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Reference Group Theory, Selection, And The Images Of Professions

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Reference Group Theory, Selection, And The Images Of Professions

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Content REFERENCE GROUP THEORY, SELECTION,
AND THE IMAGES OF PROFESSIONS
by
H arold A lfre d Nelson
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i ll m e n t of the
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(S ociology)
June 1960
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SC H O O L
U N IV ER SITY PARK
LOS A N G E L E S 7. C A LIFO R N IA
This dissertation, written by
HAROLD ALFRED NELSON
under the direction of h.i.S...Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
........
J u n e , 1960
TATLQN COMMITTEE DI
Chairman.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ..............................................
C h a p te r
I . INTRODUCTION.............................................................................
The G e n e ra l I n t r o d u c t i o n
S ta te m e n t of th e Problem
Im portance o f th e P roblem
D e f i n i t i o n s
O r g a n iz a tio n of th e D i s s e r t a t i o n
I I . INVESTIGATION OF THE LITERATURE ..........................
C r i t i q u e of R e fe re n c e Group Theory
D is c u s s io n o f L i t e r a t u r e P e r t i n e n t t o th e
O c c u p a tio n s
I I I . METHODOLOGY .............................................................................
The T h e o r e t i c a l A sp ect o f th e P roblem
The E m p ir ic a l M ethodology
The Method o f A n a ly s is
Summary
IV. RESULTS: ANALYSIS OF REFERENCE GROUP THEORY,
SELECTION, IMAGES OF PROFESSIONS, AND
SERENDIPITAL EFFECTS ...................................................
A n a ly s is o f R e feren c e Group Theory
R e s u l t s of th e E m p iric a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n
A n a ly s is of S t e r e o t y p e s
E f f e c t s of S e r e n d i p i t y
Summary
V. CONCLUSION..................................................................................
Summary o f P r o c e d u r e s P r e c i p i t a t i n g R e s u l t s
Summary of R e s u l t s
G e n e ra l C o n c lu s io n s and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r
F u tu re R e se arch
• •
IX
Page
iv
1
15
54
75
150
i i i
APPENDIXES .................................................................................................
A. An O u tlin e of th e E s s e n t i a l s of R e feren c e
Group Theory and th e F o u n d a tio n s upon
Which I t R e s ts
B. P a r t i a l S t e r e o t y p e s of P r o f e s s i o n s
C. Q u e s tio n n a ir e
D. The Number of P e rs o n s in th e Sample and
V a rio u s Subsam ples
Page
163
BIBLIOGRAPHY
194
LIST OF TABLES
T ab le Page
1. D egree of A s s o c i a t i o n betw een S e l e c t e d
V a r i a b l e s and R e fe re n c e Group S e l e c t i o n . . 89
2. C e l l s in Which S i g n i f i c a n t C o r r e l a t i o n s Occur
betw een S e l e c t e d V a r i a b l e s and R e fe re n c e
Group S e l e c t i o n ......................................................... 91
3. S t e r e o t y p e s — In te r-S u b s a m p le C o r r e l a t i o n s . . . 110
4 . P r o f e s s i o n s L i s t e d a s F i r s t C hoice ........................... 123
5. P r o f e s s i o n s L i s t e d a s L a s t C h o i c e ...................... 125
6 . The F i r s t , S e c o n d , E ig h t h , and N in th Ranked
P r o f e s s i o n s a s D e term in e d by th e Rank O rd er
o f th e Nine P r o f e s s i o n s by Subsample . . . . 176
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The G e n e ra l I n t r o d u c t i o n
The d i s c u s s i o n t h a t f o llo w s i s p r e s e n t e d f o r th e p u r
pose o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a g e n e r a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e o r c lim a te
t o make m ea n in g fu l th e s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r e s e n t e d . In th e
d i s c u s s i o n , c e r t a i n p o i n t s w i l l be s t r e s s e d which w i l l be of
t h e o r e t i c a l im portance when c o n s i d e r i n g th e n a tu re and d i r e c
t i o n o f th e s tu d y .
The aims o f s c ie n c e a re d e s c r i p t i o n , e x p l a n a t i o n , and
p r e d i c t i o n . The f i r s t aim i s b a s ic and i n d i s p e n s i b l e ,
th e second and t h i r d ( c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to each o t h e r )
a r i s e a s th e most d e s i r a b l e f r u i t s of s c i e n t i f i c l a b o r s
whenever in q u ir y r i s e s beyond th e f a c t g a th e r in g s t a g e . 1
In any stu d y c o n s t r u c t e d w i th in th e g e n e r a l fram ework
o f th e s c i e n t i f i c method, and more p r e c i s e l y , l o g i c a l l y de
r i v e d to be e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t e d , th e above s ta te m e n t must be
c o n s id e r e d a s a g u id in g p r i n c i p l e . To c o n s i d e r more f u l l y
t h i s p r i n c i p l e , i t sho uld be remembered t h a t :
To e x p l a i n th e phenomena in th e w orld of our e x p e r
ie n c e , t o answ er th e q u e s tio n "Why?" r a t h e r th a n o nly
th e q u e s tio n "W hat?", i s one o f t h e . f o r e m o s t o b j e c t i v e s
^■Herbert F e i g l , "The S c i e n t i f i c O u tlo o k : N a tu ra lis m
and Humanism," R ead in g s in th e P h ilo s o p h y of S c i e n c e , e d s .
H e r b e r t F e i g l . and" May Brodbec'k (New York: Apple to n -C en tu ry -
C r o f t s , I n c . , 1 953 ), p . 10.
o f a l l r a t i o n a l i n q u i r y ; and e s p e c i a l l y , s c i e n t i f i c r e
s e a r c h i n i t s b r a n c h e s s t r i v e s t o go beyond mere de
s c r i p t i o n o f i t s s u b j e c t m a tte r by p r o v i d in g an e x p la n
a t i o n of th e phenomena i t i n v e s t i g a t e s .
To a s k , "Why d o e s th e phenomenon happen?" i s , in
e f f e c t , t o a s k , "A ccording t o what g e n e r a l law s, and by v i r
tu e o f what a n te c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s d o e s th e phenomenon oc
c u r ? " 3
W ith r e g a r d t o d e s c r i p t i o n and p r e d i c t i o n , th e con
c e p t s a re u t i l i z e d i n such a way a s t o im ply t h a t i t i s a
p a r t i c u l a r phenomenon which i s d e s c r i b e d l e a d in g t o th e e s
t a b l i s h m e n t of g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s by which th e s p e c i f i c
phenomenon may be e x p la in e d and p r e d i c t e d .
Those p r i n c i p l e s which have been s e t f o r t h above a re
b a s ic t o any d i s c u s s i o n of th e s c i e n t i f i c method; p r i n c i p l e s
which g o v e rn th e s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of any b ra n c h of
what may be r e f e r r e d t o a s th e w o rld of e x p e r ie n c e and ob
s e r v a b i l i t y .
E very i n d i v i d u a l e v e n t , in th e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s no
l e s s t h a n i n p sy c h o lo g y o r th e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , i s u-
n iq u e in th e se n se t h a t w ith a l l i t s p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s , i t d o e s not r e p e a t i t s e l f . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n d i
v i d u a l e v e n t s may co nform t o , and t h u s be e x p la in e d by
means o f , g e n e r a l law s of th e c a u s a l t y p e . For a l l t h a t
a c a u s a l law a s s e r t s i s t h a t any e v e n t s of a s p e c i f i e d
k i n d , i . e . any e v e n t h a v in g c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s , i s accom panied by a n o th e r e v e n t which i n t u r n
h a s c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f o r exam ple, t h a t
in any e v e n t in v o lv i n g f r i c t i o n , h e a t i s d e v e lo p e d . And
a l l t h a t i s needed f o r th e t e s t a b i l i t y and a p p l i c a b i l i t y
2
C a r l G. Hempel and P a u l Oppenheim, "The L o g ic of
E x p l a n a t i o n ." R e ad in g s in th e P h ilo s o p h y of S c i e n c e , p . 319.
3 I b i d . . p . 327
o f such law s i s th e r e c u r r e n c e o f e v e n t s w ith th e a n t e
c e d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i . e . , t h e r e p e t i t i o n of th o s e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t n o t o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i n s t a n c e s .
. . . When we spoke o f th e e x p l a n a t i o n o f a s i n g l e
e v e n t , th e te rm " e v e n t" r e f e r r e d t o th e o c c u rre n c e of
some more o r l e s s com plex c h a r a c t e r i s t i c in a s p e c i f i e d
s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l l o c a t i o n o r in a c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l ob
j e c t , and n o t t o a l l th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h a t ob
j e c t , o r t o a l l t h a t g oes on i n t h a t s p a c e -tim e r e g i o n . 4
T here i s , t h e n , no a p r i o r i r e a s o n why g e n e r a l i z a
t i o n s sh o u ld n o t be a t t a i n a b l e w hich ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e
dependence of a l l b e h a v i o r , p h y s i c a l o r s o c i a l , on p a s t e x -
p e r ie n e e
T u rn in g from a d i s c u s s i o n o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and
law s t o th e b r o a d e r a r e a o f t h e o r e t i c a l sy s te m s, i t i s h e ld
t h a t :
A t h e o r e t i c a l sy stem w ith o u t e m p i r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n i s in c a p a b le of t e s t and t h u s c a n n o t c o n s t i t u t e a
t h e o r y of e m p i r i c a l phenomena: we s h a l l say o f i t s
te rm s a s w e l l a s o f i t s c o n c e p ts t h a t th e y la c k e m p i r i
c a l im p o rt.®
The stu d y t o be p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n w i l l a d h ere t o th e
somewhat u n c l e a r c an non s of " t h e o r i e s o f th e m iddle ra n g e "
in t h a t i t w i l l be c o n d u c te d b o th t o c l a r i f y and t o add t o a
m ajor s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . I t sh o u ld be remembered t h a t :
4 I b i d . , p p . 326 -3 2 7 .
^"W ith r e g a r d t o m ag netic h y s t e r e s i s and e l a s t i c
f a t i g u e , f o r ex am p le, th e m ag n itu re o f a s p e c i f i c p h y s i c a l
e f f e c t dep en ds upon th e p a s t h i s t o r y of th e sy stem in v o lv e d ,
and f o r which n e v e r t h e l e s s c e r t a i n g e n e r a l r e g u l a r i t i e s have
been e s t a b l i s h e d , " I b i d . . p . 327.
^ C a r l G. Hempel, F u n d a m en tals o f C o ncep t F o rm a tio n
i n E m p ir ic a l S c ie n c e (V o l. I I , No. 7 o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l En
c y c l o p e d i a of U n i f i e d S c i e n c e . C h ica g o : U n i v e r s i t y of
C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ), p . 39.
4
. . . a th e o r y i s not a law; i t c a n n o t be p ro v e d ,
a s a law c a n , by d i r e c t e x p e rim e n t; and th e method by
which i t was su g g e s te d i s not im p o r ta n t. For a th e o r y
may o f t e n be a c c e p te d w ith o u t th e p erfo rm ance of any
a d d i t i o n a l e x p e rim e n ts a t a l l ; so f a r as i t i s b ased on
e x p e r im e n ts , th o s e e x p e rim e n ts a re o f t e n made and known
b e fo re th e th e o r y i s s u g g e s t e d . ?
E x p e rim e n ta tio n i s u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d a s i n v o lv in g a
r i g o r o u s c o n t r o l of f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g th e s p e c i f i c f i e l d of
c o n s i d e r a t i o n . However, d e f i n i t i v e a r e a s f o r e x p e rim e n ta
t i o n do not come re a d y made. O ften a g r e a t many p r e - e x p e r i -
m en tal s t u d i e s must be u n d e rta k e n — s u g g e s tiv e s t u d i e s f o r
th e f o u n d a tio n upon which r i g o r o u s e x p e r im e n ta tio n may be
c o n s t r u c t e d .
E x p lo r a ti o n and p r e h y p o t h e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e
q u ire th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a fram e of r e f e r e n c e . As a
w hole, i t c a n n o t be t e s t e d a s e i t h e r r i g h t o r wrong; b u t
i t w i l l be more o r l e s s u s e f u l a c c o rd in g t o (1) i t s p ro
d u c t i v i t y o f t e s t a b l e and v e ry s p e c i f i c h y p o th e s e s and
(2) i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a lr e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i o l o g i c a l
t h e o r y . . . . W e may want t o la y o u t a fram e of r e f e r
ence which c o v e r s th e e n t i r e f i e l d in a u s e f u l m anner,
th o u g h i t h a s t o be t e s t e d l a t e r on s te p by s t e p . W fe
may want t o s e t o u t h y p o th e s e s which prom ise h ig h p ro b a
b i l i t i e s in l a t e r r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s . . . . I t may n o t
be so good . . . t h a t we can h a r d ly c o n c e iv e of r e s e a r c h
any more t h a t d o e s n o t s t a r t out w ith a d e f i n i t i v e hy
p o t h e s i s . There i s , of c o u r s e , a b i t t e r need f o r r e
s e a r c h w hich g u a r a n t e e s t h a t in th e end a pro v en h y p o th
e s i s w i l l le a d t o an im p o rta n t s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t r i b u
t i o n . Such c o n t r i b u t i o n s ensue where p ro v en s o c i o l o g i
c a l knowledge i s made a v a i l a b l e . . . . Many f i e l d s o f
s o - c a l l e d m iddle ran g e th e o r y l i e f a l l o w . . . . S o c i o l
o g i s t s h e re s h r in k from p r e h y p o t h e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
w hich a re bound t o be of an e x p l o r a t i v e n a t u r e . They
a re n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e x p l o r a t i v e i n th e sense of t e n t a
t i v e l y r e l a t i n g some e f f e c t t o a background f a c t o r t h a t
may be i t s c a u s e . 8
^Norman R. C am pbell, "The S t r u c t u r e o f T h e o r i e s ,"
R e ad in g s i n th e P h ilo s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , p . 299.
Q
Svend R iem er, " P re h y p o th e s e s in S o c io lo g y ," S o c i-
5
The fo r e g o in g d i s c u s s i o n h a s d e s c r i b e d v a r i o u s
broad f a c t o r s u n d e r ly in g th e stu d y t o be p r e s e n te d h e r e i n .
A d d i t io n a l t e n e t s have been s u c c i n c t l y summarized by S to u f
f e r :
In s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s i t i s n o t th e h a b i t of our c u l
t u r e t o demand e v id e n c e ; p l a u s a b i l i t y i s enough. . . .
However, I t h i n k t h a t we can red u c e t o some e x t e n t th e
w aste m otion of th e e x p l o r a t o r y p e r io d i f we t r y t o a c t
a s i f we have some a p r i o r i i d e a s and keep our e y e s on
th e p o s s i b l e r e le v a n c e o f d a ta t o t h e s e i d e a s . T h is i s
e a s i e r s a id th a n done. So many i n t e r e s t i n g r a b b i t
t r a c k s a re l i k e l y t o be u n covered in th e e x p l o r a t o r y
s t a g e s o f r e s e a r c h t h a t one i s tem pted t o c h a se r a b b i t s
a l l over th e woods and f o r g e t what h i s i n i t i a l q u a rr y
w as. . . . E x p lo r a to r y r e s e a r c h i s of n e c e s s i t y fum
b l i n g , b u t I t h i n k t h a t th e w aste m otion can be re d u c e d
by th e s e l f - d e n y i n g o rd in a n c e o f d e l i b e r a t e l y l i m i t i n g
o u r s e l v e s t o a few v a r i a b l e s a t a tim e . . . . I have
a l s o t r i e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t more economy and o r d e r l i n e s s
a re made p o s s i b l e even in d e s ig n in g th e e x p l o r a t o r y
s t a g e s of a p ie c e o f r e s e a r c h — by u s in g th e o r y in ad
vance t o h e lp u s d e c id e w h eth er a p a r t i c u l a r in q u ir y
would be im p o r ta n t; by n a rro w in g down th e number of
v a r i a b l e s ; and by making su re t h a t we can c l a s s i f y our
d a ta a lo n g a p a r t i c u l a r co ntinuu m , even i f o nly p r o v i
s i o n a l l y , and a c e n t r a l b ro o d in g hope i s t h a t we w i l l
have th e modesty t o r e c o g n iz e th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een a
p ro m is in g id e a and p r o o f . 9
Among th e s e v e r a l p e r t i n e n t p o i n t s made by S t o u f f e r ,
one o f c e n t r a l c o n c e rn sh o u ld be th e l i m i t i n g o f s t u d i e s t o
a few v a r i a b l e s and th e l i m i t i n g of th e scope t o t h a t which
can be a d e q u a te ly d e a l t w ith by th e r e s e a r c h e r . When t h e s e
p o i n t s a re combined w ith th e s u g g e s tio n t h a t th e stu d y have
oloqy and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h . XLII (S e p te ra b e r-O c to b e r, 1957),
pp. 3 8 -3 9 .
^Samuel A. S t o u f f e r , "Some O b s e r v a tio n s on Study
D e s ig n s ," Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y . LV ( J a n u a r y , 1950 ),
pp. 3 5 6 -6 1 .
a t h e o r e t i c a l r e f e r e n t , S t o u f f e r h a s p r e s e n t e d th e e s s e n c e
of th e modus o p e ra n d i f o r th e c o n d u c tin g o f e m p i r i c a l r e
s e a r c h .
S o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r e t i c i a n s have o f t e n become so em
b r o i l e d in t h e i r own t h e o r i e s t h a t th e y have in c lu d e d in
t h e s e t h e o r i e s many a s su m p tio n s which t h e y have s t a t e d a s
f a c t s o r law s and n ot a s a s s u m p tio n s . T hese a s s u m p tio n s a re
o f t e n c o n c e rn e d w ith g ro u p s o f f a c t o r s which a re a lm o s t i n
c o m p re h e n s ib ly i n t e r r e l a t e d . I t i s h e re su g g e ste d t h a t ,
when d e a l i n g w ith com plex s e t s of f a c t o r s , th e lo w e st common
d e n o m in a to r of t h e s e com plexes sh o u ld be i s o l a t e d and t h e n ,
f o r i n i t i a l r e s e a r c h , i n s t e a d o f d e a l i n g w ith t h i s s e t a s a
dynamic i n t e r a c t i n g s i t u a t i o n , t o , i n e f f e c t , " f r e e z e " th e
s i t u a t i o n and in t h i s way examine th e a r e a o f i n t e r e s t ,
t h e r e b y p r o v i d in g a f o u n d a t i o n upon w hich t o c o n s t r u c t th e
more com plex.
S i m i l a r l y , a s o c i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n may s t a r t
o u t w ith th e s ta te m e n t o f c e r t a i n a s s u m p tio n s . S o c i o l
o g i s t s may assum e, f o r c e r t a i n p u r p o s e s , t h a t s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s a t any g iv e n tim e te n d t o a p p ro a ch an e q u i
l i b r i u m . . . . The a ssu m p tio n t o w hich t h i s a p p ro a c h i s
com m itted e l i m i n a t e s fro m c o n s i d e r a t i o n a l l s o c i a l
change t h a t m ight d e v e lo p from e x i s t i n g s o c i a l c o n d i
t i o n s . T h is makes i t p o s s i b l e t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n upon
a d a p tiv e p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n th e s o c i a l system . As a
m e th o d o lo g ic a l d e v i c e , t h e r e f e r e n c e t o an e q u i l i b r i u m
e x i s t i n g i n th e s o c i a l sy ste m may w e ll be j u s t i f i e d by
t h e p r e v a i l i n g e m p h a sis o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 10
In many r e c e n t s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s in a v a r i e t y of
l^S v en d R iem er, " P re m is e s in S o c i o l o g i c a l I n q u i r y , "
Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y . LIX (May, 195 4), p . 552.
7
a r e a s , a g r e a t d e a l of e m p h asis h a s been p la c e d on th e de-
te rm in a c y of s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l w ith l i t
t l e o r no c o n s i d e r a t i o n of th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e c i p r o c i t y in
th e d e te rm in a c y schem e. I t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t a r e s e a r c h
d e s ig n sh o u ld ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e
two f a c t o r s .
. . . But th e t a s k of s o c i o l o g i c a l th e o r y sh o u ld be
t o c o n s i d e r n o t o n ly th e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l b u t a l s o h i s c a p a c i t y f o r in d e p e n d e n t a c t i o n
f o r w hich t h a t c o n d i t i o n i n g i s o n ly th e n e c e s s a r y b a s i s .
T h is s im u lta n e o u s a t t e n t i o n t o th e s o c i a l and t h e i n d i v
i d u a l a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y . . . in v o lv e s an image o f man
and s o c i e t y (a d e f i n i t i o n of th e " s o c i a l f a c t " ; w hich
view s b o th , n o t a s f i n i t e sy s te m s, b u t a s c a p a b le of
i n d e f i n i t e (th o u g h n o t i n f i n i t e ) e l a b o r a t i o n . T h is i n
s i g h t h a s been v a r i o u s l y e x p r e s s e d in te rm s o f te n d e n
c i e s o r f o r c e s w hich a re lin k e d and o p p o s i t e a t th e same
t i m e . H
One o f th e most c r u c i a l f a c e t s of a t h e o r y and one
which sh o u ld be k e p t in mind a t a l l tim e s i s t h a t :
A t h e o r y i s v a l u a b l e , and i s a t h e o r y i n any se n se
im p o r ta n t f o r s c i e n c e , o n ly i f i t e v o lv e s i d e a s w hich
a re n o t c o n ta in e d in th e law s w hich i t e x p l a i n s . The
e v o c a ti o n o f t h e s e i d e a s i s even more v a lu a b le th a n th e
l o g i c a l e q u iv a le n c e t o th e la w s. T h e o r ie s a re o f t e n
a c c e p te d and v a lu e d g r e a t l y , by p a r t of th e s c i e n t i f i c
w o rld a t l e a s t , ev en i f i t knows t h a t t h e y a re n o t q u i t e
t r u e and a re n o t s t r i c t l y e q u i v a l e n t t o any e x p e r i m e n t a l
la w s, sim ply b e cau se t h e i d e a s w hich th e y b r i n g t o mind
a re i n t r i n s i c a l l y v a l u a b l e . . . . A c c o r d in g ly when a
t h e o r y c o n t a i n i n g such u n d e te rm in e d i d e a s i s p r e s e n t e d
and a p p e a rs t o be t r u e , e f f o r t s a re alw ay s d i r e c t e d t o
d e te rm in e a s many a s p o s s i b l e of t h e u n d e te rm in e d i d e a s
s t i l l re m a in in g i n i t . . . . The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e
th e h y p o t h e t i c a l i d e a s i s e f f e c t e d , a s we have n o t ic e d
b e f o r e , by th e a d d i t i o n o f new p r o p o s i t i o n s t o th e
■ ^R einhard B endix and B e n n e tt B e r g e r, "Im ages of
S o c ie ty and P ro b lem s o f C oncept F o rm atio n i n S o c i o lo g y ,"
Symposium on S o c i o l o g i c a l T h e o ry , e d . L le w e lly n G ro ss
(E v a n s to n , i l l . : Row, P e t e r s o n and C o ., 19 5 9 ), p . 95.
8
h y p o th e s e s or to th e d i c t i o n a r y , s t a t i n g new r e l a t i o n s
of th e h y p o t h e t i c a l id e a s t o each o t h e r o r t o th e con
c e p t s . The p r o c e s s demands some a t t e n t i o n because i t i s
i n t i m a t e l y co n n ected w ith a v e ry im p o rta n t p r o p e r t y of
t h e o r i e s , namely t h e i r power t o p r e d i c t laws in much th e
same way a s laws p r e d i c t e v e n t s . In p a s s i n g , i t may be
n o ted t h a t a f a i l u r e t o d i s t i n g u i s h a law from an e v e n t
and a c o n seq u e n t c o n fu s io n o f two p e r f e c t l y d i s t i n c t
k in d s o f p r e d i c t i o n has a ls o ten d ed t o obscure th e d i f
fe r e n c e betw een a th e o r y and a l a w .l^
The above g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n h a s been in c lu d e d to
form a f o u n d a tio n , t o e s t a b l i s h a s e r i e s of p h i lo s o p h ic -
s c i e n t i f i c r e f e r e n t s a p p li c a b l e t o th e s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t t o
be p r e s e n t e d .
S ta te m e n t of th e Problem
The g e n e r a l problem t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d may be d i
vided i n to t h r e e p a r t s :
1. The l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e f e r e n c e group
t h e o r y .
2. The i s o l a t i o n of c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s o p e r a tiv e in
th e s e l e c t i o n o f r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s.
3. The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f images of s e l e c te d p r o f e s
s io n s and th e developm ent of f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l t o
image c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The problem , t h e n , w i l l in v o lv e th e e x a m in a tio n of
what i s c a l l e d " r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y " and th e a tte m p t t o
p u t t h a t th e o r y in such form t h a t e m p i r ic a l r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s
may be deduced from i t . I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t one stu d y
12
C am pbell, o p . c i t . , p . 301.
which may be so deduced in v o lv e s th e d e te r m in a tio n of why a
p e rso n c h o o ses one group as a r e f e r e n t and not a n o th e r , in
s h o r t , an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in th e s e l e c
t i o n of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s. Accompanying th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
v a r i a b l e s in v o lv ed in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n w i l l be th e
developm ent of images of p r o f e s s i o n s h e ld by th e sample;
th e d e te r m in a tio n of s t e r e o t y p e s of v a r io u s p r o f e s s i o n s de
r i v e d from th e s e r i e s of s e l e c te d v a r i a b l e s .
Im portance of th e Problem
In r e c e n t y e a r s , a g r e a t d e a l h a s been w r i t t e n about
r e f e r e n c e group th e o ry and many s t u d i e s have been u n d e rta k e n
w ith in i t s framework. However, because of th e vagueness of
th e t h e o r y , a c e r t a i n amount of c o n fu s io n h a s a r i s e n . T h is
c o n fu s io n h as a c te d a s a s e v e re ly l i m i t i n g ag en t upon th e
u s e f u l n e s s of th e t h e o r y . Hence, e m p ir ic a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
conducted w ith in th e framework o f r e f e r e n c e group th e o ry are
alm ost c e r t a i n to c a r r y th e stigm a of th e c o n fu s io n a t t e n d
a n t to th e th e o r y i t s e l f . T h e re fo re , b e fo re th e e m p ir ic a l
a s p e c ts of th e g e n e ra l problem p re s e n te d h e r e i n c o u ld be in
v e s t i g a t e d , i t was n e c e s s a ry t o e x t r a c t from th e mass of
v e rb ia g e th e f o u n d a tio n s upon which r e f e r e n c e group th e o ry
r e s t s and the f a c t o r s which make up th e th e o r y . In e f f e c t ,
a l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e th e o r y had t o be accom
p l is h e d b e fo re an e m p i r ic a l stu d y p u r p o r tin g t o use th e t h e
ory a s a frame of r e f e r e n c e could be c o n d u c te d . T h is l o g i-
10
c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o u ld th e n be u t i l i z e d a s a b a s i s f o r a
c l e a r d i s c u s s i o n o f th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e t h e o r y , a d i s
c u s s io n im p o s s ib le p r e v i o u s l y due t o th e c o n fu sed s t a t e o f
th e t h e o r y .
Upon c o n c lu s io n o f th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , i t was po s
s i b l e t o r e c o g n iz e t h a t a m ajor a s p e c t of th e th e o r y c a p a b le
of e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n had n o t been i n v e s t i g a t e d . I t i s
su g g e ste d t h a t t h i s a s p e c t r e p r e s e n t s a c o rn e r s to n e of th e
t h e o r y and of s i g n i f i c a n t im portance i f th e v a lu e of th e
t h e o r y i s t o be m axim ized. T h is c o r n e r s to n e c o n s i s t s of th e
f a c t o r s which a re c r i t i c a l t o th e s e l e c t i o n o f some g ro u p s
a s r e f e r e n t s and th e r e j e c t i o n o f o t h e r s . T h is a r e a , sug
g e s te d by th e t h e o r y , h a s gone u n tap p e d and t o i n v e s t i g a t e
i t means t o su p p lem en t, add t o , and h e n ce , i n c r e a s e th e value
of th e t h e o r y . T h is , t h e n , i s an in s t a n c e of th e "Why?" of
s c i e n c e , th e e x p l a n a t i o n f a c t o r . D e s c r i p t i o n i s i m p l i c i t in
th e d i s c o v e r y o f th e e x p la n a t o r y and w ith th e developm ent of
t h i s f a c t o r p r e d i c t i o n becomes p o s s i b l e .
Many s t u d i e s have been c o n d u cted in v o lv in g occupa
t i o n s and o c c u p a tio n s w ith r e f e r e n c e t o h ig h sc h o o l s t u
d e n t s . However, s t u d i e s a llo w in g f o r th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
images of th e o c c u p a tio n s by th e s t u d e n t s and th e i s o l a t i o n
of f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l t o image c o n s t r u c t i o n a re not in e v i
d e n c e . The p ro p o se d r e s e a r c h i s d e s ig n e d t o remedy t h i s
d e f i c i e n c y . The g e n e r a l a r e a of o c c u p a tio n s i s f a s t becom
in g r e c o g n iz e d a s an im p o rta n t one f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n s id -
11
a t i o n .
T here a p p e a r s t o be a c o n s i s t e n t te n d e n c y f o r occu
p a t i o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o d i s p l a c e o t h e r such s t a t u s
f i x i n g a t t r i b u t e s a s a n c e s t o r y , r e l i g i o u s o f f i c e , p o l i t
i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n , and p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r . Each o f th e
t h r e e t r e n d s w hich can be d i s c e r n e d i n modern i n d u s t r i a l
s o c i e t y ( a g g r e g a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n )
seem t o le a d to w a rd i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a sis on th e impor
ta n c e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l . • . • M oreover, a s r a t i o n
a l i z a t i o n p r o c e e d s and th e a ssig n m e n t o f o c c u p a t i o n a l
f u n c t i o n s becomes " s c i e n t i f i c , " " a p p r o p r i a t e , " and " e f
f i c i e n t , " i t c o m e s .to be a s s u m e d .th a t th e o c c y p a t i o o a l
l a b e l i s . a f a i r in d e x of i n t e l l i g e n c e , a b i l i t y , c h a r a c
t e r , and p e r s o n a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y . 13
The a s p e c t o f th e t o t a l o c c u p a t i o n a l complex w ith
w hich t h i s r e s e a r c h w i l l be c o n c e rn e d i s t h a t of th e p r o f e s
s i o n s , a p h a se which h a s g a in e d an i n c r e a s i n g amount of a t
t e n t i o n in r e c e n t y e a r s .
P r o f e s s i o n s have a t t a i n e d a s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n in
modern i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y a s th e o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p s
whose t a s k i t i s t o d e v e lo p and a p p ly a b s t r a c t s c i e n
t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l knowledge t o im p o r ta n t p ro b le m s of
e v e ry d a y l i f e . T h is t a s k , w hich i s e s s e n t i a l t o th e
smooth r u n n in g o f th e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d b u s i n e s s economy
and w hich must be c a r r i e d on by h i g h l y t r a i n e d p e rs o n
n e l , i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i n th e v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n a l
r o l e s . . . . The stu d y o f P r o f e s s i o n s a s a s p e c i a l f i e l d
of i n q u i r y in A m erican s o c io lo g y h a s o n ly r e c e n t l y be
gun. I t i s a s y e t to o soon t o re v ie w s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d s
i n t h i s a r e a . . . .
With r e f e r e n c e t o th e few s t u d i e s w hich have been c o n d u c te d ,
t h e s e s t u d i e s
. . . p o i n t t o th e need f o r f u r t h e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
^ T h e o d o r e C aplow , The S o c io lo g y o f Work (M inneapo
l i s , M in n .: U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ), p p . 3 0 -3 1 .
^ M a r y J e a n H u n tin g to n , " S o c io lo g y o f P r o f e s s i o n s , "
S o c io lo g y in th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica. 1 9 4 5 -1 9 5 5 . e d . .
Ha'ns L. Z e t t e r b e r g ( P a r i s : U n ite d N a tio n s E d u c a ti o n a l,
S c i e n t i f i c , and C u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 9 5 6 ), p . 87.
12
o f ways i n which a s c r i b e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may i n t e r f e r e
w ith th e p r o f e s s i o n a l norm of a c h ie v e m e n t. T h is l e a d s
i n t u r n t o th e p rob lem o f i d e n t i f y i n g mechanisms t h a t
m a in ta in e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n i n g of th e p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e
on th e b a s i s of ach iev em en t c r i t e r i a . . . . The c o n te n t
o f t h e s e images* how th e y d e v e lo p , th e ways in which
t h e y in f lu e n c e t h e c h o ic e of a p r o f e s s i o n , and how th e y
a f f e c t th e c l i e n t - p r o f e s s i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a re ques
t i o n s r e q u i r i n g a n a l y s i s . R esearch on p o p u la r concep
t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n s have been s c a n ty . . . . The need
f o r r e s e a r c h i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d . . . f o r a p a r t i c u l a r
k in d o f r e s e a r c h , i . e . , a " c u m u la tiv e s e r i e s o f e m p ir i
c a l s t u d i e s of o c c u p a tio n s and p r o f e s s i o n s g u id ed by and
i n t u r n e x te n d in g a body of s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . "15
I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t th e b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n above j u s
t i f i e s th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of th e g e n e r a l prob lem and i s g e r
mane t o th e d e s i r e t o i n c r e a s e th e body of s o c i o l o g i c a l
k n ow ledge.
D e f i n i t i o n s
The d e f i n i t i o n s of "group" and " s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s " ,
used h e r e i n w i l l be th o s e employed by H o m a n s . 15 a group
r e f e r s t o a number of p eo p le who i n t e r a c t w ith one a n o th e r
in a c c o rd w ith e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s . S o c i a l r e l a t i o n s may
be re g a r d e d a s p a t t e r n e d form s of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , e n d u r
ing s u f f i c i e n t l y t o become i d e n t i f i a b l e p a r t s of th e s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e .
The d e f i n i t i o n of a " p r o f e s s i o n " w i l l be t h a t u t i l -
17
iz e d by C a r r- S a u n d e r s . A p r o f e s s i o n i s an o c c u p a tio n
15 I b i d . . pp. 90-92.
^ G e o r g e C. Homans. The Human Group (New York: H ar-
c o u r t , B race and C o ., 195 0 ), pp. 8 2 -8 6 .
^ A l e x a n d e r C a r r - S a u n d e r s , "The P r o f e s s i o n s in
Modern S o c i e t y , " S o c i a l F o u n d a tio n s of E d u c a tio n , e d s .
13
based upon s p e c i a l i z e d i n t e l l e c t u a l stu d y and t r a i n i n g , th e
p u rp o se of which i s t o su p p ly s k i l l e d s e r v i c e o r a d v ic e t o
o t h e r s f o r a d e f i n i t e f e e o r s a l a r y .
O r g a n i z a t i o n of th e D i s s e r t a t i o n
To t h i s p o i n t , t h e r e h a s been a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of
th e n a tu r e and p u rp o se of th e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t and of th e
im p o rta n c e of u n d e r t a k in g such a p r o j e c t . In a d d i t i o n , such
words and p h r a s e s a s m ight ad m it t o m u l t i p l e d e f i n i t i o n o r
u n c l e a r meaning have b e e n d e f i n e d . P e rv a d in g th e d i s c u s s i o n
h a s been a n e c e s s a r i l y b r i e f a l l u s i o n t o b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s
r e f e r r i n g t o th e p h ilo s o p h y o f s c ie n c e h a v in g a p p l i c a t i o n t o
t h i s p r o j e c t . T h is a l l u s i o n h a s been in c lu d e d t o p ro v id e a
g e n e r a l c l i m a t e u n d e r w hich th e r e s e a r c h i s t o be c o n d u cted
and t o se rv e a s a r e f e r e n t p o i n t sh o u ld q u e s t i o n s a r i s e a s
t o why some s t e p s in t h e p r o j e c t were u n d e rta k e n ( e . g . , such
a s th e o u t l i n i n g o f r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y and th e r e d u c t i o n
of th e many p a g es of l i t e r a t u r e d e v o te d t o i t t o a v e ry few ,
d e fe n d e d a s th e e s s e n c e o f th e t h e o r y s t r i p p e d of i t s v e r
b ia g e ) .
The r e m a in d e r o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o
f o u r c h a p t e r s . The second c h a p t e r i s c o n c e rn e d w ith a gen
e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p ro b lem w ith r e f e r e n c e t o p a s t work
done i n th e im m ediate a r e a of i n t e r e s t w ith e m p h asis on th e
W illia m 0 . S t a n l e y , B. O th a n e l S m ith, K enneth D. Benne, and
A r c h ib a ld W. A nderson (New York: The Dryden P r e s s , I n c . ,
19 5 6 ), p p. 5 8 4 -8 7 .
14
inadequacy o f r e s e a r c h t o d a t e . The t h i r d c h a p t e r d e a l s
w ith th e m ethodology and d e s ig n u t i l i z e d in th e s tu d y . The
f o u r t h c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s and i n t e r p r e t s th e f i n d i n g s , th e r e
s u l t s of th e r e s e a r c h , and t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s , and th e f i f t h
c h a p t e r i s th e c o n c lu d in g c h a p t e r .
CHAPTER I I
INVESTIGATION OF THE LITERATURE
C r i t i q u e o f R e feren c e Group Theory
When a s o c i o l o g i s t c o n s i d e r s e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e r e
l a t i n g t o r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y , he i s not o nly im p ressed
w ith th e o m is sio n o f e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d w ith spe
c i f i c f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l l y o p e r a t iv e i n s e l e c t i n g a r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p , b u t a l s o w ith d i s c u s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h i s v i t a l f a c e t
of th e t h e o r y . Two s c h o o ls o f th o u g h t p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s
r e g a r d i n g th e above p ro blem . The f i r s t d e n ie s th e pro blem
by m a n if e s tin g f a s c i n a t i o n w ith th e id e a t h a t p e rs o n s choose
a s r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s , g ro u p s o t h e r th a n membership o n e s.
T h is th o u g h t a p p a r e n t l y i s so i n t r i g u i n g t h a t any c o n s i d e r a
t i o n o f what f a c t o r s a re u t i l i z e d in s e l e c t i n g g ro u p s , mem
b e r s h i p or non-m em bership, a s r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s i s i n no way
c o n s i d e r e d . The second sc h o o l acknow ledges th e problem
which i s t o be c o n s id e r e d h e r e i n , b u t r e s o l v e s i t by s t a t i n g
t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s needed i n t h i s a r e a . The " f u r t h e r
r e s e a r c h " do es not seem t o come f o r t h i n abundance.
The s o c i o l o g i s t p e rh a p s most c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith
r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y i s R o b e rt K. M erton , who h a s w r i t t e n :
T hat men a c t in a s o c i a l fram e of r e f e r e n c e y i e l d e d
15
16
by th e g ro u p s of w hich th e y a re a p a r t i s a n o tio n un
d o u b te d ly a n c i e n t and p r o b a b ly sound. Were t h i s a lo n e
th e c o n c e rn of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y , i t would m erely
be a new te rm f o r an o ld f o c u s i n s o c io lo g y w hich h a s
alw ay s been c e n t e r e d on th e group d e t e r m i n a t i o n of be
h a v i o r . T h ere i s , how ever, th e f u r t h e r f a c t t h a t men
f r e q u e n t l y o r i e n t th e m s e lv e s t o g ro u p s o t h e r t h a n t h e i r
own i n sh a p in g t h e i r b e h a v io r and e v a l u a t i o n , and i t i s
th e p ro b lem c e n t e r e d a b o u t t h i s f a c t o f o r i e n t a t i o n t o
non-m em bership g ro u p s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s th e d i s t i n c t i v e
c o n c e rn o f r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y . U l t i m a t e l y , of
c o u r s e , th e t h e o r y must be g e n e r a l i z e d t o th e p o i n t
where i t can a c c o u n t f o r b o th m em bership— and non-mem-
b e r s h i p - - g r o u p o r i e n t a t i o n s b u t im m e d ia te ly i t s m ajor
t a s k i s t o s e a r c h o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s th r o u g h w hich i n d i
v i d u a l s r e l a t e th e m s e lv e s t o g ro u p s t o which t h e y do n o t
b e l o n g . 1
K e l l y , among o t h e r s , h a s a l s o p o i n te d o u t t h a t on
th e one hand a p e r s o n 's a t t i t u d e s a re r e l a t e d t o th e a t t i
tu d e s commonly e x p re s s e d w i t h i n g ro u p s t o w hich he b e lo n g s ,
w h ile on th e o t h e r hand a t t i t u d e s a r e o f t e n r e l a t e d t o non-
m em bership g r o u p s . I t h a s a l s o been s u g g e s te d w ith c o n s i d
e r a b l e m e r it t h a t r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
t a k e s a c c o u n t of p o s i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n s to w ard non-m em bership
g ro u p s and can se rv e a s a c o r r e c t i v e o f th e p r e m a tu r e ly r e
s t r i c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of Sumner which p o s
t u l a t e t h a t t o b e lo n g t o one group means t o l i k e t h a t group
and t o d i s l i k e th e g ro u p s t o w hich one d o e s n o t b e l o n g . 3
^■Robert K. M erto n , S o c i a l T heory and S o c i a l S t r u c
t u r e (G le n c o e , 1 1 1 .: The F re e P r e s s , 19 5 7 ), p. 234.
^ H arold H. K e l l y , "Two F u n c tio n s o f R e fe re n c e Group
T h e o ry ," R e a d in g s i n S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , e d s . Guy E. Swanson, %
T heodore M. Newcomb, and Eugene L. H a r t l e y (New York: H enry I
H o lt and C o ., 1 9 5 2 ), p p . 4 1 0 -1 4 .
3M e rto n , o p . c i t . . p . 298.
17
T h a t men may be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e g ro u p s w ith w hich
t h e y come i n c o n t a c t i s , in d e e d , a w e ll-k n o w n f a c t and h a s
b een f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l p e r i o d of tim e e n o o m p assin g s o c i o l o g
i c a l h i s t o r y . T h a t man may o r i e n t h i m s e l f t o g ro u p s o t h e r
t h a n h i s own i s , a d m i t t e d l y , an i n t e r e s t i n g p i e c e o f i n f o r
m a tio n ; h o w e v e r, t h i s t o o , i s c e r t a i n l y n o t a g r e a t a d d i t i o n
t o m a n 's k n o w le d g e, s i n c e i t h a s b een c a r r i e d i m p l i c i t l y i n
a lm o s t e v e r y p re a c h m e n t a g a i n s t j e a l o u s y and envy s i n c e t h e
dawn o f h i s t o r y . C o n t r a r y t o M e rto n , i t i s h e r e s u g g e s te d
t h a t i t i s n o t " t h i s f a c t o f o r i e n t a t i o n t o non-m em bership
g ro u p s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e d i s t i n c t i v e c o n c e r n o f r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p t h e o r y . " M erto n g o e s on t o say t h a t " u l t i m a t e l y , o f
c o u r s e , t h e t h e o r y m ust be g e n e r a l i z e d t o t h e p o i n t w here i t
c a n a c c o u n t f o r b o th m em bership and n on -m em b ersh ip g ro u p o r
i e n t a t i o n s . " He c o n t i n u e s , s t a t i n g t h a t " th e m a jo r t a s k i s
t o s e a r c h o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h w hich i n d i v i d u a l s r e l a t e
th e m s e lv e s t o g r o u p s t o w hich t h e y do n o t b e l o n g ." M erto n
s t a t e s t h a t t h e " f a c t o f o r i e n t a t i o n " p e r se i s n o t th e im
p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n b u t r a t h e r t h e r e s e a r c h e r s h o u ld
s e a r c h o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s w hich make f o r t h e " f a c t o f o r i e n
t a t i o n . " H ow ever, t h i s s h o u ld be r e d u c e d one s t e p f u r t h e r .
I n d e e d , t h e p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i o n w hich o f n e c e s s i t y i n v o l v e s
t h e f a c t o r s u t i l i z e d i n making t h e s e l e c t i o n s , i s t h e c r u
c i a l t a s k f o r t h e r e s e a r c h e r ; h o w e v e r, t h e a l l - p e r v a d i n g
o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h i s work s h o u ld n o t be d i r e c t e d to w a rd non-
member.ship g r o u p s — i t s p u r p o s e i s much more b ro a d t h a n t h i s .
18
The c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e which must be c o n s i d e r e d b e fo r e r e f e r
ence group t h e o r y becomes e m p i r i c a l l y u s e f u l r e l a t e s t o th e
f a c t o r s which a re in v o lv e d in th e s e l e c t i o n of any group a t
a l l which s e r v e s a s a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t . I t may w e ll be t r u e
t h a t th e f a c t o r s in v o lv e d in s e l e c t i o n of membership and non
m em bership g ro u p s may be d i f f e r e n t , b u t b e f o r e t h i s c an be
a s c e r t a i n e d , what must be u n d e rs to o d i s th e ty p e of ex
p l i c i t f a c t o r s , d is c o v e r e d e m p i r i c a l l y , by w hich p e rs o n s
s e l e c t some g ro u p s a s r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s and do not s e l e c t
o t h e r g ro u p s . U n t i l t h i s h a s been a c c o m p lis h e d , th e s t a t u s
of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y must be t h a t of a t h e o r y in lim b o .
The f o llo w in g p a s s a g e , w h ile in f o r m a ti o n and i n t e r
e s t i n g , f a i l s t o g e t a t th e e m p i r i c a l h e a r t of th e m a t t e r of
what f a c t o r s a re u t i l i z e d by th e i n d i v i d u a l s s e l e c t i n g r e f
e re n c e g ro u p s upon which t o b a se th e s e l e c t i o n :
Stemming, t h e n , from th e t h e o r e t i c background p ro
v id e d by Jam es, C o o le y , and Mead, and by Hyman, S h e r i f ,
and Newcomb, th e h y p o t h e s i s h o ld s t h a t , i n s o f a r a s sub
o r d i n a t e or p r o s p e c t i v e g ro up members a re m o tiv a te d t o
a f f i l i a t e th e m s e lv e s w ith a g ro u p , th e y w i l l t e n d t o a s
s i m i l a t e th e s e n tim e n ts and conform w ith t h e v a lu e s of
th e a u t h o r i t a t i v e and p r e s t i g e f u l s tr a tu m in th e group
• • • ^
I t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o a g re e w ith M erton t h a t :
Committed a s we a re t o th e n o tio n t h a t th e d e v e lo p
ment of s o c i a l t h e o r y r e q u i r e s a l a r g e m easure of con
t i n u i t y , r a t h e r t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n o f s e l f - c o n t a i n e d and
a l l e g e d l y d e f i n i t i v e r e s u l t s , t h i s means t h a t th e p r e s
e n t re -w o rk in g o f some of th e m a t e r i a l s i n "The Am erican
S o l d i e r " i s i t s e l f a h i g h l y p r o v i s i o n a l p hase i n an on
going dev elo pm ent r a t h e r t h a n a s t a b l e s to p p in g p o i n t . 5
4 I b i d . . p . 254. 5 l b i d . , p . 226.
19
A g ain , i t must be a g re e d t h a t a s a f i e l d of i n q u i r y
i s e x t e n s i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d , i t s b a s i c c o n c e p ts become p r o
g r e s s i v e l y c l a r i f i e d . C o n c e p ts w hich prov ed a d e q u a te in a
f i r s t a p p ro x im a tio n must be f u r t h e r s p e c i f i e d a s th e r e s u l t s
of i n q u i r y a c c u m u la te . A c c e p tin g t h i s , one may s t i l l be
d o u b t f u l t h a t " t h i s e f f o r t t o c l a r i f y b a s i c c o n c e p ts r e p r e
s e n t s one l i n e of r e c e n t c o n t i n u i t y in th e d ev elo p m en t of
r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y . R a th e r , th e b a s i c c o n c e p t, t h a t
c o n c e p t which must be e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i e d , i s t h a t w hich
w i l l d e a l w ith th e f a c t o r s of s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s .
The l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s no g r e a t c o n c e rn w ith t h i s p ro b lem .
The c o m p a ra tiv e s t a t i s t i c s in "The Am erican S o l d i e r "
a re p l a i n l y n o t in te n d e d t o m a n if e s t and c a n n o t m a n if e s t
t h o s e numerous p r i v a t e c o n t e x t s p e c u l i a r t o i n d i v i d u a l s
and hence v a r y in g a t random t o th e s o c i a l c a t e g o r y . The
r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s h e re h y p o t h e s iz e d , t h e n , a re n o t mere
a r t i f a c t s o f t h e a u t h o r ' s a r b i t r a r y scheme o f c l a s s i f i
c a t i o n . I n s t e a d , t h e y a p p e a r t o be fra m e s o f r e f e r e n c e
h e ld in common by a p r o p o r t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n a
s o c i a l c a t e g o r y s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e t o g iv e r i s e t o d e f
i n i t i o n s of th e s i t u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h a t c a t e
g o ry and t h e s e fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e a r e common b e ca u se
th e y a re p a t t e r n e d by th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . . . 7
The fra m e s o f r e f e r e n c e encom p assing such te rm s a s
" r e l a t i v e d e p r i v a t i o n " a r e o f such b road n a tu r e t h a t th e y
a llo w o nly f o r d e s c r i p t i o n p o s t f a c t o o f some o b se rv e d ac
t i o n a llo w in g f o r no u n d e r s t a n d i n g of why th e " r e l a t i v e l y
d e p riv e d " s e l e c t e d one group and n ot a n o t h e r . T hese fram e s
a re so b ro ad and u n s t r u c t u r e d t h a t th e y a llo w o n ly f o r mea
g e r p r e c i s i o n o r u t i l i z a t i o n i n e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h — t h i s , in
^ I b i d . , p . 226. ^ I b i d . . pp. 2 4 3 -4 4 .
20
s p ite of the su g g e stio n t h a t :
As i t t u r n s o u t, the d a ta suggest t h a t men d e fin e
the s i t u a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y . But i t i s not enough t o men
t i o n th e s e " d e f i n i t i o n s of the s i t u a t i o n , " i t i s neces
sary t o account f o r them. And th e f u n c tip n of th e con
c ep t of r e l a t i v e d e p r iv a tio n (as w ith o th e r co n cep ts of
re fe re n c e groups) i s p r e c i s e ly t h a t of h e lp in g t o ac
count f o r observed d e f i n i t i o n s of a s i t u a t i o n . 8
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to see how th e concept of " r e l a t i v e
d e p riv a tio n " t r u l y a cc o u n ts f o r b eh av io r in an e m p iric a l
manner, given the concept in i t s p re s e n t form.
R e fe rrin g to th e above q u o ta tio n , Merton c o n tin u e s :
In t h i s case i t r e q u ir e d sy ste m atic e m p ir ic a l d a ta ,
such as tho se assembled in "The American S o l d i e r ," to
d e te c t th e anomalous p a t t e r n , not d e te c ta b le through
im p r e s s io n is tic o b s e rv a tio n s , and t h i s i l l u s t r a t e s a
b a sic r o l e of sy ste m atic e m p iric a l r e s e a r c h in re a c h in g
u n a n tic ip a te d anomalous and s t r a t e g i c f in d in g s t h a t ex
e r t p re s su re f o r i n i t i a t i n g or e x ten d in g t h e o r y . 9
Since " r e l a t i v e d e p riv a tio n " as a concept i s not or
ganized in e m p iric a l form and cannot be t e s t e d nor used as a
p r e d ic tiv e device nor serve to d i s t i n g u i s h which of v a rio u s
groups w i l l be s e le c te d w ith any degree of accuracy before
th e f a c t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o un d erstan d how t h i s concept
could be viewed as p lay in g a b a sic ro le in system atic empir
i c a l r e s e a r c h . The term i t s e l f comes very c lo s e to being
the im p r e s s io n is tic o b se rv a tio n which i t a s s e r te d l y over
comes.
Again, i t i s h e ld t h a t the fo llo w in g statem en t does
l i t t l e t o c l a r i f y the s i t u a t i o n :
8 I b i d . . p. 237. 9I b i d .
21
. . . i t r e i n f o r c e s t h e s u p p o s i t i o n h i n t e d i n th e
p r e c e d i n g c a s e , t h a t i t i s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s
o f th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w hich may f o c u s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f
members o f a g ro u p o r o c c u p a n ts o f a s o c i a l s t a t u s upon
c e r t a i n common r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s .
I t w ould seem , w ith r e g a r d t o t h e a b o v e , t h a t a more
d e f i n i t i v e a p p ro a c h m ig ht be t a k e n i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f e m p ir
i c i s m . The t e r m " i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of t h e s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e " may have some d e s c r i p t i v e v a l u e , b u t h e re a g a i n ,
i t s e m p i r i c a l u s e f u l n e s s i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . What m ust be a s
c e r t a i n e d a r e s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s u t i l i z e d i n m aking d e c i s i o n s
r a t h e r t h a n g e n e r a l i z e d a l l u s i o n s t o " d e f i n i t i o n of th e
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . "
I t seem s a lm o s t i n c r e d i b l e t h a t a n o te d s o c i o l o g i s t
s h o u ld w r i t e t h a t :
Y et t h e p r a c t i c e of a l l u d i n g t o r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s ,
w i t h o u t r e l a t i n g t h e s e a t once t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r fo rm of
b e h a v i o r o r e v a l u a t i o n i n v o l v e d , m anages t o e s c a p e t h e
c o n s t r a i n i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h e com m onplace. H
M erto n t h e n g o e s on t o s t a t e :
F u r t h e r m o r e , n e i t h e r laym an n o r s o c i o l o g i s t a p p e a r s
t o know much, a s y e t , a b o u t t h e u n i f o r m i t i e s o f s e l e c t
in g some r a t h e r t h a n o t h e r g r o u p s a s f ra m e s of r e f e r e n c e
i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s p e c i f i e d k i n d s of b e h a v i o r . 12
I t seem s d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e l a s t q u o ta
t i o n s h o u ld be c o n s t r u e d a s a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t s e a r c h i n g f o r
t h e u n i f o r m i t i e s o f s e l e c t i o n . I f i t i s n o t , t h e n M erto n i s
a d v o c a t i n g i n t h e o r y t h a t w hich t h i s p r o j e c t i s a t t e m p t i n g
^ I b i d . . p . 246. 1-^ I b i d . . p . 3 2 6 , ( i t a l i c s m ine)
1 2 I b i d .
22
to r e a l i z e e m p i r ic a ll y , a l b e i t in so doing p e rh a p s f a i l i n g
t o escape "th e c o n s t r a i n in g i m p lic a tio n s of th e common
p l a c e ," (a p h ra se so broad as to u n s t r u c tu r e t o t a l l y c r i t i
c a l a n a l y s i s of s o c i a l phenomena).
E i s e n s t a d t , in c l e a r and p r e c i s e form , h as s e t down
an o b je c t of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n s t a t i n g t h a t :
F u r th e r r e s e a r c h might a t t a c k th e c l u s t e r of prob
lems r e l a t i n g t o th e d e te rm in a n ts of the choice of r e f
eren ce groups by an i n d i v i d u a l . The im portance of d i f
f e r e n t ty p e s of s t a t u s images f o r t h i s ch oice has been
dem o n strated b u t t h i s le a v e s open th e q u e stio n as t o th e
c o n d itio n s which d eterm ine th e developm ent of th e s e v a r
io u s ty p e s of s t a t u s images and a s p i r a t i o n s . 13
In a n a ly z in g th e b e h a v io r of i n d i v i d u a l s in mass so
c i e t i e s , one of th e c r u c i a l problem s i s t h a t of a s c e r t a i n i n g
which p e r s p e c tiv e he u se s in a r r i v i n g a t such a d e f i n i t i o n .
In stu d y in g c h o ic e s made betw een c o n f l i c t i n g g ro u p s, i t i s
im p o rtan t t o examine th e moments of i n d e c is io n t o d eterm ine
th e f a c t o r s which r e s u l t in th e imagery t h a t a c t s a s th e de
te r m in e r of what group s h a l l be chosen.
D e sp ite th e c r i t i c i s m advanced a g a i n s t r e f e r e n c e
group th e o ry in i t s p r e s e n t form:
The con cep t of r e f e r e n c e group i s a u s e f u l one. I t
d i r e c t s i n v e s t i g a t i o n toward th e a c t u a l group an ch orag es
of an i n d i v i d u a l . W ithout such i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e in
d i v i d u a l 's p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e l a t e d n e s s might be sought
only in groups of which he i s a r e g i s t e r e d member. Such
M. E i s e n s t a d t , "R eference Group B ehavior and
S o c ia l I n t e g r a t i o n : An E x p lo r a tiv e S tu d y ," American S o cio
l o g i c a l Review. XIX (1 9 5 4 ), i8 4 .
*4Tamotsu S h ib u ta n i, "R eference Groups a s P e rsp e c
t i v e s , " American J o u r n a l of S o c io lo g y . LX (May, 1955), 569.
23
m em bership i s f r e q u e n t l y d e te r m i n e d l a r g e l y by e x t e r n a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t may o r may n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e i n
d i v i d u a l ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e l a t e d n e s s .
F u r t h e r , t h e c o n c e p t o f r e f e r e n c e g ro u p su m m arize s
d i f f e r e n t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s and l o y a l t i e s and t h u s f a c i l i t a t e s
t h e s tu d y o f s e l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n . I t may becom e, t h e r e
f o r e , a v i t a l t o o l f o r c o m p re h e n d in g t h e d i v e r s i t y and dy
namic c h a r a c t e r o f t h e k i n d o f s o c i e t y i n w h ich i n d i v i d u a l s
l i v e . ^
G. H. Mead c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f r e f e r
e n c e g ro u p t h e o r y when he w r o t e :
The i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s h i m s e l f a s s u c h , n o t d i
r e c t l y , b u t o n ly i n d i r e c t l y , fro m t h e p a r t i c u l a r s t a n d
p o i n t s o f o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l members o f t h e same g r o u p , o r
fro m t h e g e n e r a l i z e d s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e s o c i a l g ro u p a s a
w hole t o w h ich he b e l o n g s . 17
M e rto n p o i n t s o u t t h a t Mead and v a r i o u s o f h i s f o l
lo w e r s h ad l i t t l e o c c a s i o n t o move a h e a d t o t h e q u e s t i o n of
c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w hich n o n -m em b ersh ip g r o u p s m ig h t a l s o c o n
s t i t u t e a s i g n i f i c a n t fra m e o f r e f e r e n c e .
I m p l i c i t i n m ost p h a s e s o f r e f e r e n c e g ro u p t h e o r y a s
i t p e r t a i n s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t h e c o n c e p t of r o l e and i t s
v a r i o u s d e r i v a t i o n s .
15
M u z a fe r S h e r i f and C a r o ly n W. S h e r i f , An O u t l i n e
o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y (New Y ork: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 5 6 ) ,
p . 175.
^ S h i b u t a n i , l o c . c i t .
^ G . H. Mead, M ind. S e l f and S o c i e t y (C h ic a g o : The
U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 138.
■ ^M erto n, o p . c i t . . p . 239.
24
T u rn er h a s w r i t t e n ;
By r o l e , we mean a c o l l e c t i o n of p a t t e r n s of behav
i o r which a re th o u g h t t o c o n s t i t u t e a m ean in g fu l u n i t
and deemed a p p r o p r ia te t o a p e rs o n occupying a p a r t i c u
l a r s t a t u s in s o c i e t y , occupying an in f o r m a lly d e fin e d
p o s i t i o n in i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s ( e . g . l e a d e r or com-
p r i s e r ) or i d e n t i f i e d w ith a p a r t i c u l a r value in s o c i e t y
( e . g . h o n e s t man or p a t r i o t ) . We s h a l l s t r e s s th e p o i n t
t h a t a r o l e c o n s i s t s of b e h a v io rs which a re re g a rd e d a s
making up a m eaning fu l u n i t . . . . Role r e f e r s t o behav
i o r r a t h e r th a n p o s i t i o n , so t h a t one may e n a c t a r o l e ,
b u t c a n n o t occupy a r o l e . 19
T u rn er c o n tin u e s h i s d i s c u s s i o n by h o ld in g t h a t :
However, r o l e i s a norm ative c o n c e p t. I t r e f e r s to
e x p e c te d or a p p r o p r i a te b e h a v io r and i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
from th e manner in which th e r o l e i s a c t u a l l y e n a c te d in
a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n , which i s r o l e b e h a v io r o r r o l e
pe rfo rm an c e . While a norm i s a d i r e c t i v e t o a c t i o n , a
r o l e i s a s e t of norms, w ith th e a d d i t i o n a l norm ative
elem ent t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l i s e x p e c te d t o be c o n s i s t
e n t . The r o l e i s made up of a l l th o s e norms which a re
th o u g h t t o ap ply t o a p e rs o n occupying a g iv e n p o s i t i o n .
T hus, we r e t u r n t o our i n i t i a l em phasis t h a t th e c r u c i a l
f e a t u r e of th e c o n ce p t of r o l e i s i n i t s r e f e r e n c e t o
th e assu m p tio n t h a t i t s c e r t a i n d i f f e r e n t norms a re
m e a n in g fu lly r e l a t e d or "go t o g e t h e r . "20
F u r t h e r , T u rn er a c c e p ts C o u tu 's d e s c r i p t i o n of r o l e -
ta k in g which d i s t i n g u i s h e s th e im a g in a tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
th e o t h e r ' s r o l e ( r o l e - t a k i n g ) from th e o v e r t en actm ent of
what one c o n c e iv e s t o be o n e 's own a p p r o p r i a te r o l e a s a
form of p r e t e n s e (" p la y in g a t" a r o l e ) . 2! I t sh o u ld be
l^R aip h H. T u r n e r , "Role T ak in g , Role S ta n d p o in t,
and R eferen ce Group B e h a v io r," American J o u r n a l of S o c io l
ogy. LXI (J a n u a ry , 1956), 316-rl7.
20 I b i d .
2% a l t e r C outu, "Role Taking v s . Role P la y in g : An
Appeal f o r C l a r i f i c a t i o n , " American S o c i o lo g i c a l Review .
XVI ( A p r i l , 1951), 180-87,
25
remembered t h a t th e manner in which an i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e iv e s
th e r o l e of a n o th e r w i l l not be examined a s an i s o l a t e d form
of b e h a v io r. The s e l f - o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l be viewed a s
an a s p e c t of a t o t a l s o c i a l a c t . The a c t o r t a k e s th e r o l e
of a n o th e r in c a r r y i n g o u t some b e h a v io r of h i s own; r o l e -
ta k i n g i s an a d ju s tm e n t of th e d e te r m in a tio n or a p p l i c a t i o n
O O
of o n e 's own r o l e in a g iv en s i t u a t i o n .
The p r o c e s s of r o l e - t a k i n g i s not i n h e r e n t l y d i f f e r
e n t w heth er th e in f e r e n c e i s a c c u r a te or i n a c c u r a t e . In ad
d i t i o n , once th e o t h e r ' s r o l e h as been fo rm u la te d c o n c e p tu
a l l y by th e i n d i v i d u a l , th e manner i n which th e c o n c e p tio n
i n f lu e n c e s th e i n d i v i d u a l 's b e h a v io r i s u n a f f e c te d by th e
a cc u ra c y o r in a c c u ra c y of th e c o n c e p tio n . F u r t h e r , o n e 's
o r i e n t a t i o n d e te rm in e s t h a t o n ly c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s of th e
o th e r r o l e w i l l be e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t t o th e d e te r m i n a ti o n
of th e i n d i v i d u a l 's own b e h a v i o r . ^
E a r l i e r i t was su g g e ste d t h a t Mead p o in te d o ut t h a t
each p e rs o n p e r c e i v e s , t h i n k s , form s judgm ents and c o n t r o l s
h im s e lf a c c o rd in g t o th e frame of r e f e r e n c e of th e group s in
which he i s p a r t i c i p a t i n g . T h e r e fo r e , th e a b i l i t y t o d e fin e
s i t u a t i o n s from th e same s ta n d p o in t a s o t h e r s makes p e r s o n a l
c o n t r o l s p o s s i b l e . When Mead r e f e r r e d t o assum ing th e r o l e
of th e g e n e r a l i z e d o t h e r , he was not r e f e r r i n g t o p e o p le b u t
t o p e r s p e c t i v e s sh ared w ith o t h e r s in t r a n s a c t i o n . ^ 4
^ T u r n e r , o p . c i t . . p . 317. ^ I b i d . . pp. 317-21.
^4S h i b u t a n i , op. c i t . , p . 564.
26
The co ncep t of r o l e and c o n c e p ts a tt e n d a n t t o i t are
th e n of g r e a t im portance in th e c o n s i d e r a ti o n of r e f e r e n c e
group t h e o r y . I f a p e rso n i s t o s e l e c t a group, h i s own or
a n o th e r , a s a r e f e r e n t , he must have some c o n c e p tio n o f th e
s t a t u s - r o l e of th e p e rs o n s i n t h a t group. Whether t h i s con
c e p t i o n , p e r c e p t i o n , o r image i s a c c u ra te or n o t, no m a tte r;
th e i n d i v i d u a l b e li e v e s he h as an a c c u ra te c o n c e p tio n and
a c t s upon t h a t assum p tion . He not only " p e rc e iv e s " what th e
v a rio u s groups "are l i k e " but a ls o im agines o th e r p e r s o n s '
r e a c t i o n s t o th o se groups and th e g ro u p s' p e r c e p tio n s of
h im s e lf a s an i n d i v i d u a l . W ithin t h i s framework he makes
h i s d e c i s i o n a s t o which group s h a l l a c t a s a re f e r e n c e
p o i n t . As h as been in tim a te d p r e v i o u s ly , t h i s c o n c e p tu a l
and p e r c e p t u a l framework may be f u r t h e r red u ced t o th e spe
c i f i c f a c t o r s o p e ra tiv e i n th e d e c isio n -m a k in g p r o c e s s ,
which i s one of th e p r i n c i p a l p u rp o se s of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
t o d is c o v e r what v a rio u s of th e s e f a c t o r s might be.
I t h a s been s t a t e d t h a t :
\
. . . t e n t a t i v e ty p e s of i n q u ir y , in which th e p a r
t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e groups a re p ro v id e d , do n o t, of
c o u rs e , e n t e r i n t o th e u n c h a rte d r e g io n of th e spo ntane
ous s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e groups in v a ry in g s i t u a
t i o n s — why w i l l A, in a s i t u a t i o n , compare h im s e lf w ith
B, and in a n o th e r w ith C? . . . I t i s t h i s type of prob
lem— th e p r o c e s s e s shaping th e s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e
g r o u p s - - t h a t s ta n d s in most c o n sp icu o u s need of r e
s e a r c h . ^
While t h i s i s no doubt t r u e , i t i s su ggested t h a t
25
M erton, op. c i t . . p . 250.
th e dynamic s i t u a t i o n * th e com plex i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s i n
vo lv ed i n s e l e c t i n g one group a s a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t i n s t e a d
of a n o t h e r , most l o g i c a l l y sh o u ld r e s t upon th e f i r m fo u n
d a t i o n of knowledge p e r t a i n i n g t o what f a c t o r s a r e in v o lv e d
in th e s e l e c t i o n of g r o u p s . I t i s f u r t h e r arg u e d t h a t s in c e
each i n d i v i d u a l h a s a g r e a t many r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s in a c c o rd
ance w ith th e v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s he must fac e* th e most ex
p e d i e n t form of a s c e r t a i n i n g w hat t h e s e f a c t o r s may be is*
i n e f f e c t , t o " f r e e z e ” th e v a r i o u s s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , p r e
s e n t th e i n d i v i d u a l w ith v a r i o u s l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d compo
n e n ts o f a g ro u p - ty p e ( e . g . o c c u p a tio n s ) and th e n in t h i s
i s o l a t e d s p a c e - t im e , d e te rm in e w hat f a c t o r s a r e u t i l i z e d i n
d e c is io n - m a k in g in t h i s s e v e r e l y s t r u c t u r e d s i t u a t i o n . In
t h i s manner i t w i l l become p o s s i b l e t o ta k e th e f a c t o r s t h u s
i s o l a t e d and u t i l i z e them i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of dynam ic ,
s i t u a t i o n s .
F u r t h e r i t i s p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s , th e
f a c t o r s w hich a re u t i l i z e d by th e i n d i v i d u a l t o c o n s t r u c t an
image o f th e g ro u p , may be a s c e r t a i n e d by d i r e c t q u e s t i o n i n g
of th e i n d i v i d u a l w ith r e g a r d t o v a r i o u s f a c t o r s p o s t u l a t e d
a s c r i t i c a l t o c o n s t r u c t i o n of s a i d im age.
A n o t a b l e b e g in n in g i s found in H e r b e r t H. Hyman. .
. . T h is k in d of d i r e c t q u e s t i o n i n g can o f c o u rs e e l i c i t
o n ly t h e c o n s c io u s and remembered fra m e s o f c o m p a ris o n .
But th e advancem ent of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y h a s s u f
f e r e d by th e g e n e r a l f a i l u r e t o f o llo w up Hyman’ s sug
g e s t i v e l e ^ d on s p o n ta n e o u s ly em ergin g fra m e s o f group
r e f e r e n c e .
26I b id .
28
I t i s c o n s c i o u s and rem em bered f ra m e s o f c o m p a ris o n
w hich a r e u t i l i z e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l in d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g .
W ith o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s e f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e , and more
s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e f a c t o r s o f w hich t h e f ra m e s a r e c o m p r is e d ,
i t becom es e x tr e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
o r l a t e n t f a c t o r s o p e r a t i v e , i f , in d e e d , t h e r e be an y .
D e s p i t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o v e r - e m p h a s i z in g t h e
p o i n t , w i t h o u t an e m p i r i c a l know ledge of t h e e x p l i c i t sp e
c i f i c f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s e l e c t i o n , such
s u g g e s t i o n s f o r e x a m in a t io n i n a r e f e r e n c e g ro u p fram ew ork
a s t h a t w hich f o l l o w s w i l l a lm o s t c e r t a i n l y end i n c o n f u s i o n
and u n c e r t a i n t y .
At t h i s p o i n t , i t i s c l e a r t h a t r e s e a r c h i s n e ed ed
t o d i s c o v e r th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s w hich
t y p i c a l l y e l i c i t s e l f e v a l u a t i o n s o r i n t e r n a l i z e d j u d g
m en ts— f o r e x a m p le , w here c o m p a ris o n w ith t h e a c h i e v e
m en ts o f s p e c i f i e d o t h e r s l e a d s t o i n v i d e o u s s e l f d e
p r e c a t i o n , t o a s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l in a d e q u a c y — and th e
s t r u c t u r e o f t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s w hich t y p i c a l l y l e a d t o
e v a l u a t i o n s of i n s t i t u t i o n s o r e x t e r n a l i z e d ju d g m e n ts —
f o r e x a m p le , w here c o m p a ris o n w i t h o t h e r s l e a d s t o a
s e n s e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s , t o th e ju d g m e n t
t h a t th e s o c i a l sy s te m m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t any c l o s e c o r
r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n i n d i v i d u a l m e r i t and s o c i a l r e
w a r d . ^
I t h a s been s u g g e s te d t h a t some s i m i l a r i t y i n s t a t u s
a t t r i b u t e s b e tw ee n t h e i n d i v i d u a l and th e r e f e r e n c e g ro u p
m ust be p e r c e i v e d , i n o r d e r f o r t h e c o m p a ris o n ( o f p o t e n t i a l
r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s ) t o o c c u r a t a l l . Once t h i s b a s i c s i m i l a r
i t y e x i s t s , o t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s p e r t i n e n t t o
t h e s i t u a t i o n w i l l p r o v i d e one c o n t e x t f o r s h a p in g e v a l u a
27 I b i d . , p. 240.
29
t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n tly , t h i s f o c u s e s th e a t t e n t i o n of th e
t h e o r i s t im m e d ia te ly upon th e f a c t o r s w hich p ro d u c e a se n se
of p e r t i n e n t s i m i l a r i t y among s t a t u s e s , s in c e t h e s e w i l l
h e lp d e te rm in e w hich g ro u p s a r e c a l l e d i n t o p l a y a s com para
t i v e c o n t e x t s . 2®
W hile t h i s i s u n d o u b te d ly i n s i g h t f u l , i f i t i s r e
membered t h a t s t a t u s r e f e r s t o t h e p o s i t i o n an i n d i v i d u a l o r
a group i s a c c o rd e d i n an h i e r a r c h y , i t may be se en t h a t th e
c o n c e p t h a s n o t been r e d u c e d t o i t s s i m p l e s t fo rm . The con
c e p t of s t a t u s i s made up of v a r i o u s f a c t o r s w hich make i t a
c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e — f a c t o r s w hich q u i t e p o s s i b l y v a ry from
p e r s o n t o p e r s o n . I t i s t h e s e f a c t o r s w h ic h , t h e w r i t e r
h o l d s , must be e m p i r i c a l l y d e te r m in e d .
I t i s hoped t o d e v e lo p t h e s e f a c t o r s i n a manner
w hich w i l l overcome an e x p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i z e d d e f i c i e n c y i n
th e s tu d y o f r e f e r e n c e grou p t h e o r y i n c o n n e c ti o n w ith "The
A m erican S o l d i e r , " i n t h a t i n t h a t s tu d y :
. . . t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e c o n c e p t of r e l a t i v e d e p r i
v a t i o n was in tr o d u c e d a f t e r th e f i e l d r e s e a r c h was com
p l e t e d . T h is b e in g t h e c a s e , t h e r e was no p r o v i s i o n f o r
th e c o l l e c t i o n of in d e p e n d e n t s y s te m a t i c e v id e n c e on th e
o p e r a t i o n o f such s o c i a l fram ew o rk s o f i n d i v i d u a l ju d g e
m e n ts.
' W ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e abo ve, i t i s known t h a t :
Numerous e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s i n s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g y
have shown t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s u n w i t t i n g l y re s p o n d t o d i f
f e r e n t fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e in tr o d u c e d by t h e e x p e r im e n t
e r s , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t u n w i t t i n g r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s a r e
28 I b i d . , pp. 2 4 2 -4 3 . 2^ I b i d . , p . 248.
30
in v o lv e d in th e o r d i n a r y r o u t i n e s of d a i l y l i f e ; r e
s e a rc h t e c h n iq u e s must be ex te n d ed t o d e t e c t t h e i r op
e r a t i o n . 30
By th e u t i l i z a t i o n of v a r i o u s l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d com
p o n e n ts of a group ty p e ( e . g . o c c u p a tio n s ) from which a r e f
e re n ce group i s t o be s e l e c t e d which i s in te rw o v e n i n t o th e
p a t t e r n of a lm o st e v e r y o n e 's l i f e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o f u l f i l l
th e s u g g e s tio n of th e above s ta te m e n t.
In e f f e c t , th e o b j e c t of th e stu d y i s t o i d e n t i f y
. . th e d e te r m i n a n ts and c o n seq u en ces of t h e s e
p r o c e s s e s of e v a l u a t i o n and s e l f a p p r a i s a l in which th e
i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s th e v a lu e s o r s t a n d a r d s of o th e r i n d i
v i d u a l s and g ro u p s a s a co m p a rativ e fram e of r e f e r
ence . 31
A lthough M erton h a s w r i t t e n t h a t t h e r e i s n o th in g
f i x e d a b o u t th e b o u n d a rie s s e p a r a t i n g in -g ro u p from o u t
g ro u p , membership g ro u p s from non-m em bership g ro u p s, and
t h a t th e y change w ith th e ch an g in g s i t u a t i o n , s t i l l he
seems t o la y an i n o r d i n a t e s t r e s s on t h a t d i f f e r e n c e when he
w r i t e s :
. . . ( t h e s e e a r l i e r fo r m a tio n s ) c e n t e r on th e gen
e r a l prob lem of i d e n t i f y i n g th e f o r c e s and c o n t e x t s f o r
making f o r s e l e c t i o n e i t h e r of membership gro u p s or of
non-m em bership g ro u p s a s fram e s of s i g n i f i c a n t r e f e r
e n c e , a p roblem which re m a in s c e n t r a l t o r e f e r e n c e group
t h e o r y .
In c o n t r a s t t o o th e r p a r t s of d e v e lo p in g t h e o r y ,
t h i s p a r t h a s been a c c o rd e d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n
d u rin g th e p a s t few y e a r s . Much r e s e a r c h h a s been d i
r e c t e d tow ard i d e n t i f y i n g th e c o n d i t i o n s making f o r
c h o ic e o f some r a t h e r t h a n o t h e r membership g ro u p s, b u t
30I b i d .» p . 249. 3 1I b i d . . pp. 301-302.
32I b i d . . p. 285.
31
l i t t l e t o th e c o n d i t i o n s making f o r c h o ic e of non-mem
b e r s h i p g r o u p s .33
A lthough th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n t o be p r e s e n te d w i l l
d e a l w ith non-m em bership groups* i t i s a g a in em phasized t h a t
a t th e p r e s e n t tim e , and e s p e c i a l l y i n view of th e t r a n s i
t o r y n a tu r e of non-m em bership g ro u p s , th e c o n c e rn of p rim a ry
im p ortance sh o u ld be th e i s o l a t i o n of f a c t o r s r e l a t i v e to
s e l e c t i o n of g ro u p s i n g e n e r a l and from a f o u n d a tio n of
t h e s e f a c t o r s t o th e n examine th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een mem
b e r s h i p and non-m em bership g ro u p s.
The p ro posed r e s e a r c h d e s ig n o f t h i s stu d y i s
p lan n e d t o overcome a n o th e r p roblem a t t e n d a n t t o r e f e r e n c e
group t h e o r y .
Q u e s tio n s a b o u t which of s e v e r a l membership g ro u p s
a re s e l e c t e d a s r e f e r e n c e g ro ups e v i d e n t l y assume t h a t
t h e r e a r e d i s t i n c t k in d s of membership g ro u p s b u t th e y
do not e x p l i c i t l y c o n f r o n t th e s t i l l - u n s o l v e d p ro blem
of d e v e lo p in g a m e th o d o lo g ic a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of th e s e
t y p e s . Taxonomy i s f a r from b e in g t h e whole of s o c io
l o g i c a l t h e o r y . I t i s , how ever, an i n d i s p e n s i b l e p a r t .
When we examine th e c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n of s o c i o l o g i c a l
t h e o r y in th e m a tte r of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g and c l a s s i f y i n g
t y p e s of g ro u p s , we must r e g r e t f u l l y co n clu d e t h a t a
s o c i o l o g i c a l L in n a e u s o r C u v ie r h a s y e t t o p u t in an ap
p e a r a n c e . F a i l i n g such a d e c i s i v e t u r n of e v e n t s , i t
may n e v e r t h e l e s s be u s e f u l t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n , y e t a g a i n ,
t o th e t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and c u r r e n t s t a t u s of
th e problem of s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c l a s s i f y i n g ty p e s of
g r o u p s .34
I f one g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d ty p e o r c l a s s of g ro u p s ,
( e . g . o c c u p a tio n s ) i s used a s th e c o m p a ra tiv e v a r i a b l e , i t
w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o d e v e lo p f a c t o r s i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e se-
33l b i d . . p . 304 34 I b i d . . p . 308.
32
l e c t i o n , w i t h i n one of t h e s e g ro u p s , w ith a s s u ra n c e t h a t th e
s e l e c t i o n h a s been made, from a number of a l t e r n a t i v e s a l l o f
which a re l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o one ty p e of g ro u p , t h e r e b y
e l i m i n a t i n g p roblem s in v o lv e d in d e a l in g w ith g ro u p s which
c u t a c r o s s g ro u p -ty p e l i n e s . I t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e n t
a l i s t of m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e su b grou ps ( e . g . o c c u p a tio n s )
a l l of which a re encom passed in one ty p e of group and t o
" f r e e z e " tim e and space in o r d e r t o i s o l a t e th e f a c t o r s of
s e l e c t i o n o p e r a t iv e in th e s t r u c t u r e d and c o n t r o l l e d s i t u a
t i o n .
U t i l i z a t i o n of th e above m entioned s u g g e s tio n s e lim -
x, n
i n a t e s th e p ro blem s i n h e r e n t in d e a l in g w ith c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
o f g ro u p s , namely:
The b e s t e f f o r t s t o c l a s s i f y g ro u p s a re a g re e d on
th e fu n d a m e n ta l l o g i c a l r e q u ir e m e n t t h a t an e f f e c t i v e
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i l l be n o t m erely g r o s s l y d e s c r i p t i v e of
o b se rv ed " ty p e s " b u t w i l l d e r i v e from c o m b in a tio n s of
v a lu e s o f . d e s ig n a te d group p r o p e r t i e s . U h e c o m b in a tio n
of v a lu e s i s n o t " r e a l " i n th e group b u t i s s u p p lie d by
th e i n d i v i d u a l — a . f a c t . w h i c h i s i m p l i c i t i n th e p ro p o se d
r e s e a r c h ^
The d e c i s i v e p rob lem i s , of c o u r s e , t h a t o f i d e n t i
f y in g th e t h e o r e t i c a l l y s t r a t e g i c group p r o p e r t i e s
which se rv e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t o d i s c r i m i n a t e th e o p e ra
t i o n of e a c h r e s u l t a n t ty p e of group from o t h e r s . 35
By d e s ig n in g a stu d y u t i l i z i n g a g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d
ty p e of g ro u p , w ith i t s c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d
and a c c e p te d a s one c l a s s or t y p e , many p i t f a l l s such a s
th o s e im p lie d above may be a v o id e d .
35 I b i d . . p. 309.
33
I m p l i c i t l y a c c o u n te d f o r in r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y
a re " o b s e r v a b i l i t y " and "co m m u n ica tio n ," b e c a u se v a r i a b i l i t y
in th e knowledge a b o u t th e norms of th e group m a n i f e s t l y a f
r e e t s th e r e s p e c t i n which i t can be t a k e n a s a fram e of
n o rm a tiv e r e fe r e n c e .36 jn a f o r m a lly s t r u c t u r e d stu d y such
a s th e one h e r e i n p ro p o s e d , th e u se of o n ly one c l a s s of
g ro u p s w i l l maximize t h e f a c t o r s of o b s e r v a b i l i t y and com
m u n ic a tio n b u t by no means a s s u r e t h a t th e i n t e n s i t y of th e
f a c t o r s w i l l be e q u a l among th e s e v e r a l o c c u p a ti o n s . How
e v e r , s in c e a c c u ra c y o f p e r c e p t i o n i s n o t a c r u c i a l f a c t o r
i n th e s e l e c t i o n of g ro u p s and b e c a u se of th e d e s i g n of th e
s tu d y , which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r , u n if o r m
i t y o f i n t e n s i t y o f o b s e r v a b i l i t y and com m unication betw een
th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e v a r i o u s o c c u p a tio n s i s n o t c r u c i a l .
What i s of im p o rtan c e i s th e r e l a t i v e s t a n d in g of th e v a r i
ous o c c u p a tio n s w ith r e g a r d t o one a n o th e r a s p o t e n t i a l r e f
e re n c e g ro u p s and th e d e t e r m i n a n t s c a u s in g th e a s s ig n m e n t of
th e o c c u p a tio n t o t h a t p o s i t i o n .
J u s t a s i n d i v i d u a l s a re s o c i a l l y ra n k e d i n te rm s of
p r e s t i g e and a c c e s s t o o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c u l t u r a l l y v a lu e d
r e t u r n s , so w ith g r o u p s , s o c i o l o g i s t s ta k e i t f o r
g r a n t e d th e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s e s a re e v a l u a t i v e l y
ra n k e d and t h a t o c c u p a n ts of t h e s e s t a t u s e s t e n d t o be
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y r a n k e d . . . . E veryday o b s e r v a t i o n i n
d i c a t e s some of t h e many r e s p e c t s i n which t h e c o n c e rn
w ith th e s t a n d in g o f a group i s s i g n i f i c a n t : th e p r o c e s s
of c o m p e t i t i o n , a s P a rk and B u rg e ss o b se rv e d a g e n e ra
t i o n ago and a s t h e e v o l u t i o n i s t s c o n s i s t e n t l y empha
s i z e d , in v o lv e s n o t o n ly th e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of i n d i
v i d u a l s , b u t a l s o of g r o u p s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and s o c i -
36 I b i d . . p. 321.
L i n t o n h a s d e f i n e d th e c o n c e p t o f r o l e a s th e behav
i o r a l e n a c t i n g o f th e p a t t e r n e d e x p e c t a t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d t o
t h a t p o s i t i o n and t h e r e f o r e h o l d s t h a t r o l e , u se d w ith t h i s
c o n n o t a t i o n , s e r v e s t o c o n n e c t th e c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d ex
p e c t a t i o n s w ith th e p a t t e r n e d b e h a v io r and r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w hich c o m p ris e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . M erton s u g g e s t s t h a t :
. . . T h is f a c t of s t r u c t u r e c a n be r e g i s t e r e d by a
d i s t i n c t i v e te r m , r o l e s e t , by w hich I mean t h a t com ple
ment o f r o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w hich p e r s o n s have by v i r t u e
o f o c c u p y in g a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l s t a t u s . ^
W hile such te r m s a s r o l e , r o l e s e t , and s t r u c t u r e
have p ro v e d t h e i r u t i l i t y i n s o c i o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l p sy ch o
l o g i c a l w r i t i n g s , i t i s once a g a in s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e s e
t e r m s , a s th e y a p p ly t o r e f e r e n c e grou p t h e o r y , have n o t
b een r e d u c e d t o t h e i r s i m p l e s t te r m s . F u r t h e r , b a s i c t o th e
e n t i r e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e t e r m s , i n c o n n e c ti o n w ith r e f e r
ence g ro u p t h e o r y , i s th e d e l i n e a t i o n of s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s
in v o lv e d i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . W ith o u t t h e s e f a c t o r s , th e
above m e n tio n e d c o n c e p ts must be r e g a r d e d a s of q u e s t i o n a b l e
e m p i r i c a l v a l u e .
K e l le y h o l d s t h a t th e te r m r e f e r e n c e group h a s been
a p p l i e d t o two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of phenomena e a c h o f w hich
p o s e s i t s own t h e o r e t i c a l and r e s e a r c h p ro b le m s . The f i r s t
i s th e n o rm a tiv e f u n c t i o n and th e seco nd i s t h e c o m p a ra tiv e
f u n c t i o n . T hese f u n c t i o n s may be s e rv e d by d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s
37 I b i d . . p . 323. 33 I b i d . , pp. 3 6 8 -6 9 .
or by th e same g ro u p . He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t th e exam ples
p r e s e n t e d by Hyman and M erton im ply t h a t r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s
employed i n ju d g in g o n e 's s e l f would f r e q u e n t l y be u sed in
making ju d g m e n ts of o t h e r s .
T u rn e r h a s s u g g e s te d t h a t a lth o u g h th e c o n c e p t of
r e f e r e n c e group h a s been u se d t o a p p ly t o a g r e a t many d i f
f e r e n t g ro u p s in many d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s , t h e s e d i f f e r e n t
t y p e s of g ro u p s in c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e i r s i t u a t i o n s do n o t
c o n s t i t u t e s e p a r a t e u s a g e s of th e te rm b u t m ere ly d e f i n i
t i o n s on th e one hand i n te r m s of th e e f f e c t of th e r e f e r
ence group an d , on th e o t h e r h a n d , in te rm s of th e mechanism
of th e r e f e r e n c e g ro u p .
He f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t ;
One ty p e of th e group i s th e one i n which th e i n d i
v i d u a l ' s b e h a v io r i s somewhat a f f e c t e d by g ro u p s whose
members c o n s t i t u t e m ere ly c o n d i t i o n s t o h i s a c t i o n . The
g ro u p s a re n e u t r a l l y to n e d t o th e a c t o r ; he must m erely
ta k e them i n t o a c c o u n t i n o r d e r t o a c c o m p lish h i s p u r
p o s e s . The manner i n w hich he t a k e s them i n t o a c c o u n t
may o r may n o t r e q u i r e r o l e t a k i n g , and t h e y may or may
n o t c o n s t i t u t e h i s m em bership g ro u p . Such a group m ight
w e l l be d e s i g n a t e d by some such n e u t r a l te rm a s i n t e r a c
t i o n g ro u p .
E i s e n s t a d t h a s p o in te d o u t a f a c t o r of im p o rtan c e
^ H a r o l d H. K e l l e y , "Two F u n c tio n s of R e fe re n c e
Group T h e o ry ," R e ad in g s i n S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , pp. 4 1 0 -1 4 .
4 ®Ralph H. T u r n e r , "Role T a k in g , R ole S t a n d p o i n t ,
and R e fe re n c e Group B e h a v io ? ," Am erican J o u r n a l of S o c i o l
og y. LXI ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 6 ), 327,
4 1I b i d . . p. 328.
36
w h ich h a s b e e n a l l u d e d t o p r e v i o u s l y . He h a s commented t h a t
i n h i s s t u d y t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e r e a s o n f o r c h o ic e o f
a g ro u p a s a r e f e r e n t was t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e g ro u p i n
t e r m s o f s t a t u s — c o n f e r r e d w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , b u t
t h a t s t a t u s - a s p i r a t i o n i s n o t , h o w e v e r, a u n i t a r y dim en
s i o n . 4 2 Germane t o t h i s , i t h a s b e e n s t a t e d t h a t t h e o n ly
way t o a s c e r t a i n t h e c r i t e r i a f o r s t a t u s i s by an a c t u a l
f i e l d s tu d y o f t h e way p e o p le view s t a t u s . 4 ^ T h i s , t h e n , i s
c o n s t r u e d a s a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r a s tu d y o f e x p l i c i t f a c
t o r s i n v o l v e d i n r e f e r e n c e g ro u p d e c i s i o n s .
I t i s g e n e r a l l y r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e r e a r e an a lm o s t
i n f i n i t e number o f r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s c a p a b le o f b e in g s e
l e c t e d by i n d i v i d u a l s . H ow ever, t h e num ber o f r e f e r e n c e
g r o u p s h a b i t u a l l y u s e d by i n d i v i d u a l s i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll
d e s p i t e t h e huge number o f g r o u p s t h e o r e t i c a l l y a v a i l a b l e . 44
I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t one c l a s s of r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s w h ic h i s
g e n e r a l l y , a lm o s t u n i v e r s a l l y , i n v o l v e d i n t h e l i v e s o f i n
d i v i d u a l s i s t h a t o f o c c u p a t i o n s . T h i s t y p e o f r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p i s a v a i l a b l e t o e v e r y o n e . I t s h o u ld a l s o be rem em bered
t h a t i t i s i n a d e q u a t e t o i n f e r t h e r e l a t i o n s o f t h e r e f e r
en c e g r o u p s fro m t h e i r o b j e c t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s , s i n c e t h i s
w ould comm it t h e f a l l a c y o f c o n f u s i o n b e tw e e n o b j e c t i v e and
42
E i s e n s t a d t , o p . c i t . . p . 17 7.
4 % t e r b e r t Hyman, "The P s y c h o lo g y o f S t a t u s , " Ar
c h i v e s o f P s y c h o l o g y . N o , . 269 ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p . 7 .
4 4 I b i d . . p . 4 7 .
37
s u b j e c t i v e s t a t u s . 45
A d i s c u s s i o n o f norms p r e s e n t e d by E i s e n s t a d t i s
germane t o th e p ro blem u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . He h a s i d e n t i
f i e d th e f o l lo w in g ( i n p a r t ) main t y p e s of norms:
1. G e n e ra l norms which seem t o a p p ly t o a lm o st any
k in d of r o l e s and s i t u a t i o n which i n d i c a t e o n ly a
v e ry g e n e r a l p r e s c r i p t i o n of b e h a v io r such a s good -b ad "
b e h a v i o r , " h o n e s t - d i s h o n e s t , " e t c . . . . They a r e n o t
s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o any p a r t i c u l a r r o l e and c an be
se e n a s a p p l i c a b l e th r o u g h o u t a g r e a t v a r i e t y of con
c r e t e form s of b e h a v i o r .
2. G e n e ra l norms w hich i n d i c a t e th e ty p e of behav
i o r or a t t i t u d e s a p p r o p r i a t e t o a l l members of a c o l l e c
t i v i t y , and w hich i n d i c a t e a l s o a g e n e r a l ty p e o f id e n
t i f i c a t i o n w ith such a c o l l e c t i v i t y . . . . T hese norms
a re a l s o of a r a t h e r b ro a d a p p l i c a t i o n . They do not
p r e s c r i b e any d e f i n i t e s i n g l e r o l e , b u t th e y a re a l r e a d y
c l e a r l y o r i e n t e d to w a rd s a d e f i n i t e , even i f r a t h e r
w id e , s o c i a l s e t t i n g . They may be s a i d t o p r e s c r i b e th e
u n i v e r s a l c o n d i t i o n s of m em bership i n a com m unity.46
In o t h e r w ords, t h e s e norms g iv e a w id e r , and n o t
m erely t e c h n i c a l , meaning t o t h e v a r i o u s r o l e s and i n t h i s
way p u t them i n t h e fram ew ork of w id e r v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s
and some s o r t o f c o l l e c t i v i t y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . They do n o t ,
how ever, r e l a t e t h e s e r o l e s t o any o t h e r s p e c i f i c r o l e s , and
a re f i r m l y bound t o a g iv e n c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n , w hich d oes
n o t seem t o be in any way p r o b l e m a t i c .
I t w i l l be d e m o n s tra te d i n th e f o l lo w in g c h a p t e r
t h a t th e r e s e a r c h p ro c e d u re h a s been d e v e lo p e d u n d e r a p a r
t i a l i n f lu e n c e of t h e s e n o rm ativ e c o n c e p ts .
45 I b i d . , p . 51.
4 6 S. M. E i s e n s t a d t , " S t u d i e s in R e fe re n c e Group Be
h a v i o r , " Human R e l a t i o n s . V II (1 9 5 4 ), pp. 1 95-96 .
38
G e n e r a l l y , g r o u p s a r e t h e m ain r e f e r e n t s by w h ich an
i n d i v i d u a l e v a l u a t e s h i m s e l f and o r d e r s h i s b e h a v i o r when,
r e g a r d i n g s p e c i f i c g r o u p s , th e y become sym bols o f a g i v e n
norm o r v a lu e o r t h e y may be t h e m ain r e f e r e n t s i f t h e i n d i
v i d u a l h a s a s p i r a t i o n s t o become a member o f them i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f h i s m o b i l i t y a s p i r a t i o n s o r r o l e c h o i c e s . 47
R e f e r e n c e g r o u p s may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h o s e g r o u p s t o
w hich t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e l a t e s h i m s e l f a s a p a r t o r t o w hich
48
he a s p i r e s t o r e l a t e h i m s e l f p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y .
Numerous s t u d i e s com ing fro m b o th p s y c h o l o g i s t s and
s o c i o l o g i s t s have shown t h a t th e m a jo r s o u r c e o f t h e i n
d i v i d u a l ' s w e ig h ty a t t i t u d e s a r e t h e v a l u e s o r norm s
of t h e g ro u p s t o w h ich he r e l a t e s h i m s e l f , t h a t i s , o f
h i s r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s . 49
T h e r e f o r e , th e r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s n o t o n ly a r e an im
p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n i n d i v i d u a l s ' l i v e s b u t a r e an i n t e g r a l
p a r t o f t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e s ,
v a l u e s , and a c t i o n s . By p r e s e n t i n g a number o f p e r s o n s w ith
a w id e ly u se d c l a s s o r ty p e of g ro u p and e l i c i t i n g t h e f a c
t o r s w hich a r e u t i l i z e d i n t h e s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e i n s e l e c t
in g a r e f e r e n c e g r o u p , t h e f o u n d a t i o n may be l e a r n e d f o r t h e
s e l e c t i o n o f g ro u p s by d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s .
In e x a m in in g t h e p ro b le m , i n a t t e m p t i n g t o d e v e lo p
4 7 I b i d . . p p . 2 1 2 -1 3 .
48
M u z afe r S h e r i f and C a ro ly n W. S h e r i f , G roup s i n
Harmony and T e n s io n : An I n t e g r a t i o n o f S t u d i e s on I n t e r -
Group R e l a t i o n s (New Y ork: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 5 3 ). p .
161.
4 9 I b i d . . p . 162.
39
v a r i a b l e s c r u c i a l t o th e s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s,
t h e r e are v a r io u s f a c t o r s which should be k e p t in. mind.
S e v e ra l have been m entioned p r e v io u s ly and a d d i t i o n a l ones
should be enum erated a t t h i s tim e in o rd e r t o p ro v id e a
c l e a r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d .
. . . frame of r e f e r e n c e i s not e q u iv a le n t or i n t e r
chan geab le w ith a t t i t u d e , s o c i a l norm. . . . But s o c i a l
norm, an a t t i t u d e • . . may be f a c t o r s w ith in a frame of
r e f e r e n c e a t a g iv en tim e .
In more complex s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , th e i n d i v i d u a l 's
m o tiv e s, and h i s a t t i t u d e s , do come a s s t i l l more p o te n t
anch o rag es t o d e term in e h i s p e r c e p t i o n s . These i n t e r n a l
a n c h o rin g s ta k e a d e c id e d ly d i r e c t i v e r o l e , e s p e c i a l l y
in c a s e s of s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a re u n s t r u c tu r e d ,
t h a t a re i n th e s t a t e of f l u x . 5°
The n e c e s s i t y of " f r e e z in g " tim e and space i s demon
s t r a t e d when c o n s id e r in g t h a t :
Membership in m u ltip le groups and a c t i v e cho ice of a
r e f e r e n c e group which may not be w i t h in th e i n d i v i d u a l 's
p e r c e p t u a l range a re d i s t i n c t l y human phenomena. S o c ie
t i e s in th e modern scene a re d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t o many
gro u p s. Man i s endowed w ith c o n c e p tu a l c a p a c i t i e s which
e n ab le him t o r e l a t e h im s e lf t o anch o rag es beyond h i s
p e r c e p t u a l ra n g e -- a n c h o r a g e s not im m ediately o b se rv ab le
a t a g iv en t i m e . 5- * -
The p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of s e l e c t i n g a ty p e of group from
which a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t w i l l be chosen by p e rs o n s not mem
b e rs of any of th e g ro u p s, a t p r e s e n t , b u t who a re a l l
"m e m b e rs-p o te n tia l" r e c e i v e s su p p o rt when c o n s id e r in g t h a t :
A condition for bringing reference group problems to
the foreground stems from man's psychological capacity
^ I b i d . . pp. 165-66.
51
S h e r i f and S h e r i f , An O u tlin e o f S o c ia l P s y c h o l
oqy. p. 177.
40
to r e la t e h im self to groups, v a lu e s, and g o a ls beyond
the l i m i t s of the liv i n g present in to the fu tu r e . T his
expansion of man's ego far beyond immediate p ercep tu al
surroundings a n d .in to future time makes i t p o s s ib le fo r
him to r e la t e h im self to groups of which he i s not an
a c tu a l member.
The p o s s i b i l i t y of stand ardizing f a c t o r s used in
re fe re n ce group s e le c t io n i s based upon the r e g u la r ity of
behavior among the choosing in d iv id u a ls and i t s v a l i d i t y
r e s t s in part in th a t:
As . . . (man) p a sses from one group s it u a tio n to
another from time to tim e, he r e a c ts to the demands,
p r e ssu r e s, and appeals of new group s it u a t io n s in terms
of the person he has come to con sid er h im self to be and
a s p ir e s to be. In other words, he r e a c t s in terms of
more or l e s s c o n s is te n t t i e s of b elon gin gn ess in r e la
t io n to h i s past and p resen t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and h is
future g o a ls fo r s e c u r ity of h is id e n t i t y , and a ls o h is
s ta tu s and p r e s tig e concern s. In sh o rt, t h i s conceptual
l e v e l of fu n ctio n in g makes p o s s ib le r e la t io n s of ex p e r i
ence and behavior in r e la t io n to v a lu e s and norms th a t
l i e at tim es fa r beyond immediate group s i t u a t i o n s . 53
The f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l to d e c is io n concerning r e f e r
ence group s e le c t io n of occupations may be of importance—
apart from the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of groups o r ig in a lly made,
th a t they are g e n e r a liz a b le may be seen when co n sid erin g
th a t:
The ego a t t it u d e s fu n ctio n as weighty anchorings in
determ ining the in d iv id u a l's experience and behavior in
so many r e le v a n t s it u a t io n s . Due to man's conceptual
l e v e l of fu n c tio n in g , th e se ego a t t it u d e s are not sub-
52I b id . . pp. 6 2 9 - 3 0 .
^M uzafer S h e r if , "The Concept of Reference Groups
in Human R e la tio n s," in Muzafer S h e rif and M. O. Wilson
(eds.), Group R e la tio n s a t the Crossroads (New York: Harper
and B roth ers, 1953)7 pp. 205-6.
41
j e c t o r d i n a r i l y t o a b ru p t v a r i a t i o n s from each s i t u a t i o n
t o th e n e x t. These ego a t t i t u d e s may be in r e l a t i o n t o
a n c h o rin g s t h a t l i e f a r beyond h i s p e r c e p t u a l ra n g e in
space and tim e . O th e rw is e , f o r exam ple, g r e a t i d e o l o g i
c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s t h a t c u t a c r o s s th e s t a t e b o u n d ar
i e s , so p r e v a l e n t in our tim e s , would n o t have been
p o s s i b l e . 54
The developm ent of f a c t o r s c r u c i a l t o r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n w i l l th e n c o n s t i t u t e in p a r t , a t l e a s t , th e
b e g in n in g s of th e developm ent of a fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r
such s e l e c t i o n s .
I t i s th e c o n t e n t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r t h a t th e r e s t r i c
t i o n of th e c o n c e p t of r e f e r e n c e group t o t h a t group
whose p e r s p e c t i v e c o n s t i t u t e s th e fram e of r e f e r e n c e of
th e a c t o r s — w i l l i n c r e a s e i t s u s e f u l n e s s in r e s e a r c h .
Any group o r o b j e c t may be u sed f o r co m p a riso n s and one
need n o t assume th e r o l e o f th o s e w ith whom he com pares
h i s f a t e . 55
When c o n s i d e r i n g th e p ro b lem , i t sh o u ld be remem
b e re d t h a t :
O rg a n iz ed p e r s p e c t i v e s a r i s e in and become s h a re d
th ro u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n in common com m unication c h a n n e ls ,
and th e d i v e r s i t y of mass s o c i e t i e s a r i s e from th e mul
t i p l i c i t y o f c h a n n e ls and th e e a se w ith which one may
p a r t i c i p a t e in th e m .56
The d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e two f u n c t i o n s (n o rm a tiv e
and c o m p a ra tiv e ) i s im p o rta n t becau se i t makes e x p l i c i t
th e two main a s p e c t s of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y : th e mo
t i v a t i o n a l and th e p e r c e p t u a l .
These two p a r t s of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y sh o u ld
prove t o be m erely s p e c i a l c a s e s of more g e n e r a l th e o
r i e s abou t th e s o u r c e s and n a tu r e of s t a n d a r d s w h ich , in
t u r n , shou ld u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e from fu n d am e n ta l t h e o r i e s
54 i b i d . , p . 216.
5 5 s h i b u t a n i , op. c i t . . p. 563.
56 i b i d . . p* 569.
4 2
o f m o t i v a t i o n and p e r c e p t i o n . ^
In t h e p r e c e d in g p a g e s , r e f e r e n c e g ro u p t h e o r y a s i t
now e x i s t s h a s b een s u b m itte d t o some r a t h e r c r i t i c a l s c r u
t i n y ; how ev er, i f t h e c r i t i c i s m i s a c c e p t e d , i t s t i l l sh o u ld
be rem em bered t h a t :
. . . v e ry lame and i m p e r f e c t t h e o r i e s a re s u f f i c i
e n t t o s u g g e s t u s e f u l e x p e r im e n ts w hich s e rv e t o c o r
r e c t t h o s e t h e o r i e s , and g iv e b i r t h t o o t h e r s more p e r
f e c t . T h e s e , t h e n , o c c a s i o n f u r t h e r e x p e r im e n ts w hich
b r i n g u s s t i l l n e a r e r t o th e t r u t h ; and i n t h i s method
o f a p p r o x im a tio n , we must be c o n t e n t t o p r o c e e d , and we
o u g h t t o t h i n k o u r s e l v e s happy i f , i n t h i s slow m ethod,
we make any r e a l p r o g r e s s .
I t i s no d o u b t c o r r e c t t h a t s c i e n t i s t s must p ro c e e d
i n a somewhat slow m anner to w a rd each o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l
g o a ls ; h o w e v er, o f c o u r s e , r e s e a r c h e r s must ta k e a d v a n ta g e
of e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y t o speed up th e p r o c e s s . One m ethod
which s h o u ld be f r u i t f u l i s t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i e s
which fo rm th e fram ew ork f o r v a r i o u s e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s . I t
i s s u g g e s te d t h a t th e c r i t i c i s m of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y i n
i t s p r e s e n t fo rm i s w e l l e a r n e d . How ever, e v e n i n i t s con
f u s e d and o f t e n am biguous s t a t e , r e f e r e n c e g ro u p t h e o r y may
se rv e a s i n s p i r a t i o n f o r many w o rth w h ile s t u d i e s . Y e t, in
i n s t a n c e s where some o f th e c o n f u s io n and a m b ig u ity may be
e l i m i n a t e d , w here c l a r i t y i n some s m a ll d e g re e may be sub-
^ H a r o l d H. K e l l e y , "Two F u n c t io n s o f R e fe re n c e
Group T h e o r y ," R e a d in g s i n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , p . 4 1 3 .
^ M o r r i s R. Cohen and E r n e s t N a g e l, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o
L o g ic and th e S c i e n t i f i c Method (New Y ork: H a r c o u r t , B ra c e ,
and Company, 1 9 3 4 ), p . 219, q u o tin g J o s e p h P r i e s t l y .
43
s t i t u t e d f o r v e r b ia g e and c o n f u s i o n , t h e r e i s no e x cu se n o t
t o c l a r i f y . I t i s f u r t h e r p o s i t e d t h a t th e e f f o r t s tow ard
c l a r i t y w i l l be w e ll rew ard e d n o t o n ly c o n c e p t u a l l y b u t by
th e r e s u l t a n t e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h which w i l l be f o rth c o m in g
from t h e d e f i n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e of th e t h e o r y . W ith r e g a r d t o
th e p r e s e n t p ro b lem , and o p e r a t i n g u n d e r t h e p h ilo s o p h y ex
p r e s s e d ab o v e, th e f i r s t s t e p i n th e a c t u a l s tu d y m ust be t o
e x t r a c t t h e e s s e n c e of th e t h e o r y and t o s t a t e i t a s p r e
c i s e l y a s p o s s i b l e . The p r e c i s i o n , o f c o u r s e , i s a f u n c t i o n
t o some e x t e n t of th e g e n e r a l p ro n oun cem ents of th e t h e o r y
by th o s e p e r s o n s who have worked t o f o r m u la te i t . At t h i s
p o i n t , t h e n , th e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e o r y may be exam ined and
from i t may be d e r i v e d e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s d e s ig n e d t o maxi
mize th e u t i l i t y o f s a i d t h e o r y .
D i s c u s s io n o f L i t e r a t u r e P e r t i n e n t
t o th e O c c u p a tio n s
The number of d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g ro u p s in w hich th e
i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a t e s i s one of th e e a rm a rk s of h i s
c u l t u r e . The modern p e rs o n b e lo n g s f i r s t o f a l l t o h i s
p a r e n t a l f a m i ly , t h e n t o h i s f a m ily of p r o c r e a t i o n and
t h e r e b y a l s o t o t h e f a m ily of h i s w i f e . Beyond t h i s he
b e lo n g s t o h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p , w hich o f t e n in v o lv e s
him i n s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s . For exam p le, i n an oc
c u p a t io n t h a t em b races b o th s u p e r v i s o r y and s u b o r d in a te
p e r s o n n e l , each p e r s o n p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e a f f a i r s of
h i s p a r t i c u l a r b u s i n e s s , d e p a r tm e n t, o f f i c e , e t c . , eac h
of w hich c o m p ris e s h i g h e r and low er e m p lo y ees. More
o v e r , a p e rs o n a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a group made up o f
s i m i l a r l y s i t u a t e d em p loyees fro m s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
f i r m s . T hen, a p e rs o n i s l i k e l y t o be aware of h i s
c i t i z e n s h i p , of th e f a c t t h a t he b e lo n g s t o a p a r t i c u l a r
s o c i a l c l a s s . (He) . . . e n g a g e s i n a s o c i a l l i f e
4 4
w hich p u t s him i n to u c h w ith d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s .
The v e ry f a c t t h a t a p e rs o n h a s a v o c a t io n w i l l a l
ways be lin k e d t o h i s l i f e i n i t s e n t i r e t y . ^
As h a s been a ll u d e d t o p r e v i o u s l y , th e ty p e of group
t o be u se d i n th e r e s e a r c h i s th e o c c u p a ti o n a l t y p e . T here
a r e many r e a s o n s f o r s e l e c t i n g t h i s ty p e of g ro u p . P e rh a p s
a t l e a s t some o f them a re b e s t sum m arized t h u s l y :
O c c u p a tio n i s of m ajo r s i g n i f i c a n c e in p e o p l e 's
l i v e s . I t c a t c h e s t h e a t t e n t i o n of y o u th in t h e i r
t e e n s , o f t e n f o r c i n g them t o u n derg o p ro lo n g e d and a rd u
ous t r a i n i n g . I t d i s c i p l i n e s y o u th and m olds th e behav
i o r of a d u l t s . The s c a l e o f l i v i n g of more th a n 95 p e r
c e n t of a l l f a m i l i e s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s i s d e te rm in e d
by th e g a i n f u l employment o f t h e i r w orking members. The
o c c u p a tio n one f o l l o w s f i l l s most of o n e 's waking t im e .
I t a s s i g n s th e i n d i v i d u a l a p a r t i c u l a r p la c e in s o c i e t y ,
w hich c an be changed o n ly by most e x c e p t i o n a l c irc u m
s t a n c e s . . . . The work a man d o e s stam ps him w ith d i s
t i n g u i s h a b l e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m arkedly i n f l u
e n c e s h i s h e a l t h , form s th e ra n g e o f h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n
and i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t ; f a s t e n s upon him h a b i t s of
d r e s s and c o n d u c t, and d e f i n e s th e c i r c l e of h i s f r i e n d s
and a c q u a i n t a n c e s , who i n t u r n have a p o w e rfu l e f f e c t on
h i s t h o u g h t s and a c t i o n s . . . . A m an 's o c c u p a tio n soon
becomes a p rim a ry c o n c e rn in h i s l i f e . I t s p ro b lem s of
s t a t u s , e a r n i n g s , c o n t i n u a l em ploym ent, and c o n d i t i o n s
o f l a b o r ta k e on such s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t he a s s o c i a t e s
w ith h i s f e l l o w s t o improve o r p r o t e c t th e m .61
S in c e t h e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n w i l l d e a l w ith v a r i o u s of
th e o c c u p a ti o n s w hich may be r e f e r r e d t o a s " p r o f e s s i o n s , "
i t sh o u ld be p o in te d o u t t h a t :
^ G e o r g e Sim m el, C o n f l i c t and th e Web o f Group Af-
f i l i a t i o n s . t r a n s . K u rt H. W oiff and R e in h a rd B endix (G len -
c o e , 1 1 1 .: The F ree P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ), p. 138.
60 I b i d . . p. 188.
^ D e w e y A nd erso n and P e rc y E. D a v iso n , " O c c u p a tio n s
and W e lfa re L e v e l s , " S o c i a l F o u n d a tio n s of E d u c a t i o n , pp.
45
A p r o f e s s i o n may p e rh a p s be d e f in e d a s an o c c u p a tio n
based upon s p e c i a l i z e d i n t e l l e c t u a l stu d y and t r a i n i n g ,
th e purpose of which i s t o supply s k i l l e d s e r v ic e or ad
v ic e t o o t h e r s f o r a d e f i n i t e fe e o r s a l a r y .
L arge s c a le o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s fa v o re d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n .
S p e c ia li z e d o c c u p a tio n s ( e . g . b u s in e s s e x e c u tiv e ) have
a r i s e n around th e a p p l i c a t i o n of th e new s c i e n t i f i c
knowledge.®2
The many r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s con ducted in th e
g e n e r a l a re a of th e S o c io lo g y of O c c u p a tio n s and P r o f e s
sio n s have y ie ld e d wide and v a r i e d r e s u l t s in v o lv in g many
p h a ses of th e a r e a . For th e most p a r t , th e s e s t u d i e s a re
n e i t h e r s y s te m a tic nor are th e y germane t o th e problem a t
hand. Such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s as th o s e r e l a t i n g o c c u p a tio n s t o :
th e fa m ily ( e . g . Wance and B u t l e r , H u nt, K o p h a r t) ;^ 3 m en tal
d i s o r d e r s ( e . g . C l a r k , F r u m k i n ) ; ^ f e r t i l i t y ( D i n k e l ) ; ^
191-94.
^ A l e x a n d e r C a rr-S a u n d e rs , "The P r o f e s s i o n s i n Mod
e rn S o c i e t y , S o c ia l F o u n d a tio n s of E d u c a tio n , pp. 584-87.
^ W i l l i a m Wance and R ich a rd B u t l e r , "The E f f e c t of
I n d u s t r i a l Changes on O c c u p a tio n a l ' I n h e r i t a n c e 1 in Four
P e n n sy lv a n ia C om m unities," S o c i a l F o r c e s . XXVII (1 9 5 2 ),
158-62; T. C. H unt, "O c c u p a tio n a l S t a t u s and M arriage S e le c
t i o n , " American S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . V (1 9 4 0 ), 495-504;
W illiam M. K e p h a rt, "O c c u p a tio n a l L evel and M a r i t a l D isru p
t i o n , " American S o c i o lo g i c a l Review. XX (1 9 5 5 ), 4 56 -6 5.
^ R o b e r t E. C la r k , "The R e la ti o n s h ip of S c h iz o p h re n
ia t o O c c u p a tio n a l Incomes and O c c u p a tio n a l P r e s t i g e , " Amer
ic a n S o c i o lo g i c a l R eview . X I I I (J u n e , 1948), 325-30; R. M.
Frum kin, ‘'O ccup ation and M ajor M ental D i s o r d e r s , " M etal
H e a lth and M ental D i s o r d e r , e d . A rnold Rose (New.York:
York: N orton P r e s s , 1955), pp. 136-60.
^ R o b e r t M. D in k e l, "O ccupation and F e r t i l i t y in th e
U n ited S t a t e s , " American S o c i o lo g i c a l Review . XVII (O c to b e r,
1954), 5 4 1 -4 8 ..
46
and c l a s s , s t a t u s and e d u c a ti o n ( e . g . S m ith , N orth and H a t t ,
L u ndb erg, S te p h e n s o n , and S e w e ll j e t . a l . ) ; ^ w h ile of p a s s i n g
i n t e r e s t , a re n o t c r i t i c a l t o th e im m ediate p ro b lem . Some
l i g h t h a s been shed on th e pro b lem by v i r t u e of s t u d i e s of
s p e c i f i c o c c u p a tio n s such a s th e b u s i n e s s l e a d e r ( e . g .
A d a m s ) ,^ th e sc h o o l t e a c h e r ( e . g . B e c k e r ) , th e a u to work
e r ( C h i n o y ) , ^ and th e p h y s i c i a n (Adams, M e r t o n ) . ^ G e n e ra l
Mapheus S m ith , "An E m p ir ic a l S c a le of P r e s t i g e
S t a t u s of O c c u p a tio n s ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , V I I I
( A p r i l , 1 9 4 3 ), 1 8 5 - 9 2 ; .P a u l K. H a t t , " O c cu p a tio n and S o c i a l
S t r a t i f i c a t i o n . " Am erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , LV ( 1 9 5 0 ),
533-43; George A. L u n d b erg , " O c c u p a tio n s and ' C l a s s ’ A lig n
m ents i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 8 7 0 -1 9 5 0 ," S o c i a l F o r c e s .
XXXIV (Decem ber, 1 9 5 5 ), 128-30; R ic h a rd M. S te p h e n s o n , "Mo
b i l i t y O r i e n t a t i o n and S t r a t i f i c a t i o n of 1000 N in th G r a d e r s ,"
A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R ev iew . XXII ( A p r i l , 1 9 5 7 ), 204-12;
W illia m H. S e w e ll, A rc h ie O. H a l l e r , and M urray A. S t r a u s ,
" S o c i a l S t a t u s and E d u c a ti o n a l and O c c u p a tio n a l A s p i r a t i o n , "
Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . XXII ( F e b r u a r y , 1957j , 6 8 - 7 3 ; ,
R ic h a rd M. S te p h e n s o n , "S t r a t i f i c a t i o n , E d u c a tio n , and Oc
c u p a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n : . A P a r a l l e l S tu d y and R eview ," The
B r i t i s h J o u r n a l of S o c i o lo g y . IX (M arch, 1 9 5 8 ), 4 2 -5 2 .
^ ^ S t u a r t Adams, "T ren ds i n O c c u p a tio n a l O r i g i n s of
B u s in e s s L e a d e r s ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . XIX (O cto
b e r , 1 9 5 4 ), 5 41 -4 8.
f\R
Howard S. B e c k e r, "The C a r e e r of th e C h icago
P u b lic S c h o o l T e a c h e r ," A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y . L V II
(March. 1 9 5 2 ), 4 7 0 - 7 7 .,
^ % l i C hinoy, A utom obile W orkers and t h e A m erican
Dream (G arden C i t y , New" York: D oubleday and C o ., 1 9 5 5 ).
70
S t u a r t Adams, "T ren d s i n O c c u p a tio n a l O r i g i n s o f
P h y s i c i a n s . " Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . X V III (A u g u st,
19 53), 4 0 4 -9 ; R o b e rt K. M e rto n , George G. R e a d e r, and
P a t r i c i a L . Kenda, The S tu d e n t P h y s i c i a n : I n t r o d u c t o r y
S t u d i e s in th e S o c io lo g y o f M e d ica l E d u c a tio n (C am b rid g e:
H arv ard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 5 7 ).
in f o r m a tio n germane t o th e stu d y of o c c u p a tio n s may be found
71
in th e works of such w r i t e r s a s Blau e t . a l . , Form and
and M i l l e r , 7^ M i l l s , 73 and th e works of Mack74 M ajor works
d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y tow ard th e stu d y of o c c u p a tio n s such
as th o s e of R o s e n b e rg ,7^ C aplow ,7^ and Roe77 a l s o p ro v id e
in f o r m a tio n u s e f u l f o r th e g e n e r a l a r e a . However, a s Sm igel
h a s p o in te d o u t , v e ry l i t t l e r e s e a r c h h a s been acc o m p lish e d
r e l a t e d t o th e s p e c i f i c problem o f i n t e r e s t h e r e — t h a t of
i n t e r o c c u p a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and of images of th e occupa
t i o n s . I t i s f u r t h e r su g g e ste d w ith v a l i d i t y t h a t r e s e a r c h
78
i s b a d ly needed in t h e s e a r e a s .
P e t e r B lau , J . W. G ustad , R. J e s s o r , H. S. P a r n e s ,
and R. C. W ilcox, " O c c u p a tio n a l C h o ice ; A C o n c e p tu a l Frame
w ork." I n d u s t r i a l and L abor R e l a t i o n s R eview . IX ( J u l y ,
1956J, 5 31-43 .
7 ^ W illiam H. Form and D e l b e r t C. M i l l e r , "Occupa
t i o n a l C a r e e r P a t t e r n s a s a S o c i o l o g i c a l I n s t r u m e n t ," Ameri
can J o u r n a l of S o c i o lo g y . LIV ( J a n u a r y , 194 9 ), 317-21.
73C. W right M i l l s , White C o l l a r (New York: O xford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1951).
* 7 A
Raymond Mack, " O c c u p a tio n a l D e te rm in a te n e s s : A
Problem and H y p o th e ses i n Role T h e o ry ," S o c i a l F o r c e s . XXXV
(O c to b e r, 1 9 5 6 ), 2 0-25 ; and " O c c u p a tio n a l Id eo lo g y and th e
D e te rm in a te R o le ," S o c i a l F o r c e s . XXXVI (O c to b e r, 1957),
37 -4 4.
' y c
M o rris R osenberg, O c c u p a tio n s and V alues (G lenco e,
11 1.: The F re e P r e s s , 195 7).
7^Theodore Caplow, The S o c io lo g y of Work (Minneapo
l i s , M in n .: U n i v e r s i t y o f M innesota P r e s s , 1 954 ).
77
Ann Roe, The P sycho logy of O c c u p a tio n s (New York:
John W iley and Sons, I n c . , 1956).
7®Erwin O. S m ig el, "T rends i n O c c u p a tio n a l S o c io lo g y
48
In r e c e n t y e a r s , a g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n h a s been
f o c u s e d upon t h e c l e r g y , t e a c h e r s , and d o c t o r s . I n c r e a s i n g
u t i l i z a t i o n o f a t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork o f some s o r t i n occu
p a t i o n a l s t u d i e s i s e v i d e n t w ith t h e two m ost f r e q u e n t l y em
p lo y e d fra m e s o f r e f e r e n c e b e in g t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l - s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e and p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s . 79
The m ajor p o r t i o n of th e l i t e r a t u r e d e v o te d t o a s
p e c t s r e l a t e d t o t h e im m ediate p ro b le m i s o f a d i s c u s s i v e
ty p e r a t h e r t h a n e m p i r i c a l . A p e r u s a l o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e
v e a l s p e r t i n e n t s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n in g t h e p ro b le m and c r u
c i a l t o i t .
Any s tu d y of v o c a t i o n s i n A m erican s o c i e t y must
n e c e s s a r i l y p ro c e e d fro m th e d e m o n s tr a b le f a c t t h a t some
t h i n g a p p ro a c h in g an o c c u p a t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y e x i s t s , t h a t
s p e c i a l i z e d o c c u p a ti o n s c a r r y w ith them v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of
s o c i a l and econom ic s t a t u s , and t h a t t h e i r a s s ig n m e n t t o
p o s i t i o n s on t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e r e f l e c t s i n a g e n e r a l
way t h e p r e s t i g e o r l a c k of i t w hich s o c i e t y p l a c e s on th e
80
i n d i v i d u a l t a s k s p e rfo rm e d .
I t i s h e ld t h a t , f o r th e p u rp o se of a n a l y s i s , a d i s
t i n c t i o n may be draw n b etw een o c c u p a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s and
in th e U n ite d S t a t e s : A S u rv e y o f P o s tw a r R e s e a r c h ," Ameri
can S o c i o l o g i c a l R ev iew . XIX (A u g u s t, 1 9 5 4 ), 4 03.
7 9I b i d . . pp . 3 9 9 -4 0 0 .
^ N . P . G i s t , C. T. P h i l b a d , and C. L . G re g o ry ,
" S c h o l a s t i c A ch iev em en t and O c c u p a t io n ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i
c a l R eview . V II ( 1 9 4 2 ) , 752.
49
e x t r a - o c c u p a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a p a r t i c u l a r
o c c u p a tio n , b u t t h a t in p r a c t i c e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s d i f f i -
Q 1
c u l t , and p ro b a b ly u n n e c e s s a r y . I t i s f u r t h e r su g g e s te d
t h a t when th e f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o an o c c u p a tio n a s h e ld by
o u t s i d e p e r c e i v e r s a re i n v e s t i g a t e d , th e d i s t i n c t i o n i s n o t
on ly u n n e c e s s a r y , b u t f o r p u rp o s e s of e m p i r i c a l a c c u ra c y r e
g a rd in g p e r c e p t i o n and image c o n s t r u c t i o n , sh o u ld n o t be
made. The common a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s a t t r i b u t e d t o th e oc
c u p a t io n s a re c o n c e rn e d not o n ly w ith th e work s i t u a t i o n b u t
w ith e v e ry phase of th e l i f e of th e o c c u p a ti o n a l member. I f
th e a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s do n o t , i n f a c t , c o n c e rn e v e ry
f a c e t of t h e members' l i v e s , t h i s may be d e te rm in e d o n ly
th ro u g h e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h and h a s n o t been acc o m p lish e d t o
t h i s d a t e . One of th e i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s r e s e a r c h w i l l be
t o e m p i r i c a l l y d e te rm in e t h i s f a c t o r .
The im p o rtan ce of th e p r o f e s s i o n a l b ranch of th e oc
c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e may be seen when c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t :
C om parative stu d y of th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s of th e
m ost im p o r ta n t c i v i l i z a t i o n s shows t h a t th e p r o f e s s i o n s
occupy a p o s i t i o n o f im p o rtan ce i n our s o c i e t y w hich i s ,
i n any com parable d e g re e of d e v elo p m en t, unique in h i s
t o r y . I t seems e v id e n t t h a t many o f th e most im p o rta n t
f e a t u r e s of our s o c i e t y a re t o a c o n s i d e r a b le e x t e n t de
p e n d en t on th e smooth f u n c t i o n i n g o f th e p r o f e s s i o n s .
Both th e p u r s u i t and th e a p p l i c a t i o n of s c ie n c e and l i b
e r a l l e a r n i n g a re p r e d o m in a n tly c a r r i e d o u t in a p r o f e s
s i o n a l c o n t e x t . 82
Q 1
Caplow, o p . c i t . . p . 130.
82
° T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , "The P r o f e s s i o n s and S o c i a l S tr u c
t u r e , " S o c i a l F o r c e s . XVII (May, 19 39), 457.
50
W ith r e g a r d t o th e p r o f e s s i o n s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o
d i s t i n g u i s h th e p o s i t i o n s t h e y occupy i n a number o f ways,
such a s a c c o rd in g t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r d e a l t w i t h , c l i e n t e l e
s e r v e d , p r e s t i g e , incom e, and pow er, and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l con
t e x t i n w hich th e p r o f e s s i o n a l work i s c a r r i e d on.®3 Such
f a c t o r s must be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e a l i n g w ith i n t e r - p r o f e s
s i o n a l r e s e a r c h .
The i n t e r r e l a t i o n and in te r d e p e n d e n c e of f a c t o r s a t
t e n d a n t t o th e o c c u p a t i o n a l group or s t r u c t u r e i s w e ll demon
s t r a t e d when c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t :
As a c o r o l l a r y t o t h i s s t e r e o t y p e of th e o c c u p a tio n
a l p y ram id i s th e f a i r l y common b e l i e f t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e
i s i n some way r e l a t e d t o o c c u p a tio n , t h a t th o s e occupa
t i o n s w hich a r e a c c o rd e d r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p r e s t i g e te n d
t o a t t r a c t i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e r i o r p e r s o n s and t h a t th e
low p r e s t i g e - l o w income t a s k s r e p r e s e n t th e v o c a t i o n a l
c h a n n e ls i n t o w hich i n d i v i d u a l s of l e s s e r a b i l i t y a r e
i n c l i n e d t o d r i f t . The p o p u la r n o t io n of th e r e l a t i o n
s h ip betw een a b i l i t y and o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s h a s r e
c e iv e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f i r m a t i o n from numerous s c i e n t i f
ic s t u d i e s . 34
C e n t e r s h a s p o i n t e d o u t an im p o r ta n t f a c t o r w ith r e
gard t o th e a s s i g n i n g o f o c c u p a tio n s t o a c l a s s h i e r a r c h y
which h a s r a m i f i c a t i o n s i n o t h e r t y p e s of s t u d i e s . He h a s
s t a t e d t h a t had th e i n d i v i d u a l s in h i s stu d y been a sk e d t o
j u s t i f y t h e i r a s s i g n i n g of o c c u p a tio n s t o v a r i o u s c l a s s e s in
83
Mary J e a n H u n tin g to n , " S o c io lo g y o f P r o f e s s i o n s , "
S o c io lo g y i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s of A m e ric a , e d . Hans L. Z e t-
t e r b e r g ( P a r i s : U n ite d N a tio n s E d u c a t i o n a l , S c i e n t i f i c and
C u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 9 5 6 ), p . 90.
®4G i s t , o p . c i t . . p . 752
51
th e way t h e y d i d , th e y m ight have a tte m p te d t o do so by
u t i l i z i n g c e r t a i n o t h e r c r i t e r i a such a s b e l i e f s and a t t i -
Q C
t u d e s , incom e, e d u c a t i o n , s o c i a l c o n d u c t, and way o f l i f e .
T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f o c c u p a ti o n s i s t o be w e l l
u n d e r s t o o d , th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n must d e lv e below such f a c t o r s
a s c l a s s and s t a t u s t o a s c e r t a i n th e f a c t o r s w hich a r e i n
v o lv e d i n such " c o l l e c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s . "
I t seem s q u e s t i o n a b l e t o assume t h a t :
S u r p r i s i n g l y l i t t l e i s known a b o u t o c c u p a t i o n a l
c h o ic e i n o u r own o r any o t h e r m o b ile s o c i e t y . S in c e a
p e rm a n en t o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e c an o n ly be i d e n t i f i e d
a f t e r a l a p s e of y e a r s , i t c a n o n ly be s t u d i e d r e t r o a c
t i v e l y , by which tim e th e s u c c e s s iv e m e n ta l s t a t e s i n
t h e c h o ic e p r o c e s s w i l l seldom be r e c a l l e d w ith any ac
c u r a c y . T h en , t o o , e r r o r and a c c i d e n t o f t e n p l a y a
l a r g e r p a r t t h a n th e s u b j e c t h i m s e l f i s w i l l i n g t o con
cede .86
W hile much o f w hat i s s t a t e d may be t r u e , c e r t a i n l y
i t must be a c c e p te d t h a t l i t t l e i s known a b o u t o c c u p a t i o n a l
c h o i c e , s t i l l i t i s an o v e r s t a t e m e n t t o im ply t h a t t h i s a r e a
i s somewhat doomed t o be one o f ig n o ra n c e f o r s o c i o l o g i s t s .
As a f o u n d a t i o n f o r o c c u p a tio n c h o ic e p r e d i c t i o n ( b e f o r e th e
f a c t ) , f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d of prim e im p o rta n c e t o be c o n s i d
e re d when s e l e c t i n g an o c c u p a ti o n may be o b t a i n e d . I f t h e s e
f a c t o r s may be known, th e p r e d i c t i o n r a t e may be i n c r e a s e d
im m e d ia te ly . W hile t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f e r r o r w ould s t i l l be
Q c
R ic h a r d C e n t e r s , " S o c i a l C l a s s , O c c u p a tio n , and
Im puted B e l i e f , " A m erican J o u r n a l of S o c i o l o g y . L V I I I (May,
1 9 5 3 ), 55 3.
QZL
Caplow , o p . c i t . . p . 214.
52
h i g h , n e v e r t h e l e s s t h i s would fo rm th e f o u n d a t i o n f o r more
d e f i n i t i v e r e s e a r c h .
F u r t h e r , i t i s n o t a t r u e s t a te m e n t t h a t t h e laym an
c a n n o t ju d g e t h e com petence o f a p h y s i c i a n , f o r e x am p le , and
i s t h e r e f o r e f o r c e d t o r e s p o n d p r i m a r i l y t o an o c c u p a t i o n a l
l a b e l r a t h e r t h a n a s e t o f i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s
Caplow c o n te n d s .® ^
Not o n ly d o e s th e laym an ju d g e t h e com petence of th e
p h y s i c i a n , la w y e r , e t c . , and t h e r e b y r a n k i n d i v i d u a l s i n
d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s , b u t he r e c o g n i z e s th e f a c t o r s of im
p o r t a n c e when c o n s i d e r i n g th e r a n k i n g of o c c u p a ti o n s and
u t i l i z e s t h e s e f a c t o r s when c o n s t r u c t i n g h i s image o f th e
o c c u p a t i o n . The " o c c u p a t i o n a l l a b e l " i s much t o o b ro a d a
te r m t o be u s e f u l and a d m its t o and s h o u ld be re d u c e d t o i t s
c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s , w hich t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t in f a c t d o e s
do.
T h i s , t h e n , b r i n g s a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n t o th e f o r e .
What i s meant by s i m i l a r o c c u p a ti o n s ? In common u s a g e , i t
h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e g ro u p in g o f such o c c u p a t i o n s a s p h y s i
c i a n and law y er by w hich may be c o n s i d e r e d a t l e a s t sem i
o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a . However, when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f a c t o r s
w hich c o n s t i t u t e th e o c c u p a t i o n a l l a b e l and th e r a n k i n g o r
i n t e n s i t y o f s a i d v a r i a b l e s w hich c o m p rise s u b j e c t i v e c r i
t e r i a , i t m ight be fo u n d t h a t t h e v a r i o u s c o m b in a tio n s o f
^ I b i d . . p . 31.
53
f a c t o r s r e s u l t in th e s u b j e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n of l a b e l s r e
s u l t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t g ro u p in g s of o c c u p a tio n s a s s i m i l a r .
I t m ight be t h a t th e p h y s i c ia n i s n o t so c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d
w ith th e law yer a s w ith th e s o c i a l w o rk e r, w ith r e g a r d t o
c e r t a i n o f th e v a r i a b l e s in c lu d e d in th e " o c c u p a tio n a l
l a b e l . " T h is i s a n o th e r a r e a which w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n
th e r e s e a r c h .
In an a re a i n which l i t t l e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s
been p e rfo rm e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r th e p r o b le m a tic
and th e q u e s t io n a b le — o b s e r v a t i o n s of phenomena g a th e r e d i n
an u n s t r u c t u r e d m anner. T h is h a s been n e c e s s a r y h e r e , and
a t t h i s tim e i s th e o n ly way by which a b e g in n in g may be
made f o r th e c o n d u c tin g of th e more s t r i n g e n t e m p i r i c a l r e
s e a rc h g r e a t l y needed in t h i s a r e a .
CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY
A t a s k of th e s o c i a l t h e o r i s t i s t o p ro v id e an ab
s t r a c t fram ework whereby t o d e fin e th e sub u n i v e r s e ;
th e more a d e q u a te ly i t e x p l i c a t e s th e e m p i r ic a l c o r r e l a
t i o n s t h a t ensue among d e f i n i t i o n s , th e b e t t e r th e
fram ew ork. . . . The improved p r e d i c t a b i l i t y w i l l n o t
depend on mere e m p iric is m , t h e n , b u t w i l l be gu id ed by a
s y s te m a tic s o c i a l t h e o r y . 1
The same s o c i a l r e s e a r c h can be a n a ly z e d in a t l e a s t
t h r e e s e p a r a t e d , though r e l a t e d , a s p e c t s ; i t s docum ented
e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s , i t s m ethodology o r lo g ic of p ro c e d
u r e , and i t s t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . 2
The T h e o r e t i c a l A spect of th e P roblem
G overning th e ap p ro ach t o th e r e s e a r c h problem in
t o t o i s th e p h ilo s o p h y of th e l o g i c o - e x p e r i m e n t a l method
which i s d e sig n e d t o u t i l i z e a b s t r a c t c o n c e p ts r e f e r r i n g to
e x a c t o b s e r v a t i o n s and which may be used t o c o n s t r u c t p r e -
O
d i c t i v e h y p o th e s e s c o n c e rn in g r e l a t i o n s among v a r i a b l e s .
I n s o f a r a s i s p o s s i b l e , th e l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
^L ouis Guttm an, "A Theory f o r I n te r g r o u p B e l i e f s and
A c t io n s ," Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . XXIV ( J u n e , 19 59),
318.
2
R o b e rt K. M erton, S o c i a l Theory and S o c i a l S t r u c
t u r e (G len c o e, 1 1 1 .: The F re e P r e s s , 19 5 7 ), p . 262.
3
Robin M. W illia m s , J r . , " C o n tin u ity and Change in
S o c i o l o g i c a l S tu d y ," Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . XXIII
(December, 1 958 ), 622.
54
55
of r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y h a s been guided by th e broad can
ons of " e x p l i c a t i o n . " In h i s d i s c u s s i o n of i t , Hempel
s t a t e s t h a t e x p l i c a t i o n aim s a t g iv in g vague e x p r e s s io n s a
new and p r e c i s e meaning th e r e b y r e n d e r in g them more s u i t a b l e
f o r c l e a r and r i g o r o u s d i s c o u r s e . ^ T h e r e f o r e , th e a s s i g n
ment o f p r e c i s e m eanings becomes a m a tte r o f j u d i c i o u s syn
t h e s i s , of r a t i o n a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n m erely
d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s . I t u s e s a s i t s p o i n t o f d e p a r tu r e th e
custo m ary m eanings of th e te rm s and i s d i r e c t e d t o re d u c in g
th e l i m i t a t i o n s , a m b i g u i t i e s , and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s of t h e i r
o r d i n a r y usage by p ro p o u n d in g a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d e s ig n e d t o
advance th e c l a r i t y and p r e c i s i o n of t h e i r m eanings a s w e ll
a s t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f u n c t i o n i n h y p o th e s e s and t h e o r i e s w ith
e x p la n a t o r y and p r e d i c t i v e f o r c e . T h e r e f o r e , an e x p l i c a t i o n
ca n n o t be q u a l i f i e d sim ply a s t r u e o r f a l s e ; b u t i t may be
ad judg ed more or l e s s a d e q u a te a c c o rd in g t o th e e x t e n t t o
which i t a t t a i n s i t s o b j e c t i v e s .
The v a r i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o what h a s been c a l l e d
r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y m ust, t h e n , be s c r u t i n i z e d and t h a t
which h a s m eaning, a l b e i t co n fu sed and u n o rg a n iz e d , must be
a b s t r a c t e d i n t o a t h e o r y o r s e t o f c o n c e p ts which h a s c l e a r
and p r e c i s e m eaning, l o g i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , and c a p a b le of
r e l a t i o n t o e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h in i t s c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s ,
^ C a r l G. Hempel, F undam entals of C oncept F orm ation
in E m p ir ic a l S c ien c e (V ol. I I of I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n c y c lo p e d ia
of U n i f i e d S c i e n c e . C hicago: U n i v e r s i t y of C hicag o P r e s s ,
1955), p p . 11-12 .
56
th e whole u n i t i n g and expanding upon th e e m p i r ic a ll y r e l e
v a n t p a r t s .
Two g u ide p o i n t s f o r th e accom plishm ent of th e above
s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e sho uld be m entioned:
" P re m ise s'1 a re s ta te m e n ts of f a c t s . They may e i t h e r
be assumed o r .p ro v e d t o be t r u e . . . . In th e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s , p re m ise s a re e x a c tl y th e in s tru m e n t by which
th e s c i e n t i s t e l i m i n a t e s th o s e c o n d it i o n s from h i s ob
s e r v a t i o n which m ight i n t e r f e r e w ith th e o b s e r v a tio n
upon which h i s in q u ir y i s t o be fo c u s e d . The s t a t e
ments c o n ta in e d in th e p re m ise s a re n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
based upon p r e v io u s e m p i r ic a l r e s e a r c h . P rem ises may be
no more th a n a h y p o t h e t i c a l d e v ic e t o h old c e r t a i n f a c
t o r s c o n s ta n t and t o a llo w o t h e r s t o v ary f o r p u rp o se s
of e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n . 5
We may say t h a t a nom inal d e f i n i t i o n s i n g l e s out a
c e r t a i n c o n c e p t, i . e . , a non l i n g u i s t i c e n t i t y such a s a
p r o p e r t y , a c l a s s , a r e l a t i o n , o r th e l i k e and, f o r con
v e n ie n t r e f e r e n c e , l a y s down a s p e c i a l name f o r i t and
a l s o i n t r o d u c e s , or d e f i n e s , a new e x p r e s s i o n . 6
The E m p iric a l M ethodology
A c o n c r e te o b j e c t w ith which we a re c o n fro n te d h as
been c a l l e d th e s y n t h e s i s of p e r c e p t i o n s . And each ob
j e c t h a s a more en d u rin g c o n f i g u r a t i o n , so t o speak, th e
more v a r i o u s th e p e r c e p t i o n s a r e , which have e n te re d
i n t o i t . 7
An i n d i v i d u a l i s d e te rm in e d s o c i o l o g i c a l l y in th e
sense t h a t groups " i n t e r s e c t " in h i s p e rs o n by v i r t u e of h i s
^Svend R iem er, "P rem ises in S o c i o lo g i c a l I n q u i r y ,"
American J o u r n a l of S o c io lo g y . LIX (May, 1954), 551-52.
^Hempel, op. c i t . . p. 2.
7Georg Simmel, C o n f l i c t and th e Web of Group A f f i l
i a t i o n s , t r a n s . K urt H. W olff and Rei'nhard" feendix (G lencoe,
1 1 1.: The F re e P r e s s , 1955), p . 140.
57
a f f i l i a t i o n w ith them.®
The purpose of th e e m p ir ic a l segment of t h i s study
i s t o d is c o v e r f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l in s e l e c t i n g r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p s, f a c t o r s u t i l i z e d in image c o n s t r u c t i o n , and th e
images of th e p r o f e s s i o n s th e m se lv e s h e ld by a group of non
members.
C r i t i c a l t o th e d e te rm in in g of th e above m entioned
f a c t o r s a re th e b e l i e f s h e ld by th e group t o be t e s t e d g e r
mane t o th e problem . C e n te r s h as w r i t t e n of t h i s w ith r e f
e re n ce t o s o c i a l c l a s s ; how ever, th e d i s c u s s i o n may be ac
c e p te d a s p e r t a i n i n g t o o c c u p a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e a s w e ll.
I f b e l i e f s a re th e m ajor c r i t e r i o n o f c l a s s member
s h i p , th e n peo p le must be a b le t o p e rc e iv e c l a s s member
sh ip more or l e s s " a c c u r a t e l y " in term s of them when
t e s t e d . At th e very l e a s t , t h e r e should be some system
and o r d e r i n t h e i r judgem ents t h a t would d i s t i n g u i s h
them from mere g u e s s e s . 9.
The above may be c o n s id e re d germane t o non-member
groups p e r c e iv in g v a r io u s o c c u p a tio n s .
The com plexes of b e l i e f s and p e r c e p t i o n s p eo p le have
m a n ife s t th e m se lv e s in images and s t e r e o t y p e s of c e r t a i n
group phenomena. R esearch d e s ig n s em ploying s t e r e o t y p i n g a s
a f a c t o r have not alw ays been en co u rag e d , however:
R a th e r th a n bemoan p o p u la r s t e r e o t y p i n g and a tte m p t
by c o m p lic a te d means t o c irc u m v e n t i t , th e phenomenon
can be e x p lo i t e d a s an e n t r e e t o th e f e e l i n g s , a t t i -
8 I b i d . . p. 150.
g
R ic h a rd C e n t e r s , " S o c ia l C l a s s , O c c u p a tio n , and
Imputed B e l i e f , " American J o u r n a l of S o c io lo g y . L V III (May,
1953), 553.
t
t
58
t u d e s , im a g es, and l a t e n t r e s p o n s e s , o b s c u re d w i t h i n t h e
r e s p o n d e n t . . . i f th e sym bols w hich evoke t h e s t e r e o
ty p e o f t h e r e l e v a n t o t h e r s can be i d e n t i f i e d , t h e n th e
r e s p o n d e n t 's a t t i t u d e s to w a rd and im ages of t h o s e o t h e r s
can be d e t e r m i n e d . 10
We n eed o n ly t u r n t o W. I . Thomas t o g r a s p t h e im
p l i c a t i o n s of such s t e r e o t y p e s . They r e f l e c t d e f i n i
t i o n s of t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t s p e c i f i c
segm ents i n o u r s o c i e t y d e f i n e an o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p in
a c e r t a i n m anner, t h o s e d e f i n i t i o n s b e in g r e a l t o th e
d e f i n e r s — become r e a l i n te r m s of t h e i r o v e r t b e h a v io r
i n r e l a t i o n s t o t h e members o f t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p .
. . . As M erton so c o n v i n c i n g l y s t a t e d i n h i s " S e l f
F u l f i l l i n g P r o p h e c y ," e d u c a t i o n a l and p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s
cam paig ns a r e r e l a t i v e l y s t e r i l e m e a su re s a s com pared
w ith th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o r s t r u c t u r a l
c h a n g e s w hich can be e f f e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f a c l e a r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e ways i n w hich t h e s i t u a t i o n i s d e
f i n e d . The s e l f f u l f i l l i n g p ro p h e c y can be r e v i s e d when
such know ledge i s a v a i l a b l e . i l
S tr o n g f e e l i n g s a b o u t a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , m o tiv e s and
i s s u e s , when i n t e r n a l i z e d become c o n d en sed i n t o some s o r t of
" s t e r e o t y p e d s h o r th a n d r e f e r e n c e ." 1 2
T hese b e l i e f s w i l l be a s c e r t a i n e d by means o f a que&*
t i o n n a i r e t o be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . I t s h o u ld
be rem embered t h a t in " f o u n d a t i o n " o r e x p l o r a t o r y r e s e a r c h :
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . . . may n o t le a d t o a s y s t e m a t i c
r e c o r d i n g o f r e s p o n s e s and t h e i r p e r c e n t a g e v a l u e . They
may n o t add up t o e i t h e r s c o re o r s c a l e . They may have
o n ly th e t a s k of l e a d i n g th e c a r e f u l s c h o l a r t o a new
h y p o t h e s i s w o rth t e s t i n g by f u r t h e r e m p i r i c a l e v id e n c e .
. . . The v a lu e o f p r e h y p o t h e t i c a l r e s e a r c h i s of p r a c
t i c a l , and o n ly s e c o n d a r i l y o f t h e o r e t i c a l im p o r ta n c e .
. . . Modern s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y must a lw ay s re m a in
t e s t a b l e .1 3
• ^ I r w i n D e u t s c h e r , "The S t e r e o t y p e a s a R e s e a rc h
T o o l," S o c i a l F o r c e s . XXXVII ( O c to b e r , 1 9 5 8 ), 57.
11 I b i d . . p. 6 0 . 12 I b i d . . p. 55.
■^Svend R iem er, " P re m is e s i n S o c i o l o g i c a l I n q u i r y , "
59
With r e f e r e n c e t o th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e u t i l i z e d i n th e
r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t h e r e i n p r e s e n t e d , th e l i m i t a t i o n s m entio ned
i n th e above q u o t a t i o n a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e ; h ow ev er, i t must
be r e c o g n iz e d t h a t i n s t u d i e s w hich a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith a r e a s
no t p r e v i o u s l y i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t e n s e l y , th e m ajo r f u n c t i o n of
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and th e r e s e a r c h i s t o open new and prom
i s i n g v i s t a s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h by p r o v i d in g an e m p i r i c a l l y
t e s t e d f o u n d a t i o n upon w hich t o b u i l d . In any ty p e of r e
s e a rc h and e s p e c i a l l y i n th e ty p e p e rfo rm ed h e r e i n , " i t i s
d i f f i c u l t t o d e te rm in e t h e s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s o f any one f a c
t o r . M o reo v er, s o c i a l e le m e n ts seldom adm it of sim ple a d d i
t i o n .
T here a re two l e v e l s of d e s c r i p t i o n w hich w i l l be
u t i l i z e d in th e p r o j e c t . The f i r s t l e v e l i s s i m i l a r t o th e
p h e n o ty p ic and r e f e r s t o t h e o b se rv ed or m a n i f e s t b e h a v io r ;
th e se c o n d , o r g e n o ty p i c , r e f e r s t o an i n f e r r e d , h y p o t h e t i
c a l , l a t e n t l e v e l of b e h a v io r u n d e r l y i n g o r g e n e r a t i n g th e
p h e n o ty p ic l e v e l . From th e m a n if e s t b e h a v io r o f a number o f
i n d i v i d u a l s , i n f e r e n c e s of a g e n o ty p ic n a tu r e may be d r a w n . ^
p . 42.
^ M o r r i s R. Cohen, "Reason i n S o c i a l S c i e n c e ," Read
in g s i n t h e P h ilo s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , e d s . H e r b e r t F e i g l , and
May Brodbeck (New Uork": A p p le to n -C e n tu ry C r o f t s , I n c . ,
1953), p. 665.
■^Clyde H. Coombs, "Theory and M ethods of S o c i a l
M easurem ent, R e se a rc h M ethods in th e B e h a v io r S c i e n c e s ,
e d s . Leon F e s t i n g e r and D a n ie l K atz (New York": The Dryden
P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ), pp. 4 8 8 -8 9 .
60
T h ere a re f o u r i n t e g r a l p a r t s of t h e r e s e a r c h de
s ig n : th e u n i v e r s e and sample t o be s e l e c t e d , t h e c l a s s or
ty p e o f r e f e r e n c e grou p t o be u t i l i z e d , th e manner i n w hich
c r u c i a l f a c t o r s of s e l e c t i o n and image c o n s t r u c t i o n a re t o
be d e te r m in e d , and t h e m ethod of a n a l y s i s .
The u n i v e r s e u t i l i z e d c o n s i s t s of h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r
s t u d e n t s . I t i s p o s i t e d t h a t f o r th e pro b lem p ro p o se d h e r e
i n , t h i s u n i v e r s e i s most a p p r o p r i a t e . For many o f t h e s e
s e n i o r s , th e s e l e c t i o n o f an o c c u p a tio n w i l l be a p r e s s i n g
c o n c e r n . For o t h e r s , who a r e p la n n in g t o e n t e r c o l l e g e , oc
c u p a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n i s o f e q u a l im p o rta n c e , w h ile f o r some
who a re e n t e r i n g c o l l e g e th e c h o ic e w i l l n o t be an im m ediate
c o n c e rn y e t . The s t u d e n t s a r e , no d o u b t, aware t h a t such
s e l e c t i o n must be made in t h e r e l a t i v e l y n e a r f u t u r e . For
th e s e n i o r s t u d e n t s a s a g ro u p , t h e n , a t l e a s t some of t h e i r
t h o u g h ts and a c t i o n s w i l l be g e a re d t o o c c u p a t i o n a l s e l e c
t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t th e s e l e c t i o n o f an
o c c u p a tio n from th e l i s t of t y p e s of o c c u p a tio n s o r fro m th e
o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e i s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e im p o rtan c e t o th e
h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s t u d e n t .
As h a s been im p lie d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w ith t h e s e l e c
t i o n of th e u n i v e r s e , th e ty p e of group which would be an
im p o r ta n t f a c t o r in th e h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r ' s l i f e i s th e
o c c u p a t i o n a l t y p e . I t i s su g g e s te d t h a t of th e many g ro u p s
of p o t e n t i a l u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y , a component o f t h i s
ty p e s t a n d s a v e ry h ig h chance o f b e in g u t i l i z e d a s a r e f e r
61
ence g ro u p . W ith t h i s i n mind, th e o c c u p a ti o n a l ty p e of
group was s e l e c t e d . In o r d e r t o maximize th e u t i l i t y in
o b se rv ed d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e f a c t o r s , a homogeneous sub
group of th e group— th e o c c u p a tio n s — was em ployed. The sub
group was th e p r o f e s s i o n s . By u t i l i z i n g a r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e
ly i n t e g r a t e d sub g ro u p , d i f f e r e n c e s which do o c cu r w i l l be
more l i k e l y a r e s u l t of th e q u e s t io n s asked t h a n of la r g e
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e components of th e group em ployed.
G ro ss h a s s u g g e s te d s ix f a c t o r s which a re of impor
ta n c e in t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a p r o f e s s i o n :
U n s ta n d a r d iz e d a c t i v i t y
The work of th e p r o f e s s i o n a l te n d s t o be unique
and p e r s o n a l ( t h i s i s th e c a se of th e a r t i s t , doc
t o r , la w y e r, n u r s e , b u s in e s s e x e c u t i v e , and o t h e r
p r o f e s s i o n a l s )
P o s s e s s io n of g r e a t knowledge
O th e r s seldom a d v is e o r su g g e s t t o th e p r o f e s
s i o n a l .
I n t im a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith c l i e n t
The c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p i n c l u d e s and in v o lv e s much
o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y of th e p r o f e s s i o n a l .
Em phasis on th e te c h n iq u e
He i s supposed t o use th e b e s t o r most e f f i c i e n t
t e c h n iq u e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y th e t r a d i t i o n a l o r most
d ra m a tic one. P e r s o n a l f r i e n d s h i p , money, r a c e ,
e t c . a re n o t supposed t o e n t e r i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Group c o n s c io u s n e s s
The p r o f e s s i o n a l r e c o g n i z e s a c o ll e a g u e s h i p w ith
o t h e r s in th e p r o f e s s i o n . He f e e l s a p a r t of t h i s
g ro u p .
Im p ortance f o r s o c i e t a l w e lfa r e
P r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s a re co n ce rn e d w ith fu n c
t i o n s which s o c i e t y r e g a r d s a s v i t a l — c o n s e q u e n tly
s o c i e t y e x e r c i s e s c o n t r o l s in th e form of l i c e n s
6 2
ing and in o th e r ways.
The s i x c r i t e r i a d e s c r i b e i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s . None of
th e re c o g n iz e d p r o f e s s i o n s c o m p le te ly s a t i s f i e s them a l l ,
though t h e r e i s a te n d e n c y in t h i s d i r e c t i o n . T h is h o ld s
t r u e f o r th e l i s t o f p r o f e s s i o n s t o be u t i l i z e d h e r e i n . As
G ross s t a t e s , i t i s im p o s sib le t o draw a l i n e between p ro
f e s s i o n s and j o b s in s o c io lo g y . One may stu d y p r o f e s s i o n s ,
a s i s b eing done h e r e , b u t i t i s d o u b tf u l i f s o c i o l o g i s t s
may ta k e "th e p r o f e s s i o n s " a s a t h e o r e t i c a l o b je c t o f s tu d y ,
r e g a r d in g them a s one "type" of work o r g a n i z a t i o n . The pro
f e s s i o n s t o be u t i l i z e d h e r e i n , th e n , a re ta k e n a s fo rm in g a
somewhat homogeneous u n i t , b u t n o t a group t y p e . Each of
th e p r o f e s s i o n s l i s t e d may be so re g a rd e d sin c e each approx
im a te s th e s ix c o n d it i o n s l a i d down above.
In a study such a s th e one h e r e i n p ro p o se d , t h e r e
a re s e v e r a l methods by which a sample m ight have been ob
t a i n e d , each of which h as a d v a n ta g e s and d i s a d v a n ta g e s . The
d e c i s i o n of th e r e s e a r c h e r a s t o which method t o use r e s t s
upon a number of f a c t o r s in c lu d in g th o s e u n d e rly in g th e t h e
ory of s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s and d e s ig n and ones of a more
" p r a c t i c a l " n a t u r e . R egardin g th e fo rm e r, th e ty p e of. d a ta
t o be c o l l e c t e d i s of o r d i n a l ty p e somewhat l i m i t i n g th e
u s e f u l n e s s of random sam ples of th e u n iv e r s e e i t h e r of s tu -
■ ^E dw ard G ro ss, "Some S u g g e s tio n s f o r th e L e g itim a
t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l S t u d i e s in S o c io lo g y ," S o c ia l F o r c e s .
XXXIII (March, 1955), 234-36.
63
d e n ts o r h ig h s c h o o ls . R eg ard in g th e l a t t e r o r " p r a c t i c a l ”
f a c t o r s , th e p o s s i b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g th e n e c e s s a r y d a t a by
random s e l e c t i o n was p r e c lu d e d by r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed by
th o s e who m ight have been in c lu d e d in a random ly s e l e c t e d
sam ple. A t h i r d method of s e l e c t i n g a sample e l i m i n a t e d
t h i s p ro b lem and i s a l e g i t i m a t e method of sam plin g f o r th e
r e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d . S ince th e u s e of o r d i n a l d a t a p r e c l u d e s
p e r f e c t e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o th e u n i v e r s e and somewhat l i m i t s
th e v a lu e o f p e r f e c t random sa m p lin g , th e sample u t i l i z e d i s
one w hich was n o t s e l e c t e d random ly b u t i s one f o r which de
s i r e d d a t a m ight be o b t a i n e d — d a t a n o t o b t a i n a b l e i f a r a n
dom sample had been s e l e c t e d . The sample s e l e c t e d i s t h a t
of what may be r e f e r r e d t o a s a " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h ig h
s c h o o l ." S in c e th e r e s e a r c h i s b e in g c o n d u c te d a s "fo u n d a
t i o n " or e x p l o r a t o r y r e s e a r c h t o i d e n t i f y f a c t o r s w hich may
t h e n be h y p o th e s iz e d a s c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s i n r e f e r e n c e group
s e l e c t i o n i n f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , th e s e l e c t i o n of a r e p r e s e n t
a t i v e h ig h s c h o o l r e p r e s e n t s a form of m o d ifie d a n a l y t i c i n
d u c ti o n c o n d u c te d th r o u g h th e u se o f e n u m e ra tiv e d a t a .
When th e te rm " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " i s employed w ith r e f
e re n c e t o a sample from a u n i v e r s e whose e x a c t p r o p e r t i e s
and t h e q u a n t i t i e s of s a i d p r o p e r t i e s a re n o t known, th e
te rm " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " must be u sed a s " b e l i e v e d t o be
17W. S. R o b in so n , "The L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e o f A naly
t i c I n d u c t i o n , " Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R ev iew . XVI (December,
1 9 5 1 ), 8 1 2 - 1 8 ..
64
c lo s e l y a p p ro x im a tin g ."
The community in which th e h ig h sch ool i s l o c a te d
has a p o p u la tio n of between 50,000 and 100,000 p e rs o n s . The
e th n ic c o m position of th e community and th e h igh sc h o o l r e
v e a ls a h ig h p r o p o r tio n of A nglo-C aucasians (a p p ro x im a te ly
90 p er c e n t) w ith th e rem aining 10 p er c e n t d i s t r i b u t e d p re
dom inantly among M exicans, Ja p a n e s e , and N egroes. W ithin
th e b o u n d a rie s of th e community are s e v e r a l i n d u s t r i a l f irm s
employing c i t i z e n s in w hite and blue c o l l a r o c c u p a tio n s .
A lso in c lu d e d in th e community i s a sm all a re a devoted t o
farm ing; th e l a s t t r a c e of w hat, in e a r l i e r tim e s , was th e
predom inant method of e a rn in g a l i v i n g b e fo re a somewhat
r a p i d p o p u la tio n growth o c c u rre d . T h is r a p id i n f l u x of
p o p u la tio n h as o ccasio n ed the c o n s t r u c t io n of many new
homes, m ostly of th e $10,000 t o $20,000 t y p e , a lth o u g h some
ho usin g c o s t in g both more and l e s s i s in e v id e n c e . A lso in
clu d e d in th e community i s an a re a of su b sta n d a rd h o u sin g ,
occupied f o r th e most p a r t by M exicans. The r e l i g i o u s a f
f i l i a t i o n may be s t a t e d as mainly P r o t e s t a n t ; however, th e
p r o p o r tio n of Roman C a th o lic s i s i n c r e a s in g . The o v e r a l l
p i c t u r e of th e community, and a p i c t u r e which i s ev id en ced
in th e c o m p o sitio n of th e h igh sch ool p o p u la tio n , i s one of
a group of p e rso n s who i n h a b i t th e lower middle and m iddle
c l a s s e s p r i m a r il y and who are c o m p a ra tiv e ly new a r r i v a l s in
th e s p e c i f i c community and sc h o o l, but who have r e s i d e d in
th e g e n e r a l a re a f o r a number of y e a r s . A lso p r e s e n t a re a
65
sm a lle r number of p e rs o n s who may be th o u g h t of a s members
of th e low er upper c l a s s and a somewhat l a r g e r p r o p o r t io n in
th e low er c l a s s . A v ery rough e s t im a t e of c l a s s p e r c e n ta g e s
would i n d i c a t e a p a t t e r n common t o many com m unities: approx
im a te ly 85 p e r c e n t i n th e m iddle c l a s s , 4 p e r c e n t in th e
upper c l a s s , and 11 p e r c e n t in th e low er c l a s s .
In te rm s of t h i s , th e s e n io r s t u d e n ts t o be i n v e s t i
g a te d from th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h ig h sc h o o l in c lu d e p e rs o n s
from e v e ry socio-econom ic c l a s s , many e t h n i c g ro u p s, and
most r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s found in th e u n i v e r s e . The
q u a n t i t i e s of each f o r th e u n iv e r s e a re unknown and t h e r e
f o r e th e assu m p tio n must be made t h a t th e sample c l o s e l y ap
p ro x im a te s th e u n i v e r s e . ( I t i s a g a in em phasized t h a t th e
v a l i d i t y of th e stu d y d oes n o t r e s t upon th e c o r r e c t n e s s of
th e a ssu m p tio n , sin c e th e use of o r d i n a l d a ta p r e c lu d e s p e r
f e c t e x t r a p o l a t i o n . )
The e l i m i n a t i o n of th e a tte m p t t o e x t r a p o l a t e p e r
f e c t l y t o th e u n i v e r s e , which i s not c r i t i c a l t o t h i s r e
s e a r c h , e l i m i n a t e s in p a r t th e problem re c o g n iz e d by S e lv in :
. . . e v e ry e x p la n a to r y e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n , no mat
t e r how complex s t i l l r e s t s on th e p r i n c i p l e of random i
z a t i o n ; th e d i f f i c u l t y in a p p ly in g such d e s ig n s in s o c i
ology i s t h a t s o c i o l o g i s t s a re seldom a b le t o random
ize . i®
I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t th e d e s ig n w i l l minimize t h i s
■^Hannan C. S e lv in , "A C r i t i q u e o f T e s ts of S i g n i f
icance in Survey R e s e a rc h ," American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review.
XXII (O c to b e r, 1957), 5 2 1 ..
66
problem and a l s o th e problem a r i s i n g from th e f a c t t h a t :
. . . u n c o r r e l a t e d b i a s e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n th e
same d i r e c t i o n . . . . The e r r o r s made by ig n o r in g th e
u n c o r r e l a t e d b i a s e s may t h u s be in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n and
c o v er an u n s p e c i f i e d ran g e of m a g n itu d e s .19
The w r i t e r d o e s n o t s u g g e s t t h a t th e s e l e c t i o n of
t h e sample employed i n t h i s r e s e a r c h t o t a l l y s o lv e s e i t h e r
of th e two problem s m entioned abo v e, b u t i t i s su g g e ste d
t h a t i t d o e s t e n d t o m inim ize them . A p p ro x im atio n s t o th e
s o l u t i o n o f th e problem s must be a c c e p te d i n any r e s e a r c h
and a re so s e l e c t e d h e r e . The c o n t r o l o f a l l r e l e v a n t v a r i
a b l e s i s a g o a l seldom even ap pro ach ed in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e .
To p o stp o n e t o t h a t d i s t a n t g o a l a l l s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s i l
l u s t r a t e s t h a t o f t e n " th e p e r f e c t i s th e enemy of th e
g o o d . " ^ In p r a c t i c e , i t i s n o t g e n e r a l l y p o s s ib l e t o so lv e
s im u lta n e o u s ly a l l of th e p ro blem s of m easurem ent, r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n , and c o n t r o l ; r a t h e r , one must choose and compro
m is e .^ ^
P e r t a i n i n g t o th e g a t h e r i n g of d a t a germane t o th e
r e s e a r c h , one problem r e m a i n s - - t h e d e s i g n in g of an i n s t r u
ment t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t which i s d e s i r e d . What f a c t o r s a re
im p o rta n t in s e l e c t i n g a r e f e r e n c e group? What f a c t o r s a re
u t i l i z e d in c o n s t r u c t i n g an image of an o c c u p a tio n and which
• ^ I b i d . . p . 522.
^ L e s l i e K is h , "Some S t a t i s t i c a l Problem s i n Re
s e a rc h D e s i g n ,” American S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview . XXIV ( J u n e ,
1 9 59), 331.
^ I b i d . , p. 334.
67
of t h e s e f a c t o r s a re t h e most im p o rta n t? What a re th o s e
im ages? How do th e y d i f f e r from p r o f e s s i o n t o p r o f e s s i o n ?
In o r d e r t o s u g g e s t a number of f a c t o r s w hich m ight
be u sed t o answ er th e above q u e s t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o
s u g g e s t a g e n e r a l fram e w i t h i n w hich t h e s e f a c t o r s may be
l o c a t e d . The g e n e r a l r e f e r e n t f o r th e frame w i l l be b a sed
on th e "im ages" of th e p r o f e s s i o n s . I t i s w i t h i n th e fram e
of th e image t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a c c u r a t e l y o r i n a c c u r a t e l y ,
f o r m u l a t e s th e an sw e rs t o th e q u e s t i o n s abo v e. By a s c e r
t a i n i n g th e f a c t o r s which c o n s t i t u t e th e im age, i t i s po s
s i b l e t o i s o l a t e t h e f a c t o r s o p e r a t iv e i n th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s . However, t h e r e i s no c e r t a i n t y
t h a t th e f a c t o r s c o n s t i t u t i n g th e image a r e . t h e same f o r a l l
i n d i v i d u a l s ; t h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o advance a s com
p l e t e a com plex of f a c t o r s a s p o s s i b l e — in e f f e c t , t o sug
g e s t an " i d e a l ty p e " com plex of f a c t o r s w hich would th e n
c o n s t i t u t e an " i d e a l ty p e image" and a llo w th e sample t o
d e m o n s tra te which o f th e f a c t o r s a re c r i t i c a l t o i t s image
c o n s t r u c t i o n b o th a s sam ple and v a r i o u s s u b -s a m p le s .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s d e s ig n e d t o in c lu d e f a c t o r s
c o m p risin g an " o c c u p a ti o n a l man" f o r eac h of th e p r o f e s s i o n s
and t o p r e s e n t a s p o t e n t i a l l y co m p lete an image a s i s p r a c
t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e .
I t i s su g g e s te d t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e g e n e r a l d i v i
s i o n s o r p a r t s t o th e c o m p o site p r o f e s s i o n a l man. He may be
view ed a s th e " p e r s o n a l " man, th e " r e c e i v i n g " man, and th e
68
" s e r v i c e 1 ' man. In o t h e r w ords, t h e c o m p o site i s view ed and
e v a l u a t e d a s t o what he r e p r e s e n t s a s an i n d i v i d u a l , a s t o
what he r e c e i v e s from th e community, and a s t o what he g i v e s
t o th e comm unity. T hese t h r e e p a r t s make up th e c o m p o s ite ,
and i n e f f e c t , th e " o c c u p a ti o n a l l a b e l " of each o f th e p r o
f e s s i o n s . They c an b e , of c o u r s e , f u r t h e r re d u c e d and a re
so re d u c e d t o th e p r o p e r t i e s in v o lv e d i n eac h w hich a re
p o s t u l a t e d a s o f p rim a ry im p o rtan c e i n r e f e r e n c e group de
c i s i o n m aking, a s f o l l o w s :
The P e r s o n a l Man
a . G e n e ra l p h y s i c a l a p p ea ra n c e
b. P e r s o n a l i t y
c . I n t e l l i g e n c e
d . H onesty
The R e c e iv in g Man
a . P r e s t i g e
b. Power ( i n f l u e n c e )
c . S e c u r i t y (free d o m from a n x ie ty )
d . Income
The S e r v ic e Man
a . Community improvement
b. I n d i v i d u a l a id
c . A l t r u i s m ( s a c r i f i c e )
d . G e n e ra l v a lu e t o th e community ( d e s i r a b i l i t y
of p r e s e n c e p e r se)
Of c o u r s e , no c la im can o r sh o u ld be made t h a t th e p o s t u l a t e d
f a c t o r s a re th e n e c e s s a r y and s u f f i c i e n t c a u s e s of image
c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n . What i s ad
vanced i s t h a t some w i l l be c r i t i c a l and o t h e r s w i l l not and
t h a t t h e s e may be e m p i r i c a l l y d e te rm in e d . T h ese, t h e n , w i l l
serv e a s a f o u n d a tio n f o r even more d e f i n i t i v e i n v e s t i g a
t i o n s . These f a c t o r s w i l l be employed t o e v a l u a t e a s e r i e s
of p r o f e s s i o n s . (For t h i s r e s e a r c h , th e p r o f e s s i o n s em
plo yed w i l l be th e p h y s i c i a n , d e n t i s t , la w y e r, c o ll e g e p ro
f e s s o r , b u s i n e s s e x e c u t i v e , h ig h sc h o o l t e a c h e r , s o c i a l
w o rk e r, e n g i n e e r , and m i n i s t e r , p r i e s t , and r a b b i . The
u t i l i t y o f th e model i s n o t d e p en d e n t upon th e above l i s t of
p r o f e s s i o n s . Any s e r i e s would be a c c e p t a b l e . The above
l i s t d o e s , w i t h i n th e fram ework of a s u b - c a te g o ry of a ty p e
of group— th e p r o f e s s i o n a l segment of th e o c c u p a tio n a l
group— p r o v id e a h e te ro g e n e o u s s e r i e s w i t h in a homogeneous
su b -g ro u p of a m ajor g r o u p .) In t h i s way, i t w i l l be pos
s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t im ages of v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n s .
An a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t io n i s c o n cern ed w ith p r o f e s s i o n s
which a re re g a r d e d a s p r o v id in g r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s f o r th e i n
d i v i d u a l ' s own b e h a v io r . The " r e f e r e n c e group q u e s tio n "
(which i s q u e s tio n t h i r t e e n i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) in v o lv e s
t h e ra n k o r d e r in g of th e p r o f e s s i o n s from h i g h e s t t o lo w e st
based upon th e r e l a t i v e d e g re e t o w hich each p r o f e s s i o n
would be a c c e p t a b l e a s a g u id e f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l 's own ac
t i o n s . By a s c e r t a i n i n g t h i s d a t a , i n s h o r t th e ra n k o r d e r
ing of p r o f e s s i o n s from most t o l e a s t a c c e p ta b le a s a
70
r e f e r e n c e g ro u p , i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o compare t h i s ra n k
o r d e r i n g w ith t h o s e o f eac h o f th e p r e c e d in g v a r i a b l e s and
from th e r e s u l t a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s t o d e te rm in e which of th e
v a r i a b l e s a re th e most im p o r ta n t i n th e r e f e r e n c e group se
l e c t i o n p r o c e s s .
D e u ts c h e r h a s s t a t e d . s u c c i n c t l y , w ith r e g a r d t o h i s
own s t u d y , s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g th e ty p e of
q u e s t i o n n a i r e h e re u t i l i z e d :
T h e re i s no "o u t" p r o v id e d f o r any of t h e s e ques
t i o n s by a " d o n 't know" a l t e r n a t i v e . E i t h e r th e r e
sp o n d e n t an sw e rs t h e q u e s t i o n s o r he d o e s n o t. I t i s
t r u e t h a t some p e o p le r e s e n t b e in g pushed i n t o s e l e c t i n g
one o f th e s e v e r a l v a lu e la d e n c a t e g o r i e s . . . . The r e
a c t i o n o f some r e s p o n d e n t s who c o m p lain ed t h a t t h e q ues
t i o n s d i d n ' t "make se n se " i s e q u a l l y u n d e r s t a n d a b le when
we r e c a l l t h a t th e q u e s t i o n s were d e s ig n e d t o g e t a t a
s t e r e o t y p e th r o u g h an a s s o c i a t i o n a l p a t t e r n — t o t r i g g e r
a seq u en ce o f i d e a s which would le a d t o t h e r e v e l a t i o n
o f th e r e s p o n d e n t 's s u b j e c t i v e image: t h e f a c t t h a t he
d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d th e p u rp o se of a q u e s t i o n may r e
s u l t in i t s a p p a r e n t s e n s e l e s s n e s s t o him . A lth o u g h
t h i s c o u ld be a v o id e d by a s k in g o n ly su rv e y ty p e ques
t i o n s w ith an o b v io u s p u r p o s e , s t u d e n t s of a t t i t u d e and
o p i n io n a r e l e a r n i n g t h a t i t i s n o t a lw ay s a d v a n ta g e o u s
f o r a r e s p o n d e n t t o be aware of t h e i r p u r p o s e s . We
a sk e d " l e a d in g " q u e s t i o n s and we a sk ed "lo a d e d " q ues
t i o n s , .b e c a u s e .w e were s e e k in g n e i t h e r s u p e r f i c i a l i n
f o r m a t io n nor t o t e s t th e r e s p o n d e n t 's know ledge. We
l i t e r a l l y d e s i r e d t o " le a d " t h e r e s p o n d e n t i n t o r e v e a l
in g h i s "lo ad e d " f e e l i n g s , . r a t h e r t h a n o b t a i n sim p e rin g
c l i c h e s or p e rm it d e v io u s e v a s i o n s i n t o t h e re a lm of
" d o n 't know." We asked "what you f e e l " n o t "what do you
know?" In s p i t e o f s c a t t e r e d r e s i s t a n c e , a v a s t m a jo r
i t y o f th e r e s p o n d e n t s were a b le t o s e l e c t one r e s p o n s e
ov er t h e o t h e r s and i n d o in g so , r e v e a l e d som ething of
t h e i r own v a lu e s y s t e m s . 22
W ith r e g a r d t o re s p o n d in g t o th e q u e s t i o n s , th e i n
d i v i d u a l i s r e q u e s t e d t o s e l e c t th e two p r o f e s s i o n s which
22
D e u ts c h e r , o p . c i t . . p . 57.
71
b e s t c o rre sp o n d t o each of th e g e n e r a l s ta te m e n ts and th e
two which a re l e a s t a c c e p t a b l e . T h is method h a s been em
plo yed sin c e i t i s p o s i t e d t h a t th e number of p r o f e s s i o n s
u t i l i z e d p r o h i b i t s a d e f i n i t i v e ra n k in g of a l l th e p r o f e s
s i o n s . With re g a r d t o t h i s m ethod, i t sh ould be p o in te d out
t h a t when th e number o f s t i m u l i i s n , and th e i n d i v i d u a l i s
asked t o ra n k o rd e r only k ite m s when k i s l e s s th a n n, t h i s
method im poses a l l th e p r o p e r t i e s of th e Method of Rank Or
d e r . Because th e ran k o r d e r i s in c o m p le te , th e m is sin g seg
ment i s in e f f e c t d e te rm in e d f o r each i n d i v i d u a l by th e ju d g
ments of th e o th e r i n d i v i d u a l s . In o th e r w ords, s in c e t h e r e
i s no in f o r m a tio n f o r a segment of an i n d i v i d u a l 's ran k o r
d e r , i t i s im m ediately c o m p a tib le or in agreem ent w ith any
o b ta in e d d a t a . T hus, i n a l l methods of c o l l e c t i n g and a n a l
y z in g d a t a , t h a t in f o r m a tio n in d a ta not c o l l e c t e d i s alw ays
re g a rd e d a s co m p a tib le w ith th e in f o rm a tio n t h a t i s ob
t a i n e d . 2^
I t h a s been s t a t e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t p e rs o n s may use
d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s a s c r i t i c a l in th e e v a l u a t i v e p r o c e s s .
I f i t be g ra n te d t h a t ag e, se x , and s o c i a l c l a s s
g ro u p s c o n ta in w i t h i n th e m s e lv e s some of th e c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s of s u b c u l t u r e s , th e n i t i s t r u e t h a t subgroups
ho ld c e r t a i n v a lu e s which a re d i f f e r e n t from th o s e h e ld
by o t h e r g ro u p s. In o th e r w ords, young p e o p l e 's v a lu e s
d iv e rg e from th o s e of old p e o p le ; m en's v a lu e s .f r o m
th o s e of women; and u p p er c l a s s p e o p l e 's from th o s e of
low er c l a s s e s . I t i s p o s s ib l e (a lth o u g h not i n e v i t a b l e )
t h a t s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld by th o s e d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s of .
2^Coombs, op. c i t . . p. 506.
72
p e o p le w i l l a l s o v a x y . ^
The q u e s tio n n a ir e a llo w s f o r a c o m p arativ e stu d y by
in c lu d in g q u e s tio n s c o n ce rn in g sex , p la n s f o r f u t u r e c o l l e g e
a tt e n d a n c e , p r o j e c t i o n o f th e s o c i a l c l a s s belonged t o , and
from r e c o r d s , th e I . Q . ' s of th e sam ple.
The Method of A n a ly s is
The d a ta c o l l e c t e d th ro u g h u t i l i z a t i o n of th e ques
t i o n n a i r e was a n a ly z e d by means of s e v e r a l t o o l s : th e t a b u
l a r and s t a t i s t i c a l .
S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s was acco m p lish ed by em ploying
Sp earm an's rho t o i n v e s t i g a t e b o th th e f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l i n
r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n and s t e r e o t y p e s . For each o f th e
v a r i a b l e s , f o r each of th e sub sam ples, c o r r e l a t i o n s u s in g
rh o were perform ed betw een th o s e v a r i a b l e s and th e r e f e r e n c e
group v a r i a b l e t o d e te rm in e th e d e g re e o f a s s o c i a t i o n . Ar
b i t r a r i l y , i t was d e c id e d t o employ a s th e c o r r e l a t i o n l e v e l
e s t a b l i s h i n g " c r i t i c a l n e s s " of th e v a r i a b l e in r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e (one t a i l ) .
R egarding th e a n a l y s i s of th e s t e r e o t y p e s , rh o c o r r e l a t i o n s
were perform ed f o r each v a r i a b l e f o r each subsample (and th e
d i v i s i o n s t h e r e o f ) t o d e te rm in e th e d e g re e of a s s o c i a t i o n
among th e d i v i s i o n s of th e subsam ples. A r b i t r a r i l y , th e .05
l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e (one t a i l ) was ta k e n t o i n d i c a t e a
s i g n i f i c a n t d e g re e of a s s o c i a t i o n o r agreem ent in s t e r e o -
^ D e u t s c h e r , op. c i t . , p. 58.
73
ty p e s h e l d . Those c o r r e l a t i o n s which f e l l below t h i s l e v e l
were t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e la c k of agreem ent i n s t e r e o t y p e s
he Id .
F u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f form r e s u l t a n t from t h e d a ta
c o l l e c t e d may be found i n t a b l e s l i s t i n g th e f i r s t and l a s t
c h o ic e s f o r eac h subsam ple f o r each v a r i a b l e and th e f i r s t ,
second, e i g h t h , and n i n th c h o ic e s .
T hrou gho ut th e body of th e p a p e r , t h e r e a p p e a r
c h a r t s and t a b l e s of c o r r e l a t i o n s and s i t u s - l i k e g ro u p in g s
which i t i s s u g g e ste d i l l u s t r a t e v a r i o u s of th e i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n s made b ased upon th e d a t a c o l l e c t e d .
Summary
A c o l l e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g s known a s " r e f e r e n c e group
th e o r y " was a n a ly z e d and a s e t of i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s
was d e r i v e d . T h is s e t o f p r o p o s i t i o n s was e n t i t l e d " r e f e r
ence group th e o r y " a s u t i l i z e d i n th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . From
t h i s t h e o r y was deduced a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t which would add
t o or supplem ent th e t h e o r y . The p r o j e c t in v o lv e d th e a s
c e r t a i n i n g of v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c
t i o n . A s e r i e s of v a r i a b l e s was advanced which m ight be of
im p o rtan c e i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n and a l s o m ight be of
im po rtan ce i n th e im ages of a g ro u p -ty p e h e ld by th e sam ple.
The g r o u p -ty p e u t i l i z e d was th e p r o f e s s i o n s , from which nine
p r o f e s s i o n s were s e l e c t e d . The sample employed was a h ig h
sc h o o l s e n i o r c l a s s . A q u e s t i o n n a i r e em ploying t h e s e v a r i
a b l e s was s u b m itte d t o t h e sam ple. The im p o rtan c e of th e
v a r i o u s v a r i a b l e s i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n was d e t e r
mined by c o r r e l a t i n g th e ra n k o r d e r s (by means o f S p e a rm a n 's
rh o ) o f eac h o f th e tw e lv e v a r i a b l e s w ith th e ra n k o r d e r of
t h e r e f e r e n c e group v a r i a b l e . Im ages of th e p r o f e s s i o n s
were c o n s t r u c t e d fro m th e r a n k i n g s of th e p r o f e s s i o n s f o r
e ac h o f th e v a r i a b l e s . S ubsam ples were employed and were
b ased upon s e x , i n t e l l i g e n c e , s o c i a l c l a s s , and c o l l e g e
p l a n s . The su b sam p les a llo w e d f o r c o m p a riso n o f t y p e s o f
im ages and v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n .
In t h i s way, d a t a in v o lv i n g s t e r e o t y p e s were a s c e r
t a i n e d and v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n
were d e r i v e d which a id e d i n su p p le m e n tin g th e r e c o n s t r u c t e d
r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y .
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS: ANALYSIS OF REFERENCE GROUP THEORY,
SELECTION, IMAGES OF PROFESSIONS, AND
SERENDIPITAL EFFECTS
T h is c h a p t e r i s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e r e s u l t s o f th e
r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n and i n c l u d e s f o u r m ajor s e c t i o n s :
A n a ly s is o f R e fe re n c e Group T heory
A n a l y s i s of R e fe re n c e Group S e l e c t i o n
A n a ly s is o f S t e r e o t y p e s
E f f e c t s o f S e r e n d i p i t y
The summary s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s a d i s
c u s s i o n o f th e form , a p a r t fro m th e c o n t e n t , of th e r e s e a r c h
and t h e " e v o l u t i o n " of s a id r e s e a r c h from i t s i n c e p t i o n t o
i t s c o n c l u s i o n .
A n a ly s is of R e fe re n c e Group T heory
The l o g i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
" r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y "
T h ro u g h o u t t h e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r s much h a s been s a i d
r e g a r d i n g r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y . I t h a s been s t a t e d t h a t
b e f o r e e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h may be c o n d u c te d w ith t h e p u rp o se
of su p p le m e n tin g i t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l i c a t e what h a s
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been w r i t t e n ab out th e t h e o r y a s t h e o r y ; t o r e o r g a n i z e and
r e c o n s t r u c t t h a t which h a s been w r i t t e n ; t o c l a r i f y i t and
i d e n t i f y th e b a s i c t e n e t s of th e t h e o r y . The o v e r a l l p u r
pose i s t o d e te rm in e w h at, i n f a c t , i t p ro p o s e s . T h i s , of
c o u r s e , in v o lv e s th e s c r u t i n y o f th e w r i t i n g s on r e f e r e n c e
group t h e o r y t o d e te rm in e c r i t i c a l e le m e n ts of i t a s s e t
f o r t h in th e w r i t i n g s . T h is p ro c e d u re h a s r e s u l t e d in th e
o u t l i n e which a p p e a rs i n Appendix A and i n c l u d e s th e t e n e t s
of th e " th e o ry " i t s e l f and th e f o u n d a tio n s upon which i t
r e s t s .
The o u t l i n e p u r p o r t s t o in c lu d e t h e m ajor " d i r e c
t i o n s of o r pronouncem ents a b o u t" r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y .
However, i t c a n n o t be c o n s id e re d a t h e o r y . The o u t l i n e i s
only th e f o u n d a tio n o r s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r th e p r o c e s s of
e x p l i c a t i o n t o d i s c e r n w hat, in f a c t , th e t h e o r y i s .
From what i s p r e s e n te d i n th e a p p e n d ix , c e r t a i n
p r o p o s i t i o n s may be i s o l a t e d which c o n t a i n th e e sse n c e o f
th e o u t l i n e and which a re germane t o th e " t h e o r y - p o t e n t i a l . "
Def i n i t i o n s
P r e c e d in g t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s , a number o f d e f i n i t i o n s
f o r u se in t h i s s e c t i o n a re g iv e n which a re germane t o r e f
e re n c e group t h e o r y . E xpansion o f t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s may be
found in th e a p p en d ix .
S o c i a 1 s t r u c t u r e . P a t t e r n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s of r o l e
s e t s , s t a t u s s e t s , and s t a t u s se q u en c es a re r e f e r r e d t o as
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s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .
Norm ative a t t i t u d e . A te n d e n c y t o a c t in a cc o rd a n c e
w ith th e norms of a group i s c a l l e d a n o rm ativ e a t t i t u d e .
C om parative a t t i t u d e . A te n d e n c y t o a c t i o n based
upon th e e v a l u a t i o n s o f s e l f a s d e riv e d from (compared w ith )
group r e a c t i o n s i n a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n i s known a s compara
t i v e a t t i t u d e .
I n t e r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s . An i n t e r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e i s a
te n d e n c y t o a c t c o n d i t i o n a l upon g ro u p s which a re n o t con
s id e r e d n o rm ativ e or c o m p a ra tiv e b u t a re f e l t t o be betw een
th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e g o a l he s e e k s .
C o l l e c t i v i t i e s . U n i t s com prised o f p e rs o n s h a v in g
a se n se of s o l i d a r i t y by v i r t u e of s h a r in g common v a lu e s a re
c a l l e d c o l l e c t i v i t i e s . They c o n s i s t of p e rs o n s who have ac
q u ire d an a t t e n d a n t se n se o f m oral o b l i g a t i o n t o f u l f i l l
r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s , b u t who la c k i n t e n s i t y of s o c i a l i n t e r
a c t i o n .
S o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s . S o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s a re c l a s s e s of
s o c i a l s t a t u s e s , th e o c c u p a n ts of which a re n o t i n s o c i a l
i n t e r a c t i o n , h a v in g l i k e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s but n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y o r i e n t e d tow ard a d i s t i n c t i v e body of common
norm s.
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P r o p o s i t i o n s c o n ta in in g e s s e n c e
of th e o u t l i n e of " r e f e r e n c e
group th e o r y "
1. The a c t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l s a re a f u n c t i o n of th e
s t r u c t u r a l fram ework ( th e s o c i a l sy s te m ).
2. The a c t i o n s of g ro u p s a re a f u n c t i o n of th e
s t r u c t u r a l fram ew ork.
3. I n d i v i d u a l s have p a r t i a l knowledge of th e s t r u c
t u r e s and t h e i r a t t e n d a n t f u n c t i o n s which a f f e c t
th e m s e lv e s .
4 . The s t r u c t u r a l fram ework i s a d e te r m in e r o f th e
e x t e n t of t h i s know ledge.
5 . R e feren c e group b e h a v io r v a r i e s w ith th e i n d i v i d
u a l ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and th e s t r u c
t u r e ' s p o s i t i o n i n th e s t r u c t u r a l fram ew ork.
6. The open o r c lo s e d n a tu r e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and
i t s g ro u p s i s a p a r t i a l d e te r m in e r of r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n .
7. D i f f e r e n t g ro u p s se rv e d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s .
8 . Frames of r e f e r e n c e may be membership o r non
membership u n i t s .
9. R e fe re n c e gro u p s may be g ro u p s , c o l l e c t i v i t i e s ,
o r s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s .
10. R e fe re n c e g ro u p s may be n o rm a tiv e , c o m p a r a tiv e ,
n o rm ative and c o m p a ra tiv e , or i n t e r a c t i v e .
11. R e fe re n c e g ro u p s may be p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e .
The n e x t s te p in e v o lv in g th e t h e o r y i s one of com-
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b i n i n g t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s w here t h e y may be l o g i c a l l y com
b i n e d . Such a p r o c e s s y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s .
1 . The a c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s a r e a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l fra m e w o rk and i t s
com p onen t s t r u c t u r e s .
2 . The e x t e n t o f t h e kn o w led g e o f t h e i n f l u e n c i n g
s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r f u n c t i o n s h e l d by i n d i v i d
u a l s i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s t r u c t u r a l fra m e w o rk .
3 . R e f e r e n c e g r o u p s e l e c t i o n and t h e r e s u l t a n t b e
h a v i o r v a r i e s w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p o s i t i o n i n
t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e s t r u c t u r e ' s p o s i t i o n
i n t h e s o c i a l s y s te m ( s t r u c t u r a l fra m e w o rk ) and
t h e op en o r c l o s e d n a t u r e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s and
t h e i r a t t e n d a n t g r o u p s .
4 . D i f f e r e n t r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s s e r v e d i f f e r e n t f u n c
t i o n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l s .
5 . The r e f e r e n c e g ro u p may r e f e r e i t h e r t o a g r o u p ,
c o l l e c t i v i t y , o r s o c i a l c a t e g o r y o f w h ic h t h e
i n d i v i d u a l may be e i t h e r member o r non-m em ber
and may s e r v e e i t h e r a n o r m a t i v e , c o m p a r a t i v e ,
n o r m a tiv e an d c o m p a r a t i v e , o r i n t e r a c t i v e fu n c -.
t i o n and may have e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e
a t t r a c t i o n f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
To t h i s p o i n t , t h e e s s e n c e o f w r i t i n g s c o n c e r n i n g
r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s h a s b e e n e x t r a c t e d and t h a t e s s e n c e h a s
b e e n s e t down i n f i v e m a jo r p r o p o s i t i o n s . The n e x t s t e p i s
80
t o r e l a t e t h e s e f i v e s t a te m e n t s l o g i c a l l y , t o e x p l i c a t e
them , and t o g iv e them t h e form of a t h e o r y . The r e s u l t s of
e x p l i c a t i o n i n th e fo rm of l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d com ponents i s
s e t f o r t h below .
By d e f i n i t i o n , a r e f e r e n c e group i s t h a t grou p whose
p e r s p e c t i v e c o n s t i t u t e s a fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r s p e c i f i e d
i n d i v i d u a l s (a " g u i d e ” t o an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i o n s ) .
By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e t o t a l s o c i a l system i s com p rised
of th e t o t a l number of s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r a t t e n d a n t fu n c
t i o n s p r e s e n t and may be r e f e r r e d t o f o r c l a r i t y a s th e
s t r u c t u r a l fram ew ork.
1. I f t h e r e a re i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e n t h e r e a r e m ajor
g ro u p in g s of t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s . (The number of
i n d i v i d u a l s n may be s u b d iv id e d by u se of v a r i
ous c r i t e r i a , t h u s l y : n j ^ n g • • • n n *)
2. I f t h e r e a re m ajo r g r o u p in g s , th e n t h e s e m ajor
g ro u p in g s w i l l ta k e th e form of g r o u p s , c o l l e c
t i v i t i e s , o r s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s .
3 . I f t h e r e a re g r o u p s , c o l l e c t i v i t i e s , o r s o c i a l
c a t e g o r i e s , t h e n i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l be e i t h e r mem
b e r s o r n o t members o f them .
4 . I f i n d i v i d u a l s a r e e i t h e r members o r n o t members
of th e com ponents o f th e m a jo r g r o u p in g s , t h e n
t h e a t t i t u d e s h e ld to w a rd th e com ponents w i l l be
e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . ( I t i s n o t im p lie d
t h a t t h e r e i s a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n betw een member-
s h i p and p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s and n o n -m em b ersh ip
and n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s * )
5 . I f t h e r e a r e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s h e l d
by i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e n t h e s e a t t i t u d e s w i l l be
e i t h e r n o r m a t i v e , c o m p a r a t i v e , n o r m a tiv e and
c o m p a r a t i v e , o r i n t e r a c t i v e .
6 . I f i n d i v i d u a l s h o l d n o r m a t i v e , c o m p a r a t i v e , n o r
m a tiv e and c o m p a r a t i v e , o r i n t e r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s
to w a rd c o m p o n e n ts o f t h e m a jo r g r o u p i n g s , t h e n
t h e s e a t t i t u d e s w i l l d e te r m i n e w hich g r o u p s a r e
t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o r p r o v i d e f r a m e s o f
r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e g a r d i n g h i s own
a c t i o n .
7 . I f t h e r e a r e f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e w h ich d e te r m i n e
w hich g r o u p s w i l l be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n by
t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e g a r d i n g h i s own a c t i o n s , t h e n
t h e g r o u p s so c o n s i d e r e d may be r e g a r d e d a s
" r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s . "
8 . I f t h e r e a r e g r o u p s w hich may s e r v e a s " r e f e r
e n c e g r o u p s , " t h e n i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l s e l e c t be
tw e e n t h e p o t e n t i a l " r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s " t h o s e
w h ich he w i l l u s e a s h i s own and h i s b e h a v i o r
w i l l be m o d if ie d by t h i s s e l e c t i o n .
9 . R e f e r e n c e g ro u p s e l e c t i o n and b e h a v i o r a r e a
f u n c t i o n of a c t i o n .
10 . A c t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f k n o w le d g e . (Know ledge
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h e r e i n c l u d e s w hat t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s t o be
knowledge and hence may b e , a t t i m e s , " i n c o r
r e c t " kn ow led g e.)
11. Knowledge i s a f u n c t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e . (What th e
i n d i v i d u a l may know i s d e p e n d e n t upon what he
p e r c e i v e s and th e way in which he p e r c e i v e s i t .
The " p e r c e p t u a l - p o t e n t i a l " i s c o n d i t i o n a l upon
h i s p la c e i n a s t a t u s h i e r a r c h y , th e r o l e com
p l e x a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s and hence th e s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e and h i s p la c e i n i t . )
1 2 .. S t r u c t u r e i s a f u n c t i o n of th e s t r u c t u r a l fram e
w ork.
From th e l o g i c a l form e x p l i c a t e d abo v e, i t i s now
p o s s i b l e t o s e t f o r t h t h e " g e n e r a l t h e o r y of r e f e r e n c e
g r o u p s ." T h a t t h e o r y i s a s f o l lo w s :
In th e s o c i a l system a re a s e r i e s o f s t r u c t u r e s
which a r e com p rised of an i n d e f i n i t e number o f g ro u p s h a v in g
d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s . D ependent upon h i s p o s i t i o n a t tim e t
and in space s ( i n space s i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s in th e s o c i a l
system ) t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l have some knowledge o f t h e s e
g ro u p s and w i l l r e a c t to w a rd them p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y .
( I f t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s no knowledge of a g r o u p 's e x i s t e n c e
o r i s n e u t r a l r e g a r d i n g i t , r e a c t i o n d o e s n o t o c c u r— t h e r e
f o r e r e a c t i o n s can o n ly be p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e . ) D e term in
a n t s o f h i s r e a c t i o n s a re th e n o r m a tiv e , c o m p a r a tiv e , norma
t i v e and c o m p a r a tiv e , o r i n t e r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s he h o l d s r e
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g a rd in g th e g ro u p s . D ependent upon th e r e a c t i o n s b ased upon
th e above a t t i t u d e s a re th e p e r s p e c t i v e s th e group w i l l have
f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s w i l l c o n s t i t u t e
t h e fram es o f r e f e r e n c e w ith which th e g ro u p s a re endowed by
th e i n d i v i d u a l . V a rio u s of th e fram e s of r e f e r e n c e of th e
g ro u p s may se rv e a s d e te r m i n a n ts f o r a c t i o n of th e i n d i v i d
u a l . Those g ro u p s whose fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e do so se rv e a re
known a s r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s . The i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t s betw een
p o t e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s th o s e he w ish e s t o employ f o r
h im s e lf and h i s b e h a v io r i s m o d ified b e ca u se of t h i s s e l e c
t i o n . In making t h i s s e l e c t i o n (o r a c t i n g t o s e l e c t ) t h i s
a c t i s b ased upon what th e i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s t o be know
le d g e . T h is knowledge i s in th e form of p e r c e p t i o n s and
c o n d i t i o n a l upon th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and th e e f f e c t s o f th e
s o c i a l sy stem upon th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .
More p r e c i s e l y , th e t h e o r y may be s t a t e d t h u s l y :
1. In th e s o c i a l system i s a s e r i e s of s t r u c t u r e s ,
each of which i s u l t i m a t e l y com p rised of an in
d e f i n i t e number of g ro u p s h a v in g d i f f e r e n t fu n c
t i o n s .
2. D ependent upon h i s p o s i t i o n a t tim e t and in
space s, th e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l have some knowledge
of t h e s e g ro u p s and w i l l r e a c t tow ard them p o s i
t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y .
3. D e te rm in a n ts of t h e r e a c t i o n s a re th e n o r m a tiv e ,
c o m p a ra tiv e , n o rm ativ e and c o m p a r a tiv e , or
84
i n t e r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s a p e r s o n h o l d s r e g a r d i n g
t h e g r o u p s .
4 . D e p en d e n t upon t h e a t t i t u d e s and th e r e s u l t a n t
r e a c t i o n s a r e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o r im a g es t h e
g ro u p w i l l h a v e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
5. T h e s e p e r s p e c t i v e s o r im a g es w i l l c o n s t i t u t e t h e
f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e w i t h w hich t h e g r o u p s a r e
endowed by t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
6 . V a r io u s o f t h e f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e o f t h e g r o u p s
may s e r v e a s d e t e r m i n a n t s f o r a c t i o n by t h e i n
d i v i d u a l .
7 . T h ose g r o u p s whose f r a m e s o f r e f e r e n c e do so
s e r v e a r e known a s r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s .
8.. The i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t s among p o t e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e
g r o u p s t h o s e he w i s h e s t o em ploy f o r h i m s e l f and
h i s b e h a v i o r i s m o d if ie d by t h i s s e l e c t i o n .
9 . T h i s know ledge i s i n t h e fo rm of p e r c e p t i o n s and
i s c o n d i t i o n a l upon t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e
e f f e c t s o f t h e s o c i a l s y s te m upon t h e s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e .
The above e x p l i c a t i o n and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
th e o ry ,* - m akes t h a t t h e o r y a m en ab le t o e x a m i n a t i o n i n o r d e r
^ In t h i s r e s e a r c h , f o r e a s e o f r e f e r e n c e , t h e w o rd ,
" t h e o r y , " i s u s e d . H ow ever, i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t t h a t w h ic h
h a s b e e n .e x p l i c a t e d i s t h e o r y o n ly i n t h e m ost g e n e r a l fo rm .
The " t h e o r y " a s h e r e p r e s e n t e d i s i n r e a l i t y a s e t o f p r o p
o s i t i o n s and c o n c e p t s , n o t a t h e o r y i n i t s s t r i c t e s t fo rm .
H ow ever, t h i s i s t h e s t r i c t e s t fo rm w h ich t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e
85
t o deduce an a r e a in need of e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n and one
in w hich th e r e s u l t s of such i n v e s t i g a t i o n would s u b s t a n t i
a l l y add t o o r supplem ent th e t h e o r y i n i t s p r e s e n t form .
The t h e o r y s t a t e s a s s u m p tiv e ly t h a t i f i n d i v i d u a l s
a r e e i t h e r members or n o t members of th e com ponents of th e
m ajor s o c i a l g ro u p in g s th e n th e y w i l l h o ld p o s i t i v e or nega
t i v e a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e v a r i o u s u n i t s c o m p ris in g th e com
p o n e n ts . I t i s f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t i f t h e r e a re p o s i t i v e
o r n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s , th e n t h e s e a t t i t u d e s w i l l b e , w ith
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e com ponents of t h e m ajo r s o c i a l g r o u p in g s ,
e i t h e r n o rm a tiv e , c o m p a r a tiv e , n o rm ativ e and c o m p a r a tiv e ,
or i n t e r a c t i v e . F u r t h e r , i t i s s t a t e d t h a t i f t h e r e a re
n o rm a tiv e , c o m p a r a tiv e , n o rm ativ e and c o m p a r a tiv e , o r i n t e r
a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s , t h e n t h e s e a t t i t u d e s w i l l form th e fo u n d a
t i o n of fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e w h ich , i n t u r n , w i l l be term ed
r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s . I t i s a x io m a tic t h a t th e sum of i n d i v i d u
a l s N may be s u b d iv id e d i n t o v a r i o u s g ro u p s n^ l e s s t h a n N
whose sum e q u a l s N. The v a r i o u s s u b d i v i s i o n s a re made on
th e b a s i s of v a r i a b l e s and a re p r i m a r i l y c o n c e p tu a l b u t may
be a l s o e m p i r i c a l s u b d i v i s i o n s . I t i s e v id e n t t h a t o f th e
v a r i o u s s u b d i v i s i o n s n^, th e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l e i t h e r
be members or not members of eac h of th e s u b d i v i s i o n s . I t
i s v e r i f i a b l e by e m p i r i c a l means t h a t th e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u
a l s have p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s to w ard th e v a r i o u s
a ll o w s .
86
s u b d i v i s i o n s . ( I n d i v i d u a l s may be n e u t r a l c o n c e rn in g some
s u b d i v i s i o n s b u t th e y may n o t , by d e f i n i t i o n , have n e u t r a l
a t t i t u d e s — i f a t t i t u d e i s a te n d e n c y t o a c t — n e u t r a l i t y i s
th e a b sen c e of a c t i o n . The r e s u l t s of absence of a c t i o n may
be s e e n , b u t o b s e rv a b le r e s u l t s do n o t im ply a c t i o n on th e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s p a r t . ) I t i s e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e t h a t i f
t h e r e a re p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s to w a rd th e v a r i o u s
s u b d i v i s i o n s , t h e n t h e s e a t t i t u d e s w i l l ta k e th e form of
n o r m a tiv e , c o m p a r a tiv e , n o rm ativ e and c o m p a r a tiv e , o r i n t e r
a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s . I f t h e s e a re p r e s e n t , t h e n i t may be
s t a t e d t h a t th e y form th e f o u n d a t i o n f o r fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e
w ith r e g a r d t o th e s u b d i v i s i o n s . The g ro u p s t o w hich th e
fram es o f r e f e r e n c e a p p ly may be r e g a r d e d a s p o t e n t i a l r e f e r
ence g ro u p s . I t may be s t a t e d , t h e n , t h a t p o s i t i v e and neg
a t i v e a t t i t u d e s a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t of fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e .
However, b a s i c t o t h e t h e o r y and unansw ered i n th e t h e o r y i s
" p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s to w ard w hat?" G e n e r a l l y ,
i t may be s a i d , p o s i t i v e or n e g a tiv e to w a rd th e s u b d i v i s i o n
or p o t e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e g ro u p ; how ever, i t may be d e m o n s tra te d
t h a t p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s e x i s t to w ard g ro u p s w hich a r e r e
j e c t e d a s r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s and n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s may e x i s t
r e g a r d i n g g ro u p s a c c e p te d a s r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s . I t th e n be
comes n e c e s s a r y t o d e te r m in e t h e f a c t o r s a b o u t which p o s i
t i v e and n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s a r e d e te r m in a n t i n r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n . A f t e r t h i s h a s been d e te r m in e d , e m p i r i c a l
l y , t h e n i t w i l l become p o s s i b l e t o d e a l w ith n o r m a tiv e ,
87
c o m p a ra tiv e , n o rm ativ e and c o m p a r a tiv e , a n d . i n t e r a c t i v e a t
t i t u d e s w ith r e g a r d t o r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s .
The f i r s t p roblem p ro p o se d i n th e r e s e a r c h p a p e r h a s
been c o m p le te d . The d ic tu m a s s e t f o r t h by "m iddle ra n g e "
t h e o r i s t s h a s been a c c e p te d i n t h a t a g o a l h a s been t o de
r i v e , from a t h e o r y , an e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h p la n which w i l l
have t h e p u rp o se t o add t o or su p plem ent r e f e r e n c e group
t h e o r y . However, i t h a s been found t h a t th e t h e o r y was n ot
i n e f f e c t a t h e o r y b u t a c o l l e c t i o n o f w r i t i n g s , u n o r g a n iz e d
fro m a s c i e n t i f i c v i e w p o in t. I t was n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o n
s t r u c t r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y l o g i c a l l y and t h e n , h a v in g ac
c o m p lish e d t h i s , t o d e r i v e from i t a r e s e a r c h p la n which
would have t h e e f f e c t of a d d in g t o or su p p le m e n tin g th e r e
c o n s t r u c t e d t h e o r y . T h i s , t o o , h a s been a c c o m p lish e d so
t h a t r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y now i s a " th e o r y o f th e m id d le
ra n g e " and i s in such form t h a t e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s may be de
r i v e d fro m i t , c o n d u c te d , and t h e i r r e s u l t s add t o , b ro a d e n ,
and b e t t e r d e f i n e t h e t h e o r y . The e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s f o r
th e pro b lem deduced from t h e t h e o r y a re p r e s e n t e d below .
The R e s u l t s o f th e E m p i r i c a l
I n v e s t i q a t i o n
A n a l y s i s of f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d
w ith r e f e re nee q'r ou p se l e c t i o n
One of th e m ajo r p u r p o s e s of a tt e m p t in g a re c o n
s t r u c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y i s t o p r e s e n t t h a t t h e
ory so a s t o make p o s s i b l e t h e a d d i t i o n t o or su p p le m e n ts -
88
t i o n of i t i n an o rd e re d m anner, th e r e b y im proving i t s p r e
d i c t i v e v a lu e t o s o c i o l o g i s t s .
In th e p re c e d in g s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r , th e re c o n
s t r u c t e d t h e o r y of r e f e r e n c e gro u p s h a s been s e t f o r t h . I t
h a s been o b se rv e d t h a t th e t h e o r y makes no a s s e r t i o n con
c e r n in g th e f a c t o r s u t i l i z e d i n s e l e c t i n g r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s .
In an e f f o r t t o add t o or supplem ent th e t h e o r y , a r e s e a r c h
p r o j e c t was d e sig n e d t o i n d i c a t e f a c t o r s of p o t e n t i a l l y
c r i t i c a l im p ort f o r th e s e l e c t i o n o f r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s . The
r e s u l t s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a re h e re p r e s e n t e d . The ra n k
o r d e r in g of th e nine p r o f e s s i o n s u t i l i z e d in th e stu d y h a s
been c o r r e l a t e d f o r eac h o f tw e lv e v a r i a b l e s w ith th e ra n k
o r d e r in g of p r o f e s s i o n s f o r th e r e f e r e n c e group v a r i a b l e .
V a r i a b l e s were a c c e p te d a s p o t e n t i a l l y c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n i f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s y i e l d e d were s i g n i f i c a n t
a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l . M ention i s a l s o made of th o s e
c o r r e l a t i o n s which were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t le v
e l . Two m ethods o f p r e s e n t i n g th e o b ta in e d r e s u l t s a re
h e r e i n u t i l i z e d : (1) th e r e s u l t a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w i l l be d i s
c u sse d w i t h i n t h e fram ework of th e v a r i o u s subsam ples of th e
sam ple, and (2) a n a l y s i s w i l l be a c c o m p lish e d w ith th e v a r i
a b l e s th e m s e lv e s u t i l i z e d a s th e b a se p o i n t f o r a n a l y s i s .
F o llo w in g th e two a n a l y s e s w i l l be a summary o f th e m ajor
f i n d i n g s .
P re c e d in g th e d i s c u s s i o n , t h e r e i s p r e s e n t e d th e
c o r r e l a t i o n s in t a b u l a r form w ith accom panying i n d i c a t i o n of
89
TABLE 1
DEGREE OF ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SELECTED VARIABLES
AND REFERENCE GROUP SELECTION3
P h y s i c a l P e r s o n _
A ppear- Fe^?o n
a n ce a l l t *
I n t e l l i - ]
gence
H onesty P r e s t i g e Power
Sex
Male - . 1 0
•5 7 u
.1 0 .8 7 c - .0 2 .38
Female
- . 1 2 .7 0 b .1 2 ,8 7 c .3 1 .9 0 °
Soc i a l
C l a s s ,
U pper - . 0 1 .6 2 " .1 0 . 8 3 c .1 9 . 5 5 l
M iddle - . 0 2 .6 7 b .1 0 .87^ .08 . 7 7 b
Lower .00 .5 5 .4 0 . 7 5 b .41 .1 9
IQ
I - . 2 3 ,6 0 b - . 1 8 .6 6 b - . 2 2
•4 1 k
I I - . 1 5 .5 3 .1 3 , 8 7 c .0 0
• 72 k
I I I - . 1 0 ,8 8 c .1 8 .8 6 ° .0 0 .6 8 ^
IV - . 0 7 .6 2 b .2 2 .8 0 ° .17 . 75b
V .1 0 . 6 2 b .5 2 . 92c .2 0 .8 0 °
C o lle g e
P l a n s
Yes - . 1 7 .5 5 .0 3 . 92° - . 1 0
• 75w
No - . 1 0 .7 8 ° .1 2 .8 7 c .1 5 . 7 l b
?
.1 2 .3 2 .35 .8 0 c .40 ,8 2 c
a— Rank o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n f o r e a c h su b sam p le; each
v a r i a b l e c o r r e l a t e d w ith t h e r e f e r e n c e gro u p
v a r i a b l e .
b - - S i g n i f i c a n t
c— S i g n i f i c a n t
a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l ,
a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
90
TABLE 1— C o n tin u e d
S e c u r i t y Income
Community
Im prove
ment
I n d i v i d
u a l A id
A l t r u is m
G e n e ra l
V alue
Sex V
Male .37 - .5 2
• 6 3 k
, 7 3 b . 8 3 c
• 5 9 k
Female .0 7 - .6 3 .63® .7 3 .8 3 ° .6 3
S o c i a l
C l a s s
W U
U pper .10 - . 5 1 .50 .6 8 *
*7 5 c
.4 8
M iddle .17 - . 5 3 .5 5 .8 8 °
• 8 7 C
Lower .4 3 - . 1 3 .20 .38 .8 3 .8 1 °
IQ
%.
I .37
- • 7 5 u
.5 1 .8 4 ° .86® .5 5
I I .25
- * 6 2 u
.8 3 ° , 8 3 c .83® .5 3
I I I .20 - . 6 2 b .5 2 .78®
• 7 9 c
.5 2
IV .37 - . 4 5 .38 . 7 5 b .83® .3 7
V - . 0 3 - . 2 8 .47 .80® • 7 5 b .5 3
C o lle g e
P l a n s
Yes .56 - . 6 2 b
•b 7 n
.82® .8 3 ° .5 5
No .18 - . 5 3 .88 .68*! .9 0 ° .2 2
? .33 - . 2 0 .35 .6 0 .59 .3 0
b— S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f iv e p e r c e n t l e v e l .
c — S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
91
TABLE 2
CELLS IN WHICH SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS OCCUR
BETWEEN SELECTED VARIABLES
AND REFERENCE GROUP SELECTION
P h y s i c a l _ * t i •
A p pear- P e r s o n - I n t e l l i - H o n esty P r e s t i g e
ance a l i t y gence
Power
Sex
Ma le b
Fema le a b b
S o c i a l
C l a s s
Upper a b
M iddle a b a
Lower a
IQ
I a a
I I
b a
I I I b b a
IV a b a
V a b b
C o lle g e
P l a n s
Yes b a
No a b a
? b b
a S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l .
b S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
92
TABLE 2— C o n tin u e d
S e c u r i t y Income Im prove-7 A l t r u i sm ^ a l u e 1
ment
Sex
Male a a b
Female - a a b
S o c i a l
C la s s
Upper a a
M iddle b b
Lower b
IQ
I - b b
I I b b b
I I I - b b
IV a b
V b a
C o lle g e
P la n s
Ye s - b b
No b a b
? a
a S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l ,
b S i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
S i g n i f i c a n t ( n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n ) a t th e f i v e
p e r c e n t l e v e l .
93
t h e v a r i a b l e s f o r w hich s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere ob
t a i n e d . *
A n a l y s i s by subsam ple
The f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n t h e
fram ew ork o f t h e su b sam p les u t i l i z e d i n th e r e s e a r c h .
S e x . Of th e com plex o f v a r i a b l e s s u b m itte d t o th e
sam p le, t h o s e v a r i a b l e s w hich a c h ie v e d t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l o f
s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e by sex c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a r e a s f o l
low s:
Male S e n io r S t u d e n t s Female S e n i o r S t u d e n ts
H o n e sty P e r s o n a l i t y
Community Im provem ent H o n e sty
I n d i v i d u a l Aid Power
A l t r u i s m Community Im provem ent
I n d i v i d u a l Aid
A l t r u i s m
G e n e r a l Value t o Community
A p p a re n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw ee n male and fem a le s e n i o r s
in r e g a r d t o v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l i n r e f e r e n c e grou p s e l e c t i o n
a re m a n i f e s t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i n d i n g s :
1. Fem ale s e n i o r s t u d e n t s r e g a r d e d t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
e x h i b i t e d ( a t t r i b u t e d t o ) t h e group o f s i g n i f i
c a n t im p o r ta n c e , w h ile t h e male s e n i o r s t u d e n t s
*A ppendix D shows th e N o f th e sam ple and t h e v a r i
ous o f th e su b s a m p le s .
d id n o t.
2. The p r e s t i g e of th e r e f e r e n c e group was more im
p o r t a n t t o th e fem ale s e n i o r s th a n t o th e male
s e n i o r s , a lth o u g h n e i t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n was s i g
n i f i c a n t .
3. The power or in flu e n c e h e ld by th e group was
e x tre m e ly s i g n i f i c a n t f o r th e fem ale s e n io r s
( s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l ) , w hile
i t was of r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e im portance t o th e
male s e n i o r s .
4 . The male s e n i o r s p la c e d more em phasis on th e
amount of s e c u r i t y a t t r i b u t e d t o th e group th a n
d id th e fem ale s e n i o r s .
5. With r e g a rd t o income, w hile both male and f e
male s e n io r s found th e v a r i a b l e of l i t t l e im
p o rta n c e in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n , th e male
s tu d e n ts ten d e d t o value i t more th a n d id th e
fem ale s t u d e n ts .
S o c ia l c l a s s . Of th e complex of v a r i a b l e s , th o se
whose c o r r e l a t i o n s a ch iev ed th e d e s i r e d l e v e l of s i g n i f i
cance by s o c i a l c l a s s subsample were as fo llo w s :
Upper Middle Lower
P e r s o n a l i t y P e r s o n a l i t y H onesty
H onesty H onesty A ltru is m
I n d i v id u a l Aid Power G e n era l Value
95
Upper M iddle Lower
A lt r u is m I n d i v i d u a l Aid
A ltru is m
The p r e c e d in g v a r i a b l e s were o f im p o rtan ce t o th e
s e v e r a l " s e l f - d e s i g n a t e d " s o c i a l c l a s s e s when t h e s e c l a s s e s
c o n s id e r e d s e l e c t i o n of a r e f e r e n c e g ro u p . The s o c i a l c l a s s
subsam ple, s i m i l a r t o th e sex su bsam ple, produced o b s e rv a b le
d i f f e r e n c e s among i t s components*
1. P e r s o n a l i t y a s a v a r i a b l e was c o n s id e r e d by th e
u p p e r and m iddle c l a s s e s a s s i g n i f i c a n t i n r e f
e re n c e group s e l e c t i o n , w h ile th e low er c l a s s
d id n o t so r e g a r d i t .
2. The low er c l a s s p la c e d c o n s i d e r a b ly more empha
s i s on i n t e l l i g e n c e th a n d id e i t h e r of th e o t h e r
two s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
3. The v a r i a b l e o f p r e s t i g e was of more im p ortance
t o th e low er c l a s s th a n t o th e u p p er o r m iddle
c l a s s e s .
4 . C o n v e rs e ly , power was of much l e s s im portance t o
th e low er c l a s s t h a n t o th e u p p e r and m iddle
c l a s s e s .
5 . The v a r i a b l e of s e c u r i t y was c o n s id e r e d more im
p o r t a n t t o th e low er c l a s s th a n i t was t o th e
o t h e r c l a s s e s . The r e s u l t a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s i n d i
c a te d th e p o s s i b i l i t y of " d i r e c t i o n " a t t e n d a n t
t o th e v a r i a b l e by v i r t u e o f an in v e r s e r e l a -
96
t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n h e i g h t o f s o c i a l c l a s s and con
c e r n w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e o f s e c u r i t y i n r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p s e l e c t i o n .
6 . W hile t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g income a l l w ere
n e g a t i v e , t h e lo w e r c l a s s r e g a r d e d t h i s v a r i a b l e
" l e s s n e g a t i v e l y " t h a n d i d t h e u p p e r and m id d le
c l a s s e s .
7 . S i m i l a r l y , t h e lo w e r c l a s s p l a c e d much l e s s em
p h a s i s on t h e com m unity im p ro vem ent a c t i v i t i e s
o f t h e g ro u p when m aking r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s e l e c
t i o n s t h a n d i d th e o t h e r tw o c l a s s e s .
8 . A g a in , t h e lo w e r c l a s s p l a c e d c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s
e m p h a s is on t h e v a r i a b l e o f i n d i v i d u a l a i d t h a n
d i d t h e o t h e r c l a s s e s .
9 . The lo w e r c l a s s p l a c e d much more e m p h a s is , t h a n
d i d t h e o t h e r c l a s s e s , on t h e g e n e r a l v a lu e of
t h e g ro u p t o t h e com m unity.
o
I n t e l l i g e n c e . Of t h e com plex o f v a r i a b l e s , t h o s e
whose c o r r e l a t i o n s a c h i e v e d t h e d e s i r e d l e v e l o f s i g n i f i
c a n c e f o r t h e su b sam p le b a s e d on i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e a s f o l l o w s :
O
I n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p s a r e d e te r m i n e d by r e s u l t s o f
t h e O t i s Gamma I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t .
Group I 125 and above
Group I I 1 1 5 -1 2 4
Group I I I . 10 5 -1 1 4
G roup IV 9 5 -10 4
Group V 94 and below
M edian IQ— 104.
P e r s o n a l i t y
H onesty
I n d i v i d u a l A id
A ltr u is m
H onesty
Power
Community Im provem ent
I n d i v i d u a l Aid
A lt r u is m
P e r s o n a l i t y
Hone s t y
Power
I n d i v i d u a l Aid
A ltr u is m
IV
P e r s o n a l i t y
Hone s t y
Power
I n d i v i d u a l Aid
A lt r u is m
V
P e r s o n a l i t y
Hone s t y
Power
I n d i v i d u a l Aid
A ltr u is m
D i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e s among th e com ponents o f th e
subsam ple b ased on i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t ( h e r e a f t e r d e s i g
n a te d IQ) may be o b s e rv e d .
1. W hile no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were fo und r e
g a rd in g th e v a r i a b l e of g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l a p p e a r
ance a t t r i b u t e d t o th e p o t e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e group,
t h e r e i s a c o n s i s t e n t i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p be
tw een th e l e v e l of IQ and th e v a r i a b l e of gen
e r a l p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e .
2. R e g a rd in g c o r r e l a t i o n s in v o lv i n g th e v a r i a b l e of
i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h i s v a r i a b l e i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d
t o th e l e v e l o f IQ. The s t r e n g t h o f th e c o r r e
l a t i o n f o r th e lo w e st IQ group i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
h i g h e r th a n f o r any of th e o th e r IQ g ro u p s .
While th e v a r i a b l e of h o n e s ty i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r
r e l a t e d w ith r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n f o r each
of th e IQ g ro u p s , th e c o r r e l a t i o n f o r th e h ig h
e s t IQ group i s c o n s i d e r a b ly l e s s th a n f o r any
of th e o t h e r f o u r IQ g ro u p s.
R eg ard in g p r e s t i g e , t h e r e i s an in v e r s e r e l a
t i o n s h i p betw een t h i s v a r i a b l e and th e l e v e l of
IQ. The low er two IQ g ro u p s p la c e c o n s i d e r a b ly
more em phasis on th e v a r i a b l e th a n do th e h ig h e r
t h r e e g ro u p s.
The h i g h e s t IQ group p l a c e s much l e s s em ph asis
on power or in f lu e n c e in s e l e c t i o n t h a n do th e
o t h e r g ro u p s.
The lo w e st IQ group p l a c e s much l e s s em phasis on
s e c u r i t y a s a v a r i a b l e in s e l e c t i o n t h a n do th e
o t h e r g ro u p s .
While a l l g ro u p s c o n s id e r income a s r e l a t i v e l y
u n im p o rta n t in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n s ( w it
n e s s n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n s ) , a c o n s i s t e n t p a t
t e r n may be o b se rv ed in t h a t th e n e g a tiv e c o r r e
l a t i o n s d e c r e a s e i n s iz e w ith th e d e c r e a s i n g
l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e so t h a t each s u c c e s s iv e
(d e s c e n d in g ) group r e g a r d s th e v a r i a b l e " l e s s
n e g a t iv e l y " th a n d id i t s p r e d e c e s s o r .
99
C o lle g e P l a n s . Of t h e com plex of v a r i a b l e s , th o s e
whose c o r r e l a t i o n s a c h ie v e d t h e s e l e c t e d l e v e l o f s i g n i f i
cance f o r th e c o l l e g e p l a n s subsam ple a re a s f o l l o w s :
Yes
Hone s t y
Power
I n d i v i d u a l A id
A l t r u is m
D o n ^ Know (? )
H o n esty
Power
I n d i v i d u a l Aid
No
P e r s o n a l i t y
Hone s t y
Power
Community Im provem ent
I n d i v i d u a l A id
A l t r u i s m
D i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e s among th e com ponents of th e
subsam ple 't o l l e g e plans!'m ay be o b s e r v e d .
1. The v a r i a b l e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
more i m p o r t a n t t o th o s e s t u d e n t s u n d e c id e d a b o u t
c o l l e g e t h a n i t i s f o r th o s e who have d e c id e d
one way o r t h e o t h e r .
2. The v a r i a b l e of p r e s t i g e i s more im p o r ta n t t o
th e u n d e c id e d " c o l l e g e g ro u p " t h a n t o t h e o t h e r
two g r o u p s .
3 . W hile t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r a l l th e g ro u p s r e
g a r d in g income were n e g a t i v e , th e s t r e n g t h o f
t h e n e g a t iv e c o r r e l a t i o n s i s much l e s s f o r th e
u n d e c id e d " c o l l e g e g ro u p " t h a n f o r th e o t h e r two
g r o u p s .
4 . S e n i o r s who have d e c id e d a g a i n s t e n t e r i n g c o l
l e g e p l a c e much more e m p h a sis on community im-
100
provement a c t i v i t i e s th a n do th e o th e r two
g ro u p s.
5. S e n io rs who have d e cid ed t o a tt e n d c o lle g e p la c e
c o n s id e ra b ly more em phasis on i n d iv i d u a l a id
th a n do th e o th e r two g ro u p s.
6 . S e n io rs who a re undecided as t o c o lle g e a tt e n d -
ance p la c e c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s em phasis on a l t r u
ism th a n do th e o th e r two g ro u p s.
A n a ly sis bv v a r i a b l e s
Below, th e d a ta a re an aly zed on th e b a s i s of th e
s e l e c te d v a r i a b l e s w i t h 's p e c i a l em phasis p la c e d on t h e i r
a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o r e f e r e n c e group p r e f e r e n c e .
G en eral p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e . The v a r i a b l e , g e n e r a l
p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e , d id not y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
f o r any of th e subsam ples. Ten of th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a
t i o n s y ie ld e d s l i g h t l y n e g a tiv e r e s u l t s . While t h e r e i s e s
s e n t i a l agreem ent between th e v a rio u s components of th e sex
and s o c i a l c l a s s subsam p les, and an in v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
a p p a re n t re g a rd in g th e IQ g ro u p s, th e la c k of s i g n i f ic a n c e
of th e c o r r e l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e s th e r e l a t i v e unim portance of
th e v a r i a b l e in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n .
P e r s o n a l i t y . Of th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s in v o lv
ing th e v a r i a b l e , p e r s o n a l i t y , e i g h t were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e
f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l . The s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s assume no
101
d e f i n i t e t r e n d and seem t o be randomly p la c e d . The i n d ic a
t i o n i s p r e s e n t t h a t th e v a r i a b l e would b e, un der c e r t a i n
c o n d i t i o n s or f o r s p e c i a l i z e d g ro u p s, of im portance in r e f
e re n ce group s e l e c t i o n .
I n t e l l i g e n c e . None o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e v a r
ia b le of i n t e l l i g e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t . Most em phasis was
g iv e n t o th e v a r i a b l e by th e lower s o c i a l c l a s s , th e lo w e st
IQ gro u p , and th o s e un d ecid ed a s t o c o ll e g e p l a n s . L e a s t
em phasis was p la c e d on th e v a r i a b l e by th e upper and middle
s o c i a l c l a s s e s , th e h i g h e s t IQ group (n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n )
and th o s e who s t a t e d i n t e n t i o n s t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e . The la c k
of any s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s , indeed th e la c k of any c o r
r e l a t i o n s ap p ro a ch in g s i g n i f i c a n c e , would te n d t o i n d i c a t e
th e u n im po rtan ce of t h i s v a r i a b l e a s a group a t t r i b u t e in
r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n .
H o n e stv . A ll of th e c o r r e l a t i o n s perform ed in v o lv
in g th e v a r i a b l e , h o n e s ty , were s i g n i f i c a n t and e le v e n of
th e t h i r t e e n were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
S tro n g i n d i c a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s p r e s e n t t h a t th e v a r i a b l e
i s of im p ortance when r e f e r e n c e groups a re t o be s e l e c t e d .
P r e s t i g e . No c o r r e l a t i o n in v o lv in g th e v a r i a b l e of
p r e s t i g e was s i g n i f i c a n t . A lthough no c o r r e l a t i o n approached
s i g n i f i c a n c e , c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s w ith r e g a r d t o th e IQ sub
sample may be o b served and a d i s t i n c t d i f f e r e n c e i s e v i-
102
denced among th e v a r i o u s com ponents of th e " c o l l e g e p la n s "
su b sam p le. L e v e l of IQ i s i n v e r s e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith p r e s
t i g e a s a v a r i a b l e in s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s . The
v a r i a b l e was most h i g h ly c o r r e l a t e d f o r fem ale s t u d e n t s , th e
low er s o c i a l c l a s s , th e lo w e st and second lo w e s t IQ g ro u p s
and th o s e who a re u n d e c id e d w h e th er t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e . The
absence of any s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e s th e r e l a
t i v e u n im p o rta n c e of th e v a r i a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c
t i o n .
P o w er. S i g n i f i c a n c e was a t t a i n e d f o r nine of th e
t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s p e rfo rm ed f o r th e v a r i a b l e of pow er.
The h i g h e s t l e v e l of c o r r e l a t i o n was found among f e m a le s ,
th e m idd le s o c i a l c l a s s , and g e n e r a l l y among IQ and " c o l l e g e
p la n s " su b sa m p le s. The h i g h e s t IQ group d i f f e r s in p l a c i n g
th e l e a s t e m p h a sis o f a l l IQ g ro u p s on th e v a r i a b l e . Low
c o r r e l a t i o n s were a l s o found among male s e n i o r s and th e low
e s t s o c i a l c l a s s . I n d i c a t i o n i s g iv e n t h a t power i s im por
t a n t t o most o f th e sub sam p les i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n ,
b u t t h a t i n some c a s e s , i t i s not a c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e .
S e c u r i t y . No s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were found
w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e v a r i a b l e , s e c u r i t y . R e l a t i v e l y s tr o n g
c o r r e l a t i o n s (a lth o u g h n o t a p p ro a c h in g s i g n i f i c a n c e ) were
found among m a le s , th e lo w e s t s o c i a l c l a s s , th o s e who
p la n n e d t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e , and among IQ g r o u p s , e x c e p t th e
low er IQ g ro u p s w hich r e c o r d e d a s l i g h t n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a -
103
t i o n . Low c o r r e l a t i o n s were a l s o found among f e m a le s , th e
u p p e r and m id d le s o c i a l c l a s s e s , and th o s e p e rs o n s n o t p l a n
n in g t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e . The absen ce o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e
l a t i o n s would seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t s e c u r i t y i s not an im
p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n s e l e c t i n g r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s .
Incom e. T here were no p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s p e r
t a i n i n g t o th e v a r i a b l e , incom e. A ll c o r r e l a t i o n s were neg
a t i v e and f i v e of t h e s e were s i g n i f i c a n t . C o r r e l a t i o n s in
v o lv in g th e IQ c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n d i c a t e t h a t th e s t r e n g t h of
t h e n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n d e c r e a s e s w ith th e l e s s e n i n g o f IQ
l e v e l . Low n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n s a re i n e v id e n c e among
th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s u n d e c id e d a s t o c o l l e g e p l a n s and th e low
e s t s o c i a l c l a s s . The c o r r e l a t i o n s seem t o i n d i c a t e a d e f
i n i t e la c k of a s s o c i a t i o n betw een th e v a r i a b l e and r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n .
Community im provem ent. Four of th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e
l a t i o n s i n v o lv in g th e v a r i a b l e , community im provem ent, were
s i g n i f i c a n t . Both sex and IQ su bsam ples (w ith th e e x c e p ti o n
of IQ group I I ) r e v e a l a h ig h d e g re e of i n t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y .
High c o r r e l a t i o n s were found f o r th e second h i g h e s t IQ group
and f o r th o s e n o t p la n n in g t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e , w h ile low c o r
r e l a t i o n s a p p e a r f o r th e low er s o c i a l c l a s s and th o s e n o t
d e c id e d a s t o c o l l e g e p l a n s . The r e l a t i v e la c k of s i g n i f i
c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s and d e f i n i t e d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s th e la c k
of im p o rtan c e of t h i s v a r i a b l e in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n .
104
I n d i v id u a l a i d . Twelve of th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s
f o r th e v a r i a b l e , i n d i v i d u a l a i d , were s i g n i f i c a n t . Essen
t i a l i n t e r n a l agreem ent was found f o r th e sex and IQ subsam-
p l e s . Low c o r r e l a t i o n was found f o r th e lower s o c i a l c l a s s .
High c o r r e l a t i o n s were found f o r th e middle s o c i a l c l a s s and
f o r th o s e p la n n in g t o a tt e n d c o l l e g e . From th e c o n s i s t e n t
s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e c o r r e l a t i o n s , i t i s p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h i s
v a r i a b l e i s an im p o rta n t one in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n .
A l t r u is m . Twelve of th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s a t
t a i n e d s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , and th e t h i r t e e n t h was j u s t
s h o rt of s i g n i f i c a n c e , f o r th e v a r i a b l e , a l t r u i s m . Based on
th e s t r e n g t h and l e v e l of th e c o r r e l a t i o n s , i t i s su g g e ste d
t h a t th e v a r i a b l e , a l t r u i s m , i s an im p o rta n t one i n r e f e r
ence group s e l e c t i o n .
G e n e ra l v a lu e t o th e community. Only two of th e
t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t p e r t a i n i n g t o th e
v a r i a b l e , g e n e r a l value t o th e community. N e ith e r d i r e c t i o n
nor e s s e n t i a l agreem ent i s e v id e n c e d . I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t
th e v a r i a b l e i s n o t a c r i t i c a l one i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c
t i o n .
Summary
The f i n d i n g s of t h i s segment of th e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t
have y ie ld e d in fo rm a tio n of p o t e n t i a l im port t o th e g e n e r a l
th e o r y of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s. When u t i l i z i n g th e v a r io u s sub
105
sam ples a s th e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r a n a l y z i n g th e d a t a , i t
i s p o s s i b l e t o d e te r m in e t h e v a r i a b l e s w hich may be demon
s t r a t e d t o be o f p o t e n t i a l im p o rta n c e i n r e f e r e n c e g ro up
s e l e c t i o n . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o o b s e rv e t h a t t h e s e v a r i a
b l e s a r e , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , common, b u t t h a t t h e r e a re
v a r i a t i o n s of d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s w i t h i n t h e v a r i o u s subsam
p l e s . W hile t h i s i n f o r m a ti o n may be o f i n t e r e s t t o t h o s e
c o n c e rn e d w ith r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g some o r a l l o f th e sub
sam p les h e r e i n u t i l i z e d , t h e more c r i t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r
th e p ro b le m a t hand i s o b s e r v a b le when t h e v a r i a b l e s them
s e l v e s a re u t i l i z e d a s t h e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . H e re , d e f
i n i t e t r e n d s and d i s t i n c t i o n s may be n o te d w hich a re o f s u f
f i c i e n t i n t e n s i t y t o im p ly t h e i r im p o rta n c e t o th e sam ple
when c o n s i d e r i n g r e f e r e n c e gro u p p r e f e r e n c e .
D e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n s may be made by d i v i d i n g th e
tw e lv e v a r i a b l e s i n t o f o u r g ro u p s d e s i g n a t e d a s :
1. T hose d e f i n i t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith r e f e r e n c e group
s e l e c t i o n (♦ ♦ + + ).
2. T hose d e f i n i t e l y n o t a s s o c i a t e d w ith r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p s e l e c t i o n (-------) .
3. Those t e n d i n g to w a rd a s s o c i a t i o n («■■► )•
4 . T hose t e n d i n g to w a rd d i s s o c i a t i o n (— ).
w ith t h e r e s u l t a n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r th e v a r i a b l e s h e r e i n
u t i l i z e d :
Honesty P h y s ic a l Appear- P e r s o n a l i t y Community
ance Improvement
I n d iv id u a l Aid I n t e l l i g e n c e Power
A ltru is m P r e s t i g e
S e c u r ity
Income
G e n eral Value t o
Community
The co m b in atio n of th e s t r e n g t h and number of c o r r e
l a t i o n s f o r th e v a r i a b l e s of h o n e s ty , i n d i v i d u a l a i d , and
a l t r u i s m i n d i c a t e t h a t th e y a re of c o n s id e r a b le im portance
to members of th e sample when c o n s id e r in g which of s e v e r a l
groups s h a l l serve as a r e f e r e n c e group.
C o n v e rse ly , th e v a r i a b l e s of p h y s i c a l a p p ea ra n c e,
i n t e l l i g e n c e , p r e s t i g e , a n x ie ty , and g e n e r a l value t o th e
community were not c o n s id e re d im p o rtan t in r e f e r e n c e group
s e l e c t i o n by any of th e subsam ples. In a d d i t i o n , income was
not c o n sid e re d of im portance in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n
and, i t i s su g g e ste d , t h e r e i s th e i m p l i c a t i o n , because of
the s tro n g n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n s , t h a t th e sample f e l t t h a t
i t "sh o u ld no t" be c o n s id e re d so.
Both th e v a r i a b l e s of p e r s o n a l i t y and power give
stro n g i n d i c a t i o n of being im p o rtan t f o r a l l groups in r e f
erence group s e l e c t i o n , a lth o u g h s e v e r a l components of sub
samples d i s r e g a r d them. The v a r i a b l e of community improve
ment g iv e s only s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n of b ein g of im portance in
107
r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n , th e im p o rta n c e b e in g overshadow ed
by th e f r e q u e n c y w ith w hich i t i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d of im por
t a n c e . Of th e tw e lv e v a r i a b l e s h y p o th e s iz e d a s o f im por
t a n c e in r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s e l e c t i o n , n in e have g iv e n s u f f i c i
e n t i n d i c a t i o n t o w a r r a n t a d e c i s i o n a s t o t h e i r a c t u a l im
p o r t a n c e . T h ree may be c o n s i d e r e d of im p o rta n c e ; s i x n o t of
im p o rta n c e ; t h r e e in a " s t a t e o f i n d e c i s i o n ; " two t e n d i n g
s t r o n g l y to w a rd im p o rta n c e ; and one t e n d i n g t o n o n -im p o r
t a n c e . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s of im p o rta n c e
i s o l a t e d , i t i s p u r p o r t e d t h a t a m ajo r r e s u l t o f th e i n v e s
t i g a t i o n i s th e d e m o n s tr a ti o n t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t e
such v a r i a b l e s and t h a t , f o r t h e most p a r t , t h e v a r i a b l e s
h o ld a c o n s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p r e g a r d l e s s of th e su b sam p les
u t i l i z e d ; t h a t p o s s i b l y a u n i v e r s e w i l l y i e l d r e l a t i v e l y
c o n s t a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e v a r i o u s su b sam p les
d e r i v e d from t h a t u n i v e r s e .
E a r l i e r i n th e d i s c u s s i o n , i t was s t a t e d t h a t th e
tw e lv e v a r i a b l e s u t i l i z e d c o u ld be c a t e g o r i z e d u n d e r t h r e e
m ajor h e a d in g s d e s c r i b i n g th e com ponents of th e o c c u p a t i o n a l
man and p e r h a p s a l l men. The t h r e e h e a d in g s w ere l i s t e d a s :
( l ) "The P e r s o n a l Man," (2) "The R e c e iv in g M an," and (3)
"The S e r v i c e Man."
I t was s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s m ight i n d i c a t e a
p r e p o n d e r a n t e m p h a sis f o r one o f th e t h r e e m a jo r g r o u p in g s .
The r e s u l t s t e n d t o c o n f ir m t h i s c o n t e n t i o n . R e l a t i v e l y ,
th e a s p e c t s of th e b ro a d c a t e g o r y of " s e r v i c e man" b e a r
108
c l o s e s t r e l a t i o n t o r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n and would seem
t o in d ic a t e t h a t a major g e n e r a l f a c t o r in r e f e r e n c e group
s e l e c t i o n i s th e c o n s i d e r a ti o n of what th e group g iv e s , of
i t s e l f , t o i n d i v i d u a l s and t o th e community. I t should be
noted t h a t th e v a r i a b le of t h i s complex which had th e l e a s t
number of s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s was not an a c tiv e v a r i
ab le of g iv in g , b u t r a t h e r a p a s s iv e one— g e n e ra l value t o
th e community (by p resen c e p er s e ) . The second most impor
t a n t g e n e r a l c a te g o ry i s t h a t of th e "p e rs o n a l man," p r i
m arily on th e s t r e n g th of th e w eight a tta c h e d t o th e v a r i
able of h o n e sty . I t should be noted t h a t in t h i s c a te g o ry ,
u n lik e t h a t of th e " s e r v ic e man," two o f th e v a r i a b l e s
(g e n e r a l p h y s ic a l appearance and i n t e l l i g e n c e ) were not of
im portance in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n . The l e a s t impor
t a n t of th e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s was th e " r e c e iv in g man" w herein
only th e v a r i a b l e , power, i n d ic a te d a ten d en cy toward impor
ta n c e .
A t e n t a t i v e g e n e r a l c o n c lu s io n which can be drawn
based on th e d a ta h e r e i n p r e s e n te d i s t h a t th e u n iv e r s e from
which th e sample was drawn te n d s t o make s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r
ence groups by what i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o as " i d e a l i s t i c "
methods. Im portance i s a tta c h e d to th e g ro u p ’s i n t e g r i t y
and t o i t s s e r v ic e t o i t s f e l l o w s , w hile rew ards f o r th e s e
s e r v i c e s are shunned as are th e p r o f e s s i o n s which a re f e l t
not t o perform b e n e f i c i a l s e r v i c e s . T h is c o n c lu sio n h o ld s
f o r a l l subsam ples.
109
A n a ly s is of S t e r e o t y p e s
D ata c o n c e r n in g s t e r e o t y p e s w i l l be a n a ly z e d w i t h i n
two fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e : by subsam ple and by v a r i a b l e s .
T h i r t e e n v a r i a b l e s w ere d e v e lo p e d w h ic h , i t was s u g g e s t e d ,
would c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f o r m a t io n of a s t e r e o t y p e of se
l e c t e d p r o f e s s i o n s . I t was h e l d t h a t t h e ra n k o r d e r i n g o f
n in e p r o f e s s i o n s f o r th e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s would y i e l d de
f i n i t i v e d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e u p p e r and lo w e r e n d s of t h e ra n k
o r d e r s c a l e and t h a t , b e c a u s e o f th e number of p r o f e s s i o n s ,
th e m id d le r a n g e o f t h e r a n k o r d e r would n o t y i e l d d e f i n i
t i v e r e s u l t s . T h e r e f o r e , p a r t i a l r a n k o r d e r i n g was u t i l i z e d
i n v o lv i n g th e f i r s t , s e c o n d , e i g h t h , and n i n t h p r o f e s s i o n s
r a n k e d . In a n a l y z i n g t h e r e s u l t s , i t i s h e ld t h a t t h e s i g
n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n s t h e en ds o f t h e
s c a l e s and n o t th e c e n t e r ; t h e r e f o r e , f o r th e most p a r t , th e
d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be c o n f in e d t o t h i s a r e a . The r e s u l t s of
t h e r a n k o r d e r i n g s f o r e a c h o f th e v a r i a b l e s f o r e a c h o f th e
su b sam p les a re r e c o r d e d i n t h e a p p e n d ix . The c h a r t s g iv e
t h e p r o f e s s i o n s i n t h e f i r s t , se c o n d , e i g h t h , and n i n t h po
s i t i o n s .
The m ajo r e m p h a sis o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n of s t e r e o t y p e s
w i l l c e n t e r on t h e a s s o c i a t i o n , and a g re e m e n t, and d i s a g r e e
ment m a n if e s te d by th e su b sa m p le s i n t e r n a l l y , f o r i t i s in
t h i s a r e a t h a t th e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s a p p e a r .
A t a b l e f o l l o w s l i s t i n g th e c o r r e l a t i o n s among th e
v a r i o u s com ponents of t h e su b s a m p le s , ' i n d i c a t i n g th e d e g re e
110
TABLE 3
STEREOTYPES— INTER-SUBSAMPLE CORRELATIONS*
Ques- o S o c ia l C la s s I n t e l l i g e n c e
t i o n s Subsam ples Subsamples
M-F 1-2 2-3 1-3 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5
I . 95a .97 a . 90a .8 7 a . 95a .92a ,8 3 a . 91a
I I . 93a ,8 8 a .8 9 a
.6 2 b ,8 3 a . 82a ,7 8 a ,6 3 b
I I I .9 7 a .9 8 a .8 3 a .7 5 b . 97a . 96a .9 8 a .8 9 a
IV . 90a ,8 5 a ,6 7 b .8 4 a ,8 8 a .8 5 a ,7 3b ,62b
V .7 8 a .9 8 a .16 .14 ,8 3 a . 93a . 93a .8 0 a
VI .8 5 a .7 7 b .27 .33 . 98a ,8 2 a .7 8 a . 77b
VII .6 5 b .9 7 a .26 .33 ,8 2 a .8 0 a ,8 8 a .6 0 b
V III . 98a 1 .0 0 a .8 5 a .8 5 a . 95a . 95a . 95a . 90a
IX ,98 a .9 7 a ,7 5 b ,8 3 a ,7 6 b . 94a ,9 0 a .8 5 a
X . 92a . 92a .53 .7 0 b . 95a . 95a . 95a . 70b
XI . 98a . 97a .6 9 b .6 3 b ,8 8 a . 93a ,8 7 a ,8 2 a
XII .8 0 a .9 5 a .8 5 a • 62b .9 2 a .8 4 a ,8 4 a . 73b
X III . 93a .9 9 a ,8 8 a . 91a .8 4 a . 84a .7 8 a .76b
* Showing d egree of agreem ent among th e subsam ples
in re g a r d t o s t e r e o ty p e s h e ld as determ in ed by rank o rd e r
c o r r e l a t i o n s .
a .01 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
b .05 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .
in
TABLE 3— C o n tin u e d
Ques- I n t e l l i g e n c e C o lle g e P l a n s
t i o n s S u b sam p les Subsam ples
2 -3 2 -4 2-5 3-4 3-5 4 -5 Y-N N- ? Y-?
I . 98a .9 5 a . 97a .973 .9 9 a
.973 .973 .933 .953
I I .7 0 b . 96a .6 7 b .7 0 b ,6 8 b ,7 3 b
.953 .973 .983
I I I . 95a . 99a ,8 8 a .9 3 a .8 7 a .8 9 a . 98a . 97a . 98a
IV . 93a ,7 5 b .6 7 b
.9 0 a .8 0 a .923 .903 .983 .883
V .8 7 a .8 7 a .923 1 .0 0 a
.9 3 a .933 ,8 8 a
. 96a . 90a
VI ,8 8 a ,8 4 a . 83a . 97a .9 2 a
. 99a . 95a . 93a . 98a
V II .8 2 a . 88a . 80a .8 8 a . 80a . 82a .8 7 a . 93a . 93a
V I I I 1 .0 0 a 1 . 0 0 a . 95a 1 .0 0 a .9 5 a . 95a . 98a . 97a . 98a
IX ,8 5 a .7 7 b . 90a ,9 7 a ,8 2 a . 73b ,7 8 a .8 7 a .8 3 a
X . 90a ,8 7 a .58 . 90a .7 5 b
.7 8 a .9 2 a
. 93a .9 5 a
XI . 98a . 98a . 97a .9 7 a . 95a . 98a
.9 8 a
. 93a . 91a
X II .7 5 b ,8 8 a . 7 6 b .6 7 b .7 2 b
,9 2 a
.57 ,8 8 a . 6 8 b
X I I I 1 .0 0 a ,9 7 a . 93a . 97a
.933 .9 8 a .9 8 a .823 .8 3 a
a .01 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
b ,0 b l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e .
112
of agreem ent among s t e r e o t y p e s .
A n a ly sis by subsample
With re g a rd t o th e subsam ples and th e c o r r e l a t i o n s
between th e d i v i s i o n s of each:
S ex. The c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r each of th e t h i r t e e n v a r
i a b l e s between male and fem ale s e n io r s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t
th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l and a l l but one was s i g n i f i c a n t a t
th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l . The low est c o r r e l a t i o n was .65 and
nine of th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s were .90 and above. Very
l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e may be seen in the s te r e o t y p e s of male and
fem ale s e n i o r s . The w eakest complex of c o r r e l a t i o n s i s
found in th e c a te g o ry of th e " r e c e iv in g man," th e s t r o n g e s t
among th e complex of th e " p e rs o n a l man."
S o c ia l c l a s s . Of the t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s measur
ing th e d eg ree of a s s o c i a t i o n between s o c i a l c l a s s e s I and
I I , one was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l and
tw elve were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l . Ten of
th e t h i r t e e n c o r r e l a t i o n s were above .90. The s te r e o t y p e s
of th e two c l a s s e s proved t o be q u ite s i m i l a r . The most
c o n s i s t e n t c o r r e l a t i o n s are found among th e " s e r v ic e man."
L ess c o n s i s t e n t are th o se of th e " re c e iv in g man" and the
" p e rs o n a l man." L ess s i m il a r were th e images as h e ld by
s o c i a l c l a s s e s I I and I I I , and I and I I I . R egarding c l a s s e s
I I and I I I , nine c o r r e l a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e
113
p e r c e n t l e v e l and s i x of t h e s e were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one
p e r c e n t l e v e l . S t e r e o t y p e s d i f f e r e d w id e ly f o r th e v a r i
a b l e s of p r e s t i g e , pow er, s e c u r i t y , and i n d i v i d u a l a i d . The
complex of v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e " r e c e i v i n g man" i n
d i c a t e d a m ajor d iv e rg e n c e i n s t e r e o t y p e s . The s t r o n g e s t
s i m i l a r i t y i s found in th e " p e rs o n a l man." The c o r r e l a t i o n s
betw een s o c i a l c l a s s e s I and I I I f o r th e t h i r t e e n v a r i a b l e s
r e v e a l t h r e e ( p r e s t i g e , pow er, a n x i e t y ) w hich were not s i g
n i f i c a n t . Of th e t e n v a r i a b l e s which were s i g n i f i c a n t , f i v e
were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l and f i v e a t th e
one p e r c e n t l e v e l . S i m i l a r t o th e c o r r e l a t i o n s of c l a s s e s
I I and I I I , th e w e a k e st com plex i s t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d by th e
" r e c e i v i n g man." The s t r o n g e s t com plex i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith
th e " p e r s o n a l m an." Only one v a r i a b l e ( r e f e r e n c e group) i s
c o r r e l a t e d above .9 0 . G e n e r a l l y , i t may be s a id t h a t th o s e
p e rs o n s who d e s i g n a t e th e m s e lv e s in e i t h e r th e u p p e r o r mid
d le c l a s s e s te n d t o have h i g h l y s i m i l a r im ages. The low er
c l a s s d i f f e r s i n s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld from th e o t h e r two
c l a s s e s , v a ry in g f o r th e most p a r t w i t h i n t h e "ran g e of s i g
n i f i c a n c e , " b u t , a l s o , w i t h i n th e a r e a of th e " r e c e i v i n g
man" v a r y in g o u t s i d e t h i s r a n g e . T h is i s most e v i d e n t w ith
r e g a r d t o p r e s t i g e w here th e h i g h e r two c l a s s e s c o r r e l a t e
a lm o st p e r f e c t l y , w h ile c o r r e l a t i o n s i n v o lv in g th e low er
c l a s s a re e x tre m e ly low. I t i s s u g g e s te d , t h e n , t h a t th o s e
who view th e m s e lv e s a s b e lo n g in g t o th e lo w er c l a s s have
s t e r e o t y p e s w hich d i f f e r o b s e r v e d ly from th o s e who d e f in e
114
th e m s e lv e s in th e m id d le o r u p p e r c l a s s e s .
I n t e l l i g e n c e ( I Q ) . G e n e r a l l y , i t may be s a i d t h a t
th e IQ l e v e l o f th e h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r makes l i t t l e d i f f e r
ence i n t h e s t e r e o t y p e s he h a s o f t h e v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n s .
The f i v e IQ g r o u p s , e a c h com pared w ith t h e o t h e r f o r e v e r y
v a r i a b l e , y i e l d e d 130 c o r r e l a t i o n s . Of t h e 130, o n ly two
were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , and b o th o f t h e s e f e l l j u s t s h o r t of
s i g n i f i c a n c e . Of t h e 128 s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s , 106 were
s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l and 63 c o r r e l a t e d a t
.9 0 or ab o v e. G e n e r a l s p e a k in g , t h e n , any d i f f e r e n c e s
among t h e v a r i o u s g ro u p s a re d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n th e ra n g e o f
s i g n i f i c a n c e . G roups I and I I ( t h e h i g h e s t g ro u p s ) c o r r e
l a t e h i g h l y w ith some d i f f e r e n c e i n s t e r e o t y p e s b e in g n o te d
f o r t h e v a r i a b l e of community im provem ent. The d i f f e r e n c e ,
ho w ev er, d o e s n o t f a l l o u t s i d e t h e ra n g e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e and
th e d e g r e e of a s s o c i a t i o n i s j u s t s h o r t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a t
th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l . S ix of th e v a r i a b l e s w ere c o r r e
l a t e d a t .90 and a b o v e, and a l l b u t one of t h e r e m a in in g
c o r r e l a t e betw een .8 0 and .9 0 . G roups I and I I I a l s o m ain
t a i n h i g h l y s i m i l a r s t e r e o t y p e s . S even of t h e v a r i a b l e s
c o r r e l a t e a t .9 0 and above and th e r e m a in in g a r e b e tw ee n .80
and .9 0 . F iv e of th e v a r i a b l e s f o r g ro u p s I and IV c o r r e
l a t e a t .90 o r above and f o u r c o r r e l a t e betw een .80 and .9 0 .
Of th e r e m a in in g f o u r v a r i a b l e s , t h r e e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t
th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l ( p e r s o n a l i t y , pow er, r e f e r e n c e gro u p )
115
and f i n a l l y one i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l
(h o n e s ty ). The s te r e o t y p e s f o r t h i s c l a s s dyad d i f f e r more
th a n do th o se of th e two p re v io u s dyads; however, th e d i f
f e r e n c e s a re a l l w e ll w ith in th e range of s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Only two of th e v a r i a b l e s f o r groups I and V c o r r e l a t e a t
.90 and above, w hile f o u r c o r r e l a t e d betw een .80 and .9 0 .
Four v a r i a b l e s (power, i n d iv i d u a l a i d , g e n e r a l v a lu e , r e f e r
ence group) c o r r e l a t e between .70 and .80 and a re s i g n i f i
c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l , w hile t h r e e v a r i a b l e s
( p e r s o n a l i t y , h o n e s ty , s e c u r i t y ) c o r r e l a t e between .60 and
.70 and a re s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l . T his
r e p r e s e n t s th e g r e a t e s t d iv erg e n ce in s t e r e o t y p e s of any
dyad and i n d i c a t e s some a c t u a l d i f f e r e n c e in th e images
h e ld , b u t th e s t r e n g th of th e d i f f e r e n c e i s m itig a te d t o a
l a r g e e x te n t by v i r t u e of th e d i f f e r e n c e s a l l being w ith in
th e range of s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t should be noted t h a t th e d i
vergence in s t e r e o t y p e s i n c r e a s e s a s th e d is t a n c e between IQ
groups d e c r e a s e s . The d i s t a n c e , however, i s r e l a t i v e l y
sm a ll. The same may be s a id when c o n s id e r in g IQ group I I as
th e s t a t i o n a r y group in t h a t c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r IQ groups I I
and I I I and IQ groups I I and IV y i e l d much more s im ila r
s t e r e o t y p e s th a n th o se f o r IQ groups I I and V w herein two of
th e c o r r e l a t i o n s ( p e r s o n a l i t y , h o n esty ) a re .67 and one,
i n d iv i d u a l a i d , i s .58 and i s not s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f iv e
p er c e n t l e v e l . I t i s n oted t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s between IQ
groups I I and V a re n o t so g r e a t a s th o se observed between
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IQ g ro u p s I and V. IQ g ro u p s I I I and IV a r e more s i m i l a r in
s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld th a n a re IQ g ro u p s I I I and V w h ile IQ
g ro u p s IV and V y i e l d e i g h t c o r r e l a t i o n s o f .90 and above
and t h r e e o f .7 0 t o .8 0 , one of which i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e
one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
I t may be o b se rv e d t h a t t h e r e i s some f l u c t u a t i o n
and v a r i a t i o n o f s t e r e o t y p e s w i t h i n t h e IQ com plex, b u t t h a t
th e f l u c t u a t i o n and v a r i a t i o n i s of an e x tr e m e ly l i m i t e d
n a tu r e and n ot one which would w a r r a n t th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t
i n t e l l i g e n c e i s a m ajor f a c t o r in s t e r e o t y p e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a
f i n d i n g n o ta b le in t h a t i t i s c o n t r a r y t o many g e n e r a l l y
h e ld c o n c e p ti o n s of th e im p o rtan c e of i t i n p e r c e p t i o n .
C o l le g e p l a n s . The s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld by th e t h r e e
com ponents in c lu d e d i n th e su b sam p le, c o l l e g e p l a n s ( y e s ,
no, u n d e c id e d ) a re q u i te s i m i l a r . Of th e t h i r t y - n i n e c o r
r e l a t i o n s computed f o r th e t h r e e com ponents f o r t h i r t e e n
v a r i a b l e s , t w e n t y - e i g h t c o r r e l a t e d a t .90 and above and
e i g h t were c o r r e l a t e d b etw een .80 and .9 0 . Of th e t h r e e r e
m aining v a r i a b l e s , one was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t
l e v e l , one a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l , and o n ly one was n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t . L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e may be foun d among th e
s t e r e o t y p e s of th e c o m b in a tio n s of th e t h r e e g ro u p s .
So f a r a s t h e su b sam p les u t i l i z e d i n th e r e s e a r c h
a re c o n c e rn e d , s tr o n g e v id e n c e i s g iv e n t h a t th e s t e r e o t y p e s
a re c o n s t a n t th r o u g h th e subsam p les w ith l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e
n o ted f o r se x , IQ, and c o l l e g e p l a n s . The s i g n a l d i f f e r e n c e
in s t e r e o t y p e s which c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d i n d i c a t i v e of po
t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e c o n c e rn s th o s e h e ld by p e rs o n s d e s i g n a
t i n g th e m s e lv e s a s low er c l a s s a s opposed t o th e m iddle and
up p er c l a s s . Very s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s may be se e n , a l s o , in
th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een IQ g ro u p s I and V.
A n a ly s is by v a r i a b l e s
The second method of a n a l y s i s i s c o n cern ed w ith i n
v e s t i g a t i n g th e s t e r e o t y p e s from th e p o i n t o f view of th e
v a r i a b l e s th e m s e lv e s .
G e n e ra l p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e . S t e r e o t y p e s h e ld f o r
th e v a r i a b l e of g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e were h i g h ly con
s i s t e n t and h i g h ly c o r r e l a t e d . Only one of th e s e v e n te e n
p o s s i b l e c o r r e l a t i o n s was l e s s t h a n .9 0 and t h i s was .8 3 .
P e r s o n a l i t y . I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n s t e r e o t y p e s based
on th e v a r i a b l e of p e r s o n a l i t y may be o b s e rv e d . C o r r e l a
t i o n s f o r th e sex and c o l l e g e p la n subsam ples were .90 and
above, w h ile th e u p p e r and m iddle s o c i a l c l a s s e s a g re ed
c l o s e l y ( .8 8 and .89 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . However, th e low er
c l a s s d i v e r g e s c o n s i d e r a b ly ( . 6 2 ) . The ran g e o f c o r r e l a
t i o n s f o r th e IQ g ro u p s was from .96 t o .58 and in c lu d e d
only one c o r r e l a t i o n which was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . Hence,
t h e r e i s on ly s l i g h t e v id e n c e of d is a g re e m e n t o f s t e r e o t y p e s
among th e s e v e r a l d y a d s.
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I n t e l l i g e n c e . The c o r r e l a t i o n s found i n d i c a t e d con
s i s t e n c y and a g e n e r a l l y h ig h l e v e l of agreem ent f o r th e
v a r i a b l e of p e r s o n a l i t y . Of th e s e v e n te e n c o r r e l a t i o n s ,
e le v e n were .9 0 and above and f i v e were betw een .8 0 and .9 0 .
The re m a in in g c o r r e l a t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r
c e n t l e v e l .
H o n e s ty . C o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e v a r i a b l e , h o n e s ty ,
i n d i c a t e some i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in s t e r e o t y p i n g . While s ix
o f th e dy ad s were c o r r e l a t e d .9 0 and abov e, and s i x were be
tween .80 and .9 0 , some d iv e rg e n c e may be seen in t h a t two
were betw een .70 and .8 0 and t h r e e were betw een .6 0 and .7 0 .
While a l l c o r r e l a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t
l e v e l and ab ove, d i f f e r e n c e s in s t e r e o t y p i n g may be seen in
th e p o l a r IQ g ro u p in g s and betw een th e m iddle and low er so
c i a l c l a s s e s . While t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a re n o t a s s tr o n g a s
w ith th e v a r i a b l e of p e r s o n a l i t y , a s l i g h t te n d e n c y tow ard
d i v e r g e n t s t e r e o t y p e s i s i n d i c a t e d .
P r e s t i g e . With th e e x c e p tio n o f s o c i a l c l a s s , c o r
r e l a t i o n s found f o r th e v a r i a b l e of p r e s t i g e were g e n e r a l l y
c o n s i s t e n t and te n d e d t o be a t a h ig h l e v e l . Nine of th e
c o r r e l a t i o n s were .90 and abo ve, and s i x were betw een .80
and .9 0 . A nother was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l .
A m ajor d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o c c u r s , how ever, i n th e subsam ple of
s o c i a l c l a s s where th e ran g e i s from .98 t o .1 4 . The u p p er
and m iddle c l a s s s t e r e o t y p e s a re n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l ; how ever,
119
c o r r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g th e lo w e r c l a s s a r e v e ry low.
P o w er. What h a s b een s a i d f o r p r e s t i g e h o l d s g e n e r
a l l y f o r th e v a r i a b l e o f pow er. Seven of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s
were .9 0 and above and f i v e w ere b etw een .8 0 and .9 0 . Of
t h o s e r e m a in i n g , one was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e one p e r c e n t
l e v e l and two f e l l j u s t s h o r t o f t h i s l e v e l . A g a in , i t i s
i n th e s o c i a l c l a s s subsam ple t h a t e x tre m e d i f f e r e n c e s i n
s t e r e o t y p i n g a p p e a r . The ra n g e h e re i s fro m .7 7 t o .2 7 and
a g a in i t i s th e lo w er c l a s s s t e r e o t y p i n g w hich d i v e r g e s from
th e o t h e r two c l a s s e s .
S e c u r i t y . The v a r i a b l e of s e c u r i t y i s somewhat sim
i l a r t o t h e two v a r i a b l e s im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d in g i t w ith r e f
e re n c e t o r e s u l t a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s . W hile o n ly t h r e e c o r r e
l a t i o n s were .9 0 o r g r e a t e r , c o n s i s t e n c y i s e v i d e n t i n t h a t
t e n c o r r e l a t i o n s were b etw een .8 0 and .9 0 and two o f th e
r e m a in in g were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l (se x
and p o l a r IQ g r o u p i n g s ) . S i m i l a r t o t h e p r e c e d in g tw o v a r i
a b l e s , i t i s w i t h i n t h e subsam ple of s o c i a l c l a s s t h a t
marked d i v e r g e n c i e s may be s e e n . The ra n g e i s from .9 7 t o
.2 6 . A g a in , i t i s th e low er c l a s s whose s t e r e o t y p e s d i f f e r
m ark ed ly from th o s e of t h e o t h e r two c l a s s e s .
Inco m e. The v a r i a b l e o f income e v id e n c e s e x tr e m e ly
h ig h c o n s i s t e n c y and l e v e l o f c o r r e l a t i o n i n t h a t f i f t e e n
c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere .9 0 and above and t h e r e m a in in g two were
120
from .80 t o .9 0 . Very l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e may be seen in
s t e r e o t y p in g f o r t h i s v a r i a b l e .
Community im provem ent. Very s l i g h t in c o n s is te n c y i s
seen accompanied by g e n e r a l l y h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e v a r
i a b l e , community improvement. S ix c o r r e l a t i o n s were .90 and
above and s ix ranged from .80 t o .9 0 . Of th e rem ain in g
f i v e , one was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p er c e n t l e v e l and th e
rem a in d e r were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l . D if
f e r e n c e s in s t e r e o t y p e s may be seen in th e subsam ples of so
c i a l c l a s s and IQ. The lower s o c i a l c l a s s a g a in d i f f e r s ob-
s e rv e d ly from th e upper and m iddle c l a s s e s w hile seem ingly
random d i f f e r e n c e s in s t e r e o t y p in g a re found among IQ
g ro u p s. The c o r r e l a t i o n l e v e l i s g e n e r a l l y low er t h a n f o r
most of th e p re c e d in g v a r i a b l e s .
I n d i v id u a l a i d . G e n eral c o n s i s t e n c y and h ig h l e v e l
c o r r e l a t i o n s a re e v id e n t f o r th e v a r i a b l e of i n d iv i d u a l a i d ,
w ith th e e x c e p tio n of two marked d i v e r g e n c i e s . Ten c o r r e l a
t i o n s were .90 and above and f i v e of th e rem a in in g seven
c o r r e l a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l or
above. A gain, th e lower c l a s s s t e r e o t y p e s d i f f e r m arkedly
from th e o th e r c l a s s e s and th e s t e r e o t y p e s of th e second and
and f i f t h IQ grou ps d i f f e r from th e o th e r IQ g ro u p s. How
e v e r, g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t and h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n l e v e l s are
p r e s e n t f o r th e v a r i a b l e of i n d i v i d u a l a i d .
121
A l t r u i s m . C o n s is te n c y and a v e ry h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n
l e v e l were p r e s e n t f o r th e v a r i a b l e , a l t r u i s m . Twelve of
th e se v e n te e n c o r r e l a t i o n s were .90 and above and t h r e e were
betw een .8 0 and .9 0 . The two c o r r e l a t i o n s which were r e l a
t i v e l y low, a lth o u g h s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t
l e v e l , in v o lv e d th e d i v e r g e n t s t e r e o t y p e s of th e low er so
c i a l c l a s s .
G e n e ra l v a lu e t o th e com m unity. A te n d e n c y tow ard
in c o n s is te n c y and low er o rd e r c o r r e l a t i o n s i s e v id e n ce d f o r
th e v a r i a b l e of g e n e r a l v a lu e t o th e community. T hree c o r r e
l a t i o n s were above .9 0 and s i x were betw een .80 and .9 0 .
A ll but one were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l and
above; how ever, d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t e r e o t y p e s i n th e subsample
( a l b e i t w i t h in th e ran ge of s i g n i f i c a n c e ) a r e i d e n t i f i a b l e .
The low er s o c i a l c l a s s d i f f e r s from th e o th e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s
and th e t h i r d and f i f t h IQ g ro u p s have s t e r e o t y p e s s i m i l a r
t o one a n o th e r b u t d i f f e r e n t from th e o t h e r IQ g ro u p s. In
a d d i t i o n , th o s e who p la n t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e d i f f e r o b s e rv e d ly
from th e o th e r two gro u p s in s t e r e o t y p e s h e l d .
R e fe re n c e g ro u p . G e n e r a lly h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n s were
in e v id e n c e f o r th e v a r i a b l e o f r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s. Nine c o r
r e l a t i o n s were .90 or h i g h e r . Only one v a r i a b l e was not
s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e one p e r c e n t l e v e l , and i t was s i g n i f i
c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l .
122
Summary
W ith in th e fram ew ork o f th e t h r e e b o ra d c a t e g o r i e s of
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l man, e s s e n t i a l agreem en t i s found in s t e r e
o ty p in g f o r th e " p e r s o n a l man" and th e " s e r v i c e man,"
s l i g h t l y more f o r th e fo rm er t h a n f o r th e l a t t e r . C o n s i s t
ency and r e l a t i v e l y h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n l e v e l s were m a in ta in e d
f o r th e " r e c e i v i n g man" a l s o , w ith th e e x c e p ti o n of th e sub
sample of s o c i a l c l a s s . Here th e low er c l a s s d i f f e r s mark
e d ly from th e o t h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s f o r th e v a r i a b l e s of
pow er, p r e s t i g e , and s e c u r i t y . I t i s h e re t h a t th e o n ly
m ajor d i f f e r e n c e among s t e r e o t y p e s advanced in th e stu d y may
be o b s e r v e d . O th e r w is e , g e n e r a l l y , i t i s a group s t e r e o t y p e
which i s h e ld and not a s e r i e s of subgroup s t e r e o t y p e s .
An i n d i c a t i o n o f th e h ig h d e g re e of a s s o c i a t i o n be
tw een th e d i f f e r e n t su b sam p les f o r th e v a r i a b l e s may be seen
in th e f o l lo w in g t a b l e s . In t h e s e t a b l e s a r e l i s t e d th e
f i r s t and l a s t c h o ic e s f o r e ac h of t h e v a r i a b l e s f o r e a c h of
th e su b s a m p le s . R e g a rd in g f i r s t c h o i c e s ( f o r t h e s e p u r
p o s e s , d i s r e g a r d i n g t i e s ) , th e v a r i a b l e s of h o n e s t y , pow er,
i n d i v i d u a l a i d and th e r e f e r e n c e group v a r i a b l e show unanim
i t y . P r e p o n d e r a n t a g reem en t i s e v id e n c e d f o r th e v a r i a b l e s
o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e , p e r s o n a l i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , incom e,
community im provem ent, and g e n e r a l v a lu e t o th e community
r e g a r d l e s s o f su b sa m p le s. Even f o r th e v a r i a b l e s of p r e s
t i g e and s e c u r i t y , e s s e n t i a l a g reem en t i s a t t a i n e d .
R e g a rd in g th e l a s t c h o ic e o r lo w e s t ra n k e d p r o f e s -
123
TABLE 4
PROFESSIONS LISTED AS FIRST CHOICE*
Phys
i c a l
Appear
ance
P e rso n
a l i t y
I n t e l l i
gence
H onesty
P re s-
t i g e
Power
Sex
Male Phys C lerg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
Female
S o c i a l
BusEx C le rg y Phys C le rg y C le rg y C le rg y
C la s s
Upper BusEx C le rg y C olP ro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
Middle BusEx C le rg y C olP ro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
Lower BusEx Teach C olPro C le r g y C olPro C le rg y
IQ
I BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
I I BusEx C le rg y CP/Ph C le rg y Phys C le rg y
I I I BusEx SocWk Phys C le rg y Phys C le rg y
IV BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
V BusEx C le rg y C olP ro C le rg y C le rg y Cl/CP
C o lle g e
P la n s
Yes BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
No Phys C le rg y C olP ro C le rg y C le rg y C le rg y
? BusEx C le rg y C olP ro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
*As d e te rm in e d by t h e ra n k o r d e r o f p r o f e s s i o n s by
s u b s a m p le .
1 2 4
TABLE 4 — C o n tin u e d
Commu-
_ n i t y I n d i - Gen- R e f e r -
. V” Income Im- v i d u a l . _ e r a l ence
r y p ro v e - Aid Value Group
ment
Sex
Male SocWk Phys SocWk C le rg y C le r g y Phys
Female De n t Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
S o c i a l
C la s s
Upper De n t Phys SocWk C le rg y C le r g y P h /C l
M iddle Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
Lower Teach Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
IQ
I De n t BusEx SocWk C le rg y C le rg y C le r g y
I I Dent Phys C le rg y C le rg y C le r g y Phys
I I I Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le r g y Phys
IV C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
V SocWk Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
C o lle g e
P l a n s
Yes Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
No C le rg y Phys C le rg y C le rg y C le rg y C le r g y
? C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys
C le rg y
C le rg y
C le r g y
C le rg y
C le rg y
C le rg y
C le rg y
C le rg y
C le r g y
125
TABLE 5
PROFESSIONS LISTED AS LAST CHOICE*
Phys
i c a l
Appear
ance
P e rs o n
a l i t y
I n t e l l i
gence
Hone s ty
P re s-
t i g e
Power
Sex
Ma le
Female
SocWk
Engr
Engr
Engr
SocWk
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
SocWk
SocWk
Engr
Engr
S o c i a l
C la s s
Upper
M iddle
Lower
SocWk
Engr
SocWk
Engr
Dent
Engr
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
Engr
Engr
Dent
IQ
I
I I
I I I
IV
V
SocWk
SocWk
Engr
Engr
Engr
Dent
C olPro
BusEx
Engr
Engr
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
Dent
Dent
Dent
Engr
Engr
C o lle g e
P la n s
Yes
No
?
SocWk
Engr
Engr
Engr
Engr
Engr -
SocWk
SocWk
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
SocWk
SocWk
Teach
Engr
Engr
Engr
*As d e te rm in e d by t h e ra n k o r d e r o f p r o f e s s i o n s by
s u b s a m p le .
126
TABLE 5— C o n tin u e d
Secu
r i t y
Income
Commu
n i t y
Im
pro v e
ment
I n d i
v id u a l
Aid
A l t r u
ism
Gen
e r a l
Value
R e fe r
ence
Group
Sex
Male
Female
BusEx
BusEx
C le rg y
C le rg y
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
Bu sEx
BusEx
SocWk
BusEx
SocWk
S o c ia l
C la s s
Upper
M iddle
Lower
BusEx
Lawyer
BusEx
C le rg y
C le rg y
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
Lawyer
BusEx
BusEx
Teach
BusEx
BusEx
Engr
BusEx
BusEx
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
IQ
I
I I
I I I
IV
V
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
Phys
C lerg y
C le rg y
C le rg y
C le rg y
SocWk
Ph/BE
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
Bu sEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
SocWk
BusEx
Lawyer
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
C o lle g e
P la n s
Yes
No
?
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
C le rg y
C le rg y
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
Teach
SocWk
BusEx
BusEx
BusEx
127
s i o n s , th e v a r i a b l e of i n t e l l i g e n c e e v id e n c e unanim ous
a g re e m e n t. P r e p o n d e r a n t a g reem en t i s in e v id e n c e f o r th e
v a r i a b l e s o f h o n e s t y , p r e s t i g e , s e c u r i t y , community im prove
m ent, i n d i v i d u a l a i d , a l t r u i s m , and t h e r e f e r e n c e group v a r
i a b l e . E s s e n t i a l agreem en t may be o b s e rv e d f o r th e v a r i
a b l e s of p e r s o n a l i t y , pow er, incom e, and g e n e r a l v a lu e t o
t h e com m unity. The v a r i a b l e o f g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e
w itn e s s e d d is a g r e e m e n t w ith a lm o st e q u a l s e l e c t i o n o f two
o c c u p a ti o n s .
R e g a rd in g f i r s t ( h i g h e s t ) and l a s t ( lo w e s t) c h o ic e s ,
a g e n e r a l s t e r e o t y p e of p o l a r e x t r e m i t i e s f o r e ac h of th e
v a r i a b l e s a r i s i n g from th e b ro a d fram ework o f th e g e n e r a l
c a t e g o r i e s may be draw n.
W ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e " p e r s o n a l man," th e c l e r g y i s
r a t e d h i g h e s t f o r th e v a r i a b l e s of p e r s o n a l i t y and h o n e s t y ,
w h ile th e c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r r a t e s h i g h e s t in i n t e l l i g e n c e
and th e b u s i n e s s e x e c u ti v e in p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e . R eg ard
in g th e " r e c e i v i n g man," t h e p h y s i c i a n r a t e s h i g h e s t in
p r e s t i g e and incom e, th e c l e r g y in pow er, and th e d e n t i s t in
s e c u r i t y . R e f e r r i n g t o th e " s e r v i c e man," th e c l e r g y r a t e s
h i g h e s t in i n d i v i d u a l a id and a l t r u i s m and th e s o c i a l w orker
in community im provem ent w h ile t h e p h y s i c i a n i s r e g a r d e d a s
c o n t r i b u t i n g th e most t o t h e community by v i r t u e o f h i s
p r e s e n c e . The c l e r g y was u n a n im o u sly s e l e c t e d f o r th e r e f
e re n c e group v a r i a b l e .
In c o n n e c tio n w ith th e l a s t c h o i c e s f o r th e " p e r -
128
so n a l m an,” th e e n g in e e r and s o c i a l worker were most o f te n
l i s t e d f o r g e n e ra l p h y s ic a l a p p e a ra n c e , th e e n g in e e r most
o f te n m entioned f o r p e r s o n a l i t y , th e s o c i a l worker l a s t f o r
i n t e l l i g e n c e and th e b u s in e s s e x e c u tiv e f o r h o n e s ty . With
r e f e r e n c e t o th e " r e c e iv in g man," th e s o c i a l worker was
low est in p r e s t i g e , th e e n g in e e r low est in power, th e b u si
n e ss e x e c u tiv e low est f o r s e c u r i t y , and th e c le r g y low est in
income. R egarding th e " s e r v ic e man," th e b u s in e s s e x e c u tiv e
r a t e d low est in community improvement, i n d i v i d u a l a i d , a l
t r u is m , g e n e r a l v alue t o th e community, and a ls o f o r the
r e f e r e n c e group v a r i a b l e .
From th e two t a b l e s , i t i s p o s s ib l e t o determ ine
t h a t th e preponderance of l i s t i n g s f a l l t o two p r o f e s s i o n s ;
one f o r f i r s t c h o ice and one f o r l a s t . For e ac h , f i r s t
( h i g h e s t) and l a s t ( l o w e s t ) , t h e r e was a p o s s i b i l i t y of be
ing s e l e c te d 169 tim e s i f each subsample s e l e c te d th e same
p r o f e s s i o n f o r each v a r i a b l e . Of th e 169 p o s s i b i l i t i e s , th e
c le r g y was th e f i r s t ch o ice 86 tim e s; th e p h y s i c ia n , who was
second, was s e l e c te d 36 tim e s; th e b u s in e s s e x e c u tiv e was
s e l e c te d l a s t 7 8 -1 /2 tim e s (th e o n e -h a lf i s a r e s u l t of a
t i e f o r th e lo w est p o s i t i o n f o r a v a r i a b l e ) , and th e s o c i a l
w orker, th e second g r e a t e s t number of s e l e c t i o n s , was se
l e c te d 40 tim e s . From th e s e raw numbers and th e t a b l e s , a
g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of th e s t e r e o t y p e s may be seen , a p i c t u r e
somewhat more f u l l y developed in T able 6, Appendix b.
T h e r e fo r e , not only i s t h e r e a h ig h ly agreed upon
129
group s t e r e o t y p e s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n s as opposed t o d i f f e r i n g
subgroup s t e r e o t y p e s , but t h e r e are i d e n t i f i a b l e p r o f e s
s io n s which g a rn e r th e g r e a t e s t and l e a s t o v e r a l l r a t i n g s
from th e sam ple. The e x tre m e ly h igh d egree of agreem ent
w i t h in th e sample i s p e rh a p s th e most o u ts ta n d in g r e s u l t of
th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n to th e s t e r e o t y p e s of h ig h sch o o l
s e n i o r s .
E f f e c t s of S e r e n d ip ity
The t h r e e a s p e c t s or components of th e problem p ro
pounded in th e i n t r o d u c t i o n of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n have been
i n v e s t i g a t e d . However, t h e r e are c o n c o m ita n ts t o th e stu d y ,
a d d i t i o n a l d im en sio n s which were not plan ned f o r a t th e
in c e p ti o n o f th e stu d y b ut which have a r i s e n by v i r t u e of
i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e t h r e e a s p e c t s of th e problem .
The t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l f a c e t s or l o g i c a l e x te n s i o n s
or e x t r a p o l a t i o n s from th e r e s e a r c h problem which seem t o be
a p p a re n t a re as f o llo w s :
1. Com parison of s t e r e o t y p e s of h igh sc h o o l sen
i o r s and u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n ts .
2. I m p lic a tio n s f o r th e co n cep t of " s i t u s . "
3. I m p li c a t io n s f o r c o n f l i c t s w ith in g ro u p s.
I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t , w hile th e s e t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l
r e s u l t s were n o t in c lu d e d in th e o r i g i n a l d e s ig n of th e r e
s e a r c h , s t i l l , sin c e th e y a re r e s u l t a n t from th e r e s e a r c h
i n v e s t i g a t i o n and th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s in v o lv ed in sa id
130
r e s e a r c h , th e y have a r i g h t and p ro p e r p la c e in th e stu d y ,
and th e y a re t h e r e f o r e in c lu d e d .
Suggested r e l a t i o n s h i p of
s t e r e o t y p e s among h ig h sc h o o l
s e n i o r s and c o ll e g e s t u d e n ts
There may be fo u n d , in s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ,
v a r i o u s s t u d i e s of o c c u p a tio n a l r a n k in g s or images h e ld by
v a r io u s c a t e g o r i e s of i n d i v i d u a l s . Among th e most tim e ly i s
th e stu d y of McDonagh, Wermlund, and C row ther^ in v o lv in g
r a n k in g s of s e l e c t e d p r o f e s s i o n s on f o u r v a r i a b l e s by u n i
v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s . The q u e s tio n a r i s e s as t o what d e g re e of
a s s o c i a t i o n may be found betw een th e r a n k in g s o r p e r c e p t i o n
of p r o f e s s i o n s of u n i v e r s i t y a s compared t o h ig h sc h o o l s t u
d e n t s . From th e d a ta d ev eloped by McDonagh and th e d a ta
p r e s e n te d in t h i s s tu d y , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o draw i n f e r e n c e s
r e g a r d in g th e d e g re e o f a s s o c i a t i o n .
The u n i v e r s i t y stu d y u t i l i z e d e i g h t p r o f e s s i o n s ,
seven o f which a re th e same as th o s e in c lu d e d in th e n in e -
p r o f e s s i o n stu d y o f h ig h sc h o o l s e n i o r s , ^t i s p o s s ib l e to
develop a ra n k o rd e r u t i l i z i n g only th e s e seven p r o f e s s i o n s
f o r b o th s t u d i e s . The prob lem s in h e r e n t in t h i s p ro ce d u re
a r e , i t i s s u g g e s te d , overshadowed by in f o r m a tio n which may
be o b ta in e d and th e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t i t i s i n f e r e n c e s which
^Edward C. McDonagh, Sven Wermlund and John F.
C ro w th e r, " R e la tiv e P r o f e s s i o n a l S t a t u s as P e rc e iv e d by
American and Swedish U n i v e r s i t y S t u d e n t s , " S o c i a l F o r c e s .
XXXVIII (O c to b e r, 1959), 6 5 -6 9 .
a re b e in g made and n o t d e f i n i t i v e s t a te m e n t s .
The f o u r v a r i a b l e s employed i n th e c o l l e g e stu d y
were " p r e s t i g e , " " u s e f u ln e s s t o s o c i e t y , " " i n t e l l e c t u a l
a b i l i t y , " and "m oral d e v ia n c y ." I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t t h e r e
a re f o u r v a r i a b l e s in th e h ig h sc h o o l stu d y which c o rre s p o n d
t o th e ab ove-m en tio n ed v a r i a b l e s . In th e h ig h sc h o o l s tu d y ,
" p r e s t i g e " was u t i l i z e d which c o rr e s p o n d s t o th e v a r i a b l e of
p r e s t i g e i n th e u n i v e r s i t y s tu d y , a s d oes th e v a r i a b l e of
i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y . The u n i v e r s i t y v a r i a b l e , " u s e f u l n e s s
t o s o c i e t y , " i s e q u a te d w ith th e h ig h sc h o o l v a r i a b l e , "gen
e r a l v a lu e t o th e com m unity." The c o l l e g e v a r i a b l e , "m oral
d e v ia n c y ," i s e q u a te d w ith th e h ig h sc h o o l stu d y v a r i a b l e ,
" h o n e s ty ," by v i r t u e o f th e f o llo w in g r e a s o n s : i t i s t a k e n
t h a t " h o n e s ty ," p e r s e , im p lie s a b ro a d e r c a te g o r y which may
be e n t i t l e d " m o r a l i t y ; " i t i s f u r t h e r ta k e n t h a t t o ra n k
o r d e r , a s in t h e c o l l e g e s tu d y , i n t e n s i t y o f c e n s u re f o r
m oral d e v ia n c y , im p lie s m o r a lity in t h a t th o s e t o whom th e
most " m o r a lity " i s im puted w i l l be most c e n s u re d f o r v i o l a t
ing th e im puted m o r a l i t y . In s h o r t , i t i s assumed f o r p u r
p o se s of c o r r e l a t i o n s t h a t th e "amount o f m o r a lity " im puted
t o a group i s d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e amount of c e n s u re
g iv e n f o r v i o l a t i n g m oral norm s.
The c o r r e l a t i o n s of th e h ig h s c h o o l sample and th e
c o l l e g e sample f o r th e f o u r v a r i a b l e s were a s f o llo w s :
P r e s t i g e .50
G e n e ra l Value - U s e f u ln e s s .58
132
I n t e l l e c t u a l A b i l i t y .97
M o r a l i t y - M oral D eviancy .8 2
D e f i n i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i l l
n o t be in c lu d e d h e r e . R a t h e r , th e main p u rp o se f o r s e t t i n g
f o r t h th e c o r r e l a t i o n s i s f o r p o s s i b l e use a p a r t from t h i s
s tu d y . However, i t sh o u ld be m entio ned t h a t th e v a r i a b l e o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e may be one w hich i s c o n s t a n t th ro u g h h ig h
sc h o o l and i n t o c o l l e g e ; a v a r i a b l e w hich i s " s e t " e a r l y and
c h an g e s l i t t l e . To a l e s s e r e x t e n t , t h i s i s t r u e o f th e
v a r i a b l e o f m o r a l i t y . The v a r i a b l e s o f p r e s t i g e and g e n e r a l
u s e f u l n e s s , on th e o t h e r h a n d , v a ry and i n d i c a t e t h a t
ch an g e s may be th e r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e d "knowledge" o f s o c i
e t y , o f th e o c c u p a tio n s th e m s e lv e s , and o f a c h a n g in g o r i e n
t a t i o n in sy ste m s o f v a l u e s .
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r th e c o n c e p t
o f s i t u s
A m ajor a s p e c t of th e c o n te n t segm ent o f th e r e
s e a rc h in v o lv i n g s t e r e o t y p e s which h a s n o t b e en d i s c u s s e d
i s th e s e g m e n ta liz in g of a s e r i e s o f o c c u p a tio n s and th e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s i t u s e s , e s p e c i a l l y of " c l a s s i c a l s i t u s e s . "
W hether by e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o r by s e l f - e v i d e n t maxims,
i t h a s come t o be a c c e p te d t h a t c e r t a i n p r o f e s s i o n s a re
th o u g h t t o "go t o g e t h e r . " P e rh a p s th e most w id e ly known
example r e f e r s t o th o s e w hich were o r i g i n a l l y known a s " th e
p r o f e s s i o n s , " i n c l u d i n g p h y s i c i a n s , la w y e r s , and th e c l e r g y .
These t h r e e p r o f e s s i o n s have been s e t a p a r t a s s e p a r a t e from
133
o th e r o c c u p a tio n s a s p o s s e s s in g a t t r i b u t e s d i f f e r e n t from
o t h e r s and t h e r e f o r e d iv id e d " n a t u r a l l y " from o t h e r occupa
t i o n s . However, th e " n a t u r a l n e s s " of t h i s i s q u e s tio n a b le
when i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e o c c u p a tio n s which do go t o g e t h e r
w ith r e g a r d t o th e v a r i a b l e s in c lu d e d h e r e i n . R a th e r th a n
r e p e t i t i v e p a t t e r n s o f s i m i l a r "going t o g e t h e r s , " th e r e
s u l t s i n d i c a t e many d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s . Below, l i s t e d
f o r e a c h o f th e v a r i a b l e s , a re th e modal c o m b in a tio n s of th e
v a r i o u s subsam ples of f i r s t and second c h o ic e s on th e one
hand, and e ig h t h and n i n th c h o ic e s on th e o t h e r , which seems
t o i n d i c a t e a number of d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s r a t h e r th a n
th e i s o l a t i o n o f c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d and c o n s t a n t p r o f e s s i o n s
from o t h e r s .
H iq h e s t Lowe s t
G e n e ra l P h y s i
c a l A ppearance
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e S o c i a l Worker
P h y s i c i a n E n g in e e r
P e r s o n a l i t y C le rg y C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
S o c i a l Worker E n g in e er
I n t e l l i g e n e e C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
P h y s i c i a n S o c i a l Worker
H onesty C le rg y B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r Lawyer
P r e s t i g e ^ P h y s ic ia n School T eacher
C le rg y S o c i a l Worker
Power C le rg y E n g in e e r
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r D e n t i s t
134
H iq h e s t Lowest
S e c u r i t y D e n t i s t B u s in e s s E x ecu tiv e
C le rg y P h y s i c i a n
Income P h y s ic ia n S o c i a l Worker
B u s in e s s E x ec u tiv e C le rg y
Community S o c i a l Worker B u s in e s s E x ec u tiv e
Improvement
C le rg y P h y s i c i a n
I n d i v i d u a l Aid ♦ C le rg y E n g in e e r
P h y s i c i a n B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
A ltr u is m S o c i a l Worker B u s in e s s E x ec u tiv e
C le rg y E n g in e e r
G e n e ra l Value ♦ P h y s ic ia n S o c i a l Worker
C le rg y B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
R e fe re n c e Group C le rg y B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
School T ea ch e r E n g in e e r
♦Dyads composed of a c o m b in a tio n of th e " c l a s s i c a l
p r o f e s s i o n s .
A lthough th e complex of " c l a s s i c a l p r o f e s s i o n s "
makes up o n e - t h i r d o f th e t o t a l p r o f e s s i o n s i n v e s t i g a t e d
( t h r e e o f n i n e ) , i n o n ly t h r e e of t w e n t y - s i x p o s s i b l e p a i r s
i
were any two of th e t h r e e r a t e d t o g e t h e r . I f only th e h ig h
e s t r a n k i n g s were c o n s i d e r e d , th e t o t a l i s s t i l l o n ly t h r e e
of t h i r t e e n . With r e f e r e n c e t o s i t u s e s in g e n e r a l , la c k of
r e p e t i t i o n of th e same dyads i s e v id e n t sin c e of th e tw e n ty -
s i x d y a d ic r e l a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d abo v e, f i f t e e n were n o n - re -
p e t i t i v e . The e le v e n d y ad ic r e l a t i o n s which were r e p e t i t i v e
135
were sp re ad among f i v e d i f f e r e n t p a i r s . T h e r e fo r e , i t may
be con clu d ed t h a t in a d d i t i o n t o th e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e con
t e n t of s t e r e o t y p e s may be added r e s u l t s not d i r e c t l y r e
l a t e d t o th e problem , t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l s i t u s g ro u p in g s may
be v a l i d only i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s . However, i t seems
p o s s i b l e t h a t when c o n s id e r in g th e components of th e p ro
f e s s i o n a l image, th e p r o f e s s i o n s g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e r e d of th e
same s i t u s do n o t , of n e c e s s i t y , "go t o g e t h e r . "
I m p li c a t io n s f o r i n t r a - a r o u p
c o n f l i c t (Theory of' L a t e n t -
Based C o n f l i c t s )
P e rv a d in g th e d i s s e r t a t i o n to t h i s p o i n t have been
th e c o n c e p ts and " th e o ry " of r e f e r e n c e gro u p s and a se a rc h
f o r d is c o v e r y o f v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group se
l e c t i o n . The " a b i l i t y to " o r " re a so n f o r th e " se a rc h f o r
v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n i s based
upon a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y . The em pir
i c a l r e s e a r c h and th e " re a s o n f o r i t " i s a d e r i v a t i o n from
th e th e o r y i t s e l f w ith purp o se to add t o , sup plem en t, th e
t h e o r y . I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t a c r i t i c a l c o n c e p t u n d e rly in g
th e r e s e a r c h i s t h a t of " p e r c e p t i o n ." B a s i c a l l y , th e r e
se a rc h d e a l s w ith how p e rs o n s view a s i t u a t i o n ; what th e y
assume a re th e a t t r i b u t e s of a c a te g o r y or g r o u p - ty p e .
W ithin a framework of a lo o s e ly c o n s t r u c t e d t h e o r y ,
p e r c e p t i o n s of p r o f e s s i o n s r e l a t e d t o s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s
have been a s c e r t a i n e d . V a rio u s of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s have been
136
p o s i t e d a s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n , and i t i s
i n f e r r e d t h a t g ro u p s w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s h o ld t o
t h e s e v a r i a b l e s w ith th e same d e g re e o f i n t e n s i t y a s th e
i n d i v i d u a l a re more l i k e l y t o be s e l e c t e d a s r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p s t h a n th o s e w hich do n o t . These c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s ,
c r i t i c a l f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n ,
a r e , i t i s s u g g e s te d , i n c u l c a t e d i n t o th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s v a lu e
sy ste m . What w i l l be d e a l t w ith h e re i s an im p o r ta n t e x t e n
sio n o f o r d e r i v a t i o n from r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y and a l
th o u g h n o t a component of th e o r i g i n a l p ro b le m , h a s a p r o p e r
p la c e i n th e d i s s e r t a t i o n b e ca u se o f i t s p o t e n t i a l impor
ta n c e i n any r e s e a r c h i n v o lv in g r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s .
The s t im u lu s f o r th e e x t e n s i o n of th e t h e o r y i s
t h i s : What a re th e e f f e c t s of a s i t u a t i o n i p which th e group
do es n o t have t h e v a lu e system w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l p e r
c e i v e s i t t o have and in so p e r c e i v i n g i t h a s s e l e c t e d t h a t
group a s a r e f e r e n t ?
What i s p r e s e n t e d c o n c e rn in g t h i s s u b j e c t i s an "ex
p l o r a t o r y t h e o r y , " a s u g g e s te d s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r r e s e a r c h
in th e a r e a , to o b ro ad t o be a s e t o f h y p o th e s e s , y e t not
s t r u c t u r e d s e v e r e l y enough t o m e r it th e name " t h e o r y . " The
word i s u s e d , how ever, f o r w ant o f a b e t t e r o n e . What ap
p e a r s below i s an e x t e n s i o n and d e r i v a t i o n from th e " G e n e ra l
T heory of R e fe re n c e G roups" and a p p e a rs u n d e r th e name of
th e "T heory o f L a te n t- B a s e d C o n f l i c t s . " The t h e o r y p u r p o r t s
t o be c o n c e rn e d w ith i n d i v i d u a l s ' r e l a t i o n s w ith g ro u p s o f
137
which he i s a member, su b -g ro u p r e l a t i o n s w ith su b -g ro u p s ,
and, g e n e r a l l y , w ith th e c o n f l i c t o f t e n a t t e n d a n t t o t h e s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
I t i s , o f c o u r s e , e v id e n t t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a demon
s t r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e c o n c e p t, " i n d i v i d u a l , " and
th e c o n c e p t, " g ro u p ." (Df. group: a number o f i n d i v i d u a l s
who may be d e a l t w ith o r c o n ce iv e d by an i n d i v i d u a l a s a
u n i t by v i r t u e of a v a r i a b l e or number of v a r i a b l e s . ) A
m a n i f e s t a t i o n of th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e i n d i v i d u a l and
th e group i s seen in t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l (x) and th e group
(y) (of which x may o r may not be a member o f y) may not be
in t o t a l a c c o rd r e g a r d i n g v a lu e system s or com plexes of
g o a l s . The d i f f e r e n c e in v a lu e system s betw een i n d i v i d u a l
and group i s b e t t e r c o n c e p tu a li z e d a s c o n tin u o u s r a t h e r th a n
d i s c r e t e , and may be d e m o n s tra te d t h u s l y :
I f th e i n d i v i d u a l does p o s s e s s th e u n i t by which a
number of i n d i v i d u a l s i s d e s ig n a te d a s a group by g e n e r a l
agreem ent of a p o p u l a t i o n , th e n th e i n d i v i d u a l may be con
s id e r e d a member of t h a t group c o n ti n g e n t upon th e f a c t
t h a t :
The c a t e g o r i z i n g u n i t which may be p o s s e s s e d by th e
i n d i v i d u a l i s n o t d i s c r e t e b u t c o n tin u o u s in t h a t i t
may be p o s s e s s e d i n g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g re e s by
i n d i v i d u a l 2 ( l z ) th a n by i n d i v i d u a l a ( I - ,) .
T h e r e f o r e , i t may be s a id t h a t t h e r e a re g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r
d e g re e s of commitment t o th e group by th e i n d i v i d u a l s de-
138
pendent upon th e i n t e n s i t y of t h e i r commitment t o th e c a t e
g o r iz in g u n i t .
I t may be a cc ep ted t h a t by v i r t u e of th e complex of
s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s in a g iv en s o c i a l a r e a , th e i n d iv i d u a l i s
c o g n iz a n t of th e f a c t t h a t he must a s s o c i a t e t o some d eg ree
w ith o th e r i n d i v i d u a l s and, by i m p l i c a ti o n , w ith a number of
i n d i v i d u a l s which may be c a te g o r iz e d by v i r t u e of some u n i t
( t h e r e f o r e a g ro u p ). I t i s a ls o h e ld t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s r e a l
ize t h a t t h e r e are a d v an tag e s and l i a b i l i t i e s t o b e in g : (1)
an i n d i v i d u a l , not a member of a group; (a) an i n d i v i d u a l ,
member of a group.
Because groups do e x i s t , because th e i n d iv i d u a l must
d e a l w ith them , and because th e r e are a s s e t s to b eing a mem
ber of a group, i n d i v i d u a l s c o n s c io u s ly a tte m p t to become
members of g ro u p s. Because t h e r e are l i a b i l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d
w ith group membership, th e i n d i v i d u a l r e s i s t s t o t a l i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n ( t o t a l a s s i m i l a t i o n ) w ith th e group. With t h i s in
mind, th e i n d iv i d u a l s e l e c t s gro u p s f o r membership based
upon maximizing th e a s s e t s of membership and m inim izing th e
l i a b i l i t i e s . The i n d iv i d u a l w i l l base h i s s e l e c t i o n o f a
group upon th e f a c t o r of demands imposed by th e group a s p e r
ceiv ed by th e i n d i v i d u a l . (D f. demands: a n y th in g which th e
group w ish es th e i n d i v i d u a l t o give t o th e group and which
th e i n d i v i d u a l does n o t wish t o g i v e .)
1. The i n d i v i d u a l w i l l seek out th e group which de
mands l e a s t of th e i n d i v i d u a l .
139
2. The i n d i v i d u a l w i l l a tt e m p t t o m inim ize th e de
mands of th e group c h o s e n .
The group se e k s t o maximize th e demands upon th e i n d i v i d u a l
f o r in m axim izing th e dem ands, i t s e e k s t o e q u a l i z e (and
t o t a l i z e ) th e i n t e n s i t y of commitment t o th e c a t e g o r i z i n g
u n i t among i t s members. By so e q u a l i z i n g (and t o t a l i z i n g )
t h i s i n t e n s i t y , th e group l e s s e n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t r a
group c o n f l i c t and t e n d s t o maximize i t s c o h e s io n , hence i t s
i n f l u e n c e , o v e r i t s members (w hich i t s e e k s t o r e g a r d a s
one) and t o maximize i t s power p o t e n t i a l i n r e l a t i o n s w ith
o t h e r g r o u p s .
To r e c a p i t u l a t e b a s i c o r fu n d a m e n ta l p o i n t s :
1. G roups depend upon i n d i v i d u a l s f o r e x i s t e n c e
s i n c e , w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e r e c a n n o t be
g ro u p s .
2. I n d i v i d u a l s depend upon g r o u p s , s in c e th e v a lu e
t o th e i n d i v i d u a l of a s s o c i a t i n g w ith some
g r o u p ( s ) i s p e r c e i v e d a s g r e a t e r t h a n n o t be
lo n g in g t o some g r o u p ( s ) .
3 . A b a s i c s t r u g g l e e x i s t s betw een th e i n d i v i d u a l
and th e g ro u p .
a . The group s e e k s t o maximize th e demands upon
th e i n d i v i d u a l .
b . The i n d i v i d u a l s e e k s t o m inim ize th e demands
p l a c e d upon him by t h e g ro u p .
W hile t h i s " b a s i c s t r u g g l e " i s c o n c e rn e d w ith maxi-
m iz in g v e r s u s m in im iz in g dem ands, t h e r e i s a n u n d e r l y i n g
l a t e n t r e a l i z a t i o n w hich makes th e s t r u g g l e b etw een th e i n
d i v i d u a l and th e group " b a s i c . " The r e a l i z a t i o n i s t h i s :
th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e group a r e b o th aware t h a t t h e o t h e r
c a r r i e s th e " s e e d s of d e s t r u c t i o n " f o r i t s e l f . The i n d i v i d
u a l r e a l i z e s he c a n n o t lo n g e x i s t w i t h o u t b e in g a member o f
some g ro u p — a g ro up w hich s e e k s t o a s s i m i l a t e him t o t a l l y
and d e p r i v e him o f h i s i d e n t i t y . The g ro u p r e a l i z e s t h a t i t
c a n n o t e x i s t w i t h o u t i n d i v i d u a l s and t h a t i t s i n f l u e n c e i s
d e p e n d e n t upon t h e d e g re e of commitment i t can o b t a i n from
t h e i n d i v i d u a l . The s t r u g g l e e x i s t s betw een t h e group w hich
s e e k s t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o t a l l y and th e i n d i v i d
u a l s e e k in g t o re m a in a s much a p a r t fro m th e group a s i s
p o s s i b l e w h ile s t i l l m ax im izin g t h e a s s e t s t o be d e r i v e d
fro m g ro u p m em bership. I t i s t r u e t h a t e ac h r e a l i z e s t h a t
e a c h i s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e o t h e r , y e t , a l s o , e a c h r e a l i z e s
t h a t i t must s t r u g g l e f o r i t s " l i f e " s i n c e th e d e s i r e s o f
e a c h r u n c o u n t e r t o th e o t h e r . S in c e t h i s b a s i c s t r u g g l e
d o e s e x i s t , i t may be s a i d t h a t th e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c o n f l i c t
b etw een i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s do e x i s t . T h i s may be i d e a l
iz e d i n th e s t a t e m e n t , " I n d i v i d u a l v e r s u s G ro u p ."
T hree fo rm s of c o n f l i c t may be c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n
v o lv in g th e m e m b e r - in d iv id u a l and th e g r o u p , and t h e sub
group and s u b -g ro u p :
1. The i n d i v i d u a l v s . t h e g ro u p .
2. A number o f i n d i v i d u a l s v s . t h e g ro u p .
141
3. The t o t a l number o f i n d i v i d u a l s v s . th e g ro u p .
B asic t o th e d i s c u s s i o n of c o n f l i c t i s th e f a c t
t h a t , f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l , th e ty p e of group which b e s t maxi
m izes th e a s s e t s of group membership and i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i t y
i s t h a t group w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e s h o ld s th e v a lu e
system most s i m i l a r t o h i s own. T h is t e n d s t o m inim ize th e
demands of th e i n d i v i d u a l . The so le way th e i n d i v i d u a l may
" b e lie v e " t h a t th e group h o ld s th e same v a lu e s a s he d o e s i s
to p e r c e iv e t h a t i t d o e s . I t sh o u ld be remembered t h a t th e
group may or may n o t p e r c e iv e t h a t i t h o ld s or does n o t h o ld
th e same v a lu e s a s th e i n d i v i d u a l . A lthou gh each of th e two
n e g a t iv e s (may n o t , does n o t h o ld ) may be in f a c t , th e group
may a c c e p t th e i n d i v i d u a l a s member i n ho pes of r e o r i e n t i n g
him.
The i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t s gro u p s n o t on th e b a s i s of
h i s t o t a l v a lu e s t r u c t u r e , b u t r a t h e r w ith r e g a r d t o th e
c a t e g o r i z i n g ( g r o u p iz in g ) u n i t and v a r i a b l e s a t t e n d a n t t o
i t .
The i n d i v i d u a l may p e r c e iv e t h a t s e v e r a l of th e
g r o u p 's v a lu e s a re d i f f e r e n t from h i s own b u t w i l l
s t i l l s e l e c t th e group becau se o f p e rc e iv e d s i m i l a r
i t y betw een h im s e lf and th e group r e g a r d i n g th e
u n i t ' s c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s . These v a r i a b l e s o v e r r i d e
n e g a tiv e c o n n o t a t i o n s a t t a c h e d t o n o n - c r i t i c a l v a r i
a b l e s .
Since p e r f e c t good ness of f i t ( i n d i v i d u a l ' s v a lu e
,s '
142
system and g r o u p 's v alue system are th e same) does not oc
c u r , the i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t s groups upon b e s t a p p ro x im atio n s
of goodness of f i t as he p e r c e iv e s i t . The im portance of
th e s e p e r c e p t i o n s may be seen in t h a t th e p e r c e p tio n s of
value system s do not n e c e s s a r i l y a g re e . The v i t a l f a c t o r in
the p ro m u lg a tio n of c o n f l i c t may be seen in t h a t th e i n d i
v id u a l may p e rc e iv e th e g r o u p 's value system t o be th e same
as h i s own, when i t may be d eterm in ed t h a t i t i s n o t.
The u n rec o g n ize d d isa g ree m e n t in p e rc e p tio n of value
system s (h e re d e s ig n a te d as l a t e n t d isa g ree m e n t) may give
r i s e t o one of t h r e e ty p e s of c o n f l i c t s i d e n t i f i e d as:
1. S e l f - d e p r e c i a t i o n ( i n d i v i d u a l v s. th e g ro u p ).
2. Group b i f u r c a t i o n ( in tr a - g r o u p c o n f l i c t ) .
3. Group d e m o r a liz a tio n ( t o t a l group c o n f l i c t ) .
Each of th e t h r e e ty p e s of c o n f l i c t r e s t s upon t h r e e
n e c e ssa ry c o n d it i o n s :
1. The value system s of th e group and th e i n d i v i d
u a l are n ot in e s s e n t i a l agreem ent (a s m an ifested
in the e f f e c t s on th e two u n i t s ) .
2. The i n d iv i d u a l p e rc e iv e s th e two value system s
t o be in e s s e n t i a l agreem ent a t th e o u t s e t .
3. The i n d i v i d u a l , when inv olved w ith th e group,
and when value system s d i s a g r e e , o p e r a te s under
one of t h r e e value fram eworks.
a . The i n d iv i d u a l fo llo w s the g r o u p 's value
system and r e a l i z e s he i s v i o l a t i n g h i s own
143
(w hich he p e r c e i v e s t o be t h e same a s th e
g r o u p 's ) .
b . The i n d i v i d u a l f o l lo w s h i s own v a lu e system
and r e a l i z e s he i s v i o l a t i n g th e g r o u p 's
(w hich he p e r c e i v e s t o be th e same a s h i s
ow n).
c . The i n d i v i d u a l f o l l o w s h i s own v a lu e system
and r e a l i z e s he i s v i o l a t i n g th e g r o u p 's
v a lu e system (w hich he p e r c e i v e s t o be d i f
f e r e n t from h i s ow n).
S e p a r a t e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r e a c h of th e t y p e s
o f c o n f l i c t a re a s f o l lo w s :
S e I f - d e p r e c i a t i o n . I f th e i n d i v i d u a l c o n t i n u e s t o
be unaware of th e o p p o sin g v a lu e sy ste m s o p e r a t i v e , he r e a l
i z e s he i s n o t o n ly v i o l a t i n g h i s own v a lu e sy ste m , b u t he
p e r c e i v e s he i s v i o l a t i n g th e g r o u p 's and hence i s n o t max
im iz in g th e a s s e t s of group membership b u t , r a t h e r , th e
l i a b i l i t i e s .
1. He p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f , not th e g ro u p , a s th e
c a u se o f th e i n v e r s e m ax im iz in g .
2. He and th e group a re in c o n f l i c t t o th e e x t e n t
t h a t th e o r i g i n a l s t r u g g l e of m axim izing and
m in im iz in g demands which was am enable t o some
compromise i s now so changed t h a t no compromise
may be e f f e c t e d . N e ith e r th e i n d i v i d u a l n o r th e
144
group r e c e i v e s b e n e f i t s from th e i n d i v i d u a l 's
group m em bership, b u t, r a t h e r , l i a b i l i t i e s .
3. The r e s u l t o f t h i s u n re c o g n iz e d d is a g re e m e n t in
v a lu e system s may r e s u l t in an anomic s i t u a t i o n
f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l , w ith a r e s u l t a n t i s o l a t i o n
o f him from most g ro u p s.
Group b i f u r c a t i o n ( i n t r a - g r o u p c o n f l i c t ) . I f th e
i n d i v i d u a l becomes aware t h a t th e p e r c e iv e d agreem ent in
v a lu e system s i s in f a c t e r r o n e o u s , b u t t h a t th e group i s a
s u i t a b l e v e h i c l e f o r th e r e a l i z a t i o n of h i s own v a lu e sy s
tem w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e g r o u p - c a t e g o r i z i n g u n i t , i n t r a
group c o n f l i c t w i l l o c c u r:
1. Because th e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l seek t o impose h i s
v a lu e system on th e g ro u p .
2. I f t h e r e a re a number of i n d i v i d u a l s whose v a lu e
system s a re n o t p e r c e iv e d by th e m s e lv e s a s
a g r e e in g w ith th e g r o u p 's (b u t a re n o t n e c e s s a r
i l y s i m i l a r t h e m s e lv e s ) .
a . The " g e n e r a l l y d i s i l l u s i o n e d " members w i l l
u n i t e und er th e " s p e c i f i c a l l y d i s i l l u s i o n e d "
member and c o n f l i c t w i l l ensue betw een t h i s
su b -g ro u p and th e su b -g ro u p of " s a t i s f i e d "
members.
b . The r e s u l t s may be t h a t th e group i t s e l f as
o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d may c e a s e t o e x i s t in
145
t h a t i t c e a s e s t o be c a t e g o r i z e d by th e u n i t
x and hence c e a s e s t o be a group in t h i s
r e s p e c t and commences t o be c a t e g o r i z e d by
d e r i v a t i o n s o r v a r i a t i o n s of x, such a s
u n i t s x^ and X2 and t h e r e f o r e becomes two
g ro u p s .
Group d e m o r a li z a t io n ( t o t a l group c o n f l i c t ) . I f th e
v a lu e system a t t e n d a n t t o th e c a t e g o r i z i n g u n i t i s imposed
by an e n t i t y o u t s i d e th e group and th e members of th e group
become aware t h a t th e p e r c e iv e d s i m i l a r i t y in v a lu e system s
i s e r r o n e o u s , t o t a l group c o n f l i c t may ensue a g a i n s t th e
e x t e r n a l v a lu e system and th e group (com pared w ith th e p a s t
group s i t u a t i o n ) w i l l be d e m o ra liz e d .
The r e s u l t s may be t h a t th e group r e j e c t s th e v a lu e
system imposed from w ith o u t and hence th e group c e a s e s t o
e x i s t in t h a t i t no lo n g e r a s s o c i a t e s on th e b a s i s of v a r i
a b le x (which i s in p a r t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e a t t e n d a n t
v a lu e s y s te m ) .
Summary
P r e v i o u s l y , th e im p o rtan ce of s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n h a s
been d i s c u s s e d in c o n n e c tio n w ith r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y and
s e l e c t i o n . As an im p o rta n t e x t e n s i o n or d e r i v a t i o n from
t h i s , d is a g re e m e n t in p e r c e p t i o n i n c o n n e c tio n w ith r e f e r
ence group s e l e c t i o n h a s been d is c u s s e d w i t h i n th e framework
of a t h e o r y f o r p u r p o s e s of more co m plete i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
146
v a r io u s p r o c e s s e s attendant" t o th e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t of r e f e r
ence g ro u p s.
In t h i s c h a p t e r , v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a problem have
been d is c u s s e d which p e r t a i n not only t o th e problem d i r e c t
l y , b u t a ls o t o more b ro ad a r e a s of s o c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t .
I t i s n o t th e purpose of th e summary t o p r e s e n t a r e c a p i t u
l a t i o n of th e m ajor f i n d i n g s ; r a t h e r , t h i s w i l l be accom
p l is h e d in th e c o n c lu d in g c h a p t e r . What a p p e a rs below i s a
s e r i e s of diagram s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e form o f what h a s been
acc o m p lish e d . In t h i s way, i t i s p o s s ib l e t o d em o n stra te
most c l e a r l y th e r e l a t i o n of th e p a r t s of th e study t o th e
whole s tu d y .
T h is r e s e a r c h to o k th e f o llo w in g form:
1. From a number of only p a r t i a l l y i n t e g r a t e d
s t a te m e n t s , i t h as been p o s s ib l e t o develop nine i n t e r r e
l a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s o r com ponents, w hich, when ta k e n t o g e t h e r ,
may be c a l l e d " r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y ."
P a r t i a l l y I n t e g r a t e d S ta te m e n ts
RGT
1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8
9
2. From t h i s com plex, an e m p i r ic a l problem was de
duced, from which su g g e ste d answ ers m ight be o b ta in e d which
147
would supplem ent th e th e o r y i n i t s p r e s e n t form . The p ro b
lem (P) in v o lv e d d e te rm in in g v a r i a b l e s of p o t e n t i a l l y c r i t
i c a l im portance in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n . The su g g ested
answer (SA) f o r th e problem was in th e form of t h r e e v a r i
a b le s p o s i t e d a s m eeting th e r e q u ire m e n ts of a su g g e ste d
answer t o th e problem and two v a r i a b l e s which may, p o s s i b l y ,
be components o f th e su g g e ste d answer t o th e problem . (A
second problem ( ( P ^ ) , n ot r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o th e f i r s t , but
which was u t i l i z e d t o d ev elo p d a ta f o r th e prime problem ,
was an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s t e r e o t y p e s ( S t ) . )
RGT
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9
P — > SA ( 1 . 2 , 3 / 4 , 5 ) | |
3. T h e r e f o r e , t e n t a t i v e l y , th e th e o r y may be ex
panded t o in c lu d e an a d d i t i o n a l f a c e t , t h u s l y : (th e f a c e t i s
only su g g e ste d not proved t o be a component of th e t h e o r y ) .
RGt
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 rio]
PI - ¥
I I
I I
I <
I *
4 . S e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t s (SE^) of th e r e s e a r c h a re
in e v id e n ce and a re in c lu d e d becau se of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p
148
( i n v a ry in g d e g re e s ) to th e prob lem a t han d. The f i r s t and
second e f f e c t s ( u n i v e r s i t y and h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n t s ' images
and th e s t u d y 's i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s i t u s r e s e a r c h ) a re n o t de-
deveped in th e p a p e r more th a n by s ta te m e n t o f o b se rv ed r e
r e s u l t s . The i m p l i c a t i o n s of ~the r e s u l t s a re n o t c o n s id e r e d
germane t o th e g e n e r a l pro b lem . T h e r e f o r e , i n th e d ia g ra m ,
th e y may be p r e s e n te d a s most c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o s o c i o l o g i
c a l c o n c e p ts n o t h e r e i n c o n s i d e r e d .
RGT
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 jiol____________
5. The t h i r d s e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t (Theory of L a t e n t -
Based C o n f l i c t s ) i s more f u l l y d e v elo p ed b ecause of i t s sug
g e s te d im p o rtan ce in r e f e r e n c e group i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t i s a
r e s u l t o f th e s tim u lu s p ro v id e d by th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of .
r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y and th e e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n and i s an ex
t e n s i o n of t h i s . I t s form i s p r e s e n t e d below in a d iag ra m
which p u r p o r t s t o i l l u s t r a t e th e g e n e r a l r e s u l t a n t form of
th e d i s s e r t a t i o n .
: : > s e x-
149
RGT
SE
S t P
1
TLBC
1__
4” 5 6
T h is , t h e n , i s th e form of th e d i s s e r t a i o n a s op
posed t o th e c o n t e n t . The d iag ra m s of th e form p u r p o r t t o
d e m o n s tra te th e developm ent o f th e r e s e a r c h and th e r e s u l t
a n t e x p a n sio n o f th e r e s e a r c h beyond th e o r i g i n a l i n t e n t due
t o th e s e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t . I t may be s a i d t h a t t h i s i s th e
form , th e o u t l i n e , th e s t r u c t u r e , of th e r e s e a r c h . In th e
c o n c lu d in g c h a p t e r , th e c o n te n t of s a id r e s e a r c h i s summar
iz e d .
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The o rg a n iz a tio n of t h i s c h a p te r i s as fo llo w s :
Summary of p ro c e d u re s p r e c i p i t a t i n g r e s u l t s ,
Summary of r e s u l t s , and
G en eral c o n c lu s io n s and i m p l i c a ti o n s f o r f u tu r e
r e s e a r c h ,
Summary of P ro c e d u re s
P r e c i p i t a t i n g R e s u lts
In th e i n tr o d u c ti o n to th e d i s s e r t a t i o n , t h r e e in
t e r r e l a t e d problem s were proposed:
1. The r e c o n s t r u c t r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y .
2. To i s o l a t e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s o p e ra tiv e in- th e
s e l e c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s.
3. To c o n s tr u c t images or s t e r e o t y p e s of s e le c te d
p r o f e s s i o n s by use of v a rio u s v a r i a b l e s and to
analy ze not only th e c o n te n t but a ls o th e form.
The g e n e r a l purpose of i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e t h r e e problem s was,
by t h e i r r e s u l t s , t o a id in f u l f i l l i n g a need in r e s e a r c h
in v o lv in g p r o f e s s i o n s — th e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a r e s e a r c h p r o j
e c t in the a re a guided by and e x te n d in g a body of s o c i o lo g i
c a l th e o r y .
150
151
P e rv a d in g th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e above m entioned
problem s a re th e t h r e e g e n e r a l aims of a l l r e s e a r c h which
se e k s t o f o llo w th e u s u a l o r a c c e p te d cannons o f s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n : d e s c r i p t i o n , e x p l a n a t i o n , and p r e d i c t i o n . Of
m ajor im po rtan ce f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h a re th e f a c t o r s of
e x p la n a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n . The p r e d i c t i v e elem en t w i l l be
so t o th e d e g re e t h a t i n d i c a t i o n s w i l l be g iv e n a s t o v a r i
a b l e s which may be of im p o rta n c e , b u t a l l r e f e r e n c e s t o p r e
d i c t i o n must be r e g a r d e d a s e x tre m e ly te n u o u s . The i n c l u
sio n o f an a tte m p t t o e x p l a i n in a d d i t i o n t o d e s c r i b i n g v a r
io u s phenomena s e t s th e s ta g e f o r th e a tte m p t t o d e te rm in e
th e ''why*' o f o b serv ed b e h a v io r in a d d i t i o n t o th e d e p i c t i n g
of what t h a t b e h a v io r i s . In e x p l a n a t i o n , t h e n , in th e a s
c e r t a i n i n g o f th e "why," a d i r e c t c h a n n e l i s i n i t i a t e d f o r
th e e s t a b l is h m e n t of g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s encom passing th e ob
se rv ed b e h a v i o r , in some way a t some l e v e l , e x p la in i n g i t ,
and in so d o in g , p r e s e n t i n g a c o n s t r u c t w hich , when combined
w ith o t h e r such c o n s t r u c t s , p r o v i d e s p o s t u l a t e s tr a n s c e n d in g
t h a t which h a s been d e s c r i b e d and e x p l a i n e d , c u lm in a tin g in
a th e o r y c o n c e rn in g a l a r g e r f i e l d th a n t h a t of th e d a ta de
r i v e d from th e r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
I t h a s been th e w r i t e r ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t " s t e r e o
ty p e s " o r "im ages" and " r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s" a re c l o s e l y r e
l a t e d c o n c e p ts ; t h a t d a ta g a th e r e d c o n c e rn in g one of t h e s e
c o n c e p ts a l s o , in p a r t , h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r th e o t h e r con
c e p t . The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h h a s a tte m p te d t o i n d i c a t e , h a s ,
152
in d e e d , b e e n b a s e d t o a g r e a t e x t e n t upon t h i s b e l i e f .
B e fo re i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o u ld be u n d e r t a k e n i n v o l v i n g
t h e c o n c e p t o f r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o i n v e s
t i g a t e t h e " t h e o r y " a t t e n d a n t t o and e n c o m p a s sin g t h e con
c e p t . I t was s u g g e s te d t h a t th e w r i t i n g s p u r p o r t i n g t o d e a l
w ith " r e f e r e n c e g ro u p t h e o r y " d i d n o t , i n f a c t , d e a l w ith a
t h e o r y b u t r a t h e r , g e n e r a l l y , w i t h a c o l l e c t i o n o f s t a t e
m ents o r vague p ro n o u n c e m e n ts . T h e r e f o r e , b e f o r e e m p i r i c a l
r e s e a r c h c o u ld be i n i t i a t e d , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e w r i t i n g s a b o u t th e " t h e o r y " t o d e te r m in e
w hat was b e in g s a i d . The w r i t e r a t t e m p t e d t o d e r i v e a con
s t r u c t o r s e t o f i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s w hich w ould be
b ro a d enough t o encom p ass t h e vague c o n c e p t and y e t g iv e a t
l e a s t an i n d i c a t i o n o f b e in g d e f i n i t i v e enough t o a llo w f o r
t h e d e d u c t i o n o f e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o add t o o r sup
p le m e n t t h e t h e o r y . An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e w r i t i n g s a l
lowed f o r t h e ad v an cem en t of n in e p r o p o s i t i o n s w hich met th e
above m e n tio n e d c o n d i t i o n s . They a r e a s f o l l o w s :
1. In th e s o c i a l sy s te m i s a s e r i e s o f s t r u c t u r e s ,
e a c h o f w hich i s u l t i m a t e l y c o m p ris e d o f an i n
d e f i n i t e number o f g ro u p s h a v in g d i f f e r i n g fu n c
t i o n s .
2. D ependen t upon h i s p o s i t i o n a t tim e t and in
sp a ce s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l have some know ledge
o f t h e s e g r o u p s and w i l l r e a c t to w a rd them p o s i
t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y .
153
3. D e te rm in a n ts of th e r e a c t i o n s a re t h e n o r m a tiv e ,
c o m p a r a tiv e , n o rm ativ e and c o m p a r a tiv e , o r i n
t e r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e s a p e rs o n h o l d s r e g a r d i n g th e
g ro u p s .
4 . D ependent upon th e a t t i t u d e s and th e r e s u l t a n t
r e a c t i o n s a re th e p e r s p e c t i v e s th e group w i l l
have f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l .
5 . These p e r s p e c t i v e s w i l l c o n s t i t u t e th e fra m e s of
r e f e r e n c e w ith which th e g ro u p s a re endowed by
th e i n d i v i d u a l .
6. V a r io u s o f th e fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e of th e g ro u p s
may se rv e a s d e t e r m i n a n t s f o r a c t i o n of th e i n
d i v i d u a l .
7 . Those g ro u p s whose fra m e s of r e f e r e n c e do so
se rv e a re known a s r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s .
8 . The i n d i v i d u a l s e l e c t s among p o t e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p s th o s e he w ish e s t o employ f o r h i m s e l f and
h i s b e h a v io r i s m o d ifie d by t h i s s e l e c t i o n .
9. T h is knowledge i s i n th e form of p e r c e p t i o n s and
i s c o n d i t i o n a l upon th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and th e
e f f e c t s of th e s o c i a l system upon th e s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e .
The above n in e i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o p o s i t i o n s a r e , in
f a c t , one o f t h e r e s u l t s of th e s tu d y , b u t a re in c lu d e d h e re
sin c e th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o b t a i n i n g th e o t h e r r e s u l t s was de
p e n d e n t upon t h i s s te p i n th e r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e .
154
The o t h e r two p ro b lem s, in a d d i t i o n t o th e re c o n
s t r u c t i o n of r e f e r e n c e group th e o ry a re i n t e r r e l a t e d and
a l s o r e l a t e d t o th e above m entioned r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . The a t
tem pt was made t o dev elo p s t e r e o t y p e s or images of p r o f e s
s i o n s . In a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o d e te rm in e
from th e th e o r y t h a t a l o g i c a l l y deduced problem , which r e
s u l t s would add t o or supplem ent th e t h e o r y , was th e d e t e r
m in a tio n of f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n .
I t was su g g e s te d t h a t i t was p o s s ib l e t o d e te rm in e answ ers
t o b o th pro blem s by u t i l i z a t i o n of th e same d a t a .
The g ro u p -ty p e f o r which s t e r e o t y p e s were t o be ob
t a i n e d was th e p r o f e s s i o n s . T h i s , t h e n , was th e g ro u p -ty p e
which was u t i l i z e d f o r r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n . I t was
d e c id e d t o employ a sample which m ight be e x p e c te d t o be
co n ce rn e d w ith th e g e n e r a l c a te g o r y o f o c c u p a tio n s which
would th e n h e ig h t e n th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r e s t in s e l e c t i o n
of a r e f e r e n c e group from t h i s g r o u p - ty p e . A sample of h ig h
sc h o o l s e n i o r s was d e c id e d upon.
A s e t o f v a r i a b l e s was u t i l i z e d w hich, i t was sug
g e s t e d , was im p o rta n t in s t e r e o t y p e c o n s t r u c t i o n , and was
h y p o th e s iz e d a s of p o t e n t i a l im po rtance to th e i n d i v i d u a l
when s e l e c t i n g r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s. One o f th e v a r i a b l e s was
c o n s id e r e d "th e r e f e r e n c e group v a r i a b l e , " and c o r r e l a t i o n s
betw een t h i s v a r i a b l e and th e o th e r v a r i a b l e s were perform ed
t o d e te rm in e d e g re e of a s s o c i a t i o n . A l e v e l of a c c e p ta n c e
was p o s i t e d a s t h a t l e v e l which would d e te rm in e i f th e v a r i -
155
ab le was c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n . The v a r i a
b l e s a l s o serv ed a s components f o r s t e r e o t y p e s of p r o f e s
s io n s a s h e ld by th e sam ple.
The v a r i a b l e s th e m se lv e s were subgrouped u n d er t h r e e
major h e a d in g s p u r p o r tin g t o r e p r e s e n t th e " o c c u p a tio n a l
man:" (1) th e p e r s o n a l man, (2) th e r e c e i v i n g man, and (3)
th e s e r v ic e man. T h is c a t e g o r i z a t i o n a ls o allow ed f o r c l a r
i t y and s i m p l i c i t y in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of d a ta .
For p u rp o se s of com p ariso n , th e sample was su b d i
vided by f o u r c r i t e r i a : (1) se x , (2) s o c i a l c l a s s , (3)
i n t e l l i g e n c e , and (4) p la n s r e g a r d in g c o l l e g e a tte n d a n c e .
When th e d a ta were c o l l e c t e d and a n a ly z e d , i t was
found t h a t v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n
had been e m p i r i c a l l y s u g g e s te d , t h a t s t e r e o t y p e s had been
c o n s t r u c t e d and t h a t r e s u l t i n g from th e r e s e a r c h , v a r io u s
s e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t s might be i d e n t i f i e d . The r e s u l t s a re
an aly ze d below.
Summary of R e s u lts
A d e f i n i t i v e e x p la n a tio n o f r e s u l t s h as been ad
vanced in th e f o u r t h c h a p t e r a s was th e r e c o n s t r u c t e d th e o r y
of r e f e r e n c e group s (which was re p e a te d a b o v e). The summary
of r e s u l t s w i l l in c lu d e m ajor i m p l i c a ti o n s of o r g e n e r a l i z a
t i o n s from th e r e s e a r c h .
Based upon th e v a r i a b l e s , and f o r th e u n iv e r s e and
g ro u p -ty p e em ployed, i t was p o s s ib l e t o d eterm in e t h a t w hile
156
th e r e was some v a r i a t i o n in and among subsam ples, th e u n i
v e rs e p r e s e n te d an e s s e n t i a l l y homogeneous p i c t u r e re g a r d in g
th e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s of r e fe re n c e group s e l e c t i o n . Those
v a r i a b l e s which a re h e re advanced a s c r i t i c a l in th e s e l e c
t i v e p r o c e s s a re h o n e s ty , i n d iv i d u a l a i d , and a l t r u i s m .
Groups t o which high d e g re e s of th e t h r e e f a c t o r s a re a t
t r i b u t e d aro u se p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s a s r e f e r e n t s . For th e s e
t h r e e v a r i a b l e s , u n a n im ity among subsam ples may be c la im e d .
S tron g em phasis may be claim ed f o r th e " c r i t i c a l n e s s " of the
v a r i a b l e s of p e r s o n a l i t y and power a s e s s e n t i a l t o th e group
s e l e c te d as th e r e f e r e n t w ith c o n s id e r a b ly l e s s d a t a , a l b e i t
some, su p p o rtin g th e im portance of th e community improvement
v a r i a b l e . There a p p e a rs t o be a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t th e income
v a r i a b le as a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r ev id en ced by a s e r i e s of nega
t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ith r e f e r e n c e t o i t .
The r e s u l t s su g g e st a s tro n g em phasis f o r s e l e c t i o n
of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s, in fa v o r of th e " s e r v ic e man" as op
posed t o th e p e rs o n a l man and th e r e c e i v i n g man. The i n d i
c a t i o n s seem t o be t h a t a m ajor f a c t o r in r e f e r e n c e group
s e l e c t i o n i s th e c o n s i d e r a ti o n of what th e group g iv e s of
i t s e l f t o i n d i v i d u a l s and t o the community.
L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in s e l e c t i o n of c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s
i s m a n ife s t among th e subsam ples; t h e r e f o r e , i t may be s a id
t h a t h ig h sc h o o l s e n io r s a s a group h o ld th e same v a lu e s in
t h i s r e g a r d , u n a f f e c te d by th e subgroup c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s em
ployed in th e r e s e a r c h .
157
W hat, t h e n , i s s u g g e s te d i s t h i s : t h a t f o r th e u n i
v e rs e and t h e g r o u p - t y p e , th o s e g ro u p s which a re p e r c e i v e d
t o h a v e , whose s t e r e o t y p e s i n c l u d e , t h e t h r e e v a r i a b l e s of
h o n e s t y , i n d i v i d u a l a i d , and a l t r u i s m i n h ig h d e g r e e s , and
a l s o in c lu d e t h e v a r i a b l e s of p e r s o n a l i t y and power w i l l
a ro u s e p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s and w i l l be
s e l e c t e d a s r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s , w h ile t h o s e g ro u p s t o w hich
th e v a r i a b l e s a re n o t a t t r i b u t e d w i l l n o t be s e l e c t e d as
r e f e r e n c e g r o u p s . I t i s s u g g e s te d f u r t h e r t h a t (1) i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o d e te rm in e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e s i n r e f e r e n c e group
s e l e c t i o n and (2) in f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h r e g a r d i n g th e n a tu r e
of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , th o s e v a r i a b l e s w hich f i r s t s h o u ld be
c o n s id e r e d a re th o s e w hich may be e m p i r i c a l l y s u g g e s te d a s
c r i t i c a l , namely th e f i v e l i s t e d a b o v e. A lth o u g h p o t e n t i a l
" c r i t i c a l n e s s " may be c la im e d o n ly f o r th e u n i v e r s e and th e
g ro u p -ty p e u t i l i z e d in t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t
th e v a r i a b l e s form a l o g i c a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r r e s e a r c h in
th e a re a r e g a r d l e s s of u n i v e r s e o r g r o u p - t y p e .
S t e r e o t y p e s
An a d ju n c t of th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of v a r i a b l e s c r i t i
c a l i n r e f e r e n c e group s e l e c t i o n i s d a t a d e r i v e d c o n c e rn in g
th e s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld by th e sample of th e v a r i o u s p r o f e s
s io n s employed a s p o t e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s .
The r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e s t e r e o t y p e s
r e v e a l s two m ajo r a s p e c t s : t h e c o n t e n t and th e fo rm o f th e
s t e r e o t y p e s .
The a n a l y s i s o f th e c o n t e n t of th e s t e r e o t y p e s h a s
been p e rfo rm ed in C h a p te r IV in d e t a i l . F or t h e s e p u r p o s e s ,
i t may be s a i d t h a t th e m ajor p o s i t i v e em p h asis f a l l s t o two
p r o f e s s i o n s : th e clergym an and th e p h y s i c i a n , w h ile th e
m ajor n e g a tiv e em p hasis i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e b u s i n e s s ex
e c u t i v e . A more e x p l i c i t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c o n te n t may be
found i n T ab le 6 , Appendix B.
R e g a rd in g th e form of th e s t e r e o t y p e s , an im p o r ta n t
f a c t may be s e e n . The s t e r e o t y p e s re m a in g e n e r a l l y c o n s t a n t
th r o u g h o u t th e su b sa m p le s. The subsam ple in te r-c o m p o n e n t
c o r r e l a t i o n s and th e f i r s t and l a s t c h o ic e t a b l e s i n d i c a t e a
h ig h d e g re e o f a s s o c i a t i o n among s t e r e o t y p e s . G e n e r a ll y ,
IQ, se x , and c o l l e g e p l a n s ' su b sam p les y i e l d v e ry l i t t l e
d i f f e r e n c e i n th e in te r- c o m p o n e n t subsam ple c o r r e l a t i o n s .
S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in c o r r e l a t i o n s a re in
s tr o n g e v id e n c e o n ly i n d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e u p p e r and
m iddle c l a s s e s on th e one hand and th e low er c l a s s on th e
o t h e r s . From th e form , i t seems e v id e n t t h a t th e u n i v e r s e
h o l d s a mass s t e r e o t y p e i n s o f a r a s su b sam p les a re c o n c e rn e d ,
f o r eac h v a r i a b l e . I f t h i s be t r u e , th e n s e r i o u s d o u b t i s
c a s t upon th e b e l i e f t h a t s t e r e o t y p e s a re le a r n e d i n and r e
t a i n e d in th e f a m ily and t h a t s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld by f a m i l i e s
d i f f e r . I f s t e r e o t y p e s among f a m i l i e s do in d ee d d i f f e r ,
th e n some u n i t must o v e r r i d e th e i n f l u e n c e of th e f a m ily ;
some u n i t which n o t o n ly i s more i n f l u e n t i a l th a n th e f a m ily
159
b u t one which u n i t e s d i v e r s e gro u p s i n t o a u n i f i e d p e rc e p
t u a l u n i t . The most obv io u s c o n c lu s io n i s t h a t th e s tim u lu s
and m o tiv a tio n t o u n i f i e d p e r c e p t i o n i s th e scho ol system .
E f f e c t s of s e r e n d i p i t y
T h ree s e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t s have been c o n s id e re d in
th e r e s e a r c h .
1. The com p arison of images of p r o f e s s i o n s h e ld by
u n i v e r s i t y and h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n t s . I t was found t h a t
t h e r e was h ig h agreem ent f o r th e v a r i a b l e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e
and m o r a l it y b u t c o n s i d e r a b ly l e s s agreem ent f o r th e v a r i
a b l e s of p r e s t i g e and u s e f u l n e s s t o s o c i e t y .
2. D ata in v o lv in g s i t u s e s . Many s i t u s schemes have
been s e t f o r t h or im p lie d . In t h e s e schem es, i t i s sug
g e s te d t h a t v a r i o u s o c c u p a tio n s o r p r o f e s s i o n s "go t o g e t h
e r . " The d a ta d e r iv e d in th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h does not
i n d i c a t e p a t t e r n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s of p r o f e s s i o n s , i n d i c a t i n g
p r o f e s s i o n s which c o n s i s t e n t l y "go t o g e t h e r . " The v a l i d i t y
of s i t u s g ro u p in g s may be q u e s tio n e d when c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t
g ro u p in g s of o c c u p a tio n s f o r one v a r i a b l e in t h i s study
seemed t o produce no s i t u s h a lo e f f e c t s in v o lv in g o th e r v a r
i a b l e s .
3 . Theory of l a t e n t - b a s e d c o n f l i c t s . A l o g i c a l ex
t e n s i o n from th e t h e o r y of r e f e r e n c e groups which d e a l s w ith
p e r s o n s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of g ro u p s and t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n of th e
valu e sy stem s t h a t t h e s e gro u p s h o ld i s t o th e problem a r i s
160
ing from th e f a c t t h a t a group s e l e c t e d a s a r e f e r e n c e group
may n o t , in f a c t , have th e same v a lu e system a s t h a t which
th e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s i t t o h a v e . The t h e o r y of l a t e n t -
based c o n f l i c t s was d e v elo p ed t o e x p l a i n , in p a r t , th e r e
s u l t s o f such a s i t u a t i o n and t h e ^ e f f e c t s on th e group mem
b e r s . The th e o r y which i s e x p la in e d in C h a p te r IV, d e a l s
w ith th e c o n f l i c t in h e r e n t in th e above d e s c r i b e d s i t u a t i o n
and i d e n t i f i e s and e x p l a i n s t h r e e form s of r e s u l t a n t con
f l i c t : (1) s e l f - d e p r e c i a t i o n , (2) group b i f u r c a t i o n , and
(3) group d e m o r a l i z a t i o n . The th e o r y i s h e ld t o be of im
p o r ta n c e in r e s e a r c h in v o lv in g r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s , sin c e th e
problem o f " i n c o r r e c t p e r c e p t i o n s " i s of c e n t r a l c o n c e rn t o
th e t h e o r y o f r e f e r e n c e groups i t s e l f .
G e n e ra l C o n c lu s io n s and I m p li c a t io n s
f o r F u tu re R e se arch
P e rv a d in g th e e n t i r e r e s e a r c h , from th e r e c o n s t r u c
t i o n of r e f e r e n c e group th e o r y t o v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f
e re n c e group s e l e c t i o n t o th e form and c o n te n t of s t e r e o
ty p e s and th e s e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t s of th e r e s e a r c h , i s a
c e n t r a l s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t: s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n . The con
c e p t u n d e r l i e s a l l t h a t h a s been d e a l t w ith h e r e i n . A c r i t
i c a l s te p in r e a c t i n g t o a n o th e r i s th e f o r m a tio n of an im
p r e s s i o n of him. L a t e r r e a c t i o n s depend on t h i s f i r s t s t e p .
Im p re ss io n s p eo ple h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , a re c r i t i c a l l y im p o rta n t
f o r i t i s i n th e r e a c t i o n s of p e rs o n s t h a t th e s o c i o l o g i s t
f i n d s th e b a s i s f o r h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
161
D eriv ed from a r e c o n s t r u c t e d th e o r y of r e f e r e n c e
grou ps and a "d u a l p u rp o se " r e s e a r c h d e s ig n (developm ent of
s t e r e o t y p e s and i s o l a t i o n of v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r e n c e
group s e l e c t i o n ) h a s come d a t a im p o rta n t in su p p le m e n tin g
th e t h e o r y . S e r e n d i p i t a l e f f e c t s b e a r in g upon th e r e s e a r c h
perform ed a re r e c o r d e d . From t h e s e may be deduced a r e a s o f
f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h su g g e ste d a s f o llo w s :
1. A f u r t h e r r e f in e m e n t of th e " p r o p o s itio n -c o m
p le x " h e r e i n advanced a s r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y .
2. An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s c r i t i c a l in r e f e r
ence group s e l e c t i o n d e sig n e d t o t e s t th e v a l i d
i t y o f th o s e h e r e i n su g g e ste d a s c r i t i c a l and
th e developm ent o f a d d i t i o n a l c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s .
3. The e x p a n sio n of v a r i a b l e s i n v e s t i g a t e d w ith
r e f e r e n c e t o s t e r e o t y p e s t o g iv e i n c r e a s i n g
scope t o s te r e o ty p e - c o m p le x e s .
4 . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of th e d e g re e of a s s o c i a t i o n
in s t e r e o t y p e s h e ld among d i f f e r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l
l e v e l s .
5. A f u r t h e r r e f in e m e n t of t h e Theory of L a t e n t -
Based C o n f l i c t s p r e d i c a t e d upon e m p i r i c a l in v e s
t i g a t i o n s of p ro b lem s deduced from th e t h e o r y .
6. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of o c c u p a ti o n a l s i t u s e s t o d e t e r
mine th e v a l i d i t y of p r e s e n t s i t u s c o n s t r u c t s .
The r e s e a r c h h e r e i n perfo rm ed h a s employed h ig h
sc h o o l s e n i o r s t u d e n t s t o e v a l u a t e a s o c i a l c a t e g o r y of
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e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t t o s o c i o l o g i s t s , o c c u p a tio n s , and
more s p e c i f i c a l l y — p r o f e s s i o n s . In th e r e s e a r c h , v a r i o u s
fu n d am e n ta l s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p ts have been u t i l i z e d :
s t e r e o t y p i n g , p e r c e p t i o n , an d, f i n a l l y , c o n f l i c t . T hese
t h r e e m ajor c o n c e p ts have encom passed th e e n t i r e p r o j e c t .
T h e r e f o r e , th e p r o j e c t b e a r s p o t e n t i a l im portance in in v e s
t i g a t i o n s in v o lv in g any o f t h e s e c o n c e p ts .
Theory h a s been employed (and r e c o n s t r u c t e d ) by
which t o d e r iv e e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i a b l e d a ta which h a s in
t u r n added t o th e th e o r y and h a s s u g g e ste d an a d d i t i o n a l
th e o r y t o e x p la in concom m itant s i t u a t i o n s , t h e r e b y b ro ad e n
ing p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s ( l o g i c a l and e m p i r i c a l ) p e r t a i n i n g
t o th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e group in th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . By
th e m ethods a p p li e d h e r e i n , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , d e d u c t io n , em
p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and s u p p le m e n ta tio n , i t i s su g g e ste d
t h a t in f o r m a tio n v i t a l t o th e s o c i o l o g i s t may b e s t be ob
t a i n e d . W hatever r e s u l t a n t c o n te n t th e d i s s e r t a t i o n con
t a i n s i s a r e s u l t of th e a tte m p t t o employ t h i s g e n e r a l form
t o supplem ent s o c i o l o g i c a l know ledge.
A P P E N D I X E S
APPENDIX A
AN OUTLINE OF THE ESSENTIALS OF REFERENCE
GROUP THEORY AND THE FOUNDATIONS
UPON WHICH IT RESTS
APPENDIX A
AN OUTLINE OF THE ESSENTIALS OF REFERENCE
GROUP THEORY AND THE FOUNDATIONS
UPON WHICH IT RESTS
I . T h eo ry and R e s e a r c h . The two a r e a s a re i n t e r r e l a t e d
and i n t e r d e p e n d e n t .
A. The d e v elo p m e n t o f t h e o r y r e q u i r e s c o n t i n u i t y
among r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
B. " A f t e r th e f a c t " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h i n
v e s t i g a t i o n s have a d i s t i n c t p la c e i n th e o n -g o in g
d ev elo p m e n t o f t h e o r y .
I t c a n n o t be assum ed t h a t e x - p o s t f a c t o i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h a re n o t s u s c e p t i b l e t o e m p i r i c a l
n u l l i f i c a t i o n .
I I . The Framework of S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e .
A. S o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f f u n c t i o n a l
s o c i o lo g y .
F u n c t i o n a l s o c io lo g y f o c u s e s on th e c o n s e q u e n c e s
of s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s p r i m a r i l y f o r s o c i a l s t r u c
t u r e , a l s o f o r i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s in v o lv e d in
th e s t r u c t u r e s .
B. S o c i a l s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s o f p a t t e r n e d a r r a n g e -
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166
ments of r o l e s e t s , s t a t u s s e t s , and s t a t u s se
qu ences.
1. S o c i a l s t a t u s and s o c i a l - r o l e a re fu n d a m e n ta l
t o th e d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s of s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e .
S t a t u s and r o l e a re c o n c e p ts which c o n n e c t
c u l t u r a l l y d e fin e d e x p e c t a t i o n s w ith p a t t e r n e d
b e h a v io r and r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o m p risin g s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e .
2. The c o m p o s itio n of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .
a . R o le . The p a t t e r n e d e x p e c t a t i o n s a t t r i b u
t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n i n th e s t a t u s
h i e r a r c h y .
b. Role s e t . T h a t complement o f r o l e r e l a
t i o n s h i p s which p e rs o n s have by v i r t u e of
occupying a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l s t a t u s .
c . S t a t u s . An a s s ig n e d p o s i t i o n in a s o c i a l
system o ccu p ied by d e s ig n a te d i n d i v i d u a l s .
A s i n g l e s t a t u s in v o lv e s an a r r a y of a s s o
c i a t e d r o l e s .
d . S t a t u s s e t . The complement of s o c i a l
s t a t u s e s — each s t a t u s h a v in g a r o l e s e t .
e . S t a t u s seq u en ce. A s u c c e s s io n of s t a t u s e s
c h an g in g th ro u g h tim e , o c c u r r in g w ith s u f
f i c i e n t f re q u e n c y t o be s o c i a l l y p a t
t e r n e d . Sequences of r o l e and s t a t u s s e t s
167
may a l s o be v i s i b l e .
I I I . The N ature of th e G roup.
A. F a c to r s of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f o r membership g r o u p s .
1. P e rso n s i n t e r a c t i n g ro u p s a c c o rd in g t o e s
t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s .
2. The i n t e r a c t i n g p e rs o n s d e f i n e th e m s e lv e s as
members; th e y have p a t t e r n e d e x p e c t a t i o n s of
form s of i n t e r a c t i o n which a re m o ra lly b in d in g
on them and on o t h e r members, b u t n o t on th o s e
r e g a r d e d o u t s i d e th e g ro u p .
3. P e rs o n s i n i n t e r a c t i o n a re d e f i n e d by o t h e r s
a s b e lo n g in g t o th e g ro u p .
B. The su b g ro u p . The subgroup i s s t r u c t u r a l l y con
s t i t u t e d by th o s e who d e v elo p d i s t i n c t i v e s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s among th e m s e lv e s which a re n o t sh ared
w ith o th e r members of th e l a r g e r g ro u p .
C. The non-m em bership g ro u p .
1. D i s t i n c t i o n must be made betw een th o s e non
members e l i g i b l e and t h o s e i n e l i g i b l e f o r
membership in th e membership g ro u p .
2. A t t i t u d e s of non-members tow ard becoming mem
b e r s o f th e membership g ro u p .
a . Those a s p i r i n g t o m em bership.
b. Those i n d i f f e r e n t t o m em bership.
c . Those m o tiv a te d t o rem a in u n a f f i l i a t e d .
D. Group d e f in e d s t a t u s f o r non-m em bers.
1. Those a s p i r i n g t o m em bership.
a . E l i g i b l e f o r m em bership. A c a n d id a te f o r
m em bership.
b . I n e l i g i b l e f o r m em bership. A m a rg in a l
man.
2. Those i n d i f f e r e n t t o m embership.
a . E l i g i b l e f o r m em bership. A p o t e n t i a l mem
b e r .
b . I n e l i g i b l e f o r m em bership. A d e ta c h e d
non-member.
3. Those m o tiv a te d n o t t o b e lo n g .
a . E l i g i b l e f o r m em bership. An autonomous
non-member.
b . I n e l i g i b l e f o r m em bership. An autonomous
non-member (o u t g r o u p ) .
E* In -G ro u p . Membership which i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
i n n e r c o h e s io n and o u te r h o s t i l i t y .
F. A d d i t io n a l c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s .
1. The group d e f in e d c o n c e rn (open) o r a b sen ce
o f c o n c e rn ( c lo s e d ) w ith i n c o r p o r a t i n g e l i g i
b le non-members i n t o th e g ro u p .
2. The d i s t i n c t i o n betw een non-members who have
and have n ot been members of th e group in th e
p a s t .
IV. R e fe re n c e Group T h e o ry .
A. P u r p o s e . In g e n e r a l , r e f e r e n c e group t h e o r y aims
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t o s y s te m a tiz e th e d e te r m in a n ts and co n seq u en ces
of th o se p r o c e s s e s of e v a l u a t i o n and s e l f a p p r a i s
a l in which th e i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s th e v a lu e s or
s ta n d a r d s of o th e r i n d i v i d u a l s and groups as a
co m p arativ e frame of r e f e r e n c e .
B. G e n era l t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s .
1. There i s a coherence betw een r e f e r e n c e group
th e o r y and f u n c t i o n a l s o c io lo g y .
a . F u n c tio n a l s o c io lo g y f o c u s e s on th e con
sequences of s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s p r i m a r il y
f o r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s , a l s o f o r i n d i v i d
u a l s and g roups in v o lv e d in th e s t r u c
t u r e s .
b. R eferen ce group th e o r y c e n t e r s on th e
p r o c e s s e s th ro u g h which men r e l a t e them
s e lv e s t o g ro u p s, r e f e r t h e i r b e h a v io r t o
th e v a lu e s of th e group and fo c u s on the
s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n of th e s o c i a l en
v iro n m e n ts in which i n d i v i d u a l s a re l o
c a t e d . Membership and non-membership
groups are assumed fram es of r e f e r e n c e .
The number of g ro ups i s n ot d e f i n i t e (b u t
not i n d e f i n i t e ) .
2. The i n d i v i d u a l s may be o r i e n t e d tow ard any one
or more of v a r io u s k in d s of groups and s t a
t u s e s l i k e h i s own o r d i f f e r e n t . Groups d e a l t
w ith a re th o s e ta k e n t o m a n if e s t th e im pact of
s o c i a l l y s t r u c t u r e d r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s more o r
l e s s common t o men i n each c a t e g o r y . Many
c o m p a ra tiv e c o n t e x t s a re i d i o s y n c r a t i c and not
c o n s id e r e d in th e t h e o r y .
The same r e f e r e n c e group b e h a v io r in d i f f e r e n t
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s h a s d i f f e r e n t c o n s e q u e n c e s .
D i f f e r e n t g ro u p s become r e l e v a n t r e f e r e n t i a l l y
f o r i n d i v i d u a l s in d i f f e r i n g s p h e r e s of behav
i o r . T h is a c t s a s a sum m arizing a g e n t .
a . I t sum m arizes d i f f e r e n t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s .
b . I t f a c i l i t a t e s th e stu d y of s e l e c t i v e p e r
c e p t i o n .
The o r i e n t a t i o n of non-members t o th e group i s
p a r t i a l l y d e p en d e n t upon th e open or c lo s e d
c h a r a c t e r of th e g ro u p . In an open s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e ( o r g r o u p ) , a s opposed t o th e
c l o s e d , i t i s s o c i a l l y e a s i e r t o i d e n t i f y w ith
non-m em bership g ro u p s .
a . T h is may be f u n c t i o n a l f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l
and group ( a s opposed t o d y s f u n c t i o n a l ) .
b . The i n d i v i d u a l i s more l i k e l y t o be r e
warded in th e open s t r u c t u r e t h a n th e
c l o s e d .
C o n c re te p a t t e r n s of r e f e r e n c e group b e h a v io r
v a ry a c c o r d in g t o t y p e s of p e r s o n a l i t y and
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s o c i a l s t a t u s of th o s e e x h i b i t i n g t h i s behav
i o r and a c c o rd in g t o th e s t r u c t u r a l c o n te x t
w i t h in which i t o c c u r s .
C. The t y p o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of r e f e r e n c e g ro u p s.
1. The nom inal c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
a . The norm ative group.
(1) T h is group s e t s and m a in ta in s sta n d
a r d s f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l .
(2) I t i s a source of v a lu e s a s s i m i l a t e d
by d e s ig n a te d i n d i v i d u a l s , who may or
may not be members of th e group.
b. The co m p arative group.
(1) T h is group p r o v id e s a frame of com
p a r is o n r e l a t i v e t o which th e i n d i v i d
u a l e v a l u a t e s h im s e lf and o t h e r s .
(2) I t p ro v id e s a c o n te x t f o r e v a l u a t i n g
th e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of o n e s e lf and
o t h e r s .
c . The i n t e r a c t i o n group.
The members of t h i s group c o n s t i t u t e
m erely c o n d i t i o n s f o r th e a c t i o n s of in
d i v i d u a l s which must be ta k e n i n t o a cc o u n t
when w orking tow ard t h e i r p u rp o se s but
th e s e g ro ups a re not of norm ative or com
p a r a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o them.
2. The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
Membership and non-membership g ro u p s.
C o l l e c t i v i t i e s .
C o l l e c t i v i t i e s are com prised of p e rs o n s
who have a sense of s o l i d a r i t y by v i r t u e
of s h a r in g common v a lu e s and who have ac
q u ire d an a tt e n d a n t sense of moral o b l ig a
t i o n t o f u l f i l l r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s , but who
la c k i n t e n s i t y in s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n .
S o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s .
(1) S o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s a re c l a s s e s of so
c i a l s t a t u s e s , th e o c cu p a n ts of which
a re not in s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n .
(2) The p e rs o n s have l i k e s o c i a l c h a ra c
t e r i s t i c s , but a re n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
o r i e n t e d tow ard a d i s t i n c t i v e and
common body of norms.
d i r e c t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
The p o s i t i v e g ro u p .
T h is c o n s i s t s of th e m o tiv a te d a s s i m i l a
t i o n of th e norms of th e group or s ta n d
a rd s of th e group as a b a s i s f o r s e l f
a p p r a i s a l .
The n e g a tiv e group.
T h is c o n s i s t s of th e m o tiv a te d r e j e c t i o n
(th e fo rm a tio n of c o u n te r norms) of c e r
t a i n v a lu e s , a t t i t u d e s , and knowledge
173
w hich a r e p e r s o n a l l y and s o c i a l l y f u n c
t i o n a l and may be r e p u d i a t e d s im p ly be
c a u s e t h e y a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n e g a
t i v e r e f e r e n c e g r o u p .
4 . C o m b in a tio n s o f t h e a b o v e .
a . G ro u p s may be b o th n o rm a tiv e and c o m p ara
t i v e , a l t h o u g h t h e y need n o t b e .
b . A g g r e g a t e s may move fro m s o c i a l c a t e g o
r i e s t o c o l l e c t i v i t i e s t o g r o u p s , a l
th o u g h t h e y n eed n o t n e c e s s a r i l y do s o .
D. R e f e r e n c e g r o u p s and norm s.
1. The t h e o r y a ssu m e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s c o m p a rin g
t h e i r own s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h a t o f o t h e r s have
some know ledge o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h ich t h e s e
o t h e r s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s and of t h e norms g e r
mane t o t h a t s i t u a t i o n .
2. R e f e r e n c e g ro u p t h e o r y m ust s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
i n c o r p o r a t e t h e v a r i a b l e o f o b s e r v a b i l i t y o f
no rm s, v a l u e s and r o l e p e rf o r m a n c e o b t a i n i n g
i n t h e g r o u p s t a k e n a s t h e fram e of r e f e r e n c e .
a . The a v a i l a b i l i t y and e x t e n t o f kno w ledg e
o f norm s i s p r e s u m a b ly p a t t e r n e d by t h e
g ro u p s t r u c t u r e .
b . " V i s i b i l i t y " r e f e r s t o t h e e x t e n t t o w hich
t h e s t r u c t u r e of a s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
p r o v i d e s o c c a s i o n t o i t s members v a r i o u s l y
l o c a t e d i n th e s t r u c t u r e t o p e r c e iv e th e
norms o b t a i n i n g i n th e o r g a n i z a t i o n and
th e c h a r a c t e r of r o l e perform ance by th o s e
manning th e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
R e fe re n c e g ro u p s and c o n fo rm ity and non-comform-
i t y .
C o n fo rm is t and n o n -c o n fo rm is t b e h a v io r i s depend
e n t upon i t s r e l a t i o n t o membership and non-mem
b e r s h i p g ro u p s t a k e n a s fram e s of n o rm ativ e and
e v a l u a t i v e r e f e r e n c e .
1. S o c i a l c o n fo rm ity d e n o te s c o n fo rm ity t o norms
and e x p e c t a t i o n s c u r r e n t in th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
own membership g ro u p .
2. C o n fo rm ity t o th e norms of th e o u tg ro u p i s
n o n -c o n fo rm ity (w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e member
s h ip g ro u p ).
APPENDIX B
PARTIAL STEREOTYPES OF PROFESSIONS
APPENDIX B
PARTIAL STEREOTYPES OF PROFESSIONS
TABLE 6
THE FIRST, SECOND, EIGHTH, AND NINTH
RANKED PROFESSIONS AS DETERMINED
BY THE RANK ORDER OF THE NINE
PROFESSIONS BY SUBSAMPLE
P hys
i c a l P e rs o n - I n t e l l i - P r e s - _
A ppear- a l i t y gence H onesty t i g e Power
ance
Sex
Male
1 Phys C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2 BusEx SocWk Phys C olPro Bu sEx Lawyer
8 Engr C olPro BusEx Lawyer Teach BusEx
9 SocWk Engr SocWk BusEx Soc.Wk Engr
Female
1 BusEx C le rg y Phys C lerg y C le rg y C le rg y
2
Phys SocWk C olPro Phys Phys Teach
8 SocWk Lawyer BusEx Lawyer Teach Dent
9 Engr Engr SocWk BusEx SocWk Engr
S o c i a l C la s s
Upper
1 BusEx C le rg y • C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Phys’ SocWk Phys Te/CP C lerg y Lawyer
8 • Engr ' Lawyer BusEx SocWk Teach SocWk
9 SocWk Engr SocWk BusEx SocWk Engr
Middle
1 BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Phys SocWk Phys C olPro C le rg y C olPro
8
SocWk C olPro BusEx Lawyer Teach Dent
9 Engr Dent SocWk BusEx SocWk Engr
176
177
TABLE 6— C o n tin u e d
Commu
Secu
r i t y
n i t y
Income Im
I n d i
v i d u a l
A l t r u
Gen
e r a l
R e f e r
ence
p ro v e
ment
Aid
ism
Value Group
Sex
Male
1 SocWk Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
C le r g y BusEx C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y Teach
8
Phys SocWk Lawyer Engr Lawyer SocWk Dent
9 BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx
Female
1 Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Engr BusEx C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y Teach
8 L a/P h SocWk Phys Engr Engr BusEx Engr
9 BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx BusEx SocWk SocWk
S o c i a l C l a s s
Upper
1 De n t Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y C le r g y C le rg y
2
Soc W k BusEx C le rg y Phys SocWk Phys Teach
8 Lawyer SocWk Phys Engr Lawyer SocWk Engr
9 BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx
M iddle
1 Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
SocWk BusEx C le rg y Phys Phys C le r g y Teach
8 Phys SocWk Phys Engr Lawyer SocWk Engr
9 BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx Bu sEx BusEx BusEx
TABLE 6— C on tin u ed
178
Phys
i c a l P e rso n - I n t e l l i - „ ^ P r e s -
A ppear- a l i t y gence H onesty t i g e Power
ance
S o c i a l C la s s (C o n t'd )
Lower
1 BusEx Teach C olPro
2 Lawyer C le rg y Phys
8 Engr Dent C le rg y
9 SocWk Engr SocWk
C le rg y C olPro C le rg y •
Teach Clergy. Engr. ‘
Lawyer Phys . Te/SW..''-
SocWk SocWk Dent"
C o lle g e P la n s
Yes
1 Bus Ex C lerg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Phys SocWk Phys - . . C o lP ro C le rg y C olPro
8 Engr C olPro
BusEx
Lawyer Teach Dent
9
No
1
SocWk Engr SocWk .BusEx SocWk Engr
Phys C lerg y ColPro; C le rg y C le rg y C le rg y
2
BusEx SocWk Phys ■ ■ Phys • Phys Lawyer
8 SocWk BE/La BusEx ’ L a w y e r . Teach Dent
9 Engr Engr SocWk BusEx;. SocWk Engr
U ndecided
.
1 BusEx C le rg y C olP ro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2 Lawyer SocWk Phys Phys . '-: ; C lerg y : C o lP ro
8 SocWk Lawyer C le rg y Lawyer SocWk D e n tis l
9 Engr Engr SocWk BusEx '.Teach ' Engr
I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o tie n t
I
1 BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2 Lawyer SocWk Phys C olPro Lawyer Teach
8 C olPro Engr Cl/BE Lawyer Teach En/Ph
9
I I
1
SocWk D e n t i s t SocWk BusEx SocWk Dent
BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Phys SocWk Phys C olPro Engr Teach
8 Engr Engr BusEx Lawyer De n t Engr
9 SocWk C olPro SocWk BusEx SocWk Dent
TABLE 6— C o n tin u e d
179
Commu-
q i : n i t y I n d i - A 1 + _ Gen- R e fe r -
e c u - income I n>-- v i d u a l . e r a l . ence
r i y p ro v e - Aid - is m .. \/a i ue Group
me.nt
S o c i a l C l a s s (C o n t'd )
Lower
1 Teach Phys SocWk C le rg y C lerg y Phys C le rg y
2 Engr Dent Teach Lawyer Phys C lerg y Teach
8 BusEx C le rg y Dent Engr Bu sEx BusEx SocWk
9 Lawyer SocWk Lawyer Teach Engr SocWk BusEx
C o lle g e P la n s
Yes
1 Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
SocWk BusEx C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y Teach
8 Phys SocWk Phys Engr Engr SocWk Engr
9
Mr,
BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx
1NU
1 C le rg y Phys C le rg y C le rg y C le rg y C lerg y C le rg y
2 Dent BusEx SocWk Phys Phys Phys Teach
8 Lawyer SocWk Engr Engr Engr BE/SW Engr
9 BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx BusEx Teach BusEx
U ndecided
1 C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2 Dent BusEx C le rg y Phys Phys C le rg y C olP ro
8
Phys C le rg y De nt Engr De/Law C olPro Engr
9 BusEx SocWk BusEx BusEx BusEx SocWk BusEx
I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o tie n t
I
1 Dent BusEx SocWk C le rg y C le rg y C lerg y C le rg y
2 C le rg y Lawyer C le rg y Phys SocWk En/Ph T e/Ph
8
Phys SocWk Phys Engr Lawyer SocWk BusEx
9
T T
BusEx C lerg y BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx Lawyer
X X
1 Dent Phys C le rg y C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
C le rg y BusEx SocWk SocWk SocWk C le rg y Teach
8 Lawyer SocWk Engr Engr Engr SocWk Engr
9 BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx
O
180
TABLE 6— C ontinued
■ T “ rir~ » c
Phys
i c a l
Appeal
ance
P e rs o n
a l i t y
• - . >
I n t e l l i
gence
Hone s t y
P re s-
t i g e
Power
I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o tie n t ( C o n t!d)
I I I
1 BusEx SocWk Phys C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Phys C le rg y C olP ro C olPro C le rg y Lawyer
8 SocWk Engr BusEx Lawyer Teach Engr
9 Engr BusEx SocWk BusEx SocWk Dent
IV
1 BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2
Phys SocWk P hys Phys C lerg y C olPro
8 SocWk C olPro BusEx Lawyer Teach SocWk
9
\/
Engr Engr SocWk BusEx SocWk Engr
V
1 BusEx C le rg y C olPro C le rg y C lerg y C lerg y
2
Phys Phys Phys Phys Phys C olP ro
8 SocWk Lawyer BusEx SocWk Teach SocWk
9 Engr Engr SocWk BusEx SocWk Engr
181
TABLE 6— C o ntin ued
Secu
r i t y
Income
Commu
n i t y
Im
p ro v e
ment
I n d i
v id u a l
Aid
A l t r u
ism
Gen
e r a l
Value
R e f e r
ence
Group
I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o tie n t (Cont ’d)
I I I
•
. 1 Dent Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
• ■ 2 <
. • SocWK BusEx C le rg y Phys • SocWk C lerg y Teach
8 ■ ' " : ... vPh.yS SocWk Lawyer Engr- 'Lawyer Dent Engr
9 ; BusEx-’.Clergy BusEx .-• '.B'u.sEx • BusEx BusEx BusEx
IV
1 C le rg y Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C lerg y
2 De n t BusEx C le rg y Phys Phys C le rg y Teach
8 Phys SocWk Lawyer Engr Engr BusEx Engr
9
\/
BusEx C le rg y BusEx BusEx Bu sEx SocWk BusEx
V
1 SocWk Phys SocWk C le rg y C le rg y Phys C le rg y
2 C le rg y BusEx C le rg y Phys Phys C le rg y Teach
8 BusEx Teach Phys Engr Engr SocWk Engr
9 Phys SocWk BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx BusEx
APPENDIX C
QUESTIONNAIRE
APPENDIX C
REFERENCE GROUP SELECTION AND IMAGE CONSTRUCTION
DETERMINED BY THE RATINGS OF PROFESSIONS
■ Name- ( P r i n t ) . . ______________________________________________
L a s t F i r s t M iddle
v (P la c e an M for. m ale; an F f o r fe m a le )
A f t e r g r a d u a t i n g from h ig h s c h o o l, do you p l a n t o a t t e n d
e i t h e r a f o u r y e a r c o l l e g e o r a j u n i o r c o l l e g e ? (P la c e
a Y f o r y e s ; and .N f o r no; a ? f o r d o n ’t know.)
Below, t h e r e i s a draw ing r e p r e s e n t i n g th e s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n
th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Next to th e l i n e , t h e r e a re s i x num bers.
Number one r e p r e s e n t s th e h i g h e s t s o c i a l c l a s s and number
s i x r e p r e s e n t s th e lo w e st s o c i a l c l a s s . P ic k th e number
( 1 , 2, 3 , 4 , 5 , o r 6) which you t h i n k b e s t r e p r e s e n t s th e
s o c i a l c l a s s t o w hich you b e lo n g .
H ig h e s t — 1
— 2
— 3
- - 4
— 5
Low est — 6
INSTRUCTIONS
.On th e f o l lo w in g p a g e s , you w i l l f i n d a number of q u e s t i o n s .
T here a re no " r i g h t " o r "wrong" an sw e rs t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .
However, t h e r e i s a c o r r e c t way t o answ er them . The c o r r e c t
way i s t o answ er them a c c o r d in g t o th e way you f e e l . Do n o t
w orry a b o u t th e way you t h i n k o t h e r p e r s o n s would answ er
them b u t o n ly c o n s i d e r your own f e e l i n g s and answ er them ac
c o rd in g t o what you t h i n k i s th e b e s t an sw e r.
Do n o t ta k e to o much tim e on any q u e s t i o n . Answer eac h
q u e s t io n a c c o rd in g t o th e f i r s t answ er you t h i n k of a f t e r
r e a d i n g th e q u e s t io n and th e l i s t of p o s s i b l e a n sw e rs.
183
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s m a r r i a g e .
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re most l i k e l y t o be mar
r i e d ?
B. (Use a 2 t o an sw er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a r e n e x t most l i k e l y t o be
m a rrie d ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re l e a s t l i k e l y t o be mar
r i e d ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t l e a s t l i k e l y t o be
m a rrie d ?
1 B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
9 D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
2 High S cho ol T e a c h e r
Lawyer
8 M e d ic a l D o cto r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R ab bi
S o c i a l Worker
In th e exam ple, th e p e rs o n a n sw e rin g th e q u e s t io n f e l t t h a t
th e b u s i n e s s e x e c u tiv e was most l i k e l y t o be m a r r ie d , th e
h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r was n e x t most l i k e l y t o be m a r r ie d , th e
d e n t i s t was l e a s t l i k e l y t o be m a r r ie d , and th e m e d ic a l doc
t o r was n e x t l e a s t l i k e l y t o be m a r r ie d .
Now answ er th e f o l lo w in g s t a t e m e n t s u s in g th e p r o f e s s i o n s
which you t h i n k b e s t answ er th e q u e s t i o n s .
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l ap p earan ce
( n e a t n e s s o f d r e s s , c l e a n l i n e s s , etc.).*
A. Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n p r e s e n t th e b e s t p h y s i c a l
a p p e a ra n c e ?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n p r e s e n t th e n e x t t o b e s t
p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answer),
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n p r e s e n t th e w o rs t p h y s i
c a l a p p e a ra n c e ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n p r e s e n t th e n ex t t o w o rst
p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e ?
B u s in e s s E x ec u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T ea ch e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l D o ctor
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R abbi
S o c i a l Worker
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s p e r s o n a l i t y .
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n have th e b e s t p e r s o n a l
i t y ?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n have th e n e x t t o b e s t
p e r s o n a l i t y ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n have th e w o rst p e r s o n a l
i t y ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n have th e n ex t t o w o rst
p e r s o n a l i t y ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e er
High S ch o o l T each er
Lawyer
M e d ica l D o c to r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R abbi
S o c i a l Worker
186
3. T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s i n t e l l i g e n c e .
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re t h e most i n t e l l i g e n t ?
B. (Use a 2 -t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re th e n e x t most i n t e l
l i g e n t ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re l e a s t i n t e l l i g e n t ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re th e n e x t t o l e a s t
i n t e l l i g e n t ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T eacher
L a w y er-
M e d ic a l D octor
M i n i s t e r . P r i e s t , Rabbi
S o c i a l Worker
4 . T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s h o n e s ty .
A. (Use a 1 t o answer)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re most h o n e s t?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t most h o n e s t?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re l e a s t h o n e s t?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re next t o l e a s t hon
e s t ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T ea ch e r
Lawyer
M e d ica l D octo r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R abbi
S o c i a l Worker
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s a d m i r a t i o n .
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
B.
Members o f w hat p r o f e s s i o n
(Use a 2 t o answ er)
a re th e most adm ired?
C.
Members of w hat p r o f e s s i o n
m ired?
(Use a 9 t o answ er)
a re th e n e x t mo s t ad-
D.
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n
(Use an 8 t o answ er)
a re th e l e a s t . adm ired?
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n
a dm ired?
a re th e ne x t t o l e a s t
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S choo l T e a c h e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l D o cto r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R abbi
S o c i a l Worker
T h is-st-ai'em ent c o n c e r n s i n f l u e n c e . „ •
A. (Usa a 1 t o a n s w e r ) ...
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a r e most l i k e l y t o i n f l u
ence O th e rs?
B. (Use a- 2 t o a n s w e r)
Member's o f w hat p r o f e s s i o n a re th e n e x t most l i k e l y
t o i n f l u e n e e . o t h e r s ?
C. . (Use. a 9 t o - an sw er) - .
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re le a st-, l i k e l y - t o in -.
" f-luenee o t h e r s ? ■ r * ’ • i . . -
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er) . . .
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t t o l e a s t l i k e l y
t o i n f lu e n c e o t h e r s ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High School T e a c h e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l D o cto r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , Rabbi
S o c i a l Worker
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s w o rry .
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re most l i k e l y t o be
f r e e from f e e l i n g s of w orry?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t most l i k e l y t o
be f r e e fro m f e e l i n g s of w orry?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re l e a s t l i k e l y t o be
f r e e from f e e l i n g s of w orry?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t t o th e l e a s t
l i k e l y t o be f r e e from f e e l i n g s of w orry?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S ch ool T e a c h e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l D o c to r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , Rabbi
S o c i a l Worker
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s money.
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l e a r n th e most money
i n a l i f e t i m e ?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l e a r n th e n e x t h ig h
e s t amount o f money i n a l i f e t i m e ?
(Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l e a r n th e l e a s t
amount of money in a l i f e t i m e ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l e a r n th e n e x t t o
l e a s t amount of money i n a l i f e t i m e ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T ea ch e r j
L aw yer J
M e d ic a l D o c to r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R abbi
S o c i a l Worker
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s community a c t i v i t i e s .
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e most in
community a c t i v i t i e s ?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e n e x t t o
most o f t e n in community a c t i v i t i e s ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e l e a s t
o f t e n i n community a c t i v i t i e s ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Membe.rs of what p r o f e s s i o n w i l l p a r t i c i p a t e n e x t t o
l e a s t o f t e n in community a c t i v i t i e s ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High School T ea ch e r
Lawyer"
M e d ic a l D octo r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , Rabbi
S o c i a l Worker
• • o »
T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e r n s * h e lp in g p e o p le .
• * • *
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n s a re most l i k e l y t o h e lp
p e r s o n s ?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t most l i k e l y t o
h e lp p e rs o n s ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re l e a s t l i k e l y t o h e lp
p e rs o n s ?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a r e n e x t t o l e a s t l i k e l y
t o h e lp p e rs o n s ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High School T e a c h e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l jDoctor
M in is te r ., P r i e s t , R abbi
S o c i a l Worker
190
11. T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s s e l f - s a c r i f i c e .
(Use a 1 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re most l i k e l y t o sa c
r i f i c e t h e i r own d e s i r e s f o r th e good of th e gro u p ?
(Use a 2 t o answ er)
Members o f what p r o f e s s i o n a re n e x t most l i k e l y t o
s a c r i f i c e t h e i r own d e s i r e s f o r t h e . good of th e
?
ro u p ?
Use a 9 t o answ er)
Members of what p r o f e s s i o n a re l e a s t l i k e l y t o s a c
r i f i c e t h e i r own d e s i r e s f o r th e good o f th e group?
(Use an 8 t o answ er)
Members of w hat group a re n e x t t o l e a s t l i k e l y t o
s a c r i f i c e t h e i r own d e s i r e s f o r th e good of th e
group?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T e a c h e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l D o c to r
M i n i s t e r . P r i e s t , R ab b i
S o c i a l Worker
12. T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e r n s g e n e r a l v a lu e t o th e community.
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
You would most want members o f what p r o f e s s i o n t o be
members o f y ou r community?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
You would n e x t most want members o f what p r o f e s s i o n
t o be members of y ou r community?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
You would want l e a s t members of what p r o f e s s i o n t o
be members o f y o ur community?
D. (Use an 8 t o answ er)
You would want n e x t t o l e a s t t h e members o f what
p r o f e s s i o n t o be members o f y ou r community?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T e a c h e r
Lawyer
. M e d ic a l D o cto r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , R abbi
_ S o c i a l Worker
A.
B.
C.
D.
191
13. T h is s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn s what k in d s of p e r s o n s you t h i n k
would p r o v id e good g u id e s f o r your own a c tio n s *
A. (Use a 1 t o answ er)
The b e s t g u id e s f o r your own b e h a v io r would be p r o
v id e d by t h e ty p e of p e rs o n s which a re members o f
what p r o f e s s i o n ?
B. (Use a 2 t o answ er)
The n e x t t o b e s t g u id e s f o r your own b e h a v io r would
be p ro v id e d by th e ty p e of p e r s o n s who a re members
of what p r o f e s s i o n ?
C. (Use a 9 t o answ er)
The w o rs t g u id e s f o r your own b e h a v io r would be p ro
v id e d by th e ty p e of p e r s o n s who a re members of what
p r o f e s s i o n ?
D. (u se an 8 t o answ er)
The n e x t t o w o rs t g u id e s f o r your own b e h a v io r would
be p r o v id e d by th e ty p e of p e r s o n s who a re members
o f what p r o f e s s i o n ?
B u s in e s s E x e c u tiv e
C o lle g e P r o f e s s o r
D e n t i s t
E n g in e e r
High S c h o o l T e a c h e r
Lawyer
M e d ic a l D o c to r
M i n i s t e r , P r i e s t , Rabbi
S o c i a l Worker
o
APPENDIX D
THE NUMBER OF PERSONS IN THE SAMPLE
AND VARIOUS SUBSAMPLES
APPENDIX D
' THE NUMBER OF PERSONS IN THE SAMPLE
r * .. i
AND VARIOUS SUBSAMPLES
TOTAL SAMPLE 459
^ M a l e 225
Female 234
I n t e l l i g e n c e (IQ— O t i s Gamma
I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t)
Group I (125 and a b o v e ) 23
Group I I (115-124) 57
Group I I I (105-114) 131
Group IV (95-104) 135
Group V (94 and below) 113
S o c i a l C la s s
Upper ( i ) 66
M iddle ( I I J 383
Lower ( I I I ) 10
C o lle g e P la n s
Yes 275
No 83
U ndecided 101
193
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
i
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Creator Nelson, Harold Alfred (author)

Core Title Reference Group Theory, Selection, And The Images Of Professions

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McDonagh, Edward C. (committee chair), Lefever, David Welty (committee member), Vincent, Melvin J. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-68882

Unique identifier UC11357727

Identifier 6002783.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-68882 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6002783.pdf

Dmrecord 68882

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nelson, Harold Alfred

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA