University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Sex-Role Preferences Of Early Adolescents In Relation To Adjustment

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Sex-Role Preferences Of Early Adolescents In Relation To Adjustment

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Content T h is d is s e r ta tio n h a s b e e n M ic 6 1 -1 7 1 0 m ic r o film e d e x a c tly a s r e c e iv e d W E B B , A llen Paxil. SE X -R O L E P R E F E R E N C E S O F EA R L Y AD O LESCEN TS IN RELATIO N TO A D JU ST M EN T . U n iv e r sity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia P h .D ., 1961 P sy c h o lo g y , c lin ic a l University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan SE X -R O L E P R E F E R E N C E S O F EA R LY A D O LESC EN TS IN RELATIO N TO A D JUSTM ENT by A lle n P a u l Webb A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n te d to the FA C U L T Y O F THE G RADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of the R e q u ir e m e n ts fo r the D e g re e DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY (P sy ch o lo g y ) Jan u ary 1961 UNIVERSITY O P SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ClItADUATK SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANOELES 7. CALIFORNIA This dissertation, written by under the direction of hi^....Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of AUen. Paul. .Webb D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Date. January...1.961 DISSERTATION COMM T o My W ife D oroth y 1 ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS A ll d o c to r a l c a n d id a tes f e e l an in d e b te d n e ss to m an y p eop le: th e ir f a m ilie s , th e ir te a c h e r s , th e ir fe llo w stu d e n ts, and th e ir fr ie n d s , a ll of w hom in so m e m e a su r e con trib u te to the s u c c e s s f u l c o m p letio n of the c a n d id a te 's d o c to r a l p ro g ra m . F o r m y part I should lik e e s p e c ia lly to e x p r e s s m y a p p re c ia tio n to the m e m b e r s of m y d is s e r ta tio n c o m m itte e who o ffer ed fr ie n d ly c o u n se l and c o n str u c tiv e c r it ic is m w hich m ad e c o m p letio n of th is p r o jec t p o s s ib le . It w a s a lw a y s w ith a good fe e lin g that I le ft a c o m m itte e m e m b e r 's o ffic e . I sh ould a ls o lik e to g iv e r e c o g n itio n and thanks to the te a c h e r s and a d m in is tr a to r s of the ju n io r high s c h o o l w h ere the d ata fo r th is study w ere c o lle c te d . U n d er m y a g r e e m e n t w ith the sc h o o l d is tr ic t I am unable to id en tify th e s e in d iv id u a ls by n a m e, but th is in no w ay d im in is h e s the gratitu d e I f e e l to them fo r th e ir w illin g and in v a lu a b le a s s is t a n c e . F in a lly , it w as the u n flin ch in g su p p ort of m y w ife , D oroth y, that m ade it p o s s ib le fo r m e to c a r r y the d o c to r a l p ro g ra m on to c o m p le tio n . It i s hoped that th is d is s e r ta tio n w ill be a u s e fu l co n trib u tio n to the u n d ersta n d in g of the a d o le s c e n t, and that in so b e in g it w ill be a trib u te to m y w ife 's con tin u ed fa ith . iii T A B L E O F CO NTENTS A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S ................................... C hapter I. BACKGROUND O F THE STUDY B io -P h y s ic a l F a c to r s C u ltu ral F a c to r s P sy c h o lo g ic a l F a c to r s E d u cation al F a c to r s The P s y c h o lo g ic a l V ariab le Ilf. THE P R O B L E M ......................... Survey of the L itera tu re Sum m ary of L iter a tu r e R ationale of P r e s e n t Study S tatem en t of the P ro b le m H y p o th eses III. M E T H O D ........................................ Subjects In stru m en ts P ro c ed u r e S ta tistic a l P r o c e d u r e s and A n ticip ated R e su lts IV . R E S U L T S ..................................................................................... S ta tistic a l D e sc r ip tio n of the M easu rin g In stru m en ts T e s ts of the H y p o th eses A d d ition al P e r tin e n t D ata V . D IS C U S S IO N .......................................................................................... F ir s t H y p o th esis Second H y p o th esis T h ird H y p o th esis S u ggested A r e a s fo r F u r th e r R e se a r c h iv P age i ii 1 11 32 45 60 C h ap ter Pagej V I. SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S IO N S ............................................... 89 M ethod R e su lts C o n clu sio n s R E F E R E N C E S ......................................................................................................... 75 A P P E N D IX E S A ppendix I: F a c s im ile of R eco rd B o o k let C ontaining the F e m in in ity S ca le and the C h ild ren ’s M a n ifest A n xiety S c a l e ................................................................... 80 A ppendix II: F a c s im ile of the C la ss r o o m S o c ia l D ista n ce S c a l e ................................................................................ 85 1 ge 35 36 37 46 49 53 53 55 55 56 56 LIST OF TABLES A ge and In te llig e n c e of H igh and L ow A n x ie ty G roup S u b jects U sed fo r T e s tin g the F ir s t H y p o th e sis . . . A ge and In te llig e n c e of H igh and L ow S o c ia l A c c e p ta n c e G roup S u b jects U sed fo r T e s tin g th e Second H ypothe s i s ........................................................................................... A g e and In te llig e n c e of H igh and Low A b se n c e G roup S u b jects U sed fo r T e stin g the T h ird H y p o th esis . . . F e m in in ity S c a le M ean s and Standard D e v ia tio n s fo r the D iffe r e n t G rade L e v e ls and fo r B o y s and G ir ls S e p a r a t e l y ........................................................................................... A n x ie ty S ca le M ean s and Standard D e v ia tio n s fo r the D iffe r e n t G rade L e v e ls and fo r B o y s and G ir ls S e p a r a t e l y ........................................................................................... A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e of F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow A n x ie ty B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e l s ..................... A n a ly s is of V a ria n ce o f F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and Low A n x iety G ir ls at T h re e G rade L e v e l s ..................... A n a ly s is of V a ria n ce of F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow S o c ia l A c c e p ta n c e B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e l s ...................................................................................................... A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e of F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow S o c ia l A c ce p ta n ce G ir ls at T h ree G rade L e v e l s ...................................................................................................... A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e of F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow A b se n c e B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e l s ..................... A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e of F e m in in ity S c o r e s o f H igh and L ow A b se n c e G ir ls at T h ree G rade L e v e l s ..................... vi C o m p a riso n of M ean F e m in in ity S cale S c o r e s by T e st: H igh and Low A n xiety B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e ls . LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS F ig u r e P a g e 1. F r e q u e n c y P o ly g o n Show ing P e r C en t of S u b jects R e c e iv in g the In d icated S c o r e s on the F e m in in ity S c a le of the C a lifo r n ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v en to ry . . 47 2. F r e q u e n c y P o ly g o n Show ing P e r C en t of S u b jects R e c e iv in g the In d icated S c o r e s on the C h ild re n ’s M a n ifest A n x ie ty S c a l e ............................................................. 50 v iii 1 C H A PTER I B ackground of the Study T h is study h a s a s its p u rp ose the in v e stig a tio n of p o ssib le r e la tio n sh ip s b etw een ap p rop riate s e x -r o le c h o ic e s and s e v e r a l v a r i a b le s c o n sid e r e d a s in d ic a tiv e of ad ju stm en t in the m atu rin g in d ivid u al. The fo c u s of atten tion w ill be on the e a r ly a d o le sc e n t y e a r s , rou gh ly, a g e s 12 through 15. T h is s o -c a lle d “ age of tu r m o il” i s a p eriod when p a r e n ts, e d u c a to r s, p h y sic ia n s, p s y c h o lo g is ts, s o c io lo g is ts , and e s p e c ia lly the a d o le sc e n ts th e m s e lv e s are co n cern ed with the profoundly im p ortan t p h y sic a l and e m o tio n a l ch a n g es taking p la c e. What fo llo w s is a c o n sid er a tio n of s e v e r a l a sp e c ts of s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t in a d o le sc e n c e . F ir s t , th ere w ill be a b r ie f in trod u ction to the p h y sic a l fa c to r s . T h is w ill be fo llo w ed by an in trod u ction to the c u ltu r a l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l im p lic a tio n s and the ro le p layed by e d u c a tio n . The ch a p ter w ill conclu de w ith a sta te m en t regard in g the need fo r studying s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . B io -P h y s ic a l F a c to r s E a r ly in h is life the ch ild le a r n s that th e re are a n a to m ica l d iffe r e n c e s b etw een b o y s and g ir ls . He a ls o le a r n s that the g e n ita l 1 2 o rg a n s are a r e a s of p le a su r e and, a s a r e s u lt, he fo c u s e s c o n sid er a b le atten tion on h is own and o th e r p e o p le ’s sex u a l o r g a n s. H o w ev er, u n til the ch ild i s about age 9, the a n a to m ica l d iffe r e n c e s do not req u ire the s e x e s to d iffe re n tia te th e m s e lv e s in r e s p e c t to p h y sic a l a c tiv itie s o r s e x ro le (T h om p son , 1946; H avigh u rst, 1953). W ith the o n set of the p u b ertal grow th c y c le at a d o le s c e n c e , a s e r ie s of en d o crin e ch a n g es o c c u r s w hich d e te r m in e s the c o u r se of adult se x u a l c h a r a c te r is tic s and adult p h ysiq u e. D u ring puberty g ir ls d evelop fa s te r than b o y s. F o r in sta n c e , g ir ls a r e m o r e m atu re than b o y s b etw een the a g e s of about 10 and 16. In fa c t, g ir ls are a ctu a lly la r g e r than b o y s, on the a v e r a g e , at the age of 13. In g e n e r a l, b o y s lag behind g ir ls a y e a r o r tw o u n til age 16 when they continue th e ir grow th c y c le w hile g ir ls have u su a lly rea ch ed th e ir adult height (G e s e ll, Ilg , and A m e s, 1956; H a v ig h u rst, 1953; T an n er, 1955; T h om p son , 1946). T h ere is c o n sid er a b le v a r ia b ility in the a g e s of b egin n in g and end of the p u b erta l grow th c y c le . The age of g r e a te s t v a r ia b ility of p h y sic a l s iz e and p h y sio lo g ic a l d evelop m en t i s about 13. T h ere i s a ls o g r e a t v a r ia b ility in the d u ration of the c y c le w hich m a y be exten d ed o v e r se v e n or e ig h t y e a r s fo r so m e and m a y be c o m p r e ss e d into fou r y e a r s fo r o th e r s (H avigh u rst, 1953). C u ltu ral F a c to r s The A m e rica n cu ltu re e x p e c ts d iffe r e n c e s in b eh a v io r of b o y s 3 and g ir ls and la y s th e se e x p e c ta tio n s on the ch ild e a r ly through the a g en cy of the fa m ily . T h ese sa m e e x p e cta tio n s are la te r e n fo rc ed by the p e e r c u ltu r e . Som e w r ite r s (B row n, 1958; E r ik so n , 1950; K om arovsk y, 1953; M ead, 1949; Sew ard, 1945; 1956) f e e l that th e se d iffe r e n c e s are not a s g r ea t a s th e y on ce w e r e . The o b ser v a tio n h a s b een m ade th at th is is an age of tra n sitio n fo r w om en . F o r e x a m p le , the tra d itio n a l A m e rica n fe m a le ro le c a lle d fo r g ir ls to s e le c t on ly “ g ir l” to y s , be r e str a in e d and neat in th e ir p la y . G ir ls w ere taught to be dependent and m o re e m o tio n a lly d em o n stra tiv e than b o y s. G ir ls have tr a d itio n a lly b een given l e s s opp ortu nity fo r ind ep en dent a ctio n . N ow , h o w ev er, g ir ls w ear s la c k s and o v e r a lls , fo r m e r ly a badge of m a sc u lin ity . G ir ls a re now en co u ra g ed to e x c e l in a th le tic s , to do a s w e ll a s b o y s a c a d e m ic a lly , go to su m m er ca m p , and ev en p rep are fo r a w a g e -e a r n in g c a r e e r . M ore and m o r e , g ir ls have b een urged to im ita te m en . T h is m ea n s that the a d o le sc e n t g ir l of today is under l e s s p r e s s u r e to adopt the tra d itio n a l fem in in e r o le . Som e of them can now c h o o se to be ind ep en dent, to go into b u s in e s s or a p r o fe s sio n , to be m a r r ie d w ithout b eco m in g m o th e r s , to do a n u m ber of th in g s w hich would have been im p o s s ib le , o r at le a s t un popular, in an e a r lie r day. With the t r a d itio n a l and the m o d ern p a ttern s of r e a r in g g ir ls both p r e se n t in our day, it is not su r p r isin g that r o le co n fu sio n h as b een noted (E r ik so n , 1950; K o m a ro v sk y , 1953). 1 W hile it m ig h t s e e m that th e c u ltu r a l p r e s s u r e s a r e p r im a r ily upon g ir ls , it h a s o ften b e e n o b s e r v e d that b o y s a r e b ein g con fron ted w ith a r o le -d e v e lo p m e n t p ro b lem (G o r e r , 1948; G r e e n , 1952; W inch, 1952). F o r e x a m p le , the m a jo r r o le played b y the m o th e r in ch ild r e a r in g i s b e lie v e d by so m e to lea d to e m o tio n a l h a z a r d s fo r m id d le - c la s s b o y s b e c a u se id e n tific a tio n w ith th e m o th e r c r e a te s in th em doubts a s to th e ir m a s c u lin ity . S im ila r ly , it h a s b een sa id (G reen , 1952) that our m eth o d s of ch ild r e a r in g c r e a te in c h ild r e n of both s e x e s e m o tio n a l d ep en d en cy and s u b m is s iv e n e s s . W hile su ch a ttitu d es a r e c o n s is te n t w ith the tr a d itio n a l id e a l of fe m in in ity , th ey c o n flic t w ith o u r d em an d s on b o y s to be c o m p e titiv e and a g g r e s s iv e . P s y c h o lo g ic a l F a c to r s F r e u d 's c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n of s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t i s r e la te d d ir e c tly to h is fo rm u la tio n of the d y n a m ic s of the O ed ip a l situ a tio n and the a s s o c ia te d id e n tific a tio n p r o c e s s e s . B eyon d th is , h o w e v e r , i s an e v e n m o re b a s ic te n e t of p sy ch o a n a ly tic th e o r y . A c c o r d in g to F reu d e v e r y in d iv id u a l i s b orn w ith a c o n stitu tio n a l b is e x u a lity o r p r e d is p o s i tio n to both m a sc u lin ity and fe m in in ity . It is the r e la tiv e str en g th of th e se m a sc u lin e and fe m in in e d is p o s itio n s that i s h y p o th e siz e d to p la y the k ey r o le in e a r ly child hood o b je ct c h o ic e s and id e n tific a tio n s (F r e u d , 1935). In g e n e r a l, the F re u d ia n d e v e lo p m e n ta l se q u en ce a s it p erta in s to s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t i s a s fo llo w s: A t an e a r ly age th e m a le ch ild fo r m s an o b je c t-c a th e x is to h is m o th e r and an id e n tific a tio n with h is fa th e r . T h e s e r e la tio n sh ip s e x is t co m p a tib ly u n til the ch ild i s about fo u r w hen h is s e x u a l w is h e s reg a r d in g the m o th e r b e c o m e m o re in te n se and th e fa th e r i s r e g a r d e d a s an o b sta c le to w ish fu lfillm e n t. T h is situ a tio n g iv e s r is e to the O ed ip u s c o m p lex w h erein the ch ild e n t e r ta in s w is h e s to g e t rid of h is fa th e r in o r d e r to have the m o th e r to h im s e lf . T he o v e r t con ten t o f a p o sitiv e O ed ip a l situ a tio n i s an a m b iv a len t attitu d e tow ard the fa th e r and an o b je ct r e la tio n sh ip o f a p u r e ly a ffe c tion ate natu re to the m o th e r . T he se x u a l w is h e s tow ard the m o th e r r e p r e s e n t an im p o rta n t r e p r e s s io n the ch ild m u st m ak e (F re u d , 1935). T he r e so lu tio n of the O ed ip a l p rob lem i s brou gh t about w hen the boy g iv e s up the o b je c t-c a th e x is to h is m o th e r . T h is ca n b e a c c o m p lish e d e ith e r by an id e n tific a tio n w ith the m o th e r o r an in te n sifie d id e n tific a tio n w ith the fa th e r . The la tte r a lte r n a tiv e i s c o n sid e r e d m o r e n o r m a l in that it p e r m its an a ffec tio n a te r e la tio n sh ip w ith the m o th e r to con tin u e w hile at the sa m e tim e c o n so lid a tin g m a sc u lin ity in the b o y ’s c h a r a c te r . W ith little g ir ls the situ a tio n i s r e v e r s e d and the O ed ip a l tr ia n g le c o n s is t s of the m o th e r ’s b ein g p e r c e iv e d a s a s e x u a l r iv a l fo r the fa th e r . T he c h a r a c te r is tic r e so lu tio n i s an in te n sific a tio n of the id e n tific a tio n w ith the m o th e r and a r e su lta n t fe m in in e c h a r a c te r m o ld . T h ere a re so m e g ir ls w ho, a fte r r e lin q u ish in g the fa th e r a s a lo v e o b je c t, w ill b rin g th e ir m a sc u lin ity in to p ro m in en ce and id en tify 0 w ith the fa th e r in ste a d of the m o th e r. T h is is sa id to be d eterm in ed by the stren g th of the g ir l’s m a sc u lin e p r e d isp o sitio n . W ith the o n se t o f puberty and a d o le sc e n c e we have the age of the fin a l e sta b lish m e n t of a dom inant p o sitiv e s e x r o le . W hen F reu d pu b lish ed h is T h ree C on trib u tion s to a T h eo ry of Sex in 1905, he v iew ed a d o le sc e n c e a s the tim e when the ch a n g es s e t in w hich give childhood se x u a l life it s fin a l sh a p e. Subordination of the e r o to g e n ic z o n e s to the p r im a cy of the g e n ita l zo n e, the se ttin g up of new se x u a l a im s , d iffe re n t fo r m a le s and f e m a le s , and the find in g of new se x u a l o b je c ts o u tsid e the fa m ily w ere lis te d a s the m ain p sy ch ic e v e n ts of the a d o le sc e n t p erio d . The p sy c h o lo g ic a l ta sk in puberty is the adaptation of the p e r so n a lity to co n d itio n s w hich have b een reaw ak en ed by p h y sic a l c h a n g e s. T h e se c o n d itio n s a r e thus new in r e s p e c t to th e ir c o n tex t, but not in r e s p e c t to th e ir b a sic s o u r c e . T h ey a r e , in e s s e n c e , s im ila r to the e x p e r ie n c e s of the p eriod of childhood se x u a lity and of the O ed ip us c o m p lex , but th ey are g r e a tly e x a g g er a te d by the dem an d s of a p h y sio lo g ic a lly b a sed g e n ita l d r iv e . A g e n e r a l r e s u lt of th is is the a d o le s c en t’s w ell-k n ow n se x u a l an xiety. A c co r d in g to F e n ic h e l (1945, p. I l l ) , se x u a l d ev elo p m en t in puberty “ s e e m s to s e t in again ju st at the point at w hich it w as ab an doned at the tim e of the r e so lu tio n of the O ed ip us c o m p lex . B e fo re the in c e stu o u s b in d in gs are r e so lv e d , an in te n sify in g of the s tr iv in g s of the O ed ip us co m p lex r e g u la r ly o c c u r s .” T he a d o le sc e n t’s f e a r s and gu ilt are sa id to be con n ected w ith the O ed ip al p rob lem and ex p la in why he is h o s t ile tow ard and fe a r fu l of h is in s tin c ts . A n a ly sts blam e the p r e se n t w e ste r n cu ltu re fo r th is state of a ffa ir s b e c a u se sa tisfa c to r y , n o n in cestu o u s se x u a l e x p e r ie n c e s are denied the a d o le sc en t w ith a lm o st the sa m e v ig o r a s are in c e stu o u s e x p e r ie n c e s . T he r e su lt i s the p r o lon gin g of puberty u n til the ind ivid u al i s able to a c ce p t h is se x u a lity a s a part of life . P u b erty i s o v e r c o m e , then, when se x u a lity is w orked into the p e r so n a lity . D istu r b a n c e s in th is sp h ere account fo r th ose c a s e s w hose r e p r e s s io n s a re so s e v e r e a s to c a u se o v e r t b eh a v io ra l and c h a r a c te r o lo g ic a l p r o b le m s. E d u cation al F a c to r s The auth or’s p r e se n t em p loym en t a s a p sy c h o lo g ist w orking w ith a d o le sc e n ts in a m o d e ra te ly la rg e sc h o o l d is tr ic t has g iv en him an opportunity to ex a m in e the place o f ed u cation in d ev elo p in g in a d o le s c e n ts ap p rop riate se x r o le s . E d u cation can, and in m any in sta n c e s h a s, played an im p ortan t part in h elp in g the a d o le sc e n t to f e e l co m fo rta b le about h is d evelop in g se x u a l id en tity . S e v e r a l e x a m p le s are rea d ily ap p aren t. F ir s t , b e c a u se of the p h y sic a l ch a n g es that are taking place in the a d o le sc e n t, sc h o o ls are r e g u la r ly tea ch in g b io lo g y or h ygien e with m uch s t r e s s on b od ily ch a n g es and the n o rm a lity of v a r ia b ility . In c r e a se d e m p h a sis i s a ls o b ein g p laced on grouping by s iz e and a p h y sic a l m a tu r ity in p h y sic a l ed u cation c la s s e s . A s a secon d e x a m p le, th ere i s an e v e r -in c r e a s in g e m p h a sis on guidance and c o u n selin g fo r se co n d a r y sc h o o l stu d en ts. T h is i s g iv in g a d o le sc e n ts an opportunity to think through and gain a ccep ta n ce of th e ir r o le w ith the h elp of an adult m o d e l. S im ila r ly , te a c h e r s are b ein g m ade m o re cogn izan t of the e m o tio n a l n e e d s o f a d o le sc e n ts and the im p ortan ce of a ccep tin g a d u lts a s m o d e ls . T e a c h e r s often p lay an im p ortan t part in the p r o c e s s of * ‘p sy c h o lo g ic a l w e a n in g .” A n a ttr a c tiv e w om an te a c h e r g iv e s b o y s a point of attach m en t a fte r th ey break fr e e fro m th e ir m o th e rs and b e fo re they b eco m e d eep ly attach ed to a g ir l of th e ir own g e n era tio n . A young m an te a c h e r d o e s the sa m e fo r a g ir l. T he w om an te a c h e r i s a lso a r o le m o d e l fo r the g ir l to id en tify with ju st a s i s the m a le te a c h e r a m o d e l fo r the b oy. A th ird exam p le o f the p lace of ed u cation can be found in the in c r e a s in g n u m b ers of high sc h o o l p sy ch o lo g y c o u r s e s w hich s t r e s s b o y -g ir l r e la tio n sh ip s and p rep a ra tio n fo r m a r r ia g e . T h e se c o u r s e s o ffe r a n sw e r s to m an y a b e w ild e re d stu dent and c la r ify what s o c ie ty e x p e c ts of the adult. G en er a lly sp eak in g th e se ad d ition s to the c u r r ic ulum o ffe r the a d o le sc e n t a place fo r c la r ify in g what m a y be co n fu sed •without n e c e s s a r ily u n co v erin g o r probing into h is fe e lin g s of h e lp le s s n e s s . The P s y c h o lo g ic a l V ariab le The m a jo r v a r ia b le w hich w ill be stu d ied in th is d is se r ta tio n i s s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e in the e a r ly a d o le sc e n t. F o r the p u rp o ses of the p ap er, s e x r o le w ill be defin ed a s fo llo w s: . . . r e f e r s to th o se p sy c h o lo g ic a l c h a r a c te r is tic s and b e h a v io r a l p a ttern s that a r e ty p ic a l of one s e x in c o n tr a st to the o th er s e x . T he s e x r o le of a p e r so n c o n s is ts o f the b eh a v io r that is s o c ia lly d efin ed and ex p ected of that p e r so n b e c a u se of h is o r h e r sta tu s a s a m a le o r fe m a le . (B row n, 1958b, p. 232) P r e fe r e n c e in th is d is s e r ta tio n r e fe r s to “ the ten d en cy to adopt the s e x r o le of one s e x in c o n tr a st to the o th er s e x , the fo r m e r b ein g p e r c e iv e d a s m o r e d e sir a b le and a ttr a c tiv e ” (B row n, 1958b, p. 237). The study w ill be r e s tr ic te d to an in v e stig a tio n of the e ffe c ts of s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s w hich a re not ap p rop riate to the cu ltu r a lly d eterm in ed s e x r o le . T he s p e c ific co n cern is with the r ela tio n sh ip of s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e to p sy c h o lo g ic a l, s o c ia l, and ed u ca tio n a l in d ic e s of ad ju stm en t. The au th or’s e x p e r ie n c e in w orking with a n u m ber of d istu rb ed young a d o le sc e n ts w hose p ro b lem s of se x u a l id en tity are acu te h as stren g th en ed h is co n v ictio n that s e x r o le is a c r u c ia l p e r so n a lity v a r ia b le d e se r v in g of c o n sid e r a b ly m o re r e s e a r c h . A t the seco n d a ry sc h o o l le v e l the p sy c h o lo g ic a lly o rien ted guidance w ork er n e e d s m uch taiore so p h istic a tio n in the a r e a of ev a lu a tin g stu d en t e m o tio n a l p rob le m s . He a ls o n eed s ad d ition al in sig h ts into h elp in g the a d o le sc e n t b e c o m e co m fo rta b le w ith h is s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t. It is hoped that th is study can contrib ute u se fu l in fo rm a tio n in p u rsu it of th e se 10 p r o b le m s. The r e le v a n c e of and need fo r r e s e a r c h of the n atu re to be rep o rted h e r e w a s a ls o su g g e ste d to the author by two a r tic le s by D a n ie l G . B row n (1957; 1958b). B row n sta ted that the ap p a ren tly flu id sta te of the s e x r o le s of in d iv id u a ls m a y be m ak in g sig n ific a n t ch a n g es in the tr a d itio n a l c o n c ep tio n s of m a s c u lin ity and fe m in in ity in our s o c ie ty . O ne of the im p o rta n t im p lic a tio n s fo r r e s e a r c h su g g e ste d by B row n w as the n eed to in v e stig a te how th e se s e x ro le c h a n g e s m a y be a ffe c tin g the life ad ju stm en t of in d iv id u a ls. F u r th e r , a p a r tic u la r need fo r m o re in te n siv e stu dy of c h ild re n and the r e la tio n of s e x ro le to age w a s c ite d . F in a lly , the n eed fo r th is stu d y is p erh ap s b e s t su m m ed up in the fo llo w in g q u otation fro m B row n: The a c q u isitio n by the ch ild of n o r m a l s e x - r o le b e h a v io r i s a fu n d am en tal a s p e c t of to ta l p e r so n a lity d ev elo p m en t and a d ju st m en t. T h er e a re tw o m a jo r r e a s o n s why a b e tte r u n d erstan d in g i s n eed ed of the p r o c e s s by w h ich a little g ir l c o m e s to adopt the fe m in in e r o le and le a r n s how to be a “ w om an ” and a little boy c o m e s to adopt the m a sc u lin e r o le and le a r n s how to be a “ m a n .” O ne r e a so n i s th e o r e tic a l and the o th er i s p r a c tic a l. W hile th e r e i s an abundance of sp e c u la tio n , b a se d la r g e ly on a d u lts, c o n c er n in g the nature and d y n a m ics of s e x - r o le a d ju stm en t, r e v ie w s of the lite r a tu r e on s e x d iffe r e n c e s sh ow an a lm o st c o m p le te a b se n c e of stu d ie s that s p e c ific a lly d e a l w ith the p rob lem of s e x - r o le d e v e lo p m en t in c h ild r e n . T he p r a c tic a l n eed fo r data in th is a r e a c o m e s fr o m the in c r e a s in g r e c o g n itio n b y w o r k e r s in c lin ic a l p sy ch o lo g y and p sy c h ia tr y that d iffic u ltie s o r d is to r tio n s in s e x - r o l e a d ju s t m en t ap p ear to be fu n ctio n a lly r e la te d to the o c c u r r e n c e of p e r s o n a lity m a la d ju stm e n ts and c e r ta in fo r m s of e m o tio n a l d is o r d e r s . T h is s u g g e s ts a d ir e c t lin k b etw een ch ild h ood le a r n in g and d e v e lo p m en t in s e x - r o le b e h a v io r and adult p e r so n a lity d is tu r b a n c e s . (B row n , 1957, p. 197) 1 C H A PT E R H T he P r o b le m S u rvey of the L ite r a tu r e W hile th e re a re a n u m b er of stu d ie s d e a lin g w ith the m a s c u - lin ity -fe m in in ity d im e n sio n a s it r e la te s to adult ad ju stm en t, th e re is r e la tiv e ly little r e s e a r c h exam ining s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s and a d ju st m e n t in ch ild h ood . T w o n otab le e x c e p tio n s a r e stu d ie s b y M acD onald (1938) and G ray (1 9 5 7 ), both of w hich w ill be r ev iew ed la te r . U nder the b r o a d e r c la s s ific a tio n of s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t and d iffe r e n tia tio n in c h ild r e n th e re i s an abundance of s tu d ie s , m o st of w h ich have b een c a r r ie d out in th e p a st ten y e a r s . T h e se w ill c o n stitu te m o st of the r e s e a r c h to be d is c u s s e d b elo w . In ad d ition to the e x p e r im e n ta l stu d ie s w h ich w ill be c ite d , th e re have a ls o b een s e v e r a l e x c e lle n t r e v ie w s of the lite r a tu r e . T e rm a n and M ile s 's book (1936) r e p r e s e n ts one of the p io n e e r e x p lo r a tio n s in th is fie ld . M ore r e c e n t are the r e v ie w s by Sew ard (1946; 1956) and the a r tic le by B row n (1958b). The s tu d ie s w hich a r e d is c u s s e d b elo w have b een se p a r a te d in to th r e e g r o u p s. O ne group r e p r e s e n ts the r e s e a r c h w hich h a s d e a lt w ith e a r ly s e x - r o le d iffe r e n tia tio n . The seco n d group of stu d ie s d e a ls m o r e s p e c ific a lly w ith the p r e a d o le sc e n t and a d o le sc e n t y e a r s . T he 11 12 fin a l group i s co n c er n e d w ith stu d ie s of s e x - r o le d e v e lo p m en t in r e la tio n to a d ju stm en t. T h is se e m e d a co n v en ien t w ay of c la s s ify in g the lite r a tu r e f o r r e v ie w b e c a u se of the n atu re o f the r o le s h ifts w hich have b e e n noted to o c c u r in the a d o le sc e n t in c o n tr a s t to th e ch ild and the ad u lt. S tu d ies of E a r ly S e x -r o le D iffe r e n tia tio n M o st a u th o rs a r e in a g r e e m e n t th at c h ild r e n le a r n to d is tin g u ish a n a to m ic a l d iffe r e n c e s in the s e x e s at about age th r e e (G e s e ll, Ilg , L e a r n e d , and A m e s , 1943; H a v ig h u rst, 1953; S ew ard , 1946; T h o m p so n , 1946). R e se a r c h h a s a ls o su g g e s te d that ch ild re n b e g in to m ak e a d iffe r e n tia tio n b etw een m a sc u lin e and fe m in in e s e x r o le s at a s lig h tly la te r a g e . M o st r e c e n t su p p o rtin g e v id e n c e fo r th is la tte r h y p o th e sis w a s o ffe r e d by C onn (1951) in h is stu dy u sin g c h ild r e n 's p la y a ttitu d es and gam e p r e fe r e n c e s a s c r it e r ia . Conn found the n o t-to o -s u r p r is in g r e s u lt that b o y s at a ll a g e s in e a r ly child hood p r e fe r v e h ic le s and to o ls a s p la y th in g s w h ile g ir ls p r e fe r d o lls and d o ll a c c e s s o r ie s . B o y s a ls o s e e m e d r o u g h e r and m o re p h y s ic a lly e x p r e s s iv e than g i r l s . T h e se r e s u lt s w e re c o n s is te n t w ith the e a r lie r fin d in g s of V an A lsty n e (1932) and G e s e ll, e t a l. (1 9 4 3 ). T he in flu e n c e of p a r e n ts in the c h ild 's s e x - r o le d iffe r e n tia tio n w a s e x p lo r e d in a c o m p r e h e n siv e stu d y by S e a r s , M a cco b y , and L e v in (1 9 5 7 ). U sin g e x te n s iv e q u e s tio n n a ir e s r e g a r d in g c h ild -r e a r in g 13 p r a c tic e s , the au th ors in te rv iew ed the m o th e r s of 379 c h ild r e n who w ere b e in g stu died at the L a b o ra to ry of H um an D e v elo p m e n t, H arvard U n iv e r sity . Im portant am ong the c o n c lu sio n s w ere the follow in g: T he s e x o f h e r ch ild p r o v id e s an im p ortan t stim u lu s to a m o th e r . It p la c e s the ch ild in a s o c ia l c a te g o r y that h a s en o r m o u s im p lic a tio n s fo r tra in in g . She know s the m an y d iffe r e n c e s in ro le that apply to the two s e x e s ; sh e h a s e x p e c ta n c ie s that a r e con gru en t w ith th e se r o le s . E ven by the age of f iv e , the ch ild e li c i t s so m e kinds of b eh a v io r fr o m the m o th e r that a re d ir e c t r e s p o n s e s to the fa c t of the c h ild 's b ein g a boy o r a g ir l. T he m o th e r s' d is c u s s io n s of th is r o le d iffe r e n tia tio n m ade c le a r , h o w ev e r, that th ere a re w ide d iffe r e n c e s am ong m o th e r s in the e x te n t to w h ich se x of the ch ild in flu e n c e s h e r in the c h ild 's e a r lie s t y e a r s . F u r th e r m o r e , th ere w e re not in c o n sid e r a b le d if fe r e n c e s am ong the m o th e r s in ju st what w a s to be e x p e c te d in te r m s of s e x r o le . Sex of the c h ild , in oth er w o r d s, i s a stim u lu s to the m o th er that in s tig a te s a w hole s e t o f p attern ed c h ild -r e a r in g p r a c tic e s , but the p a ttern s are by no m e a n s p e r fe c tly u n iform fo r a ll m o th e r s . (S e a r s , e t a l., 1957, p. 419) The au th ors go on to con clu d e that it w ould be an u n w ise p r a c tic e to stu d y the r e la tio n s b etw een ch ild r e a r in g and p e r so n a lity d ev elo p m en t by m ea n s of in v e stig a tin g p a ttern s r e la te d to s e x of the c h ild . In stea d , th ey su g g e st data of th is nature be u sed fo r fo rm u la tin g new h yp oth e s e s . T he S e a r s stu dy su ffe r s fro m a m a jo r p itfa ll, h o w e v e r . The auth ors m ake broad g e n e r a liz a tio n s w hich are b a sed upon a n o to r io u sly w eak r e s e a r c h d e v ic e , the su b jectiv e q u e stio n n a ir e . In an oth er in v e stig a tio n w hich touched upon a ttitu d es of p aren ts that m igh t m ake a d iffe r e n c e in b o y s' and g ir ls ' in t e r e s t s , G oodenough (1957) stu d ied c h ild r e n fro m a g e s tw o through fiv e y e a r s . The a u th o r's c o n c lu sio n s su g g e ste d that p a r e n ts' e x p e c ta tio n s of 14 s e x -ty p e d d iffe r e n c e s in th e ir ch ild re n a re su ch a s to prom ote the m o re p e r so n a l o r ie n ta tio n of the fe m a le , and the m ore o b je c tiv e , l e s s p e r so n a l o rien ta tio n of the m a le to the en v iro n m en t. G ir ls fro m two y e a r s of age through fou r a lre a d y s e e m e d to have a g r e a te r in te r e s t in p e r so n s than did b o y s of the sa m e a g e s . G oodenough’s d ata a lso su g g e ste d that the fa th e r h a s g r e a te r in te r e s t in s e x d iffe r e n c e s than the m o th e r, and h en ce e x e r ts str o n g e r in flu en ce in g e n e r a l se x -ty p in g , and th at the m a le ch ild is n a r r o w er in h is se x -ty p in g than the fe m a le c h ild . T h e se la tte r r e s u lts a re again su b je ct to the sa m e c r it ic is m a s w as le v e le d a g a in st the S e a r s fin d in gs; n a m ely , th ey w ere d e r iv e d fro m su b je ctiv e in te r v ie w s w ith the p a ren ts and thus w ere su b ject to c o n sid e r a b le b ia s . In te r m s o f the c la r ity of th e ir p e r c e iv e d s e x r o le s , b o y s and g ir ls ex h ib it so m e ad d ition al im p ortan t d iffe r e n c e s . The study by S e a r s, e t a l. (1957) in d ica ted that w hile the peop le around a boy e x p e c t him to be m a sc u lin e in a ll w a y s, the g ir l’s r o le is m uch m o re fle x ib le . The g ir l, h o w e v e r , m a k e s an id e n tific a tio n w ith an adult fe m a le fro m the sta r t and i s th e r e fo r e in a p o sitio n to m o d e l h er b eh a v io r in a s e x - ap p rop riate fa sh io n w hen n e c e s s a r y . The e v id en ce in the Sears* study s e e m s to in d ica te that b o y s have a m o re d ifficu lt d ev elo p m en ta l p ro b lem at age s ix . W hile havin g m ad e a sa tis fa c to r y id e n tific a tio n w ith an adult at an e a r ly a g e, th is adult w as a fe m a le and not ap p rop riate a s a s e x - r o le m o d e l. B o y s w ere thus found to be l e s s fu lly id en tified at age 19 s ix w ith th e ir fa th e r s than g ir ls w ere w ith th e ir m o th e r s and th ey had a l e s s co m p lete id en tifica tio n w ith the se x -a p p r o p r ia te adult r o le . Y et b o y s w ere ex p ected to be m o re m a sc u lin e than g ir ls w e re fe m in in e ! F a u ls and Sm ith (1956) stu d ied s e x -r o le lea r n in g in a group of f iv e - y e a r - o ld s . B y m ea n s o f a s e r ie s of a ctio n p ic tu r e s o f ch ild re n , the au th ors had th e ir su b je c ts resp on d to the p ic tu r e s in reg a rd to s e x u a l a p p ro p ria te n e ss of the a c tiv itie s fo r the adult m a le and fe m a le , and fo r b o y s and g ir ls . A m ong the c o n c lu sio n s draw n in th is stu d y w as that th ere w a s a la ck of c le a r d efin itio n o f a s e x r o le in the c a se of fem a le c h ild re n . It w as a ls o conclu ded that ch ild re n p e r c e iv e th e ir p a ren ts a s in d o ctrin a tin g them into the ap p rop riate se x r o le . F in a lly , the au th ors conclu ded th at, in g e n e r a l, ch ild re n at age fiv e do id en tify w ith the ap p rop riate s e x r o le . The fin d in g s of Rabban (1955) are not w h olly c o n siste n t w ith th o se of F a u ls and Sm ith . U sin g a population of c h ild ren ran gin g in age fro m th r ee to e ig h t y e a r s , Rabban found that b o y s a r e m o re c le a r ly aw are of se x -a p p r o p r ia te b eh a v io r than a re g ir ls in both w orking c la s s and m id d le - c la s s f a m ilie s . He a ls o found that m id d le - c la s s g ir ls are m o st “ r e ta r d e d ” in th is a r e a and often do not id en tify w ith the a p p ro p riate s e x r o le u n til age e ig h t. T h u s, not on ly did Rabban fin d that th ere a re d iffe r e n c e s in the s e x e s in te r m s of s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t, but that th e re a re a lso d iffe r e n c e s in the tw o s o c ia l c la s s e s he stu d ied , the w o r k in g -c la s s g e n e r a lly d ev elo p in g th e ir a w a r e n e ss of s e x ro le e a r lie r . U sin g the It S ca le fo r C h ild ren (B row n, 1956a) a s h is m e a su r e of m a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity . B row n (1956b) found “ la r g e and sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c es* ' b etw een b o y s and g ir ls ran gin g in age fr o m fiv e and one h a lf through six and one h a lf. B row n con clu d ed th at th is w as ev id en ce su g g e stin g the e x is te n c e of “ d e fin ite , r e la tiv e ly d ich otom ou s s e x - r o le p a ttern s in young c h ild r e n ." He a ls o attrib uted so m e of h is r e s u lts to a g r e a te r p r e stig e and v a lu e in the m a le a s com p ared to the fe m a le ro le in young ch ild re n . F in a lly , although he u sed on ly m id d le -c la s s ch ild ren in h is sa m p le , B row n su g g e s ts that e co n o m ic c la s s d iffe r e n c e s do not se e m to a ffe c t the p r e fe r e n c e s fo r s e x r o le . B ro w n 's study s u ffe r s , h o w ev e r, fro m a s m a ll nu m ber of su b je c ts and a narrow age ra n g e. In an oth er study u tiliz in g a m uch la r g e r population w ith a g r e a te r age range (5 1/2 to 11 1/2 y e a r s ). B row n (1957) again u sed the It S cale fo r C h ild re n . A m on g the fin d in gs rep o rted w as that g ir ls in a ll age grou p s a re sig n ific a n tly m o re v a ria b le than b o y s in th e ir s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e . B row n a ls o r e p o r ts that b o y s show a m uch str o n g e r p r e f e r e n c e fo r the m a sc u lin e ro le than g ir ls show fo r the fem in in e r o le , p a r tic u la r ly fro m k in d erg a rten through the fourth g r a d e . A n oth er fin d in g in th is study w as that g ir ls at the k in d erg a rten le v e l show a p r e fe r en ce p attern c h a r a c te r iz e d by r e la tiv e ly eq u a l p r e fe r e n c e fo r m a s c u lin e and fem in in e co m p o n en ts, w hile g ir ls fro m the f ir s t grad e through IT the fourth grade show a str o n g e r p r e fe r e n c e fo r the m a sc u lin e ro le than the fe m in in e . In add ition , B row n ’s fin d in g s su g g e st that an im p o r tant s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e sh ift ta k e s p la ce b etw een the fou rth and fifth g r a d e s, or at the end of the “ la ten cy p e r io d .” A cco rd in g to the study g ir ls in the fifth g ra d e show a pred om in an t p r e fe r e n c e fo r the fem in in e r o le . In a s im ila r study u sin g the sa m e in str u m e n t, H ogan (1957) i s rep o rted to have found no su ch sh ift a s th at rep o rted by B row n . T h ese e q u iv o c a l r e s u lts le a v e doubt a s to the n atu re of s e x -r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in young g ir ls e n te r in g a d o le sc e n c e . O ne m ig h t a ls o sp ec u la te on what e ffe c ts the It S ca le it s e lf m ay have had on the r e s u lts . The s c a le is id e a lly su ited fo r young ch ild ren in that it p o s s e s s e s in te r e stin g m a te r ia ls that are w e ll su ited to age fiv e through n in e. O ld er ch ild re n m ay have r eg a rd ed the ta sk a s “ b a b y ish ,” th ereb y negatin g what m ig h t have b een sig n ifica n t r e s u lts . S tu d ies of L a te r S e x -r o le D ev elo p m en t Tw o a r tic le s have rep orted on a stu d y of p r e a d o le s c e n ts in the B e r k e le y G row th Study (E r ik so n , 1951; H onzik , 1951). B oth in v e s t i g a to r s u sed the o c c u r r e n c e and co n fig u ra tio n s of p lay m a te r ia ls a s the b a s e s fo r th e ir o b s e r v a tio n s. H onzik found b o y s to be m o re a c tiv e and sh ow a g r e a te r range of b eh a v io r than g ir ls . T h e se s e x d iffe r e n c e s w ere d is c u s s e d a s b ein g m ore the r e su lt of p h y sio -b io lo g ic a l r a th er than c u ltu r a l fa c to r s . R eputation w ith c la s s m a te s a s b ein g a “ R e a l B o y ” o r a “ L ittle L ady” w a s found to be u n related to s c o r e s on the s c a le of m a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity w hich w a s d e v ise d fo r the stu d y. It w a s n o ted , h o w ev e r, that g ir ls who obtained h igh ly m a sc u lin e o r f e m i nine s c o r e s on the p la y m a te r ia ls w ere c o n sid e r e d b y th e ir c la s s m a te s and te a c h e r to b e , r e s p e c tiv e ly , “ T o m b o y s” or “ L ittle L a d ie s .” E r ik so n s u g g e s ts that the r e s u lts of the play co n fig u ra tio n s m a y be r e p r e se n ta tiv e of the c h ild re n in te r m s of th e ir d ev elo p in g s e x u a l m a t u ra tio n . He d e sc r ib e d the p lay m a te r ia ls in te r m s of th e ir se e m in g p a r a lle l with the m o rp h ology of the s e x o r g a n s. T h e se stu d ie s su ffe r , a s do o th e r s u sin g play and toy p r e fe r e n c e s , fro m a la ck of v a lid ity . In sh o r t, the fin d in gs m a y be su b ject to o b s e r v e r b ia s e s d e sp ite the e ffo r ts at m ain tain in g o b jectiv e c r ite r ia . Sew ard (1956) w r ite s that in e a r ly a d o le sc e n c e c e r ta in ch a n g es in ro le e x p e c ta tio n are in trod u ced w hich str a in the grow ing c h ild ’s in te g ra tiv e a b ility . W hile r e c o g n iz in g the im p o rta n ce of hom e in flu e n c e s , Sew ard poin ts out that the id e n tific a tio n p r o c e s s d o e s not end th e r e , but b e g in s th e re and con tin u es throughout life . S e v e r a l e x p e r im e n ta l stu d ie s d e a l w ith the id e n tific a tio n s the a d o le sc e n t m a k e s and how th ey r ela te to s e x -r o le a w a r e n e s s . H elp e r (1955), in a study of the s e lf-c o n c e p t b a sed on co n tem p o ra ry r e in fo r c e m en t th e o r y , found that fo r junior high sc h o o l b o y s s e lf-c o n c e p t m o d e l in g is p o s itiv e ly c o r r e la te d w ith an in d ex of p a ren ta l rew a rd fo r 19 s im ila r ity to the fa th e r . F u r th e r m o r e , s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce in b o y s app eared to be a ss o c ia te d w ith fo llo w in g the r o le m o d e l provid ed by the fa th e r , w h ile , in g ir ls , fo llo w in g the m o th e r 's r o le w a s not s o str o n g ly ap p roved . W inker (1949) stu d ied a group of c h ild re n ran gin g in age fro m se v e n to six te e n y e a r s . He found p o sitiv e id e n tific a tio n s w ith fa m ily m e m b e r s in the you n ger ch ild re n w hile the o ld e r ch ild ren show ed in c r e a s in g id e n tific a tio n s w ith th e ir p e e r c u ltu r e s and with w ell-k n o w n public fig u r e s . A d o le sc e n t id e n tific a tio n s tended to b eco m e m o re r e a lis tic w ith in c r e a sin g age and in clu d ed b ro a d er s o c ie ta l r o le s and e v en so m e h e r o -w o r s h ip . B o y s at a ll a g e s w ere found to s e e g r e a te r ap p eal in o u ts id e -th e -fa m ily r o le s than w ere g ir ls . A ls o , b o y s tended to id en tify m o r e often w ith g e n e r a l s o c ie ta l r o le s and w ell-k n o w n p e r so n s w hile g ir ls w ere m o re in te r e ste d in p e r so n a l fa c e - t o - f a c e c o n ta c ts and e sta b lish in g p e r so n a l r e la tio n sh ip s. T h ese la tte r fin d in gs w ere la te r su p p orted by G oodenough’s r e s e a r c h (1957). U sin g a d raw ing co m p letio n te s t to m e a su r e u n co n sc io u s s e x id e n tific a tio n , A ltu c h e r (1958) r e c e n tly stu d ied a group of sev en th and eigh th grade b o y s. T he in v e stig a to r p red icted that th o se b o y s who had s e x - r o le c o n flic ts w ould co m e fro m f a m ilie s w h ere the m o th er w a s the dom inant p a ren t. The p red ictio n w a s borne out in so fa r a s dom in ance in se ttin g the lim its fo r the ch ild w as co n cern ed but not fo r dom in ance in m ak in g fa m ily d e c is io n s o r g r a tify in g the ch ild . R e su lts of the study 20 a ls o su g g e ste d that the b o y s w ith s e x - r o le c o n flic ts p e r c e iv e d th e ir p a r e n ts' r o le s a s b ein g m o r e s im ila r than the n o n -c o n flic te d c h ild r e n d id . W hile th e r e is so m e d is a g r e e m e n t reg a r d in g the r e la tio n sh ip o f s o c ia l c la s s sta tu s to s e x r o le in young c h ild r e n , the e v id e n c e fa v o r s the h y p o th e sis that s o c io -e c o n o m ic c la s s d iffe r e n c e s do e x is t in s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t du rin g p r e a d o le s c e n c e and a d o le s c e n c e . P o p e (1953) con d u cted a stu dy a im ed at in v e stig a tin g p o s s ib le s o c ia l c la s s r e la tio n sh ip s to se x d iffe r e n c e s . One o f P o p e 's fin d in g s w a s that u p p e r - c la s s t w e lv e -y e a r -o ld s of both s e x e s e x p e c t th e ir group m e m b e r s to sh ow an ap p ro p ria te ten d en cy to con form to adult sta n d a rd s in the s c h o o l c l a s s r o o m . T h ey a ls o show ed a p o sitiv e e v a lu a tio n of c e r ta in co n v en tio n a l r u le s of d eco ru m w hen atten ding p a r tie s and d a n ce s w ith the o p p o site s e x . T h e se q u a litie s w ere not at a ll s t r e s s e d by the lo w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic g r o u p s. W ith lo w e r - c la s s g ir ls P op e found d is tin c t c o n tr a s ts in r e la tio n to tw o p a tte rn s of b e h a v io r . A g g r e s s iv e , a tte n tio n -g e ttin g tr a its c o n flic t w ith s u b m is s iv e , lik a b le , w e ll g ro o m ed la d y lik e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h er e se e m e d to be little ten d en cy fo r the o u tgoin g, and m o r e co m p lia n t tr a its to be s y n th e s iz e d . U p p e r -c la s s g i r l s , on the o th e r hand, sh ow ed l e s s d iffe r e n tia tio n b e tw e en the a g g r e s s iv e and n o n -a g g r e s s iv e t r a it s . W ith b o y s P o p e d is c o v e r e d d iffe r e n c e s b etw een lo w e r and u p p er c la s s e s in t e r m s of the am ount of a g g r e s s io n w hich i s to le r a te d by the p e e r c u ltu r e . L o w e r - c la s s b o y s who gain e m in e n c e a s 21' fig h te r s w e re a ls o found to be h igh in group p r e s tig e , w h ile th e opp o s ite w a s found to hold tru e in the u p p e r -c la s s grou p . B y m e a n s of c a r e fu l a n a ly s is of c a s e - s tu d y m a te r ia ls on 15 b o y s and 15 g ir ls b etw een the a g e s o f 10 and 14, M iln e r (1949) found c e r ta in s e x - t y p ic a l and g r o u p -ty p ic a l p e r so n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t ic s in the lo w e r -m id d le and u p p e r -lo w e r c l a s s e s . M iln e r ’s fin d in g s w ere c o n s is te n t w ith th o se of P o p e in s o fa r a s a g g r e s s iv e n e s s and a tten tio n - g e ttin g w e re c o n c e r n e d . In a d d itio n , M iln e r noted that the t r a it s w h ich w e r e ty p ic a l of h e r sa m p le w e r e a ls o ty p ic a l o f the fa m ilie s fr o m w h ich the sa m p le w a s draw n. T o in v e stig a te the r e la tiv e v a lu e s p la c ed on v a r io u s p e r s o n a lity tr a its b y b o y s and g ir ls at tw o age le v e ls (12 and 15 y e a r s ) , T ry o n (1939) ob tain ed c h ild r e n ’s r a tin g s o r o p in io n s erf ea ch o th e r through a v e r b a l p o r tr a it-m a tc h in g tec h n iq u e. T he r e s u lts in d ic a ted that d u rin g th e age p e r io d s stu d ied , v a lu e s fo r g ir ls un d ergo so m e m a rk ed c h a n g e s. In g e n e r a l, a d m ir a tio n fo r the d e m u r e , d o c ile , r a th er p rim and la d y lik e p rototyp e w hich w a s found am on g the 1 2 -y e a r -o ld g ir ls had c e a s e d at the 1 5 -y e a r -o ld le v e l, and in ste a d m an y of the c r it e r ia fo r the id e a liz e d b oy, su ch a s e x tr a v e r s io n , a c tiv ity , and good sp o r tsm a n sh ip , a r e a d m ired b y th e g ir l. C h a n g es in v a lu e s fo r the b o y s d u rin g th is p erio d a re r e la tiv e ly m in o r . A t 15 y e a r s p r e s tig e fo r the b oy i s s t i l l la r g e ly d e te r m in e d by p h y sic a l s k ill, a g g r e s s iv e n e s s , and f e a r l e s s n e s s . 22 I Tuddenham (1951), who u sed Tryon* s m ethod w ith a you n ger age group (fir s t through fifth grad e), found a sh iftin g in g irls* v a lu e s of tr a its in m uch the sa m e d ir e c tio n a s did T ryon . T uddenham ’s r e s u lts , w h ile not sh ow in g a s m ark ed a sh ift in g irls* v a lu e s , n o n e th e le ss su g g e s t that g ir ls have m uch m o r e fle x ib le r o le c h o ic e s than b o y s and that m a sc u lin e tr a its in c r e a se in v a lu e in g ir ls w ith in c r e a sin g a g e. S tu d ies of S e x -r o le D evelop m en t in R ela tio n to A d ju stm en t A s w as noted e a r lie r , th ere a re few stu d ie s r e la tin g s e x -r o le d ev elo p m en t to ad ju stm en t in c h ild re n . A n e a r ly study of p r e a d o le sc e n t b oys by M acD onald (1938) did in d icate a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een c e r ta in fem in in e p e r so n a lity c h a r a c te r is tic s in the sa m p le and p a ttern s of a g g r e s s io n w hich took on p a th o lo g ica l o v e r to n e s. M acD onald’s stu dy w as not ad eq u ately co n tro lled , h o w ev er, and h e r fin d in g s can , at b e s t, be regard ed a s in d icatin g a tren d . In a m o re r e c e n t stu d y G ray (1957) in v e stig a te d a n xiety and s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce a s th ey r ela ted to a s c a le of se x -a p p r o p r ia te b e h a v io r . S e x -a p p r o p r ia te n e ss w as defined in te r m s of a “ Who A re T h ey ? ” tech n iq u e. U sin g six th and seven th grade c h ild ren a s h er population and the C h ild ren ’s M a n ifest A n xiety S cale a s h er m e a su r e of an xiety, G ray found that both b o y s and g ir ls who are high in an xiety are a lso m o re se x -a p p r o p r ia te in th e ir b eh a v io r than are c h ild re n low in a n x iety . A n a ly s is of s o c io m e tr ic m a te r ia ls in d icated that high s o c ia l 23 a ccep ta n ce in b oys w as a ss o c ia te d w ith a high d e g r e e of s e x - ap p ro p riate b eh a v io r a s p e r c e iv e d b y p e e r s . With g ir ls the r e s u lt w as l e s s c le a r cu t although th e r e w as so m e in d ica tio n th a t a ccep ta n ce w a s a s s o c ia te d w ith a low le v e l of se x -a p p r o p r ia te b e h a v io r . G ray in te r p reted h e r r e s u lts a s in d ica tin g a la ck of c la r ity in the r o le e x p e c ta n c ie s o f the g ir l n earin g a d o le sc e n c e a s sh e is fa ced by the ta sk of a ch iev in g an ap p rop riate s e x r o le . A v e r y s m a ll sa m p le and a n a rro w age range m ake broad in te r p r e ta tio n s of G ra y ’s data u n w ise . The in flu e n c e s of s e x - r o le d evelop m en t on ad ju stm en t w ere im p lie d in a stu d y conducted by M u ssen and J o n e s (1 9 5 7 ). The au th ors a n alyzed the TAT p r o to co ls of two grou p s of 1 7 -y e a r -o ld b o y s. One group had b een p h y sic a lly a c c e le r a te d during a d o le sc e n c e w h ile the o th e r group had been p h y sic a lly r eta rd ed . The reta rd ed b o y s w e re found to have m o re n eg a tiv e s e lf-c o n c e p tio n s , fe e lin g s of in ad eq u acy, fe e lin g s of b ein g r e je c te d and d om in ated , p rolon ged dep en d en cy n e e d s, and r e b e llio u s a ttitu d es to w a rd s p a r e n ts. The e a r ly -m a tu r in g b oys sh ow ed a m u ch m ore fa v o ra b le p e r so n a lity str u c tu r e . M ore of them se e m e d to b e se lf-c o n fid e n t, indep en dent, and cap ab le of p la y in g an adult r o le in in te r p e r so n a l r e la tio n s h ip s . If s e x - r o le d ev elo p m en t i s a fu n ction of p h y sic a l d ev elo p m en t, th en th e se r e s u lts have s p e c ia l im p ortan ce in te r m s of p o sitiv e s e x - r o le id e n tific a tio n and ad ju stm en t. Sum m ary of L iter a tu r e A g e n e r a l them e running throughout the lite r a tu r e r e v ie w e d above w as that fo r b o y s the m a sc u lin e ro le is w e ll ste r e o ty p e d w h ile i fo r g ir ls th e r e is a sh iftin g in r o le fr o m childhood to a d o le sc e n c e with the ste r e o ty p e d fem in in e c h a r a c te r is tic s b ein g p e r c e iv e d a s l e s s d e sir a b le w ith the g ir l’s in c r e a s in g a g e . L ack of c la r ity in the f e m i nine r o le w a s o b se r v e d by a n u m ber of a u th o rs. It w a s noted that b o y s h ave a r o le -m a s te r y p ro b lem in v o lv in g a sh ift fro m id e n tific a tio n w ith a fe m a le o r m o th e r fig u r e to a m a sc u lin e fa th er fig u r e . T h ere are so m e im p lic a tio n s in the lite r a tu r e that fa ilu r e to m ak e a s e x - ap p rop riate r o le p r e fe r e n c e w ill lea d to adju stm en t p r o b le m s fo r a d o le sc e n t b o y s w h ile the o p p o site m ay hold tru e fo r a d o le sc e n t g ir ls . In te r m s of m e th o d o lo g ie s u sed fo r m e a su r in g s e x r o le , it w a s a c u r io u s fa c t that none of the stu d ie s em p lo y ed co n v en tio n a l p sy c h o lo g ic a l te c h n iq u e s. M ost of the d e v ic e s w ere c r e a te d e s p e c ia lly fo r the stu dy under c o n sid e r a tio n and had no v a lid ity o r r e lia b ility stu d ie s . In no in s ta n c e s w ere the com m on pap er and p e n c il t e s t s of m a sc u lin ity - fe m in in ity u se d . R ation ale of P r e s e n t Study A sid e fr o m the stu d ie s tou ch in g d ir e c tly upon s e x - r o le c o n f lic t s and a d ju stm e n ts, th e r e i s im p lie d in th e su r v e y of the lite r a tu r e the fu n d am en tal h y p o th e sis of th is study; n a m e ly , that s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a re r e la te d to the ev er y d a y p sy c h o lo g ic a l, s o c ia l, and e d u c a tio n a l a d ju stm en ts of the ch ild . 25 It w ould s e e m ev id en t th at the ch ild w ho, fo r w h a tev er r e a so n , i s unable to m e e t the d em and s of h is cu ltu re fo r r o le co n fo rm ity , would e x p e r ie n c e d iffic u ltie s . T h is should be e s p e c ia lly tru e o f the a d o le sc e n t who, a lm o st b y d efin itio n , is u n d ergoin g p sy c h o lo g ic a l tu r m o il of v a ry in g s o r ts and who m u st at th is c r it ic a l sta g e in h is d ev elo p m en t in co rp o ra te an ad u lt s e x r o le . A nna F reu d (1958) h a s sta ted th at c o n sid er a b le a n x iety i s a ro u sed in the a d o le sc e n t a s he e x p e r im e n ts w ith new young adult r o le s . T h is a n x iety a r o u sa l i s thought to be c h ie fly a ss o c ia te d w ith the h o m o sex u a l u r g e s that are r e p r e s s e d in the attem p t at m akin g a h e te r o se x u a l a d ju stm en t. A m o re c la s s ic a l p sy ch o a n a ly tic approach to s e x - r o le a n xiety i s im p lie d in a r e c e n t a r tic le by B io s (1958). B io s s e e s the m ale p r e - a d o le sc e n t a s e x p e r ie n c in g c a str a tio n a n x iety in r e la tio n to b rea k in g h is t ie s w ith a p h a llic m o th er. T o red u ce h is a n x iety the boy m ay m ain tain a str o n g fem in in e id e n tific a tio n . B e fo re a s u c c e s s fu l turn tow ard m a sc u lin ity i s e ffe c te d the em p lo y m en t of the h o m o sex u a l d e fe n se a g a in st c a str a tio n an xiety is brought to b e a r . B e c a u se of the c u ltu r a l p r e s s u r e h o m o sex u a lity i s not to le r a te d by the eg o and fu rth er a n x iety is a r o u se d . A n x iety can be ex p e cted to p e r s is t u n til the boy m a k e s h is turn tow ard h e te r o se x u a lity and a c c e p ts h is m a sc u lin e r o le . With p r e a d o le sc e n t g ir ls a n xiety reg a rd in g s e x r o le is tr a c e d (F e n ic h e l, 1946) to the reaw ak en ing of u n r e so lv e d O ed ip al s tr iv in g s . T he new b io lo g ic a lly d eriv ed se x u a l p r e s s u r e s c r e a te in the g ir l fa n ta s ie s about h e r fa th e r w hich a r e a n x ie ty p rovok in g. A s a r e s u lt the g ir l f e e l s a r e g r e s s iv e p u ll to the p r e o e d ip a l m o th e r and th e r e b y r e p r e s s e s h e r g row in g g e n ita lity . T he p r e a d o le s c e n t g ir l in th is situ a tio n b e c o m e s im m e r s e d in an u ltr a -s te r e o ty p e d fe m in in e r o le and s e e k s m o s t of h e r s a tis fa c tio n s fr o m fr ie n d sh ip s w ith o th e r g ir ls . She b e c o m e s too m u ch of a “ little la d y ” w h ile the cu ltu re i s e x e r tin g p r e s s u r e fo r h e r to b e c o m e l e s s fe m in in e . A n x ie ty in th is g ir l i s th u s a r o u se d fr o m tw o s o u r c e s , h e r r e p r e s s e d O ed ip a l s tr iv in g s and c u ltu r a l p r e s s u r e to be l e s s fe m in in e . A n x ie ty m a y be e x p e c te d to r e m a in a r o u se d u n til the g ir l m a k e s h e r h e te r o se x u a l ad ju stm en t through a fin a l r e so lu tio n of h e r O ed ip al c o n flic t. In v ie w of the p sy ch o a n a ly tic c o n c e p ts m en tio n ed a b o v e, it w ould s e e m lo g ic a l to p r e d ict a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s and the am ount of a n x iety m a n ife ste d . T h is sh ou ld fo llo w if a n x iety i s tr u ly a s s o c ia te d w ith b rea k in g t i e s to the m o th e r , la ten t h o m o se x u a l u r g e s , u n r e so lv e d O ed ip a l s tr iv in g s , and c u ltu r a l p r e s s u r e s . F u r th e r m o r e , on the b a s is of th o se stu d ie s r e v ie w e d e a r lie r w hich s u g g e s t th at m a sc u lin e tr a its a r e in c r e a s in g ly app roved b y the cu ltu r e w ith in c r e a s in g age w h ile fem in in e tr a its a re g ain in g l e s s a p p ro v a l, it w ould s e e m r e a so n a b le to e x p e c t th at se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s w ould be a s s o c ia te d w ith low a n x ie ty w h ile s e x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in g ir ls w ould be a s s o c ia te d w ith h igh a n x ie ty . 27 It w a s pointed out e a r lie r that c u ltu r a l p r e s s u r e s d em and that b o y s and g ir ls d ev elo p s e x d iffe r e n c e s in th e ir b e h a v io r . It w a s a ls o noted th at w ith the o ld e r ch ild it i s the p e e r c u ltu re w h ich e n fo r c e s th e s e e x p e c te d b e h a v io r s. T he b a s is fo r a g ir l’s d iffic u lty in m e e tin g the s o c ia l e x p e c ta tio n s i s sa id to lie to so m e e x te n t in the sh iftin g o f the ste r e o ty p e d fe m in in e r o le to a r o le w hich i s m o r e f le x ib le . T h e g ir l p r e su m a b ly m u st be ab le to adapt h e r s e lf to ch an gin g e x p e c ta tio n s in o r d e r to gain a c c e p ta n c e . W ith b o y s the d iffic u lty in m e e tin g s o c ia l e x p e c ta tio n s w a s tr a c e d to the m a jo r r o le p layed by the m o th e r in the fa m ily and the su b seq u en t id e n tific a tio n p r o b le m s w h ich m ig h t d e te r fr o m fu ll a s s im ila tio n and m a s te r y of the m a sc u lin e r o le . A m e r ic a n cu ltu r e h a s not d ev ia ted fr o m it s dem and that b o y s m u st be m a s c u lin e . T o be an yth ing l e s s than m a sc u lin e w ould s e e m to put a b o y ’s s o c ia l p o sitio n in jeo p a rd y . B e c a u s e of the s e x - r o le d em an d s o f our c u ltu r e , and b e c a u se the a n x iety w h ich w a s p r e v io u sly d is c u s s e d w as a ls o in p art tr a c e d to the p r e s s u r e of the s o c ia l m ilie u fo r s e x - r o le c o n fo r m ity , it s e e m s r ea so n a b le to p r e d ic t a r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e en se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s and p e e r group s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e . H er e w e w ould e x p e c t se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s to be a s s o c ia te d w ith a high le v e l of s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e w h ile th e r e v e r s e w ould be p r e d ic te d fo r g ir ls . T h e se p r e d ic tio n s a r e in k eep in g w ith T uddenham (1951) and G ra y ’s (1957) fin d in g s that ty p ic a l m a sc u lin e tr a its a r e h ig h ly v a lu ed 28 and a ccep ted by both m a le and fe m a le p r e a d o le sc e n t p e e r g r o u p s. In both the p sy c h o lo g ic a l and s o c ia l in d ic e s of adju stm en t ' \ w hich have b een d is c u s s e d th u s f a r , a p sy ch o a n a ly tic and a c u ltu r a l ra tio n a le have b een em p lo y ed . T h ese sa m e two e m p h a se s a re now a p p rop riate to a b e h a v io r a l m a n ife sta tio n that i s ap rop os of sc h o o l a d ju stm en t. A num ber of p sy ch o a n a ly tic w r ite r s ( i . e . , A lex a n d er and F r e n c h , 1948; D unbar, 1955) have d is c u s s e d the r e la tio n sh ip of p sy c h o lo g ic a l fa c to r s to p h y sic a l illn e s s . In g e n e r a l, th e se au th ors a g r ee that actu e and ch ro n ic a n xiety can r e su lt in a v a r ie ty o f p h y sio lo g ic a l r e a c tio n s, m any of w hich m ay be attrib uted by the in d ivid u al to p u rely p h y sic a l o r ig in s . A nna F reu d (1936), in d is c u s s in g a d o le sc e n t c h a r a c te r fo rm a tio n , in d icated th at com m on in the d e fe n siv e r e p e r to ir of th is age group when under p sych ic te n sio n is the d ev elo p m en t of p sy c h o so m a tic sy m p to m s, o r , in aggravated c a s e s , flig h t and w ith d ra w a l. T h u s, in a sc h o o l se ttin g , the p r e a d o le sc e n t who i s e x p e r ie n c in g s e x - r o le c o n flic ts m a y w e ll d isp la y a p attern of sc h o o l a b s e n te e ism w hich is sy m p to m a tic of h is p sy ch ic c o n flic ts . F o llo w in g our e a r lie r lo g ic we m ig h t now p r e d ict that th ere i s a r ela tio n sh ip b etw een s e x - ap p rop riate ro le p r e fe r e n c e s and sc h o o l atten d an ce. F o r b o y s we would e x p e c t se x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s to be a s s o c ia te d w ith a low rate of a b s e n te e ism w h ile fo r g ir ls se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s w ould be ex p ected to be a ss o c ia te d w ith a high rate of a b s e n te e is m . A d d ition al support fo r th e se p r e d ictio n s c o m e s fro m U llm a n ’s 2 1 9 I (1952) stu d y of m a la d ju sted ninth grad e b o y s and g ir ls w h ere a b sen tee -; i is m w as found to be r ela ted to “ s e v e r e m a la d ju stm en t.’1 U llm a n ’s stu d y , lik e that of M acD onald’s (1936) r e fe r r e d to e a r lie r , a ls o su g g e s t s th at fa ilu r e to adopt the s e x - r o le ap p rop riate to o n e ’s s e x in a d o le sc e n c e i s a con trib u tin g fa c to r to m a la d ju stm en t. S tatem en t of the P r o b le m T he m a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity d im e n sio n h a s b een e x te n s iv e ly e x p lo re d w ith both ch ild ren and a d u lts. T he r ela tio n sh ip of s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s and adju stm en t in a d u lts h a s a lso r e c e iv e d c o n sid er a b le atten tion in the lite r a tu r e . T h ere i s , h o w ev e r, r e la tiv e ly little r e s e a r c h ex a m in in g s e x - r o le and ad ju stm en t in c h ild r e n . T h is la ck of d e fin itiv e in fo rm a tio n i s b ein g a cu tely fe lt in the a r e a of a d o le sc e n t d ev elo p m en t. B e c a u se of the g e n e r a l sig n ific a n c e of the con cep t of s e x r o le , and b e c a u se of the in c r e a sin g fo c u s of atten tion w hich is b ein g p laced upon it, the p r e se n t stu dy w ill attem p t to te s t the o c c u r r e n c e of c e r ta in r e la tio n sh ip s w hich m igh t be h y p o th esized to e x is t b etw een s e x - ap p rop riate ro le p r e fe r e n c e s in a d o le sc e n ts and v a r io u s in d ic e s of ad ju stm en t. T h is study i s b a sed on two m a jo r a ssu m p tio n s: 1. F o r the a d o le sc e n t boy, o v e r - a ll ad ju stm en t w ill be e n hanced by h is m ak in g a se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e . 30 2. F o r the a d o le sc en t g ir l, o v e r - a ll ad ju stm en t w ill be e n hanced if sh e i s able to m ake a s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e w hich i s fle x ib le and in k eep in g w ith sh iftin g fe m a le r o le s . Hypotheses It i s h y p o th esized that: 1. In the ju n io r high sc h o o l g r a d e s, w h ere se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e com p ared with high and low a n x iety , th e r e w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een s e x r o le and a n x iety . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tion o f an a ss o c ia tio n b etw een low a n x iety and high se x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s. In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill b e r e v e r s e d , high a n xiety b ein g a ss o c ia te d w ith high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . 2. In th e ju n io r high sc h o o l g r a d e s , w h ere se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s are com p ared with high and low s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e , th ere w ill be a rela tio n sh ip b etw een se x r o le and s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n b etw een high s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce and high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s. In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , low s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce b ein g a ss o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . 3. In the ju n ior high sc h o o l g r a d e s, w h ere se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s are co m p a red with high and low a b sen tee r e c o r d s , th ere w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een s e x ro le and a b s e n te e is m . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n b etw een low a b s e n te e ism and 3T 3 | se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s . In g ir ls th e d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , high a b s e n te e ism b e in g a s s o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . C H A P T E R HI M eth od S u b jects T he su b je c ts u sed in th is stu d y w e re draw n fr o m a pop ulation of C a u ca sia n stu d en ts in an u rb an , t h r e e - y e a r ju n io r high s c h o o l in so u th ern C a lifo r n ia . T he s o c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s of 87% of the to ta l p op u lation w a s m id d le - c la s s . N in e p er cen t of the sa m p le c a m e fr o m fa m ilie s in th e u p p er m id d le - c la s s s o c ia l str a tu m . T he r e m a in in g fo u r p e r cen t of stu d en ts r e p r e se n te d w o r k in g -c la s s f a m ilie s . S o c io e c o n o m ic sta tu s w a s d e te r m in e d by the o ccu p a tio n o f the m a jo r w age e a r n e r in the fa m ily . T he to ta l population w a s draw n fr o m nine tw o -h o u r E n g lish and S o c ia l S tu d ies c o r e c l a s s e s , th r e e c l a s s e s fr o m e a c h grad e le v e l. T w o -h o u r c la s s e s w e re c h o se n b e c a u se p e e r group s o c ia l in te r a c tio n cou ld be e x p e c te d to be at its m a x im u m . C la s s e s w e r e s e le c t e d fo r th e stu d y on the b a s is o f the s c h o o l’s a c a d e m ic grou p in g p o lic y . T h is m ad e p o s sib le h o m o g en eo u s grou p in g w ith in the s a m p le s in t e r m s of rea d in g a c h ie v e m e n t and g e n e r a l le a r n in g a b ility . A ll stu d e n ts in the pop u lation had a rea d in g p r o fic ie n c y le v e l of at le a s t one y e a r above th e ir a c tu a l grad e p la c e m e n t. T he c r ite r io n fo r r e a d in g p r o fic ie n c y 33| ! le v e l w as the su b je c t’s m o s t r e c e n t to ta l rea d in g s c o r e on the Stanford l A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t in R ead in g, In ter m ed ia te or A d van ced F o r m s J m . G e n e r a l le a r n in g a b ility w as d efin ed in t e r m s o f the in te llig e n c e q u o tie n t y ie ld e d on the P in tn e r G e n e r a l A b ility T e s t , In te r m e d ia te , F o r m A . On th is b a s is e v e r y su b je c t w a s found to b e of a v e r a g e o r b e tte r in te llig e n c e , the IQ ran ge fo r the to ta l sa m p le b e in g 98 to 139. A to ta l of 317 stu d e n ts w ere sa m p le d of w h ich 161 w ere g ir ls and 156 w e re b o y s . T h e se v e n th g ra d e su b -s a m p le c o n s is te d o f 54 g ir ls and 49 b o y s , the eigh th grad e of 51 g ir ls and 50 b o y s , and the ninth g ra d e o f 56 g ir ls and 57 b o y s. T he p op ulation w a s th u s d ivid ed into th r e e age g ro u p s on the b a s is of grad e p la c em e n t in sc h o o l. W ithin e a ch g ra d e groupin g s e x sub grou p s w ere a ls o e s ta b lis h e d so th at the fin a l su b je c t p o o l c o n s is te d of s ix se p a r a te g ro u p s r e p r e se n tin g both s e x e s at e a c h of the th r e e grad e le v e ls . F o r the t e s t s of the h y p o th e s e s , g r o u p s w e re s e le c te d on the b a s is of s c o r e s on the d epend en t v a r ia b le s . T o m ake grad e a s w e ll a s s e x c o m p a r is o n s p o s s ib le , g ro u p s w e re draw n fo r e a c h s e x at e a c h g rad e le v e l. A s a r e s u lt, fo r e a ch h y p o th e sis te s te d , d iffe r e n t g ro u p s e m e r g e d fo r both s e x e s at a ll grade le v e ls . T h er e w e re m an y in d i v id u a ls , h o w e v e r , who w ere in m o re than one g r o u p .* The h o m o g e n e ity of the sa m p lin g g ro u p s in te r m s of age and in te llig e n c e i s sh ow n in *See C h ap ter IV . 34 * T a b le s 1, 2, and 3. M edian in te llig e n c e le v e l w a s u se d b e c a u se of a sk ew in g tow ard the lo w e r end a t the IQ ra n g e. In str u m e n ts T he F e m in in ity (F e ) S c a le of the C a lifo r n ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v en to ry (G ough, 1957a) w a s s e le c te d a s the in str u m e n t to m e a su r e s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s , the ind ep en dent v a r ia b le of th is stu d y. The s c a le w a s c h o se n fo r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F ir s t , it h a s p roven u tility in d iffe r e n tia tin g m a le s and f e m a le s . S econ d , it h a s a s it s e x p r e s s e d p u r p o se the a s s e s s m e n t o f m a sc u lin ity and fe m in in ity of in t e r e s t s fr o m an adu lt stan d p oin t. T h ird , it c o m e s from an in v en to ry w h ose p r in c ip a l u se i s w ith n o n -p s y c h ia tr ic a lly d istu rb ed su b je c ts . F o u rth , it i s e s p e c ia lly adapted to u s e in s c h o o ls . F in a lly , a n u m b er of r e lia b ility and v a lid ity s tu d ie s have b een rep o rted in d ic a tin g the F e m in in ity S c a le ’s c o n s is te n c y and a c c u r a c y of m e a su r e m e n t (G ough, 1957b). A n in sp e c tio n of the ite m s of the Fe^ S c a le r e v e a ls that 2 s e v e r a l s o - c a lle d fe m in in e fa c to r s are m e a s u r e d . F o r e x a m p le , the g r e a te s t n u m b er of ite m s ap p ea r to in v o lv e an e m p h a s is on an a c c e p t an ce of co n v e n tio n a lly fe m in in e r o le s and a r e je c tio n of c e r ta in c o n v e n tio n a lly m a sc u lin e r o le s . P a tie n c e , s in c e r ity , g e n tle n e s s , s y m path y, and in te r e s t in peop le a r e o th e r fa c to r s m e a s u r e d . S in ce the 2 S ee A p pendix I. 35 Table 1 Age and In telligence* of High and Low Anxiety Group Subjects U sed fo r T esting the F ir s t H ypothesis H igh A n x ie ty G rou p s L ow A n x ie ty G rou ps G r® de * V a ria b le (n - 10) <n = 10) Sex ________ _______ ________ _______ M ed ian R ange M ed ian R ange S even th G rade B o y s A ge (y e a r s) In te llig e n c e 12.3 114.5 1 2 .0 -1 2 .8 1 0 4 -131 12.1 117 1 1 .3 -1 2 .8 1 0 6 -1 3 0 S even th G rade G ir ls A ge In te llig e n c e 12.3 113 1 1 .9 -1 2 .9 1 0 5 -1 2 7 12.2 115.5 1 1 .9 -1 2 .9 1 0 8 -1 3 2 E igh th G rade B o y s A ge In te llig e n c e 13.4 116 1 2 .8 -1 3 .9 1 0 6 -1 2 9 13.3 115 1 3 .0 -1 3 .8 102-131 E igh th G rade G ir ls A ge In te llig e n c e 13.3 114.5 12.9-14.0 105-136 13.1 116 12.7-13.9 108-132 N inth G rad e B o y s A ge In te llig e n c e 14.1 116.5 14.1-14.9 107-130 14.2 117.5 13.8-14.9 110-133 N inth G rad e G ir ls A ge In te llig e n c e 14.3 114 14.0-15.0 104-131 14.3 115.5 13.9-14.9 104-134 *IQ sc o r e s from P intner G eneral A bility T e st, In ter m ed iate, Form A. 3d Table 2 Age and Intelligence* of High and Low Social A cceptance Group Subjects U sed fo r T esting the Second H ypothesis G rade A Sex V a ria b le L ow S o c ia l A c c e p t a n ce G rou p s (n = 10) H igh S o c ia l A c c e p t a n ce G rou p s ( n - 10) M edian R ange M edian R ange Seven th G rad e A ge (y e a r s) 12.2 12.0-13.2 12.2 11.8-12.9 B o y s In te llig e n c e 116 104-129 116 105-130 Seventh G rade A ge 12.0 11.8-12.7 12.3 12.0-13.1 G ir ls In te llig e n c e 114.5 105-128 117 103-135 E ighth G rade A ge 13.2 12.9-14.1 13.4 12.9-14.2 G ir ls In te llig e n c e 118 107-134 116 103-132 E ighth G rade A ge 13.3 13.0-13.9 13.3 12.9-13.9 B o y s In te llig e n c e 112 101-128 115.5 106-130 N inth G rade A ge 14.2 14.1-15.0 14.3 14.0-14,8 G ir ls In te llig e n c e 115 104-132 115.5 107-135 N inth G rade A ge 14.1 13.8-15.1 14.4 14.1-15.2 B o y s In te llig e n c e 117 106-134 114 103-130 *IQ sc o r e s from Pintner G eneral A bility T est, In ter m ediate, F orm A. 37! Table 3 Age and Intelligence* of High and Low A bsence Group Subjects U sed for T esting the Third H ypothesis G rade & Sex V ariab le H igh A b se n c e G rou ps (n = 10) L ow A b se n c e G rou p s (n = 10) M edian Range M edian R ange Seventh G rade A ge (y e a r s) 12.3 11.9-12.9 12.2 11.8-13.1 B o y s In tellig e n c e 116.5 105-133 114 104-129 Seventh G rade A f £ 12.1 11.9-13.0 12.1 12.0-13.0 G ir ls In tellig e n c e 115 105-137 115.5 103-126 E ighth G rade A ge 13.1 12.8-14.0 13.3 13.0-13.9 B o y s In tellig e n c e 117.5 108-135 116.5 105-128 E ighth G rade A ge 13.1 12.9-13.9 13.2 12.9-13.9 G ir ls In te llig e n c e 114 104-127 114 106-131 N inth G rade A ge 14.4 14.1-15.0 14.3 14.0-14.8 B o y s In te llig e n c e 114.5 103-133 116 105-134 N inth G rade A ge 14.2 14.0-15.1 14.3 13.9-14.9 G ir ls In tellig e n c e 118 108-136 114 104-128 *IQ sc o res from Pintner G eneral A bility T est, Inter m ediate, Form A. 38 s c a le is d e sig n ed to m e a s u r e fe m in in ity , the fo llo w in g o p e r a tio n a l d e fi- 1 j n itio n s w ere em p lo y ed fo r the p u rp o se s of th is study: 1. A high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e fo r a g ir l i s d efin ed a s a high s c o r e on the F e S c a le . 2. A high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e fo r a b oy i s d efin ed a s a low s c o r e on th e F e S c a le . C h ild re n ’s M a n ifest A n xiety Scale F o r te s tin g the h y p o th e sis r ela tin g to an xiety and s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s , the C h ild re n ’s M a n ifest A n x iety S ca le (C astan ed a, M cC a n d le ss, and P a le r m o , 1956) w a s u tiliz e d . T h is 42 item s c a le w as adapted fo r u se w ith sc h o o l c h ild re n fro m the T a y lo r M a n ifest A n x iety S c a le (T a y lo r , 1953) w hich h a s b een w id ely u sed in r e s e a r c h w ith a d u lts. An e le v e n ite m lie s c a le is a ls o an in te g r a l p art of the in s tr u m en t. The a n x iety s c a le ite m s w ere o r ig in a lly s e le c te d fr o m the M M PI on the b a s is of c lin ic a l im p r e s s io n s of how w e ll th ey fit C a m e ro n ’s (1947) d e fin itio n of a n x iety . A lthough th e re h a s b een so m e o b jectio n to the adult a n x iety s c a le a s a m e a s u r e of a n x ie ty , no stu d ie s have b een rep o rted o b jectin g to the CM AS. T w o stu d ie s have b een rep o rted w ith the CM AS w hich I le d the author to r eg a rd it a s a v a lid m e a su r e of m a n ife st a n x iety . W irt and B ro en (1957), in d is c u s s in g the CM AS in r e la tio n to c lin ic a l a n x ie ty , su g g e ste d that high s c o r e s on the s c a le be eq uated w ith a 39 su b je c t's w illin g n e ss to ad m it c e r ta in su b je c tiv e ly e x p e r ie n c e d d is - > i i i c o m fo r ts o r a p p re h e n sio n s. I s c o e and C och ran (1960) sh a re th is v ie w . T h e ir fin d in g s in d icated that su b je c ts w ho sc o r e high ap p ear to be m o r e “ n e r v o u s and a p p r e h e n siv e ." The r e lia b ility of the CMAS h a s b e e n studied by C a sta n ed a , e t a l. (1956) and by the author (W ebb, 1961). One w eek t e s t - r e t e s t r e lia b ility c o e ffic ie n ts have b een rep o rted a s high a s .94 fo r the a n x iety s c a le it e m s . On the b a s is of the a v a ila b le r e s e a r c h , it would s e e m r ea so n a b le to a ssu m e that the CMAS i s a c o n siste n t and v a lid in d ica to r of m a n ife st a n x iety . C la ss r o o m S o c ia l D ista n ce S cale T he m e a su r e of s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce s e le c te d fo r th is stu d y w as Ruth C unn in gham 's C la ssr o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S cale (1951). T h is s c a le i s s im ila r to one d e v ise d by B o g a rd u s (1933) to m e a su r e in te r group a ttitu d e s. It a llo w s fo r e a c h y o u n g ste r in a c la s s r o o m to r e a c t on a fiv e -p o in t s c a le to e v e r y oth er p e r so n in the grou p . B y a ssig n in g n u m e r ic a l v a lu e s to the fiv e ite m s on the s c a le , it is p o s sib le to a r r iv e at a group s o c ia l d ista n ce sc o r e w hich in d ic a te s the d e g r e e of a c c e p ta n ce o r r e je c tio n of an in d ivid u al by the group. i The C la ss r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S ca le w as s e le c te d o v e r o th e r e o c io m e tr ic d e v ic e s b e c a u se it h a s had e x te n s iv e u se w ith ju n ior high s c h o o l p op u lation s and h a s b een found to c o r r e la te h igh ly w ith te a c h e r e v a lu a tio n s of group str u c tu r e (C unningham , 1951). H igh c o r r e la tio n s have a ls o b e e n found b etw een s o c ia l d ista n ce s c o r e s and stu d e n ts’ su b je c tiv e e v a lu a tio n s o f a ccep ta b le b eh a v io r tr a its fo r p u p ils in sc h o o l. T he s c a le i s a ls o e s p e c ia lly u se fu l in that e v e r y pupil r e c e iv e s a quan titative ra tin g w hich i s the c o m p o site of a ll group o p in io n s r eg a rd in g h im . T h is i s a fe a tu r e la ck in g in m o s t o th er s o c io m e tr ic tec h n iq u es. In asm u ch a s r e la tiv e ly high s c o r e s on th is sc a le a re reg a rd ed a s in d ica tiv e o f an in d iv id u a l’s g r e a te r s o c ia l d ista n ce fr o m the group a s co m p a red w ith a low s c o r e , the fo llo w in g o p e r a tio n a l d e fin itio n of s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce w as adopted fo r the p u rp o se s of th is study: T he lo w e r the in d iv id u a l’s s c o r e on the C la ss r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S c a le , the g r e a te r i s h is s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce b y the group and, c o n v e r s e ly , the h ig h e r the in d iv id u a l’s s c o r e , the g r e a te r is h is s o c ia l r e je c tio n . C u m u lative A tten d an ce R ecord T o te s t the h y p o th e sis that a b s e n te e ism is r e la te d to s e x - r o le 3 p r e fe r e n c e s , the C u m u lative A tten d an ce R eco rd of e a ch stu d en t in the population w a s e x a m in ed . T h is gave a r e c o r d of a ll e x c u se d (fo r i l l n e s s o r fa m ily b e r e a v e m e n t), u n ex cu sed (oth er than tru a n c y ), and tru a n cy a b s e n c e s . A b se n te e ism w as th u s d efin ed in te r m s of the to ta l 3 A C a lifo r n ia State D ep a rtm en t of E d u cation le g a l fo r m w hich jis kep t fo r e v e r y ch ild in public s c h o o l atten d an ce in C a lifo r n ia . j (number o f a b s e n c e s fo r any c a u se du rin g the s c h o o l y e a r the stu d y w a s 1 ! i b e in g m a d e . F o r the p u r p o se s of the stu d y a low r a te of a b s e n te e is m w a s r e la te d to fe w o r no a b s e n c e s w h ile a h igh r a te of a b s e n te e is m w a s r e la te d to s e v e r a l w eeks* c u m u la tiv e a b se n c e . P r o c e d u r e A ll su b je c ts w e r e te s te d in th e ir c la s s r o o m s b y th e ir te a c h e r s who had b e e n fa m ilia r iz e d w ith a ll the in str u m e n ts and the g e n e r a l p u rp o se o f the stu d y. T he stu d en ts w ere told that th e stu d y w a s b e in g c a r r ie d out b y the s c h o o l d is tr ic t ’s guid ance d ep a rtm en t fo r the p u r p o se of le a r n in g m o re about the stu d en t’s in t e r e s t s , a ttitu d e s, and p e r so n a l fe e lin g s tow ard one a n o th er. A stro n g e m p h a s is w a s p la ced on the an on ym ity of th e r e s u lts in s o fa r a s in d iv id u a ls w e re c o n c e r n e d . P a r tic ip a tio n w a s on a v o lu n ta ry b a s is , but no stu d e n ts r e q u e ste d e x c lu sio n fro m the stu d y. A n h ou r w a s r eq u ired to c o m p lete the t e s t b a tte r y in a c l a s s ro o m so th a t the e n tir e nine c l a s s e s w ere te s te d w ith in one w eek . The sa m e o r d e r of a d m in istr a tio n of the b a ttery w a s fo llo w ed in e v e r y c la s s r o o m . T h e F e s c a le and the CMAS w e r e a d m in iste r e d f i r s t in a 4 com b in ed b o o k let e n title d “ P e r s o n a l-V o c a tio n a l A ttitu d e s” to d is - ( jguise the n atu re of the stu d y. T h e C la s s r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S ca le 4 See A p pend ix I. [was g iv en la s t u n d er the title “ C la s s r o o m P r e fe r e n c e I n v e n to r y /' Standard in s tr u c tio n s w e re p rin ted on the fro n t page of a ll t e s t m a t e r i a ls and w e re rea d aloud by the te a c h e r . S ta tis tic a l P r o c e d u r e s and A n tic ip a te d R e s u lts C h ild r e n 's M a n ifest A n x ie ty S ca le S u b jects who r e c e iv e d lie s c o r e s of fiv e o r m o r e w e re e x clu d ed fr o m the r e m a in d e r of the stu d y on the a ssu m p tio n th at th e ir fak in g on the CM AS w ould p rob ab ly a ls o o c c u r on the F e s c a le . In e a ch of the s ix g ra d e and s e x s a m p le s , the h ig h e st 20 p e r cen t and the lo w e st 20 p e r cen t in te r m s of a n x ie ty s c o r e s w e re s e le c te d fo r co m p a ra tiv e p u r p o se s. T h e high and lo w a n x iety g r o u p s fo r e a c h of th e s ix s a m p le s w e re then co m p a red on the b a s is of th e ir s c o r e s on the Fe^ s c a le . T w o - b y -th r e e c la s s ific a t io n ta b le s fo r a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e w e r e s e t up and the e ff e c t s of F e s c o r e s upon grad e and a n x iety w ere a n a ly z ed . In t e r m s o f the h y p o th e sis it w as a n ticip a ted th at high a n x iety b o y s w ould have sig n ific a n tly h ig h er F e s c o r e s than low a n x ie ty b o y s . It w a s a ls o a n ticip a ted that high a n x iety g ir ls w ould have sig n ific a n tly h ig h e r F e s c o r e s than low a n x iety g ir ls . i C la s s r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S ca le In t e s tin g th e h y p o th e sis th at s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e r e la ted to s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e , it w a s n e c e s s a r y to s e le c t s u b je c ts w h ose « jsocial d ista n c e s c o r e s on the C la ssr o o m S o c ia l D ista n ce S ca le w e r e i n j i ; the h ig h e st 20 p e r cen t (low s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce) and the lo w e s t 20 p er c e n t (high s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e) of th e ir in d ivid u al c la s s r o o m s . F o llo w in g th is s e le c tio n p r o c ed u r e, the su b je c ts w e re p laced in th e ir ap p rop riate grad e and s e x g ro u p in g s. T h e high and low g rou p s w ere then com p ared on the b a s is of th e ir F e s c o r e s by m e a n s o f a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e . It w a s ex p e cted that b o y s who w e re high on the s o c ia l d ista n ce s c a le w ould have sig n ific a n tly h ig h er F e s c o r e s than b oys who w e re low on the s c a le . T h is would fo llo w if s o c ia l r e je c tio n i s a ss o c ia te d w ith high fe m in in ity in b o y s . F o r g ir ls it w as ex p e cted that th o se who sc o r e d high on the s o c ia l d ista n c e s c a le would a lso have sig n ific a n tly h ig h er Fe^ s c o r e s than th o se who had low s o c ia l d ista n ce s c o r e s . T h is i s in k eep in g w ith the h y p o th e sis that s o c ia l r e je c tio n i s a ss o c ia te d w ith high fe m in in ity in g ir ls . C u m u lative A ttend ance R ecord A b se n te e ism h a s b een defin ed in te r m s of the to ta l n u m ber of sc h o o l a b s e n c e s fo r any ca u se du rin g the sc h o o l y e a r the study w a s m a d e. F o r both s e x e s at e a ch grad e le v e l the su b je c ts w h o se C u m u la tiv e A tten d an ce R eco rd p laced th em in the h ig h e st 20 p e r cen t of a b s e n te e s w e re a ssig n e d to the high a b sen ce g ro u p s. T h o se w h ose R eco rd p laced th em in the lo w e st 20 per cen t w ere a ssig n e d to the low a b sen ce g r o u p s. T he F e s c o r e s of the c o m p a riso n grou p s w ere 44 pom pared b y m e a n s of a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e . ■ j ‘ E T he an ticip ated r e s u lt s of th e se c o m p a r iso n s w e r e that b o y s who had a h igh ra te of a b s e n te e ism w ould have c o r r e sp o n d in g ly h ig h er F e s c o r e s than w ould b o y s w h ose a b sen tee rate w a s lo w . G ir ls w ith h igh r a te s o f a b se n te e ism w ould a ls o be ex p ected to h ave sig n ific a n tly h ig h e r F e s c o r e s than g ir ls w ith low r a te s of a b s e n te e ism . 1 C H A P T E R IV R e s u lts S ta tis tic a l D e sc r ip tio n of the M ea su rin g In str u m e n ts T he F e m in in ity S ca le T ab le 4 p r e s e n ts , b y s e x a s w e ll as by g r a d e , the d e s c r ip tiv e s t a t is t ic s fo r the F e m in in ity S c a le , the in stru m en t w h ich m e a su r e d s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e in th is stu d y. A s would be e x p e c te d , g ir ls r e c e iv e d h ig h e r s c o r e s than b o y s b y a p p ro x im a te ly s ix m ea n p o in ts. T he sa m p lin g s w e r e rou gh ly e q u iv a le n t in th e ir d is p e r s io n s e x c e p t fo r ninth g ra d e b o y s who had a n a r r o w e r range o f s c o r e s . A ll the m ea n s c o r e s w e r e s lig h tly h ig h e r than th o se r ep o rted b y G ough (1957b) fo r high s c h o o l stu d e n ts. H o w ev er, th ey co m p a red fa v o r a b ly w ith G ough’s c o l le g e s a m p le s . T he m ea n fo r th e to ta l sa m p le of b o y s w as 16.97 w h ile fo r g ir ls the m ea n w a s 2 3 .3 2 . P lo t s of the d istr ib u tio n s fo r b o y s and g ir ls s e p a r a te ly r e v e a le d th em to be h ig h ly co m p a ra b le w ith r e s p e c t to ran ge and sh ap e of the c u r v e s . T h is d istr ib u tio n i s p r e se n te d in F ig u r e 1. In sp e c tio n of th e d istr ib u tio n s u g g e s ts that the a ssu m p tio n of n o r m a lc y m a y be m a d e . 45 40 \ i i T ab le 4 F e m in in ity S ca le M ean s and Standard D e v ia tio n s fo r the D iffe r e n t G rade L e v e ls and fo r B o y s and G ir ls S ep a ra tely Sex Seventh M SD G rade E ighth M SD Ninth M SD B o y s 17.70 (N = 49) 3.14 17.24 3.84 (N = 50) 16.20 (N = 57) 1.50 G ir ls 22.77 (N = 54) 3.35 23.54 3.68 (N = 51) 23.62 (N = 56) 3.25 4 7 mmmmMalBB (N = 156) F e m a le s (N = 161) 4 0 -j 3 5 - 3 0 - X 2 5 - ■ g 2 0 - 10 - 5 - 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 3 6 9 0 M idpoint of S core In ter v a l F ig . 1. F req u en cy polygon show ing p er cen t of su b je cts r e c e iv in g the in d ica ted s c o r e s on the F e m in in ity S cale of the C a lif o rn ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v en to ry . 4 3 ! The C h ild r e n 's M a n ifest A n x iety Scale T ab le 5 p r e s e n ts , by s e x a s w e ll a s by g r a d e , the d e sc r ip tiv e s t a t is t ic s fo r the C h ild r e n 's M a n ifest A n x iety S c a le , the in str u m e n t w h ich m e a su r e d a n x iety le v e l in th is stu d y. A g e n e r a l ten d en cy can be noted fo r the g ir ls to r e c e iv e h ig h er s c o r e s than the b o y s. T h is fin d in g i s c o n siste n t w ith o th er stu d ie s u sin g th is typ e of s c a le (T a y lo r , 1953; C a sta n ed a , e t a l., 1956; W ebb, 1961). F o r the g ir ls the m ean s c o r e w as 18.74 w h ile fo r b o y s the m ean w as 1 5 .7 6 . In sp ec tio n o f the sta n dard d e v ia tio n s s u g g e s ts that the s a m p le s are h o m o g en eo u s in reg a rd to th e ir v a r ia n c e s . P lo ts of the d istr ib u tio n s (F ig u re 2) fo r b oys and g ir ls s e p a r a te ly r e v e a l th at both d istr ib u tio n s are slig h tly p o s itiv e ly sk ew ed , “ but e s s e n t ia lly n o r m a l in th e ir d istr ib u tio n . F o r g ir ls the 50th p e r c e n tile f a lls at about 18, the 80th at about 27 and at about 11 fo r the 20th p e r c e n tile . F o r b o y s th e se p e r c e n tile s f e ll r e s p e c tiv e ly at about 15, 24, and 9. C la ss r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e Scale B e c a u se e a ch c la s s r o o m u sed in th is stu dy w as m u tu ally e x c lu s iv e of e a ch o th er c la s s r o o m in te r m s o f s c o r e s on the C l a s s ro o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S c a le , fre q u en cy d istr ib u tio n s w ere p lotted fo r e a ch s e x in e a ch c la s s r o o m . A lthough the r e su ltin g sa m p le s w ere v e r y s m a ll, the d istr ib u tio n s did have s im ila r itie s in th e ir slig h t p o sitiv e 49 T ab le 5 A n x iety S ca le M ean s and Standard D ev ia tio n s fo r the D iffer en t G rade L e v e ls and fo r B o y s and G ir ls S ep a ra tely Sex Seventh M SD G rade E ighth M SD Ninth M SD B o y s 16.48 (N = 49) 7 .7 8 15.66 7.21 (N = 50) 15.47 (N = 57) 7 .02 G ir ls 19.41 (N = 54) 7.33 19.86 7 .4 5 (N = 51) 18.89 (N = 56) 7.39 50 I M a les (N = 156) F e m a le s (N = 161) 21 - 18-1 1 5 - 12 - 9 - 6 - 3 - \ — 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 M idpoint of S co re In ter v a l F ig . 2. F r e q u en cy polygon show ing p er cen t of su b je c ts r e c e iv in g the in d ica ted s c o r e s on the C h ild r e n 's M a n ifest A n x iety S c a le . 5r sk ew in g . In sp ec tio n a ls o su g g e ste d that the d istr ib u tio n s w ere e s s e n - ! tia lly n o r m a l. A fte r high and low s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce grou p s had b een s e le c te d fro m the top 20 p e r cen t and the b ottom 20 p er cen t o f the s c o r e s , r e s p e c tiv e ly , in e a c h c la s s r o o m , th e se su b je c ts w ere com b in ed into la r g e r high and low s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce groups r e p r e se n tin g b o y s and g ir ls se p a r a te ly fo r the d iffe re n t grade le v e ls . T h e se la tte r grou p s w ere u sed in te stin g the h y p o th e sis reg a rd in g s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e and s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e. C u m u lative A ttend ance R eco rd F req u en cy d istr ib u tio n s of the n u m ber of d ays ab sen t a s rep o rted in the C u m u lative A tten d an ce R eco rd w ere plotted fo r b o y s and g ir ls se p a r a te ly and fo r the d iffe re n t grade le v e ls . A ll the d is t r i b u tion s w ere c h a r a c te r iz e d by m ark ed p o sitiv e sk ew in g . T h ere w as a ls o a g e n e r a l ten d en cy fo r b o y s to have a g r e a te r nu m ber of a b s e n c e s on the a v e ra g e than g ir ls . T h ere w ere no a p p recia b le d iffe r e n c e s in the n u m ber of a b s e n c e s by grade le v e l. The high and low a b sen ce grou p s w ere s e le c te d fo r ea ch s e x at the d ifferen t grade le v e ls on the b a s is of th e ir atten dan ce r e c o r d s , the top and bottom 20 p er cen t of the d istr ib u tio n s r e p r e se n tin g high and low a b se n c e , r e s p e c tiv e ly . T e s ts of the H y p o th eses In the a n a ly se s w hich fo llo w , the s c o r e s on the F e m in in ity S ca le w e re em p lo y ed a s c r ite r io n s c o r e s , w h ile the an xiety and s o c ia l 52 d is ta n c e s c o r e s and the n u m b er of a b s e n c e s w e r e u sed to c o n stitu te g ro u p s of high and low d e g r e e of the s p e c ific v a r ia b le ( i . e . , s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e ). W ith the u s e of 3 X 2 fa c to r ia l d e s ig n s , a n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e w e r e run fo r the fe m in in ity s c a le a s a fu n ction of th e a n x ie ty s c a le , the s o c ia l d ista n c e s c a le , and the atten d an ce d ata. S ep arate a n a ly s e s w e re m ad e fo r e a ch s e x on ea ch o f the th r e e d epend en t v a r ia b le s . F o r e a c h of the s e t s of d ata, C o ch ra n ’s t e s t of h o m o g e n e ity of v a r ia n c e (C o ch ra n , 1947) w a s e m p lo y e d . In no c a s e did C o ch ra n ’s t e s t r e a c h s ig n ific a n c e . T h is su g g e ste d th at the data e x a m in ed in the v a r io u s a n a ly s e s w e re s u ffic ie n tly h o m o g en eo u s to m e e t the c r ite r io n of h o m - o s c e d a s t ic it y p r e sc r ib e d by G u ilford (1 9 5 0 ). T he f ir s t m a jo r h y p o th e sis s ta te s that th e r e w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s and a n x iety w hen the s e x grou p in gs a r e c o n stitu te d b y grad e and le v e l of a n x ie ty . A s m a y be s e e n by r e fe r e n c e to T ab le 6, a sig n ific a n t F - r a t io fo r a n x iety w a s not found fo r the b o y s . T h ere w a s a ls o no sig n ific a n t grad e e ffe c t found. In stea d th e r e w as a s u r p r is in g ly sig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n e ffe c t (F = 9.77) b e tw e en grad e and a n x ie ty . T he c r it ic a l v a lu e s of F w ith 2 and 54 d e g r e e s of fre e d o m a r e 3 .1 8 and 5 .0 6 fo r s ig n ific a n c e at the 5 and 1 p e r cen t le v e ls , r e s p e c t iv e ly . A fu r th e r a n a ly s is o f th is in te r a c tio n e ffe c t is m ad e in the la s t s e c tio n o f th is c h a p te r . T ab le 7 sh o w s the r e s u lt s o f the a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e 53 T ab le 6 A n a ly s is of V a ria n ce o f F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and Low A n x iety B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e ls Sou rce df Sum of S q u ares M ean Square F A n x iety 1 .02 • o to .00 G rade 2 20.24 10.12 1.41 In tera ctio n 2 139.83 69.91 9 .7 7 * W ithin 54 386.10 7.15 T o ta l 59 546.19 ♦ S ign ifican t at .01 le v e l. T ab le 7 A n a ly s is of V arian ce of F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow A n x iety G ir ls at T h ree G rade L e v e ls Sou rce df Sum of S q u ares M ean Square F A n xiety 1 70.43 70.43 8.50* G rade 2 8.20 4 .1 0 .50 In tera ctio n 2 7.74 3.87 .45 W ithin 54 447.75 8.29 T o ta l 59 534.12 ♦Significant at .01 lev el. 54 p e r fo r m e d on the F e m in in ity S c a le d ata obtain ed fr o m the g ir le w hen | g r o u p s w e re se p a r a te d in to high and lo w le v e ls of a n x ie ty . T he p r e d ic ted r e la tio n sh ip b etw een se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e and a n x ie ty w a s sig n ific a n t (F = 8.50) at th e .01 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . T h e d ir e c tio n o f the r e la tio n i s one of h igh a n x ie ty ’s b ein g a s s o c ia te d w ith a h igh le v e l of se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e . T h e e ffe c ts o f grad e and the in te r a c tio n b e tw e en grad e and a n x ie ty w e r e not s ig n ific a n t. The se c o n d m a jo r h y p o th e sis i s th at th e r e w ill b e a r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e en s e x r o le and s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e w hen s e x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e i s u sed a s a c r ite r io n . T he a n a ly s e s of v a r ia n c e p e r fo r m ed on both the b o y s ’ d ata and the g i r l s ’ data in d ica ted no sig n ific a n t r e la tio n sh ip s of the n atu re p r e d ic te d . S im ila r ly , th e r e w e re no s ig n ific a n t g rad e o r in te r a c tio n e f f e c t s . T a b le s 8 and 9 r e v e a l the F - r a t io s w h ich w e r e o b ta in ed . A g a in , F - r a t io s of 3 .1 8 and 5 .0 6 w ere r e q u ir e d fo r sig n ific a n c e at the 5 and 1 p er cen t le v e ls . T he th ird m a jo r h y p o th e sis sta te d th at th e r e w ould be a r e l a tio n sh ip b e tw e en s e x r o le and s c h o o l a b s e n te e is m w hen th e F e m in in ity s c o r e s of su b je c ts w ith high r a te s of a b se n c e w e r e c o m p a re d w ith su b j e c t s h avin g low r a te s of a b s e n c e . T he a n a ly s e s of v a r ia n c e p e r fo r m e d bn th e d ata fr o m both b o y s and g ir ls (T a b le s 10 and 11) in d ic a te s ig n if i ca n t r e la tio n sh ip s do e x is t . F o r b o y s , the F - r a t io f o r a b se n c e w a s 1 1 .7 3 w h ile fo r g ir ls th e F - r a t io w a s 1 3 .5 6 . B oth th e s e fig u r e s a re s ig n ific a n t at the .01 le v e l. It had b e e n p r e d ic te d , h o w e v e r , that the i - ■ - ■ * * t I T ab le 8 j A n a ly s is of V a ria n ce o f F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow S o c ia l A ccep ta n ce B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e ls S ou rce df Sum of S q u ares M ean Square F A ccep ta n ce 1 2.81 2.81 .32 G rade 2 10.90 5.45 .63 In tera ctio n 2 1.64 .82 .09 W ithin 54 4 6 5 .9 0 8.62 T o ta l 59 4 8 1 .2 5 T ab le 9 A n a ly s is o f V a ria n ce o f F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow S o c ia l A ccep ta n ce G ir ls at T h ree G rade L e v e ls Sou rce df Sum of S q u ares M ean Square F A ccep ta n ce 1 14.01 14.01 1.16 G rade 2 18.23 9.12 .76 In tera ctio n 2 .84 .42 .04 W ithin 54 651.10 12.05 irotal 59 684.18 j Table 10 A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e o f F e m in in ity S c o r e s o f H igh and L ow A b se n c e B o y s at T h ree G rad e L e v e ls S ou rce df Sum o f S q u a res M ean Square F A b se n c e 1 93.75 9 3 .75 1 1 .7 3 * G rade 2 38.64 19.32 2.41 In ter a ctio n 2 25.90 1 2.95 1.62 W ithin 54 4 3 1 .9 0 7 .9 9 T o ta l 59 5 90.19 ♦ S ig n ifica n t at .01 le v e l. T ab le 11 A n a ly s is of V a ria n ce of F e m in in ity S c o r e s of H igh and L ow A b se n c e G ir ls at T h ree G rade L e v e ls S ou rce df Sum o f S q u ares M ean Square F A b se n c e 1 123.29 123.29 13 .5 6 * G rade 2 26.16 1 3 .08 1.43 In ter a ctio n 2 14.91 7.46 .82 W ithin 54 4 9 1 .0 0 9.0 9 T o ta l 59 655.36 ♦Significant at .01 lev el. ................................................" " W | d ir e c tio n of the r e la tio n w ould be one o f low a b se n c e b e in g a s s o c ia te d ! : i w ith s e x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e in b o y s and high a b se n c e b e in g a s s o c ia te d w ith s e x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e in g i r l s . In sp e c tio n of the r e s u lt s in d ic a te s that th e p r e d ic tio n w a s not su p p o rted . In fa c t, h igh a b se n c e w a s a s s o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s and low a b se n c e w a s a s s o c ia te d w ith s e x a p p ro p ria te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in g ir ls . T h us high r a te s o f a b s e n te e is m are a s s o c ia te d w ith lo w r a te s of fe m in in ity fo r both s e x e s . T h ere w e re no sig n ific a n t g ra d e o r in te r a c tio n e f f e c t s . A d d itio n a l P e r tin e n t D a ta B y m e a n s of _ t t e s t s , an a n a ly s is w a s m ad e o f the in te r a c tio n e ffe c t found w hen te s tin g the f ir s t h y p o th e sis w ith b o y s . W ith t^ v alu e a of 2.10 and 2 .8 8 n e c e s s a r y fo r s ig n ific a n c e at the .05 and .01 le v e ls , r e s p e c t iv e ly , the c o m p a r is o n s r e v e a le d no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e s b etw een high and low a n x iety se v e n th grad e b o y s ft = 1 .0 2 ). A t the eig h th g r a d e , h o w e v e r , low a n x iety b o y s had sig n ific a n tly lo w e r F e m i n in ity s c o r e s than high a n x iety b o y s (t^= 2 .8 8 ). T h is fin d in g w a s c o n s is t e n t w ith the p r e d ic tio n that low a n x ie ty w ould be a s s o c ia te d w ith s e x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . W ith the ninth g ra d e b o y s , the d ir e c tio n of the r e s u lt s i s r e v e r s e d . B o y s w ith h igh a n x iety s c o r e s had sig n ific a n tly lo w e r F e m in in ity s c o r e s than did b o y s w ith low a n x ie ty s c o r e s (t^= 2 .9 2 ). T h is w ould s e e m to s u g g e s t th at fo r ninth grad e b o y s. 5* at le a s t , high a n x iety i s a s s o c ia te d w ith m ak in g a se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le ! | | I i p r e fe r e n c e . T ab le 12 sh o w s the r e s u lts o f the t^ tests w hich w e r e c a r r ie d out on the F e m in in ity d ata fo r th e high and low a n x ie ty g ro u p s o f b o y s. 59 T ab le 12 C o m p a riso n of M ean F e m in in ity S cale S c o r e s by T e st: H igh and Low A n x iety B o y s at T h ree G rade L e v e ls G roups N M SD t_ E 7th HA 10 16.30 2.65 1.02 NS 7th LA 10 17.90 2.16 8th HA 10 19.10 1.70 2.88 .01 8th LA 10 14.80 4 .1 4 9th HA 10 14.50 2.33 2.92 .01 9th LA 10 17.10 1.30 1 C H A PTER V D is c u s s io n F ir s t H y p o th esis The f ir s t h y p o th e sis w as: In the ju n ior high sc h o o l g r a d e s, w h ere se x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s a re com p ared w ith high and low a n x iety , th ere w ill be a r ela tio n sh ip b etw een s e x r o le and a n x iety . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n b etw een low a n x iety and high se x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s. In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , high a n x iety b ein g a ss o c ia te d with high s e x - a p p rop riate ro le p r e fe r e n c e s . F o r b o y s, the m a jo r ten et of the f ir s t h y p o th e sis did not r e c e iv e e x p e r im e n ta l v e r ific a tio n . B y ex a m in in g the in d ivid u al grad e le v e ls so m e su pp ort can b e given to the h y p o th e sis w ith eigh th grade b o y s. H o w ev er, what ap p ears m o re apparent is the e ffe c t of grade or age upon se x r o le and a n x iety . A lthough not at a sig n ific a n t le v e l, th ere i s a ten d en cy fo r high a n xiety b o y s of sev en th grad e age to m ake m o r e se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s than low a n xiety b o y s of the sa m e a g e . A s w a s n oted , at the eigh th grade the trend r e v e r s e s sig n ific a n tly in the d ir e c tio n p red icted in the h y p o th e sis. At the ninth grade the r e la tio n sh ip r e v e r ts sig n ific a n tly to that r e v e a le d at the sev en th g r a d e . 60 ...........................- ....................... “ gij , l O ne s u s p e c ts , th en , th at fo r b o y s we a r e s e e in g th e phenom enon f r e - j ! I q u en tly o b se r v e d by e d u c a to r s that the eig h th grad e r e p r e s e n ts a m a rk ed ly d istu rb in g p erio d in th e life o f an a d o le s c e n t. T h is m a y w e ll be the y e a r the O ed ip a l rea w a k en in g is at it s peak in b o y s , c r e a tin g an in te n sifie d attem p t b y the in d iv id u a l to a c h ie v e an a p p ro p ria te s e x r o le and w ith a n x ie ty a r o u se d when a fu ll tu rn tow ard m a s c u lin ity i s not a c h ie v e d . If th is th e o r e tic a l n otion i s c o r r e c t, th en the se v en th and ninth g r a d e s m ig h t ap p ear e n ig m a tic . S e v e r a l a v e n u e s of sp e c u la tio n a r e su g g e ste d . It i s c o n c e iv a b le that high a n x iety in the se v en th and ninth g r a d e s is a s s o c ia te d w ith so m e a sp e c t of the ju n ior high s c h o o l e n v ir o n m e n t. A t the se v en th grad e it m ig h t be the ad ju stm en t to g r e a te r in d ep en d en ce and the b rea k in g of t ie s w ith a sin g le te a c h e r , u su a lly a m o th e r fig u r e . In a sm u ch a s the d a ta in th is stu dy w e re c o lle c te d e a r ly in th e s c h o o l y e a r , th is s e e m s a ten ab le ex p la n a tio n . A t the ninth g ra d e, the p r e s s u r e to s e le c t a m a jo r and a p r o sp e c tiv e v o c a tio n m a y be a n x iety a r o u sin g to the b o y , e s p e c ia lly p erh a p s the e x tr e m e ly m a sc u lin e one who s e e s h is r e s p o n s ib ilitie s a s a p o te n tia l w age e a r n e r m o re c le a r ly . It i s a ls o p o s sib le th at s tr iv in g to m a in ta in a m a sc u lin e Irole i s fo r the b o y s in both th e s e age g ro u p s s t r e s s f u l enough to be a s s o c ia te d w ith m a n ife s t a n x ie ty . A n oth er p o s s ib ility m ig h t be th at the b o y who i s s e c u r e in h is m a sc u lin e r o le i s w illin g to ad m it to c e r ta in fe m in in e in t e r e s t s and a ttitu d e s. A ssu m in g that any o r a ll th e s e S u g g e stio n s m a y b e in flu e n c in g the r e s u lt s , the eig h th grad e r e v e r s a l I I ! i cou ld be c o n c e p tu a liz e d a s a b r ie f O ed ip a l rea w a k en in g . F u r th e r r e s e a r c h m ig h t p rovid e so m e a n s w e r s to th is p r o b le m . S u b sta n tia l e x p e r im e n ta l su p p ort w a s g iv e n the m a jo r te n e t o f th e f i r s t h y p o th e sis w ith g ir ls . T he d ir e c tio n o f the r e la tio n sh ip w a s a ls o c o r r e c tly p red icted fo r a ll grad e le v e ls in th is stu d y . T h u s high a n x iety i s a s s o c ia te d w ith a high le v e l of se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e in g i r l s . T h is w ould s e e m to b e e v id e n c e in su p p ort o f th e n otion th at the fe m a le r o le i s in a sta te of ch a n g e, and th at ste r e o ty p e d f e m i nine b e h a v io r c r e a te s s t r e s s in the e a r ly a d o le sc e n t g ir l who is attem p tin g to m a s te r h e r n ew fe m a le r o le . T he e v id e n c e w ould a ls o ap p ear to su p p ort the th e o r y th at the g ir l who m a k e s a v e r y str o n g fem in in e id e n tific a tio n and w ho sh o w s no in te r e s t in b o y s a s r e a c tio n s to O ed ip a l w is h e s w ill a ls o e x p e r ie n c e c o n sid e r a b le te n s io n . T h is im p lie s that the O ed ip al rea w a k en in g in g ir ls e x te n d s o v e r a lo n g e r p erio d of tim e than in b o y s . O ne w ould n eed to stu d y th is p h en om en on o v e r a m uch w id e r age ran ge than u sed in th e p r e se n t sa m p le to v e r ify th is n otion . Second H y p o th esis T he seco n d h y p o th e sis s ta te s : In the ju n io r h igh s c h o o l g r a d e s, w h ere s e x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e co m p a red w ith high and low s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e , th e r e w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n s e x r o le and 63 i ■ o o ia l a c c e p ta n c e . T h ia w ill b e in the d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n I l b e tw e en h igh s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e and high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s . In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , low s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e b e in g a s s o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . N o e x p e r im e n ta l su p p ort w as found fo r any part of the se co n d h y p o th e sis w ith e ith e r b o y s o r g ir ls . A t f ir s t g la n ce th is w ould s e e m to be an in c o n s is te n t find in g in r e la tio n to o th er e a r lie r o b se r v a tio n s and s tu d ie s . H o w ev er, a s w a s noted in the r e v ie w o f the lite r a tu r e , th e r e i s e v id e n c e w hich s u g g e s ts c o n fu sio n in the g ir l’s s e x r o le a s it d e v e lo p s d u rin g e a r ly a d o le s c e n c e . P e r h a p s su ch co n fu sio n i s a ls o o c c u r r in g in the b o y ’s s e x r o le . T he new fr e e d o m and new a c tiv itie s of w om en and g ir ls m a y a ffe c t the b o y ’s r o le and co n fu se h is co n cep tio n o f h is p ro p e r p la ce in e v e r y d a y liv in g . In sh o r t, the m a sc u lin e r o le m a y be b e c o m in g m o r e c o m p lic a te d b y the w om an’s a ssu m p tio n of r o le s w h ich w e r e p r e v io u sly m a s c u lin e . T h is m ay be e s p e c ia lly tru e in a m id d le - c la s s population su ch a s w a s u sed in th is stu d y . T he r o le c o n fu s io n w hich w e are su g g e s tin g m a y b e o p era tin g in both b o y s and g ir ls c o u ld in turn be c a u sin g a la ck of c o n s is te n c y in the s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e w h ich i s a c c o r d e d the m a sc u lin e and th e fem in in e q u a litie s in both Isex e s. S ex r o le c o n fu sio n in b o y s m ig h t a ls o acco u n t fo r the r e s u lts d is c u s s e d e a r lie r w ith the a n x iety s c a le . A n o th er ex p la n a tio n o f the r e s u lt s m a y lie in the C la s s r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S ca le a s a m e a s u r e o f s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e . T he 6* in str u m e n t h a s a n arrow r e p e r to ir e of r e s p o n s e s and i s e x tr e m e in it s ! I : p e e r Judgm ents at i t s tw o p o le s . It w a s quite c le a r th at the su b je c ts in th is study w ere u n w illin g to m ak e m an y ju d gm en ts to th e e ffe c t “ I w ish he w e r e n ot in th is c la s s .* 1 T h ere w a s , in s te a d , a ten d en cy f o r the m a jo r ity o f r e s p o n s e s to b e in th e n e u tr a l o r slig h tly p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n . T he “ tim e s o c ia l iso la tes* * m a y not th e r e fo r e h ave b e e n d e te c te d b y the f s c a le . In a r e p lic a tio n o f th is study it w ould be a d v isa b le to u se a m o r e su b tle s o c io m e tr ic d e v ic e . T h ird H y p o th esis T he th ird h y p o th e sis stated : In the ju n io r high s c h o o l g r a d e s , w h ere se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e co m p a red w ith high and lo w a b sen tee r e c o r d s , th e re w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een s e x r o le and a b s e n te e is m . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n b etw een lo w a b s e n te e is m and se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s . In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , high a b s e n te e is m b ein g a s s o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s . W hile th e m a jo r ten et of the th ird h y p o th e sis r e c e iv e d e x p e r i m e n ta l su p p o rt fo r both b o y s and g ir ls , the p r e d ic tio n a s to the d ir e c tio n of th e r e la tio n fo r both s e x e s w a s in c o r r e c t. F o r the b o y s in th is I stu d y , a str o n g m a sc u lin e b ia s in r o le p r e fe r e n c e w a s found to be a s s o c ia te d w ith h igh r a te s of a b s e n c e . F o r the g ir ls th e r e w a s a s im ila r r e s u lt, a m a sc u lin e r o le p r e fe r e n c e b ia s b e in g a s s o c ia te d w ith 69 \ g r e a te r a b s e n te e is m . T h e r e fo r e th e r e s e e m s to b e a d e fin ite r ela tio n -; sh ip b etw een m a sc u lin ity and atten d an ce p r o b le m s in the ju n io r high s c h o o l pop ulation u n der stu d y . T h is fin d in g c a s t s so m e doubt upon the p sy ch o a n a ly tic n o tio n s o f flig h t and w ith d raw al w hich w e re allu d ed to in the ra tio n a le fo r th is stu d y . It i s in te r e s tin g to sp e c u la te why th is m a y b e s o . If w e a c c e p t a p r e m is e th at e x c e s s iv e s c h o o l a b se n c e in the e a r ly a d o le sc e n t i s a fo r m of a ctin g out b e h a v io r , th en it m a y a lso be th a t c e r ta in fo r m s of a b s e n te e ism at th is age r e p r e s e n t the in d iv id u a l’s a ttem p ts at b e c o m in g m o r e ind ep en dent o f a u th o rity . It m a y a ls o be th at e x c e s s iv e a b sen ce r e p r e s e n ts an a g g r e s s iv e p r o te s t a g a in st o th er a s p e c ts of s c h o o l atten d an ce su ch a s p r e s s u r e s fr o m the hom e fo r o u t stan d in g a c h ie v e m e n t. S in ce s tr iv in g fo r g r e a te r in d ep en d en ce and a g g r e s s iv e b e h a v io r are often a s s o c ia te d w ith m a s c u lin ity , it w ould fo llo w that b o y s and g ir ls who sh ow g r e a te r m a sc u lin e r o le p r e fe r e n c e m ig h t d isc h a r g e th e ir te n s io n s in a p a s siv e a g g r e s s iv e m a n n er through an in c r e a s e d fre q u en cy o f sta y in g aw ay fr o m sc h o o l. T h is cou ld o ften be in th e g u is e o f feig n ed i lln e s s , a fr e q u en tly o b se r v e d phenom enon in the ju n io r h igh sc h o o l. F r o m a m e n ta l h ea lth point of v ie w , the in d i v id u a ls who handle th e ir e m o tio n a l p r o b le m s in th is w ay m a y fa r e b e tte r than th o se who show a fe m in in e r o le p r e fe r e n c e , who m a y be m o r e r e a d ily in tim id a ted , and who m a y attend s c h o o l through p a s s iv e c o m p lia n c e but r e a c t with o th e r sy m p to m a tic b e h a v io r . T h is v iew p o in t SB i s in k eep in g w ith fu n d am en tal p sy ch o a n a ly tic thought. A d d itio n a l r e - | s e a r c h in th is a r e a p r o m is e s to be v e r y fr u itfu l. A n oth er avenue of ex p la n a tio n of o u r r e s u lts i s su g g e s te d b y H avigh u rat’s (1953) o b se r v a tio n that a d o le sc e n t g ir ls a r e m o r e in te r e s te d in sc h o o l and in lea r n in g p e r s e than are b o y s. O th er w r ite r s h ave im p lie d th at in t e r e s ts in rea d in g , s p e llin g , a r t and m u s ic , a ll of w h ich a re req u ired su b je c ts in ju n ior high sc h o o l, are p r e d o m in a te ly a s s o c ia te d w ith fe m in in e in te r e s t p a tte r n s. It m a y th e r e fo r e be th at b o y s and g ir ls who have high fem in in e r o le p r e fe r e n c e s find th e ir g r e a te s t s a tis fa c tio n s and s e c u r ity in good s c h o o l a tten d a n ce. S in ce the p e e r group d o e s not ap p ear to e x e r t any s p e c ia l s o c ia l s tig m a upon high fe m in in ity , the s c h o o l m a y a c tu a lly s e r v e a s a d e fe n siv e refu g e fo r the b o y and g ir l who a r e tro u b led by th e ir fe m in in ity . Such ch ild ren m ig h t b e e x p e c te d to throw a ll th e ir p sy ch ic e n e r g ie s in to b ein g m o d e l stu d e n ts and f a il to b e c o m e w e ll in te g ra te d p e r s o n a litie s . U sin g s c h o o l a s a d e fe n se could a ls o d e la y o r im p ed e a s u c c e s s f u l r e so lu tio n o f the sex r o le d ile m m a and lea d to e v e n g r e a te r p r o b le m s in the fu tu r e . T h is w ould not be in c o n s is te n t w ith B row n ’s n otion s (1958a) r eg a r d in g s e x - r o le in v e r s io n . S u g g ested A r e a s fo r F u r th e r R e se a r c h The fo r e g o in g d is c u s s io n h a s su g g e ste d b r ie fly so m e a r e a s w hich m ig h t r e s u lt in p rod u ctive fu tu re r e s e a r c h . A n a m p lific a tio n of 6 1 ? th e se su g g e stio n s i s ap p rop riate h e r e . A r e p lic a tio n o f th is stu dy w ith a g r e a te r age range o f su b je c ts sh ould be m a d e. Id ea l w ould be a stu dy o f k in d erg a rten age through the tw elfth g r a d e . In stru m en tation would be d ifficu lt in su ch a c a s e , h o w ev er. M ore p r a c tic a l m igh t be a study of the a g e s nine through e ig h tee n . A s w a s su g g e ste d e a r lie r , a m o r e s e n s itiv e in stru m en t fo r a s s e s s in g s o c io m e tr ic sta tu s should be em p lo y ed . The techn iqu e em p lo y ed by G ray (1957) m igh t be adapted fo r u se w ith the age range reco m m en d ed h e r e . It m igh t a ls o be in te r e stin g to approach the m a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity d im en sio n from a d iffe re n t point of v ie w . F o r ex a m p le , se x -a p p r o p r ia te b eh a v io r m igh t be b a sed upon d e fin itio n s of se x -a p p r o p r ia te n e s s of the v a r io u s age grou p s in v o lv ed . T h is m igh t not only be a m o re e x a ctin g m e a su r e of s e x r o le , but would probably m ak e the s o c ia l accep ta n ce h y p o th e se s b e a r m ore fr u it. A n oth er p o s sib le approach w hich h a s not had m uch e m p h a sis in p r e v io u s stu d ie s would be the u se of a p r o je c tiv e d ev ice fo r the a s s e s s m e n t of s e x ro le p r e fe r e n c e . It w a s p r e v io u sly co n jectu red that high a n xiety and a m a sc u lin e s e x r o le p r e fe r e n c e in e a r ly a d o le sc e n t b o y s could be an in d ica tio n th at the boy who is se c u r e in h is m a sc u lin e ro le i s w illin g to ad m it to c e r ta in fem in in e in te r e s ts and a ttitu d e s. T h is cou ld be in v e s tig a ted alon g w ith an attem p t to stu dy the p o s s ib ility that m ain tain in g a m a sc u lin e s e x ro le i s a n x iety a ro u sin g in th is sa m e group of b o y s. 68 i In a sm u ch a s s e x r o le c o n fu sio n h a s b e e n h y p o th e size d to : i e x is t in both b o y s and g ir ls in e a r ly a d o le s c e n c e , an in v e stig a tio n sh ou ld be d ev elo p ed to t e s t t h is n otion . U pw ard r e v is io n in the age ran ge r e p r e se n te d in th is stu d y m ig h t y ie ld in fo rm a tio n r e g a r d in g w hen the c o n fu sio n d im in ish e s and at what age a fir m s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e is m a d e . F in a lly , an im p o rta n t su b je ct fo r fu tu re r e s e a r c h m ig h t in v o lv e an in v e stig a tio n of the b e h a v io r a l c o r r e la t e s of high fe m in in ity in both s e x e s . B e h a v io r s to be stu d ied m igh t in clu d e v a r io u s fo r m s of a g g r e s s iv e a c tin g ou t, ly in g , s te a lin g and ch ea tin g . I CHAPTER VI S u m m ary and C o n c lu sio n s A u th o r itie s d ea lin g w ith the p e r so n a lity d ev elo p m en t and a d ju stm en t of b o y s and g ir ls a re co n tin u a lly s t r e s s in g the m a jo r im p o r tan ce o f a c h iev in g the r o le ap p rop riate to o n e ’s s e x . W hile th e re a re a n u m b er of stu d ie s d e a lin g w ith the m a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity d im e n sio n a s it r e la te s to adult ad ju stm en t, th e re i s a p au city of r e s e a r c h lite r a tu r e ex a m in in g se x -a p p r o p r ia te ro le p r e fe r e n c e s and ad ju stm en t in c h ild h ood . T h is la ck of r e s e a r c h h a s b een a c u te ly fe lt in the a r e a of a d o le sc e n t d e v e lo p m en t. It w a s the p u rp ose of the p r e se n t study to in v e stig a te the p o s sib le r e la tio n sh ip s w hich m ig h t e x is t b etw een se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in e a r ly a d o le s c e n ts and v a r io u s in d ic e s o f ad ju stm en t. T he study w a s b a sed on the a ssu m p tio n that th e a d o le sc e n t m a le w ill en h an ce h is ad ju stm en t if he i s ab le to m ake a m a sc u lin e s e x r o le p r e fe r e n c e w h ile the a d o le sc e n t fe m a le w ill enhan ce h e r ad ju stm en t if h e r s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e i s fle x ib le . T h e se a ssu m p tio n s we re b a se d in | part upon p sy ch o a n a ly tic thinking and in p art upon o b s e r v a tio n s of cu ltu r a l p h en om en a. F r o m th e se a ssu m p tio n s, th r e e h y p o th e se s w e re d e r iv e d in r e g a r d to s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s and ad ju stm en t in a p s y c h o lo g ic a l, a s o c ia l, and an ed u ca tio n a l o r b e h a v io r a l fr a m e o f ' 1 ! r e fe r e n c e . T he m a jo r ten et o f e a c h h y p o th e sis i s a s fo llo w s: 1. W here se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e co m p a red w ith high and low a n x ie ty , th e r e w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b etw een s e x r o le and a n x ie ty . T h is w ill be in th e d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n b etw een low a n x ie ty and high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s . In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , h igh a n x iety b e in g a s s o c ia te d w ith high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . 2. W here se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e co m p a red w ith high and low s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e , th ere w ill be a r e la tio n sh ip b e tw een s e x r o le and s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tio n of an a s s o c ia tio n b e tw e en high s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e and high se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s. In g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , low s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e b ein g a s s o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . 3. W here se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s a r e co m p a red w ith high and low a b sen tee r e c o r d s , th e re w ill b e a r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e en s e x r o le and a b s e n te e is m . T h is w ill be in the d ir e c tio n of an a ss o c ia tio n b e tw e en low a b s e n te e is m and se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s in b o y s , tn g ir ls the d ir e c tio n w ill be r e v e r s e d , high a b s e n te e is m b ein g a s s o c ia te d w ith se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s . M ethod S u b jects w e re draw n fr o m a p r e d o m in a te ly m id d le - c la s s ■.......................................................................................... ■ ............. 71] C a u c a sia n ju n io r high s c h o o l in so u th ern C a lifo r n ia . G rou p s fo r e a c h ! I ; ! i s e x and fo r e a c h o f th r e e grad e le v e ls w e r e sa m p le d fr o m the to ta l stu d y pop u lation o f 161 g ir ls and 156 b o y s . T he independent v a r ia b le o f th is stu d y w as s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e and the in stru m en t s e le c te d to t e s t fo r it w a s th e F e m in in ity S ca le o f G ou gh 's C a lifo r n ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v en to ry . T he d epend en t v a r ia b le s w e re a n x ie ty , s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e , and a b s e n te e is m . A n x ie ty le v e l w a s m e a s u r e d b y the C h ild r e n 's M a n ifest A n x ie ty S c a le . S o c ia l a c c e p ta n ce w as d efin ed in t e r m s o f s c o r e s on the C la s s r o o m S o c ia l D ista n c e S c a le . A b se n te e ism w a s m e a su r e d by the C u m u lative A tten d an ce R e c o r d . F o r b o y s it w a s p r e d icte d that high fe m in in ity w ould b e a s s o c ia te d w ith high a n x ie ty , low s o c ia l a c c e p ta n c e , and a high r a te of s c h o o l a b s e n c e . T he sa m e p r e d ic tio n s w e re m ade fo r g ir ls . C o m p a riso n grou p s w e r e e sta b lish e d fo r te s tin g e a c h h yp oth e s i s at the se p a r a te g ra d e le v e ls and by s e x . T h e se g ro u p s w e re c o m p o sed of the top and b ottom 20 p e r cen t of the d istr ib u tio n s of e a c h of the m e a s u r e s of the d epend en t v a r ia b le s . A n a ly s e s of v a r ia n c e w e re m ad e in a ll in s ta n c e s . i R e su lts 1. C o m p a r iso n s of high and low a n x ie ty b o y s did not su p p ort th e h y p o th e sis that a n x iety w ould be r e la te d to ap p rop riate s e x - r o le TV C aucasian Junior M ^i i r l m t In ip ih a r n C alifornia. Groups fo r each ! t s e x and fo r each o f d u o s grads Iso s is v e r t sam pled fr o m th e t o ta l stu d y population o f I t l g ir ls and I N b oys. T bs tndspondsm variable o f Ib is study was a sx -ro le p re fe r- ern e and tbs Inalfiuues* soloctsd to to st fo r it was the F em ininity Scale o f Gough's ja P sych ological Inventory. The dependent v a ria b le s w ere anxiety, so c ia l acceptance, and ab sen teeism . A nxiety level w a s m easured by the C hildren’s M anifest Anxiety Scale. Social accep ta n c e was defined In term s of s c o re s on the C lassro o m Social D is ta n c e S c a le . A bsenteeism was m easu red by the C um ulative A tte n d a n c e R ecord. F o r boys it w as predicted that high fe m in in ity w ou ld b e a s s o c ia te d with high anxiety, low so cial acceptance, and a h igh r a te of s c h o o l ab sen ce. The sam e predictio n s w e r e m a d e f o r g i r l s . C om parison groups w ere estab lish ed f o r t e s t in g e a c h h y p o th e s i s at the se p a ra te grade levels and by sex. T h e s e g r o u p s w e r e c o m p o se d of the top and bottom 20 p e r cent of th e d is tr ib u tio n s of e a c h of th e m e a su re s of the dependent v a ria b le s. A n a ly s e s o f v a r ia n c e w e r e mci.de in a ll in stan ces. R esults 1. C om parisons of high and lo w a n x ie ty b o y s d id n ot su p p o r t th e hypothesis that anxiety w ou ld b e r e la te d to a p p r o p r ia te s e x - r o l e T3 p r e fe r e n c e . ' i i 2. A n in te ra c tio n e ffe c t show ed that eigh th grad e b o y s did su p p ort the p r e d ictio n . H o w ev er, ninth grad e b o y s who w e r e high in a n x iety w e re noted to have m ade se x -a p p r o p r ia te r o le p r e fe r e n c e s , a fin d in g o p p o site of that p r e d icte d . 3. C o m p a riso n s of high and low a n x iety g ir ls su p p orted the h y p o th e sis that a n xiety w ould be r e la te d to ap p rop riate s e x - r o le p r e f e r e n c e . G ir ls who w e re high in a n x iety w e re a ls o high in th e ir fe m a le s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e . 4 . C o m p a riso n s of high and low s o c ia l a ccep ta n ce b o y s and g ir ls did not su p p ort the h y p o th e sis that s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e w ould be rela ted to ap p rop riate s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e . 5. C o m p a riso n s of high and low a b sen ce b o y s and g ir ls su p p orted the h y p o th e sis that a b s e n te e ism w ould be r e la te d to ap p rop riate s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e . H o w ev er, the d ir e c tio n of the a ss o c ia tio n w as the r e v e r s e of that p red icted fo r both s e x e s . B o y s who had p oor a tte n dance r e c o r d s w ere found to m ak e s e x - r o le p r e fe r e n c e s w hich w ere m a sc u lin e w h ile the sa m e held tru e fo r g ir ls . C o n clu sio n s The fin d in g s w e re reg a rd ed a s o ffe r in g so m e lim ite d su p p ort to the p sy ch o a n a ly tic th eo ry of d ev elo p m en t. It w a s a ls o su g g e ste d th at the m a le a s w e ll a s the fe m a le r o le m a y be in a sta te o f co n fu sio n .......................... 73 during the p erio d o f e a r ly a d o le s c e n c e . A p o ssib le la ck of c o n s is t e n c y ! f : ! j in the s o c ia l a c ce p ta n c e w hich i s a cco rd ed the m a sc u lin e and the fem in in e q u a litie s in both s e x e s w a s n oted . It w a s a ls o su g g e ste d that b o y s and g ir ls who have u n u su ally high fem in in e r o le p r e fe r e n c e s find th e ir g r e a te s t sa tisfa c tio n s and s e c u r ity in good sc h o o l atten d an ce, but m a y a ls o u se sc h o o l a s a d e fe n se w hich could d e la y a s u c c e s s fu l r e s o lu tion of the s e x ro le d ilem m a . F u tu re r e s e a r c h w a s su g g e ste d w hich in clu d ed a r e p lic a tio n of the p r e se n t study w ith d iffe re n t m eth o d o lo g y and a w id er age range of su b je c ts . O th er r e s e a r c h p o s s ib ilitie s w ere a ls o d is c u s s e d . i R E F E R E N C E S R E FE R E N C E S A ltu c h e r , N . C o n flict in s e x id e n tific a tio n in b o y s. D is s e r ta tio n A b s tr ., 1958, l j , 1 4 8 7 -1 4 8 8 . B io s , P . P r e a d o le s c e n t d riv e o r g a n iza tio n . J . A m e r . P sy c h o a n a l. A s s ., 1958, 6, 4 7 -5 6 . B o g a rd u s, E . S. A s o c ia l d ista n ce s c a le . S o c io l. s o c . R e s ., 1933, 1J7, 2 6 5 -2 7 1 . B row n , D . G . In v e r sio n and h o m o sex u a lity . A m e r. J . O r th o p sy c h ia t., 1958a. 28, 4 2 4 -4 2 9 . B row n , D . G . The It S ca le fo r C h ild r e n . G rand F o r k s, N orth D akota: P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s t S p e c ia lis ts , 1956a. B row n , D . G . M a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity d ev elo p m en t in c h ild r e n . jJ. c o n su lt. P s y c h o l., 1957, 2jL, 1 9 7 -2 0 3 . B row n , D . G . S e x -r o le d ev elo p m en t in a changin g c u ltu r e . P s y c h o l. B u ll., 1958b, §£, 2 3 2 -2 4 2 . B row n , D . G . S e x -r o le p r e fe r e n c e in young ch ild re n . P s y c h o l. M on ogr., 1956b, ^70, N o. 14. C a m ero n , N . The p sy ch o lo g y of b eh a v io r d is o r d e r s . New Y ork: H oughton M ifflin , 1947. C a sta n ed a , A ., M cC a n d le ss, B . R ., and P a le r m o , D . S. The c h ild r e n 's fo r m o f the m a n ife st a n xiety s c a le . C hild D e v e lp m ., 1956, 3 1 7 -3 2 6 . C och ran , W. G. Som e c o n se q u e n c e s w hen the a ssu m p tio n s fo r the a n a ly s is of v a r ia n ce a re not s a tis fie d . B io m e t r ic s , 1947, ^ 3, 22. C onn, J . H. C h ild r e n 's a w a r e n e ss of s e x d iffe r e n c e s , II. P la y a ttitu d es and gam e p r e fe r e n c e s . J . c h ild P s y c h ia t., 1951, 2 , 8 2 -9 9 . i 75 C u nn in gham , R uth. U n d ersta n d in g group b e h a v io r of b o y and g i r l s . N ew Y ork: B u rea u of P u b lic a tio n s , T e a c h e r s C o lle g e , C o lu m b ia j U n iv e r s ity , 1951. D u nb ar, F la n d e r s . M ind and body: p sy c h o so m a tic m e d ic in e . N ew Y ork: R andom H o u se, 1955. B r ik so n , E . H . C hildhood and s o c ie t y . N ew Y ork: W. W. N o rto n , 1950. E r ik so n , E . H. S ex d iffe r e n c e s in the p lay c o n fig u r a tio n s of p r e - a d o le s c e n ts . A m e r . J . O r th o p sy c h ia t.. 1951, 21, 6 6 7 -6 9 2 . F a u ls , L y d ia , and S m ith , W. D . S e x -r o le lea r n in g of f iv e - y e a r - o ld s . J . g e n e t. P s y c h o l., 1956,^89, 1 0 5 -1 1 7 . F e n ic h e l, O . T h e p sy ch o a n a ly tic th e o r y of n e u r o s is . N ew Y ork: W. W. N orton , 1945. F r e u d , S. T h e e g o and the id . London: H ogarth P r e s s , 1935. F r e u d , S. T h re e co n trib u tio n s to a th e o r y of s e x . (1905) N ew Y ork: M odern L ib r a r y , 1944. G e s e ll, A ., l l g , F r a n c e s , L e a r n e d , J ., and A m e s , L . B . Infant and ch ild in the cu ltu r e of today: th e gu id an ce of d e v e lo p m en t in h om e and n u r s e r y s c h o o l. N ew Y ork: H a rp er , 1943. G e s e ll, A ., Ilg , F r a n c e s , A m e s , L . B . Y ou th — the y e a r s fr o m te n to s ix te e n . N ew Y ork: H a rp er , 1956. G oodenough, E v e ly n W. In te r e s t in p e r s o n s a s an a s p e c t of s e x d if f e r e n c e s in the e a r ly y e a r s . G en et. P s y c h o l. M o n o g r., 1957, 55, 2 8 7 -3 2 3 . G ough, H. G . C a lifo r n ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v e n to r y . P a lo A lto , C a lifo r nia: C o n su ltin g P s y c h o lo g is ts P r e s s , 1957a. G ough, H. G . M anual fo r the C a lifo r n ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v e n to r y . P a lo A lto , C a lifo rn ia : C o n su ltin g P s y c h o lo g is ts P r e s s , 1957b. G o r e r , G . T he A m e r ic a n p eo p le: a stu d y in n a tio n a l c h a r a c te r . N ew Y ork: W. W. N orton , 1948. G ra y , S u san W. M a sc u lin ity -fe m in in ity in r e la tio n to a n x ie ty and so c ia l a c c e p ta n c e . C h ild D e v e lp m ., 1957, 2£, 2 0 3 -2 1 3 . .......................................... ' ... T 7 ! G reen , A . W. S o c io lo g y . N ew Y ork: M cG raw H ill, 1952. j i | . | G u ilford , J . P . F u n d am en tal s t a t is t ic s in p sy ch o lo g y and ed u c a tio n . N ew Y ork: M cG ra w -H ill, 1950. H a v ig h u rst, R . J . H um an d ev elo p m en t and ed u c a tio n . N ew Y ork: L on g m a n s, G re en , 1953. H e lp e r , M . M . L ea rn in g th e o r y and the s e lf co n c ep t. J . ab n orm . e o c . P ey e h o i., 1955, J51, 1 8 4 -1 9 4 . H onzik, M . P . Sex d iffe r e n c e s in the o c c u r r e n c e of m a te r ia ls in the p la y c o n str u c tio n s o f p r e -a d o le s c e n ts . C h ild D e v e lp m ., 1951, 22, 1 5 -3 6 . I s c o e , 1. and C och ran , Ir e n e . Som e c o r r e la te s of m a n ife st a n x iety in c h ild r e n . J . co n su lt P s y c h o l., 1960, 24, 94. K o m a ro v sk y , M ir ra . W om en in the m o d ern w o r ld . B oston : L ittle B row n and C o ., 1953. M ead, M a rg a ret. M ale and f e m a le . N ew Y ork: M orrow , 1949. M iln e r, E . E ffe c ts of s e x r o le and s o c ia l sta tu s on the e a r ly a d o le s c en t p e r so n a lity . G en et. P s y c h o l. M on ogr., 1949, 4 0 , 2 3 1 -3 2 5 . M u ssen , P . H. and J o n e s , M ary C . S e lf-c o n c e p tio n s , m o tiv a tio n s, and in te r p e r so n a l a ttitu d e s of la te and e a r ly m a tu rin g b o y s. C hild D e v e lp m ., 1957, 28, 2 4 3 -2 5 6 . P o p e , B . S o c io -e c o n o m ic c o n tr a s ts in c h ild r e n ’s p e e r cu ltu re p r e stig e v a lu e s . G en et. P s y c h o l. M on ogr., 1953, 4 8 , 1 5 7 -2 2 0 . R abban, M . S e x -r o le id e n tific a tio n in young c h ild re n in tw o d istin c t s o c ia l g r o u p s. G en et. P s y c h o l. M on ogr., 1950, 4 2 , 8 1 -1 5 8 . S e a r s , R . R ., M accob y, E le a n o r , and L e v in , H . P a tte r n s o f ch ild r e a r in g . E v a n sto n , Illin o is: R ow , P e te r s o n , 1957. S ew ard , G eo rg en e H. C u ltu ra l c o n flic t and the fem in in e r o le . J . s o c . P s y c h o l.. 22. 1 7 7 -1 9 4 . Sew ard , G eo rg en e H. P sy c h o th e r a p y and cu ltu re c o n flic t. N ew Y ork: R onald P r e s s , 1956. i T B I S ew a rd , G eo rg en e H . S ex and the a o c ia l o r d e r . N ew Y ork: M cG raw - ! H ill. 1946. j T a n n er, J . M . G row th at a d o le s c e n c e . S p rin g field : C . C . T h o m a s, 1955. T a y lo r , J a n e t A . A p e r so n a lity t e s t o f m a n ife st a n x ie ty . J . a b n o rm . s o c . P s y c h o l., 1953, 4jB, 2 8 5 -2 9 0 . T e r m an, L . M . and M ile s , C a th e r in e . S ex and p e r so n a lity : s tu d ie s in m a s c u lin ity and fe m in in ity . N ew Y ork: M cG ra w -H ill, 1 9 36. T h o m p so n , H e le n . P h y s ic a l grow th . In C a r m ic h a e l, L . M anual of ch ild p s y c h o lo g y . N ew Y ork: W iley , 1946. T r y o n , C a r o lin e M . E v a lu a tio n s o f a d o le sc e n t p e r so n a lity b y a d o le s c e n ts . M on ogr. S o c . R e s . C h ild D e v e lp m ., 1939, 4 , N o. 4 . T u dd en ham , R . D . S tu d ies in rep u tation : I. S ex and grad e d iffe r e n c e s in s c h o o l c h ild r e n 's e v a lu a tio n s of th e ir p e e r s . II. T he d ia g n o s is of s o c ia l a d ju stm en t. P s y c h o l. M o n o g r., 1951, §6{1), 58p. U llm a n , C . A . Id e n tific a tio n of m a la d ju sted s c h o o l c h ild r e n . P u b l. H lth. M o n o g r., 1952, N o. 7. V an A ls ty n e , D . P la y b e h a v io r and c h o ic e of p lay m a t e r ia ls of pre - s c h o o l c h ild r e n . C h icago: U n iv e r sity o f C h ic a g o , 1932. W ebb, A . P . T he c h ild r e n ’s m a n ife st a n x iety s c a le in a ju n io r h igh s c h o o l se ttin g . C a lif. J . e d . R e s ., 1961, in p r e s s . W ilco x o n , P . Som e rap id a p p ro x im a te s t a t is t ic a l p r o c e d u r e s . N ew Y ork: A m e r ic a n C yan am id C o ., 1949. W inch, R . T h e m o d e rn fa m ily . N ew Y ork: H en ry H o lt, 1952. W in k er, J . B . A ge tr e n d s and s e x d iffe r e n c e s in th e w is h e s , id e n tifi c a tio n s , a c tiv it ie s and f e a r s of c h ild r e n . C h ild D e v e lp m ., 1949, 2 0 , 1 9 1 -2 0 0 . W irt, R . D . and B r o e n , W . E . The r e la tio n o f the c h ild r e n 's m a n ife st a n x ie ty s c a le to the c o n c e p t of a n x ie ty a s u se d in the c lin ic . J . c o n su lt. P s y c h o l., 1956, 20, 4 8 2 . A P P E N D I X E S A P P E N D IX I F a c s im ile of R e c o r d B o o k le t C on tain in g the F e m in in ity S ca le and the C h ild r e n 's M a n ifest A n x iety S ca le P E R SO N A L -V O C A T IO N A L A T T IT U D E S D ir e c tio n s : P e r s o n s in v a r io u s o c cu p a tio n s and p r o fe s s io n s h ave b een found to p o s s e s s s p e c ia l in t e r e s t s , a ttitu d e s, and f e e lin g s w h ich are c o m m o n to th e ir o ccu p a tio n and no o th e r . F o r e x a m p le , m o s t d o c to r s h ave a ttitu d e s and f e e lin g s w h ich a r e q u ite d iffe r e n t fr o m th o s e of m o st b u s in e s s m e n . T h is sh o r t q u e stio n n a ir e i s d e sig n e d to s e e w h ich o c c u p ation b e s t f it s y o u r ow n s p e c ia l in te r e s ts and f e e lin g s . T h e in fo r m a tio n w ill be h e lp fu l to y o u r c o u n s e lo r s a s th ey plan w ith you f o r y o u r fu tu re in the w orld of w ork . On the fo llo w in g p a g e s i s a s e r i e s of q u e stio n s w hich a r e to b e a n sw e r e d e ith e r T R U E o r F A L S E . T h e r e a r e no rig h t o r w ron g a n s w e r s . In d ica te y o u r a n s w e r s on the s e p a r a te a n sw e r s h e e t b y m a r k in g you r c h o ic e b etw een the d otted lin e s u n d er “ T " fo r tru e and **F" f o r f a ls e . S p e c ia l p e n c ils a r e not n e c e s s a r y . A n sw e r e v e r y q u e s tio n . 1. I want to be an Important person in the com m u n ity. ( F a l s e ) 2 . 1 am very slow in making up my m ind. (F a ls e ) ! 3. 1 think 1 would like the work of a building c o n tr a c to r . ( F a l s e ) 4. I think 1 would like the work of a d r e ss d e sig n e r . (T r u e ) 5. 1 becom e quite irritated when I se e so m eo n e sp it on th e s id e w a lk . (True) i 6. It is hard for me to start a con versation w ith s t r a n g e r s . ( F a l s e ) 7. I m ust admit that I enjoy playing p r a c tic a l jok es on p e o p l e . ( F a ls e ) 8. I get very tense and anxious when I think o th er p eo p le a r e d i s approving of m e. (True) 9. A windstorm ter rifies m e. (True) 10. 1 think I would like the work of a clerk in a la rg e d e p a r tm e n t store. (True) 11. I get excited very ea sily . (True) 12. I like to boast about my achievem ents e v e r y now and t h e n . ( F a ls e ) 13.1 think 1 would like the work of a garage m ec h a n ic. ( F a l s e ) 14. I like adventure stories better than rom an tic s t o r ie s . ( F a l s e ) 15. X prefer a shower to a bathtub. (F a lse) 16. The average person is not able to ap p reciate art and m u s i c v e r y w ell. (False) 17. The thought of being in an automobile a ccid en t is v e r y f r ig h t e n in g to m e. (True) 18. At tim es I fee l like picking a fist fight w ith so m e o n e . ( F a l s e ) 19. Som etim es 1 have the same dream o v e r and o v e r . ( T r u e ) 20. I think I am stricter about right and w rong than m o s t p e o p le . (F alse) 21. I think 1 would like to drive a racing c a r . (F a ls e ) 22. I like to be with a crowd who play jok es on one a n o th e r . ( F a l s e ) ^ 23. I think 1 could do better than m ost of the p r e sen t p o l i t ic i a n s if I were in office. (F alse) 24. I always try to get the best school g ra d es I can. (T r u e ) 25. I am inclined to take things hard. (Tim e) « 2 6 . I w ould lik e to be a so ld ie r . (F alse) I S27. 1 lik e to go to p a rties and other affairs where there is lots of loud { fun. ( F a ls e ) 2 8 . I v e r y m u c h lik e hunting. (False) 2 9 . In s c h o o l I am so m e tim e s sent up to the principal for cutting up. (False) 3 0 . I think 1 w ould like the work of a librarian. (True) 3 1 . S o m e tim e s 1 f e e l that 1 am about to go to pieces. (True) 3 2 . 1 w ould lik e to be a n u rse. (True) 3 3 . If 1 w e r e a rep o rter I would like very much to report news of the th e a te r . (T ru e) 3 4 . I lik e m e c h a n ic s m agazin es. (False) 3 5 . 1 m u st a d m it I fe e l so r t of scared when I move to a strange place. (T ru e) 3 6 . I’m p r e tty su r e that I know how we can settle the international p r o b le m s w e fa ce today. (False) 3 7 . If I g e t to o m uch change in a store. I always give it back. (True) 3 8 . I am so m e w h a t afraid of the dark. (True) 3 9 . It is h a r d fo r m e to keep my mind on anything. (True) 4 0 . I g et n e r v o u s when som ebody watches me work. (True) 4 1 . I f e e l I h a v e to be b e st in everything. (True) 4 2 . 1 b lu sh e a s ily . (T rue) 4 3 . I lik e e v e r y o n e I know. (T rue— Lie Scale) 4 4 . I n o tic e m y h eart beats very fast som etim es. (True) 4 5 . A t t i m e s I f e e l like shouting. (True) 4 6 . I w ish I cou ld be v e ry fa r from here. (True) 4 7 . O th e r s s e e m to do things ea sier than 1 can. (True) 4 8 . I w ould r a th e r win than lose a game. (F a lse— Lie Scale) 4 9 . I am s e c r e t ly afraid of a lot of things. (True) 5 0 . I f e e l th a t o th e rs do not like the way I do things. (True) 5 1 . I f e e l a lo n e e v en when there are people around m e. (True) 83 5 2 . I h ave tro u b le m ak in g up m y m in d . (T ru e) 1 5 3 . 1 g et n e r v o u s w hen th in g s do not go r ig h t f o r m e . (T ru e) 54. I w o r ry m o s t of the tim e . (T ru e) 5 5. X am a lw a y s kind. (T r u e — L ie S ca le) 56. I w o rry about what m y p a r e n ts w ill s a y to m e . (T ru e) 57. O ften I h ave tro u b le g ettin g m y b r e a th . (T ru e) 5 8. I g e t an gry e a s ily . (T ru e) 5 9. I a lw a y s have good m a n n e r s. (T r u e — L ie S c a le) 60. M y han d s f e e l sw e a ty . (T ru e) 61. O th er c h ild r e n a r e h a p p ier than 1. (T ru e) 62. 1 w o rry about w hat o th e r people think about m e . (T ru e) 63. 1 have tro u b le sw a llo w in g . (T ru e) 64. I have w o r rie d about th in g s th at did not r e a lly m ak e any d iffe r e n c e la te r . (T ru e) 65. M y fe e lin g s g e t hurt e a s ily . (T ru e) 66. 1 w o rry about doing the righ t th in g s. (T ru e) 67. I am a lw a y s good . (T r u e — L ie S c a le) 68. 1 w o rry about what i s goin g to happen. (T ru e) 69. It is h ard fo r m e to go to s le e p at n igh t. (T ru e) 70. I w o rry about how w e ll 1 am doing in s c h o o l. (T ru e) 71. I am a lw a y s n ic e to e v e r y o n e . (T r u e — L ie s c a le ) 72. M y fe e lin g s g e t h u rt e a s ily w hen 1 am s c o ld e d . (T ru e) 73. I t e ll the tru th e v e r y sin g le tim e . (T ru e — L ie S c a le ) 7 4 . 1 often g e t lo n e so m e w hen 1 am w ith p e o p le . (T ru e) 75. I f e e l so m e o n e w ill t e ll m e 1 do th in g s the w ron g w a y . (T r u e ) 7 6 . I am a fra id of the d ark . (T ru e) 7 7 . It i s hard f o r m e to keep m y m ind on m y s c h o o l w ork . (T r u e ) 7 8 . I n e v e r g e t a n g ry . (T r u e — L ie S ca le) 79. O ften I f e e l s ic k in m y sto m a c h . (T ru e) 80. I w o rry w hen I go to bed at n igh t. (T ru e) 81. I often do th in g s I w ish 1 had n e v e r d on e. (T ru e) 82. I g e t h e a d a c h e s. (T ru e) » '83. I often w o r ry about what cou ld happen to m y p a r e n ts. (T ru e) 84. I n e v e r s a y th in gs I sh ou ld n ’t. (T r u e — L ie S c a le) 85. I g et tir e d e a s ily . (T ru e) 86. It i s good to g e t high g r a d e s in sc h o o l. ( F a ls e — L ie S c a le) 87. I have bad d r e a m s. (T ru e) 88. I am n e r v o u s. (T ru e) 89. I n e v e r l ie . (T r u e — L ie S c a le) 90. I often w o rry about so m eth in g bad happening to m e . (T ru e) 1 :3SD1XU Facsimile of th e C lassM i^ H M fi^ i = ^ ^ K > o o i n Social Distance S c a le N am e D ate School G rade W e don’t like all our ^ x -a d s in the same way. S o m e we like m ore than others. There m ay s o m e people w e don’t lik e at all. T he check list o n the ne ^ — —fc page will give you a w a y of telling h ow close an acquaintance you w c z z r = ^ ^ ^ — '^ x -^ a ld like to have with o th e r boys an d girls in your room , Beside each. z H r a a i n e listed dow n the sid e o f the page, p u t a check m ark in th e space be the statement which m o s t nearly describes your feeling ab out the rson. O f course you a r e to substi tute “her” for “him ” in your +h-K :z ^ ^ ^ ^ c r ^ x .lc in g w hen checking a g i r l ’ s name. N o on e in your room w i^ ^ E - gee this paper. 85 Sally Jon es Billy W illiam s Steven Murphy 1. Would you like to have him a s one of your b est friend s? 2. Would you like to have him in your group but not a s a c lo se friend? 3. Would you like to be with him once in a while but not often or fo r a long tim e? 4. Don’t mind h is being in your room but don’t want to have anything to do with him . 5. W ish he w eren’t in your room . 00 c a t

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Asset Metadata

Creator Webb, Allen Paul (author)

Core Title Sex-Role Preferences Of Early Adolescents In Relation To Adjustment

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Seward, Georgene H. (committee chair), Grings, William W. (committee member), McDonagh, Edward C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-93523

Unique identifier UC11357986

Identifier 6101710.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-93523 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6101710.pdf

Dmrecord 93523

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Webb, Allen Paul

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA