this data they were to base their judgments. Returns to the Schools The research team reported the findings of the study to each class. The Q correlations coefficients and the appropriateness of choice ratings on both field and level of choice were interpreted for each student. Cau tions were given the class about the use of the findings and the need for the data to be used along with personal counseling. Suggested vocational alternatives recommended by the judges for each were provided the students. A Report Form was supplied the students presenting the information, a copy of which is located in Appendix D. Statistical Design i Q coefficients for the three self sort combina tions were transformed to Fisher Z values. The Z values were subsequently ranked and correlated with the ranked mean appropriateness ratings of field and level of voca tional choice. The tetrachoric correlation statistic was used as the variables were continuous and appeared to meet the assumptions underlying its use. Also, certain correla tions were calculated by means of the Pearson r to deter mine the comparability of the correlations measured by the two methods. To control the influence of each of the sev eral variables on the statistical relationship between Q- sort combination coefficients and career choice appropri ateness, the total sample was split at the median on each of the designated variables and the half of the sample to one side of the median was employed. Socio-economic status ratings were ranked from one to seven according to Warner, Meeker, and Eels1 rating scale and split between the third and fourth status levels. Correlations were tested for statistical significance by submitting the data Involved in each correlation to the chi square test. Comparisons of the appropriateness of vocational choice were also made between the groups having above the median Q coefficients on each of the three Q-sort combina tions and the groups having below the median Q coeffici ents on each of the three Q-aort combinations. The Chi 9k j square statistic was employed to determine the statistical significance of differences. Field of choice was studied > according to three classifications of judges’ ratings, j ’ ’ most appropriate” rating, "appropriate" rating, and "questionable and inappropriate" rating. Level of choice I was studied according to "over-aspiration" rating,"under- ; aspiration" rating, and "appropriate aspiration" rating. Appropriateness of first and second choices were studied to ascertain if statistically significant differ ences existed between groups having above the median Q coefficients on each of the three Q-3ort combinations and groups having below the median Q coefficients on each of the three Q-sort combinations. The first and second choices of the groups above and below the median on the variables of intelligence and achievement were also studied. The group in the upper three socio-economic levels was com pared with the group in the lower four socio-economic levels in the same manner. Second choice appropriateness was defined on the basis of mean judges’ ratings as "more than first choice," "less than first choice," or "same as first choice." The statistical significance of differences was measured by employing the Chi square statistic. To measure the correlation between field and level ! appropriateness ratings, the mean judges’ ratings of ! appropriateness of field of choices were ranked and cor related with the ranked ratings of appropriateness of j level of choices* Correlation was confuted by means of i the tetrachoric technique after the ranked ratings on both continua were split at the median* The possible influence of the experimental variables employed in the study on the degree of correlation was measured by splitting the variables by the process described in the i previous paragraph and employing the population to one side of the median* To determine the relationships between the selected guidance variables and rated appropriateness of vocational choices, similar statistical procedures were used to those employed for ascertaining the relationships between the two components in each of the three self concepts and the appropriateness of choices* Intelligence and achievement test scores were ranked from low to high and identical pro cedures to those previously mentioned were employed* Treatment of socio-economic status data differed in that the status ratings were split between ratings three and four, A multiple predictor of vocational choice making ability was calculated using the variables employed in the study. Beta weights and multiple correlation coeffi- i clents were computed for appropriateness of both field and level of choice. 96 Summary The purpose o f t h i s c h a p te r was to r e p o r t th e so u rc e s and th e tre a tm e n t o f d a ta employed i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t io n . V o c a tio n a l ch o ices were e l i c i t e d from t w e l f t h g rade boys from th r e e s e n io r h ig h sc h o o ls by means o f a q u e s tio n n a ir e . Judges were asked to r a t e th e a p p r o p r ia te n e ss of th e c h o ic e s on b o th f i e l d and l e v e l c o n tin u a u s in g a f iv e p o in t r a t i n g s c a l e . The tw e lf th grade boys were a ls o asked to s o r t s e l f r e f e r e n t s ta te m e n ts th r e e tim es so as to r e p r e s e n t a s p e c ts o f th e s e l f concept ( s e l f , s e l f i d e a l , and m other i d e a l ) . D iscrep an cy sc o re s f o r d i f f e r ences in th e placem ent of sta te m e n ts f o r each com bination o f Q -s o rts were o b ta in e d . The sc o re s were c o n v e rte d to F is h e r z v a lu e s . They were th e n ran k ed and c o r r e la te d w ith th e ranked r a t i n g s made by judges of the a p p ro p r ia te n e s s of s tu d e n ts ' c h o ic e s . The s ig n if ic a n c e of th e re la tio n s h ip s was d eterm in ed by means o f th e Chi Square* In fo rm a tio n c o n c ern in g c e r t a i n v a r ia b le s commonly employed in v o c a tio n a l g uidance were ta k e n from th e s tu d e n ts ' cu m u lativ e re c o rd s and q u e s tio n n a ire form s com pleted by them* These v a r ia b le s were i n t e l l i g e n c e , sc h o o l achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s . V a ria b le s were c o r r e la te d w ith th e ju d g e s ' r a tin g s of a p p ro p r ia te n e s s of f i e l d and l e v e l o f ch o ice to a s c e r t a i n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s te d . Chi S quares were computed to t e s t th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s . CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The need to e v a lu a te v o c a tio n a l cho ice a c c o rd in g to f i e l d and l e v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n has been recommended by s p e c i a l i s t s and was a m ajor co n cern of t h i s study® No r e s e a rc h was lo c a te d i n th e a r e a o f v o c a tio n a l ch o ice r e a lis m which m easured a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f cho ice a g a in s t a tw o fo ld f i e l d and l e v e l c la s s if ic a tio n ® In appro ach in g t h i s stu d y , i t was b e lie v e d i n l i g h t o f th e o ry and r e s e a r c h t h a t d i f fe re n c e s would be found when ch o ic e s were r a te d on th e two continue* In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w ith h ig h sch o o l s e n io r s , ch o ic e s were r a t e d c l i n i c a l l y and f in d in g s were r e p o rte d ac c o rd in g to Roe’ s f i e l d and l e v e l o f o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a tio n . T hree s e l f co n cep ts were s e le c te d f o r stu d y and th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between each o f them and a p p r o p ria te n e s s o f f i e l d and le v e l o f ch o ice were a s c e rta in e d * These con c e p ts were th e s e l f - s e l f i d e a l co n c ep t, th e s e lf-m o th e r i d e a l co n c ep t, and th e s e l f Id e a l-m o th e r id e a l c o n c e p t. C o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c i e n t s were c a lc u la te d between th e s e l f ! co n cep t com binations and f i e l d and l e v e l ch o ice a p p r o p r i a te n e ss* T his was accom plished by ra n k in g th e z v a lu e s of th e th r e e s e l f s o r t com bination c o e f f i c i e n t s from th e h ig h jvalues to th e low v a lu e s and s p l i t t i n g th e ranked d a ta a t l th e m edian. The mean a p p ro p r ia te n e s s r a tin g s of f i e l d and 98 le v e l of ch o ice were s i m i l a r l y ra n k e d and s p l i t a t th e median* T e tr a c h o rlc c o r r e l a t i o n s were th e n c a l c u l a t e d and su b m itte d t o th e Chi S quare t e s t to d eterm in e th e s i g n i f i cance o f th e c o e f f ic ie n ts * The t e t r a c h o r i c c o r r e l a t i o n was employed sin c e b o th X and Y v a r i a b l e s were co n tin u o u s and th e d a ta ap p eared t o meet th e assu m p tio n s u n d e rly in g th e t e t r a c h o r i c r a s o u tlin e d by G u ilfo rd (76s305)« Some o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere a ls o computed u s in g th e P earso n r and were found to be s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e same. R esearch h as been f o r th e most p a r t c o n fin e d to measurem ent o f d i s c r e t e v a r i a b l e s o r t r a i t s and f a c t o r s as th e y r e l a t e to th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f choice* Recommenda t io n s by such s p e c i a l i s t s a s H o lla n d (85) and Lockwood (113)» as w e ll as Super (192), i n d ic a t e d a grow ing b e l i e f t h a t s tu d ie s should be perform ed which r e p o r t f in d in g s i n term s o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a l l th e im p o rta n t v a r i a b l e s o f v o ca t i o n a l c h o ic e . F in d in g s in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e p o r te d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of th e th r e e s e l f c o n c e p ts as th e y were d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to c a r e e r r e a lis m and a s th e y were i n t e r r e l a t e d w ith th e guidance v a r ia b le s of i n t e l l i g e n c e , sc h o o l ; ac h iev e m en t, and so cio-econom ic s t a t u s . The in f lu e n c e s of j th e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f th e s e l f concept co m b in atio n s and j r e a l is m of c a r e e r ch o ice were s tu d ie d by u t i l i z i n g th e |te c h n iq u e of s p l i t t i n g th e t o t a l sam ple a t th e median on j 99 th e d esig n ate d v a r ia b le s . The h a lf of the sample on one sid e of the median was employed f o r u se. Socio-economic s ta tu s r a tin g s were ranked according to Warner, Meeker, and Eels* r a tin g sc a le and s p l i t between le v e ls th re e and four* T his s p l i t was decided upon because i t most c lo s e ly approxim ated a median s p l i t . Comparisons of F ie ld Choice A ppropriateness R atings w ith Level Choice A ppropriateness R atings R e la tio n sh ip s between a p p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d of choice and a p p ro p ria te n e ss of le v e l of choice are c o n sid e r ed h e re . F ie ld and le v e l a p p ro p ria te n e ss r a tin g s were s p l i t a t th e medians and c o rr e la te d w ith each o th e r by means of the te tr a c h o r ic c o r r e la tio n s t a t i s t i c . The d e s ig n a te d samples used were obtained by s p l i t t i n g v a ria b le s a t the median and u sin g the p o p u latio n to one sid e o f the median by means of th e process ju s t d e sc rib e d . Data as p re se n te d in Table 1 in d ic a te d s ig n i f ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s e x is te d between the a p p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d and le v e l of c h o ic e s. The r e la tio n s h ip s were moderate and th e degree ]of r e la tio n s h ip v a rie d w ith th e d esig n ate d sample u sed . The CM Square, t e s t i n g s ig n ific a n c e of th e r e la tio n s h ip i |o f f i e l d ap p ro p ria te n e ss and le v e l ap p ro p ria te n e ss using the t o t a l sample, y ie ld e d a value s ig n i f ic a n t a t the .01 le v e l of co n fid en ce. The n u ll h y p o th esis th a t no 100 T A B L E 1 C O R R E L A T IO N O F FIELD CH O ICE A PPR O PRIA TEN ESS R A TIN G S W IT H L E V E L CH O ICE A PPRO PR IA TEN ESS RA TIN G S U SIN G D ESIG N A TED SA M P L E S Designated Samples Number Correlation Coefficients Total sample 1 9 $ . 3 h + Below median intelligence 9 2 . $ 0+ Below median achievers 9 0 .29 Socio-economic status levels U, $> 6, 7 1US •31* Below median Self-Self Ideal Q-sort values 98 ,U0+ Below median Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 98 , h 6 + Below median Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 98 Above median Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 97 ,20 NOTE: Q-sort values were computed by use of Fisher's Z. ^Significant at the ,05 level of confidence. +Significant a t the .01 level of confidence. 101 r e la tio n s h i p e x is te d was r e je c te d . The r e la tio n s h i p be tween f i e l d and le v e l a p p ro p ria te n e s s remained s ig n i f i c a n t b u t moderate i n the below median i n te lli g e n c e group, th e low er socio-econom ic s ta tu s group, th e group p o sse ssin g th e la r g e r s e l f - s e l f id e a l d is c re p a n c ie s , th e group p o s s e s s in g th e la r g e r se lf-m o th e r i d e a l d is c re p a n c ie s , and th e group p o sse ssin g the la r g e r s e l f id e a l-m o th e r i d e a l d i s c re p a n c ie s . C o rre la tio n s w ere, however, n o t s ig n i f ic a n t between f i e l d and le v e l choice a p p ro p ria te n e s s when th e sample s e le c te d was th e below median a c h ie v e rs group o r th e group measured as above th e median in s e l f id e a l-m o th e r id e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . R e la tio n s h ip of V o catio n al Choice A p p ro p riaten ess to S e lf Concepts The r e la tio n s h i p s between th e s e le c te d s e l f con c e p ts as measured by t h e i r Q -so rt v a lu e s were c o r r e la te d w ith the a p p ro p ria te n e s s r a tin g s fo r b o th f i e l d and le v e l of c h o ic e . C o rre la tio n s were c a lc u la te d u sin g th e t o t a l sample as w ell as d e sig n a te d samples i n an atte m p t to a s c e r ta in what e f f e c t c o n tr o llin g c e r ta in v a r ia b le s might ;have on th e degree of c o r r e l a t i o n . The below median group | was employed i n every in s ta n c e but th e s e l f id e a l-m o th e r |i d e a l sample in which case both above and below median !groups were employed. The below median group was u t i l i z e d ias the sample because t h i s i s th e group guidance workers 102 ■were more o fte n concerned with* Both s id e s o f th e s e l f id e a l-m o th e r id e a l group were employed because t h i s v a r i a b le showed th e most p o s s i b i l i t y f o r d is c rim in a tin g s t u d e n ts cap ab le of making a p p ro p ria te choices* R e la tio n s h ip s Between Choice A p p ro p ria ten e ss and S e lf Concept C o rre la tio n s Using th e T o ta l Sample Table 2 p re s e n ts the c o r r e la tio n s between th e s e l f concept Q -so rt v a lu e s and f i e l d and l e v e l cho ice a p p ro p ria te n e s s r a t i n g i n which th e t o t a l sample was em ployed. C o e ff ic ie n ts c i t e d in d ic a te d th a t th e r e l a tio n s h ip between th e s e l f - s e l f i d e a l concept c o r r e la te d - .1 2 w ith th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s of f ie ld o f ch o ice and - .0 8 w ith th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s of l e v e l of c h o ic e . The c o e f f i c i e n ts were t e s t e d f o r s ig n if ic a n c e by th e Chi square s t a t i s t i c and were found to be n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s than co u ld be p r e d ic te d on th e b a s is of chance. T his showed t h a t th e la ck of d isc re p a n c y between s e l f and s e l f id e a l was n o t r e l a t e d to a h ig h e r degree of a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s on th e c o n tin u a o f e i t h e r f i e l d o r le v e l of c h o ic e . The c o e f f i c i e n t s c i t e d f o r th e s e lf-m o th e r i d e a l Q -so rt v a lu e s and th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s of choice were a ls o n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t as t e s t e d by th e Chi sq u a re . Here a g a in , the la c k o f d isc re p a n c y between th e s e l f and mother id e a l was n o t r e l a t e d to a higher degree of a b ility to make a p p ro p ria te career d e c is io n s . 103 TABLE 2 CO RRELATIO N O F FIELD A N D LEV EL APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS W IT H SELECTED SELF C O NCEPT Q-SORT VALUES S e lf Concept Q -sort Values Number C o rrela tio n C o e ffic ie n ts F ie ld L evel S e lf - S e lf Id e a l Q -sort v a lu es 195 -.1 2 C O 0 • 1 S e lf Ideal-M other Id e a l Q -sort valu es 195 -.0 6 .27" Self-M other Id e a l Q -sort V alues 195 -.1 2 CO 0 • 1 NOTE: Q -sort valu es -were computed by u se o f F ish e r ’s Z. ^ S ig n ifin ant a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f confid en ce* lOlj. The .27 coefficient between the self ideal-mother ideal relationship and the appropriateness of level of choice vjas significant at the .05 level of confidence. The same relationship was not found to exist between this combination of self concepts and the field of choice appropriateness. Students with a high degree of relation ship between their personal ideal for themselves and their perceived mother's ideal for them were more likely than could be predicted on the basis of chance to make appro priate level choices than students whose self ideal and mother ideal did not show such a relationship® Since the correlation between the self ideal-mother ideal and appro priateness of field of choice was not significantly greater than chance, findings indicated that the mother influence on vocational decision was not as important a factor in choice realism when the choice was one of field. Relationships Between Choice Appropriateness and Self Concept Correlations Employing Designated Samples Correlations were calculated for the relationships between the three self concept correlations and the ;appropriateness of field and level of choice using each i jof the designated samples: a below median intelligence group, a below median achievement group, the group composed !of the lower socio-economic levels, the group with the | below median self-self ideal relationship, and the group with tlie below median self-mother ideal relationship. Findings are cited on Tables 3, if, and No significant coefficients were found for the self-self ideal or the self-mother ideal combinations when they were related to appropriateness of either field or level of choice* This indicated that the finding of no significant relationships between the self-self ideal concept combination and the self-mother ideal concept combination on the total sample was not noticeably influenced by the presence of other experimental variables employed. While the self ideal- mother ideal combination was found related with field and level appropriateness in several designated samples,none of the coefficients was significant statistically. The slightly smaller coefficients in some instances and the smaller sample in others were probably responsible for the less significant findings. Comparisons Between Self Concept Correlations and Most Appropriate, Appropriate, and Questionable Field Appropriateness Ratings A comparison between the three Q-sort combinations and the mean field appropriateness ratings of the judges was made to determine what relationships or differences i . existed. Findings are presented on Table 6. The ratings of appropriateness made by the judges were compared to the relationships between the three self concepts. Choices io6 TABLE 3 CORRELATION OF FIELD AN D LEVEL APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS T H IT H SELF-SELF IDEAL Q-SORT VALUES USING DESIGNATED SAM PLES D esign ated Samples Number C o rrela tio n C o e ffic ie n ts F ie ld L evel T o ta l sam ple 19$ -•1 2 - .0 8 Below median in t e llig e n c e 92 - .0 5 - .2 0 Below median a ch iev ers F ie ld L evel 89 91 -„11 - .1 1 Socio-econom ic s ta tu s l e v e l s Uj 6 , 7 m s - .0 8 -.o U Below median S elf-M oth er I d e a l Q -sort v a lu es 98 — .0 1 - .1 1 Below median S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -so rt v a lu es 98 - .0 6 CO H * 1 Above median S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -sort v a lu es 97 - .1 7 -.1 6 NOTEj Q -sort v a lu es were computed by u se o f F ish e r ’ s Z. None o f th e above c o r r e la tio n s was s ig n if i c a n t as t e s t e d by th e Chi sq u are. 107 TABLE k CORRELATION O F FIELD A N D LEVEL APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS TOTH SELF IDEAL-MOTHER IDEAL Q-SORT VALUES USING DESIGNATED SAM PLES D esign ated Samples Number C o r r e la tio n C o e f f ic ie n t s F ie ld L ev el T o ta l sample 19$ — .0 6 .2 7 * Below median in t e llig e n c e 92 U N 0 • 1 .11* Below median a ch iev ers 91 - .1 1 .2U Socio-econom ic s ta tu s l e v e l s U, 6 , 7 1k$ -.o U .22 Below median S e l f - S e lf I d e a l Q -sort v a lu e s 98 .0 3 .3 0 Below median S e lf - Mother I d e a l Q -sort v a lu es 98 - .1 2 .2 9 NOTE: Q -sort v a lu e s w ere computed by u se o f F ish er* s Z, " ^ S ign ifican t a t th e l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . 108 TABLE 5 CORRELATION OF FIELD AND LEVEL APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS TOTH SELF-M OTHER IDEAL Q-SORT VALUES USING DESIGNATED SAM PLES C o r re la tio n C o e ffic ie n ts D esign ated Samples Number F x el5 L ev el T o ta l Sample 19$ — .12 - .0 8 Below median in t e llig e n c e 92 .0 7 - .1 2 Below median a ch iev ers 91 - . 2 ) 4. .1 1 S ocio-econom ic s ta tu s l e v e l s It, $3 6 , 7 lllS 0 r“ f • 1 - .0 6 Below median S e l f - S e l f I d e a l Q -so rt v a lu e s 98 -.0 1 oil Below median S e lf I d e a l- Mother I d e a l Q -so rt v a lu es 98 -.1 9 -.1 6 Above median S e lf I d e a l- Mother I d e a l Q -sort v a lu e s 98 1 • r-4 ro .29 NOTE: Q -sort v a lu e s w ere computed by u se o f F ish er* s Zs None o f th e above c o r r e la tio n s was s ig n if i c a n t as t e s t e d by th e Chi sq u a re. TABLE 6 CO M PARISO N O F MEM APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS OF FIELD O F FIRST CHOICE AN D SELF CONCEPT Q-SORT VALDES S e l f - S e l f I d e a l Q -sort V alues Self-M other I d e a l Q -sort V alues S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -sort V alues A ppropriateness o f F ie ld o f C hoice T otal Below Median Above Median Below Above Median Median Below Median Above Median Most app rop riate mean r a tin g s ( . 0 to I D 107 56 51 58 ii9 57 5o A ppropriate mean r a tin g s (1*1 to 2 .0 ) k l 2h 23 21 26 2h 23 Q u estion ab le and inappro p r ia te mean r a tin g s ( 2 . to U.) 1 1 1 18 23 19 22 17 2k T otal 195 98 97 98 97 98 97 Degrees o f freedom 2 2 2 Chi square .8 7 1 .5 1 2 .8 9 NOTE; Q -sort v a lu e s w ere computed by th e u se o f F is h e r ’s Z. None o f th e above Chi squares was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t* 110 having mean appropriateness ratings which were no more than one category away from a most appropriate rating on the five point rating scale provided the judges were classified as , ! most appropriate." These choices had assigned mean appropriateness values from .0 to 1.0. Choices having mean appropriateness ratings which were one category away from a most appropriate rating but no more than two categories away from a most appropriate rating were classified as "appropriate." These choices had assigned mean appropriateness values from 1.1 to 2.0. Choices having mean appropriateness ratings which were two or more categories away from a most appropriate rating were classified as "questionable and inappropriate." These choices had assigned mean appropriateness values of 2.1 to 1^.0. The three appropriateness classifications were compared to the self-self ideal correlation, the self mother ideal correlation, and the self Ideal-mother ideal correlation by splitting the ranked z values at the median and employing the Chi square statistic. The null hypothesis was tenable in each Instance. Consistent with findings ialready reported,no statistically significant relationships | I or differences were found between any of the self concept !combinations and field appropriateness ratings assigned by |the judges. I l l Comparisons Between Self Concept Correlations and Over aspiration, Appropriate Aspiration, and Under-aspiration Comparisons were made between the combinations of self concept correlations and aspiration level as rated by the judges to determine if the self concept combinations were related to over, under, or appropriate aspiration in significantly different ways. Findings are reported on Table 7» Choices were categorized as ’ ’appropriate aspira tion” when the mean judges1 ratings were no more than one half category above or below the level considered by the judges as appropriate on the five point rating scale. These choices had assigned mean appropriateness values from f.5 to -.5* Choices were categorized as ”over-aspira- tion” when the mean judges’ ratings were more than one-half level away from a mo3t appropriate rating in the direction of over aspiration. These choices had assigned mean appropriateness values from +.6 to 4-2.5* Choices were categorized as ’ ’ under-aspiration” when the mean judges' ratings were more than one-half level away from a most appropriate rating in the direction of too low an aspira tion level. These choices had assigned mean appropriate- |ness values from -.6 to -2,5. The three appropriateness classifications were !compared to the self-self ideal concept, and self-mother !ideal concept, and the self ideal-mother ideal concept by TABLE 7 CO M PARISO N OF M E A N APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS OF LEVEL OF FIRST CHOICE A N D SELF C O N C E PT Q-SORT VALUES_______ S e l f - S e l f I d e a l Q -sort V alues Self-M other Id e a l Q -sort V alues S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -sort V alues A ppropriateness o f L ev el o f G hoice Below T o ta l Median Above Median Below Above Median Median Below Median Above Median Over a s p ir a tio n (+ .6 to + 2.5) 9k kh 50 U 2 52 51 1*3 A ppropriate a s p ir a tio n ( - . 5 to + .5 ) 81 kk 37 bh 37 3U U7 Under a s p ir a tio n ( - . 6 to - 2 .5 ) 20 10 10 12 8 13 7 T otal 19$ 98 97 98 97 98 97 Degrees o f freedom 2 2 2 Chi square • 98 3oU9 U.57 NOTEi Q -sort v a lu e s "were computed try u se o f Fisher* s Z. None o f th e above Chi squares was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . 112 splitting the ranked z values at the median and employing the Chi square statistic. The null hypothesis was tenable in each case. Consistent with findings already reported no statistically significant relationships or differences were found between the self-self ideal concepts and level of aspiration ratings or the self-mother ideal concepts and level of aspiration ratings when comparisons were made on the basis of over-, under-, or appropriate aspiration level. Although the self ideal-mother ideal discrepancies did not show statistically significant differences when compared with aspiration tendency the Chi aquare reported was substantially larger than for the other self concept combinations. Since the median split showed differences to be significant the probable reason for lack of differ ences in these findings is the way in which the data were divided. Comparisons of First and Second Choices with the Self Concept Correlations Research by Small had indicated that second choices were more realistic for poorly adjusted individuals and less realistic for well adjusted individuals. In the pre- | sent study combinations of self concept correlations were compared with second choice appropriateness as it was ;related to first choice appropriateness to ascertain if self concepts were related to second choice appropriateness in any such way# Tables 8 and 9 report the findings which indicated that there was no statistically significant evidence that any combination of self concept correlations was related to second choices which were more or less appropriate than first choices# In using the Chi square statistic to measure the significance of differences be tween ’ ’more’ 1 or ’ 'less” appropriate second choices for any of the combinations of Q-3ort correlations the null hypo thesis could not be confidently rejected# Relationship of Vocational Choice Appropriateness to Variables Employed in Vocational Guidance Research In vocational choice indicated relation ships existed between the appropriateness of vocational choice and intelligence and socio-economic status* Inas much as achievement is a commonly employed variable in vocational counseling it was included as a variable for study also# Since no studies were located indicating the way in which these variables might be related to the appropriateness of field of choice as discriminated from the level of choice the present study attempted to measure this# Tetrachoric correlations were computed to determine the relationship between the individual variables and field and level choice appropriateness. Statistical significance was tested by the Chi square method. For purposes of tetrachoric calculation all variables were ! TABLE 8 CO M PARISO N O F FIRST A N D SECOND CHOICES OF VOCATIONAL FIELD W ITH _______________ SELF C O N C EPT Q-SORT VALUES______________________ S e lf - S e lf I d e a l Self-M other I d e a l S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -sort V alues Q -sort V alues Q -sort V alues A ppropriateness o f Second BeLow Above Below Above Below Above C hoice o f F ie ld Median Median Median Median Median Median More th an f i r s t c h o ic e 17 26 17 26 16 27 Same as f i r s t c h o ic e 20 22 21 21 17 25 L ess than f i r s t c h o ic e 39 111 1|2 38 U 5 35 Degre® o f freedom 2 2 2 Chi square 1 ,0 1 1 .9 3 5 oil NOTE: Q -so rt v a lu es w ere computed by th e use o f F is h e r 's Z. None o f th e above Chi squares was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t® TABLE 9 CO M PARISO N O F FIRST A N D SECO ND CHOICES O F VOCATIONAL LEVEL W ITH SELF CO NCEPT Q-SORT VALUES S e l f - S e l f I d e a l Self!-M other I d e a l S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -sort V alues Q -sort V alues Q -sort V alues A ppropriateness o f Second Below Above Belov/ Above Below Above C hoice o f L evel Median Median Median Median Median Median More than f i r s t c h o ic e lit 2? 16 27 19 2k Same as f i r s t c h o ic e 29 31 33 27 28 32 L ess than f i r s t c h o ic e 33 29 31 31 31 31 D egre® of freedom 2 2 2 Chi square ho 56 3 o 27 •35 NOTE: Q -sort v a lu e s w ere computed by th e u se o f F is h e r 's Z. None o f th e above Chi squares was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if i c a n t . 117 ; split at the median except socio-economic status which was; l split between the third and fourth status level. This split most closely approximated a median split. The use of designated samples was employed in the same manner as already described in determining the relationship between | self concept combinations and field and level choice appropriateness. Relationships Between Choice Appropriateness and Guidance Variables Using the Total Sample Table 10 indicates that there were significant relationships between choice appropriateness and the vari ables of intelligence and socio-economic status. Achieve ment was not significantly correlated with choice appropri ateness. Intelligence.— I.Q. scores were correlated signifi cantly with appropriateness of level of choice but not with field. Previous studies had Indicated that intelligence was directly related to appropriate career decisions. Findings in the present study indicated that appropriate ness of choice had to be defined in terms of level. Students in this study above the median in intelligence were just as likely to make inappropriate field choices as were students below the median In intelligence. Achievement.— School achievement was not signifi cantly related to ability to make appropriate career dec!-; TABLE 10 C O RRELATIO N O F FIELD A N D LEVEL APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS W ITH G UIDANCE VARIABLES C o rrela tio n C o e ffic ie n t V a riab le Number F ie ld L evel I n te llig e n c e 180 .19 •3 3 + Achievement 180 .1 7 .12 Socio-econom ic s ta tu s 188 -.02* •30* S ig n ific a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f co n fid en ce. + S ig n ific a n t a t the *01 le v e l o f co n fid en ce. 119 ! alons of either field or level. Students above the median in school achievement did not differ significantly from students below the median in school achievement in appro- : priateness of selected career goals on either the field or; level continua. Socio-economic status.--Social status was related to choice appropriateness in much the same way that intel ligence was. High status students tended to make more ap propriate career choices in terms of level but were no more able to make appropriate field choices than low status students. Relationships Between Choice Appropriateness and Guidance Variables Using Designated Samples The designated samples were employed in correlating each of the guidance variables selected with field and level choice appropriateness. Intelligence.— As reported in Table 11, more of the j students with I.Q. scores above the median made appropriate level choices using the total sanple than did students with I.Q. scores below the median. The difference was statisti cally significant at the .01 level of confidence. The same relationship did not exist with appropriateness of field of i : choice. None of the correlation coefficients between Intelli gence and appropriateness of field or level of choice was 120 TABLE 11 CORRELATIONS OF FIELD A N D LEVEL CHOICE APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS W ITH INTELLIGENCE USING DESIGNATED SAM PLES C o rrela tio n C o e ffic ie n ts D esign ated Samples Number F ie ld L evel T otal sample 180 .19 •3 3 + Below median a ch iev ers 86 - .1 3 •3£ Socio-econom ic sta tu s l e v e l s it, 5 , 6 , 7 13U .lit .2 1 Beloiv median S e lf - S e lf I d e a l Q -sort v a lu es 92 .2 1 .2Lt Below median Self-M other Id e a l Q -sort v a lu es 91 .3 1 .3 0 Below median S e lf Ideal-M other Id e a l Q -sort v a lu es 92 .2 2 .l i t Above median S e lf Ideal-M other I d e a l Q -sort v a lu es 88 .19 J |2 * NOTE: Q -sort v a lu e s were computed by u se o f F is h e r ’s Z. S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e *01 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . S ig n ific a n t a t the «05> l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . 121 statistically significant using the designated samples of below median achievers, the lower socio-economic levels, the group with below median self-self ideal correlations, the group with below median self-mother ideal correlations, or the group with below median self ideal-mother ideal cor relations. (See Table 11 for these findings.) In the sample with the above median self ideal-mother ideal cor relation, intelligence correlated significantly with choice of level appropriateness approaching the .01 level of con fidence. Appropriateness of field of choice was not sig nificantly correlated with intelligence scores in this sample. This finding was expected inasmuch as the group with above median self ideal-mother ideal correlations made more appropriate choices of level and was more intelli gent. See Appendix E for the correlation between intelli gence and the self ideal-mother ideal congruency. Achievement.--Achievement, as indicated on Table 12, was not found to be related to appropriateness of either field or level of choice in a statistically significant way using the total sample or any of the designated samples. i Socio-economic status.— There was a statistically |significant relationship between socio-economic status j and level choice appropriateness. Students in the upper | three socio-economic status classifications made level 122 TA B LE 12 CO RRELATIONS O F FIELD A N D LEVEL CHO ICE APPROPRIATENESS RATINGS W IT H SC H O O L A C H IEV EM EN T USING DESIGNATED SA M PLES C orrelation C o e ffic ie n ts D esignated Samples Number F ie ld L evel T otal sample 180 .1 7 .12 Below median in t e llig e n c e 86 — .111- - .0 1 Socio-econom ic s ta tu s le v e l s i;. 6 , 7 13U •O il. .09 Below median S e lf - S e lf Id e a l Q -sort valu es 9k .2 0 .3 0 Below median Self-M other Id e a l Q -sort v a lu es F ie ld L evel 91 92 .1 1 .2 7 Below median S e lf I d e a l- Mother Id e a l Q -sort valu es 98 93 •0i|. - .0 1 Above median S e lf I d e a l- Mother Id e a l Q -sort valu es 9k 87 .10 .06 NOTE: Q -sort v a lu es were computed by use o f F ish e r 's Z. None o f the above c o r r e la tio n s was s ig n ific a n t as te s te d by the Chi square* c h o ic e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a p p ro p ria te th a n s tu d e n ts i n th e lo w er f o u r socio-econom ic s ta tu s le v e ls a t th e ,0£ le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . C o e f f ic ie n ts c i t e d in T ab le 13 f o r so cio -eco n o m ic s ta t u s and a p p ro p ria te n e s s of e i t h e r f i e l d o r l e v e l o f ch o ice w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t when u s in g any o f th e d e s ig n a te d sam ples ex c ep t th e below m edian a c h ie v e rs g ro u p . The c o e f f i c i e n t re p o rte d betw een f i e l d c h o ic e a p p ro p ria te n e s s and s o c ia l s t a t u s em ploying th e sam ple o f below median a c h ie v e rs was s i g n i f i c a n t l y n e g a tiv e a t th e .0 5 le v e l of c o n fid e n c e . In t h i s group th e la c k o f f i e l d d is c rim in a tio n i s more e v id e n t th a n in th e t o t a l sample* The s i g n i f i c a n t l y n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n c o n tra s te d w ith th e p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t io n betw een s o c ia l s ta tu s and a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f le v e l o f ch o ice in t h i s below median a c h ie v e rs group a lth o u g h th e l a t t e r c o r r e l a ti o n was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . W hile a c e r t a in amount o f a p p ro p ria te n e s s e x is te d in th e ten d en cy o f low a c h ie v in g , h ig h socio-econom ic s ta tu s s t u d e n ts to s e l e c t h ig h e r le v e l g o a ls th a n low s o c ia l s ta tu s s tu d e n ts th e n o tic e a b le th in g i s th a t th e y s e le c te d ty p e s of h ig h le v e l g o a ls n o t p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s ib le f o r th e s t u d e n ts low i n academ ic ach iev em en t. S Com parisons Between V a ria b le s Employed in G uidance and Most A p p ro p ria te , A p p ro p ria te , and Q u e stio n a b le F ie ld I A p p ro p ria te n e ss R a tin g s 1 A d i r e c t com parison betw een ju d g e s ’ r a t in g s o f 12k T A B L E 13 C O R R E L A T IO N S O F FIELD A N D L E V E L C H O IC E A PPR O PR IA T EN ESS R A T IN G S W IT H SO C IO -E C O N O M IC S T A T U S U SIN G D E S IG N A T E D S A M P L E S Designated Samples Number Correlation Coefficients Field Level Total sample 188 0 • 1 .30* Below median intelligence 9 0 -.25 C M o . Below median achievers 8 9 -.55* .30 Below median Self-Self Ideal Q-sort values 9 6 .20 .30 Below median Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 9 6 .10 .06 Below median Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 95 .05 .11 Above median Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort values 93 CO o . .37 N O TE: Q-sort values were computed try use of Fisher’s Z * Significant a t the *05 level of confidence* f i e l d ch o ic e a p p ro p ria te n e s s and th e v a r ia b le s o f i n t e l l i g ence, ach iev em en t, and so cio -eco n o m ic s ta tu s was made* The Chi sq u are s t a t i s t i c f o r m easu rin g th e s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s was em ployed. F in d in g s a re p r e se n te d on T able II4. F in d in g s r e p o rte d on T able II4 . i n d i c a te d th a t above or below m edian in t e l l i g e n c e s c o re s , sch o o l ach iev em en t, o r socio -eco n o m ic s ta tu s were n o t re la te d to a b i l i t y or i n a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te f i e l d c h o ic e s . The n u ll h y p o th e sis was c o n s id e re d te n a b le in ea ch o f th e th r e e c a s e s . The f in d in g s were c o n s is te n t w ith th o se a lre a d y r e p o r te d . Com parisons Between V a ria b le s Employed i n G uidance and O v e r-a s p ira tio n , A p p ro p ria te A s p ir a tio n , and U nder a s p ir a tio n Com parisons were made betw een v a r ia b le s em ployed in g u id an ce and a s p ir a tio n le v e l as r a te d by th e ju d g es to d eterm in e i f d i f f e r e n t le v e ls of th e v a r ia b le s were r e l a t e d to o v e r, u n d er, o r a p p ro p ria te a s p ir a tio n in s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w ays. F in d in g s are re p o r te d on T able 1 C hoices were c l a s s i f i e d as " a p p ro p ria te a s p ir a t i o n ," :" o v e r— a s p i r a t i o n ," and " u n d e r- a s p ira tio n " a c c o rd in g to a j method d e s c rib e d p re v io u s ly i n t h i s c h a p te r . Over- and ju n d e r- a s p ira tio n were found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to |d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , ach iev em en t, and s o c io - ! j economic s t a t u s . 126 T A B L E ll* C O M P A R IS O N O F M E A N A PPR O PR IA T E N E SS R A T IN G S O F FIELD O F FIRST C H O IC E A N D F A C T O R S E M P L O Y E D IN V O C A T IO N A L C O U N S E L IN G Appropriatenes s Intelligence Achievement Socio-economic Status of Field of Choice Total Below Median Above Median Below Median Above Median Levels Levels l*j 5, 6, 7 1 ,2 ,3 . Most appropriate mean rating .0 to 1.0 107 1 1 1 * 55 1 * 3 5 1 + 7 8 2 k Appropriate mean rating 1.1 to 2.0 1 * 7 2 1 * 18 27 17 35 11 Questionable and inappropri ate mean ratings i*i 2 2 17 20 19 32 8 Total 195 9 0 90 90 90 1 1 ( 5 1 * 3 Degrees of freedom Chi square 2 2 .72 2 3.5U 2 1+.00 N O T E: Intelligence: 15 cases dropped because of no I.Q . score. Achievement : 15 cases dropped because of no achievement score. Socio-economic statu s: 7 cases dropped because of no socio economic status ra tin g . 127 T A B L E l5 C O M P A R IS O N O F M E A N A PPR O PR IA T E N E SS R A T IN G S O F L E V E L O F FIRST C H O IC E A N D F A C T O R S E M P L O Y E D IN V O C A T IO N A L G U ID A N C E Appropriateness Intelligence Achievement Socio-economic Status of Level of Choice Total Below Median Above Median Below Median Above Median Levels Levels U,5,6,7 1*2,3 Over aspiration mean ratin g +.6 and over 9 k 6l 27 $ k 32 7 6 15 Appropriate aspiration mean ratin g -•5 to + .5 81 25 k 9 3 k k o 52 26 Under aspiration mean ratin g -.6 and under 20 k 2 18 17 2 Total 195 9 0 90 90 90 1U5 ii3 Degrees of freedom Chi square 2 2 k . 0 2 + 2 16 .7 1 + 2 7o0lj* N O TE: Intelligence: 15 cases dropped because of no I.Q , score Achievement : 15 cases dropped because of no achievement score. Socio-economic statu s: 7 cases dropped because of no socio economic status ratin g . ^Significant a t the .05 level of confidence. + Significant a t the .01 level of confidence. 128 I n t e l l i g e n c e . --A c tu a l Chi S quare c e l l fre q u e n c ie s f o r o v e r - a s p ir a tio n were much l e s s th a n would have been ex p e cte d f o r s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o re s and much more th a n would have been ex p e c te d f o r s tu d e n ts w ith low er i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s . A p p ro p ria te a s p i r a t i o n was much more common among s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h e r I n t e l l i g e n c e s c o re s th a n f o r s tu d e n ts w ith lo w er i n t e l l i g e n c e sco res* T here was a ten d en cy f o r s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o re s to u n d e r - a s p ir e more f r e q u e n tly . The n u l l hypo t h e s i s t h a t no d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d betw een s tu d e n ts w ith d i f f e r e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e le v e ls and a s p i r a t i o n te n d e n c ie s was r e j e c t e d a t th e .0 1 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . A chievem ent. —The n u l l h y p o th e s is t h a t no d i f f e r ences e x is te d betw een s tu d e n ts w ith d i f f e r e n t ach iev em en t le v e ls and a s p i r a t i o n te n d e n c ie s was a l s o r e j e c t e d a t th e .0 1 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . In harmony w ith f in d in g s p r e v i o u sly r e p o r te d th e d if f e r e n c e s were n o t due to th e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e ls o f achievem ent w ere r e l a t e d to a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f a s p i r a t i o n le v e l in s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f - i f e r e n t ways b u t th a t th e d i f f e r e n t le v e ls o f ach iev em en t were r e l a t e d to in a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f a s p i r a t i o n le v e l in s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w ays. Above th e m edian a c h ie v e rs were in d ic a te d to o v e r - a s p ir e l e s s f r e q u e n tly th an w ould be; i i I e x p e c te d and to u n d e r - a s p ir e more f r e q u e n tly th a n would have been e x p e c te d . P r e c is e ly th e co n v e rse was tr u e f o r th e below m edian a c h ie v e r s . F in d in g s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l of c o n fid e n c e . S ocio-econom ic s t a t u s . - - S i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x is te d betw een s tu d e n ts w ith d i f f e r e n t so c io -e co n o m ic s t a t u s l e v e l s and a s p i r a t i o n te n d e n c ie s . The n u l l hypo t h e s i s o f no d if f e r e n c e s was r e j e c t e d a t th e . 05? l e v e l of c o n fid e n c e . A c tu a l Ghi sq u a re c e l l fre q u e n c ie s f o r o v e r- a s p i r a t i o n w ere l e s s th a n would have been e x p e c te d f o r s t u d e n ts in so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s l e v e l s one, tw o, and t h r e e , and more th a n would have b een e x p e c te d f o r s tu d e n ts in so cio -eco n o m ic s t a tu s l e v e l s f o u r , f i v e , and six * A p p ro p ria te a s p i r a t i o n was more common among s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h e r s o c ia l s t a t u s r a t i n g s th a n f o r s tu d e n ts w ith low er s o c i a l s t a t u s r a t i n g s . C om parisons o f F i r s t and Second C hoices to G uidance V a ria b le s In th e p r e s e n t stu d y g u id an ce v a r ia b le s w ere com p a re d w ith second c h o ic e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s as I t was r e l a t e d to f i r s t c h o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s to a s c e r t a i n i n w hat way second c h o ic e s m ig h t be more o r l e s s r e a l i s t i c when stu d e n ts w ere i n th e h ig h e r o r low er i n t e l l i g e n c e g ro u p , s o c io econom ic g ro u p , o r ach iev em en t g ro u p . F in d in g s a r e r e p o r te d on T a b le s 16 to 19. 130 F i r s t and second f i e l d c h o ic e s . —To a s c e r ta in i f th e second ch o ices o f stu d e n ts were more or le s s r e a l i s t i c th an f i r s t choices th e ch o ices were c l a s s i f i e d ac co rd in g to mean ju d g e s’ r a tin g s as on Table l 6 . They were c o n sid ered a p p ro p ria te and were la b e le d "on f i e l d 1 ' i f the mean r a t i n g o f th e judges was no more than one p o in t on th e f iv e p o in t r a t i n g s c a le away from a most a p p ro p ria te choice. Choices more th an one p o in t away from a most a p p ro p ria te mean r a t i n g were c l a s s i f i e d as " o ff f i e l d . " The Chi squ are s t a t i s t i c was employed to compare "on f i e l d " and " o ff f i e l d " choices w ith f i r s t and second s ta te d p re fe r e n c e s . I t was found th a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r number of second ch o ices were " o f f f i e l d , " and a s i g n i f i c a n t l y sm a lle r number were "on f i e l d . " The n u ll h y p o th e sis o f no d i f f e r ences was n o t te n a b le a t the .0 1 le v e l of co n fid e n ce. Second ch o ices o f f i e l d were le s s a p p ro p ria te than f i r s t choices of f i e l d . T h irty cases w ith no second choice were dropped. As i s in d ic a te d on Table 17, th e re was no s i g n i f i ca n t d iffe re n c e between f i r s t and second f i e l d choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss when compared w ith th e v a r ia b le s of i n t e l l i gence, socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and achievem ent. The n u l l h y p o th e sis was te n a b le in each in s ta n c e . j | ! F i r s t and second le v e l c h o ic e s t,--To d is c o v e r i f i j th e second choices of stu d e n ts were more o ver a s p ir a n t o r ; TABLE 16 131 A PPRO PRIA TEN ESS O F FIRST A N D S E C O N D FIELD C H O ICES On Field Off Field F irst and -1*0 to 1.0 1*1 and Over Second Choices Mean Rating Mean Rating F irst choice 93 72 Second choice 60 105 Degrees of freedom 1 Chi square 13*27* • f * Significant a t the *01 level of confidence* 132 TABLE 17 C O M PA R ISO N OF FIRST A N D SE C O N D C H O ICES O F V O C A T IO N A L FIELD W ITH G U ID A N C E V A R IA B LES Appropriateness of Second Choice of Field Intelligence Achievement Socio-economic Status Below Above Median Median Below Median Above Median Levels Levels W , 6 , 7 1,2,3 More than f i r s t choice 26 1 9 21 1 9 32 8 Same as f i r s t choice 18 20 18 1 9 30 11 Less than f i r s t choice 31 36 36 38 £8 20 Degrees of freedom 2 2 2 Chi square l.E> 6 < .17 .61 NO TE: None of the above Chi squares was significant. 30 cases with no stated second choice were dropped. Intelligence: lf> cases dropped because of no I.Q. score. Achievement : lli cases dropped because of no achievement score. Socio-economic status: 6 cases, dropped because of no socio economic status rating. 133 more u n d er a s p i r a n t th a n f i r s t c h o ic e s th e c h o ic e s were c l a s s i f i e d as t!u n d er a s p i r a t i o n , " " a p p r o p r ia te a s p i r a t i o n , " and " o v e r a s p ir a tio n " by th e p ro ced u re p r e v io u s ly e x p la in e d . I t was found t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s e x i s te d between th e a p p r o p ria te n e s s o f le v e l o f f i r s t and second c h o ic e when c l a s s i f i e d a c c o rd in g to th e c a te g o r ie s em ployed. The n u l l h y p o th e s is o f no d if f e r e n c e s was te n a b le . F indings a re r e p o r te d on Table 18, There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een f i r s t and second l e v e l c h o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s when compared w ith th e v a r ia b le s of i n t e l l i g e n c e , so cio-econom ic s t a t u s , and ac h iev e m en t, (See T able 19*) M u ltip le P r e d ic tio n o f F i e l d and L evel of V o c a tio n a l Choice The W h e rry -D o o little method of o b ta in in g a m u ltip le p r e d i c t i v e f ig u r e was employed u s in g th e s e le c te d s e l f con c e p t c o r r e l a t i o n s and th e s e le c te d guid an ce v a r i a b l e s , G u ilfo rd (?6:lj.l2) p o in te d out t h a t i t was a p r a c t i c a l method to s e l e c t p e rs o n n e l f o r some p a r t i c u l a r assig n m en t b ecause u s u a lly o n ly fo u r o r f i v e v a r ia b le s from a l a r g e r number could be used i n com bination f o r p r e d i c t i v e p u rp o ses. He in d ic a t e d t h a t adding to t h i s number m erely c o n trib u te d |e r r o r v a ria n c e to th e co m p o site . 1 3 1 1 - table 18 APPROPRIATENESS OF FIRST A N D SEC O N D LEVEL CHOICES F irs t and Second Choice Under Aspiration -«6 and Under Mean Rating Appropriate Aspiration -•5 to + .5 Mean Rating Over Aspiration +•6 and More Mean Rating F irs t choice 18 67 80 Second choice 31 6$ 6 9 Degrees of freedom Chi square - 2 - k . 2 9 TABLE 19 135 C O M PA R IS O N O F FIRST A N D S E C O N D C H O IC ES O F V O C A T IO N A L L E V E L W IT H G U ID A N C E V A R IA B LE S Socio-economic Appropriateness of Intelligence Achievement Status Second Choice Below Above Below Above" Levels Levels of Level___________Median Median Median Median 1*2,3 More than f ir s t choice 2 h 1 $ 17 21 36 7 Same as f ir s t choice 2 6 2 9 31 25 k 3 12 Less than f ir s t choice 25 31 27 30 ia 20 Degrees of freedom 2 2 2 Chi square 2*88 2*30 k » 0 $ N O TE: 30 cases with no stated second choice were dropped. Intelligence: l£ cases dropped because of no I.Q. score. Achievement : 1 )4 cases dropped because of no achievement score. Socio-economic status: 6 cases dropped because of no socio economic status rating. 136 F ie ld of Choice In p re d ic tin g the a p p ro p ria te n e s s of f i e l d of choice th re e v a r ia b le s added s ig n ific a n c e to th e p r e d ic t i o n . (See Table 2 0 .) I n te llig e n c e p ro v id ed the g r e a t e s t amount of p r e d ic tiv e s tr e n g th . Small increm ents to p r e d ic t iv e power were provided by socio-econom ic s ta tu s and th e s e l f id e a l-m o th e r id e a l concept c o r r e la tio n . The b e s t com bination of v a r ia b le s o b ta in ed by use of th e W h erry -D o o little method provided only a modest m u ltip le c o r r e la tio n of . 2£ w ith a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f f i e l d of ch o ic e . Since t h i s valu e c o n trib u te d o nly 3 .2 p e r cen t to th e e f f ic ie n c y of p r e d ic tio n over what m ight be expected by chance i t was d e cided th a t th e m u ltip le p r e d ic tio n of f i e l d o f choice u t i l i z i n g th e v a r ia b le s employed in th e stu d y was n o t p r a c t i c a l . Level of Choice Employing the same technique f o r o b ta in in g a m u ltip le p r e d ic tiv e f ig u re an attem p t was made to d isc o v e r what com bination of v a r ia b le s would d e sc rib e most accu rately the type of s tu d e n t who would make an a p p ro p ria te le v e l choice in d ec id in g upon a v o c a tio n . Table 21 re p o rts th e f in d in g s . I n te llig e n c e ag ain p rovided th e g r e a t e s t amount of p r e d ic tiv e s tr e n g th . The s e l f id e a l-m o th e r id e a l c o r r e la tio n and socio-econom ic s ta tu s were a g a in s e le c te d and made sm all in crem en ts to th e p r e d ic tiv e power of th e 137 TABLE 20 PREDICTION OF A PPR O PR IA TEN ESS O F FIELD O F V O C A T IO N A L CH O ICE E M P L O Y IN G A C O M B IN A T IO N O F PREDICTIVE V A R IA B LES Predictive Beta Multiple Variables Weights R Intelligence .31 .19 Socio-economic status i • H -J .2)4 Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort values -.1 0 • 2£ N O TE: The Wherry-Doolittle method of selecting variables for multiple prediction was employed. 138 TABLE 21 PREDICTION O F APPROPRIATENESS OF LEV EL O F V O C A T IO N A L CHOICE EM PL O Y IN G A C O M B IN A TIO N OF PREDICTIVE V A RIA BLES Predictive Variables Beta Weights Multiple R Intelligence .31 .33 Self Ideal-Mother Ideal Q-sort values .18 .37 Achievement -.1 6 .39 Socio-economic level •m •llO NOTE: The Wherry-Doolittle method of selecting variables fee* multiple prediction was employed. i 139 f i n a l co m b in atio n . Achievem ent a ls o made some c o n tr ib u tio n to th e p r e d i c t i v e s t r e n g t h o f th e co m b in atio n when p r e d i c t in g l e v e l a p p r o p r ia te n e s s . Thus, a lth o u g h achievem ent d id n o t c o r r e la te s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith a p p ro p r ia te n e s s o f l e v e l of ch o ice i t was a b le to c o n tr ib u te som ething to th e appro-; p r i a t e n e s s of l e v e l ch o ice p r e d ic tio n n o t c o n tr ib u te d by o th e r v a r i a b l e s . By s e l e c t i n g th e b e s t com bination of v a r ia b le s a m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n of .I4O was o b ta in e d w ith th e a p p r o p ria te n e s s of th e l e v e l of a stu d e n t* s v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e . By u se of t h i s m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t th e p r e d ic tio n of th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of le v e l o f choice was in c re a s e d 8.L). p e r c e n t over ch an ce. W hile th e p r e d ic t i v e power of such a com bination of f a c t o r s was sm all i t p ro v id e d a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of what f a c t o r s in th e p o p u la tio n s tu d ie d m ight a id th e c o u n s e lo r 's c l i n i c a l judgm ent ab o u t th e r e a lis m o f stu d e n ts* c h o ic e s . Summary of th e F in d in g s F i e l d and le v e l a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f c h o ice were r e l a te d t o th e c o rre la tic n c o e f f i c i e n t s betw een th e two compon e n ts i n each of th r e e s e l f concepts; th e s e l f - s e l f i d e a l con cep t, th e s e lf-m o th e r id e a l concept, and th e s e l f id eal-m o th er i d e a l concept. F ie ld and le v e lc h o ic e a p p r o p ria te n e s s were also r e l a t e d to v a r i a b l e s employed in th e g u id an ce p ro c e s s ; i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s . The llj.0 te tr a c h o r ic c o r r e la tio n s t a t i s t i c and th e Chi Square were employed. The major r e s u l t s are summarized below, 1, S t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t alth o u g h moderate c o r r e la tio n e x is te d between the a p p ro p ria te n e ss of s t u d e n ts ’ f ie ld s of choice and le v e l of ch o ice. With the low er ach iev ers and stu d e n ts having the h ig h e r s e l f id e a l - mother id e a l c o r r e la tio n s , no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t c o r r e la tio n between f i e l d and le v e l of choice e x is te d , 2, The a p p ro p ria te n e ss of s tu d e n ts ' f i e l d of v o c a tio n a l choice was found to be u n re la te d to c o r r e la tio n s between th e s e l f co n cep ts, 3* S tudents w ith a h ig h c o r r e la tio n between t h e i r s e l f id e al-m o th e r id e a l concept tended to make a p p ro p ria te le v e l choices when s e le c tin g a v o c a tio n . No s ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s were found, however, when th e s e l f - s e l f id e a l o r th e s e l f id e a l-m o th e r id e a l c o r r e la tio n s were compared to th e ap p ro p riaten ess, of le v e l of choice, Ij., High in te llig e n c e stu d e n ts made s ig n i f ic a n t ly more a p p ro p ria te o ccu p atio n al le v e l choices than low i n te llig e n c e stu d e n ts , 5 , Student in te llig e n c e was not r e la te d to a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l f i e l d ch o ices. S tudents above the median in in te llig e n c e were ju s t as li k e l y to make in a p p ro p ria te f i e l d choices as were stu d e n ts below | the median in in te lli g e n c e , , lL j.1 6 . S tu d e n ts in th e upper th re e socio-econom ic s t a t u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s made l e v e l ch o ices s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a p p r o p r ia te th a n s tu d e n ts i n th e low er fo u r s o c io economic s t a t u s le v e ls * 7* Socio-econom ic s t a t u s o f s tu d e n ts was n o t r e l a t e d to t h e i r a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te f i e l d choices* 8 * S tu d e n ts 1 l e v e l o f achievem ent was n o t r e l a t e d to a b i l i t y to s e l e c t a p p r o p r ia te f i e l d o r l e v e l v o c a tio n a l goals* F in d in g s i n d ic a t e d t h a t th e re was a v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t ten d en cy f o r low a c h ie v e rs to o v e r - a s p ir e and h ig h a c h ie v e rs to u n d e r-a 3p i r e . 9* S tu d e n ts ' second ch o ices of f i e l d te n d e d to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s r e a l i s t i c th a n t h e i r f i r s t choices* The same d if f e r e n c e s were n o t found w ith l e v e l choices* 10® S tu d e n t s e l f c o n c e p ts , i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e ment l e v e l , and socio-econom ic s t a t u s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ly r e l a t e d to second ch o ic e s w hich were e i t h e r more o r l e s s a p p r o p r ia te th a n f i r s t c h o ic e s . 11. S e lf concept c o r r e l a t i o n s in com bination w ith o th e r f a c t o r s commonly employed by v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lo rs were n o t found to be u s e f u l as a m u ltip le p r e d ic to r to | I d e n t i f y th o se s tu d e n ts who would make a p p r o p r ia te f i e l d i i c h o ic e s . i | 12* The c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een th e s e l f i d e a l and th e m other i d e a l co n c ep ts used i n com bination w ith ll(.2 i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o re s , sch o o l achievem ent s c o re s , and s o c io - ! economic le v e ls showed prom ise as a m u ltip le p r e d ic to r w ith which to i d e n t i f y s tu d e n ts who sh o u ld make a p p r o p r ia te le v e l c h o ic e s when s e le c tin g a v o c a tio n . D isc u ssio n of th e F in d in g s T his s e c tio n was w r i tte n to b r in g in to p e rs p e c t i v e th e im p lic a tio n s of th e im p o rta n t f in d i n g s . The id e a s p r e s e n te d a re prem ised upon th e f in d in g s of t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n and a review o f r e l a t e d r e s e a r c h and l i t e r a t u r e . D iffe re n c e s Between F ie ld and Level A p p ro p ria te n e ss in V o c a tio n a l Choice Ylhile s tu d e n ts i n t h i s stu d y who made a p p ro p r ia te f i e l d ch o ic e s ten d ed to make a p p r o p r ia te l e v e l ch o ices more o fte n th a n co u ld be p r e d ic te d on th e b a s is o f chance, th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t betw een f i e l d a p p ro p ria te n e s s and l e v e l a p p r o p ria te n e s s was o nly when th e t o t a l sample was em ployed. T his v alu e i s m oderate and in d ic a te d t h a t d i f f e r e n t v a r ia b le s were o p e ra tiv e i n c a u sin g the s tu d e n t to make a p p r o p ria te le v e l ch o ic e s th a n were o p e ra t i v e in c a u sin g him to make a p p r o p r ia te f i e l d c h o ic e s . T his meant t h a t w h ile th e s tu d e n t may be p s y c h o lo g ic a lly re a d y to make a r e a l i s t i c d e c is io n alo n g one v o c a tio n a l continuum , he may n o t be p re p a re d to make a choice so r e a l i s t i c a l l y along an o th er continuum. In l i g h t of th e se fin d in g s i t i s im p o rtan t th a t v o c a tio n a l co u n selo rs p ro v id e counseling designed to meet th e d i f f e r e n t types of problems r e la te d to both f i e l d and le v e l of v o c a tio n a l ch o ice. The d iffe re n c e between th e two co n tin u a of choice i s more c le a r ly d e lin e a te d when i t i s noted t h a t a p p ro p ri a te n e ss of f i e l d o f choice was c o r re la te d s i g i i f i c a n t l y w ith no v a r ia b le employed in t h i s study w hile le v e l of choice re a lis m was s ig n i f ic a n t ly r e la te d to s e v e ra l v a r i a b le s . I n te llig e n c e , which c o r r e la te d most s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith le v e l of choice, f o r example, d id not c o r r e la te s ig n i f ic a n t ly w ith f i e l d of ch o ice. I t was i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te th a t in th e below median ac h iev e rs group, f i e l d and le v e l did n o t c o r r e la te s i g n i f i c a n tly . F indings in d ic a te d th a t low a c h ie v e rs had a s ig n i f i c a n t tendency to o v e r-a s p ire , Moses (12lj.) concluded t h a t t h i s was due to fam ily e x p e c ta tio n s and p re s s u re s fo r t h i s group which were d if f e r e n t f o r t h i s group th a n f o r o th e r groups. The la c k of r e la tio n s h ip between a p p ro p ri a te n e ss of f i e l d and le v e l of choice might in d ic a te th a t th e choices f o r t h i s group were alm ost a t random. At l e a s t i t would be h e lp fu l f o r th e guidance counselor to be aware of t h i s la c k of c o r r e la tio n between approprlatenessj of f i e l d and le v e l of choice when co u n selin g low ac h iev e rs.; U A ; In concluding t h i s d isc u ssio n concerning the d i s tin c tio n between f i e l d and le v e l a p p ro p ria te n e ss in voca tio n a l ch o ice, i t was recognized th a t such d iffe re n c e s could come about through o v e r-re lia n c e on a b i l i t y te s tin g to ap p raise le v e l ap p ro p ria te n e ss and o v e r-re lia n c e upon i n t e r e s t te s t i n g to ap p ra ise f i e l d a p p ro p ria te n e ss. An attem pt to avoid t h i s was made by p roviding th e judges w ith sta n d a rd iz e d in s tr u c tio n s and complete d a ta n eces sa ry to perform c l i n i c a l judgm ents. Inasmuch as the judges were s p e c i a l i s t s i t was b eliev e d th a t in a p p ro p ria te r e lia n c e upon the sin g le measures in d ic a te d was avoided. R e la tio n sh ip s Between S e lf Concept C o rre la tio n s and A ppropriateness of Choice A review o f the l i t e r a t u r e accomplished p r io r to the launching of the p re se n t in v e s tig a tio n in d ic a te d th a t em otional adjustm ent and s e lf acceptance as measured by th e s e l f - s e l f id e a l concept were r e la te d to r e a l i s t i c p e r c e p tio n . K innane's study re p o rte d th a t h ig h c o r r e la tio n between th e s e l f and the s e lf id e a l concept was r e la te d to a r e a l i s t i c a p p ra is a l of the o ccu p atio n al world as measured by a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l ch o ices. E arly th e o riz in g by p sy c h o lo g ists had emphasized a lso the im portance of the mother in s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n . Jung had p o in te d out th a t the mother unconsciously xits; d eterm in ed th e p e r s o n 1s r e l a t i o n s h i p to women, s o c i e t y , and to th e w o rld of f e e l i n g and of f a c t (1 2 6 :1 5 2 ). Voca t i o n a l s tu d i e s have in d i c a t e d t h a t th e r o le o f th e p a r e n t i s im p o rta n t i n v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e ap p ro p ria te n e ss® They r e p o r te d t h a t an tag o n ism f o r th e m other and f e e l i n g s o f r e j e c t i o n were a s s o c ia te d w ith u n r e a l i s t i c c a r e e r goals® T his s tu d y w ith tw e l f th grade s tu d e n ts was concerned to a s c e r t a i n i f r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t e d between r e a l is m of occu p a t i o n a l ch o ice and b o th s e l f a c c e p ta n c e and a c c e p ta n c e of th e m o th e r's goals® R e a lism of ch o ice on n e i t h e r f i e l d n o r le v e l con t i n u e was r e l a t e d to s e l f a c c e p ta n c e . T his f in d in g sh o u ld n o t be m inim ized in l i g h t o f th e method o f p ro c e d u re and d e s ig n employed i n t h i s s tu d y as compared w ith p ro c e d u re s and d e s ig n s employed i n o th e r s tu d ie s w hich r e p o r te d a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s e l f a c c e p ta n c e and th e a b i l i t y o f the s tu d e n t to s e l e c t a p p r o p r ia te c a r e e r goals® F i r s t , t h i s s tu d y d id n o t employ p a p e r and p e n c il t e s t s as c r i t e r i a of a p p r o p r ia te n e s s b u t r a t h e r u t i l i z e d c l i n i c a l judgm ent. G ® W ® F a irw e a th e r ( 6l ) i n an e x te n s iv e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t empha s iz e d t h a t whenever p ap e r and p e n c il t e s t s were employed as c r i t e r i a i n r e s e a r c h a g a in s t which to e v a lu a te b e h a v io r w hich was a ls o d e fin e d by in v e n to ry o r s im i l a r m easures, cor r e l a t i o n s seemed to o c c u r. K in n a n e 's ( 1 0 1) r e c e n t stu d y in w hich s e l f a c c e p ta n c e was found to be r e l a t e d to a p p r o p r i a te n e s s o f cho ice m easured s e l f a c c e p ta n c e by means o f li+6 B i l l s Index of A djustm ent and V alu es. A p p ro p ria te n e ss o f ch o ice c r i t e r i a were I n t e r e s t in v e n to ry d a ta and a b i l i t y t e s t i n g d a t a . The p r e s e n t stu d y a tte m p te d to av o id s p u r i ous r e s u l t s by em ploying a Q -s o rt te c h n iq u e a s a m easure o f s e l f a c ce p tan c e which a s Kenny (100) s ta te d i s n o t as e a s i l y in f lu e n c e d by s o c ia l p r e s s u r e s a s a r e i n v e n to r i e s . As c r i t e r i a o f a p p r o p ria te n e s s of c h o ice, on th e o th e r h a n d ,c l i n i c a l judgm ents of v o c a tio n a l c o u n se lin g s p e c i a l i s t s were em ployed. Two o th e r im p o rta n t p ro ced u res were employed in t h i s stu d y which may have made th e f in d in g s v ary in a s i g n i f i c a n t way from th e few a lre a d y r e p o r te d . Most im p o rta n t was th e f a c t t h a t th e s t u d e n t 's c h o ic e s were c l a s s i f i e d more p r e c i s e l y th a n o th e r a p p ro p r ia te n e s s s tu d ie s to d a te . Roe (1 5 1 ), Super (1 9 2 ), H o llan d (85 )> and o th e rs have in d ic a t e d t h a t v o c a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r r e s e a r c h p u rp o ses sh o u ld be on a tw o -fo ld b a s i s . Because p r e c i s io n o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was so u g h t, Roe’ s f i e l d and l e v e l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f o c c u p a tio n s was used as a c r i t e r i o n a g a in s t which judges could e v a lu a te th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f c h o ic e ac c o rd in g to b o th f i e l d and l e v e l c o n tin u a . F i n a l l y , th e te ch n iq u e o f o b ta in in g s t u d e n t s ’ c h o ic e s was s ta n d a rd iz e d in such a way t h a t th e s tu d e n t was b e lie v e d to have p ro v id e d th e r e s e a r c h e r s w ith th e most; r e a l i s t i c ch o ice o f which he was c a p a b le . S tu d ie s by 1 1 1 -? Trow (198), Dresden (55) > and Gilger (71) substantiated the importance of this procedure although it had not been found to have been employed in comparable studies to date. The finding on self acceptance as measured by the self-self ideal concept is further substantiated by the finding of no relationship between the self-mother ideal and choice appropriateness in this study* Studies by such researchers as Porter (139) and Helper (8l) found that the child’s self concept is highly correlated with the mother concept. Since this type of relationship existed in the present study along with no relationship between self mother ideal concept and choice appropriateness, the find ing on the self-self ideal concept and choice appropriate ness is strengthened. It should be emphasized, therefore, that the author of this study is not as convinced as are some other re searchers that self acceptance is highly correlated with a realistic appraisal of the occupational world. If such is the case,an instrument to measure self acceptance, or a more suitable way than has been discovered to date, needs to be developed. It may be that research will have to wait for more adequate means of assessing choice appropri ateness than are presently available. The significant relationship found between the self ideal-mother ideal concept and the appropriateness of choice in the present investigation was considered to be a major f in d in g . S tu d en ts w ith h ig h c o r r e la tio n s b e tween t h e i r id e a l f o r th em selves and what th ey b e lie v e d t h e i r m other’ s i d e a l f o r them to be, made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a p p r o p r ia te v o c a tio n a l le v e l c h o ic e s . I t i s b e lie v e d t h i s f in d in g i s c o n s is te n t w ith fin d in g s of s tu d ie s such as Dynes, C la rk e , and D in itz (57) or F rie n d and Haggard (6 8) and c o n tr ib u te d som ething beyond what th e s e s tu d ie s have su g g e ste d . The p r e s e n t stu d y in d ic a te d th a t i d e n t i f i c a tio n on th e p a r t of th e s tu d e n t w ith th e g o a ls of th e m other f o r him was an im p o rtan t f a c t o r in h i s p e rc e p tio n of an o c c u p a tio n a l le v e l w hich would be s u it a b le f o r him . I t could be surm ised th a t th e s tu d e n t’ s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith h is m o th er’ s g o a ls was r e l a t e d in some way to h is u n d er sta n d in g o f th e degree of s o c ia l s ta tu s he should seek In an o c c u p a tio n . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m other’ s g o a ls , however, was n o t r e l a t e d to th e s t u d e n t 's p e rc e p tio n of th e prim ary fo cu s o f d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n s, th e fu n c tio n s perform ed in v a rio u s o c c u p a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s , or knowledge r e le v a n t to d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f work. This would su g g est th a t more em phasis i s needed in v o c a tio n a l c o u n se lin g w ith s tu d e n ts on h e lp in g them to o b ta in an u n d e rsta n d in g of th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e v o c a tio n a l w orld. I t would su g g e st th a t in th e concern w ith th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts o f cho ice th e in fo rm a tio n a l a s p e c ts should n o t be b y -p a sse d . This f in d in g a ls o I n d ic a te d t h a t v o c a tio n a l concerns o f o u r 149 c u ltu r e are su c cess o r ie n te d r a t h e r th a n s a t i s f a c t i o n o r ie n te d , and th a t th e l a t t e r type o f c o n s id e r a tio n s need more em phasis in c o u n s e lin g w ith s tu d e n ts . R e la tio n s h ip s Between A p p ro p ria ten e ss o f V o ca tio n al Choice and I n t e l l i g e n c e , Socio-econom ic S ta tu s , and Achievement T his stu d y was concerned w ith th e way in w hich s e v e r a l v a r ia b le s commonly employed i n v o c a tio n a l coun s e lin g might c o n tr ib u te to an u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e p o te n tia l a s tu d e n t m ight have f o r making r e a l i s t i c choices* S tu d ie s such as th e one perform ed by Grace (7£) and th e one perform ed by S p a rlin g (173) in d ic a te d t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e as a f a c t o r was r e l a t e d p o s i t i v e l y to th e s tu d e n t’ s a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p r ia te c a r e e r d e c is io n s * The p re s e n t stu d y found t h a t such a c o n c lu sio n was an o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n o f th e a c tu a l r e l a t i o n s h i p which e x is te d between i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l and a p p ro p ria te n e s s of c h o ic e . F in d in g s in d ic a t e d t h a t th e s tu d e n ts w ith th e h ig h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e sc o re s d id make more a p p ro p ria te c h o ic e s of v o c a tio n a l le v e l but n o t o f v o c a tio n a l f ie ld * When employed as a m u ltip le p r e d ic to r v a r ia b le i t c o n tr ib u te d more to p? e d i c ti n g a p p ro p ria te n e s s o f le v e l o f choice th a n any o th e r v a r ia b le employed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . This f in d in g would be ex p e cte d , however, inasmuch as th e ten d en cy w ith s tu d e n ts i s to o v e r - a s p ir e . 1^0 An im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n made by t h i s stu d y was th e fin d in g t h a t v o c a tio n a l f i e l d choices were n o t more a p p ro p ria te among h ig h ly i n t e l l i g e n t stu d e n ts th a n among s tu d e n ts who were le s s i n t e l l i g e n t . While i t would be expected th a t p e rc e p tiv e a b i l i t i e s o f h ig h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e stu d e n ts would be g r e a te r f o r choosing the m ajor ty p es of work a c t i v i t y than would be a p p ro p ria te f o r them^ such was n o t found to be th e c a se . T h eir p e rc e p tiv e a b i l i t i e s in t h i s re g a rd were no more d is c rim in a tiv e than th o se of s tu d en ts w ith low er in te lli g e n c e l e v e l s . For s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h e r in te lli g e n c e le v e ls th e re was a keener awareness of how they might f a r e in term s of o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s th a n th e re was in what type of work m ight p ro v id e them w ith th e b e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s to s a t i s f y p e rso n a l needs o th e r th an s o c ia l r e c o g n itio n . This should serve a s a warning to guidance p e rso n n e l th a t i n t e l l i g e n t s tu d e n ts need voca t i o n a l co u n selin g as much as l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t s tu d e n ts a lth o u g h t h e i r needs a r 6 somewhat d i f f e r e n t . While th e le s s i n t e l l i g e n t s tu d e n t w ill o fte n need h elp in reducing h is a s p ir a tio n l e v e l to one which i s more in l i n e w ith h is a b i l i t i e s , the stu d e n t w ith h ig h in te lli g e n c e w i l l need h e lp in fin d in g the type of work a c t i v i t y in which he w ill f in d th e g r e a te s t amount of p e rso n a l p le a su re and th u s m ain tain th e h ig h e s t le v e l o f m ental h e a lth . I n t e r e s t i n g f in d in g s were a ls o forthcom ing about th e way in which school achievem ent i s r e la te d to choice 151 a p p ro p r ia te n e s s . P r io r to th e p r e s e n t stu d y no l i t e r a t u r e co u ld be lo c a te d about th e r e la tio n s h i p between a c h ie v e ment and a p p ro p ria te n e s s of v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e s . Moses (12^) d isc u sse d the r e la tio n s h i p between achievem ent and th e s e l f concepts and concluded t h a t low a c h ie v e rs responded to fa m ily p re s s u re s by s e le c tin g v o c a tio n a l g o a ls above t h e i r le v e l of a b i l i t y . The p r e s e n t stu d y should be h e lp f u l to v o c a tio n a l c o u n se lo rs w ith i t s r e p o r t of the f i n d in g t h a t a lth o u g h h ig h and low a c h ie v e rs make about the same number of a p p ro p ria te c h o ic e s , th e low a c h ie v e rs o v e r- a s p ire more o fte n and th e h ig h a c h ie v e rs u n d e r-a s p ire more o fte n . The tendency to o v e r- a s p ire among low a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts was coupled w ith a tendency to make in a p p r o p r ia te f i e l d choices when th e s tu d e n t was o f h ig h e r socio-econom ic o r ig in . A lthough a c e r t a i n amount o f a p p ro p ria te n e s s e x is te d in th e tendency f o r th e s e s tu d e n ts to s e l e c t h ig h e r le v e l g o a ls , th e n o tic e a b le f a c t was th a t th e y s e le c te d ty p e s o f h ig h le v e l g o a ls n o t p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s ib le f o r s tu d e n ts who were low a c h ie v e rs . A p la u s ib le e x p la n a tio n f o r t h i s phenomenon m ight be t h a t th e s e g oals would demand | o f them th e g r e a t e s t amount of o b se rv a b le achievem ent and l | ! i f s e le c te d would ea se fa m ily p re s s u re on them to seek ; h ig h e r le v e l g o a ls . These ch o ices would a ls o be more j , I a d m issib le to them because th e y would te n d to be more i i s co m p atib le w ith t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p ts . The c o u n s e lo r sh o u ld be aware of th e p o s s i b i l i t y in d ic a te d by th e s e fin d in g s t h a t he may be run n in g c o u n te r to s o c i a l and f a m i l i a l p r e s s u re s in h e lp in g low a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts s e l e c t r e a l i s t i c g o a l s • In th e ca se o f socio-econom ic s t a t u s th e r e l a tio n s h ip between s t a t u s l e v e l s and c h o ic e a p p ro p ria te n e s s was s im ila r to th e f in d in g s f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l s and ch o ice a p p r o p r ia te n e s s . High socio-econom ic l e v e l s tu d e n ts te n d ed to s e l e c t h ig h l e v e l g o a ls which were more ap p ro p r i a t e f o r them th a n th e g o a ls o f low socio-econom ic le v e l s tu d e n ts . T h e ir c h o ic e s of v o c a tio n a l f i e l d , how ever, were n o t more a p p r o p r ia te th a n th e ch o ices o f low er s o c io economic le v e l s tu d e n ts . The le v e l of g o als f o r t h i s group was a ls o h ig h i n th e same way t h a t th e g o a ls f o r h ig h i n t e l l i g e n c e s tu d e n ts were h ig h . A b a s ic d if f e r e n c e betw een th e h ig h socio-econom ic group and th e h ig h i n t e l l i gence group was t h a t in th e h ig h socio-econom ic group th e r e was n o t th e same tendency to u n d e r-a s p ir e as th e r e was in th e h ig h ly i n t e l l i g e n t group. The same tendency d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e h ig h a c h ie v in g group from t h i s h ig h s o c io economic group. I t would seem t h a t inasm uch a s h ig h s o c io economic l e v e l s tu d e n ts have h ig h l e v e l ch o ic e s which due to th e u s u a l re s o u rc e s can o f te n be f u l f i l l e d , th e ta s k of th e guidance c o u n se lo r w i l l have to be, as su g g e ste d i n the previous paragraph, to orient the student in the direc tion which his resources will be most helpful to him in achieving status. Multiple Predictlon of Level of Vocational Choice This investigation has been concerned from the outset with the possibility that the cognitive factors and the non-cognitive factors, whose relationships with appropriateness of choice were determined, might be com bined statistically and used as an acbuarial aid to the counselor. The use of the Q-3ort for measuring self con cepts had been recommended as a way to make non-cognitive factors available for statistical manipulation. Using this technique a correlation coefficient of .27 with appropriateness of level of choice wa3 obtained. It was found that this coefficient used in combination with correlations of intelligence, school achievement, and socio-oconomic status with appropriateness of level of choice produced a multiple correlation of Although this was recognized to be a modest predictor of appropriate ness of level of vocational choice, it does represent an attempt to combine the variables commonly U3ed in counsel ing in a way which might help the counselor better under stand what weight they deserve in the counseling process. l f t Such a finding points to the fact that personal counseling is indeed important in the vocational counseling process because of the many individual cognitive and non-cognitive factors which enter into a career decision. i C H A P T E R V SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The problem i n t h i s in v e s tig a tio n was to d isc o v e r th e r e la tio n s h ip s which e x is te d between th e a p p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d and le v e l of v o c a tio n a l choice to s e l f co n cep ts, i n t e l l i g e n c e , school achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s ta tu s . Summary Inasmuch as b o th in te r - p e r s o n a l and in tr a - p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s have been im p o rta n t to th e v o c a tio n a l co u n selin g p ro c e ss th i s stu d y measured the way in which th ey were r e l a t e d in d iv id u a lly and i n com bination to a p p ro p ria te n e ss of c a re e r d e c is io n s . Im portant n o n -c o g n itiv e f a c to r s employed were expressed in s e l f concepts w hile im p o rtan t c o g n itiv e f a c to r s used were i n t e l l i g e n c e , sch o o l a c h ie v e ment, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s . I t was b e lie v e d th a t guidance p erso n n el p ro v id ed w ith t h i s in fo rm a tio n would be b e t t e r ab le to u n d erstan d what im portance to a t t r i b u t e to th e f a c t o r s u t i l i z e d in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n when h e lp in g stu d e n ts make c a re e r d e c is io n s . I t was b e lie v e d t h a t t h i s iin v e s tig a tio n should c o n trib u te an u n d ersta n d in g as to th e way in which a p p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d and l e v e l of c a re e r d e c is io n were r e la te d d i f f e r e n t l y to choice c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F in d in g s were consequently re p o rte d acco rd in g to both th e f i e l d and le v e l a p p ro p ria te n e ss of the s tu d e n t’s c h o ic e . 156 The co u n selo r p o sse ssin g such In fo rm a tio n sh o u ld be enab led to h e lp stu d e n ts tak e in to account more a d e q u a te ly b o th th e success and s a t i s f a c t i o n a s p e c ts o f v o c a tio n a l commitment. Methods and P rocedures One hundred and n in e ty - f iv e tw e lf th grade boys from th re e Los Angeles m e tro p o lita n h ig h schools were asked to s o r t s e l f r e f e r e n t sta te m e n ts th re e tim es in a fo rc e d norm al curve d i s t r i b u t i o n . I n s tr u c tio n s to th e s tu d e n t re q u ire d s o r tin g so as to d e s c rib e h is s e l f co n cep t, s e l f id e a l concept, and mother id e a l c o n c e p t. D iscrepancy sc o re s f o r d if fe re n c e s in placem ent were o b ta in e d . V o catio n al ch o ices were o b ta in e d from th e s tu d e n ts by means o f a q u e s tio n n a ire . In fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e s tu d e n ts was o b ta in e d from th e s tu d e n t q u e s tio n n a ire s as w ell as from t h e i r cum ulative re c o rd fo ld e rs * F iv e voca t i o n a l c o u n selo rs r a te d th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s of th e s t u d e n ts ’ ch o ices on b o th f i e l d and le v e l c o n tin u a . The s tu d e n ts ’ ch o ices c l a s s i f i e d acco rd in g t o Roe’ s f i e l d and le v e l o f v o c a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , alo n g w ith in fo rm a tio n about th e s tu d e n ts , were s u p p lie d each r a t e r . A p p ro p ria ten e ss o f choice r a tin g s were compared to th e d isc re p an c y sc o re s f o r each com bination of s e l f concepts which had been co n v e rted to F is h e r z v a lu e s f o r co m p u tatio n al p u rp o se s. A p p ro p ria ten e ss o f choice r a tin g s were a lso compared to the guidance v a r ia b le s of i n t e l l i gence, school achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s ta tu s which had been arranged from h ig h to low v a lu e s. R e la tio n sh ip s were measured by means of te tr a c h o r ic c o r r e la tio n s and Chi Square s t a t i s t i c s . Hypotheses and F indings A number o f hypotheses were form ulated f o r use in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n . The fo llo w in g re p re s e n ts a form al stateme- t of each h y p o th e sis in re s e a rc h form . 1. S ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s e x is t between th e a p p ro p ria te n e ss of s ta te d f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l choice of tw e lfth grade stu d e n ts and the a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f s ta te d le v e l of v o c a tio n a l c h o ice. 2. S ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s e x i s t between the ap p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l choice among tw e lfth g rad ers and th e c o r r e la tio n s between th e s e l f and th e s e l f id e a l concept, th e s e l f and th e mother i d s s l con c e p t, and the s e lf id e a l and the mother id e a l co n cep t. 3 . S ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s e x i s t between th e a p p ro p ria te n e ss of le v e l of v o c a tio n a l choice among tw e lfth g rad ers and the c o r r e la tio n s between th e s e l f and th e s e l f id e a l concept, the s e l f and the mother id e a l concept, and th e s e l f id e a l and th e mother i d e a l concept. Ij.. S ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s e x i s t between the a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f f i e l d o f v o c a tio n a l choice among 158 t w e l f t h g ra d e rs and i n t e l l i g e n c e , socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and sc h o o l ach iev em en t, 5 , S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t b e tw e en th e a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s o f l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e among t w e l f t h g r a d e r s and i n t e l l i g e n c e , s o c io - e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t* 6 . S e l f c o n c e p t s , i n t e l l i g e n c e , a c h ie v e m e n t, and s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ca n be em p loyed i n c o m b in a tio n t o p r e d i c t th e a p p r o p r ia t e n e s s o f f i e l d and l e v e l o f c h o i c e . 7* S i g n if ic a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between f i r s t and second cho ice te n d e n c ie s and a s t u d e n t 's s e l f c o n c e p ts, i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s . F in d in g s r e l a t e d to th e h y p o th eses w ith which t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was concerned a re s t a t e d below . 1 , A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f .3 ^ , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 1 le v e l o f co n fid e n c e , was found to e x i s t between s tu d e n ts ' a b i l i t y t o make a p p r o p r ia te d e c is io n s o f v o c a tio n a l f i e l d and t h e i r a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te d e c is io n s of v o c a tio n a l f i e l d . A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n d id n o t e x i s t when th e sam ple was l im ite d to low a c h ie v e rs or to s tu d e n ts h av in g a h ig h s e l f id e a l-m o th e r i d e a l c o r r e l a t i o n . | 2 . S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s d id j n o t e x i s t between s tu d e n ts ' s e l f co n c ep ts and a p p r o p r ia te - ! n e s s o f s t a t e d v o c a tio n a l f i e l d . 159 3* A p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t o f , 2 7 , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t a t th e , 05> le v e l o f co n fid en ce, was found to e x i s t between s tu d e n ts ’ a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te o cc u p atio n al le v e l choices and th e degree of c o r r e la tio n e x is tin g between t h e i r s e l f i d e a l and mother id e a l concepts* S t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t c o r r e la tio n s did n o t e x i s t between the s e l f - s e l f id e a l concept or the se lf-m o th e r id e a l concept and th e a p p ro p ria te n e s s of the le v e l o f ch o ice. S e lf concepts were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to e i th e r u n d e r-a s p ira tio n or o v e r - a s p ir a tio n . If* No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip s e x is te d between in te lli g e n c e , achievem ent, or s o c io economic s ta tu s and the a p p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d of voca ti o n a l c h o ice. 5>. A p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t o f .33* s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t a t the .01 le v e l o f co n fid en ce, e x is te d between th e le v e l o f s tu d e n ts ' in t e l l i g e n c e and the a p p ro p ria te n e ss of t h e i r s ta te d l e v e l of v o c a tio n a l ch o ice. S tudents in th e upper th re e socio-econom ic c la s s e s made s ig n i f ic a n t ly more a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l le v e l choices th a n stu d e n ts in the low er fo u r socio-econom ic s ta tu s l e v e ls . Level of achievem ent was n o t r e l a t e d to a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l le v e l c h o ic e s . D iffe re n c e s , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t a t the .01 le v e l of confidence, e x is te d between the kinds o f in a p p ro p ria te l6o choices made by lower and h ig h e r a c h ie v e rs . Lower achievers tended to o v e r-a s p ire more o f te n th an h ig h e r ac h iev e rs when s e le c tin g an o ccu p atio n , w hile h ig h e r a c h ie v e rs tended to u n d e r-a sp ire more o fte n than low er ac h iev e rs when s e l e c t in g an occupation. 6 . I n te llig e n c e , socio-econom ic s t a t u s , and s e l f id e al-m o th e r id e a l c o r r e la tio n used in com bination produced a m u ltip le c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t o f . 2£ when c o rre la te d w ith a p p ro p ria te n e ss of f i e l d of v o c a tio n a l ch o ic e . I n te llig e n c e , s e l f id e al-m o th e r id e a l c o r r e la tio n , a c h ie v e ment, and socio-econom ic s ta tu s used in com bination produced a m u ltip le c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t of .140 when c o r r e la te d w ith ap p ro p ria te n e ss of le v e l of v o c a tio n a l choice,, 7® S tu d e n ts 1 second ch o ices of f i e l d tended to be le s s r e a l i s t i c th a n t h e i r f i r s t ch o ices, s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f ic a n t a t th e .01 le v e l of co n fid en ce. Second ch o ices of le v e l tended to be no more r e a l i s t i c or u n r e a l i s t i c th an f i r s t c h o ices. There was no s t a t i s t i c a l evidence th a t s e l f concepts, i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent, or s o c io economic s ta tu s were r e la te d to second choices which were more or l e s s a p p ro p ria te than f i r s t choices on e i t h e r f i e l d or le v e l o f choice co n tin u a . C onclusions ? I | F indings c ite d i n th e p rev io u s s e c tio n provide the i I b a s is f o r the co n clu sio n s p re s e n te d . l6 l 1. S tudents who s e le c t a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l f i e l d g o als have a tendency to s e le c t a p p ro p ria te vocational le v e l g o a ls. Low ac h iev ers do n o t show the same tendency and make f i e l d and le v e l choices which a re not r e la te d in ap p ro p riate n ess* S tudents who have low d iscrep an cy sc o re s between t h e i r id e a l f o r them selves and t h e i r m other’ s id e a l fo r them a lso have f i e l d choices which are u n re la te d to le v e l choices in t h e i r degree of a p p ro p ria te n e s s . 2. The a p p ro p ria te n e ss of s tu d e n ts 1 ch o ices when th e y s e le c t a v o c a tio n a l f i e l d i s u n re la te d to the amount of discrepancy in t h e i r s e l f concepts. 3. The a p p ro p ria te n e ss o f s tu d e n ts ’ choices when they s e le c t a v o c a tio n a l le v e l i s r e la te d to th e amount of d iscrepancy between t h e i r s e lf id e a l and t h e i r m other’ s id e a l fo r them. The amount o f d iscrepancy between o th e r s e l f concepts of stu d e n ts i s n o t r e la te d to t h e i r a b i l i t y to s e le c t a p p ro p ria te v o c a tio n a l le v e l g o a ls . Ij.. S tudents w ith high in te llig e n c e have a marked tendency to make more a p p ro p ria te o ccu p atio n al le v e l choices th an stu d e n ts w ith low in te lli g e n c e . I n te llig e n c e i s n o t r e la te d to a b i l i t y to make a p p ro p ria te f i e l d choices. I n t e l l i g e n t stu d e n ts a re no more p e rc e p tiv e o f v o c a tio n a l f i e l d g o als which are a p p ro p ria te f o r them than are i u n in te lli g e n t s tu d e n ts . j i S tudents in th e upper th re e socio-econom ic j s ta tu s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s make s ig n i f ic a n t ly more a p p ro p ria te 162 v o c a tio n a l l e v e l c h o ic e s th a n s tu d e n ts i n th e low er fo u r so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . The s t a t u s o f s t u d e n ts i s n o t r e l a t e d to t h e i r a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te o c c u p a tio n a l f i e l d c h o ic e s . S tu d e n ts i n th e u p p er th re e so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s l e v e l s who a r e low a c h ie v e r s make f i e l d c h o ic e s w hich a re low i n a p p r o p r ia te n e s s . 6 . High a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts and low a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r i n t h e i r a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te v o c a tio n a l f i e l d o r l e v e l c h o ic e s . S tu d e n t achievem ent i s r e l a t e d to th e ty p e o f in a p p r o p r ia te l e v e l c h o ic e s th e y te n d to make. High a c h ie v e rs d e m o n strate a te n d en cy to u n d e r - a s p ir e when t h e i r c h o ic e s a re in a p p r o p r ia t e w hile low a c h ie v e rs have a te n d e n c y to o v e r - a s p ir e when t h e i r c h o ic e s a r e in a p p r o p r i a t e . 7® When s tu d e n ts a re asked to subm it a second s ta te m e n t o f v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e t h e i r ch o ices o f f i e l d te n d to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s a p p r o p r ia te on th e second t r y . Ho such ten d en cy i s i n d i c a t e d w ith second s ta te m e n ts o f v o c a tio n a l l e v e l . S tu d e n ts ' s e l f c o n c e p ts , i n t e l l i g e n c e , achievem ent l e v e l , o r so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s a re n o t r e l a t e d t o second c h o ic e s w hich a r e more or l e s s a p p r o p r ia te th a n i t h e i r f i r s t c h o ic e s . 8 . The b e s t co m b in atio n o f v a r i a b l e s f o r th e p u r pose o f p r e d i c t i n g s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t y t o make a p p r o p r ia te f i e l d c h o ic e s in c lu d e s i n t e l l i g e n c e , so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s ,! and th e c o r r e l a t i o n between th e s e l f id e a l-m o th e r i d e a l c o n c e p ts . The m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o b ta in e d by com bining th e v a r ia b le s i s c o n s id e re d to o sm a ll f o r p r e d i c t i v e use in v o c a tio n a l f i e l d c o u n s e lin g . The m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n o b ta in e d by com bining th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r th e s e l f id e a l-m o th e r i d e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith i n t e l lig e n c e , ach iev em en t, and socio-econom ic s t a t u s i s c o n s id e re d la r g e enough to su g g e st prom ise f o r u se i n h e lp in g p r e d ic t s t u d e n t s ’ a b i l i t y t o s t a t e r e a l i s t i c v o c a tio n a l l e v e l c h o ic e s . Recommendations The stu d y has le d to th e d is c o v e ry o f f a c t o r s which may be of v alu e to th e sc h o o l c o u n se lo r in h i s r o l e as a p r a c t i t i o n e r as w e ll as h i s r o le as a s c i e n t i s t . E d u c a tio n a l Recommendations V o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lin g should be conducted so as to in c lu d e th e i n t r a - p e r s o n a l a s p e c ts o f c h o ic e . The o ccu p a t io n a l in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d th e s tu d e n t as p a r t o f h i s v o c a tio n a l guidance sh o u ld be made p a r t o f a p ro c e s s of c o u n s e lin g th e whole p e rs o n . The p e r s o n a l i t y a s p e c ts sh o u ld n o t be s e p a ra te d from th e in f o rm a tio n a l a s p e c ts of v o c a tio n a l c o u n s e lin g . A v a r i e t y o f v o c a tio n a l guidance s e r v ic e s should be p ro v id ed h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts . P e rso n a l c o u n s e lin g and sm a ll group c o u n s e lin g would, h e lp th e s tu d e n t u n d e rs ta n d th e p e r s o n a l a s p e c ts o f c h o ic e and b r in g to g e th e r im p o rta n t f a c t o r s w hich im pinge on h i s d e c is io n . V o c a tio n a l in fo rm a t i o n s e s s io n s would h e lp th e s tu d e n t o b ta in an u n d e rsta n d in g of th e fo c u s o f th e m ajor a c t i v i t i e s and ty p e s o f knowledge n eed ed i n d i f f e r e n t v o c a tio n a l f i e l d s , alo n g w ith a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f how h i s t r a i t s and a b i l i t i e s m ight compare w ith th e ty p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in v o lv e d i n th e s e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f w ork. Such in fo rm a tio n p e r io d s would a i d th e s tu d e n t i n b e t t e r com prehending th e f i e l d a s p e c ts o f c h o ic e as d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from th e l e v e l a s p e c ts o f c h o ic e . T e s tin g in s tru m e n ts p r e s e n t l y i n u se in th e g u id ance program sh o u ld be c o n tin u e d to be u se d and i n s t r u m ents d e s ig n e d to m easure th e n o n - c o g n itiv e f a c t o r s o f c h o ic e sh o u ld be added. S in ce i t was fo u n d t h a t s tu d e n ts who w ere from h ig h so cio -eco n o m ic c l a s s e s , who were above av e ra g e i n i n t e l l i g e n c e , o r who were above av e ra g e i n achievem ent had g u id an ce n ee d s d i f f e r e n t fro m th o se i n th e low er g ro u p s, i t i s recommended t h a t th e g u id a n ce program be o rg a n iz e d to meet th e i n d iv i d u a l n eed s o f th e s e groups o f s t u d e n t s . Inasm uch as low d is c re p a n c y betw een s t u d e n t s ’ i d e a l s f o r th e m selv es and. t h e i r p e r c e iv e d fa m ily i d e a l s f o r them i s r e l a t e d to t h e i r a b i l i t y to make a p p r o p r ia te 165 v o c a tio n a l le v e l choices, i t i s recommended th a t p a re n t- stu d e n t v o c a tio n a l counseling se ssio n s be provided by th e school. Such counseling would help the p a re n ts and s tu dents a d ju s t th e i r a s p ir a tio n s to a le v e l which i s ac ce p t ab le and agreeable to b o th . R esearch Recommendations F u rth e r re se a rc h should be undertaken to determ ine th e ex act n a tu re of the home and fam ily a t t i t u d e s which make i t easy or d i f f i c u l t fo r a stu d e n t to make a p p ro p ria te c a re e r d e c is io n s . To a s c e rta in the in flu en c e of r o le i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in v o c a tio n a l d e c isio n , f u r th e r choice a p p ro p ria te n e ss re s e a rc h should be conducted w ith tw e lfth grade boys employing the p erceived f a th e r id e a l concept as w ell as the p erce iv ed mother i d e a l concept. Choice ap p ro p riate n ess s tu d ie s should be perform ed which are n o t dependent upon paper and p e n c il t e s t s as c r i t e r i a of choice re a lism and in which statem en ts o f choice are c a re fu lly e l i c i t e d so as to o b ta in a d e f in itiv e resp o n se. R e su lts of th is re s e a rc h in d ic a te th a t a d d itio n a l re s e a rc h on choice ap p ro p ria te n e ss should be perform ed u t i l i z i n g a two-way v o c a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schema !whereby choices are judged as to ap p ro p ria te n e ss on both f i e l d and le v e l co n tin u e. 166 The c o n d itio n s u nder w hich v o c a tio n a l g uidance c o u n se lo r ..night b e s t be a b le to h e lp h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts m odify s e l f concept d is c r e p a n c ie s sh o u ld be in v e s tig a te d * An e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l group m ight be s u b je c te d to p r e - c o u n s e lin g an d p o s t- c o u n s e lin g s e l f co n cep t measurement* R e se a rc h sh o u ld be conducted on a lo n g it u d in a l b a s is to a s c e r t a i n th e changes i n th e s e l f co n cep t and i n v o c a tio n a l c h o ic e o v er th e y e a rs o f h ig h sc h o o l a t t e n d an c e. Due to th e p a u c ity o f r e s e a r c h and th e la c k of e v id en ce produced by t h i s s tu d y c o n c e rn in g th e way in which th e v a r i a b l e s employed i n guid an ce were r e l a t e d to th e a b i l i t y to make v o c a tio n a l f i e l d c h o ic e s , a f r e s h a p p ro ach to r e s e a r c h in t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s recommended. Such r e s e a r c h should endeavor to d eterm in e what d i f f e r e n t i n t e r - p e r s o n a l o r i n t r a - p e r s o n a l v a r i a b l e s a re r e l a t e d to a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f v o c a tio n a l f i e l d cho ice and c o u ld be u se d to complement th e u se o f i n t e r e s t t e s t s a s p r e d i c t o r s o f s u i t a b l e s tu d e n t v o c a tio n a l f i e l d o b j e c t i v e s . F u r th e r r e s e a r c h sh o u ld be c a r r ie d o u t t o r e f i n e th e Q -s o rt te c h n iq u e o r some o th e r s e l f concept m easure j f o r u se w ith h ig h sc h o o l l e v e l s tu d e n ts . A fo llo w -u p s tu d y o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n needs to |b e perform ed f o r th e fo llo w in g re a s o n s : ( 1 ) to d eterm in e jth e s t a b i l i t y o f th e s e l f c o n c e p t; ( 2 ) t o compare th e 167 r a t i n g of v o c a tio n a l ch o ic e s w ith a c tu a l job e n tr y , jo b - s a t i s f a c t i o n , and job su c c e ss; and ( 3 ) to stu d y i f th e s t a t e d c h o ic e s o f s tu d e n ts were r e l a t e d to th e v o c a tio n s a c t u a l l y s e l e c t e d . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A llp o r t, G. W * Becoming B asic C o n sid e ra tio n s f o r a Psychology o f P e r s o n a lity . New ifaven: Yale U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 195£* £88 PP* A n a s ta s i, Anne, P sy ch o lo g ical T e s tin g . 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R othney. ’’O ccu p atio n al C la s s i f i c a t i o n and R esearch R e s u lts ," P erso n n el and Guidance J o u r n a l, XXXVI (1958), ij.65-f|72. Riessraan, L, "G lass, L e is u re , and P a r t i c i p a t i o n ," American S o clo lo p ;ical Review, XIX (1954)» 76- 8i|_. Roe, Anne, "The P e r s o n a lity of A r t i s t s , " E d u c a tio n a l and P sy ch o lo g ical Measurements, VI (191*67Y ~~40 1 - Z j i r ________, The Psychology of O ccu p atio n s, New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c ., 1956. 34° PP* ________ , "A P sy ch o lo g ical Study o f Eminent B io l o g i s t s , " P sy c h o lo g ic a l Monographs, 65*331* 1951* ________. "A P sy ch o lo g ical Study of Eminent P h y sic a l S c i e n t i s t s , " G enetic P sy c h o lo g ic a l Monographs, XLIII (1 9 5 D , 212-239* ________ . "A R orschach Study o f a Group o f S c i e n t i s t s and T e c h n ic ia n s," J o u rn a l of C o n su ltin g P sy ch o l ogy, X (1946), 317-327. 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W ashington, D .C.: U nited S ta te s Government P rin tin g O ffic e, 1951* 166. S egal, S. J . ’’The Role of P e rs o n a lity F a c to rs in V ocational Choice; A Study of A ccountants and C re a tiv e W r ite r s .” U npublished D o cto ral d i s s e r t a tio n , U n iv e rsity of M ichigan, 1951+* ll+l PP* 167* S h a r tle , C. Lc O ccupational In fo rm a tio n . New York: P re n tic e -I ia ll, I n c ., 19^2. 1 +2f? pp. 168. S h e rif, M,, and H. C a n tr il. The Psychology of Ego Involvem ent. New York: W iley and Sons, I n c . , 1947. ^ 2^ pp. 169* Sm all, L. ’’P e rs o n a lity D eterm inants of V ocational C h o ice,” P sy ch o lo g ical Monographs, LXVII (195>3), No. 351. 170. _____ L. G. Sweat and B. Von A rnold, P e rs o n a lity ; ifeods as D eterm inants of V o catio n al Choice and i T h e ir R e la tio n sh ip to School and Work Achievement.! New Yoric: V ocational A dvisory S e rv ic e , 1955» i p . 233 i n Super, Donald. The Psychology o f j C a re e rs. New York: Harper and B ro th e rs, 1957* j 3&2 pp. 171. 172 . 173. 17ij.. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 1 8 1 + S m ith, G. M. “ S ix M easures o f S e lf C oncept D is crep a n cy and I n s t a b i l i t y ; T h e ir I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , R e l i a b i l i t y , and R e la tio n s to O ther P e r s o n a lity M easu res," J o u rn a l o f C o n s u ltin g P sy ch o lo g y , XXII (1 9 5 8 ), 101-119* Snygg, D„, and A. ¥ . Combs. I n d iv id u a l B e h a v io r. New Y ork; H arp er and B ro th e rs , 19^9. 386 p p . S p a r lin g , E . Do C o lle g e S tu d e n ts Choose V ocations W is e ly ? New Y o r k : T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e C o n t r ib u t io n s t o E d u c a t io n , N o . 5 6 l, 1933* HO PP* S te a d , W. H. and C. L. S h a r tle . O c c u p a tio n a l Coun s e lin g T e c h n iq u e s. New Y ork: Am erican Book C o., 19l+0l 273 p p . S te in b e rg , A. "The R e la tio n o f V o c a tio n a l P re fe re n c e to E m o tio n al A d ju stm e n t," E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ents, X II (1 9 5 2 ), 9 6 -lQ li• S t e p h e n s o n , R ic h a r d M. " R e a lis m o f V o c a t i o n a l C hoice; A C r itiq u e and an E xam ple," P e rso n n e l and G uidance J o u r n a l, X X X V (1957)» I + H 2 - 1 +8 8 . S tep h en so n , W illia m . "The In v e n te d F a c to r Tech n iq u e ," B r i t i s h J o u rn a l of P sy ch o lo g y , XXVI (1 9 3 6 ), 3 W -8 lo ________. The Study of B e h a v io r: 0, T echnique and I t s M ethodology. C hicago: U n iv e r s ity o f C hicago P re s s , 1953* 37& PP* S te v e n s, N . D ., and R . Hoppock. "H igh S chool C ourses in O c c u p a tio n s ," P e rso n n e l and G uidance J o u r n a l, XXXIV (December, 1 9 5 5 )/ 213. S to n e , H aro ld C. "Are V o c a tio n a l O r ie n ta tio n C ourses W orth T h e ir S a lt? " E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ents, V III ( I 9I +8) , lb 1 - l 81 • S to rd a h l, K. E. "The S t a b i l i t y o f S tro n g V o c a tio n a l j I n t e r e s t Blank P a tte r n s f o r P re -C o lle g e M ales." i U n p u b lish ed D o c to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f M innesota, 1953* l )+8 pp. S tro n g , E . K ., J r . "Perm anence o f I n t e r e s t S co res Over Tw enty-tw o Y e a rs ," J o u rn a l o f A p p lied P sy ch o lo g y , X X X V (1 9 5 1 ), 89“91* 185 183* S tro n g , E. K ., J r . V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s 18 Y ears A fte r C o lle g e . M in n e ap o lis: U n iv e rs ity of M innesota P re s s , 1955* 207 PP* l 8lu . V o catio n al I n t e r e s t of_ M an and Women. FaTo A l'to, C a lif o r n ia ’ : S ta n fo rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 191+3* 7l+9® PP* 185* S tu b b in s , Joseph* "Lack of R ealism in V o ca tio n al C h o ice," O c c u p a tio n s, XXVI (A p ril, 191+8), l4 .lO-Ij.l8* 186. 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"V o c a tio n a l A djustm ent; Im plem enting a S e lf-C o n c e p t," O cc u p atio n s, X X X (1951)* 8 8 -9 2 . 192. * The P sychology of C a re e rs . New Y ork: H arper and B ro th e rs , 1957* 3^2 pp. 1 9 3 . , John C o ates, Raymond Hummel, H elen Moser, Phoebe O v e rs tre e t and C h a rles W arnath. V ocational D evelopm ent, a Framework f o r R e se a rc h . C areer P a tte r n Study Monograph One. New Y ork: T eachers C o lleg e , Columbia U n iv e rs ity , 1957* li+2 p p . 19l+* Symonds, P. M. The Ego and th e S e l f . New Y ork: A p p leto n -C en tu ry C r o f ts , 1951* 229 PP* 186 19S- 196. 197. 198. 199. 2 0 0. 2 0 1. 2 0 2. 203. 20l).. T an zer, W a lte r A. " V o c a tio n a l Choice and P e rs o n a lity A S tudy o f th e R e la tio n s h ip of P e r s o n a lity to C hoice o f V o c a tio n a l F ie ld and A s p ira tio n L e v e l." U npublished D o c to ra l d is s e r ta tio n * how York U n iv e r s ity , 19^6. 92 pp. T ra v e rs , R. M . W. "A C r i t i c a l Review of th e V a lid ity and R a tio n a le of th e F o rced C hoice T ec h n iq u e ," P sy c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n . XLVIII (1 9 5 D , 62-7 0 . T h u rsto n e , L. L ., and E. J . Chave. The M easurement o f A t t i t u d e . C hicago: U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P re s s , 1929. 96 pp. Trow, W , C, "P h an tasy and V o c a tio n a l C h o ice," O c c u p a tio n s, X X (November, 19^.1 ) , 89-93* W arner, L loyd, M archia M eeker, and K. E e ls . S o c ia l C la ss in A m erica. C hicago: S cien ce R e sea rc h A s s o c ia te s , 19^9* 27i|. pp. W hite, R. W. L in es in P ro g re s s , A Study o f th e N a tio n a l Growth of P e r s o n a li ty . New Y ork: Dry den P re s s , 1952. 378 p p . W o lfle, D. " F a c to r A n a ly sis to 19)4 .0 ," P sy ch o m etric Monograph. C hicago: U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago P re s s , No. 3 , I 9I 4 .O. 69 p p . W oolf, M aurice D ., and Jeanne A. W oolf. "The Case of th e T ire d R e a d e r," The P e rso n n e l and G uidance J o u r n a l, XXXII (1 9 5 5 ), 29^ - 9 6 . ~ Wrenn, C. G ilb e r t. " I n te l lig e n c e and th e V o c a tio n a l C hoices o f C o lleg e S tu d e n ts ," E d u c a tio n a l R eco rd , XVI ( A p ril, 193 5 ), 217-219. Youmans, G ra n t. " S o c ia l F a c to rs in th e Work A ttitu d e s and I n t e r e s t s o f T w elfth Grade M ichigan; B o y s," J o u rn a l of E d u c a tio n a l S o c io lo g y , XXVIII ( S ept em ber, 195^ ) , 35 ”^-8 . APPENDIX A Self-C oncept Inventory (Q -sort) ....................... 188 Q -sort P o ld er ..................................................................... 190 Q -sort Answer Sheet ................................................... 191 T a lly S h e e t ........................................................................192 188 SELF-CONCEPT INVENTORY Random Number S tatem en t. (Each statem ent r e p r e se n ts a card*) 1* I obey my p aren ts most o f th e tim e . 2* I am a lea d er i n sch o o l a c t i v i t i e s . 3* I am seldom c r i t i c a l o f o th er p e o p le . lu I'm slow to fo r g iv e p eop le I'm mad a t , but f i n a l l y d o . 9* I'm a fr a id o f making m istakes* 6* I tak e p a r t in sp o r ts or clu b a c t i v i t i e s a t sch ool* 7 . Teachers d o n 't seem to l i k e me* 8* I g e t alon g w e ll w ith my fr ie n d s* 9* Sometimes my p a ren ts are annoyed w ith me, 10* I'm u s u a lly on tim e fo r my c la s s e s * 11* I need to d evelop more s e l f con fid en ce* 12* I'm kind o f lou d or n o isy a t tim es* 13* I know how to stu d y . li;* I save some o f my money f o r th in g s I need or want* 1 9 . I ’m co n sid ered about average in th e th in g s I do* 16* I spend too much tim e stud ying* 17* I'm in t e r e s t e d i n cu rren t even ts* 18* I d o n 't l i k e e x e r c is e . 19* I u s u a lly do what I'm to ld but v ery l i t t l e e x tr a . 2 0 , When som ething b ig or im portant i s about to happen, I fin d i t hard to go to s le e p a t n ig h t r ig h t away* 2 1 . I c a n 't keep my mind on my s t u d ie s . 2 2 , I li k e to go on p ic n ic s , 23* I 'd ra th er p la y games than s i t around and w atch them. 2Lj.. I w ould n't want to be younger than I am now. 29* I'm stron ger and h e a lth ie r than most k id s my a g e . 26* I w ish th a t I w ere as happy as o th ers seem to b e . 27* I d on 't mind s c h o o l. 2 8 . I lik e anim als* 29. I'm courteous even when peop le are d is a g r e e a b le , 3 0 . I d o n 't th in k my p a ren ts t r u s t me* 3 1 . I'm r e s t l e s s i n c la ss * 3 2 . I h e s it a t e to speak up i n c la s s * 33* M y p aren ts l e t me d ecid e many th in g s fo r m yself* 3l|* I'm p r e tty much l i k e th e r e s t o f the kids<> 39* I li k e to do more than my share o f th e work. 36. I have a g rea t d ea l o f co n fid en ce in my a b i l i t i e s * 37* I fin d i t hard to g et acq u ain ted w ith k id s I 'd l i k e to have fo r fr ie n d s* 38. Our fa m ily has always had a l o t o f fu n togeth er* 39* I'm e a sy to p le a se* llD* My p a ren ts compare me w ith o th er k id s too much, ijl* I t a lk over p erso n a l problem s w ith my f r ie n d s , 1[2, I d o n 't gp o u t o f my way to h elp o th e r s , k3* I have good p ostu re* I need advice on what to do after high school. I«m about average in looks# I like to wear bright colors. I feel lonely even when I’m with people* I sometimes can't help breaking into a conversation, I am invited to parties that the kids have, I have definite tasks or chores to do at home. -------- I'd rathej' play gam es tliar sit •round m < watch then. 1 can't ke«p m y m ind on i(y studies. 'l / Z c*?r<A w t s f ///e . I talk .over personal jroblems viith ny friends. I an in'itrd to parties test the kids have. — * V I'm preti like the the kids I find ltju n get ncquedhd 6 with kids pyrt to hove f I like to picnics/ 1 lik i w ear )loro. v to study I need t m rre sel * dence. I don’t m ini tevcl^p onfi- I obey w y m ost of ih us even « r* dlBAfreJftl U 0 y iiu ch re>t of ------- I Q ' poronts o nporo no with otho- kids too m uoh. * > I a m a leider in a chool kclivities. > C c c l r d s :'n usually I for ny clHso 1 « ^ < in tir.o is. V I don' t ;o if ly w ay t i o th » » r n « out of iclp f I a m aeldoii critical I of other pwple. I 6 I'm eon!i<W*< ) about a' eiage i* 1 the thi'«> I d* * fr lends Teachers ^tefci't seem to like school. parents time. e n c c I sava son i ra o n o y for I need o• of m y K ings ■ ant. 1 w ouldn bo younger a m now . "_^sn 't W ant to ar than I I have good posture. I like anlaals. J - Som etim es parents with m e es njr arm a uw yed * I Cur fartil; always h . o f fun toi S let et her. I feel loifely even w h an II'm with people, —*• I have ddf: nite tasks or Jcl ores to do at|hi r.e, I I'm stroi healthira m ost k i< ft g T and than ly age. — "s re svless in ■las <> I'm kind < f loud or noisy *.t times. 1 don't i: exercisi , ke I usually]d I'm told pu i little emr w hat very 1t. I'm easy 1 1 please. I'm abou in looks iverage I wish t! as h ap p ; seem to h a b bi I w ere others I get alon) m y friends i ell with \ 6 ca .rcU T fh en som ot important happen, I herd to go . «V night ri| c aw ny. E hig or about to I'm int eurmnt < rested in sv ints. I h c s ita t I rreak up , o .n c la s s . I'm < m isti I t spo tiv I don't tl parents |t: M n k m y t m e. S ~ ■^T i I need . t .vice on 7 ^ what to !> a f t e r ! high s c s o il. Z U : 190 r w s f in iies. 0 c & r J s J L id X d o exereisi X usual I 'd told littlo V T h e n so m o t! Important happen, I hard to go *T night r Mg or ut to I 9 C c^T< z { s y I like t< * d ) m ore than m y r h j r e d the v c rk . forgive m ad at, do. I ' d slow people ] hut final I'D afraid.o mistakes. I m aking I'm int< rested in eurmnt ev > nts» K? parents Jet decide nai for mysel: I h c s ita t i to rrea k up .nj c la ss m e things I take par> in sports or ill b ac tivities a i i chool, I'm ab o rA . e v e rage in looks! I wish ths t 1 w ere a s happ; ’ I B others seem to hr, X don't think ny parents 1? 1st m e nd I get along i ell with m y friends. go. \ C c a r d s Na^ie: 1 — I 0 M % , 0 0 1 fH x! C 3 3 0 H 0 C O U W Q-SORT ANSWER SHEET H H M I C O C O j i 1 p3 H ( J EH CO O n n t— j EH CO a H cv u\ vo r> - 191 a 1 —1 0 P - i H u J i - n E h c o E H C O < ' 1 a a a H F h E H C O P C O < - R t— H C\i cn ua mO t>- H C\i irv \u TILLY SHEET I II III DIFFERENCES CARD CATEGORY CARD CATEGORY CARD CATEGORY CARD I-II II-III 1 . 1* 1* 1 . _ _ _ _ _ 2 . 2 . 2. 2 . ‘ 3 . _ _ 3® ___ 3« _ _ _ _ _ 3 . _ _ _ _ _ U. U. h» U. 5 . “ 5 . 5* | . ___ ___ 6 * 6* 6 . 6* ___ 7 . 7 . 7 . 7 . 8 . 8 . 8o 8 . 9. 9. ~ ~ 9. 10 . 10. 10. 10. 1 1 . ■ “ ““ 1 1 . 13.. 1 1 . ___ ___ 12. 12. 12. ' 12. 1 3 . 1 3 . ~ 1 3 . 1 3 . lit.. lL ) .» lit-. lit* ___ 1 5 . — 15. “ 1 5 . “ 1 5 . 16. 16. 16. ! 6 . 1 7 . 1 7 . 1 7 . 1 7 . ___ 1 8 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . 1 9 . — ___ 20. 20. 20. 20. 21. 21. 21. “ 21. 22. 22. “ 22. ~ 22. ~ 2 3 . 2 3 . ~ 2 3 . 2 3 . 21 *. 2l|.. 2ij.« 24. 2 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . ‘ 2 5 . ~ 2 6 . 26. 2 6 . 2 6 . _______________ 2 7 . 27. 2 7 . 2 7 . 28. 2 8 . 2 8 . 2 8 . 29 . 29 . 29 . 2 9 . 3 0 . ‘ 3 0 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 3 1 . 3 1 . 3 1 . 3 1 . 3 2 . 3 2 . 3 2 . 32 o 1 : = 2 2 : = i i : = 2 2 : 3 5 . — 3 5 . ~ 3 5 . “ 3 5 . 36. 36. 360 3 6 . 3 7 . 3 7 . 3 7 . 3 7 . 3 8 . 3 8 . 3 8 . 3 8 . 39 . 3 9 . ~ 3 9 . “ 3 9 . ItO. 1*0. 1*0. IjO. 1*1. jll. _ _ _ _ _ |*i* _ [ *! • 1*2. 1*2. 1*2. — 1*3. ~ 1*3. U3. 1*3. lilt.. Itli.* 1*1*. ItU. lt-5. ~ U5. ~ 1*5. ~ 1*5. 1 * 6 . I j .6 . 1 * 6 . 1 * 6. 1*7. U7- 1*7. 1*7. 1*8. — 1*8. US. ~ 1*8. 1*9. ___ U9 • _ _ _ _ _ 1 * ^ • _ _ _ _ _ ^ * 5 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 5 0 . 192 I - I I I APPENDIX B Q-sort Administration Instructions to Students. . . Student Questionnaire on Career Choice........... Questionnaire Administration Instructions to Students. ................................. 19U Q-SORT ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS T O STUDENTS—SELF SO RT M y name i s Mr* Fairweather and th is i s Mr0 Moses* W e are from th e U n iv ersity o f Southern C a lifo r n ia . The U n iv e r sity and your sch ool are cooperatin g in a resea rch p r o je c t. As sen io rs o f th is high sch ool you have been s e le c te d to take p a rt in t h is p r o je c t. W e hope to d iscover by use o f the new instrum ent which we have p laced in your hands a d iffe r e n t kind o f inform ation about how stu d en ts se e th em selves. I t w i l l h elp ex p la in why stu d en ts make c e r ta in typ es career c h o ic e s . This in form ation i s to help you and fu tu re high sch o o l stu d en ts to make se n sib le v o ca tio n a l d e c is io n s . You have been handed a fo ld e r and a bundle o f $0 c a rd s. The $0 cards con tain statem ents which may or may not d escrib e you depending on how you se e y o u r s e lf. During the next few hours you w i l l be asked, to arrange the 5 > 0 statem ents about y o u r se lf th ree tim es according to d iffe r e n t s e t s o f d ir e c tio n s . F ir s t you w i l l arrange the item s on the fo ld e r so th a t th ey d escrib e you as you se e y o u r se lf now, not as you would lik e to b e . Open th e pack and look a t some o f th e ite m s. The numbers on th e back a re fo r use in s t a t i s t i c s and have a b so lu te ly nothing to do w ith the arrangement o f th e sta tem en ts. As you look a t the statem ents you may f e e l somewhat h e sita n t to say th at a c e r ta in item d escrib es you or does not d escrib e you. I t i s natu ral th a t you might f e e l h e sita n t to express your tru e op in ion s i f you th in k th a t o th ers w i l l fin d out about them. You might w ish to know th a t t h is need not concern you now. A ll statem ents you arrange w i l l be turned in to numbers and th e p la ce you put any s in g le statem ent w i l l never be known. The statem en ts as arranged by you must be a ccu ra te, h o n est, and according to d ir e ctio n s given because t h is i s a s c i e n t i f i c p r o je c t. Your f i r s t ch o ice or im p ression i s u su a lly th e b e s t and tr u e s t answer. Do not spend a lo t o f tim e p u zzlin g over each statem ent as you are perm itted to rearrange item s as o fte n as you w ish . I t probably w i l l not take longer than 30 minutes fo r th e s o r t . You can f e e l fr e e to ask q u estion s a t any tim e. You have as much tim e as you need. On each card you have th ere i s a statem ent which you are to con sid e r as a statem ent about y o u r s e lf. I t i s e ith e r li k e you or i t i s not l i k e you. The id ea i s to arrange th e item s on th is fo ld e r so th a t th ey d escrib e you. You p la ce th e cards under the c lip s lik e t h i s . (D em onstrate). You p la ce the two statem ents which are most lik e you in th is top b lo c k . (D em onstrate). The s ix statem ents you are to p la c e in th e n ext block are to be next most li k e you. These nine statem ents are to be next most lik e you and so fo r th on down to th e two statem ents which are the le a s t lik e you a t th e bottom . The s ix te e n statem ents in the middle are not as much lik e you as th ese a t th e top nor as le a s t lik e you as th ese down h ere. The arrangement o f th e cards w ith in th e b locks i s not a t a l l im portant. The im portant th in g i s to be sure th a t the cards in b lock number th r e e , fo r example, are a l l more li k e you than any o f th e cards in b lock number fo u r. 195 Remember, this is not a testo There are no gradese You can move the cards from one block to another as you go along if you think the change is necessary. When you have finished the whole arrangement should describe you as you really are. Are there any questions? 196 Q-SQRT ADMINISTRATION INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS— S e lf Id e a l S o rt Today we are going to arrange the cards on the folder according to a different set of instruction than those we gave you for the last sort. Every person has some kind of idea about how he would most like to be if he overcame all his personality weaknesses. This time we would like you to arrange the statements so that they describe an ideal person. The statements will be sorted so that the two statements which best describe how you would most like to be will be placed in this top box. The six statements which are next most like your ideal for your self will be placed in this second box. In each successive box the statements will be less like the person you would ideally like to be as you work down toward the bottom box. It will contain the two state ments most unlike how you would like to be. Remember, the order in which you place the statements within a box is not important. It is important that all of the statements in the upper box are more like the ideal you than any of the statements in the boxes below it. You may shift the statements from one block to another as often as you wish until you picture yourself as you would like most to be. Are there any questions? 197 Q-SORT ADM I'D : STRATI O I'J INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS—M other Id e a l S o rt This time we will sort the cards on ,the folders according to a different set of directions than last week. Today we want to get the picture of what your mother would like you to be. You will arrange the statements so that they describe you as your mother would like you most to be, her ideal for you. The statements are to be arranged so that the two statements which best describe how your mother would like you to be will be placed in this top box. The two which are most unlike how your mother would like you to be will be placed in the bottom box. The six state ments next most like the mother ideal for you will be placed here in this box and so forth on down. The order you put the cards within a box is not important. It is only important that you rank each box with statements that are more unlike what your mother would like you to be as you work down toward the bottom. You may shift the items as often as you like until you get the picture just as you think your mother would like you most to be. Are there any questions? 198 STU D EN T QUESTIONNAIRE O N C A R E E R C H O IC E 1. Name : A ge:____ School Print Last Name F ir st 2. Address: 3. L iving w ith : (check one) Father: Mother Both STOP AN D W A IT FO R INSTRUCTIONS 4 . F a th er's Occupation:___________ Kind o f work 5 , M other's Occupation: Kind of work STOP AND WAIT FOR INSTRUCTIONS 6* What kind of work do you expect to do during your adult life? 7. '.What will be the major duties of such a job? 8. Reasons for your choice are: 9. How much education will you need? 10. What other obstacles will you have to overcome to get into this kind of work? 11. Are finances available for you to obtain the kind of education you need? 12. What is the second choice for your life's work? 13» What is your high school major?__________Previous major if changed?____________ 14. What subjects have you liked most in high school? First choice:__________________ Second choice:____________________ 15. What subjects have you liked least in high school? 16. List school activities you participate in. 17. List your out of school activities and hobbies: 18. What kind of jobs have you had? (part time, vacation, etc.) 19. Do you prefer working by yourself or with others? 20. When you have finished your work and can do whatever you want, what do you do? 21. I want this information to be given to my school counselor to help me in my choice of a life's work. Yes No____ QUESTIONNAIRE A D M I NI STRATI O N INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS This questionnaire is to he filled out to help a group of voca tional counselors estimate the appropriateness of your choice of career. If you want the information on this form made available to your school counselor so he can help you in choosing your career check "yes” on item no. 21. If you check "no" the questionnaire will be destroyed after its use by the vocational counselors studying your choice. Are there any questions? You will notice that your questionnaire tells you to stop after filling out the first three questions and to wait for further instruc tions. Start now and fill out the first three questions. Be certain to print your name putting your last name first. Are there any ques tions? Question no. 4 on your father's occupation must be answered very carefully. State his position as specifically as you can. For instance, if your father is an engineer tell what his duties are, not what company he works for. Be careful to describe the kind of work he actually does. If your father is not living with you, please give the occupation of the head of your household. Are there any questions? If not, complete questions 4 and 5 and stop and wait for instructions before answering question no. 6. Question no. 6 about the kind of work you plan to do in your adult life is the most important question on the sheet. State the kind of work you believe you will actually be doing in adult life. If you plan on entering military service or college state the kind of work you will do after this time. If you plan to make military service a career please state the branch and answer the other questions in the same way you would if you were going to take a civilian job. Be careful to state what you will be doing as you understand it now, not what you would like to do if circumstances were different for you. Are there any questions? Complete the remainder of the questionnaire. APPENDIX C Student Information Sheet......................... 201 Instructions to the Judges....................... 202 Two-way Classification of Occupations. ...... 203 Rating Sheet..................................... 2 0 1 } . { 201 STUDENT INFORMATION SHEET 1. Name_____________________ Sex_ School Last First 2. Race__________________ Language spoken in the home 3* Grade average______________________________________ Highest subject_____________________Lowest_________________ (visual inspect io'nj 4. I.Q. Test________________________________________________Grade_ Test________ Lang._______Non Lang.________ Ave.______ Grade Test________ Lang._______Non Lang.________ Ave.______ Grade_ 5. Achievement test_______________ Result_________________ Grade_ Test________ Results___________________________ Grade_ Test________ Results__________ Grade_ 6. Aptitude test___________________Result__________________ Grade_ 7. Interest test___________________Results________________ Grade_ 8. Other tests______________________________________________Grade_ 9. Additional information: 10. Teacher comments: ! 2 0 2 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE JUDGES You are asked to rate the appropriateness of the student's vocational choices on two continuums: (l) field of choice and (2) level of choice. Roe's "Two-Way Classification, of Occupations" has been provided you to serve as a basis upon which you will rate the appropriateness of choices. You have been given the "Student Ques tionnaire" which includes his stated vocational choice, reasons for it, what he expects the daily work to consist of, and other career data. In completing the questionnaire, students were instructed as follows in stating their vocational choice: "State the kind of work you believe you will actually be doing in adult life. If you plan on entering the military service as a career, please state the branch and answer the other questions in the same way you would if you were going to take a civilian job. Be careful to state what you will be doing as you understand it now, not what you would like to do if circumstances were different." Rate the appropriateness of the student's choices in terms of field and level by checking the appropriate squares on the scales pro vided. Criteria which will be central in the rating process will be: (l) the degree of opportunity the student seems to have to actually enter the vocation selected in terms of the educational background, socio-economic status, and father’s occupation, (2) ability and aptitude to perform the type of tasks required in this work, (3) achievement to date in school and in actual working situations, (4) inventoried and stated interests, (5) student understanding of and information about the work which he has chosen, and (6) personality factors. You are to choose other criteria when applicable to individ ual cases. In rating the appropriateness of choice, a "1" rating is given when no fields seem more appropriate than the one chosen and when all or nearly all other fields are less appropriate. A "2" rating is given when some fields seem more appropriate, but most fields seem less appropriate. A "3" rating is given when the judge can not determine whether or not a greater number of appropriate fields are above or below the choice of the student. A ”4" rating is given when most other fields seem more appropriate than the student's choice, but some seem less appropriate. A ' ’5" rating is given when all or nearly all fields seem more appropriate and none seem less appropriate than the student's choice. The same criteria as stated above for field of choice will also be applicable for level of choice. T a b l e 11.3. T w o - W a y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f O c c u p a ti o n s Group Levrl I. Service II. Business C ontact I II. O rganiiation IV. T echnology V. Outdoor V II. Science V II. General C ultural V III. A rts and E n tertainm ent 1 P er»onil thersplsU Social w o rt luper- v u ori Counselors Prom oters U nited States Presi dent and Cabinet officers ' Industrial tycoons i International ' b ank en In ven tive geniuses C onsulting C onsulting or chief i specialists .engineers Ships' com manders i Research scientists U niversity, college (acuities M edical specialists M useum curator. Suprem e Court Justices U niversity, college (acuities Prophets Scholars C reative artists Performers, great T eachers, univer sity equivalent M useum curators SocisJ workers Occupation*] ther- ip u b i Probation, truant officers (w ith training) Prom oters Public relations counselors | Certified public i accountants j Business and govern- t m ent executives 1 Union officials , Brokers, average Applied scientists Factory managers Ships' officer* Engineers A pplied scientists L andow ner. and operator., large Landscape arcbi- tect. S cientists, sem i- _ independent N urses Pharm acists Veterinarians Editors T eachers, high schdol and ele m entary A thletes A rt critics D esign er, M usic arrangers S Y M C A official* D etective*, police sergeants W elfare workers C ity inspectors Salesm en: auto, bood, insurance, etc. D ealers, retail and wholesale Confidence men I A ccountants, aver- 1 W : E m ploym ent man- ager. 1 Owners, catering, j dry-cleaning, etc. Aviators C ontractors Forem en (D O T I) Radio operators C ounty agents F irm ow ner. Forest ranger. Pish, fam e wardens T echnicians, medi cal, X -ray, m useum W eather obeervers C hiropractor! Justices erf the Peace R adio announcer. R eporters Librarians Ad writers D esign er. Interior decorators Showm en 4 Barbers Chefs Practical nurses Policemen Auctioneers Buyers (D O T I) H ouse canvassers Interview ers, poll | Cashiers i Clerks, credit, e i- j preas, etc. » Forem en, ware- 1 house | Saleaclerkj B lacksm iths E lectricians F o re m e n D O T H ] M echanics, aver- T Laboratory testers, dairy products, etc. M iner. Oil well driller. Technical assist ants Law clerks A dvertising artists D ecorators, w indow , etc. Photographers R acing car d riv en 5 T a ii d riven General house- workers W aiters C ity firemen Peddlers j Clerks, file, stock, 1 etc. ; N otaries j Runners j T ypists B ulldoter opera tor* D eliverym en Sm elter workers Truck drivers Gardeners Farm tenants T eam ster., cow . puncber. M iner’s helper. V eterinary hospital atten d an ts Illustrators, greet in g cards Showcard writers Stagehands Cham ber maids H ospital attendants 1 Elevator operators 1 W atchm en | ! M essenger boys i l l l D airy hands Farm laborers Lumberjacks N ontechnical helpers i i scientific organisation 2 0 3 2014- rating SHEET Student: __________________________ Schools (Print Last Name) (First) First Choice Vocations_____________________ Fields_____ Levels_____ . Field Level Total 1. A most appropriate choice_______________________ _____ _______ _______ 2. Appropriate, but not a most appropriate choice ____________ _______ 3. Questionable appropriateness____________________ _____ _____ _____ 4. Inappropriate, but not a most inappropriate choice _ _ 5. A most inappropriate choice_____________________ _____ _______ _______ More appropriate fields: (l)_____________________(2)_____________________ More appropriate levels s (l)__________ __________________________________ Second Choice Vocations Field: _ Level: _____ Field Level Total 1. A most appropriate choice_____________________________ ______________ 2. Appropriate, but not a most appropriate choice__________________________________________ _____ ______________ 3. Questionable appropriateness____________________ _____ _______ _______ 4. Inappropriate, but not a most inappropriate choice______________________________________________________ _______ 5. A most inappropriate choice_____________________ _____ _______ _______ More appropriate fields: (l)___________________ (2)____________________ More appropriate levels: (1)_____________________ (2)____________________ Vocational possibilities: (l)___________________ (2)____________________ Judge: APPENDIX D Data Summary Sheet.......... Student Report Form ..... 206 DATA. SUMMARY SHEET Nam© School Appropriateness of Field First Choice Appropriateness of Level Appropriateness of Field_ Stated Choice of Field Second Choice _______ Appropriateness of Level Stated Level of Choice I.Q. ________ (Highest intelligence test after the third grade) Achievement___________ (Latest achievement test) Socio-economic status___________ (Warner etc.) "Q" Sort I-II Z Score I-II I I - I I I II-I1I I-I1I I-II1 r U 207 STUDENT REPORT FORM STUDY USING THE Q-SORT AS A PREDICTOR OF THE APPROPRIATENESS OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE (Senior Students of the Inglewood High School - 1958-59) Student's Name:_____________________________________________Period:_______ Judges Composite Rating ox appropriateness of vocational field: ______ Judges Composite Rating of appropriateness of vocational level: ______ i Correlation Results: The Self Concept as related to the Ideal Self Concept: ______ The Self Concept as related to the Mother Ideal Concept: ______ The Ideal Self Concept as related to the Mother Ideal: ______ Vocational Possibilities: Not enough information was available to form a basis of judgment: Information was conflicting or otherwise inadequate for judgment: Further counseling and clarification appears to be called for: APPENDIX E Correlation Matrix. . . . . IN T E R C O R R E L A T IO N M A T R IX 1 2 3 h 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Appropriateness of Field 1 st choice (1) Appropriateness of Level .3li+ 1 st choice (2) Appropriateness o f Field 2nd choice (3) •37+ .11 Appropriateness of Level 2nd choice (ii) -•Ol* .11 .27* Stated Level (5) -*33+ -.1>6+ -.17 -.07 .25* In t e l l i gene e (6) .19 •33+ .08 .13 .66+ Achievement (7) .17 .12„ .08 .00 •33+ .36* Socio-Economic Status (8) - 9oU .30" .12 -.07 .lil+ .53+ Self-S elf Ideal Q-sort values (9) -.12 -.08 .06 .09 .23* .05 .12 .00 Self Ideal-Mother Ideal .27* .28* Q-sort values (10) -.06 .06 .12 •Uo+ .31* .32^ o37+ Self-Mother Ideal Q-sort values (11) -.1 2 -.08 .Oil .11 •33+ .19 .08 .05 .82+ ,3 1 + N O TE: Q-sort values were computed by the use of F isher’s Z. Significant a t the < > 0 5 le v e l of confidence. "^Significant a t th e *01 l e v e l o f confid en ce* r v > o o

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Asset Metadata

Creator Fairweather, Paul D. (author)

Core Title The Appropriateness Of Field And Level Of Vocational Choice As Related Toself-Concepts, Intelligence, School Achievement, And Socioeconomic Status

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Carnes, Earl F. (committee chair), Brackenbury, Robert L. (committee member), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member), Michael, William B. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-55365

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Identifier 6000559.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-55365 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6000559.pdf

Dmrecord 55365

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Fairweather, Paul D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA