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Recommendations for public art and community art planning for Kobe, Japan

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Recommendations for public art and community art planning for Kobe, Japan

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Content RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
PUBLIC ART AND COMMUNITY ART PLANNING
FOR KOBE, JAPAN
By
Megumi Sando
A thesis
submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Public Art Studies in the School of Fine Art
University of Southern California
May 1995
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS
PUBLIC ART STUDIES
University Park Campus
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0292
This thesis, written by Sanrin
under the direction ofh er Thesis Committee, and approved by
all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean o f
the School o f Fine Arts, in partial fulfillment o f the requirements
for the degree o f Master o f Public Art Studies.
Dean o f the School o f Fine Arts
C la ris 2 £ > , m y
Date
THESIS COMMITTEE:
iLL
i Public Art Si Jay W ilm - Director o f the Studies Program
- " C - r i C .
6
Table of Contents
List of Plates...............................................................................................................................iv
I. Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1
II. Kobe Earthquake.................................................................................................................. 2
III. Toward a New Society...................................................................................................... 5
A. Japanese Public........................................................................................................6
B. C ommunity in Kobe After the Earthquake................................................ 10
1. Return to the Village............................................................................... 10
2. Inter-Cultural Cooperation....................................................................11
C. Evolution of the Volunteer................................................................................13
IV. Art for Healing the Community..................................................................................15
A. Role of Art for the Victims................................................................................ 15
B. Need for Encouragement and Entertainment.......................................... 16
C. Plans of Art Programs for the Community After the Earthquake.. 18
1. Performing Art Programs.......................................................................18
2. Art Workshop.............................................................................................19
3. Free Movies.................................................................................................19
4. Art Works for Temporary Facilities..................................................20
D. Memorials................................................................................................................21
V. Revival as a Cultural Center: The Role of the City..............................................26
VI. New Public Art in Kobe.................................................................................................. 28
A. Tradition of Public Sculpture............................................................................30
B. Variety of Sites and Art Forms..........................................................................32
1. Problems andDirection............................................................................32
2. Public Art in the U.S..................................................................................38
a. Mural.................................................................................................38
b. Light Art.......................................................................................... 41
c. Paving Design.......................................... 41
d. Street Furniture.............................................................................47
e. Posters/Billboard/Light Board (Electric Billboard) 47
f. Art in the Landscape.....................................................................52
g. Other..................................................................................................56
C. Site Specificity......................................................................................................... 56
D. Public Involvement............................................................................................60
1. Public Involvement in the Selection Process.......................... 61
2. Education................................................................................................62
E. Ideas for New Public Art in Kobe................................................................. 64
VII. The Current Situation of the Art Community in Kobe................................66
A. Kobe Cultural Plan 2001:
Problems of the Art Community in Kobe.............................................. 66
B. Shortage of Art Space........................................................................................67
C. Community Cultural C enter..........................................................................68
D. Support for Art....................................................................................................71
VIII. Community Art Plan foi Kobe: Art Network............................................. 77
A .A r t Network......................................................................................................77
B. Toward Establishment of the Art Network..........................................79
C. Art Facilities in Kobe........................................................................................79
D. Development of Community Cultural Center..................................... 80
E. Activities of the Art Network.....................................................................82
1. Membership........................................................................................... 82
2. Subscriptions..........................................................................................83
3. Public Relations.....................................................................................83
4. Art Festival............................................................................................. 83
IX. Conclusion........................................................................................................................85
Bibliography...........................................................................................................................87
Appendix.................................................................................................................................96
List of Plates
1. Staircase with Painted Panels
California State University Northridge........................................................... 22
2. Detail of Staircase with Painted Panels
California State University Northridge........................................................... 23
3. Yoshitatsu Yanagihara. Michishirube Toki.
"Flower Road," Kobe, japan...................................................................................33
4. Hideki Araya. Alba
"Flower Road," Kobe, Japan...................................................................................35
5. Public Art Works in "Faret Tachikawa" Tokyo, Japan............................36
6. Keisuke Yamaguchi. Tachikawa Box
(Map on the wall of pedestrian deck post)
"Faret Tachikawa," Tokyo Japan..........................................................................37
7. Flower of Hydrangea
(Based on a collage by Chieko Takamura)
Kobe City Central Cultural Flail, Kobe, Japan.................................................39
8. SPARC. Great Wall of Los Angeles (Detail)
Los Angeles, California.............................................................................................40
9. Stephan Antonakos
59th Street Marine Station, New York...............................................................42
10. Andrew Leicester. G-Nome Project. 1991
Molecular Building, Iowa State University...................................................43
11. Flatch Cover. Kobe, Japan.................................................................................... 44
12. Sidewalk Directional Inlay. Kobe, Japan.......................................................45
13. Jack Mackie. Dancers Stefas. Broadway, Seattle.........................................46
14. Cate. "Flower Road," Kobe, Japan....................................................................48
15. Juan & Patricia Navarrete, Street Lamps
Central Avenue, Phoenix, Arizona................................................................... 49
16. Steve Gillman, Bay Bench, 1990
Pier 7, San Francisco, California.........................................................................50
i v
17. Lisa Kaslow, The Sanctuary, 1989
Montgomery County, Maryland...........................................................................51
18. Cran Fury, Women Don't Get AIDS They fust Die From It
(Poster for bus shelters) 1991 New York............................................................53
19. Guerrilla Girls, First they want to take away
a woman's right to choose. Now they're censoring art
(Billboard). 1991. New York................................................................................54
20. Messages to the Public (Light Board)
Times Square, New York........................................................................................55
21. Peggy L)iggs, Domestic Violence Milk Carton Project (1991)........................57
22. Kobe Marine Aquarium and Port Tower, Kobe, Japan...............................59
v
I. Introduction
The recent earthquake in Kobe totally changed the lives of its people.
They suffered greatly, but they have also learned the spirit of collaboration
and volunteership. The citizens of Kobe will rebound from their
overwhelming difficulties and will establish a new society, in which
human dignity and aesthetics will acquire more respect.
Before the earthquake, Kobe had a positive attitude toward creating
an attractive urban space. Since 1974, the city has initiated an annual
architectural contest, and an urban design contest since 1986, in which the
city gave awards for excellent designs. These awards stimulate the
creativity of architects and designers and awaken real estate owners and
citizen consciousness to a more interesting urban environment. In the
early 1990s, the City of Kobe proposed a concept for an ideal future urban
situation, known as Urban Resort. In this idea, the city shows a direction
to enhance the city as a "resort," in which cultural exchanges and Kobe's
uniqueness occupy important roles.1
While rebuilding Kobe after the earthquake, these traditions and
proposals should be retained, and simultaneously new elements should be
considered. An active public involvement should be one of the new
elements considered when rebuilding the city environment. Art can be an
important element to express and retain the culture of Kobe in the new
environm ent.
This thesis represents my own interpretation and assessment of
some aspects of American Public Art, while searching for possibilities of
1 Kobe T oshi M ondai Kenkyujo, Urban Resort Stu d y G roup, '"Urban Resort T oshi Kobo' no
Seibi Seisaku Kadai ni K ansuru Konkyu |A Stu d y o f Strategies for U rban Resort Kobe|,"
T oshi Seisaku 64 (July 1991 ):131 -61.
1
transferring American ideas of Public Art into a very different situation, a
Japanese city. General principles will be examined rather than specific
intervention and implementation. As suggested by Nobi Nagasawa, a
public artist who works within both American and Japanese systems, the
two systems are very different in terms of artist selection and public
involvement. Generally speaking, the Japanese system is less open to the
public as well as artists.2 However, to study the American Public Art
system as a model is worth consideration in order to improve the Japanese
art environment.
This thesis is a synthesis of many issues, projects, and points of view
acquired during my study in the Public Art Studies program at the
University of Southern California. Information about both American and
Japanese (especially Kobe's) situations of Public Art and art environment
was collected by interviews and documentary researches (see the list of
interviewees in the appendix and bibliography).
Starting from what art can do to aid the earthquake victims, this
thesis will seek an improved image and direction for Public Art in the
Kobe community. The role of the city government, Public Art programs,
and an art network for the community will be examined.
II. Kobe Earthquake
The devastating earthquake of January 17, 1995, heavily damaged the
City of Kobe and its adjacent cities. The earthquake killed over 5,400
people, injured 34,626 people, and destroyed 159,544 houses and buildings,
2 N obi N agasaw a, telep h on e interview by the author, 7 Apr. 1995.
2
including 7,456 houses that burned because of the subsequent fires.1
Fatalities inside of Kobe's city limits account for about 3,800 people, and
over 200,000 people are still homeless, evacuated to schools or other places
throughout the community even two months after the earthquake.
The earthquake damage was concentrated in the urban areas along
the sea shore — the Higashi-Nada, Nada, Nagata, Hyogo, Suma, Chuo
wards.4 These damaged areas contained many old houses, which had not
burned during WWH or were built right after the war; many of them did
not satisfy the recent fire or earthquake regulations.
The majority of fatalities by the earthquake were senior citizens;
52.7 % were over 60 years old.5 This high percentage is because senior
citizens remained in the older urban areas within old wooden structures,
while the young people live in the newly developed suburbs.6 Three
hundred seventy-five school students lost their lives in the earthquake,
and 21,369 students transferred to other schools.7 Thirty-seven children
lost their parents to the earthquake and became orphans.6
In addition to the human losses, the physical and economical losses
from the Kobe Earthquake are estimated at $100 billion. The earthquake
broke the lifelines of the city: gas, water, electricity, telephone, and sewage
lines. At the end of February, the water and gas systems were still out of
order in large portions of Kobe, Nishinomiya, Ashiya, and other adjacent
1 "H anshin D ai-sh in sa i |T h e G reat H anshin E arthquakc|," A sahi S h im bun, 17 Feb. 1995,
13.
4 Ibid., 14.
5 Ibid.
6 "H anshin D ai-sh in sai no Sanjo | Da m age of th e H anshin Earthquake!," Y om iuri Shim bun.
4 Feb. 1995,17.
7 "Ashita ni M ukkate: H isai-chi n o K od om otach i (C hildren in th e D ev a sta ted A rea] 1,"
Yom iuri Shim bun. 25 Feb. 1995, 2b.
6 “Shinsai Koji, 37 nin |O rp h an s by the Earthquake|," Yom iuri Shim bun. 5 Feb. 1995, 2b.
3
cities. Transportation systems also collapsed in many places. The
destruction of railroad networks, local and long distance, including the
Bullet Train connecting Tokyo to Hakata (Kyushu District), have caused
enormous inconveniences to commuters as well as travelers.
Much more serious problems lie in the transportation of
merchandise and industrial materials. The damaged Hanshin Highway
and Sanyo Honsen railroad used to convey large portions of domestic
cargo. The closure of these two tracks has significantly influenced the
Japanese economy because of the additional time and cost for
transportation. The port also received serious damage as only 10% of the
wharves are now operating. The port of Kobe handled about 40 million
tons of containers and $71.25 billion of international cargo in 1994, which
occupies 29.6% of all Japan s international maritime container business.1 4
Industries in the City of Kobe are in a critical situation from the
destruction by the earthquake. Manufacturing companies have shut down
their factories, including large corporations such as Kobe Steel and
Sumitomo Rubber, as well as small to medium size companies. For
example, small factories in the Nagata ward used to represent three
quarters of the Japanese shoe production. Today, 90 % of the factories are
closed, and their reopening is tentative.10 The brewery industry of
Japanese Sake located in the Nada ward and a part of Nishinomiya city
also received substantial damage. It is critical for the City of Kobe to
prevent an escalating economic decline, while rebuilding city structures.
g "Kobe Port Paralysis H urts B u sin ess,” Yom iuri Shim bun. 22 Jan. 1995,6.
10 'T osan no Kiki: Kojo U tsu sen u C h u sh o no H i-m e-i [C risis of M id -size and Sm all
B u sin esses!," Y om iuri Shim bun. 22 Feb. 1995, 7.
4
The destruction by the recent earthquake is the largest disaster in
Japan since WWI1. People living in Kobe are now trying to rebuild their
lives despite overwhelming grief and difficulties; all levels of government
need to support their efforts and collaborate to reconstruct a much
improved city, far surpassing the previous one.
III. Toward a New Society
I'ven though the recent earthquake seriously damaged the urban
areas of Kobe, ironically, it offers Kobe an opportunity to improve its
urban environment and build a new society. While the reconstruction of
the city must include countermeasures for future disasters and recovery of
the economy, it must also rebuild a new type of society to accommodate a
post-industrial period. The City of Kobe previously proposed the concept
of tubtin resort, in which the city environment emphasizes individual
amenity rather than productive function; arts and culture become
important elements of this concept for city planning. This reconstruction
will demonstrate to other Japanese cities and foreign countries how Kobe
will conquer its difficulties and revive as a new type society.
In the city’s master plan, called "Kobe 2025” (published in 1993), the
city envisioned its future as a culturally sophisticated city with an
international cultural exchange that respects human dignity.11 Masakazu
Yamazaki, an art director of the 'Hyogo Performing Art Program,’
produced and supported by the Hyogo Prefecture (which includes Kobe),
insists that rebuilding from the earthquake should include the intellectual
11 City o f Kobe, Kobe 2025: M aster Plan. (Kobe: The C ity of Kobe, 1993), 5-f>.
5
and artistic creativity of the residents.12 In the new society, arts and
cultural activities need to be emphasized more than ever; they will enrich
the citizen's life while attracting national interest that will benefit Kobe
economically.
A. lapanese Public
The literary translation of "public" to Japanese is kokyo. However,
in most cases, kokyo is used as an adjective, meaning the activities or
properties of government or governmental agencies; for example, "public
services" or "public sector." In the Japanese language, there is no word
that corresponds to the western concept of "public," which represents
individuals or groups of individuals, who share common interests and
activities, possessing an ability to access or challenge existing policies or
agencies. The closest Japanese word to this idea of "public" is s h im in
(citizen). However s h im in only reflects those who have the right to vote
and receive public services, shimin does not suggest an active role. In
Japan, it is hard to find a "public realm" that lies between the state and
economy, in which individuals or groups of individuals collaborate and
sometimes compete with each other to make a public consensus. The
historical and cultural backgrounds of the Japanese people have
contributed to this situation.
Historically speaking, Japan has been a homogeneous society, in
which the people have practiced the concept of a "unified people."11 This
political unity took the form of paternalism with a view of "the nation as a
family" based on racial homogeneity, which has escaped the major political
I 2 M asak a/u Y am azaki, 'T osh i Bunka no Y ogo |S u p p ort for the Urban Culturol," Yom iuri
Shim bun. 8 Apr. 1995,20.
I I H erbert P assin, "Japanese S o ciety ,” in International E n cyclop ed ia o f th e Social Sciences.
ed. D avid L. Sills, vol. 8. (N ew York: M acm illan l% 8), 237.
6
trials and upheavals within the country.14 Japanese society was under
feudal or authoritarian control until 50 years ago, and freedom of speech
was not allowable.
For the people who had to survive in a feudal society, it was natural
to submit to orders from their lord or government. In Japan's long history,
there are few occasions of political challenge from the people, except for
riots during times of famine. Most ordinary people in Japan had limited
access to political participation; they received benefits or suffered according
to their rulers. Although they had to obey their rulers, the Japanese people
took care of each other and established their own plebeian culture, separate
from the ruling class.
After WWI1, the introduction of a democratic political system
allowed the Japanese people a political freedom to join and freely express
their opinion about politics. However, the attitudes of officials as well as
citizens have not completely changed during these fifty years; the citizens
are still passive about politics, and the city does not act openly enough to
benefit the citizens. Changes on both sides are still required to create a
society that can reflect the "public" interests.
In Kobe, a unique city management policy-sometimes called the
"Kobe City Corporation"-has grown under two mayors, Miyazaki and
Sasayama, since the 1970s. Its basic idea is that the city should act as a
private corporation offering public services at the lowest cost to the
citizens.1 s The city has gotten positively involved in profit making
projects to establish a strong financial foundation in conjunction with tax
14 N y o /e k a n H asegaw a, T he lap an ese Character: A Cultural Profile (N ew York. London:
G reenw ood Press, 1988), 11.
1 1 1 City of Kobe, D evelop m en t Bureau, K aihatsu-kyoku lig y o G u id e [D evelop m en t Project
G uidel (Kobe: The C ity of Kobe, 1992), 4-5.
revenues and national government subsidies. This includes the
improvement of port facilities, development of new industrial areas, and
provisions for housing and public transportation. Generally these projects
for profit have been successful and acquired good reputations, especially in
the urban planning field. According to the successes and the increase of
the city’s credibility, the citizens have become dependent and do not
question the decisions of the city bureaucracy or express their opinions.
I'his has led to greater independence in their policy making, with even less
participation from the citizens.1 (1
Recently, Japanese cities and towns have initiated efforts to
encourage participation from the community members. The City of Kobe
has also introduced a public council system called kyogi kai, in which the
city officials and community members exchange their opinions about
redevelopment and the improvement of urban space. Local governments
need further efforts to promote public participation to establish a
collaborative relationship.
In addition, the citizens need to participate and end their passive
and apathetic attitudes toward participation. Regardless of Kobe’s success
in city management, citizens should recognize that they have a
responsibility and a right to influence and formulate a public opinion.
Kenichi Miyamoto suggests that Japanese civil movements have never
departed from individual petitioning, or just opposing the government
without indicating an alternative policy. They have never attempted to
"Kaihatsu n o Hikari to Kage ILight and Dark o f D e v e lo p m e n t|,” S h in sai to T oshi
Keikaku I E arthquake and U rban Planning!. K atuto U chihashi and Y oshiteru M urosaki,
N H K , O saka, 20 Feb. 1995.
8
create a collaborative relationship that would include citizens, government
officials and the city assembly.17
A basic requirement for reconstruction of Kobe is to strengthen the
ability to protect lives in case of a future earthquake or fire in urban areas,
while retaining the community's unique functions and culture. The
rebuilding process requires enormous negotiations and compromises
between the city and the community, as well as individuals. For example,
individual citizens, to some extent, will lose their private property to
retain open space for the community's safety. A collaborative relationship
and an active exchange of opinions will be required from all three sectors
to rebuild the city. The recent earthquake reveals that the city government
is not almighty-they cannot perceive and respond to every requirement
from various situations. To tell the truth, it was efforts by community
members and volunteers that have helped to support people's lives after
the earthquake. Accordingly, the citizens have become more independent
and, in turn, they are making suggestions and taking a more active interest
in local government.
Under the present emergency after the earthquake, the city, business,
and citizens are sharing the same experience as victims, and all possess the
goal of rebuilding. Currently needed are occasions in the public realm, in
which the city officials, communities, and business people can equally and
freely exchange their opinions about a future vision of Kobe. These
discussions will awaken the citizen's consciousness and responsibilities as
a "public,'1 and strengthen the city's respect for the 'public'' and their
considerations.
1 7 K enichi M iyam oto, C h ih o lichi n o Rekishi to T enbo IH istorv and D ev elo p m en t of Local
Autonom y 1 , 3rd ed. (Tokyo: jichitai K onkyu-sha, 1991) 162-63.
9
B. Community in Kobe After the Earthquake
1. Return to the Village
What saved many lives in Kobe? Many reports indicate that
mutual cooperation, derived from informal friendships of
neighborhood or individual conscience, was effective instead of an
official community organization like jichi kai orcho-nai kai.]H This
reveals that contemporary citizens have not forgotten the Japanese
traditional assistant spirit of tneashi boko, meaning self-sacrifice for
others.
C urrently over 200,000 earthquake victims have been
evacuated to shelters. Shelter by shelter, people voluntarily
formulate self-governing organizations, also known as jichi km, to
take care of themselves and each other. Experiencing a dramatic
change from comfortable individual life styles to a modest existence
in a communal shelter, the victims' perception of the community
has changed. Life has returned to a point in which people cannot
survive without helping each other.
A leader of a shelter in the Chuo ward said, "Even though
the earthquake destroyed the city, it gave birth to a village. I prefer
this village life style, because it is more personal and humane than
city life."14 His comment suggests that Kobe's post earthquake is
1 A general com m unity organization system in Japan is fichi kai or Cho-ttai kai, w h ose
m em bership corresponds to the local residency. The local govern m en t ad m its and supports
financially their activ ities as a unit o f the residents. H ow ever, these organ ization s sh ow
lack of capability to organ ize p eop le in urban areas d esp ite the large num ber o f the
m em bership, partially because y o u n g and m id d le generations g o ou t to w ork and spend little
tim e in the residential com m unity. T he core of the activities of the local organ ization s is
senior citizen s over 60 years old, and the activities d o not expand to other generations.
1 4 "Kobe d e Ikite Ikunya: H isaisha w a Saisei e U goki-hajim cta (The V ictim s Start
R ebuilding|," Shukan A sahi lA sah i W e o k lv l, 10 Feb. 1995,36.
10
shaping a kind of Gemeinschaft society, which connotes moral
unity, intimacy, and kinship. In Gemeinschaft, social practices and
institutions are infused with intrinsic worth; they are valued for
themselves, not for extraneous ends.20 As a result, people remain
essentially united in spite of separating factors.
This experience of unity and mutual assistance will be a great
asset in reformulating the urban community. While rebuilding and
returning to the usual city life, hopefully the citizens of Kobe will
not forget their experiences of collaboration. To create a new type of
urban community, a voluntary alliance sharing common interests
should continue and reflect post-earthquake cooperation.
2. Inter-Cultural Cooperation
The Kobe Earthquake also established a new collaborative
relationship between the Japanese community and the Korean or
Korean-Japanese community. Over 28,000 Korean people live in the
City of Kobe, where they form their own community and school
system.21 Personal and cultural exchanges between the two
communities were limited; the Korean community was isolated.
After the earthquake, Korean schools in Kobe offered their facilities
for shelters, where both Japanese and Korean people have lived and
helped each other.22 Many Japanese people really appreciate their
generosity and have established a mutual relationship that is
breaking down cultural differences.
20 P hilip S elzn ich , T he M oral C om m on w ealth : Social T heory and the P rom ise of
C om m unity (B erkeley, O xford: U n iversity of C alifornia Press, 1992), 365.
21 C ity o f Kobe, Kobe 2025: M aster P la n , (Kobe: T h e C ity o f Kobe, 1993), 4.
22 T en sei lin^o." A sahi Shim bun. Ian. 28. 1.
n
japan has traditionally been a homogeneous society, in which
the community members typically become exclusive and reluctant
to accept people from other areas. Although the Korean and
Japanese communities coexist in Kobe they were grouped within
their own cultures. James Valentine, a sociologist, observes that the
emphasis on belonging shapes the formation of the Japanese
community, whose identity is defined in contra distinction to
others.- ’ Unfortunately this exclusive attitude of the Japanese
community has remained, even though internationalization has
progressed in many fields.
The recent emergency encouraged Kobe citizens to learn to
work together beyond cultural and ethical differences. Yoshihiro
Kitagawa, a Japanese community leader of a shelter in a Korean
school in the Chuo ward, said, "I have to admit that I used to have
some discrimination against Korean people from my education in
childhood before WWII. However, racial discrimination has
disappeared in my mind, while working with Korean people after
the earthquake.' 24
It is difficult to break the exclusiveness in the Japanese society,
because it requires an internal change rather than pressures from
outside. Moreover, many Japanese people do not feel a serious need
for change. The citizens of Kobe now face an unusual situation, in
which various kinds of people, including foreigners, must
21 Jam es V alentine, "On the Borderlines: the significance of m arginality in Japanese
Society," U nw rapping lapan: Society and C ulture in A nthropological P e r sp e c tiv e , ed. Eyal
Ben-Ari et al., (H onolulu: U niversity of H aw aii Press, 1990), 45.
24 Yom iitaere Kobe IR evival of Kobel. TXN, 25 Feb. 1995.
12
collaborate. This experience will further strengthen the open
attitude of Kobe, already an international port.
C. Evolution of the Volunteer
One of the most impressive social changes caused by the earthquake
is the evolution of voluntary activities. Volunteers from a variety of
backgrounds gathered at Kobe from all sections of japan; they numbered
2,200 at the beginning of February.2'’ Large scale voluntary activity like
this had never happened before; in japan, volunteers historically have
been limited to particular groups or organizations. Japanese volunteer
activities had not matured partially because of a traditional ironic view.
Fven though people often want to contribute to society, they hesitate,
fearing slander such as "strange person," "seeking self-satisfaction,” or
"hypocrite. "2 t>
Except for specialists in medical care or mental health, many
volunteer participants in Kobe did not belong to a particular citizen group
nor had any volunteer experience before. They decided to volunteer
because they were overwhelmed by the suffering and tragedy in Kobe.
Volunteers have assumed various tasks in various places. This includes
distribution of food, debris removal, collecting information, issuing
newsletters, and planning events for children. Their contribution is deeply
appreciated by the earthquake victims. In many shelters, volunteers play a
central role as organizers or coordinators, collaborating with the evacuated
victims.
This earthquake strongly addressed the necessity and value of the
volunteer in Japanese society. The government has recognized the value
2S "Volunteer H isai-chi do Funson | V olunteers in Kobo)," A era . 20 Feb. 1W5, b.
2fl Ibid., H .
13
of volunteer organizations and their support systems by considering tax
exemptions and compensation.27 Some private corporations encourage
voluntary activities by their employees by allowing paid days-off and
providing transportation fees for volunteers.28
However, the Japanese volunteer system needs further
development. For example, voluntary activities in Kobe are not organized
well enough to allocate the right person or persons to the right place at
right time. In many cases, individuals simply organize themselves and
start working where they can. The achievements by the volunteers in
Kobe point out the need for further progress to a higher level of
cooperation when rebuilding.
These social aspects, emerging after the earthquake, suggest a
direction for a new society, stressing the importance of community and
voluntary networks. Victims of the Kobe earthquake proved their
maturity as citizens. Facing an extreme emergency, they have presented
collaborative and calm attitudes, which prevented looting or panic. James
Joseph praises the volunteers in Kobe, and continues: "I believe that the
mature civic society will change Japanese politics.'29 These incidents
indicate a vision of a better society, in which the "public" exchanges
opinions with the government to improve their society, neither
depending nor separating from them. This eager new society suggests that
27 "Shimin D antai S h i-en C utai-ka E (R ealization of S u p p orts for C iv ic O rganization*!,
Yom iuri Shim bun. 14, Feb. 1995.
28 "Kensho V olunteer (E valuating the V olunteers in Kobe]," Yom iuri Shim bun. lb , Feb. 1995,
2b.
2t> "Sodatetai S him in no Soshiki |H o p e for N urturing C ivic O rganizations!," Y om iuri
Shim bun. 3 Mar. 1995, 12.
14
the citizens of Kobe will acquire more power and respect from the city
government.
IV. Art for Healing the Community
A. Role of Art for the Victims
It is frequently said that art can offer relaxation and refreshment. If
this is true, the earthquake victims of Kobe would benefit from a
temporary art program. During the reconstruction of the city, the main
focus will be on the city's economy and urban planning. However, healing
and enriching the victims’ spirit is also important. Many remain in
difficult situations. Over 200,000 people currently live in schools and
community centers, in uncomfortable physical conditions without privacy.
What art can do for them will be examined in this section.
The earthquake mentally damaged its victims, especially children
and senior citizens. Children became unstable, tending to revert to
infancy; e.g., refusing to leave their parents, being extremely sensitive and
crying at even small aftershocks (probably reliving the terror of the big
earthquake).10 Research by an elementary school in Nishinomiya city
shows that 36% of the students relive the fear of the earthquake repeatedly,
27% cannot sleep well, and 23% worry about being left alone.11
About 30 elderly people lost their lives from stress in the shelters
and from fear of aftershocks, even though they survived the earthquake.12
Many seniors have sleeping problems and absentmindedness.11 Senior
10 "Yoshin ni O bi-e-ru Hibi [Fear of Aftt'rshocks|," Yom iuri Shim bun. 22 Jan. 1995, 21.
11 "Ashita ni M ukatte: H isaichi n o K odom o-tachi |C h ild ren in the D evastated A rea| 2,”
Yom iuri Shim bun. 27 Feb. 1995, 2b.
12 "Susum anu Jakusha Kyusai [Suspension of Relief|," Yom iuri Shim bun. lb Feb. 1995, lf>.
11 "Daishinsai no G enba Kara, 12 (R eports from the D evastated Areas]," Yomiuri Shim bun.
19, Feb. 1H .
15
citizens who lost everything and do not have anybody to take care of them
are very anxious about their future; some have lost hope and the will to
live. An old lady answered to a TV interviewer, "1 should have died in the
e ar t hquake. I n another painful incident several senior citizens
committed suicide from disappointment and fear for their future. Mental
damage is invisible, but sometimes more serious than physical injuries;
thus, rebuilding the mental health of the victims is as important as
rebuilding the city.
Viewing art programs and creating art can give a different
perspective to life under severe conditions. This is the time to appeal to
artists and arts organizations to produce art programs for the victims. The
city's Cultural Affairs Department should make their activities available to
the public by financially supporting and preparing space. These programs
do not have to be large scale or high quality. Small programs promoting
interaction between artists and the community are preferable in this
situation. The important thing is to provide cultural entertainment and
refreshment for the victims, relieving the mental stress of hardship and
disaster.
B. Need for Encouragement and Entertainment
Voluntary efforts to provide entertainment for the victims have
been initiated from inside and outside the community. For example, the
Shin-Kobe Oriental Theater (a private theater) still located next to the
Shin-Kobe railroad station began a series of free concert, theater, and
movie programs. The initial proposal came from actor Kenichi Kato,
whose group will stage a series of plays as free performances for the
14 Sunday Project. TBS, T okyo, 5 Ft’b. 1995.
16
earthquake victims. Inspired by his proposal, the theater manager
requested artists and movie companies in Japan to perform voluntarily in
Kobe, and many artists have gladly consented to the r e q u e s t.R e s p o n s e s
from the victims to the free movie program by the theater are appreciative.
Entertainment satisfies a desire for respite that victims find comforting and
encouraging.
Even though they are also in a severe situation, the city and arts
organizations in Kobe should collaborate and formulate a plan that
contributes to the community needs. Instead of waiting for requests from
the community, they must initiate involvement with the shelters and
schools by seeking occasions where they can act. The Piccoro Theater in
Amagasaki city, financed by the Hyogo Prefecture, which includes Kobe,
has voluntarily performed at various locations such as athletic grounds
within the cities damaged by the earthquake. A chief producer of the
theater said, "An important role of the public theater is to encourage
people and entertain children while pursuing their artistic production. 17
The City of Kobe needs to recognize the community's need for
entertainment and make an effort to produce programs at different
locations. Although the City of Kobe does not have their own theatrical or
concert group, they need to encourage local artists and art organizations
from Kobe and it's adjacent cities to perform in Kobe. This effort will
result in expanding and strengthening the network of the art community
of Kobe and her neighbors.
M itsue M aeda, "H isaisha n o T a m en o M uryo Event |C harity Events for the Earthquake
V ictim s),1 1 Yom iuri Shim bun. 11 Mar. 1995, 22.
Ibid.
17 M asahiro Y am am ori, "Kitaisareru C hi-iki en o H oushi [C ontribution by a Public
Theatrical G rou p |, " Yomiuri Shim bun. 8 Mar. 1995, 22.
17
C. Plans of Art Programs for the Community After the Earthquake
The City of Kobe, similar to other Japanese cities, does not have any
ordinances or systems to encourage artists to participate in the design and
construction phase. Public art works are usually added after completion of
construction of facilities. Under this situation, it is less possible for artists
to directly join or contribute to the physical reconstruction of the city.
However, various possibilities are still available for artists to
develop art programs inside the shattered community. The Los Angeles
C ultural Affairs Department had an art recovery program after the riot in
1992, which emphasized healing of the community by employing art
therapy activities.™ The programs do not have to be performing arts;
visual art can also contribute opportunities to heal and record. A network
between the city, artists, arts organizations, art students and volunteers
would be an important starting point. In Kobe, there is an existing alliance
of local arts organizations, which worked together to propose a cultural
plan called the "Kobe Cultural Plan 2001" published in 1993. By expanding
this existing network, and collaborating with the city, community
members and volunteers can establish a temporary and modest art
program for earthquake victims. The following are examples of possible
programs.
1. Performing Art Programs
The city should appeal to performing art organizations for
programs to encourage the victims, while financing the volunteers
and providing public space.
-™ Jeffrey Herr, the C ity of Los A ngeles, C ultural A ffairs D epartm ent, telep h on e interview
by author, 11 Apr. 1995.
18
2. Art Workshops
The city should provide art workshops that do not require
special equipment or excessive preparations for the residents of the
shelters. Many surviving schools currently share class space with
shelters. When space is available, especially on weekends, basic art
programs can be initiated, so that participants can enjoy the creative
process within their living space. For example, art classes of
Japanese calligraphy, crafts making, drawing or painting are of
interest to all generations: children, adults, and seniors. Basic craft
making classes, such as mask making or paper mache are
particularly enjoyable programs for children.
These art workshops require the participation of artists, art
educators, art students and volunteers. The city, collaborating with
community organizations, should promote and organize these
activities and supply the necessary materials.
3. Free Movies
Currently, the S/nn-Kobe Oriental Theater and some other
movie theaters have free movie programs. To reach more people,
especially senior citizens and children who have limited access to
theaters, the movie programs should move to other venues such as
school classrooms, atheletic grounds, and parks. Recommended
programs include animation for children, and classic movies, both
Japanese and foreign, for senior citizens. Of course these programs
should be accessible to all ages.
19
4. Art Works for Temporary Facilities
- Wall Design
During the reconstruction of the city over the next 5-6 years,
many temporary fences will be erected around construction sites. In
1993 the City of Kobe had a Wall Design Contest, in which they
collected designs for construction walls from all over Japan, as part
of the "Urban Resort Fair." Wall designs could contribute to the
urban environment, making the construction phase more
interesting. The city could commission artists to design or utilize
the already collected designs from the previous contest.
Another use of the construction walls is to provide children
with the experiences of creating mural size paintings. Artists and art
students could supervise and instruct the children in painting. In
this program, the children would learn about painting and have the
enjoyment of creation. Their works would be exhibited in town
until the completion of the construction phase. In this way the
children actually can help contribute to recreating their own
environm ent.
- Temporary Facilities
Temporary facilities, such as mobile housing, usually have
identical structures, creating a monotonous environment. Just one
year before the Kobe Earthquake, Los Angels also had a big
earthquake. At California State University Northridge— the
epicenter of the earthquake— the majority of classes are still held in
temporary trailers. The campus is filled with identically shaped and
colored trailers. A trailer for the school of fine art contains a group
20
of small murals on the staircase paneling, which are replicas of
famous paintings (Plate 1,2). These murals add a sense of the site
and work as a landmark in the monotonous environment of the
campus.
Temporary housing in Kobe will last for many years. Similar
projects could create more interesting spaces in an inexpensive way.
Since construction walls and temporary housing are not permanent,
this creates new opportunities for experimental challenges.
I). Memorials
How can Kobe commemorate the deaths caused by the earthquake?
Those who died in the earthquake bring us into a world of sadness for an
individual and collective loss, reminding us how helpless and frail life can
be in a natural disaster.
Immediately after the earthquake, news papers began to carry a list of
the victims. The list grew everyday, and it finally exceeded 5,400. These
pages of news paper represent the victims as a whole, but if one looks into
the names, one can feel the individual lives behind them. This same
feeling inspired Maya Lin's Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington
D.C.. Describing the memorial, author Shirley Blum states that visually
one name plays a small part in the panorama of a disaster but the friends
and relatives of the dead find some consolation in shared sorrow.14 As the
Vietnam Veteran's Memorial demonstrates, an accumulation of
individual names or memories is an example of a more sensitive and
respectful way to commemorate a collective disaster, rather than having a
single collective statue with no individual names.
14 Shirley N e ilse n Blum , 'T h e N ation al V ietnam W ar M em orial," A rts M a ^ a /in e 59 (D ec,
1984): 128.
21
Plate 1, Staircase with Painted Panels. California State University
Northridge.
22
Plate 2. Detail of Staircase with Painted Panel. California State University
Northridge.
23
A memorial to the victims of gang violence in Oakland California,
proposed by Sue Anne Ware, also focuses on individual aspects of the
victims. She interviewed many gang members and families who have lost
friends and children to gang violence. She tried to translate her research
into some physical form, and the result is the design of crypts and grave
like depressions into which visitors would be invited to deposit a victim’s
personal effects.40
There are two examples that seek a different approach by
encouraging interaction between art works and the audience. First, the
AIDS Bottle Project, begun in 1990, encourages viewers to take home a
bottle, in which an AIDS victim s name and death date are inlaid on the
underside of the cap.41 The bottles in a home work as a reminder of AIDS
and its victims and increase concern for the disease. Second, a Holocaust
memorial in Hamburg by Esther and Jochen Gerz, is a 39 foot-long steel
column, which is soften and coated by lead, making it easy to inscribe
messages by the audience. A stylus dangled from one side of the column
invites public participants to leave messages about fascism.42 The
memorial offers opportunities for the audience to know other people's
opinions and simultaneously express their own opinion; it encourages
conversation on the specific issue of fascism, among the audience and
works as a public forum.
In japan, consolation for the "spirit" of the dead person is very
important. Although many Japanese people do not belong to a specific
4(1 "A M em orial to V ictim s o f G ang Violence," L andscape A rchitecture 83 (N o v . 1993): 68.
41 Leigh A nn C lifton, 'T he B ottle Project," A rtw eek 22 (M ar. 28,1991): 2, 9.
42 Siri H unton, 'T he H olocaust: Loud and Silent," Art N e w s 93 (Sum m er, 1994): 30.
24
religion, it is natural for them to pray for the spirit of their ancestors.
When many people die in a disaster like this large earthquake, a tower
called 1-rei toh, simply inscribed as "spirits of the victims," is built in the
public space, where people can pray and offer flowers, water, or food.
According to a suggestion by Takumi Yasuyoshi, the former
treasurer of Kobe, to ring the bells of temples and churches in the entire
city at the time of the earthquake each January 17 is under consideration as
a memorial service for the earthquake victims. Ringing the bells would
help people to remember and pray for the victims. He also suggests
preserving a collapsed building as a memorial.41 This reminder of the
power of nature would be especially meaningful for people who, living in
a city, take the conveniences of technology for granted.
Besides these public events, the family of the dead usually initiate
memorial services. Tombs are dedicated to the name of the family rather
than the individuals. Typically, Japanese people have a small family altar
at home, in which a memorial tablet or a Buddhist statue is installed; they
offer water and food for them everyday.44 Besides official or citywide
levels of memorial, individuals, families, and communities will have
their own memorials in more intimate styles: for example, offerings of
flowers, food, and incense sticks at the site of the death; gathering and
talking about the earthquake and the victims; and publishing memorial
essays. This type of personal activity may be more important than official
gestures to remember the victims as individuals. These activities may
41 T akum i Y asuyoshi, telep h o n e in terview by Y oshifum i Sando, 2 Mar. 1995.
44 A lth o u g h m any Japanese are not b elievers o f B u d d h ism , the rituals o f th e religion have
b ecom e social cu sto m s, esp ecia lly in funeral m em orial services.
25
generate a larger movement, like the AIDS Quilt project, developed from a
single AIDS activist's idea.
V. Revival as a Cultural Center: Roles of the City
To establish its authority and function as a cultural center has been
one of the City of Kobe's important goals, looking toward the 21st century.
The city needs to focus on this goal while rebuilding. A master plan of the
city published in 1993, announced four missions of the city toward
becoming an international art center: first, enhancement of Kobe's unique
culture; second, supporting artists and their activities; third, providing
opportunities for exchange to artists from different cultures and fields; and
last, construction of cultural centers to study and appreciate art and culture
for artists and community members.4S
In the course of achieving these goats, future activities must also
reflect the new social aspects of Kobe, regardless of the recent earthquake.
The city should respect the opinions and needs of the public and recogni/e
community members as main players. The history of art and culture has
been formulated by interaction and competition among various groups of
the public. It is not the role of government to decide the contents and ways
of expressions of art, even if they sponsor it. The city has previously
directed art and cultural programs. This time, how about the city trusting
the community to direct their art and cultural programs? The mission of
the city would be, instead, to support and facilitate their activities.
The new role for the city to develop art in a free society is assumed as
follows. First, the city should establish an infrastructure to promote an art
^ C ity o f Kobe, K obe 2025: M aster Flan. (Kobe: T he C ity of K obe, 1993), 24.
26
environment, in which community members, local artists, and arts
organizations can act. Construction of new arts facilities and reformation
or enlargement of the existing facilities should be considered. Second, the
city should promote artistic experience and education through public art
programs, performing programs, workshops, and art exhibitions. Art
works in the public space provide a good opportunity for many citizens to
make contact with established and new art forms without going to
museums or galleries. Third, the city should provide financial support to
local artists and arts organizations, in order to enrich life within the city.
Fourth, the city should provide occasions and systems to enhance the
exchange of information among the local arts organizations. Fifth, the city
should sustain an interest in the aesthetics of the city environment and
pursue further Public Art possibilities. Sixth and last, the city should be
aware of what kind of programs will meet the community's needs.
Research and reviews of previous programs will be necessary for further
development of quality and audience.
Previous art and cultural programs have had limited community
participation in the decision making process. To respond to the various
needs of the communities, local artists and arts organizations, future
programs will need to contain more variety and specialties. The programs
should operate more flexibly to include professional staffs with specialized
knowledge of art.4h Under the current personnel system, in which city
officials usually change their positions every three or four years, it is
46 K a/u o O hm i, telephone interview by author. 10 Apr. 1995.
T he Kobe city A rts prom otion foundation has a staff o f 152. S even ty-seven are em p lo y ees
of the city, w h o exch an ge positions back to the city at in three to five year intervals; the
rest are senior citizens, w h o su p ervise the operation of the city ’ s com m u n ity cultural centers.
There are no art profession s on the foundation staff.
27
difficult to create a specialized and competent staff for art. An independent
agency, released from the city's vertical chains of bureaucracy, would be
recommended to create specialized art staffs and operate with the flexibility
to respond to the requirements of various community members and local
artists. The City of Kobe has already established the Kobe City Arts
Promotion Foundation, which has provided financial support for artists
and arts organizations, purchased public art works, operated community
centers, and produced art programs.47 The city should strengthen this
foundation to further develop their art programs at a higher quality and
with a broader reach to the community. This organization could function
as an umbrella for art and cultural activities by local artists and community
members in Kobe.
To achieve Kobe's goal of becoming a cultural center in the 21st
century, the problems of current art programs also need to be examined.
The examination will be divided into two sections: first, the public art
programs; second, the environment of the local art community. We will
begin with examination of the current Public Art program in Kobe.
VI. New Public Art in Kobe
The City of Kobe possesses a substantial sculpture collection
displayed in public spaces. When the city starts its public art programs
again, the new programs should be designed to foster further development
in quality and openness to the public. From my observation, there are
47 Ibid.
The foundation has an annual budget o f $24 m illion (1994). The city p ro v id es m oney as
com m ission fees ($18 m illion) and as su b sid ies ($4-5 m illion).
28
three issues to be considered as Public Art evolves in Kobe: variety of art
form, site specificity, and public involvement.
Reconstruction of Kobe's urban environment will generate more
open space and parks in the urban core, which will increase possible sites
for Public Art.48 While the reconstruction is creating a new urban
environment, Public Art can contribute to make urban space more
interesting and pleasant. The art works should not be limited to sculpture,
as previously. Instead, a "variety of art forms" should be added to the new
public art policy of Kobe. Public Art can also represent the community s
culture and history. While it is impossible to retain all of the pre
earthquake cultural and historical dimensions of the city, a successful site
specific art work can appeal to an audience's memory in a cultural sense.
"Site specificity" is the second key for the new Public Art in Kobe. In the
new society after the earthquake, the community should become an
important player in decision making in the city. Public Art should reflect
their opinions in the process and encourage their involvement. "Public
involvement" is the third point of consideration.
The City of Kobe possesses a long history of Public Sculpture and a
good tradition of urban design, both positive elements in creating an
attractive urban environment. If the public art program in Kobe can accept
the challenge of these three issues, their program can evolve into a new
stage, in which art works interact with the surrounding environment,
audience, and the culture of community. This is a vision toward which
Public Art should strive.
48C ity e f Kobe, K obe-shi Fukko Keikaku G u id elin e IA G u id elin e for R ebuilding Kobe I
(Kobe: T he C ity o f Kobe, 1995), 13.
A ccording to the g u id elin e on rebuilding Kobe, the city em p h a sizes an increase o f parks and
greenbelts in the urban core, as w ell as red evelop m en t o f the w aterfront.
29
A. Tradition of Public Sculpture
The history of Public Art in Kobe has a strong tradition, which has
been particularly attached to sculpture. The city initiated two biennial
sculptural contests during the 1960s: the "Japan Contemporary Sculpture
Contest" held by the City of Kobe and Ube alternatively since 1961; and the
"Kobe Suma Contemporary Sculpture Contest” started in 1968. These two
contests have contributed to the development of unknown sculptors:
especially the "Kobe Suma Contemporary Sculpture C ontest," which has a
reputation as a gateway to success in Japan, f urthermore, the city initiated
an annual sculpture contest called the "Kobe Representational Sculpture
Contest" in 1981.
Since 1968 the City of Kobe has installed sculpture in the public
spaces, including the prize-winning works from the Kobe contests as well
as purchased pieces. Public sculpture accounted for 352 pieces within the
entire city area at the point of 1994. Their locations are parks (160 pieces),
streets (82 pieces), public buildings (54 pieces), private facilities (43 pieces),
and other (3 pieces).44
The city has provided two special streets to exhibit sculpture:
"Flower Road," the main street running through north-south of San-no-
miya, downtown of Kobe; and a mile long walkway called "Street of
Sculpture and Green," which connects the Kobe railroad station and the
city’s Central Cultural Hall in Okurayama. There are substantial
44 C ity of Kobo, C hokoku no aru M achi-Zukuri IC ityscape w ith S cu lp tu re! (Kobe*: T he C ity
of Kobo, 1994), 1.
R egional distribution o f scu lp tu re is as follow s;
H ig a sh i-N a d a W ard 30 p ieces, N ad a W ard 16, C h u o W ard 156, H y o g o W ard 14, Kita
W ard 38,
N agata W ard 12, Sum a W ard 42, T arum i W ard 10, N ish i W ard 26.
30
collections of sculpture on "Port Island" and "Rokko Island," artificial
islands created by landfill containing shipping, commercial, and residential
areas.
The current Public Art program initiated by the City of Kobe is
meaningful in the following ways. First, the city has offered its citizens
opportunities to appreciate various sculptural expressions— from
representative to abstract— within their living space. Previously, public art
works were confined to statues of heroes or representational memorials of
historical events. Second, the City of Kobe has recognized sculpture as an
element of a pleasant urban environment in its master plan. It was this
recognition that initiated the accumulation of the sculpture collection.
Third and final, the City of Kobe has been a pioneer in the movement for
creating a "cityscape integrated with sculpture" in Japan. Following Kobe’s
example, major cities like Nagano, Yokohama, Sapporo, Nagoya,
Fukuoka, Shizuoka initiated sculpture projects in the 1970s. During the
1980s, this movement developed further in many Japanese cities and
towns, along with the construction of public facilities and
redevelopm ent.so
The 30 year's history of public sculpture in Kobe has given the city
and its citizens a favorable foundation for further development of Public
Art.
N aok i T akcda, Public Art N v u m o n [Introduction to Public Art I. (Tokyo: Kojin N o T o m o
Sha, 1993), 37-48.
31
B, Variety of Sites and Art Forms
1. Problems and Direction
Public art in Kobe should possess more variety in its art forms,
particularly sites, free from the formula of "Public Art = Public
Sculpture.” Public Art should not be restricted only to sculpture; it
can take other forms depending on the situation. The existing
locations of public art under the current system are on the walkways,
parks, and court yards of buildings; there is no public art in train
stations, on billboards, or interiors of buildings, nor is any street
furniture designed by artists. Public Art in Kobe should seek new
possibilities to expand its expressions. The most important point is
to select the right art form to the right place.
The success of public sculpture largely depends on its
circumstances; the functions of the site and movements of the
pedestrians should be carefully considered. If not, Art works lose
their power and become meaningless. One difficulty arises from the
conflict between the art work and the functions of the site. On the
east side of "Flower Road" in Kobe, the walkway is immediately next
to commercial buildings and does not have enough width to
appreciate the art work. Some sculptures, surrounded by bicycles
and motorbikes, become just another element in the environment,
and pedestrians cannot easily recognize them as art (Plate 3).
Another difficulty occurs when the background of the
sculpture creates distractions. For example, the confusing
background of tall buildings, billboards and signs surrounding an
intersection near San-no-miya Station deprives the female statue of
32
Plate 3. Yoshitatsu Yanagihara. Michishirube Toki. "Flower Road,'1 Kobe,
Japan.
33
power of its expression (Plate 4). In this situation, competing with
the busy elements around the site, the sculpture attracts little
attention.
When the site does not encompass enough space for the
scu Iptu re, other art forms that integrate better into the urban design
are preferable. "Faret Tachikawa," located in a suburb of Tokyo, has
recently attracted attention with public art works that improve the
amenity of the surrounding environment. The Housing and Urban
Development Corporation, a state agency, allotted $ 9 million for 109
art works, part of the redevelopment of an area of 15 acres, which
formerly belonged to an American military base.sl Ninety-two
prestigious Japanese and foreign artists acquired commissions,
including Stephen Antonakos, Jonathan Borofsky, Donald Judd,
Tadashi Kawamata, Joseph Kosuth, Claes Oldenburg and Robert
Raushenberg.’ ’2 Going beyond the aesthetics, the majority of Public
Art within this area contains functional aspects; artists designed
parking ramps, benches, bollards, water faucet covers, billboards,
maps, and pedestrian decks (Plate 5,6).
In "Faret Tachikawa," this new type of functional public art
was produced by necessity. According to Masaaki Itabashi, the head
of the Tachikawa office of the state corporation, the redeveloped area
introduced a limitation of building height to prevent tall buildings.
To obtain substantial space while limiting building height, planners
C ’ 1 Henry Scott Stokes, "Japan Plunges Into Public Art," N ew York Tim es. 30 Oct. 1994, H39.
c’2 H ousing and Urban D evelop m en t Corporation, T okyo Branch, FARET
TA C H IK A W A : Art Map. (Tokyo, 1994).
34
Plate 4. Hideki Araya. Alba. "Flower Road," Kobe, japan.
Plate 5. Public Art Works in "Faret Tachikawa." Tokyo, Japan.
36
Plate 6. Keisuke Yamaguchi. Tachikawa Box (Map on the wall of
pedestrian deck post.) "Faret Tachikawa," Tokyo, Japan.
37
compromised by sacrificing a plaza or a park within the redeveloped
area.'’1 This dem anded a new type of functional Public Art that
requires little space. The same agency will work on redevelopment
of the east waterfront area (300 acres) in Kobe as a new core for
business and housing.'’4 If the agency introduces the new functional
type of public art work, the new area can become a catalyst to expand
the various forms of Public Art in various sites in Kobe.
2. Public Art in the U.S.
In comparison to Japan, Public Art in the U.S. utilizes a
variety of art forms, which expand their possible sites. As a result,
Public Art can reach a large number of people in a number of
different places. The following art forms represent a partial list of
American Public Art.
a. Murals
The "Flower of Hydrangea" a mosaic on the exterior wall of
Kobe's Central Cultural Hall, based on a collage by Chieko
Takamuara, is the only example of a mural in Kobe (Plate 7). In the
U.S., the mural is a popular art form in public spaces: it can express
cultural and ethnic traditions, social messages, or even work as
ornamentation creating illusionistic space. SPARC (Social and
Public Art Resource Center) has produced a series of murals about
the history of Los Angeles, called the "Great Wall of Los Angeles,"
focusing on minority ethnic groups (Plate 8).
^ M asaaki Itabashi, in terview by author, 22 D ec. 1994.
r ’4 "Kobe T oubu 120 ha. K aihatsu [D ev elo p m en t o f th e W aterfront, East Part o f K obe|,"
Yom iuri Shim bun. 17 Feb. 1995,1.
38
Plate 7. Flower of Hydrangea. (Based on a collage by Chieko Takamura.)
Kobe City Central Cultural Hall, Kobe, Japan.
39
Plate 8. SPARC. Great Wall of Los Angeles (Detail). Los Angeles,
California.
40
b. Light Art
Neon art creates a different type of atmosphere on a site at
night, adding another dimension to it. For example, the facades of a
New York City sanitary station decorated with colored florescent
lighting create an illusionistic image that adds another aspect to the
station at night time (Plate 9).
c. Paving Designs
In the U.S., public art has entered into buildings as entrance
halls, lobbies, elevator halls, and stair cases to uniquely characterize
the interior space. The floor can become a canvas for public artists
who have designed floors in abstract, representative, or geometric
ways. One tile floor designed by Andrew Leicester at the Molecular
Biology building at Iowa State University depicts bacteria releasing
strands of DNA (Plate 10).^ In addition, some artists design
entrance courtyards as public art, working with landscape architects.
Sidewalk Art, a kind of paving art, is inlaid into the side walk,
using various materials like cement, metals, stone, and tile. The
idea of using the ground space to express visual information has
become popular in Japanese cities. The City of Kobe has designed
several kinds of hatch covers (Plate 11), and inlaid signs on the
ground (Plate 12). Beyond these functional aspects, sidewalk art can
become much more inventive and fun. For example, Jack Mackie
inlaid eight groups of bronze footprints as dance instructions on
sidewalks in Seattle (Plate 13).S fl Some viewers feel compelled to
Fum io N an jo and D ana Friis-Hanson, eds,, "Art in the W orkplace," Space D esign 9406
(June 1994): 16.
^ James M. Rupp. Art in Seattle's Public Places: An Illustrated G u id e (Seattle:
U niversity of W ashington Press, 1992) 151.
41
Plate 9. Stephan Antonakos. 59th Street Marine Station, New York.
Plate 10. Andrew Leicester. G-Nome Project. 1991. Molecular Building,
Iowa State University.
43
Plate 11. Hatch Cover. Kobe, Japan.
44
Plate 12. Sidewalk Directional Inlay. Kobe, Japan.
*
Plate 13. Jack Mackie. Dancers Steps. Broadway, Seattle.
follow the steps and dance. In addition, streets, parking lots, and
landscape surfaces are important possible sites for paving art.
d. Street Furniture
On the "Flower Road,” there is a gate with the historical
motifs of a ship and an anchor that represented the history of Kobe
as a port city (Plate 14). This gate does not function as a gate but
adorns the sidewalk as an art work. If the City of Kobe integrates art
works into functional aspect of public life, they can contribute to a
more attractive and interesting urban space.
American Public Art works have enhanced the urban
environment with street furniture designs. For example, street
lamps designed by Juan & Patricia Navarette as a beautification
project in Phoenix, Arizona, contain copper medallions at the top,
with motifs from indigenous Native American Art (Plate 15).
Consecutive installation of the street lamps gives a sense of place
and history. A bench by Steven Cillman at Pier 7 in San Francisco,
has a simple design of a granite square with a bronze grillwork.
Through the grids, the sitting person can watch the ocean, which
increases the user's sense of closeness to the water (Plate 16). As
another example, Lisa Kaslow created a bench with an entertaining
design, which gives a friendly impression to the users (Plate 17).
e. Posters/Billboard/Light Board (Electronic Billboard)
In Japan, artists rarely use posters, billboards or light boards to
present their work and ideas. In the U.S., temporary public art works
such as posters and billboards usually contain strong messages
concerned with social problems. The Public Art Ftmd in New York
47
Plate 14. Cate. "Flower Road," Kobe, Japan.
48
Plate 15. Juan & Patricia Navarette. Street Lamps. Central Avenue,
Phoenix, Arizona.
49
Plate 16. Steve Cillman. Bay Bench. 1990. Pier 7, San Francisco,
California.
50
Plate 17. Lisa Kaslow. The Sanctuary. 1989. Montgomery County,
Maryland.
5 1
City has used posters to send messages about social issues such as
AIDS or domestic violence (Plate 18), Bus shelters and interiors of
trains are popular places to present posters in the United States.
Billboards and light boards (electric billboard) are another temporary
public art forum that attracts attention by its large scale. For
example, the Guerrilla Girls expressed their concerns about women's
rights by employing billboard art as a public forum (Plate 19). The
Public Art f'tind (New York City) has produced "Message to the
Public/' a project taking place on the light board at l imes Square.
Starting from artist’s drawings, 30 second animation is produced and
shown to the public 50 times a day (Plate 20).57
f. Art in the Landscape
In Japan, there are very few cases of collaboration between
architects, landscape architects, and artists from the initial designing
stage. More time is needed to change the attitudes of the three
different parties towards collaboration. In the U.S., some artists
contribute to landscaping, collaborating with architects, landscape
architects, and engineers. Collaboration is not an easy process; it
requires negotiation, understanding, and mutual respect. An early
example is the NOAA (National Oceanographic Atmospheric
Administration) project of development of the Western Regional
Center in Seattle (1983). Five artists, collaborating with architects,
created their art works, emphasizing the relationships to the
surrounding natural environment.58
57 Public Art Fund Inc., 1987 A nnual Report: A nniversary E dition. (N e w York: 1987), 39.
58 lam es M. Rupp. Art in S eattle’s Public Places: A n Illustrated G u id e (Seattle: U n iv ersity
o f W ashington Press), 247-50.
52
I AS M I J J F R E S
NO S E E N F E R N I AN
D E S I O A
S I M P L E M E N T E
M U E R E N
W O M E N
D O N ’T GET
AI DS
T H E Y J U S T
l ^ E
FRO 1 ' T
Plate 18. Gran Fury. Woman Don't Cet AID S They just Die From It
(Poster for bus shelters). 1991, New York.
53
Plate 19, Guerrilla Girls. First they want to take away a woman's right to
choose. Now they’re censoring Art (Billboard). 1991. New York.
54
Plate 20. to the Public (Light Board). Times Square, New York.
g. Other
Currently some artists seek to break through the barrier of
public and private domains to reach members of the public
individually. For example, Peggy Diggs produced the "Domestic
Violence Milk Carton Project" in 1992, sponsored by Creative
T im e.59 She designed a half-gallon milk carton with a message for
victims of domestic violence, including a hotline telephone number
(Plate 21). She thought that the distribution route of milk was the
most effective way to reach these particular victims, who are often
isolated at home. In January 1992, 1.5 million milk cartons with her
design were sold in the New York-New Jersey metropolitan area. f1 °
These examples of American Public Art indicate that various
art forms generate possible sites, which in turn inspire artistic
creativity. If the City of Kobe expands their view of Public Art and its
possible sites, their public art program will open up many new
opportunities to both artists as creators and to the citizens as their
audience.
C. Site Specificity
The recent earthquake damaged Kobe's historical assets, which
primarily consisted of western style buildings constructed during the late
19th and the early 20th century. They worked effectively as identifiers of
Kobe's history as an international port, creating an exotic atmosphere that
has attracted many tourists. Except for some buildings appointed as
"cultural treasures" by national or local governments, restoration of these
^ Patricia C. Phillips, T h e Private is Public: P eggy D ig g s & the System ," Public Art
R ev iew 5, no, 2 (S p rin g/S u m m er 1994): 16.
^Ibid.
56
Plate 21. Peggy Diggs. Domestic Violence Milk Carton Project. 1991.
57
historical buildings depends on the private owner’s decision. If Kobe loses
these historical assets, Kobe will lose its sense of place. This loss of a sense
of place will influence the identity of the city as well as the people in Kobe.
A people's sense of personal and cultural identity is initially bound up
with place identity.61
Public Art can contribute to maintaining their cultural heritage
within the rebuilt urban environment. Art works that successfully reflect
the history and cultural aspects of the site, can convey a sense of place to
the audience in many ways. For example, an architectural design for an
aquarium built on the bay of Kobe in the 1980s, envisioned masts of a large
ship. Along with the Port Tower, it has strengthened Kobe’s sense of its
identity as a port city and became a new landmark (Plate 22).
Public Art in Kobe after the earthquake will be required to be site
specific and to consider the cultural identity of the city as well as the
community, regardless of rapid changes in the environment. Public Art in
Kobe before the earthquake addressed limited subject matter in its art
forms. Many sculptures in the public space without any special relation to
the site or community are known as "plop art." According to the O pen-A ir
M useum City, Kobe (1990), a catalogue of public sculpture in Kobe, female
nude figures occupy about 43% of the representative sculpture, followed by
male nudity and mother & child. Art works reflecting Kobe's history or
uniqueness count for less than five pieces, commemorating the Japanese
origin of movie theaters, western style dressmaking and other industries.
Although the site specificity is not mandatory for public art, public art in
Kobe should take more pride in its cultural and historical heritage.
61 A nno B uttim er and D avid Seam on ed s,, T he H um an E xperience of S p ace and Placo (N ow
York: St. M artin's Press, 1980), 167.
58
Plate 22. Kobe Marine Aquarium and Port Tower. Kobe, Japan.
The lack of site specificity of Public Art in Kobe is due to the fact that
the city merely purchases finished work instead of commissioning new
pieces. The city has selected public art works in two ways. First, the city has
open competitions for sculptural contests-the "Japan Contemporary
Sculptural Contest," the "Kobe Suma Contemporary Sculpture Contest,"
and the "Kobe Representational Sculpture Contest"— then selects the award
winners. After the exhibition is over, the city buys some of the awarded
works and then selects permanent sites for them.62 In this procedure, the
locations are not predetermined, nor is the scu Iptu re produced with any
consideration of its permanent site. The second method is to purchase
existing art works for predetermined locations by catalog or portfolio.6 '
The problem common with both methods is that little
consideration is given to the environment of the site or to its specificity.
The second method could have selected more adequate works than the
first method; however, in practice the city selected the same kind of
sculptures as the contests. The selection methods have resulted in what is
known as "plop art."
To make Kobe's public art more interesting, the city should
commission artists, whether by competition or invitation— to create art
works specially for a site or situation. The methods of contests,
purchasing, and commissions, should seek to generate a variety of
collections.
D. Public Involvement
Japanese Public Art does not reflect social characteristics; although
art works exist in public spaces, they do not reflect social or cultural issues.
6 2 T akeda , 75.
6:1 Ibid., 74.
60
The public's involvement, as an opinion leader and as an audience, has
not yet been cultivated.
1. Public Involvement in the Selection Process
A system of public participation in the selection of Public Art
has not yet developed in Kobe. In japan, city officials and approved
panels of art experts, whose members are usually fixed, decide what
to buy and where to place it. In other cases, a city delegates the
selection of artists or purchase of art works and installation to a
private art consultant or a urban design company.M The city does
not fully recognize that Public Art serves public interests, which
requires an understanding and consensus by the citizens. Public
officials need to recognize that public participation is crucial in
making public art that will be meaningful to the community.
First, the City of Kobe should establish opportunities for public
participation in the public art selection process. The city already has
a system of community participation called Kyogi-kut for urban
redevelopment. The Kyogi-kai is usually organized by community
members who mainly have land or building within the area of
development or redevelopment. City officials and the Kyogi-kai
have many meetings during a long period (4-5 years) to reach a
consensus and formulate a community development plan.
Recognizing a plan is essentially the result of negotiations in the
Kyogi-kai. Public art programs can study this system as a model, and
modify and enhance it for the special purposes of Public Art.
Second, the City of Kobe should release information about public art
64 M asayuki Y asuda, interview by Y oshifum i Sando, 10 Apr. 1995.
61
projects to the public in a timely manner; openness of information
will prevent the public from being apathetic. The city should utilize
the local media, municipal newsletter, newspaper, and events to
inform and raise public awareness about Public Art.
In the United States, public art programs have tried to
encourage public involvement in the selection process. In many
cases, an Arts Commission or Committee, to which the city council
entrusts supervising a public art program, appoints a selection panel
to make decisions from proposals for each specific program.
Although the number and component of the panel can vary
considerably, the panel frequently includes art professionals,
architects, and city officials of the department in which the public art
project takes place. Even though they do not vote, community
representatives have opportunities to make recommendations to
the panel as a member of an advisory group, acting as a liaison
between the project and the community. Their constant
involvement from the early stages of the project increases input
from the community.
No matter what kind of system the City of Kobe establishes,
the officials' effort and enthusiasm are the critical factors that can
encourage genuine public involvement.
2. Education
Another reason that Japanese Public Art lacks a strong social
presence is the citizen’s apathetic attitude toward Public Art.
Educational programs geared toward the public will become
extremely important in awakening awareness and deepening
62
understanding. II will be important to establish a psychological
connection between Public Art works and the community members.
Lectures, forums and art festivals are a good starting point to
demonstrate the viability of Public Art to the community.
Production of such events is currently a strong point of the City of
Kobe; they have acquired useful know-how through staging
successful events in the past. Walking tours, utilizing the
remaining collection of public sculpture, can also be an effective
educational tool to expose citizens to various sculptural forms.
Continuous efforts to communicate the various dimensions of
Public Art to the public and private sectors are essential to
familiarize them with its possibilities.
Many American Public Art programs have their own
educational programs. For example, the Public Art Program of
Dallas (Texas) contains an education component that accompanies
every public art project. The Metro-Dade Art in Public Places
(Florida) collaborating with public schools, colleges and universities,
has been producing comprehensive educational programs including
lectures, exhibitions, videos, and internships. Their unique
contribution to educational programming has been the design of an
instructional package for public school teachers to integrate the
county's public art collections into their art classes.6^ The program
also provides free Metro rail art tours to public school students and
other members of the community.6b
hti M etropolitan D a d e C ounty, Art in Public Places, E ducational Program s: M etro-D ad e Art
in Public Places (M iam i: M etropolitan D a d e C ou n ty, Art in Public Places, 1993)
M Ibid.
63
The public art program of Kobe has much room for further
development. Ironically, the destruction of the recent earthquake
provided a unique opportunity to create a new Public Art program in Kobe.
By reevaluating their past public art policy, and by studying successful
examples of other cities (both in Japan and overseas), the City of Kobe can
invent their own public art program suitable for the new society after the
earthquake.
F. Ideas for New Public Art Program in Kobe
In order to establish new public art programs, the City of Kobe needs
to consider the following points.
First, a percentage of construction and reconstruction fees of
municipal facilities should be set aside to fund Public Art programs and
relieve pressures from other art activities. Even though the city's economy
will be in a difficult situation for several years, as a result of the
earthquake, maintaining the continuity of public art programs is important
for the development of an art environment in Kobe. A well-executed
program providing art works in public spaces will be a great cultural asset,
which will benefit the citizens' art experience and attract tourists and
businesses.
Second, the definition of Public Art should be expanded, departing
from the formula of "Public Art = Public Sculpture." All forms of original
creation of visual art should be considered. For example, the M etropolitan
Arts Commission in Portland defines the extent of public art forms as
follows:
64
Paintings (all media), sculpture (in the round, kinetic, electronic, etc.,
in any combination of materials) and other visual media including,
but not limited to, prints, drawings, stained glass, calligraphy, mosaics,
photography, clay, fiber and textiles, wood metals, plastics, or other
materials or combination of materials, or crafts or artifacts.67
Third, it is crucial to increase commissioned works that reflect both
Kobe's cultural and historical uniqueness and the needs of the community.
Compared to the conventional purchase method, specially commissioned
public art works will encourage the artist's participation in the design
process and in interaction with the community.
Fourth, the selection process needs to be open to the public.
Whatever methods the city chooses— open competition, limited
competition, invitation, etc.— should reflect public opinion. An advisory
group from the community in constant contact with the public, should
function as an important entity in making recommendations for the
selections of artist and art work. Other informal ways of reflecting the
opinion of community should be explored.
Fifth, continuous efforts to increase the understanding of Public Art
among the community, businesses, and city officials will be required.
Through lectures, events, and public relations, information should be
disseminated about the benefits of a well-executed public art program.
Currently the Kobe City Arts Promotion Foundation, established by
the city in 1981, deals with the purchase of public sculpture in Kobe. This
foundation should expand its role to initiate a more comprehensive
program of Public Art. Maintaining a relationship with the city, the
67 M etropolitan A rts C om m ission . 1% for Art G u id elin es (Portland: M etrop olitan Arts
C om m ission , 1982), 1.
65
foundation should make use of their independence to work as a liaison
between the city, artists, and community.
VII. The Current Situation and Problems of the Art Community in Kobe
A. Kobe Cultural Plan 2001: Problems of the Art Community in Kobe
In 1993, a community group composed of 21 art and cultural
organizations known as the "Group to Make Kobe a Real Cultural City,"
proposed the "Kobe Cultural Plan 2001" with the object of establishing
Kobe as an art center. This plan refers to problems in their art
environment including inadequate cultural facilities. It is significant that
local arts organizations collaborated and proposed a comprehensive arts
plan for Kobe. This plan is evidence of the ability and strength of an
existing network of the art community in Kobe. While rebuilding Kobe as
a cultural center, the city should have opportunities to discuss the future
vision and specific plans with artists, art organizations and community
members. This community group could serve as the core of a group
organized to develop and formulate the future art and cultural activities in
Kobe.
According to this plan, problems of the current art environment in
Kobe can be summarized in the following points: a shortage of space
available for local artists' programs, including studio space for both
performing and visual artists; a lack of special facilities for classical music
and art galleries; a shortage of financial support; and poor operation of
municipal facilities.68 These problems, identified by the community group
in Kobe, are also common in other Japanese cities. Some cities have
68 Y asushi H irata et al., Shim in ga Tsukuru B unkano M achi Kobe I K obe as a C ultural
C enter C reated by Its C itizen s!. (Tokyo: R odo Junpo sha, 1993), 31-33.
66
started to introduce new systems and programs to solve these problems
and to improve their art environment. Solutions for the City of Kobe will
be examined and compared to American and Japanese examples.
B. Shortage of Art Space
A major art facility for performing art in the City of Kobe is the Kobe
Central Cultural Hall- a complex of three different size halls-located at the
north end of the Kobe railroad station in Okurayama. For visual art, there
is the municipal art gallery at Oji. Other facilities are multi-purpose halls
in community cultural centers. Community groups claim difficulties in
finding space in the municipal facilities for their art programs; for
example, the Kobe Central Cultural Hall is always booked one year
a h e a d . V i s u a l artists have limited opportunities to exhibit their art
works in public, because only a small number of public and private art
galleries are available in Kobe.
To accommodate the requirements for space, the City of Kobe has
been constructing community cultural centers, allocating one center for
each ward. These are now in the final stages of construction.7 (1 However,
community culture centers do not necessarily mean available space for art
programs. These centers serve other purposes besides art: for example,
community conferences, political meetings, and municipal ceremonies.
Art programs have to compete with other types of activities to gain space
in the community cultural centers. Community groups complain that
one community center per ward is not enough to meet their needs for
artistic activities, because the population of each ward surpasses 100,000—
the smallest is the Chuo ward with 115,000, and the largest is the Tarumi
Ibid., 31.
70 Ibid., 34.
67
ward with 236,000.71 They insist that the city should provide one
community center per junior-high school district, which is smaller than a
ward.72
The other serious problem is a shortage of studio space for both
performing and visual artists. The housing situation of Japanese urban
areas is very difficult-high rent for small spaces. It is no exaggeration to
say that acquiring space is the most expensive cost in a big city like Kobe.
For a visual artist to have a studio besides housing becomes a considerable
financial burden. Similarly the expense of a performing arts group's space
for practicing and storage pressure their production budget.
To keep space available for local artists, the city needs to consider a
more equal provision of public resources. The City of Kobe offered 21
groups $16,000 to supplement their costs for renting space in 1992.71 In
addition to these small subsidies, opening public spaces to art are
important. This might mean, for example, securing a portion of the
community center's schedule and space for the purpose of art, or opening
public school auditoriums or art laboratories to local artists during the
weekends.
C. Community Cultural Centers
If they worked effectively, community cultural centers have great
potential to become the core of the community specific art. Currently,
these cultural centers serve as a rental space rather than producing or
promoting art programs. Community groups can use the space if they
apply early enough, or if they win a lottery. In Japan, the number of
71 Ibid.
72 The city of K obe co n sists of nine w a r d s-H ig a sh i N ada, N ada, H yogo, N agata, Sum a,
Tarum i, Kita, C huo, and N ishi.
71 Ibid., 36.
68
community cultural centers has increased rapidly since the 1980s; during
the 80s the number has doubled to 1,400, and is still increasing.74
However, only a small number of communities produce their own
programs.
If a cultural center wants to assume the role of a local art center, the
quality of programs becomes important. The center needs to become a
producer of art programs, rather than just renting space without any policy.
The level of programs should reflect the preference and needs of the
community as a both participant and audience. A clear policy and criteria
for selections and expanded eligibility of decision makers (specialists,
community members or city officials) needs to be established.
Some Japanese cities have begun reforming community cultural
centers into art centers. Mito (Ibaragi Prefecture) and Kishiwada city (Osaka
Prefecture) have proposed two methods. First, the Mito Cultural Center is
a municipal art complex— a theater, classical concert hall, and m useum -
established as a regional art center in 1992. Since its opening, art
professionals have become members of its trustees and staff, and they
decide the programs. A foundation, instead of the city, operates the
cultural center, but the city allocates 1 % from the general account of the
annual budget to the center as a commission fee to subsidize its operation.
This art center has a clear policy to continuously provide a high level of
professional art programs at low cost.7t; Their basic assumption is that the
citizens will grow as an audience and become advocates for the arts,
74 D entsu Soken, od., Kjyvo no Shakai Koken I Social C ontributions by Private
C orporations!. (Tokyo: N ih on Keizai Shim bun, 1991), 126.
7* Koi Mori and Toru Yokosuka, M ito Geiiutsu-kan no likken I Experim ents by M ito Art
Center! (Tokyo: Kojin n o T o m o sha, 1992) 7.
69
increasing the opportunities to make contact with and be influenced by a
high quality art.76
T he City of Kishiwada has the opposite policy. Kishiwada city
emphasizes the creation of community specific art, and uses the
community cultural centers to provide space and opportunities for
production to local arts organizations and the community. Their
assumption is the community will increase understanding and support for
art through the experience of production and that art should express the
uniqueness of the community.77 Kishiwada has experimentally allocated
the operation of the cultural centers to an independent civic association
called Kishiwada Civic Cultural Association, which is composed of local
arts organizations and community members. Although the city provides
a commission fee, the cultural association can independently decide the
rules of operation and programs of production in the community center.76
Here, the citizens become producers of art instead of receivers of cultural
services by the city.
Both methods are useful examples of ways to develop art in the city
since the development of audiences and development of creators are both
important. The balance should reflect the community need for art and the
maturity of the art community. Judging from the requests of the local arts
organizations in Kobe, something closer to the Kishiwada method should
work best to operate community cultural centers in Kobe.
76 Ibid., 19.
77 Y o sh ih id e M ori, "Bunka Jigyo K yodotai: K ish iw ad a H ou sh ik i |T h e K ish iw ad a
M ethod |," Bunka H all ga M achi w o T sukuru IA C ultural C enter Form s the C ity I . ed . Kei
M ori (Tokyo: C a k u y o Shobo, 1991), 200-12.
76 Y asuo M iyosh i, "G yosei to S him in no A tarashi-i K ankei [A N e w R elation sh ip B etw een
C ity and C itizen s)," Shakai K vo-iku ISocial E ducation! 468 (Feb. 1995)37-38.
70
A nother problem of com m unity cultural centers are their m ulti
purpose structures. Behind the m ulti-purpose cultural center lies a public
facility policy, which should be equally available to the public as required
by law.7 M The city believes it is better to have a facility that is adequate for
as m any purposes as possible, rather than to have an excellent facility for
one purpose. This is practical but not always ideal. Since com m unity
centers offer their resources for various purposes, the users should also
equitably share the inconveniences. This idea conflicts with the specialized
nature of art; equity and specificity of art cannot always coexist. For good
quality art programs, specifically designed facilities are preferable. Music,
for example, needs special sound considerations. M ulti-purpose halls are
usually not adequate for quality productions. By seeking the equity of use
by com m unity m embers, a local governm ent usually selects a m ulti
purpose hall for a com m unity center.
The City of Kobe has constructed com m unity cultural centers in a
geographically equitable manner. To strengthen and nurture the
com m unity's art program s, the facilities need modification to
accom m odate different arts: for example, install better lighting or special
equipm ent for art classes. To adapt some com m unity cultural centers in
Kobe for com m unity specific art, it will be im portant to clarify the purpose
of the facility, not as a com m unity center but as an art center.
D. Support for Art
In Japan, art program s have received very little support from both
the public and private sectors. G overnm ent allocations are not a priority,
nor are donations from private corporations and individuals significant.
79 Akira Im ai. Shim in-teki K okvo-sei to lichi I Social Public and A u to n o m y l. (Tokyo: Kojin
n oT om o, 1993), 14.
71
Currently, Japanese art and cultural programs are facing a financial crisis to
maintain their major activities.80 The majority of artists live in
unfavorable conditions. According to research by the ' f Performing
Artists Association, the average annual income of a perform er is $47,200
(47 years old), and the lowest is $17,780 for a perform er of children's
plays.81 Considering the high cost of living in japan, their income is
insufficient. For many performing art groups, the production costs (space
rental fee, equipment, costumes, public relations, etc.) usually exceeds the
ticket revenues. Performers often have to work at a second job (teaching,
mass media, events, etc.) to support their performing lives.82
In 1990, the National Agency for Cultural Affairs established a special
fund for supporting art programs. This fund started with $500 million
trom the national budget and $100 million from donations by private
corporations.81 However, because of the economic recession and the
decline of the interest rate, fundraising and interest accrued have not met
initial expectations for such a large investment. During 1990, $21 million
was granted to the arts. It is hoped that this fund will again achieve that
80 D entsu Soken. 128-29.
At T he national level, the annual budget of the N ational A gency for C ultural
Affairs is $430 m illion; how ever, 3 /4 of the b udget g o es to preservation of historical assets
and the national treasures, and 1 /5 g o es to the operation o f national m useum s. The budget
for prom oting arts (training, program s, and funding for arts organization, etc.) am ounts to
only $30 m illion.
At the prefecture level, total budget of 42 prefectures for art and culture is $1.05
billion (exclu d in g for preservation o f historical assets); 60 % is construction of facilities and
the rest of the $300 m illion is for program s and operations. T he total local governm ent
budget (cities and m unicipal govern m en ts) for arts is $1.2 billion, and the half of it is for
construction and the other half for program s and operations.
81 Shigeru Yam ato, "Geino Jitsu-en-ka n o S eik a tsu |L ife of Perform ing Artists]," Kig y o to
Bunka no Kaiwa IA C onversation Betw een C ooperation and C ulture], ed . A kihiko Sasaki
(Tokyo: Tokai U niversity Press, 1991), 222-23.
C om pared to other occupations, the incom e of perform ing artists is not substantial. A verage
annual incom e of new college graduates is $30,000.
82 Ibid., 225.
81 H iroyuki N iw a and N ob u o Kogure, C reating Regional C ulture (Tokyo: G yosei, 1992) 71.
72
21
level and surpass it.84 Since the 1970s, m any local governm ents have
established funding program s for artists. The City of Kobe has supported
local arts organizations through the Kobe City Arts Promotion Foundation
in 1981. Besides this foundation, the city’s Cultural Affairs D epartm ent
also established a supporting program for artists and distributed $141,200 to
28 recipients in 1992.8?; Com pared to other Japanese cities, efforts by the
City of Kobe are significant and the am ount is considerable. However, the
city needs to intensify the effort until support from private sectors reaches
adequate levels of maturity.
In Japan, donations from private corporations still rem ain at a low
level. The donations for art from private corporations am ounted to $100
million at the most in 1990.88 Because of the subsequent economic
recession, this am ount is not likely to increase. The National Tax
A dm inistration Agency does not have details or definite data about
individual donations; individual donations except for governm ent or for
pre-approved purposes are not tax deductible. A rough estimation of
individual donations for art and cultural purposes w ould be several
million dollars.87 Com pared to the U.S., financial support from the
private sector is rem arkably low in Japan. In the U.S., about 7.5% ($8.6
billion) in donations w ent to arts and hum anities g roup program s in
1989,88 (In com parison, the federal governm ent budget for the arts in 1989
was $335 million in the U.S..)8g
84 D en tsu Soken, 129.
8C * H irata, et al., 36.
88 D en tsu Soken, 132.
87 Ibid.
8 8 T he N e w G rolier M u ltim ed ia E n cyclop ed ia (G rolier Inc., 1993) C D -R O M .
8y N tw a and K ogure, 74.
73
To initiate a comprehensive support program for art, the
government needs to raise the percentage of the art and cultural budget
from the public sector; a n d /o r solicit more donations from private sectors
by appealing to individuals and corporations. In reality, it has proved
difficult to significantly increase the budget for art solely from governm ent
sources. To encourage private donations for art by reforming tax
regulations is a more realistic way to increase support for art by the private
sector.
Since current Japanese tax regulations do not encourage private
donations, the regulations act as a barrier for both donors and receivers. To
begin, we will examine donations. There are three types of donations in
the Japanese tax regulations. The first is the Ippatt Kifti (general donation).
A corporation can make a donation to any person or entity (including
political donation); the maximum amount subject to tax deductions is
0.125% of existing capital plus 1.25% of the gross profit. The second is the
Shitei Kifu (designated donation), in which the recipients are required to
be pre-approved by the Finance Ministry, but the donors can deduct the full
am ount of the donation. The third is for the Tokutei Koeki Zoshin Hojin
(specified public foundation) whose activities are considered to have strong
public purposes; only 50 art or cultural organizations presently qualify in
this category. This type of donation can claim a tax deduction up to the
same am ount as an Ippati Kifu (general donations).90
In the U.S., a private corporation can acquire a tax deduction for
donations up to 10 % of their gross profit, which can carry forward any
90 D entsu Soken, 138.
74
excess am ount undeductible in a year for five years.41 In Japan, there is no
tax deduction for individual donations toward the Ippatt Kifu (general
donations) or the Shitei Kifu (designated donation). However, individuals
can donate to the Tokutei Koeki Zoshin Hojin (specified public
foundation) with a deduction up to 25% of the individual's income
(minim um $100).1 ,2 A donation or bequest to a governmental agency can
receive a 100% tax deduction. In the U.S., the individual donation
becomes an object of tax deduction up to 50% of the adjusted individual
income, which can carry forward an excess amount undeductible in r. year
for five years.41
According to an inquiry of 250 private Japanese corporations that
have at some time donated to art programs, 34% state that small tax
deductions are a barrier to donations, and 63.2% state donations for the arts
would increase if the limitations on tax deductions were eased.44 Reform
of tax regulations is the key to increase donations from the private sectors
in Japan.
Next, we will examine the recipients of the donations. In Japan, an
organization must have a juridical personal qualification as a public
foundation to acquire a tax exemption for their income from a donation.4S
The reality is that most arts organizations cannot qualify for this status.
The criteria of approval for public foundation is very strict; for example
the organization should already have at least 1 billion Japanese yen (about
N orio M atsu oka, "America no Zeisei to Bunka | A m erican Tax R egulation and Arts|,"
Kig y o to Bunka no Kaiwa [C onversations betw een A rts and Private C orporations] ed.,
A kihiko Sasaki, (Tokyo: Tokai U niversity Press, 1991) 276-85.
42D entsu Soken, 138.
41 Ibid.
44 K igyo M ecena K yogikai, M econa H akusho IM ecena W hite Paper], (Tokyo: D iam ond sha,
1993), 51.
gc* D entsu Soken, 138.
75
$10 million) as capital.96 Today, many organizations work as non-profit
organizations, but they cannot take tax exemptions. U nder current law,
even a public foundation must pay taxes on profits from the foundation's
operation and financing. The foundations do not receive discounts for
mail services like non-profit organizations in the U.S.. The dom estic
mailing services in Japan are expensive; a post card costs 62 cents and a
regular size envelope costs 82 cents.
In the U.S., it is far easier to qualify a non-profit organization than in
Japan. A non-profit organization established under state law acquires l ax
Exempt Status (IRC 501 C-3) from IRS. This status also exem pts them from
federal taxes including income from the related business, state and county
taxes including sales tax, use tax, and property tax.97 Tax regulations in the
United States provide both tax reduction and tax exemption, which
facilitate the non-profit organization's activity. Non-profit organizations
play im portant roles in various areas of culture and society. Many m id
size and small size Japanese arts organizations have recently focused on
the non-profit organization systems in the U.S. as a preferable model of
operation.
Currently, in Japan, based on the achievem ent of volunteers in the
Kobe Earthquake, the governm ent finally has begun to consider changing
the existing tax regulations to support volunteer activities-w hether to ease
the criteria for the Public Foundation or to establish new qualifications that
96 "Shim in D antai Shi-on G utai-ka o [R ealization o f the S u p p orts for C ivic
O rg a n iza tio n s),” Yom iuri Shim bun. 14 Feb. 1995.
97 M atsuoka, 276-85.
76
will make it easier to acquire tax-exemption status.9* If this tax reform
succeeds, this will stimulate donations from the private sector.
VIII- Community Art Plan for Kobe: Art Network
To solve the problems mentioned in the previous section, the "Kobe
Cultural Plan 2001" written by the community group proposes to build a
large size arts complex. The proposed complex, composed of a theatrical
hall, classical concert halt, museum, and studios, will establish a cultural
zone as a symbol of Kobe by centralizing functions and facilities. This plan
requires a 1% allocation from the general account of the city’s annual
budget for art programs, excluding construction fees for cultural facilities.
As an alternative, I propose a decentralized network for art programs
called Art Network, consisting of an alliance of all existing or planned art
facilities in the City of Kobe. This would allow each community to pursue
their ow n art programs, but simultaneously have a network of
coordination and collaboration. It is just as im portant for community
members to have easy access to art program s near their living or working
areas as to have a large regional art center.
A. Art Network
The Art Network is based on three assumptions: first, art is essential
in the cultural and urban development of Kobe; second, artists can be a key
element in vitalizing cultural life in the community; third, the City of
Kobe should play the role of supporter and facilitator of various arts and
cultural activities. These assumptions correspond to the city’s master plan,
9* "Simin Dantai Shien G utai-ka e (R ealization o f Supports for C ivic O rganizations!,"
Yomiuri Shim bun. 14 Feb. 1995.
77
pursuing an active cultural exchange, internationally as well as
domestically, between artists and the citizens.1 ^
The Art Netutcrk alliance, composed of the com m unity centers, the
Kobe Central Cultural Hall, Shin-kai-chi Art Village, art galleries, local
artists and arts organizations, will encourage exchange of information and
talent. In the network, each art center operates on an equal status, rather
than a chain of command. Each art center primarily works independently,
but collaborates with each other to expand and interchange their programs
more effectively. The Art Network will play the role of catalyst to develop
art programs into the micro world of the community, at the same time,
open them up outside of the city.
The first advantage of formulating the Art Network is to share the
information and problems that each center possesses, and to help and
study each other to create a better art environment. The members of the
Art Network will have periodical meetings. Second, the alliance can co
produce successful programs. If a program is valuable enough to take place
in two or more places, or the production cost is too expensive, the art
centers can collaborate and co-produce the program and share the expenses.
The third advantage is coordination. Even though each art center
primarily initiates and develops their own programs, the netw ork can
coordinate and make adjustments to avoid overlapping the sam e kind of
program s or avoid conflict with each other. The fourth is the effective
utilization of talent. Community centers can employ the local artists
involved in the Art Network as art teachers. For example, independent
44 City of Kobe, Kobe 2025: M aster Plan. (Kobe: The C ity of Kobe, 1993), 13.
78
artists or art associations from the art village could supplem ent their
income by teaching art classes at other art centers.
B. Tow ard Establishm ent of the Art Network
The basic requirem ents for the preparatory stages of the Art
N etw o rk are to create a coalition between the city, local artists and arts
organizations, com m unity mem bers, and local businesses to support art
through the network. C ontinuous efforts to broaden the understanding of
art in the com m unity is also im portant for successful program s.
C onversion of som e com m unity cultural centers to art centers with special
facilities will be required by obtaining consent of the com m unity through
public hearings. W herever needed, the existing facilities should be
im proved to be suitable for artistic purposes. Some co-existing functions
such as com m unity m eetings or m unicipal cerem onies can be m oved to
other m unicipal facilities. In addition, a com prehensive study about the
com m unity and the arts needs to be done, including m arketing surveys
(e.g., attitudes toward the arts, and preference of program s) as well as
prim ary research (e.g., dem ographic features and historical background).
Opinion from the com m unity in the public hearing will be helpful as a
way discovering the real needs of the com m unity.
C. Art Facilities in Kobe
In the Art Network, the core facilities for the cityw ide art program s
would be the Kobe Central Cultural Center in O kurayam a and the art
village in Shinkaichi in the H yogo W ard. They will serve as centralized
facilities addressing regional audiences. The Kobe Central Cultural Hall
will become the core of Kobe's perform ing arts. Here the program s will be
balanced betw een the appreciation of professionals and the production of
79
local artists. Since Kobe has only one larger (private) theater available at
the Shin-Kobe railroad station, the central cultural hall should retain
national and international performing arts programs. At the same time,
the cultural hall s programs should be careful to create opportunities for
local art productions.
Development plans for the Shin-kai-chi Art Village have
progressed during the past few years. The city and the local art community
are collaborating to revitalize this old am usement quarter into a creative
space of art and entertainment programs for the community. The art
village will include a theatrical and music hall, practice spaces for the
performing arts, studios for visual artists, a gallery, and art laboratories.11 ,0
Shin-kai-chi will be an artisan village for visual and performing artists
with low price rental studios and galleries.
The city of Kobe is also planning to build small public galleries
citywide, in addition to the existing municipal art gallery at Oji in the Nada
Ward (2,100 square feet). These spaces will work as satellite facilities to
offer visual art to the communities. The locations of the new art galleries
are important. Access and their environm ent should be carefully
considered; preferable locations would be next to an existing culture center
or other public facility, or near gathering places of citizens and tourists.
Other im portant satellite facilities are the com m unity cultural centers.
D. Development of Community Cultural Center
An im portant step in establishing the Art Network is developing
community cultural centers as the core of the com m unity's perform ing
and visual arts. Usually the centers have (a) m ulti-purpose hall(s) with
1 0 ( 1 [ \ j j w a a n c j K o g u r c , 1 % .
80
about 500 seats. The com m unity cultural centers should accom m odate
their halls for local perform ing artists or groups to use as a base of their
activities, and to rotate their program s am ong the netw ork of the
com m unity centers.
Each center should have independent program s, which reflect the
needs of the com m unity members. For example, program s for the
com m unity w here m any senior citizens live should differ from a
com m unity dom inated by university students. In a com m unity which has
substantial num bers of foreign residents, the center can provide program s
that reflect diverse cultural assets. The com m unity cultural centers
should offer various art classes (e.g., dance, painting, ceramics, printing,
sculpture) to the com m unity mem bers. The contents of the classes in the
com m unity center will vary according to the com m unities’ needs.
Com m unity art classes and art program s should hire local artists including
talent from the art village. The art village, galleries, and com m unity
centers will constitute a network, in which people, exhibitions, and
information will be shared reciprocally.
Professional staffs w ho have sufficient know ledge of art and
production need to develop original program s and art classes in the
com m unity cultural centers. Each com m unity center will have an
advisory group com posed of com m unity mem bers, local artists and arts
organizations; this advisory group will make recom m endations and
suggestions about the center’ s program s or operations. With m arketing
research and opinions from the advisory group, the program s can
effectively respond to the com m unity needs. A com m unity center can
become a base of art production and art education, enhancing the art
81
environm ent for both artists and com m unity mem bers. In the long term,
w hen the com m unity has a stable foundation and structure for
supporting the arts, the City of Kobe will commission the com m unity
cultural centers as a com m unity organization as Kishiwada city does. The
city will pay commission fees and provides advice if needed, but the
com m unity organization will decide and operate the center s program s. A
unique com m unity culture should flourish around the center.
E. Activities of the Art Network
1. M em bership
The Art Netivork will issue m em berships to individuals and
local businesses. The m embers will receive newsletters and
discounts for paid program s. Contributions from the m em bers
w ould strictly benefit the activities of the Art Network. The
netw ork will organize and prom ote fundraising cam paigns, from
governm ent, private corporations and individuals. Even though
the city will provide part of the budget for operation of the art
centers, the centers will need fundraising efforts to fully develop
their activities. The percentage of the actual Ippatt Kifu (general
donation) by Japanese private corporations currently occupies only
40% of its m axim um deductible am ount even un d er the current tax
regulations; i.e., donation from private corporation has room to
grow .101 Even though Kobe's economic situation after the
earthquake is severe, it w ould be meaningful to study and commit
to fundraising. It should stim ulate m em bership in the long run.
101 N iw a and K ogure, 85.
82
2. Subscriptions
The Art Network will have a season ticket (1 season for 4 or 5
programs) with a discounted price. The seasonal subscribers can
choose favorite program s from the art centers in various locations.
The audience need not stick to h is/h er area and can enjoy the
program s city wide.
3. Public Relations
The City of Kobe, like all Japanese cities, publishes and
distributes periodical newsletters to its citizens. The municipal
publishing should list the schedules and information of all art
centers. As other effective information sources, the network will
utilize local newspapers and local magazines. The Art Network will
also publish a newsletter to its members, known as the Art Network.
4. Art Festival
The Art Network will collaborate and produce an annual art
festival joined by all the art centers in the City of Kobe. This event
should include various art fields: e.g., performing art, visual art, and
cinema. The festival will simultaneously take place at all the
location of the art center and parks. The festival will be an effective
means of reinforcing the collaborative relationship within the
network, and will attract the attention of potential audiences, who
have not attended the art programs by the art centers before. The
City of Kobe, with its proven abilities to produce events, can provide
useful advice to support the art festival.
The festival will not be only for the citizens of Kobe, but will
be open to those outside of the city. A festival can attract participants
83
beyond its geographic boundaries in many ways. For example, a
community playhouse at Ukiah in California has an annual script
contest, in which scripts are collected from all over the United States.
The playwright could be am ateur or professional, but the applied
scripts should be unpublished and current. The playhouse invites
the aw arded playwrights (regardless of experience) to Ukiah during a
dram a festival to direct their own work with actors, actresses and
other members of the playhouse. Based on similar ideas, a festival
could provide an opportunity so that the Art Network could expand
to areas other than Kobe.
Because international cultural exchange is one of the
important goals of the City of Kobe, a special concern should be
taken for international communities, while producing the festival.
The num ber of foreign residents is small but they can become an
im portant factor in im proving international culture in the City of
Kobe.102 To be "international" does not necessarily mean traveling
to foreign countries or inviting artists from abroad. Accepting
foreigners as members of the community is more im portant in
developing a level of internationalization. Mutual respect for
cultural differences creates an open society. This festival will give
opportunities to the international communities to get involved in
the Japanese community and w ork together; at the same time it will
assist Kobe citizens to appreciate their m ulticultural assets.
102 City of Kobe, K obe 2025: M aster Plan (Kobe: T he C ity of Kobe, 1993), 4.
T he foreign population is o v er 40,000 (2.9%) in 1993; they are from Am erica, Korea, China,
India, and V ietnam , etc..
84
The idea of the Art Netuwrk focuses on the operation rather than
construction of physical facilities. The establishm ent of effective
operational m ethods and an effective information system is im portant to
develop art in the com m unity. In japan, after the 1980s, the num ber of the
municipal facilities has rapidly increased. H ow ever, the facilities do not
necessarily contribute to the com m unity's life; for example, 55% of them
have no users for 200 days a year, and 153 days are for rental space, and only
11 days are for self-production of art and cultural program s.101 In a sense,
it is easier to build facilities than to change the attitudes of the city and
citizens tow ard art and the conventional m ethods in which it operates.
The final im portant elem ent in creating the Art Network is the
maturity of the citizens. The citizens of Kobe survived the devastating
earthquake and its subsequent difficulties because of their collaborative and
voluntary attitudes. As a result, they currently recognize the im portance
of networks. If the city prepares facilities and a basic system of networks,
the citizens of Kobe will produce their ow n art by themselves. The role of
the city should be to help initiate and support their activities.
IX. Conclusion
Even though Japan has a great tradition in the arts, art does not
necessarily exist in a favorable condition in the current Japanese society.
Many local governm ents address the goal of "city of art" or "international
art center" w ithout providing substantial support for it. These visions
frequently end u p as lip-service for the voters at election time. For most
Japanese people, art is insignificant to their lives. They believe that art is
11)3 D entsu Soken, 127.
85
for a limited g roup of intellectuals; only "high" culture qualifies as art. It
is extremely im portant to bring art to the com m unity level, so the average
person can gain social and aesthetic experience from art, raising the civil
conscience and im proving the urban environm ent. Both governm ent and
citizens probably recognize the importance of art; however, they do not
know how to develop art for the com m unity. Further studies and
collaboration from both sides are important.
The C ity of Kobe has initiated valuable art program s (e.g., sculptural
contests and Public Art) and has m ade efforts to be a 'city of arts and
culture." For further developm ent, the city needs to clarify "Who should
benefit from art programs?" and "Who are the main players?" Local
artists, arts organizations and com m unity m em bers should recognize their
responsibilities and the im portance of participation. Active interactions
between the city and the arts com m unity will create m eaningful art
program s for the public locally and citywide. Democratic and collaborative
aspects that were generated by the earthquake experience need to be
fortified d uring the rebuilding of Kobe. Art should and can be an
im portant element in constructing the new city and society. I dedicate this
plan to the citizens of Kobe with a prayer that they revive the city as an
em inent city beyond its overw helm ing difficulties.
86
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Appendix
Hayes, David
Herr, Jeffrey
Itabashi, Masaaki
Johnson, Barbara
N agasaw a, Nobi
N akayam a, Takaki
Oh mi, Kazuo
S ando, Y oshifum i
Shim bori, C hihiro
Shinbori, T oshiko
Yasuda, M asayuki
Yasuyoshi, Takum i
List of Interviewees
Art Director, Ukiah Players T heater (California)
Cultural Affairs D epartm ent, the City of Los
A ngeles
H ead of T achikaw a Branch of the National
H ousing an d U rban D evelopm ent C orporation
Exhibit Curator, Torrance C ultural Arts Center,
Joslyn Fine Arts Gallery
Public Artist
H ead of U rban Planning D epartm ent, the City of
Urayasu, Chiba Prefecture (Japan)
The form er advisor of the H ousing D epartm ent
of the City of Kobe
The form er Director G eneral of the M etropolitan
A reas D evelopm ent Bureau of the N ational Land
Agency
Citizen of Kobe (a form er school teacher)
Citizen of Kobe (piano instructor)
The form er H ead of the U rban Planning
D epartm ent, the City of Funabashi, Chiba
Prefecture (japan)
The form er treasurer of the City of Kobe
96
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Asset Metadata

Creator Sando, Megumi (author)

Core Title Recommendations for public art and community art planning for Kobe, Japan

School School of Fine Arts

Degree Master of Public Art Studies

Degree Program Fine Arts

Degree Conferral Date 1995-05

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag fine arts,OAI-PMH Harvest,political science, public administration,urban and regional planning

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Williams, Jan S. (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member), Pally, Marc (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-4260

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Document Type Thesis

Rights Sando, Megumi

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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